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REPORT

OF THE
TWENTY-NINTH MEETING

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BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;

HELD AT ABERDEEN IN SEPTEMBER 1859.

‘ LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1860.

PRINTED BY

TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

FLAMMAM.

CONTENTS.

Oxsects and Rules of the Association .........csseeseceeeeee cence see ens
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement .........s++ece008

Page
xvii

xXx

SEEN SEA COOUNE ) Aiaccsicescontacnece occaae ssenscltc csetercescdernssecwescast, | SOUL
Table of Council from commencement ..........0. sseeseesceccereseereses | XXII

Officers and Council

XXVi

Officers of Sectional Committees .........sccesecssseecvseeeeseceseecsereee XXVIi
Corresponding Members............. Bete he ott Sol AUR
Report of the Council to the General ainintes eaeitancesstnacccecen © MmvEn

Report of the Kew Committee

Report of the Parliamentary Committee omemien Gar counters eae
Recommendations for Additional Reports and Hei in Seidhice
Synopsis of Money Grants ............ dank oRbleh aN
General Statement of Sums paid for Scientific Faas saNus >qiteaienr
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee ............00008
Arrangement of the General Meetings ownlddee svabse sdencaees
ITE TOSIACE 25.0.5 creti' sgn cece tecce cc ack cavtvescecss sev avcace nee

REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.

Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and Present State of
Organic Chemistry. By Grorce C. Foster, B.A., F.C.S., Late As-
sistant in the Laboratory of University College, London ...............

Report on the Growth of Plants in the Garden of the Royal Agricul-
tural College, Cirencester. By James Buckman, F.S.A., F.L.S.,
F.G.S. &c., Professor of Natural History, Royal Agricultural College

Report on Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Con-
stituents of Manures essential to cultivated Crops. By Dr. Auacustus
VoeLckeER, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester............seesseeee

Report on the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools. By ALEXANDER
Tuomson, Esq., of Banchory .. fea divderstealy

On the Upper Silurians of Tides Lasatkehite’s Poancbibcanweh

Report on the Results obtained by the Mechanico- Chemical euathina:
tion of Rocks and Minerals. By ALpHonsE Gaces, M.R.LA., Cu-
rator of the Museum of Irish Industry. ......csccsusseressorsseesoscssoeees

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44:

iv CONTENTS.

Experiments to determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting
Breaks for Railway Trains. By Witrram Farreairn, F.RS..

Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for 1858-59. as Pro-
fessor J. R. KINAHAN, M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA.. sen cou

Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1858-59. By ihe Ret.
Bapven Powe tt, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Savilian Professor
of Geometry in the University of Oxford . eee

Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan
H. Honeson, Esq., late Resident in Nepal, &c. &c. By Professor
Owen, F.R.S., Baperiprendent of the Natural gem Dageesee
in the British Museum.. :

Report of the gieines tare of ese Maskelem Aa
Hardwich, and Llewelyn, on the Present State of our es
regarding the Photographic Image...

Report of the Belfast Dredging Ssauiiee for 1 1859. Bg Cindi .
HynpMAvn, President of the Belfast Natural History and Philoso-
phical Society ss canpiee> sens pn enssas nae=eie eae eee

Continuation of Report of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull.
By James Otpuam, Esq. Hull, M:.LC.Bincc,.<25sesesoseeabeacWeeeeaars

Mercantile Steam Transport Economy as affected by the Consumption

of Coals. By CHARLES seen Chief Tignes ee Dock-
yard, Woolwich saat PF

Report on the present state of Celestial ‘Phategmpgs in Huglaha ‘By
WARREN DE LA Rue, Ph.D., F.R.S., Sec. R.A.S. &. ..ccssscecesees

On the Orders of Fossil and Recent ace and their Distribution in
Time. By Professor Owen, F.R.S. ..... An

On some Results of the Magnetic Survey of Seotland i in mies years 1857
and 1858, undertaken, at the request of the British Assotiation, by the
late Joun WELSH, Esq. F.R.S. By Batrour Stewart, A.M.

The Patent Laws.—Report of Committee on the Patent Laws. Pree
sented by W. FAIRBAIRN; FURS, «.3 sscasbiecias otte aceveeueceeeeeeae

Lunar Influence on the Temperature of the Air. By J. Park Har-
RISON,, MvAs.issoossi0-scsscanshaeag sencyseboupsieasinds tect sak gee

An Account of the Construction of the Self-recording Magnetographs
at present in operation at the Kew Observatory of the British Asso-
ciation. By BaLrour Stewart, M.A.

Se eP eee tase eee eeeseseereessereeseee

Report on the Theory of Numbers.—Part I. By H.J.Sreruen pas ete
M.A., F.C.S., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford .......

Report of the Committee on Steam-ship performance .

Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee of ‘fe British heii
. 289

sociation appointed at ‘the Meeting at Leeds...

Preliminary Report on the Solubility of Salts at ee above
100° Cent., and on the Mutual Action of Salts in Solution. By
Witx1aM K. Suttivan, Professor of Chemistry to the Catholic
University of Ireland, and the Museum of Irish Industry...

«103

. 116

. 294

CONTENTS. Vv

NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS,

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

MATHEMATICS.

Page
Introductory Remarks by the President, the EARL OF ROSSE wesessccscssssseeseeee 1
Mr. R. Campsett on the Probability of Uniformity in Statistical Tables....... 3
Lieut.-Colonel SHortTREDE on Calculating Lumars cssccessessssseneeeeee save tise 4
Professor Hennessy on the Figure of an imperfectly Elastic Fluid............ eee hl ake
Professor LinpE Lor, Note on the Calculus of Variations ...... redesdeter seemed 5
Professor J. C. Maxwett on the Dynamical Theory of Gases.........scseeeeeees 9
Abbé Moieno’s Supplement to Newton’s Method of resolving Equations ..... 9
Mr. G. Jounstone Stoney’s Note on the Propagation of Waves .,....cssseeees 9
Mr. J. Smrru on the Relations of a Circle inscribed in a Square ....... souinende 10

Mr. C. M. Witticu on the Angles of Dock-Gates and the Cells of Becs s+... 10

Lieut, Heat, Evecrricity, MAGNETISM.

Sir Davip Brewster on a New Species of Double Refraction ..sssescosereseseres 10
——-—-— on the Decomposed Glass found at Nineveh and other
PUIALEGiccseicccocdecsddedccncsascsvocsacsarses Caxensuscgins s+ osa@ienshecishdacotersssies sigan be ay TE
Mr. H. Cox on the Submergence of Telegraph Cables .......cscecceesecseeecssecescs 11
Mr. J. P. Gasstor on the Stratified Electrical Discharge, as affected by a Move-
Pees SEAL scncccsssicsostcstnctiaren shes tscotas nee raerac-5e etiiciessnasncattsyaaidets ose Ppa
Rev. T. P. Dare and J. H. Gtapstone on the Relation between Refractive In-
dex and Volume among Liquids........ acide sone shaewaksaMesenen eb clasiscevadan ane =dony Uy
Mr. G. F. Harrartneton on the Theory of Light.........ccscscsseeseseeecscesees Soe he a! 2
Mr. J. P. Joure’s Notice of Experiments on the Heat developed by Friction
(Io SRS SRRPRBRRGr on soccer seer Osa cosene aUelelesenmetins eo clanslade SEdeCoign coe eee eae ooo. 12
Mr. J. B. Linpsay on the Transmission of Electricity through Water.......... 2 13
Rey. Dr. Luoyp on the Affections of Polarized Light reflected and transmitted
PRMIDBIIATCS . ccwencccssechactaecerccnesccesds CAAt pr Concobou Jao-Or a eetiod Basiccean dias 14
Professor J. C. Maxwett on the Mixture of the Coluurs of the Spectrum....... 15
Mr. Muneo Ponrton on certain Laws of Chromatic Dispersion ............ Rests aan

——— on the Law of the Wave-lengths corresponding to certain
points in the Solar Spectrum......... Beavers este vnitasansnens saiises sah sea vox shensXe 20

Mr. Joun Situ on the Production of Colour and the Theory of Light ......... 22
Bers 1s, STEWART GUPAMIBUE EICAL , .cesps5u asides sssdncandeusccscusasessvecvenes{véeverse, 23

v1 CONTENTS.

Professor J. Taomson on recent Theories and Experiments on Ice at its Melt-
INP PONE leoesuoseencadeetaas do Poer ea eEOCOCBCCD Ber rpanctacer cet. SeUcL decadaveedsctee

Professor W. THomson on Electrical ‘‘ Frequency ”’ ............ sword aleideictelteeistentcar
—, Remarks on the Discharge of a Coiled Electric Cable..

———_—__———_———— on tthe Necessity for incessant Recording, and for
Simultaneous Observations in different Localities, to investigate Atmospheric
SICCHTICIi Ys. o-sarcrenessneccccanctsensanevacceers *

Cee eee tetra tee e tet eee tessa esas seseee

Mr. G. V. Tower on the Cause of Magnetism ....... svacecicaeneesssben Taeprisans(r(s

Mr. Joun T. Towson on Changes of Deviation of the Compass on Board Iron
Ships by “heeling,” with Experiments on Board the ‘City of Baltimore,’
“ Aphrodite,” ‘ Simla,’ and ‘ Shieve Donard ” ....-........scacssesccsssceoss Reeeeaces

Mr. J. J. WALKER on the Iris seen on the Surface of Water........ccseeeees Serers

AsTRONOMY.
Mr. G. B. Arry on the Present State and History of the Question respecting
the Acceleration of the Moon’s Motion............ crennecn Sore cnaecn Sasteore snes

Mr. W. R. Birt on the Mid-day Illumination of the Lunar Craters Geminus,
Burckhardt, and Bernoulli............ Was die anlig se eeccasiace Gee wedentacaicnasemaeeeecat

Sir Davip Brewster on Sir Christopher Wren’s Cipher, containing Three
Methods of finding the Longittade v2.2 2.2i5c.00.<0ccssocecueesenetdaveresertestteene

Sir ©. Garey on the lsoneitude:,sccc.c<seecavecscscndssscvcsevestes
Mr. J. Pops Hennessy on the Inclination of the Planetary Orbits.....
Mr. J. B. Linpsay on Chinese Astronomy ......0....ssssecscscossesnscsceeees Resapaee

Sree eeeeee

Mr. Norman Pogson on an Improvement in the Heliometer ............ss00 ae

ee —on three Variable Stars, R and S Urse Majoris, and
U Geminorum, as observed consecutively for six years ...

Peete eee eee eeeteraseere

Mr. DanreL VAUGHAN on the Effects of the Earth’s Rotation on Atmospheric
Movements ......- ne gou coos SsGasnddeingse-tscachacasascisc Resa c chvshetedavvetuneaeeeeenivas

Mr. A. S. S. Witson on a System of Moving Bodies............+. PDE Renene

METEOROLOGY.
Mr. Jonn Atuan Broun on the Semidiurnal and Annual Variations of the
IBALOMELEL sac osc ccumoscesececeedennccnachesesemtecn stared saa eslccoeccdce dsldaenenemaeer asl
Mr. ALEXANDER Brown on the Fall of Rain in Forfarshire..........eceseeeseeees
Rev. Cuaries CLouston’s Remarks on the Climate of Orkney .............0006

Mr. ALEXANDER CRUICKSHANK’s Observations on the Natural Obstructions in
the Atmosphere preventing the view of Distant Objects on the Earth’s Surface

Mr. T. Daviess on the Diurnal Variation of the Barometer ...... wkena’ stduaaeeeee
Professor Hennessy on Mild Winters in the British Isles.............000 peceerates
Mr. J. J. Murpuy on the Distribution of Heat over the Sun’s Surface..........
Rear-Admiral FitzRoy on the Aqueous Vapour of the Atmosphere
——_—_—— on’ Atmospheric Waves. ..,...:++.2s:senssssvarersenaneceeenee
Rey. T. Ranxrn’s Meteorological Observations made at Huggate, Yorkshire ...
M. P. Sanpeman on Tables of Rain registered at Georgetown, Demerara......
Myr Goa). OV MONS On Thunder-storms.,.:.>s0sceedesnscsssanece ncsveeeeee -caeaeaeies i
Professor W. Tuomson on the Reduction of Periodical Variations of Under-

ground Temperature, with applications to the Edinburgh Observations........ 54

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CONTENTS. Vil

Professor TyNDALL on the Establishment of Thermometric Stations on Mont a
Blanc..essecereeseees cuahens Se aitaasaer an cave ACAGHS ERO ScOn nee er eae 56
GENERAL Puysics.
Mr. J. S. Sruart Giennrz, Proposal of a General Mechanical Theory of
PHYSICS ...eecesesscoreeeeee Deetavesesnsceeataacsracstodsscaracsstssesccesceservdgdlerssus sets 58
Rey. Dr. Macvicar on the Philosophy of Physics sessceecsseseeee Sia Ardoonthnc oe 659
InsTRUMENTs, &c.
Mr. Joszrru Beck on producing the Idea of Distance in the Stereoscope ....... 61
Mr. A. Craupet on the Stereoscopic Angle .,..scssssseesresessensaseneee aaace amy GL
———_— on the Stereomonoscope ...:..seeeeeeeeeee AED AOCCERROM CONC aiaest. 61
——__——_——. on the Focus of Object-Glasses .............0008 anda SSCaROTOA aC 61
— on a Changing Diaphragm for Double Achromatic Combina- ,
TIONS ...eeeeee Pigeiecisaustse=ieatar py es ada gactaclawbins cing ve haedo ya hate saat fe cavenvvsteveve 62
Professor J. Cuerx Maxwe tt on an Instrument for exhibiting the Motions of
Saturn’s Rings .....sssseeeeee acgagae EPEC ET TRC PRC Pn PRO TES DOFCETICEECRCCLET 62
Abbé Moreno on a New Photometer ese..-esecsereenee SPARRO Remenenacse tats « 62
M. Ruumx«orrr on a New Electro-Medical Apparatus........+...00 weeses enn asters 68
Abbé Moieno on Becquerel’s Phosphoroscope ......+.. Scododurie seneede apenotinoct 62
on the Phonautograph, an Instrument for registering Simple and
Compound Sounds .....-..scccssseesnenesseeneeesstnseseeeesersensessaesesseeceseenees 62
M. Porro’s Portable Apparatus for Analysing Light ...... nadegredodices rennocpaedte 63

Lieut.-Colonel R. SuorTREDE on an Improvement in the Proportional Compass 63

Mr. Tuomas Surron on a New Photographic Lens, which gives Images
entirely free from Distortion .........sseeeseeseesesseeeeeeeeseneesnesees acetate ou ates 63

Mr. H. R. Twrntne on the Angular Measurement of the Picture in Painting. 64

CHEMISTRY.
Address by Dr. Lyon Prayratrr, President of the Section ..... caeasreososeserseese OD
Mr. Bryney on the Solubility of Bone-earth from various Sources in Solutions
of Chloride of Ammonium and Common Salt...ssesseeesseseesseserseeseeeeees oe OD
Mr. G. B. BuckTon on Pentethyl-stibene........sssscscesescnseereesececssecuseneens 66

Dr. F. Cracz Catvert and R. Jonnson on the Specific Gravities of Alloys... 66
Dr. BraLLosiorzky on the different Points of Fusion to be observed in the

Constituents of Granite ......sssseeseeeeeeeneeeereceeeeereres GS civat sab eaneenae saad saceee 08
Dr.F. Crace CatverT on the Formation of Rosolate of Lime on Cotton Fabrics

in Hot Climates......sssseecerevers epacoaedsetaeisreeta SCRE aOR rer borbncdns: 68

Dr. Dauzzxx on Crystallized Bichromate of Strontia......-...++. sabiavsperers essere 68

on the Economical Preparation of Pure Chromic Acid....,...+.+++ 68

Dr. Guturiz’s Reports from the Laboratory at Marburg ......+ssesseeeeeeee Ev 6S

Dr. J. H. Guapstone on the Fluorescence and Phosphorescence of Diamonds 69

on Photographs of Fluorescent Substances .......+-+++++++ 69

MM. Isoarp and Son on a New Form of Instantaneous Generator of Illumi-
nating Gas by means of Superheated Aqueous Vapour and any Hydrocarburet '
whatever.....sseseee i caesreceee ME WYN D POvbdeac dadane ire sceremteeteets erates SESE 69

Mr. J. B. Lawes and Dr. J. H. Gitsert on the Effects of different Manures
on the Composition of the Mixed Herbage of Meadow -land ,....secersseseseeree 70

Vili CONTENTS.

Dr. S. Macapam on the Analysis and Valuation of Manures sssereeeseserreer ere

Rev. Dr. Macvicar on the Organic Molecules and their relations to each
other, and to the Medium of Light, illustrated by Models according to the
Author’s Theory of the Forms and Structures of the Molccules of Bodies....

Mr. J. M*Donnett on the Action of Air on Alkaline Arsemites ...++ssseeeess oe
Abbé Moreno on Corne and Demeaux’s Disinfecting and Deodorizing Powder
on Matches without Phosphorus or Poison .......ssseseeereeere “Firs

, New Process of Preserving Milk perfectly pure in the Natural
State, without any Chemical Agent...... gash act he tasinsnaaes secseceeshannee soseneece

Messrs. MuLLicaN and Dow11ne’s Quantitative Estimation of Tannin in some
Tanning Materials ......... Wegeesiasisesinas raeesveitaadsieecsuasstessehsisaiasil sascnvecccenen

Dr. W. Opurne on Marsh’s Test for Arsenic .....sssesseeeeee Cea sor anode uncon dade
and Dr. A. Dupré on the Composition of Thames Water......
on a New Mode of Bread-making....+s0.seseeeeveee suscaecmmainetia

Dr. T. L. Putpson on some New Cases of Phosphorescence by Heat......++- tee

on the Composition of the Shell of Cardium edule (Common
Cockle) ........006 plate neaaciaun seltyerajs se ae ciscleleciaelesttitaaicae ssn seeecaiueeosen Scteeecamaraneeene

—________——- on the Composition of a recently-formed Rock on the Coast
Of Flanders .......sseesesersenseseseees Waecaesmnayssdapetiiece es: BEOdOOCHN Ie naacoranecd. oe

Mr. Frepericx Ransome on Soluble Silicates, and some of their Applications
M. Tuomas Szecricxkn’s Notes on the Current Methods for Estimating the Cel-

lular Matter, or “ Woody-Fibre,” in Vegetable Food-stuffs ......s0s..s0ee eines
Mr. Tuomas Spencer on the Supply and Purification of Water......+++ese+ eae
Professor J. TzenNant’s Notes on a Gold Nugget from Australia ....... Ane anoriss
M. F. Versmann and Dr. A. Opprnuzim on the Comparative Value of cer-
tain Salts for rendering Fibrous Substances Non-inflammable .......+++++e+++ .

Professor VorLcKeEr on Combinations of Earthy Phosphates with Alkalies ....
Dr. W. Watuace, Account of Experiments on the Equivalent of Bromine

—-——-————- on Proposed Improvements in the Manufacture of Kelp ....
Mr. Naprer’s New Process of Etching Glass in relief by Hydrofluoric Acid. »
(Communicated by Professor G. WILSON) cessseaseuserseeeseeeseesencensonsenves cd
Professor Gzorcx WiLson on some of the Stages which led to the Invention
of the Modern Air-pump......0 seaceaees enieealetes Oa Becaeeas alsets senate seacenteeeaes

GEOLOGY.
Introductory Address by the President, Sir C. LYELL sssessessesereeeee sabeananeas
Sir Cuartes Lyext on the Occurrence of Works of Human Art in Post-plio-
cene Deposits......scesesererer sa0see2 heaiis(eaea ders Rhee sennenenes ar eceeoeccaee ssusssnce
Rev. Dr. ANDERSON on Human Remains in Superficial Drift ....sssseeseeeeeerens
a on Dura Den Sandstone ..s..ccseeeenees Sorceeteveswanveves sdeoues
Mr. W. H. Barry on Tertiary Fossils of India .......scsecsseseeeeesereeees tederaneos

SS = on Sphenopteris Hookeri, a new Fossil Fern from the Upper
Old Red Sandstone formation at Kiltorkan Hill, in the County of Kilkenny,
with some Observations upon the Fish Remains and other associated Fossils

from the same locality......sscecssssceecsscreeees Re cancuaereeannts saldces cenneeneee Aes
Mr. Wiuu1am Beartie, Notice of a Bone Cave near Montrose...... sjc\ays kare eae
Dr. B1aLLoBLoTzxKy on Granite ....... oeNeaniiiey Seuemssr aotiagancnncnne- Aang do ubenoes

Dr. Buack on Coal at Ambisheg, Isle of Bute ...secscsecsseverevesceeencenesarancevass

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CONTENTS. ix

Page

Mr. A. Brapy on the Elephant Remains at Ifordecsscressssssssessesrsessecevenseese LOO
Sir D. Brewster on a Horseshoe Nail found in the Red Sandstone of Kingoodie 101
Dr. G. Buisr on the Geology of Lower Egypt ...sssssseeceeeeereenees Restrcaeper setts 101
Mr. Joun CLecuorn on the Submerged Forests of Caithness.........seeceeeees « 101

Mr. J. W. Dawson’s Letter to Sir Charles Lyell on the occurrence of a Land
Shell and Reptiles in the South Joggins Coal-field, Nova Scotia ......s+00.. 102

Professor DauBeEny on certain Volcanic Rocks in Italy which appear to have
been subjected to Metamorphic Action....... Spoohiosaccuideconodennic: Loge cnceacn: bgaC 102

Rev. J. Dineie on the Constitution of the Earth......ssccssccsserseveee davenetean +» 102

Mr. R. Garner and W. Motynevx on the Coal Strata of North Staffordshire,
with reference, particularly, to their Organic Remains ...,..ssceserecosersereeere 103

Mr. A, Gerxre on the Chronology of the Trap Rocks of Scotland.........cessesees 106
Dr. Grorce D. Gres on Canadian Caverns .......e0.sseeeees Mt dacouereccsetesions +» 106
Mr. Wiiiram Sypney Grgson on some Basaltic Formations in Northumber-

Professor Harkness on Sections along the Southern Flanks of the Grampians 109
—-————— on the Yellow Sandstones of Elgin and Lossicmouth...... 109
Mr. Henry C. Hopes on the Origin of the Ossiferous Caverns at Oreston.... 110

Mr. T. F. Jamieson on the Connexion of the Granite with the Stratified Rocks
BIMMUCLCE CNS IILE: vase carerc cesses cocece saneceicusdss Drecessccesesndsereendhocetsernee testes 114

on the Drift Beds and Boulders of the North of Scotland... 114

Mr. E. R. J. Know zs on some Curious Results in the Water Supply afforded
by a Spring at Ashey Down, in the Ryde Water-works......s.coecseerereeeseenes 114

Dr. Maccowan on certain Phenomena attendant on Volcanic Eruptions and
Earthquakes in China and Japan..........sscsseeeees basa aenencnocecdesodscadcnaseeon: 115

Mr. Joun Miter on the Age of the Reptilian Sandstones of Morayshire...... 115

on some New Fossils from the Old Red Sandstone of
Caithness......+.. Peer etaaieis sic hiaicielcle/vuisie dg slevaclate sce waitedan Seat Thar ete Mecteweseunte 115

Mr. Hueu Mircuett on New Fossils from the Lower Old Red Sandstone ... 116
Professor James Nicot on the Geological Structure of the Vicinity of Aberdeen

and the North-east of Scotland ............. J siara sin ciclo teetaeeeees wanictees esis Wats sia soe LLG
-————_——_. — on the Relations of the Gneiss, Red Sandstone, and
Quartzite in the North-west Highlands ...... chin cdettoele ste sire orrlobdedtincr panies ne 119

Mr. D. Pacz on some new Boreal forms—the nearly perfect skeletons of Surf

and Eider Ducks, Oidema and Somateria—accompanying the remains of Seals,

from the Pleistocene Brick-clays of Stratheden, Fifeshire; nine miles inland,
and 150 feet above medium tide-level ............0+ Meeeearecten ae oasiene saauecaveeseviaes 120

on the Structure, Affinities, and Geological Range of the Crusta-

cean Family Eurypteride, as embracing the genera Kurypterus, Pterygotus,

Stylonurus, Eidothea, and other doubtful Eurypterites from the Silurian, De-
vonian, and Carboniferous strata of Britain, Russia, and North America...... 120
Mr. C. W. Pracu on Fossil Fish, new to the Old Red Sandstone of Caithness... 120
Mr. W. Pence ty on the Ossiferous Fissures at Oreston near Plymouth....... 121
Mr. Joun Price on Slickensides.......sseeeees Densaneushieesere evden Vattes Peeves tecctsea Lao

M. A. Ravicver on a Fragment of Pottery found in Superficial Deposits in
Paris..s..oviacee Biaeeiieiieneitesronccclovcscetevarerecsesocssteviccteeses suueside wensecccecreccen LOS
Mr. H.C. Sorby on the Origin of * Cone-in-Cone ’....sseceseesnseeees secsecssessves 124

Rev. W. S. Symonps on some Fishes and Tracks from the Passage Rocks and
from the Old Red Sandstone of Herefurdshires.s.ccssssssessevecssveesesessenerseeee 124

x; CONTENTS.

Mr. C. G, Tuost on the Rocks and Minerals in the Property of the Marquis of
Breadalbane...... Stay CPR Manta =a es ase acdsee taasnresarasne gexasanvepsaisvench eve aeae

Mr. J. WYLLIE on some Old Red Sandstone Fossils .ccsessscevecsescsccecssccseneres

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY, inctupinc PHYSIOLOGY.
Address by Sir Witttam Jarvine, Bart., President of the Section........+....+

Botany.
Dr. Grorcre BENNETT on some Uses to which the Nuts of the Vegetable Ivory
Palm (Phytelephas macrocarpa) is applicd....6+ssssceeereeerererenes Aree | Radaeace

Dr. Georce Burst on the Failure of Bright-coloured Flowers in Forest Trees
to produce Pictorial Effect on the Landscape, unless accompanied by abund-
ance’of Green Leaves: J. ccecsrccecscesesn=vae8sece0¥osrscyaysisusehualscnces soueeCpeenan ess

, Note on some Peculiarities of the Silk Trees or Bomba-
wese.of Western Undia) acess. -eunewensnncr sess oesn deters caiahanaian ah eenamenreaecaa

——_—— , Note on the Aversion of certain Trees and Plants to the
Neighbourhood of each other .......sesesssecsereveeecerseseeerseeseeeeeecesenes Teasewes

Mr. H. Caunter on a Diatomaceous Deposit found in the Island of Lewis ...

Mr. Crout’s Account of the more remarkable Plants found in Braemar ........
Professor Dicx1z, Notes on the Upper Limits of Cultivation in Aberdeenshire
, Remarks on the Flora of Aberdeenshire ...,..-+e.s.see00 Riees

Mr. E. J. Lowe on the Temperature of the Flowers and Leaves of Plants.......
Dr. M‘Gowan, Remarks on the Cultivation of the Opium Poppy of China ....
Mr. Maxwett T. Masters, Remarks on Vegetable Morphology and the

Theory of the Metamorphosis of Plants......... dude ce cneleds deemesenensi seine eatisles
Mr. W. E. C. Nourse on the Colours of Leaves and Petals.........+..+0+ pote ree
Dr. GrorcE OciLvi& on the Vegetative Axis of Ferns ......+e+eeeee ivavetceamwactey
Mr. Grorcre Rainey on the Structure and Mode of Formation of Starch-

granules, according to the principles of Molecular Science.....sssessseeeeeveeeene
Mr, James Taytor, Notes on the Arctic Flora .....c:.ssscseessececeeenenees eseacege
Mr. DanirL VauGHAN on the Growth of Trees in Continental and Insular

(CLG ICE ease haeciot seacobo ndadonddo cco hdcécdagoorcdadancepas popeeneegae ey sees svescnngeen

ZooLoey.
Dr. Apams on the Birds of Banchory......ccsesssecseeesereeeeeeees Sea caeereeee aaanemrre
Mr. Josuua ALDER ona New Zoophyte, and two Species of Echinodermata new

TOMES LULA a coweieaclec esis meee sn sienieiesh eee ctetle ete eeereaeneeetaleiaa nou b.slels om cies(asne eee
Professor ALLMAN on Dicoryne stricta, a New Genus and Species of the Zubu-

(EAS TTIN Cora ep An ciaer caRcrconr Ee encnnicsiaer Sache pS anscenaa ar egsenr anocseanoer Achrne asco sagas Aerie

On Laomeded tenuis, 0. SPpseresseerseceasseecaceeeenences sisee easels
on a remarkable Form of Parasitism among the Pycnogo-

MLAB! sano age sas natseanan ss shaparasaesacn seas semce o's Maigeniedalcnatsl cle smeMngennas caps Sam eeecual

on the Structure of the Lucernariad@.......++++« Peer Dee nea
Dr. Breexer, Descriptions of Genera of Fish of Java ......0++ aiwsteunagaee eee

_ Mr. S. M. Burnert, Personal Observations on the Zoology of Aberdeenshire.

Mr. Georce Busx, List of Marine Polyzoa collected by George Barlee, Esq.,
in Shetland and the Orkneys, with Descriptions of the New Species......+..++

Dr. Dickie, Remarks on the Mollusca of Aberdeenshire ....s.ccccscsseneeeeeeceees

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147

CONTENTS. xi

Dr. Dicx1e on the Structure of the Shell in some Species of Pecten ..........4.. 147

Mr. Joun Goutp on the Varieties and Species of New Pheasants recently
introduced into England...........ssseseseeseeees speaec “Andostoastonannassadra prattsae . 148

on some New Species of Birds.......sssssssssesscceesseseees SP LE)

Mr. Joun Hoae, Account of a Species of Phalangista recently killed in the
County of Durham.,............sscsesesereeee denideteaexer AS aBanac Roscoe Ae Cont DAnBacEre 149

Mr. T. F. Jamizson, List of the Birds of the North of Scotland, with their
Tai Olestdedcccdentsastrusssqecsccrosccserecees sss aRateragevcncer erties tssmpecarcueee cs 150

Dr. James M‘Batn, Notice of a Skull of a Manatee from Old Calabar ......... 150

, Notice of the Duration of Lifein the Actinia Mesembryanthemum
MNERUKE Ph INCONANEMENE <isveseccucoasesccvecssccecencecsacacscadecscesesecewseesbenees 152

, Notice of the Skull of a Wombat from the Bone-Caves of Aus-

, Notice of the Skull of a Seal from the Gulf of California......... 153
Dr. nox on the Classification of the Salmonid@ .......ccccseseseee apnerceceewee 153

Mr. Anprew Murray on a New Species of Galago (Galago murinus) from
Old Calabar............+6+ Adee mata sncaea secs eans acnatadiae wastes aaah coms manean tases s 153

Mr. W. E. C. Nourse on the Habits and Instincts of the Chameleon............ 153
Mr. C. W. Peacu on the Zoophytes of Caithness .........sceseseeeeees seesee esaieesiane 155

——_—_—_—_—,, Notes on different subjects in Natural History, illustrated
Oo) SIRS SLR sto onddddaehierhcediéedonacastot cnanceboconribsoonsorcnencdngenchbcadc Waececee 155

Mr. Joun Price on the Genus Cydippe............ Pen sianctsielase Re santees daanaviae cencee 155
Mr. H. T. Stainton on the Distribution of British Butterflies............eseeseeee 156
Rey. W. S. Symonps, Account of the Fish-rain at Aberdare in Glamorganshire 158
on Drift Pebbles found in the Stomach of a Cow.......+.. 158
Mr. James Taytor, Note on Falco Islandicus and F. Grenlandicus ..... ep nae cas 158

Professor GzorGE Witson on the Employment of the Electrical Eel, Gymno-
tus electricus, as a Medical Shock-Machine by the Natives of Surinam ...... 158

PuysIoLoey.

Dr. Joun ApAmson on a Case of Lactation in an Unimpregnated Bitch ...... 159

Mr. Bernarp E. Bropuurst on the Repair of Tendons after their Subcutane-
MUS UIVIBLOM ccs. .cscecesosasccsers ocnoriohpscaneasrgsangaoc Adgageananboccuohodoy nnteadote ». 160

Dr. MicuaeEt Foster on the Beat of the Snail’s Heart.......sscesssecseceecseeaeees 160

Dr. Ricuarp Fowter’s Second Physiological Attempt to unravel some of the
Perplexities of the Berkeleyan Hypothesis ............. Saacnesnesasaha coe pedehedase se 160

Mr. A. Gaczs on the Comparative Action of Hydrocyanic Acid on Albumen
SARI) CBSEING Ts ssscascnce¥eccnsassneaecoscsesnqectsesccussensecnentuneceseescvecseceneesnsagqne 162

Mr. Rosert Garner on Reproduction in Gasteropoda, and on some curious
Effects of Endosmosis .........scccccessees exebeces CASO SARC AONOCE CAL DICE ERROR EE Ook 162

Dr. A.B.Garrop on Specific Chemical and Microscopical Phenomena of Gouty
Inflammation............006+ aa atleralde evaiisaameiekicleac deeb Jeas epalacak chara caustiee'tl de 165

Mr. G. H. Lewes on the necessity of a Reform in Nerve-Physiology............ 166
, Demonstration of the Muscular Sense......... eaunanes dabeece LOY

on the supposed Distinction between Sensory and Motory
Nervess«swanepass senecesreesee SE BE SADC ERE IPERS EISCHICRGaCR CON NO COCE ECE REET PRET 168

Mr. J. D. Macponatp on the Homologies of the Coats of Tunicata, with re-
marks on the Physiology of the Pallial Sinus System of Brachiopoda,......... 170

xil CONTENTS.

Dr. W. Marcet’s Experimental Inquiry into the Action of Alcohol on the

Nervous System s.sccseccssecencccnsesensseestonseeeeecaeeeeeceesseseeuesens conddens ecto
Mr. W. E. C. Nourse on the Organs of the Senses, and cn the Mental Percep-

tive Faculties connected with them ......cssssessossesseereenerseees oeoee vse Santee
Dr. Ocitviz on the Genetic Cycle in Organic Nature .........sccsccseseeeeeereceens
Dr. Perer RepFern on the Method of Production of Sound by a Species of

NOtONCCLA.....ecerceascscccveccerncerecseonens ieee nests sieeiste sia oaiaisjaieinepe sls ls'es Walaa lala
on the Admixture of Nervous and Muscular Fibres in the
Nerves of the Hirudo medicinalis and other Leeches ..........+.. ais ncaiaulsnue snap
on the Structure of the Otoliths of the Cod (Gadus
Morrhua) cccscssevere Seeeeee “gnome cu sccsnecringeee Perseweeesrterene Seetenraeee al webesienanieas

MIscELLANEOUS.
Mr, Anprew Murray on the Disguises of Nature...... vecsevecesuvescvuwsnveselied

GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

M, A. AmEuney (a Syrian) on the Arabic-speaking Population of the World ...
Baron pE Bons on the Country to the West of the Caspian Sea ......sessscsevees
Mr. W. Botrazrrt on the Geography cf Southern Peru ...eceresssseseceeecsveseees

Dr. W. Camps on the Laws of Consanguinity and Descent of the Iroquois ...
Mr. J. Crawrurp on the Relation of the Domesticated Animals to Civilization
Mr. Josepu Barnarp Davis, Remarks on the Inhabitants of the Tarai, at

the foot ob the Elimtal py seenweseeee: opeesc teins sa sceen a= sactetenscasenestces eee eater
Admiral FirzRoy on Meteorology, with reference to Travelling, and the Mea-
surement of the Height of Mountains.........sscscscesesessceeteteeeetetaeeees esecee
Colonel J. Forses on the Ethnology and Hieroglyphics of the Caledonians....
Consul S. Freeman, Description of Ghadames.........+++40. eens cue see cueeeneneeeee
Sir A. L. Hay, Notes on the Vitrified Forts on Noth and Dunnideer........ wuee
Dr. Hecror, Description of Passes through the Rocky Mountains ............+++
Mr. John Hoae on Gebel Hauran, its adjacent districts, and the Eastern Desert
of Syria; with Remarks on their Geography and Geology......ssssssseseeeeenees
» Notice of the Karate Jews .......ccecsscceevees seaceaeueescneeun ame
On the Application of Colonel Jamss’s Geometrical Projection of two-thirds of
the Sphere to the Construction of Charts of the Stars, &. .....ceeesssseceeenees
Colonel Henry James on the Roman Camp at Ardoch, and the Military Works
MIGAN MW Usinlony.c we visa's me's alco eo o's seieisdu siamese aaetds cristae sie telstelsei-=m/a saa atemetabsedes ate eats eae .
Extracts from a Letter of Dr. Kirk to Alex. Kirk, Esq., relating to the Living-
stone Expedition. (Communicated by Dr. SHAW)...ccsccssecsesenerersceeeeees oa
Hon. T. M‘Compniz on the Aboriginals of Australia..s....sscsssssencacescecencesens
Dr. M‘Gowawn on the Native Inhabitants of Formosa ............<+ SPapcree socenaane
on Chinese Genealogical Tables ......sessseeeesereeeeeneees eee eae Rene
Mr. Tuomas MicueEtu on the Russian Trade with Central Asia ...sescccceveceees
Mr. J. Lyons M‘Leop on the Resources of Eastern Africa ......ssseeesees east
Mr. Laurence OvipHant, Notes on Japan .....cscesseeeeeeeee- Siistas wecach eben wee
Captain SHrrarp Osporne on the Yang-tse-kiang, and its future Commerce

Major PuiLirps on some curious Discoveries concerning the Settlement of the
Seed of Abraham in Syria and Arabia............ Seveeonvewnsers swaaeeas ofasdikcy aaa

Major J. Stokes, Notes on the Lower Danube .....ecceeeseeees sutlabditaeidt dedeed eae

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194.
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CONTENTS. xii

“Mr. Joun Stuart on the Sculptured Stones of Scotland...:sssssereeeseeseereeees ae 10%

Major Synee on the Rapid Communication between the Tite and the Pacific
vid British North America ...ccsscscesereenerssesenseseeeneeees tenses seadapnnacissiney ae 200

STATISTICAL SCIENCE,
Introductory Address by Colonel Sykes, President of the Section .......+s0++00. 200
Colonel Sir J. ALEXANDER on the Arts of Camp Letfe'san ses aleaciene tants sibansebaewhe 200
Mr. G. B. Boruwett on the Manufactures and Trade of Aberdeen.........+++. .. 200

Rev. W. Carve on the Progress of Public Opinion with respect to the Evils
produced by the Traffic in Intoxicating Drink, as at present regulated by Law 205

Mr. J. Crawrurp on the Effects of the recent Gold DiSCOVErIES ....,ccccescensess 205
on the Effects of the Influx of the Precious Metals which
followed the Discovery of America ....+- SeennenOye Oe paesermasssaantacnanencnas sei 205

Mr. Henry Fawcett on the Social and Economical Influence of the new Gold 205
Sir Joun S. Forses on Popular Investments......sceseesserssersereareeeee Sevlessaveses 209
Mr. Arruur Harvey on the Agricultural Statistics of the County of Aberdeen 210
Mr. J. Pore Hennessy on some Results of the Society of Arts’ Examinations 214
Mr. R. L. Jounson on Decimal Coinage. . ...scssescsscercceseersecsesens ebeetnesecsen 215
Mr. J. Pore Hennessy on some Questions relating to the Incidence of Taxation 216

Mr. Tuomas Lawrance, Statistical Account of the Whale and Seal Fisheries
of Greenland and Davis Straits, carried on by Vessels from Peterhead, N.B.,

from 1788 to 1858, a period of 71 years.......+060 ae castuicyencononsesneanaasneedects 216
Mr. J. T. Mackenzie on the Trade and Commerce of India........... Acciohenacor 217
Hon. Tuomas M‘Comsiz on the Statistics of the Trade and Progress of the

Colony of Victoria......seeeeeeeeseessseaeneeetenseenserseeeteeeeeeeesaenaneas Sacboranee 218
Dr. Maccgowan on the Trade Currency of China (with specimens of the coin-

BEC) wenden sesccaseewancerneseseecaes AOAC adsobone Ratt reetamtenescadais steplagecte stent oe 223
Dr. W. Moors on the Statistics of Small-Pox and Vaccination in the United

Kingdom. ..ecocssseerseteeeseceetoneeteners SCP CROCUIES Boe ae 9487 Hhpdibate nec asageds ene 22
Colonel SHORTREDE ON Decimal Coinage....ercccccsserersssocereseeerrteceeavesseveres DO
Dr. Joun Strrane on Church Building in Chasoe ASCOON OE DGRCHOCOUD aegamiese bcsapee eae
Colonel Syxers on the Past, Present, and Prospective Financial Condition of

British India.........e00 safe’ teerrsere eels febagevemass eh Ape con ao doranide a cjsiis bes Qatar « Batata aie 223
Mr. James VALENTINE On Illegitimacy in Aberdeen and the other large Towns

Of Scotland........csecsecceseceese ae estiges teeiescs TARE prod oO Tn ECERPIDIOOEA Ie Basnanands 224

, Notes on the Statistics, chiefly Vital and Economic, of

IADErdeGEN sceesescesceseensecsces Desusassaaatencnnens athe pBanocete dha csaiijenes ate cna tenes 226
Mr. R. Vatry on the British Trade with India......c.ccsscccssaceeeecese seeeannes ows 227
Professor Gzorcre Witson on the Statistics of Colour-Blindness.........++.00000. 228

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

Mr. J. Apernetuy on the Rivers ‘‘ Dee’”’ forming the Ports of Aberdeen and

BCS Gis sada fics dceVaaaevss'acuadaocsesecscas tesceversevcavcods toes cance seswarnse runs sceaaewes 228
Captain J. Appison on Coal-pit Accidents.....s.0..csesseereenenees ean tasity tap tsciai's 228
Mr. ALExanper ALLAN on an Improved Method of maintaining a True Liquid

Level, particularly applicable to Wet Gas-Meters .......ssese0e ~ofdntgcceiaece ReneS
Mr. Ropert Aytoun on a Safety Cage for Miners.......s0+0 pedinepsedsdecdecnsreal 2a

Mr. Donatp BArIn on Harbours of Refuge....ccocsssscosssscrsreveonsbessscrssevescnee 229

xiv CONTENTS.

Mr. A. BALTEN on a Boat-lowering Apparatus ...sccsssccsessccseensene seeeeeeesees
Mr. J. F. Bareman on an Artesian Well in the New Red Sandstone at the
Wolverhampton Waterworks ....-ssseeeseeeeee vbusudisecdvenweae wlcwevedeetdestaseebeeat
See , Description of the Glasgow Waterworks, with Photo-
graphic Illustrations taken at various stages of the WOrk .....sesseeeseseesseeeee

Mr. D. K. Crarx on Coal burning without Smoke, by the method of Steam-
Inducted Air-Currents applied to the Locomotive Engines of the Great North

of Scotland Railway .........ccssessseecscsccesccecsasceces ERO ECOBApORONE sdvbvisccencesct

Mr. Ricuarp Davis, Description of a Patent Pan for Evaporating Saccharine
Solutions and other Liquids at a temperature below 180° Fabr,.......+ss+se00+

Mr. J. Evper on the Engines of the ‘ Callao,’ ‘ Lima,’ and ‘ Bogota’............

Dr. Witi1am Farrparrn and Mr. Tuomas Tatx’s Experimental Researches to
determine the Density of Steam at various Temperatures....ss.secseressceeeseees

Mr. ALExaANDER GERARD’S experimental illustration of the Gyroscope .........
Mr. Arexanper Giss, Description of the Granite Quarries of Aberdeen and

Fincardineshire)ssss.sesecese=ssecensvona¥e sat seccen Voki wapiss Nae Serpe ib iecmhayesene
Mr. G. Hart on Gas Carriages for lighting Railway Carriages with Coal-gas

anstead Of Oils: esccatavaneesmensahess pepeyesecncss St awanhescneenuesg anne raneenees poses
Mr. ANprew Henperson on Indian River Steamers and Tow Boats .......+++
Mr. Henry Jounson on a Deep-sea Pressure Gauge ...ccccessessseeccreeeens eae
Dr. J. P. JouLE on Surface Condensation .....sssscscsssecrecesssseesseees Mopononcac aes
Mr. Kerrie on a Submarine Lamp .........seeeseeeeee tebe nase aeéseutheevacsae.
Abbé Moreno on a New Gas-burner......... pekietstess perene ieneers Foose seavecesee’ aedeet
on an Automatic Injector for feeding Boilers, by M. Giffard ....
on a Helico-meter, an Instrument for measuring the Thrust of
the Screw Propeller <.........c0ccscoccsscecvecscescascccacessercssateososseesoecveansntaes
on an Application of the Moving Power arising from Tides to

Manufacturing, Agricultural, and other purposes; and especially to obviate

the Thames Nuisance.......ssscesseseeeesees eat cree cits SaiecpueSudssewpeeeny Uabeontey
Vice-Admiral Moorsom on the Performance of Steam-vessels ........ seveccouccesd
Admiral Paris on the Manceuvring of Screw Vessels ......sssccseesssersenee Saeeate :
Mr. W. J. Macquorn Ranxine, Condensed Abstract of a First Set of Expe-

riments, by Messrs. Robert Napier and Sons, on the Strength of Wrought

Tron and Steel.........ssscsesscecsecsceseecrsrsccees oneabennthasisnaneenetr nares ds ppesiiahenas
Mr. Joun Ross on the Comparative Value of Propellers .........+.s+0+++ coceeenes
Mr. Peter Spence on Robertson’s Patent Chain Propeller ......sss+esceeseeee ees
Mr. G. Jounstone Stoney on the Nomenclature of Metrical Measures of

Mr. Apam Topp, Description of various Models of Fire Escapes, Boat-lower-
ing Apparatus, S&C. ...ccsscccscsrecserssscesencscecerens Faforiuiadc Booo aceon Sioa peehmeameaton

Mr. E. A. Woop on a Mode for Suspending, Disconnecting, and Hoisting Boats
attached to Sailing Ships and Steamers at Sea....ccccssccseeeeeee Proeorhed onan

APPENDIX.

MatTHEMATIcs AND Puysics.

Sir Davip Brewster on a remarkable specimen of Chalcedony, belonging to
Miss Campbell, and exhibiting a perfectly distinct and well-drawn landscape

237

237
237
240

242
243
243

. 244

244

245

CONTENTS. XV

Sir Davip Brewster on the Connexion between the Solar Spots and Magnetic ng
- Disturbances ....... ateweeass pacaisveasteass SUsdertNavexsdMMlsacahetdssecencevecscscessines 245
Professor J. D. Everert on a Method of reducing Observations of Underground
Temperatures ....scsesseeeeeeeeeee Gabsbenedevegate Soret Peco depnsceapanacamsacenaass 245
Sir Wituram Rowan Hamitton on an Application of Quaternions to the
Geometry of Fresnel’s Wave-surface «ss.sssssesaneeseeeenneeres seseesuvd sees op osee, 248
Mr. J. Pope Hennessy on certain Properties of the Powers of Numbers....... 248

Mr. Fizemine Jenxrn on Gutta Perchaas an Insulator at various Temperatures 248

on the Retardation of Signals through long Submarine

Cables. .iicscsisses Gisatyebivawattevee Ete Saiveveah ssluclvcvsbuastyesacecctn Vivisdesocsweey 2OL
Mr. Cromwett F. Variey on some of the Methods adopted for ascertaining
the Locality and Nature of Defects in Telegraphic Conductorse.....++++++..008 252
CHEMISTRY.

Mr. James Brazier on the Action of concentrated Sulphuric Acid on Cubebin in
relation to the test for Strychnine by Bichromate of Potash and Sulphuric Acid 256

on Distilled Water ......scsessccsevereeees eb osele suseleatvatnvnade 256
, Notice of Dugong Oil ..cccccessseesseeeceereseees Aesheoe sack 256
, Laboratory Memoranda .s.....s.sseeeeeees seeectesasesenescess 257
Mr. Watrter Crum on the Ageing of Mordants in Calico Printing........ aasbes= 258
Mr. Tuomas Grauam on the Molecular Movements of Fluids...... Ghestueveaeuet 259
Dr. Lyon Prayrarr on a Symmetrical Arrangement of Oxides and Salts on a
Common Type.......2....006 sachets ee tereacatauesscraeece maa tecumnccestares es tases se eueaerd 259
M. Niece ve Sr. Vicror on two new Photochemical Experiments ........ sense 200
GEOLOGY.
Mr. James Bryce on the Discovery of Silurian Fossils in the Slates of Down-
BDI rescescevesserecees sengpecatnee spocoscact CEsCboRcdSApOoO NE ABAGOIAS: Mee stercneedes Sqcck bp 260
Professor Taomas H. Huxuey on the newly discovered Reptilian Remains
from the neighbourhood of Elgin ..........csesereseseresecseererecescsees mvsaswae eae 201
Rey. Dr. Lonemuir on the Section of the Coast between the Girdleness and
Dunnottar Castle, Kincardineshire ......ssscsssseseseneccsvecseceeccssscscsescsoecees 261
on the Remains of the Cretaceous Formation in Aber-
deenshire...... meuigvatesie pussvae dee deopaeannnslcenerane. Sacleetierleiac Bedconcarntoc fooe0ned 262
- on the Restoration of Pterichthys in ‘The Testimony of
MMEPOICISie etic sete’ cecarictn eave sen casuassdleeaendle we eafesuduptstastansieavelnasin yer oe everest 200
Rev. James Morrison on Fossil Remains found at Urquhart, near Elgin.
(Communicated by the Rev. Dr. LONGMUIR) ......eseessvesseeeeeeceecsneeesneeenes 263
Mr. C. Moore on the supposed Wealden and other Beds near Elgin .........+++ 264
— on Brachiopoda, and on the Development of the loop in Tere-
BEALULA,, 100.100 fee Mfeaetestser et cae ece aac CORO ERED Oa OLE acreabaspaast eee 265
Professor H. D. RogErs on some Observations on the Parallel Roads of Glenroy 265
Rey. Professor Sep¢wick on Faults in Cumberland and Lancashire ....... eases 20D

Botany AND ZooLoey.

Dr. Dyce on the Identity of Morrhua vulgaris and M. punctata, hitherto described
as distinct SpecieS......sssererereeeee Pane soncuatte cand cpreaunvercns Cdiearwaecesncssecscss 265

Mr. Joun Moors, Notice of Syrrhaptis paradoxus .-sssssesereeresserse teoscosccene 265
Professor Macponatp on the Osteology of Lophius piscatorius...serresecesreerss 265

xvi CONTENTS.

PuystoLoGy,

Professor BENNETT on the Structure of the Nerve-Tubes..ccccscescsssccsscessesens

on the Origin of Morbid Growths with reference to the Con-
Nective-tissue Theory....sssseessereee teneeeees sesessqnnrtiseber she o= stem adeigs seesrsceces :

Professor Laycock on the Handwriting and Drawing of the Insane, as illustra-
tive of some Modes of Cerebral Functions .....0+.+ssssese. Secocee sever coerasnes :

Mr. Joan Dueurip Mitng, Jun., on the Homologous Development of the Mus-
cular System ........ Sa aascabenscevspeeneessensen==yec es weaned secede cote =cAcorsoncee

Professor BENNETT on the Molecular Theory of Organization........ decssnyedaeries

Dr. Epwarp Smith on the Sequence in the Phenomena observed in Man under
the Influence of Alcohol......sssssesenseeeoeees wawesepeee vee apecnieies Keeccocc apenas se
Dr. Wit11am Camp on certain Subjective Sensations, with especial reference
to the Phenomena of Second Sight, Visions, and Apparitions .......ssseeseseees

on certain imperfectly recognized Functions of the Optic
TBE ENC copeanpngeuccr in icon cericune nobrncrneo 5 Jceeceocce <iheaeeesieend chive oes sbrepwelnnanls

GroGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

Consul Peruente’s Exploration of the White Nile cssccscsscestesesscsssscossensens
Captain Spexe’s Discovery of Lake Nyanza in Central Africa....s.sessereeceeeee
Rey. S. Histor on the Aboriginal Tribes of the Province of Nagpore, Central
INGA sceexceaapenshpesasehient Eee aiea Caesar dehcleneienene pepe SolsuainevainsessUemnsenices enece
Consul Datyeti, Memorandum of Earthquake at Erzerum ......sssseseeeeeneenees
Dr. Norton Suaw, Notes on the Proposed Railway Communication between
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans vid the United States of America ......s++000
Captain Sprxe on the Commercial Resources of Zanzibar on the East Coast of
INTTICAwavscwe ess vaseeeuiamnl-eaardeekieeds se Esianelsenteeriecrssciesssta SeRosceaceuncoe sseeecnoneee

INDEX CUOOO FET HO Ede CLM eee RHEE R EER KOOL HEE EHEDE TED TETE SH EHH EOE TEESE HGH aeEaeE HE OHH GES EEE EES

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266
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266

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267

OBJECTS AND RULES

THE ASSOCIATION,

—_~—__

OBJECTS.

Tue Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by
other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an-
other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which impede its progress.

RULES,

ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES.

All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be-
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con-
form to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So-
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in
like manner, to become Members of the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council
or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General
Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual
Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General
Meeting.

COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES.

Lire Memsers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub-
lished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the offices
of the Association.

Awnnuat Susscrizers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay mithout intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu-_
lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all
future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis :
but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub-
sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of
One Pound. ‘They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.

Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office,

1859. b

XVill RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION,

The Association consists of the following classes :-—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
cn admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2, Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad-
mission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the
payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in-
termission of Annual Payment. ]

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the pay-
ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following
year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay-
ment.

5. Missetab for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price,
according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis —Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a
further sum of Five Pounds.

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a com-
position.

Annual Members who have not intermitted their. Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication
Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a
composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a
Book Subscription.

Annual Members, who have intermitted their Annual Subscrip-
tion.

Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. ]

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa-
tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of
the Publication Price. Application to be made (by letter) to
Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet St., London.

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.

MEETINGS.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre-
vious Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Offi-
cers of the Association.

GENERAL COMMITTEE.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with
authors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association.

2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society,
which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association,

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XIX

3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not excced-
ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions.

4, Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three,
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any
place where the Association has formerly met.

5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who
are specially nominated in writing for the Meeting of the year by the Presi-
dent and General Secretaries.

6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are
ex-officio members of the General Committee for the time being.

SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con-
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof.

The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would
particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and
brought under consideration at the next Meeting.

The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of
particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons,
for the information of the Annual Meetings.

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.

The General Committee shall] appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com-
mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General
Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom-
mendations.

LOCAL COMMITTEES.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

OFFICERS.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

COUNCIL.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the
Meeting.

PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve

his right of property therein.
ACCOUNTS.

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors

appointed by the Meeting. e

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Names of Members of the British Association who
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S35354 2454444

Biddell, George Arthur, Esq.

Bigge, Charles, Esq.

Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.8.

Boileau, Sir John P., Bart., F.R.S.

Boyle, Rt.Hon. D., Lord Justice-Gen!. (dec*).

Brady,The Rt. Hon. Maziere, M.R.1.A., Lord
Chancellor of Ireland.

Brand, William, Esq.

Breadalbane, John, Marquis of, K.T., F.R.S.

Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.RB.8., Principal of the University of
Edinburgh.

Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M., Bart.,
K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.B.S. °

Brooke, Charles, B.A., F.R.S.

Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased).

Brunel, Sir M. I., F.R.S. (deceased).

Buckland, Very Rey. William, D.D., F.R.8.,
Dean of Westminster (deceased).

Bute, John, Marquis of, K.T. (deceased).

Carlisle, George Will. Fred., Earl of, F.R.8.

Carson, Rey. Joseph, F.T.C.D.

Cathcart, Lt.-Gen., Earl of, K.C.B., F.R.S.E.
(deceased).

Chalmers, Rev. T., D.D. (deceased).

~ Chance, James, Esq.

Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of.

Christie, Professor 8. H., M.A., F.R.S.

Clare, Peter, Hsq., F.R.A.8. (deceased).

Clark, Rev. Prof., M.D., F.R.8. (Cambridge.)

Clark, Henry, M.D.

Clark, G. T., Esq.

Clear, William, Esq. (deceased).

Clerke, Major §., K.H., R.E., F-R.S. (dec*).

Clift, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).

Close, Very Rev. F., M.A., Dean of Carlisle.

Cobbold, John Chevalier, Esq., M.P.

Colquhoun, J. C., Esq., M.P. (deceased).

Conybeare, Very Rey. W. D., Dean of Llan-
daff (deceased).

Cooper, Sir Henry, M.D.

Corrie, John, Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased).

Crum, Walter, Esq., F.R.S.

Currie, William Wallace, Esq. (deceased).

Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased).

Daniell, Professor J. F., F.R.S. (deceased).

Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Darwin, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.8.

Daubeny, Prof. Charles G. B., M.D., F.R.S.

DelaBeche, Sir H. T., C.B., F.R.S., Director-
Gen. Geol. Surv. United Kingdom (dec®).

Devonshire, William, Duke of, M.A., F.R.S.

Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F.R.8.

Dillwyn, Lewis W., Esq., F.R.8. (deceased).

Drinkwater, J..E.,-Esq. (deceased).

Ducie, The Earl, F.R.S.

Dunraven, The Earl of, F.R.S.

~ Egerton, Sir P. de M. Grey, Bart., M.P.,
E.R.S.

Eliot, Lord, M.P.

Ellesmere, Francis, Earl of, F.G.8. (dec*).

Enniskillen, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Estcourt, T. G. B., D.C.L. (deceased).

Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Fitawilliam, The Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S. (dec*).

Fleming, W., M.D.

Fletcher, Bell, M.D.

Foote, Lundy E., Esq.

Forbes, Charles, Esq. (deccased).

Forbes, Prof. Edward, F.R.8. (deceased).

Forbes, Prof. J. D., F.R.8., Sec. R.8.2.

Hox, Robert Were, Exsq., F.R.S.

Frost, Charles, F.8.A.

Gassiot, John P., Esq., F.R.S.

Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased).

Gourlie, William, Esq. (deceased).

Graham, 'T., M.A., F.R.S., Master ofthe Mint.

Gray, John E., Hsq., Ph.D., F.B.8.

Gray, Jonathan, Esq. (deceased).

Gray, William, Esq., F.G.S. -

Green, Prof. Joseph Henry, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Greenough, G. B., Esq., ¥.R.S. (deceased).

Griffith, Sir R. Griffith, Bt:, LL.D., M.R.1.A.

Grove, W. R., Hsq., M.A., F.R.S.

Hallam, Henry, Esq., M.A., F-R.S. (dec!).

Hamilton, W. J., Esq., F.R.S., For. Sec. G.S.

Hamilton, Sir Wm. R., LL.D., Astronomer
Royal of Ireland, M.R.1.A., F.R.A.S.

Hancock, W. Neilson, LL.D.

Harcourt, Rev. Wm. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S.

Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Harl of, F.R.S.

Harford, J. 8., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Harris, Sir W. Snow, F.R.S.

Harrowby, The Earl of, F.R.S.

Hatfeild, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased).

Henry, W. C., M.D., F.R.8. [Col., Belfast.

Henry, Rev. P.8., D.D., President of Queen’s

Henslow, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.L.S.

Herbert, Hon. and Very Rey. Wm., LL.D.,
F.L.S., Dean of Manchester (dec*).

Herschel,Sir John F. W., Bart.,D.C.L., F.R.S.

Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S8.

Heywood, James, Hsq., F.R.S.

Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G8.

Hincks, Rev. Edward, D.D., M.R.1.A.

Hinds, 8., D.D., late Lord Bishop of Norwich.

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D.

Hodgkinson, Professor Eaton, F.R.S,

Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S.

Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S.

Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A.; F.R.S.

Hopkins, William, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

Horner, Leonard, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S8.

Hovenden, V. F., Esq., M.A.

Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G.S.

Hutton, William, Esq., F.G.S.

Ibbetson, Capt. L.L. Boscawen, K.R.E.,F.G.8.

Inglis, Sir R. H., Bart., D.C.L., M.P. (dec*).

Inman, Thomas, M.D.

Jacobs, Bethel, Esq.

Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S. (deceased).

Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E.

Jeffreys, John Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S.

Jellett, Rev. Prof.

Jenyns, Rey. Leonard, F.L.S8.

Jerrard, H. B., Esq.

Johnston, Right Hon. William, late Lord
Provost of Edinburgh.

Johnston, Prof. J.B. W., M.A., F.R.S8. (dec).

Keleher, William, Esq. (deceased).

Kelland, Rey. Professor P., M.A.

Kildare, The Marquis of.

Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S.

Lansdowne, Hen., Marquisof, D.C.L.,F.B.8.

Larcom, Lt.-Colonel, R.E., LL.D., F.R.8.

Lardner, Rey. Dr. (deceased).

Lassell, William, Heq., F.R.S. L. & E.

Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.8.

Lee, Very Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E., Prin-
cipal of the University of Edinburgh.
(deceased),

Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.8.

Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, late
Speaker of the House of Commons.

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.8,

Liddcll, Andrew, Esq. (deceased).

Lindley, Professor John, Ph.D., F.R.8.
Listowel, The Earl of. {Dublin (dec*).
Lloyd, Rev. B., D.D., Provost of Trin. Coll.,
Lloyd, Rev. H., D.D., D.C.L., F. B.S. L&E.
Londesborough, Lord, F.R.8.
Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart., M.A., F.R.S.
Luby, Rey. Thomas.
Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., F.R.8.
MacCullagh, Prof., D.C.L., M.R.I.A. (dec*).
MacDonnell, Rev. R., D.D., M.R.1.A., Pro-
vost of Trinity College, Dublin.
Macfarlane, The Very Rey. Principal. (dec*).
MacGee, William, M.D.
MacLeay, William Sharp, Esq., F.L.S.
MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S8.
Malahide, The Lord Talbot de.
Malcolm, Vice-Ad. Sir Charles, K.C.B. (dec*).
Maltby, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord
Bishop of Durham (deceased).
Manchester, J. P. Lee, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Marshall, J. G. Esq., M.A., F.G.S8.
May, Charles, Esq., F.R.A.S.
Meynell, Thomas, Esq., F.L.S.
Middleton, Sir William F. F., Bart.
Miller, Professor W. A., M.D., F.R.S.
Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., F.R.S.
Moillet, J. D., Esq. (deceased).
Milnes, R. Monckton, Esq., D.C.L., M.P.
Moggridge, Matthew, Esq.
Monteagle, Lord, F.R.8.
Moody, J. Sadleir, Hsq.
Moody, T. H. C., Esq.
Moody, T. F., Esq.
Morley, The Earl of.
Moseley, Rey. Henry, M.A., F.R.S.
Mount-Edgecumbe, ErnestAugustus, Karl of.
Murchison, Sir Roderick I.,G.C. St.8., F.R.S.
Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E.
Nicol, D., M.D.
Nicol, Rey. J. P., LL.D.
Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar-
quis of, V.P.R.S. (deceased).
Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G.,M.A.,
F.R.S. (deceased).
’ Ormerod, G. W., Esq., M.A., F.G.S.
Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D. (deceased).
» Orpen, John H., LL.D.
Osler, Follett, Esq., F.R.S.
Owen, Professor Richd.,M.D., D.C.L.,F.R.S.
Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord
Bishop of, F.R.8., F.G.8.
Palmerston, Viscount, G.C.B., M.P.
Peacock, Very Rey. G., D.D., Dean of Ely,
F.R.S. (deceased).

Peel, Rt.Hon.Sir R.,Bart.,M.P.,D.C.L.(dec").
. Pendarves, EH. W., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).
* Phillips, Professor John, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S.
Pigott, The Rt. Hon. D. R., M.R.1.A., Lord
Chief Baron of the Exchequer in Ireland.

- Porter, G. R., Esq. (deceased).

Powell, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.R.S.

Prichard, J. C., M.D., F.R.S. (deceased).

Ramsay, Professor William, M.A..

Ransome, George, Esq., F.L.S.

‘Reid, Maj.-Gen. Sir W., K.C.B., R.E., F.R.S.
"ee gS

Rendlesham, Rt. Hon. Lord, M.P.

Rennie, George, Esq., F.R.S.

Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S.

Richardson, Sir John, M.D., C.B., ¥.R.8.

Ripon, Har! of, F.R.G.S. ,

Richie, Rey. Prof., LL.D., F.R.8. (dec*).

Robinson, Rey. J., D.D.

Robinson, Rey. T. R., D.D., F.R.AS.

Robison, Sir John, Sec.R.S.Edin. (deceased).

Roche, James, Esq.

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.RB.8.

Ronalds, Francis, F.R.8.

Rosebery, The Earl of, K.T., D.C.L., F.RB.S.

Ross, Rear-Ad. Sir J.C., R.N., D.C.L., F.B.S.

Rosse, Wm., Earl of, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA.

Royle, Prof. John F., M.D., F.R.S. (dec*).

Russell, James, Esq. (deceased).

Russell, J. Scott, Esq., F.R.S. [V.P.R.S.

Sabine, Maj.-Gen., R.A., D.C.L., Treas. &

Sanders, William, Esq., F.G.S.

Scoresby, Rey. W., D.D., F.R.S. (deceased).

Sedgwick, Rev. Prof. Adam, M.A., F.R.S.

Selby, Prideaux John, Esq., F.R.S.E.

Sharpey, Professor, M.D., Sec.R.S.

Sims, Dillwyn, Esq.

Smith, Lieut.-Colonel C. Hamilton, F.R.S.

Smith, James, F.R.S. L. & EB.

Spence, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).

Stanley, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord
Bishop of Norwich (deceased).

Staunton, Sir G. T., Bt., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S.

St. David's, C.Thirlwall,D.D.,LordBishop of.

Stevelly, Professor John, LL.D.

Stokes, Professor G. G., Sec.R.8.

Strang, John, Esq., LL.D.

Strickland, Hugh B., Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased).

Sykes, Colonel W. H., M.P., F.R.S.

Symonds, B. P., D.D., Vice-Chancellor of
the University of Oxford.

Talbot, W. H. Fox, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

Tayler, Rey. John James, B.A.

Taylor, John, Hsq., F.R.S.

Taylor, Richard, Hsq., F.G.S.

Thompson, William, Bsq., F.L.S. (deceased).

Thomson, Professor William, M.A., I’.R.8.

Tindal, Captain, R.N. (deceased).

Tite, William, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.

Tod, James, Hsq., F.R.S.E.

Tooke, ‘Thomas, F.R.S. (deceased).

Traill, J. §., M.D. (deceased).

Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S. (deceased).

Turner, Samuel, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.8. (dec*).

Turner, Rey. W.

Tyndall, Professor, F.R.S.

Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.8. (deceased).

Vivian, J. H., M.P., F.R.S. (deceased),

Walker, James, Hsq., F.R.S.

Walker, Joseph N., Hsq., F.G.S.

Walker, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.8.

Warburton, Henry, Hsq.,M.A., F.R.S.(dec*).

Washington, Captain, R.N., F.R.S.

Webster, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S.

West, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).

Western, Thomas Burch, Esq. .

Wharncliffe, John Stuart,Lord,F.R.S.(dec*).

Wheatstone, Professor Charles, ¥.R.8.

Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S., Master
of Trinity College, Cambridge.

Williams, Prof. Charles J. B., M.D., F.R.8.

Willis, Rey. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S.

Wills, William, Esq., F.G.8. (deceased).

Wilson, Prof. W. P.

Winchester, John, Marquis of.

Woolleombe, Henry, Bsq., F.8.A. (deceased)

Wrottesley, John, Lord, M.A., Pres. B.S.

Yarborough, The Earl of, D.C.L.

Yarrell, William, Esq., F.L.S. (deceased).

Yates, James, Esq., M.A., F.RS.

Yates, J. B., Esq., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. dee").

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1859-60.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

Str Ropericx I. Murcuison,G.C.St.S.,F.R.S. Major-General Epwarp SABINE,

Joun Taytor, Esq., F.R.S.

R.A,
D.C.L., Treas, & V.P.R.S.

PRESIDENT.
HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE CONSORT.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Duxe or RicumonpD, K.G., F.R.S., Pre-
sident of the Royal Agricultural Society.

The Eart or Azperpren, LL.D., K.G.,
K.T., F.R.S.

The Lorp Provost of the City of Aberdeen.

Sir Joun F. W. Herscuet, Bart., D.C.L.,
M.A., F.R.S.

Sir Davin Brewster, K.H., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
Principal of the University of Edinburgh.

Sir R. I. Murcuison,G.C.St.S.,D.C.L.,F.R.S.,
and Director-General of the Geological Sur-
vey of the United Kingdom.

The Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S.

The Rey. T. R. Roprnson, D.D., F.R.S., Di-
rector of the Armagh Observatory, Armagh.

A. Tuomson, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., Convener

’ of the County of Aberdeen.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
THE LORD WROTTESLEY, M.A., V.P.R.S., F.R.A.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Barz or Dersy, P.C., D.C.L., Chan- Cuartes G. B. Davuseny, LL.D., M.D.,

cellor of the University of Oxford.

The Rey. F. Jeunes, D.D., Vice-Chancellor of

the University of Oxford.
The Duke or MartsoroveH, D.C.L.

The Eart or Rossz, K.P., M.A., F.R.S.,

F.R.A.S.
The Lorp Bisuor or Oxrorp, F.R.S.

The Very Rev. H. G. Lippett, D.D., Dean

of Christ Church, Oxford.

E.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8., Professor of Botany
in the University of Oxford.

Henry W. Actanp, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
Regius Professor of Medicine in the Uni-
versity of Oxford.

Wiii1am F. Donkin, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.,
Savilian Professor of Astronomy in the
University of Oxford.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT OXFORD.
Grorce RotiEston, M.D., Lee’s Reader in Anatomy in the University of Oxford.
H. J. S. Smira, Esq., M.A., Balliol College, Oxford.
Grorce Grirritn, Esq., M.A., Jesus College, Oxford.

LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT OXFORD.

The Rey. Ricuarp GreswELL, M.A., F.R.S.,

Worcester College, Oxford.

The Rev. Joun Grirrirus, M.A., Wadham College, Oxford.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

BABINGTON,
E.R.S.
Bropige, Sir Bensamin C.,
Bart., D.C.L., Pres. R.S.
Dea Rug, Warren, Ph.D.,

F.R.S.
EGerton, Sir Poitir pe M.
Grey, Bart., F.R.S.

C. C., M.A,

F.R.S.

Gassior, Joun P., F.R.S.
Grove, Witui1AMR., F.R.S.
Horner, LEONARD, F.R.S.
Hurron, Rozert, F.G.S.
LyeEzt, Sir C., D.C.L., F.R.S. Swarpry,Professor, Sec. R.S.
Mitter, Prof. W. A., M.D.,

Price, Rey. Professor, M.A.,
F.R,S.

Renniz, Georce, F.R.S.

RusseE 1, J. 8., F.R.S.

Sykes, Colonel W. H., M.P.,
F.R.S.

Porttocx,General,R.E.,F.R.S. Tire, WittrAM, M.P., F.R.5S.

Powe tt, Rev. Prof., M.A.,
F.R.S.

Wesster, THomas, F.R.S.
Yates, JAmus, M.A,, F.R.S.

Farrpairn, WILLIAM,E.R.S.
FirzRoy,RearAdmiral,F.R.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the Ge-
neral and Assistant-General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presi-
dents of former years, viz.—Rev. Professor Sedgwick. Sir Thomas M. Brisbane, Bart. The
Marquis of Lansdowne. TheDuke ofDevonshire. Rey. W.V.Harcourt. The Marquis of Bread-
albane. Rev. W. Whewell, D.D. The Earl of Rosse. Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. Sir
Roderick I. Murchison. The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir David Brewster. G. B. Airy, Esq.,
the Astronomer Royal. General Sabine. William Hopkins, Esq., LL.D. The Earl of
Harrowby. The Duke of Argyll. Professor Daubeny, M.D. The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D.
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L.

GENERAL SECRETARY.

The Rey. Roperr Waker, M.A., F.R.S., Reader in Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Oxford; Culham Vicarage, Abingdon.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
Joun Puitiirs, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres.G.S., Reader in Geology in the University
of Oxford ; Museum House, Oxford.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Joun Tayzor, Esq., F.R.S., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street, London.
LOCAL TREASURERS.
Robert P. Greg, Esq., I.G.S., Manchester. ©
John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., F.R.S., Swansea.
J. B. Alexander, Esq., Ipswich.
Robert Patterson, Esq., M.R.I.A., Belfast.
Edmund Smith, Esq., Hull.
Richard Beamish, Esq., F.R.S., Cheltenham.
John Metcalfe Smith, Esq., Leeds.
John Angus, Esq., Aberdeen.
AUDITORS.
Dr. Norton Shaw.

William Gray, Esq., F.G.S., Yors.

C.C. Babington, Esq.,M.A., F.R.S., Cambridge.
William Brand, Esq., Edinburgh.

John H. Orpen, LL.D., Dudlin.

William Sanders, Esq., F.G.S., Bristol.
Robert M‘Andrew, Esq,., F.R.S., Liverpool.
W.R. Wills, Esq., Birmingham.

Professor Ramsay, M.A., Glasgow.

Robert Hutton, Esq. James Yates, Esq.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XXVil

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
ABERDEEN MEETING.

SECTION A.—-MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

President.—The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P., F.R.S,, M.R.I.A.

Vice-Presidents.—G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L., Astronomer Royal, F.R.S. L. & E.,
M.R.1.A. ;_Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S. L.& E,, M.R.I.A.; Sir W. R. Hamil-
ton, LL.D., Astronomer Royal of Ireland, M.R.I.A.; Professor William Thomson,
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.; Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S.; Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.1.A.; T. Maclear, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal at the
Cape of Good Hope.

Secretaries.—Professor Stevelly, LL.D.; H.J.S. Smith, M.A.; J. Pope Hen-
nessy, M.P. ; Professor Maxwell, F.R.S.E.

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS
TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS.

President.—Professor Lyon Playfair, C.B., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

Vice-Presidents.—R. Christison, M.D., F.R.S.E.; Professor Daubeny, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. ; W. De la Rue, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S, ; Professor Faraday,
D.C.L., F.R.S., F.C.S.; Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S.; T. Gra-
ham, M.A., D.C.L., Master of the Mint, F.R.S., F.C.S.; Professor A. W. William-
son, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

Secretaries.—J. S. Brazier, F.C.S.; J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.; G.
D. Liveing, M.A., F.C.S.; W. Odling, Ph.D., F.R.S:, F.C.S.

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.

President.—Sir Charles Lyell, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.S., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.; Sir
Richard Griffith, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.S.; Professor Sedgwick,
M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.; William Hopkins, M.A,, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.; Major-
General Portlock, R.E., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.; Professor A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.; Professor H. D. Rogers, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Secretaries.—Professor Harkness, F.R.S., F.G.S.; H.C. Sorby, F.R.S., F.G.S. ;
Rev. J. Longmuir, A.M., LL.D.

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

President.—Sir William Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

Vice- Presidents.— Professor Allman, M.D., F.R.S. L.& E., M.R.LA.; C. C. Ba-
bington, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S.; Professor Balfour, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. ; Professor
Daubeny, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.; Professor Huxley, F.R.S., F.L.S; Pro-
fessor Owen, M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S.

Secretaries.—E. Lankester, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. ; Professor Dickie, M.D. ;
G, Ogilvie, M.D.

SUB-SECTION D.—PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCE.

President.—Professor Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.

Vice-Presidents—Henry W. D. Acland, M.D., D,C.L., F.R.S.; Sir Benjamin C,
Brodie, Bart., D.C.L., Pres.R.S.; Professor Christison, M.D., F.R.S.E.; Sir James
Clark, Bart., M.D., F.R.S.; Professor Syme, F.R.S.E,; Professor Allen Thomson,
M.D., F.R.S., L. & E.

Secretaries.—Professor Redfern, M.D, ; Professor Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY,
President.—Rear-Admiral Sir James Clark Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.S., D.C.L., V.P.R.S., F.R.G.S. ;

Colonel Sir Henry James, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.G.S; Rear-Admiral FitzRoy, F.R.S.
F.R.G.S; Sir John Bowring, F.R.S., F.R.G.S.; John Crawfurd, F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Very Rev. Principal Campbell, D.D. ; Sir James Clark, Bart., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.

in chats as Norton Shaw, Sec.R.G.S.; Richard Cull, F.R.G.S,; Professor
eddes,

XXVlll REPORT—1859.
SECTION F,—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President.—Colonel Sykes, M.P., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Lord Monteagle, M.A., F.R.S.; W. Tite, M.P., F.R.S,; Alex-
ander Thomson of Banchory; Principal the Rev. D. Dewar, D.D., LL.D.
Secretaries—John Strang, LL.D.; Edmund Macrory, M.A.; H. Ambrose
Smith ; Professor Cairnes.

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President. —The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A.,I°.R.S., Jacksonian Professor, Cam-
bridge.
Vice-Presidents:x—J. F. Bateman, C.E.; Admiral Drinkwater Bethune, C.B.,
F.R.G.S.; W. Fairbairn, C.E., F.R.S.; Vice-Admiral Moorsom; The Rev. Canon

Moseley, M.A., F.R.S.; G. Rennie, F.R.S.; T. Webster, F,R.S.
Secretaries.—R. Abernethy; P. Le Neve Foster, M.A.; H. Wright.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Professor Agassiz, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts.

M. Babinet, Paris.

Dr. A. D. Bache, Washington.

Professor Bolzani, Kazan.

Barth, Dr.

Mr. P. G. Bond, Cambridge, U.S.

M. Boutigny (d’Evreux).

- Professor Braschmann, Moscow.

Chevalier Bunsen, Heidelberg.

Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, Breslau.

M. Antoine d’Abbadie.

M. De la Rive, Geneva.

Professor Dove, Berlin.

Professor Dumas, Paris.

Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Paris.

Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin.

Dr. Eisenlohr, Carlsruhe.

Professor Encke, Berlin.

Dr. A. Erman, Berlin.

Professor Esmark, Christiania.

Professor G. Forchhammer, Copenhagen.

M. Léon Foucault, Paris.

Prof. E. Fremy, Paris.

M. Frisiani, Milan.

Professor Asa Gray, Cambridge, U.S.
Professor Henry, Washington, U.S.
M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg.

Prof. A. Kolliker, Wurzburg,

Prof. De Koninck, Liege.

Professor Kreil, Vienna.

Dr. A. Kupffer, St. Petersburg.

Dr. Lamont, Munich.

Prof. F. Lanza,

M. Le Verrier, Paris.

Baron von Liebig, Munich.

Professor Loomis, New York.

Professor Gustav Magnus, Berlin.
Professor Matteucci, Pisa.
Professor von Middendorff, St. Petersburg.
M. Abbé Moigno, Paris.

' Professor Nilsson, Sweden.

Dr. N. Nordensciold, Fin/and.
M. E. Peligot, Paris.
Viscenza Pisani, Florence.

| Gustave Plaar, Strasburg.

Chevalier Plana, Turin.

Professor Pliicker, Bonn.

M. Constant Prévost, Paris.

M. Quetelet, Brussels.

Prof. Retzius, Stockholm.

Professor H. D. Rogers, Boston, U.S.

Professor H. Rose, Berlin.

Herman Schlagintweit, Berlin.

Robert Schlagintweit, Berlin.

Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm.

M. Struveé,-Pulkowa.

Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm.

M. Pierre Tchihatchef.

Dr. Van der Hoeven, Leyden.

Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen,
Gottingen.

Professor Wartmann, Geneva,

Report of the Council of the British Association, presented to the
General Committee at Aberdeen, September 14, 1859.

1. With reference to the subjects referred to the Council by the General
Committee at Leeds, the Council have to report as follows :—
a, The General Committee passed the following resolutions, viz.—
“ That it is highly desirable that a series of Magnetical and Meteorolo-
gical Observations, on the same plan as those which have been already
carried on in the Colonial Observatories for that purpose, under the direction

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XX1X

of Her Majesty’s Board of Ordnance, be obtained, to extend over a period
of not more than five years, at the following stations :—

1. Vancouver Island.
2. Newfoundland.
3. The Falkland Isles.

4, Pekin, or some near adjacent station.

«That an application be made to Her Majesty’s Government to obtain
the establishment of Observatories at these stations for the above-mentioned
term, on a personal and material footing, and under the same superintend-
ence as in the Observatories (now discontinued) at Toronto, St. Helena,
and Van Diemen’s Land.

“ That the observations at the Observatories now recommended should
be comparable with, and in continuation of, those made at the last-named
Observatories, including four days of term-observations annually.

“ That provision be also requested at the hands of Her Majesty’s Govern-
ment, for the execution, within the period embraced by the observations,
of magnetic surveys in the districts immediately adjacent to those stations,
viz. of the whole of Vancouver's Island and the shores of the Strait sepa-
rating it from the main land,—of the Falkland Isles,—and of the immediate
neighbourhood of the Chinese Observatory (if practicable) wherever situ-
ated,—on the plan of the surveys already executed. in the British posses-
sions in North America and in the Indian Arehipelago.

«“ That a sum of £350 per annum, during the continuance of the obser-
vations, be recommended to be placed by Government at the disposal of
the General Superintendent, for the purpose of procuring a special and
scientific verification and exact correspondence of the magnetical and me-
teorological instruments, both of those which shall be furnished to the
several Observatories, and of those which, during the continuance of the
observations for the period in question, shall be brought into comparison
with them, either at Foreign or Colonial Stations.

¢ That the printing of the observations 77 ewtenso be discontinued, but
that provision be made for their printing in abstract, with discussion ; but
that the Term-Observations, and those to be made on the occurrence of
Magnetic Storms, be still printed 2 eatenso; and that the registry of the
observations be made in triplicate, one copy to be preserved in the oftice
of the General Superintendent, one to be presented to the Royal Society,
and one to the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, for conservation and
future reference.

‘«<’That measures be adopted for taking advantage of whatever disposi-
tion may exist on the part of our Colonial Governments to establish Obser-
vatories of the same kind, or otherwise to cooperate with the proposed
system of observation.

“That in placing these Resolutions and the Report of the Committee
_ before the President and Council of the Royal Society, the continued co-
operation of that Society be requested in whatever ulterior measures may
be requisite.

“That the President of the British Association be requested to act in
conjunction with the President of the Royal Society, and with the Members
of the two Committees, in any steps which appear necessary for the
accomplishment of the objects above stated.

“ That an early communication be made of this procedure to His Royal
Highness The Prince Consort, the President Elect of the British Associa-
tion for the ensuing year.”

D. 6.6.4 REPORT—1859.

At a Meeting of the Council on December 17, 1858, the President stated
that communications had been made on the subject of these Resolutions to
the President and Council of the Royal Society, and to His Royal Highness
The Prince Consort, the President Elect of the British Association for the
ensuing year. He then presented the following letters, which were ordered

to be entered on the Minutes :—
“ Windsor Castle, December 1, 1858.

“Dear Srr,—I have been commanded by His Royal Highness The Prince
Consort to acknowledge with thanks the receipt of the series of resolutions
adopted by the Council of the British Association, relative to the extension
of the field of Magnetical and Meteorological Observations,

“ His Royal Highness would be glad to be informed whether it is expected
from him, as President Elect of the Association, that he should take any
steps with reference to the object the Council has in view, and if so, what
they should be.

“T have also to thank you, by His Royal Highness's desire, for the copy of
your Address,
*T have the honour to be, dear Sir,

* Yours very faithfully,
“C, Grey.”

“ Burlington House, December 9, 1858.

“Dear Sir,—In reference to the inquiry manifesting the interest which
His Royal Highness The Prince Consort takes in the subject of the Resolu-
tions of the Council of the British Association lately submitted to him, we
are aware that we ought not to solicit any personal or direct action of His
Royal Highness in the matter; but, having laid before him the nature
and reasons of the case, and His Royal Highness being fully aware of its
important scientific bearings, any expression of His Royal Highness which
the joint Committees may be permitted to cite in their further communi-
cations with Her Majesty’s Government or with Foreign Powers, Academies,
or constituted scientific authorities would, they feel confident, possess very
great influence, and be productive of the most beneficial effects,

(Signed) “B. C. Broniz, P.R.S.
“ RicHARD Owen, Pres. Brit. Assoc,’

“ To Major-Gen. Hon. C. Grey.”

“ Osborne, 11 December, 1858.

“My pEAR Prorressor OwEN,—I have to acknowledge the receipt of the
Copy of Resolutions adopted at a Meeting of the British Association, with
respect to the measures to be adopted for the further prosecution of your
Magnetical and Meteorological Experiments, which I received before leaving
Windsor; and I have now seen the letter which, in conjunction with Sir B,
Brodie, you have addressed to General Grey, in answer to the inquiry respect-
ing the above-mentioned resolutions, which he made by my direction.

“I need hardly repeat the assurance of the deep interest which I take in
the subject of your inquiries, or of my sense of the importance to science of
the further prosecution of the observations which have been so far conducted
under the auspices of the two Societies, the interruption of which, at the
very moment when there is so much reason to hope for their successful com-
pletion, would be a source of deep regret. Any assistance in my power to
afford, I shail at all times be most happy to render. If, therefore, you think
that in your future communications with Government, or with Foreign
Powers, learned Institutions, &c., it will tend in any way to facilitate your
labours, or to remove difficulties, to cite my opinion, you have my full per-

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XXX1

mission to state, in the strongest manner, the conviction I entertain of the
importance of being enabled to establish those new points of observation in
different parts of the world, and to execute those magnetic surveys to which
the Resolutions allude,

« Wishing you most heartily every success in the further development of
this most interesting subject,

“T remain, yours faithfully,
(Signed) ‘ ALBERT,”

It was also stated by the President that a letter had been received from
the Treasury, in reply to a communication enclosing the Resolutions above
given by the President of the Royal Society and the President of the British
Association, from which it appeared that the Lords Commissioners of the
Treasury were desirous of postponing for a year the consideration of the
subject. On this it was resolved by the Council—

That the President be requested to make a further communication to the
Treasury, and to suggest reasons which may induce the Lords of the Trea-
sury to enter on the consideration of the subject at an earlier period.

In compliance with this request, the President had an interview with Sir
Charles Trevelyan at the Treasury, December 18th, and having read to him
the letter from the Prince Consort, expressive of His Royal Highness’s deep
interest in the proposed Magnetical Observations, received from Sir Charles
the expression of his belief, that, if a single station for Magnetical and
Meteorological Observations were applied for, intimating Pekin as its locality,
by the joint Committee of the Royal Society and British Association, My
Lords would be disposed to comply with such application.

The President thereupon wrote to the President of the Royal Society, to
Major-General Sabine, and Sir John Herschel, and, having received their
replies, communicated to Sir Charles Trevelyan that from Major-General
Sabine, of which a copy is subjoined, together with the following extract
from Sir John Herschel’s letter, dated Collingwood, Dec. 22nd, 1858 :—
“ The scientific importance of a five years’ series of Magnetical Observations
at Pekin, without Newfoundland or the other stations (Vancouver's and
Falkland Islands), would be grievously diminished, and the general scope of
the project defeated,”

From General Sabine.
“ St. Leonards-on-Sea, January Ist, 1859.

“Dear OwEn,—I have received your letter of the 27th ult., containing a
notice of your communication with Sir Charles Trevelyan, and enclosing
copies of letters from Sir John Herschel and Mr. Airy.

“There would in no case have been any question of an estimate for the
present year, viz. 1859. The instruments even for a single Observatory
cannot be ready before Midsummer next ; and those who are to be charged
with the observations will require at least some weeks for a full training,
before they will be ready to proceed to their destination. Supposing,
therefore, but a single Observatory to be authorized, it will come properly
into the estimates for 1860, though there may be a small arrear to be included
for the latter part of the preceding financial year.

“ Before Mr. Welsh left Kew in November last, he gave Mr. Adie the
specifications for the differential instruments (for the three elements) which
it is our intention to propose as most suitable for a Colonial Observatory ;
and Mr, Adie undertook to have them completed and ready by Midsummer

XXX1i REPORT—1859.

next. They are to serve either for eye-observation or for continuous photo-
graphic record, or for both, occasional eye-observations being desirable in
any case. The space which it is proposed they should occupy, is 12 feet by 6;
and their relative position, as well as that of all their parts, will be determined
by their being fixed into a slate floor or basement, capable of being separated
into portions for more easy conveyance to a Colony, but designed, when
there, to be put together and cemented into one solid floor, which must rest
on asecure foundation. The protection from the weather which the instru-
ments will require, will be (in the Colony) a double wall either of logs or of
stone, having space between the outer and inner wall, and a similarly double
ceiling. When the instruments are set up in the space near the Observatory
at Kew, a simple boarding will suffice in lieu of double walls and ceiling, as
the equalization of temperature is of no moment when the purpose is simply to
give instruction in the use of the instruments. The instruments for absolute
determinations will require a small separate building, in which the absence
of iron will be the only requisite, the variations of temperature not being of
the same moment in their case.

“Tt is proposed that the description and the principal instructions for the
use of these differential instruments should form an appendix to Mr. Welsh’s
report on the self-recording Magnetic Apparatus at Kew, which apparatus has
now been in steady work for some months. Mr. Welsh’s report is to be pre-
sented to the Aberdeen Meeting, and will be printed forthwith.

“ Viewing the importance of ééme, I took on myself in October last the
responsibility of directing Mr. Adie to proceed in the construction of these
instruments. On the understanding conveyed by your letter that one Observa-
tory at least will be sanctioned, and supposing that the instruments shall be
found to answer their purpose satisfactorily, I shall be relieved from the pecu-
niary responsibility so undertaken ; but I hadat anyrate very little apprehension
on this account; forthe improvement of standard Magnetical and Meteorolo-
gical instruments has been so thoroughly recognized as a proper ground of ap-
plication to the Government Grant Committee, that I should not have hesi-
tated to ask for aid from that quarter, if needed. It was probable, moreover,
that had the instruments not been required by our own Government, a ready
sale might have been found for them to some projected Colonial or Foreign
Establishment.

“If Mr. Adie keeps his time, the Observatory will be ready for inspection
and for practice early in the next summer, when it is hoped that those who
are competent to judge of the suitability of the instruments will examine
them, and will offer such suggestions of improvement as may be applicable,
either in the present ease or in Observatories for the same purpose which may
be required hereafter.

“Captain Blakiston of the Royal Artillery, to whom I had written to offer
the best offices in my power towards his appointment to the charge of the
Vancouver Island Observatory (supposing always that His Royal Highness
the Commander-in-Chief should be favourably disposed towards the employ-
ment of an Artillery detachment as the ‘personnel’ of the Observatory ),
has replied by stating his readiness to accept the charge, and to enter at once,
on his return from his present employment, on the training required for the
photographic work. He is the Magnetieai Observer of Mr. Palliser’s
Survey Expedition on the east side of the Rocky Mountains. The Expedi-.
tion is ordered to return to England in the next summer; consequently at
the close of the summer Capt. Blakiston will be available for this duty. I
may add, in evidence of the zealous interest taken by this officer in Magnetic
researches, that I have very recently received from him five months of hourly

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XSXL

observation of the Declinometer, made in the winter of last year at Fort
Carlton on the Saskatchewan, in which he has himself taken the principal
part. I should propose to recommend as his Assistant, either at Vancouver
Island or at Pekin, Lieut. Maunsell of the Royal Artillery, who, being an
Undergraduate at Trinity College, Dublin, obtained his Commission two years
since by taking a high place in the competitive examination, and is now about
to obtain leave of absence to take his degree at Trinity College. My personal
knowledge of this Officer is but slight, but it leads me to regard him as a
person of much promise in scientific respects. He has placed his services
(always presuming the approval of His Royal Highness the Commander-in-
Chief) at my disposal for any part of the globe at which Magnetic Obser-
vations may be required. At remote stations, such as Vancouver Island or:
Pekin, a second officer is highly expedient in the event of casualties, as well
as for the Survey connected with the Observatory, for which the detachment
will be well provided with instruments, whether such Survey be to be pro-
secuted by sea or land. The Assistants at Kew, who are carrying on the
work of the regular photographic Magnetic Observatory there, are fully com-
petent, and would be quite ready to give the Officers and Non-Commissioned
Officers the necessary instructions in manipulation, &c.; and I know of no
reason why the ‘matériel’ and ‘personnel’ of an Observatory destined
either for Vancouver Island or Pekin, should not be ready to proceed to their
destination in the autumn of 1859.

“ The charge which would subsequently devolve upon me, would be simply
that of receiving and properly preserving the monthly returns containing
duplicates of the photographie traces, and the tabulated abstracts prepared
from them corresponding to every hour or every half-hour as might be deemed
preferable. The arrangements which Mr. Welsh has prepared for tabulating
from the traces, seem to leave nothing to be desired. There is nothing
onerous in this charge, which would require only suitable presses for the
arrangement of the papers, and the superintendence of a Non-Commissioned
Officer acting as a Clerk under my directions. The quarterly or half-yearly
applications from the Observatory for supplies of chemicals, &c., would be
met through the instrumentality of the Director of the Kew Observatory,
who is constantly requiring supplies of the same nature for the apparatus
there. When the tabulated abstracts of the first year had been received at
Woolwich complete, they might be passed through the same process of
analysis for the determination of the laws of the disturbances which has been
exemplified in the Observations of the Colonial Observatories. This has
been worked into such a thorough system, that it would proceed with only
the most general superintendence on my part, and would also, I consider,
occasion no serious interruption in what would at that time be the regular
and staple business of the Office, @. e. the reduction and coordination of the
Naval Magnetic Surveys. The second and third years’ abstracts might be simi-
larly treated as they arrived; and Iam inclined to think that I may, without
too much presumption, look forward, please God, to the probability of my
being myself able to give such a provisional report of the results as might be
justified by the first three years of observation. I might also look forward, but
of course with less confidence, to being able to derive the laws of the secular
changes of the three elements from the absolute determinations at the expira-
tion of the six years (if then alive and in ¢éolerable health), which, from the
long experience which I have had in such investigations, would be far easier
to me than it could well be to any other person. But whatever might be the
measure of my own competency in future years, the photographic traces of
the tabulated abstracts, carefully preserved and arranged, would be transferred,

1859. c

XXXIV REPORT—1859.

at the close of the series, to some place of proper deposit, where they would
be available for those who, in years to come, will carry on the magnetic in-
vestigations of which the value has now begun to be appreciated.

“The comparison of simultaneous photographie records at different Obser-
vatories will constitute a distinct work, from which, very possibly, a far more
complete knowledge of the laws of the disturbances may be expected; and
for this the materials would be preserved and arranged: but the execution
must be looked for from other hands than mine. If, as may be expected, the
establishment of self-recording apparatus at Pekin or Vancouver Island be
followed by the establishment of similar instruments in other places, an in-
terchange of photographic traces might be desirable, and could be readily
effected by little more than clerk’s work. ;

“T do not encumber this already long letter with remarks on the com-
parative scientific value of Vancouver Island and Pekin as Magnetic Sta-
tions; both are highly important; but this much is certain, that whatever
might be the value of either, that value would be greatly enhanced—far
more than doubled—by there being a simultaneous and continuous record
at both Stations. It has been remarked [by Sir Charles Trevelyan] that there
are ‘other than scientific reasons’ which would give a preference to Pekin.
This remark might indeed be made in other countries ; but the establishment
at Pekin would be unanswerably justified by the sczentifie importance of
having two Stations in nearly the same latitude on the opposite shores of the
Pacific.

“« By recent letters from the United States, I learn that the steps taken in
this country in regard to the continuance of Magnetical investigations,
have already produced a corresponding feeling in that country, and a desire
that one Observatory at least, on a similar plan to that which should be
adopted in this country, should be established somewhere on the Eastern
Sea-bord of the United States. This would in a considerable measure fulfil
the objects contemplated in the suggestion of Newfoundland as a Magnetic
Station. The letters of Mr. Kingston (by which it appears that, when writing
to Sir John Herschel on the 26th of June 1858, 1 was not thoroughly in-
formed of the full purpose of the Canadian Legislature to maintain the
Toronto Observatory in fullest. efficiency) may give reason to expect that, if
the instruments for a continuous record shall be approved, the present
differential instruments at Toronto, which are only adapted for eye-obser-
vation, may be replaced by the contemplated ones, which are capable of both.

(Signed) ** EDWARD SABINE.”

“ Professor Owen,

President of the British Association.”

At a Meeting of the Council held this morning (September 14, 1859) at
Aberdeen, the following Report was received from Sir John Herschel, Chair-
man of the joint Committees of the Royal Society and British Association,
appointed to endeavour to procure the continuance of Magnetical researches,
by which the General Committee will be fully informed of the proceedings
in this matter up to the present time, and will be able to judge what further
steps it may be desirable to take.

The Committee of the British Association appointed to cooperate with
a Committee of the Royal Society, to endeavour to procure the continuance
of the Magnetic Observations, &c., have to report progress as follows :—

Immediately on the breaking up of the meeting at Leeds, the recom-
mendation adopted by the. General Committee of the Association, to the
effect (“That an early communication be made of the procedure taken on

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XXXV

that occasion to His Royal Highness The Prince Consort, the President
Elect of the British Association for the ensuing year”] was duly acted upon.
The particulars of this communication, together with His Royal Highness’s
most gracious letter to the then President of the Association, expressive of his
deep interest in the subject, and his readiness to afford every assistance in
his power in facilitating the labours of that body and of the Royal Society
towards the accomplishment of the object in view, have been communicated
to the Council, and are recorded in the Minutes of its meeting held on Dee,
17th, 1858.

The Resolutions agreed to and the Report of the Committee were also, in
pursuance of the directions of the General Committee, placed before the
President and Council of the Royal Society, with a request for their further
cooperation,—which, it is almost needless to state, has been most cordially
received and acted on.

In further compliance with the recommendations adopted by the General
Committee, a communication was made of the Resolutions on the subject, by
the Presidents of the Royal Society and the British Association, to the Lords
Commissioners of the Treasury, as stated in the Minutes of the meeting of
Council above mentioned, the immediate result being an expression of their
Lordships’ wish for a postponement of the subject for the present year. But
on the President of the Association, pursuant to the request of the Council,
having requested an interview with Sir C. Trevelyan, and reading to him
the letter from the Prince Consort above mentioned, it was intimated that
an application for a single station at Pekin, for Magnetic and Meteorological
Observations, emanating from the joint Committee of the Royal Society and
British Association, would find their Lordships disposed to comply with it.
The further correspondence to which this intimation gave rise (including a
letter from General Sabine to the President of the British Association, ex-
planatory of the circumstances which would at all events create delays in
the preparations for any active steps until the summer of the present year,
arising from the time requisite to prepare the necessary instruments and other
considerations) stands also recorded in the form of an addendum to the
Minutes of Council of the above-mentioned date, and need not therefore
be here repeated.

Since these communications, the subject, so far as the action of the
Government is concerned, remains in abeyance; and it will be for the
decision of the meeting of this Association now pending, whether any
and what step should be further taken to recall its attention to the subject.
Meanwhile, for the present no time has been hitherto lost in the preparation
of instruments, so far as would be justifiable by the prospect of the esta-
blishment of at least one Observatory. General Sabine reports, in a letter
to Sir J. Herschel, dated August 29th, 1859, to the following effect :—

“My pear Sir,—I went to Kew this morning, and I had the gratifica-
tion of seeing the Self-recording Magnetic instruments prepared for the first
of the proposed new observatories, in the house which had been erected for
their examination and for the instruction of the parties who are to use them.
Everything may now be said to be ready for the reception and instruction of
such parties by the Assistants of the Kew Observatory. The temporary
house is detached from the Observatory, so that parties under instruction
will not interfere with the regular work of the Observatory instruments.
Gas is introduced into the temporary house; and on consulting Mr. Stewart,
I found him of opinion that about six weeks might fully suffice for the in-
struction of the parties both in the self-recording and in the absolute instru-
ments (the latter are also ready, and are used in a separate house). At the

XXXVI REPORT—1859.

end of the six weeks, therefore, the party might be ready to embark, taking
their instruments away with them; and a second set of instruments might
then take their place for the instruction of a party for a second Observatory.
All the arrangements contemplated in my letter* to Professor Owen of
January Ist, 1859, are complete, so far as the Kew Observatory, Mr. Adie,
and myself are concerned; and we are ready to receive and send away the
first party to their destination, whether it might be British Columbia or
Shanghai, as soon as the Government pleases.”
(Signed) *« EDWARD SABINE.”

The interval elapsed since the last meeting of the Association has not
been wanting in affording proofs of the high interest taken in the subject of
these observations in other countries. Foremost in expressions of willing
cooperation are the leaders of public opinion on such subjects in the United
States. By a communication from Dr. Bache (Superintendent of the United
States Coast Survey) to General Sabine, dated June |, it appears that he
is ready to enter con amore into our plans, and that he has his instruments
all ready at the Joint Smithsonian and Coast Survey Magnetic Observatory
at Washington, and desires only to be informed what course of action shall
be here determined on, to afford his ready and powerful cooperation. And
by a subsequent communication of the 12th ultimo, he further reports the
readiness of President Barnard, of the University of Oxford, Mississippi, to
undertake, or cause to be undertaken, a series of concerted observations,
provided a formal request (of course duly authorized) from General Sabine
be made to that institution to such effect, such a report being necessary to
obtain the requisite appropriation of funds from the Board of Trustees.

The officers also of the American Asscciation for the Advancement of
Science have, we understand, been instructed by that body in their meeting
at Springfield, to express to the officers of the British Association their in-
terest in these magnetic proceedings.

Senhor Da Silva, successor to Senhor Pegado in the direction of the
Meteorological Observatory at Lisbon, has expressed his wish to join in
the system of magnetic observation to be undertaken in England, an object
which he considers might be accomplished provided the British Government
would interest itself with the Portuguese in favour of the undertaking, and
suggesting that in that event a Portuguese officer might be instructed at Kew
in the use of the instruments.

The project for the establishment of a Magnetic Observatory on the
Eastern Sea-bord of the United States, and the determination of the Cana-
dian Legislature to maintain the Toronto Observatory in full efficiency, are
noticed in Colonel Sabine’s letter already referred to; and in the event of a
British establishment at Vancouver’s Island being procured in addition to
Shanghai or Pekin, would complete, in conjunction with the existing Russian
Observatories, and with one which might very possibly be established by
the University of Kasan in lat. 55°45’ N., under the able direction of Pro-
fessor Bolzani (who has expressed his desire to procure self-recording mag-
netic instruments similar to those of Kew, and to adopt the proposed system
of observations), a chain of stations in considerable north latitude, which
would surround the Pole, and afford a connected series of most valuable
observations. ;

Though not in immediate connexion with the direct object of this Report,
your Committee cannot refuse themselves the mention, as matters of Magnetic
progress since the last meeting of the Association, of the completion of Mr.

* This is the letter above alluded to as forming part of the Minutes of Council of Decem-
er 17, 1858.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. “XXXVii

Welsh’s Magnetic Survey of Scotland, as having led to important conclusions
as to the nature of the changes which have taken place in the magnetic
system of the British Isles since 1837,—changes corroborated by a series of
determinations at several stations along the South-western and Southern
coasts of England, obtained by General Sabine himself in the course of the
current year, since the re-establishment of his health has permitted his invalu-
able services to’ become once more available to science.

In concluding this Report, your Committee cannot but observe that all the
reasons which weighed with them in recommending, jointly with the Com-
mittee appointed by the Royal Society, the Resolutions adopted by the General
Committee of the British Association at their meeting of last year, for the
establishment of Observatories for an additional period of five years at the
stations named in their last Report, appear to them to remain in full force;
and that even supposing the idea of a station on the Falkland Isles, and even
Newfoundland, to be relinquished, they would continue to urge, as fitting
objects for recommendation to Government, those of Vancouver's Island and
Shanghai.

While nothing has occurred to weaken the general reasons adduced in that
Report, they appear to have, in one respect, gained some degree of additional
weight from the reappearance, during the present year, of the Solar Spots in
great abundance, accompanied with exhibitions of auroral phenomena, and
of an unusually hot and dry season—all in conformity with the law of period-
icity alluded to in it as connecting, in some at present hidden and problematic
manner, these phenomena with the magnetic disturbances.

(For the joint Committees) J. F. W. Herscuet.

Postscript—The following Memorandum, drawn up and communicated
by General Sabine, containing a synoptic statement of the proceedings taken
in respect of Magnetic Surveys at the instance or through the intervention
of the British Association, may, in the opinion of the Committee, be very
properly appended to this Report.

‘A Memorandum regarding Magnetic Surveys which have originated, or been
promoted by the British Association for the Advancement of Science.

August 19, 1859.

1. The first occurrence, it is believed, of a survey being undertaken for
the express purpose of determining the positions and values of the isomag-
netic lines of declination, dip, and force corresponding to a particular epoch
over the whole face of a country or state, was the Magnetic Survey of the
British Islands, executed in 1834-1838 by a committee of members of the
British Association, acting upon an enlarged view of a suggestion brought
before the Cambridge Meeting of the Association in 1833. The results of
this Survey, in the determination of the isoclinal and isodynamic lines in
Great Britain and Ireland corresponding to the epoch of January Ist, 1837,
were published in a memoir in the Transactions of the British Association
for 1838 ; and in the determination of the isogonic lines, in the Philsophical
Transactions for 1849, Part II.

2. At the Newcastle Meeting of the Association in 1838, a resolution was
passed recommending to Her Majesty’s Government the equipment ofa Naval
Expedition for the purpose of making a Magnetic Survey in the Southern
portions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and particularly in the higher
latitudes between the meridians of New Holland and Cape Horn. This re-
commendation, communicated to and concurred in by the Royal Society,

XXXVIll REPORT— 1859.

gave rise to the voyage of Sir James Clark Ross to the Southern and Ant-
arctic Regions in the years 1839-1843. The magnetical results, in the de-
termination of the isomagnetic lines over a large portion of the southern
hemisphere, were published in the Phil. Trans. for 1842, Art. II.; for 1843,
Art. X.; and 1844, Art. VII.: and one part yet remains to be completed,
comprehending the meridians between Cape Horn and the Cape of Good
Hope ; its publication having been deferred in consequence of the more
pressing publications of the Colonial Observatories.

3. A proposition for a Magnetic Survey of the British Possessions in
North America was brought before the British Association in a Report
published in their Transactions for 1837, and having been subsequently
submitted to the Committee of Physics of the Royal Society, received in
1841 the recommendation of the Royal Society to Her Majesty’s Government.
The Survey, having been authorized by the Treasury, was carried on in con-
nexion with the Magnetic Observatory at Toronto in Canada, under the
direction of the Superintendent of the Colonial Observatories, by Lieut.
(since Colonel) Lefroy, R.A. The results in regard to the isoclinal and
isodynamic lines have been published in the Phil. Trans. for 1846, Art. XVII.
The declination observations have been reduced and coordinated with
similar observations made in the succession of Arctic Voyages between 1818
and 1855, in a memoir, now in preparation, which will include the British
Possessions in North America and the countries which have been explored
to the north of them.

4, The Survey of Sir James Ross in 1839-1844 having left a portion of
the magnetic lines in the southern hemisphere undetermined between the
meridians of 0 and 125° E., an application was made in 1844 to Her Majesty’s
Government by the Royal Society, to complete this remaining portion under
the direction of the Superintendent of the Colonial Observatories. This was
accomplished in 1845 by Lieut. (since Captain) T. E. L. Moore, R.N., and
Lieut. (since Major) Henry Clerk, R.A., in a vessel hired by the Admiralty
for the purpose, and despatched from the Cape of Good Hope. The results
of this Survey were published in the Phil. Trans. for 1846, Art. XVIII.

5. At the Cambridge Meeting of the British Association in 1845, a recom-
mendation was made to the Court of Directors of the East India Company,
that a Magnetic Survey should be made of the Indiau Seas in connexion with
the Magnetic Observatory at Singapore. This recommendation was com-
municated to and concurred in by the Royal Society. The Survey, having
been entrusted to Captain Elliot, of the Madras Engineers, was completed in
1849, and the results were published in a memoir by Captain Elliot in the
Phil. Trans. for 1851, Art. XII.

6. A proposition for a Magnetic Survey of British India having been sub-
mitted to the British Association, in a Report printed in the Transactions for
1837, a scheme for the execution of such a Survey was submitted to the
Court of Directors of the East India Company by Captain Elliot on his com-
pletion of the Survey of the Indian Seas; and having been referred to the
Royal Society, received their warm approbation. ‘The Court of Directors
having approved the scheme suggested by Captain Elliot, that officer pro-
ceeded to India in 1852 for the purpose of carrying it into execution, but
died shortly after his arrival at Madras, in August 1852, having but just
commenced the operations of the Survey. {

7. In April 1853 a letter was addressed to the President of the Royal
Society by the Prussian Minister, Chevalier Bunsen, recommending, by desire
of His Majesty the King of Prussia, the Messrs. Schlagintweit, well known
by their physical researches in the Eastern and Western Alps, as fitting suc-

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL: XXXix

cessors to Captain Elliot in the Magnetic Survey of India. In transmitting
Chevalier Bunsen’s letter to the Court of Directors, the Royal Society took
occasion to express their strong opinion of the importance of completing this
Survey, and their belief of the competency of the Messrs. Schlagintweit for
such employment. These gentlemen, having been appointed accordingly by the
Court of Directors, and supplied with the necessary instruments, in the use
of which they were specially instructed at the Kew Observatory, sailed for
India in 1855, and continued their observations through the years 1856, 1857,
and 1858, during which they determined the magnetic elements at 69 stations
in British India, including some stations north of the Himalayan chain. These
observations have been prepared for publication by the Messrs. Schlagintweit,
and the printing of the volume containing them is nearly completed.

8. Twenty years having elapsed since the former Survey of the British
Islands (referred to in the first paragraph) was made, the British Association
deemed that a sufficient interval had passed to make a repetition of the
survey desirable, with a view to the investigation of the effects of the secular
change which the magnetic lines are known to undergo. Accordingly, at
the Cheltenham Meeting of the Association in 1857, the same gentlemen
who had made the Survey of 1837, and who, as it happened, were all living,
were requested to undertake a fresh Survey. This has been for the most
part accomplished, and the observations in England, Scotland, and Ireland
are now undergoing the process of reduction and coordination ; and it is
hoped that a part, if not the whole, will be completed in time to be included
in the volume of the Transactions of the Association in 1859.

EDWARD SABINE.

b. The General Committee at Leeds having directed that application be
made to the Sardinian Authorities for obtaining additional facilities to scien-
tific men for pursuing their researches on the summits of the Alps,—

The President was requested to communicate thereupon with the Marquis
d’ Azeglio, the Sardinian Minister, and the Council have now the pleasure of
communicating the following statement from Professor Owen as the result of
that communication :—

“TJ wrote to his Excellency, the Marquis d’Azeglio, on the 3rd February ;
and on the 4th received an acknowledgement of my letter, with the assurance
that the subject of it would be forwarded to the competent authorities at
Turin, accompanied by a special recommendation from his Excellency.

“On the 17th February, 1 was favoured by a letter from the Marquis
d’Azeglio informing me that the Minister of the Interior had been occupied
by the preparation of new regulations on the subject of the Guides at Cha-
mouni ; and that, in all probability, the new regulations, based upon a prin-
ciple of wider liberty of action, would be rigorously enforced at the com-
mencement of the summer of 1859; and that he had every reason to believe
it would satisfy all the requirements of scientific travellers in the Piedmont-
ese Alps.

* T communicated this favourable reply to Professor Tyndall, and received
the expression of his entire satisfaction in the result of the intervention of
the British Association.”

2. The Council has been informed by a letter from Dr. A. D. Bache to
the General Secretary, that at the Meeting of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, held at Springfield in August 1859, the
officers were instructed to express to the British Association for the Advance-

xl REPORT—1859.

ment of Science, the warm interest which is taken in the United States of
America in the success of the measures proposed for the continuation of
Magnetic Observatories. Subjoined is the official communication which has
since been received :—

“ To His Royal Highness Tut Prince Consort, President, and to the other
Officers of the British Association for the Promotion of Science.

“Tn accordance with the request of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, its officers beg leave to communicate the following
resolutions :—

Resolved,--That the American Association for the Advancement of
- Science regards with great interest the efforts making by the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, to induce the re-esta-
blishment of the Colonial Magnetic Observatories, for a new series
of simultaneous Magnetic and Meteorological observations.

Resolved,—That the Officers of the Association be requested to com-
municate this resolution to the Officers of the British Association.

“ STEPHEN ALEXANDER, President.

“ EpwARD Hirtcucock, Vice-President.
“'W. CHAvvENET, General Secretary.

“ Josepu Lovertne, Permanent Secretury.”

“ Springfield, Mass., August 10, 1859.”

3. The Council has been informed that a deputation has been appointed,
and will attend at Aberdeen, to invite the British Association -to hold_ its
meeting for 1860 at Oxford, and that invitations will also be presented, for
1861 and following years, from Manchester, Cambridge, and Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

6. The following Report was received from the Kew Committee, and was
ordered to be entered on the Minutes.

Report of the Kew Committee of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science for 1858-1859.

It is with deep regret that the Committee have to report the decease of the
late Superintendent of the Observatory, Mr. John Welsh, who died at Fal-
mouth on the 12th of May, where he had removed for a short time for the
recovery of his health.

Mr. Welsh’s position as a man of science was too well known to require
any reference from the Committee, yet they may be permitted to refer to
those aspects of it which have come more prominently under their view
during the long and pleasant intercourse which has so unhappily come to an
untimely termination.

Mr. Welsh entered the Observatory on the 27th of August, 1850, as an
assistant to Francis Ronalds, Esq., F.R.S., who for some years had superin-
tended the management as the Honorary Director. Mr. Ronalds retired in
1852 to reside on the Continent, since which time, with the exception of a
short interval, Mr. Welsh has been the Superintendent; and the present
efficiency and recognized scientific standing of the Observatory may be
assumed to be in a great measure due to the zeal and remarkable ability with
which he discharged his duties: ingenious in devising new arrangements,
laborious and persevering in their execution, he was eminently qualificd

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. xli

to direct and superintend the arrangements of a practical physical observa-
tory.

His knowledge of science in general, but more particularly of Meteorology
and Magnetism, was extensive and accurate; in all branches of these sciences
he was an eminent authority, having clear and comprehensive views, possess-
ing also a sagacious insight into remoter possibilities.

His zeal for science was signally displayed in the four balloon ascents
which he undertook in 1852 with some personal risk, and from which he ob-
tained valuable results (Phil. Trans. vol. exliii. part 3).

Possessed of an amiable disposition, of singular warmth of heart and sin-
cerity of character, his loss as a friend is mourned by all the members of the
Committee and by many members of the Association.

The published annual Reports of the British Association, and the Trans-
- actions and Proceedings of the Royal Society, contain many valuable con-
tributions of Mr. Welsh, and these alone would entitle him to be placed in
the ranks of those to whom the Science of this country must ever be deeply
indebted.

Several gentlemen offered themselves as candidates to succeed Mr. Welsh;
the Committee, in selecting Mr. Balfour Stewart, who was formerly his
Assistant in the Observatory, believe they have appointed a gentleman who
is not only competent to fulfil the duty of Superintendent, but who, from the
experience he obtained under the direction of Mr. Welsh, is peculiarly fitted
for the office.

Mr. Stewart entered on his duties on the Ist of July last. He reports that he
found all the Assistants discharging their respective duties. Mr. Chambers
was assiduously attending to the Magnetical, and Mr. Beckley to the Mecha-
nical Department of the Observatory. Mr. Magrath had charge of the
Meteorological verifications, and Mr. Whipple he found of much use in the
general work of the Observatory.

During the past year, in the Magnetical Department, Constants have been
determined for a Unifilar Magnetometer belonging to Dr. Pegado, of Lisbon,
and also the temperature correction and induction coefficient for its accom-
panying magnet.

A Dip Circle belonging to Padre Secchi, For. Mem. R.S., and Astronomer
at Rome, as also one belonging to Prof. Hansteen, have been compared with
the Kew instrument, adjustments made for the determination of total force
by Dr. Lloyd’s method, and observations made at the Observatory as a base
station.

Temperature corrections and induction coefficients have been obtained for
magnets R, and R, belonging to General Sabine.

Dr. Bergsma, of Utrecht, has received instructions in the use of Magnet-
ical Instruments at the Observatory. '

An extensive series of dip observations, and also periodical determinations
of Magnetic force and declination, have been made: and a Manual of In-
structions, for the use of the Instruments adopted for those purposes at the
Kew Observatory, bas been drawn up and printed at the expense of the
Admiralty, by whom 250 copies have been presented to the Observatory.

The Committee think it right to mention, that the magnetical work, the
details of which have now been given, was executed in the absence of
Mr. Welsh by Mr. Chambers, in a manner very creditable to his intelli-

ence and industry, and sutisfactory to the Committee.

The Self-recording Magnetometers have continued in constant operation ;
their instrumental coefficients were determined by Mr. Welsh. ‘The death
of this gentleman prevented his completing the Report called for at the last

xlil REPORT—1859.

Meeting of the Association on the Self-recording Magnetical apparatus at
the Observatory ; but the Report is in progress of completion by Mr. Stewart,
and will be printed in the next volume of the Transactions of the Association.

An instrument has been devised at the Observatory for tabulating the
values of the magnetic elements from the curves given by the Magnetographs.
As the staff of Assistants at the Observatory is not sufficiently large to under-
take these tabulations, General Sabine has undertaken to have the results
tabulated at Woolwich for every hour; but the instrument is capable of
furnishing data for much smaller intervals, and may under special cireum-
stances be thus used.

The observations connected with the Magnetic Survey made in Scotland
by Mr. Welsh, are in progress of reduction by Mr. Stewart, and the result
will be presented as a report to the present meeting.

Self-recording Magnetic Instruments designed for the first of the Colonial
Observatories which have been proposed to Her Majesty’s Government have
been completed by Mr. Adie, from drawings prepared by Mr. Beckley from
the design of the late Mr. Welsh, and are set up in a wooden house erected
near the Observatory, for the purpose of affording an opportunity to the
proposed Magnetical observers to be instructed in the use of the Self-record-
ing Instruments.

Since the last meeting of the Association the unfortunate death of Mr.
Welsh has retarded the experiments with the Photoheliograph, but from time
to time they have been gone on with, at first by Mr. Chambers, who obtained
some very fair results, and latterly by Mr. Beckley, as his other duties have
permitted ; and in order that they might be prosecuted more continuously,
the Committee have fitted up a Photographic room in close contiguity to the
instrument, This addition to the photographic establishment has been at-
tended with the most promising results ; and the Committee have satisfaction
in reporting that the difficulties which have hitherto presented themselves in
the way of a daily photographic record of the sun, appear to be almost
entirely surmounted. Since the erection of the photographic room, Mr.
Beckley has been enabled to make a series of experiments, and has turned
his attention to the exact determination of the chemical focus of the Photo-
heliograph, which there was reason to suspect did not correspond precisely
with the visual focus ; for although the chromatic aberrations of the object-
glass had been specially corrected in order to obtain that result, the second-
ary glass, which magnified the image, was not so corrected. It has been
found, after repeated trials, that the best photographic definition is obtained
when the sensitized plate is situated from 1th to 1th of an inch beyond the
visual focus in the case of a 4-inch picture ; and that when this adjustment
is made, beautiful pictures are obtained of the sun 4 inches in diameter,
which still bear magnifying with a lens cf low power, and show considerable
detail on the sun’s surfaces besides the spots, which are well defined.

Mr. De la Rue, by combining two pictures obtained by the Photohelio-
graph at an interval of three days, has produced a stereoscopic image of our
luminary which presents to the mind the idea of sphericity.

Under Mr. De la Rue’s direction, Mr. Beckley is making special experi-
ments having for their object the determination of the kind of sensitive sur-
face best suited for obtaining perfect pictures; for it has been found that
the plates are more liable to stains of the various kinds, known to photo--
graphers, under the circumstance of exposure to intense sun-light, than they
would be if employed in taking ordinary pictures in the camera.

Now that the photographic apparatus has been brought to a workable
state, Mr, De la Rue and Mr. Carrington, joint Secretaries of the Astrono-

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. xl

inical Society, propose to devote their attention to the best means of regis-
tering and reducing the results obtained by the instrument, provided the
funds which may be necessary are placed at their disposal.

The difficulties which have stood in the way of bringing the Photo-
heliograph into an efficient state of work, were such as required no ordinary
degree of perseverance to surmount ; and the Committee have therefore the
greater satisfaction in reporting that these have been overcome, in so far
as to render the Photoheliograph a valuable recording instrument:—the
minor improvements still contemplated have for their object the production
of pictures as free as possible from the spots and blemishes to which all
photographs are liable, and sun pictures in particular.

It was mentioned in the last Report that Mr. Beckley had suggested certain
modifications of his anemometer. He was requested to prepare a descrip-
tion of this instrument, which description was published in the last volume
(page 306) of the Reports of the Association.

The verifications of Meteorological Instruments have been continued on
the usual plan.

The following have been verified from the Ist of July 1858 to the Ist of
August 1859 :—

Baro- Thermo- Hydro-
meters. meters. meters.
Par troAduiiralty divin. s002 ekask ds das 4)'O8 120

Wor lthe Board Of Trade. .icls en vies 76 ATA 80
For Opticians and others ............4% 33 317 12
Mota The et Boe, SiGecr cherries 187 911 92

An application having been made by Colonel Sykes for the instruments
used by Mr. Welsh in his Balloon ascents, these were got ready and their
corrections determined. The instruments, consisting of one barometer,
two Regnault’s hygrometers with attached thermometers, eleven separate
thermometers, three vacuum tubes obtained from Dr. Miller, and a polari-
meter, with their respective fittings, were delivered to Colonel Sykes, and
are now in charge of the Balloon Committee.

On the 21st of May, 1859, the Chairman of this Committee addressed a letter
to the Secretary of the Admiralty, stating that by the direction of the Com-
mittee he had been desired to acquaint the Lords of the Admiralty that the
Austrian frigate ‘ Novara,’ which left Europe on a voyage of circumnavi-
gation and scientific research, was furnished with scientific instruments from
the Kew Observatory, that her officers received instruction for their use from
Mr. Welsh and his assistants, and that several communications had been re-
ceived from the ‘Novara.’ ‘This vessel has since arrived.

The following correspondence has taken place between Senhor da Silva
of Lisbon and General Sabine.

‘Lisbon, July 11th, 1859.

* Srrn,— Having succeeded Dr. Pegado in the direction of the Meteoro-
logical Observatory at Lisbon, I shall be very happy if I can assist in, or
promote the important operations connected with magnetism that England is
about to undertake.

“ But previous to promising you on my part, I am desirous of knowing—

“1st. If it will be possible to instruct a Portuguese official at Kew.

“9nd. If the English Government would be disposed to interest that of
Portugal in this scientific expedition.

“3rd. To whom we ought to apply in order to complete our collection of

xliv REPORT—1859.

Magnetic Instruments, having already an Inclinometer of Barrow, a Declino-
meter of Jones, and a Unifilar of the same maker.

“Finally, to solicit you to aid us with your excellent counsel, of which we
are in want.

“ You will please pardon my having taken this liberty of addressing you,
but wishing to serve science to the utmost of my power, I trust that you will
favour me with your aid.

“ Accept the assurance of my high consideration and respect.

‘‘T have the honour to be, Sir,
“ Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) J. A. DA SILVA.” -
“ Major-General Sabine, Woolwich.”

‘13 Ashley Place, London, S8.W.

* Srr,—I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter. I am authorized
by the Committee of the Directors of the Kew Observatory to say, that it
will give them great pleasure to afford every facility for instruction and
practice, both in the self-recording magnetic instruments and also in those
designed for absolute determinations, to an officer who may be sent by you
for that purpose; and should you desire to have any instruments made in
England similar to those in use at Kew, the Committee will be most happy to
superintend their construction, verify them, and send them out. In regard
to an application from our Government to yours, I am unable at present to
say anything, inasmuch as the decision upon the establishment of our own
proposed observatories will not be taken until the autumn: the restoration
of peace is a favourable event.

“TI beg you, Sir, to be assured that it will at all times give me great
pleasure to be of any use to your Observatory in my power.

“T have the honour to be, Sir,
* Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) «“ EDWARD SABINE.”
“ Senhor J. A. da Silva,
Observatorio Meteorologico, Lisbon.”

The following Resolution was passed by the General Committee at the last
Meeting of the Association at Leeds :—

“ That the consideration of the Kew Committee be requested to the best
means of removing the difficulty which is now experienced by Officers pro-
ceeding on Government Expeditions and by other Scientific travellers, in
procuring instruments for determinations of Geographical Position, of the
most approved portable construction, and properly verified. That the in-
terest of Geographical Science would be materially advanced by similar
measures being taken by the Kew Committee in respect to such Instruments,
to those which have proved so beneficial in the case of Magnetical and
Meteorological Instruments.”

The Committee are strongly impressed with the importance of the pre-
ceding recommendation, and would have great satisfaction in giving their
best attention to the subject, but the works they have in hand are already
beyond the pecuniary means placed at their disposal, and the Committee are
unwilling to impair the credit which the Kew Observatory is obtaining by
undertaking more than the income enables them to accomplish effectively.

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE, xlv

The Committee finding that in future they will not require more than one
half of the land attached to the Observatory, for which an annual rent of
£21 is paid, notice to that effect has been given to Mr. Fuller.

In the last Annual Report to the Council at Leeds, the Committee sug-
gested “that the time had arrived when strenuous exertions should be made
to obtain such an amount of pecuniary aid as would ensure the efficient
working of a practical physical observatory ;” and they also stated “that the
probable future expenditure could not be fairly estimated under £800 per
annum.” At that time the Committee contemplated the engagement of a
photographie assistant, and also some other arrangements which they were
compelled to forego, as it will be seen, by the financial statement annexed to
this Report, that the expenditure of the past year exceeded the income by the
sum of £106 2s. ld., the amount of the former being £675 14s. 8d., while
the total income was only £569 12s. 7d., £69 12s. 7d. having been received
for the verification of instruments: this source of income is year by year
decreasing, as explained in a former Report, in consequence of the Govern-
ment departments being now nearly supplied with standard meteorological
instruments.

The Committee, in presenting this Report, have to repeat their former sug-
gestions, that means should be taken to obtain effectual pecuniary aid for the
support of an establishment which has for so many years laboriously and
effectually carried out those scientific objects for which it was founded, more
particularly since the appointment of a salaried superintendent, assisted by a
competent staff, whose individual services have always been obtained at the
most moderate scale of remuneration.

Kew Observatory, Aug. 29, 1859. Joun P. Gassior, Chairman.

1859.

REPORT

xlvi

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REPORT OF THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE. xlvii

7. The Report of the Parliamentary Committee of the British Association
to the General Committee has been received by the Council, and is herewith
transmitted.

Report of the Parliamentary Committee to the Meeting of the British
Asscciation at Aberdeen, in September 1859.

The Parliamentary Committee have the honour to report as follows :—

We have taken the opinion of Counsel on the question, whether it is ex-
pedient to cause a Bill to be prepared to facilitate the appointment of new
Trustees to Museums and other Scientific Institutions.

The Opinion is appended to this Report.

A vacancy has occurred in that division of our members who represent
the House of Commons, by the retirement of Mr. Edward J. Cooper, of
Markree, from Parliament.

We cannot but deeply regret the loss of the services of a gentleman who
has devoted a great part of his life to the successful promotion of Astrono-
mical Science. It will also be for the General Committee to determine
whether they will appoint another member of the House of Commons in
the place of the Earl of Ripon, who, since his election at Leeds, has taken
his seat in the House of Lords. This case is not in terms provided for in
the original constitution of our Committee; but we are of opinion that it
was intended that no one should cease to belong to our body, as long as he
continued a member of either House of Parliament.

While, however, there can be little doubt that Lord Ripon continues a
member of the Parliamentary Committee, it may still be deemed expedient
that the representatives of the House of Commons should not be diminished
in number; in which case there will be two vacancies to supply. We re-
commend that Lords Enniskillen, Harrowby, and Stanley, and Mr. Stephen-
son, who have not attended during the past two years, be re-elected.

During the course of last year, an intention was manifested on the part of
the Government, of greatly restricting the free distribution of scientific
works published at the expense of the public, and of causing the works so
undistributed to be sold at the cost price of printing and paper.

It is unnecessary to enlarge on the very injurious moral results which would
acerue to Science, and the insignificant pecuniary gain to the public likely
to arise from the change in contemplation ; for we have reason to believe
that the Government have been induced, by the representations which have
been addressed to them, to abandon their original intention.

WrottesLey, Chairman.
24th August, 1859.

Tue OPINION.

The 13 and 14 Vict. ¢. 28, is loosely drawn, and I think many cases might
arise in which it would be found that its provisions are inadequate ; but, as
1 understand that there is no intention of altering this Act, it is unnecessary
to comment on it ; and I pass to the consideration of whether it is practicable
to extend the principle of it to personal estate, other than leaseholds, which
are included in the existing Act.

I confess I do not see how such an enactment as is proposed would work,
except by adding to it such conditions as would prevent its being of any
practical convenience. The property under contemplation is, of course,
stock in the funds and in public companies, debts, and other choses in
action :—personal chattels, passing by delivery of possession, there is no diffi-

xlvili REPORT—1859.

culty about. Let us take the case of Stock in the Funds. A.B. and C..D.,
trustees of a Society, have £1000 Consols standing in their names. By are-
solution of the Society they are removed from the trusteeship, and E. F. and
G.H. are appointed. It is proposed to enact that, thereupon, the Stock
shall vest in E. F. and G.H.; but, how is the Bank, which knows nothing
about trusts, to be induced to pay the dividends to them? There'must be
something equivalent to a transfer of the Stock into their names, by direction
of the old trustees, or of the Court of Chancery ; and I do not see that any
plan can be devised more simple and inexpensive than the present mode of
transfer.

The Bank of England would certainly oppose any attempt to make them
enter on their books that Stock is subject to any trust; and yet, unless’ it
appeared on the books that the Stock is held in trust for a Society, it would
not be possible to make any provision for a transfer of the Stock on pro-
duction of resolutions of the Society.

It occurred to me, that Powers of Attorney, for transfer of Stock vested
in trustees for Societies, might be exempted from Stamp Duty ; but, on
consideration, I do not see how the Bank could know what powers were
lawfully exempted, without taking notice of the trusts.

The same objections would not apply to all other descriptions of personal
property ; but, I presume, if the proposed alteration of the law is not appli-
cable to Stock, it would not be thought worth while to make it with reference
to other species of property.

In the Literary Institutions Act, there is already a section (the 20th) as
to the vesting of personal property ; but it does not very clearly appear how
it would work in such cases as are above referred to.

M. J. B.
15th January, 1859.

The following letter has been received from Baron Bentinck, in relation to
the assistance given to Dr. Bergsma at Kew Observatory :—

“Netherlands Legation,
London, 10th September, 1859.

“ Baron Bentinck, Minister of the Netherlands, presents his compliments to
Major-General Edward Sabine, Vice-President of the Royal Society at Lon-
don, and has the honour to inform him that he-has been requested by his
Government to express to Major-General E. Sabine the thanks of the Ne-
therlands Government for the kind assistance which he has granted to Dr. P.
A. Bergsma, when in London with a Government Mission ; and also to con-
vey to Major-General Sabine the hopes entertained by his Government that
he will in future time continue to aid Dr. Bergsma with his good advices.
Baron Bentinck avails himself of this opportunity to offer to Major-General
Sabine the assurances of his highest consideration. : |

“ BENTINCK.”
* Major-General E. Sabine,
Vice-President of the Royal Society,
London.”

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xlix

RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
ABERDEEN MEETING IN SEPTEMBER 1859.

{When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary of
the Committee, except there be a specific nomination. ]

Involving Grants of Money.

That the sum of £500 be placed at the disposal of the Council for main«
taining the Establishment at Kew Observatory.

That Professor Sullivan (of Dublin) be requested to continue his researches
on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the
mutual Reaction of Salts at such temperatures; and that the sum of £30,
which was voted last year, still remain at his disposal for the purpose.

That Professor Voelcker be requested to continue his investigation on
Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Essential Manuring
Constituents of Cultivated Crops; and that the sum of £25 be placed at his
disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. Alphonse Gages be requested to continue his Mechanico-Che-
mical Experiments on Rocks; and that the sum of £25 be placed at his
disposal for the purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of Dr. R. Angus Smith, Dr. Daubeny, Dr.
Lyon Playfair, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, Professor Williamson, and Mr.
Warren De la Rue, be requested to confer with the Parliamentary Committee
with reference to the best mode of taking Scientific Evidence in Courts of
Law ; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose of
meeting the expenses incident to the working of the Committee.

That Mr. Robert Mallet be requested to continue his Experiments on
Earthquake Phenomena; and that the sum of £25, unexpended last year,
be placed at his disposal for the purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of the Rev. Dr. Anderson, Professor Ramsay,
Professor Nicol, and Mr. Page, be requested to continue the Explorations
already begun by Dr. Anderson in the Yellow Sandstones of Dura Den ;
and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Mr. Page,
and Professor Ramsay, be requested to direct Mr. R. Slimon in his further
Exploration of the Upper Silurian Strata of Lesmahagow; and that the sum
of £15 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of Mr. MacAndrew (London), Mr. G. C.
Hyndman (Belfast), Dr. Dickie (Belfast), Mr. C. L. Stewart (London), Dr.
Collingwood (Liverpool), Dr. Kinahan (Dublin), Mr. J. G. Jeffreys (London),
Dr. E. P. Wright (Dublin), Mr. L. Worthey (Bristol), Mr. S. P. Woodward
(London), Professor Allman (London), and Professor Huxley (London), be
requested to conduct general Dredging Investigations, and printing of
Dredging Papers; and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for
the purpose.

.That a Committee, consisting of Dr. Ogilvie, Dr. Dickie, Dr. Dyce, Pro-
fessor Nicol, and Mr. C. W. Peach, be requested to conduct Dredging In-
vestigations on the North and East Coasts of Scotland ; and that the sum of
£25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

_ That a Committee, consisting of Professor Kinahan, Dr. Carte, Dr. E. Per-
cival Wright, and Professor J. Reay Greene, be requested to conduct Inves-
tigations in Dredging Dublin Bay, and to report to the next Meeting of

1859. d

1 REPORT—1859.

the Association; and that the sum of £15 be placed at their disposal for
the purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of Dr. Daubeny and Dr. Lankester, be re-
quested to cooperate with Professor Buckman in his Researches on the
Growth of Plants, and to report to the next Meeting of the Association ; and
that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor Allman be requested to continue his Researches on the
Reproductive System of the Hydroid Zoophytes; and that the sum of £10
-be placed at his disposal for the purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of Dr. George Wilson, Sir John Herschel,
Sir David Brewster, Professor Clerk Maxwell, Professor W. Thomson, and
Mr. W. Pole, be requested to inquire into the Statistics of Colour-Blindness ;
and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the following Members be requested to act as a Committee to con-
tinue the inquiry into the performance of Steam-vessels, to embody the
facts in the form now reported to the Association, and to report proceedings
to the next Meeting; that the attention of the Committee be also directed
to the obtaining information respecting the performance of vessels under
Sail, with a view to comparing the results of the two powers of Wind and
Steam, in order to their most effective and economical combination ; that
£150 be placed at their disposal for this purpose :—Vice-Admiral Moorsom;
The Marquis of Stafford, M.P.; The Earl of Caithness; Lord Dufferin; Mr.
William Fairbairn, F.R.S.; Mr. J. Scott Russell, F.R.S.; Admiral Paris,
C.B.; The Hon. Capt. Egerton, R.N.; Mr. W. Smith, C.E.; Mr. J. E.
M¢Connell, C.E.; Mr. Charles Atherton, C.E.; Professor Rankine, LL.D.;
Mr. J. R. Napier, C.E.; Mr. R. Roberts, C.E.: Mr. Henry Wright to be
Secretary.

That Professor James Thomson (of Belfast) be requested to continue his
Experiments on the Gauging of Water ; and that the sum of £10 be placed
at his disposal for the purpose.

Applications for Reports and Researches.

That a Committee, consisting of Professor Walker, Prof. W. Thomson,
Sir David Brewster, Dr. Sharpey, Dr. Lloyd, Colonel Sykes, General Sabine,
and Prof. J. Forbes, be requested to report to the next Meeting at Oxford
as to the scientific objects which may be sought for by continuing the Bal-
loon Ascents formerly undertaken to great altitudes.

That Mr. A. Cayley be requested to continue his Report on the Solution
of certain Special Problems in Dynamics.

That Dr. Dickie be requested to draw up a Report on the Flora of
Ulster for the next Meeting of the Association.

That Dr. Carpenter be requested to draw up a Supplemental Report on
the Minute Structure of Shells.

That the Committee on Patent Laws be reappointed, for the furtherance
of the objects set forth in their Report presented to the Association at this
Meeting.

That a Committee, consisting of Capt. Sir E. Belcher, C.B., Mr. G. Rennie,
F.R.S., and Mr. W. Smith, with power to add to their number, be requested
to report on the Rise and Progress of Steam Navigation in the Port .of
London.

That the following Members, viz. Mr. Thomas Webster, Prof. Willis, the
Right Hon. Joseph Napier, Mr. Tite, M.P., Mr. William Fairbairn, Mr. Thos.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, li

Graham, and General Sabine, be appointed a Committee for the furtherance
of the objects set forth in the Report of the Patent Committee presented
to the Association at this meeting, and that Mr. Webster be requested to
act as Secretary to the same.

Involving Applications to Government or Public Institutions.

That the thanks of the British Association be offered to H.R.H. The
Prince Consort, as President of the Association, for the interest he has mani-
fested in the continuation of Magnetic Observations; and that he be re-
quested, in concert with the President of the Royal Society, to take such
steps as may appear most suitable to carry out the recommendation of the two
Societies in respect to these observations.

That an Electrometer be constructed on the principle of that described by
Professor W. Thomson. That it be verified at Kew, and a report of its
performance be made to the Association at its next Meeting. That Pro-
fessor W. Thomson be requested to carry this into effect, and that he be
authorized to communicate with the President and Council of the Royal
Society for the purpose of obtaining their cooperation.

The Committee of the Section of Mathematical and Physical Science
having represented the probable importance of occasional telegraphic com-
munication between a few widely-separated ports of Great Britain and Ire-
land, by which warning may be given of storms, the General Committee
recommend application to the Board of Trade for such an arrangement
as may further this object authoritatively.

That it is desirable that the British Association should express to Her
Majesty’s Government, through the proper authorities, its concurrence in
the application made by the Royal Geographical Society to the First Lord of
the Treasury, to further a proposed Expedition under Capt. Speke, to ascer-
tain if the White Nile has its main source in the Great Nyanga Lake.

That in addition to the large and accurate Survey now in progress on the
North-eastern coast of China, under the direction of the Admiralty, it is de-
sirable to have prepared, with as little delay as possible, Maps on a smaller
scale, and extending over a larger area.

Communications to be printed entire among the Reports.

Mr. Atherton.—On Steam-Transport Economy.

Mr. Fairbairn.—On Breaks for Railway Trains.

Mr. J. Park Harrison.— On Lunar Influence upon Temperature, with
Diagrams.

Mr, A. Thomson—On Industrial Schools.

Mr. De la Rue.—Celestial Photography.

Professor Owen.— Classification of Reptiles.

lii REPORT—1859.

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Objects by the
General Committee at the Aberdeen Meeting in September 1859,
with the name of the Member, who alone, or as the First of a Com-

mittee, is entitled to draw for the Money.

Kew Observatory.
At the disposal of the Council for defraying expenses ......

Chemical Science.

Sutiivay, Professor.—Solubility of Salts ........... tte
VoELcKER, Professor.—Constituents of Manures .... 50
Gages, ALPpHONSE.—Chemico-Mechanical Analysis of Rocks
Smiru, Dr. ANcus.—Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law.

Geology.

Mattet, Rosert.—Earthquake Waves...........+.+-+0%
AnvERSON, Rev. Dr.— Excavations in Yellow Sandstone of
PUTER 5.0%, 3 oacieta ewe ose tge wlersse slekss state alee elite ceoie rants ae
Morcuison, Sir R. 1.—Fossils in ee ae Silurian Bassas, Les-
mahago ...... oes

Zoology and Botany.

MacAnprew, Rosert.—General Dredging ..... Sioteres
OaiLvir, Dr.—Dredging North and East Coasts af Scotland .

Kinauan, Dr .—Dredging i in Dublin Bay
Dauseny, Dr.—Growth of Plants

eevee vores es oe vere

Physiology.

ALLMAN, Professor.—Report on Hydroid Zoophytes
Witson, Dr.—Colour-Blindness

Mechanical Science.

Moorsom, Admiral.—Steam-Vessels’ Performance
Tuomson, Professor J.—Discharge of Water

£
500

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Total.... £930 0 O

GENERAL STATEMENT, lit

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for
Scientific Purposes.

£ os. d. &) is...
1834. Meteorology and Subterranean
Tide Discussions ......cc000e000 20 0 0 Temperature ....., Eessisoekneesren Mle Lhe O
1835. Vitrification Experiments...... cera te Mee NE /
aie Dikctstons ... 62 0 0 ae dg ae eon eneits as ae
ae 3 cea ears aad ailwavi Gonstants' wcsseussveseccseee >
British Fossil Ichthyology son 105 00 ian ang Sua Bevel ore Deeb ah a
£167 0 0} Steam-vessels’ Engines....... se. 100 0 0
1836. van in yee Céleste ...... aaa os 4 §
Tide Discussions ...... Bae ce GDL Op FO) [aes 1D PACA... »-kterenssonnaenye
British ossil Ichthyology ...... 105 0 0 peek raeae Say Fs 7 .
Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 0 S F 3 Come. 50 0 0
Experiments on long-continued FET SOB MES IU TORR UA ‘easrae
Heat 2 bk Aa ae eae Atmospheric Air ....cssseseees ses 16) 10
Rain Gauges sccscscccccsesseseveee 9-13 0 | Castand Wrought Tron........., 40 0 0
Refraction Experiments ......... 15 0 0 ae one Boas tecen eae a Cael
Lunar Nutation...,......c00080.8 60 0 0 ases on Solar Specerun rama tts Mee eek
Geemoicters fe 15 6 0 Hourly Meteorological Observa-
ee tions, Inverness and Kingussie 49 7 8
£434 14 0! Fossil Reptiles weccesseesseeese 118 2 9
1837. Mining Statistics ...,..s:0000004.. 50 0 0
Tide Discussions .......s.00s008 284 1 0 pa
Chemical Constants .........00008. 2413 6
Lunar Nutation..........s0000088 70 0 0 1840.
Observations on Waves...esesseees OD} Bristol Tides 5<7,.<sccccceseossceeses] LOU 0 0
Tides at Bristol...........- 0 | Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6
Meteorology and Subterranean Heart Experiments ...css.eeceeeee 18 19 0
Temperature .....sceccccsseoeeeee 89 5 3 | Lungs Experiments ...,...0....000 813 0
Vitrification Experiments......... 150 0 0 | Tide Discussions ...,.. srssseceeene 50 0 0
Heart Experiments .......ssseeee8 8 4 6 | Land and Sea Level....... Sneteetis epee ima 1) Mapes |
Barometric Observations ......... 30 0 0 | Stars (Histoire Céleste) ......... 242 10 0
Barometers ...cccccsssccescesseceee 1118 6 | Stars Ge See Riseeevecd seo 4/1520
“F918 14.6 | Stars (Catalogue) ......... cccsssees 204 0 O
peueiess Atmospheric Air .......... eceee 1515 0
1838. Water on Iron ......... séonessveece’ (LO 0
Tide Discussions .........cc0+e0... 29 © 0 | Heat on Organic Bodies ...,..... 7 0 0
British Fossil Fishes ...... seeee. 100 0 0 | Meteorological Observations...... 5217 6
Meteorological Observations and Foreign Scientific Memoirs .,.... 112 1 6
Anemometer (construction) .- 100 0 0} Working Population .......,....... 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ......... 60 0 © | School Statistics..........0000-0 50 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Substances Forms of Vessels ....sscssssee0s . 184 7 0
(Preservation Of) .....sseecseess 19 1 10 | Chemical and Electrical Pheno-
Railway Constants ............... 41 12 10| mena...... teseseeeseaeecsnennees po ot Obs 0) 40
Bristol Tides ..,......000sssess000086 50 0 0 | Meteorological Observations at
Growth of Plants .......0....0.... 75 0 0 Plymouth ........ trrseesseeeree 50 0 0
Mud in Rivers ........sesee0es00088 3 6 6 | Magnetical Observations ....,.... 185 13 9
Education Committee ........00. 50 0 0 “£1546 16 4
Heart Experiments .............5+ 5 3 0 ee
Land and Sea Level..... ecoten Ae Gh 7/ 1841.
Subterranean Temperature ..... + 8 6 0 | Observations on Waves............ 30 0 0
Steam-vessels....... trssesereseeeeeee 100 0 0 | Meteorology and Subterranean
Meteorological Committee ...... 31 9 5 Temperature ..,......s0000 poesia LOWRIE
Thermometers ,,......ssceseseeses 16 4 0] Actinometers.......-+.-. ccicstaceenns OMOLEO
~ £956 12 2| Earthquake Shocks .......++ aiesmluiaea O
we | Acrid Poisons.,.........00008 Nasdecee ep Ge Ol oO
1839, Veins and Absorbents .........005 3.0 (0
Fossil Ichthyology...........se00e6. 110 0 0 | Mudin Rivers ....cc.ssseeeee Spices LOO
Meteorological Observations at Marine Zoology...... cevesscccsoreee 15 12 8
Plymouth ...sccseeseesesecererese 63 10 0 | Skeleton Maps ...cccssessssseeeeeee 20 0 0
_ Mechanism of Waves ............ 144. 2 0 | Mountain Barometers ...e0....... 618 6
Bristol Tides ......scereeesrersreeee 35 18 6 | Stars (Histoire Céleste)...s.s0e0e 185 0 0

liv REPORT—1859.
eGinis: ae £ s. a.
Stars (Lacaille) ..ssssssseeeseeeeees 79 5 0 | Meteorological Observations, Os-

Stars (Nomenclature of) «........ 17 19 6 ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0
Stars (Catalogue of) .. 40 0 0 | Reduction of Meteorological Ob-

Water on Iron ..... ccvasenpeeesonce 50 0 0 SEYVAtiONS .....2+008 sespessectseen, MU he att
Meteorological Observations at Meteorological Instruments and

Inverness ..ccsseceeeeeceeaeeeeees 20 0 0 Gratuities ...ccc:ccccsecesconercee 09 6 O
Meteorological Observations (tee Construction of Anemometer at

Guction Of) «s+sesseesseere 25 0 0 INVELHESS ‘beccencocascnsncssesdeer ON Comme

ossil Reptiles .. Weleccssaespeatinces 50 0 0| Magnetic Co-operation ............ 10 8 10

oreign Memoirs .....seeeseeeeesee 62 0 0] Meteorological Recorder for Kew
Railway Sections .....e0c0ee 38 1 6 Observatory .c....sceresereeeeree 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels ...+scseessesseeee 193 12 0] Action of Gases on Light......... 18 16 1

Meteorological Observations at Establishment at Kew Observa-

Plymouth ...csccsecececeeeeseenes 55 0 0 tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni-
Magnetical Observations ....-.+. 2. SGI 18-=8 ture and Sundries .......0e+... 183 4 7
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0] Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0
Tides at Leith ....... sesssseseseeee 50 0 0] Oxidation of the Rails of Railways 20 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh ...... 69 1 10] Publication of Report on Fossil
Tabulating Observations ......... 9 6 38 Reptiles :...:ssesssscsactaterestaceer ee 1D) ra
Races of Men sccccseeveseeeseeseee 5 0 0] Coloured Drawings of Railway
Radiate Animals ....ssccseeeeer 2 0 0 Sections <:dss<ascuscnesacanadanqant am eaemeunn ee

£1235 10 11| Registration of Earthquake
— SHOCKS a2; <eceesse-cnsacecsassscos OU WO a0
1842. Report on Zoological Nomencla-

Dynamometric Instruments ...... 1a be 50 Ul ee) ture seeeerecs eet eeceeeceeane stevey, LO” O58
Anoplura Britanniz ........... ww 5212 0 | Uncovering Lower Red Sand-

Tides at Bristol..........s008 pacsta= ADO ae: 20 stone near Manchester ......... 4 4 6
Gases on Light.......... agstiasaeas 30 14 7 | Vegetative Power of Seeds ..... 5 3 8
Chronometers ........00+ pated 26 17 6 | Marine Testacea (Habits of) ... 10 0 0
Marine Zoology.........+0+ ceeeaeeee 1 5 0 | Marine Zoology...........+0 Rites 2 N
British Fossil Mammalia ......... 100 0 0 | Marine Zoology.....+..s+++ee++s+++ 2 14 11
Statistics of Education .......... .. 20 © 0 | Preparation of Report on British
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0 Fossil Mammalia ..........0.... 100 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste)....... see 59 0 0 | Physiological Operations of Me-

Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) .. 110 0 0 dicinal Agents ...... sanaaens cape 20 0 0
Railway Sections .......+. ‘cesee.ce 161 10 0 | Vital Statistics .....ccs.ssseeeeeeee 36 5 8
British Belemnites....... Shateeetees 50 0 0 | Additional Experiments on “the
Fossil Reptiles (publication of Forms of Vessels Rictaensetess set LAO: (O07 70

Report) sasssscssie.eseceedsassees 210 0 0 | Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels .ss..scsceeseeeees 180 0 0 Forms of Vessels «..-++..+++++ 100 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6 Reduction of Experiments on the
Meteorological Experiments at Forms of Vessels ...... woe e abe . 100 0 0

Plymouth -s:.sssscessctecssseseoee 68 0 0 | Morin’s Instrument and Constant
Constant Indicator and Dynamo- Indicator weer ccceweeeseeseseeeee 69 14 10

metric Instruments ........++ . 90 0 © | Experiments on the Strength of
Force of Wind ...........+5 seaiees 10 0 0 Materials | ./.ccoso.s:+se0< cose ceaeeee Guns
Light on Growth of Seeds ...... 8 0 0 £1565 10 2
Vital Statistics .........cccscesevees 50 0 0 ==
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... Colueas pea 8 1844.

Questions on Human Race ....-. 79 0} Meteorological Observations at
£1449 17 8 Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0. 0

Completing Observations at Ply-
1843. MOU larsraceacese cooutmeomeee . 85 0 0

Revision of the Nomenclature of Magnetic and Meteorological Co-

Stars "= s..csseaeea sdasescseesscccres 2 0 0 OPeLAation © ..rcscccccesscrscecscces 25 8 4
Reduction of Stars, British Asso- Publication of the British Asso-

ciation Catalogue ....e+.seseseee 25 0 0 ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 385 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0} Observations on Tides on the :
Hourly Meteorological Observa- East coast of Scotland ...... -» 100 0 0

tionsat KingussieandInverness 77 12 8 | Revision of the Nomenclature of
Meteorological Observations at Stars ..... seescee soc LB420 (OL

Plymouth .00.......cscocsceveseve 55 0 0 | Maintaining the Establishment in
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- Kew Observatory «....sesee 117 17 3

mometer at Plymouth .,.,..,,,. 10 0 0 | Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 3

GENERAL STATEMENT.

Gi as) ae |
Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0 0)
Subterraneous Temperature in
Treland .cs.c-.ccc-seccscaesseyenss «6 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Railway
BEPTONS centetgecepersdéseiiecseges 10 17 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes of
the Lower Tertiary Strata ... 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of Earth-
quakes ...csccsereosserseveelS42 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells......... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the
ABgean and Red Seas.....1842 100 0 0
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology............1842 010 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and
Miacriwall) veccscsecttesessecces--. 10. 0° 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu v.00 10 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality of
SCOdS csccctedsiitccstaseieesseccee = 8 OS
Experiments on the Vitality of
Rccda csscctrsessecacteseess L842 QF 6S
Exotic Anoplura teisicactecasigeee LR 0 O
Strength of Materials Sidesctecese 100 08 8
Completing Experiments on the
Forms of Ships ..+..,s0+sseseese0 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ......... 10 0 0
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals ......... 50 0 0
Constant Indicator and Morin’s
Instrument, 1842 ....c0e 10 3 6
£981 12 8
1845.
Publication of the British Associa-
tion Catalogue of Stars........ 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations at
Inverness ,.,.secceceesee piewises | S03 10711
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
OPETALION ..,ccsceccsereeerecereee 16 16 8
Meteorological Instruments ‘at
BRPITAENET CL vec ccescoscssacessscace 18 11 9
Reduction of Anemometrical Ob-
servations at Plymouth ......... 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at Kew
Observatory ..s.crccccccscssessee 43 17 8
Maintaining the Establishment in
Kew Observatory ......... fae lao Le 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph...... 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 0
The Actinograph ...... Rtisessccces. Lo 0 0
Microscopic Structure of Shells... 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ............1843 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds.......00+06...1843 2 0 7
Vitality of Seeds ............1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and Mor-
tality in York . .ccccccosssceeenee 20 0 O
Earthquake Shocks .,..,....1843 15 14 8
£830 9 9

1846.
British Association Catalogue of

Stars .,..csseceseciccsccsyeeo 8844 211 15 0

8. de
Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1839.......00+0... 50 0 0
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ..ssssseseesees 146 16 7
Strength of Materials............... 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia......0000. 6 16 2
Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ..+.........1844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds .....+......1845 712 38
Marine Zoology of Cornwall.,.... 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain ...... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ..+..+....1844 25 0 0
Expensesattending Anemometers 11 7 6
Anemometers’ Repairs... 2 38 6
Atmospheric Waves .scccrereee 8 38 8
Captive Balloons ............1844 819 3
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7 6 3
Statistics of Sickness and Mor-
tality in York wisecccessssseeeee 12 0
£685 16 0
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1839... 50 0 O
Habits of Marine Animals ...... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 O
Marine Zoology of Cornwall .,. 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves scree 6 9 8
Vitality of Seeds ....conecoseeee 4 7 7
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ..+....s0s006e- 107 8 6
$208 5 4
1848.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory seesssseesseeee 171 15 11
Atmospheric Waves eereereeeseeee 3 10 9
Vitality of Seeds ccecsessessseerree 9 15 0
Completion of Catalogues ofStars 70 0 0
On Colouring Matters ....... 5 0 0
On Growth of Plants.......s0000 15 0 0
£275 1 8
ae ee
1849.
Electrical Observations at Kew
Observatory ...... sesssccccceeree FO O O
Maintaining Establishment at
iit wyiesscagecscnecesenssagsansses 1d Gan gee!
Vitality of Seeds .......44. Sy ee ey
On Growth of Plants........008 5 0 0
Registration of Periodical Phe-
NOMENA’ weeseeeeee Acasteceucbaercae)| LOM OME
Bill on account of Anemometrical
Observations seesesseceereeees ee eee A!
£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .....s.sseere0e 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves... 50 0 0

lvi

EG ss a:

Periodical Phenomena... 15 0 0

Meteorological Instrument,
AZOVES secessereesecnceenensnreees 25 0 0
£345 18 0
1851.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (includes part
of grant in 1849) ....ccsevereeee 309
Theory of Heat........ Boshi eice ees 20 ell
Periodical Phenomena of Animals
and Plants ....ssseecsseees suchen 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ...cecsceceere vaio’ Gia
Influence of Solar Radiation,..... 380 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries ..... Feitene PL ean OL ay O)
Researches on Annelida ......... 10 0 0
£391 9 7
1852.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (including
balance of grant for 1850) ... 233 17 8

Experiments on the Conduction
Otpleat trevesclerecemasaseneees Rawas 5
Influence of Solar Radiations ...
Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15
Researches on the British Anne-

lida....s..sceeee pasatitsee das tee 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......ssseeereeeee 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates ......... 10 0 0

£304 6 7
1853.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .....sseeseee . 165 0 0

Experiments on the Influence of
Solar Radiation....s.c.0cwe. 15 0 0
Researches on the Bribe Anne-

WUE ecncennonagboagadeundasocuncn oct 10 0 0
Dredging on the East Coast of
Scotlands. .weceestecuseseueronsenene 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......0... %5 0 0
£205 0 0
1854.

Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (including
balance of former grant) ...... 880 15

Investigations on Flax ..........6. 11 0 0
Effects of Temperature on

Wrought Tron ........e ec ee eee 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical Phe-

NOMENA ...eervvevreee talve'eaennes »- 10 0 0
British Annelida shvetvaeeadenntese Onno) oO
Vitality of Seeds .....sseseeecssene 52 8
Conduction of Heat wus 4 2 0

£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory ........ cbse 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...... «. 10 0 0
Physical Aspect of the Moon...... 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds .....0....... veces LO 7 11
Map of the World .........0.0.00002 15 0 0
Ethmological Queries ......... sear OL Oe LO.
Dredging near Belfast ..,......... 4 0 0

£480 16 4

REPORT—1859.

£8 d.
1856.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory :-—
1854......£ 75 0 0
1855......£500 0 ae og ah ad
Strickland’s Ornithological Syno-

NYS ..sscatecescsceneecsececeee -- 100 0 0
Dredging and Dredging Forms... 913 9
Chemical Action of Light .. 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Blaise ey eee 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical Pheeno-

mena .... ities LOE OEY
Propagation of Salmon .......-... 10 0 0

£734 13 9

Peo meee eeeeeerere®

1857. ;
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory sesscrssssereee 300 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experiments 40 0 0
Dredging near Belfast ............. 10 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast of

Scotland......cscccsrsccerseoesees . 10 0 0

Investigations into the Mollusca
Of California ....secsecseessereees 0
Experiments on Flax apsitesmswa seine OHO
Natural History of Madagascar. . 0
Researches on British Annelida 0
Report on Natural Products im-
ported into Liverpool ......... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10 0 0
Temperature of Mines ............ 7 8 0
Thermometers for Subterranean
Observations .c.covssresssereveese 8 7 4
0 0
5 4

oocooo

Life-Boats vesssseceeerverscsecssssees 5

1858.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory ceccssseseseeee 000 0
Earthquake Wave Experiments,, 25 0
Dredging on the West Coast of

Scotland) “us, cssscscsospscescenespO 0) 40
Dredging near Dublin ........... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ...... Ssodacchucn 4 Ap Aeahey 1
Dredging near Belfast .......... 18138 2
Report on the British Annelida... 25 0 0
Experiments on the production

of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Products

imported into Scotland.,........ 10 0

£618 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory ...ccseereesese 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin ............ 15 0 0
Osteology of Birds.,..s+...eereeee « 50 0 0
Trish Tunicata ..cccsccsccsererrnee 5 0 0
Manure Experiments ........... 20 0 0O
British Medusidz ......... eeeue tee Spe) OLE
Dredging Committee......... covere pom One
Steam Vessels’ Performance...... 5 0 0

Marine Fauna of South and West

of Ireland ...secceeeee 0
Photographic Chemistry ......«. 10 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ...sscsscoscees 0
Balloon AScents....cccsssrssveesesss

£684 11

sepeeseereee

a — a)

GENERAL MEETINGS. lvil

Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee.

Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur-
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re-
mains disposable on each grant.

Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso-
ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be
ordered by the General Committee.

In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call
on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames
Street, London, for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to
time be required.

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the Members.

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua-
tion of Researches at the cost of the Associaticn, the sum named shall be
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may
remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object.

General Meetings.

On Wednesday, Sept. 14, at 84 p.m., in the Music Hall, Richard Owen,
M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. of France, resigned the office of
President to His Royal Highness the Prince Consort, who took the Chair
and delivered an Address, for which see page lix.

On Thursday Evening, Sept. 15, a Conversazione took place in the Music
Hall.

On Friday Evening, Sept. 16, at 83 p.m., in the Music Hall, Sir R. I.
Murchison, G.C.St.S., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., V.P.R.G.S., delivered a Dis-
course on the Geology of the Northern Highlands.

On Monday Evening, Sept. 19, at 83 p.M., The Rev. T. Robinson, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.LA., delivered a Discourse on Electrical Discharges in highly
Rarefied Media.

On Tuesday Evening, Sept. 20, at 84 p.m., a Conversazione took place in
the Music Hall.

On Wednesday, Sept. 21, at 3 p.M., the concluding General Meeting took
place in the Music Hall, when the Proceedings of the General Committee,
and the Grants of Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the
Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Oxford*.

* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, the 27th of June, 1860.

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ADDRESS

HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE CONSORT.

GENTLEMEN OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Your kind invitation to me to undertake the office of your President for the
ensuing year could not but startle me on its first announcement. The high
position which Science occupies, the vast number of distinguished men who
labour in her sacred cause, and whose achievements, while spreading innu-
merable benefits, justly attract the admiration of mankind, contrasted
strongly in my mind with the consciousness of my own insignificance in this
respect. I, a simple admirer, and would-be student of Science, to take the
place of the chief and spokesman of the scientific men of the day, assembled
in furtherance of their important objects!—the thing appeared to me
impossible. Yet, on reflection, I came to the conclusion that, if not as a
contributor to, or director of your labours, I might still be useful to you,
useful to Science, by accepting your offer. Remembering that this Association
is a popular Association, not a secret confraternity of men jealously guarding
the mysteries of their profession, but inviting the uninitiated, the public at
large, to join them, having as one of its objects to break down those imagi-
nary and hurtful barriers which exist between men of science and so-called
men of practice—I felt that I could, from the peculiar position in which
Providence has placed me in this country, appear as the representative of
that large public, which profits by and admires your exertions, but is unable
actively to join in them; that my election was an act of humility on your
part, which to reject would have looked like false humility, that is like pride,
on mine. But I reflected further, and saw in my acceptance the means, of
which necessarily so few are offered to Her Majesty, of testifying to you,
through the instrumentality of her husband, that your labours are not un-
appreciated by your Sovereign, and that she wishes her people to know this
as well as yourselves. Guided by these reflections, my choice was speedily
made, for the path of duty lay straight before me.

If these, however, are the motives which have induced me to accept your

lx REPORT—1859.

flattering offer of the Presidency, a request on my part is hardly necessary
that you will receive my efforts to fulfil its duties with kind indulgence.

If it were possible for anything to make me still more aware how much I
stand in need of this indulgence, it is the recollection of the person whom I
have to succeed as your President—a man of whom this country is justly
proud, and whose name stands among the foremost of the Naturalists in
Europe for his patience in investigation, conscientiousness in observation,
boldness of imagination, and acuteness in reasoning. You have no doubt
listened with pleasure to his parting address, and I beg to thank him for the
flattering manner in which he has alluded to me in it.

The Association meets for the first time to-day in these regions and in this
ancient and interesting city. The Poet, in his works of fiction, has to choose,
and anxiously to weigh, where to lay his scene, knowing that, like the
Painter, he is thus laying in the background of his picture, which will give
tone and colour to the whole. The stern and dry reality of life is governed
by the same laws, and we are here living, feeling, and thinking under the
influence of the local impressions of this northern seaport. The choice appears
to me a good one. The travelling Philosophers have had to come far, but
in approaching the Highlands of Scotland they meet Nature in its wild and
primitive form, and Nature is the object of their studies. The Geologist will
not find many novelties in yonder mountains, because he will stand there on
the bare backbone of the globe ; but the Primary rocks, which stand out in
their nakedness, exhibit the grandeur and beauty of their peculiar form, and
in the splendid quarries of this neighbourhood are seen to peculiar advantage
the closeness and hardness of their mass, and their inexhaustible supply for
the use of man, made available by the application of new mechanical powers.
On this primitive soil the Botanist and Zoologist will be attracted only by a
limited range of plants and animals, but they are the very species which the
extension of agriculture and increase of population are gradually driving out
of many parts of the country. On those blue hills the red deer, in vast herds,
holds undisturbed dominion over the wide heathery forest, until the sports-
man, fatigued and unstrung by the busy life of the bustling town, invades
the moor, to regain health and vigour by measuring his strength with that of
the antlered monarch of the hill. But, notwithstanding all his efforts to
overcome an antagonist possessed of such superiority of power, swiftness,
caution, and keenness of all the senses, the sportsman would find himself
baffled, had not Science supplied him with the telescope and those terrible
weapons which seem daily to progress in the precision with which they
carry the deadly bullet, mocking distance, to the mark.

In return for the help which Science has afforded him, the sportsman can
supply the naturalist with many facts which he alone has opportunity of
observing, and which may assist the solution of some interesting problems
suggested by the life of the deer. Man also, the highest object of our study,
is found in vigorous, healthy development, presenting a happy mixture of

i i eee eee

ADDRESS. ]xi

the Celt, Goth, Saxon, and Dane, acquiring his strength on the hills and the
sea. The Aberdeen whaler braves the icy regions of the Polar Sea, to seek
and to battle with the great monster of the deep: he has materially assisted
in opening these icebound regions to the researches of Science ; he fearlessly
aided in the search after Sir John Franklin and his gallant companions, whom
their country sent forth on this mission, but to whom Providence, alas! has
denied the reward of their labours, the return to their homes, to the affec-
tionate embrace of their families and friends, and the acknowledgments of
a grateful nation. The City of Aberdeen itself is rich in interest for the
Philosopher. Its two lately united Universities make it a seat of Learning
and Science. The Collection of Antiquities, formed for the present occa-
sion, enables him to dive into olden times, and, by contact with the re-
mains of the handiworks of the ancient inhabitants of Scotland, to enter
into the spirit of that peculiar and interesting people, which has always at-
tracted the attention and touched the hearts of men accessible to the influ-
ence of heroic poetry. The Spalding Club, founded in this City for the
preservation of the historical and literary remains of the north-eastern
counties of Scotland, is honourably known by its important publications.

Gentlemen !—This is the 29th Anniversary of the foundation of this
Association ; and well may we look back with satisfaction to its operation
and achievements throughout the time of its existence. When, on the 27th
September, 1831, the Meeting of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society took
place at York, in the theatre of the Yorkshire Museum, under the Presidency
of the late Earl Fitzwilliam, then Viscount Milton, and the Rev. W. Vernon
Harcourt eloquently set forth the plan for the formation of a British Asso-
ciation for the promotion of Science, which he showed to have become a
want for his country, the most ardent supporter of this resolution could
not have anticipated that it would start into life full-grown as it were, enter
at once upon its career of usefulness, and pursue it without deviation from
the original design, triumphing over the oppositions which it had to encounter
in common with everything that is new and claims to be useful. Gentlemen,
this proved that the want was a real, and not an imaginary one, and that the
mode in which it was intended to supply that want was based upon a just
appreciation of unalterable truths. Mr. Vernon Harcourt summed up the
desiderata in graphic words, which have almost identically been retained
as the exposition of the objects of the Society, printed at the head of the
annually-appearing volume of its Transactions :—“ to give a stronger impulse
and more systematic direction to scientific inquiry—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the Empire, with
one another and with foreign Philosophers—and to obtain a more general
attention to the objects of Science, a a removal of any disadvantages of a
public kind which impede its progress.”

To define the nature of Science, to give an exact and complete definition
of what that Science, to whose service the Association is devoted, is and

Ixii REPORT—1859.

means, has, as it naturally must, at all times occupied the Metaphysician.
He has answered the question in various ways, more or less satisfactorily to
himself or others. To me, Science, in its most general and comprehensive
acceptation, means the knowledge of what I know, the consciousness of
human knowledge. Hence, to know is the object of all Science; and all
special knowledge, if brought to our consciousness in its separate distinctive-
ness from, and yet in its recognized relation to the totality of our knowledge,
is scientific knowledge. We require, then, for Science—that is to say, for
the acquisition of scientific knowledge—those two activities of our mind
which are necessary for the acquisition of any knowledge—analysis and syn-
thesis ; the first, to dissect and reduce into its component parts the object to
be investigated, and to render an accurate account to ourselves of the nature
and qualities of these parts by observation; the second, to recompose the
observed and understood parts into a unity in our consciousness, exactly
answering to the object of our investigation. ‘The labours of the man of
Science are therefore at once the most humble and the loftiest which man
can undertake. He only does what every little child does from its first
awakening into life, and must do every moment of its existence; and yet he
aims at the gradual approximation to divine truth itself. If, then, there
exists no difference between the work of the man of Science and that of
the merest child, what constitutes the distinction? Merely the conscious
self-determination. The child observes what accident brings before it, and
unconsciously forms its notion of it; the so-called practical man observes
what his special work forces upon him, and he forms his notions upon it with
reference to this particular work. The man of Science observes what he in-
tends to observe, and knows why he intends it. The value which the peculiar
object has in his eyes is not determined by accident, nor by an external
cause, such as the mere connexion with work to be performed, but by the
place which he knows this object to hold in the general universe of know-
ledge, by the relation which it bears to other parts of that general know-
ledge.

To arrange and classify that universe of knowledge becomes therefore the
first, and perhaps the most important, object and duty of Science. It is only
when brought into a system, by separating the incongruous and combining
those elements in which we have been enabled to discover the internal con-
nexion which the Almighty has implanted in them, that we can hope to.
grapple with the boundlessness of His creation, and with the laws which
govern both mind and matter.

The operation of Science then has been, systematically to divide human
knowledge, and raise, as it were, the separate groups of subjects for scientific
consideration, into different and distinct sciences. The tendency to create
new sciences is peculiarly apparent in our present age, and is perhaps inse-
parable from so rapid a progress as we have seen in our days; for the ac-
quaintance with and mastering of distinct branches of knowledge enables the

ADDRESS. lxiii

eye, from the newly gained points of sight, to see the new ramifications into
which they divide themselves in strict consecutiveness and with logical
necessity. But in thus gaining new centres of light, from which to direct our
researches, and new and powerful means of adding to its ever-increasing
treasures, Science approaches no nearer to the limits of its range, although
travelling further and further from its original point of departure. For
God’s world is infinite; and the boundlessness of the universe, whose confines
appear ever to retreat before our finite minds, strikes us no less with awe
when, prying into the starry crowd of heaven, we find new worlds revealed
to us by every increase in the power of the telescope, than when the micro-
scope discloses to us in a drop of water, or an atom of dust, new worlds of
life and animation, or the remains of such as have passed away.

Whilst the tendency to push systematic investigation in every direction
enables the individual mind of man to bring all the power of which he is
capable to bear on the specialities of his study, and enables a greater number
of labourers to take part in the universal work, it may be feared that that
consciousness of its unity which must pervade the whole of Science if it is
not to lose its last and highest point of sight, may suffer. It has occasionally
been given to rare intellects and the highest genius, to follow the various
sciences in their divergent roads, and yet to preserve that point of sight from
which alone their totality can be contemplated and directed. Yet how rare
is the appearance of such gifted intellects! and if they be found at intervals,
they remain still single individuals, with all the imperfections of human
nature.

The only mode of supplying with any certainty this want, is to be sought
in the combination of men of science representing all the specialities, and
working together for the common object of preserving that unity and pre-
siding over that general direction. This has been to some extent done in
many countries by the establishment of academies embracing the whole
range of the sciences, whether physical or metaphysical, historical or political.
In the absence of such an institution in this country, all lovers of science
must rejoice at the existence and activity of this Association, which embraces
in its sphere of action, if not the whole range of the sciences, yet a very large
and important section of them, those known as the inductive sciences, exclu-
ding all that are not approached by the inductive method of investigation.
It has, for instance (and, considering its peculiar organization and mode of
action, perhaps not unwisely), eliminated from its consideration and discus-
sions those which come under the description of moral and political sciences.
This has not been done from undervaluing their importance and denying
their sacred right to the special attention of mankind, but from a desire to
deal with those subjects only which can be reduced to positive proof, and do
not rest on opinion or faith. The subjects of the moral and political sciences
inyolve not only opinions but feelings; and their discussion frequently rouses
passions. For feelings are “ subjective,” as the German metaphysician has

lxiv REPORT—1859.

it—they are inseparable from the individual being—an attack upon them is
felt as one upon the person itself; whilst facts are “ objective ” and belong to
everybody—they remain the same facts at all times and under all circum-
stances: they can be proved; they have to be proved, and when proved, are
finally settled. It is with facts only that the Association deals. There may
for a time exist differences of opinion on these also, but the process of re-
moving them and resolving them into agreement is a different one from that
in the moral and political sciences. These are generally approached by the
deductive process; but if the reasoning be ever so acute and logically
correct, and the point of departure, which may be arbitrarily selected, is
disputed, no agreement is possible; whilst we proceed here by the zxductive
process, taking nothing on trust, nothing for granted, but reasoning upwards
from the meanest fact established, and making every step sure before going
one beyond it, like the engineer in his approaches to a fortress. We thus
gain ultimately a roadway, a ladder by which even a child may, almost
without knowing it, ascend to the summit of truth and obtain that immensely
wide and extensive view which is spread below the feet of the astonished
beholder. This road has been shown us by the great Bacon; and who
can contemplate the prospects which it opens, without almost falling into a
trance similar to that in which he allowed his imagination to wander over
future ages of discovery !

From amongst the political sciences it has been attempted in modern
times to detach one which admits of being severed from individual political
opinions, and of being reduced to abstract laws derived from well authen-
ticated facts. I mean Political Economy, based on general statistics. A
new Association has recently been formed, imitating our perambulating
habits, and striving to comprehend in its investigations and discussions even
a still more extended range of subjects, in what is called ‘“ Social Science.”
These efforts deserve our warmest approbation and good will. May they
succeed in obtaining a purely and strictly scientific character! Our own
Association has, since its Meeting at Dublin, recognized the growing claims
of Political Economy to scientific brotherhood, and admitted it into its
Statistical Section. It could not have done so under abler guidance and
happier auspices than the Presidency of the Archbishop of Dublin, Dr.
Whately, whose efforts in this direction are so universally appreciated. But
even in this Section, and whilst Statistics alone were treated in it, the Asso-
ciation as far back as 1833 made it a rule that, in order to ensure positive
results, only those classes of facts should be admitted which were capable
of being expressed by numbers, and which promised, when sufficiently
multiplied, to indicate general laws.

If, then, the main object of Science—and I beg to be understood, hence-"

forth, as speaking only of that Section which the Association has under its
special care, viz. Inductive Science—if, I say, the object of science is the
discovery of the laws which govern natural phenomena, the primary condi-

~ ADDRESS. lxv

tion for its suecess is: accurate observation and collection of facts in such
comprehensiveness and completeness as to furnish the philosopher with the
necessary material from which to draw safe conclusions.

Science is not of yesterday. We stand on the shoulders of past ages, and
the amount of observations made, and facts ascertained, has been transmitted
to us and carefully preserved in the various storehouses of science; other
crops have been reaped, but still lie scattered on the field; many a rich
harvest is ripe for cutting, but waits for the reaper. Economy of labour is
the essence of good husbandry, and no less so in the field of science. Our
Association has felt the importance of this truth, and may well claim, as one
of its principal merits, the constant endeavour to secure that economy.

One of the latest undertakings of the Association has been, in conjunction
with the Royal Society, to attempt the compilation of a classified catalogue
of scientific memoirs, which, by combining under one head the titles of all
memoirs written on a certain subject, will, when completed, enable the
student who wishes to gain information on that subject to do so with the
greatest ease. It gives him, as it were, the plan of the house, and the key
to the different apartments in which the treasures relating to his subject are
stored, saving him at once a painful and laborious search, and affording him
at the same time an assurance that what is here offered contains the whole
of the treasures yet acquired.

While this has been one of its latest attempts, the Association has from
its very beginning kept in view that its main sphere of usefulness lay in that
concentrated attention to all scientific operations which a general gives to
the movements of his army, watching and regulating the progress of his im-
petuous soldiers in the different directions to which their ardour may have
led them, carefully noting the gaps which may arise from their independent
and eccentric action, and attentively observing what impediments may have
stopped, or may threaten to stop, the progress of certain columns.

Thus it attempts to fix and record the position and progress of the different
labours, by its Reports on the state of Sciences published annually in its
Transactions ;—thus it directs the attention of the labourers to those gaps
which require to be filled up, if the progress is to be a safe and steady one ;
—thus it comes forward with a helping hand in striving to remove those im-
pediments which the unaided efforts of the individual labourer have been or
may be unable to overcome.

Let us follow the activity of the Association in these three different direc-
tions.

The Reports en the state of Science originate in the conviction of the
necessity for fixing, at given intervals, with accuracy and completeness, the
position at which it has arrived. For this object the General Committee of
the Association entrusts to distinguished individuals in the different branches
of Science the charge of becoming, as it were, the biographers of the period.
There are special points in different Sciences in which it sometimes appears

1859. e

lxvi REPORT—1859.

desirable to the different Sections to have special reports elaborated ; in such
cases the General Committee, in its capacity of the representative assembly
of all the Sciences, reserves to itself the right of judging what may be of suf-
ficient importance to be thus recorded.

The special subjects which the Association points out for investigation,
in order to supply the gaps which it may have observed, are—either such as
the philosopher alone can successfully investigate, because they require the
close attention of a practised observer, and a thorough knowledge of the
particular subject; or they are such as require the greatest possible number
of facts to be obtained. Here science often stands in need of the assistance
of the general public, and gratefully accepts any contributions offered, pro-
vided the facts be accurately observed. In either case the Association
points out what is to be observed, and how it is to be observed.

The first is the result of the same careful sifting process which the Asso-
ciation employs in directing the issue of special Reports. The investigations
are entrusted to specially-appointed committees, or selected individuals.
They are in most cases not unattended with considerable expense, and the
Association, not content with merely suggesting and directing, furnishes by
special grants the pecuniary means for defraying the outlay caused by the
nature and extent of the inquiry. If we consider that the income of the
Association is solely derived from the contributions of its members, the fact
that no less a sum than £17,000 has, since its commencement, been thus
granted for scientific purposes, is certainly most gratifying.

The question how to observe, resolves itself into two—that of the scien-
tific method which is to be employed in approaching a problem or in making
an observation, and that of the philosophical instruments used in the obser-
vation or experiment. The Association brings to bear the combined know-
ledge and experience of the scientific men, not only of this but of other
countries, on the discovery of that method which, while it economizes time
and labour, promises the most accurate results. The method to which,
after careful examination, the palm has been awarded, is then placed at the
free disposal and use of all scientific investigators. The Association also
issues, where practicable, printed forms, merely requiring the different heads
to be filled up, which, by their uniformity, become an important means for
assisting the subsequent reduction of the observations for the abstraction of
the laws which they may indicate.

At the same time most searching tests and inquiries are constantly carried
on in the Observatory at Kew, given to the Association by Her Majesty,
the object of which is practically to test the relative value of different
methods and instruments, and to guide the constantly progressive improve-
ments in the construction of the latter.

The establishment at Kew has undertaken the further important service
of verifying and correcting to a fixed standard the instruments of any maker,
to enable observations made with them to be reduced to the same numerical

ADDRESS. Ixy

expression. I need hardly remind the inhabitants of Aberdeen that the
Association, in one of the first years of its existence, undertook the com-
parative measurement of the Aberdeen standard scale with that of Green-
wich,—a research ably carried out by the late Mr. Baily.

The impediments to the general progress of Science, the removal of which
I have indicated as one of the tasks which the Association has set for itself,
are of various kinds. If they were only such as direction, advice, and en-
couragement would enable the individual, or even combined efforts of philo-
sophers, to overcome, the exertions of the Association which I have just
alluded to might be sufficient for the purpose. But they are often such as
can only be successfully dealt with by the powerful arm of the State or the
long purse of the Nation. These impediments may be caused either by the
social condition of the country itself, by restrictions arising out of peculiar
laws, by the political separation of different countries, or by the magnitude
of the undertakings being out of all proportion to the means and power of
single individuals, of the Association, or even the voluntary efforts of the
Public. In these cases the Association, together with its sister Society “the
Royal Society,” becomes the spokesman of Science with the Crown, the Go-
vernment, or Parliament,—sometimes even, through the Home Government,
with foreign Governments. Thus it obtained the establishment, by the British
Government, of magnetic and meteorological observatories in six different
parts of the globe, as the beginning of a network of stations which we must
hope will be so far extended as to compass by their geographical distribution
the whole of the phenomena which throw light on this important point in
our tellurian and even cosmical existence. The Institute of France, at the
recommendation of M. Arago, whose loss the scientific world must long de-
plore, cheerfully cooperated with our Council on this occasion. It was our
Association which, in conjunction with the Royal Society, suggested the
Antarctic Expedition with a view to further the discovery of the laws of ter-
restrial magnetism, and thus led to the discovery of the southern polar con-
tinent. It urged on the Admiralty the prosecution of the tidal observations,
which that Department has since fully carried out. It recommended the
establishment, in the British Museum, of the conchological collection exhi-
biting present and extinct species, which has now become an object of the
greatest interest.

I will not weary you by further examples, with which most of you are
better acquainted than I am myself, but merely express my satisfaction that
there should exist bodies of men who will bring the well-considered and un-
derstood wants of Science before the public and the Government, who will even
hand round the begging-box and expose themselves to refusals and rebuffs
to which all beggars are liable, with the certainty, besides, of being consi-
dered great bores. Please to recollect that this species of bore is a most
useful animal, well adapted for the ends for which Nature intended him, He
alone, by constantly returning to the charge, and repeating the same truths and

xviii REPORT—1859.

the same requests, succeeds in awakening attention to the cause which he
advocates, and obtains that hearing which is granted him at last for self-pro-
tection, as the minor evil compared to his importunity, but which is requi-
site to make his cause understood. This is more particularly the case in a
free, active, enterprising, and self-determining people like ours, where every
interest works for itself, considers itself the all-important one, and makes its
way in the world by its own efforts. Is it, then, to be wondered at, that the
interests of Science, abstract as Science appears, and not immediately show-
ing a return in pounds, shillings, and pence, should be postponed, at least, to
others which promise immediate tangible results ? Is it to be wondered at, that
even our public men require an effort to wean themselves from other subjects
in order to give their attention to Science and men of Science, when it is
remembered that Science, with the exception of Mathematics, was until of
late almost systematically excluded from our school and university education ;
—that the traditions of early life are those which make and leave the strongest
impression on the human mind, and that the subjects with which we become
acquainted, and to which our energies are devoted in youth, are those for
which we retain the liveliest interest in after years, and that for these reasons
the effort required must be both a mental and a moral one? A deep debt of
gratitude is therefore due to bodies like this Association, which not only
urges the wants of Science on the Government, but furnishes it at once with
well-matured plans how to supply them with the greatest certainty and to
the greatest public advantage.

We may be justified in hoping, however, that by the gradual diffusion of
Science, and its increasing recognition as a principal part of our national
education, the public in general, no less than the Legislature and the State,
will more and more recognize the claims of Science to their attention; so
that it may no longer require the begging-box, but speak to the State, like a
favoured child to its parent, sure of his parental solicitude for its welfare ;
that the State will recognize in Science one of its elements of strength and
prosperity, to foster which the clearest dictates of self-interest demand.

If the activity of this Association, such as I have endeavoured to describe
it, ever found or could find its personification in one individual—its incar-
nation, as it were—this had been found in that distinguished and revered phi-
losopher who has been removed from amongst us in his ninetieth year, within
these last few months. Alexander von Humboldt incessantly strove after do-
minion over that universality of human knowledge which stands in need of
thoughtful government and direction to preserve its integrity; he strove to
tie up the fasces of scientific knowledge, to give them strength in unity. He
treated all scientific men as members of one family, enthusiastically directing,
fostering, and encouraging inquiry, where he saw either the want of, or the
willingness for it. His protection of the young and ardent student led many
to success in their pursuit. His personal influence with the Courts and
Governments of most countries in Europe enabled him to plead the cause of

ADDRESS. lxix

Science in a manner which made it more difficult for them to refuse than to
grant what he requested. All lovers of science deeply mourn for the loss of
such aman. Gentlemen, it is a singular coincidence, that this very day on
which we are here assembled, and are thus giving expression to our admira-
tion of him, should be the anniversary of his birth.

To return to ourselves, however: one part of the functions of the Associa-
tion can receive no personal representation, no incarnation: I mean the very
fact of meetings like that which we are at present inaugurating. This is not
the thoughtful direction of one mind over acquired knowledge, but the pro-
duction of new thought by the contact of many minds, as the spark is pro-
duced by the friction of flint and steel; it is not the action of the monarchy
of a paternal Government, but the republican activity of the Roman Forum.
These meetings draw forth the philosopher from the hidden recesses of his
study, call in the wanderer over the field of science to meet his brethren, to
lay before them the results of his labours, to set forth the deductions at which
he has arrived, to ask for their examination, to maintain in the combat of
debate the truth of his positions and the accuracy of his observations. These
Meetings, unlike those of any other Society, throw open the arena to the cul-
tivators of all sciences, to their mutual advantage: the Geologist learns from
the Chemist that there are problems for which he had no clue, but which
that science can solve for him; the Geographer receives light from the Natu-
ralist, the Astronomer from the Physicist and Engineer, and so on. And all
find a field upon which to meet the public at large, invite them to listen to
their Reports and even to take part in their discussions,—show to them that
Philosophers are not vain theorists, but essentially men of practice—not con-
ceited pedants, wrapped up in their own mysterious importance, but humble
inquirers after truth, proud only of what they may have achieved or won for
the general use of man. Neither are they daring and presumptuous unbe-
lievers—a character which ignorance has sometimes affixed to them—who
would, like the Titans, storm heaven by placing mountain upon mountain,
till hurled down from the height attained, by the terrible thunders of outraged
Jove; but rather the pious pilgrims to the Holy Land, who toil on in search
of the sacred shrine, in search of truth—God’s truth—God’s laws as mani-
fested in His works, in His creation.

LIST OF PLATES.

PLATE I.

Illustrative of Mr. Norman Pogson’s paper on three variable stars, R & S,
Urs Majoris, and U Geminorum, as observed consecutively for six
years.

PLATE II.

Illustrative of Mr. J. Park Harrison’s paper on Lunar Influence on the
Temperature of the Air.

PLATES III. IV. and V.

Illustrative of Mr. Balfour Stewart’s paper on the Construction of the Self-
recording Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew Observatory.

PLATES VI. and VII.

Illustrative of Mr. Balfour Stewart’s paper on the Magnetic Survey of Scot-
land in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken at the request of the
British Association, by the Jate Mr. John Welsh.

ERRATA.

Page 4, line 10 from top, for Bayer read Bayer.

Page 4, line 11 from bottom, for Bayer read Bayer.

Page 6, note, for hyposulphuric acid read hyposulphurous acid.

Page 13, line 10 from top, for C?H18N? read C24H!8N2,

Page 14, line 8 from top, for glycocol t read glycocol.

Page 17, line 4 from bottom, for 3 Cl2Zn read 3 ClZn.

Page 20, lines 6, 7 and 8 from top, for (ethylene, ... . naphtaline, &c., by the action.....
simpler constitution. Synthesis of organic compounds)t read (ethylene,....
naphtaline, &c.) by the action of heat on organic substances of simpler constitu-
tion : synthesis of organic compounds t.

Page 20, line 11 from bottom, for Chloracetyl read Chloride of acetyl.

Page 22, last line, for O=16 and for 02=16 read O=16 and O?=16.

In the list of tribes, page 95, for SHora read Luora; for Bacnats read BAGMATI.

Page 99, for Suopa read Lnopa.

Page 100, for Bagnatu read BAGMATI.

Page 100, for Symsuunatn Triex (Hill-man, probably Thibetan) read Hint-man, probably
Thibetan, obtained at Sambhunath.

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‘ 4 Sie
iv’ ;
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REPORTS

| ‘THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

REPORTS

THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and Present State of Or-
ganic Chemistry. By Guorcr C. Fostmr, B.A., F.C.S., Late As-
sistant in the Laboratory of University College, London.

Tue late Mr. J. F. W. Johnston presented to the Second Meeting of this
Association, held at Oxford in 1832, a “ Report on the Recent Progress and
Present State of Chemical Science.” This Report included both Organic and
Inorganic Chemistry, but no subsequent Report exists in which the progress
of Organic Chemistry, as a whole, is discussed. It therefore seemed advi-
sable to take the year 1832 as the starting-point of the Report, the preparation
of which was entrusted to Dr.-Odling and myself, at the Meeting in Leeds
last year. On commencing the task, we found that a satisfactory account of
the progress of organic chemistry, since that date, would be little else than
a tolerably complete history of that branch of science. Believing that such
a historical account would be of great value, we made some progress in
its preparation. Those, however, who have the greatest acquaintance with
the subject, will be the readiest to believe that it was utterly impossible for
us to bring such a Report to anything like a state of completeness in time for
the present Meeting. We thought, however, that such a general preliminary
account as we might be able to give, of some of the most recent discoveries,
illustrating some of the ideas most lately introduced into the science, might
perhaps have both interest and utility.

In the following pages, therefore, in which such a general account is at-
tempted, historical completeness has not been aimed at; the object has been
rather to place in a clear light the real nature and tendency of some of the
most important theoretical views which are now taking a place in the science.

The reconciling of the theory of types with the theory of compound radi-
cles, which resulted from the discovery of the compound ammonias by Wurtz
and Hofmaun, and the discovery of the mixed ethers (or ethers containing
two distinct alcohol-radicles) by Williamson, prepared the way for Gerhardt’s
classification of chemical substances according to types of double decompo-
sition. The system of ideas, of which we may regard this classification as
an epitome, has exerted so great an influence on the progress of theoretical
chemistry during the last seven or eight years, that it becomes an essential
part of a survey like the present to consider what parts of it have been
modified or confirmed by recent discoveries.

1859. " B

2 REPORT—1859.

Gerhardt’s classification, like every classification which rests on chemical
principles, was a system of rational formule. It is very important, there-
fore, for our present purpose, to understand clearly at the outset what his
formule were intended to express. As he constantly repeated, they were
not attempts to represent the arrangement of the atoms of chemical com-
pounds, but to represent the groups or atoms, which, in the double decom-
positions by which compounds are formed or destroyed, replace, or are re-
placed by, other groups or atoms. His types were selected as being the
simplest or best known bodies which could be the agents or products of
double decompositions similar to those of the substances classified as deri-
ving from them. Gerhardt’s formule are, therefore, in the strictest sense
chemical, and, as such, ought to be clearly distinguished from formule
which are intended to express the molecular arrangement of compounds,
formule which, speaking strictly, are physical, not chemical. The nature
and importance of the distinction to which we refer will perhaps be made
clearer if we recall to the recollection of the Section a recent instance in
which it appears to have been overlooked by one of the ablest of living che-
mists. Gerhardt had given two different formule for aldehyde, namely,

2 3
C’ H’ O.H and c 7 O, each of which expresses accurately the chemical
nature of aldehyde in relation to a particular set of reactions. Kopp,
however, found that the specific gravity of aldehyde, calculated from the
formula C? H’ O.H, according to a rule which he had deduced from the
examination of a considerable number of substances, agreed with the specific
gravity found by experiment, but that the specific gravity calculated from
2 3

the formula a O did not agree with experiment. He therefore con-

cluded that the first formula was more accurate than the second. Assuming
that the rule we have referred to was founded on a sufficient num-
ber of accurate observations, such a conclusion would doubtless be correct,
were the formule intended as expressions of the molecular constitution of
aldehyde so long as it remains such, that is to say, so long as its chemical
characters do not come into account; but the facts in question have no bear-
ing on the relative accuracy of formule which have reference solely to the
reactions by which aldehyde can be formed or decomposed*.

The idea of polyatomic radicles and molecules naturally arose out of the
attempt to represent polybasic acids according to types of decomposition.
The first chemist who used formule expressing the replacement of more
than one atom of hydrogen by a single atom of a compound radicle was
Professor Williamson+. The views which he had expressed were extended,
and the expression of them in chemical formule greatly facilitated, by the
introduction, by Dr. Odling}, of a special mode of notation. But the most
numerous and most remarkable examples of polyatomic compounds hitherto
known, have been furnished by the researches of Berthelot§ and of Wurtz].

In order to explain the nature of polyatomic compounds and the meaning
of polyatomic formule, we cannot take a better illustration than the formula

(C3 ila
3

for glycerine proposed by Wurtz], H } O*. This formula represents

glycerine as deriving from three atoms of water by the substitution of the in-
divisible triatomic radicle C* H’ for three atoms of hydrogen ; that is to say,
as a hydrate, but a hydrate which differs from ordinary hydrates, just as

* Comp. Kexkulé, Ann. Chem. Pharm. evi. 147, note.
+ Chem. Soc. Quart. Journ. iv. 350. t Ibid. vii. 1.
§ Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] xli. 216. ll Ibid. lv. 400. q Ibid. xliii. 493.

ON THE STATE OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 3

a terchloride differs from a protochloride. Thus a protohydrate, alcohol,
2 5
E in bo, for example, is converted into a chloride by the action of one
atom of hydrochloric acid, one atom of water being at the same time elimi-
nated,— ‘
OE | o+HCI-H’ 0=C'H' Cl,
Alcohol. Chloride of ethyl.

and cannot then be any further acted on in the same way.
Glycerine is similarly converted into a chloride, with elimination of an
atom of water, by the action of one atom of hydrochloric acid,
3 5

Cir | OF H.Cl-H? O=C' HT 0° Cl;

Glycerine. Monochlorhydrin.
but the product in this case can again produce the same reaction with a
second, and even with a third atom of hydrochloric acid :—

C* H’ O? C1+H Cl—H’*® O=C? H’ O CP

Monochlorhydrin. Dichlorhydrin.
C* H’O Cl + H Cl—H? O=C? H’ CP
Dichlorhydrin. Trichlorhydrin.

And in general terms, we may express the difference between a polyatomic
body and a monatomic body, deriving from the same type, by saying that,
with the same reagent, both produce similar reactions, but that a greater
quantity of the reagent (two, three, or four times as much, according as the
substance is di-, tri-, or tetratomic) is required to react to the greatest pos-
sible extent with the polyatomic body than with the monatomic body.

The consideration of the following and similar series of bodies—

Cee tie Ore. oe. Marsh-gas,

Os ie © SO aN Chloride of methyl,

0h cS ere ee BS Chloride of methylene,
CHA GE G28 ei Ae 8k Chloroform,

GER oom mule # Bichloride of carbon,

throws great light upon the mutual relations of monatomic and polyatomic
substances. ‘The second term of the series is a monatomic chloride; it re-
acts with one atom, but not with more, of potash, ammonia, &c. The third
is a diatomic* chloride, the fourth a triatomic t chloride, and the fifth a te-
tratomict chloride. ‘The radicles which these four chlorides respectively
contain are (CH*)!, (CH’)", (CH)!", and (C)¥, all formed from marsh-gas
(CH), the first term of the series, by the removal of hydrogen; and the
number of atoms of hydrogen which must be removed to form each radicle
denotes the atomic value of that radicle. In other words, chloride of methyl,
CH? Cl, can, under a variety of conditions, part with its chlorine in exchange
for other substances, whilst its carbon and hydrogen remain in unaltered
combination, having the characters of a monatomic radicle. But, under cer-
tain other conditions, chloride of methyl can exchange one-third, two-thirds,
or even the whole of its hydrogen against an equivalent quantity of chlorine ;
and the compounds which are formed, containing C H’* Cl’, C HCI’, and C CI’,

* No reactions corresponding to this view of chloride of methylene are yet known, but
the analogy of iodide of methylene (Comp. Buttlerow, Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] liti. 313) is

sufficient for our present purpose.
t+ Comp. Kay, Chem. Soc. Quart. Journ. vii. 224; Hofmann, Proc. Roy. Soc. ix. 229.

{ Comp. Hofmann, Proc. Roy. Soc. ix. 284.
B2

4 REPORT—1859.

can in their turn take up other substances in exchange for their chlorine,
while the remainder of their elements (carbon, or carbon and hydrogen)
pass into new compounds with the properties of polyatomic radicles.

These relations may be stated still more generally as follows :—compounds
formed upon the molecular type CH* are either incapable of undergoing
double decomposition, or are monatomic, diatomic, triatomic, or tetratomic,
according to the number of atoms of hydrogen which are replaced, and to the
nature of the substance by which it is replaced*.

A remarkable instance of a series of compounds presenting precisely
similar relations has recently been pointed out by Bayert, in his researches
upon the compounds of methyl with arsenic.

If we now consider some of the most important reactions by which com-
pounds are converted into others of greater atomic value, we shall find that
in almost all cases the process is essentially the same as in those already
referred to.

1. Acetic acid, C? H*O’, which in most of its reactions behaves as a
monatomic hydrate, is converted by the action of chlorine into chloracetic
acidt, C*? H*Cl1O*. This substance can easily be made to part with its
chlorine and to take up in its place other elements. For instance, when
heated with an alkaline hydrate, it exchanges its chlorine against an atom of
hydrogen and an atom of oxygen, thus—

C* H’ ClO*+ KHO=C? H* 0°+ KCl,
Chloracetic acid. Glycolic acid.
giving rise to an alkaline chloride and a biatomic acid, glycolic acid§.
Again, chloracetic acid is decomposed by ammonia into hydrochloric acid
and glycocol||, also a biatomic substance :—
C? H’ C10°+ H*N=C? H’ NO’+ HCl.
Chloracetic acid. Glycocol.

In these two cases it admits of question whether the change from a mon-
atomic to a diatomic compound takes place when the acetic acid is converted
into chloracetic acid, or in the subsequent metamorphosis of the latter body.
But at whatever stage of the process the change occurs, it is essentially the
same, and consists in the replacement of an atom which, in ordinary double
decompositions, acts as a constituent part of the radicle of the acid, by an
atom or group which, in similar circumstances, acts as though it were ex-
ternal to the radicle.

2. Chloride of kakody], AsMe’Cl, is a monatomic chloride, but, acted
upon by chlorine at the temperature of 40° to 50° C., it is converted into
bichloride of arsenmonomethy], AsMeCl’, a diatomic chloride (Bayer).
Here, again, the change may be described as the replacement of an atom
(methyl) which is inactive with regard to double decompositions, by an
atom (chlorine) which is active.

3. An increase in the quantity of oxygen contained in a compound gene-
rally increases its atomic value. An instance of this has already been re-

ferred to in the case of acetic and glycolic acids. We may mention as
further examples—

Alcohol sa-ss)scss C?H°O Tritylic aleohol.. C*’H*®O Monatomic.°
Glyco) ngs ae C’H°O? Tritylic glycol .. C* H*®O* Diatomic.
Ethyl-glycerine(?) C? H°O*? Glycerine...... C’ H°O* Triatomic.

* Comp. Odling, Journ. Roy. Instit., March 16th, 1855.

+ Ann. Chem. Pharm. cy. 265; more fully, cvii. 257.

t R. Hoffmann, Ann. Chem. Pharm. cii. 1. § Kekulé, ibid. cy. 286.
|| Cahours, Ann, Chim; Phys, [3] liii. 355.

ON THE STATE OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 5

4, The conversion of benzoic, toluylic, cuminic, and anisic acids into the
so-called benzamic, toluamic, cuminamic, and anisamic acids is a change
equivalent to that of acetic acid into glycocol, and is therefore the change of
a monatomic into a diatomic substance. We shall return hereafter to the
consideration of the formulze of glycocol and its analogues.

The following are examples of the transformation of polyatomic into mon-
atomic compounds :-—

1. Lactic acid, C’ H’O® (diatomic), reacts with pentachloride of phos-
phorus, giving chloride of lactyl*, C? H*OCI’. Chloride of lactyl is decom-
posed by water into hydrochloric and chloro-propionic + acids,—

C* H*OCl?+H’?O=C’ H’O’ Cl+ HCl,
Chloride of lactyl. Chloropropionic
acid,
and chloropropionic acid is converted by nascent hydrogen into propionic
acid (monatomic). This transformation of lactic into propionic acid is
evidently the converse of the transformation of acetic into glycolic acid
which is mentioned above.

2. By similar reactions, salicylic acid, C’ H®O* (diatomic), is converted
into chloride of salicyl, C7? H*O Cl’, and into chlorobenzoic} acid, C’ H’O* Cl.

3. The action of iodide of phosphorus on glycerine, C’ H® O° (triatomic),
gives iodopropylene, C* H’ I, from which allylic aleohol, C* H® O (monato-
mic), can be easily obtained.

Typical formule being representations of reactions, it follows that if a sub-
stance affords two or more distinct kinds of reactions, either of formation or
of decomposition, it may be consistently represented by formule deriving _
from a corresponding number of distinct types.

Benzamide is a substance of this nature. Its formation by the reaction of
chloride of benzoyle, or of benzoate of ethyl, upon ammonia, its decomposi-
tion by alkaline hydrates, and many other reactions, all characterize it as de-
riving from the type ammonia; accordingly it is commonly represented by

the formula
Cc’ H’O
H N.

H
But when acted upon by pentachloride of phosphorus, it is decomposed pre-
cisely as though it derived from the type water, and gives rise to the chloride
of a radicle containing nitrogen, chloride of benzamidyl§, C’ H® NCI. The
rational formula of benzamide which results from this reaction is
7 6 NI
e iy s } O, deriving from the type if O. .

The substance described by Williamson || as chlorohydrated sulphuric acid,
S H O*Cl, may, in like manner, be represented either as a chloride or asa
hydrate. Represented as a chloride, it takes its place in the following series
of compounds containing the same radicle :—

Chloride.... SH O*,Cl, Chlorohydrated sulphuric acid.

Hydrate .... = _ } O, Sulphuric acid.

* Wurtz, Ann. Chem. Pharm. cvii. 194.

+ Ulrich, Ann. Chem. Pharm. cix. 268; Chem. Soc, Quart. Journ. xii. 23,

+ Chiozza, Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] xxxvi. 102.

§ Gerhardt, Traité de Chimie Organique, iv. 762; Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] xlvi. 172,
|| Proc. Roy. Soc. vii. 11. q Comp. Schiff, Ann, Chem, Pharm, cii. 144,

6 REPORT—1859.

3
Potassium-salt : e } O, Acid sulphate of potassium.
Miner’? se4 : rays } O, Sulphovinic acid.
S H O°
PANE 5:50:00 H N, Sulphamic acid.
H
R ; S ClO? ,
epresented asa hydrate, it becomes H O, and enters into the follow-

ing series :—
Chloride .... SCl10O’, Cl, Chlorosulphuric acid.

2
Hydrate..... : Fi ¥ \ O, Chlorohydrated sulphuric acid.
mide 3 S Cl O° , , ,
Potassium-salt K O, Rose’s sulphate of chloride of potassium.
Ether S ClO") ©, Chlorethylated sulphuric acid *
Peres C2 EP } ylated sulphuric acid *.

But the rational formula which Williamson gave for his compound was
neither of these, but a combination of them into one; namely,

Cl }
SO?
ike
This formula represents a substance at once a hydrate and a chloride, formed
Cl
from the double type Ht the two atoms of which are held together by
O
H ?

the diatomic radicle S O° replacing one atom hydrogen in each. It is obvious
that a substance so constituted would react either as a chloride or as a hy-
drate, according to the nature of the substances with which it was brought
in contact.

Until the discovery of chlorohydrated sulphuric acid, the idea of poly-
atomic radicles was confined to the replacement of two or more atoms of
hydrogen in one or more molecules of a single typical substance. ‘The
notion of mixed types, of which this substance afforded the earliest} illustra-
tion, has been applied by Kekulét, with remarkable ability, to explain the
constitution of a great number of highly complex substances.

Every substance which can be represented by a formula deriving from a
mixed type may also be represented by two or more formule, each deriving
from a siinple type, but containing a comparatively complex radicle. In all
cases the choice is open between complex types with simple radicles, and
simple types with complex radicles§.

* R. Williamson, Chem. Soc. Quart. Journ. x. 97.
t Odling, in a paper already quoted (Chem. Soc. Quart. Journ, vii.), represented hyposul-

penne Al elie st ome H2 :
phuric acid as SO? }o deriving from the type He oF , which, however, may be regarded as
H

a mere variation of the type io}
+ Ann, Chem. Pharm. civ. 129. § Comp. Kopp, Jahresber. 1857, 271.

ON THE STATE OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. vi

We may illustrate this by reference to a substance which has been men-
tioned above; namely, benzamide. We have shown how, according to the
particular reactions which we take into consideration, benzamide may be re-

C’H’O C’H'N
garded either asa nitride or as an oxide; as = N, or as H } oO.

Both of these formule derive from very simple types, but each contains a

somewhat complex radicle,—a radicle containing three different elements.

If, however, we combine these two expressions, and, by means of a poly-
3

atomic radicle, represent benzamide as deriving from the mixed type 72 9 } ’

H 3N
we obtain the formula devges i) ule
H’ }O
This is a more general expression than either of the other two, for it gives
us even more information as to the possible transformations and derivatives
of benzamide than both of them taken together. Corresponding formule
for the other members of the benzoic group may be obtained from it by
supposing the water or ammonia of the type replaced by other molecules.
For example :—

Hho
7Epyre
Benzoic acid ......-..+.----: Ae a ) of , type E a
H
: 5 Cl HC
Chloride of benzoyl...... vee (CUED)! { o> type te oO
H
H N H}> N
Chloride of benzamidyl ........ (C’H’)!" , type E ,
Cl H
Cl
H \w ih} N
n r (C" zy
Unknown analogue of acediamine H } , type LH ;
H aon
Product of the action of pen- Cl HCl
tachloride of phosphorus}.. (C’H’)'" 4 Cl, type Ec Cl,
on chloride of benzoyl*. . Cl HCl

a (C*H*y Ny type * HPN:

In all cases, formule derived from complex types and containing simple
radicles, are of a higher degree of generality than formule derived from
simple types and containing complex radicles. This will become evident
if we consider a little the real import of types and radicles. It is clear, in
the first place, that a formula derived from a single molecule of any given
type, only tells us that the body which it represents can undergo once over
the decompositions which characterize that particular type. If we want to
express that it can undergo the same decomposition twice or three times, we
must represent it as deriving from two, or from three molecules of the same
type. Or, if we want to express that it can undergo decompositions of two

* Schischkoff &,Rosing, Compt. Rend. xlvi. 367 ; Jahresber. 1858, 279.

8 REPORT—1859.

or more distinct kinds, we must give to it a formula derived from the com-
bination of the types corresponding to the decompositions in question ; that
is to say, the more numerous are the reactions which we take into account in
constructing the rational formula of any substance, the more complex must
be the type from which that formula is derived. Secondly, it is obvious that
complication of type involves simplification of radicles; for in any com-
pound, the greater the number of atoms which are regarded as belonging to
the type, the smaller the number left to constitute the radicle.

We see therefore that rational formule of the highest possible degree of
generality would contain radicles of the greatest possible degree of simplicity ;
that is, consisting of single atoms of the elementary bodies. And in the case
of every compound of which our knowledge is extensive enough for us to be
able to trace, through a series of reactions which affect it more and more
deeply, the successive separation of all its atoms, one from another, or the
process of the recombination of these atoms into the original compound, the
rational formula, which would express the sum of our knowledge respecting
it, would actually take the form we have mentioned.

In illustration of these remarks, we may consider briefly the known reac-
tions of acetic acid, and the way in which they may be expressed by rational
formule.

1. The relation of acetic acid to the acetates shows that it contains an
atom of hydrogen which can be separated from the other atoms. The rational
formula expressing this is

OPH OF.

2. In the decomposition of acetic acid by pentachloride of phosphorus,
and by pentasulphide of phosphorus, as well as in its conversion into aceta-
mide, one half of its oxygen is separated from it. Considering this result in
connexion with the formula deduced in (1), we obtain the formula

C?H°0.H.O CH S83
. U,; or H ?
which expresses that an atom of hydrogen, or an atom of oxygen, or both
together, may be separated from acetic acid, while the rest of its atoms remain
combined.

3. Acediamine, C? H® N*?*, acetonitrile, C?H® N, and the substance
C°H’ Cl’ (formerly terchloride of acetyl, but now without a name), are
derivatives of acetic acid in which it is represented by the triatomic radicle
C* H®. Hence the last formula must be replaced by

2 Bsyr 2
(C 7 ) or derived from the type Ho f >

4. There are many reactions in which a compound belonging to the car-
bonic group and one belonging to the methylic group are formed simul-
taneously from acetic acid or one of its derivatives, or in which an acetic
compound is formed synthetically from a compound of the carbonic group
and one of the methylic group. We may mention—

A) of decompositions, the formation of a carbonate and acetone by
the distillation of an alkaline acetate by itself, or of a carbonate and.
marsh-gas when it is distilled with an alkaline hydrate ; the electrolytic
decomposition of acetic acid; the formation of kakodyle; the produc-
tion of disulphometholic acid and carbonic anhydride by the action of
fuming sulphuric acid on acetonitrilet ; the decomposition of glycocol

* Strecker, Ann. Chem. Pharm. ciii. 328.
+ Buckton and Hofmann, Chem, Soc. Quart. Journ. ix. 243; Ann. Chem. Pharm. c. 133.

ON THE STATE OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 9

when distilled with baryta, into methylamine and carbonate of ba-
rium* :

(B) of formations, the production of acetate of soaium from so-
dium-methyl and carbonic anhydride+ ; of acetonitrile from iodide of
methyl or methyl-sulphate of potassium and cyanide of potassium.

To indicate the possibility of these reactions, we must break up the radicle
C? H®, contained in the last formula, into C.C H*. The formula of acetic
acid will then be

n°?
HH
LO
derived from the type | H by the replacement of one atom of hydro-
H
O

aa H
gen in the type H H by the monatomic radicle C H*, and the replacement
of the other atom together with all the hydrogen of one atom H°O, and half
the hydrogen in the second atom H?0, by the tetratomic radicle (C)".

5. The addition of one atom oxygen to the molecule of acetic acid has
the effect of rendering a second atom of hydrogen (see 1) separable from
the rest (production of glycolide, action of pentachloride of phosphorus) {.
We can express this by the formula

H }(CH*)"
(C)v to
; O

derived from the type

H B|
ao
HH
H
Hf?
H
Hl?

The addition of one atom oxygen to this formula would convert one of

the molecules of H H in the type into H?O. The formula of glycolic acid,

the substance formed by combining acetic acid with an atom of oxygen,
would therefore be

O
—
O a
—— —
ge hd ve hc ph HH
- m
cor| 10 erive ro H i
}O a
H H O
H .

* Cahours, Ann. Chim. Phys. (3) lili. 353. + Wanklyn, Ann. Chem. Pharm. cxi. 234.
t Acetic acid + 1 atom oxygen = glycolic acid. We may venture to affirm that gly-

colic acid would react like lactic acid with pentachloride of phosphorus.

10 REPORT—1859.

6. The addition of two atoms of oxygen to acetic acid produces a homo-
logue of glyceric acid, containing C* H*O**. We are justified by analogy in
assuming that in this compound three out of the four atoms of hydrogen are
separable from the carbon. The possible production of such a compound is
indicated by the formula

O derived from

Cr : Hg

7, cay HH
5
H}

7. The last formula expresses every possible decomposition of acetic acid
except the complete separation of its carbon and hydrogen, which occurs
when 1 of the latter is replaced by a metal and the remaining 3 by chlorine,
as in a metallic terchloracetate, or when acetic acid is completely oxidized
into carbonic anhydride and water. To express such reactions as these, in
connexion with those already considered, acetic acid must be represented as
built up of separate elementary atoms, without the subordinate combination
of even two of them into a compound radicle. For in the reactions which
have been enumerated, all the atoms of which acetic acid is composed, are
one by one separated from each other; so that not one of them remains
combined directly or indirectly with any of the rest. Hence the formula at
which we finally arrive, the most general that it is possible to give, is the
following :—

derived from

H
11°
or one of equivalent meaning.

In this formula all the atoms are represented as entering into combination
on an equal footing, and each in turn may be regarded as a radicle or part
of the type.

Before leaving the subject, it is worth while to point out that each set of
relations which we have successively considered, in order to generalize more
and more the formula of acetic acid, has in its turn been made the founda-
tion of a separate rational formula.

Upon the binary theory of acids, acetic acid receives the formula C* H*®
O*.H, which is the same in form and meaning as that given in (1). The
formula given by Williamson and Gerhardt (2) was intended to express the
relation of acetic acid to chloride of acetyl, acetamide, &c. Liebig’s for-

* Perkin and Duppa, Chem. Soc. Quart. Journ. xii. 6.

ON THE STATE OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 11

mula, C' H’, O°. HO*, indicates its connexion with C* H® C?’* (the old ter-

chloride of acetyl), aldehyde and other substances containing C* H°* (3)+-

Reactions of the kind mentioned in (4) led Kolbe to adopt the formula
H

HO.(C’ BYC*, O**,. Dumas wrote acetic acid C* HO’. HO*, to express
H

that that portion of the hydrogen which cannot be replaced by metals, can
be removed and replaced by other elements, e. g. chlorine (5, 6, and 7).
The formula which we have given as the most general of all is nothing more
than a combination of all these, and therefore enables us to recognize the
value of eacht.

Similar considerations applied to any of the derivatives of acetic acid would
lead us to adopt for them formule of the same degree of generality ; for
instance, for chloride of acetyl,—

Ht in|
H leoy H heey
H f :

J , and for acetamide (cy }(oy" :

(y*{ JO H} avy"

And in proportion as our knowledge of the genetic relations of any class
of compounds is increased, so will their rational formule approach more and
more nearly to the same form. All formulz which come short of this are
but imperfect descriptions of the bodies which they represent;-for it is
evident that a formula containing a compound radicle cannot represent re-
actions in which the elements composing that radicle are separated from
each other. Nevertheless, for the expression of those relations with which
we are most frequently concerned, and for the purposes of classification, it
would be of no advantage that the most general formulz should be employed.
The relation between any two compounds is best expressed by whatever
particular abbreviations of the general formule represent most simply and
distinctly the extent of their similarity and difference; while, for purposes
of classification, it is essential that all bodies should receive formule of a
comparable degree of generality ; and in the majority of cases, the possible
degree of generality is but small. Hence Gerhardt's formule, since they
express just those reactions with which we are most familiar, and can be
applied to every compound of which we can be said to have any chemical
knowledge at all, are better adapted than any others to the ordinary require-
ments of science in its present state.

On the other hand, it cannot be doubted that the chemical character of
every substance is affected in a certain definite degree by each separate atom
that it contains. And the only way by which we can hope ultimately to
ascertain the true chemical value of the elements, or, in other words, to trace
the full connexion between the properties and composition of compounds, is
by comparing, when possible, (what we may call) their elementary formule.
Moreover, we ought not to forget that any classification of chemical com-
pounds, which is not founded upon the consideration of their elementary
formula, that is, upon the consideration of their dotal reactions, however

*C=6,H=1,0 =8.

+ Schischkoff, Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] xlix. 355, has represented acetic acid by precisely
the same formula as that given in (3).

t For a list of nineteen different formule for acetic acid, see Kekulé, Lehrb. d. Organ,
Chem., p. 58.

12 REPORT—1859.

well it may correspond to any particular stage in the development of science,
can never be more than a temporary expedient, which must be replaced
sooner or later by a classification framed according to more general prin-
ciples.

The discoveries which have led to, or resulted from, the development of
the theory of polyatomic radicles, have caused a corresponding extension of
our notion of a chemical family or group. ‘The principal relations of com-
position which have hitherto been observed among compounds of the same
natural family and deriving from the same type, may be expressed by the
following formule, in which 2 and a are always whole numbers and z always
greater than x :—

1 al Slee Gey y ce noo O? ” oun * Kin 0%, 10 CO” yen +2) 0%,
+ 1) de suite °

2, sei telat tea 02, es C"H?"— 93, 8. CP yt) 04, 11. CO” yer—242) 0%,
8. CPE? O86. C" HH" 04, 9, C°H™"-*#9 OF, 19, C™ Ht) C9,

As a special example we may take the tritylic (or propionic) group, in
which as yet the number of known terms is more numerous than in any
other. Here »=3, x=0, and the above formule become

1. C?H*°O 4c C* HO® Ae TAO: 10. C® H? O*
?

Tritylic alcohol. Propionic acid. Pyruvic acid.

2, C* H’ O? 5. C* H’ O° SiC HO 11. C? H?O%

Tritylic glycol. Lactic acid. Malonic acid. Mesoxalic acid.
SAC aT OF 6:46 70" 9. C° H*0° 12. Cone
Glycerine. Glyceric acid. Tartronic acid. 2

The substances which these formule express are all hydrates,—alcohols
or acids. It will easily be understood that around each of them, considered
as a primary compound, a large number of derivatives,—ethers, anhydrides,
chlorides, nitrides, &c.—will arrange themselves. Thus, formula 1 repre-
sents, primarily, the monatomic alcohols. To the list of bodies belonging to this
class Berthelot * has recently added cholesterine, C*’ H* O (n=26,x=5) (?),
and Borneo camphor or camphol, C°H™*O (n=10, w=2). The first
of these substances is homologous with cinnamic alcohol, C’H’°O; the
second is as yet without homologues. Secondarily, it represents all bodies
which may be supposed to contain the same radicles as any actual or
possible monatomic alcohols. Here, therefore, come the simple and double
ethers, the chlorides, iodides and the like derived from monatomic alcohols ;
also the corresponding alkalies containing nitrogen, phosphorus, or arsenic ;
compounds containing metals, as kakodyl, zinc-ethyl, &c., and many other
bodies which these will serve to suggest.

Formula 2 (derived from 1 by the addition of an atom of oxygen) re-
presents the diatomic alcohols or glycols, and such other substances as may
be supposed to contain similar diatomic radicles. The substances belonging
to this class are—

(A) the glycols}, of which there are already known ethyl-glycol,
C* H’ O*, propyl-glycol, C® H® 0’, butyl-glycol, C* H” O*, amyl-glycol,
C’ H” O’, probably also anisic alcoholt, C* H* O°, and saligenine,

* Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] lvi. 51 (1859).

+ Wurtz, Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] lv. 400.

2 pent and Bertagnini, Ann, Chem. Pharm. xcyiii. 188 ; Chem. Soc. Quart, Journ.
ix. 190,

ON THE STATE OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 13

C7 H’ O°, and derivatives from them containing the same radicles ; and

(B) certain substances which behave as though they contained dia-
tomic alcohol-radicles, although the corresponding alcohols have not yet
been obtained. Among these latter we may mention iodide and biacetate
of methylene*; the substances obtained by Wicke+ and by Engel-
hardtt from chlorobenzol, substances which appear to be the methylate,
ethylate, acetate, valerate, benzoate, &c. corresponding to a still un-

i 6
known diatomic alcohol, C Hef O*, isomeric (or identical?) with sali-

genine, to which it also seems probable, from the experiments of Engel-
hardt§ and Borodine||, that hydrobenzamide, C? H™® N?’, stands in the
same relation that, as has been shown by Hofmann, Cloéz’s so-called
propylia (properly terethylenamine) does to glycol, or as terethylamine
does to alcohol.

Formula 3 (derived from 2 by the addition of an atom of oxygen) is
representative of glycerine, its derivatives, and their analogues. Among
compounds comparable to the derivatives of glycerine are chloroform and
analogous substances, such as terchloride of acetyl, C? H’ Cl’, and the sub-
stance C‘ H’ Br’ obtained by the action of excess of bromide of phosphorus
on butyric acid** ; also the cyanides of the alcohol-radicles if regarded as

2 73\"
derivatives of ammonia ; acediamine, (Cc oe \ N’; Schischkoft’s ++ terni-

troaceto-nitrile, (C? (NO*)*)" N, and the substance formed from it by the
action of sulphydric acid, having the composition of binitro-acediamine,

2 2\2\rrr
eH a? ) tw (“ Dinitrammonyl der Essigsturereihe”), and various

substances formed by the reaction of pentachloride of phosphorus with
monatomic amides, which will be referred to hereafter. :

Formula 4 (derived from 1 by the substitution of O for H”) represents
monobasic acids containing O*, such as the acids of the acetic, acrylic and
benzoic series and their derivatives. To this class of bodies there has been
lately added by Dr. Hofmannft, sorbic acid, C’ H® O* (n=6, 7=2).

Formula 5 (derived from 4 by the addition of an atom of oxygen) re-
presents the acids homologous with carbonic acid, namely glycolic, C* H'* O°,"
lactic, C? H® O°, &c., and acids analogous to these, such as oxybenzoic,
C’ H® O°, with their derivatives. The list of these acids has recently been
increased by the addition of glyoxylic§§ acid, C? H* O° (n=2, a=1), buty-
lactic acid |||], C‘ H® O° (n=4, 2=0), and oxycuminic] 4 C* H® O° (x=10,
x=4).

(C? EH? oO)"
Among their derivatives are benzo-glycolic acid, C’H’O + O°, benzo-
H

(C2) H*O)!
lactic acid, C’ H’O O?, and, in a certain sense, such acids as chloracetic,

* Buttlerow, Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] liii. 313. + Ann. Chem. Pharm. cii. 356.

+ Chem. Gaz. 1857, 424. § Ann. Chem. Pharm. ex. 77. || Ibid. 78.
q Proc. Roy. Soe. ix. 150. ** Berthelot, Jahresber. 1858, 280.

tt Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] xlix. 320. Schischkoff and Rosing, Ann. Chem. Pharm. civ. 249.
+t Chem. Soc. Quart. Journ. xii. 43.

§§ Debus, Ann. Chem. Pharm. c. 1; cii. 29.

||| Wurtz, Ann. Chem. Pharm. evii. 197 ; Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] lv. 456, 460.

{{ Cahours, Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] liii. 338.

i REPORT—1859,
Cl } Cl }

C? H’Cl0’=(C? H20)""? _ |, chlorobenzoie, | C7H*C10*=(C’H' Oy": |,
i: gia 2 @) Tigao fo,

»magiel
sulphacetic*, | C? H* SO°=(C* H’ O)" and

So?)
os ) }O

Hy jo
sulphobenzoic*, { C’ H® SO°=(C’ H* oy" ; also glycocol,
(S Q?)!!
a

alanine, leucine, benzamic acid, toluamic acid, cuminamic acid, &e. These
last-mentioned substances are intermediate in their properties between deri-
vatives of the type H* O and those of the type H* N; they must therefore

be regarded as deriving from the type HO , that is, as glycolamic, lacta-
§ § YP® +N sly

mic, oxybenzamic, oxytoluamic, &c. acids; (e.g.glycocolt, C* H® N O?=

iL O
(C* H’ oy") Hippuric and toluylurict acids then become respectively
H?

k; H H O
(cH oy2° and (C2 He oy!
CWO ly Care hy

iE! H

Formula 6 (derived from 5 by the addition of an atom of oxygen) repre-
sents triatomic acids containing O°, and their derivatives. The number of
substances which are certainly referable to this class is as yet very small;
glycerict acid, C’ H® O* (n=3, a=0), and its homologue, C* H* O* (n=2,
x=0), formed by the action of oxide of silver on a solution of bibromacetic§
acid, are examples.

Formula 7 (derived from 4 by the substitution of O for H*) represents
monobasic acids containing O°, and their derivatives; for instance, pyruvic
acid, C* H* O* (n=3, x=0), pyromeconic acid, C’ H® O° (n=5, x=1), py-
romucic acid, C’ H* O® (n=5, e=2).

Formula 8 (derived from 7 by the addition of an atom of oxygen) repre-
sents the important class of bibasic acids containing O*. This class includes
oxalic acid and its homologues and analogues. The most recently discovered
acids belonging to this group are malonic|| acid, C* H* O* (n=3,2=0),
lipicq acid, C’ H® O* (n=5, x=0), anchoic** acid, C’ H’’ O* (lepargic acid,
Wirz) (n=9, x=0), and insolinic}+t acid, C° H® Ot (n=9, a=4). Fumaric
acid, C* H* O*(n=4,#=1,), pyrocitric acid, C’ H’ O* (n=5,a#=1), and
eamphoric acid, C** H'® O* (n=10, e=1), also belong to this class.

Formule 9,10, 11, 12. Substances which we can confidently refer to any

* Comp. Kekulé, Ann. Chem. Pharm. civ. 141, 149; evi. 150.

t+ Kraut, Ann. Chem. Pharm. xcviii. 360.

t+ Debus, Ann. Chem. Pharm. evi. 79; Socoloff, ibid. 95.

§ Perkin and Duppa, Chem. Soc. Quart. Journ. xii. 6.

|| Dessaignes, Ann. Chem. Pharm. evii. 251.

q Wirz, ibid. civ. 278. ** Buckton, Chem. Soc. Quart. Journ. x. 166.
Tt Hofmann, ibid. ix. 210; Ann. Chem. Pharm. xevii. 197.

ON THE STATE OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 15

of these formule are rare. Tartronic acid, C’ H* O° (n=3, x=0), illustrates
formula 9; orsellic acid, C* H® O* (n=8, e=2), formula 10 ; mesoxalic acid,
C* H? O° (n=3, 2=0), formula 11 ; and aconitic acid, C° H® O° (n=6, x=1)
and chelidonic acid, C’ H* O° (n=7, x=3), formula 12.

By comparing these twelve formulz, it will be seen that 2 and 3 differ
from 1 by containing respectively one and two atoms more oxygen, and that
the same relation also exists among 4, 5, and 6; among 7, 8, and 9; and
among 10, 11, and 12; and further, that 4, 7, and 11 respectively differ from
1 by the substitution of O for H*, of O° for H’, and of O° for H", and that
the same relations are repeated among 2, 5, 8 and 11, and among 3, 6, 9
and 12. That is, the substances represented by the formule in the second,
third, and fourth columns are oxygen substitution-products of the substances
represented by the formule in the first column, and of these latter substances,
the second and third are formed from the first by direct oxidation. Hence
all the twelve members of the group are genetically connected with the first
member. Comparing the chemical function of each with its composition and
corresponding place in the group, we see that the formule in the top line re-
present monatomic compounds, those in the second line diatomic compounds,
and those in the third line triatomic compounds. Formula 1 represents mon-
atomic alcohols, and 4, 7, and 10 monobasic acids ; formula 2 represents di-
atomic alcohols, and 5, 8, and 11, diatomic* or bibasic acids; formula 3
represents triatomic alcohols, and 6, 9, and 12 triatomic or terbasic acids.

From these considerations it will easily be seen how such a group might
be extended so as to include tetratomic compounds, or substances in which
more than six atoms hydrogen are replaced by oxygen. Such substances are
hitherto so rare, that it does not seem worth while to complicate the general
scheme of a chemical group by including their formule. Instances of both
classes of compounds are, however, already known. Of the former class
(tetratomic compounds), the following substances (which arrange themselves
around an imaginary tetratomic alcohol, C H* O* (n=1, 2=0), containing
the radicle (C)'’), are examples:—bichloride of carbon, C Cl’, and Hofmann’s

(C° H’)’
eyantriphenyldiaminet, C* H N’= ~—-H*_s-+}- N’, obtained by its action on
(C)v

phenylamine ; also, in a certain sense, all cyanogen compounds, and therefore

(CP Hy
such substances as melaniline, C’? H N’= H* }+N*. Debus’s_ glyco-
' (C)*
(Cf avd
sine}, C’ H® N'=(C? H*)" +} N*, may be regarded as a tertiary tetramine de-
(C’ 5 tg

rived from another unknown tetratomic alcohol, C* H’ O* (n=2, x=0),
homologous with the foregoing. Several saccharine substances, for instance,

* Acids may be diatomic, or even triatomic, while in a strict sense they are monobasic.
The acids of the glycolic series illustrate this distinction. These acids are monobasic; for
they contain only one atom of hydrogen which is replaceable by metals; but at the same
time they are diatomic, for they form acid amides (glycocol, &c.), chlorides containing Cl*,
and intermediate chlorohydrates containing 1 atom chlorine. As Kekulé has pointed out
(Lehrbuch d. organ. Chemie, 1859, p. 130), they are precisely intermediate in respect of
basicity (as well as of composition) between the glycols and the acids of the oxalic series.
Thus, glycol easily exchanges two atoms of hydrogen for acid-radicles, glycolic acid ex-
changes one atom of hydrogen for acid-radicles (formation of benzoglycolic acid) and one
atom for metals, while oxalic acid exchanges two atoms of hydrogen for metals, but none at
all for acid-radicles,

+ Hofmann, Proc. Roy. Soc. ix. 284, t Debus, ibid. 297.

16 REPORT—1859.

glucose and inannitane, have been shown by Berthelot* to have the function
of polyatomic alcohols, and are probably more than triatomic. Of the latter
class, meconic acid, C’ H* O", is an example: it may be regarded as deriving
from an unknown triatomic alcohol, C’ H” O° (n=7, x=2), by the substitu-
tion of O* for H’.

Comparing together the corresponding compounds of different groups,
chemists have long been accustomed to arrange them in homologous + series,
or series in which there is a common difference between any two neighbour-
ing terms of CH*. The discoveries of late years make it appear probable
that series of similar compounds also exist in which the common difference
is H*. Such series have been called isologoust. The following pairs of
compounds are isologous with each other :—tritylic alcohol, C* H® O, and
allylic aleohol, C’ H® O; propionic acid, C* H° O*, and acrylic acid, C* H* O?;
valeric acid, C’ H*° O°, and angelic acid, C’ H® O°; caproic acid, C’ H* O?,
and sorbic acid, C° H® O* (difference=2H’); sebacie acid, C’? H® O*, and
camphorie acid, C’*° H’’ O*.

If we confine ourselves to the comparison of bodies of the same chemical
function, we can seldom find more than two or three which belong to the
same isologous series; but if we compare together entire groups, we per-
ceive the existence of considerable numbers of groups isologous with each
other. It would be easy to render this evident by constructing a Table in
which the various groups corresponding to differences in the values of m and
x should be arranged so as to show at a glance their mutual relations of
homology and isology ; the groups corresponding to variations in the value
of n, while that of a remains constant (homologous groups), being arranged
in the same vertical column; and those which correspond to the same value
of n, but to various values of x (isologous groups), in the same horizontal
line, or wiee versd.

Gerhardt, in his ‘ Traité de Chimie Organique,’ arranges all the chemical
groups, which he includes in his scheme of classification, about two primary
homologous series,—the acetic series and the benzoic series. In Kekulé’s
‘Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie,’ an arrangement is adopted which is
intermediate between that of Gerhardt and the classification in homologous
and isologous series described above. Kekulé takes as the basis of his
arrangement, the three primary series of homologous hydrocarbons, of which
the first terms are— :

Series I. C? H' Curr Boel ey C Re
Ethylene. Propylene. Butylene. Amylene.
Series II. Clay CT i? C*? H”
Benzole. Toluole. Xylole.
Series III. Cane
Naphtaline.

It will be seen that there is a common difference of C* H? between the first
terms of each of these series, and that, between the terms of the three series

* Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] xlvii. 297; Jahresber. viii. 678.

+ Schiel, Ann. Chem. Pharm. xiii. 107 (1842), first pointed out the existence of sub-
stances possessing similar properties and differing in composition by C H?, or a multiple
thereof. This relation was afterwards shown by Gerhardt, Précis de Chimie Organique,
(1844-45), to be of very frequent occurrence, and was distinguished by him by the name
* Homology.’

} The word ‘isology’ is used by Gerhardt (Traité, i. 127) in a somewhat less restricted
sense. Gerhardt calls substances isologous which have the same chemical function, but
which do not present the relation of homology; e.g. acetic acid, C? H*O?, and benzoic
acid, C” H® 0°,

ON THE STATE OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. a7

which contain the same quantity of hydrogen, there is a common difference
of C*.

It can only be decided by the progress of discovery which of these modes
of classifying chemical groups is the most accurate expression of their
mutual relations.

If from the point of view which we have now reached, we look back at
Gerhardt’s system of types of decomposition, we see that almost all the ad-
vances which have been made in theoretical chemistry, since that system
was proposed, are included in the development and systematizing of the idea
of polyatomic radicles, an idea, which was to some extent adopted by Ger-
hardt, but which it could easily be shown was not followed out by him with
perfect consistency.

In conclusion of our account of the recent advances of organic chemistry,
we may enumerate some of the most important reactions, or methods of
transformation, which, within the last four or five years, have been shown to
be applicable to the compounds of various groups, or which, from their nature,
appear to be capable of such a general application. ‘They may be divided
for this purpose into—

(1.) Heterologous transformations, or transformations in which there is a
change of chemical functions, but in which the new substances produced
belong to the same chemical group as the substances from which they are
formed. (II.) Homologous transformations, or transformations in which
there is a passage from one group to another homologous with it. (III)
Isologous transformations, or the passage from one group to another which is
isologous with it.

I. Heterologous transformations. Several transformations of this kind have
been already referred to as enabling us to pass from monatomic to polyatomic
compounds, and vice versd. We may mention further—

(A) The conversion of ethylene and its homologues into the correspond-
ing monatomic alcohols by combining them with acids, and the subsequent
decomposition by water, or by alkaline hydrates, of the compounds thus
formed* ; e.g.—

C?H‘+H’?SO* = C’?H*SO*
Ethylene. Ethylsulphuric acid.
C’ H°+HCl sai Cl HCL
Propylene. Chloride of trityl.

(B) The formation of nitrogen compounds containing zinc (as zinc-amide,
nitride of zinc, phenyl-zinc-amide, &c.) by the action of zinc-ethyl on the
derivatives of ammoniat; e. g.—

CH Zn+CH'N = C’?H'+C’H'ZnN
Zinc-ethyl. Phenylamine. Hydrideof Phenyl-zinc-
ethyl. amide.

(C) The substitution of ethyl and methyl for chlorine in combination
with phosphorus and arsenic by the action of zinc-ethyl or zinc-methyl on
terchloride of phosphorus or of arsenict ; e. g—

Ce ZnO P= SCP 7n4+(C* Beye.
Zinc-ethyl. Teretliyl-
phosphine.

(D) The similar substitution of ethyl and methyl for chlorine or iodine

* Berthelot, Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] xliii. 385; li. 81.

t+ Frankland, Proc. Roy. Soc. viii. 502,
~ = Hofmann and Cahours, Chem. Soc. Quart. Journ. xi. 56; Ann, Chem, Pharm. civ. 1 ;
Ann. Chim, Phys, [3] li. 5.

ule

18 REPORT—1859.

in combination with mercury, lead, &c., or with the so-called organo-me-
tallic compounds* ; e. g.—

C’H’Zn+ClHg = C’H’Hg+ClZn.
Zinc-ethyl. Mercury-ethyl.
C’ H’Zn+C’ H’Hg?I = (C’H’)?Hg?+ZnI
Zinc-ethy]. Iodide of Mercury-ethyl.
mercurous ethyl.
3
CH Zn+CH'SnI = ©, Hf Sn+ZnI
Zinc- Todide of Stanattiyl
methyl. —_stanethyl. wets

(E) The substitution of potassium and sodium for zine in combination
with methyl or ethyl+:—

2(C?H?Zn)+Na? = 2(C?H’Na)-+Zn?
Zinc-ethyl. Sodium-ethyl.
(F) The formation of binoxides of organic radiclesf ; e. g.—
2(C” H’ OC1)+ Ba?O? = (C’H’O)’0*+2BaCl
Chloride of benzoyl. Binoxide of benzoyl.

(G) The conversion of aldehydes into the corresponding alcohols and
acids by the action of alcoholic potash§; e.g.—

2C°H?O+KHO = C'H*'O+C’ H’ KO?

Benzoic Benzylic Benzoate of
aldehyde. alcohol. — potassium.
9C?° H*® O +KHO = (Gi H® Oo+C” H* KO?
Camphor. Campholic Camphate of
alcohol. potassium.

(H) The formation of acediamine by the action of heat on hydrochlorate
of acetamide || :—

H = H
cle col omy CHM
¥
H }0O Hy £0 = i!
Acetamide. Acetamide. — Acediamine. Acetic acid.
This reaction is interesting, as illustrating simultaneously the connexion
of acetamide with the derivatives of ammonia and with the derivatives of
water. Of the two atoms of acetamide which take part in the formation of

acediamine, one reacts as an amide, the other as a hydrate. The following
is a comparable reaction :—

Cl Cl , 2)
soy’ +(sory"! = (gory cre4. (80%) bor
(SOY, HS", = (Soyrors GE

Chlorohydrated Chlorohydrated Chlorosul- Sulphuric
sulphuric acid. sulphuric acid. phuric acid. acid.

(I) The action of chloride of phosphorus on amides, and the formation
thereby of a new class of chloronitrides] ; e. g.—

* Buckton, Proc. Roy. Soc. ix. 309; Frankland, Proce. Roy. Soc. ix. 672.
T Wanklyn, Ann. Chem. Pharm. cviii. 67.
{ Brodie, Proc. Roy. Soe. ix. 361; Ann. Chem. Pharm. cyiii. 325.

§ Cannizzaro, Ann. Chem. Pharm. Ixxxviii. 129; Kraut, ibid. xcii. 66; Berthelot, Ann.
Chim. Phys. [3] lvi. 79. 4

|| Strecker, Ann. Chem. Pharm. ciii. 325.

{| Gerhardt, Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] xlvi. 172; Iii. ; Limpri °
on thee ee ys. (3] xlvi. 1 »; lil, 302; Limpricht and V. Uslar, Aun,

ON THE STATE OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 19

H ie) Cl }
(Cc HS)!" (CoH)! +H C14 PO CH.
ag Yt Sa © Oa 2
Benzamide. Chloride of benzamidyl
(Gerh.).
C’ H°N?SO°+PCI® = C’H'N’?SO*CI+HCI+PO Cr
Sulphobenzamide. Chloride of sulphobenzamidyl.

H? .
(Sulphobenzamide may be derived from the quadruple type H*?O } by
2(H°’ N)
the substitution of the tetratomic radicle (C’ H*)*’ for a and the biatomic

(OH 7 C’ Ht mt O
radicle (SO*)" for H?; its formula then becomes n{ (Ss oy" by" . The action
HH

of chloride of phosphorus upon it is to replace the H* O of the type by HCl;
the product of this action may be written
HCl

(eee } APS

(C Ht) t HH
ype
w {ts o"y" by? N {HH }N.)
HH
(K) The formation of aldehydes from their corresponding acids by distill-
ing their alkaline salts mixed with an alkaline formate* ; e. g—

Un KROTCAKO => UH OSCR O
Benzoateof Formate of Benzoic Carbonate of
potassium. potassium. aldehyde. potassium,

(L) The substitution of hydrogen for compound radicles contained in
organic bases ; ¢. g.—

CH’ . H
CHS‘N+HO = CH YNICHO
CAH’ C? H’ Phenylic
Diethylphenylamine. Diethylamine. alcohol.

H H )
C?H’+}N+H?O = H $+C?H°O
C’ H° CH Alcohol.

Diethylamine. Ethylamine.

H a H

H >N+H’*?O = H >N+C’?H*°O
Cin) H Alcohol.
Ethylamine.

II. Homologous transformations.

(A) The combination of carbonic anhydride with the compounds of in
alcohol radicles with alkali-metalst; e.g.—

* Piria, Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] xviii. 113 ; Ann. Chem. Pharm. c. 104; Limpricht, Ann.
Chem. Pharm. xevii. 368; Amn. Chim. Phys. [3] xlviii. 118.
+ Matthiessen, Proc. Roy. Soc. ix. 118, 635.
} Wanklyn, Ann. Chem. Pharm. cvii. 125; exi. 234; Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] liii. 42. The
above reaction corresponds closely with that of sulphurous anhydride on zinc-methyl :—
CH? Zn+S0? = CH? ZnSO?
Zinc-methyl. Methylodithionate of zinc.
Hobson, Chem. Soc. Quart. Journ. x. 243; Ann, Chem. Pharm. evi. 287. :
c2

20 REPORT—1859,
CH? Na+ CO? = C? H* NaO?

Sodium-methyl. Acetate of sodium.
(B) The supposed formation of methyl compounds from acetone* ; e.g.—
CHO+0 = CHO
Acetone. Acetate of methyl.
(C) The formation of complex hydrocarbons (ethylene, propylene, amy-
lene, benzine, naphtaline, &c., by the action of heat on organic substances of
simpler constitution. Synthesis of organic compounds).

Ill. Lsologous transformations.

(A) The conversion of glycerine into iodopropylene, and of the latter into
allylic alcohol { :—

9(C? H°1)+Ag?C? 0! = 2AgI+(C* H*)?C? Ot

Iodopropylene. Oxalate of Oxalate of allyl.
silver.
(C? H’)? C2 O'4-2N H® = 2C?H*0+C?H!* N? 0?
Oxalate of allyl. Allylic Oxamide.
alcohol.

(B) The production of cinnamie aldehyde from acetic and benzoic alde-
hydes§ :—
C? H‘O+C’ H°O=C’ H*0+H’O
Acetic alde- Benzoic Cinnamic
hyde. aldehyde. aldehyde.

(C) The production of cinnamic acid from chloride of acetyl and benzoic
aldehyde || :—
C? H*OCI+C’ H*O=C?’ H*0’+ HCI.
Chloracetyl. Benzoic Cinnamic
aldehyde. acid.

Throughout the foregoing Report Gerhardt’s atomic weights have been
used without discussion; for it seemed superfluous to enumerate once more
the reasons for adopting them, which, as the science advances, become more
and more numerous and conclusive§. It may, however, be expected that
some notice should be taken of such objections as have been recently made
against this system.

Within the last few years three different chemists have, for very different
reasons, proposed to modify Gerhardt’s atomic weights, but they all agree in
adopting the doubled atomic weight of carbon, while they reject the doubled

® Friedel, Ann. Chem. Pharm. cvii. 174; cviii. 388.

+ Berthelot, Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] liii. 69.

+ Hofmann and Cahours, Chem. Soc. Quart. Journ, x. 316; Ann. Chem, Pharm. cii. 285 ;
Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] 1. 432.

§ Chiozza, Ann. Chem. Pharm. xevii. 350.

|| Bertagnini, Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] xlix. 376.

J Some recent experiments nevertheless tend to show that the atomic weights assigned
by Gerhardt to some of the metals ought to be doubled. For instance, the vapour-density
of zinc-ethyl (Frankland, Ann. Chem. Pharm. xcv.), the way in which zinc combines with
iodide of ethyl (similar to the combination of oxygen with zinc-ethyl, Zn?+-C? H5 [= C? H®
Zn21, and O+4-C? H5 Zn=C? H5O Zn), the vapour-density of mercury-methyl and of mer-
cury-ethyl (Buckton, Proc. Roy. Soc. ix. 92, 311), and the combination of mercury with

~iodide of ethyl (forming C? H® Hg? 1), seem to show that the atomic weights of zinc and mer-
cury are twice as great as they were adopted by Gerhardt. Similar reasons may be urged in
favour of doubling the atomic weight of tin, as recommended some time since by Odling
(Phil. Mag. [4] xiii. 434). As these points, however, belong to inorganic chemistry, we
cannot do more than simply refer to them here.

ON THE STATE OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 21

atomic weight of oxygen: we refer to Limpricht*, Kolbey, and Coupert.
The first of these chemists founds his objection to the greater atomic weight
of oxygen upon the fact that some salts crystallize with a quantity of water
containing an odd multiple of 8 parts of oxygen. To this it may be
answered, that the function of water in crystallized salts is not sufficiently
well understood to warrant our drawing conclusions of any importance from
the quantity of it contained in any particular substance, and that no reason
has yet been shown why several atoms of a salt should not crystallize with
one atomof water, as well as several atoms of water with one atom of a salt.

The objections of Kolbe are founded on more general considerations. By
comparing the composition of the so-called organo-metallic bodies with that
of the inorganic compounds of the metals which they contain, he came to
the conclusion that the metallic oxides are typical of the compounds of the
metals with organic radicles.

For instance, taking the atomic weight of oxygen at 8, and writing oxide
of zinc and arsenious anhydride ZnO and AsO?’ respectively, we get the
following comparison of formula :—

Oxide of zinc ZnO Arsenious anhydride As O°
Zine-ethyl .. ZnEt=ZnC’ H’ | Oxide of arsenomo-
nomethyl ...... AsO? Me = As0*CH®

Oxide of kakodyl.. AsO Me*’= As OC*H®
Termethylarsine .. AsMe* =AsC*’H’.

Admitting the accuracy of such formule, it was natural to extend similar
views to those compounds of carbon which do not contain metals. Accord-
ingly, Kolbe regards carbonic anhydride C 0*, the highest known oxide of
carbon, as the type of a large number of other carbon-compounds. Accord-
ing to him, the replacement of 1 atom oxygen in carbonic anhydride by 1
atom hydrogen, or ] atom of an alcohol-radicle, gives monobasic acids, such
as those of the acetic and benzoic series ; the like replacement of 2 atoms oxy-
gen gives aldehydes and acetones ; the replacement of 3 atoms oxygen gives
ethers; and lastly, the replacement of all the oxygen gives alcohol-radicles
and their hydrides. The following illustrations will make this clearer :—

O
Type.. C} @
O
I. Il. IL. IV.
H CH* H CH H H H H
O O C H* CH* H H H H
C19°) of ©} 0 ©) o | ©) 8 ©) cH] o)H ©) B
O O O O O O H C H®
Formic Aceticacid Aldehyde. Acetone. Methylic Ether. Hydrideof Methyl.
acid (anhydrous). ether. methyl.
(anhy-
drous).

It must certainly be considered fortunate for the interests of science that
Professor Kolbe should himself have extended his theory to the purely
organic compounds of carbon; for these being the precise substances of

* Limpricht, Grundriss der organischen Chemie (1855).

+ Ann. Chem. Pharm. ci. 257. The same views were also advocated by Frankland in a
lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, May 28th, 1858. (See Journ. Roy. Instit.)

t Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] iii, 469; Ann. Chem. Pharm. cx. 46.

22 REPORT—1859.

which our knowledge is the most complete, the application of the theory to
them makes it possible to arrive at a more certain conclusion as to its value,
than would be the case were it confined to the substances to which it was
originally applied. Respecting the above and similar formule, it may he
observed,— ‘ :

1. That, leaving out of view the substances under discussion, there is no
reason to believe that the oxygen in carbonic-anhydride can be divided into
more than two parts; there is no evidence that carbonic anhydride contains
more than two atoms of oxygen.

2. That there is no similarity, nor definite gradational difference of proper-
ties, between the type C O* and the substances represented as deriving from it.

3. Two out of the four formule given above, namely the first and third,
are in direct opposition to Gerhardt’s atomic weights; we know, however,
that they represent only half an atom of the bodies to which they are
assigned.

Views respecting the nature of chemical affinity have induced Couper to
adopt 8 as the atomic weight of oxygen. He, however, finds that, owing to
a peculiar tendeney which oxygen possesses to combine with oxygen, the
smallest quantity of it which ever enters into combination is twice 8. This
being admitted, it seems a matter of minor importance whether the smallest
combining proportion of oxygen should be represented by the symbol
O=16, or by the symbol O°=16.

September 10, 1859.

Report on the Growth of Plants in the Garden of the Royal Agricultural
College, Cirencester. By James Buckman, F.S.4., F_L.S., F.G.S.,
&c., Professor of Natural History, Royal Agricultural College.

Tue following notes are upon experiments which have been completed or are
still.in progress in the experimental garden of the Royal Agricultural College,
and this Report is furnished at the instance of the Natural History Section,
the experiments having been made the subject of a grant from the funds of
the British Association.

It is hoped that the present Report will show the desirability of continuing
experiments upon plants, as whatever effect they may have upon our theore-
tical views, I think it will clearly be seen that many practical matters of great
importance are involved in inquiries of this kind, and I shall therefore not
detain the Section with any lengthened introduction, but at once ask for a kind
and considerate attention to the following notes :—

The cultivation of flax or lintseed offers such interesting matter to the na-
turalist, as being of importance in an economic and agricultural point of view,
that we cannot help detailing some experiments connected therewith.

Plot A was sown in drills with a pure sample of linseed grown on the farm
of the Royal Agricultural College. :

Plot B was sown with a like weight of seed uncleaned, it therefore con-
sisted of full half its weight of weed-seeds. :

Plot C was sown with a like weight of pure seed as in plot A, to which was
afterwards added a good sprinkling of dodder-seed, viz. Cuscuta epilinum.

These beds were left unmolested, not even being weeded. The seed
became ripe in the middle of August, at which time the following observa-
tions were noted upon each of them :—

ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 23

Average height |___Pr0Portionals
in inches. of fibre. hacks
Plot A. Regular in the rows, and clear of weeds . . 36 50 50
Plot B. Irregular, flax sparse, weeds plentiful. . . . 34 20 25
Plot C. Borne down to the ground with dodder, and
most of the flax stems rotting. ......-+... 32 15 20

Hence, then, in as far as the economics of the question are concerned, we
may safely conclude that the sowing of dirty flax-seed at any price is disad-
vantageous, and this not only that the resulting crop, if not quite ruined, is
certain to be diminished in quantity and injured in quality, but, as ill weeds
grow apace, all the sorts growing with the flax had sown much of their seeds
before the flax-seed itself had ripened, so that a succession of weeds is by this
means entailed upon the farm from generation to generation.

As regards the plot with dodder, the object of sowing these together was
for the purpose of observing with my Class the manner in which the parasite
became attached to its foster-parent, and I therefore offer the following
remarks upon the growth of the Cuseuta epilinum, not as containing any new
results, but as offering an example of the kind of experiments followed out

in my botanical garden.
In about four days after the seed of the dodder was sown, a few whitish

thread-like germs of about Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
three lines in length were q
seen protruding from the . As ’
soil, some of these being

quite free, others crowned \/
with the seed testa. Three
days afterwards the flax
came up, and the dodder Va
might then have been seen, f

as in the accompanying y, f
fig. 1, bending its germ g

towards a flax-plant; by
this time it has doubled
in length; and if the flax- \ I
plant be far away, it seems 7
to be endowed with the
power of growing to as
much as an inch in length
in order to reach it, whilst
in experiments of dodder
seed sown by itself, the
germs were always short | |

PAA;

and soon withered; but on
inserting other plants in
the same pot, they became i

attached tothem,as Radish, __eeph beg a be ES
Tomato, Groundsel, and 9 °°" pene

Chickweed were all in this way attacked by the dodder amongst which
young plants were inserted; and in one case, where a pot of growing flax
dodder was placed near a Sedum in my conservatory, the latter was attacked,
and the dodder grew upon it most vigorously.

In a short time after the germination of the dodder and the flax, the

24 REPORT—1859.

former reaches the latter, when it makes one or two coils round the flax stem,
as shown in fig. 2, when immediately small cells begin to develope themselves
inside the dodder coils ; these form aérial roots which soon penetrate the flax,
which is now growing in size and height. It is now incorporated with the
circulation of the foster-parent ; its own radicle is no longer required in con-
nexion with the soil, and so the whole dodder plant is elevated by the flax,
as shown in fig. 3.

When this attachment is completed it pushes forth new fibres, each of
which behaves like the parent germinal fibre Fig. 4.
and attacks any plant growing near, so that j
we need not wonder at clusters of dodder
rapidly advancing in the flax crop where it
is sown. Our fig. 4 represents the advance
in growth of a single dodder plant ve days
after its attachment.

Plot D.—This is Linum perenne, before
reported upon; it still keeps up its character,
and is a fine upright perennial flax bearing
one large and a second smaller crop of stems
annually ; however, from thus overgrowing,
the plants are gradually wearing out.

Plot E is from the seed of the above; it
has the same appearance, but is not yet so
vigorous and tall in growth. Seed is sowed
from this to carry on experiments.

Plot F. Rosa spinosissima (L.).

Plot G. Rosa Doniana (Woods).

I procured specimens of these two forms
of Rose from the neighbourhood of Worces-
ter, in December 1857, having been taken to
their localities by my friend Mr. Edwin Lees.
The habitats of both these are much alike,
being on the margins of the old Severn
Straits, and they serve to mark the former
marine conditions which pertained until com-
paratively lately along the course of the
Severn into the Midland Counties.

Several specimens were forwarded to my
gardener and planted in a prepared border,
and at the present moment they present such
a uniformity of appearance and habit, with

true place of FR. Doniana is with the Rosa villosa, an arrangement, if
admitted, which will go far in my opinion to reduce most of the species
(of authors) of this genus which we have in England to the inferior rank of
varieties, a conclusion which I have no doubt would be justified to a much
greater extent than even the “lumping” botanist is prepared for with care-
ful growth fiom seed, and we are hence collecting rose seeds for experiment,
in which we ask the aid of botanists for the rose forms of their localities.
Plot H. Viola odoruta.— All the roots in this plot turned out this year to be

ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 25

the lilac variety of V. odorata, much to the astonishment of my gardener
who planted most of them for V. hirta; however, as these were not planted
under my own superintendence, I cannot answer for the results, though I
quite think that Mr. Bentham’s remarks under the head of V. hirta, are not
without foundation; they are as follows :—“ Hairy Violet, Viola hirta, Linn.
Very near the sweet violet, and most probably a mere variety.” This seems
confirmed by the immense varieties on the Great Oolites and the Forest Marble
clays of this district, presented by both odorata and hirta. These then are
reserved as subjects for future experiment, to which end a quantity of seeds
are collected.

Plot I. Myosotis.—Some years since I was charmed with the appearance of
a tuft of Myosotis which I saw at my nurseryman’s, since which time I have
always had some of it in cultivation as early spring flower. My specimens
were allowed to seed on the ground, and the young plants are shifted about
when required for garden decoration, Now it is remarkable that the original
roots are perfectly perennial, but the seedlings at best are only sub-perennial.
In most the seed comes up the same summer that it has been scattered, and
flowers, seeds and dies the next spring, which indeed is precisely the habit
of Myosotis arvensis ; and hence | conclude that the original plants, if pro-
pagated by slips, the usual gardeners’ method, would be the M. sylvatica of
authors, the seedling the large-flowered form of M. arvensis. In other words,
I think these experiments tend to show that these two supposed species are
but varieties, an idea indeed which Sir W. Hooker seems to favour in the
5th edition of his ‘ British Flora.’

In as far as my experiments have progressed with these plants, I am
induced to adopt Mr. Bentham’s view, that the M. alpestris (Schmidt) is the
larger flowered form of M. sylvatica; for as the old stock of our favourite
seemed to be diminishing in the size and intensity of the colour of its flowers,
I have this year introduced some M. alpestris from a friend’s garden, and I
fully expect the seedlings of this to take on the following declension :—

M. palustris? (perennial).
M. alpestris (perennial).
M. sylvatica (sub-perennial and annual).

M. arvensis, fl. maxima (annual).
M. arvensis, fl. minor (annual).

Of the three last of these descents I am perfectly clear, and Mr. Bentham,
under the Myosotis sylvatica, has the following remarks :—“ It varies much
in size and stature; in lower shady situations, and in our gardens, the stems
will attain a foot or more in length with rather small flowers. The alpine
form, with larger flowers, is by some distinguished as a species under the
name of M. alpestris*.’—Handbook, p. 377.

In this genus then we may expect to find some interesting results from
experiments, as a further contribution to which end I hope to get seeds
of the M. palustris for garden culture, some experiments of this kind in a
garden I have left inclining me to think this water form as not so distinct
from the terrestrial ones as some may think.

Plot J. Datura Tatula, Purple Thorn-Apple.—The crop of this season is
from seed supplied by Butler of Covent Garden; it is at least twice the size
of that which was previously reported upon, and the flowers and whole plant

* This view is also shared by Mr. Babington.

26 REPORT—1859.

appear to be unusually dark in colour, in which it contrasts finely with the
following.

Plot K. Datura Stramonium, American Thorn-Apple.—Only three plants
have this year arrived at maturity, but its extreme whiteness is quite re-
markable when placed beside the D. Tatula, a crop, which, it will be remem-
bered, was formerly reported a ie almost destitute of colour.

Plot L. Dipsacus sylvestris (L. "

pee ete it mnlaetls

These, though distinguished by Linnzus and retained as species by Smith
and Hooker, are shown by my garden experiments to be but varieties; in-
deed, Sir W. Hooker, in speaking of the reflexed scales, says, “ These hooks
become obsolete by long cultivation in poor soil, and there is reason to
believe that D.fullonum is but a variety of D. sylvestris.” In this he has
been followed by other authors; as yet I am not aware of any direct obser-
vations upon the point, but my experiments upon the two forms enable me
to supply this.

In 1857 I had a plot each of Dipsacus sylvestris and D. fullonum flower-
ing, and at last ripening their seed side by side. ‘This seed became scat-
tered about the garden, and not having a distinct plot of teasels for botanical
illustration, a plot was made of the most vigorous plants which could be
selected from the self-sown examples without an attempt to discriminate the
different sorts, which indeed would have been impossible at this stage of
growth. Now the result at the time of my writing is very striking; there
are the true D. sylvestris with the straight scales, the D. fullonum with the
stiff reflexed hooks, and all intermediate stages, so that it is most difficult to
separate them, if indeed they are to be distinguished. In order, therefore,
to keep up the fulling apparatus of the teasel in perfection, it is important
that the plants be cultivated, as, letting them go wild, they revert to the use-
less form ; and strong land is also necessary to the growth of stiff hooks.

Plot M. Carduus tuberosus.—This plant, which I was fortunate enough to
discover in North Wilts, about the Avebury Circles, is the same as was
recorded some five-and-twenty years since, as existing at Great Ridge in the
south of that county, It has fora long time been lost to our flora, though a
few specimens were still in cultivation in the garden of my friend Mr. Cun-
nington of Devizes. ;

In August 1857 I brought home a few plants from Avebury, which made
some new shoots last year, but did not flower; they, however, had the cha-
racteristic tubers of a good size. These were parted, and now occupy the
plot as above.

As now seen in their wild habitat, the flower-stem is scarcely above a foot
high, with from two to four flowers each. In cultivation it has attained the
height of 3 feet, with a large mass of stems to each plant, bearing from six to
twelve flower-heads each: the flowers are very showy, and, like the tubers,
increase in size under cultivation. As this plant yields these tubers so
abundantly, I boiled some of them to ascertain if they were edible; and as
they are made up of feculent matter which proves to be tender and sweet to
the taste, I am not quite sure that this thistle might not be cultivated as a
vegetable to advantage.

Seeds of the plant have been saved for the purpose of experiment, as I
have not yet given up the idea of the hybridity of the Carduus tuberosus ;
and, with all its large flowers, I may observe that it seeds only sparingly.

Plot N. Carduus acaulis——By the side of the above are two varieties of
this plant occupying the same plot; one the normal stemless form, another
with stems as much as 2 feet high, each of which bears from four to eight

ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 27

heads of flowers. Mr. Bentham, in his ‘ Handbook of the British Flora,’ has
the following remark under the head of Carduus acaulis :—“ In some situa-
tions on the continent, the stem will grow out to 6 or 8 inches; but this
variety is very rare in England.” It is, however, common on the Cotteswolds,
with stems a few inches in length, and, as we have seen, this increases very
much under cultivation.

Plots O and P. Yellow Globe Mangel Wurzel.--The question is often
asked us by farmers and others, as to whether the leaves of this plant cannot
be used for feeding purposes, and so be plucked off from time to time as the
root is growing without prejudicing the amount of root-growth. Of these
plots, then, one has had all the external leaves removed twice during the
present season, and will be so served once more, the plot being left intact.
Already there is an immense difference in the size of the roots, those on the
stripped plot being at present not more than half the size of the others*.

In reference to this subject, I may refer to a like experiment which I carried
out in my garden in 1854. ‘Two plots of each of five sorts of mangel wur-
zel were sown side by side. Of these a plot of each was denuded of leaves
in the manner just indicated, the rest being left uninjured, and the following
Table will give the result :—

Table of Growth of Mangel Wurzel.

Proportionals.

Sorts. ss
Not stripped of outer leaves. | Stripped of outer leaves.

——

Red globe. .-+---+> 31:0 235
Yellow globe ...+..-- 45:0 18°5
Longred .......-- 49-0 180
Long yellow .....+-- 35°5 180
Long white .......- 32°5 19°5

Total .. 193°0 97°5

Here then it will be seen that the poorer the crop the less the injury done to
the leaves.

Plot Q. Indian Rape.—Some seed so called, obtained from a seedsman, was
sown in April in drills, but not a single specimen germinated, I have, how-
ever, been more successful with a sample obtained from a seed-crusher, as
four-fifths came up, and my samples are progressing towards maturity,
although not yet sufficiently far advanced to enable me to determine the
now important question of —What is Indian Rape? First, then, in order to
bespeak attention to this matter, it will be well shortly to review its points
of interest; of these the following extract from a trade circular will shortly
explain one :— '

“TJ have sold this day some India rape-seed for mixing with turnip-seed,
and enclose asample. If you will have some at 56s. per quarter in the docks,
you can have it, if unsold, to your answer.”

This, be it remembered, to mia with turnip-seed, which is sold at from 9d.
to 1s, per lb., a quarter being probably as much as 500 Ibs.—a good margin
for profit !

Drikes phase of the subject will be found in the Report of the Trial of
Greville versus Briggs, at the late Wells Assizes, in which damages were

* This experiment gave the following results :— lb. oz.
Plot O. Leaves removed, 21 plants weighed ........:sseserssseereee 24 44
Plot P. Leaves intact, 20 plants weighed ...cccsecccseseeeeeeees

28 REPORT— 1859.

sought and obtained for some cattle that were proved to have been poisoned
by rape-cake, the defence being that the cake in question was made from
Indian rape.

Now it would appear that very large quantities of this seed are sold annu-
ally, partly to the seedsman, but more to the seed-crusher; the former mixes
it with turnip-seed to adulterate it,—carefully preparing it, however, to pre-
vent germination, as in our turnip-drilling age, a false plant would be detected
in the rows*.

The seed-crusher mixes it with true rape in crushing for rape-oil, and so
the resulting cake appears to get poisonous properties in proportion to the
quantity of “Indian rape” present, the truth being that this seed has all
the properties of Sinapis arvensis—charlock mustard, which acts as an irri-
tant poison to the cattle.

Now, although we are not quite certain as to the specific identity of our
Indian rape plants, we incline to the notion that it is, if not true Sinapis
arvensis, as we know it in this country, a variety of this plant; but upon this
I shall be enabled to report more at length in another season.

Plot R. Brassica oleracea.—I this year gathered seeds of this wild cabbage
from Llandudno, N. Wales, and I have some just germinated; upon these I
hope to carry on a series of experiments for some years to come, with the
object of tracing the production of the well-marked varieties which this plant
is capable of producing.

Plot S. Trigonella Fanum-grecum.—The Fenugreek, as a plant which is
likely soon to occupy a great deal of attention, has formed a subject for
experiment, the object being to ascertain if this eastern plant would perfect
its seed in this country. My plot is now in full growth, and its abundance
of long-pointed legumes, full of all but ripened seeds, are satisfactory as to
the capabilities of the plant for cultivation in even exposed situations.

Fenugreek is now being extensively used as a flavouring ingredient for the
so-called ‘‘ Concentrated Cattle Foods ;” and though the notion of food being
concentrated by the addition of this plant is proved to be a fallacy, yet I
think there can be little doubt that even inferior pulse or grain may be
made more palatable by a flavouring principle; and it is a question of as
great importance to the well-being of our domestic animals as to ourselves,
whether nutrition is not increased by flavour.

The whole plant, but especially the seeds of the Fenugreek, contains a
chemical principle which has been named “ Cumarin,” which is described as
follows :—

* Cumarin, C,,H, O,, is found in Tonka Beans, in which it sometimes
appears in the shape of crystals; in the flowers and whole plant of Meli/otus ;
in Asperula odorata and Anthoxanthum odoratum, and probably in other
aromatic plants.’—Schlossberger’s ‘Organic Chemistry.’

Fenugreek is highly flavoured with cumarin; and as the presence of this
in some grasses, especially in Anthoxanthwm odoratum, is the cause of a good
flavour to hay, and for which horses always smell so carefully before eating,
there is every reason to believe that this principle is being extended to other
cattle foods, and in consequence the use of Fenugreek is rapidly extending.
Cattle-food manufacturers are starting up in every district, and with all of
them this plant is employed as the flavouring ingredient ; and it would appear
at a great profit; as food, which before mixing would be about £7 per ton, is

* Tn reference to this I may say that in Wales drilling of turnips is almost unknown, so
that preparation of false seed is not required, as these simply get looked upon as weeds
“natural to the soil;” but I saw the other day a patch of Swedes which had been drilled,
and I counted 96 plants of Charlock, and 4 only! of Swedes to each hundred in the rows.

ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 29

increased to a charge of somewhere about £42 per ton. Now if the system
of flavouring cattle food be found to answer and the principles just enun-
ciated are found to be correct, there need only be an addition of a few
shillings per ton as the cost of rendering cattle food more palatable and so
easier of digestion, and consequently of a higher nutritive value.

I am informed that the seeds have recently doubled in price in consequence
of their extended use ; but the experiment has shown that we can, if required,
grow it in this country.

Plots T, U, and V are occupied with vetches derived from the Vicia angus-
tifolia.

T. V. angustifolia, var. sativa. Spring crop.

. wv. 33 var. sativa. Winter crop.

Vv. V. rr formerly var. sativa, but being left wild as a perma-
nent crop, is again reverting to its wild form.

The facility with which wild vetches can be cultivated into new forms and
of exceeding rank growth is a matter fully settled by these experiments, and
they take so short a time to bring about, that they can be easily repeated by
any one.

Plot W. Scorzonera.

Plot X. Salsafy.

These were both drilled from old seed, and their paucity of plants offers
good instruction in relation to this subject. In an agricultural point of
view, nothing can be considered more objectionable than want of care in
this respect. Though these are plants of the same family, there has been a
great difference in the germination of their five-year old seed.

Of Scorzonera came up about 2 per cent.

OF Salsafy came up about 10 per cent.

The plants, however, look well and healthy.

These are amongst the good vegetables which the comparatively flavour-
less and innutritious potato has displaced.

Plot Y. Dioscorea Batatas, Potato Yam.—These plants have this year
been elevated on high ridges, but do not grow vigorously in the exposed
experimental garden. However, in my own private garden in the town,
whieh is surrounded by high walls and well-sheltered, my crop promises to
be better than usual, and I shall look forward to the produce with some
interest.

Plot Z. Tamus communis, Black Bryony, as being an allied plant, is now
the subject of experiment. This year’s crop is from seed sown last summer ;
they are a little larger in the tuber than peas. These will soon be taken up
and stored for plantation in the same manner as the preceding; whether
the feculent black bryony root can be made edible remains to be proved

Plot A’. Parsnips in seed.—This is a plot of my ennobled wild parsnips,
experiments connected with which were reported upon in 1856. The last
year’s experimental plot was so fine that the whole of it was left for seed ;
while

Plot A? is a large piece of parsnips in the kitchen garden from my seed
of 1856: here the new parsnips promise to be very large and clean in the
skin, the College gardener now preferring it to any other kind, as this new
offspring of the insignificant wild root is much richer in flavour than the
older varieties, which are wearing out in this respect. My roots now offer
examples both of “long horn” and “short horn” varieties, so that another
year I shall be enabled to save seed of two distinct and newly induced
varieties.

GrassEs.—The experimental plots of grasses which have been already

30 REPORT—1859.

reported upon, maintain their induced characters most perfectly, and I have
become still more convinced of the little value to be placed in the specific
characters of these plants as laid down by botanists, while at the same time
Iam fully aware how easy it is to make permanent varieties. In experiment-
ing upon these, however, it must be admitted that there are great difficulties
in the way, arising from the facility with which they become mixed with one
another, and altogether the trouble there is in keeping the plots clean; still the
changes in Oats and in the Poa aquatica cannot be vitiated on this account,
as their descendants are not like anything around them; the Poa, indeed, is
altogether new; we have no grass in the British Flora at all like the speci-
mens I now submit to the Section. This is, in fact, as much a new and
distinct species as the most specific of our well-known forms, and yet its
production is perfectly under control, and that not, as has been hinted, as
an isolated specimen, but in whole patches.

Plots B' and C’ are of this descendant from Poa aquatica, and fine grasses
they are; they have already been laid before the Section, with the seeds
whence they were derived in 1857; but these experiments, and all upon the
grasses, will be again repeated on a new patch of ground which is clearing
for the purpose; and if I can but get good seeds, I anticipate a great deal of
new matter from this source.

Plot D* is Poa aquatica from plants taken from the canal side; they are
growing very well; but even from growing in an unaccustomed habitat, they
are taking on immense differences, which I expect time will confirm; I shall
therefore reserve any further description of this until auother opportunity.

Plots D‘, E*, F’, were devoted to oat experiments as follows :—

D'. Avena fatua, var. sativa. 'Tartarean sort.

E*. Avena fatua, var. sativa. Potato sort.

F'. Avena fatua, formerly sativa. Left wild as a permanent crop.
Of these, D’ and E* have maintained their characters both in my experimental
plots and in the extended farm cultivation to which they have been subjected
by Mr. Coleman, the Manager of the Royal Agricultural College Farm.

Plot F’ has presented all phases of reversion, just as may be observed in
the field on examining the offspring of ‘ shed’ oats.

Plot G* is occupied with a grass which has recently excited some attention,
it is the Holeus (Sorghum) saccharatus: its seed was drilled early in April,
and duly thinned out as it advanced. Early in August it had stooled to
about five culms to each plant, of which the main or primitive one was the
largest ; at this time I gathered some in order to try how the cows liked it;
but they uniformly refused it, which was not to be wondered at, when at this
time the whole of my plants possessed an intensely bitter taste. On the Ist
of September I again made trial with some of the more advanced shoots;
they were devoured greedily, but now an immense quantity of sugar had
been developed, as the bases of these tasted quite as sweet as liquorice root.
This points to the cireumstances that the juices of this plant may be rich in
saccharine matter at a later, though not at an earlier stage of growth; if, then,
it is ever to be useful as a feeding grass, this must be attended to; but I
much doubt whether at any time in the cold climate of the Cotteswolds this
species of sugar-cane will yield so much sugar as in a warmer and less
‘exposed position ; at the same time, as a first trial, I consider this eminently
successful, and I should not wonder to see it more fully tried over a great
part of England next season.

ON THE ESSENTIAL CONSTITUENTS OF MANURES. 31

Report on Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Con-
stituents of Manures essential to cullivated Crops. By Dr.Augustus
VortcKker, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.

Tue field experiments on which I have to report were begun in 1855, and have
been continued since from year to year. They were at first instituted chiefly
for the purpose of ascertaining practically the comparative economic value
of some of the artificial manures, such as guano, superphosphate of lime,
bone-dust, &c., in reference to root-crops. In the course of my experiments,
however, I was led to abandon, more or less, the primary object for which the
experiments were at first undertaken, and to make them subservient to assist
the solution of several disputed and important points in agricultural and
physiological science.

Amongst other questions which arise in the mind of the agricultural
chemist who has closely followed the progress of agricultural chemistry, the
following are some of the more important :—

1. Can ammonia or nitrogenized matters be dispensed with in manures, or
is it desirable that there should be a certain proportion of nitrogenized matter
or ammonia in manures ?

2. What is the effect of ammoniacal salts, of phosphates, of alkalies, and
other fertilizing constituents applied separately upon vegetation ?

3. Is the practical effect produced by ammonia, or by phosphates, &c., the
same upon wheat or other grain crops as that produced upon turnips or clover?

4, Are there fertilizing constituents which benefit certain crops more than
others ?

5. Is it desirable or unphilosophical, and therefore leading to the ultimate
exhaustion of the soil, to apply special fertilizing matters to the land, i.e.
matters which contain but 1, 2, or at all events a limited number of chemical
compounds ? or is it necessary, in order to maintain the permanent fertility of
the land, to restore to the soil in the shape of a compound and universal ma
nure, all the constituents removed by the crops grown upon the land in pre-
vious years? These and other similar questions, affecting agricultural practice,
have occupied me for several years past.

The results of my experiments detailed in the following Report, I trust will
be found useful contributions towards the final settlement of the mooted
questions.

Field Experiments made in 1855.

_ Although I believe that the minute chemical analysis of soils, generally
speaking, affords but little or no indication as to the fertilizing matters which
are best calculated to improve their productive powers, I am still of opinion
that it is desirable and even indispensable to record in all field experiments,
the principal physical characters, and the amount of at least the chief or pre-
ponderating constituents of the soil of the experimental field.

I would therefore observe that the experimental field was a naturally poor
shallow soil with clayey subsoil of inconsiderable depth, and resting on the
Great Oolite limestone rock.

Submitted to a general analysis, it yielded—

Organic matter and water of combination.............- 6°339
Oxides of iron and alumina, with traces of phosphoric acid 9°311
Carbonate of lime ............ ren ree seeee 54°566
Magnesia

Alkalies determined by loss........... eineeye "837

Sulphuric acid
Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly clay) .....+..+e++++ 28°947
100000

32 REPORT—1859.

The land was left unmanured in the preceding year, and was considered a
poor turnip soil. Hs Tite ;

I purposely selected a poor field ; for it strikes me on such a soil the ma-
nurial effect of different fertilizers is much better discerned than on land in
a high state of fertility. The productive power of soils cannot be increased
to an unlimited extent; and when by good cultivation it approaches its maxi-
mum state of fertility, the addition of the most effective fertilizing matters
cannot produce any marked effect. I may, however, observe that care was
bestowed upon the mechanical preparation of the land, which is not always
done in field experiments.

The experimental field was divided into ten different plots of one-eighth of
an acre each. These plots were arranged side by side in continuous rows of
drills, care being taken to reject the headlands. The different manures were
all applied to the land on the same day, and the Swedish turnip-seed sown by
a ridge-drill on the 20th of June. Subsequently all the plots were treated in
precisely the same way, and care was taken to render the experiments in every
respect comparative.

One of the plots was left unmanured, the nine remaining were manured as
follows :—

Plot 1 received 56 Ibs. of Peruvian guano, or at the rate of 4 cwt. per
acre.

Plot 2 received 84 lbs. of Suffolk coprolites, treated with one-third their
weight of sulphuric acid ard 28 lbs. of guano, or at the rate of 6 cwt. of
dissolved coprolites and 2 cwt. of Peruvian guano per acre.

Plot 3 received 100 Ibs. of bone-dust, or 7 cwt. 16 lbs. per acre.

Plot 4 received 93 Ibs. of bone-dust dissolved in one-third its weight of
sulphuric acid, or at the rate of 6 cwt. 72 Ibs. per acre.

Plot 5 received 56 lbs. of economical manure, or at the rate of 4 ewt.
per acre.

Plot 6 received 120 lbs. of nut-cake, or at the rate of 8 cwt. 64 Ibs. per
acre.

Plot 7 was manured with 140 lbs. of dissolved coprolites, or at the rate of
10 ewt. per acre.

Plot 8 was left unmanured.

Plot 9 received 180 lbs. of commercial night-soil manure, or at the rate of
12 cwt. 96 lbs. per acre.

Plot 10 was manured with a mixture of 1 bushel of soot, 30 lbs. of guano,
and dissolved coprolites and dissolved bones.

The respective quantities of these fertilizing matters were all obtained
at the same cost of 5s. per plot, or at the rate of £2 per acre.

All the different fertilizers were carefully analysed; but in order not to
swell too much this Report I abstain from giving the details of the analyses.
I may; however, observe that the guano contained 14°177 per cent. of nitro-
gen, and 25:06 of bone-earth, and nearly 3 per cent. of phosphoric acid
in combination with alkalies. We have thus in Plot 1 a manure contain-
ing a large proportion of nitrogenized matters as well as phosphates and
alkalies.

In Plot 2 only half the amount of guano was used, and phosphates more
largely supplied in the shape of dissolved coprolites.

The coprolites, however, having been treated with only one-third their
weight of acid, contained scarcely more than 6 per cent. of soluble phosphates;
and it is to be feared that the remainder of the undissolved phosphates in the
coprolites exercised little or no effect upon the turnip-crop. _

In Plot 3 we have a manure which contains 44°22 of insoluble phosphate
of lime, and 4°28 per cent. of nitrogen.

ON THE ESSENTIAL CONSTITUENTS OF MANURES. 33

In Plot 4 bone-dust dissolved in one-third its weight of sulphuric acid,
consequently a manurewhich contained both soluble and insoluble phosphates,
was employed.

The economical manure, a manure highly recommended for the growth of
root-crops, and used upon Plot 5, contained in 100 parts—

UV eat eaten APRS. Sov tec nisla al oinsidi.e eed 86°525

Protosulphate of iron ...... Beeewa oO (OU
Sulphate of lime .....ccesesscees 860
Sulphate of magnesia ,.......++4 204

Bisulphate of potash........00+--. 4677
Bisulphate of soda.,.......++.++++ 10°928
Sulphate of soda ........ee0e.+++ 15°143
Sulphate of ammonia........... coe) «2648
Insoluble siliceous matter (sand)..., 5°850

100°591

This manure thus contained no phosphoric acid whatever.

In Plot 6 nut-cake was used. This refuse manure contained 4°863 per
cent. of nitrogen and 4°12 of phosphate of lime.

The dissolved coprolites used in Plot 7 were free from nitrogenized
matter.

In the commercial night-soil manure was found 4°399 per cent. of phos-
phoric acid.

The whole produce of each experimental plot was weighed, and the
weight of the trimmed roots calculated per acre.

The following Table exhibits the yield of the trimmed roots of each plot,
calculated per acre, and the increase per acre over unmanured plot :—

Per acre. Increase per acre,
tons. cwt. lbs. tons. cwt. lbs.
Plot 1 (guano) yielded ......... Ariss gusiebessst 11 12 56 6 8 56
Plot 2 (guano and dissolved coprolites) yielded., 12 16 16 7 12 16
Plot 3 (bone-dust) yielded ..........+2.+.. pepe ded Gre O 3.12.0
Plot 4 (bone-superphosphate) yielded ,....... 13 12 16 8 8 16
Plot 5 (economical manure) yielded ....... Jae 4 KOS 0 16 16
Plot 6 (nut-cake) yielded .,...... Fates an ipeslO.. Oia 416 0
Plot 7 ee coprolites) yielded .......,.. 1112 0 6 8 0
Plot 8 (unmanured) yielded ............06-. 5 4 O
Plot 9 (commercial night-soil) yielded ........ 94450 4 0 0
Plot 10 (mixture of soot, guano, dissolved copro-
lites and bone-superphosphates) yielded., 10 0 8 416 8

It will appear from these experiments—

1. That phosphatic manures greatly increased the yield of the root-crop.

2, That a purely mineral phosphate, when dissolved in acid and quite free
from ammonia, gave as large areturn as good Peruvian guano, which is rich
in ammonia.

8. That the economical manure, which contained no phosphates, practi-
cally speaking, gave no increase in the crop.

4, That manures which are comparatively poor in phosphates produced
less effect than manures rich in phosphates.

5. That the form inwhich the phosphates were employed very much affected
the result.

Thus bone-dust treated with sulphuric acid, and consequently containing
1859, D

34° REPORT—1859.

soluble phosphates, yielded an increase of 8 tons. 8 cwt. 16 lbs. over un-
manured plot, whereas an equal money value of bone-dust undissolved yielded
an increase of only 3 tons 12 cwt.

6. That guano proved to be a less economical manure for Swedes than
superphosphate. ;

Experiments upon Swedes made in 1856.

The preceding experiments sufficiently show the great importance of
phosphates presented in a soluble condition to the crop of Swedes. They
appear likewise to indicate that nitrogenized or ammoniacal manures are not
so essential as phosphates.for. the production of a good crop of roots; but
they do not touch the question whether or not ammonia can be entirely dis-
pensed with in the cultivation of turnips. This is an important question, for
of all fertilizing matters ammonia is the most expensive.

My attention therefore was chiefly directed in the next series of experi-
ments to study the inflience which purely ammoniacal manures exert on the
growth of Swedish turnips. ee’

_ Reviewing the experiments made in 1855, it may appear that the nitroge-
nized matters and ammonia contained in the manures employed had some
share in the production of the increase ; for it will be remembered that the ©
addition of a small quantity of guano to dissolved coprolites had a very be-
neficjal effect. Again, the fact that bone-superphosphate, containing from °
2 to 24 per cent. of ammonia, gave a much larger return than the mineral
superphosphate, might seem to indicate that ammonia in moderate propor-
tion is a desirable fertilizing ingredient of a turnip manure.

A critical examination of these facts, however, I think neither proves nor ~
discountenances the conclusion that ammonia has had a beneficial effect on
the recorded experiments ; for when comparing the effects of bone-superphos- °
phate with dissolved coprolites, no account was taken of the proportion of
soluble phosphate contained in each. I have since ascertained that the dis-
solved coprolites contained most of the phosphate in an insoluble state, not
near enough acid having been employed for dissolving the coprolite powder.
Indeed the coprolite manure contained but little soluble phosphate ; and as
insoluble phosphate, in the shape of coprolite powder, has little or no effeet
upon vegetation, whilst the insoluble phosphates in bone-dust, partially de-
composed by acid, unquestionably are sufficiently available to produce an
immediate effect on the turnip crop, the difference in the result may have
been due to the larger amount of available phosphates, and not to the am-
monia contained in the bone-phosphate. On the other hand, the addition
of some guano to dissolved coprolites having produced a beneficial effeet, it -
may be inferred that the ammonia in the guano helped to produce this effect ;
but since Peruvian guano contains both soluble phosphates and insoluble
phosphate of lime in a highly finely-divided state, it may be maintained with
equal force that the additional produce resulted from the additional quantity
of available phosphates in guano. In short, the experiments in 1855 are not
calculated to decide the question whether or not ammonia can be dispensed
with as a manuring constituent in a turnip manure. a

With a view of throwing some light on the action of ammonia on root-
crops, I made in 1856 the following field experiments :—

A portion of a field was divided into twelve parts of one-twentieth of an -
aere each. The seed was sown on the 21st of June. ;

The soil on analysis yielded the subjoined results :—

ON THE ESSENTIAL CONSTITUENTS OF MANURES. 3&

Moisture when analysed........ aiahwmneest, > tg
Organic matter and water of combination 448 od Qts 11°03
eGR OF MOT ea idbis ai clang. cHewledes etewe nae, 298
Alumina . é dildalteae ad aang osrtle ofaidls ae gad 6°06
Carbonate of lime ........0..000e0se es csoriesne «j LZLO
Belpbate.of Simp cassia cate vasacn ssa eaadio "78
Alkalies and magnesia (determined by loss).,...... 1°43
Silica (soluble in dilute caustic potash) .......... 17°93
Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly clay)............ 36°00
100°00

The experimental field was well drained. The surface soil is thin, poor,
and full of fragments of limestone, which render the land lighter. Separated
from the stones, the soil may be regarded as a stiffish clay-marl, which in wet
weather is very tenacious and heavy, and in warm weather dries into hard
unmanageable lumps. The depth of the soil was inconsiderable.

The twelve experimental plots were treated in regard to manure as fol-
lows :—

“es the rate
© : or per acre.
To Plot 1 was applied well-rotten farmyard manure .......... 15 tons.
meee 2 was Applied gypsum .. 2... 55 1. ew cee cece ences 6 cwt.
To Plot 3 was applied bone-ash dissolved in sulphuric acid .... 6 cwt.
To Plot 4 was applied sulphate of ammonia . -s 6cwt.
To Plot 5 was applied bone-ash dissolved in sulphuric acid 6 ewt.

Bat Sulphate Of AMMONIA, +.i2.--5--.-%- eases 6 ewt.—12 ewt.
To Plot 6 was applied bone-ash dissolved in sulphuric acid .... 12 ewt.
To Plot 7 was applied sulphate GPMGmSE. -sevtdccnstheatisss 6 ewt.

Plot 8 (unmanured).
To Plot 9 was applied crystallized sulphate of soda............ 12 cwt.
To Plot 10 was applied bone-ash dissolved in acid ......6 cwt.

sulphate of potash.............. 6 ewt.
sulphate of ammonia............ 6 cwt.—18 cwt.
To Plot 11 was applied bone-ash dissolved in acid ............ 3 cwt.

Plot 12 (unmanured).

The dissolved bone-ash on analysis yielded the following results:— -

Water ads £5. cide stenrPeaspas terra sd ips IO
Pree TOHEECE os b.cig brag eagles! 6 Guiye on dns j "13
Biphosphate of lime (CaO, PO,) ............ 18°49
’ Equal to bone-earth rendered soluble rea acid... (28°80)
Insoluble phosphates . ...... of ORs
Erydrated sulphate of lime .... 02.20. 0550054. 38°39
ORIN AME, He RY cae cs eRe ewe a ee 1°94
pu Ale re hy ok Se AeA te RE ioc ee RGM! LS
100°00

This eromnration ins contained a large per-centage of soluble phosphate
as well as gypsum, which necessarily must be formed when bone-ash is dis-
solved in acid. It having been stated by a high authority that in Messrs.
_Lawes and Gilbert's turnip experiments the sulphate of lime contained in their
superphosphate might have had quite as much influence upon the produce
as the phosphate of lime, it appeared to me desirable to apply gypsum alone
to one plot. Turnips contain a considerable quantity of sulphur ; it is there-
fore not unlikely that in soils deficient in sulphate of lime, the artificial sup-
ply of sulphates may be found advantageous to the turnip crop. At ee same-

36 REPORT—1859.

time it appeared to me desirable to ascertain the effects of alkalies on turnips,
and ammonia, potash, and soda applied in the shape of sulphates. We have
thus in these experiments sulphuric acid in all the different states of com-
bination in which it is likely to occur in arable land.

Two plots, it will be noticed, were left unmanured. This should always be
done in field experiments ; for otherwise it is impossible to ascertain whether
or not an experimental field is uniform, and what are the unavoidable varia-
tions in the produce of two plots of the same field.

It will be noticed that in nearly all plots nothing but simple salts were used,
in order not to complicate the interpretation of the results. It is useful, how-
ever, to ascertain how far the natural produce may be increased by a com-
pound and approved fertilizer, such as farmyard manure, and in such an ex-
periment ordinary manure should be as liberally supplied as in Plot 1.

The Swedes were taken up in the last week of November, topped and tailed,
and the whole produce of each plot weighed.

Table, showing the produce of trimmed Swedes of Experimental Plots,
calculated per acre, and increase over the unmanured part of field.

tons ewt. lbs, tons ewt. lbs.

Plot 1 (15 tons of farmyard manure) yielded.... 7 16 38 ee ae és
Decrease.

Plot 2 (6 ewt. of gypsum) yielded ........ arse me tages 0 11 30

Plot 3 (6 ewt. of dissolved bone-ash) yielded.... 8 3 38 5 7 40

Decrease.
Plot 4 (6 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia) yielded .. 2 12 51 0 3 24
Plot 5 (6 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia, and 6 ewt.

of dissolved bone-ash) yielded .......... 8 6 41 5 10 78
Plot 6 (12 ewt. of dissolved bone-ash) yielded .. 8 12 90 &. 17 15
ecrease.
Plot 7 (6 cwt. of sulphate of potash) yielded.... 210 O 0 5 75
Plot 8 (unmanured) yielded.................. 3 Ost9
Plot 9 (12 ewt. of crystallized sulphate of soda)
ele She AZ c- 2c ae en siete Oe 37 Geo 0 10 46

Plot 10 (6 ewt. of dissolved bone-ash, 6 cwt. of sul-
phate of ammonia, 6 cwt. of sulphate of

pOkash) yielded. peewee sab g acer + 1G dt ve 4 2 43
Plot 11 (3 ewt. of dissolved bone-ash) yielded .. 7 19 51 5 4 88
Plot 12 (unmanured) yielded ........ eescip a aa 211 19

The natural produce of the experimental field was taken at 2 tons 15 ewt.
75 lbs., being the average of the two unmanured plots No. 8 and 12.

These results suggest the following remarks:—

1. The natural produce of this field was very small, as it scarcely
amounted to 3 tons per acre; special fertilizing ingredients, such as phos-
phoric acid, ammonia, &c., therefore may be expected to have full play in a
soil like the one of the experimental field.

2. Only those plots yielded an increase which contained phosphates; the
other manuring constituents had no effect upon the turnip crop in these ex-
periments.

3. Gypsum cannot replace phosphate of lime in manuring matters. In
these experiments it had no effect whatever, which need not surprise if it be
oo as that the soil contained naturally } of a per cent. of sulphate of

ime.

4. None of the other sulphates produced any effect upon the crop. Sul-
phates, especially sulphate of lime, are much more abundant in nature than
phosphates, There are few soils which do not contain abundance of sulphate

ON THE ESSENTIAL CONSTITUENTS OF MANURES. 87

of lime to supply our cultivated crops with abundance of sulphuric acid.
This appears to me the chief reason why sulphates rarely show any effect
upon turnips and other crops.

5. The bone-ash dissolved in acid did not contain any nitrogen, notwith-
standing 3 ewt. produced as large an increase as 15 tons of well-rotten farm-
yard manure.

6. Sulphate of ammonia proved inefficacious when used by itself, or in
conjunction with soluble phosphates.

It is possible, however, that the quantity of ammonia used in the experi-
ments was too large. Similar experiments, which I have since undertaken
and hope to continue for a number of years, induce me to believe that on the
soils in our neighbourhood ammonia has no beneficial effect whatever upon
Swedes. And yet it is quite possible that ammonia may prove beneficial
on other soils, which, like sandy soils, do not possess in a high degree the
power of absorbing ammonia from the atmosphere, nor to accumulate largely
nitrogenized organic matters. But the cases in which ammonia or nitrogen-
ized manures are really beneficial to turnips I think are quite exceptional ;
and I have little hesitation in saying that a great deal of ammonia, the most
expensive fertilizing ingredient of guano, at the present time is wasted in
most instances in which guano and other ammoniacal manures are exclusively
employed in the cultivation of root-crops.

It is certainly a remarkable fact that many thousands of tons of turnips are
now raised annually with nothing else but 3 cwt. or 4 cwt. of superphosphate,
made exclusively of bone-ash and mineral phosphates.

At least 90 per cent. of all the artificial manures that are now offered for
sale, whatever their name may be, are in reality superphosphates; and the
great majority of superphosphates contains no appreciable amount of nitrogen.
Even those artificial manures which, like nitro-phosphate, ammonio-phosphate,
blood-manure, &c., convey the idea of manures rich in nitrogen or ammonia,
when prepared for turnips, seldom contain any considerable amount of nitro-
gen. It is not likely that an intelligent class of men like the makers of arti-
ficial manures, would cut short the supply of nitrogenized matters or ammo-
niacal salts in turnip-manures, if they had not found out by experience that
manures made from bone-ash and sulphuric acid alone, and consequently rich
in soluble phosphates, have a more powerful influence upon the yield of root-
crops than ammoniacal manures, which are comparatively poor in phosphates.

I would likewise specially notice, that even quite dilute solutions of am-
moniacal salts retard the germination and early growth of turnips in a
remarkable degree.

In the preceding experiments I was surprised to find, contrary to all expec-
tation, that sulphate of ammonia impaired the development of leaves. Am-
moniacal salts are generally considered as leaf-producing, fertilizing consti-
tuents; I therefore fully expected to see on Plot 4 a luxuriant development
of tops on the expanse of the bulbs. But not only did sulphate of ammonia
retard the germination of the seed for a short period, instead of pushing it
on rapidly, but throughout the whole season the turnip-tops on Plot 4 looked
quite as bad, if not worse, than the unmanured plot.

However, in Plot 5, in which sulphate of ammonia was used in conjunction
with dissolved bone-ash, I observed, to some extent, the effects which are
generally ascribed to ammoniacal manures. ‘The leaves of the turnips in
Plot 5 had a much darker appearance than in other plots not dressed with
ammoniacal salts, and the plants on this plot, on the whole, looked the most
luxuriant.

It would appear from this that ammoniacal salts are useless by themselves

38 ; wh Lt REPORT—1859.

as leaf-producing substances, when applied to poor soils deficient in phos-
phates and other mineral matters necessary for the growth of leaves. :

In conjunction with phosphates, sulphate of ammonia in the preceding ex-
periment had a marked effect upon the turnip-tops, but none upon the bulbs.

Experiments on Turnips made in 1857.

_ My experiments in 1857 were principally made with a view of trying
whether sulphate of ammonia, applied alone and in conjunction with phos-
phates, had the same or a similar effect on richer land than that experimented
upon in 1856, and at the same time to determine the influence of nitrogenized
matters on the turnip crop. To this end I selected a field which was somewhat
deeper, more level, and altogether more fertile than the experimental field in
1856. It yielded on analysis the following results :—

Mig istune td! seiaeeotl. abs CR eh eee we ow aah
Organic matter and water of combination...... 11°08
Oxides of iron and alumina ..............4. 14:25
Carbonate oflime | {204 7ni Seige rears Pete 10°82
Salphate of lime 055 seer. Be gens! Be eee “71
Mapndiiaice.ws5 sly. ihe (Ree ae StS Ege Se 51
Potash (soluble in acid solution) ............ "32
Soda (soluble in acid solution) .............. 05
Phosplicrie daidesed; 4220 364.40 dade ‘ie 10
Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly clay)........ 61:78

101°13

On comparing the composition of this soil with that of the experimental
field in 1856, it will be found that the chemical characters of both soils are
very much alike. The seed sown on the 10th of June was that of white
Swedes. The different manures were mixed with three times their weight of
fine sifted burnt clay, in order to secure a more uniform distribution of the
manure over the land. Each experimental plot measured 5}, of an acre.
Leaving unnoticed a number of field trials, I select only those experiments
which have a more immediate scientific interest.

Plot 1 was manured at the rate per acre with 3 ewt. of superphosphate.

Plot 2 was manured at the rate per acre with 3 ewt. of fine bone-dust.

Plot 3 was manured at the rate per acre with 3 cwt. of superphosphate,
made by dissolving fine bone-dust in 50 per cent. of sulphuric acid.

Plot 4. was manured at the rate per acre with 3 ewt. of bone-superphos-
phate (purchased).

Plot 5 (unmanured).

- Plot 6 was manured at the rate per acre with 1} ewt. of sulphate of am-
monia.

Plot 7 was manured at the rate per acre with 14 cwt. of sulphate of am-
monia and 13 cwt. of superphosphate, made by dissolving bone-ash in sulphu-
ric acid.

Plot 8 was manured at the rate per acre with 14 ewt. of bone-ash dis-
solved in sulphuric acid without ammonia.

Plot 9 was manured at.the rate per acre with 4 cwt. of gypsum.

Plot 10 was manured at the rate per acre with 9 ewt. of burnt clay alone
(the same quantity which was used with the manures in the other experiments).

Plot 11 was manured at the rate per acre with 3 ewt. of Peruvian guano.

‘On each plot a good plant was obtained, and the crop singled on the 16th
of July, with the exception of the plots upon which sulphate of ammonia and
guano were used. Although sulphate of ammonia was used in the small pro-.
portion of 13 ewt. per acre, and previously mixed with three times its weight

ON THE ESSENTIAL CONSTITUENTS OF MANURES. 39

of burnt clay, it retarded the germination of the seed and the growth of the
turnips in their first period of existence. Several other experiments, made
on a small scale, and all my experiments upon turnips in 1858 and in 1859,
confirm the fact first observed by me in 1855, that sulphate of ammonia,
instead of rapidly pushing on the young plant, as generally supposed, retards
its development in a very marked degree.

The produce of each plot was taken up on the 19th of November; after
trimming and cleaning, the roots were weighed. The following Table gives
the produce in Swedes, topped and tailed, and cleaned per acre, and increase

per acre :—
Increase per acre.

Plot. ah . tons. cwt. qrs, lbs. tons. cwt. qrs: lbs.
1. 3 ewt. of superphosphate .......- 01 FP (OV 166.0 4.5-5 1°20
2. 3 ewt. of bone-dust .....0..0 eee 8-11: .0:.26.turk 19° 9 °°2
3. 3 ewt. of superphosphate, made by

dissolving bone-dust in 50 per
cent. sulphuric acid .........- Dickhdse Seay Laer) SuwO: 6
4. 3 ewt. of purchased bone-superphos-
LR See ae ela eR Oi PRC Beara oBiwg Bl 6
6 Unmanured ..........0seerees Gul 02 84 Decrease.
6. 14 ewt. of sulphate ofammonia .. 5 6 0 21..1 5 2 3
7. 14 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia and Increase.
13 dissolved bone-ash ........ 9 8 0 26..2 11 2 2
8. 14 ewt. dissolved bone-ash ...... 8 18 3 22..2 7 O 26
Peeewt Of avpsum ....ac.ccdence, Gi bBigds V7 in ~— 2 O21
10. 9 ewt. of burnt clay .........+-- 6S 16S Al Hee 6.0! 6
11. 3 ewt. of Peruvian guano...... oa Se OLS Tye) oO eel

Plot 1, it will be seen, yielded the largest increase ; from first to last this
plot had the lead as to appearance.
Thesuperphosphate used in this experimenthad the following composition :—
Moistife: sci ccsceesesssotsredeucsie es 10°80
Organic matter®...cccccscseccessccees 4°21
Biphosphate of lime ...0.-+2+--see++-. 20°28
Equal to bone-earth made soluble by acid.. (31°63)
4°

Insoluble phosphates .. ..eeee.. sees tice 11
Hydrated sulphate of lime ......eees000. 46°63
Common salt ....... awadWauict's 3 Ui urna rS
BANG so os bares Fe ca duee be divede cscs 3°19

— 10000

It will be seen that there is very little nitrogen in this superphosphate, and
that in addition to much soluble phosphate it contains about 11 per cent. of
common salt. Salt, I am inclined to think, increases the efficacy of phos-
phates upon turnips.

Plot 2. The bone-dust used upon this plot was as fine as sawdust, and
yielded on analysis,—

Moisture ....cascccccccsecsocsans 6°86
Organic. matter... 202+ cece esses 13°14
Phosphates of lime and magnesia 68°17
Carbonate of lime .... . - 679
Alkaline salts .......eceeeeeee eens 1:90
BONG. oscil fas Bi aerate. 2 bisiiks “erases 3°42
«gion - 100°00
* Containing nitrogen.......... 34 + Containing nitrogen...... 1:83

Equal to ammonia ...+.. ooee Al Equal to ammonia ..... ai'0222

40 REPORT—1859,

Plot 3. A comparison of the produce of Plot 3 with Plot 2 will show
the advantage of applying the phosphates to the land in a condition in which
they are readily distributed in the soil by the rain that falls, and more easily
dissolved in water than the phosphates in bone-dust.

These dissolved bones gave on analysis the following results :—

Water scion ere. state! yates 6 athe escereee 24°33
Organic matter and ammoniacal salis*.... 5°04
Biphosphate of lime... .....5 606..06056° 17°00
Equal to bone-earth rendered soluble byjacid (26°52)
Insoluble phosphates .......-2ccecse00s 969

Hydrated sulphate of lime ........ eossee 39°25

Alkaline salts and magnesia ...........+. 2°81

Sane. 52. Se b Siatvithe coh welels wile Oo cremete pie: / PGB
100:00

Plot 5 (unmanured) gave 6 tons 11 ewt. 2 qrs. 24 lbs.

Plot 9 (gypsum) gave 6 tons 13 ewt. 3 qrs. 22 lbs.

Plot 10 (burnt clay) gave 6 tons 16 ewt. 3 qrs. 1 lb.

The produce of these three plots is so much alike, that the small difference
may be safely ascribed to natural variations of the soil. ‘The crop on these
plots again shows that gypsum had no effect, and that the experimental field
was uniform in its character.

Plot 6. The sulphate of ammonia used in this experiment contained in
100 parts,—

Sulphate of ammonia ..... Siete te eaeens 98°28

Erxed!salisi. strae «tte cone atercevel viel steve ace ae *78

Moisture ...+.... eee: Fro ciate a ett Fecwers "94
-—— 100°00

We have here actually a decrease of 1 ton 5 cwt. 2 qrs. 3 lbs. of roots per
acre. The plants on this plot, I may observe, came up much later, and looked
decidedly worse than those on the unmanured plot, or any other part of the
experimental field. :

It will be remembered that in the preceding season sulphate of ammonia
did not increase the yield in bulbs, and likewise prevented the development
of luxuriant tops.

Plot 7. The addition of sulphate of ammonia to dissolved bone-ash, it will
be seen by comparing the yield of this plot with that of Plot 8, gave but
a slight increase, amounting to no more than 4 ewt. 1 qr. 6 lbs. per acre.

Plot 8. The dissolved bone-ash used in this experiment was the same as
that used in experiments in the preceding year, and contained—

Biphosphate of lime ..........00+0.005 18°49
Equal to soluble bone-earth ............ (28°80)
Insoluble phosphates ............000005 6°43

Moisture ......<. BO ores CUR EEO CRE cic 18°50
Organic matter and ammoniacal saltst.... 52°33
Phosphate of lime and magnesia ........ 21°66

Aikaline alist wate we'd rs 6 Ori din caer GRE
Insoluble siliceous matter ..,,..eeee+ee. 1:10

100:00
* Containing nitrogen ........ 1°28 + Containing nitrogen...... 14°16
Equal to ammonia........ os 1°55 Equal to ammonia..+..++- 17°19
¢ Containing phosphoric acid....s..seese6. 1°46

ON THE ESSENTIAL CONSTITUENTS OF MANURES, 41

The roots on this plot were for a long time decidedly inferior to the super-
phosphate turnips. But towards the middle of September the plants took
a start, and the guano turnips, so far as the tops were concerned, looked the
best in the field. When the crop was taken up, the guano turnips were at
least 3 inches higher in the tops, and promised, as far as appearance went,
the heaviest crop ; but the actual weight of the plots manured with dissolved
bone-ash and superphosphate not containing any nitrogenized matters, showed
that there was no advantage in using ammoniacal matters for producing good
bulbs on the experimental field.

The whole tenor of the field trials in 1857 agrees well with the results of
the trials in 1856. The experiments in 1859 afford a fresh proof that salts
of ammonia applied alone to root-crops have no beneficial effect, but rather
the reverse. They also show that phosphate of lime in a soluble state
favours more the production of good bulbs than any other manuring consti-
tuent, and that nitrogenized matters are not required in a manure for Swedish
turnips, grown on land similar to the experimental field, and under conditions
similar to those which prevailed in 1856 and 1857.

In concluding this part of my Report, I may state that last year (1858) the
results of my field experiments were entirely spoiled by the ravages which
the fly and the black caterpillar committed.

This year (1859) I have an extensive series of field experimenis upon
Swedes. All the experimental plots look remarkably healthy, and I hope in
a future year to repeat the result of this year’s trials, which were made like
those in 1856, 1857, and 1858, with a special view of determining the influ-
ence of nitrogenized substances and ammoniacal salts on root-crops.

Before proceeding with another series of field experiments, I may state
that I have analysed at various times hundreds of turnips. It would be oc-
cupying too much space to give here tabulated abstracts of these analyses.
Although I am still occupied with following up this examination of turnips
grown under various conditions, and have not as yet arrived at any definite
conclusions respecting the influence of different manuring matters on this
crop, I may state a few general facts which my analyses have brought to
light.

1. In the first place, I would observe that I do not find any striking differ-
ences in the composition of roots raised with different manures, provided
they are pulled up in an equally mature condition.

2. Soluble phosphates appear to promote an early maturity of the roots,
and ammoniacal salts, on the contrary, to retard the maturity of roots.
However, on this point my experiments are not sufficiently numerous and
conclusive to establish satisfactorily this matter.

3. Roots grown on poor soils and developed more gradually, contain less

water and more sugar, and are consequently more nutritious than roots of a
large size grown rapidly with much manure.
_ 4, Contrary to a very prevalent opinion, I find that the best and most nu-
tritious roots invariably contain less nitrogen than inferior less nutritious
roots. Indeed I am of opinion that a high per-centage of nitrogen in turnips
is a sure sign that the roots have not reached full maturity, and are less
wholesome to cattle than well-ripened roots. In the latter I have found, in
some instances, fully one-third less of nitrogen than in the same roots at an
earlier stage of their growth.

The examination of roots, taken once every fortnight from the same field
during several successive months, has shown that the per-centage of nitrogen
in turnips steadily decreases in the measure in which they proceed towards
maturity. In the measure in which the per-centage of nitrogen decreases,

42 ih REPORT—1859.

that of sugarincreases. Thus in mangolds, which were as yet scarcely sweet
to the taste, I have found as much as 2? per cent. of nitrogen in the dry roots,
whilst in the best and fully ripe mangold wurzels only 1-30 per cent. of nitro-
gen was found.

The nutritive value of different roots, therefore, is not dependent on the
relative proportion of nitrogen which they contain, but is regulated chiefly
by the relative proportion of sugar which they yield.

Field Experiments upon Wheat made in 1859.

I have now to record the results of a series of experiments upon the wheat-
crop.

The field upon which the experiments were made was perfectly level, and
apparently of uniform depth and agricultural capability.

It was divided into seven plots of ¢ of an acre each.

Plot 1 was manured with Peruvian guano at the rate of 24 cwt. per acre;
cost £1 19s. 6d. per cwt.

Plot 2 was manured with nitrate of soda, 12 ewt.

Plot 3 was manured with nitrate of soda, 180 lbs., and common salt, 14 ewt. ;
cost £1 12s. 6d. "

Plot 4 was manured with wheat-manure specially prepared, and containing
both mineral and ammoniacal constituents, at the rate of 4 ewt. per acre.

Plot 5 was manured with the same wheat-manure, at the rate of 6 cwt. per
acre.

Plot 6 (unmanured).

Plot 7 was manured with chalk-marl, | ton.

The nitrate of soda used in the experiments contained 97 per cent. of pure
nitrate, and the wheat-manure on analysis was found to contain in 100 parts,—

Composition of Wheat-manure, same as used in Experiments on Royal
Agricultural College Farm, March 8, 1859.

IVEGISENTE. ais = tate e stab arterials a PORCH Koy. 13-60
Sulphate of amamoania* y eds vues ste) -iels sive pee «++ 1097
Soluble nitrogenized organic mattert ..........-. 8°08
Trisoluble fxs eiopen ivan do abaya Geeta gael cies le LA

Biphosphate of Hime. jos s2.0:c0.s¢ ears siusseneis eaigielar eke e+ = BHA
Equal to bone-earth rendered soluble by acid ...... (5°52)
Insoluble phosphates (bone-earth)...... ae Segae ae 9°45
Sulphate of magnesia’... sj; dee bahia ee iss sealed 61
Hydrated sulphate at lime)...aty lees ses nad ¢es sone 19°73
Chloride of sodium (common salt).......... 00+. 16°84
Insoluble siliceous matters ........... dhe esi neers 2-46
— 100-00

The different fertilizers were applied in the shape of top-dressings on the
22nd of March, and the produce reaped in the first week of August and
thrashed out on the 24th of August. i

* Containing nitrogen ....-.secseee eeeeeeesecscees 2°32
Biqualto ammonia cares eiale ide iivlcideelde se eeiele va ate 2°82
T Containing nitrogen ...00...csc0.ccnesevesacces 3°53
Aiqual £0 aM MOM Ae cettelciedainalon- nia late) sister ge ins ae 4°28

Per-centage of anhydrous sulphuric acid (SO,) in manure

(total amount of sulphuric acid in all the sulphates) 15-93
Per-centage of chlorine ........seeeccecescececces 10°22
Per-centage of. phosphoric acid .:......2.0++ nstedats.s 8:91

ON THE ESSENTIAL CONSTITUENTS OF MANURES. 48

The following Table gives the yield in corn and straw of each experimental
plot, the manures employed, and the produce calculated per acre,
Each plot measured + of an acre.

Manures employed and sown, Produce thrashed out,

; March 22, 1859. August 24, 1859.

Plot 1. Peruvian guano, 21 ewt.; cost } Grain, 2406 lbs. or 40;'; bushels ;

: £1 12s.6d. (guano, £13 per weight per bushel, 60 to 605 lbs.
ton). Straw, 1 ton 3 ewt.

Plot 2. Nitrate of soda, 12 ewt.; cost ) Grain, 2280 lbs. or 38 bushels;
£1 12s. 6d. (nitrate of soda, weight per bushel, 60 lbs. Straw,
£18 10s. per ton). 1 ton 4 ewt. 8 lbs.

Plot 3. Nitrate of soda, 180 lbs., and
chloride of sodium, 134 ewt.; | Grain, 2436 lbs. or 40,5, bushels ;
cost of manure per acre, £1 12s. weight per bushel, 60{$ lbs.
6d. (cost of salt, 30s. per ton; Straw, 1 ton 4 cwt. 48 lbs.
of nitrate, £18 10s. per ton).

Plot 4. Wheat-manure, 4 cwt. per acre; ) Grain, 2370 lbs. or 394 bushels;

cost £1 12s. 6d. (price of weight per bushel, 60 lbs. Straw,

wheat-manure, £8 per ton). 1 ton 3 ewt. 92 lbs.

Plot 5. Wheat-manure, 6 ewt. per acre; ) Grain, 2652 lbs. or 44: bushels 12
cost £2 8s. (price of wheat- lbs.; weight per bushel, 60 lbs.
manure, £8 per ton). Straw, 1 ton 7 ewt. 8 lbs.

Grain, 1620 lbs. or 27 bushels;
weight per bushel, 60 Ibs. Straw,

17 ewt. 80 lbs.
Grain, 1618 lbs. or 27 bushels less

Plot 6. Unman ured.

2 \bs.; weight per bushel,604 lbs.
Straw, 16 ewt. 80 lbs.

Plot 7. Chalk-marl, 1 ton.

A comparison of the different quantities of corn and straw reaped on each
experimental plot will show,—

1. That the plot manured with chalk-marl furnished as nearly as possible
the same amount of corn and straw as the unmanured plot.

The produce in the one amounted to 1620 lbs. of corn, and in the other
to 1618 lbs.; or each gave within 2 lbs. 27 bushels of corn.

In some parts of England chalk-marl is used with considerable benefit for
the wheat-crop ; but as the soil on the experimental field is full of limestone
rubble, it could not be expected that a marl which owes its fertilizing pro-
perties almost entirely to the carbonate of lime and to a little phosphate of
lime which it contains, should produce any marked effect upon the wheat-
crop.

Indeed I did not expect any increase by the application of this marl, and
merely used it to ascertain the extent of variation in the produce of two sepa-
rate plots. The result plainly shows that the experimental field was very
uniform in its character and productiveness.

2. The application of only 14 ewt. of nitrate of soda raised the produce in
corn to 38 bushels, and that of straw to 1 ton 4 ewt. 8 lbs.

We have thus here an increase of 11 bushels of corn and 63 ewt. of straw.

3. By mixing nitrate of soda with common salt, the produce in corn was
raised to 40 bushels, thus showing the advantage of a mixture of nitrate of
soda with common salt.

4, Almost the sanie produce as by nitrate of soda and salt was obtained by
the application of guano, and by the small quantity of wheat-manure.

By the latter 395 bushels of corn, and by guano 40+), bushels were obtained,

44 REPORT—1859.

or by the top-dressing with wheat-manure an increase of 124 bushels; and by
that of guano an increase of 13 bushels of corn was obtained at an expense
of £1 12s. 6d.

5. The larger supply of a mixed mineral and ammoniacal fertilizer gave
an increase of 17 bushels of corn and 9 ewt. of straw over the yield of the
undressed plot.

It will thus appear—

1. That nitrates applied by themselves materially increase the yield of
both straw and corn.

2. That the admixture of salt to nitrate of soda is beneficial.

3. That ammonia and nitrogenized matters, which proved ineffective or
even injurious in relation to turnips grown on a similar soil on which the
wheat was grown, had a most marked and decidedly beneficial effect upon
the wheat-crop.

In conclusion, I would observe that I purpose to record the effect of the
top-dressings used in the preceding experiments upon the succeeding crops.

Report on the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools.
By ALEXANDER THomson, Esq., of Banchory.

Tue study of the possible prevention of crime has of late years received much
attention, though not yet so much as it deserves and requires; nor are the
principles on which alone crime can be prevented hitherto fully and generally
known and admitted.

One very important movement in connexion with this subject originated
in Aberdeen, and it seems appropriate to lay before the Statistical Section of
the British Association, when met in Aberdeen, a brief statement of the
origin and results of the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools, and of the
principles on which they were established and have been conducted.

The origin of these schools was very simple: they arose out of a felt
necessity.

Crime in all the large towns of Britain had been visibly increasing for
many years in a ratio exceeding that of the increase of the population; a
distinctly-marked class or race of criminals had arisen, causing much incon-
venience to society, and forcing upon thinking men the consideration of what
could be done to check so great an evil.

Several instructive facts gradually became evident. The stern, harsh
system of punishment, long prevalent, was found to have failed alike in pre-
venting crime and in reforming criminals, and to have had, on the contrary,
the effect of hardening and emboldening in crime those who had been sub-
jected to it, and of thereby forming a distinct class of criminals, marked by
peculiar features, and highly injurious to the community.

It was also observed that certain classes of the population produced more
than their numerical proportion of criminals, :

Nothing, however, attracted so much attention, from the great annoyance
which it caused, as the steady increase of the number of youthful offenders,
undeniably guilty of actions which deserved punishment, and who evidently
required moral and physical treatment of some sort or other, but who by
that which had been applied to them were only made worse until they even-
tually took their places, as they advanced in years, in the ranks of confirmed,
bold, dangerous criminals.

ON THE ABERDEEN INDUSTRIAL FEEDING SCHOOLS. 45

Various persons in different parts of the country suggested and tried
temporary expedients to remedy the evil, but the first deliberate, consistent,
and permanent scheme, combining feeding, teaching, and industrial training,
was organized in Aberdeen by Sheriff Watson, and his plan has been found
so efficient, that it is now adopted, more or less exactly, in almost every large
town in Great Britain.

The immediate cause of this attempt was the pain felt by Mr. Watson,
and by many other criminal judges, in the discharge of their ordinary duties.
Day after day children of tender years were brought up for trial and convicted
of acts undeniably criminal and deserving of punishment, but with regard to
which it was very clear that the moral guilt lay not exclusively on the
juvenile culprits.

They had no doubt done the deed, but who was most to blame for it ?
—the actual perpetrator ? or those who had allowed or even led to the com-
mission of the offence ?

On inquiring into their previous history, it soon became evident, that the
root of the evil lay in the want of right parental care and training. The
parents were themselves either criminals, or at least wholly careless of their
offspring, and left them to grow up as they might, without control, without
principle: on the parents clearly lay the primary culpability. Next to them,
it lay on the clergymen of all denominations, who, occupied in other and,
as they thought, more promising fields of labour, gave a very small share of
their time to this particular class; and last, but not least, the blame Jay on the
professedly christian public of the country, who, as a body, seem to have
agreed to regard these outcasts as a Pariah caste beyond the legitimate sphere
of christian enterprise; “no man cared for their souls.” Noble cases indeed
occurred, from time to time, of strenuous and successful exertions on their
behalf, but they were isolated, unconnected ; and there was no general, no
sustained endeavour to reclaim them.

What did these children require? It may be all summed up in three
words, “Christian parental care.” How was this to be supplied, since the
natural parents were unable or unwilling to perform their duties ?

There are two opposite dangers to be avoided in applying any remedy:
there is the risk on one side of doing too little for the children, so as to fail
in training them up aright both bodily and mentally ; and there is the not less
serious risk on the other, of doing too much, and thereby giving encourage-
ment to listlessness and laziness on the part of the children, and neglect and
carelessness on the part of the parents.

To avoid these difficulties, it is needful to ascertain exactly what the chil-
dren want, and how instruction can be best furnished to them.

For their bodies they need food ; for their minds they need instruction in
the elementary branches of knowledge; for their success in life they need
training in industrial habits, and for their never-dying souls they need abun-
dant religious instruction. This is what their fellow-men can do for them.
The saving inspiration of the Holy Spirit can be given only by God himself;
it is not at the disposal of mortal man, but is given freely in answer to be-
lieving prayer.

These various requisites were all kept in view at the first establishment of
the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools, and they have never been for one
moment abandoned. They are the foundation-stones on which the whole
structure rests ; remove any one of them, and the superstructure must fall to
the ground ; give any one undue preponderance over the rest, and the whole
is rendered unsteady and insecure.

-In the year 1840 the juvenile criminal population of Aberdeen attracted

46 REPORT—1859.

the particular notice of the local authorities, and many inquiries were made
as to their numbers and condition. :

In June 1841 it was ascertained that there were in that city 280 children
under 14 years of age who supported themselves nominally by begging, but
actually toa large extent by stealing, and in either case greatly to the annoy-
ance of their fellow-citizens.

Of these 280 children, 77 had been imprisoned during the previous twelve
months.

In October 1841 a small sum, under £100, was collected, and with this it
was resolved to try what could be done, confident that, if even a moderate
amount of success were attained, public support would be freely given.

Apartments sufficiently extensive, but otherwise of the humblest descrip-
tion, situated in one of the worst districts of the city, were hired, and a
teacher engaged. Public notice was given that such an institution existed,.
and that poor children who chose would be admitted into it, up to the number.
of 60, and would there réceive food, and instruction in elementary religious
and secular knowledge, and in such industrial employments as were suited to
their years.

Attendance up to the time of the passing of Dunlop’s Act in 1854 was
wholly voluntary, but the child absent without cause from morning school
had no breakfast, from forenoon school had no dinner, and from afternoon
school had no supper ; and this very simple and reasonable arrangement at
once ensured a more regular attendance of pupils than at most common day
schools.

The general division of the day was, four hours of lessons, five hours of
work, and three substantial meals. The managers did not profess to supply
clothing to the children, but, by the kindness of friends, whatever was abso-
lutely necessary was from time to time procured.

Religious teaching and training occupied a large portion of the teaching
hours, and has ever been received with the greatest willingness. The whole
arrangements are as simple as possible, and yet they meet ad/ the requirements.
of the case. '

: The combination of food, teaching, and industrial training, form together
the distinctive peculiarity of these schools, but the food is practically the
foundation of the whole system. ‘The children are not at first alive to the
advantages of being taught and trained, but they are thoroughly aware of
the benefit of being fed ; and this brings them regularly to school. They feel
it to be an act of substantial kindness; it at once attaches them to their
teacher, and it gradually prepares them to relish and profit by the lessons and
work of the school ; it convinces them that the school is meant for their good
in the only form in which, at first, they are capable of understanding it.

The whole profit of work done goes to defray expenses. This fact is of
more value than appears from the amount. It teaches the children from the
first that their work is of appreciable value, and also gives them the satisfac-
tory feeling that they are not wholly recipients of charity, but that in return
for their food and instruction, they are giving all they can, viz. their labour,
such as it is. ;

It is, however, a great mistake to be too anxious about the earnings of the
scholars. That work is most profitable which most tends to habits of
patient industry. It matters comparatively little what it may be, provided.
it teaches steady perseverance, which is the most valuable of all acquirements,
and the one most foreign to the habits of neglected outcasts,

Keeping these very simple principles distinctly in view, the first Industrial:
School was opened 1st October 1841, with 20 scholars, and the number soon

ON THE ABERDEEN INDUSTRIAL FEEDING SCHOOLS. 47

rose to 60, the limit previously determined. During the first six months 109
were enrolled, but, as might have been anticipated on a first experiment, some
were admitted who were unsuitable, and others whose parents interfered and
removed them, and a few whose wandering habits would not allow them
to remain more than a few days—not long enough to ascertain whether they
would like the school or not; still, with 60 names on the roll, the average daily
attendance for the first 6 months was 36 and for tlie last two 53°50.

The amount realized for work during the first six months was £25 19s., 7. e.
20s. a week, or about 14s. 6d. for each pupil.

‘The total cost for each was £4 8s. 10d., or, deducting earnings, £8 13s. 4d.,
being at the rate of £7 6s. 8d. per annum,—a cost which experience soon
enabled the directors greatly to reduce..-

From Ist April 1842, to 1st April 1843, the average daily attendance
was 52, the total cost of each £6 8s., and the earnings £1 2s. 8d., leaving the
expense of teaching and feeding each boy £5 5s. 4d. The earnings per head
were less than during the first six experimental months, because there was
then a larger proportion of stout working boys than have since been admitted,
and who were above the age to which the schools have since been exclusively '
applied.

PTrhe close of the year 1843 and commencement of 1844 proved to be the
critical period in the history of these schools, and all but fatal to their
continuance.

' The public interest at first felt in the new scheme had subsided; the
experiment was novel, the results uncertain ; the subscriptions fell off, and
but for the liberal aid given by the magistrates of the city, and the Trustees
of the Murtle Charitable Fund, the school must have been closed and the
experiment abruptly terminated.

Even with these aids, the directors were obliged to dismiss all but the most
necessitous, and reduce the number on the roll from 59 to 35.

The tide was now at its lowest ebb, but it soon began to rise.

No one could occasionally visit the school without remarking the change
in the outward appearance of the children, and no one could walk the streets
of Aberdeen without noticing a perceptible diminution in the number of |
troublesome little beggar-urchins. The public came to the conclusion that
there was good doing by the experiment, and that, at all events, it should be
continued until more certain results were attained, and from that day to this
funds have never been wanting ; often low enough to require extreme caution °
in the expenditure, but gradually growing and prospering till the little school
on the point of abandonment is now represented in Aberdeen by four schools:
a boys’ in the House of Refuge, a boys’ and girls’ at Sugar House Lane, and
two separate female schools, having all their valuable and commodious build-
ings (except those in the House of Refuge), the unencumbered property of
the Institutions, and a regular attendance of from 350 to 400 children.

- On looking back to the history of the schools, it is found that the circum--
stances which led the managers to reduce the number of scholars produced °
more than one very instructive result.

Let us look for a moment at certain statistics from the year 1841 to the
year 1851 inclusive.

From the Aberdeen Prison returns it appeared that remarkable variations
occurred in the number of juveniles committed. In 1841, when no school
existed, the number imprisoned was 61, of whom 26 were natives of the town
of Aberdeen, 12 of the county, and 23 were strangers.

For the next ten years, with the schools in operation, the numbers for each
year were as follows :—

48 REPORT—1859,

Committals | Committals Total Natives of | Natives of
Year. |to Aberdeen} to County Town of | County of | Strangers.

Prison, Prisons. |CO™mitted.| aberdeen. | Aberdeen.
1842 30 55 30 16 3 ll
1843 63 a5 63 27 25 11
1844 41 43 41 29 4 8
1845 49 oR 49 34 5 10
1846 28 ao 28 18 2 8
1847 23 4 27 8 7 12
1848 15 4 19 9 6 4
1849 15 1 16 12 1 3
1850 14 8 22 ll 8 3
1851 6 2 8 4 3 1

Turning, on the other hand, to the statistics of the Industrial Schools, it
appears that in the first year, with one school in operation, the number of
juvenile commitments fell from 61 to 30; that in 1843, when the managers
were constrained to reduce the number of scholars, the commitments again
rose to even more than in 1841, viz., to 63; that in 1844 and 1845, when
the school was restored to a certain measure of efficiency, the numbers fell
to 41 and 49, while subsequent returns show that each year after 1845, the
number of schools and scholars being greatly increased, the number of com-
mitments went down and down,—28, 23, 15, 15, 14, 6,—the lowest number
which has been attained, and of whom only 4 were natives of Aberdeen.
The number has subsequently increased, and seems to stand now at about 35,
—about half the number when no such school existed, —but last year, 1858,
the number fell to 15.

During the first five years after the school was in full operation not one
child who had been in attendance there was committed to prison, or fell into
the hands of the police for any offence. From 80 to 100 children were in
constant attendance ; they were the very children who formerly had furnished
the annual supply of youthful offenders, and yet from among them not one
recruit went to join the ranks of criminals, and about 70 had been placed in
permanent situations, and were from time to time reported to be self-sustain-
ing and doing well.

These immediate results were more satisfactory than could have been
anticipated, or could reasonably be expected to continue ; for no one need
expect industrial schools to mould every neglected outcast, who passes a few
years under their training and teaching influences, into a steady, consistent
christian man or woman for life: they, however, greatly cheered the friends
of the instituticns as they gradually became manifest, and they encouraged
them to extend their operations.

While the schools were progressing there were long and very anxious dis-
cussions as to whether or not it was desirable to dodge the children in con-
nexion with the schools, and only a small majority decided in the negative,

As this is a vital question in the management of industrial schools, it may
be well to state briefly the facts and arguments on both sides. 5

In favour of providing lodgings in the school-buildings there were two
principal arguments, both very obvious: Ist, that by thus retaining entire
possession of the children their moral training would be carried on before
and after school-hours ; and 2nd, what was regarded as still more important,
that thus they would be preserved from the contaminating influence of their
homes, where it was to be feared that the moral lessons learned during the
day would be neutralized by evil precept and worse example.

ON THE ABERDEEN INDUSTRIAL FEEDING SCHOOLS, 49

There is so much apparent force in these considerations, that it is only
when the subject is viewed in all its relations, and especially when the light
of God’s word is brought to bear upon it, that a rightful decision of the
question can be attained.

The family is the place ordained and prepared by God for the training
and up-bringing of children, and this is an ordinance which man can never
infringe with impunity.

To collect numbers of children and manage them in masses is sure to de-
stroy individuality of character, while providing everything for them effectu-
ally destroys energy of character, and prevents the acquirement of habits of
industry. Under such treatment abundance of knowledge may be commu-
nicated, but no training for the active struggle of life can be given. The
whole system is artificial and foreign to the state of that society in which the
children are soon to take their places.

The experiment has been fully tried in Scotland by the hospitals so pro-
fusely endowed, and long erroneously considered as objects of self-gratula-
tion by every Scotchman, and in England by the poorhouse schools; and in
both cases has signally failed. The inmates take their places in the world
with their heads stored, it may be, with valuable knowledge, and even quite
capable of passing a strict examination in many branches, but with all their
energies deadened through want of use, and wholly incapable of applying
their knowledge to any useful purpose, unable to rely upon their own exer-
tions because they have been trained up in dependence upon others for all
they need.

The first practical lesson to be impressed on the mind of every child, and
especially on those who have to support themselves in life by their labour, is
that they must, under God, depend on their own exertions for success. In
an hospital, or a poorhouse, no such lesson is or can be taught; on the con-
trary, they are taught practically that they may safely depend for everything
on others. This is not the wish nor the intention of the hospital or poor-
house managers, but the necessary result of their systems.

The other aspect of the question, arising from the contamination to be
dreaded from a wicked parent’s home, is still more serious.

At first sight it looks absurd to train a child carefully for the greater part
of the day, and then deliberately, knowingly, to expose him during the re-
maining hours to see and hear all that is offensive and abominable in tte con-
duct and language of a drunken mother or an abandoned father, or vicious,
dissolute neighbours.

If the object to be attained were to train up a child in absolute ignorance
of moral evil, then a well-regulated hospital would be exactly what is re-
quired ; but no man will venture to maintain that this is the sort of training
required to adapt a child for a useful life.

Our business is not to train up in ignorance of the existence of evil, but
to teach children what sin really is in itself, and in its consequences ; how
hateful it is to God, how ruinous to man. This is the Bible mode of teach-
ing children as well as men and women, and from that certain rule we never
can depart with impunity.

It is most painful to think of the moral evils to be witnessed in many of
the dwellings of our crowded cities, and every exertion should be made to
cause them to cease; for while they exist they go far to neutralize every effort
for the good of the poorest classes, and go on producing a steady supply of
neglected juveniles; but that is not the present question; it is, What is the
pee wey of bringing up the children belonging to that class of society and

1859. E

50 REPORT—1859.

exposed to all these evil influences? Is it by shutting them up for a certain
number of years from the knowledge of such things, and then sending them
out at once into the midst of them? or is it by teaching them, so far as man
can do it, to know and hate sin, and to flee from it?

It is a dangerous step to break up a family, and to tear asunder the ties
which bind parents and children together. Few, indeed, are the parents in
whose hearts love for their children is wholly extinguished: it survives the
_destruction of almost every other right feeling in the heart, and it is through
this that other good feelings may possibly be rekindled and brought into
beneficial operation. It is marvellous to witness the good which flows from
the influence of one right feeling beginning to work in a heart which seemed
to be seared and dead to every good impression,

Few are the parents who will deliberately teach their children vice and
crime; on the contrary, the majority carefully conceal their own wickedness
from them, There are few human beings in whom conscience is wholly dead,
who do not feel something of the burden of guilt on their own heads, and
who would not, if they could, deliver their offspring from it. The principal
exception to this is when reason, and every other faculty, is overpowered by
strong drink; but even in this case there is the sad, the melancholy advan-
tage, that the children get many a practical lesson of its fearful consequences,
and while we deplore the fact, we need not therefore shut our eyes fo this
part of its results.

While this matter was under consideration the further question occurred,
What effect will be produced on the wicked parents by the return of the
children from the school to their homes? Will it do any good to the
parents? More than one case soon became known where unmistakeable
benefit arose to the family from the school-children, The parents were in-
terested in hearing what was done at this new school; they saw that at all
events their children were well fed for the day, made tolerably clean, and
kept out of harm’s way. Verses of hymns or texts of Scripture were re-
peated and listened to; in short, it appeared that the daily return of the child
from the Industrial School introduced the first feeble glimmering of improve-
ment at home; it might be only a little sweeping of the floor, or a little
arranging of the miscellaneous articles in the room, as they were accustomed
to do or to see done at school, but still it was a step in the right direction,

an introduction of ameliorating influences. Subsequent experience has
shown that some of the children have acted, and are now acting, as little
Home Missionaries, conveying the saving truths of the Gospel to parents and
brothers and sisters.’

It was also discovered that some of the children occasionally denied them-
selves a portion of their bread and carried it home to supply, so far, the wants
of a starving little brother or sister; and here was another humanizing influ-
ence brought to bear on the family.

Altogether, the question was under consideration for years, and the ulti-
mate decision was, not to attempt to lodge the children as part of the system,
but, in exceptional cases such as orphans, to proyide that children should he
boarded in a family, and even then only one or two children in one family,
unless they were brothers and sisters.

_ Few such cases have occurred, and they are provided for without encroach-
ing on the general funds.

The decision was no doubt greatly promoted by the managers seeing that
they could carry on their work if they did not attempt to lodge, but that, if
they did, their funds were wholly inadequate to the expense,

ON THE ABERDEEN INDUSTRIAL FEEDING SCHOOLS. 51

It was fortunate on every account that it was so, and the results have been
most satisfactory.

While thus fixing the exact extent of their field of labour,—and the
general principles on which the work was to be conducted,—the managers
were gradually pushing forward their attempts to get under their care all the
neglected outcasts in Aberdeen.

The first and most natural step was to commence a school for girls similar
to that for boys. It was opened on 5th June 1843, with only three girls,
and the number was gradually increased to 20, 40, 50, and at last to 60, the
full number for which accommodation was provided.

The results were, if possible, more satisfactory than with the boys. A poor
half-staryed outcast girl is felt by all to be a more painful sight than a boy
in the same condition. She seems to have been forced farther below her
right place in society than the boy, and to be less capable of struggling for
herself, Experience, however, soon proved that ameliorating influences acted
more rapidly, and perhaps more permanently, on the girls‘than on the boys.
The change produced by a few weeks of careful feeding and training upon
the most abject was so great, that the ladies who devoted themselves to the
pecsons enterprise had every encouragement in their work and labour of
ove.

In December 1844, the first complete year’s report of the girls’ school
stated the number on the roll at 49; and next year, 1845, it was above 60.

During the third year 35 girls left; 16 because their parents had become
able to provide for them; 5 got employment in manufactories; and 7 as
domestic seryants; 7 deserted, and 1 died.

During the fourth year the attendance varied from 56 to 69; 23 left for
domestic service, and 31 were removed by parents, as in the previous year ;
and this must always be regarded as one of the most satisfactory results of
the schools, arising either {rom improved pecuniary circumstances, or from
improved moral feeling on the part of the parents.

The expense of each pupil was £3 18s. 103d., and the earnings of each
6s. 114d., leaving the net cost to the institution £3 11s. 113d, The amount
of earnings was small, but as much as could be expected, considering that
nearly half the children were under 9 years of age, most of the rest from 9
to 11, and only 10 of them above eleven, The cost for feeding and teach-
ing the girls was nearly twenty shillings a year less per head than for the
boys.

In 1847 circumstances led to a division of the girls’ school into two, and
both have ever since gone on doing their work effectually, having convenient
buildings, situated about a mile apart from each other,—one purchased, the
other built for the purpose, and both of them thoroughly adapted to the
system of the schools.

Soon after the original schools had begun to prove their usefulness, it
became clear to the managers that they were not accomplishing all that
ought to be done, that there was still a portion of the neglected outcasts
whom they were not reaching, and this forming the very class for whom
the schools were originally intended—the little beggars and pilferers who
infested the streets, and whom it had hitherto been impossible to draw to
the schools.

It was resolved to make a bold and resolute assault upon this class, and to
compel them to be ameliorated whether they or their parents wished it or
not.

The Local Police Act for Aberdeen happily contained a clause giving

52 “REPORT—1859.

power to put down begging. It provided for the punishment of beggars, but
it did not devise any mode of caring for the beggar, whether old or young,
or putting him in the way of supporting himself. It was passed before the
enactment of the present Scottish Poor Law; it did one half of the work,
it left the other half either not done or to be accomplished by voluntary
enterprise.

This clause was employed in a way not perhaps intended by the Legisla-
ture, but still within the scope of the law, and which has proved most salu-
tary to the community.

The intended proceeding was carefully explained to the authorities, and
their support and assistance were judiciously given.

The managers of the Soup Kitchen gave the free use of their buildings,
and this most important social and moral experiment was commenced with
a sum of four pounds sterling, raised by subscription, not doubting that
if good resulted the necessary funds would be furnished,—and so they have
been. ;

On 19th May 1845, instructions were given to the City Police to lay
hands on all the children found begging in the streets, and bring them to
the Soup Kitchen, and in the course of the day 75 were collected, of whom
only 4 could read.

The scene was one never to be forgotten by the few who witnessed it.
Naturally alarmed at their capture, wholly ignorant of what fate might be
awaiting them, they cursed and swore, kicked and fought and bit, but by
firmness and kindness they were greatly subdued before night.

The most obnoxious part of the proceedings was the compulsory washing
of hands and faces little accustomed to soap and water, and the only accept-
able part was the ample supply of good food. Teaching could scarcely be
said to commence on the first day, which was devoted to training.

Gradually during the day a certain amount of order was established : the
boys began by degrees to understand what sort of place they had got into,
that the treatment was not altogether to be condemned, that though the cold
water might be a very unpleasant application, and the proposed lessons a very
wearisome infliction, still the soup was very good and the bread very abun-
dant; they had never had so much good food before, and it was worth endu-
ring some discomfort to obtain. Some such reasoning seems to have passed
through most of their minds in the course of the proceedings.

At eight o’clock they were dismissed ; they were all invited to return next
day, when they should have the same discipline and the same feeding, toge-
ther with more regular teaching, and at the same time they were distinctly
informed that they might come or not as they pleased, but that begging in any
shape would not be tolerated; that their wants would be supplied as they
had experienced in the school; that their choice now lay betwixt starving, or
the prison, or the school, and they must make it for themselves.

Next day the greater part of the boys returned, and the managers felt that
they had gained a great victory, and that a new and vast field of usefulness
now lay before them. They entered vigorously upon it, and the school has
been in active and useful operation down to the present day.

This school at once produced visible effects ; the immediate removal of the
whole of the troublesome boys who infested the streets made an unmistake-
able change much to the advantage of all classes, and when it was necessary
to raise funds for its support the working classes gave most gratifying testi-
mony to their sense of its value. ‘
The wealthier classes of the community subscribed £150, but the working

ON THE ABERDEEN INDUSTRIAL FEEDING SCHOOLS, 53

classes, men and women depending on daily toil for daily bread, contributed
no less than £250!—and when some of them were asked why they contri-
buted thus liberally to support a school at which their own children would
not be scholars, the reply was, “Before this school was opened we were
afraid to trust our children a moment out of doors alone and unguarded, for
they were exposed to learn, and did learn, all manner of mischief; but now
the school has cleared the streets of the little vagabonds who corrupted
them, and we are not afraid to let our own children out, and therefore we
subscribe to the school.”

This honest practical testimony to one good result, and that not the imme-
diate object but the indirect effect, of the school, is invaluable, and at the time
was felt to be most encouraging.

During the first year the total number of names placed on the roll was 159,
of whom 18 were soon dismissed as unsuitable, 34 deserted, or were removed.
by their parents, 26 got into employment, 7 into other institutions, and at
its close 74 remained on the roll, of whom 43 were boys and 31 were girls.
Of these,

25 were from 3 to 7 years of age,

36, from 7to10 3
11 ,, from 10 to 13 *
2 above........ 13 oc

Thirty-four of those in attendance at the end of the year had been admitted

during the first month, and of these, 2 could read, and § knew the letters at
admission ; and by the end of the year 23 could read tolerably, and 24 could
read a little.
_ Their religious instruction had been utterly neglected; few of them had
ever entered a church. Before the close of the year they were all in the
practice of attending church accompanied by the teachers, and received care-
ful religious instruction every day, but especially and very fully on Sunday
evenings. The attendance became very regular, and, what was especially
satisfactory, very few of the children were convicted of any offence. The
good food procured the attendance, and the twelve hours spent in school
left little opportunity to commit crime; thus commencing the abandon-
ment of bad, and the formation of good habits, before any principle could be
instilled.

The value of the work done was very small, but the police authorities most
judiciously paid the salaries of the teachers, and the managers of the Soup
Kitchen gave the use of their buildings without rent; so that the only outlay
from the funds of the institution was for food, and for a partial supply of
clothing, which was absolutely necessary. The average cost per head for the
first year was £4.

This has proved the most valuable of all the schools; it at once attacked
the evil at its fountain-head, and the fruits speedily appeared in the almost
total cessation of street begging, and the gradual diminution of juvenile
vagrants and offenders.

After a time the police authorities and the Soup Kitchen managers with-
drew their support, and they acted wisely in so doing; the school has ever
since been supported by voluntary contributions; its proper name is “ The
Juvenile School of Industry,” but in Aberdeen it is best known, from its
locality, as the Sugar House Lane School.

The number in attendance varies from 50 to 70 boys and as many girls.

54 REPORT—1859.

The school-rooms are on different floors and most commodious; the only
want is a play-ground, which from the situtation is unattainable.

Considerable difficulty was all along felt in confining the operations of
the schools strictly to those children who required their aid, and excluding
those whose parents or friends were able to maintain them at ordinary
schools; and this was a most important matter, both in order to spare the
funds of the schools and to satisfy the public mind.

To meet this difficulty the “Child’s Asylum Committee” was invented and
has been most successful. The duty is carefully to investigate every case
in all its cireumstances, and admit or reject, or hand over to some other in-
stitution, as may be found proper; in short, to interpose an effectual check
betwixt the little mendicants and the school, in order to prevent what was not
unlikely to happen,—a resort to street begging in order thereby to get at the
good food of the school.

At first it met daily at 10 a.m.; but this soon became unnecessary, because
there were not daily cases to examine, but it is still summoned whenever its
services are required.

It was instituted in December 1846, and is a numerous committee, being
composed of gentlemen who are either Magistrates of the City or Commis-
sioners of Police, or Members of the Poor Law Boards of St. Nicholas and
Old Machar, Directors of the House of Refuge, or Members of the Joint
Committees of Management of the Boys’ School and the Juvenile School;
in short, of members of all the public bodies interested in the matter.

The inquiry is most searching into every circumstance which can guide
in coming to a decision suited to the case, and its working has been most
satisfactory ; very few, almost none, have been admitted to the schools since
1846 who were improper objects ; and it has not unfrequently happened that
remonstrances and counsels given to parents had the happy effect of bring-
ing them first to feel and then to undertake and discharge the duties they
owed to their hitherto neglected offspring.

During the first five years this Committee investigated the cases of 700
destitute children, most of whom were admitted into one or other of the
schools, and 198 of these were brought up to the Committee by the police.

The Ladies’ Committee of the female schools make precisely similar
inquiries into all the cases brought to their notice before admission.

The progress of the schools has been steady, and their good effects have
become more and more visible every succeeding year, and have been demon-
oa only more clearly by facts which at first seemed to militate against
them.

oe remarkable proof is derived from returns furnished by the rural
police.

It was a well-known fact that children of very tender years were sent out
by worthless parents to wander alone through the county to support thems
selves by begging and petty thefts, and that still greater numbers accompa-
nied their parents to add force to their claims for charity, while a few were
lent or hired for the same purpose to parties who had no suitable children of
their own.

The constables of the rural police were instructed to return as correctly
as possible the number of these children whom they encountered in their
daily rounds. From the nature of the case the returns cannot be absolutely
correct ; but still they approximate to the truth, and the variations from year
to year give information of much value. '

ON THE ABERDEEN INDUSTRIAL FEEDING SCHOOLS, 55

The following is the Return for Ten Years.

Juveniles in company} Juveniles

Year. with Adults, alone.
41-42 272 57
42-43 370 77
43-44 302 60
44-45 302 65
45-46 250 14
46-47 211 6
47-48 225 6
48-49 239 1
49-50 260 2
50-51 170 4

J ns

Compare these returns with those already given from the prisons and from
the industrial schools, and the result is as clear as figures can make it, that
precisely as the schools are in vigorous operation or not, so the number of
youthful vagrants diminishes or increases.

We have now had seven more years’ experience, and the results are equally
instructive though produced to some extent by circumstances which at the
time were most unsatisfactory.

To bring these out we must again have recourse to the Prison and Police
returns.

Commitments to Prison.

Committals |Committals Total Native of | Native of Total

Year. to neo be Sasonaied Committals.| Town. County.
1852 23 1 24
1853 24 1 25
1854 47 2 49
1855 34 3 37
1856 34 9 43
1857 31 9 40
1858 12 3 15

Juveniles apprehended.

Year Juveniles in company} Juveniles
; with Adults. alone.
1852 258 8
1853 585 21
1854 456 17
1855 416 8
1856 297 9
1857 199 lhe
1858 169 4t

It will be observed that a very sudden and remarkable increase took place
in 1853, 1854, and 1855, both of commitments of criminals and of juvenile
vagrants met by the police. The school managers were completely perplexed
and somewhat dismayed. Were the principles on which they had acted
unsound? or had they failed to apply them aright ? Was the great enterprise,
hitherto so successful and a cause of so much thankfulness, after all to prove
a delusion? They could not believe it, and yet the increase of offenders was

' * City of Aberdeen. + Not one of these 4 belonged to the City or County of Aberdeen.

56 REPORT—1859.

an undeniable fact. Many anxious meetings were held, and many searching
inquiries were made, but for a long time they could only point to the ordi-
nary producing causes of juvenile crime,—drunkenness of parents, parental
neglect, cheap theatres and dancing saloons, and the facilities afforded by
brokers’ shops for the sale of small stolen articles; at last the active cause
was discovered.

Rival institutions had been set up; schools attended by large numbers
were in active operation, not to teach honesty and virtue, but to teach theft
and crime; and at the same time to provide every facility for the disposal of
stolen property, and to prevent the detection of the offenders.

Various wicked inducements were also held out to the unfortunate juve-
niles, tempting them in a manner utterly opposed to all good order and even
decency, but which were not wanting in their results; they had their attrac-
tions, and they did their work.

From 1852 or 1853 to 1855 there were two if not more of these “schools
for crime” attended by parties of from 12 or 14 up to 30 or 40.

This appalling discovery explained the whole mystery. Ultimately several
of the teachers of crime were brought to trial, convicted, and their establish-
ments broken up, and then the number of offenders speedily diminished,
though, of course, time was required for the complete wearing out of the
effects of such a nefarious system.

It is worthy of notice that these teachers of crime were tried and con-
victed of theft, or of recetving stolen property—not one of them for the infinitely
more atrocious crime of teaching little children to be criminals.

There seems to be at present no law which can touch them for so doing,
and yet there is scarcely a greater crime which man or woman can commit.

With this exception, which only proves in the strongest manner the value
of Industrial Feeding Schools, the whole institutions have gone on and pros-
pered, quietly doing their work, with those trifling alternations which occur
in all children’s schools, and which are of the greatest use in keeping the
energies of managers and teachers in constant activity.

It would be useless to read, for no one could follow, statistical details
exhibiting all the particulars of each school for each year, with the ages,
parentage, and disposal of each child, but they are now produced for the in-
formation of those who choose to examine them; and they will be found full
of interesting and instructive facts, all tending in one direction—to demon-
strate that well-managed schools on the Aberdeen principles have, without
doubt, solved the important question how the annual supply of juvenile
criminals may be cut off at the fountain-head, and how multitudes hitherto
allowed, if not constrained by the force of surrounding influences, to grow
up into criminals, a torment to themselves and to society, may, by God’s
blessing, be transformed into self-supporting respectable members of society.

The first ten years of the schools saw them, after all their trials and vicis-
situdes, firmly established in Aberdeen, and not confined to it, but already
extended to most parts of the country. The history of their introduction
and progress elsewhere lies beyond the purpose of this paper.

The subject gradually took more and more hold of the public mind. The
managers in Aberdeen early saw the importance of their schools receiving
public sanction, and brought forward the subject in reports, memorials, and
petitions, until at length it was taken up by the Legislature ; and the stamp of
the nation’s approval of the system of Industrial Feeding Schools was inde-
libly fixed upon them by the passing of ‘‘ Dunlop’s” Act, on the 7th of August,
1854, applicable to Scotland only; and on the 10th of the same month, of
“ Palmerston’s” Act, applicable to the whole of Great Britain.

ON THE ABERDEEN INDUSTRIAL FEEDING SCHOOLS. 57

These two statutes have introduced an entirely new principle, and in fact
revolutionized the long recognized principles of our criminal law. They adapt
and give legal sanction to the axiom that “ Prevention is better than cure.”

By Dunlop’s Scotch Act, vagrant and neglected juveniles apparently under
fourteen years, wandering about with no visible means of subsistence, may be
sent by magistrates to a Reformatory or Industrial School, duly sanctioned
by the Secretary of State, there to be trained and educated, but not to be
detained, without their own consent, beyond the age of fifteen.

By Palmerston’s British Act, magistrates are in like manner authorized
to send juvenile offenders under sixteen to Reformatory Schools duly sanc-
tioned by the Secretary of State, for not less than two, nor more than five
years, but only after undergoing an imprisonment of not less than fourteen
days.

Both statutes make provision for recovery of the cost of such young per-
sons from the parties legally liable; both authorize grants of public money
in aid of the schools, and both are entirely voluntary, or permissive, not
obligatory. Magistrates may avail themselves of them or not as they think
proper ; and as the matter was new, and wholly untried as a legal proceeding,
it was prudent thus to proceed. The time, if not yet arrived, must soon come,
when no outcast children shall be sent to prison, but all sent to Reformatory
Schools, there to be fed and taught and trained, without having the prison
brand stamped upon them which is required by Lord Palmerston’s Act,—a
temporary concession to old and deep-rooted prejadices.

Under Dunlop’s Act, if parties interested find security to the amount of
£5 for the good conduct in future of any young person sent to school under
the Act, then such young person is removed from the school and handed
over to their care.

This clause is liable to considerable abuse, and ought ere long to be
repealed: parties professing so much interest in these young persons ought
to show it at an earlier period, and take proper care of them before they
become either vagrants or criminals ; and the nation ought not to allow those
who have proved themselves so indifferent in the matter to interfere, and
deprive the children of all the advantages of an Industrial School, without
really offering anything certain and of equal value in return.

Those two statutes have already been productive of much good, and both

magistrates and the public are daily becoming more willing to avail them-
selves of their provisions.
- In order to have the benefit of the Palmerston Act for older convicted
juveniles, a Reformatory has been erected near Aberdeen, mostly from the
judicious application by the trustees of the late Dr. Watt, of part of the
charitable funds left by him at their disposal. The building is plain, but most
suitable for about fifty boys, with plans ready for its extension when required,
standing ona farm of fifty acres, the property of the institution, and at present
having between thirty and forty inmates. It has been only about two years in
operation ; and though all promises well, it is not yet time to look for results ;
only one or two, and these under peculiar circumstances, have as yet left the
institution; the period of sentence of the first admitted has not yet expired.
One satisfactory statement may with confidence be made, and that is that
most of the inmates are thoroughly happy and contented in their abode, and
this is one great step to their reformation.

Those who have from the first taken an active interest in the cause of
neglected juveniles, can hardly realize to themselves the progress which has
been made in less than twenty years.

In 1840 no special provision existed for their behoof ; they bad full per-

58 REPORT—1859.

mission to do what they pleased, and when they became troublesome to
others, the prison, and perhaps the lash, were the only remedies applied.

In 1841 the first Aberdeen School of Industry was opened; the experiment
went on and prospered ; the example was followed ; other towns opened simi-
lar schools; the system was found to do much good wherever it was tried.
The public became more and more interested, for the good done was very
perceptible, and the money-cost was very small; and as each town easily
furnished a few zealous ladies and gentlemen to superintend the work, they
were thankfully permitted to do so.

Then it became very evident that to punish criminals as of old was very
costly, and rarely led to their reformation; but that to prevent crime was
comparatively easy, and also far less costly.

These opinions gradually established themselves in the public mind, and
from it of course took possession of the Legislature; and in about fourteen
years from the opening of the first Industrial School, the Imperial Legislature
passed the two leading statutes which firmly established them as fixed por-
tions of our social system, and finally adopted the principle of endeavouring
to prevent rather than to punish and reform.

Hitherto, of course, only partial and local results are seen; soon, greater
and more extensive are to be expected.

What, then, are the principles on which these schools depend for success ?
They are so very simple that there is no small risk of their being overlooked
in carrying out the actual working.

The schools supply what the children need, and what they cannot get for
themselves—food, teaching, training; but they leave their energies free, they
only seek to turn them from evil to good. Energy, activity, diligence need
to be fostered in the young quite as much as their mental faculties, and any
system of dealing with them which deadens these is fatal to future success.
The want of men of eminence from among the tens of thousands who have
been educated in poor-houses and hospitals, combined with the pre-eminence
of men who have struggled in early life against every ditticulty, prove the
truth of this. It is no kindness to any one to deprive him of self-reliance,
though it is often less troublesome than to enable him to depend on himself.

The Legislature has done well in the encouragement it has given to these.
schools, but it will be a fatal step if they try to do too much, and place them
entirely on public support. It is absolutely necessary that a large amount
of voluntary unpaid energy enter into the working out of the system.

There seems to be a social principle, not yet very much appreciated or
understood, which makes it necessary that the best laws shall always be
supplemented by private voluntary enterprise.

Let the law provide as it may for the poor, for the sick, for the criminal,
there will always be found work just at the boundaries reached by the law
which must be undertaken by the free-will enterprise of individual activity ;
otherwise there will be great blots and scars on the face of our social system,
great evils without remedies ; and this is in truth a vast blessing conferred
by God on man, for it provides work equally advantageous to the rich and
to the poor.

The principle which ought to govern all connected with the work of Indus-
trial Schools is very extensive, but itis very simple,—earnest, hearty love of
the outcast members of the human family viewed as immortal beings.

As the love of God to man is the source of all human happiness, so the .
love of men to one another is the great remedy for the social evils which
afflict this earth.

- The highest display of God’s love to man is manifested in the great scheme

ON THE ABERDEEN INDUSTRIAL FEEDING SCHOOLS. 59

of salvation through our Redeemer ; and the best proof man can give of his
love to his fellow-man, is to do whatever man can do to bring him to know
and to receive the glad tidings as revealed in the Scriptures of Truth.

This is the plan which God himself has appointed ; and every endeavour to
reform men, not based on God’s Word, and not guided by its precepts at
every step, must fail of success.

It is a good thing, no doubt, for society that neglected outcasts should be
reclaimed and trained up to be self-sustaining useful members of the com-
munity ; but if the managers of Industrial Schools look no higher than to
mere temporal results, they must in most cases fail to attain even what they
desires

The only well-grounded hope of success is to be found when the training
to pass usefully and creditably through this world is based on, and made sub-
servient to, the higher and holier training which communicates that knowledge
which alone leads to life eternal.

Statistics illustrative of Progress of Aberdeen Industrial Schools.
Table of the Ages of the 69 Boys at Industrial School, 30th March, 1844.

Under To) eddie hoa sims see oA
Between 7and 8 ...:.+...66.5 5——9
% Sand Q)iseetaacceca! MM
3 Sand 10°. .%stees cise £8
Be 10 Bnd 1D". 32 ks 22s 3 11

g LB and 12 wsccecsccess 5 ——46
% . &2 and 13). cea ks 2212 -t) 10
%§ USand 14. seed. os si 5 ——15
Thus of the 69, 9 were under eight years of age, and 45 were from eight
to twelve years old, and 15 from twelve to fourteen ; 36 had lost their fathers ;.
4 only had lost their mothers.

Ist April 1845, 72 Inmates.

Under Time gente s eohix es as &6
Between 7and 8.....:..2:3.. 11 ——17
as Sand OQ s.sssesig3r 7
4 9 and 1G) sessse3 8 885" 15
3 fOrand TP. 3 ees 62s: 11
a° “and 196; See hese sea? 4, —=—37
Se Utand Ud 50.285 Sees 8
TStand! 14.3335 50s 3 —=+—Il11

>
Thus of the 72, 17 were under eight years, and 37 were from eight to
twelve years old, and 11 from twelve to fourteen.
The fathers of 38 were dead, and eight more had deserted their families,
making 46 in fact fatherless ; two only were motherless.

Table of Ages of 91 Boys on Roll of Boys’ School, Ist April, 1859.

Bingee "(Feats ns oe 09,5 2009s 8
Between 7and 8.........:+. 8=+—I6
“¢ OVA tO chars 5 Se Fese! 20
9 Giatd.1O cavaseaacs ve 92
PLO PAUGOI oes esos s cc LS
De Landes ee scre a res 6 —6l
Fe AND TD ro ses Ps 0ST 6
sy er ONE eve ss knee a3 6

5 PS ANTS seer es et . @2—d]4

60 REPORT—1859.

Thus of the 91, 16 were under eight years of age, and 61 were from eight
to twelve.

34 have mothers; only 9 have fathers; only 48 have both parents alive ;
8 have been deserted by fathers; 1+ are illegitimate.

The comparison of these Tables for 1844, 1845, and 1859 shows that the
schools are now attended by the same description of children as when they
were first opened.

Table showing progress of Boys’ School of Industry.

Average | Average ox bs plan
= ment direc!
Year. | attendance.| Total cost. Food. Earnings. | Net Cost. | fom School,
eG Se the = a Bae lie See ye B 2 I GNNT#
1841-42 36 8 6 8 411 0 014 6 (ie Pa - toe
1842-43 52 6 8 0 410 4 Liy2e8 Bir esr e
1843-44 45 512 0 4 1 0 140 4 8 0 aes
1844-45 52 6 0 0 4 0 0 110 0 410 0 17
1845-46 49 6 0 0 3 8 6 ] 10" 1 4 911 22
1846-47 66 5 17 10 314 0 (116 4 41 6 14
1847-48 66 518 9 4-1)°9. |} 144-9 4 4 0 28
1848-49 64 510 7 ale % 17 6 43 1 18
1849-50 61 Ley eae’ 310 6 117 4 3 910 14
1850-51 64 418 5 a We} 114 4 ey: ams 7
1851-52 72 4 510 3.0 0 ,1 510 3.00 12
1852-53 66 311 5} 3 0 6 10 6 210 114 8
1853-54 61 4 3 8} oy OMG oq a. Fal 3.2 44 ll
1854-55 53 4 7 9 3°00 11 0 9 3.7 OF 14
1855-56 65 317 8% 34: 8 015 3 3.1 #4 17
1856-57 53 3 10 11% 3.01 1 0 83/210 34 15
1857-58 52 LTR 219102 ,|018 7 314 6 vf
1858-59 77 4 7 93 aro eZ | 016 03 |3 11 93 18

Table of Ages of Children at Juvenile School, Sugar House Lane,
April 1846.—Number on Roll 73.

3 years Of age...2.e..-222 3

4 ” Se aoe 5 AQ

5 ” cere eeeseses g

6 os cla ohare, okt Ss --.. lO——25 under 7

7 ” Cys eielninitetctiatataatian ee

8 ” ee 7

9 ” eeereee were

10 >» Saini eae ce ramen 386 from 7 to 10
11 » ait. at atch ea ae

12 gi ines iS cae aati oat

13 ” eseesucessve) (ll from 10 to 13

2 were orphans; 5 had fathers only; 47 had mothers only ; 20 had both
parents alive ; 2 only could read on admission; and 8 knew the letters of
the alphabet.

Average expense about £4 a year; earnings very small.

Table of Ages of 132 Children in Juvenile School, on 1st April, 1859.

Under. pS years ys. 0.6 oni ss 8
Between 5and 6G............ 12

3 Giang yen cuslecdeteties: 320)

2 7 and Oi taiie intern gee ighaie 27——67

ON THE ABERDEEN INDUSTRIAL FEEDING SCHOOLS. 61

Between Sand 9 ....ecceeers 16
” G9 and-IO'..:. 6). 26
PPorOrandiyyres ee ee Ji
gy EBRATIONZE a ss eres oreo cere 11——60
Bay SUNIL gets a laive cies’ sca azo 4
PAD hae (osc 0 Le Cena a i ea 2 eS

Thus of the 132, 67 are under eight years ; 60 from eight to twelve; and
only 5 above twelve years.

Of these 132, 6 have fathers only; 59 have mothers only ; 64 have both
parents; 3 are orphans; 19 have been deserted by fathers, and 32 are
illegitimate.

Table showing Progress of the Juvenile School of Industry.

Average Average . Got

Year. Watenditce: Total cost. Food. Earnings.| Net Cost. Situations.
£ s. d. Ss: d. Sijcd> £ os. d.

1845-46 57 47 8 3.7 4 8 5 319 3 26
1846-47 75 ry (ale 3 6 8 Beds ACSA 4 6
1847-48 84 a a 3 210 4 0 rome 15
1848-49 94 3,169 26 4 2 0 314 9 8
1849-50 85 40 0 24210 2 10 S37 2 10
1850-51 95 ended, 1 14 10 3 0 S47 rf
1851-52 94 (A BANS} je | ae 6 9 315 6 12
1852-53 79 319 1 217 6 3.4 315 9 15
1853-54 73 4 310 3.8 9 ak 316 6 1l
1854-55 71 4 14 10 5 eee a) 7 0 4 710 9
1855-56 79 4 6 4 3 6 5 4 3 ra a | 8
1856-57 73 4 810 3.0 7 5103} 4 2 14 15
1857-58 81 4 6 4 2129 4 53] 4 1 103 9
1858-59 120 OMe eee ee es 2103 ]} 3 0 3} 12

N.B. The higher earnings of the years 1846, 1854, and 1855 arose from
the boys being on the whole somewhat above the average age.

The last column shows only those who have obtained situations direct
from the school.

Table of Ages of Girls at Female School, December 1845.—Number

on Roll 64.

EIBGCE fw TY EATS.. 4. 6 acckrichshepiyer 2
Between 7and § ..........6. 11——-13

“3 Sand 9..... stclsicie sone

5 Oand lO va wine caro ats 12

Fe eh O ANG Aiiss. th this wen cegets 13

ser Pel ane Seas. casts amacretate oF

Ran | IZA Yd | A ee ee ee 6
Above AB isch. cotati =O

Thus 13 were under eight years of age, and 51 from eight to thirteen ;
30 had both parents alive; 5 had fathers only; 26 had mothers only; and
3 were orphans.

December 1846.—60 on Roll.

aden A" 7 years) 4. eas. 88 ee
Between 7and 9...........- 26
pa Stand A Hoss Laas 22

SpA oscccia as Siorptenets 10———60

62 REPORT—1859.,

Thus 2 were under seven, while 48 were from seven to eleven years; 25
had both parents alive; 24 had mothers only; 7 had fathers only ; 4 were
orphans ; and of the 25 who had both parents alive, 6 had been deserted by
fathers,—making 30 dependent on mothers only.

ae weer oS
Total cost of each pupil ........ 3 18 10
Earnings Ae On Rees ee 0 6113
Net cost Eh ss hele Geers 3 11 114

In 1846 the school was divided into two, viz. Sheriff Watson’s Female
School of Industry, and the Aberdeen Female School of Industry.

Sheriff Watson’s Female School in 1851 had 71 on the Roll, of whom 58
were under eleven years of age, and the cost per head £2 8s. 6d. per aunum.
In 1858-59 the average number on roll was 633, while the average attend-
ance on week days was 61,—a result rarely attained in any school. The
average attendance on Sunday was 55,5.

Ages of 70 on Roll, 1st April, 1859.

Ages. Time at School.

Under’ § years .,,,., 8 Under year ..,... 34
» =) S Sy) an ae 18 na, We mae exe Vaiss Sept
se OMe e eae at LT ayy EE hiss | ee eth 10
PE es ORS a URS rae Mere, oe 4
af Rie « “Gy OO ae aie 9 oo BD» 4
Pe a ale mer oe 8 ae. 8 Dh on 2
AO fp hacks eu

Of these 70, 36 have both parents alive, and of these 12 have been
deserted by fathers; 1 by her mother; and 1 by both parents; 27 have
mothers only alive; and 1 is an orphan.

27 left during the year; 8 required at home, 7 to domestic service, 4
parents leaving Aberdeen, 2 in bad health, 3 to manufactories, 2 improved
circumstances of family, and 1 to Orphan Institution,

LM Gh
The cost per head for food was.......... 2 7 74
The total’ cost. per head: 2.32. .4.005056 318 54
dhe eargings yer Head *.'ss'sece seucrspaaae, ee
PICUSEOREY Se eters teers adr eg ss caterer 5°18" J

Aberdeen Female School of Industry.

In 1851 the number on roll was 77, of whom 63 were under twelve years
of age; 18 obtained situations as domestic servants during the year ; and the
average expense of each was £3 8s. per annum.

In 1856 the number on roll was 81, of whom 59 were under twelve years
of age. During the year 14 went to domestic service and 5 to other work,
and the full number on the roll was usually present at school.

3 were orphans; 2 deserted by fathers; 20 had mothers only ; 23 both
parents alive ; and 18 illegitimate.

In 1859 the number on roll was 96, of whom 53 were under ten years of
age; 36 from ten to twelve; and 7 from twelve to fourteen.

24 obtained domestic service, and 7 other employment.

1 was an orphan ; 8 deserted by fathers ; $4 fathers dead ; 9 mothers dead ;
3 mothers dead and deserted by fathers ; 1 deserted by both parents; 25 both
parents alive; and 15 illegitimate.

Average cost of each child per annum £4 7s, 113d.

Average attendance 93.

UPPER SILURIANS OF LESMAHAGOW, 63

Proceedings of Child’s Asylum, opened December 1846.

Boys. Girls. Total.
Dec. 1846 to Dec. 1847 police brought up.... 56 39 95

» 1647 °° ,, 1848 ” nee a 16 46
» 1646, | 1849 9 aeicecpe 6 28
3 1849s, ~ «1850 » Hic cy ce (9) 2 12
», 1850 » . 18d] » . 1] 6 ay

Making in five years 129 boys and 69 girls,—in all 198.

It soon became apparent that the operations of police were so effective,
that they must soon cease to supply sufficient numbers of pupils to the
schools, and the Child’s Asylum Committee resolved to receive and investi-

ate applications from the parents or friends of neglected juveniles.

The first four years of this mode of proceeding gave the following results:

Boys. Girls. Total.

1848. Applications on behalf of ....,..... 92 57 149
1849. ” are Bley oaicane 103 32 135
1850. ” sete 26. aeteit tee 7 82 30 112
1851. ” PR Mee ii Real ane 88 21 109

The general result of the first five years’ operations of the asylum is that
703 cases of neglected children were investigated by means of it, most of
whom were sent to one or other of the industrial schools; e. g. in 1851, of
the 109, 54 boys were sent to the boys’ school; 42 boys and girls to the
juvenile school; 2 to Inspector of Poor; and 10 refused as unsuitable.

The Child’s Asylum continues in constant operation, and a full record is
made and preserved of each case ; but no reports or tables have been printed
since 1851.

On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahagow, Lanarkshire.

Tue interest excited at the Glasgow Meeting, in 1855, by the announce-
ment of a highly fossiliferous tract of Upper Silurian strata in the parish of
Lesmahagow, and by the exhibition of their new and rare fossil forms at the
Leeds Meeting in 1858, induced the Association to vote the sum of £20
towards the further exploration of these beds by their original discoverer,
Mr. Robert Slimon. This sum was placed under the direction of a Com-
mittee consisting of Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Mr. Page, and Professor
Ramsay ; and under the condition that the specimens should be given in the
first place to the public Museum of Edinburgh, and duplicates thereafter to
the Museums of Economic Geology in London and Dublin. In terms of
this grant, the Committee, through their resident member, Mr. Page, have
now to report :—

That during the past summer Mr. Slimon and his son have shown great
industry in exploring the various sections exhibited in the channels of the
Logan, Nethan, Priesthall Burn, and other streams that flow from the Nitberry
Hills, and cut through the strata in question. As these strata consist for the
most part of brittle slaty mudstones, wholly unfit for any economic purpose,
and rendered still more brittle by the intersection of numerous felspathic
dykes, there was no other mode of exploration than by quarrying directly
for the fossils, and this at as many points as were accessible, and as far as
the limits of the grant would allow.

64 REPORT—1859.

The result of these operations have been to exhibit still further the highly
fossiliferous character of the Nitberry Silurians, and to give ample indication
of a very varied and curious crustacean fauna altogether new to Palwonto-
logy. Molluscous remains of well-known Upper Silurian genera have also
been obtained in sufficient numbers to prove the affinities of the beds; and
indications of both an aquatic and terrestrial flora seem by no means rare
throughout the strata.

Another fact fully established by the exploration is, that while the lower
beds exhibit the closest paleontological relations with the Ludlow beds of
England, the upper pass insensibly—and without any marked boundary,
lithological or palzontological—into flaggy tilestones which are the un-
doubted equivalents of the lowermost Old Red of Forfarshire.

The specimens obtained during the explorations have a threefold value :—
Ist, as proving the true Upper Silurian epoch of the Nitberry strata, and
thus affording a clue to the investigation of other Sub-Devonian tracts in
Scotland which are yet but imperfectly understood; 2nd, as adding new
forms to the life of a former epoch, and thus extending the boundaries of our
zoological knowledge; and 3rdly, as enabling the Government palezonto-
logists, who have recently published their first monograph on the Eury-
pteride, to understand more clearly the nature of this curious family of
Crustaceans, and to correct what must now evidently appear as misinterpre-
tations of their structure and affinities.

Arranging in order the fossils obtained by Mr. Slimon, we have of

PLant REMAINS :—
Numerous fucoidal impressions.
Calciphytes.
Lepidendroid stems evidently in fructification.
Mo.tusca :—
‘Modiolopsis, 2 species.
Platyschismus, or Trochus helicites.
Nucula.
Lingula cornea.
Orthoceras.
Pterinea.
Avicula.
ANNELLIDA :—Spirorbis Lewisii.
CRUSTACEA :—
Fam. Eurypteride.
Pterygotus bilobus.
» perornatus.
” punctatus.
rh acuminatus.
Eurypterus lanceolatus.

» pygmeeus (?).
Stylonurus spinipes, and another.

Fam. Nebaliade :—
Ceratiocaris, several undetermined species.
Fam. Limnadiadee :—
Beyrichia.
Undetermined organisms, apparently Crustacean or Amorphozoan.
In none of the beds examined, nor during the whole of Mr. Slimon’s pre-

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF ROCKS AND MINERALS, 65

vious explorations, which have extended over several years, has there ever
been detected any trace of an ichthyolite—tish-seale, fin-spine, or tooth—a
noticeable fact, considering the highly fossiliferous character of the strata,
and the indications that many of them give of littoral as well as of deep-sea
conditions of deposit.

Looking at the paleontological value of Mr. Slimon’s discoveries, and the
additional interest they have conferred on Paleozoic Geology, your Com-
mittee would respectfully urge upon him a continuance of his labours, con-
joined with the hope that, if at all compatible with the other requirements
of the Association, a further grant of say £10 or £20 should be made to
assist in so desirable an object.

Report on the Results obtained by the Mechanico-Chemical Examination of
Rocks and Minerals. By Aueuonse Gaces, M.R.I.A., Curator of the

Museum of Irish Industry.

I nap the honour of bringing before the Section at the last meeting of the
Association at Leeds, a short paper entitled “ On a Method of observation
applied to the study of Metamorphic Rocks, and on some Molecular Changes
exhibited by the action of Acids upon them.” The principal feature of this
method of examination consisted in exposing thin plates of rocks, or crystals
cut in certain directions, to the slow action of solutions of acids or alkalies
of different degrees of concentration, under such varied circumstances as the
special characters of each rock may suggest. The general result of this
action was the gradual removal of some or of all the bases, a residue being left,
the structure and composition of which indicated the mode of formation of
the original rock.

The idea of submitting rocks or minerals to the action of various solvents
is not new. But hitherto experimenters have operated upon the powdered
mineral. I operate upon fragments which exhibit not only the chemical
constitution of the substance under examination, but what is in many in-
stances of still greater importance, the mechanical constitution also. An
example will explain still better the difference.

If we powder a piece of alum and put it into water, it will dissolve, and so
far as the appearance presented by the powdered mass, uniformly. But if
we take the same piece of alum, and instead of breaking it up, grind a flat
surface upon it, and place it, as Daniel did, in water with its polished face
downwards, the water will act upon that face very unequally ; after a time
erystals will stand out in relief, and what looked like a homogeneous ery-
stalline mass, will be shown to be made up of a confused mass of interlaced
crystals cemented together.

Observers have no doubt dissolved minerals in fragments as well as in
powder, but they have not, so far as I am aware, done so with the object of
studying the peculiar mechanical arrangement of the components of rocks,
and certainly have not done so as a methodical system of examination.

If, as Daniel's experiments show, we may learn much regarding the
molecular structure of even a crystalline mass of a homogeneous substance
by the manner of dissolving it, how much more so must this be the case with
such complex mechanical mixtures as most rocks are! Before detailing the
experiments which I have made during the past year, I may observe, that
although the application of this method of examination (which, for want of a
better word, we may call mechanico-chemical) is limited to a certain number

1859. F

66 REPORT—1859.

of rocks, it may be advantageously employed as a kind of preliminary quali-
tative analysis, in the case of the majority of sedimentary rocks, whether meta-
morphic or otherwise, before reducing them to powder, in order to analyse
them by the ordinary method. The slow and prolonged action of acids on
minerals or rocks composed of a mixture of minerals, or even those mainly com-
posed apparently of one mineral, enables us sometimes to discover substances
which would otherwise have passed unnoticed, and the constituents of which
would consequently be confounded with those of the rest of the rock.

The number of rocks which resist without decomposition the prolonged
action of acids such as HCl and HO SO, at various temperatures, up to their
boiling-point, is extremely limited ; and this is especially the case if fragments
of rocks be subjected to the alternate action of the two acids. Those espe-
cially which have undergone a slight alteration, such as the commencement
of the formation of hydrated minerals, always yield to such treatment.

A great number of rocks, consisting of aluminous silicates or silicates of
lime or magnesia, frequently leave, after treatment with acids, skeletons which
show us the manner in which many minerals may have been decomposed,
the residues which they left often serving as the basis of new formations.
In examining calcareous rocks containing such skeletons, it is necessary to
use dilute acid solutions, sometimes indeed extremely so; as concentrated
acids might in many instances decompose the skeletons, especially if they
appeared to contain hydrated silicates.

The rocks which I have submitted to examination since the last meeting
of the Association may be classified as follows :—

1. Comparative examination of the residues of Permian magnesian lime-
stones from ten localities.

2. Comparative examination of the magnesian limestone of Howth, Co. of
Dublin, contrasted with those of the Permian localities.

3. Magnesian limestone conglomerate from Downhill, Co. Londonderry.

4, Examination and analysis of a pseudo-dolomite, found at the junction
of the trap and carboniferous limestone, at Stone Park Quarry, 2} miles
north of Six Mile Bridge, Co. of Limerick.

5. Experiments on the composition and structure of the residues obtained
from the Calp or middle limestone, Co. of Dublin, and of the lower limestone
shales of Drogheda.

6. On chloritic slate, and metamorphic limestone derived from it.

7. Ona metamorphic limestone containing garnets reposing on the granite
near Gweedore River, Co. Donegal.

1. Magnesian Limestones from Permian Localities.—There appears to me
to be considerable confusion in the minds of some geologists regarding what
are called Magnesian Limestones. The terms Dolomite and Magnesian
Limestone, in the sense in which they are sometimes employed, seem to
imply a similarity in the mode of formation. This is, however, far from
being the case. Most limestone rocks, whatever may be their origin, contain
some magnesia; and even recent corals and marine shells have been found
by the investigations of Dana and Forchammer to contain some.

I have no intention to propose a nomenclature of magnesian limestones;
I merely wish to trace the distinctive characters of some of those rocks
by means of the residues which they leave when treated with acids, and
which are often the only witnesses which could instruct us as to the mode
of their formation. Some of these residues are very characteristic ; thus the
Permian are ochrey, and always contain fragments of hyaline quartz, some-
times rounded on the angles. Those, on the contrary, derived from mag-
nesian limestones formed either by infiltration or in a tranquil medium, and

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF ROCKS AND MINERALS. 67

Tabulated Statement of the Characteristics of the Permian Magnesian Lime-
stones examined, and the Proportions of Residues which they contain.

bonate in the
Rock.

No.| Locality, Description of Rock, Observations.

f Lime
and Magnesia.
Residue

Soluble matter
consisting chiefly
0

of Carb.

—— |

1. |Townland of|Variegated purplish and} 90°70 | 9-30 |Residue of a highly plastic
Templereagh.| buff-coloured magnesian ochrey clay of a yellowish
limestone breaking with buff-colour, and containing
a sharp angular fracture. a fine debris of transparent

quartz.

71:65 | 28-35 |Residue consisting of a fer-
ruginous clay of a violet-
red colour, intermingled
with about its own weight
of debris of quartz,

SS ee ————

2. |Templereagh. |Magnesian limestone, pur-
plish grey, exhibiting
over its surface small
shining grains of quartz.

3. |Artrea, Co.Ty-|Magnesian limestone of aj 91°30 | 8-70 |Residue composed chiefly o
rone. light buff-colour and very small fragments of

oolitic structure, transparent quartz, with
some opalescent ones also,
as large as a pea. Traces

of yellow ochre.

— |——_——__ ___ eo ee

4, |Yorkshire. |Kidney-shaped nodules of| 98°72 | 1:28 |Yellowish-brown clay and
magnesian _ limestone, minute fragments of trans-
of a liver - colour: frac- parent quartz,

ture highly crystalline.

5. |Durham. Stalagmitie concretions of| 98°34 | 1:66 |Light-brown ochre, with
magnesian limestone of some fragments of hyaline
a light-brown colour. quartz.

98°70 | 1:30 |Very minute granular frag-
ments of quartz, witha light
brown-coloured ochre.

————S§

6, |Durham. Fine-grained cellular mag-
nesian limestone of a
whitish-grey colour.

7. \From the same|Characters of the rock the
ad as} same as the preceding.
o. 6.

98:10 | 1:20 |Very minute grains of quartz,
with light-brown ochre,

94:45 | 5°55 |Light-brown ochre, with
small angular fragments of
hyaline quartz.

8. |Cheltenham. |Light brown-coloured pi-
solitic magnesian lime-
stone.

9. |Sutton _near|Red earthy compact mag-
Ashby, N.W,}| nesian limestone.
Manchester.

10, |Exhall, Co-|Sandstone formed of fine} 21°53 | 78:47 |If we reverse the numbers
ventry. quartz sand cemented representing the sand and

by carbonate of lime carbonates, we shall have a

and magnesia, magnesian limestone of the

same character as No, 9.

78:00 | 22:00 |Red ochre, with some fine
hyaline quartz sand,

68 REPORT—1859.

under the influence of the decomposition of other rocks, contain, in the
majority of cases, crystalline substances in a whole state, or partially decom-
posed silicates.

Having just indicated the comparative distinctive characters of the residues
left by the magnesian limestones of different kinds, I will now proceed to
describe those of the Permian in detail.

The magnesian limestones of the Permian group which I have had
an opportunity of examining, leave, when treated with hydrochloric acid,
more or less abundant residues, offering the same lithological characters.
These residues are ferruginous clay, varying in colour from deep red to very
pale yellow. These variations of colour are due to the relative proportions
of sesquioxide of iron present, and sometimes to that of manganese also.
The residues contained besides fragments of transparent quartz, which may
be separated by washing. The oolitic characters which some of those mag-
nesian limestones assume are always due to those fragments of quartz, which
serve as nuclei around which the deposit of carbonates is formed. The quan-
tity of residue sometimes exceeds 30 per cent., and often does not amount to
3 per cent.; but whatever may be the quantity of the residue, its lithological
characters remain always the same.

The following Table contains the results of my examination of each of the
specimens of maguesian limestone from Permian localities.

No. 3 in the Table illustrates very strikingly the origin of the oolitic
structure in calearcous rocks. When a fragment was exposed for a short
time to the action of hydrochloric acid, so as to remove part of the lime,
the grains of sand were observed standing in a kind of hollow shell. It
differs, however, from the generality of oolitic rocks, in which the grain
of sand or matter forming the nucleus is surrounded by concentric layers of
calcareous matter. In the rock under notice, the grains of sand appear, so
far as can be judged by means of a lens, to have been simply imbedded in the
cementing parts.

2. Howth Dolomite The dolomite of Howth, Co. of Dublin, belongs
to the carboniferous series, and rests on Cambrian slates. It is of a light
yellowish-brown colour and has a compact crystalline texture, with many
cavities, however, which are filled with well-developed crystals of bitter-spar.
When examined with a lens, it appeared to be formed of a series of irregular
serrated layers, sometimes containing oxide of manganese in more or less
quantity. On being treated with acetic acid, it divided itself into small
granular crystals of bitter-spar, resembling an extremely fine sand. It thus
presented all the characteristics of true dolomite.

Treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, it left a residue never exceeding 3
per cent., and consisting of a reddish-brown ochrey clay mingled with crystals
of quartz, which were separated by agitating the residue in water. They
consisted of very fine acicular crystals of opake quartz, having a fibrous.
arrangement, the edges of some of the crystals being somewhat eaten away.
Washed several times with hydrochloric acid, and then treated with hydro-
fluoric acid, these crystals yielded an appreciable quantity of alumina, oxide
of iron, lime, and magnesia, a circumstance which suggests that they may be
the relics of some augitic or hornblendic rock. The Rev. Prof. Haughton,
to whom I submitted these crystals, and who examined them, considered
them to be “fibrous quartz, and such as occurs in the minute veins of
quartz in the slate rocks of which the Hill of Howth is formed.” What
is most remarkable in connexion with those crystals, is the constancy with

which the residue is found disseminated throughout the whole dolomitic
mass of Howth.

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF ROCKS AND MINERALS, 69

The composition in 100 parts of the Howth dolomite may be thus repre-
sented as follows :—

Carbonate of lime...... Rares Tass Sete ea Facets.) TOOT
SarHOuALe Of MAPNESA. ais... eee e eee sees eee, 49°610
IETAE, OL ALOU are aie tw ano sp 60,0 oss See e nes gas em leuk MOO

, ROO RM achate ts so. 5. a) aia. pins mes. 5181 Bg 0°735
Residue ) Fibrous quartz ....... ee ene isles

Peroxide of manganese (in variable quantity).

99°841

3. Magnesian Conglomerate from Downhill, Co. Londonderry.—This rock,
which has been improperly called hydrocarbonate of magnesia, is formed of
spherical nodules encircled by a greenish paste, composed generally of car-
bonate of iron and of a partially decomposed ferro-magnesian silicate.

The composition of the part of this conglomerate soluble in dilute hydro-
chloric acid varies very much, as does that of the residue likewise. It some-
times acquires the character of true dolomite ; and, according to Prof.Oldham,
it contains crystals of bitter-spar disseminated through the mass. ‘The fol-
lowing Table, containing the results of two analyses of the soluble part, will
show the character of the variation alluded to: —

I, II.
Carbonate of lime .... 63°700 70°863
Carbonate of magnesia . 21°325 17-481
Protoxide of iron .... 3°400 1111
HEMGUCK sens scniscicee 8815 0°896
Rk icles asin 2-700 (by difference) 9°G00 (experimentally),
100°000 99°951

The following results, obtained by Dr. Apjohn, bear out what has been said
above, that the proportion of magnesia to lime sometimes reaches that ob-
served in true dolomite :—

Carbonate of lime .....e-es+5++- sible ote Chics steed ee AOS
Carbonate of magnesia .....+ +e ee eres ee ee ee eens 38°23
Carbonate of iron ..... NC OR eee SY. sone 5°93
Silex and loss ........ Libin/dteseeateks Rtek Sarote ereraiteve "5 oie 0°96

100°00

The residue left after the dissolution of the carbonates in dilute hydro-
chloric acid, is generally of a variable greenish colour and a spongy texture;
it contains a quantity of water, and also some organic matters.

The following Table gives the results of analyses of three specimens of this
residue ;—

I. II. III.

RL CUM so reae aiScrchenule o10ic) syi%a je 40°371 60°725 70°532
Magnesia...... Satori iil 13°719 5°656 4°259
ETC hohe aca) oxchehs:sfel.s «xe i6ie-n — 0'251 _—_—
Protoxide of iron.......... 6913 5461 5218
PMLA TALIA ccc Pe) ata phous. vu moeveue,8 xs 0:216 D557 0°4:73
Water and organic matter, ; t 2

&c. by direrence Ss san \ oe os oti

100°000 100:000 100:000

In examining one of those residues with a lens, I found a perfect octahe-
dron of red oxide of copper,

70 REPORT—1859.

4 Pseudo-dolomite-—This rock was found, according to Mr. O‘Kelly of
the Irish Geological Survey, at the junction of the trap and carboniferous
limestone at Stone Park, 24 miles north of Six Mile Bridge, Co. of Limerick.
It presents the appearance, at first sight, of the dolomitic limestone of Howth
and other carboniferous localities; and isof a brown colour passing into yellow,
being traversed by a great number of fine veins of calcite. It is covered by
an ochrey substance, similar to that which results from the decomposition
of the trap. It left, after digestion with dilute hydrochloric acid, a residue
preserving the form of the piece of rock; it had, however, so little cohesion,
that it separated into grains on the slightest agitation.

The composition of this rock may be represented thus :—

GarbonatevOr lime. c aes. c6 ses helene tae tt be bagle cep DP OZO
Carbonate Of Magnesia .. 6... ossccstse- eo surewe 5°892
Warbonate OL ILON snc ck ie ss bade cee slere t Pek 7°590
EAN UTNE SEY so ¥Ste aE SO eS NES oe a ROS Ee IE 0:590
IWRCCK ee borates foresee heict sts ge Maes cote nS 92°820
WelspathiC FESIANE pac icks oss. tie ons a sls angst pas 25°780

100°292

The residue, when washed and dried, exhibits under the microscope cellular
fragments of an apple-green colour, analogous to some residues derived from
the decomposition of felstones and greenstones. With this substance were
also found grains of hyaline quartz.

This residue is attacked by boiling sulphuric acid, which leaves the quartz
debris untouched. Analysed in this way the following results were ob-
tained :—

Silica and fragments of quartz .................. 73°491

Alimima #00 Aste hated sh eS lies aes 9°467
PePOe Ye ele Ree ete 4°127
GAM OS SHS. | oie c de dees See eh a Rie ere PRE AS. Oe
Wianesia ss hee ssa he Sie Fis oe aw Rp Re ee ae traces
MAG GHB G8 rh ele eres ae be eae Pn ip sae ohana
BAS. htt 55a SEO Rec CaS Rated ee ee ee 1°451
Water... 5 oc 56 ROMER Ct anette. ws iiss 6E02

99°867

It results from this analysis, that the residue is a felspathic mass,
disintegrated by some mechanical means before it became enveloped by the
calcareous matter which forms the existing rock. Unless this were so, the
quartz could not be found in a fragmentary condition.

If the rocks which formed the subject of the preceding observations were
analysed in the ordinary way, by crushing them to powder, all the evidence
regarding their origin and probable mode of formation, which has been so
well exhibited by slowly operating with acids upon fragments, in such a
manner as not to break up or alter the foreign substances enclosed by the
carbonates, would have been obliterated. Where dolomitic rocks are asso-
ciated with basalt and other igneous rocks, and enclose silicated minerals,
such as tourmaline, tremolite, &c., which are characteristic of igneous rocks,
geologists are able to recognize at once the connexion between the dolomites
and the igneous rocks; but in very many cases dolomitic rocks bear no such
visible evidence of relationship to other rocks, and yet many have been
formed by their metamorphosis. The long list of constituents, such as

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF ROCKS AND MINERALS. 71

alumina, protoxide of iron, silica, &c., which is given in the Tables repre-
senting the analyses of limestones and dolomites, conveys but little informa-
tion as to how they came there. On the other hand, by studying the nature
of the residue left by the magnesian limestone of the Permian formation, we
have evidence that they were formed by single deposition. Again, the residue
of delicate fibrous quartz which is found in the Howth dolomite, if not
characteristic, is at least indicative of change subsequent to its deposition, a
conclusion strongly supported by the cellular structure of the rock, which,
according to Elie de Beaumont and Morlot, affords incontestable proof of
alteration subsequent to the deposition of calcareous rocks. The dolomitic
conglomerate of Down Hill and the pseudo-dolomite belong to a different
class of phenomena. In the former case we have a species of conglomerate
formed of chalk and decomposing amygdaloidal basalt. The calcareous
part became more or less dolomitic, crystals of bitter-spar being sometimes
formed ; the magnesia forming the essential part of the residue is evidently
the source of alteration, and accordingly varies, as is seen in the Table, and
sometimes even wholly disappears. ‘The protoxide of iron also is gradually
removed along with the magnesia, and so completely sometimes that only a
siliceous skeleton remains. The previous analyses of the mass give us no
clue whatever to this mode of formation, and indeed do not afford any
evidence whatever of the difference between it and any other kind of dolo-
mite. The character of the residue fully explains the history of the pseudo-
dolomite. It consists of the relics of some felspathic rock enveloped in a
mass of carbonate of lime, magnesia, and iron, themselves the products of
decomposition of local trappean rocks. So far as the individual rocks ex-
amined are concerned, the results are of course new; but the formation of
dolomites of the character just described has been long since known and their
relationship to igneous rocks clearly indicated; I do not therefore bring
forward the preceding examples because they contain any general fact
hitherto unknown, but because they serve to illustrate the true method which
should be followed in the analysis of rocks. To complete the illustration, it
would be necessary to contrast the results obtained by means of it, with
the many elaborate tables of analyses annually published, and which, so far
as the explanation of geological phenomena is concerned, are wholly value-
less, however admirable they may be as specimens of skill of the analysts in
separating different substances from one another.

&. Calp and Lower Limestone Shales—The mountain limestone dissolves
in acids without leaving any earthy residue ; and when the solution is filtered,
only a little charcoal remains on the filter. But when portions of the in-
termediate rocks are treated with acid, they leave residues more or less
abundant, consisting of sand, clay, or carbonaceous matter and iron pyrites.
These residues, disseminated through limestones, completely alter their litho-
logical appearance, and communicate to them different physical properties ;
in this way are formed the various limestone-shales, grits, &c. of the car-
boniferous formation. ‘These calcareous substances, when digested for a
longer or shorter period according to circumstances, in water slightly acidified
by hydrochloric acid, are easily penetrated in the cold, and the whole of
the carbonate of lime is dissolved out. The skeletons which these different
deposits leave on being thus treated, indicate very clearly, as in the case of
the Permian magnesian limestones, some of the conditions under which the
rocks have been formed.

A specimen of hydraulic limestone from the envirous of Milltown, Co. of
Dublin, treated in the manner just described, gave—

72 : REPORT—1859.

Carbonate ‘of lime’... 6 i eed Sh ee GIAO
Carbonate of magnesia........... Pa OA aN .. traces
Clay Be. Se Fe ea a wi
Sard ss eg oe Th oe IT, OE EE aoe fate
Carbonaceous matter, pyrites and amorphous sulphide } 0°50
Of iron? PA Pek Set Ae ee ce oh ee ty tee
99°65
This limestone, which is very hard and has a conchoidal fracture, owes
the physical properties which distinguish it to the sandy residue forming
its skeleton. The latter retains the external form and appearance of the
original rock; and even fossil-casts may be recognized and determined. If
the skeleton be ignited, the carbonaceous matter is burned away, leaving the
cast of the fossil perfect. The skeleton thus exposed represents the sand of
the original sea-bottom prior to its infiltration with calcareous matter.
When the quantity of argillaceous matter equals that of the carbonate of
lime, and especially when the carbonaceous matter is present in a consider-
able quantity, this caleareous residue presents all the character of a true
mud. This is the case with the lower limestone shales from the neighbour-
hood of Drogheda, which may be represented by the following composition :—

Carbonate of lime with carbonate of magnesia ...... 47°10
Residue of clay and sand containing iron pyrites .... 47°75
Carbonaceous matter ................ oneee oes 51s

100-00

This residue, and indeed all the similar beds belonging to that formation,
contain a good deal of iron pyrites and sulphide of iron in what may be
called an amorphous state—apparently a proto-sulphide, as it evolved
sulphuretted hydrogen on being treated with acids; both these are included
in the clay and sand, and partly in the carbonaceous matter.

I may here observe that the quantity of residue, and of carbonaceous
matter, varies in different parts of the rock from the same quarry. Thus a
specimen taken at a short distance from the locality of the last specimen had
the following composition :—

Carbonate of lime with carbonate of magnesia ...... 55°40

3 Clay and sand with pyrites.............. 36:00
Residue Carbonareous matter 1. PI. er oe

100:00

In some of these consolidated muds the lime is almost wholly absent ; the
lithological character of the residues, however, remains constant. The sand
separated from the clay is extremely fine when observed under a strong lens.
The analysis of some of these residues may perhaps serve to trace the source
from which they were derived.

I have already alluded to the existence of two compounds of iron with
sulphur in these beds; and I may here remark that the characters which the
lower limestone shales, as for instance that of Drogheda, present, appear to
offer an explanation of the circumstances under which these sulphides were
formed. Weare daily witnesses of the fact, that under the influence of water
and organic matter, and exclusion of air, sulphates dissolved in water are
reduced to the state of sulphides, which convert the salts of iron in contact
with them into sulphide. The sulphide thus formed is amorphous, as may
be observed in the black mud which is found under the pavement of streets,
and which evolves sulphuretted hydrogen. Now the mud from which these

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF ROCKS AND MINERALS. 73

limestone shales have been formed, was one in which animal and vegetable
substances abounded ; for they are full of fossils, and the carbonaceous matter
is derived from their decay. I may add that many of these fossils are
entirely covered by pyrites.

- The formation of bisulphide of iron appears to require an excess of
sulphur, and would naturally be most readily formed wherever there was
an excess of animal organic matter,—a supposition which is supported by the
fact recorded by Mr. Pepys*, and cited by Sir Charles Lyell in his ‘ Manual
of Elementary Geology.’ It must be admitted, however, that iron pyrites is
found in other rocks belonging to the carboniferous formations almost or
wholly free from organic matter. The existence of crystals of iron pyrites
in granite and trap rocks under circumstances where it would be difficult,
if not impossible, for organic matter to intervene, show that that mineral may
be formed in various ways.

It is worth while remarking, however, that crystalline sulphur has been
frequently found in mountain limestone, in which there is not much organic
matter.

Had iron been abundant in the neighbourhood, this sulphur would
doubtless have been converted into pyrites.

6. Chloritic Slate and supposed Metamorphic Limestone derived from it.—
The ordinary mode of analysing rocks gives no assistance whatever in de-
termining the origin of rocks metamorphosed by igneous agency ; it does not
even enable us to determine positively whether a rock has been metamor-
phosed by heat or not. The remaining experiments which I have to describe
were made with rocks which are generally assigned to this class, and which
therefore afford examples of the advantages which may be derived from the
employment of the method of examination which I have pursued. The
rocks which formed the subject of experiment were, a specimen of altered
chloritic slate, and two specimens of what is usually considered as meta-
morphic limestone. Beds of this class are found in the N.W. of Ireland,
sometimes resting on granite, and always associated with such rocks as gneiss,
mica-schist, hornblende slate, &c. I think I have established an interesting
relationship between one of those beds and a chloritic schistose rock, which,
if it be not wholly opposed to the igneous netamorphosis of the calcareous
rock, undoubtedly proves that it could not have been subjected to a very
high temperature.

Before describing the calcareous rock alluded to, it is necessary to give an
account of the chlorite schist, and the results of my analysis of it. The rock,
which contains some crystals of augite or hornblende and magnetic iron, oc-
eurs in the Townland of Cavan Lower, half a mile east of the town of Stra-
norlar in the Co. of Donegal. It effervesces with acids, as most rocks of a
similar character do; and when digested with them, the micaceous part is
partially attacked. On being boiled for some time with acids, the chief part
of the chloritic and other minerals separate from the quartz. Here an im-
portant problem suggested itself, namely, in what state did the quartz exist ?
Was it formed in the rock by the action of the heat, that is, did the original
rock separate under the influence of heat into chlorite and quartz? or was it
originally composed of quartz and some cther substance, which alone changed
into chlorite ? With the view of attempting a solution of this problem, which
applies equally to most kinds of schistose rocks, some thin plates of the schist,
carefully detached from different parts of the rock, were treated by diluted
hydrochloric acid until every thing soluble was dissolved out. The plates
were then repeatedly submitted for some time to the successive action of

* Geological Transactions, vol. i. p. 399, First Series.

74 ead REPORT—1859,

boiling hydrochloric and sulphuric acid, care being taken, however, to avoid
a rapid ebullition, in order not to break or deform them. This treatment was
continued until almost every thing soluble in acids was removed. ‘There then
remained a residue of beautiful hyaline quartz fragments enveloped in semi-
transparent nacreous crystalline-looking scales. These scales being the sili-
ceous skeletons left by the foliated chlorite, they dissolved in caustic potash ;
so that after a few successive treatments with acids and caustic potash there
only remained quartz debris, some of the grains still bearing the impression
of the mineral substances which had adhered to them. Before treating the
siliceous residue with caustic potash, the nacreous scales and quartz were so
intimately mingled, that at first sight it would be difficult to say whether the
latter occurred as fragments, or in an unaltered crystalline state. Treatment
with caustic potash removes a!l doubt, however, on this subject.
The following are the results of an analysis of the chloritic slate :—

Alkalies (potash) ..........64.. sa kb Obes teres |. eee
NIABRENE ass cee es Stare gehts Becks a ine erate tare 5°439
UAB) coy wos Beare ee Sie acc cht at ¢ sales wri aaa 0°965
Protoxide of iron and a little sesquioxide of iron } 9-064
derived from the magnetic oxide............

Jeu hy 12 agora acl deg SARA Pa ar yr age sr 2 Seabee get 7°360
Wylen tod UHAte SCs; keveerbis sss st eeticc ee Olgas
WAGED oa bas Ves a bag ods os SCAT ERE 2862
CArOOHAte OF WMC ees. cess he bbe ns he os bees os 11°081
Carbonate of WMabnesig.. 1.655 es eee oe oe os pss gee

100:102

The ratio of the oxygen in the protoxide bases existing as silicates in this
chloritic slate is to that in the alumina as 4°464 : 3°440, that is, there are
four equivalents of protoxide bases to one of alumina, which is exactly that
in typical chlorite of the formula 4(RO, SiO,) Al,O,, SiO,+3HO. The
water in the slate, however, would only correspond to two equivalents; but,
on the other hand, the quantity of water in chlorite is subject to vary, and
some analyses have been recorded in which the water does not exceed two
equivalents.

The carbonate of lime or magnesia has no doubt been formed by the
decomposition of augite or hornblende. From this it would appear that the
original material out of which the chloritic slate was formed, consisted of
a caleareo-magnesian slate-clay or shale intermixed with hyaline quartz de-
bris, that is, a rock resembling in composition rich clay marls.

Having thus ascertained, with considerable probability of truth, the origin
of the chlorite, I shall now endeavour to show that the subsequent decom-
position of part of the chloritic rock may have furnished materials for the
formation of a rock of a totally different character, which is found in the same
parish, and about three miles east of the locality from which this schistose
rock was obtained, or about two miles to the west of Castlefinn (both local-
ities being north of the river Finn). It is marked as metamorphic limestone
on Sir Richard Griffith’s Geological Map of Ireland. It has a saccharoidal
structure, and a greyish white colour, the grey tint being due to micaceous
scales of chlorite which are disseminated through the mass, together with
some small crystals of magnetic and common iron pyrites and debris of |
hyaline quartz.

A fragment of this rock digested in dilute hydrochloric acid, left a residue
analogous to that left by the schist when treated in a similar manner. The
residue consisted of debris of fragments of hyaline quartz, sometimes agglo-

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF ROCKS AND MINERALS. 75

merated together and intermixed with fragments of the rock more or less
decomposed. The crystals of pyrites which occur in the residue are
always cubes with perfectly sharp edges and angles, the latter being some-
times truncated. ‘There is every reason to suppose that these crystals were
formed subsequently to the interval which gave birth to the limestone.
Some of them were found in the midst of the quartz debris ; and one of them
consisted of a kind of twin parallel to the faces of the cube, the two halves
being, however, separated by a portion of quartz; one half had its edges
truncated and the other not. They had thus submitted to the conditions
imposed by the medium in the midst of which they were developed.

The following are the results of an analysis of a specimen of this lime-
stone :—

WarBOMBER GE IMNG. Foo bias stoves sone ceinn sess ahityl LOO!
Carbonate of magnesia...... aie tains OB ay 32, PAAR OOO
Peroxide of iron and alumina ... .....06..-2005- 1°583
Residue consisting of chlorite, magnetic, and ole 21-356

mon iron pyrites and debris of hyaline quartz. .
99°912

It results from these observations that this metamorphic limestone should
be regarded as derived from some of the materials of the schist above
mentioned. For we may, so to speak, follow the passage of the mica-schist
from the point where it does not effervesce with acids, into metamorphic
limestone still containing all the essential parts of the schist. If we suppose
that this limestone had been subjected to a high temperature, the quartz
should have combined with the bases. The crystals of pyrites disseminated
through the mass, as well as the position which they occupy, suggest an
argument of a similar kind.

7. Gweedore Metamorphic Limestone.—This rock is found associated with
mica-schist resting on granite near Gweedore River ; isolated patches of the
limestone occasionally rest on the granite, and sometimes alternate with mica-
slate. This limestone is saccharoidal, of an aquamarine tint, which is due to
the mass of small angular fragments of a green mineral interspersed through
it. This mineral often serves as a nucleus to a crystal of carbonate of lime,
and is accompanied by small sand-like crystals of idocrase and garnet.
Large crystals of garnet are also found in abundance; and from the way in
which they are deposited, the rock has a stratified appearance. The faces
of the crystals are more or less eaten away, as if they had been weathered.

Treated for some time with very dilute hydrochloric acid, this rock gave
in 100 parts the following results :—

Garnets, idocrase,

and green mineral.. 17°16 )
morphous silica.... 6°03 >23°360

Alumina :iviiewy 017 )
Carbonate Of li fo. iiss cee ee 75°250
Carbonate of magnesia ..........+.-.--5-
Alumina and oxide of iron soluble in acids ........ O0°512
Weiter. FEES TV e8 wah Eo Se (undetermined)

99°732
If a fragment of this garnet limestone be left in very dilute hydrochloric
acid until the whole of the carbonate of lime be removed, the garnets will
be found imbedded in nearly pure amorphous silica, which readily dissolves
in a weak solution of caustic potash. This siliceous paste is obviously the

Residue consisting of ) 4

76 REPORT—1859.

skeleton of a former rock. In the generality of instances silica is dissemi-
nated through the mass, and then does not form a coherent skeleton, so that
the garnets, instead of being surrounded with the amorphous silica, are only
coated on some sides with a siliceous film.

Cases also occur in which there is no silica, and the limestone contains
only a small quantity of the above mentioned green mineral. In fact every
analysis of the rock will give a different result as regards the quantity and
nature of the residue.

The analysisof the green mineral was attended with great difficulty in conse-
quence of the fine state of division in which it occurred, besides being mingled
with idocrase and garnet debris nearly as fine as itself. A small quantity of
it, picked out with the aid of a lens, yielded the following results:—

MES dC op sas ceed ecneess hlouolencieed fealeits 26°183
Miaemnesia -.intetere ae of asst sts Pe 8°825
Protoxide of iron. .............- 10°576
Alumima-23 «2%. 22055 OBIE HE! 3°750
Silica Ae yee 1h 7 Gt Beane se 4.9°641
Witerert munities da sclsionies st fae 1:025

100:000

These numbers show that it is an aluminous augite, or more properly an
augite and garnet compound, corresponding in a most striking manner with
one from Fassa analysed by Kudernatsch*; the sum of the oxygen in the
protoxide bases being 13°360 for the green mineral, and 13°658 for the spe-
cimen from Fassa.

As broken fragments of minerals cannot have been formed by the action
of heat upon a sedimentary limestone, the fragmentary state of the green
augite, idocrase, and garnets prove that the rock under discussion has not
been metamorphosed by heat, On the other hand, the existence of an enve-
lope of soluble silica surrounding some of the garnets, seems to show that
anterior to the formation of the new limestone rock, one existing of silicates
must have existed there.

Experiments to determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting
Breaks for RailwayTrains. By WiuL1AM FarrBairn, F.R.S.

Or late years various improvements have been introduced upon railways to
diminish the dangers of travelling, and attention is now specially directed to
the increase of the retarding power for trains by various kinds of breaks.
From an early period in the history of railways it was seen that few objects
were more important for ensuring the security of passengers and reducing
the loss of time occasioned by stoppages, than the attainment of some means
of destroying the momentum of trains with ease and rapidity, that is, in the
least time and in the shortest distance. The less the time requisite to break
a train, the longer the steam may be kept on in approaching a station, and
the less is the loss of time in stopping; and the shorter the distance in which
a train can be brought to a stand, the less danger is there of collision with
obstructions on the line perceived not far off ahead. It is already allowed
by many of those connected with railways, and has been expressly stated by
the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade, that the amount of

* Gmelin, Handbuch d. Chemie, Bd, 2. p. 383. 4 Auf,

EXPERIMENTS ON BREAKS FOR RAILWAY TRAINS. 77

break power habitually supplied to trains is in most cases insufficient ; and
their Lordships enumerate thirteen accidents from collision occurring in 1858,
- the character of which they consider would have been materially modified, if
not altogethr prevented, by an increased retarding power under the command
of the guards of the trains.

Upon this subject the most important communication hitherto made has
been the Report prepared by Colonel Yolland for the Railway Department of
the Board of Trade, and containing a large number of experiments with heavy
trains at high velocities. The breaks with which Colonel Yolland experi-
mented were those which, as improvements on the common hand break, have
hitherto commanded most success. These were the steam-break of Mr.
McConnel, the continuous break of Mr. Fay, the continuous self-acting break
of Mr. Newall, and the self-acting buffer-break of M. Guerin. The general
conclusions to which Colonel Yolland was led by his experiments, resulted
in the recommendation of the break of Mr. Newall; and for heavy traffic, a
provisional recommendation of the break of M. Guerin.

From a misunderstanding caused by this Report of Colonel Yolland, arose
the necessity for some further experiments on the similar breaks of Mr. Fay
and Mr. Newall; and these I was called upon to arrange and carry out by
the Directors of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway. I propose to lay
before the Association a brief abstract of these experiments, with some
remarks upon the conclusions to which they give rise.

It will not be necessary here to describe minutely the details of the con-
struction of these breaks. They consist essentially of a series of break-blocks
acting upon every wheel of the carriages of the whole train or some part of
the train, the break-blocks being suspended as flaps, or placed on slide bars
beneath each carriage, as in the ordinary arrangement of the guard vans.
But whereas it would be both expensive and inefficient to work these breaks
with a guard or breaksman to each carriage, both Mr. F ay’s and Mr. Newall’s
patents provide for a continuous shaft, carried the whole length of the train,
beneath the framing and with suitable jointed couplings between each pair
of carriages, so that they may be undisturbed by the rocking motion of the
train or the action of the buffers. In this way the whole of the breaks may
be worked by a single person at either end of the train, communicating his
power to each break through the agency of the continuous shaft.

Again, there have been applied, in the first instance by Mr. Newall, and
subsequently by Mr. Fay, powerful springs beneath each carriage, connected
with the arms of the rocking shaft, by means of which the breaks are made
to act instantaneously throughout the train, on the release of a catch or dis-
engaging coupling in the guard’s van. The value of this provision for the
immediate and simultaneous action of the whole of the breaks, in cases where
an obstruction is perceived upon the line, will be at once evident. It is one
of the most important features of these breaks.

In carrying out the views of the Directors of the Lancashire and Yorkshire
Railway Company, it was arranged, in order to test the relative efficiency of
these breaks, to have a series of experiments upon the Oldham incline of 1
in 27. On this gradient a train of carriages, fitted with Mr. Newall’s self-
acting slide breaks, and a similar train fitted with Mr. Fay’s continuous flap
breaks, were started in turn, and after having passed over a measured distance
by the action of their own gravity, the breaks were applied and the distance
along the incline in which the trains were respectively brought up was care-
fully ascertained as a measure of the retarding force of each. The trains
employed consisted of three weighted carriages each, and having been placed
upon the incline, they were started by removing a stop. Having then

78 REPORT—1859.

descended a previously measured distance with a uniformly accelerating
velocity, they passed over a detonating signal which conveyed notice to the
guard to put on the breaks. Then the train having been brought to a stand,
the distance from the fog-signal to the point at which the train stopped was
measured, and the train brought back for another experiment. In this way
it was easy to obtain an initial velocity of 50 feet a second, or 35 miles an
hour before applying the breaks.

Unfortunately the day upon which these experiments were made proved
misty and foggy with rain at intervals, so that the rails were in the very worst
condition for facilitating the stoppage of the train. The significance of this
fact will be seen on comparing the retarding power of the breaks in these
experiments with those made in fine weather.

Reducing the results, we find that the retarding force exerted by each
break in terms of a unit of mass, calculated from the distance of pulling up,
was equivalent to the numbers in the following Table :—

Experiments on the Oldham Incline.

Mr. Newall. Mr. Fay.

No 0b Sp eee eee

Experi- | Velocity of} Timein | Retarding || Velocity of} Timein | Retarding

ments. |train in feet} stopping | force of |/train in feet] stopping force of
per second. |in seconds.| break. per second.|in seconds.| _ break.

1 25°71 14 1:32 25°71 13 1:91
2 30°00 16 163 30°00 13 1-79
3 37°50 17 1:70 37°50 14 1°84
4 42°85 25 1°69 41°37 15 1:76
5 42°85 14 2°01 40°66 12 2-02
6 48°38 19 1-78 48°38 25 1°72
7 52°94 17 2°04 50°00 tvs 191
Mean...| sscccsaee 21:6 OE dsr oe 19°2 1:85

The general result of these experiments gives a retarding force of 1°74 Ib.
per unit of mass for Mr. Newall’s break, and 1°85 for Mr. Fay’s; or in other
words, Mr. Newall’s break exerted a retarding force of 121°3 lbs. per ton
weight of the train, and Mr. Fay’s a retarding force of 129 lbs. per ton.

I afterwards arranged for some further experiments at Southport upon a
piece of level rail between that town and Liverpool. The speed requisite in
this case had to be obtained by the aid of an engine which was detached by
a slip coupling at the instant of applying the breaks. In other respects these
experiments were conducted like the preceding with fog-signals, and the time
noted by stop-watches. ‘The weather, however, was in this case fine and dry,
and hence the following results were obtained in the most uniform cireum-
stances.

The friction of the train itself, and the resistance of the air, were ascertained
to amount with Mr. Newall’s train to 6:4 Ibs. per ton, and with Mr. Fay’s
train to 10°4 lbs. per ton.

In this case we have a retarding force per unit of mass equivalent to 5°49
Ibs. in Mr. Newall’s break, and 6°7 lbs. in Mr. Fay’s; or in other words,
the retarding force of the slide breaks of Mr. Newall, from eight experiments,
at velocities varying from 35 to 60 miles an hour, was equivalent to 382°6 lbs.
per ton weight of the train.

The retarding force of Mr. Fay’s slide break from eight similar experiments,
at velocities varying from 33 to 63 miles per hour, was quit to 466° 4
Ibs. per ton weight of the train. - . :

EXPERIMENTS ON BREAKS FOR RAILWAY TRAINS.

Experiments at Southport.
Slide Breaks, Engine detached.

Mr. Newall. Mr. Fay.

Speed in | Distance of| Retarding || Speed in | Distance of Retarding
miles per | pulling up| force of || miles per | pulling up| force of
hour. in yards. break. hour. in yards. break.
32°72 562 6°77 35°29 56 7:97
36°73 77 6°28 43°90 98 7°05
43-90 136 5°08 50°00 129 6:94
46:15 1402 5°42 54°54 144 7°40
52°94 2052 4:89 54°54 1612 6°59
54°54 192 4°66 37°89 97 5°30
47°37 2603 _— 60°00 2042 6-30
53°73 222 5°23 60:00 214 6:03

63°16 273 5°55 —_—
— — Mean 6°70
Mean...| 5°49

a eel

Flap Breaks, Engine detached.

Mr. Newall, Mr. Fay.

Speed in | Distance of | Retarding || Speed in |Distance of} Retarding
miles per | pulling up| force of || miles per | pulling up| force of
hour. in yards. break. hour. in yards. break.
50°00 1322 6°75 51°43 1584 5°98
50°00 123 7°28 51°43 1622 5°82
51°43 192 4:93 54°54 184 5°79

Mean... 6°32 Mean...| 5°87

These experiments give for the retarding force of Mr, Newall’s flap break
6:32 lbs. per unit of mass, and for Mr. Fay’s 5°87 lbs.; or in other words,
the retarding force of Mr. Newall’s flap break, from three experiments, at
velocities varying from 50 to 513 miles per hour, was equivalent to 440°3 lbs.
per ton weight of the train.

The retarding force of Mr, Fay’s flap breaks, from three similar experi-
ments, was 408°6 Ibs, per ton.

We may illustrate the general bearing of these experiments by estimating
from an average of the whole experiments the distance required to stop a
train fitted throughout with these breaks, and detached from the engine.

A train would be stopped,—

At a velocity of 20 miles an hour in 23:4 yards.

” ” 30 ” ” 529,
” ” 40 ” ” 93°38,
” ” 50 ” ” 1468s,
” ” 60 ” ” 211°5 »

This last Table exhibits in a very clear manner the advantages of this class
of breaks, in which the whole weight of the train aids in destroying the mo-
mentum of the mass instead of the weight of one or two guard vans only.
It may be impossible in long trains to apply these breaks to every carriage ;
but, at all events, in the ordinary traffic three times the present amount of
break power may be employed with ease,

80 REPORT—1859.

On the score of economy also, the system appears to encourage its applica-
tion; from experiments which have been made, it appears that the wear of
the tyres is far more uniform and equal, because the break springs may beso
adjusted as not to cause the wheels to skid. The Manager of the East Lan-
cashire Railway states that with two trains running together between Salford
and Colne, the carriages fitted with continuous breaks travelled 47,604 miles
before the wheels required turning up; whilst an ordinary break van running
the same distance had to have its wheels turned up three times in the same
period, three-eighths of an inch being taken off each time.

Experiments at Southport.

Engine not detached from the Trains.

Mr. Newall. Mr. Fay.
Speed | Distance of|| Speed | Distance of Se IBa is
per hour. | pulling up. || per hour. | pulling up.
miles. yards. miles. vards,
33°96 1242 31:8 1212 ) |Engine and tender.
37°11 1693 33°96 137 Tender and continuous
41°86 221 | 41°86 19223 breaks applied.
5143 274 Tank engine.

It will be observed that on most through lines the trains travel on some
portion of the distance at the rate of 60 miles an hour, and in the event of
an obstruction half a mile in advance, a collision would be inevitable unless
the driver has the power and the presence of mind to act with promptitude.
Now at 60 miles an hour there is only 30 seconds, or half a minute, to effect
that object, and it is quite impossible to apply the breaks in their present
state, before the train, in such a precarious position, is in actual contact. As-
suming, however, that breaks upon the principle of Mr. Newall and Mr. Fay
were attached to the engine as well as the train, and that the driver had
the power of instantaneous application by liberating a spring, it is evident
that, instead of the train dashing forward to destruction, the momentum might
be destroyed in a distance of less than 500 yards, and that without injury to
life or property. Besides, the application of the Electric Telegraph, which
prevents on most through lines more than one train being on the line between
the stations, is a great additional security, and that, united to the continuous
break, applied to the engine as well as the train, would—when united to a
more perfect system of signals—render collision next to impossible.

Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for 1858-59.
By Professor J. R. Kinanan, M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA_

Tue Dredging Committee, appointed at the Leeds Meeting in 1858, con-
sisted of Professor Kinahan, Dr. Carte, Dr. E. Perceval Wright, F.L.S., and
Professor J. Reay Greene.

Early in the winter of 1858, the author commenced investigations at the -
south of the district on the Scallop Bank near Bray, to which three excursions
were made with success, as regards the captures made. Early in 1859 aseries
of severe gales occurred, which afforded a rich harvest of specimens on
the Portmarnock Strand to the north of Dublin; many species of Mol-

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 8]

lusea, Crustacea, &c., ordinarily of rare occurrence, having been thrown up in
abundance living on the beach, betokening a serious disturbance of the
banks in the neighbouring seas. The following may be enumerated :—
Cochlodesma pretenue, Fissurella reticulata, Emarginula reticulata, Mactra
elliptica, Tapes virginea, var. Sarniensis (very abundant), Zhracia villosius-
cula, Thracia phaseolina, Thracia convexa (a single valve).

Inachus Dorsettensis, Pilumnus hirtellus (chiefly broken), Portunus holsa-
tus, Portumnus variegatus, Corystes Cassivelaunus, Nephrops Norvegicus (all
broken, but in great profusion), Cribella oculata, Asterias aurantiaca, Spa-
tangus purpureus, Thyone papillosa, Priapulus caudatus, &c.

The results of these investigations have been all noted, but unfortunately
an inflammatory attack of the eyes, of some months’ duration, put a stop,
on the author's part, to the completion of the labours which had been com-
menced.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright in the month of June undertook the particular
examination of the district in the neighbourhood of Ireland’s Eye ; the results
of his investigation, which are not yet completed, he hopes to include in the
next year’s Report.

From the materials now at their disposal, your Committee hope next year
to be able to present a more systematic Keport, as the results obtained,
though important, are not sufficiently numerous to enable them to do so yet;
they have therefore to request that the same Committee, Professor Kinahan,
Dr. Carte, Dr. Perceval Wright, and Professor Greene, may be reappointed,
and that a further sum of £15 may be allocated for this purpose,

Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1858-59. By the Rev.
BapveENn PoweEtu, M.4A.,F.R.S.,F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Savilian Professor
of Geometry in the University of Oxford.

In submitting the present continuation of my series of reports on luminous
meteors I have little to say beyond what the results themselves indicate. I
am indebted to the same friends as on former occasions for some valuable
communications. Among these I may just refer to the observations of
Mr. Lowe as including a notice of the periodical meteors of August the 10th
of the present year, up to the amount of 70 per hour, and all diverging from
a point in Perseus. In many parts of England the evening was cloudy. But
at the observatory of Lord Wrottesley these meteors were well seen by Mr.
F. Morton, who has communicated some interesting particulars respecting
them, which are given in the sequel.

The November meteors of 1858 were observed by the Abbé Leconte, at
Hainault. It is to be regretted that no observations have been communicated
of a nature to verify the theory of Sir J. Lubbock, and it is still more remark-
able, that since the tirst announcement of Mr. Pettit of the distinct establish-
ment of the existence of one, if not two, minute satellites to our earth, no
further observations either of these or of any others, many of which may be
presumed to exist, have been published. A valuable paper has appeared in
the ‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ June 1859, ‘On the Periods and Colours of
Luminous Meteors,’ by Dr. J. H. Gladstone, in which the author brings to-
gether a number of important results and remarks, mainly founded on the
observations of M. Poey, as well as upon the data furnished by the Cata-
logues of the British Association. In the Appendix I subjoin a brief analysis
of the leading contents of this valuable investigation.

1859. G

82 REPORT—1859.

Observations of Luminous Meteors,

Appearance and Brightness : Velocity
de Bbnr: Magnitude: and Colour. Train or Sparks. or Duration.

1858. | h m s
Oct. 24} 6 17 30 |=Arcturus.............|Colour of Arc-/No streak or separate|Fell slowly. Dura-

turus. streams. tion 1 sec.
Nove, Gi) A. csstescssnes]= Ronen = eee eon et loose sasaparsedessingthescss sone ssp apE a sahanecnasandlanierdyeamsevEsane Are

Nov. 12].....+0- Seseees|naons ee ecenerereneee See Sitio eae Baas CBee sevcceevees se eeaeeeeneeeneane|seeeeereee sevesvececeses

1859.
Feb, 23/11 20 31 [Increased in sizefrom|Very bright.|Slight streaks in its path,|Moved slowly, dura-
=Ist mag.* to ith] Intense blue.) and burst into separate] tion 8 sec.

size of ¢. Theseparate| fragments, which in-
fragments stantly disappeared. The
when it} star Urse Majoris
burst yel-| was crossed by these
low. fragments.
Mar. 30] 9 15 =R size C veesicsseee At first red,|/Trail of light left in its}|Duration 50”.......

then slowly| track.
changing to

pink, and
finally _ to
orange.
Bright
enough to
see time
from a
watch.
April” "Aly: ccbeeiacesss seecseater setescecbeaesaes[eetetecssssecseees|-etyehgsestpetgeacs stn: cnneracastl Keumemenncetees eee scneam
April -22} 1 14 30 |=8rd mag.*............/Orangescarlet.|Leaving streaks in its path.|Rapid .....+.4.+-2++..-
April 22] 2 27 a.m.|=4th mag.* increa-|Blue until it/Leaving streaks. Rapid. Suddenly
sing to twice size of| entered the disappeared.
1st mag.* dark _seg-
ment of an
arch, when

it instantly
increased in

size, and

changed to

an orange

colour.
Auge “U)eesescces. eeebe|ot EHOCER I eabiccatocsenlsuantrotatoccsdses|sesncunts paagebter® Gob dssedudstec|sedewbeusease tases voanm
Aug. Diipesvetvesecats] ane Cece vecaerceeeseenenes [te eeseeeeeeessesesl® Oe ceseccececers PPPTTTTTTT Titi ee ee
Aug. 9 OO ceeeseseeeee|seeeseeesetsoes deceeseceses|esecencesees eeeaeeleeresccccsesese eee beeesevencedoey|senecccesebeovecvecccens

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 83

| by E. J. Lowe, Esq., F.R.A.S., &¢., 1858-59.

Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference.

—_—

—

Perpendicularly down, passing|A well-marked me-|Observatory, E. J. Lowe, Esq.|/MS.communication
15’ N. of Arcturus. teor. Beeston.
Mipecetiisencessiscses screeds certo pecs | MANY meteors, |[bid .......ssc000. (Ld. ssscseceeeeeeee(LDid.
especially about
11p.m., all small,
from 4th to 5th
magnitude.
Bessrscescvesevsevesestésscccesscsevess( Many meteors, allilbid ...... badenste UGE fodedocon sevs{[bid.
small and having
very rapid mo-
tions. The 13th
and 14th over-
cast.
From close to r Urse Majoris|This magnificent|Ibid.......... seveee[LGe sisceeseseeeeee/Mr. Lowe’s MS.
to » Ursz Majoris, where it} meteor was pear-
suddenly vanished. Place| shaped. Hada
of disappearance A. 13h.| well-definededge.
4lm. Decl. 50° 1’ N. Increased in size,
and disappeared
at its maximum.
There were
streams of Au-
rora Borealis im-
mediately below
the place where
the meteor start-
ed from. :
rom above Ursa Major, to-|At its maximum|Highfield House,|W.Richards, Esq.|[bid.
| wards the N. at an angle of} brightness when| near Notting-

60°, and passing midway be-| first seen. ham.
tween the Great and Little
Bears.
Bienes cscdeectcccoscens Sophias isseceess Several meteors. |.......ce.scsececeecs E. J. Lowe, E&q.!1p;
|From altitude 40° N.downwards|Deeper in colour/Observatory, Ti. vaaeaiae a a
} at an angle of 40° towards| than a fine Au-| Beeston. it .
W., and moving 10°, rora which was
visible at the
time. shies x2
From 80° above N.W. horizon|Aurora Borealis ...|Ibid ...... Ha 4); 30i ceeds |LBLA)
fell perpendicularly down.
RRR eT O EET EEA E HETERO Bete seweeeee Many meteors ween Tbid.. .c.ce..ceeeees Id. Obs Cece ase ewee Tbid.
eiwasses Se catUBNENGs «cb 00esesceceseses|COVERCAMU! cacusdpeeess|vecesssteccdsuceees#e|LGs fesensansseudess| LOG.
Reuarecencdeactacccsscd¥ssenseccnsesane|ONCLCASucncoe¥gecess|cceccusscsecbuesenccn[lQen cncacccsen see LDid.
G2

84 REPORT—1859.

Appearance and Brightness
Magnitude. and Colour.

Velocity
or Duration.

Date. Hour. Train or Sparks.

1859. | h m s
Aug. 10)....csceeseeeee After 11 p.m. nearly cloudless. Very many meteors, especially between midnight and —
hour, and, as only a fourth part of the heavens was watched, this multiplied by
were of the second magnitude, but, as the moon did not set till half past 1, pro-
her light. These meteors, with two or three solitary exceptions, could all be —
between « and @ Persei. Several marked features were observed. Those me-
moved more rapidly and over a larger space than those nearer to this point. |
moved over a few minutes of space, and one meteor which I was fortunate enough |
creased in size, and disappeared, without moving. Most of the meteors were
gering streaks. The numbers increased up to 3 a.m.. j
Aug. 12) 229 actn|= 2 .rcccccscsnsenes Mesnst DUC seencenenscs IAM seiseanaecuapons ves seseeeee| Rapid Streaks. 0.00.

Aug. 11) 1 32 a.m.|Increasedfrom a point Bluish........+ There were brief streaks|Duration 0°5 sec...
to that of a Ist shot out from it.
mag.*, and again)
decreased to a
point.

Aug. 11/10 &12 p.m.|.....cseeseeeees

Pon eeseseee soveeeseseeens Ceeeleeevesececee CROC o eee re eee ret HH Eee SHEES HOSE HEHE EH EE EEREe eo

Aug. 29) 2 50 a.m.|=1st mag.*...,,.......Orange........./Streak.,.,... dike vaicennen tee Rapids cvsarevseantns
Aug. 291 3.15 10 |2nd mag.*.,.......+.+/Blood red......|Streaks widened ....,.++000-(RApid, see... ees
Aug. 29) 3.15 20 [3rd mag.*,,....s.00+0e«|Colourless. ....|Streaks, sescessssssssseees se[Rapid...coscessssreeee

Observations of Luminous Meteors

Local mean
) 1858. | solar time.
Mar. 23/11 44 46 |Much brighter than!........0000.

Sol eeeeerecececeeee ed eeencesere Peeeelsesseeeseves Pobre teres

Capella.
May 5) 2 394 a.m.|Brighter than J. .eel...cccsscseeseeoes Disappeared instantlywith-|More than 5 secs.,
out diminution of bright-| perhaps 7 or 8
; ness. secs.
| Sept. 12;During the|A number of meteors'...... teesseseeeee/ome left trains....... ROPE Sancbascdsa Stone: aged
night. chiefly in or near
the Milky Way.
pOctk, W754 pm ate ieee ee

Oct. 5) 0 53 26

SOOO eee eee asec eee ceereeees cout ss seeserseennsl eens

Cee eoeeeeeeeeMeesese eeeeeeeerleereees eee eeecaee eeeeeter

‘ Oct. 9) 6 33 23 Bright.cisssersabeescaite eengdneeavuchsrace see
1859. Seed eee e seers eeeePecrcccsseesecesiece errr reer
‘Jan. 2} 10 1lp.m.JA great number of......... Meteoes|sceneccsaces reac Fees ...|About 1 per minute.

meteors.
Mar, 18) 1 23}.a.m./Magnificent meteor. {Golden hwe....|Left a few SPATKS. seeseeees Disappearance not
noted.

April 6 During the|Great number in all'.........ccescceeslecees panera i cvkuetueasdacerccclaen ondsouiassGeieeeeaen

night. parts, |

SS. eye

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 85

Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference.
2 a.m.; the number seen was about 70 per Observatory, |E. J. Lowe, Esq,'Mr. Lowe’s MS,
4 would give 280 perhour. Most of them Beeston.

bably the smaller ones were eclipsed by
traced back to a point situated midway
teors the furthest removed from this point
Close to the point, the meteors only to
detect on this very point, -appeared, in-
yeHowish in colour, and had short lin-

PEP ae eee eee reassess SH eeeeset Pee esas seeeesserans

From midway between AlgOl|;ccccecensreaeesaes bevss|LDId ccs sescancssvenlLGnt evccavenseares bid,
and Polaris, down towards
N.W. horizon at an angle o
45°.

A stationary meteor, at thelIt did not movellbid................ UGE scoctearpcerces c Ibid.
point of convergence of allj amongst the

the meteors situated half-way| stars.
between a and B Persei.

Above a dozen meteors seen}.
gave the same point of diver-
gence. The meteors much
less numerous to-night,

Fell across Aurora Borealis/Brilliant Aurora. |Observatory, Tel iedé: csseeea sss bids

Screpearecnosn seooseee[Scarborough .../[d. ......+0+eeess.(Lbid.

perpendicularly down from Beeston.
slightly E. of Gemini.

{Shot from the cupola of the/Aurora _ BorealisjIbid............. sae[LUe ieresenbevess sh « Ibid.
| Aurora, which was situated! brilliant.
near y Andromede, and
moved towards y Arietis.
Another shot from the same].......esseee Fossprcae|L DIG). codeemcies Area KA woes aeawses .»» Ibid.
spot, moving to 8 Andro-
mede.

at Wrottesley Observatory.

; agit for 10° above the|Moon shining. Me-|Wrottesley Ob-|Mr. F. Morton. |MS.communication

pole towards W. horizon. teor seenthrough servatory,
opening of equa- esceane
torial.
{In E. moving slowly southward,).......+++++ gene vaderses Ibid, voavcyueveesse|L Car tess ertert sseeee(TDids

altitude 15°, parallel to hori-
zon through about 35°.

NN ey fia peace ssdrsnsedos|eossncd esses siatcadl UN sect Sek NTT ow eee ta
10° below pole, parallel to h0-|.....scsssscosseseeeeeee(LDIG sesssseeseeesee (Le seseeesen eases Ibid.
rizon.
In 8. going W., at altitude 35°|Many smaller du- Bide cwzacstecscace Id. ..sesesseeeeee (Lbid.
or 40°. ring the night in
various Logit
BiLtt P@gasus. co srecsscscssscscscsselnccecesecseevocses cocoslLDIGsseesscsveresere (Le sovesese reeves (Ibid.
BPEPEraWacesshesscccsvoadoccssseassstalsucucsderdscuvuccesasaie|LDIC.ecrsss¢soccuess dS | ieatatees ec |LbIGs
From S. to N. a few degrees|Seen through open-|Ibid ...... Soecereee Edlivissametvenss woes [[bid.
below the moon. ing of dome.
Moon full.

POCO OT HREOC Oe He Here reese ee ee eHEEeOOnee ss seeetetessseseseeetes Ibid Cede eeberorees Id. Soe ceeretneeeos Ibid.

86 REPORT—1859.

Appearance and Brightness : : Velocity or
wie a Magnitude. and Colour. eo Duration.
1859. |h m s

Aug. 10} ) ......s006 «-|Great display Of M€-|.....scceceeessseelssceeceseseeeeneeece daqedhrcivedtivedecsblareeatiumeease
Aug. 1] teors.
Aug. 21/10 13 p.m./Much brighter than]...........0...++ Followed by splendid train'5 or 6 secs. ......++

Capella. of sparks, visible some

seconds after disappear-
ance.
Aug. 23] 1 13 a.m.|Brilliant flash through)............ sescceloancarsvsces seeeeeeees ancscensccclenevedas Geetiesawoeceese
opening to dome.
Observations of Luminous Meteors
1858. f :
Dec. 2/45 _ p.m.|Large....... Wadetenexscee|ccavs ateaeensleteds Train for a few seconds. |Velocity moderate..
Daylight,
Id. IGG | tilsaneesasacobepaoccn eceosce Bright, but not/(Train red, a mere impres-|Motion slow. .......
dazzling. sion on the eye.)
Id. Id. Larger than * of Ist|/Bright blue. ../Train of sparks. First ascended and
magnitude. then descended.
DAD. |sccceteveentns rath vxcwnvonls seceasecdevisiectbecseccsscedsoeasbiansccecoussdeuelpvoneseeeh esseecoesseves
Dec. 5)A few mi-l..........cccesscesees .«...|Very brilliant./After a few seconds train|.,.....sssssecerssveeess
nutes af- white in place of first
tersunset. appearance (wavy), verti-
cal, then changed to
horizontal, in 15 mi-
- 1859. nutes disappeared.
Mar. 23/A few mii |Large.s.....sscesssseeeee Brilliant....... olseeescebanee® eevncecicces sevgeeealecececes tee eeeeeeverees
nutes past
8 p.m.
Jan. 2} 830 p.m./=2 Jupiter............. Bright. ......00 Left a train for 1 OF 2,rcssssesvevcceseaseeees
seconds.
Half (@ Wil-|-.0e-cesecreiseusaqeseueki A smaller me-|.........-.-.. selcssveabercctcees|srdeudes™ scccvesdes tees
nute later. teor.
‘June 21} 0 20 a.m.|=9Q.......06 Ragevecuass Orange......... Train of sparks: opake,|About 5 secs. ......
G. M. T. short.
‘Sept. 2/12 p-m:|=Ist mag.*.........06. Bluish — very|/Left a long thread of|/About | sec... .....
| pale. light behind.
‘Sept. 3/11 25 p.m.|=4th or Sth mag.*...}..cc.eeeeccceesscslevecccecceeecceseresesssses veeee-|Rapid, not ¥ sec. ...
‘June 26/11 52 p.m.|Diameter 15’, globu-|Bluish........ nollpcensdendoaensonrcr Rouge rscccusetlvaateey ceeeneases taceeee
lar. 7
About Nearly globular. ...... Highly lumi-|No tail, no connexion. Descended gently...
ll O pm. nous, _ but
not very
brilliant(?)
About _the MOMENI Neve vasbauMbdaadee{cpaecsalreeb uss raslearatpccccsiast see araeesenecedioe Descended gently
same time. - and steadily.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 87

I EEE EEE a ne
:

Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference.

| |S

—

sees. (ee Appendix. Wrottesley Ob-|Mr. F. Morton...|MS. communica-

servatory, tion.
Wolverhamp-
ton.
From S.E. at altitude 35°,|...coccccssecsreeesseeeeleseeeecees seosseeeee(Mr. W. P. Wake-|Ibid.
through 40°, disappeared in lin.
SS.W.
In E.S.E.. se. csseseeeeeseseeeoeeees Moon bright. . — |esccssecceeenevenees Mr. F. Morton...|Ibid.

from various Observers.

From zenith towards E., disap-|....sescsesseeeeeeeeeoee Buckbury Hill,/Dr. C. Lingen.., Letter communi-
peared at altitude 45°. Mordiford, He- cated by Mr. J.
refordshire, 4 E. Smith, Here-
mniles E. of He- ford Infirmary.
reford.
Towards N.E., disappeared at|Sun shining bright-/Brighton ......... Mr. T. B. Lane, jIbid.

altitude 70°, moving obliquely} ly, a few light
from N.W. through 8°. clouds.

Disappeared at between 20° and|No report. Derby ....00rtess
30° altitude, towards S.E.
from N.W.

Disappeared at about 40° alti-
tude towards S.W., commen-
cing from 45°.

Falling perpendicularly from|Barometer 29°30. Lat. N. 13° 20,|J.H.Hood, Mem-|Letter to Royal So-
altitude 30° in W. Ther. 76°. Even-| Long. E. 50,) ber of Council,) ciety, communi-

ing clear, many| on board ship Sydney. cated by Prof.

falling stars. “ Emeu.” Stokes, Sec. R. S.

Mr. F. T. Dubois.|[bid

Clear sky. Belleau, Alford,|Mr. J. W. Giles. Ibid.
Lincolnshire.

Miss Powell. MS. communica-

Vertically down from N.W. to|Lost behind houses. Tunbridge Wells,
tion.

E. of Cassiopeia. Grove-hill.

From near Aldebaran to near]...««-...++ saprreelae ds Dunster, Somer-|W. Symons. Id.
¢ Eridani. set.
Between Orion and ProcyOl].....seerssseeeeeeres Sebi sevencwesccsses TQS) Gavenc teehee st Id.
nearly same direction.
Moved in the arc Of a great]....sessssserereeenerees More Cottage,|W. J. Macquorn|Id.
circle 40° or 50°, the middle Glasgow, 3] Rankine, Esq.
miles S. of the ;

passing through the zenith,
from S.W. to N.E. Observatory.

Dunoon, 25 m.|W. Crawford, Id.

From S.W.to W. __saeneeeuesneneatevenenes
west of Glas-| Esq.
gow.
From Polaris towards W. ——_[esscasseeeeeeeeeeereeees Glasgow ......++ Id. Id.
Vertically downwards. First|Weather cloudy|London ......++ G. P. Greg, Esq.;|MS. communica-
hisbrother,and| tion from Mr.

and hazy, with
lightning ;_ indi-
stinctly seen.

seen at 30° from zenith.
J. Breen, Esq.| Greg.

Td. ..sccces yeeeeee/EDid.

plosion, much
lightning in the
same quarter.
High up in the E., deseended/No thunder or|Bolton, South TG suanecas Aceves Ibid.

vertically to horizon. lightning. Lancashire.
Seen, but particu-|Halifax, York-

lars not given. shire.

REPORT—1859.

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A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

TI TI LILI tity titty ti ri ayaiaijajelajaye; ec) ;e | rir rj) g),s)s

seeeeeesseneeeermaoT

vere SHaMBy,

epamoipuy
seeteere snag)

SOpvlotd
* IOUT BSI.)

. I see | wee | eee | vee | eee | oe eee | eee | wee oe | wee | wee | wee lowe I wee | woe | coe | woe | wee | wee . see leweereee eeeeees 893004

+ | wee | oe see | vee | coe | woe | eee | wee I we | eee | wee | eve | eee [eee | woe | eee | eee | woe | woe | vee I + | woe | woe leweeeneeee **snyontqdg
see | wee | eee we | eee | coe | eee | eee | coe | oe wos | wee | coe | eee | oes looe | woe | eee | eee | woe | wee | wee | wee ¢ wae | wee [coer teenneererenesseeeseees snasiog
eee | cee | coe | coe | woe | woe | eee | wee | woe | woe | vee se | eee | wee | woe loos | coe | ee I wee I eee | oes | woe | vee seer sens eseeee sijvol0g eUuo010y

PPTTTEOTTE Tree TT so[no1loyL
PUTTTT ITT Tr snuiyqdjaq
se eeeeeeeeeettteeerereetens znby
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seveeeeeeeaeseeeenseeeereveees BIATT
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eee eenreeseaeteseeseerers esuny
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"SWAN “bey ‘sucky +f +5 Jo 3srT
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REPORT—1859,

Observations of Luminous Meteors, by G. J. Symons, Esq., M.B.M.S.,
at 27 Queen’s-road, Camden Town, London.

Date.

1858.
Sept. 5

Oct. 31

28
1859.
Jan. 22

April 6
6

21
May 12

July 4

Aug. 2

Time.

hm s
9 21 p.m.

9 53 p.m.
9 59 p.m.
10 9 p.m.
10 28 p.m.
7 22 p.m.

7 25 p.m.
7 25 30 p.m.

to
os)
wo
ei)
Po
B

o wo

wmomowmw 9.00 CO Csr OOO OOO owowoon oo
orm Orme OO oe

Nowe eB SO
HOR DOT OmM OOOH Woo wnmodc§
wo
oO
~

Mag.

Colour. | Train.
white none
blue broad
white none
white slight
white none
white none

Direction.

From 3 Urs Majoris towards 8 Urs Ma-
joris. (Bright, very slow.)

From Polaris towards Corona Borealis.

From a Ophiuchi towards the horizon.

From 5° N. of Vega towards « Ophiuchi.

From @ Cygni towards ¢ Aquilz.

From Corona Borealis towards 1 Urse Ma-
joris.

=21 |red & blue| 30° long |From 3 Urse Majoris towards Arcturus.

1
3
2
2
2
4
2
3
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
3
1
1

red slight
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white long
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white | 40° long
white none
white none
white none
white none
white slight
white | slight

See Note|See Note

(1). (1).
yellow none
yellow | slight
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none
white none

From 7 Coron Borealis towards ¢ Bootis.

From £ Cygni towards 6 Ophiuchi.

From 4 Urse Majoris towards Coma Bere-
nices.

From ¢ Persei towards 3 Aurigz.

From « Persei towards 3 Aurigz.

From Capella towards Jupiter.

From Pleiades towards Aquila.
est course I ever observed.)

From y Pegasi towards Fomalhaut.

From Capella towards « Ceti.

From Algol towards Capella.

From ¢ Ceti towards a Sculptoris.

From x Cygni towards a Draconis. (Slow.)

From & Cygni towards @ Delphini.

From 3 Draconis towards « Lyre. (Swift.)

From y Lyre towards Ophiuchi.

From y Draconis towards ¢ Herculis.

From y Cygni towards Albireo.

From y Cassiopeiz to « Andromede.

From £ Draconis towards s Herculis.

From A Andromede towards y Cygni.

From # Aurige towards # Pegasi.

(The long-

From » Geminorum towards y Orionis.

From y Tauri towards « Ceti.

From « Leonis towards Z Leonis.

From « Geminorum towards « Persei.

From « Geminorum towards a Orionis.

From 5° below 2 Geminorum towards Jupi-
ter. (Well seen, though bright moon-
light.)

From 2 Urs Majoris towards Corona Bo-
realis.

From a Herculis towards ¢ Bootis.
slow.)

From e Herculis towards u Sagitt. (Slow.)

From ~ Lyre towards y Serpentis. (Very
swift, seemed close.)

From « Delphini towards @ Lyre. (Rapid.)

From « Herculis towards « Ophiuchi.

From ¢ Cygni towards y Aquile.

From Altair towards Arcturus. (Slow.)

(Very

From 4 Draconis towards y Serpentis.
(Swift.)

From z Bootis towards 6 Libre. (Slow.)

From y Bootis towards Coma Berenices.

From g Corone Borealis towards « Herculis.

From « Draconis towards y Herculis.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 91

Date. Time. Mag. | Colour. | Train. / Direction.
1859. |h m s
Aug. 4./11 44 p.m. >1 white none /|From ¢ Urs Majoris towards Arcturus.
11 52 p.m. 2 white none From y Cygni towards 3 Aquilz,
11 52 p.m. 4 white none |From y Cygni towards 3 Aquile.
11 53 p.m. 1 white none From a Delphini towards + Sagittarii.
(Swift.)
11 57 p.m. 1 white none /From @ Aquile towards Corona Borealis.
5| 03630am.} 3x1 ic on (From 6 Ophiuchi towards « Sagittarii.
2).
11/10 40 40 pm.| 2x1 white slight From p Cassiopeiz towards 6 Persei.*
10 52 p.m. 2x1 | yellow | sparks |From « Cassiopeize towards 6 Andromede.*
111632pm.| 2 white | none (From 3 Aurige towards Castor.*
29,1 5am. | 2 white none |From & Aquilz towards « Sagittarii.
I3lam. | 2 white none (From Delphinus towards y Capricerni.

(1.) This meteor was of very considerable apparent diameter, of a pale
yellow colour; on exploding, the sparks assumed a bright crimson hue; it was
remarkable for its very slow motion.

(2.) This meteor, when first observed, was little more than 2nd magnitude,
but rapidly increasing in apparent diameter: it presented at its disappearance
a well-defined disk. Its colour was a brilliant emerald green and the body
of light such as to illuminate with the same tinge 30° or 40° of the adjacent
sky. There were no sparks, and it was very similar to one or two I have seen
before, and which I cannot better describe than as resembling a body of
light enclosed in a filmy envelope.

APPENDIX.

No. 1.—Letter from Mr. Hood to the Royal Society, communicated by
Professor Stokes, Sec. R.S.

Pt. de Galle, Ceylon, January 15, 1859.
Srr,—I beg to send you the accompanying description of a phenomenon
observed on board the Steam-ship Amew: as a similar one had never been
noticed by any of the ship’s officers or passengers, amongst whom were two
captains of Her Majesty’s Navy, it seems worthy of record.—I remain, Sir,

your obedient servant, J. H. Hoop, Member of Council, Sydney, N.S.W.
On the 5th December 1859, lat. N. 13° 20’, Long. E. 50°, a very bril-
liant meteor was observed, a few minutes after sunset, in the west, falling
perpendicularly from an apparent altitude of 30°. In a few seconds there
appeared, in the place where the meteor was first visible, a bright white

cloud, in shape S= , perpendicular to the horizon, and crossing

the light transparent ruddy stratus-clouds ; gradually it ascended slightly, and
becaine horizontal, remaining nearly unchanged (but slowly moving on with
the light breeze) for about fifteen minutes, when it gradually disappeared
in the haze of the evening. Its appearance was very remarkable, in shape

thus “YW 55_ and of a bright clear white colour, against the

golden-coloured evening sky. The evening was very calm and remarkably
cool, falling stars unusually numerous. Bar. 29°30. Ther. 76°.
No. 2,—Analysis of a paper by Dr. J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S., in the

* Observed at Thornton Vicarage, near Leicester.

92 REPORT—1859.

‘Philosophical Magazine,’ June 1859, entitled “ On the Periods and Colours
of Luminous Meteors,”

With reference to the explanations of the periodical star-showers, so often
attempted, the author examines the speculations of M. Charles, and, from
comparison with other ancient records besides those cited by that writer,
comes to the conclusion that his ingenious hypothesis—viz. that there may
be a secular progression of these periods, and that the showers of February,
March, and April, in the middle ages may be the same as those which now
recur in August—is untenable. ‘It rather appears that the periods remain
stationary, sometimes for centuries, but the transit of these streams of
meteors through our atmosphere is liable to interruptions and changes which
we may speculate upon, but cannot yet determine.’—p. 2.

With respect to the varied colours of meteors, on examining the numerous
results collected by M. Poey, the author suggests whether we always correctly
translate the names of colours used in records of such remote antiquity as
those of the Chinese and others referred tc. He also controverts the theory
of M. Doppler (referred to in the last Report), and in general is disposed to
hold that nearly all meteors may be arranged under two grand classes,—blue,
and orange inclining more or less to red, while in passing from the zenith to
the horizon changes of colour are constantly noticed. The trains are some-
times of different colour from the body, and the radiation of colour over
objects is also often different from the colour of the meteor.

The author very justly remarks that observers often call the same colour
by different names. But apart from this source of fallacy he conceives a
real difference possible, and ‘that a meteor may emit rays which in the
aggregate would produce one colour, and yet may affect the observer with a
sensation of a different colour. This may arise from absorption, intensity,
or contrast.” —p. 7.

He then supports this view by several arguments and instances; in parti-
cular he conceives the absorption of the atmosphere, especially when satu-
rated with vapour, may account for the change of colour in the passage of
meteors, which generally terminate in red, known to be the ray most trans-
missible through mist.

It has been observed by Helmholtz and others, that light of any colour, if
of high zntensity, tends to give a sensation of whiteness. This the author
thinks will account for the radiance different from the colour of the meteor;
as well as for an apparent change of colour, with a change of intensity from
passing through a dense atmosphere. All appearances of colour are greatly
affected by contrast; hence he thinks the difference between the colour of the
bodies and trains or other products of meteors may be explained in many
instances.

The author examines the question whether there may be any relation be-
tween period and colour in meteors. Those occurring at one period may be
of a different composition, and consequent colour in combustion, from those
at another. Such a relation is supported by many of the comparisons of
records made by M. Poey. The author also gives a tabular view, from
which it results that “ August is marked by a great deficiency of orange, and
a great excess of blue meteors—while November exhibits comparatively few
blue, and a very large proportion of orange meteors, with a slight increase of
the red.”—p. 9.

He finally observes that all meteors, whose composition is known, consist
of many ingredients which may possibly all be ignited together, or separately,
in different instances, thus giving out different rays for each component, and
these again different for different intensities of combustion. In support of
this view he refers to the known components, iron, sulphur, and phosphorus,

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 93

as well as cobalt, zinc, nickel, &c., and the intense but greatly varied illumi-
nations they give when in combustion, especially under the influence of gal-
vanism, which resemble the light of meteors.

No. 3.—Miscellaneous Notes on Meteoric Phenomena and Theories.

In the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society of Philadel-
phia, vol. viii. New Series, Part I. 1841, the student of meteoric phenomena
will find two valuable papers treating the subject, as connected with
cosmical forces, and regarding meteors as planetary bodies revolving in our
system about the sun, but under certain conditions perturbed by, and at-
tracted to, the earth; both papers contain elaborate researches, of which it
would be impossible here to attempt an analysis, investigating as problems of
physical astronomy the nature and modifications of their orbital motions.
They are entitled, Art. VIII. ‘On the Perturbations of Meteors approaching
the Earth,” by B. Pierce, M.A.; Art. IX. “Researches concerning the
periodical Meteors of August and November,” by Sears C. Walker, A.P.S.

In the ‘ Philosophical Transactions,’ 1840, Pt. I. Sir F. Palgrave gives an
account of some ancient records of meteors. An ancient chronicle, April 3,
1095, speaks of “ stars driven like dust.” July 26, 1243, Matthew of Paris
describes falling stars seen 30 or 40 in one minute, so that “ if they had been
true stars, not one would have remained in the sky.”

E. W. Brayley, Esq., ‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ vol. Ixiii. p. 385, 1824,
and vol. lxiv. 1st Series; also vol. xix. 3rd Series, p. 500; and Annals of
Philos. January 1824, p.’73, gives a variety of details respecting meteors and
aerolites. In the last-mentioned paper he notices the fact that tle meteorites
which have been examined as to their density and composition form a con-
tinuous series of varying characters from the most compact iron to the most
crystalline or scoriaceous stone.

The hypothesis of nebulous matter existing in masses analogous to comets,
and like them revolving in our system, as the origin of meteors, has been sup-
ported on the strength of general analogy, and the probable extensive diffusion
of this kind of matter as evinced in the continual discovery of new telescopic,
as well as large, comets; so that we may well admit with Kepler that their
number may be infinite, and the universe full of them. Such masses might
be expected to undergo great retardation from a resisting medium, and ulti-
mately to be condensed into the sun, or any solid planet to which they may
be attracted; the retardation gradually contracting their orbits till they fall
on the central body. It has been also alleged that in some instances the
nebulous tails of comets, such as those of 1811 and 1823, may have mixed
with our atmosphere, and perhaps from electric action have given rise to
luminous phenomena having the appearance of shooting stars.

Several writers have speculated on the connexion of meteors with electric
phenomena, or even their electric origin.

A hypothesis of this kind, supposing diffused atmospheric matter to be
carried by electric currents, has been advocated by Professor Maas in the
Bulletins of Royal Acad. of Brussels, 1847, p. 303.

On this subject the reader should refer to ‘Cosmos,’ 1st Translation, p. 123 ;
and to sonie remarks of Poisson, zbid. note p. 402.

Also to the masterly paper of the late Mr. Galloway, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., in
the ‘ Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,’ vol. v.

Among the cases recorded in the different catalogues, there are great num-
bers mentioned as attended by coruscations, flashes, and trains of various kinds,
which can hardly be conceived otherwise than of an electrical nature. The
serpentine or zigzag courses of many meteors recorded are incompatible with
a solid body revolving in an orbit.

It has been noticed by Professor C. P. Smyth that the zodiacal light is

94 REPORT—1859.

slightly excentric with regard to the sun, so that the earth passes through its
extremity once in its revolution, about Nov. 12.—[ Edinb. Trans. ]

Chladni conceives innumerable small bodies revolving in the solar system,
and subject to the laws of gravitation. Messier, in 1777 (Memoirs of Royal
Acad. Paris, 1777, p. 464), has recorded ‘ Observation singulier d’une pro-
digieuse quantité de petites globules qui ont passé au devant du disque du
soleil.” Mr. Rumker has more recently recalled the attention of astrono-
mers to the subject.

Some supposed analogous phenomena are not perhaps really entitled to be
so considered; yet they tend to support the fact that diffuse matter of kinds
little known may exist.

Such instances are those of dry fogs occasionally observed. The most re-
markable on record is, perhaps, that of 1783; a remarkable year, in which,
besides this phenomenon, there occurred a great volcanic eruption of Hecla,
earthquakes in Calabria, and the passage of one of the largest and most re-
markable meteors ever witnessed, and seen all over England.

The fog occurred over a great part of Europe, the north of Africa, and
North America; but not in the middle of the Atlantic, perhaps owing to
some current of the atmosphere which partially cleared it away. It continued
more than a month. In some places it was observed to obscure or redden
the sun; yet in general the stars were seen through it. It was accompanied
by an unpleasant smell, was perfectly free from moisture, not affecting the
hygrometer, and exhibited a phosphorescence.

It has been argued that its long continuance precludes the idea of its
being the tail of a comet; but this is no proof that it might not have been
a portion detached from such a nebulous mass, and retained by the earth till
condensed or dissipated: whether it could be connected with the volcanic
eruption, or with the meteor, remain questions open to speculation.

In 1831 a similar phenomenon was observed on the African coast, N. Ame-
rica, and Asia Minor, as well as in France and some other parts of Europe.
The sun is said to have appeared blue through it; but the stars were occa-
sionally obscured. These phenomena, however, may be purely terrestrial ; as
the Harmattan, or blowing of dust from the African deserts over the Atlantic,
as well as the dust from voleanic eruptions, have been known to produce very
similar effects.

In the catalogue originally given by Chladni (see Edinb. Phil. Journal,
No. II.), largely confirmed by later instances, we find full verification of the
fact, that meteoric matter has fallen of every degree of density, from the con-
dition of almost pure metal to that of ore or oxide, more or less earthy, to
matter of light, porous, soft or spongy nature, or even of the character of
fine dust, or a dry fog or haze floating in the atmosphere: though it must be
owned, the connexion of such phenomena as the last mentioned with those
of meteoric masses may not be sufficiently proved.

[For some details in reference to this point, see Arago on the comet of
1833 (translation by Col. Gold); also ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 1847. ]

The student should not overlook the ingenious conclusion of Sir H. Davy
(Phil. Trans. 1817, Pt. I. p. 75), that the combustion of meteors must be
that of solid matter, since combustion of elastic fluids could not be supported
in so rarefied an atmosphere as exists at the great heights at which it oceurs
even in those instances which fall within the limits of our atmosphere. :

One of the most instructive cases is that of a great meteor observed at the
Cape of Good Hope (Phil. Trans. 1839, Part 1.) which was seen to burn
by daylight and to fall in portions, which were immediately collected and
examined. The most considerable part of it is preserved in this country.

REPORT ON A SERIES OF NEPALESE SKULLS. 95

Those masses appear partially rounded, but broken in their fall, and of an
earthy texture like baked clay, easily broken.

The meteorite which fell at Launton, 1840, preserved in the collection of
Dr. Lee, at Hartwell House, is of a somewhat angular form, but having all
its edges and corners rounded : an exact model of it exists in the Ashmolean
Museum, Oxford.

No. 4.—Extract from the communication of Mr. F. Morton.—The August
meteors at Wrottesley, 1859 :—

“The display of meteors during the night was very grand. During an
hour, from 15 10™ a.m. to 2" 10™ a.m., 72 were counted in all parts of the
heavens, the majority of which were followed by trains of sparks. The pre-
vailing direction of their flight was towards the N.W. During the next half-
hour at least 40 were seen, but the number was not accurately noted. A
great number of those observed (from 25 to 30) were very fine, larger in
fact than Capella or a Lyre, which were then visible, several being larger
than Venus when brightest. Though two observers were on the look-out
together, no meteor was counted twice.

“ Aug. 23, at 1" 13™ a.m., the opening in the equatorial dome being E.S.E.,
a brilliant light was seen reflected from the western wall. This must have
been caused by a very fine meteor, as the room was strongly illuminated at
the time by the moon. Local mean solar time has been used throughout.”

Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan
H. Honason, Esy., late Resident in Nepal, &c. &c. By Professor
Owen, F.R.S., Superintendent of the Natural History Departments
in the British Museum.

Mr. B. H. Hopeson, who has contributed an important element to the an-
cient history of India by his successful labours in unrolling the Buddhist re-
cords and deciphering the Buddhist inscriptions of Nepal*, has established
an additional claim to the gratitude of the ethnologist by the assiduity with
which he has collected the skulls of the various tribes or races of that part
of the Indian continent.

This collection forms part of a still more extensive series of objects of Ne-
palese Natural History, contributed by the liberality of Mr. Hodgson to the
National Collections.

The human crania, most of them adult, are upwards of 90 in number, and
belong to the following

TRIBES.

No. of Skulls. No. of Skulls. No. of Skulls.
PEW AR tie acbdes LE|LRAGN .650--e0¢¢, 3| NEPAL (proper)... 1
BBO A co sana eo cs SV SHOPA <'s5..0:dgaacs 2)|Bencat (Fakir) ..- 1
0 ol a DIORA ois 2) si mi 1|}Gances (man of the
MORME ....{ «+ Pat pe LEM ATG 2, cide ha ¢,0:8:512 TL. plaiaey deat 1
TAGAR oo ios sini) DODO. «a0. eeeeee 1|LoOwLanps (caste un-
Sunwak.... PAA ROGCH. ns a diewiad 2), SROWRDIES su tninn 10
EaMEU ..ds26 «ee. 5|Kuampa A he ==
REPRAN TL «ciao cal coins ER GNAEE 5.040 gies 2 90
SORUNG. 5.04 20 nb 4|HILL-MEN........ 2

* Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, in the volume on General Subjects of Hima-
layan Ethnology.

96 REPORT—1859.
NewAr Tr1BeE (12 skulls).

The general characters of the skulls of this tribe conform to those of the
Indo-European type; but they are all slightly prognathous. They present a
regularly-shaped fullish-oval cranium, showing varieties between the two
extremes, as to length, of from 7 inches 6 lines (19°0) to 6 inches 4 lines
(16:0)*, and, as to breadth, from 5 inches 8 lines (148°0) to 4 inches 11
lines (126°0); the broadest cranium being the shortest, viz. 16°0, the nar-
rowest being the longest, viz. 190. The forehead is narrow, and, in most,
low ; but with well-marked varieties in this respect. The cheek-bones are
rather prominent in a few skulls. ‘The nasal bones show much variety, from
great length and prominence to AZthiopian flatness. The supraciliary promi-
nence is generally but little marked. ‘The mentum is rather prominent, but
short, except in two skulls, marked “ from Saukhmol, Hill-man and woman.”
The frontal suture is obliterated, and the alisphenoids join the parietals, in all
these crania.

The complexity of the sutural lines is various, being in most rather simple.

The broad cranium (1 2, x, x, x) belongs to the so-called ‘ brachycephalic’
type; the narrow one (1 v, v, v, v) to the ‘ dolichocephalic’ type. The average,
which is also the common breadth, of the cranium, is 5 inches 3 lines (1340).

Characters, Varieties, or Anomalies of DentitionIn the Hill-man, the
molar, m 1, has the enamel worn from the summit, and a smooth hollow of
dentine is shown: p 4 and m 2 are partially worn, and p 3 and m 8 are slightly
worn. In two skulls, the last molar, m 3, is not developed on either side of
the mandible.

Lercua TRIBE (9 skulls).

The majority of these skulls show a greater prominence of the malar bones
than in the Newar tribe; but whilst one Lepcha (6. e, e, e, e) exhibits a
beautiful Indo-European form, another (1 a, a, a, a) closely resembles or
repeats the Australo-Papuan type of cranium. ‘The differences, as to
length of cranium, range from 7 inches 4 lines (186°0) to 6 inches 4 lines
(162°0) ; in breadth, from 5 inches 8 lines (144°0) to’5 inches (128°0) ; the
narrowest skull (1 a, a, a, a) here, also, being the longest. We have in this
series of skulls both brachycephalic and dolichocephalic types strongly
marked—most of them having crania rather of the shorter than the longer
oval, when viewed from above. All are more or less prognathous; those
being least so which have least prominent malar bones. The chin is prominent
in all. The nasal bones show the same range of variety as in the Newar
tribe, ranging from prominence with compression and length, to breadth
with shortness and flatness. There is more variety in the prominence of the
frontal sinuses and superorbital ridges in the Lepcha than in the Newar
tribe.

The frontal suture is obliterated, and the alisphenoids join the parietals, in
all,—in one skull (1 ¢, ¢, ¢, ¢) by a mere point, in the rest broadly, as usual
in Indo-European skulls. The forehead is rather low; is narrow in some:
in one only is it broad in proportion to the cranium.

Anomalies of Dentition.—In one skull (1 y, y, y) m 3 is wanting in both
jaws, in which m 1 and m 2 are worn, and there is no trace of loss of m 3.
In another (1 d, d, d, d), the left p 4, upper jaw, is abnormally small.

Upon the whole, these Lepcha skulls are to be referred to a low, unedu- -
cated, and undersized family of the Indo-European race; but one (1 2, z, z)
approaches the AZthiopian type, another (1 a, a, a, a) the Australian type ;

* French decimal system.

ON A SERIES OF NEPALESE SKULLS. 97

whilst a third (0. e, e, e, e) shows almost the Greek model, save in a slight
prognathism.

Buotia Trise (9 skulls).

In the nine skulls of this tribe it is instructive to find, asin the two former
tribes, both the brachy- and dolicho-cephalic proportions exhibited. The
extremes of length range from 7 inches (177°0) to 6 inches 3 lines (160-0) ;
those of breadth from 5 inches 8 lines (144°0) to 5 iaches 1 line (130°0) ;
the broadest skull here, also, being the shortest. Save in two instances, ap-
parently females, the malars are large and prominent, and the general aspect
of the skulls is rather that of a Mongolian than Indo-European type. The
former is very strongly manifested in a skull (1 9g, g, g) marked “ Inu Bhotia
trans nivem” ; and also in a “ Sharpa Bhotia” (1 z, 2, z, z), which shows the
shortness and breadth of cranium, which has been ascribed by Blumenbach to
the ‘Turkoman’s,’ skull. In the Inu Bhotia the frontal suture is persistent, and
the interorbital space is very broad: the muscular insertions on the occiput
are strongly marked. All the Bhotias are prognathous ;.and, in all, the chin
is prominent. ‘The nasal bones are the seat of the same kind and range of
variety as in the preceding tribes. In all the skulls the alisphenoids join the
parietals, but with variable proportions—from two-thirds of an inch to a mere
point.

Dental anomalies.—m 3, on the left side of the mandible, has protruded by
the side, instead of the summit, of its crown.

Murmti Trise (7 skulls).

This series includes two certified female skulls and one skull of a child.
One of the male skulls is more prognathous than in the previous races; in
this respect the maxillary characters are those of the Ethiopian; but they
are combined with a vertical forehead, with well-developed nasals, and with
moderate malar bones : the cranium shows the Caucasian oval form: the ali-
sphenoid joins the parietal by a suture of one inch in extent. The other
male skulls are less prognathous and in various degrees: two of them show
prominent malars: the nasals vary from extreme prominence (J. #, 2, 2, 7) to
flatness (2. m, m,m,m). The forehead is low in most, and is narrow in
all. There is as much variety in the proportions of cranial length to breadth,
in regard to the number of skulls, as in the foregoing series. The longest
skull is 7 inches 3 lines (182°0); the shortest measures 6 inches 3 lines
(158°0): the broadest is 5 inches 5 lines (137-0); the narrowest is 4 inches
10 lines (123-0): the shortness being more or less compensated by breadth,
and vice versd. In all the seven skulls the alisphenoids join the parietals, and
the frontal suture is obliterated. These skulls show much variety in regard
to the complexity of the cranial sutures.

Maaar Trise (5 skulls).

Of this tribe, three skulls are of males, and show a longer form of cranium,
with larger and more robust general proportions, than in the Murmi tribe. The
length, in the three males, ranges from 6 inches 8 lines (166:0) to 7 inches
5 lines (188°0) ; the breadth from 5 inches (122°0) (in two) to 5 inches 35
lines (135°0). In two skulls the malars are prominent: in all the upper jaw
is prognathous, and the lower jaw has a prominent mentum. The nasal bones
are generally prominent. The occipital half of the cranium is unsymmetrical
in one skull (/. 2, «, u, w, «), which also shows a large foramen jugulare on
the more prominent side. The alisphenoids join the parietals, and the frontal
bone is single, in all the seven Magar skulls.

1859. H

33) > - REBORT—1859, > 4a

Sunwar Trize (6 skulls).

Four out of the six skulls of this tribe show the broad and short or rounded
form of cranium ; a fifth would be classed as dolichocephalic; the sixth shows
an intermediate type. The upper jaw is short, broad, slightly prognathous ; the
mentum moderately prominent; the malars prominent in all: upon the whole,
the Mongolian or Turkoman type prevails in this series of Sunwar skulls.
The dolichognathous skull (/. 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) measures, in length, 7 inches 4
lines (186°0); in breadth, 5 inches 13 line (131-0): the average length of the
four brachycephalic skulls is 6 inches 5 lines (167:0); the average breadth
is 5 inches 9 lines (1450). In all the skulls the alisphenoids broadly join
the parietals, and the frontal suture is obliterated ; the nasals vary from pro-
minence to flatness.

Limeu Trize (5 skulls).

These skulls exhibit a great range of variety: the one marked “/.z,x, 2,2, 2,”
in the oval contour of the cranium and face, in the delicate, almost vertical
malars, in the form of the maxillaries, and in the development of the nasals,
conforms to the Caucasian type ; but although the forehead has proportion-
ally a good shape and development, the capacity of the cranium is small.
The skull marked “1 v, v, v, v, v,” in the narrow and elongate form of the
cranium, in the flatness of the nasals, in the projection of the broad jaws, and
divergence of the malars, exemplifies the Negro type of skull. The length of
this cranium is 7 inches 3 lines (185°0); its breadth is 5 inches 42 lines
(1360). The skull marked “1 2z, z, z, z, z,” combining. a broad rounded
form of cranium with a broad malar region, anda broad, short, yet somewhat
prognathous upper jaw, conforms to the Mongolian type. The same type,
with a somewhat longer form of skull, predominates in No. 1 w, w, w, w, w,
in which the length of the cranium is 6 inches 5 lines (168°0), and the
breadth is 5 inches 8} lines(145°0). In all these skulls the alisphenoids join
the parietals, and the frontal is undivided. The same range of variation in
the development of the nasal bones prevails ‘as in the preceding series.

The principal anomalies shown in this series are the anchylosis of the atlas
to the occiput inl y, y, y, y, y, leaving only the left neurapophysis, behind
the condyle, free; this is separated from the right neurapophysis by an in-
terval of 7 lines: the right posterior zygapophysis is double the size of the
left one, and is convex: the nasal spine of the premaxillaries is much produced.
In the skull marked “ | w, w, w, w, w,” the upper or interparietal part of the
‘squama occipitalis’ is formed by three large ‘ wormian bones.’

KrrantI Tribe (5 skulls).

The same exemplification of both Caucasian and Mongolian types is given
by this as by the preceding series of five skulls; but no Kiranti skull shows
the simious combined with other Ethiopian characters: the nasal bones in all
are prominent and well-developed. The oval or elongate form of cranium
prevails, with a moderately prognathous jaw. In three of the skulls the malar
bones project outwards. ‘The chin is well-marked. The length of the cra-
nium varies little, the average being 6 inches 10 lines (174°0) ; the breadth
varies from 4 inches 9 lines (120°0) to 5 inches 5 lines (138°0). In all the
skulls the alisphenoids join the parietals, and the frontal is undivided. .

Anomalies.—One skull (1 a, a, a, a, a, @) shows a wormian bone in the
sagittal suture, and a pair of well-marked ‘ paroccipital’ processes: the skull
(1 4, 6, 6, b, b, 6) shows a mal-position of m 3 on both sides of the upper jaw.

ON A SERIES OF NEPALESE SKULLS, 99°

Gurune TRIBE (4 skulls).

The Gurung tribe is exemplified by one skull of an adult male, and by
three skulls of boys, in which the dentition has not gone beyond the acqui-
sition of the first true molar, with the deciduous series. These skulls show
a'slight family likeness in the degree of flatness of the nasal bones, with a
slight general prominence of the interorbital region, and a moderate pro-.
gnathism. In the adult male the forehead passes without indent into the nose,
as in the Grecian type. The frontal suture is persistent; but it has been
obliterated in the younger skulls. In the skull of the youth (19, 9,9,9,9,9),
on the right side, the frontal joins the squamosal ; on the left side a wormian
intervenes between the alisphenoid and parietal: in the others the usual june-
tion of these bones obtains. The chin is prominent in all. The length of the
adult skull is 7 inches (178*0); its breadth is 5 inches 8 lines (145-0). In
this skull the squamosals are abruptly prominent below the parietals, and a
great part of the suture between the ex- and super-occipitals remains, The
following are the dimensions of three of these skulls :—

¥ | Youth. Child.
Gurung : males. Adult. Deciduous & m1. Deciduous.
in. lines. mil. n. lines. mil. in. lines. mil.
Length of cranium ... 7 0 (178-0) 6 5 (163-0) 5 7 (144:0)
Breadth of cranium...| 5 8 (14570) 5 63 (140°0) 5 14 (130°0)

Anomalies.—In the boy’s skull (1 A, h, h, h, h, h), with m 1 and the de-
ciduous set of teeth, the right condyloid cup of the atlas has coalesced with
the occipital condyle, and the rest of the atlas is so closely applied to the
margin of the great foramen, as to indicate an ultimate, if not speedy coales-
cence of that part of the vertebra with the occipital one,

UrAOoN TRIBE (2 skulls).

The skulls of this tribe are of adult males; they show a rather narrow.
elongate form of cranium, with prognathous maxillaries. In one the cheek-
bones project, in the other not. In both the nasals project and are short,
with the usual indent between their root and the forehead. In the slightly
larger skull the length of the cranium is 7 inches 14 line (182°0); the breadth
of ditto is 5 inches 4 line (1300). The alisphenoids meet the parietals, and
the frontal suture is obliterated, in both skulls.

Sopa or Soxpa TRIBE (2 skulls).

The cranium in one of these skulls is short and broad, in the other it is
long and narrow; the malars are somewhat prominent and the jaws slightly
prognathous in both. In the dolichocephalic variety the length of the cranium
is 7 inches 5 lines (188°0); its breadth is 5 inches 6 lines (140°0). The
alisphenoids join the parietals, and the frontal suture is obliterated in both
skulls.

Dima TRIBE.
The ‘ Dimal’ skull most resembles those of the Gurung tribe, especially in

the form of the interorbital part. This skull is chiefly remarkable as exem-
plifying the rare disease of hypertrophous thickening of the parietal bones.

Bovo TRIBE.

This shows the dolichocephalic or elongate cranial form, with prognathous
jaws and almost vertical, not projecting, malar bones. The nasals are
slightly prominent, with a little depression between them and the forehead.

H 2

100 REPORT—1859.

The length of this cranium is 7 inches 2 lines (184°0) ; its breadth is 5 inches
3 lines (135:0). The alisphenoids join the parietals, and the frontal is un-
divided.

Koccu TRIBE.

OF the two skulls of this tribe, one shows the hypertrophy of the cranial
vault to a great degree, with much density of the thickened bone. The
other skull measures in length 7 inches 3 lines (185°0), and in breadth
5 inches (127:0). Both are prognathous, and the malars are slightly promi-
nent: in one skull the nasal bones project, in the other they are flat.

KHAMPA TRIBE.

This skull shows large and prominent nasals, continued, without indent,
from the frontal bone, slightly prominent malars and maxillaries, with a low
and narrow forehead, and the following proportions of cranium :—length
6 inches 10 lines (175-0), breadth 5 inches 6 lines (140°0). The parietals
join the alisphenoids, and the frontal is undivided.

Bacnatu TrrBeE (Nepal proper) (2 skulls).

One of these skulls is of an adult, the other is of a child. The jaw, in
the adult, is slightly prognathous; the malars are slightly inclined outward ;
the nasals are moderately prominent; the forehead is low and narrow. The
length of the cranium is 7 inches (180-0); the breadth is 5 inches 6} lines
(142:0). In other characters this skull resembles that of the Khampa tribe.

SyMBHUNATH TRIBE (Hill-man, probably Thibetan).

The two skulls so marked differ singularly in the development of the nasal
bones: in one (1 ¢) they are very long and prominent; in the other (1 d@)
they are flat: in the simious variety the malar bones are broad and promi-
nent, and the jaw is broad and prognathous, giving a Mongolian aspect to
the skull; the other skull conforms to Blumenbach’s Caucasian type. In
the skull 1 d, the length of the cranium is 7 inches 1 line (180:0); the
breadth is 5 inches 5 lines (137°0). The skull 1 e is about 3 lines shorter
and 2 lines broader than the other. In both the frontal is undivided, and
the alisphenoids join the parietals, the right alisphenoid in 1 ¢ being divided
into three wormian bones.

BAGNATH TRIBE (Nepal proper).

The adult skull so marked is prognathous, with a moderate development
of the nasal bones, and divergence of the malars at their lower part. The
length of the cranium is 7 inches 1 line (180°0); the breadth is 5 inches
6 lines (139'0). The alisphenoids join the parietals, and the frontal is undi-
vided. In the child’s skull the left squamosal sends forward a process dividing
the alisphenoid from the parietals.) The suture dividing the mastoid from
the squamosal is retained.

MAN oF THE Piatns (Ganges: unknown tribe).

This skull is prognathous, but with a good nasal development ; the malars
are scarcely prominent. The length of the cranium is 7 inches 2 lines
(183:0); the breadth is 5 inches (128-0). The alisphenoids join the parie-
tals, and the frontal is undivided. This skull shows a strong occipital spine.

Fakir (Bengal Islamite).
This skull is prognathous, with a less nasal development, but yet good: a

ON A SERIES OF NEPALESE SKULLS. 101

slight malar divarication, as if tending to the Mongolian type, with a low
forehead. ‘The length of the cranium is 7 inches (1780); the breadth is
5 inches 3} lines (135°0).

LowLanpbers (Caste unknown).

In the series of 10 skulls so marked is shown the same extreme variety in
the development of the nasal bones as in the Newar, Lepcha, and Bhotia
series ; in a few they are as flat as in the West African Negro, and in a few
they are very prominent. There is not the same range of variety in the
shape of the cranium; it is moderately oval, with the forehead narrow, and
low in most.

In three specimens the length of the cranium is 7 inches (178-0), the least
length being 6 inches 5 lines (165°0); the extreme breadth is 5 inches 3
lines (135°0), and this occurs in one of the larger skulls (1 ¢,¢,¢,¢). In this
skull the frontal suture is persistent. All are more or less prognathous, but
some of them less so than in the majority of the Nepal tribes.

A skull marked ‘ Tarai’ (1 , k, k, k, &) and another (1 8, b, b, b, 6) show
prominent or divergent malar bones: in the rest the Caucasian proportions
of those bones prevail.

Three of the above series of skulls show a produced nasal spine of the

large lateral wormian bones, which form the sides of the interparietal half of
the superoccipital element,

OBSERVATIONS.

The first general remark that is suggested by the series of 90 skulls above
characterized is, that the size and capacity of the cranium, or in other words,
the amount of brain, is not greater than that which is usually found in the
uneducated and lowest class of day-labourers in this country and in Ireland ;
and that this low development of cranium is associated with more or less
prognathism. In all, the general size of the molar teeth accords with that of
the white, olive, yellow, and red races of mankind.

The next remark is suggested by the extent of variety which is displayed,
not merely in the entire series, but in the particular tribes or families com-
prising it. The long, short and pyramidal, and vertically flattened, forms of
cranium are severally exemplified; just as, in skulls from ancient British
places of sepulture, some are found which, “ from an unusual degree of narrow-
ness of the calvarium and face, belong less obviously to the brachycephalic
class than usual*,” whilst others show the platycephalic or the acrocephalic
form+. These results of the experienced craniological observers, Davis and
Thurnam, concurring with my own, teach us how deceptive any single specimen
of the skull of any one tribe would be if viewed and described as exemplify-
ing the cranial type of such tribe or family ; and it shows the value of such
extensive collections as that made by the accomplished and indefatigable
Resident at Nepal.

* Crania Britannica, 4to. Davis and Thurnam, 6, 7 (7).

t Ibid. 12 (4) “In this stone barrow, on Wetton Hill, presenting only rude flint instru-
ments, British pottery, the primitive flexed position of the skeleton, and the short rude cist
—therefore with every mark of the primeval period, and no element of remote antiquity

-wanting—we meet with two separate and distinct aberrant forms of skull in interments of
the same age,”

102 ; REPORT—1859.

There are not more than two or three skulls in the entire series which
would have suggested, had they been presented to observation without pre-
vious knowledge of their country, that they belonged to any primary division
of Human kind distinct from that usually characterized by craniologists as
Caucasian or Indo-European: the majority might have been obtained from
grave-yards in London, Edinburgh, or Dublin, and have indicated a low
condition of the Caucasian race.

Only with regard to the Bhotias, a mountain-race, one of which was
marked ‘ trans nivem,’ could the Mongolian type be said to prevail. Where
the skulls of any one of the Nepal tribes amount to from 6 to 10 in number,
they present varieties in the proportion of length and breadth of cranium, in
the development of the nasal bones, in the divarication or prominence of the
malar bones, in the shape of the forehead, in the degree of prominence of
the frontal sinuses, and projection of the supraciliary ridge, which would be
found, perhaps, in as many promiscuously collected skulls of the operatives
of any of our large manufacturing towns, and which would be associated with
corresponding diversities of features and physiognomy.

As my experience in the characters of human skulls has increased, so has
my difficulty of determining therefrom the primary race or variety of
mankind. I have examined skulls of white Europeans, showing, as strongly
as some of the Nepalese skulls, the flat nose, prognathous jaws, and con-
tracted cranium of the Ethiopian. Only with regard to the Australian and
Tasmanian aborigines do I feel any confidence of being able to detect, in any
single skull, offered without comment to scrutiny, the distinctive characters of
arace. The contracted cranium, flat nose, prominent jaws, and more or less
protuberant cheek-bones are associated, in the Australo-Tasmanian race,
with a peculiarly prominent supraciliary ridge and deep indent between its
mid-part and the root of the nose; and still more peculiar and characteristic
is the large proportional size of the teeth, especially of the true molars.

Upon what, it may be asked, does so close a conformity of character
depend, which inspires confidence in the determination of race, by inspection
of any single skull of the aborigines of the vast Australian continent and ad-
jacent islands? It is probable that it depends on the degree of uniformity of
the manner of life and the few and simple wants of those aborigines. The
food, the mode of obtaining it, the bodily actions, muscular exertions, and
mental efforts stimulating and guiding such actions, vary but little in the dif-
ferent individuals. The prevailing simple and low social state, the concomi-
tant sameness and contracted range of ideas—in short, the small extent of
variety in the whole series of living phenomena from the cradle to the grave of
a human family of that grade, govern, as it seems to me, the conformity of
the cranial organization.

In the woolly-haired Negroes of Africa there is greater range of variety of
cranial organizution, concomitant with a greater range of variety in their
modes of life and physical development. I believe it would be rash to pro-
nounce on the Negro nature of any single skull, save of some of the lowest
races of the west coast of Africa; because I have observed, previous to the
present craniological comparison, that the assigned characters of the AEthio-
pian cranium occasionally occur as fully developed in certain low individuals
of other races; the subjects of the present Report afford similar instances.
This experience has led to the inference that, in the ratio of the complexity
of the social system, and of the diversity in the modes of sustaining life and .
‘spending it, is the range of diversity of feature and of cranial organization,

It is probable, therefore, from the effects of civilization and social progress
-in other varieties or families of mankind, that were the seeds of such progress

ON THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 103

to germinate and take on growth in the Australian family, the uniformity of
cranial character now prevailing would be concomitantly and progressively
modified. It is certain that such modifications of cranial structure and feature,
accompanying diversities in modes of life, detract from their value as
distinctive natural-history characters of races of mankind.

Supposing social progress to be possible in a race like the Australians,
without admixture of other blood, a question of much interest suggests
itself—in what degree and in what way the cranial physiognomy would be
modified? By analogy I think it probable that the modification might, in
the course of time, become at least as great as that which is observable in
unmixed Negro races which for generations have been subjected to, and im-
proved by, civilizing influences.

Upon the whole, then, in regard to the immediate subject of the present
Report, undertaken at the request of the Committee of the Ethnological
Section, and performed on that account, as well as out of regard for my
accomplished and scientific friend Mr. Hodgson, with much pleasure and the
best of my leisure and ability, I must confess that the results are rather nega-
tive than positive; but if they should suggest any improved views in the
study and application of the physical characters of Man, the aim of the
Section will not wholly have been unfulfilled.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow,
Hardwich, and Llewelyn, on the Present State of our Knowledge
regarding the Photographic Image.

Tue chemical problem presented by the photographic image is one of great
complexity. It is uninviting to the chemist in so far as it presents very
little opportunity of his obtaining quantitative results; for howsoever subtle
and rapid be the chemical transformation effected by the light, it consists, in
most cases, of a superficial change only, and defies even the delicate methods
of the balance. In undertaking to collect what is known and to test the
correctness of what has been published regarding this intricate problem, the
Committee have proposed to themselves to deal first with the simplest trans-
formations on which photographic processes are founded, and to pass on
from these to the more complex.

Moreover they confine themselves to the photographic results obtained
with the salts of silver, as these are the most employed, and because it is
necessary to assign some limits to their inquiry.

If the salts of silver are the most remarkable for their susceptibility to
photochemical change, one is naturally led to search first for the causes of
this among those simpler compounds of the metal in which the transforma-
tion is not complicated by the secondary decompositions which might be
expected to accompany it in the case of organic compounds. Yet among
the inorganic compounds this susceptibility to photochemical decomposition
is rare ; and though not absolutely confined to one salt, the chloride of silver,
that body exhibits the simplest and one of the best illustrations of it.

The chloride of silver, when perfectly pure, passes, on exposure to light,
from its pure white through various stages of change in hue, in which blue
is mixed with grey, until it finally reaches a deep slate-violet colour. Chlo-
rine is evolved from the chloride; but the question which here meets us iz
limine is one which probably underlies the whole of the problem we have to
consider, and consists in the chemical condition in which the silver remains

104 REPORT—1859.

after the light has completed the decomposition so far as it can go. Is the
result a subchloride of silver? or are the chlorine and the silver completely
dissevered, the gaseous element going away, and the metal remaining mixed
with, or rather encrusting, particles of unaltered chloride ?

Certainly the weight of authority is in favour of the latter view. Such,
at least, is to be gathered from papers by Dr. Draper of New York*, by
Mr. Guthrie+, and more recently from a series of papers by MM. Davanne
and Girard, in France.

In the first two memoirs referred to, an allotropic state of the metallic silver
is viewed as the only explanation of the reactions of the dark substance formed
by the light. No chemist, however, has yet produced this substance in such
a state of purity as to be able to subject it to an analysis; and the only
arguments, therefore, which can be relied on in explanation of the change
are such as make the fewest assumptions and put the least strain on the
present experience of the chemist.

There have been many methods proposed for the production of a sub-
chloride of silver by processes directly chemical. One of these consists in
the suspension of silver leaf in a dilute solution of sesquichloride of iron,
or of chloride of copper. But this experiment has been repeated by us,
and we are compelled to look upon the purple-tinted product as chloride of
silver accompanied by but a trace of a substance possessing a profoundly-
colouring power, which, as will presently be explained, we believe to be a
subchloride.

In order to produce this substance with at all events a greater approach to
isolation, we endeavoured to avail ourselves of the possibility of a reaction
between chlorhydric acid and the suboxide of silver, and with this view in-
stituted many experiments for the production of this last body in a state of
chemical purity. Memoirs devoted to the chemistry of the suboxide of
silver are not rare. Professor Faraday { showed that the deposit formed by
the exposure to the air of an ammoniacal solution of oxide of silver, consists
of a compound with a composition of 108 silver and 5°4 oxygen. This com-
position is incompatible with a formula Ag, O (supposing oxide of silver to
be AgO); but the physical characters of the body are interesting. It is grey,
and by reflected light is seen to possess a strong lustre. By transmitted
light a thin layer of it appears bright yellow.

Rose § has called attention to various other reactions in which suboxide of
silver appears to be formed. Thus, if ammoniacal solution of nitrate of silver
be added to protosulphate of iron, a deep and intensely colorific black preci-
pitate is formed, consisting of a compound expressed by the formula Ag, O,
2FeO, Fe, O,. Similar or analogous products of different composition are
formed by the use of salts of the manganous oxide, and by solutions of
cobalt; but in all these cases the suboxide of silver is associated in combi-
nation with other bodies, and does not present itself in a state from which it
would be easily convertible into a subchloride. Rose, indeed, has made one
remark, in connexion with these researches, which has a significance of
some value for the photographic chemist. He shows that, in the case of
adding the acetate of silver to a protoacetate of iron, the precipitate presents
the black tint and deeply colorific power which seem to characterize the com-
pounds of the suboxide of silver. When the salts used, however, contain
“strong” mineral acids, as when nitrate of silver and sulphate of iron are
the mutual precipitants, the deposit is grey and metallic—the reduction of *

* Phil. Mag. xiv. 322, tT Chem. Soc. Quart. Journ. x. 74.
+ Quart. Journ. Sc. iv. 268.
§ Journ, Pract. Chem. Ixxi, 215, 407 e¢ seg.; see also Wohler, Pogg. Ann. xli, 344,

ON THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 105

the silver is, in short, complete. The significance of this fact we shall here-
after recall.

The processes which seemed to hold out the greatest prospect of success
for the production in the first place of a suboxide, and subsequently of a sub-
chloride, by the methods of the laboratory, and independently of the action
of the light, were those afforded by the reduction* of the citrate of silver,
and by the conversion of arsenite of silver> by the action of a caustic alkali
into alkaline arseniate, accompanied by a reduction of the oxide of silver to
a mixture of metallic silver and suboxide, thus:

3 AgO As O,+3Na 0 HO=$Na 0 AsO,+ Ag, 0+ Agt.

Of the results yielded by the first of these, none were found that gave any
promise at all satisfactory. Hydrogen was passed through citrate of silver
suspended in hot water. The products, at first brown, and then black, and
finally grey, were examined at various stages of their progress in coloration,
citric acid being used as a solvent to remove the citrate and the oxide §, the
residuary product being examined by treatment with dilute chlorhydric acid
to convert it into chloride. The citric acid solution was found to contain
nothing capable of reducing permanganate of potash, and must therefore
have been free from suboxide. The result of treating the residue with chlor-
hydric acid, and then dissolving the silver by dilute nitric acid, was a rose-
tinted chloride of silver.

On the supposition that this residue was a mixture of suboxide, or a salt
of it, with metallic silver, we are constrained to the view that the suboxide
of silver is not characterized by the property of entirely passing, under the
influence of chlorhydric acid, into subchloride. This seems to be confirmed
in some degree by the results with the arsenite, to which we now proceed.
To that reaction, which Wohler has described, much attention was devoted ;
and it was tried under several modifications ||. By forming a dilute solution

* Wohler, Ann. Pharm. xxx. 3.

+ Wohler, Ann. Chem. Pharm. cl. 363.

+ The formula for arsenite of silver usually accepted is 2AgO AsO3, but we find Wohler’s
formula as above given to be the correct one.

§ The brown product became converted into the black one by the treatment with citric acid,
Both underwent similar changes under the successive action of chlorhydric and nitric acids,
and both previous to this treatment reduced the permanganate of potash powerfully. But it
was found that the citric acid alone was capable of reducing the deposit to the grey condition
of metallic silver, withdrawing from it at the same time (all the) oxide of silver,—a result which
seemed to render almost hopeless the effort to form the suboxide by its means.

Indeed the mere boiling of the citrate blackened it, producing a dark-coloured mixture of
silver with some compound of the suboxide, the citrate itself undergoing a transformation
which must have lowered its saturating power, as the solution remained neutral. The citrate,
however, when thus boiled with water through which a stream of hydrogen was passing, be-
came more darkly coloured, but imparted an acid reaction to the water.

The black body that results from the reactions described, contains organic matter, as it
intumesces when heated. It cannot therefore be merely a mixture of metallic silver with the
suboxide..

The dry citrate heated in a stream of hydrogen is very slowly affected at 212°, but passes
at length into a substance which produces on the one hand a dark-brown solution, and on the
other a brown residue which yields a very pale-red body on being transformed by chlorhydric
and nitric acids.

|| It appeared, in trying Wohler’s experiment in several ways, that on the one hand it was
extremely difficult to get rid of all the arsenic compound from the residue, and on the other
that the tendency of arsenic acid in solution was to further the breaking up of the suboxide
into oxide and metal. Lime- and baryta-water were therefore substituted for the soda, but
still arsenite of silver remained undecomposed. This seemed due to its solid condition, It
was to overcome this that the solution in nitric acid was adopted.

' It was found, however, that the chocolate-tinted compound of chlorine and silver, by what-
ever process it had been produced, became, by fresh treatment with chlorhydric acid, again

106 REPORT—1859.

of arsenite of silver in nitric acid, and adding this very gradually to a boiling
concentrated solution of soda, an extremely black powder was produced.
This on being treated with dilute chlorhydric acid becomes grey ; and on
boiling the washed product with dilute nitric acid, silver is dissolved, and
there is left a substance, which, if Wohler be right in calling the black pow-
der suboxide of silver, we should expect to contain subchloride of silver.
The colour of this substance is a rich chocolate or maroon, more or less dark,
according to the nature of the process: it never reached the deep slate-violet
of the chloride of silver exposed to sunlight. On analysis it was found to
contain as large an amount as 24 per cent. of chlorine ;

The pure chloride Ag Cl contains 24°74 of chlorine ;
The subchloride Ag, Cl requires 14°08 of chlorine.

Other products of less-deep hue than the one first examined gave the numbers
24°3 and 242 per cent. of chlorine. Assuming that the chocolate hue was
imparted to the substance by a subchloride (and no other view seems equally
probable), we are constrained to recognize in this subchloride, only present
to the amount at the furthest of 5 per cent., a surprising colorific energy.

From the experiments previously cited, we are disposed to think that our
failure in this attempt to produce the pure subchloride of silver arose from
the fact of the action of chlorhydric acid upon the suboxide of silver not being
so simple as a complete conversion into subchloride would indicate; and we
are the more induced to draw this conclusion from the analogy of the sub-
oxide of mercury. Thus, if from a solution of the suboxide of mercury
that oxide be precipitated, the action of chlorhydric acid on the precipitate is
not to form the subchloride, but a grey mixture of chloride and metallic
mercury. The same may perhaps apply to suboxide of silver ; and, if so, it
would be decomposed by chlorhydric acid, either partially or entirely, and
would form chloride of silver and metallic silver.

One experiment we tried, in the hope of producing the subchloride of
silver by a direct reaction. Chloride of silver is soluble in concentrated and
highly alkaline arsenite of soda; and this solution, in the presence of excess
of soda, was gently warmed. A brilliant mirror-like deposit, not of sub-
chloride, but of metallic silver, was the result.

But with however little success the efforts to produce a pure subchloride
of silver have as yet been crowned, the experiments we have detailed enabled
us to institute a few comparative reactions whereby the result of treating a
true subchloride (however diluted, so to say, with protochloride) with the
ordinary reagents employed by the photographist may be achieved. The
results yielded by these reagents were the following :—

Nitric acid, of sufficient strength to dissolve silver by heat, does not alter
this dark compound.

Chlorhydrie acid does not, when dilute, produce any apparent change
in it.

Ammonia breaks it up entirely, dissolving all as chloride, except a minute
amount of metallic silver, which remains.

Hyposulphite of Soda dissolves all except a trace of metallic silver like
that left by the ammonia.

It will hardly be worth while to go through the reactions exhibited by

capable of yielding a solution of silver when treated by nitric acid. So utterly unstable are
these subcompounds of that metal!
Indeed it would seem that to secure to them any permanence, they must be formed in

combination,
- ~ . ,

ON THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE, 107

these several tests with the dark body formed by the photochemical decom-
position of the chloride of silver, or of this body mixed with excess of nitrate ;
for we find that these reactions are in the several cases identical. The light-
darkened chloride indeed presents a deeper and bluer colour than that formed
artificially ; but when it is considered that the light-formed body is a coating
of uniformly and completely transformed substance—superficial it is true, but
continuous in its surface—while the laboratory product is an intimate mix-
ture of discontinuous particles, the bluer tint of the one and the redder tint
of the other will hardly carry much weight in deciding against the identity
of the colorific silver-compound in each case. Nor will it perhaps be con-
sidered to support the view of the photochemical reduction consisting in the
complete severance of the metallic silver, that the product of that reduction
can be formed by the light in the presence of nitric acid. The production
of an allotropic form of silver in the nascent state, in the presence of nitric
acid, seems certainly to make a larger demand on the credulity of the che-
‘mist than the assertion that the reduction stops at an intermediate stage, at
which a subchloride is the result of it—a subchloride, whose properties we
have seen to be identical with those of a substance formed in the laboratory,
and to which it is difficult to assign any other composition than that of a
subchloride of silver.

In the photographic processes in which the chloride of silver is employed, it
is to be borne in mind that the chloride of silver is not used by itself—nay, by
itself is quite inadequate to the production of the deep colour requisite for
photographic effects. It is used in fact always in conjunction with nitrate of
silver, and also, it must be added, with organic substances, among which the
cellulose of the paper and the glue-like size are prominent, The action of
the nitrate of silver needs little explanation; it supplies continually a fresh
surface of chloride of silver, formed by part of the chlorine given off from the
surface of the original chloride, which unites at once with the silver of the
nitrates, and simultaneously becomes blackened by the action of the light.
It is singular, however, that it has escaped the observation of the chemists
who have experimented on this point, that an oxide of chlorine is also formed
at the same time, as may be shown by the renewed deposit of chloride of
silver which is produced in the supernatant nitrate by the addition to it of
sulphurous acid, That the darker compound produced by the presence of ni-
trate of silver is in no respect different, save that it is a more abundant deposit,
from that formed from the chloride alone, is evidenced by the identity of its
reactions with those of the latter. For here, again, dilute nitric acid of suf-
ficient strength to dissolve silver at 112°, is inert in its action on this bluish-
black compound. Chlorhydric acid, if not sufficiently dilute, renders it
somewhat paler, and gives a brownish hue to its slaty violet, but otherwise
does not alter it. Hyposulphite of soda dissolves nearly the whole if suffi-
ciently strong, leaving but a trace of metallic silver ; and ammonia acts in a
similar manner, while cyanide of potassium appears entirely to dissolve it.

In order to be satisfied that the bluish slate-coloured substance formed in
the presence of nitrate of silver by the action of light on the chloride was
not an oxychloride, an attempt was made to form such an oxychloride by
operating on the chocolate-coloured substance so often alluded to, Boiled
with caustic potash, this became dark brown; but nitrie acid restored to it
its chocolate tint. The substance operated on in this experiment was formed
from the citrate by the action of hydrogen (in this case in the presence of
nitrate of silver), and treatment of the products as before, by chlorhydric
and nitric acids in succession.

We consider that we are justified in drawing the following conclusions :—

108 REPORT—1859.

1. That the action of the light on chloride of silver is to reduce it, in so
far as it is able to penetrate its substance, to the state of a subchloride.

2. That in the presence of nitrate of silver, this deposit of subchloride is
necessarily more plentiful, while some part of the liberated chlorine passes
into an oxide, which prevents a portion of the chlorine set free from con-
ducing to the formation of fresh subchloride.

From this point we may proceed to the discussion of the photographic
image in more complex, but, for the photographist, more available forms.
And in doing so, we must at the outset bear in mind that the image varies
in its character in different stages of the photographic process. ‘The first
result obtained by the light, even if it be the same in all stages of the solari-
zation, is not the result which is in many cases left after the fixing solution
has performed its work; but it is perhaps more interesting, as indicating the
nature of the change effected by the light, independent of the chemical re-
agents which are afterwards applied.

In endeavouring to reduce into orderly arrangement the great number of
photographie results which this inquiry involves, it seemed best to sever at
the outset two series of them which bear but little relation to each other,—
namely, the images obtained by development, and those which are formed
visibly by the light. Commencing with the latter of these, the attention is
at once arrested by the processes involving the use of chloride of silver in
conjunction with the nitrate of that metal.

The rationale of the union of these two compounds for the production of
an effect far greater than that upon the chloride alone, has been shown ; but,
practically, in photographie processes there are other agents present in the
paper, or purposely introduced into it, which play a part in the photochemical
change hardly less important than that of the silver salts tiiemselves.—

We may fairly inquire in the first instance whether the presence of the
fibre of the paper itself may not assist in effecting decompositions under the
influence of light. To determine this point, Swedish filtering paper, as the
type of the most uniform and pure fibre of paper that could be procured, was
treated with nitrate of silver alone: on being exposed for some hours, it
exhibited a pale-reddish stain, which after several days’ insolation reached no
deeper tone than a brown. The substitution of ammonio-nitrate of silver for
the nitrate gave a rapidity to the change, and ultimately a depth of opacity
to the result, by affording an antagonism, as we suppose, to the influence of
the nitric acid. The reactions of the darkened ammonio-nitrate paper are
as follows:—Ammonia does not otherwise affect it, than that treatment there-
with (probably by action on the tissue of the paper) makes it slightly more
readily acted on by other reagents. Nitric acid, though exceedingly dilute,
rapidly dissolves it. Indeed an acid so far diluted that it took many hours to
destroy the substance left by treating with ammonia Swedish paper that had
been prepared with chloride of silver and subsequently darkened in the sun,
was able to destroy this bronzed image formed by the ammonio-nitrate in a
few minutes. Cyanide of potassium in presence of air rapidly destroys it,
but not so rapidly as it does the image on chloride of silver just alluded to.

It would be difficult, from the above reactions, to come to any positive
opinion on the nature of the photochemically changed substance left by the
ammonio-nitrate of silver on pure tissue of paper. But that this tissue is
not without a part to play in the changes which the oxide of silver under- .
goes, perhaps even a more important one than that of an absorber of oxygen,
seems indicated by one curious experiment. Swedish filtering paper treated
with nitrate of silver, and while still moist touched with a solution of proto-
sulphate of iron, gives a grey stain easily recognized as metallic silver. When, -

ON THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE, 109°

however, it is suffered to dry (of course in the dark), the stain thus formed,
instead of a grey, exhibits a dense black tone, which immediately afterwards
passes on into a brown. The former of these is probably suboxide.

But if the tissue of the paper is not to be altogether excluded from the
list of possible cooperative agents present in these processes, there are other
substances of which the influence can be demonstrated in a manner quite
satisfactory to the photographist. Gelatine as size was long employed with-
out his being conscious of its importance; and he now uses albumen as a
photographie glaze, and sometimes other substances, such as grape sugar,
Iceland moss, caseine, &c., on account of the fine tones and permanence in
the fixing bath which they impart to his pictures. Gelatine and albumen both
combine with nitrate of silver; and the character of the combination is one
which chemistry has yet to explain with completeness. ‘These compounds
differ from each other in many important respects: we shall select that with
gelatine for illustration. The characters of the compound of gelatine and
nitrate of silver are exhibited by the following statements.

If a sheet of transparent gelatine be floatedupon a solution of nitrate of
silver, the solution loses a considerable amount of the dissolved salt. When the
proportion of the gelatine to the bulk and strength of the solution is suffi-
cient, free nitrate of silver is scarcely to be detected in the bath, and what
silver is found there is probably in the form of a gelatine-compound, which
is not entirely insoluble. The gelatine mass, though but slightly soluble in
cold, is so to a considerable amount in hot water, and retains at once the
neutrality and the taste of the nitrate. The solution gives the following re-
actions :—

Caustic potash throws down a bulky olive-brown precipitate, which clots
into a tough extensile mass. This dissolves by boiling with excess of the
precipitant, yielding a very dark, and when diluted, a clear yellowish-brown
solution.

Strong ammonia produces no precipitate, but on boiling forms a pale
orange-yellow solution, on which the light produces little or no change.

Chloride of ammonium, introduced cautiously, produces no precipitate, but
in excess renders the solution turbid. The clear liquid is not rendered tur-
bid by boiling; but a few drops of nitric acid, if the temperature be raised
to the boiling point, suffice to render it milky from separation of chloride of
silver, which may be redissolved by ammonia, or darkened by the light.

Iodide of potassium, unless carefully introduced, throws down a turbidity
of a yellow tint, in it. But if this be removed by filtration, it will be found
that the addition of the most dilute nitric acid and boiling throws down a
fresh amount of iodide of silver.

Cold nitric acid produces no change in the gelatino-nitrate (?) of silver,
even when formed from the ordinary commercial gelatine; but boiling throws
down sometimes a small quantity of chloride, originating in the impurity of
that body.

Chlorhydrie acid in minute quantity produces also no precipitate until
boiled, when the chloride of silver separates from the compound.

_ The gelatinous mass, formed by the action of the nitrate of silver solution
upon the gelatine, becomes, on exposure to the sunlight, of a red colour.
The change is a rapid one, and is accompanied by a shrinking of the mass
to its original character of a thin sheet as it dries. The colour attained by
prolonged solar influence is by transmitted light a deep ruby, and a “bronzed ”
green by reflected light. Sheets of the gelatino-nitrate of silver thus solarized
no longer swell up or dissolve in boiling water, but only after long boiling
become disintegrated in filmy fragments. Potash gives, on boiling, a clear

110 ~~ * REPORT—1859. ©

solution, which even when dilute is brownish-red, and appears opaque when”
concentrated. Ammonia added to this liquid diminishes its opacity and
gives it an orange hue.

In inquiring what the character of the change effected in these bodies is,
we would direct attention to a process analogous to that by which the citrate
of silver was examined. If hydrogen be freely passed over the albuminate
of silver in a water bath, this becomes converted into a red body resembling
in all essential particulars the red substance into which the light converts the
same albuminate. In each case the reaction with the different tests is the
same. That, in fact, a suboxide is in each case formed, and that this sub-
oxide is in combination with the albuminous or gelatinous substance, seems
the natural conclusion from what has preceded, no less than from the re-
actions of the bodies themselves.

The silver cannot be there in the metallic form; else, why should potash
dissolve it, and why should ammonia convert it into a paler body? More-
over, metallic mercury does not amalgamate with it. One reaction, indeed,
might be urged as militating against this view. The hyposulphite of soda
has but little action on the red compound, whereas it dissevers the consti-
tuent elements of suboxide of silver as dissolved oxide of silver and residuary
metal. But we have shown that silver is not entirely precipitated from its
gelatinous nor from its albuminous compound by such tests as chlorides
or iodides, and one will hardly therefore see with wonder that the albuminate
or gelatinate of the suboxide resists the action of the alkaline lyposulphite.
Nor would it be out of place here to hint, as our colleague Mr. Hardwich has
done, at the high probability of the suboxide of silver associating itself with
organic substances such as cellulose, albumen, gelatine, &c,, in a manner ana-
logous to that in which other metallic salts, in which the saesallin element is
not entirely saturated by metalloid elements, act the part of conjugate bodies,
annexing themselves to the organic substances alluded to, and to colouring
matters of various kinds. The action of these mordants belongs still to an
obscure chapter of chemistry, but it is highly probable that the compounds
under consideration are closely allied to them.

Finally, we have to bear in mind that the fixing agent modifies the image
formed by the light in the materials we have been considering.

The alkaline hyposulphite, like ammonia, acts on the subchloride or the
suboxide of silver, splitting the one into metallic silver and chloride which
becomes dissolved, and the other into oxide and metal.

Obviously the conversion of an image formed of either of the intensely
colorific subcompounds of silver into a pale metallic deposit containing only
half the amount of metal, and possessing none of the remarkable colorific
energy of the suboxide or subchloride, is a conversion that can only be ex-
pected to exhibit a great loss of tone. Practically the singular immunity from
this dissevering action which the organic matter, combined with or conjugated
to the subcompound of silver, extends to that subecompound, comes in to help
the photographist from losing the beautiful result which the light itself pro-
duces. And what little he still must lose he can almost restore again by
the remarkable toning methods which he has recourse to.

The rationale of these toning methods is to be sought in the chemistry of
each different process. The deposit of gold from a solution of that metal
is in its broad features a simple reaction—a deposit of a more electro-posi-
tive metal in substitution of one less so,—but the precise details of each
method of using a gold toning-bath doubtless involve more refined chemical
explanations. Without attempting to go into these, we would invite atten-
tion, however, to the sulphuretting baths by which this toning is sometimes

ON THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. i1i

éonferred on the pictures. Sulphide of ammonium converts the fixed image on
paper into, first, au intensely black compound, and subsequently, by its con-
tinued action, into a dull yellowish, scarcely visible stain. The latter, there can
be little doubt, is sulphide of silver. It seems highly probable that the inter-
mediate step in the process is the production of a subsulphide, and that it is at
that stage that the progress of sulphurizing is arrested in a successfully-toned
picture. This explanation would be quite in harmony with the conditions
under which the toning is performed.

The results, then, at which we conceive that photographic chemistry may
be said to have now arrived, in respect to the direct processes involving the
use of silver-salts, may be thus stated.

The materials employed perform various functions :—

Ist. One of these is that of supporting the picture, as a mechanical material
or basis for holding the chemical bodies. Of the substances so employed
the tissue of paper is one. Pyroxyline (the product of a substitution effected
in the elements of the cellulose) is spread on glass to afford another. The
latter appears to be inert. The former, on the other hand, seems to aid in
the reduction, and possibly in some cases to remain in union with the reduced
result.

Qudly. The silver-salts employed, whereof the chloride—for which may
be substituted other salts, as the tribasic phosphate, the tartrate, the citrate,
and many others, though each with a specific effect—appears to act by im-
parting sensitiveness. The nitrate, on the other hand, is present in excess to
keep up a constant succession of sensitive material, and so to give vigour and
intensity to the image.

3rdly. Gelatine as a size, or albumen as a glaze, and various other sub-
stitutes for these (though but little linked together by any chemical analogy
amongst themselves), cooperate by conferring rich tints and deep tones, while
they at once impart to the image formed on them:an immunity from the
destroying action of the fixing process, and form a mechanical surface more
or less impenetrable, which prevents the other sensitive compounds from
sinking into the paper.

Each of these substances can, provided nitrate of silver be present, be
employed to produce an image. Thus, the chloride rapidly produces a faint
picture ; the “gelatino-nitrate” slowly yields an intense one; together they
produce the required result. Whether that result is a cumulative one, the
sum of the separate results, or a conjoint one produced by a combination of
the chloride with the gelatine compound, it were difficult to say.

The image is, however, a mixed one, for treatment of it with dilute nitric
acid leaves the slaty violet subchloride of silver. It seems therefore to be a
mixture of subchloride with a gelatinous, and perhaps also a cellulose-com-
pound of suboxide of silver.

The next great division of our subject which we have to enter upon is that
of photographs produced by development.

Fortunately, in dealing with the images thus formed, we are able to dis-
sever the results from the magic influence that calls them into being. We
need only show that certain conditions are necessary for the impress of the
invisible image ; we are not called on to explain the character uf the impress
itself. Without attempting to explain what goes on in the camera obscura,
we may determine the conditions for a favourable action in it, and interpret
the results of that action after development; though even here, from the
great delicacy of the processes employed, the task is a most difficult one.

With regard then, first, to the preparatory portion of these processes in-
volving the production of the sensitive surface. This consists, in the pro-

112 REPORT—1859,

cesses on glass, in a supporting film, and generally in iodide of silver formed
under conditions in which nitrate of silver was in excess. There are also
generally present other ingredients, such as certain forms of organic matter,
and in some cases bromide or even chloride of silver.

That it is not a matter of indifference whether the supporting basis, or
film, consist of pyroxyline, or albumen, or gelatine, or of these severally com-
bined with other bodies or with each other, one might readily suppose from
what has been already said under the head of direct processes; and it will
be no difficult matter to show more than a probability that this is not due to
a “molecular,” but to a “chemical ” distinction in the action of these bodies.

The usual sensitive surface contains, if it does not consist in, iodide of
silver with an excess of nitrate. But there are processes in which the plate
is studiously washed with water to remove the nitrate, whereby, though it is
impaired in sensitiveness, it retains enough of that quality for the produc-
tion of excellent results. Though this retention of a susceptibility to the in-
visible impression has been attributed to mechanical causes, such as the state
of division of the iodide, the porosity of the film, &c., the following facts
seem to favour a chemical explanation. Pure pyroxyline united with pure
iodide and nitrate of silver, from which the nitrate of silver has subsequently
been removed, and the film dried, is not susceptible of quick development
after exposure in the camera; a mere trace of albumen introduced before the
removal of the soluble silver-salt, however, prevents its entirely losing this sus-
ceptibility. Gelatine, certain forms of sugar, resins, and various other bodies
widely differing from one another in point of chemical character, possess a
similar property, though the precise regulation of the processes employing
them can hardly be said to be as yet mastered by the photographist. The
products of decomposition contained in “old collodions,” and some of the
fresh preparations of pyroxyline, in which secondary products are not studi-
ously prevented from being formed, would seem to share this power with the
classes of bodies referred to.

But a question of the utmost interest to the scientific inquirer is involved
in the chemistry of the iodide of silver; first, in respect to its power of
forming combinations with the nitrate of silver, and secondly, as regards the
probability of these combinations forming photographic compounds with the
albuminous and other bodies alluded to.

That the excess of nitrate of silver which is necessary in the first prepara-
tion of all the sensitive films does not act the same part as that excess does
in the case of the chloride in direct processes, will be evident at once, inas-
much as the iodide of silver does not undergo reduction in the manner that
the chloride does. In searching, therefore, for an explanation of the necessity
of free nitrate, the mind naturally dwells on the compounds shown by
Schnauss* and A. Kremer+ to be formed by the action of strong solution
of nitrate of silver on the iodide. Although the production of these bodies
in any quantity and in a state of chemical purity needs conditions not
present on the photographic film, yet there seems little doubt that, as iodide
of silver is dissolved by the nitrate, traces of these remarkable compounds
can readily exist in the films containing these two ingredients. If so, the
highly photographie character of the compound containing 2:8 per cent. of
iodide of silver described by Kremer, and the fact of these bodies being
decomposed with the separation of iodide of silver by the action of water, are
facts of high interest to the photographic chemist, and seem to throw con- *
siderable light on the hitherto obscure processes in which iodide of silver is

* Archiy der Pharm. xcii. 260, + Journ. fiir Prakt, Chem. Ixxi. 54,

ON THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 113

employed. These two facts, indeed, may be held to explain, very nearly,
the character of the ordinary collodion process, but they do not explain the
“preservative” processes in which the sensitiveness of the film is, within
certain limits, retained by the introduction of albumen, gelatine, resin, sugars,
or other organic substances, to the numbers of which experience is con-
tinually adding.

For the explanation of the action of these substances, we must recur to the
facts already cited in the case of gelatine when used as a size in the direct
processes. Thus, too, a plate coated in the ordinary manner with albumen
containing iodide of potassium dissolved, will be found, on being raised from
out of the silver-bath, not to be opake, and coated with a dense deposit of
iodide of silver, but to appear highly translucent and opalescent in its cha-
racter, and that, even though the iodide be introduced with a liberal hand. In
fact, the albumen is present not merely as a mechanical vehicle for the sen-
sitive materials, but can be proved to have combined with those materials,
and to play no insignificant part in their photochemical transformation.
That this is so, may be at once shown by adding some albumen to a quantity
of the ordinary “silver-bath,’—say the white of one egg, diluted with 13
ounce of water, added to 40 ounces of bath. The iodide of silver with
which the bath was previously saturated will be found in it no more; it is
now to be looked for in the gelatinous precipitate which the albumen has
formed. The precipitate is in fact a chemical compound of albumen with
nitrate of silver holding in combination the iodide. This is, as might be sup-
posed, from what has been said of the albuminate alone, a highly photographie
compound. We have stated that a similar compound is formed by gelatino-
nitrate of silver and iodide of silver. Citrate of silver, glycyrhizine, and
many other bodies share with these substances, and the first two possess even
in a far higher degree than they, the property of carrying down in a com-
bination—or, so to say, in solid solution—the iodide of silver, and forming
with it highly photographic products.

A hiatus must needs occur in this stage of our inquiry. The sensitive
film is exposed in the camera, and in a few instants the invisible image is
impressed. We remove it, and our task begins again at a tangible starting-
point. The development of the image is the visible evidence that the light
has been at work, and a close examination of the nature of this image is the
only further key we possess to elucidate the character of the light’s action.

By a comparison of the developed images formed on plates that have been
exposed for the correct time to produce a good picture, with such as are
produced by the direct action of the light, we arrive at two conclusions.
First, a general similarity in the appearance of the various sorts of images
by each method is observable; but, secondly, the deposit in the case of the
developed image is far more abundant than that in the direct image. The
comparison as regards the quantity of deposit in any two images is one far
too delicate to be effected by the balance ; but a method of instituting such
a comparison with great accuracy is founded upon the ready conversion of
any such images into sulphide of silver, a body transparent and yellow in
thin layers, but passing through tones of sepia to almost a black opacity as
the thickness is increased. The colour becomes thus a good means of com-
paring any two deposits, and the complete conversion of these into the sul-
phide is ensured by the use successively of chlorine-water and of sul-
phuretted hydrogen. A similar comparative result may be obtained by sub-
stituting the chloride of mercury for the chlorine-water.

Now the deposited images in the case of the processes by development
present some points of great analogy to those formed in the direct processes ;

1859. I

114 REPORT—1859.

in others these images widely diverge from them. Thus, we seldom find in
them those purple and violet tones which seem to characterize the subchlo-
ride of silver before fixing. On the other hand, we observe two classes of
developed images :—the one is of a dull metallic appearance, of a slaty grey
character by transmitted light, and in but a feeble degree opake; the other
varies in colour, exhibiting brown or red hues, and sometimes even presenting
perfect opacity to transmitted light, closely similar to the picture formed by
direct processes. But, on testing these two varieties of image by the method
of conversion into sulphide of silver before described, it is found that the dull
translucent metallic image teems with silver, and becomes very opake in the
form of sulphide, while the more richly coloured and dense-seeming image
loses opacity under the sulphurizing action, and exhibits at last a subdued tone
of colour that brings it more on a par with the sulphuretted metallic image.
Clearly then, here, density, and the qualities which give photographic value
to an image, do not depend on the amount of metal that goes to form it, so
much as on the chemical, and even perhaps mechanical state, in which that
silver is present in it.

The several causes which determine the deposit of the images in these
several states appear to be these :—

1. The materials forming the sensitive film.—Pyroxyline, in chemical
purity, has little tendency to form the darker image. Albumen and the hete-
rogeneous substances (including decomposed collodions), which we have had
to yoke in the same class with it, have this tendency.

In general (speaking of the ordinary moist process) the tendency to pro-
duce the darker image is found to be in something like an inverse ratio,
ceteris paribus, with the sensitiveness.

The use of the bromide of silver with the iodide imparts to a collodion
film a tendency to deposit the grey metallic image, at the same time that a
more powerful reducing agent is needed to develope it. It is a remarkable
fact, bearing upon this singular property of bromide, that no compounds ana-
logous to that formed by A. Kremer with the iodide have yet been formed
with it. In the case of albumen, this influence of bromide is not felt; for with
albumen, bromide of silver is held to increase the opacity of the image.

2. The nature of the developing agent——The substances used to develope
the latent image, besides the free nitrate of silver invariably necessary,
embrace also without exception one ingredient, the character and the pur-
pose of which is to reduce the salts of silver. In some cases organic bodies
are employed for this purpose, in others the reducing agent is inorganic.
Now, whether the grey or metallic form of image is completely reduced
silver, and the more opake forms are an argentous compound (mixed or not
with metallic silver), or whether all the forms of image are silver in different
mechanical states of deposition, is a very important inquiry, and one on
which the facts of the development and the nature of the developing agent
may throw some light.

But no one who is intimate with the complex and perplexing details of this
step in the photographic process will expect the chemist to come in and
remove the difficulty by the use of a few formule. All we can hope to do
is to point to a few sure results of experience, and indicate any explanation
which may be suggested by facts from the laboratory analogous to these.

It is known, then, that to produce a “ positive” picture in the camera, the
developing agent should be sulphate of iron, acidified in some cases even by .
nitric acid. The result is the crystalline white deposit of metallic silver.
Protonitrate of iron is used with a similar result. So likewise in the labo-
ratory it is known that a neutral.mixture of the ferrous sulphate and nitrate

ON THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 115

of silver forms the grey deposit, but that the addition of a little acid pro-
duces the white and brilliant form of the metal.

If now we would take a result opposite to this from the experience of the
photographist, we may select an ordinary collodion plate prepared by the
usual negative process, and we shall find that protacetate of iron developes
the image of a black colour. Now Rose, in the remarkable experiments on
the production of argentous compounds with the higher oxides of iron, &¢.,
to which we have called attention, shows that whereas the argentic salts con-
taining strong mineral acids are precipitated as grey metal by ferrous salts
containing similar acids, the deposit formed by uniting the ferrous oxide and
the argentic oxide, or the compounds of these with organic weak acids, con-
tain the suboxide of silver and are black.

When to this is added the circumstance that the white and grey photo-
graphic images are with facility amalgamated with mercury, but that the
coloured and black images are not, it may be treated as a matter of high
probability that the black and coloured images are formed by compounds of
the suboxide of silver.

A directive energy is exercised upon the nature of the deposit by the
various kinds of organic matter employed in the development. These all
seem to restrict the limits of variation to the dark bluish-black (given by
citric acid when present), on the one hand, and various reds and browns upon
the other; while, again, the presence of the albuminous and other substances,
so often before referred to, is, as was above remarked, a sure means of
forming these darker and coloured images. Indeed, albumen will determine
such images notwithstanding that even free nitric acid be present with it.
If it be a suboxide that causes the dark precipitate, that suboxide must go
down in combination, and so resist the action of the fixing solvents,

But, 3. The character of the light has also a remarkable influence in
inducing a grey or a dark character on the developed image.

If the picture has been produced by an intense light, as by a lens of
large aperture, or as in the case of an exterior as contrasted with an interior
view of a building, or as on a dull, misty day in contrast with a bright and
sunny one, it will be found that, ceteris paribus, the tendency of the weaker
action of the light is to allow the reduction of the silver in the metallic form.
On the other hand, the more intense light has given to the molecules of the
sensitive film a controlling energy which they exercise on the deposit, and
which appears analogous to that of the light in the direct process, in its
modifying the reduction and giving it the form of a production of an argen-
tous compound; as though the iodic compound became in a certain sense
phosphorescent to the chemical rays of the light, and operated on the mixed
silver-salt and reducing agent as they float over it in the manner that the
direct light might be supposed to do.

Of course, the materials must be nicely balanced, as regards their tenden-
cies to produce the black or the grey images, for the peculiar action of an
intense or a weak light to be made fully evident. Albumen or powerful
organic agents will usually destroy this balance.

One fact remains to be observed. Whatever may have been the character
of the first particles deposited on the plate, that character will be maintained
thenceforward, and fresh deposits may be, so to say, piled upon the first by the
singular agglutinative tendency of crystalline deposits, so long as the neces-
sary conditions of fresh silver solution and of fresh stores of the reducing
agent be supplied to keep up the action.

Our task has been, by an investigation of the chemistry of the image in
its different varieties, to afford some data, at least, by which the further step

116 REPORT—1859.

may be hereafter taken of determining the precise character of the photo-
chemical agency, to whose marvellous influences art owes so many beautiful
results, and science is indebted for more than one intricate problem.

Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859. By Georce C.
Hynpman, President of the Belfast Natural History and Philoso-
phical Society.

Tue Committee appointed at the Meeting of the British Association at Leeds,
to proceed with the investigation of the Marine Zoology of the north and
north-east of Ireland, consisted of Mr. Patterson, Dr. Dickie, Dr. Wyville
Thomson, Mr. Waller, and Mr. Hyndman, who took measures to commence
their operations early in June, from which time till the end of August various
explorations were nade along the coast and in the sea adjacent, extending
from the south side of Belfast Bay (county Down) to the deep water north
of the Maidens on a line with Glenarm (county Antrim).

Those acquainted with dredging operations will understand the difficulties
and delays to which such work is liable, calms and storms equally interfering
with progress. At the first meeting on the 7th of June, the weather was too
fine to enable the party to reach the desired ground in due time; the few
specimens of living Brachiopoda then obtained were forwarded to Mr. Han-
cock, who has been engaged in the investigation of that tribe, but owing to
his absence from home the opportunity of seeing them alive was lost. Ona
second occasion, 22nd of June, the party engaged a steamer and succeeded
in reaching the chosen ground for dredging in the deep water off the Maiden
Islands, when a sudden storm arose, more violent than usual at that season,
which obliged them to cease work and make for the shelter of land with all
expedition, glad to save their ropes and dredges. A boat belonging to a ship
of war then in Belfast Bay was not so fortunate, being upset in the squall,
by whieh lamentable occurrence several men were drowned.

During the season the Committee were assisted by the co-operation of seve-
ral gentlemen who took an interest in their work. In August, J. Gwyn
Jeffreys, Esq., visited Belfast, and made one of a party for dredging off Larne,
where a fortnight was spent in examining the coast and deep water adjacent,
extending as far north as opposite to Glenarm. Mr. Jeffreys’ experience and
acuteness in discriminating species were of great service in adding to the lists
and correcting some previouserrors. During this period a steamer was again
engaged from Belfast, which enabled a number of gentlemen to join in the
labour and rendered good service.

It was originally contemplated to extend the investigation as far as Rath-
lin Island, but want of time and other circumstances prevented this from being
accomplished.

Very comprehensive lists having been already published in the Reports of
the British Association for 1857 and 1858, it is thought needless on the
present occasion to do more than record such additions as have been made,
with any further information that may be considered interesting regarding
some particular species.

List of Species referred to in the Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee
for 1859.

Philine quadrata, dead. In 80 fathoms off the Maidens.
Amphisphyra hyalina, dead. With the last.

BELFAST DREDGING COMMITTEE, 7,

Cylichna Lajonkaireana (Baster). From the Turbot-bank, dead ; determined by Mr. Jeffreys
in Mr. Hyndman’s cabinet.

Mangelia attenuata, dead. Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Waller.

reticulata, dead. A single specimen of this rare and beautiful shell was found by
Mr. Jeffreys in dredging from the deep water north of the Maidens. New to the
Irish list. It is a southern form.

— costata, var. coarctata, dead. Near the Turbot-bank.

Fusus Islandicus, var. gracilis (Alder), living. In 60 fathoms, about six miles from the

Gobbins.

Buccinum undatum, var. striatum, Pennant; living. With the last.

Cerithiopsis pulchella, dead. In Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Waller ; erroneously recorded in
the list of 1857 as Cerithium metula.

Trichotropis borealis, living. Turbot-bank.

Lamellaria perspicua, living. In 80 fathoms north of the Maidens. This is usually a sub-
littoral species.

Natica helicoides, dead. A single young specimen by Mr. Jeffreys.

Cerithium metula, of the list for 1857, was found by Mr. J. to be Cerithiopsis pulchella. In
dredged sand, Turbot-bank.

Euomphalus (Omologyra) nitidissimus (Skenea nitidissima), living on Zostera marina.
Shores of Larne Lough.

Skenea divisa, living. Off Larne, 1858, Mr. Hyndman.

— planorbis, living. A small variety occurs in Larne Lough, has a more convex spire,
and it appears to bear the same relation to the typical form that the Helix rupestris
of Continental authors does to our H. umbilicata, Mr. Jeffreys.

Jeffreysia Gulsone, dead. Turbot-bank sand. In Mr. Hyndman’s cabinet, determined by
Mr. Jeffreys.

Lacuna crassior, living. Coast of Antrim. Mr. Jeffreys observed that the shell has a
distinct canal or groove in the columella, evidently showing its generic position.
The animal, which he examined, settles the question. It is of a yellowish white
colour, having two subulate and slender tentacles, with the eyes placed’on short
peduncles at their external base ; proboscis long and narrow ; two rather long caudal
filaments, one on each side of the operculigerous lobe. The creature is active in its
habits, and seems fond of crawling out of water.

— labiosa, Lovén, dead. In Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

Littorina fabalis, living. Found by Mr. Jeffreys on the shore of Larne Lough, and considered
by him to be only a variety of L. littoralis.

— tenebrosa, living. In the same locality as the last, and considered only a variety of
L. rudis.

Scissurella crispata, dead. A fresh specimen taken in 80 fathoms, 5 or 6 miles north of the
Maidens.

Margarita costulata (Skenea), dead. In Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Waller.

Trochus Montagui, living. An exquisite scalariform variety found by Mr. Jeffreys and Mr.
Waller off the coast of Antrim; the animal does not differ from that of the usual
form.

striatus, dead. In Turbot-bank sand, Mr. Jeffreys.

Emarginula reticulata, living. In 80 fathoms north of the Maidens. Mr. Jeffreys found
the fry, which closely resembles a Scissurella, and has a regular Trochoidal spire,
with the edges of the slit inflected.

Propilidium ancyloide, living. On stones and shells in 70 to 80 fathoms. They were of
different sizes, the largest not exceeding one-eighth of an inch, and evidently adult.
The Patella ceca of Miiller, of which the authors of ‘British Mollusca’ supposed this
might be the young, appears to be a very different species, if indeed it belongs to the
same genus. (J. G. J.)

Patella athletica, living. Coast of Down, in Mr. Hyndman’s cabinet.

Chiton cancellatus, living. Not uncommon in deep water.

Hanleyi. A fine living specimen on a shell, and one on a stone in 80 fathoms.

Argiope Cistellula, living. On stones as well as shells in the deeper water.

Terebratula capsula, living. With the last.

—— caput-serpentis, living. Of large size in the deep water. Some specimens kept living
exhibited on the front margin a series of white filaments which appeared to protrude
from the tubes of the shells, and not to be retractile when touched.

Pecten opercularis. Mr. Jeffreys remarks that the young have a rhomboidal form, and the
lower or flat valve is much smaller than the other (which overlaps it), and is perfectly
smooth. The ribs do not at first appear on the larger valve, but are preceded by a
shagreened reticulation.

furtivus, alive. Taken in 1858 by Mr. Waller and Mr, Hyndman on both the Antrim

118 REPORT—1859.

and Down coasts along with P. striatus. It was again taken this year, and at once
distinguished by Mr. Jeffreys.

Pecten Danicus, dead. A single valve in 80 fathoms. In the former list, 1857, with a mark
as being doubtful. This proves Dr. Dickie to have been correct.

Modiola modiolus, living. A small variety, three inches in length, occurs in deep water.
The same at the Copelands. It is stated that specimens have been found on the West
coast of Scotland, seven or eight inches long.

—— phaseolina, living. With the last in deep water.

Astarte compressa, dead. A few valves of the smooth variety, found by Mr. Jeffreys in the
Turbot-bank sand.

Tellina pygmea, dead. Valves united; from the Turbot-bank sand, in Mr. Hyndman’s
cabinet.

Solecurtus candidus, dead. In the Turbot-bank sand.

Sphenia Binghami, dead. Not uncommon in pieces of rolled chalk, and among the roots of
Laminaria digitata by Mr. Grainger. Mr. Jeffreys doubts its having the power of
burrowing or excavating. See Mr. Jeffreys’ “ Gleanings” in the ‘ Annals of Natural
History ’ for Sept. 1859.

Mya truncata. A young living specimen was brought up by the dredge from 80 fathoms on
stony ground ; its usual habitat being low-water mark in mud.

Saxicava arctica, living. Not uncommon, moored in cavities or crevices of stones and shells.
Mr. Jeffreys considers it to be merely a variety of S. rugosa, differing in habitat. The
latter, when enclosed in stone, loses the sharp keel and teeth of S. arctica, and is more
rugged in appearance.

Pholadidea papyracea, living. At a depth of 80 fathoms North of the Maidens, in small pieces
of soft sandstone. The smaller specimens want the cup-shaped appendage, whether
the effect of insufficient space or immature growth.

An examination of these smaller specimens affords means of correcting an error in
the first list of 1857. The so-called Pholas striata, being identical with these, is
therefore to be expunged.

Cynthia limacina, living. On stones and shells from deep water.

Balanus tulipa alba (Hameri of Darwin) is not uncommon, living in the deep water.

Balanus ? Of another species, not yet determined, a single dead specimen was found
in 80 fathoms.

Spheenotrochus Wrightii. A few dead specimens were found in the Turbot-bank sand by
Mr. Hyndman in 1852, and subsequently by Mr. Waller. Dr. Perceval Wright, having
seen these specimens in Mr. Hyndman’s collections, received permission to hand them
over to Mr. Gosse, who has described and figured them in the ‘ Dublin Natural His-
tory Review’ for April 1859.

Sagartia coccinea. A sea anemone appearing to be this species is not unfrequent on stones
and shells from deep water.

Appendicularia flagellum. On the 7th of June, 1859, a bright calm day, this curious and
interesting animal was seen in great abundance floating through the water at the
northern entrance of Belfast Bay. It has not hitherto been recorded as Irish; but
has been fully described by Professor Huxley in the ‘ Microscopic Journal,’ vol. iv.

Sagitta bipunctata. Several specimens were taken in the towing net along with the former.
Dr. Wyville Thomson had discovered it a short time previously in Strangford Lough.
Not hitherto recorded as Irish ?. It has been described by Dr. Busk in the ‘ Micro-
scopic Journal,’ vol. iv.

Tlippolyte spinus. In the deep water off the Maidens: determined by Dr. Kinahan. A
Northern species, inhabiting the seas of Iceland and Greenland. New to the Irish list.

Acanthonotus testudo. Taken with the last.

A pleistocene bed of stratified gravel was observed on the side of the road
between Larne and Glenarm, and was examined by Mr. Jeffreys and Mr.
Hyndman. It was found to contain several species of shells, corresponding
with those from a bed at the Belfast Water Works, recorded in Portlock’s
Report on the Geology of Londonderry.

The following is a List of the species obtained, which will no doubt be
augmented on further investigation :—

Pholas crispata, fragments. Astarte elliptica. Natica clausa (nana Moller).
Tellina solidula. Mytilus edulis, fragments. Buccinumundulatum(Moller).
—— calcarea (Moller). Leda oblonga. Trophon clathratus.

Mactra subtruncata. Hypothyris psittacea. Mangelia turricula.

Astarte compressa, var. glo- Turritella polaris (Moller). | —— Pingelii (Méller).

bosa. Natica Montagui. Balanus tulipa alba.

ON STEAM NAVIGATION AT HULL. 119

of this number, about one-half are found living on the coast, the other half
belong to extinct species.

The existence of this bed of gravel with its fossils may hereafter serve to
throw some light on the question of the presence of so many northern forms
of shells on the Turbot Bank. As yet there is no evidence to forbid the con-
clusion that all such forms may be found alive in the sea not far distant. A
large proportion of those known to be living is found scattered very sparingly ;
whilst others, whose existence in the living state admits of no doubt, have not
yet been discovered in their haunts. Many species may be living close at
hand in situations where the rocky nature of the ground, and the strength of
the currents preclude the possibility of the dredge ever reaching them.

One interesting fact may be noticed connected with the distribution of
animal life ;—that there are several species, viz. three Nezras, two Astartes,
and some others, existing in the Clyde, immediately opposite the deep-sea
region north of the Maidens, where none of these species have been disco-
vered ; whilst in the latter locality, Argiope, Terebratula capsula, and Phola-
didea, with perhaps others, are found living and not known to exist in the
former locality. The region of the Clyde and that of the Maidens, though
separated by a narrow sea, exhibit well-marked and distinctive peculiarities
in their respective Faunas.

The Committee consider that their labours, under the liberal assistance of
the British Association, have now come to a close, but much yet remains to be
done to complete the List; still they hope that individuals may be found
willing to continue the investigations, so as to carry out the wish expressed
by Dr. Perceval Wright in his Report for 1858, that the results of the labours
of the several dredging Committees may in a short time be united to form a
complete Irish Marine Fauna.

Continuation of Report of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull.
By James Otpuan, Esgq., Hull, M1.C.E.

In continuation of my Report on the Progress of Steam Navigation as con-
nected with the Port of Hull, I have to observe that, during the last two
years, no very great change has taken place in the number of steamers,
although I shall have to state some interesting facts occurring during that
time. For generations past, Hull has been noted for its Greenland and
Davis Straits Fishery, and for many years this constituted the chief feature
of the port; and at one time upwards of sixty large ships were sent out with
crews varying from thirty to forty men each, and representing a capital of all
that concerned the trade of about £700,000 sterling. In 1818 Hull sent out
to the fishery sixty-three ships which brought home 5817 tons of oil, and in
1820 sixty ships were sent out and returned with 7782 tons of oil, exclusive
of whalebone. In this year (1820) the total number of ships at the fisheries
from England and Scotland amounted to 156, and the entire weight of oil
obtained was 18,725 tons, and of whalebone 902 tons.

Owing, however, to the introduction of coal-gas for the lighting of streets
and buildings, and large importations of oils for manufacturing purposes
from the Mediterranean and other places, together with the scareity and dif-
ficulty of taking the whales, fish-oil became in a great measure superseded,
and consequently the fishery nearly abandoned, and an enormous amount of
property, once of so much value, almost entirely lost. Within the last two or

120 REPORT— 1859.

three years, steam has been put into successful requisition to aid the daunt-
less and hardy mariner in the pursuit of this hazardous calling, and now we
have several screw steam-ships employed; and although some of them are
fitted with comparatively small power, they have proved to be possessed of
great advantage in the service, and in some instances satisfactorily to the
owners.

We have had two descriptions of steam-vessels employed in the fishery :-—
the first, the old wooden sailing ships which had been engaged in the service
for some years, but which were afterwards fitted with screw machinery and
auxiliary steam power ; the second, iron-built ordinary screw steam-vessels,
but which proved, I believe, almost a total failure; the material of which
they were built, and the want of strength for such a purpose, proving them
altogether unfit to contend with the severity of the climate and rough en-
counters with the burgs and fields of ice, some becoming total wrecks, while
others returned bruised and rent, and with difficulty were kept from sinking.
A question here arises, how far iron ships are calculated to bear the severe frosts
of high latitudes ? and whether wooden-built vessels, with all their defects,
are not the best adapted for encountering such a climate? The screw steam-
ship which was first sent from Hull or any other place to the fishery as an
experiment, was the ‘Diana,’ timber-built, 355 tons and 40 horse-power,
high pressure, the property of Messrs. Brown, Atkinson and Co., of Hull.

This vessel had been some time engaged in the fishery as a sailing ship;
but her spirited owners, thinking an important advantage could be gained, de-
termined upon the adoption of steam power, and at once had the ‘ Diana’ fitted
for the spring of 1857, by Messrs. C. and W. Earle, who put in the engines
and made the screw to lift out in case of need.

The experiment fully answering their expectations, Messrs. Brown, Atkinson
and Co. bought the ‘ Chase,’ a fine American-built ship of immense strength,
and of 558 tons. She was fitted by Messrs. Martin, Samuelson and Co.,
with condensing engines of 80 horse-power, and despatched to the fishery in
the early part of 1858, and with good results.

By the application of steam, ships in this service can now make a voyage,
first to Greenland, and afterwards to the Davis Straits.

In the commencement of this year several ordinary iron screw steamers
were despatched to Greenland, viz. the ‘Corkscrew,’ ‘ Gertrude,’ ‘ Emme-
line,’ and ‘Labuan ;’ the latter only of this class, which is the property of
Messrs. Bailey and Leetham, had any success, but in consequence of her
great strength and peculiar form, succeeded in a tolerable way ; the others
were much damaged, and, as I have already remarked, returned in bad con-
dition. The ‘Labuan’ is 584 tons burthen, and 80 horse-power.

The next point of interest connected with the steam-ships of the Port of
Hull refers to alterations made in some of the vessels. The ‘Emerald Isle,’
a paddle timber-built ship of 1835, the property of Messrs. Gee and Co., origi-
nally 135-8; long, was lengthened 35 feet, with a gain of 14 inches draught of
water, and an increased capacity for 100 tons dead weight. The ‘ Sultana,’
iron screw steam-ship of 1855, the property of the same house, originally
150 feet, was lengthened 30 feet, with a gain of 10 inches draught of water,
and an increased capacity of about 100 tons. It is interesting to observe
that in both cases we have no diminution of speed through the water, and
that both vessels are improved as sea-boats. Daily experience teaches the
advantage gained, in almost every point of view, by ships of great compara-
tive length.

The iron steam-ship ‘Lion’ of Hull, formerly a paddle-boat 249 feet
long, but now converted into a screw steamer by her owners, Messrs. Brown-

ON STEAM NAVIGATION AT HULL. Vor

low, Lumsden and Co., under the direction of Mr. Anderson their engineer,
exhibits the great advantage gained by the alteration. Her register tonnage
is 690, and the total tonnage 1014. She was formerly fitted with steeple
engines of 350 horse-power, and had four boilers, two before and two abaft
the engines; but these were substituted by direct action engines of 150
horse-power, and two of her old boilers replaced, and by this alteration a
clear length of hold in midships of 23 feet is gained. She required before
the conversion 650 tons of coals for a Petersburg voyage, and consumed 30
to 40 ewt. per hour, but now 350 tons for the voyage, and a consumption of
20 ewt. per hour. By the change of machinery about 130 tons of dead weight
is removed from the ship, and she is now able to carry 400 tons more cargo.
Her speed is also improved considerably ; for before the alteration, when
drawing on an average about 14 feet, the rate was 6} knots; but since the
change, when drawing even more water, they can steam 8 knots. Thus
throughout a saving almost in all the departments of the ship, and other ad.
vantages have been effected in this important change.

During the last two years many fine steam-ships have been built in Hull,
and others are in process of building for English and foreign service, by
Messrs. Brownlow, Lumsden and Co., Messrs. C. and W. Earle, and Messrs.
Martin, Samuelson and Co.

The last-named firm are making rapid progress in the building of two large
iron paddle steam-ships, for the Atlantic Royal Mail Steam Navigation Com-
pany, of the following dimensions, power, &c.:—

feet
Length between the perpendiculars........ 360
Bean; moulded. 2.22 .cccsecee sees ees OO
epee ee i: Bids neg tise orn As pete
Tonnage, builders’ measure.........--.+- 2860
Nominal horse-power ............ sean 800

These ships are to have three decks, and to be fitted fore and aft for pas-
sengers. Speed through the water 20 miles per hour. They will be of im-
mense strength, and their build and form such as to ensure their becoming
fine sea-boats.

Since the Meeting of the British Association at Dublin, considerable ad-
vance has been made in London and other ports in the application of super-
heated steam, and I believe with great success and satisfaction in the results.

Hull, however, is acting on the motto Festina lente, and before taking a de-
cided step in this important discovery, is anxious to see and adopt the best mode
of the application of the principle, being assured that, in every onward move-
ment, it is better to ‘‘ make no more haste than good speed.” Some attention
has been paid to the consumption of smoke in the furnaces of our steam-

122 REPORT—1859.

vessels, and with a considerable amount of success. I may here mention the
mode of Mr. Ralph Peacock, of New Holland, Hull, for which he has taken
out a patent; it consists, as shown by the plan (No. 1), of a double furnace-
door, the chamber or space between the inner and outer surfaces being 5 to
6 inches in width. The inner plate is perforated very full of small holes ;
and in the outer plate a revolving ventilator is inserted, which is on the
principle of that invented by Dr. Hale, to supply close places with fresh air.

The apparatus is in use on board the ‘ Helen Macgregor,’ one of Messrs.
Gee and Company’s large sea-going steam-ships, and has given very general
satisfaction ; for by the report of the Chief Engineer, Mr. M‘Andrew, a
saving of fuel is effected, and the steam better sustained. Another great ad-
vantage, as reported by the Master, Captain Knowles, derived from this in-
vention, is that in running before the wind, they are never now annoyed and
endangered by a dense cloud of smoke in the direction of the ship’s course,
which, particularly at night time, creates so much risk of collision. This ap-
paratus is also in use on board several other steamers, viz. the ‘ Yarborough’
and ‘Grimsby,’ belonging to the Anglo-French Company, the ‘ Alert’ of
Hull, and also a number of river steam-boats. ~

I have great pleasure also in noticing an improvement introduced on board
the ‘ Queen of Scotland,’ another ship belonging to Messrs. Gee and Co., for
the same object, by the Chief Engineer, Mr. Smith, and having furnaces of
ample capacity, answering the purpose in a most satisfactory manner. Mr.
Smith’s mode consists simply in keeping a few inches of the front ends of the
bars quite clear and clean from side to side of each furnace ; thus admitting
at the right place a sufficient amount of air. The report of the Master,
Captain Foster, is very satisfactory. I have witnessed also the effect of this
mode in the furnaces of stationary boilers with perfect results,

I have now to refer to the application of Silver's Marine Governor (see
Plan No. 2), as applied by Mr. John Hamilton of Glasgow. Several of these
ingenious and efficient instruments are now in use on board steam-ships in
the Port of Hull, giving the highest satisfaction. They are so sensitive in their
action, that the slightest pitching motion is at once indicated, and the steam
admitted or excluded as the case may be, By the use of this governor, the
full power of the engines is in immediate and constant requisition, producing
the effect of saving of time, saving of fuel, and preventing of accidents by
what is termed racing, and otherwise. The ordinary mode in the absence of
the governor, is for the engineer, in stormy weather and heavy seas, con-
tinually to stand at the throttle valves, or to save himself this trouble, to
throttle the engines, and thereby, when the full power of the engines is most
required, it is frequently reduced to one-half or less, and consequently there is
occasioned a loss of time on the voyage, and a risk of falling on to a lee shore.
The following is a brief statement of the tonnage, &c. of steam-vessels be-
longing to, or trading from, the Port of Hull at the present time :—

Ist. Sea-going steamers belonging to the Port, 22,290 tons register ; horse-
power, 5524.

2nd. River steamers belonging to the Port, 1050 tons register ; horse-
power, 450.

3rd. Sea-going steamers trading to Hull, but belonging to other ports; and
although many changes have taken place remaining much the same; as shown
in my last Report, viz. about 21,200 tons register ; horse-power, 5300.

4th. River steamers trading to Hull, but belonging to other places, 2450 °
tons register ; horse-power, 1200.

The number and tonnage of sea-going steam. vessels belonging to Hull have
increased since my last Report. The river steamers belongirg to the Port re-

ON STEAM NAVIGATION AT HULL. 123

main nearly the same ; this is also the case with sea-going and river boats be-
longing to other places, but trading to Hull.

ZHAN

Silver’s Patent Marine and Stationary Engine Governors. Constructed by
John Hamilton, Engineer, Glasgow.

The Engraving represents the Momentum Wheel Governor or “ Nautical Regulator,” as
it is usually placed in the Engine-room of a Steam-Ship. It consists of a momentum wheel,
A, fixed on the boss of a pinion, B, which works loosely on the spindle, C, and gears into the
two-toothed sectors, D D. These two sectors being supported on a crosshead, E, made fast
to and carried with the spindle, C, work in opposite directions on the pinion, B; and, as they
are linked by the rods, F F, to the sliding collar, G, which receives and works the forked
lever, H, communicate motion to the throttle valve. M Mare vanes, and N is a spiral spring,
both of which are adjustable.

The action of the above Instrument is as follows :—When the spindle of the Governor or
“Nautical Regulator ” is turned by the engine to which it is attached, the two-toothed sec-
tors, which are carried on the fixed crosshead, being geared into the pinion on the momentum
wheel, have the tendency to turn round on this pinion ; but as they are linked to the sliding
collar, they necessarily pull inwards this collar, and so compress the spiral spring; and this
spring, reacting on the collar, and consequently on the toothed sectors, serves to turn round
the momentum wheel, while the vanes on the momentum wheel balance the action of this
spring by the resistance the atmosphere offers to their progress through it. As the leverage
action of the toothed sectors upon the momentum wheel pinion increases, as the spring be-
comes distended, and vice versd, it will be seen that the reaction of the spring in propelling
the momentum wheel will at all times be uniform, and as much only is required as will carry
round the momentum wheel with its vanes at its proper speed, and overcome the friction of
working the throttle valve, and throttle valve connexions. When the momentum wheel is
in motion, it will rotate with the engine to which it is attached, at a velocity proportioned
to that at which it is fixed by the connecting gear; and while the engine from the usual
causes may attempt to vary this velocity, it cannot affect the momentum wheel, but leaves
it free to act upon the sliding collar, and consequently upon the throttle valve—at one time
closing the throttle valve by its action in resisting any increase of velocity, and at another
time opening the throttle valve by its action in resisting any decrease of velocity on the part
of the engine. It will now be evident that the power of such a Governor or Regulator must
be very great indeed, having for its agent amomentum wheel which may be increased to any
dimensions ; and from the powerful resisting tendency of such wheel, it necessarily follows
that its sensitiveness of action must also be very great, and in exact proportion to the
tendency of the engine to vary its speed; and the engine itself being the direct prime mover
of the throttle valve, it also follows that the inert power of the momentum wheel increases
its resistance exactly in proportion to the rapidity with which the engine varies its speed.
Hence a momentum wheel of 2 feet 8 inches diameter, and 2 inches periphery, running at a
speed of 180 revolutions per minute, is found to be sufficient to work with promptness and
ease the largest throttle valve, and to equal the power of several men. Unlike the ordinary
forms of Governors, it is entirely unaffected by changes of position, and therefore perfectly
adapted for Marine and Portable, as well as Stationary Steam-Engines.

124 REPORT—1859.

Mercantile Steam Transport Economy as affected by the Consumption
of Coals. By CuHarues ATHERTON, Chief Engineer, Royal Dock-
yard, Woolwich.

Pustic usefulness, as dependent upon science, being the great object for which
the “British Association for the Advancement of Science” was originated,
and has now been signally upheld for twenty-nine years, a period remarkable
for the progress that has been made in the utilization of the powers of nature,
to such an extent that the international condition of the globe is now being
revolutionized by the progressive practical utilization of elements which
heretofore were regarded merely as phenomena of nature, viz. Steam and
Electricity ; in which revolution the application of steam to the purposes of
navigation has played so conspicuous a part, that now, in proportion as
steam may be effectively employed in the pursuits of commerce and of war,
it is acknowledged that even nations will rise or fall ; seeing, moreover, that
at no period in the history of steam navigation has so great a step been made
in its practical development as has recently been realized by the fearless intro-
duction, in marine engineering, of the long known but neglected effects of
increased pressure, superheating, and expansion ; the recognition and appli-
cation of which principles have now, at length, been attended with such effect
in marine engineering, that the consumption of fuel with reference to power
is now known to be practically reducible to less than cne-half of the ordinary
consumption of coal on board ship ;—seeing also that mercantile enterprise,
setting no limit to speculative investment, has in these days emancipated
mechanical intellect from the restrictions by which ideas as respects magni-
tude have hitherto been bound ;—under such circumstances I cannot doubt
that any effort to popularise a knowledge of the practical utilization of
steam, with reference to the consumption of fuel, though advanced with no
pretensions to science, beyond that which may be awarded to originality and
labour in the application of calculations to develope useful results, will be
favourably received, more especially as the paper which I now beg to present
is in continuation and conclusion of an inquiry, which has already, in part,
on two occasions been favourably entertained by this Association, and
honoured with a place in its published records. The former papers to which
! allude are,—1st, “ Mercantile Steam Transport Economy, with reference to
Speed,” vol. for 1856, p. 423; 2nd, “Mercantile Steam Transport Economy,
with reference to the Magnitude of Ships, and their Proportions of Build,”
vol. for 1857, p. 112. And I now purpose to bring this inquiry to its con-
clusion by the following paper on—

Mercantile Steam Transport Economy, as affected by the Consumption of
Coals.—My purpose, and the drift of my remarks will probably be the more
readily understood by my at once adducing the following Tables C and D,
and the diagram E, in continuation of the Tables A and B, which are pub-
lished in the Volume of Reports for the year 1857, pp. 116 and 119,
observing with reference to these Tables C and D, that the rate of consump-
tion of coal on which the calculations are based, viz. 23 lbs. per indicated
horse-power per hour, has been practically realized on continuous sea service,
although the ordinary consumption of steam-ships in the Royal Navy, as well
as in the best vessels of the most celebrated steam-shipping companies, is, I
believe, at the present time fully 50 per cent. in excess of that amount; and
I may say, that in steam shipping generally, the consumption of coals per-
knot of distance, with respect to displacement and speed, is double the con-
sumption which these Tables, based as they are on an example of existing
practice, show to be now practically realizable.

ON MERCANTILE STEAM TRANSPORT ECONOMY. 125

The Tables now adduced are as follow :—

Taste C.—Calculated for the Speed of 10 knots per hour, and showing
the mutual relations of Displacement, Power, and the Consumption of Coal,
per Day, Hour, and Knot, the Coefficients of Dynamic performance, deduced
from the Formula Ee

nd. h. p.
of fuel at the rate of 23 lbs. per Ind. h. p. per hour.

, being assumed to be 250, and the consumption

ee ee

DIsPLACEMENT.

or els Per Hour. Le Knot.

at the unit 100,000
lbs. 1ft. per min.
Indicated H.P.taken
at the unit 33,000
Ibs. 1ft, per min.

=|
g
2
fe
ms
i
2
f

o
A

Tas_e C.
Calculated for the Speed of 10 knots per hour.

EPORT—1859

126

‘LL \ " BLT
8-87 3 LST H i
LP 8.F1 : . 0.64
€.88 i 8-81 9.84
®.9E L-61
P68 : Z.11 F 4
6-63 S.OT A i G.9S
$.96 16.6 1.67
L-¥Z . 19.8 6.90
€.43 10.8 StL . 8.60
.0Z : 68.4 SEI 6.68
9.81 i 19.9 O6T i V-S&
€.9T 18.9 901 €.1€
8ST 19.9 . GOL B.0E
6ST LP. ¢.86 6.62
9-FT | 998 16-9 6-76 L-82

Speeds of

ive
ynamic Performance

tof D

len

ions of Displacement, Power, and
ssumed to be 250, and the Con-

and per Knot, for the respect

10, 15, 20, and 25 Knots per Hour :—the Coeffic

= OFT | ge 90.9 LI6 0.12

= G.El | Lge $8.P G18 8.92
a) 821 | 12e £9.P 6.8 L-¥G
= @ZL | 908 WAZ €.64 G.8B
é. 9.11 | 062 8L-P BSL @.1%

a ee 6.01 | 842 ; 76.8 6.04 0.26
wehize G.0L | 492 ' OL 9.99 1.61
> 99.6 | 68 &P-8 i 8.19 P81
= 8.8 | 186 61-2 ; P-Lg 0-LT

$3.8 906 86.4 $.E9 8.9T
79.4 | Té6L GL.S +o ! 9.F1
00.2 SLT TS.2 G. P-EL
82.9 LST 5 16-3 8.07 L.21
99.9 | 68 : 0:3 T.98 : L010
"yg | 349 ; "4A “suo, “suo,

'youy Iq}‘mMoy id’ 8 ed H f | c a ‘yous Iq|‘moy Iq|*heq 19g

‘uoy, 10d

TOCA CAG Jo 4oaz

“s[eog *s[e0p F120) “s[eop

Juowmovydsiq,

Tasie D.—Showing the Mutual Relat

Coals consumed per Day, per Hour,

dIqnd gE qe ‘suOoy,

‘SJOUYL 92 "s]0US 0% ‘S]OUY ST *s}OUS, OL

sumption of Coals at the rate of 24 Ibs. per indicated horse-power per hour.

deduced from the Formula

ON MERCANTILE STEAM TRANSPORT ECONOMY. 127

Dracram E, showing approximately the Nautical Mileage Consumption of
Fuel, for vessels from “1000 tons displacement, up to 25,000 tons, rig

3
efficients of Dynamic Performance deduced from the Formula Ind. h. p.

being assumed to be 250, and the Consumption of Coals being assumed to
be at the rate of 24 Ibs. per Ind. h. p. per hour.

r Hy HH

|
23 ECHO te th
3 aC
de Hore Epa
B= SET Ar Amend
a al / as YK
g [| Vis7’

EEE eo

aaa ca

sarees BEES
HAA ly guile tT | |
Vy perl

ViPZaraR Se
WALL Saal
HE

9 10 11 12 13 14 165 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Z
AE PCC
Dishtadabhepsnhe TEEPE TT

5,000 10,000 16,000 20,000 25,000

Oat. a3 45 6 7-8

_With reference to the foregoing Table C, showing the mutual relations of
displacement, power, and the consumption of coals per day, per hour, and
per knot, for vessels of a gradation of sizes, from 250 tons displacement up to
25, Ot tons, the coefficient of dynamic performance, deduced from the formula
meh a being assumed tobe250, and the consumption of coals being assumed
to be at the rate of 23 lbs. per indicated h. p. per hour, on these data, the

128 REPORT—1859.

coefficient of dynamic economy with reference to coals deduced from the
3

formula

ewts.) becomes 11210.

It will be observed that in Table C the tabulated sizes of ships, as deter-
mined by their respective load displacements, increase progressively from
250 tons displacement up to 25,000 tons, showing under assumed conditions,
which, however, are justified by now realized advancement in ship and
engine construction, the mutual relations of displacement and coals cal-
culated for the speed of 10 knots per hour as most convenient for a standard
of reference. The intended practical use of this Table C is to facilitate
mercantile investigation into the dynamic merits of steam-ships as locomotive
implements of burden by comparing their actual consumption of fuel with the
calculated consumption of the ship of corresponding size and speed as recorded
in this tabulated standard of comparison, whence the constructive merit of
ships, as respects their working economy of fuel, on which the cost of freight
so much depends, may be relatively ascertained. For example, a certain ship
of 800 tons mean displacement attains the speed of 8°8 knots per hour, with
a consumption of coals certainly not exceeding 4°3 ecwt. per hour, or *49 ewt.
per nautical mile or knot; which (as the consumption of coals per knot varies
cateris paribus as the square of the speed) is equivalent to ‘63 ewt. per knot
at the speed of 10 knots per hour. Now by referring to Table C, we find
that on the assumed data therein referred to, the standard ship of 800 tons
displacement, steaming at 10 knots per hour, would consume °77 ewt. of coal
per knot. Hence, therefore, it appears that the ship referred to in this
instance is superior to the tabulated standard in the proportion of -77 to 63,
that is, in the proportion of 122 to 100, the superiority with reference to the
consumption of coals per knot being 22 per cent.

Again, a certain ship of 3500 tons mean sea displacement makes a voyage
at the average speed of 12°88 knots per hour, consuming 83 ewt. of coal per
hour, or 6°44 ewt. per knot, which, by the law of dynamics above quoted, is
equivalent to 3°88 cwt. per knot at the speed of 10 knots per hour; but by
referring to the Table of comparison C, we find that the standard ship of
3500 tons displacement, steaming at 10 knots per hour, would consume only
2:06 cwt. of coal per knot. Hence, therefore, it appears that the ship re-
ferred to in this instance is 7zferior to the tabulated standard ship in the pro-
portion of 2:06 to 3°88, that is, in the proportion of 53 to 100, the inferiority
with reference to the consumption of coals being 47 per cent.

Thus, by reference to this tabulated standard of comparison (C), we have
the means of readily deducing the exact per-centage by which ships,
respects the dynamic duty performed with reference to the consumption of
coals, differ from each other. I need not dwell on the importance of this
consideration as affecting the commercial value of ships for sale or charter.

With reference to Table D, showing the mutual relations of displacement,
power, and coals consumed per day, per hour, and per knot for the respective
speeds of 10, 15, 20, and 25 knots per hour, the object of this Table is to
show the extent to which the required engine-power, and the nautical mileage
consumption of coals are dependent on the rate of speed, thereby facilitating
the adaptation of ships as respects their size and power to the service that
may be required of them.

For example, by referring to Table D, we observe that a ship of 5000 tons ,
displacement, steaming at 10 knots per hour, requires 1170 indicated h. p.,
and consumes 2°61 ewt. of coal per knot; but to steam 15 knots per hour,
the same vessel would require 3947 ind. h. p., and the consumption of coals,

(w being the consumption of coals per hour expressed in

ON MERCANTILE STEAM TRANSPORT ECONOMY. 129

would be 5:87 ewt. per knot; hence it appears that to increase the speed
from 10 to 15 knots per hour, the power requires to be increased upwards
of three times, and the consumption of coals per knot is more than doubled.

Again, let it be supposed that the weight of the hull of a ship of 5000 tons
displacement fitted for sea amounts to 40 per cent. of the displacement, or
2000 tons, and suppose the weight of the engines and boilers to be one ton
for each 10 indicated h. p., the vessel requiring, as shown by Table D, 1170,
indicated h. p. to attain the speed of 10 knots per hour, with a consumption
of coals at the rate of 2°61 cwt. per knot; then on these data, the engines,
to attain the speed of 10 knots per hour, would weigh 117 tons, and the weight
of coals for a passage of, say 12,000 nautical miles, would be 12,000 x 261=
31,320 ewt., or 1566 tons weight, making together for hull, engines and
coals 2000+117+1566=3683, and consequently the displacement avail-
able for cargo would be 5000—3683=1317 tons weight. But if it be
purposed that the steaming speed shall be at the rate of 15 knots per hour,
the required power, as appears by Table D, will be 3947 ind. h. p., con-
sequently the weight of the engines will be 395 tons, and the maximum dis-
placement available for coals will be 5000—2395=2605 tons weight, or
52,100 ewt., which, at the tabulated rate of consumption, 5°87 cwt. per knot,
would be sufficient only for a passage of 8876 nautical miles, and this to the
utter exclusion of all goods cargo, showing that the ship is inadequate for
steaming 12,000 nautical miles at the required speed of 15 knots per hour,
though the same ship, if duly fitted with engine-power for steaming at 10
knots per hour, would perform the whole passage of 12,000 nautical miles
without re-coaling at any intermediate station, and carry 1317 tons of re-
munerating goods cargo.

These few examples will, it is hoped, sufficiently illustrate the application
and use of Tables C and D in facilitating mercantile inquiry into the capa-
bilities of steam-ships with reference to the all-important question of con-
sumption of coals; but in order still further to facilitate calculations on this
subject, the diagram E has been prepared, whence, simply by inspection, the
consumption of coals per knot, at any rate of speed, may be approximately
ascertained for vessels of improved modern construction up to 25,000 tons,
the data on which this diagram has been calculated being the same as that on
which Tables C and D are based.

The use and application of this Diagram E is evident ; it brings theTables
under ocular review, and generalizes their application. It is given as an
example of a system that admits of being more fully and elaborately deve-
loped for the purposes of mercantile tabular reference, as is now being done
for publication.

Having thus explained the use and application of Tables C and D and the
Diagram E, it will be perceived that the task which I have undertaken on this
occasion is to show palpably by comparison with these tabular statements, based
on data within the limits of already realized results, taken as a standard, what is
the relative character of steam-ships as respects their locomotive or dynamic
capabilities, with reference to the economic performance of mercantile trans-
portservice, so far as dependent on the consumption of fuel; thus affording
an exposition whereby parties interested in steam-shipping, either as owners
or directors, or agents, or as the charterers of shipping for government or for
private service, though unacquainted with the details of marine engineering
as a science, may be enabled to arrive at some definite appreciation of the
eapabilities that may be expected of steamers; that is, the weight of cargo
they will carry, and the length of passage capable of being performed at any
definite speed ; for, as before observed, the dead weight of cargo that a ship

1859. K

130 REPORT-~1859.

will carry is equal to the tons’ weight of water displaced between the light
and load water-lines of the ship, less the weight of coals and stores required for
the voyage, and which for long voyages commonly amount to four times the
weight of cargo chargeable as freight, and it constitutes the limitation of
distance which the ship is able to run under steam at a given speed. This
inquiry is therefore essential to a due appreciation of the economic conse-
quences which are involved in progressive variations of steam-ship speed,
especially as respects the high rates of speed, which are occasionally professed,
but which are seldom realized, simply because there has been no recognized
exposition, whereby such pretensions may be judged of with reference to the
required consumption of fuel. In short, regarding this matter as a public
cause, affecting as it does the pecuniary interest of the public to the extent
of millions sterling per annum, my object is to promulgate, through the
medium of the notoriety which every inquiry obtains upon its being brought
before the “British Association for the Advancement of Science,” a Mercan-
tile Steam-ship Expositor, by reference to which as a standard of comparison
the good or bad qualities of steam-shipping may be determined ; and this
surely is a public cause, for by the operation of the scrutiny which such a
system of comparative exposition may be expected to inaugurate and popu-
larize, steamers will soon become marketable, with reference, in great measure,
to their capabilities for economic transport service, at the speed that may be
required; under the influence of this scrutiny all bad types of form and
vicious adaptation of mechanical system will be eradicated ; incompetency
in steam-ship management will become gradually eliminated, and the mer-
cantile transport service of the country being then performed exclusively
by good, well-appointed, and well-managed ships, would be performed at
a minimum of cost to the shipping interests, and consequently to the best
advantage for the interests of the public. Hitherto the dynamic charac-
ter of steam-ships has been a mechanical problem enveloped in undefined
and even delusive terms of shipping and engineering art; consequently its
determination has not been based on any recognized principles of caleu-
lation. Hence the dynamical character of shipping has been a mystery —
a matter of mere assertion on the one hand, and of credulity on the other.
But mystery being unveiled, commercial vision will be opened, and compe-
tition, in shipping as in any other well-understood and open field of public
enterprise, will ensure the mercantile transport service of the country being
performed to the best advantage, and it will gradually establish and preserve
the just equilibrium of freight charges as between the carriers and consumers
of all sea-borne productions.

Report on the present state of Celestial Photography in England.
By WaRREN DE LA Rue, PA.D., F-R.S., Sec. R.A.S., §e,

In bringing before the Association the present Report it will be only neces-
sary, after referring briefly to the labours of others, to confine myself to an
account of my personal experience; for, although other observers have
occasionally made experiments in Celestial Photography, there has not been
any systematic pursuit of this branch of Astronomy in England, except in ~
my Observatory, and under my immediate superintendence in the Kew
Observatory.

ON CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND. 131

Part 1.

Historical Outline.

The late Professor Bond of Cambridge, in conjunction with Messrs.
Whipple and Black of Boston in the United States, was the first to make
a photographic picture of any celestial body. By placing a daguerreotype
plate in the focus of the great refractor of the Harvard Observatory, of
15 inches aperture, he obtained a daguerreotype of our satellite. This was,
I believe, about the year 1850, for 1 remember seeing one of these pictures
in the Exhibition of 1851, and some were exhibited at the meeting of the
Royal Astronomical Society in May 1851. The experiments were discon-
tinued after a time in consequence of irregularities in the going of the
clock-work driver, and were not resumed again till 1857, when new clock
machinery was attached to the telescope*.

At the latter end of 1852, I made some successful positive lunar photo-
graphs in from ten to thirty seconds on a collodion film, by means of an
equatorially mounted reflecting telescope of 13 inches aperture, and 10 feet
focal length, made in my workshop, the optical portion with my own hands ;
and I believe I was the first to use the then recently discovered collodion in
celestial photography}. In taking these early photographs, I was assisted
by my friend Mr. Thornthwaite, who was familiar with the employment of
that new medium}. At that period, I had not applied any mechanical
driving motion to the telescope, so that I was constrained to contrive some
other means of following the moon’s apparent motion ; this was accomplished
by hand; in the first instance, by keeping a lunar crater always on the wire
of the finder by means of the ordinary hand-gear of the telescope, but after-
wards by means of a sliding frame fixed in the eye-piece holder, the motion
of the slide being adjustable to suit the apparent motion of our satellite ; the
pictorial image of the moon could be seen through the collodion film, and could
be rendered immoveable in relation to the collodion plate, by causing one
of the craters to remain always in apparent contact with a broad wire
placed in the focus of a compound microscope, affixed at the back of the
little camera box, which held the plate. Although these photographs were
taken under the disadvantage referred to, namely, the want of an automatic
driving motion, excellent results were nevertheless obtained, which proved
how perfectly the hand may be made to obey the eye. I could not take
photographs of the moon in this way alone, but required always the aid
of an experienced coadjutor, willing to lose the greater portion of a night's
rest, often to be disappointed by failures resulting from the state of the
weather, and numberless impediments sufficient to damp the ardour of the
most enthusiastic. For some months Mr. Thornthwaite was so kind as to
continue his valuable aid, and several good positive pictures were obtained ;
but the difficulties we had to encounter were so great that it was at last resolved
to discontinue the experiments until such time as a driving motion could be
applied to the telescope. This was done early in 1857 §, since which period
I have unremittingly followed up the subject of celestial photography when-
ever my occupations and the state of the atmosphere have permitted me to

* Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 1105, p. 1.
+ These pictures were exhibited in the early part of 1853 at the Royal Astronomical
Society.
$ Mr. Archer applied the solution of gun cotton (collodion) to photography in 1851, and
suggested pyrogallic acid for developing the latent image.
§ Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc. vol. xviii. p. 16.
K 2

132 REPORT—1859,

do so. With what result, the Association will have an opportunity of judging
by the examples exhibited*.

Professor Phillips, aided by Mr. Bates, obtained some lunar photographs
in July 1853, and communicated the results of his experience in a valuable
paper at the Hull meeting of the Associationt. Mr Hartnup of Liverpool,
aided by Mr. J. A. Forrest, Mr. McInnes, Mr. Crooke, and other photo-
graphers, took some good pictures of the moon in 1854¢; Father Secchi, at
Rome, and more recently Mr. Fry, in Mr. Howell’s observatory at Brighton,
and Mr. Huggins, near London, have also produced lunar pictures : these
experiments were in all cases made with refracting telescopes, corrected for
the visual ray. Professor Bond, in April 1857, applied the process with
promise of a fruitful future, in measuring the distance and angle of position
of double stars§, and also in the determination of their magnitudes ; just pre-
vious to his decease, this new application of the art appears to have engaged
his attention more than lunar photography. He succeeded in obtaining pic-
tures of fixed stars down to the 6—7th magnitude.

The Photographic Picture compared with the Optical Image.

It will render what I shall hereafter have to say more easily understood
if I commence by bringing under notice what happens in applying photo-
graphy to sidereal astronomy. The optical image of a fixed star, it will be
remembered, is not a mathematical but an optical point, which, in conse-
quence of the properties of light, is seen with the telescope as a very minute
disc, surrounded by rings, which become fainter and wider apart as they
enlarge, these rings being always more or less broken up, according to the state
of the atmosphere. The photographic image must, therefore, be of a certain
size, but it is after all a mere speck, difficult to find among other specks
which are seen in the most perfect collodion film, when it is viewed with a
magnifying power. :

For example, let it be supposed that a telescope of sufficient aperture is
turned upon a Lyre; a star conveniently situated from its great meridional
altitude for photography, and moreover sufficiently brilliant to give a nearly
instantaneous picture: if the telescope be steadily supported at rest, the
star will, in consequence of the earth’s rotation, course along the field of the
telescope, in a line parallel to the earth’s equator, and, as it produces an
instantaneous picture, the image obtained is a streak, representing the path
of the star. We might be led to expect, a priori, that this line, for a short
distance, would appear straight; but, so far from this being the case, it is broken
up and distorted, and consists of a great number of undulating points,
crowded in some places, and scattered in others. This distortion arises
from the disturbances in our atmosphere which cause the star to flicker.

In the foregoing remarks, the telescope was supposed to be at rest; now

* The photographs exhibited at the Aberdeen Meeting were the following :—Two original
negatives which would bear considerable magnifying power ; two positive enlarged copies of
other negatives, eight inches in diameter, which would bear still further enlargement with
a lens of low power; twelve enlarged positives of the Moon in different phases, 34 inches
in diameter, among which were three, showing the progress of the lunar eclipse on February
27, 1858; enlarged positive copies of Jupiter, exhibiting his belts and satellites; lastly, a
photograph of Saturn and the Moon taken together at the recent occultation of that planet
just after the planet had emerged from the moon’s bright limb (May 8, 1859). The last-
named photograph was produced in 15 seconds ;—a remarkably rapid result for so faint an object
as Saturn. The planet on this occasion was seen to be of about the same brilliancy as the
Mare Crisium situated near the moon’s western limb, with which the planet could be readily,
compared, from its proximity to that lunar district.

T Report of Brit. Assoc. 1853, Trans. Sect. A, p. 14.

t Report of Brit. Assoc. 1854, Trans. Sect. B, p. 66.

§ Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 1105.

ON CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND. 133

let it be assumed that the telescope is mounted on an axis parallel with the
earth’s axis, and provided with a driving apparatus, capable of carrying the
telescope round in the direction of the star’s apparent path so equably, that,
if viewed with a micrometer eye-piece, the image of the star would remain
always in contact with one of the wires of the eye-piece. The photographic
picture of a star, obtained by a telescope under these conditions after some
seconds’ exposure, is not one single clear disc or point, but a conglomeration
of points, extending over a greater or less area, according as the atmosphere
has during the interval produced more or less flickering.

If a mere speck, like a fixed star, acquires comparatively large dimensions
on a sensitized plate in consequence of atmospheric disturbances, every
optical point in an image of other celestial objects must, from the same
cause, occupy a space of greater dimensions than it would if no disturbing
influences existed. When the telescope is employed optically, the mind can
make out the proper figure of the object, although its image dances before
the eye several times in a second, and is able to select for remembrance
only the states of most perfect definition; on the other hand, a photographic
plate registers all the disturbances. ‘The photographic picture will conse-
quently never be so perfect as the optical image with the same telescope,
until we can produce photographs of celestial objects instantaneously : we are
still a long way from this desirable end.

Relative Advantages of Reflecting and Refracting Telescopes for Photography.

With refracting telescopes, the photographie focus of a point of light
occupies a larger area than with reflectors; this is especially the case with
Astronomical Telescopes, because they are corrected so as to produce the best
optical image, and the outstanding chemical rays are dispersed around the
luminous focus*. The reflecting telescope has, therefore, considerable ad-
vantage over, the refracting telescope for celestial photography, on account
of all rays coming to focus in the same plane; hence, the focus having been
adjusted for the luminous image, it is correct for the chemical image,
and has not to be disturbed, as with a refractor. In the telescope employed
by Professor Phillips, of 6} inches aperture and 11 feet focal length, the
actinic focus was found to be 0°75 inch beyond the visual focus ; and in the
Liverpool Equatorial of 123 feet focal length the actinic focus was 0°8 inch
beyond the visual focus. With my telescope the focusing is critically
effected with the aid of a magnifier, the image being received on a piece of
ground glass placed temporarily in the actual slide destined to contain the
sensitized plate; a second piece of ground glass fixed in a frame is put into
the camera just previous to each operation, for the purpose of placing the
telescope in position; but the focusing is always effected in the manner de-
seribed, for the goodness of the picture depends greatly on the accuracy of
this adjustment. I attribute much of my success to the employment of a re-
flector, while my fellow-labourers in the same field have used refractors.

Actual Process employed at the Cranford Observatory.

With the view of facilitating the labours of others desirous of entering
the field of photography, I will now describe, with all necessary minuteness,
the process finally adopted alter many trials and failures; I would remark
at the same time that it is quite impossible to give such directions as will
enable another operator to ensure perfect results, as this can only be attained
by perseverance, long practice, and a strong determination to overcome
obstacle after obstacle as it arises,—therefore, no one need hope for

* Refracting telescopes can be specially corrected for the chemical focus in the same way
as Camera lenses.

134 REPORT—1859.

even moderate success if he dabbles in celestial photography in a desultory
manner, as with an amusement to be taken up and laid aside. .

In order to prosecute celestial photography successfully, there must be,
in close contiguity with the telescope, a Photographic Room, abundantly
supplied with both common and rain water. The water-taps should pro-
ject over a sink, so as to reach about a foot from the wall. The rain
water is conveniently kept in and filtered by an ordinary stone-ware filter.
The photographic room may be lighted generally by means of an ordinary
Argand reading lamp, over the shade of which hangs a lantern-like curtain
made of two thicknesses of deep-yellow calico; but the plate, during the
development of the picture, must be illuminated locally by a night-light before
which a yellow screen is placed. The photographic room should be furnished
with a stove, burning wood or charcoal, which will keep alight for a long
time, in order that its temperature may never fall much below 50° F. during
the winter.

In my earlier experiments, the positive process was invariably employed
on account of its greater rapidity; but so many details, visible by trans-
mitted light in a positive, are lost when it is afterwards viewed by reflected
light, that endeavours were made to render the negative process equally
rapid. After many trials, I succeeded in this; and I now never have
recourse to the positive process, except for some special object.

Glass used.—It is of course necessary to have the plate somewhat larger
than the object to be taken ; the size used when the telescope is employed as
a Newtonian is 22 inches by 34 inches. When the pictures are taken by
the direct method, the plates are circular, and 23 inches in diameter.
The outside diameter of the slide to contain the circular plate is 3} inches,
the exact size of the cell of the diagonal mirror, so that no more light is
stopped out by the plate-holder than by the smail mirror.

The glass used is the “extra white patent plate,” and I have it selected as
free from specks and bubbles as possible, but nevertheless I have frequently
to reject about one-third of those discs which are supplied to me.

Mode of Cleaning the Plate——The glass is cleaned in the ordinary way by
means of tripoli powder, mixed up with three parts of spirit of wine and one
of liquid ammonia, to the consistence of cream. For drying the plates I am
provided with two* cloths, which, in the first instance, have been carefully
washed with soda (avoiding the use of soap), and repeatedly rinsed in water.
Each time after being used, these cloths are thoroughly dried, but they need
not be washed for months together. For the final wiping of the plate a piece
of wash-leather is employed, also carefully dried before being used.

A piece of grit-stone, such as is used by mowers to sharpen scythes, must
be at hand, for the purpose of grinding the edges of the glass plate and
making scratches on the margin of the two surfaces, in order to cause the
more perfect adherence of the collodion,

The plate to be cleaned is placed on a sheet of cartridge paper, and rubbed
thoroughly, first on one side, then on the other, with a piece of mew cotton-
wool moistened with the tripoli mixture, above described. Itis then washed
in a stream of water, the fingers being used, if necessary, to aid in removing
the adhering tripoli. Holding the plate while still wet, and without touching
the surface, one edge after the other is rubbed on the grit-stone; the glass
imbeds itself in the friable stone, and thus the borders of the two surfaces
get scratched, and the edge is ground at the same time. After the four
edges have been so ground, or, if the plate be circular, the whole periphery -
has been rubbed, the hands, and plate are well washed, to remove all grit, and
the plate placed edgewise for a few seconds on a marble slab. With dry

* It is disadvantageous to employ more cloths than are absolutely necessary.

ON CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND. 135

hands, I take up the plate by the edge, being now very careful not to touch
the surface with the hand, and wipe it, first with one cloth, then thoroughly
dry with the second, and lastly, rub both surfaces at the same time with the
dry wash-leather. I afterwards breathe on each side of the plate, to ascertain
whether it is clean, wipe off the condensed moisture and place the plate in a
grooved box, with the best surface turned to face a marked end of the box,
so as to know on which side to pour the collodion. Proceeding in the above-
described manner, I have never any failure attributable to a dirty plate, and can
feel certain of obtaining four or five good pictures of the moon out of about
seven plates generally used. I am usually, however, provided with one or two
dozen cleaned plates, for it is desirable to have a sufficient reserve, and
experience has proved that plates so cleaned may be used even after a week,
if the box containing them be kept in a dry room.

The Bath.—It is of the utmost importance that the nitrate of silver bath
should be in the most sensitive condition ; the rapidity of the process appears
to depend in a great measure on its not being in the slightest degree acid,
but as nearly neutral as possible. It is almost needless to add that, for
such a refined application of photography as that under consideration, the
solution should be kept in glass in preference to gutta percha. The vessel
must be carefully covered, to exclude dust, and, from time to time, the
solution should be filtered through pure filtering paper (Swedish paper).
The nitrate of silver used in the preparation of the bath is invariably fused
in my own laboratory, in quantities never exceeding a drachm at one time,
the requisite heat being gradually applied, and care being taken not to raise
the temperature higher than is necessary to effect the fusion.

The solution I employ is the ordinary one of thirty grains of nitrate of
silver to the ounce of water, with a quarter of a grain of iodide of potassium.
In the preparation of a bath, after the mixing of the nitrate of silver, dissolved
in a small portion of the water, with the solution of iodide of potassium, it
is customary to add the remaining chief bulk of water, which causes
an immediate precipitation of iodide of silver, and then to filter the liquid
after the lapse of half an hour. It is, however, advisable to agitate the
solution from time to time, during several hours before it is filtered; for
unless this be done, the bath does not become thoroughly saturated with
iodide of silver, and has a tendency for some time to dissolve a portion of
the iodide of silver which first forms in collodion immersed in it.

I avoid adding alcohol or acetic acid to the bath, for these substances
impair its sensitiveness. As, after use for a certain time, the bath becomes
charged with more or less alcohol and ether, and their products of oxidation,
its properties become changed, and a picture cannot be taken with it with
sufficient rapidity ; when I find this to occur, I discard the bath and make a
fresh one. The bath, in its most sensitive state, usually exhibits a very
feeble alkaline reaction with reddened litmus paper, and if it be found to
have a tendency to fog, it is corrected in this way:—A single drop of pure
nitric acid is taken on the point of a glass rod, and mixed with a drachm of
distilled water; with this diluted acid (1 to 60) I moisten the point of the
glass rod and stir it about well in the bath, which contains about fourteen
fluid ounces of solution, and make atrial. If it still fogs, the acidification
is repeated ; and thus, after several trials, the fault is corrected. It is better
to proceed in this manner than to rely on litmus papers as a test for neu-
trality ; the object being to retain the bath in as sensitive a state as possible,
the test by light is the only one to be ultimately depended on.

Moist hydrated oxide of silver may be used to bring back a bath, which
has become acid by use, to a neutral state, and by the subsequent careful

136 REPORT—1859.

addition of dilute nitric acid it may be made to work ; but all additions of
acetate of soda, carbonate of soda, or acetic acid, are quite inefficacious for
correcting a bath that does not work satisfactorily. In order to obtain the
extreme point of sensitiveness, the best plan on the whole is to make a new
bath ; the silver being, as is well known, easily recoverable from its solutions
and in part, by evaporation and crystallization, as nitrate.

Collodion.—The condition of the collodion is also an all-important point,
and it appears to be very capricious in its properties. It is preferable not
to make the collodion oneself, but to use that prepared by makers of repute ;
I usually employ Thomas’s or Hardwich’s collodion, both of which I have
found to be very uniform in quality.

It is desirable to sensitize frequently new batches of collodion, and to
determine by experiment from time to time the gradual development and
decline of their sensitiveness.

Collodion should not be sensitized until after it has stood for, at least, a
week after it has been purchased, and it must then be carefully poured into
the mixing vessel without disturbing the sediment which always is present.
It must be agitated occasionally for some hours after mixing with the sensi-
tizer, before it is set aside to rest and deposit the new sediment which forms.
After standing for a week, it should be carefully decanted for use, to the
extent of three-fourths, into a perfectly clean glass vessel.

The glass mixing vessels should invariably, previous to use a second time,
be washed out, first with a mixture of equal parts of ether and alcohol, and
then with water and pieces of blotting-paper, well shaken up, so as to reduce
the paper to pulp; and finally, rinsed out with distilled water, and suspended
in a warm place, mouth downwards, to drain and dry thoroughly.

Iodide of cadmium appears, on the whole, to be the best sensitizer for
collodion to be used in celestial photography: collodion, prepared with this
salt, is not very active when first mixed; hence it differs from collodion
prepared with iodide of potassium and iodide of ammonium in this respect,
but it gradually acquires a degree of sensitiveness unsurpassed, if equalled,
by collodion rendered active with the latter salts, used either alone or mixed
with other salts. Collodion, mixed with iodide of potassium, acquires, it is
true, great sensitiveness soon after it is prepared, but in a few days it. loses
in this respect, is moreover continually changing, and is seldom available in
celestial photography after standing a month or six weeks; whereas cadmium
collodion will retain its qualities for several months. As fresh mixed collo-
dion is certain to produce both white and dark specks in the photograph, as
large or larger than the details visible in the picture with a magnifier, it will
be seen that a collodion which can be kept for a long time to deposit,
without losing in sensitiveness, must be the most valuable; moreover, in
collodion mixed with the alkaline iodides there is always an evolution of free
iodine which soon impairs the sensitiveness of the nitrate of silver bath by
rendering it acid; and for these reasons I generally give the preference to
cadmium collodion.

Sometimes collodion exhibits a reticulated structure after the photograph
has dried, which materially militates against the beauty of the picture, and
prevents its being highly magnified ; it occasionally happens that this defect
cannot be cured, in which case the collodion should be rejected. I have
generally found, however, that this “craping” may be obviated if the collodion
be diluted, more or less, with a mixture of two parts of ether and one part
of alcohol when it is being sensitized, care being taken to add as much of”
the solution of iodide in relation to the diluting liquids as would have to be
added to an equal volume of collodion.

ON CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND. 137

After using collodion for several evenings, it is well to allow it to stand
for some days, and to decant about three-fourths into a fresh vessel.

Before pouring the collodion on to the glass plate, the usual precaution
of cleaning away with the fingers any dried collodion from the lip of the
containing vessel must be attended to; moreover, each time, just in the act
of pouring, a few drops should be allowed to fall to waste on the floor; by
attention to these remarks, much vexation will be avoided.

Exposure of the Plate in the Telescope——On taking the plate from the
nitrate of silver bath, it is desirable to drain it well before it is put into the
slide, first on the edge of the bath, then on white blotting-paper, shifting its
position two or three times, but always keeping the same point downwards.
It must be carried to the telescope as quickly as possible, and the picture
developed immediately after it has been removed from it.

The sensitized plate rests on angles of pure silver, let into the square
plate-holder, or in the circular plate-holder within a ring of pure silver, the
face resting on three prominent places. I have found that contact with
wood is liable to produce stains which occasionally extend across the plate
during the development. The circular plate-holder is entirely of metal,
and I would recommend metal holders in preference to these of wood for
celestial photography, because they are not liable to warp and become set
from damp when left in the observatory. The plate-holder should be wiped
with a clean cloth after each operation, and the hands also washed each time
before a fresh plate is taken, on which it is intended to pour collodion.

In order to subject the sensitized plate to the action of light when the
telescope is used as a Newtonian, I remove a very light cover, previously
placed over the mouth of the telescope, and replace it when I wish to dis-
continue the action; this cover is made of black merino, stretched on a
whalebone hoop and is provided with a handle of bamboo. In the direct
method, I turn up or down, through an are of 90°, a little hinged trap,
interposed between the great mirror and the sensitive plate. This motion is
given by means of a lever fixed on a light axis, supported by the arm which
holds the small camera; the axis extending beyond the edge of the telescope
tube, and carrying a milled head by which it is turned.

Regulation of the Time of Exposure.— A journeyman-clock, beating seconds
distinctly, should be near the telescope, in order that the operator may be
enabled to regulate the time of exposure, which requires great nicety with
such sensitive chemicals as must be employed.

The time occupied in taking lunar pictures varies considerably ; it depends
on the sensitiveness of the chemicals, on the temperature, on the altitude of
the moon and her phase. An almost imperceptible mist in the atmosphere
will sometimes double the time of exposure, but, curiously enough, a bright
fleecy cloud passing over the moon scarcely stops any of the actinic rays.
I have recently produced an instantaneous picture of the full moon, and
usually get strong pictures of the moon in that phase in from one to five
seconds. The moon as a crescent, under like circumstances, would require
about 20 to 30 seconds, in order to obtain a picture of all the parts visible
towards the dark limb.

Development of the Picture.—Of all the developing mixtures tried, I give
the preference to the aceto-pyrogallic acid solution, which is generally used in
the ordinary proportions ; namely, pyrogallic acid, three grains; glacial acetic
acid, one fluid drachm;; distilled water, three fluid ounces; but, in cold weather,
I sometimes reduce the quantity of acetic acid to one half, to render the
solution more active. The developing fluid retains its properties for a week or
more after mixing. It is desirable to pour out the requisite quantity of fluid

138 REPORT—1859.

in a small vessel, and to place it in readiness, before the plate is removed from
the bath and put into the slide, so as to prevent any delay after the plate
has been exposed in the telescope. This precaution obviates the staining
which arises sometimes by partial drying of the film.

The addition of nitrate of silver to aid in bringing out the picture must
be avoided ; pictures thus intensified will not bear any magnifying power,
and are comparatively worthless. Hence it will be seen how all-important
it is to have the bath and collodion in their most sensitive condition. The
negative should not be developed too strongly, as such pictures never copy
so well as those moderately but distinctly brought out. Such small photo-
graphic pictures as those of Jupiter and Saturn present many obstacles to
their development, on account of the difficulty of discerning them during
the operation ; for the focal image of Jupiter in my telescope, even when
the planet is in opposition, is only about =th of an inch in diameter.

After the development of the picture to the desired point, the further
development is arrested by pouring a quantity of water on the plate, and a
vessel containing water should be at hand for this purpose. ‘

Fixing the Picture-—By preference I use hyposulphite of soda for fixing ;
after fixing, the plate is washed under the tap of a cistern of water for a short
time, and then examined with a lens. If worth retaining, the epoch of the
picture, and other particulars are recorded at the back with a writing dia-
mond. The plate is then washed again, front and back, in a stream of water,
and placed face upwards on a tripod stand, duly levelled; rain-water* is
poured on the collodion, and from time to time this is poured off and fresh
poured on, in the meantime other photographs are proceeded with. After
half an hour or more, the plate is thoroughly washed in a stream of rain-
water, and placed edgewise on blotting-paper against the wall, to drain and
dry.

a een next morning, the negatives are warmed before a fire,
and varnished with Scehnée’s varnish}, which is the only description I have
found to stand. I am careful to filter the varnish before using ; otherwise
specks might be transferred to the photograph. It is very desirable to var-
nish the plates as soon as they are dry, for, if left unvarnished for any
length of time, they can never be varnished evenly.

Desiderata in the Machinery for driving the Telescope.

As in the production of celestial photographs some seconds of exposure
are requisite, it is essential to have a clock-work driver to the telescope,
which works uniformly and smoothly, and which is also capable, when lunar
pictures are to be taken, of ready adjustment to the ever-varying lunar time.
Lunar time, it will be recollected, differs from sidereal time, in consequence
of the moon’s variable motion in her orbit in a direction opposite to that of
the apparent diurnal movement of the stars. A driving clock, if adjusted
to follow a star, must be retarded therefore, more or less, in order to follow
the moon. In my own telescope, this is at present effected by altering the
length of the conical pendulum or friction governor, thus altering the time
of its rotation (or double beat), and this plan, or some modification of it, is
universal. My experience, however, has pointed out several inconveniences
in thus changing the speed of the governor or pendulum,and it is myintention
to make such alterations in the construction of the clock as will enable me

* In preparing the bath and developing solutions, distilled water must be employed,
but filtered rain-water answers very well for washing the photographs.
+ Sold by Messrs, Gaudin, 26 Skinner Street, London.

ON CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND. 139

to alter the going of the telescope without changing the rate of the pendulum.
This I propose to do by substituting an arrangement, similar to that known
in mechanism as the dise and plate, for the wheel-work now connecting the
machinery of the clock with the pendulum ; the dise and plate being capable
of producing a variable motion, according as the disc is nearer to or farther
from the centre of the plate. The pendulum will, by the proposed plan, be
driven by frictional contact, and, having employed this system in other
machinery, I feel persuaded that its application to the clock-driver will not
be attended with difficulty or inconvenience.

The moon, besides her motion in right ascension, has also a motion in
declination, which is greatest when she is situated in one of the nodes formed
by the intersection of the plane of the moon’s orbit and the plane of the
earth’s equator, and is least when situated 90° from these nodes, where it
vanishes. As this motion is at times very considerable, it is evident that,
with a telescope made only to rotate round the polar axis, the best results
will be obtained, all other circumstances being alike, when the motion in
declination is at zero. Assuming that, on the average, 15 seconds are
necessary for taking a lunar photograph, the moon may have shifted upwards of
4!' of arc in declination during that period ; and evidently many details would
be lost and the others considerably distorted. In order to ensure the most
perfect results under all circumstances, it is desirable to give a movement to
the declination axis of the telescope simultaneously with the movement of
the polar axis. Hitherto, so far as I am aware, no means have been devised
to effect this, but the requisite adjustable motion might be transmitted by
means of the disc and plate above described, from the driving-clock, although
its pendulum moves with a uniform velocity.

Lord Rosse’s Method.—In my original method of taking the pictures by
means of the sliding eye-piece before spoken of, both motions in right
ascension and declination were provided for by adjusting the slide in the
diagonal parallel with the moon’s apparent path. Lord Rosse, at a subse-
quent period, applied a clock-movement to such a slide, and made some
experiments in celestial photography*; but, the telescope being required for
other special purposes, it appears that they were not long continued. This
motion of the plate-holder does not meet all the exigencies of the case, but
if one of his magnificent reflectors were arranged to move bodily along a
guide adjustable in the direction of the moon’s path, by means of some such
mechanism as I have alluded to, I believe that lunar pictures might be
produced of exquisite beauty, because defects in the collodion film and the
glass plate would be of less consequence than with telescopes of shorter
focal length, the image being larger in the ratio of focal length; for example,
even with the three-foot instrument it would be 3 inches in diameter.

Degree of Perfection hitherto attained in Lunar Photography.

In my own telescope, the picture of the moon is only about 1-;in. in dia-
meter ; it might be suggested that the image could be enlarged by means of
a combination of lenses before reaching the sensitized plate, but this would
have the effect of prolonging the time of exposure, and moreover introduce
the disadvantages of the refracting telescope, and the result would not be se
good, for even if the moon’s motion in declination were followed automa-
tically, still the outstanding atmospheric disturbances before alluded to would
remaint. Indeed, if the aperture of the telescope could be considerably
increased in relation to its focal length, much finer pictures would be
procured, because the time of exposure would be shortened. In practice it

* Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc. vol. xiv. p. 199.
+ Ibid. vol. xviii. p. 17.

140 REPORT—1859.

has been found preferable not to magnify the focal image, but to take enlarged
positive copies on glass direct from the original negative, by means of an
enlarging camera, and in this way the impressions, 8 inches in diameter,
exhibited at the Meeting were produced.

In making positive copies, some of the more minute details are, unfortu-
nately, always lost, for no means exist by which enlarged positive copies can
be produced showing all the treasures of the original negative; a perfect
enlarging lens being still a desideratum*. As an instance may be cited the
streak in the lunar disc, which Mr. James Nasmyth has called “ the railroad,”
indicated in Beer and Madler’s map as a straight line to the east of the
crater Thebit between latitude 19° and 23° south, and between longitude 7°
and 9° east. In the photograph it is shown to be a crack in the lunar crust
with an irregular outline, and the eastern edge is perceived to be depressed
below the western, which forms a perpendicular cliff. This, although sharply
defined in the negative, is frequently lost in positive copies. For the exami-
nation and micrometrical measurement of the minuter details which celestial
photography is capable of furnishing, recourse must still be had to the
original negative.

Notwithstanding the disturbances which arise from the atmosphere, minute
irregularities in the driving-clock, and the want of means for following the
moon’s motion in declination, I have obtained pictures of the moon that bear
examination with the three-inch object-glass of a compound microscope
magnifying about 16? times, and which show with good definition details
occupying a space less than two seconds in each dimension. Two seconds
are equal to about ;1,)th of an inch on the collodion plate in the focus of
my telescope, and in the finest photographs, details occupying less than 7 \y 9th
of an inch are discernible with the three-inch object-glass; hence much
valuable work has already been accomplished. A second on the lunar sur-
face at the moon’s mean distance being about one mile (1°149 mile), it will
be evident that selenological disturbances, extending over two or three miles,
would not escape detection, if such occur, provided photographs continue to
be taken for a sufficiently long period.

Lunar Phenomena recorded by Photography.

Full Moon.— Variations of apparent Diameter.—By the delineation of our
satellite, photography brings out palpably several phenomena which, although

well known, are not always present to the mind ; for example, about every
29 days it is stated that there is a full moon, but we see by the photographic
picture that there never is a full moon visible to us, except just before or just
* May 1860.—As these sheets are passing through the press, the author has been in-
formed by Mr. Dallmeyer (son-in-law of the late Mr. Andrew Ross) that he has brought
his investigations on this subject to a successful termination, and that he has just produced
enlarging and diminishing lenses which copy without any sensible distortion or dispersion.

ON CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND. 141

after a lunar eclipse, or at all events except when the sun, earth, and moon
are very nearly in the same plane; at all other periods of the full moon we
are unfavourably situated for seeing the whole of the illuminated hemisphere.
Moreover, the different apparent diameter of the moon at various times,
dependent on her distance from the earth, comes out in unmistakeable pro-
minence in a.collection of photographs ; for the pictures taken with my reflector
vary in diameter from one inch to one inch and nearly two-tenths (10053
inch to 1°1718 inch, being at the moon’s mean distance 1:0137 inch).

When positive enlarged copies are made, it is easy to obtain all the
pictures of exactly the same dimensions by the adjustment of the distance
of the negative to be copied from the lens of the camera ; and my enlarging
camera is furnished with screws to facilitate the adjustment of the distance
of the object to be copied, and also that of the focusing screen.

Libration—We are familiar with the terms “ diurnal libration,” and
libration in “ latitude” and “longitude,” yet it is difficult to realize the
great amount of disturbance in the aspect of the moon’s disc, and the
direction of the displacement from the mean position which these several
causes produce unless aided by photography, when we see them palpably
before us.

The diurnal or parallactic libration never exceeds 1° 1"5; the direction
of the displacement in the markings on the lunar disc which it produces is
variable, and is dependent partly on the position of the observer.

The poles of the moon at the epoch of Mean Libration are situated in the
periphery, and the equator and all parallels of latitude are straight lines ;
the circles of longitude being more or less open ellipses, varying from a
straight line in the centre to a circle at the periphery. This occurs when
our satellite is either in perigee or apogee (when the libration in longitude
is at a minimum), and she is also situated in one of the nodes of her orbit
(when the libration in latitude vanishes): the nodes, apsides, and moon
would, under these circumstances, be in the same line.

Libration in Longitude merely causes a change of place in the various
circles of longitude, which still continue to be more or less open ellipses ;
the parallels of latitude straight lines.

Those lunar craters, however, situated on the central meridian at the
epoch of mean libration would be ona straight line, but, at the periods of
maximum eastern or western libration, they would be seen arranged on a
semi-ellipse, whose conjugate diameter is 0°1377, the moon’s diameter being
unity. Therefore a point at the centre of the moon's equator becomes
shifted by the sum of the librations to the east and to the west to the extent

142 REPORT—1859.,

of more than }th of the moon’s diameter, namely 0-0688 to the east, and the
same quantity to the west of the mean position. On account of perspective,
the effect of libration in longitude is much less apparent on the eastern and
western peripheral meridians, which shift towards the centre by a quantity
equal only to z4,th of the moon’s diameter (0:0048).

The equator and its parallels, which at the period of mean Libration in
Latitude were straight lines, become more or less open ellipses under other
circumstances; the ratio between the conjugate and transverse axes of all
the parallels being constant for a given inclination of the lunar axis. At
a maximum libration in latitude the equatur becomes an ellipse, whose con-
jugate axis is 0°1181; the transverse axis being equal to the diameter of the
moon considered as unity: so that a point in the centre of the equator is
shifted 0°059 of the diameter to the north or to the south by a maximum
northern or southern libration, and will move by the sum of these librations
to an apparent extent of §th of the diameter of the lunar disc. The apparent
motion of the north and south poles towards the centre is on account of

perspective only x4,th of the diameter (0:0035).

Libration in latitude also causes a change in the ellipses which delineate
the meridians, causing an inclination of their axes to the line joining the
poles, and also a change in the ratios of their transverse to their conjugate
axes. For example, the meridian distant 7° 55! from the centre (this being
the position of central meridian at a maximum libration in longitude) would
have its transverse axis inclined 0° 56'3 to the pole, the conjugate axis being
no longer 0°1377 but 0°1368 of the transverse. The peripheral meridians

ON CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND. 143

would no longer be semi-circles, but semi-ellipses, whose conjugate diameter
is equal to 09965, and whose transverse diameter is inclined 90° to the pole.

Stereoscopic Pictures of the Moon.—Taking advantage of the libration, we
may, by combining two views taken at sufficiently distant periods, produce
stereoscopic pictures which present to the eyes the moon as a sphere. It
_ has been remarked by the Astronomer Royal, that such a result is an experi-
mental proof of the rotundity of our satellite. A dispute has been going on
between photographers as to the proper angle for taking terrestrial stereo-
scopic pictures, and I infer that one side of the disputants would consider my
arrangement of moon-pictures to produce stereographs unnatural, because
under no circumstances could the moon itself be so seen by human eyes;
but, to use Sir John Herschel’s words, the view is such as would be seen by
a giant with eyes thousands of miles apart: after all, the stereoscope affords
such a view as we should get if we possessed a perfect model of the moon
and placed it at a suitable distance from the eyes, and we may be well
satisfied to possess such means of extending our knowledge respecting the
moon, by thus availing ourselves of the giant eyes of science.

It does not follow as a matter of course that any two pictures of the moon
taken under different conditions of libration will make a true stereoscopic
picture ; so far from this being the case, a most distorted image would result,
unless attention be paid first to the selection of the lunar pictures, and then
to their position on the stereoscopic slide. It is possible to determine before-
hand, by calculation, the epochs at which the two photographs must be taken
in order to produce a stereoscopic picture ; but so many circumstances stand
in the way of celestial photography, that the better course is to take the
lunar photographs on every favourable occasion, and afterwards to group
such pictures as are known to be suitable.

A little consideration of what has been before stated will show that two
lunar pictures, differing only by libration, either in longitude or in latitude,
will give a true stereoscopic effect, provided the angular shifting is suffi-
ciently great.

On the other hand, if the two pictures differ both by libration in latitude
and in longitude, they will give a true stereoscopic picture provided they
satisfy the following condition. Suppose a point in the centre of the equator,
when the moon is in a mean state of libration, has become shifted at the
epoch of picture A in any given direction, and let an imaginary line pass
through that point and the centre of the lunar disc, if at the epoch of picture
B the point lies anywhere in the direction of that line, then a true stereo-
graph will be obtained, provided the two pictures be suitably placed in the
stereoscope.

144 REPORT—1859.

Assuming the space between the eyes to be 27 inches, and the nearest
distance for distinct vision to be about 10 inches, we find 15° 48! as the
maximum stereoscopic angle. The possible shifting of the position of an
object on the lunar disc from east to west by libration in longitude may
amount to 15° 50', which is almost identical with the assumed maximum
stereoscopic angle, and the displacement from north to south, by libration in
latitude, never exceeds 13° 34, which falls within that angle. By the joint

effect of a maximum libration in longitude and latitude, a point on the lunar
surface may, however, be shifted nearly 21°, which is greater than that under
which an object could be viewed by the eyes.

* The centres of these diagrams should be 23 inches distant to give a stereoscopic picture.

ON CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND. 145

An exaggerated protuberance of the central portion of the moon might
result from the combination of two pictures obtained, at two epochs of
maxima, in directions diagonally opposite, and the moon would appear some-
what egg-shaped. We may convince ourselves that this would be the case,
by viewing, in the stereoscope, two suitably drawn orthographic projections
of the lines of longitude and latitude of the sphere, especially if we purposely
exaggerate the angle still more; for example, if we make the libration in
latitude the double of what it is in reality.

At the meeting at Leeds last year, there were exhibited some of my stereo-
scopic lunar pictures 8 inches in diameter, and an apparatus constructed
expressly for viewing them. The instrument is of similar construction to
Wheatstone’s reflecting stereoscope ; but, the objects being transparent, the
usual arrangements and adjustments are considerably modified. Prisms with
slight curvatures worked on their surfaces are employed, instead of mirrors,
for combining the pictures which can be revolved and moved horizontally
and vertically in order to place them in the true position. The effect of
rotundity is perfect over the whole surface ; and parts which appear like
plane surfaces in a single photograph, in the stereoscope, present the most re-
markable undulations and irregularities.

Light and Shade in the Photograph as compared with that of the Optical
Image.—Portions of the moon, equally bright optically, are by no means
equally bright chemically ; hence the light and shade in the photograph do
not correspond in all cases with the light and shade in the optical picture.
Photography thus frequently renders details visible which escape observa-
tion optically, and it therefore holds out a promise of a fertile future in sele-
nological researches ; for instance, strata of different composition evidently
reflect the chemical rays to a greater or less extent according to their nature,
and may be thus distinguished}. The lunar surface very near the dark limb
is copied photographically with great difficulty, and it sometimes requires an
exposure five or six times as long, to bring out completely those portions
illuminated by a very oblique ray, as others, apparently not brighter, but
more favourably illuminated :—the high ground in the Southern hemisphere
of the moon is more easily copied than the low ground, usually called seas,
which abound in the Northern hemisphere: from these circumstances I
ventured, in another placet, to suggest that the moon may have an atmo-

_* These diagrams should be 23 inches from centre to centre to give a stereoscopic
icture.

, + Professor Phillips has also noticed this difference between the visual] and actinic

brightness of portions of the lunar surface. Report of the Brit. Ass., 1853, Section A. p. 16.
{ Monthly Notices Roy. Ast. Soc. vol. xviii. pp. 18 and 111.

1859. L

146 REPORT— 1859.

sphere of great density, but of very small extent, and that the so-called seas
might be covered with vegetation. ‘This idea respecting a lunar atmosphere
has, I am inclined to believe, received some confirmation from a recent
observation of Father Secchi’s, that the lunar surface polarizes light most
in the great lowlands and in the bottoms of the craters, and not appreciably
on the summits of the mountains.

Radiating Lines in the Moon’s Disc.—The mountain peak in the centre
of Tycho, about one mile in height, is very distinct in the photographs,
and under favourable circumstances the details in the interior of the crater
are well shown. The external slopes under all illuminations are darker in the
photograph than the internal walls and the bottom of the crater. Tycho
would appear to have been the focus of a wonderful disturbing force which
broke up the moon’s crust nearly over the whole visible surface, for radiating
lines converge in that conspicuous volcano, like so many circles of longitude,
and cannot fail to attract attention. Several theories have been suggested to
account for these radiating lines; by studying a series of photographs taken
under different conditions of illumination one becomes convinced that they
are due to furrows in the lunar surface*. They are in some cases overlaid
by craters which must have been formed at a subsequent period; and in
other eases the furrow has dislocated the crater, which must therefore
have previously existed.

One very remarkable Furrow fully fifty miles broad, extending from Tycho
over 45° of latitude in a north-easterly direction, is the deepest on the lunar
surface. The eastern ridge of this furrow skirts Mount Heinsius, and the
western ridge extends to Balliald and Euclides, where the furrow becomes
very shallow, but is traceable as far as Kepler.

Another conspicuous furrow runs from Tycho in a north-westerly direc-
tion nearly up to the northern limb of the moon, and extends over 100° of
latitude, passing through Menelaus and Bessel in the Mare Serenitatis through
a crater (marked E in Beer and Madler’s map) at the head of a pro-
montory running into the Lacus Somniorum, when it is crossed by another
furrow extending tangentially to the Apennines. The intersection of these
streaks resembles the letter X, and indicates another focus of disturbance
near the crater E in north latitude 35° and west longitude 24°. The main
furrow from Tycho continues on through the crater Plana, leaving Burg
untouched on the east, and terminates to the south of Strabo in north lati-
tude 60° and west longitude 45°.

A furrow best seen about the full moon or a little after, extends from
Tycho, though not quite continuously, through the Mare Nectares, traver-
sing the crater A on the west of the crater Theophilus ; sweeping in a curve
eastward, it leaves Tarantius on the west, and crosses the bright crater
Proclus, forming an eastern tangent to Berzelius. Leaving Endymion
to the south-east, it forms the southern boundary of the Mare Humboldti-
anum in north latitude 70° and west longitude 90°, having traversed 110
degrees of latitude.

A remarkable focus of dislocation exists in the Mare Fcecunditatis in lati-
tude 16° south and longitude 50° west, which also, by the crossing of the
lines of disturbance, looks like another letter X in the photograph.

The radiating lines of dislocation are so numerous that it would be
impossible, within reasonable limits, to describe any but the principal ones ;
I should state, however, that they must not be confounded with the sinuous
lines which radiate from Copernicus and other lunar craters, and which are ©
markedly different in character and origin.

* Monthly Notices Roy. Ast. Soc. vol. xviii. p.111.

ON CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND. 147

Value of Photography in the Production of Selenographical Charts.

Pictures of Copernicus may be cited as an example of the aid photography
would afford in mapping the lunar surface: this becomes especially apparent
when an original negative is examined with a compound microscope. The
details brought out in and around this crater in a fine negative by a three-inch
object-glass are quite overwhelming from their number and variety. Not only
the elaborate network of sinuous radiating lines on the exterior of Copernicus,
but also the terraces in the internal walls of that wonderful volcano, the double
central cone, the curvature of the sole of the crater, and its polygonal form,
all appear in vigorous outline.

Again, photographs of the Apennine ridge, under different illuminations,
are among the most beautiful of the results of the application of the art to
selenography ; it renders conspicuously evident many details of tint and form
in that extensive ridge, which would escape the most careful scrutiny of the
visual picture unless attention was previously directed to them by the pho-
tograph. Unaided by photography, it would indeed be almost hopeless to
attempt a correct representation of that wonderful chain of mountains, affected
as its form is, on account of its vast extent, by libration, and also on account
of the changes in the shadows occasioned by the varying direction of the
illumination. Aided by my collection of pictures, I hope to be able to acquit
myself in a creditable manner of the trust I have accepted, and to contribute
that quota of the lunar surface allotted to me by the British Association.

If, at a future period, the entire lunar surface is to be again mapped down,
photography must play an all-important part, for, as Messrs. Beer and Madler
remarked in their invaluable work on the moon, it is quite impossible to com-
plete even a tolerably satisfactory representation of our satellite in those rare
and short moments when the mean libration occurs. One is therefore obliged
to observe the moon under many different conditions of libration, and to
reduce each measurement and sketch to the mean before the mapping can
be proceeded with; for not only the position, but also the shape of the
objects is altered by libration even from one evening to another. On the
other hand, with photography at command, we may obtain in a few seconds
pictures of the moon at the epochs of mean libration, and accumulate as
readily a great number of records at other times. The latter would furnish,
after reduction to the mean, a vast number of normal positions with which
the more minute details to be seen with the telescope might be combined.

By means of a microscope, with a camera-lucida prism fixed on the eye-
piece, enlarged drawings are readily made of different dimensions by varying
the magnifying power and the distance of the paper from the eye-piece ;_ with
a normal magnifying power of seventeen times linear, drawings of lunar
craters can be conveniently made of the exact scale used by Beer and Madler
for the large edition of their maps, by simply placing the drawing paper at
the proper distance. These drawings may then be rendered more complete
from time to time by filling in the minuter details by actual observation,
and in this way materials accumulated for a selenographical chart such as
even the skill and perseverance of a Madler could not hope to accomplish.

Photography of the Planets.

Occasionally I take photographs of the fixed stars, and among others have
made pictures of the double star Castor, but, as a general rule, I leave the
fixed stars under the able custody of the Harvard Observatory, Cambridge,

U.S., and devote my attention chiefly to the moon, making, however, from
L2

148 REPORT—1859.

time to time, photographs of the planets under the rare circumstance of a
quiescent state of the atmosphere.

In photographing the planets, it is sometimes advantageous to take several
pictures on the same plate; this can be conveniently done with my tele-
scope, because the driving clock is connected with the telescope by means of
a peculiar spring clutch formed of two face-ratchet-wheels. When one
picture has been taken, the image is shut off, and the ratchet disconnected,
so that the telescope remains at rest, the clock continuing to go. During
the interval of rest, which interval is conveniently regulated by the passage
of a certain number of teeth of the moving half of the clutch, the planet will
have moved through a short distance in its diurnal are; and when the clock has
been again thrown into gear, the image will fall on another part of the plate.
In this way, four or five images of a planet, for example Jupiter, may be
obtained in a very short time. These images are arranged at equal distances
along an are of right ascension, and afford a ready means of determining
the angle of position of the belts, &c., as was proposed by the late Professor
Bond with respect to the angle of position of double stars.

Relation of Actinie Power to Luminosity.—I have alluded before to the
difference in the optical and photographic picture of the moon ; another very
remarkable result of photography is the great difference which has been
proved to exist in the relation of actinic power to luminosity of the various
celestial objects. For example, the occultation of Jupiter by the moon, on
November 8th, 1856, afforded an excellent opportunity for comparing the
relative brightness of our satellite and that planet. On that occasion, Jupiter
appeared of a pale greenish tinge, not brighter than the crater Plato, and,
according to my estimate, of about one-third the general brillianey of the
moon; but the actinic power of Jupiter’s light was subsequently found to
be equal to fully four-sixths or five-sixths of that of the moon*.

Saturn required twelve times as long as Jupiter to produce a photograph
of equal intensity on an occasion specially favourable for making the experi-
ment; yet I obtained a picture of Saturn together with that of the moon in
15 seconds on May the 8th of the present year, just as the planet emerged
from behind the moon’s disc. The picture of the planet, although faint, is
sufficiently distinct to bear enlarging.

With two pictures of the moon and a planet (or a bright fixed star) taken
at a short interval at the period of an occultation, or near approach of a
planet or star by the moon, we may obtain a stereoscopic picture which
would make the moon (seen, of course, as a flat dise) appear nearer than
the planet or star.

Stereoscopic Pictures of the larger Planets——Photographs of the planet
Jupiter, although far inferior hitherto to the optical image seen with an eye-
piece, show the configuration of the belts sufficiently well to afford us the
means of producing stereoscopic pictures; all' that is necessary is to allow
an interval to elapse between the taking of the two pictures, so as to profit
by the rotation of that planet on its axis. In the space of 26 minutes the
planet will have rotated through the 15° 48! necessary to produce the
greatest stereoscopic effect.

Mars would, in 69 minutes, have rotated through the same angle, and, as
his markings are very, distinct, we may hope to obtain stereoscopic views of
that planet. ‘ee-

The markings on the other planets are too faint to hold out a promise of
similar results. Although this is the case with respect to Saturn, the ap-

* Monthly Notices Roy. Ast. Soc. vol. xviii. p. 55.

ON CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND. 149

parent opening and closing of his ring as he revolves round his orbit affords us
the means of obtaining a stereoscopic picture. Thus photographic reductions
of the two original drawings which I made in November 1852 and March
1856 placed in the stereoscope (in such a manner that the major axes of the
rings”are at right angles to the line joining the eyes) give a picture in which
the planet appears as a spheroid encircled by his system of rings, although
the difference of position of the two pictures amounts only to7°. And there
is no reason why we may not obtain a stereoscopic picture composed of
photographs taken actually from the planet.

Loss of the Actinic Rays by Reflection.

Until very lately, my celestial photographs were obtained by placing the
sensitized plate at the side of the tube, opposite to the diagonal reflector of
the Newtonian telescope; hence the light, before it reached the plate, was
twice reflected. As it requires a very firm support for the diagonal specu-
lum, of even a 13-inch mirror, to prevent vibration, the arm carrying this
mirror was firmly screwed to the side of the telescope-tube, and rendered im-
moveable ; I could not therefore make experiments intaking the pictures direct,
that is to say, with the light only once reflected, without some alteration to
the diagonal holder. I have, however, within the last few months, contrived
an apparatus which permits of the ready removal and replacement of the
diagonal mirror without impairing its stability, and celestial pictures are now
taken at will, either direct or reflected out at the side of the tube; more-
over it requires but a minute to change the apparatus to produce either
result. With these means, I am able to make experiments to determine the
relative actinic intensity of the light after one or two reflections. The ex-
periments are still in progress, and have been begun so recently, that it is
scarcely advisable to hazard a conjecture as to the result; but I may say
that I am disappointed as to the increased rapidity of the production of
a celestial picture by the direct method over the twice-reflection method ;
and I am inclined to infer that Steinheil’s result as to the loss by reflection
from speculum metal of the luminous ray does not hold as regards the
actinic ray. 2

In concluding the first part of this report, I would remark that to photo-
graph the moon continuously is a laborious undertaking, and affords full
occupation for one observer, who must not fail to pay unremitting attention
to the condition of the various chemicals employed, so as to be always pre-
pared for a fine night with such as will work. 1 would therefore strongly
urge the claims of this new branch of astronomical science to a more ex-
tended cultivation than it has hitherto received, with the conviction that it
will require the ardent co-operation of many astronomers to develope fully
its rich resources.

Part I].—Photoheliography at the Kew Observatory.

The Photoheliograph erected at the suggestion of Sir John Herschel*
at the Kew Observatory has already been described in the Reports of the
Kew Committee, 1856-57+ and 18584, and in the Report for the present -

ear.

It will not, however, be out of place to give some account of the instru-
ment as at present actually in use, for, whilst part of the apparatus originally

* Report Brit. Assoc, 1854, p. xxxiv. + Id. 1857, p. xxxiv. + Id. 1858, p. xxxiv,

150 REPORT—1859.

provided has been found unnecessary, it has been deemed desirable to make
some additions to the instrument from time to time. 7

The object-glass of the photoheliograph, it will be remembered, is of 3745
inches clear aperture and 50 inches focal length, but the whole aperture is
never used; it is always diminished more or less, and generally to about
2 inches, by a stop placed in front of the object-glass. The focal image of
the sun at the mean distance is 0°466 inch. The focal image is not, how-
ever, received directly on the sensitive plate, as in the case of taking lunar
and planetary photographs, but is enlarged before it reaches it by means of
a secondary combination of lenses (an ordinary Huyghenian eye-piece), which
increases the picture to about 4 inches in diameter, thus magnifying the image
about eight times linear, and diminishing the intensity of the light 64 times.

The object-glass (made by the late Mr. Ross) is specially corrected tu en-
sure the coincidence of the visual and chemical foci; but, as might be anti-
cipated, the rays, after passing through the secondary lens, are in some degree
dispersed, and this coincidence of foci no longer exists. It required some
considerable time to determine exactly the position of the actinic focus ;
ultimately it was proved, after numerous trials, that the best photographic
definition is obtained when the sensitized plate is placed from {th to ith of
an inch beyond the visual focus, and that this adjustment must be modified
to a slight extent according as more or less of the aperture of the object-glass
is employed.

Difficulties of Photoheliography.—Whilst in lunar and stellar photography
many of the obstacles to be overcome arose from the deficiency of photo-
graphic power in the unenlarged focal images of those celestial objects, the
difficulties which have stood in the way of producing good sun-pictures arose
in a great degree from the incomparably greater brilliancy in the sun’s image,
even when its intensity was considerably lessened by stopping off a large por-
tion of the object-glass, and magnifying the diameter of the image very
greatly. In order to overcome these obstacles, recourse was had at an early
period to the less sensitive media than wet collodion, such, for example, as are
used in the albumen and the dry collodion processes. None of these attempts
were, however, productive of sufficiently promising results to encourage the
pursuit of the trials in this direction, and I may mention that I made simul-
taneous experiments in taking unenlarged pictures in the focus of my reflector,
on dry collodion and albumen, with no better result. The surfaces in these
processes are indeed very rarely sufficiently free from impurities for the deli-
neation of such minute objects as solar spots, and the processes themselves
present disadvantages which render them inapplicable to photoheliography.

After many unsuccessful trials a return was at last made to the collodion
process. Former experience having shown that the shortest exposure possible
with the means then at command produced only a solarized image, in which
all trace of the sun-spots was obliterated, recourse was had to the interposi-
tion of yellow glass between the principal and secondary object-glasses, with
the view of diminishing the actinic intensity of the sun’s image; nevertheless
only burnt-up pictures were produced.

Instantaneous Apparatus.—It will be evident, therefore, that, for the suc-
cessful employment of a medium so sensitive as wet collodion, it was absolutely
necessary to contrive some means for reducing the time of its exposure to the
sun’s influence to an extremely small fraction of a second. Any apparatus
placed in front of the object-glass, it was conceived, would have the disadvan--
tage of cutting off the aperture by successive non-symmetrical portions, and
of producing an image less perfect than when the exposed portion of the ob-
ject-glass remained always concentric and circular. On the other hand, it was

ON CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND. 151

seen that a slide with a rectangular opening, if caused to move across the tube
in front of the sensitized plate, would in no way distort the picture, but would
merely stop off a portion of it, and have the effect, as it moved along, of allow-
ing each part of the sun’s image to act in succession on different parts of the
collodion, and there to record itself; but a rapidly moving object close to the
collodion-plate is so liable to cause a disturbance of dust, and its consequent
lodgement on the collodion-film, that the carrying out of the idea in this
manner was given up.

The late much-lamented Director of the Observatory, Mr. Welsh, suggested
the plan which was ultimately adopted with success; instead of placing the
sliding apparatus close to the collodion-plate, he proposed that it should be
made on a smaller scale and fixed as near the plane of the primary focus as
possible. Mr. Beckley has skilfully carried out this suggestion; so that the
apparatus answers its intended object most perfectly, and the produetion of
a solar picture is now at least as easy as that of a lunar picture. The sliding
plate is very light, and moves so freely, that it does not, while in motion, disturb
the telescope in the slightest degree ; it is drawn downwards by means of a
spring of vulcanized caoutchoue, and as soon as it is released it shoots with
great rapidity across the field. The sliding plate has two apertures, one cir-
cular, and sufficiently large to permit of the passing of all the rays; this is
used for the purpose of focusing on the screen, and also in observing con-
tacts of the sun’s limb with the wires to be hereafter described. The second
aperture is square, and is fitted with a sliding piece actuated by a screw,
which projects beyond the telescope tube ; by means of this screw the aper-
ture may be completely closed or readily reduced to a slit of any required
width, equal to or smaller than the side of the square opening, a divided scale
being affixed to the screw for that purpose.

Previous to taking a picture the sliding plate is drawn up just so high that an
unperforated part of it completely shuts off the sun’s image ; the plate is held
in this position by means of a small thread attached to it at one end, and
looped at the other, the loop being passed over a hock on the top of the tube.
When the picture is about to be taken, the retaining thread is set on fire, and
the rectangular aperture, as soon as the sliding plate becomes released, flashes
across the axis of the secondary object-glass, thus allowing the different parts
of the sun’s image to pass through it in succession, and to depict themselves,
after enlargement, successively on the collodion-plate. Although the time of
exposure is so short as to be scarcely appreciable, yet it is necessary to regu-
late its duration; and it is therefore controlled by adjusting, 1st, the strength
of the vulcanized caoutchoue spring; 2nd, the width of the aperture. In

practice, the opening is usually varied between ;)th and z\;th of the dia-

meter of the sun’s focal image.

No driving Machinery needed, except at the period of a Total Ecelipse.—
It will be seen from the foregoing description that the clock-work driving
apparatus, described at page xxxv. of the reports for 1857, can be of no ser-
vice, because the photograph is taken in so small a fraction of time that no
appreciable distortion of the sun’s image would result in the interval by allow-
ing the telescope to remain at rest. So rapid is the delineation of the sun’s
image, that fragments of the limb, optically detached by the “boil” of our
atmosphere, are frequently depicted on the collodion, completely separated
from the remainder of the sun’s disc; more frequently still from the same
cause the contour of the sun presents an undulating line.

Although the clock-work driver is unnecessary for the daily work of the
photoheliograph, it may prove of great value on the rare occasions of a total
solar eclipse. It is to be hoped that it will enable the contemplated expedi-

152 REPORT—1859.

tion to Spain, in July of next year, to obtain a photographic record of the
feeble light of the Corona and the Red Flames; but it is by no means certain
that their light will be sufficiently intense for that object. Even a failure,
however, will prove of some value, for it will show that the image of these
phenomena, when enfeebled by an enlargement of eight times linear, possesses
too little actinic power to imprint their outline on a collodion-plate in a given
number of seconds; and thus data will be furnished for a future period.

It is desirable that other astronomers should endeavour to obtain photo-
graphs of these data by placing the sensitized plate directly in the focus of
the telescope.

In taking photographs with the Kew Photoheliograph, the telescope,
clamped in declination, is placed a little in advance of the sun, and then
clamped in right ascension ; the thread is set on fire as soon as the centre of
the sun coincides with the axis ofthe instrument. In order that the operator
may know when this is the case, a secondary camera or finder is fixed on
the top of the pyramidal tube of the telescope*. ‘This finder consists of an
achromatic lens of long focus, which is so placed as to throw an image of the
sun on to a plate of brass fixed vertically near the lower or broad end of the
tube, and consequently in a convenient position for the operator to see both
the image and the retaining thread which holds the slide. The brass plate
has ruled on it several strong lines, two of which are just so far apart and so
situated as to form tangents to the sun’s limb when the image is exactly
central; a lighted match, held in readiness, is at this precise moment applied to
the thread, and the slide immediately flashes across the secondary object-glass.

Position Wires.—The position of the solar spots in respect. to a normal
point is determined by placing a system of wires in a certain known position
in the telescope. Originally the wires were four in number, two being fixed
at right angles to the other two, the distance between each pair being some-
what less than the semidiameter of the sun; so that when one wire of each
pair was situated near the sun’s centre the other cut off a small are at the
limb. The position of the wires was such that the one pair was parallel to
a circle of declination.

Some inconvenience was occasionally experienced in consequence of one
or other of the four wires obliterating a solar spot ; hence an alteration is now
being made in the apparatus for holding the wires. Instead of attaching
them to a fixed diaphragm placed: between the two lenses of the secondary
object-glass, they will be fastened to a sliding diaphragm with two apertures ;
across one of the apertures only will be fixed the wires, so that a photograph
may be taken either with or withoutthem. No appreciable distortion in the
photographic image of the wires can be detected.

The wires will be two in number; they will cross each other at an angle
of 90°, and form an angle of 45° with a circle of declination. This system
of wires is the same as that proposed by Mr. Carrington and used in his
observations of solar spots. It is intended when the apparatus is complete
to cbserve the contacts of the sun’s limb with the wires as it passes them in
succession each day before commencing a set of photographs, and also
immediately after completing them. In order to observe these contacts, the
image of the sun and wires will be received on the ground-glass focusing
plate, and the times of the several transits noted by viewing the image of the
sun and wires through the plate. One photograph will in all cases be taken
with the wires, and two or three without the wires, in order to secure all the °
details possible, as well of the facule as of the spots.

Degree of perfection attained. Stereoscopic pictures of the Sun.—By over-

* Report Brit. Assoc. 1857, p, xxxv.

ON CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND. 153

exposure of the collodion the faculz first disappear, then the penumbre round
the spots, and lastly the spots themselves. In the photograph the difference
in the intensity of the sun’s limb and central portions is very marked, but an
over-exposure prevents also this from being seen in the photograph. The
solar spots and facule delineated by the Kew Photoheliograph bear exami-
nation with a lens of moderate power, and show details not visible to the unas-
sisted eye. The facule and spots are sufficiently marked to make the sun ap-
pear globular when two views taken at a sufficient interval are grouped toge-
ther in the stereoscope, as will be seen by the slides now before the Meeting.
There is not the same difficulty in obtaining stereoscopic pairs of views of the
sun as there is in the case of the moon, because any two views taken at an
interval of about a day give a perfectly spherical figure in the stereoscope.
When the principal spots are near either limb, two views taken at an interval
of two days will combine, and even slight changes in the form of the spots
do not prevent the perfect coalition of the two pictures.

Having already most fully described the methods pursued and the pre-
cautions to be taken to ensure good results in the case of photoselenography,
it will be unnecessary for me here to enter into any details of the chemical
part of the processes of photobeliography, for the methods are nearly the same
in both cases. So far from seeking a surface less sensitive than ordinary col-
lodion, it has been found advisable to use both the bath and collodion in a
very sensitive condition, though it is not of course necessary to strain this
sensitiveness to the utmost extent for solar photography, as in the case of
lunar photography. The bath must, however, be always brought back to its
best working state by means of oxide of silver, and subsequent addition of
dilute nitric acid in case it has become acid by use. The collodion moreover
is used in that condition which photographers would call very sensitive.

On the Orders of Fossil and Recent Reptilia, and their Distribution
in Time. By Professor OWEN. 4

[A communication ordered to be printed entire among the Reports. ]

Wiru the exception of geology, no collateral science has profited so largely
from the study of organic remains as zoology. ‘The catalogues of animal
species have received immense accessions from the determination of the na-
ture and affinities of those which have become extinct, and much deeper and
clearer insight has been gained into the natural arrangement and subdivi-
sion of the classes of animals since Paleontology has expanded our survey of
them. Of this the class Reptilia, or cold-blooded air-breathing vertebrates,
affords a striking example.

In the latest edition of the ‘Régne Animal’ of Cuvier, 1829, as in the
‘Elémens de Zoologie’ of Milne-Edwards (1834-37), and in the more re-
cent monograph on American Testudinata by Prof. Agassiz, 4to, 1857, the
quadruple division of the class, proposed by Brongniart in 1802, is adhered
to, viz. Chelonia (Tortoises, Turtles) ; Sawria (Crocodiles, Lizards); Ophidia
(Serpents); Batrachia (Frogs, Newts); only the last group is made a di-
stinct class by the distinguished Professor of the United States*, In
my former Reports on Fossil Reptiles to the British Association, in 1839
and 1841, it was proposed to divide the class into eight orders, viz. —Ena-

* “ After this separation of the Batrachians from the true Reptiles, we have only three

args a aa the class Reptiles proper—the Ophidians, the Saurians, and the Chelonians.”
—l.c. p. 239.

154 REPORT—1859.

liosauria, Crocodilia, Dinosauria, Lacertilia, Pterosauria, Chelonia, Ophidia
and Batrachia, which orders were then severally characterized.

Subsequent researches have brought to light additional forms and struc-
tural modifications of cold-blooded air-breathing animals now extinct, which
have suggested corresponding modifications of their distribution into ordinal
groups. Another result of such deeper insight into the forms that have
passed away has been the clearer recognition of the artificiality of the boun-
dary between the classes Pisces and Reptilia of modern zoological systems.

The conformity of pattern in the arrangement of the bones of the out-
wardly well-ossified skull in certain fishes with well-developed lung-like air-
bladders, e. g. Polypterus, Lepidosteus, Sturio, and in the extinct reptiles Ar-
chegosaurus and Labyrinthodon ;—the persistence of the notochord (chorda
dorsalis) in Archegosaurus, as in Sturio; the persistence of the notochord
and branchial arches in Archegosaurus and Lepidosiren; the absence of
occipital condyle or condyles in Archegosaurus as in Lepidosiren; the pre-
sence of teeth with the labyrinthic interblending of dental tissues in Den-
drodus, Lepidosteus, and Archegosaurus, as in Labyrinthodon; the large
median and lateral throat-plates in Archegosaurus, as in Megalichthys, and in
the modern fishes Arapaima and Lepidosteus ;—all these characters, as were
explained and reasoned upon in my lectures at the Government School of
Mines (March, 1858), pointed to one great natural group, remarkable for
the extensive gradations of development lirking and blending together piscind
and reptilian characters within the limits of such group. The salamandroie
(or so called ‘sauroid’) Ganoids, e. g. Lepidosteus and Polypterus, are the
most ichthyoid, the Labyrinthodonts are the most sauroid, of this annectent
group: the Lepidosiren and Archegosaurus are intermediate gradations, one
having more of the piscine, the other more of the reptilian characters. Ar-
chegosaurus conducts the march of development from the fish proper to the
labyrinthodont type ; Lepidosiren conducts it to the perennibranchiate or mo-
dern batrachian type. Both forms expose the artificiality of the ordinary
class-distinction between Pisces and Reptilia, and illustrate the naturality of
the wider class of cold-blooded vertebrates, which I have called Hematocrya*.

Reptiles are defined as ‘ cold-blooded air-breathing vertebrates, but the
Stren and Proteus chiefly breathe by gills, as did, most probably, the
Archegosaurus. The modern naked Batrachia annually mature, at once,
a large number of small ova; the embryo is developed with but a small
allantoid appendage, and is hatched and excluded with external gills. These
are retained throughout life by a few species; the rest undergo a greater or
less degree of metamorphosis. Other existing reptiles have comparatively
few and large eggs, and the embryo is enclosed in a free amnios and is more
or less enveloped by a large allantois; it undergoes no marked transforma-
tion after being hatched.

On this difference, the Batrachia have been, by some naturalists, separated
as a distinct class from the Feptilia. But the number of ova simultaneously
developed in the viviparous Land Salamanders is much less than in the Siren,
and not more than in the Turtle; and, save in respect of the external gills
which disappear before or soon after birth, the Salamander does not undergo
a more marked transformation, after being hatched, than does the Turtle or
Crocodile}. It depends, therefore, upon the value assigned to the different
proportions of the allantois in the embryo of the salamander and lizard,
whether they be pronounced to belong, or not, to distinct classes of animals.

* aipa, blood, cptos, cold; the correlative group is the ‘ Hemalotherma.’
t The Cecilia may probably depart still further from the type-batrachian mode of d2yelop-
ment, and approach more to the type-reptilian mode.

ON FOSSIL AND RECENT REPTILIA. 155

This embryonic or developmental character is unascertainable in the extinct
Archegosaurus and Labyrinthodon. The signs of affinity of Labyrinthodon
to Ichthyosaurus, and those structures which have led the ablest German
palzontologists to pronounce the Labyrinthodonts to be true Saurians under
the names of Mastodonsaurus, Trematosaurus, Capitosaurus, &c., may well
support the conjecture that modifications more ‘reptilian’ than those in
Salamandra did attend the development of the young Labyrinthodont.

Characters derived from the nature of the cutaneous coverings equally
fail to determine the class-characters of Batrachia as contradistinguished
from Reptilia, It is true that all existing Batrachia have a scaleless skin,
or very minute scales (Cecilia), but not all existing Reptiles have horny
seales. The Crocodiles and certain Lizards show a development of dermal
bones similar to that in certain placoid and ganoid fishes. This development
characterizes the cutaneous system in the Labyrinthodont genus Anisopus ;
and in regard to the dermal ossifications of the cranium, the resemblance to
the Ganoidei is closer in those ancient forms of Reptilia which exhibit in their
endoskeleton unmistakeable signs of their affinity to fishes and batrachians.

In the survey which, with a view to communicate its results to the pre-
sent Meeting of the British Association, I have made of all the known forms
of cold-blooded air-breathing Vertebrates, recent and fossil, I have to ac-
knowledge myself unable to define any adequate boundary for dividing them
into two distinct classes of Batrachians and Reptiles ; and I am as little able
to point out a character dividing the air-breathing from the water-breathing
Hematocrya—the Reptiles from the Fishes.

In the present Report, therefore, an arbitrary line has been drawn, in order
to define its subject, between Lepidosiren and Archegosaurus, and the re-
view of the ordinal groups of Reptilia, or air-breathing Hematocrya, will
commence with that of which the Archegosaurus is the type.

Order I. GANOCEPHALA.

The name of Ganocephala, for this group or order (yavos, lustre; cepa),
head), has reference to the sculptured and externally polished or ganoid bony
plates with which the entire head is defended. These plates include the
‘ post- orbital’ and ‘super-temporal’ ones, which roof over the temporal
fosse. There are no occipital condyles. The teeth have converging inflected
folds of cement at their basal half. The notochord is persistent, the ver-
tebral arches and peripheral elements are ossified, the pleurapophyses are
short and straight; there are both pectoral and pelvic limbs, which are
natatory and very small; there are large median and lateral ‘throat-plates’ :
the scutes are small, narrow, subganoid. Some of the fossils show traces of
branchial arches. The above combination of characters gives the value of
an ordinal group in the cold-blooded Vertebrata.

The extinct animals which manifest it were first indicated by certain
fossils discovered in the spherosideritic clay-slate forming the upper mem-
ber of the Bavarian coal-measures, and also in splitting spheroidal concre-
tions from the coal-field of Saarsbriick near Treves; these fossils were
originally referred to the class of Fishes (Pygopterus Lucius, Agassiz). But
a specimen from the ‘ Brandschiefer’ of Miinster-Appel presented characters
which were recognized by Dr. Gergens to be those of a Salamandroid
Reptile*.

* Mainz, Oktober 1843.— In dem Brandschiefer von Miinster-appel in Rhein-Baiern
habe ich in vorigen Jahre einen Salamander aufgefunden” :—“ Gehort dieser Schiefer der

Kohlen-formation ?—in desene falle wire der Fund auch in anderen Hinsicht interessant.”
Leonhard und Bronn, Nue Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, &c., 1844, p. 49.

156 REPORT—1859.

Dr. Gergens placed his supposed ‘ Salamander’ in the hands of M. Her-
mann von Meyer for description, who communicated the result of his exami-
nation in a later number of the under-cited journal *.

In this notice the author states that the Salamander-affinities of the fossil
in question, for which he proposes the name of Apateon pedestris, “are by no
means demonstrated +..... Its head might be that of a fish, as well as of a
lizard or of a batrachian..... There is no trace of bones or limbs.” M. v.
Meyer concludes by stating that, “in order to test the hypothesis of the
Apateon being a fossil fish, he has sent to Agassiz a drawing with a descrip-
tion of it.”

Three years later, better preserved and more instructive specimens of the
problematical fossil were obtained by Professor von Dechen from the
Bavarian coal-fields, and were submitted to the examination of Professor
Goldfuss, of Bonn. The latter paleontologist published a 4to memoir on
them, with good figures, referring them to a Saurian genus which he calls
Archegosaurus, or ‘ primeval lizard,’ deeming it to be a transitional type be-
tween the fish-like Batrachia and the Lizards and Crocodiles f.

The estimable author, on the occasion of publishing the above memoir,
transmitted to the Reporter excellent casts of the originals therein described
and figured. These casts were presented to the Museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons, London, and were described by me in the ‘ Catalogue of the
Fossil Reptiles’ in that Museum (4to, 1854). The conclusions which I then
formed as to the position and affinities of the Archegosaurus in the Reptilian
class are published in that Catalogue, and were communicated to and dis-
cussed at the Geological Society of London (see the ‘ Quarterly Journal of
the Geological Society,’ vol. iv. 1848).

One of the specimens appeared to present evidence of persistent branchial
arches. The osseous structure of the skull, especially of the orbits, through
the completed zygomatic arches, indicated an affinity to the Labyrintho-
donts ; but the vertebree and numerous very short ribs, with the evidence of
stunted swimming limbs, impressed the Reporter with the conviction of the
near alliance of the Archegosaurus with the Proteus and other perennibran-
chiate reptiles.

This conclusion of the affinity of Archegosaurus to existing types of the
Reptilian class is confirmed by the subsequently discovered specimens,
described and figured by M. von Meyer in his ‘ Palazeontographica’ (Bd. vi.
Heft 2. 1857), more especially by his discovery of the embryonal condition
of the vertebral column §, i. e. cf the persistence of the notochord, and the
restriction of ossification to the arches and peripheral vertebral elements.

In this structure, the old carboniferous Reptile resembled the existing
Lepidosiren, and thus affords further ground for regarding that remarkable
existing animal as one which obliterates the line of demarcation between the
Fishes and the Reptiles.

Coincident with this non-ossified state of the basis of the vertebral bodies
of the trunk is the absence of the ossified occipital condyles, which condyles
characterize the skull in better developed Batrachia. ‘The fore part of the
notochord has extended, as in Lepidosiren||, into the basi-sphenoid region,

* Leonhard und Bronn, Nenes Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1844, p. 336.

Tt “Ob das—Apateon pedestris—ein Salamander-artiges Geschopf war, ist keineswegs
ausgemacht.””

+ “‘Archegosaurus,’ Fossile Saurier aus dem Steinkohlengebirge die den Uebergang der
Ichthyoden zu den Lacerten und Krokodilen bilden,” ‘ Beitrage zur vorweltlichen Fauna
des Steinkohlengebirges ’ (4to, 1847), p. 3.

§ ‘Reptilien aus der Steinkohlen-Formation in Deutschland,’ Sechster Band, p. 61.

|| Linn. Trans., vol. xviii. p. 333, pl. 24, fig. 2.

ON FOSSIL AND RECENT REPTILIA. 157

and its capsule has connected it, by ligament, to the broad flat ossification of
expansions of the same capsule, forming the basi-occipital and basi-spheoid
late.

; The vertebra of the trunk in the fully developed full-sized animal present
the following stage of ossification. The neurapophyses coalesce at the top to
form the arch, from the summit of which is developed a compressed, sub-
quadrate, moderately high, spine; with the truncate, or slightly convex,
summit expanded in the fore-and-aft direction, so as to touch the contiguous
spines in the back ; the spines are distinct in the tail. The sides of the base
of the neural arch are thickened and extended outwards into ‘ diapophyses’
having a convex articular surface for the attachment of the rib; the fore part
is slightly produced at each angle into a zygapophysis looking upward and a
little forward ; the hinder part is much produced backwards, supporting two-
thirds of the neural spine, and each angle is developed into a zygapophysis
with a surface of opposite aspects to the anterior one. In the capsule of the
notochord three bony plates are developed, one on the ventral surface, and
one on each side, at or near the back part of the diapophysis. These bony
plates may be termed ‘ cortical parts’ of the centrum, in the same sense in
which that term is applied to the element which is called ‘ body of the atlas’
in Man and Mammalia, and ‘sub-vertebral wedge-bone’ at the fore part of
the neck in Enaliosauria.

As such ventral or inferior cortical element co-exists with the separately
ossified centrum in certain vertebre of the Jchthyosaurus, thus affording
ground for deeming them essentially distinct from a true centrum, I have
applied the term ‘hypapophysis’ to such independent inferior ossifications
in and from the notochordal capsule, and by that term may be signified the
sub-notochordal plates in Archegosaurus, which co-exist with proper ‘ ham-
apophyses’ in the tail. In the trunk the hypapophyses are flat, subquadrate,
oblong bodies, with the angles rounded off: in the tail they bend upwards
by the extension of the ossification from the under- to the side-parts of the
notochordal capsule, sometimes touching the lateral cortical plates. These
serve to strengthen the notochord and support the intervertebral nerve in its
outward passage.

The ribs are short, almost straight, expanded and flattened at the ends,
round and slender at the middle. They are developed throughout the trunk
and along part of the tail, coexisting there with the hzemal arches, as in the
Menopoma*.

The heemal arches, which, at the beginning of the tail, are open at their
base, become closed, in succeeding vertebrae, by extension of ossification in-
wards from each produced angle, converting the notch intoaforamen. This
forms a wide oval, the apex being produced into along spine ; but towards the
end of the tail the spine becomes shortened, and the hzemal arch is reduced to
amere flattened ring. The size of the canal for the protection of the caudal
blood-vessels indicates the powerful muscular actions of the long tail; as the
produced spines, from both neural and hemal arches, bespeak the provision
made for muscular attachments, and the vertical development of the caudal
swimming organ.

All these modifications of the vertebral column demonstrate the aquatic
habits of the Archegosaurus ; the limbs being, in like manner, modified as
fins, but so small and feeble as to leave the main part of the function of
eNienine to be performed, as in fishes and Perennibranchiate Batrachia, by
the tail.

The skull of the Archegosaurus appears to have retained much of its pri-

* Principal Forms of the Skeleton, ‘ Orr’s Circle of the Sciences,’ p. 187, fig. 11.

158 REPORT—1859.

mary cartilage internally, and ossification to have been chiefly active at the
surface, where, as in the combined dermo-neural ossifications of the skull
in the sturgeons and salamandroid fishes, e. g. Polypterus, Amia, Lepidosteus,
these ossifications have started from centres more numerous than those of
the true vertebral system in the skull of Saurian reptiles.

The teeth are usually shed alternately; they consist of osteo-dentine,
dentine, and cement. The first substance occupies the centre, the last
covers the superficies of the tooth, but is introduced into its substance by
many concentric folds extending along the basal half. These folds are indi-
cated by fine longitudinal straight striz along that half of the crown. The
section of the tooth at that part gives the same structure which is shown by
a like section of a tooth of the Lepidosteus oxyurus*.

The same principle of dental composition is exemplified in the teeth of
most of the ganoid fishes of the Carboniferous and Devonian systems, and is
carried out to a great and beautiful degree of complication in the Old-red
Dendrodonts.

The repetition of the same principle of dental structure in one of the ear-
liest genera of Reptilia, associated with the defect of ossification of the endo-
skeleton and the excess of ossification in the exoskeleton of the head, deci-
sively illustrate the true affinities and low position in the Reptilian class of
the so-called Archegosauri.

For other details of the peculiar and interesting structure of the animals
representing the earliest or oldest known order of Reptiles, the Reporter
would refer to his article “ Paleontology” in the ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica,’
and to the works by Goldfuss and Von Meyer, above cited.

Order II. LasyrinTHopontTia.

This name, from \afvpevO0s, a labyrinth, and dédovs, a tooth, refers to the
complex structure characterizing the teeth, in the several genera of the order ;
in which, also, the head is defended, as in the G'anocephala, by a continuous
casque of externally sculptured and usually hard and polished osseous plates,
including the supplementary ‘ postorbital’ and ‘supratemporal’ bones, but
leaving a ‘foramen parietale+.’ There are two occipital condyles. The
vomer is divided and dentigerous. There are two external nostrils. The ver-
tebral centra, as well as arches, are ossified, and are biconcave. The pleur-
apophyses of the trunk are long and bent. ‘The teeth are rendered complex,
at least at the basal part of the crown, by undulations and side-branches of
the converging folds of cement ; whence the name of the order.

The reptiles presenting the above characters have been divided, according
to minor modifications exemplified by the form and proportions of the skull,
by the relative position and size of the orbital, nasal, and temporal cavities,
and by dermal characters, into several genera; as, e. g. Mastodonsaurus, Ani-
sopus, Trematosaurus, Metopias, Capitosaurus, Zygosaurus, Xestorrhytias,
&e.

The relation of these remarkable reptiles to the Saurian order has been
advocated as being one of close and true affinity, chiefly on the character of
the extent of ossification of the skull and of the outward sculpturing of the
cranial bones. But the true nature of some of these bones appears to have
been overlooked, and the gaze of research for analogous structures has been
too exclusively upward. If directed downward from the Labyrinthodontia
to the Ganocephala, and to certain ganoid fishes, it suggests other conclusions
which I have developed in my article “ Paleontology ” above referred to.

* Wyman, ‘ American Journal of the Natural Sciences,’ October, 1843.
+ The corresponding vacuity is larger in some ganoid fishes.

ON FOSSIL AND RECENT REPTILIA. 159

There is nothing in the known structure of the so-named Archegosaurus
or Mastodonsaurus that truly indicates a belonging to the Saurian or Croco-
ditian order of reptiles. The exterior ossifications of the skull and the
canine-shaped labyrinthic teeth are both examples of the Salamandroid
modification of the ganoid type of fishes.

The small proportion of the fore-limb of the Mystriosaurus in nowise
illustrates this alleged saurian affinity, for, though it beas short as in Arcke-
gosaurus, it is as perfectly constructed as in the Crocodile ; whereas the short
fore limb of Archegosaurus is constructed after the simple type of that of the
Proteus and Siren. But the futility of this argument of the sauroid affinities
is made manifest by the proportions of the hind limb of Archegosaurus ;
it is as stunted as the fore limb: in the Labyrinthodonts it presented larger
proportions, which, however, may be illustrated as naturally by these pro-
portions in the limbs of certain Batrachia as by the proportions of the limbs
of Teleosaurus.

Order III. IcutTHyoprTERyYGIA.

This name, from iy us, a fish, and rrépvé, a wing or fin, relates to the piscin
character of the numerous and many-jointed rays or digits in the fore and
hind paddles. The bones of the head still include the supplementary < post-
orbital’ and ‘supratemporal’ bones, but there are small temporal and other
vacuities between the cranial bones, including a ‘ foramen parietale ;’ there is
a single, convex, occipital condyle*; and one vomer, which is edentulous.
There are two antorbital nostrils. The vertebral centra are ossified and bi-
concave. The pleurapophyses of the trunk are long and bent; the anterior
ones with bifurcate heads. The teeth have converging folds of cement at
their base, are implanted in a common alveolar groove, and are confined to
the maxillary, premaxillary, and premandibular bones; the premaxillaries
much exceeding the maxillaries in size. The orbits are very large; the eyes
were defended by a broad circle of sclerotic plates. ‘The limbs are natatory,
with more than five multiarticulate digits ; there is no sacrum.

With the retention of characters which indicate, as in the preceding orders,
an affinity to the higher Pisces Ganoidei, the present exclusively marine Rep-
tilia more directly exemplify the Ichthyic type in the proportions of the pre-
maxillary and maxillary bones, in the shortness and great number of the bi-
concave vertebre, in the length of the pleurapophyses of the vertebra near
the head, in the large proportional size of the eye-ball and its well-ossified
sclerotic coat, and especially in the structure of the pectoral and ventral fins.

Order IV. SAUROPTERYGIA.

The fins in this order of marine reptiles do not include more than five digits
and resemble those of the turtles (Chelone) amongst existing Reptiles ; hence
the name proposed, from cadpos, a lizard, and rrépvg. There are no post-
orbital and supratemporal bonest: the skull shows large temporal and other
vacuities between certain cranial bones, including a foramen parietale : there
are two antorbital nostrils: the teeth are simple, in distinct sockets of the
premaxillary, maxillary, and premandibular bones: they are very rarely pre-
sent on the palatine or pterygoid bones. The maxillaries are larger than the
premaxillaries. Limbs natatory ; with not more than five digits. There is a
sacrum of one or two vertebre for the attachment of the pelvic arch in some:
there are numerous cervical vertebrae in most. The pleurapophyses have
simple heads ; those of the trunk are long and bent.

* This character is retained in all the subsequent orders except the Batrachia.
t These bones do not reappear in the subsequent orders.

160 REPORT—1859.

In the Plhosaurus the neck-vertebre are comparatively few in number, ~
short, and flat. The Sauropterygian type seems to have attained its maximum
dimensions in this genus, the species of which are peculiar to the Oxfordian
and Kimmeridgian divisions of the Upper Oolitic system. The Polyptychodon
of the cretaceous series also attained a gigantic size.

M. von Meyer regards the number of cervical vertebra and the length of
neck as characters of prime importance in the classification of Reptilia, and
founds thereon his order called ‘ Macrotrachelen,’ in which he includes
Simosaurus, Pistosaurus, and Nothosaurus with Plesiosaurus. No doubt
the number of vertebre in the same skeleton bears a certain relation to
ordinal groups: the Ophidia find a common character therein: yet it is not
their essential character ; for the snake-like form, dependent on multiplied
vertebra, characterizes equally certain batrachians (Cecilia) and fishes
(Murena). Certain regions of the vertebral column are the seat of great
varieties, in the same natural group of Reptilia. We have long-tailed and
short-tailed Lizards; but do not, therefore, separate those with numerous
caudal vertebra as ‘ Macroura’ from those with few or none. The extinct
Dolichosaurus of the Kentish chalk, with its proceelian vertebra, cannot be
ordinally separated, by reason of its more numerous cervical vertebra, from
other shorter-necked proccelian lizards. As little can we separate the short-
necked and big-headed ampliccelian Pliosaur from the ‘ Macrotrachelians’ of
von Meyer, with which it has its most intimate and true affinities.

There is much reason indeed to suspect that some of the Muschelkalk
Saurians, which are as closely allied to Nothosaurus as Pliosaurus is to
Plesiosaurus, may have presented analogous modifications in the number and
proportions of the cervical vertebrae. It is hardly possible to contemplate the
broad and short-snouted skull of the Stmosaurus, with its proportionately
large teeth, without inferring that such a head must have been supported by
a shorter and more powerful neck than that which bore the long and slender
head of the Nothosaurus or Pistosaurus. The like inference is more strongly
impressed upon the mind by the skull of the Placodus, still shorter and
broader than that of Simosaurus, and with vastly larger teeth, of a shape
indicative of their adaptation to crushing molluscous or crustaceous shells.

Neither the proportions and armature of the skull of Placodus, nor the
mode of obtaining the food indicated by its cranial and dental characters,
permit the supposition that the head was supported by other than a com-
paratively short and strong neck. Yet the composition of the skull, its zygo-
mata, temporal cavities, and other light-giving anatomical characters, ull
bespeak the close essential relationship of Placodus to Stmosaurus and other
so-called ‘ Macrotrachelian’ reptiles of the Muschelkalk-beds. I continue,
therefore, as in my former ‘ Report’ of 1841, to regard the fin-like modifi-
cation of the limbs as a better ordinal character than the number of vertebrze
in any particular region of the spine. Yet this limb-character is subordinate
to the characters derived from the structure of the skull and of the teeth.
If, therefore, the general term Enaliosauria may be sometimes found con-
venient in its application to the natatory group of Saurian Reptiles, the
essential distinctness of the orders Sauwropterygia and Ichthyopterygia, typified
by the Ichthvosaurus and Plesiosaurus respectively, should be borne in mind.

The Plesiosaurus, with its very numerous cervical vertebra, sometimes
thirty in number, may be regarded as the type of the Sauropterygia or
pentadactyle sea-lizards. Of all existing Reptiles, the lizards, and amongst
these the Old-world Monitors ( Varanus, Fitz.), by reason of the cranial :
vacuities in front of the orbits, most resemble the Plesiosaur in the structure
of the skull, the division of the nostrils, the vacuities in the occipital

ON FOSSIL AND RECENT REPTILIA. 161

region between the ex-occipitals and tympanies, the parietal foramen, the
zygomatic extension of the post-frontal, the palato-maxillary and pterygo-
sphenoid vacuities in the bony palate ; and all these are Lacertian characters
as contradistinguished from Crocodilian ones. But the antorbital vacuities
between the nasal, pre-frontal, and maxillary bones, are the sole external nos-
trils in the Plesiosaurs : the zygomatic arch abuts against the fore part of the
tympanic, and fixes it: a much greater extent of the roof of the mouth is
ossified than in lizards, and the palato-maxillary and pterygosphenoid fissures
are reduced to small size: the teeth, finally, are implanted in distinct sockets.
That the Plesiosaur had the ‘head of a lizard’ is an emphatic mode of express-
ing the amount of resemblance in their cranial conformation: the crocodilian
affinities, however, are not confined to the teeth, but are exemplified in some
particulars of the structure of the skull itself.

In the simple mode of articulation of the ribs, the Lacertian affinity is
again strongly manifested; but to this vertebral character such affinity is
limited: all the others exemplify the ordinal distinction of the Plesiosaurs
from known existing Reptiles. The shape of the joints of the centrums ; the
number of vertebre between the head and tail, especially of those of the
neck ; the slight indication of the sacral vertebre ; the non-confluence of the
caudal hemapophyses with each other; are all ‘plesiosauroid.’ In the size
and number of the abdominal ribs and sternum, may, perhaps, be discerned a
first step in that series of development of the hemapophyses of the trunk,
which reaches its maximum in the plastron of the Chelonia.

The connation of the clavicle with the scapula is common to the Chelonia
with the Plesiosauri ; the expansion of the coracoid—extreme in Plesiosauri,
—is greater in Chelonia than in Crocodilia, but is still greater in some
Lacertia. The form and proportions of the pubis and ischium, as compared
with the ilium, in the pelvic arch of the Plesiosauri, find their nearest
approach in the pelvis of marine Chelonia; and no other existing Reptile
now offers so near, although it be so remote, a resemblance to the structure
of the paddles of the Plestosauri.

Both Nothosaurus and Pistosaurus had many neck-vertebre ; and the
transition from these to the dorsal series was effected, as in Plesiosaurus, by
the ascent of the rib-surface from the centrum to the neurapophysis ; but
the surface, when divided between the two elements, projected further out-
wards than in most Plesiosauri.

In both Notho- and Pisto-saurus, the pelvic vertebra developes a combined
process (par- and di-apophysis), but of relatively larger, vertically longer,
size, standing well out, and from near the fore part of the side of the verte-
bra. This process, with the coalesced riblet, indicates a stronger ilium, and
a firmer base of attachment of the hind limb to the trunk than in Plesio-
saurus. Both this structure and the greater length of the bones of the fore-
arm and leg show that the Muschelkalk predecessors of the Liassie Plesio-
sauri were better organized than they for occasional progression on dry land.

Order V. ANOMODONTIA*.

This order is represented by three families, all the species of which are
extinct, and appear to have been restricted to the Triassic period. In it the
teeth are wanting, or are confluent with tusk-shaped premaxillaries, or are
confined to a single pair in the upper jaw having the form and proportions of
canine tusks. ‘The skull shows a ‘foramen parietale’ and two nostrils: the
tympanic pedicle is fixed. The vertebra are biconcave: the pleurapophyses

* avopos, lawless; ddovs, tooth.

1859. M

162 REPORT—1859.

of the trunk are long and curved, the anterior ones having bifureate heads :
there is asacrum of four or five vertebra, forming, with broad iliac and pubic
bones, a large pelvis. Limbs ambulatory.

Family Dicynodontia *.

A long ever-growing tusk in each maxillary bone : premaxillaries connate
and forming with the lower jaw a beak-shaped mouth, probably sheathed
with horn. This family includes two genera, Dicynodon and Ptychognathus,
all the known species of which are founded on fossils from rocks of probably
triassic age in South Africa.

Family Cryptodontia+.

Upper as well as lower jaw edentulous, The genus Oudenodon closely
conforms to the Dicynodont type, and the species are from the same rocks
and localities.

Family Gnathodontiat.

Two curved tusk-shaped bodies holding the place of the premaxillaries,
and consisting of confluent dentinal and osseous substance, descending in
front of the ‘symphysis mandibule.’ These bodies are homologous with the
pair of confluent premaxillary teeth and bones in the existing New Zealand
amphiccelian lizard Fhynchocephalus ; they are analogous to the tusks in the
Dicynodonts, and must have served a similar purpose in the extinct reptiles
(Rhynchosaurus) of the New Red (Trias) Sandstone of Shropshire, in which
alone, this structure, with an otherwise edentulous beak-shaped mouth, has
hitherto been met with. The Rhynchosauroid reptile from the sandstone of
Lossiemouth, near Elgin, is described by the Professor in the Government
School of Mines, as having palatal teeth ; but its close affinity to the Rhyn-
chosaur of Shropshire adds to the probability of the triassic age of the Los-
siemouth sandstone.

Order VI. Prerosauria §.

Although some members of the preceding order resembled birds in the
shape or the edentulous state of the mouth, the reptiles of the present order
make a closer approach to the feathered class in the texture and pneumatic
character of most of the bones, and in the modification of the pectoral limbs
for the function of flight. ‘This is due to the elongation of the antibrachial
bones, and more especially to the still greater length of the metacarpal and
phalangial bones of the fifth or outermost digit, the last phalanx of which
terminates in a point. The other fingers were of more ordinary length and
size, and were terminated by claws, the number of their phalanges progressively
increasing to the fourth, which had four joints The whole osseous system
is modified in accordance with the, pessession of wings: the bones are light,
hollow, most of them permeated by air-cells, with thin, compact outer walls.
The scapula and coracoid are long and narrow, but strong. The vertebrae
of the neck are few, but large and strong, for the support of a large head
with long jaws, armed with sharp-pointed teeth. The skull was lightened
by large vacuities, of which one was interposed between the nostril and the
orbit. The vertebree of the back are small, as are those of the sacrum,
which were from two to five in number, but combined with a small pelvis
and weak hind limbs, bespeaking a creature unable to stand and walk like a
bird: the body must have’ been dragged along the ground like that of a bat.
The vertebral bodies were united by ball-and-socket joints, the cup being

* Sis, twice ; kuvddous, canine-tooth. t xpumros, concealed ; ddods, tooth.
£ yvabos, jaw; ddovs, tooth, § wrepoy, Wing ; cadvpos, lizard.

ON FOSSIL AND RECENT REPTILIA. 163

anterior; and in them we have the earliest manifestation of the ‘ proccelian’
type of vertebra.

The Pterosauria are distributed into genera according to modifications of
the jaws andteeth. In the oldest known species, from the Lias, the teeth are
of two kinds; a few, at the fore part of the jaws, are long, large, sharp-
pointed, with a full elliptical base, in distinct and separated sockets: behind
them is a close-set row of short, compressed, very small, lancet-shaped teeth.
These form the genus Dimorphodon, Ow.

In the genus Rhamphorhynchus, V.M., the fore part of each jaw is without
teeth, and may have been encased by a horny beak ; but behind the edentulous
production there are four or five large and long teeth, on each side, fol-
lowed by several smaller ones. The tail is long, stiff, and slender.

In the genus Pterodactylus, Cuv., the jaws are provided with teeth to their
extremities : all the teeth are long, slender, sharp-pointed, set well apart.
The tail is very short.

The Pter. longirostris, Ok., was about 10 inches in length; it is from litho-
graphic slate at Pappenheim. The Per. crassirostris, Goldf. was about | foot
long; but the Pter. Sedgwickii, Ow., from the greensand, near Cambridge,
had an expanse of wing of 20 feet. The above species exemplify the Ptero-
dactyles proper.

The oldest well-known Pterodactyle is the Dimorphodon macronyz, of the
lower lias; but bones of Pterodactyles have been discovered in coeval lias
of Wirtemberg. The next in point of age is the Dimorphodon Banthensis,
from the ‘Posidonomyen-sehiefer’ of Banz in Bavaria, answering to the Alum-
shale of the Whitby lias. Then follows the Pt. Bucklandi from the Stonesfield
oolite. Above this, come the first-described and numerous species of Ptero-
dactyle from the lithographic slates of the middle oolitic system, in Germany,
and from Cirin on the Rhone. The Pterodactyles of the Wealden are, as yet,
known to us by only a few bones and bone-fragments. The largest known
species are the Pterodactylus Sedgwickii and Pter. Fittoni, from the Upper
Greensand of Cambridgeshire. Finally, the Pterodactyles of the middle
chalk of Kent, almost as remarkable for their great size, constitute the last
forms of Flying Reptile known in the history of the crust of this earth.

Order VII. THErcopontTia*,

The vertebral bodies are biconcave: the ribs of the trunk are long and
bent, the anterior ones with a bifurcate head: the sacrum consists of three
vertebrae: the limbs are ambulatory, and the femur has a third trochanter.
The teeth have the crown more or less compressed, pointed, with trenchant
and finely serrate margins ; implanted in distinct sockets.

Teeth of this type, which may have belonged to the loricated saurian
Stagonolepis, have been discoyered by Mr. P. Duff in the white-sandstone at
Lossiemouth near Elgin, affording additional evidence of its triassic age.

The Protorosaurus of the Permian Kupferschiefer of Thuringia appears
to have had its teeth implanted in distinct sockets; but the neck-vertebre
resemble in their large and strong proportions those of the Pterodactyles ;
and the caudal vertebre show the peculiarity, among Reptiles, of bifurcate
neural spines. ‘The types of the present order are the extinct genera Theco-
dontosaurus and Paleosaurus of Riley and Stutchbury, from probably triassie
strata near Bristol ; and the Cladyodon of the New Red sandstone of Warwick-
shire, with which, probably, the Belodon of the Keuper Sandstone of Wir-
temberg is generically synonymous. The Bathygnathus, Leidy, from New
Red sandstone of Prince Edward’s Island, North America, is probably a

* OK, a case; ddods, a tooth.
M2

164 REPORT—1859.

member of the present order, which seems to have been the forerunner of
the next.
Order VIII. Dinosavurra*.

Cervical and anterior dorsal vertebre with par- and di-apophyses, arti-
culating with bifurcate ribs: dorsal vertebra with a neural platform : sacral
vertebra from four to sixin number. The articular ends of the free vertebrae
are more or less flat; but in the cervical become convex in front and concave
behind, in some species. The limbs are ambulatory, strong, long and un-
guiculate. The femur has a third trochanter in some. The species of this
order were of large bulk, and were eminently adapted for terrestrial life :
some, e.g., Jguanodon and probably Hyleosaurus, were more or less vegetable
feeders ; others, e. g., Megalosaurus, were carnivorous. The Dinosaurs ranged,
in time, from the lias (Scelidosaurus, Ow., from Charmouth) to the Upper
Greensand (Jguanodon). The Megalosaurus occurs in the lower oolite to
the Wealden inclusive. The latter formation is that in which the Dinosauria
appear to have flourished in greatest numbers and of largest dimensions.

Order IX. Crocopitta.

Teeth in a single row, implanted in distinct sockets, external nostril single,
and terminal or subterminal. Anterior trunk-vertebree with par- and di-
apophyses, and bifurcate ribs ; sacral vertebra two, each supporting its own
neural arch. Skin protected by bony, usually pitted, plates.

Suborder Amphicelia f.

Crocodiles closely resembling in general form the long- and slender-jawed
kind of the Ganges, called Gavial, existed from the time of the deposition of
the lower lias. Their teeth were similarly long, slender, and sharp, adapted
for the prehension of fishes, and their skeleton was modified for more effi-
cient progress in water, by both the terminal vertebral surfaces being slightly
concave, by the hind limbs being relatively larger and stronger, and by the
orbits forming no prominent obstruction to progress through water. From
the nature of the deposits containing the remains of the so-modified Croco-
diles, they were marine. The fossil Crocodile from the Whitby Lias, de-
scribed and figured in the ‘Philosophical Transactions, 1758, p. 688, is
the type of these amphiccelian species. They have been grouped under the
following generic heads:—Telcosaurus, Mystriosaurus, Macrospondylus,
Massospondylus, Pelagosaurus, Afolodon, Suchosaurus, Goniopholis, Poci-
lopleuron, Stagonolepis, &c. Species of the above genera range from the lias
to the chalk inclusive.

Suborder Opisthocelia }.

. The small group of Crocodilia, so called, is an artificial one, based upon
more or less of the anterior trank-vertebre being united by ball-and-socket
joints, but having the ball in front, instead of, as in modern Crocodiles, be-
hind. Cuvier first pointed out this peculiarity § in a crocodilian from the Ox-
fordian beds at Honfleur and the Kimmeridgian at Havre. The Reporter has
described similar opisthoccelian vertebrae from the Great Oolite at Chipping
Norton, from the Upper Lias of Whitby, and, of much larger size, from
the Wealden formations of Sussex and the Isle of Wight. These specimens
probably belonged, as suggested by him in 1841 and 1342||, to the fore part

* Servos, terrible; cavpos, lizard.
# aygi, both; xotXos, hollow: the vertebra being hollowed at both ends.
t OmwoGe, behind ; cot\os, hollow: vertebrz concave behind, convex in front.

§ Annales du Muséum, tom. xii. p. 83. pl. xxi.
|| “ Report on British Fossil Reptiles,” Trans. British Association for 1841, p. 96.

ON FOSSIL AND RECENT REPTILIA. 165

of the same vertebral column as the vertebra, flat at the fore part, and slightly
hollow behind, on which he founded the genus Cetiosaurus. The smaller
opisthoceelian vertebra described by Cuvier have been referred by Von
Meyer to a genus called Streptospondylus.

In one species of Cetiosaurus trom the Wealden, dorsal vertebra, measur-
ing 8 inches across, are only 4 inches in length, and caudal vertebra, nearly
7 inches across, are Jess than 4 inches in length ; these characterize the species
ealled Cetiosaurus brevis. Caudal vertebrae, measuring 7 inches across and
54 inches in length, frora the Lower Oolite at Chipping Norton, and the Great
Oolite at Enstone, represent the species called Cetiosawrus medius. Caudal
vertebre from the Portland Stone at Garsington, Oxfordshire, measuring
7 inches 9 lines across and 7 inches in length, have been referred to the
Cetiosaurus longus; the latter appears to have been the most gigantic of
Crocodilians.

Suborder Procelia*.

Crocodilians with cup-and-ball vertebra like those of living species first
make their appearance in the Greensand of North America (Croce. basifissus
and Croc. basitruncatus)+. In Europe their remains are first found in the
tertiary strata. Such remains from the plastic clay of Meudon have been
referred to Crocodilus isorhynchus, Croc. caelorhynchus, and Croc. Becquereli.
In the ‘ Caleaire grossier’ of Argenton and Castelnaudry have been found the
Croz. Rallinati and Croc. Dodunii. In the coeval eocene London Clay at
Sheppey Island, the entire skull and characteristic partsof the skeleton of Cro-
codilus toliapicus and Croc. Champsoides occur. In the somewhat later eocene
beds at Bracklesham occur the remains of the Gavial-like Croc. Dixoni. In
the Hordle upper eocene beds have been found the Crecodilus Hastingsie
with short and broad jaws; and also a true Alligator (Croc. Hantoniensis).
It is remarkable that forms of proccelian Crocodilia, now geographically re-
stricted—the Gavial to Asia, and the Alligator to America,—should have been
associated with true Crocodiles, and represented by species which lived during
nearly the same geological period, in rivers flowing over what now forms the
south coast of England.

Many species of proccelian Crocodilia have been founded on fossils from
miocene and pliocene tertiaries. One of these, of the Gavial subgenus (Croc.
crassidens) from the Sewalik tertiary, was of gigantic dimensions.

Order X. LAcERTILIA.

Vertebre proceelian, with a single transverse process on each side, and
with single-headed ribs: sacral vertebre not exceeding two.

Small vertebre of this type have been found in the Wealden of Sussex. They
are more abundant, and are associated with other and more characteristic
parts of the species in the Cretaceous strata. On such evidence have been
based the Raphiosaurus subulidens, the Coniosaurus crassidens, and the
Dolichosaurus longicollis. But the most remarkable and extreme modification
of the Lacertian type in the Cretaceous period is that manifested by the huge
species, of which a cranium, 5 feet long, was discovered in the Upper Chalk
of St. Peter’s Mount, near Maestricht, in 1780. This species, under the name
Mosasaurus, is well known by the descriptions of Cuvier. Allied species
have been found in the cretaceous strata of England and N. America. The
Leiodon anceps of the Norfolk chalk was a nearly allied marine Lacertian.
The structure of the limbs is not yet well understood; it may lead to a sub-
ordinal separation of the Mosasauroids from the Land-lizards, most of which

* mpd, before; KotXos, hollow : vertebra with the cup at the fore part and the ball behind.
T Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, January, 1849, p. 380.

166 REPORT—1859.

are represented by existing species, in which a close transition is manifested
to the next order,
Order XI. Ovnrpta *.

Vertebree very numerous, proccelian, with a single transverse process on
each side; no sacrum: no visible limbs.

The earliest evidence, at present, of this order is given by the fossil ver-
tebre of the large serpent (Paleophis, Ow.) from the London clay of Sheppey
and Bracklesham. Remainsof a poisonous serpent, apparently a Vipera, have
been found in miocene deposits at Sansans, S. of France. A large fossil ser-
pent (Laophis, Ow.), with vertebrae showing similar modifications to those in
the Crotali, has been discovered by Capt. Sprat, R.N., in a tertiary formation
at Salonica. Ophidiolites from CEningen have been referred to the genus
Coluber.

Order XIT. CHELONIAt.

The characters of this order, including the extremely and peculiarly modi-
fied forms of Tortoises, Terrapenes, and Turtles, are sufficiently well known.

The chief modifications of osseous structure in oolitic Chelonia are shown
by the additional pair of bones interposed between the hyosternals and hypo-
sternals of the plastron, in the genus Pleurosternon from the upper oolite at
Purbeck. It would be very hazardous to infer the existence of Reptiles with
the characteristic structure of the restricted genus Yestudo from the foot-
prints in the triassic sandstone of Dumfriesshire. But the Reporter concurs
in the general conclusions based upon the admirable figures and descriptions
in the splendid monograph by Sir Wm. Jardine, Bart., F.L.S., that some of
those foot-prints most probably belonged to species of the Chelonian order.

An enormous species of true turtle (Chelone gigas), the skull of which
measured one foot across the back part, has left its remains in the eocene
clay at Sheppey. ‘The terrestrial type of the order had been exemplified on a
still more gigantic scale by the Colossochelys of the Sewalik tertiaries.

Order XIII. BarraAcuiA}.

Vertebree biconcave (Siren), proccelian (Rana), or opisthoceelian (Pipa) ;
pleurapophysesshort, straight. Two occipital condyles and two vomerine bones,
iu most dentigerous: no scales orscutes. Larvee with gills, in most deciduous,
Representatives of existing families or genera of true Batrachia have been
found fossil, chiefly in tertiary and post-tertiary strata. Indications of a peren-
nibranchiate batrachian have recently been detected by the Reporter in a col-
lection of minute Purbeck fossils. Anourous genera (Paleophrynus) allied
to the Toad occur in the CEningen tertiaries, and here also the remains of
the gigantic Salamander (Andrias Scheuchzeri) were discovered.

Summary of the above defined Orders.
Province VERTEBRATA.

Class HmamMATOCRYA. Sub-class REprivia.
Orders.
I. Ganocephala. VIII. Dinosauria.
II. Labyrinthodontia. IX. Crocodilia.
II. Ichthyopterygia. X. Lacertilia.
IV. Sauropterygia. XI. Ophidia.
V. Anomodontia. XII. Chelonia.
VI. Pterosauria. XIII. Batrachia.

VII. Thecodontia.

* dois, a Serpent. Tt yedw27, a tortoise. t Barpayos, a frog.

ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF SCOTLAND. 167

On some Results of the Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years
1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request of the British Asso-
ciation, by the late Joun Weusu, Esq., F.R.S. By Baurour

Srewart, 4.M.

Tur much-lamented death of Mr. Welsh, who laboured in science so well
and so earnestly, and the last work of whose life was the completion of the
observations of the Magnetic Survey of Scotland, has imposed upon the author
the less arduous task of reducing those observations.

It is now somewhat more than twenty years since the first Magnetic
Survey of the British Islands was made, the results of which are recorded by
General Sabine in the Report of the British Association for 1838.

The General Committee at the Meeting held at Cheltenham in 1856,
feeling that the time had arrived when another survey of these islands would
be desirable, requested General Sabine, Prof. Phillips, Sir James C. Ross,
Mr. Robert W. Fox, and Rev. Dr. Lloyd, to undertake its repetition. It
was ultimately resolved that Mr. Welsh should proceed to Scotland, and
the Admiralty kindly granted £200 in aid of his expenses.

During the summer and autumn of 1857 Mr. Welsh performed the first
instalment of his task, confining himself to stations in the interior of Scot-
land and on the east coast. In the same season of 1858 he completed the
survey, by undertaking the west coast, the Hebrides, and the Orkney and
Shetland Isles. ‘This involved much personal fatigue and a great number
of observations, all of which were executed with the utmost possible accuracy
and scientific attention to details.

More was done for Scotland in this survey than in that of twenty years
ago. In the interval between the two surveys, improvements had been
made in the dip-circle and in the apparatus for measuring the total mag-
netic force. ‘These improvements were of course adopted in the instru-
ments employed in the late survey ; and, furthermore, observations of decli-
nation were made,—a thing which had not been previously attempted. The
survey thus divides itself into three parts: the first comprising the Observa-
tions of Dip ; the second those of Total Force; and the third those of Decli-
nation, which will be discussed in order.

Division I.—Dip.

The dip-circle (No. 23) was made by Barrow. Two needles were em-
ployed, each 34 inches long. The axle of the needle rests on two agate
planes, and its position is concentric with, but behind (as regards the observer)
the vertical divided circle on which the inclination is read. A moveable
arm, concentric with this circle, has two microscopes attached to it, the di-
stance between them being 3} inches, so that either extremity of the needle
may be brought into the centre of the field of the corresponding microscope.
The extremities of this moveable arm form verniers which bear upon the
vertical circle, and by means of which the position of the needle may be
very accurately determined. In November 1857, the following observations
were made with this instrument in different azimuths :-—

168 REPORT—1859.

Tanz I.
| Magnetic End A End B | Resulting
Needle. azimuth. | dipping. dipping. Mesa. | dip.
1 é 68 27°37 | 68 25-25 | 68 26:31 | 68 26-31
30 71 7-12] 71 600| 71 6561] 6¢ o¢75
120 78 50-75 | 78 49°50 | 78 50:12 f
60 78 52°50 | 78 52-00 | 78 52:25 ,
150 71 612 | 71 212] 71 4-12¢| 98 2558
2 0 68 24-12 | 68 29-00 | 68 2656 | 68 26-56
30 71 3-00 | 71 9:27| 71 6181) 9 o5.97 | *
120 78 48:25 | 78 45-75 | 78 47-00
60 78 44-87 | 78 51-62 | 78 48-25 :
150 71 400| 71 725 | 71 562s} 59 25°00

In this Table the resulting dips are calculated by the formula cot* é=
cot? i+ cot? i!, where dis the true dip, and 7 and 7 the positions of the needle
in azimuths 90° apart.

These results are satisfactory, and show that any errors due to the axle or
to local magnetism in the circle are inappreciable throughout the range of
observation; otherwise we should have had greater differences in the result-
ing dips. Now the portion of the circle so tested comprehends that used
during the magnetic survey ; we may therefore with safety suppose the circle
to be free from magnetism and error of axle as far as the results of the
survey are concerned. It will also be observed that the dips given by both
needles are very nearly the same; and although this amount of agreement
did not always hold throughout the survey, yet the average difference be-
tween the needles is exceedingly small. It has therefore been thought
unnecessary to apply any correction in the case of those stations (very few
in number) where only one needle was observed.

The following Table exhibits the results of a comparison made at Kew
Observatory between the Survey dip-circle (No. 23) and other reliable in-
struments, in March 1859 :—

Taste II.
Ea [nfs Number of ‘ Mean of
Circle. | Needle. observations. Dip. both needles.
No. 20 ] 4 6B 23:00] | co on.
. 2 4 68 24-74 | 68 28°87
33 1 4 68 23-26 a:
P 2 4 68 aLne ft SBsses
34 1 4 68 22°17
b 2 4 68 1997 f| 88 2107
23 1 2 68 24-78 fe
Me 2 2 68 92-26 5| 68 23:83
30 j 2 68 21-68
i 2 2 68 93-32 ¢| 98 2250
Kew 1 3 68 20°88
i 2 3 68 22-64 f| 98 2176
Mean of all circles ......... 68 22:5

ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF SCOTLAND. 169

It appears from this Table, that, while the mean of all the circles gives a dip
of 68° 22!°5, the observations with circle No. 23 give 68° 23'°5, or 1' higher.

This difference is so small, that it has been thought unnecessary to apply
any constant correction to the dips on account of it. It is therefore pre-
sumed that circle No. 23 is calculated to exhibit the true dip at the place of
observation.

An equal weight has been attached to each of the mean dips obtained at
the various stations, without regard to the number of observations made at
any station, in accordance with a remark of General Sabine, that an ab-
normal result is more likely to be due to local magnetism than to error in
observing.

The dips have been corrected for secular change to the epoch of Ist
January, 1858. The yearly rate of change has been ascertained by com-
paring the observations of the present with those of the previous survey.
The method is exhibited in the following Table :—

Lerwick......... 73 449 | 1838 | 73 11:9 | 1858 33:0 20 465
Aberdeen ......| 72 27°6 1838 71 49°3 1857 38°3 19 2°02
Kirkwall ......| 73 20°4 1838 72 40°9 1858 39°35 20 1:97
WACK Ji cccccseee 73 19:9 1838 72 39:5 1858 40°4 20 2°02
Golspie teesesls | 72 555 1836 72 25°0 1858 30°5 22 1:39
73 4:3 1838 72 25:0 1858 39°3 20 1:96

Inverness ....-- 72 46°4 1836 diodes 1857 38°5 21 1°83
72 46:2 1838 72 79 1857 38°3 19 2°01

Fort Augustus | 72 40°3 1836 72296 1857 37:7 21 1:80
Berwick.......++ 71 41:9 1838 70 54:8 1857 47-1 19 2°48
Melrose......-.-| 71 36°8 1836 70 54:7 1857 42-1 21 2°00
71 38:0 1837 40 54:7 1857 43°3 20 2°16

PANEOLG | cas.cnc-.| £2 21°9 1836 71 45°9 1857 36°0 21 171
Gretna ....06... 71 29:0 1837 70 46:0 1857 43°0 20 2°15
Edinburgh...... 71 50°3 1836 71 11:2 1857 39°1 21 1:86
71 50:0 1837 71 125 1858 37:5 21 1:79

Glasgow...seree- 72 16 1836 71 26:3 1857 35:3 21 1:68
72 50 1837 71 26°3 1857 38°7 20 1:93

Helensburgh ...| 72 16°7 1836 71 29°6 1857 47-1 21 2°24
72 17:0 1838 71 29°6 1857 47°4 19 2°49

Canpbelton ... 71 55°9 1836 71 14:0 1857 41:9 21 1:99
Cumbray ......| 72 11 1836 71 28°9 1857 32:2 21 1°53

Mean annual rate of decrease= 1°94

In reducing the dips to the epoch, a yearly rate of decrease of 1"94, or
in round numbers 2’, has accordingly been adopted. No other correction
has been applied to the observations. They are thus presented to our view
in the following Table :—

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*PpOOMIDYJON TIMO'T “MARZ 8.99099 “AI
UOTTIG AGATA
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ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF SCOTLAND.

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ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF SCOTLAND. 173

It is now necessary that these observations be combined together by the
method of least squares. This method is described by General Sabine, in
discussing the Magnetic Observations in Scotland, in the volume of Reports
of the British Association for 1836,

We are thus enabled to determine the most probable values of three un-
known! quantities ; viz. of =the dip at the central position; u=-the angle
which the isoclinal line passing through the central position makes with the
meridian ; and r=the coefficient, determining the rate of increase of the dip
in the normal direction, or that direction which is at right angles to the
isoclinal lines.

Using all the stations except Tobermorie (where the dip seems to be
much increased by local attraction), we obtain the following values of 4, u
and r; 6=71°-45', which represents the most probable value of the dip at
the central station, lat. 56° 48’ N., long. 4° 19! W.; u, or the angle which the
jsoclinal line makes with the meridian, = —71° 29’, or its direction is from N.
71° 29' E. to S., 71° 29! W.; and7, or the rate of increase of dip in the
normal direction, =0'556 for each geographical mile, or 53°95 such miles
for each half degree of dip.

The dip observations made use of in the previous survey of twenty years
ago consist of two sets (see Eighth Report of British Association, pp. 88-90).

1. Observations were made at ten stations by Sir James Ross; these give
5=72° 408 at the mean geographical position, 57° 20’ N., and 3° 08! W.,
and at the mean epoch, August 18, 1838; also u=—62° 39'; r=0'-545.

2, Observations were made at thirty-six stations by General Sabine and
Mr. Fox; these give u=—54° 20’; r=0''550; 6=72° 13'2 at the mean
geographical position 56° 18' N., and 4° 10' W. at the epoch, September 1,
1836.

Let us regard these results as each possessing a weight proportional to
the number of stations made use of in obtaining it, and let us reduce them
to the epoch Ist January, 1837, by assuming the approximate yearly
decrement of dip to be 2’, and the similar increment of the angle —u to
be 44/; also let us reduce d to the central station, lat. 56° 48! N.,
long. 4° 19’ W.

This station being the same as that used in the present survey, we have
thus the means of comparing the results of both surveys in the following
Table :—

Taste V.
Central Station.
Lat. Long. Epoch. 6. Ue r.
° é/ °o 4 ° ‘ io} / ‘
56 48N./ 4 19 W. |1 Jan. 1837) 72 31:9 —56 03 0°550
56 48N.| 4 19 W. /L Jan. 1858) 71 45:0 —71 29 0°556

We thus see that in twenty-one years the dip at the central station has
diminished 46-9, or its yearly rate of decrease is 2'-23; the value of —z, on
the other hand, has been increased by 15° 26’, or the isoclinal lines are so
much more nearly horizontal than they were in 1837; while 7, or the co-
efficient which denotes the change of dip in a normal direction, has altered
very little*.

* These changes will be rendered obvious by referring to a map appended to this Re-
port (Plate 6), in which the isoclinal lines for the two surveys are compared together.

174 REPORT—1859.

It has already been remarked, that the difference between the observed
and calculated dip for a station is more likely to be due to local attraction
than to error of observation. Local attraction, again, may be presumed to
depend on the geological formation of the neighbourhood. In the following
Table the difference between the observed and calculated dips is compared
with the geological character of the station.

In this Table, the latitudes and longitudes, unless when the contrary is
specified, are obtained from a Map of Scotland published by the Society for
the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, while the geological character of the
station is obtained from Prof. Phillips’ Geological Map of Great Britain and
Ireland.

Tasxe VI.
Observed] Dip cal- | Observed
‘ Dip re- | culated | minus Geological character of
Station. Lat. | Long. Reed to| by least | calculated ea
epoch. | squares.| Dip.
° é ie} eA ° 4 fe] / i
Berwick...........- 55 46} 200! 70 54:0] 70 58:4] — 4:4 |Clay-slate.
tMakerstoun ...... 55 85 | 2 81 | 70 55:2) 70 55-7} — 5°5 |Felspathie trap.
Melrose .......+.065 55 85 | 2 44 | 70 53:9) 70 57:0] — 3:1 |Soft clay-slate.
{Edinburgh......... 55 58 3 11] 71 11:5} 71 11:9] — 0:4 |Coal series.

Carstairs .,....... 55 43 | 38 40 | 70 55:5} 71 06:8) —11°3 |Coal.

GREWAL ss cracce ces: 55 01] 3 03 | 70 45:°2/ 70 40:9} + 4:3 |New Red sandstone.

Dumfries ......... 55 05 3 36 | 70 43-2) 70 46:3) — 3:1 |Ditto.

Newton Stewart..| 54 56 | 4 28] 70 53°8| 70 469} + 6°9 |Soft clay-slate.

Stranraer ......... 54 54 | 5 02] 70 54:8] 70 49:1} + 5:7 |Ditto.

AGT, sun opccucepsiase 55 28) 4 38 | 71 05-2| 71 04:6} + 0°6 (Coal.

TGlasgow ......... 55 52] 416] 71 25:7) 71 15:1] +10°6 |Ditto.
Lamlash ......... 55 31 | 5 05 | 71 05:7| 71 09:0) — 3:3 |Old Red sandstone and trap.
TBrisbane ......... 55 49 4 52 | 71 82:0) 71 17:0} +15:0 |Ditto, ditto.

Cumbray ......... 55 48 | 4 52 | 71 28:3] 71 166] +11°7 |Old Red sandstone.

Helensburgh...... 56 02 | 4 43 | 71 28:5] 71 23:0] + 5:5 |Mica schist.

tLochgoilhead ...| 56 10 | 4 54 | 71 166| 71 28:3) —11*7 |Ditto,

Campbelton ...... 55 25 | 5 41 | 71 18:3] 71 09:4; + 3:9 |Old Red sandstone and mica
schist assuciated with pri-
mary limestone.

tArdrishaig......... 56 01 | 5 27 | 71 25:2) 7] 26:9} — 1:7 |Chlorite slate.

Obany. eBid: 56 27 | 5 26 | 71 29:3] 71 40-4) —11:1 /Trap and Qld Red sandstone.

Corpach............ 56 51 | 5 08 | 71 52°7| 71 51:3] + 1:4 |Granite and gneiss.

Fort Augustus ...) 57 09 | 4 40 | 72 02:0] 71 58:0 + 4:0 |Mica schist.

Inverness ......... 57 28 | 411] 72 07:3) 72 05:2} + 2:1 |Old Red sandstone.

LD aii ipcescncaetiecos 57 39 | 319 | 72 07:7] 72 06:2} + 1°5 |Ditto, and oolite.

LHR ocaba saboacacne 57 39 | 2 81 | 71 55-9] 72 016} — 5:7 |Gneiss and granite.

Peterhead mereeae 57 31} 1 46 | 71 54:2] 71 53:2)| + 1:0 |Granite.

Aberdeen ......... 57 09 2 05 | 71 48:9, 71 43:1} + 5°8 |Ditto.

Kantore) (2.2. a-op- 57 15 | 2 23] 71 36:3} 71 48:1} —11°8 |Ditto, and gneiss.

Alford). cp cecceeur> 57 14| 245) 71 45:4] 71 49-7] — 4:3 |Gneiss.

Braemar ......... 57 01 8 25 | 71 30°8| 71 46:5} —15°7 |Ditto.

{Pitlochry ......... 56 42 | 3 43 | 71 34:8] 71 38:3] — 3:5 |Mica schist and gneiss.

Dalwhinnie ...... 56 56 | 4 17] 71 39:0} 71 49:0} —100 |Gneiss.

uarbertie st isac 0 56 02 3 49 | 71 33°0| 71 17°38} +15:2 |Coal.

Ardrossan ......... 55 89 | 4 47 | 71 145; 71 11:3) + 3:2 |Ditto.

Port Askeg ...... 55 52 6 08 | 71 14:6} 71 26:2} -—11°6 |Mica schist.

Bridgend ......... 55 48] 6 16 | 71 16:0} 71 248) — 88

Port Ellen......... 55 40] 6 10] 71 05:2] 71 20:1} —14°9 |Ditto.

+ Determined by astronomical observations.
+ Obtained through the kindness of Colonel James.

ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF SCOTLAND. 175

TaBieE VI. (continued.)

Observed] Dip cal- | Observed
i Dip re- | culated | minus Geological character of
Station. ats | HOug aged to | by least | calculated % station.
epoch. | squares.| Dip.
° / ° / a
Tobermorie ...... 56 39 | 6 02] 72 47-9| 71 50-1| +57°8 |Trap.
Glenmorven ...... 56 88 | 5 58 | 72 03:2) 71 49:2} +14:0 |Ditto.
{Balmacarra ...... 57 17-| 5 39 | 72 13:8] 72 7-9} + 5‘9 |Gneiss associated with quartz
and Old Red sandstone.

tKyleakin ......... 57 16 | 5 44] 72 11:7| 72 7:9} + 3:8 |Old Red sandstone.
Broadford ......... 57 15| 551] 72 168| 72 8-0} + 8:8 |Trap and lias.
POLiEl 2,1... 00505. 57 26 | 6 12} 72 02:3) 72 15°8| —13°5 |Oolite and trap.
Stornoway......... 58 15 | 6 23 | 72 33:7| 72 42:3} — 86 |Gneiss.
*Callinish ......... 58 10 | 6 44 | 72 35:2} 72 41°6| — 6:4 |Ditto.
PGFOSS, © S.0..c0055%.| 58 29] 617 | 72 50°2| 72.491} + 1:1 |Ditto.
Loch Inver ...... 58 10 | 5 12 | 72 36:9] 72 33:1) + 3°8 |Ditto. [mary limestone.
WUENESS: css: ese: 58 34 | 4 44 | 72 51°3] 72 43:1) + 8:2 |Ditto, associated with pri-
SEER fois coves ees 58 35 | 3 82 | 72 34:0] 72 37°0| — 3:0 \Old Red sandstone.
{Stromness......... 58 57 | 3 16 | 72 46:8] 72 47-1| — 0-3 |Ditto.
RENWICK: ..... 010005 60 09 1 08 | 73 13:2} 73 141} — 0°9 |Ditto.
irkwall ...dsis- 58 59 | 2 58 | 72 42:2) 72 46:6} — 4:4 |Ditto.
AVG a ae 58 25 | 3 05 | 72 40:8) 72 29:2} +11°6 |Ditto.
RAGUNDIG fae ss. éeains 57 58 | 3 58 | 72 26:3] 72 19:9) + 6:4 Oolite and Old Red sandstone.
Dingwall ......... 57 84 | 4 25 | 72 25°8| 72 09°7| +16:1 (Old Red sandstone.

+ Obtained through the kindness of Colonel James.
* Obtained through the kindness of Mr. Stanford, Charing Cross.

Let us now divide the stations according to their geological character into
two groups, the first group comprising the unstratified rocks, trap, and
granite; and the second every other formation. We shall find that there
are thirteen stations, including Tobermorie, in the former, and forty-one
stations in the latter group.

The sum of the squares of the differences between the observed and cal-
culated dip for the thirteen stations is 43942, and, consequently, the mean
probable error is 12’°9.

If we exclude Tobermorie, these numbers are 1053'4, 66. For the
group of forty-one stations we have the sum of squares=2486''1, and the
mean probable error=5'3.

We thus see that, whether we include Tobermorie or leave it out, the
mean probable error of dip for those stations in the neighbourhood of igneous
rocks is greater than for those where the formations are of a stratified
description.

Division I].—Total Force.

These observations were taken by two different methods.

1. Method of deflections and vibrations—The instruments here used, and
the method of observation, are already so well known, that it is unnecessary
to describe them. Full details regarding these will be found in the Ad-
miralty Manual of Scientific Inquiry, 3rd edit., 1859. By means of deflec-

. m . .
tions, , or the ratio between the magnetic moment of the magnet used and

the earth’s horizontal force at any station, is obtained, and by means of
vibrations we obtain mX or the product of the same quantities, Haying

176 REPORT—1859.

thus obtained both = and m X, either of the quantities m, X may now be found.

The earth’s horizontal force for any station being thus found, we have
only to divide it by the cosine of the observed dip at the station taken at
the same time, in order to find the total magnetic force.

The following observations with the instrument used in the survey were
made at Kew as a base station.

Taste VII.
Total Magnetic Force obtained by the Survey Unifilar.

Date of observation, Total force

BAU PO Sele eiiaye'steleies gi bye oy ett hei Re wa eee
SA ee LE oi yee AR te ato lo das Sisal eee oS vs eae

Octs, Vas ets ese ROWS ete oe ar OBES
Pegi 5) a ke GA Pe A Oe ER DR Se me 10°301
1858.

AUUMG uO teers interes BP] ewuere eistoussoy sek beauaegeh use COL
OD RUM NEES re Pee cand aus Yate 218 she cioseUleie ahd Seperate 10°291
Ne arte SRE ee cist ate cedeb eee eee cee LOZ UR
Seay Tee: Oe, Sage Ee ARE cee teete a ecient 10°304

Mean’ 78-*-sce ero 10°295

We may without error regard this mean result as the value in British
units of the total magnetic force given by the instrument used in the survey
at Kew Observatory, and corresponding to the epoch Ist January, 1858.
The following series of observations made by another equally reliable in-
strument, also at Kew, affords perhaps a still more reliable determi-

nation.
Taste VIII.

Total Magnetic Force obtained by the Kew Unifilar.

Date of observation, Total force,
monthly means.
Reprised is. BO) ae aes BREW yo ciety 10°3025
May shore pindnis a aisichsy areieetereneys 10°3080
UU Oats GP GLomorEniow incase cere ac HOGG cos atin L 10-300
NLT 2 Sais ieta sia! Od, 5 da © dain BAAS 5 Un eee ae ee 10°306
PUEEIES EN <r. a 5:6. 5 < m por miel iat nek Meee eRe ae 10°287
eptember ise. Fer OL a ke Hee Meee Ce Seas oye
Oetober ioe. aes 21s OMe RR isiane ie aiteetn (Naser 10°315
1858.
RENAL. ros wag iets Rae no ate ea aie gio wa cme 10°282
eWIIAIN 2. ferara, tnceks Ae aes Hout Seeicoranee a aie 10°299
1 |e ee oe SO Gio TGO> OW tees aces P aia s rade 10°296
v NS) yt RA eee Ee ney Srercyaheho Nols aiectece sgereneicte ete 10°291
May SSS SUE ae 5 cofohe, Fis Rea 10°3075
oD VERE S Sah a tela, sake sateen Siri, wh Sakchertnie 'aje sixes sve ea ore. oe 10°280
DULY che ose ali ea IIMS Ces one! koshe x &ejayenene aye 10°296
AD OSG gc: ith aes RIC AS chabiwes' 0500's bias ie 10°302
Septeniber 45 AR eR ee. ws cc eRe ce 10°2875
October eo: 0 aes tation. care wd oon eee 10°317
Noveurier s. c.c Some ited Bieawlens wince ta Benepe 10°301

Total force, January 1858, most probable value.... 10°299

ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF SCOTLAND. 177

‘It will be seen how nearly this value coincides with that given by the
Scotch survey instrument.

No correction of any kind has been applied to the observed values of total
force at the different stations.

At some of the stations vibrations only were taken. In such cases, it is
necessary to know the moment of the magnet at the time of observation, in
order to eliminate it from the product m X. This may easily be found;
for every complete observation gives us a value of m, as well as of X.

These values of m will be found to vary with the time, because the magnet
is gradually losing magnetism, and in consequence its moment is slowly
diminishing. If, therefore, we combine these values together, each year
separately, by the method of least squares, we shall be enabled to express
the magnetic moment in terms of the time. We have used this method to

- find the value of X in those cases in which vibrations alone were taken; but
for those in which both vibrations and deflections were observed, X has been
determined by means of the two equations thereby furnished.

In the following Table are exhibited the values of X obtained by both these
methods, and also the value of the total force for the different stations
obtained from the observed values of horizontal force and dip, by means
of the formula—

Tasie IX.
Greenwich wt Greenwich
F mean time| 7% | mean time | Calculated) Total
Station. Date. mX. of ob- x of ob- _|value of m. x. force,
servation. servation.
1857. h m h m
Makerstoun ...... Aug. = SZAS ht sete tee Nata ceriee Wittman ceetees 34620} 10548
AUT aie sy dues 5| 1°7225 1 Op.) 143882} 2 4pm 7 Rene
| 1 arene aaee ee 14389| 2 4 0 | proree 34604) 10/505
Dumfries ......... A nee i! 22 Se peas 49777 | 34714) 10519
: 55 A.M. - 44
eee Se apeey 14460} 044 = | footer 4424) 10523
re A | poe Gr AT KO Ye ek FO DT” Sele 49767 | 34381) 10°519
22] 1:7000 O 4pm.)}-14561} 059 | ou... 34171} 10548
25] 1:7061 6 11 NAAOS) i feer Dt © us ee 3°4310} 10°595
Helensburgh...... 28} 1:6662 1 40 W14846))/ Ola. © “lr ee 33500} 10-538
Lochgoilhead ... 29) 1:6805 SOE - OE Atl eee tee 49735 | 33789) 10-531
Ardrishaig......... Sept. 4] 1:6740 417 7) els (a ee ae 33677 | 10:575
Oban........ Oa 7| 1:6653 | 11 28 as.) 14829] 10 385 4.m) ......... 3:3511| 10-560
Corpach ......... 8| 1-6541 2 25 pm.) 14946 | 1 41 pat) ......... 3°3267| 10-702
Fort Augustus ... 9| 1-6312 Sette | raeeeea lin oceans 2 :
Inverness ......... 11 | 16255 Le fit P| PLAID RAO St Fe ere
16319 4°36) 2 (CHDL26 i SULOS? © | 9 ee:
1-6320 1
16318 3 hal pe etiam Mier ee
1:6329 (0 ee? Sinaia ics [509/53 i Bh ees ae el
16520 1 Oe Ks See ct £20 a 0 Bs
: 16440 | 10 20am.) 14943; 285 | o.ch...
4} 1:6657 Die AD PMNs sont lleeweesesetek
16521. | 11 19 a.m.) 14924] 10 34 4m.) .........
5 ATE ia Gaede
onan | 14869" 3 Opa! See
OTe as 8 28 SS ae

Total force=

horizontal force
psec kee nee

cosine dip

178 REPORT—1859.

Taste IX. (continued.)

Geceamacl| Grenwich : ep
: mean time ms | mean time |Calculate ota
Station. pete. mK. of ob- X* | of ob- |valueof m. zs force.
servation. servation.
1858. hm fe i. 5
Makerstoun Rule ely Pe te.te tal esc esceyl 14080 56 A.M. = APO: :
2 As tere Pal tea aie 14079 | O 42 pm. \ A87q0 42:2626| 105%
Edinburgh 9), 1:66PA> | 8 43 Eat) sces.-cll os “<sraeeees 48748 | 34101) 10:586
10| 1:6573 | 11 51 am) 14846) 041 | on 3°3988 | 10°551
Ardrossan .....+++ 12) 1:6663 | 3 38p.m/-14260) 150 | ......... 3-4184| 10-621}
Port Askeg 17) 16718 1 18 AD G 2 LE eee 34293 | 10°655
Bridgend ........- 19| 1:6722 4 32 “A199 oD 04) Oreste oee 3:-4817| 10°675
Tobermorie 24) 1:5874 | 5 17 1743650 BMA ONE goeeree: 3:1560| 10-661
Glenmorven 26} 1:6382 en Ve See ete acc 48733 | 3:°3616| 10-899
Balmacarra 28| 1:5838 | 0 49 THO0D | 2 35 ).- de uackaees 32489} 10-634
Kyleakin ........- 5 15862 7 Be Serica ete 48730 | 3:2551| 10-636
Broadford ........- 1| 1:5854 | 11 30am) -14979 | 10 34M. Or :
Bid sacl ete cowe age6 | 10 85 | fee Spe dime ee
Portree .........+++ Aug. 3} 1:5951 Giedispine|chseesaes |) © ooeranes 48726 | 32787} 10605
Stornoway........- 6| 1:5604 | 9 59 4am)-15201 |} 1058 | ......... 32039 | | 49.
6| 1:5655 | 2 81 em)-15207)11 31 | ........ 3:2085
Callinish ......... Ou DECS RSE SIE OR|\icc.-c clk ot coneves 48720 | 3:1949| 10-666
(Ors0)s teneoqneroondane 11} 1:5459 1 21 15354 | 2 53 p.m. Sis rs
TH ear ete ts o305 | 317 [fe ee Se
Loch Inver 16| 1:5357 1 10 |
16 | 1:5260 TUS ea SAILS a al eR ‘48714 | 31446] 10:51
16| 15399 | 5 2 |]
Durness.........+-- TOY ESB SO TNO Aaa | se secaens ‘48711 | 3:1574| 10-697
Thurgo ......0.006- OS in Dy MMPS pmacage! | vac=naeaee -48707 | 3:2017| 10-674
Lerwick..........+- 30} 1:5103 1 17 15675 | 2 21 sesseeeee | OL041 | 10°738
Kirkwall ......... Sept. 1] 15475 | 11 194.m]-15288 | O18 | weer 31815
1:5572 DO) 1Oeae| Th 26Gs i 1S. Ne Paes 31937 | | 10°721
1| 15582 als eat ee cemec ll) oh ecb bee bes 48699 | 31996
Wickiiocresscssscens 4} 1:5531 Tehri: | vespaamete 48696 | 31894) 10-700
Golspie .........5+ Gl Tear beat ie bale ceeeeealls Keaeetee 48693 | 32299} 10-692
Dingwall ........- 9| 1:5647 1 iy ies © || emi eee NOP see aae ye 48691 | 321384) 10632

It may be observed, in passing, that the moments in the above table show
us that the loss of magnetism of the needle was much more rapid during the
first year than the-second ; the reason being, that the needle had been mag-
netized about the beginning of 1857, and was therefore during the first
year’s observations a comparatively new magnet.

It is now necessary to combine our total forces by the method of least
squares. If we exclude Loch Inver and Glenmorven, both of which seem to
be much affected by local disturbance, we obtain f, or the total force at the
central station, lat. 56° 55’ N., long. 4° 21! W.=10°614; uw, or the angle
which the isodynamic lines make with the meridian=—52° 45', or their
direction is from N. 52° 45! E. to S. 52° 45’ W.; andr, or the rate of in-
crease of total force ina normal direction=-000961 (British units) for each
geographical mile.

It will be remembered that the unifilar used in the Scotch survey gave
the total force at Kew=10°295.

Let us suppose that this number represents with sufficient accuracy the
total force in London, which is only a few miles from Kew, on lst Jan.
1858. :

ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF SCOTLAND. 179

Making this our unit, we obtain the following values of f and r for the
central station, f=1:0309; »=-0000933.

We may now compare together the two surveys, with respect to u and 7,
in the following Table ;—

TaBLE X.
Central Station.
Lat. Long. Epoch. u. r.
56 40N.} 3 30 W.| 1Jan.1837 | —50 02 | -0001320
56 55N.|] 441 W.| 1 Jan. 1858 —52 45 0000933

From this Table, it would seem that the angle uw has changed yery little
during the twenty-one years between the two surveys; while, on the other
hand, r, or the change of force in the normal direction for one geographical
mile, appears to have diminished considerably.

In the following Table the observed values of total force are compared
with those calculated for the various stations :—

Tasie XI.
Observed Calculated Observed
Station. Total Force. | Total Force. Pn al
Makerstoun ...... cree 10°546 10°517 +:029
Edinburgh ........s.sseeceeees 10°558 10°548 +°010
(SERENA Sno ROAR oineres 10°505 10501 +004
WOTIIITICR: <ecostanccccsseeesas 10°519 10°515 +:°004
Newton Stewart ....... aire 10°523 10°525 —°002
Stranraer arre 10°519 10°535 —'016
DS SRS AE EPPO ACOBEEEOBEEDIOG aoe 10°548 10°553 —"005
Lamlash......... fan capreavies ea 10°595 10-564 +:031
Helensburgh ........ccssse00 10:538 10°581 —043
Lochgoilhead............000... 10°531 10°590 —°059
AVOTISHBIP ....cccensensescusess 10°575 10°594 —'019
Riis eta iktesds cate esdadaes ses 10°560 10°614 —'054
OGNAGI sco eter acesssyascasens _10°702 10°626 +:076
Fort Augustus soccer... sesoes 10°647 10°631 +°016
PIMETHOSSaccacctctseseeeaves ot 10°667 10-636 +:031
Bapie s.csve nastectavaces t= sete 10596 10°614 —'018
PECCUMGOG Yous cyaiidceaescaqes'cs 10°582 10°594 —'012
INHOCRAGEID «.c.asdccxesonascooaes 10°543 10°582 —'039
MOLOLE tna hoccapsss ce eans reves 10°550 107592 —'042
PAMESSU Seg ss eslcassaviseaseses evi 10°599 10°598 +:001
WAVACIUR ES stccs sven cegesess ccs 10°587 10°601 —'014
PGIGGHENE Mewes eccaea decks acs 10°535 10°592 —'057
IDAIWVEINDIO Msc. isaygergers os cee 10°598 10°614 —'016
Taper teow tenets seansoacisnas 10°552 10°563 —0ll
AATOROSSANY secre onans cenit sacaas 10°621 107564 +057
Orb ASKER te empatedegas stays 10°655 10°601 +:054
Bridgend’ "sicveckavevel..cee He 10°675 10°600 +:075
MOUENMOLIE!) Geass <ges+es .sy'eer 10°661 10°634 +:027
GIeNMOLVEN peseee.sseuegse-s. 10°899 10-632 +:267

nQ2

180 REPORT—1859.

Tasie XI, (continued.)

Observed Calculated hesoaatia

Station. Total Force. | Total Force. : 2
lated.
Balmacarra,..cscsccssseeessseee 10°634 10°655 —021
Kyleakin ...........000+ Saeses 10°636 10°656 —°020
Broadford ..1......sseeeeeeeees 10°682 10°658 +024
POrtreey saccsbessscctssestvesces 10°605 10°673 — ‘068
Stornoway ....eccsesceeserseees 10°689 10-713 —'024
CALlNISN Wil sescsereaneevanccess 10°666 10°715 —'049
WY OSS icacecesthacescuse-ovssseves 10°742 10°721 +:021
Loch Invef........scesesescesees 10-512 10°687 —175
DUNNIESS ots cciccadcseccewsasesss 10°697 10°697 -000
Thurso) <.cs08.:-s Sehsuesavenes 10°674 10°676 —*002
Lerwick ......... OR Roper 10°738 10°707 +:031
Kirk wallese.scasestesesetoacss- 10°721 10-684 +°037
Wick?! cssstedsarceadsoemesss 10-700 10-660 +'040
Golspie ..cccccssesseeee ee 10°692 10655 +'037
Dingwall 10°632 10°645 —013

If we divide the stations as before into two groups, the first comprising
trap and granite, and the second every other formation, we shall find that
there are twelve stations, including Glenmorven, in the former, and thirty-
one stations, including Loch Inver, in the latter class,

The sum of the squares of the differences between the observed and cal-
culated force for the twelve stations is =*0915 (British units), and, con-
sequently, the mean probable error is ‘061.

If we exclude Glenmorven, these numbers are :0202, ‘030.

For the group of thirty-one stations we have—

Sum of squares=‘0577 ; mean probable error=-0380.

If we exclude Loch Inver, these numbers are *0270, :020.

We thus see, that whether we include Glenmorven and Loch Inver or
leave them out, the mean error of force for those stations in the neighbour-
hood of igneous rocks is greater than for those where the formations are of
a stratified description.

In the second map attached to this Report (Plate 7), the isodynamic lines
for 1st January, 1837, are compared with those for Ist January, 1858; the
force at London being reckoned=unity in both cases. It will be noticed,
however, that we have no record of the absolute change that has taken
place in the total force between the two epochs, as we have no absolute
measure of the force at London for 1st January, 1837.

2. Dr. Lloyd’s Statical Method. —In this method the dip circle is
employed. A needle is loaded with a small weight, and its position of equi-
librium enables us to find the product of its magnetic moment into the
earth’s magnetic force. The needle is then removed and attached to an arm
at right angles to that which carries the microscopes, it being now used to
deflect another needle substituted in its former place.

The moveable arm is next turned round until the deflected needle assumes
a position at right angles to the deflecting needle, so that the extremities of
the former are viewed by the microscopes. ‘The position of the deflected
needle enables us to find the ratio between the magnetic moment of the
deflecting needle and the earth’s magnetic force. A detailed description of
his instrument is given by the Rev. H. Lloyd in the Transactions of the Roya
Irish Academy for 1858. ;

ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF SCOTLAND. 181

In determining the total force by this method, a constant is made use of,
which is best found at the base station by comparison with a unifilar. A
priori, there is no reason for supposing that this constant will change, so
that it only requires to be determined once for all; yet, in the instrument
used in the Scotch survey, there is reason for supposing that a change in the
value of the constant took place between the first year and the second.

This will be seen by the following Table, which exhibits the values of the
total magnetic force given by the circle at Kew at different periods, the same
constant being used throughout :—

Taste XII.

Total Force.

eae of Face of

eflected | deflected

Date. needle to | needle to
the East. | the West.

1857.

Aug. 10°310
10:309

Oct. 10°257
10°252

1858.

Jan. 10:274
10269

June eocere nae 10°228
ansleseawa 10°212
pa isneey 10:230
BAe a5 10°212
dake a 10:214

Noy. 10°293
10°288

Dec 10°294
10°288
10°293
10°286

1859,
Helse ocsenc tase 10°314

From this Table it will be seen, that while the instrument with the face of
the deflected needle to the east gave on the 6th of August, 1857, a reading as
high as 10-310, on the 15th of October of the same year this had fallen as
low as 10°252, from which it gradually rose again, until in February, 1859,
it had attained the same value as at first.

The constant seems to have been chosen to make the first two observa-
tions of August 6 and 7, 1857, give a value for the total force=10°310, but
from a table already given, its most probable value about this period was found
to be 10°299, ornearly 10°300. Let us, therefore, deduct 0:01 from the values
of total force obtained by this method during the first year’s survey, for in
these the same constant and arrangement of instrument were employed, which
gave the value 10°31 at Kew. We thus obtain the following table of com-
parison between the results obtained during the first year by the two me-
thods :—

1892 REPORT—1859.

Tanie XIII.

Total force.

(1) By | (2) By the
Station. Date. | Dr.Lloyd’s} method of | (2)—(1)
method. | vibration.

—SSS=| | ———————

1857.
Makerstoun ............++. Aug. 10 10527 10548 +:021
LER SATE agagrtnndnousbensnoer 15 10°475 10°505 +:030
IDE) Baernoac. abaoaanee 17 10°497 10°519 +:022
Newton Stewart ......... 18 10°530 10°523 —'007
19 10°531 10°523 —008
Stranraer <....cecareasterss 20 10527 10°519 —*008
YS < 50ctsec cece sas heoaNnton 22 10529 10°548 +°019
22 10°525 10°548 +:023
Lamlash.........<sdshseises 25 | *10°571 10°595 +:024
Helensburgh ............+4- 28 10°551 10-538 —'013
Lochgoilhead ....+.4.4..: 29 10°547 10°531 —-016
Helensburgh ............... Sept. 3 10°561 10-538 —*023
3 10-564 10°538 —026
Ardrishaig .............0.05- 4 10°560 10°575 +:015
Obantcesct ec sectecssse ne i 10°582 10560 —022
Gorpachtees.e esteem <2 8 10°685 10-702 +:017
Fort Augustus ............ 9 10°663 10-647 —016
TNVErNESS (7...2s42<0-0s+e0s> It 10°673 10-668 —"005
atiior eases cate ters as ens 16 10°576 10°596 +°020
Peterhead ..........5.05.08: 17 10°540 10582 +7042
Aberdeen ..........%:si2323 19 10°567 10°543 —*024
KntOre . uc... scusckeasodde 21 10°610 107550 —'060
Alford yeas; acc .aeoeetseer aa 22 10°594 10-599 +:005
Braemar ..........écssc4a¢ 24 10°564 10°587 +023
we EPItlOGHTY, G.s0.de0aos es caes 28 10°551 10°535 —-016
LT tit oaceoodon dees sacbos- Oct. 1 | 410541 10°552 +011
dmb UGE bee scars eesse ee 5 10522 10°536 +014

* Altered the western Y of the lifter before taking this observation. Again at Oban.
+ Tightened screws before this observation.

It appears from this Table, that, considering the results obtained by the me-
thod of vibrations as standards with which to compare those obtained by Dr.
Lloyd’s process, the latter are found to. differ in several instances considerably
from the former, sometimes in a positive and sometimes in a negative di-
rection. Proceeding now to the observations of 1858, I find that these were
taken with the face of the deflected needle to the west. They are therefore
comparable with the five observations taken at Kew during June 1858. The
mean of these five observations gives 10°219 as the value of the total force at
Kew. This is ‘08 less than the probable value; so that we ought to add this
amount to all the observations taken by this process during 1858. We thus
obtain, as before, the following table, in which the results of the two methods
for 1858 are compared together :—

—

ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF SCOTLAND. 183

TasLe XIV.

Total force

PRTUOSSAIN cpcses ecsenttos.- July 12 10°614 10°621 +°007
BOK ASkee FiF..18 ie 16 10°714 10°655 —'059
Brrdpend ; pt isetesereceste.: 19 10°703 13°675 —°028
Tobermorie ............04- 24 10°799 10'661 —'138
Glenmorven ..........00065 26 10°754 10°899 +°145
IRIIIGCAITA vcsesietcocsses 28 10°692 10°634 —°058
Weyleakin ..5t503..03..3655. 29 10°672 10°636 —'036
Broadford .....:........008 30 10°693 10°682 — 011
BRortree c.citciscs tisseeees: 30 10°636 10°605 —'031
BHORUGWAY,...0s0c0ccscscen.- Aug. 5 10°727 10°689 —038
RGHERNINIL > vtciduce rege sascas 10 10°741 10°666 —*075
MOTONS rectors sti ssceieetcccets 1l 10°759 10°742 —'017
Loch Inver ...<....:..00% 16 10°619 10°512 — 107
16 10°636 10°512 —'124

DIGETESS):354.s0wsFascectesees 18 10°743 10°697 —*046
AMROMIES Os acces case sess scackes « 23 10°684 10°674 —'010
MME WiIC Rens disPacscveccecees 30 10°716 10°738 +-022
Kirkwall siscisccdiecccssds 31 10°727 10°721 —'006
NE, cw cas poseecaceatet Sept. 4 10°720 10°700 —'020
Golépie. ..cicccccvesdscsesees vl 10°708 10°692 —'016
Be wall 6. ..ctis.20he0xi0~ 9 10°696 10°632 —‘064

By this Table we see that the constant which suited the observations taken
at Kew in June 1858 does not suit those taken in Scotland a month or two
afterwards, for, when applied to them, it makes the resulting force too great.
The instrument must therefore have changed its constant between June and
July in such a manner, that, had it been observed at Kew in July, it would
have given a larger reading than it gave in June. This agrees with what we
inferred from the observations of Table XII. taken at Kew with the face of
the deflected needle to the east, viz. that a rise in the readings must have
taken place at some time between January and November 1858. To con-
clude,—in this case at least, the results obtained by Dr. Lloyd’s method do not
bear comparison in accuracy with those determined by means of the method
of vibrations. I have therefore made no use of the former in deducing ge-
neral results.

Division Il].—Deeclination.

During the first year (1857) the Declination observations were made in
the following manner. A collimator magnet was employed, the division on
the glass scale of which corresponding to the magnetic axis was first accu-
rately determined. Great care was taken that the collimator scale should not
be touched, or its position with reference to the magnet in any way altered*.

* There is every reason to believe that this care was successful in securing a fixed position
of the magnetic axis with reference to the scale. From a determination at Kew before the
commencement of the first year’s survey, 49°7 on the scale denoted the magnetic axis. Be-

184 REPORT—1859.

An altitude and azimuth instrument by Cary, on a tripod firmly placed, was
turned until the division on the glass scale of the magnet corresponding to
the magnetic axis coincided with the vertical wire of the telescope, and the
azimuth circle was then read. The altitude and azimuth instrument was then
turned towards the sun, the time at which his centre crossed the middle wire
was found by a chronometer, whose error and rate were known, and the read-
ing of the azimuth circle was noted. The latitude and longitude of the place
and the time of observation being supposed to be known, the astronomical
azimuth of the sun at the moment of observation is given by a well-known
formula. The difference between the readings of the azimuth circle for the
sun’s centre and the magnetic axis enables us then at once to determine the
magnetic declination. The altitude and azimuth instrument was often allowed
to remain in position for some hours, during which time occasional readings
of the magnetic axis were taken, and at the same time the azimuth of some
fixed object was read occasionally, in order to see if the tripod-stand had
shifted. The silk thread by which the magnet was suspended was carefully
kept as free from torsion as possible, and the amount of torsion was moreover
examined and eliminated from time to time. The amounts occasionally found
to be present were always of such trifling consequence that no correction on
their account has been applied to the observations.

The chronometer used was a pocket instrument by Arnold and Dent, No.
5155. Its rate appears to have been somewhat irregular, owing probably
to the motion it received in travelling. At almost every station, however,
altitudes of the sun were taken, by which the correct time, and consequently
also the error of the instrument, were determined.

For one or two stations no altitudes were taken, and consequently no chro-
nometer error determined. Here the following method was pursued. A
correction was applied to the last determined chronometer error, depending
upon the time that had elapsed since, and on the most probable chronometer
rate. The chronometer error so corrected was used in the azimuth observation
of the station whose altitude observation was wanting.

During the years 1858 and 1859 self-recording magnetometers were con-
tinuously in operation at Kew Observatory, by means of which the magnetic
declination at any moment might be determined. ‘The traces furnished by
the declination magnetometer have been reduced at General Sabine’s office
at Woolwich, and the hourly means of the declination, free from disturbance,
for every month of both those years have been determined. This enables us
to say with great accuracy what correction ought to be applied to a declina-
tion observation taken at Kew at any hour of any month of any year near
this date, in order to reduce it to the 3lst of December (mean of all the
hours) of the same year in which it was taken.

Presuming that these corrections are also applicable to Scotland, and to
1857, they have been used in reducing the observations of declination taken
in that year to the epoch of January 1, 1858. In reducing those taken in
1858 a somewhat different method has been pursued. During that year the
Kew magnetometers, as already mentioned, were in operation. Suppose that
we take the mean of all the hours of January 1858, freed from disturbance, as

fore the second year’s suryey its position had changed to 49-0 (an inconsiderable difference).
At Thurso, on August 23, 1858, the magnet was observed erect and inverted, and 49-0 was
still found to denote the axis. At Lerwick, the next station after Thurso, the glass scale
was wiped, after which the axis appears to have changed; but, as in every observation after-
wards the magnet was viewed both erect and inverted, this shifting of the axis was of littl
consequence, .

ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF SCOTLAND. 185

representing approximately the declination at the epoch of January 1, 1858.
It will not do so exactly, because it will correspond to the middle and not to
the beginning of January ; but the difference will be so trifling, that we may
suppose the correspondence to be exact without further refinement.

Now, by means of the traces of the magnetograph we can find the difference
between the declination at Kew at any moment of 1858 and that corre-
sponding to the epoch of January 1, 1858, as above defined. And this we
can do even if a considerable magnetic disturbance be going on at the mo-
ment we fix upon for comparison with the epoch, because this disturbance
is registered by the magnetograph, and it may therefore be measured and
allowed for.

Now, the moment at which the needle was observed at any station in Scot-
land in the year 1858 has been recorded ; if, therefore, we suppose the same
magnetic changes to take place simultaneously in Scotland and at Kew, the
indications of the Kew magnetograph will afford us the means of reducing
accurately the observations of declination taken in Scotland in 1858 to our
epoch January 1, 1858. This method has been pursued with these obser-
vations.

The following Table exhibits the most probable value of the absolute
declination at Kew corresponding to lst January, 1858, the method of reduc-
tion to epoch being that now mentioned :—

TaBLe XV.
Declination.
Time of Needle
Date. : Reduced
Observation. used. Observed. | to epoch
1 Jan. 1858.
1858. h m lil
an. 5/10 5S a.m. Survey 21 57°5 21 563
5) 2 10 pM. 7 22 30
Feb, 4| 413 ,, a 21 58:6
5) 10 31 a.m. +" 21 54:4 21 54:8
23) 115 P.M. + 21 59°8
Mar. 1] 11 22 a.m. re 22 23
2} 2 24P.MmM 22 8:0
4| 10 34 aM. f a1 56-2 (| 22 960
5| 2 6 P.M. rp 22 3:3
April 26) 1 7 ; 22 3:0
11 46 am ft 21 59.5} ARES
May 26) 0 4pm 22° 0°2 :
26| “4.15 ., 4 21 59.3} ae
Aug, (13) 3,9. 4, Kew 21 Souk 21 556
Sept. 16] 321 ,, i 21 54-7 | 21 57:1
Oct. (14) 3 32 ,; a 21 54:3 21 551
1859.
Sept. 27| 4 43 _,, ie 21 443 | 21 53-4
Oct. 31] 11 28 a.m. ‘ 21 486 | 21 57:1
Noy. 18) 4 7 Pm 21 46:4 :
19} 029 , . a1 48-0 f| 2! 566
Blech sk17). ,! i 21 45:8 | 21 54:9

Mean declination, Jan. 1, 1858} 21 55:9

eee

186 REPORT—1859.

The following Table exhibits the declinations taken during the first year’s
survey; reduced to the epoch by the method already mentioned :—

Taste XVI.

DECLINATIONS—1857.

Declination.

Gréeci Wich | Se eee

Station. Date. mean time Reduced to
of observation.| Observed. epoch

1 Jan. 1858.

1857. | hm ; Acai

Makerstoun ......seseeee Aug. 10| 7 54 a.m. 23 52°5 23 56-1
Melrose ......seceeeeeees wets 12| 5 44 P.M. 24 28°0 24 27°4
Edinburgh.........ce.00 ae 13) 412 ,, 24 59-2 24 55°)
13 1 eS a 25 4°5 24 56:0
Gretna cersssecdevsssecdense 15) 1 23 P.M. 23 41:2 23 32:7
Dumfries ..... San dedeae wee 17| 9 8a.o. 24 46:3 24 48-2
17/10 20 _,, 24 48-7 | 24 46-4
17 1 23 p.m. 24 55:0 24 46°5
Newton Stewart ......... USileabe Oise. 25 11°5 25 10:4
Stranraer .....ccoesseceness 20| 9 48 a.m. 25 37:2 25 37°2
20| 1018 ,, 25 40-2 | 25 38-0
20 1 18 p.m. 25 48:2 25 39°7
AVE Peas coattesenssutv ess sins 22} 9 9am. 25 24-7 25 26°6
22) LORS) @;; 25 24-7 | 25 23°9
Glasgow..e.sscesecveeceevece 24,19 SY 5; 25 28:3 25 28°8
24/10 30 ,, 25 30°2 25) 2753)
' 24) 2 31 pM. 25 34°7 25 27°5
Brisbane dicceccsiecsccaces PAN CMG So 2520-7 25 14°2
Cumbray ........ “Bupttasos O78 el Alike a 25 44°6 25 36°5
Helensburgh ..+....0ssesee 28 | 11 10 a.m 25 43°8 25 38°7
28) 3 53pm 25 44°7 25 40°6
Lochgoilhead ............ 29 A ABI iy 25 56:2 2p, pe)
Campbelton .........06 | Sept. 2] 7 38 a.m 26 192 26 23°5
Ardrishaig .....sssesseeee Bi 4} 2 45 p.m 26 34:8 26 29°8
Ale See oe 26 30:5 | 26 29-9
Oban ...... weoumuestaterese ns 7| 9 42am 26 11:0 26 11°6
Corpach..:...:.s5.05 eacpac: 8: 9 oo.a 26 22:3 26 21:9
Fort Augustus .........++ 9) 6 22 P.M 26 6:0 26 6:0
al a a (7A 26 4:3 26 ene
INVERNESS: sxcceocsy-secce0es 14] 9 22 a.m, 25 56°5 25 58°7
Elgin. finest sbasaens * l4{ 4 32 pM. 25 8:2 25 67
14f 16 Ag: “S 2 68 | 25 71
Bante sddvtsractetaceccseccees 16 | 10 16 a.m. 25 18-7 25 17°4
Peterhead ........ atti staond 17| 4 57 p.m. 24 34:2 24 33°4
Aberdeen .....4.sceeceeee ie pias be 24 37:5 24 29°5
19) 4002 55 24 34:3 24 32:2
Alford necesesacas Messicasses CPOE TIAL ae 24 39°3 24 35°7
22 (BOL v4; 24 38:2 24 35°6
Braemar | decsesestesaseeses 24| 9 27 a.m 25 7:2 25 87
ey 30°; 25127 | 25 88
Pitlochty eevanseneseeess crn: Oe} | Hee tole Uleuep 25 18:2 25 23:0
Dalwhinnie .........0.00 DON Hi sO: » 4s 25 50-2 25 54:0
Zonet sos) y; 25 49-7 25 54°5
Edinburgh,....+.s....e0ese| Oct. 5] 11 45 a.m. 24 59:2 24 53°6
5| 3 54pm 25 2:8 25 0:2

ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF SCOTLAND. 187

In 1858 the declination was observed by means of an instrument of a dif-
ferent kind. This was invented by Dr. Lloyd, and it is described by him in
the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, January 11, 1858. In this
instrument the telescope is horizontal, and there is a mirror by which the sun
may be reflected into the telescope, and its azimuth determined. The mirror
being adapted to the telescope by which the scale of the magnets is observed,
the same horizontal circle is made to serve for determining everything, and
thus the theodolite and additional tripod are dispensed with, while the alti-
tudes of the sun are determined by means of a small sextant and artificial
horizon. A considerable reduction in the observer’s travelling equipment is
thus obtained.

In Dr. Lloyd’s instrument three adjustments are required.

1. The axis of the mirror must be horizontal. This is tested by a small
riding level.

2. The plane of the mirror must be parallel to the axis. Should this not
be exactly the case, the error is eliminated by first observing, then reversing
the axle in its Ys, observing again, and taking a mean of the two readings.

3. The line of collimation of the telescope must be perpendicular to the
axis of the mirror. The error produced by want of a perfect adjustment of
this nature may be got rid of by viewing the sun (1°) direct, or facing the
south, (2°) backwards, or facing the north.

For, let 6 denote the error of azimuth in a direct observation, 6! the same
in a back observation ; then it may be shown that

3=+C sin’ $ alt.
cos alt.
y==C cos” 3 alt.
cos alt. ’
where C is a constant quantity.

Hence if A, B denote the readings of the circle in the fore and back obser-
vations, we have in the fore observation 6= +{180°—(A—B)} sin’ 4 alt.,
the sign of 6 being such that the truth lies between the results given by the
two observations.

Before the commencement of the second year’s survey, the axis of the
mirror had been accurately adjusted so as to be at right angles to the line of
collimation of the telescope, but on July 20, at Bridgend, the axis was found
to be very much out. A plumb line was suspended, which was viewed by
direct vision, and backwards by reflection. When viewed by direct vision, the
circle reading was 348° 18', while by back reflection it was 350° 20’, the angle
of inclination of the mirror to the horizon in the back observation being about

2 \e)

80°; the formula 122’=C So 10

cos 20°

sequence of this, it has been thought advisable to reject all the observations

before Bridgend. At Bridgend the mirror was readjusted, and for all the ob-

servations afterwards, with the exception of two, the sun was observed both

by direct and by back reflection. The following Table exhibits the values of

é co C at the various stations, where both fore and back observations were
taken :—

gives C=118',—a large amount. Incon-

188 REPORT—1859,
Taste XVII.

Station. 6 C

GlenmMorven .......sereeseeees 4143 448
Balmacarra, cssssseeee Seaesyas + 2°9 35°8
Kyleakin cs.cccsesccccscveeess + 31 41°3
StOrnOWAY...ccerecseeee Acoreie| Pe was pia 46:0

+ 1:3 35°4
Callinish ....... Waucoscensecs + 1:2 41°2
TOSSisevescesses os sponges Reese + 2:5 39°9
Tioch INVeEr. “sencevscesssocees + 43 47°2
DUIHESS ...cccccevescncecveceses + 27 40°1
BUTS Pccsusseessursctee Senge, + 3:2 35'3
MCL WICK sewcesacsstcarssxecyes + 10 41°2
Wick ...... nrpecas + 4:0 430

+ 2:0 36°9
OlSpleis-.preazecevaressaretwae + 13 37'5

We see from this Table that though C (which is equal to twice the angle
by which the mirror is out in adjustment), as exhibited in the third column,
is somewhat large, yet the correction to be applied to the actual observations,
denoted by 6, is generally very small, the only exception being Glenmorven,
where the altitude of the sun was high at the time of the azimuth observation.

It has been mentioned that there were two stations after Bridgend at which
no back observations were taken. One of these was Port Ellen, the next
station after Bridgend, but as the altitude of the sun was high when the azi-
muth observation was taken there, it has not been thought advisable to apply
a correction proceeding upon an assumed value of C. ‘The other station was
Kirkwall, which occurs in point of time between Lerwick and Wick. The
value of C for Lerwick is 41/2, and for Wick it is 43"0. If we assume the
mean of these, or 42!*1 as the value for Kirkwall, we find d= -+2'2, which
value has accordingly been adopted.

Table XVIII. (p. 189) exhibits the declinations for 1858, corrected for error
of mirror, and reduced to 1st January, 1858.

If we now take all the declinations, with the exception of that for Glen-
morven, which seems to be influenced by local attraction, we obtain by the
method of least squares u, or the angle which the isogonic lines make
with the meridian =—20° 58'3, or their direction is from N. 20° 58':3 E.
to S. 20° 58/3 W.; r, or the increase of the declination in a direction per-
pendicular to the isogonic lines,=1'-465 for each geographical mile ; and d,
or the declination at the central station, lat. 56° 54’ N., long. 4° 14’ W.=
25°53!:-6. The isogonic lines are exhibited in a map (Plate 7) appended to this
report.

In Table XIX. (page 190) the observed and calculated declinations are
compared together.

If we now divide the stations, as before, into two groups, the first comprising
trap and granite, and the second every other formation, we shall find the mean
probable error for the former group= 24'S, and that for the latter=11"1.

If we examine Tables VI., XI., XIX., in which the difference between the
observed and calculated magnetic elements is given for the different stations
arranged in the order of observation, we shall, I think, perceive that stations
similarly affected with regard to sign are in many cases grouped together.
But, from the principle of arrangement adopted, the members of any such
group denote stations at which the observations were consecutive with respect
to time; so that such stations cannot be very far apart with respect to geogra-
phical position.

ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF SCOTLAND.

Tasie XVIII.

Greenwich
3 Mean Time
Station. Date. Gr ohedive:
tion.
1858. hm
Glenmorven ...... eeeeee(July 26..| 0 32 pm
26..12 16 ,,
Balmacarra ............ 28..| 8 47 a.m
28..19 53 ,,
28..|0 3pm
Kyleakin ....eesseeeeee Aes ade
29 Di 2h 59
0s) Goh a:
Stornoway .......+....-.| Aug, 5..15 56 ,,
A Be ae
Bir | 6410),
6..|6 0 ”
' 6..|617 ,,
6..16 22 ,,
NEOELTIDIS alsiais' siete a'c.c'e,s,0 ete || PAGES) a
9..|3 28 ,,
Oizi| 3 30 ac
9..(5 29 ,,
9..15 35 ,,
Qi7|| Oe 2s: 9s
OPE Grae - 55
MIENIEAMnreictetale: sivicfeva.e.s\6: s\e/e's 11../ 9 ll am
11../10 26 ,,
11../11 30 ,,
11..}0 9PM
Loch Inyer....,-+ese0.0. 16..} 9 54 am
FEPSOML:
16s-}ay'..
16../11 54 ,,
16..| 0 21 pu
Durness ..... afetaterehe aicierete WSee| oe au sy
18c| 406),
tess) 4033170
TRS BE ic,
PDVSO rors weenie wien ose 23..| 9 4] am
Desies | weed ees.
23..| 0 45 p.m
2d s=| OPO ss
BRRIGTEIL S454 5 ice" clo'eie es 30..| 8 12 a.m
302.) 8-30...,
30../10 2 ,,
30../10 57 ,,
SMe | LID Te. 5s
S 30..| 0 31 p.m
Kirkwall... sss. " alee er Ay) map
Slical OD Mente
WICK, (2 pf oraici0 cs 01s aiefalebis's) =e Sept. 4../10 19 a.m
-j11 41 =«,,
4..| 0 45 p.m
4..|3 56 ,,
4..| 4°43..,,
Golspie, -..sseseeecccces hee) 4°33. x
eel 250...
distal AQ i,
Merd\ (On Liv. iy

Observed.

to
eo
wmnnnre
NSW TORN SAGSNNH IS

to
~T
Nmore
TDSODHDHHDDHASCWHATSONNHUINNASSMWUG

i)
x
nr
pote
ow

to
lor}
ow
rs

np
a
Oe

EG Oe CC Ten te CaCl ib
AAANW AR SENDHEAWH HHA

to
o
ee oor

Declination.

Corrected
for error of

mirror.

28
28
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
27
27
27
27

28°9
303
27-1
28°1
35°8
50°5
48-7
49°6
56°5

Nnonn—

oN NN WOH ee
CUR OR ST Ot COO SO OS SF OT 00 0 0 09 0

~AWHDHHOEAHDOROMH EE EEE ADDOSHE EAR

57°4

— eo
WYSSBOOOH

ASLOONAKRSD

189

Reduced to
1 Jan. 1858.

28
28
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
28
27
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
27
27
27
27
27
27
27

tN bd et

NWN NH eee
i 4S 1S 6S eet ed re SIO 9 Ne CDRS Nicer Ge RSA ies SF
ABANIKROTH SH WONDER RHR ONE

Sie eS Coes Oo ane
RIAD RREH OG:

190 REPORT—1859.

Such groups of stations will in fact represent districts, some of them of
considerable extent, which thus appear to be similarly affected by local
attraction.

The observations are probably insufficient to enable us to determine the
disposition of this attractive matter; but there is one very marked case to
which I may be permitted to refer.

If we examine Tables VI. and XI. we shall find that the stations in the
Island of Isla have their dip diminished and their total force increased by
local attraction. On the other hand, the Mull stations have both dip and
total force increased, while those in Skye have their dip increased and their
total force diminished.

Such a state of things might be brought about by a powerful source of
attraction for the north pole of the needle situated a little to the south of the
Mull stations at a considerable depth below the surface. This supposition
derives confirmation from the fact that the errors due to local attraction
are exceedingly large in Mull.

TasiLe XIX.
Observed
Station. Observed. |Calculated.| minus
calculated.
Makerstoun ........scscseseseee: 23 561 | 238549 | +4032
IWECIFOSE Mc dcote tessa tices siacnsas 24 27-4 24 02-4 +25:0
Hdinbuaphy<: hir...fereecss cases 24 56-2 24 36-4 +198
Grete are ss. 2 Ree k 23 32:7 23 58:3 —25°6
DMpnfries so. gee eects vanes 24 47:0 24 26-4 +20:6
Newton Stewart ...........000. 25 10-4 25 02:7 +077
Stranraer . 2.622858" oc crac 25 38:3 25 27-7 +106
PANNE Meee ase mreaoaches Teeigt ass 25 25:2 25 26:3 —O11
Gilakoowe = is... des.ckaesetweres. 25 27:9 25 22:5 +054
MBRIGhaTIG: /..22 ts ucdeens se soa eee 25 14:2 25 48:3 —341
Cimbyayy ons. te secs ages ooasiisigy on 25 36:5 | 25 478 —11:3
Helensburgh .....:.....-.2s-e00 25 39:6 25 48:3 —08:7
Lochgoilhead ...............45 25 52-1 26 00:7 — 08-6
Campbeltown .........0.:00ee 26 23:5 | 26 140 +09°5
pAmdtsbiaias Seay. ois cee ucge 26 29:8 26 22:0 +07:8
(0 | TOR iGee ee ae nocehcme mente ree 26 116 26 342 —226
Carpiach’, . 55. -fedkoas chine namatnuge 26 21:9 | 26 33:1 —11:2
Fort Augustus .............0065 26 41 26 20°7 —166
Inpvernésp 21.0: Abe eh ld edhe 25 58°7 26 08°8 —101
Bight Ue. bese tne rates 25 69 | 25376 | —30-7
ESAT Ege cia ioc Ae alee Reka gees 25 17-4 25 02:0 +154
Peterhead 24 33-4 24 25:0 + 84
Aberdeen 24 308 94 25-7 +051
WT 230 Ne ee ie 24 35:7 24 58:5 —22'8
Braman /52.ce here aeeen 25. 58:7 25 20-4 Sy
Pitlophry: 22 See seities deaxenss 25 23:0 25 24-1 —O1+1
DalyhinniesAefe esses ees 25 54-2 25 57-4 — 03:2
Glenmorven: 2.6.6.8 .0 tens anee 28 21:1 27 03:2 +779
Balmracarral sctseteee cc: Mesias 27 32:5 27 08-6 +23°9
iReylealainiy :v.siactecc teas scar pan 27 50-4 27 122 +88-2
Sfommowayei..heawetdterescw detee 27 561 28 09-1 —13:0
Callinishis) ese atheies hae 28 87 28 21-6 —12:9
Grosaigiin-.-. mieten shea 28 25-4 28 12:3 +13-1
Loe Intyer” isicnedesscser scans 27 11:2 27 15:9 —04-7
DiUrnesyt nas. -peceecdean cece me anes 27 29-6 27 68:0 +21°6
Miura ee cel ance ett ee eae 26 30:3 26 16°5 +13:8
Tierwidkes cits ace dete ateve de 25 17-5 25 30-1 —126
Karlowalll- coxsieesnaheace save es os 26 17-4 26 05:9 +115
WICK. cco ncccree re nea 26 37 | 25 52-1 +116
48

26 16:3 -01°5

(o}
S,
wD
KS
z.
a>}
Ww
Qe
se

ON THE PATENT LAWS, 191

The Patent Laws.—Report of Committee on the Patent Laws.
Presented by W. Farrpairn, F.R.S,

Ar the meeting of the British Association at Leeds for the year 1858, a
Committee was re-appointed for the purpose of taking such steps as might be
necessary to render the Patent System of this country, and the funds derived
from inventors, more efficient and available for the reward of the meritorious
inventors and the advancement of science.

Cireumstances beyond control have prevented that Committee from
taking any decisive steps in furtherance of the important objects entrusted
to them; but those objects have not been lost sight of. No reply has been
received from the Commissioners of Patents, either to the Memorial of the
Glasgow Committee of the British Association, or of the Public Meeting in
Manchester ; but some of the questions referred to in those Memorials are
adverted to in the Report of the Commissioners just issued. From that Report,
itappears that the number of applications for patents may be estimated atabout
3000 per annum ; that of these 2000 applications not more than about 2000
proceed to the final stage of a patent; and that of the 2000 patents granted,
not more than 550 are kept alive beyond three years by the first periodical
payment of £50 before the expiration of that term; and the Commissioners
anticipate that the fee of £100 payable at the end of the seventh year will
not be paid on more than 100 of the surviving 550 patents. Should this
anticipation prove correct, the payment by inventors in fees upon patents
not surviving beyond one half their term of fourteen years will not be less
than at the rate of £100,000 per annum as a direct tax on the inventive
genius of the country, in addition to and exclusive of time, labour, and
other charges and expenses.

The total outlay in respect of those patents may be estimated as at least
£250,000, or a quarter of a million, per annum. ‘The great work of printing
and publishing iz ewtenso the specifications of patents granted under the
old law, that is, from 1711 to the 1st of Oct. 1852, in number 12,977, is
completed ; and the surplus funds hitherto absorbed by this object will be
henceforth available for other purposes.

That surplus is estimated by the Commissioners at £30,000 for the
current year 1858-59, and to increase in each succeeding year at the rate of
£20,000 per annum. This surplus, after providing for the current expenses,
is proposed by the Commissioners to be appropriated to the following
objects :—

T. The erection of a Museum for the preservation and exhibition of
models, of which a considerable collection already exists at Kensington.

2. The erection of suitable offices for the Commissioners, including a free
library of consultation upon a more extended scale than already formed by
Mr. Woodcroft.

These most desirable and legitimate objects of application of the “ Inven-
tors’ Fee Fund” cannot, however, be attained without the sanction of the
Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury, and a vote of Parliament,
inasmuch: as all the fees levied on Inventors are by a recent change levied in
the shape of stamps, and so pass directly into the Consolidated Fund.

These recommendations of the Commissioners will, it is conceived, be
regarded as a most legitimate application of the funds of Inventors, and as
ove to which the Parliamentary Committee of the British Association will
give their aid; but your Committee think that other considerations and other
claims upon the Inventors’ Fee Fund, and upon the annual surplus, whatever

192 RBPORT—1859,

its probable amount, should be forthwith urged upon the Commissioners and
upon Parliament.

The Report of the Patent Committee of the British Association to the
Leeds Meeting called prominent attention to the two following questions :—

lst. Whether the present scale of payments should be maintained, or
reduced, so as to leave no greater surplus than necessary for official
expenses ?

2nd. If the present scale of payment be maintained, how shall the surplus
be appropriated ?

The Commissioners of Patents are in favour of maintaining the present
scale of payments, on the ground “that any material reduction in the
amount of fees would undoubtedly tend to increase the number of useless
and speculative patents, in many cases taken merely for advertising pur-

oses.”
: Your Committee are not insensible to the force of this observation; but
they beg respectfully to doubt whether this money check has any effective
operation on the class of cases most requiring to be controlled, and whether
the remedy is not worse than the disease, in laying an unjustifiable burden on
the inventive genius of the country, and effecting a confiscation of property
of its own creation.

Your Committee are much struck with the fact, that the application for
about 1000 patents is not prosecuted to completion, and in many cases
probably not beyond the first stage; that the first periodical payment of
£50 at the end of the third year is not made in respect of nearly 1500 of
the 2000 patents granted ; and that the Commissioners anticipate during the
ensuing year the surrender or lapsing of no less than 450 out of the 550
patents which survived the first periodical payment.

It must be borne in mind that the granting of patents in this country is
practically without control, no attempt having been made to interpose any
of the checks urged before the Committee of the House of Lords in the
Session of 1851, and provided for in the three bills of that Session, and in
the Act of the subsequent Session, now the law of the land. The payment
of £5 on the first application may be regarded as a registration fee: the
applicant makes this payment on lodging the papers, obtaining protection
and inchoate rights from the moment of his application. This was one of
the cardinal features of the new system of 1852; it has been productive of
the greatest benefit to inventors, especially to those of the poorer class, by
enabling them to obtain inchoate rights, and to create property for them-
selves by a simple record of their inventions, without publicity and the
obstruction of interested opponents. This power of placing inventions on
record is also resorted to in many cases by those who do not wish further
to secure or appropriate to themselves property in their ideas and inventions,
and which forthwith become public property.

The 1500 lapsed patents must be regarded in a different light: these have
cost their authors no less than £37,500 for fees and stamps as a direct taxa-
tion on their inventive genius, in addition to and exclusive of other pay-
ments of at least an equal amount.

Of these 1500 patents, it is believed that the progress of at least 1000
might be arrested with the consent of the applicants, if the inquiry before the
law officers were substantial instead of merely nominal. Thus a large use-
less outlay of capital in money and time would be avoided, talents unpro-
fitably employed would be directed into other channels, and the creation of
legal rights would be limited and reduced exactly in proportion as the appli-
cations were not proceeded with. ;

LUNAR INFLUENCE ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR. 193

Your Committee conceive that the application of a portion of the funds
contributed by inventors would be most properly applied to affording them
this species of protection against the unprofitable expenditure of time and
money: the attempt is surely worth the trial ; it would effectually check the
prostitution of the patent system to the illegitimate purposes referred to by
the Commissioners.

The reward of the meritorious inventor in cases in which he alone of the
public has failed to benefit by the fruits of his genius, and the purchase of
patent rights in him of extending their terms, was referred to in the Report
of the Patent Committee of the British Association at the Leeds Meeting as
a legitimate appropriation of a portion of the surplus.

These objects beiug satisfied, a very large surplus would remain available
for the advancement of science by researches having a direct bearing on
the reproductive industry of the country. And if it be thought expedient
that more money should be levied on the granting of patents than necessary
for the expense of the office, inventors have, it is conceived, an irresistible
claim for the expenditure of that surplus upon objects bearing on their in-
terests and the advancement of science.

W. FAIRBAIRN.
Epwarp SABINE.
Aberdeen, Sept. 16, 1859. Tuomas WEBSTER.

Lunar Influence on the Temperature of the Air.
By J. Park Harrison, M.A.

1. Tue definite form assumed by lunar curves of mean temperature, obtained
from the means of tables framed expressly for the purpose, was brought be-
fore the notice of the British Association at Leeds in proof that the moon
exerts an indirect, yet appreciable influence over the atmosphere of our
globe*.

A longer series of observations at Greenwich, extending over the period
of 43 years, and embracing 520 consecutive lunations, has since been tabu-
lated ; and the means of the different columns formed into another, and what
may be termed for distinction’s sake, a model curve (Plate II. fig. 1). It
presents, in common with those which had been already constructed for
shorter periods of time, very marked characteristics.

Upon turning to the Plate it will be perceived that the amount of heat
signalized by the shaded portion of the curve (or all that rises above the
general mean line) is considerably greater at first quarter than at any other
period of the lunation, though it will also be noticed that the temperature
immediately following on new moon exceeds it in height, on one day by +10
of a degree (fig.1). Upon the average, the first half of this curve, from the
2nd or 3rd day before new moon to the 3rd or 4th day before full moon,
rises as much above the general mean as the remaining half falls below it. It
sinks below the mean line at the period to which attention was originally drawn,

* At Dublin, where attention was directed to but a small portion of the lunation, it was
shown that the temperature immediately following on the moon’s first quarter was higher
than the temperature of the third day before first quarter, both at Greenwich and Dublin,
for the series of years subjected to examination.

859. on

194 REPORT—1859.

viz. about the 3rd day before first quarter (or the 4th or 5th day of the moon’s
age), and at three other noticeable points of the curve; these, as I have
already stated, are (1) shortly before and (2) shortly after full moon, and (3)
immediately after last quarter.

In the colder half of the lunation the temperature rises at full moon, and
shortly before last quarter.

2. It is not, however, only upon an average of a long series of yearly means
that the proof of lunar influence depends for its establishment. All the more
remarkable deviations from the calculated mean temperatures of the day, for
which the past year has been distinguished, have followed the model curve in
a more or less significant manner, at the seasons of excessive heat or cold above
alluded to. I have elsewhere shown that this was the case in November
1858*, and in January, March, and April in the present year+ ; and it has
since proved to be so in September and October, and thus the greatest amount
of heat on the average of 12 lunations in 1859 displays itself according to the
rule above indicated in the first half of the curve, the greatest amount of
cold in the second half (see fig. 2). The mean of the means of the several
columns is 51%] ; the mean of the first 14 columns 51°-9, of the remaining 14
columns 50°2. The table of mean temperatures from which this curve was
formed is appended, in order to afford those who may wish to examine more
minutely the nature of the influence exerted in separate lunations, an oppor-
tunity of doing so. It will also serve to illustrate the method which was
adopted in arranging the observations in the several lunar tables from which
the curves have been obtained.

3. The popular belief in a tendency in the weather to “ clear up,” or the con-
trary, at certain periods of the moon’s age—a notion which my own observations
appeared to confirm—joined with a strong impression that these seasons
would be found to synchronize more or less closely, according to the time of
year, with the periods of greatest cold or heat in the lunation, led to the con-
clusion that the rise or fall in the curves of temperature must be due to the
action of terrestrial radiation, as a secondary cause ; and that the rise in tem-
perature at other periods of the lunation might also possibly be attributed to
the opposite state of the atmosphere when radiation upwards to the sky is
stopped, more particularly in winter, by the presence of low or thick masses
of cloud. This view has been much strengthened during the past year by
results which were obtained from an examination of the bi-horary observa-
tions of cloud taken day and night continuously for seven years (1840-47)

* See Phil. Mag. for March 1859.

+ Whilst, according to the calculated average, the mean temperature at the end of March
and beginning of April ought, in each case, to rise above and fall below the mean of the
month, in 1859 this was exactly reversed. A very cold period occurred at the end of March,
the mean temperature (on the 31st) being 9°:4 below the average of that day of the month
for forty-three years, as determined by Mr. Glaisher. But the 3lst of March was also the
third day before new moon, and the mean temperature of that day of the lunation zn March
for the same number of years falls below the mean temperature of the lunar curve. So also
in April, the mean temperature of the 7th day was 17°°5 in excess of the mean temperature
of that day for forty-three years at Greenwich, and the mean temperature of the 15th day
was 8°'3 below the average. Here the 7th day of April fell on the day of maximum tempe-
rature for the lunation in 4pril or the first octant, and the 15th day of April was the second
day before full moon, which is within the cold period which precedes that phase of the moon.
The minimum temperature at the Toronto Observatory also in January 1859, which was
~26°'5 on the 10th day, rose on the 13th to 36°0. At Greenwich a similar rise took place
from the 9th (or 3rd day before first quarter) to the 12th (or day of first quarter). On the
former day the minimum temperature was 28°°5, on the latter 41°*2, and the mean tempe-
ratures 33°°6 and 45°°0. There appeared to be a considerable development of electricity at
all the periods of low mean temperature. (From a communication made to the London Me-
teorological Society, and reported in the ‘ Athenzum.’) :

73°2 | 74:3
| 59°4 | 59°5
50°8 | 53°0
53°1 | 56°6
39:0 | 38°6

43-0
46-9
44°5
42°5
52:3
57°3
70°9 | 67°7
60°7 | 66-6
54-4
561 | 55°9
33:8
33°5

49°9

Interval.

41-2
46°6
48-4
42-4
49°8
56-4
66°5
681
54-4
55°6
33:8
27-9
49°3

d hm
7 16 35

7 23 47
8 419
4 49

0 50
17 19
8 21
0 10
18 18
15 28
15 42
18 50
0 36
8 32

a Sk er cs. ea Gs SS Se OD

See first column.

411
415
512
45°6
52-2
64:9
68:9
69-4
52°6
51:0
38-9
27-0
50-4

41-4
42:0
48:8
52°6
58°3
585
59°9
63-4
53°
50-2
38-7
22'8
49-2

[ To face p. 194. ]

2 3 Qnt
2 o,| 412
45°1 | 43°8 45°0

42°38 | 45°2 | 43:3

496 | 474 | 35°3
45°2 | 468
596 | 59°0 | 58:0

61:9 | 69:0
62:1 | 69:2
66:3 | 6971
52°6 | 54:7
36°8 | 36:3
40°2 | 35°71

23°4 | 23°9 | 30:0

48°8 | 49°9

y Mean Temperature for 43 years consists of 520 lines of figures.

Lunar Table of Daily Mean Temperature in 1859, at Greenwich*. [Zo face p. 194.)

AS ee SO ee Pe pe S28 od eS Py ey Sy 8 of ye oe
ato | sio| s80| a86| sta | 422) 480] 1] a82] 383] .. | 980] st7| 480] 56s] 84) do] siz], | 480) ata] sir] so] ata] soa] sis
417 | 402] ... | 379) 990] 442) 445 | 449] 458) 459] .. | 430] 485) 503] 496) 426] 406) dco) ... | 469) 4o6) 415) 427) 420) 428 | 492
499 | 493] 405} 387 | 408 | 466) 535) 522) 506) 442 442) 483) 476] 452] 437 | 464] 427] 408 | 405) 454) 912) 496) 488] 496) 474
sso | ori| .. | 6s0| s29| 593] 493 | 470] ava y22| a74| 975 | 375) 982 | 399| 427] 435 | 425) soa] 456 | 498] s26| 452] 468] ..
43] 471] ... | 478) S64) 524 | 603 | 474 | 525 520 | 327| 526) 528] s03| 516] 519 | s10| 523] s98| 522] 559| 583 | 596 | 590] 580
623 | 656 653 | 635 | 60-7 | 622] 6416) ors 610 | 610 | 563] 608) 574) 573) G09] 606) 573) 54] O19] 6o7| 585] Gr9| coo] ...
22 | 660! ... | 609 | 61] 693) 700] 655 | os 757 | 752) 660] 684 | 70:7 | 732) 743 | 709 | 67-7) 665] 689) 615] 59-9] 621 | 692
675] 657} ... | 622) 64) 651) 607) 597] oar 575 | 623) 661 | 671) 689 | 594] 595 | 607) 666] 681) 694] 626) G34] 663 | Gor) ...
555 | 533 ss4| 79] s94| 560) 57:3) 591 596 | 551] 546 | 576] 518] 508] 530] ... | sia] Si4| 526] 558| 538] 526] St7|
October...) 588] 674 | 620| 598) 562) S87) 565 562] 6i1| 594] 63-9 | 663) coe] 627) oa2| 581} 576) 563 | 539] 536 | 531| 566) 561] 559] 556) 510) 526| 502] S68] 363] ...
November../ 368 | 333 | 321] 361 | 421) 367] 456) 426] 407] 45:3| 514) 483 | 47-2) 48:9) 503] 542) 513] 461) 385) 370] 395] 390] 386] ... | 338) 338) 389) 391| 387] 402) 351)...
December... 396 | 404| ara] 447 | 397] 460] 430] 404] 997] 362)| aoa] saa] 921] 367) 479] 442] 425] 420) 992] 970/ 308)| 935 | 335]... | 335] 279] 270] 251] 228) 254) 299) 500
Meas .=|/518)| 606) su0| sro| sra| sre| se4 $05 s17)| 895) s3a)| 623] 525 | s28] .. | s21|/sr6| so8| srs | dee | 491) S05 49] 493 | soa] 003/492 | 455 | 499).
Mean... 51°9 x Mea... 50°2

Nole—The several months commence from the dark jines or stops. * The Table of Daily Mean Temperature for 43 years consists of 520 lines of Ogures.

Table of Moon's Phases in 1859.

e > Interval. o Toterval, € Tnterval. e
10 raw WB iem, [9 om lat Saas, | Gite ar Sir | 71035
10 9am. 13 3 28 Pa 6 21 38 20 1 6 rm. 6 16 32 27 5 38 Aw. 7% 47
525 vate 1207 22 am. 6 16 26 18 11 48 Pam. 6 20 57 2% 845 ro, 8 419
1 dam. 10 7 39 ra. 61 2 ‘17:10 41 Am. 7 340 24 221 ra B 449
7:10 wm. 12 439 Am, 617 6 18 945 rat. 71 a2 26 9 27 Am. 8 050
1017 aa. 101 20am. | 62145 | 17 9 Saw, | 71940 | 25 Ads am. | 71719] 2
10 4 pate 9 489rm. | 7471) 16 9 Gro | 8 143 | 1049 rw | 7 821 | Z
710 aa 7iod7ru. | 71190 | 1017 aa, | 8 414 | 23 231ro. | 7 010) E
[ao aan ra. | 7 5s3am. | 719 0/15 05am. | 8 292 | 23 3254u| Gisie | Z
945 Pm. 5 3 2) ra. 8113 134 34 ra 7uu 21 1:45 raw. 615
September...) 28 5 13 am. 44 dame 8427 12 8 31 as. 7:13 42 19:10 13 pas, 615 42
October...) 26 1 55 via. 3 831 eu. 8 320 11 11 5) rat. 7 551 19 5 42 At 6 18 50 |
November...) 26 0 32 aa 2418rx, | 72147 | 10 2 Sew. | 6231 | 17 1 Gru | 7 096 |
December «| 24 142 vate 214970, | 71323 | 10 51240. | G18 3 | 16 915 ex | 7 892 | *

* New Moon, December 24th, at Sh, 47m. a.

LUNAR INFLUENCE ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR. 195

at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, and which were published, amongst
other elaborate meteorological tables, in the volumes for those years.

Out of 55 clear days, or what might be considered clear days, there enu-
merated—those being considered as nearly clear on which the amount of
cloud did not exceed *3—no less than 42 occurred at periods of low mean
temperature in the lunation. And it is worth notice, in connexion with this
fact, that during the three years (1844, 1845, and 1846), in which the late
lamented Radcliffe Observer found from observations taken for the purpose,
between the day of first quarter and the day after full moon, “that the moon
was visible on an average 137 times on the meridian when the sun is seen only
100 times,” the Greenwich Observations of cloud show an unusual number of
clear days to have occurred at that station on the three days following on
first quarter, the effects of which would appear to be traceable in the curve
embracing the years in question (see fig. 4:).

Still further to test the point, a curve of the mean amount of cloud in
November during the same seven years was formed for the purpose of com-
paring the approximate amount of cloud on the different days of the moon’s
age with the line of a lunar curve of mean temperature for 40 consecutive
Novembers. It was hardly possible to doubt, on carefully examining the two
curves thus placed in juxtaposition,—the waves of cloud being for the most
part a day in advance of those of temperature,—that an intimate connexion
does exist, as cause and effect, between the amount of cloud at different
periods of the lunation and the temperature of the air.

On the Continent, too, it was found that the results obtained by Schibler at
Augsburg, from 1813 to 1828, had been examined by M. Arago and admitted
to be in accordance with those arrived at by Flaugergues at Viviers, from
1808 to 1828. From a Table of the relative number of serene and clouded
days at Augsburg during the above-mentioned sixteen years, M. Schiibler
found (1) that clear days were more numerous at last quarter; (2) that the
greatest number of clouded days occurred towards (vers) the second octant.
Also in twenty-eight years at three different stations, namely at Munich from
1781 to 1788, at Stuttgard from 1809 to 1812, and at Augsburg as above,
there were 306 days of rain on the day of the first octant, 325 on the day of
the first quarter, 341 (the maximum) on the day of the second octant, 284
(the minimum) on the day of the last quarter, and 290 on the last octant.
Some observations which appear to have been made under M. Arago’s per-
sonal superintendence may be quoted in confirmation of the fact, that the
greatest amount of cloud follows upon the moon’s first quarter, and the least
amount of cloud on the third quarter, —

“The discussion of the observations made at Paris led to the following
conclusions :—

“The maximum number of rainy days is found to lie between the first
quarter and the full moon; the minimum between the last quarter and the
new moon ; and the latter number is to the former as 100 is to 126*.”

4. Having pointed out, very briefly, the periods at which (taking one lu-
nation with another) the greatest amount of heat or cold is to be expected to
recur, and having also suggested a probable cause for the phenomenon, I

* Arago’s Popular Astronomy (Admiral Smyth’s translation), vol. ii. p.318. In the same
volume, p. 313, there is the following passage in which Sir John Herschel’s explanation of the
moon’s influence on the clouds is entirely adopted :—“ In a word, provided we do not lose
sight of the fact that the rays which dissipate the clouds are quite different from those whose
calorific qualities we have been endeavouring to estimate at the instant when they reach the
surface of the earth, the fact which I previously called a prejudice will no longer be contrary
to physical laws ; and we shall obtain an additional illustration of the remark, that popular
opinion ought not to be rejected without examination.” :

Co)

196 REPORT—1859.

propose to illustrate the subject by examples of lunar action in the spring
and autumn months. Thus in the early part of May, it will be interesting
to remark the amount of Lunar Influence exerted at the period of low tem-
perature which embraces Dr. Madler’s three cold days, viz. the 11th, 12th,
and 13th, and which on an average of 86 years’ observations at Berlin was
found to be more than 2 degrees colder than the calculated mean of the season.
The following Table of mean temperatures of the first twenty days of May
for 43 years at Greenwich, will show the amount of depression which oc-
curred at that station. ‘The means are in each case for the civil day.
1st, 50°3 2nd, 51°5 3rd, 50:9 4th, 51:5 5th, 51°8

6th, 51°9 7th, 52°3 8th, 52-1 9th, 51°0 10th, 50°9

11th, 51°6 12th, 51°3 13th, 51°0 14th, 50°6 15th, 51°9

16th, 53°1 17th, 54:0 18th, 53°5 19th, 53°0 20th, 53°9*

If we now examine a lunar curve (fig. 3) of the mean temperatures of the
11th, 12th, and 13th days at Greenwich,—they are purposely taken, though
not the coldest,—it will not fail to be noticed that the general line of the
wave, notwithstanding its pronounced character, follows the model curve,
with the exception of a remarkable rise on the second day before first
quarter, and on the second day before last quarter. It bears also a very close
resemblance to the curve of temperature for the year 1859.

A lunar curve of the mean temperature for the month of May during 43
years has also been formed, and found to agree with the model curve; the
mean of the means of the day of first quarter and five days after is 54-0, of
the day of full moon and five days after 51°°9. The amount of cloud on a
seven years’ average for the second day after full moon is 4°9; for the second
day after first quarter 8*1; and the mean amount of cloud at the syzygies and
quarters for the day of the moon's change and the day preceding and follow-
ing is as follows :—

At New Moon.......... RIS BELO SS
At First Quarter ...........04. 6:9
WE allMinor, 28 crsca' Fs OS 5°7 (the minimum).
At Last Quarter .............. 6°3

10 represents an entirely clouded sky.

On viewing these results one cannot but recall to mind the belief of the
French gardeners in the ravages of “La Lune rousse” towards the end of
April or beginning of May ; and the explanation of the phenomenon given
by M. Arago,—that it was, without doubt, due fo the absence of cloud.

The observations of mean temperature at this period, however, and the
relative number of days of the lunation on which they occur, deserve a more
minute consideration. To facilitate it, Tables have been formed of the mean
temperatures of five consecutive days at full moun, and five corresponding
days at first quarter: and for the purpose of reference, a Table of the mean
temperatures of the month of May for 43 successive years is appended.

On referring to these Tables, it will be at once perceived that the mean
temperature of each of the five days at full moon (see Table II.) is far below
that of the five days at first quarter (Table I); and also that the number
of observations which occurred in the 43 years at the two periods is very
different.

* From observations kindly furnished by Principal Forbes, of St. Andrews, it appears that
the 9th, 10th, and 14th days of May were the co!dest at Edinburgh on an average of 40 years.
The 12th, 13th and 14th days, allowing for the estimated march of temperature, were the coldest
days at Greenwich. It is possible that the epoch of greatest depression would in a longer
series of years coincide with that at Berlin. .

LUNAR INFLUENCE ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR. 197

TABLE I.
Day. 1 | »)) | 1 2. 3. | Mean.
, | 1829. 57° 1821. 51-1 | 1832. 41-7
10 | 1856. 52:2 | 1848. 611]... 1840. 59:0 | 1843. 49°3 | $ 53-5
1851, 56:3
1829. 55°6 1821. 56:8
11 | 1837. 41:5 | 1856. 56-4 | 1848. 63°7 | .eseeaee 1840. 47:5 | $ 53-9
1851. 56°1
1829, 54°6 ald
12 | 1818. 50°8 | 1837. 42°8 | 1856. 50°7 | 1848. 651! oe
1829. 538 |} 50.6
13 | 1845. 49°9 | 1818. 51-1 | 1837. 428 | 1856. 53-0 | 1848, 64-9 t
1826. 47°38 | 1845. 50°8 | 1818. 49-4 | 1837. 43-8 | 1856. 49°3 | 48-2
14
1815. 57°
15 | 1834. 60-5 | 1826. 48°6 | 1845. 51:3 | 1818. 51-4 | 1837. 45°2 | $ 5251
1853. 50°4
Means| 51-2 526 52-2 54°3 51°6 52°2
No. of Sum
Obs. 8 7 6 : 9 38
TABLE Il.
Day. 1. fe) 1. 2. 3. Mean.
°
1816. 41-4 i p ; x
10 | 1827. 46-8 | 1819. 58-4 | 1838. 47-5 | 1830. 47-1 | 1849. 42-2 |b 4s:2
1846. 54:3
1835. 52:2 | 1816. 39-4
11 | 1854. 49°0 | 1827. 48°6 | 1819. 57-1 | 1838. 47-5 | 1830. 45°6 | $ 49°1
1846. 533
1824. 46°3 | 1835. 53-0 | 1816. 38°]
12 | 1843. 53:8 | 1854. 52-0 | 1827. 47-3 | 1819. 57°8 | 1858. 515 | $ 50-4
1846. 53-4
1824. 43°8 | 1835. 52:0 | 1816. 40°8
13 | 1832. 38°6 | 1843. 55°3 | 1854. 54-2 | 1827. 48-1 | 1819. 54:4 | $ 48
1846. 53:0
1824, 44:3 | 1835. 44-0 | 1816. 43:8
14 | 1851. 46-2 | 1832. 44-5 | 1843. 52-7 | 1854, 54-7 | 1827. 466 | $ 47:5
1846, 51-2
1824. 42°8 | 1835. 49:0 |1 jo.
15 | 1840. 49:8 | 1851. 50-7 | 1832. 47-4 | 1843. 53°6 | 1854, 55°5
Means| 47°8 499 49°4 489 48-9 49°0
No. of Sum
ee } 10 10 10 10 9 ae

At full moon the mean temperature of the 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th,

198 REPORT—1859.

and 15th days of the month of May is 49°:0, and the number of observations
49. At first quarter, upon the same six days, the mean temperature is
52°-2, and the number of observations 38. No observations whatever for
Ist, 2nd, or 3rd days after first quarter occurred upon the 10th, 11th, and
12th days of May respectively during the 43 years.

Again, upon the five days of the lunation at full moon (see Table II.),
out of the total number of 49 observations, 27 are found to fall below 50°, and
11 below 45°. At first quarter, out of the 38 observations, the number under
50° is 13 only: those under 45° do not exceed 5.

A point of some importance in connexion with the subject should be men-
tioned. It did not escape Gen. Sabine’s notice, when engaged on the results of
the Meteorological Observations at Toronto, that high mean temperatures
prevailed on the 11th, 12th, and 13th days of May on the average of the years
1841-52, at that Station, and it has since been found that they prevailed also
at Greenwich during the same period; the mean temperatures of the three
days for the 12 years were respectively 53°°5, 53°-2, and 54°1 instead of
51°-6, 51%3, and 510, which are the means of those days on an average of
43 years. It will be found that most of the high temperatures on the three
days occurred in years when the mean temperature of May itself was high*.
The mean of the month for 43 years is 53°.

5. Ata corresponding period of the year in autumn, the temperature of
the second half of lunations which fa!l in October is found as a rule to be
uniformly low ; on an average of 43 years it does not exceed 48°9; whilst
the mean of the first half (from new to full moon) is 50°4. It was so in the
present year; the difference between the mean temperature of four days at
first quarter and the mean temperature of four days at last quarter was 23°5
degrees.

Upon extracting 14 of the lowest temperatures, or minima of 43 months
of October, 13 were found to occur in the second half of the lunation be-
tween the day of full moon and the third day before new moon, and 9 of the
number at and immediately following on last quarter. They occurred in the
following years :—

1814. 38:0 1817. 37°7 1824. 36°4 1825. 37°8 1828. 39°5
1834. 36°9 1836. 28°4 1838. 36°0 1839. 34:7 1842. 35°6
1843. 35°8 1845. 37:9 1848. 38-0 /

It is difficult to believe that the following dates are accidental: 1814, 1824,
(and 1825), 1834, 1843 ; and 1817, 1828, 1838 (and 1839), 1848.

The maxima in October also arrange themselves systematically. There
were 4 observations of mean temperature in 43 years which exceeded 62°.
They occurred in the following days and years :—viz. in 1834 on the third day
after new moon; in 1819 on the second day before full moon; and in 1848
and 1859 on the day of first quarter, and second day after. In 1839 the max-
imum was 59°7, and it oceurred on the second day after new moon. The
mean of the month of October for 43 years is 49°-6.—More than 75 per cent.
of the maxima for the month are found to occur in the first half of the luna-
tion.

Lastly, the amount of cloud in October for seven years has been extracted
from the Greenwich Observations and formed into a Lunar Table. The
mean amounts for the day preceding each of the four principal phases and

* e.g.the mean of the mean temperatures of the five days at first quarter which occur on
the 14th of May exceeds the mean of the five days at full moon which fall on the same day
of that month by °7 of a degree only. But the mean temperature of May for the five years
in which observations occurred on the above-named day at first quarter was not higher than
49°8. In the instances at full moon it was 51°6.

LUNAR INFLUENCE ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR. 199

four following days (including in each case the day of the change) is as
follows :—

a NEW WEGGH 5... 35 0's Mae's 71
At First Quarter ............ 79 (the maximum).
mt Fol Moons ts. : 327... oo
At Last Quarter ............ 61 (the minimum).

The mean amount of cloud for the first 14 days of the lunation is 7°3; for
the remaining 14 days, 6°4.

The figures follow with great precision the course of the model curve and
also the curve of mean temperature for 1859.

It will be well to recall attention to the principle of alternation and reci-
procity which so much affects the mean results of the moon’s action.

Many instances of the recurrence of high or low temperatures upon the
same day of the lunation were adduced at the Meeting at Leeds: the follow-
ing is an amended abstract of some of the more remarkable examples.

In the two consecutive years commencing November 1846 and ending
October 1848, maximum or minimum temperatures for the month occurred,
in 1846-47, three times on the third day before new moon ; twice on the day
after new moon; three times on the third day after new moon; twice on the
third day before full moon; twice on the second day before full moon; and
twice on the third day after full moon. In 1847-48, twice on the third day
before new moon ; four times on the day of new moon; twice on the second
day before full moon ; twice on the day before full moon; twice on the day
of full moon ; twice on the third octant, or fourth day after full moon. Again,
in the year 1846-47 there were, amongst others, the following remarkable
instances of alternation between opposite phases of the moon :—in December
the minimum of the month occurred on the third day before new moon ; in
January the maximum on the third day before full moon; in February the
minimum on the third day before new moon. And again, the maximum in
November 1848 fell on the day of new moon; the minimum in December
on the day of full moon. In addition to this, maximum and minimum tempe-
ratures were found to occur at intervals of rather more than seven days, and
that for several successive months, viz. April, May, June, August, and Sep-
tember, or at other lunar intervals. In 1838, exactly ten years earlier, maxima
or minima occurred twice on the third day after new moon; three times on
the day before full moon; three times on the day of first quarter ; and three
times on the day of last quarter. At the Cape of Good Hope, reciprocity of
action and the recurrence of high and low temperatures was even more fre-
quent and systematic. Thus, in 1855, eight out of the twelve maxima for
the month occurred at first quarter, and nine of the twelve minima at new or
full moon. In 1842, nineteen maxima and minima out of twenty-four oc-
curred on eight days. In 1843, fifteen on seven days ; in 1844, seventeen on
six days; in 1845, eleven on four days. The recurrence of maxima and
minima at Toronto and Madras was equally marked.

On extracting the maximum and minimum mean temperatures for the
month, for the respective periods of 43 years at Greenwich, and 22 years
at Dublin, it was found that more maxima occurred after the moon’s first
quarter than before; the proportion of maxima to minima, on the second day
after that phase, being more than 2:1 at both stations. So too on taking the
twelve highest maxima and thetwelvelowest minima at Greenwich for the same
forty-three years, 48 per cent. of the whole number were found to occur on

200 REPORT—1859.

7 days at first quarter, and minima only, with one exception, before the day of
the change. Similar results were obtained from the observations taken at
Toronto (from 1843 to 1848).

Notwithstanding this, it is certain that the rise in the curve at first quarter
and other periods of the lunation is not caused by the presence of maximum
temperatures so much as the ordinary means of the several days.

Though not at present able to prove the point, I may state my conviction
that a close connexion will eventually be established between the occurrence
of extreme temperatures (at the several periods of the lunation at which they
may most probably be looked for) and the years of maximum and minimum
of the solar spots. The year 1858-1859 has been already instanced as one
that exhibits many noticeable examples of this increased action.

The inquiry will be proceeded with; though as a non-professed Meteor-
ologist I much need both indulgence and assistance.

TaBxe III.
Means of the month of May, for 43 years, at Greenwich,

| 1814. 1836. 52°0 | 1847. 56-4

486 | 1825. 53°6
1815. 54-7 | 1826. 50°0 | 1837. 47:8 | 1848. 59-7
1816. 48:8 | 1827. 52:7 | 1838. 50-7 | 1849. 54:0
1817, 47-9 | 1828. 54:3 | 1839. 49:9 | 1850. 51:3
1818. 525 1829. 54:5 | 1840. 53:5 | 1851. 50:9

1819. 542 | 1830. 54:7 ; 1841. 56:8 1852. 51:5
1820. 52:0 1831. 52:8 1842. 53:2 1853. 52:0
1821. 49°4 1832. 51°5 1843. 52°2 1854. 50-9
1822. 55°8 1833. 59°4 1844. 52:9 1855. 488
1823. 54:7 | 1834. 56:9 1845. 49°4 1856. 495
1824, 49°5 1835. 52°9 1846... 54:6, :|— 7a. so ae
Mean ...53°°0 |

An Account of the Construction of the Self-recording Magnetographs
at present in operation at the Kew Observatory of the British Asso-
ciation. By BALFour Stewart, M.A.

Earcy in 1857 the Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society
voted £150 towards the expense of aset of Self-recording Magnetographs te
be erected at the Kew Observatory of the British Association; the sum of
£250 having been pieviously granted out of the Wollaston fund for the
purpose of lighting the observatory with gas.

The late Mr. Welsh thereupon applied himself with much zeal to the
task of constructing these magnetographs, and devised a plan which was
transmitted to Mr. ‘Adie, optician, $95 Strand, who undertook to make the
instruments.

These were completed by Mr. Adie in a satisfactory manner, and were in
operation in July 1857; by the beginning of 1858 all difficulties, whether of
a mechanical or photographic nature, had been overcome, and since that
date a continuous register of the magnetic clements has been obtained.
With regard to the plan devised by Mr. Welsh, the best proof of its excel-
lence is the nature of the results obtained, which may be judged of from
an average specimen of the curves appended to this Report. Indeed, the

ON SELF-RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS. 201

superior definition and finish of the lines leaves hardly anything to be
desired. Mr. Beckley, the engineer attached to the observatory, very skilfully
devised the mechanical details in conformity with Mr. Welsh’s plan, and
prepared a working drawing of the instruments*.

Mr, Chambers (magnetical assistant at Kew Observatory) assisted in over-
coming certain photographical difficulties that arose. He has since been in
charge of the instruments, and has performed his task in a very efficient
manner,

This Report is divided into five sections. In the first section a general
and preliminary description is given of the principles of construction of the
magnetographs. In the second, a detailed account is given of each of the
instruments. In the third section the photographic process is described. In
the fourth, the method of ascertaining the instrumental coefficients, and of
tabulating from the curves, &c., is detailed; and in the fifth section certain
improvements are mentioned which have been made ona set of magneto-
graphs since constructed of the same kind as those described.

Section I. PreLtimiInary DescrIpTion.

The room in which the instruments are placed is one of the lower rooms
of the observatory, the roof of which is not much above the level of the
ground outside. It is well protected from damp by a vault which goes
round the observatory, and is subject to very small changes of temperature,
the mean daily range being within 1° Fahr., and the annual range about
20°, the thermometer varying from 50° Fahr. in winter to 70° Fahr. in
summer. In shape the room is an octagon, of about 22 feet in diameter,
with a height of about 17 feet. Daylight is only admitted through panes
of orange-coloured glass, which have the effect of excluding the actinic rays.

Four pillars, A, B,C, D (see Plate 3. fig. 1), made of Portland stone, are
firmly fixed into the floor. ‘The centres of the pillars B, C, D are in a line
perpendicular to the magnetic meridian, while the centres of pillars A and D
are in the line of that meridian. ‘The pillars A, B, and C support the three
magnetographs, while the pillar D supports the recording cylinders and
clockwork.

In Plate 3. fig. 1, we have a ground-plan of the instruments, and in fig. 2
an elevation of the same.

Referring to the Declination Magnetograph (Plate 3. fig. 1), @ denotes
the gas-flame which is the source of light ; 6 is a bull’s-eye lens, the object
of which is to condense the light on a narrow vertical slit atc. The bull’s-
eye therefore enables the light to be nearly as effective as it would be if
' placed immediately behind the slit e, although in reality it is at a convenient
distance from it.

After having passed the slit c, the light is conveyed through a covered
tube until it reaches the plano-convex achromatic lens set vertically at d,
having passed through which, it next falls on two semicircular mirrors which
have their centre at e. The faces of these mirrors are exhibited in Plate 4.
fig. 3, from which it will be seen that the lower mirror is firmly fixed to a
marble slab, while the upper one, which is nearly, but not quite in contact
with the lower, is attached to a delicately suspended magnet, and conse-
quently moves with it. The light, after leaving the mirrors, is reflected in
the direction ef through a piece of plane glass at f, and through a covered
tube until it reaches a cylinder hf, the axis of which is horizontal, and which
is covered with sensitive paper.

The focal length of the lens d is such, that the point h, where the rays

* The drawings for the Plates attached to this Report were also made by Mr. Beckley.

202 REPORT—1859.

strike the cylinder, is the conjugate focus to the slit ¢; we should therefore
have an image of the slit ¢ exhibited on the sensitive paper. As, however,
our object is to produce a dot and not a slit of light, a hemicylindrical lens,
having its axis horizontal and focus at the cylinder, is placed at g, so that
the rays passing through it have the vertical slit of light which they
would otherwise have formed on the cylinder compressed into a dot; in
which state therefore the light falls upon the sensitive paper. But it is
only when both the mirrors, the fixed and the moveable, are in one plane
that we shall have one dot upon the cylinder. For if the plane of the one
mirror is inclined at an angle to that of the other, the ray from the first
mirror will not be reflected in the same direction as that from the second,
and will consequently fall upon a different part of the cylinder. Two slits
of light will in this case reach the hemicylindrical lens, and two corresponding
dots of light will appear upon the sensitive paper which covers the cylinder.
The distance between these two dots will be a measure of the angle between
the two mirrors, and will consequently (the lower mirror being fixed, and
the upper one moving with the magnet) indicate the position of the magnet
from time to time.

The cylinder round which the sensitive paper is wrapped is moved round
by clockwork once in every twenty-four hours, so that the dot belonging
to the fixed mirror generates a straight line, while that belonging to the
moveable mirror will describe a line corresponding to the movement of the
magnet.

The arrangements of the horizontal-force instrument are in all respects
similar to those of the declination magnetograph which has just been
described, with this exception, that in the latter the magnet is in its natural
direction, viz. perpendicular to ef, while in the former it is twisted into a
direction at right angles to its natural position, and is now in the line ef.

The only difference which it is necessary here to notice between the
vertical-force magnetograph and those which we have now described, is that
in the vertical-force magnetograph the slit ¢ is horizontal and the hemi-
cylindrical lens and cylinder vertical, while the axis.on which the moveable
semicircular mirror, attached to the magnet, turns, is horizontal. The
mirror of this magnetograph is exhibited in Plate 4. fig 5. One piece of
clockwork is made to drive all the cylinders.

The principle of construction which we have now described seems to
possess the following advantages :—

Ist. The optical arrangements are such as to secure an exceedingly well-
defined dot of light, and by means of suitable photographie appliances, an
unexceptionable curve and base-line.

2nd. Should anything occur to change the position of the slit c, both the
curve and the base-line will be equally displaced, so that the distance between
them (with which only we are concerned) will remain precisely the same as
before.

Thus too, by slightly altering the positioa of the slit each day, we may put
two or even three days’ curves on the same sheet.

3rd. The stone piers, &c. secure perfect steadiness to the apparatus, and
the central arrangement presents the advantage that one piece of clockwork
drives all the cylinders.

Section IJ. DeraiLep DeEscrIPTION OF THE INSTRUMENTS.
1. Declination Magnetograph.
The flame used is that of gas, the supply of which is kept constant by

ON SELF-RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS. 203

means of a water-regulator. The burner consists of a narrow slit about three-
quarters of an inch long, and one-hundredth of an inch in breadth. It is
placed endwise with respect to the lens, in consequence of which position,
the light (coming from a stratum of flame three-quarters of an inch in depth)
has its brilliancy greatly increased (see Plate 4. fig. 10 a).

The shape of the burner and the arrangement for supplying the flame
with air, are in all respects similar to those used in a paraffin lamp, their
application to gas having been suggested by Mr. Beckley. The burner is
fitted with a glass chimney, the presence of which intensifies the light—it
must not, however, fit too tightly.

The bull’s-eye lens used for condensing the light of the gas upon the slit
is that known as the double condenser.

Having passed the bull’s-eye lens, the light falls upon the slit ce. The
breadth of this slit is about ~4>th of an inch; a front view of it is given in
Plate 4. fig. 10 a.

By means of an adjustment, the distance between the gas-flame and the
bull’s-eye lens may be altered until the slit is in focus for the gas-flame.

The light having passed the slit, goes through a covered tube until it
reaches the plano-convex achromatic lens before mentioned. By means of
an adjustment, the gas-flame, the bull’s-eye, and the slit may be moved
together until the slit be at that distance from the lens which is the conju-
gate focus of the sensitive paper. There is also an arrangement by which
gas, bull’s-eye, and slit may be moved a little to one side of the central line
of the lens, so that the two dots may be made to assume a different position
on the sensitive paper.

The distance between the slit and the lens is 17°7 inches. This lens is fitted
into a glass shade which covers the magnet, as represented in Plate 4. fig. 2.

This glass shade stands upon a circular marble slab, diameter 20 inches,
thickness 1-2 inch, which is cemented to the top of a solid pillar of Portland
stone 4 feet high.

There are two holes cut in this glass shade, each about 3 inches in diameter
(see Plate 4. figs. 1 & 6), the one to contain the lens above mentioned,
through which the rays of light pass on their way from the slit to the mirror ;
and the other to contain a piece of plane glass through which the same rays
pass on their way from the mirror to the cylinder. The glass shade is gilded
inside nearly to the top. This gilding serves the double purpose of reflect-
ing back any heat associated with light which may strike it from the outside,
and (being a bad radiator) of diminishing as much as possible the currents of
air which changes of temperature are apt to produce. The portion of the
shade which is not gilded is covered outside with a cloth cap, removeable at
pleasure. A vessel containing chloride of calcium is put inside to absorb all
moisture. A curved arm of brass (Plate 4, figs. 3 & 4) carries the suspen-
sion roller A, and torsion circle C (see also fig. 14:) reading to minutes. The
suspension thread is a silk fibre slightly rubbed with bees-wax, in order to
render it less susceptible to hygrometric influences.

The magnet (D) is a rectangular bar about 54 inches long, 0°8 inch
broad, and 01 inch thick. The semicircular mirrors, already alluded to,
are also represented in figs. 3 & 4. Their diameter is 3 inches; and great
care has been taken that the glass surfaces should be accurately plane and
parallel to each other. G is a copper damper, the object of which is to check
the oscillations of the magnet, and bring it to rest speedily. The angle aef
(Plate 3. fig. 1) being =30° and ef being perpendicular to the magnetic
meridian, it follows that the plane of the mirror must be inclined at an angle
of 15° to the axis of the magnet, in order that the ray de may be reflected in
the direction ef.

204 REPORT—1859.

The semicircular mirrors must likewise be placed so that their centre
shall be on a level with the centre of the lens. The distance from the lens
to the centre of the mirror is 8:1 inches. Having been reflected by the
mirror, the light passes through a zine tube fixed to a slate, which connects
the declination pillar with the central pillar (see Plate 3. fig. 2), and so
reaches the hemicylindrical lens and sensitive paper already described. The
distance from the centre of the mirror to the sensitive paper is 63 feet.
Hence we have

Distance between lens and mirror...... = 8:1 inches.
Distance between mirror and cylinder .. 78:0 inches.

Total distance between lens and cylinder =86:1 inches.

And since the distance between the slit and the lens is 17°7 inches, we find
that the focal distance of the lens for parallel actinic rays is nearly 14°7 inches*.

Before falling on the sensitive paper, the light passes through a hemicylin-
drical plano-convex lens (see Plate 3. fig. 1). The radius of the second sur-
face of this lens, is about 0°6 inch, and consequently the distance between
this surface and the sensitive paper (in order that the latter may be in focus)
is nearly 1:2 inch.

2. Horizontal-force Magnetograph.

This instrument is exhibited in Plate 4. figs. 1 & 2. The magnet, mirror,
lens, shade, adjustments of light and slit, &c., are in all respects similar to
those of the declination magnetograph already described. ‘The peculiarity
of the instrument consists in the mode of suspension. A grooved wheel, E
(Plate 4. figs. 1 & 2), about 0°3 in. in diameter, has its axle attached to the
stirrup which carries the magnet, the plane of the wheel being in the direc-
tion of the magnet’s length.

The suspension thread, consisting of steel wire (steel being considered
little liable to stretch), is carried round the wheel, and the two ends fixed to
the suspension roller A (see also fig. 13). A little below the suspension
roller the two threads pass over a screw at B, the screw being right-handed
where it meets the one thread, and left-handed where it meets the other.
Consequently by turning the screw-head, we can vary the distance between
the wires until it becomes equal to the diameter of the wheel, and the wires
will now be at the same distance from one another throughout their entire
length. Let us suppose that the magnet is in the direction of the magnetic
meridian. Turn round the torsion circle C (precisely similar to that already
described) until the magnet assumes a position at right angles to the magnetic
meridian. It is clear that, in order to do this, we shall have to turn the torsion
circle through an angle greater than 90°, and consequently that the plane of
the wires at their lower extremity will be different from that at their upper.
This difference is at present =35° 56’ nearly. ‘The suspension thread is
about 11°6 inches long.

As the light which falls upon the mirror in the direction de (see Plate 3.
fig. 1) must be reflected in the direction ef (def being 30° as before), it
follows that the plane of the mirror must make an angle of 75° with the
magnetic axis of the magnet. ‘

The distance between the slit and the lens is 17°7 inches, and that between

* The focal length of the lens is determined rather by convenience of shape of the instru-
ment than by optical considerations. In the declination magnetograph, for instance, if the
distance between the slit and the lens were much greater than 17:7 inches, the light, bull’s-
eye, and slit could not well be supported by an arm of the slate which is attached to the
declination pillar, but wouid require a separate piilar for themselves,

ON SELF-RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS. 205

the lens and the mirror 8:1 inches, these being the same as in the declination
magnetograph ; but the distance between the centre of the mirror and the
cylinder is different, being here 4°885 feet.

Hence the focal length of the lens for parallel actinic rays is about 14
inches. The hemicylindrical lens is in all respects similar to that already
described.

3. Vertical-force Magnetograph.

This instrument is exhibited in Plate 4. figs. 5,6 & 7.

The vertical-force magnet is of the same size as the others, and is balanced
by means of a steel knife-edge upon an agate-plane. It is provided (see
Plate 4. fig. 7) at one side with a brass screw working horizontally, and at
the other with a similar screw working vertically. By means of these the
centre of gravity may be thrown to either side of the centre of suspension,
or it may be raised or lowered, and the sensibility of the magnet, when
balanced, thereby increased or diminished.

These screws are arranged so that there is a preponderance of weight
towards the south side of the magnet. This is neutralized partly by the
magnetic force tending to pull the north end down, and partly by a slip of
brass (H) standing out horizontally towards the north side. Let us suppose
the system to be in equilibrium at a certain temperature ; if the temperature
rise (since brass expands more than steel), the leverage of the weight at the
north side will increase more rapidly than that of the weight at the south.
There will therefore be a slight preponderance towards the north, and this
may be arranged so as to neutralize to a great extent the decrease in the
magnetic moment which an increase of temperature produces.

The plane of the magnet is 15° out of the magnetic meridian (see Plate 3.
fig. 1), for the following reason. Had the magnet been in the magnetic
meridian, it would have been necessary to have placed the mirror inclined
at an angle of 15° to the axis of motion of the magnet. This was tried, but
it was found that in this position of the mirror, the correction for tempera-
ture was so excessive that the instrument became a thermometer, and not a
magnetometer. The mirror was therefore put in a plane passing through
the axis of motion of the needle, the needle being made to move in a plane
inclined 15° to the magnetic meridian. Its temperature correction is at pre-
sent very small.

The mirror of this instrument is exhibited in Plate 4. fig. 5, one half
moving with the magnet, and the other half being fixed to a stand; I is a
lifter which may be inserted from without the glass shade, and which, by
raising three Ys to catch the needle, may remove it from its position of
balance when necessary.

A thermometer is inserted within the glass shade of this instrument, by
means of which the temperature both of the horizontal and the vertical-force
magnets may be determined with sufficient accuracy.

In the vertical-foree magnetograph, the slit for the light is horizontal,
while the hemicylindrical lens and the cylinder are vertical.

It might be thought that with a horizontal slit the style of burner already
described would prove unsuitable, as we here require a horizontal and not
a vertical light; but by using a burner twice as large every way as those of
the other magnetographs, we obtain a light that is found to answer in prac-
tice extremely well.

The adjustments for regulating the distance between the light and the slit,
and between the slit and the lens, are similar to those for the declination and
bifilar magnetographs. There is also an adjustment, by means of which the

9206 REPORT—1859.

light, bull’s-eye, and slit may be pushed vertically (not horizontally as in the
others) a little to one side of the central line of the lens, so that the dots may
assume a different position on the sensitive paper.

The distance between the slit and the lens is 17°6 inches, that between
the lens and the mirror is 8°1 inches, while the distance between the mirror
and the cylinder is 6 feet.

Hence the focal length of the lens for actinic parallel rays is about 14-4
inches.

4. Registering Cylinder and Clockwork.

These are exhibited in Plate 4. figs. 8 & 9. The cylinders are each
6} inches long, and G6 inches in diameter. They consist of brass silvered
over. The method of connecting them with the clockwork was devised
and executed by Mr. Beckley. The toothed wheel & is driven by the clock-
work, and drives the two pinions 7. These pinions, when in gear, drive the
two horizontal cylinders by means of teeth attached to the circumference of
the latter. Two radial arms, to which the pinions / are attached, enable
these to be put out of gear when it is necessary to remove the cylinders.
The position of the pinions in this case is indicated in the figure by dotted
lines. The vertical cylinder has a toothed rim attached to its lower extremity,
which is driven by the crown wheel m. By removing a screw, the cylinder
may, when necessary, be detached from its toothed rim, leaving the latter
behind.

Section II]. DescrIpTION OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESS.

The process employed is that known as the waxed-paper process, and is
thus described by Mr. Crookes.

Description of the Wax-paper Photographie Process employed Sor the Photo-
meteorographic Registrations at the Radcliffe Observatory. ByW.CRookEs,
Esq.

1. Before attempting to select from the numerous Photographic processes
the one best adapted to the requirements of Meteorology, it was necessary
to take into consideration a number of circumstances comparatively unim-
portant in ordinary operations.

ae be of any value, the records must go on unceasingly and continu-
ously :

First. Therefore, the process adopted must be one combining sharpness of
definition, with extreme sensitiveness, in order to mark accurately the minute
and oftentimes sudden variations of the instruments.

Second. To avoid all hurry and confusion, it is of the utmost importance
that the prepared paper or other medium be of a kind capable of retaining
its sensitiveness for several days.

Third. The contraction which paper undergoes during the numerous
operations to which it is subject in most processes (in general rather an ad-
vantage than otherwise), is here a serious objection; for this reason, the
experiment first tried, of transferring to paper the image received on col-
lodion preserved-sensitive by the nitrate of magnesia process, was a failure.

Fourth. Strong contrast of light and shade, and absence of half-tint, un-
fortunately so common amongst ordinary photographie pictures, is in this
case no objection.

’ Fifth. It is essential to preserve the criginal results in an accessible form ;
and for this reason, the Daguerreotype process, admirably as it seems to
answer other requisites, is obviously not the one best suited to our purpose.

Lastly, the whole operation should, if possible, be so easily reducible to

ON SELF-RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS. 207

practice, that with a very small share of manipulatory skill, the loss of even
a day’s record would be impossible.

2. Bearing these conditions in mind, on looking over the photographic
processes with which I was acquainted, that known as the wax-paper process,
first described by M. Le-Gray, seemed peculiarly applicable. In sharpness
it might be made to rival collodion ; and although generally stated to be slow
in its action, I had no doubt that its sensitiveness could be easily increased
to the required degree.

Of all paper processes, I believed it to be the one most free from contrac-
tion, either during the time it is undergoing the action of the light, or in any
subsequent stage. Its chief superiority, however, consisted in its capability
of remaining sensitive for so long a time, that it is of little consequence
whether the sensitive sheets be a day or a week old. Then the comparative
slowness of the development, which has always been looked upon as one of
its weak points, would be in this case a positive advantage, as dispensing with
that care and attention which must always be bestowed on a quickly deyelop-
ing picture.

In addition to all these recommendations, it was a process to which I had
paid particular attention, and consequently the one in which I might naturally
hope to meet with the greatest amount of success.

3. The general outline of the process does not differ materially from that
which I published some years back in ‘ Notes and Queries,’ vol. vi. p. 443 ;
but as that account was written for practical photographers, the details of
the manipulation were brief. It has therefore been thought advisable, that
while describing again the whole process, with the addition of such modifi-
eations as the end in view requires, I should also give such fuller description
of the manipulation, as may render it more serviceable to those who have not
hitherto paid attention to photography in its practical details. This must be
my excuse, if to some I seem unnecessarily prolix. None but a practical
photographer can appreciate upon what apparently trivial and unimportant
points success in any branch of the art may depend.

It may not be without service, if, before entering into the practical details
of the process, I say a few words respecting the most advantageous way of
arranging a photographic laboratory, together with the apparatus, chemicals,
&e. which are of most frequent use.

Among those requisites, which may be almost called absolute necessaries,
are gas, and a plentiful supply of good water, as soft as can be procured.

4. The windows and shutters of the room should be so contrived as either
to allow of their being thrown wide open for purposes of ventilation, or
of being closed sufficiently well to exclude every gleam of daylight ; and the
arrangement should admit of the transition from one to the other being made
with as little trouble as possible.

5. A piece of very deep orange-coloured glass, about 2 feet square,
should be put in the window, and the shutter ought to be constructed so as
to allow of the room being perfectly darkened, or illuminated, either by
ordinary daylight, or daylight which has been deprived of its photogrephic
rays, by filtering through the orange glass. The absorbing power of this
glass will be found to vary very considerably in different specimens, and I
know of no rule but experience to find out the quality of any particular
sample ; the best plan is to select from a good stock one of as dark a colour
as possible. The proper colour is opake to the rays of the solar spectrum
above the fixed line E.

6. The best source of heat is unquestionably gas. It will be as well, how-
ever, to have a fire-place in the room, as, in some cases, a gas-stove will be

208 REPORT—1859.

inapplicable. There should be gas-burners in different parts of the room for
illumination at night ; and also an arrangement for placing a screen of orange
glass in front of each.

Several rough deal benches should be put up in different parts of the room,
with shelves, drawers, cupboards, &c. ‘The arrangement of these matters
must of course depend upon the capabilities of the room.

7. The following apparatus is required. The quantities are those that we
have found necessary in this Observatory :—

Eight dishes. Six funnels.

Eight mill-board covers. One funnel stand.

Three brushes for cleaning dishes. Pint, half-pint, one ounce, and
A vessel for melting wax. one drachm measures.

Two gauze burners. Three glass flasks.

One box, iron. Boxes for holding paper.
Filtering paper. Scales and weights.

A still for water. Sponge, glass rods, stoppered
One platinum, and three hone spa- bottles, &e.

tulas (flat paper-knives).

8. The dishes may be made of glass, porcelain, or gutta percha. Glass
and porcelain are certainly cleaner than gutta percha; but for general use
the latter is far preferable, as with it there is no risk of breakage, and the
bottom of the dish can be made perfectly flat, whichis a great advantage.
These dishes should be made of sufficient length to allow of a margin of
about half an inch at each end when the paper is in; and the shape should
be made as nearly square as possible, by arranging them to take two or three
sheets side by side.

The gutta percha should be of a good thickness, otherwise it will bend
and give way, if it be moved when full of liquid. The depth must depend
upon the size of the dish, and the purpose for which it is intended. The
dishes in use here accommodate three sheets of paper side by side ; they are
fifteen inches square, and one inch and a half deep. I think, however, for
some purposes, where they are not wanted to be moved about much (@. e. those
for holding the bath of hyposulphite of soda for fixing), the depth might be
advantageously increased to two inches and a half. Each dish ought to be
reserved for a particular solution, and should have a piece of millboard a
little larger than itself for a cover.

9. The brushes for cleaning the dishes are of two sorts ; a common scrub-
bing brush will be found the best for all parts but the corners, and for these
another kind must be used, having a handle about a foot long, at the end of
which are tufts of stiff bristles, projecting about three-quarters of an inch,
and radiating on all sides, forming a ball about two inches and a half in dia-
meter. Hardly any dirt will be found capable of resisting this brush if it be
pressed into a corner, and twisted round several times. The dishes ought
always to be put away clean, as the dirt is much more difficult to remove if
allowed to dry on.

10. When a dish is to be cleaned, if it be of glass or porcelain, strong
nitric acid must be poured into it; if of gutta percha, it should be filled with
a strong solution of cyanide of potassium. After soaking for half an hour or
an hour, according to the state of the dish, the liquid is to be returned into
the bottle (both the nitric acid and the cyanide can be used several times),
the dish rinsed out with water, and then well scrubbed in every part with the
brushes ; afterwards it is to be washed several times in common water, once
with distilled water, and then placed in a slanting position against a wall, face
downwards, to drain on clean blotting-paper. .

ON SELF-RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS. 209

11. The vessel in which the wax is melted, must be contrived so as never
to allow of its reaching a higher temperature than 212° Fahr., or decompo-
sition of the wax might ensuc. 1 have found the most convenient apparatus
to be, a tin vessel 15 inches square and 4 inches deep, having a tray which
holds the wax fitting into it about 1 inch deep. The under vessel is to be
half filled with water, and by keeping this just at the boiling temperature, the
wax above will soon become liquid.

12. The best source of heat is that known as the gauze gas-burner, it
being free from smoke or dust, and not liable to blacken anything placed
over it. It consists of a common argand burner fixed on a rather low and
heavy iron stand, which is surmounted by a copper or brass cylinder 5 inches
in height and 2 inches wide, having a piece of wire gauze of 900 meshes to
the square inch fastened over the top. By connecting this burner by means
of vulcanized india-rubber tubing to the gas-pipe, it can be moved about
the table to any convenient position. ‘The mixture of gas and air, formed
inside the cylinder, is to be lighted above the wire gauze; it burns over this
with a large and nearly colourless but intensely hot flame.

13. The most convenient form of iron is the ordinary box iron, made
hot by heaters inside ; perhaps it might be improved in shape by having
the end not quite so pointed, but this is not of much consequence. Some
operators recommend facing the bottom with a plate of silver; this is very
expensive, and seems to me to be attended with no advantage whatever.

14. For the purpose of absorbing the excess of wax from the surface of
the sheet, I should recommend the ordinary white wove blotting-paper,
medium thickness. But this is not sufficiently free from impurities to serve
either for drying the sensitive sheets, or for filtering ; for this purpose, the
fine filtering paper (not the Swedish) employed in quantitative chemical
operations is the best.

15. The distilled water being one of those substances upon the purity
of which success will in a great measure depend, it will be found much safer
to distil it on the premises, especially as the quantity required is trifling.
A convenient size for the still is about two gallons; it may be procured
ready made, with worm, &c. complete, of any large dealer in chemical
apparatus. It will be found far more economical, both in time and trouble,
to heat the water over a charcoal or coke fire, in preference to using gas
for this purpose.

16. A platinum spatula is a most necessary instrument in almost every
operation ; the best size is 4 inches long, } an inch wide at one end, and 3 at
the other, the corners being rounded off; it should be of a sufficient sub-
stance to prevent its being easily bent. It chief use is to raise one corner
of the sheets to allow of their being held between the finger and thumb, for
the purpose of removing from one dish to another, as, previous to fixing,
none of the solutions should come in contact with the fingers.

During the fixing and subsequent washing, bone spatulas will be found
very useful; but after having been in contact with hyposulphite of soda,
they must be carefully kept away from any of the previous baths, or black
stains will infallibly ensue.

17. The funnels may be either of glass or porcelain; it will be found
useful to have several of different sizes, from 2 inches diameter, up to6
inches. A convenient stand for them may be made of a piece of flat board,
with circular holes, about half the diameter of the funnels employed, drilled
into it, and supported upon four legs about 8 inches high. The paper
used for filtering should be the finest of the two sorts of blotting-paper
mentioned above (14). The filters can either be cut from the sheet as
wanted, or they may be obtained ready cut in packets.

1859. P

210 REPORT—1859.

The measures should be of glass, graduated, the pint and half pint into
ounces, the ounce measure into drachms, and the drachm measure into
minims; they shonld be rather long in proportion to their width.

The Florence oil-flasks, which can be obtained for a trifle at any oil
warehouse, will be found to answer every purpose, nearly as well as the more
expensive German flasks. They must be cleansed thoroughly from the
adhering oil ; this may be done by boiling in them, over the gauze gas-burner,
a strong solution of ordinary washing soda, and afterwards well rinsing out
with water.

18, It will be found indispensable, where there are many operations going
on at the same time, and many different sheets of paper in various stages of
progress, to have a separate box or division to hold the paper in each of its
stages. The plan I have found most convenient, is to obtain several mill-
board boxes, the fronts of which will fall flat when the lid is lifted up,
similar to those used by stationers for holding letter paper, &e.: they can
be made to hold two or three piles of sheets side by side. They may be
obtained from M. Rousseau, 352 Strand, London.

The scales and weights need not be of any great accuracy. A 6-inch
beam capable of turning to half a grain, when loaded with 500 grains in
each pan, will be all that is requisite: the pans must be of glass, and the
weights should consist of a set of grain and a set of drachm weights.

A sponge will be found useful for wiping up any of the solutions that
may have been spilt on the bench. Solid glass stirring rods of about the
thickness of a quill, and six or eight inches. long, and a small Wedgewood
pestle and mortar, are of great service in many “of the operations.

Stoppered botties should be employed for all the solutions; and too
much care cannot be taken to label each bottle accurately and distinctly.

19. Besides the above apparatus, the following materials and chemicals
are requisite. A rough estimate is also given of their relative consumption
in three months :—Photographic paper, 270 sheets, or 112 square feet ; four
pounds of wax; three ounces of iodide of potassium; three ounces of
bromide of potassium; four ounces of nitrate of silver ; two ounces of glacial
acetic acid ; four ounces of gallic acid ; one pint of alcohol ; seven pounds of
hyposulphite of soda; half a pound of cyanide of potassium; half a pint of
concentrated nitric acid ; eighteen gallons of distilled water.

20. The selection of a good sample of paper for the basis on which the
sensitive material is to be formed is of great importance, as any imper-
fection will be a source of annoyance in every stage of the process, and will
hardly fail to show itself on the finished picture. The paper, which from
numerous experiments I have found to be superior to any other, is that
known as Canson’s thin photographic paper. ‘This is manufactured with
eare, and isin general very uniform in quality.

It will be found by far the most advantageous plan, when used on a scale
like the present, to order it of some wholesale stationer cut to the requisite
dimensions. The size of the sheets in use here is 42 inches by 121} inches*.
‘Hitherto Messrs. Hallifax and Co., 319 Oxford Street, have supplied us with
the paper of this size.

21. I am indebted to Mr. Barclay of Regent Street, wax bleacher, for
much valuable information concerning wax and its adulterations, and for

* This is a most inconvenient size, as it involves the cutting of more than one-third of
the paper to waste. The admirably ingenious arrangement of Mr. Ronalds was not made
with the view of employing Canson’s paper, or it would doubtless have heen contrived t

accommodate sheets of a size which could be cut with less waste, such as 44 by 13 inches
cor 42 by 113 inches,

ON SELF-RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS. 211

an extensive assortment of waxes of all kinds, and in every degree of purity ;
also to Mr. Maskelyne, for a valuable series of the chemical bodies of
which the various waxes are composed ; by means of these I have been
enabled to examine the effect produced by saturating the paper with
‘bees-wax from different countries, Myrica wax, Canauba wax, China wax,
spermaceti, ethal, stearic acid, stearin, palmitic acid, palmitin, paraffin,
and various oils.

22. I find that the action of the wax is purely mechanical, almost the
only difference of effect produced by any of the above bodies, widely as they
vary in their chemical nature, arising from a difference in their physical
properties.

Stearin, palmitin, and most of the oils, are too greasy in their nature
to be advantageously employed. The fatty acids do not make the paper
in the least greasy, but they injure the transparency. China wax has
almost too high a melting-point, and gives a crystalline structure to the
paper. Spermaceti also is too crystalline. Paraffin, ethal, and the waxes,
produce very good results; of these bees-wax is the only one that would
be practically available for this purpose. It should be free from stearin,
stearic acid, tallow, &c.; the presence of a little spermaceti does not much
interfere, but as its price does not differ very much from that of pure wax,
it is not so common an adulteration as the other cheaper substances.

23. It will be unsafe to use the wax in the form of round thin tablets,
‘about 4 inches in diameter, in which it is usually met with, as in this state
it is generally adulterated to the extent of at least 50 per cent.

As an article of commerce, it is next to impossible to obtain small
quantities of wax sufficiently pure to be relied upon. The only way I can
recommend is to apply to one of the well-known large bleachers, and trust
to them for supplying the article in a state of purity. Whenever I have
found it necessary to make such applications, my request has always been
acceded to in the most cordial manner, and every information has been
given with the utmost readiness.

24. The other chemicals (with the exception of the strong nitric acid,
which any retail druggist will supply, and the water, which had best be
‘distilled on the premises) should be ordered direct from some manufacturing
‘chemist, as otherwise, unless the operator have a sufficient knowledge of
chemistry to be able to detect any inferiority, there is danger of not having
‘the articles sufficiently pure.

The iodide and bromide of potassium should be ordered purified.

The nitrate of silver should be crystallized, not in sticks; it ought to be
perfectly dry, and have no smell, acid or otherwise.

There are usually two varieties of glacial acetic acid to be met with; the
purest must be used; it should be perfectly free from any empyreumatic
odour, and must cause no turbidity when mixed with a solution of nitrate of
‘silver, e. g. in making the exciting bath (42),

The gallic acid should be as nearly white in colour as possible.

Especial care should be taken to have the alcohol good; it should be 60°
‘over proof, and of specific gravity 0°83. On evaporating a few drops on the
palm of the hand, no smell should be left behind, nor should it, under the
‘same circumstances, leave any stain on a sheet of white paper.

25. The hyposulphite of soda will be found one of the articles most
difficult to obtain pure; there is a large quantity at present in the market,
having little else of this salt but the name, and being of course totally unfit for
use ; if there be the least doubt about its purity, it should be tested in the
following manner :—

912 REPORT—]1 859,

Weigh out accurately 10 grains of nitrate of silver, dissolve this in half an
ounce of distilled water; then add 4 grains of chloride of sodium (common
salt), also dissolved in water. On mixing these two solutions together, a
white curdy precipitate of chloride of silver will fall down. Next add 22
grains of the hyposulphite of soda, and allow it to stand for about ten
minutes, stirring occasionally with a glass rod. If at the end of that time
the chloride of silver has dissolved, the hyposulphite of soda may be con-
sidered as pure. A greater or less amount of residue will indicate roughly
the degree of impurity.

26. The cyanide of potassium is usually met with in the form of hard
white lumps; they will be found quite pure enough. It is very useful in
removing stains formed by nitrate of silver on the fingers, &c.; but the
greatest care must be taken in its employment, as it is a most energetic poison;
its use in cleaning the dishes from silver stains has been pointed out above

10).
2 The first operation to be performed is to make a slight pencil mark on
that side of the photographic paper which is to receive the sensitive coating.
If a sheet of Canson’s paper be examined in a good light, one of the sides
will be found to present a finely reticulated appearance, while the other will
be perfectly smooth ; this latter is the one that should be marked. Fifty or
a hundred sheets may be marked at once, by holding a pile of them firmly
by one end, and then bending the packet round, until the loose ends separate
one from another like a fan; generally all the sheets lie in the same direc-
tion, therefore it is only necessary to ascertain that the smooth side of one of
them is uppermost, and then draw a pencil once or twice along the exposed
edges.

28. The paper has now to be saturated with white wax. The apparatus
for this purpose has been previously described (11). The wax is to be
made perfectly liquid, and then the sheets of paper, taken up singly and
held by one end, are gradually lowered on to the fluid. As soon as the wax
is absorbed, which takes place almost directly, they are to be lifted up with
rather a quick movement, held by one corner and allowed to drain until the
wax, ceasing to run off, congeals on the surface. When the sheets are first
taken up for this operation, they should be briefly examined, and such as
show the water-mark, contain any black spots*, or have anything unusual
about their appearance, should be rejected.

29. The paper in this stage will contain far more wax than necessary ; the
excess may be removed by placing the sheets singly between blotting-paper
(14), and ironing them; but this is wasteful, and the loss may be avoided
by placing on each side of the waxed sheet two or three sheets of unwaxed
photographic paper, and then ironing the whole between blotting-paper ;
there will generally be enough wax on the centre sheet to saturate fully those
next to it on each side, and partially, if not entirely, the others. Those that
are imperfectly waxed may be made the outer sheets of the succeeding set.
Finally, each sheet must be separately ironed .between blotting-paper until
the glistening patches of wax are absorbed.

30. It is of the utmost consequence that the temperature of the iron should
not exceed that of boiling water. Before using, I always dip it into water
until the hissing entirely ceases. This is one of the most important points in
the whole process, but one which it is very difficult to make beginners pro-
perly appreciate. The disadvantages of having too hot an iron, are not

* These spots have been analysed by Mr. Malone; he finds them to consist, not of iron, —

as is generally supposed, but of small pieces of brass. I have also examined them myself
with a like result. :

Cy ea Be rat ying

ON SELF-RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS. 213

apparent until an after stage, while the saving of time and trouble is a great
temptation to beginners. It is to a neglect of this point that I am inclined
to attribute most of the faults so commonly laid to the charge of this beau-
tiful process; such as gravelly appearance, or want of smoothness in the
lights, and quick decomposition in the developing solution.

31. A well-waxed sheet of paper, when viewed by obliquely reflected
light, ought to present a perfectly uniform glazed appearance on one side,
while the other should be rather duller; there must be no shining patches
on any part of the surface, nor should any irregularities be observed on ex-
amining the paper with a black ground placed behind; seen by transmitted
light, it will appear opalescent, but there should be no approach to a granular
structure. The colour of a pile of waxed sheets is slightly bluish.

32. ‘The paper, having undergone this preparatory operation, is ready for
iodizing ; this is effected by completely immersing it in an aqueous solution
of an alkaline iodide, either pure or mixed with some analogous salt.

One would think that in no part of the photographic operation would
greater unanimity exist, than on the composition of the iodizing bath; but
on this subject, strangely enough, no two persons seem to think alike. The
formulze for this bath are nearly as numerous as the operators themselves ;
and some of them show nota little ingenuity in the manner inwhich substances
apparently the most unphotographic have been pressed into service.

33. The results of numerous experiments, which I need not mention
here, had convinced me, that for ordinary purposes, iodide of silver per se
was the best sensitive surface for receiving an image in the camera; but on
making use of that body in these operations (by employing pure iodide of
potassium in the bath), I was surprised to meet with results for which I was
at first unable to account. A little consideration, however, showed me the
direction in which I was to look for a remedy. The experiments which had
led me to prefer iodide of silver as a sensitive surface, had all been performed
with sunlight, either direct, or more frequently in the form of diffused day-
light. In this case, however, coal-gas was the source of light ; and if, as was
very probable, there were any great difference in the quality of the light
from these two sources, the superiority of iodide over the bromide or chlo-
ride of silver would still be a matter for experiment.

34, A comparison of the spectra of the two kinds of light showed a very
marked difference; while in sunlight the spectral rays which are around
and above the fixed line G (the indigo and higher rays) are so intense and
numerous, as completely to overpower the small space between and about
F and G (the blue and upper portion of the green), a part of the spectrum
which affects bromide more than iodide of silver; in gaslight the case was
quite different. The great bulk of photographic rays was found to lie within
the limits of the visible spectrum, and consequently the photographie action
of this light was likely to be far more energetic on bromide than on iodide
of silver. These suppositions were fully borne out by experiment: on intro-
ducing a little bromide of potassium into the iodizing bath, the change was
very apparent. It requires a certain proportion to be observed between the
two to obtain the best results. If the iodide of potassium be in excess, the
resulting silver salt will be wanting in sensitiveness, requiring a compa-
ratively long development to render an image visible; while, if the bromide
be in excess, there will be a great want of vigour in the impression, the
picture being red and transparent. When the proportion between the two
ds properly adjusted, the paper will be extremely sensitive, the picture pre-
senting a vigorous black appearance, without the least approach to red. The
addition of a chloride was found to produce a somewhat similar effect to that

214 REPORT—1859.

of a bromide, but in a less marked degree. As no particular advantage could
be traced to it, it was not employed.

25. I have also tried most of the different forms of organic matter which
it is customary to add to this bath, but I cannot recommend them; the
most that can be said is, that some of them do no harm. At first I thought
a little isinglass might be an improvement, as it instantly removes the greasi-
ness from the surface of the paper, and allows the iodide of potassium to
penetrate more readily. Unfortunately, however, it interferes with the most
important property of this process, that of remaining sensitive for a long time.

36. I think the best results are obtained when the iodide and bromide
are mixed in the proportion of their atomic weights ; the strength being as
follows :—

Iodide of potassium. ‘ ‘ - 582°5 grains.
Bromide of potassium . . ‘ « 417°5 grains.
Distilled water . : . F 4 40 ounces*.

When the two salts have dissolved in the water, the mixture should be
filtered; the bath will then be fit for use.

37. At first a slight difficulty will be felt in immersing the waxed sheets
in the liquid without enclosing air-bubbles, the greasy nature of the surface
causing the solution to run off. The best way is to hold the paper by one
end, and gradually to bring it down on to the liquid, commencing at the
other end; the paper ought not to slant. towards the surface of the bath, or
there will be danger of enclosing air-bubbles; but while it is being laid
down, the part out of the liquid should be kept as nearly as possible per-
pendicular to the surface of the liquid; any curling up of the sheet, when
first laid down, may be prevented by breathing on it gently. In about ten
minutes the sheet ought to be lifted up by one corner, and turned over in
the same manner; a slight agitation of the dish will then throw the liquid
entirely over that sheet, and another can be treated in like manner.

38. The sheets must remain soaking in this bath for about three hours;
several times during that interval (and especially if there be many sheets
in the same bath) they ought to be moved about and turned over singly,
to allow of the liquid penetrating between them, and coming perfectly in
contact with every part of the surface. After they have soaked for a suffi-
cient time, the sheets should be taken out and hung up to dry; this is con-
veniently effected by stretching a string across the room, and hooking the
papers on to this by means of a pin bent into the shape of the letter S.
After a sheet has been hung up for a few minutes, a piece of blotting-paper,
about one inch square, should be stuck to the bottom corner to absorb the
drop, and prevent its drying on the sheet, or it would cause a stain in the

icture.
" 39. While the sheets are drying, they should be looked at occasionally,
and the way in which the liquid on the surface dries, noticed ; if it collect
in drops all over the surface, it is a sign that the sheets have not been suffi-
ciently acted on by the iodizing bath, owing to their having been removed
from the latter too soon. The sheets will usually during drying assume a
dirty pink appearance, owing probably to the liberation of iodine by ozone
in the air, and its subsequent combination with the starch and wax in the
paper. This is by no means a bad sign, if the colour be at all uniform; but
if it appear in patches and spots, it shows that there has been some irregular

* While giving the above as the calculated quantities, I do not wish to insist upon their
being adhered to with any extreme accuracy. An error of a few grains on either side.
would, I believe, be without any perceptible effect on the result,

ON SELF-RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS. 215

absorption of the wax, or defect in the iodizing, and it will be as well to
reject sheets so marked.

40. As soon as the sheets are quite dry, they can be put aside in a box
for use at a future time. There is a great deal of uncertainty as regards the
length of time the sheets may be kept in this state without spoiling; I can
speak from experience as to there being no sensible deterioration after a
lapse of ten months, but further than this I have not tried.

Up to this stage it is immaterial whether the operations have been per-
formed by daylight or not; but the subsequent treatment, until the fixing
of the picture, must be done by yellow light (5).

41. The next step consists in rendering the iodized paper sensitive to light.
Athough, when extreme care is taken in this operation, it is hardly of any
consequence when this is performed, yet in practice it will not be found
convenient to excite the paper earlier than about a fortnight before its being
required for use. The materials for the exciting bath are nitrate of silver,
glacial acetic acid, and water. Some operators replace the acetic acid by
tartaric acid; but as I cannot perceive the effect of this change except in a
diminution of sensitiveness, I have not adopted it. It is of little importance
what be the strength of the solution of nitrate of silver; the disadvantages
of a weak solution are, that the sheets require to remain in contact with it
for a considerable time before the decomposition is effected, and the bath
requires oftener renewing ; while with a bath which is too strong, time is
equally lost in the long-continued washing requisite to enable the paper to
keep good for any length of time. The quantity of acetic acid is also of little
consequence.

42. In the following bath, I have endeavoured so to adjust the proportion
of nitrate of silver, as to avoid as much as possible both the inconveniences

mentioned above :—

Nitrate of silver. : : : . 300 grains.
Glacial acetic acid . : ; : : 2 drachms.
Distilled water A r F 3 . 20 ounces.

The nitrate of silver and acetic acid are to be added to the water, and when
dissolved, filtered into a clean dish (10), taking care that the bottom of the
dish be flat, and that the liquid cover it to the depth of at least half an inch
all over; by the side of this, two similar dishes must be placed, each con-
taining distilled water.

43. A sheet of iodized paper is to be taken by one end and gradually
lowered, the marked side downwards, on to the exciting solution, taking care
that no liquid gets on to the back, and no air-bubbles are enclosed.

It will be necessary for the sheet to remain on this bath from five to ten
minutes ; but it can generally be known when the operation is completed by
the change in appearance, the pink colour entirely disappearing, and the sheet
assuming a pure homogeneous straw colour. When this is the case, one
corner of it must be raised up by the platinum spatula, lifted out of the dish
with rather a quick movement, allowed to drain for about half a minute, and
then floated on the surface of the water in the second dish, while another

iodized sheet is placed on the nitrate of silver solution; when this has re-
mained on for a sufficient time, it must be in like manner transferred to the
dish of distilled water, having removed the previous sheet to the next dish.

44. A third iodized sheet can now be excited, and when this is completed,
the one first excited must be rubbed perfectly dry between folds of clean
blotting-paper (14), wrapped up in clean paper, and preserved in a port-
folio until required for use ; and the others can be transferred a dish forward,

216 , REPORT—1859,

as before, taking care that each sheet be washed twice in distilled water,
and that at every fourth sheet the dishes of washing water be emptied, and
replenished with clean distilled water: this water should not be thrown
away, but preserved in a bottle for a subsequent operation (49).

45. The above quantity of the exciting bath will be found quite enough
to excite about fifty sheets of the size here employed, or 3000 square inches
of paper. After the bulk has been exhausted for this purpose, it should be
kept, like the washing waters, for the subsequent operation of developing (49).

Of course these sensitive sheets must be kept in perfect darkness. Gene-
rally sufficient attention is not paid to this point. It should be borne in
mind, that an amount of white light, quite harmless if the paper were only
exposed to its action for a few minutes, will infallibly destroy it if allowed
to have access to it for any length of time; therefore, the longer the sheets
are required to be kept, the more carefully must the light, even from gas,
be excluded; they must likewise be kept away from any fumes or vapour.

46. Experience alone can tell the proper time to expose the sensitive
paper to the action of light, in order to obtain the best effects. However, it
will be useful to remember that it is almost always possible, however short
the time of exposure, to obtain some trace of eftect by prolonged develop-
ment. Varying the time of exposure, within certain limits, makes very little
difference on the finished picture; its principal effect being to shorten or
prolong the time of development.

Unless the exposure to light has been extremely long (much longer than
can take place under the circumstances we are contemplating), ncthing will
be visible on the sheet after its removal from the instrument, more than there
was previous to exposure ; the action of the light merely producing a latent
impression, which requires to be developed to render it visible.

47. The developing solution in nearly every case consists of an aqueous
solution of gallic acid, with the addition, more or less, of a solution of nitrate
of silver.

An improvement on the ordinary method of developing with gallie acid,
formed the subject of a communication to the Philosophical Magazine for
March 1855, where I recommend the employment of a strong alcoholic solu-
tion of gallic acid, to be diluted with water when required for use, as being
more economical both of time and trouble than the preparation of a great
quantity of an aqueous solution for each operation.

48. The solution is thus made: put two ounces of crystallized gallic acid
into a dry flask with a narrow neck; over this pour six ounces of good
alcohol (60° over proof), and place the flask in hot water until the acid is
dissolved, or nearly so. This will not take long, especially if it be well
shaken once or twice. Allow it to cool, then add half a drachm of glacial
acetic acid, and filter the whole into a stoppered bottle.

49. The developing solution which I employ for one set of sheets, or 180
square inches, is prepared by mixing together ten ounces of the water that
has been previously used for washing the excited papers (44), and four
drachms of the exhausted exciting bath (45); the mixture is then filtered
into a perfectly clean dish, and half a drachm of the above alcoholic solution
of gallic acid poured into it. The dish must be shaken about until the
greasy appearance has quite gone from the surface ; and then the sheets of
paper may be laid down on the solution in the ordinary manner with the
marked side downwards, taking particular care that none of the solution gets
on the back of the paper, or it will cause astain. Should this happen, either
dry it with blotting-paper, or immerse the sheet entirely in the liquid.

50. If the paper has been exposed to a moderate light, the picture will

ON SELF-RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS, 217

begin to appear within five minutes of its being laid on the solution, and
will be finished in a few hours. It may, however, sometimes be requisite,
if the light has been feeble, to prolong the development for a day or more,
If the dish be perfectly clean, the developing solution will remain active for
the whole of this time, and when used only for a few hours, will be quite
elear and colourleas, or with the faintest tinge of brown; a darker appear-
ance indicates the presence of dirt. The progress of the development may
be watched, by gently raising one corner with the platinum spatula, and
lifting the sheet up by the fingers. This should not be done too often, as
there is always a risk of producing stains on the surface of the picture. I
prefer allowing the development to go on until the black is rather more in-
tense than ultimately required, as it is generally toned down in the fixing bath.

51. As soon as the picture is judged to be sufficiently intense, it must be

removed from the gallo-nitrate, and laid on a dish of water (not necessarily

distilled). In this state it may remain until the final operation of fixing,
which need not be performed immediately, if inconvenient. After being
washed once or twice, and dried between clean blotting-paper, the picture
will remain unharmed for weeks, if kept in a dark place.

52. The fixing bath is composed of a saturated solution of hyposulphite of
soda diluted with its own bulk of water. Into this the sheets are to be com-
pletely immersed, until the whole of the yellow iodide of silver has been
dissolved out. This operation need not be performed by yellow light; day-
light is much better for showing whether the picture be entirely fixed. This
will take from a quarter of an hour to two hours, according to the time the
bath has been in use.

It will be well not to put too many sheets into the bath at once, in order
to avoid the necessity of turning them over to allow the liquid to penetrate
every part.

When fixed, the sheet, if held up between the light and the eye, will
present a pure transparent appearance in the white parts.

The fixing bath gradually becomes less and less active by use, and then
its action is very energetic on the dark parts of the picture, attacking and
dissolving them equally with the unchanged iodide. When this is the case
it should be put on one side (not thrown away), and a fresh bath made.

53. After removal from the fixing bath, the sheets must be well-washed.
In this operation, the effect depends more upon the quantity of water used
than upon the duration of the immersion. When practicable, it is a good
plan to allow water from a tap to flow over the sheets for a minute or two,
and having thus got rid of the hyposulphite of soda from the surface, to
allow them to soak for about ten minutes in a large dish of hot water.

54. They are then to be dried by hanging up by a crooked pin, as after
iodizing. When dry, they will present a very rough and granular appearance
in the transparent parts; this is removed by melting the wax, either before
a fire, or, what is far better, by placing them between blotting-paper, and
passing a warm iron over them; by this means the white parts will recover
their original transparency.

55. The picture, arrived at this stage, may be considered finished, as far
as is requisite for the purposes of measurement and registration ; sometimes,
however, it may be necessary to multiply copies, for the purpose of trans-
mitting to other Meteorological Observatories facsimiles of the records, or
at least of those containing any remarkable phenomena. I will therefore
now detail the method of printing photographic positives from these nega-
tives, premising that the process does not differ materially from that usually
adopted.

218 ‘ REPORT—1859,
56, The only extra piece of apparatus required, is a pressure frame ;
which consists essentially of a stout piece of plate glass in a frame, with an
arrangement for screwing a flat board, the size of the glass, tight against it.
Though apparently very simple, some care is required, when the frame is a
large one, in arranging the screw and board at the back, so as to obtain an
equal pressure all over the surface ; unless this is done, the glass will be very
liable to break. ‘The pressure frames supplied to us by Messrs. Newman
and Murray, 122 Regent Street, are unexceptionable in this respect. The
board should of course be well-padded with velvet, and the lateral dimensions
of the glass should be the same as those of the gutta-percha dishes (8).
. 57. The extra chemicals required for this process are chloride of sodium
and chloride of gold. Generally speaking, for the former, common table-
salt will be found quite pure enough; but as the quantity required is but
small, it will perhaps be found better to obtain some of the recrystallized
salt along with the other chemicals.

The chloride of gold is merely required for an artistic effect. Many
persons object to the reddish-brown appearance of ordinary photographic
positives ; the addition of a little chloride of gold to the fixing bath converts
this into a rich brown or black ; the trifling quantity required removes any
objection to its use on the score of expense.

58. I prefer using the same kind of paper for positives as for negatives
(20). Messrs. Canson manufacture a thicker paper, which is generally
called positive paper, but I think the thin is far preferable ; the surface is
smoother, and the various solutions penetrate much better. ;

59. The first operation which the paper has to undergo is salting ; the
bath for this purpose consists of

Chloride of sodium..................100 grains.
Distilled water .................... 40 ounces.

Filter this into a clean dish, and completely immerse the sheets, marked
as directed (27). This is best done by laying them gently on the surface of
the liquid, and then pressing them under by passing a glass rod over them ; as
many sheets as the dish will hold may be thus immersed one after the other.
Allow them to soak for about ten minutes, then lift and turn them over in a
body ; afterwards they may be hung up to dry (38), commencing with the
sheet which was first put in. When dry, they may be taken down and put
aside for use at any future time. ‘The sheets in drying generally curl up
very much ; it will therefore be found convenient in the next process, if the
salted sheets, before being put away, have been allowed to remain in the
pressure frame, screwed tight, for about twenty-four hours. This makes
them perfectly flat.

60. The exciting bath is composed of

Nitrate of silver.................... 150 grains.
Distilled water .......,...0.....s... 10 ounces.

After filtering, pour the solution into a clean dish ; and then lay the sheets,
salted as above, on the surface, face downwards, gently breathing on the
back, if it be necessary, to counteract the tendency to curl up; let them
remain on this bath for about ten minutes, and then hang up to dry (38).

61. This exciting bath will serve for nearly one hundred sheets ; it will
then be better to put it on one side (64), and make a new bath, It is not
advisable to excite more positive sheets than will be likely to be required in
the course of a week, for they gradually turn brown by keeping, even in the
dark, and lose sensitiveness. They will, however, keep much better if
pressed tight in the pressure frame, and thus protected from the air.

ON SELF-RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS. 219

. 62. When a positive is to be printed from a negative, let the glass of
the pressure frame be perfectly cleaned and freed from dust on both sides,
then lay the negative on it, with its back to the glass. On it place a sheet
of positive paper, with its sensitive side down. Then, having placed over,
as a pad, several sheets of blotting-paper, serew the back down with
suthicient force to press the two sheets into close contact, but of course not
so as to endanger the glass. Now place the frame in the sun, so that the
light can fall perpendicularly on the glass, and allow it to remain there
until it is judged to have been exposed long enough.

63. No rule can be laid down for the proper time of exposure ; it will
depend upon the quality of the light and intensity of the negative ; some
pictures being completed in a few minutes, others requiring upwards of
half an hour. The printing should always go on until the picture is
several shades darker than ultimately required. A very little experience
will enable the operator to judge so well of the quality of the light, as
hardly ever to have a failure. If the two sheets of paper be stuck together
in two or three places at the edges with small pieces of gummed paper, the
frame can be removed to the dark room, and the progress of the sheets
examined ; but this is always attended with some danger, for unless they
are replaced without having been shifted one from the other, there will be a
double image.

64. As soon as the picture is considered to be printed sufficiently deep,
it has to be fixed.

The fixing bath consists of

Saturated solution of hyposulphite of soda .. .. 10 ounces.
Wyner 228 2.5 fi, Saige puese er ees, eh) PRMEEN:

This bath will be found to fix the pictures perfectly, but. they will
generally be of a reddish tint; if it be thought desirable to obtain the
pictures of some shade of dark brown or black, it will be necessary to
employ a bath made as follows :—

Saturated solution of hyposulphite of soda.... 10 ounces.
Md ee fee ey ee er eee or ee 10 ounces.
Exhausted positive exciting solution (61) .... 10 ounces.

Mix these together, and then add the following :—

Wintel: gwici weit eXl sind. grad meat « dy MRAM . 10 ounces.
Chloride of.gald. vs seis se dacaiee bead eed ees 20 grains.

taking care in mixing to pour the solution of gold into the solution of
hyposulphite, and not the latter into the former, or another decomposition
will be produced.

Pour this mixture into a dish, and lay the positive carefully on it, face
downwards. As soon as it is thoroughly damp (which may be known by
its becoming perfectly flat after having curled up), immerse it totally in the
liquid.

"65. The pictures should not be too crowded in the bath, as they are very
apt to become irregularly coloured in places where the hyposulphite has not
had free access during the whole of the time. When first putin, the colour
will change to a light brown, and in the course of some time, varying from
ten minutes to two or three hours, it will pass through the different shades
of brown to black and purple, gradually fading in intensity during the time.
It will be necessary to allow the picture to remain in this bath for ten minutes
at least, in order that it may be perfectly fixed. After this time, its stay

220 REPORT—1859,

need only be prolonged until it has become of the desired tone and colour;
always remembering, that during the subsequent cperation of drying, &e.
it will become of a somewhat darker tint than when taken out of the fixing
bath.

66. On removal from this bath, the pictures must be allowed to soak in
a large quantity of cold water for ten or twelve hours. There must not be
very many in the dish at a time, and the water must be changed at least
three times during that interval; they must then have boiling water poured
over them (of course in a porcelain dish) two or three times, and lastly be
pressed dry between sheets of clean blotting-paper (14) (these may be used
several times, if dried), and then allowed to dry spontaneously in the air.
When the pressure frame is not in use, a pile of these finished positives may
be put in, and kept tightly screwed up all night; by this means they will be
rendered perfectly flat and smooth.

67. The picture is now complete. It must be borne in mind, however,
that the light and shade are reversed by this operation, the track of the
luminous image along the paper being represented by a white instead of by
a black band, as in the original negative. Should it be desired to produce
exact facsimiles of the negatives, it can be done by employing one of these
positives as a negative, and printing other positives from it; in this way,
the light and shade, having been twice reversed, will be the same as in the
original negative.

68. In some cases it may happen that, owing to a partial failure of gas,
or imperfection in the sensitive sheet, an image may be so faint as to render
it impossible to print a distinct positive. The gap that this would produce
in a set of pictures may be obviated, and with very slight sacrifice of
accuracy, by forming an artificial or secondary negative in the following
manner :—

69. Print a copy on positive paper, of any intensity which will show the
most distinct impression; then without fixing, and with a pair of sharp
scissors, accurately and carefully cut out the part corresponding to the
impressed portion of the negative. Expose this piece to the light until it
has become perfectly opake, and then it can either be cemented over the
imperfect original sheet, or on a clean sheet of paper, and used as an ordinary
negative.

It is astonishing what accuracy and quickness in cutting out even the most
intricate pictures, may be obtained with a little practice; the error of the
scissors is generally within the error of measurement.

Supplementary Notes to the above description, embodying some slight changes
in the process made at Kew. By C. CHAMBERS.

1. After reaching the stage described in art. 28, a pile of paper is to be
made up, in which eight plain (unwaxed) sheets alternate with one waxed
sheet, and in this state is to be placed between hot plates and subjected to
high pressure for several hours, when the mass of paper will be found to be
completely permeated by the wax. The operation is to be repeated four or
five times, and the sheets, being separated after cooling, will be ready for
iodizing.

The operation of pressing is best accomplished with the paper not folded, and
of the full size as received from the maker, so that the edges which retain super-
fluous wax may be cut off and rejected, and the sheets then cut into pieces of
the required shape. Piles half an inch in thickness may be done at once in
this way, and using several series of hot plates, any quantity of paper may

ON SELF-RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS, 221

be put through the press in one night. The hot-pressing apparatus is used
by the paper-makers, and by some of the wholesale stationers.
2. The iodizing bath, which should be kept in the dark when not in use,

consists of—

Todide of potassium...... 5824 grains.

Bromide of potassium... . 4173 grains.

Distilled water ........ 40 ozs.

Iodine—sufticient to give the solution a decidedly red

tinge.

With every fresh batch of paper, a small quantity of iodine should be
added to restore the red tone of the bath.

The paper is to be hung up to dry in a dark cupboard, and, when dry, it
should be of a light reddish-brown colour; if a deep red or purple, it will
want sensitiveness ; if nearly white, it will want keeping properties, and will
become discoloured during development.

3. The exciting bath contains,—

Silerdte Gt AVEr sce pss. wetevelsac+ ss vses (00 293.
Distilled water. 225.0... 2k ce lens Scene DONOZSs
WNCELIC ACIG., Sasser re sees c leeches 3 drms.

A strong solution of nitrate of silver (100 grs. to 1 oz. of water) is kept
in a separate bottle for replenishing the exciting bath, which loses by use
both in quantity and strength. 2 drms. of this solution with + drm. of acetic
acid, is added after exciting every three sheets (300 square inches) of paper.
The addition of acetic acid prevents discoloration during development, but
at the same time slightly diminishes the sensitiveness, and, if added in excess,
the intensity of the image is much weakened. When the bath is more than
a fortnight old, it is necessary to filter before using. With a weak and old
exciting bath the iodide of silver is apt to fall from the sheet in flakes while
in the bath, and the portions of the sheet so deprived of silver are no longer
sensitive to light: however, there need be no fear of this occurring while the
strength of the bath is maintained as above directed. The same exciting
solution has been used as long as three months with satisfactory results
(1000 square inches of paper being sensitized weekly ).

4. (Art. 44.) Instead of drying the sheets between blotting-paper, it has
been found to give cleaner and more uniform pictures to hang them up to
dry in a dark cupboard ; about an inch is cut off each end of the sheet and
rejected where the fingers have touched it, and where the fluid has accumu-
lated in dripping.

5. It is very desirable that the exciting and fixing operations should be
performed at different times; for if, after fixing, the hands have not been care-
fully washed, the least remnant of fixing solution left upon the fingers is
communicated to the edge and dispersed over the moist surface of the newly
sensitized sheet, producing a stain which appears on developing. Ifa series
of black spots, proceeding from one corner of the sheet, show themselves
while developing, the cause should probably be looked for in the exciting
operation—a drop of the solution accidentally got on the upper side of the
floating sheet having trickled down when the sheet was held vertically : when
this occurs, it is better (instead of merely floating) to immerse the sheet in the
two washing dishes (see art. 43).

6. A sheet of plate-glass, 20 inches by 18 inches, ground at the edges to
prevent the solution from flowing off, is used for developing. This was pro-
posed by Mr. Welsh, and it is found to answer extremely well: it rests upon

599 *RpPpORT—1859.

a wooden cross-piece which fits into a large earthenware dish, and is capable
of being roughly levelled by means of screws which support the dish.
It is raised about an inch above the bottom of the dish. A solution con-
sisting of—
Distilled water ........ °° 8 ozs,
Acetic acids .\5. 4 gee L Crm,
Old exciting bath ...... 4 drms. (or 1 drm, of solution of
nitrate of silver 100 grs. to 1 02.)
Gallic acid solution .... 14 drm. (see art. 48)

is poured upon the plate, and the exposed sheets floated side by side upon it.
The time required for this operation varies from two hours in summer to six
or eight hours in winter.

Note.—In dull weather, the sensitive paper above described may be used
with advantage for printing copies of the curves—requiring an exposure of
only a few seconds to diffused daylight.

Section IV, On THE METHOD oF ASCERTAINING THE INSTRUMENTAL
COEFFICIENTS, TABULATING FROM THE CURVES, ETC.

1. Declination Magnetograph.

In this instrument the distance between the centre of the mirror and the
registering cylinder is 6'5 feet, and consequently a change in the position of
the dot of light on the sensitive paper, equal to one inch, denotes a change
of 2218 in the position of the magnet.

The mirrors are so arranged that the moveable dot is north of the fixed
dot on the cylinder (see Plate 3. fig. 1); an increase of declination therefore
will bring the two dots nearer together, while a decrease of declination will
have the opposite effect.

Should the suspension thread be without torsion altogether, or should its
torsion remain constant, the same distance between the two dots of light will
always denote the same absolute declination; so that if by any means we
know the absolute declination corresponding to a given distance between the
dots, we shall be able to tell what it is for any other distance, or, in fact, for
any moment of time.

The comparability with one another of the various tracings afforded by the
instrument, depends on the constancy of the torsion; should this vary, the
curves are no longer absolutely comparable. Great attention should therefore
be paid to secure, if not an entire absence of torsion, at least a constancy in
the little that remains.

The thread should be well freed from torsion when the magnet is suspended :
by slightly rubbing it with bees-wax, or by some other similar process, it
should be rendered less susceptible to hygrometric influences, and a dish of
chloride of calcium should be kept under the glass shade to absorb all moisture.
When the magnet is in perfect adjustment, there can be no objection to seal
the shade to the marble slab all round with bees-wax, at least if an ordinary
loosely fitting shade be used.

Besides all this, it is necessary to make at least every month at some spot
free from the influence of iron, observations of absolute declination, noting
the precise moment at which each observation is made. The distance be-
tween the two dots of light, that is to say between the curve and the base-
line of the declination magnetograph, at the moments of observation, wik

ON SELF-RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS. 223

afford us corrections, which, when applied to our monthly absolute determi-
nations, should bring them all to the same value: in other words, the self-
recording magnetograph affords us the means of eliminating the changes that
are constantly taking place in the value of the magnetic declination. Should,
however, the torsion of the suspension thread of the declination magnetograph
have become changed to any extent, our corrected monthly determinations
will no longer have the same value.

We are thus presented with a test, by means of which we may ascertain
whether change of torsion in the suspension thread, or some other circum-
stance, such as the change in position of some neighbouring mass of iron,
has affected our magnetograph. The following results show that the mag-
netograph herein described has stood this test in a very satisfactory manner :—

Time of observation of Declination reduced by
absolute declination. magnetograph to Jan. 1858.

“

IRA Manually, uc asasis ociowdydaad ys after Sh OO: 9F
Pebruatlyé s3 sie les eiereccis eS Seat sa BD. 64) 47
Marohadiech ) tanse i nessewiodatede sr ZlnhGul 2

APT asi KOT Kee i pwatnn $4 6e000e 9: A)) S660
Mags de aise Ai pewe walstes oF stlewk gee) a6 As
AUsmab iiscird a dew tne detainee tern BL'Sb 38
September .......... seat axle on Zl Bho
Mctabek agis wow suk aang d Veiees th BREE
PeaOrOetaberies, dm 0 68st tb tines vy 21.57 7
November ......... Bs SIAS ostids Bf tds a 21 56 38

December: jz ewirsti.e6 sen ttSes oe) Blo Bh..68

Before concluding this part of the subject, I may remark that the magneto-
graphs are merely intended to serve as differential instruments; so that, in
addition to their employment, absolute values of the magnetic elements require
to be taken from time to time. On this account also, although it is very de-
sirable to have, if possible, no torsion in the thread of the declination mag-
netograph, and no iron in its neighbourhood, yet the value of the result does
not depend so much on the entire absence of these sources of error as in the
eonstaney of the effects which they produce. The greatest caution should
therefore be exercised in excluding any hygrometric influence which might
change the torsion, and the greatest pains taken to prevent any shifting of
iron in the neighbourhood of the instruments. '

2. Horizontal-foree Magnetograph.

‘We have in this case two things to determine, viz. the temperature cor-
rection, and the yalue of one inch on the cylinder in parts of force, With
.regard to the first of these, the most trustworthy method is to make the ob-
servations themselves determine their own temperature correction by means
of comparing together two periods, for which the average temperature is
different, while the average horizontal force is known to be the same for both.
It is, however, advisable that the temperature correction of the horizontal-
force magnet should be well determined in the ordinary manner before
mounting it. With regard to the scale coefficient, or value of 1 inch in parts
of force, it may be well to exhibit in detail the process by which the scale
coefficient of the present horizontal-force magnetograph bas been determined,
There are two methods by which the scale coefficient is determined. In
the first of these, let » denote the angle which the plane of the upper extre-
mities of the wire makes with that of the lower; dv the change, in parts of

294 REPORT—1859.

radius, which is occasioned on v by the moveable dot traversing the sensitive
paper one inch; & the scale coefficient, or value of one inch in parts of
force; then k=cotvov.

By this formula, 2, or the scale coefficient, may be determined when v is
known. Let us determine v accurately when the magnet is mounted, that is,
let us find accurately the angle which the plane of the upper extremities of
the wire makes with that of the lower for a certain distance between the
fixed and the moveable dot of light upon the cylinder, then we can always
find the value of v. Loss of magnetisin in the magnet may have widened the
distance between the dots on the cylinder since we first determined v*, but
knowing the angular value of one inch we can make allowance for this, and
thereby determine the present value of », which will be somewhat less than
the first. The loss of magnetism may even have obliged us to turn the torsion
circle, in order to bring the dots of light nearer to one another, and of course
an accurate account must be taken of this, and allowance made for it in cal-
culating for the future the values of v.

Taking these circumstances into account, viz. the amount of change of the
torsion circle, and the distance between the dots, v may always be determined,
and, consequently, by the above formula, the scale coefficient may be known.

But as there is some doubt of the rigorous truth of the conditions which
the above formula assumes, another method of determining the scale coefficient
has been proposed which does not seem open to any such objection.

Let a deflection bar be arranged as in Plate 3. fig. 4 a, 4 a, so as to support
a magnet horizontally placed, with its axis in the magnetic meridian, and so
that if prolonged it would pass through the centre of the bifilar magnet.

Let the centre of the two magnets be at the distance 7 from one another.
The presence of the deflecting magnet will of course have changed the posi-
tion of the moveable dot upon the cylinder. Bring the bifilar magnet speedily
to rest, and allow the deflecting magnet to remain in its position for about
five minutes: this time will sufficiently enable us to procure a photographic
impression of the position of the bifilar magnet when deflected ; and having
its position before and after, we shall thus be enabled to estimate the amount
of deflection. Let this be 2 inches.

Take the same deflecting magnet and place it in a similar position with
respect to the declination magnet, and also at the distancer. Here it is
obvious that the axis of the deflecting magnet is at right angles to the
magnetic meridian. Determine photographically, as before, the angle of de-
flection which it has caused; let this be w; then &, or the value of one inch
tan uw

in parts of force for the bifilar magnetograph=

Example. On April 30, 1858, the deflecting magnet having been applied as
above to the bifilar magnetograph, the deflection produced was=2°887 in.

The same magnet being applied in a similar manner, and at the same di-
stance, to the declination magnet, the deflection was =3*560 inches =78' 58”.

tan 78’ 58”
se Se ()) .

k 9-887 00796

A similar observation having been performed at the distances 2°5 and 3°0
feet, we find as a mean result on that date,

k='00800.

Hence

* In the declination magnetograph a decrease of distance between the dots denotes an in-
crease of westerly declination, while in the bifilar and vertical-force magnetographs it denotes
an increase of horizontal and vertical force respectively. 4

ON SELF-RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS. 225

On December 2, 1859, a similar set of observations gave
k=:01004.

These may be taken as the correct values of & at their respective dates,
but we wish to obtain the values of & for intermediate dates. In order to do
this, let us make use of the other formula,

k=cot vo v.
On April 30, 1858, » was nearly =43° 13’; hence

1
k=cot 43° 13’x% —-_ ='0 ‘
co x i17-h 09078

On December 2, 1859, v=35° 56’; hence

se Sigplscin ts kes
k=cot 35° 56’ x li7a4 011769.

By the first or more correct formula we find the change that had taken place
in the value of & between the two dates to be ‘00204, while by the latter formula
the change is ‘002691. We cannot go far wrong in supposing that the real
change upon & is equal to that given by the formula (k=cot v dv) multiplied
00204

009691" Hence to find the real value of & for any value

- by the fraction

of v, we have

__*00204: Apa Ol.
aay {cot vdv—-00907 8} +:00800.

In these instruments it is of great importance to have magnets which lose
their magnetism very slowly ; for it is the loss of magnetism, rather than any
other cause, which renders it necessary to turn the torsion circle, and occa-
sions changes in the value of the scale coefficient, In connexion with this
magnetograph, it is necessary to make frequent observations of absolute hori-
zontal force, noting the precise times at which the observations are made.
Such observations will serve to eliminate from the results of the horizontal-
force magnetograph those changes which are occasioned by loss of magnetism
and stretching of the suspension thread. It is particularly desirable to make
absolute observations immediately before and after turning the torsion circle.

3. Vertical-force Magnetograph.

The temperature correction of this instrument, if fitted with a slip of brass,
as in the present instance, will have to be determined by the observations
themselves. It is well, however, as a measure of precaution, to determine
the temperature coefficient of the magnet before it is mounted.

With regard to the value of one inch in parts of force, there are two methods
by which this may be determined, viz. the method of vibrations, and that of
deflections.

With respect to the former of these—

Let T denote the time of vibration of the magnet in a vertical plane ;

T’ the time of vibration of the magnet in a horizontal plane* ;
© the magnetic dip ;
Y the vertical component of the earth’s force ;
which suppose to become Y+ OY, occasioning a change in the angular posi-
tion of the magnet represented by ée; then it may be shown that
a li .
Yor cot Ode.
el so as to have the same moment of inertia which it has in the vertical plane.
. Q

226 REPORT—1859.

Again, since the normal to the mirror is inclined at an angle of 15° to the
incident ray, and since the sensitive cylinder is 5-965 feet, or 71°58 inches
distant from the mirror, it may be shown that the vertical space of one inch
traversed by the luminous dot upon the cylinder, represents an angular change
in the position of the magnet

143-16 x cos 15°’
hence the value of 1 inch in parts of force
par” cot 8
~ 'F® 143-16 cos 157

The second method, by which the value of one inch in parts of force may be
determined, is that of deflections. Let.a suitable apparatus (see Plate 3. figs.
5A, 5a) be contrived, by means of which a deflection magnet, m, may be
placed vertically with its centre at a given distance, 7, from that of the ver-
tical-force magnet and in continuation of the magnetic axis of the latter
magnet, when horizontal. Let the change of position of the luminous dot
upon ea cylinder be registered photographically as before; let this be
=n inches.

Let the deflecting magnet be now placed with its centre at the distance r
from that of the declination magnet, and in continuation of the magnetic
axis of the latter magnet; also let the magnetic axis of the deflecting magnet
be perpendicular to the magnetic meridian ; and, finally, let the angle through
which the declination magnet is deflected be determined photographically.
Call this angle w; then it may be shown that the value of one inch in parts of
force for the vertical-force magnet is found from the following expression :—

tan wu

Value of one inch= é
ntan O

By the method of vibrations the value of one inch was determined on
February 27th, 1858, to be =00221 in parts of force, while by the method of
deflections (mean of three distances) its value was found to be ="00211 in
parts of force. There is thus a very satisfactory agreement between the
results of the two processes.

On April 18th, 1860, the value of one inch was determined by the method
of deflections to be =:00249 in parts of force. There is thus a change
='00038 which has taken place in the value of one inch during the course of
about two years. This has no doubt been occasioned by loss of magnetism
of the magnet widening the distance between the dots and rendering it
necessary to alter the balance of the magnet by means of the horizontal
screw from time to time.

A proper method of interpolation will enable us to determine with suffi-
cient accuracy the value of 1 inch in parts of force for any period between
February 27th, 1858, and April 18th, 1860.

It is perhaps a safe rule to determine the value of the scale coefficients of
bifilar and vertical-force magnetographs,by the method of deflections, once
a year.

Monthly observations of dip are made at Kew, which, combined with the
monthly determinations of absolute horizontal force, will enable us to deter-
mine the absolute vertical force, and thus to eliminate from the vertical-force
curves the changes that have been occasioned by loss of magnetism from
time to time.

Method of tabulating from the curves.—By pushing the dots of light
forward a little, two days’ curves are recorded on each sheet of sensitive

ON SELF-RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS. 999

paper. These sheets are therefore only changed every second day. ‘This
change is made a little after 10 A.m., and the time occupied in making it is
about ten minutes, while that occupied in pushing forward the dots is only
about three minutes. There is thus every day a loss of ten and of three
minutes alternately, so that the curves never record precisely the whole of
the twenty-four hours, but generally something less by a few minutes. The
precise moment (Kew mean time) of stopping the pendulum and of setting
it going again is noted, so that the length of time for which any curve is
a record is known and is attached to the curve in writing. (See curves
appended to this Report, Plate 5.)

The instrument for tabulating from the curves is represented in Plate 3.
fig. 3 a: ab is a time-scale commencing and ending with 22%. This scale is
moveable round a as a centre, and the centre a is also moveable in a hori-
zontal direction. Part of the instrument, d fg, is moveable in a vertical
direction by means of h, the head of a pinion which works into the rack 7;
d serves as a vernier for the scalee. The piece ed efg is moveable in a
horizontal direction by means of a slide which fits into the slot k 2; fand g
are two tubes through which the eye looks at lines on a piece of glass (ex-
hibited separately at full size in fig. 3a). These are two sets of double lines
which are etched on glass, the sets being exactly two inches apart. The distance
between the tubes f and g is also two inches, so that when the upper pair of
lines is placed under f, the lower pair is under g. The glass is firmly
attached in this position to the moveable piece d fg, so that the double lines
remain exactly under the tubes in whatever manner d fg is moved. The
breadth between the two lines (which together constitute a double line) on
the piece of glass is a little greater than the breadth of the curve or zero-
line on the photographic paper.

In order to measure the distance between the curve and zero-line, the
photographic paper is set between two pieces of plate-glass, and so adjusted,
that when the tube g is set over the zero-line, it may continue to be approxi-
mately over it in any part of its horizontal range.

Suppose now that e de fg is at the extreme left, the vertical line of the
piece of glass lying along the commencement of the curve and that of the
zero-line. Set the time-scale ab so that the edge of the index e may touch
that hour on the time-scale which corresponds to the commencement of the
curve. Adjust the vertical height of 6, the extremity of the time-scale, so
that when e def g is carried to the other or right-hand extremity of the
curve, the index ¢ may touch that division of the time-scale which corresponds
to the termination of the curve. Were the same length of base-line always
to denote the same space of time, there would be no need of altering the
inclination of a 6; but the rate of the clock may vary a little, or the paper
may fit more or less loosely to the cylinder, so that an inch of the base-line
will not always denote precisely the same space of time. Having thus
adjusted the time-scale, in order to find the distance between the base-line
and the curve for any hour, set the index ¢ to the required time, move the
pinion head / until the upper pair of etched lines at f are over the curve-line,
and read off the height on the scale e by means of the vernier d. Next move
the pinion head / until the lower pair of etched lines at g are over the base-~
line, and read off by means of the vernier as before. The difference between
the readings for the curve and the base-line plus two inches, gives the distance
between these lines.

In case any shifting should take place, it is best to read the curve and its
corresponding base-line consecutively, instead of reading first a number o
points of the curve together, and then the corresponding points of the base-

228- REPORT—1859,

line together also. Occasionally the presence of iron for a short time may
cause an abrupt rise and fall of small size in the curve, the one motion
being due to the approach of the iron, and the other to its removal. These
must be taken into account in tabulating from the curves. An instance of
this occurs in the curves appended to this Report.

Section V. IMpROVEMENTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF A SET OF SELF-
RECORDING MAGNETOGRAPHS SINCE MADE.

Magnetographs very similar to those here described have been lately set
up ina house constructed to receive them about 70 yards from the Kew
Observatory.

The following improvements were made in their construction :—

1. Instead of one large glass shade standing upon the marble slab, each
magnetograph has a gun-metal cylinder, which stands upon the slab, and is
surmounted by a glass shade of comparatively small size. An opening is cut
in the side of the cylinder, in which there is inserted a piece of perfectly
plane gluss ; this glass covers that space which in the old arrangement would
have been occupied by the two round holes already described. The lens
is apart from the cylinder, and has an adjustment to admit of its distance
from the mirror being altered if necessary.

This arrangement permits the shades to be removed without disturbing the
lenses. It also renders the working of the instrument less liable to inter-
ruption in case of any accident happening to the shade.

There is also a tube inserted through the marble, which may be connected
with an air-pump and the interior of the cylinder and shade exhausted, if
this be thought necessary.

2. The second improvement consists in having reading telescopes with ivory
or other scales mounted on pillars, and so placed that the light from the
divisions of the scale falling upon the moveable mirror attached to the
magnet is reflected into the telescope. In consequence of this, the motion
of the mirror will cause an apparent motion of the scale in the field of view
of the telescope. The position of the magnet will therefore be known by
observing what division of the scale is in contact with the vertical wire of
the telescope.

We may thus combine the photographic record with eye observations.
The advantage of the latter is that we see what is taking place at the very
moment of its occurrence, whereas we only obtain the photographic record
a couple of days after the changes to which it relates have happened.

Should a disturbance take place, we are thus not only made aware of it at
the time of its occurrence, but we may, by having a telescope scale of greater
range than the recording cylinder, obtain eye observations, when owing to
excessive disturbance the dot of light has altogether left the sensitive paper.

Report on the Theory of Numbers.—Part I.
By H. J. Srernen Smirg, M.A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford.

1. Tue ‘ Disquisitiones Arithmetic” of Karl Friedrich Gauss (Lipsiz,
1801) and the ‘ Théorie des Nombres’ of Adrien Marie Legendre (Paris,
1830, ed. 3) are still the classical works on the Theory of Numbers.
Nevertheless, the actual state of this part of mathematical analysis is but

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 229

imperfectly represented in those celebrated treatises. The arithmetical
memoirs of Gauss himself, subsequent to the publication of the ‘ Disquisi-
tiones Arithmetice ;’ those of Cauchy, Jacobi, Lejeune Dirichlet, Eisen-
stein, Poinsot, and, among still living mathematicians, of MM. Kummer,
Kronecker, and Hermite, have served to simplify as well as to extend the
science. From the labours of these and other eminent writers, the Theory
of Numbers has acquired a great and increasing claim to the attention of
mathematicians. It is equally remarkable for the number and importance
of its results, for the precision and rigorousness of its demonstrations, for
the variety of its methods, for the intimate relations between truths
apparenily isolated which it sometimes discloses, and for the numerous
applications of which it is susceptible in other parts of analysis. “The
higher arithmetic,” observes Gauss*, confessedly the great master of the
science, “presents us with an inexhaustible store of interesting truths,—of
truths, too, which are not isolated, but stand in a close internal connexion, and
between which, as our knowledge increases, we are continually discovering
new and sometimes wholly unexpected ties. A great part of its theories
derives an additional charm from the peculiarity that important propositions,
with the impress of simplicity upon them, are often easily discoverable by
induction, and yet are of so profound a character that we cannot find their
demonstration till after many vain attempts; and even then, when we do
succeed, it is often by some tedious and artificial process, while the simpler
methods may long remain concealed.”

2. It is the object of the present report to exhibit an outline of the
results of these later investigations, and to trace (so far as is possible)
their connexion with one another and with earlier researches. An attempt
will also occasionally be made to point out the dacune which still exist
in the arithmetical theories that come before us; and to indicate those
regions of inquiry in which there seems most hope of accessions to our
present knowledge. In order, however, to render this report intelligible
to persons who have not occupied themselves specially with the Theory of
Numbers, it will be occasionally necessary to introduce a brief and summary
indication of principles and results which are to be found in the works of
Gauss and Legendre. It is hardly necessary to add that we must confine
ourselves to what we may term the great highways of the science; and that
we must wholly pass by many outlying researches of great interest and im-
portance, as we propose rather to exhibit in a clear light the mest funda-
mental and indispensable theories, than to embarrass the treatment of a
subject, already sufficiently complex, with a multitude of details, which,
however important in themselves, are not essential to the comprehension of
the whole.

3. There are two principal branches of the higher arithmetic :—the Theory
of Congruences, and the Theory of Homogeneous Forms. The first of
these theories relates to the solution of indeterminate equations, of the form

a, 2" +a,_,v""'+....+a,x+a,=Py,

in which @, @,_,...a, a, and P are given integral numbers, and x and y

are numbers which it is required to determine. The second relates to the
solution of indeterminate equations of the form

PE tay. t, ==,
in which M denotes a given integral number, and F a homogeneous function

* Preface to Eisenstein’s ‘ Mathematische Abhandlungen,’ Berlin, 1847.

230 . REPORT—1859. >

of any order with integral coefficients. In this general point of view, these
two theories are hardly more distinct from one another than are in algebra
the two theories to which they respectively correspond,—the Theory of
Equations, and that of Homogeneous Functions ; and it might, at first sight,
appear as if there was not sufficient foundation for the distinction. But, in
the present state of our knowledge, the methods applicable to, and the re-
searches suggested by these two problems, are sufficiently distinct to justify
their separation from one another. We shall therefore classify the researches
we have to consider here under these two heads; those miscellaneous investi-
gations, which do not properly come under either of them, we shall place in a
third division by themselves.

(A) Theory of Congruences.

4. Definition of a Congruence.—If the difference between A and B be
divisible by a number P, A is said to be congruous to B for the modulus P ;
so that, in particular, if A be divisible by P, A is congruous to zero for the
modulus P. The symbolic expressions of these congruences are respectively

A=B, mod P,
A=0, mod P.

Thus 7=2, mod 5; 13 =-—3, mod 8.

It will be seen that the definition of a congruence involves only one of |
the most elementary arithmetical conceptions,—that of the divisibility of
one number by another. But it expresses that conception in a form so
suggestive of analogies with other parts of analysis, so easily available in
calculation, and so fertile in new results, that its introduction into arithmetic
(by Gauss) has proved a most important contribution to the progress of the
science. It will be at once evident, from the definition, that congruences
possess many of the properties of equations. Thus, congruences in which
the modulus is the same may be added to one another; a congruence may
be multiplied by any number; each side of it may be raised to any power
whatever, and even may be divided by any number prime to the modulus.

5. Solution of a Congruence—If » (#) denote a rational and integral
function of x with integral coefficients (we shall, throughout this report,
attach this meaning to the functional symbols F, f, ¢, &c., except when the
contrary is expressly stated); the congruence ¢ (x)=0, mod P, is said to be
solved, when all the integral values of 2 are assigned which make the left
hand number of the congruence divisible by P; 2. e. which satisfy the inde-
terminate equation ¢(#)=Py. It is evident that if =a be a solution of
the congruence $(v)==0, every number included in the formula z=a+pP
is also a solution of the congruence. But the solutions included in that
formula are all congruous to one another and to a. It is proper, therefore,
to consider all these congruous solutions as identical, and in speaking of the
number of solutions of a congruence to understand the number of sets of
incongruous solutions of which it is susceptible. To assign, by a direct
method, all the solutions of which a proposed congruence is capable, is the
general problem which, in the Theory of Numbers, corresponds to the
problem of the solution of numerical equations in ordinary algebra. But
the solution of the arithmetical problem is attended with even greater
difficulties than that of the algebraical one; and the attention of geometers
has been turned with more success to the improvement of the indirect or
tentative methods of solution, and to the discovery of criteria of possibility
‘er impossibility for congruential formule, than to their direct solution. It is
to be observed that, by virtue of a remark already made, the ¢entative

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 231

solution of a congruence involves no theoretical difficulty. For if w=a bea
solution, every number included in the formula z=a+ pP is also a solution,
and among these numbers there is always one, and only one, comprised
within the limits O and P—1 inclusively. By substituting, therefore, for 2 all
numbers in succession less than the modulus, and rejecting those which do
not satisfy the congruence, we shall obtain its complete solution. But the
interminable labour attending this operation, notwithstanding all the abbre-
viations in it suggested by the Calculus of Finite Differences, renders its
application impossible, except when the modulus is a low number.

6. Systems of Residues.—The set of numbers 0,1,2....P—1 (or any
set of P numbers respectively congruous for the modulus P to those numbers)
is termed a complete system of residues for the modulus P. By a system of
residues prime to P, we are to understand a complete system, from which
every residue has been omitted which has any common divisor with P, Thus
1, 5,7, 11, or 1,5, —5, —1, are the terms of a system of residues prime to
12. The word Residue is employed instead of Remainder, because the
word Remainder would suggest the idea of a positive number less than the
modulus or divisor; whereas it is frequently convenient to consider residues
differing from those positive remainders by any multiples of the modulus
whatever.

7. Linear Congruences.—The general form of a linear congruence is
ax+b6b=0, mod P; a, 6, and P denoting given numbers, and # a number to be
determined.

The theory of these congruences may be considered to be complete, both
as regards the determination of the solutions or roofs themselves and of their
number. Ifa be prime to the modulus, there is always one solution, and one
only ; if a have a common divisor with the modulus which does not also divide
b, the congruence is irresoluble; if 6 be the greatest common divisor of a and
P, and if 6 also divide 6, the congruence has 6 solutions. In every case when
the congruence is resoluble, the direct determination of its roots may be made
to depend on the solution of a congruence of the form az==1, mod P, in which
ais prime to P. This congruence coincides with the indeterminate equation
ax=1-+Py, methods for the solution of which were known to the ancient
Indian geometers*, and have been given in Europe by Bachet de Meziriac+
Eulert, and Lagrange§. The methods of these writers ultimately depend
on the conversion of a vulgar fraction into a continued fraction, and in one
form or another have passed into every book on algebra. Nor would it have
been proper to allude to them here, were it not that they serve to supply us
with a clear conception of what we have a right to expect in the solution of
an arithmetical problem. In such problems, we cannot expect to express
the guesita as (discontinuous) analytical functions of the data. Such ex-
pressions may indeed, in many cases, be obtained (by the use of the roots of
unity or by other methods) ; but the results of the kind which have hitherto
been given, though sometimes of use in calculation, may be said, with few
exceptions, to conceal rather than to express the real connexion between the

* See the Arithmetic of Bhascara, cap. xii., and the Algebra of Brahmegupta, cap. i. in
Mr. Colebrooke’s translation, London, 1817.

_ + Problémes plaisans et délectables, qui se font par les nombres. Seconde édition. Par
Claude Gaspar Bachet, Sieur de Meziriac, Lyon, 1624. (See props. xv. to xxv.)

t Comment. Acad. Petropol. tom. vii. p. 46, or in the Collection of Euler’s Arithmetical
Memoirs (L. Euleri Commentationes Arithmeticz Collecte, Petropoli, 1849), vol. i. p. 2;
and in his Elements of Algebra, part ii. cap. 1.

§ Sur la Résolution des Problémes Indéterminés du seconde degré. Hist. de I’ Acad.
de Berlin, 1767, p. 165. (See Arts 7, 8, and 29 of the Memoir.) Also in the Additions to
Euler’s Algebra, sects. i, and iii, (Lyon, an. 111.)

932 REPORT—1859.

numbers required and the numbers given. The arithmetical solution of a
problem should consist in prescribing a finite number of purely arithmetical
operations (exempt from all tentative processes), by which all the numbers
satisfying the conditions of the problem, and those only, are obtained. It is
clear that this description exactly applies to the methods on which the
solution of linear congruences depends; but, unfortunately, the higher arith-
metic presents but few examples of solutions of equal perfection.

8. Besides the older methods for the solution of the equation az=1+ Py,
others have, in very recent times, been suggested. Of these the following
may serve as examples :—

A. In the equation az=1-+Py, or the congruence av=1, mod P, form the
residues of the successive powers of a@ for the modulus P. If a be prime
to P, we shall at last arrive at a power which has +1 for its remainder or
residue. The residue of the power immediately inferior to this power
is the value of x in the congruence ax = 1, mod P. This solution is evidently
an application of Fermat’s Theorem*.

B. Let there be P points A, A,... Ap, arranged at equal distances on the
circumference of a circle. Join A, to A,,,, A,,, to Ag,,,--.and so on
continually. It can be proved that if @ be prime to P, we shall not return
again to A,, until we have passed through every one of the P points, and
have formed a polygon of P sides. Let X, X,...Xp be the vertices of this
polygon, taken in order, and let A,=X,,,,; then a= is the value of a in
the congruence az=1, mod P+.

C. Let an origin and a pair of axes be assumed in a plane, and let all the
points be constructed whose coordinates are integral multiples of the linear
unit; call these points unit points. Join the origin to the point (a, P). If
a be prime to P, no unit point can lie on the joining line, but on each side
of the joining line there will be a point lying nearer to it than any other.
Let (£, n,), (£,,) be the coordinates of these points, and let €, : n, < &,: m5
then é,, 7, and &,, n, are the least positive numbers satisfying the equations
a n,—Pé,=1, an,— Pé,=—1.

The late M. Crelle, of Berlin, in the 45th volume of his Journal (p. 299),
has given a very useful table, containing the least positive numbers x, and
x, which satisfy the equation a, x,—a@, #,=1, for all values of a, up to 120,
and for all values of a, prime to a, and less than it.

9, Systems of Linear Congruences.—The theory of these systems is left
imperfect in the work of Gauss (see Disq. Arith. art. 37); but, by the aid of
a few subsidiary propositions relating to determinants, we may, in every case,
obtain directly all possible solutions of any proposed system; and (what is
frequently of more importance) we can decide @ priori whether a given
system of linear congruences be resoluble or not, and if it be resoluble we
can assign the number of its solutions. The following theorems by which
the determination of the number of solutions is, in every case, effected, will
sufficiently indicate the nature of these investigations.

Let the proposed system of congruences be represented by

(1, 1) a,+(1, 2) 2, +(1, 3) a+ -. +, 2) #0,

* Binet, sur la Résolution des équations du premier degré en Nombres entiers. (Journal
de !’ Ecole Polytechnique, cahier xx., p. 289.)

Libri, Mémoires de Mathématique et Physique (Florence, 1829), p. 65-67.

Poinsot, Réflexions sur les Principes Fondamentals de la Théorie des Nombres (Paris,
1845), cap. iii. nos. 19 & 20. For another solution by M. Binet, see Comptes Rendues,
Xiii., p. 349. See also Cauchy, Comptes Rendues, xii. p. 813.

f Poinsot, Reflexions, &c., cap. iii., nos. 17 and 18.

— ss

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 933

(2 1) 2, + (2, 2) 2,4 (2) 8) mbes +(2n)m=x, (A).
(n, 1) 2, +(x, 2) v,+(% 3) @+ «+ +(” n) @, =U, 3
let the modulus be g, and the determinant 3+ (1, 1) (2, 2)..(”, 2)=D.
If the determinant be prime to the modulus, these congruences will always
admit of one, and only one, system of solutions, namely, that supplied by the
system of congruences

k=n
dD
Dz, = 2
hd an
But if D be not prime to q, let g=p,"".p,"? »- ++ where p,, p,, &e. denote

different primes. In order that the proposed system should be resoluble for
the modulus g, it must be separately resoluble for each of the modules p,”,
p.”, &e.; and conversely if it be resoluble for each of those modules, and
admit P, solutions when taken with respect to the modulus p,”", P, solutions
when taken with respect to the modulus p,”, and so on, it will be also
resoluble for the modulus g, and will admit P, x P, x P,...solutions for that
modulus. It is, therefore, only necessary to assign the number of solutions
of the congruences (A), for a modulus p” which is the power of a prime.
Let I,, be the index of the highest power of p which divides D ; and similarly
let I, denote the index of the highest power of p which divides all the
minors of D which are of order 7; then if I,—In-1 < m, the system (A) (if

resoluble at all) admits of p™ solutions; but if I, > m-+In—1, it will always
be possible, in the series of differences

T,—In-1 Th-1—Thn-2; woee
to assign a pair of consecutive terms I,;1—I,, I,—I,-1, satisfying the in-
equalities

I41—I, > mM =I, —I,_ Hy
and then the number of solutions (supposing always that the congruences
are resoluble) is expressed by the formula ply-+(—”)m,

The analogy of this theory with the corresponding algebraic theory of
systems of linear equations is in particular cases very striking. For example,
we have in Algebra the theorem

“ The system of n linear equations

(1,1) 7, +(1, 2) #,+(1, 3) 7+ ..++(1, 2) rn=0

(2,1) v,+ (2, 2) 7,+ (2,3) %, + +++ +(2, 2) %r=0

(n, 1) %, + (2; 2) #,+(m, 3) 2, +++. + (2,2) an=0
implies either that D==Z+ (1, 1) (2,2)... (, x)=0, or else that 7,2... 2%,
are separately equal to zero.”

In the Theory of Numbers we have the corresponding theorem,

“Tf m linear and homogeneous functions of an equal number of indetermi-
nates be congruous to zero for a prime modulus, either the determinant of
the system is congruous to zero for that modulus, or else every one of the
indeterminates is separately congruous to zero.”

10. Fermat's Theorem.—The theory of congruences of the higher orders
is so essentially connected with Fermat’s Theorem, that it will be proper
before proceeding further to introduce a few considerations relating te that
celebrated proposition.

234 REPORT—1859.

It may be considered from two different (though closely connected) points
of view, each of which has proved equally fertile in consequences. First, it
may be regarded as asserting that, if p be a prime number, and z any num-
ber prime to p, the remainder left by the power 2?—! when divided by p is
unity. It is thus the fundamental proposition in the arithmetical theory of
the residues of powers, or, which is the same thing, of binomial congruences.
Or, secondly, it may be regarded as asserting that the congruence #?—! = 1,
mod p, has precisely p—1 roots; and that these roots are the terms of a
system of residues prime to p. It is in this latter point of view that the the-
orem is the basis of the general theory of congruences.

We may observe that the demonstrations of Fermat’s Theorem point to this
twofold aspect.

The proof which is found in most English treatises of Algebra (it is the
first of those given by Euler*), and which depends on the property of the
binomial or multinomial coefficient, would naturally lead us to regard the
Theorem in the first point of view. The same may be said of Euler's second
demonstration+, which consists in showing that the index of the lowest power
of x in the series 1, 2, #*, 2°, &c., which leaves unity for its remainder when
divided by p, is either p—1, or some submultiple of p—1; or again of the
demonstration of MM. Dirichlett, Binet §, and Poinsot||, which depends on
the observation that the terms of a system of residues prime to any modulus,
being multiplied by any residue prime to the modulus, still form a system of
residues prime to the modulus.

But a remarkable proof of the theorem, in the second expression we have
given to it, occurs in a memoir of Lagrange]. As this proof (though very
elementary) has not been copied by subsequent writers, and is consequently
but little known, its nature may be indicated here.

Let the product

(a+1) (+2) (e+3)....(@+p—1)
be represented by
aPp—1+ A, gp-2 AsaP—34,.., Ap 9t+ Ap-1,

2 denoting an absolutely indeterminate quantity. Writing e+1 for a, and
multiplying by «+1, we obtain the identity

(a@+1)P +A, (@+1)P-1+ A, (w+ 1)P-2+... + Ap_1 (@+1)
=(a+p) [aP-1+ A, 2P-24 A, aP-384..4A, c+ Ye |
whence, by equating the coefficients of like powers of x, we find,

Ps Ge)
1.2

* Comment. Acad. Petropol. vol. viii. p. 141, or Comment. Arith. vol. i. p. 21. This is
the first demonstration of the Theorem discovered, since the time of Fermat. The memoir
containing it was presented to the Academy of St. Petersburgh, Aug. 2, 1736.

t Novi Commentarii Petropol. vol. vii. p. 49, or Comment. Arith. vol. i. p. 260. From
the point of view in which Fermat presents his theorem, it is not improbable that the de-
monstration he had found of it was no other than this of Euler’s. (See Fermati Opera
Matheney Tolose, 1679, p. 163.) It has been adopted by Gauss in the Disquisitiones,

rt. 49.

$ Crelle’s Journal, vol. iii. p. 390,

§ Journal de I’Kcole Polytechnique, Cahier xx. p. 289.

|| Reflexions sur la Théorie des Nombres, p. 32. But the principle of this demonstra-
tion is employed by Gauss in a memoir published in the Comm. Soc. Gotting. vol. xvi.
p. 69, to which we shall have again to refer. (See Art. 19 of this Report.)

‘| Démonstration d’un Théoreme nouveau concernant les Nombres Premiers (Nouveaux

Mémoires de l’Académie Royale de Berlin, 1771, p. 125). The ‘new theorem’ is that

known as Sir J, Wilson’s,

——S—— ee ee ee

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 235

(p=1) (p—2) 4 (P-1) (p=2)
ieee remit wey

(p—1) (p—2) (p—3) | (P—1) (p—3) , | (P—2) (p—3)
Te as Cr ae rage tae

(p—1) Ap-1=1+4+ A,4+A,+A,+.--+ Ap_2-

From these equations we successively infer the congruences A, =0, A,=0,
A, =0,..-Ap—2=0, and lastly Ap_1 = —1, mod p. We have, therefore,
-the indeterminate congruence (v+1) (w+2) (#+3)...(a+p—1) =2P-1
—1,mod p, which is evidently édentical, i.e. it subsists for all values of x. And
since, if a,,@,..@p—1 be the terms of any system of residues prime to p,
the factors r—a,, x—a,, Y—a,, ... 2—p_1, are one by one congruous to the
factors +1, +2, 2+38,..x2+p—l1 taken in a certain order, the products

(x—a,) (w—a,) ... (#—ap_ 1) and (v+1) (w+2)...(e@+p—1)
are also identically congruous for the modulus p, so that we may write
(x—a,) (ax—a,) ..«(@—ap_1) =aP-!—1, mod p.

This congruence exhibits in the clearest manner possible what the real
nature of the function z?—!—1 is when considered with respect to the modu-
lus p, aud explains to us why it assumes a value divisible by p, when we
assign to x any integral value not divisible by p.

It will be observed that the last of the y—1 congruences included in the
congruence

(w—1) (w—2) (wx—3)....(@—p—1) =a?-!—1, mod p
(which is a particular case of that last written), namely the congruence
1.2.3 ...p—1=—1,modp

is the symbolic expression of Sir J. Wilson’s Theorem.

11. Lagrange’s Limit of the Number of Roots of a Congruence.—The full
development of the consequences of Fermat’s Theorem requires the aid of the
following proposition, which was first given, in a slightly different form, by
Lagrange*.

“If F (x) be a function of x of z dimensions, such that F (a2) =0, mod p,
then a function of x of z—1 dimensions, F, (x), can always be assigned such
that we shall have the identical congruence F (2) = (a—a) F, (a), mod p.”

Hence we may infer that no congruence, of which the modulus is prime,
can have more incongruous roots than it has dimensions; and, if a con-
gruence have congruous roots, we obtain a definition of their multiplicity ;
viz., if F (7) == («—a)" F, (x), mod p, then we may say that F (a) =0, mod p,
has r roots congruous to a. We may also observe that this theorem enables
us at once to infer Lagrange’s indeterminate congruence from the first ex-
pression of Fermat’s Theorem. For since x?-!—1 is *==0 for the values
v1, «=2,.-..¥=p—l, we may, by successive applications of the pre-
ceding theorem, show that 2?—!—] == (a—1) (a--2)....(w—p+1), mod p.

12. Theory of the Residues of Powers.—The principal elementary theorems
relating to the Residues of Powers are the following. They are all due to

' * Nouvelle Méthode pour resoudre les Problemes Indéterminés en Nombres entiers,
(See Hist. Ac. Berl. 1768, p. 192.) The case of binomial congruences of the form 2” = 1 had
already been treated by Euler. (See Nov. Comment. Petropol. vol. xviii. p. 85, or Comment.
Arith, yol. i. p. 516, art. 28 of the Memoir.)

236 REPORT—1859.

Euler*, who was the first to demonstrate Fermat’s Theorem, and to develope
the numerous arithmetical truths connected with it.

I. If eand f be conjugate divisors of p—1 so that p—l=ef; the con-
gruence x= 1, mod p, always admits of f incongruous roots. Let these
roots be denoted by @,a,...ay ‘Then each of the f congruences a =a,
admits of e solutions, and the ef roots of these f congruences exhaust com-
pletely the p—1 residues prime to p. It appears, therefore, that if we raise
the residues of p to the power e, they will divide themselves into f groups of e
numbers apiece; the e numbers of each group giving, when raised to the
power eé, the same residue for the modulus p. The numbers a, a,...a@y, are
termed the quadratic, cubic, biquadratic, quintic, &c., residues of p, accord-
ing as e=2, e=3, e=4, e=5, &c., because they are each of them congruous
to an e™ power (and indeed to an e™ power of e different numbers), and
because no other number beside them can be congruous to such a power.
Thus every uneven prime has $(p—1) quadratic, and as many non-quadratic
residues; every prime of the form 4n+1 has + (p—1) biquadratic residues,
and three times as many non-biquadratic residues, &c.

Il. It is readily seen that if the same number z satisfy the two congruences
xf = |, and af =1, it also satisfies the congruence x7== 1, mod p; where d
is the greatest common divisor of f, and f,. If therefore f be the lowest
index for which the number 2 satisfies the congruence xf = 1, mod p, fis
a divisor of p—1; as indeed appears directly from Euler’s second demon-
stration of Fermat's Theorem. Let W (f) denote the number of num-
bers less than f and prime to it; then there are always (f) roots of the
congruence xf==1, mod p, which cannot satisfy any other congruence of
lower index, and similar form. These are called primitive roots of the con-
gruence xf==1, mod p; they are also said to appertain to the exponent f. If
JS=p—1, the ¥(p—1) primitive roots of the congruence a?—! = |, mod p, are
termed for brevity (though the designation is somewhat improper) the pri-
mitive roots of p. ‘There are therefore (p—1) primitive roots of p.

13. Primitive Roots—The problem of the direct determination of the pri-
mitive roots of a prime number is one of the “cruces” of the Theory of Num-
bers. Euler, who first observed the peculiarity of these numbers, has yet left
us no rigorous proof of their existence ; though assuming their existence he
succeeded in accurately determining their number. The defect in his de-
monstration was first supplied by Gauss}, who has also proposed an indirect
method for finding a primitive root. This method§ consists in taking any
residue a of p, and determining (by the successive formation of its powers)
the exponent f to which it appertains. If f=p—1, a is itself a primitive
root of p; if not, let b be a second residue of p, not contained in the period
of a, (i. e. not congruous for the modulus p to any one of the numbers a°,
a, a’,....af—!,) and let the exponent to which bd appertains be determined.
This exponent cannot (as is shown by Gauss) be identical with, nor yeta

* Kuler’s memoirs on this Theory are,—

(i). Theorematum quorundam ad numeros primos spectantium demonstratio. Comment.
Arith. vol. i. p. 21.

(ii). Theoremata circa residua ex divisione potestatum relicta. Ibid. p. 260.

(iii). Theoremata arithmetica novo methodo demonstrata. Ibid. p. 274.

(iv). Disquisitio accuratior circa residua ex divisione quadratorum aliarumque potestatum
pet numeros primos relicta. Ibid. p. 487.

(¥). Demonstrationes circa residua ex divisione potestatum per numeros primos resultantia.
Ibid. p. 516.
i; t pe the memoir (i) of the preceding note; and Gauss’s criticism on it; Disq. Arith.

rt. 96.

} Disq. Arith. Art. 52-55. § Ibid, Art. 73-74,

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 237

divisor of, the exponent to which @ appertains ; but it is always possible by
a comparison of the values of a and d to determine a third number, ec, which
shall appertain to an exponent divisible by each of the exponents to which a
and 6 appertain. By proceeding in this way we shall evidently obtain num-
bers appertaining to exponents continually higher, till at last we come to a
number appertaining to the exponent p—1; i. e. to a primitive root of p.

M. Poinsot* proposes the foliowing method. If 2, 9,, 9,.... &c. be all
the prime divisors of p—1, raise the numbers +1, +2, +3,... + 4(p-—1),
which form a system of residues prime to p, to the powers of which the in-
dices are 2, ¢,, 9,, &c.; so as to determine all the quadratic residues of p, and
its residues of the powers q,, q,, &c. If from the system of residues 1, 2, 3,
++ -p—l, we successively exclude these residues of squares and higher powers,
we shall have ~(p—1) numbers left, which canuot be congruous to any
power having an index that divides p—1, and which are consequently (as may
easily be shown) the primitive roots of p.

This method is very symmetrical; and if the problem proposed be to find
all the primitive roots of p, it is sufficiently direct. But it is (like many
other direct methods in the Theory of Numbers) of interminable prolixity ;
and becomes absolutely impracticable if p be a number even of moderate
size, as it requires us to form the residues of the successive powers of the
numbers 1, 2,3...4(p—1). Of course, in performing this operation, the
multiples of p are to be rejected as fast as they arise; but, notwithstanding
this abbreviation, and others which a little experience will readily suggest,
Gauss's method is, for any practical purpose, greatly preferable.

In a memoir by M. Oltramare in Crelle’s Journal (vol. xlix. p. 161), several
considerations are offered for facilitating the determination of the primi-
tive roots of primes in numerous special cases. Some, however, of the
general results of this memoir are erroneous, at least in expression, and the
demonstrations of the more particular conclusions contained in it involve no
new principle, but may be obtained by combining the definition of primitive
roots with the criteria by which (as we shall hereafter see) we are enabled
to decide on the quadratic or cubic characters of the residues of given
primes. The following may serve as examples of the very interesting results
which are thus obtained by M. Oltramare.

“If a be a prime number and Za +1 be also a prime, 2 or a is a primitive
root of 2a+1, according as « is of the form 4n+1 or 4n+3.” Thus 2 is
& primitive root of 37 and of 83, 11 is a primitive root of 23, 83 of 167, &c.

“Tf a be a prime number, other than 3, and if p=2" a+1, where m is
= I, be also a prime, 3 is a primitive root of p, unless the congruence 3?”—!
+1=0, mod p, be satisfied.” Thus 3 is a primitive root of 89, and of 137.

Theorems of the same character will be found in the Théorie des Nom-
brest of M. Desmarest. By their aid M. Desmarest has constructed a table
giving a primitive root for every prime less than 10,000.

14. Indices.—If y be a primitive root of p, the least positive residues of
the p—1 successive powers of y,

A ee A La
which we may denote by

Yv Yo Ys +++ Yp-2 1;
are all incongruous for the modulus p. These residues, therefore, irrespective
of the order in which they occur, coincide with the numbers 1, 2, 3.. -p—l,.

* Reflexions sur la Théorie des Nombres, cap. iy. art, 3.
t Paris, 1852, See pp. 275-279.

938 REPORT—1859.

i. e. they represent the terms of a complete system of residues prime to p.
If yx =a, mod p, «, or any number congruous to « for the modulus p—], is
termed the index* of a for the primitive root or base y; and this is expressed
symbolically by writing
«== Inda, mod (p—1), or «= Indya, mod (p—1).
The principal properties of these indices, which it is clear are a kind of
arithmetical logarithm, are as follows :—

(1) Ind (AB) = Ind A +Ind B, mod (p—1).
(2) Ind (A*) = s Ind A, mod (p—1).

(3) Ind (> mod ?) = Ind A—Ind B, mod (p—1).

[The symbol s mod p ) is used to denote the value of 2 deduced from the

congruence Ba = A mod p. ]
(4) Indy A= Ind, y!. Indy A, mod (p—1).
(5) If A=B, mod p, Ind A=Ind B, mod p—1.

In these congruences A and B represent numbers prime to p, s any inte-
gral number, and y and y’ two different primitive roots.

The great importance of these indices in arithmetical researches has in-
duced the Academy of Berlin to publish a volume containing tables of the
numbers corresponding to given indices, and of the indices corresponding
to given numbers for all primes less than 1000. This volume, the ‘Canon
Arithmeticus+,’ was edited by C. G. J. Jacobi, and contains, besides the
Tables, a preface explaining the methods which he adopted in their construc-
tion. The annexed specimen will serve to exempli‘y the arrangement of the
Tables :—

p=29
p-1=2"-7.
Numeri. Indices.
bee eles eke Nilol1l2/3l4a{slel7isi9
10/13/14 24} 8 22/17|25/18 28/11/27|22118/1020| 5|26
1||6| 2/20/26'28/19|16|15| 5/21 1 1|23)21| 2) 3/17/16) 7| 9|15
2\| 7 \12 4/11 23.27 9} 3] 1 212|19| 6)24) 4] 8|13)25|14

M. Burckhardt, to whom arithmetic is indebted for an excellent Table of
the divisors of numbers from 1 to 3,036,000{, has inserted in his work, and
apparently only to fill up a blank page at the end of the first million, a
table stating the number of figures in the decimal period of the fraction

ss for every prime number p less than 2500. It is evident that the number
P

* The reader must be careful to distinguish between the index of a number and the ex-
ponent to which the number appertains. The exponent does not depend on the choice of

the primitive root: for a given number it has but one value, a, which is such that ee is

a
the greatest common divisor of the index andof p—1. The index may have any one of y («)
different values ; which of these it has, depends on the particular primitive root chosen.
+ Berlin, 1839.
$ Paris, 1814-1817. A Table containing the exponents to which 10 appertains, for every
prime less than 10,000, has since been given by M. Desmarest. (See p. 308 of his ‘ Théorie
des Nombres.’)

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 239°

of terms in the decimal period of 1 ig nothing else than the exponent to

which 10 appertains for the modulus py. M. Burckhardt’s table, therefore,
at once apprises us that out of the 365 primes inferior to 2500 (2 and 5 are
not counted in this enumeration, as being divisors of 10), 10 is a primitive
root of 148; because there are 148 primes p below 2500, the reciprocals of
which have decimal periods consisting of p—1 figures. Again, for 108 of
the remaining primes below 2500, the exponent to which 10 appertains is
4(p—1). Of these 108 primes, 73 are of the form 4%+3, from which it
may be inferred that —10 is a primitive root of those 73 numbers. M.
Burckhardt’s Table supplies us, therefore, with a primitive root (and that
root the most convenient for the purposes of computation) of 148+73=221
out of the 365 primes inferior to 2500. Nor is this the limit to its useful-
ness; for when the exponent to which 10 appertains is as high as 3 (p—1)
or 4(p—1) or + (p—1), it is possible by methods which Jacobi has indicated
to construct the Table of Indices with very little labour.

Jacobi says that had it not been for this table of Burckhardt’s he should
hardly have ventured on the construction of the ‘Canon Arithmeticus,’ on
account of the prolixity and uncertainty of the tentative methods for the in-
vestigation of primitive roots. But, while endeavouring to avail himself of
the results of M. Burckhardt’s table, for the computation of his own Tables
of Indices, in other cases besides those in which that Table immediately fur-
nishes a primitive root, he was led to the invention of a general method of
procedure, which, as he says, would have enabled him to dispense with the
assistance of Burckhardt’s Table altogether, or to extend his Canon to an
higher limit which the expense of printing would have admitted. This
method is not in principle very different from Gauss’s process for finding
primitive roots, but the form which Jacobi has given to it possesses great
advantages, for the purpose to which he has applied it. He first of all takes
a number @ (not quite at hap-hazard, for quadratic residues can at any rate
be excluded by the law of reciprocity ; see inf. Art. 16); and determines its
period of residues, and the exponent a to which it appertains. Let aa’=p—1,
and let the residues of a, a’, a*...a*, be entered in a Table of which the argu-
ments are the indices 1, 2,3,...p—1, opposite to the indices, a’, 2a’, 3a’... aa’,

respectively. It has been shown by Gauss that there are always ¥(p~1)

a
primitive roots for which this assignment is true. A number 6 is then taken,
not contained in the period of a, and the residues of its successive powers are
formed till we come to the lowest power of it that is congruous to any power
of a; so that 6B =a4,mod p. Let GB be the exponent to which } appertains,

@ the greatest common divisor of a and , and ct their least common

multiple; let also 6A'=p—1. It may be proved that Bees A=tt, where
k is some number less than @ and prime to it, so that = is the greatest com-
mon divisor of A and a. These relations show, that when we know the
numbers a, A, and B, we can immediately find 6, 2, and 6, without having

to raise 6 to any power higher than 68. We may then assign to 6 any index
of the form /', where Z is prime to 3, and congruous to & for the modulus 0.

The number of such values of / (incongruous for the modulus 3) is cathy

240 REPORT—1859.

and, whichever of them we take, there will be Loy primitive roots, for
which 6 will have the index J’, while a retains the index a’. We must next
form the residues of the \X—a products included in the formula a* 6”; where
x has any value from 1 toa inclusive, and y any value from 1 to B—1. These
residues are all incongruous; the indices of all of them are known ; and,
together with the a powers of a already entered in the table, they exhaust all

the numbers which have indices divisible by?

In practice, it will almost always happen that is equal to p—1. When
this is so, nothing remains to complete the operation but to enter in the
Table the residues of the numbers a* by opposite to the indices corresponding

to them. But, if \<p—1, we may take that residue which has ?— for its

index, and use it to replace a in the preceding operation, while 0 is replaced
by some other residue not yet entered in the Table. In this way we shall
ultimately (and in practice very speedily) obtain a complete Table of Resi-
dues corresponding to given indices, which, of course, immediately supplies
us with the inverse Table of Indices corresponding to given residues. It
will be seen (as has been already observed) that the process is not dissimilar
to Gauss’s method for determining a number appertaining to the exponent X
when we already know two numbers a and 6 appertaining to the exponents
a and f respectively. But it is so arranged by Jacobi that hardly a single
figure is wasted, the primitive root, instead of being found by a preliminary
investigation, presenting itself at the end of the operation, and being recog-
nized by its standing opposite to the index |.

To calculate with rapidity the residues of the powers of a number, Jacobi
employs a method proposed by M. Crelle in his Journal, vol. ix. p. 30, and
which is most easily explained by an example.

Let p=11, and let it be required to determine the residues of the powers
of 3; and the residues of those powers multiplied by 7.

Column I. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8, 9, 10
5 hy toll 36,9; 1544p 10, 295,58
” Ill. 3,9, 5, 4, 1,
os IV. 10, 8, 2, 6, 7.

The first column contains the numbers 1, 2, 3..p—1. The second
column begins with 3 (the number the powers of which we are considering),
and consists of numbers formed by successive additions of 3, multiples of 11
being rejected as fast as they arise. The third column also commences.
with 3, and is so formed that any number 7 in it is followed by the number
which in column II. stands under r in column I. This column contains the:
residues of the powers of 3 taken in order, and stops at 3° because after that:
the same residues recur. Lastly, column IV. begins with 10 (the number
which in column II. stands under 7 in column I.), and is formed in the same:
way as column III. It represents the residues of 7.3, 7.3", &c....

15. Quadratic Residues.—It appears from the theorems cited in Art. 12,.
that the numbers 1, 2, 3,... p—1, divide themselves into two classes of Qua-
dratic Residues, and Quadratic non-Residues, comprising 4 (p—1) numbers:

p-l
each. Every quadratic residue a satisfies the congruence x 2 =1,mod p;
every quadratic non-residue 0 satisfies, instead, the congruence nae ae es

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 241

mod p. Again, for every quadratic residue the congruence 2? =a, mod p, is
resoluble; for every non-quadratic residue the congruence 2 = 06, mod p,
is irresoluble. The solution of almost every problem relating to the in-
determinate analysis of quadratic functions involves a congruence of the
simple form 2? = A, mod p. It is therefore of great importance to
obtain a criterion which shall enable us to determine @ priort whether a
given number is or is not a quadratic residue of a given prime. If we
have a Table of Indices for the given prime, we have only to see whether
the index of the given number is even or uneven; if even, it is a qua-
dratic residue; if uneven, it is a quadratic non-residue. Or, again, we
may raise the given number a (by M. Crelle’s method, or any other) to

the power pot and see whether the residue is +1 or —1. It is usual to

p-1

—

denote the positive or negative unit which is the remainder of a 2 , mod p

by the symbol (5) which is known as “ Legendre’s Symbol ;” so that in every

p—l
case a 2 =(5), mod p, and (5) = +1 or = —1, according as a is or is not
a quadratic residue of p. It will be seen that we also have in every case the
equation (4) (*) = (2), If a@ instead of being prime to p be divisible

by p, it is convenient to attribute to (<) the value zero.

16. Legendre's Law of Reciprocity.—The two methods alluded to for the
discrimination of quadratic and non-quadratic residues, or, which is the same

thing, for the determination of the value of the symbol (5) are not satis-

factory,—the first because it supposes a reference to a Table of Indices (7. e.
to a recorded solution of the problem it is proposed to solve), the second on
account of its inapplicability to high numbers. A very different solution of
the problem is supplied by a theorem which is known as “ Legendre’s Law
of Quadratic Reciprocity,” and which is, without question, the most important
general truth in the science of integral numbers which has been discovered
since the time of Fermat. It has been called by Gauss “ the gem of the higher
arithmetic,” and is equally remarkable whether we consider the simplicity of
its enunciation, the difficulties which for a long time attended its demonstra-
tion, or the number and variety of the results which have been obtained by
its means. The theorem is as follows :—
“If p and g be two uneven prime numbers

=) i coas (i);

to which we must add the complementary propositions relating to the resi-
dues—1 and 2
2 (p-1) pe}

(Say i: tos (iii).

In (ii), p is supposed to be positive; in (i), p and g are supposed not to
be simultaneously negative.
1859. R

949 REPORT—1859,.

| 4 (p—1) (Q-1)
The equation (?) (Q=(-y da may be expressed in words by

saying that ‘‘if p and q be two primes, the quadratic character of p in regard
to g is the same as the quadratic character of g in regard to p; except both
p and g be of the form 4n-+3, in which case the two characters are opposite
instead of identical.”

Gauss, who attributes the first enunciation of this theorem to Legendre,
while he justly claims the first demonstration of it for himself*, appears to
have considered that Euler was unacquainted with the theorem, at least in
its simple form. (See Disq. Arith. Art. 151.) Nevertheless, we find in the
‘Opuscula Analytica’ of Euler, vol. i. p.64, a memoirt+ the concluding para-
graph of which contains a general and very elegant theorem, from which the
Law of Reciprocity is immediately deducible, and which is, vice versd,
deducible from that law. But Euler (doc. cit.) expressly observes. that the
theorem is undemonstrated ; and this would seem to be the only place in which
he mentions it in connexion with the theory of the Residues of Powers;
though in other researches he has frequently developed results which are
consequences of the theorem, and which relate to the linear forms of the
divisors of quadratic formule. But here also his conclusions repose on
induction only ; though in one memoir he seems to have imagined (for his
language is not very precise) that he had obtained a satisfactory demonstra-
tion. The theorem, in a form precisely equivalent to that in which we have
cited it, was first given by Legendre, in a Memoir contained in the ‘ Histoire
de l’Académie des Sciences’ for 1785. (See pp. 516, 517.) But the demon-
stration with which he has accompanied it is invalid for several reasons. (See
Gauss, Disq. Arith. Art. 151, 296, 297, and the Additamenta.)

17. Jacobi’s extension of Legendre’s Symbol.—The symbol (2), the intro-

duction of which has greatly contributed to simplify the theories of the higher
arithmetic, does not appear in the Memoir just referred to. It first occurs
in the ‘ Essai sur la Théorie des Nombres;’ the first edition of which ap-
peared at Paris in 1798, and the second in 1808.

Jacobi, in a note communicated to the Academy of Berlin in 1837}, has
extended the notation of Legendre. If P=p, p,p,....where p, p, p, denote

(equal or unequal) uneven prime numbers, Jacobi defines the symbol

(OOO

and observes that we then have the equations

@=-y (3) (i)

* “Pro primo hujus elegantissimi Theorematis inventore ill. Legendre absque dubio
habendus est, postquam longe antea summi geometre Euler et Lagrange plures ejus casus
speciales jam per inductionem detexerant...:..In ipsum theorema proprio marte incideram
anno 1795, dum omnium, que in arithmetica sublimiori jam elaborata fuerant, penitus
ignarus, et a subsidiis literariis omnino preclusus essem. Sed per integrum annum me tor-
sit, operamque enixissimam effugit,” ete.—Comm. Soc. Gott. vol. xvi. p. 69.

e Observationes circa divisionem quadratorum per numeros primos (Comment. Arith.
vol. i. p. 477).

£ Ueber die Kreistheilung und ihre Anwendung auf die Zahlentheorie. See the Monats-
Beri of the Berlin Academy, vol. ii. p. 127 (Oct. 16, 1857), or Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxx.
p.1

by the equation

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 943

(Z=—y (ii), (=, Ga

P and Q denoting any two uneven numbers relatively prime, the signs of
which are subject to the same restrictions as the signs of p and q in the cor-
responding formula of Art. 16. The theorems expressed by these formule
of Jacobi are very easily deducible from the formule of Legendre, and will
be found in the Disq. Arith. (Art. 133). To prevent misconception, how-

ever, it is proper to observe, that while Legendre’s equation *)=1 is a ne-
cessary and sufficient condition for the resolubility of the congruence a =h,

mod p, Jacobi’s equation (5)=h where P is not a prime number, though

a necessary, is not a sufficient condition for the resolubility of the corresponds

ing congruence a” ==, mod P. That congruence requires for its resolubility

that the conditions (“ — Hii La ..+. Should separately be satisfied; p,
1 2

pP,+.. denoting the unequal prime factors of P.

Gauss (who had in the course of his own early researches arrived inde-
pendently at the Law of Quadratic Reciprocity), before finally abandoning
the theory, succeeded in obtaining no fewer than six demonstrations of this
fundamental proposition. The first two are contained in the Disq. Arith.
(Art. 125-145, and Art. 262); the third and fourth in two memoirs pre-
sented in 1808 to the Society of Géttingen (Comm. Soc. Gott. vol. xvi.
p- 69, Jan. 15, and Comm. Recentiores, vol. i., Aug. 24), of which the
latter bears the title ‘Summatio serierum quarundam singularium.’ The
fifth and sixth appeared nine years later in the memoir entitled ‘ Theorematis
Fundamentalis in doctrina de Residuis quadraticis demonstrationes et amplia-
tiones nove’ (Comm. Ree. vol. iv. p.3, Feb. 10,1817). The fourth of these
demonstrations is probably that which is promised in the Disq. Arith., Art.151,
but which does not appear in that work, because (as it would seem) Gauss
had not yet succeeded in overcoming the difficulties connected with it.

Independently of the fundamental importance of Legendre’s Law of Reci-
procity, these demonstrations of Gauss possess such intrinsic interest, and
have contributed so much to the progress of the science, that we shall briefly
review them here.

18. Gauss’s First Demonstration.—The first demonstration (Disq. Arith.
Art. 125-145), which is presented by Gauss in a form very repulsive to any
but the most laborious students, has been resumed by Lejeune Dirichlet in
a memoir in Crelle’s Journal (vol. xlvii. p. 189), and has been developed by
him with that luminous perspicuity by which his mathematical writings are
distinguished.

Let A represent any uneven prime. The single observation that G)=—1

=(3) shows that the theorem of reciprocity is true for primes inferior

to 7. To establish its universal truth, it is, consequently, sufficient to
show that, if true for all primes up to A exclusively, it is also true
for all primes up to d inclusively. Let the theorem therefore be assumed
to be true for all primes inferior to A; let p be any one of those primes;
and let the eight cases [2x2%x2=8] be considered separately, which

arise from every possible combination of the hypotheses ( ¢) (e)= +1, or

944 REPORT—1859.

=—1; (6) \=1, or=3, mod 4; (y) p= 1, or = 3, mod 4, It has to be
shown that, in each of these eight cases, the symbol () actually has the value
which the Law of Reciprocity assigns to it. The iene of the proof in the
four cases in which (Q)= +1, will be rendered intelligible by a single
example.

. Let (2)=1 and let A=p=1,mod 4. By virtue of the symbolic equa-

tion (2)= 1, we can establish the congruence a = p, mod J, or (which is the

same thing) the equation x°=p+)y; in which we may suppose x even and
less than A, y positive, less than and of the form 42+3. From this equa-

tion it appears that ()=1, and (2)=1, the symbol (“) being here used

with the meaning Jacobi has assigned to it. But every prime divisor of y is
less than A; and, therefore, by Jacobi’s formula of reciprocity (which is
valid for all uneven numbers less than A, since by hypothesis Legendre’s

law is valid for all primes less than A), (4) = (2)= 1. But (#)=1=
P y P

(*) (4); so that, finally, (*)=1 in conformity with Legendre’s law. We

have here assumed that a is prime to p; aslight modification in the proof
will adapt it to the contrary supposition.

- Again, the two cases in which P= —1, and \== 3, mod 4, admit of simi-

lar treatment. For the equatiga (R)=-1 involves also the equation (=?)

= +1, because \==3,mod 4. We have therefore the congruence 2° = —p,
mod A, which will serve to replace the congruence x*= p, mod A, which pre-
sents itself in the four cases first mentioned.

But the two remaining cases, in which (2)=—1, \= 1, mod 4, require

a different mode of treatment. By a singularly profound analysis, Gauss has
succeeded in showing that every prime of the form 42+1 is a non-quadratic

residue of some prime less than itself. Assume, therefore, the existence ofa

prime a, less than X, and satisfying the condition (*)= —1]. This condition
DD

implies that (Zs —1; for if =) were equal to+1, we should have (*)

=+1, by one of the first four cases. Hence we may infer that (=)
= +1, and may establish the congruence 2°= a p, mod 2, which, treated as

in the preceding cases, will lead us to the conclusion that (*) (2) =1, t.¢.

that (*)= —1,
P.

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 245

19. Gauss’s Second, Third, and Fifth Demonstrations—The second de-
monstration (Disq. Arith. 262) depends on the theory of quadratic forms,
and will be referred to in its proper place in this Report.

The third and fifth (which are in principle very similar to one another)
depend on much simpler considerations.

A half-system of Residues for a prime modulus p is a system of 7 (p—1)
numbers 7, r,..-74(p—1), such that the p—1 numbers+7,, +7,...- +7 4 (p-1)
constitute a system of residues prime to p, We might take for the num-
bers 7, 7, &c., the even numbers less than p (as Eisenstein has done : see
Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxviii. p. 246), but Gauss has preferred to take the
numbers 1, 2, 3...3 (p—1).

Let g be any number prime to p, and let & be the number of the numbers,
QW > We Y3++ +P 4 (p—1)) Which are congruous, not to numbers in the series
1), T+++74(p—1)) but to numbers in the series —7,, —7r,,.-—7}(p—1). It
may be shown (by a method similar to that employed in Dirichlet’s proof

of Fermat’s Theorem) that g?(?-) = (—1)*, mod p; so that 1) = (-1)*.

Hence if g be a prime as well as p, and &! denote the number which replaces
k, when p and q are interchanged in the preceding considerations, we find

ma (en

It has, therefore, to be shown that k+-k’ =1(p—1)(q—1),mod2. The
way in which this is done is different in each of the two demonstrations, and
is a little complicated in each of them; but by the aid of a diagram the con-
gruence may be demonstrated intuitively (compare Eisenstein: Crelle, xxviii.
p- 246). With a pair of axes Ox and Oy construct a system of unit-points
in a plane: only let no such points be constructed on the axes themselves.
If S be any geometrical figure, let (S) stand for the number of unit-points
contained inside it or on its contour. On Oz and Oy respectively take
OA=1q9, OB=3p. Complete the parallelogram OACB, and draw its dia-
gonals, OQC, AQB, It is then easily seen that

aan — (QBO

k'=(QBC) — (QOA
kh+k'=(ABC) — Ann
=(OABC)—2 (AOB

=(OABC), mod 2,

But (OABC) = 3 (p—1) (g—1); therefore, finally, +h’ = 14 (p—1)
(q—1), mod 2.

These demonstrations (the lst, 3rd and 5th) introduee no heterogeneous
elements into the inquiry (the geometrical method of the preceding article
is to be regarded only as an abbreviation of an equivalent and purely arith-
metical process); they are based on the principles of the two theories with
which the Law of Reciprocity is most intimately connected,—those of the
residues of powers, and of quadratic congruences. The third, in particular,
appears to have commended itself above the rest to Gauss’s judgment*,

* “Sed omnes hx demonstrationes,” (he is speaking, apparently, of the Ist, 2nd, 4th, and
6th,) “etiamsi respectu rigoris nihil desiderandum relinquere videantur, e principiis nimis
heterogeneis derivate sunt; prima forsan excepta, que tamen per ratiocinia magis laboriosa
procedit, operationibusque prolixioribus premitur. Demonstrationem itaque genuinam
hactenus haud affuisse non dubito pronunciare; esto jam penes peritos judicium, an ea,
quam nuper detegere successit,” (the 3rd,) “hoc nomine decorari mereatur.’—Comm. Soc.
Gott. vol. xvi. p. 70,

246. REPORT—1859.

20. Gauss’s Fourth Demonstration.—The fourth and sixth demonstrations,
though somewhat different from one another, are both intimately connected
with the theory of the division of the circle. They must, therefore, be re-
garded as less direct than the earlier proofs, but they have contributed even
more to the methods and resources of the higher arithmetic.

The fourth depends on the formula

Ltrtrttrt oo... $ret (1? /n....(A)

in which ¢ represents (as throughout this Report) an imaginary square root
4 =, SR Qar
of —1; 2 is any uneven number, 7x its positive square root, r=cos ~~ =F
i sin as . Let the series
n

Ltrktrtky rh 4 ,, 470-1) pe denoted by p (2, 2) ;

in the particular case in which z is a prime number, it is easy to see that
w (A, »=() (1,2). Further, p and g denoting two prime numbers, it is
found by actual multiplication of the two series (p, g) and w (q, p) that

L(p, 9) xv (Gp)=¥ (1, pg); that is (2) (Qa ehre.

If we substitute for the functions y their values given by the equation (A),
3 (pq-1)?—4 (p—1)?=3 (g~1)2 : ;
we find (Z) (2)= Be Bi , an equation which gives a rela-

tion between (2) and (2) coincident with that assigned in Legendre’s Law

of Reciprocity.

The equation (A) is not easy to demonstrate. It is not indeed difficult to
show that the sum of the series on the left-hand side is + Vn when n=1,
mod 4; and +2 Wn when n =3,mod4. But the determination of the am-
biguous sign in these values appears to have long occupied Gauss. He has
effected it in his memoir (the Summatio Serierum, &c.) by establishing the
equality
Ltrtrttr to. -rim-* =(f—7>") ges ad Pere (rm-2—r—"+2),,..(B),
which he obtains by writing 7 for x, and x—1 for m, in the series

Oe Sa 4 (—#") (i—am-!) _ (1—2")(1—2™—) (1—2™-?)

l—z (1—z)(1—2*) (1—z) (1—2") (1—z"*) a
This series when m is a positive integer becomes an integral algebraical
function, and is proved by Gauss to be zero if m be uneven; and if m be
even, to be equal to the product (1—a) (l—a”)... (l—a™”—!). From this
last observation, the demonstration of the formula (B) naturally flows. If”
be an uneven number, the formula (A) becomes
ltrtr tot wee bre (141)Vn or=0 (A')

according as 7 is evenly or unevenly. even.

A very different, but a simpler demonstration of these formule (A) and
(A'), depending on the properties of the definite integrals

+0 ay Ge) Ce
cos 2? dz, sin w*dz, or e da,
~ OF —OOO —o

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 247

has been given by Dirichlet in his memoir, “ Application de l’Analyse In-
finitésimale 4 la Théorie des Nombres” (Crelle, vol. xxi. p. 135).
The same formule have also been deduced by Cauchy from the equation

a (Rena 4 eH 4@ 4 e904 (E+ em? + cM" 4 0" +, .),
or Lp e-@ 4 e404 90° +, —— Le? 4-1" + e922 4.,,),
in which ad=a, a and & denoting real positive quantities, or imaginary
quantities the real parts of which are positive. This equation Cauchy
obtained, as early as 1817, by the principles of his theory of reciprocal
functions; but it is also deducible from known elliptic formule. (See a
note by M. Lebesgue in Liouville’s Journal, vol. v. p.186.) If in it we write
ge 2 for a*, and lS for 6°, a and 6 being two evanescent quantities
n
connected by the relation na=2/, the two series

na(4+e-® + -40 4 94... .)
and 2B (E+e-F + e—40" + e907 4 .,,)

te 2 _ 2 ad 2
become respectively wy (1, 2) x| e-* dx, and (l+e 2 dxf) e—* dx;
0 0

2 On io
whence, dividing by the definite integral, and observing that a= a/ aor aes
n

we obtain finally, in accordance with the formule of Gauss,

W(1,2)=iVn(1+i%) (1 Mare,

For the case in which m is a prime number, the equality (B) has been
established in a very simple manner by M. Cauchy} and M. Kronecker ¢.
But, as these latter methods have not been extended to the case in which 2
is a composite number, they cannot be used to replace Gauss’s analysis
in this demonstration of the law of reciprocity.

From the formula (A) combined with the equation w (A, »)=(5) v (1, p),

p denoting a prime number, we may infer

_ s=p—l s=p—1
(GV P= cos fe > sin s* = =0;

.
2

s=0 P s=0
k i s=p—1 hes s=p—1 yi
or G V p= sin s” al = Cos s° oad =0,
s=0 P s=0 P

according as p =1, or =38, mod 4.
These formule serve to express the value of the symbol (5) by means of

a finite trigonometrical series, and are, therefore, of very great importance,

* See M. Cauchy’s Mémoire sur la Théorie des Nombres in the Mémoires de l’Académie
de France, vol. xvii. notes ix. x. and xi. See also the Comptes Rendus for April 1840, or
Liouville’s Journal, vol. y. p. 154; and compare (beside the note of M. Lebesgue quoted in
the text) a memoir by the same author in Liouville, vol. v. p. 42.

T In the Mémoire sur la Théorie des Nombres, Note xi., or Liouville, yol, v. p. 161,

t Liouville, New Series, vol. i. p. 392.

948 REPORT—1859.

Conversely, the circumstance that a trigonometrical summation should depend
on the quadratic characters of integral numbers, may serve of itself to show
the use of abstract arithmetical speculations in other parts of analysis.

21. Gauss’s Sixth Demonstration.—This demonstration depends on an
investigation of certain properties of the algebraical function

s=p—2Z
f= (—1)8 a*7
s=0,

in which p is a prime number, y a primitive root of p, k any number prime
to p, and x an absolutely indeterminate symbol. These properties are as

follows :—
fen os
(1) & — (—1)'F p is divisible by ;——"

(2) u—(5) zis divisible by 1—2?,
(3) If k=q be a prime number,
£4—£, is divisible by g.
From (1) we may infer that ¢, q-1—( —]) 4 (p-)G-)) p i is divisible by

ie and, by combining this inference with (1) and (2), we may conclude

= ee
that b (E1—2)—=(-)) Pp [(-Ie (ah ()|

Galatt 1—a2?P
i le b
is also divisible by fae

ie eee fae Mak (cma ()]
1—aP

is the remainder left in the division of the function &, (,7—£,) by ror a
—2%

But every term in that function is divisible by g; the remainder is therefore
itself divisible by g- We thus obtain the congruence

q-1
(—1)?-DG-Dp 2 = (4), nod q,

which involves the equation (2) (Z)=(-1) 9 (q—-1),

; that is to say,

Gauss has given a purely algebraical proof of the theorems (1), (2), and
(3), on which this demonstration depends. The third is a simple consequence
of the arithmetical property of the multinomial coefficient, already referred
to in Art. 10 of this Report; to establish the first two, it is sufficient to ob-

serve that Beh aes cp, and &—(5) é, vanish, the first, if 2 be any ima-
ginary root, the second, if x be any root whatever, of the equation v?—1=0.
If, for example, in the function & we put z=r=cos 28a sin 2m re ob-
tain the function p (2, p), which satisfies, as we have Ct the two ri

[W(A p)P=(— 1) Fp, and w (h»)=(5) Y(1,p). It is, indeed, simplest

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 249

to suppose a=7 throughout the whole demonstration, which is thus seen to
depend wholly on the properties of the same trigonometrical function v,
which presents itself in the fourth demonstration ; only it will be observed
that here no necessity arises for the consideration of composite values of 7 in
the function W (2, x); nor for the determination of the ambiguous sign in the
formula(A). In this specialized form, Gauss’s sixth proof has been given by
Jacobi (in the 3rd edit. of Legendre’s ‘ Théorie des Nombres,’ vol. ii. p. 391),
Eisenstein (Crelle, vol. xxviii. p. 41), and Cauchy (Bulletin de Férussac,
Sept. 1829, and more fully Mém. de l'Institut, vol. xviii. p. 451, note iv. of
the Mémoire), quite independently of one another, but apparently without
its being at the time perceived by any of those eminent geometers that they
were closely following Gauss’s method. (See Cauchy’s Postscript at the end
of the notes to his Mémoire; also a memoir by M. Lebesgue in Liouville,
vol. xii. p. 457; anda foot-note by Jacobi, Crelle, vol. xxx. p.172, with Eisen-
stein’s reply to it, Crelle, vol. xxxv. p. 273.)

MM. Lebesgue * and Eisenstein + have even exhibited a proof essentially
the same ina purely arithmetical form, from which the root of unity again
disappears, and is replaced by unity itself. Eisenstein considers the sum

C,= (=) (*) ae (“*) in which h,, h,,...kg denote g terms (equal or un-

equal) of a system of residues prime to p, the sign of summation extending
to every combination of the numbers f,, ,, ..,, that satisfies the congruen-
tial condition k,+h,+h,+...+h, =a, mod p. This sum is, in fact,
“i coefficient of r¢ in the development of the gth power of the function

=p—1

= () rk, which is equivalent in value to Gauss’s function yp (1, p).
k=1
k=p—1 D uf
From the equation | x (5) r] =(-1)” M p> it follows that
k=1

k=p—1 q ee rh ca k=p—1
3 (5) =(-1)” 1) ter 1) sd ts (5) ya. Wheres
nl |i | Bg

q-\ k=p—1 q
Ca= (140-0 0-2) p Ss 4p Aaa again, since | Dy (A) |
k=1

k=p—1 k=p—1 k
= 3 (*) rkq = (2) x (*) rk, mod g, we have the congruence
k=1 P. k=l

Cc. = (<) (4) mod g. But these results, which, taken together, establish the

Jaw of reciprocity, are obtained by Eisenstein from his arithmetical definition

of C,, without any reference to the trigonometrical function y (1, p). If we
k=p-—1 k=p—1

write that function inthe form > ri instead of the form (5 7,
A=0 k=1 P

we obtain from its gth power the coefficient C', considered by M. Le-

* See Liouville’s Journal, vol. ii. p, 253, and vol. iii. p. 113. (The proof of the law of re-
ciprocity will be found in sect. i. art. 5, and sect. iii. art. 2, of the memoir). See also the
memoir referred to in the text, Liouville, vol. xii. p. 457.

t Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxvii. p. 322,

250 REPORT—1859.

besguee This coefficient, which is connected with C, by the equation
Cl.=pr-!+C,, represents the number of solutions of the congruence
ata, +a,+..+a7 =a, mod g. From this definition M. Lebesgue de-

q=1
duces the equation C!a=p?-!4+(—1)#@-)G-» (5) 2 , and the congru-

ence C’,=1 +(2) (2 , mod g, by processes which, though different from
P.

those of Eisenstein, involve, like them, the consideration of integral numbers
only.
22, Other proofs of the Theorem of Reciprocity have been suggested to
subsequent writers by a comparison of the different methods of Gauss. The
; Pe ass ‘
symbol 7 denoting a root of the equation = = =0, it is very easily shown

that

pai ees pel
(r—r—P (7? —r-?/)? oe (- 2p 7 )=(-1) 2 P (C)
It is natural therefore to employ this equation to replace the equation
k=p—1 2 pa
> Gy" =(—1) ” p, which presents itself in the 4th and 6th
k=1
methods of Gauss. It is also found that the product

k=} (p—1) ier
rig tiles MEE equal to (2). (D)

k=1 riers

This is an immediate consequence of the property of a half-system of Resi-
dues (see Art. 19 supra) on which Gauss’s 3rd and 5th methods depend.
From a combination of the equations (C) and (D), the law of reciprocity is
immediately deducible. (See a note by M. Liouville, Compt. Rend. vol. xxiv.,
or Liouville’s Journal, vol. xii. p. 95, and especially a memoir by Eisenstein,
entitled “ Application de l’Algébre a l’Arithmétique transcendante,” Crelle,
vol. xxix. p. 177. The proof by the same author in vol. xxxv, p. 257, is the
same as that in the earlier memoir, only that the properties of the circular
functions, which here replace the roots of unity, are in the later memoir
deduced immediately from the definition of the sine as the produet of an in-
finite number of factors.)

23. Algorithm for the Determination of the Value of the Symbol (5)—
Gauss has shown in the memoir ‘‘ Demonstrationes et ampliationes nove,”

already quoted, that, if p be a prime number, the value of the symbol (2)

may be obtained by developing the vulgar fraction — in a continued frac-

tion, and considering the evenness or unevenness of a certain function of the
quotients and remainders which present themselves in the development.
Jacobi has observed (see Crelle, vol. xxx. p. 173) that a much simpler rule
may be obtained, by the use of his extension of Legendre’s symbol to the
case when p is nota prime. The following is the form in which the rule
has been exhibited by Eisenstein (see Crelle, vol. xxvii. p. 319). Let p,, p,
-be two uneven numbers prime to one another, and let us form by division the
series of equations

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 251

Pi =2h,p, + €,p,
P,=2hk,p, + ep, “ss

pe=DAypusriteespis

in which e,, €, «++ €~41 denote positive or negative units, and p,, py, py ++s+s
which are all positive and uneven, form a descending series. Let o denote
the number of the quantities p-+ey pr+1 in which both p, and e, p,+1 are of

the form 4n+3 ; then Pi =(—1)’. The demonstration of this result flows

immediately from the definition of Jacobi’s symbol of reciprocity.

A numerical example is added (see Disq. Arith. Art. 328) from which the
reader will perceive the utility of these researches in their practical applica-
tion to congruences.

Let the proposed congruence be a* = —286, mod 4272943, where 4272943
is a prime number.

We haye to investigate the value of the symbol (aah in which p is

written for 4272943. Now (=2*)=(—)x (5) x ()= -() be-
P P P P

cause (=")=- 1, and G)= +1, p being of the form 82—1. To find the
P

value of (=) we hay®

143=0 x 4272943 + 143 +
4972943 =29880 x 143-4103 +
143=2 x 103—63
103=2 x 63—23
63=2x 23417

Ro ka—w Fe 9h Wy py
17=2x11—5t
1152x5+1
The obelisk (+) denotes that the equation to which it is affixed is one of
those enumerated in o. Hence (caraoa8) =¢ —1)’=—1, and =)

=+1, or the proposed congruence is resoluble. Its roots (as determined
by Gauss) are +1493445.

24. Biquadratic Residues—Reverting to the general theory alluded to in
Art. 12, we see that, when p is a prime of the form 4”+1, the congruence
x* —1=0, mod p, admits four incongruous solutions ; these are +1, —1, and
the two roots of the congruence 2*-+1==0, mod p, which we shall denote by
+fand —f, or by fand /*, so that the four roots of #*—1==0 are 1, f, —1,
andf*. Further, if & be any number prime to p, & satisfies one or other of
the four congruences—

(i.) k*®-2=1, mod p. (iii) 28? ==—1, mod p.
(ii) HB?" =f, mod p. (iv.) R*?-Y== f*, mod p.
We see therefore that the p—1 residues of p divide themselves into four

classes, comprising each 1(p—1) numbers, according as they satisfy the
Ist, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th of these congruences. The first class comprises those

952 REPORT—1859.

numbers a for which the congruence a*==a, mod p, is resoluble; that is, the
biquadratic residues of p; the third comprises those numbers which are qua-
dratic, but not biquadratic, residues of p; the second and fourth classes divide
equally between them the non-quadratic residues.

We owe to Gauss two memoirs* on the Theory of Biquadratie Residues,
which, while themselves replete with results of great interest, are yet more
remarkable for the impulse they have given to the study of arithmetic in a
new direction. Gauss found by induction that a law of reciprocity (similar
to that of Legendre) exists for biquadratic residues. But he also discovered
that, to demonstrate or even to express this law, we must take into con-
sideration the imaginary factors of which prime numbers of the form 4”+1
are composed. By thus introducing the conception of imaginary quantity
into arithmetic, its domain, as Gauss observes, is indefinitely extended; nor
is this extension an arbitrary addition to the science, but is essential to the
comprehension of many phenomena presented by real integral numbers them-
selves.

Gauss’s first memoir (besides the elementary theorems on the subject) con-
tains a complete investigation of the biquadratic character of the number 2
with respect to any prime p=4”+1. The result arrived at is that if p be
resolved into the sum of an even and uneven square (a resolution which is
always possible in one way, and one only), so that p=a*+6* (where we may
suppose a and 6 taken with such signs that a=1, mod 4; b=af, mod p), 2
belongs to the first, second, third, or fourth class, according as 76 is of the
form 42, 4n+4+1, 42+2, or 42+3. The considerations by which this con-
clusion is obtained are founded (see Art. 22 of the memoir) on the theory of
the division of the circle, and we shall again have occasion to refer to them.
In the second memoir Gauss developes the general theory already referred to,
by which the determination of the biquadratic character of any residue of

may in every case be effected. The equation p=a°+6* shows that p=
(a+6i) (a—br), or that p, being the product of two conjugate imaginary
factors, is in a certain sense not a prime number. Gauss was thus led to
introduce as modulus instead of p one of its imaginary factors: an innovation
which necessitated the construction of an arithmetical theory of complex
imaginary numbers of the form A+Bz. The elementary principles of this
theory are contained in the memoir in question ; they have also been developed
by Lejeune Dirichlet with great clearness and simplicity in vol. xxiv. of
Crelle’s Journal (pp. 295-319, sect. 1-9)t. The following is an outline of
the definitions and theorems which serve to constitute this new part of arith-
metic.

25. Theory of Complex Numbers.——The product of a number a+40i by its
conjugate a—Zi is called its norm; so that the norm of a+: is a*+6°; the
norm of a (which is its own conjugate) is a. This is expressed by writing
N(a+6i)=N(a—bi)=a° +0’; N(a)=a*. If a and be two complex num-

* Theoria Residuorum Biquadraticorum. Commentatio prima et secunda. (Gottingz,
1828 and 1832, and in the Comm. Recent. Soc. Gott., vol. vi. p. 27 and vol. vii. p. 89.) The
articles in the two memoirs are numbered continuously. The dates of presentation to the
Society are April 5, 1825, and April 15, 1831.

+ The death of this eminent geometer in the present year (May 5, 1859) is an irrepa-
rable loss to the science of arithmetic. His original investigations have probably contributed
more to its advancement than those of auy other writer since the time of Gauss; if, at least,
we estimate results rather by their importance than by their number. He has also applied
himself (in several of his memoirs) to give an elementary character to arithmetical theories
which, as they appear in the work of Gauss, are tedious and obscure; and he has thus done
much to popularize the theory of numbers among mathematicians—a seryice which it is ime
possible to appreciate too highly. yc

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 253

bers, we have evidently N(a)x N()=N(aj). There are in this theory
four units, 1, 7, —1, —7, which have each of them a positive unit for their
norm. ‘The four numbers a+ i, ia—b, —a—ib, —ia+b (which are obtained
by multiplying any one of them by the four units in succession, and which
consequently stand to one another in a relation similar to that of +a and —a
in the real theory) are said to be associated numbers. ‘These four associated
numbers with the numbers respectively conjugate to them form a group of
eight numbers (in general different), all of which have the same norm. These
definitions are applicable whatever be the nature of the real quantities a and b.
If a and 6 are both rational, the complex number is said to be rational ; if
they are both integers, a+ di is a complex integral number. One complex
integer a is said to be divisible by another 6, when a third y can be found
such that a=fy. Adopting these definitions, we can show that Euclid’s pro-
cess for investigating the greatest common divisor of two numbers is equally
applicable to complex numbers; for it may be proved that, when we divide
one complex number by another, we may always so choose the quotient as
to render the norm of the remainder not greater than one-half of the norm
of the divisor*. If, therefore, we apply Euclid’s process for finding the
greatest common divisor to two complex numbers, we shall obtain remainders
with norms continually less and less, thus at last arriving at a remainder
equal to zero; and the last divisor will be, as in common arithmetic, the
greatest common divisor of the two complex numbers. Similarly the funda-
mental propositions deducible in the case of ordinary integers from Euclid’s
theory are equally deducible from the corresponding process in the case of
complex integral numbers. Thus, “if a complex number be prime to each of
two complex numbers, it is prime to their product.” “If a complex number
divide the product of two factors, and be prime to one of them, it must
divide the other.” ‘The equation av—by=1, where a and 6 are complex
numbers prime to one another, is always resoluble with complex numbers
x and y, and admits an infinite number of solutions,” &c.

A prime complex number is one which admits no divisors besides itself, its
associates, and the four units.

There are three distinct classes of primes in the complex theory :—

1. Real prime numbers of the form 4%+3 (with their associates).

2. Those complex numbers whose norms are real primes of the form 42+1.

3. The number | +2 and its associates the norm of which is 2.

Instead of dividing numbers into even and uneven, we must here divide
them into three classes, uneven, semi-even, and even, according as they are
(1) not divisible by (1+2); (2) divisible by 1+7, but not by (1+2)’; (3)
divisible by (1+7)°=2z, or, which is the same thing, by 2.

Of four associated uneven numbers, there is always one, and only one, such
that d is even and a+6—1 evenly even. This is distinguished from the others
as primary. Thus —7 and —5+42 are primary numbers. A primary
number is congruous to +1 for the modulus 2(1+7); whence it appears
that the product of any number of primary numbers is itself a primary
number. The conjugate of a primary is also primary. In speaking of un-
even numbers, unless the contrary is expressed, we shall suppose them to be
primary. This definition of a primary number is that adopted by Gauss (2. e.
Art. 36), and after him by Eisenstein, and we shall adhere to it in this

at+hi _act+bd , be—ad aes
et+di cd? c?+d?

ret p+qiis the quotient required.

i; if p be the integral number nearest to eophd and

* Since ord

g that nearest to

954 REPORT—1859.

Report. But Gauss has also suggested a second definition (which is for
some purposes slightly more convenient), and which has been adopted by
Dirichlet, who defines a primary uneven number to be one in which 6 is un-
even, anda=1, mod 4. The object of singling out one of the four associated
numbers is merely that it serves to give definiteness to many theorems.
For example, the theorem that “every real number may be expressed as the
product of powers of real primes in one way, and in one only,” may be now
transferred in an equally definite form to the complex theory, “ Every complex
number ean be expressed in one way only in the form 7”(1 +7)" A*. BP. Cy
++. Where m, ”, a, (3, y, &c. are real integral numbers, A, B, C... primary
complex primes.”

If a+6i be a complex number, and N=N(a+i)=a’+06’, and if h be
the greatest common divisor of a and 4, it can be shown that every number
is congruous, for the modulus a+ i, to one, and one only, of the numbers
r-+iy, where

x=0, 1, 2,00. a1 ;y=0,1,2,....4—1.

These numbers therefore (or any set of numbers congruous to them) form a
complete system of residues for the modulus a+, The number of the
numbers x+7y is evidently N, so that the norm of the modulus represents
the number of residues in a complete system. In particular, therefore, if the
modulus a +2 be a prime of the second kind, having p for its norm, the num-
bers 0, 1, 2,...—1 represent a complete system of residues; and if the mo-
dulus be a prime of the first kind, as —q, the numbers included in the formula
x+y, where x and y may have any values from 0 to g—1 inclusive, will re-
present a complete system of residues.

26. Fermat's Theorem for Complex Numbers.—Dirichlet’s proof of this
theorem for ordinary integers is equally applicable to complex numbers, and
leads us to the following result :—

“If p be a prime in the complex theory, and & any complex number not
divisible by p, then ANP-1==1, mod p.”

Again,the demonstration of the theorem of Lagrange (see Art. 11) is equally
applicable here (see Gauss, Theor. Res. Big., Art. 50), and therefore the
general theorems mentioned in Art. 12 may be extended, mutatis mutandis, to
the complex theory. In particular, the number of primitive roots will be

LN(p)—1], or the number of numbers less than N(p)—1, and prime to
it. It will follow from this that, if the modulus be an imaginary prime p,
every primitive root of Np in the real theory will be a primitive root both of
p and its conjugate. Those Tables of Indices, therefore, in the ‘Canon
Arithmeticus,’ which refer to primes of the form 42+1 will continue to
hold, if for the real modules we substitute either of the imaginary factors of
which they are composed. For primes of the form 4%+3 (considered as
modules in the complex theory), it would be requisite to construct new tables,
—a labour which no one as yet appears to have undertaken.

27. Law of Quadratic Reciprocity for Complex Numbers.—If p and q¢ be
any two uneven primes (not necessarily primary, but subject to the condition

that their imaginary parts are even), and if we denote by =| the unit-resi-
q

due of the power p}(Ni—-1], mod q; so that | 2 | = +1, or =—1, according as

Pp is or is not a quadratic residue of ¢: then a law of reciprocity exists, which
is expressed by the equation [=| — [2] .

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 255

If p and g are both real primes, it is easily seen that either of them is a
quadratic residue of the other in the complex theory, or [2] — [2|= 2
But, as p may or may not be a quadratic residue of ¢ in cea of real
integers, we see that the values of the symbols [| and (“) are not neces-

sarily identical.

This theorem is only enunciated in Gauss’s memoir (Art. 60), and, as he
speaks of it as a special case of the corresponding theorem for biquadratic
residues, it is probable that his demonstration of it was of the same nature
with that which he had found of the law of biquadratic reciprocity. How-
ever, a simple proof of it, depending on Legendre’s law of. reciprocity, has
been given by Dirichlet in Crelle’s Journal*. He shows that, if g be a prime

of the first kind, [<* | =(="); and that, if a+ 62 be any prime of the

second kind in which 3 is even, “5 — (42+68
a+b a+b?

city is easily deducible from these transformations. If, for example, a+6i,

a+ i, be primes of the second species in which both 6 and # are even, we
have simultaneously

aCe) CS]
where p=N (a+bi); @=N (a+). But (=F) = (=a) by

Jacobi’s formula (see Art. 17 supra); and we tt?) = ( a ) Also

) The law of recipro-

aa+bpy
pa=(aa+bB)’+(ab—ba)’; whence we infer (; Le )=1, or, which is the
a

' BN hy ia Ve a+r] _ te]
same thing, Sor 0: 4) = oa)’ and therefore finally, Ee mil Lat Bil?

The complementary theorems which have to be united with this formula

i hy She (Ci LS Sih reer pg das ol

Ae ae eee

(see Dirichlet, Crelle, vol. xxx. p. $12); and they, as well as the formula of
reciprocity itself, admit of an extension similar to that which Jacobi has
given to the corresponding formule of Legendre.

28. Reciprocity of Biquadratic Residues——We now come to the theorem
which first suggested the introduction of complex numbers.

If p be any (complex) prime, and & be any residue not divisible by p, we

denote by a the power 7 of i, which satisfies the congruence k#(NP-Y=>=7,
F Pp 8

It will be observed that when p is a prime of the second species, the quadri-
partite classification of the real residues of p which we thus obtain is identical
with that which we obtain for Np in ‘the real theory (see Art. 24 supra) ; for
the numbers f and —f being the roots of the congruence x” +1==0, mod Np,

* Crelle, vol, ix. p. 379.

256 REPORT—1859.
satisfy the same congruence for either of the complex factors of Np, and are
therefore congruous to +2 and —2, for one of those factors, and to —? and

¢ k aer
+2 for the other. Admitting this definition of the symbol (). Gauss’s

law of biquadratic reciprocity is expressed by the equation

(i.) [s] accor (E>

a and ( denoting two primary uneven primes, and A and B being their norms.
The complementary theorems relating to the unit ¢ and the semi-even prime
1+ are

% tN esata), ied 1+@ \ _ ;#((at0-a+0y)
(ii.) a) +> 9(ill.) ara), ;

in which a+ ia! denotes a primary uneven prime. These formule, like those
of the last article, are susceptible of the same generalization which Jacobi
has applied to Legendre’s symbol; and we may suppose in the first that a
and (3 are any two primary uneven numbers, prime to one another; and in
the second and third that a+7a! is any primary uneven number.

If, in the formula (i.) which expresses the law of reciprocity, a=a+ia’,
P=b+ib', it may be easily seen that the unit (—1)#(4-)+(-) is equal to
(—1)?@-03%-), This gives us a second expression of the theorem. (See
Eisenstein, Math. Abhandl. p. 137, or Crelle, vol. xxx. p. 193.)

Further, if we observe that every primary number is either =1, mod 4, or
else =3+2i, mod 4; and that }(A—1)1(B—1) and }(a—1)1(6—1) are
even numbers, except both a and f satisfy the latter congruence, we may
enunciate the law of biquadratic reciprocity by saying—

“The biquadratic characters of two primary uneven prime numbers with
respect to one another are identical, if either of the primes be = 1, mod 4; but
if neither of them satisfy that congruence, the two biquadratie characters
are opposite.”

This theorem is only enunciated by Gauss, who never published his demons
stration of it. ‘ Non obstante,” he observes, “summa huius theorematis sim-
plicitate ipsius demonstratio inter mysteria arithmetice sublimioris maxime
recondita referenda est, ita ut, saltem ut nunc res est, per subtilissimas tantum
modo investigationes enodari possit, quee limites preesentis commentationis
longe transgrederentur.’—Theor. Res. Biq. Art. 67.

Soon after the publication of the theorem, its demonstration was obtained
by Jacobi, and communicated by him to his pupils in his lectures at KGnigs-
berg in the winter of 1836-37 (ese his note to the Berlin Academy, already
cited in Art. 17). These lectures have unfortunately never been published ;
but Jacobi’s demonstration, from his criticism (see ibid.) on the first of those
given ten years later by Eisenstein, appears to have been very similar to it.

It is to Eisenstein that we are indebted for the only published proofs of
the theorem in question. ‘That great geometer (so early lost to arithmetical.
science—a victim, it is said, to his devotion to his favourite pursuit) has left
us as many as five demonstrations of it; the two earlier based on the theory
of the division of the circle; the three last, on that of the lemniscate. We
proceed to explain the principles on which each of these two classes of proofs:
depends :—

29. Biquadratie Residues—Researches of Kisenstein.—It is possible, as we
have seen, to obtain a proof of Legendre’s law of Reciprocity by considera-

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 257

k=p—1
tions relating to the function & Ge p denoting a real prime, and
k=]
eP—]

x a root of the equation . =0. This function is a particular case of the
e—

well-known function (introduced by Gauss and Lagrange into the theory of

s=p—2
the division of the circle) F(0,2)= 6*xv° , where 0 is any root of the
s=0
» §p-i—] Alec ty 9, eof
equation pe y a primitive root of the congruence #?-!=1, mod p,

and 2 a root of the equation = =0. In the quadratic theory we assign

to @ the value —1; in the theory of Biquadratic Residues we put 0=7, and
are thus led to consider another particular form of the same function, viz.
s=p—2 ,
P,.2)—.> 2a , p denoting a prime of the form 4n+1.
s=0
30. The function F(6, 2) or F(@) is characterized by the following general
properties; which have been given by Jacobi, Cauchy, and Eisenstein. (See
Jacobi, Crelle, vol. xxx. p. 166; Cauchy, Mémoire sur la Théorie des Nom-
bres in the Mém. de |’Acad. de l'Institut de France, vol. Xviii.; Eisenstein,
Crelle, vol. xxvii. p. 269.)

I. F(6, x*) =9—Indy* F (9, x),

Ja
II. F(@) F (6-1) =6 2 p,
F(O3*) FG?)
Il. F(@= ota) =v (6),
where (0) does not involve x, and is an integral function of 6 with integral
coefficients*. The function W(@) satisfies the equation

IV. ¥(0) YO") =p.
xP-1—]

yo= “ee”,

Lastly, let 6 be a primitive root of =O, and in the function

let y be written for 6; then if m and x be positive and less than p-l,

I
V. Vy) = — Te tn), mod p;

[Im denoting the continued product 1.2.3...m.
Applying these equations to the particular form of the function F which
we have to consider here, we find

F(i) F(=i)=i' * p, wo=F=O, if 640-0) =i, and m=n=3(p—1).

CF(@)]'=py(2)’,
[F(—#)]'=p)(—)*, 1() Y(—2) =p,
Y(y?-))==0, mod p.

* In this equation @—-™ and 9—” are supposed not to be reciprocals.

1859. s

258 REPORT—1859.,

Let (i)=a+bi=p,; (—1)=a—bi=p,, so that p,p,=p. The con-
gruence [ yi(2—) ]==0, med p, or a+byP—-)==0, mod p, involves also the
congruence a+by*?-==0, mod p,; 4 e. y?—!)==2, mod p,; so that

k
(“) =i*, Hence we have, puttingys=f, med p,
Pi/4

k=p—1/}
F(i)= 2) ak—S§,
k=! Pils
_ k=p—1/k\s
F(—i)= 3 (|) ater.
k=1 Pi

From these formule two cases of the law of Reciprocity are directly de-
ducible.

a. Let q be a real prime of the form 4n+3. Raising 8 to the power g,
we have

k=p—1 ; k=p—1 3
Si= 3 (G)= Dy (5 )2*=(4) T, mod q, by (1.).
k=1 Pil k=1 ee Pils

Multiplying by S, we find
pe pene pal
Sash) pt p21) Fg (=) »mod q;
yy L

or, observing that p,=p,’, mod g, and p=p, p,,

q?-1 pol

St (up af ;

t'.at is to say, (2) =(=4). <0) ite ied geen bees
4 174

which is in accordance with the law of Reciprocity.
f. Again, let g be a prime of the form 42+1;

3 3
ee (12=(Z) s, mod g; that is, S7-"=(), mod g
Pi/* Pils se
Ma 1
3
ot pnp ser=(Z), mod g;
Ti/4

whence, if g=¢, J»
e)(B)-(8)
W/s\NSi \Pils
3 3
But, by changing 7 into —2. (2) =(2), and (4) -(4),
‘hee tee qt G2 /1 Py/ P2/4

so that (2) =(4) . gs Jel of 6 so 4) bs | Shee ea

The symbolic equations (A.) and (B.) lead immediately to the conclusion
that if@ and } be any two primary uneven numbers, one, at least, of which is

real, we have (5) =(*) ; and that if a@ and 6 be both real, the common value
4 Ma

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 259

of these symbols is +1. By combining with these results the supplementary

equation (ssa) =i-#(4-)), in which @+éa' denotes any primary uneyen
4

number, and also the self-evident equations,
e(at+bi)=(ae-+-bd) +bi(e+di)
a(etdi)=(ae+ bd) +di(atbr),

at+bi =) iby
(pai Gas tee"

Kisenstein* investigates a relation between the symbols (35) and
+

e+d
e+di ' ; : athe
a+bi),’ which, when a+6¢ and e+di are primary, coincides with that ex-
: 4

pressed by the law of reciprocity.

31. The proof in Eisenstein’s second memoir+ is identical in its essential
character with that in the first; but he has given it a purely arithmetical
form, independent of the theory of the division of the circle. Instead of the

BR LEN opto 7 wl
sum S= —) x*, in which @ is a root of the equation a
4 io

=0,

k= 71

k=p—1
he considers the powers of the series 3% G) , and arrives by a process
k=1 —

purely arithmetical at the eqtations (A.) and (B.) of the preceding article,
Thus the two forms in which he has exhibited his demonstration are pre-
cisely analogous to the two expressions which he has given to Gauss’s sixth
demonstration of Legendre’s law (see above, Art. 21).

$2. The proofs of the Law of Biquadratic Reciprocity, which are taken
from the theory of elliptic functions, no less than those which we have just
considered, depend in great measure on a generalization of the principles intro-
duced by Gauss into his demonstrations of Legendre’s law. Indeed, Gauss
himself tells ust that his object in multiplying demonstrations of Legendre’s
law, was that he might at last discover principles equally applicable to the
Biquadratic Theorem. It would be interesting to know whether the proof
which he ultimately obtained of this theorem depended only on the division of
the circle, or on elliptic transcendents. Jacobi appears to have believed the
latter ; for he expresses his opinion that his own demonstration of the Biqua-
dratic Theorem was widely different from that of Gauss§; and he further
conjectures that what induced Gauss to introduce complex numbers, as
modules, into the theory of numbers, was not the study of any purely arith-
metical question, but that of the elliptic functions connected with the Lem-

niseate Integral |. ‘his opinion of Jacobi’s will not appear im-

dx
L
JV¥U-2"')

* See the memoir entitled “ Lois de Réciprocité,” in Crelle, vol. xxviii. pp. 53-67.

+ “ Kinfacher Beweiss und Verallgemeinerung des Fundamental-Theorems fiir die biqua-
dratischen Reste,” in Crelle, vol. xxviii. p. 223.

{ See the memoir, “ Theorematis Fundamentalis Demonstrationes et Ampliationes Nove,’
p- 4, “ Hoc ipsum incitamentum erat ut demonstrationibus jam cognitis cirea residua qua-
dratica alias aliasque adderé tantopere studerem, spe fultus, ut ex multis methodis diversis
una vel altera ad illustrandum argumentum affine aliquid conferre posset.”

§ “Ueber die Kreistheilung,”’ Cretle, vol. xxx. p. 171.
bei vol. xix. p. 314, or in the ‘Monatsbericht’ of the Berlin Academy for May 16,

260 REPORT—1859.

robable, when we remember that in the ‘Disquisitiones Arithmetice’
(Art. 335) Gauss promises an “amplum opus” on these transcendents; and
that a casual remark of his in relation to them renders it perfectly certain
(as Dirichlet has observed)* that he was at that early period in possession
of the principle of the double periodicity of elliptic funetions—thus antici-
‘pating by twenty-five years the discoveries of Abel and Jacobi. Nevertheless
the close analogy we have endeavoured to point out between Gauss’s sixth
proof of the quadratic theorem, and the trigonometric demonstration of the
biquadratic one, may perhaps incline us to the opposite opinion. Nor is the
introduction of complex numbers, as modules, an idea unlikely to have sug-
gested itself, when once complex numbers were admitted; though it is
remarkable that Jacobi, in the first printed memoir in which complex num-
bers appear, and to which we shall presently refer, seems not to have thought
of this extension of his theory.
33. Application of the Lemniscate Functions to the Biquadratic Theorem.
—Let p, be a complex prime (real or imaginary), p its norm; and let the
—]1 residues, prime to p,, be divided into four groups of 3(p—1) terms,
after the following scheme :—

(0) r, UA) Cfo ioiee enchoic T3(p—1)s
6D ON aOR 7 ee eae ome 23(p—1)s
(2) = Tis Brey «(0 eins eee s10 a Tx (p—1)»

(3) —ir, —ir, ee ee ee eee —IP3(p—1))
so that of any four associated numbers one, and only one, appears in each
group. Let g, be any residue prime to p,; &,, #,, k,,... the numbers of the

residues
Nn i 9, 73(p-1)

which belong to the groups (1), (2), (3), respectively ; then
gh (P—Yaaik 2h 3h, mod p,,
= (@ ) = gh, t+ 2hy+3hs,
Pi/4

(See Gauss, Theor. Res. Biq. Art. 71.)
The expression on the right-hand side of this equation may now be trans-
formed by means of the Lemniscate function ¢, defined by the equations

mage
ten

The function g(v) is doubly periodic, the arguments of the periods being
wo (') de

2 \ Va—=)3
so that we have ¢(v+2kw)=¢(v), & denoting any complex integer what-

ever. From this it appears that the relation of the Lemniscate functions to
the theory of complex numbers, is the same as the relation of circular func-

Qw and Ziw, or, more properly, (1+7)w and (1—7)w, where

* Tn his § Gedichtnissrede iiber Karl Gustav Jacob Jacobi,’ Mém. de l’Académie de Berlin,
1852. This remarkable éloge is also inserted in Crelle’s Journal, vol. lii., and in a French
translation in Liouville’s Journal, vol. ii. 2nd series.

t See Eisenstein’s memoir, “ Applications de l’Algébre a l’Arithmétique transcendante,” in
Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxx. p. 189, or in Eisenstein’s ‘ Mathematische Abhandlungen,’ p. 121.

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 261

tions to the arithmetic of real integers. The function ¢(v) also satisfies the

equation (iv) =i*9(v), whence
= a) “Cece. eeteaas ae
3 < pte ( )

the sign of multiplication II extending to every residue r included in the
group (0). Similarly, if ¢,, like p,, be a prime,

119(*)
ghit2hat Bhs Pr

niy( 2")
Pr) = PG eee
4

Ws wy 22)
Br

s denoting the general term of a quarter-system of Residues for the mo-

dulus q,-
g(kv)
(v

By an elementary theorem in the calculus of Elliptic Functions, is
for every uneven value of & a rational and fractional function of «= 9(v).
: ‘ 2rw
If p, be primary, as we shall now suppose, and if we put w="), we have,
by the principles of that calculus, :

o(pw)_ Ti(2*—a')
g(v) Wain"
the sign II extending to all the different values of «,; and similarly,
9(9.2) _ Tap) . . . . . . . (4.)
g(x) H(1—Bix")’ |
if Bs=¢ =), Combining the equations (3.) and (4.) with (1.) and (2.),
1

we find
M\ T(a'—fp*)

Ji O0—a'p*)

a) <a T(B'—a') |

Vi). TI(1—a'p*)

the sign of multiplication extending to the (p—1)(q—1) combinations of
the values of @ and 6; whence, evidently,

) (2) 4(p—1)(q—1)
— =— =I °
= 4 Nn 4 ( )

The priority of Eisenstein in this singularly beautiful investigation is
indisputable.

34. In a later memoir (Beitrage zur Theorie der Elliptischen Functionen,
Crelle, xxx. p. 185, or Math. Abhandl. p. 129), Eisenstein has put this proof
into a slightly different form. He shows, by a peculiar method, that if p, be
an imaginary and primary complex prime, every coefficient in II(a*—a") ex-
cept the first is divisible by p,, and that for every primary uneven value of p,
(whether prime or not) the last coefficient is p,, so that (—1)*?—-"p, =a".

262 REPORT—1859.

Representing therefore by p, an imaginary and primary prime, by g, any
complex prime, the equation

(2)
(7) ey Se? ee
UR 6 (=) T—af*
%
assumes the form (2)= (= 1)P- PG) g A=), mod p,

a) » so-ia-n(2)
or = =] 4 i
G ( ) Pr

which establishes the law of Reciprocity for every case except that of two

real primes, when the value of the symbols (a) -(2) =1 is at once appa-
Va V4
rent from their definition and from Fermat’s Theorem.

35. A third, and no less interesting application of the theory of elliptic fune-
tions to the formula of Biquadratic Reciprocity, occurs in the memoir, “Ge-
naue Untersuchung der Unendlichen Doppel-Producte, aus welchen die Ellip-
tische Functionen als Quotienten zusammengesetat sind” (Mathematische
Abhandl, p. 213, or Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxxv. p.249). The elliptic function

n=+o0 m=+2 ie
F(2)= 0 I (1 )
N=—O M=—OD

n+niy’

which is considered in this memoir, and in which the factor lg is to be

replaced by ¢a, coincides (if we disregard a constant factor) with the nume-
rator of ¢(v), when that function is expressed as the quotient of one infinitely
continued product divided by another. This may be seen by comparing F(x)
with the expression of the general elliptic function g(a) given by Abel, viz.

p=e a? poo a?

n=l eet mw
a+mw)?* a—mw)?
We 14 Gene) 14 Gone
<P Tl II AS
m=1 p=l 4 Lat (m=4)o)" La (n—s)o]
Ge Ga
1)\2, 2712
14. (m3) eo"
i (n=) C
2 3
14 me
ae:

(See Abel, GEuvres, vol. i. p. 213, equat. 178.)

If we particularize this expression, by putting o=a (which changes ¢(a)
into the Lemniscate-function) and then write cot x for a, we shall find that
the function of e which appears in the numerator is precisely Eisenstein’s
function F(z). This function (which is, consequently, a particular case of
Jacobi’s function H in his ‘Fundamenta Nova’) is only singly periodic; so

2
that F(o)=(0+ *), if » denote any real integer; but F(w+ a) is equal

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. i 263

to the product of F(#) by az exponential function, if be an imaginary com-
plex number. (Compare the formule of sect. 61 of the ‘Fundamenta Nova,’)
The difficulty occasioned by this imperfect periodicity of F(a) Eisenstein has
overcome by the introduction of the number ¢, which is supposed to repre-
sent a real even indeterminate integer. The formule on which his proof

depends, are
(i) F(a+kh)=e"" F(x),
(ii) Fiz) ie” F(a),

esha shor AHH 42h Dn
(iii) E(x) =cP~"e n.F(2+=),

The symbol w which depends on «, but is independent of ¢, is different in
each of these equations: in the first, & is any complex integer; in the third,
¢ is a numerical constant independent of w and p,; p, a primary number
prime to ¢; p its ncrm; and 7 the general term of the p—1 residues of p,,
the sign of multiplication I extending to every value of r. These equa-
tions, the first two of which depend on the most elementary properties of the
function F(a) or H (see ‘ Fundamenta Nova,’ loc, cit.), while the third is of a
more abstruse character, Eisenstein has established by methods which are
peculiar to himself, and which it would take us too far from our present sub-
ject to describe. They serve to replace the formule

G(e)=G(ut2hw); — (iv) =tg(v) 5
9(Pr) _ T(v*—a*)
g(v) W(1—a'z*)

in Eisenstein’s earlier demonstration; and lead to the conclusion

(Ba(2)(-1) TF ew,
Nh i

w still denoting some quantity independent of ¢. And since in th's formula
# may have any even value prime to p, and 4,, it is impossible that e” should
have any value but that of one of the fourth roots of unity, so that we
have e“#’=1,; which gives the law of Reciprocity.
36. An algorithm has been given by Eisenstein* for calculating the value
‘al
at in a con-

yt
of the symbol (om), by means of the development of

tinued fraction, This algorithm, in a slightly simplified form, is as follows:—
Let a+ia'=p,, 6+ib'=p,, and form the series of equations

Po=ho Pr +i". Dy
Di=h Pz +i". pss

Pr aProi iinet},
The numbers p, and p, are supposed to be uneven, and prime to one an-
other ; p, is primary ; the quotients /,, 4, #,..#, are all divisible by 1 +7, and

* Crelle’s Journal, vol, xxviii. p. 243. But the first invention of this algorithm, and of
the similar one which exists in the Theory of Cubic Residues, is due ta Jacohi. (See the
note, “ Ueber die Kreistheilung,” &c., so often cited in this Report.)

264. REPORT—1859.

are so chosen that the norms of p,, p,... form a continually decreasing series
(as is always possible); lastly, the units 7” are so chosen as to render p,, p,..+
primary. Let p,=a,+ia,; let —}(a,—1)=6,, mod 4; and in the series
6,, 0,+++On+1, let p be the number of sequences of uneven terms. Then

(2 — {7p t 2p,
Po) 4

Example. Let it be required to determine whether the congruence
«'==— 3381, mod 11981 be possible or impossible.

Since 11981 =109*+ 10’, and is a prime number, the resolubility of this con-

gruence depends on that of the congruence 2*==— 3381, mod (—109+10i).

, ; —3381 ak
We have therefore to investigate the value of the symbol (Seri) This

gives us the series of equations

— 3381 =(31+43i)(—109+10i)+<(—17+28:),

—109+10i=( 2 +2%)(— 17 +281) +7°(—19—12i),

—17428i= —2i (— 19 —12%)+i°(+ 7 —10%),

—19—12i= —2i ( 7 —10i)4+7(—1—2i),
7 —l0i= (34+5%)(— 1 — 2i) 44.

Here 6,=—1, 6,=+1, 0,=2, 0,=1, 6,=1; so that p=2, =pyO=0, and

— 3381 :
(=tor10) =" or the proposed congruence is resoluble. Its four roots

are +87; +2646, as may be found by any of the indirect methods for the
solution of Quadratic congruences.

37. Cubic Residues. The Theory of Cubic is less complex than that of
Biquadratic Residues, and is at the same time so similar to it, that it will not
be necessary to treat it with the same detail.

If p be a real prime of the form 3%+1, and if 1, f, f°? denote the roots of
the congruence «*—1==0, mod p, the p—1 residues k,, k, ...kp_, of p divide
themselves into three classes according as k*?~==1, or =f, or =f?, mod Pp
the first class comprising the cubic, the two other classes comprising the
non-residues. Now it can be proved that every prime number of the form
3n+1 may be represented by the quadratic form A*’—AB+B’; i. e. it may
be regarded as the product of two conjugate complex numbers of the forms
A+Bp, A+ Bp’, where p and p’ are the two imaginary cube roots of unity ;
just as the theory of biquadratic residues involves the consideration of the
quadratic form A*+B’*, and of complex numbers of the type A+Bz. The
real integer A?—AB-+B? is the norm of the complex numbers A+ Bp
and A+ Bp’, and expresses the number of terms in a complete system of
residues for either of those modules. ,

The theory of these complex numbers has not been treated of in detail by
any writer (see Eisenstein, Crelle, vol. xxvii. p.290); but the methods of Gauss
or Dirichlet are as applicable to them as to complex numbers involving 3.
A+Bp
C+Dp
in a finite continued fraction, having for its quotients complex integers; that
Euclid’s process for finding the greatest common divisor is applicable in this
case also, and that the same arithmetical consequences may be deduced from

Thus it will be found that every fraetion of the form

can be developed

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 265

it as in the case of ordinary integers. The prime numbers to be considered
in this theory are—

(1) Real primes, as 2, 5, 11, 17, &c. of the form 3n+2.

(2) Imaginary primes of the form A+ Bp, having for their norms real
primes of the form 3n+1.

(3) The primes 1—p, 1—p’, having 3 for their norm.

The units are +1, +p, and +p”.

If A+ Bp be any complex number not divisible by 1—p, it may be seen
that of the 3 pairs of numbers, +(A+Bp), +p(A+Bp), +p7(A+Bp),
there is always one, and one only, which, when reduced to the form a+bp,
satisfies the congruences a=+1, b=0, mod 3. Such a number is called a
primary number. The product of two primary numbers, taken negatively,
is itself primary.

If a be any prime of this theory, and & any number not divisible by a,
Fermat’s Theorem is here represented by the congruence #N*—!==1, mod a.

Denoting by G) that power p* of p which satisfies the congruence
3

kXNa—1)_ 58, the law of cubic reciprocity is contained in the formula

()-(@);

a and ( denoting any two primary complex primes.

The demonstration of this theorem follows quite naturally from the for-
mule cited in Art. 30. Applying them to this particular case, we have, if p
denote a real prime of the form 3n+1,

(i) F(p)-F@")=p,
(ii) LF(e)]°*=py(p),
(ili) $(p) - (0°) =p,
(iv) ¥(y8?—-))==0, mod p;
from which we may infer that y?—==p, mod y(p). (Compare Art. 29.)

In the equation (iii), Y(p) and Y(p") are primary; for from the equation
[F(p)]°=p¥(p), it appears that Y(p)==—1, mod 3. The congruence

y3?-)==p, mod y(p), implies that iho) = whence if y=, mod p,

Wp
F(o) = 3 eS k,
(p) i ra
k=p—1 Rk 2
F(p?)= “) ke
(p*) a Sled

where p,=V(p). By these formulz the several cases of the theorem of reci-
procity may be proved, as follows *:—
First, let g be a prime of the form 3n+2. Then

k=p—1 k\@
U0) ) eee} (=) xk, mod q,
k=1 Pr/s

* Eisenstein in Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxvii. p. 289. But in this, as in many of his earlier
researches, Eisenstein had been anticipated more than ten years by Jacobi.

266 REPORT-——1859.

=(+)r *), mod
=(£) F@*), mod g,

or r(o)]""=(2) p, mod q.
Pi 3
ela
But also [F(p)]**'=p * p.® ;
Bed, ES Gg
so that pp, 3 =(+) , mod g;
Pi 3

or raising each side of this congruence to the power g—},
gen}

eae 4) (2) -(4).
Py; 3 q 3 Pr 3

Secondly, let g be a real prime of the form $x+1,; we find

cr(o)'=(£) Fo) modg, or Foo) '=(), mod q¢ ;

bas age
and also [F(p)]}* =p? p?.
Hence (2) Py) -(4), where g, is either of the complex factors of q;
N/3\N/3 \Pi/s

or, observing that (2) = (2) , and (+) =(4) , we may write
ls \GQs Pils \P2/s

Lage

It is clear from this, that if we denote the four symbols (2 @

V3’ \Qa/s’
(2), (2 by a, b,, b,, a, respectively, and the reciprocal symbols by
Ns \W/s
a,', b,', b,', a,', we have the equations
Ht Re nl IR A A AL BE
abj=—alb! aba Se (6b. bbs a1,

which imply that a? =a"', b?=0"', &c., or, since a,a',b,b', ... are cubic roots of

unity,
Og)
q)s \Bils
If p, and g, be conjugate primes, the preceding proof fails; but it is easily

seen that in this case also
Bi) =(2).
P2 3 Py 3

Lastly, if p and g are both of the form 3x+2, it follows from the defi-
nition of the symbols, and from Fermat’s Theorem, that

i
T/s pi.

ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 267

The complementary theorems* relating to the unit p and the prime 1—p
(which are not included in the preceding investigation), are

P \ — p3(Np,-1) — .a+8
—)=p F os
(¢ 3 e

me a
pyr eS

where p, is a primary prime, and @ and / are defined by the equality
Pr=3a—1+36p.

Eisenstein has observed that a demonstration of the law of cubic reci-
procity, precisely similar to that analysed in Art. 33 of this Report, may be

obtained by considering the integral Wise and its inverse function,

instead of the Lemniscate integral and Lemniscate function. He has not,
however, entered into any details on this interesting subject (which is the
more to be regretted, because there eo, to be no published memoir

treating specially of the integral lor vae G—aiy) although his latest proof of

the Biquadratic Law (see Art. 35) has been exhibited by him in such a form
as to extend equally to Cubic Residues, and even to ‘residues of the sixth
power.

38. The first enunciation of the law of Cubic Reciprocity is due to Jacobi,
and the demonstration of it which we have inserted in the preceding article
is doubtless the same with that which he gave in his Konigsberg Lectures.
In one of his earliest memoirs (‘De residuis cubicis commentatio numerosa,”
Crelle, vol, ii, p.66), which was composed after the announcement, but before
the publication, of Gauss’s memoirs on Biquadratic Residues, Jacobi had
already arrived at two theorems relating to Cubic Residues, which involve the
law of Reciprocity, and which he seems to have deduced from his formule
for the division of the circle. But, as it had not occurred to Jacobi, at the
time when this memoir was written, to introduce, as modules, instead of the
prime numbers themselves, the complex factors of which they are composed,
the law of Cubic Reciprocity in its simplest form does not appear in the
memoir,

To complete the present account of the Theory of the Residues of Powers,
or of Binomial congruences, we should have in the next place to review the
recent investigations of M. Kummer on complex numbers, and en the reci-
procity of the residues of powers of which the index isa prime. But the
consideration of these investigations, as well as of the other researches be-
longing to our present subject, cur limits compel us to postpone to the second
part of this Report.

* Eisenstein, Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxviii. p. 28 (the continuation of the memoir cited in
the preceding note).
In the memoir, “‘ Application de l’Algebre,” &c., already referred to,

268 REPORT—1859.

Report of the Committee on Steam-ship Performance.

At the last Meeting of the British Association, held at Leeds, September
1858, this Committee was appointed, on the recommendation of the Me-
chanical Section, and the following Resolution was passed, defining the nature
of the objects submitted to their investigation :—

“That the attention of Proprietors of Steam-vessels be called to the great
importance of adopting a general and uniform system of recording facts of
performances of vessels at sea under all circumstances, and that the following
Noblemen and Gentlemen be requested to act as a Committee to carry this
object into effect, with £15 at their disposal for the purpose, and to report
to the Association at its next meeting :”—

Vice-Admiral Moorsom. J. Kitson, C.E.

The Marquis of Stafford, M.P. W. Smith, C.E.

The Earl of Caithness. J. E. M‘Connell, C.E.
Lord Dufferin. Charles Atherton, C.E.
Sir James Graham, Bart., M.P. Professor Rankine, LL.D.
W. Fairbairn, F.R.S. J. R. Napier, C.E.

J. S. Russell, F.R.S. Henry Wright, Secretary.

Your Committee, having elected Vice- Admiral Moorsom to be their Chair-
man, beg leave to present the following Report :—

They have held regular monthly meetings. Intermediate meetings of a
Sub-committee, presided over by the Chairman, for the purpose of carrying
out matters of detail submitted to them by resolutions passed at the general
meetings, have also been held.

Your Committee deenied it advisable, at an early stage of the inquiry, to
call to their aid the following noblemen and gentlemen, owners of steam-
yachts, and others, who have rendered valuable assistance :—

C. R. M. Talbot, Esq., M.P. Lord John Hay, M.P.

G. Bentinck, Esq., M.P. The Hon. Capt. Egerton, R.N.
Lord Hill. Admiral Paris, of the Imperial
Lord Clarence Paget, M.P. Navy of France.

The Hon. A. Ellis, M.P.

Not being Members of the British Association, however, they lent their
assistance as corresponding members of the Committee.

The first object your Committee had in view was to obtain exact experi-
mental data of such a nature as should appear likely to promote improvement
in the construction and performances of steam-vessels.

With this view they furnished to members of Yacht Clubs, to Ship-owners,
to Ship-builders, and Engineers, and to some of the large Steam-ship Com-
panies, a Circular and Form of Return to be filled up with the particulars of
the trial performances of their vessels.

The Return was intended to contain such particulars of the trials in smooth
water at the measured mile, as it is usual to obtain for the satisfaction of the
designer of the vessel and the builder of the engines. The Committee believe
that authenticated facts recorded in this form would materially aid the scien-
tific naval architect and the practical ship-builder, together with the engineer,
in determining many elements which are at present held as opinions only, and
about which considerable differences prevail. By obtaining the particulars of
the sea performances of the same vessels, means would be thus afforded of
making such comparisons with the smooth-water performances as could not
fail to throw light upon qualities of vessels which, as yet, are matter of spe-
culation only.

Your Committee, conceiving it very desirable, if possible, to obtain the co-
operation of the Admiralty, presented a memorial to the First Lord, setting’

ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE, 269

forth that, in the opinion of the Committee, it would be conducive to the
advanceiment of science, the improvement of both vessels and engines, and to
the great advantage of Her Majesty’s service, if the trials of the Queen’s ships
were conducted on a more comprehensive plan, directed to definite objects of
practical utility, on a scientific basis, and recorded in a uniform manner, and
that the Committee believe that exact experiments and scientific records of
performances, such as they are now contemplating, would lay the foundation of
improvements in naval architecture, so that for the future it would be practi-
cable to build ships, whether for the Royal Navy or for the Merchant Service,
possessing high speed, great capacity, small draught of water, economy of
power, and all the qualities which constitute a good sea-going ship, with much
greater certainty than heretofore ; and the Committee further stated that they
were prepared, if desired, to conduct such experiments.

They also solicited an interview, in order that they might more fully explain
their views.

A deputation, consisting of—

Admiral Moorsom, The Hon. Capt. Egerton, R.N.,
The Marquis of Stafford, M.P., J. Scott Russell,

The Earl of Caithness, J. E. M‘Connell,

Lord John Hay, M.P., : William Smith,

Lord Clarence Paget, M.P., Henry Wright,

The Hon. A. Ellis, M.P.,
accordingly waited upon Sir J. S. Pakington, the late First Lord; and, in
addition to the Memorial, they handed in a written statement, particularizing
the nature of the experiments they considered desirable, together with the
Circular and Form of Return for trial performances at the measured mile,
which Form they suggested should be adopted by the Admiralty, instead of
that already in use.

The deputation was favoured with an interview of considerable length, and
the subjects brought forward were fully discussed. The result was that the
First Lord admitted the great importance of the subject, and promised that
the statements of the Committee should receive every consideration.

Political changes, however, having intervened, no steps had been taken for
practically carrying their suggestions into effect, but your Committee have
been informed that the consideration of the subject has been taken up by the
present Administration.

Your Committee waited by deputation also on the Board of the Royal Mail
Company, and after explaining their objects, and laying before the Board
copies of the same documents as had been presented to the Admiralty, re-
ceived the assurance that the Directors were willing and desirous to render
every assistance, by furnishing all the information they possessed, as to the
performance of the steam-vessels under their direction; and they have since
furnished the trial data of the vessels fitted for sea since that date, as will be
seen by the subjoined list of particulars communicated to this Committee.

The period, however, which has elapsed since the issue of the Circular and
Form of Return being comparatively short, and the subject of scientific in-
quiry to mercantile men somewhat novel, the Committee feel that time is
required to develope the interest, both in a commercial and a scientific point
of view, which it so justly demands.

Your Committee have also been in communication with the Peninsular
and Oriental Steam-ship Company, the West India Mail Company, and some
large proprietors of steam-vessels, into whose hands they have placed the
forms of return, and have received the assurance that, as opportunity offers,
they shall be filled up and returned, in compliance with the Committec’s
request.

270 REPORT-—1859,

A communication was made on the subject to the American ambassador,
and copies of the Circular and Form have been forwarded by him to his Go-
verninent, with a request for such information as to the trials of the United
States Government vessels as can be furnished.

Your Committee have given their attention to the question of recording
facts at sea. Upon examining the different logs which have been laid before
them, they found the particulars given so incomplete as to be unavailable for
data upon which to base calculations for scientific improvement. ‘To remedy
this in fature, they have, after careful examination and repeated discussion,
agreed to a form of log to be filled up on actual sea service.

In arranging the particulars for the log, the Cotimittee were materially
assisted by very comprehensive forms tratismitted by Admiral Paris, of the
Imperial French Navy, and also by a letter from him, giving very circum-
stantial information on all the pomts to which scientific inquiry might be
directed.

The object of it is to supply an authentic record of actual performance at
sea, in order to compare it with the performance at the measured mile. It
forms, in fact, a sequel to the returns proposed to be made on the test trials
of vessels.

The Committee have had log-books* prepared for the use of steam-ship
companies ; and as they include all the useful particulars at present recorded
in the ordinary ship’s log, the Committee anticipate concurrence in its general
adoption.

Accompanying the log-books are loose Return sheets, which the commander
and engineer are invited to fill up from the log, and to return for the use of
the Committee.

Your Committee beg to lay before the Association a statement of the
result of their endeavours to obtain a record of the performances of steam-
vessels.

The first is a complete set of returns of the performance of the Chester
and Holyhead Company’s steam-boats, plying between Holyhead and Kings-
town, presented by Admiral Moorsom. They consist of—

I. 1. Return of the performances of the Chester and Holyhead Com-

pany’s steam-vessels, under trial for a standard test.

2. Return of the speed and consumption of fuel of the steam-boats,
under regulated conditions of time, pressure, and expansion,
for given periods (1848 to 1850).

$, Return of the speed and consumption of coal of the express and
cargo boats, under regulated conditions of time, pressure, and
expansion, from January 31st, 1857 to 31st December, 1858.

4. Verification of consumption of coal, from January Ist, 1857 to
December 31st, ]8358.

5, Abstract of time of renewal of boilers, miles run, consumption of
coals per mile, &c.

6. Return of shortest passages.

7. Return of mileage run, and expense per mile.

II. Return of particulars respecting the Chester and Holyhead Company’s
steam-vessels * Anglia,’ ‘ Cambria,’ ‘ Scotia,’ and ‘ Telegraph,’
on their trials, filled in to the Committee’s form of return.

III. 1. Return showing the result of experiments with the steam-yacht

‘Undine’ on the measured mile at Greenhithe, July 6th, 1838.

2. Ditto ditto, on passage from Holyhead to the Mull of Cantyre,
July 29th and 30th, 1858.

* The log-book is arranged in precisely the same form as the return from Log. See
Table opposite page 274,

ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE, oF

8. Ditto ditto, in Loch Ness and Loch Lochy, October 26th and 27th,
1858.
1V. Return showing experiments with the steam-yacht ‘Erminia,’ in
Stokes Bay, October 12th, 1858.
V. Return of particulars respecting the steam-ship ‘Mersey,’ whilst under
trial. Furnished by the Royal Mail Company.
VI. Return of particulars respecting the steam-ship ‘ Paramatta,’ whilst
under trial. “Furnished by the Royal Mail Company.
VII. Return of particulars respecting the steam-ship ‘Lima,’ whilst on
trial between Liverpool and Dublin. Furnished by the Pacific
Steam Navigation Company.
VIII. Return of particulars respecting the steam-ship ‘ Admiral,’ whilst
under trial. Recorded and furnished by Dr. Rankine.
1X. Return of particulars respecting the steamship ‘ Emerald.’ Furnished
by Mr. Thomas Steele, of Ayr.

Your Committee consider that it does not devolve upon them to institute
any comparisons, or attempt to draw any conclusions, from the returns of
performances laid before them,

Their duty is to collect information from authentic sources; but they do
not hold themselves answerable for the facts with which they may be
furnished.

The returns now made public will doubtless receive the notice of scientific
and practical men, and the Committee anticipate benefits to science not less
than to the commercial interests of the country, by the scrutiny which the
facts stated will doubtless undergo by individuals engaged in these pursuits.

It is by the investigations of such persons that truth will be more satisfac-
torily brought out, and nature’s laws vindieated, than by any attempt of the
Committee in their collective capacity, but in which it is hoped individual
members will bear their part; and when the caution which now naturally
keeps back many from contributing their quota of information shall be re-
moved by experience of the practical use of the labours of the Committee,
and of their singleness of purpose, it may be expected that the materials of
which the British Association will be the recipient, and which will be ac-
e:ssible to the world at large, will place what at present can only be called
the art of ship-building, on the foundation of that pure science which acts in
harmony with nature’s laws.

The records of performance of Her Majesty’s screw-vessels having been
published subsequently to the commencement of the sittings of your Com-
mittee, they beg to express their sense of the wisdom of such a course, which
they trust will be persevered in.

These records, in the form of a blue book, were well known to many, and
Mr. W. Smith, C.E., a member of your Committee, had procured a copy for
their use, which it was intended should be introduced into the Appendix of
this Report, but which the publication renders now unnecessary.

These records are, however, incomplete as scientific data, as will be seen on
comparing them with the form furnished to the Admiralty by your Committee.

In conclusion, the Committee recommend the re-appointment of a Com-
mittee, enlarging their powers to embrace returns relating to sailing ships,
with a grant of money to enable them to collect information through their
Secretary, and to defray the expenses of printing.

They cannot close this Report without expressing their best thanks to Mr.
W. Smith, C.E., for the use of a room in his offices, and also for his kind
liberality in printing and presenting to the Committee the circulars, forms,
logs, returns, &c., here referred to.

They beg also thus to thank Mr. J. Yates for the kindness which enabled

272 REPORT—1859.

the Committee, at their early meeting, to avail themselves of the use of his
room in Buckingham Street.
On behalf of the Committee,
C. R. Moorsom, Vice-Admiral, Chairman.

Office of the Committee,
19 Salisbury Street, Adelphi.

APPENDIX

I.
Committee on Steam-ship Performance.
Adelphi, London, W.C., Feb. 23, 1859.

Sir,—I am requested by the Committee to submit for your consideration the
following Circular, together with the enclosed form for return, any of the
particulars of which, being authentic, the Committee will be glad to have.

Any further, or more circumstantial details which you may be pleased to
give, the Committee will consider very valuable.

The object of the Committee being to lay the particulars thus obtained
before the British Association at its next meeting, the Committee will esteem
it a favour if you will give the matter your early attention.

I am, Sir, your very obedient Servant,
Henry Wricut, Secretary.

CIRCULAR.

The British Association at its meeting at Leeds appointed a Committee to
call the attention of proprietors of steam-vessels to the “ great importance of
adopting a general and uniform system of recording facts of performance of
steam-vessels at sea under all circumstances, and to report to the Association
at its next meeting.”

The return (see Table 2, Appendix IV.) is intended to contain such par-
ticulars of the trials in smooth water at the measured mile as it is usual to
obtain for the satisfaction of the designer of the vessel and the builder of the
engines: and the Committee are aware that such particulars are usually con-
fined to the knowledge alone of those persons.

It is, however, well known that information respecting these trial perform-
ances constantly appears in the newspapers, and that, not being authentic,
and seldom furnishing all the requisite data, very erroneous conclusions are
liable to be drawn from such statements.

The Committee believe that authenticated facts recorded in the form pro-
posed would materially aid the scientific naval architect and the practical ship-
builder, together with the engineer, in determining many elements which are at
present held as opinions only,and about which considerable differences prevail.

The object of the Committee is to make public such recorded facts through
the medium of the Association, and, being accessible to the public in that
manner, to bring the greatest amount of science to the solution of the diffi-
culties now existing to the scientific improvement of the forms of vessels and
the qualities of marine engines.

They will especially endeavour to guard against information so furnished
to them being used in any other way; and they trust they may look for the
co-operation of Members of the Yacht Club having steam yachts, of ship-
owners, as well as of builders and engineers.

The return of particulars of performance at sea will afford the means of
making such comparisons with smooth-water performances as cannot fail to
ald light upon qualities of vessels, which as yet are matter of speculation
only.

ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE.

bo
—T
Ow

The names of the Members of the Committee are annexed.
Vice-Admiral Moorsom, Chairman.
The Marquis of Stafford, M.P. William Smith, C.E.

The Earl of Caithness. James E. M‘Ceonnell, C.E.
The Lord Dufferin. Charles Atherton, C.E.
Sir James Graham, Bart., M.P. Prof. Rankine, LL.D.
William Fairbairn, P.R.S. James ht. Napier, C.E.
John Scott Russell, F.R.S. Henry Wright, Secretary.

James Kitson, C.E.
II.
Memorial presented to the First Lord of the Admiralty.

The Memorial of the Committee of the British Asscciation for the Advance-
ment of Science, called ‘“* The Committee on Steam-ship Performance.” 'To
the Right Honourable Sir John S. Pakington, Bart., First Lord of the
Admiralty,

Showeth—

That the Committee was appointed at the meeting of the British Associa-
tion at Leeds in September Jast ;

That their object is to obtain and make public through the Association
authentic facts of the performance of steam-vessels, with the conditions and
circumstances connected with such performances ;

That they are aware that each steam-vessel of the Royal Navy undergoes
a certain trial previous to being put in commission for service ;

That a series of such trials from the year 1842 to 1850 was printed and
circulated, by which the cause of science was advanced and the public service
benefited ; ¥

That the Committee have also before them a second series of such trials up
to the year 1856, which, though printed, has not, as the Committee believe,
been yet made public;

That similar trials of vessels of the Merchant Service have been made
since the first introduction of steam power, and are continued to this day ;

That such trials being made for the satisfaction of private persons, have
not been made public in any authentic form, and are not available for the
advancement of science nor for the public benefit ;

That the Committee have reason to believe that Steam-ship Companies,
Ship-builders, and Engineers will give publicity to the trials of their vessels,
through the instrumentality of the Committee, reasonable satisfaction being
given that such use shall be made of the information as may conduce to
advance science, and to the public benefit ;

That it would tend to the advancement of science, the improvement of
both vessels and engines, and to the great advantage of Her Majesty’s Service,
if the trials of the Queen’s ships were conducted on a more comprehensive
plan, directed to definite objects of practical utility on a scientific basis,
recorded in a uniform manner;

That the Committee believe that exact experiments and scientific records
of performance, such as they are now contemplating, would lay the founda-
tion of improvements in Naval Architecture, so that for the future it would
be practicable to build ships, whether for the Royal Navy or Merchant Ser-
vice, possessing high speed, great capacity, small draught of water, economy
of power, and all the qualities which constitute a good sea-going ship, with
much greater certainty than heretofore, and the Committee are prepared to
advise and, if desired, to conduct such experiments ;

om the Committee solicit an interview with the First Lord of the Admi-
1859. T

274 REPORT—1859.

ralty, at as early a day as may be convenient, for the furtherance of the
objects herein stated. On behalf of the Committee,
(Signed) C. R. Moorsom, Vice- Admiral,
February 17, 1859. Chairman.
III.

Statement handed in to the First Lord of the Admiralty by the Deputation,
particularizing the nature of the experiments which the Committee con-
sidered desirable should be made :—

1. Experiments showing the resistance, by dynamometer, to being towed

through the water under the three following conditions :—
The hull when launched.
The hull with machinery on board.
The hull when ready for sea.

2. Experiments to determine the actual measure of stability under the above
conditions.

3. Experiments showing the resistance when propelled by steam under similar
circumstances, both by indicator and dynamometer.

These experiments to be accompanied by the following particulars :—

1. The lines, dimensions, and ordinary elements of construction of the ship,
such as displacement, dimensions, and tonnage, area of midship section,
area at load water line, area of wet surface, &c., calculated measure of
stability, and other elements of form.

2. Dimensions and number of boilers, grate surface, fire surface, tube surface,

- number, length, and diameter of tubes, and how disposed, number and
dimensions of furnaces, &c., other elements of construction, regulation
pressure, working pressure, &c.

3. Plan of engines, dimensions of cylinders, condenser, and air-pumps, de-
scription of valves, indicator diagrams, speed of piston, &c.

4. Propeller—nature and dimensions, condition of draught and immersion
when working, measure of slip, propelling force by dynamometer, propel-
ling power by indicator, &e.

IV. (See Tables 1 and 2 opposite.)

Explanatory Statement to accompany the Returns relating to the Chester and
Holyhead Company's Steam-vessels. (See Report, p. 268, and Tables 1 to
15 inclusive, Appendix V.)

For a full understanding of the Returns numbered | to 6, it is necessary
to give such explanation as may enable any one to compare the purpose they
were designed to serve with its fulfilment.

The heading under which each Return is noted in the schedule in some
degree affords this explanation, but not altogether, and the following remarks
will supply the deficiency.

When the four passenger vessels, ‘ Anglia,’ ‘Cambria,’ ‘ Hibernia,’ and
‘Scotia’ were first employed in August 1848, the commanders were author-
ized to drive them as hard as they could, subject only to the injunction not
to incur danger*,

After some months’ trial the qualities of each vessel and her engines were
ascertained, and a system was brought into operation which continues to the
present time. (Tables 3 to 15.)

The Returns No. 2 and No. 6 show the results of the hard driving, and of
the commencement of the system periods. The column indicating “ time,”
“pressure,” and “expansion,” is the key to the columns “average time of

* See Evidence before Select Committee of House of Commons, 1850 and 1853.

[To face page 274.)

whilst under trial.

‘Avrenpix LV.—Tasne I. Return of particulars respecting the Steant-ship

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Avrnypix V. (continved)—Taote 1. Return of the performance of the Chester aut! Holyhead Company's Steam-vessels, under trial for a standard test.

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a| § |z)3| 6 |s|F\s z ee |x | Ai] S| rt ILE! & |fela
mam fal ll | | [me [eee ee (me | [ee | a | ee
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ey
cn aa| se [2 [atomic ulon]al wee | mo [om [ole [are | ze [clam [fon o| a | some oe] ven lik [ak | ro | ome
scot] an | co |e fee| ranfas| us| az[rz| sires | asieas |sses) 2] aco | se fio 0 | oe [leo faulam 7) x70 | #00 fieer| ow] ge |ou [inn | coe
‘Teesraph.| 774] 5 6 | 2 | 20} 7-00 oe tavo | ram76 [ate |2| 266 | 286 |10 © | 40 | 4s |as|ass| a | 0 6 fe07y tera | etfs) tof] eas | 116098

Dedset about 13 ext as the proportion per hour of consumption of eoal for geting up ateam, banking Gres, Re.

Arrespix V. (continued)—Tanie 2. Copy of a Return laid before a Select Committee of the House of Commons. See Blue Book on Dublin and Holyhead Mail
Service, 1853, Appendix, p. 176, A Return of the Speed and Consumption of Fuel of the Steam-boats under regulated conditions of Time, Pressure, and Expansion,
for the undermentioned periods.

Weight on

se | TineefPim | F_ | Ween |S Coal
#44) a areal SS
None ats Ber | 33 | <i 7 (Ordérs under which each Vessel was directed lo nse the Elements of
= Ha 4 #3 | | 5 | 4 ‘Time, Preware, and Bxpanion.
Bae) g | g ze) z
a] b) i | F reed sab at
| Bo |e Gell yeiel | gf, ale Fee
| 5 a8 ‘Tonk, (Toos.ewt Ibe
(jf Aug to.$t Dec isis. | 76 | 520 | S28} 209 | 198 | a9 | 1 | gto g| 16LY| 15 825) Timea minimum, pressure maximum, expansion a minimum.
Anglia... ||! Jam, to 30 Jone 1849. | 68 | 658 | 323 | 41d | 148 | 13 | 13 | tog] 963° | 1d Sy | Time n constant, pressure 9 constant, expansion according to tide, wind,
| idetr ta St De: 1849. (and weather.
Lt Jan. to 31 Mar. 1680, | 31 431 | 189 | 174) 152) 20%) 337 | 10 10 3} Timo a constant, pressure expansion according fo fide, wind) aud weather.
1 Avg. to 31 Dec. 1848. | 96 428 | 14 | 14 | 12 | ¥to¥| 1457 | 15 3. 2}) Timea minimum, pressure a constant, expansion a constant,
Cambria. | |i Jap. to 30 June 1849, | 149 430 | | 12 | 12 | 4109] 2203) | 14 164.0) Time a constant.
|i July to 31 Dec. 1849, | 89 425 |142 | 14 | 12 | Jtod} 1044 | 13 1 01) Pressure expansion according to wind, tide, and weather.
|i Jam. to 31 Mar. 1850. | 61 434} 125 | 14 | 12 4 752 | 12 6 24] Timea constant, pressure a constant, expansion a constant.
JL Avg. to 31 Dec. 1848, | 27 S46 105 | 15 | 11 | grog) c2ty] 03 2
Hibernia... | |! Jau- to $0 Jane 1649. | 25 60 (122 | 14 | Is | Gtog] 571 | 16 16) Unable to accomplish the conditions imposed as to time except under very
|1 July to 31 Dec. 1859. | 125 455 | 124 | 15 | 12 | deo! 19074 | 15 Spy favourable circumstances.
|! Jan. to 31 Mar, 1850. | 29 S10 | 12a | 45 | 1s | piog') “aso | a8. 5
iH Aug. to 31 Dec. 1848. | 60 359 | 155 | 19 | 105 { to $j} 1030 | 17 3:14 | Time a minimum, pressure expansion according to tide, wind, and weather.
Scotia...) 1 Jan. to 30 June 1849, | 59 49 [151] 19 | 10x) stop} 932 | 15 15; ‘Time a constant, pressure expansion according to tide, wind, and weather.
| |t daly to 31 Dees 1849. | 106 438 |183 | 154) 54) Ztog] W41d | 13 th
ji Yaz. to 31 Star 1850. | 35 429 | 14-06| 10) | 10) | joj} 472 | 13 4°°29| Timon constant, pressure expansion acconling to tide, wind, and weather.

Note <The above vowels, daring the peril mame, were worked a wteam p fal Anal c
re } 3 vicam pressare as follows: vis—Angllay raging between 19nd 102 Ibn; Camnbria, 14 and 13 ba; Hibernia, 18 and 41 Kb. Sela 1 and 108Ibx.
Cama, psa ages ot ated wp ta 18), From Ua pera passagea were ool to be cade leas un Cas (our eur, Wraught of water atthe lie correspondiog mi passages sown was Abeta, wit 5 Sell, Wt: in 5

passage," \
and as 0 seq)
“Time at
the system
hard driving
speed the wi
two elements
scribed limit
‘The result
‘The Retu
ditions, but
which result
quarter's ret
Yor exam)
Ibs. of coal a
Tu the Ret
the first at t!
about 405.
Again, in
miles an hous
Here was
Return No.
6820 Ibs. per
that it becor
Lwing allowe
No. 4 (se
tween the is
‘consumptios
No. 5 (se
the work dc
with hard d
justifiable
afterwards |
The ‘Hi
here observ
power, it is
‘The wan
whose cost
the engines
‘This def
and especii
Tt would
saving of
stores are c
But the
of economy
Now it)
‘an establis)
‘authority n
understand
This hn:
Hirste, mu
carried on!
March 8,

ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 275

passage,” “ weight on safety-valves,” and “proportion of steam in cylinder,”
and as a sequence also to the consumption of coal.

“Time a minimum” shows the hard driving. ‘Time a constant” shows
the system. The relations of ‘ pressure” and “expansion” show how, under
hard driving, the highest pressure and the full eylinder produced the highest
speed the wind and tide admitted; or how, the time being a constant, those
two elements were varied at the discretion of the commander, within pre-
scribed limits, to meet the conditions of wind and tide.

The result of the system on the coal is a decreasing consumption,

The Return No. 1 shows the results of certain trials under favourable con-
ditions, but in the performance of the daily passage, by four of the vessels,
which results are used as the standard tests with which the results of each
quarter’s returns are compared.

For example, the ‘ Scotia’ at 15‘9 statute miles an hour, consumes 6840
Ibs. of coal as a standard. (See Table 4.)

In the Return No. 3, at the speed of 12°96 miles, she consumed 5226 Ibs.,
the first at the rate of 430 lbs. per mile (see Table 5), and the second at
about 403.

Again, in the succeeding quarter the ‘ Scotia’ consumed 7528 lbs. at 14°65
miles an hour, or more than 513 lbs. per mile.

Here was a case for inquiry and explanation. It will be observed that in
Return No. 1 the consumption of the ‘Scotia’ at ordinary work at sea is
5820 lbs. per hour; and it is only when the consumption exceeds 6840 lbs.
that it becomes a subject of question, the difference between those figures
being allowed for contingencies.

No. 4 (see Tables 12 and 13) is a Return which shows the difference be-
tween the issues of coal each half year, and the aggregate of the returns of
consumption, the object of which needs no elucidation.

No. 5 (see Table 14.) shows the duration of the boilers, with particulars of
the work done. The saving in money under the return system as compared
with hard driving was of course very considerable, and the latter was only
justifiable as a necessary means of learning the qualities of each vessel, to be
afterwards redeemed by the economy of ¢he system.

The ‘ Hibernia,’ it will be seen, was unequal to the service ; and I may
here observe, that experience has shown me that in machinery, as in animal
power, it is essential that it should be considerably above its ordinary work.

The want of this extra power was a defect of the early locomotive engines,
whose cost of working per mile was very considerably higher than that of
the engines now in use.

This defect, which is that of boiler power, prevails largely in steam-vessels,
and especially in the Queen’s ships.

It would be easy to show how system must tend to economy; and the
saving of coal is apparent from the returns, and of course all the engine
stores are commensurate.

But the repairs, the wear and tear, involve a much more important element
of economy than even a reduced consumption of coal.

Now it must be obvious that neither this nor any other attempt to bring
an establishment like that at Holyhead under the supervision of a central
authority at a distance, could be effectual without a perfect confidence and
understanding between the parties.

This has happily subsisted for some years, and the Superintendent, Captain
Hirste, must have the eredit of having cordially entered into and faithfully
earried out his instructions, for many of which he has furnished suggestions.

March 8, 1859. C. Rs Moorsom..

; T2

1859.

REPORT

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REPORT

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REPORT

280

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281

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282 REPORT—-1859.

AppPENDIX V. (continued).—TABL¥ 15.

Mileage run, and expenses per mile, of the Passenger Boats in the years 1849,
and 1856, 1857, 1858.

1849. 1856. 1857. 1858.
Miles run ..........0000 39,910 40,885 52,910 40,040
i=
ns Per Per Per Per
Expenses. Total. iil. Total see Total. shile Total. iiley
£ s. d. Gy) sed. Sigal eetls | sid.
WIAGESS. saearesavhwenese oss 8,294) 42 | 5,461) 28 | 5,736) 22 | 5,160] 2 62
Coal erties 5,420} 2 83) 5,554] 2 84 | 6,387) 25 | 4,854] 2 2
Engine Stores, Ship j ; rl
Stores, and Repairs 4,890] 2 53 3,017} 1 83 | 3,592) 1 44 | 2,540} 1 34
Harbour Light Dues...| 1,609} 0 9% 321) 0 2 431] 0.2 318] 0 2
General Charges ...... 425) 0 23) 595) 0 34 | 1,816] 06 | 1,172} 07
Doatiile-smpeieiebte 20,638] 10 4 /15,448| 7 63 |17,462| 6 74 |13,544] 6 9
|
VI.

*,* The numbers in the Returns given below correspond with the numbers
of the columns in the Trial Form of Return. (See Table opposite page 274.)

Return of Particulars respecting the Steam-ship ‘Anglia’ whilst under Trial.

1. Between Holyhead and Kingstown, six trips, 29th of September to 3rd
of October, 1854. 2. W.S.W. to N.N.W.; fine, moderate; tides favourable.
3. 2 tons, 16 ewt., 102 lbs. 4. 12 tons, 13 ewt., 3 lbs. per trip. 5. Not
ascertained. 6. 729°70 to 891°76. 7. Paddle. 8. Seecolumn 1. 9. See
column 1. 10. 14°94 statute miles. 11. 187 ft. 10 ia. 12. 186°25 square
feet midsection. 13. 9 ft. 14. 620. 21. Diameter, 24 ft. 6 in.; length,
9 ft. 6 in.; breadth, 3 ft. 8 in.; thickness, 4 in.; number, 12. 29%. Patent;
modification of Morgan’s Patent. 23. About 22 tons. 24. 5 ft.2in. 26.
Maudsley, Sons, and Field’s Double Patent Cylinder. 97. 48} diameter.
28. No. 29. Four. 30. Two copper cylindrical, each 444 cubic feet.
31. Two, each 14 cubic feet. 32. Circular. 33. Notascertained. 34. 25
revolutions. 35. Not ascertained. 37. 330°52. 38. 729°70 to 891°76;
mean, 816°07. 39. 13}to15. 40. 25to 25}. 41. Two. 42. Tubular.
43. See column 45. 44. Weight of boilers, 40 tons, 19 ewt., 1 qr., 20 Ibs. ;
weight of water, 35 tons. 45. The boilers are now removed under which
trials were made. The plans in the hands of the builders. 46. Twelve.
47. See column 45. 48. See column 45. 49. See column 45. 50. See
column 45. 51. See column 45. 52. Tubular. 53. See column 45.
54. Two, 5 ft. diameter. 55. Fifteen. 56. 5580 Ibs.

Return of Particulars respecting the Steam-ship ‘Cambria’ whilst under Trial.

1. Between Holyhead and Kingstown, six trips, 22nd to 26th of May, 1856.
2. S. to E.; windy and fine; tides favourable. Three trips. 3. 2 tons,
19 ewt., 1lb. 4. 13 tons, 14 ewt., 1 lb. 5. Not ascertained. 6. 806°36 to
1174°80. 7. Paddle. 8. See column 1. 9. See column 1. 10. 14°07.
11. 19ft.9in. 12. 201 sq. ft. 10in. 13. 8 ft. 10}in. 14. 840. 21. Dia-
meter, 28 ft.; length, 7 ft.; breadth, 4 feet; thickness, 4 in.; number, 16.
92, Ditto, 23. About 23 tons, 10 ewt. 24. 5 ft.10in. 26. Side lever,

ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 283

27. 734. 28. No. 29. Two. 30. Ordinary. 32. D. 33. Not ascer-
tained. 34.23 revolutions. 35. Not ascertained. 37. 392°10. 38. 806°36
to 1174°80; mean, 995°35. 39. 144 to 15}. 40. 244 to 27. 41. Four.
42. Tubular. 43. See column 45. 44. Boilers, 66 tons; water, 60 tons.
4.5. The boilers are now removed under which trials were made. 46. Twelve.
52. Tubular. 54. Two, 5 ft. diameter. 55. Fifteen. 56. 5760 lbs.

Return of Particulars respecting the Steam-ship * Scotia’ whilst under Trial.

1. Between Holyhead and Kingstown, six trips, 17th to 21st of May, 1855.
2. S. to N.E.; light winds and fine; tides partly unfavourable. 3. 2°17.
4. 13:10. 5. Not ascertained. 6. 861°84 to 100716. 7. Paddle. 8. See
column 1. 9. See column 1. 10. 15°68. 11.192°7. 12. 188°78. 13. 8°10.
14. 680. 21. Diameter, 24 ft. 6 in.; length, 10 ft.; breadth, 3 ft. 8 in. ;
thickness, 3 in.; number, 12. 22. Patent; modification of Morgan’s Patent.
23. About 23 tons. 24. 6 fir. 26. Maudsley, Sons, and Field’s Double
Patent Cylinder. 27. 52. 28. No. 29. Four. 30. Two copper cylin-
drical, each 51 cubic feet. 31. Two, each 164 cubic feet. 32. Circular.
$3. Notascertained. 34. 24 revolutions. 35. Not ascertained. 37. 379°92.
38. 861°814 to 1007°16; mean, 93418. 39. 12to 121. 40. 264 to 27.
41. Two. 42. Tubular. 44. Boilers, 47 tons, 3 cwt., 2 qrs.; water, 39
tons. 45. The boilers are now removed under which trials were made.
46. Twelve. 52. Tubular. 54. Two, 5 tt. diameter. 55. Fifteen. 56.
6240 lbs.

Return of Particulars respecting the Steam-ship ‘ Telegraph’ whilst under
Trial.

1. Between Holyhead and Kingstown, two trips, 29th of May, 1857. 2. S.W.;
moderate and fine; tides partly favourable. 3. 2 tons, 18 ewt. 4. 15 tons,
8 ewt. 5. Not ascertained. 6. 1165°98. 7. Paddle. 8.\See columnl. 9..
See column 1. 10. 15°24 statute miles. 11. 243 ft. 8 in. 12. 294-70 sq. ft.
13..9 ft. Sin. 14. 1173. 21. Diameter, 26 ft. 10 in.; length, 10 ft.;
breadth, 4 ft.; thickness, 34 in.; number, 14. 22. Patent; modification of
Morgan’s Patent. 24. 4 ft. 5 in. 26. Side lever. 27. 774 diameter.
98. No. 29. Two. 30. Ordinary. 32. D. 33. Not ascertained. 34.
25 revolutions. 35. Not ascertained. 37. 448°0. 38.1165°98. 39. Four-
teen. 40. Twenty-six. 41. Two. 492. Tubular. 44. Boilers, 70 tons;
water, 65 tons. 45. The boilers are now removed under which trials were
made. 46. Twelve. 47. Tube surface, 7382°76; furnace, 462°0; fame
boxes, 747°0. 53. Number, 1128; length, 6 ft. 9in.; diameter, 32 iv. brass.
54. Two, 5 ft. diameter. 55. Fourteen. 56. 7800 lbs.

Return of Particulars respecting the Steam-ship ‘ Mersey’ whilst under Trial.

1. Stokes Bay, 21st of April, 1859. 2. N.W. 4; smooth; ebb tide. 3.
Not known. 4. Not known. 5. Notknown. 6. 1088. 7. 301. 8. Mean,
2 runs, 13°459 knots. 9. Mean, 2 runs, 13°117 knots. 10. 13°288 knots.
11. Length, 254 ft. 5 in.; breadth, 30 ft. 12. 261. 13. 10 ft. 5 in. aft;
10 ft. 1 in. forward. 14. 1300. 21. Diameter, 2! ft. 4 in.; length, 8 ft.’
6 in.; breadth, 3 ft. 5 in.; thickness, 3 in. 22. Feathering. 23. 134 tons.
24. 4 ft. 25. Nottried. 26. Oscillating. 27. 60 in. diameter; length of
stroke, 5 ft. 28. Steam belt. 29. Two. 30. Ordinary. 31. Ordinary
bucket pump. 32. India-rubber valves. 33. 81 tons. 34. 3024 feet, 301
revolutions. 35. Unknown. 37. 250. 38. 1088, 39. 20 Ibs. full. 40,

284 REPORT—1859.

Per Maudsley’s foreman, Condenser, 254 in.; but 26 starboard and 26} port
engines, by our engineers. 41. Four. 42. Tubular. 43. 8 ft..2 in. by
10 ft. 6 in.; 13 ft. Gin. high. 44. 75 tons without, 120 with. 45. 1125
steam room, 1620 water room. 46. Eight. 47. 178 ft. grate surface, 4400
tube surface, 1007 other surface. 48. 528 cubic feet. 49. 1 {t. 2 in. at
front, 2 ft.6 in. at back. 50. 2 ft. 2 in. at front. 51. 30 square feet. 53.
864 brass tubes, 3 in. diameter, 6 ft.6 in. long. 54. Two chimneys, 4 ft.
diameter. 55. 20 lbs. 56. Not tried—(Signed) H. V. Strutt, Examiner
R.M.S.P. Co.

Return of Particulars respecting the Steam-ship ‘ Paramatta’ whilst under
Trial.

1. 7th of June,1859. 2. Variable; moderate. 3. Unknown. 6. 2940.
7, Paddle wheels. 8. 14008 knots. 9. 13°907. 10. 13°957. 11. Length,
329°5; breadth, 43°75. 12. 606°2 square feet. 14. 386%. 15. Centre of
gravity of displacement, 3 ft. abaft middle of load line, and 8°41 ft. below.
21. Diameter, 38 ft. 6 in. over floats; ditto, 34 ft. 33 in. at axis; floats, 12
ft. by 4 ft. 6 in. by 5 in.; fifteen floats on each wheel. 22. Feathering.
23. 69 tons. 24. 6 ft.8 in. 25. Not tried. 26. Double cylinder. 27.
Diameter, 68yin. 28. No. 29. Four. 30. Ordinary. 31. Ordinary. 32.
Conical valves. 33.291 tons. 34.17 revolutions per minute. 35. Not tried.
37. 764. 38. 2940. 39. 17} lbs. gauge on boiler. 40. 26in.vac. 41.
Four. 42. Tubular. 43. Length, 24 ft.9 in.; height, 21 ft. 11 in. 44.
Boilers, 220 tons; water, 184. 45. Steam-room, 5292 cubic ft.; water-
room, 6440. 46. Twenty-four. 47. Grate, 7 ft. by 3 ft. 64 in.; by 24 in,
tubes, 14696 square ft.; furnaces, &c., 2564 square ft. 48. 2636 ft. in four
boilers. 49. 2 ft. 50. 2 ft.6 in. 51. 127 square feet in the four boilers.
53. 2496 brass tubes; internal diameter, 31 in.; external diameter, 34 in.
54. Two, 42 ft. long, 6 ft. 8 in. diameter. 55. 17 Ibs. - 56. Unknown.—
H. Y. Strutt, Examiner R.M.S.P. Co.

Return of Particulars respecting the Steam-ship ‘ Lima’ whilst under Trial.

1. From Liverpool to Kingstown and back, May 20th, 1859. 2. Fresh
breeze, northerly. 3. 3tons. 4. 11 tons,5cewt. 5. 270,000 lbs. 6. 1160.
8. 134. 9.121. 10.12. 11. Length on deck, 257 ft.; length between
perpen. 251 ft.; breadth, 30 ft.; depth of hold, 17 {t.; depth to spar deck,
25 ft.4in. 12.302. 13. Forward, 11 ft.; aft,i2 feet. 14. 1345. 21. Dia-
meter, 26 ft. over all; do. 25 ft. 2 in. over floats; floats, 8 ft. 2 in. long, 3
ft. broad, 2 in. thick. 22. Feathering. 23. 20 tons. 24. 4 ft. 96. Ran-
dolph and Elder’s Patent Double Cylinder engines. 27. High-pressure eylin-
der, 52 in.; low-pressure do. 90 in. 28. Yes. 29. Four. 30. Common.
31. 17 ft. 42. Short slide, 24 in. by6 in. 33. 200 toms. 34. 240 ft. 35.
100°. 37. 320. 38. 1150. 39. 24 ]1bs. 40. 28 lbs. 41. Two. 42. Tu-
bular, superheated, 400° Fahr. 43. 12 ft. by 10 ft. 44. Boilers, 50 tons;
with water, 68 tons. 45. 1000 cub. ft. 46. Six. 47. Grate, 136; steam,
1700; heating, including uptakes, 1500. 48. 480 ft. 49. 2ft. 50. 2 ft.
6 in. 51. About 50 ft. 53. 258 iron tubes, 4 in. internal, 41 in. external.
54. One, 5 ft. diameter. 55. 27 cwt. 56. 25.

Return of Particulars respecting the Steam-ship ‘Admiral’ whilst under Trial.

1. Between the Cloch and Cumbrae Lighthouses, Frith of Clyde, distance
13°66 knots, 11th of June, 1858. 2. Tide, quarter ebb, favourable for, 13°66
knots; half ebb, adverse for, 13°66 knots. 4. 2206 Ibs. per hour for 34

ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE, 285

hours. 6. 744. 7. Paddles, 3303 in 2°305 hours. 8. 12°65 knots, or 14°55
miles. &. 11°15 knots, or 12°82 miles. 10. 11°9 knots, or 13°69 miles.
11. 210 by 32. 12. 214 square ft. 13. 7 ft.6in., both. 14. 820 tons.
21. Diameter to Journals, 20 ft. 6 in.; 11 floats, 7 ft. long, 3 ft. broad and
thick. 22. Feathering. 26. Double Cylinder. 27. Large, 4 ft. 3 in.
aeaalee: 7614 in. diameter; Small, 4 ft. 3 in. stroke, 485 in. diameter. 28.
Steam-jacketed. 29. Four. 33. Engine and Boilers, 210 tons. 34. 24 re-
volutions. 38. 744. 39. Average, boiler 25 lbs., cylinder 19 lbs. 44. See
column 33. 47. Grate, about 100. 56. 2206 lbs.— Certified by W. J.
Macquorn Rankine.

Return of Particulars respecting the Steam-ship ‘Emerald’ whilst under Trial.

1. Ayr ies July 21,1859. 2. Still water, light airs. 3. 30 cwt. 4.
133 cwt. 5. Not eu 7. 80 per minute. 8.12 miles. 9. No tide.
10. 12 statute or 10; knots. 13. 10ft.forward and same aft. 14. 150.
16. Diameter, 9 ft.; 3. ‘blade; pitch, 14 ft.; area of blade, 20 ft. 17. 18 in.
18. 33 ewt. 19. Not known. 20. Not Pace 26. Horizontal. 27. Length
of stroke, 22 in.; diameter, 28 in. 28. No. 29. Two. 30. Common
condenser, contents not known. 31. Trunk, 3476 cubic inches. 32. Com-
mon slide valve. Area not known. 33. Not known. 34. 2934. 35. 95
degrees. 36. 56ft. 37. Eighty. 38. Not known. 39. Not known. 40.
Vacuum in condenser, 234 in. 41.One. 42. Tubular. 43. Depth, 11 ft.;
length, 94 ft.; breadth, 133. 34. Not ascertained. 45. Not known. 46.
Four. 47. 1313 ft. 48.198 ft. 49. At door, - in.; at back, 26 in.
50. At front, 26 in.; at back, 19 in.; mean, 223. . 1744. 52. Boiler
tubular. 53. 270 iron tubes, 64 ft. long ; exterior Ae ee ; interior, 24.
54. One, 26 ft. by 4 ft. diameter. 53. 133 lbs. 56. 133 ewt.

Continuation of Taste 1, AppENDIx VII. For Mean Speed.
eek EN Se ee

Rigutiealelcs Half
wof Sh “a a | Uitterenees Difference. Dee Speet:
| |
as | 2°92 1°46 8-78
10:3 3°48 1:74 9:06
7-94 2°96 ’ 1-48 9:32
: 2°55 1:27 ;
10°39 ‘ : 9-11
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9°54 0°83 0-41 9°12
7)64:84 6)54:°94
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nace 2-96 1-48 9:32
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BALLOON GOMMITTEE. 289

Appenprx VII. (continued.) Table 4.—Experiments with Yacht ‘ Erminia,’
October 12, 1858, in Stokes Bay.

Draft forward, 9 ft. 3in. Immersion of periphery, 2 ft.6 in. Diam.of cylinder,15in. Stroke,18in-
Draft aft, 12 ft. 11in. Area of midsection, 149°18 sq. ft. Diam. of screw, 8 ft. Pitch, 13 ft.

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1 | 53 | 36:2 » 3 ¥ Fe oe : . Senge gainst win
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3 | 53 | 28-7 Peers MR ooh as Bete el aaa ity Lue lara. | f With wind
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5 | 50 | 34:16 Baltece : ; : : : : : Against win
6 | 53 | 32-0 615 | 53:4 | 58°68 23°86) 5-91} 7°88} 5:21] 6°84 | 528-6) 694°2 vail Gite.
7 | 50 | 32-77 DB OSA EEA AGA Ad Be | ana.a4| f With wind
8 | 50 | 30-94 440 50°28 51-44 6:2 | 7°87| 7°42] 6°85 | 6°44 | 695-1] 653-64 aud tdel

Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee of the British Association
appointed at the Meeting at Leeds.

THe Committee met at Burlington House, London, on the 29th November
1858: present—

Colonel Sykes in the Chair, Lord Wrottesley, Dr. Lee, and Mr. Gassiot
on the part of the Kew Committee.

Mr. Gassiot read the resolution of the General Committee appointing
the Balloon Committee ; namely—

“ That Colonel Sykes, Lord Wrottesley, Professor Faraday, Professor
Wheatstone, Dr. Lee, and Professor Tyndall, be appointed a Committee to
confer with the Kew Committee as to the expediency of arranging further
balloon ascents, and (if it should be judged expedient) to carry them into
effect ; and that a sum of £200 be placed at their disposal, if it should be
required for that purpose.”

Mr. Gassiot, as Chairman of the Kew Committee, reported that, in con-
sequence of the severe indisposition of General Sabine and of Mr. Welsh,
he had not summoned the other members of the Kew Committee to attend
this meeting.

Colonel Sykes read letters from Sir John Herschel and the Astronomer
Royal, approving of further balloon ascents.

The question of expediency was discussed; and it was resolved, in con-
sequence of the absence of three members of the Committee, and General
Sabine and Mr. Welsh, to postpone the further consideration of the subject
until the next meeting of the Committee, to be summoned by the Chairman.

Burlington House, 27th May, 1859.

Present, Colonel Sykes in the Chair, Lord Wrottesley, Professor Faraday,
Professor Tyndall, and Dr. Lee. 3
Resolved,—That it is expedient for scientific objects that balloon ascents
be renewed, due care being taken for the safety of the aéronaut, and the
competency of the agents employed.
(1859. U

290 REPORT—1859.

Resolved,—That Mr. Green be invited to meet the Committee at the next
meeting.

Resolyed,—That Admiral FitzRoy and Mr. Glaisher be added to the
Committee.

Burlington House, 15 July, 1859.

Present, Colonel Sykes in the Chair, Lord Wrottesley, and Admiral FitzRoy. ©

Read a letter from Professor Tyndall, regreting his inability to attend the
meeting, but offering his services to ascend in the balloon, and assist in the
observations.

Mr. Green attended, and stated that himself and his balloon were at the
disposal of the Committee whenever called for.

Colonel Sykes reported that the following gentlemen offered their services
to ascend with the balloon as observers: Mr. E. B. Russell, and Mr. John
Murray, students of medicine in Glasgow University, Mr. Storks Eaton of
Dorsetshire.

Resolved,—That Colonel Sykes apply to the Chairman of the Kew Com-
mittee to have the instruments used in the former balloon ascents prepared
for immediate use.

Resolved,—That Colonel Sykes be authorized to make the necessary arrange-
ments with the several parties to be employed, preparatory to ascents
which may take place either from Birmingham or Wolverhampton.
Consequent upon the above resolution, Colonel Sykes arranged the terms

of compensation with Mr. Green for four balloon ascents—the first £30, the

second £25, the third £20, and the fourth £15, the Committee paying for
gas, and all incidental expenses. Lord Wrottesley was good enough to
obtain a supply of gas from the Wolverhampton Gas Company, the use of
their yard for the ascents, and the cordial assistance of their people.

Monday, the 15th of August, was fixed for the ascent ; and Mr. Storks

Eaton, who had previously taken charge of, and made himself familiar with,

the instruments, offered his gratuitous services to go up in the balloon.

Lord Wrottesley, Admiral FitzRoy, Mr. Glaisher, and the Chairman as-

sembled at Wolverhampton, at 1:30 p.m., to superintend the ascent. The

weather was fine, but the wind came in gusts; the inflation, however, com-
menced; but the balloon filled slowly, and when 63,000 cubic feet of gas had
been introduced, the evening was fast approaching ; and as doubts were ex-
pressed of the ascent being made in safety, in consequence of the wind, the

Committee resolved to defer the ascent until the following day.

On Tuesday, the 16th of August, the Committee assembled at 1:20 P.m.;
the balloon had been completely inflated; but as the Committee were entering
the Gas Company’s yard, a gust of wind occasioned the neck of the balloon
to flap so violently, that a rent of some yards was produced, and the gas
escaped rapidly. This untoward accident stopped all further proceedings ;
and as Mr. Green said that the balloon could not be properly repaired within
many days, as the balloon had received other injuries, the Committee were
compelled to forego any attempt to effect balloon ascents before the ap-
proaching meeting of the British Association.

The Committee having thus reported their proceedings, recommend the
reappointment of the Committee to carry out the objects which an accident
has frustrated; and the Committee look to the concurrent cpinions of the
distinguished men who have expressed themselves favourable to further
balloon ascents, having their due weight.

The Committee cannot close their report without expressing their oblig -
tions to the Mayor of Wolverhampton, Mr. John Hartley, and to the Di-

ON THE SOLUBILITY OF SALTS. 291

rectors of the Gas Company, for their courtesy and cooperation. The thanks
of the Committee are particularly due to Lord Wrottesley for his active and
efficient aid, and for the reception of the Members under his hospitable roof
at Wotesley Hall.

W. H. SyKxEs,

London, 20th August, 1859. Chairman.
P.S.—Mr. Green not having fulfilled his engagement, was only paid his
RESPONSES olor Sie ue nist me cain ee pa ness £7 511
BI is gia on Re a es ta)

Expenses of Pat TEES eee tek ani 127. 0. 2
Mr. Eaton’s carriage of instruments andether 113 6
(6

Pittal ae tert. dacs Mea cis xide upg eae

Preliminary Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above
100° Cent., and on the Mutual Action of Saits in Solution. By
Wiuuram K. Suniivan, Professor of Chemistry to the Catholic
University of Ireland, and the Museum of frish Industry.

NorwitusTanpbincG the evident importance of the phenomena of solution,
not only in a purely physical and chemical point of view, but also in con-
nexion with many of the most interesting geological and physiological phe-
nomena, the subject, until recently, seems to have been almost altogether
neglected, as if by common consent. Our knowledge respecting the solu-
bility of any given substance in certain liquids, was usually comprised in such
expressions as “ soluble,” “ very soluble,” “ difficultly soluble,” &c.—I might
even say, is now comprised; for the law of solubility in water up to the tem-
perature of 100° Cent. can scarcely be said to be known for a dozen salts, and
has not been at all determined for higher temperatures or for other solvents.
Since the admirable experiments of Gay-Lussac, by which he established the
law of solubility of Glauber-salt, many important investigations, bearing upon
the subject of solution, have no doubt been published ; but, generally speaking,
the immediate objects of these researches had to do with some other department
of physics or chemistry, rather than with the establishment of a theory of
solution. Among these I may mention Legrand’s experiments on the in-
fluence of salts on the boiling-point, Frankenheim’s on the capillarity of
saline solutions, the well-known researches of Graham on the diffusion
of solutions, of Person, Favre and Silbermann, Andrews, &c., on the latent
solution heat of salts, Playfair and Joule’s researches on atomic volume, and
many others which it is needless to mention. Any experiments directly
bearing on the subject which did happen to have been made with the view of
determining numerical laws, were in general confined to the determination
of the quantity of salt held in solution at different temperatures, and to the
specific gravity of the solution. The range of temperature was usually
limited to that between 0° and the boiling-point of the solvent, or to that
of the dissolution. The uncultivated state of this important field of inquiry
is no doubt to be attributed in part to the great labour required to work
it, and the apparent insignificance of the results of even the most successful
research. The recent laborious investigations of Léwel, Kremers, Gerlach,
Wullner and others, show, however, that it is no longer likely to remain
uncultivated ; and from the enlarged views of the general physical relations
U

292 REPORT—1859.

of the phenomena of solution which these experimenters exhibit, we may
expect most important results from their labours.

The graphic coordination of the results of experiments on the solubility of
salts which have hitherto been recorded, lead to this capital fact, that within
the limits of temperature embraced by the experimeuts, soluble salts may be
classified into three groups :—1, those which, like sulphate of soda, attain a
maximum of solubility within those limits, that is, give an ascending and
descending curve; 2, those which, like common salt, have sensibly the same
solubility at all temperatures within the limits; and 3, those which, like
nitrate of potash and the majority of salts, increase considerably in solubility
as the temperature rises. ‘The fact of certain salts, such as sulphate and
carbonate of soda, exhibiting a point of maximum solubility, or, as Lowel
has shown, several such points, according to the modifications which take
place in their molecular states, naturally suggests the probability that most
salts would exhibit a point or points of maximum solubility, and a descending
as well as an ascending curve of solubility, if we were to extend the range
of our experiments to sufficiently high temperatures, provided they could
resist without decomposition or volatilization such temperatures. And
further, that many salts more or less soluble at common temperatures, may
become wholly insoluble at high temperatures. In the case of sulphate of
lime, the latter fact has been established by the observations of M. Couche
and myself. From some preliminary experiments which I have since made, I
think I shall be able to establish it in the case of many other salts likewise.

Although water under sufficient pressure retains its liquid form at tem-
peratures far above 100°, the experiment of Cagniard de la Tour shows
that if the temperature be raised sufficiently high cohesion will ultimately
disappear, and the water will pass without alteration of volume into gas of
enormous tension. Frankenheim and Brunner -have both found that the
elevation of water in capillary tubes decreases with the temperature, and that
it is capable of being represented by a very simple formula of interpolation
as a function of the temperature. If this formula were to hold approx-
imately true at very high temperatures, it would enable us to trace the
diminution of the cohesion as the temperature rises, until it would wholly
vanish, which on this hypothesis would take place, according to Brunner,
at 535°°38. Cagniard de la Tour made similar experiments upon some other
liquids with like results. He found that the total gasification of ether took
place at about 200°. The temperature at which the capillary height of ether
would be zero, calculated by Brunner’s formula, would be 191912. Wolf
has experimentally found* that the capillary height was reduced to zero at
190° or 191°; above that temperature the capillary meniscus was below the
level of the liquid, that is, there was capillary depression. At about 198° the
strongly convex surface of the liquid appeared to cover itself with a thick
cloud: at about 200° it was wholly changed into vapour. This striking
coincidence between the calculated and experimental results, M. Wolf con-
siders to be only accidental. Brunner’s formula was founded upon experi-
ments made within the limits of temperature of 0° to 35°, a range which
M. Wolf thinks too limited. He has found, that, although the law of Brun-’
ner, that the decrease of the capillary height is proportional to the tempera-
ture, holds true up to 100°, it becomes more rapid above that point. _What-
ever may be the exact law for high temperatures, enough has been done to
show that the decrease of capillarity may be employed as a measure of the
diminution of cohesion at high temperatures. I think we may safely con-

* Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. vol. xix. p. 230.

ON THE SOLUBILITY OF SALTS. 293

clude, both from Cagniard de la Tour’s experiments and the theoretical results
of Frankenheim and Brunner, that at a red heat water would be completely
gasified. If instead of pure water we subject a saline solution to a high tem-
perature, what would be the result? Long before the solution would attain the
temperature at which water would pass into gas of the same volume, it seems
probable that a large number of salts would become insoluble, owing to the
gradual diminution of cohesion between the molecules of water. If this sup-
position be correct, the point of maximum solubility of a great many salts
cannot be higher than 200° Cent. At very high temperatures water is capable
of decomposing a large number of salts, even otherwise very stable double
silicates ; but as this action appears to depend in many instances upon the
mass of the water, saturated solutions of salts heated under pressure, are not
so liable to be decomposed as when salts are exposed to a current of hot
steam. If the salt did not become insoluble before the water reached the
point of gasification, and that it was capable of resisting that temperature
without decomposition, and was not per se volatile at a red heat, we may
conclude from the slight affinity between gases and solids, as well as from
many other considerations, that the water and salt molecules would completely
separate. The singular anomaly which boracic acid offers of being volatile
in the vapour of water, a property which the experiments of Larocque*
show belongs to many other fixed substances, also indicates that possibly
several salts may not precipitate on the passage of the water into gas, but
remain attached to the gaseous molecules. Under such conditions of tempera-
ture and pressure the most unforeseen phenomena may be presented to us.
The study of the laws of solubility of salts at very high temperatures is
obviously, then, of very considerable importance. In undertaking their
investigation I did not underrate the difficulty of the subject, though perhaps
I did its extent. The most superficial consideration will at once convince
any one thata mere table of the quantities of salt held in solution at different
temperatures would be of very little value; and that, to be of any use, the
investigation should include that of the action of salts in solution upon one
another at those high temperatures. Further, as the study of the solubility
of salts at any given temperature is but a particular case of the general
question of solution, every such investigation must necessarily deal more or
less with the whole of the phenomena of solution. The problem I proposed to
investigate, while apparently limited enough, involves in fact the study of a
very considerable branch of the physics of molecules. In so extensive a field
of inquiry, and especially where we have to deal with very complicate
phenomena, the study of which is beset with practical difficulties, and even
danger, the individual investigator cannot hope to reap a very large return
for his labour, however successful he may be. Every one who has worked
at such subjects will understand that considerable progress must be made in
an investigation of this kind before the results admit of being coordinated.
Notwithstanding many unexpected interruptions, I have devoted a good deal
of time in preliminary experiments upon the best methods of conducting my
researches, and in endeavouring to devise apparatus for the purpose. Even
though my progress were very rapid, instead of being very slow, as it has
been, I should not be in a position to bring before you on this occasion a
report of any numerical results which I may have obtained. It is due, how-
ever, to the Association to explain in a short preliminary report the point of
view from which I am proceeding, and the extent and character of the field
of research. As in so extended a subject any results obtained during the
inquiry must be communicated piecemeal, such a preliminary report may

* Journ. de Pharm. vol. xiv. p. 345.

994 REPORT—1859.

serve hereafter the very useful purpose of linking them together and indicating
their relative importance until a final report can be drawn up.

In considering the subject which I propose to investigate, several questions
immediately suggest themselves, which demand attention before entering
upon the inquiry itself, as they relate to matters which constitute the ground-
work of the whole subject. Of these I shall mention a few:—1. What is
solution, and in what does it differ from fusion? 2. What special function
does the solvent perform, and in what do water, alcohol, ether, and carbides
of hydrogen differ in their solvent functions? 3. In what relation does water
of crystallization stand to the other constituents of a hydrated salt? 4. When
hydrated salts are dissolved in water, does the saline water still remain
attached to the salt molecule, or does it mingle with the solvent? Or, in
other words, in considering the physical properties of saline solutions, are we
to regard them as made up of water molecules and anhydrous salt molecules,
or as water and complex molecules of hydrated salts ?

These questions have not been answered. No satisfactory hypothesis has
even been proposed for the purpose. Neither can we hope to do so before the
whole subject of molecular physics shall have considerably progressed beyond
its present imperfect state. Still, although we cannot hope to answer those
questions fully, they are so important in connexion with the special object of
the present investigation, that they must necessarily be included as far as
possible with it.

Many are inclined to consider solution as a case of chemical combination.
In adopting this view, we do not, however, solve the problem; but if suffi-
cient grounds existed for adopting it, we may consider doing so a step in
advance, inasmuch as it would save us from the necessity of inventing a new
form of force. If the test of chemical combination be, that the combining
bodies unite in definite proportions, solution appears at first sight not to pos-
sess that characteristic. It appears to me, however, that we ought to di-
stinguish two kinds of solution :—1, that of liquids in liquids; and 2, of solids
in liquids. Some considerations founded upon the dynamical theory of heat
may help us to understand this distinction.

According to that theory, the molecules of gases are so far separated as to
be beyond the sphere of their mutual attractions, and they are further con-
sidered to travel onwards in straight linés according to the ordinary laws of
motion. A gas may therefore freely flow into another, there being no cohe-
sion between the molecules, and chemical attraction only when molecules
which are strongly polar approach within the sphere of their attractive
forces. In liquids, on the other hand, the repulsive action of motion is not
sufficient to remove them beyond the sphere of their mutual attraction,
notwithstanding that each molecule has not a determinate position of equili-
brium, and may consequently freely change its place.

The liquid molecules are, in fact, assumed to be in a state of vibratory,
rotatory, and progressive motion, so that each molecule is not permanently
attached to another; but the progressive motion is not sufficient to carry it
beyond the cohesive influence of the others. We may assume that great
differences exist in the character and velocity of the vibratory and rotatory
motions of the molecules of different fluids. The fluids, the molecules of which
possess the same character of motion, may consequently mingle, because the
molecules of each will not interfere with each other’s motion. When the
motions of the molecules of two fluids are incompatible, they do not mingle.
The observations of Wilson and Swan upon the changes which one liquid

produces in the form of the surface of contact of another, appear to support
the view just stated.

ON THE SOLUBILITY OF SALTS. 295

Although fluids whose molecular motions are not incompatible may be
able to mix in the same indefinite proportion as gases, true chemical combi-
nation may also take place between them. It is very easy to prove this in
some eases, as, for example, when we add 27 parts of water to 63 parts of
HO, NO,; because in this case we have heat evolved, and the mixture has
a fixed boiling-point, and may be distilled without decomposition. In other
cases it is not possible to prove it. Change of volume, accompanied by the
evolution of heat, can scarcely be considered a proof, inasmuch as we would
assume as true the very thing we have to prove, namely, that the conden-
sation is due to chemical combination. In the case of a mixture of alcohol
and water, there is a considerable condensation, which may, as some suppose,
be due to true chemical combination. M. Vergnette Lamotte, for instance,
states that in congealed wine the alcohol and water are in definite proportions
in the frozen part, an opinion not, however, adopted by M. Boussingault and
others. This condensation may perhaps be accounted for in another way,
which, however, it would take too much space to develope fully here, but
which I shall have a more fitting opportunity of doing hereafter.

As the molecules of solids have a determinate position of equilibrium,
their solution in any medium implies the exertion of a certain amount of
force by the molecules of the liquid upon the solid. There is thus a distinc-
tion between the solution of solids and of liquids; the former partakes more
of the character of chemical combination. It may be that when a solid is
dissolved in water. it forms in the first instance a definite chemical compound
which is liquid, and may therefore mingle with the uncombined water. If
this hypothesis were correct, it would account for the absence of stoichio-
metrical relations between the quantity of salt and of the water in which it is
dissolved, for a saline solution would be a compound of water and salt mole-
eules mixed with quantity of water. Some salts may possess the property
of forming several such liquid compounds, others, perhaps, only one. There
is considerable analogy between solution in the ordinary sense, and alloys,
especially amalgams. Mercury appears to be capable of forming an endless
number of compounds with several metals, some of which are solid and others
liquid. The solid alloys freely dissolve in mercury. In the solution thus
formed have we the original alloy simply dissolved in the mercury, or has a
new compound been formed? If we cool the mixture crystals often sepa-
rate, which may or may not be the alloy originally dissolved, according as
the conditions under which they are formed are the same or different from
those under which the alloy was first formed; exactly as when a salt sepa-
rates from its aqueous solution at different temperatures with different pro-
portions of hydrated water. The proportions in which mercury combines
with metals are so numerous, and so unlike those which we meet with among
the compounds of the metalloids, that we are perhaps justified in concluding
that a metal dissolved in mercury is always in chemical combination, and
that when the constituents of an amalgam or of other liquid alloys are not in
definite proportion, we may account for it by supposing that it consists of
some liquid alloy mingled with 2 quantity of mercury. As an example of
the proportions in which mercury combines with the metals, I may mention
the alloys made by Crookewitt* :—KHg,,; KHg,,; Cd, Hg,; PbHg; BiHg;
Ag, Hg,,; AgHg,; AgHg,; AgHg,; AuHg,.

Among the other arguments which may be urged in favour of solution
being reckoned as a case of chemical combination, I may mention—1, that
saline solutions in HO have a fixed boiling-point, a point of congelation,
and, like water itself, a point of maximum density ; and 2, that solutions are

* Ann, der Chem, und Pharm, vol, Ixyiii. p. 259.

296 REPORT—1859.

homogeneous. Some experiments of Bischoff and Debus led to the conclusion
that gravity acted upon a solution of a salt and caused an accumulation of
the salt molecules in the lower portion of a column of the solution. Lieben
has, however, found that the solution of a single salt is perfectly homogene-
ous. It yet remains to be proved whether saline solutions, containing a
number of salts in solution, are homogeneous.

But if we admit the homogeneity of salitie solutions, it appears to me that
we must of necessity assume that in the solution the salt is combined with 2
molecules of water—z being variable according as the conditions of equili-
brium are modified, or we shall be forced to admit the infinite divisibility of
matter.

There is an evident relationship between solution and fusion. Whena
salt is fused, a quantity of heat is absorbed ; when dissolved in water, a still
larger quantity of heat is in most cases absorbed. Thus, according to
Person*, 1 gramme of KO, NO, absorbs 49 heat-units of latent fusion
heat ; but if dissolved in 5 grms. of water, 69 heat-units are absorbed and 80
when it is dissolved in 20 grms. Whenever the same body is fused under
the same pressure, the quantity of heat absorbed is always the same; but
when a soluble substance is dissolved, the absorption of heat increases with
the amount of water employed though not in a direct ratio. Even the
dilution of a solution causes an absorption of heat; and with every success-
ive dilution an additional quantity disappears, the only apparent limit being
our means of detecting it. It is difficult to reconcile this phenomenon with
that of homogeneity, unless we admit solution to be combination ; and even
then there must be a limit somewhere, unless we consider matter infinitely
divisible.

The solution heat of a salt appears from the experiments of Person? to
diminish as the temperature increases, a result which was pointed out by
Graham, and which we might indeed have anticipated from the diminution
of the specific heat according as the temperature rises, and from, as Person
suggests, the specific heat of the saline solution being less than that of the
separate constituents. On dissolving 1 grm. of chloride of sodium in 7-28
grms. of water at 70°, no absorption of heat was observed. Fusion, solution,
and dilution are evidently but varieties of the same phenomena, and should
be included together in any hypothesis framed to account for latent heat.
MM. Favre and Silbermann proposed a very ingenious hypothesis to account
for the latent heat of fusion: they considered it as the result of chemical
combination or decomposition. They looked upon ice as isomeric water,
n (HO), where z is any simple number ; when HO becomes z (HO), heat is
evolved; when, on the other hand, ice melts, that is (HO) splits into HO,
heat is absorbed. In the same way they looked upon a crystallized salt as
an isomeric form of the same salt when in solution, e. g. SO, K, and §, O, K,,.
This hypothesis would account for latent solution heat, which it would assi-
milate to latent fusion heat; by a slight modification it may be made also to
account for the latent dilution heat,—by supposing crystallized salts to be
higher multiples than that above assumed in the case of sulphate of potash,
which may be considered to be x (SO, K); and that when it is dissolved in
a small quantity of water, it splits into two or more molecules of a lower
isomeric body, and this again into others on further dilution.

The modification here proposed seems to receive support from the
discovery of a number of isomeric salts. For instance, Lowel $ has obtained
two salts with the empiric formula NaO, CO,+7HO, of different solubilities,

* Compt. Rend. vol. xxxi. p. 566. + Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. (3) vol. xxxiii. p. 448.
} Ibid. vol. xxxiii. p. 334. .

ON THE SOLUBILITY OF SALTS. 297

the one crystallizing in the form of rhombic, and the other in quadratic
tables or Hat prisms. He has likewise obtained* a salt isomeric with
common Epsom salt, MgO, SO,+7HO, and more soluble than it; it cry-
stallizes in rhomboidal tables, which lose their transparency when taken out
of their mother-liqnor. Marignac has shown? that the quadratic crystals of
sulphate of nickel have the formula NiO, SO,+6HO, and that an isomeric
salt crystallizing in the monoclinic system is formed at a temperature of
from 50° to 70° Cent. Further researches will make us acquainted with
many other examples of the same kind. The salts of manganese, cobalt,
chrome alum, &c., present us with remarkable examples of molecular changes
accompanied by striking changes of colour, in some of which we have true
isomeric salts, as in the case of manganese, and in the case of chrome alum
a difference in the amount of hydrated water. We should, however, distin-
guish clearly between the molecular changes which give rise to the isomeric
salts, and those which are accompanied by a total alteration of physical pro-
perties. It is worthy of remark, too, that many chemists have been led, from
wholly different reasons, to assume a more complex (as to the number of
molecules) composition fcr salts and for chemical compounds generally. I
may mention, for example, Avogadro’s view, that the equivalent of a sub-
stance does not necessarily represent the relative weight of an integral mole-
cule, but that the latter may be a multiple or an aliquot part of the former ;
and Hunt’st, that all solid substances which have the same form, contain
an equal number of atoms in equal volunies, a view which leads him to pro-
pose such a formula as Na,, Cl,, for common salt. The existence of double
salts of isomorphous bases containing a great number of equivalents of one
combined with one or more of the other, and which are easily decomposed by
merely dissolving them in a large quantity of water, is another circumstance
which renders the hypothesis of Favre and Silbermann, and the application of
it in a modified form above given, of increased interest.

If we adopt the hypothesis that crystallized salts are isomeric compounds,
and that solutions are unstable compounds of salt molecules and water
molecules, it seems to me that the phenomena of crystallization and solution,
and perhaps the whole phenomenon of the change of physical state of bodies,
may be referred to the category of double decomposition. It would lead me
too far to attempt to develope this hypothesis here ; indeed, without a good
deal of experimental data to sustain my arguments, it would not be useful.
I hope to be able to develope it fully on another occasion. I have mentioned
it now, merely because it is intimately connected with the remaining
questions which I have set down above, and which, with the exception of the
fourth, I do not propose to discuss on this occasion.

There would obviously be a wide distinction between a solution containing
the molecules MgO, SO,+7HO, and one containing only MgO, SO,._ When
we dissolve Epsom salt in water, which of the two solutions have we? The
answer to this question depends to a considerable extent upon what may be
the result of inquiries concerning the nature of solution. Ifa solution be a
chemical combination between salt molecules and 2 molecules of water, the
compound being liquid, and furthermore, if the crystallized salt be an
isomeric form of the salt in solution, we must conclude that the water of
the hydrated salt, as such, does not exist in combination with the salt mole-
cule in solution, but becomes attached to it at the moment of the formation
of the crystalline salt by a process of double decomposition. In assuming,

* Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., vol. xliii. p. 405.
+ Liebig and Kopp’s Jahresbericht, 1855, p. 411.
$ Silliman’s American Journal (2), vol. xv. p. 116.

298 REPORT—1859.

however, that the formation of the crystallized salt is the result of double
decomposition, we admit the existence of a specific molecular arrangement
of salt and water in the solution, which under the same conditions of tempera-
ture, &c. always yields the same salt. That such a molecular arrangement
does in reality exist, is proved by the fact that the same salt crystalizes with
different amounts of hydrated water according to the temperature, a good
example of which is afforded by sulphate of manganese. The lower the
temperature, the larger will be in general the quantity of hydrated water
which attaches itself to the salt molecule. Even salts which usually crystal-
lize anhydrous, such as common salt, frequently separate in a hydrated
form from solutions at very low temperatures. A solution of common salt
cooled to —10° yields transparent oblique rhombic prisms of the monoclinic
system containing 4 equivalents of water. The large flat six-sided tables
which Ehrenberg and Frankenheim observed to form under the microscope
at the temperature of +15°, were most probably crystals of another hydrate.
The formation of the double sulphates of the magnesian series is another
striking proof of the pre-existence in a saline solution of a special molecular
arrangement. ‘The equivalent of constitutional water in MgO, SO,, HO,
6HO is substituted in the double salts by an equivalent of an alkaline sul-
phate; this substitution must take place by double decomposition, and so
far supports the hypothesis that all ecrystallizations are due to that process.
As the substitution takes place in solution, we must I think admit, either
that the salt has this equivalent of constitutional water attached to it in solu-
tion, or that some combination does occur there, which by double decompo-
sition would give a crystalline compound in which it would exist. The
existence of special molecular modifications in the constitution of salts, is
assumed by Lowel to be the cause of the difference of solubility which the
same salt sometimes presents at the same temperature, and not the amount
of water which it takes up in erystallizing. This must necessarily follow as
a relation of cause and effect if we adopt his view, that a salt is always pre-
sent in solution in its anhydrous state. Such a view, however, compels us
to admit that the salt molecule itself undergoes as many molecular modifica-
tions as there are distinct hydrates, and this under the influence of very slight
causes ; on the other hand, it does not satisfactorily account for the formation
of such isomeric salts as those alluded to above, or for the effect of heat upon
solubility. Gay-Lussac’s view, that the hydrated water of the erystallized
salt remains attached to the salt molecule in solution, affords no more satis-
factory explanation of the phenomena in question, while that which it gives
of supersaturation—the inertia of the saline molecules—is wholly untenable.
Lowel’s view, if we could account for the necessary molecular changes,
would explain the phenomenon of supersaturation satisfactorily. It assumes
that, strictly speaking, there is no such thing, and that solutions considered to
be supersaturated merely contain salts having a different molecular consti-
tution, and a different solubility from that ordinarily present at that tempe-
rature. The hypothesis that solutions are unstable compounds of salt mole-
cules and water molecules, and crystalline salts compounds formed by their
double decomposition, affords a simple explanation of the molecular changes
required for accounting for supersaturation; and it especially enables us to
distinguish between the molecular modifications which give rise to isomeric
hydrated salts, and those offered by the green and violet modifications of
chrome alum—the former may be assumed to affect the arrangement of the
molecules of water and salt in the unstable compounds in solution; the latter
and more profound, the salt molecules themselves.

Equal solubility does not necessarily imply that two salts are held by the

ON THE SOLUBILITY OF SALTS. 299

solvent with equal force. It may be therefore that some salts do actually
retain an equivalent of their water of crystallization attached to them in
solution. Thomson’s experiments lead to the conclusion that the third mole-
cule of water in terhydrated phosphoric acid is not held so firmly as the
others. On the other hand, Gerhardt has shown that when three equivalents
of the strong base soda are substituted for the three of water in terhydrated
phosphoric acid, the salt formed, 3NaO, PO,, has the power of retaining an
equivalent of HO at the temperature of 100° Cent., which can only be
removed at a temperature approaching redness, while the salt 2NaO, HO
PO,+24HO loses the whole of its crystalline water at 100°. It is probable
that the equivalent of water thus retained, performs the same function as the
constitutional water of the magnesian sulphates, and may be replaced by a
salt molecule. Such salts as 3LiO, PO,+2LiO, HO, PO,+2HO and 3PbO
PbO,+ PO, NO,+2HO &c., may perhaps be referred to this type.

If we possessed some method of measuring the force with which salts are
held in solution, we should be able to discover the law of its variation in the
same class of salts according as one base was substituted for another, and for
the same salt according as the temperature varied. The force with which
a salt may be held by the solvent does not seem to bear much relation
to its solubility. Charcoal removes salts of equal solubility from solutions
in different proportions. It may, however, be justly objected to this, that
the result is not due to a difference between the forces with which the salt
and water are held together, but rather to the greater power of adhesion which
the charcoal possesses for certain salts. I have begun a series of compara-
tive experiments on the relative amount of different salts which pure charcoal
and spongy platinum retain when solutions of various degrees of concentra-
tion are passed through them, the results of which will, I hope, throw some
light on this subject.

The adoption of the hypothesis that crystalline salts are the result of
double decomposition, appears to involve another consequence of great im-
portance in the present inquiry, namely, that double salts do not exist as
such in solution. In the case of double salts formed by the substitution of
constitutional water, it is by no means necessary, as I have shown above, that
the constituent salts of the double salt should be considered as existing un-
combined in the solution, but simply in a different state of molecular arrange-
ment. Favre and Silbermann were of opinion, however, that they did not
exist in combination, and were only formed at the moment of their crystalli-
zation. Graham, from his experiments on diffusion, has likewise suggested
the possibility of the constituents of a double salt being dissolved together in
water without being chemically combined. The latter considered that diffu-
sion was capable of producing chemical decomposition ; for instance, that of bi-
sulphate of potash, alum, and sulphate of potash in lime-water. This opinion
harmonizes with the hypothesis of Favre and Silbermann ; and if understood
in the modified form above suggested, namely, that the double salt, such as
we know it in its crystallized state, does not exist in the solution, but that
the constituent salts are nevertheless not free in every case, would be per-
fectly accordant with it. Many isomorphous salts combine together in
almost every proportion, such for example as the chromates and sulphates.
H. Rose has analysed a compound of nitrate of silver and nitrate of soda to
which he assigns the formula AgO, NO,+10NaO, NO,. If we adopt the
hypothesis that crystallized salts are compounds of several molecules of the
simple salt, we may consider the salt in question as x (NaO, NO,), in which
one or more molecules of nitrate of silver replace a corresponding number of
nitrate of soda. In accordance with that hypothesis, such a salt could not

300 REPORT—1859,

exist in solution, and we find that many of them are undoubtedly decom-
posed when dissolved in water. The simple double salts formed by non-iso-
morphous salts, such as those formed by the magnesian sulphates, the alums,
&c., are compounds of a higher degree, and are held together with much
more force, and in most cases are not decomposed by water at common
temperatures. If the constituent salts of alum existed free in solution,
it would be difficult to account for certain phenomena to which Chevreul
first drew attention. If cotton be immersed in a solution of alum of a
given strength, it will absorb some of it, but it will be found that the
solution absorbed docs not contain as much alum as the original one,
that is, the cloth absorbs the water molecules more readily than the saline
ones. Unless porous bodies, such as vegetable fibre, exert exactly the same
adhesive power for sulphate of potash as they do for sulphate of alumina,
which does not seem probable, the mere passage of a solution of alum
through cotton, supposing the two sulphates not to exist in a state of combi-
nation in solution, would be sufficient to alter their relative proportions.
The mere fact of vegetable fibre exerting unequal attraction for the consti-
tuent salts of double salts in solution, which in some cases at least it appears
to do, would not, however, of itself constitute a proof that double salts did
not exist, as such, in solution. It is very probable that the force binding the
constituent salts of a double salt, and which is different for each one, is
greatly diminished when the salt is dissolved in water; and that under those
circumstances, the superior attraction of vegetable fibre, or porous bodies for
one constituent salt, may be sufficient to overcome the chemical force by
which the double salt is formed. The full investigation of this very import-
ant problem forms part of the series of experiments to be made on the
action of charcoal, spongy platinum, and other porous bodies on saline
solutions, already ailuded to.

The preceding discussion on the condition of double salts in solution,
clearly shows that we could not determine their solubility without taking
into consideration the whole subject of the constitution of salts, the action
of salts in solution upon one another, and the nature of solution. It fully
justifies me therefore in viewing the subject which I proposed to investigate
from the general point of view which I have done, instead of confining my-
self to the construction of a few imperfect tables, and which, though they
may, if carefully constructed, be practically useful, could give very little aid
towards the advancement of chemical theory.

If I have succeeded in the preceding pages in sketching so much of the
general outlines of the subject of investigation as to convey an adequate
idea of its character and scope, the classification which I have made of the
several groups into whick the experiments to be made may be divided for
greater convenience of study, and the general character of the experimental
processes which I have employed, or propose to employ, will be at once
understood. A very brief account then of these two matters will complete
what I proposed to do in this preliminary report: and first of the classifi-
cation.

In an investigation involving so great a variety. of detail, and in which '
so many physical phenomena must necessarily be employed as tests of
molecular changes, the experiments require to be so classified that the
results obtained in connexion with each class of phenomena shall be com-
parable, and that the results of one series of experiments shall throw light
upon, and assist in carrying out the next, and lastly, that all shall converge
to the main problem. The following scheme of experiments, if made upon
an extensive scale sufficient to enable us to eliminate errors and anomalies,

ON THE SOLUBILITY OF SALTS. 301

would afford us data to lay the foundation of a rational theory. The scheme
embraces so much that I am in no danger of being suspected of the design
of executing it all. It may be asked, why then sketch a plan which I could
not execute? Because, in the first place, as I have already endeavoured to
show, the determination of the true law of solubility of even a single salt,
involves the whole of the questions which this scheme of experiments is pro-
posed to investigate ; and consequently, in any attempt to determine such a
law, the whole of them must of necessity be more or less studied. And in
the second place, because I believe that in the investigation of details we
are apt to forget the generalities to which they are subordinate, an error
which is avoided by following a plan in which every result, however trivial,
finds its place and immediate use. Science will gain more in this way than
by desultory experiments, which, in consequence of their isolation, remain for
a long time barren.

1. I have found that many hydrated silicates, sulphate of lime, &c., when
immersed in water and exposed to a high temperature, lost part or all their
hydrated water. This suggests an important question—Do all hydrated salts
lose their water, if heated in that liquid to a very high temperature? And
if so, do any of them offer a similar phenomenon to that which certain
hydrated salts present when heated in the air, namely, of losing their water
in successive portions as the temperature rises? Thus, for example, the salt
2KO, PO,+3HO loses one equivalent of HO at 100°, a second at 180°, and
the third only perfectly at a red heat. The question suggested here applies
to all salts that contain constitutional water. In such a salt as that above
mentioned, is each molecule held by a different amount of force? and does it
therefore enter with a different atomic volume into the compound? or is each
equivalent held with the same force at the commencement of the operation,
the change of constitution being the result of a modification of equilibrium
produced by the heat? It appears to me that the study of the action of
saturated solutions of salts upon the crystals of the hydrated salt at different
temperatures would throw much light upon these questions, as well as upon
the very important one of whether hydrated salts retain their water in solu-
tion. I hope very shortly to be in a position to report upon this branch of
the subject.

2. The second series of experiments is to be devoted to the investigation
of the influence which different proportions of an acid exert at different tem-
peratures upon the maximum solubility of the different salts which it forms
with such bases as do not yield any known higher acid salts than those ex-
perimented upon. Some singular anomalies are presented by salts in this
respect, as, for example, the well-known ones, KO, NO, being more soluble in
dilute nitric acid than in pure water, while BaO, NO, is precipitated from a
strong solution by nitric acid. A similar series must be made for the influ-
ence of bases upon the solubility of such salts as they form, with those acids
with which they do not yield recognizable basic salts.

3. The next series will be devoted to the study of the influence which
different proportions of soluble acids exert, at different temperatures, upon
the maximum solubility of soluble salts containing a different acid soluble in
water, and with the base of which the intervening acid does not form an in-
soluble compound. In the cases contemplated here, there would be, accord-
ing to Berthollet, decomposition in proportion to the mass of the intervening,
acid. We have direct evidence of this when HCI acts upon a solution of
CuO, NO,; but hitherto we have had no means of proving it where the solu-
tions were colourless. Besides the obvious importance of such experiments
in connexion with the subject of affinity generally, I think they will afford

302 REPORT—1859.

the means of throwing some light upon the question, whether such a thing as
single elective affinity does take place, or whether all combinations and de-
compositions are not cases of double decomposition? If the actionof HCl upon
CuO, NO,, or of NO, HO upon CuCl, be a case of double decomposition,
water must take part in it, and, like all other bodies, must act in proportion
to its mass. The proportion of water must consequently be taken into ac-
count, as well as those of salt and acid; and if any means can be devised for
ascertaining the amount of decomposition, experiments should be made with
solutions of different strengths as well as with the saturated solutions.

4. The fourth series may be considered as a continuation of the last, and
will consist of experiments upon the influence which different proportions of
the soluble bases, KO, NaO, BaO, SrO, CaO, and NH,O, exert at different
temperatures upon the solubility of one another's salts. Here too we may
assume double decomposition ; in fact, all these bodies are present in solu-
tion apparently as hydrated oxides. Ammonia exerts a singular influence
upon the solubility of some salts, such as sulphate of potash, which it preci-
pitates from a strong solution. It would be interesting to include in the
inquiry the action of the compound ammonias, as they will no doubt be found,
while resembling ammonia in many respects, as regards their chemical func-
tion, to differ in respect to their influence on solubility. The action of the
compound ammonias is interesting from another point of view likewise.
Urea, as is well known, if added to a solution of common salt, causes it to
crystallize in octahedrons. If we look upon urea as a diamide in which part
of the hydrogen is substituted by a polyatomic radical, all other substances
belonging to the same type may perhaps produce alike change. Difference
of form in the same substance is generally, perhaps always, accompanied by
a change of solubility ; such a difference may perhaps exist between the two
forms of common salt; so that this series of experiments is of considerable
importance. The crystallization of common salt from urine in the form of
octahedrons appears to have been known to Romé de Lisle. Foureroy and
Vauquelin showed * that this change of form was due to urea. Beyond this
very important fact, little, if anything, was known of the influence of foreign
substances upon the crystalline form of bodies, until the publication of Le-
blane’s memoir in 1788+. He made many valuable and interesting ob-
servations. But it is to Beudant }, who brought together everything that was
previously known on the subject, confirmed and very greatly extended the
observations, that the subject is indebted for the interest and importance which
it now has, and which has led to many new investigations. Among those
who have more recently studied the subject, may be mentioned Nicklés,
Senarmont, and Pasteur. The latter gives a very remarkable instance of this
kind of influence§. The acid malate of ammonia crystallizes in rectangular
tables of the rhombic system, sometimes having two parallel edges bevelled ;

the faces 2 are never observed whenever the salt is crystallized from a pure

solution. But if a part be heated until it has begun to be decomposed, and
then dissolved in water, and the impure solution allowed to cool, the crystals
formed in it have hemihedral faces, which disappear when the crystals are
again made to grow in a pure solution. The action of nitric acid upon the
nitrates of potash and of baryta, and of ammonia upon a solution of sulphate
of potash, may be due to a change of this kind. The subject has never been

* Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. vol. xxxii. p. 80 (1799). t+ Journal de Physique, xxxiii.
} Ann. des Mines, iii. (1819), and Traité de Minéralogie.
§ Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 3™° Série, vol. xlix. p. 5.

ON THE SOLUBILITY OF SALTS. 303

systematically studied. The scheme of experiments proposed in the next
section upon the influence which salts exert upon one another’s solubility in
virtue of their comparative morphology, may, however, afford an opportunity
of doing something in this direction.

5. The fifth series of experiments will be devoted to the influence which
salts exert upon each other's solubility. Strictly speaking, we may consider
acids and bases as salts; but it will be better for the special purposes of this
investigation to consider them separately. In studying the influence which
substances exert upon one another in solution, we must take into account, not
merely their chemical composition, but their crystalline form likewise. Even
though we may admit that a hydrated salt, when dissolved in water, parts
with its hydrated water, and that therefore the body which is in solution
belongs to a different crystallographic system from the hydrated salt, there
can be no doubt that some peculiar molecular condition must exist in the
solution just before the separation cf the hydrated salt, under the influence
of which the molecules of anhydrous salt combine with a definite amount of
water. We must also bear in mind, that in a great many instances certain
molecular properties intimately connected with crystalline form, such as
the power of circularly polarizing light, &c., are inherent in the molecules,
and therefore independent of their physical state. I have thought it desirable,
therefore, to classify the salts which I propose to experiment upon in this
series according to the following crystallographic scheme :—

A. Isomeromorphous bodies, that is salts which crystallize in forms of the
regular system, and possess similar formule. They may be subdivided into,—
a, isatomes, or those which have equal atomic volumes, made up of the same
number of integrant molecules; and 6, polyatomes, or those which possess
equal atomic volumes, but made up of an unequal number of integrant mole-
cules—isomorphism being supposed to be in general due to equal or approxi-
mate specific volume.

B. Icono-ideomorphous substances, a name which Laurent first employed
to designate such substances as the laevo- and dextro-tartaric acids, which
are the images of one another viewed in a mirror, as Pasteur by his admirable
researches has shown. Under this category will be included all hemihedral
forms in opposite directions.

C. Homcomorphous salts.—True isomorphism can only exist between
bodies crystallizing in the regular system, the term homceormorphism has
accordingly been proposed to designate the isomorphism of the other systems,
in which there is not perfect equality of angles or parameters. Laurent
believed that two bodies ought to be considered as isomorphous, even
though belonging to different systems, if their angles and parameters are
nearly equal. He argued that if a rhombohedron of 103° ean be considered to
be isomorphous with one of 104°, 105°, or even of 107°, there is no valid reason
why one of 89° 30/, or of 90° 30! should not be isomorphous with a rhombo-
hedron of 90°, that is with the cube which is the limiting form between the
acute and obtuse rhombohedrons. It is in this sense I propose to use the
term. I likewise propose to restrict the term to such bodies as have similar
formule, and, like the isomeromorphous bodies, will divide them into ¢sa-
tomes and polyatomes.

D. Many substances can have exactly the same shape, or nearly the same
shape, though they may wholly differ in chemical constitution. Such bodies
cannot be considered as isomorphous or homceormorphous in the sense above
contemplated. As identity of shape, however different the composition may
be, must imply a certain amount of similarity in the conditions of equilibrium
of their molecules, it is obviously of importance, in an investigation like the

304 REPORT—1859.

present, to examine the action which such bodies exert upon each other’s
solubility. This kind of isomorphism and homceormorphism may be described
by the term heteromeric, first employed by Hermann. Heteromeric homeeo-
morphism is in part what Laurent termed paramorphism.

E. Dimorphic and trimorphic substances may be isomorphic with two or
three different series of bodies in as many different systems. This isomor-
phism may be ésomeric ov heteromeric. ‘The influence which the bodies of
each series would exert upon the solubility of a dimorphic salt would be ex~
tremely interesting, and especially as regards the comparative influence of
the bodies isomorphic with the most stable form, and those isomorphic with
the least stable at different temperatures.

F. The last category of forms includes the hemimorphous bodies in the
sense in which Laurent used that term; that is substances which resemble
each other in composition, but which are only partly similar in form—which
have one or two angles alike, but all the others very different.

The application of this scheme of comparative morphology to the subject
of this investigation is so obvious that I need not dwell upon it now. By
submitting a salt in solution at different temperatures to the action of suc-
cessive quantities of a number of salts, beginning with those which exhibit
perfect identity of form, equality of volume, and similarity of composition,
and proceeding downwards, as indicated in the preceding scheme, until re-
mote indications of resemblance are alone perceptible, I hope to be able to
ascertain the general character of the influence which form exerts upon solu-
bility. To complete the series, it would perhaps be necessary also to study
the action of salts which have no resemblance of any definite character.

The modification in solubility which a salt undergoes on adding a given
quantity of another salt, is not, however, due to form alone; the chemical
nature of the molecules engaged has perhaps a larger share in the phenomenon.
The results of such a series of experiments as I have just planned would not
therefore enable us to determine the influence of form, unless we could
eliminate the effect due to chemical action, properly so called. This could
only be done by making a series of experiments on the influence of chemi-
cal composition, according to a scheme of classification analogous to that
sketched out for form. This will consist essentially of the following :—a,
influence of a number of the soluble salts which the acid of the salt investi-
gated forms with different bases; 5, influence of the soluble salts formed
by the base of the salt under investigation, with different acids; ¢, in-
fluence which the salts of sesquioxides exert upon the solubility of the salts
of the protoxide of the same metal, and upon the protoxide of other metals,
where they do not form recognized double salts; d, influence which salts
of polybasice acids, with one, two, &c. of strong base exert upon the solu-
bility of different salts ; e, comparative influence of tribasic phosphate of soda,
containing two of sodaand one of water, and bibasic phosphate of soda with
two of soda, &e.

I have perhaps discussed the classification which I propose to follow im
my experiments sufficiently to make the character and scope of the investi-
gation evident, and it now only remains for me to say a few words of the
methods which I propose to employ in order to determine, if possible, the
nature of the changes which take place on mixing saline solutions, and in
heating a single solution, or a mixture, to a high temperature.

In the following observations upon the physical phenomena which may
be taken advantage of 1o determine the molecular changes taking place
without precipitation when solutions are mingled, I propose to mention
those only which as yet I have tried with some hopes of usefulness. ‘There

ON THE SOLUBILITY OF SALTS. 305

are many others which I may hereafter try to make use of, and some of
which have been employed for analogous purposes by others; such, for
example, as the influence which solutions exert upon the spectrum, as shown
by the ingenious experiments of Dr. Gladstone, who I hope may be induced
to take up the whole question of the optical relations of saline solutions.

Relative Compressibility of Saline Solutions—Among the most important
physical phenomena the more complete study of which promises to throw
light upon the nature of solution and the action of salts in solution upon each
other, may be mentioned their compressibility. As all the experiments upon
the solubility of salts at high temperatures must be conducted under high press-
ure, 1 must necessarily begin by investigating the action of pressure alone
upon saline solutions in the cold. With the exception of the experiments of
Grassi, made with Regnault’s piezometer, we have no records of any in which
saline solutions were examined. Grassi’s, too, are mere isolated examples,
not sufficient to enable a law to be established ; the pressures, too, were very
limited. The experiments of W. Thomson and Bunsen show that the point
of solidification of bodies is lowered by pressure; hence we may expect that
solutions of salts, if subject to pressure, would crystallize. There is a re-
markable experiment of Perkins which bears out this supposition ; he ex-
posed glacial acetic acid with jth water to a pressure of 1100 atmospheres,
and found that tths of it had crystallized in a few minutes. In some trials
which I have commenced, and in which I have used Epsom salts, nitrate of
potash and common salt, high pressure alone appeared to produce erystal-
lization. I obtained the pressure by the method employed by Degen* to
ascertain whether oxygen and hydrogen combined with one another under
great pressure. This method consists in decomposing water in a closed tube,
by means of a voltaic current. I employed a U-tube, in one leg of which I
placed the solution of the salt, and in the other the water to be decomposed.
The decomposition was effected by means of two platinum wires soldered
into the glass. Degen introduced a manometer-tube into his apparatus, by
which he was able to register the pressure. In my first experiments I did
not think this necessary, as they were only tentative. As it will be necessary
to make a series of pressure experiments upon every salt the solubility of
which I may seek to determine at high temperatures, in order that I may be
able to determine what is due to pressure and what to temperature in the
phenomena of solution at high temperatures, I must use a manometer in all
future experiments. I am in hopes that a series of experiments made with
Regnault’s piezometer upon the comparative compressibility of concentrated
solutions of single salts, and of mixtures of salts according to the schemes of
classification, according to form and chemicai composition above suggested,

‘may give results which can serve to indicate molecular changes not other-
wise recognizable. It is also probable that many new hydrates may be pro-
duced under the influence of great pressure; and that the character of the
precipitates, the form, specific gravity, and other physical properties of salts
crystallized under the joint influence of pressure, and the presence of other
substances in solution, may present interesting modifications.

The experiments of Grassi having shown that the compressibility of
distilled water free of air decreases as the temperature rises, while the com-
pressibility of all the other Auids experimented upon increases with the tempe-
rature, the action of pressure upon the solutions of salts in water must be
different from that which it exerts upon similar solutions in alcohol, ether,
&e. I will not discuss this subject further here, as I hope very soon to be

* Poggendorff’s Annalen, vol. xxxviii. p. 454. ‘
1859. x

306 J REPORT—1859.

able to bring forward the results of some experiments on this very interesting
branch of the subject.

Capillary Ascension and Diffusion of Saline Solutions.—The experiments
of Valson, Poiseuille, and Willibald Schmidt, indicate that the capillary height
of fluids and the rapidity of their flow through capillary tubes is not alto-
gether dependent upon their density, but is also influenced by the nature of
the substances in solution. Valson * has examined the influence which the
addition of one fluid would have upon the capillary height of another. He
finds that this would be different according as the intervening fluid acted
chemically or not upon the other; in the latter case only did the capillary
height appear as a linear function of the increment of volume, while both
those magnitudes may be expressed by an exponential curve with asymptotes
when chemical action takes place. He has deduced the following results
from experiments made with sulphuric acid (HO, SO,), concentrated acetic
acid, and alcohol, by the successive addition of increments of water to them:
—1, that a change of capillary height takes place regularly as each success-
ive increment of water is added; 2, the action of the successive increments
upon the capillary height diminishes; 3, a modification of molecular activity
exerts a greater influence on the capillary height than an alteration of
specific gravity of the fluid mass; 4, the mixture of the bodies above named,
although capable of being made in every proportion, may nevertheless be
considered to belong to the category of chemical combination. Valson found
that the addition of about >,4,,; of alcohol to water produced an alteration
of 0:2 millim. in a capillary column of 41°48 millims., which was very well
determinable by the cathetometer.

The experiments of Poiseuille to which I refer, are those upon the flow of
liquids through capillary tubes?. From those made with water and alcohol,
he infers that the velocity of the flow is directly proportional to the pressure,
and inversely to the length of the tube, provided that this length does not
fall below a certain limit which increases and diminishes with the diameter ;
for shorter tubes he found that the velocity increases more rapidly than the
pressure. He found further that, all other conditions being the same, the
quantity discharged is proportional to the fourth power of the diameter of
thetube. The addition of substances soluble in water modified, however, the
velocity of flow ; iodide, bromide, and cyanide of potassium, nitrate of potash,
nitrate of ammonia, chlorides of ammonium and calcium, and acetate of
ammonia accelerated it, while bases retarded it. Among the acids only two
appear to have accelerated it,—hydrocyanic and hydrosulphuric acids. He
only obtained negative results from his further researches to determine how
far the alteration, produced by the addition of various substances, in the
density, capillary height, liquidity, boiling-point, contraction on mixture,
solubility and efflorescence of the substances added, &ce., stood in any simple
relation to the modification in the rate of flow. The experiments of
Schmidtt on the influence of temperature on the rapidity of filtration,
confirm in the main Poiseuille’s results just given. |

I propose to use both the capillary height as determined by the catheto-
meter, and the flow of the solutions through capillary tubes, as tests of the
molecular changes which take place in solutions of a single salt at different
temperatures, and with mixtures of salts according to the schemes laid down
above. The instrument which I am constructing for the experiments on the
flow of the solutions consists of a modification of Vierordt’s endosmometer, by
which I can use tubular diaphragms of various lengths and diameters of tubes,

* Compt. Rend. vol. xlv. p. 101. + Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. vol. xxi. p. 76.

+ Poggendorft’s Annalen, vol. xcix. p. 353. -

ON THE SOLUBILITY OF SALTS. 307

and apply a constant pressure during the whole time of the experiment. I
propose, in addition to diaphragms composed of capillary glass tubes cemented
together, to use also a series of platinum plates of various thicknesses,
and pierced with holes of successively increasing diameters. By means of
this instrument I shall be able not only to make experiments on the flow of
liquids from a full vessel through capillary tubes into a space filled only with
air, but likewise on the phenomenon of diffusion through such tubes—a kind
of osmosis corresponding to what Fick calls pore diffusion.

Phenomena connected with Density—The phenomena belonging to this
category which may serve as tests of molecular changes in saline solutions,
are,—l, density at various temperatures of solutions saturated at 0° and 100°
and other intermediate points; 2, amount of condensation which takes place
in saturated solutions when effected at different temperatures ; 3, condensation
which takes place on diluting saturated solutions with successive equivalent
quantities of water; 4, density of supersaturated solutions at various tempera-
tures; 5, point of maximum density of solutions ; 6, influence of pressure
upon the point of maximum density, and on the amount of condensation
which results from dilution. The densities of a great number of saline solu-
tions have recently been determined with great care by Kremers and Gerlach,
and Léwel. These furnish valuable data both for scientific and practical
purposes, and will be of the greatest assistance to me. In subjects of this
kind, both on account of their extent and character, every observer has
necessarily his own point of view, and makes use of different means to
attain the same result. Thus for my special object I consider it better to
confine my attention at first to saturated solutions, than to experiment upon
solutions of different degrees of concentration. With regard to the point of
maximum density, I shall only have to endeavour to continue what Despretz
has so admirably begun.

Thermology of Saline Solutions.—I shall do little more than indicate on
this occasion the phenomena connected with heat, which may be studied as
tests of molecular changes, They are,—l, expansion of saturated saline
solutions, already included under the head of density; 2, contraction of
saturated solutions before they yield any crystals; 3, changes of volume
which accompany crystallization ; 4, point of congelation of saturated saline
solutions; 5, boiling-point of saturated solutions; 6, latent solution and
dilution heat of single salts, and of mixtures made according to the schemes
laid down above; 7, specific heat of such solutions; 8, tension of vapours
from saline solutions, Nothing need be said here on the subject of expan-
sion of saline solutions, as the value of determinations of the rate of ex-
pansion can only be judged of as tests of molecular changes when we are in
possession of data upon the other physical properties of solutions. The
contraction which saline solutions undergo in cooling before crystals separate
is of great importance, and in many cases will be found not to correspond
to the expansion when heated through the same number of degrees. The
changes of volume which accompany crystallization, and the point of con-
gelation of saline solutions, are intimately connected with the subject of their
latent solution and dilution heat and their specific heat. The study of these
phenomena includes,—1, the determination of the specific heat of the solid
and fused anhydrous salt itself, and of the hydrates which it forms; 2, simi-
lar determinations for mixtures of salts according to the schemes laid down
above, whenever such mixtures can be fused together; 3, and lastly, of
determinations of the latent fusion heat of simple salts and mixtures of salts.
As regards the boiling- points of saline solutions, I propose to divide this part
of the investigation into two parts; first, to determine the maximum effect

308 REPORT—1859.

which each salt experimented upon can produce in raising the boiling-point ;
secondly, to determine, as Legrand did for a great number of salts, how much
of each salt would be required to raise the temperature of boiling by one
degree Cent. successively from 100° to the maximum which the particular
salt can raise it to; aud thirdly, the effect of mixture in the laws established
for the pure salt.

The study of the tension of vapours from saline solutions promises to be a
very useful test of molecular changes. Regnault believes that the vapour from
boiling saline solutions has the same temperature as the solution, and that the
study of the tension of the vapours of such solutions might determine the im-
portant problem, whether salts were still joined to their crystalline water when
in solution, and may in this way prove as useful a test as polarized light ;
and also whether double salts exist in solution, or are only formed at the
moment of crystallization. Rudberg concluded from his experiments that
the temperature of vapour arising from saline solutions was independent of
the temperature of the solution. Von Babo has found* that the vapour from
a boiling saline solution has less tension than steam of a corresponding tem-
perature. Pliicker has also foundt that the vapour tension of saline solutions
is less than that of pure water, and that the difference of tension may answer
as a relative measure of the active molecular force between the salt and
water, and of the law of its increase with the increasing quautity of salt.
He states that the diminution of tension of the vapour is so directly propor-
tional to the increase of salt, that the determination of this tension at 100°
Cent. will give the per-centage of salt to solution, at least as well as the finest
areometer. Willner} has also found that the differences of tension are directly
as the quantities of salts dissolved. The differences of tension are repre-
sented by a differently expressed function of the temperature for each salt
and mixture of salts. He also finds that no relationship can be established
between the differences of tension and any of the other properties of the
salts, especially the solubility ; which fully bears out a conclusion which I
came to above upon different grounds, that the force with which a salt may
be held by the solvent, does not seem to bear much relation to its solubility.
He also states that salts which cannot act chemically upon one another,
modify each other’s attraction for the water, when they occur together in
solution. As it is doubtful whether any such salts exist, this would mean
that all salts modify each other’s affinity for water, when their solutions are
mixed. Wiillner also considers the differences of tension to be a measure
of the actual attractive force between the water and salt. It appears to me
that the difference of tension can serve as a measure of the amount of
decomposition which takes place on mixing two soluble salts which do not
give a precipitate, and also of the influence of mass and of form iu such
decompositions at different temperatures. I accordingly propose to use them
for that purpose, as well as also in conjunction with the experiments which I
am making on the removal of salts from solutions by porous substances not
acting chemically upon them, as a measure of the force by which salts are
held in solution.

Pliicker has also observed some very remarkable affinity relations which
admit of being numerically determined when to a mixture of two fluids a
third is added, or when a salt is dissolved in the mixture—which is indeed
the case upon which he lays most stress, and the tension of the vapour de-
termined, and from this the composition calculated. Thus, for example,

* Ann. der Chem. und Pharm. vol. Ixvii. p. 356.
+t Poggendorff’s Annalen, vol. xcii. p. 193.
¢ Ibid. vol. ciii, 529; and vol. ev. p. 85.

ON THE SOLUBILITY OF SALTS. 309

water added to a mixture of alcohol and ether increased the tension of the
mixed vapours and lowered the boiling-point of the mixture. In the same
mapner common salt considerably increases the tension of the vapour which
rises into a closed space from a mixture of alcohol and water, and diminishes
the boiling-point. Pliicker did not experimentally determine the relative
proportions of each vapour before and after the addition of the salt. It
would not be easy to do so; but if it could be accurately done, it would be
of great importance, for it seems to me to be necessary in order to control
the calculated determinations, and help to give a correct explanation of the
phenomenon. From some experiments made with mixtures of other sub-
stances, I have found that the relative proportion of each liquid which distils
over from a mixture of two or more fluids, before and after the addition
of a salt, is very different, but I have not yet determined the influence of
temperature, relative proportions of the fluids forming the mixture, and of
the mass of the salt, upon the proportions. The action of chloride of calcium
upon a mixture of methylic alcohol, acetone, and a number of other liquids,
the aleohol being in largest quantity, throws much light upon the phenomena
observed by Pliicker.

The mixture alluded to dissolves fused chloride of calcium with great
facility; when a large quantity has been added, the fluid suddenly splits
into two layers, the heavier of which contains the whole of the chloride
of calcium, the lighter none. All the fluids of low boiling-points happened
to separate from the chloride of calcium in the cases which I happened to
observe. On heating the chloride of calcium solution in a retort, a large
portion of the liquid distilled over; on adding water to the residue, and ap-
plying heat, another separation took place of some oily compounds, which
distilled over along with water. If the mixture was distilled in the first
instance before sufficient chloride of calcium had been added to cause the
separation of the fluids, we should have an excellent example of the case de-
scribed by Pliicker. The molecular union of the atoms Z O, and CH. O,
may be assumed to have been disturbed by the atom of NaCl, which had a
stronger affinity for the water than the latter had for the alcohol ; the alcohol
was accordingly set free and lowered the boiling-point. The separation of
the liquid into two parts does not always take place so evidently as in the
ease which I have above described, but it is probable the effect is essen-
tially the same. If this explanation be true, certain salts ought to produce
a diminution of tension, and the boiling-point ought to rise; thus, if we add
a large quantity of salts which are more soluble in ether than in alcohol to
a mixture of those fluids, the boilizg-point ought to rise, unless the adhesion
of the salt and ether be so much diminished by the heat, that the ether should
separate again in part and distil over. I had an opportunity of observing an
example of this kind in the case of some very volatile, oleaginous bodies,
some of which combined with CaCl. Generally speaking, however, the heat
required to vaporize the denser oils was sufficient to decompose the molecular
combination with the CaCl, although it was sometimes possible to produce
the splitting into two fluids. The whole subject is evidently one well worth
further investigation, as I have no doubt that very great light would thereby
be thrown upon the nature of solution. It also affords a measure of the
comparative forces by which different salts are held by water and other
solvents, and which I propose to make full use of for that purpose.

The diathermancy of solutions, which has been made the subject of inves-
tigation by Frantz, may likewise be made use of hereafter, as also the optical
properties, such as their refractive and dispersive powers, &c. Kremers has

310 REPORT—1859.

already made many experiments upon the former. As I have not attempted
anything in this direction as yet, I shall not dwell upon these subjects; the
more so, as I believe I have fulfilled the object with which this preliminary
report was written; namely, to give an idea of the character of the work I
am engaged in, and the manner in which I propose to execute it. In con-
clusion, I shall only say a few words on one other feature of my plan of re-
search which I hold to be of paramount importance. Hitherto I have only
alluded to the subject of atomic volume, as a secondary element of morpho-
logical classification (isatomes and polyatomes). This has not arisen, how-
ever, from want of appreciation of the great benefits which chemical theory has
derived from the introduction of the doctrine of atomic volume into science,
and especially from the labours of Kopp and others in connexion therewith.
The opinions put forward by Avogadro, Hunt, and others, whatever may be
their intrinsic merit, show us that there exists as yet much room for diversity
of opinion. On this account I will not, in the first instance, introduce the
element of volume at all into the discussion of my numerical results. Many
experimentalists have used in their experiments on points connected with
molecular physics, quantities of the bodies operated upon which bear no
relation to the proportional weights, according to which all chemical com-
bination takes place. The remarkable laws of combination are too univer-
sally true to allow us to doubt that, although there maybe a difference
between chemical and physical molecules, there must be some simple mul-
tiple relations between them. The remarkable relation established by Du-
long between the proportional weights (equivalents) of bodies and their
specific heat, is a striking confirmation of this opinion. In all the experi-
ments which I propose to make, I will, as I have likewise heretofore done,
always use the bodies operated upon in equivalent proportions. If we experi-
ment on the physical properties of a single homogeneous substance, it makes
no matter what quantities are employed, because by a simple calculation we
can reduce our numerical results to equivalent quantities ; it is quite other-
wise, however, when we operate upon mixtures, for here any excess over
the equivalent quantity influences the results, especially if we assume solution
to be a chemical process. In this way I hope to be able to avoid all per-
plexing anomalies, arising from the presence of an excess of one constituent
in a solution, which could interfere with the ready perception of any law
governing the phenomena.

Provisional Report on the Progress in the Solution of certain Special
Problems in Dynamics. By A. Cayuery, F.R.S.

Tue author stated the reasons which delayed the furnishing of the full Re-
port, which he hoped to have ready for the next Meeting of the Associa-
tion.

NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.

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NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

MATHEMATICS.

Introductory Remarks by the President, The Ear or Rosse.

Ir has, I believe, been usual, at least recently, in opening the proceedings, to give, as
far as may be practicable, a general outline of the business to be brought before the
Section, and some kind of notice of the order in which it is likely to be taken. As,
however, many papers are often sent in after the meeting of the’ Section, and as
frequently circumstances arise rendering it necessary to alter the order of proceeding,
any notice that can be given must be very imperfect; the daily notices, however,
will in some degree supply the deficiency. It has also been usual, I believe, and it is
obviously convenient, in some degree to define the general character of the business
to be transacted, so that new Members may be enabled better to decide whether to
attend this Section or some other. I have made inquiry, and find that already there
have been received papers on pure mathematics, applied mathematics, magnetism,
light, electricity, and meteorology, besides papers on the construction of philoso-
phical instruments. From the titles of the papers, some idea may be formed of the
general character of the business to be transacted; still there are many subjects, in
fact several branches of science, which are as yet unrepresented in the papers.

First as to the papers on pure mathematics. I need perhaps hardly say that essays
on so abstruse a subject cannot be of very much interest except to mathematicians ;
and even mathematicians, unless the papers happen to relate to the particular
branches of mathematics with which they are most conversant, may perhaps be
sometimes unable to do more than catch the general scope and leading principles of
the paper; still without mathematical knowledge many may often, in the results
announced, and indeed in the remarks casually elicited, obtain interesting glimpses
into the nature of mathematical processes, and some idea of the progress making
in that direction.

In applied mathematics there is much more of general interest, and the results
are often perfectly intelligible without a special education. I recollect at the Meet-
ing of the British Association at Oxford, the general results of a very abstruse in-
vestigation in applied mathematics in physical astronomy, were so brought forward
as to rivet the attention of the whole Section. It was an account given in general
terms by M. Le Verrier of his researches for the identification of a comet.

The discoveries in electricity, magnetism, heat, and light cannot fail to be of great
general interest. To the human mind nothing is so fascinating as progress. It is
not that which we have long had we most value, but that which we have recently
acquired : we especially prize new acquisitions, while we enjoy almost unconsciously
gifts of far greater value we have long been in possession of. This is our nature ;
thus we are constituted ; it certainly is not surprising therefore that we should have

1859. 1

Z REPORT—1859.

a peculiar relish for new discoveries. The interest of a discovery is not usually con-
fined to the discoverer, unless he is very churlish, or even to those who are endea-
vouring to discover ; but it often extends to the whole civilized world. The interest
is, however, not lasting ; for a time we are dazzled by the brilliancy of the discovery ;
gradually, however, the impression becomes fainter, and at last it is lost entirely in the
splendour of some fresh discovery, which carries with it the charm of novelty. When
we reflect upon this, we cannot but perceive how very different the state of the world
would have been had mankind from the beginning been in possession of all the
knowledge we now have, and there had been no progress ever since. We ask, why
have all these wonders been placed before us—hidden, veiled—only to be brought to
light by the vigorous use of our faculties? How wonderful from its origin has been
the progress of geometrical science! Beginning perhaps 3000 years ago almost from
nothing, one simple relation of magnitude suggesting another; the relations beco-
ming gradually more complicated, more interesting, more important, till in our day it
expands into a science which enables us to weigh the planets ; more wonderful still,
to calculate long beforehand the course they will take acted upon by forces continually
varying in direction and magnitude. When we ask ourselves such questions as
these considerations suggest, and thoughtfully work out the answers as far as pos-
sible in their full depth of detail, we become in some degree conscious of the immense
moral benefits which the human race has derived, and is deriving, from the gradual
progress of knowledge. ‘The discoveries, however, in physical science are often im-
mediately applicable to practice, giving man new powers, enabling him better to
supply his many wants. We therefore, who are all, in some degree at least, utilita-
rians, on that account very naturally regard them with deep interest. Iam sure the
mere mention of the subject has already suggested to you many of the extraordinary
discoveries of latter times ; for instance, the production of force almost without limit
by heat, and its application to locomotion by sea and land,—the transmission of
thought, not slowly by letter, not to short distances by sound, but instantaneously to
immense distances by electricity ; and when we look around us and see how man
has appropriated to his use the properties of light and heat, the powers of wind
and water, the materials which have been placed before him in endless variety on the
surface of the globe which he inhabits,—that he has effected all this by knowledge
accumulated by what we call Science,—it is surely not surprising that we should look
upon new discoveries with surpassing interest. The mere utilitarian, however, has
been often reminded that discoveries the most important, the most fruitful in prac-
tical results, have frequently in the beginning been apparently the most barren, and |
therefore that the discoveries in abstract science are not without interest even for
him. I confess, however, that the gradual development of scientific discovery,—in
fact, in other words, the steady flow of knowledge into the world—which like a stream
becoming broader and deeper as it proceeds points to its own source, to its own
origin, which is the origin of man,—TI confess that this arrangement appears to me
to serve far nobler purposes than merely to minister to the corporeal wants of man,
as they increase, cr are supposed to increase, with the progress of civilization.
What those purposes are, to some extent, I think we may clearly see, though to
fathom the full depth of such an inquiry would be beyond our powers. Looking
merely on the surface, we perceive that the continual springing up of new facts, new
discoveries, in endless succession, the rewards of industry, must tend to make man
industrious. It inspires him with hope, entices him to labour with his mind—
the hardest of all labour; it quickens his faculties, it forces him to look behind and
before, to the past and future, and it promotes in him a high moral training by the
influence it exercises over his habits and thoughts. Many, no doubt, will feel anxious
to see principles immediately applied to practice ; in common language, to see prin-
ciples made useful: they will be highly gratified in the Mechanical Section. Here
they may, perhaps, occasionally see the same thing ; but more frequently they will
find that the results are but stepping-stones which prepare the way for further pro-
gress. These few remarks, which I have made principally for the convenience of
new Members, will, I think, be sufficient to give some little idea of the kind of busi-
ness to be transacted here, and I will not allude to the actual practical results which
have immediately followed from the labours of this Section. They have been
detailed, and recently, especially by my friend on my right hand, Dr. Robinson ;

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. $

and I will only further add, that I feel much gratified to find so large an attendance
of eminent men of science here, ready to correct oversights and supply deficiencies.
They, I am well aware, are far more competent to preside here than I can be ; but,
with their assistance, the duty will be light; and as the Council, no doubt on good
grounds, have made the present arrangement, | will, without hesitation or misgiving,
at once proceed with the business,

On the Probability of Uniformity in Statistical Tables. By R. CAMPBELL.

The object of this paper is to find a test for ascertaining whether an observed
degree of uniformity or the reverse in statistical returns is to be considered
remarkable.

Suppose the population to consist of m persons, which we will suppose nearly con-
stant. Let @ be the number of years during which observations are taken, and sup-
pose the whole number of phenomena of a certain class occurring to, or presented
by, the individuals in the population to be ad. We will suppose the phenomena of a
kind which are not likely to occur to the same person more than once in the same
year, [Of this nature are most important facts, of which such Tables are formed. ]
Now suppose we know nothing of the laws by which these facts occur, except
that above given, namely, that the total number in a years is ab. Let us see what
kind of uniformity (starting from that fact alone) we should expect the Tables to
present.

Let the people alive in a particular year be Aj, Ag...An. The probability then

of the phenomenon being presented in that year by A; is : . The probability that
n

it will be presented by A, and not by A, will be 2 a

n an—
the probability of its being presented by A; only; the probability of its being pre-
sented by one person only ; the probability of its being presented by two persons only,
and soon. ‘These expressions will be very complicated. That for the probability
of the phenomenon being presented by b persons only will be

(n—1) (n—2) ... (n—D+1) ab—1 ab—2 ab—b+1 (1- a=
a9 4G *9*on—1 an—2 an—b+1 an—b

je 8 j—__ vb
( an—(b+1) ceeeee( reste Ny

Now though these expressions are complicated, we get some very simple results.
The above expression would be deducible from the expression for the probability of
the phenomenon being presented by 6—1 persons only, by multiplying by a factor

b(a—2
which reduces itself to 1+ Bor

). Hence we can find

It would be deduced from the expression for the probability of b+1 persons pre-
senting it by multiplying by a factor, which reduces to
(a—1)n—(a—1)b+1
(gis a= SS
13 (n—b)(a—1)b
Now these are always greater thanl. ‘This shows that the average number is the
most probable one to occur in a particular year.

The ratios of the probabilities of 6 occurring, to that of (b—1), (o—2), &c. are
6 to 6-1,

m—b+1 ab—b+]

b ep SST ae mc a eC
b to b-2,
(n—b+1) (M—b4+2) | ab—b+1 ab—b+2
b. @—1) an—ab—n—b an—ab—n—b+1’ 2h Roles (b)
and so on, Sa ‘ F i: A . ; ‘ a

4 REPORT—1859.

b to 6+1,
b+1 an—ab—n—b-1
Pa ig aa Me are eee ee a,
b to 64-2,
(+1042) {an—ab—(n—b—1) }fan—ab—(n—b—2)} (8)
(n—b)(n—b—1) (ab —b)(ab—b—1) :

These results are capable of remarkable interpretations, which will be best illus-
trated by a numerical example, which by the aid of logarithms may be worked out
with great ease *.

On Calculating Lunars. By Colonel SHORTREDE.

Besides the trigonometrically rigorous methods of reducing lunars, there has been
during the last ninety years a multitude of approximate methods more or less exact,
and no lack of subsidiary Tables for facilitating the solution.

The method here proposed is short and simple, and requires no subsidiary Tables
beyond those of refraction and parallax, and the common Tables of logarithms to
five places; and the result is always correct to within a quarter of a second.

The corrections in altitude into the cosines of the adjacent angles give the prin-
cipal corrections on the apparent distance. We cannot from the given altitudes and
distance get the cosines directly, but we find them by means of the versines. The
right-angled triangles formed by perpendiculars from the true places to the apparent
distance being calculated as plane triangles, the greatest possible error on the moon’s
correction cannot exceed 0'"4.

The smaller segment of the true distance is found by means of the logs used in
finding the principal corrections, using as a first approximation the reduced or cur-
tate distance instead of the greater segment. The cotangent of the greater segment
to three places requires to be found; for the cot of the smaller segment we may
use the complement of its log sine.

The squares of the perpendiculars are found by taking the product of the sum
and difference of the corrections in altitude and in distance.

Logs to five places are required for the principal correction of the moon; for the
other parts of the work, logs to three places will ordinarily suffice.

For the error on Muy as above found.

tan Mu=tan Mm.cosm,

Mp+ Mut + &e.=005 M(Mm-+ Me + &c. it

3 3
Mpu—Mm cos M= se cos M— —
3 3
= Mm cos M— Mm cos® M
3 3
3
= Mm cos M sin? M.

For secondary corrections.

cos .cosp=cosh=cos (b+d) =cosb cos d—sin b sin d,

sin 6 sin d=cos b (cos d— cos p) = cos b. 2 sin = : sin?

sin d=cot b (vers p—vers d) =2 sin? 4p cot b—cot 6 vers d,
inl!

— aoe p' cot b— &c.

* The above paper is published at length in the Philosophical Magazine for November
1859, and in the Assurance Magazine for January 1860. : ;

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS,

For segments of true distance.

sin Mm.sinM__ sin Ss.sin§

sin l=

sin Im sin Is
: sinSs.sinS , sinSo.sinZM ,
sin Is= sin Mmsia M S12 In= sin’ -sin ZS 8 In
__Ss.cosA ,

ile er (ms—Is).

On the Figure of an imperfectly Elastic Fluid.
By Professor Hennessy, PRS.

It appears that the shape of a mass of such a fluid is dependent on its volume in
such a way that any abstraction from or addition to that volume will in general be
attended with a change of figure. This proposition, when applied to the case of a
mass in rotation, shows that if the earth has gradually passed into its present state
from one of complete fluidity, the figure of the inner surface of the consolidated crust
must be more elliptical than the stratum of fluid out of which it was formed. The
actual amount by which the ellipticity would be so increased would depend upon
the law of density of the fluid, but the general result of an increase in the value of
the ellipticity is completely independent of the law of density, and of any hypothesis
as to the constitution of the interior fluid mass.

Note on the Calculus of Variations.
By Professor Linve or, of the University of Helsingfors.

In the problems with which the calculus of variations is concerned, it becomes
necessary to regard the form of certain unknown functions as variable and capable
of passing from any given form to any other in a continuous manner. The only way
of rigorously establishing this indispensable continuity appears to be that followed
by the illustrious Euler, that is to say, by the introduction of an arbitrary and vari-
able parameter. The function which ought to vary, or rather change its form, is
then regarded as a particular value of a more general function, which, besides the
principal variables, also involves an arbitrary parameter, and the variation of the
function is nothing more than its differential taken with respect to this parameter.

The calculus of variations has thus become a simple application of the differential
calculus to the case where the function to be differentiated is a definite integral.
The first problem which presents itself is to find the variation of the given integral,
in other words, to differentiate the integral with respect to a parameter which it may
contain in any manner whatever. This first problem has gradually received its
complete solution through the researches of Euler, Poisson, and Ostrogradsky. But
the moment we attempt to pass to the applications of the calculus we encounter a
second, and more difficult problem, which for a long time has resisted the efforts of
the greatest mathematicians ; it consists in preparing the variation so that all its
parts may be examined, in other words, so that the equations relative to the limits
of the integral may be found. This preparation necessitates a series of partial in-
tegrations. Now the limits of the variables which, after the integrations, must be
substituted for the variables themselves are so mixed up with each other, and with
the variables themselves, that it appears impossible to take them into account by
means of the system of notation in general use.

This difficulty has at length been happily overcome by an expedient, at once in-
genious and simple, due to M. Sarrus of Strasburg. In a memoir to which the
Parisian Academy of Sciences awarded a prize, M. Sarrus has introduced a new
symbol to indicate the substitutions to be made in any expression, and by means of
this symbol he has been able, not only to find the variation of a multiple integral,
but to examine the same completely. We may add that Cauchy, in a memoir on
the calculus of variations which he was never able to finish, adopts the innovation
introduced by M. Sarrus, after slightly modifying the symbol of substitution in order

6 REPORT—1859.

to render it more accordant with the symbols of integration with which it is involved
in researches of this kind.

My sole object in recalling these well-known facts has been to indicate the
starting-point of my own researches on the calculus of variations, a few of whose
results I have now the honour to communicate.

Following the example of M. Sarrus, I apply the term definite expression to any
function whatever in which fixed values have been substituted for all the indepen-
dent variables. Such a definite expression is no longer a function of these variables ;
it depends solely upon the parameters, that is to say upon the indeterminate con-
stants, which it happens to contain.

It is at once seen that every definite integral possesses this property, the variables
themselves being therein replaced by certain limiting values. In order to indicate,
in other expressions, that a certain variable must be replaced by a particular value, we
shall employ the symbol | ; so that

neon, 2,

i
| u, or simply | «

denotes the result obtained by substituting the value «,, in place of the variable a, in
the expression wv. In conformity with the notation of the integral calculus, the
same symbol will also serve to denote the difference between the results obtained by
two different substitutions. Thus the notation

x=, ,

u, or simply u

2=2, 2,

denotes that the variable must be successively replaced by x, and #, and the first
resu!t subtracted from the second; so that

vy x, a)

|
u=;uU-
|

The definition of a definite expression may now be more precisely expressed thus :
it is a function submitted to integrations or to substitutions with respect to each of
its independent variables. Such an expression is invariable so long as the constants
which it contains preserve the same fixed values. But if it should contain an inde-
terminate parameter whose value changes, the expression in question will become a
function of that parameter, and under this point of view may be differentiated.

This being granted, the most general problem of the calculus of variations, the
problem in which, in fact, the whole theory of this calculus is contained, consists in
finding the derived-function of any definite expression with respect to a variable
parameter. M. Sarrus, it is true, has rendered the determination of this derived
function possible in every particular case, but neither he nor Cauchy has given a
general rule of differentiation applicable to every definite expression. I believe I have
established this rule, and in the following manner.

Let us suppose the function V, containing any number of independent variables

, @, Y, 2, 5.00 3, Tt, 5
to be subjected to integrations or substitutions with reference, successively, to cach
of the variables according to the inverse order of their enumeration ; so that the first
operation shall refer to ¢, the second to s, and so on up to the last, which shall have
reference to x.
Further, let

*, Zyy eee Sy,
be the inferior, and allie ih

Loy Yor Zaye + + Bas Ly
the superior limits of these variables.

_ The limits ¢, and ¢, of the variable ¢ may be functions of x, y, %, ...... 8, but they-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7

must be independent of ¢. Similarly, the limits of the variable s may be functions of
all the variables a, y, z.... which precede it, and so on up to the variable x whose
limits are independent of all the variables.

The result of these operations will be a definite expression, which, for brevity, may
be represented by OV. It is required to find the derived function of OV with
respect to a parameter ¢, which may at the same time be contained in V and in all
the limits of the variables.

For brevity we employ the symbols

x x.

1 p Yi y 4
de, fae, fou, fy fy Pe
da’ da’ da’ da’ dx’ dz"*****
as defined by the equations
Xy By
dx = det, dx — da,
da da’ du ba de’
nh Yo
A Ma NE a.
da de’ 7 ne hg
pl Ye
dy — dy, dy = dy, &
dz dx” 7 ape ia

This will clearly give rise to no error, since the expressions
de de dy
dz dx’ da’

have, in themselves, no meaning whatever.

This being admitted, the general rule at which I have arrived may be thus
enunciated.

In order to differentiate any definite expression with respect to a variable para-
meter «, neglect, in the first place, all the symbols of substitution and take the
derived function of the remaining integral, treating the variables to which the above
substitutions refer, as if each were a function of all the preceding ones and of #; in
each term of the result restore the symbols of substitution before withdrawn. From
the symbolical form which is thus obtained the true expression of the required de-
rived function may be immediately obtained.

In order to illustrate the application of this rule, let us seek the derived func-

tion, with respect to ~, of the expression

eee

vy Yo Bo
Hehe | Vay.
x 9%
Neglecting, in the first place, the symbols of substitution, we must differentiate the
integral

{ Vdy;
"1

its derived function with respect to « is, according to the formula of M. Sarrus,
Y2 1dV Yr (dy, 9i_ 7g,
aN aya) _ v(54).
( (7)a+ ie (2) | du
re '
. Now since-# and % are the variables to which the neglected symbols of substitu-

tion refer, we must, on differentiating, proceed as if each of the three variables
#, x, % were a function of those which precede it; that is to say, we must consider

8 REPORT—1859.
z as a function of « and a, and # asa function of «. For the total derived func-
tions, therefore, we shall have the values
eS _dV dV dx (2! dz “4
da! de dx de dz\de dx dz!’
(#)= = 1 4 My de dx

da) dw dx de’
(#)= = Mo, da
da! de dx de

By introducing these values into the preceding expression, and afterwards re-esta-
blishing the symbols of substitution before withdrawn, we arrive at the symbolical

formula
v, 2 Zo
vel fo] { Ge aN dV = ee) \ P,

are “da de dxda
EON, Eh
® Yo 2 VY) 2
+] | [oetea)-| | [vGe-24)
| de “de da dx da)’
x, %y Bee By

. V :
In order to deduce the true expression for , we must decompose, successively,

the triple symbols of substitution into simple ones, and afterwards replace the sym-

bolical derived functions ae = Be by the real ones which they represent, and

da’ da dx
which are determined by a prefixed symbol of substitution.

This rule serves to effectuate with facility all the reductions which have to be
applied to the variation of an integral; but to enter into further details at presert
would be to demand too much from the patience of this illustrious assembly.

I shall merely add a short remark relative to the application of the calculus of
variations to the investigation of the maxima and minima of definite integrals.

In seeking the absolute maximum or minimum of any integral S, containing one
or more unknown functions, it is merely necessary to introduce into these functions
an arbitrary parameter « in order to reduce the problem to that of finding the maximum
or minimum of a given function. In fact, by so doing, the integral S becomes a
function of «, and its maximum or minimum is determined from the equation

dS _3S=0.
a

But if, at the same time, certain other integrals S,, S,, &c.... are required to pre-

serve the constant values

S, = ¢,, S,=6., &C...+0
during the variation of the unknown functions, the method just indicated does not
suffice. In this case, which notwithstanding its frequent occurrence has scarcely
ever yet been treated ia a sufficiently rigorous manner, the result may be arrived at
by a very simple expedient. Into each of the unknown functions let a number of
parameters a, 8, y ... equal to the number of integrals S, 8,, S,... be introduced ;
these integrals, ivtiiol thus become functions of the parameters, may then be repre-
sented by

S= («,B,y.. “5 8, => (2,8, y.. SF Ss, = x (a, B, ys. SF Corse
and it now remains to find, amongst all the values of «, Bs yevces which render
BS, HC), Sy =C, «2.000 , those which correspond to a maximum or minimum of S. Ac-

cording to the known principles of the differential calculus, it will suffice, therefore,
to find the absolute maximum or minimum of the sum

STS ik AS

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9

where a, b...... are arbitrary constants to be afterwards determined by the condi-
tions
SC ya = Cay ecinnns

This result is not new; it was in fact known to Euler, though he admitted that
his own demonstration was not complete. I have never yet been able to find in
other works a sufficiently rigorous demonstration of this method.

On the Dynamical Theory of Gases. By Prof. J. C. MAxweEtt.

The phenomena of the expansion of gases by heat, and their compression by press-
ure, have been explained by Joule, Claussens, Herapath, &c., by the theory of their
particles being in a state of rapid motion, the velocity depending on the temperature.
These particles must not only strike against the sides of the vessel, but against each
other, and the calculation of their motions is therefore complicated. The author
has established the following results :—1. The velocities of the particles are not
uniform, but vary so that they deviate from the mean value by a law well known in
the “ method of least squares.” 2. Two different sets of particles will distribute
their velocities, so that their vires vive will be equal ; and this leads to the chemical
law, that the equivalents of gases are proportional to their specific gravities. 3. From
Prof. Stokes’s experiments on friction in air, it appears that the distance travelled by

a particle between consecutive collisions is about math of an inch, the mean
?

velocity being about 1505 feet per second; and therefore each particle makes
8,077,200,000 collisions per second. 4. The laws of the diffusion of gases, as
established by the Master of the Mint, are deduced from this theory, and the
absolute rate of diffusion through an opening can be calculated. The author intends
to apply his mathematical methods to the explanation on this hypothesis of the
propagation of sound, and expects some light on the mysterious question of the
absolute number of such particles in a given mass.

Supplement to Newton’s Method of resolving Equations.
By the Abbé Moreno.

This was a mathematical paper, showing a method of greatly shortening and
facilitating the finding of the roots of equations of a high order by the method of
limits.

Note on the Propagation of Waves.
By G. Jounstone Stoney, JLA., WRIA.

This communication aimed at introducing less imperfect geometrical conceptions
into the study of wave propagation, than those commonly applied. Each element
of the front of a wave has been usually taken as the origin of a spherical disturbance,
and the subsequent position of the wave simply regarded as the envelope of all such
shells. This mode of treatment has the disadvantage of so imperfectly representing
the phenomena, that it leads to great embarrassments. ‘Thus it leaves the direction
in which waves are propagated enveloped in great mystery, and most of the methods
which have been suggested by geometers for removing the obscurity have failed to
be satisfactory. The difficulty at once vanishes if we fix our attention in the first
instance on the element whose disturbance at a given moment we wish to determine,
and consider, along with its previous condition, all the influences which reach it at
that moment. A spherical shell described round this disturbed element as centre,
will in general (if the medium be homogeneous, &c.) pass through points from which
the influence had started simultaneously ; and if the entire series of such shells be
considered, as well as the time at which the influence from each must have been
thrown off to reach the common centre at the same moment, it will be easily seen,
that, roughly speaking, the parts of the medium behind the disturbed centre were to
a considerable distance in the same or nearly the same phase when they contributed
to its disturbance, whereas those parts in front of it were in rapidly succeeding
phases. From this it follows that the influences arriving from behind will have a
great preponderating resyltant in one direction, while those arriving from the parts

10 REPORT—1859.

in front will almost cancel one another. This clears up at once the maintenance of
the onward propagation of an undulation.

The points of the medium, which were in strictly the same phase as the disturbed
element when they transmitted their influence, lie in general (on the hypothesis of
homogeneity, &c.) on a surface of revolution round the wave-normal, and passing
through the disturbed point. This surface of revolution (which, if we make the
simplest hypotheses, becomes a right cone) is of importance in the theory of waves.

If the medium be such that the disturbing influence is but little enfeebled by di-
stance, this cone will obviously be of small angle, and therefore nearly coincide with
the backward part of the wave-normal. In such a medium waves will therefore
spread but little laterally. A constitution of this kind probably contributes materially
to the rectilinear propagation of light, and explains a phenomenon which shows that
the common account does not universally hold, viz. the known fact that sound
in water bends with less facility round obstacles than sound in air, although the
waves constituting it are longer.

It is necessary to form a clear conception of what is to be understood by the in-
fluence contributed by an element of the medium. The parts beyond one of the
spherical shells produce an effect on the central disturbance. - This effect is modified
by the particular condition in which that shell was at some time previous to the
central disturbance. It is this modification which is to be regarded as the influence
of that shell; and so of the rest. The resultant is therefore to be obtained by inte-
grating from without inwards.

After the conditions which must be attended to when the influence is transmitted
from each origin of disturbance with unequal speed in different directions, or is not
at a given moment limited to a surface, &c., were referred to, some applications of
the method to familiar phenomena which do not admit of easy explanation by the
usual methods, were given.

On the Relations of a Cirele inscribed in a Square. By J. Smitu.

On the Angles of Dock-Gates and the Cells of Bees. By C. M. Wiixicu.

The author showed by trisection of the cube along different planes, the produc-
tion of various solids, and the relation of these to natural forms known in cry-
stallography, to the bee’s cell, and to the theoretical meeting angle of dock-gates
(109° 28' 16”). Thus a rhomboidal dodecahedron is composed of four rhombo-
hedra. The bee’s cell may be imitated by an elongated dodecahedron composed of
seven rhombohedra.

Licut, Heat, ELectricity, MAGNETISM.

On a New Species of Double Refraction.
By Sir Davip Brewster, K.M., LL.D., FERS.

In 1813 Sir David Brewster discovered that when a ray of light is transmitted
obliquely through a bundle of glass plates it is completely polarized; but he at the
same time noticed that this beam is accompanied with other rays, sometimes nebulous,
and sometimes in separate distinct images (depending on the polish and parallelism
of the glass), but polarized in an opposite plane*. This fact was overlooked by
Arago and Herschel in their subsequent researches on the same subject, and was
not further pursued by Sir David Brewster at the time.

In recently examining, however, several hundred films of decomposed glass of
extreme thinness, on which the polish and parallelism of the surfaces enabled him
to resume the study of the compound beam, he obtained the following results :—

1. When a beam of polarized light is incident obliquely upon a pile of thin and
homogeneous uncrystallized films, and subsequently analysed, the transmitted light
will exhibit the phenomena of negative uniaxal crystals, that is, it will consist of two

* See Phil. Trans. 1814, p. 225-230.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 11

oppositely polarized pencils, which produce by interference all the colours exhibited
by such crystals under similar circumstances. )

2. The two oppositely polarized pencils are, first, the pencil polarized by refraction
at each surface ; and secondly, the pencil, or rather the fasciculus of pencils reflected
from the surfaces of each film, and returned into the transmitted beam,

As these phenomena are exactly the same as those produced by double refraction,
the author did not hesitate to call the result a new species of double refraction, or a
hew process in which the phenomena of double refraction are produced.

On the Decomposed Glass found at Nineveh and other places.
By Sir Daviv Brewster, K.H., LL.D. FURS.

The author described the general appearance of glass in an extreme state of decom-
position, when the decomposed part was so rotten as to break easily between the
fingers, a piece of undecomposed glass being generally found in the middle of the plate.
He then explained how, in other specimens, the decomposition took place around one,
two, or more points, forming hemispherical cups, which exhibit the black cross and
the tints of polarized light produced by the interference of the reflected with the
transmitted pencils. In illustration of this decomposition, he showed to the Meeting
three specimens, in one of which there was no colour, but which consisted of innu-
merable circular cavities with the black cross, these cavities giving it the appearance
of ground-glass. In another specimen the film was specular and of great beauty,
showing the complementary colours by reflected and transmitted light. Ina third
variety the films were filled with circular cavities exhibiting the most beautiful colours,
both in common and polarized light. Various other remarkable properties of these
films were described by the author.

On the Submergence of Telegraph Cables. By H. Cox.

On the Stratified Electrical Discharge, as affected by a Moveable Glass Ball.
By J. P. Gassiot, F.R.S,

If the discharges from an induction coil, when taken in a good carbonic acid va-
cuum tube, are examined with care, it will be seen that the stratifications nearer the
negative terminal are remarkably clear and defined, oftentimes showing clearly sepa-
rated cloud-like luminosities, but gradually becoming indistinct and intermingled with
each other towards the positive terminal wire. This difference in the character of the
stratified discharge becomes more perceptible to a certain extent as the vacuum im-
proves ; for when the stratifications are close and narrow, they are regularly diffused
throughout the entire length of the luminous discharge.

In a tube 18 inches long and J} inch wide , I inserted a small bead of uranium glass
about + of an inch in diameter. Transparent uranium glass, Professor Stokes has
shown has the property of becoming opake by the electric light, and this is very beaus
tifully shown in these tubes, but more particularly when the negative discharge is
made to impinge on the bead. If during the discharges the tube is inclined so as to
permit the bead to roll down, the discharges will give the appearance as if a distinct
row of separated beads were present; this appearance arises from the number of dis-
charges which take place during the rotation, each discharge separately and distinctly
illuminating the bead.

The peculiar phenomenon which I, however, desire to bring before the notice of the
Section is one which I only very recently noticed. I have already stated that the
stratifications near the positive wire are indistinct ; but if the glass bead is placed
near the positive wire and then allowed slowly to descend towards the negative, the
stratifications at the positive are at first as clearly defined near that terminal as at the
negative, and as the bead rolls gently down, they have the appearance of following
the bead and issuing one after the other from the positive wire, until the bead reaches
to within a few inches of the negative, when this action gradually ceases. If the tube
is now inclined so as to allow the glass bead to return in the contrary direction, the
stratifications appear to recede, becoming more and more clearly defined, until the
bead passes the positive terminal wire, when the entire discharge returns to its normal
state. —

12 REPORT—1859.

On the Relation between Refractive Index and Volume among Liquids.
By the Rev. T. P. Dare and J. H. Giansrone, Ph.D., FR.

The authors referred to a previous paper, in which they had shown, among other
things, that the sensitiveness of a substance is not directly proportional to the change
of density produced by an alteration of temperature. The theoretical formule re-
lating to the dispersion of light afford little assistance in determining what this rela-
tion is, but a series of careful observations had been made with a view of arriving at
some empirical formula. It was found that the product of the volume, reckoned as
1000 at the boiling-point, and the refractive index for the line A of the prismatic
spectrum less unity, gave numbers which were nearly constant. In the case of
water, alcohol, pure wood-spirit, and bisulphide of carbon, however, the volume
increases a little faster in proportion than the refractive index less unity diminishes,
while with ether the reverse is the case. The regularity of the numbers shows that
this is not due to errors of experim nt. The authors propose examining the subject

more closely.

On the Theory of Light. By G. F. HarRincTon.

Notice of Experiments on the Heat developed by Friction in Air.
By J. P. Joure, LL.D. ERS.

The research which Professor Thomson and myself have undertaken on the ther-
mal effects of fluids in motion, naturally led us to examine the thermal phenomena
experienced by a body in rapid motion through the air. The experiments which we
first made for this purpose were of a very simple kind. We attached a string to the
stem of a sensible thermometer, and whirled it alternately slowly and rapidly. In
this way we uniformly obtained a slight effect; there was a higher temperature
observed immediately after rapid, than after slow whirling. A thermo-electric junction
rapidly whirled also gave us an appreciable thermal effect, indicated by the defiection
of the needle of a galvanometer.

Afterwards a more accurate set of experiments was made by us; using a lathe,
to the spindle of which an arm was attached carrying one of Professor Thomson’s
delicate ether or chloroform thermometers. The thermometers employed were so
extremely sensitive that each division of their scales had a value of not more than
aha of a degree Centigrade. The great value of Professor Thomson’s thermo-
meters in the whirling experiments, was further enhanced by the light specific gravity
of ether comparatively with mercury : the pressure produced by centrifugal force ope-
rating on a long column of mercury, would have probably broken a mercurial
thermometer whirled at high velocity.

The results arrived at by Professor Thomson and myself were as follow :—

lst. The rise of temperature in the whirled thermometer was, except at very slow
velocities, proportional to the square of the velocity.

2nd. The velocity at which the bulb had to travel in order that its temperature
should be raised 1° Cent. was 182 feet per second.

31d. At very slow velocities the quantity of thermal effect appeared to be some-
what greater than that due from the square of the velocity calculated from the above
datum; and we surmised that this was owing to a sort of fluid friction different
from the source of resistance at high velocities. We therefore made several attempts
to increase this fluid friction; the most successful result being obtained by wrapping
fine wire over the bulbs. By this means we succeeded in obtaining the 1? from a
velocity of 30 feet per second, a quantity five or six times as great as that which took
place when the naked bulb was revolved at the same velocity.

We resumed the whirling experiments last May; and it is owing to the circum-
stance that it has happened that I have myself been principally engaged in making
those which I am about to communicate to the Section, that Professor Thomson has
requested me to give an account of this part of our joint labours.

Our object was to repeat the former experiments under new circumstances, so as
to verify and extend the results already obtained. A very brief outline can only be
given in this place, as we intend shortly to incorporate them in a joint paper for the
Royal Society, to whose assistance we owe the means of prosecuting the inquiry.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13

The lathe was again used as the whirling apparatus, but instead of the ether ther-
mometer, we whirled thermo-electric junctions of iron and copper wires. We
obtained the following results :—

1st. The law of the thermal effect was, as with the ether thermometer, proportional
to the square of the velocity.

2nd. The rise of temperature was independent of the thickness of the wire which
formed the thermo-electric junction which was whirled. This was decided by experi-
ments on wires of various diameters, ranging from ;1, to + of aninch diameter. The
rise of temperature was in any of the wires the same as that obtained with the ether
thermometer, the bulb of which was nearly half an inch in diameter.

3rd. The thermal effect appeared likewise to be independent of the shape of the
whirled body ; little difference happening in whatever direction the wire was placed.

4th. The average result was that the wire was warmed 1° by moving at the
velocity of 175 feet per second.

The highest velocity obtained was 372 feet per second, which gave a rise of 5°’3,
and there was no reason to doubt that the thermal effect would go on continually in-
creasing according to the same law with the velocity. Thus ata mile per second the
rise of temperature would be 900°, and at 20 miles per second, which may be taken °
as the velocity with which meteors strike the atmosphere of the earth, 360,000°.

The temperature due to the stoppage of air at the velocity of 143 feet per second
is one degree. Hence we may infer that the rise observed in the experiments was
that due to the stoppage of air, less a small quantity, of which probably the greater
part is owing to loss from radiation. It being also clear that the effect is indepen-
dent of the density of the air, there remains no doubt whatever as to the real nature
of “shooting stars.’’ These are small bodies which come into the earth’s atmo-
sphere at velocities of perhaps 20 miles per second. The instant they touch the atmo-
sphere their surfaces are immediately heated far beyond the point of fusion, or even of
volatilization, and the consequence is that they are speedily and completely burnt
down and reduced to impalpable oxides. It is thus that, by the seemingly in-
sufficient resistance of the atmosphere, Providence secures us effectually from a
bombardment which would in all probability speedily destroy all animated nature,
with the exception of the fishes, which would be partly, but not altogether, protected
by the water in which they swim.

The experiments to carry out and verify our previous results on the thermal effects
which appear to belong to friction on large surfaces at slow velocities were made as
follows :—A disc of zinc or card-board was attached to the revolving axis. An ether
thermometer was attached to the disc, the bulb being near the circumference and
describing a circle with a radius of about 13 foot. Onrotating the disc at the velocity
of 12 foot per second, as much as one-thirtieth of a degree of heat was developed.

On the Transmission of Electricity through Water. By J. B. Linpsay.

The author has been engaged in experimenting on the subject, and in lecturing on
it in Dundee, Glasgow, and other places since 1831. He has succeeded in transmit-
ting signals across the Tay, and other sheets of water, by the aid of the water alone,
as a means of joining the stations. His method is to immerse two large plates con-
nected by wires at each side of the sheet of water, and as nearly opposite to each
other as possible. The wire on the side from which the message is to be sent is to
include the galvanic battery and the commutator or other apparatus for giving the
signal. The wire connecting the two plates at the receiving station is to include an
induction coil or other apparatus for increasing the intensity and the recording
apparatus. The distance between these plates he distinguished by the term “ lateral
distance.” He found that there was always some fractional part of the power from
the battery sent across the water. There were four elements on which he found the
strength of the transmitted current to depend : first, the battery power; second, the
extent of surface of the immersed metal sheets; third, the “ lateral distance’ of the
immersed sheets; and, fourth, in an inverse proportion the transverse distance or
distance through the water. As far as his experiments led him to a conclusion,
doubling avy one of the former three doubled the distance of transmission. If, then,
doubling all would increase the intensity of the transmitted current eightfold, he
entered into calculations to show that two stations in Britain, one in Cornwall and

14 REPORT—1859,

the other in Scotland, and corresponding stations well chosen in America, would
enable us to transmit messages across the Atlantic,

On the Affections of Polarized Light reflected and transmitted by thin
Plates. By the Rev. H. Luoyp, D.D., F.RS.

When plane- polarized light is incident upon a thin plate, the reflected and trans-
mitted pencils are, in general, elliptically polarized. 'This fact was pointed out by
the author many years ago, as a result of theory; and it appears to furnish the
explanation of the phenomena recently observed by Sir David Brewster, and to which
he has called the attention of the Members of this Section. In the present commu-
nication the author proceeds to develope this theoretical result, and to deduce the
laws according to which the elliptical polarization varies, as well with the thickness
of the plate, as with the incidence.

When light incident upon a thin plate is polarized either in the plane of incidence,
or in the perpendicular plane, it will continue polarized in the same plane, after the
successive reflexions and refractions which it undergoes at the two surfaces of the

‘plate; and we have only to seek the magnitude of the resultant vibration. The
problem is different, however, when the light is polarized in any other plane. In this
case the incident vibration must be resolved into two, in the two principal planes,
and for each of these components we must know the phases, as well as the magnitudes,
of the resultant vibrations, before we can estimate their joint effect. As these phases
are in general different, the resulting light is elliptically polarized.

When the media are the same on the two sides of the plate, the difference of phase
of the two component vibrations (upon which the character of the resulting light
mainly depends) is given by the formula

(v?— w’) sin a

tan A= E 3
1—(v?+w?) cos 2+ 07w?’

in which @ is the phase due to the retardation of the wave, which has passed once
to and fro within the plate; and v and w the coefficients of the reflected vibrations,
for light polarized in the plane of incidence, and in the perpendicular plane, respect-
ively. It follows from this, that A varies with we, and therefore with the thickness
of the plate; and that, in the phenomena of the rings, it will go through all its values
within the limits of each ring.

A vanishes, when «=m7z, i.e. both at the bright, and at the dark rings; and
accordingly the light at the former is plane-polarized.

On the other hand, A is a maximum, relatively to the thickness of the plate, when

vw
1+v7w??
and the maximum value is given by the formula

cos ¢=

v2—w? ¥
V (l=) (1—w!)

Substituting for v and w their well-known values in the former of these formule,
we find

tan A=

4 cot¥S= (ut p—1)+ (p—p-1)?;
in which p is the refractive index, and p the ratio of the cosines of incidence and
refraction. It follows from this, that cots increases, from 2 (u+p- at a perpen-

dicular incidence, to infinity when the incidence is most oblique; and that, in a
plate of varying thickness, the points of maximum difference of phase commence
near the middle of an interval, and approach indefinitely to the dark rings as the
incidence approaches to 90°.

A similar discussion of the second formula shows that the maximum difference of
phase increases continuously with the incidence, being nothing at a perpendicular inci-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15

dence, and greatest when the incidence is most oblique. The absolute maximum is
given by the formula
cot caoh 9
(Pee
For ordinary flint-glass, A=26° 0’.

The difference of phase in the two component portions of the polarized beam is
the same in the reflected and in the transmitted pencils.

There is no difficulty in extending the investigation to the more general case, in
which the media on the two sides of the plate are of unequal refractive densities ;
but in this case the law last stated no longer holds. The general formule for the
intensity explain not only the phenomena observed by Arago and by Sir David Brew-
ster, but likewise indicate some results hitherto unnoticed.

On the Mixture of the Colours of the Spectrum. By Prof. J.C. Maxwett.

The author described his apparatus for obtaining a uniform field, illuminated by
the light of any one or more definite portions of the spectrum, and comparing this
mixture with a field of white light in contact with it. The experiments consisted
in obtaining perfect equality between a combination of three definite portions of the
spectrum and this white light. The relations of these portions are then ascertained
by mathematical treatment of the equations so obtained, and it results that Newton’s
“circle of colours ”’ is found to be really two sides of a triangle; red, yellow-green,
and blue being the angular points, and yellow being on the side between red and
green, The extreme red and violet form small portions of the third side, of which
the middle part representing purple is wanting in the spectrum.

The peculiar dimness of the spectrum near the line F, as described to the Section
in 1856, was further investigated, and shown to be more marked to the author’s eye-
sight than to that of others. It results from this that a mixture may be formed,
which appears green to one eye and red to another, and this was found experimentally
true.

These results are only part of a complete investigation of the colours of the spec-
trum, of which the experimental portion is considerably advanced and will shortly
be published.

On certain Laws of Chromatic Dispersion.
By Muneco Ponton, F.R.S.A.

This paper is an attempt to trace the laws regulating the diminution of the wave-
lengths, corresponding to the fixed lines of Fraunhofer, in passing through various
refractive and dispersive media. If U be the length of the undulation, corresponding
to any line, in the free ether, and wu its length after being subjected to the action of

the medium, the relation between U and u may be expressed thus : are +a=u, or
€

e(ut+et+tx)=U. Here cand are constant for the medium and temperature, while
the quantity 2, which is comparatively small, is peculiar to each wave. These
quantities 2 represent that displacement or extrusion of the fixed lines, from their
normal relative positions in the pure diffracted spectrum, which constitutes the
irrationality of the various refracted spectra; and they are accordingly termed the
ewtrusions of the fixed lines, Thus each medium is regarded as having a refractive,
a dispersive, and an extrusive power, peculiar to itself at a given temperature.

The constant ¢ is found thus: B, C, D, &c. representing the normal wave-lengths
corresponding to the fixed lines, and 6, c, d, &c. these wave-lengths after refraction,
calling (3 B+2C+D)—(F+2G+3H)=A and (3)+2¢+d)— (f+2g+3h)=6, then

is Bie
é

The constant & is found thus: S being the sum of the normal wave-lengths cor-
responding to the 7 lines, and s their sum after refraction, then is a=} (5—»).

€
The values of « and of log ¢ for the different media are given in Table I,

16 REPORT—1859.

From these two constants, a second series of refracted wave-lengths may be calcu-
B C
lated, thus: ~—e#=b,, -—#=c, &e., which will represent what the refracted wave-

lengths would be, were the medium free from irrationality. This series is presented
in Table III.; and from it, compared with the series found by observation, as ex-
hibited in Table II., the values of x, or the extrusions for the different media, are
deduced, as exhibited in Table IV.

In the larger proportion of the media which have been examined, these quantities
x are governed by certain determinate laws. The departures from these laws, pre-
sented by several media, are shown to be traceable to errors of observation ; and
they wholly disappear when the numbers are brought under the dominion of the
more general law, subsequently determined. Then only two exceptions remain—
the solution of muriate of zinc, and the oil of cassia. The discrepancy, in the for-
mer case, it is suggested, is probably due to errors which the observer himself
(Powell) suspects to exist in his determinations,—the discrepancy in the case of the
oil of cassia being probably traceable to a similar cause.

The extrusive force, on which the irrationality depends, exhibits itself in the form
of a transfer of motive energy, from the terminal to the central parts of the spectrum.
The undulations, corresponding to the lines D, E, and F, are a little less retarded
than they would otherwise be, and their wave-lengths within the medium are accord-

U
ingly a little less shortened. Hence for D, E, and F the formula is TT ety =U.

The undulations, corresponding to B, C, G, and H, are a little more retarded than
they would otherwise be, and their wave-lengths within the medium more shortened;

pad si :
so that for these four the formula is Tea aU, the positive and negative values

of x balancing each other. Hence twice their sum, or 2X, is reckoned the measure
of the extrusive power of the medium.

Every medium accordingly presents two nodes where the extrusion is nil and
passes from positive to negative. The upper node lies between C and D, and pro-
bably occupies the position of the mean wave; the lower lies between F and G, and
near G. The only permanent exception is the oil of cassia, in which the lower node
falls a little below G.

All regular media present the following relation : (3bx-+ 2ce— dz) = (3hx+292—fe).
It is proposed to call this “‘ the Semel-bis-ter law.” Hence, if K=(B+C+G-+H)
—(D+E+F) and Q=(d+ce+9+h)—(+e+f), the extrusive power may be ex-

K
pressed thus : fea: (Q+a+2X)=0.

If the extrusions be taken in pairs, equidistant from the centre e,, and if the dif-
ference between bx and hy be denoted by 6, that between cx and gz by 6, and that
between d, and fz by 6,, then the differences between each pair of these three quan-
tities 6,, 5,, and 6, constitute a progression of the form ¢, 2¢, 3¢, the quantity ¢ vary-
ing with the medium and temperature. It is proposed to call this “the law of the
equicentral common difference.”

The series of refracted wave-lengths 6,, c,, d,, &c. having been calculated, as in
Table III., the refractive indices corresponding to them may be found from the

formula 2 =,B, =p, C, &c. This series of indices «, B, w, C, &c. is what the
medium would present, had it no extrusive power ; and the differences between these
and the observed indices show what portion of the latter is due to that property.
These two sets of indices present nodes, corresponding to those of the extrusions ;
and it is shown to be a general law, that the refractive indices, corresponding to the
nodes of the extrusions, coincide with the nodes of the two sets of refractive indices.
It is proposed to call this “the law of coincident nodes.”

The apparent exceptions to these laws are then pointed out, and the probability
of their being all due to errors of observation is discussed.

The product of the two constants, or ew, deducted from each of the normal wave-
lengths, shows how much each normal is shortened in passing through the medium,

TRANSACTIONS OF TIE SECTIONS. 17

from the operation of the dispersive power alone. The actual loss of length, being
represented by ez, is the same for all waves ; consequently it tells more on those
waves which are primarily shorter. Hence the numbers representing the loss of
length sustained by each wave in proportion to its primary length, from the ope-
ration of the dispersive power alone, are in inverse proportion to the primary wave-
lengths. These rateable losses of wave-length, multiplied by the second series of
refractive indices ~, B, «,C, &c., exhibit the proportion of each index due to the
dispersive power alone. ‘These points are exemplified by the case of the bisulphuret
of carbon.

In different media, the loss of length, sustained by any one wave through the
operation of the dispersive power alone, is proportional to the constant «, which may
accordingly be regarded as its measure.

The effects of change of temperature are illustrated by the two cases of oil of
anise, and oil of cassia, for which alone sufficient experimental data exist ; and it is
shown to be probable, that, in the same medium, the values of ¢ are in the inverse
orders of the temperatures, and their differences proportional to the differences of
temperature ; also that, in different media, in which the value of ¢€ is nearly the
same, the fall in that value is proportional to the rise of temperature.

The constants ¢ and a, being influenced only by the mutual relations of the extru-
sions, and not by their absolute values, are consistent with an indefinite number of
sets of indices of refraction; so that the indices may always be altered in a certain
manner, without altering the constants. It is then shown, that the conservation of
the total vis viva of the normal wave-lengths depends on the constants e and #, and
a third constant 7, thus:

ca{ B C D E F

G H in
venta) ribs

Ss
To find n, call the sum of the series 5 a ct &e. =5, and call sae, then

is the difference between ez and ec. = a2 > #, then n is+; if 2 > e, then 7 is —,
and in either case is constant for the medium and temperature. It is always pos-
sible to find a positive value of X which shall render 7=0. Calling this limiting

value 12 then is X=« ee
The logarithm of this multiple of is 2°4216417.

The effects of raising the normal wave-lengths to different powers are next examined.
It is shown that, in every case, there is a certain power at which the extrusions are
reduced to a minimum, and that these lowest values are so small that they may be
referred to errors of observation. There is thus always a certain exponent, which
may be applied to the normals, which will extinguish the extrusions, so rendering the
relation between the wave-lengthd and its refractive index « capable of being expressed

rz
by this general formula: B= dat —en. This it is proposed to call ‘‘ the exponen-
n

tial law of dispersion.”
The value of the exponent n depends on the relation which the irrationality bears
to the dispersive power, or to the length of the spectrum. Expressing this relation

thus, % =P» the following equation is universally applicable : - = constant.

By analysing the observations, the value of this constant is found to be nearly
0°0092593, and its reciprocal 10°8. These values are accordingly assumed, but sub-
ject to future correction, Hence 11°8 is the highest limit of the value of m, being
that which the medium would have if 2X=«. The lowest value of x, =1, subsists
when #=0'0092593 and 2X =0.

As the value of p may be obtained, with tolerable accuracy, from any set of
observations which are approximately correct, the value of x» may be found from the
a 10°8p+1=n with sufficient accuracy for calculating the indices; and it

18. # REPORT—1859.

is unhecessary, in using this exponent, to go beyond the first place of decimals.
The exponents for the various media, calculated from this equation, are given in
Table I. The constants en and ep are determined from the nth power of the nor-
mals, in the same manner as ¢ and are determined from their first power. These
values are also given in Table I.

The logarithms of the normals for each exponent from | to 3°5 are given in
Table V., the normals adopted being those determined by the method explained in
the separate paper on that subject.

The indices of refraction for the various media, as calculated from the general for-

mula panes —«n, are given in Table VI.; the observed indices in Table VII. ;
€n

and the differences between the two in Table VIII.

These tables are next minutely analysed, the observations being for this purpose
classified. From this analysis it appears that, as respects the observations of
Fraunhofer and Rudberg, the agreement between the observed and calculated indices
is so close as to leave no doubt of the accuracy of this exponential law ; that as re-
gards the larger proportion of Powell’s observations, the agreement is equally satis-
factory ; but that in some of these the discrepancies are considerable. It is proved,
however, by comparing the different observations together, that these discrepancies
can be attributed only to errors of observation. For example, it is pointed out that
while Fraunhofer’s two sets of observations on water agree almost perfectly with
the law, Powell’s single observation on the same medium exhibits a yery consider-
able discrepancy, which can be attributed to nothing but experimental error. It is
next shown that Powell’s observation on oil of cassia at temp. 14° Cent. presents a
discrepancy from the law scarcely exceeding that of his observation on water, so that
it also may be fairly attributed to experimental error. But his observations on oil
of cassia at temp. 10° and 25° present the greatest discrepancies of all from the law ;
and this difference between the results obtained for the same medium at these different
temperatures can be due to nothing but experimental errors, seeing it is the observa-
tion at the intervening temperature that is least discordant with the law. Thus, if
the larger discrepancies, in the case of the oil of cassia at the extreme temperatures,
be traceable to errors of observation, all the smaller discrepancies in other media may
be fairly attributed to the same cause.

When the indices of all the media have been corrected by the exponential law,
then the whole become quite regular, as respects the position of the nodes of the
extrusions and the relations which these quantities bear to each other, with the
single exception of the oil of cassia; and as considerable errors of observation are
shown to exist in that case, it appears not improbable that this exception might be
remoyed by a more careful repetition of the observations.

The exponential Jaw is then contrasted with the hypothesis of M.Cauchy,—namely,
“that the differences between the refractive indices of the medium are to each other,
very nearly, as the differences between the reciprocals of the squares of the normal
wave-lengths. Or the refractive indices are each composed of two terms, whereof
one is constant for the medium and temperature, the other reciprocally proportional
to the squares of the normal wave-lengths.”’ ‘The indices calculated by Powell on
the basis of this law, are compared with those calculated on the basis of the expo-
nential law, and the differences are presented in Table IX. The result is shown to
be greatly in favour of the exponential law. In the case of Fraunhofer’s observa-
tions, the rate in its favour, as compared with the law of M. Cauchy, is as 2 to 1;
in Rudberg’s observations as 4 to 3, in Powell’s as 10 to 7, and on the aggregate
nearly as 3 to 2. In the particular and important case of the bisulphuret of carbon,
the rate exceeds 5 to 1.

The two laws are next examined and compared, as respects their principle and
physical interpretation. The law of M. Cauchy merges together all the three phe-
nomena—the refraction, the dispersion, and the irrationality, as if they were all due
to one and the same cause; and it seeks, by a general formula, to dispense with
observation to a certain extent, and to find the refractive indices of four of the fixed
lines, from those of the other three being given by observation. In the exponential
sw, on the other hand, the refraction, the dispersion, and the irrationality are

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19

regarded as distirict and independent phenomena, referable to different causes; in
evidence of which it is remarked that a low refractive power may consist with a high
dispersive and extrusive power, or vice versd. ‘I’o arrive with accuracy at the expo-
hent of the normals for any medium and temperature, it is advisable to know, from
observations on all the seven lines, made with an approximate degree of correctness,
the refraction, the dispersion, and the irrationality ; seeing the exponent depends on
the relation of the irrationality to the dispersion.

A pretty close approximation to the value of the exponent and the two relative

constants may be madé, from having given only the indices of the two extreme, and
one of the central lines; and from these the other four indices might thus be found.
But fhere is no advantage in proceeding in this imperfect manner. Observations on
the whole seven lines can never be dispensed with in practice; and as these tend
mutually to check.one another, it will always be found more expedient to take the
whole seven into account in the determination of the exponent and.the constants.
The exponential law should therefore be regarded less as a substitute for observation,
than as a method of reducing the observations, when made within certain limits of
accuracy, under the dominion of law, and of thus rendering their accuracy more
perfect. The essential difference between the law of M. Cauchy and the exponen-
tial law, then, is, that the latter substitutes a variable exponent, capable of determi-
nation, for the squares of the normals employed in the former.
. The constant ¢ represents the effects of the refractive power alone, such as they
would appear in achromatic combinations of prisms. It shows how much the waves
are shortened by the mere increased proximity of the ethereal particles, or centres of
elasticity, within the medium ; and as it affects all the waves rateably, it may sub-
sist without either dispersion or irrationality. Inso far as this property is concerned,
the waves, on entering the medium, embrace, in their length, the same number of
ethereal particles as they did in the free ether.

The constant « represents the effects of the dispersive power alone, which is
attributed to the medium increasing the persistence of the ethereal particles in their
normal positions, beyond that degree in which it would be augmented by their mere
mutual approximation. It is supposed that, by this action, a certain definite num-
ber of ethereal particles are excluded from the length of each wave, so as to cause all
of them to be harteuen by the same definite amount. Thus the shorter waves are
more shortened, in proportion to their primary length, than are the longer waves,
These consequently exhibit unequal degrees of refrangibility, and are accordingly, on
issuing from the medium, dispersed. , 5 Bead

In explanation of the extrusive property, to which the irrationality is attributed,
two views are suggested. Evidencing, as they do, an apparent transfer of motive
energy from the extreme to the central parts of the spectrum, so that the central
waves are less refracted, and the extreme waves more refracted, than they would
otherwise be, the effects of the extrusive power present, as respects distribution, a
conformity with the degrees of brightness of the spectrum; for all spectra are brighter
towards the centre, and fade off on either side. This circumstance indicates that,
at the recipient surface, the amplitudes of the individual vibrations embraced in the
waves are greatest towards the centre. Now the action of the medium may be such
as to lessen the amplitude of the vibrations, in all the waves, by a certain definite
amount—the rapidity of vibration (consequently the refrangibility of the wave) being
increased in the same proportion. But the waves whose individual vibrations have
the greatest amplitude will, by such a constant force, be less affected, in proportion
to the primary amplitude, than are the waves whose individual vibrations are of
‘smaller amplitude. The consequence will be, that the latter will appear to have
their refrangibility increased in a slightly greater degree than the former; so that
the waves corresponding to the lines B, C, G, and H will be further removed towards
the violet extremity of the spectrum, and those corresponding to the lines D, E, and
F less removed towards that extremity, than they would be in the absence of the
extrusive property.”

As an alternative to this view, it is suggested that these slight alterations in the
rapidity of the individual vibrations may be due to a sympathetic action between
the vibrations of the ponderable atoms of the medium and those of the ethereal par-
ticles, resembling the sympathy of pendulums, in virtue of which some of the latter.

20 REPORT—1859.

are slightly increased, and others slightly diminished in rapidity, beyond what they
would otherwise be.

In conclusion, the attention of the British Association is invited to the unsatis-
factory state of a considerable number of the observations, and to the necessity of
having these repeated, and the whole series further extended, more especially the
observations on the same medium at different temperatures.

List of Tables presented by the author in illustration of the paper.

TABLE I. Elements of Calculation.

» II. Internal wave-lengths calculated from the observed Indices of Re-
fraction.

a III. Internal wave-lengths freed from the Extrusions.

i” IV. The Extrusions.

” V. Logarithms of the wave-lengths of the fixed lines for each exponent
from 1 to 3°5.

ry VI. Indices of Refraction calculated from the Exponential Law.

J VII. Observed Indices of Refraction.

» WIII. Differences between observed Indices and those calculated by the
Exponential Law.

A: IX. Differences between observed Indices and those calculated by the
law of M. Cauchy, with comparison of results.

On the Law of the Wave-lengths corresponding to certain points in the
Solar Spectrum. By Munco Poynton, F.R.S.E.

This paper commences by tracing, to their basis, the numbers given by Sir Isaac
Newton to express the wave- lengths corresponding to the borders of the coloured
spaces of the spectrum. There is first obtained, by geometrical construction, the
primary series 1*2857, 1°1428, 1°0714, 0°9643, 0°8571, 0°7714, 0°7232, 0°6429, the
length of the mean wave being=1. Of these numbers the cube roots of the squares
are taken, giving the series 1°1824, 1:0931, 10470, 0°9761, 0°9023, 0°8411, 0°8057,
0°7449. The length of the mean wave being experimentally ascertained to be
000002247 decimal parts of an English inch, the Newtonian wave-lengths are
rata by multiplying the second of the above series by this quantity. They stand
thus :

0°00002657 \

Red
0°00002456 |
Orange |
0°00002353 |
Yellow

0°00002193 | This is the estimate usually given of
Green these wave-lengths, in the English
0°00002028 works on Optics.

Blue

0°00001890
Indigo

0°00001812
Violet

0:00001674 /

The two series given by Fraunhofer to express the wave-length corresponding to
his seven principal fixed lines, are then stated in decimal parts of a French inch, as
under :—

I. B 0-00002541, C 000002425, D 000002175, E 0'00001943, F 0:00001789, G 0°00001585, H 0°00001451
oe 254 2422 2175 945 1794 1557 1464
+3 —2 —5 —2 —13
It is mentioned that the only approach to a law regulating these numbers, liftherta
ascertained, is an approximation, in tie second series, to the relation :

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21

1 -4() +0)
(7) a1 (3 ‘ a) :

It is then shown that the following relations subsist, with sufficient accuracy to
admit of their being fairly assumed : viz. B’>=D* and B’ D=E'',—the E being that of
the first series. Another advantage, presented by the first series, is then pointed
out. The whole of the wave-lengths being formed into an equicentral series of

‘ BCDBC,DEEE. : 5
th 2 aye LY 7 h é ivi
fractions, thus POPEREPFOH in which each greater is divided by
each less; and these being arranged in the order of their magnitude, the following
relations are traced: viz.,

B_C CB » BLE , B,C
— =—-+0:22', ==—+0°22’, -=—+0'22, and —-++-—=3.
ae a ee RE
The series based on these relations stands thus :

& Logs. Numbers. Differences.

Fy 02436268 1°752374

G 0°1847346 1°530152 0°222222’

H 0°1270422 1°339807 0°190345

B 0°222229'

F 071165846 1°307930 0°031877

F, 0-0960845 1°247626 0°060304

F 0-0886501 1°226451 0°021175

7 0:0848012 1°215630 0°010821 } 0°222222’

EF 0°0490882 1°119665 0°095965

= 0°0357130 1:085708 0°033957 ) 0°666666'

The differences between this series and the corresponding series deduced from the
observed values, are shown to be so trifling that they may be fairly attributed to
errors of observation.

The wave-lengths, as calculated from this series, are then compared with the
observed wave-lengths, as in the following Table :—

Calculated. Observed. Differences.

B 2540844 2541000 — 000156
C 2423694 2425000 — 001306
D 2175112 2175000 -+0000112

E 1942645 1943000 — 0000355
F 1789289 1789000 -+0000289

G 1583957 1585000 — 0001043
H 1449944 1451000 — 0001056

The differences here presented being smaller than the least of the differences
between the corresponding members of the two observed series, the relations on
which the calculated values are based are submitted as being in the highest degree
probable. These relations present the advantage of rendering the whole of the wave-
lengths deducible from that of either B or D.

The following Table exhibits the relative wave-lengths, referred to that of B as
unity :-—

22 REPORT—1859,

Logarithms. Numbers.
C 1°9794999 0'9538934

D 19325036 0°8560588
E 1°8834154 0°7645667

F 1°8477024 0°7042103

G 1°7947653 0°6233979

H 1°7563732 0°5706545

Mean wave M 1°9701116 0°9334940

It is next pointed out that the Newtonian wave-lengths corresponding to the
lines of junction of the colours, are not reconcilable with the wave-lengths corre-
sponding to the fixed lines of Fraunhofer, and that this diserepancy arises from the
former having been deduced from an impure spectrum. It is shown, however, that
if the primary series on which Newton’s. numbers are based be assumed without
subjecting it to the process of taking the cube roots of the squares, and if it be mul-
tiplied by the mean wave-length in decimal parts of a French inch, it will present a
series agreeing better with Fraunhofer’s wave-lengths. The result is exhibited in
the following Table, omitting the prefixed ciphers :—

Borders of Colours, Fixed Lines.

27107 B 2540844

Red C 2423694
24094

Orange Mean wave M 2371900
22588

Yellow D 2175112
20330

Green E 1942645
18070

Blue F 1789289
16264

Indigo G 1583957
15247

Violet H 1449944
13554

This series makes the interval between the extreme violet and the extreme red as
1 to 2, corresponding to the musical octave.

It is in conclusion suggested that fresh observations should be made, under the
sanction of the British Association, on the wave-lengths corresponding to the bor-
ders of the coloured spaces in the diffracted spectrum, to ascertain if they be accu-
rately represented by the above series; so that the existing error, in regard to the
estimated values of those wave-lengths, may no longer be perpetuated.

On the Production of Colour and the Theory of Light.
By Joun Sirs, M.A., of Perth Academy, Perth.

The author had come to the belief, by means of experiments, that colour is pro-
duced by alternate light and shade in various proportions. To prove this, he caused
a white ray to revolve at various speeds on a black surface. His first experiment was
to move a slip of white card-board over a black surface. By this motion he obtained
a distinct blue; afterwards, in different weather, the same thing produced a purple.
He then made a dise with five concentric rings. One ring was painted one-third
black, the rest of the ring being white; the next ring was two-thirds black and one-
third white; the next was three-fourths black and one-fourth white, and the fifth
half black and half white. This disc, when made to revolve, became completely
coloured ; there were no more blacks or whites visible, but five rings of different
colours. Ona bright day with white clouds in the sky, the

Ist ring was of a light green: much yellow.

2nd ring purple : very blue.

3rd ring nearly as first.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23

4th ring purple, darker than the 2nd.

5th ring pink.

By means of excentric motions a great variety ot colours were obtained ; amongst
others, a pure red and various shades of purple, pink, yellow, and blue. ‘The number
of discs tried were very great, each disc having on it a different proportion of black
and white.

The author produced the same results by cutting out spaces in the white card, and
causing it to revolve on a black surface. He produced also similar phenomena by
causing these figures to revolve when held perpendicularly, and to take the appearance
of coloured solids. He also caused these colours to be reflected on a white surface
from the revolving disc. These experiments, and the views drawn from them, were
used for the purpose of giving a theory of the prism, to be published in detail. It
was by such processes that the author was led to believe that he had demonstrated
that colour is produced by a mixture of light and shadow at various intervals ; and
at last he was satisfied that the experiments were original, and not explicable by the
present recognized laws.

He concluded in these words nearly :—Remarkable as these experiments are, they
are not more remarkable than the results they lead to,

They prove the homogeneity of the ether.

They prove the undulatory hypothesis, but oppose the uudulatory theory.

They show the necessity of introducing a negative element into the theory of colour,
or that colour is the effect of two coordinate sensations—a positive and a negative.

They enable us to dispense with the different refrangibilities of the rays of light,
taught by Newton.

They remove the necessity for the supposition of different lengths of waves or of
a disposition in matter to produce waves of different lengths.

“alee help to explain many of the phenomena of what is called the polarization of
light.

They give a new explanation of prismatic refraction, and explain in a plain and
simple manner many very interesting natural phenomena.

Startling, he said, as these conclusions are, to those who are conversant with the
subject of light, he thought he was perfectly warranted in drawing them from his
experiments.

On Radiant Heat. By B. Stewart, M.A.

In addition to the facts communicated at the last Meeting, the author mentioned
that he had since examined the nature of the heat emitted by heated rock-salt, and
found that it possessed yery great wave-length. He had also shown that table-salt,
pounded saltpetre, and pounded sulphate of potassa were white for heat; while
pounded sugar, pounded alum, and pounded citric acid were black. The inference
is that, could saltpetre or sulphate of potassa be obtained in crystals large enough,

they would be diathermanous like rock-salt.
He had also, in endeavouring to ascertain the law of particle radiation, asked him-

self the question, What would be the consequence if the ultimate particles of dif-
ferent bodies radiated the same quality of heat at the same temperatures? and he had
calculated that were there a group of bodies possessing this common property, viz.
having particles which radiate the same quality of heat at the same temperature, it
would follow that if we were to take slices of such bodies of thicknesses such that
they all permitted to pass the same proportion of heat of any one kind, then they
would also all pass the same proportion of heat of any other kind. There are some
indications that rock-crystal and glass crystal form one such group, and that citric
acid and tartrate of potash and soda form another.

On recent Theories and Experiments on Ice at its Melting-point.
By Professor J. Toomson, M.A
The object of this paper was to discuss briefly the bearings of some of the leading
theories of the plasticity and other properties of ice, at or near its melting-point, on
speculations on the same subject advanced by the author*; and especially to offer
‘* Proceedings of the Royal Society, May 1857 : also British Association Proceedings,
Dublin Meeting, 1857. ~ : ‘ .

’

24 REPORT—1859.

an explanation of an experiment by Prof. James D. Forbes which had been advanced
as in opposition to the author’s theory.

He referred at the outset to the fact pointed out by Mr. Faraday in 1850 *, that
two pieces of moist ice, when placed together in contact, will unite together, even
when the surrounding temperature is such as to keep them in a thawing state.
Mr. Faraday had attributed this phenomenon to a property which he supposed ice to
possess, of tending to solidify water in contact with it, and of tending more strongly
to solidify a film or a particle of water when the water has ice in contact with it on
both sides, than when it has ice on only one side.

Dr. Tyndall had subsequently adopted this fact as the basis of a theory by which
he proposed to explain the viscidity or plasticity of ice, or its capability of under-
going change of form, which had previously been known to be the property in gla-
ciers in virtue of which their motion down their valleys is produced by gravitation.
Designating Mr. Faraday’s fact under the term ‘‘regelation,” Dr. Tyndall, in the
theory referred to, described the capability of glacier ice to undergo changes of form,
as being not true viscosity, but as being the result of vast numbers of successively
occurring minute fractures, changes of position of the fractured parts, and regela-
tions of those parts in their new positions. The terms fracture and regelation had
then come to be the brief expression of Dr. Tyndall’s idea of the plasticity of ice.

The author, Professor James Thomson, considered, on the contrary, that if, in a
material having no inherent property of plasticity independent of fracture, any steady
force applied (such as the force of gravity acting on a glacier) be sufficient to cause
fracture, the substance must go down suddenly until a position of repose is attained,
and that the addition of a principle of reunion (such as ‘‘ regelation’’) cannot have
a tendency to reiterate the fractures after such position of repose has been attained.

His own theory, he stated, might be sketched in outline as follows :—If to a mass
of ice at its melting-point, pressures tending to change its form be applied, there
will be a continual succession of pressures applied to particular parts—liquefaction
occurring in those parts through the lowering of the melting-point by pressure—
evolution of the cold by which the so melted portions had been held in the frozen
state—dispersion of the water so produced in such directions as will afford relief
to its pressure—and recongelation, by the cold previously evolved, of the water on
its being relieved from this pressure: and the cycle of operations will then begin
again; for the parts recongealed must in their turn, through the yielding of other
parts, receive pressures from the applied forces, thereby to be liquefied, and then to
go through successive processes as before. He thus considered that the plasticity
consists not of fracture and regelation, but essentially of melting by pressure and
recongelation on relief from pressure.

Professor James D. Forbest had adopted the view, that the dissolution of ice is a
gradual, not a sudden process, and so far resembles the tardy liquefaction of fatty
bodies, or of the metals which in melting pass through intermediate stages of soft-
ness or viscosity. He thought that ice must be essentially colder than water in
contact with it; and that, between the ice and the water, there is a film having its
temperature varying from side to side, which may be called plastic ice, or viscid
water; and that through this film heat must be constantly passing from the water
to the ice, and the ice must be wasting away, though the water be what is called ice-"
cold. Professor Forbes had stated afterwards, as a modification of this supposition,
that if a small quantity of water be enclosed in a cavity in ice, it will undergo a gra-
dual “‘regelation,’’ or that the ice will in this case be increased instead of wasted.
In reference to this, Professor J. Thomson put forward the case of a medium quan-
tity of water, in contact with a medium quantity of ice, without addition or abstrac-
tion of heat; and stated that, were the idea of Professor Forbes on this subject cor-
rect, the result in this case ought to be that the water and ice should ultimately pass
into the state of uniform viscidity ; for Professor Forbes’s own words distinctly deny
the permanence of the water and ice in contact in their two separate states, as he
says, “ bodies of different temperatures cannot continue so without interaction. The
water must give off heat to the ice, but it spends it in an insignificant thaw at the
surface.”’ Thus then it would follow from the admission of Professor Forbes’s views,

* See Faraday’s Researches in Chemistry and Physics, 1859.-

+ See Forbes ‘On the Recent Progress and Present Aspect of the Theory of Glaciers,’
forming the introduction to a volume of Occasional Papers on the Theory of Glaciers, 1859,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25

that viscid water could be produced in any large quantities desired, like as it is sup-
posed to be produced in small quantities in the hypothetical thin film at the surface
of hard ice—an inference which is plainly contrary to all experience, as no person
has ever, by any peculiar application of heat to, or withdrawal of heat from, a quan-
tity of water, rendered it visibly and tangibly viscid, so that it could be poured in a
thick state like honey. We even know that water may be cooled much below the
ordinary freezing-point, and yet remain fluid.

Professor Forbes, however, although, in his recent writings, maintaining the views
just alluded to, had not rejected the author’s theory as altogether unfounded. He
had rather admitted that it points out some of the causes which may impart to a
glacier a portion of its plasticity ; and also that it meets with verification to some
extent in the moulding of ice subject to rapid alternations of pressure under the
Bramah’s press.

Mr. Faraday, in his recently published ‘ Researches in Chemistry and Physics,’ had
adhered to his original mode of accounting for the phenomenon he had observed,
and had developed farther the explanation of his ideas on the subject, and adduced
examples of the action of numerous other substances in passing from the liquid to
the solid, or from the solid to the liquid state, and also in passing from the liquid
to the gaseous state. Professor J. Thornson, however, considered that the general
bearing of all the phenomena adduced, is not to sustain the view of Mr. Faraday,
but to show that the particles of a substance, when existing all in one state only,
and in continuous contact with one another, or in contact only under special cir-
cumstances with other substances, experience a difficulty of making a beginning of
their change of state, whether from liquid to solid, or from liquid to gaseous, or pro-
bably also from solid to liquid. He did not admit that anything had been adduced
showing a like difficulty as to their undergoing a change of state when the substance
is present in the two states already, or when a beginning of the change has already
been made. He believed that when water and ice are present together, their free-
‘dom to change their state on the slightest addition or abstraction of heat is perfect.
He therefore could not admit the validity of Mr. Faraday’s mode of accounting for
the phenomena of so called ‘‘ regelation.”’

Thus the fact of ‘‘ regelation,’’ which Professor Tyndall had taken as the basis of
his theory for explaining the plasticity of ice, did, in the author’s opinion, as much
require explanation as the plasticity of ice which it was applied to explain. The
two observed phenomena, namely, the tendency of two separate pieces of ice to
unite when placed in contact, and the plasticity of ice, are, he believed, cognate re-
sults of a common cause, and are explained by the theory he had himself offered.

The experiment by Professor Forbes adduced in opposition to the author’s theory
was to the following effect :—

Two slabs of ice, having their corresponding surfaces ground tolerably flat, on
being suspended in an atmosphere a little above the freezing-point, upon a horizontal
glass rod passing through two holes in the plates of ice, so that the plates may hang
vertically, and in contact with one another, were found in a few hours to be united
so as to adhere strongly together. This Professor Forbes had supposed would prove
that mere contact without pressure is sufficient to produce the union of two pieces
of moist ice. The author, on the contrary, explained the fact by the capillary forces
of the film of interposed water as follows :—First, the film of water between the
two slabs—being held up against gravity by the capillary tension, or contractile force
of its free upper surface, and being distended besides, against the atmospheric press-
ure, by the contractile force of its free surface round its whole perimeter—except for
a very small space at bottom, from which water trickles away, or is on the point of
trickling away—exists under a pressure which, though increasing from above down-
wards, is everywhere, except at that little space at the bottom, less than atmospheric
pressure. Hence the two slabs are urged towards one another by the excess of the
external atmospheric pressure above the internal water pressure, and are thus pressed
against one another at their places of contact by a force quite notable in amount.

Secondly, the film of water existing, as it does, under less than atmospheric press-
ure, has its freezing-point raised in virtue of the reduced pressure; and it would
therefore freeze even at the temperature of the'surrounding ice, namely, the freezing-
point for atmospheric pressure. Much more will it freeze in virtue of the cold

26 REPORT—1859.

given out in the melting by pressure of the ice at the points of contact, where, from
the first two causes named above, the two slabs are urged against one another.

The freezing of ice to flannel, or to a worsted glove on a warm hand, was, in his
opinion, to be attributed partly to capillary attraction acting iv similar ways to those
just stated ; but he considered that, in many of the observed cases of this pheno-
menon, there are also direct pressures from the hand, or from the weight of the ice,
or from other like causes, which must be supposed to increase the rapidity of the
moulding of the ice to the fibres of the wool.

On Electrical “ Frequency.” By Professor W. Tuomson, LL.D., F.RS.

Beccaria found that a conductor insulated in the open air becomes charged some-
times with greater and sometimes with less rapidity, and he gave the name of “ fre-
quency”’ to express the atmospheric quality on which the rapidity of charging de-
pends. It might seem natural to attribute this quality to electrification of the air
itself round the conductor or to electrified particles in the air impinging upon it; but
the author gave reasons for believing that the observed effects are entirely due to
particles flying away from the surface of the conductor, in consequence of the impact
of non-electrified particles against it. He had shown in a previous communication
that when no electricity of separation (or, as it is more generally called, “ frictional
electricity,”’ or “contact electricity ’’) ‘is called into play, the tendency of particles
continually flying off from a conductor is to destroy all electrification at the part of
its surface from which they break away. Hence a conductor insulated in the open
air, and exposed to mist or rain, with wind, will tend rapidly to the same electric
potential as that of the air, beside that part of its surface from which there is the
most frequent dropping, or flying away, of aqueous particles. The rapid charging
indicated by the electrometer under cover, after putting it for an instant in connexion
with the earth, is therefore, in reality, due to a rapid discharging of the exposed
parts of the conductor. The author had been led to these views by remarking the
extreme rapidity with which an electrometer, connected by a fine wire with a con-
ductor insulated above the roof of his temporary electric observatory in the island of
Arran, became charged, reaching its full indication in a few seconds, and sometimes
in a fraction of a second, after being touched by the hand, during a gale of wind and
rain. The conductor, a vertical cylinder about 10 inches long and 4 inches diameter,
with its upper end flat and corner slightly rounded off, stood only 8 feet above the
roof, or, in all, 20 feet above the ground, and was nearly surrounded by buildings
rising to a higher level. Even with so moderate an exposure as this, sparks were
frequently produced between an insulated and an uninsulated piece of metal, which
may have been about ;/,th of an inch apart, within the electrometer, and more than
once a continuous line of fire was observed in the instrument during nearly a minuté
at a time, while rain was falling in torrents outside.

Remarks on the Discharge of a Coiled Electric Cable.
By Professor W. Tuomson, LL.D., F.RS.

Mr. Jenkin had communicated to the author during last February, March, and
April a number of experimental results regarding-currents through several different
electric cables coiled in the factory of Messrs. R. 8. Newall and Co., at Birkenhead.
Among these results were some in which a key connected with one end of a cable, of
which the other end was kept connected with the earth, was removed from a battery
by which a current had been kept flowing through the cable and instantly pressed to
contact with one end of the coil of a tangent galvanometer, of which the other
end was kept connected with the earth. The author remarked that the deflections.
recorded in these experiments were in the contrary direction to that which the
true discharge of the cable would give, and at his request Mr. Jenkin repeated
the experiments, watching carefully for indications of reverse currents to those
which had been previously noted, It was thus found that the first effect of pressing
down the key was to give the galvanometer a deflection in the direction correspond-
ing to the true discharged current, and that this was quickly followed by a reverse.
deflection generally greater in degree, which latter deflection corresponded to a cur-
rent in the same direction as that of the original flow through the cable. Professor.
Thomson explained this second current, or false discharge, as it has since been some=-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27

times called, by attributing it to mutual electro-magnetic induction between different
portions of the coil, and anticipated that no such reyersal could eyer be found in a
submerged cable. ‘The effect of this induction is to produce in those parts of the
coil first influenced by the motion of the key, a tendency for electricity to flow in the
same direction as that of the decreasing current flowing on through the remoter parts
of the coil. Thus, after the first violence of the back flow through the key and gal-
vanometer, the remote parts of the cable begin, by their electro-magnetic induction
on the near parts, to draw electricity back from the earth through the galvanometer
into the cable again, and the current is once more in one and the same direction
throughout the cable. The mathematical theory of this action, which is necessarily
very complex, is reserved by the author for a more full communication, which he
hopes before long to lay before the Royal Society.

On the Necessity for incessant Recording, and for Simultaneous Observations
in different Localities, to investigate Atmospheric Electricity. By Professor
W. Tuomson, LL.D., F.RS.

The necessity for incessantly recording the electric condition of the atmosphere
was illustrated by reference to observations recently made by the author in the island
of Arran, by which it appeared that even under a cloudless sky, without any sensible
wind, the negative electrification of the surface of the earth, always found during
serene weather, is constantly varying in degree. He had found it impossible, at any
time, to leave the electrometer without losing remarkable features of the phenomenon.
Beccaria, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Turin a century ago,
used to retire to Garzegna when his vacation commenced, and to make incessant
observations on atmospheric electricity, night and day, sleeping in the room with his
electrometer in a lofty position, from which he could watch the sky all round,
limited by the Alpine range on one side and the great plain of Piedmont on the other.
Unless relays of observers can be got to follow his example, and to take advantage
of the more accurate instruments supplied by advanced electric science, a self-record-
ing apparatus must be applied to provide the data required for obtaining knowledge
in this most interesting field of nature. The author pointed out certain simple and
easily-executed modifications of working electrometers, which were on the table
before him, to render them self-recording. He also explained a new collecting ap-
paratus for atmospheric electricity, consisting of an insulated vessel of water, dis-
charging its contents in a fine stream from a pointed tube. This stream carries
away electricity as long as any exists on its surface, where it breaks into drops,
The immediate object of this arrangement is to maintain the whole insulated con-
ductor, including the portion of the electrometer connected with it and the connect-
ing wire, in the condition of no absolute charge; that is to say, with as much posi-
tive electricity on one side of a neutral line as of negative on the other. Hence the
position of the discharging nozzle must be such, that the point where the stream
breaks into drops is in what would be the neutral line of the conductor, if first per-
fectly discharged under temporary cover, and then exposed in its permanent open
position, in which it will become inductively electrified by the aérial electromotive
force. If the insulation is maintained in perfection, the dropping will not be called
on for any electrical effect, and sudden or slow atmospheric changes will all instan-
taneously and perfectly induce their corresponding variations in the conductor, and
give their appropriate indications to the electrometer. The necessary imperfection
of the actual insulation, which tends to bring the neutral line downwards or inwards,
or the contrary effects of aérial convection, which, when the insulation is good, gene-
rally preponderate, and which in some conditions of the atmosphere, especially during
heavy wind and rain, are often very large, are corrected by the tendency of the dropping
to maintain the neutral line in the one definite position. The objects to be attained
by simultaneous observations in different localities alluded to were,—1. to fix the
constant for any observatory, by which its observations are reduced to absolute mea-
sure of electromotive force per foot of air; 2. to investigate the distribution of
electricity in the air itself (whether on visible clouds or in clear air) by a species of
electrical trigonometry, of which the general principles were slightly indicated. A
portable electrometer, adapted for balloon and mountain observations, with a burn-

28 RBPORT—1859.

ing match, regulated by a spring so as to give a cone of fire in the open air, ina
definite position with reference to the instrument, was exhibited. It is easily carried,
with or without the aid of a shoulder-strap, and can be used by the observer stand-
ing up, and simply holding the entire apparatus in his hands, without a stand or
rest of any kind. Its indications distinguish positive from negative, and are reducible
to absolute measure on the spot. The author gave the result of a determination
which he had made, with the assistance of Mr. Joule, on the Links, a piece of level
ground near the sea, beside the city of Aberdeen, about 8 a.m. on the preceding day
(September 14), under a cloudless sky, and with a light north-west wind blowing,
with the insulating stand of the collecting part of the apparatus buried in the
ground, and the electrometer removed to a distance of 5 or 6 yards and connected
by a fine wire with the collecting conductor. The height of the match was 3 feet
above the ground, and the observer at the electrometer lay on the ground to render
the electrical influence of his own body on the match insensible. The result showed
a difference of potentials between the earth (negative) and the air (positive) at the
match equal to that of 115 elements of Daniel’s battery, and, therefore, at that time
and place, the aérial electromotive force per foot amounted to that of thirty-eight
Daniel’s cells.

On the Cause of Magnetism. By G. V. Tower.

On Changes of Deviation of the Compass on Board Iron Ships by “ heeling,”
with Experiments on Board the ‘ City of Baltimore, ‘Aphrodite,’ < Simla,’
and‘ Slieve Donard’ By Joun T. Towson.

The author explained the manner in which the Compass Committee was first
formed, in accordance with the advice of the Section, and stated that two reports
had been drawn up, which, with the advice of the Astronomer Royal, had been
printed and “presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Ma-
jesty.” He thanked the Astronomer Royal for his valuable advice and support.
There were matters of consideration which the Compass Committee deemed incom-
plete: the one was the change which took place in iron ships in proceeding to the
opposite hemisphere ; the other, the change that was produced by what is technically
denominated ‘heeling,’ that is, when the deck of a vessel leaned over, through the
action of the wind or otherwise: if, when looking towards the bow, it slanted down-
wards to the right, it was said to heel starboard ; if to the left, to heel port. The first
question was undertaken by the late respected Rev. Dr. Scoresby, who proceeded to
Australia in the ‘ Royal Charter,’ and whose exertions in the pursuit of this branch of
the inquiry shortened a most valuable life. The second question was the subject of
his present report. Having described the principles on which his graphic illustration
was constructed, the author pointed ont the unexpected amount of deviation which
this source of disturbance (heeling) brought about, amounting in most instances, when
the ship’s head was in the position to produce the maximum effect, to two or three
points in the standard compass, and to a greater amount so far as the steering com-
pass is concerned. He remarked on several particulars connected with this investi-
gation. Generally the north end of the compass was drawn to the upper side of the
ship—the case with seven out of nine compasses on board the ‘ City of Baltimore ;’
but in the two steering compasses the needles were drawn in a contrary direction.
He explained the theory on which this disturbance arose, partly from subpolar mag-
netism below the compass, and partly from the disturbance of the inductive magnetism
of the ships. In such ships as those under consideration, the following empirical rule
held good with respect to compasses favourably placed. When the vertical force, as
determined either by vibration experiments or torsion on board the ship, maintained
the ratio, as compared with the vertical force on shore, of nine to fourteen, little or
no effect was produced by heeling in the same hemisphere and latitude. And in the
case of the ‘Simla’ this plan of predicting the amount of error was adopted: a
moveable upright magnet was applied so as to produce the before-named vertical
force, when it was found, “with magnet in,” no error was produced, although “ with
magnet out” it amounted to 24° from changing a heel of 10° starboard to 10° port.
There appeared to be another remarkable result, He believed that when a ship was

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29

built with her head south-east or south-west, little if any effect would be produced by
heeling. When examining the magnetic condition of the ‘ Slieve Donard,’ they were
surprised to find that the vertical was very nearly that which would give no effect
from heeling. Their able stipendiary Secretary (to whom is due the credit of drawing
up the two Reports already published) immediately suggested that her head could not
have been east when building, which we had taken for granted; and on inquiry we
found that, on account of her great length, she had been built diagonally, with her head
south-east nearly. Although he believed that for practical purposes sufficient inform-
ation had been obtained, yet there were anomalies in their observations that rendered
the theories deduced unsatisfactory. This he believed arose from the rapidity with
which they were obliged to carry on their experiments, on account of the passing in
and out of ships through the docks, from which cause the inductive influence of the
earth had not sufficient time to complete its effect. It had been proposed to request
the aid of the Admiralty in allowing the Committee to experiment on one of Her
Majesty's iron ships, in some convenient place, for an unlimited time.

On the Iris seen on the surface of Water. By J.J. Waker, A.M.

This iris, in shape a more or less obtuse hyperbola, may be seen occasionally, in
addition to the common rainbow, when a sheet of calm water lies between the spec-
tator and the rain-cloud. It is formed by pencils of variously-tinted rays, which,
after emerging from rain-drops, undergo reflexion at the surface of the water; and
was first described and mathematically discussed by the author in the Philoso-
phical Magazine for June 1853.

The object of the present communication was to describe the phenomenon by the
aid of an illustrative sketch; to point out the relation in which it stood to the se-
condary rainbow observed by Halley, in which the rays had undergone reflexion at the
surface of water before entering rain-drops ; and to suggest the correct mode of de-
lineating it in works of art.

ASTRONOMY.

On the Present State and History of the Question respecting the Acceleration
of the Moon’s Motion. By G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L., F.RS., Astro-
nomer Royal.

It had been known, from the time of Newton, that the motions of the moon are
disturbed by the attraction of the sun, and that a great part of the effect is of the
following kind, viz. that when the moon is between the sun and the earth, the sun
attracts the moon away from the earth ; and when the earth is between the sun and
the moon, the sun attracts the earth away from the moon; and thus, in both cases,
it tends to separate the earth and the moon, or diminishes the attraction of the
moon to the earth. There are sometimes effects of an opposite character; but, on
the whole, the first described is predominant. If this diminution were always the
same in amount, the periodic time of the moon passing round the earth would be
the same. But it was found in the last century, by Halley and Dunthorne, that
the periodic time is not always the same. In order to reconcile the eclipses of the
moon recorded by Ptolemy with modern observations of the moon, it was necessary
to suppose that in every successive century the moon moves a little quicker than in
the preceding century, in a degree which is nearly represented by supposing that at
each successive lunation the moon approaches nearer to the earth by one inch. The
principal cause of this was discovered by Laplace. First, it had been shown by him
and by others, that the attractions of the other planets on the sun and on the earth’
do not alter the longer axis of the orbit which the earth describes round the sun, and
do not alter the length of the year ; but they diminish slowly but continually through
many thousands of years the degree of ellipticity of the earth’s orbit. Now, when
the earth is nearest to the sun, the decrement of attraction of the moon to the earth
(mentioned above) is greatest; and when the earth is furthest from the sun, that
decrement is least. It had been supposed that the fluctuations of magnitude exactly

30 : REPORT—1859.

balance. But Laplace showed that they do not: he showed that the increased
amount of decrement (when the earth is nearest the sun) overbalances the diminished
amount (when the earth is furthest from the sun); and, therefore, that the less
excentric is the earth’s orbit, the less does the increased amount of decrement at one
part overbalance the diminished amount at another part, and the less is the total
amount of the sun’s disturbing force. And, as the sun’s disturbing force diminishes
the moon’s attraction to the earth, that attraction is less and Jess impaired every
century, or becomes practically stronger; every century the moon is pulled into a
rather smaller orbit, and revolves in a rather shorter period. On computing the
effect from this cause, it was found to agree well with the effect which Halley and
Dunthorne had discovered in observations. The lunar tables thus amended (and
with other, but minor improvements) were applied to the computation of other
ancient eclipses which require far greater nicety than Ptolemy’s Junar eclipses,
namely, total eclipses of the sun. The most remarkable of these were the eclipse of
Thales (which occurred at a battle), that at Larissa or Nimrad (which led to the
capture of that city by the Persians from the Medes), and that of Agathocles (upon
a fleet at sea). They are all of great importance in settling the chronology. Dates
were thus found for these several eclipses, which are most satisfactory. About this
time Mr. Adams announced his discovery, that a part of the sun’s disturbing force
had been omitted by Laplace. The sun pulls the moon in the direction in which
she is going (so as to accelerate her) in some parts of her orbit, and in the opposite
direction (so as to retard her) in other parts. Juaplace and others supposed that
those accelerations and retardations exactly balance. Mr, Adams gave reason for
supposing that they do not balance. In this he was subsequently supported by M.
Delaunay, a very eminent French mathematician, who, making his calculations ina
different way, arrived at the very same figures. But he is opposed by Baron Plana,
by the Count de Pontécoulant, and by Prof. Hansen, who all maintain that Laplace’s
investigations are sensibly correct. And in this state the controversy stands at
present*. It is to be remarked, that observations can here give no assistance. The
question is purely whether certain algebraical investigations are right or wrong.
And it shows that what is commonly called ‘‘ mathematical evidence’”’ is not so
certain as many persons imagine; and that it ultimately depends on moral evidence.
The effect of Mr. Adams’s alteration is to diminish Laplace’s change of the periodic
time by more than one-third part. The computations of the ancient eclipses are
very sensibly affected by this. At present we can hardly say how much they are
affected: possibly those of Larissa and Agathocles would not be very much disturbed ;
but it seems possible that the computed eclipse of Thales might be thrown so near
to sunset as to be inapplicable to elucidation of the historic account. This is the
most perplexing eclipse, because it does not appear that any other eclipse can possibly
apply to the same history. The interest of this subject, it thus appears, is not con-
fined to technical astronomy, but extends to other matters of very wide range. And
the general question of the theory of the moon’s acceleration may properly be indicated
as the most important of the subjects of scientific controversy at the present time.

On the Mid-day Illumination of the Lunar Craters Geminus, Burckhardt,
and Bernoulli. By W. R. Birt, F.R.A,S.

The object of the present communication is to lay before the British Association
for the Advancement of Science a few of the features that characterize the lunar sur-
face in the neighbourhood of the craters, Burckhardt, Bernoulli, and Geminus, or
more particularly on the area between the angular points: Burckhardt, Bernoulli,
a small but bright crater on the southern margin of Messala (B), and a crater on an
elevated ridge (a*) under the mid-day illumination.

In the first report of the Committee appointed at Belfast to report on the physical
character of the moon’s surface, the mid-day illumination is alluded to as “‘ making
apparent the unequal reflective powers and different colours which characterize the
different lunar regions, and the systems of brilliant stripes which are connected with
certain lunar forms.”

* See also Mr. Main’s elaborate statement in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astrono-
mical Society. bel : ase

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31

The drawing accompanying this communication exhibits such reflective powers
and different shades of tint, as well as certain remarkable phenomena connected
therewith, which appear to be entirely unconnected with hypsometric relations, and
manifest only the ground markings of this part of the lunar surface. It (the draw-
ing) has resulted from the personal observations of the author, in accordance with
the recommendations of the above-named Committee, and is perfectly unconnected
with any previous delineations of this part of the moon’s surface, further than the
relative positions of the three principal craters, which have been taken from Beer and
Madler’s large map, the observations having been made with one of the Sheepshank’s
telescopes, the property of the Royal Astronomical Society, each consisting of an
original sketch executed at the time of observation. They extend from April to July
of the present year. The features delineated may be seen during the period of the
lunation that elapses between ten and fourteen days of the moon’s age.

In the following description each feature will be separately noticed, preceded by
a Roman numeral, References :—Names and Roman characters to Beer and Madler’s
map, Arabic numerals to features that appear to be new to the author, or, in other
words, that he has not met with a description of.

I. Burckhardt.—The appearance usually presented by this crater under this illumi-
nation is that of an ellipse, the northern and southern margins being more strongly
illuminated than the eastern or western, which evidently results from the incidence
of the solar light. The crater isin reality (as determined from hypsometrical inequal-
ities brought out by morning and evening shadows) one that is superposed on an
older depression, the extremities of the older crater being well marked in the evening
illumination. No part of the ancient one is seen between ten and fourteen days of
the moon’s age, only the brighter rim of the modern, with a central mark somewhat
more luminous than the floor.

Il. (c) A somewhat intensely bright circular spot near the south-western margin
of Geminus, It is a small crater very apparent in the morning illumination, but
almost disappearing under the evening.

Ill. (1) A dark mark near (c). It is not in the nature of a shadow, the incident
light being opposed to that view. The author is disposed to regard it as a portion
of the surface reflecting much less light than the crater.

IV. (2) A bright narrow stripe emanating from (c) directed towards Burckhardt :
this stripe may be slightly too wide in the drawing.

Note.—There is an extremely brilliant crater in Cleomedes (A) in Beer and Madler’s
map, with a similar stripe towards Burckhardt.

V. (3) A bright stripe from (2) towards the dark ribbon (15) : this stripe extends
considerably beyond the dark ribbon towards the east.

_ VI. (4) Anextensive space of nearly the same uniform tint; it is rather darker be-
tween Burckhardt and Bernoulli, and covers the southern part of GEMINUS.

VI. Bernoulli.—The floor of this crater under the mid-day illumination is dark,
with a light rim seen under the same circumstances as the rim of Burckhardt,

VIII. (a) A small but well-marked crater between Bernoulli and Messala,

IX. (5) A curved bright stripe somewhat hooked, extending from (a) to Ber-
noulli.

X. (6) A dark space somewhat lighter than the floor of Bernoulli, extending
between Bernoulli and Messala. It is not of the form shown in the drawing, a small
i Pal extending further west.

I. (B) A crater on the margin of Messala; it is not distinatly discernible under
this illumination.

XI. (7) A bright space covering the northern part of Geminus, extending and
converging to (B), the crater in the southern margin of Messala.

XIII. (8) A bright narrow stripe crossing Geminus ; it passes through the dark
ribbon, as may be seen with a powerful instrument, and extends towards the north
of Cleomedes across the narrow stripe (3).

XIV. (9) A bright narrow curved stripe, apparently the north-western margin of
Geminvus. It is seen eastward of the dark ribbon, and extends towards the eastern
extremity of the stripe (3).

XV. (10) A dark space somewhat like a spur, apparently within and external to
Guminus, and dividing the curved stripe on its margin.

Se REPORT—1859.

XVI. (a*) A small crater which is situated upon the northern extremity of a ridge
(not the ribbon 15), as manifested by the morning and evening illuminations. This
ridge does not exhibit any reflective powers different from those of the surrounding
land.

XVII. (11) The outlines of an obliterated crater with its darker floor and some-
what lighter rim than the space (12). No indications of any hypsometrical relations
of this crater are met with morning and evening, so that it would appear to have been
filled up. 1t is a somewhat difficult object to see, and requires good definition.

XVIII. (12) A space of nearly the same uniformity of tint as (4) between Geminus
(a*) and (B). It is rather darker towards the ribbon.

ae ‘i \ Two small somewhat light spots ; they do not appear to be craters.

XXI. (15) A dark ribbon-like band extending from Burckhardt to Geminus, skirting
the eastern margin of Geminus and proceeding towards (a*).

This dark ribbon is not in any way elevated above the general lunar surface, as no
shadow is perceptible either in the morning or evening ; in fact it disappears entirely
under theseilluminations. It isclearly a ‘ ground mark ”’ exhibiting differing degrees
of intensity.

Contemplating the drawing as it lies before us, we see at a glance that during the
four days (moon's age 10 to 14) we are dealing in this part of the moon with markings
of the surface only. This conclusion is particularly forced upon us by the remark-
able phenomena presented by Grminus. The depth of this crater, as well as the
elevation of its walls, are well brought out by light and shadow, especially in the fore-
noon illumination, but as the day advances the crater-form is lost; in fact such is
the metamorphosis the crater undergoes, that only a portion (the northern) is recog-
nizable, and this more by the curved outline and narrow stripe across, than by any-
thing else. Between the dark ribbon (15) and the dark space north of Bernoulli(6),
including the dark-floored Bernoulli itself, a space of somewhat uniform breadth
extends. This space, which is of alighter tint than either of the narrower stripes
bounding it east and west, is crossed by a brighter space (7), which passing over
Geminus, converges to the crater (B) in the southern margin of Messala. This
brighter space is not peculiar to the locality between the two narrow darker fringes ;
it extends considerably to the eastward of Geminus, passes near to a crater marked
by Beer and Madler (A), and is connected with the system of brilliant stripes radia-
ting from the brilliant crater Proclus. The narrow stripe (8), which is rather brighter,
belongs to the same class as (2), (3), and (9), and may be seen crossing Geminus on the
eighth day of the moon’s age, both northern and southern walls being apparent ; it
consequently traverses alike elevation and hollow. It would appear (assuming for a
moment that the bright space (7) existed anterior to the production of the crater, an
assumption by the by for which there are no reasonable grounds) that that produc-
tion had not in the least degree influenced the reflective powers of those parts of the
surface on which the crater is situated. On the other hand, assuming that both
brighter and darker tints resulted from some change after the crater was produced, it
is difficult to see how the complete obliteration of the southern part should be effected
at the same time that its elevated wall remains. That the wall is not materially
interfered with, is evident from the fact that both wall and depression come out in
strong relief with the evening shadows.

It is very possible that the crater might have been produced when the entire area
between the two dark fringes reflected light similarly, and that its southern wall with
its step or terrace only presented phenomena of light and shade when the morning
and evening incidences were such as to bring them out from hypsometrical inequality.
The narrow stripe (8) across is evidently posterior in age to the crater itself, and
may or may not be contemporaneous with the production of the lighter area con-
verging to Messala; and from the distinct and well-marked manner in which the
north-western rim is cut off at the junction of the lighter and darker areas, it would
appear that this brighter rim is also of later origin.

The bright crater (C) deserves a passing remark. Onconsulting Beer and Madler’s
map, it will be seen that Burckhardt is situated nearly midway between it and the
bright crater marked (A) in Cleomedes, from which a similar stripe extends to
Burckhardt, A question here suggests itself. Is Burckhardt at a lower level than

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33

either (C) or (A)? The author has not yet detected hypsometrical evidence of this :
or has there been some tendency in the direction of Burckhardt to produce cracks
and fissures from the two small craters N.W. and S.E, of it?

Epoch ten to fourteen days of the moon’s age.

Mid-day illumination of the lunar area between the angular points Burckhardt, Bernoulli ;
B a crater on the southern margin of Messala and the crater a*.
Relative positions, approximately, from Beer and Madler’s large map.
Names and Roman characters refer to Beer and Madler’s large map.
Arabic numerals to features observed by the author, described in the accompanying paper,
- and not described elsewhere, so far as the author is aware.
Drawn from sketches taken at interyals between April and July 1859.

1859. 3

34 REPORT—1859,

On Sir Christopher Wren’s Cipher, containing Three Methods of finding the
Longitude. By Sir Daviv Brewster, K.H., LL.D., F.R.S.

Sir David said that at page 263, vol. ii. of his ‘ Life of Sir Isaac Newton,’ the
following paragraphs would be found: —“ The bill which had been enacted for reward-
ing the discovery of the longitude seems to have stimulated the inventive powers of
Sir Christopher Wren, then in his eighty-third year. He communicated the results of
his study to the Royal Society, as indicated by the following curious document
which I found among the manuscripts of Newton :— /

“« «Sir Christopher Wren’s cipher, describing three instruments proper for discover-
ing the longitude at sea, delivered to the Society November 30, 1714, by Mr. Wren :—

OZVCVAYINIXDNCVOC WEDCNMALNABECIRTEWNGRAMHHCCAW.
ZEIYEINOIEBIVTXESCIOCPSDEDMNANHSEFPRPIWHDRAEHHXCIF,

EZKAVEBIMOXRFCSLCEEDHWMGNNIVEOMREWWERRCSHEPCIP.
Vera copia. Epm. Hairy.’

We presume that each of these paragraphs of letters is the description of a separate
instrument. If it be true that every cipher can be deciphered, these mysterious
paragraphs, which their author did not liveto expound, may disclose something
interesting to science.”

Sir David Brewster went on to say that soon after the publication of ‘The Life of
Sir Isaac Newton,’ he had received a letter from Mr. Francis Williams, of Grange
Court, Chigwell, suggesting very modestly that as the deciphering of the cipher, as
published, was so simple, he supposed many persons had already done so ; but ifnot,
he begged to say that the mystery could be solved by reading the letters backwards
in each of the three paragraphs, omitting every third letter. He had, on the approach
of the Meeting of the British Association, received permission from Mr. Williams to
give an account to this Section of Mr. Williams’s method of solving the enigma.
In his letter conveying the permission, which Sir David read, he suggests that “‘ Sir
Christopher Wren’s object was to make it too mysterious to be of use to any one
else. It is possible he may have wished to delay for a time the publication of his
inventions, perhaps till he had improved his instruments, but was afraid that in the
interval another would hit upon and publish the same discovery. He would send
this cipher, then, to the Royal Society as a proof to be used at any future time.”
Sir David had the following explanation then, in accordance with Mr. Williams’s
suggestion, written upon the black board, the letters to be omitted being written
in small characters to distinguish them, and backwards :—

WAcCH hMArGNwETrICeBAnLAmNCdE WcOUcNDxINiVAvCUzO. —Wach
magnetic balance wound in vacuo (one letter a misprint). The omitted letters
similarly read are—CHR. WREN, MDCCXIV.

FIcX HhEArDHwIPrPEeSHnANmDEdSPcOIcSExTUiBEiONiEYiEZ.—Fix
head hippes handes poise tube on eye (one letter a misprint). Omitted letters make—
CHR. WREN, MDCCXIIII.

PIcPEhSCrREwWErMOeVInNGmW HdEEcLScFRxOMiBEvAKzE.—Pipe
screwe moving wheels from beake. Omitted letters make—CHR. WREN,
MDCCXIYV.

The three last omitted z’s occurring in the first part of each cipher to show that
that part must be taken Jast.

On the Longitude. By Sir C. Grey.

On the Inclination of the Planetary Orbits.
By J. Pore Hennessy, M.P., F.G.S.

The author stated that, on consulting a synoptic table of the planetary elements,
some laws had been obtained for the other elements, but none hitherts for the in-
clinations of the several orbits. This he conceived arose from the inclinations being
set down in reference to the plane of the earth’s orbit; for he found that a very re-
markable relation manifested itself when they were tabulated in reference to the
plane of the Sun’s equator. The author had written on the board two tables: one,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35

the ordinary table, in reference to the Ecliptic; the other, that to which he wished
to draw attention, having reference to the plane of the Sun’s equator. In the latter
it was seen, as a general law, that the inclinations of the planetary orbits increased
as the distances of the several planets from the sun increased. Thus, the inclina-
tioh of the orbit of Mercury to the plane of the Sun’s equator was but 0° 19’ 51”,
while that of Neptune was 9° 6’ 51”,—the only considerable deviation from regular
progression being found, as might be expected, among the asteroids; of which if
we take Victoria as a type, her inclination is no less than 15° 42’ 15”. The author
considered that the fact that the orbits of the larger planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
and Neptune, are not more inclined, would seem to confirm a surmise of La Place,
who, in his ‘ Exposition du Systeme du Monde,’ speculates on the order in which
the planets were thrown off from the Sun, and supposes that Jupiter, Saturn, &c.
were thus formed long before Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars. If so, the oblate-
ness of the Sun would, in its condition at that time, have tended more powerfully
than in its subsequent or present state to keep the planets near the plane of its
equator. The discovery of this law regulating the inclinations of the planetary
orbits appeared to him another addition to the class of facts which establish the
analogy between the Solar system and that of Jupiter and his satellites, it being well
known to astronomers that the inclination of the orbits of the latter to the plane of
Jupiter’s equator was a function of their distances and masses.

On Chinese Astronomy. By J. B. Linpsay.

The object of the present paper is to draw the attention of this Section to the fact,
that much information may be derived from Chinese literature in order to perfect
our astronomy. The ‘ Chun-tsiu,’ written by Confucius, contains an account of
thirty-six eclipses (several of them total), and several comets, falling stars, and
meteorites. The first eclipse here recorded was in the year before our era 719, the
last was in B.c. 494, thus comprising 225 years. Confucius was born in B.c. 550,
and died at the age of seventy-three in B.c. 477. In a book lately published I have
given an extract of the thirty-six eclipses ; but the whole of the ‘ Chun-tsiu’ deserves
to be translated and published. I have myself made a translation of the whole ver-
batim, but should prefer seeing it published by another better acquainted with the
Chinese. The ‘ Chun-tsiu’ is a short chronicle of events; but there is an extended
commentary on it entitled the ‘Tso-chuen,’ by Tso-kiu-ming, who was a contem-
porary and an intimate friend of Confucius. This work should, I think, be also
translated, as it gives a detailed account of astronomical observations, and comes
thirteen years further down than the work of Confucius. Another work, entitled
the ‘ Kwo-yu,’ supposed to have been by the same author, contains an Appendix by
another person, bringing down the history to B.c. 453. The succeeding history was
principally written, and the celestial phenomena recorded, by Szi-ma-tsien, who
lived a century before our era. His work is entitled ‘ Shi-ki,’ or Historic Memoirs.
He was Imperial Historian, as was also his father; and his work is extremely
_interesting, as giving an account not only of Chinese affairs, but also of the Scythians
and Turks who were then on the north-west borders of China, The 123rd chapter,
recording foreign events, has been translated into French by Brosset, and is found in
the Journal Asiatique for 1828. This chapter comprises the history of forty-three
years, or from’B,c. 140 to B.c. 97, shortly before the author’s death. Small portions
of the ‘ Shi-ki’ have been translated into English, but the whole deserves to be so:
A translation of the whole Chinese history and literature before our era would not
be voluminous; but the ‘ Chun-tsiu,’ the ‘Tso-chuen,’ and the ‘Shi-ki’ should, I
think, be translated first. Extended notes would be necessary to render the whole
intelligible, and the Astronomer Royal might append notes on the various eclipses.
The ancient Chinese classics are nine in number,—five of the first class, and four of
the second. The five of the first class are the ‘ Shu-king,’ the ‘Shi-king,’ the
«[-king,’ the ‘ Li-ki,’ and the ‘Chun-tsiu.? The ‘ Shu-king’ has been translated
into French by Desguignes, ; the ‘ Shi-king ’ into Latin by Lacharme; the ‘ I-king ”
into Latin by Regis, and others; the ‘ Li-ki’ into French by Callery ; but the ‘ Chun-
tsiu’ has not yet been translated into any European language. The four books of
the second class have been often translated into Latin and French. Their names
are, the ‘Ta-hio,’ the ‘ Chung-yung,’ the ‘ Lun-yu,’ and ‘ Mang-tszi,’ or Mencius,—
scarcely any of which have been translated into English.

86 REPORT—1859.

On an Improvement in the Heliometer.
By Norman Pogson, Director of the Hartwell Observatory.

The purpose of this communication is to suggest what I conceive to be a great
addition to the power of any kind of micrometer used for measuring long distances
on the double-image principle. It is therefore especially applicable to heliometers,
and has indeed occurred to me chiefly from familiarity with the defects which have
hitherto rendered this costly but magnificent instrument a comparative failure. It
is well known to practical astronomers that the contact between two stars, however
skilfully made, is a very unsatisfactory observation, even when the objects are pretty
equal. But when one is a large bright star and the other a faint one, the difficulty
and uncertainty amount to impossibility ; for the faint star is invariably obliterated
on approaching within two or three seconds of its superior. The alternative is then
to diminish the aperture of that half of the object-glass through which the brighter
star is viewed; but here again arises another evil ; the disc is enlarged by diffraction,
the value of the scale sensibly changed, and definition materially injured. Hence
parallax determinations of first magnitude stars, such as Arcturus and a Lyra,
cannot be satisfactorily made; but when the object is a double star, as, for instance,
61 Cygni or Castor, the comparison star can be brought between the components of
the double star, and a most exquisitely perfect and comfortable measure obtained.
Now, from having used the rock-crystal prism micrometer when residing at Oxford
last year,—then kindly lent me, together with a five-foot telescope of surpassing excel-
lence, by Dr. Lee,—the idea occurred to me of introducing a prism, or achromatized
wedge of rock-crystal, into the heliometer, so as to double the image of the brighter
star. By this means the dubious contact would be dispensed with ; for the fainter
object, by being brought midway between the two images of the bright star, would
be precisely similar to the present easy observation of 61 Cygni previously referred
to. The prism could be of sucha constant angle as to separate the two images to a
convenient distance ; not too far, so as to render the estimation of distance difficult,
but just wide enough to prevent the obliteration of a faint comparison star, before
named as one of the evils to be avoided. The prism rather improves the appearance
of a bright star than otherwise; and_as the images are doubled, of course half the
light of each is lost, equivalent to a considerable reduction of the aperture, thus
obviating the third objection alluded to at starting. Armed with this addition to its
strength, and taking the precaution never to observe on bad nights, when the
atmosphere will not permit the use of powers from three hundred upwards—for I
hold it as an absurdity to attempt to investigate tenths of a second of are with any-
thing less—the heliometer is doubtless yet destined to realize the highest expectations
ever raised, as to its efficiency for grappling with that most minutely intricate and
vastly important research, viz. the parallax of the fixed stars !

On three Variable Stars, R and S Urse Majoris, and U Geminorum, as
observed consecutively for six years*. By Norman Pocson, Director of
the Hartwell Observatory. (Communicated by Dr. LEE.)

[With a Plate. ]

The periodical variation in brilliancy of certain fixed stars has now been known to
astronomers for more than two centuries. The fact of simple change, apart from
periodicity, has been recognized and recorded for nearly two thousand years; and
while every other celestial phenomenon has been explained and reduced to intelligible
methods of calculation, based upon theories as incontrovertible as the events they
foretell in future or account for in past times, these changes of light and colour
remain enshrouded in mystery, and their prediction as purely empirical as was that
of eclipses by the Chaldeans of old, aided by their renowned Saros, or eclipse-period
of 223 lunations.

It is not, however, for want of due thought and attention from the eminent
astronomers of the past and present that such a reproach attaches to any branch of
their science. Commencing with Fabricius, who first drew attention to the dis-

* This paper was illustrated by large diagrams of the light curves of the above three vari-
able stars, covering an area of. more than sixty square feet. The portions most especially
referred to by the author have been reduced to a suitable scale, and are given in Plate I.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37

appearance of the now well-known variable Mira Ceti, and the Dutch Professor
Holwarda, who discovered its periodicity, the list of observers of these objects includes
most of the greatest names that have figured in astronomy :—Hevelius, Bulliald,
Montanari, Cassini, Maraldi, G. and C. Kirch, Halley, Koch, Goodricke, and
Pigott—all contributed largely by discovery or observation to our knowledge of the
variable stars. Sir William Herschel’s first astronomical communications were
upon the same subject, since most ably followed up by Sir John Herschel, the
distinguished inheritor of his great name and lofty talents. Olbers paid great
attention to the variable stars, as also Harding, Wurm, Westphal, Schwerd, and
above all others, Professor Argelander, of Bonn. To him is due not merely the
merit of arranging the labours of all that had preceded him, and more accurately
investigating the elements of change of most of the old variables, as well as the
discovery of several new ones, but that of training a band of young and able followers,
who by their successive discoveries and patient researches have honoured both
themselves and their great instructor. In England, besides the labours of Sir John
Herschel, Mr. Hind has discovered no less than twenty-one new telescopic variable
stars, two of which, S Cancri and U Geminorum, are especially remarkable. The
writer of this paper has also contributed ten to the list, which now numbers more
than eighty of these interesting objects. Mr. Baxendell of Manchester, Messrs
Chacornac and Goldschmidt of Paris, as well as Drs. Winnecke, Schcenfeld, Luther,
Auvers, Hoek, Oudemans, and Schmidt, are all devoting more or less of their time
and attention to the same pursuit.

Why then, it may be inquired, have not all these combined efforts proved as suc-
cessful as they undoubtedly deserved to be, in arriving at more satisfactory results ?
We can only regret the circumstance, and redouble our exertions to attain so important
an object. Want of continuity is doubtless a most weighty objection to all pre-
viously published series of observations, and one which the observers could not help:
for unless a star be circumpolar, there must inevitably occur a break in the records
of its changes during the time that it is in conjunction with the sun, and therefore
not observable. It is not enough merely to watch a star through its successive
maxima; every stage of its variation should be remarked, and an unbroken record
thereof kept for years, or at least through ten or twelve complete periods. The
detection of four remarkably regular variable stars, suitably placed in the circumpolar
region, has enabled me to secure this desideratum, and to supply data not previously
available.

A brief summary of the principal features hitherto remarked in periodical stars,
may be advantageously stated, before proceeding to the description of our illustrations.
Some of them, from fine bright stars distinctly visible to the naked eye, fade away
beyond the limits ofthe largest telescopes in use, and after remaining invisible a
certain time suddenly regain their brilliancy. The increase in light is generally
more rapid than the diminution, and about or after maximum such stars are frequently
more or less red. Others, usually of short period and small variation, complete their
changes in a few hours, and at all intermediate stages are of a constant magnitude.
Most of the stars of this class are visible to the naked eye and pretty steady in their
periods, which may be stated as between the limits, three and forty-six days ; while
those of the former class, or vanishing stars, range from 97 to 650 days in the
interval between two successive maxima. Jn one instance the period cannot be less
than seventy-three years ; and it is even probable that some of the brilliant visitors,
described as new or temporary stars in past ages, may be periodical, but returning
only after the lapse of many centuries.

The largest of our three diagrams represents the light curve, or graphic history, of
the circumpolar variable star R Ursee Majoris, since 1853, the year of discovery of
its variability. Eight maxima, dependent upon 138 observations, and seven minima,
resting upon 122 observations, making in all 260 nights on which the star has
been examined, are here presented to the view. The Time co-ordinates, marked
along the top and bottom of the projection, are on a scale of ten days to an inch,
The other co-ordinate—magnitude or light—is marked at each extremity of the dia-
gram. ‘The upper limit, which, however, this star has never attained, is the 6th
magnitude, or faintest visible to the unassisted sight. The lower limit is 133, or the
faintest magnitude discernible with a telescope of 7 inches in aperture, The

38 REPORT—1859.

observation of every night is represented by a black spot. Thus, on 1855, September
19, the magnitude of the star was recorded 6°6 ; on November 8, it had diminished
to 8°8 ; and on 1856, March 7, when only just discernible, it was noted 13°5. It
appears therefore, that if R Urse Majoris never becomes visible to the naked eye,
on the other hand it never quite vanishes with an object-glass of 7 inches in aperture.
A waved line, smoothly traced among these dots, so as to pass as nearly as possible
through the mean of each three successive observations, is adopted as the curve
which represents the variations of the star with the most probable exactitude. The
general regularity and similarity of the different periods is strikingly evident, also
the gradual descent of the curve corresponding to diminution of light, and its rapid
ascent or brightening up before each maximum. The whole period being 302 days
or ten months, the interval from maximum to minimum is 191 days, that from
mivimum to maximum only 111 days.

Closer inspection will bring to view some more interesting details. At the first
observed maximum the star acquired only the 8th magnitude. At the next it became
0°6 of a magnitude brighter, or shone with half as much light again as on the first
occasion, On the photometric scale adopted, which is an average of those employed
by all the chief catalogue constructors who paid attention to the relative magnitudes
of the fixed stars, and is in exact accordance with the notation of Professor Arge-
lander, the highest authority on that point, one star is said to be a magnitude brighter
than another, when it contains 21 times the actual light of the fainter star. ‘thus
a 7th magnitude is 23 times as bright as an 8th. At the next three maxima, viz.
1854, November 22; 1855, September 15; and 1856, July 10, R Urse Majoris was
within 0°1 of the 7th magnitude. But at the next maximum on 1857, May 15, it
reached the 6°7 magnitude—the brightest on record; a veritable maximum maximo-
rum! On the last two occasions, viz. 1858, March 16, and 1859, January 5, it did
not exceed the 7°6 magnitude. Owing to the extreme faintness of this star at its
minima, less weight can be assigned to their determination, but similar fluctuations
are manifested, especially by the first four. After reducing the fifteen equations
afforded by this curve, by the method of least squares, the resulting elements of
variation are :—period, 301°91 days; epoch of minimum, 1858, September, 159 ;
and that of maximum, 1859, January, 6°6 ; which represent the original observations
with surprising accordance. The mean difference between an observed maximum
and one computed from the elements is 2? days; the extreme difference 54 days.
For the minima, these differences are—mean, 43; extreme, 8 days. Strong evidence
this, in favour of the regular periodicity of the star, and the sufficiency, both of the
observations and their treatment by this simple but effectual method of projection,
when for two of the oldest known variables, o Ceti and x Cygni, the most refined
formulz of calculation often disagree with observation to the extent of twenty-five
and forty days respectively ! ;

It must not be supposed that the observations here projected are mere estimations
of the magnitude of the variable; nei- —— = —-
ther are they photometric measures of
the actual light emitted by the star. In
either case, the changes inthe atmosphere
or in the sensibility of the observer’s eye
would materially affect the estimation,
and the dots would stand out very un-
satisfactorily from the interpolating light-
curve. The method employed is as fol-
lows :—A map of the neighbourhood of
each variable is constructed, and a cer-
tain number of stars selected, if possible |
in the same telescopic field of view, as
standards of reference. One of these

maps, viz. that of the variable just de- | +70"
scribed, is here given for the purpose of 4,7” *° *! %4 33 33 35 36 37 38 39 40 1
illustration. 10 Minutes of Right Ascension

The comparison stars, nine in number, are lettered in order of brilliancy, and their
adopted magnitudes, the means of careful estimations on twenty favourable nights,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39

are as marked on the map. The variable star is compared with these selected
standards on each occasion. Thus, on 1855, December 18, my record made with
the equatorial of the Radcliffe Observatory was—R, 0°8 of a magnitude less than
comparison star d; 0°3 less than e; equal tof; 0°6 brighter than g; which differ-
ences, applied to the adopted magnitudes of the references employed, yield the four
values 10°6, 10°7, 10°4, 10°6. The mean of these, 10°6, is then the relative magni-
tude of R Urs Majoris on that night, eliminating all the liabilities to error which
could attend direct estimation. The eye is wonderfully acute, after a little practice,
in detecting differences of brilliancy, second only to the ear in distinguishing small
intervals of musical sound; and an inequality between two stars of only ‘5th of their
light, considerably less than a tenth of a magnitude, is fairly appreciable.

Three maxima, forming a portion of the light-curve of S Urs Majoris, another of
the four circumpolar variables found at the Radcliffe Observatory, are projected ina
precisely similar manner, and on the same scale as in the preceding example. The
period and range of variation of this star are each considerably less than in the
case of R Urse Majoris. Its changes are completed in 2224 days or about 7}
months. The brilliancy at different maxima fluctuates between the 7°5 and 8°5
magnitudes. The minima also lie between the 11°8 and 12°8 magnitudes. The
‘times of increase and decrease are performed in 95 and 127 days respectively. The
most singular feature exhibited by this star, is the different duration of greatest bright-
ness at certain maxima. For instance, at the very flat-looking maximum which
occurred on 1855, June 17, S Urse Majoris preserved the same intensity, viz. the
84 magnitude, for nearly two months. At the next maximum, 1856, February
11, the star acquired the 8°2 magnitude, but changed more in twenty days than pre-
viously in nearly three times that interval. At the next return, 1856, September 14,
it increased to the 7°7 magnitude, but scarcely remained a fortnight at greatest bril-
liancy. The minimum also, on 1855, October 24, when of the 12°3 magnitude,
compared with the next on 1856, January 14, is much sharper and shorter, as well
as fainter in its actual light. Since May 1853, when its variability was first detected,
the star has been examined on 270 nights, comprising eleven minima and ten maxima
in unbroken succession.

On looking at such a long flat vertex to a curve, as the first on the diagram of
S Ursee Majoris, it may be asked how the exact day of maximum is deduced, when
the star remained so little changed for two months? The small circular marks and
the short line traced through them are the reply to this inquiry. Reading from the
light curve the days on which the star was of equal brightness during increase and
decrease, a mark is placed half-way, or at the mean of the two days. This is done
for different stages of brightness,—in this instance when the star was of the 10°2,
9°8, 974, 9°0, and 8°6 magnitudes. A curve is then smoothly passed through these
points, and the point defined by the intersection of the light-curve with this line is
regarded as the day of maximum intensity. Any more refined process would be but
labour lost. Projection has two great advantages over calculation, when applied
to these observations ; it economizes time, and by the flagrant outstanding of any
particular dot, immediately detects errors which might easily escape notice when
intermingled in a column of figures, but which would not fail to vitiate our results if
overlooked, in the deduction of the elements of variation.

R Cygni, a star of 417 days period—discovered in August 1852, and since then
continuously examined on 243 nights—is a third circumpolar variable, extremely
steady in its changes. It descends from the 8th to below the 14th magnitude in
245 days, but returns to its next maximum in 168 days. It is quite invisible with a
7-inch object-glass for above three months.

The fourth circumpolar variable, R Cassiopeiz, likewise increases rapidly, fading
away very gradually ; the whole period extending over 435 days or more than 14
months, and ranging generally from the 6th to the 13th magnitude. At maximum
this star emits a vivid red or almost a scarlet light. R Cygni and S Urse Majoris
also show a fine deep red tinge. KR Urse Majoris, on the contrary, never appears
red, nor indeed deviates from its ordinary yellowish-white colour at any part of its

eriod.
- In striking contrast to these, and indeed to most other variables, stands U Gemi-
norum—a truly wonderful star, discovered by Mr. Hind in December 1855. Its

40 REPORT—1859.

short period of 97 days was detected at the Radcliffe Observatory, at its very next
return, in March 1856. The star is visible only for about ten or twelve days. To
what an infinity of faintness it must diminish during its 85 days of invisibility is
beyond all conception, and perfectly overwhelming to the imagination! Its appear-
ances show a pretty regular periodicity ; but here again it is strangely anomalous, for
it sometimes fails to return at all, as will shortly appear from the projection. The
colour is invariably bluish white, and at some maxima its light is ever dancing and
unsteady ; at others exactly the reverse, as pale and calm as a planet’s. Requesting
attention to the diagram so freely striped with red* lines, the upper limit no longer
represents the 6th but the 7°5 magnitude; the lowest line, the 15th—a trifle beyond
the vanishing-point of the large reflector of Mr. Worthington, of Manchester ;
which has been directed to it frequently, and to excellent purpose, by my friend
Mr. Baxendell, of that city.

At its discovery by Mr. Hind, on 1855, December 15, it was estimated of the
Oth magnitude, and was announced in the 7imes as ‘a new planet at its stationary
point, or a new variable star.” On December 18 it was a little fainter, though still
visible, but disappeared before the end of the month. The black hyperbolic-looking
curve, shaped agreeably to later re-appearances, but fitted in to Mr. flind’s dates,
shows the probable nature of its changes at its first recognition. The red lines fol-
lowing are records of invisibility, showing that the star was looked for but not seen,
and therefore less than the magnitude indicated by the top of each such red line.
Thus, on 1858, May 16, an unfavourable night at Manchester, stars of the 13°4
magnitude were just visible when U Geminorum was not. On 1856, January 12,
a fine night, it was invisible to Mr. Hind with the South Villa equatorial, and there-
fore less than 13°5 magnitude. On Jannary 27, when sought for at Oxford, with a
small but excellent portable telescope, 2} inches in aperture, it was invisible, and
under the 11th magnitude. As previously stated, its period was detected at its
first return, at the Radcliffe Observatory, when three observations were obtained.
It must have passed its maximum on 1856, March 23. It was seen of the 9°6 mag-
nitude on the 26th; of the 10°2 magnitude on the 27th; of the 11th magnitude on
the 29th, but had quite disappeared on April 2, and was then less than the 13°5
magnitude. Several records of invisibility follow up to the middle of June, when
the star not being circumpolar was lost sight of at its conjunction with the sun.
From May till September it is not observable from this cause. The maxima due on
June 25 and September 30 were thus lost. The next, on 1857, January 5, was also
lost, owing to the prevalence of cloudy weather from December 29 to January 14.
The records of invisibility are, however, pretty numerous about this time, and prove
it was well looked after. The maximum of 1857, April 9, was well observed, the
star being seen twice before, and five times after the turning-point by me; and once
on Apri] 13, as a 10°3 magnitude, by Mr. Baxendell, on a night when I had no
observation. It is gratifying to find the independent comparisons of two observers
—different eyes and telescopes—thus perfectly agreeing with the same unbroken
light curve. U Geminorum was again lost in the summer months at its conjunction,
and therefore the maximum due on July 18 escaped observation. On October 30
the variable was visiéle, but only of the 9°7 magnitude, and as it was invisible and
under the 12°3 magnitude on October 27, when already five days past due, it is pro-
bable that it did not surpass the observed magnitude at that maximum.

An important stage of its history is now at hand. It was being sought for at
Oxford, and also at Manchester, and though due on 1858, January 27, was not
seen. If it appeared at all, which is doubtful, it could not exceed the 11th magnitude.
But at the next due apparition, May 4, it positively did not come at all; for Mr.
Baxendell was searching night after night, with his great reflector, and limited
it “under 143 magnitude,”’ as shown by the short red (dotted) lines represent-
ing his valuable records, at the very time it was due ata maximum. The August
apparition occurred in conjunction, and the star was justly supposed to have “=x-
PIRED”’ or died out gradually. But on November 16 it returned, nearly as:bright
as ever, as shown by the combined observations made at Oxford and Manchester.
And lastly, on February 19, 1859, it acquired a maximum equal to any previous

* The red lines in the original diagram are represented by dotted lines. (See Plate I.).

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 41

one on record. Here again it is interesting to find the independent observations of
the writer, at the Hartwell Observatory, and of M. Goldschmidt at Paris, blending
so smoothly together—to form the light-curve. And I may here remark upon the
advantage of free intercourse in science. But for the valuable communications of
my two friends, I could only tell half my tale, and the curious failure of its appear-
ance in May 1858 would have remained “‘Nor Proven!” Its truant nature is
well shown by the circumstance, that out of 162 nights on which it has been sought
for, it has been seen only on twenty-seven, and these distributed amongst four
observers.

The details of the observations of these five stars, as well as of eight others, which
have in fact been the recreations of my leisure hours for some years past, after the
discharge of official duties at the Radcliffe Observatory, were to have been published
as a supplement to one of the future volumes of the Transactions of that establish-
ment, in which they were mostly made. The untimely death of my venerated Di-
rector and friend, M. J. Johnson, Esq., has interrupted this arrangement.

As the various maxima and minima depend upon very different numbers of obser-
vations, a systematic and just assignment of the weight or comparative value of each
resulting equation has been duly regarded, and is an indispensable consideration in
all such investigations.

It is singular how many of the variable stars have faint companions, though whe-
ther physically or merely optically double, years of accurate measurement can alone
distinguish.

The empirical prediction of future changes, by the deduced epochs and periods, is
the first fruit, and perhaps for some time, the only yield to be expected from this
field of sidereal research. These are, however, so much wanted, that with the ap-
proval of my patron, Dr. Lee, and our distinguished neighbour Admiral W. H. Smyth,
to whose invaluable experience and ever readily bestowed counsel and encouragement
I owe the most grateful acknowledgments, the variable stars form the chief pursuit
towards which the resources of the Hartwell Observatory are directed ; and an Atlas
of the vicinity of every known variable, together with the determination of the
standard magnitudes of the most suitable comparison stars in their immediate neigh-
bourhood, is in an advanced state of preparation ; so as to relieve amateurs who are
inclined to take charge of a few of these interesting and amusing objects, of the only
tedious part of the process. Many possessors of small but good telescopes ex-
claim in despair, ‘‘ What can I do to be useful with my small optical means, which
is not better done elsewhere?’ ‘To such I would reply, ‘‘ Record the changes of
some yet undetermined variable star!” It is little gain for all to be occupied on
the same objects, because they appear most striking and interesting; plenty yet re-
main, the elements of variation of which are still unknown ; and to supply the first
good deductions of this kind ought to satisfy the ambition of any one who seeks to
be useful, without incurring the outlay of money, time, and trouble requisite for
the pursuit of the more advanced branches of the science.

On the Effects of the Earth's Rotation on Atmospheric Movements.
By Danie, VauGcuan, United States.

Though much attention has been hitherto devoted to the motive power concerned
in producing the winds, there is still much room for investigations respecting the cir-
cumstances which modify its action. From the influence of heat in expanding the
air, and the manner in which temperature varies with an increase of latitude, it has
been inferred that the lower atmosphere must flow towards the equator, from remote
parts of the northern and southern hemisphere, while returning currents roll back
above the region of the clouds. On tracing the change which the earth’s motion must
occasion on such moving masses of air, a very plausible explanation is obtained of
the leading phenomena of the trade-winds. But it seems difficult to account for the
geographical range of these regular movements of the air; as their extreme limits,
even in the Pacific Ocean, extend only a few degrees beyond the tropics, and alter
position comparatively little during the different seasons of the year. The difficulty
appears greater, when we reflect that, in the torrid zone, temperature is not much

42 wteae REPORT—1859.
affected by an increase of latitude, and must therefore operate with less energy in
causing a general circulation of the atmosphere.

My researches show that the chief obstacle to the extension of trade-winds to the
temperate zones, proceeds from the diurnal motion of the earth. On the centrifugal
force arising from this rotation depends, to some extent, the direction of terrestrial
gravity at places between the poles and equator; the equilibrium of our atmosphere
is accordingly dependent on it; and if this vast collection of air ceased to partake of
the earth’s movement, the greater part of it would be compelled to remove from the
tropical to the circumpolar regions, In like manner, when the airis moving towards
the west, it experiences a reduction of centrifugal force, accompanied by a slight
change in the direction in which it is attracted by our planet, and a proportionate ten-
dency to flow towards the pole; while in an eastward movement the effect would
be reversed, and there would be a steady deflection towards the equator.

Whenever an extensive portion of our atmosphere undergoes a considerable change
of latitude from local variations of temperature, it cannot, at once, acquire the velo-
_city and the centrifugal force necessary for an equilibrium in its new location, and a
retrograde movement is a necessary consequence. Accordingly the earth’s rotation,
instead of disturbing the repose of our aérial ocean, only imposes restraints on the dis-
‘turbances arising from the action of solar heat. Its resistance to atmospheric move-
ments (supposing friction removed, and the motive power to act in the direction of
the meridian) is nearly proportional to the square of the sine of latitude multiplied by
the distance the air has been withdrawn from the parallel of the place which has the
same velocity with respect to the earth’s axis. This rate of variation appears to be
approximately correct, whether the air be supposed to preserve its eastward velocity
unchanged in its passage towards the equator or the poles, or whether cognizance is
taken of the change of velocity, with which the translation must be attended, that
our globe may sustain no loss of momentum by aérialcommotions. But in the latter
case a higher coefficient of resistance will be obtained, though it must be diminished
in consequence of the effects of friction. It thus appears that the centrifugal force
attending the rotation of our planet, impedes only in a slight degree the extensive
movements of the winds in tropical regions ; but it becomes a serious impediment to
their prevalence on the same scale, in the temperate and the frigid zones.

As the part of the atmosphere which feels most intensely the expanding influence
of heat is compelled to ascend, in the vicinity of the equator it flows towards the poles,
forming two vast aérial rivers, whose breadth is nearly 25,000 miles at their origin,
but is reduced to about 22,000 miles on reaching the parallels of 28 degrees. Such
a reduction of breadth would evidently be accompanied with an increase in the depth
of the stratum of air, were it not for the decline of temperature; butit cannot fail to
augment atmospheric pressure, especially at the place where the progressive move-
ment from the equator is arrested by the resistance from centrifugal force. This
occurs between the 25th and 30th parallels of latitude; and here the great pressure,
of which the barometer gives manifest indications, causes the air to descend, to roll
back towards the equator, and to participate once more in the circulation of the trade-
winds. It appears, moreover, that the mere form of the earth must be an impe-
diment to the extension of trade-winds to any considerable part of the temperate
zone, where the degrees of longitude diminish so rapidly in length; for the belt of
air which encircles the equator could not make a general movement as far as the 60th
parallel of north latitude, without swelling to a height wholly incompatible with the
-conditions of equilibrium.

The aqueous vapour conveyed by the trade-winds is condensed into rain during
the ascent of the air at or near the equator; and the evolution of heat attending this
condensation must, according to Professor Espy, be regarded as the chief source of
power which maintains the great circulation of the tropical atmosphere. He has
long ascribed storms to the local condensation of vapour, and he adduces evidence to
show that the winds blow to the point at which the most heavy rain is descending ;
-but Dr. Hare attributes this centripetal movement to the constant discharge of elec-
tricity, which the moisture of the air enables to escape from great elevations. Now,
whatever part heat and electricity may act in these phenomena, the results must be
‘modified in the same manner by the diurnal motion of our globe. As the impedi-
ment which centrifugal force gives to atmospheric movements augments with every

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43

increase of latitude, it is evident that in our hemisphere the air must be drawn from
the greatest distance and with the greatest velocity on the south side of a storm; and
this, taken in connexion with the constant eastward deflection of the moving mass
in its passage to the north, will account for the superior force of south-west winds in
the north temperate zone.

The air pressing from the north and south to the place at which the greatest rain
occurs, must be deflected in opposite directions ; and on this principle it has been
proposed to account for the rotation of storms. But the eastward and westward
winds must cooperate in producing the same result, the former being deflected to the
south and the latter to the north, from an excess and a deficiency of centrifugal force.
The spiral motion, generated in this manner, prevents the atmospheric pressure, at
the centre of a storm, from being increased by the influx of the surrounding air,
and contributes to make the violent movement extend to the bottom of our aérial
ocean.

As the air on the east side of the great vortex cools by retiring from the equator,
it becomes less capable of retaining its aqueous vapour, while an opposite effect takes
place on the west side, where the temperature of the air increases with the change of
latitude. From the greater abundance of rains which accordingly fall on its east side,
the focus of a rotating storm must be constantly shifted in an eastward direction ;
but between the tropics the movement depends on less effective causes, and the course
is mainly determined by the direction of the trade-winds. In temperate climates a
tendency of the storm to recede from the equator must proceed from the superior
violence of south-west winds, to which allusion has been already made. Accordingly
the present theory, without involving any new hypothesis, appears to furnish a very
satisfactory explanation of the leading facts which meteorologists have discovered,
respecting the rotary and orbital movements of tempests in different regions of the
earth. Theconstant change in the position of the focus, to which the whirling mass
of fluid is directed, appears to be the cause not only of the east or north-east course
which storms take in our climates, but also of the centrifugal motion of the air which
observers have occasionally noticed, and which Espy ascribes to the impulse of de-
scending drops of rain.

Ona System of Moving Bodies. By A.S.S. Witson.

METEOROLOGY.

On the Semidiurnal and Annual Variations of the Barometer. By Joun
ALAN Brouy, F.R.S., Director of the Observatories of His Highness the
Rajah of Travancore.

In the twenty-second volume of Poggendorff’s ‘ Annales’ (pp. 219 and 493*),
M. Dove showed, in discussing observations made at Apenrade, that when the
tension of vapour in the atmosphere is subducted from the whole atmospheric
pressure (for each hour), the remaining diurnal variation of dry air pressure has a
period of twenty-four hours like that of the elasticity of vapour itself, only that the
maximum of the one occurs at the same time as the minimum of the other, these
epochs coinciding nearly also with those of highest and lowest temperaturet.

M. Dove has shown that this result may vary under different circumstances ;
thus in a place far from the sea, to which no sea breeze can make up by day what
the ascending current carries away of vapour from the lower strata. the curves of
the elasticity of vapour and of dry air will march together ; since both fall at the
warmest time of the day, the dry air as well as vapour will be carried up by the
rising current, and flow off sideways. For a decidedly continental situation, then,
Wwe may expect that the maximum of the morning will disappear in the combined
pressure measured by the barometer, which will happen for places in the neighbour-
* * Cited in M. Dove’s paper “ Bericht,”’ &c. der Wiss. zu Berlin, Marz 1846, p. 54,

+ Ibid. p. 54. :

44 REPORT—1859.,

hood of the sea only for the pressure when the elasticity of vapour has been deducted.
Between these extremes of sea and continental climates a gradual passage will occur*.

M. Dove’s hypotheses (for there are more than one included in this statement)
were presented to the English reader first by General Sabine, in a Report on the
Meteorology of Toronto, published in the Reports of the British Association for 1844,
p- 50, and examjned by him with reference to a sea climate, that of Bombay, in the
Reports of the British Association for 1845, p. 73.

In the Reports of the Association for 1845, p. 12, the Committee on Magnetical
and Meteorological Observations put the question, “‘ Has M. Dove’s resolution of
barometric fluctuation into two elements received any confirmation?” In the
“ Bericht,” &c. of the Berlin Academy of Sciences (March 1846), M. Dove dis-
cusses observations made at Java, and conceives that his discussion answers the
question decidedly in the affirmativet.

Mr. Broun maintained in 1846, in his discussion of the Makerstoun Observa-
tions, the insufficiency of M. Dove’s hypothesis; but as this has been adopted
lately by Sir John Herschel in a treatise on meteorology, Mr. Broun considered the
time was come for a careful examination of the facts on which M. Doye’s method
professes to be founded.

Two hypotheses are included in that method :—1st. That the tension of vapour
deduced from the psychrometer observations is due to an atmosphere of vapour
pressing with a weight equal to that tension. 2nd. That through the action of the
solar heat an ascending current of air is induced ; the air is expanded and overflows
above over colder localities.

In order to test the first hypothesis, Mr. Broun made some observations (in
January 1857) on the sea-shore of Travancore, which were compared with observa-
tions made in the Trevandrum Observatory eight miles distant. These observations
showed that the variations of the barometric pressure were to the same amount at
both stations, that the difference of temperature was about 0°'8 Fahr.; nearly that
due to the difference of heights (about 160 feet), but that the difference of computed
vapour tension varied considerably ; these tensions were as follows :—

Tension of vapour.

19}, 22h, 2h, 4ih, 93h,

in. in. in. in. in.
Channavilla ws... 0°645 0°643 0°690 0°692 0°723
Trevandrum ......... 0°543 0°562 0°641 0°669 0°685
Difference ............ O°102 0°081 0°049 0°023 0°038

The difference of tensions was upwards of one-tenth of an inch at 7 a.m. and less
than one-fourth of that quantity at 4 p.m. As this difference would have been
shown at the sea-shore nearest to Trevandrum (three miles distant), it was pointed out
that the tension of vapour thus determined, depending wholly on the different
temperatures of evaporation at the two stations, was quite a local phenomenon, vary-
ing with proximity to the source of evaporation, the temperature and the pressure
of the atmosphere, and the rate of diffusion of the vapour itself under such pressure.
On this ground the hypothesis fails completely. Indeed the diurnal variation of
pressure of computed dry air was shown to have the 10 a.m. maximum as well
marked at Chunnavilla as the barometric variation. General Sabine had obtained a
somewhat similar result from the Bombay observations; and the double oscillation
still remaining in the dry air pressure, was explained by a supplementary hypothesis
depending on sea and land breezes. It was here noted by the author that the
Bombay Observatory was within a hundred yards of the sea, in a position quite
resembling that of Chunnavilla Cottage; and that the distinctness of the double
maximum and minimum in the calculated dry air pressure, instead of being due to a
sea and land breeze, was simply due to the small diurnal range of the computed
vapour tension, which in the arithmetical operation of subtraction was insufficient to
disguise the barometric law. A few miles inland the disguise would have been more
marked.

* Cited in Mr. Dove’s paper “ Bericht,” &c. der Wiss, zu Berlin, Marz 1846, p. 54. This
is nearly a literal translation of M. Dove’s statement.
T Ibid. p. 60.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45

Mr. Broun then showed the insufficiency of M. Dove’s method, by a discussion of
observations made at Makerstoun in Scotland in 1843-46. Inthe winter quarter it
was proved that, so far from the morning maximum disappearing, the diurnal varia-
tion of dry air pressure showed a hetter marked double oscillation than was exhibited
by the barometer. Further, it appeared that the amount of the diurnal oscillation of
the barometer had no relation whatever to the amount of diurnal oscillation of
vapour tension or of temperature; the sum of the barometric diurnal oscillations at
Makerstoun being greatest when the amount of the diurnal variations of vapour
pressure and of temperature were least. It was also remarked that there were
secondary maxima of vapour pressure which did not show themselves at ¢ll in the
barometric results ; or that when the tension of vapour by the psychrorneter observa-
tions seemed to increase, the total pressure, as measured by the barometer, gave no
symptoms of it.

M. Dove had brought forward as a proof of the accuracy of his method, the
statement that in places far in the interior of the Asiatic continent, such as Cathe-
rinenburg, Nertchinsk, &c., distant from large masses of water and with dry
atmospheres the double diurnal oscillation was not shown in the barometric observa-
tions. Mr. Broun pointed out that this should not depend upon the mean dryness
of the atmosphere, but upon the diurnal variation of vapour tension as computed by
the psychrometer. He compared the diurnal variations of vapour tension at Nert-
chinsk and Makerstoun in 1844, which were as follows :—

4—5 a.M. l pM. Range.

in. in. in.
At Nertchinsk ........ese000. 0°122 0'155 0:033
At Makerstoun ....ee000062 0°267 0°301 0°034

As the range is as great at one place as at the other, there can be no better reason
(as faras this point is concerned) for the barometric oscillation being single at
Nertchinsk than at Makerstoun.

But in order to test the method more perfectly, one of the dryest months (January)
of the year 1844 was chosen; in that month the diurnal variation of vapour tension
at Nertchinsk was between 0008 in. at 6 a.m. and 0°017 in. at 1 p.m. The oscillations
Were compared with those for the same month at Makerstoun in Scotland; the
comparison will be best understood by the following Table :—

Oscillations of Barometer and Dry Air Pressures at Nertchinsk
and Makerstoun, January 1844.

; |
Station. a 8 p.m. | Change. || 5 a.at. | Change. || 10 a.m.) Change. |/ 1 p.m. | Change.

in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
Nert- Barom....|27°830 |— 0-021 ||27-809 |+-0-020 ||27-829 ~0:027 |27-802 |-+-0:024
chinsk | Dry air...|27:819 —0-018 ||27-801 +0:015 ||27-816 | —0-031 ||27-785 |-+-0 034

See
Makers Barom....|/29°705 |—0-020 |29°685 |+4+-0:023 ||29-708 | —0-020 | 29-688 |4-0:017
toun... | |Dry air...|29°501| 0-019 |29-482 |+-0-011 |/29-493 | —0-031 ||29-482 |-+-0:039

It will be seen from this Table that the barometer diurnal oscillations at Nertchinsk,
in the interior of a great continent, for the month of January 1844, agreed within a
few thousandths of an inch with those for Makerstoun, a quite insular locality ; the
greatest difference being in the afternoon minimum, which falls ‘007 in. more at
Nertchinsk than at Makerstoun. The diurnal variation of dry air pressure shows a
distinct and well-marked double maximum and minimum like that at Makerstoun.

Mr. Broun concluded his examination of the sufficiency of M. Dove’s method, by
a discussion of observations made in ‘the observatory of His Highness the Rajah of
Travancore at Trevandrum ; from which it appeared that the double diurnal maximum
and minimum of dry air pressure were shown in the dry quarter, that of land and
sea breezes; in the monsoon quarter, that of continuous N.W. winds; and in the
means for the whole year ; but most distinctly and regularly in the monsoon quarter,
when no land and sea breezes are blowing.

46 ; “REPORT—1859.

With reference to the second hypothesis, that of overflowing currents, it was stated
that not only were there no grounds for it, but there were several facts quite opposed
it. Among others, it was pointed out that the best marked of the semidiurnal varia-
tion of the barometer at Makerstoun in 1843-46, was that for the night (9 P.m. to
9 a.m.) during the winter quarter, when the tension of vapour and temperature of
the air were nearly constant.

Mr. Broun now adduced the results of a series of observations made under his
direction, by fifteen observers, at Trevandrum, at the base of the Ghats, twenty miles
distant ; and at three other stations, rising successively on the sides of the Agustier
Mallay, by 1500 to 1700 feet, the highest being the Peak Observatory, 6200 feet above
the sea-level. These series show completely the insufficiency of all the usual hypo-
theses.

The following Table contains the mean barometer oscillations derived from a
month’s hourly observations in the commencement of 1859 :—

ks "dan, | Malling. | mom | Mandy, | Beaks

in. in. in. in. in.
9 p.M. 0 3 A.M... ceeeeee —0:070 | —0:074 | —0-076 | —0-075 | —0-082
BAM. to9 AM. ccc +0-091 | +0-090 | +.0:093 | +0090 | +0-090
9 A.M. tO 3 P.Mi..ccecsceses —0:126 | —0-115 | —0:096 | —0:082 | —0:070
3B P.M. $0 9 PoMesssseeceeeee 40-105 | +0-099 | +0-079 | +0067 | +0-062

It appeared from these observations that the night oscillations (that between 9 P.M.
and 9 a.m.) had nearly the same value at Trevandrum three miles from the sea, and
at different heights on the Ghats twenty miles from Trevandrum ; the oscillation
being on the whole greatest at the highest station. The day oscillation diminishes
as we ascend, the diminution being partly due to the expansion of the atmosphere
during the day, by which part of it previously below the upper stations is carried
above them.

It seemed probable that the oscillations were chiefly due to an action upon the
upper or dry atmosphere, indicating, the author conceived, an electrical or magnetical
result.

Mr. Broun proposed in 1857 a theory of the diurnal variations of the barometer,
which agreed to some extent with one communicated to him by Dr. Lamont ina
letter (dated June 4, 1859), but published elsewhere by’ Dr. Lamont.

Dr. Lamont’s hypothesis was founded on the electrical action of the sun, whereas
Mr. Broun’s, as at first proposed by him, was founded on the sun’s magnetical
action; he proposed in the present state of the facts to place both hypotheses under
the following general form.

The sun by its electrical action (static or dynamic) on our atmosphere and the
earth gives to the atmosphere an ellipsoidal form with the longer axis nearly under
the sun ; this ellipsoid, foilowing the sun, produces the semidiurnal oscillation of the
barometer, the extent of this electrical action probably depending on the relative
dryness of the air.

In Dr, Lamont’s view, the action is electrical induction on the atmosphere (the
sun’s electricity supposed positive) ; in Mr. Broun’s view, magnetical induction on
the atmosphere and earth; by both the part next the sun is attracted, and on the
opposite side repelled, or vice versd.

‘The author now referred to the annual variation of the barometer, and concluded—

That the annual variation within the tropics was quite a local result, the range of
the monthly mean pressures being about one-tenth of an inch for each four or five
degrees Fahrenheit of range of monthly mean temperature.

That the mean pressure of the whole atmosphere is greatest in December or

January, and least in June or July; this difference being more marked when the

computed dry air pressures are considered.

Finally, the author remarked that if the sun’s action on our atmosphere resembled
its action on the gases of comets, the pressure should become greater as the earth
approached the sun, that is in December; but it was believed that the difference
found between the pressures in December and June, was chiefly due to the greater

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47

humidity of the air in June than in December, by which, according to the hypothesis
for the diurnal variations, the electrical action is diminished. According to Dr.
Lamont’s mode of considering the solar action, the barometric pressure should be
diminished as the earth approaches the sun. ‘The whole question of atmospheric
electricity, and its relation to the electricity of the earth, is, however, in a sufficiently
vague state to render a just view of the sun’s supposed electrical or electro-mag-
netical action, if the magnetical view be taken, somewhat indefinite; but whether we
suppose the atmosphere positively electrified and the earth negatively, or with M.
Peltier, that both are resinously electric, the latter more powerfully than the former,
we must consider not only the action on the atmosphere, but also that on the earth,
and the vapours which rise from its surface, as well as their reactions on each other.

On the Fall of Rain in Forfarshire. By ALExAnDER Brown, Observing
Member of the Meteorological Society of Scotland, &c.

Arbroath. | Barry, Hon: Hit Strichen, | Craigton. |Dundee.| Kettins.

eS Monthly

2 rf ° U ° i ° “ ° vi ° i ° i ° Ul avEraBe
Latitude N.| 56 34 56 293/56 423/56 33) 56 33% | 56 314 [56 273] 56 32 |,,,.0f
Long. W...| 2 35 |247|231| 251) 2493] 250 |259| 3 133
Altitude ...) 65 ft. | 35 ft. | 15 ft. | 500 ft.) 500 ft. | 500 ft. |100 ft.| 240 ft.

in. in. in.

in.
1-21 1:21 151 | 1:117

1858. in. in. in.

in.
January ...| 0:923 | 1:25 | 0-60 | 1:09

1:15
February...| 1:037 | 1:09 | 0:70 | 1:19 131 1:29 0 92 1:20 | 1:093
March......| 1:277 | 1:23 | 1:60 | 1:47 1:50 1:55 116 1:20 | 1:378
ApH y.5005 1:287 | 1:25 085 | 1:79 1:85 1-92 1-40 1:55 | 1:487
May ...... 2-093 | 1:97 | 1:80 | 2:00 | 2:07 2:25 1:80 2°42 | 2-050
June ...... 1513 | 1:32} 2:32 | 1:29 1-44 1:33 3°37 1:77 | 1-794
July ......, 3076 | 3:75 | 3:10 | 3:35 3°63 3°44 3:60 6°74 | 3835

August ...| 2°270 | 2:44 | 2°27 | 2-25 2°45 2:25 2:80 3:10 | 2-479
September! 2°023 | 2:76 1:85 | 2-70 2°80 2-73 2:34 2:85 | 2:506
October ...| 2°665 | 3°28 | 2-63 | 3°10 3°23 3:18 2:80 TT oes 2:995
November | 1°874 | 3:01 | 2:20 | 3:25 3°40 3°20 2°45 218 | 2°695
December | 4315 | 3:47 | 3:00 | 3-91 4:17 3°95 3°62 345 | 3:735

26°82 | 22-92 27°39 29:00 | 28:30 | 27:55 | 27:97 |27°159

11 months.

The above Table gives, for the year 1858, the monthly fall of rain at eight stations,
where rain-gauges are kept, in Forfarshire, extending from Montrose on the east to
Kettins on the west. The distance of these two extreme stations from each other
is about thirty miles, and the district embraced by the eight stations comprehends
about one-third part of the whole county. The first three stations named in the Table
and the last, are four of the Scottish Meteorological Society’s stations. The three
stations, Hillhead, Strichen, and Craigton, are in the neighbourhood of each other, and
situated in the parishes of Monikie and Carmylie around the reservoir at Monikie, from
whick the town of Dundee is supplied with water. The latitudes and longitudes of the
different stations are taken from Arrowsmith’s large map of Scotland. The altitude
above sea-level of Arbroath and Barry stations is taken from the Ordnance Survey,
and the altitude of Monikie reservoir is 440 feet, as found from the survey made by
Mr. Leslie, C.E. in connexion with the construction of the Dundee Water- Works ;
the stations named are higher than the reservoir and estimated as in the Table. The
station at Kettins is not far distant from some of the highest hills in the Sidlaw range.
The rain-fall there for eleven months is greater than for the whole year at any of the
other stations, excepting Strichen and Craigton, which arises from the unusual rain-
fall of 6°74 inches in the month of July. For the whole of Scotland, the rain-fall
for 1858, as given in the Quarterly Reports of the Scottish Meteorological Society, is
33°91 inches,—greater than that of the above eight Forfarshire stations by 6} inches.

The following Table gives the annual rain-fall at five of the above-named stations
for six years, from 1853 to 1858, both inclusive, with average annual fall for that

48 -REPORT—1859.

period. It will be noticed that the annual fall increases with the altitude of the
station above the sea-level.

Remarks on the Climate of Orkney. By the Rev. Cuartes CLoustTon,
L.R.C.S. Edinb., Pres. Ork. Nat. Hist. Soc. &c.

Orkney is situated further North than any part of the mainland of Scotland or the
Naze of Norway, and nearly in the same latitude as Stockholm on the East, and
Cape Farewell on the West; yet its climate is one of the most equable in Britain, and
this is ascribed to the effect of the surrounding oceans, and particularly of the Gulf-
stream.

From meteorological observations made in Orkney for nearly thirty-three years,
tables of which were laid before the Section, it has been ascertained that its mean
annual temperature is not only equal to that of the north and middle of Scotland,
but even to that of the south border, or 46°*26; while Dumfriesshire is 4° or 5° colder
than Orkney in winter, it is above 3° warmer insummer. This arrangement may be
pleasant, or favourable to animal life, but it is unfavourable to vegetation, particularly
to trees. Evergreens are killed by the sea-spray in winter. The difference between
the mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months is only about 17°, never
having risen so high as 62°, nor fallen so low as 31°.

That the Atlantic moderates the extremes and elevates the temperature of winter,
more than it depresses that of summer, is evident, when we consider that in 1858 its
mean temperature was about 33° above that of the air, which it exceeded during ten
months, and only fell below it during Juneand August. It has not yet been found
colder than 43°, and the mean of three years is 49°56, or more than 3° above that
of the air.

In the inland parts of Britain the greatest heat occurs about the middle of July, and
the greatestcold about the middle of January ; and the months equidistant from
these are most nearly of equal temperature. In Orkney, however, January and
February are equally cold, and July and August equally warm; and the months
equidistant from these correspond most nearly, as March and December.

This retardation of the period of extreme heat and cold is ascribed to the influence
of the sea, which is neither so quickly heated in summer, nor cooled in winter, as the
surface of the land.

A table was produced showing the mean monthly atmospheric pressure for the
last twenty years, which does not show any great peculiarity of climate. It attains its
greatest height in May, and gradually descends on each side, the only exception being
in September, when it takes a step upwards. The mercury has been observed as low
as 27°69 inches, and as high as 30°76 inches, giving a range during these twenty
years of 3°07 inches.

A table showing the quantity of rain each month for the last eighteen years was also
produced, showing that the mean annual quantity for that time is 36°53 inches at
the place of observation on the west side, but it is much less on the east side of the
islands. As in the former tables, so in this may be observed a gradation from the
minimum to the maximum quantity ; thus May has the least rain as well as the
highest barometer, and it gradually increases on each side till October, which is the
wettest month, September being the only exception.

From a table giving the direction of the wind for thirty-two years, it appears that it
blew from the W., S.W., S, and S,E., 6964 days, while from the opposite four points-it

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 49

blew little more than half that time, or 4041 days. Does Orkney owe much of the
mildness of its climate to this prevalence of S. and W. winds?

Two other tables were given—one embracing a great variety of particulars regard-
ing Orkney, the other the same particulars regarding all the stations of the Scot-
tish Meteorological Society. From these it appears that the instruments do not show
more dampness in Orkney than in the other stations.

Observations on the Natural Obstructions in the Atmosphere preventing the
view of Distant Olyects on the Earth's Surface. By ALEXANDER CRUICK-
SHANK, A.M, Aberdeen.

I wished to determine the frequency with which the daily extreme limits of view
from any fixed station, over an extensive range of country, are circumscribed by
natural causes, viz. haze, showers, and mist or low clouds. For this purpose I made
daily observations about noon, during the years 1856, 1857, 1858, from the vicinity
of Aberdeen, on the distance seen along the South Deeside Grampian range of
mountains, which run in a S.W. direction from Aberdeen, and of which the main
tops are visible in fine weather from that vicinity, at the respective distances of five,
ten, twenty, thirty, forty, and fifty miles. These tops are called Clochendichter,
Caernmanearn, Caerloak, Mt. Battock, Mt. Keen, and Lochnagar, the last one being
nearly in the S.W. corner of Aberdeenshire. They are all nearly in a line, and were
taken as fixed points for noting the varying distances seen. It was found that the
obstructions to distant vision, caused by showers, and by mists or low clouds, entirely
obscured the view at once, at the nearest points to the observer at which they existed.
When, however, haze circumscribed the view, it was found to increase gradually,
with the distance, beyond the nearest point at which it began to be perceptible, and
this was often only one or two miles off, till its density entirely prevented further
vision beyond the distance of five miles and upwards.

Taking the average of the observations for the above-mentioned three years 1856,
1857, 1858, it was found that the view, about noon, extended to fifty miles, or to
Lochnagar, on ninety-four days during the year; but the state of the atmospheric
obstructions to vision at that distance showed that, on many of those days, the view
must have reached much further, had the observer been at a higher level. On fifty-
two days the view was limited to forty miles, or to Mt. Keen, the nearer hills being
also seen, or it was less than fifty miles; Lochnagar, though seen in clearer weather
from the point of observation, being rendered invisible by the atmospheric obscurities
referred to. On forty-five, fifty-one, thirty-nine, and sixty-nine days during the year,
the view at the time of observation was respectively limited to the distance of thirty
miles, or Mt. Battock, twenty miles, or Caerloak, ten miles, or Caernmanearn, and
five miles, or Clochendichter, more distant vision being completely prevented by the
atmospheric obscurities beyond those distances. In fine, on fifteen days in the year,
mist and showers circumscribed the view within one mile of the place of obser-
vation.

Simultaneous observations in other directions from the point of observation, gave
similar results, in as far as the inequalities of the earth’s surface permitted a suffi-
cient length of radial view. Had, therefore, the view about noon over the earth’s
surface extended as far in all directions as in that of Deeside, there would have
been visible on an average of 94, 52, 45, 51, 39, 69, and 15 days in the year, portions
of that surface included within circles of the diameters of 100, 80, 60, 40, 20, 10,
and 2 miles respectively.

From the similar variability of climate throughout Britain, the above results may
be regarded as true, or nearly so, of the rest of the island. They show that angles sub-
tended by objects at the distance of fifty miles or more, such as enter into the Ordnance
Survey of the country, could not, on account of haze, mist, &c., be observed with
sufficient accuracy about noon on more than ninety-four days in the year. There is,
however, at that time of the day another very frequent and great obstruction to such
observations, viz. the tremor of the atmosphere, on the frequency and amount of
which the present observer does not feel qualified to report. But it is well known
that, owing to the two causes now mentioned—obscurity and unsteadiness of vision—
the Ordnance surveyors, with the whole day at their command, have sometimes been

1859. 4

50 REPORT—1859.

obliged to remain for weeks at a station, before getting a favourable opportunity to
observe some of their angles.

Note.—From observations made on the subject of the above paper during the year
1859, the view from the vicinity of Aberdeen was found to be limited to the above-
mentioned distances on 128, 47, 31, 41, 30, 76, and 12 days respectively.—Feb.1860.

On the Diurnal Variation of the Barometer. By T. DAviEs.

The author examines the effect of the sun’s heat on a column of air of the
height of the atmosphere about the torrid zone, where the heat is greatest, and the
days and nights nearly equal. The main phenomena of the diurnal variation are,
he finds, represented by this cause. The communication was illustrated by diagrams,
which showed two chief maxima and two lesser maxima, with the corresponding
intervening minima, at critical hours of the day.

On Mild Winters in the British Isles. By Prof. Hennessy, F.R.S.

The author pointed out the circumstance that the meteorological observations made
during the late remarkably mild winter tended to confirm the law which he had already
announced in a letter to General Sabine, which appears in the ‘ Proceedings of the
Royal Society’ for 1858, This law is, that during mild winters the coast stations
exhibit an increase of temperature more than inland stations, and that the tempe-
rature on the west and south coasts approaches towards uniformity. In France, as
pointed out by M. Liais, the first part of this law is found to hold good, as evinced in
the comparative climatology of Cherbourg and Paris. Mr. Hennessy referred these
phenomena to an abnormal extension of heat-bearing currents across the Atlantic.
The prevaling westerly and southerly winds would, under such circumstances, transfer
to our shores a great portion of the warmth which they had received from contact
with the heated waters at remote portions of these currents; for the condition
of the ocean bathing our shores, would be favourable to the preservation of such
warmth in the strata of air passing over its surface. From the greater stability of
such currents than those of the atmosphere, and from the important influence they
undoubtedly exercise upon our climate, he is led to infer that we are rapidly ap-
proaching a period when it may become possible to foretell whether the winter shall
be cold or warm by knowing the conditions of temperature and the movements of
currents in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic during the summer and autumn.

On the Distribution of Heat over the Sun’s Surface. By J. J. Murpuy.

On the Aqueous Vapour of the Atmosphere.
By Rear-Admiral FirzRoy, F.R.S.

In order to show why this subject was of urgent importance, the author gave a
brief description of the origin, nature, and objects of the Meteorological Department
of the Board of Trade, which was instituted to collect and publish meteorological
observations made at sea; and explained that he now required the opinions of com-
petent authorities as to the best method of publishing a great accumulation of valu-
able observations. Referring especially to the division of opinions of some scientific
men on the question of aqueous vapour, and the reduction of barometrical observa-
tions, the Admiral quoted passages from the reports of Col. James and Prof. Patten,
printed in the third Number of ‘ Meteorological Papers’ published by the Board of
Trade in 1858. Admiral FitzRoy then submitted to the President of the Section
that it would be desirable to elicit some authoritative opinions on the subject in
question, before he proceeded to other meteorological perplexities which he had in
reserve for another occasion.

On Atmospheric Waves. By Rear-Admiral FitzRoy, F.R.S.
As so much has been said during the last few years about ‘‘ atmospheric waves,”
I would refer to them here. If wind veers round the compass in the course of two
or three days (more or less), or is many days in making a circuit—invariably, as it

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51

goes round, the barometer rises or falls according to the direction or strength of the
wind. Supposing a diagram to represent 36 hours, and divided into spaces of three
hours each along the upper horizontal line; while below, points of the compass are
shown, from north around by east to north again, and continued to south; and at
the side a scale of inches and decimals, from 28 to 31. Then suppose that the wind
has gone round the compass once, or say once and a half, as happens occasionally ;
and that it has been an extreme case of depression, as ina storm. ‘Then, if from
(say) 30°3, with the wind at north, a shifting occurs, first towards the north-east,
and then onward in the same direction around the compass—as the wind so
shifts to the north-east, and is about to shift towards the east and south, the baro-
meter foretells it, or falls beforehand. When the wind is north-east the mercury is
lower, probably, than when it was at north. As it gets to the east the mercury falls,
and gets lower still at south-east, and falls still more to south and south-west, where
it is probably the lowest, because it feels the effects of the south-westerly or equa-
torial current most then, and may be down, let us suppose, to 28°2 inches. As the
wind shifts round to south-west, west, north-west, the column in the tube rises, till,
perhaps, the wind is north, or even north-east, when it may be as high as 30°8: it
has been known in this country as high as 309. As the wind goes round again to
the east and south-east and south, the barometer falls as before, and a line or curve
traced upon paper, representing these falls and rises, or oscillations of the barometer
during a certain time, say these 36 hours, has an appearance like the outline of a
wave of water; but as these apparent waves or undulations take place ewactly as the
wind shifts, and proportionally to its strength, and as, if the wind remains in one
quarter for some days, or say two or three weeks together, the curve becomes almost
a direct line, remaining at about the same elevation, it seems that there is an intimate
and immediate connexion between such a curve or wave-line and the oscillation of
the mercury, though not necessarily between the curve and any undulatory move-
ment of the atmosphere above our heads. Ifa body of the atmosphere above us
swelled upwards, like a wave, and fell again, as some suppose, as it were in “ crests ”
and “ troughs,” how should we reconcile it with the fact of there being various cur-
rents passing over each other in the atmosphere from different directions? Aéronauts
who have been up in balloons know that from one stratum of air they passed into
another and another, and perhaps a fourth also, moving in different directions.
There cannot be vacancies between the undulations of various strata of air. These
different bodies of atmosphere could hardly be undulating like waves while having
spaces between them, and interferences of cross movements. Waves of ocean have
only elastic air above them, which does not impede their rise and fall materially ; and
they are only superficial, not reaching far down.

Were there a raising of any part of the mass of air, the lighter or equatorial portions,
or winds, would rise the highest, and would expand; but, according to the ‘‘ Wave
theory ” (here controverted), the reverse is the fact; you have the lowest part of
the apparent trough of the wave, with the lowest barometer, that is, with the air,
which is the lightest and most expanded, and ought therefore to rise up the highest ;
and you have, coincident with the heavy dry air, the highest part, or what is called
the “crest” of the wave. Considering then these facts, and the exact correspondence
of the movements of the mercury with the wind’s direction, besides noticing the
extreme variability traceable in such an atmospheric wave (which can hardly be
conceived to be motionless for weeks, as in the case of a steady north-easterly wind,
and then going into extraordinary irregularity during a day or two), we are led to the
belief and assertion that what are commonly called “ atmospheric waves ” are rather
delusive ; and that there are waves in any line indicating oscillations of the barometer,
but not such, in the atmosphere itself, as are usually adverted to by the expressions
“trough ” and “ crest.”

Mr. Birt drew particular attention to these supposed undulations of atmosphere,
by papers read at meetings of the British Association, and by a special Article in the
‘Admiralty Manual of Science.’ Sir John Herschel, Le Verrier, and other great au-
thorities then countenanced Mr. Birt’s theory and apparently sanctioned his opinion.
Yet there is so much argument against those views, that even the highest names
scarcely warrant their implicit adoption. That there must be undulations in the
atmosphere—constlituted as it is—cannot be doubted ; but that the curve traced on

52 REPORT—1859.

paper, representing the oscillations of a barometer as the wind veers round the com-
pass, corresponds to a mechanical, wave-like undulation of the body of atmosphere,
is not proved.

We may demur to it on these grounds. First, the curve so traced on paper
varies, not only with the barometer, but with the direction of the wind, which is inva-
riably accompanied by change of pressure, consequent on the greater or less action
of polar or equatorial current.

Secondly, while the wind remains in one quarter, the curve or line, taken as that
of a wave, remains almost unvaried, except in consequence of altered strength of wind
or much rain, which have each a comparatively small effect.

Thirdly, the lowest part of the curve (called the trough of the wave) always cor-
responds to the lowest barometer, or lightest air ; whereas it is the lightest air that
rises highest, as instanced at the equator ; and therefore the crest of an atmospheric
wave (so to speak) ought to be over the place of lowest barometer.

Fourthly, aéronauts always find, and the upper clouds often show currents above,
very different from those below. These superposed and successive strata, in rapid cross
motion, must tend to destroy undulation. I am aware of what Sir John Herschel
has written on this subject (atmospheric waves) in his invaluable ‘ Essay on Meteor-
ology,’ in the last edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica; but with the utmost de-
ference I submit, that his experiment—on the undulations transmitted through suc-
cessive (coloured) strata of fluids ix a vessel—did not meet the case of fluid strata
moving horizontally, in various directions, across each other.

That there are tidal waves in the atmosphere, caused by the sun and moon, ex-
periment has proved; but that they are very small has also been demonstrated.
This subject, however, has yet to be investigated, by means chiefly of the accurate
barometrical measures instituted and carried on by Government during late years, in
many parts of the world, and especially at sea. Such waves as these would follow
their causes—in periodic times—and no, in utter disregard of sun and moon, only
correspond to direction and strength of wind.

Meteorological Observations made at Huggate, Yorkshire.
By the Rev. T. Rankin.

This was a series of tables and observations on the most remarkable meteorolo-
gical phenomena observed during the year 1858-59 in Yorkshire, in continuation of
a similar contribution continued for many years by the same author. They in-
cluded observations with tables on barometer and thermometer, wet-bulb thermo-
meter, rain-gauge, winds, aurora, the comet, and other remarkable phenomena, such
as thunder-storms.

On Tables of Rain registered at Georgetown, Demerara.
By P. SANDEMAN.

These Tables were constructed with the view of ascertaining what relation, if any,
exists between the motion of the moon in declination and the state of the weather.

The idea entertained was that the quantity of rain which fell during the time of
the moon’s motion in declination, changing from north to south in the northern
hemisphere, and from south to north in the southern hemisphere, would be found in
excess over the quantity which fell during the time the moon is crossing the equator
from south to north, or from north to south. The abstract Table No. 5 shows this
to be the case in four years out often. In regard to the absolute amount of excess
over the ten years, the theory holds; the excess when the moon is over the northern
hemisphere being 32 inches, and when it is over the southern hemisphere 31°7 inches.
The conclusion of the paper exhibits some points of interest. The author remarked
that during the years in which the theory fails are to be noted the following pecu-
liarities :—The rains during 1849 were excessive, amounting to 127 inches; it rained
almost all the year, reckoning from the preceding month of November, During
the months of May, June, and July of that year, nearly 60 inches fell.

During the year1851, the rain, instead of being confined as usual to certain months,
began to be more distributed over the year. In fact the rainy and dry seasons were
scarcely distinguishable.

TRANSAOTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 53

The year 1854 resembled 1851; and during the year 1855 heavy rains fell during
the mouths of February and March, which is quite unusual ; and from August 1855
very little rain fell till May 1856, although the drought was not so great as that
of 1845 and 1846.

It is remarkable that it was during 1851 the yellow fever prevailed ; and about the
year 1854 the cholera appeared in the colony for the first time.

There is an intimate relation between the phases of the moon and its period of
crossing the equator.

On the 21st of March the sun is on the equator, and new moon must happen
at a period of not more than about fifteen days from that date, either after the 6th
of March or before the 5th of April. Taking iato account the inclination of the
moon’s orbit to the ecliptic, the moon cannot be more than twelve degrees from the
equator at these times. This the moon will run down in less than two days; so
that about the equinoxes the moon must cross the equator on an average about one
day and a half before or after new moon. In like manner in June, the moon, if
confined to the ecliptic, would always cross the equator at a period after new moon
of nearly the same interval, about twenty-two days, on whatever day new moon
happened; but owing to the inclination of the moon’s orbit to the plane of the
ecliptic, the interval is sometimes a day and a half more or less than the average.
In fact at any period of the year the number of days after new moon, when the moon
crosses the equator, is nearly constant, and would be so if the earth and moon’s
orbits coincided with the plane of the equator. As it is, the interval for different
years at about the same period varies rarely more than two days.

The average number of days for each month, when the moon crosses the equator
after new moon, is exhibited in the following Table :-—

ARCs mlesinisieieisia 0) September ..cssecues 14
PRP EM Mts cess creces Siele . 20 October Veteciccte team Lice
UAE clawicve sige Weide srs sts 4 2o INOVemnber catnis> seas 9
BROCE Mie tsievcescsnece 21 Weceneers.. aatieiele sicteie ne nil
SID Yieatets) efoisiaj>.= sjsiepiebe shod S HANUATY? oilers cheaineiateisist On
UNUPTESUMIYs cieielete a elses civ), 16 WeEDEHArY. « ciciclelefelerstisiaihs, boas

From the facts which have been elicited from ten years’ observations, from 1846 to
1856, taken at Demerara, we must arrive at the conclusion that there are some
grounds for the truth of the popular idea, so long and so universally entertained, of the
influence of the moon on the weather by those classes whose opportunities lead them
to judge of the matter.

If the facts which have been elicited should be confirmed by another series of
observations at Demerara, or from series of observations already in existence taken
at other localities favourably situated, the existence of an influence of the moon must
become a. scientific fact, and one the knowledge of which will prove of great import-
ance to the future progress of the science of meteorology. There are various reasons
why the popular idea of the influence of the moon on the weather is not appreciated
in a scientific point of view. The most prominent one would appear to be found in
the circumstance that the influence of the moon on the weather has always been looked
for in relation to the phases, whereas it should have been referred to the moon’s
position with regard to the equator.

The climate of British Guiana is probably the most equable in the world. The-
greater part of the colony being quite flat, there is nothing to interrupt the free course
of the winds, which blow for most of the year from an E.N.E. direction.

The chief atmospheric disturbances take place at the solstices, those at other
periods of the year being of a more temporary nature ; they must be greatly modified
by the state of the atmosphere in adjacent countries. The country being in seven
degrees of north latitude, is in the zone of the trade-winds for most part of the year ;
and having the broad expanse of the Atlantic before it, the changes of the weather are
rendered comparatively mild and gradual.

British Guiana is peculiarly adapted for meteorological research, not only as rela-
ting to its own climate, but as favourable for the elucidation of delicate meteorologi-
cal questions, which would render valuable aid to the prosecution of the science in
other quarters of the world.

54 REPORT—1859.

TaBue No. 5.—Showing the Excess or Defect of Rain between those periods when
the Moon’s motion in Declination is changing, and when it is greatest, or when
the Moon is in greatest Declination and crossing the Equator.

Moon’s Excess Defect Yearly

| ail fig es | Defect. al eh = dail fib

in. in. in. in. im.
as, |{ S| San | ago | gee | cl [pe
1847. {3 Mas [bee booplesn (ecak } %
ris, 1 S| es | gas | ane | ot |p
veto. |{ | shoo | isan | wot | San |}
re50. |{ S| oat | Sar | iis | wo |pee
1850s ADs cla Repo apg de Bt ool aR ae ell
MMe iotan bein) bear of Slee
1893, 11 3° | ges | S00 | sae | 77 |p 8
vest. |{ S| Sor | ages | ot | aon |p 88
uss. {S| Bat | Tea | or | bee |} 8

On Thunder-storms. By G. J. Symons.

On the Reduction of Periodical Variations of Underground Temperature,
with applications to the Edinburgh Observations. By Prof. W. Tuomson,
LL.D. F.R.S.

The principle followed in the reductions which form the subject of this commu-
nication may be briefly stated thus :—

The varying temperature during a year, shown by any one of the underground
thermometers on an average for a series of years, is expressed by the ordinary method
in a trigonometrical series of terms representing simple harmonic variations *,—the
first having a year for its period, the second a half-year, the third a third part of a
year, and soon. The yearly term of the series is dealt with separately for the ther-
mometers at the different depths, the half-yearly term also separately, and so on,
each term being treated as if the simple periodic variation which it represents were
the sole variation experienced. The elements into which the whole variation is thus
analysed are examined so as to test their agreement with the elementary formule by
which Fourier expressed the periodic variations of temperature in a bar protected
from lateral conduction, and experiencing a simple harmonic variation of temperature
at one end, or in an infinite solid experiencing at every point of an infinite plane
through it a variation of temperature according to the same elementary law. In
any locality in which the surface of the earth is sensibly plane and uniform all round
to distances amounting at least to considerable multiples of the depth of the lowest
thermometer, and in which the conducting power of the soil or rock below the sur-
face is perfectly uniform to like distances round and below the thermometers, this
theory must necessarily be found in excessively close agreement with the observed
results. The comparison which is made in the investigations now brought forward
must be regarded, therefore, not as a test of the correctness of a theory which has
mathematical certainty, but as a means of finding how much the law of propagation
of heat into the soil is affected by the very notable deviations from the assumed con-

* By a simple harmonic variation is meant a variation in proportion to the height of a
point which moves uniformly in a vertical circle.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55

ditions of uniformity as to surface, or by possible inequalities of underground con-
ductivity existing in the localities of observation. When those conditions of unifor-
mity are perfectly fulfilled both by the surface and by the substance below it, the
law of variation in the interior produced by a simple harmonic variation of tempera-
ture at the surface, as investigated by Fourier, may be stated in general terms in the
three following propositions :— (1) The temperature at every interior point varies
according to the simple harnionic law, in a period retarded by an equal interval of
time, and with an amplitude diminished in one and the same proportion, for all equal
additions of depth. (2) The absolute measure in ratio of arc to radius, for the retar-
dation of phase, is equal to the diminution of the Napierian logarithm of the ampli-
tude; and each of these, reckoned per unit of length as to augmentation distance
from the surface, is equal to the square root of the quotient obtained by dividing the
product of the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, into the thermal
capacity of a unit of bulk of the solid, by the thermal conductivity of the same esti-
mated for the period of the variation as unity of time. (3) For different periods, the
retardations of phase, measured each in terms of a whole period, and the diminutions
of the logarithm of the amplitude, all reckoned per unit of depth, are inversely pro-
portional to the square roots of the periods.

The first series of observations examined by the method thus described were those
instituted by Professor Forbes, and conducted under his superintendence during five
years, in three localities of Edinburgh and the immediate neighbourhood: (1) the
trap rock of Calton Hill; (2) the sand below the soil of the Experimental Gardens ;
and (3) the sandstone of Craigleith Quarry. In each place there were, besides a
surface thermometer, four thermometers at the depths of 3, 6, 12, and 24 French
feet respectively. The diminution in the amplitude, and the retardation of phase in
going downwards, have been determined for the annual, for the half-yearly, third-
yearly, and the quarterly term, on the average for these five years for each locality.
The same has been determined for the average of twelve years of observation, conti-
nued on Calton Hill by the staff of the Royal Edinburgh Observatory.

The following results with reference to the annual harmonic term are selected for
example :—

Average of five years, 1837 to 1842.

: Retardation of pha: Diminuti f Na-
“Baer ae amy ht
foot of descent. descent. ‘oot of descent.
Calton Hill.
3 feet to 6 feet. Saas ‘11635 *12625
Goins 12) as thas ‘11344 *12156
LA 7 cavers ‘11490 "10959
DVTGUIN ais a aelars) Siac 13% days. “1149 “11914
Experimental Gardens.
3 feet to 6 feet. Nee ‘11635 ‘10037
Lite en eae has *11929 *11304
Eee yet D4 | ap aus 10617 ‘10844
Mean. ...7.. Makai 13+ days. ‘11314 *10728

Craigleith Quarry.

3 feet to 6 feet. a40% ‘063995 09372
On) ose a waa ‘066903 ‘06304
1 Ee eet Be PP Rie ‘066903 ‘06476
Mean ..... were 7X days. 065934 ‘07384

56 REPORT—1859,

If Fourier’s conditions of uniformity, stated above, were fulfilled strictly, the num-
bers shown in the second column would be all equal among one another, and equal
to those in the third column. The differences between the actual numbers are sur-
prisingly small, but are so consistent that they cannot be attributed to errors of
observation. It is possible they may be due to a want of perfect agreement in the
values of a degree on the different thermometric scales ; but it seems more probable
that they represent true discrepancies from theory, and’ are therefore excessively in-
teresting, and possibly of high importance with a view to estimating the effects of
inequalities of surface and of interior conductivity. The final means of the numbers
in the second and third columns are, for

Calton Hill . . . . ~. - °11702
Experimental Gardens. . . ‘11061
Craigleith Quarry . . . . *06988

The thermal capacities of specimens of the trap rock, the sand, and the sandstone
of the three localities were, at the request of Professor Forbes, measured by Regnault,
and found to be respectively

*5283, °3006, and °4623.

Hence, according to position (3), stated above, the thermal conductivities are as
follows :—

Trap rock of Calton Hill. . . . . 121°2
Sand of Experimental Gardens . . 77°19
Sandstone of Craigleith Quarry. . . 273°6

These numbers do not differ much from those given by Professor Forbes, who for
the first time derived determinations of thermal conductivity in absolute measure
from observations of terrestrial temperature. In consequence of the peculiar mode
of reduction followed in the present investigation, it may be assumed that the esti-
mates of conductivity now given are closer approximations to the truth. ‘To reduce
to the English foot as unit of length, we must multiply by the square of 1°06575; to
reduce, further, to the quantity of heat required to raise 1 lb. of water by 1° as unit
of heat, we must multiply by 66°447 ; and lastly, to reduce to a day as unit of time,
we must divide by 3654. We thus find the following results :—

Trap rock of Calton Hill. . . . . 23°5
Sand of Experimental Gardens. . . 15°0
Sandstone of Craigleith Quarry. . . 53°5

These numbers show the quantities of heat per square foot conducted in a day
through a layer of the material 1 foot thick, kept with its two surfaces at a difference
of temperature of 1 degree,—the unit of heat being, for instance, the quantity required
to raise 1000 bls. of water by ;,5;th of a degree in temperature.

On the Establishment of Thermometric Stations on Mont Blane.
By Professor Tynpauu, F.R.S.

I proposed to the Royal Suciety some months ago to establish a series of stations
between the top and the bottom of Mont Blanc, znd to place suitable thermometers
at each of them. The Council of the Society thought it right to place a sum of money
at my disposal for the purchase of instruments and the payment of guides; while I
agreed to devote a portion of my vacation to the execution of the project. At Cha-
mouni I had a number of wooden piles prepared, each of them shod with iron, to
facilitate the driving of it into the snow. The one intended for the summit was 12
feet long and 3 inches square; the others, each 10 feet long, were intended for five
stations between the top of the mountain and the bottom of the Glacier de Bossons.
Each post was furnished with a small cross-piece, to which a horizontal minimum
thermometer might be attached. Six-and-twenty porters were found necessary to
carry all our apparatus to the Grands Mulets, whence fourteen of them were imme-
diately sent back. The other twelve, with one exception, reached the summit, whence
six of them were sent back. Six therefore remained. In addition to these we had
three guides, Auguste Balmat being the principal one; these, with my friend Dr.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57

Frankland and myself, made up eleven persons in all. Though the main object of
the Expedition was to plant the posts and fix the thermometers, I was very anxious
to make some observations on the diathermancy of the lower strata of the atmosphere.
I therefore arranged a series of observations with the Abbé Vueillet, of Chamouni ;
he was to operate in the valley, while I observed at the summit. Our instruments
were of the same kind; and in this way I hoped to determine the influence of the
stratum of air interposed between the top and bottom of the mountain upon the
solar radiation. Wishing to commence the observations at an early hour in the
morning, I had a tent carried to the summit. It was 10 feet in diameter, and into
it the whole eleven of us were packed. The north wind blew rather fiercely over the
summit; but we dropped down a few yards to leeward, and thus found shelter.
Throughout the night we did not suffer at all from cold, though the adjacent snow was
15° Centigrade, or 27° Fahr. below the freezing-point of water. We were all, however,
indisposed. I was, indeed, unwell when I quitted Chamouni; but I fully expected
to be able to cast off the indisposition during the ascent : in this, however, I was un-
successful; my illness augmented during the entire period of the ascent. The wind
increased in force towards morning; and as the fine snow was perfectly dry, it was
driven upon us inclouds, Had no other obstacle existed, this alone would have been
sufficient to render the observations on solar radiation impossible. We were there-
fore obliged to limit ourselves to the principal object of the expedition—the erection
of the post for the thermometers. It was sunk 6 feet in the snow, while the re-
maining 6 feet were exposed to the air. A minimum thermometer was screwed
firmly on to the cross-piece of the post; a maximum thermometer was screwed on
beneath this, and under this again a wet and dry bulb thermometer. Two minimum
thermometers were also placed in the snow; one at a depth of 6, and the other at
a depth of 4 feet below the surface; these being intended to give us some infor-
mation as to the depth to which the winter cold penetrates. At each of the other
stations we placed a minimum thermometer in the ice or snow, and a maximum and
a minimum in the air. The stations were as follows :—the summit, the Corridor,
the Grand Plateau, the glacier near the Grands Mulets, and two additional between
the Grands Mulets and the end of the Glacier de Bossons. We took up some
rockets, to see whether the ascensivnal power or the combustion was affected by the
rarity of the air. During the night, however, we were enveloped in a dense mist,
which defeated our purpose. One rocket was sent up, which appeared to penetrate
the mist, rising probably above it; its sparks were seen at Chamouni. Dr. Frank-
land was also kind enough to undertake some experiments on combustion : six can-
dies were chosen at Chamouni, and carefully weighed, All of them were permitted
to burn for one hour at the top; and were again weighed when we returned to Cha-
mouni. They were afterwards permitted to burn an hour below. Rejecting one
candle, which gave a somewhat anomalous result, we found that the quantity con-
sumed at the top was, within the limits of error, the same as that consumed at the
bottom. This result surprised us all the more, inasmuch as the light of the candles
appeared to be much feebler at the top than at the bottom of the mountain. The
explosion of a pistol was sensibly weaker at the top than at a low level. The short-
ness of the sound was remarkable; but it bore no resemblance to the sound of a
cracker, to which, in acoustic treatises, it is usually compared. It resembled more
the sound produced by the expulsion of a cork fr-m a champagne-bottle, but it was
much louder. The sunrise from the summit exceeded in magnificence anything that
fT had previously seen. The snows on one side of the mountain were of a pure blue,
being illuminated by the reflected light of the sky ; the summit and the sunward face
of the mountain, on the contrary, were red, from the transmitted light ; and the con-
trast of both was finer than I can describe. I may add, in conclusion, that the lowest
temperature at the summit of the Jardin during last winter was 21° Cent. below zero.
We vainly endeavoured to find a thermometer which had been placed upon the sum-
mit of Mont Blanc last year.

58 REPORT—1859.

GENERAL PHYSICS.

A Proposal of a General Mechanical Theory of Physics.
By J. 8. Stuart Gienniz, IA.

The approach of a planet to a sun, iron to a magnet, one particle to another, may
be the effect of, or conceivable only as the effect of a pull of the sun, the magnet, or
the first particle ; but such a pull, however useful as a temporary metaphysical, or
metaphorical conception, is mechanically an absurdity : such approach can be mecha-
nically conceived only as the movement of the planet, the iron, or the second particle
in the direction of least pressure as between the sun, the magnet, or the first particle,
and some third body.

A somewhat extensive colligation of physical facts has led to the conviction that,
by further experimental and mathematical research, attractions and repulsions will
be found explicable as expressions of the relations of the pressures between three
bodies, a general mechanical theory of physics established, and thus the ‘‘ persuasion”
of Mr. Faraday and the profoundest scientific thinkers, “ that all the forces of nature
are mutually dependent, having one common origin, or rather being differeut mani-
festations of one fundamental power,”’ demonstrated as a truth.

The mechanical conceptions and explanations of phenomena with diffidence offered
in this paper, are as yet given, less as a theory, than as a proposal of a way in whicha
general mechanical theory may be established. And the following is a summary of,
perhaps, the principal of these conceptions and modes of explanation.

Atoms are conceived as mutually determining centres of pressure.

Thus, atoms are not conceived as particles in a medium or in space, at distances
from each other determined by the proportions of the hypothetical forces of attraction
and repulsion, but as in contact with, and pressing against each other, while their
centres are at distances determined by relations of inward and outward pressure.

For convenience of representation and mathematical calculation, atoms may also
be defined as centres of lines of pressure; the comparative length of these lines
being taken to represent, not the absolute, but the relative development of the force
of the atom.

Matter, or that which resists our force, is conceived as a form of force; and the
idea of force is explained by the conceptions of—

Equilibrium—the state of equality among the opposing pressures of a system of
atoms (defined as above) or bodies (defined as aggregates of atoms).

Motion—the effect of a difference of polar pressures on an atom or body; deter-
mined in direction by the resultant of greatest pressure; in degree (or velocity) by
the ratio of such difference ; and as uniformly accelerated, varyingly accelerated, or
uniform, according as that ratio is constant, varyingly, or uniformly inconstant.

A line of motion—the direction of the transmission of pressure relatively in-
creased at one point, and correspondingly decreased at all others.

Heat and specific heat—the former is conceived as an expression of the relations
of the mutual pressures of bodies,—the latter, of atoms.

The solid, liquid, and gaseous states appear deducible from certain conditions of
relative pressure between three bodies or atoms.

From the condition of equal transmission in all directions, it follows that, in a
system with that condition, an increased pressure in any direction will be, as it were,
broken up; hence the ratio of resistance at any point will be greater than if the
pressure had been directly transmitted ; it will be radially transmitted; and will
diminish according to the law of the inverse squares.

The phenomena of static electricity appear explicable as the results of the pressure
on each other of heterogeneous bodies, or bodies of less and greater power of resist-
ing pressure. Hence the outward pressure of the one is increased, of the other
diminished ; and hence positively and negatively electrified balls may be represented,
the former as having its own, the latter the lines of pressure of the medium increased.

The poles of dynamic electricity are the ends of a line of motion,—points of
greater and less pressure.

The relation of magnetism and electricity is the mechanical consequence in a
medium of the lateral diminution of pressure increased at a point.

Conduction and insulation, magnetism and diamagnetism are corresponding

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59

antitheses, expressive, under different conditions, of the phenomena resulting from
greater or less resistance to the transmission of increased pressure,

The gravitation of any two bodies to each other is attempted to he mathematically
explained as the mechanical consequence of the relations of the mutual pressures of
the two bodies, and the resistances of the medium or other bodies.

The undulations of light, &c. appear as the consequence in a medium of certain
different relations of the outward pressure of two bodies,

Polarization is considered as the condition ofa line of motion in relation to a
mechanically conceived medium. In electrics, we study the different relations of the
ends; in optics and thermotics, of the sides, of a line of motion.

The problem proposed by this theory for mathematical solution is—what are the
conditions of pressure and resistance to its transmission that would produce such
and such effects? And this theory would direct experiment to the comparison of
the different resistances of bodies to different conditions of increased or diminished
pressure.

On the Philosophy of Physics. By Joun G. Macvicar, D.D.

The object of this communication is to simplify our first steps in physics, by di-
minishing the number of considerations which at present stand in the position of
independent data or postulates; and more especially, to show that the all-important
properties of inertia, elasticity, and gravitation, instead of being unrelated, as is ge-
nerally supposed, do in reality form a group of properties which imply each other, and
are in fact nothing else but uniform phenomena resulting from one and the same law,
according as that law is viewed in reference to the substance cr the form of a single
element of matter, or in reference to a system of such elements distributed in space.

In order to reach this law, the author commences by rejecting from thought all the
specific properties of individual objects, so as to be left in possession of that which is
common toall. He thus finds Substance or Being; of which he prefers the latter term,
as being positive and even absolute in its import, and therefore suitable to build science
upon, oreover, in the very term itself he finds the law, of which inertia, elasticity,
and gravitation are the expressions and the results.

Thus the term Be-ing implies that the subject of it both exists and (excluding
at present the consideration of living, self-changing Beings or Spirits) continues to be
as itis. Now this, expressed dynamically so as to give a physical law, implies ¢hat which
both exists and has the power of repeating its existing state in every successive
moment of its existence; or as may be said, that which both exists and assimilates
itself to itself in successive moments of its existence (and that without limitation, and
therefore) through the whole sphere of itsagency, and thus assimilates other beings or things
within that sphere, more or less, as well as itself. Whence obviously two grand func-
tions are implied in the operation of this law : first, Self-assimilation, implying the per-
manency of the type of the species, be it chemical element, crystal, plant, or animal; and
secondly, Mutual assimilation, implying the phenomena of Induction, Generic resem-
blance among species, and general Harmonyinnature. This law the author regards
as the impress of the immutability and unity of the Creator in his works. And though
there is often (perhaps always) a mechanical apparatus by which it is worked out in
nature, yet it may, if found true, be accepted during our ignorance of that apparatus,
as a rational explanation of phenomena for which he holds that its relevancy is para-
mount.

Inertia.—Under the law that has just been laid down this property immediately
appears. ‘Thus, given a physical point, unit of matter, atom, or element of mere being,
the law of Being (which from its mode of action may also be called the law of assimi-
lation) calls upon that clement to continue to be, nay, to be as it has been and is now,
_to repeat its existing state, to assimilate itself to itself in every successive moment
of itsbeing. And therefore if it be at rest, it must continue at rest, unable to leave the
place in which it is but through some force applied to it from without. If, again, it be
in motion, that is, continually leaving one point in space for the next point adjacent
to it, that also it must continue to do in every successive moment of its existence.
From which it follows, that not only is the perpetuity of the motion secured, but
the form of it is determined. Thus a translation from one point in space to the next

60 REPORT—1859.

point adjacent, is an element of a straight line necessarily lying in some definite
direction. But to this, under the law, every successive element of motion must be
assimilated. The whole therefore, when viewed in reference to space, must be recti-
linear. And for the same reason, when viewed in reference to time, it is obvious that
equal portions must be described in equal times. The whole motion therefore must
be uniform as well as rectilinear.

Elasticilty.— But whatever possesses substance and can be distinguished from the
space in which it exists, must also possess form. And in reference to this attribute, the
law of Being or assimilation obviously providesthat a form once constituted in harmony
with that law shall tend to perpetuate itself, shall tend to assimilate itself to itself in
successive moments of its existence, and consequently, if partially disturbed, shall
make an effort to recover its form and volume, in other words, shall be resilient or
elastic. Thus elasticity, instead of being wholly unconnected with inertia, presents
itself under our law as the inertia of form. And here it admits of being shown that
the form of culmination under this law, towards which every other form must tend, and
which all forms do attain when there is nothing in their internal structure or position
in nature or their history to preveut its development, is the spherical shell or cell.

Gravitation. But mere beings or things, units of matter or atoms, which, when
viewed as individuals under the Law of Being or assimilation, prove to be inert and
elastic, must also, when existing as a system under this law, gravitate towards each
other; for, as has been stated in the announcement of the law, it is universal and
reciprocal. And hence two or more atoms being given within the sphere of each other’s
agency, but at a distance from each other, it follows that each, while maintaining itself
to the utmost, must also tend to assimilate to itself to the utmost all the others around
it. Now, although in virtue of the first function of this law (which is to maintain the
specific character, the type, in the individual), the amount of mutual assimilation
effected in any given case may not be great, in so far as the form and structure of the
different members of the system are concerned, and such that they manifest themselves
only after leng eras, or in some phenomenon of transient induction only, yet there is
no bar in the way of their being assimilated, as to the place they occupy, except the
inertia of the system. Each member in that system will therefore tend to assimilate
all the other members of the system to itself in this respect, thatis, to draw or attract
them all into its own place, and consequently to itself. And this each must obviously
do with a force proportional to itself, that is, to its quantity of being or substance or
mass; for of material things we know nothing, and can conceive nothing but as
localized, individualized, limited forces, or aggregations of force, more or less. All
the members in a system which exist within the sphere of their mutual agency, must
therefore attract each other proportionally to their masses. Nor is this all the light
which our law throws upon the grand phenomenon of gravitation. It also determines
the force of gravitation at different distances from the centre. Thus, conceiving it
geometrically and mechanically, which is indispensable when our object is to obtain
a geometrical and mechanical expression, we are obliged, under the law of assimilation
(as is indeed commonly done under every hypothesis), to conceive of the attractive
force of any centre as existing around that centre in concentric spherical shells, their
radii and surfaces continually increasing as they recede from the centre. Now these
spherical shells, in order to satisfy the law of assimilation, must be all assimilated
to each other in the amount of attractive force which they represent; they must be
all dynamically equivalent to each other, be they large and remote from the centre
of force, or small and near that centre. But if so, it plainly follows, that, when
estimated in any one direction or along any one radius, the force must diminish as
the spherical surface or the square of its radius increases. But this is the well-known
law of gravitation.

Thus the three great properties of matter, inertia, elasticity, and gravitation, show
themselves to be intimately and beautifully related, not arbitrarily conjoined, and.
such that a single conception explains them all.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61

INSTRUMENTS, &c.

On producing the Idea of Distance in the Stereoscope. By Josrru Beck.

In a view taken through the camera no immediate foreground can be introduced :
thus we lose in the photograph an important element in nature for the appreciation
of size and distance. In reproducing nature we ought to supply some substitute.
This can easily be accomplished. Take an ordinary glass transparent view, and look
carefully at it; in some instances the foreground absolutely appears to project into
the instrument; and never is it so arranged that the idea of the distance of the fore-
ground of the picture from the edge of the stereoscope is given. Take now a black
mat or card, with two holes so cut in it, that:when laid on the view, the right eye can
see more of the left-hand side of the right picture, and the left eye can see more of
the right-hand side of the left picture. It will then be obvious that the excentricity
of this mat will indicate a difference of angle; and in proportion as this excentricity
is increased or decreased, so the picture appears to advance or recede from the stereo-
scope; and as the view recedes and distance is given, so the appearance of the real
size of nature is obtained.

If the plan is reversed, and the mat is cut so that the right eye sees less of the left-
hand side of the right picture than the left eye, we can produce the appearance of the
object standing up in the instrument, and in proportion as it approaches the stereo-
scope, so the size is decreased. In these cases there is no difference in the angle at
which the pictures are taken, and yet such vast differences in the apparent size of the
picture, showing that whilst the amount of difference of angle is a matter of compa-
ratively but little consequence, the introduction of a prominent foreground, such
as mentioned above, enables us to estimate the real size of the object viewed. The
carrying out of this plan may be observed in the mounting of Mr. Warren dela Rue’s
photographs of the moon. Had they been mounted in the centre of circles, they
would have appeared as 2-inch balls with beautiful miniature volcanoes and mountain
ranges traced upon the surface; but when mounted excentrically, they immediately
appear as floating far off in space, every hill and valley, mountain, volcano, or plain
assuming grand and imposing dimensions.

On the Stereoscopic Angle. By A. CiAuvet, F.R.S.

On the Stereomonoscope. By A. Ciaupet, F.R.S.
On the Focus of Olject-Glasses. By A. Ciaupet, F.R.S.

The researches on this question tended to show the relation between the distances
and sizes of objects with the focal distances and sizes of their images, and to find the
two points, one before the lens and another behind, from which the distance of ob-
jects and the focal distances must be measured, and from which all proportions are
in an exact ratio ; for it is found that measuring from the object-glass on both sides,
double distance of object does not produce one-half of the focal distance, and vice
versd. These two points are, first, the point before the lens which produces an
image infinitely large at infinite distance ; and behind the lens, the point which is the
focus for an object at infinite distance, giving an image infinitely small; it is obvious
that these two points are on each side the zero of the scale of measure, and it re-
mained to fix the position of another point before the lens, which produces behind
the lens an image as large as nature. The two spaces between these points, one in
front and the other behind the lens, are perfectly equal, and they are each the unit by
which all distances of objects and all focal distances are to be measured. Double the
unit in front will give a focus one-half of the unit behind the lens, and one-half of the
unit in front will give a focal distance double of the unit behind the lens, and all the
other distances in the same proportion; so that, knowing either the distance in front
of the lens, or the focal distance, the other distance can be found without having to
examine the focus on the ground-glass ; the only thing to do being to divide the
scale called “ the unit of focal distances,” in any number of parts corresponding in
an inverted ratio with the progression of distances in front of the glass,

62 REPORT—1859.

-
On a Changing Diaphragm for Double Achromatic Combinations.
By A. CLaupet, F.R.S.

Mr. Claudet explained the construction of his contrivance, intended to reduce or
increase the aperture of a double achromatic lens without having to unscrew one of
the lenses and without any slit on the tube. This is done by two rings revolving on
one another, like the top and bottom parts of a round snuff-box, and each carrying
a number of india-rubber stripes, the other end of which was attached on the opposite
ring ; so that making the ring not fixed in the tube to revolve by an external pinion,
the india-rubber stripes were drawn intermixing each other, gradually reducing the
aperture until each of them was extendiug on the diameter of the tube, on which
disposition the whole aperture was shut. Mr. Claudet exhibited also the very in-
genious pupil diaphragm, invented by Mr. Maugey, optician in Paris.

On an Instrument for exhibiting the Motions of Saturn's Rings.
By Professor J. Ckerk Maxwe t.

The author exhibited an instrument made by Messrs. Smith and Ramage of Aber-
deen, to exhibit the motion of a ring of satellites about a central body, as investi-
gated in his ‘ Essay on the Motion of Saturn’s Ring.’ It is there shown that a solid
or fluid ring will be broken up, and that the fragments will continue in the form of a
ring if certain conditions are fulfilled. The instrument exhibits the motion of these
fragments as deduced from the mathematical theory.

On a New Photometer. By the Abbé Moreno.

The Abbé said that the instrument could be applied to determine the intensity of
the light of the fixed stars, and even of the several parts of the surface of the sun.

On a New Electro-Medical Apparatus. By M. RuumKorrr, exhibited and
explained by the Abbé Motcno.

The Abbé briefly described Daniel’s, and Grove’s and Bunsen’s galvanic batteries,
the chief objection to the two latter being the evolution of nitrous acid fumes. The
peculiarity of the instrument he exhibited was, that sulphate of mercury in solution
contained in two neat little cups of carbon was used to excite the zinc ; a small bat-
tery of two cells, aided by a Ruhmkorff’s coil, packed up in a small box, constituted
the apparatus.

On Becquerel’s Phosphoroscope. By the Abbé Moteno.

On the Phonautograph, an Instrument for registering Simple and Compound
Sounds. By the Abbé Moreno.

The Phonautograph is an instrument which consists of a large chamber or drum,
of a spheroidal form, with a diaphragm or drum-head at one end, which, by a
system of levers, works a pen to record the sounds which the form of the cham-
ber causes it to concentrate on the tympanum. The Abbé exhibited a drawing
to the Section, which explained the construction of the instrument, and then ex-
hibited drawings showing the actual markings of the pen over a sheet of paper car-
ried past it by clockwork ;—I1st, when tuning-forks sounding various notes were
vibrated in presence of the instrument ; 2nd, when several notes were sounded on a
diapason pipe; and 3rd, when a person spoke before it. In the first two cases, the
recording pen drew such regular curves, that the number of vibrations corresponding
to the note as seconds could be counted, and, as the Astronomer Royal observed,
they were obviously the curve of sines. In the case of the human voice, the words
spoken were written below the corresponding tracings of the pen; and although
these were very irregular, yet a marked correspondence could be traced, especially
where the words contained 7, g, and other well-marked low or guttural sounds.

Portable Apparatus for Analysing Light. By M. Porno.
This instrument was a telescope, at the side of which the light to be analysed

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63

could be introduced by a slit, and being then reflected down, met a prism of flint-
glass, with its remote side silvered, and placed perpendicularly to the axis of the
observing or telescopic part ; the light then reflected back is dispersed as if by a prism
of double the refracting angle of the prism of the instrument, and the dispersion
is then measured by a micrometer placed at the focus of the eyepiece.

On an Improvement in the Proportional Compass.
By Lieut.-Colonel R. SHorrrepe.

This consists in the introduction of two moveable discs, on which alone the friction
takes place, so as to avoid the unequal rubbing of the jaws. This is mischievous, as
the jaws invariably become striated circularly at the points of usual setting. Under
this unequal action of the jaws they are very apt to shift their position, while at the
same time it is very difficult to alter the adjustment by a small quantity when re-
quired. These objections have almost thrown the proportional compass out of
common use as an instrument for exact work.

On a New Photographic Lens, which gives Images entirely free from
Distortion. By Tuomas Surron, B.A.

The author described a combination by which the effects of distortion are totally
obviated, and which gives an image that is mathematically perfect.

The conditions for obtaining an image free from distortion are these :—

ist. The axis of every pencil must emerge from the combination in a direction
parallel to that of incidence.

2nd. The axis of every pencil must pass through a certain fixed point.

3rd. The image of every luminous point of the object must be formed at the
point where the axis of the pencil meets the focusing screen.

The combination is a Symmetrical Triplet, consisting of two equal achromatic
plano-convex lenses, one at each end of a tube, placed with its convex side outwards,
and a small double concave lens of equal radii placed exactly midway between them.
In contact with the double concave lens a small stop is placed.

It is evident that in this combination a small oblique pencil is incident excentrically
upon the front convex lens,—that its axis after suffering deviation passes centrically
through the concave lens without suffering further deviation, and that it is then
incident excentrically upon the posterior convex lens, from which it emerges in a
direction parallel to that of incidence.

The above is true of every oblique pencil, and their axes all pass through a common
point, which is the centre of the Symmetrical Combination, and which point is
called C.

The Ist and 2nd conditions are therefore fulfilled.

The proof that the 3rd condition is also fulfilled is as follows :—

The focus of an oblique pencil is in every optical instrument a disc of light, and
not an exact point. The size of this disc is reduced by using a small stop. When
it is sufficiently reduced, by using a sufficiently small stop the focus upon the screen
is said to be good. In that state the ray which passes through C (the axis of the
pencil) is one of the rays which compose the small disc or good focus, because C is
at the centre of the stop. The focus is therefore at the point where the axis of the
pencil meets the focusing screen ; and therefore the 3rd condition is fulfilled.

By a fortunate circumstance this Triplet gives an image which is equally illu-
minated in every part, because the area or base of the oblique excentrical pencil upon
the front lens is greater than that of the direct central pencil, and in this way the
loss of light from obliquity is counteracted.

Spherical aberration in the direct central pencil is totally corrected, because the
negative aberration of the concave lens counteracts the positive aberration of the
convex lenses. There is consequently brilliant definition in the centre. At the same
time, the marginal definition is as good and the field as flat as that of any lens now
in use.

In order to get good marginal definition and the proper flatness of field, the distance
between the convex lenses should be about one-sixth of their focal length, and the

64 REPORT—1859.

focus of the concave lens should bear to that of the convex lenses the ratio of about
13:8.

On the Angular Measurement of the Picture in Painting.
By H.R. Twrntne.

The angle subtended by a picture changes as it is removed further from, or brought
nearer to, the observer ; and by this change in its position the relation of the near
objects to the distant ones becomes altered; so that they cannot be equally correct
in both positions of the picture. By means of a small instrument, which may be
termed the Hand-goniometer, the student is enabled to fix approximately the di-
stances of objects as represented in a picture, especially in subjects where linear
perspective is little concerned. The span given to the two arms of the goniometer
fixes the proximity of the picture, by assigning a given number of degrees (about 50)
to its apparent width, and thus ensures a conformity between the objects there
depicted, and the natural subject which they represent.

The nearest point of the foreground in a level scene averages about 10 yards from
the observer, corresponding to an angle of 10° below the horizon; but when the
observer is situated above the general level of the prospect, the picture extends down-
wards to a greater angle below the horizon, so as to include a larger area, or receding
plane, between it and the ground line. Figures would generally appear too large if
introduced on the very ground line; the size of the nearest usually corresponds with
the proportion of human figures at about 15 yards off, corresponding to about 7°
from the horizon downwards. The relation of many other points to the horizontal
line may be obtained in a similar manner.

A matter of some interest, for marine painters, is the amount of depression of the
visible horizon or sea boundary caused by the convexity of the earth ; for although a
subject of minute inquiry in an artistic point of view, yet it is just sufficiently appre-
ciable to be worth the artist’s consideration ; since erroneous drawing, with respect
to it, may be observed in many of the pictures of coast scenery ; a greater amount
of dip of the horizon being accounted for by the concealment of objects behind it,
than is consistent with truth.

Sir John Herschel, in his ‘ Outlines of Astronomy,’ observes “ that two points,
each 10 feet above the surface, cease to be visible from each other over still water, and,
in average atmospheric circumstances, at a distance of about eight miles;”’ which
limits the horizon of the sea, to an observer’s eye situated 10 fect above its level, to
a distance of four miles, and assigns to it, at that distance, a real depression of
10 feet only.

With the aid ofa glass, the effects of so small an amount of depression become
easily appreciable on the sea-side. From the shore, at Eastbourne, I could discern
only the sails of a large vessel, which may have been ten miles distant; whereas,
from an eminence of about 60 feet above low water, I could distinctly see, with the
aid of a telescope, the entire hull, which probably rose 15 feet above the water.
But a vessel situated at that distance scarcely measures an angle appreciable to the
unassisted eye, and therefore becomes too minute an object to be safely represented
in a picture, as partially hidden by the sea’s boundary line; in fact, this natural
effect could only be introduced in very minute art representations.

It is true, the extremely foreshortened appearances presented by the sea’s surface,
to an individual on the beach, causes boats and vessels, stationed at considerable
intervals from one another, to appear almost in contact, or to seem on the verge
of the horizon, although really not at all remote; but this is owing entirely to the
illusions of perspective, and cannot be increased to any appreciable amount by the
convexity of the water’s surface, or the earth’s rotundity.

But the case is somewhat different with regard to the amount of depression of
the visible horizon, as considered in connexion with the existence of mountains on
the coast. The elevation of Beachy Head, amounting I believe to 700 feet above the
sea, suffices to cause a depression of the visible horizon, which appeared to me
appreciable with the aid of this imperfect instrument; and although this small
amount of the horizon’s dip does not affect the pictorial character of the sea-view,
«which from such a position is remarkable for its vast expanse both horizontally

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. .65

and vertically), yet the convexity of the sea exercises an influence on the outline of
very distant mountains which are seen beyond the horizon; for these do not exhibit
as they approach the horizontal line any kind of break or change in the direction of
their slopes, as is usually observed in the forms of mountains which fall down to the
visible edge of the water, but their characteristic curves are cut off, as it were, mid-
way by the line of the horizon which conceals the sea-worn base of each mountain.

CHEMISTRY.
Address by Dr. Lyon Puayrarr, £.R.S., President of the Section.

My predecessor in this chair, Sir John Herschel, drew our attention to the great im-
portance of studying, with increased accuracy, the combining proportions of bodies in
the hope of determining the exact numerical relations which prevail between the ele-
ments. He justly regarded it as a subject worthy of the most accurate experiment,
to ascertain whether the combining proportion of the Elements are multiples of the
combining number of hydrogen, as suggested by Prout; cautioning chemists at the
same time not to accept mere approximative accordances as evidence of this relation.
I have now to congratulate the Section on the publication of the laborious investigations
of Dumas on this important inquiry.

It required a chemist of great manipulative skill, as well as of fertile experiment, to
obtain combining numbers for the elements upon which a greater reliance could be
placed than upon those determined with such admirable precision by Berzelius, that
great master of analysis. The atomic weights found by that chemist did not, for
many of the simple bodies, confirm the suggestion of Prout as to the multiple rela-
tions of these numbers to the equivalent of hydrogen. At the same time the more re-
cent determinations for the atomic weights of Carbon, Silver, and some other elements,
so closely coincided with this view, that it was very desirable to extend new experi-
ments to the bodies which had fractional atomic weights assigned to them. In
M. Dumas’ memoirs there are the results, though not the details, of a large series of
experiments on many of the elements. He obtained numbers of precisely the same
value as those of the Swedish philosopher when he followed his methods of analysis—
numbers which are not the multiple of the equivalent of hydrogen. But when he pur-
sued his experiments upon these same elements, with the new methods of discovery
and his own inyentiveness, then atomic weights were obtained which corrected them-
selves from the error inherent in former methods of analysis, and resulted in being
multiples of the combining proportions of hydrogen, or in standing in a very simple
relation to that number, ‘There is on this point evidence so clear that there is scarcely
a chance of deception.

The labours of Dumas, Schneider, Marignac, Pierre, Peligot, and others, have esta-
blished the relation by recent determinations of chlorine, iodine, bromine, silver, tita-
nium, &c.,—elements differing so much in chemical character as well as in atomic weight,
that it is difficult to conceive any fortuitous combinations which could have produced
such uniformities in the results of analysis. Hence the general view of Prout, that the
equivalents of the elements, compared with certain unities, are represented by whole
numbers, seems to be established by recent experiment, although it would be premature
to declare that there are no exceptions to the law. We are familiar with many inge-
nious discussions on the natural grouping of the elements, and the relations of their
equivalent numbers to each other. I allude to the papers of Gladstone, Odling, and
Mercer, and to the views of Cook, in America, Although these efforts point to im-
portant dependences of the elements on each other, we cannot yet adopt them as parts
of our scientific system. Another question of a different character, as regards equiva-
lents, has recently received attention. I refer to the proposal to double the equiva-
lents of carbon and oxygen, that is, to raise them from 6 and 8, to 12 and 16 respect-
ively. As these two elements are essentially connected with the whole system of
chemistry, the right determination of their equivalents is a matter of extreme import-
ance, Undoubtedly there are cogent reasons which induce many of our able chemists

1859. 7 5

66 REPORT—1859.

to double the equivaients of carbon and oxygen, and they are well worthy of the calm
and deliberate consideration of a meeting like this.

Such an alteration would produce an immense change in the literature of the science,
and should only be adopted if the benefit to be derived from it proved to be so great
as to justify the inconvenience. This subject will be brought before the Section on
more than one occasion. ‘The change proposed has, in a great measure, resulted
from the new views of the classification of organic compounds introduced by Ger-
hardt. The recent brilliant progress in organic chemistry has resulted in the dis-
covery of a vast number of new compounds. A scheme of classification became
urgently necessary for them, and the genius of that great French chemist pro-
duced a system which has exerted a most important influence on the advancement
of science. The comprehensive system planted by Gerhardt has been carefully
watered and tended by our countrymen Williamson, Hunt, Odling, and Brodie—
until the young plant has attained a most vigorous gtowth. In a report upon
the state of organic chemistry, by one of these gentlemen, we shall have the advan-
tage of tracing its effect on the advance of science. Another of our members who
admires the beauty of the plant, and the excellence of the fruit it has borne, fears
that it is growing too wildly, and that the pruning-knife might be adopted with ad-
vantage. He therefore proposes for our consideration, in a paper which will be laid
before you, some modifications of the system of classifying compounds now so preva-
lent. With the array of talent in our Section, enlisted in favour of Gerhardt’s system,
there will be full justice rendered to the merits of that lamented philosopher in any
discussion which may follow the reading of the paper to which I allude. In conclu-
sion, I have to congratulate the Meeting upon the important muster of English che-
mists in our Section; although we have at the same time to regret that our cold
northern position has prevented our foreign colleagues from joining us, and enjoying
aa welcome which the warm hearts of our countrymen would assuredly have accorded
to them.

On the Solubility of Bone-earth from various Sources in Solutions of
Chloride of Ammonium and Common Salt. By Mr. Binney.

On Pentethyl-stibene. By G.B. Bucxton, F.R.S., F.C.S.

This paper detailed the preparation of a new organo-metal compounded of one
equivalent of antimony and five of ethyl. The author stated that great difficulties
presented themselves in isolating the new body, from the tendency it showed to split
by distillation into ethyl and triethyl-stibene. In this decomposition it imitates the de-
portment of pentachloride of antimony, which by heat evolves chlorine. The existence
of this substance, the author conceived, had some importance, since it confirmed the
views lately advanced by some chemists, that the ethyl compounds of antimony and
of arsenic form no exceptional cases, but are most naturally referred to the types of
antimonious and antimonie acids, &c.

On the Specifie Gravities of Alloys. By F. Crace CAtvert,; Ph.D.,
FLRS., FCS. &¢., and Ricuarp Jounson, F.C.S. &e:

The study of alloys and amalgams having been made especially with impure or
commercial metals, the results obtained have been such that it has been impossible to
solve the important question, Are alloys and’ amalgams chemical mixtures or com-
pounds? It is with the hope of throwing some light on this subject that we have
for the last two years been engaged in examining, comparatively, some of the physical

‘properties, such as the conductibility of heat, tenacity, hardness, and expansion of

alloys and amalgams made with pure metals, and in multiple and equivalent quantities
as follows :— :

1 Copper and 1 Tin 1 Tin and 2 Copper

1 »” 3 2 ” 1 ” ” ”

1 ” » 3 5 and 1

1 ” » © 5, 1

= 1 ” » 5 5 : ey
By this method we have succeeded in ascertaining, first, the influence which each

additional quantity of a metal exerts on another ; secondly, the alloys which are coms

we ~ +

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67

pounds and those which are simple mixtures; for compounds have special and cha-
racteristic properties, whilst mixtures participate in the properties of the bodies com-
posing them. ‘This method of investigating alloys and amalgamshas enabled us to ascer-
tain the metals which combine together to form definite compounds, and those which,
when melted together, only form mixtures. Thus, for example, bronze alloys are defi-
nite compounds, for each alloy has a special conductibility of heat. -Thus the alloy—

Obtained. Calculated*. Difference,
Sn Ci? seisscsisiaisie. §=18°65 19°87 6:22
GBn'Cw® viscescsiais..cs 15°75 21°37 5°62
Sri Cii* ssisssssssscssccss = 4°96 21:88 16°92

SHOW sssssscesss dsstssa G0 22°50 15:90
These same alloys have a specific gravity of their own. Thus—
Obtained. § Calculated*. Difference.

Soi Wl" sacocacsh cance cas 8-533 8°059 0°474
NHOUS stttatacs casssecs 4 8:954 8208 0°756
MCUs ccscsccess ap entin 8-948 8306 0:642
Su Cue® ...4. tibasacecasds 8-965 8°374 0°591

The same fact is also observed in the expansion or contraction of these alloys;
whilst, on the contrary, the alloys of tin and zinc being mixtures, conduct heat, have
a specific gravity, and expand according to theory, or the proportion of tin and zine
which they contain. Thus for heat—

Obtained. Calculated. Difference.
SUA a sassescavevcnat’ 15°15 14°90 0°25
VATS mee Radgaave deldcs 16°00 15°80 0°10
Zn? Sn visiss. Nictseses .. 16°65 16°95 0°30

Specific Gravity.
Obtained. Calculated. Difference.

WANS”. veccsceee sess eetee ne 7193 0-081
ATS Meteora bees ysheeet 7262 77134 0°128
Pn? Sti versie pasbeceer 7°188 7-060 0°128

The authors then gave tables showing the specific gravity of variotis alloys and
amalgams divided under two heads :—

I, Those which have a higher specific gravity than indicated by theory, Of this
class there were five series, viz. copper and tin, copper and zinc, copper and bismuth,
copper and antimony, and tin and zinc,—comprising thirty-one alloys.

If, Those which have a less specific gravity, or expand. Of these there ate six
series, viz. mercury and tin, mercury and bismuth, mercury and zine, antimony ah
bismuth, bismuth and zine, and tin and lead,—comprising forty alloys and amalgaiiis.

Their researches reveal two important facts; first, that there is one metal the
alloys of which always contract, viz. those of copper, whilst all the amalganis éx-
pand or have a less specific gravity; secondly, that the maximum expansion or con-
traction of alloys and amalgams generally occurs in those which are composed of oneé
eqitivalent of each metal, the exception being those of tin and zinc. But this atises
no doubt from the fact, that all the alloys, with the exception of the latter, are comi-
pounds and not mixtures.

In conclusion, attention is drawn to the extraordinary contraction or expansion that
some of these alloys experience. Thus, for example, the alloy of three of copper and
one of tin,

Found. Calculated. Difference.
8954 8-208 0°746
whilst the amalgams of tin expand to nearly the same extent, as shown by thesé
results :—
Found. Calculated. Difference.
sai ae le eA 10°255 11-259 1-004

* The principle upon which the theoretical conductibility, specific gravity, and expansion
are calculated, is similar to that followed with respect to hardness, for which; seé Philoso-
phical Transactions, 1858.

68 REPORT—1859.

On the different Points of Fusion to be observed in the Constituents of Granite.
By M.F. BraLLtosiorzxy.

On the Formation of Rosolate of Lime on Cotton Fabrics in Hot Climates.
By F. Crace Catvert, PA.D., F.RS., F.CS.

The author exhibited some picces of calico which were covered with red stains, and
he stated that a short time previously the cargoes of two ships on arrival in India had
been found to be extensively damaged by these stains. After a great number of experi-
ments he had found those stains to be due to rosolate of lime, the formation of which he
traced to the following cause. Amongst the packing or materials used to surround the
bales and protect them from wet and injury, was a kind of waterproof felt made of
corded cotton bound together and strengthened by a layer of gutta percha which had
been dissolved in impure coal naphtha, the cloth thus made having been then pressed
between cylinders. Under the influence of the warm and damp atmosphere of India,
the hydrate of oxide of phenyle, or carbolic acid, became volatilized, and coming in
contact with the carbonate of lime contained in the calico, was transformed into
rosolate of lime. The correctness of this result was proved by enclosing pieces of
white calico.in bottles with pieces of the felt, the calico being uppermost; and also by
placing a little carbolic acid at the bottom of the bottles instead of the felt, the bottles
being kept at a temperature of 110° Fahr. for several days, when in both instances
the calico exhibited red stains identical with those which he had previously found in
the goods returned from India.

On Crystallized Bichromate of Strontia. By Dr. DALzELL.

On the Economical Preparation of Pure Ohromic Acid.
By Dr. DAuzeELt.

Dr. Dalzell having experimented on large quantities of material, recommends as
the result of his investigation, the process of Traube for the production of the impure
acid and its perfect purification by from four to seven recrystallizations, and com-
pression of the products between large porous tiles. He describes the modifications
in colour and density which chromic acid presents, according to the process by which
it has been prepared.

Before applying the baryta test for its purity, Dr. Dalzell reduces with alcohol and
nitric, not hydrochloric acid; and he states that when the solution of sesquioxide was
diluted, twelve hours at least should be allowed for the action of the test before the
purity of the product was affirmed.

Dr, Dalzell also proposes bichromate of strontia as a means of obtaining pure chro-
mic acid. He gave the particulars of the process for obtaining the strontia salt of
absolute purity from carbonate of strontia and commercial chromic acid. Bichromate
of strontia crystallizes with three atoms of water, all of which it loses at 212° Fahr.
He has obtained from it pure crystallized neutral and acid chromates of many of the
metals by employing equivalents of their soluble sulphates.

Dr. Dalzell gave the particulars of the composition of several of the metallic chro-
mates; and referring to the action of bichromate of potash on a solution of chloride of
barium, stated that when the temperature of the liquid is raised to the boiling-point,
Peligot’s salt is abundantly formed. He recommends this as the best method for
preparing the bichromate of the chloride of potassium. The author stated that he was
at present engaged in further researches on the crystallized chromates.

Dr. Dauseny exhibited specimens of several varieties of Volcanic Tufa from the
neighbourhood of Rome and Naples,

Reports from the Laboratory at Marburg. By Dr. Gururin.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69

On the Fluorescence and Phosphoreseence of Diamonds.
By J. H. Guapstone, Ph.D. P.RS., FCS.

While examining the remarkable chromatic properties of Prof. Way’s mercurio-
electric light, the author observed, that of four diamonds on a ring, two were beauti-
fully fluorescent, one slightly so, and the remaining one perfectly unaffected in that
manner. Some other diamonds were found to exhibit the same phenomenon in this
light, though the majority did not. The fluorescence resembled that of bisulphate of
quinine, and was produced by the same rays, so that the interposition of a solution of
quinine stopped the power of the light to produce this effect. The same two diamonds
were found to be fluorescent by the lightning flash, On exposing the ring to the
sun and bringing it into a dark place, it was ascertained that the two most fluorescent
diamonds were very phosphorescent, and the slightly fluorescent one slightly phos-
phorescent, while the fourth exhibited neither phenomenon. On examining the long
paper of M. Becquerel on phosphorescent substances, published just previously in
the * Annales de Chimie et de Physique’, it was found that he had obtained somewhat
similar results; the diamond, however, is a difficulty for M. Becquerel, as it forms
an exception to the rule that “the fluorescence produced is always of the same shade
as the phosphorescence.” In like manner with the ring in question, while the fluor-
escence is blue, the phosphorescent tint is a greenish white, scarcely resolved by the
prism, but by the action of absorbent media appearing to be between D and E of the
solar spectrum. No blue was observable, even the moment after exposure to the
sunshine.

Red or yellow glass interposed between the sun and the diamonds prevented the
phosphorescence, while blue glass, similarly interposed, gave rise toa brilliant display,
suggesting the idea that the less refrangible rays of the spectrum are positively anta-
gonistic to this power; yet the diamonds become phosphorescent when exposed to
the light of a candle. On one occasion, when exposed to the sun’s rays through
cobalt blue glass, they shone visibly when removed merely into dim daylight. On
another occasion, after simple exposure to the sun, they were observed to emit light
for an hour and a quarter.

If this phosphorescence be the continuous result of some molecular change wrought
on the diamond by light, it would appear probable that the effect would go on increa-
sing with the amount of exposure, at any rate, up to some saturation point. This is
no doubt true to a certain extent; but in endeavouring to reach this point, the author
found that a long exposure to sunshine diminishes the phosphorescent power of the
diamonds. This did not seem to be due to differences in the atmosphere or tempe-
rature, or to any diminution of the power of the eye to perceive the phosphorescent
light, but to be a property inherent in the stone itself. The effect is a very marked
one; and what is specially remarkable, is that the diamond which has thus almost
lost the power of phosphorescing is found the next day as sensitive as ever.

On Photographs of Fluorescent Substances.
By J. H. Guapstone, Ph.D. PRS. FCS.

It is well known, on the one hand, that the chemical action of light resides mainly
in the most refrangible rays, and, on the other hand, that these rays are altered in
their refrangibility and effect on the visual organs by fluorescent substances. It
occurred to the author that such substances would probably exert little photographic
action. Hence he had made two drawings on sheets of white paper, one in an acid
salt of quinine, the other in a very pale solution of chlorophyll, and had taken photo-
graphs of them. Although the drawing in quinine was quite undistinguishable from
the white paper, and the chlorophyll drawing nearly so, when they were viewed in
the camera for adjusting the focus, they were strongly marked on the photographic
image by the little chemical action that had been exerted by them. The sheets of
paper, and the drawings developed on the glass plates, were exhibited, showing that
what theory had suggested as probable was true in fact.

On a New Form of Instantaneous Generator of Illuminating Gas by means
of Superheated Aqueous Vapour and any Hydrocarburet whatever. By
MM. Isoarp and Son.

The apparatus in question for transforming aqueous vapour into illuminating gas,

70 REPORT—1859.

consists of a steam-boiler without reserveir, into which a very small quantity of vapour
is injected every second by means of a small hand-pump, or by a force borrowed from
the generator itself. This water, on descending through a serpentine tube, heated to
redness, becomes spontaneously reduced to vapour almost in a state of decomposition,
in which state the two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, are at the limit of combination
and separation. At the place where, and at the moment when this vapour, under a
pressure of from seven to eight atmospheres, is about to leave the serpentine tube, a
determinate and proportional quantity of mineral pitch, heavy pit oil (huile lourde de
houille), coal-tar, turpentine, or any other hydrocarburetted liquid is injected by a
contrivance exactly similar to that by which water was introduced into the boiler.
The superheated aqueous vapour and the hydrocarburet at the moment of contact
give rise to a series of decompositions and recompositions, into the theory of which
we shall not at present enter; the result, however, is the transformation of all the gases
contained in the water and hydrocarburet into illuminating gas,

This gas next passes into a purifier, where, at the same time, it becomes compressed
by several atmospheres; on issuing from the purifier, it is collected in the usual manner
in a gasometer, whence it may be distributed at pleasure.

M. Jacobi of St. Petersburg and M.1’Abbé Moigno, who witnessed the experiment,
could at first scarcely believe the testimony of their own eyes, though they were
compelled ultimately to admit that the small apparatus just described generated per
minute almost 1500 litres (53 cubic feet) of very rich gas, which burned with mar-
vellous facility, and produced a very intense white light. We have here literally fire
and light extracted from water.

By a simple calculation it may be shown that the quantity of heat contained,
theoretically, in the gas furnished by the above apparatus is many times greater than
the quantity in the charcoal burned in the furnace; so that if the generated gas were
conducted by suitable tubes into the furnace, the generation of gas might be prolonged
indefinitely, even though, at the same time, a notable quantity were reserved for ex-
ternal purposes of heating and illuminating, It is scarcely necessary to remark that
this is no case of perpetual motion, for the generation of gas only continues so long
as water is injected into the serpentine tube and a hydrocarburet through the orifice
of this tube.

Now the water and the hydrocarburet possess the force stored up in the latent state,
and this force, in order to become vis viva, requires a mechanical effort which brings
together the vapour and the hydrocarburet.

The illuminating gas thus produced, which is four times as rich as that used at
Paris, would not cost a centime per cubic metre (one-tenth of a penny per cubic yard),
so that the method would introduce a vast improvement in the economic production
of light and heat. In applying the method on a large scale, it is true some difficulties
would have to be overcome; the relative quantities of injected water and hydrocar-
buret would require to be determined experimentally for each hydrocarburet, and
kept perfectly constant during the process of alimentation, Again in transporting
the gas to a distance by means of pipes above or below ground, care would be neces-
sary in order to prevent decomposition and loss of carbon or richness ; but the experi-
ments already made to this end are perfectly satisfactory.

Ox the Effects of different Manures on the Composition of the Mixed Herb-
age of Meadow-land. By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S., and J. H. Gu-
BERT, PA.D., F.C.S.

Under what might be called the system of concentrated production, more prevalent
in this country than elsewhere, the arable land of a farm was, of course, subject to the
loss of those mineral constituents which were contained in the corn, and in the meat,
that were sold from it. Those of the straw of the corn-crops, and by far the larger
proportion of those of the roofand green-crops generally, were, for the most part,
returned tothe arable land. “But, in addition to this return, the meadow-land attached
to the arable farm frequently contributed to the manure applied to the rotation-crops.
Moreover, under the system of high farming, cattle-food, and also special or artificial
manures, containing certain mineral constituents, will be purchased, and thus enrich
the stores of the arable land, It thus happens, that the arable land, under good ordi-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71

nary management, if it do not already produce the maximum average crops which the
seasons will allow, will probably require the additional use of nitrogenous rather than
mineral manures, to bring its yield up to that point.

It is somewhat different with the meadow-land of the arable farm. Not only is
the amount of mineral constituents removed from a given area of land in an ordinary
crop of hay, much greater than that contained in what may be called, so to speak, a
corresponding grain-crop, but the proportion of the mineral constituents which will
be returned to the land by the home manures in the case of the meadow, will generally
be very much less than in that of the corn-land.

It is very important, therefore, to study the effects of different characteristic mar
nures, both on the amount, and on the composition, of the meadow-hay crop*,

It was found, that mineral manures alone increased the total produce of hay, in
the case of the experiments in question ; but that they caused the increased develop-
ment of the highly nitrogenous Leguminous plants, almost exclusively—the Grami-
naceous ones appearing to be scarcely benefited at all. .4mmoniacal salts, on the
other hand, increased the growth of the less nitrogenous Graminaceous plants, almost
to the exclusion of the Leguminous. The increase by either manure, used separately,
was, however, comparatively very limited, But, by the combination of both mineral
manure and ammoniacal salts, an increase of about 2 tons of hay had been obtained
annually, for several consecutive years; and the produce was almost exclusively
Graminaceous, It contained, in fact, not 5 per cent. of Leguminous and Weedy herbage
put together. The kinds of the Grasses themselves, which were developed, also varied
very much according to the manure employed. The proportion of culm-bearing
flower or seed, and of leafy produce, respectively, likewise varied very remarkably.

From the above facts it would be expected, that the chemical composition of the
mixed produce—or hay, would be very much affected by the manures employed.
Such, in fact, was the case. The percentages of nitrogen, of impure fatty matter
extracted by ether, and of cellular matter or ‘ woody-fibre”—and, of course, of
the complementary substances—varied very much. And, looking at the composition
in connexion with the known conditions and characters of growth, it was concluded
that in such green and unripened produce, high percentages of nitrogen, and of crude
fatty matter, were indications of low condition of elaboration, and of comparatively
low feeding capacity.

Turning to the composition of the ash of the hay, it was found that the percentages
of potash, and of phosphoric acid, were very much increased by supplying these sub-
stances in manure. The amounts of these constituents, taken from a given area in
the crop, were also very much increased by such supply. The acreage amount of
silica—a constituent which had not been supplied in the artificial manures—did not
increase commensurately. This was the case, notwithstanding that, not only were
the larger crops very prominently Graminaceous, but the Graminaceous produce
itself was in large proportion stemmy.

Where hay was grown for the supply of a neighbouring town, the supply of the
necessary mineral—or soi/-proper—constituents, was generally fully maintained by
town manures of some kind brought by return carriage. But, where hay was grown
on an arable farm, and mown for consumption by stock, or, still worse, for sale, the
return was but too often by no means so complete. It was, indeed, highly desirable
that the meadow-land attached to the arable farm should receive a fairer share of the
home manures, than was usually, or at least frequently, the case. ‘This was the most
efficient, and the most economical means, of keeping up the mineral supplies of the
meadow-land at such a point as to allow the growth of the maximum crops which the
seasons will allow, by means of specially nitrogenous manures. Without the latter,
indeed, little or no increase of the Graminaccous produce can be anticipated; whilst,
it is by means of such produce, that we must hope to get, in the long run, our largest
crops. ‘The question of keeping up the fertility of grass-land by means of sewage, or

* For a detailed account of their results, see— Report of Experiments with different
Manures on Permanent Meadow-land,” by the Authors, in the Journal of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England, as follows :—“ Part I.—Produce of Hay per acre,” vol. xix. part 2;
“Part I1.—Produce of Constituents per acre,” and ‘“ Part J1J.—Description of Plants deve-
loped by different Manures,” vol. xx. part-1 ; and “ Part [V.—Chemical Composition of the
Hay,” vol. xx. part 2.- :

72 REPORT—1859.

other irrigation, was, of course, entirely separate from the one here under considera-
tion.

So far as the chemical composition of hay was concerned, it appeared that—the more
the produce was Graminaceous, the more it went to flower and seed ; and the more it
was ripened, the higher would be the percentage of dry substance in the hay. Under
the same circumstances, the higher will be the percentage of comparatively indurated,
and therefore probably effete, cellular or woody matter—and the lower will be that of
the total crude nitrogenous compounds, of the impure green fatty matter, and of the
mineral matter, in the dry substance. On the other hand, a large proportion of non-
Graminaceous herbage, over luxuriance, succulence, a large proportion of leaf, and
unripeness, were likely to be associated with a small proportion of the more refractory
cellular or woody matter, but with a large one of nitrogenous substance in a questionable
degree of elaboration, a large one of impure fatty matter of doubtful nutritive capacity,
and a large one also of mineral matter, in the dry substance of the hay.

From the results of the investigation as a whole, it appeared, that the proportion,
and the relative feeding value, of the various chemical compounds of which the
complex substance—hay—was made up, depended on such a multiplicity of cireum-
stances, that, even supposing there were no question as to the proper relationship
to one another of the different elaborated compounds in our stock-foods, it would
still be impracticable to get a true and unconditional estimate of comparative feeding
value of such crude vegetable produce, by the simple determination of the percentage
amount of one or two important constituents, as was frequently assumed to be suffi-
cient for that purpose. The next step in advance in such inquiries could only be
attained, when our knowledge of the proximate compounds—of lower or of higher
condition of elaboration—into which the ultimate constituents of our food-stuffs were
grouped, had been much extended; and when the digestibility, and applicability to
the purposes of the system, of the various proximate compounds, had been experi-
mentally determined.

On the Analysis and Valuation of Manures.
By 8. Macavam, Ph.D. F.CS.

On the Organic Molecules and their relations to each other, and to the Medium
of Light, illustrated by Models according to the Author's Theory of the
Forms and Structures of the Molecules of Bodies. By the Rev. Joun G.
Macvicar, D.D.

An analogy of function in the entire series of chemical agents being admitted, it
follows that an analogy of structure is to be looked for; and the author of this com-
munication, building upon this principle, proceeded to unfold his theory, which infers
that what has been proved of a vast number of molecules is true of them all; and that
whether in the actual state of analysis they be decomposable or not, they are all com-
pound and constituted each of its own peculiar group of lesser atoms, the ultimate
atom being the same in all, It is not hydrogen, however, that the author looks to as the
mother element or ultimate atom, and that which would be obtained from all bodies in
the last analysis, if such analysis were possible ; not only because such hypothesis
is excluded by the fact (which meantime must be respected) that the atomic weights
even of some of the most abundant molecular agents in nature (chlorine for instance)
are not multiples of that of hydrogen, but yet more, because nature herself presents
another element, one with which all space is filled, and whose position in nature is
such, that, analogically viewed, it seems the common vapour of all bodies considered
as mere matter, viz. the particles of light or of the ether, respecting the existence of
which there can be no doubt, as every ray of light (not to speak of the retardations
and tails of comets) demonstrates.

The principle on which the author conducts the synthesis of these particles into
permanent groups, representing, according to his theory, the molecules of bodies, is
that of statical equilibrium or balance of mutual attractions and repulsions, which,
however, is always one and the same with the principle of symmetry. And thus, as the
first symmetrical species, the first that possesses a single axis terminated by poles.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73

which are similar to each other (which demand two atoms), and an equator giving a
plane at right angles to the poles (which demand three at least), he obtains a group
of five as ‘he nucleus of the first molecular species to be looked for in the laboratory—
the nucleus, for the volume of the molecule is supposed to be determined by an elec-
tric and calorific atmosphere, which invests the constituent atoms to a great extent,
and which tends ever to be of a spheroidal form, whatever the form of the nucleus.

Now it appears a priori, that is, when viewing this first molecular body of five ele-
mentary atoms purely in reference to its own structure and to the medium of light in
which it is conceived to exist, that it must possess the following properties:—Ist. In
the fully insulated or individualized state, that is, the aériform, it must be the lightest
of all gases; for it follows from a law which the author communicated to the Physical
Section, that equal volumes of different gases are to be expected to contain equal num-
bers of molecules, or numbers in a simple ratio to each other. 2ndly. It must be pre-
eminently elastic; for where there is no loss of heat, we can only suppose a defect in
elasticity in a gas to be caused by what we know to cause such defect in other cases,
viz. violence done by the compression or strain of the elastic structure. Now of this
molecule the structure is the simplest and most stable possible. More than any others,
therefore, it is secure from strain, and it may therefore be expected to be eminently
elastic under the greatest pressures, 3rdly. It must in relation to its quantity of matter
be the most highly refractive and reflective of all molecules; for it is well known and
is demonstrated by all aériforms, that it is between similars that the most intense re-
pulsion takes place. Now this molecule is more similar to the medium of light than
any other, its every element consisting of a single particle. Between it and light there
will therefore be a maximum repulsion, that is, a maximum reflexion or refraction, as
the case may be. 4thly. If, therefore, it be viewed as in the solid state, this molecule
would be of a metallic nature, and it may be expected to perform the functions of a
metal. Now these are the well-known properties of the first of the laboratory gases so
well known by the name of hydrogen, But there is this difference between these pro-
perties as obtained experimentally and as deduced from the author’s theory. In the
former case they are obtained only as so many individual facts with regard to hydro-
gen, which are empirically or incidentally coexistent in the same body. In the latter
they are seen to coexist rationally, to imply each other, and in fact to be expressions,
in different points of view, of one and the same structure.

Assuming this simplest of insulable ‘molecules to represent hydrogen, its atomic
number and weight is of course 5, from which there results, happily for the author’s
theory, a remarkable coincidence between the current atomic weights on the hydro-
gen scale and those which this theory gives, not as conventional like the other, but
representative of absolute structure. Thus the tendency in the present day, as it was
long ago, is to regard the weight of hydrogen as one-sixteenth of that of oxygen, one-
twelfth of that of carbon, &c., and therefore representable by -5 instead of 1°0, as has
been usual. Hence the current tables become adapted to that which this theory re-
quires; simply by moving the decimal point one degree to the right. The equivalent
of H being *5, that of O from 8:0 becomes 80, that of C from 6:0 becomes 60, and so
on; care being taken, however, to distinguish well between equivalents and atomic
weights, since the equivalent of active elements, whose place is usually on the poles of
a central body, consists of two atoms at least, else symmetry of structure in a single
equivalent of the compound is impossible.

It is chiefly in reference to the chemical functions of molecules, however, that this
theory shows its value and its power. This was shown in reference to hydrogen in
its relations to carbon, of which latter the genesis and model were next exhibited ;
and which proved to be a five-sided obtuse bipyramid composed of 30 particles of
light, as hydrogen is a three-sided acute bipyramid; both viewed in reference to
tangent planes. Thus the model of an atom of carbon shows seven regions for the
attachment of other bodies, one on each pole, and five on the equator. Charge it fully
with atoms of the simplest possible hydrocarbon, viz. CH, and we obtain C+-C,H,=
C,H,. Now on inspecting works of experimental chemistry, this is seen to be the
formula of caoutchouc, the most highly charged hydrocarbon which tropical vegeta-
tion alone supplies,

In this molecule the nucleus is an atom of carbon; but nature delights in inver-
sion; as by inverting the vegetable she gives the animal kingdom. Let us take an

74 ‘ REPORT—1859,

atom of hydrogen as the nucleus, and charge it similarly with CH. In this case an
atom of C being added to each pole, the axis is CH in a double sense, viz. CHC, one
atom of H performing the functions of two, But vow as to the equator, instead of
five regions of union, as there were in the case of carbon, there are only three ; whence
the fully charged molecule which we obtain in this case is CHC+C,H,=C,H,.
Now this, chemistry gives as the elementary formula of the non-oxygenated essential
oils (usually written C,,H,,, out of respect to the four-volume theory, but betraying
its tetratomic character by the 4HO which appear in the camphors, &c.). And so on
with a multitude of hydrocarbons. This synthesis gives them; and they are found
to be eminent in nature in proportion as their construction is easy and symmetrical
in this theory.

But let oxygen play a part. The first atoms of carbon which must go off from the
hydrocarbon C, H,, must be those of the equator. Now these are, as has been stated,
three in number, leaving C,H,—C,=C,H,, a beautifully constructed and balanced
molecule, leading us to expect it abundantly in nature. And there it is abundant,
being the formula of marsh-gas. Most interesting also are its chemical functions
being a very stable nucleus, Thus add to each pole an element of syrup (simple hydrate
of carbon, CHO, which in the molecular form determined by the pentagonal form of
C, requiring as it does the dodecahedron, gives C,,H,,0,,), and instead of marsh-gas
we have alcohol. Instead of an element of syrup, add to each pole (of C,H,) one of
carbonic acid, CO,, or one equivalent C, O,, and instead of alcohol we obtain acetic
acid, Add carbonic oxide instead, and we obtain aldehyde; and going into regions
where nitrogen abounds, instead of carbonic oxide add nitrous oxide, and we obtain
urea, NO+C,H,+ NO=C,H,N,0,, and so on.

And here the doctrine of substitution beautifully presents itself; thus in C,H,, or
C,HH,, there are three atoms of H which are appendages to the equator, and can
obviously cede their places to chlorine, &c. without any destruction of symmetry.
Hence, instead of C,HH,, we may have C,HCl,=chloroform. Instead of aldehyde,
C,HH,0,, we may have C,HC],0,=chloral. Instead of acetic acid, C,HH,O,,
we may have C,HCl,0,=chloracetic acid, &c. The relation of urea and uric acid
(considered as monobasic) also appears, and the therapeutic problem assumes a definite
form. Thus instead of urea, C, HH,N,O,, we have C,HC,N,O,=C,HN.O, uric acid,
and so on, the substitutions being often easy and such as nature suggests, while the
series of the chemist are too often expressive rather of what is possible to nature than
what is natural,

On the Action of Air on Alkaline Arsenites. By J. M°DoNNELL.

On Corne and Demeaux’s Disinfecting and Deodorizing Powder.
By the Abbé Moieno,

On Matches without Phosphorus or Poison. By the Abbé Moreno.

The Abbé Moreno exhibited a Nephelogene capable of being adapted to many
Chemical, Therapeutic, and Hygienic purposes.

New Process of Preserving Milk perfectly pure in the Natural State, without
any Chemical Agent. By the Abbé Moteno.

To preserve milk for an indefinite period is an important problem, which in France
has been solved in three different modes. M. de Villeneuve was the first to preserve
milk, solidifying it by the addition of certain solid ingredients, but it was no longer,
properly speaking, milk. M. de Signac preserved it by evaporating the milk till it
became of the consistence of syrup, rendering it a solid mixture of milk and sugar;
still it could not be called milk. M. Maben also preserved it by excluding the air,
and exposing it to an atmosphere of steam about 100° Cent——thus depriving it of all
the gases which it contained, and then hermetically sealing the filled bottles in which
it had been heated. When about to leave for Aberdeen, I opened a bottle which had
been closed by M. Maben on the 14th of February, 1854; and after a lapse of five
years and a half, [ found it as fresh as it was the first day. M. de Pierre has greatly

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75

improved the discovery. The means which he employs to effect the preservation of
milk is still heat; but heat applied in some peculiar way, by manual dexterity, first
discovered by a Swiss shepherd. All that I am allowed to state is that the effect of
this new method of applying heat is to remove a sort of diustore, or animal ferment,
which exists in milk in a very small quantity, and which is the real cause of its
speedy decomposition. When this species of ferment is removed, milk can be pre-
served for an indefinite period of time in vessels not quite full, and consequently
exposed to the contact of rarefied air, a result which was not effected by the process
of M. Maben, or rather that of M. Gay-Lussac, as they completely expelled those
gases which otherwise would have rendered it sour. I have such full confidence in
the success of M. de Pierre’s process, that I had not the least hesitation in bringing
along with me from Paris to Aberdeen a large vessel containing five gallons of milk,
fearlessly trusting it to railroads and steam-boats, thus exposing it to all the incidents
of the journey. Iam so confident of the success of the process, that I pour out the
contents of this large vessel into Scotch glasses with the conviction that I am giving
to the ladies and gentlemen of the British Association a milk as natural, as pure, and
as rich as when it was taken from the cow in the fertile plains of Normandy. May
this potion, so sweet and so pure, be a symbol of those sentiments of benevolent
affection, which France, flourishing and enlightened, entertains towards her noble and
great sister England! Owing to its greater specific lightness cream ascends to the
top of. the vessel, but it can be easily made to diffuse itself through the milk by slightly
shaking it before uncorking the bottle. As the vessel is not quite full, a small
quantity of butter may have been formed, and the milk may have become somewhat
less rich, but it will still be pure and natural milk without any strange taste. ‘Thanks
to the progress of science, of which I am happy to be the representative, France ean
yield with profit to England her fruits, her vegetables, her eggs, and now offers her
prepared milk for the wants of the army and navy, having nothing to fear from the
longest voyages, nor from the excesses of heat and cold.

Quantitative Estimation of Tannin in some Tanning Materials.
By Messrs, Mutiican and Dow ine,

On Marsh's Test for Arsenic. By W. Ovuine, V.B., F.RS., FCS.

Marsh’s test depends upon the production of arseniuretted hydrogen when
arsenical substances are in presence of nascent hydrogen. The author showed that
numerous and varied bodies, including animal tissue, vegetable tissue, the organic
matter contained in ordinary earth, preparations of copper and mercury, and oxidi-
zing salts, prevented the formation of arseniuretted hydrogen, and thereby defeated the
action of Marsh’s test. As a mode of separating the arsenic from these interfering
substances, the author recommended the process of distillation with muriatic acid,
whereby arsenic in the form of terchloride of arsenic is isolated in a form suitable
for testing by Marsh’s process,

On the Composition of Thames Waiter.
By W. Ovuine, M.B., F.R.S., and A. Duprt, Ph.D. F.CS.

The general conclusions were as follows :—The amount of dissolved matter, organic
and mineral, is greater in high than in low water, in consequence of the contamination
of the high water with sea~water—greater in summer than in winter, in consequence
of the greater contamination with sea-water in that season, dependent upon the dimi-
nished volume of the fresh stream-water. In the winter and early spring, when the
quantity of stream-water is great, the presence of sea-water scarcely makes itself felt
in the high water, even at Greenwich ; or, in other words, there is very little difference
in the saline matter of low and high water; but in dry weather this difference becomes
more and more marked, and is noticeable higher and higher up the river. Early in
the present year, the existence of sea-water in the river was very perceptible, so much
so, that even at Wandsworth a difference between high and low water was observed,
comparable to that which existed at Greenwich during the winter months. During
gorresponding periods, the ayerage amounts of residue in high and low water at

76 REPORT—1859.

Lambeth, were found to be about half as much as the average residues yielded by high
and low water at Greenwich respectively, ‘The summer averages at Lambeth cor-
responded very closely with the winter and spring averages at Greenwich. ‘Lhe per-
centage amount of suspended matter in the river was found to be twice as great at
low as at high water. At low water at Lambeth, the amount of dissolved matter,
mineral and organic, is greater at the sides than in the middle, showing that the pure
stream-water cuts for itself a central passage through the foul stagnant water at the
sides. The same action, though in a much less marked degree, takes place at high
water. The up-cast flow, largely contaminated with sea-water, forces for itself a
central passage through the stagnant sides, Another point of interest was the differ-
ence in composition between the surface water and the deep water. During the flow,
the sea-water runs up underneath the river water, and although a complete mixture
of the two layers eventually takes place, yet a difference of composition between the
top and bottom layers may occasionally be recognized as high up as the Thames
Tunnel. The effect produced upon the quality of Thames water by a heavy rain-fall
was also illustrated.

On a New Mode of Bread-making. By W.Ov.ine, U.B., FBS, FCS.

The vesicular character of ordinary bread results, as is well known, from the
development of carbonic acid gas uniformly throughout a mass of fermenting dough,
whereby a loose spongy texture is imparted to what would otherwise be a dense sod-
den lump of baked flour and water. In fermented bread the carbonic acid gas,
generated within the substance of the dough, isa product of the degradation of certain
constituents of the flour, namely the starch and sugar. In Dr. Dauglish’s newly
invented process, the carbonic acid gas is produced independently and superadded to
the flour, which consequently undergoes no degradation whatever. Carbonic acid,
stored in an ordinary gas-holder, is pumped therefrom into a cylindrical vessel of water,
whereby the water becomes charged with the gas. This carbonic acid water is mixed,
under a pressure of 100 lbs. on the square inch, with the flour, and the resulting
dough, which becomes vesicular on the removal of the pressure, is divided into loaves,
and baked in a travelling oven. The advantages of the new process are :—Ist. Its
cleanliness. Instead of the dough being mixed with naked arms or feet, the bread,
from the first wetting of the flour to the completion of the baking, is not even touched
by any one. 2nd. Its rapidity, An hour and a half serves for the complete con-
version of a sack of flour into baked two-pound loaves. 3rd. Its saving of Jabour and
health. It substitutes machine labour for manual labour of a very exhausting and
unhealthful character. 4th. Its economy. Despite the heavy prime cost of the
apparatus, yet the use of carbonic acid is found to be cheaper than that of yeast,
Moreover the waste of the saccharine constituents of the flour, necessary in the old
process, is avoided in the new one. 5th. Its preventing any deterioration of the
flour. In making fermented bread from certain varieties of flour, the prolonged
action of warmth and moisture induces a change of the starchy matter of the flour into
dextrine, whereby the bread becomes sodden and dark-coloured. This change is
usually prevented by the addition of alum ; but in operating by the new process, there
is no time for this change to take place, and consequently no advantage in the use of
alum. 6th. The character of the bread. Chemical analysis shows that the flour has
undergone less deterioration in bread made by the new than in that made by the
old process. The bread has been tried dietetically at Guy’s Hospital and by many
London physicians, and has been very highly approved of.

On some New Cases of Phosphorescence by Heat.
By Dr. T. L. Pureson, of Paris.

Some years ago M. Scheenbein showed that metallic arsenic becomes phospho-
rescent when its temperature is raised to a certain degree. Lately, M. Linnemann
remarked that potassium and sodium were phosphorescent in the dark when freshly
cut. The phenomenon is doubtless owing to the rapid oxidation of these metals
when exposed to the air. The light emitted by sodium is greenish yellow, that of

otassium is of a redder tint. I have had occasion to examine sodium whilst phos-
phorescent; its light is very feeble, and is only seen upon the surface freshly cut with

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 77

a knife, and exposed to the air, This phosphoric light, like that of potassium, lasts
for a few minutes only at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere ; but at a tem-
perature of about +70° (Centigrade), the light emitted by sodium nearly equals that
given out by phosphorus itself,

I have lately observed also that copper, native sulphuret of copper, and silver are
notably phosphorescent by heat, With copper the fact is most striking. In order to
observe the phenomenon, one or two grammes of copper should be melted before the
blowpipe in a cavity made in a piece of charcoal. Assoon as the copper is thoroughly
melted (at the inner flame) it glows with a greenish yellow phosphoric light, similar
to that of the glow-worm. On cooling a little it rapidly loses this property, and at
the same time a molecular change is observed on the surface of the metal. Native
sulphuret of copper (Chalkosine) is likewise phosphorescent when melted before the
blowpipe. Silver becomes slightly phosphorescent only for an instant on cooling,
just before it leaves the liquid state.

I have found also that the mineral Lepidolite is quite as phosphorescent by heat as
fluor-spar. But to see this phenomenon perfectly, it should be viewed through a
piece of glass coloured blue by oxide of cobalt. When seen in these circumstances,
the phosphoric light of Lepidolite is very fine; and, when seen through the cobait
glass, the phosphorescence of fluor-spar is far more brilliant than when observed with
the naked eye.

This mode of experimentation is probably applicable to all substances that are
phosphorescent by heat,

Composition of the Shell of Cardium edule (Common Cockle).
By Dr. T. L. Purrson, of Paris.

The specimens analysed were taken on the coast of Ostend (Belgium). The best
of five analyses gives for their composition :—

Water ...... Rslaengeroctecn sean ranaarstcanccomoncssraesetie LALO
ONpaAnICMALLety cenecnatas'ss dass eanases-sc=teasccparssasp beak
Carbonate of lime....cec.seseees Roneneeusees Sadeasteness 92°93
Phosphate of lime........sss0..008 anacancbee ss seiivepenen [OL
Sulphate’ of lime” ci. v.1sscccseseaaene nawelscuire sph see O84
Magnesia ......00004. teennceee aenashieressasisasies' seocese O13
Beroxade’of trowc.:ecsesscs<cccenescstececss sasecana «. 0°41
Alkalies ...........05 Aacnesnareaeeacane Tes cesperabepaeeeet 1 PLACES
INT CA acest cous cauvaces Maree venseawecereiees meuuehecsessce 0°53

100°00

Composition of a recently-formed Rock on the Coast of Flanders.
By Dr. T. L. Puirson, of Paris.

This rock, which I described some time ago in the ‘ Comptes Rendus’ of the Aca-
demy of Sciences of Paris (23rd March, 1857), and which has likewise been mentioned
in the pages of ‘ The Geologist,’ vol. i. 1858, London, as being deposited daily from
the sea, at about a league from the coast of Ostend, is of a light grey colour. I have
lately submitted it to analysis. It presents the following composition :—

Water and organic matter....scsscsssscscssssescssences 2°
Sand...... 57°4 63-4
Grey clay 6:0 PHC HEEER EPO e Re eee Hees eeeeeeeeeeee
Carbonate of lime ...:...ccsscscsscccceesseseessseeneaseee GUS
Magnesia (small quantity) ......00
Phosphate of lime (small aati | Sparano, Ore
Alumina (small quantity) ......++00.
PCFORIGG Of 2 ON sasesssagvoncssucesscdonesadsnconsecvesin AG
100°0
Certain samples of this rock have a peculiar stratified appearance, It contains

78 . REPORT—1859,

fragments of peat, on which it lies, and recent shells, Cardium, Mya, Mactra, &c.; in
a fossil state.

It is a curious fact that the well-known Fontainebleau sandstone which presents
the rhombic crystals of cale-spar, having been recently analysed by my friend M. Pisani,
gives likewise 63 per cent. of sand and 30 per cent. of carbonate of lime *,

I would also notice here, that a rock very similar in appearance to the one men-
tioned in this note, is preserved in the mineralogical collection of the Jardin des Plantes
of Paris. It is called “‘ Grés de Beauchamp ” (Seine et Oise); it contains both marine
and freshwater fossils, and has in every respect the same external appearance as the
rock discovered by me on the coast of Flanders.

On Soluble Silicates, and some of their Applications.
By FrepErick RANSOME.

The writer gave a history of the discovery of the soluble silicates, and of the various
researches and experiments of Dr. Fuchs of Munich, and of Professor Kulman of
Lille, and of the several applications of these silicates of Steriochony, to the various
branches of manufacture, and to the effects of their combinations with lime, whether
carbonate, sulphate, phosphate, or caustic; but described more in detail the value of
their applications in the manufacture of artificial stone, and in the preservation of
natural stone, &c, from decay. In the manufacture of artificial stone, he stated that
the soluble silicate of soda or potash was mixed with siliceous sand and other similar
materials, and after being thoroughly incorporated together, the mixture was forced
into suitable moulds, and afterwards burnt in a kiln; by which operation the soluble
silicate combined with an additional quantity of silica, which was supplied by the sand,
&c. with which it was incorporated, and became converted into an insoluble glass,
firmly agglutinating all the various particles together into a solid, compact substance,
in al! respects resembling the finest qualities of natural sandstones. Mr. Ransome
produced some specimens of his manufactured stone to the meeting, showing that the
material was capable of receiving the most delicate impressions from the most elaborate
designs, and that, unlike all other plantic materials which are subjected to a red heat,
it retains all its sharpness of outline, and is not liable to contraction or distortion in
the process of manufacture. He also gave an account of an interesting series of
experiments recently conducted in the testing-house of Hier Majesty’s Dockyard at
Woolwich, for the purpose of ascertaining the relative properties of his artificial stone,
as compared with the natural stones usually employed in the construction of buildings ;
and showed that its power of resistance to steady transverse strain was represented
by 100, whilst that of

Darley Dale stone was. . . . . 81
Of Gumshill stone Was .°. . . . 37
Of Portland stone was. . . . . 33
Of Aubigny stone was. . . « . 31
Of Bath stone was wo... we 18
Of Caen'stone was « s« «© + « « 12

At the same time, a block of this material, 2-inch cube, sustained a weight of 21
tons; whilst a similar block of Darley Dale stone sustained only 163 tons—thus
illustrating its suitability for purposes of construction. In the application of soluble
silicates to the preservation of natural stones, &c., Mr. Ransome explained the details
of his process, which consists not merely in the application of a soluble silicate, as
described and adopted by Professor Kuhlmann and others. on the Continent, and
which Mr. Ransome stated he found to be utterly ineffective in this country, being
liable to removal by rain, or even by the humidity of the atmosphere; but consisted,
first, in treating the stone, &c. with a solution of silicate of potash or soda, and
afterwards with a solution of chloride of calcium, or chloride of magnesia; by which
means a double silicate, or silicate of lime, or silicate of magnesia, was immediately
formed in the pores and structures of the stone, &c.,—which double silicate possessed

* It appears evident from these facts, that, in nature, 30 parts of carbonate of lime are
sufficient to fix or agglutinate twice their weight of sand, &c. This is doubtless effected by
a process of slow crystallization. ;

TRANSACTIONS OF TH® SECTIONS. 79

the most indestructible and most strongly cohesive properties, enveloping every
particle of the stone with which it came in contact, producing an extraordinary
amount of hardness, and hermetically sealing all the pores with an indestructible
mineral precipitate without in the slightest degree destroying the natural characteristics
of the stone. Specimens of stones so treated, and samples of the solutions employed,
were submitted to the meeting; and Mr. Ransome exhibited an illustration of the
principle upon which his process is based, by taking the two solutions, viz. silicate
of soda and chloride of calcium, both perfectly clear, and nearly colourless, and by
mixing them in equal proportions in a glass; a solid substance (silicate of lime) was
immediately produced, the chlorine combining with the soda, forming chloride of
sodium (common salt); the calcium at the same time combining with the silica,
forming silicate of lime. Mr. Ransome stated that the process had now been in
operation for nearly three years, and had been eminently successful ; that, amongst
other places, it had been applied to some buttresses at the new Houses of Parliament,
to the Royal Pavilion at Brighton, to the Baptist Chapel in Bloomsbury, and to the
Custom-House at Greenock ; and that it is now being applied upon Craigends House,
Paisley, and upon Lennox Castle, near Glasgow. Mr. Ransome also read a pro-
fessional report he had received from Professur T. H. Henry, F.R.S., in reference to
a series of experiments made by him in order to test the merits of the process, by
which it was shown that pieces of Bath and Caen stone, when placed in very dilute
sulphuric acid, were soon deeply corroded all over, and “‘ became entirely broken up,
falling into fragments,” whereas pieces of the same stones, after being treated by
Mr. Ransome’s process, and placed in the same solution for an equal length of time,
were “unacted upon, retaining all their sharpness of outline, having lost nothing in
weight.”

Notes on the Current Methods for Estimating the Cellular Matter, or “ Woody-
Fibre,” in Vegetable Food-stuffs. By M. Tuomas SEcELcKE, of
Copenhagen.

It is well known that when vegetable substances are treated with solvents—such
as dilute acids, alkalies, alcohol, and ether—an insoluble residue remains. This
residue possesses similar characters though obtained from apparently very dissimilar
bodies. Whether from wood, or from green vegetable matter, such as grass, its pro-
perties are very nearly identical; and, if the process of solution have been carried far
enough, the residue, from whatever source, will have the same elementary composition.

It would thus appear, that this insoluble matter is a definite chemical compound;
and, from other considerations it is concluded, that it exists, as such, in plants, and is
not a mere product of the action of the solvents on their original material. It pos-
sesses the form and structure of the tissues of the original vegetable substance; and
appears, in fact, to be the chief material of which the cell-walls are made up. The
names of “ Cellulose,” and ‘‘ Woody-Fibre,” have, therefore, been given to it.

Owing to the great extent to which the matter in question occurs in vegetable food-
stuffs, and, to the obvious conclusion, that, from its insolubility, it will probably be
indigestible, and therefore innutritious, it is of great importance to establish some
easy means of determining its amount in such substances,

Cellular Matter being obtained from vegetable substances by the use of various
solvents successively employed to remove the compounds associated with it, chemists
were naturally led to adopt similar means for its quantitative estimation, Accords
ingly, a number of methods have been employed, the main feature in all of which has
been the alternate treatment of the vegetable matter with acids and alkalies. It will
be obvious, that the accuracy, and the conformity, of results attainable by the variotis
methods, must depend upon the degree in which Cellular Matter is really insoluble
in the solvents used. By many experimenters, the perfect insolubility of Cellulose
appears to have been regarded as an established fact. Thus, Peligot, a very careful
investigator, considered he had a sufficient check on the strength of the sulphuric acid
used as a solvent, if it passed through a paper filter without breaking it. Nor did he
determine whether the whole of the Cellulose obtained after the action of the acid,
remained insoluble when subsequently treated with alkali.

But, although the alternate action of acid and alkali upon vegetable matter may

80 REPORT—1859.

leave Cellulose undissolved, and thus serve as a means of its preparation, there is in
this no evidence that it is absolutely insoluble, and that the whole of it existing in the
substance so treated, has remained undissolved. ‘The recently discovered action of
an ammoniacal solution of oxide of copper proves that Cellulose exists in different
states of aggregation, or induration, in some of which it dissolves readily in this solu-
tion, whilst in others it appears to be quite insoluble in it. May not, therefore, Cel-
lulose in these different states possess different degrees of solubility when treated with
acids and alkalies? Again, there is no proof that the Cellulose which remains undis-
solved after the limited action of these agents, will do so when the action is continued
for a considerable length of time. Indeed, the custom of late years, of designating
the Cellulose in Food-stuffs as—young and old—soluble and insoluble—digestible and
indigestible—seems to indicate a general opinion that the term Cellulose, as hitherto
employed, either includes several distinct bodies, or one that occurs in different states.

The importance of this subject led me to attempt to solve some of the questions
involved, by means of direct experiment.

A sheet of Swedish filtering paper was divided into five parts, which were respectively
treated as follows :—

No. 1—digested, for half an hour, at 160° to 180° Fahr., with a mixture of 1 vol.
oil of vitriol, and 2 vols. water.

No. 2—boiled, for half an hour, with very dilute acid.

No. 3—boiled, for half an hour, with an alkali-solution containing 1 percent. alkali.

No. 4—after treatment with acid as No. 1, boiled with alkali as No.3.

No. 5—after treatment with acid as No. 2, boiled with alkali as No. 3.

The result was, a loss upon Nos, 1, 2, and 3, of from 1 to 2 per cent. This, how-
ever, is not more than might be due to the unavoidable loss in decantation.

Nos. 4 and 5, on the other hand, suffered a loss of from 8 to 12 per cent. A part
of this was doubtless due to the same cause as that operating in experiments 1, 2, and
8; but I cannot imagine that the loss I witnessed of this kind can account for the
whole of that which occurred in experiments 3 and 4. In fact, I cannot doubt
that a considerable portion of the loss in the latter cases, was owing to a change
Faas by the acid on a part of the Cellulose, by which it was rendered soluble in the
alkali.

Besides this evidence against the assumed stability of Cellulose itself, the complete
separation from it of the matters associated with it in vegetable products, is by no means
so easy as it is generally described to be. The Cellulose I obtained by following the
principal methods that have been proposed, was in no case entjrely free from nitrogen,
How far it may be possible to obtain it pure I shall not now consider. But, I may
state, that even when the action of the solvents was carried far beyond that to which
the substance is subjected in the process of analysis, some nitrogen still remained with
the Cellulose.

It would appear, therefore, that determinations of Cellulose made by alternate treat-
ment with acid and alkali, can only be accepted as approximate.

The question arises—how far the approximate results obtained by the different
methods that have been employed, are likely to be comparable with one another? To
determine this, a series of experiments was arranged with a view to show the effect
of each of the solvents usually employed, and also, separately, that of each of the
attendant conditions of concentration, temperature, and time of action.

In all cases finely ground hay was the material operated upon ; and, in each set of
experiments, the effect of the variation of one single condition was made the point of
inquiry. It should, too, be observed, that in none of the experiments did the degree
in which the several conditions were employed, reach the limit that is found to be
recommended as proper for the determination of Cellulose.

The influence of variation in the strength of the acid, was the first point I endea-
voured to determine. To this end, equal quantities of the finely-ground, and dried
hay, were boiled, for a quarter of an hour each, with equal volumes of dilute sulphuric
acid, the strength of which was different in each experiment, The undissolved residue
was in each case well-washed, and then boiled, for a quarter of an hour, with a dilute
solution of potash, containing I per cent, of the hydrated alkali ({KaO, HO). The

emaining insoluble matter was thoroughly washed, dried, and weighed, ‘The time
action of both the acid and the alkali, the temperature, and the strength of the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 81

alkali were therefore alike in all cases. The strength of the sulphuric acid was the
only condition varied,

The following Table shows the strength of acid used in each case, and the pers
centage of insoluble Cellulose obtained :—

Taste I,
Strength of Acid used. Per cent. insoluble Cellulose obtained.
1 volume oil of vitriol, to 256 volumes water. 34°0
1 volume oil of vitriol, to 128 volumes water. 31°9
1 volume oil of vitriol, to 64 volumes water. 29°8
1 volume oil of vitriol, to 32 volumes water, 27°5
1 volume oil of vitriol, to 16 volumes water. 26°7

It may be mentioned, that the strength of acid used by Wolff, in determinations of
Cellulose, was that of 1 vol. oil of vitriol to 117 water; and that used by Peligot was
that of 1 vol. oil of vitriol to 2 vols. water.

The next point investigated was the effect of variation in the time of action of
the acid—all other conditions remaining the same throughout the series of experi-
ments. ‘The strength of acid was that of 1 vol. oil of vitriol to 2 vols. water ; and the
temperature at which it acted was from 165° to 185° Fahr. The strength of alkali
was that of 0°5 per cent. potash; the temperature was that of the boiling-point; and
the time of action of the alkali was half an hour.

The effects of variation in the time of action of the acid, are shown in the following
Table :— '

Tasce IT,
Time of action of the Acid. Per cent. insoluble Cellulose obtained.
4 an hour. 28°0
2 of an hour, 27°3
1 hour, 26°6
13 hour. 25°0

Experiments were next made to show the effects of variation in the strength of the
alkali. In these cases the acid used was a mixture of 1 vol. oil of vitriol and 64 water.
The temperature of the acid’s action was the boiling-point; the time a quarter of an
hour. The product so obtained, was well washed, and then boiled, in each case for a
quarter of an hour, with a solution of alkali, the strength of which varied in the
different experiments from 1 to 4 per cent.

The amount of the insoluble Cellulose obtained, varied, according to the strength
of the alkali, from 28°9 to 27:0 per cent.

It remained to show the influence of variation in the time of action of the alkali.

Experiment proved that, all other conditions remaining the same, variation in the
time of action of the alkali of from a quarter to half an hour, gave a variation in the
amount of insoluble residue of from 28:9 to 27:9 per cent.

All the above experiments were arranged to ascertain how far the approximate
results obtained by the different methods recommended for the determination of Cel-
lulose, are likely to correspond with one another. It is clear, from the results given,
that there can be no correspondence except by mere accident. The results published
at various times by chemists, cannot therefore, with any propriety, be compared with
one another.

It is only possible to obtain fairly comparable results when all variation in method
is rigorously excluded. To what extent correspondence may be calculated upon,
when uniformity in the conditions of the experiment is maintained, may be seen from
the following results of three determinations of Cellulose in the same substance, made
at different times, but by exactly the same method.—

Ist experiment, 26°9 per cent. 3rd experiment, 26°7 per. cent,
2nd experiment, 26°7 per cent,

From the results that have been recorded, the following conclusions seem fairly
deducible :—

1859. 6

§2 : REPORT—1859.

1st. That, by the action of sulphuric acid upon Cellulose, the latter is probably, to
some extent, rendered soluble in alkali.

- -2,-That the removal from the Cellulose of the whole of the accompanying nitroge-
nous matters is not attainable by the methods hitherto recommended for its estimation.

3. That comparable results can only be obtained when the strength of the acid, the
strength of the alkali, and the temperature, and the time of their action, are alike in
all the estimations.

It will be observed, that the question of the relation of even comparable or corre-
sponding results obtained under such conditions as above indicated, to the total
amount of Cellular Matter in its various modifications, and that of how the latter may
with certainty be determined, remain as yet unsolved. The satisfactory elucidation
of these points will obviously require an extended experimental inquiry. At present,
we must be satisfied with having shown—that results hitherto obtained by varying
methods, cannot legitimately be compared with one another, and on the other hand,

‘ with pointing out (which I now proceed to do)—how comparable results, in regard to
Cellular Matter of a given degree of insolubility or induration, may, in practice, be
attained.

(a) The sulphuric acid used, must be sufficiently dilute to allow of the vegetable
substance being boiled with it without anything like charring ; and, on the other hand,
it must be strong enough fo give a fluid which can, with care, be filtered. The best

* results hitherto obtained, have been by using a mixture of 1 volume of oil of vitriol
.to 16 volumes of water.

(6) The best temperature to adopt for the action of both the acid and the alkali,
is that of the boiling-point; which, with the same strength of solution, will, of course,
always be the same. No other temperature is so easily maintained constant.

(c) The time of action of the acid may be regulated by bringing it to the boiling-
point, then plunging the substance into it, noting the time of introduction, and taking
care to maintain the boiling until the time fixed on has expired—a quarter of an hour
is that which I have usually adopted. The mass should now be collected on a filter,
and washed. The readiness with which the filtration proceeds will be the greater,
in proportion as the acid is strong, or the boiling prolonged.

(d) The action of the alkali may be regulated by washing the product of the last
process from the filter into a beaker, adding water to make up a given volume, and
then, when the whole has been brought to the boiling-point, introducing a small

-Measure of a concentrated solution of the alkali of known strength. The small amount
needed will not stop the boiling; whilst the strength should be so regulated, as to
bring the whole volume to that of 1 per cent. alkali, This strength, looking to the

filtration, seems upon the whole to be the most desirable. The time of action is, of
course, reckoned from the moment when the alkali was added; and the boiling is then
continued for the desired period—say a quarter of an hour.

As soon as the adopted time for boiling has expired, the whole should be thrown
upon a filter, and the residue well washed with water. Towards the last, a few drops of
very dilute sulphuric acid should be added to the contents of the filter—just sufficient
to make the washings affect the colour of litmus. The mass is now again washed with

-water. Finally, it is washed off the filter, dried in a basin at 212° Fahr., and weighed
in a small covered beaker.

It should be stated, that this preliminary inquiry on the subject of the determination
of the Cellulose, or Cellular Matter, in vegetable Food-stufts, was conducted in the Roth-
amsted laboratory, in connexion with an investigation by Mr. Lawes and Dr, Gilbert,
on the influence of variation in manuring, and in climatic circumstance, on the com-
position of the mixed herbage of meadow land. ‘The quantity of substance usually
operated upon, was about 10 grammes of the finely-ground hay. 600 septems* was
the volume of the acid, and also that of the subsequently employed dilute alkaline
solution.

* A septem measure is that of =,1,,th of a pound avoirdupois = 7 grains of water.

+ By following the directions given in the text, there will probably be obtained more
closely agreeing duplicate and triplicate determinations, than those embodied by Mr. Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert in the Report of their experiments (Journ. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng. vol. xx.
part 11). The mean results will, however, I think, correspond very closely in range, in the
‘two cases.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83

On the Supply and Purification of Water.
By Tuomas Spencer, F.C.S.

The author stated that, from an extensive practice in relation to the chemistry of
water for the supply of towns, he became convinced that the available quantity of
pure water in these islands was gradually decreasing, whilst it was evident the demand
for this primary necessary of life was undergoing an almost corresponding increase ;
in short, that in the more cultivated districts the supply was every year becoming
less capable of meeting the demand.

After pointing out various facts bearing on this result, the author proceeded to
eonsider the purification of water.

The opinions of the best authorities with regard to the probability of effecting the
purification of water by any artificial means, were summed up at the conclusion of
the report drawn up by the Government Commissioners, ‘‘ On the Supply of Water
to the Metropolis.” These gentlemen there said that ‘‘ whatever substances may be
employed in filtering beds, water cannot be deprived of matter held in solution by any
practical modification of the process of filtration.” ‘This was the state of the subject
when entered on by him. His object, from the beginning, was to discover the mode
by which nature converted impure coloured surface water into colourless spring water,
the operation being apparently one analogous to filtration. His first experiments
were made with a view of throwing some light on the philosophy of filtration itself as
ordinarily practised, having some reason to believe that the process, when most
effective, did not so much depend on mechanical principles as was generally supposed.
To determine this point, a series of experiments was related to the Section. They
resulted in showing that properly conducted filtration (7. e. where the gravitating
power of the water is not in excess) depends on a lateral attractive action exercised
by the sand or other medium through which the process is performed, in addition to
the downward action of gravitation. His next object was to discover what bodies in
nature exercised this attractive power the best. After trying a number of experiments
with various descriptions of rocks and minerals, all of which were described to the
Section, he found that those containing protoxide of iron (even where it was chemi-
cally combined with other substances) effected the filtration of water from even
suspended impurity better than any others. Acting on the idea thus suggested, he
found that the same oxide, when isolated in the state of ‘* magnetic oxide,” not only
freed water from turbidity more effectually than an equal thickness of sand, but
effected its decoloration with marvellous rapidity. On the other hand, the earthy
substances entering into the composition of the same rocks, such as silica and alumina,
when isolated, were, in the latter respect, perfectly inert. From this it was evident
that the protoxide of iron, as magnetic oxide—a substance which enters into the
composition of so many rocks—was one of nature’s chief agents of purification. Here
the author referred to a series of experiments he had previously made, which resulted
in showing that the commonly received opinion, that light and air alone effected the
purification of water, was partially erroneous. For example, he had put coloured
bog water into shallow glass pans, in which it was fully exposed to both these agencies
for several weeks—evaporation being compensated by distilled water—but without
any change becoming apparent in its colour, This result, so contrary to what he
was led to expect @ priori, induced him, at the time, to refer the natural oxidizing
process to the agency of some other body which probably exercised a catalytic action
on atmospheric oxygen, and thereby induced this gas to combine with the noxious
impurities it met with inthe water. Nor was he mistaken in this surmise, as the
results so amply related in the paper, together with the experiments exhibited to the
Section, sufficiently proved. A most striking experiment was made with some bog
water, darker in colour than ordinary porter, which had been procured from the
soakings of an Aberdeenshire peat bed. When brought into contact with the oxide, it
was deprived of its colour almost instantaneously, and carbonic acid substituted in its
place.

To appreciate this result, it is to be remembered that no known agency had been
able to effect a similar one before. The excess of carbonic acid found in spring water
has hitherto never been understood, though henceforth it will be easily accounted
for. Since soft water had become so much an object for manufacturing purposes, to
effect the decoloration of that of bogs had remained a practical problem, yl solution

84 REPORT—1859.

of which had been often sought for by chemists, Not only was it now evident that
this water could be deprived of all traces of colour, but it was rendered bright, clear,
and perfectly free from taste by one simple operation. Above all, the means by
which the change was effected were exceedingly simple. The coloured bog water
was merely poured into a glass vessel containing a layer of about five inches of a
mixture of equal parts of coarse sand, and a hard ferruginous substance, perfectly
magnetic, when it issued forth with considerable rapidity, quite colourless and taste-
less, and sparkling with carbonic acid.

It was here stated by Mr. Spencer that the action of the oxide was far from being
confined to the decoloration of bog water alone; it equally operated on every impurity
to which water was subject; even that of the London sewers it rendered harmless,
and yoid of odour and taste. Besides which, it had resulted from experiments of
Professors Brande and Clark, made recently for the Corporation of Liverpool, as well
as Mr. Spencer’s own, that soft water on being treated by the magnetic oxide had no
action on lead,

Perhaps the most extraordinary circumstance was, that the magnetic filtering medium
itself suffered no deterioration after any period of operation. Of course, if its surface
was fouled with slimy impurity, it required washing, Its province was confined to
force the oxygen, always present in the water, into combination with the impure
organic matter, and thus convert it into carbonic acid, which gas, he need hardly say,
conferred freshness and salubrity on all waters in which it was found. In these results
the occult action of catalysis was, for the first time in the history of science, brought
at will into artificial every-day operation, In explanation of the action, the author
entered on the received notions of what was really understood by the term “catalysis.”
He thought it might be satisfactorily shown that the substances inducing this action
did so in virtue of a power to alter the molecular arrangement of the bodies they came
into contact with—as a magnet alters the arrangement of iron filings, even at a di-
stance. Moreover, he believed he was in a position to show that the phenomenon
itself was strictly identical with electro-polarization.

In the experiments exhibited, there could, he believed, exist no doubt, that in
effecting the decoloration of the water the magnetic oxide attracted the oxygen found
therein to its surface, and when there it necessarily became polarized. Whilst in
that state, and only whilst in that state, it combined with the organic colouring impurity
to form a new substance, But the most startling circumstance he had to relate was,
that his further experiments went strongly to show that oxygen, when in this state of
polarity, was neither more nor less than oxone—that fugitive body, of hitherto doubtful
origin, which had hecome so much identified of late with atmospheric salubrity. This
novel proposition Mr. Spencer illustrated by an experiment, which exhibited to the
Section a larger amount of atmospheric oxygen converted into ozone—by the action
of the magnetic oxide on the alcoholic solution of gum-guaiacum—than perhaps had
ever been witnessed in the same compass before. ‘The red solution was instantane-
ously changed, as if by magic, into a deep indigo colour. Though the President
evidently had not leaned to the author’s theory, this unlooked-for proof of it elicited
his admiration. The author stated that this was only one of several modes he
possessed of demonstrating the same view of the question, viz. that ozone was
atmospheric oxygen polarized by simple contact with the magnetic oxide, or with any
other body possessing similar magnetic power. A still stronger proof was, that the
poles of a galvanic battery immersed in the guaiacum solution of alcohol also produced
in it the blue colour of ozone, but only at the oxygen pole. But what he ventured
to believe amounted almost to confirmation of this view was, that a similar effect was
not produced in the solution if made with absolute alcohol; water was therefore
essential, plainly that its oxygen might undergo polarity, or, in fact, ozonification,

Mr. Spencer further stated that, according to his experiments, he had found that
most if not all mineral substances in nature containing protoxide of iron exercised
this power of ozonifying oxygen beyond others. No matter whether this important
oxide was locked up in chemical combination with other bodies, still its peculiar
power was more or less exercised through the solid covering. He thought therefore
that the existence of ozone in the atmosphere need be no longer a problem, his
experiments having proved that air while passing over substances of this character
became ozonified—by contact alone. Henceforth it would be easy to account for

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85

the salubrity of some winds as compared with others, At all events, the experiments
he had intended to have brought before the Section demonstrated that oxygen, when
in this state of induced polarity, combines with the noxious organic impurities of the
atmosphere, and converts them into carbonic acid. 1t would also be evident that the
adventitious electricity of a thunder-storm could have but small share in producing
the amount of polarized oxygen or ozone required for the purposes of nature, But
the ferruginous suboxide was not the only one that exercised this important function,
as several other metallic suboxides, which he enumerated, partook of the same power,
though in less degree. Peroxide of iron (ordinary rust), on the other hand, or metallic
iron, was perfectly inert. In short, the suboxides of all magnetic metals exereised
this power, in degree; whilst those that belonged to diamagnetic metals, such as the
oxide of tin, not only did not do so, but actively exerted an opposing action—thus
realizing ozone on the one hand and anti-ozone on the other. He also found that
several eum resins and tars exercised a similar though feebler power over oxygen.

The author gave an account of a new compound magnetic body which he had
succeeded in making, to enable him to carry out the purification of water on a large
scale. Though the magnetic oxide he had obtained from the white carbonate of iron
was very effective, yet it had a tendency to be reduced to fine powder by attrition.
He became apprehensive therefore that this circumstance might ultimately interfere
with the rapidity of his filtering operations. This led him to seek some mode of
procuring an equally effective though less friable body. After various experiments,
he had succeeded beyond his anticipations. By very simple means, he had obtained
a magnetic body combined with carbon from the hitherto refractory Cumberland
hematite. ‘This new compound body, which is thus added to metallurgical chemistry,
consists of iron, oxygen, and carbon—an equivalent of each; its atomic number is
therefore 42. Specimens of it were exhibited to the Section, It appeared very hard,
and when polished had a black metallic lustre. It is highly magnetic, and was said
to be as incorrodable as gold or platinum. Its purifying powers were stated to be
very great. It can be manufactured cheaply. Mr. Spencer, as its discoverer, had
named it Protocarbide of Iron. He stated that it was not always necessary in practice
to have an equivalent of carbon combined with the oxide, as a smaller proportion con-
ferred the requisite hardness, in which case it was prepared more quickly ; but, in
making, if kept at a low red heat along with uncombined carbon for a longer time,
the combination took place in equivalent proportions,

Notes on a Gold Nugget from Australia. By Prof. J. Tennant, F.G.S.

Gold was found first in quantity in Australia in the year 1850; this consisted chiefly
of small scales and lumps obtained from various washings, and only amounted alto-
gether to a few pounds troy.

In 1851 the nuggets began to be received; the first of any size is in my hand;
it contains about 9 ozs, of gold mixed with quartz, being a waterworn specimen. £50
was asked for it. They then began to arrive in sizes varying from one to five and
six lbs. weight.

_ 1852,—John Bull Nugget was exhibited to the public in London for some time; it
weighed 45 lbs. 6 ozs.; when melted, it yielded gold to the value of £2500.

1853.—A piece of quartz containing gold, brought over in the ‘ Sarah Sands,’ was
melted in July, and yielded gold to the value of £5532 7s. 4d.

1854-57.—Various specimens, varying from £1000 to £2000 in value.

1858.—The large nugget called the ‘‘ Blanche Barkly Nugget,” weighing 1743 ozs.,
nearly 146 Ibs., was melted August 4th by Messrs. Brown and Wingrove, and yielded
gold to the value of £6905 12s. 9d.; only about 22 ozs. of impurity.

This was exhibited several months at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham.

The “ Welcome” nugget, of which the model before us shows the exact size, was
brought over in the ‘ Salffolk,’ and received in London in June last. It was found
June 11, 1858, at Bakery Hill, Ballarat. The weight is 2217 ozs., or 184 lbs, 9 ozs.,
and it is now in the possession of Messrs. Dangleish, White, and Hankey, of Great
St. Helen’s, Australian merchants. I expect it will be melted in the course of next
week,

86 : , REPORT—1859.

Its supposed value is about £8640: thus 2217 ozs.—57 loss (about) =2160x4
{value of gold per oz.) =£8640.

Unless the Government, or some person taking a great interest in these matters,
would secure it, I should like to see it in one of our national museums, being the pro-
duce of one of our most important colonies.

Note.—This nugget was melted September 22, 1859, and yielded gold to the
amount of £8376 10s. 10d.

On the Comparative Value of certain Salts for rendering Fibrous Substances
Non-inflammable. By ¥. Versmann, F.C.S., and A.Oprrnueim, Ph.D.

As nitrogen forms a constituent element of the animal fibre, carbonate of ammonia is
among its gaseous products of decomposition, and prevents the animal fibre from burn-
ing with a flame and from communicating ignition. The vegetable fibre, however, if
decomposed by heat, evolves gaseous hydrocarbons and oxide of carbon mixed with only
little carbonic acid, and the danger arising herefrom is the principal reason why paper is
frequently replaced by parchment, and wood by stone, iron,&c. But as the use of cotton
and of linen increases by necessity from year to year, it is desirable that means should be
employed for preventing the danger of conflagrations arising from these highly inflam-
amable substances. Glue and albumen, if introduced into the vegetable fibre, besides
injuring the appearance of the same, prove to be useless for the subject in view. They
contain only as much nitrogen as the animal substances from which glue is made, viz.
about18 percent. Urea, however, containing alarge proportionof nitrogen, is efficacious,
if an amount of 28 per cent. is introduced intoa piece of muslin, which consequently
contains only 10°2 percent. of nitrogen in the shape of an animal substance, But for all
practical purposes we must look for an expedient among the number of inorganic salts,
and this has been done for a considerable time. In 1735 already a patent for preventing
substances from flaming was granted to one Obadiah Wild, who applied a mixture of
alum, borax, and vitriol, principally for making non-inflammable paper for cartridges.
A complete list of the literature on anti-flammable expedients will be given in another
place. It must be mentioned, however, in this abridgement, that Gay-Lussac is the
only chemist who compared (in 1821) the action of a small number of salts, by deter-
mining which of them are sufficient, if taken up by linen to the amount of 10 per cent.,
and, finding no salt to answer in this proportion, by further determining which are
sufficient, if taken up to the amount.of 20 per cent.

The annexed Table, comparing a considerable number of salts, including all those
which seemed to be of practical interest, and some others on account of chemical ana-
logies, has been composed by employing another method; viz. by determining the
smallest proportions of different salts required in solution, if this solution shall have
the desired effect. This method brings out some remarkable facts, and allows of the
following general conclusions :—

Every inorganic salt, if applied in solution to fabrics, diminishes their inflammabi-
lity by absorbing heat and excludiug the free access of the air. Even those salts,
which, like chloride of sodium, proved not to protect the fibre, would most probably
do so if sufficiently concentrated solutions could be obtained.

More active than other salts are those which are easily fusible (such as borax), or
partially or entirely volatile, thereby rarefying the inflammable hydrocarbons (such as
certain salts of ammonia and as the carbonates of soda), or those, which owing to their
peculiar physical constitution, firmly envelope the fibre, such as the tungstate of soda,
It will be seen that some salts frequently recommended have no practical value; that
alum, for instance, is required in a proportion that injures the appearance of the
fabrics; that carbonate of ammonia is too little soluble, and, like sal-ammonia, too
volatile; and that borax, owing to its boracic acid, destroys the fabric at higher than
ordinary temperatures. A solution of only one per cent. of borate of ammonia has
the same effect, and boracic acid alone cannot protect the fibre.

The experiments referred to were not confined to the laboratory, but repeated under
different circumstances in Her Majesty’s laundry at Richmond, and at the Finishing
Works of Mr. W. Crum, and of Mr. Cochran of Glasgow. It was found thereby that
‘only the following five salts and mixtures allow of a practical application :—the phos-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87.

Table showing the smallest per-centage of Salts required in solution for rendering
Muslin non-inflammable,—A of crystallized, B of anhydrous salts; twelve inches
square of the muslin employed weighing 33°4 grains,

Name of the Salts. Formula of the Salts. A. | B. Remarks.
1, Caustic soda,.......++++ NaO HO 8 | 62
2. Carbonate of soda......) NaO CO, 10HO 27:7 |10:0 | | Destroy the fabric.
3. Carbonate of potash... KO CO, 2HO 12-7 {10-0
4. Bicarbonate of soda... NaO, CO, HO 6 | 5:2|Not efficacious enough.
5. BOvax .sseseoceseeeseeseee NaO 2B0, 10HO 25 |18-2|Destroys the fabric above 212° F.
6. Silicate of soda......... | . 2Na0 3Si0, pee 8 Makes the fabric rough.
7. Phosphate of soda..... 2Na0O HO PO, 24aq 30: ;
Jae Tdett.esuesessseeevvess) 2Na0HO,PO;14aq [60 |... Not efficacious enough.

| A concentrated 72 per cent. so-

8. Sulphate of soda....... NaO SO, 10HO —_aveeee|oveees Than a iusnhicien’,

9. Bisulphate of soda..... NaO 280, HO 20 1150 :
GO. Sdlpiits of soda... NaO SO, 10HO 25° |10°3 } Destroy the fabric.
Very useful, the only salt that

11. Tungstate of soda...... NaO WO, 2HO 20 {18 { ailgws af vonton ae Fabiete.
12. Stannate of soda....... NaO Sn 0, 3HO 20 {15-1 |Deliquescent and alkaline,
13. Chloride of sodium .... NaCl Concentrated solutions are in-
14, Chloride of potassium KCl \ Teenie of sufficient.
15. Cyanide of potassium KiGy ee ieee 10 |Not applicable for obvious reasons.
16. Sesquicarbonate of ib concentrated solution is in-

BOIS eee ae mee peat lee sufficient. The salt is too volatile.
17. Oxalate of ammonia...|...sesccerssessecceeessescceeerenece|eceeee| ences Increases the flame. Rae
18. Biborate of ammonia.. NH,0O, 2B0, 4HO 5 | 3-7 \Destroys the fabric above 212° F.
19. Phosphate of ammonia 2NH, OHO PO; 10 | 9:3 |Useful.

20. Phosphate of am- .
ea aaa NaO NH, OHO PO, 8HO [15 | 8-6 |Useful.

6-2 Useful, and recommended on

21. Sulphate of ammonia.. NH, OSO, HO 7 account of its low price.
22. Sulphite of ammonia.. NH, OSO, HO 10 | 9-0 |Destroys the fabric.
23. Chloride of ammonium NH Cl = |eeaeee 25-0 |Too volatile. ~
25. Bromide of ammonia NH, Br vr] Bo] | Bxeluded from application from
AGEMLITCA csascoccecessee Rides C, H, N, (Ole 1) Ainealarpas the fact of their high price.
3(NH, Cl)
27 Thouret’s com ce { “ } ye :
ae 2(2NH, OHO PO,) 12 Useful
28. Chloride of barium.... Ba Clee A te ets, 50:0 |Not efficacious enough.
29. Chloride of calcium... CaCl 20 {10-0 |Deliquescent.
30. Sulphate of magnesia.. MgO SO, 7HO 50 24-5 |Not efficacious enough.
31. Sulphate of alumina... Al, O, 380, 18HO 15. | 7:1 |Injurious to the fabric.
32. Potash-alum..........+ KO SO, Al, 0,3S0, 24HO [33 |18-0 .
33. Ammonia-alum......... NH, SO, A1,0, 380, 24H0 25 {130 bot efinations exoagt,
34. Sulphate of iron ....... FeO SO, 7HO 53 |28-8 |Not efficacious enough.
35. Sulphate of copper .... CuO SO, 7HO 20° ]11-2) |. poisonous
36. Sulphate of zinc....... ZnO SO, 7HO 20 |11:2 ;
37. Chloride of zinc .......+ ZnCl HO 8 | 5:8 |Deliquescent.
38. Protochloride of tin... SnCl HO 5 | 4-6 |Deliquescent.
39. Protochloride of tin ‘ Acquires a yellow colour if ex-
and ammonia....... ‘} SnCI NH, Cl HO Don a? posed to the air.
40. Pink salt......ssssseseeee SnCl,NH,Cl — juve 7 \Destroys the fabric above 212° F.
(Ee TN FT VE RS a ee aa alae

phate of ammonia, the double salt of the same with phosphate of soda, the mixture of
the same with sal-ammonia, the sulphate of ammonia, and the tungstate of soda. The
sulphate of ammonia is cheaper, and required in a smaller proportion than the other
salts. According to Mr. Walter Crum, it gives a good finish to the fabrics ; and as
madder-purple is the only colour which is slightly injured by this salt, it may be em-
ployed in the manufacturing processes of almost all light fabrics, But in laundries

88 . REPORT—1859,

tungstate of soda alone can be used, because this salt alone allows of passing the iron
smoothly over the fabric without injuring it. Tungstate of soda is a cheap salt at
present, because it is manufactured for the precipitation of tungstate of lead, which is
now in frequent use instead of white lead; and although a solution of 20 per cent. of
tungstate of soda is required, this represents only a small volume of the salt. It has
proved very useful, and is now in constant use in Her Majesty’s laundry. A solution
of it cannot be preserved without adding a small proportion of phosphoric acid, or of
phosphate of soda, to prevent the formation of a bitungstate of little solubility.

Besides the experiments hitherto referred to, others were necessary, in order to
ascertain the possibility of permanently fixing antiflammable substances into the fibre
so as to prevent them from being removed by water. The following substances were
tried without success :—by Morin, tannate of zinc mixed with glue; by others, sul-
phate of lime; by the authors of this communication, sulphate of baryta, the silicates
of alkaline earths and of earths, aluminate of zinc, oxychloride of antimony, arseniate
of tin, and the stannates of lime and of zinc. It was found possible, however, to fix
either of the following substances :—the borate and the phosphate of tin, stannate
of tin and hydrated protoxide of tin. But all these substances give a yellowish tinge
to the fabrics, and are only applicable to coarse materials, such as canvas and sail-
cloth. The protoxide of tin is precipitated from a solution of two parts of protochlo-
ride of tin in one part of water by concentrated carbonate of soda. Care must be
taken to agitate the fabric in the latter solution, in order noi to fix anhydrous prot-
oxide, which was found to be formed in all cases where a concentrated solution of
protochloride of tin was mixed with an excess of concentrated carbonate of soda. It
gets transformed into the hydrate by boiling it with protochloride of tin. A piece of
sailcloth prepared with it is undergoing practical tests by command of the Store-
keeper-General of the Navy.

On Combinations of Earthy Phosphates with Alkalies.
By Professor Voetcker, Ph.D., F.C.S.

Account of Experiments on the Equivalent of Bromine.
By W. Watrace, Ph.D. FCS.
The author employed the bromide of arsenic, a compound which is readily obtained
in a perfectly pure state by distillation and crystallization. The mean number obtained
was 79°74, which does not differ materially from the equivalent of Marignac,

On Proposed Improvements in the Manufacture of Kelp.
By W. Watracet, Ph.D., FCS.

Great loss of iodine occurs in the present mode of fabrication, and certain sulphur
compounds are produced which are highly objectionable and cause a great waste of
oil of vitriol in their neutralization or decomposition. Dr.Wallace described various
suggestions by which a much greater quantity of kelp might be prepared in the He-
brides, and the quality very much improved.

Mr. Napier’s New Process of Etching Glass in relief by Hydrofluorie Acid.
Communicated by Professor G. WILson. ,

This process, devised and patented by Mr. Napier, is exceedingly ingenious, and
for many purposes of art highly satisfactory. A wood-cut with a device printed in
the usual way in printers’ ink, is attached by a paste of starch to the surface of glass
intended to be etched, and the whole is allowed to dry.

The prepared glass is then plunged into dilute hydrofluoric acid, left there for a
short time ; then washed and the paper cleaned off,

During the brief immersion the acid has penetrated the paper, including the starch,
wherever the former was free from ink-marks, and has corroded or dissolved away
the glass over all the points or spaces corresponding to the white paper; whilst the
ink-lines making up the design have acted like a protective varnish, defending the
glass below them from corrosion, :

The peculiarity of the process lies in allowing the paper, as well as the ink, to

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89

remain in contact with the glass during its immersion in the acid. It is impossible
to etch deeply with hydrofluoric acid, in consequence of the acid acting laterally as
well as vertically as soon as it has removed the superficial layer. The process, how-
ever, yields results of great beauty, both with colourless glass, and with that flushed,
that is, covered by a thin plate of coloured glass. Copies of wood-cuts or engravings may
thus be produced in various colours; and for windows and lamp shades, as well as for
decanters, toilet bottles, drinking vessels and the like, the method is readily and
cheaply applicable.

Other applications will occur to every one who masters the principle of this process.
Wood-cuts are only preferable to other forms of engraving as giving broader lines,
and yielding in printing ink an admirable protective varnish.

The essential part of the process is the retention of the paper to the proof and
etching,

On some of the Stages which led to the Invention of the Modern Air-pump.
By Professor GEorGE WILson.

The author began by stating that he had long ago proposed to himself the task of
illustrating the special service which the ‘ Jnstrwment’ rendered to physical science,
as distinguished from the ‘ Idea’ or thought which guided the physicist in devising
and using the instrument, and the effect of individual peculiarity or idiosyncrasy in
affecting the interpretation of those phenomena and laws which the idea and the
instrument together brought to light.

In the history of every science we recognize the prevalence at particular periods, of a
more or less comprehensive Thought, Idea, Hypothesis or Theory, which determines
the direction of inquiry during that epoch. Such, for example, in astronomy was the
doctrine that the earth goes round the sun; such in chemistry the doctrine that com-
bustion results from the union of unlike chemical substances.

These and similar ideas, however, even when most true, never reach mankind as
pure truth, the /wmen siccum of the Divine Mind, but are always more or less modified,
coloured, or obscured by the idiosyncrasy of the human expositor who first gives them
utterance, The antecedents, accordingly, of such men as Copernicus, Galileo and
Lavoisier, the quality of their intellects and moral faculties, their education and
training, the fears and prejudices or hindrances under which they wrought, and much
else must be studied, before we can rightly estimate their influence over the progress
of science.

Further, in the case of the physical sciences, and especially the experimental ones,
a third and notable element, affecting their progress, appears in the character of the
instruments by which the phenomena they are concerned with, are observed, tested,
analysed, and registered. ‘Thus Galileo's telescope furnished every man with ocular
demonstration of the truth of the Copernican views; and Lavoisier’s balance for ever
extinguished the ignis fatuus of phlogiston.

A comprehensive history of any physical science must include all three elements:
viz. 1. the dominant idea of a given epoch, which, in so far as it was true, was the
recognition of an actual law of nature or thought of God’s ; 2. the human expositors
of this idea, who in converting it into a formal doctrine, always more or less modified
it, and often in consequence retarded or misdirected the progress of knowledge for
centuries; 3. the instrument realizing or applying the idea or doctrine; in some
cases justifying a hypothesis, in others pointing to a theory,—in all bringing physical
phenomena much more within reach of the observer.

The author thought that the historians of physics had too little regarded the im-
portance of the last element of influence. The telescope, the microscope, the baro-
meter, the thermometer, the air-pump, the electrical machine, the galvanic battery,
the electro-magnet, the photographic camera, and many other instruments, has each
added a new kingdom to the map of science, and a new chapter to its history.

In communications addressed to different learned bodies, the author has referred
to several of these instruments; the object of his present paper is to indicate some
important points in the early history of the air-pump.

In relation to instruments intended to produce a vacuum, we may conveniently
regard vacua as of four kinds ;—

90 : REPORT—1859.

1, The suction or pump-vacuum.

2. The thermic (including the steam-) vacuum.

8. The Torricellian or barometer-vacuum.

4. The chemical vacuum.

The instrument for producing the first is, par eacellence, the air-pump, the philo-
sopher’s chief vacuum-producer, although for some purposes, as the recent researches
oni the electric discharge have shown us, both the Torricellian and the chemical vacuum
are preferable to the pump-vacuum.

The instruments for producing the second or thermic vacuum, as represented for
the mechanician by the condenser of the steam-engine, and for the industrial chemist
by the vacuum-pan and vacuum-still, constitute the practician’s vacuum-producer. Now
these two instruments, the philosopher’s air-pump and the practician’s steam-con-
denser, may be shown to have come down to us by different lines from prehistori¢
times.

Suction Vacuum.—The simplest and earliest suction vacuum-producer was the
mouth of a suckling, and passing over other mammals, we may be content to begin
with the human infant. The mouth, including the lips, cheeks and tongue, constitutes
an exhausting apparatus more perfect than any artificial contrivance. What the in-
fant does instinctively, the adult continues by an almost unconscious effort of will,
occasionally to perform. To suck a bleeding wound, or poisoned bite, seems natural
even to highly civilized man, and is practised by all barbaric nations. From this
there is but one step to interposing, between the mouth and the wound, a tube or
funnel, especially when the mouth of one individual sucks a bleeding or poisoned
surface in the body of another. This step was taken by the ancient cupper, who after
scarifying the skin of his patient, employed the extremity of a bullock’s horn pierced
at the tip and left open at the base. When the latter was applied to the bleeding
orifices, and suction made through the hollow tip, the blood rose into the cone, and
it was easy to close the upper aperture by the tongue, the finger, a little soft wax, a
piece of wet membrane, or a leather valve, as in truth was variously done.

Such a cupping horn is alluded to by Hippocrates as an instrument which was
ancient in his days. The later Greek and Roman physicians describe it more mi-
nutely. Three cupping horns have been found in the tombs of Saccara, at Memphis,
and have been described by Dr. Abbot, in whose museum, formerly at Cairo, they were
deposited. Of their genuineness and antiquity there appears, according to Sir Gardner
Wilkinson, who has seen one of them and has favoured the author with his opinion,
to be no doubt. Similar horns provided with a leather valve or tongue at the upper
aperture, are still, according to this high authority, in familiar use among the modern
Egyptians. In Abyssinia Parkyns has seen the horn used for cuppmg. Mungo
Park gives a similar account. Dr. Brown, of Her Majesty’s Indian Service, informs
the author that he has seen the cupping horn used by the natives of the Punjaub.
Dr. Cannon, formerly Civil Surgeon at Simla, adds that he has witnessed a Cashmeer
Hakeem cup most skilfully with the tip of the mountain ram’s horn. When a party
of Red Indians of the Ioway tribe were in Edinburgh some years ago, Professor Simp-
son, on visiting them on one occasion, found one of the men cupping another with part
of a cow’s horn. Lastly, the author exhibited a cupping horn still in use among the
Shetlanders. He was indebted for it to Prof. Simpson, who had received it from the
Rev. Mr. Ingram, parish clergyman of Unst. It is styled by the natives a ‘ blude
horn ;” the operation of cupping with it is named “ horning.”

It thus appeared that a suction vacuum-producer, or mouth air-pump, has been in
use as a cupping instrument for.some thousand years, its origin being lost in remote
antiquity ; and also that it has been and is in use among nations widely separated
from each other. If we suppose these peoples to have acquired the practice from one
common source, the extreme antiquity of the practice must be conceded. If, on the
other hand, as is more likely, several at least of those nations devised it for themselves,
then the facility with which men construct a vacuum-producer is rendered apparent.
Without endeavouring to establish precise dates, we may safely affirm that a mouth
aie has been known for more than twenty centuries in various regions of the
globe. Z

That such an instrument should lead directly to the construction of an air-pump
seems at first sight in the highest degree probable; for if we look at Otto v.. Gue-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91

ricke’s first modern air-pump (1654), or Boyle and Hooke’s first English one (1659),
we seem to see a copy in all essentials of the suction horn: the horn is replaced by
a glass vessel, the mouth by a metal cylinder and piston directly communicating with
the glass, But history does not confirm this supposition, Had it been well-founded,
we should not have had to wait for much more than a thousand years before we had
an air-pump; neither should we find that instrument totally unknown to the great
majority of those nations who were quite familiar with the cupping horn.

It appears from the writings of Guericke, Boyle and their contemporaries, that it
was the Torricellian tube that led them to construct their air-pumps. We must in
truth intercalate the barometer between the suction-horn and the air-pump; for al-
though the last seems but a copy in glass and metal of the second, it was not in reality
so. Galileo in 1600 explained the action of a water-pump and suggested the Torri-
cellian experiment. ‘Torricelli tried it in 1644; and men at length believed in the
possibility of producing a vacuum, a truth which the cupping horn had not taught
them,

At length, after ten years’ endeavour, not without success, to make a large bulbed
barometer serve the purposes which the air-pump now fulfils, Guericke took courage
to attempt a pump. But he did not at first endeavour to pump out air, as he certainly
would have done, had he modeled his instrument on the suction-horn. On the other
hand, he filled a barrel or globe with water, and pumped out that. In short, his first
air-pump was a Torricellian tube, from which the liquid, instead of being withdrawn
by its weight, compared with that ofthe air, was exhausted by a syringe. By and by,
struck with the elasticity of the air and its continual expansion under diminished
pressure, he dismissed liquids, and acted with his pump directly on the air in a shut
vessel. Till, however, the Torricellian experiment taught him two truths—the one
that a vacuum is possible, the other that air is elastic—the air-pump remained an un-
realized possibility. The barometer, accordingly, and not the cupping horn, was the
genetic precursor of the modern air-pump, a fact which has not apparently received
from the historians of science the attention it deserves. The later stages in the air-
pump—involving the introduction by Hooke and Boyle (1667) of the separate “plate”
on which bell-jars could stand, the employment of two barrels by Papin (1676), with
a stirrup or treddle arrangement for working the pistons by the feet, and the replace-
ment of this curious device by the familiar rack and pinion to move the two pistons,
by Hauksbee (1704)—was not enlarged upon, as it had been treated by the author
elsewhere.

Lhermic Vacuum,—The condensing chamber of a Watt's steam-engine, or the vacuum
pan of a sugar refiner, are generally regarded as very modern inventions, These
powerful pneumatic evacuators, however, stand in the same relation of descent to the
cupping glass, in which a vacuum is produced by the action of a flame, as the scien-
tific air-pump does to the suction cupping horn. The former, which may be called the
flame-cup, was as familiar to Hippocrates as the suction horn, and is equally referred
to, as in his day an ancient instrument. Later Greek and Roman medical writers,
such as Oribasius, Paulus Aigineta and Celsus, describe the flame-cups as made chiefly
of bronze, sometimes of glass, and occasionally of earthenware. In the ruins of Her-
culaneum and Pompeii examples have been found, which are now in the Museo Bor-
bonico at Naples, and have been figured by Vulpes. Of whatever material these in-
struments were anciently constructed, they were similarly named, the Greek term
for a cupping glass being cikva (sikwa), and the Latin eucurbitula, each alike signi-
fying a small gourd. J.exicographers refer this unexpected title, solely to the resem-
blance in form of the cupping glass to a gourd, The author believes this to be a
mistake, in consequence, mainly, of finding that an actual gourd has been used asa
flame-cup by the natives of Africa on the Old Calabar river, as well as by negroes
from other African districts, from timeimmemorial, In illustration he showed three
cupping gourds brought from Old Calabar by A. Hewan, Esq., Surgeon to the United
Presbyterian Mission there, This gentleman has frequently seen the gourd employed
to let blood by the native women, who scarify the skin with a razor, and then burn a
piece of cotton within the gourd till the air is sufficiently rarefied, when the light is
withdrawn and the vegetable cup applied. When it is further remembered that the
ancient cupping vessels were of very various shapes and sizes, and that the terms
under notice were applied to the horn-cone as well as to the bronze egg-shaped cyathus,

92 REPORT—1859.

it is difficult to believe that sikua and cucurbitula refer chiefly to the form of the
ancient cupping instrument. It seems more probable that the words in question are
memorials of the fact that a hollow gourd was itself the earliest flame-cup employed
by primitive races, from whom the civilized nations of antiquity inherited the name and
practice. The curious fact may be added, that both the African negroes and the
South American Indians are in the occasional habit of employing the neck of a bottle
gourd, or the body of a small oval one, with a wide aperture below and a narrow
one above, as a suction-tube, just as nations in possession of cattle use the suction-
horn. If this practice prevailed in ancient times and in classical regions, then the
words sikua and cucurbitula were equally applicable to a suction-horn and a flame-
cup, and the shape of either goes for almost nothing.

This, however, is an episode ; the only point of special interest to the present question
is the antiquity of the flame-cup, and of this there isnodoubt. It was so well known
to the Greeks of all ranks, that Aristophanes refers to it in one of his plays, using the
term xiaOox (cyathoi), or cups. Cupping must have been as familiar to his audience
as leeching to modern play-goers, and the word cup excludes the idea ofa suction
instrument. In round numbers we may date this allusion 500 8.c., and the practice
alluded to was then a very ancient one, It is impossible, however, to identify a cup
used for blood-letting, in the way we can identify so unique an instrument as a cupping
horn, Among the vessels found in Pharaonic Egyptian tombs, and in the ruins of
ancient cities, are many resembling cupping vessels, and some of which may have been
such. However, that learned archzologist, Mr. Birch of the British Museum, could
not refer the author to any evidence derived from instruments, inscriptions, or draw-
ings illustrating the use of the flame-cup among the ancient Egyptians or other civil-
ized nations of antiquity. It is enough nevertheless to know that for centuries before
Hippocrates, Socrates, and Aristophanes flourished, a method of applying heat to
produce a vacuum in a vessel previously full of air, was widely known and practised
in the ancient world, and that it now prevails among barbaric nations, who can give
no account of its origin.

Between this flame-cup and the steam-vacuum it is impossible not to see a close
analogy. In both we rarefy an elastic fluid by heat, and then condense it by cold ;
the great difference being that in the one case we employ a gas which cannot be
liquefied, and in the other a vapour easily condensable intoa liquid. In the cupping
vessel, however, we have always liquefiable water-vapour and carbonic acid produced,
and from the steam-vacuum we cannot exclude incondensable air. There is thus
rather a difference in degree than in kind between the twoinstruments, Nevertheless
historically the one is not the other grown perfect, or the descendant of the other.
Just as the barometer comes between the suction-horn and the air-pump, and interprets
the former into the latter, so the thermometer comes after the flame-cup and translates
it into the steam-vacuum.

We find a barren interval till we reach the 16th century, and the progress in ap-
plying a thermic vacuum to the production of motion through the steam-engine is
exceedingly slow, till the thermometer has been graduated and rendered a trustworthy
measurer of the intensity and quantity of heat. The discovery of the laws of latent
heat, and of much else, soon leads to the construction of the condensing steam-engine,
and by and by to that of the vacuum-pan and vacuum-still. Neither of them recalls
its prototype the flame-cup, yet the crashing in of the sides of a collapsing boiler is
but a repetition on a large scale of the phenomenon exhibited by the sucking in of the
skin by a cupping glass as it cools.

The cupping instrument is thus in a twofold way the precursor of the modern
vacuum-producer: as the cupping horn, it leads through the barometer to the air-
pump; as the cupping gourd, it leads through the thermometer to the vacuum-still.
The beginnings of both instruments are lost in prehistoric times, and in the present
state of our knowledge we are safest to regard them as equally ancient.

The chemical vacuum produced by filling a vessel with a gas which can afterwards
be reduced to a solid form by chemical combination with another substance, is one of
the most perfect attainable vacua, but its consideration is postponed till a future op-
portunity,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 93

GEOLOGY.

Introductory Address by the President, Sir C. LyE.t.

On the Occurrence of Works of Human Art in Post-pliocene Deposits.
By Sir Cuarves Lyerz, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

No subject has lately excited more curiosity and general interest among geolo-
gists and the public than the question of the antiquity of the human race; whether
or no we have sufficient evidence to prove the former co-existence of man with
certain extinct mammalia, in caves or in the superficial deposits commonly called
drift or “diluvium.” For the last quarter of a century, the occasional occurrence,
in various parts of Europe, of the bones of man or the works of his hands, in cave-
breccias and stalactites associated with the remains of the extinct hyzena, bear,
elephant, or rhinoceros, has given rise to a suspicion that the date of man must
be carried further back than we had heretofore imagined. On the other hand, ex-
treme reluctance was naturally felt on the part of scientific reasoners to admit the
validity of such evidence, seeing that so many caves have been inhabited by a
succession of tenants, and have been selected by man, asa place not only of domicile,
but of sepulture, while some caves have also served as the channels through which
the waters of flooded rivers have flowed, so that the remains of living beings which
haye peopled the district at more than one era may have subsequently been mingled
in such caverns and confounded together in one and the same deposit. The facts,
however, recently brought to light during the systematic investigation, as reported
on by Falconer, of the Brixham Cave, must, I think, have prepared you to admit
that scepticism in regard to the cave-evidence in favour of the antiquity of man
had previously been pushed to an extreme. To escape from what I now consider
was @ legitimate deduction from the facts already accumulated, we were obliged to
resort to hypotheses requiring great changes in the relative levels and drainage of
valleys, and, in short, the whole physical geography of the respective regions where
the caves are situated—changes that would alone imply a remote antiquity for the
human fossil remains, and make it probable that man was old enough to have co-
existed, at least, with the Siberian mammoth.

But, in the course of the last fifteen years, another class of proofs have been
advanced, in France, in confirmation of man’s antiquity, into two of which I have
personally examined in the course of the present summer, and to which I shall
now briefly advert. First, so long ago as the year 1844, M. Aymard, an eminent
paleontologist and antiquary, published an account of the discovery in the volcanic
district of Central France, of portions of two human skeletons (the skulls, teeth,
and bones), imbedded in a volcanic breccia, found in the mountain of Denise, in
the environs of Le Puy en Velay, a breccia anterior in date to one, at least, of the
latest eruptions of that volcanic mountain. On the opposite side of the same hill,
the remains of a large number of mammalia, most of them of extinct species, have
been detected in tutaceous strata, believed, and I think correctly, to be of the same
age. The authenticity of the human fossils was from the first disputed by several
geologists, but admitted by the majority of those who visited Le Puy and saw,
with their own eyes, the original specimen now in the museum of that town.
Among others, M. Pictet, so well known to you by his excellent work on Palzeonto-
logy, declared after his visit to the spot his adhesion to the opinions previously
expressed by Aymard. My friend, Mr. Scrope, in the second edition of his ‘ Vol-
canoes of Central France,’ lately published, also adopted the same conclusion,
although, after accompanying me this year to Le Puy, he has seen reason to modify
his views. The result of our joint examination,—a result which, I believe, essen-
tially coincides with that arrived at by MM. Hébert and Lartet, (names well known
to science,) who have also this year gone into this inquiry on the spot,—may thus
be stated. We are by no means prepared to maintain that the specimen in the
museum at Le Puy (which unfortunately was never seen in situ by any scientific
observer) is a fabrication. On the contrary, we incline to believe that the human
fossils in this and some other specimens from the same hill, were really imbedded

94 a REPORT—1859,

by natural causes in their present matrix. But the rock in which they are en-
tombed consists of two parts, one of which is a compact, and for the most part thinly
laminated stone, into which néne of the human hance penetrate ; the other con-
taining the bones is a lighter and much more porous stone, without lamination,
to which we could find nothing similar in the mountain of Denise, although both
M. Hébert and I made several excavations on the alleged site of the fossils. M.
Hébert therefore suggested to me that this more porous stone, which resembles in
colour and mineral composition, though not in structure, parts of the genuine old
breccia of Deriise, may be made up of the older rock broken up and afterwards re-
deposited, or as the French say, remanié, and therefore, of much newer date, an
hypothesis which well deserves consideration; but I feel that we are at present
so ignorant of the precise circumstances and position under which these celebrated
human fossils were found, that I ought not to waste time in speculating on their
probable mode of interment, but simply state that, in my opinion, they afford no
demonstration of man having witnessed the last volcanic eruptions of Central
France. The skulls, according to the judgment of the most competent osteologists
who have yet seen them, do not seem to depart ina marked manner from the
modern European, or Caucasian type; and the human bones are in a fresher state

than those of the Elephas meridionalis and other quadrupeds found in, any breccia |
of Denise which can he referred to the period even of the latest volcanic eruptions, .

But while I have thus failed to obtain satisfactory evidence in favour of the
remote origin assigned to the human fossils of Le Puy, I am fully prepared to
corroborate the conclusions which have been recently laid before the Royal Society
by Mr. Prestwich, in regard to the age of the flint implements associated in un-
disturbed gravel, in the north of France, with the bones of elephants, at Abbeville
and Amiens. These were first noticed at Abbeville, and their true geological
position assigned to them by M. Boucher de Perthes, in 1847, in his ‘ Antiquités
Celtiques,’ while those of Amiens were afterwards described in 1854, by the late
Dr. Rigollot. For a clear statement of the facts, I may refer you to the abstract
of Mr. Prestwich’s Memoir in the Proceedings of the Royal Society for 1859,
and have only to add that I have myself obtained abundance of flint implements
(some of which are laid upon the table) during a short visit to Amiens and Abbe-
ville. Two of the worked flints of Amiens were discovered in the gravel-pits of
St.-Acheul—one at the depth of 10, and the other of 17 feet below the surface, at
the time of my visit; and M. Georges Pouchet, of Rouen, author of a work on
the Races of Man, who has since visited the spot, has extracted with his own hands
one of these implements, as Messrs. Prestwich and Flower had done before hiny
The stratified gravel resting immediately on the chalk in which these rudely
fashioned. instruments are buried, belongs to the post-pliocene period, all the fresh-
water and land shells which accompany them being of existing species. The great
number of the fossil instruments which have been likened to hatchets, aa tel
and wedges is truly wonderful. More than a thousand of them have already been
met with in the last ten years, in the valley of the Somme, in an area 15 miles in
length. Linfer that a tribe of savages, to whom the use of iron was unknown,
made a long sojourn in this region; and I am reminded of a large Indian mound,
which I saw in St. Simon’s Island, in Georgia—a mound 10 acres in area, and
having an average height of 5 feet, chiefly composed of cast-away oyster shells,
throughout which arrow-heads, stone-axes, and Indian pottery are dispersed. If
the neighbouring river, the Alatamaha, or the sea which is at hand, should invade,
_ sweep away, and stratify the contents of this mound, it might produce a very ana-
logous accumulation of human implements, unmixed perhaps with human bones.

Although the accompanying shells are of living species, I believe the antiquity
of the Abbeville and Amiens flint instruments to be great indeed if compared to
the times of history or tradition. I consider the gravel to be of fluviatile origin;
but I could detect nothing in the structure of its several parts indicating cataclysmal
action, nothing that might not be due to such river-floods as we have witnessed in
Scotland during the last half-century. It must have required a long period for the
wearing down of the chalk which supplied the broken flints for the formation of so
much gravel at various heights, sometimes 100 feet above the present level of the
Somme,—for the deposition of fine sediment including entire shells, both terrestrial
and aquatic, and also for the denudation which the entire mass of stratified drift

—————

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95

has undergone, portions having been swept away, so that what remains of it often
terminates abruptly in old river-cliffs, besides being covered by a newer unstratified
drift. To explain these changes, I should infer considerable oscillations in the level
of the land in that part of France—slow movements of upheaval and subsidence,
deranging but not wholly displacing the course of the ancient rivers. Lastly, the
disappearance of the elephant, rhinoceros, and other genera of quadrupeds now
foreign to Europe, implies, in like manner, a vast lapse of ages, separating the era
in which the fossil implements were framed and that of the invasion of Gaul by
the Romans.

Among the problems of high theoretical interest which the recent progress of
Geology and Natural History has brought into notice, no one is more prominent,
and at the same time more obscure, than that relating to the origin of species,
‘On this difficult and mysterious subject a work will very shortly appear, by Mr.
Charles Darwin, the result of twenty years of observation and experiments in

- Zoology, Botany, and Geology, by which he has been led to the conclusion, that
those powers of nature which give rise to races and permanent varieties in animals
and plants, are the same as those which, in much longer periods, produce species,
and, in a still longer series of ages, give rise to differences of generic rank. He
appears to me to have succeeded, by his investigations and reasonings, in throwing
a flood of light on many classes of phenomena connected with the affinities, geogra-
pica! distribution, and geological succession of organic beings, for which no other

ypothesis has been able, or has even attempted, to account.

Among the communications sent in to this Section, I have received one from
Dr. Dawson, of Montreal, confirming the discovery which he and I formerly an-
nounced, of a land shell, or pupa, in the coal formation of Nova Scotia. When we
contemplate the vast series of formations intervening between the tertiary and car-
boniferous strata, all destitute of air-breathing Mollusca, at least of the terrestrial
class, such a discovery affords an important illustration of the extreme defectiveness
of our geological records. It has always appeared to me that the advocates of pro-
gressive development have too much overlooked the imperfection of these records,
and that, consequently, a large part of the generalizations in which they have
indulged in regard to the first appearance of the different classes of animals, especially
of air-breathers, will have to be modified or abandoned. Nevertheless, that the
doctrine of progressive development may contain in it the germs of a true theory,
T am far from denying. The consideration of this question will come before you
when the age of the White Sandstone of Elgin is discussed—a rock hitherto re-
ferred to the Old Red, or Devonian formation, but now ascertained to contain
several reptilian forms, of so high an organization as to raise a doubt in the minds
of many geologists whether so old a place in the series can correctly be assigned to it.

On Human Remains in Superficial Drift. By the Rev. Dr. ANDERSON.

The author gave a view of the alleged cases in connexion with the discovery of
human remains in the superficial drifts, alluvial detritus, and such diluvial accumu-
lations as are of an ancient or pre-historic origin. Undoubted cases existed of
human remains enclosed in hard compact concretionary rocks, buried deep in the
silts of rivers, and high up in caverns, associated with the bones of extinct carni-
yora now only existing in southern latitudes. One is startled at the idea of a
North Briton inhabiting the same cave with a lion, mammoth, or a huge bear, and
all apparently contemporaneous occupants, according to their species, of the British
Isles. As to the instances occurring in beds of lakes, rivers, and seas, and which
have become mineralized, he contended that a few years, or even months, often
sufficed for the formation of a compact durable mass of calcareous and siliceous
rock, in which human bones, skeletons, pottery, coins, and implements were im-

edded.
‘i He referred to a case betwixt Aberdour and Burntisland, in Fife, which he ex-
amined a few weeks ago, where an incrustation was now forming of great depth,
and in which are imbedded land shells, branches of trees, and where on the face of
the incrusted cliff, twigs of the living trees are becoming entangled in the calcareous
breccia. Several raised beaches occur on the shores of Fifeshire, of considerable
elevation, and some of them strewed oyer with shells of the pleistocene age, They

96 REPORT—1859.

lie, some of them, in the close vicinity and direct line of the Aberdour breccia.
Through the agency of springs, which are copious and numerous in the district,
and by many other causes, the shelly materials of the raised beaches may be brought
in contact with the petrifying incrustations, mixed up with the land-shells and
mollusks of the day, which are sufficiently abundant around ; and, when removed to
a distance from the combined formative processes on the spot, what room is here
for speculations and hypotheses to puzzle and confound the curious inquirer into the
history of the aggregated mass! ‘The old, the new, and the living are all in juxta-
position—all ready to be confounded in a matrix of yesterday.

He next quoted the case of a cannon-ball—a thirty-two pont ee pre=-
sented to him by a fellow townsman, deeply incrusted with ferruginous mud, and
completely indurated, which was raised on an anchor in the harbour of Copen-
hagen; and, he doubted not, an identical bullet of our naval attack of fifty years
ago. ‘The flints of Amiens and Abbeville, the remains in the caverns of Torquay,
and those in Sicily, the flint weapons in veined limestone in Cantire, and the arrow-
heads with elephant remains in Suffolk, were then successively brought under
review in the paper,—the solution of all these given by the author being that, from
the action of petrifying springs, the subsidence of tracts of country, the falling in of
the roofs of caverns, the undermining of cliffs and headlands, the superficial soil is
incrusted or buried beneath the strata on which it was originally superimposed.

The case of the Nile piece of pottery, brought before the meeting at Leeds last
year by Mr. Horne, was next adverted to, The answer to the assumption of its
vast antiquity is found in the fact, that the track of the Nile through the whole of
its course in Lower Egypt, has been subject to such successive mutations of level
as to render all comparisons between the present and the past of the yearly incre-
ment and amount of silt deposits over the bed of the river utterly useless. It is
clearly established that, in the course of the last 3000 years, the land around Suez
has risen 8 or 10 feet; and it is no less warrantably established, that the whole
Lower Delta and the entire shores east and west of Cairo and Alexandria have been
repeatedly subjected to such depressions and upheavals as to dry up lakes, and to
change the channel of the Nile itself. Four thousand years ago, up to the borders
of the Theban provinces, 200 miles inland, was an estuary or marsh, where the
gradients and speed of the river would be directly affected by the rise or fall of
the basin to the northward, the existing delta, from Cairo south, becoming ulti-
mately dry land, or marsh, or lake. When the Egyptian monarchy was founded
by Menes about 4000 years from the present time, the land of Egypt, from the
Theban province northward, was a marsh, and from the Lake Meeris, 150 miles
southward, all from the sea-coast at Alexandria was permanently under water.
Eastward on the Red Sea shore, and across the Isthmus from Suez westward to the
Mediterranean, is a raised beach of shells, corals, and gravel, the corals consisting
exclusively of varieties now in existence. The bed of the Nile within the past 4000
years has therefore sunk repeatedly and risen again; and Dr. Lepsius mentions a
series of monuments at Senneh in Nubia, which record the highest points reached
by the inundations, fifteen of which are still available for reference, the height of
them proving that the Nile rose at that period 25 feet higher than in modern times.

The position, then, of these and other registers and proofs referred to, completely
establishes the theory of a succession of upheavals and depressions, and destroys all
confidence in any assumed rate of increase in the mud deposits betwixt the present
and the past. The flow of the river is modified by the position of its line of de-
bouchure, and this again is dependent on the relation, for the time, betwixt the
levels of the land and sea; and, finally, it follows that the Memphian monument of
king Rameses stands on a foundation of silt to which no possible date can be
assigned, whether of longer or shorter calculation.

He saw no evidence, in short, deducible from the superficial drifts to warrant a
departure from the usually accepted date of man’s very recent introduction upon
the earth. We have more positive evidence that his first appearance was character-
ized by many proofs of high intellectual condition which our sacred beliefs attach
to his origin, and that he was not primarily the ignoble creature that arrow-heads
and flint-knives, and ossiferous caverns would so lamentably indicate. The mighty
ruins spread over the plains and great river water-sheds of the East clearly indicate
his Oriental cradle-land, when, in conjunction with the traditions of all nations in

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97

the most remote times, he dwelt in palaces, luxuriated in gardens, worshiped in
temples of solemn grandeur, and reared towers and pyramids enduring as the rocks
from which they were hewn. The arts and sciences and commerce accompanied
the progress of his terrestrial occupation, bringing in their train the elegances,
luxuries, and perfected implements of defence or attack which the highest stages
of civilization imply. Races of the human stamp have perished—are perishing ;
and, as if it were a law of nature, where a race cannot rise and maintain itself be-
yond a certain standard, civilization, instead of benefiting, only leads to their more
rapid extirpation from the face of the earth. Certain it was, that tribes on islands
in the Pacific, which in Cook’s time were enumerated by hundreds of thousands,
can now be counted by their tens or twenties; and just as certain that, wherever
the christianizing element accompanied, the onward progress of civilization would
know no limits until the Divine principle in man should vindicate his heayen-
chartered claims to universal earthly dominion.

On Dura Den Sandstone. By the Rev. Dr. ANDERSon, F.G.S.

This deposit has now yielded nine genera and eleven species of fossil organic
-Yemains, one of which belongs to the crustacean type, and the rest to the family of
true fishes. Two of the genera are common to the Old Red and the Carboniferous
systems, Holoptychius and Diplopterus. Three of the genera are found in the Lower
and the Upper series of the Old Red, Pterichthys (Pamphractus, Ag.), Platygnathus,
and Diplopterus. Three genera are common to the Middle series of Morayshire
and Clashbennie, and the Upper series of Dura Den, Dendrodus, Phyllolepis, and
Diplopterus. Two new genera belong exclusively to the Yellow Sandstone of
Dura Den, Glyptolemus Kinnairdit and Phaneropleuron Andersoni. The author
referred, for a minute description of these newly-discovered fossils, to his ‘Mono-
graph of Dura Den*,’ just published, which contains Professor Huxley’s account
and designations of them, along with his restoration and structure of the Holo-
ptychius Andersoni. In dissenting from the views of Sir Philip Egerton, in his
valuable memoir recently read before the Geological Society, Professor Huxley
observes, “that a small triangular dorsal fin begins opposite the hinder edge of the
root of the ventral fin, and is situated a little behind the middle of the body. Itis
separated by about the breadth of its own base from the commencement of the
dorsal lobe of the caudal fin, which occupies nearly the posterior third of the whole
length of the body, and attains its greatest height about the middle of its length.
The caudal end of the body gradually tapers to a point, which is not, as has been
usually represented, bent upwards, and the ventral lobe of the caudal fin, though
rather shorter than the dorsal lobe, has the same depth. The caudal fin conse-
ently forms a very nearly symmetrical rhomboid, and is not in the ordinary sense
terocercal, The anal fin is rather larger than the dorsal, and is separated by but

a very small interval from the ventral lobe of the caudal.”

The author, in conclusion, vindicated the claims of the yellow sandstone of Dura
Den to be classed with the Old Red rather than with the Carboniferous superin-
cumbent beds; in its poe position, mineral qualities, and fossil organisms
ranking among the rocks of the great fish epoch, and not with those which contain
the flora of the succeeding age of gigantic vegetables and mountain chains of shelly
limestone. Not a shell or vestige of plant has anywhere been found in the whole
mass of rock of Dura Den, nor in any one of the numerous quarries in the district,

On Tertiary Fossils of India. By W.H. Baty, F.G.S., Acting Paleon-
tologist to the Geological Survey of Ireland.

The object of this communication was to give merely a sketch of results from
the study of a large suite of fossils collected chiefly from Burmah and Tenasserim
Province, by Prof. T, Oldham, Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India,
the details being intended for publication in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey

* Dura Den—a Monograph of the Yellow Sandstone and its remarkable Fossil Remains,
by John Anderson, DD., F.G.8. Edinb.: Thomas Constable and Co, London: Hamilton,
Adams and Co,

1859. 7

‘98 ' REPORT—1859.

of India. The majority of the fossils was stated to be of Eocene age, most of them
having been obtained from the banks of the Irrawaddy and from Prome and its
neighbourhood, Prof, Oldham also collected Nummulitic fossils from Kurrachee
Salt Range of the Punjab, Mammalian remains from the Sewalik group; fish teeth
and scales from Heinlat, Tenasserim, and Carboniferous fossils also from Tenasserim
Province. A list of the Tertiary fossils was given, the majority belonging to Mol-
lusca and to the following other classes :— "

ArticuLata—Crustacea and Cirripedia.
RapiuTaA—Aunelida and Echinodermata.
ProtozoA—Foraminifera.

The collection was said to contain many new and undescribed species, and to present
a facies or certain amount of resemblance generically, but not specifically, with
those from the Tertiary deposits of Europe; whilst, on the contrary, it was mentioned
as a somewhat remarkable fact, that the further we go back in geological time, so
much the greater is seen to be the resemblance between the marine fessil Faunas
of distant geographical areas; for instance, the Lower Palzozoic fossils of the
furthest point yet reached in Arctic explorations are many of them absolutely
identical with species from that formation found in our own country, whilst those
from the more modern deposits of Cretaceous and Tertiary age continue their re-
lations more by representation of forms than identity of species; a fact con-
firmatory of the important observations made by the late Prof. E. Forbes on the
interesting subject of the distribution of species in geological time. Allusion was
made to the various Memoirs on the Paleontology of India which have from time to
time appeared, principally in the Transactions and Proceedings of the Geological
eter 4 of London, by which we are made acquainted with the geological forma-
tion of a great part of that country, showing a succession of fossiliferous strata from
the Upper Tertiaries, commencing with the mammalian remains of the Sewalik
hills, believed to be of Miocene age, and continuing through the Nummulitic grow
and other Eocene beds, the Cretaceous and Oolitic series together with Lias an
Trias, to the Carboniferous and Devonian or Upper Palzozoics.

On Sphenopteris Hookeri, a new Fossil Fern from the Upper Old Red Sand-
stone formation at Kiltorkan Hill, in the County of Kilkenny, with some
Observations upon the Fish Remains and other associated Fossils from the
same lacality. By Witi1AM H. Batty, F.G.S., Acting Paleontologist to
the Geological Survey of Ireland.

The locality from which this rare fossil fern was obtained was described as being
remarkably rich in organic remains, particularly in those of plants, prominent
amongst which is the Cyclopteris Hibernica, Forbes, a magnificent fern, of which
the detached fronds are so. beautifully preserved, and in such an undisturbed con-
dition, a8 to leave no doubt that it once grew and flourished near to the spot if
which its remains are entombed, which was probably the margin of a freshwate?
lake ; so perfect is its state of preservation, that the most minute particulars of its
structure may be observed, such as the venation of the leaflets, the various stages
of its organs of fructification, and other peculiarities of its history. This fossil fern
was named by the late Professor Edward Forbes, and provisionally referred by him to
the genus Cyclopteris ; {since then it has, with other plants from the same formation,
been examined by M. Adolphe Brongniart, who, from the form and arrangement of
the leaves and their flabelliform nervation, considered it rather to belong to the
genus Sphenopteris, and more particularly to that section of the genus called Adi-
antites ; at the same time he stated that he was not acquainted with any species
which approached closely to it, and thought it might possibly form even a distinct
genus, from its possessing isolated or intermediate leaves, springing directly from
the principal rachis between the large lateral pinnz*.

The other associated plants consist of large fluted and punctated stems, one of

. * Vide letter from M. Adolphe Brongniart to Sir R. Griffith, Bart., in the Journal of the
Royal Dublin Society, vol. vi. 1857, p. 320.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. -99

which has been deseribed by Professor Haughton under the name of Cyclostigma;
others have been named Lepidodendron Griffithii and minutum by M. Adolphe
Brongniart : there are several additional interesting forms, and these it is intended
shortly to describe in the publications of the Geological Survey of Ireland.

Of the new fern, Sphenopteris Hookeri, which formed the subject of this com-
munication, two specimens only were obtained, both of which were fragmentary,
although, like the other fossils from this locality, very beautifully preserved. It
was described as haying a slender rachis or stalk, from which, at intervals of from
one to one and a half inch, diverged branches, subdivided into branchlets, the
second of these branchlets rising to a height of nearly three inches from the central
portion of the branch; the leaves are bipinnate, and the leaflets divided into three
and four segments, each of these being again subdivided into two or three obtuse
segments, broadest at their terminations and marked by two branching and forked
yeins. It is one of the narrow-leaved Sphenopterides, and nearly allied to Spheno-
pteris linearis, Sternberg, from the coal-measures of Bohemia and Edinburgh, but
differs in seyeral important particulars ; the species is dedicated to Dr. J oseph Dalton
Hooker, distinguished as an authority on both recent and fossil botany.

The Ichthyolites or fish remains found in the same quarry, at about three feet
from the surface, were imbedded in a highly indurated sandstone of a coarser cha<
racter than that which contained the ferns ; they consisted principally of the osseous
plates of ganoid fishes belonging to the Cephalaspides, the majority of them being
referred to Coccosteus; there are others, however, belonging to the genera Astero-
lepis, Bothriolepis, and probably Pterichthys. Two detached teeth were the only
remains of a dental character observed, both being conical and ridged; they appear
closely to resemble M. Agassiz’s figures of the larger teeth of Bothriolepis, a genus
of the same Ccelacanth family, to which one of the plates may perhaps also belong.

To the discovery of these characteristic Old Red Sandstone fish in Ireland, great
interest is attached, as a means of determining the position of strata in that country,
which has been hitherto somewhat obscure. Their remains being accompanied by
the magnificent fossil ferns before mentioned, and other terrestrial plants, together
with the Anodonta Jukesii, a large bivalve shell, closely allied to the freshwater Unios
of the present day, and a crustacean, Eurypterus Scouleri, would appear to indicate
the deposit in which they are imbedded to have been of freshwater origin ; and when
the investigation into the history of this important assemblage of organic forms is
more fully carried out, as it is intended, the results will doubtless add to our know-
ledge of the conditions under which these strange forms of fish and crustacea existed
during the later period of the Old Red Sandstone; a formation to which, in Scot-
mae a classical interest has been given by the vivid descriptions of the late Hugh

Miller. ame k ' :

Notice of a Bone Cave near Montrose.
_ By Wirx1aM Beattie, Hon. Sec. Montrose Nat. Hist. and Antig. Soc.

This cave, in the parish of St. Cyrus, County of Kincardine, is situated near the
mouth of the river North Esk, in that range of trap rocks extending eastward from
the Northwater Bridge, on the Aberdeen road, to the cliffs of St. Cyrus—the base
of the cave being at present 10 or 12 feet above the level of the sea, from which it
is distant nearly a mile, and from the nearest point of the river North Esk about
half as much. The entrance to the cave is through a hard compact rock of trap,
and measures 12 feet wide by 5 high. On entering, the cavity suddenly widens
out to the breadth of 20 feet, with a height varying from 20 to 30, the whole
haying been crammed to the roof with a deposit of fine dark loamy soil, contain-;
ing a variety of organic remains. It was evident that the work of excavation had
been carried on for some time, and we discovered evidences that, to the farmer
Mr. Walker, the cave had proved a regular bed of guano, fertilizing his soil and
improving his crops. In his operations, however, many of the fossil remains had
been allowed to be taken away; still the almost perpendicular section left standin
afforded ample field for inquiry and speculation. “The bottom, or floor, consiste
of rolled stones, or sea beach, in some places mixed or covered with stalagmitic
concretion several inches thick. The lowest stratum, 3 feet thick, was composed
of dark loam, with a mixture of decayed shells, principally of the Mytilus edulis.

100 REPORT—1859.

Above this, extending round the cave, was a remarkable layer of shells of the Patella
vulgata, varying from 1 to 3 feet deep, all in the finest possible state of preserva-
tion, and of a large size, many of them measuring upwards of 2 inches across.
This extraordinary deposit of shells contained no admixture of sand or earthy
matter, but lay pure and clean, as if heaped together by human agency. A few
examples of Turbo littoreus of Linn. were picked up. About 8 feet from the floor
we found a stratum of decayed animal matter, about a foot deep, with a layer of
bones extending throughout the whole width of the cave. The teeth and bones
were discovered in this layer, and, so far as yet observed, they belong chiefly to the
Ruminantia, and are very similar to some of those from the Kirkdale cave, repre-
sented in the plates to Buckland’s ‘ Reliquis Diluvianz,’ especially the deer-horns
and teeth figured in plate 9, 2nd edition. The whole of the bones have been
shattered, except the joints and other solid parts; on these we perceived marks, as
if they had been gnawed by some animal. The only examples of carnivora yet met
with are the head of a wild cat, and the jaws of a fox or wolf, with teeth belonging
to animals of a larger species. About a foot from the floor we turned up part of the
left parietal bone of a human skull, extremely thin, but compact, firm, and smooth
as a piece of ivory. No other part of the human subject had been found, so far as
our investigation proceeded. ‘Two small pieces of a pipkin were also picked up,
bearing evident marks of antiquity. The floor of the cave dips inward at an angle
of about 10 degrees to the horizon, which leads to the supposition that there is a
connexion with some other cavern into which the sea has had access by this open-
ing, or that another cave had existed between it and the sea, through which the
shells might have been carried to their present position. It is not improbable that
another cave may be found a little to the west of the present, where the rock is
hidden by the debris from above and the soil that has fallen from the upper grounds.
Speculation on this subject at present would be idle, but we cannot refrain from
alluding to the marked similarity which exists between the remains found in this
cave and those found in that of Kirkdale,—the natural inference from which leads
us to suppose that this also was a hyzena cave, and that remains of this animal may
be found on further search being made.

On Granite. By Dr. BIALLOBLOTZKY.

On Coal at Ambisheg, Isle of Bute. By Dr. Buack, F.G.S.

On the Elephant Remains at Ilford. By A. Brapy.

The tusk of an enormous mammoth was discovered about two years since lying
on its side, about 14 feet below the present surface of the soil. It belonged to an
animal of the species Elephas primigenius, and is identical with the Siberian mam-
moth, and, I believe, with the one found in Behring’s Straits. The tusk was
decayed at each end, the extremities being gone, but the part preserved was over
9 feet long, and of proportionate bulk. Some idea may be formed from this of the
huge size of the animal of which it formerly formed a part. It was very much
incurved, being so much bent back that the bone was not more than 4 feet 2 or 3
inches across in any part. Owing to the nature of the soil, the whole tusk was
very friable, most of the gluten of the ivory being decayed, so that great care was
required in moving it to prevent it falling to pieces. Nearly a year afterwards
a large tibia was obtained, and two molar teeth, probably belonging to the same
animal, as they were not a great way from the tusk. One of the latter was very
large, weighing about 12 lbs., though, from long use, much worn. About the same
time, several bones of a large rhinoceros were found. These, from their more com-
pact nature, were less decayed ; and the tibia and one side of the jaw were very
perfect, several teeth being in setu.. The other half of the jaw was smashed by the
workman’s pick; several teeth were saved. Like those of the mammoth, they were
very much worn. The species was supposed to be Rh. leptorhinus. Associated
with these remains were some of the bones of a large ox, the horns and skull of
which were very perfect, with several teeth im situ. There were also turned up,

TRANSAOTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101]

within the last month or two, some bones of a large ruminant, believed to be of
the Megaceros, or frish elk. About thirty years since, the late Dr. Buckland dis-
covered the bones of a mammoth in this locality; and about the same time the
late Mr. Gibson obtained the beautiful collection of bones now in the Royal
College of Surgeons. Associated with the remains of those giants of ancient days,
are the shells of Planorbis, Unio, Cyclas, Paludina, &c.: and there are now living
in the Roden, and other tributary brooks in the neighbourhood, the dineal descend-
ants of these fossils, the ancestors of which enjoyed the same sunshine as the
mammoth and rhinoceros, the aristocracy of those days. Thus we have amongst
ns, living on the same estate as their ancestors, the humble Paludina, Planorbis,
&c., forming, as it were, the link between the past and the present order of things.

On a Horseshoe Nail found in the Red Sandstone of Kingoodie,
By Sir D. Brewster, AH. LL.D. BRS.

On the Geology of Lower Egypt. By G. Bust, LL.D., F.RS., F.GS.

On the Submerged Forests of Caithness. By Joun CLEGHORN, Wick.

The submerged forests of Caithness are found in the bays of the county into
which streams empty themselves. We have them in Lybster Harbour, in Wick
Bay, in Sinclair’s Bay, and at the mouth of the Thurso,

These submerged forests are characterized by the vegetation of the districts
through which the streams flow. In that at Lybster there are large trees prostrate,
and finely comminuted peaty matter. In those at Wick, in the Links in Sinclair’s
Bay, and at Thurso, I have found no large trees; only birch twigs and peaty matter.
Large trees grow only in the very sheltered districts of the county—in the hollows,
The stream at Lybster runs in a deep ravine.

The trees and peaty matter in the submerged forest at Lybster are found below
high-water mark, and, like the specimen exhibited in the section, are stratified.
In Reiss Links, Sinclair's Bay, the peaty matter is covered with blown sand which
is finely turfed over; but the small streams there have exposed the peat and made
cuttings through it. The peaty stratum is from one to three feet thick, and from
eight to ten feet above high-water mark. Similar peaty matter is frequently taken
up on the flukes of their anchors by vessels in the bay. Iinfer that in favourable
localities the peaty matter is continuous from the Links to the anchor ground.

The specimens exhibited are characteristic of our submerged forests generally,
and their striking feature is their stratification, or rather lamination, they being in
this respect wholly different from the living mosses of the county.

There is another feature of the peaty deposit in the Links to which I beg to call
attention. Near the Castle of Ackergill, at the east end of the peaty stratum, we
find it to be the impalpable matter of peat, and when dried and broken the fracture
is lustrous and conchoidal; but further west we find the stratum to be twigs and
the rougher matter of peat-bogs, very regularly and finely laminated.

This peat-bed then must have been laid down in deep water; and I infer that it
must have been deposited in the deep water of the bay, from the circumstance that
it is arranged along shore in the order in which the sand and gravel are arranged
along the shores of the bay. Mr. Coode mentions that a crew landing on the
Chessel Bank in a dark night can tell their position on the bank by the size of the
pebbles around them; but it is true, not of the Chessel Bank only, but of
all bays, of all firths, and of all seas, that the debris is laid along shore in a de-
terminate order, which order is due to the regularity of the winds, and conse-
quently of the currents. In Sinclair’s Bay there is a sandy district, a gravely
district, and a district of boulders; and in each of these districts there is a sub-
arrangement determined by the weight in the materials. In the sandy district
we have a siliceous region, and a region of shell-sand. Thus we see that the
peaty matter here did not grow where it is now found. How then comes it
to be in the Links? The sea is receding. This is proved by our river banks
standing at a higher angle at the estuaries than further inland; the denuding

102. REPORT—1859.

rocess there has not been so long at work; they want the softness of the further
inland banks. The high-angled banks, too, are terraced with what are commonly
called sheep-walks, but which to my mind are incipient landslips—steps in the
process of denudation, that process through which the softness, the swelling cha-
racter of the interior banks has been attained. Another evidence of the sea’s
leaving our shores—retiring—is the Limpet Se] markings on the rocks, from
where limpets now live, to far above high-water mark.
The sea then is receding gradually, and the submerged forests are emerging ;
they are therefore analogous to the wood deposits known to exist at the mouths of
the large rivers of Europe, Asia, and America.

A Letter to Sir Charles Lyell on the occurrence of a Land Shell and
Reptiles in the South Joggins Coal-field, Nova Scotia, By J. W.
Dawson, LL.D., F.G.S.

[See Journal of the Geological Society of London. }

On certain Voleanie Rocks in Italy which appear to have been subjected to
Metamorphic Action. By Professor Dauseny, M.D., F.R.S., F.GS:

- Dr. Daubeny called the attention of the Section to two products of volcanic
action met with in Italy, the pecularities of which, he thought, had not been fully
explained. The first of these is the Piperino rock, met with so extensively about.
Albano, near Rome, which is distingushed from ordinary tuff not only by its greater
compactness and porphyritic Ni but likewise by the occurrence in it of nume-
rous laminz of mica and crystals of augite, which tend to give it the appearance of
a metamorphic rock, or of one which, although originally ejected as tuft, had been
subsequently modified by the long-continued action of heat and pressure. The
principal difficulty in the way of thus considering it arises from its alternation in
several places with ordinary tuff, or with strata of loose scoris, as is well seen
near Marino; so that it is difficult to conceive how the materials composing the
Piperino could have been exposed to heat after their deposition in the form of tuff,
without the intervening layers having been subjected to the same operation. The
other volcanic product alluded to was the rock called Piperno, found near Naples,
a brecciated material, in which wavy and nearly parallel streaks of a dark grey,
brown, and often almost black colour, occur impacted in a matrix which is for the
most part ash-grey, and seems, mineralogically speaking, to resemble trachyte.
The imbedded masses occur generally elongated in the same direction, as are also
the pores which occur in the midst of the mass, These circumstances have been
accounted for by supposing a stream of molten trachyte to have invaded a congeries
of fragments of ordinary lava, and to have brought about their partial fusion; but
the Piperno seems to constitute a part of the great tufaceous deposit which over-
spreads the neighbourhood of Naples, to which no such metamorphic action is ascri-
bable, and that which has been lately met with in the new road now constructing
above the suburb of the Chiaja at Naples lies imbedded in the midst of ordinary
tuff. Dr. Daubeny therefore conceives that the peculiarities presented by both
the rocks alluded to require further elucidation, and that their study might tend
to wean’ some new light upon the effects of metamorphic action upon rocks in
general,

On the Constitution of the Earth. By the Rev. J. Dinete.

" This paper was intended to be supplementary to one brought before the Associa-
tion last year on “ The Configuration of the Surface of the Earth.” Its object was
to obviate some objections to the theory then brought forward, arising from the
supposed constitution of the earth’s mass.

Among other objections to the fluidity of the earth’s interior which the author
endeavoured to controvert, he particularly referred to those which Mr. Hopkins is
supposed to have aivhstan tial ir mathematical reasoning in his “ Researches in
Physical Geology,” published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ between 1839 and
1842. He observed that these investigations are assumed to have proved more than *

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103

the arguments warrant. The fluidity of the interior may be and probably is so im-.
perfect, that what Mr. Hopkins calls the effective erust, may be sufficiently thick to
accord with his deductions, while the actual crust may be comparatively thin.

- The author regarded mathematical reasoning as inadequate to the solution of the
uestion, and pointed out the necessity of relying on more obvious indications. He
so showed that the hypothesis of a cavernous structure for the earth’s interior is

insufficient to account for the great volcanic lines and mountain systems, and con~

eluded his paper in the following words :—

The argument for the true physical character of the earth admits of a much wider
induction of particulars than has generally been imagined, The general facts of
geology indicate clearly that all the great masses of land in existence haye, from
the earliest period of the formation of a crust, been gradually rising with an irregular
motion from beneath the level of the sea, Scientific men have been able to observe
directly, one instance of this motion in Scandinavia; but every part of the land
bee almost equally unequivocal indications of the same truth. Thus South

erica has evidently been tilted up into a slope, the whole continent having been

heaved by a continuous force acting through innumerable ages. The volcanoes at
its upper edge are but the mere outbreaks of its irregular action, And so in every
part of the world, where the strata have not been much disturbed and broken by
volcanic agency or denudation, we see the history of the land’s emergence in the
tracings of every successive deposit as it rose above the influence of the ocean.
The southern part of our own island is little more than a series of these tracings.
We see them in similar order redoubling part of the outline of North America, and
we may find similar indivations in every pee of the world, All these things point
to an interior fluid working slowly and solidifying gradually beneath. Let any one
observe how any mass of molten matter, heaving from below and gradually hard-
ening above, forms to itself a surface broken into angular and uneven pieces at dif~
ferent levels; and then, after taking into account the determination of the ocean
currents, and allowing for the effect of other obvious agencies, he will be at no loss
to account for the irregularities of the earth’s crust, or remain in any doubt as to
its real constitution, and the true course of its geological history. Its progress only
affords a fresh instance how God can bring abu the most varied and beautiful
effects and the most beneficial results by the most simple means.”

On the Coal Strata of North Staffordshire, with reference, particularly, to
their Organie Remains. By R. Garver, F.L.S., and W. Motynevux.

It is pretty well known that the coal-fields in question repose upon strata of mill-
stone grit, and these latter upon the mountain limestone, with its upper beds of
shale. From the area of mountain limestone, situated at the east part of North
Staffordshire, and constituting the southern extremity of what has been called
the back-bone of England, the strata have a general dip westwards; but this dip
is interrupted and the strata elevated along several anticlinal lines, running
more or less north and south, and marked by bold ridges or edges of grit; so that
several coal-troughs are formed. A cross section would therefore show the strata
to be disposed in a zigzag way. On the surface of the largest coal-field, about
50 square miles, the great Potteries have risen, and from its strata 16,000 tons of
coal are drawn weekly for manufacturing purposes alone, besides household fuel for
100,000 people, as well as coal and ironstone to feed about thirty smelting furnaces.
A line of clay-pits, the purple clay of which is very different in quality from the
fire-clays of the coal-measures, and which is accompanied by an extremely hard-
cemented conglomerate, of a green or yellow colour, marks the south boundary of
this principal field. These beds may perhaps be considered to belong to the coal
strata, as in the Ordnance sheets; in some respects they seem as referable to the
Permian. At the base of the most westerly ridge the limestone is again attainable,
but differing in colour, &c. from that mentioned above on the east side of North
Staffordshire ; its fossils are frequently very small specimens of univalves and Belle-
rophon. This westerly ridge, constituting the west limit of the Pottery coal-field,
diverges 8.W., and the comparatively modern strata of new red sandstone are
tilted up by it. It is not the original limit of the coal strata, for these are not only
raised econformably to it, but identical beds of coal reoccur on the westerly or

104 REPORT—1859,

Cheshire side. In other cases the coal appears to thin out as it approaches the
grit hills. Denudation as well as elevation seems to have taken place, and the
latter in some cases after the deposit of the red sandstone. In this Pottery coal-
field the numerous faults run, more or less, at right angles with the lines of eleva-
tion, and from southerly falls it has fortunately happened that the seams are more
widely attainable than they would have been without their occurrence. Some of
the (geologically speaking) highest beds of coal are worked about 700 feet below
the sea-level; others, upon Axedge, exist 1000 feet above it, and these appear to
have been the first deposits. In this last narrow trough the coal strata seem bare
and dissected to the naked eye, being imperfectly covered with herbage and reposing
upon equally bare and jutting rocks of grit. The fossil Aviculo-pecten only appears
to occur in the lowest strata to the east, whilst the Dfcroconchus carbonarius is
common in the upper. The coal-yielding beds may he said to consist of an upper
and lower series in the principal coal-field ; no known band of clay ironstone exists
in the latter; though, in the present mineral-seeking times, an important bed of
earthy hematite has been found very low in the series. The ichthyolites, to be
mentioned, occur principally in the upper measures, as they are commonly found
in ironstone or its shales. Some layers seem to consist almost entirely of these
fish-remains with coprolites, but the former extremely fragmentary. The ironstone,
No. 4 from the steees called the bassy mine, is a remarkable bed, and may be
identified through the whole area of the upper measures, being raised in enormous
blocks, marked on their surface by great impressions of Stigmaria, and by flattened
Uniones.

One or two dykes of greenstone occur in the bunter sandstone to the south of
the Pottery coal-field, and metamorphosed grits at Mow Cop (Sax. or as well
Brit.) in the westerly ridge, and at Fenton Park; the second greenish in colour
and enclosing round nodules of hematite. The drifts or pare of North Stafford-
shire appear to be of, at least, four or five kinds: the northern drift with fragments
of Venerupis and other shells; a second gravel with fragments of whitish chalk-
flints and sometimes Ananchytes; both these gravels occurring in the southern
lower lands, but the first rather to the east and the second to the west; next the
gravels of the bunter sandstone, often forming hills of a good elevation and com-=
posed mostly of characteristic red quartz pebbles, marked by cloudy white spots, -
greenstone, curious decaying agates, mountain limestone, and lower Silurian pieces,
as well as white quartz and black jasper, also grit and coal. On the area of the
coal-fields a coarse gravel of less rounded pieces occurs, mountain limestone, grit,
and greenstone being the constituents ; also, in the surface clays, blocks or boulders
of greenstone or porphyry, red and white granite, and grit, more or less rounded,
and sometimes weighing several tons. From the sides of some of these valleys,
of the bunter sandstone formation, the rocks often jut out in a horizontal direction,
giving the idea that such valleys must have been formed by the action of water,
The millstone grit often presents smooth or polished surfaces (slickensides ?), but
this even in the quarry.

Coal-plants, as Calamites, are frequent in the Permian. In the coal strata the
authors lately measured the but or trunk of a Sigillaria more than a yard across,
its roots being given off exactly in the cruciform way, and bifurcating at equal
distances of about a foot. When broken, these root-trunks presented an impression
very like the leaf of a Blechnum, but which bac! suppose is due to the compressed
processes given off from a central fibrous rod. ‘They also appear to be compound,
it is also curious how many of the trunks of these trees contain other vegetable
remains in the clayey sandstone of their interior, such as large Calamites. Certain
heart-shaped bodies abound in the ironstone, with the mark of the insertion of a
hollow stem above: these the authors think may be the roots of Calamites or
similar plants, the cylindrical stems which seem to belong to them ending rather
obtusely, smooth, unjointed, and often containing a of zinc. . Then again are
found convex, hemispherical bodies, with a tubercular surface, and cellular within ;
smaller ones occurring gregariously. Circular or reniform markings occur in the
shale of the bassy mine, above alluded to, presenting somewhat the appearance of
a peltate or cordate aquatic leaf; but they go through several laminz of shale,
There are also large grass-like leaves (Poacites ?), a large and a small Ulodendron,
two Haloniz, fine Asterophyllites and Sphenophylla, with other commoner fossils, -

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105

The large-leaved Neuropteris cordata, a Sphenopteris with a fucus-like leaf of large
size, and another quite filiform, have also been found by the authors. The follow-
ing are the more interesting ichthyic remains, as far as they can identify them by
Agassiz :—

r Dipterus. Part of the head, and plates.

Paleoniscus. Scales, and a portion of the fish (ornatissimus, Duvernoyi).

Gyrolepis. The hinder half of the fish.

Celacanthus. Scales and fins.

Platysomus. Fragments of the fish, and numerous scales.

Rhizodus. Most of the fish, and the sharp- and curve-pointed striated teeth.

Holoptychius. Very large ines and parts of the fish, the upper jaw with double
rows of large and small striated teeth.

Ctenodus, Two or three pieces.

Megalichthys. The plates are very common as well as the teeth, a cranial plate
6 inches wide, vertebree 2 inches; also the jaw with teeth, and the tail
found by Mr. Ward.

Saurichthys. Teeth swollen at the bottom, striated, and more curved than the
commoner teeth of the last genus.

oo. The armature is not rare, a fine and perfect one found by Mr.

ard.

Hybodus, The teeth with crumpled base, one large middle cusp, and two or
three side ones on each side.

Diplodus. The supposed teeth are very common, with three or more fangs. A
tooth straight, compressed, lanceolato-conical, 1} inch in length ; if it belongs
to Diplodus, the size must be unusual.

Ctenoptychius. The beautiful teeth are not very rare; there appears to be
numerous species (apicalis, pectinatus, and denticulatus). A tooth of, appa=
rently, anew genus, very small, with truncate base and eight or more cluster
ing slender-pointed cusps at irregular altitudes.

Petalodus. Remains of several species.

Helodus simplex. Base of teeth excavated, the summit simple and blunt.

Pleuracanthus. These curious armatures are rare, but we have found one very
perfect in cannel ; some ees specimens have the central part compressed,
and the processes less marked.

Onchus (?). These sword-shaped rays or spines, moulded on the concave edge,
are extremely common.

Orthacanthus. These formidable weapons are frequent, and very long, a foot or
more; they are difficult to get out unbroken. A smaller and more conical
armature without term.

Leptacanthus.

Gyracanthus. Common, and of two or more species.

Besides the above, numerous fragments have been collected, of more or less
interest, some considered to be novelties by Sir P. Egerton : also nine or ten species of
the bivalve Anthracosia. The authors are rather reluctant to give names, but the
following epithets may almost suffice to distinguish them :—A. triangularis, dactylus,
unio, anodon, retrocompressa, alata, nucula, oblonga. costata.

The hillocks raised by annelides, ripple-marks, and very lange impressions of
bivalves of two or three forms occur in the flagstone of the millstone grit; also
oe sections of plants, either round or obliquely indicated, as if blown

own.

From the mountain limestone, occupying about 40 square miles, more than 200
species of Mollusca have been collected, but this principally by a friend, Mr,

arrington, a village schoolmaster. Amongst the more interesting species are
Conularia, species of Pteronites, Pleurorhynchus; rare Pleurotomarie, Goniatites,
and Nautili; the Orth. paradoxus, or one similar to that from Ireland figured by
Sowerby ; abundance of corals ; many pelvic plates of Crinoida, and about ten species
of Trilobites, all small, and rarely entire. The latter most abound with the fry of
Terebratule. Mr. Carrington has also found traces of fish. The limestone shale
has some obscure impressions of bivalves. With respect to vegetable remains,
little has been discovered: certain supposed stems or twigs, of an enamelled
appearance, are siliceous when chemically examined; and the received opinion

106: REPORT—1859.

seems to be that other curious algeform markings of the limestone are mere-
infiltrations,

On the Chronology of the Trap Rocks of Scotland. By A. Geixiz, F.G.S.

The points to be proved were—first, that there is sufficient abundance of felspathic
matter in the grits of the Silurian region of the Lammermoors to warrant the
inference that felspathic matter was either ejected during the formation of these
grits, or already existed in considerable abundance on the surface. Second, that
the Silurians of the Lammermoors are traversed by numerous dykes of felstone,
some of which may have been ejected during a contortion of the Lower Silurian
previous to the deposition of the Upper. Third, that the Old Red Sandstone period
was marked by powerful and long-continued volcanic activity, in several centres, as
the Sidlaws, the Ochils, the Pentlands, and part of the hills of Lanark. Fourth,
that the Carboniferous period was characterized by the especial abundance and
activity of its volcanic centres—so much so that there is not a well-defined zone of
carboniferous beds which does not, at some part of the Lothians, display its inter-
calated sheets of ash or greenstone ; but that these eruptions were markedly local
alike in their extent and in the character of the erupted material. . Fifth, that after
the carboniferous series, there is a great gap in the chronology of the Scottish trap-
tocks, the next traces of subterranean movement being discernible in the lias of
Skye; but that contemporaneous igneous rocks are not found until towards the top
of the middle oolite, where among estuarine limestones and shales, there occur in
Skye and adjacent islands enormous sheets of greenstone and basalt, Sixth, that,
as upper secondary rocks have still to be determined in the Hebrides, we have, at
present, to pass from the oolitic traps of Skye to the basalts and ashes of Mull,
which, as shown by their associated fossils, are tertiary, and probably miocene.
Lastly, that the later basalts and ashes of Arthur’s Seat ought probably to be
referred to the later secondary, or older tertiary period,

On Canadian Caverns. By Grorce D. Gis, M.D., MA., F.GLS.,
Member of the Canadian Institute.

* The prominent feature of a large portion of the Province of Canada is the presence
of various limestone rocks belonging to the Silurian formations. Until lately, the
existence of caverns in these rocks, as well as in those lying subjacent, namely, the
Laurentian of Sir William Logan, was almost unknown ; but owing to the labours
of the Canadian Geological Survey, and of several private individuals, a number
have been discovered, at distances remote from one another, which itis the object of
the present memoir to notice.
For convenience of description, these caverns are divided into two classes; the
Jirst comprises those which are at the present time washed by the waters of lakes,
seas, and rivers, including arched, perforated, flowerpot, and pillared rocks, which
have at one time formed the boundaries or walls of caverns, and all of them unques=
tionably the result of aqueous action. The second comprises caverns and subter-
ranean passages, which are situated on dry land, and, so far as we lmow, not attri~
butable to the same cause in their origin as in the first, or at least not applied in
the same manner.

In the jist class are included—

1. Caverns in the shores of the Magdalen Islands.

Caverns and arched rocks at Percé, Gaspe.

. Gothic arched recesses, Gaspe Bay.

The “Old Woman,” or Flowerpot Rock, at Cape Gaspe.

. Little river caverns, Bay of Chaleur.

. Arched and flowerpot rocks of the Mingan Islands.

. Pillar sandstones, north coast of Gaspe.

. Niagara Caverns.

. Flowerpot Island, Lake Huron.
10. Perforations and caverns of Michilimacinac, Lake Huron.
11. The Pictured Rocks, Lake Superior.

- 12, St. Ignatius Caverns, Lake Superior.

CO 00 NI OD OT CO bO

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107-

13. Pilasters of Mammelles, Lake Superior.
14. Thunder Mountain and Paté Island pilasters, Lake Superior.

In the second class are—
15. The Steinhauer Cavern, Labrador.
_ 16. The basaltic caverns of Henley Island.
17, Empty basaltic dykes of Mecattina,
18. Bigsby’s Cavern, Murray Bay.
19. Bouchette’s Cavern, Kildare,
_ 20, Gibb’s Cavern, Montreal.
21. Probable caverns at Chatham, on the Ottawa.
22. Colquhoun’s Cavern, Lanark,
23, Quartz Cavern, Leeds.
24, Probable caverns at Kingston, Lake Ontario,
- 25, Mono Cayern.
26, Hramosa Cavern.
27. Cavern in the Bass Islands, Lake Erie.
. 28. Subterranean passages in the Great Manitoulin Island, Lake Huron,
29. Murray’s Cavern and Subterranean River, Ottawa.
30. Probable caverns in Iron Island, Lake Nipissing.

_ All these are particularly described in the author’s memoir. The majority of
those in the first class are on a level with the water, whilst the remainder are ele-
vated above, varying from a few to upwards of 60 feet. In the second class the
level varies, but nearly all are above that of the sea, and none penetrate the earth
to a considerable depth ; but this may be found to be otherwise as the explorations
are continued, In none have animal remains been found excepting in one instance,
and they were discovered loose and not imbedded in stalagmite ; and, so far as I am
aware, not a single object, such as a flint arrow-head or spear, used by the ancient
inhabitants of the country, has been observed: this part of the inquiry has still to
be worked out, as many of the cayerns haye been but very partially explored. In-
teresting discoveries are yet hoped for in the district of country in which exist the
huge caverns of Mono and Eramosa, in the Niagara limestone rocks of the Upper
Silurian formation. A correct account of the geological formation in which the
caverns are found is given; and, taking the two classes of caverns together as repre-
senting thirty distinct series of cavernous objects, 1 is found in the New Red Sand-
stone ; 2 in the Devonian or Old Red; 7 in the limestones of the Upper, 4in those
of the Middle, and 6 in those of the Lower Silurian formation; 3 in the Huronian
rocks of Sir William Logan, and 7 in the Laurentian rocks of the same geologist.
Tn the last of these they are present in the interstratified bands of crystalline lime-
stone, characteristic of this formation in Canada.

With a few exceptions, nearly all occur in limestone rocks, and their origin has
depended upon various causes. The first fourteen, which compose the first division,
are the results of aqueous action, as their situation, present condition, and general
description clearly prove. Perhaps an exception might be taken to the formation
of pilasters and Gothic arched recesses, which are more properly attributable to
atmospheric influences. Volcanic agency has given origin to the basaltic dykes of
Mecattina, the basalt of Henley Island, Bouchette’s and Gibb’s caverns. The same
cause has most likely influenced the subterranean passages of Manitoulin and
Murray’s cavern.

On the other hand, Bigsby’s cavern, Colquhoun’s, the Mono and Eramosa, and
Bass Islands caverns, were formed by some other agency, in which a slow disinte-

ation of the rocks has occurred from chemical or other causes, and the soluble
particles have been removed by the influence of water, entering by percolation from
above, or between the neighbouring layers of rock. The origin of the quartz
cavern was by the explosion of a pyritous vein.

The bones found in Colquhoun’s cavern were supposed to be those of a species
of deer, and occurred chiefly in a heap, although many others were scattered among
the debris on the floor. They were transmitted to Dr. Buckland for examination
and description some thirty years ago, but no account of them ever appeared,

108 REPORT—1859.

On some Basaltic Formations in Northumberland.
By Wiu1aM Sypvey Gisson, M.A., F.S.A., F.GS.

The basaltic formations in Northumberland not only contribute to the picturesque
outline and the wildness of much of its scenery, but present some remarkable
features in their structure and in the manner of their association with other rocks,

A range of basalt traverses the county from south-west to north-east, in a ridge
or belt of varying and often considerable height, but inconsiderable breadth,
entering Northumberland near the Cumbrian border. This ridge first begins in
the dale or “forest” of the Lune, and sweeps round the great western escarpment
of the limestone ranges of Cross-Fell and Tynedale-Fell ; then, cnrving towards
Thirlwall on the border of Cumberland, it runs from thence north-eastward with
bold escarpments towards the north, and crossing the North Tyne, extends to the
sea-coast at Howick; it then rises at Bamburgh, and after a tortuous course to the
north-west, ends in the low range of hills called the Kyloe Crags. The rocky
group or “seventeen sister-satellites” of Farne are a seaward prolongation of the
great basaltic range. Basaltic veins or dykes also run towards the coast of the
county (as at Holy Island, Beadnell, andTynemouth), and seem to have a direc-
tion transverse to the great ridge.

In the western part of the county, the basaltic crags are associated with that
wonderful monument of Roman occupation—the Great Wall, its builders having
availed themselves of the precipitous ridges, and carried the wall above many a
bold escarpment of basaltic rock. A crest of this formation near Wall-town, which
was formerly crowned by a Roman Mile-Castle of the Wall, is 800 feet above the
sea-level; and at a Roman camp to the westward, known as Sewingsheles, the
summit attains the height of 960 feet. In this wild district, once adjacent to

opulous Roman Stations, but where now only the moor-fowl dwells among the
Tenth of neighbouring wastes, are the lonely sheets of water known as the
Northumberland Lakes, one of which, called Crag Lough, lies at the foot of the
basaltic cliffs.

In the northern part of the county the basalt likewise forms rocky masses of
considerable height, often precipitous on their western side, and culminating at one
place at 570 feet above the level of the sea. Many of these eminences have been
chosen for the site of Castles, as at Bamburgh, Holy Island and Dunstanburgh,
where the caverned rocks of columnar basalt rise 100 feet above the surging
waves, At Bamburgh (an important citadel from days of Saxon pti the
draw-well of the fortress has tbat sunk through 75 feet of basaltic rock, and
through a like thickness of the fine-grained reddish tinted sandstone on which it
rests. On the rocky islets of Farne the basalt even exceeds this thickness,

The isolated, metamorphic and dislocated condition of the beds of sandstone,
limestone, and shale on some of the Farne islands, seems to indicate that the
basalt flowed in its igneous state over these lower groups of the limestone series,
On the coast at Howick, a little to the south, the basalt appears in the form of
dykes which intersect the cliffs of carboniferous limestone, shale and sandstone.
A formation of basalt, which seems to have overflowed after the deposit of this
group, overlies it. Elsewhere in Northumberland a stratiform basalt is found
associated with the carboniferous rocks, and in some localities is interstratified
with them; thus, a bold columnar cliff called Ratcheugh Crag, near Alnwick, one
of the range of basaltic eminences which run inland from the coast at Dunstan-
burgh, is capped with the carboniferous limestone. Another basaltic eminence
between Alnwick and the coast rests on beds of blue limestone and metamorphic
shales, which in some localities Mr. George Tate of Alnwick, F.G.S., a diligent and
able naturalist, found to have been converted into a porcelain jasper, and where
in direct contact with the basalt, into a black mineral of conchoidal fracture. At
Ratcheugh some of the limestones above the basalt have been changed into granular
marble.

In some localities of this carboniferous limestone district, as at Howick and
Bamburgh and on the Farne, the rocks have been disturbed by an eruption of
basalt ; and it occurs both as an injected dyke and an overflowing lava, and seems
to indicate successive volcanic outbursts during as well as subsequent to the era
of those formations,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109

The author adverted to another formation conspicuous in the northern and
eastern regions of Northumberland—namely the Boulder-clay. This formation
is largely developed on the eastern side of that range of sandstone hills which
extends in a south-westerly direction from Kyloe to Alnwick Moor. In some
_places the boulder clay constitutes long hills with steep ascents, and isolated
mounds which rise sometimes to a height of 25 feet and resemble ancient tumuli.
There are, moreover, hills and ridges of diluvial gravel, clay, and pebbles, which
bear a strong resemblance to lateral moraines, and may be attributable to the glaciers
of a former age. A tortuous ridge of hills at North Charlton, between Alnwick
and Belford, certainly resembles a lateral moraine ; and similar mounds are traced
over a considerable portion of the district into which the eastern valleys of the
Cheviots descend. The boulders and fragments of Scottish mountains which are
found in this boulder-clay formation, and which strew the beds of rivers in North-
umberland, and indeed the face of the country, cannot, however, be conceived
to have been transported by any other agency than that of ice. It seems not at
all improbable that the ponderous and far-travelled blocks were borne by icebergs
to the places where they rest, at a time when the climate of Northumberland was
of an arctic character, and when its elevated regions alone stood above the sea.
It seems worthy of remark, that beneath an overlying boulder-clay in the Hawk-
hill quarry above referred to, the limestone bed im st#w is scratched and grooved, and
in ae places polished, the markings having a general direction from north to
south.

The author referred in conclusion to the contributions made by Mr. Tate to our
knowledge of the Basalt and the Basaltic dykes of Northumberland, and to the
questions raised by those formations.

On Seetions along the Southern Flanks of the Grampians.
By Professor Harkness, /.R.S., F.GS.

The rocky masses which have been exposed, by the action of the German Ocean,
in the neighbourhood of Stonehaven, afford a considerable insight into the structure
of the southern flanks of the Grampians. Here we have, in the neighbourhood of
Dunotter Castle, the conglomeratic portion of the middle member of the Old Red
Sandstone formation well exhibited, and possessing a 8.S.E. dip at an angle of about
80°. Beneath this conglomerate, immediately south of Stonehaven, the Forfar-
shire flags occur, having the same inclination, and marked by the grey colour which
they usually manifest when worked for commercial purposes. These Forfarshire
flags oceupy the coast northward to Garron Point; but as they leave the old red
conglomerates, they lose their ordinary grey colour; and near their base, as here
exposed, they assume a purple aspect.

At Garron Point they come abruptly in contact with the metamorphic rocks
which constitute the great mass of the Grampian range. There is, however, a
total discordance in the arrangement of these two series of rocks; for while the
Old Red Sandstone formation dips 8.S.E. at a high angle, the metamorphic rocks
are inclined N.N.W, at about 70°. This mode of relative arrangement Professor
Harkness has found to prevail in all the sections of the interior over two-thirds of
the flanks of the Grampians. In many instances, however, thick masses of trap
intervene, separating ‘the Old Red Sandstone on the 8.E. from the metamorphic
rocks on the N.W. As regards the association of the metamorphic rocks in this
area, the lower portions consist of clay-slate, to which succeeds mica-schist overlaid
by gneiss, an arrangement similar to that shown in the section attached to Professor
Nicol’s map, and leading to the inference that in this portion of the Grampians
the clay-slate is the oldest rock of the metamorphic series.

On the Yellow Sandstones of Elgin and Lossiemouth.
By Professor Harkness, /.RS., F.GS.
The strata which lie north of the town of Elgin, and which have been described
by Sir Roderick Murchison in the Quarterly Journal of the Geol. Soc. vol. xv.,
consist for the most part of yellow sandstones capped with limestone, These, at

110 +. REPORT—1859.

Lossiemouth, at Spynie quarry, and at Findrassie quarry, have afforded reptilian
remains of such a nature as to show considerable atfinity to the paleontology of
the Trias. Notwithstanding this circumstance, there is strong reason to infer that
the strata in the district are the representatives of the upper portion of the Old
Red Sandstone series. From an examination of the several localities where the
rocks are exposed north of Elgin, Professor Harlmess has been induced to adopt
the conclusions of Sir Roderick Murchison, and other geologists who haye inspected
this neighbourhood, and has arrived at the inference that the strata here appertain
to the Old Red Sandstone formation. From the ridge in which the Bishops’ Mill
quarries occur, immediately north of the river Lossie, and where Holoptychian
fishes are found, to Spynie hill, there is a constant N.N.W. dip at about 10°, and
the lithology of the deposits, as exposed in this interval, shows an intimate relation
among the arenaceous rocks whic occupy this area. The rocks are to a con-
siderable extent masked by debris; but whenever these are appari they manifest
no traces of faults of such an extent as would disconnect the Holoptychian yielding
strata from the reptilian beds which occur in this portion of Moray.

On the Origin of the Ossiferous Caverns at Oreston.
By Henry C. Honee.

The author referred, in the first place, to the description of this cavern given
by Mr. Whidby, and continued :—

“The statements so confidently made by Mr. Whidby as to the perfect enclosure
of the caverns by solid limestone, have been confirmed by my own observations,
and this fact has not failed to surprise even the workmen engaged in the quarry;
but it must be evident that at some period an opening did exist, and it occurred
to me that such might be most successfully sought for between the surfaces of the
beds of which the masses of limestone are composed, No satisfactory conclusion
could be drawn from careful examination of the rock during the opening of the
cavern; but on looking narrowly into the beds of limestone in the progress of the
workings, it was found that a thin seam of purple calcareous clay-slate was inter-
posed between the neighbouring beds of limestone, at about the same parallel as
that in which the caverns were met with. On further investigation, it was dis-
covered that alternations of this purple slate with the limestone were not unfre-
quent, but the lamin of slate were in most cases so intimately blended with the
limestone beds, as to form really a solid mass of compact rock; and on looking
into the structure of the more evident layers of the slate, it was ascertained that
in some parts they were much more calcareous than in others, and that small por-
tions of limestone, haying similar physical characters to those of the surrounding
rock, were interspersed at varying intervals. In other places, the slaty layers
were in a state of decomposition, red and reddish white clay being formed as its
result ; and on tracing a layer of this kind through the side of a cayern laid open
during the workings, it was seen that portions of it were so disintegrated as to be
easily pulled from their position, the seam being, in its most solid portions, com-
posed merely of layers of limestone fragments with interposed clay and red sand,—
the whole, apparently, kept in place by the accidental infiltration of calcareous
matter. Here, then, were facts that might enable me to account for the clay
found in the caverns, and afford a means through which the beds of limestone may
have been caused to separate from each other. Again, it was discovered that
some of the hollows in the adjoining limestone were stained with a black earthy
substance, found, on analysis, to be composed of the peroxides of iron and man-
ganese, these haying evidently proceeded from the decomposition of a variety of
dolomite very generally present in this limestone,—not exhibiting, however, any
definite mode of deposit in it, but passing through its beds in the most irregular.
manner. From these phenomena, it appeared reasonable to conclude that the
decomposition of the slate in the layers, through the combined agency of water
and carbonic acid, had opened a communication with the external air to the above-
named irregular masses of dolomite (the unchanged limestone fragments of the
slate serving to keep the beds from close contact with each other), and that, in
this way, the carbonates of iron and manganese contained in them had been con=
verted into peroxides, and the evolved carbonic acid proceeding from their decom=,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 111

petition; combining with the remaining constituents of the dolomite, had formed

icarbonates, readily removeable by the agency of percolating water, In this way,
it is possible not merely to account for the formation of the caverns, and a means
of access to them, but at the same-time to discover what are the causes still in

_ operation which give rise to the production of stalactite, and occasion the irre-
gular dolomization of the limestone,—it being evident that the percolating waters
charged with bicarbonates of lime, magnesia, &c., may, by a loss.of carbonic acid,
deposit insoluble carbonate of lime in the form of stalactite, and becoming by this
means richer in bicarbonate of magnesia, act chemically on the neighbouring lime-
stone, converting it into dolomite. ; ;

To test the correctness of these views, a very careful examination of the cla
below the bones was instituted; it was extremely tenacious, and of a dark reddis
brown colour; patches of red clay were visible in some places; and in other parts
of the mass distinct yellow and hisak layers were apparent, and nodules, or, more
strictly speaking, irregular masses of impure ochrey red iron ore, together with
black rounded fragments, evidently arising from the decomposition of a dolomite
similar to that before alluded to; for in the larger fragments this rock was di-
stinctly visible on fracture ; and in one or two instances, in which the masses were
larger than usual, a brown zone was observable between the black external coating,
and the central nearly unaltered dolomite ; large and small masses of the common
limestone rock of the quarry were also found in the clay, their surface being honey-
combed as if by exposure to the long-continued action of carbonated waters, These
phenomena may justly be explained on the supposition that the irregular masses
of ochrey iron ore had been derived from the decomposed slaty seams, confirmatory
appearances being not unfrequent in other limestone beds connected with the same
series of rocks, the slate in these alternating with the limestone on a large scale,
and containing irregular nodules of impure iron ore—a red oxide of iron being fre-
quently visible at the points of junction. The varied colour of the clay may also
be accounted for by the gradual admixture with it of the red oxide of iron from the
slaty seams, and the black oxide of manganese accompanied by yellow hydrated
peroxide of iron from the dolomitic rock, which may be concluded to have formed
a part only of the walls of the cayern,—the honeycombed limestone fragments
resulting from the displacement of other portions of previously-fissured limestone
rock through the agency of aqueous carbonic acid. The most careful examination
Spa no facts that at all appeared of an opposing character; the clay was

iligently searched, and some of its laminated portions, having a sandy appear-
ance, were examined by the microscope for the siliceous coverings of infusoria,
minute rounded grains of sand, and any other matter that might suggest the wash-
ing in of the contents of the cavern through free communication of its opening
with external waters; nothing was, however, discovered but very minute frag-
ments of slate, still further confirmatory of the position before advanced.”
. The author assigns reasons for adopting the opinion that the bones were intro-
duced to Oreston Carve by animal agency, and not by accidental falling into fissures,

He enumerates the principal remains found in the cavern, viz. of the thick-
skinned quadrupeds at least four genera,—Elephant, Rhinoceros, Horse, Ass or
Zebra, and Hog. Of Carnivora, Bears of two species, Felis, Wolf, and a small
rodent.

The ruminants probably included one or two species of elk or deer, and two or
three animals allied to the ox. Teeth of the sheep or goat were also brought from
the clay, but there is reason to be doubtful about the genuineness of many of the
last-named specimens,

Among the remains of animals of the deer-tribe, is capenialy mentioned an in-
teresting fragment of jaw, containing several teeth, developed by me with some
pains from a large and nearly solid mass of stalagmitic matter, containing various
other imbedded bones. There occurred too a very few fractured specimens of teeth
suggestive of those of a giraffe (this possibility having been ascertained by com-

arison with figures of fossil teeth contained in a paper by Dr, Falconer and Capt.
Bautley, in the ‘ Proceedings of the Geological Society of London’), and a small
horn core may, it is presumed, also indicate the presence of an animal allied to a
species of this interesting quadruped *,
* Two premolars of a Camel,

112 REPORT—1859.

“In beds of limestone existing further to the east of those in whieh the just now
mentioned fossil bones occurred, and which are evidently a continuation of the
same series of rocks, little or no dolomite is included; they are also particularly
free from caverns and generally from stdlactitic deposits, presenting us with similar
limestone rocks, for the most part unaltered by those changes which produce the
phenomena of dolomization and caverns. These rocks are coloured black by the
oxides of iron and manganese, and are traversed by numerous white calcareous
veins; they form a part of the black marble so frequently employed for statuary
ee a in this part of England. Distinct bluish-black slate and argillaceous

ydraulic limestone beds are of very frequent occurrence in them, the beds contain-
ing occasionally iron pyrites, which, by the action of the weather, tinge the sur-
faces of the argillaceous and calcareous rocks of a rusty yellow colour. Applying
now the above facts to account for the alteration of our cavern-containing rocks,
we may legitimately suppose that their previously contained pyrites might by its
decomposition yield a supply of sulphuric acid and sulphate of iron, and that these
compounds, reacting upon the limestone in their neighbourhood, would (in presence
of the air) finally produce sulphate of lime and peroxide of iron—the disengaged
carbonic acid at the same time generated, affording the required means for effecting
oe presence of ere. the decomposition of its slaty layers; these in their thus

isintegrated condition being afterwards compressed by means of superposed beds
of limestone into a compact series of beds identical with those of our quarry, and
coloured purple in their slaty seams by the above-mentioned peroxides of iron and
manganese,—the bicarbonates of magnesia (and also the bicarbonates of iron and
manganese) required to produce dolomization being at the same time formed by the
action of the carbonic acid upon the masses of limestone, which is found on ana-
lysis to contain a sufficiently notable proportion of the necessary ingredients.

“But the physical evidence that these limestone beds are truly rocks of the black
marble series, altered by chemical changes in them, allied to those now pointed out,
does not alone rest on the similarity of their strata, allowance being made for the
effects of such changes; the hollow cavities of the black marble are occasionally
lined with acute scalene dodecahedrons of calcareous spar, and in the supposed
altered series of rocks similar crystals are met with, these being generally corroded
on their surface, and thus affording an evidence of a change in the conditions ex-
isting after their formation. In connexion with the deposits of stalactite, and in
numerous small cavities in the dolomite, other crystals of calc-spar are not unfre-
quent ; but under both these circumstances they exhibit different forms, those of the
stalactite being generally acute rhombohedrons, whilst the dolomitic cavities are
lined with crystals having the figure of obtuse rhombohedrons, combined occasion-
ally with the planes of a second rhombohedron, which is more acute, There are,
moreover, in these altered strata, instances of the formation of a second crop of
crystals in the cavities still occupied by the acutely scalenohedral forms; and in
all the cases I have had an opportunity of observing, these secondary crystals in~
variably contain obtusely rhombohedral surfaces. I may also add that there may
be considered to be good evidence that the causes connected with the original for-
mation of dolomite took place under conditions very different from those existing
at the present day; for not only does the iron pyrites belong to a very persistent
variety of that mineral (no marcasite being mixed with it), but the oxide finally
seen to result from its decomposition is not a yellow-brown hydrate, like that of
the present day, but a red anhydrous peroxide, which would not have been likely
unless the temperature at the time was somewhat elevated.

“During the progress of the study of these rocks, I was able to obtain physical
evidence of the presence of all the chemical compounds before described as occur-
ring in them, sulphate of lime alone excepted; this, it may be remembered, I sup-
posed to have been removed by the agency of water; and that means adequate fbr
the removal of this somewhat soluble salt existed, was amply proved by the very
numerous caverns produced by the decomposition of the dolomite to which so fre=
quent reference has been made. In the lower strata of the quarry the workmen
arrived at two very large openings of this kind, in the immediate neighbourhood
of the bone cavern, and that these communicated with a plentiful supply of water
oe easily proved by the splashing sound heard when stones were thrown into

em,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113

© There rernain a few other facts which doubtless have an important bearing on the
former condition of the bone caverns :—

“ The stratified beds of the Plymouth limestone dip most generally to the south
at about the high angle of 45°; there are, however, exceptions to this general rule,
in certain places the beds exhibiting more or less basin-shaped depressions, caused,
we may legitimately a nae by the undermining of their foundation through the
decomposition of the before-mentioned irregularly distributed dolomite. If this be
true, and similar causes have during former geological periods been in constant
operation, the entire strata of this limestone may in their mass have undergone
considerable subsidence,—a presumption corroborated by the presence on its north-
ern boundary of an older series of unfossiliferous purple and grey slates of immense
thickness, having a conforming dip of 45°, but now seen to lie at a considerably
higher elevation. A second inference may also be deduced, viz. that, owing to
such causes, the bone caves, at the time they are supposed to have been inhabited
by carnivora, might have been situated at a much greater elevation than that at
which we now discover them to be, affording these animals a dry and comfortable
retreat in the mountain for devouring their prey. The dislocation of these rocks
caused by their subsidence would afford, moreover, the necessary mechanical force
required to separate in the soft and decomposing slaty layers, the limestone beds
from one another, affording in this way ale openings to the animals for entrance
to and egress from their caves; the further subsidence again giving rise to dis-
placements of the strata and hermetically closing them, until by still further
mechanical change, an entrance being given to calcareous waters, they deposited
the stalactite and stalagmite now sometimes found within them, And it may also
be deduced from such considerations, that even during the human period the opening
of these hone caves may have been possible, and that savage races using their dry
and capacious chambers as a place of residence, and leaving their easily procurable
flint hammers on their exit, they may through similar chemical and mechanical
changes have once more been closed by the infiltration of stalactitic deposits.
With respect, however, to this subject, I will not dwell upon it further than to re-
mark, that although we can never bring forward arguments haying the conclusive-
ness of eye-witnesses’ testimony against the contemporaneity of man with the ex-
tinct mammoth and his congeners, the facts I have stated, will, if properly con-
sidered, tend to demonstrate that not merely is there no geological evidence what-
eyer to prove their co-existence, but that all the apparently powerful arguments
based upon the occurrence of his remains in ossiferous caverns, may be merely
deceptive and of no real significance or certainty whatever, as their presence in
them may be easily accounted for through the operation of natural and still exciting
causes.

“ Again, there has been observed in the neighbourhood, and at a distance of not
more than two miles from the above rocks, the remains of a raised beach on the
coast 15 feet above the present level of the ocean, and traces of others have been
met with in various parts of the adjoining district. These raised beaches may at
first sight appear incompatible with the view of a general subsidence of the neigh-
bouring strata, but it will on consideration be evident that the formation of a large
yalley through the falling in of very considerable stratified masses, would naturally
produce an upraising at the sides of the depression. In the neighbourhood referred
to (that of the Hoe), it may be seen that a great part of the town of Plymouth
occupies such a valley, bounded on the south by the limestone hills of the Hoe,
and on the north by the high strata of purple slate before referred to. Following
out the above idea, and supposing that there has been in past geological time a
general sinking of the land in the northern part of our hemisphere, it is not difficult
to account for a colder climate, though much greater elevation and more general
distribution of the land, prior to these changes,—and it may be easily explained
why raised beaches containing shells of arctic type may be compatible with such
general depression ; and these and other chemical changes acting below the surface
of the rocks, and accelerated by the mechanical opening of their fissures through
the freezing of water in them, may be reasonably 2H Mere to have in some in-
stances produced sudden floods of water accompanied by fields of ice, accounting
for the presence of remains of thick-skinned monsters in the ice and frozen soil of
Siberia.”

1859. 8

114 ’ REPORT—1859.

On the Connexion of the Granite with the Stratified Rocks in Aberdeenshire.
By T. F. JAMigeson.

In many geological writings the granite and other igneous rocks are represented
as having heaved up the overlying strata—hereabouts, however, they seem more
frequently to have heaved them down; or in other words the sedimentary rocks
dip towards, and apparently into or underneath the granite. Thus, on the south
border of the great outburst of red syenite at Peterhead, the gneiss or mica-slate is
seen along the coast dipping towards it, and the same is apparently the case with
some granitic masses to the west of Ellon. To appeal, however, to a grander
instance, take the vast igneous expanse of the Ben Macdui group, and along its
south border at Braemar the huge mountains of quartzy gneiss come up, almost
in horizontal regular strata, with, however, a slight southerly dip, until they cross
the valley of the Dee, when they fold over into the base of the great granitic mass
of Ben-a-Buird. In the Isle of Skye, also, the lias strata along the coast of Kilmuir
dip into the huge outburst of trap that forms all the centre of that part of the
island. The igneous rock in this case has apparently burst through a great rent of
the lias and overflowed it, the edges of the sedimentary strata sinking down into
the fused mass. With regard to the granite, the case perhaps somewhat differs.
This rock is of more recent origin than the gneiss, seeing that the latter is dis-
turbed, altered, and penetrated byit. The intense subterranean heat in approaching
the thick masses of these old beds from below must have gradually melted them ;
and their immense weight would press down the unmelted edges into the pasty
mass beneath—just as in heating a pot of lead the solid crust sinks down into the
liquid metal. ‘The granite may be in some measure the gneiss fused and crystallized
under the pressure of the overlying masses of the stratified beds.

On the Drift Beds and Boulders of the North of Scotland.
By T. F. JAMiEson.

. Drift beds, deposited from water, and containing striated fragments of rock, had
been traced by the writer from the sea coast to the central regions of the Highlands ;
thinning out on the Perthshire hills near Killiekrankie at the height of 1500 feet,
and resting on a surface of rock polished and furrowed as if by the passage of ice.
These ice-furrows were also found passing over the crest of a hill in the same
neighbourhood upwards of 2000 feet high. In the Braemar district similar beds
of drift were traced up all the higher glens to the slopes of the Ben Muickdhui
mountains, and to elevations exceeding 2000 feet, still preserving the aspect of an
aqueous deposit, but more gravelly in texture and containing fewer, and sometimes
none, of the striated or ice-furrowed stones.

- Transported boulders were found in the Braemar district on the top of the hill of
Morven, which attains a height of about 3000 feet, and on Ben Uarn More several:
hundred feet higher, while many were found on the Perthshire hills at elevations
exceeding 2000 feet.

- Connecting these observations with others made by different geologists in various
parts of England, Wales, and Scotland, an opinion was expressed that the drift
must have extinguished the land-animals then existing in this country, and that
the introduction of the present flora and fauna dates from the close of that period.
The denudation of the drift, and the scouring out of the glens and passes, were
ascribed in a great measure to the offrushing action of the waters during move-
ments of upheaval, and it was maintained that at the close of these movements
this country must have stood higher than at.present, and have been connected by
land with the Continent of Europe. The:more extensive development of land-ice
and glaciers was considered to have preceded the marine dri

On some Curious Results in the Water Supply afforded by a Spring at
Ashey Down, in the Ryde Water-works. By EH. R. J. KNowLes.

The Rey. Dr, Lonemum exhibited a specimen of Fossil Fish sent by the Rev. Mr.
Paton of Fettercairn.. The basis was_carbonate of lime; the black parts, sulphuret
of zinc ; and the yellow pyrites, which, in their younger days, they were accustomed.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115

to call diamonds when they occurred in slate. He also presented a communication
from the Rey. James Morrison Urquhart, Elgin, The rad system of sandstone lay on
the one side of Blgin, and the yellow on the other, with the cormstone between, and
it was panels near the western side of this middle division that the fossils were
found. He had made a flying visit to the place lately, and found that, in a mass of
clay extending for several miles, pieces of stone from the size of the fist to that of
the head, frequently occurred, ‘These, when broken up by Mr, Morrison in his
leisure hours, had afforded the beautiful suite of specimens now on the table. On
careful examination they were found to belong to the lower Oolite. Now as the
Oolite is above both the Old and the New Red Sandstone, the occurrence of this clay
ha mn no assistance in determining to which system the reptile was to be
referred,

On certain Phenomena attendant on Voleanic Eruptions and Earthquakes in
China and Japan. By Dr. Maccowan, of China.

On the Age of the Reptilian Sandstones of Morayshire.
By Joun Minver, F.G.S.

The author, having referred to the published opinions of Sir R. I. Murchison,
declared his unaltered belief in the soundness of the opinion of Sir Roderick, that
these sandstones belong to the Old Red Series. He adds a series of observations
made by himself with reference to this question.

On some New Fossils from the Old Red Sandstone of Caithness.
By Joun Mitter, F.G.S,

The author laid before the Association a series of fossils from the flag schists or
middle member of the Old Red Sandstone of Caithness, in the neighbourhood of
Thurso, The author has found difficulty in determining their true nature, He,
however, finally adopts the opinion that they are the outer edges or rims of hell-
shaped or trumpet-mouthed marine plants, broken off from the body of the cup or
calyx just where we would expect a fracture to take place, where the outward
recurvature of the rim or mouth commences, and where it is weakest. In confor:
mity with this hypothesis, we must suppose that they had footstalks or peduncles,
and were stationary. Whether these footstalks were long and enabled the hell-
shaped calyx to float in the hideway, or whether the calyx occupied a position
close to the point of attachment to the sea-bottom, with a long narrow thong-like
frond springing from the bottom of the calyx, like the Himanthalia lorea in the
seas of the present day, it were idle to speculate.

The author described the several examples which were exhibited to the meeting.
_ No, 1 is a perfect circle of 7 inches in its outer diameter and 3 inches in its inner:
diameter, the breadth of the ring being 2 inches, As it lies upon the stone it

resents a well-relieved conyex or ridged surface of black bituminous matter, look-:
ing exceedingly like an iron quoit of alarge size ; but a close inspection shows that.
it exists upon the stony ridge as a mere film, conyeying the impression that when
it originally fell to the bottom of the Devonian sea, it must have sunk into soft mud
which filled up its hollow under surface, and thus preserved a most fragile organism
which would have been crushed to pieces if it had rested upon a ic or pebbly
sea-bottom. ;
_ No, 2 is the cover or inipression formed in the stone covering of No. 1, and is
therefore a bituminous ring of exactly the same diameters, inner and external; but
the ring is of course concaye, with a rising up of the matrix in the centre. From
its hollow appearance it was called by the workmen who raised it up out of the
quarry, “ Noah’s plate,” which had fallen overboard from the Ark, on being washed
after dinner. In this specimen also the organic matter is a mere film,

No. 3 is the fragment of a duplicate of No, 1, which must have been a finer speci-
men in some respects, more flattened, more distinctly marked on the edges, and
considerably larger. The bituminous matter in this specimen is slightly tinged with.
the oxide of von, et veld 4 LORS 3 oy Wes a Pe eee ei

116 REPORT—1859.

No. 4 is the cover of No.3; its external diameter is 11 inches, and its inner dia-
meter is 4 inches, the breadth of the ring being 3 inches. Instead of forming a
perfect circle, it has a fissure or rent throughout the whole breadth of the ring at
right angles to its circumference. This fissure is about half an inch wide, and at
first sight one is tempted to think it was an original character necessary for the
fulfilment of the functions of the organism; but on comparing its reft circumference
with the complete circle formed by Nos. 1 and 2, it may be concluded to be purely
accidental, The rising up of the matrix in the centre of this specimen is very pro-
minent, like that in No, 2.

In December of last year, Mr. Salter exhibited at a meeting of the Geological
Society of London, some very fine specimens of the curious impressions known to
Scotch geologists as “ Kelpies’ feet,” from the micaceous sandstones near Dundee,
forming part of the lower member of the Old Red Sandstone in that locality,
The organisms now described are not identical with the “ Kelpies’ feet,” which are
mere impressions containing no organic matter, and are in general of an oval shape;
whereas these specimens, two of them at least, are perfect circles and covered with
organic matter.

As we must place these organisms for the present amongst the fossils “incerte
sedis,” Mr, Miller proposes to name them provisionally Fucus annulatus ; they were
all found in the quarries in the neighbourhood of Thurso,

On New Fossils from the Lower Old Red Sandstone.
By Hueu Mircue tt, Craig.

From a locality previously recorded in Kincardineshire, and from two new
localities in Forfarshire, numerous fossils had been gathered, indicating an exten-
sive flora and fauna at the very commencement of the Old Red Sandstone period.

From the dark red fiags of Forfar evidence was produced, for the first time, of
the presence of life in numerous Crustacean tracks, Annelide burrows, &e.

From a thin layer among the grey flags many new fossils had also been gathered ;
among the rest a new species of Acanthodes, to which Sir P. Egerton has given
the name of Acanthodes antiquus ; and also a new genus, as well as species, to which
had been given the name of Brachyacanthus scutiger.

Guided by the discoveries in Forfarshire, the other locality had been re-examined,
and found to afford, although in a fragmentary state, the same fossils,

On the Geological Structure of the Vicinity of Aberdeen and the North-east of
Scotland. By James Nicot, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Natural
History in the University of Aberdeen.

It has been thought that a short sketch of the geology of this locality might in-
terest our visitors fromthe South. To illustrate this generally, I have had a large
copy of that portion of my Geological Map of Scotland prepared. This, of course
does not give minute details, but still I have no hesitation in saying that it is more
accurate than any other map, as I have not only corrected it in many parts myself,
but have had the use of much material collected by my friend Mr. A, Gruieleleake

Though scarcely needed, it may be mentioned that Scotland consists of three
natural geological divisions :—1st. Southern Region of Lower Silurian Rocks of
msi We or pane e ec uee This region consists of greywacke and
clay-slate rising into lo road-backed mountains separated by wide
giles of the ig Rewlae : ‘ ber oy

2nd, Central Region of Old Red, Coal, and Trap. This contains only about one-
sixth of the surface (5000 square miles), but full two-thirds of the population of
Scotland, and a far larger proportion of the mineral wealth and manufactures of
the kingdom,

8rd. Northern Region of Primary orCrystalline Strata broken through by Granite
and set in a framework of newer formations. It contains two-thirds of the surface.
but little more than one-fourth of the population. It is in this region we are now
met, and to one portion of it that I mean specially to direct your attention, The
kernel of this whole region is the Granite. This forms some of the highest moun-
tains, and some of the lowest land in the district; of the former I may mention

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 117

Ben Macdhui (only rivalled in Britain by Ben Nevis) and the Cairngorm mountains
on the north of the Dee; and on the south of that river, Loch-na-gar, Mount Keen,
Mount Battock, and other giants of the Southern Grampians. These, the principal
mountains, are usually round, massive, dome-like, with a deep corry on one side as
if formed by the falling in of one-third of the mountain, and thus bounded by lofty,
rudely prismatic precipices rising from a dark black tarn in the centre of the hollow.
In consequence of decomposition the granite mountains are usually covered with
huge feather-bed-like rocks piled up in cairns of rude masonry, and the shelter of the
red deer and ptarmigan. ‘The rock in these mountains is rather fine-grained,
uniform in structure, and often reddish coloured. It contains cavities in which the
rock-crystal or Cairngorm stone, the topaz and the beryl are found. Bennachie,
one of the outposts of these mountains on the north-east, though not high and easily
accessible, is very interesting. It looks out on the south-west to the loftier ranges
of the Grampians, with patches of snow even at the end of summer; and on the north-
east over the plains of Buchan—low, undulating, and treeless, but rapidly changing
under the industry of the inhabitants from bleak moors to fertile corn-fields,

A large portion of these north-eastern plains, too, consists of granite; in them,
however, occupying the lowest, not the highest position, as in the mountains. This
fact shows that the granite is the basis on which the strata rest, and hence is ex-
posed where they have been cut away by denudation. A fine section of the granite
1s seen in the sea-cliffs south from Peterhead, where it is intersected by long narrow
gullies and deep caves, in which the restless surge of the North Sea keeps up an
incessant tumult. Hence some of the more remarkable of these excavations have
got their name of the “ Bullers of Buchan.”

The rock in,this region is red or grey, according to the colour of the felspar, It
often contains hornblende, or is a syenite, as in the tract to the north of Huntly,
and in other places again becomes almost a fine-grained greenstone or diorite. This
diversity of mineral character proves that the granite is not all of one period of
formation, The veins of granite in the granite itself show this even more clearly.
These are beautifully seen in Rubislaw quarry, close to the town, where there is one
very remarkable vein of coarse granite composed of very large twin crystals of ortho-
clase-felspar, and mica in a basis of quartz along with long broken prisms cf schorl,
Davidsonite or impure beryl, and garnets. The quartz in this vein is also remark-
able for numerous cavities enclosing fluids.

Of the stratified rocks, the first, gneiss, covers a wide extent in Aberdeenshire, and
generally in close proximity to or resting on the granite. It is thus seen in the
valley of the Dee above Braemar, reposing on the granite in thin even beds at a low
angle, and apparently undisturbed by the inferior igneous rock, In many parts of
the low country the same relation occurs, the gneiss often forming the hills, the
granite the intervening valleys. But in other cases, as in the hills north of Ballater,
the two formations are seen side by side. The gneiss in many localities is full of
granite veins; but whether these belong to the great mass of granite or are of a
different age, is not easily determined; and the question seems never to have been
fully or fairly worked out. Such veins are well seen on the coast to the south of
this city, especially near Girdleness and the Cove, and also in many parts of the
mountain chain on the south side of the Dee. Veins of felspar-porphyry, and of
oy are known in the gneiss on the same coast and in many other localities,

he gneiss is usually the common variety of quartz, felspar, and mica. But
varieties with hornblende passing into hornblende-slate are also common. The latter
are well seen in the hills along Glen Muic and up to the top of Morven. The beds
of gneiss are seldom flat or even, more often highly contorted.

inthe Braemar district the gneiss is covered by beds of limestone and quartzite—
the latter perhaps only a variety of the gneiss. It often contains much magnetite,
apparently replacing the mica. Indeed iron, both as the oxides and the pyrites, is
very common in all these rocks; strongly impregnating many of the springs, and
finding its way into the sands of the rivers and of the sea-shore. From the Cairngorm
mountains great ridges of quartzite run north into Banffshire and to the coast near
Cullen. In some places in this region it appears to lie below the mica-slate, but
their exact relation is obscure. In other parts of the low country, as in Mormond
Hill, the quartzite rests on the gneiss.

Mica-slate in Scotland is most common in the South-west Grampians; but in this

118 vit REPORT—1859.

district it becomes attenuated to a very narrow zone. In the Glenshee and Stdie-
haven sections the mica-slate appears to lie below the gneiss, and not over it, as
usually represented. There are great tracts of mica-slate also in the north-west,
between the Spey and the Deveron, where it is intermixed with gneiss and clay-
slate, but the relations of the deposits are little understood. It often contains
garnets, more rarely Andalusite, and some other minerals.

Clay-slate also covers a considerable space in this district, chiefly to the south of
Banff and the Troup Head. It is quarried in several places for roofing-slates, as near
the Troup Head, in the Foudland Hills, and near Gartly. These slates are wrought
on lines of cleavage, the bedding being in general scarcely perceptible. It has been
said that fossils—eraptolites—occur in this rock; but there is no foundation for this
statement. I formerly described these clay-slates as probably Silurian ; but this is
only a theory, and as the clay-slate in the Southern Grampians appears to dip north
below the mica-slate, this view now requires confirmation. In Glenshee a curious
series of black carbonaceous slates, containing graphite like those of Easdale, occur,
Graphite is also found in other parts of this region, in the metamorphic strata—a
most important fact in reference to the theory of these rocks,

The Old Red Sandstone chiefly occurs on the outskirts of the region we are con-
sidering. The principal mass within it runs south from Gamrie—a locality well
known for its nodules with fossil fish. Another isolated, but interesting portion
occurs round the ancient Castle of Kildrummy, in which impressions of plants have
been found. A curious mass of conglomerate at the Old Bridge of Don probably
belongs to the same deposit. On the southern limit of the map, the Great Red
Sandstone formation of Strathmore begins, and is well seen in fags beds of red
sandstone and conglomerate near Dunnottar. The conglomerate must be regarded
as marking rather the shore-lines, or certam peculiar local conditions, than any
particular zone in the formation.

At the other extremity of the map on the Spey, the Morayshire deposits begin
with numerous fishes at Tynet Burn, Dipple, &c. Still further west are the beds
with reptilian remains at Elgin, probably in the upper Old Red, or some newer
formation, but beyond the limits of this paper.

Higher deposits are only known in fragments. Such is the portion of lias near
‘Turriff, perhaps 7” sitw; but other masses of clay with lias fossils, as near Banff, are
more probably drifted. So also the greensand and chalk flints, spread over the rising

round from Peterhead to Cruden—noticed and collected in 1834 by the late Dr.
Knight of this University—are apparently detrital masses. Their number, however,
and state of preservation show that strata of this age probably once existed here i
site, and perhaps they may still occur below the waters of the North Sea. I
formerly noticed the analogy of these deposits to those in the south of Sweden,
where lias rests on gneiss, and is covered by chalk; but Flamborough Head is the
nearest point where the chalk is now known 7 situ.

Last of all are the great detrital masses of the Drift or Boulder-clay. This forms
two very marked divisions, evidently formed under very opposite conditions of the
land. ist. The lower boulder-clay composed of thick beds of firm brown or grey
clay and full of large striated stones, some of them several feet or yards in diameter,
and evidently deposited in an arctic sea round the shores of an ice-clad land rapidly
sinking in the waters. Glaciers, as the strie they have left on the rocks testify,
must then have covered our mountains, and floating icebergs filled our ocean.
Above this deposit are:—2nd. Loose, distinctly stratified sands and gravels with
rounded water-worn stones. These are clearly a portion of the lower masses recon-
structed as the land, now freed from ice, rose gradually above the waters. The
brick clays, some blue, some red, are again only the finer materials washed out in
‘this process, and laid down in gulfs and bays and the quieter parts of the sea along
the coast. They contain arctic shells—showing that the climate was still cold;
and also at Clay-hills, in the very city, star-fish (Op/iwra), bones of fish like the
cod or haddock; and full 30 feet below the present surface bones of a small duck,
They are well seen at Belhelvie, Old Aberdeen, and Torrie, but occur in many other
localities. All along the south coast too, the fishermen dredge up, attached to the
-large mussel by its byssus, valves of the Pecten islandicus and the small Leda oblonga,
shown by their colour to have been imbedded in similar red clays. ;

In the peat-bogs we have remains of even a more recent period, but little anterior

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119

to our own. In them are found skulls with gigantic horns and huge bones of the
old Urus. Two fine specimens of these skulls in the Museum—one from Belhelvie,
another from Caithness—show the wide range of this noble species in former times,
And here the proper geologic history of the didkict ends.

‘On the Relations of the G'neiss, Red Sandstone, and Quartzite in the North-
West Highlands. By James Nicot, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in the University of Aberdeen.

The author expressed his reluctance and regret at appearing in opposition to his
distingushed friend, Sir R. I. Murchison. After the eloquent lecture which they
had listened to on Friday evening, he would willingly have remained silent on the

oints of difference. But last year, at Leeds, Sir R. Murchison had challenged
him to discuss the question here, and this challenge he could not decline. The
question is one of far too much importance, not only in the geology of Scotland,
but in general theoretical geology, to be left undecided.

Sir Roderick said the other night that he had visited this region four times
in order to examine this question. Prof. Nicol had also spent a considerable por=
tion of four summers investigating these rocks, and had traversed the whole line
of junction from Cape Wrath ar Loch Erriboll to the Sound of Sleat in Skye,
and examined the strata from the wilds of Lewis in the far west, to the interior of
Sutherland and Ross on the east. He might thus claim some knowledge of the
formation, and stated no facts in this paper except such as he had observed. For
the distribution of the rocks he referred to his recent Geological Map of Scotland, in
which the red sandstone of the west was first separated from the undoubted Old
Red Sandstone on the east coast.

There was no difference of opinion between Sir R. Murchison and himself in
regard to the first steps in the series. Both were at one in regard to the order
established in Prof. Nicol’s paper of 1856, of—1st, Gneiss, covered unconformably
by, 2nd, Red Sandstone, and this by, 3rd, Quartzite, and, 4th, Limestone. But here
they diverge—Sir R. Murchison affirming that there is another higher quartzite
and limestone overlaid conformably by mica-slate and gneiss, whilst Prof. Nicol
states that there is here a line of fracture bringing up anew the lower beds of the old
metamorphic formation. In proof of this he exhibited and described various sec-
tions. e first, of Durness, showed on the west side in Far Out Head, mica-
slate identical with that on the Kyle of Tongue, then fragments of limestone,
interrupted by mica-slate and serpentine, then again limestone and quartzite, all
separated from each other by N. and S. faults and raised up by an axis of granitic
gneiss, and then on Loch Erriboll the quartzite and limestone, dipping west from
another igneous axis, throwing off beds of talc and mica-slates like those of Far Out
Head to the east. He showed also another section in this region, in which the
supposed overlying gneiss was proved to be a felspar porphyry.

e next stated that the same relations existed at Craig na Feolin, and on Loch
More, where the rocks described by former observers as overlying gneiss were in
reality an intrusive rock; whilst the great mass 800 or 1000 feet thick of quartzite
seen in Arkle on the north of Loch Stack, on the south of that Lake was represented
only by a few beds, and did not regain its dimensions till we reached Assynt, where
it has escaped denudation. The Assynt section he also showed had been greatly
misunderstood, the limestone of Stronchrubie being troughed by the quartzite of
Ben More and not dipping under it, whilst great masses of igneous rocks had been
wholly overlooked.

He then explained a section of Coolmore and Craig-an-Cnockan, in which the
quartzite covered by the limestone was brought side by side with the gneiss on the
east by a fault with interposed igneous rocks, Referring to his sections on Loch
Broom formerly published, and to the Loch Maree section described at the last
meeting of the Association, he proceeded to explain a large section of the Gair-
loch and Loch Torridon Mountains, in which the true structure of the country was
_ well shown, In this the quartzite was seen not only overlying but apparently
alternating with, and dipping under the red sandstone no less than five times in
a single mountain, the whole, however, as distinctly seen in the naked precipices,
being produced by repeated slips and fractures with enormous lateral pressure, At

120 : REPORT—1859.

the eastern extremity of the section, the quartzite was brought into contact with
the gneiss along a nearly vertical line of fault, but without dipping under it, and
the same relation was shown in another section from the Loch Carron district.

These sections, to which many others might be added, abundantly prove that there
is here no continuous, conformable, upward succession, but that this portion of the
Highlands is made up of a series of fragments of strata brought side by side by
enormous slips and powerful lateral pressure. This lateral compression was shown
in the contorted lamination of hand specimens of the rocks from the two sides of
the fault. This pressure may in some cases have caused an apparent overlap of the
lower beds on the higher, though in the whole line of junction, 100 miles in extent,
Prof. Nicol has never observed any clear case of this nature. But that such cases
could only be mere accidents is proved by many facts. The superposition of the
red sandstone to the gneiss can be observed over miles and miles of country; that
of the quartzite to the red sandstone is no less distinct, being readily traced by
the eye from mountain top to mountain top, from valley to valley; and again the
limestone, though a small formation, everywhere clearly reposes on the quartzite—
at Durness, Erriboll, Loch More, Assynt, Ullapool, Loch Mesa, Loch Keeshorn.
But how is it with the next step in the supposed series ? Nowhere is an overlap of
more than a few feet or yards even said to be seen, though the supposed overlying
rocks extend more than thirty miles to the east, the underlying fully as much to
the west. The fact, too, that the eastern gneiss is brought into contact in one place
with the limestone, in another with the quartzite, in a third with the red sandstone,
according to the amount of denudation, and all within a few miles, prove that the
junction is along a line of fault, and is wholly inexplicable on the supposition of
conformable upward succession.

The mineral character of the eastern gneiss has also been referred to, as proving
it a newer rock. But this is founded on the unproved assumption that the coarse-
grained gneiss is older than the fine-grained, whereas the reverse is nearer the truth.
Prof. Nicol stated that he had formerly shown that in the Southern Grampians the
clay-slate and mica-slate were probably older than the gneiss, and he believed that
the same relations existed in this north-west part of Scotland. Where the greatest
upthrow of the eastern gneiss has taken place, we have clay-slate brought into
contact with the quartzite, and covered successively by mica-slate and true granitic
gneiss. Where the upthrow is less, only the mica-slate and gneiss are seen, or even
the gneiss alone in contact with the quartzite. He therefore affirmed that we
have in this north-west region of Scotland a line of fracture analogous to that
along the southern flank of the Grampians, and not inferior to it in extent and
influence on the physical structure of the country,

On some new Boreal forms—the nearly perfect skeletons of Surf and Eider
Ducks, Oidema and Somateria—accompanying the remains of Seals, from
the Pleistocene Brick-clays of Stratheden, Fifeshire ; nine miles inland,
and 150 feet above medium tide-level. By D. Pace, F.G.S.

On the Structure, Affinities, and Geological Range of the Crustacean Family
Eurypteride, as embracing the genera Eurypterus, Pterygotus, Stylonurus,
Eidothea, and other doubtful Eurypterites from the Silurian, Devonian,
and Carboniferous strata of Britain, Russia, and North America. By
D, Pace, F.G.S,

On Fossil Fish, new to the Old Red Sandstone of Caithness.
By C. W. Peacu.

The first mentioned was a small but very beautiful Acanthodus from the quarry
of the Earl of Caithness near Barrogill. He turned it up about four years ago, The
species is not yet decided. It is, however, a curious fact that the same genus should
have been met with in Forfarshire and Caithness about the same time; and another
from Thurso, much smaller, with strong and long spines, and as if clothed with a thick
skin, This and the thyee next arenot named, The great interest attaching to the next

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121

arises from its having a stout vertebral column running from the head to the tail, and
also strong internal supports to the fin rays. Whether these and thevertebral column
areof bone is still an open question. The scales are large and coarse: it is about ten
inches in length,and came from the red and blistered sandstones near John O’Groat’s.
There is an especial interest attaching to this fish, for Hugh Miller says in his ‘Old
Red Sandstone ’ :—“ In no case, however, have I succeeded in finding a single joint of
the vertebral column, or the trace of a single internal ray.” This has not been con-
tradicted in any of his works. Mr, Peach mentioned that he had at different times
found in Caithness several other fishes with vertebral columns, all much smaller than
the above, and shown principally towards the tail. The next was taken from the
impure limestone at the south head of Wick; he also got it in the bed of the river
at Halkirk, and in the limestone of Balagill, near Strathy in Sunderland. The
last produced is peculiar, differing from both Dipterus and Diplopterus, in having a
narrower but stouter snout, and the front part of the upper jaw armed with short
conical teeth, the eye orbits nearer together and placed on the upper part of the head.

On the Ossiferous Fissures at Oreston near Plymouth.
By W. Pencetty, F.G.S.

Mr. Pengelly commenced this communication by reminding the Section that he
had called attention, during the meeting at Leeds, to some of the results of the
exploration, then in progress, of the cavern which, early in the year 1858, had
been discovered on Windmill Hill, at Brixham, in Devonshire ; and remarked that
though, perhaps, none of the facts then communicated were new to science, the
circumstances of the case gave them a peculiar value, as being perfectly reliable and
unquestionably good in evidence, and as furnishing a test or measure of the credi-
bility of, at least, some of the facts on record in connexion with other caverns.

After stating that the case to which he had now to call attention had no such
claims, that the facts, such as they were, had come into his possession almost by
accident and mainly from the quarrymen, and that no attempt had been made to
direct or control the excavation, the author stated that when Mr. Whidby en-
gaged to superintend that most arduous undertaking, the Plymouth Breakwater, Sir
Joseph Banks requested him to examine narrowly any caverns he might meet with
in the rock, and have the bones or any other fossil remains that were met with
carefully preserved *. The Oreston quarries were opened to furnish material for
the Breakwater on August 7th, 1812; in November 1816 Mr. Whidby sent up to
Sir Joseph Banks his first consignment of bones, with a statement that “they had
been found in a cavern in the solid limestone rock.” The fossils were described
by Sir Everard Home in a paper read_ before the Royal Society, and published in
the Philosophical Transactions for 1817 ; in November 1820 Mr. Whidby disco-
vered a second ossiferous cavern, and sent up the bones found in it to Sir Everard
Home, who described them in a paper read before the Royal Society, and published
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1821; in 1822 a third bone-cave was found at
Oreston; the fossils found in it were forwarded to Sir John Barrow, and described
by Mr. Clift in a pepe which was read before the Royal Society, and published in
the Philosophical Transactions for 1823.

On the authority of Professor Owen, the ossiferous caverns and fissures of De-
yonshire have yielded remains of the following species of mammals, namely :—

EXTINCT SPECIES.

Ursus priscuss...ccecevees Ke. O.

Ursus speleus.....++ .....Great Cave Bear. Ke. O. Ki. G. M. D.
Hyena spel@d....s.sees ..Cave Hyena. Ke. O. Ki. G. M. D.

POS SPCIAD ciao cle veins 0% Great Cave Lion, Ke. O, Ki. M.

Machairodus latidens...... Ke.

Lagomys spele@d ....sseees Cave Pika. Ke.

Elephas primigenius ...,..Mammoth. Ke, Ki. M.

Rhinoceros tichorhinus ....Tichorhine Two-horned Rhinoceros, Ke, O. Ki.
Exquus fossilis ....+0seees Fossil Horse. Ke. O. Ki. G. M.

Equus plicidens ..sveveves 0.

* Philosophical Transactions, 1817, p. 176.

122 REPORT—1859.

Asinus fossils... .6...5%. Fossil Ass or Zebra. O.

Hippopotamus major. ..... Large Fossil Hippopotamus. Ke. Ki. D.
Megaceros Hibernicus. ....Gigantic Irish Deer. Ke.

Strongyloceros speleus ....Gigantic Round-antlered Deer. Ke.
Cervus Bucklandi ........ Buckland’s Deer. Devon. Ki.

Bison Minor vivcevecvves O.

Bos longifrons. occ. veveves Long-fronted Ox. O. Ki.

RECENT SPECIES.
Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum Great Horseshoe Bat. Ke.

Sorex vulgaris... .....05. Shrew. Ke.

Meles tats... case... Badger. Ke. B.
Putorius vulgaris ........ Polecat. B.

Putorius ermineus ........ Stoat. Ke. B. O.? Ki.
‘COMS WUPUB vr. es ae .. Wolf. Ke. O. K. G.?
Vulpes vulgaris ws... ..u 0s Fox. Ke, O.

Felis cate Vi iay eel Wild-cat. Ke.
Arvicola amphibia ........ Water-vole. Ke. B. 0.? Ki.
Arvicola agrestis. .s....e. Field-vole. Ke. Ki,
Arvicola pratensis ........ Bank-yole. Ke.

Lepus variabilis oo... e eens Norway Hare. Ke. Kai.
Lepus cuniculus .....cve. Rabbit. Ke. B. Ka.
Cervus elaphus .......00 Red-deer. Ke. Ki.
Cervus tarandus......6.5. Rein-deer. B.

Cervus capreolus... 1.1.45 Roe-deer. Devon. O.

In the above list, initials are appended to the names for the eiges of showing in
what caverns the fossils are recorded to have been found: thus, Ke, Kent’s fas
Torquay; B, Berry Head, Ash Hole; O, Oreston; Ki, Kirkdale; G, Gower; M,
the Mendip Caves; and D, the Caves on Durdham Down, near Bristol.

In all there are thirty-three species, of which seventeen are extinct, and sixteen
still exist, a few of the latter being locally extinct. Three additional species have
been found in other British caves, but no traces of them seem hitherto to have
been met with in Devonshire, namely, the Common Mouse, found in the Kirkdale
Cavern; the Wild Hog, found in the caves of the Mendip Hills, and the Fallow
Deer, found, according to some authorities, in the caves of Kirkdale and Payiland.
Fourteen or perhaps sixteen species have been found at Oreston. Two species,
Cervus Bucklandi and Cervus capreolus, are assigned to Devonshire without the
cavern in which they were found being named. Hence nineteen or seventeen, as
the case may be, of the Devonshire list are unrepresented in the Oreston series.
The following species are, according to the present state of our knowledge,
peculiar to Oreston, namely, Asinus fossilis, Bison minor, Bos longifrons—all
extinct forms.

After the lapse of thirty-six years since Mr. Whidby’s last discovery of fossils
at Oreston, the quarrymen have found other caverns and fissures rich im bones, a
great number of which have been purchased by the author, and by him handed over
to the British Museum. The new cavern was discovered towards the close of 1858 ;
and from information obtained from an old quarryman, who pointed out the direc-
tion of Mr. Whidby’s caverns (all of which had been destroyed by the ordinary
quarrying operations), it appeared that the new one was in the same line,—as if the
various caverns had been so many enlarged portions of one and the same original
line of fracture.

The new cavern was about 90 feet long, and extended in adirection from north-
north-east to south-south-west, or very nearly that of the dip of the limestone beds.
It commenced about 8 feet below the top of the cliff and continued to its base, and
was about 52 feet high. At the top it was about 2 feet wide, gradually increasin
downwards, and reaching a width of 10 feet at bottom. The first or upper 5
feet were occupied with what the workmen call “gravel,” which consisted of an-
gular portions of the adjacent limestone, mixed with a comparatively small amount
of sand. This limestone debris varied in dimensions from fragments of the size of
hazel nuts to pieces ten pounds in weight. This accumulation was entirely free.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193

from stalagmite, and was in no part cemented. No traces of fossils were tound
in it. The next 82 feet in depth were occupied with materials similar to those just
mentioned (the sand being somewhat more abundant), with the addition of a
tough, dark, unctuous clay. Between this mass of heterogeneous materials and
the western, or what may be called the river-wall of the cavern, occurred a nearly
vertical brecciated plate or dyke, which the workmen denominated “ Callis ;” ex-
tremely tough, and quite as difficult to work as the compact limestone itself. It
may be described as an approximately vertical plate of stalactitic carbonate of
lime, containing, at by no means very wide intervals, masses of breccia, made up
of the materials just named as composing the accumulation in contact with and
on its eastern or hill side, and cemented together by carbonate of lime. Some of
these masses measured fully a yard cube, but the general thickness of the Callis
was about 2 feet. This was the bone-bed, that is to say the bones were found
alike in the Calls and in the mass of heterogeneous materials beside it, in the
cemented and uncemented portions of the bed. They were found alike at all
heights or levels, in the lumps of breccia, in the pure stalagmite between them,
and in the looser and less coherent portion of the accumulation; thereby suggest-
ing that the cavern was slowly and gradually filled with limestone debris detached
from the rock in which the cavern occurred, with sand transported, at least, some
distance, and with mud; not each in definitely successive periods, but together ;
with occasional pauses or periods of cessation ; the proof of such pauses being the
frequent presence of the portions of pure stalagmite separating series of brecciated
masses made up of angular limestones, clay, and sand, lying one above another in the
same nearly vertical plane. The rapidity of the infilling, and hence the time re-
quired for the process, seem of necessity to be measured by the rate of deposition of
the stalagmite, whatever that may have been. It appears, too, that throughout the
entire period—be it long or short—required for and represented by the accumu-
lation of the materials under consideration—alike during the periods of active and
of tardy accumulation—bones of various animals were introduced and inhumed,
and that there was no marked cessation in this part of the work, since the bones
were found as frequently in the pure stalagmite as elsewhere. The bones were
frequently in a very fragmentary condition, as if broken by fragments of rock falling
on them.

A somewhat considerable number of clay balls, generally ellipsoidal, and varying
from an inch and a half to two and a half in greatest diameter, were found in the
clay throughout the bone-bed, but not above or below it.

Beneath the materials just described, occurs a bed of dark, very tough, unctuous
clay, known to be 12 feet thick, but perhaps more, as its base has not been reached.

The workmen positively assert that the roof of the cavern, 8 feet in thickness,
was of sound unbroken limestone, and that the stones and other materials could not
have fallen in from above ; but unfortunately they with equal positiveness affirm that
there was no external opening whatever, either vertical, terminal, or lateral; the
author, however, is of opinion that there is ample reason for believing that the
eayern originally communicated with the surface by an opening sufficiently wide
.to allow the passage of all its contents, and that it was thus filled; but whether
animals fell, or were dragged in, or whether the bones found there were wholly or
ee telly the disjoined remnants of dead animals washed in, he would not under-
take to say.

In Sohelasinn Mr. Pengelly said, “ Without the pale of philosophy exists a many-
motived curiosity on this subject, quite as powerful, if not so intelligent or manage~
able, as that which leads, yet is under the guidance of science. Recent discoveries
have made it not a question of exploration now or at some future time; the alter-
natives are prompt systematic investigation, or the abandoning of our caverns to
be ienented by fossil dealers.”

On Slickensides. By Joun Price, M.A.

This communication (in the absence of the author read by J. J. Walker, M.A.)
included in the term “Slickensides” every mineral surface which, apart from
crystallization, exhibits an extraordinary degree of polish. The author invited
the attention of observers to it, and mentioned his having observed it én situ only

124 REPORT—1859.

in the neighbourhood of Birkenhead, and at Llysfaen near Abergele, and afew other
localities. In all these instances the author had observed éwo pairs of polished
surfaces, sometimes within a half-inch, sometimes two feet from another, the
intermediate space being occupied by rock more or less altered. These surfaces
always exhibit s¢rie more or less inclined. The author concluded by proposing
several questions with respect to the phenomenon, with a view to obtain light on it.

On a Fragment of Pottery found in Superficial Deposits in Paris.
By M. A. RapicueEt.

On the Origin of “ Cone-in-Cone.” By H. C. Sorsy, F.R.S. &c.

Cone-in-Cone is met with in so many stratified rocks, that most geologists must
be familiar with its general characters, though no one appears to have thoroughly
investigated it, or to have given any very satisfactory explanation of its origin.
The cones often occur in bands parallel to the stratification of the rock, their apices
starting from a well-defined plane ; and, after extending upwards or downwards
for a greater or less distance, with their axes perpendicular to the plane of the
stratification, they end in bases parallel to it, but not all at the same exact level,
some standing up above the general surface. They are not perfect cones, but are
of such forms as would result from the varied interference of surrounding cones,
and from the development of others within their own substance. On examining
thin, transparent sections with a low magnifying power, under polarized light, the
author had been able to ascertain that this peculiar structure is intimately connected
with some kinds of oolitic grains. In the formation of the most abundant variety
of oolitic grains small prismatic crystals of more or less pure carbonate of lime
were deposited round a nucleus in nearly the same amount on all sides, so as to
give rise to irregular ovoid bodies ; whereas, in the formation of cone-in-cone, very
similar crystals were Neus almost entirely on one side, along the line of the
axis of the cones, in sucha fan-shaped manner as to give rise to their conical shape.
In the thin sections of some specimens every connecting link between imperfect
oolitic grains and genuine cones can be seen to great advantage with polarized
light. The growth of the cones did not however proceed without interruption, for
other smaller fan-shaped groups were developed within the larger; and thus by
the mutual interference of contiguous groups and of others contained within them-
selves, there was formed a mass of irregular cones enclosing other cones. The
author therefore concludes that this structure is one of the peculiar forms of con-
cretions, formed after the deposition of the rock in which they occur, by the
crystallization of the carbonate of lime and other isomorphous bases.

On some Fishes and Tracks from the Passage Rocks and from the Old Red
Sandstone of Herefordshire. By the Rev. W. 8. Symonvs, M.A., F.G.S.

T have little to add to the Table of Sir Roderick Murchison, published in the
Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, giving a synoptical view of the Old
Red Sandstone of Britain and the Devonian rocks of Devonshire and the continent ;
vith the list of fossil fishes of the Old Red ichthyolites of England, Scotland and
Russia. The fishes of the Upper Ludlow rock can no longer be denominated as the
first of their class, for that most ancient known fish, the Pteraspis Ludensis, has been
detected both in the Lower as well as the Upper Ludlow rock.

Tt has been said that “Life is governed ie new conditions, and new conditions
imply new races ;” and I suspect that when more of the leaves of the massive volume
of historic geology are cut and deciphered, it will be found that whole tribes and
races of animals have been extinguished by geologists before they were extinguished
by Nature, while many were called into existence, and flourished for ages, though
as yet they have not been disinterred from their mausoleum of rock.

he Pteraspis Ludensis is known in the Lower Ludlow rock of Murchison, and
has been found in the Upper Ludlow deposits below the bone-bed ; while Pteraspis
Banksii, which occurs in the passage beds that link the Upper Silurians with the
Lower Old Red, appears to connect the passage rocks with the zone of the Old Red
charged with abundant remains of P. Lloydit, P. rostratus, and Cephalaspis Lyell.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 125

The Auchenaspis Salteri, Egerton, is a remarkable little Cephalaspidian fish, which
has hitherto been detected only in the grey passage beds of Ludlow and Ledbury.
I have for your examination an interesting specimen of this fish from the upper
limits of the grey beds which pass into red sandstones higher in stratigraphical
position than the true Auchenaspis grits, thus furnishing a very unequivocal proof
of a fossil fish passing the physical limits of its assigned position, and caught, flagrante
delicto, going upwards into ane which contain other species of Pteraspis and Cepha-
laspis than those with which the truant Auchenaspis should have associated.

have also the pleasure of introducing to your notice a head of Cephalaspis from
beds at the base of the grey beds which contain the Auchenaspis Salteri, and these
beds pass into red sandstones with-Silurian shells, and from them conformably into
the Downton sandstones which rest at the summit of the Silurian System. There are
among the specimens I now exhibit some good examples of the lower Old Red
ants.

Thetracksof thelower Old Red Sandstone, to which I would call your attention, are
developed on a large slab measuring 3 feet 2 inches by 2 feet 4inches. That well-
known geologist, the late Rev. T, I’. Lewis of Bristow, the friend and coadjutor of
Sir Roderick Murchison, when on a visit to the quarries of Puddlestone near
Leominster, saw this slab resting in situ on the upper working beds of the quarry,
He had it carefully quarried and conveyed to Bristow, A few days before his death
he expressed a wish that I might become the possessor, in memory of many happy
pon we had passed together among the rocks of the Old Red and the hills and vales
of Herefordshire. As an instance of the ripple-marking of waves that have for
myriads of ages ceased to flow, this Old Red slab would be a treasure to the geologist 5
but another feature presents itself, for we find that some animal has wended its way
directly across the ripple-marks, leaving the impressions of its movements as
distinctly marked as the human foot-tracks of the limestone of Guadaloupe. These
tracks are 1} inch in length; and not only is the trail preserved, but even the
folding of the sandy mud, by the indentation of a fish’s defence, or a crustacean’s
tailis preserved, and the raised surface of the old sea-shore, or littoral deposit, stands
out in bold relief. The stereoscope gives a slight idea of the remarkable indentations
of this slab. Since I came into this room I have met with a brother geologist, the
Rey. Mr. Smith of Peterhead, who recognizes these tracks as appearing in the Old
Red Sandstone of Rhyme, Aberdeenshire,

On the Rocks and Minerals in the Property of the Marquis of Breadalbane. '
By C. G. Tuost.

The district described in this paper extends for 100 miles from east to west. The
rocks are chiefly mica-slate, but talc-slate, chlorite slate, and hornblende rocks are
also very common in large masses, and in the north and north-west gneiss and.
granite, Calcareous varieties of the mica-slate also occur, sometimes in lenticular
masses of nearly pure limestone with 90 per cent. of carbonate of lime, Clay-slate
likewise appears very high up on the north side of Ben Lawers. The strike of the
rocks is generally EK. and W.; their dip low and various, especially where affected
by the intrusive rocks or the ridges and veins of quartz, The igneous rocks are
chiefly porphyries and greenstones, well seen at the Tomnadashan Mines on the
south side of Loch Tay. In that place the greenstones are evidently the older rock
as broken up by the porphyry, which has also introduced the mineral ores, These
are seen in it everywhere, but in the greenstone only where in contact with the
eee. These ores are, silver ore, copper pyrites, grey copper ore, iron pyrites,
and molybdena. They are most abundant near the greenstone, and often surround
the fragments as if the fluid mass had cooled sooner in these places, and thus col-
lected the metallic matters in more abundance. Near the richer deposits of
ore, other minerals, as cale-spar, in scalenohedron macles, dolomite, quartz, and
sulphate of barytes, also occur. Mines presenting similar conditions are inown
at Ardtallanaig, about a mile distant, and in many other places. Indeed the hills
east of Loch Tay near Taymouth literally swarm with veins of copper pyrites, iron
pyrites, and galena.

A serpentine vein near the upper end of Loch Tay contains chromite, and near
it the mica-slate has the mica replaced by graphite in considerable beds,

126 REPORT—1859,

At Tyndrum, where the mines have been longest wrought, there are thrée veins.

Besides quartz and the common spars, these veins contain copper pyrites, zinc-
blende, cobalt ore, titanitic iron, and iron pyrites, In one of the veins fragments of
mica-slate occur, In this neighbourhood also a yery remarkable vein of quartz is
seen, running for miles like a high wall over hill and yale. It appears in many
places to have disturbed the associated strata.
.. In conclusion, the author remarks that it is remarkable that Scotland should
possess so few mines. In this region the ores are very wide-spread, though only in
small quantity. Most of the discoveries have been made by the intelligent zeal of
the Marquis of Breadalbane, who takes a great interest in geological researches,

On some Old Red Sandstone Fossils. By J. Wyu.ie.

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY, 1inctup1Inc PHYSIOLOGY,

‘Address by Sir W1nL1AM JarviNE, Bart., President of the Section,

AtrHoues it has not been usual to occupy much time at the opening of the Sectional
Meetings, and in the address of last evening by our Royal President you were in-
formed of the general objects of the British Association, still it may be right that
I should remind the Section that our presence in this northern locality and the
peculiar and gratifying circumstances under which we have now met, are due to the
cultivation of pure and rigid science, and to the practical application of its principles.

In the early days of the British Association the circumstances which were con-
sidered desirable, nay, in some instances were thought indispensable for a successful
meeting, were a populous neighbourhood connected in some way with learning, or
with commerce or manufactures, and to which there was an easy and rapid access ;
thus the universities, capitals, and large towns of the south were an early choice;
and in 1833, 1834, or 1835, Aberdeen, as a future place of meeting, never entered into
the thoughts of the most devoted extender of science. The inhabitants of this great
city may look back with satisfaction upon their own enterprise, which, by the appli-.
cation of science, has so much modified and reduced time and distance and expense,
that hundreds of persons are enabled this day to meet together here and commune
with each other over the mighty agents which God has placed within their power.
To the same causes are we indebted for the proud position the British Association
now holds: Her Majesty and her Royal Consort give us their countenance and sup-
port, while Science enables them to communicate with London and the world
simply and freely, and thus it is that the peace of the world will be best preserved ;
for while on the one hand mind and science are engaged in continuing and perfecting
engines of destruction, of range and power far beyond what has ever been conceived
possible, they are at the same time widening and expanding the means of inter-
communication between the various nations of the world. I think, then, under
these circumstances, I am entitled to offer my congratulations upon our meeting in this
northern position, and to express my satisfaction at again joining many old friends
and associates ; and if a graver feeling sometimes steals over at the absence of those
whom we have been wont to meet, it is softened and brightened by the sight of the
many new members that have come I trust to assist and take part in our discussions,

Since we met last year in Leeds, Zoology and Botany I may say have steadily ad-
vanced. In Great Britain and Ireland the works which have been commenced in former
years—some have been finished, and others go on with their wonted energy, The fine
volumes incident to the Government expeditions, brought out at the public expense, and
under charge of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, have been mostly com-
pleted, with one exception, to which, we trust, the attention of Government will be
directed by some of our scientific friends in Parliament ; it is the Zoology of the Expe-
dition of the ‘Erebus’ and ‘Terror’ from 1839 to 1843. This was commenced in 1844,
and after a period of fifteen years, yet remains unfinished. The contributions to the
Natural History of Labuan and the adjacent coasts of Borneo, by Mr, Motley and

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127

Mr, Dillwyn, so beautifully commenced a few years since, and illustrating a Fauna
little known, has not been continued, and will, | much regret, cease to be so under its
original authors; for, in the fearful massacre that took place at Kalangan on the Ist
of May last, Mr. Motley and his family were the first to fall victims to the rage of
the natives. This unhappy loss will be a serious one for science. Mr. Motley
laboured hard in our particular walks ; but being chief engineer of the coal-mines in
the eastern division of Borneo, he had turned his mind to geology, and at the time of
his death was preparing a paper for this very Meeting upon the coal of those
countries, and upon ‘The Progress and Growth of New Coal Formations now pre-
paring for Future Ages.’ It may be recollected that among the grants of money
appropriated at our last Meeting to Section D, there was one to assist Mr. Eyton to
illustrate the comparative osteology of birds, to whick subject he has particularly
directed his attention. Two beautiful numbers have already appeared, and the
third is ready for publication. The periodicals devoted to zoology and botany con-
tinue to be well conducted. In these and in the Transactions of Learned Societies,
much facility and encouragement are given to the publication of valuable memoirs ;
and I may mention that in one branch which has not yet maintained a periodical for
itself, an experiment is being tried in Mr. Sclater’s ‘ Ibis,’ of which the first year’s
numbers will be completed in October. In Ireland, the Rev. C. O’Meara’s works
on ‘The Reproduction of the Diatomacez’ hold a first place. Mr. Archer’s papers
“On the Desmidiez’ are also able. In Zoology, marine life has been most advanced
by Dr. Kinahan, Profs. Green and W. King; while in the Dublin University a lec-
tureship in zoology has been founded, and shows its value by being well attended.
The importance of Publishing Societies has been generally acknowledged. Many of
us are members of the Ray Society, devoted to furthering the objects of our Section ;
and it gives me pleasure to lay before you Prof. Huxley’s beautiful volume on
“Oceanic Hydrozoa,’ observed during the voyage of H.M.S, ‘ Rattlesnake,’ now
ready for subscribers; and also the drawings and plates of Mr. Blackwall’s volume
on ‘Spiders,’ also far advanced. The members of our Learned Societies have occa-
sionally founded medals or prizes for the encouragement of men of science. You
will see presented to Sir R. Murchison during this Meeting the medal founded by
Sir T. Brisbane, President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh; and the late Dr.
Patrick Neil founded another medal, which has been this year awarded to a botanical
work of rare excellence, and beautifully illustrated, ‘The Reproductive Organs of
Lichens,’ by Dr. J. Lindsay.

The condition of our Public Museums is a very important subject. The discus-
sions upon the accommodation in our noble national collections, and of the propriety
of the separation of the Literary and Art Departments from the Physical will, I have
no doubt, bring out results favourable to both. Every facility for study, as far as
circumstances will permit, is already given by the courtesy and attention of the
officers ; but there is nevertheless a want of room and of suitable accommodations
to enable naturalists to compare specimens and solve questions, which their own or
other limited collections do not afford the means of doing. One great and important
feature is the arrangement and cataloguing of these collections. The officers of the
British Museum have worked hard in these departments, and its Catalogues now
reach to a numerous and valuable series of volumes. Some of these are well illus-
trated, while others are almost monographs. This year Dr. Gray has devoted one
to a portion of the Batrachians or Frogs, and Mr. F, Smith has published a capital
part ‘On the Fossorial Hymenoptera.’ The University Museum of Edinburgh is
one of great value, and besides possessing the rich mineralogical collection made by
its late able Professor, Jameson, it gained by purchase the entire zoological collection
of the late M. Dufresne of Paris, in which are many of the type-specimens men-
tioned and described in the zoological works published at the end of the last and
beginning of the present century. The formation of a Musenm of Technology under
Prof. George Wilson will, I trust, improve the condition of this part of the Univer-
sity, but at present the accommodation and income allowed for museum purposes
are not nearly sufficient, and it is impossible for the Regius Keeper to catalogue or
arrange or even preserve the collection, or to give that aid to study required at the
present time, without considerable additions to his staff of assistants. Among the
more local collections, the East India Company has set a fine example by publishing

128 REPORT—1859,

two excellent volumes, prepared by their late venerable curator, Dr. Horsfield ; in
his task of preparing this catalogue he has been ably assisted by Mr. I’. Moore, his
under-curator. ‘The Derby Museum of Liverpool will soon, we may hope, follow
the same course; it is a most valuable one, and contains many unique specimens
from our early expeditions. Its curator is quite adequate to the task. The Museum
of the University of this city has, I am glad to say, been much improved, and a local
collection is far advanced. I may remark that museums of this class should not,
as is too often the case, attempt a general collection. The great object should be
to obtain typical specimens, so as to explain the arrangements and the geogra-
phical distribution of animal life; afterwards a good British collection should be
brought together; and, lastly, the local Fauna and Flora should be illustrated.
Aberdeenshire, from its extensive seaboard and a country leading inward to a great
elevation, is very rich in the variety of its productions ; some of its ancient animals
are already almost “ forgotten,’’ and what remain, from various causes, are rapidly
decreasing in numbers, and are becoming gradually extirpated. Another object
should be the illustration of any branch of industry or commerce for which the
district is celebrated, and here there is a wide.field in the Arctic fisheries. But the
one great character of the present time is that of popular information—popular
works on all subjects. This is, no doubt, all in the right direction, and shows the
call for information; but it may be overdone. False information is worse than none.
Some of our great principles cannot be studied against time, and diluted chapters
from authors of reputation sometimes neither give the truth nor the author’s mean-
ing. These form a considerable staple in our weekly press. It is your duty then,
who are presumed to know something of the various branches you profess, to inform
and counsel and advise as far as you can the authors of those lesser works, when
they will take advice, and to endeavour that at least accuracy is carried out in their
endeavours to instruct others.

Upon the continent of Europe the progress of Zoology and Botany has been steady,
and in our foreign possessions there isan advance. ‘Ihe melancholy events that have
occurred in India and her unfortunate position have given a temporary shock there ;
yet the scientific journals of that country, which have brought so much to light,
continue, and there is no country where we have been so much indebted to our
military, engineering and medical officers for physical information. Their names
would form a very long list. Col. Sykes, now attending this Meeting, deserves every
praise ; and among Scotchmen you have Elliot and Jerdan, M‘Clelland and Adams,
—the latter an Aberdeenshire man, and who has brought many new objects of interest
to this country. In the younger countries we see advance more evident. Australia,
Van Diemen’s Land, and New Zealand, now that wealth permits leisure and
luxury, have attended to science, and in most of the journals of these countries
we have the papers of original observers, and by and by we shall have the results of
the study of the remarkable productions of these lands made where the animals and
plants live and grow. It is, however, in the New World where the greatest activity
at present prevails. She has already with credit to herself sent out scientific expedi-
tions of a general character, and those of Wilkes and Rae and Kane are wel! known,
and huge works have sprung from each; the extent of territory now claimed by the
American people has given rise to surveys and exploratory expeditions, and .these
are proceeding in all directions to fix the boundary lines, and the best railway routes
to the Pacific,—naturalists and draftsmen, in fact all the necessary staff, accompany-
ing each expedition, the results of which are published in reports to congress, in
which they are assisted by the Smithsonian Institution of Washington,—a remark-
able institution, supported by the munificent bequest of Mr. John Smithson, an
Oxonian. The publications for this year have been the third part of Dr. Hervey’s
‘Nereis Boreali Americana,’ and the large volume (1005 pages) ‘On North
American Ornithology,’ by Messrs. Baird and Cassin. The reports are also
devoted to general science, and will be found to possess great interest. ‘The work
of the greatest magnitude and importance to Natural Science in America, is ‘Con-
tributions to the Natural History of the United States,’ by Agassiz, originally
advertised to be completed in ten large volumes, but the subscription has so
well filled up as to allow its extension even beyond the contemplated limits. Two
volumes for the first year on the Testudinata or Tortoises, have been published,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 129

illustrated by thirty-four plates. An important part of these volumes is an intro
ductory essay, which has been re-published in this country separately in an octave
volume. Louis Agassiz’s ‘Essay on Classification’ embraces the whole range of
the subject, which he treats in a wider and more comprehensive and less mechanical
manner than has hitherto been done; but while I thus praise the work and the
manner in which it is treated, and agree with a great many of the positions he has
taken up, I must warn its readers that some subjects are treated of in a way Prof.
Agassiz will not be able to maintain, and that to those who are unable or unwilling
to think for themselves, the author’s reputation will prove a guarantee not altogether
to be trusted. It must be studied with great care and great caution; nevertheless I
look upon it as the remarkable book of the year. There is another work upon a
similar subject advertised, from which we may expect some curious reasonings, ‘ On
the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection,’ by Charles Darwin.

Let me now say a word for Section D. At the first Meeting in York, in 1831,
Zoologists and Botanists did not come forward in great numbers, and we had only
five members, Daubeny, Greville, Henslow, Lindley, and Prichard. There was no
Botanical paper, and only one on Zoology, ‘On the Crystalline Lens of Verte-
brata,’ by Dr. now Sir David Brewster. In 1832 and 1833 the British Associa-
tion met in Oxford and Cambridge—in 1834 at Edinburgh, where the attendance
was greater than on any previous occasion, 1298 tickets being issued there—Dublin
in 1835.

The proceedings of these first four meetings are extremely interesting, and a
perusal of the volumes containing the Reports will show you how this now great body
thought and acted in its early days; how it has crept on, and increased and matured
its plans until it reached the high position in science which it now holds; and that
I may not be said to think too highly of ourselves, or to state matters for which
there is no foundation, the work of Section D. since the 27th of September, 1831, up
to the conclusion of the Meeting for 1858, gives the following results :—There have
been read, Reports, 95; Papers, Zoological, 411; Botanical, 213; or, in all, 719
Reports and Papers; and the amount of money granted to Section D. for scientific
encouragement during the same period appears to have been about £1007. After
the position that I have mentioned to you that the literature of our subject holds, I
do not think that we can complain either of slowness or want of interest. Perhaps
we have not been so popular as the members of Section C., but we shall not quarrel
about which is the more important. I think we are mutually dependent on each
other, and cannot well go on separately. Their science allows great scope for the
imagination, and that may occasionally run riot. They have in charge the two great
materials of which we all acknowledge the importance, and without the assistance
of which we could not now be assembled here—coal and iron. We deal more in
facts; but if ladies and gentlemen would only look around them, they would soon
perceive that nearly all their necessaries and luxuries, whether of food or clothing; or
for the adornment of their mansions or persons, depend chiefly on animal and vege-
table products, and thus no one will dare to say that our Section is without interest;
but the manner of viewing this rests upon ourselves, and if we will study these
wonderful productions we see every day with minds impressed with the power
and goodness of God in placing them around us, we shall find the investigation of
them no weary work, but one full of interest and information. By these remarks
I do not wish to claim for the British Association any undeserved influence; but it
is now universally acknowledged that the example it has shown, and the various
links it has joined between the different departments and the people cultivating them,
have had a very decided influence on the promotion of science. At all the meetings
of this Association which I have attended I have observed a great impulse given,
both in the preparation for the meetings and after their conclusion; and if you will
give it your attention, you will find that after we have left you, various matters will
appear in other lights than those wherein you formerly viewed them. Various sub-
jects will be suggested to you, and many of you will try to study and master this or
oe Be your inclination leads, and my wish is that you may persevere and be suc-
cessful,

1859. - 9

130 : RBPORT—1859.

BorTany.

On some Uses to which the Nuts of the Vegetable Ivory Palm (Phytelephas
macrocarpa) is applied. By Grorce Bennett, M.D., F.L.S. &c., of
Sydney, New South Wales.

The Palm producing these nuts is found in South America about the river Magde-
lena, and is one of that class, throwing up large fronds from the roots, having no eleva-
tion of the trunk, and producing its large masses of fruit at the base of the enormous
leaves. Some years since the nuts were only regarded as merely curiosities, and
were also carved into fancy heads of dogs and other animals for the handles of
parasols, umbrellas, and walking-sticks, for which purpose they still continue an
article of commerce ; but during a recent visit to Birmingham, | found that for the
last two years these nuts have been used in that city in the manufacture of buttons ;
they are found durable and capable of receiving the various dyes equal to ivory, and
are made at cousiderably less price than the latter material. This substance was
first used for shirt buttons, but having been found to become discoloured, probably
by the soap used in washing, fell into disuse until the dyeing them of various
colours was adopted. The price of the nuts varies from twenty-two to thirty-two
shillings per ewt., according to the quality and demand ; and it is considered that
from 400 to 500 tons are annually consumed in Birmingham, and gives employment
to about 500 persons,

As regards the quantity of buttons manufactured, it of course varies; but one
manufactory has been said to have made in one of their busy months as many as
six thousand gross of all qualities and sizes ; and the average quantity made in
Birmingham per month may reach from eight to ten thousand gross. The buttons
are used principally for gentlemen’s jackets and vests, and also for ladies’ mantles
and children’s dresses. The machinery employed is of different form from that
used in the ordinary button manufacture, and enables the manufacturer to form the
shapes cheaper and with more rapidity than by the ordinary lathe, [Specimens
were exhibited showing the nut in the natural state when removed from the massive
drupe in which it was contained, and in the various stages of manufacture; and
also a series of buttons dyed of various colours, and arranged in the mixed varieties
for commercial purposes.| The prices per gross vary, but they are sold at a cheap
rate in comparison with similar articles made of other materials that are capable of
receiving dyes of any durability. The refuse of the nuts is at present not used for
any special purpose. ‘

On the Failure of Bright Coloured Flowers in Forest Trees to produce
Pictorial Effect on the Landscape, unless accompanied by abundance of
Green Leaves. By Grorce Burst, LL.D., F.R.S, Lond. & ‘Edinb.,
F.G.S., Corr. Memb. Geog. Soc. Vienna, §e.

in Northern Europe there is scarcely anything deserving the name of forest tree
that affords flowers of sufficient brilliancy and size at any season of the year to
affect the general colouring of the landscape ; no tree or even bush of any magni-
tude puts forth its flowers until it is in leaf, The laburnum, lilac, roan tree, and
hawthorn, are not deserving of the name of trees, ‘The apple, the pear, and the
guim tree, though in full fower before they are more than partially in leaf, are still
in part tinted with green when their first flowers appear. The flowers of the
chestnut, the horse-chestuut and the lime, beautiful as they are seen at a distance,
approach so nearly to the general colour of the leaves, that the stranger to England,
ignorant of their existence, could scarcely discover them half a mile away,

In India it is altogether different ; with a brilliant display of flowers on some one
variety of tree or other, of the very largest size, all the year round, many of the
most gorgeous of them flower in winter, when the tree itself, and probably most of
those around it, bear not one trace of green; and the result is, that the tree affording
branches, which examined in the hand seem of unsurpassable beauty, are, when
seen in the forest, rather an offence than a pleasure to the eye.

The Bombax malabaricum, the Erythrina indica, Cochlospermum Gossypium, Butea

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, “131

Jrondosa, &e,, all flower when leafless; the flowers of all are beautiful in the
hand; in the landscape they have no effect whatever.

The same cause that prevented me providing such a collection as I could have
desired of illustrations of the geology of rocks around Suez, has precluded me
providing anything like the supplies requisite to establish my position in the present

‘notice; and I could have especially desired to have added to those prepared for
another purpose, but which must do duty in this also; a series of the magnificent
flowers which clothe our forests in. summer when they are in their fullest glory of
green.

The representations of individual flowers, as found in our scientific works, are
sufficient to indicate their outline, general aspect, and botanical character ; they fail
altogether to convey any idea of their magnitude, and the magnificence of their
appearance as seen in the forest, A bunch of flowers of the Poinciana regia
seldom occupies less than a cubic foot ; a single lotus Hower has a diameter of seven
inches; the snow-white transparent shaped flower of the Datura alba is seven
inches from the calyx to the top of the petal, and four inches across. A single
bunch of the flowers of the Lagerstremia regina, or of the Acacia fistula, will
occupy a square foot of paper; and a sheet of elephant of six square feet in surface
is about the smallest sized piece of paper on which a bunch of forest flowers should
be drawn, if it be intended to give anything like an idea of them as they appear
on the tree.

The examples now sent are :-—

1. The Butea frondosa; 2. Bombax malabaricum; 3, the Eriodendron anfrac-
fuosum; 4. the Cochlospermum Gossypiim—two of these being given both in flower
and in fruit, They require no description ; they indicate what is meant to be illus-
trated by them.

The two other drawings—the Bignonia grandiflora and Bougainvillea—are the only
i!lustrations of the converse position I have been able to prepare,

These require no description ; the least effective, or rather the most distressing of
them to the eye in the forest, are the Butea frondosa and Bombax malabaricum.

The drawing of the latter indeed in its seed-pods and wort, with only a couple of
flowers, shows better pictorially, with its brown, black, green pods, than its
bunches of crimson flowers.

The only illustrations of the converse I have been able to draw—we have them in
the forest in hundreds of thousands—are the Bougainvillea and the Bignonia gran-
diflora—both creeping plants, neither of them indigenous, plentiful in all our
gardens, and in flower and leaf from December till May, a season at which our indi-
genous plants (which I meant to have drawn in addition) are either in flower only
or in leaf only.

The two chance to cover the roof of my cottage for about thirty feet across and
fifty along, and festoon and intertwine themselves amongst the trellis-work and in
trees, producing chromatic effects of infinite beauty.

The Bignonia has a trumpet-shaped flower somewhat larger than that of the
common honeysuckle, hanging in bunches nearly the size of the hand, and of thirty
or forty flowers each; the bunches themselves being rarely more than from six to
ten inches apart. The Bougainvillea has small yellow insignificant-looking flowers,
but they are enclosed in bracts of leaves, three in number, which from January till
June are of the most beautiful amethystine purple, so gorgeous, indeed, as to conceal
in a considerable measure the natural green leaves of the plant. The branches on
which they grow are perfectly straight thorny twigs, from three to seven feet in
length, with tendrils at intervals to attach them to any support in their neighbour-
hood. The two plants under review, beautiful when apart, are singularly so when
combined. The contrast of the colours of the flowers, which might seem abrupt and
harsh, is softened by the green of the leaves; this in the two being of a hue alto-
gether different, I have never seen an artist who was not fascinated with the exhibi-
tion, My drawings are so imperfect in colour and so feeble, that I do not feel cer-
tain that in this case they will afford so much as an illustration of my meaning,

Illustrations of both my positions may be derived from dress, ‘The most elegantly
attired female, if arrayed in parti-coloured garments, looks spotty and ineffective as
a portion of the landscape in a grove or avenue of trees; even in Hyde Park or

132 REPORT—1859.

Kensington, the only effective dresses are the Royal Liveries and uniforms of the
troops.

Te Tai, again, nothing can be more effective, pictorially speaking, than a group
of Parsee ladies, either in deep shadow of a grove, or in bright sunshine, with the
simple dresses of China silk of uniform colour, or of not more than two and three,
the most marked and emphatic, black, white, yellow, orange, or crimson, or two of
them perhaps combined.

Note on some Peculiarities of the Silk Trees or Bombacee of Western
India. By Georce Buist, LL.D. F.RS.

The Bombaceez about to be noticed are,—1. The Adansonia digitata. 2. The
Bombax malubaricum. 3. The Bombax Pentandrum of Roxburgh, or Eriodendron
anfractuosum. 4. Cochlospermum Gossypium.

The Adansonia digitata is not a native of India. It is believed to have been intro-
duced from Africa or from Korassan by the Portuguese some 300 years ago. In
Malwa it is known by the name of “‘ Korrasanee umlee,” the Korrassan Tamarind
—a decoction of the fruit tasting bitter and subacid like that of the pod of the wild
tamarind. Graham describes it as prevailing chiefly on the sea-coast, its growth
being promoted by the fishermen for the sake of its wood, which, on account of its
lightness, makes excellent floats for their nets. It seems for half a century and
more to haye become as plentiful in the interior as on the shore. The ruins of the
city of Mandoo near Indore, and of Bejapore in the southern Mahratta country, are
surrounded or filled with it. Photographs of the tree from the latter locality will be
found amongst the illustrations, showing, along with the drawings of Bombay trees,
how sadly it is misrepresented in the best of our English botanical works, The
largest of these trees I have met with measured 45 feet in girth ; but we have them
I believe twice as thick as this, flourishing in localities where they could not have
existed for more than a century. The marvellous longevity ascribed to it from its
size and the number of its rings seems without any foundation whatever. I have of
late made portraits with measurements. I regret I have been so late in undertaking
the task for every Adansonia of above 10 feet girth in Bombay, and a few years’
observation will show the rate at which the trunk itself extends, The rapidity of
its growth is surpassed by the extraordinary celerity of its decay; attacked by the
grub of the larger Capricorn beetle, the Lamia sentis, the tree is eaten down in a
few months. In 1842 a tree 45 feet girth was totally swept off by these hideous
grubs from the face of the earth in six months. An account of the phenomenon
was published at the time ; a drawing of the tree will be found amongst the illus-
trations. I was in hopes of being able to send, for the inspection of the Association,
the lower cut of a tree 18 feet in girth, which has been literally eaten across this
spring, the top lying prostrate beside the trunk. I was unable to get it cut down in
time, but hope it will make its appearance in England before the year is at at an
end. The Adansonia begins to get into leaf in June; it flowers in July or August.
The individual flowers are pure white, and of singular beauty, but of an odour so
foetid, that it requires some strength in the olfactories to get them drawn.

The Bombax malabaricum is a very large straight-stemmed tree, its bark and
branches covered over with tremendous prickles. It is said to be a Brahman pe-
nance to climb up the tree ; but the decree, like that which forgot to forbid the monk
from boiling the peas he was ordered to have in his shoes on his pilgrimage, omits
interdicting proper precautions now, and breeches and sleeves of leather may be
made strong enough to defy or tear off the prickles. It flowers in February, and
continues in flower till April. In the hand a branch in flower is gorgeous, in the
forest no effect whatever is produced by it. The flowers, which when spread out
present a circular surface of 2 inches in diameter, have the faculty of secreting a
large amount of sweetish moisture; the birds, especially the crows, drmk with
avidity. That this is not dew, but a secretion from the plant, I ascertained by en-
closing a number of flowers in wide-mouthed bottles, and making all tight with wet
membrane, so as to cut off all communication with the air, without injuring the
‘petals, or interfering with circulation or respiration. On an average they afforded
about fifty grains weight a day from each flower. The same thing goes on for several

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133

days in the case of branches kept in a room; and I often had a drawing destroyed
by the accidental spilling of half a tea spoonfull of mucilaginous water on the
paper. ‘The seed-pod when ripe is black; and I trust those now forwarded will
reach in sufficient safety to manifest the manner in which the seed with its silky
covering is packed up and afterwards dispersed. Each seed is about the size of a
small garden pea. It is, when in the pod, enveloped in a little cube of silk about
half an inch each way, slightly yellowish in the exterior. Liberated by the bursting
of the pod, when dry it flies out into the most beautiful smoke-like spirals and whorls
that can be imagined. Some few flowers generally remain on the tree till the bulk of
the seed-pods are ripe. The extraordinary beauty of the various portions of the seed-
pod of the Cochlospermum Gossypium (of which two varieties are sent) will be seen
from the specimens accompanying.

Note on the Aversion of certain Trees and Plants to the Neighbourhood of
each other. By GrorceE Bust, LL.D., PRS.

The accompanying drawings will afford some striking illustrations of the aversion
of certain plants to the vicinage of each other, not on the score of want of light, but
on that of want of air. I do not know that there is anything peculiar to our Indian
vegetation in this beyond what might be looked for from the heat of the sun and
the rapidity and Juxuriance of the vegetation. ‘The first example is that of two
Casuarina trees eight years old, 40 feet in height, and 32 inches in girth, growing to
the right and left of the portico of my house. The house itself stands nearly north
and south ; the portico and much of the roof is covered with creeping plants. The
Casuarinas on each side bend away from this in nearly equal curves, one inclining to
the north, and the other to the south, receding 2 feet 8 inches at the height of 12
feet, so long as they are opposite to the other plants; when above the roof of the
portico, they regain their perpendicularity immediately.

The other case is that of young teak and a date palm, of no great size, and their
aversion to each other’s neighbourhood is still more conspicuous. I have taken offsets
with a plumb andrule from each so as to give the precise amount of their retirement.

A Diatomaceous Deposit found in the Island of Lewis. By H.Caunter.

_ The deposit contained several species of Diatomacez, and is situated in a lake-dis-
trict 150 feet above the level of the sea, and had evidently been deposited from a lake
now dry. It is situate in the western part of Uig, about five miles from the parish
church,

An Account of the more remarkable Plants found in Braemar.
By Mr. Croatt.

Notes on the Upper Limits of Cultivation in Aberdeenshire.
By Professor Dickie, MD.

In a previous communication it has been shown that the three upper zones of
vegetation in Britain are well-represented in Aberdeenshire. Adopting as our
standard Mr. Watson’s characteristics (‘Cybele Britannica,’ &c.) of the Agrarian
Region in Britain, we find that since certain species of indigenous plants, whose
presence marks the Infr-agrarian and Mid-agrarian Zones, are absent frora Aber-
deenshire, as well as from the two neighbouring counties, and, I believe, from Scot-
land, the Supr-agrarian is the only one of the three which can apply to this district.

The upper limit of Péteris aquilina (the common Brake Fern) is considered also
as marking the upper limit of the supr-agrarian zone, and therefore also that of cul-
tivation in Britain. The limit of this Fern in Aberdeenshire varies from 1600
to 1900 feet ; very rarely, however, does it attain the latter. In some localities, on
the bare stony sides of hills, I have found the limit to be 1600 to 1700 feet: even in
places where there is no cultivation, the common Mole makes its tunnels at about the
same height. On Morven have seen it at 1723 feet; and near Ballater, at Brakely,
it reaches 1642; at the Pulock Moss, 1735 ; and on the Khoil, 1800 feet.

At various places, even more than forty miles from the sea-board, cultivation at
high altitudes is frequent ; farms at an elevation of one thousand feet are numerous,

134 ‘ REPORT—1859.

and some are farhigher. The heights of the following places, where oats, barley, &c.
are or have been grown, were ascertained by means of the mountain sympiesometer
and aneroid: Near Ballater—the Line 1108, Corrybeg 1126, Lin Mui 1300,
Easter Morven 1400; Braemar—Castleton 1160, Tomantoul 1500, Glen Lui, &c.
1600; Gairn- side—Glen Fenzie 1500 ; Strathdon—Brasacheil 1383 feet. The river
Don at the Bridge of Corgarf is 1280 "above the sea; and at places near it, cultiva-
tion extends much higher.

At the farm of Lin Mui above-mentioned, there are several old Ash trees : the two
largest of these in 1843 J found to be, at the base, respectively five feet and four
feet six inches in girth; at present (September 1859) their girths are five feet six
and five feet four inches : their rate of growth at such elevation is therefore slow. At
Altguisach, near Loch Muick, above 1400 feet above the sea, and fifty miles inland,-
most of the ordinary culinary plants are grown, also the smaller fruits, as red, white,
and black currants; &c. ; Bay aud Portugal Laurels, standard Roses, &c., also suéceed.
There are likewise thriving Larch trees, the girths of four of the largest of which
were recorded in 1843 (Dr. Dickie on Forest and other trees of Aberdeenshire,
‘Scottish Agricultural Journal’). In that year they had each respectively a circum-
ference, near the ground, equal to four feet nine, four feet five, four feet, and three
feet six inches; these trees are now (September 1859) equal to five feet seven, five
feet six, five feet four, and five feet: they have therefore grown more rapidly, in
proportion, than the Ash trees already alluded to. The garden of Achernach in
Strathdon is at least 1250 feet above the level of the sea, and about fifty miles
inland; opposite it is the Greenhill, not less than 1500 feet in height, which in the
earlier months of the year prevents the free access of the sun’s rays. The produce
of this garden is reported as considerably later in arriving at maturity than at some
places in the vicinity: at these last, the season of the smaller fruits is over before
they are ripe at Achernach.

A few records have been consulted with the view of ascertaining the average period
necessary for the maturing of oats at different elevations, and at various distances
from the sea : though not sufficiently numerous to afford satisfactory conclusions, it
may be interesting for the present to state them. At elevations not exceeding five
hundred feet above the sea, and about twenty miles from the coast, the mean time
is one hundred and seventy-two days; at places exceeding one thousand feet, and
from forty to fifty-five miles inland, the result is one hundred and seventy-nine days.

Remarks on the Flora of Aberdeenshire. By Dr. Dickts, Professor of
Natural History, Queen's College, Belfast.

A summary of the physical characters of the county may be first given. A line
from Peterculter on the borders of Kincardine to Pennan on the borders of Banffshire,
separates two portions which present very different physical aspects ; the part to the
east of this line presents no elevation exceeding 900 feet; to the west there isa
general and increasing elevation of the surface. ‘This becomes obvious if we trace
the levels of the two principal rivers, the Dee and Don; the former has an elevation of
1640 feet, at a distance of seventy miles—in a straight line—from its termination; the
‘Don, fifty-five miles inland, is 1240 feet above the sea. Again, if we take a general
view of the heights of mountains in sections of ten miles from east to west, we observe
a regular increase in height, till we reach a zone in which none of the numerous
mountains are lower than 2000 or 3000 feet; and many exceed 4000,—the extreme
elevation being that of Ben Muich os a viz. about 4320 feet, and therefore in Britain
second only to Ben Nevis.

Omitting here other details respecting, the shore-line, prevailing rocks and soil,
temperature, rain, &c., the following ‘is‘a summary of conclusions respecting the
vegetation.

Excluding upwards of forty species, many of which, though now extensively
diffused, have doubtless been introduced at a comparatively recent period, the indi-
genous flowering plants amount to 635, consisting of 458 Dicotyledons, and 177
‘Monocotyledons: these are distributed among 53 natural orders of the former,
and 11 of the latter. The flora, therefore, is not rich as regards mere numbers,
nevertheless it comprehends many species of great interest. Adopting the following
views of Mr, Watson as to type of distribution i ip Britain, we are-better prepared to

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135

understand the peculiarities of the Aberdeenshire flora. The British type compre-
hends those of almost general occurrence in England and Scotland; the English,
those general in England and rare in Scotland, or absent front the northern districts ;
the Scottish, those which are rather general in the lower districts of Scotland, some
being found also in the north of England, but disappearing southwards ; the Ger-
manic, those confined mainly to the south-east of England ; the Atlantic compre-
hends species found principally in the west, and rare or wanting in the east; the
Highland type comprehends those which characterize the mountains of Wales,
those of the north of England and of Scotland—some, however, descend to the sea-
shore in the north and west of Scotland; in the Local type are included a few species
80 partial in occurrence as not to come under any of the other types.

The flora of Aberdeenshire includes only nine of the English, two of the Ger-
manic, and of the Atlantic type only one; plants of these types, form, therefore, a
very small proportion of the entire number, and are for the most part very local. Of
the British type there are 485 species, consisting of 353 Dicotyledons, and 132
Monocotyledons; those of the Scottish type are 47 in number, comprehending
more than one-half of the British species referred to that type—some of these, as
Linnea, Goodyera, Trientalis, &c., are very plentiful near Aberdeen and in the
lower district generally. Those of the Highland type are estimated at 100 in the
whole British Flora; of these, eighty-nine species are found in Aberdeenshire, some
of which are confined to the inland districts, a few others descend even to the sea-
level. In the interior, at different altitudes, we meet with such plants as Thalictrum
alpinum, Nuphar pumila, Aratris petrea, Cerustium alpinum, Astragalus alpinus,
Mulgedium alpinum, Arbutus alpina, Veronica alpina, and various interesting species
of Saxifraga, Hieracium, Salix, Juncus, Carex, and Poa.

In addition, therefore, to many of the species which are widely diffused in Britain,
Aberdeenshire is characterized by a general intermixture of those belonging to the
Scottish and Highland types. ,

The physical characters of the country, already indicated, are such that it presents
an excellent field for studying the distribution of the species in zones of altitude.
In many of the lower districts the British and Scottish types occur in fair proportion,
with occasionally a few of the Highland type; as we pass to the interior, many of the
British and Scottish become rare, and finally disappear ; about the highest points the
species are few, and belong solely to the Highland, the flora becoming entirely
Arctic in character. Thus only seven species, all of that type, are found on the
extreme summit of Ben Muich Dhui, in the proportion of four Monocotyledons to
three Dicotyledons.

The three zones of the Arctic Region in Britain, as defined by Mr. Watson in his
‘ Cybele Britannica,’ are on the whole well defined in Aberdeenshire, viz. the infr-,
mid-, and supr-arctic. In the first of these, embracing an elevation of 1600 to
2100 feet, the flora presents a mixture of British, Scottish, and Highland species ;
in the second or mid-arctic, from 2100 to 3000 feet, the British and Scottish
types are rarer, and the more interesting species of the Highland prevail; in the
supr-arctic, from 3000 to 4320 feet, Highland species are most general, and at the
extreme points, as already stated, they alone are found, and only a few species,—the
flora at such extreme elevations being, therefore, far more meagre than even in the
highest latitude of the Arctic zone known to us, Dr. Kane having found more than
twenty flowering plants in latitude 81° N.

On the Temperature of the Flowers and Leaves of Plants.
By E. J. Lows, F.L.S.

During the spring and summer of the present year, I have made some hundreds
of thermometric observations in order to ascertain the temperature of plants and
flowers in comparison with that of the air and of grass. For several months, grass
was always colder than flowers ; but when hot summer weather set in, the reverse
took place frequently. An extract from this series will show the state of the tem-
perature at different times :—

February 26th. Greatest heat on grass 50°0, on Crocus vernus 54°°0, and on Crocus
aureus 54°°5.
‘Match 28th. Greatest heat on grass 61°5, on Narc’ssus pseudo-narcissus 63°°7.

136 REPORT—1859.

April lst. Greatest cold on grass 10°-0, on Narcissus pseudo-narcissus 10°°5.

April 7th. Greatest heat on grass 82°°5, on Sazifraga biflora 84°°7.

April 8th. Greatest heat on grass 40°'9, on Bellis perennis 41°°8.

April 9th. Greatest heat on grass 65°°2, on Bellis perennis 66°°7.

April 17th. Greatest heat on grass 68°7, on leaves of Bellis perennis 71° 0.

April 21st. Greatest heat on grass 64°°8, on Sawxifraga biflora 73°°8, and on Alyssum
tortuosum 67°°3.

April 22nd. Greatest cold on grass 21°°6, on leaves of Valeriana tuberosa 23°°0.

. Greatest heat on grass 50°2, on leaves of Valeriana tuberosa 53°°8, on Alyssum
tortuosum 54°°5, on Daphne eneorum 57°5, and on Iberis sempervirens 61°-0.
April 23rd. Greatest heat on grass 57°°5, one foot above grass 54°°3, two feet above
grass 52°°5, on Daphne cneorum 69°7, on Gentiana acaulis 73°°8, on Veronica

alpina 68° 1, on Iberis sempervirens 66°°0.

May 2nd. Greatest heat on grass 60°°5, on Iberis sempervirens 63°°2, and on Alyssum
tortuosum 64°°2.

May 3rd. Greatest heat on grass in shade 58°4, on Alyssum tortuosum 65°'6.

May 5th. Greatest heat on grass 63°-0, on leaves of Sedum acre 66° 1, on leaves of
Dianthus deltoides 61°°9, on Alyssum tortuosum 68°-0, on Iberis sempervirens
75°°5, on Gentiana acaulis 76°'8.

May 6th. Greatest cold on grass 28°°9, on leaves of Lilium Martagon 28°7, and on
leaves of Hyacinthus orientalis 31°°2.

Greatest heat on grass 69°2, on Gentiana acaulis 73°°8, on Anemone Hortensis

79°°0.

May 7th. Greatest cold on grass 32°°0, on leaf of Brassica oleracea 33°°8, on leaves
of Althea rosea 33°°6, and on leaves of Thymus vulgaris 35°°2.

Greatest heat on grass 68°4, on Anemone hortensis 74°°0, and on Gentiana

acaulis 74°°3.

May 8th. At 2h 45m p.m. temperature on grass 70°0, on Hyacinthus albus 74°'1,
and on Bellis hortensis 74°°4.

Greatest heat during the day on grass 85°-0, on Bellis hortensis 87°'0, on Phlox

procumbens 88°°7, and on Hyacinthus albus 82°°9.

The above examples will be sufficient to show that the readings of thermometers
placed close above flowers are almost always higher than of those placed above

Tass.

The mean of thirty-nine readings on Gentiana acaulis shows this flower to be 2°

warmer than that of grass, the greatest difference being 7°°9. Other observa-

tions show Daphne cneorum to be 1°°2 warmer than grass, the greatest difference

being 3°°7 ; Iberis sempervirens 2°°3 warmer; Alyssum tortuosum 2°°3 warmer 5

Saxifraga biflora 3°°0 warmer ; Red daisy 1°7 warmer ; White daisy 0°°2 warmer ;

Veronica alpina 1°°9 warmer; and Alyssum tortuosum 2°'4 warimer than the leaves of

Reseda, and 2°3 warmer than the leaves of the hollyhock. The greatest differ-

ence has occurred with a yellow tulip: it was never less than 10° warmer than grass,

and on May 15th was 12°°5 warmer.

The observations have been made with a delicate set of instruments furnished
expressly for the purpose by Messrs. Negretti and Zambra, and the flowers have
been experimented upon both from the growing plant and from cut flowers placed in
bottles of water. The above observations have all been taken in sunshine ; however,
from experiments made in the shade, it is found that the difference becomes much
less.

Remarks on the Cultivation of the Opium Poppy of China.
By Dr. M‘Goway.

Remarks on Vegetable Morphology and the Theory of the Metamorphosis of
Plants. By Maxwe.u T. Masters.

In this paper the morphological views held by the Greek botanical writers were
briefly passed in review; and especial attention was called to a quotation from
Nicholas of Damascus, which seems to show that the foliar nature of the fruit was
not unsuspected by Aristotle and the other writers to whom Nicholas was chiefly”

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137

indebted for his opinions; moreover such an origin of the fruit was assumed on
physiological grounds that are strikingly in accordance with modern views. In the
middle ages botany shared the fate of most other branches of learning ; but towards
the end of the 13th century, Albertus Magnus, a Dominican friar, wrote sundry
treatises on botanical as well as on other subjects, which prove him to have pos-
sessed ideas much in advance of his age. He directed attention to the relationship
existing between the simplicity of vegetable life and functions, and the nearly
homologous nature of the external and internal parts of plants.

The systematic writers of the 16th and 17th centuries did not pay much atten-
tion to the theoretical construction of the flower, although they recognized the
foliar nature of the calyx and corolla, Joachim Jung, professor at Hamburg, who
died in 1657, seems to have understood the true nature of several parts of the plant,
such as the root and stem, compound flowers, &c. A century later, Wolf published
his ‘ Theoria Generationis,’—an essay remarkable for the account of the development
of the flower and its parts. The order of successive appearance in the different
whorls of the flower, as given by Wolf, is not in accordance with more recent in-
vestigations; nor is his hypothesis, that the stamens are to be considered as buds
axillary to the petals, consonant with their true position with reference to the petals.
This notion, somewhat modified, however, has met with supporters in recent times,
in the persons of Agardh and Endlicher. Neither Linnzus nor Goethe have ex-
pressed themselves so clearly on the subject of the metamorphosis of plants as Wolf
has done, who, after referring all the parts of the flower to the leaf type, says, “‘ in
a word, we see nothing in the whole plant, whose parts at first sight differ so re-
markably from each other, but leaves and stem, to which latter the root is referable.’’
The proper mode of investigating the morphological nature of the organs of plants
is pointed out, and the formation of the flower is, in pursuance of this method, re-
ferred to a gradual diminution in the powers of vegetation.

The chief points in the more widely known ‘ Prolepsis Plantarum’ of Linnzeus, were
then alluded to, to show that Linnzus, from original research in natural as well as
in abnormal formations, had arrived at the same result as Wolf had done from the
study of progressive development.

Linnzus’s inductions were marred by hypothetical assumptions as to the bud-like
nature of the petals, stamens, &c., the relationship between the whorls of the flower
and the layers of the stem, and the fanciful theory of anticipation. Linneus’s re-
marks on the nature of buds, supported by a comparison with Volvox globator, is,
however, quite consistent with the modern doctrine of metagenesis.

The essays of Wolf and Linnzus were published so nearly at the same time, that
it is hardly possible to assign the priority to either in enunciating the foliar nature
of all the floral whorls, and of thus originating the modern doctrine of metamor-
phosis. Wolf’s first essay preceded that of Linnzus; his second essay, though
published six years subsequently to that of Linnzus, is a revision of the first; and
in it is contained by far the clearest account of the morphology of the flower,—an
account deduced from the investigation not only of facts similar to those which led
Linneus to his conclusions, but also of the development of the flower—a line of re-
search which he had originated, and the results of which he had published before
the appearance of the ‘ Prolepsis.’ For these reasons the author considered the chief
merit to be due to Wolf.

Goethe’s ‘Essay on the Metamorphosis’ was published thirty years after the
essays of Wolf and Linnzus just referred to ; and although on many points Goethe
was anticipated by previous writers, there can be little doubt that with Goethe the
idea was an original one; that from Linnzus he gained, directly, little, from Wolf
nothing. Had it not been for Goethe’s memoir, neither the essays of Wolf nor of
Linnzus would have sufficed to establish the theory on so firm a basis as that on
which it now rests. Goethe considered the so-called nectaries as intermediate
stages between the petals and the stamens, explaining in this way the corona of
Narcissus, Passiflora, &c. This view is opposed to that of Schleiden. The author of
this paper adduced several circumstances based upon actual observation and upon
analogy, in support of the opinion held by Goethe. It is well known that DeCan-
dolle’s classification of fruits was based on Goethe’s explanation of the true nature
of this organ—wherein, however, the poet-philosopher was completely forestalled by

138 REPORT—1859,

Wolf, and to a less extent by Linnzus. Instances were cited to show that Goethe,
by reason of what he wrote on the nature of buds, their homologies with seeds, the
phenomena of vegetative reproduction and growth, the successive production of node
after node, the doctrine of alternate expansion and contraction, &c., may fairly be
considered as the pioneer of the doctrine of the rejuvenescence of plants, of the
theory of the vibrations of the metamorphosis, and, to a less extent, of that of
metagenesis.

The paper concluded with some remarks on the axis as playing an essential part
in the metamorphosis, and on the difficulty in some few cases of distinguishing with
absolute certainty between axis and stem,—the author believing that in these cases
mere expediency led writers to refer certain organs to the leaf or to the axis re-
spectively, and to make the assertion that there are no intermediate stages between
stem and leaf. Rather may we not consider leaf and axis as parts of one and the
same organ—that in most cases both parts are developed and take part in the meta-
morphosis, while in other cases the one predominates over the other? Is not this
view consistent with the absolute identity of original structure and with what we
know of cellular growth in the vegetative organs of plants? Do not all these in-
stances of Nature’s pliability, as manifested in the metamorphosis, afford a warning
against those systematists, who, relying upon some slight or inconstant variation in
some one or more organs, found thereupon an unstable, unphilosophical assemblage
of genera and species?

On the Colours of Leaves and Petals. By W. ¥E. C. Noursez, P.RCS.,
Fellow of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society.

From the facts enumerated by the author, it appears that,

Ist. Variegation of leaves is of two kinds,—that in which the green patch is
central, having light-coloured edges ; and that in which the centre is yellowish,
with green edges.

_ 2nd. Variegation is not the result of etiolation, nor yet of any defect ot imper-
fection of tissue.

3rd. It is intimately connected with the vital process of nutrition, both in the
plant generally, and in the tissue locally, iu some peculiarity of which it seems to
consist. That peculiarity, though not a defect, is not connected with exuberance of
nutrition.

4th. In variegated leaves the deepest colours are found in contact with the veins;
which is the situation where the growth of the leaf proceeds most rapidly.

5th. Light is thus excluded, and the process of growth and nutrition indicated,
as the cause of variegation in leaves.

6th. The first appearance, both of the extra tints of leaves, and of their autumnal
tints, whose seat is always in the rete, is invariably either about the capillaries of
the upper set of veins, or about the main trunks of the under ones. ‘These two
points are therefore evidently the seat of some speciality of function, over which
light has a marked influence.

7th. Leaf-colours thus originate from two different agencies; There are the
colours produced in contiguity with the veins, and mainly within the influence of the
sap; and there are the colours produced beyond the full influence of the sap, and
chiefly under the control of solar light. Besides these, there is a third set of tints
produced by the circulation of a coloured sap, as in beet root, red cabbage, &c.

8th. White flowers have nothing to do with etiolation or imperfection of tissue,
but contain in their cells a white matter perfect after its kind, and attain their fullest
development under the full blaze of solar light:

9th. Brilliant colours are often seen in the rudimentary petals still enclosed in the
bud, so that no light could reach them. Such colours are usually in contact with the
veins, showing theit connexion with the process of nutrition.

10th. The process of nutrition is one of the most important vital powers the
plant possesses, since without it the very identity and existence of the individual
must cease. With respect to colour, this power exhibits its effects occasionally in
the'production of tints quite independently of light, and constantly by the formation
‘pf tissues not calculated to take on this or that colour at random, but each speci+

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139.

fically adapted to elaborate, under the appropriate stimulus of light, its own proper
tint or succession of tints, and no other.

11th. The subordinate but important office of light is to influence the development
of whatever colour the tissues are prepared for, which it effects in two ways. As
to degree, according to the presence, diminution, or absence of light, the colour may
be either brilliantly or feebly developed, or totally absent. As to change of colour,
light facilitates, heightens, or even wholly brings on, whatever modifications each
particular portion of plant-tissue is prepared for, whether in growth, maturity, or
decay ; but it cannot originate changes to which there is no inherent tendency.

On the Vegetative Avis of Ferns. By Grorce Oaiiviz, M.D.

This communication embraced two principal points—the general form of the
rhizome of ferns, and its internal structure. The stems of our British species at
least may be reduced to three forms—the creeping rhizome, and the caudex, simple
or branched. These differences depend on the proportionate development of the
vegetative axis itself and the two kinds of appendages with which it is furnished,
the black wiry rootlets, and the persistent bases of the leaf-stalks. In the general
arrangement of the vegetable organization there is a distinct local separation between
the leaves and the rootlets, the latter being confined to the lower or underground
extremity of the stem. Yet this is not always the case even in arborescent forms ;
for in some species (as of Ficus) they arise also from the leaf-bearing portions of the
trunk. Further, in all classes of plants we meet with what are termed rhizomes,
i. e. prostrate or underground stems, from the whole extent of which leaves and
rootlets are emitted side by side: the stems of all our indigenous ferns are of this
kind.

In the variety above referred to as the creeping rhizome, the stem is much drawn

out, so as to form a cord which branches frequently iti its course along or just under
the surface of the ground, and emits at intervals fronds from its upper, and rootlets
from its lower aspect. In the common Polypody the petioles break off from the
stem, leaving scar-like marks at the points of articulation ; but in the other species
and in the Braken, the lower extremities of the leaf-stalks remain adherent after the
upper portions and the fronds have decayed away, and by their comparative state of
preservation mark the limits of the growth of the rhizome in successive years.
_ In the form of the stem termed a caudex, the axis is less drawn out, and more closely
set with rootlets and petioles,‘and the latter are arranged in a spiral manner. In the
genus Asplenium, in Osmunda regalis, Blechnum boreale, Allosurus crispus, Lastrea
Oreopteris, and perhaps some other species, the caudex branches in a dichotomous
manner by the repeated duplication of the terminal bud, and the so-called root
acquires a shrubby character when the axis is exposed by the removal of the rootlets
and petioles.

In some ferns, however, the caudex never branches at its extremity ; and when off-
shoots occur, they arise from lateral buds. This is the case in the massive imbricated
root-stock of the Male Fern and some other species of Aspidium. This form presents
many points of resemblance to the stem of a Tree-fern, though its small development
and horizontal line of growth prevent its forming any conspicuous trunk above the
surface of the ground. The resemblance becomes more apparent when the persistent
bases of the decayed fronds are cut off, and only the central axis left, marked with
spiral rows of cicatrices like the scars which occur on the stem of the Tree-fern.

The chief peculiarity of the internal structure is the reduction of the fibro-vascular
system to a netted cylinder, imbedded in the general cellular tissue of the stem, and
giving off fasciculi both to the petioles and the rootlets. The annual increments of
the stem—which in Exogens form a series of conical envelopes of continually in-
creasing dimensions, each entirely enwrapping its predecessors, and which in En-
dogens have been compared to a series of envelopes of similar form, but of uniform
size, piled up into a column by successive superposition—are in the fern-stem repre-
sented simply by annular additions to the upper extremity of the netted cylinder.
The fibro-vascular bundles of the petioles, immediately on entering the stem, branch
out to form -an upward extension of this cylinder in the growing extremity of the
corm ; but they have no downward prolongation, the isolated-fasciculi of the interior

140 REPORT—1859.

of the endogenous stem and the successive annual woody layers of the exogen being
alike wanting. A fern-stem cut across exhibits simply an expanse of cellular tissue
divided into a medullary and a cortical region by the netted cylinder, whose trans~
verse section presents the appearance of an interrupted circle of fibro-vascular tissue,
The interspaces appear to have a certain analogy with the medullary rays of the
exogenous stem. When the network is dissected out, its anastomosing cords are
seen to be connected with bundles proceeding to the rootlets, as well as with the
fibro-vascular fasciculi of the petioles.

The rootlets may be shown to be of independent origin, and not mere downward
prolongations from the leaf-stalks ; and there are strong reasons for believing this to
hold good also in the higher orders of plants, though theoretical views of a contrary
import have prevailed to some extent. ; ; .

The arrangement of the vascular system as now described, is very regular in all
the species ; but there is great diversity in the course of the dark-coloured or woody
tissue, which will require further investigation.

The paper was illustrated by diagrams, and by preparations and dissections of our
indigenous ferns, with some comparative specimens of the arborescent species.

On the Structure and Mode of Formation of Starch-granules, according to
the principles of Molecular Science. By Grorce Raney, M.R.CS,,
Lecturer on Microscopical Anatomy at St. Thomas's Hospital*.

Notes on the Arctic Flora.
By James Taytor, Stident of Medicine, Aberdeen.

The following remarks are founded on two voyages to the shores of Davis’s Straits.
From 72° to 74° N. on the east or Greenland side, the coast is rocky and precipitous ;
along this side also there are numerous islands, more or less conical in form, which
also present precipitous cliffs. The land in the interior consists of a complicated
system of ravines and mountain ranges, the former usually occupied by glaciers ;
between 74° N. and Cape York, the surface seems to present an extensive ‘‘ Mer de
Glace.’’ The soil varies in its nature, is frequently of small depth, and often has
more or less peat on the surface.

The land on the west or American side of the strait presents an extensive plain
along the seaboard, the mountains in the interior being fewer than on the east side,
but apparently higher; this land is also destitute of glaciers, and its sea free from
icebergs ; any which occur have been drifted from some other quarter. In the in-
terior there are mountains, plains, and numerous lakes.

The east side is sooner clear of snow than the west side, just as that border of the
strait is soonest clear of ice; on the land the snow first disappears in a zone 50 to
100 feet above the sea, extending thence upward and downward.

The Flora is on the whole rich and varied; about 116 species of plants were col-
lected (a list was given), belonging to 24 natural orders, in the proportion of 27
Dicotyledons to 38 Monocotyledons; and in addition, 3 Ferns, two species of Lyco-
podium, and one of Equisetum, besides numerous mosses and lichens. Sawifraga
oppositifolia and Salix herbacea were the first seen in flower, the former in March,
the latter about the end of May; the species of ranunculus and Papaver nudicaule
are among the latest; Sawifraga Hirculus is also late, flowering the middle of
August. Ranunculus sulphureus and Papaver nudicaule burst through a covering of
snow at the time of flowering. On many species the mature fruit is perfectly pre-
served under the snow during the long winter, and thus different birds find abundance
of food in spring ; the natives also avail themselves of the same supply. The buds
on the peduncle of Polygonum viviparum are greedily devoured by the ptarmigan and
snowflake. :

On the Growth of Trees in Continental and Insular Climates.
By Dante, VAUGHAN.

A study of the peculiar characters which certain meteoric influences impart to vege-
* See ‘ Journal of Microscopical Science,’ vol. viii,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141

tation in different regions, must assist very materially in removing the veil which
now enshrouds the mysterious operations of vegetable life. While the sterility of
deserts is to be ascribed, in most cases, to the want of rain, the long droughts to
which many extensive plains of the Old and New World are occasionally subjected
may be regarded as very unfavourable to arborescent vegetation. It has been long
believed that the western prairies of this continent were brought into their present
condition by the labour of former inhabitants, who exterminated the forest, and, in
after ages by means of fires, prevented it from regaining possession of the land; but
many facts show that the absence of trees in these localities corresponds to the re-
‘sult which unassisted nature may be expected to produce. Since my conclusions on
this subject were first made known, I have learned that some of them are not new;
but my present object is to show that the facts which observation reveals admit of
an important generalization, and that these vast plains only exhibit the effects of
causes which operate on a greater or less scale in many other parts of the earth.

As a general rule, mountainous districts and places near the sea are most favoured
with frequent supplies of rain; but the case is different in great plains, especially in
those occupying the interior of continents. In some, as in those of the Mississippi
Valley, no deficiency is exhibited in the actual amount of rain which falls annually ;
but it generally comes in a small number of excessive showers, often separated by
very long intervals of dry weather. During these dry periods the elaboration of the
sap in trees is carried on in a very imperfect manner; and the woody tissue formed
under such unfavourable circumstances must be devoid of proper strength and dura-
bility. The tendency to decay which it soon manifests, must be gradually commu-
nicated to the whole vegetable structure, and thus a dry season inflicts a very
serious and permanent damage on the forest ; but though it may exterminate the her-
baceous plants, the loss will be speedily repaired by the copious rains of the
succeeding year.

The effects of these circumstances on vegetation may be traced in many regions,
Trees of the same kind attain the greatest age and afford the most durable timber,
in places where rains are supplied in the greatest frequency,—as on islands, on the
sea-coasts of continents, or on mountainous districts. The most numerous and the
most extraordinary cases of arborescent longevity, are to be found in the islands of
Sicily and Teneriffe, in the mountains near the Syrian coast, in the mountainous
territory of California, in the forests of Guiana, and in the British Isles. It is different
on plains, especially in those places which are remote from the sea. The forests of
European Russia, though very extensive, rarely furnish very durable timber ; and the
Russian ships are characterized for their great liability to decay. It is also well
known that the timber of the Mississippi Valley is far less durable than that of
the states bordering on the Atlantic; and the increasing number of hollow trees
which we meet on rétiring from the sea-coast, may be regarded as indicative of the
feeble health and the declining condition of the western forests.

It could not be expected that even the more gigantic vegetable forms could long
withstand influences so detrimental to their health and vitality. Accordingly in ex-
tensive continental plains, the forest, by a constant degeneracy of its members, must
be often rendered incapable of spreading its dominion, or of contending successfully
with the grass for the possession of the soil. The fertility of these plains, by pro-
moting a more rapid growth of the wood, increases its tendency to decay ; and ac-
cordingly trees are generally absent from the more fertile parts of the prairies, while
they are to be found in localities where the land is too poor to give an undue
luxuriance to vegetation. They are also found growing vigorously along the banks
of rivers, where the soil has the greatest fertility; but here the watery vapour which
constantly rises into the air diffuses copious dews around, and compensates, to some
extent, for the deficiency of rains.

That the evaporation of the water which falls on the leaves of plants is concerned
in promoting their vegetative functions, has been noticed by Boussingault ; but man
facts show that its influence is chiefly felt in the formation of woody fibre. The
lignifying process, however, depends as much on the extent of the foliage as on the
frequency of rains; and according to Loudon, the pruning of forest trees has been
always found very detrimental to the durability of their wood. But experience has
Jong shown the necessity of pruning fruit. trees; and it appears that as. the lig-

“142 - .REPORT—1859.

neous formation is checked, the extractive matter of the sap is rendered more
capable of affording nutriment to fruit. It is not, however, beneficial to prune much
in continental climates, where dry seasons diminish the tendency to form wood ;
and, indeed,the vineyards and orchards west of the Alleghany Mountains have suffered
much from being subjected to the modes of culture which have been adopted with
much success in the moist countries of Southern and Western Europe. During the
dry summer of 1854, it was observed in Ohio that those grape-vines which were
not pruned, produced the most abundant crops; and other facts might be adduced
to show that a diminution of foliage and a deficiency of rains operate, in the same
manner, in checking the ligneous formation and promoting the development of fruit.

To account satisfactorily for these results, and to remove the difficulty hitherto
found in reconciling the effects of pruning with the theory of vegetation, it will be
necessary to regard the soil as furnishing, not only the mineral ingredients, but also
much of the organic matter required for vegetable nutrition. Though there is abun-
dant evidence that carbonic acid is decomposed by plants, it cannot be regarded as
the exclusive source of their carbon; and the explanation which the advocates of the
carbonic acid theory give for the production of wood in the trunk of a tree by a
chemical decomposition which is entirely confined to the leaves, seems to be unsa-
tisfactory. We cannot ascribe the source of vital energy in plants to the mere act of
decomposing carbonic acid; for it is evident that the forces associated with vitality
must experience a loss, instead of a gain, in overcoming the resistance of a powerful
chemical affinity. While vegetative power is mainly derived from the heat and light
of the sun, it appears to depend in a great measure on the evaporation from the
leaves and the chemical action going on in the soil. Such operations might be ex-
pected to create a circulation of galvanic currents along growing plants ; and though
experiments show that these currents must be extremely feeble, they may be rendered
very efficient for controling chemical affinity, by the agency of cells, ducts, membranes,
and other appendages of vegetable life.

Mr. J. Yares exhibited the cones and leaves of several species of Cycadaceous
plants grown in England. He stated that the Cycad known as Dioon edule was the
Macroxamia pectinata of Leibmann. He gave some account of the method of culture
of these plants, and stated, they required an average temperature of 70° Fahrenheit.

ZooLoey.
On the Birds of Banchory. By Dr. AvAms.

On a New Zoophyte, and two Species of Echinodermata new to Britain.
By Josuua ALDER.

The species described were dredged by George Barlee, Esq., off the Shetland
Islands, in the summer of 1858. The zoophyte was a peculiar form of the genus
Campanularia, distinguished by having an operculum of a roof-like form, sloping on
each side from twe opposite angles. Mr, Alder named it Campanularia fastigiata.
The Echinodermata corsisted of Comatula Sarsii of Von Duben and Koren, a species
new to Britain, but previously obtained by Professor Sars off the Norwegian coast; and
a new species of the family Sipunculide, for which the name of Phascolosoma radiata
was proposed. The descriptions were accompanied by drawings of the new species,
and lists of the rare Mollusca and Zoophytes obtained by Mr, Barlee at the same time
were also added,

On Dicoryne stricta, a New Genus and Species of the Tubulariade.
By Professor Atuman, M..D., F.RS.
The subject of this communication had been recently obtained by the author in
the Orkney seas, where it was found investing an old Buccinum undatum, dredged
from water about three fathoms deep. It was defined by the following diagnosis :—

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143

Dicoryne,

Gen. Char.—Ceenosare branched, clothed with a polypary and adhering by a
tubular network. Polypes claviform, of two kinds, one sterile, the other proliferous,
both borne upon the common ceenosarc, and issuing from the extremities of the
branches. Sterile polypes with a verticil of tentacula situated behind the mouth;
proliferous polypes destitute of tentacula (and mouth ?), and having the gonophores
clustered round their base,

D. stricta.—Stem rising 10 the height of about } an inch, irregularly branched ;
‘branches ascending at a very acute angle from the stem. Polypary slightly dilated
at the extremities of the branches, somewhat corrugated near the base, but without
distinct annulations, Tentacula about 16 in a slightly alternating verticil.

On Laomedea tenuis, x. sp. By Professor ALLMAN, W.D., F.RS.

This new species of Laomedea was obtained by the author while dredging in the
Orkney seas, and was now described with the following diagnosis :—

Stem geniculate; polypiferous ramuli having the same diameter as the stem,
springing alternately from the geniculations; the entire stem and ramuli distinctly
annulated ; polype-cells with deeply-cleft margins; polypes very extensile, with 16
or 18 tentacula. Capsules medusiferous, large, cylindrical, with the proximal end
conical, and with the remote end broad and truncated,

On a remarkable Form of Parasitism among the Pycnogonide.
By Professor AttmAn, M.D., F.R.S.

The author described the occurrence on the branches of some species of Coryne,
of peculiar pyriform vesicles, which might at first sight be easily taken for the repro-
ductive sacs of the zoophyte.

They had their cavity in free communication with the general ccenosarcal cavity of
the zoophyte, and an endoderm, ectoderm, and external chitinous investment were
easily demonstrable in their walls.

The nature of their contents, however, at once distinguished them from the pro-
per reproductive sacs of the Coryne; for in every instance they enclosed a Pycno-
gonidan (Ammothea?). The included Pycnogonidan was always solitary, and in the
smaller vesicles was still embryonic, while in the larger ones it presented an advanced
stage of development, and was ready to escape from its confinement by the rupture
of the surrounding walls.

On the Structure of the Lucernariade.
By Professor AtuMan, M.D., F.RS.

In this paper the author described the structure of the Lucernaria cyathiformis of

Sars, which, however, differed so much from the typical Lucernaria as to convince
him that it ought to be placed in a distinct genus, for which he proposed the name
of Carduella.
_ The central stomach, which the author compared to the manubrium of a gymno-
phthalmous medusa, has the reproductive system developed in its walls, and eight
vertical septa extend from it, converging in pairs to the external walls of the body,
to which they are attached by four equidistant longitudinal ridges. These external
walls are the exact representative of the umbrella of a medusa, and the author believed
that he had succeeded in demonstrating the existence in them of four equidistant
longitudinal canals, which run from the base of the cup-shaped bedy of the animal,
to within a short distance of its margin, where they open into a circular canal, into
which the tubular tentacles also open.

Prof. Allman endeavoured to show that the structure of Carduella was essentially
that of a gymnophthalmous medusa, the longitudinal lamelle by which the little
animal might at first sight appear referable to the actinozoal type of structure being
totally different in their arrangement and relations from the gastro-parietal lamella
of an Actinia.

_ We have only to conceive of a Thaumantias, or similar medusa, with its manubrium
united to its umbrella by the development within the latter of the eight septa just

144 REPORT—1859.

described, and we would then have it converted into a Carduella, so far as regards
the most essential points of its structure.

Descriptions of Genera of Fish of Java. By Dr. BLEEKER.

Personal Observations on the Zoology of Aberdeenshire. By S.M. Burnett.

List of Marine Polyzoa, collected by Georcr BaRLEE, Esq., in Shetland and
the Orkneys, with Descriptions of the New Species. By Georce Busk,
F.RS., F.L.S.

The number of species collected by Mr. Barlee in the above region, and submitted
to my notice, amounts to about forty, of which nine are probably new or unde-

scribed,
Suborder I. CHEILOSTOMATA.
Fam.I. Salicornariide, Busk.

Gen. 1. Sattcornarta, Cuvier.
1. S. Johnsoni, Busk. Cellaria Johnsoni, Busk, Q. J. Micr. Sc. vol. vii. p. 65

(Zoophytol, pl. 22. figs.4,5). ?Cellaria marginata, euss (non Goldfuss), Fossil.
Polyp. d. Wien, Tertidrbeck. p. 59, pl. 7. fig. 29 (mon 28).

Fam. II. Cellulariide, Busk.

Gen. 2. CeLtiuvarta, Pallas.
1. C. Peachii, Busk. C. Peachii, Busk, Ann. Nat. Hist, 2 ser. vii, p. 82, pl. 8. figs.
1, 2, 3,4; Brit. Mus. Cat. part i. p. 20, pl. 27. figs. 3, 4, 5.

Gen. 3. Menrpga, Lamx.
1, M. ternata, Soland. (sp.). M. ternata, Busk, Brit. Mus. Cat. part i. p. 21,
pl. 20. figs. 3, 4,5. Crisia ternata, Lama. Tricellaria ternata, Fleming ; Blain-
ville; Gray. Cellularia ternata, Johnston.

Fam. III. Scrupariide, Busk.

Gen. 4. Hippotuoa, Lamx.
1. Hippothoa catenularia, Jameson, H. catenularia, Busk, Brit. Mus. Cat. parti.
p. 29, pl. 18. figs. 1, 2; Fleming; Hassall; Couch; Johnston; Gray. Tubipora
catenulata, Stewart.

2. Hippothoa divaricata, Lamx. Hippothoa divaricata, Busk, Brit. Mus. Cat.
part 1. p. 30, pl. 18. figs.3,4. Lamx.; Johnston; Audouin. H. lanceolata, Gray;
Hassall; Couch; W. Thompson. Catenicella divaricata, Blainv,

Fam. IV. Cabereada, Busk.

Gen. 5. Casrerea, Lamx.
1, C. Hookeri, Busk. C. Hookeri, Busk, Brit. Mus. Cat. part i. p. 39, pl. 37. fig. 2.
Cellularia Hookeri, eming (pars); Johnston. ? Bicellaria Hookeri, Blainville,

The species of Caberea originally discovered by Hooker on the south coast is
probably identical with Cab, Boryi; but that form and the one from the northern
seas were confounded together by Dr. Johnston under the same appellation, The
specific name, therefore, is hardly in strict language applicable to the northern spe~
cies, but has been retained (though altered in its precise application) in compliment
to the illustrious botanist to whom it was originally given.

Fam. V. Bicellariide, Busk.
Gen. 6. Bicetyarta, Blainville.

1. B. ciliata, Linn. (sp.). — B. ciliata, Busk, Brit. Mus, Cat. part i. p. 41, pl. 34;
Blainville. Sertularia ciliata, Zinn. Cellaria ciliata, Ellis & Solander; Lamk.
Bugula ciliata, Oken, Cellularia ciliata, Pallas; Johnston; Couch; Gray. Crisia
ciliata, Lamouroux ; Templeton; Van Beneden.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145

2. Bicellaria Alderi, n.sp. Cells turbinate, much attenuated downwards ; aperture
oval, a single marginal spine at the outer angle.
Fab. Shetland (Barlee).
The distinctive characters of this species were first pointed out to me by Mr. Joshua
Alder, to whom I have dedicated the species.

Gen. 7. Bueuta, Oken.

1. B. Murrayana, Bean (sp.). _ B. Murrayana, Busk, Brit. Mus. Cat. part i. p. 46,
pl.59. Flustra Murrayana, Bean; Johnston, ? Sertularia spiralis, Olivi. Flabel-
laria spiralis, Gray.

Fam. VI. Flustride, d’Orbigny.
Gen. 8. Fiustra, Linn.

1. F. foliacea, Linn. F. foliacea, Busk, Brit. Mus, Cat, parti. p. 48, pl. 55, fig. 45,
pl. 56. fig. 5; ductorum.

2. F. truncata, Linn. F. truncata, Busk, Brit. Mus. Cat. parti. pl. 58. figs. 1, 2,
pl. 56. figs. 1,2; Linn.; Miiller; Ellis § Solander; Esper; Olivi; Johnston;
Blanville; §c. ¥. securifrons, Pallas,

3. F. Barleei,n. sp. FF. polyzoaria foliacea, divisa, lobata; cellulis oblongis, mar-
gine simplici; ovicellulis cucullatis; aviculariis inter cellulas sparsis, oblique
positis, mandibulo semicirculavi.

Hab. Shetland (Bariee).

Flustra Barlei, Busk, Q. J. Micr, Sc. vol. viii. p. 123 (Zoophyt, pl. 25. fig. 4).

Fam. VII. Membraniporide, Busk.
Gen. 9. MemBranrpora, Blainville.

1, Mcornigera, n.sp. M. incrustans, cellulis pyriformibus, superne angustatis,
margine glabro, spinis 6 erectis armato, quarum infimis bifurcatis; lamina granu-
losa; apertura magna irregulari ; aviculariis crebris inter cellulas sparsis, mandibulo
semicirculari.

Hab, Shetland (Barlee).

M. cornigera, Busk, Q, J. Micr. Sc. vol. viii. p. 124, pl. 25, fig. 2.

2. M. vulnerata, n. sp. M. incrustans; cellulis subpyriformibus seu subovalibus,
superne angustatis ; apertura parva semicirculari, lamina granulosa, utroque latere
fissura sigmoidea, plerumque ornata; margine granuloso, inermi; vibraculis inter
cellulas sparsis.

Hab. Shetland (Barlee).

M. vulnerata, Busk, Q.J. Mier. Sc. vol. viii. pl. 124, p. 25. fig. 3.

3. M. minax,n.sp. M. adnata, cellulis pyriformibus, inferne attenuatis ; area ovali,
apertura trifoliata, lamina glabra; margine tenui spinis elongatis gracilibus
armato; aviculario magno, sessili, in parte anteriore cellule medio posito, mandi-
bulo rostroque peracuto instructo; ovicellula magna, rotundata,

Hab. Shetland (Barlee ; on stone).

M. minax, Busk, Q. J. Micr. Se. vol. viii. p. 125, pl. 25. fig. 1.

4, M. Rosselii, Audouin (sp.). Flustra Rosselii, dudouin. M. Rosselii, Busk, B, M.
Cat. parti. p. 59, pl. 100. fig. 2.

5. M. Pouillelii, Audouin (sp.). Flustra Pouilletii, 4udouin. M. Pouilletii, Alder,
Cat. of Zooph. of Northumberland and Durham, p. 56, pl.8. fig.5. ? M.mem-
branacea (pars), Johnston.

6. M. spinifera, Johnston (sp.). M. spinifera, dider, 1. c. p. 53, pl. 8. figs. 2, 2a.
Flustra spinifera, Johnston. ? Flustra lineata (pars), Johnston,

Gen. 10. Lepratia, Johnston.

1, ZL. sinuosa, n. sp. LZ. cellulis subrhomboideis, planis, perforatis, linea elevata
sinuosa sejunctis; orificio suborbiculari infra sinuato, peristomate elevato.

Hab. Shetland (Barlee; on shell).

L. sinuosa, Busk, Q. J. Micr, Se. vol. viii. p. 125, pl. 24. figs, 2, 3.

2, L. Barleci, n. sp. L, cellulis ovoideis, convexis, superficie granulosa; orificio
1859.

146 | REPORT—1859.

orbiculari, infra sinuato ; peristomate simplici, elevato ; ovicellulis decumbentibus,

ad marginem supra perforatis.
Hab. Shetland (Barlee; on shell).

3. L.canthariformis, n.sp. L. cellulis_late ovoideis, superficie granulosa punctata
nitida; orificio magno, suborbiculari seu irregulari, peristomate producto infun-
dibuliformi integro circumdato.

Hab, Shetland (Barlee; on shell).

4, LI, umbonata, n. sp. LL. cellulis oblongis, seriatis, linea eleyata sejunctis, ad
latera perforatis, medio umbonatis et juxta orificium avicularium mandibulo semi-
circulari horizontali gerentibus; orificio suborbiculari, infra paullulum constricto,
peristomate simplici, spinis 4 supra armato; ovicellula umbonata vittaque parva
utrinque ornata. t

Hab, Shetland (Barlee; on stone).

6. LZ. Malusii, Audouin (sp.). L. Malusii (var. spinata), Busk, Brit. Mus. Cat. parti.
p- 83, pl. 103. figs. 1, 2,3,4; Q.J. Mier, Se. vol. viii. p. 125 (Zoophyt. pl. 24. fig. 1).
L. biforis, Johnston. Eschara Malusii, dudouin, Cellepora Macry, W. Thompson.

6, L. Pallasiana, Moll. (sp.). L. Pallasiana, Busk, Brit. Mus. Cat. parti. p. 81,
pl. 83. figs. 1,2. lL. pedilostoma, Hassall. L. pediostoma, Johnston; Couch.
Cellepora Pallasiana, ZLamx. Eschara Pallasiana, Moll. Flustra hibernica,
Hassall,

7. L. labrosa, Busk. L. labrosa, Busk, Brit. Mus. Cat, parti. p. 82, pl. 92. figs. 1, 2.

8. Lepralia bispinosa, Johnston. Lepralia bispinosa, Johnston, Brit. Zooph. ed. 2.
p. 326, pl. 57. fig. 10; Busk, Brit. Mus. Cat. part i. p. 77, pl. 80. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4.

9. L. granifera, Johnston. L. granifera, Johnston, Brit. Zooph. ed. 2. p. 309, pl. 54.
fig. 7; Busk, Brit, Mus, Cat, parti. p. 83, pl. 87. fig. 2, pl. 95. figs. 6, 7,
10, ?>Z. Landsborovii, Johnston. L. Landsborovii, Johnston, Brit. Zooph.ed. 2. p. 310,
. pl. 54. fig. 9; Bush, Brit. Mus, Cat. parti. p. 66, pl. 86. fig. 1, pl. 102. fig. 1.

11. Z.ringens, Busk. L.ringens, Busk, Q. J. Micr, Sc. vol. iv. p. 308 (Zooph, pl, 9.
figs. 3, 4, 5).

Gen. 1]. AtysipotTa, Busk.

1, A. Alderi, Busk. A. Alderi, Busk, Q.J. Micr. Sc. vol. iv. p, 311 (Zoophyt, pl. 9.
figs. 6, 7).

2. A. conferta, n.sp. A. cellulis confertis ovoideis, punctatis; orificio parvo, orbi-
culari, infra emarginato, peristomate subincrassato, spinis 4 armato; ovicellula
recumbente, subimmersa, punctata.

Hab, Shetland (Barlee; on stone).

Suborder II. CYCLOSTOMATA,
Fam. I. Crisiide, M.-Edwards.

Gen, 1. Crista, Lamouroux.
1.. C. aculeata, Hassall. C.aculeata, Johnston, Brit, Zoophyt. ed. 2,p.285; Hassall.
’C. eburnea (pars), M.-Edwards ; Van Beneden.

Fam. II. Idmoneide, Busk

Gen. 2. IpMongEA.
1. J. atlantica, E. Forbes. I, atlantica, Johnston, Brit. Zoophyt, ed. 2. p. 278, pl. 48.
‘fig. 3; Busk.
Gen. 3. PustuLopora, Blainville.
. ?P. proboseidea, F. Forbes.

Fam. III. Tubuliporide, Busk.

Gen. 4. TuBuLIPora (pars), Lamarck. ;
1, Tubulipora truncata, Jameson (sp.). T. truncata, Johnston, Brit. Zoophyt, ed, 2.
p. 271, pl. 33. figs. 8-10; Busk; Fleming. Millepora truncata, Jameson,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147

Fam. IV. Diastoporide, Busk.

Gen. 5. Anrcto, Lamx.
ag Misco major, Johnston. <A. major, Johnston, Brit. Zoophyt. ed. 2. p. 281, pl. 49.
gs. 3,4.
2. A. granulata, M.-Edwards. A. granulata, Johnston, Brit. Zooph. ed. 2. p. 280,
pl. 49. figs. 1, 2.
Gen. 6. DiscoporEe ta, Gray.
1. D. hispida, Fleming (sp.). Tubulipora hispida, Johnston; Busk. Discopora his-
pida, feming.
Gen. 7. Patinevia, Gray.
1. P. patina, Lamarck (sp.). Tubulipora patina, Lamarck; Johnston; Risso;
Blainville ; §c.

Suborder III. CTENOSTOMATA.
Fam. I. Farrellide, Busk.

Gen. 1, AvENELLA, Dalzell.
1, 4. fusca, Du Gell. Farrella fusca, Busi,

Gen. 2. Busxta, Alder.
1. B. nitens, Alder. B. nitens, d/der, Zoophytes of Northumberland § Durham, p. 66,
pl. 5. figs. 1,2; Busk.

Remarks on the Mollusca of Aberdeenshire. By Dr. Dicxts.

These remarks are founded on the investigations of the late Professor Macgillivray,
and my own observations.

The Mollusca of Aberdeenshire comprehend representatives of all the British
families, excepting eleven ; the species amount to two hundred and thirty.

Although some objections have been urged against the types into which the
British species are divided in Forbes and Hanley’s ‘ Mollusca,’ they, however,
afford a useful scale of comparison, as to distribution on different parts of the coast
of the United Kingdom.

Of the Lusitanian and S. British types, the best-marked example found here is
Trochus crassus, which is rare. The European type is well represented; but some
species, very abundant in more southern and western districts, are rare at Aberdeen.
The Celtic type, like the last, is general, but principally distributed toward the
north: many Of its species are abundant at Aberdeen; but some are rare, as Chiton
ruber and Pholas candida. The British type consists of a few species most abundant
in, or confined to Britain: two of these are frequent on this coast, viz. Zrochus
millegranus and Pecten tigrinus; <Astarte triangularis and Scalaria Trevellyana are
rare. The Atlantic branch is very partially represented here; and the few species
which occur are rare. The Boreal type does not comprehend many species ; but
most of them are found on our coast, and are generally abundant, as As/arte com-
pressa, Acmea testudinalis, Cyprina Islandica, Trochus helicinus, Velutina flewilis ;
others are rare, as Astarte elliptica, Puncturella Noachina, &c. ‘Those designated as
truly Arctic in the British list are few ; none haye hitherto been found here.

Our mountains are singularly deficient in land- and freshwater-species ; I have
only seen three at any great elevation. Pisidium pulchellwm occurs at 1742 feet,
along with Limneus pereger, the shell of the latter being very thin and fragile, and
the tip of the spire usually defective; the Pisidiwm is also found at 2400 feet. The
other species observed above 1000 feet is Arion ater, viz. at 1874 feet, the indi-
viduals being large, and the colour well-developed.

It may, finally, be worthy of record here, that Panopea Norvegica and Tellina
proxima occur in the glacial clay in Belhelvie.

On the Structure of the Shell in some Species of Pecten, By Dr. Dicxte,

The following brief statement of facts is not brought forward with any intention
of calling in question the more important conclusions regarding shell-structure in
*

148 REPORT—1859.

Mollusca, recorded in the Transactions of the British Association for 1844 and 1847,
but merely with the view of showing what caution is necessary in drawing conclusions
from some of the instances recorded there.

It is stated that, in Pectinidz, “‘ corrugated membranous structure with tnbular
structure is sufficient to distinguish a shell of this family from any neighbouring
family to which in general characters it might possess an affinity ;” allusion is also
made to traces of cellular structure on the outside, athin layer having been observed
in Pecten nobilis; it is conjectured that the rarity of such cellular layer may be
owing to abrasion during the active movements of the animals; the examination of
very young specimens is also recommended.

While preparing some specimens illustrative of shell-structure for class demon-
stration, I found that the Pecten vitreus (P. Grenlandicus of some authors), an
Arctic species, the shell of which is singularly transparent, is well-suited for such
purpose, and has some peculiarities which seem deserving of record. Both valves
have a thin layer of membranous structure inside ; the whole of the convex valve has
tubular tissue on the outside: the body of the flat valve, on the other hand, is di-
stinctly cellular, while the auricular portion is tubular. The convex valve, therefore,
has the characters assigned in the Report above quoted; while the flat presents three
kinds of tissue, in different parts of it,—viz., membranous, tubular, and cellular.
Specimens of different ages were found presenting the characters above stated. It is
obvious, therefore, that erroneous conclusions would result from any partial exami-
nation of this species.

I was further induced to examine young individuals of a native species, Pecten
maximus ; specimens half an inch or even an inch broad are transparent enough for
the purpose. Here it is the convex valve which is cellular on the outside, and not
the flat valve (as in Pecten vitreus); for it has on the outside an obscurely tubular
structure with numerous granules interspersed. Of Pecten similis, which is very
translucent, I had only a few separate valves at disposal: some of these I found to
be cellular, and others obscurely tubular on the outside.

In the Report already quoted, an example is given, illustrative of the importance
of shell-structure in determining affinities. A fossil was described by Professor
Phillips as an Avicula, and by Messrs. Young and Bird as a Pecten; the mixture of
external characters is such as would sanction its being placed in either genus.
From the absence of cellular or membranous structure, which characterizes Avicula,
and the presence of corrugated and tubular tissue, it was inferred that this fossil
ought to be placed in Pectinide: the facts above recorded seem to require a revisal
of such decisive conclusion.

On the Varieties and Species of New Pheasants recently introduced into
Englund. By Joun Goutn, Esq., F.R.S. Sc.

After a sketch of the distribution of the family of Gallinaceous birds, the author
gave an account of the species of the genus Phasianus (Pheasants) which had been
introduced into England. All the species were from Asia. The oldest-known was
the P. Colchicus from Asia Minor ; the next was P. torquatus from Shanghai, which
was introduced about one hundred years ago, and had recently been reintroduced ;
and the third was P. versicolor, from Japan. The crosses between these three species
produced remarkably fine, strong and heavy birds. The other true species exhibited
was P. Mongolicus, from Mongolia. Mr. Gould also placed on the table specimens
of P. Semmeringi from Japan, and P. Reevesi from China, a bird remarkable for
having a tail 6 feet in length.

Mr. Goutp exhibited several species of Birds of Paradise, for which he was in-
debted to Mr. Wallace, who had recently procured numerous fine examples of several
members of this beautiful family, and had moreover discovered a splendid new bird
(perhaps allied to this group), which had been named, in honour of him, Semioptera
Wallacet. The species exhibited were, Paradisea apoda from Arru Island; P.
Papuana and P. rubra, Diphyllodes magnifica, Parotia aurea, and Cicinnurus regius
from New Guinea; and the new Semioptera Wallacei from the island of Batchian.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149

On some New Species of Birds. By Joun Goutn, Esq., F.RS. ec.

Account of a Species of Phalangista recently killed in the County of Durham.
By Joun Hoce, .A., F.BS., FLAS. &c.*

On the 22nd August last, the Rector of Redmarshall sent to the author at Norton,
in the county of Durham, a recently killed and singular-looking animal. On a
slight examination of it, he found that it was a New South Wales species, like an
opossum; but being a male, it had no marsupium, or pouch. As that village is far
from any town, it had evidently escaped from confinement ; it had been killed the
evening before, whilst it was upon a poplar-tree on a farm near Redmarshall. The
farmer, when he first saw it, observed it following some hens, and, fearing their
destruction, pursued and at length killed it.

The following is the description which Mr. J. Hogg gave of it :—The length
from the tip of the nose to the base of the tail, 183 inches; the length of the tail,
about 13 inches ; entire length, 313 inches.

The dentition is as follows :—Two large front teeth, or incisors, in the lower jaw,
somewhat curved inwards, like those of rabbits, squirrels, &c. ; six incisors in the
upper jaw, then two small canines, of which the first is much larger than the second ;
and four or five molars. The last could not be determined, as the animal was stiff,
and the author did not like to force the jaws open. In the lower jaw are no canines,
but four or five molars, most likely five. Hence the formula—

Inc. C. M.
For the upper jaw .... 6+4+10=20 in all;
For the lower jaw .... 2+0+10=12 in all;

these make together 32 feeth in all. Legs rather short, front foot with five toes and
five long curved claws. But the hind foot has only two large toes and two claws, also a
third toe divided into two as far only as the last phalanx ; or at least the zwo are
united by the skin up to that phalanx ; and they have both long claws. Then beyond
again, and placed more backward, is a large and broad thumb, though without any
claw or nail. The feet are evidently those of a climbing animal ; and the fail also is
prehensile, for it is curved inwards at its tip, and without hairs under that portion.
The skin on each side in the flank, from about the middle of the belly to the hind
legs, being loose and somewhat extensible, seemed to show some rudiment of the
loose lateral skin so conspicuous in the flying opossum.

In colour, the upper portion of the body is greyish, or dusky white, mixed with
some red and black hairs; the neck, breast, and belly are yellow, with a rusty-red
line down the breast, which extends under the fore legs. Tail thick, hairy; the
lower two-thirds being black ; insides of the ears nearly bare of hairs; length from
the nose to the ear about 3} inches, and the ear about 23 inches long, and in the
middle 1} inch wide. This male specimen was clearly full-grown, but the teeth
were not much worn, and the claws very sharp.

The description of the vulpine opossum in Bewick’s ‘ History of Quadrupeds ”
(edit. 4, 1800), p. 435, seemed to agree in most particulars, and that species to
correspond with that named in Cuvier’s ‘Régne Animal,’ “le Phalanger Renard ”
(Phalangista vulpina). As Bewick had given no wood-cut of the former animal, the
author could not decide whether it is thatspecies, or another described as P. fuliginosa,
or the “ Sooty Phalangista,’”’ to the description of which it corresponds in several
points.

As some of the Phalangiste are eaten by the natives of Australia, and as many
live on fruits, and leaves, and shoots of trees, Mr. Hogg inquired of the animal-
preserver, who stuffed it, if the flesh was dark-coloured ; but he stated that it was
not unlike that of a rabbit. The specimen was plump, and looked as if it had fed
well during its rambles; and the author was sorry that he neglected to have the
contents of the stomach examined.

* This paper is published, with some additions, in the Transactions of the Tyneside
Naturalists Field Club, vol. iv. part 2, pp. 180-5.

150 REPORT—1859.

List of the Birds of the North of Scotland, with their Distribution.
By T. F. JAMIEson.

A detailed list was given of the birds found in that part of Scotland lying to the
north of the Firths of Forth and Clyde, showing the distribution and comparative
frequency of each species. The whole number amounted to 258, of which 106
remain throughout the whole year, 37 are summer visitors that breed in the
region, 38 are winter visitors, 5 visitors during the vernal and autumnal migrations,
67 stragglers from England and Europe, 4 stragglers from America, and 1 straggler
from Asia.

Some species have been extinguished in recent times, viz. Capercailzie, Bustard,
Bittern, and great Auk ; while the Eagles and larger Hawks have become exceedingly
scarce, and are banished from most districts. Those species that haunt waste lands
and marshes are also diminishing in numbers; on the other hand, the denizens of
cultivated tracts are on the increase.

The Goldfinch has become much rarer than formerly, while the Missel Thrush
seems spreading and more numerous, and the Woodcock now frequently remains all
summer.

Dr. Lanxester exhibited a series of drawings from life of the various species
of British spiders by Mr. Tuffen West, intended to illustrate Mr. Blackwall’s forth-
coming work on British Spiders, to be published by the Ray Society. Dr. Lankester
solicited contributions of living spiders, which might be sent by post, to enable Mr.
West to continue his sketches from life.

Notice of a Skull of a Manatee from Old Calabar.
By Jas. M‘Batn, M.D., RN.

The skull of a Manatee which I now exhibit to the Zoological Section of the British
Association was handed over to me a short time ago by Mr. Wm. Oliphant,
Treasurer to the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh. It was transmitted to
Mr. Oliphant, from Old Calabar, by Mr. Archibald Hewan, Medical Missionary to
the United Presbyterian Mission on the West Coast of Africa—one of those intelli-
gent men, who, in addition to the benevolent object of their calling, lose no oppor-
tunity of making contributions to the general stock of scientific information.

The occipital bone, petro-mastoid, and tympanic bulla are wanting,—a part of the
basi-occipital, firmly united to the basi-sphenoid, only remaining; the skull is
otherwise in a good state of preservation.

Viewed from behind, the anterior half of the internal vaulted cavity of the cranium
is seen to be divided into two lateral halves by a curved spinous ridge or crista
interna, formed partly by a coalescence of the inner tables of the parietal and frontal
bones, but chiefly by the largely developed crista galli of the ethmoid, which extends
backwards nearly as far as a depression that appears to represent the sella turcica.
On each side of the crista galli there is an oblong depression nearly an inch in
length, with several openings, forming the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. A
slender spinous process bounds the outer edge of the cribriform plate, passing down-
wards and backwards to terminate over the middle of the foramen lacerum orbitale.
Immediately to the inner side of the foramen lacerum orbitale, there is a small
aperture which corresponds in position to the foramen opticum ; and a little to the
outer side there is another foramen, somewhat larger, which probably represents the
foramen ovale. There is alsoa small foramen nearly midway hetween the cribriform
plate and the so-called foramen opticum. From each of these foramina, a distinct
groove proceeds backwards, strongly marked behind the foramina lacera. The inner
cavity of the cranium is otherwise remarkably free from inequalities, and the sutural
connexions are clearly defined.

The cranio-facial bones are mounted on the massive lower jaw, at a height of
rather more than six inches, and slope forward at an angle of nearly 45°. A plumb-
line, dropped from the posterior centre of the parietal bone to a level with the
angular processes of the lower jaw, measures 93 inches. The distance across
from the outer edge of each zygomatic arch is 933; inches, nearly four inches of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 151

this space being occupied by the cranial cavity. The pterygoid wings are large and
strong, three inches in length, with a rough outer ridge behind, the under points
reaching to a level with the alveolar grooves of the inferior maxillz; and there is a
distinct hamular process, somewhat resembling a finger-nail, at the under and inner

«edge. The squamous part of the temporal bone, with its largely developed zygo-
matic process, abuts against the under edge of the parietal and ali-sphenoid.

The length of the zygomatic arch is 53‘; inches, the depth fully 2 inches. The
glenoid surface is formed by a slightly raised, tuberculated, convex eminence, about
an inch and a half in length, and half an inch across, placed obliquely at the under
and fore part of the root of the zygoma. At the posterior and inner part of the
root of the zygomatic arch, there is a deep, smooth, ovate cavity for the support of
the petro-tympano- mastoid bones.

The malar bone is seven inches in length, and extends from the outer edge of the
glenoid surface to the anterior margin of the orbital fossa. It is formed by a narrow
zygomatic process behind, on which the posterior two-thirds of the zygoma rests.
It gradually expands upwards, downwards, and forwards, into a broad maxillary
process, terminating in a twisted curved orbital plate, which forms the outer part of
the floor of the orbital cavity, and overlaps a part of the orbital process of the
superior maxillary bone. The superior orbital process of the malar bone projects in
the form of amammillated protuberance, with a deep fissure where it rises from the
maxillary process, and inclines towards the post-orbital process of the frontal bone,
being separated from the latter by an open space ;3;ths of an inch at the outer poste-
rior boundary of the orbital cavity. The temporal fossa is four inches in length, reach-
ing as far forwards as the fifth molar tooth, counting from before backwards. The
upper coronal surface measures 53 inches from the parietal ridge to the tip
of the nasal process of the frontal bone, and about an inch and a half across,
It is concave above, with a longitudinal ridge on each side diverging in front into
two orbital processes, at first somewhat narrow, where they bound the upper and fore
part of the temporal fossa, then expanding into broad thick plates, convex above and
concave beneath, forming the roof of the orbits. The distance from the tips of the
premaxillary bones to the anterior margins of the orbits is 4 inches. The orbital
cavities extend obliquely outwards, forwards, and downwards, the inner part of the
fioor being formed by the broad, thick, bridge-like orbital plate of the upper maxillary
bones, having a large oval inferior orbital canal opening directly in front. The
premaxillaries are united anteriorly by a mystachial suture 2,3; inches in length,
and extend backwards on each side of the anterior nasal fosse, by a narrow process,
to a little behind the fore part of the orbits. They are here connected by suture to
an elongated squamous cancellated bone, two inches in length, and two-thirds of an
inch across, which I shall call the nasal bone. At the middle of the nasal bone,
corresponding to the points of union between the upper maxillary and frontal bones,
forming the inner border of the orbits, the anterior nasal fosse expand to four
inches in width, and 5%; inches in length, becoming narrower both above and
below. ‘The premaxillaries are compressed in front, and form, along with the ante-
rior part of the upper maxillary bones, a short narrow muzzle, 2} inches in
length, bending downwards beak-like, at an angle approaching to thirty degrees.
The palate plates of the premaxillaries, anterior to the large single foramen incisivum,
are about an inch in length, the same in breadth, with two socket-like depressions
on each side, the two in front rather larger than those behind, which appear to have
contained four deciduous incisor teeth. The length of the palate of the skull, from
the incisive border of the premaxillaries to the posterior curved edge of the palate-
bone is 83 inches, and the breadth about an inch. From the curved edge of the palate
bone to the ridge marking the union of the basi-occipital to the basi-sphenoid, the
distance is 3 inches, making the total length of the base of the skull to this
point 113 inches. E

An oval opening, an inch and a half deep, and rather less in width, forms the
posterior nasal aperture. It is bounded beneath by the palate plates of the palate
bones, which consist of two narrow pointed processes divided by a fissure behind,
and extending forwards about an inch, where the two small posterior palatine fora-
mina are situated, but which appear to be chiefly formed in the palate-plates of the
superior maxillary bones. The nasal plates and pterygoid processes of the palate

152 REPORT—1859.

bones form the walls of the posterior nares. The pterygoid processes extend out-
wards and backwards, are twisted over and nearly cover the two posterior alveoli.

The lower jaw is a dense massive bone, the sides forming a right angle with
the broad flat vertical rami. The length of the sides from the incisive edge to
the angle of the jaw is fully 8 inches, and the depth about 21 inches. The
perpendicular height of the rami from the angle of the jaw to the condyle is 675
inches ; and from the condyle to the anterior point of the coronoid process, the
distance is 4 inches, the upper border of the coronoid being nearly on a level
with the condyle. The symphysis at the fore and under part of the two rami is 33
inches in length, with a large grooved foramen menti and another foramen
behind, which communicates with the maxillary canal. The upper anterior inci-
sive portion is 23 inches, having a rough, pitted, irregular surface. A special
peculiarity marking the lower jaw is the acute inflected angle, the distance
between the two inner points of the angles being only 3,2; inches. The alveolar
process of the lower jaw is seven inches in length, slightly curved outwards and
downwards anteriorly. There is another curve outwards and upwards at the
posterior termination, where it protrudes by an inflated extremity through the inner
part of the root of the coronoid process, directly above the posterior maxillary
foramen.

Eleven molar teeth, with two large transverse bi-tuberculated ridges, and a smaller
ridge behind, are implanted by two roots in sockets about an inch deep, on each
side of the lower jaw. The roots of the teeth are flattened transversely, corre-
sponding to the transverse coronal ridges. The anterior root is curved backwards,
longer and more fully developed than the posterior one, and penetrates the inner
alveolar wall in several places. The roots of the molars in front are solid and
bifurcated at the apex; whilst those behind have the roots of nearly equal length,
and are hollow at the apex. The molar teeth in the upper jaw have two transverse
tri-tuberculated ridges, with a ridge-like thickening of the cervix anteriorly and
posteriorly. Each tooth has three slightly diverging roots, the inner root compressed
longitudinally, the two outer roots compressed transversely; and the external anterior
root is also curved backwards like the corresponding one of the lower jaw. Only
the eight anterior molar teeth have been in use for mastication, the three posterior
being nidamental; and the points of the foremost two or three molars are much
worn down, showing a thin dark outer layer of cement, succeeded by a thicker
coat of enamel, which surrounds a light-brown dentine.

This skull agrees with the brief descriptions which I have seen of the “ Manatus
Senegalensis ;”’ and the locality whence it was derived confirms this view. Skulls
of this species, however, appear to be rare in our public museums; for there are
none described in the Catalogue of the Royal College of Surgeons of London, and
none in that of the British Museum, as existing in either of these valuable osteological
collections.

In the British Museum Catalogue for 1850, the number of grinders in the
genus Manatus is said to vary according to the age or state of the specimens, but
9-9

when complete they are m 5 It is stated that the front ones are often deci-

duous ; hence Sir E. Home describes them as m 222 and Cuvier as mo—. In
this skull, the teeth are well preserved,—39 remaining in their sockets, and 5

distinct empty sockets for others. The dental formula is therefore m ee =44,

Notice of the Duration of Life in the Actinia Mesembryanthemum when
kept in confinement. By Dr. M‘BaIn.

Notice of the Skull of a Wombat from the Bone-Caves of Australia.
By Dr. M‘Batn.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153
Notice of the Shull of a Seal from the Gulf of California. By Dr. M‘Batn.
On the Classification of the Salmonide. By R. Knox, M.D.

On a New Species of Galago (Galago murinus) from Old Calabar.
By Anvrew Murray, Edinburgh.

After giving some details regarding the habits of this Galago, which he had
received from his correspondent, the Rev. W. C. Thomson, one of the United Pres-
byterian missionaries stationed in Old Calabar, and pointing out its specific di-
stinctions, the author took the opportunity of discussing the value of the characters
of the convolutions of the brain and its extension over the cerebellum, recently
brought prominently forward by Prof. Owen as of primary importance in the clas-
sification of the mammifera, as exhibited in the osculant group of the Quadrumana
to which the Galago belongs. The conclusion to which he arrived was confirmatory
of the views of Prof. Owen: like him, he considered the insectivorous monkeys an
exception to the general rule drawn from the convolutions of the brain (without dis-
paraging that character), and would retain them among the Quadrumana, unless in-
deed a separate tribe should be erected for their reception—which the other charac-
ters of the internal structure scarcely seemed to justify, notwithstanding the external
peculiarities of these animals, which partake of the bat, of the squirrel, of the hedge-
hog, &c., as well as of the monkey.

On the Habits and Instincts of the Chameleon. By W.E. C. Nourse,
F.R.C.S., Fellow of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society.

When travelling in Nubia with a friend, we procured seven chameleons. Their
prevailing colour was a bright delicate green. Occasionally, they turned dark, some
more frequently than others ; and when irritated, as by tickling or interfering with
them, they first came out all over in spots, then turned dark, at the same time
arching the back, inflating the body, opening the mouth very wide, and puffing at
the intruder, or trying to bite. If they got a finger into their mouths, they had
power enough to give it a smart pinch, but not to cut the skin.

Two of the chameleons were brought to us damaged or sickly; their green was
very pale, and their skin soft and flabby. One soon died. The other lingered
nearly a fortnight, and cast its skin; this one was always covered with dark spots
like a leopard, and never changed colour. Of the remaining five, two got away, and
two more died from eating spiders. They first showed signs of torpidity, keeping
one eye closed, then became puffed up, and lost power in their limbs; and their
skin, of a very pale green, got soft and flabby, while a great oval black patch deve-
loped itself on each of their sides; and they died in from twenty-four to forty-eight
hours after eating the spiders. These black patches were not mortification, nor yet
any change of colour in the skin. The skin, on being removed, was colourless ;
the subjacent muscles there were black ; and the small intestines, which lay against
them, were filled with black matter like treacle. Thus in three weeks we had only
one chameleon left, This was a very large one, 114 inches long from the tip of his
nose to the end of his tail. We had also given him a spider or two; and for some
days he seemed torpid and unwell, keeping one eye closed; but after feeding him
with flies, twelve to eighteen in a day, and occasionally a little atom of raw meat,
he got well and active, and fed himself. His way of feeding was this. On warm
days he would begin early in the morning, his time appearing to depend entirely on
the degree of power of the sun. Assoon as the sun was well up, if put in a window
with flies, he would begin eating them, generally yawning and rubbing his nose
against his perch after every three or four. In about half an hour he would have
eaten twenty-one or twenty-two flies, as I often counted; and would then begin to
walk about. The rest of the day he would alternately walk and rest, picking off a
fly occasionally when in the humour. Perhaps he might eat thus eight or ten more;
but I never saw him take more than one grand feed in the day; so that his average
might amount to thirty or thirty-five flies a day. He never seemed to wish for
water, but rather disliked it—if dropped into his mouth, he showed signs of distress,

154 REPORT—1859.

and it sometimes oozed out through the nostrils, the palate being cleft; the skin
was dry and perfectly free from perspiration or moisture : and from these facts,
and the absence of any liquid evacuation, and the rainless climate of Nubia where
we got them, I am inclined to think the chameleon never drinks, but that the moist-
ure contained in the bodies of the flies he eats is sufficient for the purposes of his
economy. An evacuation was observed to occur every second or third day, usually
during the morning feed. On cool days he would wait till noon, or even later, for
his feed.

It is not easy, in dissecting the tongue, to make out its length. I have frequently
seen this large chameleon take flies six inches from him; in several instances it
seemed af least seven or eight inches ; and the shortest distance was about an inch
anda half. The flies were invariably taken with the tongue, which very seldom
missed its aim. ‘The movement is very rapid, so that one cannot be certain of its
precise nature; but it appears as if the red fleshy tip of the tongue, covered with
thick glutinous mucus, made the fly stick to it. The tongue, thus thrust forth,
appears, in a full-sized chameleon, to bea cylindrical fleshy organ as thick as a
swan’s quill. Before making a dart, you may observe that one of the eyes, wander-
ing about, catches sight of the fly at convenient striking-distance, and fixes eagerly
upon it ; and the other eye instantly converges, as if the animal were squinting ; then
the mouth slowly opens, the tongue is darted, and the chameleon chops up the
insect apparently with infinite relish. Our smallest chameleon could shoot out the
tongue to a distance of four inches.

These animals, leaving the damaged ones out of the question, were of different
dispositions. Two of them, inclined to be frequently dark-coloured, were very
active, wild, and shy, always trying to get away, always hiding themselves, and
biting and puffing at the least approach; the other three were more generally green
and quiet, less shy and wild. The chameleon, therefore, though a very stupid
animal, still possesses certain psychica! endowments. Different specimens also differ
in their degree of vital power, and in their nervous irritability, with which latter the
tendency to change colour is closely connected.

This animal’s media of communication with the outer world seem few and
imperfect. The eye is the organ on which it most depends ; and each eye being
capable of independent action, and both projecting so as to have an immense range—
directly backwards, forwards, upwards, downwards, and outwards—the chameleon
has in some respects double the amount of power of vision possessed by creatures,
the action of whose eyes is consentaneous. The eyeball is, however, so closely
covered up with opake green lid, that a very small aperture only is left, and nothing
can be seen but what is directly before the eye. Hearing appears to be nearly or
quite absent, as we often proved by experiment; and smell is totally wanting. Taste
seems doubtful; what there is seems to reside in the tongue, mostly at the tip; but
whether it be true ¢as¢e, or merely such refined sensibility as serves the animal to
distinguish a fly from anything else, I know not. When he opens his mouth to
bite, he will close his jaws upon your finger, but not on any other substance you
may insert ; so that there is some sense sufficiently acute to discriminate thus much.

We procured several more chameleons in Alexandria, and brought them to
England. A passenger on board the ship had a chameleon from the East Indies,
This creature was larger and coarser-looking than the Egyptian specimens, the
skin-plates larger, and the green colour duller and coarser. It was fed every day
upon one or two little bits of raw meat, each about the size of a fly, and seemed to
do very well upon this diet. We therefore adopted the same plan with our Egyptian
chameleons; but they gradually pined away and died—the smallest and youngest
first, then the old ones, some on board ship, the remainder after landing ; so that ina
few weeks not one survived.

These chameleons, like those from Nubia, differed in disposition ; one was timid,
another obstinate, another pugnacious, and soon. When two of equal size happened
to meet upon the same perch, as they slowly strode along it, they would stop with
their noses about an inch apart, their eyes would converge till they stared one another
full in the face, they came out all over in spots like a leopard, then turned nearly
black, at the same time arching their backs and bellies, and flattening in their sides,

till they assumed the shape of a couple of flounders ; then they butted at each .

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 155

other with their noses, and tried, in a weak, harmless way, to knock one another off
the perch, until one or both got tired and retreated.

On the Zoophytes of Caithness. By C. W. Peacu.

The author commenced by extolling the utility of local catalogues of Natural History,
and stated that he was desirous of showing how rich the Scottish shores were in these
lovely gems. He then mentioned Mr. J. Macgillivray’s list, the result of about
three weeks’ examination on the Aberdeen coast, as the only Scottish one he had (it
contained 64 species), and then proceeded to compare his own with those of Couch’s
for Cornwall and Alder’s for Durham and Northumberland ; the former contains 124
species, the latter 164, thus giving a preponderance of 40 species to Alder’s. Mr.
A. formed his comparison from the List of Cornish Zoophytes published by the Royal
Institution of Cornwall: therefore it is not correct; for since that was published, very
many have been added both by the author and others, so that he believed the differ-
ence, when these were taken in, would be very small. He enumerated his 150
species; and thus a balance of 14 only is left against Caithness, &c. He believed this will
soon be reduced when greater attention has been paid to the freshwater ones and the
more obscure forms, and when the dredge has been used* ; for hitherto all had been
collected between tide-marks and from the refuse of the fishermen’s lines, and all
(with the exception of Plumularia myriophyilum, at Peterhead, by the Rev. Mr.
Yuill) by himself and sons: the greatest number of southern forms being found at
Wick as well, the Wick list is a little the longest. A few forms found at Peterhead
are wanting at Wick, and vice versd. The specimens were exhibited, and the greater
part presented to Marischal College Museum.

Notes on Different Subjects in Natural History, illustrated by specimens.
By C. W. PEeacu.

Marine AnrmAts.—Mr. Peach placed on the table specimens of marine animals
from the Caithness coast and other places. Amongst them was a fine specimen of
** Yarrell’s Blenny,”’ found by his son Benjamin in a rock-pool near Ackergill
Castle; also a pretty one of the “‘ Corkwing,”’ Crenilabrus Norwegicus, obtained by
his son Joseph in Scapa Bay, Orkney. Although often taken in Cornwall and
Devon, it is net noticed in Yarrell’s second edition of the ‘ British Fishes ’ as having
been found further north than the Firth of Forth. Prof. Nilsson considers it com-
mon on the coast of Norway and in the Baltic; hence its specific name Norwegicus.
The most intereresting specimen exhibited was the nest of an Annelide, Pontobdella.
This worm is parasitical on Rays. The nidi were attached to an oyster-shell which
came from the Firth of Forth, and attracted the notice of R. Boyd, Esq., Collector
of Customs at Wick, and was kindly sent to the author by him. Fortunately, on
examination, the young were found enclosed in the capsule-like nest, and in so per-
fect a form that the genus and species could be determined. A special interest
attaches to this, from so little being known of the early stages of Annelides. There
were several other interesting objects exhibited, especially a splendid specimen of
Sponge, Halichondria palmata, from the Pentland Frith. The author presented
Yarrell’s Blenny, with the sponge and several of the objects exhibited, to the Museum
of Marischal College.

On the Genus Cydippe. By Joun Price, M.A.

The author attributed the little acquaintance with that beautiful creature C. pileus
to the frequent disappointment experienced in attempts to domesticate it. He had
himself succeeded in keeping them alive and well for thirteen months, long before
the invention of the “aquarium” proper. The first and most essential point is to
catch perfect specimens. He recommended for this thie use of a tin ladle having the
mouth quite in the side, that the attempt should be made in a calm only, and that

* Since this paper was read, the author has added four others, and the pretty anemone
Corynactis viridis which he got at Stroma; it is the first time he has seen it on the Scottish
shore. ;

156 REPORT— 1859.

those should be selected among the specimens, whose trains are already retracted.
When deposited in the aquarium undamaged, (. pileus thrives remarkably well, and
is one of the most joyous of creatures in confinement. Its natural food is prawns,
anda rarer kind of shrimps—not the common shrimp. Beroé is the natural food of
Cydippe ; but if placed in the same vessel, the interesting spectacle will be afforded
of the deglutition by one transparent animal of another equally pellucid.

On the Distribution of British Butterflies. By Mr. H. T. Stainton.

Among the insect tribes, the ‘ Scale-wings,’ or order Lepidoptera, has always
attracted a considerable amount of attention ; the variety and beauty of the butterfly
tribe is amatter of notoriety. The order Lepidoptera includes two great divisions,
butterflies and moths; the former group all fiy by day, whereas most of the moths
are nocturnal in their habits. It has been calculated that there are not less than
50,000 different species of Lepidoptera on the globe. More than 3000 species of
butterflies are already known ; and it has been computed that the moths are sixteen
times as numerous.

In this country the proportion of moths is much greater, being nearly thirty to
one; but then we are remarkable throughout Europe for our poverty in butterflies.
As already observed, in the whole world 3000 species of butterflies are already
known; of these only one-tenth occur in Europe, the tropical parts of Asia and
America being by far the most numerously populated with this beautiful tribe of
insects.

In central Europe or Germany 186 species of butterflies have been observed, the
remaining 120 European species being peculiar to Spain, Italy, Greece, Russia, or
Lapland. Of the German species, 94 occur in Belgium, but only 65 in Eng-
land—though we possess one species, Hrebia Cassiope, which does not occur in
Belgium.

All the British butterflies occur in England, but little more than half (only 33)
are found in Scotland, and scarcely more in Ireland.

Twenty-five species may be considered as generally distributed and common; but
it should not be understood that these are everywhere to be met with, but simply
that their geographical range is not limited, and that where they find suitable locali-
ties we may expect to meet with them from Norfolk to Killarney, and from the Isle
of Wight to Caithness. Some frequent gardens, some meadows, some heaths, some
woods, and some hedgerows and lanes.

Twenty-five other species, which all occur in the south-east of England, thin out
as we advance northwards and westwards; only five of them occurring in Scotland,
and only fourteen in Ireland.

Three species, two of which are common in the mountainous parts of Scotland,
do not occur at all in the south of England.

Seven species are local to particular limited districts in the Midland Counties or
the south of England.

Three species of rare occurrence in this country must be looked upon as stragglers
from the Continent ; one of them, Vanessa Antiopa, has occurred in the south-west
of Scotland and at Dunbar.

Two other species, which formerly occurred in restricted English localities, now
appear to be extinct there.

It has been observed by Dr. Speyer, who has devoted considerable time to the
subject of the geographical distribution of the butterflies of Germany, that the
number of species there decreases from east to west and from south to north; but
the latter circumstance is partly owing to the configuration of the country, the Alps
being particularly rich in butterflies.

That butterflies are not regularly distributed according to latitude, is evinced by
the simple fact, that in Lapland, which is situated considerably further north than
the Shetland Isles, they enumerate seventy-seven species, whereas Scotland only
boasts of thirty-three. Silesia, on the eastern side of Germany, but in the same
latitude as Belgium, has 124 species, about one-third more than Belgium, which
only numbers ninety-four, Berlin, though further north than Paris, has more ~

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157

species of butterflies, the numbers being ninety-six and eighty-nine; and the neigh-
bourhood of Berlin is, as any traveller can testify, very monotonous, and not
particularly likely to yield any extra variety of forms.

In the same way we find that there are fewer species of butterflies in the western
counties of England than in the eastern counties.

Dr. Speyer has suggested that the more continental character of the climate of
Eastern Germany, the greater cold in winter, and greater heat in summer, was favour-
able to the development of butterfly-life, and tended therefore to account for the
greater number of species there. This theory is certainly corroborated by the distri-
bution of the species with us: their maximum is reached in those portions of
England which have the most continental climate.

In respect of the species peculiar to moors and mountains, it is needful to bear
in mind that it is not latitude that effects their distribution, but the position of
mountain chains of sufficient elevation. Thus the London entomologist travels
north to obtain species which an entomologist at Brussels would seek in the south;
and even in Ireland an entomologist would need to go southwards to obtain species
in Kerry, which an Edinburgh entomologist would seek in the Highlands. Though
Cenonympha Davus is unknown in Southern England, simply because we have no
boggy mosses there, yet in Bavaria we meet with mosses similar to Chat Moss near
Manchester, and there this insect is again abundant.

From a comparison of the species which occur in Ireland with those found in
Scotland, it appears that all the twenty-five, generally common species, occur in
Scotland, though three, Argynnis Silene and Huphrosyne, and Thymele Alveolus, have
not yet been detected in Ireland; of the more southern forms, fourteen occur in
Ireland, but only five in Scotland; on the other hand, one of the mountain species
common in Scotland, Hrebia Blandina, has not yet been found in Ireland; and one
straggler, Vanessa Antiopa, has occurred in Scotland, but not in Ireland.

In short, six species occur in Scotland but not in Ireland; on the other hand,
eleven in Ireland, but not in Scotland.

Of the twenty-five more southern species, one, Vanessa Jo, attains the latitude of
Edinburgh on the eastern side of our island, and occurs right across the country,
having been found at Falkirk and Renfrew. Of the remaining twenty-four, seven
stop short at Darlington, nine at York, and eight at Peterborough ;—that is, these
are, speaking roundly, their northern limits on the eastern side of the island ; several
of them travel further north on our western shores; thus Colias Edusa, which is
unknown at Newcastle-on-Tyne, has appeared in Dumfriesshire, in Ayrshire, and in
the Isle of Arran. Argynnis Paphia, which has not actually occurred quite as far
north as Darlington, has been observed at Arrochar, and even in the neighbourhood
of Rannoch.

Of the three moor and mountain species, Cenonympha Davus is that which is
found furthest south in England ; it occurs near Uttoxeter, and is plentiful on the
mosses between Warrington and Manchester; it also occurs at Thorne Moor in
Yorkshire, and on wet bogs near Newcastle and near Carlisle. In Scotland it is
very general on mosses and hill-tops. In Ireland it occurs in the counties of Cork
and Kerry.

Erebia Blandina is first found at Wharfdale in Yorkshire, then at Colne, Kendal,
and at Castle Eden Dene. In Arran, Argyleshire, Dumbartonshire, Perthshire, &c.,
itis widely distributed.

__ Brebia Cassiope is not found further south than Langdale Pikes and Styehead

Tarn ; it always occurs at a great elevation, from 1500 to 2000 feet above the level
of the sea. In Scotland it occurs on Ben Lomond and on some of the Perthshire
mountains. In Ireland it occurs at Galway and Donegal.

With regard to those species which are excessively local with us, the circumstances
which cause their restriction to such very confined localities are at present unknown
tous. ‘They are not so restricted on the continent; Papilio Machaon and Polyom-
matus Acis are universally distributed in Germany; and with the exception of
Pamphila Acteon, all our other local species are very generally distributed in
Germany, though not occurring in every district.

Of the three stragglers in this country, Pieris Daplidice, Argynnis Lathonia, and
Vanessa Antiopa, the two former seem confined to the southern counties of England,

158 REPORT—1859.

not ranging north of Peterborough; but Vanessa Antiopa is most plentiful between
the Humber and the Tyne, and has more than once been observed in Scotland.

Of the two species which may be considered extinct with us, one, Chrysophanus
Dispar, used to be abundant at Whittlesea Mere ; but since that was drained, causing
cornfields to wave where reeds had formerly held undisputed sway, the insect has
disappeared. Similar fen districts still exist in Norfolk and Suffolk ; but though the
insect has been sought there in its most likely haunts, no recent captures are known.

With reference to the distribution throughout the globe of our sixty-five British
butterflies, it may be remarked that fifty-nine occur in Asia, twenty-seven are found
south of the Mediterranean, several cross the Atlantic, and one, Cynthia Cardui, is
cosmopolitan.

Dr. Dickie, in his able paper on the Distribution of the Aberdeenshire Plants,
divided, according to Mr. Watson’s suggestion, our British Flora into the British,
English, Germanic, Atlantic, Scottish and Highland types.

It may readily be conceded that the twenty-five generally common butterflies
correspond to the British type of plants; the twenty-five more southern butterflies
to the English type; but unless we refer the three moor and mountain species to the
Highland type, we cannot follow the same system of classification further.

We have not a single butterfly peculiar to our west coast, nor a single one peculiar
to the north; the circumpolar species which occur in Lapland do not reach us;
neither have we any one species peculiar to the eastern coast of England. We
simply trace, as we advance northwards, a gradual decrease in the number of
species : every one of our British butterflies is abundant in the South of Germany.

Account of the Fish-rain at Aberdare in Glamorganshire.
By the Rev. W. S. Symonps.

The evidence of the fall of fish on this occasion was very conclusive. A specimen
of the fish was exhibited, and was found to be the Gasterosteus leiwrus, Cuv.

On Drift Pebbles found in the Stomach of a Cow.
By the Rev. W. S. Symonps.

The author exhibited thirty pebbles, one of them weighing three-quarters cf a
pound, found in the stomach of a cow lately killed at Barton-under-Needwood,
Burton-on-Trent. The pebbles belong to the Northern drift of geologists, which
abundantly overlies the New Red Sandstone of the district; and they are remark-.
ably glazed and polished by the action of the cow’s stomach. The weight of the
pebbles is five pounds, and the animal appeared perfectly healthy and fat when
killed by Mr. Goodman, butcher, of Barton-under-Needwood, to whom reference
may be made.

Note on Falco Islandicus and F. Groenlandicus.
By James Taytor, Medical Student, Aberdeen.

Falco Grenlandicus and F. Islandicus have been confounded by some writers;
they are considered distinct by Mr. Hancock, and Mr. Taylor’s observations con-
firm this view ; F’. Gyr-falco Norvegicus is an allied species. F'. Islandicus is largest,
viz. 234 inches; in the adult of both sexes the predominating colour is brownish-
grey spotted. F. Greenlandicus is intermediate in size, viz. 22 inches; in the adult
of both sexes the predominating colour is bluish brown, and greyish white beneath,
F. Gyr-falco Norvegicus, an aliied species, is smaller than either.

The author has seen all the three species, and the /. Grenlandicus more than 200
miles over the south-west ice in Greenland. When on the cliffs which they frequent,
this last species rests in a leaning position, as if on the point of commencing flight,
The F. Grenlandicus is rather indiscriminate in choice of food, capturing ptarmigan,
puffins, gulls, and various species of sea birds.

On the Employment of the Electrical Eel, Gymnotus Eleetricus, as a Medical
Shock-Machine by the Natives of Surinam. By Prof. GEorcE WILSON.
This paper was an appendix to a communication “ On the Electric Fishes as the ©

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159

earliest Electrical Machines employed by mankind,” brought before the British
Association at its meeting in Dublin in 1857.

In addition to the facts concerning the employment of the Gymnotus as a remedial
electric agent mentioned in that communication, the author has ascertained two
others of some interest. Humboldt, in his ‘ Personal Narrative,’ refers to a Dutch
surgeon named Van der Lott, as having published in Holland a work in the last
century ‘ On the Therapeutic Use of the living Gymnotus.” Through the kindness
of Baron J. L. de Geer, of the University of Utrecht, the author has learned that
Van der Lott’s work consisted simply of a letter dated Rio Essequibo, 7th June,
1761, and published by one of its members in the ‘ Transactions of the Haarlem
Society of Arts for 1762,’ where it may be consulted. ‘The point of chief interest
contained in it is the statement that the Dutch colonists, with the sanction of some
at least of the medical men, were in the habit of treating, and frequently with suc-
cess, lameness, paralysis, and headache, as occurring among their negro slaves.

The other point referred to by the author is the fact recently ascertained by him,
that the use of the Gymnotus continues in Surinam at the present day. Robert
Kirke, Esq., of Burntisland near Edinburgh, who resided in that colony for some
twenty years, informs him that he was in the habit, as other owners of estates also
were, and still are, of keeping two or more living electrical eels in atank, for the use
of the negroes and Indians, who have great faith in the power of their shock to cure
rheumatic and paralytic affections, The negroes combine the administration of the
Gymnotus-shocks, which they know how to vary in strength, with the application
to the ailing part of the fat of the boa constrictor ; but they invariably ascribe the
cure, if such is attained, to the shocks. An uncle of Mr. Kirke’s, Dr. James Balfour,
who practised medicine in the end of the last and beginning of the present century
in Berbice and Demerara, was in the regular habit of employing the eels to give
shocks, which he said he had found of great use in the cure of rheumatism.

It thus appears that the native Indians, the imported negroes, the Dutch and
English colonists of the districts where the Gymnotus is found, have one or other
employed it as a therapeutic electric machine from time immemorial down to the
present day.

-The author mentioned in conclusion, that Mr. Kirke had kindly engaged to pro-
cure next summer a pair of living Gymnoti for him. He trusted they would arrive
safely in Edinburgh, where they would be accessible to all scientific men.

PuystoLoey.

Case of Lactation in an Unimpregnated Bitch. By Joun Apamsoy, M.D.

A greyhound bitch, four years old, has never had pups. She is a usual occupant
of a hearth-rug along with a cat, with which she has always been on very friendly
terms.

This cat had kittens, and one being spared, it was soon allowed to join the family
group on the hearth-rug, where in a short time it rivalled, and almost supplanted its
mother in the affection of the greyhound. Before long it was observed to make an
occasional attempt to reach the greyhound’s teats, the process evidently at first
discomposing the bitch, although she generally submitted to it. After a time this
occurred regularly, and led to an examination of the teats, which were found to be
slightly enlarged, reddened, and to contain a few drops of milk.

In a few weeks, during which the sucking continued regularly, the glands were
noticed to have become much larger, and the amount of the secretion was so great
that one gentle squeeze easily caused the emission of six or eight drops from any of
the enlarged glands ; it was apparent, indeed, that the kitten was deriving a great
part of its nourishment from the bitch.

About this time the old cat, which had long ceased to notice the kitten, had
another litter in a stable in which the greyhound was shut up at night ; and the first .
intimation of it was given by the appearance of the bitch on her way to the house
with a young kitten in her mouth: she exhibited every appearance of maternal affec-

160 REPORT—1859.

tion to it, and the remainder of the litter being speedily destroyed, there ensued a
curious struggle between tke cat and the dog for its possession. In this the
greyhound succeeded ; and the cat was only replaced in enjoyment of her maternal
rights, by placing the kitten in a box with an entrance hole large enough only to
admit the real parent.

The greyhound whined piteously, and was disconsolate for a whole night and day,
but in the end again took to her former foster pup, and to the present time she
nurses it, even although it has grown into nearly a full-sized cat.

The milk-glands of the bitch were the size of large figs, and the posterior four
only are excited, viz. those taken by the kitten. The other and anterior glands are
not affected, but only indicated, as were the others before the sucking, by the posi-
tion of the small teat.

On the Repair of Tendons after their Subcutaneous Division.
By Bernarv E. Bropuourst, F.R.CS.

Attention was drawn to this subject by the author four years ago, when he dis-
played the ordinary mode of healing after subcutaneous division of tendons. In the
present communication, the experiments above referred to are detailed, and the
question is examined whether, “ after subcutaneous section of tendons for the cure of
deformity, the necessary extension for the removal of distortion can be made without
a cicatrix being apparent in the tendon which has been divided.”’ And, further,
whether “the new material between the divided ends of the tendon subsequently
contracts or elongates.”

From various experiments which the author has made, he deduces the following
conclusions :—

1st. When a tendon has been divided subcutaneously, if its divided ends are
approximated and the limb is kept at rest, reunion will take place, and probably
without new material or cicatrix being apparent. ,

2nd. The new material which is formed between the divided ends of the tendon
may be drawn out to any required length; having been extended, it remains a
permanent structure, and it may afterwards be recognized as a new deposit.

3rd. There is a tendency, during some months, and whilst consolidation is taking
place, for this new tissue to contract.

4th. Should extension have been commenced too early, or should it have been
carried on too rapidly, paralysis will result; and if a limb be used immediately
after the division of a tendon, reunion may be prevented. Also, if it be used before
the tendon has gained sufficient consistence, so great elongation of the new tissue
may result, as to cause weakness of the limb; but, on the other hand, should the
extension be insufficient, distortion will recur.

On the Beat of the Snail’s Heart. By Micuart Foster, M.D.

In the heart of the common snail (Helix hortensis), the force of each beat is in
direct proportion to the distension of the cavitics during the preceding diastole.

Any part of the heart separated from the rest will beat rythmically, provided too
much injury be not inflicted upon it by the act of division, the likelihood of which
increases rapidly with the smallness of the piece operated upon.

If the heart bedivided in anyway,the resulting pieces will each contract rythmically,
not necessarily synchronously with each other, but each having the whole of its
tissue occupied in the production of every beat.

Hence the beat cannot be the result of any localized mechanism, but is probably
the peculiar property of the general cardiac tissue.

A Second Physiological Attempt to unravel some of the Perplexities of the
Berkeleyan Hypothesis. By Witcuarp Fowter, M.D., F.R.S. &e.
I should not venture to ask for the attention of the Section to, apparently, so psycho-

logical a subject as the Berkeleyan hypothesis, if I did not think to satisfy others,
as I have satisfied myself, that some of its obscurities could be cleared hy a reference

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161

to physiological facts. [For instance, a portrait painter searches to get, not only the
fixed features, but the adjusting capabilities by which they express the thoughts of
the mind ; when he is satisfied he has succeeded in this, he copies it on his canvas :
here then Mr. Locke is right; the conception has passed through the senses to the
intellect. The creations of the poetical painter, on the contrary, pass from the intel-
lectual senses.

Now Berkeley has said, “That a conception has no existence but while it is per-
ceived ;”” yet in both the instances cited, the conception remained fixed and permanent
in its existence for years, though no one is present to perceive it.

The sublime “ Cathedral of York’’ must have been a conception in the mind of
the architect, and have existed for ages a reality, though for long intervals not
perceived by others. The “ Great Eastern,” the conception of Brunel, as other
conceptions, the materialized inventions, remain enduring existences when not
perceived by any one.

I may here remark on the difference between discovery and invention.

Discovery comes to the intellect through the senses, by facts suggesting search, a3
in the case of the planet Neptune. Now the bridge to connect mind with what is
external to the mind, will be found, I think, in the pre-established affinities of the
forces with which phenomena are composed, and the mind which perceives them.
Such affinities constitute the pre-established harmony suggested by Leibnitz.

All chemical affinities are of this kind; all sensational, all intellectual, all associa-
tions of ideas, the affinities of force for each other, as magnetism for iron (see
Ampére).

What is the bridge which affords communication from mind to mind for thousands
of miles, but the Electro-magnetic Telegraph, the two ferces of electricity and
magnetism passed from the galvanic trough to the vibrating needles at the ends of
the conducting wires ? ‘

The thoughts that constitute this subject are so numerous and evanescent, so far
away from the ordinary occupations of men, that I have great doubts of being able
to arrange them without being both tedious and obscure.

In Berkeley’s time, matter was supposed to consist of atoms, with an impene-
trable nucleus surrounded by attractive and repulsive forces; he probably saw that
all the phenomena perceived by the mind were affected by these forces, without
contact with the supposed impenetrable nuclei. He was aware, too, that all our
knowledge consists, not of objective, but of subjective impressions, and therefore
that we had no certainty that any objects external to the mind had existence, but
that all we saw, heard, or touched, were merely modes of mind, and that the
phenomena had no existence when not perceived.

The permanent existence of phenomena is, I think, proved by the instances to
which I have referred in the former part of this paper—the portrait, for example,
and all inventions of art, real creations of the mind.

If this be so, the severance or gulph between matter and mind will be found to
be bridged over by affinities analogous to the chemical, as the oxygen of the atmo-
sphere has for the carbon of the blood, or by forces modified by their coils. The
force light, for example, carries the species, or resemblance of the face through a
camera obscura to the sensitive surface on which it is fixed, and remains permanent,
both in time and space, though not seen in its passage by the eyes of others.
Thoughts embodied in words pass by the forced motion from one concave disc to
another at a distance of many feet (as at the Polytechnic, and the whispering gallery
at St. Paul’s Cathedral).

The air is the medium through which such motion passes, and when modified by
different musical instruments, results in songs and operas, and all the varied
phenomena which can be produced by sound.

The vitality of sap in trees is so modified by the graft coil through which it
passes, as to result in varieties of fruit corresponding with the graft. ‘The motion
by which a ship moves is modified by the adjustment of the sails, the rudder,
paddles, and screw. Now the law of these forces requires investigation, and is
clearly (as Turgot and Dugald Stewart asserted) independent of the mind, and
external to it. May it then not be asserted, as affirmed, that the forces are the
bridges by which the mind passes to and from the phenomena which it perceives?

1859. 11

162 REPORT—1859.

I am afraid that I may not have been sufficiently explicit as to the means by
which the severance between matter and mind may be bridged over by an affinity,
or a force; but I consider that, in addition to the seven physical forces, of which
Mr. Grove has so ingeniously proved the correlations, mind and vitality are equally
forces, as I have attempted to prove in former papers, and that these—mind and
vitality—have such correlations with the physical forces as to form the communica-
tion which bridges over the apparent severance between mind and matter.

On the Comparative Action of Hydrocyanic Acid on Albumen and Caseine.
By A. Gaces, M.R.LA.

There is scarcely any problem in Physiological Chemistry of more importance
than to find satisfactory means of distinguishing the various albuminoid bodies from
one another. ‘The processes hitherto employed are very unsatisfactory when the
substances are in solution, and are almost wholly valueless when the substances are
in a coagulated state or in solution in acids. The great similarity between the reac-
tions of all albuminoid bodies, their almost identity of per-centage composition, led
to the belief that they were but modifications of one another, The action of
deutoxide of hydrogen upon fibrine shows us, however, that there is a positive mole-
cular difference between fibrine and albumen and caseine. The author has found
that this opinion is fully borne out by the peculiar reaction of hydrocyanic acid with
albumen. If pure caseine be put into a solution of hydrocyanic acid, it remains
unaltered in colour and other properties. If hydrocyanic acid is added to milk, it
coagulates it in the same manner as other acids do; and if the quantity of acid be
large and the mixture be kept in a well-stoppered bottle, the caseine remains
unaltered for a long period of time, and even after three years hydrocyanic acid may
be detected. If, on the other hand, the white of an egg is introduced into a concen-
trated solution of hydrocyanic acid, it first coagulates, and after some time dissolves,
the solution gradually darkens until it becomes a blackish muddy-looking mass ;
nevertheless, as in the former case, hydrocyanic acid may yet be detected even
after three years,

On Reproduction in Glasteropoda, and on some curious Effeets of
indosmosis. By Ropert Garner, £.L.8.

In the shell- covered, water-breathing, creeping mollusks, with one or two excep-
tions, reproduction is simple enough, there being male and female individuals
without or with sexual congress. In achiton or limpet we have the former arrange-
ment, the testes in the male and the ovaries in the female opening in the chiton
between the branchial processes, and in the limpet near the rectum. This dispo-
sition was pointed out by the author a quarter of a century back, though one of the
latest and best general treatises on comparative anatomy asserts that these openings
have never been detected. In fact, the disposition in the limpet was known to
Cuvier. The common Paludina is. a species where the sexual congress takes place,
We only refer to this animai (during the last few'years introduced, with the American
weed, into districts where it was before wanting), that we may mention the very
curious spermatozoa to be found in the male, and occasionally, of course, in the
female. They have indeed been figured by Leydig, and perhaps by others, but [
believe imperfectly. As‘seen by a high power, they present a truly wonderful and
beautiful appearance. They may be from the eighteenth to the twentieth of a line
in length, and are not strictly locomotive, but are moored by six or eight fine fila-
ments at the tail, the rest of the thread-like body bending or extending in various
ways; having also, at the same time, a wavy appearance, seemingly due to the
spiral rotation of its length. When water is applied to them, the posterior part of
the body gradually swells into a globular form, and by degrees absorbs the linear
part; this still continues to show motion ; finally, we have nothing but a globular
sac with the finer caudal filaments sticking from its side, and this at length bursts.
Mixed with these are other extremely fine filaments, so fine that they are liable to be
overlooked with even a high power; they appear to be corkscrew-like towards one
extremity, and have a less active but progressive movement; though with water
they double themselves up with a loop, and move extremely rapidly. ‘That these are

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 163

a stage of the former there is little doubt, as there is more or Jess resemblance in
some of them. They may perhaps originate from the pencil of filaments to be seen
in the larger bodies.

But reproduction in the other Gasteropoda, particularly in the shell-less and water-
breathing species, and the air-breathing (with one or two exceptions), is accomplished
by very curious organs. Perhaps they are as complicated in the different species of
Heliz and Bulimus as in any, and we shall describe them in the former; hoping
that we shall advance a step in the physiology, and make certain the difficult
anatomy. Each individual of these animals is considered to be androgynous or
hermaphrodite, or to have the organs of both sexes ; yet to become fertile, the con-
currence of two individuals is generally required.

The gland situated at the extremity of the spiral shell was naturally considered
by Cuvier to be the ovary; after examination with the microscope, no one now
can doubt it to be the testis ; but is it solely such, or does it consist of ovary and
testis combined? This is the present prevalent opinion, But to us it appears a
testis, and nothing more. At one time we believed it to be a double organ ; but at
last, in the Limax, when we thought the numerous nucleated bodies must be ova
par excellence, we found that, on the addition of water and watching them narrowly,
they gave origin to spermatozoa, and also showed us the way in which these last are
developed, somewhat different from the same thing in the Vertebrata. We see in the
testis both large and very small cells, the larger containing several of these last.
The small cells occasionally burst within the larger ones, and each gives exit toa
spermatozoon, which was spirally coiled in it; and in the large cell we finally see
collected a double bundle of spermatozoa: as often the mother-cell bursts by endos-
mosis, and the smaller ones escape, resembling ova or egg-yolks; but if we add
water, and watch, we shall see each one swell, and the contained spermatozoon unrol
and make its escape. In Arion each compound cell gives origin to a much greater
number of these spermatozoa. They are sometimes seen rolled up into a close coil
with the head, or a portion of the anterior part unrolled. With water or a thin
fluid, the mature object stops in its movements, and twists upon itself into a battle-
door shape. The vas deferens is ciliated and generally stuffed with spermatozoa,
often exceedingly vivid in their motion, so that they coil themselves into rapidly
rotating cables. This tongue-shaped part is called the glue-organ, and sometimes
the testis, by Cuvier; no doubt it is in part an organ furnishing glue or albumen,
but we believe that it also comprehends, together with its granular prolongation, the
ovary ; above, it contains diaphanous globules and grains of albumen, but below, these
have every appearance of egg-yolks. The ovary of Sepiaconsists in great part of
the same gluey matter. I think its true structure has never been discovered ; it is
best seen in the Limaz, late in the year, when less distended ; by teazing and exten-
sion, it may be developed so as to be seen to consist of a wide duct and alternately
pinnate ramified prolongations from the same. The inferior prolongation is of the
same structure. At the base of this ovary ends the vas deferens in a wide con-
torted canal, called the matrix by Cuvier, or rather in a groove or false duct running
along its side to near ita lower extremity ; whence it is continued as a perfect canal,
which goes to the intromittent organ. Into the matrix also the ovary opens above.
The spermatozoa must pass into what is considered the penis by this canal. It is
lined by a mucous membrane, which is easily separated, and the cells of which look
at first like ova, but are smaller. I have rarely in the Helix, if ever, found traces of
spermatozoa in this duct, but the anatomy seems to prove the nature of the parts.
The so-called male organ is situated in the Helix close to the general opening, and
of course is everted in coitu. It then carries a remarkable spermatheca, or horny
strap or ribbon, with the edges involuted, and the spermatozoa may be found in a
tuft at its extremity ; and the penis itself is inserted in coitu into the common duct
of the so-called vesicle or ‘ poche copulative,” and its blind appendage. The sper-
matheca is formed in the lash-like prolongation of the penis, and along it may be
“seen moving spermatozoa. The blind appendage seems to be distended sometimes
with a thin fluid, perhaps acting by endosmosis on the spermatozoa, and the vesicle
is a reservoir from which the spermatozoa, or at least the vivifying fluid containing
them, is discharged into the matrix, where it meets the egg-germs, easily obtaining
_ingress from above and the side. In many species of Mollusks I have found the

: ii*

164 -REPORT—1859.

contents of the vesicle as described. The extremity of the spermatheca may bé
found at first in the blind appendage; then it is broken up and conveyed into the
bladder, but often the principal portion of it (three or four inches) will be found
hanging out of the animals, after the reciprocal approach. The ova then are
impregnated in the matrix of each animal by the influence of its fellow; they
receive a strong coating of albumen from the ovary, and investing membranes or
shelly coats from the matrix itself, where they are afterwards found fully developed
in its folds.

In a strong muscular sac, evertile also, exists, as is well known, an organ of exci-
tation in the shape of a calcareous dart or spear. This is formed from the secretion
of the two fimbriated organs, near the base of the sac: I have found that their
milky product effervesces with a little acid; besides, they only exist where the dart is
employed. I shall not describe this curious instrument, as it has been often noticed ;
but may mention that Helix virgata has two sacs and two curved lances, like minia-
ture elephants’ tusks. In Carocolla lapicida the secreting organs are only two
long simple ceca. Cuvier does not figure, in the Helix pomatia, the long appendage
of the vesicle, so remarkable in Helix aspersa. In Helix nemoralis the neck of the
vesicle is very long, its appendage originating higher up, and floating at the end, and
all these parts very dark with pigment. C/ausilia has a short appendage and no
dart: the slugs have neither.

It is curious that the hollow conical base of the dart, marked by its ridges, from
twelve to eighteen, is often found after the sexual approach in the neck of the vesicle ;
I suppose accidentally. Another curious fact is that the dart itself, though it may
be seen sticking from the flank of the animal, or fallen to the ground, yet generally
is found in the interior of the animal, amongst the fimbriz, by the side of the
matrix, or often where the vas deferens joins the ovary. Why this is, seems
doubtful; my theory is that the recoil of the animal into its shell when struck may
cause the dart to enter so deeply, and that it has no other function than that of a
stimulus.

It may be seen, then, that each snail reciprocally impregnates and is impregnated.
There is a transference of spermatozoa, possibly of ova, though I think not in Helix,
though so in Limnea. In the sexual congress the male organ is found, finally,
with its opening to that of the vesicle and its appendage, but at first closely applied
to that of the matrix, with the spermatheca a little inserted. Does it supply the
matrix first, and then the vesicle or pouch of reserve? or does (as is the case in some
annelides for instance) the spermatic fluid of one individual occasionally impregnate
itself by the aid of the second? I think not ; for what would then be the use of the
intervening duct? Once I found the penis half-exserted and lying in its own vaginal
cavity. This I consider accidental, and no proof of self-fertilization. I have given
the anatomy correctly ; perhaps some one cleverer at an enigma may give a better
solution with respect to the physiology.

We have noticed the spermatozoa of Helix and Neritina (some species of which
appear to be hermaphrodite) to put on the forms of ordinary cells by endosmosis.
In the vesicle and testis of Hex are often found immense numbers of extremely
active animalcules, having much the appearance of columnar cells. If we add water,
they quickly become tadpole-like in form, are still more active, and finally globular
and motionless; the endosmosed spermatozoa cannot be distinguished from the
moving cells or animalcules, if they are such, and both may resolve into globules;
but we only mention this as a curious correspondence. How the spermatozoa are
finally disposed of, we are not aware ; we suppose by solution. They arein Helix
from the twentieth to the thirtieth of an inch in length, the vitellus about the ;-7,,th,
so that the theory of their entering it can scarcely be held in this instance.

Limnea stagnalis has similar organs, but no appendage to the penis, and conse-
quently no spermatheca. It is remarkable that here the vas deferens divides and
goes both to the matrix, through a tortuous ciliated duct, into which the ovary also
opens above, and likewise to a second canal, analogous to the false duct of the Helix,
but here not communicating with the matrix, but communicating, as well as the
tortuous ciliated duct, with the ovary above; and it would appear that both ova and
spermatozoa may be conveyed by the second canal through the reservoir at the
bottom, through the interventional duct, and so to the intromittent organ or penis,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 165

and ovipositor (as it would be in addition) in this case, whilst through the first series
ova and spermatozoa might both descend into the matrix, and so the animal be
fertile per seipsum, I have found the spermatozoa in the first tract more frequently
than in the corresponding one in //eliz, I have no doubt on this head. I believe
that in Zimnea ova may also be transferred by the same route, unless sperm- or
tissue-cells have been mistaken for them. In Limnea there are two distant open-
ings for the male and female organs. I have noticed that in the sexual approach
one set of organs are often solely employed, so that there would appear to be a pro-
bability of barrenness inone. Often also three individuals are concerned in the act,
and one might escape fertilization; and again, there is no doubt that the animal,
raised from the fry and kept distinct, may be fertile: in the supply of spermatozoa
through the double duct to both series there may be an instance of the fecundity so
general in nature, I should add that there is a distinct gland here, opening into the
lower portion of the contorted canal, which appears to have the office of furnishing
albumen to the ova, secreted first under the form of lucid particles of regular form,
too large to be called molecules ; of which, however, there is an abundance in these
organs, some with very active movements, which I suppose we must call monads ;
others more minute, darker, and less active, and which must rank as colour parti-
cles, or active molecules.

The transit of the interventional duct in Zimn@a through the muscles of the
side of the animal was considered by Cuvier to be an approach to that disposition,
where the penis is widely separated from the other organs, and connected only by a
groove in the flank, as in Bullea or Aplysia. The Doris or Eolis presents a simpler
type, and Hyalea or Cleodora one simpler still. All of these I have examined, but

need not dwell upon,

The Specific, Chemical and Microscopical Phenomena of Gouty Inflammation.
By A. B. Garrop, MD. F.RS. &e.

Dr. Garrod remarked that many and discordant views were held concerning the
nature of gouty inflammation, and such diversity of opinion arose from the fact, that,
up to the present time, no characteristic structural change had ever been demon-
strated to accompany it; the object of his communication was to supply that
deficiency, and prove that special chemical and microscopical phenomena invariably
attend true gouty inflammation, After alluding very shortly to the views held by
the ancients, and within the last century by Murray Forbes, and Wollaston, and by
Cullen and his followers, and to the difficulties which each had to contend with in
applying their hypotheses to the explanation of the various symptoms of the disease,
he proceeded to speak of his discovery of the constant presence of uric acid in the
blood in gout, and his subsequent researches in the nature of that disease. From
these he drew the three following conclusions :—

Ist. In health, the blood contains minute traces of urate of soda and urea, and
probably of all the principles destined for excretion ; but the quantities are so small,
that the most careful and refined analysis is required to demonstrate their presence.

2nd. In gout, the blood is invariably rich in urate of soda, and uric acid can be
readily crystallized from it.

3rd. In by far the greater number of diseases the blood is free from an abnormal
quantity of uric acid, but in certain cases of albuminuria, lead poisoning and other
affections, its presence can be demonstrated, and still no gouty inflammation ensue ;
lastly, in many gouty subjects the same condition exists in the intervals of the
paroxysms.

From these conclusions Dr. Garrod considered it evident that something more
than the mere presence of urate of soda in the blood was required to produce gouty
inflammation, and his next object was to ascertain its nature.

For this purpose a careful examination of the joints which had suffered was
required, and within the last few years many opportunities had fallen to his lot ; the
subjects of these examinations were divided into four classes :—

First. Subjects of chronic gout with extensive chalk-stones,

Second. Subjects of gout with no appreciable deformity, and no visible deposits
of chalk-stones, except one or more specks on the external ear,

166 REPORT—1859.

Third. Subjects of gout in whom no trace of chalky matter was externally
visible, and in one case only eight attacks of the disease had occurred.

Fourth. Subjects in whom only a single joint (the ball of a great toe) had been
affected with gouty inflammation, or in whom some joint had only been once slightly
inflamed.

These examinations proved beyond the possibility of doubt, that in the very
slightest forms of the disease, as well as the most severe, a structural change invari-
ably occurs, and that this change, when once produced, remained, if not permanently,
at least for a very lengthened time. After detailing the microscopical and chemical
characters of the deposit producing this change, Dr. Garrod finished his communi-
cation by stating that he considered the facts which had been brought forward
warranted him to conclude that—

“* Specific, chemical and microscopical phenomena invariably accompany gouty
inflammation, and these consist in the deposition of urate of soda in a crystalline
form within the cartilages and ligamentous structures of the joints; and that such
deposition is altogether pathognomonic, never being found in any disease other than
true gout.” And again, that “such deposition is probably the cause rather than
the effect of the inflammatory action.”

Lastly, the author pointed out the great importance of ascertaining the true nature
of the disease as a means of conducing to its rational and successful treatment.

[The paper was illustrated by careful drawings and chromolithographs. ]

Necessity of a Reform in Nerve-Physiology. By G. H. Lewes.

The author began by describing the inextricable confusion at present existing in
the writings of physiologists owing to the want of a fixed nomenclature. No two
writers agreed as to the precise meaning of sensibility, sensation, &c. The conse-
quence was that experiments were constantly misinterpreted, one writer declaring
he found no trace of sensibility, where another writer found abundant traces.

There was also very general confusion in the use of the terms Property and Func-
tion. These terms it is indispensable to have precise in meaning ; we ought no more to
confound them, than to confound oxidation with affinity. The property of a nerve
is that which belongs to it as a nerve, and depends on its physical structure. The
function of a nerve is the use to which that property may be applied, and depends
on the anatomical connexions—the organic relations established between the nerve
and other parts of the body. The property is therefore constant, the functions
variable. The nerve which is connected with a gland is similar in structure and
in property to the nerve connected with the skin; but the functions are different,
because the connexions are different.

Having once settled this precise distinction, we are lighted by it to an important
principle, namely, that identity of structure everywhere implies identity of properties,
diversity of structure diversity of properties. Iron is always iron, and always retains
its properties as iron, whether it be fashioned into chains, nails, anvils, windlasses,
or cannon. The uses to which the iron may be applied are various.

In like manner nerve-fibre is always nerve-fibre, and has always the same proper-
ties, though not the same functions or uses. It is an error to suppose that there
are two distinct kinds of nerve, sensory and motory; one class being, it is said, only
competent to convey stimuli from a centre, and the other only ¢o a centre; one being
said to convey motory stimuli, and only these; the other to convey sensitive stimuli,
and only these. It sounds ridiculous to say that iron is capable of being rendered
magnetic at one part of a crank but not at another; yet a similar assertion is made
respecting nerve-fibre without misgiving.

Physiologists are unanimous in ascribing sensibility to the ganglionic substance
of the encephalon, or some portion of it; but they are also unanimous in denying
this property to every other ganglionic mass in spite of identity of structure. No
physiologist has bethought him of the necessity he is under—if he would retain his
belief in the brain as the exclusive seat of sensibility—of proving that the ganglionic
substance of the brain is essentially different from the ganglionic substance of the
medulla oblongata and spinal cord; because with difference of structure would
come difference of property. And such an attempt would be vain. There is no

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167

difference as regards fundamental characters; the fibres, granules, cells, and con-
nective tissue found in the one are found in the other: nothing is found in the one
that is not in the other: they are identical. Our conclusion, therefore, must be
that they are identical in property. If sensibility be the property of any ganglionic
mass, it must be the property of all. Numberless experiments have shown the author
that every ganglionic centre in a vertebrate or invertebrate animal is the seat of sen-
sibility. Physiologists declare the phenomena to be due to reflex action, not to
sensibility ; but this the author considered to be only one among the many ¢quivoques
which arise in the absence of a scientific nomenclature.

Whatever the peculiar force developed in the centres may be, it assuredly is not
the same as that developed in the nerves. Nerve-fibre has one property, the nerve-
cell another. It is proposed to call the one newrility, and the other sensibility. By
neurility is meant the property of the living nerve-fibre, which excites sensation in a
centre, contraction in a muscle, and secretion ina gland. By sensibility is meant
the property of the living nerve-cell, as contractility is the property of the muscular
fibre.

By recognizing the simple fact that all nerve-centres whatever, no matter how
various their functions, have one common property, such as sensibility, we shall be
able to find our way through many obscurities of nervous physiology, and shall
understand how the spinal cord of vertebrata, or separate ganglia of invertebrata,
can separately manifest sensation and volition—as experiment proves—we shall
understand why an animal like the Amphioxus, which has no brain at all, is capable
of sensation and volition, though not of what we call thinking; and, finally, we shall
understand why all animals, in spite of the great diversities in their nervous systems,
have one fundamental character in common, and that is sensibility.

The author concluded by proposing that the British Association should appoint
a committee of physiologists to draw up a Report, and to lay the basis of a new
nomenclature. From the illumination of many minds a reform might issue, anda
new era be inaugurated.

A Demonstration of the Muscular Sense. By G. H. Lewes.

Physiologists are generally agreed as to the existence of a special class of sensa~
tions arising from the exercise of the muscles and regulating their adjustments; but
there are still disputes as to whether these have their origin in the muscles them-
selves, or in the skin. The following experiments were made by the author to
determine whether the stretchings and foldings of the skin were or were not the
source of these sensations.

A frog was completely skinned, with the exception of a smail patch around the
anus, and another patch over the eyes and nose, On all the parts from which the
skin had been removed, there was absolute insensibility to all external stimuli:
pricking, pinching, cutting, cauterizing, and burning were all unable to elicit the
slightest trace of sensibility. -A leg was cut off bit by bit, without the frog’s once
moving; but in the two spots which still retained their skin, sensibility was easily
excited. A touch or a prick made the frog hop away, draw up its leg, or defend
itself.

If this frog were placed on its back, it immediately turned round again, and settled
its legs comfortably. If the hind legs were pulled abruptly down, they were quickly
drawn up again; but if they were pulled gently down, they remained where placed—
until a few minutes had produced a feeling of fatigue in the stretched muscles, and
then the leg was withdrawn. Had not the frog felé this position uncomfortable,
there would have been no reason for altering it. The proof of this was seen by
varying the position: in proportion as the position was unusual, it was maintained
for a shorter period. To these evidences of muscular sensibility may be added the
leaping, and the complicated actions of self-defence when irritated, none of which
could be effected without nice muscular adjustment.

The frog, therefore, which has been rendered totally insensible to external impres-
sions, by removal of its skin, is still seen tc manifest all those phenomena usually
attributed to the muscular sense. A question arises, whether these phenomena are
due to any feelings originating in the muscles, or are solely due to the will of the

168 REPORT—1859,

animal, that is to say, whether the brain may not be the source of the phenomena?
To settle this, the author repeated the experiments on frogs without their brains, and
without their skins. The phenomena were precisely as before.

Experiment having thus proved that the sensations assigned to the muscular sense
have not their source in the skin nor in the brain, the only alternative is to con-
clude that their source is the muscles themselves, the action of which awakens the
sensibility of the spinal cord, either through the anterior, or through the posterior
root of the spinal nerves—in the author’s belief, it is through the anterior root.

On the supposed Distinction between Sensory and Motory Nerves.
By G. H. Lewes.

The author began by declaring the anatomical discovery of Sir Charles Bell to be
firmly fixed ; but the physiological inference deduced from it to be questionable. The
fact that the anterior roots supplied the nerves to the muscles, and the posterior
roots supplied those to the surfaces, established an anatomical difference between
muscle-nerves and skin-nerves, but did not establish the physiological inference that
muscle-nerves were only motory, and skin-nerves only sensory. The author held
that both nerves were sensory and motory; but that owing to their anatomical con-
nexions, the anterior nerves were more largely implicated in motions, and the poste-
rior in sensations.

The supposed distinction between the two classes, if essential, and not merely one
of degree, must be either a distinction in property or in function. That there was
no essential distinction in properly, seemed proved by their identity of structure, ‘This
the author showed in detail. Then, as to the distinction in function, it was easy to
see this could only be one of degree, since function is determined by anatomical con-
nexions; and these are much more alike than is generally supposed.

There are nerves which on being irritated excite muscular contractions; and these
nerves we can follow into the very substance of the muscles, where they end. There
are other nerves which on being irritated excite sensations; and these we can follow
into the substance of the sensitive surfaces, where they end. Finally, there are
nerves which excite buth contractions and sensations, and these we can follow into
muscles and the skin. This is Bell’s immortal discovery. This is the anatomical
distribution of the nerves. Yet it does not force assent to the proposition that one
of these nerves is sensory and the other motory, because in the foregoing we have
only described one half of the anatomical distribution of the nerves. Let the whole
description be given as modern investigations enable us to give it, and there will no
longer be any doubt that, as regards the central connexions, the two nerves agree
very closely, consequently they must agree in function; and as regards their peri-
pheral connexions, the two nerves differ, consequently they must differ in functions,

By an oversight, which will one day excite surprise, physiologists, while insisting
on the peripheral differences in the two nerves, have, without one exception, disre-
garded the important fact of the central agreements. No one has investigated the
minute anatomy of the spinal cord without being aware that both anterior and
posterior nerves are in direct connexion with its grey matter; yet the conclusion has
been overlooked that if both are in direct connexion, both must play upon and excite
the sensibility of this grey matter. Were the properties of the two nerves different,
it would be intelligible that their effects on the centre should differ; but as their
properties are similar, their effects on the centre must be similar.

Logic forces the conclusion, that, in as far as the central connexions of the two
nerves are similar, their functions are similar; but inasmuch as their peripheral
connexions differ, their functions will differ. ‘The function of moving a muscle is
assigned to those nerves which are connected with muscles; the function of trans-
mitting impressions of touch, temperature, &c., is assigned to the nerves connected
with the surfaces.

Thus the posterior nerves are sensory because they are related to a sentient centre,
They are also motory, because they are related, though in but a trifling degree, to the
muscular fibres distributed through the skin; and these they excite to contractions,
The anterior nerves are motory because they are related to muscles. They are also
sensory, because, like the other nerves, they are related to a sentient centre. In».

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 169

other words, both nerves are at once sensory and motory, although the motory func»
tion of the posterior nerves is necessarily slight, because the muscles of the skin are
insignificant,

If we ask what form of sensibility the anterior nerves are likely to excite, the
answer cannot be long in forthcoming—it must be muscular sensibility. That we
have a Muscular Sense, by means of which we adjust the manifold niceties of con-
traction required in our movements, we must all acknowledge; and it has been shown
in a previous communication, that this muscular sense is derived through the mus-
cles, and not through the skin; and further, that it exists after all sensibility to
external stimuli has vanished, This muscular sensibility must be derived either
through the posterior or the anterior nerves; but is no¢ derived through the posterior
nerves, as Arnold, Brown-Séquard, and the author have proved by the decisive expe-
riment of dividing the posterior roots. When these roots are divided, the muscular
sensibility is affected, but not destroyed; and if any sensibility exist, it must be due
to the stimulus of the anterior nerves. Brown-Séquard divided all the sensory roots
of the four extremities of a frog, and found that not only did this frog execute its
ordinary muscular adjustments, but when its nose was irritated with acid, it rubbed
away the acid with its fore-leg.

The conclusion is that our muscular sensations are derived through the muscle-
nerves—there being no other channel for them. The argument against the sensory
function of the anterior nerves is this: if we divide the posterior root and irritate
the end which is attached to the spinal cord, the animal gives unequivocal signs of
sensation ; but if in the same way we divide and irritate the anterior root, the animal
gives no sign whatever of sensation. ‘The ends of the nerves which are no longer in
connexion with the cord, are irritated, and in the one case no motion is produced,
in the other it is.

Those who demand that an irritation of the anterior root should be followed by
the same signs of sensation as follow irritation of the posterior root, demand a kind
of evidence which cannot, in the nature of things, be manifested. The sensibility
excited by the muscle-nerves cannot be the same as that excited by the skin-nerves,
apy more than the sensibility excited by the optic nerve can be the same as that by
the auditory nerve. No one doubts that the optic nerve is sensory; yet it cannot
respond to stimuli of odours, sounds, heat, cold, or touch; whatever stimulates it,
will only produce the one special form of sensibility we name Light. Cut it, pinch
it, burn it—and no pain is produced, only the sensation of a flash of light. Now, on
the supposition that the anterior nerves minister te muscular sensibility, it is obvious
that they can only manifest signs of this special sense, and not signs of other senses,
There are certain stimuli which awaken muscular sensations; but whatever awakens
them, they will always react in one and the same way. Let us suppose that irrita-
tion of the anterior root by pricking, or by galvanism, does awaken this muscular
sensibility; by what sign could it betray itself? The irritation produces no pain—
no more than irritating the optic or auditory nerve produces pain. It can only
produce a sensation, such as precedes or accompanies adjustment of the muscles; but
the muscles which were in direct connexion with this irritated root are now—by the
division of the root—removed from its influence, and cannot therefore be adjusted ;
and the other muscles are adjusted. What sign, then, could be manifested? Evi-
dently none at all. Consequently the experiment, so far from being decisive, does
not touch the real question.

The author then passed to the motory function of the posterior nerves, which, he
considered, must necessarily be slight, because function depends on anatomical con-
nexion, and unless a nerve be distributed to moving organs, we cannot expect it to
produce motions. Now the posterior nerves are never distributed to the muscles,
Schiff has proved that they pass through and along the muscles, and send filaments
to the envelopes of muscles, but never terminate in the muscular substance itself.
This explains why irritation of a posterior nerve excites no contraction in the muscles
if the anterior root be divided.

But seated in the substance of the skin to which these posterior nerves are distri-
buted, there are certain contractile elements— minute muscular fibres—which supply
the hair follicles. It is these which are moved by the posterior nerves. Slight as
the function of moving such insignificant muscles may be, it is enough to destroy

170 ’ REPORT—1859,

the established doctrine respecting the exclusively sensorial function of the posterior
nerves.

To resume in a few words the conclusions of this paper :—If the supposed essen-
tial distinction between the two nerves issuing from the anterior and posterior
columns of the spinal cord exist at all, it must be either a distinction of property,
inherent in the nerves, or of function, resulting from anatomical distribution. But
there is no distinction of property ; both nerves having identical structure must have
identical properties; and experiment has shown that both nerves are capable of
conducting in botf directions. Nor is there any essential distinction of function ;
both nerves agree in being distributed to the spinal cord, which makes them both
sensory in function; and although the two nerves differ in their peripheral distribu-
tions, the one going to muscles, which makes it pre-eminently a motory nerve, and
the other to the skin, where the muscles are very insignificant, which makes it only
motory in a small degree, yet these variations in degree are not such as would imply
the essential distinction universally attributed to the two nerves. Both nerves are
sensory and both are motory ; yet inasmuch as the skin-nerves, from the fact of their
distribution, are the channels of more intense and more various sensations than the
muscle-nerves can be, these skin-nerves may continue to be styled sensory, by way
of convenience; and inasmuch as the muscle-nerves are the channels of more ener-
getic and more various movements than the skin-nerve can be, they may properly
continue to be styled motory nerves. But it is important to recognize that the verbal
distinction between the two nerves represents no essential distinction. The poste-
rior nerves are skin-nerves, and are the channels for the sensations and contractions
of the skin; the anterior nerves are muscle-nerves, and are the channels for the
sensations and contractions of the muscles: this is the distinction between them.

On the Homologies of the Coats of Tunicata, with remarks on the Physiology
of the Pallial Sinus System of Brachiopoda. By J.D. Macponatp.

An Experimental Inquiry into the Action of Alcohol on the Nervous System.
By W.Maxrcer, M.D., F.R.S., Assistant Physician to the Westminster
Hospital, sc.

The object of the communication is to determine whether the action of alcohol is
transmitted to the nervous centres by means of the circulation, or whether this
action depends on the contact of the fluid with the nerves of the stomach.

The author divides into three series the experiments he has undertaken on the
subject in question.

In the first series he investigated the action of alcohol on the healthy animal,
choosing the frog on one hand, and the dog on the other. In the second, he cut
through the nerves supplying the parts in contact with or immersed in alcohol, leaving
the circulation undisturbed ; in which experiments frogs only were used. In the
third series the circulation of the parts immersed in alcohol was arrested, and the
action of the poison on the nervous centres was noted. Frogs and dogs were sub-
mitted to these last experiments.

The specific gravity of the alcohol used was 833. The posterior extremities of the
frogs were immersed in alcohol of this strength up to the commissure of the thighs,
Alcohol, diluted with an equal bulk of water, or less in some experiments, was in-
jected into the stomach of dogs by means of a syringe. In order to prevent the cir-
culation of the stomach from taking place, the author tied the thoracic aorta of dogs
by means of a peculiar kind of aneurism needle invented by Mr. Trant of Dublin,

_ The following were the results obtained from these investigations.

Results from the first series of experiments.
lst. When the hind legs of a frog are immersed into alcohol, the sensation and
respiration of the animal cease in from ten to thirteen minutes.
2nd. The posterior extremities of the frog, which are in contact with alcohol,
become insensible and powerless sooner than the other parts of the body.
3rd. A shock occasionally takes place shortly after the immersion, which consists

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 171

of the complete cessation of the sensibility and mobility of the animal, although
respiration continues; and on irritating the eyeball, the eyelids appear to remain
sensible.

4th. The shock, occurring shortly after the immersion, may continue until the
respiration of the frog stops, there being little or no return of spontaneous or excited
muscular action.

5th. The shock, observed occasionally when frogs are experimented upon, may
disappear shortly after its occurrence and return again afterwards.

The inquiry into the action of alcohol upon a healthy dog showed—

6th. That alcohol acts first on the brain, next on the spinal cord, and lastly on
the sympathetic system,—a result fully confirmed by the experiments on frogs,

Results from the second series of experiments.

Ist. When the crural nerves of a frog are cut through; the animal, having its pos-
terior extremities immersed in alcohol, will preserve its sensation and respiration for
from fifteen to twenty-three minutes, and consequently for a few minutes longer
than when a healthy frog is submitted to experiment.

2nd. The contact of alcohol with the hind legs of a frog whose crural nerves have
been cut, does not give rise to a shock.

Considering together the results from the first and second series of experiments,
it is concluded that the principal channel through which alcohol acts on the nervous
centres is the circulation ; but also that the poison exerts a slight influence on the
hervous centres exclusively through the nerves.

Results from the third series of experiments.

Ist. If the abdominal aorta of a frog be tied and its body included within a liga-
ture, leaving the crural nerves quite free, the animal, whose hind legs have been im-
mersed in alcohol, preserves its sensation and respiration for from four to eighteen
hours, while another frog, thus operated on, but not immersed in alcohol, continues
feeling and breathing for upwards of twenty-three hours.

2nd. When the hind legs of a frog, operated on as mentioned above, are placed
in alcohol, a shock may occur.

3rd. After having placed a ligature on the thoracic aorta of a dog, the injection
of any quantity of alcohol into the animal’s stomach produces no sign of intoxica-
tion; while in the case of a healthy dog, as little as one ounce of alcohol (diluted
with an equal bulk of water) is sufficient to bring on rapidly symptoms of poisoning.

4th. Although after the ligature of the thoracic aorta of dogs the injection of alco-
hol into the animal’s stomach produces no sign of alcoholic intoxication, still a dog
thus experimented upon dies sooner than another, who, having undergone the same
operation, is not made to take any alcohol.

These results, considered in connexion with those obtained from the preceding
experiments, prove beyond doubt that alcohol acts on the nervous centres principally
by means of absorption, and consequently through the circulation, but also that this
substance exerts a slight influence on the nervous centres by its contact with the
extremities of the nerves, this action hastening the cessation of life without producing
any other effect.

Moreover, the author concludes from his experiments, that whenever alcohol pro-
duces a shock, it is due to a peculiar action of the poison transmitted to the nervous
centres exclusively through the nerves.

On the Organs of the Senses, and on the Mental Perceptive Faculties con-

nected with them. By W. i. C. Nourss, F.R.C.S., Fellow of the Royal
Medical and Chirurgical Society.

The following are the general conclusions arrived at in this paper.

1. The organs of the senses, so various in their structure, situations, and functions
nevertheless present the most exact analogies with one another, both in structure
and function.

2. Respecting structure, they each consist of two essential parts :—Ist, a mechanical

172 REPORT—1859.

apparatus, calculated for the purpose of isolating and defining external impressions,
and of transmitting them; 2ndly, a conductor of nerve, whose peripheral expansion
communicates with the mechanical apparatus, the other extremity terminating in
the brain, or being in direct communication with it.

3. Respecting function, they are all destined to convey impressions of the pro-
perties of matter from the outer material world to the mind; each impression being
received by the mechanical apparatus, and transmitted to the nervous conductor,
which conveys it on to the brain.

4. The reception and communication of an impression by the mechanical apparatus
is capable of the clearest demonstration in all its details ; its further transmission by
the nervous conductor is ascertained, but the mode is not understood ; and all phy-
sical trace of it absolutely ceases where the nervous conductor terminates. At this
point it is materially and outwardly lost, but is instantly recognized inwardly and
mentally.

5. The mind has a separate power or faculty of receiving each of the elementary
impressions presented to it by the outward organs of the senses. Each impression
pertains exclusively to one sense only ; and with each sense is connected corre-
sponding mental faculties for the perception of them.

6. The sense of sight is connected with two faculties ; one for perceiving impres-
sions of colour, and one for the degree of light.

7. The sense of hearing is connected with faculties for noting the ¢une and the
quality of sounds.

8. The sense of touch or feeling is connected with faculties for the perception of
weight or resistance, and temperature.

9. The sense of ¢as¢e is connected with a mental faculty for receiving its peculiar
impressions ; and the sense of smell with another in like manner.

10. All further impressions of the properties of matter are deduced by inference
from these primary ones, and are not directly perceived.

On the Genetic Cycle in Organic Nature. By Dr. Oci.vie.

Parental derivation is now generally allowed as the sole origin of organic beings,
and the subject of discussion among physiologists is no longer the admissibility of
spontaneous generation, but the nature of the derivation, in different cases, from a
single parent ora pair. The former mode of origin, by what has been termed
« gemmation,” or the “ budding process,” plays a very conspicuous part in the pro-
pagation of many of the lower species, while in others the two seem to graduate
into each other. In their usual manifestation they are distinct enough, in a func-
tional as well as in astructural point of view. The evanescent vitality of the sexual
elements, singly, strikingly contrasts with the enduring capacity for development,
characteristic of gemme, and the structure of true ova is sufficiently peculiar to
mark them off from all other reproductive bodies ; but in drawing any conclusion in
this matter, we must also keep in view the observations which have been made of the
occasional incipient development of unimpregnated ova—of the full evolution without
impregnation of bodies resembling ova, aud in some cases undistinguishable from
them, as in Aphis and Daphnia—and particularly of the impregnation of some
germs; while others from the same ovary, destined for the evolution of young of a
different sex, are developed without fecundation, as Siebold and others have shown to
be the case in bees and some other insects. These observations lead to the conclu-
sion that ova are essentially of the same nature with gemmz—only modified and
limited in their capacity of development, for certain special ends—rather than that
there is any absolute diversity between them.

In their ordinary manifestation, however, the two modes of reproduction are
clearly distinct ; and when they concur in the same species, the immediate progeny
is generally different, their succession giving rise to the singular phenomena known
as “alternation of generations.”’ All cases of alternation are not, however, to be
regarded as precisely parallel; and it is the object of the present paper to point out
certain differences, dependent on the period of the life-history of a species, in which
the process of gemmation is interpolated. Three stages may be distinguished in the
life-history—the Protomorphic, or that prior to the first appearance of the organiza-~

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173

tion most characteristic of the species—the Orthomorphic, or that marked by such
typical organization—and the Gamomorphic, or that of the development of the
reproductive organs. In any one of these stages we may have a process of gemma-
tion interpolated. The results contrast, especially as it occurs in the first and last.
As examples of the first, may be mentioned the Trematode and Cystic Entozoa in the
animal kingdom, and the Mosses among plants; in all of which certain provisional
forms are interposed between the ovum and the embryonic rudiment of the typical
form. The Polypifera and Cestoidea among animals, on the other hand, and the
Ferns among vegetables, furnish illustrations of alternation dependent on gemmation
in the Gamomorphic stage, and arising from the reproductive organs acquiring the
characters of detached and often highly organized structures, comparable to inde-
pendent animals or plants. The hood-eyed Medusz become in this way much more
conspicuous organisms than the polype-stock, whose organs they really are. The
Cestoidea are remarkable as presenting instances of a double alternation, from a pro-
cess of gemmation occurring both in the Cystic or Protomorphic, and in the Tzenioid
or Gamomorphic stages.

The succession of forms among the Aphides appear referable rather to an early
phase of the typical or Orthomorphic stage. Another remarkable feature of this case
is the extent to which the pullulation of gemmez of the same general character is
carried—amounting frequently to nine or ten in succession. A like continued pullu-
lation to a less extent may take place in either of the other stages, but it is most
common in the Orthomorphic, and generally occurs in connexion with cohesion of the
gemme, so as to give rise to those arborescent forms characteristic of the Polyzoa
and Polypifera among animals, and of the whole vegetable kingdom.

A parallelism may be indicated between the phenomena of alternation and certain
points in the embryogeny of the higher animals, and in the maturation of the repro-
ductive organs. The formation of double monsters in the higher animals, the normal
twin embryo of the Polyzoa, the variable number of Tzenia-heads budded off by the
Cystic Entozoa, aud the phenomena of development among the Echinodermata, present
us with indications of a gradual transition from the implantation of the embryo on the
germ-mass of the ordinary ovum, to cases of well-marked alternation. The repro-
ductive process, on the other hand, in the Polyzoa and Hydraform Polypes, in the
Salpz and in some Annelides, and the phenomena of impregnation in the Coniferz
among vegetables, furnish illustrations of a similar transition from the development
of the normal reproductive organs, to the formation of conspicuous sexual zooids.
In proof of distinctions founded on the complewity of the structures themselves not
being of essential importance, reference may be made to the males of the Rotifera
and Cirrhipedes, which, though animals with an individuality entirely distinct even
from the ovum, are much more defective in organization than some of the sexual
zooids now referred to, such as the hood-eyed Meduse. The like accidental nature
of the character of isolation, or independent vitality, may be inferred from the
power of dismemberment possessed by some of the lower forms of organization,
and from the persistence of a certain proper life in particular regions, even of those
higher in the scale, as for instance, in the hairs and teeth of mammalia.

[The paper was illustrated by tabular views of the relations referred to. ]

On the Method of Production of Sound by a Species of Notonecta.
By Peter Reprern, M.D. Lond.

During the summer months of the year 1858, the author kept a number of small
beetles in an aquarium with other objects. Amongst the beetles was a small
Notonecta with exquisitely marked wing-cases. Not many days had elapsed when
a peculiar chirping noise was heard now and then during the day, but much more
frequently and continuously in the evening between nine and twelve o’clock. The
sound resembled the imperfect pronunciation of the letters chew three times in suc-
cession. It was heard repeatedly at short intervals for a while, and then, after a
much longer pause than before, it was reproduced. At first it gave rise to the idea
that a cricket had got into the house, though the sound was not like that produced
by this insect. It was then noticed that the sound was most distinct in the neigh-
bourhood of the aquarium, and that during its production one particular Notonecta
was invariably engaged in the same occupation, viz, that of rubbing its fore-legs

174 REPORT—1859.

busily upon each other. The sound was never heard except when this act was
being performed, and at the time it was heard no other of the creatures was even
seen engaged in any particular manner nor placed in any special or constant position,
though they were repeatedly and carefully watched. When examined with a
pocket lens, and with a low power of the compound micrcscope, the part of the
Notonecta’s legs, of which it made use at the time of the production of the sound,
was seen to be covered with stiff hairs or other projections of its external covering.
Further examination of the part was delayed until other specimens could be secured,
and during this time the original was unfortunately lost. Yet notwithstanding that
the examination was less complete than might have been wished, the opportunities
of examining the action of the animal at the time it produced the sound were so
numerous, that there can be no doubt that the noise was caused by rubbing the
fore-legs together, a method which seems either very rare amongst insects, or to
have been but rarely observed and recorded.

On the Admizxture of Nervous and Muscular Fibres in the Nerves of the
Hirudo Medicinalis and other Leeches. By PetTER REDFERN, M.D. Lond.,
F.R.CUS.L.

The author stated that very remarkable movements take place in the nerves of
leeches after removal from the body, and that though they had been known to him
since October 1847, when they were shown to him by Dr. Mandl, he believed that
their existence is yet but little known. These movements have been demonstrated
in the class of Histology in the University, and King’s College, Aberdeen, for the
past twelve years; the author informed Professor Goodsir of them in 1848, and
showed them to Professor Paget’s class at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital in 1855.
Mayer states that Hannover first observed them. Remak ascribed them to the con-
traction of muscular fibres within the nerve-sheath. Leuckart and Will have
observed similar phenomena in the nerves of insects and Naiads.

The author pointed out that the best method of showing these movements is to
remove one or more of the ganglia and their branches from the gangliated cord of
the leech, to dissect away the sheath very carefully with needles, so as to leave the
ganglia and nerves perfectly bare and free from all adhering muscular fibres. On
waiting fora short time, slow but very decided oscillatory movements of some of

-the nerve-trunks may be observed in almost every instance examined. These move-
ments take place quite indifferently in the large cords connecting the ganglia, and in
their gangliated and non-gangliated branches. The action of water elevates the
neurilemma of the nerves into vesicles, and shows the cause of the oscillatory move-
ments. The attention should be directed to the concave side of any of the branches
of nerve which are curled, or to both sides of nerves which are oscillating; and one
or more muscular fibres of the ordinary characters of the fibres of the leech may
be seen in every moving nerve at one period or other of the action of the water.
When the movement is compared with that which may be seen in ordinary muscular
fibres of the leech when stimulated by the contact of water, the character of the
two movements is found to be identical. The author has not seen movements con-
tinue for more than a few minutes in the dissected muscular fibres, but he has
repeatedly watched them for half an hour, several times for 50 minutes, and once
for 70 minutes, in the nerves of the leech. He gave no opinion on the purposes
served by this peculiar mixture of nervous and muscular elements, where neryous
elements alone were formerly supposed to exist, but expressed a desire that the
members of the Association would make the occurrence more generally known, that,
by the labours of a number of physiologists engaged in the examination of different
animals, it may be determined to what extent in the animal kingdom these so-called
elementary tissues are mingled, with the view of arriving at some plausible conjec-
ture as to the nature of the end gained by such an arrangement.

On the Structure of the Otoliths of the Cod (Gadus Morrhua).
By Perer Reprern, MD.

From examination of the otoliths of the cod, haddock, flounder, salmon, and

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175

various species of trout, it appears that their structure is similar, and therefore the
Otoliths of the cod may be taken as representing the rest. They require to be
examined by making sections of them in three different directions in the usual
manner: some of the sections should be left of considerable thickness, others should
be made as thin as possible, that the general arrangement, as well as the minute
structure, may be examined.

The great otolith of the cod is an elongated flattened body, convex on one side,
concave on the other. In the natural position, the concave surface looks upwards,
backwards, and a little outwards ; the anterior extremity is wider than the posterior,
and one edge straighter than the other; but both are curved, and the whole body is
twisted, the concavity of the under surface being produced by a groove which runs
obliquely along. The convex surface has a longitudinal ridge running along it,
dividing it into two unequal parts, the smaller being bounded by the straighter edge.
This otolith, when in position, appears to form one wall of an irregularly rounded
osseous cavity, from the interior of which sonorous vibrations may be reflected upon
the otolith and thus affect the nerves. Both surfaces, the concave one especially,
present transversely directed flutings which run outwards to the edges of the body.
The flutings are visible on the transverse, longitudinal, and horizontal sections. The
appearances presented by such sections were shown by coloured drawings.

The longitudinal and transverse sections present dark lines passing completely
through the otolith from one surface to the other, and dividing it into separate masses
or lobes, Of these lines there are four, running longitudinally and seen on the trans-
verse section; and nineteen running~ transversely, and seen on the longitudinal
section, so that, on the supposition that the division is equal in all the parts of the
otolith, it consists of seventy-six separate lobes. The lobes which are near the
middle of the body have all their diameters nearly equal, but those near the margins
are elongated with their long axis stretching out to the margin.

Each lobe is made up of complete concentric laminz near its middle, and of partial
parallel laminz near its surface; the partial lamin of one system being interrupted
where they are met by those of another system in the position of the lines before
named.

The lamine are marked with strie, which run perpendicularly to their surfaces,
‘and indicate their formation of prisms or very thick-walled tubes.

In speaking of the development of otoliths and similar hard parts of animals, the
author referred to the theories of formation of tissues from cells, and by a process of
molecular coalescence, stating his belief that, by repeated examinations made at
‘different periods, the mode of formation of these tissues might be clearly determined.

MIscELLANEOUs.

On the Disguises of Nature. By Anprew Murray, Edinburgh.

This paper was devoted to an inquiry into the laws by which the external forms
of natural objects are regulated—as elucidated by an examination of the resemblances
which certain animals and plants bear to other objects, animate and inanimate.
These the author termed the disguises of nature, and separated them into those
which imitated inanimate objects and those which took the appearance of other
creatures. The chief part of the paper was occupied in discussing the former; and
as regards them, the author suggested the principle of attraction as the direction in
which a general Jaw might be looked for. In examining the resemblances to in-
animate objects, he brought together a great many curious and interesting examples
of both; but it was chiefly with the imitations of inanimate objects that he occupied
himself in his attempts to discover a law explanatory of the facts.

[This pores has been published in extenso in the Edinburgh New Philosophical
Journal.

176 REPORT—1859.

GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

On the Arabic-speaking Population of the World.
By A. Ameuney (a Syrian).

Tue Arabic has 29 letters, which, with the combinations and the vowels, make about
36. Seven of these letters are, to a foreigner, exceedingly difficult to pronounce.
The Arabic being an original language, it has, of course, the masculine and the femi-
nine genders—and the dual. It has more. It has a personal pronoun, and a pro-
noun attached to the verb, like the Latin amo. It has feminine in the singular and
in the plural to the verbs; so, if two people happen to be in the next room, and they
were talking, you would know whether they be ladies or gentlemen, or whether one
be a lady or a gentleman; or whether the speaker be a lady or a gentleman, or
whether the party spoken to be a lady or agentleman. Not so in any other language
—partly only in Greek. We have singular, dual, and plural—plural below No. 10,
and above No. 10; we have a plural of plurals, and a collective plural, and its plural.
Let us see what we can do with these roots. Take the word love. We want to use
it in English: we add r, and make lover, or ing, and make loving ; or prefix be, and
make beloved; but you have to say the place of love, the cause of love, and the
course of love (they say it never runs smooth)! You have kill, and a knife, and
butcher, and slaughter-house! We have nine letters, say a, b, c, and, by adding or
prefixing one or more of these to the original, we make a word—one for the place,
one for the instrument, one for the cause, and one for the passion. Take the word
love, again, asa verb. You can only say might, should, or would, love; cause to
love, command to love, ask to be loved, to be passionately in love, and to fall in love.
But with us, we have thirteen other letters, and, by prefixing or adding one or more
to the original word, we change the meaning. We only change the accent of the noun,
and make it a verb, You have something like it—a présent, and to presént, a récord,
and torecérd. There are 65,000 words in the English Dictionary. We have 150,000
in the Arabic, and, when the derivatives are added, the language becomes really for-
midable. There are a few languages in which there are more than four or five names
for an object. You have sword, scimitar, and cutlass, but we have 150 names for this
instrument of death. We have 160 for an old woman, 120 for the hyena, and I
should feel ashamed to tell you how many for the lion, the camel, and the horse. It
is all very well for a poet, who wants to rhyme his verses, to have many words at his
command, but the language becomes very formidable for the scholar and the foreigner.
The Arabs did not differ from other primitive nations. ‘They traded with, warred
against, hated, and loved their neighbours. ‘Their wars were mostly with the Persians
and the Abyssinians, for their poems refer to these nations in particular, They
had their national assemblies, as we have here now. ‘There was one in particular
like the British Association—that is, comparing small with great things. During the
month of Moharem they ceased their wars, and they met at Ackos, where the great
poets recited their poems, and arbitrators decided which was the first, second, and
third best. The first was then inscribed in letters of gold, and hung up at the Kaaba,
We have seven of these poems (Moallakat), and many other lesser ones. Few na-
tions have ever produced their equal,—I speak not lightly of the poetry of other na-
tions. It was my great desire to read Sir Walter Scott’s poetry that urged me to
learn the English language. I have read several of the best poets in English, French,
Italian, and Latin, but all appear to me to write too much. An Arab poet says all
he wishes to sayin a few verses. I am sure all Arab poetry is burning with a strong
passion. The wars of Arabs have ever been either for women or horses, and their
poetry is full of expressions about them. ‘The eyes, the lips, the breath, the neck,
and skin of a woman have more names than I could tell you of. ‘Terreack! breath
of life; wine, coffee, water of life, and paradise. The Arabs in their native simpli-
city are frugal, can endure fatigue, hunger and thirst, but the Arab can never become
rich, because he is so generous. From the days of Abraham to this day his great
delight is to entertain strangers, They have no hotel charges. Brotherhood is one of
their strong ties. One becomes a brother either by a present or service rendered,
People who live in towns present—give to one of the chiefs, and he can travel amongst
the tribes. Antar had made war on a tribe, defeated it, and was leading the people
into captivity. A man called out to him, El Goman, Antar!—that is, The Covenant,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177

Antar asked him, where and when he ever covenanted with him. “I was,’”’ said the
man, “once at such a well watering my horse. You came and wanted to do the same,
but your rope was too short.” Bread and salt is another thing; the refuge another.
Whether Christianity ever made any great progress among them we do not know,
There are, however, many Christian tribes, especially in Hauran and Korak, But as
soon as Mohammed appeared, the Arab mind took a different turn, and they became
a conquering race. ‘They, iu fact, burst the bounds of their desert, and went out—
the Koran in one hand and the sword in the other—either submission or death.
After a little while came the tribute, or redemption. People redeemed themselves by
paying an annual tax (very small), and they lived in peace. Then they extended to
Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Tripoli, to the borders of the Alantire, &c. The Arabs
are like the Anglo-Saxons ; they conquer, give their language, manners, and customs
to the conquered nation, and in a short time they make them Arabs.

On the Country to the West of the Caspian Sea. By Baron vr Bove.
On the Geography of Southern Peru. By W. Bottarrt.

On the Laws of Consanguinity and Descent of the Iroquois.
By Dr. W. Camps.

On the Relation of the Domesticated Animals to Civilization.
By J. CRAUFURD.

Mr. C. showed the great service rendered to mankind by domesticated animals, in
furnishing them with food, labour, and also clothing, entering into a number of
statistics. The total value imported of articles of clothing, the produce of domes.
ticated animals, was, in 1857, 34,000,000/, In the same year we imported raw and
manufactured silk to the value of 19,400,000/. Other imported commodities amounted
to 5,334,300/. Of domestic animals and their produce we imported in all, in that
year, to the value of 44,000,000/.—still a small sum compared with that furnished by
our own cattle. He hence concluded that civilization is deeply indebted to the
domestication of animals.

Two Axe-heads in the possession of Mr. P. O. Callaghan were exhibited by Mr.
R, Cox.

Remarks on the Inhabitants of the Tarai, at the foot of the Himalayas.
By Josreu BarnarD Davis, F.S.A.

After a description of the extensive country skirting the base of the southern slope
of the Himalayas, to which the name Yarai is applied, which varies in its breadth,
character, and elevation, and also greatly in its productions, but is uniformly the seat
of a malaria of a pestilent nature, so as to render it very poisonous to Europeans, and
even to the natives of the plains of India, reference was made to anumber of tribes of
people, the constant inhabitants of the Tarai, who dwell there with impunity. From
the native name for malaria, Arval, these tribes have acquired the designation of
“ Awalian Tribes,” equivalent to those who breathe the awal unscathed. They are in
general uncivilized people, without letters, with only few and simple arts, having a
fermented drink made from rice or millet, and some few of them distilled spirits.
They practise a rude and simple agriculture; spiu, weave, and dye; the latter being
the domestic employments of the women. ‘These they treat with confidence, kind-
ness, and respect; and in all the family relations they are exemplary.

Notwithstanding the pestiferous emanations, the Awalian tribes occupy the very
districts in which these are evolved ; they erect their dwellings there, clear the forests,
chiefly by fire, cultivate the open grounds and depasture their herds in them all the
year round,—“ they not enly live in them, but ¢hrive in them.’”? The Bodds and
Dhimals even allege that they could not endure the climate of the open plains
below.

This singular property of resistance to pestilent emanations, a property enjoyed by

1859.

178 REPORT—1859.

many of the lower animals, is also a peculiarity of many of the tribes of India,—those
called, for the sake of distinction, Turanian. ‘The Kdls, the Bhils, the Gonds are all
fine and healthy races of men. The Negro tribes inhabiting the great river-districts
about the Gulf of Benin enjoy the same immunity; whilst Europeans cannot at all
withstand the atmospheric poison, as was proved in a most lamentable manner by the
Niger Expedition of 1841. When negroes are transported across the Atlantic, this
extraordinary property still adheres to them, proving that it does not arise from any
external influence whatever, but is an essential inherent quality. In the Southern
States of America the negroes are almost insusceptible of malarious diseases, marsh
fevers, and that pestilence, the yellow fever. And a still further proof of this being
an original property of the race is afforded by the fact, that, among the mixed breeds,
every degree, even the smallest, of African blood tends to diminish the susceptibility
to these diseases. It is a physiological attribute of these malaria-resisting races of
men, their blood being possessed of some chemical property or some vital force which
counteracts and overcomes the morbifie cause, and which is not further explicable.
That it is native, inherent, and also incommunicable, except through the blood, cannot
be questioned ; and that it indicates essential differences among human races, too subtle
for the scalpel of the anatomist to reveal, and far too recondite for the zoologist to ap-
preciate,—still congenital, demonstrable and ineffaceable,—is a matter well deserving
the attention of anthropologists, especially as all the facts known afford no countenance
to the assumption that these differences result from any secondary causes whatever.
Negroes, so far from exhibiting any remarkable vigour of constitution, are always
characterized, in all climates, by the prevalence of an asthenic type in their diseases ;
and the self-deluding presumed influence of vast lapse of time in developing resistance
could in this case operate only in an opposite way, and that cumulatively and destruc-
tively, by impairing, debilitating, and deteriorating every succeeding generation more
and more.

The paper was concluded by a description of the physical characters of the tribes
inhabiting the Tarai, which was illustrated by a series of good coloured drawings,
executed by a native artist, born in the great valley of Nepal.

On Meteorology, with reference to Travelling, and the Measurement of the
Height of Mountains. By Admiral FirzRoy.

On the Ethnology and Hieroglyphics of the Caledonians.
By Col. J. Forses.

The author developed his views regarding what are called “ Druid circles ” in
the following propositions :—1. Whether found singly or in groups, those circles not
surrounding moot-hills or tumuli were erected for places of worship. They were also
used as places for the administration of justice, and for the assembly of councils. 2.
The number of stones in these fanes had reference to the number of individuals or
families ; and perhaps, in circles of greater proportions, were according to the num-
ber of towns or tribes to be represented in the councils, or benefited by the sacrifices
at any particular cromlech. 3. Some of the cromlechs contained altars within the
area. Occasionally the altars formed part of the enclosing circle, and in other cases
the altars were outside of the circle. 4, In the same fane there were altars to more
than one deity. 5. The origin of these fanes cannot be traced in any country; and
nowhere, except in the Old Testament, does history or rational tradition fix the period
when, or the people by whom, any one of these monuments was erected. 6. Open
to the weather, incapable of being covered, and with long avenues of approach, the
form of these fanes has apparently been devised in Eastern countries possessing a
clear sky and warm climate. 7. hese heathen fanes of Britain were afterwards
used as places of Christian worship, but cattle continued to be sacrificed in them,
8. These fanes were also used as burying-grounds for Christians,

Description of Ghadamés. By Consul 8. Freeman.

—

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179

Notes on the Vitrified Forts on Noth and Dunnideer.
By Sir A.L. Hay.

_ Ihave considered it worthy of the attention, and I hope of the inspection of some
members of the Association, that the most remarkable of the vitrified forts peculiar to
Scotland, and situated in this district, should be briefly described. The hill or moun-
tains of Noth is situated in the district of Strathbogie in Aberdeenshire, upon the estate
of his Grace the Duke of Richmond, rising to an elevation of about 1900 feet above
the level of the sea, Noth is an elongated mass of mountain stretching from north-
east to south-west, At its western extremity it is conical, and on its summit is con-
structed the fort, the ground having been apparently levelled for the purpose of its
erection. ‘The locality of the fort is at least three hundred feet above any part of the
surrounding ground. The vitrified wall encloses a parallelogram rounded at its angles,
of about one hundred yards in length by thirty-two in width; it is entered at the south-
east angle by a causeway extending down the cone, and from which diverge several
roads conducting toits base; this has evidently been the only entrance to this moun-
tain strength. [t is remarkable that the main road, and which appears to have been
the principal line of access, is that leading to the wild district of Cabrach, the least
populously inhabited country of the whole surrounding neighbourhood. ‘The vitrified
wall can be traced throughout its whole enceinte, with the exception of the above-
mentioned entrance, and is more perfect than in any similar work in the kingdom ;
the portions of the wall which have been most perfectly vitrified are, of course, the
most entire. I do not presume to solve the difficulty which naturally results from the
various opinions as to the origin or construction of this extraordinary wall; but that it
has been the work of human hands appears beyond doubt. ‘The hypothesis of Pen-
nant that it was the crater-rim of an exhausted volcano seems untenable. Williams,
the author of the ‘‘ Mineral Kingdom,” considered it so. M‘Culloch was of the same
opinion, ‘The late Sir George M‘Kenzie held that the vitrifaction was produced by the
effect of the ancient beacon-fires lighted on the approach ofan enemy. Hugh Miller
considered this very unsatisfactory, and added “ that the unbroken continuity of the
vitrified line militates against the signal-system theory.’’ The causewayed entrance,
the second and third lines of wall, the roads conductitg from different parts of the
country, all lead to a conclusion that this has been the stronghold of a district during
barbarous ages. Allowing for the height lost by the accunulation of soil and rubbish
at its base, it must have been at least eight feet high, to which is to be added the
courses of dry masonry which had raised it to its original altitude, and the stones of
which are now piled in innumerable quantities outside the vitrified remains. From
the accumulation of soil it is now difficult to ascertain what has been the width of this
extraordinary wall, but from all appearance it must have been from eighteen to twenty
feet. In the centre of the fort is a well or tank. ‘The appearance of the burnt or
vitrified substances proves that an intense and long-continued heat must have been
applied, and in many parts of the rampart the stone presents a glazed appearance.
Lower down the conical part of the hill, and enclosing an area of twenty or thirty
acres, is a line of wall to be traced by its remains, in parts of which the large blocks
of stone continue in the positions they have originally occupied in the structure.
This wall, with its distinctly-marked entrances and circular towers, surrounds what
has been considered the vulnerable part of the hill, and is only discontinued at the
southern face of the mountain, where the steep and inaccessible nature of the ground
appears to have been considered a sufficient defence from attacks in that immediate
direction. Another line of wall is perceptible at the base of the cone on which the
fort stands; it embraces a very extensive area, but does not appear to have been a
work of such strength or importance as that above described. ‘The date of construc-
tion of these remarkable works, or the races by whom they were inhabited, is buried
in mystery; neither the traditions of the country nor the page of history afford any
information on the subject. That the population of a whole district, with their flocks
and herds, had taken shelter therein in cases of hostile attack, appears probable,
and there remain indications of habitations having been constructed inside of, and
against the second line of wall above described, For the purposes of a mountain
fortress the locality has been admirably selected, the only commanding height in its
neighbourhood being at a distance of five or six miles—consequently too distant for
offensive purposes previous to the discovery of gunpowder and the long range ‘ It has
12

180 REPORT—1859.

been remarked by a former writer that “the vitrified enclosure on Noth is far more
perfect than on any other of those works in Scotland, and is infinitely more remark-
able.” On a plain of some extent at the north and north-western base of the cone,
in the direction of the Burn of Kirkney, are distinctly marked the tumuli said to con-
tain the slain in the battle in which Lulach, the son of Lady Macbeth, lost his life in
the year 1057, Upwards of one hundred of them are to be recognized ; but whether
the graves are those of the victims of many fights, whether this was the cemetery of
the mountain-fort, or whether the above tradition is authentic, itis now impossible to
determine. The place is called Mildewne—the grave of a thousand, The author of
these notes opened five cairns on different parts of the field. ‘The first, and, apparently
from its magnitude, the most important, contained a stone coffin of very rude con-
struction, but of such a description as to render doubt with regard to its original pur-
pose out of the question. On removing the stones and earth to the depth of about
three feet, a flag-stone of considerable size appeared: it was placed upright at the
western extremity of the excavation, and, at the eastern, at a distance of about six feet,
a similar one was discovered of lesser size, but standing exactly in the same position
opposite. On the earth being removed from between these, a flat layer of stones
became visible. These were placed so accurately, that at first it resembled one entire
slab, but, on farther investigation, proved to be portions of flat stones placed very close
together, and of a similar quality to those already described. In the four other cairns
nothing whatever was discovered, from which it may fairly be conjectured that, in
these barbarous times, the rights of sepulture were not attended with much ceremony
or refinement, and that it was only in the case of a person of superior rank that even
the rough and disjointed receptacle above described was provided. The view from the
summit of the hill of Noth is very extensive. From it, with a clear atmosphere, may
be distinctly seen the high grounds in nine counties—namely, Caithness, Sutherland,
Ross, Inverness, Moray, Banff, Aberdeen, Kincardine, and Forfar. Near the village
of Insch, in the district of Garioch, on the summit of a conical hill, with an elevation
of about 600 feet, stands the ruined Castle of Dunnideer, erected on the site of a still
more ancient vitrified fort of smaller size, but similar to that on Noth. It is not here
necessary to enter into details of this specimen of the vitrified forts, which is neither
so perfect nor so extensive as the one imperfectly described ; but it forms some data
as to their very remote antiquity, when it is stated that part of the vitrified materials
‘are to be seen in the more modern building which became the residence of Gregory
the Great, King of Scotland, who, according to Fordoun and other historians, died
there in the year 893.

Description of Passes through the Rocky Mountains. By Dr. Hector.

On Gebel Haurdn, its adjacent districts, and the Eastern Desert of Syria;
with Remarks on their Geography and Geology. By Joun Hoee, M.A.,
FURS. F.LS., FR.GS. &¢., Honorary Foreign Secretary of the Royal
Society of Literature*.

In this communication the author gave a sketch of the recent descriptions of the
Lejah, the Haurdn, the Gebel Haurdn range of mountains, and the district called
Ard El Bathanyeh, the Batanza of the Romans, portions of the former ancient king-
dom of Bashan, as lately published by the Rev. J. L. Porter, and Mr. Cyril Graham ;
also an account of that part of the Syrian or Arabian Desert which is called E/
Harrah, and is situated to the east of Gebel //aurdn, with a description of the elevated
volcanic region on its northern border, named: by the Arabs L’Safah, and in which
are seen many high cone-like peaks, some of which are probably the remains of former
craters. ‘This account was taken from the descriptions given by Mr. C. Graham, the
only modern European traveller who as yet is known to have reached those previously
unexplored and long-forgotten regions. sie

The author exhibited a map of southern Syria, comprising a district from Busrah,
about 36° 26’ 45" to 37°45’ nearly long. East trom Greenwich, and from Salkhad and

* The entire paper (though without the Map) is published in the ‘ Edinburgh New Phi-
losophical Journal,’ vol. xi. (New Series) for April, 1860, pp. 173-192.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181

E’ Deir, south of Busrah, about 32° 30' to nearly the supposed centre of the Lake
Hijdneh in the territory of Damascus, in 33° 20' North. Lat. This he had drawn on
a scale eight times larger than that of Mr. Graham's map, which had only been

ublished a few days, in vol. xxix. of the ‘ Journal of the Royal Geographical Society.’

e also coloured it, so as to point out the supposed boundaries of the different pro-
vinees under consideration, during the biblical and Roman times, at least as far as
could be determined with any accuracy.

It was further remarked that the most recent maps of Syria do not agree as to the
exact positions of Damascus and Busrah; for, in Mr. Porter’s first map, which he
had the pleasure of communicating to the Royal Geographical Society in Nov. 1855,
and published in the 26th volume of their ‘ Journal,’ Damascus is placed in just about
36° 17’ 15” E. Long. and in 33°31’ 15" nearly N. Lat., whilst Busrah is laid down in
about 36° 26’ 35” E. Long. and in 32° 32’ 20” N. Lat.; whereas in the map by Henry
Kiepert, engraven in Mr, Porter’s ‘ Handbook of Syria,’ published last year, the city
of Damascus is laid down in 36° 16’ 40” E. Long. and in 33°31’ 40" N, Lat.; but
Busrah is placed in 36° 22' 30" E. Long. and in N, Lat. 32° 31' 40", thus giving a
difference nearly as to Damascus of 35" of Long. and 25" of Lat.; and about a differ-
ence as to Busrah of 4' 5" of Long., and of 40” of Lat.

The author then described the principal geographical features of the several regions
represented in his large coloured map, adding, with some minuteness, accounts of
their geology, as derived from the careful details chiefly afforded by Burckhardt, Porter,
and Graham.

The geology of this entire region affords an example of many most important vol-
canic phenomena, such as are rarely to be seen within the same extent of country.
The remains of distinct craters are apparent; whilst the whole region is more or less
covered with igneous rocks, such as black trap, or basalt, either in the form of large
boulders or outcroppings, and projecting masses. On some of the many conical hills,
or Tells as they are termed in Arabic, larva and scoriz, and pumice of various colours,
are visible.

The author especially dwelt on the two more wonderful and extremely similar vol-
canic portions of that country, which may be termed fields, or islands, of black basalt,
or of sterile igneous dark-coloured rock, namely, El Lejah and E’Safah. ‘The former
answers to the Zrachonitis of the Romans, signifying a ‘stony’ district, and to .drgob
of Scripture; but the ancient appellation of the latter remains to this day unknown.

E’ Safah, according to Mr, Graham, is even more horrible than the Leah, for there,
in many spots, good soil occurs,

Both districts are often intersected with caverns, and cracks, or fissures, of great
depth and width; and the same traveller considers them to be “two of the most
remarkable instances of a volcanic formation perhaps in existence.”

So Mr. Porter, in Jike manner, describes the large fissures in the basalt in the Lejah,
and writes, that its “ physical features present the most singular phenomena he had
ever witnessed, and to which there is not, so far as he knows, a parallel in the world,
with the exception of the Safah.”

The author, having examined some years ago the lava-beds and large volcanic
deposits about Vesuvius, in the island of Ischia, and on the east and north sides of
Etna, had never seen any chasms and fissures at all parallel to the phenomena, de-
scribed as being so conspicuous in those of the Lejah and the Safah; and he showed
that the nearest parallels are evidently several large lava-fields, and volcanic tracts, in
Iceland, an island entirely of igneous origin, and more particularly so are the enor-
mous clefts or fissures, termed in Icelandic, gias, In proof of this view, he described
the two best known, and most extended, and deepest fissures, the Hrafna-gia, or
‘Raven chasm,’ and All-mannagia, or ‘ All-men’s-chasm,’ in the vicinity of Thing-
yalla.

Notice of the Karaite Jews. By J. Hocc, M.A., F.RS., PLS. FRG,
&c., Honorary Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society of Literature.
The author brought this notice before ethnologists respecting the very ancient sect

of Jews who call themselves Karaims or Karaérs, the chief number of whom have
for centuries inhabited, as they still do, several towns in the Crimea, in the hope

182 ’ REPORT—1859.

that their history, the periods of their emigration from Palestine, of their subsequent
wanderings and settlements, of their immigration from Asia into Europe, and the
exact differences which they profess in their religious doctrine from the ordinary
followers of the Jewish faith, might be more accurately investigated.

The distinguished Pallas was, he thought, the jirst to describe this remarkable
people at the close of the last century; he found a great many of them living and
carrying on trade at Tchufut Kaleh, i. e., ‘the Jews’ Fort’, in the Crimea, That
traveller stated that they reject the Zalmud, and receive no other Jews into their
community. They have a beautiful cemetery overshaded with fine trees, which they
name the ‘ Valley of Jehoshaphat,’ and from the numerous sepulchres there seen—
nearly 4000, according to Démidoff—the popuiation must have been large. The
most ancient inscription on a tomb there is said to bear date 4727 of the year of the
world, or 728 a.p., which, if correct, will show that they have resided in Tchufut
Kaleh for more than eleven and a quarter centuries. They are stated to have been
governed by their own magistrates,

Some have derived the word Karaim, from Kara, a ‘writing’ (seriptura); and in
addition to the chief difference in religion between the Karaites and the Ordinary
Jews—which is the rejection of the Talmud by the former,—some variations in the
Liturgy, in the mode of circumcision, in the rules respecting diet, and in the degrees
of relationship which permit or forbid marriage,—constitute a very material distinc-
tion between these two great sections of the Jewish people. The Karaites have a
synagogue at Z'chufut Kaleh which has existed for many centuries, and in it are
preserved some ancient Z’horas, or MS. copies of the Pentateuch on vellum, and rolled
in velvet cases.

A special commission is mentioned to have been appointed by the Russian Govern-
ment some time ago to inquire into the condition, origin and settlement of the
Karaites; and the following is part of the account confirmed by it, as taken from
Baron von Haxthausen’s work: ‘ They assert their descent, pure and unmixed, from
the tribe of Judah, which was led to Babylon:” that in the reign of Cyrus (about
536 8.c.) some of them returned to Judea; but that many, remaining after the destruc-
tion of Babylon, penetrated farther to the north, settled first in Armenia, and then
spread by degrees to the Caucasus; passing over into the Crimea, they then resided
there; and a few colonies at length, emigrating from thence, arrived in Poland.

They live in harmony with Christians, and regard Christ as a Prophet who pro-
ceeded from their own race, and whose disciples founded a mew sect. Not having
been in Judea in the time of Christ, they do not share the animosity usually enter-
tained by Jews against Christians.

These Karaites differ from the ordinary Jews, of whom the inferior order is found
in such numbers throughout Europe, not only in appearance, but also in character.
The expression of their countenance is in general open and prepossessing. Both
sexes are handsome, and have the general features of the Jews,—dark eyes, dark hair,
&c. Great cleanliness of their persons distinguishes them mostly from their brethren,
the Jews. They are polite, honest, and kind. They wear the Tartar dress, and are
only known by their shaven faces, with narrow whiskers which reach to their chins.
They have many Tartar customs and speak the Tartar language. As merchants they
are enterprising, and are in great repute for their good faith and skill.

The author has failed to ascertain from his military friends, who were in the Crimea
during the late war, the supposed number of Karattes still residing there, but he
understood that it was much reduced by emigration and other causes.

Besides this population, some Karaites have been long settled in Poland, the Cau-
casus, Armenia, Jerusalem, and at Cairo; also at Constantinople. These last are stated
by Dr. Frankl, in his recently published work, as amounting to about fifty families, with
from 200 to 250 souls; and the same Jewish author mentions the same sect at Jeru-
salem, who “regard the tevé of the Bible with a sacred feeling as alone containing
the daw, and are therefore called Karaérs, i. e. stichlers for the text, as contradistin-
guished from the Mekebalim, i. ec. the sticklers for a traditional faith,” —the Ordinary ~
Jews. Their number in the Holy City now only amounts to thirty-two souls, and four
heads of families. These Karaites sometimes visit the Talmudist Jews; but they do
not intermarry or bury their dead with theirs. “ They have no books; the One Book,
they say, containing the wisdom of the whole world, is sufficient for them,” They.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183

are active and honest, working hard for their livelihood, as they receive but very little
assistance from their Crimean brethren.

In conclusion, Mr. Hogg added that since the accounts which some distinguished
travellers give of the fundamental difference in the religion of the Karaites from that
of the ordinary or Tu/mudist Jews vary, it is important for future travellers, who may
visit the Karaites, to determine what it is in reality.

On the Application of Colonel James's Geometrical Projection of two-thirds
of the Sphere to the Construction of Charts of the Stars, Sc.

Colonel James exhibited a map of the world on his projection, which is 10 ft. in
diameter, and smaller maps of the world, 2 ft. diameter, on which the lines of equal
magnetic declination were drawn, and their conveyance round both poles accurately
presented to the eye at one view.

After explaining the nature of the projection, which supposes that the spectator is
looking into the concavity of two-thirds of a hollow sphere, from a point which would
be at the distance of half the radius above the perfect sphere, Colonel James exhibited
charts of the stars, pointing out how, from the very nature of the projection, which
supposes we are looking into a hollow sphere, it is peculiarly suited for such celestial
charts, and also that from the circumstance of its embracing two-thirds of the whole
sphere instead of one-sixth, as in the celestial charts on the gnomonic projection, which
are in general use and cannot be put together, we have presented to us the whole vault
of the heavens at one view, with the circumpolar stars, and every other star to the
opposite pole in true relation to each other.

On one of the charts of the stars the “milky way” is exhibited in a manner in
which it was never before represented, viz. as a perfect circular band. .

The maps, with the magnetic lines and the charts of the stars, are in course of en-
graving for publication.

On the Roman Camp at Ardoch, and the Military Works near it. By Colonel
Henry James, R.E., F.R.S. 8c., Director of the Ordnance Survey.

The object of this communication was to point out what the author conceives to
have been a singular oversight in the writers who have given us descriptions of the
Camps and Fort at Ardoch—the “ Lindum”’ of the Romans.

Gordon, in his ‘Itinerary,’ 1726, says, “ This fort of Ardoch I recommend to the
public as the most entire and best preserved of any Roman antiquity of that kind in
Britain, having no less than five rows of ditches and six ramparts.” And again he
says, ‘To the north of the fort of Ardoch are to be seen the vestiges of a vast large
ditch upon the moor, with two or three small projections of earth at regular distances,
as if they had been made for the outscouts to the foresaid fort.”

General Roy, in his ‘ Military Antiquities,’ 1793, gives us a very accurate plan of
the fort, and also of the camps on the north of it, to which Gordon refers. An enlarged
copy of this plan was exhibited in the Section-room.

Stuart, in his ‘Caledonia Romana,’ 1845, says, “There is something singular in
the arrangement or form of the ramparts at Ardoch station; they did not compose a
series of valla, rising in regular successive courses round the larger internal wall, as
we find was generally the case elsewhere ; but they appear to have been in some places
arranged in a very unusual manner.”

Chalmers, in his ‘Caledonia,’ places the site of the great battle “(ad montem
Grampiuin,” between the Romans under Agricola and the Caledonians under Gal-
gacus, on the rising ground to the north of the great camp, and thinks this is the
identical camp which the Romans occupied, and from which they advanced to attack
the Caledonians.

In describing the camps to the north of the fort, General Roy considers them to
be two marching camps of the Romans, the one capable of holding three legions, or
an army of 28,800 men; the other as capable of holding upwards of 12,000 men.
On his plan he has represented the Procestrium of the fort, which is a large space of
ground enclosed by a rampart for the allies, and connected with the fort, and so
arranged that the works of the fort itself command it and could defend it,

184 REPORT—1859.

The peculiarity in the arrangement of these works, to which both Gordon and Roy
refer, consists in this, that the great camp, estimated by Roy as capable of holding
28,800 men, has been constructed in such a way that its ramparts cross not only the
area of the more distant camp, described as capable of holding upwards of 12,000 men,
but also the area of the procestrium of the fort itself.

Roy says, ‘‘ From the manner in which the north intrenchment of the camp inter-
sects the west rampart of the great one, it seems to have been a subsequent work.”
And again, ‘“‘ One thing, indeed, is very remarkable and difficult to be accounted
for, namely, that the Romans did not level that part of the intrenchment of the great
camp included within the area of the little one, and which, according to appearances,
they must have found so troublesome, even from its obliquity, as to have deranged
entirely the interior order and regularity of their encampment.” And then he goes
on to say, ‘‘ Perhaps, after the separation of the army, this division might be obliged
to march in a hurry, without having had time to do it.”

It will be observed that Roy supposes that the smaller camp was last constructed ;
but he says nothing about the larger camp, including a portion of the procestrium of
the fort.

According to the view which I take of the subject, I am led to believe that the
larger camp was last constructed ; and my reasons for dissenting from Roy’s views are
these :—

Gordon rightly describes the works of the fort as consisting of five ditches and six
ramparts ; it is in fact seen that the works of the fort consisted of five parallel ramparts
and ditches, and that there is beyond these, and not parallel to them, and surrounding
only two sides of the north-east angle of the fort, a sixth rampart; and I have no
hesitation in pronouncing that sixth rampart to be the work of an attack against the
fort, and not a work of defence.

Czesar, in describing his attack upon a British fort, says, ‘‘ Milites, aggere ad muni-
tiones adjecto, locum ceperunt;’’ and we know the Caledonians over and over again
attacked the Roman forts; and I have no doubt that the so-called sixth rampart
is the agger or mound, which was in those days the universal mode of attack upon a
fort, and which was thrown up by the besiegers without forming a ditch, to command
and flank the works of defence.

‘The very unusual manner” in which the works are described as arranged at
Ardoch, arises from the circumstance that the several writers I have quoted did not
observe the fact, that we have at Ardoch not only Roman works of defence, but the
works of a besieging army of the Caledonians upon it, a fact which gives a still greater
degree of interest to this already very celebrated place. With this view of the sub-
ject, the peculiar manner in which the great camps are arranged becomes intelligible.
‘The small camp may indeed have been one of the Roman marching camps; but I can-
not conceive how any one could suppose that the great irregular camp which crosses
both the smaller camp and the procestrium of the fort could be a Roman work: it is
obviously the camp of the besieging army, constructed after the taking of the proces-
trium, That this great irregular camp was not a Roman camp, must also be obvious
to those who read the accounts of the symmetrical manner in which the Romans
always constructed their camps, and the proportions they gave them; nor could it be
admitted as probable that the Romans would construct a camp and leave for a single
night the ramparts of another camp and the prozestrinm, which irregularly cut up its
interior space, and which would, as Roy says, have “ deranged entirely the interior
order and regularity of their encampment.” ‘Io the Caledonians this irregularity
would probably be of little importance, their chief object being to draw their camp as
near to the fort as possible. ‘That the fort at Ardoch was one of those cofistructed
A.p. 84, at intervals, on commanding points, by Agricola, for the subjugation of the
country, is J think clearly established; and this station was certainly maintained as a
Roman station for three centuries afterwards. The attack upon it was therefore probably
made in the middle of the fourth century, at the period of the decline of the Roman
power in Britain.

From the circumstance of our finding the great rampart of the attack still standing,
there cannot be a doubt that the fort was taken; for if the Romans had been able
to resist the attack, their first care would have keen to have removed the rampart and
restored the procestrium. It is 133 years since Gordon described this fort as “the _

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185

most entire and best-preserved of any Roman antiquity of that kind in Britain;” and
every enlightened lover of his country must feel grateful to the present proprietor, Mr.
Horne Drummond, and to those who before him have been the proprietors of the
estate at Ardoch, for the careful manner in which itis preserved for the gratification
of the students of history.

Extracts from a Letter of Dr. Kirk to Alex. Kirk, Esq., relating to the
Livingstone Expedition. Communicated by Dr. Suaw.

The extracts form the very latest intelligence which has reached England of the
intrepid travellers,

After, in a former letter, giving an account of the explorations of the mouths of the
river in the steam launch, of their crossing the surf in the launch, and at last getting
the ‘ Pearl’ as far up as was thought safe, and of his erecting the iron house ona
long narrow island, which they named Expedition Island, and landing the goods, where
he was to remain in charge till they could be by degrees transported to Cheepanga, and
how, with the return of the Hermes, he sent off several specimens which are now at
Kew, Dr, K. proceeds as follows—date, Sept. 22 :—

“When I sent my last letter, vd Ceylon, the ‘Pearl’ had just left, and I was in charge
on Expedition Island, while the Doctor was transporting the goods by degrees to
Scuna. Here we made ourselves very comfortable. I built the iron house, had the
goods all safe, and made a nice open veranda in front, thatched with reeds and co-
vered with tarpaulin, so that we resisted both sun and rain; but of the latter we had
very little. The island was a narrow strip, about three-fourths of a mile long, in
shape something like an alligator. I made a survey of it, and kept up tide-gauge
barometers and thermometers. . : : F : ° . .

“ While our party were busy transporting the goods up to Scuna, war had been going
on between the Portuguese and the rebels of the country, and the latter were fortu-
nately thrashed, and fled to the mountain parts opposite Scuna.

“Our chief depét has been Chupanga, where, in company with Thornton, I have
been on detached service. This was for some time the head-quarters of the Portu-
guese army, and now there are several officers stationed there, whom I found to be
very kind fellows, and from whom [ received much valuable assistance. I made a
trip, while waiting there, to a lake elevated considerably above the Zambesi, During
our walk, which took us three days, at the rate of about twenty miles a-day, we met
some curious people, but were glad to find all friendly. I returned thus quickly, as I
expected the Doctor back from Tete, whither he had gone on his first trip with the
powder, which it would have been unsafe to have left ina country at present at war,
I received, however, instead, a letter from him, stating that the water is so low at
places where the river spreads to an excessive width, that the pinnace could not be
taken up at once, until the channel had been previously surveyed by the launch; that
the pinnace was left somewhat a little beyond Scuna, in charge of Baines; that the
launch would proceed to Tete, return, pick up the pinnace, and afterwards return to
Chupanga.

“On hearing this, I had determined on another short excursion, when, to our sur-
prise, up came a boat with two officers of the ‘ Lynx,’ with mails from the Cape. I
went off, in company with the officers, to the governor, at the foot of Mounnballer Hills,
two days’ journey up tbe river-shore, and was unfortunate enough to come up shortly
after he had taken a tremendously fortified place, surrounded by lines of stockades
and mud works pierced for artillery and musketry, The rebels must have been many
thousands strong, and probably want of ammunition caused them to evacuate the
place, otherwise almost impregnable, for the Portuguese got four pieces of cannon
(three of them bronze) and an immense quantity of provisions. We found the governor
anxious to do anything for us he could, and got from him four canoes to return to the
mouth of the river to bring up the things from the ‘ Lynx.’ We escorted the canoes to
the mouth of the river, which turned out to be a new one to us, but with so bad a bar
that it would have been most imprudent to have attempted to take the canoes over it
(though, having a splendid surf-boat, we crossed it all right), for a few days previously

_ the cutter had been upset, and six hands lost out of ten, I now asked the captain to
send a boat up the river to catch the Doctor alive and bring him down, which would pro-
bably preclude the necessity of his coming down at Christmas,and Mr, Medlicott accord-

186 REPORT—1859.

ingly set off on this errand, while Mr, Cooke and I set off in the whaler to bring the canoes
round to the mouth, by which the ‘ Pearl’ entered, but which had, since that time,
changed for the worse. While lying out in the ship, the captain desired us to survey the
bar, but after a long cruize we found it quite dangerous to cross, and so put about, in-
tending to return to the ship. After hard work at the oars, we found that impossible, and
anchored, and now the seas broke over us so, that we were forced to hoist sail and run
through everything, if by any chance we might reach calm water. All day we had
nothing to eat but raw pork, and on coming to the bar again it was almost. dark, and
so rough that it would have been acertain capsize without hope of reaching the shore.
So we put about again, determined to beach the boat on the open coast, though it would
certainly be smashed under us, in hopes that we might get on shore between the rollers.
The surf even then was far too heavy to give us the least chance in the dark, so we
stood to sea again, when luckily the current changed, and after three tacks we reached
the ship, which we had scarce done when the gale came on in earnest, washing the
decks from stem to stern. A few days after, on the gale going down, we descried the
boat and launch inside the river. 1 went off in a boat with the gunner and quarter-
master to communicate.” [Here follows an account of their crossing the bar, which
must have been very bad, for he says that, but for their excellent surf-boat and the
steady coolness of the gunner and quartermaster, they would of a certainty have been
swamped.] “Here we found the Doctor, and, the next day being much quieter, the
whaler went off to the ship.

“You will be glad to hear that this place has not shown itself to us unhealthy. Some
of us have been sick, but only for a short time; and for my own part, 1 have enjoyed
as good health as ever I did in England.

‘“‘T have had an official letter, thanking me for attending to the sick of the Portu-
guese army, and have been mentioned in general orders by the Governor of Mozam-
bique; this will always get me along with the Portuguese.

“This work has prevented me from doing much to botany of late, but I have seen
a great deal of the country, and am learning the language.

‘Our proposed operations are to go to Tete, where the Doctor's brother now is, and
which is a fine place, as soon as possible. The launch has been there, and has had
the coal in use, which M‘Rae says is similar to Welsh coal, and keeps steam well.
Bains is in the pinnace working her up Tete.

“ October 5,—The ‘ Lynx’ has come in all safe, and though she struck on the way
is seemingly uninjured. We have had some of her hands with us improving our
accommodation and doing repairs; but, best of all, we are to have Walker, the
quartermaster of the ‘ Lynx,’ whose first-rate qualities, while up the river and crossing
the bar frequently with me had so struck me that I urged the Doctor to apply for
him. I know that he is a first-rate man, and will keep the kroomen in their proper
place. I have some hopes that we may get another European sailor or stoker ; so, if
we are as fortunate in him as in our quartermaster, we shall be set up....... We are to
go on direct to Tete from this, and will thus clear the Delta before the unheaithy
season comes on, and, we hope, be out of the reach of the fevers. We expect to be
off to Tete to-morrow.”

On the Aboriginals of Australia. By the Hon. T. M‘Comsir.
On the Native Inhabitants of Formosa. By Dr, M‘Gowan.
On Chinese Genealogical Tables. By Dr. M‘Gowan.

The Russian Trade with Central Asia. By Tuomas Micue tt, #.R.GS,

The march of civilization in the rear of Russian caravans, military detachments,
and scientific expeditions, is rapidly increasing the artificial requirements of the Central
Asiatic, creating a greater demand for his produce, and teaching him the advantages
of a peaceful, settled life. It may therefore be commercially advantageous, if not
politically important, to inquire closely into the habits and circumstances of a popu-~
lation now becoming more accessible from India by the extension of railways, the:

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187

improvement of roads, and the increased navigation of rivers. Russia is, moreover,
beginning to suffer from the short-sightedness of her restrictive tariff on foreign manu-
factures, which, by fostering the production of the most inferior home articles, has
kept the art in its infancy.

Russian manufactures in wool and cotton have hitherto commended themselves in
the Turan by their extreme cheapness, having been also in a measure favoured by the
influence which the Russian trader commands as a customer for the principal staple
of the country; but the natural consequence of improved civilization and increased
wealth, derived by Central Asia from the trade with Russia, is the growth of a demand
for manufactures of a superior class, such as only England can cheaply produce with
the aid of perfect machinery and abundant coal. At the same time, it is reasonable
to suppose the effect of the impending emancipation of the serfs will be to raise the
price of labour and commodities in Russia; which will necessarily affect the pre-
sent cheapness of the coarse fabrics of that country. ‘he inferiority of the Russian
manufactures offered to the Asiatic in return for his cotton, madder, and other pro-
ductions, induces him to seek payment in metallic currency. Added to this, the insuffi-
ciency of the rude coinage of ‘Turkestan to supply the increasing demands of trade, or
to represent the accumulating wealth of the country, has contributed to raise the value
of Russian specie to a premium of about 22 per cent. above its value at home. It is
thus that the amount of bullion and coin exported from the Orenburg line of frontier
between 1840 and 1850 amounted to £229,554, or £6500 more than the exportation
of cottons during the same period, and nearly three times that of woollens, The ex-
portation of gold and silver specie to the various countries of Asia had increased from
£478,357 in 1847 to £897,691 in 1857.

Metals and hardware are abundantly supplied by Russia to Bukhara, Khiva, and
Kokan, and, taken with specie and bullion, form very little less than one-half of the
yearly exportations. The metals are red copper, in blocks, and brass, manufactured ;
iron, wrought and cast, in scrap bars and sheets, and manufactured into locks, staples,
knives, trays, and various small articles. The quantity of copper exported to Central
Asia between 1840 and 1850 amounted to 603 tons, of the value of £49,675; while
the supply of iron, wrought and manufactured, reached £69,000. The hardware con-
sisted of needles, penknives, large clasp-knives, razors, scissors, with joiners’ and car-
penters’ tools. Needles are demanded in very great quantities, and sell at 18s. to 21s.
per packet of a thousand. Knives are articles of ornament as well as of use: they are
seldom higher than 43d. each; the ordinary price of a two-blade, double-edged knife’
being 1$d., or 1s. 8d. to 2s, 1d. per dozen. ‘The razors supplied by Russia to Central
Asia are of a class ‘ ouly made to sell,” being purchased at Nijni-N ovgorod fair at
2s. 6d. the dozen, or about 5d. the pair; a better description are produced at 3s. 6d.
the dozen, the highest at 5s. 2d.

' The cottons which Central Asia requires are not those for ordinary or common
use, but prints and calicoes of rather superior workmanship, and good, vivid colouring,
as articles of luxury and artificial necessity. What Russia now produces in the shape
of cottons is really too inferior when cheap, and too dear when good. The highest
prices given at Nijni-Novgorod fair for cotton prints prepared for the Asiatic market,
are 53d. to 53d. per yard. A piece will contain 35 to 363 yards, with a breadth
of 20 or 21 inches; the weight of each is about 441bs.; so that the gross weight of.
a camel’s load, or 200 pieces, will be about 8 ewt. To this day, certain descriptions
of Russian cottons are imposed on the Asiatic as English manufactures, fetching 102d.
to 114d. per yard, when Russian best qualities will only sell at 6d, to 64d. per yard,
Calicoes and ginghams are much used in Central Asia. In Bukhara, ordinary quality
calico sells at 12s, to 18s, per piece of 10 to 124 yards, and the best (called English) at
24s, At Khiva the prices are 9s., 12s., and 15s. A kind of nankeen, manufactured
from Nos. 20 to 22 for the warp, and 24 to 26 for the woof, is in great demand,
Considerable quantities of a cotton, friezed material, known in the trade as plush, are
exported to Bukhara and Khiva; it is much used in the uniforms of the soldiery of
those countries. In Khiva this article sells at 104d. to 1s. 2d. per yard. The total
declared value of the exportations of Russian manufactures in cotton amounted,
between 1840 and 1850, to £223,181.

The cloth and woollens supplied to Central Asia are the produce of Russian flocks,
and therefore form a branch of industry perfectly indigenous to the country, and.
intimately connected with its agrarian wealth. But, as in the case of cottons, Russia,

188 REPORT—1859,

enjoys an advantage over foreign woollens only in iow-priced fabrics, ranging not
higher than 5s. 94d. per yard. With foreign cloths above that price she cannot com-
pete; and the finer the material, the greater the difference in the relative cost of pro-
duction. Prepared with the sole view of cheapness, these cloths are purchased at
Nijni-Novgorod fair at Is. 10d., 2s. 8d., and not higher than 3s. 10d, per yard, in
pieces of 17 yards, of a breadth of 1} yard. The principal colours are crimson, green,
violet, olive, and light-blue. In Bukhara, cloth fetches £3 12s, to £4 16s, per piece
of 20 yards. Between 1840 and 1850 the Russian exportations of woollen manufac-
tures amounted to 485,875 yards, at an average price of 3s.

The remaining items in the Russian export trade to the countries of Central Asia
are, manufactures in silk, leather, skins, furs, sugar, and other miscellaneous manu-
factures and small wares. Among the latter, special mention may be made of small
mirrors, rouge, and violet powder.

In return, Russia obtains raw cotton, cotton yarn, and some native manufactures in
cotton, consumed by the Mahomedan population and the inhabitants of the south-eastern
portions of the empire. It is a striking fact, that the Russian demand for these native
manufactures is three times the value of the Asiatic importations of Russian cottons.
The cotton of Kokan has a staple about °875 inch in length; the Bukharian has an
average length staple, and that of Khiva is more than 1$ inch long. When the
crop is good, cotton wool may be purchased in Khiva at 10s. 4d. per ewt., and in
Tashkend and Bukhara at 18s. 9d. When the crops fail, these prices run to 31s, and
46s. 8d. per cwt. The tota! value of cotton, in a raw state and manufactured, im-
ported into Russia from Central Asia between 1840 and 1850, not including the
quantity yearly smuggled, amounted to £1,013,954, or nearly the value of the total
exportations from Russia, inclusive even of specie. The other items are silk, raw and
manufactured; colours and dye-stuffs, of which the most important are madder, in-
digo, and lapis lazuli; precious stones and pearls; and other miscellaneous articles,
such as dried fruits and sweetmeats, rice, pepper, and semen-contra.

The following comparative statement shows the growth and importance of the
trade :—

Exportations to Central Asia in 1849... £102,208

i 0 1857... 182,039
- increase £79,836, or 78 per cent.
Importations : 1849, 1857.
From Bukhara .......... £79,466 £213,720
“Shiva tee. occh 25, 148 AS 8

MO Wokan Cees cee Ska ALB OOT

£184,036 £376,205 increase £192,169, or 104 per cent,

The Resources of Eastern Africa. By J. Lyons M‘Leon, F.R.G.S.

Commencing from the eastern limit of the British colony of Natal, the author fol-
lows the coast-line to Cape Guardafui, and thence up the Red Sea to the port of
Arsinoe or Suez.

After leaving the limits of the Colony of Natal, the first port which attracts atten-
tion is that of Port St. Lucia, in latitude 28° 26! S. and longitude 32° 26! E.

This port is admirably adapted for throwing supplies of ammunition and also useful
commodities into the Zulu country, from which they are carried into the Orange Free
State and Trans-vaal Republic, thereby eluding the customs’ dues payable at the Cape
of Good Hope and Natal.

A considerable trade of this description is slready established by several mercantile
houses at the Cape of Good Hope; and, this fact having become known in the City
of London, merchants are naturally inquiring what articles of trade are suitable for a
port where no duties whatever are levied, and where the returns of ivory, hides, horns,
and hoofs are immediate.

As the colony of the Cape of Good Hope pays annually to the Boers £5000
sterling as compensation for the duties levied on commodities passing through that
colony to the Orange Free State and Trans-vaal Republic, it is natural to expect

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 189

that the revenue of that colony should be protected by obtaining possession of a port
at present belonging to no country, and which offers a sore temptation to the Boers,
ever on the look-out for an outlet for their productions, without passing through and
enriching a country from which they trecked in consequence of real or imagined
wrongs.

From Port St. Lucia proceeding northwards, we pass a line of coast, of which we
absolutely know nothing, excepting that the country lying between Natal and Delagoa
Bay has been for a long time in a most unsettled state, causing numbers of the natives
to flock into the British colony of Natal to avoid the massacres which daily take place
under the dominion of the ruthless savage Panda, the Supreme Chief in that district,

To the northward of Cape Colatto, which is in latitude 26° 4’ S. and longitude 33° 1!
E., is Iniack Island, which, as one of the dependencies of Tembe, was ceded to Capt,
W. F. Owen, R.N., in 1823.

This island, from its position, is admirably adapted for a lighthouse, for the require-
ments of the steam postal communication between Aden, Natal, and the Cape of
Good Hope.

The Island of Iniack is about 240 feet in height; it is open on all sides to the
spacious Bay of Delagoa, and the Indian Ocean; and is entirely free from the miasmata
which surround the neighbouring Portuguese settlement of Lourengo Marques.

The neighbouring country of Tembe, embracing the river Mapoota and the south
side of English River, was ceded to Captain W. F. Owen, R.N., by King Keppel in
1823, and, with its dependency Iniack Island, gives us possession of the south part
of Delagoa Bay, and also access by water to the Zulu country.

In 1856, the British cutter ‘Herald’ of Natal purchased from the natives of this
district some bags of orchella-weed, for samples, at the rate of two shillings for an
arroba of 32lbs, and, on the same vessel returning to Lourenco Marques, in 1857,
the same quantity was selling for two Spanish dollars, and a barque was lying there
almost wholly laden with it and ivory from the Zulu country and Tembe; the latter
being a British possession, which the Portuguese officials would not allow the British
Cutter ‘ Herald’ to trade with, excepting on the condition that she would pay dues to
the Portuguese Custom House at Lourenco Marques.

In 1857, this same cutter ‘ Herald’ proceeded up the King George or Manakusi
river a distance of 110 miles. From the depth and volume of water, and velocity of
the stream, as far as ascended by the ‘ Herald,’ itis the opinion of some that this is the
outlet of the Limpopo; and the attention of the mercantile world is naturally at-
tracted to a large river which opens a vast tract of country to our merchants.

Proceeding northwards, we arrive at Inhambane, in latitude 23° 52’ S. and longi-
tude 35° 25! E., at present the resort ofslavers under every denomination. This town,
situated at the mouth of a large river, hitherto unexplored, so admirably adapted for
the export of all the valuable productions of the interior of Africa, requires only the
fostering of legitimate traflic to become a great emporium for trade.

The Bazarutto Islands, in latitude 21°30’ S. and longitude 35° 33’ E., have been
long celebrated for the pearls to be obtained there. From accounts which | have
received, I am led to believe that the pearl fishery at these islands, properly worked
and protected, would rival that of Ceylon. ‘The Portuguese appear to keep possession
of these islands merely to prevent other nations from obtaining the pearls, which are
entirely neglected by themselves.

To the northward of these islands, in latitude 20° 11! S. and longitude 34° 46’ E.,
Sofala is situated, at the mouth of a river of the same name, leading to the auriferous
portion of Eastern Africa.

This Sofala is the ancient Ophir of Solomon, in whose days ships were sent from
Tarshish to obtain gold from mines which are even now productive, but are entirely
neglected, owing to the Portuguese officials finding it easier to enrich themselves by
selling the natives of the country than by employing themselves and their slaves in
‘obtaining that metal so much coveted by civilized communities. The only gold at
present sent from Sofala is a small quantity occasionally picked up on the surface of
the earth after heavy rains.

On both banks of the river Sofala, and from that river northwards to the southern
bank of the Zambesi, the country is one mass of mineral wealth ; gold, silver, copper,
and toward Téte, even iron and coal being found in abundance.

190 REPORT—1859.

In these vast regions are mines almost innumerable, still productive, but requiring
the stimulus of demand, which it is not the interest of the Portuguese officials to
create while they can become rich by the slave-trade.

Ruins of cities, once the dwelling-places of nations mighty in their industry, are to
be seen in this region, perhaps telling the history of those who provided gold for the
Temple of Solomon.

Whether these cities were founded by the Arabs, the Hebrews, or the Phcenicians,
who all obtained their supplies of gold from Sofala, or were inhabited by people
belonging to Africa, they are existing monuments of nations who, at a very remote
date, must have reached a high state of civilization.

Feeling deeply interested in this matter, I did all in my power when at Mozambique
to obtain information about the kingdom of Sofala, which resulted in the Governor
General of Mozambique publishing an official account of the mines known to the
Portuguese in that neglected district. This account gives a long list of gold, silver,
copper, and iron mines, which have been worked, but are now entirely neglected, as
the country is destitute of labour, the Portuguese having drained it to supply the
slave-trade of the Brazils, Cuba, and America. Previous to the Portuguese appearing
on the east coast of Africa, the kingdom of Sofala was greatly depopulated by the
invasion of the Lindens, and I am under the impression that it was during that
invasion that the cities referred to were destroyed.

The mines in Sofala still have attached to them, in the legends of the country, the
names of the discoverers, and these names are supposed to be those of the kings who
reigned there when the mines were first opened.

In this report it is stated that 500 leagues from Sefia there are the remains of large
edifices which indicate that they were once inhabited, but by whom is not known*,

This confirms the statement of Barros in his description of the ruins of the City of
Zimboé, who states that there are the remains of a fort built of well-cut stones, having
a surface of twenty-five palms in length, and a little less in height, in the joining of
which there appears to have been no lime used. Over the door or entrance of this
fort is an inscription, which some Moors, well-versed in Arabic, could not decipher ;
nor were they acquainted with the character of the writing.

Around this edifice there are other erections similar to it, having bastions of stone
uncemented by lime, and in the middle of them there is a tower at least seventy feet
in height. These edifices are called in the language of the country Zimboé, which
signifies a royal residence,

I was always told at Mozambique that the Arabs could not decipher the inscrip-
tions to be found on these ruins.

Barros thinks that this country of Sofala ought to be that designated by Ptolemy
Agyximba. Zimboé, the name given by the natives to these ruins, certainly offers
some affinity to that of Agyzimba. It may be that the inscriptions to be found there,
seen only, as yet, in modern times, by the Moor and the unlettered savage, may
record truths as interesting as those conveyed in the Adite inscription, engraven on
the rock at Hisn Ghor&b.

Proceeding northward, we arrive at the mouths of the river Zambesi, the great
commercial highway of East Africa.

This river is navigable for river-steamers of a large burden and light draft of water
for at least eight months out of the year; in those parts where it is of great breadth,
and consequently shallow, it offers some slight impediment to navigation, from the
uncertainty of the positions of the banks, which change their appearance and dimen-
sions during the annual inundations of the low districts. By taking advantage of the
dry season, when the body of water in the river is comparatively small, and staking
the river, so as to confine the water in a narrower channel, the obstruction to easy
navigation may be overcome, and access obtained for at least eight months of the year
to Téte, opposite to which town coal may be obtained in abundance. At the same
town onthe Karuera mountain, 2000 feet in height, which almost overhangs the town
of Téte, enough corn may be grown to supply the whole of Southern Africa, and even
at this time 6000 Portuguese bushels of corn are exported from ‘Téte.

Along the banks of the Zambesi the gutta-percha and india-rubber trees are found
.in great plenty, and also the poppy yielding opium.

* Boletim do Governo General de Mocambique, Dec. 12, 1857.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 191

The sugar-cane grows to an enormous size and yields much saccharine matter.

Indigo, roots, and nuts supply colouring matter of various hues, and are in common
use among the natives.

Around Sena, where the Zambesi spreads itself over great tracts of country,
creating swamps and causing the malignant fever and ague of that country, the
antidote is to be found in abundance in the bark of a tree, which yields one of the
most valuable articles of commerce, namely cinchona bark.

The delta at the mouth of this river affords a subject of deep interest ; its growth
being so rapid, that one is led to the belief that it is, comparatively speaking, of
recent formation. Iam inclined to think that it has, in some places, increased as
much as five miles since 1821. This appears enormous even when coinpared with the
delta of the Danube, but it must be borne in mind that nature has provided it with the
mangrove tree, which from its formation appears to have been specially provided for
the purpose of piling up the deltas of rivers.

The mangrove tree grows only in brackish water; that is to say, half salt and half
fresh water; and has this peculiarity, that it will not grow in either fresh or
salt water, It bears a nut, which, when ripe, from the heat of the sun, bursts with a
report like a musket. Some years ago, when employed on boat service in the rivers
on the west coast of Africa, in chase of slave vessels, being detached from the other
boats of the ship to which I belonged, the bursting of these nuts on a calm sultry
afternoon has often led me to the belief that the other boats were engaged in an action
with some slaver in another part of the river.

After the nut has burst three young shoots are thrown out; these make imme-
diately for the water, on reaching which they form a small pile, stopping leaves, grass,
and mud, floating down, in which they take root and then throw out branches up-
wards, similar to the banyan tree, It may be easily imagined how soon a delta will
increase its demensions when assisted by the mangrove tree. It is certain that
Killimane is further inland than when first traded with by the Arabs in the twelfth
century; and a knowledge of the time required for the formation of that delta might
lead us to estimate the date when the Zambesi burst through the Lupata mountains,
and those changes took place by volcanic agency which have given to Central Africa
that physical formation so wisely foretold by Sir Roderick Murchison, and subse~
quently confirmed by the persevering discoverer Livingstone.

Passing on from the mouths of the Zambesi, with all its untold treasures, we come
to a country, which, having abandoned the slave-trade, and entered into legitimate
commerce, finds its reward in growing richer and more powerful every year; while
the neighbouring Portuguese settlements, abandoned to the nefarious traffic in human
beings, become annuaily more impoverished.

The kingdom of Angoxa, latitude 16°39'S. and longitude 39°46! E., having a
seaboard of ninety miles and reaching into the interior for upwards of 180 miles, has
in a few years, by abandoning the slave-trade, shaking off the pretensions of Portu-
guese dominion, and developing the resources of its natural productions, risen to the
position of a free and independent kingdom, whose trade is open, on its express
invitation, to the civilized world.

Already it supplies immense quantities of simsim, or sesame, or gengulin seed
(which appears here particularly to thrive), the oil expressed from which is a valu-
able article of commerce, being used as a substitute for olive oil, and much prized for
the finer portions of machinery.

Ivory in abundance, ebony, orchella-weed, gum-copal, cocoanut oil, coir, ground-
nuts, form the principal portions of the cargoes of fleets of dhows trading in the season
between this country and the dominions of the Imam of Muskat. ‘The Sultan of
Angoxa asks for a British Consular Agent, and is anxious to place himself under the
protection of Great Britain: meanwhile, the Mozambique Government threatens the
seizure of English vessels trading with Angoxa.

When Great Britain recognized the territorial rights of Portugal on the east and
west coast of Africa, she reserved to British subjects the right of trading with the
natives: and whenever these rights are interfered with, prompt measures should be
adopted for enforcing full and immediate satisfaction to the injured parties.

The city of Mozambique is situated on an island of the same name, in latitude
15° 2'S, and longitude 40° 48 E., which, with two other islands, St. George, and St.

192 REPORT—1859.

Tago, placed in an inlet of the Indian Ocean, form, with the mainland, a secure
harbour five miles deep and five miles and a half broad; and, with the neighbouring
harbour of Mocambo, in which three rivers discharge themselves, is, perhaps, the
most eligible spot to establish an immense trade with the interior, and an emporium
for European merchandise.

The natives from the far interior bring down to Messuril on the mainland, opposite
the city of Mozambique, every year, gold, silver, ivory, wax, skins, and malachite,
the latter in considerable quantities; showing that there are mines of copper in the
Monomoises’ country.

In 1856 many of these natives, who came down to trade, were seized by the Portu-
guese, to supply the (so-called) French free-labour emigration ; since which occur-
rence they have not made their appearance at Messuril.

When Mozambique was in the hands of the Arabs, an important trade was carried
on between it, Arabia, and India; but for the last two hundred years, under its
present rulers, the trade, principally carried on by banyans to Cutch and Goa, has
been gradually decreasing,

At present it exports ivory, annually 250,000lbs., bees-wax, sesame~seed, orchella,
rhinoceros-horns, cocoanut oi!, castor oil, ground-nut oil, coir, arrowroot, sago, coffee,
tortoiseshell, indigo of an inferior quantity (from ignorance in manufacturing it), and
a spirit made from the cachu.

There are large plantations of cocoanut trees, which for the last three years have
been much neglected ; coffee plantations, likewise in the same position; and a coir-
manufactory has for the same period of time ceased to work :—all this caused by the
new impetus given to the slave-trade under the denomination of French free-labour
emigration, which was established in 1854.

Some few of the residents at Mozambique I induced to clear away and cultivate
the cotton shrub; and, with the intention of encouraging legitimate commerce, I
wrote to Her Majesty’s Ambassador in the United States, and also to the Chamber of
Commerce of Manchester, asking for the three descriptions of cotton seeds; viz., the
nankin, green seed, and sea-island; intending to send the two former into the interior,
and to plant the sea-island on the coast where the saline breezes from the ocean, and
humid atmosphere from the warm gulf stream, running along the whole of the east
coast of Africa, would favour its growth.

Having discovered the mulberry-tree, and that it was indigenous to the soil, I wrote
to England for eggs of the silkworm, and addressed a letter to His Excellency the
Governor of Bombay, praying his Lordship to send me some eggs of the Tussah and
other moths indicated in my letter.

Similarly, I drew the attention of His Excellency the Governor-General of
Mozambique to a very important discovery which [ had made, and of which the
Portuguese were entirely ignorant, viz., that both the gutta-percha tree and also a
tree yielding india-rubber were to be found in large numbers on the banks of the
Zambesi ; and, after having pointed out to him the commercial value of these trees,
I begged him to issue an order forbidding any gutta-percha trees to be cut down, but
instead, pointing out that they should be tapped longitudinally, by which the supply
would indeed be less, but permanent; whereas, if cut down for the purpose of ex-
tracting the juice, these trees, as at Singapore, would, in the course of a few years,
disappear.

Ibo, in latitude 12° 20’ S. and longitude 40° 38! E., is admirably situated for trade.
At present it is the great warehouse for slaves.

Zanzibar, in latitude 6° 28'S. and longitude 39° 33! E., exports gold, ivory, drugs,
coir, coccanut, gums, bees-wax, tortoiseshell, spice, rice from Pemba, sesame-seed
from Angoxa, and a great quantity of timber annually to the Red Sea and Persian
Gulf.

In 1818 cloves were introduced into Zauzibar from Mauritius : they thrive so well,
that the cultivation of them has in a great measure superseded that of the sugar-cane,
and even the cocoanut.

Mombas and Melinda are both well adapted for trade, which at one time was of
considerable importance between these places and India and Arabia, but Melinda,
in less than a century after it had been conquered by the Portuguese, ceased to be
a place of any importance. i

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193

Lamu, in latitude 2° 15! 45" S. and longitude 41° 1' 5" E., is a place of consider-
able trade, more especially in hides and the general exports from Zanzibar. Brava,
in latitude 1° 6! 40” N, and longitude 44° 3’ E., carries on a considerable trade with
India and Arabia, and a rapidly increasing one with America.

The exports are: hides, bullocks, horses, and camels, oil from the joints of camels,
salt-beef, great varieties of the skins of wild animals taken by Gallas who go from
Zanzibar to Cape Guardafui. Small horses purchased here at from five to six dollars
each will realize from sixty to seventy dollars at Mauritius.

The Sumalis inhabit the sea-coast from the equator north round Cape Guardafui
to Zeylah ; the whole of this vast extent of country is but little known to us.

The kingdom of Kimweri or Usambara, more generally known as the Pangany
district, is rich in produce, which may be increased to supply any demand. ‘The
sugar-cane is very luxurious, and magnificent forests of timber await the woodman’s
axe, with the Pangany and its tributaries to carry it to the ocean. Dr. Krapf in
speaking of one of these forests says, ‘‘ This forest is worth millions of money for its
fine long and straight timber, being as useful for ship-building as for carpentery.”
And again: ‘“ We descended into a large forest of timber sufficient for centuries to
come. The trees are big and straight, trom 70 to 100 feet in height.”

The recent discoveries of Captains Burton and Speke in the country immediately to
the south of this throws a new light on a region hitherto wrapped in the deepest
mystery, and gives access into the far interior even to the Victoria T'anganika Lake, and
perhaps to the sources of the Nile.

To the northward of Melinda, the river Dana, under the name of Osi, reaches the
Indian Ocean. It is stated to flow from the eastern side of Mount Kenia, that it is
navigable for boats from the Indian Ocean to the Ukambani country, that there are
no rocks at all in the way of navigation, and that even during the dry season the
water reaches as high as a man’s neck, while during the rains it cannot be forded.
Its ordinary breadth is 200 yards, and it is the privilege of the people of Mbé to
carry strangers proceeding to Kikuyu, or other countries, from one bank to another,

A small steamer placed on this river would soon open the country to European
commerce, and from the source of the Dana to that of the White Nile can be no great
distance,

By the Dana or Kilimansi is assuredly the most direct route for settling the great
geographical question of the sources of the Nile.

Zeylah or Zeila, if properly encouraged by the British Government, would be a
very good outport, as the descent to that place from the interior is easier than to
Massoah, and it is the best outlet of ancient Ethiopia. It is situated opposite Aden,
where steam communication would place its productions at once in European
markets.

Suez has already become a place of vast importance, foreshadowing the future
greatness which awaits it, when the Egyptian transit shall be completed, and leviathan
ships like the ‘Great Eastern,’ on a trunk-line to India and China, will make that
port its western terminus, and Suez and Alexandria become the emporia of the East
and West.

Having thus briefly stated what articles of commerce Eastern Africa can produce,
I feel that it would be a very imperfect notice of this portion of the earth’s produc-
tions were I to omit the valuable islands on this coast.

In the Mozambique Channel, Europa Island stands conspicvous from its central
position in the southern end of this channel. At present it 1s used as a place of
resort for Dhows from the whole of the eastern coast of Africa, to land their cargoes
of slaves, awaiting some large European vessel to carry them to their future place of
bondage.

This island is well situated for a lighthouse and a depét which would command the
trade of the Mozambique Channel both on the African and also the Madagascar coasts.

Along this coast lies the magnificent Island of Madagascar, called the Great Britain
of Africa. It is 900 miles in length and about 300 miles in breadth. From its
geographical position, extending from 12° to nearly 26° of south latitude, and the great
height of the interior plateaux, being as much as 7000 feet above the level of the sea,
it affords a variety of climates, from the humid and oppressive atmosphere of the
malaria-districts to the pure bracing breezes of the mountain heights. In the in-

1859. 13

194 REPORT—1859.

terior of this island the temperature is much cooler than in the low districts near the
ocean,

The west coast of Madagascar is indented with bays forming some of the most
remarkable and secure harbours in the world, in which there is abundance of water
for the largest class of vessels, and nearly all of them very easy of access,

The silk-worm is found in many parts of the island, and the cocoons may be seen
in hundreds hanging on the trees, there being no demand there for an article which
we go to China for. The natives have always been accustomed to its use in their
garments, some of which are very elegant.

Mineral wealth is very abundant, and iron and coal are now found in close proxi-
mity. The discovery of coal in Madagascar must soon place that island in the posi-
tion which it ought unquestionably to hold in the Indian Ocean,

Great Britain alone sends every year 700,000 tons of coal round the Cape of Good
Hope, and the Peninsular and Oriental Company expend £600,000 per annum on
coal,

Notes on Japan. By Laurence Ovipwant, F.R.G.S,

The three ports of the empire visited by the Mission, and which fell more imme-
diately under our observation, were Nagasaki, situated in the Island of Kinsin;
Sowinda, a port opened by Commodore Perry on the Promontory of Idsa; and Yedo,
the capital city of the empire. Of these Nagasaki is the one with which we have
been for the longest period familiar. In former times it was a fishing village situated
in the Principality of Omura ; itis now an imperial demesne, and the most flourishing
portintheempire. It owes its origin to the establishment, at this advantageous point,
of a Portuguese settlement in the year 1569, and its prosperity to the enlightened
policy pursued by the Christian Prince of Omura, in whose territory it was situated ;
while its transference to the Crown was the result of political intrigues on the part of
the Portuguese settlers, in consequence of which the celebrated Tageo Sama included
it among the lands appertaining to the Crown. Situated almost at the westernmost
extremity of the empire, at the head of a deep land-locked harbour, and in convenient
proximity to some of the wealthiest and most productive principalities in the empire,
Nagasaki possesses great local advantages, and will doubtless continue an important
commercial emporium, even when the trade of the empire at large is more fully
developed, and has found an outlet through other ports. The town is pleasantly
situated on a belt of level ground which intervenes between the water and the swelling
hills, forming an amphitheatre of great scenic beauty. Their slopes terraced with
rice-fields ; their valleys heavily timbered, and watered by gushing mountain streams;
their projecting points crowned with temples or frowning with batteries; everywhere
cottages buried in foliage reveal their existence by curling wreaths of blue smoke; in
the creeks and inlets picturesque boats lie moored; sacred groves, approached by
rock-cut steps, or pleasure-gardens tastefully laid out, enchant the eye. The whole
aspect of Nature is such as cannot fail to produce a most favourable impression upon
the mind of the stranger visiting Japan for the first time. ‘The city itself contains a
population of about 50,000, and consists of between eighty and ninety streets, running
at right angles to each other—broad enough to admit of the passage of wheeled
vehicles, were any to be seen in them—and kept scrupulously clean, A canal inter-
sects the city, spanned by thirty-five bridges, of which fifteen are handsomely con-
structed of stone. The Dutch factory is placed upon a small fan-shaped island about
200 yards in length, and connected with the mainland by a bridge. Until recently,
the members of the factory were confined exclusively to this limited area, and kept
under a strict and rigid surveillance. The old régime is now, however, rapidly passing
away ; and the history of their imprisonment, of the indignities to which they were
exposed, and the insults they suffered, has already become a matter of tradition. ‘The
port of Hiogo is situated in the Bay of Ohosaka, opposite to the celebrated city of that
name, from which it is ten or twelve miles distant. The Japanese Government have
expended vast sums in their engineering efforts to improve its once dangerous anchor-
age. A breakwater, which was erected at a prodigious expense, and which cost the
lives of numbers of workmen, has proved sufficient for the object for which it was
designed. There isa tradition, that a superstition existed in connexion with this dyke,
to the effect that it would never be finished, unless an individual could be found suffi-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 195

ciently patriotic to suffer himself to be buried in it. A Japanese Curtius was not
long in forthcoming, to whom a debt of gratitude will be due in all time to come, from
every British ship that rides securely at her anchor behind the breakwater. Hiogo
has now become the port of Ohosaka and Miaco, and will, in all probability, be the
principal port of European trade in the empire. The city is described as equal in
size to Nagasaki. When Kempfer visited it, he found 300 junks at anchor in its bay.
The Dutch describe Ohosaka as a more attractive resort even than Yedo, While
this latter city may be regarded as the London of Japan, Ohosaka seems to be its
Paris. Here are the most celebrated theatres, the most sumptuous tea-houses, the
most extensive pleasure-gardens, It is the abode of luxury and wealth, the favourite
resort of fashionable Japanese, who come here to spend their time in gaiety and
pleasure. Ohosaka is one of the five Imperial cities, and contains a vast population.
It is situated on the left bank of the Jedogawa, a stream which rises in the Lake of
Oity, situated a day and a half’s journey in the interior. It is navigable for boats of
large tonnage as far as Miaco, and is spanned by numerous handsome bridges. The
port of Hiogo and city of Osaca will not be opened to Europeans until the 1st of
‘January, 1862. ‘The foreign residents will then be allowed to explore the country in
any direction, for a distance of twenty-five miles, except towards Miaco, or, as it is
more properly called, Kioto. They will not be allowed to approach nearer than
twenty-five miles to this far-famed city. Situated at the head of a bay, or rather gulf,
so extensive that the opposite shores are not visible to each other, Yedo spreads itself
on a continuous line of houses along its partially undulating, partially level margin,
for a distance of about ten miles, Including suburbs, at its greatest width it is pro-
bably about seven miles across, but for a portion of the distance it narrows to a mere
strip of houses. Any rough calculation of the population of so vast a city must
necessarily be yery vague and uncertain; but, after some experience of Chinese cities,
two millions does not seem too high an estimate at which to place Yedo. In conse-
quence of the great extent of the area occupied by the residences of the Princes, there
are quarters of the town in which the inhabitants are very sparse. The citadel, or
residence of the temporal Emperor, cannot be less than five or six miles in circum-
ference, and yet it only contains about 40,000 souls. On the other hand, there are
parts of the city in which the inhabitants seem almost as closely packed as they are
in Chinese towns. The streets are broad and admirably drained, some of them are
lined with peach and plum trees, and when these are in blossom must present a gay
and lively appearance. ‘Those which traverse the Prince’s quarter are for the most
part as quiet and deserted as aristocratic thoroughfares generally are. Those which
pass through the commercial and manufacturing quarters are densely crowded with
passengers on foot, in chairs, and on horseback, while occasionally, but not often, an
ox-waggon rumbles and creaks along. The houses are only of two stories, sometimes
built of freestone, sometimes of sunburnt brick, and sometimes of wood ; the roofs are
either tiles or shingles. The shops are completely open to the street ; some of these
are very extensive, the show-rooms for the more expensive fabrics being upstairs, as
with us, he eastern part of the city is built upon a level plain, watered by the Toda
Gawa, which flows through this section of the town, and supplies with water the large
moats which surround the citadel. It is spanned by the Nipon ; has a wooden bridge
of enormous length, celebrated as the Hyde Park Corner of Japan, as from it all
distanees throughout the empire are measured. ‘Towards the western quarter of the
city the country becomes more broken; swelling hills rise above the housctops richly
clothed with foliage, from out the waving masses of which appear the upturned gables
of a temple, or the many roofs of a pagoda. It will be some satisfaction to foreigners
to know that they are not to be excluded for ever from this most interesting city. By
the Treaty concluded in it by Lord Elgin, on the Ist of January, 1863, British sub-
jects shall be allowed to reside there, and it is not improbable that a great portion of
the trade may ultimately be transferred to it from Ranagawa. There is plenty of
water and a good anchorage at a distance of about a mile from the western suburb-of
Linagawa. ‘The only other port which has been opened by the ‘late ‘Treaty in the
Island of Nipon is the Port of Nee-e-gata, situated upon its western coast. As this
port has never yet been visited by Europeans, it is stipulated that if it be found incon-
venient as a harbour, another shall be substituted for it, to be opened on the lst of
January, 1869.

5S*

196 - REPORT—1859.

On the Yang-tse-kiang, and its future Commerce.
By Captain Suerarp Ossorne, #.N., B.C, F.R.G.S.

The stand-point Captain Osborne wished his audience to take was in the province
of Hon-Peh, the central one of China, where a stream from the north-west of about
the volume of the Thames joins “the Great River’—Yang-tse-Kiang. They had
to deal with eight of the eighteen provinces. Rich in all the products for which
China is remarkable, and for which western nations insist upon a trade with her,
this zone, whence come all our silks, and nearly all our teas, was for 200 years only
reached by an overland commerce from Canton. In 1843, the establishment of trade
at Shanghai, on the eastern sea-board of this great central zone, without hardly affect-
ing the overland trade to Canton, proved incontestably the surpassing richness in pro-
ducts of the provinces of Central China, and the great demand there was for European
merchants there, if not as seliers, at any rate as buyers. The Great River, a sealed
route until 1858, lies opposite the great city of Hankow, On the western bank is
Han Yang, also a large city ; whilst facing them both, on the south side of the Great

River, extends another huge walled city—Woo-Chang-Foo, All three have lately.

been subjected to a visitation from the Tai-pings or rebels. The latter, the residence
of the Viceroy of the two Hu’s (Human and Hupeh), a region somewhat larger than
France, though far more rich and populous, was all but in ruins when Lord Elgin’s
squadron visited it. Hankow, however, like all natural commercial emporiums, had
evidently revived directly the fires of the ‘I'ai- ping incendiaries were quenched ; houses,
all new, covering, as far as they were able to judge, the entire site of the old town.
All the three cities, which stand in one immense plain, with here and there a hill
rising out of it, like islands out of the sea, were felicitously described with great
minuteness. The river, it was stated, was in no place less than half a mile wide, and
the waters still range at the low season from 60 to 42 feetin depth. From this point,
600 miles from the sea, the distance to the source of the river is 2500 miles.

The difficulty of obtaining any information from the Chinese was extreme.

A missionary reported that in the far west provinces, 1200 miles from the sea, he
reached the Great River, and found it a mile and half broad, and Captain Osborne
thinks there is every reason to believe that it is navigable by native vessels, between
Wester Sochow and the great emporium of trade, at the point of which this missionary
spoke—Tchoun-King, and that many other rivers running into it are navigable.
There are rapids or falls, however, about 160 miles above Hankow, which, unless it
is found that they can be surmounted by the aid of steam power, will be the furthest
point which vessels can reach, and will divide the river into the upper and lower
valley. With a flatter description of vessels, however, Captain Osborne is confident
the river will be found to be navigable even beyond this barrier.

The traders’ junks, with which they come from all parts of this great empire to
Hankow market, find a refuge in the mouth of the river Han. Iron is found in Han-
kow in great quantity, wrought and unwrought, the best quality, quite as good as
Swedish, coming from the province of Hunan, and costing about £14, while the
cheapest is sold at £5. It was also smelted with coals, which, from the southern
provinces of Hunan, can be purchased out of vessels afloat, at £2 5s. to £2 los. per
ton. ‘Tea, silk, wax, tobacco, and Chinese grass were to be bought to any extent—
the teas from the western provinces. Captain Osborne showed some of the teas to
merchants at Shanghai, who declared they were very valuable, but unknown to them
even there in trade. The Chinese grass makes clothing, sails, or ropes, and is in great
demand for all the purposes to which hemp and flax are applied in Europe. It sold
in Hankow for 25s. acwt., and at Ningpo for 55s., a pretty good profit for a distance of
600 miles of carriage by ship, plainly showing that, when once the English get steam
set fairly a-going upon the Chinese rivers, they will be able to cheapen even their own
articles to them. ‘There were stores full of native manufactured cottons, as well as
English ones, the different prices of which, and of silks, linens, and many other articles,
Captain Osborne presented in a tabular form for the information of those specially
interested in the subject, and from which it appeared that cotton has every likelihood
of being the chiefarticle which could be imported with advantage direct from Europe.

Everywhere in Hankow there is a throb of commerce. It seems like what Shanghai
was before European merchants resided there, and that it only requires their presence

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 197

at Hankow to make its trade rival that of Shanghai, which in fifteen years has in-
creased steadily to its present enormous amount of 28 millions sterling. Captain
Osborne thinks, however, that English merchant ships can never go up farther than
the confluence of the Poyang Lake, 120 miles below Hankow, the meeting of the
Takeang and the Poyang Lake occasioning at this point a mass of shallows and banks
as well as three or four channels, with more or Jess water in them. Kew-Keang,
which stands at this point, Captain Osborne described as a city rendered important
for trade by the great road from Pekin to Canton passing it. When captured in 1853,
its trade was very great, and it was extremely rich and populous; when visited by
Lord Elgin’s squadron, it was a perfect picture of desolation.

It must be at or near Kew-Keang, Captain Osborne says, that Europeans must
first establish their great entrepét for central China. To it their ships can safely reach,
especially auxiliary screw clippers, without transhipping their freights. He had no
doubt they would find safe anchorage there, and thence their goods would permeate
throughout central China, and thus they would prevent a piece of chintz made in
Manchester, which sells at Shanghai, 28 yards for 13s., from selling, as they saw it at
Hankow, at about 13d. a yard. But it was very important for reaping the full advan-
tage of the treaty of Tientsin that the Chinese be made to understand that the Yang-
tse-Keang, from its mouth at any rate, to Hankow, is ours as well as the Chinaman’s
highway. It only requires peace between the Imperialists and Tai-pings to make the
country around Kew-Keang, embracing much wealth, high cultivation, numerous cities,
and countless villages and hainlets, what Captain Osborne says he remembers Nankin
to have been seventeen years ago—the garden of China; and it is easy to predict that
the wants of this population, and the products of their industry, will yet form a very
important item in British commerce with them,

His own impressions Captain Osborne stated to be, that, with handy fast-sailing
ships, or, better still, with auxiliary steam ships, there was nothing to prevent
them reaching the entrance to the Poyang Lake, by ascending the river in June
after the spring thaws, and returning in the rains; and pilots should be established at
moderate fees, instead of the present extortionate rates levied by Europeans for the
Lower Yang-tze, which Captain Osborne estimated at £30,000 per annum upon
English imports and exports from Shanghai alone. Vessels of still smaller size would
answer and pay well between Poyang and Hankow. When the entry of the British
flag into the Poyang Lake became known to the native merchants of Canton, cotton
fell in the market, the Chinese monopolists knowing that the days of large profits were
numbered, The trading stations Captain Osborne recommended were Hankow,
Kew-Keang, and Nanking or Ching-Keang.

On some curious Discoveries concerning the Settlement of the Seed of
Abraham in Syria and Arabia. By Major Puiturrs.

Notes on the Lower Danube. By Major J. Stoxes.

On the Sculptured Stones of Scotland. By Joun Stuart, Secretary to the
Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.

The author said the occurrence of pillars in almost all parts of the world, to mark
events of various kinds, is quite remarkable. ‘The Bible is full of instances of pillars
being erected. Those pillars were of two kinds—for marking sepulchres and for
marking other events. When Rachel died, Jacob set up a pillar over her grave; and
long after that time Rachel's sepulchre is referred to as a well-known spot. This refers
only to the class of single stones, however, but we have at least one instance of a
group of stones being put up for a historical purpose. When Israel crossed the Jor-
dan, twelve stones were set up corresponding with the twelve tribes. In Scotland we
have instances of both classes of pillars—that is, of single pillars, and pillars collected
in groups, of circular form; these latter having unfortunately been connected with
the Druids without the slightest foundation on which to build such a theory. It was
Stukely who first introduced this opinion, which has but tended to obscure the whole
subject ; and the sooner we get rid of it the better. Mr, Charles Dalrymple, who is

198 REPORT—1859.

well known in connexion with the Archeological Exhibition here, was kind enough
to make some investigations in this county, and the following is his account of the
results of one of his diggings at Crichie, about 16 miles from this town. The circle
had originally consisted of six stones, of which only two are now standing.

Sepulchral deposits were found near the site of all the stones. On digging about
one of them standing on the north side, an urn was found inverted, having a small
flat stone above it, and another below it, and filled with calcined bones, This urn was
about a foot in height, narrowed at the top, and having diagonal lines on the narrow
rim for ornament. Near the base of another stone on the same side of the circle was
found, imbedded in clay, a circular cist about nine inches in diameter and a foot deep,
filled with calcined bones. This cist was shaped like an urn, and was lined with
small stones, evidently broken for the purpose. Close to this pit was found a stone
celt perforated by a hole for the handle, and at a little distance from this, a deposit of
calcined bones uninclosed, and somewhat further to the south an urn. On digging
on the south side of the spot where a stone had formerly stood, a small stone cist,
nearly square, was found, being about eleven inches by nine, and about sixteen inches
deep, with small flat stones at bottom, and half-filled with remains of bones. Close
to the former site of another stone, now removed, was found an urn of better work-
manship than that formerly referred to, about three and ahalf inches in width at bot-
tom, and widening towards the top, where it measured about seven and a half inches.
At the neck, which was narrowed, there are some traces of ornament of angular pat-
tern, consisting of diagonal lines crossing each other like a St. Andrew’s Cross. It
was filled with calcined bones, some of them those of animals. Close to the former
site ofa fifth stone was found a circular deposit of bones in a clay bed, without cist or
urn. On digging about the spot where a sixth stone had stood, it appeared that a de-
posit had been buried near it also, about the usual distance of one foot anda half from
it. This deposit, however, had been disturbed, probably by a tree which had been
planted close to it. A stone had stood in the centre of the circle, and a digging at
this site brought to light a large underground cairn of stones covering a cist. The
cairn was about five and a half feet in depth, forty-five feet in circumference at the
surface, and thirty feet at the top. The bottom was paved with large slabs of stone,
of which those at the sides overlapped the edges of one large one in the centre, which
formed the cover of a cist, three feet eleven inches long by two feet ten inches wide.
The cist contained a skull at the west end. At the opposite end were the leg-bones
lying across the cist. In the centre of the cist were some calcined bones. Above the
centre of the cairn, just below the superincumbent earth, was found a deposit of cal-
cined bones, without any urn or flat stone above or below. All the bones found in
the circle appeared to be calcined. Those in the urn first referred to appeared to be
partly human and partly those of small animals, if not of birds. A human jaw-bone
in this urn was unmistakeable—small and delicate like that of a woman.

Thus we find in almost every instance the discovery of sepulchral deposits in con-
nexion with these pillars. ‘These circles may have had other meanings, though this
is the only one we can discover. The present paper, however, deals with sculptured
pillars, and these consist of two distinct classes. First, there is the rude, unpoiished,
unhewn stone covered with figures which we call symbols. One of these pillars [a
figure of this pillar was given among a series of fine diagrams prepared to illustrate
the paper by Mr. Gibb, of Messrs, Keith and Gibb, of Aberdeen] is found at Logie,
in this county. It contains various symbols, including ‘ the spectacle ornament,’ and
inclines in a position which Irish scholars say is peculiar to this stone.

Mr. Stuart went on to allude to the symbols of a more elaborate character, including
the elephant, fish, &c., on others of these pillars, remarking as to the distribution of
the pillars, that by far the larger portion of the stones between the Dee and Spey are of
the ruder class of stones covered with symbols. In the centre of the district, there is
a stone with an inscription upon it which has hitherto baffled the efforts of scholars to
state its character; until lately that Lord Aberdeen got it submitted to the late Dr. Mill
of Cambridge, who prepared a disquisition on it before his death, which is now in course
of being printed, In it, it will be found that Dr. Mill had satisfied himself that the
inscription was a Phoenician one; at all events, there can be no doubt that it is
Eastern.

This stone, as already stated, is in the centre of the district between the Dee and the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 199

Spey. There is one remarkable fact connected with these symbol-stones—viz. at

orries Law in Fife, near a circle of these stones, there was found what is believed to
have been a complete set of armour. The symbols upon the stone were found re-
peated upon a silver ornament among the relics alluded to. Now, if we could sup-
pose that this symbol—the spectacle ornament—indicated the rank of the individual,
or had reference to sacred dignity, it would be a great step gained in the elucidation
of these sculptures. It has to be observed that the symbols are never found twice
repeated in the same order. Mr. Stuart next proceeded to notice the stone crosses,
of which there are some very remarkable examples on the west coast—a beautiful
one at Oronsay, and another at Kildalton in Islay. Sculptured crosses, which are
of a more recent date than the symbols, occur less frequently on the east coast of
Scotland—in the district between the Forth and Caithness; and what is to be re-
marked in regard to them is, that while in Aberdeenshire the symbol is common, the
cross seems to be less prominent; when you go to Forfarshire, there are some mag-
nificent examples of the cross, and the symbol becomes less conspicuous, and its place
seems to be occupied with subjects of quite a different description. ‘The stones pre-
sent many instances of priests in their robes with books, and occasionally with re-
markable ornaments. At times these have peaked beards and moustaches—men
shooting with the bow and arrow—bird-headed human figures—figures in armour on
horseback, having the trapping and armour in detail—men devoured by animals—
men seated as if in judgment—historical scenes relative to slaughter—processions, in
one of which a man leads an ox, and is followed by other men in line—in another
several men and oxen, which, in a third, appear about to be sacrificed; and here the
men are tonsured and carry candles. The centaur occurs, occasionally dragging
branches of trees, and sometimes carrying battle-axes. A chariot and horseman are
seen at Meigle. A single specimen of a boat appears on St. Orland’s stone; and
there are specimens of monkeys, apes, lions, leopards, deer, and beasts of the chase.
The temptation in Paradise occurs at Farnell. There are also inscriptions upon one
at least of the sculptured crosses, which, however, appear to resemble the Irish
character, although they have not been read to the satisfaction of scholars. In the
eatliest notice of these stones which we have, we find the ancient inhabitants of
Scotland thus spoken of by Boece—‘ They usit the ritis and maneris of Egyptians,
fra quhome thay tuk thair first beginning. For all thair social besines, they usit not
to writ with common letteris usit amang othir pepil, but erar with sifars and figuris
of beistis maid in manner of letteris, sic as thair epithafis and superscriptions abone
thair sepulturis schawis; nochtheless this crafty manir of writing, be quhat stenth
I can not say, is perist; and yet thay have certane letteris propir amang thaim-
self, quhilkis war sem time vulgar and common,” Mr. Stuart observed that the sculp-
tured crosses of Scotland were distinct from those in Ireland and Wales, &c., the
sculptures in Scotland almost invariably representing hunting scenes, &c., while those
in Ireland are drawn from the Bible—as the Temptation, the expulsion from Eden, &c.
The symbols of Scotland were mostly unknown elsewhere, nothing similar being found
in Britany, Ireland, or Northumberland, while the symbols of the Christian Church are
not local but general, and universally understood. And if the Scottish sculptures had
been Christian, we should have found them diffused over a wider sphere. ‘I'hen the
Scots who came from Ireland in the sixth century did not use them in their own country,
nor in Argyll, the country which they colonized; so that we must suppose the symbols
to be the work of the Pictish people, in whose country, with two exceptions, they
occur,—one in Galloway, the other discovered by the author’s friend Mr. Robertson, in
Prince’s Street Gardens, Edinburgh. These Picts are spoken of in the third century
by Roman authors, when the term Caledonii is given up, and we find them historically
in possession of the country till they were overcome by the Scots in the ninth century.
There were two nations, the north and south, the former converted by Ninian, the
latter by Columba, in the latter part of the sixth century. Much as we hear of their
mutual warfare and conflicts with their neighbours from the Irish chroniclers, we yet
gather from the venerable Bede some facts which show considerable progress in arts.
Biscop,abbot of Yarrow, founded, about 673, a monastery at Wearmouth. He had been
at Rome, in company with Wilfrid, about twenty years before, and they both imbibed
a taste for Roman architecture, which they afterwards strove to diffuse in their own
country. Biscop brought home masons to make him a stone church, after the man-

200 REPORT—1859.

ner of the Romans, in place of the more perishable structure of wood. About the year
710, Nechtan, king of the Picts, sent messengers to Coedfrid, the successor of Biscop,
to ask for information as to the correct time of celebrating Easter, then a mooted point
between the Anglo-Saxon and Scottish churches. The stones occur, then, in the land
of the Picts, whoever they were. They are probably the work of their hands; and it
is not a violent conjecture to suppose that they mark the period of transition from
heathenism to Christianity. If we regard these sculptures as the earliest works of art,
and the expression of the ideas of the early inhabitants of Scotland, they must be
regarded with great interest. But increased research and more rigid classification
may yet draw new and unexpected deductions from them. One great desideratum
would be, to have systematic diggings about these pillars, and to preserve the skulls
and other remains which may be found in doing so. The time for theorizing from the
mere shape and appearance of those monuments, such as those at Carnac in Britany,
and our own Stonehenge and Avebury, is quite gone by, and wherever the pick-axe has
been used, as it is now in the course of being done in Britany, the result presents us
with some, and the first reliable data for any conclusion on the subject, If this agent
is judiciously applied to the various classes of our Scottish antiquities which yet remain
to us, we may hope to obtain some sure footing for investigating the history of the
early inhabitants of our country.

Rapid Communication between the Atlantic and the Pacific, via British North
America. By Major Syncz, F.R.G.S.

STATISTICAL SCIENCE.

Introductory Address by Colonel Syxes, M.P., F.R.S.,
President of the Section.

Tue President opened the meeting in a brief address. He said he had been a
member of this Section from its commencement, and had been a pretty constant
attender—in fact, was one of its founders. The rules of the Section are rigid. No
paper is allowed to go before the public that has not been referred to a member of
Committee and approved by him, and by the Committee of the Section. The ob-
ject of this is to ensure the absence of points in religion and politics, always liable
to excite bad feeling, or likely to do so. He had therefore little to say, as no
one had had the power to question the statements he might make. However, he
might safely give a few facts that could not be questioned. The object of the Sec-
tion was to obtain the condition of facts, expressible in numbers chiefly. Then it
rests with those who produce the facts, or others, to draw their deductions from
them. Statistics were so valuable, that there could be no safe legislation without
them; but they might be turned to disastrous account, so as to become a snare, and
to lead to ridicule. He cautioned them to beware of drawing deductions from a
period of time less than seven years, and also of generalizing from local facts, even
when applicable to a long period.

On the Arts of Camp Life. By Colonel Sir J. ALexanper, F.R.G.S,

On the Manufactures and Trade of Aberdeen. By G. B. BoTHweEtt.

He traced the history and progress of the manufactures and trade of this city
from avery early period. ‘The manufactures consisted principally of coarse-woollens
and stockings, which were exported to Campvere and Dantzic, and so extensive
were these exports in the seventeenth century, that Sir Patrick Drummond, Conser-
vator of Holland, often remarked that “Scotland was more obliged to the town of
Aberdeen for returns in money for its trade, than to all the other towns in the
kingdom.” At this period the exportation of salmon was also very great. In
favourable seasons upwards of 1400 barrels of 250 lbs. each have left the harbour.

The Woollen Trade is still extensively carried on, but circumstances, which it is

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 201

needless to mention, have prevented some of our manufacturers from supplying the
details necessary for showing its extent. I may mention, however, that Messrs.
Alexander Hadden and Sons employ about 1200 males and females, besides giving
partial employment to a very great number of women over a large area of the
neighbouring country by giving out worsted to be knitted into hose, There is one
department of the woollen trade which of late years has been very largely extended
in this city—I mean the winsey manufacture. So far as I have been able to ascer-
tain, there are about 400 looms employed in this department alone. Each loom will
turn out about forty yards weekly, and the weaver will receive 31d. per yard on an
average. Expert workmen, when inclined, will make double the above—but these
are exceptional. It thus appears that the annual produce of these looms is upwards
of 800,000 yards, while the wages paid to the weavers amount to about £235
weekly,

The Cotton Manufacture, embracing the spinning, weaving, bleaching, and print-
ing, was extensively carried on here for many years; but the only cotton-spinning
establishment now in Aberdeen is that of Bannermill, belonging to Messrs. Robin-
son, Crum and Co. The number of male th employed by them is
sixty-six, and the average wages 12s, 7d. per week. ‘The number of female workers
‘is 579, and the average wages 4s. 43d. per week. Their finer yarns are princi-
pally sent to India, whilst, to a small extent, Germany consumes their coarser sorts.

Perhaps there is no better example of the astonishing power of machinery than
Bannermill affords, It is only about eight years since it was purchased by Messrs.
Robinson, Crum and Co. When in the hands of the previous owners, the quantity
of cotton spun was about 1,117,000 lbs. yearly ; whereas the first year after it was
in the hands of the present owners, the quantity was increased by 112,459; and
last year, by an increase of only four male and five female workers, the quantity was
increased by 320,570; and the year ending July last, the increase—almost solely by
additional machinery—was no less than 599,000, or an increase of more than one-
* the quantity manufactured by the former owners with about the same number
of hands.

The Linen Manufacture—During the latter half of last century several exten-
sive linen manufactories were established. The only one now existing was esta-
blished by the late Mr. Maberley, and now belongs to Messrs. Richards and Co., of
London, with the Rubislaw Bleach-field.

The number of male work-people employed at these works is about 622, with
wages varying from 4s. to 8s. for boys, and rising to 21s. and 28s, with age and
experience.

he number of female workers is about 1614, with wages varying from 3s. 6d. to
4s, Gd. to the younger girls, and rising to 7s. 6d. and 8s., and a few as high as Qs.

The quantity of flax, tow, and jute manufactured weekly, is about 50 tons, or
2500 tons yearly.

Besides manufacturing large quantities of yarns for exportation to Spain, Italy,
Germany, and Denmark, they manufacture linens of all kinds, especially the
heaviest or common Scotch classes, such as canvas, household linens, &c. These
are exported to all parts of the world, the chief markets being North and South
America, the West Indies, and Denmark. They frequently undertake Government
contracts for linens for the army and navy.

Lhe Tape-work.—The manufacture of tape has been carried on here for many
years by Messrs. Milne, Low and Co. They employ upwards of 100 work-people,
chiefly females, and the wages vary from 4s. to 18s. weekly. The quantity made
approaches to 20,000,000 ‘bees yearly, and the home and colonial markets are prin-
cipally supplied by the Aberdeen manufactory.

The Paper Manufacture.—The extensive paper-works at Stoneywood, carried on
by Messrs. Alexander Pirie and Sons, were established nearly 100 years ago. Till
the year 1848, they confined themselves almost solely to the manufacture of printing
paper; and the quantity of raw material used was from 650 to 700 tons yearly,
while the number of male work-people was from seventy to eighty, at wages varying
from 11s. to 18s. weekly; and the number of females was about 100, with wages
varying from 5s. to 7s. In 1848, however, they enlarged their works to a very great
extent, or rather, I should say, they rebuilt them upon a much more extended scale ;
and they now are principally engaged in the manufacture of writing-papers, They

202 REPORT—1859.

use about 2500 tons of rags yearly, a great part of which is brought from Germany.
The number of males is increased to about 300, with wages at from 14s. to 21s. ;
and the females now number from 700 to 800, with wages from 5s. 6d. to 8s, weekly.

Besides the home trade, they largely supply America, Australia, and India.

They were the first to introduce the manufacture of envelopes into the North of
Scotland; and, by the aid of machinery, they can now make 3,000,000 envelopes
weekly.

he edly disadvantage they lie under is the expense of coals; but, on the other
hand, they possess an abundant supply of pure water from the Don, which, in the
manufacture of paper, must be of vast consequence.

An extensive manufacture of wrapping-paper is carried on in the same neighbour-
hood by Messrs. Charles Davidson and Bots :

Comb Manufacture.—As a very full and interesting account of the Aberdeen
Comb Works appeared a few years ago in ‘ Chambers’s Edinburgh Journal’ (No. 396,
New Series, Aug. 2, 1851), it will not be necessary for me to do more than give the
statistics of the works of Mr. Stewart (formerly Messrs. Stewart and Rowell). These
works were established about the year 1830, and have been conducted on a very
extensive scale since that period. Not only was steam-power first employed here,
but the division of labour, and many important improvements and inventions were
brought into successful operation by the energetic il a The materials em-
ployed in the manufacture of combs are tortoiseshell, horns, and hoofs.

As a curious illustration of the value of labour, we give the following comparative
estimate of the produce of the three materials :—

Increase per

cent.
1 cwt. shell, val. £200, produces combs, val. £275........ 873
1 ton horns, ,, 56, ,, 7 Hp 7 L605 oe ie 168
1 ton hoofs ,, Ba 3 3 36% cece! 200

Regarded in this aspect, in the relation of labour to material, we find that hoofs
—intrinsically the least valuable of the three materials—become, with the appli-
cation of labour, the most valuable, that is, proportionally ; and the converse holds
good in the case of tortoiseshell.

I may add that tortoiseshell has fallen in price considerably since the above table
was drawn up, but the proportion between the original value and the labour remains
about the same.

The different kinds and sizes of combs amount to between 2500 and 5000, and
“the aggregate number produced of all these different sorts averages upwards of
1200 gross weekly, or about 9,000,000 annually—a quantity, that, if laid together
lengthways, would extend to 700 miles.”

The annual consumption of ox-horns is about 730,000, being considerably more
than half the imports a few years ago. The annual consumption of hoofs amounts
to about 4,000,000. The consumption of tortoiseshell and buftalo-horns, although
not so large, is correspondingly valuable. Even the waste, composed of horn-
shavings and parings of hoofs, which, from its nitrogenized composition, becomes a
valuable material in the composition of prussiate of potash, amounts to 850 tons in
the year; and finally, as the crowning illustration of the enormous extent of these
comb-works, the very paper for packing costs £600 a year.

The following may be given as an example of the extraordinary reduction in the
cost of combs effected by the power of machinery and the division of labour :—
Side-combs are sold retail at 1d. per pair—an article, that, in its progress from the
hoof to the comb, undergoes eleven distinct operations. This comb, then, which,
thirty years ago, was sold to the trade at 3s. 6d. per dozen, can now be purchased,
in the same way, for 2s. 6d. per gross! thus effecting a reduction in price of about
1600 per cent.

There are employed at these works about 500 men and boys, and 200 females—
in all 700, or about four times the number employed in the comb-trade in all Scot-
land when the business was commenced.

The wages vary from 18s. to 25s. for men; boys and apprentices from 3s, to 4s.,
and 10s, to 12s.; girls, from 4s. to 9s. :
The comb-workers, some years ago, were noted for their dissipated habits, but it

TRANSAOTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 203

is gratifying to learn that a great improvement has been effected in this respect,
and they are now, in general, as well-behaved as the other working-classes of the
city. This change speaks much for the success of Mr. Stewart's efforts in behalf of
the moral and physical improvement of his work-people.

The comb-manufacture is also carried on with great spirit and success by Messrs.
John M‘Pherson and Co. They employ from 170 to 200 male work-people, and from
50 to 60 females.

“i rH quantity of raw materials used annually is about 350,000 horns, and 700,000
oofs.

I may add, that the change in fashion—the mode in which ladies dress their hair
—has of late materially affected the comb trade, and its extent is not nearly so
Se as it was a few years ago. The next change of fashion, it is to be hoped, may

ring about a revival in this important trade.

Quill Manufacture.—Considering the almost universal use of metallic pens, it is
surprising to find that the manufacture and sale of quills continue to be about as
great as ever. Indeed, the progress of education, and perhaps more than anything
else, the introduction of the penny postage, have caused such an increased use of
the pen, that, had not metallic substitutes been adopted, all the geese in the world
could not have supplied the demand. The Aberdeen Quill Manufactory is the only
one of any extent in Scotland. It was established about forty years ago. Several
millions of swan, goose, and crow quills are annually manufactured; and, besides
supplying the home market, they are largely exported to India, America, and the
Botaiee The countries from which the raw material is imported are Russia,
England, and Ireland; and the price continues to be about the same as before the
introduction of the steel pen.

Harbour and Railway.—Perhaps there is no better criterion for showing the pro-
gress of the trade of the city than by a statement of the shore and harbour dues
on goods and shipping during the last fifty years. These amounted in

Pa Se B A POAie) ARE ee Ae ie £17,069
Oo | ee WACO st 15,127
eae eas 6 aes Ws Te a see 19,036
FE ge lag aae 15,516

From these figures it will be seen that a gradual increase has taken place in the
Shore and Harbour Dues since 1810, with the exception of the year 1851, when a
reduction of about £2000 took place. This is explained by the circumstance that
the South Railway was opened, and had been in full operation during the whole of
that year. But it is gratifying to find that the revenue of the harbour is now
about as high as it ever has been—thus showing that during the last eight years
the trade of the city has been increased by about the whole of the railway traftic.

Shipping.—This subject will, I trust, be taken up separately, as it is one that
deserves to be fully illustrated, seeing that the fame of the Aberdeen “clipper bow,”
and the high character of the Aberdeen ship-builders have been spread to all quar-
ters of the world.

I shall therefore confine myself to a statement of the progressive increase of the
ships belonging to the port :—

Average Tonnage
Years. Vessels. Tons. of each ship.
1656 wi 9 9 eter ae 440 aaa 49
1760 Soe 45 csi 2,455 aaa 542
1800 Meiers 270 aisle 21,215 SC 783
1840 ers 192 5 chic 82,361 ine 168
1850 Stig: 252 Adel 53,129 BOO. 210

1858 oh) scacrits CLOUT. ok 275

From this statement it will be observed that, while the number of ships since
1800 has slightly decreased, the tonnage has been more than tripled. In 1800, the
average size of each ship was only 78% tons, whereas the average is now 273 tons;
while the whole tonnage of the port in 1800 was only 21,215, it is now 71,000,

Since the year 1810, when the principal improvements on our harbour com-
menced, there has been expended upon it about £600,000.

204 REPORT—1859.

Imports and Exports.—The imports show also a considerable increase. The fol-
lowing are the quantities of coals in bolls of 53 cwt. each :—

1840. 1850. 1858.
English........ 403,532 .... 421,844 .... 444,811
Scotch ....e.e. 66,238 .... 94,552 .... 82,971
469,77 516,896 527,782

And during the last year there were brought by railway 18,298 tons of Scotch coals
Timber.—The quantities of timber in loads of fifty cubic feet each were as follow:—

1840. 1850. 1858.

American ...... 4,976 .... BalSie ones 6,494
European ...... 5,149 .... 5, 280% geet: 4,912
10,125 10,426 11,406

I may here mention that the exports of our home timber has so much increased
as to exceed considerably our imports.
1840. 1850. 1858.
Lipads apie Large B44 ay. +) 10,827 oe at hg le, Bee
It was after 1840 that our great forests began to be cut down, and the demand
for pit-props and railway sleepers has added much to the value of our home timber.
Wheat.—The number of quarters of wheat imported was

1840. 1850. 1858.

14,841 27,003 31,446
Oats, Barley, §c.—While our exports of oats, &c. were in

1840. 1850. 1858.

45,675 48,566 76,158

thus showing that we export more than double the quantity of grain than we
import. Besides the following quantities of meal, in bolls of 140 Ibs :—
Meal :—

1840. 1850. 1858.

18,873 70,188 69,652 bolls.
Iron,—The imports of iron were as follows :—

1840, 1850. 1858.

4734 4300 9116 tons.
Cattle, §c.—The number of cattle exported by sea was in

1840. 1850. 1858.

6422 9940 5652

In the same year, 1858, there were sent by railway 13,674; so that last year the
whole cattle sent from this quarter principally to the London market, was 19,326,
besides dead meat amounting to 5226 tons. The number of sheep and lambs ex-
ported last year by sea and railway, was upwards of 15,000, and the value of the
whole cattle, alive and dead, sent from this quarter, cannot be less than from
£500,000 to £600,000 annually.

I may here mention that the whole imports and exports of the Scottish North-
eastern Railway for the year ending 31st August 1858, were,

Imports. Exports.
28,203 26,567 tons,
besides coal and live stock, which are mentioned above.

Granite.—The subject of our celebrated granite, in all its departments—quarrying,
building, causewaying, and polishing—is to form the subject of a separate paper by
Mr. Gibb, a gentleman in every way qualified to do it justice. I shall therefore
merely mention the exports for

1840, 1850. 1858.
25,557 30,385 32,422 tons.

These were principally causeway-stones for London; and I may add that the

average value laid down in London is about 20s, per ton, of which 6s. may be stated

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 205

as freight, 2s. as cartage from the quarries to the harbour, and the remainder (12s.) as
wages of quarrymen and rent of quarries.

‘almon.—The only other subject I have time to mention is our Salmon Trade ;
and I trust that some one connected with the fishing may be induced to give a
paper upon it. It is one of deep interest and importance. I regret that I cannot
give even a complete statement of the exports, as the Railway does not keep a
separate return of the number of boxes sent by them. The harbour affords the
fdllowing in barrel bulk of 112 lbs. each :—

1840. 1850. 1858.
8067 6295 581

This last year is far from being complete, owing to a large quantity having been
sent by railway of which no return can be obtained. But still it is obvious that
this valuable fish is deserting our coasts and rivers, as centuries ago we exported in
some years a much larger quantity than we now export; and in 1816, which
was afavourable year, no less than 15,000 boxes, containing each about 100 lbs., left
the harbour. It was the opinion of the late Sir Walter Scott that our agricultural
and commercial improvements would gradually tend to drive them from our shores.

On the Progress of Public Opinion with respect to the Evils produced by the
Traffic in Intowicating Drink, as at present regulated by Law. By the
Rev. W. Caine, A.M.

He advocated the Permissive Bill, which proposed to give the power to suppress
the traffic if two-thirds of the community were in itsfavour. Canvasses had been
made in the various towns of England, Iveland, and Scotland, with the most fa-
vourable results to the object advocated. The lower classes manifested the greatest
interest in this matter, and evidently showed their anxiety to be freed from the
temptations by which they were surrounded. At the districts which have been
canvassed, it has been found that the poor are in favour, while the rich oppose it.
Various towns have been canvassed, such as—

Huddersfield in favour, 387 Parliamentary Voters ; 609 Municipal Voters.
Grimsby do. 252 do. 500 do.
Carlisle do. 222 do. 858 do.

The municipal electors, were they to do their duty, might have considerable
er at the elections in using their influence in favour of the Permissive Bill.
he liquor traffic has been brought before the public during the last few years in
many ways—the Permissive Bill of the United Kingdom Alliance receiving great
ane ; and the audiences have ever given their decided approval of the Bill :
000 ministers in Britain have signed a document, deploring the traffic in intoxi-
cating drinks, and recommending all clergymen to use all legitimate means to obtain
the suppression of the traffic,

On the Effects of the recent Gold Discoveries. By J. Crawrurp, F.R.S.

On the Effects of the Influx of the Precious Metals which followed the
Discovery of America. By J. Crawrurp, F.RS.

The scope of Mr. Crawfurd’s paper went to show that the depreciation in the
value of the precious metals consequent on their influx after the discovery of the
American mines, and the enhancement in the price of all the commodities they
represented, so often insisted on by public writers, really never took place, any more
than has the gold of California and Australia in our own times. He quoted, for

this purpose, the prices of several articles which are even now the same as before
the discovery of America.

On the Social and Economical Influence of the new Gold.
By Henry Fawcett, M.A., Trinity Hall, Cambridge.
It is very important to arrive at some definite opinions on a subject which has
been so much confused. The new gold has produced three series of effects,

206 REPORT—1859,

1st. The quantity of the substance which has generally been adopted as the
medium of exchange has been augmented.

2ndly, The new gold has influenced the wealth and the social condition of the
countries in which it has been discovered.

3rdly. Great Britain has been affected by this change in the condition of one
of her colonies.

When it was found in 1851 that Australia and California would annually supply
nearly £30,000,000 of gold, or, in other words, at least four times as much as ait the
gold mines in the world had yielded before, it was supposed that gold would rapidly
decline in value to the extent of at least 25 per cent. The best authorities now agree
that this decline has not as yet occurred. I will in the first place state the reasons
which justify this supposition, and then explain in what manner the increased gold
has been absorbed and its value been maintained. An inductive proof of a change
in the value of gold requires data which cannot be obtained; for a comparison of
general prices during the last ten years will afford no proof. Thus wheat is cheaper
now than then. The value of gold, compared with wheat, has risen; but how
erroneous would it be thence to conclude that its general value had risen! Wheat
has declined in price because it can be imported cheaply from other countries. On
the other hand, the price of meat and dairy produce has of late much increased.
This rise in price we know is partly due to the increasing wants of an advancin,
poe and especially to the increased consumption of a more numerous an

etter paid labouring class; but still we cannot say that the rise in the price of such
produce has not been augmented by a fall in the general value of gold. Manifestly
such comparisons avail nothing. The price of silver will afford the most important
evidence. Silver and gold have been adopted as the general media of exchange,
because they are liable to little change in their value. The value of these metals,
like agricultural produce, is determined by the cost of obtaining them under the
most unfavourable circumstances. Therefore their value is not altered, unless the
current rate of profit in a country falls, and renders it profitable to work worse mines
than those already worked; or, on the other hand, rises, and renders it no longer

rofitable to work these worse mines. Where commodities are employed in in-

ustrial occupations, the demand is variable; their value depends upon the demand;
and this value constantly tends to obtain that position of stable equilibrium, when
the supply equals the demand. But the quantity of gold and silver which is used
for industrial purposes is very insignificant; and when a substance is used merely
asamedium of exchange, the demand is always exactly equal to the supply, and the
aggregate supply determining the value, and the value in a crossway regulating the
supply, because the supply must give such a value as will cause the current rate
of profit to be obtained in the worst mines. If, therefore, within the last ten years no
new silver mines have been discovered, and the worse mines which were then worked
are worked now, it affords strong evidence that nothing has occurred to affect the
value of silver. As therefore the value of silver has remained stationary, if gold
has declined in value 25 per cent., silver estimated in gold would have increased
25 per cent. in price. But it has not increased more than 2 percent. This, I
believe, affords the strongest evidence which can be obtained that the general value
of gold has not yet declined. For some years up to 1840, our exports and imports
had steadily increased. About that time the progress seemed to have ceased; for
from 1840 to 1846, our exports remained at the stationary point of about £50,000,000

erannum. The fettered energy of the country seemed to have achieved its utmost.

ree trade, and the repeal of the navigation laws, unloosed these fetters, and then
the country started on a career of the most extraordinary progress. Our exports in
nine years adyanced from £50,000,000 to £115,000,000. In 1847, 475,000,000 pounds
of cotton were imported ; in 1856, more than 1000,000,000 pounds, This increased
commerce stimulates the accumulation of capital, the wage-fund of the country is
augmented, and wages, especially in the manufacturing districts, obtain a very de-
cided rise. Free trade also cheapens many of the prime necessaries of life, and much
more can therefore be spared for luxuries. No luxury is more prized by the poor than
tea, and hence we find that while only 50,000,000 pounds of tea were imported in
1850, 86,000,000 pounds were imported in 1856. In Europe, during the last few
years, there has been a great failure of the silk crop. China has been resorted to; and
thus while only 1,700,000 pounds of silk were imported in 1850, more than 4,000,000

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 207

pounds were imported in each of the years 1854, 1855, The plodding industry of
the Chinese enables them to supply this increased tea and silk; but surrounded with
all the prejudices which have resulted from an isolation of 2000 years, we can
induce them to take no useful commodities in return. They will be paid in silver,
and we are thus obliged, in order to adjust the balance of trade, annually to export
to the East £14,000,000 of silver. The silver coinage of France has to a great extent
supplied this silver. £45,000,000 have been thus abstracted from her silver coinage
in six years, from 1852-58. Gold has supplied its place. The absorption of so much
gold in this ways has induced M. Chevalier, in his work on money, so admirably
translated by Mr. Cobden, to describe France as a parachute, which has retarded
the fall in the value of gold. France has supplied so much silyer—

Ist. Because of the large amount of silver coinage she formerly possessed ; and

2ndly. Because, unlike us, she has a double standard.

Any slight variation in the fixed relative values of these two metals, will induce all
payments to be made in one of these metals alone. Every extension of credit enables
acertain amount of the circulating medium to be dispensed with; and it is probable
that our vastly increased commerce and trade has required little, if any greater
quantity of the circulating medium for all those transactions which may be de-
scribed as wholesale ; but, as I have before observed, a great increase of the national
capital must have accompanied this commercial progress. The wage-fund is a
component part of this capital, Wages are almost always paid in coin, This
points to another way in which much of the new gold has been absorbed. The
possibility of accounting for the absorption of the new supplies of gold, confirms the
opinion that its value has not declined, But the fact that there has been no re-
duction, proves that gold would have greatly risen in value had not these supplies
been forthcoming. The rise, too, would have been sudden, and therefore most
serious. The conditions of every monied contract would be altered, the National
Debt would be a more severe burden, and the extension of our commerce with the
East would meet with the most difficult obstacle.

When feudal Europe ripened into commercial Europe, the gold of America was
discovered; and now that free trade has inaugurated a new social and commercial
era, the gold of Australia and California is ready at hand to aid the progress.

M. Cheyalier asserts that henceforth the value of gold will rapidly decline at
least 50 percent. I regard this as a much too confident prophecy. The wage-fund
of most countries is increasing, in some cases most aly. This will absorb a
great deal of gold. Our commerce with the East is so anomalous, that prophecies
seem to me to be useless. Every year there is a constantly greater quantity of
Eastern produce required, and therefore this increased commerce will very soon
absorb, instead of 14,000,000 of specie, £20,000,000, unless some great change in
the habits of the Chinese induces them to consume more European commodities,
On such a point who will hazard a prediction? Thus in a few years the East
will absorb all the silver of the West. Shall we then be able to induce the Chinese
to take gold as readily as they do now silver? There is another consideration
which seems to me to be not sufficiently noticed, A change in the value of gold
always generates a counteracting force, whose tendency is to restore the metal to
its former value. Thus, suppose the supplies of gold continue to be the same as
they are now, and that after a certain time gold declines in value. Gold-digging
is not, I may say cannot be, more profitable than other employments. Directly a
decline in the value of gold takes place, gold-digging will to many become less
profitable than other labour, They will therefore cease to dig; this will diminish
the aggregate supply of gold, and this diminution will tend to restore its value, I
will now eon to explain in what way the gold discoveries have assisted the
advance of Australia. Production has three requisites :—

1st. Appropriate natural agents,

2ndly. Labour to develope the resources of nature.

8rdly. This labour must be sustained by the results of previous labour, in other
words, by capital.

Long previous to 1848 the great natural resources of Australia were known, her
yast tracts of fertile land had been explored, and her climate had been pronounced
healthy. ‘There was an overplus of labour in this country, and there was also much
capital which would haye heen at once accumulated had an eligible investment pre-

208 REPORT—1859.

sented itself. Little labour and capital were, however, applied in Australia, and
her advance was slow. We know the discovery of gold changed all this; let us,
then, seek the secret of the change. Previous to the gold discoveries, the chief
field for the investment of capital was agriculture. In a young country farming
operations meet with many obstacles. The stock and implements are expensive,
no steady supply of labour can be ensured ; and without the investment of a great
deal of capital in roads, and other such works, produce can with difficulty be brought
to market, and when brought, the demand is uncertain. The same remarks apply
to manufactures, and also to general mining operations; for lead, copper, and iron
mines require most expensive machinery, and a large cooperation of labour. This
explains the usual slow progress of colonies, even when they offer the greatest in-
dustrial advantages. But as soon as it was heard that the gold was spread over
a large breadth of the Australian continent, thousands flocked to share the spoil.
They only took the simplest tools, they needed no capital, but just, sufficient food
to support them while labouring ; and each one felt that he could work indepen-
dently, and risk nothing more than his labour and his passage-money. Australia

having thus suddenly obtained an abundance of manual labour, possessed two of _

the requisites of production ; the third, capital, was quickly supplied to her. The
savings of the gold-diggers formed a large capital, and English capital now flowed
in even too broad a stream, to supply the wants of this labouring population. Au-
stralia for a time suffered much inconvenience, because gold-digging absorbed all
her labour; not that more was earned in this pursuit than in others, but there is
a magic spell in the name of gold. Gold-digging has the excitement of a lottery,
and the chances of a lottery are always estimated at more than their true value.
After a time, other pursuits absorbed a due proportion of labour, and thus Australia
possessed every attribute of industrial success, and her future prosperity was
established.

About 1848, England was suffering from those ills which political economy
attributes to over-population. Wages were becoming lower, and increasing popula-
tion necessarily made food more expensive. Ireland had famine, and we had most
deplorable distress. I have mentioned that the discovery of gold acted more

owerfully than any other circumstance to induce a large emigration from Great
Britain, Any decrease in the number of those who seek employment must cause
arise of wages, but emigration from a country like our own, effects even a more
important advantage. I have before observed that the price of agricultural produce
at any time must be such as will enable the least fertile land which is cultivated,
to return the ordinary rate of profit. If, therefore, the wants of an advancing
population cause more land to be brought into cultivation, the food which is thus
raised involves a greater expenditure of labour and capital than that which was
before produced, and thus as population advances, food becomes dearer. In a
thickly peopled country, there are two obstacles to the material prosperity of the

oor :—

1st. The number of those competing for employment reduces wages.

2Qndly. Food rises in value as it becomes necessary to strain the resources of the
fertile land.

Emigration, therefore, has increased not only the monied wages, but the real
wages of our labourers. In some of our colonies, such as Canada, so little of the
fertile land has been cultivated, that for some time the greater the immigration is
to those parts, the more abundant will be the supply of cheap food which will be
exported to this country. Emigration, therefore, as it were, adds a tract of fertile
land to our own soil. Again, wages are remunerated from capital. The amount
saved, or, in other words, the capital which is accumulated, is regulated by the
returns which this capital will obtain. If ea is stationary, and capital
increases, wages will rise, and profits will fall; if, on the other hand, capital is
stationary, and population increases, the rate of profit will fall. Can we affirm any-
thing with certainty about the tendency of profits, when capital and population
both increase ? Any augmentation in the numbers of the labourers must exercise an
influence to reduce wages, and therefore to raise profits; but there is another con-
sideration. Ina thickly peopled country like Great Britain, the returns of the
Registrar-General plainly indicate that the rate of increase of population amongst the
labouring class is determined by the expense of living, for the number of marriages

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 209

invariably increases or decreases as food is cheap or dear. Such being the case, there
is always a portion of the labouring class whose wages are very little more than
sufficient to provide them with the necessaries of life. Such wages I will describe
as minimum wages. Since we have seen that an increasing population must always
have a tendency to make food dearer, these minimum wages must, from this cause,
have a constant tendency to rise. This acts as a counteracting force to reduce
‘profits. We can now attribute another important influence to emigration. It raises
wages by reducing the number of the labouring class; but since, as I have said, it
ade atract of fertile land to our own soil, it cheapens food, and since cheap food pre-
vents a reduction in the rate of profit, there will be a greater inducement to save.
The capital of the country will from this cause become augmented, and there will
be therefore a larger fund to be distributed amongst the wage-receiving population.
When emigration is thus considered, its vast social and economical importance can
be understood. Mr. J. S. Mill, who, more than any living person, has systematically
thought upon the modes to ameliorate the condition of the poor, emphatically insists
that it is necessary to make a great alteration in the condition of, at least, one genera-
tion, to lift one generation, as it were, into a different stage of material comfort.
He attributes little good to slight improvements in the material prosperity of the
poor, because, unless accompanied with a change in their social habits, the ad-
vantage is sure, as it were, to create its own destruction, by encouraging an increase
of population. It seems tome that there can be no agency so powerful as emigra-
tion to effect a great change in the material condition of the poor. I therefore
regard the discovery of gold to be of the utmost social value to Eneland; for it has
been so potent an agent to induce emigration, that it has caused Australia in ten
years to advance from a settlement and become a nation, with all the industrial
advantages of the oldest and most thriving commercial community.

On Popular Investments. By Sir Joun S. Fores, Bart., of Fettercairn.
The Savings’ Banks have produced a vast amount of benefit to the industrial
classes. In eleven years after 1817, when they became general, about thirteen
millions was received, and the sum deposited in them in 1857 exceeded thirty-five
millions for the British Islands. The largest number of depositors above 250,000,
held sums between £1 and £5, the total number of depositors being 1,341,752.

The average per head— £ s.d.
In England, £26, or forthe population ......,. 1150
In Scotland, 16 4s. ditto epiriehk, GACH RCRGE ME. Ae 2,
InTreland, 300 ditto neeedlenis. oe Te

The average of deposits in Scotland to the population is small as compared with
England ; but, besides the poverty of the country, this may be accounted for, with-
out any disparagement to its admitted economy, by the fact that the branches of
the common banks now established in every large village afford great facilities for
investment, and it probably in part proceeds from the intelligence of the people,
who seek for other sources of return for their capital.

It is remarked that the class of depositors is not generally what might be ex-
pected. In Scotland, domestic servants are generally the most numerous class,
with artisans, mechanics, and hand-loom weavers, while scarcely any of the mill-
workers deposit. In Glasgow and Edinburgh, and Aberdeen, the females exceed
the males in number. The rural classes do not largely avail themselves of these
institutions as compared with the inhabitants of the towns. In Perthshire there
are only £554 as against £7091. In Aberdeen the average to each depositor is a
little above £12. In 1847, the deposits in that bank amounted to £88,000, while
in November last it had risen to £191,731, in 22,744 accounts.

‘Though Assurance Offices were originally arranged for a class above the indus-
trial, the small premiums which their schemes require are perfectly adapted to the
smallest incomes. For example, the following satisfactory arrangements may be
made for the future at many respectable offices, any one of the objects being
secured by beginning at the age of twenty to pay ls. per week. Of course Qs. per
ae will secure double those sums in reversion, and 6d. per week one-half of

em.

1859. 14

210 REPORT—1859,

1, £150 will be paid to his family on his death.

2. 400 to himself, if he survives the age of 65.

3. 270to do. do, 60.

4, 130 to himself at 65, or his family, if he dies sooner,

5. 40 to £50 per annum, if he survives 65.

6. 20 do. and £75 to family, if he dies sooner.

How many young men at that age are wasting, nay, worse than bai spend-
ing, to the injury of their health, habits and reputation, 2s, 6d. per week, which
would secure to them £1000 at the age of sixty-five, or £115 per annum there
after during life, if the payment is persevered in with that object!

A similar scheme of deferred annuities is now proposed by the Government; to
be effected at any of the National Security Savings’ Banks, which, upon the pay-
ment of a sum of £2 2s, 2d. at the age of twenty, will secure a sum of £1 per
annum after the age of sixty-five, or be returned if he does not reach that age. If
not made returnable, the annuity may be secured by paying 18s. 6d. down, Ans
other pound a year may be insured by paying 19s, 6d. next year, and so on,

On the Agricultural Statistics of the County of Aberdeen.
By Artuur Harvey.

After describing the divisions, appearance, soil, climate, and extent of the county,
with its population and rental, exclusive of the towns, noticing the methods
of sigtouliies practised at the end of last century, when Sir John Sinclair
completed his statistical inquiry, and in 1811, when, under the direction of
the Board of Agriculture, Dr. Skene Keith completed his elaborate work, as
well as at the present period, the author proceeded to show that at the end of
last century the capital in stock and crop amounted to £1,212,821 15s., or equal
to £5 2s, 1d. per acre, with an area under Cultivation of 238,741 acres; that in
1811 the aggregate capital in stock and crop had reached £2,469,500, or equal to
£6 6s, 81d. per acre, with an area under cultivation of 389,556;4 acres; and in
1858, that the aggregate capital in stock, crop, &c., amounted to £4,542,269 4s. 10d.,
or equal to a gross produce per acre of £6 bs, 8d., with an area under cultivation
of 488,1831 acres, Accompanied by the annexed Tables, the following facts were
brought out :—

That since 1798 the rental of Aberdeen- s. d. £ s. d.
shire has increased from . . . . . « 188,683000 to 540,000 0 0
The Grain crop from ...... . . 486,74500 to 1,175,840 6 1
The Green cropfrom . .... .. - _31,20000 to 652,654 16 3
The Grass crop from . .... +... 17388700 to 510,345 2 6
Total . . . . £691,332 00 to £2,338,838 4 10

The live stock has increased from £521,489 15s, to £2,203,431, but, from the rise
in the rent of land, and the enormous expenses attaching to the prosecution of
agriculture, the gross produce per acre, under deduction of expenses, &c., only
shows a net return of 15s. 61d. sterling to the farmer. And as a proof of the ex-
tent of the cattle-trade from the county, statistics were given, showing that the
average number of “beasts” killed per week in the Aberdeen district was 700,
and of sheep 250, with, in 1858, the shipments by steam of cattle 5652, sheep
6622, pigs 1702, and by rail 13,674 cattle, with 5226 tons of dead meat.

Estimate of Annual Produce and Sales, Capital, Expenses, and Returns.

Annual Produce of Soil—Grain Crop ..........6654: £1,175,840 6 1
a Green Crop ...ccsscciseees 652,654 16 3
5 Grass and Pasture ...::. 510,848 2 6

£2,338,838 4 10
Annual Produce of Stock sold :—

34,172 Cattle (7 per 100 Ar. AGB IG Vicceuseass: £615,096 0 O
26,423 Sheep ....ciccccsssssvaseeveee 6 DOS. :..scvseces 34,349 18 0
Carried forward ......0 Mereaer engi £649,445 18 0

’s estimate in 1798,

cultural Products, per Sir John Sinclair

sri

that of Dr. Skene Keith in 1811, and at the present time in the County of Aberdeen,

BLE of Acreage and Values of the several A

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REPORT—1859,

212

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 213

Brought forward ...........s000e8 £649,445 18 0
HOM IRELONBOB).. opxeaces's~ as we oeeee at £30) osskies cas 30,000 0 0
Dairy Produce, 36,864 Cows...... = SAY iracessenten 147,456 0 0
Pigs £7250; Poultry, £9000; Wool, £7860 ...... 24,110 0 O
851,011 18 0
ARETOAUCS, GNNUALY © oc 5..6c.cscwacwecsdecvedavaneexeavesscsccuss £3,189,849 2 10
£6 10s. 8d. per Arable Acre.
For the fuller ascertaining of pasar invested, say -—
Annual Produce of Grain, Grass, and Green Crop 2,338,838 4 10
Ee PERE COCK cao ane scence ocosch catescsscdrtevencescens aeeeyts 0 0
£4,542,269 4 10
Add—Implements at 20s. House Furniture 10s. | 732,275 5 0
PROM ac. skssascassccsovesevscvessvevnsayedseuss 30s.
£5,274,544 9 10
pe neon ofoneyear’sRent £488,183 10 0
| eRe eee Pee 40,275 3 0
pais year’s Grass not payable...... 255,171 11 3
Harvesting Crop ........ssscceeeeeees 98,191 8 0
——————__ 881,821 12 3
and 2619 Horses, not Agricultural, at £ 20 0 0 52,380 0 Oat £
Probable Capital invested .........:csscpeeseesneeeenseeees £4,340,342 17 0
Expense of Production, §¢.
1. Keep of 76,412 Cattle—l, 2, and 3 years’ old,
P average of £7 .........4. ‘ bi eiceeese i EOSEAAD D0
5 36,864 Cows, at £7 ....c.cccecccuceceseenes 258,048 0 0
. 3i 808 Calves; ati£3 ics cccccasececdesaveees 95,424 0 0
——- 888,352 0 0
2. Keep of 20,801 Agricultural Horses on Grass at 50s. £52,002 10 0
“3 16,836 for Hay, at £3 ; 3965 at £2......... 58,338 0 0
» 16,836 for Grain, at £8 ; 3965 at £3 ...... 146,583 0 0
——_——_-———__ 256,923 10 0
3. Keep of Sheep, 105,691 Sheep on arable ground, at 3s. ............44. 15,853 13 O
Pigs, Poultry, GEG, : 5 APNG ae Tora sonst ns gsm sma cwicle ge RN Ooh s vce 7,000 0 O
4. Seed of Grain Crop ......seeeeceees £129,357 6 5
ee HG eon ORO .bsh.0 on. ca cass educsteerdassseeatbins 25,099 19 2
» Grass and Clover Seeds 45,918 4 0
—————_ 200,875 9 7
5. Rent, at 20s. per Imperial Acre ............s000ceeee £488,183 10 O
6. Rates, MOOT S AO Gale Es osee alates deterncs us savacssendereas 40,275 3 0
——_——._ 528,458 13 0
7. Money—Wages of Servants, Day Labourers, and Harvest hands,
11s. 10d. per Imperial Acre. Food for Servants and Hare | 414,955 19 6
RUS AST EAS AC. cc sou checvecetsee sets sancs tee cesvonn teas sesuevervearneess 17s
8. Extraneous Manure:—
O,000 tons lame, at LSS. fificc. cc cvcccacascavcans £7,650 0 O
10,000 tons Bones, of all sorts, dissolved, &c. £7 70,000 0 O
8,000 tons Guano, at £14 ....... eee ee cee eees 112,000 0 O
Other Manures (Towns and Villages), &c....... 6,000 0 0
—__—_———-__ 195,650 0 O
Pe oem aio Nickey. Orlogko, cc: ....cvessacers+éose tis escnses cues 15,000 0 0
pairs to and keeping up of Implements, Machines and Har-
ay Toe gh Furniture, ke, 23d. ay Clits) cesaas iek= aasasyn ee enss } A276 9" 0
enses of Men and Horses on co ike
ap: an Statute Labour Roads .........0...... pf 228848 0 0
penses of Farmers to Markets, Custom, 26
Markets each, 7348 Occupants, at 3s.......... } 28,650 0 0
— 52,000 0 0

214 REPORT—1859.

13. Fuel, Coals, &e. ro) —alalaugpleses snaeseadesgucs tinted ace hs scabeeeaete. 27,121 0 0
14. Deterioration on 10, orses employed in 2
Agriculture, at 30s. each ...........eeee eens 416,041 0 0
Loss on Live Stock by death 1 per cent .......... 20,282 2 0
—_-——_-——_. 36,323 2 0

£2,688,289 7 1
15. Allowance for oversight, Farmers’ wives and
themselves, nothing being charged for them, £122,045 17 6

OS, PONACLE wat ose sv ay dade esate eae:
———_————__ 122,045 17 6
Mippal WE PENCIGULE ..cs.acecnerco.sneseesecs--maeeerees £2,810,38385 4 7
16. Interest on Capital, £4,340,342 17s, 7d., at 5 per cent. per annum 217,017 2 10

£3,027,352 7 5

Balance to provide for Extras and Accumulation ................006+ 162,496 15 5
£3,189,849 2 10
Gross Produce, per Acre ............0c.06- £610 8
Expenses, per ACre.....-........-iceonser'eess 515 14
Nett—Return, per Aore..1/0.....0+00:1610s £015 64

Nore.—Straw not charged, because returned in manure, £286,045 19s. 4d.

On some Results of the Society of Arts’ Examinations.
By J. Pore Hewnessy, M.P., F.GS.

The author divided the subject into scholastic examinations and institutional
examinations. The former include such examinations as those so. successfully
undertaken by the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, for the middle classes,
and the latter were those conducted by the Society of Arts for the artisan or working
class, There was no competition whatever between these two systems. They
formed, in fact, one comprehensive scheme, each system supplying the wants of its
own particular class. The advantages of the examination of the Society of Arts
had already been experienced in—

Aberdeen. Bury. Liverpool. Selby.
Ashbourne. Canterbury. Lockwood. Sheerness.
Ashbourne. Carlisle. London. Sheffield.
Ashford. Carshalton. Longton. Skipton.
Bacup. Chelmsford. Louth. Slough.
Banbury. Dover. Lymington. Wakefield.
Basingstoke. Frome. Lynn (King’s). Warminster.
Bedford. Glasgow. Macclesfield. Waterford.
Belfast. Greenwich. Manchester, M.I. Wigan.
Berkhampstead, Halifax. Middlesborough. | Windsor.
Birmingham. Hanley “ Potteries.” Neath. Wirksworth.
Blackburn. Hartlepool. Newcastle-on-Tyne. York,
Blandford. Hitchin. Northowram.
Bradford, Yorks. Holbeck. Paisley.
Brighton. Holmfirth. Pembroke Dock.
Bristol. Ipswich. Portsmouth.
Bucks. and Berks. Leeds. Richmond (Surrey).

Lecturers’ Asso- Leicester. Salford.

ciation. Lewes. Salisbury.

Such a large and widely-distributed list of local Boards was an evidence of un-
equivocal success. On looking to the results of the final examination which had
taken place some months ago, and comparing these results with the operations of
the preceding year, it will be seen that the number of candidates has very much

increased. The following Table exhibits this comparative position of the results

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

for 1858 and 1859 :—

eee

215

jis. of Cont a pla, of Canals q|| No. of Papers |\No. of Ist Olass)|No. of 2nd Class
B ike Final Fin al Eoami- worked at Final|| Certificates Certificates
xa = oe Ane 2 Examination. awarded. awarded,
1858. 1859. || 1858. | 1859. || 1858. | 1859. || 1858, | 1859. || 1858. | 1859.
ass | 480 || 197 | 368 || 616 | lee || 53 | 78 || 182 | 154
No. of 3rd Class|| No. of Prizes || No. of Prizes | No. of Prizes || No. of Unsuc-
Certificates: awarded to awarded to awarded to cessful Candi-
awarded. Candidates. || Local Boards. || Institutions. dates.
1858, | 1859. || 1858. | 1859. || 1858. | 1859. 1858. | 1859. |) 1858. | 1859.
176 | 308 25 28 2 4 16 % 79 112

The ages of these Candidates varied from 16 to 47, The following Table has
been compiled from the return papers of 525 candidates, 480 of whom underwent
the final examination :—

No. of No. of No. of No. of

Age. |Oandi-|) Age. |Candi-|} Age. |Candi-|| Age. | Candi-

dates dates. dates. dates.
16 52 23 23 30 9 387 2
17 68 24 16 31 6 38 1
18 77 25 21 32 5 39 3
19 64. 26 11 33 6 41 1
20 54. 27 4 34 1 43 1
21 44 28 6 85 1 44 1
22 36 29 8 36 2 47 2

The return paper also exhibited the number of years the various candidates had
spent at school. It appeared from this important portion of the returns that a
prolonged period of school life was by no means the most satisfactory indication of
educational progress. Many candidates had not only obtained first-class certificates,
but had eyen carried away prizes, whose school attendance was far below the
average; and, on the whole, it would appear that the instruction afforded hy Me-
chanics’ Institutes, and other educational agencies, subsequent to the school period,
was equally valuable, if not more so, than that usually given during the last few
years of school life. If we could get young workmen to avail themselves of this
secondary education, there could be little doubt but that a short period of ele-
mentary school attendance would not be so serious an evil as was generally sup-
posed. "Even with the present imperfect condition of Mechanics’ Institutes, the re-
sults of the Society of Arts’ Examination supplied ample evidence to prove, at least,
this important fact, that we should not attempt to estimate the educational position
of the working-classes merely by looking to the census returns, or to the official
reports on school attendance. Hitherto we had no opportunity of ascertaining what
effect Mechanics’ Institutes produced. Although our present information was not as
extensive as could be wiih it was sufficient to indicate the great value of institu-
tional instruction.

On Decimal Coinage. By R. L, Jounson,

216 REPORT—1859.

On some Questions relating to the Incidence of Taxation.
By J. Pore Hennessy, M.P., F.G.S.

Statistical Account of the Whale and Seal Fisheries of Greenland and Davis
Straits, carried on by Vessels from Peterhead, N.B., from 1788 to 1858, a
period of 71 years. By Tuomas LAwRANCE.

The Greenland Whale Fishery began in 1788; a vessel called the ‘Robert,’
of 169 tons register, sailed from the port in the spring of that year, and continued
its solitary voyages until 1801, when it was sold. The ‘Hope,’ of 240 tons, fol-
lowed, and was joined by the ‘ Enterprise,’ of 299 tons, in 1804, and by a vessel
called the ‘ Active,’ of 308 tons, in 1810. They continued to increase from year
to year; and in 1821 the whale fishery of Davis Straits was attempted, as well as
that of Greenland. In that year the combined fleets consisted of sixteen vessels,
of an aggregate tonnage of 4584 tons. The Fishings appear to class themselves
into three periods, viz. the whale period of Greenland, from 1788 to 1820; the whale
period of Davis Straits, from 1821 to 1840; and the whale and seal period of both
fisheries, from 1841 to 1858, viz. :—

Years. Voyages. §Tuns of Oil. Tuns per Voyage.

Greenland 1788-1820 33 116 9,060 = 77
Davis Straits 1821-1840 20 159 13,015 =81
Greenland 1821-1840 20 88 4,467 =51
Greenland and

Davie Senile } 1841-1858 18 337 18,040 =53

The total number of complete voyages was 700, and the gross quantity of oil
brought home 44,582 imperial tuns, which shows an average of 64 tuns a voyage.

In the year 1838 the fleet numbered ten ships, and from that time to 1851 the
number did not exceed thirteen any season; but in 1851 they rose to twenty-
two, in 1853 to twenty-seven, and in 1857 to thirty-one, the largest number which
ever sailed from the port. During the period from 1838, the Seal Fishery of
Greenland has attracted much attention, and has been sedulously pursued. The
largest number of seals caught by the crew of one vessel previous to 1844 was 6130;
but in that year the ‘ Plover’ brought home 12,300 seal skins, and 135 tuns of oil;
and in 1850 the ‘Victor’ captured 16,135 seals, which produced 185 tuns of oil.
The fishing continued with varied success until 1855, im which year the large
number of 131,049 seals were taken: since that season, the fishing has fallen off,
and attention has been directed to the capture of whales at Cumberland and Davis
Straits. Vessels from Peterhead, Aberdeen, and the United States of America
have for some seasons gone out and wintered at Cumberland Straits, where whales
are caught in autumn, the latter end of spring, and during summer; but the risk and
expenses attending these voyages, compared with the pres caught, has rendered
them as yet unremunerative. The steam-tug ‘Jackall’ accompanied the ship
‘Traveller’ to Cumberland Straits in 1857, to assist in towing the boats and dead
whales to the vessel: both have since been lost there. The same year the iron
screw steamer ‘Inuit’ entered the trade. The owners were sanguine that the
application of steam at those fisheries would prove as serviceable and profitable as
it had been in other trades, but the experiment did not come up to expectations;
the trial, however, was short; the vessel was crushed in the ice at the seal fishing
of Greenland this spring. The walrus fishing off the coast of Spitzbergen was tried,
but failed for want of sufficient success. The whale fishing off the coast of Nova
Zembla was attempted last year; but, though unfruitful, another and more vigorous
trial is necessary before it can be said that whales are to be found, or not, off the
shores of that island.

The total number of vessels engaged from first to last was 58, of the gross ton-
nage of 15,617 tons register, averaging 269 tons each. 504 voyages were made to
Greenland, and 214 to ‘Davis Straits, but only 700 voyages homewards, as eighteen
vessels were lost at the fisheries.

; ane losses, sales, and number of vessels now engaged at the fisheries are as _
ollows :—

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 217

4 vessels lost at Greeenland ............ 1,241 tons per register.
13 vessels lost at Davis Straits .......... 4,111 5
1 vessel lost at Iceland .............05, 308 ie
2 vessels lost trading to Baltic .......... 604 -
1 vessel lost at Moray Frith ............ 157 5
1 vessel lost at Archangel .............. 289 5
1 vessel lost at North Sea .............. 132 4
WESTER BERL: orate ain val Si v'S aravalesi one fal 1,450 rf
28 vessels engaged at the fisheries ...... ». 7,825 "
58 15,617

Assuming the value of these vessels at £20 per ton, including provisions and
wages, the total first cost would have been £312,340; but as they decline in value
as they increase in age, the average during employment may be calculated at
£15 per ton for those going to Greenland, and £17 for those in the Davis Straits
Fishery. The losses at the former would therefore amount to £18,915, and at the
latter £69,887. Comparing the losses at Greenland with those at Davis Straits,
out of 504 voyages to the former 4 vessels were wrecked, and out of 214 to the
latter 14 were wrecked, which demonstrates the risk at Davis Straits to be eight
times greater than at Greenland ; at the one country the loss is under 1 per cent.,
and at the other about 6} per cent. It may be observed, that the class of vessels
which has gone from Peterhead to Greenland of late years has been superior to
those of some other ports, and consequently the casualties have been less in pro-
portion amongst Peterhead ships. The rates of premium and policy of insurance
to Greenland is £3 7s, 6d. per cent., and to Davis Straits £6 10s. 6d. per cent:
formerly the rates were higher. Of all places frequented at these fisheries, the
danger of shipwreck is greatest at Melville Bay, on the east side of Davis Straits.
In the year 1830, one French and nineteen British vessels were lost in that bay ;
the loss of life, however, is very small, as the men can instantly get upon the ice
and walk to other vessels which may have accompanied them.

The total importations from these fisheries for the 71 years has been, 1,121,685
seal skins, 3797 whales, producing 44,582 tuns of oil, and 1731 tons of whalebone,
and of the approximate value of £2,323,380 sterling. The value of produce has
changed very much from time to time; oil has been sold as low as £20 and as
high as £54 per tun. Whalebone at one period was nearly valueless, and of
late it has been sold in the London market at £580 per ton. Seal skins twenty
years ago sold at Is. to 1s. Gd. per skin, and they are now realising 3s. 9d. to 8s. 6d.
per skin. In the early years of the fishing the vessels sailed in the end of March
and beginning of April, but now they take their departure in the middle and end
of February, returning in May, June, July, and August from Greenland, and in
September, October, and November from Davis Straits. There is no record of the loss
of life from accidents and disease, but the per-centage, if ascertainable, would no
doubt be found to be small; the crews on their return from the icy seas always
look healthy and strong.

On the Trade and Commerce of India. By J.T. MACKENZIE.

The paper gave a view of the exports and imports of bullion and merchandise
for twenty-five years, ending in 1858. The value of exports from British India
amounted, in the five years from 1833-88, to £10,300,000 annually, while, for the
five years from 1853-58, the amount annually was £22,810,755. Imports of mer-
chandise, exclusive of treasure, averaged £4,717,278 yearly in the first period of
the same series, and £13,457,015 yearly for the last. The total bullion imported
into India for the twenty-five years was £110,329,428, The number of vessels
entered into India from foreign ports in 1858 was 4309—increase £1,686,558. The
largest item of merchandise imported into India consisted of cotton, twist, yarn,
an Sor goods, and amounted in 1858 to £4,695,400, of which £4,608,655 were
supplied by the United Kingdom. The writer next alluded to the importance of
the extension of this great market to every class at home; and the obvious means
by which this great poe is to be attained are, on the one hand, by increasing the
producing power of India, and by enabling her to dispose of a large quantity of her

218 REPORT—1859.

own productions, and, on the other, by our manufacturers studying, more than they
do at present, the habits of the people in the manufacture of articles best suited to
their real wants, tastes, and fancies. The total value of merchandise exported from
British India in 1858 was £27,453,692, of which £9,106,635 was for opium, none
of which is entered for British consumption. Deducting this, the exports still ex-
ceeded £18,000,000, of which more than £10,500,000 came to the United King-
dom. The largest item of Indian exports, after opium, is raw cotton, which in
1858 amounted to £4,301,769, of which £3,296,698 came to the United*Kingdom,
and this is about £1,500,000 below the value of the manufactured cotton we sent
out to her. He pointed to the importance that would attach to organized efforts
made to promote the consumption of Indian produce, and thereby to stimulate her
productive power. He next said the whole system of banking in India requires to

e changed. The means of transport and irrigation were also noticed asgreatly
needed and greatly important. It should be clearly understood, however, that, for
the real extension of great commercial intercourse with India, it is no part of the
duty of Government to aid, either directly or indirectly, by pecuniary rants, gifts
of land, or guarantees of interest, any industrial or commercial undertaking of the
country,

On the Statistics of the Trade and Progress of the Colony of Victoria.
By the Hon. Toomas M‘Comsir.

Before entering upon the subject matter of this paper, I may be permitted to state
that I have confined myself entirely to the bare statistics of the subject, and leave
the members to draw such deductions as they may think fit. Victoria has many
claims on the people of this country in being the greatest instance of successful
colonization in the history of the world; in being called after the greatest and most
popular sovereign that ever ruled the British dominions; and in haying, after an
existence of twenty years, productions amounting to £20,000,000.

The colony of Victoria contains within its area about 54,000 square miles. Its
boundaries are Bass’s Straits to the south and east ; the colony of South Australia,
near the line of 141° of longitude to the east; and the colony of New South Wales
to the north and north-east bya straight line drawn from Cape Horn to the nearest

oint of the River Murray, and thence by the course of that river to the eastern
Heanilart of the colony of South Australia. This large tract of fine land was settled
in 1836 by adventurers from New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land, and was
said to contain 7000 aborigines, who have nearly all died out, only from 300 to 400
remaining. The commercial relations of the new territory were confined for some
time to the intercourse between the new colonies and the neighbouring settlements
on the Australian coast. The Customs revenue for the last quarter of 1840 was
£1597 ; for the first quarter of 1841 it was £5609. The total of the ordinary
revenue for the last quarter of 1840 was £3319 ; for the first quarter of 1841 it was
£10,490. In April 1837, the population of the colony was but 500, and the stock
consisted of but 14,000 sheep, 2500 head of cattle, and 150 horses. In 1841 there
was a census taken, and the following was the result:—Population of Melbourne,
4479 ; of county of Bourke, 3241; of the district of Western Port, 1891; of Gee-
long, 454; of county of Grant, 336; of Portland, 597; of the county of Normanby,
1260: making a total of 11,728. Houses: In Melbourne, 769; county of Bourke,
432; Western Port, 110; Geelong, 81; county of Portland, 100: total, 1559,

Condition of the people—Convicts in the employment of the Government in
Melbourne, 64; in the county of Bourke, 34; eae Port, 5; Geelong, 20;
Grant, 17; Portland, 2; county of Portland, 4: total, 146. In priyate assign-
ment :—in Melbourne, 10; county of Bourke, 70; Western Port, 122; Geelong, 6;
Portland, 23: total, 213, making a gross total of convicts in the districts 369, and
2 female conyicts, or 371 in all. Of the male free population, 215 were born in the
colonies ; 6500 arrived free ; 104 were emancipated convicts; and 124 ticket-of-
leave holders. Of the free female population, there were 341 born in the colony;
2908 arrived free; 104 were emancipated ; and 2 held tickets-of-leaye,

Station in life-—Of those who can be ranked as employers and non-labourers,
there were 1767; and of labourers 8926.

In March 1846, another census of the portion of the Australian territory which

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 219

now forms Victoria was taken, and it was found to be 32,876. The following are
the details :—Population, Melbourne, Gipp Ward, males 1758; females 1602—total
3360. Bourke Ward, males 976; females 929—total 1905. Lonsdale Ward, males
1481; females 1176—total 2657. La Trolee Ward, males 1557; females 1495—
total 8052. County of Bourke, males 3688 ; females 2688. Gipp’s Land, males 612 ;
females 240. Murray District, males 1142; females 416. estern Port, males
2516; females 1009, County of Grant and Geelong, males 2339; females 1531.
Portland’ District, males 4150 ; females 1610—total, males 20,199 ; females 12,696.
The births registered in the year 1845 were 1554; the marriages 832; the deaths
341. The children at school were 2200; the convicts 75.

In 1851 the population was 77,360, of which the following details may be in-
teresting :—Population of towns: Melbourne, 23,145; Geelong, 8243; Portland,
1025 ; Belfast, 964; Warrnambool, 383; Kilmore, 1137 ; Kyntor, 296; Seymor,
117, Counties and districts: Banke, 17,469; Grant, 4469; Normanby, 1505;
Dundas, 911; Follet, 648; Vilhas, 2705; Heytesbury, 59; Ripon, 814; Hampden,
729; Grenville, 8322; Polworth, 1552; Talbot, 893; Dalhousie, 790; Anglesea,
568; Evelyn and Mornington, 871; any Land, 1770; Murray, 2693; Liddon,
1127; Wimera, 2019. In the year 1857 the population had increased to 410,766,
of whom 99,354 were located in Melbourne, 23,338 in Geelong, 121,520 in the
rural districts, and 166,550 on the different gold fields. In 1858 the population
had reached 480,000, so that in seven years no fewer than 400,000 had been added.

The following are the births, deaths, marriages, and population for seven con-
secutive years, Eada 1851 to 1857 :—

Years. Births. Deaths. Marriages. Population.
1851 , . , 3,047 1,165 1,325 83,350
1852. . . 8,756 2,105 1,958 148,627
TS0sv. 3) . 0,000 5,000 no return 198,496
1854... . 7,542 6,261 3,765 273,865
1855 . . . 11,941 6,603 3,846 319,379
1856. . . 14,406 5,723 4,116 348,460
1857 . . . 17,490 7,455 4,524 463,135
The following is the emigrants’ arrival during the same period :—
Government Emigrants. Unassisted Emigrants.
Years. Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. Total.
1851 . . . 1,082 905 1,982 7,512 1,517 9,029
1852... 7,762 7,715 15,477 67,113 12,077 79,187
1853. . . 5,236 9,342 14,578 60,796 16,938 77,734
1854 , . . 5,456 10,862 16,818 51,913 15,179 69,092
1855 . . . 3,149 6,096 9,245 44,740 12,586 57,326
1856 , . . 1,763 2,916 4,679 26,572 10,343 36,915
1857 . . . 5,429 8,940 14,369 35,461 15,400 48,86]

Totals 29,877 46,776 76,653 224104 82,040 376,144

On the 31st of March last, the population of the colony is thus stated :—Popu-
lation on the 31st of December, 1858, 323,447 males, 180,731 females ; increase by
emigration during the quarter ending the 31st of March, 1859, 1912 males, 2480
females ; increase by excess of births over deaths during the quarter ending the
31st of March, 1859, 1078 males, 1452 females. Total population, 511,100,

The next Table gives the reyenue and expenditure of the settlement from 1836

to 1842 :—

Revenue. Expenditure.
Years. & s. d. & ew a.
OSG. igritcar 00 0 2,164 16 8
A83%-.. goss 2,658 16 10 5,879 2 4
HOSE ns griges B25 VF 10 : 16,030 2 5
I838Gor.7 Geet «14708 6 10 24,035 10 4
1840... . 386,856 1 6 41,374 18 4
ear | yey Shere 10 ‘4 74,324 19 4
1842 .-. .. 84566 9 8 91,156 10 11

220 REPORT—1859.

The revenue has increased so much, that it amounted in 1886 to £89,117; and
in 1854, according to the financial minute of his Excellency Sir Charles Hotham,
to £2,479,461 8s. 1d.

As the first great source of productive wealth was from squatting or depasturing
stock on crown lands, the following statistical information in reference to its rise
may be interesting. In September 1846, the following return was made by the
Crown Land Commissioners of the various districts:—

Western Part.—Acres in cultivation, 2586 ; horses, 1974; cattle, 41,021; sheep,
pe Population—males, free, 1659; females, 473 ; males, bond, 43: total,
2175.

Portland Bay.—Acres in cultivation, 2286; horses, 2906 ; cattle, 55,136 ; sheep,
ee Population—males, free, 2408; females, 586; males, bond, 4: total,

98,

Murray.—Acres in cultivation, 1291; horses, 1297; cattle, 60,682; sheep, 166,978,
Population—males, free, 588 ; females, 178; males, bond, 50: total, 816.

ipp’s Land.—Acres in cultivation, 264; horses, 595; cattle, 29,191; aneep
78,319. Population—males, free, 307 ; females, 71; males, bond, 20; females, 0:
total, 398.
Bourke.—Acres in cultivation, 749; horses, 348; cattle, 11,249; sheep, 73,831.
Population—males, free, 362; females, 198; males, bond, 1; females, 1: total, 562.
rant.—Acres in cultivation, 867; horses, 360; cattle, 4897; sheep, 128,414.
Population—males, free, 348; females, 129: total, 477.
rand Total.—Acres in cultivation, 8043 ; horses, 7580; cattle, 202,170; sheep,
2,151,400. Population—males, free, 5673 ; females, 1635: total, 7306. Males,
bond, 117; females, 2; total, bond, 119.

The increase of stock in the colony is very surprising. The following Table ex-

hibits the numbers in the settlement each year for six years :—

Years. Horses. Cattle. Sheep.
WAST re Oe ah Gats 167,200 1,603,000
SAW.) cmueht REOLO 187,900 1,861,000
TEESE eee cies, 231,600 2,450,000
1846... . 11,400 290,400 2,997,000
1847-00 ae IS T53 344,300 4,398,000
1848... . 16,495 386,700 5,180,000

In 1851 the stock of the colony had increased to 21,219 horses, 378,806 cattle,
and 6,032,783 sheep; and in 1858 the numbers were 55,683 horses, 614,532 cattle,
and 4,766,022 sheep. The quantity of stock slaughtered in 1858 was 197,947
cattle, 998,824 sheep, and 25,249 pigs.

The following return shows the number of vessels (and their tonnage) which
arrived and departed from Victoria during six years, from 1852 to 1857 :—

VESSELS INWARDS.

1852.. 251 168,919 | 1864 225,446 | 13 5,829 | 29 8,001
1853. . 680 284,719 | 1740 351,066 | 119 — 53,988 105 ~—-1,700
1854.. 680 349,342 | 1715 353,419 | 78 40,206 153 = 1,646
1855. . 274 207,800 | 1443 274,180 | 50 = 27,178 130 = 89,223
1856.. 214 197,083] 1512 274,794 | 55 35,828 99 31,454
1857.. 307 290,680] 1756 330,594 | 50 36,841 75 36,449

VESSELS OUTWARDS,

1852.. 68 36,936 | 1805 286,163 1 222 | 41 26,975
1853.. 94 61,321 | 1922 471,817 3 2,105 | 249 129,624
1854.. 88 66,876 | 2082 532,133 | 12 4,137 | 427 195,691
1855.. 81 66,711 | 1637 874,820 9 2,439 | 265 104,208
1856.. 65 57,037 | 1705 384,489 4 1,094 | 185 95,787
1857... 64 64,717 | 1879 426,854 3 1,224 | 261 191,731

The following Table shows the number of persons and places of worship belong-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 221

ing to the principal religious denominations in the years 1851 and 1857 respectively,
in Victoria :—

1851. 1857.
Persons. Churches. Persons. Churches,
Chureh of England. , . 37,433 8 175,418 99
Presbyterians. . . . . 11,628 8 65,935 55
Wesleyan Methodists . . 4,988 5 28,305 192
Other Protestants . . . 4,313 2 27,521 50
Roman Catholics . . . 18,014 5 77,851 64
GEM fo otk Soir ybvepreuy) BOD 1 2,208 4
Mahomedans. .... 201 0 27,254 0
WRGsIdHeay sss 0 se «fad 0 7,614 0

In the head “ other Protestants,” are included 10,858 Independents, 6484 Bap-
tists, 6574 Lutherans, and 1480 Unitarians, besides 2125 belonging to minor sects.

The following Table exhibits the number of post-offices, the number of letters
and newspapers which passed through the General Post-office, the revenue and
expenditure of the department for seven years, from 1851 to 1857 inclusive :—

Number of Number of Number of Revenue. Expenditure.
Years, Letters. Newspapers. Post-offices. £ Saad: £ s. d.
1851 . 504,425 456,741 44 7,929 9 1 11,483 75
1852 . 972,126 709,837 4G 12,453 12 9 25,312 00
1853. 2,038,999 1,616,789 62 25,783 12 11 73,036 10 0
1854 . 2,674,384 2,394,941 95 66,939 4 7 143,462 14 4
1855 . 2,990,992 2,349,656 89 80,108 13 9 106,118 69
1856 . 3,220,614 2,906,141 125 84,941 0 11 93,681 18 0
1857 . 3,892,981 2,981,970 152 77,662 12 1 96,242 11 9

In the year 1857 the number of letters delivered inland was 2,415,933, and
despatched to other countries 1,484,048 ; the newspapers delivered inland were
1,333,439, and despatched to other countries 1,648,531.

The gold exported since 1851 has been 19,451,964 oz., of which the following
are the details :—In 1851, 145,146 oz. ; 1852, 1,974,975 oz.; 1853, 4,497,723 oz. ;
1854, 2,144,699 oz. ; 1855, 2,576,745 oz. ; 1856, 3,003,811 oz. ; 1857, 2,729,655 oz. ;
1858, 2,536,983 0z.; 1859, 842,222 oz.; part of the year only. This makes a fair
allowance for the amount carried by private hands, which is known to have been
considerable previous to the legislative enactments imposing an export duty. The
following are the amounts passed through the Customs :—1851, 145,137 oz.; 1853,
1,988,527 0z.; 1854, 2,144,699 oz.; 1855, 2,751,536 oz.; 1857, 762,460 oz. Ac-
cording to the returns, the annual value of the gold produced during the last few
years has been £11,000,000; the value of wool, £1,500,000; of agricultural crops,
£2,500,000; stock fisheries products and manufactures, £5,000,000; making a gross
production of £20,000,000 per annum.

The following statistics of the lands of Victoria are taken from the books in the
Crown Land-office, Melbourne :—

Axes of land inthe colony... ......scscevcaseeenes 55,644,160 acres.
Number of holders of purchased land .............% 13,163
Acres of purchased land in occupation .........0405 2,113,184
NE a1 og Cia se dies, ya, v's <4. s who oe AIDA 9 237,729
Occupied acres of purchased land not cultivated .... 1,875,405
Quantity of land sold by the crown during the last ten

LENT erate side Givvebeyd he loaio.¢ ste lsid aierelauad stehile.e 2,541,913
Quantity of unsold land.............cccnceceeeves 52,882,544
Amount realized for land during the last ten years £6,636,555
MEMERHGO PLICG PEPAETO oie hic. ccc s ve ccecvessvers £2 12 6
Average price per acre in 1857.......0cseeeeeceees £2 2 6

There had been sold in 1851, 99,769 acres to 77,345 persons, or about an acre
and a quarter to each ; at the end of 1857 there had been alienated 2,748,415 acres
to 450,000 persons at the rate of six acres to each. In the year ending the 31st of
March, 1857, the number of holders of purchased land was 7523, The extent of

229 REPORT—1859.

their holdings was 1,532,358 acres; the acres in crop were 179,982. In 1859 the
holders were 11,554, the extent of holdings 2,492,443; the acres in crop were
297,055 ; in the same period the population had increased from 410,000 to 512,000.
Recent tables demonstrate that the total amount of land alienated from the crown
in Victoria in 1857 was 2,748,415 acres, and in 1859 it is upwards of 8,000,000 of
acres; of this quantity, no less than 2,592,443 acres were in the hands of agricul-
turists, and 1,731,929 acres enclosed, and 297,055 under cultivation. The neigh-
bouring colony of South Australia, which is, properly speaking, an agricultural
- colony, had, in 1857, a eer gee of 109,917 and 235,965 acres in cultivation.
The following Table exhibits the acres in cultivation during the two years 1858

and 1859 :—

1859. 1858:

Acres. Acres.
Barley . ’ : » 5,2961 5,409
Maize . 5 ’ ‘ - 489} 445
Rye and Bere a . : 562 1322
Peas, Beans, and Malt . : 268 —
Potatoes : 3 29,8222 20,6972
Turnips ; : c i 3314 355
Mangol Wurzel_ . . ‘ 1244 119
Red Beet i ; : : 3 -
Carrots and Parsnips. . 954 56
Cabbage ae as Ki, ae 514 —
Bare Fallow . i ; . 5,9382 =
HBG F ‘ : . 85,836 75,536
Cereal Grasses : : . 38,8093 1,277
Maize . ; ; : ; 2783 357
Lucerne . ‘ : : ; 285 1633
Clover . : : a a 370 2774
Sorghum . : ; : 234 —
Permanent Grass . ‘ » 2,508 —
Gardens . ‘ : ; » 5,475 4,6573
Tobacco . e ; oA 663 71
Vines. : : : ; 5304 4012
Other eropp ss 8 2974 4
Orchard . . : F ‘ 387} 310

There are, wheat 77,705 acres for 1857, and 87,230 acres for 1859; and oats
76,9352 acres for 1859, and 40,2223 for 1858.
The produce was as follows :—

1859, 1858.
Bushels. Bushels.
Wheat . , i : 1,551,0042 1,808,4382
Oats . : ; : : 2,131,155 2,249,800
Barley . : ; - 114,432 156,458
Maize ; 7 : : 9,674 6,558
Rye and Bere . ; : 611 —
Peas, Beans, and Malt . 4,8253 2,797
Tons, Tons,
Potatoes . : : ; 106,4612 51,1152
Turnips _. : - : 1,2544 1,583%
Mangol Wurzel . ; : 2,106 2,876
Red Beet f ; - 4 274
Carrots and parsnips. 5203 2403
Cabbage . 3 : ; 142 e
Hay . : 5 : ; 112;6724 137,4753
Cwt. Cwt,
Onions. ' : ; 297 *
Tobacco . ; : 932 717

Number of vines, 952,107 ; fruit sold, 84043 ewts. in 1859, 4629 in 1858; wine

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 293

produced in 1859, 7650 gallons; in 1858, 5761 gallons. Brandy manufactured,
132 gallons in 1839.
The following is a comparative view of the population and commerce of Victoria: —

Population. Average of Year, Value of Imports. Value of Exports.
Years. £ £
eas ess 7,000 205,000 78,000
1846 . . . 84,000 316,000 425,000
1852. . . . 180,000 4,604,000 7,452,000
1856 . . . 360,000 14,115,000 16,000,000
The following Table gives the averages of these years :—
Yearly average of Imports, Exports:
Yearly average. population. £ #
1835 to 1840, 6 years . ss 5,000 121,000 46,000
1841 to 1846, 6 years . «. « 23,500 250,000 295,000
1847 to 1852, 6 years . . . 74,000 1,190,000 2,003,000
1853 to 1857, 5 years 5 « . 300,000 14,514,000 13,861,000

The following is a comparative view of the number of sheep and the wool ex
ported during 1855, from Victoria and New South Wales :—

Sheep, Number, Wool, lbs.
IGCONS. 5 i, st ao je 0,802,000 22,353,000
New South Wales. . . . 8,144,000 17,671,000

On the Trade Currency of China (with specimens of the coinage).
By Dr. Maccowan.

Statistics of Small-Pox and Vaccination in the United Kingdom.
By Dr. W. Moore.

During the past year, 100,000 deaths occurred in the United Kingdom, which
were preventable or removeable. Of children alone, between 30,000 and 100,000
die annually from various infectious and respiratory diseases alone. According to
the Registrar-General’s Report for the year ending December 1858, the Registrars
received 376,798 vaccination certificates, although they registered births of 655,647
children. The writer set down the deaths in England and Wales, from small+pox
annually, at 4000, and 3990 cases could be cured by vaccination, Small-pox
contributed no less than 30 per cent. of the mortality of Dundee. The case of
Treland was alluded to as rendering necessary a system of registration.

On Decimal Coinage. By Colonel SHortTREDE;

On Church Building in Glasgow. By Joun StrAnc, LE.D., Glasgow.

From 1839 to 1849, 35 churches were erected; from 1849 to 1859, 58 churches
—total, 88 churches. Of these, 8 were erected by the Established Church, 35 by
the Free Church, 17 by the United Presbyterian Church, 10 by the Independent
Church, 7 by the Roman Catholic Church, and 11 by other denominations. The
cost of the various churches was—Established, £5744; Free Church, £167,698 ;
United Presbyterian, £119,154 ; Independent, £59,722 ; Roman Catholic, £31,364 ;
other denominations, £50,664. During the last twenty years there had been an
addition in the Church accommodation of Glasgow, within its municipal limits,
of no less than room for 73,625 persons, at a cost of £444,348. The increase in the
oo during that time was £145,000, making one sitting for every 1600 of
them.

On the Past, Present, and Prospective Financial Condition of British India.
By Colonel Sykes, M.P., F.R.S.

After observing that for years past the financial condition of our Indian empire
had been the subject of the most conflicting statements, arising from the confusion

994 REPORT—1859.

inseparable to the ceaseless wars which had been carried on, which, from their
enormous cost, had necessarily involved Indian finances in confusion, Col. S. stated
that in 1842 he had caused a statement to be drawn up in the proper department of
the India House of the real condition of the receipts and apenas of India. These
statements were continued from 1842 to 1857, embracing five decennial periods
from 1808 onwards to 1857, when exact returns terminated with the mutiny year.
Under the various heads of progress of revenue, progress of charge, progress of civil
charges, progress of military charges, progress of interest of debt, he gave at great
length the results of those returns, which it is, from their length and multiplicity
of figures, impossible to abstract, and concluded by the following deductions :—1.
That expenditure in the military branch of the service can be reduced whilst the
highest efficiency was preserved. 2, That the progressive increase of debt was
necessary and inevitable. It was an object to link the interests of the native capi-
talists in India with those of the British Government through the medium of
pecuniary obligations. 3. That the pressure of the interest of the debt of India in
relation to the revenues in 1857, before the mutiny was 7-19 percent, and the debt
1:79 year’s purchase of revenue. Since the mutiny, it was, after all, only 9°34 per
cent, and the purchase 2°43. 4. That the revenues of India have increased to a
greater ratio than the interest of the debt. 5. That there was a satisfactory pro-
spect in the ultimate productive working of the amount of silver, which has been
poured into India, and remained there since 1800, which was, in fact, the balance
of trade in favour of India. 6. That on a right understanding of the past financial
condition of India, and a proper knowledge of the resources of the country, depended
the success of the hazardous experiment of increased taxation. 7. That there was
ample proof of the progressive financial strength of the government, of increasing
confidence on the part of the public mind, and of the large disposable capital in
India. 8. That the finances were gradually and steadily growing healthy, as shown
by Parliamentary paper, No. 201, Session 2.

On Illegitimacy in Aberdeen and the other large Towns of Scotland.
By JAMES VALENTINE.

The published returns by the Registrar-General of Scotland on this point date
only from 1st January, 1858, but the comparatively unvarying experience of eighteen
months which his reports illustrate, has already well nigh fixed down a certain
character on the various towns and districts in Scotland, and especially a bad one
on this town. Some explanation, at least, is therefore required.

The proportion per cent. of illegitimate to legitimate births, is about 65 in
Sweden, 6°6 in Neen? 6-7 in England, 6:7 in Belgium, 7:1 in France, 7:1 in
Prussia, 9°3 in Denmark, 9:8 in Hanover, and 11:3 in Austria. In London it is
about 4 per cent., in Liverpool above 43 per cent., in Birmingham under 5 per cent.,
and in Michester about 6 per cent. (Chambers’s Information). In Scotland, during
1858, it was 8°8 per cent., made up thus :—

In the eight principaltowms . . 1.» ss + + es 84
Districts, including smaller towns . .... +. + 86
Conntxy districts sf )s aus epee eres al pey ts Sees

Taking the eight principal towns by themselves as they stand in the Registrar’s
Reports, the following results appear :—

Year. Half-year. Mean rate.
Jan. to June. Per cent.

1
Aberdeen .... 149 .... 1
MUNG ea wees LOLs sis: ol!
Perth eis Wome ;
Paisley .... 73
Edinburgh.... 87
Glasgow .... UT sees
Leith arp erat)
Greenock .... 47

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 225

It may be stated, though the figures have not been officially published, that the
yegisters here for the three previous years, namely, 1855, 1856, and 1857, show a
rate for our two parishes of 12°6, 13:3, and 13°6 respectively.

The mean marriage ratio in the eight principal towns in Scotland, in the four
years 1855-1858, was, in 10,000 persons,—

Greenock tes tie ter 200 Leite, csp eo pane

err: Paisley ag og te ee
Peers + + ys » » 89 |. Edinburgh , ¢ peo
PRs cs aa a nw ys BLT Aberdeen : . 645

The birth ratio in the eight principal towns in Scotland during the years 1855,
1856, 1857, and 1858, was (in 10,000 persons living)—

MMS hs ch) 4-4). soya MRL EO WAiGy een iy « 8076
Edinburgh. . . . . . 29000 Dundee , we teteLt? ab. 01 OD
Aberdeen .. .. . . 20025 Glasgow. . + « « 6 » 405°75
BEGG ea oes OBLDE Greenock . . . « « « 499°26

The excess of females over males in the eight principal towns in Scotland, ac-
cording to the Census of 1851, was as follows :—

Greenock . . . . . 42percent.| Dundee ... . . 92 percent,
Perth «a 400 «do, Edinburgh . . . » 98 do,
Glasgow . . .. . 58 do. Dating ve sn roe Os
Pewleg.. i, ». . , 80. de, Aberdeen, . . . +118 do,

From these various data, the following conclusions seem to be deducible :—
___ist. That where there is a low marriage proportion, there will be a high rate of
illegitimacy,

2nd, That the same result will follow when there is @ marked excess of females
over males,

The following Table shows the proportion of illegitimate births, and employment

of the mothers in Aberdeen :—
Half-year.

Jan. to June.
1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859.
Total births ... 2156 2419 2401 2396 1039

panne Was, MR 323 329 357 195
roportion of ille- | _, } Bi f i
gitimate births } v9 v4 2 67 53
Employments of mothers :—
Domestic servants 69 111 93 98 45
Factory operatives 101 72 87 119 78
Fam servants .. 13 20 35 33 17
Dressmakers ... 19 26 25 18 4
RW idowe sd". 5 6 15 10 4
Housekeepers .. 4 15 10 12 4
Miscellaneous .. 61 73 64 67 43.

There were, at the period of the census of 1851, 3200 domestic servants in
Aberdeen within the Parliamentary boundary ; the number is now probably 3400,
The female factory operatives at the same period numbered 4400; but now they
number, as nearly as can be learned, 3600.

The residences of mothers of illegitimate children registered in Aberdeen for
the half-year ended June last, shows very distinctly that in the districts where the
lower class of houses are situated, there does illegitimacy most prevail. It may also
be stated that an exceedingly small proportion—in fact, scarcely a case—occurs
where the mother moves in the middle or upper ranks of society. A very large
number of the mothers, it may be added, sign the birth register by means of marks,

being unable to write their own name.

The writer mentioned several peculiarities in the case of Aberdeen, which com-
bine in a greater measure than in that of any of the other large towns of Scotland,

1859. 15

296 . REPORT—1859.

to produce or aggravate the evil of illegitimacy. These were, chiefly, the geopra-

hical position of the town, as (so to speak) the metropolis of a vast rural district,
‘in which district the evil referred to abounds; the great excess of females, and the
want of adequate employment for them, in Aberdeen, which leads, it is be-
lieved, to occasional prostitution, and thus to illegitimacy; and various hindrances
that exist to marriage. Te also pointed out, that the area included in the boundary
of the city for registration purposes is so unequal in the case of Aberdeen, and the
other large towns, as to prevent any fair comparison. He further showed that as
many of the Registrar-General’s deductions are (necessarily) founded on estimates
of the population, somé of those deductions must be modified by the census of 1861.

Notes on the Statistics, chiefly Vital and Economic, of Aberdeen.
By James VALENTINE, ‘Journal’ Office, Aberdeen.

The population of Aberdeen was 4000 in 1572, and 15,730 (according to Web-
ster’s enumeration) in 1755. At the commencement of the century it was 26,992 ;
in 1821, 43,825; in 1851, 71,973. This embraces the Parliamentary boundary, which
includes a suburban and partly rural district: the town proper, @. e. the area covered
by streets, is about two miles square; the Parliamentary boundary is about ten
milessquare. For purposes of registration of births, &c., again, an additional district,
wholly rural, and of shat two miles square, to the north of the Parliamentary
boundary, isincluded. At present the purely town population is estimated at 71,000 ;
the suburban, including Old Aberdeen, a small burgh by itself, and Woodside,
a village, at 7000; and the rural at 2000=80,000. It is probable, however, that
the actual population of the city itself is somewhat below the figure mentioned.

1. Vital statistics—With respect to births, we have no data of any worth re-
ferring further back than the year 1855, when the General Registration system for
Scotland came into operation. Before that time there was a register of baptisms
only, which, from various causes, chiefly perhaps the indifference of the public, was
very incomplete. The births registered in the registration boundary of Aberdeen
for 1855, 1856, 1857, and 1858, were 299-25 in 10,000 persons living (according to
estimate of population). Comparing this with the birth ratio in the other larger
towns of Scotland, we find the proportion for Perth to be the lowest, viz. 277°75,
and Greenock the highest, viz. 499-25.

2. Marriages.—The marriage ratio in Aberdeen is the lowest of any of the larger
towns in Scotland. For the four years 1855-58, it was 64'5 in 10,000 of the people
(estimated). The highest marriage ratio among the principal towns of Scotland
for the same period was in Greenock, namely, 100 in 10,000 of the population.

3. Deaths—The death ratio in Aberdeen for the four years 1855-58, was 212-25
in 10,000 persons; in Edinburgh for the same period it was 252; in Glasgow,
294-25; and in Greenock, where the death ratio is highest of the principal towns,
it was 328:25. The proportion of children under five years of age who died yearly
in Aberdeen in the above four years was 32:2 per cent.; in Edinburgh, 38°6 per
cent.; in Glasgow (where this mortality is highest), 55-9 per cent. More than
one-half of the deaths in Glasgow are of children under five years of age! The
average monthly mortality in Aberdeen for seven years, 1852 to 1858 both inclusive,
shows that the fewest deaths occur in August, viz. 116; next, July, 128; then
September, 130: February and March show the highest mortality, 158 of the deaths
occurring in each of these two months. Among the large towns in Scotland, Aber-
deen shows, so far as data have been given, the least number of deaths occurring
where the benefit of medical aid was not experienced.

The above comparatively favourable results as to the mortality of the town are
owing, in a considerable measure, to the fact of the large suburban and rural districts
above referred to, which are very healthy, being included in the area. It has to be
mentioned also, that the number of inhabited houses within the Parliamentary bound-
ary of Aberdeen in 1851 was in the proportion of 1 to 12°53 of the population: in
Dundee it was 1 in 15-6, in Edinburgh 1 in 20-6, and in Glasgow 1 in 27:5, The
maximum supply of water to the town is 1,250,000 gallons daily for (say) 67,000 of
the inhabitants,—the supply to several manufactories being, however, included in
this quantity, which is therefore somewhat insufficient in a sanitary point of view.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9927

The water is pumped into the town from the river Dee, the bed of which for several
miles above the water-works is zranite,—a circumstance favourable to the quality
of the water for the purposes of the town.

Economic, §c. statistics—In the N. 8. Savings’ Bank the amount deposited in the
year ending 31st Dec. 1849, was £29,740; in 1858, the amount was £55,307. The
number of operative accounts at the former date was 6183; at 31st Dec. 1858, 9000.
The total amount at the depositors’ credit rose, in the same period, from £95,400
to £191,731. In 1858 there were deposited in the seven principal Penny Banks of
the town, by 1853 depositors, the sum of £1155 17s. 6d.—being about the average
for two or three previous years. In 1858 the published accounts of Yearly Deposit
and Friendly Societies in the town and neighbourhood exhibit a membership of
10,279—nearly one-half, or 4753, being females. During the above year these
Societies expended £832 9s. 4d. in sick and funeral money to members, and funeral
money to wives and children of members. The amount deposited and withdrawn
is not stated.

The number of paupers in Aberdeen and suburbs has decreased from 2457 in 1849
to 1919 in 1858. The amount of heritable property (rental) within the Parliamentary
boundary in the books of the Valuation Assessor is within a small fraction of
£200,000. In 1853, when the writer took up an educational census of the town

Parliamentary boundary), the following results appeared: viz. 147 schools, with

0,488 pupils on the roll, being about 1 in 7-5 of the population. As an index to
the educational state of the community, it appears that, during the three years
1856-7-8, of the persons who reported 13,846 births, deaths, and marriages at the
Registrars’ offices, 1957 signed their names by marks, being unable to write. The
number of commitments to the Aberdeen prison in 1849 was 1011; in 1854 it fell
to 756; in 1858 it was 885. The number who emigrated from Aberdeen direct to
British North America (chiefly) was, in 1849, 293; it rose in 1854 to 1598, and has
since gradually declined to 234 during the present year (1859). The number of
letters which passed through the Aberdeen post-oflice in 1858 was 2,454,920, as
compared with 1,550,640 in 1854. The number of money-orders issued and paid
together in 1858 was 40,779, involving a total sum of £78,721, as compared with
35,036, involving £67,585, in 1854. A Table was also exhibited showing the above
particulars at one view for each year from 1849 to 1858 inclusive, together with the
fiars’ price of oatmeal for each year.

On the British Trade with India. By R. Vaury.

The author stated that in the year 1858 the exports of British produce from England
to India amounted to £16,782,515, and exceeded those to the United States, which
were not more than £14,510,616, a low amount, it is true, for the United States.
In the first six months of 1859, the value of British produce exported has been
£11,783,796 to the United States, and £10,109,563 to India. In 1815, the first
year after the opening of the Indian trade to British merchants, the total value of
the imports and exports of this country from and to India, amounted to £10,701,000 ;
in 1858 the amount was £31,754,000, In 1858, therefore, the value of the British
trade with India was three times more than it was in 1815. The computed real
value of the total imports from India in each year since 1854, when the real value
of imports was first ascertained at the Custom House, was—

eR hE eG , ... oe ae eb £10,672,000
5 5c i SSA ea le eng a 12,688,000
AER Moses e xc+ Scirus beads 17,262 090
TBR #vcudmdes' ERR eile «0h 18 650,000
ee sar ceased cass «ch Bi Met 14,972,000

This increase is not so striking as that of the exports of British produce to India,
on a comparison of similar periods, viz. from 1855 to 1858 over 1815 to 1819—
the totals for the respective periods being about £11,600,000 against £2,800,000.
In 1850 there was a large increase in the imports of Indian cotton, the quantity
being 118,872,742 Ibs., which have since steadily augmented. The paper noticed
the various articles of imports and exports, showing that India is the best customer
we haye for the most important of our industrial productions, For example, in
*

228 REPORT—1859.

1854 the quantity of cotton manufactured goods exported was only 39,000,000
yards, and in 1858 it rose to 728,000,000 yards, The total value of our exports of
cotton stuffs and yarns to India in 1858 was £10,249,826. Machinery has been
exported to India since 1855 to the extent of half a million annually.

On the Statistics of Colour- Blindness. By Professor GEorGE WILSon, M.D.

The object of this communication was to urge the importance of an extended
inquiry into the prevalence of colour-blindness. The number of persons markedly
colour-blind was, according to

Dalton (Ist deterymination),.,...,...., seyeee 12 per cent.
Dalton (2nd determination) ,........:e00e0 fee Sar
PiorreuPrevOSh « icé Aci: ov daddgs cc be pee t APRN. ope
ECUCCI ER nog (ett errr tac cinta treats BWA
Maellanters.. ve ctanitccn it "cou ranaENe See ees
CS Waldony 32 antici esha rts eer en a ES .. 8say 2,

In a recent Report to the Royal Society, Sir John Herschel has expressed his sur-
prise at the high per-centage obtained by the author, which appeared to him incom-
patible with the apparent rarity of colour-blindness among his own circle of acquaint-
ances, Dr. Wilson’s figures, however, are the lowest which have been given, and
they were obtained by the examination of 1154 persons, the largest number which
has hitherto been examined in reference to their vision of colour. How far the
per-centage thus obtained represented the condition of the entire community, it was
impossible to decide, That colour-blindness, nevertheless, was far from being very
rare, and that its comparative abundance had, in relation to workers in colours and
to railway and naval coloured signals, an important bearing on many professions,
and on the welfare of the entire community, the author illustrated by many exam-
ples, ending by asking the assistance of the Section in collecting its statistics,

MECHANICAL SCIENCE,

On the Rivers “ Dee” forming the Ports of Aberdeen and Chester.
By J, Avurnetuy, CB.

On Coal-pit Accidents, By Captain J. ADDISON.

The author proposes to detect the presence of the explosive gas in coal mines by
the use of balloons filled with hydrogen ; and carbonic acid gas, or ‘‘ choke damp,”
by the use of balloons filled with common air, These, when introduced into a mine,
would at once show the force of gravity, the nature and extent of the gaseons accu-
mulation; ventilation might then be accomplished by the introduction of copper
cylinders filled with compressed atmospheric air, which could be liberated, and thus
expel the noxious gases.

On an Improved Method of maintaining a True Liquid Level, particularly
applicable to Wet Gas-Meters. By ALEXANDER ALLAN.

The author proceeded to explain the working of a model and drawings illustrating
his method of measuring the consumption of gas, and explained that, whereas by the
present law an error ranging up to 5 per cent. was legalized, by the plan proposed,
tried under severe tests, and in actual operation with gas passing through in a con-
siderably greater quantity than the size was calculated for, the result was that the
maximum per-centage of error amounted to only one-fourth per cent., a result
hitherto unequalled.

On a Safety Cage for Miners. By Rozerr Avrouy.
To cause the cage, on the failure of the winding tackle, to cling to the guide-rods

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 929

which directs its passage down the shaft, is the object sought in all safety cages.
The author’s plan for effecting this is a mere adaptation of an instrument well
known to tihers—the key or wrench used for raising atid lowering the boring rods.
It has never been known to lose its hold, and the greater the strain the firmer is its
gripe. ‘To adapt this instrument to the cage, a slight modification of the upper shoes
or slides is all that is necessary. These shoes or slides are, as usual, two in num-
ber, and placed on opposite sides of the cage and in opposite directions. Kach of
them has a single bolt or stud by which it is attached to the cage, and around which
it turns, a long arm to the extremity of which the winding-chain is attached, a stop
which prevents the arm from being pulled above the horizontal line, and a spring
which fowera it when the winding-chain is slack. The author illustrated the various
parts by diagrams and a working model.

On Harbours of Refuge. By Donan Bain.
On a Boat-lowering Apparatus. By A. BALTEN.

On an Artesian Well in the New Red Sandstone at the Wolverhampton
Waterworks. By J. ¥. Bateman, C.E., F.R.G.S., F.GS.

The town of Wolverhampton has been, up to a recent period, supplied with water
produced by two deep shafts, one sunk about 300 feet deep into the lower new red or
Permian measures, and the other to a somewhat similar depth in the new red sand-
stone proper. From both of these wells a large quantity of water was anticipated
by the engineer who advised their construction, but their yield is under 200,000
gallons a day each, the water being pumped, in one case, from a depth of about
180 feet, and in the other 246 feet.

The quantity thus yielded being insufficient for the supply of the district, new
works have been constructed, which I have just completed, for bringing water from
the river Worth at Cosford Bridge, about nine miles from Wolverhampton, and three
from Shiffnall in the county of Salop.

The works are constructed for the supply of 2,000,000 gallons per day, and the
water has to be forced to a height of 500 feet for the supply of the town.

The river Worth, at the place at which the pumping works are constructed, is not
more than 40 or 50 feet above the Severn, which it joins at Bridgenorth, about eight
or ten miles distant. It may therefore be considered to be at the bottom of a basin
a little elevated above the sea. From the character of the surrounding hills, and the
inclination of the beds of the new red sandstone, it appeared to me very likely that,
although the wells which had previously been sunk on the high plateau of Wolver-
hampton had proved comparative failures, a considerable quantity of water might be
found in the sandstone at Cosford Bridge, and that possibly some might rise to the
surface and flow as an artesian well. I therefore obtained the sanction of the Di-
rectors of the Company to sink a bore-hole for the purpose of ascertaining the fact.

In some parts of the country, as in Cheshire and Lancashire, on the shores of the
Mersey, the new red sandstone is very clearly divided into four distinct portions,
cohsisting of an upper hard mass, about 300 or 400 feet thick, a soft mass, about
the same thickness, a second hard mass, and a lower soft mass,—all of pretty much
the same thickness. In the neighbourhood of Wolverhampton and Shiffnall these
distinctions are not so clearly exhibited; but I had reason to believe, from the posi-
tion of the works, that a bore-hole, of about 200 feet in depth, would pierce the hard
rock on which they were situated, and reach the soft rock beneath.

‘he bore-hole was commenced 12 inches in diameter, and continued at that size
for 70 feet in depth, when it was diminished to 7 inches, and continued for 190 feet,
making a total depth from the surface of 260 feet.

The first water was met with at a depth of 22 feet 4 inches, and from that time it
rose to the surface and flowed over as an artesian spring, constantly increasing in
quantity as the depth increased, till the boring was discontinued ; at which time it

_amounted to about 210,000 gallons per day.

230 REPORT—1859.

The following Table will show the manner in which the water increased :—

Depth below Yield in Depth below Yield in
surface. 24 hours. surface. 24 hours.
ft. in. galls, ft. in. galls.
25 4 2,880 119 (0) 37,028
29 4 3,553 123 6 43,200
37 6 3,602 142 4 64,800
45 (0) 5,400 159 2 74,055
63 3 9,257 169 6 86,400
78 6 18,514 178 11 129,600
86 9 21,600 185 6 130,896
95 (0) 23,563 211 1 163,200

104 (0) 25,920 221 7 183,600

111 2 32,400 260 (0) 209,830

Throughout the whole depth of boring the rock varied little in character : it was
nearly all hard rock; sometimes very hard, with occasional beds of softer stone.
For the last 40 feet or so the soft beds were thicker, but otherwise there was little
change from top to bottom.

The greatest increase of water took place at 214 feet and 227 in depth, at each of
which depths there was an increase of 20,000 gallons per day. Thesoft rock I an-
ticipated was not met with at the depth I expected, but sufficient was done to prove
the abundance of water. A larger bore-hole, which would permit the ascent of a
larger column of water, would materially increase the produce as an artesian well ;
while a shaft sunk 30 feet or 40 feet deep, and exhausted to that depth by pump-
ing, would yield a very considerable quantity. As the whole rock is charged with
water to the level of the river which forms its natural outlet, and as the boring
shows that the lower beds receive their supplies from distant sources, the supply
to be obtained may reasonably be expected to be inexhaustible, within the limits of
that which is due to the percolation of the rain upon the collecting area.

Description of the Glasgow Waterworks, with Photographic Illustrations ta-
hen at various stages of the work. By J. ¥. Bateman, C.B., FLR.GS,,
FG.

On Coal-burning without Smoke, by the method of Steam-Inducted Air-
currents applied to the Locomotive Engines of the Great North of Scot-
land Railway. By D. K. Ciarx, CE.

The whole apparatus is external to the fire-box, and therefore not exposed to
heat, and it is controlled in the most perfect manner by a single stopcock. Air is
admitted above the fuel by one or more rows of tubes inserted through the walls of
the fire-box, and jets of steam are projected through the air-tubes from nozzies ;',th
of an inch diameter, in small steam pipes, placed outside the fire-box, to increase the
quantity and force of the air admitted above the fuel, in order to consume the smoke.
The jets of steam are used principally when the engine is standing, with the aid of a
light draught from a ring-jet in the chimney, to carry off the products of combustion;
and they may be shut off when not required. The supply of air through the tube
may also be regulated by dampers.

The grate-bars are placed close together, with narrow air spaces, and the ash-pan
and damper are tightly fitted. The level of the fuel should at all times be below the
air-tubes. By the adoption of this method it requires a less weight of coal than the
engines formerly required of coke for the same duty, and thus saves more than the
whole difference in price of the two fuels.

Description of a Patent Pan for Evaporating Saccharine Solutions and
other Liguids at a temperature below 180° Fahr. By Ricuarp Davis,
FSA. FLS.

This consists of a cast iron, copper, or other pan, through which is inserted a series
of copper tubes, similar to those used in a locomotive boiler. On each side of the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 231

pan, to which the tubes are riveted, is a cast-iron steam chest, with stops, to ensure
a circulation of the steam through the tubes in a serpentine manner. Between these
tubes a series of copper discs is made to revolve, the diameter of which is 3 feet, and
the thickness about {th of an inch. hee

The condensed water from the tubes, caused by the evaporation of the liquid in
the pan, is received in an ordinary condensing box, fitted with a ball and valve, and is
thence conveyed to a receiver, ready for readmission to the boiler at a temperature
of 160° or 170° Fahr., according to that of the liquid under evaporation.

This method affords the means of evaporating syrups and other liquids at a tem-
perature under 180°, at which temperature sugar will not carbonize.

The economy of fuel in this process is very great, while evaporation is as rapid as
when the vacuum pan is employed. The cost of the latter (the method of work-
ing it requiring skilled labour of a superior degree) is such, as to place it out of
the reach of most proprietors in the colonies, whilst the cost of this pan is trifling,
and may be worked by an ordinary boiler-man. For the revolutions of the discs
little power is required, as they are supported upon centre bearings, and may be
turned by manual or any other motive power. ; Lagat

Every part of the machinery is open to view, and from its extreme simplicity can be
cleaned, or any accidental injury repaired by a common workman. One great ad-
vantage to be derived from the use of this apparatus is the facility it affords for
working up molasses, and thus converting the second product into an article almost
equal to that of the first.

On the Engines of the ‘Callao, ‘Lima,’ and ‘ Bogota. By J. Exper.

In these engines the steam enters at 42 lbs., and is expanded to nine times, or to
42 lbs., namely, from 42 lbs. to 14 lbs. in the small cylinder ; it then enters the large
cylinder at 14 lbs., and is expanded to 43 lbs. ; but as the second piston is three times
the size of the first, the gross load will be the same on both pistons, and the piston
rods, crossheads, and connecting rods may be duplicates of each other.

From the above pressures of steam at the entering of the cylinder, it is evident
that, unless the inside surface of the large cylinder is retained about 210°, condensa-
tion of the steam on entering is certain, and such condensation will chiefly evaporate
into the condenser while the eduction port is open, and the latent heat necessary to
evaporate such condensation will be much greater than what would have radiated
from the hot cylinder to the condenser, had no condensation taken place; and such
heat would be entirely lost. In the same manner it might be mentioned, that the
inside surface of the small cylinder should be retained as high in temperature as the
steam that enters it; and in order to attain this object, every effort should be made
in the construction of steam machinery. It is evident, that, for the small cylinder,
superheated steam is absolutely necessary for this purpose, either in the jackets or
cylinder; and in the large cylinder the temperature of steam direct from the boiler
to the cylinder may be sufficient, if communicated through a pipe or aperture large
enough.

ae engines under description, the pipe supplying steam to the jackets was

4 in. diameter, and the steam was superheated to upwards of 400 degrees that en-
tered the jacket. It was found that a large supply to the jacket saved a vast quane
tity of heat, which can only be explained by the principles above mentioned, namely
that any quantity of heat supplied to the jackets assisted in proportion to the quan-
tity of latent heat it saved being evaporated to the condenser during the eduction of
the steam ; and if the pipes to the jackets were large enough, or sufficient to prevent
the condensation referred to, the economy of the machinery was realized to the
greatest extent.

The writer begs to call the attention of all parties concerned, to the performance
of Cornish pumping-engines, and more particularly to the similarity of action of the
steam-jacket in these engines to the principle of that of the double-cylinder engine
with steam-jackets. In the Cornish engine the piston is single-acting, and the jacket
has twice the time to do its work, or rather the steam in the cylinder is twice the
time in contact with the jackets that it is generally with Watts’ engine; so that
the Cornish engines have very large jacket surfaces in proportion to the power deve-

932 REPORT—1859,

loped. With these features in view, the engineers constructed the engines now
under discussion, and to this cause may be attributed a considerable portion of their
success, and to the non-observance of these features the almost total failure of eco-
nomy in the expansive working of most steam-engines on board of steam-ships,
namely, by constructing large engines, going slow, without steam jackets, or super-
heating of steam: such engines would, of course, present a most favourable oppor-
tunity for improvement by adding any mode of superheating apparatus.

From the foregoing it is also conclusive, that with the ordinary construction of
steam-engines afloat, small engines going fast would consume less coal per indicated
horse-power than large engines going slow; but with engines such as those of the
‘Callao,’ ‘ Bogota,’ and ‘ Lima’ the converse will be the case, carried, of course,
within moderate limits.

In reversing the engines, the eccentrics are made to overrun the engines by a don-
key-engine till they arrive at the backing position, a plan which is less likely to
cause accident than the ordinary methods. This donkey-engine has been found to
be most satisfactory in its application.

The boilers are tubular, two in number, with iron tubes.

Each boiler has three furnaces, 3 feet 4 inches wide, and 63 feet long, or making
an aggregate of 130 square feet of fire-grate.

The tubes are of iron, 288 in number, 4 inches inside diameter, and 63 feet long.
Each vessel has an oval steam-chest, 12 feet high and 8 feet long, and 5 feet broad,
with three uptakes through this steam-chest, each 2 feet diameter and 15 feet long.
This makes a strong form of takeup where it joins the tube plate, especially in boilers
firing across the ship; the feed-pipe of the boilers enters into a long flat tank or
shield in front of the furnaces in which the furnace-doors are formed. This shield
forms a protection to the firemen from heat, and makes the heat, otherwise lost,
available for the feed water. In the ‘Callao’ there is a third coil of feed-pipe in the
funnel, to heat the feed water. Such then are the leading features of this machinery,
and the results are as follows :—

This plan of the boilers gave steam to the engines superheated to about 400 degrees
by the uptakes, showing that the various systems of superheating are unnecessarily
complicated ; indeed, in the ‘ Lima,’ the steam got so far above 400 degrees, that in the
“ Bogota’ the steam-chests were made 2 feet lower, and two small feed-pipes were
made to feed the boiler when too much superheated by a tap in the steam-chest.
The superheated steam, though upwards of 400 degrees of heat, was found quite
inadequate to prevent condensation in the cylinder, without the steam-jacket cock
being fully open.

The writer begs to draw attention to the fact, as in the case of double-cylinder
engines it is so prominently observed, by comparing the respective diagrams of the
low- and high-pressed cylinders, especially as in those engines the cylinders are so
close that the diagram of one is an exact counterpart of the other, when there is no
condensation ; and it is somewhat curious to observe, while taking diagrams of the
low-pressed cylinder, the gradual development of the diagram, with the jacket-cock
fully open, compared with that when it is shut.

When the steam was at a pressure of 21 lbs. above the atmosphere, the tempera-
ture at the surface of the water was 264 degrees, and at the top of the steam-chest
400 degrees Fahr., showing that the steam was surcharged to the extent of 136 de-
grees, notwithstanding that the steam was in direct and unimpeded contact with the
surface of the water. The engines made during. the trial trips, which were generally
half a day in length, from about 23 to 26 revolutions, and indicated from 1000 to
1300 horse-power during that time, and consumed from 20 to 25 ewt. per hour,
with the surface-blow-off cocks open. The‘ Callao,’ ‘ Lima,’ and ‘ Bogota’ have all
shown a consumption of from 2 to 23 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour best
Welsh coals, and the speed of the ships from 123 to 13 knots per hour.

The steam-ship ‘Callao’ has now been plying between Valparaiso and Panama
with Her Majesty’s mails, for upwards of nine months, and has performed her work
in a most satisfactory manner. The distance between these ports is upwards of
3200 miles, and this she performs regularly on about 300 tons of coals. The
‘Callao’ made the run from Liverpool to Valparaiso in, I think, about 36 days.
steaming time, which averages about 240 miles per day during a run of 9000 miles,

deol)

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 233

on a consutiption of about 20 cwt. per hour. The ‘Lima’ has also arrived at her
destination, after a most successful run; she performed the distance of 1500 miles,
from Valparaiso to Callao, in 141 hours, consuming 150 tons of coals, logging at an
average of 260 miles per day during that distance, considerably faster than she had
ever done with her original engines, and on less than half the coals consumed. The
‘Bogota’ was completed and tested on the 1st of September last, and found fully
equal to the others. She made the run from the Cloch Light in the Clyde to the
Bell Buoy at Liverpool in 15 hours, against a strong head wind, and consumed
during that distance 15 tons of Scotch coals.

At the Admiralty trial, which took place immediately on her arrival at Liverpool,
she averaged upwards of 13 knots, the engine made 255 revolutions ; she indicated
1080 horse-power, and consumed about 21 cwt. per hour of Scotch coals; the
steam was superheated to 340 degrees on entering the cylinder, and the thermometer
at the water-level of the boiler showed 264; the pressure in the boilers was 27 lbs.,
and the vacuum in the condensers 26 inches. She left Liverpool for Valparaiso on
the 11th of the present month, with sufficient coals to carry her 5000 miles, at 240
miles per day, and a full complement of stores for the passengers on board; her
draught of water on leaving Liverpool at the load line was, aft, 14 ft. 6 in. ; forward,
13 ft. 9 in.; and displacement, 1700 tons. She steamed to the Holyhead Light,
where the pilot left her, at the rate of 11} nautical miles per hour against a strong
head wind ; the engines were making 20 revolutions ; the steam pressure was 26 lbs. ;
the vacuum 26 inches; and the consumption of coals 22 cwt. best Welsh coals per
hour.

The engineers are now constructing the machinery for three other steam-ships on
this principle, with boilers on the cellular cylindrical spiral principle. In conclu-
sion, the form of engines now described gives regularity of motion while working
expansively to the fullest extent, the expansion principle is fully realized, and the
engines are of a strong architectural figure, with the various parts easily got at, and
reduced to simple forms, and present every facility for reversing freely by the
engine-driver. ei
Experimental Researches to determine the Density of Steam at various Tem-

peratures. By Witi1am Fairsairn, LL.D. F.RS., and Tuomas

TATE.

For a perfect gas, the law which regulates the relation between temperature and
volume is known by Gay-Lussac’s or Dalton’s law, and is expressed by the equation
v XP _459+4,

v,XP, 459+¢-

Steam at the temperature of 212° has a density such that its volume is 1670 times
that of the water which produced it ; substituting these values of volume, temperature,

and pressure, we get for the volume of steam from a unit of water at any other
temperature,

eae oe ee ee ee ae ee

_1670X 15, 459+ x7 a1 459+
v= G70 x P , or V=374 pore tet tees (2)

These are the well-known and received formule from which all the tables of the
density of steam have hitherto been deduced, and on which calculations on the duty
of steam-engines have been founded. They have not, however, up to the present
time been verified by direct experiment ; various speculations and theories have from
time to time been propounded, as giving more accurately the density required, which,
however, need the evidence and verification of direct experiment.

Great difficulties have hitherto stood in the way of making direct experiments.
The temperature of saturation, or temperature at which the whole of the moisture
is converted into steam, whilst no part of the steam is superheated, must be deter-
mined with the utmost accuracy, or the results are of no value.

The difficulties thus resolve themselves into finding some test of sufficient accuracy
and delicacy to determine the point of saturation. This has been overcome by what
may be termed the saturation gauge; and it is in this that the novelty of the pre-
sent experiments consists.

934 REPORT—1859.

To illustrate the principles of the saturation gauge, suppose two globes, A and B,
fig. 1, connected by a bent tube containing mer-
cury at ab, and placed in a bath in which they can |=
be raised to any required temperature. Suppose a |
Torricellian vacuum to have been created in each
globe, and twenty grains of water to have been
’ added to,A, and thirty or forty grainsto B. Now,
suppose the temperature to be slowly and uniformly
raised around these globes; the water in each will
go on evaporating at each temperature, being filled
with steam of a density corresponding to that tem-
perature, and the density being greater as the tem-
perature increases. At last a point will be reached
at which the whole of the water in globe a will be
converted into steam, and at this point the mer-
cury column will rise at a and sink at b; thisisthe saturation test, and the cause of
its action will be easily seen. So long as vaporization went on in both A and B, and
the temperature was maintained uniform, each globe would contain steam of the same
pressure, and the columns of mercury, a and 6, would remain at the same level. But
so soon as the water in A had vaporized, and the steam began to superheat, the press-
ure on a would cease to remain uniform with the pressure on b, and the mercury
column would at once fall, and thus indicate the difference. The instantaneous
change of the position of the mercury is the indication of the point at which the tem-
perature in the bath corresponds with the saturation point of the steam in A.

To show the delicacy of this test, I may instance,
that at 290° Fahrenheit, the mercury column would
rise nearly two inches for every degree of temperature
above the saturation point, as the increase of pressure
arising from vaporization is about twelve times that
arising from expansion in superheating at that point,
and a similar difference exists at other temperatures.

The arrangement of the apparatus, as employed
for experiment, varies according to the pressure and
other circumstances of its use. Fig. 2 represents one
of the arrangements which has been employed with
success. It consists of a glass globe A of about
seventy cubic inches capacity, in which is placed, after
a Torricellian vacuum has been formed, the weighed
globule of water; this is surrounded by a copper
boiler B B, prolonged by a stout glass tube CC, en-
closing the globe stem. This copper boiler forms the
water- and steam-bath through which the globe is
heated, and in fact corresponds to the second globe B
in the former figure. The fluctuating mercury column,
or saturation gauge, is placed at the bottom of the tube
CC, and the saturation point is indicated by the rise of
the inner mercury column 8, and the fall at the same
time of the outer mercury column c. As soon as the
whole of the water in the globe A is evaporated, there is
an instantaneous rise of the inner mercury column to re-
store the balance of pressure, and that progressively
with the rise of temperature.

As an auxiliary apparatus the boiler is provided with
gas-jets, E, to heat it, and with an open oil bath G to
retain the glass tubes at the same temperature as the
boiler, and this oil-bath is placed on a sand-bath, and
also heated with gas. A thermometer D registers the
temperature, and a pressure gauge F the pressure of
the steam ; and a blow-off cock H serves to reduce the
temperature when necessary. A number of results

"Ota
Fae.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 235

have already been obtained, but they are not yet sufficiently advanced to be made
public. The following numbers have been, however, approximately reduced from the
theoretical formula above, and the experimental results may illustrate the use of this
method of research. The most convenient way of expressing the density of steam, is
by stating the number of volumes into which the water of which it is composed has
expanded. Thus one cubic inch of water expands into about 1670 cubic inches of
steam at 212° Fahr., into 882 cubic inches at 251°, and into 400 cubic inches at 304°,
and so on; in this way the following numbers have been computed :—

Temperature Pressure in Volume by
Fahr. ins. of Mercury. Experiment.
155°33 8°62 5326
159°36 9°45 4914
174°92 13°62 3433
188°30 18°36 2620
242°90 53°61 941
244°82 55°52 906
255°50 66°84 758
267°21 81°53 634
279°42 99°60 514
287°25 112°78 457
292°53 122°25 432

These determinations at pressures varying from ten to fifty lbs. above the atmo-
sphere, uniformly show a decided deviation from the law for perfect gases, and in
the direction anticipated by Professor Thomson, the density being uniformly greater
than that indicated by the gaseous formula. We hope, by the time of the next meet-
ing of the Association, to be enabled to lay before the Section a series of results
which will fully determine the value of superheated steam, and its density and volume
as compared with water at all pressures, varying from that of the atmosphere to 500
Ibs. on the square inch.

An Experimental Illustration of the Gyroscope. By ALEXANDER GERARD.

Description of the Granite Quarries of Aberdeen and Kincardineshire.
By ALEXANDER GIBB.

The author gives an account of the commencement, progress and present condition
of the granite quarries of Aberdeenshire and Kincardineshire, particularly of those in
the immediate neighbourhood of Aberdeen, giving an account of the chief uses to
which the stone has been applied. He then proceeds to show the most economic
methods of working, the drawing steam power required, the tools and number of
workmen employed, with the improved methods of dressing the stone, and the various
ornamental as well as useful purposes to which the stone has been applied.

On Gas Carriages for lighting Railway Carriages with Coal-gas instead

of Ou. By G. Harr.

The author proposes to have a reservoir of gas or a carriage constructed to carry
gas and to accompany each train. He then proceeds to show how it may be con-
veyed to each carriage and burned in the ordinary way. Supposing a train to
consist of two first, four second, and four third-class carriages, and fitted up with
twenty-two Argand burners (twelve holes), the quantity of gas required for a journey
of twelve hours would be 800 feet.

On Indian River Steamers and Tow Boats. By ANpRrEew HENDERSON.

The author gave an account of their improved construction for light draft, capa-
bility for cargo, and fittings conducive to management in shallow rapid rivers, &c.,
and of the practical value of the dynamometer in showing the resistance of vessels
in tow, at different speeds and loads, with the result of test-trials made in England.

—_

236 REPORT—1859.

Ona Deep-sea Pressure Gauge. By Henry JoHNson.

The pressure gauge may, in its present form, be considered as a small hydraulic
press ; of which the ram is forced into the cylinder by the increasing pressure of the
sea when sinking, and expelled by the expansion of the water in the cylinder when
rising.

It consists of asmall tube or cylinder having at one end a tap, through which
water is admitted; the tap having in addition to the passage admitting water, a
smaller passage for the escape of air. At the other end of the cylinder is a packing
box, through which a round bolt or solid piston passes. A scale by the side of the
piston contains the degrees of compression, and an index at the further end of the
scale is drawn along the scale by the piston when forced by increasing pressure into
the cylinder, and secured in its position by a spring taking hold on a toothed rack
at the side of the scale, where it remains when the piston is pushed back by expan-
sion of water in the cylinder to its former position.

The scale aud index are protected by a tube screwed on to the cylinder, and the
cylinder is protected from the risk of indentation by an outer tube.

In an experimental instrument the packing-box has remained water-tight under
the application of a pressure of 400 lbs, to the square inch on the piston ; so that
the isolation may be considered sufficiently perfect, as in actual use this pressure on
water in the cylinder would be counterbalanced by the external pressure of the ocean.

As the amount of friction required to obtain this isolation is considerable, and
may be affected by the screwing down the packing-box, it would be desirable that
after any alteration of the packing-box the instrument should be suspended, and the
amount of friction ascertained, by hanging on to the piston a weight sufficient to
overcome the friction.

In ascertaining the pressure of water, the amount of friction overcome should be
added to the compression indicated by the index, to obtain the total amount of
pressure.

Some portion of the diminution of bulk will probably be occasioned by variation
of temperature, and which causes a greater variation in bulk at high temperature—

As 4000 parts of sea-water at the temperature of 86° Fahr.,

contracted to 3986 parts at the temperature of 65°, being ;34, parts for 21°.
While from the temperature of 65° to 35°, the diminution

to 3977 parts was only at the rate Of ......sseeseeereenes ++» go00 Parts for 30°.

The contraction of the cylinder by variation of temperature counteracts the varia-
tion of water to a very small extent, being about ;7;;th parts for 40° Fahr.

On Surface Condensation. By J. P. Jourr, LL.D., PRS,

The author described the experiments he had made on this important subject.
A peculiar arrangement he had introduced gave a very increased effect to a given
surface. In this arrangement a copper spiral was placed in the water spaces. The
spiral had the effect of giving the water a rotatory motion, and the water was thus
compelled to travel over a larger surface than it otherwise would do.

On a Submarine Lamp. By Mv. Kerrie.

The principle on which the lamp is constructed and depends for action, is that
arising from the discrepancy of the gravity of the two columns of air necessarily
engaged, viz. the column of cold for supplying combustion, and the column of heated
air ejected; and in the arrangement of the tubes, advantage is taken to foster the
peculiar qualities of the respective columns ; thus the cold being made to descend by
the larger and outer tube, whose surface is exposed to the action of the water; while
the heated or centre column is placed immediately over the powerful burner of the
lamp.

The lamp may be made either of a globular or cylindrical form, the bottom being
made of brass, with a large screwed opening for the admission of the Argand burner
used; on the top of the globe is a brass cap, into which is screwed a strong copper”

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 237

tube, in the centre of which is fixed another tube } less in diameter, and so fixed that
air may pass freely in the space between the two: the lower end of this inner tube
has a trumpet-shaped termination, which enters into the globe, reaching within two
inches of the top of the chimney of the Argand burner of the lamp. The upper ends
of the tubes terminate in a sort of lantern-top, which is divided into a lower and
upper compartment; from the lower compartment the larger tube conveys the air
required by the lamp for effecting combustion ; while through the upper compart-
ment is discharged, by the inner or centre tube, the vitiated air as ejected from
the lamp.

On a New Gas-burner. By the Abbé Moteno.

On an Automatic Injector for feeding Boilers, by M. Giffard.
By the Abbé Moreno.

On a Helico-meter, an Instrument for measuring the Thrust of the Screw
Propeller. By the Abbé Motcno.

On an Application of the Moving Power arising from Tides to Manufac-
turing, Agricultural, and other purposes ; and especially to obviate the
Thames Nuisance. By the Abbé Moteno.

On the Performance of Steam-vessels. By Vice-Admiral Moorsom.

At the last Meeting of the Association, the author presented a paper in which
some account was given of the ‘Erminia:’ he now presents further particulars of
that vessel, with remarks on performance.

The performance at the measured mile, being the mean of four trips, was as
follows :—

Speed of veasel, knots; scsaxecessonsasedseusecensssspssense 6

Speed of screw, knots ......0++ S epacdccesdesmuthiaaasiteey, th Cee
Sal BR ICCUE tossocscaccaqresceseesesss™ Besmctodas Stoo Heseckc 10°66
Revolutions per minute .....-....0.scccserevcescosucsccees 52°37.
Indicator horse-power by eight diagrams ............ 54°59
Mean pressure in boiler...... naan esenaess aavapeednystasnaen) DLC Wns
Mean pressure in Cylinder <<. ......ccccsssessccasenccsenge 32°07 lbs.

From calculations previously made, it was anticipated that a speed of six knots
would require 90 horse-power, and that the slip might be about 21 per cent. The
resistance of the vessel at six knots in smooth water was first estimated by resolving
the resisting surfaces into an equivalent plane surface, and deducing the specific
resistance of form by an empirical application of the method of Don Gorges Juan.
This gave 2763°5lbs. Jt was, secondly, estimated by another empirical process,
which I had found to answer within given limits of form, and was founded on
Beaufoy’s experiments. This gave a specific resistance of 1896lbs. The pitch of a
serew of 8 fect diameter, to produce a resultant thrust of 2763°5 lbs, at six knots,
is 13°37. The pitch selected being 13 feet, the slip to balance should be 21°11 per
cent. Then how comes the actual slip to be only 10°66 per cent.?

The answer to this is the key to the whole operation, and it is this :—

The direct thrust of the screw under the actual circumstances of the trial was
2122°7 lbs., and the resultant was 1896°4 lbs., and the difference of the ratios of
their square roots is 10°66.

But 1896 lbs. is also the specific resistance as estimated by the second method, and
as the thrust calculated by an independent process comes out the same, within half
a pound, the concurrence of the two scems to establish that as the actual resistance
- the time of the trial. Such concurrence may not, however, be held to be con-
clusive.

238 REPORT—1859.

There are two modes by which these results may be tested, the one analytical, the
other synthetical.

I will begin with the first, and employ the other in elucidation. The effective power,
or total resistance, from the actual power of 54°59 horse-power, or 1801470 lbs. at
six knots, is 2961°67 lbs., which is thus distributed :—

Ibs.
Specific resistance ......ssceccecsesessesceees 1896
Equivalent, of siipimsssastessseretarescdsss:) 0 S15°07
Resultant of absorbed power «.....00066 750

Natalteepsessssacisstesegestssoren<” 2OOL09

I have in this analysis, as in my former paper, classed under the general term
‘equivalent of slip,”” two distinct elements, which I must now separate.

The first is that portion of the effective power which overcomes the resistance of
the water to the rotation of the blades of the screw, and which is sometimes called
“lateral slip.”” The second is that portion of the effective power which is employed
in pushing back the water to obtain a fulcrum.

Ibs.
Elie firsts 92 iiss sedecsssases asncenOL
The second is .......0e0006 Risesiees 1 MULIAOY.

Making together the.......... 315°67

The absorbed power is composed of—Ist, the friction of moving the machinery ;
2nd, the additional friction of the load; 3rd, the back pressure (as we are dealing
with a non-condensing engine) from the blast-pipes.

Ibs.
For the first we have .....ccccseesseees 136°92
For the second .......cescsccceesess sesear LEO °O0

Wor jtheeuird sy sececses-cestesestrocss eee eo as
Making the total of ..........6008. 750

In order to give a clearer view of these elements, I will reverse them, and show the
corresponding pressure upon the piston :—

Pressure on piston.

Ibs. lbs. per square inch.
PGR PEGOKG s.ccunssvestarcsne sesuuceasacrvsacesmed ta aaa 4°64
Additional friction of load ............4. decueowsee a) 139,00 2°07
Moving friction? Jiiecvcesces<0-odtdcracvactestesses’ op AS05002 1°50
Resistance of water to rotation of blades ...... 204°00 2°23
Slip in terms of effective power ssssseeseeeneee 11167 1°22
Specific resistance of vessel ........ssseeeseeveee 1896°00 20°78

Making the totals of ...........0... 2961°67 and 32°44

The pressure on the piston by the diagrams is 32°07 lbs., showing a difference of
0°37, which may be considered near enough.

Now, if it be said that this is an arbitrary classification not resting upon known
data, I reply, not altogether so. I have lying before me diagrams of back-pressure
from 3°45 lbs. per square inch on the piston, moving at 236 feet per minute, with a
mean pressure of 67°56 lbs. to 12°3 Ibs. per square inch on the piston, moving at 569
feet per minute, with a mean pressure of 65 lbs., the diameters of blast-pipes varying
from 4} to 4} inches, and the relations of steam ports from 14 X 13 inches to 12314
inches of area.

The ‘ Erminia’s’ blast-pipes were 4 inches in diameter, the steam ports 12 14,
and the speed of piston 157 feet per minute, with a pressure of 32°07 lbs. per square
inch in the cylinder.

The back-pressure of 4°64 lbs. which results from the analysis is therefore pro-
bable, and consistent with experience.

The next element of additional friction arising from the load, viz. 2°07 lbs. per ;

square inch, is calculated upon the specific resistance of 1896 lbs., and may be dis-

:
A
;

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 239

puted, because there are no satisfactory experiments on the subject. It is an esti-
mate, and may be in excess.

The next element of the pressure to move the machinery, viz. 1°5 lb. per square
inch, is a little over the mean of certain trials made by my direction, of which the
diagrams are before me, the maximum being 1°63 lb., and the minimum 1°14 |b.

To this no reasonable exception can be taken.

The resistance to the rotation of the blades, 2°23 lbs., is calematal upon the basis
of such experiments as I have access to on the friction of water on iron, and on the
effective periphery of the screw.

For this element, also, more precise experiments are needed, and it must be con-
sidered an estimate only.

The slip, 1°221b., requires no elucidation, except that it is what remains after
deducting the effect of the resistance to the rotation of the blades. The specific re-
sistance, equal to 20°78 lbs. per square inch on the piston, or in the convertible terms
of 1896 lbs. of effective power, may therefore be dealt with as a probable result, and
if so, the power of the screw is needlessly in excess of any resistance the ‘ Erminia’
is likely to offer; and I have explained why it is so, viz. because it was designed to
produce a thrust at about 21 per cent. of slip, about 50 per cent. greater than the
resistance of the vessel in smooth water, which resistance, viz. 2763°5 lbs., turns out
to be 45 per cent. greater than the actual resistance.

Hence the screw is capable of a thrust nearly double of what the ‘ Erminia’ re-
quires in smooth water.

What, then, is the most suitable size and proportion of screw for this yacht?

I believe it will be found that the diameter should be as large as is consistent with
its being sufficiently immersed, but no larger; and that the pitch should then be such
as to produce a thrust to balance the resistance under ordinary conditions at sea
with a moderate slip.

If the screw be 8 feet diameter, then, to produce a thrust of 1896 lbs. at 6 knots,
the pitch must be 9°18 feet, and the slip about 135 per cent.

But, under ordinary conditions at sea, the resistance will be increased, and it is
expedient to have a coarser pitch, in order that the thrust may balance the resistance
without excessive slip.

If we assume the specific resistance at a mean between the two calculated results
before described, or 2329°75 lbs., the pitch must be 11°27 feet; and when the thrust
works up to this resistance, the slip will be about 20 per cent.

The next vessel to which I must invite attention is the yacht of the Duke of Suther-
land, mentioned in my former paper.

Full particulars of the performance of the ‘ Undine,’ at the measured mile in the
Thames, on the 6th July, 1858, in Loch-Lochy on the 27th October, and in Loch-
Ness on the preceding day, have been laid before the “ Steam- ship Performance
Committee ” by Mr. M‘Connell.

The particulars of this vessel are :—

Length of water-line........s.ssssssscscereseee 125 feet.
Breadth, extreme........sseeeeee sdedaucers eens eo teeb.
YOlie 8°6 inch.

Draught of water ......cccccessssceceres LA 11°10 inch

Displacement about ...-........eeeee PRStencee 294 tons.
Area of greatest transverse section ......... 154°33 sq. feet.
Diameter. Of SCrew | ...cccccccesscoscnsecessere 7°10 inch.
MilrUem Oc Culeraiiiccaniveavdcdesssceacesvecenetce aA lgtunnehis
CHO EN Gass seamatsdaacs. si¢<suaeneee SEL ACE sarcr cee 1*4_ inch.
Extreme breadth of blade.. Sones beefarace 2°8 inch.
ATEa OL DIAG ADOHE ws. scccnssscccserecs seaesey UdjSd:gtepte
Immersion of periphery ............ egeaswa 1°8 inch.
Diameter of cylinder.........++ Seer peaaee 0°24 inch.
NLORC Mor csi adaedeeueeeessepscecssconoessnens ates 0°15 inch.
ATOR) Of fG-PTALCVerereddecscccccasacccase as wee 45 8q. feet.

Plate: SUrfacelociscsdeeessevesssoss.ccav'sdacessee 200 BQ aitects
UOBGSrevcvetadsssctssenvariccsisecssssasvsveversere. | OZ OSC mieen,

240 REPORT—1859,

The performance on the 6th of July was :—

Npeediof vessel esse. ceneessesdacecerenes sgorena 9°26 knots.
SS CLE Wis unis semesisee as cia meviacige os lssicacamabencenta ca 11°29 knots,
Slipper Centecscn.ssaecscas= cvensaeeteen eer aceys 17°91 knots,
Revolutions per minute .........seceeceseeee 101°74 knots.
Indicator horse-power by diagrams ...... 157°09 knots.
Ibs. per sq. in.
Mean pressure in cylinder ......eescesoseese 12°28
Mean pressure from VaCcUUM ......ee0008, se el O70
Total pressure fe svea-csreectfentaescece decneesen 22°98
Mean pressure in boiler ......sscsseceeeeeeee 15°80

Now, the specific resistance of the ‘ Undine’ at 9°26 knots, estimated as the
‘Erminia’s,’ by the empirical rule founded on Beaufoy’s experiments, is 3809°4 lbs,
By the synthetical method it is as under, viz.—

Ibs. per Ibs. in terms of
square inch. effective power.
Moving ‘frictiones.fisvares. 14 sass vecseseccaess 0 12°40 342°89
Additional friction for load .,..........0e 1°55 380°94
Resistance to rotation of blades .......... 2°37 582°50
Slip in terms of effective power ....... ae 6B 405'10
Total, less specific resistance ...... esensy » (050% 1711°43
Total pressure and effective power ...... 22°51 5517
Specific resistance......... ertseanateenerares 15°54 3805'°57

The difference between 3805°57 and 3809°4 is not material in estimates such as
this.

It will be seen, also, that there is a difference of 0°47 lb. per square inch in the
aggregate pressure as compared with that given by the diagrams.

So far the two methods are in harmony; but now I have to show a screw that is
not so tractable.

The direct thrust at 11°29 knots is 7469°3 lbs., and the slip being 17°91 per cent.,
the resultant is 5022°3 lbs., or more than 31 per cent, greater than the resistance of
the vessel.

This, however, cannot be so, and the apparent excess must be accounted for.

1 have already said that the screw must be sufficiently immersed, in order that its
thrust may be that which is due to its diameter and pitch.

What is sufficient is yet an open question. The ‘ Erminia’s’ was 2 feet 6 inches,
the ‘ Undine’s’ only 1 foot 8 inches.

I believe this to be the explanation of the anomaly.

The apparent thrust of 5022°3 lbs. was really an effective thrust of only 3805°57 lbs,
in consequence of the rotation of the blade breaking up the surface of the water.

This screw would produce, if sufficiently immersed, a resultant thrust of 3805°57 Ibs.
at 9°26 knots, with a slip of 10°32, say 10% per cent.

The actual slip was 17°91 per cent.

We have now reached one of the most interesting of the investigations, which, in my
former memoranda, I pointed out as worthy of the attention of the British Association.

This is an investigation by experiment not difficult to accomplish, and yet I con-
clude it has not had the consideration of the naval authorities, as they continue to
give screws to their ships, which are only immersed about one-fourth to one-eighth
of their diameter, whereas the ‘ Erminia’s’ was immersed about one-third, while
the ‘ Undine’s’ was about one-fifth. The due proportion of immersion will, I
believe, be found to depend somewhat on the speed of rotation. :

On the Maneeuvring of Screw Vessels.
By Admiral Parts, C.B., of the Imperial French Navy.
The propelling properties of the paddles and of the screw are very different accord-
ing to the form, mode of acting, and especially the position of the propellers in
the ship.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 241

The paddle acts at the surface of the water and pushes it in the direction of the
keel, when working ahead. Thus the current produced by the resistance of the water
is useless to the rudder, because it acts only on the upper part, where it presents no
flat surface.

The screw acts on the water by a twisted surface, which, instead of pushing back
the water in the direction of the keel gives it a whirling motion and projects it abaft
in the shape of a cone, producing a current in the same way that the paddle-wheels
do; but being below the surface of the water, and the propeller being just ahead of
the rudder, the latter receives the impulse of this artificial current which acts before
the ship has moved, because the inertia makes her resist, for a few minutes, the
impulse of the propeller.

Hence a principle is deducible, viz. that the paddle-wheel ship cannot steer without
moving, and that, on the other hand, screw ships steer before moving, and that even
long after the propeller is at work, if any object offers resistance to its translating
action.

Another difference arises from the action of the screw, because its blades are
oblique to the length of the ship, and all of them are pushing the stern not only ahead
or astern, but also sideways, so that if the water were equally resistant close to the
surface and below it, the equilibrium of both vertical blades would make the screw
act equally throughout its path. But this is not the case: the water being more
resistant as the depth increases, the lower blade finds more difficulty in moving than
the upper one; and the stern being acted on sideways by this difference in the resist-
ance, the ship will not move straight ahead ; and if the rudder does not balance this
effect, she will always deviate to the same side when going astern. This effect will
naturally be more or less energetic according to the immersion of the screw and the
relative pitch; for if the screw shaft were at the level of the sea, and the pitch in-
finite—that is, should the blade be in the place of the axis, the stern will only be de-
viated and not propelled; consequently, in the actual state of things, the side action
of the screw on the stern is a mixture of the propelling and of the lateral effect : this
cannot be avoided, and is only lessened by a deeper immersion, or reduction of pitch; -
and the direction is according to the side of the thread ; so that a right-handed thread
deviates the ship to larboard when going ahead, and to starboard when going astern ;
it is the reverse for a left-handed thread.

From this it would appear, at first sight, that the paddle acts much better in making
a ship steer well than the screw, and that the disturbances of the screw on the true
shipway present obstacles to the management of theship. But it is not so; and these
properties of the screw can be used in such a way as to make various manceuvres,
impossible with paddles.

Thus ifa ship is required to turn short at the moment before leaving her anchorage,
the paddle vessel will want ropes, or at least sails, if the direction of the wind per-
mits, and her propeller will be used only to resist the wind or to act in the direction .
of the keel. The screw, however, enables her to turn round on the same place when
in a calm ; for if the ship has a little more cable out than the depth of water, so that
the anchor will still offer a small resistance, and she moves her screw slowly, the
anchor holding on, prevents the ship from going ahead, whilst at the same time the
screw throws water on the rudder and makes it steer the ship as though she were
under way: this is well known; and many vessels are handled in this way to give
them the proper direction without moving ahead ; and when at the proper point of
the compass, they weigh anchor and go ahead.

If she is not at anchor, ascrew ship can also turn herself by her own inertia: thus,
if the screw backs, the ship will begin to turn her head to starboard, and when she
has gone about half her length, reverse the engines, and work them quicker with the
helm a-port—the ship will go alead but turn on the same side; so by repeating
several times the same reversing operation, the turn of the horizon will be made
much more quickly than would at first be supposed, and the space required to turn
in may be lessened at pleasure by shortening each period of the operation.

If there is any breeze the sails can be employed to accelerate the evolution, either
hy their oblique action, as with the gib or the mizen sail, or by being used only to
resist the impulse of the propeller, in order to give it a more energetic oblique action.
So with the wind ahead, and the main-top sail bearing on the mast, a stronger current

1859. 16

249 REPORT—1859.,

is produced on the rudder’s surface ; and when the wind is abaft, the same sail being
full, a greater speed may be given to the screw in order to make its oblique action
stronger and let the ship turn quicker. In the intermediate positions between the
head and the back wind, the main-top sail is directed in such a manner that it is
always acting against the screw. These manceuvres of screw ships have been exe-
cuted several times, and have enabled ships to enter crowded roads and to pass
through spaces where ordinarily it would have been impossible to pass.

Ships are sometimes required to remain in one position without dropping anchor ;
with sails, as with paddles, there is always lee way, and the ship cannot keep the
same position unless with a beam wind. It is also difficult to take another ship in
tow, as large ships want much time to send their heavy tow ropes on board, and have
generally to drop anchor and weigh again when the second one is in tow; this is a
very long operation, and may be readily avoided by making use of the properties of
the screw when the wind is ahead or astern. Suppose, for instance, that a ship is
intending to take in tow another lying atanchor. She will sheet and hoist her mizen-
top sail and gallant sail according to the wind, and place herself a short distance ahead
of the other, and make her engine work slowly. Thus as the backing force of the
mizen sails would be compensated by the heading force of the propeller, the ship
acted on by these two equalized and opposite forces will be motionless, but she will
steer as well as if making way, on account of the artificial current before alluded to,
and may change her direction or remain quite motionless, regardless of the direction
of her head, as long as may bedesired. This I have done several times when ordered
to take ships in tow, and once remained nearly twenty minutes in almost exactly the
same position.

This combination of both propelling powers, the sails and the screw, may also be
used to maintain the ships with an oblique direction of the wind, two or three points,
for example, by bracing properly the mizen-top sail; but when there is a slight lee
way, and if the wind blows in the direction of the beam, it is the common condition
of sailing or paddle vessels standing on.

Condensed Abstract of a First Set of Experiments, by Messrs. Robert Napier
and Sons, on the Strength of Wrought Iron and Steel. By W. J. Mac-
quorn Rankine, C4, LL.D. F.RSS. L. § E.

The experiments to which this abstract relates form the first set of a long series
now in progress by Messrs. Robert Napier and Sons, the details being conducted by
their assistant, Mr. Kirkcaldy. The whole results are now in the course of being
printed in extenso, for publication in the ‘ Transactions of the Institution of Engineers
in Scotland’ for the session 1858-50*.

The present abstract is all that ithas been found practicable to prepare in time for
the meeting of the British Association ; and, notwithstanding its brevity and extreme
condensation, it is believed that the results which it shows will be found of interest
and importance. It gives the tenacity and the ultimate extension, when on the point
of being torn asunder, of the strongest and the weakest kinds of iron and steel from
each of the districts mentioned. Each result is the mean of four experiments at least,
and sometimes of many more.

The detailed tables, now being printed, will show many more particulars, and
especially the contraction of the bars in transverse area along their length generally,
owing to “drawing out,” and the still greater contraction at the point of fracture.
The experiments now complete were all made with loads applied gradually, Experi-
ments on the effect of suddenly applied loads are in progress.

Iron Bars.

Tenacity in lbs, Ultimate extension in
per sq. inch. decimals of length.

Yorkshire: strongest.....sscseecsesessesseesees 62886 0°256
” Weakest .orerescsescersseeess rane 60075 0°205
Py (forged) .......cscee Sua EROS 66392 0°202

* This volume of ‘ Transactions’ has since been published.

mci Sy

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 248

Tenacity in lbs, Ultimate extension in
per sq. inch, decimals of length,

Staffordshire: strongest ...ssseeesseseee sooee 62231 0°222
¥ VWARKESE cs. scp cevecsenstvaestes . 56715 0°225

West of Scotland: strongest .......++s0e0+ ««- 64795 0°173
a> WEAKESE eresereyreeseeeees DOO55 0-191
Sweden: strongest ...sccccsesee asada ‘srsaspn 40ene 0'264
mn MpeakPEE! hs csenetys sats cuswathes sees 47855 0°278
Rusgia: strangest pereerrcessosessepsesasecscese 56805 0°153
* WEAKESED srsiesssscaseane cas saccecerses 49504 0°133

Iron PuatEs.
Tenacity in lbs. Ultimate extension in”
per sq. inch, decimals of length.

Yorkshire: strongest lengthwise.........-«. 56005 07141
a weakest lengthwise ...++... ye» 52000 0°131
iF strongest CrOSSWISC sss.+eeeeeee 50515 0:093
as weakest CrosSWiSE o-s++0.0++ ay hagad 0:076

Note.—The strongest lengthwise is the weakest crosswise, and vice versd.

Sreex Bars.
Tenacity inlbs. Ultimate extension in
persq.inch, decimals of length.

Steel for tools, rivets, &c,: strongest ......132909 0°054
» weakest ...+.. 101151 0°108

Steel for other purposes: strongest......... 92015 0°153
oa weakest .....08. 71486

Sree PLaTEs.
Tenacity in lbs. Ultimate extension in
per sq. inch. decimals of length.

Strongest lengthwise........sesssescsssseescers 94289 0°0571
Weakest lengthwise ........ basecaress RerreNeot 75594 0'1982
Strongest crosswise ......+ssssesseoes sessenees 96308 00964
Weakest crosswise ...ssessessseeees Ree tine OOOLG 0°1964

Note.—The strongest and weakest lengthwise are also respectively the strongest
and weakest crosswise.

On the Comparative Value of Propellers. By Joun Ross.

Robertson’s Patent Chain Propeller. By Peter SPENCE,

The peculiar principle of Mr. Robertson’s invention is, that he applies the power
by dragging the vessel from a fixed point; and its great ingenuity is, that the fixed
point is at the same time a moveable one, a constantly fixed point in relation to the
power exerted by the engine in propelling the vessel, and a constantly changing
point in relation to the course on which the vessel is being propelled. The con-
struction of the propelling apparatus is as follows :—At or near the bows of a boat,
say 70 feet long, is placed a steam-engine, the main shaft of which crosses the
bows of the vessel at or about the level of the deck; a fixed pulley is attached to
each end of this shaft, these pulleys projecting over the sides of the vessel; they
are three feet or more in diameter, and on their periphery have a hollow or
groove to receive the chains which are to run over them; they are also so constructed
as to take a firm hold of the chains as the power is exerted in dragging the chains
over the pulleys. On the other or the stern end of the boat are two pulleys, also
projected over, one on each side; these are loose, so that the chains merely run over
them. Friction rollers are also placed along each side of the vessel, to carry the
chains as they pass from the stern to the bows of the vessel; the chains, which are
endless, pass or are dragged over fixed pulleys at the bow of the vessel ; and falling
down, lie along the bottom of the canal, and thus become the fixed point or lineal
anchor on which the power acts; the action of the engine in dragging the chain
over the loose and fixed pulleys being necessarily to drag or propel the boat forward.

16*

944. REPORT—1859.

Every yard of the chain passed over the pulleys representing a yard of space that
the boat has progressed in her course—the fixed point or length of chain lying at
the bottom of the canal still remaining the same, what is taken up at the stern being
replaced by exactly the same length deposited at the bows. The speed of the vessel
is thus exactly equivalent to the:speed and size of the driving pulleys, unless, indeed,
there should be any slip of the chain in passing over them, and this in practice is
easily prevented, and is again exactly measured by the velocity of the chain, unless
there should be a slip of the chain along the whole length over the bottom of the
canal, and this, of course, is a mere matter of the weight of the chain.

On the Nomenclature of Metrical Measures of Length.
By G. Joustone Stoney, M.A., MRA.

In this paper many circumstances were pointed out which render the French names
of decimetre, centimetre, and millimetre unsuited to this country. They are foreign
to the genius of our language, which delights in short pithy words; the information
they convey is useless, as the fact that each measure is one-tenth of that above it is
one of that class which it is impossible to forget, and they fail in several common
requisites of a good nomenclature.

Names of measures for ordinary use should, if possible, be monosyllables ; for the
convenience of reference they should begin with different initial letters; they should
so wholly differ in sound that even when imperfectly pronounced they could not be
mistaken for one another, and they should convey some information which would
facilitate the use of the measures by those who are unfamiliar with them.

To combine these advantages, it was suggested that hand or hand-breadth should
be used as the English equivalent for decimetre, nail or nail-breadth for centimetre,
and line for millimetre. The author stated that he had had abundant experience of
the assistance afforded to beginners by these names, from their promptly suggesting,
without any mental effort, the absolute length of each measure.

Attention was also directed to the importance of giving a distinct name to the
tenth part of the line or millimetre, in order to discourage the use of binary subdivi-
sions: mite was suggested as asuitable name.

The paper closed by urging that the use of foot-rules graduated along one side to
metrical measures should in every possible way be encouraged.

On the true Action of what are called Heat-diffusers. By A. Taytor.

Gases do not radiate the heat which they contain; so that the only mode in which
a gas can communicate its heat to a surface is by contact or conduction: this in
the present practice is the only mode in which the heating surfaces of a boiler which
are not exposed to the radiation of the fire or flame can abstract heat from the pro-
ducts of combustion: but if in a flue or tube a solid body be introduced, it will
become heated by contact with the gases, and will radiate the heat thus received to
the sides of the flue. It will be admitted that the amount of heat thus conveyed to
the water may be very important, when it is considered that the temperature of the
gases in the tubes of a boiler at five or six inches from the fire-box tube plate is
about 800° Fahr., and that these radiators will consequently have a temperature of
several hundred degrees above that of the surfaces in contact with the water in the
boiler, and that a very active radiation must consequently take place from one to the
other. This principle once established, the modes of application in practice are of
course endless. It is, however, unnecessary to make the radiating surfaces of such
a form as to impede the draught. I would rather choose the form which would
give the greatest amount of radiating surface and offer the least impediment to the
free passage of the products of combustion through the tubes. Perhaps as effective
a form as any for placing in the tubes of boilers would be a simple straight band of
metal, or a wider band bent in the direction of its breadth at an angle of 60° thus—

to enable the tubes to be swept. —-

Description of various Models of Fire Escapes, Boat-lowering Apparatus, Sc.
By Apvam Topp.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 245

On a Mode for Suspending, Disconnecting, and Hoisting Boats attached to
Sailing Ships and Steamers at Sea. By E. A. Woop.

APPENDIX.
MATHEMATICS AND PuysIcs.

On a remarkable specimen of Chalcedony, belonging to Miss Campbell, and
exhibiting a perfectly distinct and well-drawn landscape. By Sir Davip
Brewster, A.A, LL.D., F.RS. :

Sir David Brewster, who had examined the specimen, ascertained that the land-
scape was not between two plates subsequently united, but was in the interior of a
solid piece of chalcedony.

He stated that chalcedony was porous, and that the landscape was drawn by a
solution of nitrate of silver, which entered the pores of the mineral.

Sir David Brewster stated that above thirty years ago he had examined a similar
specimen, belonging to the late Mr. Gilbert Innes of Stow, who had paid a large
price for it. Having no doubt that the figure of a cock which it contained was drawn
by nitrate of silver, introduced into the pores of the mineral, he induced the late
Mr. Somerville, a lapidary in Edinburgh, to make the experiment ; and he succeeded
in introducing the figure of a dog into the interior of the mineral.

The curious fact, however, displayed by the specimen now exhibited to the Section,
is that the landscape had entirely disappeared after being kept four years in the dark.

When the specimen was received yesterday from Miss Campbell, the landscape was
wholly obliterated; but after the exposure of an hour this morning, it reappeared
in the distinctest manner, as may be seen by looking at it against a white ground.

It is of importance to remark that the figure of the cock in Mr. Innes’s specimen
which was very strong in its tint, had never been seen either to disappear or to
diminish in its tints.

On the Connexion between the Solar Spots and Magnetic Disturbances.
By Sir Davip Brewster, K.H., LL.D., F.RS.

On a Method of reducing Observations of Underground Temperatures. By
J. D. Everett, Professor of Mathematics in King’s College, Windsor,
Nova Scotia.

The paper commenced by an acknowledgment of obligation to Prof. W. Thomson,
LL.D., of Glasgow, for a knowledge of the principle on which the method is based.
The objects sought to be attained are,—lIst, to express the temperature in terms of
the time of year (on the average of a number of years); and 2nd, to deduce the
conducting power of the soil. ‘The paper contained an application of the method to
temperatures observed during the seventeen years 1838-54, at the Royal Edinburgh
Observatory. ‘lhe underground thermometers at this Observatory are four in number,
and are at depths of 3, 6, 12 and 24 French feet respectively. ‘Their average tem-
peratures for each calendar month were—

Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| Apr. | May. | June.| July.| Aug. |Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec.
At 3 feet...45°57 [39°64 |40°31 [45-45 [45°87 [49-86 52-70 |53°82 [52-75 Ss bse 42°62
At 6 feet../43°59 }42°35 |42°00 [42°79 |44°65 |47°23 49-71 51°31 |51°54 50°11 |47°81 |45°48
At 12 feet..J46°84 |45°82 [45°06 |44°68 |44°88 [45°63 46°84 48°07 |48-96 |49°27 |49°02 |47-94
At 24 feet 46°55 |46°69 |46

‘97 pss 47°61 |47°79

246

REPORT—1859;

From these data the temperature of any one of the thermometers may be expressed

in the form

v=A,+A, cos ee +B, sin ana +A, cos ten +B, sin tn, +&e, . (1)

where v is the temperature at the time ¢ reckoned from the middle of January, T is
the periodic time (a year), and the constants A,, A,, A,, B,, B, are found in the

manner shown below :—

IL II. Ill. IV. ei a
ee 5 &
Tempera-|Tempera- Last two|[II.—IV.| "s. |Products.|III.+-1V. a Products.
tures of} tures of | Sy hg numbers a =
first six] last six} ~* ‘| in IIL ss S
months.| months. reversed

4057 | 5270 |—1213 | ° |—1813 | s, | 1213 | ~1343 | 0 “00
39°64 53°82 | —14:18 | 47:24 | —21-42 | S, | —18°55 | — 6-94 se hse 3°47
40°31 52°75 | —12°44 | +035 | —12:79 | S, | — 6°39 | —12-09 S, —10°47
42°45 49°15 | — 6:70 NS) 3 — 670! 1 |— 670
45:87 45°52 | + 0°35 _—__—.
49°86 | 42°62 |+ 7:24 6)| —20°64

B,=|_—_3°44

—_—

V. VI. Ss
—_——— —| V.—VI.|
First half of Last half of =
(LIL) | (1411) S
93°27 91-60 | +167 | 1/+1:67 | 44-67
93:46 91:39 | +207 | S,|+1-035 | 42-07
93°06 92-48 | 40:58 |—S,| —0-290 | +0-58

A,==mean of all the Nos. in I. and II.=46-27.
The symbols S,, S,, S,, S, denote the sines of 0°, 30°, 60°, and 90° respectively.
The following Table exhibits the values of the coefficients found as above :—

Thermometer.

eeneereee

46°27 —618 —3:44
46°55 —3:10 —3°65
46°92 +0-03 ~9:3)
47°18 0615 —0:118

Multipliers.

° °
+4025 +3825
+:120 +:293
—*0833 +:0635
—0167 —"0144

Expression (1) is now to be converted into the form

t: 3 t
v= Ac+Py sin (2ng +E; )+P, sin (dr +B,) +8, eubiet| 2)

by applying the equations

A
: ig E,,

VAY +B2=P,;

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 247

and the resulting values of the new constants are—

Thermometer. P,. Poe E,. E,.

fo) °o 4 ° ul
SETREU ceasss see | 7:07 56 240 54 46 274
6 feet ......00 4°79 32 220 20 22 16
TD Feet so éssccss 2°31 10 179 15 = 52 41
24 feet ssissecee 63 02 100 52 —130 46

An inspection of equation (2) shows—
Ist, That the range of any term P,,sin (25 +E, } is 2P,,, the maximum value

being +P,, and the minimum —P,,.
2nd. That the term goes through its cycle of values in the ath part of a year.

3rd. That any decrease in the value of E, amounts to a retardation of the epochs
of maxima and minima.

Since the value of any term can never exceed that of its coefficient P,,, it is obvious
that when P, is very small the term may be neglected. Generally speaking P,, be-
comes rapidly smaller as we advance in the series, and for most purposes all terms
after that containing P, may be neglected.

The conducting power of the soil can be found in the following manner. Let «
denote the difference in depth of any two of the thermometers; and let A. E, and
A. log,. P,, respectively denote the amounts by which the values of E, (in circular
measure) and log, P,, for the upper thermometer, exceed the values of the same
functions for the lower. Then will

A.E, A. log, P, — nee
at x Th’

k being the conductivity of the soil and ¢ its capacity for heat.
The values of E, and E, in circular measure, and of log, P,, log, P., are as
follow :—

Thermometer. z,. E,. log. P). log. P,.
B feet esse 4-20 +°81 1°95 ~ °59

6 feet : 3°85 + 39 1:56 —115
WORE he Bcrecrens 3°15 — 92 "B4 — 2°25
DAfeeb ess sa0se 1:76 — 2:28 — ‘47 —3°81

And the results of comparing the thermometers two and two in every possible way are,
for the term in P,,—

Thermometers Get
compared. : Tk

—$——— | ———___. —__

fo}
3 feet and Gfeet...) "35 | 3 117 “39
3 feet and 12 feet...) 1°05 9 117 lll
3 feet and 24 feet...) 2°44 21 156 2°42
6 feet and 12 feet... ‘70 6 117 yi
6 feet and 24 feet...) 2°09 18 116 2°03
12 feet and 24 feet...) 1°39 12 116 131

————_——_.

Means .ss.00,.

2948 REPORT—1859,

1c
Tk
The true value is probably about °117, and the value of the ratio 2 can be found from

The term in P.,,, treated in like manner, gives ‘113 and ‘116 as the values of

this by an obvious arithmetical process.

On an Application of Quaternions to the Geometry of Fresnel’s Wave-surface.
By Sir Wit11am Rowan Hamirton, LL.D. ec.
Abstract of Formule.

p = vector of ray-velocity; » = index-vector, or vector of wave-slowness ;
Sup=—1, Spudp=0, Spdu—0 (equations of reciprocity); dp = vector of displace-
ment, or of vibration; @ ‘dp = vector of elasticity, or of total resulting force of
restitution (@ being the same symbol of operation as in the Seventh Lecture on
Quaternions, by the present author); »—2dp = a vector, representing the tangential
component of elasticity ; .". (¢-1— p *)8p=normal component of elasticity =p— 18m,
dm being a scalar; .°. dp=(p7'—p~*)~"n~"5m, and Su-!8p=0; .°. the formula,

O=Sp~!(p7— p77) y-}, CCI Amc ey Pues elis (3)
is a symbolical form of the equation of the index-surface, or of the surface of wave-
slowness, to which the wave itself is reciprocal. Hence, by the equations of reci-
procity given above, or simply by changing p to p, and to ¢ d~', we obtain the

formula,
0=Sp—'(6—p~*)~"p"7 bi eNO Ban Mauer Ss Seaton! (53)

as a symbolical form of the equation of Fresnel’s wave.
To interpret this equation, or to deduce from it a geometrical construction, we
may observe that the formula (assigned in the Seventh Lecture),

Le SAihpye ties er. 0 6 SE Lad ete fet ee
is the equation of a certain auwiliary ellipsoid; and that

a=p 'Vpdp=hp—p'=(p—p”)p
is a vector perpendicular to the plane of that diametral section whereof p is a semi-
axis. Hence

0=Sop=So(p—p~?)~'o
is an equation which determines the two values of the square (—p?) of the length of
a semiaxis of the diametral section made by a plane perpendicular to o; and if
To=Tp, so that the normal o to the plane of the section is made equal in length to
one or other of the two semiaxes, then

0=Se(o— aime. 6 6 a See

But this is just the equation (b) of the wave, with o written instead of p. Hence,
then, is at once derived the celebrated construction of Fresnel, namely, that “the
wave surface (for a biaxal crystal) is the locus of the extremities of normals to the
diametral sections of an ellipsoid, each normal having the length of one of the semi-
axes of that section.”
On certain Properties of the Powers of Numbers.
By J. Port Hennessy, MP.

On Gutta Percha as an Insulator at various Temperatures.
By Ficemine JENKIN.

This paper contained an abstract of experiments, made for Messrs. R. S. Newall
and Co., to determine the absolute resistance of gutta percha, and the effect of tem-
perature on that resistance.

The absolute resistance of gutta percha was caiculated by the author from tests -
on long submarine cables: the variation of resistance due to varying temperature

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 249

was obtained from observations on short lengths of cable immersed in water at vari-
ous temperatures. F

The gutta percha covering the long cables was used in alternate layers, with a
varnish known as Chatterton’s compound.

The short lengths, tested in water of various temperatures, were three in number,
and will be called numbers 1, 2, and 3. The length of each was one knot. The
diameter of the gutta percha, in numbers 1 and 2, was 0°3 in., covering a single
copper wire of 0°06 in. diameter.

No. 3 was a knot of the Red Sea core : the diameter of the gutta percha was 0°34 in.,
covering a copper strand formed of seven wires, each 0°038 in. diameter.

The coils were placed in a felted tub, and were covered with water of the desired
temperature for several hours before the experiments were made.

The loss or escape of electricity was measured on a delicate zinc galvanometer.

Separate tests were made with the positive and negative poles, and at each test
five readings were taken; the first one minute after the application of the current,
the others at successive intervals of one minute.

On coil No. 1, covered with Chatterton’s compound and gutta percha, there was
a marked difference between the tests made with positive and negative currents;
whereas in coil No. 2, covered with pure gutta percha, there was no difference be-
tween those tests from 50° to 75° Fahrenheit.

In both coils and at all temperatures the loss decreased rapidly during the first
two minutes after application of the battery; this decrease continued till the fifth
minute, when a minimum was nearly attained. This effect in coil No. 2 was regular,
and between 50° and 80° Fahrenheit was not affected by a change in the size of the
current.

In coil No. 1 the decrease of loss was regular and nearly constant when the zinc
pole was connected with the coil; whereas irregular results were obtained when the
copper pole of the battery was so connected.

The extra resistance or decrease of loss was still more marked in coil No. 3, where
the gutta percha is of larger diameter. In this coil the loss decreased 30 per cent.
in the interval separating the first and fifth minute.

The same phenomenon (decrease of loss) was observed on the long cables.

The insulation of a sound gutta percha covered wire is therefore improved by
the application of either a positive or a negative current. It also appears that it is
most necessary, in testing the insulation of a cable, to record the time separating the
observation and the first application of the battery.

The phenomenon of decreased loss or extra resistance is observed, whether the
cable is dry or immersed in water.

The annexed Tables I. and II., showing the relative loss from the two coils at differ-
ent temperatures, give the result of the experiments as deduced from curves which
result from the observations after all due corrections have been made for loss on
connexions and varying electromotive force.

The numbers in the Tables give no absolute measurement, but only the relative
loss at the various temperatures.

At 65° the two coils 1 and 2 test much alike. At high temperatures pure gutta
percha rapidly deteriorates ; at low temperatures it has the advantage.

The irregularity of the copper tests of No. 1 lead to some suspicion of a chemical
action between the various substances in contact.

Table No. III. contains the results of similar experiments on coil 3.

The absolute resistance of the insulating cover was obtained by comparison of the
current flowing through the gutta percha, and that flowing through a coil of known
resistance, or through the copper core itself. The actual resistance of the insulating
cover being known, this formula, due to Professor Thomson, was used to determine the

specific resistance, or the resistance of acubic foot: z=R ,» Where R=resist-

logs
08

ance of cylindrical coating, = length of wire tested, > = ratio of the diameter of the

copper core to that of the gutta percha covering, «= specific resistance of the
material,

250 REPORT—1859.

The specific resistance of gutta percha of the Red Sea core, at 6°Fahrenheit; caleu-
lated from daily tests of the Red Sea cables, was found to be 20510" absolute
British units.

Owing to the influence of the phenomenon of extra resistance described above, this
number does not express a well-defined resistance such as that of a metal, but gives
an approximate resistance at about thirty seconds after application of the battery.

The corresponding specific resistance at 60° of No. 1 coil was found to be 195 x 10%.

The specific resistance. of No. 2 coil at the same temperature was 202 x 10".

The resistance at other temperatures, or after longer application of the battery, is
inversely proportional to the numbers given in the three Tables, and representing
the relative loss.

The employment of Chatterton’s compound in different proportions from those
used in the above coils, would necessitate fresh experiments in each case to determine
the effect of temperature.

Since writing the above paper a detailed account of the experiments, and the results
of more extended calculations, have been communicated to the Royal Society in a
paper read March 22, 1860.

Tasce I,
Loss after first minute. Loss after fifth minute.
Lemperaywles | tas a se
Zinc to coil. | Copper to coil.| Zinc to coil. | Copper to coil.
fo]
50 125 110 100 92
55 136} 122 1162 100
60 147 144 127 122
65 1573 133 13743 102
70 168 140 148 102
75 1783 174 1582 146
80 190 170 170 130
Taste II.
Loss after first minute. Loss after fifth minute.
Temperature.
Zinc to coil. | Copper to coil. | Zinc to coil. | Copper to coil.
B 2
50 59 59 45 45
55 86 86 69 69
60 116 116 98 98
65 154 154 135 135
70 218 218 195 195
75 315 315 200 200
80 445 445 425 405
83 550 S300 (> 520 495
Pe ee ee
Tass III.
Loss after first minute. Loss after fifth minute.
Seite Pe + == = SS | en.
Zinc to coil. | Copper to coil. | Zinc to coil. | Copper to coil.
°o
60 153 150 102 112
65 182 190 113 125
70 225 245 130 147
75 290 320 185 180

ne Eee — eee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 251

On the Retardation of Signals through long Submarine Cables.
By FLEEmMine JENKIN.

This paper contains the result of experiments made on long submarine cables, at
the establishment of Messrs R. S, Newall and Co.

Professor Thomson’s theory* is confirmed by these experiments, which in-
deed were only rendered possible by the use of Professor Thomson’s Patent Marine
Galvanometer.

The deflections of the magnet in this galvanometer are read by means of a spot of
light, reflected by a mirror attached to the magnet, and brought to a focus ona
scale at about 22 inches from the mirror. The magnet and mirror together weigh
only 14 grain, and a very small angular movement of the magnet causes the spot of
light to move over many degrees of the scale.

By this instrument a gradually and rapidly increasing or decreasing current is at
each instant indicated at its true strength.

When therefore this galvanometer is placed as a receiving instrument at the end
of a long submarine cable, the following phenomena are seen. At the moment of
completing the circuit through battery, cable, and earth at the sending end, no move-
ment of the spot of light occurs. Ina second or less the spot begins to traverse the
scale, at first slowly, then rapidly, and again more slowly, until after perhaps a
minute a maximum is attained.

The interval of time which elapses between the first completion of the circuit and
the arrival of the spot of light at various divisions of the scale was measured, and the
observations being thrown into acurve, have given what may be termed the “ curve
of arrival ”’ for various lengths.

Instead of one continuous current, broken currents, such as form dots and dashes
in the Morse alphabet, were also sent with regularity by means of a metronome, and
the movements of the spot of light corresponding to the various signals observed and
delineated by curves.

The following are the results of the observations :—

1, The strength of the battery used does not affect the speed of transmission ; to
prove this, the curve of arrival was taken with 72 cells on a length of 2168 knots and
with 36 cells. The two curves coincided when drawn to scales proportionate to the
electromotive force of the two batteries. Thus is once more proved the fact that the
speed of electricity is independent of the power of the battery, the current always
reaching the same fraction of its maximum strength in the same time.

2. The same curve represents the gradual increase of intensity in a current when
arriving, and the gradual decrease of intensity caused by putting the sending end of
the cable to earth.

3. The curves of arrival, as obtained from lengths of 1000 to 2000 knots, agree in
general character with those given by Professor Thomson’s formula. Some discre-
pancies appear, due probably to electro-magnetic induction between the coils, and also
in great measure to the varying resistance of the insulating cover, described in the
author’s paper “On Gutta Percha as an Insulator.”

4. Whatever length of the cable was used for experiment, the amplitudes of oscil -
lation representing dashes, or A’s or other letters, were found to bear a constant pro-
portion to the amplitudes representing simple dots sent at the same speed. This
proportion is, however, different foreach amplitude. Thus ona length of 2191 knots
the speed of 15 dots per minute reproduced the same amplitude of oscillation as a
speed of 30 dots on a length of 1500 knots ; and the same relative speeds reproduced
the same oscillations for dashes, A’s, &c. in the two lengths. The amplitude is in
this paper supposed always to be measured as a fraction of the maximum deflection
obtained by keeping the circuit completed till the spot of light comes to rest.

5. The speed at which signals could be received on a relay, is easily perceived
when the groups of oscillations are graphically delineated. A certain constant am-
plitude of dot corresponds to this speed (vide § 4). The speed at which a given
amplitude of dot can be produced, varies inversely as the square of the length; and
therefore the speed at which signals can be received by a relay varies also inversely
as the square of the length of the cable.

* Proceedings of the Royal Society, May 1855, republished in the Philosophical Magazine.

952 REPORT—1859.

6. By the usual hand-signalling, it was found just possible that legible groups of
dots and dashes should be received through 1800 knots at a speed of 20 dots per
minute.

7. The amplitude of oscillation due to various relative speeds can be thrown
into a curve which is the same for all lengths; and since the law of retardation does
not depend on the nature or dimensions of the material forming the cable, we can by
means of this curve determine from one single observation at any speed, the ampli-
tude of oscillation which will be due to any other speed, or in other words, the pos-
sible speed of signalling. ;

8. The maximum speed of signalling by any given system corresponds, as has been
observed, to a certain amplitude of oscillation produced by successive dots. The
actual amplitude necessary for each system must be determined by experiment.

For Morse-signals sent by hand, it can hardly be less than 15 to 20 per cent. of the
maximum strength of current due to the battery used.

Mechanical senders would greatly increase the speed at which signals can be trans-
mitted.

9. A comparison was made between signals sent by alternate reverse currents
and those sent by alternate contacts with one pole of the battery and earth. One
diagram would serve for both sets of signals, by simply drawing a line parallel to the
base-line of the curve at half the height of the maximum, this line being taken as
the base- or zero-line for the signals sent by reverse currents, all deflections above this
line being called positive, all those below negative.

10. The use of reverse currents is of advantage in the first signals sent after the
line has been completely discharged ; the nature of this advantage may be briefly in-
dicated by pointing out that, when no signals are being sent, the spot of light rests
on the base-line, which in the common system is at a remote part of the scale from
that at which the dots and dashes appear, but in the system of reversals is in the
very centre of that portion of the scale.

The conclusions and experiments were, in the original paper, illustrated by diagrams.

On some of the Methods adopted for ascertaining the Locality and Nature of
Defects in Telegraphic Conductors. By CromweE tt F. Var ey, Electrician
of the Electric and International Telegraph Company, and of the Atlantic
Telegraph Company, &c.

The author said the plans adopted by him were various: viz.—

Case 1.—When a conductor “‘ makes dead earth,” 7. e. the connexion between the
conductor and the earth offers no appreciable resistance, the operation is very simple,
and consists solely in ascertaining how much resistance the conductor in question
offers to the passage of electric currents.

Modes of Measuring Resistance.

He preferred using a standard of resistance and a differential galvanometer. A
current from a battery, whose positive pole is connected to the earth, is made to
divide and pass round the differential galvanometer in opposite directions. The one
half of the current is made to enter the cable whose resistance is to be measured,
and the other half to go through the resistance coils to the earth. So much resist-
ance is then included in the latter circuit as shall make the divided currents equal in
force, when the needle will stand at zero. The number of resistance coils required
to make the needle stand at zero indicates the resistance of the conductor ; and if
the defect in the insulation be so large as to offer no appreciable resistance at the
fault, the amount of resistance will indicate the locality of the fault.

When no resistance coils are at hand, the following method may be adopted :—

Ist. Having a galvanometer whose resistance is known, and a Daniel’s battery, first
ascertain that each cell is in good order, and offers no appreciable resistance com-
pared with that of the galvanometer.

2nd. Connect one pole of the battery to the earth, and the other through the gal-
vanometer to the cable.

3rd. Note the deflection.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 253

4th. See how many cells will give the same deflection when only the galvanomcter
is in circuit.

5th. Repeat 2nd, 3rd, and 4th with various powers, and take the mean of many
results.

The following formula will then give the resistance of the conductor :—

Resistance of galvanometer. . - .- + + + + +

Number of cells required in operation No.3. . .

Number of cells when galvanometer only is in cireuit —!.

Resistance of cable. . . . = . Lehis tea teetae
Then

With moderate care this will indicate the resistance to within 2 or 3 per cent. Care
must be taken that the earth-plate used, and also the battery-cells, offer no appre-
ciable resistance.

Resistance coils and a differential galvanometer are much more exact, and should
always be used if possible. The author’s standard, which has been adopted by the
Electric and International Telegraph Company, the Atlantic and other Telegraph
Companies, consists of the following units: 1, 2,3, 5, 10,20, 30, 50, 100, 200. These
allow of the coils being checked by themselves; thus 1+2=3,2+3=5, 2+3+45=10,
&c., which is very useful in practice.

Powerful currents must not be allowed to flow long through the coils, because they
are thereby warmed and their resistance increased.

Case 2.—When (as is almost always the case) the fault itself offers resistance, but
the conductor is otherwise perfect, one of the two following methods will indicate
with sufficient precision the amount of resistance due tu the conductor between the
operator and the fault, and also that of the fault, the former being the distance of
the defect :—

This is the resistance of the conductor between the operator’s
end (at A) and the fault, plus that of the fault (7+2).

2nd. Have the conductor “ put to earth’ at B, when the current
on arriving at the fault, will split. Measure the resistance

YZ
now (ete) oe ee ee ae

3rd. The resistance of the conductor alone when perfect. . . . =S

Calling z the distance or resistance of the cable between the operator and the fault,

» y the resistance of the cable between the fault and B, and
5 « the resistance of the fault itself,

we have
watz =
at+y =S
a+ rat ZEN
whence v=r—V P+RS—Rr—Sr.
In practice substitute for R-r=D,
and for S—r=D,
and then e=r— “Dd.

This operation should, if possible, be repeated at the end B, which will indicate
the possible amount of error.

Plan No. 2 requires that there be at each end galvanometers of known resistance,

254 REPORT—1859.

and which give actual measure (sine or tangent galvanometers giving absolute
measure).

lst. Let A put on a current through his galvanometer to the cable,
and let B connect the cable through his galvanometer to the

earth.
2nd. Notethesenirenticjienterie at Aue a ere |. le ee
andthe onreent ie -Teceivediaiuly er emnow piits, We aie, nee
3rd. Put on a battery at B and take away that from A, and now
mote the current jjenterdio at ye.) sali ch tse ic grate ee

andvihaitecelved aipNa——piete er sees ss sp len ae ee
4th. Call the resistance of the conductor from A to the fault . . =a

5th. From the fault to the end of thecable. . . . . .. . =y
6th. Call the difference between e—e! . ..... =... «=D
7th. Call the difference between f—f’ . . . ..- + 2+ 2. =
8th. Call the resistance of A’s galvanometer. . . . .... =
Sth. Call the resistance of B’s galvanometer. . . . .. . . =9
and then ztG dé
y+g Df"

Tn both of these cases, when the resistance of the fault is considerable, it is often
difficult to obtain accurate results, as the fault’s resistance varies considerably at
times, especially if the current used be positive (+).

But when there are two or more wires between the stations in question, the fol-
lowing method removes all difficulty, and gives very accurate results.

Case 3.—At the distant station B have the defective wire connected to a good
one, forming a loop from A to B and back again to A. Connect now the positive
pole of a battery to the earth, and the negative pole to the differential galvanometer.
Connect the one wire of the differential galvanometer to the good conductor, and
the other wire through the resistance coils (rheostat) to the defective wire. The
current from the battery will now split one portion of the current going through the
good wire to the fault, the other portion going through the resistance coils to the
faulty cable, and then to the fault where current escapes to the earth. Introduce
now so much resistance as shall make the two channels equal. Call this resistance
R, and then

ES = EI PR SADIE eCPM aii 13cm ow eH)
BAM YES yh ca vey 16/5) able) dls silo at seem Ce)

whence R
«=S— Dr

In this way a defect in one of the wires in the Mismeer and Zandvoort cable was
tested, for the fault was 543 knots from the English coast ; and when the fault was
cut out, the error was less than the one-third ofa mile. The cable being 115 nau-
tical miles in length, the error was less than 0°3 per cent.

The author mentioned a case where the conductor was 120 miles in length, and
the defect offered a resistance of from 1000 to 2000 miles, varying continually in
amount. Plans Nos. | and 2 were tried, as also several others, but the results were
very uncertain, and would not indicate the locality nearer than within 30 miles of the
true position. This led him to invent plan No. 3, which left a possible error of only
2or3 miles. In this case the leakage due to all gutta percha, and which is very
small, would have produced an error of 4 miles had it not been allowed for. Thus
far conductors which are continuous, but whose insulation is defective, haye alone
been spoken of.

When the cable or conductor is broken asunder, one of the following plans will
indicate approximately the amount of resistance due to the fault itself.

Case 4.—A cable broken asunder, if possible measure the resistance from each
end; and if the exposed end of the broken cable offer only a very little or no ap-
preciable resistance, the two amounts added together will be equal to that of one
perfect wire ; i. e. calling # one portion of the broken cable, and z the resistance of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 255

its exposed end, and y the other portion of the cable, and 2! its ends’ resistance, then
if r+z+y+2'=S, the resistance of a perfect wire, it is evident that z+<2’ offer little
or no appreciable resistance, and the locality of the fault is immediately known.
When, however, z or z! offer resistance, the value of z may be approximated either
by measuring the amount of electrostatic charge of the cable, or by measuring the
resistance, first with negative and then with positive currents.

It sometimes happens that one of the exposed ends of the conductor gets entangled
with the iron outer wires of the cable. This is to be sought for; and if such be the
case, it offers no appreciable resistance: this is immediately ascertained by connect-
ing the conductor of the cable through a delicate galvanometer to the iron outer
covering, when, if the copper wire at the fault be not in contact with the iron wires,
an electric current will be found to flow through the galvanometer. The electro-
motive force of this current should be tested, and it will generally be found equal to
an iron copper pair charged with sea-water. If the conductor touch the outer iron,
there is no current through the galvanometer. If there be the current,—

Ist. Measure the resistance of 2+ with negative current, and note whether it
varies in amount.

2nd, Measure the resistance as before, but with a positive current, and note how
it varies. If it vary much, especially with the negative current, it indicates that the
fault offers much resistance.

3rd. Make an artificial fault, or rather several faults, that behave like the cable,
with a like resistance to that of the cable, and with the same battery power. Having
made such a fault that resembles as nearly as possible the cable with positive and with
negative currents of various powers, measure its resistance, and subtract that amount
from z+, and that will indicate the distance of the fault. The positive current de-
composes the sea-water and its salts, oxygen and chlorine are set free and com-
bine with the copper wire at the fault, forming a coating offering considerable re-
sistance to the passage of the current. In this way the resistance of a fault may
often be very considerably increased. If it can, it shows that the surface exposed
at the defect is small, and offers considerable resistance even with a negative current.
A negative current covers the exposed wire with hydrogen, which keeps it clean and
in good contact with the water, unless the aperture admitting the water be very small,
and located in shallow water, when the hydrogen will sometimes expel the water and
so increase the resistance.

The next plan of ascertaining the resistance of the fault, is by measuring the in-
duction or statical charge and discharge. The author detailed several plans of doing
this approximately, and indicated how an apparatus might be made to effect this
perfectly, and which he had tried on a small scale with perfect success. He then
showed how he had tested for the faults in the Atlantic Telegraph Cable, and pointed
out the utter impossibility of the great fault being in the Valencia harbour, and which
was proved by two distinct modes of testing. The exposed copper wire at the fault,
formed with the iron outer covering a voltaic element of copper and iron. He con-
trived with this battery alone to measure the resistance of the cable and the fault.
Much depends on the skill of the manipulator in choosing those plans most suited
for the occasion.

After detailing several curious defects, he showed that when the defect in a cable
was small and immersed in clay-mud, the fault might often be sealed up by a posi-
tive current so completely as to enable the conductor to be used. In this way he
had sealed up one of the Orfordness Scheveningen Cable, which was defective, and
thus kept it working above eighteen months; and when it got bad, it was again and
again sealed up by strong positive currents. He stated that he had used some of
the plans described for the last twelve years, and had rarely, if ever, found a greater
error in the estimated distance than 5 per cent. of the cable tested. The plans de-
tailed, as far as the author was concerned, were original, save No. 2, which was partly
borrowed from the Abbé Moigno’s treatise on Electric Telegraphs.

256 REPORT—1859.,

CHEMISTRY.

On the Action of concentrated Sulphuric Acid on Cubebin in relation to the test
Sor Strychnine by Bichromate of Potash and Sulphuric Acid. By Jamus
S. Brazier, £.C.S., Fordyce Lecturer in Marischal College, Aberdeen.

In the ‘Chemical Gazette,’ vol. xiv. page 251, there is an account by M. E. Boli,
Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy at the Academy of Medicine in Lima, of the
behaviour of several organic substances towards bichromate of potash and sulphuric
acid. All the substances enumerated by him appear to have a well-marked di-
stinction by means of this test to that of strychnine, most giving a colour of some
shade of green; some few, no reaction whatever. Casually repeating a similar series
of experiments as a class illustration, with such alkaloids as I had in my possession,
using at once KO, 2CrSO, and HOSO,, I found that cubebin gave a reaction very
different to many, and approached to some extent the reaction of strychnine, the
colour produced being deep rose-red, which is perhaps more likely to be confused
with the colour produced by strychnine, when the reaction has been standing for a
short time, or if the alkaloid is in small quantity, or if the dish in which the experi-
ment has been performed is not absolutely cold. I found, however, that by allowing
the cubebin reaction to remain for some considerable time, the red colour gradually
changed to a dingy green.

On repeating the experiment in other ways, I found that the sulphuric acid alone
was sufficient to produce this red colour with cubebine, and as strychnine produces
no colour with sulphuric acid alone, this serves as an easy test between the two.

The reaction above alluded to was quite new to me; nor could I find it noticed in
any Journal; so that I thought it worthy of a comment on the present occasion.

On Distilled Water. By James S. Brazier, F.C.S., Fordyce Lecturer in
Marischal College, Aberdeen.

Notice of Dugong Oil. By Jamus S. Brazizr, F.C.S., Fordyce Lecturer
in Marischal College, Aberdeen.

The author presented notices of a remedy, obtainable in Moreton Bay, possessing
valuable properties for the renovation and restoration of the human frame when
worn out and exhausted by chronic disease. The discovery of such an agent within
our own territory has long been considered a desideratum by the profession; and it
appears to be a remarkable as well as felicitous arrangement of nature, that, ina locality
possessing probably one of the finest climates in the world—combining both the
soft humid atmosphere of Torquay and Madeira in the summer, with the dry bracing
air of Nice and Pau in the winter, the resort, too, of valetudinarians from all parts
of the world—a remedy should be found so potent in the treatment of chronic dis-
orders.

About fourteen or fifteen years ago Baron Liebig’s work on Animal Chemistry
was first published, explaining the chemical process of respiration and nutrition,
suggesting the method which ought to be adopted, and the principles which ought
to guide us in the investigation of that important subject. Liebig, in that masterly
work, compared the animal body to an apparatus of combustion, a furnace which
we supplied with fuel, and showed that this combustion was supported by the
oxygen of the atmosphere taken into the lungs in the act of respiration, meeting
with the carbon taken into the system in the process of nutrition. Two or three
years after the appearance of this work, a highly carbonized substance called cod-
liver oil became a popular remedy in the treatment of consumption, to feed probably
the flame of ‘‘ the expiring lamp,” as Kirke White in his ‘ Sonnet to Consumption’
so beautifully yet significantly expresses it; and since that period its use has been
progressively increasing, until at length its administration has become universal in
almost every form of chronic disease.

At first it was thought that the infinitesimal proportion of iodine which cod-liver
oil contained was its active element; but that theory being now exploded, its powers
are generally attributed to the 80 or 90 per cent. of carbon it contains. This oil is
procured from the livers of cod fish, and its taste is as disagreeable as its train-oil-like

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 257

odour. So unpleasant indeed is this oil, that there are very few persons who can
take more than three or four tablespoonfuls in a day, which at the most will only
yield 2 ozs. of carbon to the system, towards 13°9-10 oz. required, leaving a fearful
balance against the sick man. Fortunately, however, the theory is better than the
remedy commonly used, and the sick people of Australia are singularly favoured in
having in their own territory an herbivorous cetaceous animal, the Dugong (Halicore
Australis), inhabiting the rivers and bays of the eastern coast, from Moreton Bay to
Cape York, from which an oil can be procured possessing all the properties required
for this purpose.

So sweet and palatable is the oil procured from the Dugong, that in its pure state
it may be taken without disagreeing with the most sensitive stomach, and also used
in a variety of ways in the process of cooking ; so that this potent restorative remedy
may be taken as food, and many ounces consumed almost imperceptibly every day,
and thus furnish the system with the requisite amount of carbon for its daily
oxidation.

Believing Elaiopathy, or oil administration, to be a rational mode of treatment, and
dissatisfied with the nauseous train-oil-like fuel usually supplied to our sickly fur-
naces, the author made diligent search for a substitute, and now unhesitatingly com-
municates, after testing the powers of the discovery for nearly five years in a great
variety of chronic disorders, that the Dugong oil is one of the most potent and re-
liable remedies he has ever met with in the treatment of chronic disease.

Laboratory Memoranda. By J. 8. Brazier, F.C.S., Fordyce Lecturer in
Marischal College, Aberdeen.

On the quantitative estimation of the soluble combustible contents of a water.

This item of an ordinary analysis of a water, which commonly passes under the
general description of ‘‘ organic matter,’’ is frequently obtained as follows :—by eva-
porating a portion of the water to dryness, to weigh the residue, and afterwards to
heat it to low redness till it ceases to lose weight, when the difference from its
former weight would be considered the “ organic matter.”

In burning off the combustible portion of the total dry evaporated contents, two
chief sources of error may be observed: —first, carbonic acid is apt to be expelled
from the incombustible mineral contents by the action of the combustible matter
under a high temperature, the residue giving an alkaline reaction to test paper ;
second, when a very high temperature is applied in order to burn off the combustible
portion, some of the incombustible mineral portion is volatilized, and thus comes to
be erroneously reckoned as part of the combustible soluble contents. In consequence
of these observations, the following method of procedure is adopted by the author.

The evaporating basin is of platinum, about 600 grains in weight, and about a quar-
ter of a pint in capacity. The measure of water evaporated in each trial is one-fifth
of a gallon (=14,000 grains). To prevent any minute increase of weight from fused
adhesions to the outside of the basin during long exposure to flame, heat is applied
by means of a water-bath. The evaporated mass is dried in a Taylor’s hot-air bath
at a temperature of 230° Fahr., and is then weighed. The nett weight gives the total
soluble contents, both combustible and incombustible. A temperature of 260°, as
often as it was tried, gave no differance in the weight.

The scorching is produced by heating the outside of the evaporating basin by the
flame of a spirit-lamp, kept as weak as can burn off the combustible matter. The
evaporated mass, after being scorched, is moistened with a solution of pure carbonic
acid in distilled water, is dried anew in a Taylor’s air-bath at 230° Fahr., and is
weighed a second time. The nett weight gives the incombustible (or mineral)
soluble contents alone, which on being subtracted from the former nett weight of
both combustible and incombustible, left the combustible alone.

The heat of the spirit-lamp is preferable on account of the variation which is so
frequently caused in platinum vessels by heating them over a gas-flame; apparently
some carbon compound is prvduced, and, in proportion to the more or less perfect
combustion of the gas flame, the platinum dish becomes lighter or heavier, thus
causing an error in the weight of the contents of the dish.

Toe increase in the measure of water evaporated fails to increase the accuracy of
rc ‘Wf

258 REPORT—1859.

the results ; for an increased quantity of mineral matter makes the thorough com-’

bustion of the evaporated mass more difficult, and so necessitates the application of
a very high temperature, which produces error, by volatilizing a portion of the
mineral matter.

This is not an exact method of estimating combustible or organic matter, there
being none; still it is as correct as any known, and affords uniform results, which
the ordinary process assuredly does not.

Mr. C. J. Burner exhibited some specimens illustrating the use of Platinum in

Photography.

On the Ageing of Mordants in Calico Printing.
By Wa ter Crum, F.R.S.
The process of ‘‘ ageing ”’ in calico printing is that by which a mordant after being
applied to a cotton fabric, is placed in circumstances favourable to its being incor-
porated with and fixed in the fibre; and the method usually employed has been to

suspend mordanted goods in an apartment in single folds, exposed to the atmosphere. :

The object is to moisten the acetates of iron and of alumina in order to their de-
composition ; and in ordinary circumstances a pound of water is gradually absorbed
by fifteen pounds of printed cloth. The protoacetate of iron is thus enabled, by
imbibing oxygen, to become a sesquiacetate like the bisalt of alumina. Each then
proceeds to give off acetic acid, and to deposit a tersesquihydrate upon the fibre.

Various methods have been employed in this country for adding to the natura.
moisture of the air, but with no great advantage, until Mr. Jones introduced into
Messrs Schwabe’s works near Manchester a system of ageing which he had seen in
operation at Mulhausen, and succeeded, by the direct iatroduction of steam under-

neath, greatly to increase the heat and moisture of the large apartment in which’

his mordanted goods were hung, and thus to render the process of ageing not only
more speedy, but much more perfect than before. But the employment of steam

the work people in the apartment, and by the damage produced by drops of water
falling from their persons upon the goods.

In the summer of 1856, Mr. Jones visited Thornliebank, and described that me-
thod of ageing. It became then not difficult to conceive that, by a further increase
of heat and moisture in an apartment sufficiently capacious, and by employing a
great number of rollers, goods might become sufficiently moistened without manual
labour by being merely passed through such an atmosphere; and that thus, the
pieces being stitched end to end, a continuous process might be substituted for that

of hanging goods over wooden rails, and leaving them there until the ageing is

completed.

The idea of passing printed goods through an atmosphere artificially moistened’

was not new. It had even been patented by Mr. John Thom of Manchester ; but
the apparatus of that gentleman was too small to be practically useful. The present
improvement consists in rendering the process a practicable one; and the various
adaptations introduced for that purpose will appear in its description.
A building is employed 48 feet long inside and 40 feet high, with a midwall from
pottom to top running lengthwise, so as to form two divisions each 11 feet wide.
In one of these divisions the goods first receive the moisture they require. Besides

the ground floor, it has two open sparred floors 26 feet apart, upon each of which is-

fixed a row of tin rollers, all long enough to contain two pieces of cloth at their breadth.
The rollers, being threaded, are set in motion by a small steam-engine, and the goods
to be aged, which are at first placed in the ground floor, are drawn into the chamber
above, where they are made to pass over and under each roller, issuing at last at the

opposite end and folded into bundles on one (at a time) of three stages which are.

placed there. These stages are partially separated from the rest of the chamber by
a woollen partition.

While the goods are traversing these rollers, they are exposed to heat and moisture,
furnished to them by steam, which is made to issue gently from three rows of trum-

pet-mouthed openings. The temperature is raised to from 80 to 100° or more of.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 259

Fahrenheit,—a wet-bulb thermometer indicating at the same time 76° to 96°, or
always 4° less than the dry-bulb thermometer. In this arrangement 50 pieces of
25 yards are exposed at one time, and as each piece is a quarter of an hour under
the influence of the steam, 200 pieces pass through in an hour.

The mordant, having thus received the requisite quantity of moisture, mu8t be
left One or two days in an atmosphere still warm and moist; and in some cases it
is advantageous to pass the goods a second time through the rollers.

It had fortunately been ascertained long before, at Thornliebank, that exposure in
single folds after moistening was not necessary. Mr. Graham’s experiments on the
diffusion of gases through small apertures had served to suggest that, for the ab-
sorption of the small quantity of oxygen required, the goods might as well be
Wrapped up and laid in loose heaps. Accordingly, in the operation in question, the
moistened goods are carried in bundles into the building on the opposite side of the
midwall already mentioned, and deposited upon the sparred floors, which are placed
there at heights corresponding with the stages in the first apartment, on which the
goods are folded down. Upon these floors five or six thousand pieces, of twenty-five
yards long, can be stored at a time. It is necessary, of course, that an elevated
temperature, and a corresponding degree of moisture, be preserved in the storing |
apartments day and night; and 80° Fahr. is sufficient, with the wet bulb at 76°.

The process of ageing, as thus detailed, was in operation at Thornliebank in the
autumn of 1856. About ayear afterwards it began to be adopted by other printers,
and now (in September 1859) it is already in use at least sixteen different printing
establishments in Scotland and in Lancashire.

On the Molecular Movements of Fluids.
By Tuomas Grauam, M.A., D.C.L., Master of the Mint, F.R.S.

On a Symmetrical Arrangement of Oxides and Salts on a Common Type.
By Dr. Lyon PLAYFAtR.

Salts, according to the present views, may be constituted of an oxide and an acid;
of an electro-positive element and an electro-negative salt radical; or on the type
of water in which the hydrogen is sometimes replaced by an electro-positive element,
sometimes by an electro-negative compound. ‘The author adopted the whole series
of metallic oxides as typical of salts, supposing that two equivalents of the metal
were present in all the oxides except the magnetic oxide. He contended that neutral
salts are not formed on the type of a basic oxide, such as water, but on that of a
neutral oxide, such as peroxide of manganese or peroxide of hydrogen, of the general
formula O,(MM)O,. Two equivalents of the oxygen in this type may be replaced
in a neutral salt by an anhydrous acid, so that the general formula of a neutral salt
is either O,(MM)A,, or half that value, in which A represents any acid. The author
showed that many facts supported the idea that an anhydrous acid could substitute
oxygen directly, and vice versd. Thus, carbonate of manganese heated in air becomes
peroxide, oxygen substituting the acid ; while peroxide of copper loses oxygen in air
and becomes a carbonate. Barytes heated in air absorbs oxygen and becomes a
peroxide ; heated with sulphuric acid, it becomes a sulphate ; both oxide and salt
being formed on the same type. The author then proceeded to show that as there
are varieties of oxides, so also there are varicties of salts, each constituted on an
oxide type. Salts of suboxides represent the protoxides ; subsalts, with two equiva-
lents of an oxide and one of an acid, are formed on the type of sesquioxides ; while
those with three of a base and one of an acid, like phosphate of soda, are formed on
the type of magnetic oxide of iron. The sesquisalts, on this view, are on the type
of manganic acid, O,(MM)A,, being like ©,(MM)O,. The author then proceeded to
show how various relations became apparent, if the oxygen in the oxides were
arranged in the simplest form, of an axis and equator around the metallic nucleus,
according to a conventional system, on a plane surface. The existence or deficiency
of symmetry in the structure of a body becomes thus indicated. Asa general con-
clusion, when there is an equal balance in the molecules of oxygen, or of electro-
négative bodies playing its part, then rest or neutrality results ; when the structure.
wants’ balance or symmetry, then activity is manifested—basicity when = electro-

260 REPORT—1859.

positive molecules predominate ; acidity when the electro-negative are in excess.
By writing minus points to show the want of symmetry, it is possible to indicate @
priori whether an acid is monobasic, bibasic, or tribasic. In conclusion, the author
referred to the oxides of nitrogen, chlorine, and carbon as illustrations of the import-
ance of symmetry. Writing them all on four-volume formule, it is necessary to
double them when the compound has an uneven number of molecules of oxygen ;
but the oxides of an even number do not require this duplication. Further, it was
shown that the symmetrical oxides are neutral or only feebly acid in character in the
case of the oxides of electro-negative elements. Thus hypochlorous, chlorous and
chloric acids are uneven, like nitrous and nitric acids; while binoxide of nitrogen
and the peroxides of chlorine and nitregen are neutral from there being a balance in
the molecules of oxygen. In like manner oxalic acid, with an uneven number of
atoms of oxygen, is more powerfully acid than carbonic acid, where the conditions
for symmetry are more nearly satisfied.

On two new Photochemical Experiments. By M. Niece pe St. Victor.

lst Experiment.— Chemical Photometer. Into a flask with a neck is introduced
a solution of oxalic acid so concentrated that a portion of the salt remains undis-
solved at the bottom; into this solution a certain quantity of a solution of nitrate of
uranium, or simply of oxide of uranium, is next poured; the flask is then hermetically

sealed by a cork, through which passes a straight, graduated tube, whose lower ex-

tremity reaches below the surface of the Iquid, and whose upper one rises to a certain
height above the cork. The apparatus being thus constructed, no particular phe-
nomenon manifests itself so long as the bottle remains in the dark; the liquid in the
tube remains at the same level as that in the flask: but when exposed to diffuse, or
to direct solar light, the oxalic acid, under the influence of light aided by the presence
of a salt of uranium, becomes decomposed and gives rise to the formation of carbonic
oxide, which latter, collecting in the flask and pressing on the surface of the liquid,
causes the same to rise in the tube with a rapidity and to a height proportional to
the chemical intensity of the light. The little apparatus is in fact a chemical photo-
meter, and acts admirably ; it remains to be seen whether the proportionality between
disengagement of gas and chemical intensity is constant, and whether by this means
it would be possible to measure accurately the chemical action of diffuse or solar light
at different elevations of the sun, at various seasons and at different places ; whether,
in short, the mixture of M. Niépce de St. Victor is capable of completely replacing
the gaseous sensitive mixture of Bunsen and Roscoe. We earnestly recommend this
new kind of experiment to M. Poey, who resides in the favourable climate of Havanna.
The magnitude of the tube’s diameter and the best method of graduation also remain
to be determined.

2nd Experiment.—Photochemical Pile. In this experiment a flask is chosen with
a wide neck through which two plates may be passed, one of zinc and the other of
copper ; to these plates two copper wires are fixed so as to form a small element
ofa simple pile. The liquid, or rather the mixture of liquids poured into the flask,
is the same as in the preceding apparatus, viz. a solution of oxalic acid with an
excess of salt and a solution of oxide or of nitrate of uranium. When the circuit is
closed, even in the dark, an action at once commences, and a current is produced
capable of deflecting the needle of a sensitive galvanometer. But when the flask is
exposed to the light the action becomes incomparably more energetic, the quantity
of carbonic oxide formed is very considerable, its disengagement in the form of smoke
or transparent cloud is visible to the eye. To acertain degree the oxide or nitrate of
uranium may be replaced by nitrate or perchloride of iron.

GroLoey.

On the Discovery of Silurian Fossils in the Slates of Downshire.
By Sames Bryce, WA. LL.D., F.GS.

In a paper laid before the Geological Section of the Association at the Belfast
Meeting in 1852, the author has described the structure of these slates and their

Sie

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 261

interesting relations to the Sliabh Croob and Morne granites, by which they are
invaded. He had noticed also the existence of anthracitic beds in them, but was
unable to produce any well-marked fessils in proof of the Silurian age of the beds.
That they were of this age, however, there seemed no reasonable doubt, from the
fact long ago established by Buckland and Conybeare, that they are in direct con-
tinuation of the great slate-bands of the South of Scotland, in which Silurian fossils
have been of late years abundantly found. Since the period referred to, a more
active examination of the rocks has been set on foot. At the request of the author
and his friend Mr. James M‘Adam, F.G.S., of Belfast, the well-known collector
Mr. Patrick Doran had examined certain favourable localities, and, with his usual
success, had brought to light several well-preserved fossils, the greater number of
which seem to be Upper Silurian forms. There are several Trilobites and Graptolites,
two Mytili, a Sanguinolaria, an Orthoceras, and the Loxonema obscura, a charac-
teristic Upper Silurian fossil. The author described a section reaching from the
triassic beds of Belfast Bay through the Carboniferous and Permian formations,
brought into contact near Holywood by a fault, and across the Silurian tracts of
the middle of the country to the two granitic protrusions already mentioned. On this
section, between Comber and Ballynahinch, in the townland of Tullygirvan, the fossils
were discovered. A more detailed account was promised at an early period.

On the newly discovered Reptilian Remains from the neighbourhood of Elgin.
By Tuomas H. Huxtey, F.R.S., Professor of Natural History, Govern-
ment School of Mines. —

The author described the principal features of the large series of Reptilian remains
from Elgin, which had been placed in his hands for examination, and the greater
part of which were exhibited to the Section. They consisted of portions of the skull
with teeth, of cervical, dorsal, sacral and caudal vertebrz, and ribs, coracoid, scapula,
and bones of the extremities, together with dermal scutes from various parts of the
body, of Stagonolepis Robertsoni. The anatomical characters of all these remains were
shown to be in entire agreement with that view of the true affinities of Stagonolepis
which the author had been the first to propound, and demonstrated that it departed
from the Crocodilian type even less than he had at first supposed.

An account was then given of the structure of the Lacertian, Hyperodapedon
Gordoni from the same locality ; and its resemblances to, and differences from, the
Triassic Rhynchosaurus were discussed.

The foot-prints in the Elgin sandstones were also described, but their relation to
either of the reptiles just mentioned was left an open question.

With respect to the geological age of these remarkable reptiles, the author ex-
pressed his conviction that, while their generic distinctness from any known Reptilia
rendered it unsafe to make any very positive assertion upon the point, the affinities
of Stagonolepis with the Liassic Crocodilia, and of Hyperodapedon with the Triassic
Rhynchosaurus were so close, that nothing but the most conclusive stratigraphical
evidence could justify the assumption of the Devonian age of the rocks in which
they were found.

Numerous lithographic plates, forming a part of the illustrations of a forthcoming
memoir upon these remains, were exhibited to the Section.

On the Section of the Coast between the Girdleness and Dunnottar Castle,
Kincardineshire. By the Rev. Dr. Lonemurr.

This communication was illustrated by a diagram of the different kinds of rocks
occurring between these two points, and of the stratification in the harbour at the
Cove, of the scenery at Muchalls, and of the junction of the Old Red Sandstone and
conglomerate in the south side of the bay of Stonehaven. There was also a series
of the different kinds and varieties of the rocks along the coast, which nearly
extended along the whole side of the table. Beginning at the Girdleness, the Doctor
stated that the Dee ran for several miles in the hollow formed between the granite
and the gneiss, so that it was impossible to examine their union. A little to the
‘south of the lighthouse, there occurs a reddish granite, enclosing masses of con-

262. : REPORT—1859.

torted gneiss, these showing that that granite at least was of more recent origin
than the enclosed gneiss. Further on was an extensive section of the boulder clay,
which exhibited many features in common with similar clays in other places ; but
there were no perceptible scratches on the boulders of gneiss and granite, as, to
use the phraseology of their lamented friend, Mr. Hugh Miller, the Aberdeen gra-
nites were more likely to be the scratchers than the scratchees! He then showed
specimens of the porphyry and hornblende rock, before coming to the Cove, where
there is a seam of granite upwards of six feet in thickness, lying conformably to the
hornblende schist. He then referred to the excellent and instructive section
exhibited in the muckle shore of Findon, and aptly illustrated its structure by a book
tilted upon one of its corners. He then described the highly picturesque views on
the Muchalls shore, exhibiting specimens of the porphyries and strangely contorted
gneiss, and had a stereoscope and the views of Mr. Wilson, which he invited parties
to inspect at the close of the meeting. Next came the Garron, from which he
exhibited rich iron ore, and showed that it was strongly magnetic. He then
remarked that, near this point, where the Old Red Sandstone commences, there was
a synclinal axis, and that the rocks, although towards Stonehaven they were nearly
perpendicular, had a slight northerly dip. In exhibiting a specimen of the whorl-rock
at the village of Cowie, he presumed that the name was derived from the whorls of
the spindles made use of before the introduction of the spinning wheel—

When makin’ whorls was a trade,
An’ spindles in the time 0’ need.

But the most remarkable thing was that in this intercalated claystone he believed he
had detected organic impressions ; but this was yet under consideration. He then
showed that green stone, blue heathen, occurred in a dyke on the south side of the
bay of Stonehaven. Dr. Longmuir then proceeded to describe the various ingredients
of the conglomerate, and remarked on the absence of fragments of granite except
near the Castle of Dunnottar. He also described veins of pure carbonate of lime as
traversing the conglomerate on which the ruins of the castle stand, and stated that
there was a clearly defined fault in the sandstone of the Castle-haven.

On the Remains of the Cretaceous Formation, &c. in Aberdeenshire.
By the Rev. Dr. Loncmurr.

He stated that he had no intention of doing more than showing their friends from
the south a series of specimens, which they might have little expected in a region of
granite and gneiss. He was desirous of bringing forward a brief notice of those who
had examined these fossils. That they were well known to their ancestors was
evident from the flint arrowheads and axes which were occasionally turned up in -
cultivating the fields. A land-surveyor from Berwickshire, who had acquired a
taste for geological pursuits from Dr. Hutton and Mr. Bruce, who afterwards became
Secretary of the Natural History Society of Edinburgh, seems to have been the first
to recognize their geological importance. His son brought these flints under the
notice of Mr. C, Lyell, who determined that they were similar to those found in the
‘English chalk. In 1834, Dr. Knight, formerly of this University, read a paper on the
subject before the Association, of which only the title appears in the ‘Transactions.’
But in the course of twelve years, these chalk remains had nearly been forgotten,
when he-sent an account of his first examination of the Hill of Dudwick, in the
neighbourhood of Ellon, to his lamented friend Mr. H. Miller, who was pleased to
print it in the ‘ Witness.’ Since that time he had visited the locality from Ellon to
Peterhead, and brought the result of his examination before the Association in 1850,
and now he wished to do little more than to submit the specimens to the examina-
tion of geologists. About twenty years ago, Mr. Johnston of Moreseat, in digging
for a waterfall, got into a substance containing many singular impressions. An
examination of these led him to infer that this was a portion of the green-
sand, which the fossils as well as lithological character of the matrix fully confirmed.
But he next proceeded to the lower ground nearer the sea, and found in hillocks of
-Water-worn stones, several nodules of a yellow limestone, in which he had found —
both vegetable ahd animal remains, which were now on the table; and which pa- _

»
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 263

peared to him to be magnesian limestone. The origin of these fragments was either
to be referred to the drift, or denudation. If drifted, the question whence naturally
presented itself. It was true, in Denmark they had chalk in situ, but that was in
the wrong direction. He would venture to suggest that, from the appearance of the
ground and the position of the flints, these flints had been rolled on a beach which
had afterwards been elevated.

On the Restoration of Pterichthys in ‘ The Testimony of the Rocks.’
; By the Rev. Dr. Lonemurr.

Dr. Longmuir stated that it was with emotions of the deepest sorrow that he ven-
tured to do what, in all probability, would have been done by his friend Mr. Miller,
had he been among them. The many-sided mind of that eminent man was such,
that one beholder was struck with one aspect of it as the most extraordinary, another
with a second, and another with yet a third. Thus one is astonished at his memory,
that seemed to retain everything; another admires his powerful imagination and in-
domitable perseverance ; but, from an intimacy of many years, as well as from the
study of his works, he (Dr. L.) would advert to his sagacity as the most striking
characteristic of his gifted mind. Hence he seemed intuitively to perceive what would
have cost others no small amount of careful investigation. ‘Those who were present
at the meeting of the British Association in 1850, would remember his demonstration
of what had previously appeared to him to be teeth in the ends of the jaws of the
Coccosteus, although that opinion had originally been ‘ written down a blunder on
the very highest authority ;” and so in his ‘Testimony of the Rocks,’ those who
were familiar with his restoration of the Péerichthys in his ‘Old Red Sandstone’
must have been struck with the attachment of a triangular fin to the upper edge of
the caudal extremity in his new representation of that remarkable fish, with which
his name will be indissolubly connected. In one of the earliest specimens of Pte-
richthys which his ‘‘ busy hammer ’’ laid open, he thought he detected indications of
this fin on the lengthy and angufar tail; but, either deeming the evidence insufficient,
or hoping one day to lay open a nodule that would less equivocally display the ap-
pendages of the tail, he did not venture to represent this caudal fin. This specimen
he presented to his friend the Rev. John Swanson, who afterwards transmitted it,
among several other fossils, to the Museum of King’s College. As illustrative at
once of his powerful memory and ardent perseverance, Mr. Miller, remembering the
appearance and history of that specimen, came to Aberdeen on the last day of July,
1856, and consequently but a few months before his lamented death, to examine that
specimen, and left a card upon it, on which he had pencilled, “ Péerichthys oblongus,
Cromarty (second specimen ever found) ;”’ together with a reference to his ‘ Schools
and Schoolmasters,’ for a notice of the specimen. Through the kindness of Lieut.
Paterson, R.N., Cromarty, he (Dr. L.) was indebted for a beautiful specimen of the
same fossil, in which the tail, bent along the side of the body, showed distinctly the
small fins which Mr. Miller had restored along the edge of the tail, whilst other
specimens from Lethenbar left no doubt as to the existence of the larger triangular
fin, together with the spine on its upper edge by which it had been extended. (Dr.
Longmuir illustrated his paper by diagrams of the former and later restorations of
Pterichthys, and exhibited the interesting specimens to which he had referred.)

On Fossil Remains found at Urquhart, near Elgin.
By the Rev. JAMes Morrison. Communicated by the Rev. Dr. Lonemutr.

These fossil shells, of well nigh 150 species, have all been found in a bank of
clay having a frontage of a few yards and a depth of two: the clay, of a deep
dark-blue colour, is regularly stratified. Some of the bands near the top haye
small stones and gravel mixed with them; some are arenaceous, and others purely
aluminous. The shells are found in the lower beds, in irregular and rounded water-
worn masses of no great size. These masses are of the same hue and material
as the beds in which they lie, and are plainly unwasted fragments of the recks
from which the clay has been formed. The deposit can be traced for some two
miles towards the sea, from which it is about four miles distant, though only a few

264 REPORT—1859.

feet above high-water mark. The fossils are almost exclusively molluscous. No
teeth, scales, or bones of fishes or reptiles have been found. Univalves, with the
exception of ammonites, sorely crushed in general, are rare and minute, correspond-
ing in this respect to the neighbouring patch in situ of the Lias Marlstone near
Shanbryde, where the rock is crowded with finely preserved bivalves with a stray
univalve occurring now and then. Fragments of Belemnites, joints of Pentacrinites,
and spines of Cidaris occur in goodly numbers. Bivalves are very numerous, in good
preservation, and easily extracted. rca, Nucula, Leda, Lima, Mya, Perna, Ostrea,
Gryphea, Pecten, Gervillia, Placunopois, Anomia, &c., are represented in large num-
bers and very considerable variety of form. Many of the larger shells are found
lying in the clay as unworn as though they had died but yesterday. Ostrea gigantea,
belonging to the Lias, and Ostrea Marshii, ranging from the Cornbrash to the Inferior
Oolite, show that the deposit is not in situ, a conclusion to which the whole cir-
cumstances of the case would lead, apart from the paleontological evidence.

Similar remains are met with at many different spots of the long valley stretching
from near the mouth of the Spey westwards to the Findhorn. In the Loch of Spynie,
in Duffus, and Inverugie they have been found in great abundance and variety. The
trough which lies between the Reptilian beds of Spynie and Findrassie on the south,
and Lossiemouth and Covesea on the north, seems charged with these mingled
remains of various divisions of the Lias and Oolite. The only point of importance
regarding them is to determine whence they came; for plainly they are not in situ.
Two hypotheses have been put forward. One is that they have been all transported
by ice from some land far away. The extent of the ruins, the great regularity of
the stratification, the identity of materials in the fossil-bearing masses and the
clay which contains them, their position, in Urquhart at least, beneath the boulders
of the drift, the presence in some of the beds of numerous fragments of the adjacent
cornstones and sandstones, and the existence in the clay of unprotected Gryphzas
unworn and uninjured,—all seem to point in a different direction.

The other hypothesis is, that we have here the re-arranged and re-formed debris
of Oolitic and Liassic formations formerly existing in the neighbourhood, slowly
wasted away by Old Ocean, and Jaid down again in new shape where they are now
found. This appears the true explanation, and consists with and explains all the
circumstances of the case. This view is confirmed by the fact that, at Linksfield and
Shanbryde, we have large unbroken remnants of Lias in the latter place in situ. The
recent discovery of an oolitic deposit ¢m situ lying unconformably on the Lossiemouth
sandstones, still further manifest the correctness of this second hypothesis. I regard
then these fossils as furnishing evidence that the whole of the valley, from Findhorn
to Spey, was at one period covered to a considerable depth with the Lias and Oolite.
Formed in the depths of ocean, these had been elevated above its waters, and may
have formed for uncounted ages the dry land of the Tertiary period. During the
gradual depression of the morning of the glacial day, when the Scotland that now is
was all but buried beneath the waters of an Arctic sea, the oolitic graveyard of
Moray was brought within the reach of the wild waves, was slowly wasted and broken
up; and its crushed and powdered materials, quietly deposited and reformed near
the spot they originally occupied, were covered over by the sand and clay and boul-
ders of the Drift. A counter movement then took place. The buried territory was
slowly elevated. The rearranged oolitic debris rose to near the surface, where it
remained until the upheaval to which we owe our raised beaches put it for a time
beyond, but only just beyond, the destroyer’s reach. But be the period and mode of
operation what they may, there is enough to warrant the supposition that in these
and kindred fossils scattered over the low ground, we have clear proof of the former
existence of formations which have all but disappeared from among us. What bear-
ing, if any, this may have upon the question of the age of our Reptilian sandstones,
must be left for others to decide.

On the supposed Wealden and other Beds near Elgin.
By C. Moors, F.G.S.
(See Abstracts of the Proceedings of the Geological Society, March 28, 1860.)

| Sa |

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 265

On Brachiopoda, and on the Development of the loop in Terebratula.
By C. Moors, F.G.S.

On some Observations on the Parallel Roads of Glenroy.
By Professor H. D. Rocers, F.G.S.

On Faults in Cumberland and Lancashire.
By the Rev. Professor Sepewicx, M.A., FBS.

Botany AND ZooLooy.

On the Identity of Morrhua vulgaris and M. punctata, hitherto described as
distinct species. By Dr. Dyce.

Notice of Syrrhaptis paradoxus. By Jonn Moore.

On the Osteology of Lophius piscatorius. By Professor MACDONALD.

PHYSIOLOGY.
On the Structure of the Nerve- Tubes.
By Professor Bennett, M.D., FUR.SE.

On the Origin of Morbid Growths with reference to the Connective-tissue
Theory. By Professor Bennett, M.D., F.VRS.E.

Handwriting and Drawing of the Insane, as illustrative of some Modes of
Cerebral Functions. By Professor Laycock, M.D.

On the Homologous Development of the Muscular System.
By Joun Ducurp Mine, Jun., M.A.

On the Molecular Theory of Organization.
By Professor Bennett, ID., F.RSE.

On the Sequence in the Phenomena observed in Man under the Influence
of Alcohol. By Evwarp Situ, W.D.

On certain Subjective Sensations, with especial reference to the Phenomena
of Second Sight, Visions, and Apparitions. By Witt1Am Camp, M.D.

On certain imperfectly recognized Functions of the Optic Thalami.
By Witt1am Camp, ILD.

GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
Exploration of the White Nile. By Consul PETHERIE.

266 ....... REPORT—1859.
Discovery of Lake Nyanza in Central Africa. By Captain Srexe, R.N.

On the Aboriginal Tribes of the Province of Nagpore, Central India.
By the Rev. 8. Histor, F. C. Missionary.

Memorandum of Earthquake at Erzerum. By Consul DAtyeE Lt.

Notes on the Proposed Railway Communication between the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans via the United States of America. By Norton Suaw,
M.D.

On the Commercial Resources of Zanzibar on the East Coust of Africa.
By Captain Speke, R.N.

INDEX I.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Oss ECTS and rules of the Association,

xvii.

Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers from commencement, xx.

Treasurer’s account, xxiii.

Members of Council from commence-

_ment, xxiii.

Officers and Council for 1859-60, xxvi.

Officers of Sectional Committees, xxvii.

Corresponding Members, xxviii.

Report of Council to General Committee

, at Aberdeen, xxviii.

Report of Kew Committee, 1858-59, xl.

Accounts of Kew Committee, xliv.

Report of Parliamentary Committee, xlv.

‘Recommendations adopted by General
Committee at Aberdeen :—involving
grants of money, xlix ; applications for
reports and researches, 1; applications
to Government or public institutions,
li ; communications to be printed entire
among the Reports, 7b.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific objects, li.

General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, liii.

Extracts from resolutions of the General

_ . Committee, lvii.

Arrangement of General Meetings, lvii.

Address by His Royal Highness the
Prince Consort, lix.

Aberdeen industrial feeding schools, on
the, 44.

-Air, lunar influence on the temperature
of the, 193.

Anomodontia, on the order, 161.

Atherton (Charles) on mercantile steam
transport economy as affected by the
consumption of coals, 124.

Balloon committee, report of the pro-
ceedings of the, of the British Associa-
tion appointed at the Meeting at
Leeds, 289.

Batrachia, on the order, 166.

Belfast dredging committee for 1859, 116.

Breaks for railway trains, on, 76.

Buckman (Professor), report on the
growth of plants in the garden of the
Royal Agricultural College, Cirences-
ter, 22.

Cayley (A.), report on the progress in the
solution of certain special problems in
dynamics, 310.

Chambers (C.), supplementary notes to
Mr. Crookes’s description of the wax-
paper photographic process for photo-
meteographic registration at the Rad-
cliffe observatory, 220.

Chelonia, on the order, 166.

Chemistry, organic, on the recent pro-
gress and present state of, 1.

Coals, on mercantile steam transport
economy as affected by the consump-
tion of, 124.

Conglomerate, magnesian, from Down-
hill, 69.

Congruences, theory of, 230.

Crocodilia, on the order, 164.

Crookes (W.), description of the wax-
paper photographic process employed
for the photometeorographic registra-
tions at. the Radcliffe observatory, 206,

268

De la Rue (Warren) on the present state
of celestial photography in England,
130.

Dickie (Dr.), report of the Belfast dredg-
ing committee for 1859, 116,

Dinosauria, on the order, 164.

Dolomite of Howth, on the, 68.

Dredging committee, report of the Dub-
lin Bay, for 1858-59, 80; Belfast, for
1859, 116.

Dynamics, on the progress in the solution
of certain special problems in, 310.

‘Emeu,’ on a meteor observed on board
the steam-ship, 91.

England, present state of celestial photo-
graphy in, 130,

Fairbairn (William), experiments to de-
termine the efficiency of continuous
and self-acting breaks for railway
trains, 76; report of the committee on
the patent laws, 191.

Fermat’s theorem, 233.

Foster (G. C.), preliminary report on the
recent progress and present state of
organic chemistry, 1.

Gages (Alphonse), report on the results
obtained by the mechanico-chemical
examination of rocks and minerals,
65

Ganocephala, on the order, 155.

Gauss’s demonstrations, 245-248.

Gladstone (Dr. J. H.), observations of
meteors by, 88 ; analysis of a paper by,
“on the periods and colours of lumi-
nous meteors,” 91.

Gweedore metamorphic limestone, 75.

Hadow (Mr.), report on the present state
of our knowledge regarding the photo-
graphic image, 103.

Hardwich (T. F.), report on the present
state of our knowledge regarding the

_ photographic image, 103.

Harrison (J. Park), lunar influence on
the temperature of the air, 193.

Hodgson (Bryan H.), series of skulls of
various tribes of mankind inhabiting
Nepal, collected and presented to the
British Museum, 95.

Hood (Mr.) on a meteor observed on
board the steam-ship ‘Emeu,’ 91.

Hull, on steam navigation at, 119.

Hyndman (George C.), report of the

Belfast dredging committee for 1859,

Ichthyopterygia, on the order, 159.

REPORT—1859.

J oe extension of Legendre’s symbol,
42,

Kew observatory, on the construction of
the self-recording magnetographs at
the, 200.

Kinahan (Dr. J. R.), report of Dublin
Bey dredging committee for 1858-59,

Labyrinthodontia, on the order, 158.

Lacertilia, on the order, 165.

Lagrange’s limit of the number of roots
of a congruence, 235,

Legendre’s law of reciprocity, 241.

Lesmahago, Lanarkshire, on the upper
Silurians of, 63.

Limestones, magnesian, from Permian
eee 66; Gweedore metamorphic,

Llewelyn (J. D.), report on the present
state of our knowledge regarding the
photographic image, 103.

Lowe (E. J.), observations of luminous
meteors, 82.

Lunar influence on the temperature of
the air, 193.

Lunar table of daily mean temperature,
in 1859, at Greenwich, 194.

Magnetic survey of Scotland, on the,
167.

Magnetographs, on self-recording, 200.

Mauures, on field experiments and labora-
tory researches on the constituents of,
essential to cultivated crops, 31.

Maskelyne (M.H.N.S.), report on the
present state of our knowledge regard-
ing the photographic image, 103.

Meteoric phenomena and theories, mis-
cellaneous notes on, 93.

Meteors, luminous, observations of, 81,
82, 84, 86, 88, 90, 91; analysis of a
paper on the periods and colours of,
91.

Minerals, on the results obtained by the
mechanico-chemical examination of,
65.

Moon’s phases, table of, in 1859, 194.

Murchison (Sr R. I.) on the upper
Silurians of Lesmahago, Lanarkshire,

Nepal, on a series of skulls of various
tribes of mankind inhabiting, 95.
Numbers, on the theory of, 228,

Oldham (James), third report of the pro-
gress of steam navigation at Hull, 119,
Ophidia, on the order, 166,

INDEX I.

Owen (Professor), report on a series of
skulls of various tribes of mankind
inhabiting Nepal, collected, and pre-
sented to the British Museum, by
Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq., 95; on the
orders of fossil and recent reptilia, and
their distribution in time, 153.

Page (Mr.) on the upper Silurians of
Lesmahago, Lanarkshire, 63.

Patent laws, report of the committee on
the, 191.

Patterson (Mr.), report of the Belfast
dredging committee for 1859, 116.

Photographic image, on the present state
of our knowledge regarding the, 103.

Photographic process, wax-paper, em-
ployed for the photometeorographic re-
gistrations at the Radcliffe observatory,
206; supplementary notes by C. Cham-
bers, 220.

Photography, celestial, present state of,
in England, 130.

Plants, on the growth of, in the garden
of the Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester, 22.

Powell (Rey.Prof.), report on observations
of luminous meteors, 1858-59, 81.
Pseudo-dolomite found at Stone Park,

on the, 70.
Pterosauria, on the order, 162.

Radcliffe observatory, on the wax-paper
photographic process employed for the
photometeorographic registrations at
the, 206.

Railway trains, experiments on breaks
for, 76.

Ramsay (Prof.) on the upper Silurians
of Lesmahago, Lanarkshire, 63.

Reptilia, on the orders of fossil and recent,
and their distribution in time, 153.

Rocks, on the results obtained by the
mechanico-chemical examination of,

Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester,
on the growth of plants in the garden
of the, 22.

Salts, on the solubility of, at temperatures
above 100° Cent., and on the mutual
action of, in solution, 291.

Sauropterygia, on the order, 159.

269

Schools, on the Aberdeen industrial feed-
ing, 44

Scotland, on the magnetic survey of, 167.

Shales, lower limestone, 71.

Silurians, upper, of Lesmahago, La-
narkshire, 63.

Skulls, on a series of, of various tribes of
mankind inhabiting Nepal, 95.

Slate, chloritic, and supposed metamor-
phic limestone derived from it, 73.
Slimon (Robert) on the upper Silurians

of Lesmahago, Lanarkshire, 63.

Smith (H. J. Stephen), report on the

_theory of numbers, part 1, 228.

Steam navigation at Hull, on, 119.
Steam-ship performance, report of the
committee on, 268 ; appendix, 272.
Steam transport economy, on mercantile,

124,

Stewart (Balfour) on some results of the
magnetic survey of Scotland in the
years 1857 and 1858, by the late John
Welsh, Esq., 167; an account of the
construction of the self-recording mag-
netographs at present in operation at
the Kew observatory, 200.

Sullivan (Prof. W. K.), report on the
solubility of salts at temperatures above
100° Cent., and on the mutual action
of salts in solution, 291.

Symons (G. J.), list of meteors observed
to pass between the respective constel-
lations, 89; observations of luminous
meteors, 90.

Thecodontia, on the order, 163.

Thomson (Alexander), report on the
Aberdeen industrial feedingschools, 44.

Thomson (Dr. Wyyille), report of the Bel-
fast dredging committee for 1859, 116.

Voelcker(Dr.),report on fieldexperiments
and laboratory researches on the con-
stituents of manures essential to culti-
vated crops, 31.

Waller (Mr.), report of the Belfast dredg-
ing committee for 1859, 116.

Welsh (the late John) on some results of
the magnetic survey of Scotland in 1857
and 1858, 167.

Wrottesley observatory, observations of
luminous meteors at, 84.

REPORT—1859.

INDEX II.

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE
SECTIONS.

ABERDARE, account of the fish-rain
at, 158,

Aberdeen, on the geological structure of
the vicinity of, 116 ; on the manufac-
tures and trade of, 200; on the agri-
cultural statistics of the county of, 210;
on illegitimacy in, 224; vita] and eco-
nomic statistics of, 226.

Aberdeenshire, on the connexion of the
granite with the stratified rocks in, 114;
on the upper limits of cultivation in,
133; on the flora of, 134; on the zoology
of, 144; on the mollusca of, 147; on
the remains of the cretaceous formation
in, 262.

Abernethy (J.)on the rivers ‘“ Dee ”’ form-
ing the ports of Aberdeen and Chester,
228.

Abraham, on some curious discoveries
concerning the settlement of the seed
of, in Syria and Arabia, 197.

Achromatic combinations, on a changing
diaphragm for double, 62.

Acids :—preparation of pure chromic, 68;
comparative action of hydrocyanic, on
albumen and caseine, 162; on the ac-
tion of concentrated sulphuric, on cube-
bin, 256.

Actinia mesembryanthemum, on the du-
ration of life in the, when kept in
confinement, 152.

Adams (Dr.) on the birds of Banchory,
142.

Adamson (Dr.) on a case of lactation in
an unimpregnated bitch, 159.

Africa, on the resources of eastern, 188.

Agricultural statistics of the county of
Aberdeen, on the, 210. ‘

Air, on the heat developed by friction in,
12; on the action of, on alkaline arse-
nites, 74.

Air-pump, on some of the stages which
led to the invention of the modern, 89.

Airy (G. B.) on the present state and
history of the question respecting the
acceleration of the moon’s motion, 29.

Albumen and caseine, on the compara-
tive action of hydrocyanic acid on, 162.

Alcohol, on the action of, on the nervous”

system, 170; on the sequence in the
phenomena observed in man under
the influence of, 265.

Alder (Joshua) on a new zoophyte, and
two species of Echinodermata new to
Britain, 142.

Alexander (Colonel Sir J.) on the arts of
camp life, 200.

Alkalies, on combinations of earthy phos-
phates with, 88.

Allan(Alex.) on an improved method of
maintaining a true liquid level, particu-
larly applicable to wet gas-meters, 228,

Allman (Dr.) on Dicoryne stricta, a new
genus and species of the Tubulariade,
142; on a remarkable form of parasi-
tism among the Pyenogonide, 148;
on Laomedea tenuis, 7b. ; on the struc-
ture of the Iucernariade, 20.

Alloys, on the specific gravities of, 66.

Ambisheg, Isle of Bute, on coal at, 100,

America, on the effects of the influx of
the precious metals which followed the
discovery of, 205.

Ameuney (A.) on the Arabic-speaking
population of the world, 176.

Anderson (Rev. Dr.) on human remains
in superficial drift, 95; on Dura Den
sandstone, 97,

Arabic-speaking population of the world, —

on the, 176.
Arctic flora, on the, 140.
Ardoch, on the Roman camp at, 183.
Arsenic, on Marsh’s test for, 75.
Arsenites, on the action of air on alkaline,
74,

Artesian well in the new red sandstone at
the Wolverhampton waterworks, 229.
Ashey Down, on the water supply afforded

__ by a spring at, 114.

Asia, Central, on the Russian trade with,
186.

Astronomy, 29; on Chinese, 35.

Atmosphere, on the natural obstructions

in the, preventing the view of distant -

objects on the earth’s surface, 49; on
the aqueous vapour of the, 50.

INDEX II.

Atmospheric movements, on the effects of

’ the earth’s rotation on, 41.

Atmospheric waves, on, 50.

Australia, on a gold nugget from, 85; on
the skull of a wombat from the bone-
caves of, 1523 on the aboriginals of,
186.

Aytoun (Robert) on a safety cage for
miners, 228.

Baily (W.H.) on tertiary fossils of India,
97; on Sphenopteris Hookeri, a new
fossil fern from the upper old red sand-

- stone formation at Kiltorkan Hill, in
the county of Kilkenny, 98.

Bain (Donald) on harbours of refuge,
229,

Balten (A.) on a boat-lowering apparatus,
229.

Banchory, on the birds of, 142.

Barlee (George), list of marine polyzoa
collected by, in Shetland and the Ork-
neys, 144.

Barometer, on the semidiurnal and an-
nual variations of the, 43; on the diur-
nal variation of the, 50.

Basaltic formations in Northumberland,

: on some, 108.

Bateman (J. F.), description of the Glas-
gow waterworks, with photographic
illustrations taken at various stages of
the work, 229; on an artesian well in
the new red sandstone at the Wolver-
hampton waterworks, ib.

Beattie (William) on a bone-cave near
Montrose, 99.

Beck (Joseph) on producing the idea of
distance in the stereoscope, 61.

Becquerel’s phosphoroscope, on, 62.

Bees, on the angles of dock-gates, and the
cells of, 10.

Bennett (Dr. G.) on some uses to which
the nuts of the vegetable ivory palm
(Phytelephas macrocarpa) is applied,

- 130; on the structure of the nerve-
tubes, 265; on the origin of morbid
growths with reference to the connec-
tive-tissue theory, 73.; on the mole-
cular theory of organization, ib.

Berkeleyan hypothesis, second physiolo-
gical attempt to unravel some of the

- perplexities of the, 160.

Bialloblotzky (M. F.) on the different
points of fusion to be observed in the
constituents of granite, 68 ; on granite,

Binney (Mr.) on the solubility of bone-
earth from various sources in solutions
of chloride of ammonium and common
salt, 66.

271

Birds:—of Banchory, 142; of Paradise,
on several species of, 148; on some new
species of, 149; list of the, of the N. of
Scotland, with their distribution, 150.

Birt (W. R.) on the mid-day illumination
of the lunar craters, Geminus, Burck-
hardt, and Bernoulli, 30.

Boat-lowering apparatus, on a, 229; on
models of, 244.

Boats, on Indian river tow, 235; on a
mode for suspending, disconnecting,
and hoisting, 245.

Bode (Baron de) on the country to the
west of the Caspian Sea, 177.

Bodies, on a system of moving, 43.

Bogota, on the engines of the, 231.

Boilers, on an automatic injector for feed-
ing, 237.

Bollaert (W.) on the geography of South-
ern Peru, 177.

Bombacez, on some peculiarities of the, of
Western India, 132.

Bone-cave near Montrose, on a, 99.

Bone-earth, on the solubility of, 66.

Botany, 126, 130, 265.

Bothwell (G. B.) on the manufactures
and trade of Aberdeen, 200,

Black (Dr.) on coal at Ambisheg, Isle of
Bute, 100.

Bleeker (Dr.), descriptions of genera of
fish of Java, 144.

Brachiopoda, on the physiology of the
pallial sinus system of, 170, 265.

Brady (A.) on the elephant remains at

. Ilford, 130.

Braemar, remarkable plants found in,
133.

Brazier (James S.) on the action of con-
centrated sulphuric acid on cubebin in
relation to the test for strychnine by bi-
chromate of potash and sulphuric acid,
256; on dugong oil, 2d.; on distilled
water, 7b.; laboratory memoranda, 257.

Breadalbane, on the rocks and minerals’
in the property of the Marquis of, 125.

Bread-making, on a new mode of, 76.

Brewster (Sir D.) on a new species of
double refraction, 10; on the decom-
posed glass found at Nineveh and other’
places, 11; on Sir Christopher Wren’s
cipher, containing three methods of
finding the longitude, 34; on a horse-
shoe nail found in the red sandstone of
Kingoodie, 101; on the connexion be- '
tween the solar spots and magnetic
disturbances, 245; on a remarkable
specimen of chalcedony, belonging to
Miss Campbell, and exhibiting a per-
fectly distinct and well-drawn lJand-
scape, ib. ,

272

British Isles, on mild winters in the, 50.

British North America, on rapid commu-
nication between the Atlantic and Pa-
cific via, 200,

Brodhurst (Bernard E.) on the repair of
tendons after their subcutaneous divi-
sion, 160.

Bromine, on the equivalent of, 88.

Broun (John Allan) on the semidiurnal
and annual variations of the barometer,
43.

Brown (Alexander) on the fall of rain in
Forfarshire, 47.

Bryce (James) on the discovery of Silu-
rian fossils in the slates of Downshire,
260.

Buckton (G. B.) on pentethyl-stibene,
66

Buist (George) on the geology of Lower
Egypt, 101; on the failure of bright-
coloured flowers in forest trees to pro-
duce pictorial effect on the landscape,
unless accompanied by abundance of
green leaves, 130; on some peculiari-
ties of the silk trees, or Bombacez,
of Western India, 132; on the aversion
of certain tr ees and plants to th neigh-
bourhood of each cther, 133.

Burnett (C. J.) on the use of platinum
in photography, 258.

Burnett (S. M.) on the zoology of Aber-
deenshire, 144.

Busk (George) on marine polyzoa col-
lected by G. Barlee, E'sq., in Shetland
and the Orkneys, with descriptions of
the new species, 144,

Butterflies, on the distribution of British,
156.

Cables :—on the submergence of tele-
graphic, 11; on the discharge of a
coiled-electric, 26; on the retardation
of signals through long submarine, 251.

Caine (Rev. W.) on the progress of pub-
lic opinion with respect to the evils
produced by the traffic in intoxicating
drink, as at present regulated by law,
205.

Caithness, on the submerged forests of,
101; on some new fossils from the old
red sandstone of, 115; on fossil fish,
new to the old red sandstone of, 120;
on the zoophytes of, 155.

Caledonians, on the ethnology and hiero-
glyphics of the, 178.

Calico-printing, on the ageing of mor-
dants in, 258.

California, on the skull of a seal from the
gulf of, 153.

‘Callao,’ on the engines of the, 231.

REPORT- -1859.

Calvert (F. Crace) on the specific gravi-
ties of alloys, 66; on the formation of
rosolate of lime on cotton fabrics in
hot climates, 68.

Camp (Dr. W.) on certain imperfectly
recognized functions of the optic tha-
lami, 265; on certain subjective sen-
sations, with especial reference to the
phenomena of second sight, visions, and
apparitions, ib.

Campbell (R.) on the probability of uni-
formity in statistical tables, 3.

Camp-life, on the arts of, 200.

Camps (Dr. W.) on the laws of consan-
guinity and descent of the Iroquois,
177.

Canadian caverns, on, 106.

Cardium edule, on the composition of the
shell of, 77.

Caseine, on the comparative action of
hydrocyanic acid on albumen and, 162.

Caspian Sea, on the country to the west
of the, 177.

Caunter (H.} on a diatomaceous deposit
found in the island of Lewis, 133.

Caverns, Canadian, 106; on the origin of
the ossiferous, at Oreston, 110.

Cellular matter, on the current methods
for estimating the, in vegetable food-
stuffs, 79.

Chalcedony, on a remarkable specimen
of, 245,

Chameleon, on the habits and instincts of
the, 153.

Charts of the stars, &c., on the applica-
tion of Col. James's geometrical projec-
tion of two-thirds of the sphere to the
construction of, 183.

Chemistry, 65, 256.

China, on certain phenomena attendant
on volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
in, 115; on the cultivation of the opium
poppy of, 186; on the trade currency
of, 2438.

Chinese: on the astronomy of the, 35;
genealogical tables, on, 186.

Chromatic dispersion, on certain laws of,
15.

Church-building in Glasgow, on, 223.

Circle, on the relations of a, inscribed in
a square, 10.

Civilization, on the relation of the domes-
ticated animals to, 177.

Clark (D. K.) on coal-burning without
smoke, by the method of steam-inducted
air-currents applied to the locomotive
engines of the Great North of Scotland
Railway, 230.

Claudet (A.) on the stereomonoscope, 61 ;
on the focus of object-glasses, ib.; on the

INDEX II,

stereoscopic angle, 61; on a changing
diaphragm for double achromatic com-
binations, 62.

Cleghorn (John) on the submerged forests
of Caithness, 101.

Clouston (Rev. Charles), remarks on the
climate of Orkney, 48.

Coal at Ambisheg, Isle of Bute, 100.

Coal burning without smoke, on, 230.

Coal strata of North Staffordshire, with
reference particularly to their organic
remains, 103.

Cod, on the structure of the otoliths of the,
174,

Colour, on the production of, 22.

Colour-blindness, on the statistics of, 228.

Compass, on changes of deviation of the,
on board iron ships by ‘ heeling,” 28 ;
on an improvement in the proportional,
63.

Condensation, on surface, 236.

‘* Cone-in-cone,” on the origin of, 124.

Cotton fabrics, on the formation of roso-
late of lime on, in hot climates, 68.

Cow, on drift pebbles found in the stomach
of a, 158.

Cox (H.) on the submergence of tele-
graphic cables, 11.

Craufurd (John) on the relation of the
domesticated animals to civilization,
177; on the effects of the influx of the
precious metals which followed the dis-
covery of America, 205; on the effects
of the recent gold discoveries, id.

Cretaceous formation, on the remains of
the, in Aberdeenshire, 262.

Croall (Mr.) on the more remarkable
plants found in Braemar, 135.

Cruickshank (Alexander) on the natural
obstructions in the atmosphere pre-
venting the view of distant objects on
the earth’s surface, 49,

Crum (Walter) on the ageing of mordants
in calico printing, 258.

Cubebin, on the action of concentrated
sulphuric acid on, 256,

Cultivation, on the upper limits of, in
Aberdeenshire, 133.

Cydippe, on the genus, 155.

Dale (Rey. T. P.) on the relation between
refractive index and volume among
liquids, 12.

Dalyell (Consul), memorandum of earth-
quake at Erzerum, 266.

Dalzell (Dr.) on crystallized bichromate
of strontia, 68; on the economical pre-
paration of pure chromic acid, ib.

Danube, notes on the Jower, 197.

Daubeny (Dr.) on volcanic tufa. from the
1859.

273

neighbourhood of Rome and Naples,
68 ; on certain volcanic rocks in Italy
which appear to have been subjected to
metamorphic action, 102.

Davies (T.) on the diurnal variations of
the barometer, 50.

Davis (J. Barnard) on the inhabitants of
the Tarai, at the foot of the Himalayas,
177.

Davis (Richard) on a patent pan for eva-
porating saccharine solutions and other
liquids at a temperature below 108°
Fahr,, 230.

Dawson (J. W.), letter to Sir Charles
Lyell, on the occurrence of a land shell
and reptiles in the South Joggins coal-
field, Nova Scotia, 102.

Decimal coinage, on, 215, 223.

Dee, on the rivers, forming the ports of
Aberdeen and Chester, 228.

Diamonds, on the fluorescence and phose
phorescence of, 69.

Diatomaceous deposit found in the island
of Lewis, 133.

Dickie (Dr.) on the upper limits of culti-
vation in Aberdeenshire, 133; on the
flora of Aberdeenshire, 134; on the
mollusca of Aberdeenshire, 147 ; on the
structure of the shell in some species of
Pecten, 147.

Dicoryne stricta, on, 142.

Dingie (Rev. J.) on the constitution of
the earth, 102.

Disinfecting and deodorizing powder, on
Corne and Demeaux’s, 74.

Dock-gates, on the angles of, and the cells
of bees, 10.

Dowling (Mr.) on the quantitative esti-
mation of tannin in some tanning ma-
terials, 75.

Downshire, on the discovery of Silurian
fossils in the slates of, 260.

Drift, on human remains in superficial,
95.

Drift beds and boulders of the north of
Scotland, on the, 114.

Drift pebbles found in the stomach of a
cow, 158.

Drink, intoxicating, on the progress of
public opinion with respect to the evils
produced by the traffic in, 205.

Dugong oil, on, 256.

Dupré (A.) on the
Thames water, 75,

Dura Den sandstone, on, 97.

Dyce (Dr.) on the identity of Morrhua
vulgaris and M, punctata, hitherto de-
scribed as distinct species, 265.

composition of

Earth, on the constitution of the, 102.
18

274

Earth’s rotation, on the effects of the, on
atmospheric movements, 41.

Earthquake at Erzerum, memorandum
of, 266.

Earthquakes and eruptions, on certain
phenomena attendant on volcanic, in
China and Japan, 115,

Echinodermata, on two species new to
Britain, 142.

Egypt, Lower, on the geology of, 101.

Elder (J.) on the engines of the Callao,
Lima, and Bogota, 231.

Electric cable, on the discharge of a
coiled, 26.

Electrical discharge, on the stratified, as
affected by a moveable glass ball, 11.

Electrica] frequency, on, 26,

Electricity, 10; on the transmission of,
through water, 13; on the necessity
for incessantly recording observations
on atmospheric, 27.

Electro-medical apparatus, on a new, 62.

Elephant remains at Ilford, 100.

Elgin, on fossils from, 115; on the newly
discovered reptilian remains from the
neighbourhood of, 261; on the sup-
posed Wealden and other beds near,
264.

Endosmosis, on some curious effects of,
162.

Engines of the Callao, Lima, and Bogota,
on the, 231.

Ethnology, 176, 265,

Eurypteridz, on the structure, affinities
and geological range of the crustacean
family, 120.

Everett (Prof. J. D.) on a method of
reducing observations of underground
temperatures, 245.

Fairbairn (William), experimental re-
searches to determine the density of
steam at various temperatures, 233,

Falco Islandicus and F. Grcenlandicus,
on, 158.

Faults in Cumberland and Lancashire,
on, 265.

Fawcett (Henry) on the social and eco-
nomical influence of the new gold, 205.

Ferns, on the vegetative axis of, 139.

Fibrous substances, on the comparative
value of certain salts for rendering,
non-inflammable, 86.

Fire-escapes, on various models of, 244.

Fish, fossil, from Fettercairn, on a, 114;
fossil, new to the old red sandstone of
Caithness, 120; descriptions of genera
of Javanese, 144,

Fish-rain at Aberdare, account of the,
158.

REPORT—1859.

Fisheries of Greenland and Davis Straits,
on the, 216,

Fishes and tracks from the Passage Rocks,
and from the old red sandstone of Here-
fordshire, on some, 124.

FitzRoy (Rear-Admiral) on atmospheric
waves, 50; on the aqueous vapour of
the atmosphere, 7b.; on meteorology,
with reference to travelling, and the
measurement of the height of moun-
tains, 178.

Flanders, composition of a recently formed
rock on the coast of, 77. :

Flora of Aberdeenshire, on the, 134.

Flora, on the Arctic, 140.

Fluid, on the figure of an imperfectly
elastic, 5.

Fluids, on the molecular movements of,
259.

Fluorescent substances, on photographs
of, 69.

Food- stuffs, vegetable, on the current
method for estimating the cellular mat-
ter in, 79.

Forbes (Col. J.) on the ethnology and
hieroglyphics of the Caledonians, 178.

Forbes (Sir John S., Bart.) on popular in-
vestments, 209.

Forfarshire, on the fall of rain in, 47.

Formosa, on the native inhabitants of,
186,

Forts, vitrified, on Noth and Dunnideer,
Wee

Fossil remains found at Urquhart, 263.

Fossils, tertiary, of India, 97 ; new, from
the old red sandstone of Caithness, 115;
from the lower old red sandstone, 116.

Foster (Dr. Michael) on the beat of the
snail’s heart, 160.

Fowler (Dr. R.), a second physiological
attempt to unravel some of the per-
plexities of the Berkeleyan hypothesis,
160.

Freeman (Consul T.), description of Gha-
damés, 178.

Fresnel’s wave-surface, on an application
of quaternions to the geometry of, 248.

Gadus Morrhua, on the structure of the
otoliths of the, 174.
Gages (A.) on the comparative action of

hydrocyanie acid on albumen and ~

caseine, 162.
Galago murinus, new species of, 153.

Garner (R.) on the coal strata of North —

Staffordshire, with reference particu-

larly to their organic remains, 103 5 on —

reproduction in Gasteropoda, and on
some curious effects of endosmosis, I62.

Garrod (Dr, A. B.) on the specific, che-

— ae

eae

INDEX II.

mical and microscopical phenomena of
gouty inflammation, 165,

Gas, on a new form of instantaneous
generator of illuminating, 69.

Gas-burner, on a new, 237.

Gas carriages for lighting railway car-
riages with coal-gas instead of oil, 235.

Gases, on the dynamical theory of, 9.

Gas-meters, wet, on an improved method
of maintaining a true liquid level, par-
ticularly applicable to, 228.

Gassiot (J. P.) on the stratified electrical
discharge, as affected by a moveable
glass ball, 11.

Gasteropoda, on reproduction in, 162,

Gauge, on a deep-sea pressure, 236.

Gebel Hauran and its adjacent districts,
180.

Geikie (A.) on the chronology of the trap
rocks of Scotland, 106.

Genetic cycle, on the, in organic nature,
172.

Geography, 176, 265.

Geology, 93, 260; of Lower Egypi, 101.

Georgetown, Demerara, on tables of rain
registered at, 52.

Gerard (Alexander), experimental illus-
tration of the gyroscope, 235.

Ghadamés, description of, 178.

Gibb (Alexander) on the granite quarries
of Aberdeen and Kincardineshire, 235.

Gibb (Dr. G. D.) on Canadian caverns,
106.

Gibson (William Sydney) on some ba-
saltic formations in Northumberland,
106.

Giffard’s (M.) automatic injector for feed-
ing boilers, 237.

Girdleness and Dunnottar Castle, on the
section of the coast between the, 261.
Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on the relation be-
tween refractive index and volume
among liquids, 12; on the fluorescence
and phosphorescence of diamonds, 69 ;
on photographs of fluorescent sub-

stances, ib.

Glasgow, on church-building in, 223;
description of the waterworks at, 229.

Glass, on the decomposed, found at Nine-
veh and other places, 11; new process
etching, in relief by hydrofluoric acid,

Glennie (J. S.) on a general mechanical
theory of physics, 58.

Glenroy, observations on the parallel
roads of, 265.

Gneiss, red sandstone and quartzite, on
the relations of the, in the North-west
Highlands, 119.

Gold, on the effects of the recent dis-

275

coveries of, 205; on the social and
economical influence of the new, id.

Gold nugget from Australia, on a, 85,

Gould (John) on the varieties and species
of new pheasants recently introduced
into England, 147; on several species
of birds of paradise, 148; on some
new species of birds, 149.

Gouty inflammation, on the specific, che-
mical and microscopical phenomena of,
165,

Graham (Thomas) on the molecular move-
ments of fluids, 259.

Grampians, on sections along the south-
ern flanks of the, 109.

Granite, on, 100; on the different points
of fusion to be observed in the con-
stituents of, 68; on the connexion of
the, with the stratified rocks in Aber-
deenshire, 114,

Grey (Sir C,) on the longitude, 34.

Guthrie (Dr.), reports from the laboratory
at Marburg, 68.

Gutta percha as an insulator at various
temperatures, on, 248,

Gymnotus electricus, on the employment
of, as a medical shock-machine by the
natives of Surinam, 158.

Gyroscope, an experimental illustration
of the, 235.

Hamilton (Sir W. R.) on an application
of quaternions to the geometry of Fres-
nel’s wave-surface, 248.

Harbours of refuge, on, 229.

Harkness (Prof.) on the yellow sandstones
of Elgin and Lossiemouth, 109; on
sections along the southern flanks of
the Grampians, id,

Harrington (G. F.) on the theory of light,
12.

Hart (G.) on gas carriages for lighting
railway carriages with coal-gas instead
of oil, 335.

Harvey (Arthur) on the agricultural sta-
tistics of the county of Aberdeen, 210,

Hay (Sir A. L.) on the vitrified forts on
Noth and Dunnideer, 179.

Heat, 10; on the, developed by friction
in air, 12; on radiant, 23; on the dis-
tribution of, over the sun’s surface, 50;
on some new cases of phosphorescence
by, 76.

Heat-diffusers, on the true action of what
are called, 244.

Hector (Dr.), description of passes through
the Rocky Mountains, 180.

Helico-meter, on a, 237,

Heliometer, on an improvement in the,

36,
18*

276

Henderson (Andrew) on Indian river
steamers and tow boats, 235.

Hennessy (J. Pope) on the inclination of
the planetary orbits, 834; on some re-
sults of the Society of Arts’ examina-
tions, 214; on some questions relating
to the incidence of taxation, 216; on
certain properties of the powers of num-
bers, 248.

Hennessy (Prof.) on the figure of an im-
perfectly elastic fluid, 5; on mild win-
ters in the British Isles, 50.

Hirudo medicinalis and other leeches, on
the admixture of nervous and muscular
fibres in the nerves of the, 174.

Hislop (Rev. S.) on the aboriginal tribes
of the province of Nagpore, 266.

Hodge (Henry C.) on the origin of the
ossiferous caverns at Oreston, 110.

Hogg (John) on a species of Phalangista
recently killed in the county of Dur-
ham, 149; on Gebel Hauran, its ad-
jacent districts, and the eastern desert
of Syria, with remarks on their geo-
graphy and geology, 180; notice of the
Karaite Jews, 181.

Huggate, meteorological
made at, 52.

Huxley (Prof. H.) on the newly dis-
covered reptilian remains from the
neighbourhood of Elgin, 261.

observations

Ice, on recent theories and experiments
on, at its melting-point, 23.

Ilford, on the elephant remains at, 100.

Illegitimacy in Aberdeen and the other
large towns of Scotland, 224,

India, tertiary fossils of, 97; on some
peculiarities of the silk trees of Western,
132; on the trade and commerce of,
217; on the past, present and pro-
spective financial condition of British,
223; on the British trade with, 227.

Insane, on the handwriting and drawing
of the, as illustrative of some modes of
cerebral functions, 265.

Insulator, on gutta percha as an, 248.

Investments, popular, on, 209.

Tris, on the, seen on the surface of water,
29.

Iron, on the strength of wrought, 242.

Troquois, on the laws of consanguinity and
descent of the, 177.

Tsoard and Son (MM.) on a new form of
instantaneous generator of illuminating
gas by means of superheated aqueous
vapour and any hydrocarburet, 69.

Italy, on certain voleanic rocks in, which
appear to have been subjected to meta-
morphic action, 102,

REPORT—1859.

James (Colonel Henry) on the application
of his geometrical projection of two-
thirds of the sphere to the construction
of charts of the stars, &c., 183; on the
Roman camp at Ardoch, and the mili-
tary works near it, ib.

Jamieson (‘I’. F.) on the connexion of the
granite with the stratified rocks in
Aberdeenshire, 114; on the drift-beds
and boulders of the north of Scotland,
114; list of the birds of the north of
Scotland, with their distribution, 150.

Japan, notes on, 194,

Jardine (Sir William, Bart.), address to
the Botanical and Zoological Sections,
126.

Java, descriptions of genera of fish of, 144,

Jenkin (Fleeming) on gutta percha as an
insulator at various temperatures, 248 ;
on the retardation of signals through
long submarine cables, 251.

Jews, notice of the Karaite, 181.

Johnson (Henry) on a deep-sea pressure
gauge, 236.

Johnson (Richard) on the specific gravities
of alloys, 66.

Johnson (R. L.) on decimal coinage, 215.

Joule (J. P.) on the heat developed by
friction in air, 12; on surface conden-
sation, 236.

Kelp, on proposed improvements in the
manufacture of, 88.

Kettie (Mr.) on a submarine lamp,
236.
Kirk (Dr.), letter of, to A. Kirk, relating
to the Livingstone expedition, 185.
Knowles (E. R. J.) on some curious re-
sults in the water-supply afforded by a
spring at Ashey Down, in the Ryde
waterworks, 114.

Knox (Dr. R.) on the classification of the
Salmonide, 153.

Laboratory memoranda, 257.

Lactation, on a case of, in an unimpreg-
nated bitch, 159.

Lamp, on a submarine, 236.

Lankester (Dr.) on drawings of British
spiders to illustrate Mr. Blackwall’s
work, 150.

Laomedea tenuis, new species of, 148.

Lawes (J. B.) on the effects of different
manures on the composition of the .
mixed herbage of meadow-land, 70.

Lawrance (Thomas) on the whale and
seal fisheries of Greenland and Davis
Straits, carried on by vessels from Peter-
head, from 1788 to 1858, a period of
seventy-one years, 216,

INDEX II.

Laycock (Dr.), handwriting and drawing
of the insane, as illustrative of some
modes of cerebral functions, 265.

Leaves, on the colours of, 138.

Length, on the nomenclature of metrical
measures of, 244.

Lens, on a new photographic, 63.

Lewes (G. H.) on the necessity of a re-
form in nerve-physiology, 166; on a
demonstration of the muscular sense,
167; on the supposed distinction be-
tween sensory and motory nerves,
168.

Lewis, on a diatomaceous deposit found
in the island of, 133.

Light, 10; on the theory of, 12, 22; on
the affections of polarized, reflected
and transmitted by thin plates, 14;
on a portable apparatus for analysing,
62.

Lima, on the engines of the, 231.

Lime, on the formation of rosolate of, on
cotton fabrics in hot climates, 68.

Lindelof (Prof.) on the calculus of varia-
tions, 5.

Lindsay (J. B.) on the transmission of
electricity through water, 13; on Chi-
nese astronomy, 35.

Liquids, on the relation between refrac-
tive index and volume among, 12.

Livingstone expedition, letter from Dr.
Kirk relating to the, 183.

Lloyd (Rev. H.) on the affections of
polarized light reflected and transmitted
by thin plates, 14.

Longitude, on the, 34; on Sir Christopher
Wren’s cipher, containing three me-
thods of finding the, 72d.

Longmuir (Rev. Dr.) on the section of the
coast between the Girdleness and Dun-
nottar Castle, 261; on the remains of
the cretaceous formation, &c. in Aber-
deenshire, 262; on the restoration of
Pterichthys in ‘ The Testimony of the
Rocks,’ 263.

Lophius piscatorius, on the osteology of,
265.

Lowe (E. J.) on the temperature of the
flowers and leaves of plants, 135.

Lucernariade, on the structure of the,
143.

Lunar craters, Geminus, Burckhardt, and
Bernoulli on the mid-day illumination
of the, 30.

Lunars, on calculating, 4.

Lyell (Sir C.), introductory address by, to
the Geological Section, 93 ; letter to, by
J. W. Dawson, Esq., on the occurrence
of a land shell and reptiles in the South
Joggins coal-field, Nova Scotia, 102,

277

Macadam (Dr. S.) on the analysis and
valuation of manures, 72.

M‘Bain (Dr. James) on a skull of a
manatee from Old Calabar, 150; on
the duration of life in the Actinia
mesembryanthemum when kept in con-
finement, 152; on the skull of a wom-
bat from the bone-caves of Australia,
ib.; on the skull of a seal from the
Gulf of California, 153.

M‘Combie (Hon, T.) on the aboriginals
of Australia, 186; on the statistics of
the trade and progress of the colony of
Victoria, 218.

Macdonald (J. D.) on the homologies of
the coats of Tunicata, with remarks on
the physiology of the Pallial Sinus
system of Brachiopoda, 170.

Macdonald (Prof.) on the osteology of
Lophius piscatorius, 265.

M‘Donnell (J.) on the action of air on
alkaline arsenites, 74.

M‘Gowan (Dr.) on certain phenomena
attendant on voleanic eruptions and
earthquakes in China and Japan, 115;
on the cultivation of the opium poppy
of China, 186 ; on the native inhabitants
of Formosa, 186; on Chinese genea-
logical tables, ib.; on the trade cur-
rency of China, 223,

Mackenzie (J. T.) on the trade and com-
merce of India, 217.

M‘Leod (J. Lyons) on the resources of
Eastern Africa, 188.

Maevicar (John G.) on the philosophy of
physics, 59; on the organic molecules
and their relations to each other, 72.

Magnetic disturbances, on the connexion
between the solar spots and, 245.

Magnetism, 10; on the cause of, 28.

Manatee, on the skull of a, from Old
Calabar, 150.

Manures, on the effects of different, on
the composition of the mixed herbage
of meadow-land, 70; on the analysis
and valuation of, 72.

Marcet (Dr. W.) on the action of alcohol
on the nervous system, 170.

Marsh’s test for arsenic, on, 75.

Masters (Maxwell T.) on vegetable mor-
phology and the theory of the meta-
morphosis of plants, 136.

Matches without phosphorus or poison,
on, 74.

Mathematics, 1, 245.

Maxwell (Prof. J. C.) on the dynamical
theory of gases 9; on the mixture of
the colours of the spectrum, 15 ; on an
instrument for exhibiting the motions
of Saturn’s rings, 62,

278

Mechanical science, 228.

Metals, precious, on the effects of the in-
flux of the, which followed the discovery
of America, 205.

Meteorological observations made at Hug-
gate, Yorkshire, 52.

Meteorology, 43; on, with reference to
travelling, and the measurement of the
height of mountains, 178.

Michell (Thomas) on the Russian trade
with Central Asia, 186,

Milk, on preserving it perfectly pure,
without any chemical agent, 74.

Miller (John) on some new fossils from
the old red sandstone of Caithness, 115;
on the age of the reptilian sandstones
of Morayshire, 7b.

Milne (J. D., jun.) on the homologous
development of the muscular system,
265.

Miners, on a safety-cage for, 228.

Mitchell (Hugh) on new fossils from the
lower old red sandstone, 116.

Moigno (The Abbé), supplement to New-
ton’s method of resolving equations, 9 ;
on Becquerel’s phosphoroscope, 62 ; on
a new photometer, 7b.; on the pho-
nautograph, an instrument for register-
ing simple and compound sounds, ib. ;
on matches without phosphorus or poi-
son, 74; on a nephelogene, 7b.; on
Corne & Demeaux’s disinfecting and
deodorizing powder, ib.; on preserving
milk perfectly pure in the natural state,
without any chemical agent, ib.; on a
new gas burner, 236; on a helic¢o-meter,
an instrument for measuring the thrust
of the screw propeller, 237; on M.
Giffard’s automatic injector for feeding
boilers, 26.; on an application of the
moving power arising from tides to
manufacturing, agricultural and other
purposes, and specially to obviate the
Thames nuisance, 7b.

Molecules, on the organic, and their re-
lations to each other, 72.

Mollusca of Aberdeenshire, on the, 147.

Molyneux (W.) on the coal strata of North
Staffordshire, with reference particu-
larly to their organic remains, 103.

Mont Blanc, on the establishment of
thermometric stations on, 56.

Montrose, on a bone cave near, 99.

Moon’s motion, on the present state and
history of the question respecting the
acceleration of the, 29.

Moore (C.) on the supposed Wealden and
other beds near Elgin, 264; on Brachi-
opoda, and on the development of the
loop in Terebratula, 265.

REPORT—1859.

Moore (John) on Syrrhaptis paradoxus,
257

Moore (Dr. W.), statistics of small-pox
and vaccination in the United King-
dom, 223.

Moorsom (Vice-Admiral) on the perform-
ance of steam-vessels, 237.

Morayshire, on the age of the reptilian
sandstones of, 115.

Morbid growths, on the origin of, with re-
ference to the connective tissue theory,
265.

Mordants, on the ageing of, in calico-
printing, 258.

Morphology, on vegetable, 136.

Morrhua vulgaris and M. punctata, on
the identity of, hitherto described as
distinct species, 265.

Morrison (Rev. James) on fossil remains
found at Urquhart, 263.

Mountains, on the measurement of the
height of, 178.

Mulligan (Mr.), quantitative estimation of
tannin in some tanning materials, 75.

Murphy (J. J.) on the distribution of heat
over the sun’s surface, 50.

Murray (Andrew) on a new species of
Galago (Galago murinus) from Old
Calabar, 153; on the disguises of na-
ture, 175.

Muscular sense, on a demonstration of
the, 167.

Muscular system, on the homologous de-
velopment of the, 265.

Nagpore, on the aboriginal tribes of the
province of, 266,

Napier (Mr.), new process of etching glass
in relief by hydrofluoric acid, 88.

Napier and Sons’ experiments on the.
strength of wrought iron and steel, 242.

Natural History, on different subjects in,
155.

Nature, on the disguises of, 175.

Nephelogene, on a, 74.

Nerve-physiology, on the necessity of a
reform in, 166.

Nerve-tubes, on the structure of the, 265.

Nerves, on the supposed distinction be-
tween sensory and motory, 168.

Nervous system, on the action of alcohol
on the, 170.

Newton’s method of resolving equations,
supplement to, 9.

Nicol (Prof. James) on the geological
structure of the vicinity of Aberdeen
and the north-east of Scotland, 116;
on the relations of the gneiss, red sand-
stone, and quartzite in the North-west
Highlands, 119.

INDEX II.

Niépce de St. Victor (M.) on two new
photochemical experiments, 260.

Nineveh, on the decomposed glass found
at, 11.

Northumberland, on some basaltic for-
mations in, 108.

Notonecta, on the method of production
of sound by a species of, 173.

Nourse (W. E. C.) on the colours of leaves
and petals, 138; on the habits and in-
stinets of the chameleon, 153; on the
organs of the senses, and on the men-
tal perceptive faculties connected with
them, 171.

Numbers, on certain properties of the
powers of, 248.

Nyanza lake, on the discovery of, in
Central Africa, 266. i

Object-glasses, on the focus of, 61.

Odling (W.) on Marsh’s test for arsenic,
75; on the composition of Thames
water, ib.; on a new mode of bread-
making, 76.

Ogilvie (Dr. George) on the vegetative
axis of ferns, 139; on the genetic cycle
in organic nature, 172.

Oidema, on skeletons of, from the pleisto-
cene brick-clays of Stratheden, 120.

Oil, dugong, 256.

Oliphant (Laurence), notes on Japan, 194.

Opium poppy of China, on the cultivation
of the, 136,

Optic thalami, on certain imperfectly
recognized functions of the, 265.

Oreston, on the origin of the ossiferous
caverns at, 110; on the ossiferous fis-
sures at, 121.

Organization, on the molecular theory of,
265,

Orkney, on the climate of, 48.

Osborne (Capt. Sherard) on the Yang- tse-
kiang, and its future commerce, 196.
Ossiferous fissures at Oreston, on the, 121.
Oxides, on a symmetrical arrangement of,

259.

Page (D.) on the skeletons of Surf and
Eider ducks, with the remains of seals
from the pleistocene brick-clays of
Stratheden, 120; on the structure, affi-
nities and geological range of the crus-
tacean family Eurypteride, ib.

Painting, on the angular measurement of
the picture in, 64.

Palm, vegetable ivory, on some uses to
which the nuts of the, is applied, 130.

Pan for evaporating saccharine solutions
and other liquids at a temperature be-
low 180° Fahr,, 230,

279

Parasitism among the Pycnogonide, on a
form of, 143.

Paris (Admiral) on the manceuyring of
screw vessels, 240,

Peach (W. C.) on fossil fish, new to the old
red sandstone of Caithness, 120; on
different subjects in natural history,
155; on the zoophytes of Caithness,
ib,

Pecten, on the structure of the shell in
some species of, 147.

Pengelly (W.) on the ossiferous fissures at
Oreston near Plymouth, 121.

Pentethyl-stibene, on, 66.

Peru, southern, on the geography of, 177,

Petals, on the colours of, 138,

Petherie(Consul),exploration of the White
Nile, 265.

Phalangista recently killed in the county
of Durham, on a species of, 149,

Pheasants, on the varieties and species of
new, recently introduced into England,
148,

Phillips (Major) on some curious discover-
ies concerning the settlement of the
seed of Abraham in Syria and Arabia,
197.

Phipson (Dr. T. L.) on some new cases of
phosphorescence by heat, 76; on the
composition of the shell of Cardium
edule, 77; on the composition of a re-
cently-formed rock on the coast of
Flanders, 2b.

Phonautograph, on the, 62.

Phosphates, on combinations of earthy,
with alkalies, 88,

Phosphoroscope, on Becquerel’s, 62.

Photochemical experiments, on two new,
260.

Photographs of fluorescent substances,
on, 69,

Photography, use of platinum in, 258,

Photometer, on a new, 62,

Physics, 1, 58, 245,

Physiology, 126, 159, 265.

Phytelephas macrocarpa, on some uses to
which the nuts of the, are applied,
130.

Planetary orbits, on the inclination of
the, 34.

Plants, on remarkable, found in Braemar,
133; on the aversion of certain, to the
neighbourhood of each other, #b.; on
the temperature of the flowers and
leaves of, 185; on the theory of the
metamorphosis of, 136; cycadaceous,
grown in England, 142.

Platinum, use of, in photography, 258.

Playfair (Dr. Lyon), address to the Che-
mical Section, 65; on a symmetrical

280

arrangement of oxides and salts on a
common type, 259.

Pogson (Norman) on an improvement in
the heliometer, 36; on three variable
stars, R and S Ursz Majoris, and U
Geminorum, as observed consecutively
for six years, ib.

Polyzoa, marine, collected by G. Barlee,
Esq., in Shetland and the Orkneys,
144,

Ponton (Mungo) on certain laws of chro-
matic dispersion, 15; on the law of
the wave-lengths corresponding to cer-
tain points in the solar spectrum, 20.

Porro (M.), portable apparatus for ana-
lysing light, 63.

Post-pliocene deposits, on the occurrence
of works of human art in, 98.

Pottery, on a fragment of, found in super-
ficial deposits in Paris, 124.

Price (John) on slickensides, 123; on the

- genus Cydippe, 155.

Propellers, on the comparative value of,
243; on Robertson’s patent chain, id.
Pterichthys, on the restoration of, in ‘ The

Testimony of the Rocks,’ 263.

Pyenogonidz, on a form of parasitism

among the, 143.

Quarries, granite, of Aberdeen and Kin-
cardineshire, 235.

Quartzite, on the relations of the gneiss,
red sandstone and, in the North-west
Highlands, 119.

Quaternions, on an application of, to the
geometry of Fresnel’s wave-surface,
248.

Radiguel (M. A.) on a fragment of pot-
tery found in superficial deposits in
Paris, 124,

Railway carriages, on gas carriages for
lighting, with coal-gas instead of oil,
235.

Railway communication between the At-
lantic and Pacific oceans, on the, 266.
Rain, on the fall of, in Forfarshire, 47;
tables of, registered at Georgetown,

Demerara, 52.

Rainey (George) on the structure and
mode of formation of starch-granules,
according to the principles of molecular
science, 140.

Rankin (Rev. T.), meteorological obser-
vations made at Huggate, Yorkshire,
52.

Rankine (W. J. Macquorn) on the expe-
riments by Messrs. Napier and Sons, on
the strength of wrought iron and steel,
242.

REPORT—1859.

Ransome (Frederick) on soluble silicates,
and some of their applications, 78.

Redfern (Dr.) on the method of produc-
tion of sound by a species of Notonecta,
173; on the admixture of nervous and
muscular fibres in the nerves of the
Hirudo medicinalis and other leeches,
174; on the structure of the otoliths of
the cod (Gadus Morrhua), 7d.

Refraction, on a new species of double,
10.

Reptilian remains, on the newly dis-
covered, from the neighbourhood of
Elgin, 261.

Robb (John) on the comparative value of
propellers, 243.

Robertson’s patent chain propeller, 243.

Rocks, volcanic, in Italy, which appear to
have been subjected to metamorphic
action, 102; on the chronology of the
trap, of Scotland, 106; stratified, in
Aberdeenshire, on the connexion of the
granite with the, 114.

Rocky Mountains, description of passes
through the, 180.

Rogers (Prof. H. D.) on some observa-
tions on the parallel roads of Glenroy,
265.

Roman camp at Ardoch, on the, 183.

Rosse (The Earl of), introductory re-
marks to the Mathematical Section, 1.

Ruhmkorff (M.) on a new electro-medical
apparatus, 62.

Russian trade, on the, with Central Asia,
186.

Saccharine solutions and other liquids, on
a pan for evaporating, 230.

Salmonidez, on the classification of the,
153.

Salts, on the comparative value of certain,
for rendering fibrous substances non-
inflammable, 86; on a symmetrical
arrangement of, 259.

Sandeman (P.) on tables of rain registered
at Georgetown, Demerara, 52.

Sandstone :—on Dura Den, 97; of Kin-
goodie, on a horseshoe nail found in
the red, 101; yellow, of Elgin and Los-
siemouth, 109; on some new fossils
from the old red, of Caithness, 115;
on the age of the reptilian, of Moray-
shire, 7b. ; on new fossils from the lower
old red, 116; on the relations of the
red, gnciss, and quartzite in the North-
west Highlands, 119; on fossil fish, new
to the old red, of Caithness, 120; on
some fishes and tracks from the old
red, of Herefordshire, 124; on some
old red fossils, 126,

INDEX II.

Saturn’s rings, on an instrument for ex-
hibiting the motions of, 62.

Scotland :—on the chronology of the trap
rocks of, 106; on the drift beds and
boulders of the north of, 114; on the
sculptured stones of, 197; on illegiti-
macy in the large towns of, 224.

Screw propeller, on an instrument for
measuring the thrust ofthe, 237.

Screw vessels, on the manceuvring of, 240.

Seal, on the skull of a, from the Gulf of
California, 153.

Sedgwick (Rev. Prof.) on faults in Cum-
berland and Lancashire, 265.

Segelcke (M. Thomas) on the current
method for estimating the cellular mat-
ter, or ‘* woody-fibre,’ in vegetable
food-stuffs, 79.

Senses, on the organs of the, and on the
mental perceptive faculties connected
with them, 171.

Shaw (Norton) on the proposed railway
communication between the Atlantic
and Pacific oceans, vid the United
States of America, 266.

Shortrede (Colonel) on calculating lunars,
4; on an improvement in the propor-
tional compass, 63; on decimal coin-
age, 223.

Signals, on the retardation of, through
long submarine cables, 251.

Silicates, on soluble, and some of their
applications, 78.

Silk trees of western India, on some pecu-
liarities of the, 132.

Silurian fossils, on the discovery of, in the
slates of Downshire, 260.

Skull, of a manatee from Old Calabar,
150; of a wombat from the bone-caves
of Australia, 152.

Slickensides, on, 123.

Small-pox and vaccination, statistics of,
in the United Kingdom, 228.

Smith (Dr. E.) on the sequence in the
phenomena observed in man under the
influence of alcohol, 265.

Smith (J.) on the relations of a circle
inscribed in a square, 10; on the pro-
duction of colour and the theory of
light, 22.

Smoke, on coal burning without, 230.

Snail’s heart, on the beat of the, 160.

Society of Arts’ Examinations, on some
results of the, 214.

Solar spectrum, on the law of the wave-
lengths corresponding to certain points
in the, 20.

Somateria, on skeletons of, from the plei-
stocene brick-clays of Stratheden,
120.

281

Sorby (H. C.) on the origin of ‘ cone-in-
cone,” 124.

Sound, on the method of production of,
by a species of Notonecta, 173.

Spectrum, on the mixture of the colours
of the, 15.

Speke (Captain) on the commercial re-
sources of Zanzibar on the east coast of
Africa, 266; discovery of lake Nyanza
in Central Africa, ib.

Spence (Peter) on Robertson’s patent
chain propeller, 243.

Spencer (Thomas) on the supply and
purification of water, 83.

Sphenopteris Hookeri, on, 98.

Staffordshire, North, on the coal strata of,
103.

Stainton (H. T.) on the distribution of
British butterflies, 156.

Starch-eranules, on the structure and
mode of formation of, 140.

Stars, on three variable, as observed con-
secutively for six years, 36.

Statistical Science, 200.

Statistical tables, on the probability of
uniformity in, 3.

Statistics, vital and economic, of Aber-
deen, 226.

Steam, experimental researches to deter-
mine the density of, at various tempe-
ratures, 233.

Steamers, on Indian river, 235.

Steam-vessels, on the performance of, 237.

Steel, on the strength of, 242.

Stereomonoscope, on the, 61.

Stereoscope, on producing the idea of
distance in the, 61.

Stereoscopic angle, on the, 61.

Stewart (B.) on radiant heat, 23.

Stokes (Major J.), notes on the Lower
Danube, 197.

Stones, sculptured, of Scotland, on the,
197.

Stoney (G, Johnstone) on the propagation
of waves, 9; on the nomenclature of
metrical measures of length, 243.

Strang (John) on church-building in
Glasgow, 223.

Strontia, on crystallized bichromate of, 68.

Strychnine, on the action of concentrated
sulphuric acid on cubebin in relation to
the test for, 256.

Stuart (John) on the sculptured stones of
Scotland, 197.

Sun’s surface, on the distribution of heat
over the, 50.

Sutton (Thomas) on a new photographic
lens which gives images entirely free
from distortion, 63.

Sykes (Colonel), introductory address to

282

the Statistical Section, 200; on the
past, present, and prospective financial
condition of British India, 223. .

Symonds (G. J.) on thunder-storms, 54.

Symonds (Rev. W. S.) on some fishes
and tracks from the passage rocks and
from the old red sandstone of Here-
fordshire, 124; on the fish-rain at
Aberdare in Glamorganshire, 158; on
drift pebbles found in the stomach of a
cow, 2b.

Synge (Major) on rapid communication
between the Atlantic and the Pacific,
via British North America, 200.

Syria, on the eastern desert of, 180.

Syrrhaptes paradoxus, on, 265.

Tannin, quantitative estimation of, in
some tanning materials, 75.

Tarai, on the inhabitants of the, 177.

Tate (Thomas), experimental researches
to determine the density of steam at
various temperatures, 233.

Taxation, on some questions relating to
the incidence of, 216.

Tayler (A.) on the true action of what are
called heat-diffusers, 244.

Tayler (James) on the Arctic flora, 140 ;
on Falco Islandicus and F. Groenlandi-
cus, 158.

Telegraphic cables, on the submergence
of, 11.

Telegraphic conductors, on some of the
methods adopted for ascertaining the
locality and nature of defects in, 252.

Temperature, on the reduction of periodi-
cal variations of underground, 54.

Temperatures, on a method of reducing
observations of underground, 245.

Tendons, on the repair of, after their
subcutaneous division, 160.

Tennant (Prof. J.), notes on a gold nugget
from Australia, 85.

Thames nuisance, on an application of
the moving power arising from tides, to
obviate the, 237.

Thames water, on the composition of, 75.

Thermometric stations on Mont Blanc,
on the establishment of, 56.

Thomson (Prof. J.) on recent theories and
experiments on ice at its melting-
point, 23.

Thomson (Prof. W.) on electrical fre-
quency, 26; on the discharge of a coiled
electric cable, 2b.; on the necessity for
incessant recording, and for simultane-
ous observations in different localities,
to investigate atmospheric electricity,
27; on the reduction of periodical varia-
tions of underground temperature, with

REPORT—1859.

applications to the Edinburgh obser-
vations, 54.

Thost (C.G.) on the rocks and minerals
in the property of the Marquis of
Breadalbane, 125.

Thunder-storms, on, 54.

Tides, on an application of the moving
power arising from, 237.

Topp (Adam) on models of fire-escapes,
boat-lowering apparatus, &c., 244.

Towler (G. V.) on the cause of magnet-
ism, 28.

Towson (John T.) on changes of deviation
of the compass on board iron ships by
heeling, with experiments on board
the City of Baltimore, Aphrodite,
Simla, and Slieve Donard, 28.

Trees, on the aversion of certain, to the
neighbourhood of each other, 133; on
the growth of, in continental and in-
sular climates, 140.

Tubulariade, new genus and species of,
142.

Tunicata, on the homologies of the coats
of, 170.

Twining (H. R.) on the angular measure-
ment of the picture in painting, 64.
Tyndall (Prof.) on the establishment of
thermometric stations on Mont Blanc,

56.

United Kingdom, statistics of small-pox
and vaccination in the, 223.

Urquhart, on fossil remains found at,
263.

Vaccination and small-pox, statistics of,
in the United Kingdom, 223.

Valentine (James) on illegitimacy in
Aberdeen and the other large towns of
Scotland, 224; on the statistics, chiefly
vital and economic, of Aberdeen, 226.

Valpy (R.) on the British trade with
India, 227,

Vapour of the atmosphere, on the aque-
ous, 50.

Variations, on the calculus of, 5.

Varley (Cromwell F.) on some of the
methods adopted for ascertaining the
locality and nature of defects in tele-
graphic conductors, 252.

Vaughan (Daniel) on the effects of the
earth’s rotation on atmospheric move-
ments, 41; on the growth of trees in
continental and insular climates, 140.

Versmann (F.) on the comparative value
of certain salts for rendering fibrous
substances non-inflammable, 86.

Victoria, on the statistics of the trade and
progress of the colony of, 218,

INDEX II. 283

Voelcker (Professor) on combinations of
earthy phosphates with alkalies, 88,
Voleanic eruptions and earthquakes in
China and Japan, on certain pheno-

mena attendant on, 115.

Walker (J. J.) on the iris seen on the
surface of water, 29.

Wallace (W.) on the equivalent of bro-
mine, 88; on proposed improvements
in the manufacture of kelp, ib.

Water :—on the transmission of electricity
through, 13; on the iris seen on the
surface of, 29; on the composition of
Thames, 75; on the supply and puri-
fication of, 88; on distilled, 256.

Water-supply afforded by a spring at
Ashey Down, on the, 114.

Wave-lengths, on the law of the, corre-
sponding to certain points in the solar
spectrum, 20.

Waves, on the propagation of, 9; atmo-
spheric, 50.

Wealden, onthe supposed, near Elgin, 264.

White Nile, exploration of the, 265.

Willich (C. M.) on the angles of dock-
gates and the cells of bees, 10.

Wilson (A.S.S.) on a system of moving
bodies, 48.

Wilson (Prof. G.) on some of the stages
which led tothe invention of the modern

air-pump, 89; on the employment of
the electrical eel, Gymnotus electricus,
as a medical shock-machine, by the na-
tives of Surinam, 158; on the statistics
of colour-blindness, 228.

Wolverhampton waterworks, on an arte-
sian well in the new red sandstone at
the, 229.

Wombat, on the skull of a, from the bone-
caves of Australia, 152.

Wood (E. A.) on a mode for suspending,
disconnecting and hoisting boats at-
tached to sailing ships and steamers
at sea, 245.

Wren’s (Sir Christopher) cipher, contain-
ing three methods of finding the lon-
gitude, 34.

Wyllie (J.) on some old red sandstone
fossils, 126.

Yang-tse-kiang, on the, and its future
commerce, 196.

Yates (Mr. J.) on cycadaceous plants
grown in England, 142.

Zanzibar, on the commercial resources of,
266.

Zoology, 126, 142, 265.

Zoophyte, on a new, 142,

Zoophytes of Caithness, on the, 155.

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T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;
—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith Tide Observations, under the direction of the
Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth
during the past year ;—Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintend-
ing the scientific co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Obser-
vations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro-
vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of a Com-

288

mittee to superintend the reduction of Meteorological Observations ;—Report of a Com- —

mittee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee for obtaining In-
struments and Registers to record Shocks and Earthquakes in Scotland and Ireland ;—Reyport of
a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries
into the Races of Man ;-—Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata
in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by
means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experi-
ments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—R. Owen, Report
on British Fossil Reptiles; Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway
Constants ;--D. Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the
Mean Value of Railway Constants; —-E. Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a
Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or toe TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester,
1842, Published at 10s. 6d.

ConTENTs :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British
Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—
J. Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;—
W.S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Second
Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
—C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee
for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D., Abstract
of Prof. Licbig’s Report on Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;—
R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;—R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—L. Agassiz, Report
on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Ap-
pendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot
and Cold Blast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earthquakes
in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant Indicator for
Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self.acting En-
gine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the Form of
Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed “‘to consider of the Rules by which the Nomencla-
ture of Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis ;’’—Report of a Com-
mittee on the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices
of Progress in special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals,

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork,
1843, Published at 12s.

ConTENTS:—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and of Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and
Steel;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British As-
sociation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Sir
J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteoro-
logical Observations ;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam-
Engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality
of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of
Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee
on the Form of Ships;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines; —Report
of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Kegistering
the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to
them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons;
—Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report ;—Report of the Committee for the Translation
and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach on the Habits of the Marine
Testacea ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the AZgean Sea, and on their
distribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;--L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British

Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the ~

British Fossil Mammalia, Part II.;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the
junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W.

289

Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844,
Published at £1.

ConTENTs :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder and A.
Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—Report of a
Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the
Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report
on some recent researches into the Structure, Functions, and CEconomy of the Araneidea
made in Great Britain ;—Larl of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ;
—tRev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering
Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines $
—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race ;—Fourth Report
of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—W. Fair-
bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention of Smoke ;—F. Ronalds, Report con-
cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee
_ appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simulta-
neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence
of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par-
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland, Report on
the recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen,
Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative
of the former existence in that continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order
Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers
at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves ;
—L. Agassiz, Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J.
S. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Re-
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tut FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge,
1845, Published at 12s.

CoNnTENTs :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report
on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843;
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof. Erman, on
the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self-
Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;—
W. R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre-
sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair,
Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting
of Iron;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;—
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phanomena of Animals and Vege-
tables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton,
1846, Published at 15s.

ConTENTs:—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth
Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck on the Colouring Matters of
Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac-
tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L.
Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof, Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical

1859.

290

Researches on Sea Water;—-A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for
1829;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the
Iron Manufacture in Great Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—
Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—
J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D., Report on the Crystalline Flags;—Addenda
to Mr, Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tut SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,
1847, Published at 18s.

ConTENTS :—Prof, Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de-
grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water:—R, Hunt,
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan-
dinayia ;—W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes;
—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells;—Reyv. W. Whewell and
Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of
completing our knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr, Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re-
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and recent
progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C, Prichard, on the various methods of Research
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to
other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ;
—Dr. C, Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the
Modern Celtic Dialects still extant;—Dr. Max Miller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the
Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R, Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric
Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables; with Introductory Remarks by Lieut,-Col.
E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con-
stants for 1829. :

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, an
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tute EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea,
1848, Published at 9s.

Contents :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
J. Glynn on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth
Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At-
mospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use
made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt,
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of
Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem-
perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof.
Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on
some of cane ies ee Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them; with an in-
troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. Phillips, Notice of further
progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre-
tary;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee
relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and
Meteorological Observatory until December 1850.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tuz NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
1849, Published at 10s.

ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Earl
of Rosse, Notice of Nebule lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the
Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied to the Fossil
Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;
—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and

291

Animals ;—Ninth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from
Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHE TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh,
1850, Published at 15s.

Contents :—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Rev. Prof.
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Dr. T. Williams, on the Structure and
History of the British Annelida;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken
at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840, to the 31st of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on
the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen.
Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob-
servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por«
tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of
our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of
Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse
of the Sun on July 28, 1851.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tut TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6d.

ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors j3—Eleventh Re-
port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on
the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of
Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider
the probable Effects in an GEconomical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro-
pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs
in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com-
pounds ;—Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;——
Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on the Facts of
Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on the System of Meteoro-
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States ;—Col. Sabine, Report
on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto-
graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concern-
ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850, to July 31,
1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof, Airy’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or ruz TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast,
1852, Published at 15s.

ConTENTs :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Twelfth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof,
Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the In-
fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants 3—A Manual of Ethnological
Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Sta-
tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the
Conduction of Heat;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges,
on the Composition and Giconomy of the Flax Plant ;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater
Fishes of Ulster;—W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland;—W. Wills,
onthe Meteorology of Birmingham;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water- Wheel ;—J. B. Lawes
a air Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of

nimals,

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees,

19*

292

PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull,
1853, Published at 10s. 6d.

ConTeNTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53 ;
—Jaimes Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Oldham, on the lise,
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—William Fairbairn, Experi-
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which
lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition
and CEconomy of the Flax Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the
Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations;
—John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur-
face, as compared with that of the Earth ;—R. Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake
Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of
strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Harth-
quake Phenomena (continued).

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or toe TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver-
pool, 1854, Published at 18s.

ContEents:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ;
—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats ;—Rev.
Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel
Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—
Colonel Portlock, Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting
Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54 ;
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G.
Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert,
on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the
Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships; Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on
the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
1855, Published at 15s.

ConTENTS :—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal- Mines and
Revolving Storms;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions, Part 8 ;—C. Spence Bate, on the
British Edriophthalma ;—J. F. Bateman, on the present state of our knowledge on the Supply
of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ;
—Report of Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those pro-
perties of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to the
durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical Objects in
Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain-
Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel-
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s.

ConTENTS;—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report upon the
effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the last
fifty years have been made in its Banks; —J. Thomson, Interim Report on progress in Re-
searches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde,
1856 ;--Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;—Prof.
Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigo-

293

nometry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of Logarithms ;—R. MacAndrew, Report
on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and Neighbouring Seas, and
the physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the present
state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;-—
T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British Shores ;
~-Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical Expla-
nations of these Phenomena: Part I. ;--Dr. T. Wright on the Stratigraphical Distribution of
the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various
Temperatures ;—C. Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J. S. Bowerbank, on
the Vital Powers of the Spongiadwe;—-Report of a Committee upon the Experiments conducted
at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Provisional Report on
the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals
for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Progress in Researches on the Measure
ment of Water by Weir Boards;—-R. Mallet, on Observations with the Seismometer ;—A.
Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to con-
sider the formation of a Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tuE TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at Dub-
lin, 1857, Published at 15s.

ConTENTs:—A. Cayley, Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Six-
teenth and final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull;—Report of a
Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measuring and Registering the Tonnage
of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and to frame more perfect rules, in order that
a correct and uniform principle may be adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities
and Working-Power of Steam Ships;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of
some Deep Mines in Cornwall;—Dr. G. Plarr, De quelques Transformations de la Somme

=H qtlt+1 gél+19¢|+1

0 yéltiyélti ftv be
est exprimable par une combinasion de factorielles, la notation atl+1 désignant le produit des
t facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c....(a+¢—1);—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine Zoology
of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish Channel ;—Charles
Atherton, Suggestions for Stasistical Inquiry into the extent to which Mercantile Steam Trans-
port Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of Shipping, as respects the Proportions of
Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. S. Bowerbank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spon-
giadz ;—John P. Hodges, M.D., on Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee
on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors, 1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, C.E., on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to
sustain the passage of Railway Trains ;—Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., on Electro-Chemistry ;
—John Simpson, R.N., Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the ‘ Plover’s’
Wintering-place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852-54 ;—Charles
James Hargrave, LL.D., on the Algebraic Couple ; and on the Equivalents of Indeterminate
Expressions ;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and Equatorial
Mountings ;—Professor James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ; William Fairbairn on the Resistance
of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging
Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspen-
sion Chains, and a Comparison of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders,
to produce equal deflections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, M.A., Evidences of Lunar
Influence on Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into
Liverpool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta-
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme

PROCEEDINGS or toe TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds,
September 1858, Published at 20s.
ConTENTS:—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake Phe-

nomena ;— Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857-58 ;—R. H.
Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea, or true Spiders, especially on the

294

internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report of the Committee on the
Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the Jiead Mining Districts of Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the
Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene,
Report on the Marine Fauna of the South and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on
Experiments on the Measurement of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major-
General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael
Connal and William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock, and Port
Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ;—Report of the Committee on Ship-
ping Statistics ;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments employed in the Mag-
netic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin
Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dub-
lin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings,
with reference to the necessity for improving the present means of Shallow Water Navigation
on the Rivers of British India;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Com-
mittee ;—Appendix to Mr. Vignoles’ paper “On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sus-
tain the passage of Railway Trains ;”—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and
the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and Meteorological Ob-
servatories ;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Anemometer.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, to whom Copies of this Volume [for 1859] are supplied
gratuitously, in conformity with the Regulations adopted by the General

Committee.

[See pp. xvii & xviii. |

. HONORARY MEMBER.
HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE CONSORT.

LIFE MEMBERS,

Adair, Lt.-Col. Robert A. Shafto, F.R.S.,
-7 Audley Square, London.

Adams, John Couch, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.RB.S., F.R.A.S., Lowndsean Professor
of Astronomy and Geometry in the
University of Cambridge; Pembroke
College, Cambridge.

Ainsworth, Thomas, The Flosh, Egremont,
Cumberland.

Aldam, William, Frickley Hall near Don-
caster.

Allecock, Samuel, Rushulme Place near
Manchester.

Allen, William J. C., Secretary to the
Royal Belfast Academical Institution ;
8 Wellington Place, Belfast.

Allis, Thomas, Osbaldwick Hall, York.

Ambler, Henry, Watkinson Hall, Oven-
den near Halifax.

Amery, John, F.S.A.,
Stourbridge.

Anderson, William (Yr.). Glentarkie by
Strathmiglo, Fife.

Andrews, Thos., M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA.,
Vice-President of, and Professor of
Chemistry in, Queen’s College, Belfast.

Ansted, David Thomas, M.A., F.R.S.,
Lecturer on Geology at the Royal East
India Military College, Addiscombe ;
Atheneum Club, and Bon Air, St.
Martin, Guernsey.

Appold, John George, F.R.S., 23 Wilson
Street, Finsbury Square, London.

Archer, T. C., Professor of Botany in
Queen’s College, Liverpool; Higher
Tranmere, Cheshire.

Armstrong, Sir William George, C.B.,
F.R.S., Elswick Engine Works, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

Arthur, Rev. William, M.A., 26 Campden
Grove, Kensington, London.

Ashburton, William Bingham Baring,
Lord, M.A., F.R.S., Bath House, Pic-
cadilly, London, and The Grange,
Hants.

Park House,

Ashton, Thomas, M.D., 81 Mosley St.,
Manchester.

Ashworth, Edmund, Egerton Hall, Turton
near Bolton.

Atkinson, John Hastings, 14 East Parade,
Leeds.

Atkinson, Joseph B., Cotham, Bristol.

Atkinson, J. R. W., 38 Acacia Road,
Regent’s Park, London.

Atkinson, Richard, jun.,31 CollegeGreen, ~
Dublin.

Auldjo, John, F.R.S., Noel House, Ken-
sington, London; and Penighael,
Argyleshire.

Ayrton, W.S., F.S.A., Harehills, Leeds.

Babbage, Charles, M.A., F.R.S., 1 Dorset
Street, Manchester Square, London.
Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A.,F.R.S.,
(Local Treasurer), St. John’s College,

Cambridge.

Backhouse, John
Darlington.

Baddeley, Captain Frederick H., R.E.,
Ceylon.

Bain, Richard, Gwennap near Truro.

Bainbridge, Robert Walton, Middleton
House near Barnard Castle, Durham.

Baines, Edward, Headingley Lodge,
Leeds.

Baines, Samuel, Victoria Mills, Brig-
house, Yorkshire.

Baker, Henry Granville, Bellevue, Hors-
forth near Leeds.

Baker, John, Dodge Hill, Stockport.

Baker, William, 63 Gloucester Place,
Hyde Park, London.

Baldwin, The Hon. Robert, H.M. Attor-
ney-General, Spadina, Co. York, Upper
Canada.

Balfour, John Hutton, M.D., Professor of
Botany in the University of Edinburgh,
F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S.; Edinburgh.

Ball, William, Rydall, Ambleside, West-
moreland.

Church, Blackwell,

{It is requested that arty inaccuracy in the Names and Residences of the Members may be communicated to-
Messrs, Taylor and Francis, Printers, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London.

296

Barbour, Robert, Portland Street, Man-
chester.

Barclay, J.Gurney, Walthamstow, Essex.

Barnes, Thomas, M,D., F.R.S.E., Car-
lisle.

Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S., 11 Victoria
Square, Reading.

Bartholomew, Charles, Rotherham.

Bartholomew, William Hamond, 5 Grove
Terrace, Leeds.

Barton, John, Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

Barwick, John Marshali, Albion Street,
Leeds.

Bashforth, Rev. Francis, B.D., Minting
near Horncastle, Lincolnshire.

Bateman, Joseph, LL.D., F.R.A.S., J.P.
for Middlesex, &c., 24 Bedford Place,
Kensington, London.

Bayldon, John, Horbury near Wakefield.

Bayley, George, 2 Cowper’s Court, Corn-
hill, London.

Beamish, Richard, F.R.S.,
Square, Cheltenham.

Beatson, William, Rotherham.

Beaufort, William Morris, India.

Beck, Joseph, 6 Coleman Street, London.

Beckett, William, Kirkstall Grange, Leeds.

Belcher, Laptain Sir Edward, R.N.,
F.R.A

Bell, rire P., 245 St. Vincent Street,
Glasgow.

Bennoch, Francis, Blackheath Park, Kent.

Bergin, Thomas Francis, M.R.I.A., 49
Westland Row, Dublin.

Berryman, William Richard, 6 Tamar
Terrace, Stoke, Devonport.

Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A., Leeds.

Binyon, Thomas, St. Ann’s Square, Man-
chester.

Bird, William, 9 South Castle Street, Li-
verpool.

Birks, Rev. Thomas Rawson, Kelshall
Rectory, Royston.

Birley, Richard, Sedgley,
Manchester.

Birt, W. Radcliff, F.R.A.S., lla, Wel-
lington Street, Victoria Park, London.

Blackie, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S., 10 Kew
Terrace, Glasgow.

Blackwall, John, F.L.S., Hendre House
near Llanrwst, Denbighshire.

Blackwell, Thomas Evans, F.G.S., The
Grove, Clifton, Bristol.

Blake, Henry Wollaston, F.R.S., 8 Devon-
shire Place, Portland Place, London.
Blake, William, Bishop’s Hull, Taunton.
Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S., St.

Leonard’s-on-Sea.
Bland, Rev. Miles, D.D., F.R.S., 5 Royal
Crescent, Ramsgate.

2 Suffolk

Prestwich,

MEMBERS TO WHOM

Blythe, William, Holland Bank, Church
near Accrington.

Bohn, Henry G., F.R.G.S., York Street,
Covent Garden, London.

Boileau, Sir John Peter, Bart., F.R.S.,
20 Upper Brook Street, London; and
Ketteringham Hall, Norfolk.

Bond, Walter M., The Argory, Moy,
Treland.

Bossey, Francis, M.D., 4 Broadwater
Road, Worthing.

Bowerbank, James Scott, LL.D., F.R.S.,
3 Highbury Grove, London.

Bowlby, Miss F. E., 27 Lansdown Cres-
cent, Cheltenham.

Brady, Antonio, Maryland Point, Es-
sex.

Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A.,
Leeson Street, Dublin.
Brakenridge, John, Bretton Lodge,

Wakefield.

Brebner, James, 20 Albyn Place, Aber-
deen.

Brett, John Watkins, 2 Hanover Square,
London.

Briggs, Major-General John, F.R.S., 2
Tenterden Street, London.

Brodie, Sir Benjamin Collins, Bart.,
D.C.L., President of the Royal Society ;
14 Savile Row, London, and Broome
Park, Betchworth, Surrey.

Brooke, Charles, M.B., F.R.S., 29 Keppel
Street, Russell Square, London.

Brooks, Samuel, King Street, Manches-
ter.

Brooks, Thomas, (Messrs. Butterworth
and Brooks,) Manchester.

Broun, John Allan, F.R.S., Astronomer
to His Highness the Rajah of Tra-
vancore ; Observatory, Trevandrum,
India.

Brown, Samuel, F.S.S., The Elms, Lark-
hall Rise, Clapham, London.

Brown, Thomas, Ebbw Vale Iron Works,

' Abergavenny.

Brown, William, Docks, Sunderland.

Bruce, Alexander John, Kilmarnock.

Buck, George Watson, Ramsay, Isle of
Man.

Buckman, James, F.L.S., F.GS., Profes-
sor-of Natural History in the Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester.

Buckton, G. Bowdler, F.R.S., 55 Queen’s
Gardens, Hyde Park, London.

Budd, James Palen: Ystalyfera Iron
Works, Swansea.

Buller, Sir Antony, Pound near Tavistock,
Devon.

Burd, John, jun., Mount Sion, Radcliffe,
Manchester.

54 Upper

BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS.

Busk, George, F.R.S., 15 Harley Street,
Cavendish Square, London.

Butlery, Alexander W., Monkland Iron
and Steel Company, Cardarroch near
Airdrie.

Caine, Rev. William, M.A., Greenheys,
Manchester.

Caird, James T., Greenock.

Campbell, Dugald, 7 Quality Cowt,
Chancery Lane, London.

Campbell, Sir James, Glasgow.

Campbell, William, 34 Candlerigg Street,
Glasgow.

Carew, William Henry Pole, Antony
House near Devonport.

Carpenter, Philip Pearsall, B.A., Academy
Place, Warrington.

Carr, William, Blackheath.

Cartmell, Rev. James, B.D., F.G.S.,
Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge.

Cassels, Rev. Andrew, M.A., Batley Vi-
carage near Leeds.

Cawdor, John Frederick, Earl of, F.R.S.,
74 South Audley Street, London,
Stackpole Court, Pembroke, and Caw-
dor Castle, Nairn.

Chadwick, Charles, M.D., 35 Park Square,
Leeds.

Challis, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.S., Plu-
mian Professor of Astronomy in the
University of Cambridge ; Observatory,
Cambridge.

Chambers, Robert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,
1 Doune Terrace, Edinburgh.

Champney, Henry Nelson, St. Paul’s
Square, York.

Chanter, John, 2 Arnold Terrace, Bow
Road, Bromley.

Cheetham, David, Staleybridge, Man-
chester.

Chesney, Major-General Francis Rawdon,
R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Ballyardle, Kil-
keel, Co. Down, Ireland.

Chevallier, Rev. Temple, B.D., F.R.A.S.,
Professor of Mathematics and Astro-
nomy in the University of Durham.

Chichester, Ashhurst Turner Gilbert,D.D.,
Lord Bishop of, 43 Queen Ann Street,
Cavendish Square, London, and The
Palace, Chichester,

Chiswell, Thomas, 2 Lincoln Grove, Man-
chester,

Christie, Samuel Hunter, M.A.,, F.R.S.,
Ailsa Villas, St. Margaret’s, ‘Twick-
enham,

Clark, Rev. Charles, M.A., Queen’s Col-
lege, Cambridge.

Clark, Henry, M.D., 74 Marland Place,
Southampton,

297

Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S., Rastrick’
Yorkshire.
Clay, William, 4 Park Hill Road, Liver-

pool.

Clayton, David Shaw, Norbury, Stock-
port, Cheshire.

Coathupe, Charles Thornton, 3 Park Row,
Bristol.

Coats, George, 6 Woodlands Terrace,
Glasgow.

Coats, Peter, Woodside, Paisley.

Coats, Thomas, Fergeslie House, Paisley.

Cobbold, John Chevallier, M.P., Tower
Street, Ipswich.

Cocker, Jonathan, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.

Cole, Henry Warwick, 3 New Square,
Lincoln’s Inn, London.

Colfox, William, B.A., Bridport, Dorset-
shire.

Compton, Lord Alwyne, Castle Ashby,
Northamptonshire. -

Compton, Lord William, 145 Piccadilly,
London.

Conway, Charles, Pontnwydd Works,
Newport, Monmouthshire.

Cooke, Arthur B., 6 Berkeley Place, Con-
naught Square, London.

Cooke, William Fothergill, Kidbrooke
near Blackheath.

Cooke, William Henry, Elm Court, Tem-
ple, London.
Corbet, Richard, Adderley, Market Dray-
ton, Shropshire.
Cotton, Alexander,
bridgeshire.

Cotton, Rev. William Charles, M.A., New
Zealand.

Courtney, Henry, M.R.I.A., 34 Fitz-
william Place, Dublin.

Cox, Joseph, F.G.S., Wisbeach, Cam-
bridgeshire.
Crampton, The HonourableJustice, LL.D.,
M.R.1.A., 3 Kildare Place, Dublin.
Crewdson, Thomas D., Dacca Mills, Man-
chester.

Crichton, William, 1 West India Street,
Glasgow.

Crompton, Rev. Joseph, Norwich,

Cropper, Rev. John, Stand near Man-
chester.

Curtis, John Wright, Alton, Hants,

Cuthbert, J. R., 40 Chapel Street, Liver-
pool.

Landwade, Cam-

Dalby, Rev. William, M.A., Rector of
Compton Basset near Calne, Wilts.

Dalton, Rev. James Edward, B.D., Sea-
grove, Loughborough.

Dalzell, Allen, The University, Edinburgh.

298

Danson, Joseph, 6 Shaw Street, Liver-
ool.

Darbishire, Samuel D., Pendyffryn near
Conway.

Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in
the University of Oxford.

Davis, Sir John Francis, Bart., K.C.B.,
F.R.S., Hollywood, Compton Green-
field near Bristol.

Davis, Richard, F.L.S., 9 St. Helen’s
Place, London.

Dawbarn, William, Wisbeach.

Dawes, Rev. William Rutter, F.R.A.S.,
Wateringbury near Maidstone, Kent.
Dawson, Christopher H., Low Moor,

Bradford, Yorkshire.

Dawson, Henry, 14 St. James’s Road,
Liverpool.

Dawson, William G., Plumstead Common,
Kent.

Deane, Sir Thomas, Dundanion Castle,
Cork.

De la Rue, Warren, Ph.D., F.R.S., Ob-
servatory, Cranford, Middlesex; and
110 Bunhill Row, London.

Dent, Joseph, Ribston Hall, Wetherby,
York.

Devonshire, William, Duke of, K.G.,
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Devonshire
House, Piccadilly, London; and Chats-
worth, Derbyshire.

Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F.R.S., Great
George Square, Liverpool.

Dikes, William Hey, F.G.S., Wakefield.

Dilke, °C. Wentworth, F.G.S., 76 Sloane
Street, London.

Dingle, Rev. J., Lanchester, Durham.

Dobbin, Leonard, jun., M.R.I.A.,27 Gar-
diner’s Place, Dublin.

Dodsworth, Benjamin, St. Leonard’sPlace,
York.

Dodsworth, George, Fulford near York.

Donaldson, John, Professor of the Theory
of Music in the University of Edin-
burgh; Edinburgh.

Donisthorpe, George Edmund, Holly
Bank, Moortown, Leeds.

Donnelly, William, C.B., Auburn, Mala-
hide, Ireland.

Dowden, Richard, Sunday’s Well, Cork.
Downie, Alexander, 3 Upper Hamilton
Terrace, St. John’s Wood, London.
Ducie, Henry, Earl of, F.R.S., 80 Eaton
Place, London; and Tortworth Court,

Wotton-under-Edge.

Duncan, Alexander, Rhode Island, United
States.

Duncan, James, M.D., Farnham House,

. Finglass, Co. Dublin.

MEMBERS TO WHOM

Dunlop, William Henry, Annan Hill,
Kilmarnock.

Dunraven, Edwin, Earl of, F.R.S., Adare
Manor, Co, Limerick; and Dunraven
Castle, Glamorganshire.

Earnshaw, Rey. Samuel, M.A., Sheffield.

Eddison, Edwin, Headingley Hill, Leeds.

Eddison, Francis, Headingley Hill, Leeds.

Eddy, James R., Carleton Grange, Skip-
ton.

Edmondston, Rev. John, Ashkirk near
Selkirk.

Edwards, J. Baker, Ph.D., Royal Insti-
tution Laboratory, Liverpool.

Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart.,
M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., Oulton Park,
Tarporley, Cheshire.

Eisdale, David A., M.A., 6 St. Patrick
Street, Edinburgh.

Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M., Grimstone
House near Malton, Yorkshire.

Ellis, Thomas Flower, M.A., F.R.S., At-
torney-General of the Duchy of Lan-
caster; 15 Bedford Place, London.

Enys, John S., F.G.S., Enys, Cornwall.

Erle, Rev. Christopher, M.A., F.G.S.,
Hardwick Rectory near Aylesbury.

Evans, George Fabian, M.D., Waterloo
Street, Birmingham.

Ewing, Archibald Orr, Clermont House,
Glasgow.

Ewing, William, 209 Brandon Place,
West George Street, Glasgow.

Eyre, George Edward, F.G.S., Warrens
near Lyndhurst, Hants.

Fairbairn, William, C.E., F.R.S., Man-
chester.

Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., F.R.S., Ful-
lerian Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Institution of Great Britain ; 21
Albemarle Street, London.

Farren, Edwin James, Hanover Cham-
bers, Buckingham Street, Strand, Lon-

on.

Faulkner, Charles, F.S.A., F.G.S., Ded-
dington, Oxon.

Fawcett, Henry, Trinity Hall, Cam-
bridge.

Fellows, Sir Charles, F.R.G.S.,4Montagu
Place, Russell Square, London.

Fischer, William L. F., M.A., F.R.S.,
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
University of St. Andrew’s, Scotland.

Fleming, William, M.D., Manchester.

Fletcher, Samuel, Ardwick Place, Man--
chester.

Forbes, David, F.R.S., F.G.S., A.I.C.E.,
7 Calthorpe Street, Birmingham.

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Forbes, James David, LL.D., Principal
of the University of St. Andrews,
Sec.R.S.E., F.R.S., St. Andrews.

Forbes, Sir John, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Forrest, William Hutton, Stirling.

Forster, Thomas Emerson, 7 Ellison Place,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Forster, William, Ballynure, Clones, Ire-
land.

Fort, Richard, Read Hall, Whalley, Lan-
cashire.

Fortescue, Hugh, Earl; K.P., F.R.S., 17
Grosvenor Square, London; and Castle
Hill, Southmolton.

Foster, Charles Finch, Mill Lane, Cam-
bridge.

Foster, George C., Sabden, Lancashire.

Foster, H. S., Cambridge.

Foster, John, M.A., The Oaks Parsonage,
Loughborough, Leicestershire.

Foster, Michael, F.R.C.S., Huntingdon.

Foster, S. Lloyd, Five Ways, Walsall,
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Fowler, Robert, 23 Rutland Sq., Dublin.

Fox, Charles, Trebah, Falmouth.

Fox, Joseph Hayland, Wellington, So-
merset,

Fox, Robert Barclay, Falmouth.

Fox, Samuel Lindoe, Tottenham.

Frankland, Rev. Marmaduke Charles,
Chowbent near Manchester.

Frazer, Daniel, 4 La Belle Place, Glasgow.

Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S.,
TheAthenzum Club, Pall Mall, London.

Frerichs, John Andrew, 1 Keynsham
Bank, Cheltenham.

Frith, Richard Hastings, C.E., Terenure
Terrace, Co. Dublin.

Fullarton, Allan, 19 Woodside Place,
Glasgow.

Fulton, Alexander, 7 Woodside Crescent,
Glasgow.

Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A.,
Leigh House, Lower Tooting, Surrey.

Garrett, Henry, Belfast.

Gaskell, Samuel, 19 Whitehall Place,
London.

Gething, George Barkley, Springfield,
Newport, Monmouthshire.

Gibson, George Stacey, Saffron Walden.

Gilbart, James William, F.R.S., London
cat Westminster Bank, Lothbury, Lon-

on.

Gladstone, George,
Common, London.

Gladstone, John Hall, Ph.D., F.R.S., 28
Leinster Gardens, Hyde Park, London.

Goodman, John, M.D., The Promenade,
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F.C.S., Clapham

299

Goodsir, John, F.R.S. L. & E., Professor
of Anatomy in the University of Edin-
burgh,

Gordon, James, 16 Bridge Street, Inver-
ness.

Gordon, Rev. James Crawford, M.A., De-
lamont, Downpatrick, Downshire.

Gotch, Rev. Frederick William, B.A., 1
Cave Street, Bristol.

Gotch, Thomas Henry.

Graham, Thomas, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
Master of the Mint, London.

Grahame, Major Duncan, Irvine, Scotland.

Grainger, John, Rose Villa, Belfast.

Gratton, Joseph, 32 Gower Street, Bed-
ford Square, London.

Graves, Rev. Charles, D.D,, Professor of
Mathematics in the University of Dub-
lin, M.R.I.A.; 2 Trinity College, Dublin.

Graves, Rey. Richard Hastings, D.D.,
Brigown Glebe, Michelstown, Co. Cork.

Gray, John, Greenock.

Gray, John Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., Keep-
er of the Zoological Collections of the
British Museum; British Museum.

Gray, William, F.G.S. (Local Treasurer),
Minster Yard, York.

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Square, Liverpool.

Greenaway, Edward, 40 Kensington
Park Gardens, Notting Hill, London.

Greenhalgh, Thomas, Astley House near
Bolton-le-Moors.

Greswell, Rev. Richard, B.D., F.R.S.,
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Griffin, John Joseph, 119 Bunhill Row,
London.

Griffith, Sir Richard, Bart., LL.D.,
M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Fitzwilliam Place,
Dublin.

Griffiths, 8. Y., Oxford.

Guinness, Rev. William Smyth, M.A,,
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Gutch, John James, 88 Micklegate, York.

Hall, T. B., Coggeshall, Essex.

Hailstone, Edward, Horton Hall, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.

Hambly, C. H. B., 55 Gell Street, Shef-
field.

Hamilton, Mathie, M.D., Warwick Street,
Glasgow.

Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, LL.D.,
Astronomer Royal of Ireland, and
Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in
the University of Dublin, M.R.I.A.,
F.R.A.S.; Observatory near Dublin.

Hamilton, William John, F.R.S., For.
Sec.G.S., 23 Chesham Place, Belgrave
Square, London.

300

Hamlin, Captain Thomas, Greenock.

Harcourt, Rev. William V.Vernon, M.A.,
F.R.S., Bolton Percy, Tadcaster.

Hardy, Charles, Odsall House, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.

Hare, Charles John, M.D., 41 Brook
Street, Grosvenor Square, London.
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Harris, Alfred, Ryshworth Hall near

Bingley, Yorkshire.

Harris, Alfred, jun., Bradford, Yorksliire.

Harris, George William.

Harris, Henry, Heaton Hallnear Bradford.

Harrison, James Park, M.A., Garlands,
Ewhurst, Surrey.

Harrison, William, Galligreaves House
near Blackburn.

Hart, Charles, 54 Wych Street, Strand,
London.

Harter, William, Hope Hall, Manchester,

Hartley, Jesse, Trentham St., Liverpool.

Harvey, Joseph Charles, Cork.

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Stronach, Wm., R.E., Ardmellie, Banff.

Stuart, William, 1 Rumford Place, Liver-

ool.

Stuart, William Henry, Birkenhead.

Stubs, Joseph, Park Place, Frodsham,
Cheshire.

Sykes, Alfred, Leeds.

Symonds, Captain Thomas
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Symons, G. J., Camden Town, London.

Edward,

Talbot, William Hawkshead, Wrighting-
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Taylor, William Edward, Millfield House,
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Teschemacher, E. F., 1 Highbury Park
North, London.

Thain, Rev. Alexander, New Machar,
Aberdeen.

Thompson, George, jun., 5 Golden Square,
Aberdeen.

Thorburn, Rev. William Reid, M.A.,
Starkies, Bury, Lancashire.

Todd, Thomas, Mary Culter House,
Aberdeen.

Torry, Very Rev. John, Dean of St. An-
drew’s; Cupar Angus.

Trail, Rev. Robert, M.A., Boyndie, Banff.

Trail, Rev. Samuel, LL.D., D.D., The
Manse, Hanay, Orkney.

Trefusis, Honuurable C., M.P., Heaton,
Devonshire.

Turnbull, John, 276 George Street,
Glasgow.

Tuton, Edward S., Lime Street, Liverpool.

Twining, H. R., Grove Lodge, Clapham,
London.

Urquhart, Rey. Alexander, Tarbat, Ross-
shire.

Urquhart, W. Pollard, Craigston Casile,
N.B., and Castle Pollard, Ireland.

Varley, Cornelius, 7 York Place, High
Road, Kentish Town, London.

Vickers, ‘Thomas, Manchester.

Voelcker, J. Ch. Augustus, Ph.D., F.C.S.,
Professor of Agricultural Chemistry,
Royal Agricultural College, Ciren-
cester.

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}

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