Skip to main content

Full text of "Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science"

See other formats 


REPORT 


OF THE 


THIRTIETH MEETING 


Vie 
' Rieti foN 


OF THE 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR THE 


ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; 


HELD AT OXFORD IN JUNE AND JULY 1860. 


LONDON 
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
1861. 


PRINTED BY 


TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 


CONTENTS. 


Onwmeers and Rules of the Association”. 25.2... .ceccscacc ccs ccouee'ees as 
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ..........+00+00 
Treasurer's Account 

Table of Council from commencement ...........0.eescesescocccecccene ves 


Page 
XVii 
XX 
Xxiv 
XXV 


eee ema LACT CIN! bate ek cecetccidea¥odiae cbals coc caanegucednere +’ eccewececsaes KEVIIL 


Officers of Sectional Committees 

Corresponding Members.. siahdioale Su Uvabaiiationick 

Report of the Council to the Gentstal Cendaitibe Senay asacWet clasp aet sat 
Report of the Kew Committee weahes 

Report of the Parliamentary Committee .......ssceeceeceeeeseeeseecee ees 
Recommendations for Additional Reports and Researches in Science 


XX1x 
Xxx 
XXX 

Xxxi 
xliv 

xlv 


PrmmmmPT ONG. GATES 5. uc cau ads cacao ceacaressaceessovevas ves ecchvsses XIVIIL 


General Statement of Sums paid for Scientific Purcases Reena teen 
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee 

Arrangement of the General Meetings Raneke(canane ney atte 
REESE FODUICW nu pass onicins-nnacis axeikns acandhebn sos seeson den aus seh soe 


REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. 


Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1859-60. By a Com- 
mittee, consisting of James GLAIsHER, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 
Secretary to the British Meteorological Society, &c.; J. H. Giap- 
STONE, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. &c.;. R. P. Ga a: BGS... &e. ; 
and I. J. Lowe, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.B.MLS. &c. 

Report of the Committee appointed to dredge Dublin aay ‘By ue R. 
Kinauan, M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology, Government School 
of Science applied to Mining Aue the Arts: si..5s05s 

Report on the Excavations in Dura Den. oy fis: Rey eas 
PMRMBISTS (NaMNE) oP ss re eig ee ccs creclelh asic nciriee\dee's odoatcdaeee secs ssdeccterces 

Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical Garden of the Royal 
Agricultural College, Cirencester. By James Buckxmay, F.LS., 
F.S.A., F.G.S. &c., Professor of el and whe 4 mechs Agri 
cultural Coles e: ep casgetoes cos vee 


27 


34 


vi CONTENTS. 


Page 
Report of the Committee requested “to report to the Meeting at 
Oxford as to the Scientific Objects to be sought for by continuing 
the Balloon Ascents formerly undertaken to great Altitudes.” By 
the Rev. Roserr Wacker, M.A.,, F.R.S., Reader in ee 
Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Ae PPer oacesce ys 


Report of Committee appointed to prepare a " Self-Recording Meee 
spheric Electrometer tor Kew, and Portable Apparatus for observing 
Atmospheric Electricity. By Professor W. Tomson, F.R.S. ...... 44 


Experiments to determine the Effect of Vibratory Action and long- 
continued Changes of Load upon ae iron Girders. ee Wit- 


LIAM FairBalrn, Esq., LLD., F.R.S.. a ddgetsnscavees ee 
A eT of Meteorites and Fireballs, coe A.D. 2 to A.D. 1860. 
By R. P. Gree, Esq., F.G.S8 cw sale «=, 48 


Report on the Theory of ates Spare I “By y. 1 Boe 
Smitu, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the Uni- 
versity of Oxford aiudssisseisensocieeeceesewess soe yas qeuseesanstn=: Meester 120 


On the Performance of Steam- Vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and 
the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the Form of the Vesssel. 
By Vice-Admiral MGORSOM 1060. c0ssecsoscasacersdvexoes sefaatbeaeeame eu teaae 


Report on the Effects of long-continued Heat, illustrative of Geological 
Phenomena. By the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., F.G.S. 175 


Second Report of the Committee on Steam-ship Performance............ 193 
Interim Report on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches 
List of the British Marine Invertebrate Fauna ...,.....sscccccsseeeceneenees 


CONTENTS. vil 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS 


OF 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. 


MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 


MaTHEMATICS. 
Page 


Address by the Rev. Professor Price, President of the Section s.secseesseeres  L 
Dr. BRENNECKE on some Solutions of the Problem of Tactions of Apollonius 


of Perga by means of modern Geometry ...scereseseceerereeerersennens aves waaceses 
Rev. James Booru on a New General Method for establishing the Theory of 

CWONIC SECHONS....050..0sccsecescceseccesceserevcncsos aoenoscec0c1-bechnAneesan Sacneaces we 
——____-—____—— on the Relations between Hyperconic Sections and Elliptic 

Integrals...,..... A eee saat oa tede aa acene tactic reddeveverneet soles stasiionrastsneteraceccses wn 
Mr. A. Cayxey on Curves of the Fourth Order having Three Double Points... 4 
Mr. Parricx Copy on the Trisection of an Angle .....sscseseeseseenereeeeerecneusens 4 
Rev. T. P. Kirkman on the Roots of Substitutions .....+...ssesereeee Soenenensne ap 4 
Rey. T. Rennrson on a new Proof of Pascal’s Theorem ....s.seseesseseserreenes aa 8 


Professor H. J. SrepHEeN Smit on Systems of Indeterminate Linear Equations 6 


Professor SyLvEsTER on a Generalization of Poncelet’s Theorems for the Linear 
Representation of Quadratic Radicals ....sseeeese0 sseesevsenes Gaeressspcevasecege> Paes 


Lieut, Heat. 
Sir Davip Brewster on the Influence of very small Apertures on Telescopic 
IWIBIOH cess ccencccscccacascnesssncassevacceccssecascccseses atvacsdepeesreedddnacsresnes hoes 2 if 


——-—-—— on some Optical Illusions connected with the Inversion 
of Perspective......+. ad sieacamanadanslisesrewedesa sf Goan detsmaeeaisesaicaine aaiwarpsawene sa desis 7 


on Microscopic Vision, and a New Form of Microscope 8 
———_——— on the decomposed Glass found at Nineveh and other 


PIACES ......500c0esescnesessarssceseesscosees Se dndins ns coisidel ta cshesowandqanesttanease<¥ayieqse¢ 9 
Dr. J. H. Guapsrone on his own Perception of Colours ......ssseseee caosvgeecceee 12 
—________—_—- on the Chromatic Properties of the Electric Light of 

Mercury ..e.csccsscseeeecesccscesccarecnscnccesetesencuscnssansesenenssasensceeesseuesegses hepeete 
Professor JeLLerr on a New Instrument for determining the Plane of Polariza- 

TLOT wovecccceeecrereeeess eeeeenee wevenecconecsorne ssnaupigedace cette tis sleepin Gealsnniecnelelo's oS 


Professor L. L. Linpesiér on the Caustics produced by Reflexion .s.ssseseseeeee 14 


Professor Maxwe tt on the Results of Bernoulli’s Theory of Gases as applied 
to their Internal Friction, their Diffusion, and their Conductivity for Heat... 15 

_ ——__________ on an Instrument for Exhibiting any Mixture of the Co- 
) lours of the Spectrum......+. bsp eenes SCOREUED CrarSehao canoes seaeinaesasese eaauclensane 14 


viii CONTENTS. 


Mr. Munao Ponron’s Further Researches regarding the Laws of Chromatic 
Dispersion .....ccccccssscscccscccscccscccotssccsscsascesrcrsaccccsss ssn decneestis ie: ne 
Professor Witt1am B, Rocers’s Experiments and Conclusions on Binocular 
WiISIONS. cevsrensseccte(erscsensaanecciureccees eonvseeroest ss -ssesaesesasessesaameemeecnen sce 
M. Serrin, Régulateur Automatique de Lumiére Electrique ...+++seesesseseeeere 
Mr. Batrour Stewart on some Recent Extensions of Prevost’s Theory of Ex- 
CHANG CS 2200 5dc46 casctagdcadvs dace act clvatsds vat lesedec1seds ckdebecatescdseatadeenesstel wiees 
Mr. G. Jounstone Stoney on Rings seen in viewing a Light through Fibrous 
Specimens of Calc-spar......-sseseeeeee Sused decbouscuesiecssseaseuenteusettamadatclcsmiacs 


Mr. R. Tuomas on Thin Films of Decomposed Glass found near Oxford ....... 


ELecrricity, MAGNETISM. 


Mr. Joun Atxan Brown on certain Results of Observations in the Observa- 


tory of His Highness the Rajah of Travancore ....sscsseseeceseeeeeees = debdoae ate 
— on the Diurnal Variations of the Magnetic Declina- 

tion at the Magnetic Equator, and the Decennial Period .........:ccsssseeeeeeeees 
Sas — on a New Induction Dip-Circle ......0...ccsasessesnsanc 


— ——_—_____.__. 


on Magnetic Rocks in South India........s.esseeeseeee 
on a Magnetic Survey of the West Coast of India... 


— on the Velocity of Earthquake Shocks in the Late- 
PRE OF DG cies cost as age? va 8i vadsacusates ik cedaths sad satsestesanahtnugaxcdeiees tiers ‘ 


Mr. A. Crarke on a Mode of correcting the Errors of the Compass in Iron 
Ships ..... Sasowoerese cesses scdusoscausaviaspessrssdavessceeeccseacacite setovedesispameeeenennnd 


Sir W. Svow Harris on Electrical Force ....ssssssesscccseeceeee javeatacensaeeeaesses 
Rev. T. RANKIN on the different Motions of Electric Fluid ...s.....ceseees Soa otvek 


Professor W. B. Rocers on the Phenomena of Electrical Vacuum Tubes, ina 
letter to Mr. Gassiot ...... seeGaecevaesSis rach s cueteseelasecehe ee eec eee eee epee Sastaces 


M. H. von ScutaGintwerr’s General Abstract of the Results of Messrs. de 
Schlagintweit’s Magnetic Survey of India, with three Charts .....ssscesseeees & 


M. Werner and Mr. C, W. Siemens, Outline of the Principles and Prac- 
tice involved in dealing with the Electrical Conditions of Submarine Electric 
Telégraphs POOP cee tere tneeesesdbeseos oer 


——S 


—_— 


POCO Pere ee meee Eee ee RE R OHHH EEE E HEH OEE DEES SEES 


ASTRONOMY. 


Mr. W. R. Birt on the Forms of certain Lunar Craters indicative of the Ope- 
ration of a peculiar degrading Force ...s0..0... itegevesecancacee osceetebelawenececss 


Professor Hennessy on the Possibility of Studying the Earth’s Internal Struc- 
ture from Phenomena observed at its Surface 


Rev. Epwarp Hrincxs on some Recorded Observations of the Planet Venus in 
the Seventh Century before Christ 


Mr. R. Hopeson on the brilliant Eruption on the Sun’s Surface, 1st Septem- 
berstS5Ou.n smear eee ccercenccencctsersceseene 


Dr. Jonn Lex’s Prospectus of the Hartwell Variable Star Atlas, with six Speci- 
men Proofs.........4; : 


POPPE ee reer ee ee Peeresens Cee eeereeesnees Peete eeetee 


Professor B. Pierce on the Physical Constitution of Comets...ssssesssssseeseeees 
een niencmeenes On the Dynamic Condition of Saturn’s BIBUB ascbeoseenene 


Page 
16 


17 
19 


19 


19 
19 


20 
21 
23 
24 
27 


28 


28 
28 
30 


30 


32 


32 


CONTENTS. 


Professor B. Pierce on the Motion of a Pendulum in a Vertical Plane when 
the point of suspension moves uniformly on a circumference in the same 


LIFE aadcdcaicoruucecarcotrdscctadcveccsilccecscdsssaetenvecMMes topernerssdsectandaseqssens 


MerrEOROLOGY. 
Mr. Jouw Baz on a Plan for Systematic Observations of Temperature in 
Mountain Countries.........sseseereeeee Sdoetidococta semenneanenisesnd wiatecesaeces pease 
Mr. W. R. Bret on Atmospheric Waves ....++.+se++++ -eridnnncce Kepsseenesis Stee casnt 
M. Du Bovutay’s Observations on the Meteorological Phenomena of the Vernal 
Equinoctial Week ..........++4++ Raeaece see nadi te sesh ane sPaneen Rae semaseehiee.s sachs “ce 
Mr. R. DowpeEn on the Effect of a Rapid Current of Air ....+.eeesseeeess yanekaesis 


Admiral FrrzRoy on British Storms, illustrated with Diagrams and Charts... 


Mr. J. Park Harrrson on the Similarity of the Lunar Curves of Minimum 


Temperature at Greenwich and Utrecht in the Year 1859. ticussscessansperarcsst 
Professor Hennessy on the Principles of Meteorology ......... = pesoonncentearodee : 
Captain Maury on Antarctic Expeditions .c.......--.++++ Rancentenpcsscasacsms ss acoso 


on the Climates of the Antarctic Regions, as indicated by Ob- 
servations upon the Height of the Barometer and Direction of the Winds at 


Sea........ Be cates TEC Cn SLE PCR CORO EEET Cor ceeeeee Scere Lcocedent pecs seneanendees er 
Rev. Henry Mosetey on the Cause of the Descent of Glaciers .....+--++++..+0+ : 


Rev. T. Ranxtn on Meteorological Observations for 1859, made at Hugagate, 
Yorkshire, East Riding ...... Ht SPREE tronat ss ceeset tas sieberetene ere 


M. R. pe Scuracintweir on Thermo-barometers, compared with Barometers 
at great Heights ............+ beattcnaecetarcctebe dese Reaack vets shee parte eeVab cues seek is 


Captain W. Parker Snow on Practical Experience of the Law of Storms in 
each Quarter of the Globe... ..csecsseeeceeceeeeseees eeseresasas att qaeeaease Onsen ens eee 


Mr. G. J. Symons’s Results of an Investigation into the Phenomena of English 
Thunder-storms during the years 1857—59.........- puacavene Sev saetseneescae 


ee eeeeee 


Professor Witt1am THomson’s Notes on Atmospheric Electricity ....... Banduthie 


M. Verpet’s Note on the Dispersion of the Planes of Polarization of the 
Coloured Rays produced by the Action of Magnetism* ....... pcb daWaouehaavege vee 


Mr. E. Vivian’s Results of Self-registering Hygrometers...secsssseseereserereees re 
Rev. A. WELD’s Results of Ten Years’ Meteorological Observations at Stony- 


PARSE Peacisccccoscccccccscccctccccccceccccccecesansecccccncesravoccvecttnessverovessvesstoseve 


GENERAL Puysics. 


Mr. J. 8. Sruarr GLenniz, Physics as a Branch of the Science of Motion ... 
a General Law of Rotation applied to the Planets 


el 


SounD. 


Rev. S. Earnsnaw on the Velocity of the Sound of Thunder......seeceseeeseesane 
on the Triplicity of Sound ...-..sceseesecersereeeeeeeeeeeeeneeeens 


INSTRUMENTS. 


Mr. Parrick Aptz’s Description of an Instrument for Measuring Actual 


MIBTATICES ccccccceccecccccdsccecececacccecseascasceccocesccccssccnsrncansocoresccccensncecsres 


* This should haye been placed in an earlier division. 


56 
58 


58 
58 


59 


> he CONTENTS. 


Mr. Parrtck Apte’s Description of a New Reflecting Instrument for Angular 

Measurement pcr deneauacseceaes ss saeeenet <anete Merete eae senasbale a riceien © wep aieeiiaiaee 
M. E. Becqueret on a Pile with Sulphate of Lead.......... cep patie astemogel eater ~ 
The Hon. W. BLanp on an Atmotic Ship.....csce.cecerecccsovesees Sesawne dese eweeee sos 


Rev. J. Boorn on an Improved Instrument for describing Spirals, invented by 
Henry Johnson ....... BO PRRCRO CIEE rerONAGR A Idoshuctnsacne sacbae nn dee se once pareeatemas 
Mr. A. Craupet on the Means of increasing the Angle of Binocular Instru- 
ments, in order to obtain a Stereoscopic Effect in proportion to their Mag- 


TURIN EAP OWED eee wactisavee do cvee ed daemccoeiepe sagen acicdcideemeteicees alas Ssieacseveceuverdeae 
—_— on the Principles of the Solar Camera.........ssscessessssecneseees 

Mr. Henry Draper on a Reflecting Telescope for Celestial Photography, 
erectine at Hastings; near INewiMOrkr.;ccdcsasceasece cevecs teeter esseewtaseveenmece eee 
Mr. W. Lapp on an Improved Form of Air-Pump for Philosophical Experi- 
ments ...... tee ceeerecseneeccsceeeres eee ececeeceereceessereeescceences teeccveceveveccreeves eee 
Mr. Joun Smira on the Chromoscope ..e.esseseeee Ninenecassnansensccascsesegamtaes bss 

CHEMISTRY. 

Professor ANDREWS OD OZONE ....cecsesesssecseneeseenees Sompanen tatoos ee oansyan ned amgle 
Dr. Brrp on the Deodorization Of Sewage)...ccscy<csessessosecececesecrsvusoanssnseneus 
Professor B. C. Broprz on the Quantitative Estimation of the Peroxide of 
Ly rOpent cern ves-ncets ss aceceseessseaes SACLECET DOHCOEBE Ton J0bk ERO aC anorectic ree one 
Mr. G. B. Buckton on some Reactions of Zinc-Ethy] ..........ssesssscseesecsesees 
Mr. J. J. Coteman’s Note on the Destruction of the Bitter Principle of Chy- 
raitta by the Agency of Caustic Alkali.........ccscossscceescesscesecsecreseeereees oes 


on some remarkable Relations existing between the 
Atomic Weights, Atomic Volumes, and Properties of the Chemical Elements 


Dr. FrANKLAND and B. Duppa on a new Organic Compound containing Boron 


Dr, GrapsTone’s Chemical Notes .......2-scccccsssccececore See teviqacodeuseedsepsigareirs 
Mr. W. R. Grove on the Transmission of Electrolysis across Glass ...... beans 
Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt on the Oxidation of Potassium and Sodium........ 
Mr. J. B. Lawes and Dr. J. H. Grtperr on the Composition of the Ash of 

Wheat grown under various CIrCUMStANCES .....ssececreseceeeeeeeeesenneeeeeeeaees . 
Professor W. A. Mixxer on the Atomic Weight of Oxygen.........sssseseeeees ee 
C. Moritz von Bosr’s Remarks on the Volume Theory .........00e0+. coeuteye eee 


Mr. Warren De ta Rue and Dr. Hugo Muxtuer on a New Acetic Ether 
occurring in a Natural Resin......... Sanetps Pam uen tenants easton tcl: cctaes sen ceest items 


on the Isomers of Cumol ......... Gekcaaouswases dvanoccucaeaane 


Dr. Lyon Pravrarr on the Representation of Neutral Salts on the type of a 
Neutral Peroxide HO, instead of a Basic Oxide Hy On ....c.secccveceseesenees rer 


Professor T. H. Rowney on the Analysis of some Connemara Minerals ....... 


on the; CompositioniOf Jebrccc.csts.mensress coves oseewenes 
Mr. T. Scorrern on Waterproof and Unalterable Small-arm Cartridges........ 
Dr. HerMANnn SpRENGEL on a New Form of Blowpipe for Laboratory Use... 


Dr. Tuupicuum on Thiotherine, a Sulphuretted Product of Decomposition of 
FAT DUMINONS SUDSEAHCES nec seinee ds ve cede once -useedal cheated Spence sebastienesa ener 


Professor VoeLcKer on the Occurrence of Poisonous Metals in Cheese ..... rey 
Dr, W. Wattace on the Causes of Fire in Turkey-red Stoves,........+006 Scheo: 


66 
66 


71 


CONTENTS, 


GEOLOGY. 
Baron F. Anca’s Notes on two newly discovered Ossiferous Caves in Sicily ... 
Sir Davip BrewstTer’s Details respecting a Nail found in Kingoodie Quarry, 


A Voriecieianicinicis’sls ce olcoesinnie sis(cin cite slanibisie pale. 00 eves races sc@iis oturecisseceedse ceeds susecaesne 
Rey. P. B. Bronte on the Stratigraphical Position of certain Species of Corals 
ray id fey UTES Reeersoneeee Sesh dane oababndcne ancuddnecesaron ction sartei co Btbdo. dudenadsadadssddoon 
Mr. Joun ALtan Brown on the Velocity of Earthquake Shocks in the Laterite 
RMA eceadvcaengnicceainsleascicecuecsveceossvesceescnasat severest se "Sinn Hiesonudnecescn ona 
Rev. J. C. Crurrersuck on the Course of the Thames from Lechlade to 
Windsor, as ruled by the Geological Formations over which it passes......... 
Professor DAuBENY’s Remarks on the Elevation Theory of Volcanos ......+404+ 
Rev. J. B. P. Dennis on the Mode of Flight of the Pterodactyles of the Copro- 
lite Bed near Cambridge ....--ssssseecseseesereneees nagebaeoonDOOhOr Cote naceROnoSeteS nv 
Rev. J. Dinexz on the Corrugation of Strata in the Vicinity of Mountain 
Ranges ccecseceseseseeeeees Sa nencidepSaneosc nc LUO OEOCDOBRCAODL CEH Ca BEAcne Soneceacviensnaeas 
Sir Parzre pE M. Grey Ecerron’s Remarks on the Ichthyolites of Farnell 
FUGa ie sacesicseceaeaisesesiisics ss pecan seers Bocrenadnee aneagsdacoonaynddagode Sciggadonadanebnne 
— on a New Form of Ichthyolite discovered 

by Mr. Peach...cccesssesseseseeeereeass cannasboncnte deeabanace Sebensecssnrseus saneaoneincore 
M. A. Favre on Circular Chains in the Savoy AIps....ccscsesesscerssecceeeerseeens 
Mr. ALeuonse Gaces on some Transformations of Iron Pyrites in connexion 
with Organic Remains...... scp COEEBE So SELORO IA00080N peehiterantes Ropn ee deeiaxaneeseeens 
Dr. Gernitz on Snow Crystals observed at Dresden ......eseeveeseeeees SCE CDAD 
— on the Silurian Formation in the District of Wilsdruff..........c0000+ 
Professor Harkness on the Metamorphic Rocks of the North of Ireland ...... 
Dr. Hecror’s Notes on the Geology of Captain Palliser’s Expedition in British 
INorth AMETICA ....002:.0ceccseccenscresececesonacnccsvasasoasaccereresses J gapnr pesanagabedn 
Professor F. von Hocusterrer’s Remarks on the Geology of New Zealand, 
illustrated by Geological Maps, Drawings, and Photographs...... Sreidachiasendcor 


——______—_  — Observations upon the Geological Fea- 
tures of the Volcanic Island of St. Paul, in the South Indian Ocean, illus- 
trated by a Model in Relief of the Island, made by Captain Cybulz, of the 


Australian Artillery......esessee eatasratee lelesielve's cbopeaeuaeanigy estes SAR NSDUCEOD Beteenne 
Mr. E. Hutt on the Six-inch Maps of the Geological Survey ......sssseseeseeenee 
on the Blenheim Iron Ore; and the Thickness of the Formations 

below the Great Oolite at Stonesfield, Oxfordshire ........ssesseeceeees SASEPaC AAA 
Mr. T. Sterry Hunv’s Note on some Points in Chemical Geology ...sse++s0+ 
Mr. J. Beets Juxes on the Igneous Rocks interstratified with the Carbonife- 
rous Limestones of the Basin of Limerick.......sceesseerees MPN ce cadianeeadesesss 
Mr. J. A. Kwipz on the Tynedale Coal-field and the Whin-sill of Cumberland 
and Northumberland.......ccssscesesereeeees EERO Ac SdoAeDeCEnCoN Rcdudemniiceswcnares 


Dr. W. Lauper Lrypsay on the Eruption in May 1860, of the Kotltigja Vol- 
CANO in Iceland.......ssccssoscecseecovcssrocecsesscccscscovesssccosccsssasnveccssonacceces 


Rey. W. Lrsrer on some Reptilian Foot-prints from the New Red Sandstone, 

north of Wolverhampton......sscssssccecseesereeecenccneassasecaeeeeueereusseseesenserees 
Rev. W. Mitcue x and Professor TenNant on the Koh-i-Noor previous to 

Hts Cutting....0......sccsscceveeeseetecs * Choon Bonpe a DnISS Ca pbuCenIaochC nat sabe ne bandas 
Mr. C. Moors on the Contents of Three Square Yards of Triassic Drift ........ 
~ Mr. Wirt1am Motynevx’s Remarks on Fossil Fish from the North Stafiord- 
shire Coal Fields ..sscsscsesseseeseaeres paamieoeslenstiess Seantiotogean Benatar san adeseescsiines 


bt 
Page 
73 
73 
73 
74 


75 
75 


76 
77 
77 


78 
78 


79 
79 
79 
79 


80 


81 


81 
81 


81 
83 


84 
86 
86 
87 


87 
87 


88 


xli CONTENTS. 


Page 
Mr. J. Powrtx’s Notice ofa Fossiliferous Deposit near Farnell, in Forfarshire, 
INA Bc scocnaenas ser asdecuecnrcnses daeancsoemetcnteeneanasianes creer ace arr cent neeee re eeenee 89 
Professor Puriurps on the Geology of the Vicinity of Oxford .........sece0eeseeees 90 
Mr. JosEpH Prestwicu on some New Facts in relation to the Section of the 
Cliffvat MundesleysINortolk:s.cccseuesesseasanecrestarewsscccrecsec eee adac eeeeaaeene 90 
Mr. /J.)Prich on Shckensid@ss.c..s-sssuscsessssseceseeten sv eceeds “See reeacno eaeclees Senate 91 
Mr. Witi1am PeNncELLy on the Chronological and Geographical Distribution 
of the Devonian Fossils of Devon and Cornwall ........,.cccssecessccecccccececsece 91 
Professor H. D. Rogers on some Phenomena of Metamorpiisnts in Coal in the 
SHUMILCE SCALES oe, csct ssesdeasdersacensoceccecccrescurstscsessevesenererasasarett eset eeeiaee 101 
Rev. Professor Sepewicx on the Geology of the Neighbourhood of Cambridge 
and the Fossils of the Upper Greensand ............. Sos voce nsceseaseastsentsisaeanperans 101 
Rev. Grisert N. Smiru on three undescribed Bone-Caves near Tenby, Pem- 
rOkeShivGweceacceamnceeates sass cman cresceene case inedensaneste see serer ee Wola dane «teaeeengas 101 
Rev. W. S. Symonps on the Selection of a Peculiar Geological Habitat by 
some OL the raremsbmbishy Elan tSiewncoacccceccoss«os sairecsesectne sie eee tie te neeme 102 
Rev. H. B. Tristram on the Geological System of the Central Sahara of 
ALGOMA ness erseracsncsciaccitsoadstserecscees sactoretmacdserscabecenercenee st cot tae ee mmeare 102 
Mr. J. F. Wuireaves on the Invertebrate Fauna of the Lower Oolites of 
OxfordShinetgascscsecceceradaess a vaceroecs slices cone secase seston teeteneoee coon ante a aieeee 104 
Captain Woopatt on the Intermittent Springs of the Chalk and Oolite of the 
Neizhbourhood! of Searborotgh..c.3s.: 08s <deccss.c0taessadeaveescessns-apepreseweger 108 
Mr. Toomas Wricut on the Avicula contorta Beds and Lower Lias in the 
South of England.......... Gvesctestacs EG SesOuensut vorbiescewanenseat saesaviesaahaw sy Rime -. 108 


BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY, tncLtupinc PHYSIOLOGY. 


GENERAL. 


Mr. Putrre P. Carpenter on the Progress of Natural Science in the United 
States and Canada...........0+« Paver ead oa ness Pov achaasceaesecrucsutes chadacaeaceset cade 109 


Professor DauBeny’s Remarks on the Final Causes of the Sexuality of Plants, 
with particular reference to Mr. Darwin’s Work ‘ On the Origin of Species 


by Natural Selection’ ......... “Hochortncso sho. eae nceceeer eee ease phaxte anne free 109 
Borany. 
Professor DowpEN on a Plant Poisoning a Plant..........sccssssesecerserseees sesess 110 
Dr. C. Dresser on Abnormal Forms of Passiflora c@ruled ..ccccccecseseresevenses 110 
on the Morphological Laws in Plants ..........cscecesceeseeeeenes 110 
Rev. Professor HeNsLow on the supposed Germination of Mummy Wheat..... 110 
Mr. Joun Hoace on the Distinctions of a Plant and an Animal, and ona Fourth 
Kingdom of Natures. ..~-0cescecysnesensrpnvonrivedesnecoapersetaseessaseeprensesseseseas lil 
Mr. M. T. Masters on the Normal and Abnormal Variations from an assumed 
My pevin Plants. .205 sco. sceasewoes co-i- cae ane=nsinexceeuecsoasscnesrerueniosserscarssecaanenas 112 
Dr. G. OerLviz on the Structure of Fern Stems ....scescseeeeees cass casasueee maces sep TD 
ZooLoey. 


Mr. Frank T. Bucktanp on the Acclimatization of Animals, Birds, &c., in 
the United Kingdom ..ccocssscsscsccenccssesscocesessecsesnccsaveusstunsecauddsvsersecaws. LAGS 


CONTENTS, xiii 
Page 
Mr. Curusert CoLtinewoon’s Remarks on the Respiration of the Nudibran- 
Ghiate Mollusca ...cccccccccsccscsens aaeencinccisecsss cans aM Ran coca asc ateE eer sc cwccsen ce 113 
-————__—_————— on the Nudibranchiate Mollusca of the Mersey 
PATI CE tnt ecadececccdrsscepestestsestcadsstcccsececase cdl Pasceebecavustctphedes desssescas 113 


SEE IVS UEINALIC!ZOOIOPY; ovvientnavoncorseveceenueesecasaussovsvasisessWasenens+serssinesouns 114 


Professor Draper on the Intellectual Development of Europe, considered with 
reference to the views of Mr. Darwin and others, that the Progression of 
ieanjems 1s. determined by Iawiscs.ess.ss0sesccsccsnecsesseceessices ys dnstse-cps'e seaee 115 


Rev. H. H. Hicerns on some Specimens of Shells from the Liverpool Museum, 
originally from the Pathological Collection formed by the late Mr. Gaskoin... 116 


Rey. A. R. Hoeawn’s Notice of British Well Shrimps ....... BG Ta De « LI6 
Mr. J. G. Jerrruys on the British Teredines, or Ship-Worms ............0eeeee0s 117 
Mr. Cuartes W. Peacu on the Statistics of the Herring Fishery......... Preaaes 120 
MPa OESPERTCH ONC yOIP PE. esseces Winn ve cwlcrece es ieteassbste cies nctetecdiencseastysstes 120 
Mr. Lovett Reeve on the Aspergillum or Watering-pot Mollusk ...........0..08 120 
Dr. P. L. Sctarer’s Remarks on the Geographical Distribution of recent Ter- 
BEEP IMVCLECDLALAssa.ssissscessincsesciencondaesserecenersscane Seep idaniiivenasseoesatlsceests 121 
Mr. H. T. Starnron on some Peculiar Forms amongst the Micro-Lepidopterous 
MMR P EM na eeas erestis sauce meanest mcenctciasvece cacostsetene da tr cevecccseressesedesvs 122 
Dr. Vertoren on the Effect of Temperature and Periodicity on the Develop- 
ment of certain Lepidoptera............... es cewies ninelnn penetra elsigas Biss Jeocsceeeeers » 123 
Biro. O., Westwoon on Mummy Beetles, .......ccsrspeosaseyseesessnspeceptenessens 123 
——————— on a Lepidopterous Parasite oecurring on the Body of 
BEML AR OTC RMUCLANT GD a scng's%inniomaidaisaae sss 8sdesPesehesniese ses cosy cs sesesecseceeseasere » 124 
Dr, E, Percevat Wricut’s Notes on Tomopteris onisciformis........000.008 weneqe 124 
PuysioLoey. 


Professor Beatz on the Ultimate Arrangement of Nerves in Muscular Tissue... 125 


Professor VY. Carus on the Leptocephalid@......ccccssesscovsceccoeceoteescevcocedeses 125 
——_—————— on the Value of ‘ Development” in Systematic Zoology 
pdm animal MOT pHOlO Ry? vascc..ssonscaesosncdecsoascavesvcghoabebevepeaesac ouaneowensees 125 
Professor Corset on the Deglutition of Alimentary Fluids...........se00eecccsese 216 
Dr. Ropert M‘Donne tt on the Formation of Sugar and Amyloid Substances 
Rates TEAL EL CORON. os Sa ntindisc Saeasina,s nerves els sealeasoeceopep'vs ap ogosovcemss si. « +. 129 


Mr. Artuur E, Duruam’s Experimental Inquiry into the Nature of Sleep..... 129 
Dr. Micuarx Fosrer’s Contributions to the Theory of Cardiac Inhibition...... 129 


Mr. Rosert Garner on certain Alterations in the Medulla Oblongata in cases 
BMT sa) Voto micns Mesa eeeiseiciee eeck ace oleae eke ee ee eee ek ieeee odds en ckscks 129 


- on the Structure of the Lepadid@.........csceeecesees aonnesere 130 
Mr. Georce D. Gres on Saccharine Fermentation within the Female Breast.. 131 
Sir Caarres Gray on Asiatic Cholera......ses...8 Ruenontesess atiowncdenet oa urcekesanes 132 


Mr. J. Reay Greene, A Word on Embryology, with reference to the mutual 
relations of the Sub-kingdoms of Animals............. seaeneaeenecemesaaecy cesponeses LSD 


Mr. Epwarp R. Harvey on the Mode of Death by Aconite.......sssscssecceeasee 133 


Professor Van pER Horven on the Anatomy of Stenops Potto, Perodicticus 
Geoffroyt of Bennett....... dtleiese vesiseeinneiuniaesey ec teveeevesscscsesscscrscecssecsssosensens 134 


X1V CONTENTS. 


Professor Van prr Horven, Observations on the Teredo navalis, and the 

Mischief caused by it in Holland.............065 SadeoLnonGagsncckecadodanasutidddé foc wee 
Professor Huxtry on the Development of Pyrosoma .......s0eeeenee nencsuee =qpe0bon 
Dr. Cuartes Kipp on the Nature of Death from the Administration of 

Anesthetics, especially Chloroform and Ether, as observed in Hospitals...... 
ib. Lewis ona. Hydro-spirometer ..ccsor0.«arwagecduccsiesecenstundecsstcccmaeae etenciai 
Mr. Joun Luspock on the Development of Buccinum .....scsscsssssscesenseeteenees 
Mr. Arcuigatp MacLaren on the Influence of Systematized Exercise on the 

Expansion tof theiChestsaienecskneeeaensacasmere sree sain Sappeoecriceba secede sna ce 
M. Otter on the Artificial Production of Bone and Osseous Grafts .......0.+ 
Dr. C. B. Rapexirr’s Experiments on Muscular Action from an Electrical point 

OL VIEW. 5 coisas scans sae unc chun sok saeeceuaneneeavarcurcanes eatne naa seue set aman sebews 
Dr. B. W. Ricuarpson on the Process of Oxygenation in Animal Bodies ..... 
Dr. Epwarp Smiru, The Action of Tea and Alcohols contrasted ......seeesseeess 


Page 


136 
136 


136 
139 
139 
142 


143 


143 
143 
145 


Dr. J. L. W. Taupicuum on the Physiological relations of the Colouring — 


Matteriof thesBilessepsscsscuresacess wawseenae MOEA Ncuasnecen ieee juseenaenedees eAddoae : 


GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. 


Opening Address by the President, Sir Roprrick Impry Murcuison .......+ 


Mr. T. W. Atkinson on the Caravan Routes from the Russian Frontier to 
Khiva, Bokhara, Kokhan, and Garkand, with suggestions for opening up a 
Trade Jbetween Central: Asia. and sndia .caucesmaee «cestode sa cteceeapeeereeeeeneee ee 


_——_— on the Caravan Route from Yarkand to Mai-matchin, 
with a Short Account of this Town, through which the Trade is carried on 
between Russiasand) China ccnesctnensscassevtenoeden cmctioncsesenel teas coca 5 


Capt. Sir E. Betcuer on the Manufacture of Stone Hatchets and other Imple- 
ments by the Esquimaux, illustrated by Native Tools, Arrow-heads, &c....++. 


Mr. Joun Crawrurp on the Aryan or Indo-Germanic Theory of Races ....... 


—__—_—___———— on the Influence cf Domestic Animals on the Progress of 
Civilization) (BILAS) sca, casssakpeemeccetenecteone te osmeekar eee. sunetscalesseaateeeemtoeeinc 


Mr. R. Cut on certain remarkable Deviations in the Stature of Europeans.... 


on the Existence of a true Plural of a Personal Pronoun in a 
living European Language scrsnnseccciedsestsdecscssevevseencetseeme Rec doseenasantiesh's 


Captain Cypuuz on a Set of Relief Models of the Alps, &C.....ccscceeceeceseeeees 


Rev. Professor Graves on the Arrangement of the Forts and Dwelling-places 
Gf the Ancient Ubishie: ccs sci dsnactanenset-seearecnaervades tale Arcs eee eaeen aes 


Rev. Epw. Hrncxs on certain Ethnological Boulders and their probable Origin 
Professor I’. von Hocusretrrer’s New Map of the Interior of the Northern 


Island of New Zealand, constructed during an Inland Journey in 1859 ....... 
Dr. J. Hunt on the Antiquity of the Human Race.....e...secseccee sees Scinteray Oroeee 


Mr. V. Hurrapo on the Geographical Distribution and Trade in the Cinchona 
Rev. Professor Jarrett on Alphabets, and especially the English; and on a 
New Method of Marking the Sound of English Words, without change of 
Orthography cmespanceene seen ce veemsee mere cnt Sor sSStarnaonapsas Desir asonscdesodc sob anes 
Mr. R. Knox on the Origin of the Arts, and the Influence of Race in their 
DevelopmMentire Aescntecceceateowenes. cnesisce teeencae seme satteset Crit nenenneSnee eee nae 


Mr. D. A. Laner’s brief Account of the Progress of the Works of the Isthmus 
of Suez Canal...... dic bosKobOHOmadaBroncons chcccosuserbonoddac seve 


Fee neeee ee ereesetesaetee 


147 


148 


153 


154 


154 
154 


155 
155 


163 
163 


163 


CONTENTS, XV 


Page 

Dr. R. G. Latuam on the Jaczwings, a Population of the Thirteenth Century, 
on the Frontiers of Prussia and Lithuania ........scecsscsesssscscneneeeneees ae ace 163 
Dr. D. Livinestone on the latest Discoveries in South-Central Africa.......... 164 

Mr. W. Locxuart on the Mountain Districts of China, and their Aboriginal 
Inhabitants...... Sie oc dccucecOrngdbor CEeSESd br COC NEDIGSORD< SECO RORnDar Jobe Uap ¢RUBOBROBCE DE. 168 
Mr. D. May’s Journey in Bae am and Nupé Count LESmh dadeaktre si uetatdate sates 170 
Dr. Macecowan’s History of the Ante-Christian Settlement of the Jews in China 170 
Mr. J. Micxt1n’s Cruise in the Gulf of Pe-che-li and Leo-tung (China)....... .. 170 

Captain Suzrarp Ossorn on the Formation of Oceanic Ice in the Arctic 
EVE EIONS i aicoiss tied sisvelon ciceiewee seus Mesiaceidaniawers’ssltiacisionicene onatlsoaneamanairenes de daoadgnseee ee Lee 


Captain J. Patiiser on the Course and Results of the British North American 
Exploring Expedition, under his Command in the Years 1857, 1858, 1859... 170 

Dr. Hecror’s Remarks concerning the Climate of the Saskatchewan 
Psi Chirac, cocmawsenacersncncensee sponcerek. sérasheearina ben decddbocEs pAanre Ese sthomdcce i 

Mr. Suxtrvan’s Remarks concerning the Tribes of Indians inhabiting the 
Country examined by the Expedition............000c000 Paaisesepuidcese sapdepae lyse} 

ConsulPetserick on his proposed Journey from Khartum in Upper Egypt to 
meetCaptain Speke on or near the Lake Nyanza of Central Africa.......... « 174 

Dr. J. Raz on the Formation of poe and Ice Action, as observed in the 
RIG SON SHAY, AUG SCLalts <ccecacssaceccsieconsesessestcous cute sigebanorignseeagancor sone ye! 

on the Aborigines of the etic and Sub- Arctic Se of North 
AMICTICA 22-2 00eeers0es neasneiieteiefaeeese=scdnedsessiaais JodOdexcondne SesupoendecdRegapEnNCoC ce atl 


M.R. von Scuztacintweir’s Remarks on some of the Hoa - India and High 
' Asia (in connexion with casts exhibited) ....... wees tie Ross svalocehdussaes dosepastine A Ua. 


Lieutenant Epwarp ScuLaGintWEIT on the Tribes composing the Population 
WE MOLOCCO os... csevscescessscecsensesee PR EERE ROROLOn eC Ne Og cbc aiesieseiie esetens e'seaiisi wae LT 


Col. Tal. P. SHarrner on the Geography of the North Atlantic Telegraph..... 178 


Captain Parker Snow on the Lost Polar Expedition and Possible Recovery of 
its Scientific Documents.........06000000 deatepaaseecoeecuscmatatst|s sponedodeeconuaae .. 180 


Captain M. H. Synee on the Proposed Communication between the Atlantic 
and Pacific, vid British North America.......sssecsssecseeresereees aonebens Succepac tsi 


M. Prerre ve Tcuiuatcuer on the Geographical Distribution of Plants in 
PSSIDM NL Glucnseveadiecdsicndesttineceshcae(seseoucdsiscseeahtedaverweesneci 6008903050 0s <6) LOM 


Mr. Tuomas Wricut on the Excavations on the site of the Roman City of 
DaRrPeENOP ACM LOXCLEL cE cncesspecocsiaveradik vedevsnacausagtessaccedepersscsaedsevicrecst LOL 


STATISTICAL SCIENCE. 
Opening Address by Nassau W. Senior, M.A., President of the Section ...... 182 


Rev. J. Boorn on the True Principles of an Income Tax.......scssceeeeeeeeeceeees 184 
Miss Mary Carpenter on Educational Help from the Government Grant to 

the destitute and neglected children of Great Britain ...... ele dae Wa saates seiosis Scroce, disy:! 
Mr. E. Cuapwick on the Economical Results of Military Drill in Popular 

Schools ..... Muscbemacierua tees amcaee deena aie Foancbobad sph enocenebanee SeoSeugne parece 185 
—-- on the Physiological as well as Psychological Limits to 

_ Mental Labour...... ApeGoadecdd anthseeoubses adoungpsousuanose Fao gaonnodhs osataodatessooaeee 185 

Mr. R. DowbeEn on Local Taxation for Local Purposes .......0ccseecoscscscescerees 191 


Mr. Henry Fawcett, Dr. Wheweill on the Methed of Political Economy...... 191 


————__——. on Co-operative Societies, their Social and Political 
OREIE Ce Ltercemae apart ee metas cacti caine is dis neneaseientiabaslechhisievecescedsdkaepssestaeseseve, 101 


\ 


(Ir. J. J. Fox on the Province of the Statistician ....scsssssussossesssescessseeseerens 1QL 


Xvi CONTENTS. 


Page 
Mr. J. HircuMman on Sanitary Drainage of TOWNS ....cecccsscceveesesceccesesceseeee IQ] 
Mr. E, Jarvis on the System of Taxation prevailing in the United States....... 191 
Dr. MicHELsEN on Serfdom in Russia .......ecssseeeseaseess dadtiwssapesesason seamen ens 191 
Mr. J. M. Mircuet on the Economical History and Statistics of the Her- 
2111 OS aan OOeC DURE Or OnC Ec Daecemoonscccncondadclcsracoccseee ab ibileisjeserata Beasesenenones 191 
Mr. W. Newmarcu on some suggested Schemes of Taxation, and the Difficul- 
ties of them........... sacdawy sie eoeete cote oosemseeete ar Weg Sdasba sac sake sony uetiet eens awereel OF 
Mr. Henry Joun Ker Porrer’s Hints on the best Plan of Cottage for Agri- 
cultural Labourers......... sesgiee Sneed waved siisesaneneutusaceccssesatanmanclescen cee sscsee 194 
Mr. F. Purpy on the Systems of Poor Law Medical Relief...........s.ss000 eevee 195 
Mr. Henry Roserts’s Notes on various efforts to Improve the Domiciliary 
Condition of the Labouring Classes.......ssssscseesseeneenenees ce sveepeaet SRA (61D) 
MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 
Mr. P. W. Bartow on the Mechanical Effects of combining Suspension Chains 
and Girders, and the value of the Practical Application of this System (illus- 
trated by a Model) ........+.000+ sbubcleupeccucstesscpcssantwspepecsiuecpeatepeaneseeeroeeee .- 201 
Captain BLAKEEKY on Rited' Cannon’. :-c..1..-cs..0sesesuevecheucatssepmeasstes eevee» 201 
Rey. Dr. Boora ona deep Sea Pressure Gauge, invented by Henry Johnson, Esq. 202 
Earl of CarrHness on Road Locomotives...........ceseecessescecesessceves <onscouscsss (20 
Mr. E. Cowprr’s New Mode of obtaining a Blast of very High Temperature 
inthe) ManulactareOlUrOns..5essdenceereoes ores s<ciesnecvacsyses er enewepeerene veoeee 204 
Mr. Jonn Exper on the Cylindrical Spiral Boiler ............sssecessssssveeeees vases 204 
Mr. Wriitam Farrparrn on the Density of Saturated Steam, and on the Law 
of Expansion of Superheated Steam <.ccc.c sic. cc scccceccacsevcecsscassccccccads sseene 210 
Mr. Joun FisHEr on any Atmospheric Washing Machine........++sessessesseee vee 210 


Mr. Witt1am Frovupse on Giffard’s Injector for Feeding Boilers..,.........0.026. 211 
Mr. Watter Hatt on a Process for Covering Submarine Wires with India- 


rubber for Telegraphic purposes...... sis nics sins oes anenes eas const ainecbaspeepenes ALE 211 
Professor Hennessy’s Suggestions relative to Inland Navigation ....se...ss.00. 211 
Mr. Caxucott Rer.ty on the Longitudinal Stress of the Plate Girder........... - 212 
Dr. B. W. Ricwarpson on Suggestions for an Electro-Magnetic Railway 

IBTGak'. 35,0. ciaspssncua sehen «yeu ce ngals Memeo cep = peer esaa topeset> saaeeienges saveeumnsr sass tenes 212 


Mr. S. W. Srtver on the Character and Comparative Value of Gutta Percha . 
and India-rubber employed as Insulators for Subaqueous Telegraphic Wires. 212 


Mr. W. Simons on Improvements in Iron Shipbuilding ........-2+...ccceeeseseeeaes 212 
Admiral Tayztor’s Novel Means to lessen the frightful Loss of Life round 
our exposed Coasts by rendering the Element itself an Inert Barrier against 
the Power of the Sea; also a Permanent Deep-water Harbour of Refuge by 
Artificial Bars........... apie exp tie «codes eccipaess lessens ces as ae see dniincesse sae es ana. anaes 215 


Mr. G. F. Train on Street Railways as used in the United States, illustrated 
by a Model of a Tramway and Car, or Omnibus capable of conveying sixty 


DETSODS ..000.cscccseseusccesss acaideswusiaselcmavelcchenictsncedae’sveasian anes esac usanvetusanees 215 
Messrs. WERNER and C. W. S1emEens on a Mode of covering Wires with 
India-ribber... 0. sscccesse jap teaweasssdaneeas pastes anecanes Rasen sGece Nene Catone spaeh pce, ua 
APPENDIX. 
PHYSIOLOGY. 


/ 


Professor J. H. Consett on the Deglutition of Alimentary Fluids ....00000. 21°» 


/ 


/ 


OBJECTS AND RULES 


OF 


THE ASSOCIATION. 


— i 


OBJECTS. 


Tue Assocration contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by 
other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more 
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those 
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an- 
other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to 
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind 
which impede its progress. 
RULES, 


ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. 


All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be- 
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con- 
form to its Rules. 

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So- 
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in 
like manner, to become Members of the Association. 

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of 
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- 
bers of the Association. 

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council 
or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- 
bers of the Association. 

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General 
Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual 
Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General 
Meeting. 

COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES. 

Lire Memprrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They 
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub- 
lished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the offices 
of the Association. 

Anwnuat Susscrisrrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds, 
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive 
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission 
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their 
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu- 
lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all 
_ future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis : 
but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub- 
sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of 
One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association. 

Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound. 
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be 
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office. i 

1860. 


XVIil RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


The Association consists of the following classes :— 

1, Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid 
on admission Five Pounds as a composition. 

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad- 
mission Ten Pounds as a composition. 

_8. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the 
payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in- 
termission of Annual Payment. | 

4. Annual Members admitted in any year since 1859, subject to the pay- 
ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following 
year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay- 
ment. ] 

5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound. 

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council. 

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual 
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price, 
according to the following specification, viz. :— 

1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo- 
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further 
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a 
further sum of Five Pounds. 

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a com- 
position. 

Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub- 
scription. 

2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication 
Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a 
composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a 
Book Subscription. : 

Arnual Members, who have intermitted their Annual Subscrip- 
tion. 

Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for 
that year only. ] 

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any 
of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa- 
tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of 
the Publication Price. Application to be made (by letter) to 
Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet St., London. 

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries. 


MEETINGS. 

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place 
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre- 
vious Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Offi- 
cers of the Association, 

GENERAL COMMITTEE. 

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or 
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the 
following persons :— 

1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with 
authors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association. 

2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society, 
which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects 
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. 


RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. X1X 


3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceed- 
ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions. 

4, Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three, 
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any 
place where the Association has formerly met. 

5, Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who 
are specially nominated in writing for the Meeting of the year by the Presi- 
dent and General Secretaries. 

6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are 
ex-officio members of the General Committee for the time being. 


SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. 

The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con- 
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches 
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof. 

_ The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would 
particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and 
brought under consideration at the next Meeting. 

The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of 
particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons, 
for the information of the Annual Meetings. 


: COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. 

The General Committee shali appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which 
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, 
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise 
to be adopted for the advancement of Science. 

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re- 
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com- 
mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General 
Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom- 
mendations. 

LOCAL COMMITTEES. 

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to 
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. 

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those 
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. 


OFFICERS. 


A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a 
Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. 


: COUNCIL. 

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be 
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. - The Council 
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the 
Meeting. 

PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS. 

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve 

his right of property therein. 
ACCOUNTS. 
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors 


appointed by the Meeting. ae 


‘aw ‘Burma "A eeeeee "SU “an ‘Kuo yy 9 “A ‘SW foment f Bynes} ag’ "AO tin arate wakivete 
Te wei PEAR RAEI eto Seip HIG a NUBEEGAA tase pee Cogs, Pe ett Mero eCEAGIOR S'D'd ‘NOLUADA SIONVUA CUOT ML 
+bsq “unt ‘xopfeg, preyonr “DSoT (KO DION WOqoyy (cies sees ese ss setee estes eeeeeeeeeeesereeeesseeqauer ‘puLpoy “T 'd Us . 
rg sug 9 2 seceeaeeeeerscessaceeas sgmUEr CODINT ‘DJG b vecessoae Cqugeg & TeBt ‘65 Ane “HL OONATE Sie, 
eterap bin asi SOuR aA ststebecasoreves exer Gone piOT . *AoMOpT Jo WEG OL R “S'U'd ‘VIAMAHA UOSSAAOUd ‘ATU WL 


mor £ 18 } 
"ATT TOON ‘ae AO “bsg ‘TpPYI Meapuy L's ya “toysMorg pravd 4s ‘H'S'W'A Yoousay pro7y perouon-soleyy J sees SUA “ANVATVAVAUE TO SINDLVW OL 


“bsg ‘19180 H910N  *S"A'A “bsq ‘uosdpoyy ydosor { oe 


#o"r in « nN SERRE EOE EER EHH HHH HEHEHE EES « 
s'u'a “bsq ‘poomAoy isa qaeg ‘pooasazy urmrefuog mu “zpel ‘ez UNE “UALSTHONV IY 


eee eweee 


‘6sst ‘oz gsndny ‘WVHONINUIG 
oy “Sad “VW SL ROOUVH NONUGA ‘A ‘ATU MLL 


Sra “bso ferro uyor ‘ad ‘wosurqoy “wt AE *A0IT UL 


‘a'w *uoysTAB uo0yhog oees 
CRSP pee is 8 9 SIMON AY T0126 uoj;duiey{10 Ny Jo smbavyy 


Tee eee eT eee eee eee eee eee dUBLILOVYT jediung "AO AIDA 
"S'u'a “bsq ‘sexivg od1005 } 
‘SW oN *uojsuyor nar sat] eee eee ‘TSW “bso *kq1ag uyor xunapita | “OST Oe asndny (AN J-NO-UTLSVOMIN 


som Sgrpa UOSMIUpY UYor | ireteeeerecesseeeeeeeeeere gE GST Mung Jo dousig ayy | 28 SA'S U's CNVIVAGNAHLUON 40 TANG ML 


TIOAUT ‘aounaysuy pesowy ‘s0%q “OHTVAN *N ydosops trrrtttt tt tteteeer essen Soar oqaug ‘uojedgy Aon op dyiya ag bette 87 wopuory Jo Ayisr9atuy) ayy JO x0T]99 
“bsg ‘awan9 d<UTTVAA “MAL CL “TIMBL 088901 US 'L “T'O'd “uozeq uyor "S'O'a “S'T'd ‘Yommon jo doysig ey) -utyo “SDA “S'U'd “NOLONITUNM AO TUVA OL 


*bsqq ‘uopuaroH ‘a A f ‘SMa “a ‘preyoug “9 “¢ "SD “Sua SorvaqAuoy '(f ‘AA ‘AQT *ogst ‘ao ysnIny “ToOLsiag 
‘oy “ona “Cn ‘Suaqnud LOSSOJOIg ie a'eia/eleieieininie\\pi tie ole 010.8) nje/n vie o/e.cieial #etAy ray ‘uo;dureyjI0 Ny jo smbiv yl ay! * nb) “Sura “TO'd ‘ANMOCSNVT ao SINDUVN auL 


‘Sa ‘pop rossajorg "ADIT <6 0:01¢\01¥ sin(o\e.0)0 4/414 /e(@/s\@0/n\=/e)e\aivis\e/si¢ieieinie ale’= eoayieucraay ir *TTOMATL AA UMA ADIT .  sogst OL qsnSny ‘NITMAC 
“a9 ‘puelary jo eso *u0148V *uo3[ LUE "TA Bi ee i ‘SVWA'S Wa UMOJUVIUXO junoost, ween ewww ee eeenee “OTT ‘GAOTT LSOAOUd ‘ADU auL 


“gg ‘99g ‘uosurqoy uyor atg f -+*- aeléleie|aiale/sléie:slafe(e’s\slelovs\s/sinleisistejefel='s'sisie/¥ials pps ori sata *PEBL ‘8 saquiajdog ‘NOXAANIAG 
O'S" “29S qo uyor I { a’ “uosurqory, “At “I, artes ae res RT Sa 


"om (5 “roar ‘sal 10 1OBsazO4, Peer eee eee ee ere ee ee enenes sess cescens Coqenye y by " ~ 
BOA BT'S WA ‘SOIT rossoyorg ORS WAL OPM PAVE US Lerog “go “ANVASIUd TIVINOGHVN ‘L UIs 


; “SAT TIOMOU AA (AA TAO STITT Tete etter eect e eters esse agearer rp” fagamayaueey, “gest ‘ce ounr ‘aoaruaNKy9 
qedoy somouoysy “sya ‘Auy gOS gad A “sara'aA “VN ‘MOIMDGaS NVAV ‘ADU OWT, 


oy OSA Gy] ‘oMod Aossajorg “ATS TTT Tt sereeesesses 600C OOH ‘RoIg “SAT aT “TOMO AA “AA ‘AT "sEgl ‘6 oung ‘axoaxg 
oy “Saal “aw ‘Auaqned JOSSOJOI Lrrretsesss eres sesseseeeseseees sony err a9 porary fuajsmerg pravq tig J * oy Sood “oud “ad ‘ANVINOOG ‘AM ‘AGU OL, 


"SOT OS MA OVW SANTI TOSSOJOLT | Lecce eee eee sees eeetsgere gy begeaze gy Cogs ats ‘rest ‘Zz saquiaydag ‘x40 x 
s ig omadttntestuantend Sod “SUA SVN Gooey WoUPA ALAM {96 Kong gard “TOU CLOVE date iat Fa cE 


“SaluvLayoas 1W9071 “SLNAGISSUd-3SIA “SLN3GISAYd 


*JUIMIIUIUIVLOY) 8} WIT SoLIBJIVBG [VIOTT 
pune ‘syuapisorg-oor, ‘sJUOpIser YIU “MONRIOOSsY YSTIg oy} Jo Surjoayy Jo soury, pur saovpg oy} Surmoys aiqey, “| 


Fe eneereeseeeesareresens erregear 199g Hora ‘soqlog "Cd 'f Lossaorg 
seeseeeses sorsard' A “CW ‘UOSITY ‘d “AN JOssajorg §—“YDInquipy 
‘aS Wa “bsg ‘poy, somer jo Aysroatus, oy} jo [edwung “asa A “a'd ‘99T uyor ‘aay A190, “asst ‘ Is Ane ‘HOW NENICG 
‘ST “a'S'H yg a" IW ‘moypeg xossajorgs || (ASH ‘8d “Sad “T'O'd “HUE ‘oucqstig “Tt SeUTOYL TG eroMag Uv" ss sree este esesese sess cesses smaupuy "9g “preM0ary 
BTS Ws “VNC puLyayy TOSssajorg “aay PQUP ATOR Ts Reg s' a a (Je19ue4-soysn¢ pro) athog pred ‘uoH IYsnT 4S pure rojwayeg "4g Jo afiation pawn ay} jo jediouug 
‘SW “TOE “LM ‘Ateqasoy Jo weg oy | A BT'S aa “CIT “HM ‘UGLSMAUE CIAVG WIS 
sere org UE OM Gtwoyqeg Jo [eg ay, 
treeeeereeccrereeerereeees USnqUIpT JO JOA ploy ay} ‘woR ISNT 


fs na | 
‘a “bsg ‘xayoq914 1194, stets essen ‘99g ug: FAL eV WE DSL “UINECL SOLEYD : "6ST ‘ST qequiaydag WYHONIWUIG 
“bsg ‘STAN MRT AL =e er qe ‘eed Woqoy sig ‘uo Jysry (SV UA “WIN “ad ‘NOSNIGOU ‘U “LAT eUL 
NU Tepury, ureqdeg SW TO Ca W “HE ‘Ped 120904 41g 
. en PeCL a0 va one tae a dO Bao auL “AQMOLIVH JO [LV OT, 


“7 spaeg "3s Jo doystg poy oq, «= “SMa “a 'I “’bsoy ‘ueratA “HP 
CW “TIN *C. fos pane eae Sud “beg ‘osoip aA sud “beg Sudan “Ay stmarT "SPSI ‘G6 ysn3ny ‘vasNVMS 
ER ‘oSpuadon Leen Sra ‘gepuryT Jo uvad ay ‘Ady kiaa DYT, rere settee eee ees sie ¢ibie sie eg a9 ‘Ayav0g qefoy 
lke se, SD ‘sag “SUA ‘War PC LH US J oy JO JuepIsetg ‘NOLUMVHLUON AO SINDUVAL SUL 
tere eeeeeeeeeees eoereg hash qunoost, “LM ‘ong jo smbavyy ayy, 


[. ‘SU SW TeMod ‘Jorg any aun "sua “a ‘Auaqneq sossojorg 
ap ee et Sa Oe oe eel oar “ad “TS TUTE AN Jo Wad ay} ‘aoe AIBA *pl0jxOQ “ZF81 ‘sz ung ‘ax0axg 
oud ee He A LOIRE Ee Aqisx9aru yy SUP OR di WS ‘TO'd “bsq Gmoasy [[wuxong “4H svwmoTyy, i pee peers far ECE) Ays1VALUL) BY} LOF *a* HL 


Cg ae ee pe tae NMS Pa ey aR ye Aq stoatuy] OY} JO LOT[9oULgO-91A IYL | “Sa'aA “TO'A “Weg ‘SITONI AUUVH LUAGOU UIS 
teeeeses Geared “plojxQ Jo doyste pxoy oy, “S°U'A ‘ssoy Jo ey ayy, 


ttteeeeeeeressgurey ‘T9od Oss Orc "Sw “A'W ‘UanG JoOssajorg 
cee ceee cer eenee ‘SW “piojxQ Jo doysig, pio] UL 
oe oS) wy ory" 0 a “at “Beg ‘uojuneg * 7, 231095 11g “OFST ‘OT s9quaqdag ‘NOLaWVHLNOG 


tetas sere es sary fOgAQyar] AeYS SapIVYO “UOH want (*S''d"S'4S'0'D ‘NOSIHOUNM AGNI MOMAAOU UIS 
sores ere uoysraWUg JUNOISIA “TOM ‘WoINGYSY p10'y 


“Tord ‘q#noroqie x jo Peg ayy, ‘“AeySatpourA, jo smnbavyy au. 


‘beg ‘Apooyy *9 * 
‘CW “AID Maat 


‘Sua “WH ‘paisuy Jossajorg 


eee terre gara Sp ord “WN “bso ‘Airy “gf 4D "CEST ‘61 oun ‘aDa1uadNvg 
Sad “Wit “bsg ‘surydoy wenpr yy 


ad ‘oysury “9 “Ae “C'd “weyein “fp sAoy f °°" OR “Sa “WU “IAHOSUAH “M ‘A NHOL UIS 
** qOuMJon Jo doystg oy, ‘axolApreyy Jo [req ay, 


*baq 48a Aq WRIT A, deel OE STO VIII FCG “janoo18 Fy "ATM ‘ANT 


‘Sw Sant ‘Aqs9109§ TM CAD irre etree cert tees cere e eee esee worn Grp “bso ‘Lepwavg JavystH ssatite seqmendog ats 
"'S'T'd “bsg ‘jeudeyy semoyy,) ‘sua “H'M ‘teIsMorg pred 1g ‘ay ‘Aop}OA\ WENYS UYOL “uO ayy, (*** "SA “(ATA JO uve) "C’'G GaN ta Ae OR. 
‘s'O'a “bso ‘preyyey went, 


niaisTivinl sie Taol Vice As as ey ‘yjedso yy yunoosta "SU WUBI] UAAZIT AT peg 


“bsg favaqg "mA, “bsg ‘xoqoTay Wen; AL 
"UNIAN ‘O°.L'a ‘Uosieg ‘sor *AaqT 


"eHSt ‘ZT ysndny ‘1x09 
"VHT ‘Al[9A03g UNOS JOSsajorg 


oP eee eee ee eee eee eee "SU ‘aSSOU ao UVa onL 


teeeeeees ouerarsotg ‘UOUIUEH "YT “AA JIS 
Th eeeeeeewereererererererees sOTUDW JUNODSTA *PPMOpBSVT JO [LU 


= svseoes “oar SW “SpwSpag Jossajorg “aay omy, 


eee eee ee “cg a ‘uosniqoyy "WE “aur } 


WaT “bsg “ayy preyory } 


ie 

sje e[b)sie)>\0 jie thtep reese ese eengureg Gautry & ‘EN “Moowy oUopoQ-“mary 
t. 
ae 


aaa saa | PUBLOAT JO qehoy rMOUONSY “S'W'A'A “CTT “UopLUIEH "Y WeNTLAA Tg ¢ ¢ F 
(TT SYOOOUCH WOSTION SMA | i.e cet ec ee cere ew eec eset ees Qeeee es is Zg8I ‘92 jsngny NITAAG 
OL MOUEL JOG "AOS Loos Lec esse usoeasecusconseedvasens se PgR NOMBRE HID BIST SUL Uso. sssecsveeceseessatet stents Wma AE 
“bag “e900 APUNT | soos sapRTUTBRE aPIOTET PIOT | PeaUpLO go eobreE ORE | ‘SUA “T'O'd “dG ‘GAOT AAMHANA “AME OUD 
i i a ears o. “ulqna ‘adaqIo9 Ayuuuy, JO JSOAOIg OTL 
rs Hee ewes myquq jo roAR IAT pi07 ayy aTqzinouo WBN auL 
f p “bs ‘1ayeg pAoyy yormaeg semoyy, ‘ 
“bsg TeSny 39M wyor] ... SCN, SECLO STORIE SASH OTs ‘gest ‘g 3sndny ‘NWVHNaLIaHO 
‘S'wia “bsg ‘ystueag payors ...... ala reta faye teresa nei steed SI ELD Wate Geis SF oat a rede 2 **** PIOFXO JO Aqre19AT0 0) ay} ut Auejog 50 1ossay 
‘ T z= & ‘ 6 
“SoG U EE GOODY sree wivians Sremdionwaneocancle mbes ‘SD “SMe BON wer OnE) “Od “SWAT “CW ANAGNAVE “d “D SATAVHO 
ween Peete eee eee Siew iesi¢ern aS i “a oye W ‘HOSUIOTLT, WLIT|TA\ IOssajorg 
BPS Meal sae I eo jury [edo ay} Jo Ise “Sa CV ie WLYyRIy seuIoy,T, 
“bsg ‘arpmoy wenqtAy ‘Saad “bsg ‘uunip sa77e AA : 
“C'I ‘Wosiapuy semoyy, ‘Jorg f eae Gs ae Sn Oc OR) oP ee z 
ara sae a aero moAdtoaiie ahh ahah ‘Sa “OTT “VW TMT sopEYD wg i wa ADUV AO AMAA UL 
see eee i ‘Tsw'd Saree § aUurIpler Ue AA ug 
wee . rs a0 uB[Iejoe Ty jedoung ‘aay 419A AML, 


a ‘e 
‘wa “wsdl ‘bsg ‘saqU syoorg qdasor 


I; i: Ghai te: ia Sar a “bsg ‘oaeer Came 

Be ga 8 eaencboncbostas enacecae obomacunsscsiG: aspuqmn ‘eBoq|09 Au, she 

QW “wemuy semoyy,) 1, ace “ ° ne) are PEST ‘0s Ieqmajdag “1ooaum ATT 

‘wa “CW ‘wosunjaig ydasor yo misen “s'9'a OM STA ea Br ee hey Rn eertuiceseentes Se KEMOUAVH AO THVE OUL 
2 ee Nace Ss’ ‘9° ce SW CaN “Meg ‘uoqesq Aang sedyepy ap dyrmyg ag 
outed racscanbadoonre: SaIVOCHl "Git ay ease dar erann Aeeecey 
i iris eer eeecccne tr ttererese cure r QuojsyVay AA 1OSsajorlg 


‘q8U] ,SorURIaW [MH ‘serg “bsg ‘sqooer cI oy etek “SU “Soyks “foO-mary—*S'u'ad “bsg ‘oouads wert, "gest ‘2 raquiajdag “110 xy 


*ar0g ‘soptyd pue yr] [NH 24} Jo ‘sarg “y'g'g “bsg “sorg sapreyD 6 **°*** Boe ee sbireie sei Aya00g ‘Md ‘qmeg ‘sag 


. te ‘ di 
Aaw0g "Wd 2B °3VT WMH ‘dA “WW ‘xedoo9 OPH 6 ‘Wa “VW “YomMSpag ‘Jorg “soy *S'A "A “'T'O'd ‘Avpraey toa [9 RoS'ou “Sw'a'A “WI “bsa ‘SNIMGOH WVITTIM 


sereeee sgn ‘ySno1oqsapuoy pi0'y "S'U'A “O[stpVD Jo [eq oy, 


SOOSED OG GD St gry TT “ATeA218 IOSsajolg ‘S'u'a Lely *£) *4) LOSSOJOIg 
are “SV Wa SWE "Sad “CC WOsUTqoN “YL “Aeu 


“UOSTIMA “d “AA Jossajorg | ***"** migrate lets *"98ey19E ‘a3al[09 S,maant) "sold * ‘aa ‘hua *s ‘d “ACT ‘ES8I “1 taquiajdag ‘usvatag 
‘an 20D, 1 UNBITIAAS Ostet treet ete cee ese eee WIW W ‘ ‘aa ‘syOUuIET thea Wagner t oDGUGOTEDS LG GRD SCO SSID Ajawo0g qesoy 23 JO'd'A 
Dae OaIty EOE ANG sere ermpgee ene arty yan ae Sarg opeagepd ‘1, Atuay wg | 29 ‘svar, ‘Arzy [eAow ‘ANIGVS CUVMGH 'THNOTOO 


tence tree eregey “song “ww | assoy jo [vq oT, 
Oe eee eeas ecw ese esses esas Na ae usTTTsIuuy Jo [leq sy, 


A Re eet oie oe eth ne) Ei wlele Si id *bsq *U19989 A. “7 ‘a’ “bsq § oqqog ‘O°r 
S'T'a “bsg ‘omosuey af1099 “L Pr | “Teste Amp “HOTASay 


a5 3 “weg “uO32TPPUAL AA MOUM SS Ud “Heg ‘neaplog ‘A uyor 1s 
a “Teppia gain Sia eh nartag ape “ST “WIT ‘MOTSUHT LOssapoIg “AI b= => Pe a ne es SO jedoy sourou 
gee hae ls ‘SW “WW mSpag sossoyorg soy | -oysy “sad “T'O'd “bsa ‘AUIV TIAACId ADUOAD 


SV WA “bag “keYT HO[TEYD | osenanane * OTM NT s icine pioy ayy, ‘d'W ‘weysaypuey pioy oy, 
"SalNVLAYDIS 1VD07 “SLNAGIS3SYd-JASIA *SLNAGISaud 


[ RQ IUDIT OO IUCR TA SADE "TOT “saa “bsa Ei ategg iW oes # 
vresereeseress ss OTH SWAN “S'a'd ‘uosuryspor *g IOSssajoig 
SrA raha ain» wimrwlotonstelerstaleionete exexecieree peste vet teceeweteeeees tees enee uengaagoa 

“y'g ooosoy ‘a "Hy ‘Jorg | “UP [908 “Md 8 “VT “serd “SLA “ATT “bsg ‘omor 33008arg some 

bsg WT SOMOsUB HT myyiy 

“bs ‘PION payTy: 

"s'D'a “y'd “bsg ‘orrysiqieg ‘qd "YH 


saree ‘a W “bsq ‘soumy, yeurdsy somes 
. ee re . BP W “bsg ‘Kae SVuOy.T, 
TOS We oc ae" feed ae ES Wa Swed ‘poomsary urmelueg 1g 
sod “Sud Cat “weg ‘uowesq fern "Ty ep dipyg 1g 
eee eee eee ee ‘Sd “ow . a “a'q ‘te3saqouryy Jo doystg pio'y au.L 

v's ie wa “TO “a “Aelueyg priory on, 
Fee JTeetes oguyeqrear “O1IUISOT[A JO UA OTL 


*TQ8T ‘p raquiajdag “AHLSTHONV W 
“sar "Oa" “Osa ‘NUIVANIVA NVITILA 


'S'W'" ASU ac" WUryWod Jossajorg "SUA CA" PULpy 1ossajorg 
stew ee ee eee "3 xy" as" T" a“s’ AY i ao Se Ba! W ‘Auaqneq 1ossojorg 


serotag Syn & ‘ 5 POO “qoinyg st1qD Jo vac, “ad ‘TPPYT ‘DH A0y A190 A OL 
oe eat caulk eae ifaYnie slalars (ohaiaiay he (o'afee tarot ches yehee ‘S'H'a “Cd ‘p10sx¢ Jo doyster pxo0T] OU, ‘ogst ‘4g eng ‘ax0axo 
ST a “Cy ‘woqsaToy aBi0eg ) sw Ss ad OW d'M ‘essoy Jo ed AML ( °° SW “SUA OVW ‘AD ISALLOUM CUOT UL 


DTLYSPIOFXO JO yuBMOINAVT pIOT “G*O'A “'T'O'C ‘YSnor0gi rey Jo ayn ONL 
** plojxg Jo AzIs19AIUL) OY} JO AOT[a0ULYH-sdI,A “T'O' ‘auNIL *y *AIY OUT 
*“plOFXO JO “ATU 94} Jo IOTJaOURYD “T"O'd “O'd “ON'M ‘Aqued jo Weg OUL 


*“*ugapiaqy jo Ayunog 949 Jo 19UaATOD “Saad “a1 “bsg ‘uosmoxy, *y 
Sewer eee eee eee a teat eeee ee eeee ‘SW “aC ‘wosuiqoy "WL AOU SOUL 
pretesssesecesseeeceareg Cowen GimooIeH "A ‘AL ACW OWL 
eee ee ‘SU “T'9°d."S'3S'O'D ‘aostyom fT if YOWIpoy ag 
Sn rir “-onpa “TORE “H Mw ‘JaIsMAIG PIAvq Jig 
Settee ween ee? ““ony" a oI: ‘0° a ye W ‘qieg § Pyesi9H “AA A UYyor Ig 
Ce Se ee “uaapasaqy jo A190 94} JO JSOAOIg ploy 9UL 


bsg ‘aT AA ‘a ayor 
, ‘VW “1OTIMA "JOld 
‘SOA “A'S'W'A “TOON "£ JOld 


‘6S8I ‘FI toqmiajdeg ‘Nagauaay 
““ LUOSNOO FONIYd AHL SSANHYIH TVAOU SIH 


~ 


Seles \alofe ais rin ele cea rr ay “Ty oD Mw ra fl TT ‘uaapiaqy jo [1eq oy, 
sinisiejeleieteie btoge iRshain foto e 275ie" shehsianok inslo ws Feniny a iy “ory ‘puowyory jo axnq 24. 


‘Syma “aw “TO'a * ‘bet ‘sou, WOZHIUO PT ' 


trreeessenouyeg Swen “bso Teqsivyy yey sour 
OO rece cece enone sesecseccosnene adpuquiey ‘adaqjop AquL4y, JO 1038e WT 

SY Wa 'S'0'd CV UW WOH “Sad “a'd “TeMoq AA “AA *A9X ODL 
sores eau Gonna Say oqueg ‘uoqwesa fern sedyeyy ap dy ag 
eager Ma LOU RN AR “LW ‘voy 4g3ny oq, 
sete wees * “Sou a “aM ‘WauMepoy yunodst, pi07T ayy, 
Peer reer en ee eres ereeeneseseresesreeses ‘SW ‘Svaquoyy pro] oyL, 


"SSSI ‘Zz raquiajdag ‘saga 
Vitteeeeeeeeeeeseeresecesessoee= TOMOSMpL USGUG 9y3 
jo syuounredog A10jsty7 TeIN;eENY 217} Jo quapuezuiiadng 
“S'O'U°S'TA'S'U'd'A“T'0'd “C'W ‘NEMO CUVHOIU 


wit “bsq ‘WOSTEAN SVUIOTT, 
"s'O'a “bs “pre soxds +4 
‘Vy’ q ‘sxoury sewoyy, ‘Ady 


Z LI s6cer @ LI soccer 


ial OL ee Pape masa 
ZF OG eeetttesesteseseeeeereeeeeee gromevaly, [LOO] 


pues JaInseary, je1aUIy oY} Jo pury ut 0771 
9 GL BOOK Teer srasueg ony ye oouRlEg 


streversrensreeeeeeererens CAUNOIOW WOOL aannde: 0 90UR)2 

I : puss sosecv eee er enc SOANUBIALO ahaha aun ie ipigavan a : ; ‘LOISSVD ‘d‘f 
0g seereeeee sae Jo AqrTIqntog ay} Uo sayoavasary stoupnys) |= “MVHS NOLYON 
OL *"S]UB[q JO YIMOID OY} WO satpvasay NOLLOH LUddou 
GZ TT S[RAVUIT, PUL syooy Jo siskteay [eoruvyoout-oormey) 
0@ oc Ua BANG Jo oUOyspug MOT[AX 944 UL sUORIO[AXT *ZOITI0D PUNOF PUB PIULUULX 


trresereceseess STOSSOA-TUBIYS JO VOULUILOJIIG JY} OJUT Aummbuy 


ecwuoocooeoccocecoes 
onowocoocooooos 
= 
N 
_ 


Ch ig ae ae ae “Avg urpqud ut Sur8poiq 
91 PO meee ee eee eee eee eee eme ee ee aeareseeseee 4seypog eau Surspoaig 
00G ‘7 * AropVAIESGO MOY Jo yuourYsT{qeIsq oy Sururezurepy 
PLP SOR t ewer e ates ee eaeaene s[osuoy *yu90 rod ¢ 00Ss jo aseyoind 
(6 Sa Dyietr 690 eres 
0 OT iirttetttesteseseeeseersereeseeeee tootnr ooh AN 0 € ZE “** SoUry s,aaoq pur ‘sivjzg Jo sanFojeyw9 
O O Tere rsttteseeeerrsees — Quo_spepy SeULOU, IIS T GL get ct suaazy Jo sytoday tog *ztA 


— [loundgD vq} JO WoTNjosay rod sv pournyox suotdiosqns F —SUOTVoT[qng JO avg aya wor 


0 0 oce weeee Spee neat? oo eo mecrmencsseccetrtcscsss ses SU OUOUL ZL ‘SOLle]es 6 Za FL A uvapleq Fy qe yurg WOous yseg uo 48o103Uy 
6? S19 9% GB TTT" -Yoo}g Fue. Jad ¢ QOO9F uo spuaprarq syzuopy g 
O IL Th ‘* Suysayy qyuiu-Aquomy, oy Jo ‘ow ‘Suravisugq OrnObRGReaie cachet eee o1;Ip 0941p ‘SJOOLL, SOlpe'T 
6 €L FLOR BuysoWw yyYS10-Aquomy, ayy Jo yr0dey Suyuug OF OMI0C Eis sae 0731p = 0741p ‘sJayoL], Soyvloossy 
6 L GOR vt stainstary, [e007 943 pure Jaimsvary, [etoues 0 &@ 009 ° op op ‘suodiosqng jenuay 
- ayy Aq squoudeg jeyuepiouy pue ‘Suisytaapy ‘syodayy 0 0 663 "TTT QUIS pus Uaap.laqy yw suoNIsodmMoD oyr'T 
Supug Suguiug Aipung ‘Juyoayy uaapsoqy jo sosuadxg Aq | OL 4 GOL CT qunODoY 4sv] Mody premsoy yYSnOIq GoULTLg OJ, 
“p *$ F ‘Pp *s F 
"SINAWAVd “SLd FOTN 


‘(AUOAXO 3%) OVST MUNE 49Zz 0} 
(ONILATN NAACUALYV Jo yWoweousum0s) gegy roquiajydeg wyFT Woy TNOOOOV SMANASVAWL IVUANAD AHL 
<2 ORR Ee MS SOA ls ORR Cee Ne aR cea ae la mea ee Be 


MONADOS FO LNANAYONVAGV FHL YOA NOLLVIOOSSV HSLLIUG 


MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


XXV 


II. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who 
have served on the Council in former years. 


Aberdeen, Earl of, LL.D., K.G., K.T., 
F.R.S. (dec‘). 

Acland, Sir Thomas D., Bart., F.R.S. 

Acland, Professor H. W., M.D., F.R.S. 

Adams, J. Couch, M.A., F.R.S. 

Adamson, John, Esq., F.L.S. 

Ainslie, Rev. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem- 
broke Hall, Cambridge. 

Airy,G.B.,D.C.L.,F.R.S.,Astronomer Royal. 

Alison, Professor W. P.,M.D.,F.R.S.E.(dec*). 

Allen, W. J. C., Esq. 

Anderson, Prof. Thomas, M.D. 

Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.R.S. 

Argyll, George Douglas, Duke of, F.R.S. 

Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S. 

Ashburton, William Bingham, Lord, D.C.L, 

Atkinson, Rt. Hon. R.,Lord Mayor of Dublin. 

Babbage, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. 

Babington, Professor CO. C., M.A., F.R.S. 

Baily, Francis, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Baines, Rt. Hon. M.T., M.A., M.P. (dec*). 

Baker, Thomas Barwick Lloyd, Esq. 

Balfour, Professor John H., M.D., F.B.S. 

Barker, George, Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Beamish, Richard, Hsq., F.R.8. 

Bell, Professor Thomas, Pres. L.S., F.R.S. 

Beechey, Rear-Admiral, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Bengough, George, Esq. 

Bentham, George, Esq., F.LS. 

Biddell, George Arthur, Esq. 

Bigge, Charles, Esq. 

Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.8. 

Boileau, Sir John P., Bart., F.R.S. 

Boyle, Rt.Hon. D., Lord Justice-Gen!. (dec*). 

Brady,The Rt. Hon. Maziere, M.R.1.A., Lord 
Chancellor of Ireland. 

Brand, William, Esq. 

Breadalbane, John, Marquis of, K.T., F.R.S. 

Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., LL.D., 
F.R.S., Principal of the University of 
Edinburgh. 

Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M., Bart., 
K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Brodie, Sir B. C., Bart., D.C.L., Pres. B.S. 

Brooke, Charles, B.A., F.R.S. 

Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Brunel, Sir M. I., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Buckland, Very Rev. William, D.D., F.RB.8., 
Dean of Westminster (deceased). 

Bute, John, Marquis of, K.'T. (deceased). 

Carlisle, George Will. Fred., Earl of, F.R.S. 

Carson, Rey. Joseph, F.T.C.D. 

Cathcart, Lt.-Gen., Earlof, K.C.B., F.R.S.E. 
(deceased). 

Chalmers, Rev. T., D.D. (deceased). 

Chance, James, Esq. 

Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of. 

Christie, Professor 8. H., M.A., F.R.S. 

Clare, Peter, Esq., F.R.A.S. (deceased). 

Clark, Rev. Prof., M.D., F.R.S. (Camtridge.) 

Clark, Henry, M.D. 

Clark, G. T., Esq. 

Clear, William, Esq. (deceased), 


Clerke, Major 8., K.H., R.E., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Clift, William, Hsq., F’.R.S. (deceased). 

Close, Very Rev. F., M.A., Dean of Carlisle. 

Cobbold, John Chevalier, Esq., M.P. 

Colquhoun, J. C., Esq., M.P. (deceased). 

Conybeare, Very Rev. W. D., Dean of Llan- 
daff (deceased). 

Cooper, Sir Henry, M.D. 

Corrie, John, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Crum, Walter, Esq., F.R.S. 

Currie, William Wallace, Esq. (deceased). 

Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Daniell, Professor J. F., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Darwin, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. 

Daubeny, Prof. Charles G. B., M.D., F.R.8. 

DelaBeche, Sir H. T., C.B., F.R.S8., Director- 
Gen. Geol. Surv. United Kingdom (dec‘). 

De la Rue, Warren, Ph.D., F.R.S. 

Devonshire, William, Duke of, M.A., F.R.S. 

Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F.R.S. 

Dillwyn, Lewis W., Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Drinkwater, J. E., Esq. (deceased). 

Ducie, The Earl, F.R.S. 

Dunraven, The Earl of, F.R.S. 

Egerton, Sir P, de M. Grey, Bart., M.P., 
E.R.S 


Eliot, Lord, M.P. 

Ellesmere, Francis, Earl of, F.G.8. (dec*). 

Enniskillen, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S, 

Estcourt, T. G. B., D.C.L. (deceased). 

Fairbairn, William, LL.D., C.E., F.R.S. 

Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

FitzRoy, Rear Admiral, F.R.S. 

Fitzwilliam, The Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Fleming, W., M.D. 

Fletcher, Bell, M.D. 

Foote, Lundy E., Esq. 

Forbes, Charles, Esq. (deceased). 

Forbes, Prof. Edward, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Forbes, Prof. J. D., F.R.S., Sec. R.S.E. 

Fox, Robert Were, Esq., F.R.8. 

Frost, Charles, F.S.A. 

Fuller, Professor, M.A. 

Gassiot, John P., Esq., F.R.S. 

Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Gourlie, William, Esq. (deceased). 

Graham, T., M.A., F.R.S., Master of the Mint. 

Gray, John E., Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. 

Gray, Jonathan, Esq. (deceased). 

Gray, William, Esq., F.G.S. 

Green, Prof. Joseph Henry, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Greenough, G. B., Esq., ¥.R.S. (deceased). 

Griffith, Sir R. Griffith, Bt., LL.D., M.R.1.A. 

Grove, W. R., Hsq., M.A., F-.R.S. 

Hallam, Henry, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Hamilton, W. J., Esq., F.R.S8., For. Sec. G.S. 

Hamilton, Sir Wm. R., LL.D., Astronomer 
Royal of Ireland, M.R.LA., F.R.AS. 

Hancock, W. Neilson, LL.D. 

Harcourt, Rev. Wm. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S. 

Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Earl of, F.R.S. 

Harford, J. §., D.C.L., F.R.S. ; 


= > 
XXV1 


Harris, Sir W. Snow, F.R.S. 

Harrowby, The Earl of, F.R.S8. 

Hatfeild, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased). 

Henry, W. C., M.D., F.R.S. [Col., Belfast. 

Henry, Rev. P.S., D.D., President of Queen’s 

Henslow, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.L.8. (dec®). 

Herbert, Hon. and Very Rey. Wm., LL.D., 
F.L.S., Dean of Manchester (dec*). 

Herschel,Sir John F.W., Bart.,D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S. 

Heywood, James, Esq., F.R.S. 

Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S. 

Hincks, Rey. Edward, D.D., M.R.I.A. 

Hincks, Rev. Thomas, B.A. 

Hinds,8., D.D., late Lord Bishop of Norwich. 
(deceased). 

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D. 

Hodgkinson, Professor Eaton, F.R.S. 

Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S. 

Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S. 

Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A., F.R.S. 

Hopkins, William, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. 

Horner, Leonard, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S8. 

Hovenden, V. F., Esq., M.A. 

Hugall, J. W., Esq. 

Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G.S. 

Hutton, William, Esq., F.G.S. 

Ibbetson,Capt.L.L. Boscawen, K.R.E.,F.G.S. 

Inglis, Sir R. H., Bart., D.C.L., M.P. (dec*). 

Inman, Thomas, M.D. 

Jacobs, Bethel, Esq. 

Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E. 

Jeffreys, John Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S. 

Jellett, Rev. Professor. 

Jenyns, Rey. Leonard, F.L.S. 

Jerrard, H. B., Esq. 

Johnston, Right Hon. William, late Lord 
Provost of Edinburgh. 

Johnston, Prof.J. F. W.,M.A., F.R.S. (dec). 

Keleher, William, Esq. (deceased). 

Kelland, Rey. Professor P., M.A. 

Kildare, The Marquis of. 

Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S. 

Lansdowne, Hen., Marquisof, D.C.L.,F.R.S. 

Larcom, Major, R.E., LL.D., F.R.S. 

Lardner, Rey. Dr. (deceased). 

Lassell, William, Esq., F.R.S. L. & E. 

Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S. 

Lee, Very Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E., Prin- 
cipal of the University of Edinburgh. 
(deceased). 

Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.S. 

Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, late 
Speaker of the House of Commons. 

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S. 

Liddell, Andrew, Esq. (deceased). 

Lindley, Professor John, Ph.D., F.R.S. 

Listowel, The Earl of. [Dublin (dec*). 

Lloyd, Rey. B., D.D., Provost of Trin. Coll., 

Lloyd, Rev. H., D.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. L.&E. 

Londesborough, Lord, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart., M.A., F.R.S. 

Luby, Rev. Thomas. 

Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., F.R.S. 

MacCullagh, Prof., D.C.L., M.R.1.A. (dec*). 


REPORT— 1860. 


MacDonnell, Rev. R., D.D., M.R.LA., Pro- 
vost of Trinity College, Dublin. 

Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal. (dec*). 

MacGee, William, M.D. 

MacLeay, William Sharp, Esq., E.L.S. 

MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S. 

Malahide, The Lord Talbot de. 

Malcolm, Vice-Ad. Sir Charles, K.C.B. (dec*). 

Maltby, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord 
Bishop of Durham (deceased). 

Manchester, J. P. Lee, D.D., Lord Bishop of. 

Marshall, J. G., Esq., M.A., F.G.8. 

May, Charles, Esq., F.R.A.S8. 

Meynell, Thomas, Esq., F.L.S. 

Middleton, Sir William F. F., Bart. 

Miller, Professor W. A., M.D., F.R.S. 

Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., F.RB.S. 

Moillet, J. D., Esq. (deceased). 

Milnes, R. Monckton, Esq., D.C.L., M.P. 

Moggridge, Matthew, Esq. 

Monteagle, Lord, F.R.8. 

Moody, J. Sadleir, Esq. 

Moody, T. H. C., Esq. 

Moody, T. F., Esq. 

Morley, The Earl of. 

Moseley, Rey. Henry, M.A., F.R.S. 

Mount-Edgecumbe, ErnestAugustus, Earl of. 

Murchison, Sir Roderick I.,G.C. St.8., F.R.S. 

Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E. 

Nicol, D., M.D. 

Nicol, Professor J., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 

Nicol, Rey. J. P., LL.D. 

Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar- 
quis of, V.P.R.S. (deceased). 

Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G.,M.A., 
F.R.S. (deceased). 

Ormerod, G. W., Hsq., M.A., F.G.S. 

Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D. (deceased). 

Orpen, John H., LL.D. 

Osler, Follett, Esq., F.R.S. 

Owen, Professor Richd.,M.D., D.C.L.,F.R.S. 

Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord 
Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S. 

Palmerston, Viscount, G.C.B., M.P. 

Peacock, Very Rey. G., D.D., Dean of Ely, 
F.R.S. (deceased). : 

Peel, Rt.Hon.Sir R.,Bart.,M.P.,D.C.L.(dec*). 

Pendaryes, E. W., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Phillips, Professor John, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S. 

Pigott, The Rt. Hon. D. R., M.R.1.A., Lord 
Chief Baron of the Exchequer in Ireland. 

Porter, G. R., Esq. (deceased). 

Portlock, General, R.E., F.R.S. 

Powell, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Price, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. 

Prichard, J. C., M.D., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Ramsay, Professor William, M.A. 

Ransome, George, Esq., F.L.S. 

Reid, Maj.-Gen. Sir W., K.C.B., R.E., F.B.S. 
(deceased). 

Rendlesham, Rt. Hon. Lord, M.P. 

Rennie, George, Hsq., F.R.S. 

Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S. 

Richardson, Sir John, M.D., C.B., F.R.S. 

Richmond, Duke of, K.G., F.R.S. (dec*). 


Ripon, Earl of, F.R.G.S. 


MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


Ritchie, Rev. Prof., LL.D., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Robinson, Capt., R.A. 

Robinson, Rev. J., D.D. 

Robinson, Rey. T. R., D.D., F.R.AS. 

Robison, Sir John, Sec.R.S. Edin. (deceased). 

Roche, James, Esq. 

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S. 

Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S. 

Rosebery, The Harl of, K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Ross, Rear-Ad. Sir J.C.,R.N., D.C.L., F.B.S. 

Rosse, Wm., Earl of, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA. 

Royle, Prof. John F., M.D., F.R.S. (dec). 

Russell, James, Esq. (deceased). 

Russell, J. Scott, Esq., F.R.S. [V.P.R.8. 

Sabine, Maj.-General, R.A., D.C.L., Treas. & 

Sanders, William, Esq., F.G.S. 

Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Sedgwick, Rev. Prof. Adam, M.A., F.R.S. 

Selby, Prideaux John, Esq., F.R.S.E. 

Sharpey, Professor, M.D., Sec.R.8. 

Sims, Dillwyn, Esq. 

Smith, Lieut.-Colonel C. Hamilton, F.R.S. 
(deceased). 

Smith, James, F.R.S. L. & E. 

Spence, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Stanley, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord 
Bishop of Norwich (deceased). 

Staunton, Sir G. T., Bt., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S. 

St. David’s, C.Thirlwall,D.D.,LordBishop of. 

Stevelly, Professor John, LL.D. 

Stokes, Professor G. G., Sec.R.S. 

Strang, John, Esq., LL.D. 

Strickland, Hugh E., Esq., F'.R.S. (deceased). 

Sykes, Colonel W. H., M.P., F.R.S. 

Symonds, B. P., D.D., Warden of Wadham 
College, Oxford. 

Talbot, W. H. Fox, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. 

Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A. 

Taylor, John, Esq., F.R.S. 

Taylor, Richard, Hsq., F.G.S. 


XXVil 


Thompson, William, Hsq., F.L.S. (deceased). 

Thomson, A., Esq. 

Thomson, Professor William, M.A., F.R.S. 

Tindal, Captain, R.N. (deceased). 

Tite, William, Esq., M.P., F.R.S. 

Tod, James, Esq., F.R.S.E. 

Tooke, Thomas, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Traill, J. S., M.D. (deceased). 

Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Turner, Samuel, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.8. (dec*). 

Turner, Rev. W. 

Tyndall, Professor, F.R.S. 

Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S. (deceased). 

Vivian, J. H., M.P., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Walker, James, Esq., F.R.S. 

Walker, Joseph N., Esq., F.G-S. 

Walker, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. 

Warburton, Henry, Hsq.,.M.A., F.R.S.(dec*). 

Ward, W. Sykes, Esq., F.C.S. 

Washington, Captain, R.N., F.R.S. 

Webster, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S. 

West, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Western, Thomas Burch, Esq. 

Wharncliffe, John Stuart, Lord, F.R.S.(dec*). 

Wheatstone, Professor Charles, F.R.S. ’ 

Whewell, Rey. William, D.D., F.R.S., Master 
of Trinity College, Cambridge. 

White, John F., Esq. 

Williams, Prof. Charles J. B., M.D., F.R.8. 

Willis, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. 

Wills, William, Esq., ¥.G.S. (deceased). 

Wilson, Thomas, EHsq., M.A. 

Wilson, Prof. W. P. 

Winchester, John, Marquis of. 

Woollcombe, Henry, Esq., F.S.A. (deceased). 

Wrottesley, John, Lord, M.A., F.R.S. 

Yarborough, The Ear! of, D.C.L. 

Yarrell, William, Esq., F.L.S. (deceased). 

Yates, James, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. 

Yates, J. B., Esq., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. (dec*). 


OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1860-61. 


TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). 


51k RopERIcK I. MurcuIson, G.C.St.S., F.R.S. JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S, 
Major-General EDWARD SABINE, R.A., D.C.L., Treas. & V.P.R.S. 
PRESIDENT. 


THE LORD WROTTESLEY, M.A., V.P.R.S, F.R.A.S, 


VICE-PRESIDENTS. 
The EArt oF DERBY, P.C., D.C.L., Chancellor of | CHarLES G. B. DAuBENy, LL.D., M.D., F-.R.S., 


the University of Oxford. F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Botany in the Uni- 
The Rey. F, JEUNE, D.D., Vice-Chancellor of the versity of Oxford. 

University of Oxford. HENRY W. ACLAND, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Regius 
The DuKE oF MARLBOROUGH, D.C.L. Professor of Medicine in the University of Ox- 
The EARL OF Rosse, K.P., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. ford. 

The Lorp BIsHoP OF OXFORD, F.R.S. WILLIAM F. Donkin, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Savilian 
The Very Rev. H. G. LippELL, D.D., Dean of Professor of Astronomy in the University of Ox- 
Christ Church, Oxford. ford. 


PRESIDENT ELECT. 
WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Esq., LL.D., C.E., F.R.S, 


VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. 
The EARL oF ELLESMERE, F.R.G.S. JAMES ASPINALL TURNER, Esq., M.P. 
The Lorp STANLEY, M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., Pre- 
The Lorp BisHop OF MANCHESTER, D.D., F.R.8., sident of the Literary and Philosophical Society 
.G.S. of Manchester. 
Sir Poitrp DE MALpas GREY EGERTON, Bart., | Eaton HopeKtnson, Esq., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., 


M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S. M.I.C.E., Professor of the Mechanical Principles 
Sir Bensamin HEywoop, Bart., F.R.S, of Engineering in University College, London. 
THOMAS BAazLEY, Esq., M.P. JOSEPH WHITWORTH, Esq., F'.R.S., M.I.C.E. 


LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT MANCHESTER. 
ROBERT DUKINFIELD DARBISHIRE, Esq., B.A., F.G.S., Brown Street, Manchester, 
ALFRED NEILD, at Mayfield, Manchester. 

ARTHUR RANSOME, Esq., M.A., St. Peter’s Square, Manchester. 
Professor HENRY ENFIELD Roscor, B.A., Owens College, Manchester. 
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT MANCHESTER. 
ROBERT PHILIPS GREG, Esq., F.G.S., Manchester. 


ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


BaBinGTon, C. C., M.A., F.R.S. | GLADSTONE, Dr. J. H., F.R.S. SHARPEY, Professor, Sec. B.S. 
BELL, Prof. T., Pres. L.S., F.R.S. | GRovE, WILLIAM R., F.R.S. SpPorriswoopr, W., M.A., F.R.S8, 
Bropik, Sir BENJAMIN C., Bart., | HoRNER, LEONARD, F.R.S. Sykes, Colonel W. Fa es 
D.C.L., Pres. R.8. Huron, Ropert, F.G.S. FE.R.S. 
8. 


H. 
DE LA RUE, WARREN, Ph.D., | LYELL, Sir C., D.C.L., F.R.S. Tire, WILLIAM, M.P., F. 

E.R.S. MILLER, Prof.W. A., M.D., F.R.S. | TyNDALL, Professor, F.R 
FirzRoy, Rear Admiral, F.R.S. PorTLOCK, General, R.E., F.R.S. | WEBSTER, THOMAS, F.R. 
GALTON, FRANCIS, F.G.S. PRICE, Rey. Prof., M.A., F.R.S. WILLIs, Rey. Prof., M.A., F.R.S. 
Gassior, JOHN P., F.R.S. 


EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and 
Assistant-General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former years, 
yiz.—Rev. Professor Sedgwick. The Marquis of Lansdowne. The Duke of Devonshire. Rey. W. V. Har- 
court. The Marquis of Breadalbane. Rey. W. Whewell, D.D. The Earl of Rosse. Sir John F, W. 
Herschel, Bart. Sir Roderick I. Murchison. The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir David Brewster. 
G. B. Airy, Esq., the Astronomer Royal. General Sabine. William Hopkins, Esq., LL.D. The Earl of 
Harrowby. The Duke of Argyll. Professor Daubeny, M.D. The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D. Professor 
Owen, M.D., D.C.L. His Royal Highness The Prince Consort. 


GENERAL SECRETARY. 
The Rey. ROBERT WALKER, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Philosopliy in the University of 
Oxford; Culham Vicarage, Abingdon. 
ASSISTANT-GENERAL SECRETARY. 


JouN PHILLIPS, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford ; 
Museum House, Oxford. 


CENERAL TREASURER. 
JouHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street, London. 
LOCAL TREASURERS. 


R. 
8. 
8 


William Gray, Esq., F.G.S., York. John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., F.R.S., Swansea. 
C. C. Babington, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Cambridge. J. B. Alexander, Ksq., ong 

William Brand, Esq., Edinburgh. Robert Patterson, Esq., M.R.LA., Belfast. 
John H. Orpen, LL.D., Dublin. Edmund Smith, Esq., Hull. 

William Sanders, Esq., F.G.S., Bristol. Richard Beamish, Esq., F.R.S., Cheltenham. 
Robert M‘Andrew, Esq., F.R.S., Liverpool. John Metcalfe Smith, Esq., Leeds. 

W. R. Wills, Esq., Birmingham. John Angus, Esq., Aberdeen. 

Professor Ramsay, M.A., Glasqow. Rey. John Griffiths, M.A., Oxford. 


Robert P. Greg, Esq., F.G.S., Manchester. 
AUDITORS. 
Robert Hutton, Esq. Dr. Norton Shaw. John P. Gassiot, Esq. 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XX1X 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE 
ABERDEEN MEETING, 


SECTION A.—-MATHE&MATICS AND PHYSICS. 
President.—Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Oxford. 
Vice- Presidents.—Sir David Brewster, K.H.,D.C.L., F.R.S.; Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., 
F.R.S., M.R.I.A.; Rev. R. Main, M.A., F.R.S.; Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., F.R.S., 
Hon. M.R.1.A., Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. 
Secretaries.—Professor Stevelly, LL.D.; Rev. T. Rennison, M.A., Fellow of 
Queen’s College; Rev. G. C. Bell, M.A., Fellow of Worcester College. 


SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS 
TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTs. 

President.—B. C. Brodie, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry, 
Oxford. 

Vice- Presidents. —Professor Andrews, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.1.A., F.C.S.; Warren 
De la Rue, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.; Professor Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.C.S.; 
Professor Frankland, Ph.D., F.R.S.; Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.; 
Lyon Playfair, C.B., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 

Secretaries.—G. D. Liveing, M.A., F.C.S.; A. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., B.A., 
F.C.S., Student of Christ Church; A. B. Northcote, Esq., F.C.S., Queen’s College. 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. 

President.,—Rev. A. Sedgwick, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology, 
Cambridge. 

Vice-Presidents.—Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.S.E., 
F.G.S.; L. Horner, Pres. G.S., F.R.S.; Major-General Portlock, R.E., LL.D., 
F.R.S., F.G.S. 

Secretaries.—Professor Harkness, F.R.S., F.G.S.; Captain Woodall, M.A., 
F.G.S., Oriel College; Edward Hull, B.A., F.G.S. 


SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. 
President.—Rev. Professor Henslow, F.L.S., Professor of Botany, Cambridge. 
Vice-Presidents.— Professor Daubeny, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.; Sir W. Jar- 
dine, Bart., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.; Professor Owen, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. 

Secretaries.—E. Lankester, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.; E. Percival Wright, 
M.A., M.B., M.R.ILA., F.L.S.; P. L. Sclater, M.A., F.L.S., Sec. Z.S., C.C.C.; 
W.S. Church, B.A., University College. 


SUB-SECTION D.—PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCE. 
President.—George Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Physiology. 
Vice-Presidents.—Professor Acland, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.; Sir B. Brodie, Bart., 

D.C.L., Pres. R.S.; George Busk, F.R.S.; Dr. Davy, F.R.S. L. & E.; Professor 
Huxley, F.R.S.; W. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S., F.R.S.E. 
Secretaries.—Robert M°Donnell, M.D., M.R.I.A.; Edward Smith, M.D., F.R.S. 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. 

President.—Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.R.G.S.; Director- 
General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. 

Vice-Presidents.—Lord Ashburton, M.A., F.R.S.; John Crawfurd, Esq., F.R.S., 
Pres. Ethn. Soc.; Francis Galton, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.; Sir J. Richardson, C.B., 
M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.; Sir Walter C. Trevelyan, Bart. 

Secretaries.—Norton Shaw, M.D., Sec. R.G.S.; Thomas Wright, M.A., F.S.A.; 
Captain Burrows, R.N., M.A.; Charles Lempriere, D.C.L.; Dr. James Hunt, F.S.A. 


SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 
President.—Nassau W. Senior, M.A., late Professor of Political Economy, Oxford. 
Vice-Presidents.—Sir John P. Boileau, Bart., F.R.S.; James Heywood, F.R.S. ; 

Lord Monteagle, F.R.S.; Monckton Milnes, M.P.; Right Hon. Joseph Napier, 
LL.D., D.C.L.; Sir Andrew Orr; Sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, Bart., F.G.S.; Col. Sykes, 
M.P., F.R.S.; William Tite, Esq., M.P., F.R.S, 


XXX 


REPORT—1860. 


Secretaries.—William Newmarch; Edmund Macrory, M.A.; Rev. J. E. T. 
Rogers, M.A., Magdalen Hall, Tooke Professor of Political Economy, King’s Col- 


lege, London. 


SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 
President.—W. J. Macquorn Rankine, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering, 


Glasgow. 


Vice-Presidents.—J. F. Bateman, F.R.S.; W. Fairbairn, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S. ; 
J. Glynn, F.R.S.; Admiral Moorsom; Sir John Rennie, F.R.S.; Marquis of Stafford, 
M.P.; James Walker, C.E., LL.D., F,.R.S.; Professor Willis, M.A., F.R.S.; 


T. Webster, Q.C., M.A., F.R.S. 


Secretaries,—P. Le Neve Foster, M.A.; Rey. Francis Harrison, M.A.; Henry 


Wright. 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 


Professor Agassiz, Cambridge, Massa- 
chusetts. 
M. Babinet, Paris. 
Dr. A. D. Bache, Washington. 
Professor Bolzani, Kazan, 
Dr. Barth. 
Dr. Bergsma, Utrecht. 
r. P. G. Bond, Cambridge, U.S. 
M. Boutigny (d’Evreux). 
Professor Braschmann, Moscow. 
Dr. Carus, Leipzig. 
Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, Breslau. 
M. Antoine d’Abbadie. 
M. De la Rive, Geneva. 
Professor Dove, Berlin. 
Professor Dumas, Paris. 
Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Paris. 
Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin. 
Dr. Eisenlohr, Carlsruhe. 
Professor Encke, Berlin. 
Dr. A. Erman, Berlin. 
Professor Esmark, Christiania. 
Prof. A. Favre, Geneva. 
Professor G. Forchhammer, Copenhagen. 
M. Léon Foucault, Paris. 
Prof. E. Fremy, Paris. 
M. Frisiani, Milan. 
Dr. Geinitz, Dresden. 
Professor Asa Gray, Cambridge, U.S. 
Professor Henry, Washington, U.S. 
Dr. Hochstetter, Vienna. 
M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg. 
M. Khanikoff, St. Petersburg. 
Prof. A. Kolliker, Wurzburg. 
Prof. De Koninck, Liége. 
Professor Kreil, Vienna. 


Dr. A. Kupffer, St. Petersburg. 


| Dr. Lamont, Munich. 


Prof. F. Lanza. 

M. Le Verrier, Paris. 

Baron von Liebig, Munich. 

Professor Loomis, New York. 

Professor Gustav Magnus, Berlin. 

Professor Matteucci, Pisa. 

Professor von Middendorff, St. Petersburg. 

M. l’Abbé Moigno, Paris. 

Professor Nilsson, Sweden. 

Dr. N. Nordenskiold, Finland. 

M. E. Peligot, Paris. 

Prof. B. Pierce, Cambridge, U.S. 

Viscenza Pisani, Florence. 

Gustave Plaar, Stresburg. 

Chevalier Plana, Turin. 

Professor Pliicker, Bonn. 

M. Constant Prévost, Paris. 

M. Quetelet, Brussels. 

Prof. Retzius, Stockholm. 

Professor W. B. Rogers, Boston, U.S. 

Professor H. Rose, Berlin. 

Herman Schlagintweit, Berlin. 

Robert Schlagintweit, Berlin. 

M. Werner Siemens, Vienna. 

Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm. 

M. Struvé, Pulkowa. 

Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm. 

M. Pierre Tchihatchef. 

Dr. Van der Hoeven, Leyden. 

Prof. E. Verdet, Paris. 

Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen, 
Gottingen. 

Professor Wartmann, Geneva. 


Report of the Council of the British Association, presented to the 
General Committee at Oxford, June 27, 1860. 


1. The Council were instructed by the General Committee at Aberdeen 
to maintain the establishment at Kew Observatory by aid of a grant of £500. 
They have received the following Report of the Committee to whom the 
working of the Observatory is entrusted. 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXX1 


_ 2. The continuance of Magnetic Observations, at stations indicated by the 
General Committee at the Leeds Meeting, has engaged the attention of H.R.H. 
the President, and of the Council; and they have had the advantage of co- 
operation on the part of the President and Council of the Royal Society. 
Every means has been adopted for pressing the subject on the favourable 
attention of the Government, but, it is to be regretted, hitherto without 
success. 

3. The importance of telegraphic communication between sea-ports of the 
British Isles, has been the subject of much attention since it was urged on 
the General Committee by the Aberdeen Meeting. The Council are happy 
to find that Admiral FitzRoy has been authorized to proceed in bringing to 
a practical issue the recommendations offered on this subject to the scientific 
department of the Board of Trade; and they. congratulate the Association 
on the share they have taken in a cause so dear to humanity. 

4. The expedition suggested by the Royal Geographical Society, and con- 
curred in by the General Committee of the British Association, is on its 
way; Capt. Speke, under the direction of the Admiralty, with his assistant, 
Capt. Grant, having sailed from Zanzibar. Sir R.1. Murchison, in reporting 
on this subject, expresses the obligation which is felt by the promoters of this 
great step for the exploration of Africa, to Lord John Russell, Secretary of 
State for Foreign Affairs. 

The Report of the Parliamentary Committee is received for presentation 
to the General Committee this day. 

5. At the Meeting this day, in pursuance of the Notice placed in the 
Minutes of the General Committee at Aberdeen, it will be proposed —“ That 
a permanent distinct Section of Anatomy and Physiology be established, in 
addition to that of Zoology and Botany.” 

The Council are informed that Invitations will be presented to the General 
Committee at its Meeting on Monday, July 2, to hold the next Meeting in 
Manchester; on behalf of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Man- 
chester, and other Institutions and Public Authorities of that city, from whom 
Invitations were received at previous Meetings. 

Invitations will also be presented to hold an early Meeting in Newcastle, 
on behalf of the Council and Borough of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and to hold 
a Meeting in Birmingham in 1862, on behalf of the Birmingham and Midland 
Institute. 


Report of the Kew Committee of the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science for 1859-1860. 


Since the last Meeting of the British Association, the self-recording mag- 
netographs have been in constant operation under the able superintendence 
of Mr. Chambers, the magnetical assistant. 

A description of these instruments has been given by Mr. Stewart, the 
Superintendent, in a Report which is printed in the Transactions of the British 
Association for 1859. The drawings for the plates connected with this 
Report were made with much skill by Mr. Beckley, the mechanical assistant 
at Kew. 

It was mentioned in the last Report of this Committee, that a set of self- 
recording magnetic instruments, designed for the first of the Colonial Obser- 
vatories which have been proposed to Her Majesty’s Government, had been 
completed and set up in a wooden house near the Observatory. 

Shortly after the meeting at Aberdeen, the Chairman received a letter from 
Dr. P. A. Bergsma, Geographical Engineer for the Dutch possessions in the 


XXX1l REPORT—1860. 


Indian Archipelago, requesting that the Committee would assist him in pro- 
curing a set of self-recording magnetic differential instruments similar to 
those at Kew, the Dutch Government having resolved to erect such at their 
Observatory at Java. 

In consequence of this application, and as the instruments which had been 
completed were not immediately required for a British Observatory, it was 
resolved that they should be assigned to Dr. Bergsma; this gentleman has 
since arrived, and has for the last few weeks been engaged at the Observatory 
in the examination of his instruments. 

The usual monthly absolute determinations of the magnetic elements con- 
tinue to be made. 

Application having been made through Padre Secchi, of the Collegio Ro- 
mano, for a set of magnetic instruments, for both differential and absolute 
determinations, for the Jesuits’ College at Havanna, the whole to cost 600 
dollars, or about £150, General Sabine obtained, at a reasonable price, the 
three magnetometers that had formerly been employed at Sir T. Brisbane’s 
Observatory at Makerstoun, and also an altitude and azimuth instrument. 
With these instruments it is expected that the application from Havanna 
Observatory can be met within the sum named; the instruments are now in 
the hands of the workmen, and will be ready early in July. 

Two unifilars, supplied by the late Mr. Jones, for the Dutch Government 
(one for Dr. Bergsma, and the other for Dr. Buys Ballot), have had their 
constants determined. Observations have also been made with two 9-inch 
dip-circles belonging to General Sabine, which have been repaired by Barrow, 
and with two dip-circles and a Fox’s instrument designed for Dr. Bergsma. 

A set of magnetical instruments, consisting of a dip-circle, an azimuth 
compass, and a unifilar, previously used by Captain Blakiston, have been 
re-examined, and have been taken by Colonel Smythe, of the Royal Artillery, 
to the Feejee Islands. 

As it was feared that the Kew Standard Barometer might have been 
injured by the workmen who some time since were repairing the Observatory, 
a new one has been mounted. ‘The mechanical arrangements of this instru- 
ment have been completed in a very admirable manner by Mr. Beckley ; and 
the mean of all the observations made shows that the new Barometer reads 
precisely the same asthe old. This result is satisfactory, not only as showing 
that no change has taken place in the old Barometer, but as confirming the 
accuracy of the late Mr. Welsh’s process of constructing these instruments. 
The height of the cistern of the new Barometer above the level of the sea is 
33°74 feet. 

Mr. Valentine Magrath having quitted the Observatory, at his own request, 
on the 14tn of February last, Mr. George Whipple has taken his place as 
Meteorological Assistant, and has given much satisfaction. 

On the 12th of March, Thomas Baker was engaged at the weekly salary 
of 8s., to be raised to 10s. in six months if he gave satisfaction, which has 
hitherto been the case. 

Since the last meeting of the Association, 173 Barometers and 222 Ther- 
mometers have been verified at the Observatory. 

Professor Kupffer, Director of the Russian Magnetical and Meteorological 
Observatories, visited the Observatory, and was presented with a standard 
thermometer. 

Mr. J. C. Jackson, Lieutenant Goodall, R.E., and Mr. Francis Galton, 
F.R.S., have visited the Observatory, and received instructions in the mani- 
pulation of instruments. 

Mr. Galton has made some experiments at Kew Observatory, to determine 


. 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XKXIil 


the most practicable method of examining sextants, and other instruments 
for geographical purposes. Considering that these instruments, after having 
been once adjusted, are liable to two distinct classes of error, the one constant 
for any given reading, and the other variable, it is an object to form Tables 
of Corrections for the constant errors of instruments sent for examination, 
and also to ascertain the amount of variable errors which might affect their 
readings. 

As a groundwork for examination, it is found that small mirrors may be 
permanently adjusted, at the distance of half a mile, so that when the rays 
of a mirror of moderate size, standing by the side of an assistant, are flashed 
upon them, they may re-reflect a brilliant star of solar light, towards the 
sextant under examination. 

By having four permanently fixed mirrors of this description, separated by 
intervals of 20°, 60°, and 40° respectively, and by flashing upon them with 
two looking-glasses of moderate size, it is possible, by using every combina- 
tion of these angles, to measure every twentieth degree, from 0° up to 120°. 

The disturbing effects of parallax are eliminated without difficulty, by 
mere attention to the way in which the sextant is laid on the table, or, in 
the case of a zero determination, by a simple calculation. 

Moreover, the brilliancy of the permanent mirrors is perfectly under con- 
trol, by the interposition of gauze shades in front of the looking-glasses that 
flash upon them. This renders an examination of the coloured shades a 
matter of great ease and certainty. 

Based upon these principles, Mr. Galton has drawn up a system for the 
thorough examination of sextants. Each would not occupy more than two 
hours in having its constant errors tabulated, and its variable errors deter- 
mined; nor would an outlay of more than £30 be required for the establish- 
ment of fixed tables and permanent marks. Difficulty is, however, felt in 
setting the system in action, owing to the absolute need of an assistant 
having leisure to undertake it. 

The sum of £179 12s. 6d. has been received from the Royal Society, 
to defray the expense of erecting a model house for the reception of the 
instruments for Colonial Magnetic Observatories. 

The Photoheliograph has been an occasional source of occupation to the 
mechanical assistant; but before daily records of the sun's disk can be ob- 
tained, it is absolutely requisite that an assistant should be appointed to aid 
Mr. Beckley, because his duties are of such a nature as to prevent his de- 
voting attention at fixed periods of the day to an object requiring so much 
preparation as is the case with photoheliography. Unfortunately, the funds 
at the disposal of the Committee are quite inadequate for this purpose; and 
unless a special grant be obtained, the Photoheliograph will remain very little 
used. 

At present Mr. Beckley is preparing the instrument, under Mr. De la Rue’s 
direction, for its intended trip to Spain, for the purpose of photographing the 
eclipse which takes place on July 18th. The expenses of these preparations, 
and of the assistants who will accompany Mr. De la Rue, will be defrayed 
out of the grant of the Royal Society for that object. 

The requisite preparations are somewhat extensive ; for it has been deemed 
necessary to construct a wooden observatory, and to make a new iron pillar 
to support the instrument, adapted to the latitude of the proposed station: 
both the observatory and iron pillar may be taken to pieces to facilitate their 
transport, 

The wooden house is 8 feet 6 inches square, and 7 feet high; it is entirely 
open at the top, except that portion divided off for a photographic room. 

1860. ¢ 


XXXiv REPORT—1860. 


The open roof will be covered by canvas when the observatory is not in use ; 
and when in use, the canvas will be drawn back, so as to form an outer casing 
at some little distance from the wall of the photographic room; and, in order 
to keep this room as cool as possible, the canvas will, in case of need, be kept 
wetted. 

The chemicals and chemical apparatus will be packed in duplicate sets, so 
as to provide as far as possible against the contingency of loss, by breakage 
or otherwise, of a part of them. 

Mr. Downes, of the firm of Cundall and Downes of Bond Street, has 
promised to accompany the expedition; Mr. Beckley will also go; and Mr. 
De la Rue has engaged Mr. Reynolds to assist in the erection of the observa- 
tory in Spain, and in the subsequent photographic operations. 

The Admiralty, on the representation of the Astronomer Royal, have pro- 
vided a steam-ship to convey this and other astronomical expeditions to Bil- 
bao and Santander. It is proposed that the Kew party should land at Bilbao 
and proceed to Miranda. Mr. Vignoles, who is constructing the Tudela and 
Bilbao railway, has kindly promised his aid and that of his staff of assist- 
ants, to promote the objects of the expedition, and promises, on behalf of the 
contractors, the use of horses and carts for the conveyance of the apparatus. 
The expedition will sail from Portsmouth on the 7th of July; and, should the 
weather prove favourable, there is reasonable hope that the various phases 
of the eclipse will be successfully photographed. Whether the light of the 
corona and red prominences will be sufficiently bright to impress their images, 
when magnified to four inches in diameter, is a problem to be solved only by 
direct experiment. 

Professor William Thomson (of Glasgow) having expressed a desire that 
the practical utility of his self-recording electrometer should be tried at Kew, 
his wish has been acceded to and the instrument received, and it is expected 
that it will shortly be in operation under his direction. 

A Report has been completed by the Superintendent on the results of the 
Magnetic Survey of Scotland and the adjacent islands in the years 1857 and 
1858, undertaken by the late Mr. Welsh. This Report is printed in the 
Transactions of the British Association for 1859. 

The following correspondence has taken place between General Sabine 
and the Rev. William Scott, Director of the Sydney Observatory :— 


“ Observatory, Sydney, March 2, 1860. 


“ Srr,—The great interest which you take in the promotion of Magnetical 
Science encourages me to address you on the subject of the establishment of 
a Magnetical Observatory at Sydney. The report which I send you by this 
mail will explain to you the character and position of the Astronomical Ob- 
servatory under my direction. 

“JT am convinced that an application to our Government, from influential 
persons at home, for the establishment of magnetical observations on not 
too expensive a scale, would be readily attended to. Iam not practically 
acquainted with any magnetical observatory, with the exception of that at 
Greenwich, and am ignorant of the cost of a set of instruments, and the 
exact amount of space required for working them; but I believe we could 
find sufficient room in the observatory without any additional building; they 
would be under my own supervision, and all that would be required would 
be an additional assistant, to share with myself and my one assistant in 
observing and computing. The Governor-General, Sir W. Denison, would, 
though powerless as regards public money, exert his influence in favour of 
such an object. 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXV 


“ Trusting that you will take the matter into consideration, and excuse the 
liberty I have taken in addressing you, 
“Tam, Sir, 
‘* Your obedient Servant, 
(Signed) “W. Scort, 
« Astronomer for N. S. Wales.” 
“ Major-General Sabine.” 


“13 Ashley Place, London, May 8, 1860. 
y y 


« Str,—I lose no time in replying to your letter of March 2, received this 
day. ‘The self-recording magnetical instruments at Kew have been in action 
nearly two and a half years—a sufficient time to test their merits or defects. 
I have myself completed the analysis and reduction of the first two years (1858 
and 1859) of the Observations of the Declinometer, and can therefore speak of 
my own knowledge of their performance, as far as that element is concerned. 
The Photographic Traces, recording both the zero line and the actual move- 
ments of the magnet, can be measured with tolerable confidence to the third 
place of decimals of an inch, the inch in the Kew instrument being equiva- 
lent to 22 minutes of arc. The reading is consequently made to the 1000th 
part of 22 minutes of declination. The record is of course continuous; but, 
for the purpose of computing the results, howrly readings have been tabulated. 
In the first year the trace failed in 107 out of 8760 hours, chiefly from 
failure in the supply of gas, which is brought by pipes from Richmond, a 
considerable distance off. This inconvenience has been remedied by the 
construction at the Observatory itself, at a small expense, of a water regu- 
lator, through which the supply from Richmond passes, and there is now no 
reason why the trace should ever fail. I have now in course of analysis and 
reduction the same years of the observations of the horizontal and vertical 
force magnetographs, and have no reason hitherto to believe tnat the record 
of those two elements will be inferior to that of the declination. The three 
instruments, with the clock which keeps the registering papers in revolution, 
together with reading telescopes placed for eye observation, either to accom- 
pany or to be independent of self-registry, occupy an interior space of about 
16 feet by 12, including a passage round for the observer. The cost of such 
a set of instruments, complete in every respect, is £250; and four months 
must be allowed for making them from the date of the order, as well as an 
additional month for their careful verification at Kew (should that be de- 
sired), where a detached building has been erected for this particular pur- 
pose, in which they may be kept in work in comparison with the Kew instru- 
ments. A detailed description of these instruments is now in the press, and 
will be published in June in the volume of Reports of the British Association. 
The results of the first two years of the Declinometer observations, showing 
what are deemed at present to be the most useful modes of eliciting the re- 
sults, will be printed in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society’ in the present 
summer, and the first two years of the horizontal and vertical force magneto- 
graphs in the same publication later in the year. A small adjoining room is 
requisite, opening if possible into the instrument-room, which should contain 
suitable troughs for the preparation of the paper to receive the traces, and 
to fix them. It is important to diminish as much as possible the changes of 
temperature in the Observatory itself, exclusive of the effect of the instrument 
cases, which have adaptations for that purpose. So far in regard to differential 
instruments. For absolute determinations and secular changes a small de- 
tached house is required, say 12 feet by 8, in which equality of temperature 
need not be regarded, but which must be at a sufficient distance from other 

e2 


Xxxvi REPORT—1860. 


buildings containing iron, and have copper fittings. The instruments required 
for these purposes are an inclinometer and a unifilar, the latter having pro- 
vision for the experiments of deflection and vibration, as well as for the abso- 
lute declination: the cost of the first is £30, and of the second £45; both may 
be verified, if desired, at Kew. The little work which is sent to you by the 
same post as this letter contains a full description of these instruments, and 
directions for their use. In addition to the charges named above, making in 
all £325, the cost of packing, freight, and insurance will have to be taken 
into the account. 

“ One assistant will suffice, as you suggest, for keeping the magnetometers 
in action, and for tabulation. The absolute values, and the calculation of the 
results of all the instruments, would be, I presume, the work of the Director 
of the Observatory himself. Provision must also be made for a supply of 
chemicals, stationery, and gas. Should it be thought desirable that the instru- 
ments should be prepared and verified under the superintendence of the Com- 
mittee of the Kew Observatory, a request to that effect, transmitted by your- 
self through the Governor of the Colony to the Chairman of the Committee 
of the Kew Observatory, Richmond Park, London, $.W., would, I am sure, 
meet immediate attention. That such an institution at the head-quarters of 
our Australian dominions would be as honourable to those who should be 
instrumental in its establishment as it would be beneficial to magnetical 
science, must be a matter of general recognition, and it would, I am per- 
suaded, find a warm supporter in your present most excellent Governor. 

‘TI remain, Sir, 
“ Your obedient Servant, 
(Signed) “ EDWARD SABINE.” 
“ The Rev. W. Scott.” 


From the following correspondence which has taken place between Her 
Majesty’s Government and the President of the Royal Society, it will be 
seen that the establishment of a Magnetical Observatory at Vancouver 
Island is postponed, in consequence of the war with China precluding the 
establishment at present of a corresponding observatory at Pekin :— 


“Treasury Chambers, 16th May, 1860. 

“ Srr,—I am directed by the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s 
Treasury to acquaint you that My Lords have had under their further con- 
sideration the establishment of an Observatory at Vancouver Island, and 
the insertion in the Estimates of this year of a vote for that service. 

“ My Lords are fully sensible of the importance of obtaining a series of 
accurate Magnetical Observations at the stations recommended by the Council 
of the British Association, and it would give them great pleasure to assist 
without further delay in forwarding objects so interesting for the cause of 
science. 

“The numerous and pressing claims, however, on the public finances in 
the present year make it imperative upon My Lords to submit no fresh esti- 
mate to Parliament which is not of a very urgent character, and where the 
total limit of expense to be incurred has not been accurately ascertained. 

“In the present instance My Lords must observe that you appear to be 
under some misapprehension in supposing that any engagement was entered 
into by the late Government to establish a Magnetic Observatory at Pekin or 
elsewhere. On the contrary, the letter of this Board of 6th December, 1858, 
to Lord Wrottesley states that, ‘whatever may be the public advantages to 
be derived from the proposed new establishments, the object would not, 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXVI 


it appears, be sacrificed by postponement, and, looking to tae extent of 
the other claims upon the public finances already existing, My Lords 
have thought it right to defer the consideration of the question until next 
year.’ 

we The letter then further states, that the three Magnetical Observatories 
at the Cape of Good Hope, St. Helena, and Toronto, which were originally 
sanctioned in an estimate of about £3000 for three years, had in fact cost 
£11,000 for that period, and, in all, had put the country to an expense of 
nearly £50,000. ‘This considcration alone suffices to show the necessity for 
very careful investigation by the Government before any step is taken which 
might commit the country to further expense. The circumstances referred 
to in the letter in question continue in full foree; and an important further 
argument against undertaking the proposed Observatory at Vancouver 
Island at the present moment is furnished by the political events which have 
since occurred in China. In General Sabine’s able letter of the Ist January, 
1859, it is stated that, ‘without entering into the comparative scientific value 
of Vancouver Island and Pekin as magnetic stations,—both being highly 
important,—this much is certain, that, whatever might be the value of either, 
that value would be greatly enhanced—far more than doubled—by there 
being a simultaneous and continuous record at both stations; and Sir John 
Herschel remarks that the importance of a five years’ series of observations 
at one of the proposed stations without the others would be grievously dimi- 
nished, and the general scope of the project defeated.’ 

“ As the present state of things in China precludes the establishment of a 
Magnetic Observatory at Pekin, or any point in the Chinese Empire suffi- 
ciently to the north to correspond with a station at Vancouver Island 
(though there is reason to hope that this state of things may be of short 
duration ), it would appear desirable even in the interests of science to postpone 
the consideration until something more certain can be ascertained as to the 
possibility of meeting what Sir John Herschel and General Sabine consider 
such an essential requisite, viz. the commencement and continuance of simul- 
taneous observations at Vancouver Island and at a point in China nearly in the 
same parallel of latitude. The interval which must elapse until the political 
state of affairs in China may render such an establishment possible may be 
usefully employed in obtaining the most accurate estimate possible of the 
actual cost of founding and maintaining each station for the period requisite 
for the complete attainment of the scientific objects in view, so as to enable 
Her Majesty’s Government, when the proper time shall arrive, if they shall 
decide on doing so, to submit a vote to Parliament with confidence as to the 
amount of expense which they may ask the nation to defray in the interests 
of science. 

‘Cl ain, Sin 
“ Your obedient Servant, 
(Signed) “ Gro. A. HAMILTON.” 


“ The President of the Royal Society.” 


“May 23rd, 1860. 
“My pear Sir,—In Mr. Hamilton's letter (returned herewith) he has 
referred to Sir Charles Trevelyan’s communication to Lord Wrottesley of the 
6th December, 1858, expressing the desire of the Lords Commissioners of 
the Treasury to postpone to the following year the consideration of the esta- 
blishment of the Colonial Magnetic Observatories which had been recom- 
mended by the Royal Society and the British Association for the Advance- 


XXXVili REPORT—1860. 


ment of Science ; but Mr. Hamilton has omitted altogether to refer to the 
interview which took place between the President of the British Association 
and Sir Charles Trevelyan subsequent to that communication, viz. on the 
18th of December, 1858, when Sir Charles Trevelyan stated that ‘if asingle 
station for magnetical and meteorological observations were applied for [in- 
timating Pekin as its locality] by the Joint Committee of the Royal Society 
and the British Association, My Lords would be disposed to comply with 
such application. (See Report of the Council of the British Association, 
September 1859.) 

“ Political events which became known shortly after that interview made 
it manifestly unadvisable to apply for a station in China; but the scientific 
importance of procuring systematic magnetical researches at other stations 
which had been named in the original application from two Societies, in parts 
of the globe which were conveniently accessible and under British dominion, 
remained as before. In these respects Vancouver Island was unobjectionable, 
and was therefore substituted for ‘a station in China’ in the application, 
which, consistently with Sir Charles Trevelyan’s communication of the 18th 
December, 1858, was made by the Joint Committee of the two Societies. The 
confident expectations thus founded being known in the United States by 
the publications of the Reports of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society 
and British Association, the Government of the United States authorized the 
establishment of Magnetical Observatories at a station on the east side of the 
United States, and at another on the south coast, both designed to cooperate 
with the British Observatory to be established on Vancouver Island ; the three 
stations being obviously remarkably well selected for systematic researches 
over that large portion of the globe. The two observatories of the United 
States’ Government have been established, and commenced their work at 
the beginning of the present year. 

“In reference to the aggregate amount of expenditure incurred by the 
magnetical researches recommended to Government by the Royal Society 
and British Association in the last twenty years, it may be remarked that, the 
researches being altogether of a novel character, the continuance of the 
Observatories, when first asked for in 1839, was for a very limited period. 
It was, in fact, an experiment, and their longer continuance would not have 
been recommended had not the experiment proved eminently successful, and 
such as to justify the prosecution of the researches. The subject was there- 
fore brought afresh under the consideration of Government in 1845 and again 
in 1849, and the further expenditure to be incurred received the sanction of 
the Treasury on both occasions, as have also, on other occasions, the magnetie 
surveys connected with the Observatories. It is possible that the aggregate 
amount of expenditure thus sanctioned and incurred may not be overstated 
at £50,000. It is an average amount not exceeding £2500 a year for this 
great branch of physical science. 

‘“‘T am not myself the proper authority to say whether the gain to science, 
and to the estimation in scientific respects in which this country is held by 
other nations, be, or be not, an equivalent for this expenditure; but I may be 
permitted to refer to the opinion expressed by the Joint Committee of the 
two Societies, consisting, as is well known, of persons holding high places in 
public estimation for their general knowledge and good judgment, as well 
as possessing the highest scientific eminence :—‘ Your Committee, looking at 
this long catalogue of distinct and positive conclusions already obtained, feel 
themselves fully borne out in considering that the operation, in a scientific 
point of view, has proved, so far, eminently remunerative and successful, and 
that its results have fully equalled in importance and value, as real accessions 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXIX 


to our knowledge, any anticipations which could reasonably have been formed 
at the commencement of the inquiry.’ 
“ Believe me, my dear Sir, 
“ Faithfully yours, 
(Signed) “ EDWARD SABINE.” 


“ Sir B. C. Brodie, Bart., P.R.S.” 


Mr. Hamilton to the President of the Royal Society, in reply to his letter of 
Qnd June (not given here). 


“Treasury Chambers, June 14, 1860. 

“ Sir,—In reply to your letter of the 2nd inst., with its enclosure from 
General Sabine relative to the establishment of Colonial Magnetic Observa- 
tories, I am directed by the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury 
to state that, without entering into the question what verbal assurances may 
have been given in December 1858 by the then Assistant Secretary, Sir Charles 
Trevelyan, of which no record was made, their Lordships observe that the 
main ground of their letter of the 16th May, 1860, remains unaffected, viz. 
that, in the opinion of the highest scientific authorities, whatever might be 
the value of observations at Vancouver Island, that value would be greatly 
increased by simultaneous observations at some station in the North of China, 
and, on the other hand, would be ‘ grievously diminished’ if no station in 
China was established. Under these circumstances, their Lordships thought 
it desirable to postpone for a short time the consideration of the question, in 
the hope that it might be considered under a different state of things in China, 
rendering possible the attainment of the greatest amount of scientific advan- 
tage from the expenditure of public money, in case that expenditure should 
be decided upon. 


“Tam, Sir, 
“ Your obedient Servant, 
(Signed) “G. A. HamILToN.” 


General Sabine has written the following letter to Dr. Bache, who had 
intimated to him that, in the event of Her Majesty’s Government declining to 
establish a magnetical observatory at Vancouver Island, it was the wish of 
the United States’ Government to establish one in Washington Territory, in 
the vicinity of Vancouver Island :— 


“May 22, 1860, 


“Dear Bacue,—I waited to reply to yours of April 13th until we should 
have received the reply of our Government regarding the Vancouver Island 
Observatory. Mr. Gladstone has availed himself of some expressions in 
Sir John Herschel’s letters and mine (to the effect of the far greater import- 
ance of having observations on the Chinese as well as on the American side 
of the Pacific to having either separately) to postpone a decision regarding 
Vancouver Island until our relations with China shall enable our Govern- 
ment to consider the question of establishing both simultaneously. Our pro- 
position, therefore, has fallen to the ground, and it is quite open to your 
Government to occupy the field which you were willing to concede to us in 
consideration of the forward part which our Government has hitherto taken 
in magnetic researches. 

“Now in regard to the instruments, which, as you are probably aware, 
have been prepared at my own risk, in order that, should our Government 
accede to the recommendation made by the Royal Society and British Asso- 


xl REPORT—1860. 


ciation, the time might be saved which must otherwise have been lost in their 
preparation. They have been made on the model of those which have been 
in use at the Kew Observatory since January 1858. An account of these isin 
the press, and will be published in the volume of Reports of the British Asso- 
ciation for 1859-1860, which must be in circulation next month. I have 
thoroughly examined and computed the declination results for 1858 and 1859, 
by means of tabulated hourly values, and am now engaged in the same cal- 
culation of the Bifilar and Vertical Force Magnetometers. The Declination 
Report will be presented to the Royal Society, and printed in the ‘ Proceed- 
ings’ in the course of the summer, as well as the results of the Force Mag- 
netometers for the same two years, as soon as I am able to draw up the report 
in due form and order. But Iam able tosay, regarding all the three elements, 
that the instruments are eminently successful. Independent of the continucty 
of the record (which is of course a great thing in itself), the hourly tabula- 
tions are far more consistent and satisfactory than were the eye-observations 
at any of our observatories. 

“In preparing a second set of instruments, therefore (which we have done 
for the proposed Netherlands Observatory in Java), we have had very few 
improvements to introduce, except the addition of reading-telescopes for each 
instrument—so that we may always retain the power of eye-observation, 
either in addition to or substitution for photographic records. Dr. Bergsma, 
the Director of the Java Observatory, is now at Kew, observing with his in- 
struments, in comparison with those in our own Observatory (as we have a 
separate building for the instruments on trial), and will take them away 
towards the end of June. ‘These of course will be paid for by the Netherlands 
Government, having been ordered expressly for them. There will then be the 
third set, which have been prepared for Vancouver, and which are ready to 
succeed the Java instruments in the experimental house. A few very trifling 
improvements have been introduced in these—none worthy of being noticed 
here. They at present stand as mine, and I shall be indebted £250 for them. 
The decision of Government, as communicated to the President of the Royal 
Society, makes no reference to my responsibility on their account. I am, 
therefore, to say the least, quite free to dispose of them as I may please. 
Now I am not rich enough to offer them as a Joan to your ‘ Washington 
Territory ’ Observatory ; but if you desire to have differential determinations 
there in addition to absolute determinations, I am persuaded that you could 
not have better instruments than these would be; and I consider myself as 
quite free to offer you the refusal of them, asking only in return that you 
will give me as early a reply as may be convenient, because I have some 
reason to expect that I may receive an application from the Sydney Obser- 
vatory to obtain a duplicate of the Kew instruments; in which case, if you 
had not claimed them in the meantinie, I should direct these to be sent to 
Sydney. -- Sincerely yours, 

(Signed) “ EDWARD SABINE.” 


“ Dr. Bache, F.R.S., Director of the 
Coast Survey of the United States.” 


The reply to this letter has not yet been received; but in the meantime 
the following application has come for a set of magnetical instruments for 
absolute determinations from Dr. Smallwood, Professor of Meteorology at 
M°Gill College in Montreal, Canada:— 

“St. Martin, Isle Jésus, May 2], 1860. 


- © Srr,—I duly received yours of the 16th of July last, in reference to the 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. xli 


establishment of a Magnetic Observatory here, in connexion with observa- 
tions on meteorology and atmospheric electricity, and deferred writing until 
I was in a position to acquire the instruments necessary. 

* You said in your communication that ‘£80 or thereabouts was required;’ 
and you were kind enough to add, with a spirit of generosity I could not 
expect, ‘that every care should be taken to superintend the construction of 
such instruments, to verify them, and to determine their constants, and have 
them carefully packed and sent out.’ 

“ The object of the present letter is to ascertain, Ist, the exact cost (if pos- 
sible); 2nd, to whom the amount shall be forwarded; Srd, when the instru- 
ments would probably be ready ; 4th, a short list of what are to be sent. 

“JT feel that Iam asking too much from you; but a knowledge of your 
devotion to a science which you have so much extended, makes me feel less 
diffident, and I have thrown myself upon your kindness. 

“T have also to acknowledge the receipt of a Book of Instructions, &c., 
with thanks. 

“ So soon as I get a reply from you, I will at once transmit the amount 
with the order, and submit a plan of the building. 

* Believe me to remain, with great consideration and respect, 
“ Yours faithfully, 
(Signed) “ C, SMALLWoop.” 
* General Sabine, London.” 


Instruments to meet this request are in preparation. 


The Committee have thought that it might not prove uninteresting to the 
members of the British Association, if, in this Report, a short description 
were given of the Kew Observatory, and of the nature and amount of work 
which is accomplished therein. 

The Observatory is situated in the middle of the old Deer-park, Richmond, 
Surrey, and is about three-quarters of a mile from the Richmond Railway 
Station. Its longitude is 0° 18! 47" W., and its latitude is 51°28’ 6" N. It 
is built north and south. The repose produced by its complete isolation is 
eminently favourabie to scientific research. In one of the lower rooms a set 
of self-recording magnetographs, described in the Report of the last meeting 
of this Association, is constantly at work. ‘These instruments, by the aid of 
photography, furnish a continuous record of the changes which take place in 
the three magnetic elements, viz. the declination, the horizontal force, and the 
vertical force. The light used is that of gas, in order to obtain which, pipes 
have been carried across the Park to the Observatory, at an expense of £250, 
which sum was generously defrayed by a grant from the Royal Society. 

Attached to this room is another, of a smaller size, in which the necessary 
photographic operations connected with magnetography are conducted. 

In the story above the basement, the room by which the visitor enters the 

Observatory is filled with apparatus. Much of this is the property of the 
Royal Society, and some of the instruments possess a historical value; for 
instance, the air-pump used by Boyle; and the convertible pendulum designed 
by Captain Kater, and employed by him, and subsequently by General Sabine, 
in determining the length of the pendulum vibrating seconds. 
_ An inner room, which opens from this one, is used as a library and sitting- 
room, and in it the calculations connected with the work of the Observatory 
are performed. In this room dipping-needles and magnets, which it is neces- 
sary to preserve from rust, are stored. Here also the MS. of the British 
Association Catalogue of Stars is preserved. 

A room to the east of this contains the standard barometers, and the appa- 


xlii REPORT—1860. 


ratus (described by Mr. Welsh in the ‘ Transactions’ of the Royal Society, 
vol. 146. p. 507) for verifying and comparing marine barometers with the 
standard. This room has also accommodation for the marine barometers 
sent for verification. In the middle of the room is a solid block of masonry, 
extending through the floor to the ground below. To this an astronomical 
quadrant was formerly attached ; it is now used as a support for the standard 
barometers. This room contains also a Photographic Barograph invented 
by Mr. Francis Ronalds, which, though not at present in operation, may 
serve as a model for any one who wishes to have an instrument of this 
description. It is described by Mr. Ronalds in the Report of the British 
Association for 1851. 

In a room to the west of the Library, thermometers for the Board of Trade, 
the Admiralty, and opticians, are compared with a standard thermometer by 
means of a very simple apparatus devised by the late Mr. Welsh. 

The Observatory also possesses a dividing-engine by Perreaux, by means of 
which standard thermometers are graduated. It was purchased by a grant 
from the Royal Society. 

In this room the pure water required for photographic processes is obtained 
by distillation; and here also a small transit telescope is placed for ascertain- 
ing time. The transit instrument is erected in a line between two meridian 
marks—one to the north and the other to the south of the Observatory ; so 
that, by means of suitable openings, either of these marks may be viewed by 
the telescope. 

In a higher story is the workshop, containing, among other things, a slide- 
lathe by Whitworth, and a planing machine by Armstead, both of which were 
presented to the Kew Observatory by the Royal Society. 

In the dome is placed the Photoheliograph for obtaining pictures of the 
sun’s disk; attached to the dome there is a small chamber in which the 
photographic processes connected with the photoheliograph are conducted. 
This chambe 1's supplied with water by means of a force-pump. A self= 
recording Robinsons anemometer jsalso attached to the dome. 

In addition to the rooms now specified, there are the private apartments 
attached to the Observatory. 

On the north side of the Observatory there is an apparatus similar to that 
used at the Toronto Observatory for containing the wet- and dry-bulb, the 
maximum and the minimum thermometers. 

The model magnetic house, elsewhere alluded to in this Report, stands at a 
distance of about 60 yards from the Observatory ; and the small wooden 
house in which the absolute magnetic observations are made, at a distance 
of about 110 yards. These houses are within a wooden paling, which fences 
them off from the remainder of the Park, and encloses about one acre of 
ground attached to the Observatory. 

The work done may now be briefly specified. In the first place, the self- 
recording magnetographs, as already mentioned, are kept in constant opera- 
tion, and record the changes continually occurring in the magnetic elements. 

The photographs are sent to General Sabine’s establishment at Woolwich, 
to undergo the processes of measurement and tabulation. 

In the model magnetic house there is at present a set of magnetographs 
which Dr, Bergsma will take to Java. When this set is removed another will 
supply its place, in readiness for any other Observatory, colonial or foreign, 
at which it may be required. 

In the house for absolute determinations, monthly values of the declination, 
dip, and horizontal magnetic force are taken, and magnetic instruments for 
foreign or colonial observatories have their constants determined, 


xiii 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. 


“NOLLOH “& 


‘O98T “eunr YIST 
*gouadaATy pur sZuarprys yyStq spunod 


UIAITT Sl puvy Ul souLTeg ay} 4ey} puy pur ‘aur 07 poqyussaid sIayONOA 94} YIM If poredutoo pue yunoooe sAoqe oy} pautmMexe Ary [ 


OL 61 Lo6F 


Caer th 
6 9 98T 


9 ZI 641 


0 
0 


91 6€ 
61 Zé 


Snoop OonH 
oD 
N 
N 


OL OL 
OL OL 


CIR DG ae 


co Sa — eae — en — ae — I 


ES 


0 &f 
0 OL 


"s 


Hi eieteseeeerserneerseeterees  DUBtL UT QOURTeg 
PORTER Meee e renee tet ewer eeeheneeaee syders 

{ -OJOUTLI, AOS OT} IOJ JUNOdR Ss UeITdG, 
seeeesesseercanesseeeterens SQTIOIBAIOSC() 
[etuojog 10 uste10g 10; sydeaSojou 
-SvjN VuIMeXa pue 9ATIIeI 0} YOTYA 
UI 9sNOFT UapooA, B Butpymq jo 4809 


gUnoooe 4Sel UT pasieyorapun = £09917 
seeatesentaseneeeneeneeres® DEBIT JO WUD, 
* sasuedxe Aqjad pue o3e19310g 
steeesceees son ‘KJaTpuRyy ‘sasuadxy asnop{ 
siteeertesesteesserreneeererterts Spi DUR S[LOD 
““asn4sog pue ‘syoog ‘Arau0yeg ‘Bunuitg 
seers OSB pur ‘Staquadieg ‘1aSuouLUO0rT 
ttreeerseres O09 ‘STOO, ‘s[elazeyy ‘snjyereddy 


"88 92 ‘O98 
‘eg oune Sutpua ‘syoom CT ‘1oyxeg “L, 
Peete weer eeteeree "STI 4e ‘098T °8I 
aunr Surpua ‘sydam gp ‘oiddiz “9 
HOw eee ae etree eeerer eee "sce 4e ‘098T 
‘eg aung Surpua ‘syaem Tp ‘Aoppog "y 
irre one “ape sci’ss OR ‘FI "qa 
Suipua ‘syyUOM XxIS ‘YyBIsePY “A “ff 
Oem meee ee enreeseserene 098I ‘9 Ajne 
Zurpua ‘srajzrenb 9e1y} ‘sraquireyd *O 
eee eereeereconeeesssooorssesaserongi ad 
-xo Surpaaesy Aqyod Toy pomorye 60441q 


Peete see reweresreraee O98L ‘oe ouur 


0 OST Heine ‘szazrenb 9014} 4aeVMaig “g OF, 
+ 


—! 029 ‘salre[eg 
“SLINGWAVd 


OL 6 496% 


0 0 OST 


9 ZI GAT 


ao 
ao oO 
on 
Lol 
ei 


0 0 00S 
8 6 8 
p38 


ee eeeenereeeeentee sydeaSojouSe yy MOY OY} 
jo quamded yied ur Aya100g jedoy oy} Woy 
*** SQLIOPBAISYO) [VIUOTOD 10 usta10,y 10F 
sydvisojouseyy VUIGIeXO pUe AATIDOI 0} 
YIM UL asnoy uspoom v Zuryoora jo 
asuadxa ay Avajap 03 Ajo100g ekoy ay WoIy 
SIoJaMOUIay, J, prwpueys 10y “ 


“ 


“c 
Boe ewereresererersaee 


8 91 Ze eee eeeenrecsenereres suvloydg wWOJy 
0 61 29 treeeeeeseseree KP TUIPW au} WONT 
0 FL 06°" Spery Jo prvog 947 WOIy 
‘p °S HF —S}UIUINIYSUT JO UOLOYIIOA OY} 1OF 
srepereveceeseseeeres TOINSVILT, [PIIUIH) IY} WOIF POATa00y 
qunoooe 4se Moss aouRleg 


“ 


POOR O Hemera esereeseeerereeenees 


“SLd 1 GOTe 


8 9RT 417% aun 02 GGRT “PT saquadag woxsf uorni0ssH Y/82)2. 


xliv REPORT—1860. 


In the meteorological department, all the barometers, thermometers, and 
hydrometers required by the Board of Trade and the Admiralty have their 
corrections determined; besides which, similar instruments are verified for 
opticians. Standard thermometers also are graduated, and daily meteoro- 
logical observations are made, an abstract of which is published in the 
‘ Illustrated London News.’ 

Instruction is also given in the use of instruments to officers in the army 
or navy, or other scientific men who obtain permission from the Committee. 

All this amount of work, it is believed, can be executed by the present 
staff, consisting of the superintendent, three assistants (magnetical, mecha- 
nical, and meteorological), and a boy; but the expense attending it is greater 
than the present income of the Observatory, furnished by the British Asso- 
ciation, will support. 

In the resolution of the British Association of the 14th September, 1859, 
it was recommended to Government, at the instance of the joint committee of 
the Royal Society and British Association, that the sum of £350 per annum 
should be placed at the disposal of the general superintendent of the mag- 
netical observations ; this sum was intended to have defrayed the expenses 
attending the magnetical department of the Observatory and the observa- 
tions of the sun’s spots. It will be seen, however, from the correspondence 
contained in an earlier part of this Report, that this source of income is not 
yet available. 

Joun P. GAsstotT, 

June 18, 1860. Chairman. 


Report of the Parliamentary Committee to the Meeting of the British 
Association at Oxford in June 1860. 


The Parliamentary Committee have the honour to report as follows :— 

No subject of sufficient importance to require any especial notice has occu- 
pied their attention during the past year, nor indeed was there any matter 
referred to them at the last Meeting of the Association. 

There are now either two or three vacancies in that portion of the Com- 
mittee which represents the House of Commons, according as it shall be de- 
termined whether the vacancy caused in that Section by Lord de Grey’s 
taking his seat in the House of Lords is or is not to be filled up, 


WrottTeEsLey, Chairman. 
May 28, 1860. 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xly 


RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE 
Oxrorp MEETING IN JUNE AND JULY 1860. 


[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary of 
the Committee, except there be a specific nomination. ] 


Involving Grants of Money. 


That the sum of £500 be appropriated to the maintenance of the Esta- 
blishment in Kew Observatory, under the direction of the Council. 

That a sum not exceeding £90 be granted for one year for the payment 
of an additional Photographer for carrying on the Photo-heliographic Ob- 
servations at Kew. 

That a sum not exceeding £30 be placed at the disposal of Mr. Broun, 
Dr. Lloyd, and Mr. Stone, for the construction of an Induction Dip Circle, 
in connexion with the Observatory at Kew. 

That a sum not exceeding £10 be placed at the disposal of Professor 
Tyndall and Mr. Ball, for providing Instruments fur making Observations in 
the Alps, and for printing the formule for the use of travellers. 

That the Balloon Ascent Committee, consisting of Prof. Walker, Prof, 
W. Thomson, Sir D. Brewster, Dr. Sharpey, Dr. Lloyd, Col. Sykes, General 
Sabine, and Prof. J. Forbes, be reappointed, with the addition of Mr. Broun ; 
and that the sum of £200 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Matthiessen be requested to prosecute his Experiments on the 
Chemical Nature of Alloys; and that the sum of £20 be placed at his dis- 
posal for the purpose. 

That Prof. Sullivan be requested to continue his Experiments on the Solu- 
bility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the mutual Action 
of Salts in Solution ; and that the sum of £20 be placed at his disposal for 
the purpose. 

That Prof. Voelcker be requested to continue his investigation on Field 
Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures 
essential to Cultivated Crops; and that the sum of £25 be placed at his 
disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Alphonse Gages be requested to continue his Experiments on the 
Mechanico-Chemical Analysis of Minerals; and that the sum of £20 be 
placed at his disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Mallet be requested to carry on his Experiments on Earthquake 
Waves ; and that the sum of £25 be placed at his disposal for the purpose. 

That additional excavations be made at Dura Den by the Committee, now 
consisting of Dr. Anderson, Prof. Ramsay, Prof. Nicol, and Mr. Page; that 
Mr. J. B. Jukes be added to the Committee; and that the sum of £20 be 
placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. J. Gwyu Jeffreys, Dr. Lukis, Mr. Spence Bate, Mr. A. Hancock, 
and Dr. Verloren be a Committee for the purpose of Reporting on the best 
mode of preventing the ravages of the different kinds of Teredo and other 
Animals in our Ships and Harbours; that Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys be the 
Secretary ; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Sclater, Dr. A. Giinther, and Mr. R. T. Tomes be a Committee 
for the purpose of preparing and printing a Report on the Present State of 
our Knowledge of the Terrestrial Vertebrata of the West India Islands ; 
that Mr. Sclater be the Secretary ; and that the sum of £10 be placed at 
their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Robert MacAndrew and the following gentlemen be a Com- 


xlvi REPORT—1860. 


mittee for General Dredging purposes :—Mr. R. MacAndrew, Chairman; 
Mr. G. C. Hyndman, Dr. Edwards, Dr. Dickie, Mr. C. L. Stewart, Dr. Colling- 
wood, Dr. Kinahan, Mr. J. S. Worthey, Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Dr. E. Perceval 
Wright, Mr. Lucas Barrett, and Professor J. R. Greene. That Mr. Robert 
MacAndrew be the Secretary ; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their 
disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Ogilvie, Dr. Dickie, Dr. Dyce, Prof. Nicol, and Mr. C. W. Peach 
be a Committee for the purpose of Dredging the North and East Coasts 
of Scotland. That Dr. Ogilvie be the Secretary ; and that the sum of £25 
be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That the surviving members of the Committee appointed in the year 1842, 
viz. Mr. C. Darwin, Rev. Professor Henslow, Rev. L. Jenyns, Mr. W. Ogilby, 
Professor Phillips, Sir John Richardson, Mr. J. O. Westwood, Professor Owen, 
Mr. W. E. Shuckard, and Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, for the purpose of pre- 
paring Rules for the establishment of a Uniform Zoological Nomenclature, be 
reappointed, with the addition of Sir William Jardine, Bart., and Mr. P. L. 
Sclater. That Sir W. Jardine be the Secretary ; and that the sum of £10 be 
placed at their disposal for the purpose of revising and reprinting the Rules. 

That Mr. Sclater and Dr. F. Hechstetter be a Committee for the purpose 
of drawing up a Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Species 
of Apteryz living in New Zealand. That Mr. Sclater be the Secretary ; and 
that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Collingwood be requested to dredge in the Estuaries of tne 
Mersey and Dee ; and that the sum of £5 be placed at his disposal for the 
purpose. 

That Dr. Edward Smith, F.R.S., and Mr. Milner be a Committee for the 
purpose of prosecuting inquiries as to the effect of Prison Diet and Discipline 
upon the Bodily Functions of Prisoners. That Dr. Edward Smith be the 
Secretary; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the 
purpose. 

That Mr. T. Wright, Mr. J. B. Davis, and Mr. A. G. Hindlay be a Com- 
mittee for the purpose of exploring entirely the piece of ground at Uriconium 
in which the human remains have been found, in order to examine more 
fully the circumstances connected with the discovery, and to obtain the 
similar Skulls which may still remain under ground. ‘That Mr. T. Wright 
be the Secretary ; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the 
purpose. 

That Professor James Thomson (of Belfast) be requested to continue his 
Experiments on the Gauging of Water; and that the sum of £10 be placed 
at his disposal for the purpose. 

That the Committee on Steam-ship Performance be reappointed, to report 
proceedings to the next Meeting ; that the attention of the Committee be 
also directed to the obtaining of information respecting the performance of 
vessels under Sail, with a view to comparing the results of the two powers 
of Wind and Steam, in order to their most effective and economical combi- 
nation ; and that the sum of £150 be placed at their disposal for this purpose. 
The following gentlemen were nominated to serve on the Committee :— 
Vice-Admiral Moorsom; The Marquis of Stafford, M.P.; The Earl of Caith- 
ness; The Lord Dufferin; Mr. William Fairbairn, F.R.S.; Mr.J. Scott Russell, 
F.R.S.; Admiral Paris, C.B.; The Hon. Captain Egerton, R.N.; Mr. William 
Smith, C.E.; Mr. J. E. M¢Connell, C.E.; Prof. Rankine, LL.D.; Mr. J. R. 
Napier, C.E.; Mr. R.Roberts,C.E.; Mr. Henry Wright, Honorary Secretary ; 
with power to add to their number. 

That Prof. Phillips be requested to complete and print, before the Man- 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.  xlvii 


chester Meeting, a Classified Index to the Transactions of the Association 
from 1831 to 1860 inclusive; that he be authorized to employ, during this 
period, an Assistant; and that the sum of £100 be placed at his disposal for 
the purpose. 


Applications for Reports and Researches. 


That Mr. H. J. S. Smith be requested to continue his Report on the 
Theory of Numbers. 

That Mr. Cayley be requested to draw up a Report on certain Problems 
in Higher Dynamics. 

That Mr. B. Stewart be requested to draw up a Report on Prevost’s 
Theory of Exchanges, and its recent extensions. 

That Prof. Stokes be requested to draw up a Report on the Present State 
and Recent Progress of Physical Optics. 

That Dr. Dickie be requested to draw up a Report on the Flora of Ulster, 
for the next Meeting of the Association. 

That Dr. Carpenter be requested to draw up a Report on the Minute 
Structure of Shells. 

That Dr. Michael Foster be requested to report upon the Present State 
of our Knowledge in reference to Muscular Irritability. 

That Mr. James Oldham be requested to continue his Report on Steam 
Navigation in the Port of Hull. 

That the Lord Rosse, Dr. Robinson, Professor Phillips, and Mr. W. R. Birt 
be a Committee for the purpose of making observations on the Moon’s sur- 
face and comparing it with that of the Earth. That Professor Phillips be the 
Secretary. 

That the Rev. Professor Price, Dr. Whewell, Sir J. Lubbock, Admiral 
FitzRoy, Sir W. S. Harris, and Rey. Professor Haughton be a Committee for 
the purpose of reporting to the next Meeting of the British Association, on 
the Expediency and best means of making Tidal Observations, with a view 
to the completion of Dr. Whewell’s Essays in prosecution of a full Tidal 
Exposition. 

That, as it would be highly desirable that the observations on the Magnetic 
Lines in India should be continued, His Highness The Rajah of Travancore 
be requested to complete the Survey already commenced by him, through 
his Astronomer. 

That it is desirable that a Committee be appointed to consider the best 
mode of effecting the registration and publication of the numerical facts of 
Chemistry. That the Committee consist of Dr. Frankland, Dr. W. A. Miller, 
Prof. W. H. Miller, Prof. Brodie, Prof. Williamson, and Dr. Lyon Playfair. 

That the Lords of the Admiralty be moved to authorize some small vessel 
stationed on the South-East Coast of America to take a convenient oppor- 
tunity of collecting specimens of the large Vertebrate Fossils from certain 
localities easy of access between the River Plata and the Straits of 
Magellan. 

That Sir W. Jardine, Bart., Prof. Owen, Prof. Faraday, and Mr. Andrew 
Murray be a Committee for the purpose of procuring information as to the 
best means of conveying Electrical Fishes alive to Europe. That Sir W. 
Jardine be the Secretary. 

That Mr. William Fairbairn, Mr. J. F. Bateman, and Prof. Thomson be a 
Committee for .the purpose cf reporting on Experiments to be made at the 
Manchester Waterworks on the Gauging of Water; with power to add to 
their number. 


xl vill REPORT—1860. 


That the Committee to report on the Rise and Progress of Steam Naviga- 
tion in the Port of London be reappointed, and that the following gentlemen 
be requested to serve on it:—Mr. William Smith, C.E.; Sir John Rennie, 
F.R.S.; Captain Sir Edward Belcher; Mr. George Rennie, F.R.S.; Mr. Henry 
Wright, Secretary ; with power to add to their number. 


Involving Applications ta Government or Public Institutions. 


That the Parliamentary Committee, now consisting of the Duke of Argy!!. 
Dake of Devonshire, Earl de Grey, Lord Enniskillen, Lord Harrowby.’ 
Lord Rosse, Lord Stanley, Lord Wrottesley, Bishop of Oxford, Sir Philip 
Egerton, Sir John Packington, be requested to recommend two members of 
the House of Commons to fill the two vacancies. 

That Sir Roderick I. Murchison, as Trustee of the Association, and Mr. 
Nassau W. Senior, as President of the Section of Economie Science and Sta- 
tistics, be a Delegacy for the purpose of attending the International Sta- 
tistical Congress in London on July 16. 

That the Committee on Steam-ship Performance be requested to commu- 
nicate with the Parliamentary Committee, for the purpose of obtaining their 
assistance in accomplishing the objects for which the Committee on Steam- 
ships was appointed. 


Communications to be printed entire among the Reports. 


That the Communications by the Rev. W. V. Harcourt, on the results of 
Experiments at the Low Moor Iron Works, be printed entire among the 
Reports of the Association. 

That Mr. William Fairbairn’s Paper, on Experiments to determine the 
effect of vibratory action and long-continued changes ef load upon Wrought- 
iron Girders, be printed entire in the Reports of the Association. 

That Admiral Moorsom’s Paper, on the Performance of Steam Vessels, 
be printed entire among the Reports. 

That Mr. Elder’s Paper, on a cylindrical spiral boiler, with comparative 
evaporating power and temperatures of furnaces, flues and chimneys of 
various boilers, be printed entire in the Transactions of the Sections, with 
the necessary diagrams. 


Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Objects by the 
General Committee at the Oxford Meeting in June and July 1860, 
with the name of the Member, who alone, or as the First of a Com- 
mittee, is entitled to draw for the Money. 


Kew Observatory. pee oe Da 

Kew Observatory Establishment ......... a Sth nie Sand Se nt OO ee 
Mathematical and Physical Science. 

Photo-heliographic Observations at Kew... .. eee. cece nece 90 0 O 

TYNDALL and Bati.—Alpine Ascents ........ eeeese008 10 0 O 


Carried forward i .% ccs cave cele vetenree alana 600 1) ) 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, 


£ 
OOS i 2 es eee ere 600 
Balloon Committee ...... Li wee =e eer ye peme 0,0) 
Broun and Committee. —Dip- Bletlogh PA MEE cus sas 30 
Chemical Science, including Mineralogy. 
Marruatessen, Dr.—Chemical Alloys...........0 00.0 ee oe 20 
SuLtivan, Professor.—Solubility of Salts ............ meeps. 20 


VoeEtcker, Professor.—Constituents of Manures .......... 23 
Gaces, ALpHonse.—Chemistry of Rocks and Minerals .... 20 


Geology. 
Matter, Rosertr.— Earthquake Observations ............ 25 
Committee.—Excavations at Dura Den ..........00...+22 20 
Zoology and Botany. 

Jerrreys, J. G., and Committee—Ravages of Teredo and 

EMMI SISSY a 2 OND Pc deo ky 16 oA laid. ciara. bid'g/e 10 
Scrater, P. L., and Committee.—Report on Terrestrial Verte- 

brata of West PCS ae eee deals Sars mane bo Re es 10 


MacAnprew, R., and Committee.—For General Dredging .. 25 
Ocitvix, Dr., id Committee—Dredging the North and Rast 


Coasts of Scotland . eran 25 
JARDINE, Sir W., Bane mad Ooninilece. Revising iid Ret 
printing Rules of Zoological Nomenclature.............. 10 
ScLArEn, P: L.—Investigation of Apteryx..... sneha ie 50 
CoLiinewoop, Dr —Dredging i in Mersey aud: Dee, ss salt 5 
Physiology. 


Dr. Epwarp Smiru, F.R.S., and Mr. Mitner.—Effect of 
Prison Diet and Discipline upon the bodily functions of 
BN fe oh Pia Sool oh c'g'a’s sie, nce Cb rece eeveeeweene phatase 


Geography and Ethnology. 


Committee for exploring Uriconium...............-. sacs e 0) 
& Mechanical Science. 

Tuomsoy, Professor J.—Gauging of Water .......... 0008 10 

Committee on Steam-Ship Performance ......+.-... 0.0. 150 


Classified Index to the Transactions. 
Professor Patties (to employ an Assistant) ...........00+ 100 


Total,... £1395 O O 


xlix 


coooc 


oo 


Ores oso i=) 


0 


coos 


cook 


oosco 


oo 


OCS Osco 6S 


(6) 


1860. d 


REPORT—1860. 


General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for 


Scientifie Purposes. 
i 8s, - de £ 3. d. 
1834. Meteorology and Subterranean 
Tide Discussions ....escscceseeee 20 0 0 Temperature .......0ssssesceee ee 0 
1835 Vitrification Experiments........ ot) Ard 
Tide Di : y 62 0 0 Cast Iron Experiments...........+ 100 0 0 
Bete ce NS aiedeatnen se rar tyes Ae Railway Constants ....+.+0+... ses 28 
British Fossil Ichthyology .....- 10570) 70 Tid’ ond Sen Revel Ce agreed 
£167 0 0 | Steam-vessels’ Engines..,...- sees LOO. 20) 0 
1836 Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... .. 331 18 6 
F : : Stars in Lacaille .......00.....0 soe wile Way 
Tide Discussions .........seesesees 163 0 0 Stars in BOATS Gataleous 616 6 
British Fossil Ichthyology ...... 105) 0, ON ieee a apart BUS eaaies 10 10 0 
Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 0 Steamtonwines in Gordan ee 50 0 0 
Seba on Jong-continued 171.0 Atmospheric Air .........+0008 ee U6) Seg 
Rain Gauges ...ccesececeeeeees ccveee 913 0 by pH ete nies its . . : 
apenas fe ee Seep hs Cea Gases on Solar Spectrum ......... 22.0 0 
unar Nutation........-scee Poses OO MEO Ss (0 Hourly M lomenl On 
Thermometers . SCALE EC og, alii) ourly Breleoro On et ee 
aancneu sees Zucit |p es eS, and Kingussie es : 
OSS] Reptiles ..scscececcevereereee 
1837. Mining Statistics ........s000se000. 50 0 0 
Tide Discussions ....s..sseesesseee 284 1 O £1595 11.0 
Chemical Constants ....--...++ aes Met an G 
Tiunar Nutation\ ccccstrspostessenes 70 0 0 1840. 
Observations on Waves.........00+ 100 12 0 | Bristol Tides..........6. eeeves asaare L000) 70 
Tides at Bristol...cccccceccccccceces 150 © © | Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6 
Meteorology and Subterranean Heart Experiments ,...0...s.s0008 18 19L 
Temperature ....scccccessssceeers 89 5 3 | Lungs Experiments ......+++.40 » 813 0 
Vitrification Experiments....... .. 150 0 0 | Tide Discussions .........++++94 + 50 0 0 
Heart Experiments .........0eesee 8 4 6 | Land and Sea Level............44 Vim Ui Sl 
Barometric Observations ......... 30 0 0 | Stars (Histoire Céleste) ......... 242 10 0 
IBALOMELETS Wavsesoeyoscsssescei se .» 11:18 6 | Stars (Lacaille) ......... COROCR 30 -» 415 0 
Bs Stars (Catalogue) ........006 weseacw 264 0 0 
eats 1438 Tae = ciseuesecs ececvevemn elo iO 
1838. Water on Iron .,....... anpupee eke eee 0: “10'-V6 
Tide Discussions ....ss...e0+8 eecse 29 © 0 | Heat on Organic Bodies ...... over! 0, De 20 
British Fossil Fishes ....... ses. 100 0 0 | Meteorological Observations...... 52 17 6 
Meteorological Observations and Foreign Scientific Memoirs ...... 1921.6 
Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0 Working Population rest eee eeeee ees 100 0 0 
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... wee 60 0 0 | School Statistics......ceeeeseerees ope at 
Animal and Vegetable Substances Forms of Vessels steeteeeeeeeeeenes 184 7 0 
(Preservation of) .......4. vateed 19 1 10 | Chemical and Electrical Pheno- 
Railway Constants ......... be 41 12 10 MENA . uc escececesecstesecesencescsn 40 0 0 
Bristol Tides .....sssseeeceeeeseereee 50 0 0 | Meteorological Observations at 
Growth of Plants ..... Re amen iene) Plymouth) ccescecsenss a exe ssenetens OOO 
Mudein URivers: csecssceecsentescevee 3 6 6 | Magnetical Observations ...,.,... 185 13 9 
Education Committee .......... 50 0 0 £1546 16 4 
Heart Experiments ............... 5 38 O ———— 
Land and Sea Level............0+ 267 8 7 1841. 
Subterranean Temperature ...... 8 6 0 | Observations on Waves...... seeeoO ONO 
Steam-vessels.........ses00+ cectecees 100 0 0O| Meteorology and Subterranean ‘ 
Meteorological Committee ...... Sp MOL Teel Temperature .......ssessees oe 882-0 
‘RHEYMIOMELErS iesassasessereasspanss 16 4 0 | Actinometers......ecssccssesseess 10 0 0 
£956 12 2 Earthquake Shocks .........scs0e 17 of eae, 
Se | Acrid Poisons...........0005 on siswiewa ~ 162 000 
1839. Veins and Absorbents .........4. - 38 0 0 
Fossil Ichthyology......... seve sates nl LOM OlaO VINTEC A GEUIVEES uneeesece ee acceses on 5. 0670 
Meteorological Observations at Marine Zoology.....sssseeesecees sos elie 2emrs 
Ply mottthiveecsae’eseesere eee sorte) 60010) 10))'SkeletonMapsi \.c.-..-nssc0seckeed a. 20% 02°10 
Mechanism of Waves ..........4- 144 2 0) Mountain Barometers ........... 5 GDL SiG 
Bristol Tides .....se.ssseeseseeseeeee 35 18 6 | Stars (Histoire Céleste)........0+ 185 0 0 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


; 5 C5 aC 
Beare (Uacpille)Gosesecsscescsseecees 79 SB 10 
Stars (Nomenclature of) ......... 17. 19-.6 
Stars (Catalogue of) ...........0008 40 0 0 
eet ON) LOM esse kecescussesess as 50 0 0 
Meteorological Observations at 

DBEMRESS Eo npeccy ceccserensses tect 20 0 0 
Meteorological Observations (re- 
duction of) ..... miihspisesste sees 25> 7.0090 

Hossil Reptiles .......0..sessoseees we 504 0710 
Foreign Memoirs ..... Pseanes noses en O2ee0e G 
Railway Sections .......... eeResia 38 1 6 
Forms of Vessels ......0++.. Beesess 1938 12 0 
Meteorological Observations at 

EVTATOY Cll nays ceeeeyscre renee sss 55 0 0 
Magnetical Observations ......... 6118 8 
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0 
Tides at Leith ...... Eabgasnss seats 50 0 0 
Anemometer at Edinburgh ...... 69 1 10 
Tabulating Observations ......... 96.33 
Races of Men  ....,..e0008 ero, ye Oe 
Radiate Animals ............ oye OLS 0 

£1235 10 11 

1842, 

Dynamometric Instruments ..,... 113 Ll 2 
Anoplura Britannie .....,. Aneta es Wee a 
Tides at Bristol............+6+ AAO Re Oe) ea 
Gases on Light..... Saracen ease oF BULA OF 
Chronometers ........... areanenaer 2help. (6 
Marine Zoology..........000+ recat wl aT RL, 
British Fossil Mammalia ....,.... 100 0 0 
Statistics of Education ........... Fie ZA eeel eat 
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0 
Stars (Histoire Céleste)............ 59 0 0 
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ...... 110 0 0 
Railway Sections .........sss000... 161 10 0 
British Belemnites...... “cohecocdcd 50 0 0 
Fossil Reptiles (publication of 

Report) .....,... Re eesee Shalt eld 0.40 
Forms of Vessels .........0 aon ses 180 0 0 
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6 
Meteorological Experiments at 

HAIGANIOUEN! 55 50¢.20rersccores ah 68 0 0 
Constant Indicator and Dynamo- 

metric Instruments ....... “oe LD UMD 
Force of Wind ............ cvececses 10 0 0 
Light on Growth of Seeds ...... ree MEL 
REAUSTALISLICS cayi..cssscesccesess fe D0 10-0 
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 8 1 11 
Questions on Human Race ...... 7 

£19 178 
1843. 
Revision of the Nomenclature of 

DETTE esse ccece sce RasedaTecsienne 6 Ate a 
Reduction of Stars, British Asso- 

ciation Catalogue ............00. 25 0 0 
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0 
Hourly Meteorological Observa- 

tionsat KingussieandInverness 77 12 8 
Meteorological Observations at 

MEP DOEN spaces eGeecwcsvieces ee dp” TOA 
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- 

mometer at Plymouth .,....... 10 0 0 


Ge ons 
Meteorological Observations, Os- 
ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0 
Reduction of Meteorological Ob- 
SET VAtLONS Mew. .ssescecsecavenies we 30 0 0 
Meteorological Instruments and 
Gratuities Brceseujssesnseeiereetase Be Gi 
Construction of Anemometer at 
Inverness ....00+0- teeeeeeeeresens 5612 2 
Magnetic Co-operation ,,.......... 10 8 10 
Meteorological Recorder for Kew 
Observatory .......s000 ssesensvee 00 0 O 
Action of Gases on Light . eeseeece 18 16 1 
Establishment at Kew Observa- 
tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni- 
ture and Sundries ..........+5.06 1338 4 7 
Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0 
Oxidation of the Railsof Railways 20 0 0 
Publication of Report on Fossil 
Reptiles .......+ Piereeousiscuseseey 40 0 0 
Coloured Drawings of Railway 
NEEHONSepewansarssasaveeersaresss 147 18 3 
Registration of Earthquake 
Shocks ...... aaRevesesesesathesers 30 0 0 
Report on Zoological Nomencla- 
tC Mises css on aspen snes bene® vores) 110/07 0 
Uncovering Lower Red Sand- 
stone near Manchester ......... 4 4 6 
Vegetative Power of Seeds ..... 5 3 8 
Marine Testacea (Habits of) ... 10 0 O 
Marine Zoology.....sssssseeees siege LDUGIES 
Marine Zoology....es.sseeceeseerace 2 14 11 
Preparation of*Report on British 
Fossil Mammalia .........00s.. - 100 0 0 
Physiological Operations of Me- 
dizinal:Agents si,cccsxesssorssse 120) 0) 0 
Vital Statistics ......sse.00 paeeecgs ND) ea 
Additional Experiments on the 
Horms:of Vesselsipeversssensses0 0 100 Ou 2 
Additional Experiments on the 
Forms of Vessels ....0s.ssss+000 100 0 0 
Reduction of Experiments on the 
Forms of Vessels ....ssseessee0s 100 0 0 
Morin’s Instrument and Constant 
Indicatot) seesse sake nestsaasasane ~» ) 628).14, 10 
Experiments on the Strength of 
Materials; po.esseressae BOcrecsecrem. 0) et MT 
£1565 10 2 
1844. 
Meteorological Observations at 
Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0 0 
Completing Observations at Ply- 
WAGUUG) wateyentenaaesercscaseses eon Ol 10 
Magnetic and Meteorological Co- 
OPETAUON Wasahaceescgscreeeesan - 25 8 4 
Publication of the British Asso- 
ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 35 0 0 
Observations on Tides on the 
East coast of Scotland ......... 100 0 0 
Revision of the Nomenclature of 
SEATS cans vecsacnetenn se sesexs 1842 2 9 6 
Maintaining the Establishment in 
Kew Observatory ......0...00 117 17 3 
Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 3 


d2 


lii REPORT—1860. 
a) ERAGE £ os. d. 
Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0 0) Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0 
Subterraneous Temperature in Computation of the Gaussian 
Treland) Wewerssadaessccestasstaee 5 0 0 Constants for 1839.......04+ sneer DORE OO 
Coloured Drawings of Railway Maintaining the Establishment at 
Sectionsineciscesocs teste dieorm esse 15 17 6 Kew Observatory ...scosseseeee . 146 16 7 
Investigation of Fossil Fishes of Strength of Materials....., asesyesns OO MO haO 
the Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0} Researches in Asphyxia........04- OP liGee 
Registering the Shocks of Earth- Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0 
CUUAIOS eine steels sslelvsisis cin ve 1842 23 11 10 | Vitality of Seeds .........00- 1844 2 15 10 
Structure of Fossil Shells ......... 20 0 0 | Vitality of Seeds ...,...0.... 1845 712 3 
Radiata and Mollusca of the Marine Zoology of Cornwall,..... 10 0 0 
ZSgean and Red Seas.....1842 100 0 0 | Marine Zoology of Britain ...... 10 0 0 
Geographical Distributions of Exotic Anoplura .secoe.eee 1844 25 0 0 
Marine Zoology........+++ 1842 010 0} Expensesattending Anemometers 11 7 6 
Marine Zoology of Devon and Anemometers’ Repairs ....++.. aod) 2 HOreEO 
Cornwall ........ssesesvevecesees 10 0 0} Atmospheric Waves .......se0ee.0e 3.3 3 
Marine Zoology of Corfu sesinees -«- 10 0 0) Captive Balloons ....... «1844 8S 19 3 
Experiments on the Vitality of Varieties of the Human Race 
GEUSlamecaaactcuusessiedsseseveddees 9 0 3 1844 7 6 38 
Experiments on the Vitality of Statistics of Sickness and Mor- 
Seedseetnecdiirarseterssaccecl GA eimOlr ot) oO tality in York ..,cccsscscensssase sla On 10 
Exotic Anoplura ......cssss0e0ce aetholion +10" 40 Fe685 1610) 
Strength of Materials .......... 100 0 0 ———— eee 
Completing Experiments on the 
Forms of Ships .....seeesereeeeee 100 0 0 : 1847. f 
Inquiries into Asphyxia ......... 10 0 0 | Computation of the Gaussian 
Investigations on the Internal So for 1882) RSS rorene 50 OOM 
Constitution of Metals ......... 50.0 ' 0 | Habits ee Sas sssaon 10 ae 
Gonctanuelidicatociandanioun's Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0 
Instrument, 1842 ...esseseeeee D0: 5 | eamne: Zeolasyol ComirallT an eae 
2 me i Ca Atmospheric Waves «sss... Peer ie Rs 
TSE ess MVatalityan SCCds. z.osedscnsensenees 4 7 7 
1845. Maintaining the Establishment at 
Publication of the British Associa- Kew Observatory svrsseeeseere 107 8 6 
tion Catalogue of Stars ....... 851 14 6 £208 5 4 
Meteorological Observations at 
Inverness ..... Sponpdoggcd: itacse’ 80.18 11 1848. 
Magnetic and Meteorological Co- Maintaining the Establishment at 
Operation... oe reneecenes vee 1616 8 Kew Observatory ssesssecessaees 171 15 11 
Meteorological Instruments at Atmospheric Waves ..sseesessees oot OS HORCS 
Edinburgh ....sccsvseees ieeneeaee 18 11 9] Vitality of Seeds ......ss00008 vat Da NO 
Reduction of Anemometrical Ob- Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0 
servations at Plymouth ........ 25 0 07} On Colouring Matters v.00. 5 0 0 
Electrical Experiments at Kew On Growth of Plants........0000.-- 15 0 O 
ObservatOry ...cecresssscseceass a AGL 28 £275.18 
Maintaining the Hatablishtacatn in ——— 
Kew Observatory aeaesaiaeemanes » 149 15. 0 
For Kreil’s Barometrograph ...... 25 000 F 1849, 
Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 0 | Electrical Observations at Kew 
The Actinograph ....csscsessreeees ils ete Observatory sae eoy sents ousiccaniiey OO IO mel 
Microscopic Structure of Shells... 20 0 0 Maintaining Establishment at 
Exotic Anoplura s.sseecsee 1843 10 0 0 ditto serene aemieaitabicioie sists cosa) OMS 
Vitality of Seeds.....sssseesee 1843. 2 0 7 | Vitality of Seeds ws seeseees amu Brae 
Vitality of Seeds ...seeseeeee 1844 7 0 0 | OuGrowth of Plants..........+0+ 5 0 0 
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 | Registration of Periodical Phe- 
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0 MOMENA seeeesseeseeneerserenee sees 10 0 0 
Statistics. of Sickness and More Bill on account of Anemometrical 
talitysin) York csstsspeeeeeeee 20 0 O| Observations ......... seeeeeweeens 139 0 
Earthquake Shocks ....... 1843 15 14 8 £159 19 6 
£330 9 9 
— 1850. 
1846. Maintaining the Establishment at 
British Association Catalogue of Kew Observatory ........ secesee 200 18 0 
Stars vsessceeevevsveveerereeet844 211 15 0 | Transit of Earthquake Wayes,.. 50 0 0 


GENERAL STATEMENT, 


ase es 

Periodical Phenomena .,.,........ 15 0 0 
Meteorological Instrument, 

AZOLES wesseseesceecsseenvenscears 2hmei0L. 0 


£345 18 0 


1851. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory (includes part 


of grantin 1849) .........ce0e0 309 2 2 
Theory of Heat ..........s0cee0 foe Pe MEA 
Periodical Phenomena of Animals 

MUDECIAUIES cy adaeseccccaseceacvece 5 0 0 
Vitality of Seeds ....cc.scsscereee 5 6 4 
Influence of Solar Radiation.,..... 30 0 0 
Ethnological Inquiries ..,......... 12 0 0 
Researches on Annelida ......... 10 0 0 

£391 9 7 
1852, 


Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory (including 

balance of grant for 1850) ... 233 17 8 
Experiments on the Conduction 


PRMETEAC Tcadens nas -<ssescencas one. Lee 
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 0 
Geological Map of Ireland ..... Sapa Ol. 0 
Researches on the British Anne- 

11 Oca Ieeee Pree coresasn cece sdavseae £02.00 1'0 
Vitality of Seeds ........ ceacncvees 10 6 2 
Strength of Boiler Plates ......... Gi 10500 

£304 6 7 
1853. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory ..... “acbcknnee 165 0 0 
Experiments on the Influence of 

Solar Radiation............0.08. 15 0 0 
Researches on the British Anne- 

RS Eart tama seis Sia nce sis vsldelass op aieeids 10 0 0 
Dredging on the East Coast of 

EHUAN Gs cccycscesnosascetcesecosee 10)), 0,40 
Ethnological Queries ....... crea PL oy, Oigi0 

£205 0 0 
1854, 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory (including 

balance of former grant) ...... 330 15 4 
Investigations on Flax ..........+8 11 0 0 
Effects of Temperature on 

Wrought Iron . .3..-..00000. eset OS r OL. 0 
Registration of Periodical Pha- 

nomena ...., e'elele nial sinisalelselo'si'e seo lO Om 0 
British Annelida .............00006 10 0 0 
Watalityrol Seeds) ..:.csscssese.+0 itu, io 
Conduction of Heat ............... 4 2 0 

£380 19 7 
1855. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory ...........2... 425 0 0 
Earthquake Movements ........ oe OREO 0 
Physical Aspect of the Moon...... 11 8 5 
Vitality of Seeds ............40. -- 10 7 11 
Mamonthe World.,...s.<c0s.00s 15 0 0 
Ethuological Queries ...... caceen Siento) 
Dredging near Belfast .4........ 4 0 0 

£480 16 4 


iti 


& s d. 
1856. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory :-— 
1854.....£ 75 0 0 
1855......£500 0 i: oer 88 
Strickland’s Ornithological Syno- 

TY MS cseclese pacha ae wamtandudanes vos 100 0.0 
Dredging and Dredging Forms... 913 9 
Chemical Action of Light........ 20 0 0 
Strength of Iron Plates............ 10 0 0 
Registration of Periodical Pheno- 

MMETA® waecleshenseaxeeee abi Beade ses 10 0 0 
Propagation of Salmon .seseeeeeee 10 0 0 

£754 13 9 
1857. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory sescsesesesees . 350 0 0 
Earthquake Wave Experiments 40 0 0 
Dredging near Belfast ....... seeicny item Onn O 
Dredging on the West Coast of 

Scotland......... tessa devsiciiasa 450 UA Ae 
Investigations into the Mollusca 

of California ......... caevacenoens 10 0 0 
Experiments on Flax ........... 5 0 O 
Natural History of Madagascar.. 20 0 O 
Researches on British Annelida 25 0 0 
Report on Natural Products im- 

ported into Liverpool ......... 10 0 0 
Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10 0 0 
Temperature of Mines ,.,... spa a me, 
Thermometers. for Subterranean 

Observations .esccessssseees Gearee (MeOE, nia’ 
Hife=B0dtsisrsssscecnncscadscrescssnestan (01 m0n 0 

£507 15 4 
1858. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory ........ sesease 000 0 
Earthquake Wave Experiments.. 25 0 
Dredging on the West Coast of 

Scotland — cevseressveveceees ida es 10 0 0 
Dredging near Dublin ........-.. AEC a 
Vitality of Seeds” ect ieccssseceee 5 5 0 
Dredging near Belfast ....+....40. 18 13 2 
Report on the British Annelida... 25 0 O 
Experiments on the production 

of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20 0 0 
Report on the Natural Products 

imported into Scotland......... 10 0 0 

£518 18 2 
1859. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 

Kew Observatory ....+666 peeeessie O00 MeiOm nO 
Dredging near Dublin ..........46 15 0 0 
Osteology of Birds,......ssseseseree 50 0 0 
Trish Tunicata .....c.cscecsssesenes 5 0 OU 
Manure Experiments ......00+.0s 20 0 0 
British Medusid@ ...........se0e00e Sy 0220) 
Dredging Committee.......... aceboy Wa 
Steam Vessels’ Performance...... 5 0 0 
Marine Fauna of South and West 

Of Ireland ieecsncsnescave ss eaaesure 19 0 0 
Photographic Chemistry ......... 10 0 0 
Lanarkshire Fossils ....e..s.066 20 0 
Balloon’ AscentS.:cssjscrssseoeserees 09 11 1 

£684 11 1 


—_————EEEe 


liv REPORT—1860. 


1860. & s. d, & s. d. 
Maintaining the Establishment Researches on the Growth of 
of Kew Observatory ..........+0. S00 HO". 0 PJGWts. vscacee-.dacteccesveeteancede 10 0 0 
Dredging near Belfast..........++ 16 6 0 | Researches on the Solubility of 
Dredging in Dublin Bay........... 15 0 0 DHIES=sOistrassssuees-yscsomstersated 30 0 0 
Inquiry into the Performance of Researches on the Constituents 
Steam -vessels...csceseccseseseeeee 124 0 0 Of Manures ..........-csoceesvesoss 25 0 0 
Explorations in the Yellow Sand- Balance of Captive Balloon Ac- 
stone of Dura Den...........0066 20 0 O COUNES, .ccocsccvccscsccnssescocesers 113 6 
Chemico-mechanical Analysis of $1241 7 0 
Rocks and Minerals........s0+++ 25 0 0 areca! 


Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee. 


Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur- 
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting 
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a 
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re- 
mains disposable on each grant. 

Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso- 
ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that 
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be 
ordered by the General Committee. 

In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call 
on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames 
Street, London, for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to 
time be required. 

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate 
the payment of personal expenses to the members. 

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua- 
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be 
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may 
remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object. 


General Meetings. 

On Wednesday, June 27, at 4 p.m., in the Sheldonian Theatre, His Royal 
Highness, the Prince Consort, resigned the office of President to The Lord 
Wrottesley, F.R.S., who took the Chair and delivered an Address, for which 
see page lv. 

On Thursday Evening, June 28, at 85 p.M., a Conversazione took place in 
the University Museum. 

On Friday Afternoon, June 29, at 4 p.m., in the Sheldonian Theatre, the 
Rev. Professor Walker, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on the Physical Con- 
stitution of the Sun. 

On Friday Evening, the University Museum was opened for a Soirée with 
Experiments. 

On Monday Afternoon, July 2, at 2 p.m., in the Sheldonian Theatre, 
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N., delivered a Discourse on Arctic Discovery. 

On Monday Evening, at 8} pP.m., a Conversazione took place in the 
University Museum. 

On Tuesday Evening, July 3, at 8} p.m., the University Museum was 
opened for a Soirée with Microscopes. 

On Wednesday, July 4, at 3 p.m., the concluding General Meeting took 
place in the Sheldonian Theatre, when the Proceedings of the General Com- 
mittee, and the Grants of Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to 
the Members. 

The Meeting was then adjourned to Manchester*. 


* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, the 4th of September, 1861. 


ADDRESS 
BY 


THE RIGHT HON. THE LORD WROTTESLEY. 


GENTLEMEN,—If, on taking this Chair for the first time as your President, 
I do not enlarge upon my deficiencies for adequately filling the responsible 
office to which you have done me the honour to elect me, I hope you will 
believe that I am not the less sensible of them. 

Your last Meeting was held under the Presidency of one not more distin- 
guished by his high rank and exalted station than by his many excellent 
qualities, and the discriminating interest which he has ever manifested in the 
promotion of Art and Science. It was one of the most successful Meetings on 
record. 

We are now once more assembled in this ancient and venerable seat of 
learning ; and the first topic of interest which presents itself to me, who owe 
to Oxford what academic training I have received, is the contrast presented 
by the state of Science and the teaching of Science in this University in the 
Autuinn of the year 1814, when my residence here commenced, and for five 
years alterwards, with its present condition. As the private pupil of the late 
Dr. Kidd, and within a few yards of the spot from which I have now the honour 
to inaugurate the Meeting of this distinguished Association, I first imbibed 
that love of Science from which some of the purest pleasures of my life have 
been derived ; and I cannot mention the name of my former Tutor without 
acknowledging the deep debt of gratitude I owe to the memory of that able, 
conscientious and single-hearted man. 

It was at this period that a small knot of Geologists, headed by Broderip, 
Buckland, the two Conybeares and Kidd, had begun to stimulate the curiosity 
of the Students and resident Graduates by Lectures and Geological excur- 
sions in the neighbourhood of this town. The lively illustrations of Buck- 
land, combined with genuine talent, by degrees attracted crowds to his 
teaching, and the foundations of that interesting science, already advancing 
under the illustrious Cuvier in France, and destinedsoon to spread over Europe, 
were at this time fairly laid in England within these classical Halls. Many 
atime in those days have my studies been agreeably interrupted by the 


lvi REPORT—1860. 


cheerful laugh which invariably accompanied the quaint and witty terms in 
which Buckland usually announced to his brother Geologist some new dis- 
covery, or illustrated the facts and principles of his favourite science. At 
the time, however, to which I refer, the study of physical science was chiefly 
confined to a somewhat scanty attendance on the Chemical Lectures of Dr. 
Kidd, and on those on Experimental Philosophy by Rigaud; and in pure 
mathematics the fluxional notation still kept its ground. In the year 1818 
Vince’s Astronomy, and in the following year the Differential Notation, was first 
introduced in the mathematical examinations for honours. At that time 
that fine foundation the Radcliffe Observatory was wholly inactive; the 
observer was in declining health, and the establishment was neither useful to 
astronomical students, nor did it contribute in any way to the advancement 
of Astronomical Science. Even from the commencement of the present 
century, and in proportion as the standard of acquirement in classical learning 
was gradually raised by the emulation excited by the examinations for 
honours, the attendance on the above-mentioned Lectures gradually declined : 
but a similar cause enhanced the acquirements of students in pure and 
applied Mathematics, and the University began to number among its 
Graduates and Professors men of great eminence in those departments of 
knowledge. Nor were the other sciences neglected ; and as Chairs became 
vacant or new Professorships were established, men of European reputation 
were appointed to fill them. In proof of all this I need only direct. atten- 
tion to the names on the roll of Secretaries, Vice-Presidents and Presidents 
of Sections, to convince you that Oxford now contains among her resident 
Graduates, men amply qualified to establish and advance the scientific fame 
of that University, of which they are the distinguished ornaments. 

On the progress of Astronomy I will, as becomes me, enter into more 
detail, And it is not without pain that I allude to this subject, because I am 
reminded that one has been removed from among us by the hand of death, 
whom I had looked forward to meeting again on this occasion with peculiar 
pleasure. I never knew any one who had the interests of science more truly 
at heart, or laboured more diligently to advance them, than the late Radcliffe 
Observer, Mr. Manuel Johnson. ; By his exertions and indefatigable zeal 
the Radcliffe Observatory was enabled.to take its proper place among the 
Scientific Institutions of the world. By the liberality of the Trustees and 
by the exertion of his influence, new instruments were purchased, and an 
extensive series of valuable astronomical observations was made; and, what 
is quite as important, they were regularly reduced and published. In addi- 
tion to all this, a noble array of self-recording meteorological instruments was 
brought into action, and their records duly reduced and co-ordinated. I was 
nyself a candidate in 1839 for that office to which Mr. Johnson was then 
appointed, and I have often rejoiced that I was not successful, as it would 
have retarded for a time the promotion of one, to whom Astronomy owes a 
deep debt of gratitude. Mr. Johnson was suddenly taken from us at a time 


ADDRESS. vii 


when he was in the full career of his useful labours, and there are few 
Jabourers in science whose loss has been more deplored. The University has 
very lately lost another learned Professor, and myself another valued friend, 
whose contributions to science are well known and duly esteemed. The 
great tragic Poet of Greece introduces his hero accusing his heathen gods 
of rescuing from the grave the vile and worthless, and sending thither the 
good and useful :— 

seers TH OG Oikata Kal Ta xpnoTa 

amrooréAXovaty aéi. 
Our purer faith in meek resignation trusts that they are removed from evil 
to come, and that there at least they rest from their labours—rest from 
earthly toil and trouble, but awake, may be, to higher aims and aspirations, 
and with nobler faculties and duties. 

Although a successor may be appointed to Mr. Johnson, who will, I doubt 
not, admirably discharge the duties of Radcliffe Observer, I fear that the 
Observatory may not continue to maintain its high reputation, unless a suffi- 
cient staff of Assistants be appointed to aid the Observer in his labours. 
There is no mistake more fatal in Astronomy than that of multiplying in- 
strumental means without providing an adequate supply of hands to employ 
them. 

I have already alluded to some particulars in which this great University 
has advanced in the career of scientific improvement, but everything else has 
been somewhat thrown into the shade by the important event of this year, 
the opening of the new Museum. The University could have given no more 
substantial proof of a sincere interest in the diffusion of science than the 
foundation of this noble Institution, and I am sure that among the distin- 
guished cultivators of science here assembled, there is not one who does not 
entertain a hearty desire for the success of the various effurts now in progress 
for the purpose of stimulating our University Students to a closer contempla- 
tion and more diligent study of the gloricus works of Nature; a study, which, 
if prosecuted earnestly, raises us in the scale of human beings and improves 
every moral and intellectual faculty. Towards the attainment of a result so 
much to be desired the Museum will most powerfully contribute, and those 
who frequent it will owe deep obligations to Mr. Hope and the other bene- 
factors who have generously added to its stores. But there are other causes 
in operation which tend to the same end; and among them, in addition to 
such improvements as arise out of the changes consequent on the recent 
Act of Parliament, may be mentioned the alteration in the distribution of 
Dniversity Honours. 

The institution of the School of Physical Science forms a most important 
feature in the recent changes, and will doubtless be productive of good results, 
provided that sufficient encouragement by way of reward be held out to 
those whose tastes lead them to devote themselves to those departments of 
knowledge, and that the compulsory arrangements in respcet of other studies 


lvili REPORT—1860. 


allow sufficient time to the student to accomplish his object. The great 
majority of physical students must necessarily belong to that class who have 
their subsistence to earn ; and however earnest may be their zeal for mental 
improvement, there will be few candidates for the honours of the Physical 
School unless due encouragement be given to excellence in that department. 
It was therefore with sincere pleasure that I learnt that three Fellowships 
had been founded at Magdalen College as prizes for proficiency in Natural 
Science; and that at the same College, and at Christ Church and Queen’s, 
Scholarships and Exhibitions had been provided for students who evince 
during their examinations the greatest aptitude for such studies. Moreover, 
the acquisition of a Radcliffe travelling Fellowship has been made to depend 
upon obtaining distinction in the School of Natural Science. In addition to 
all this, that beneficent and enlightened lady, Miss Burdett Coutts, has founded 
two Scholarships with the view of extending among the Clergy educated at 
the University a knowledge of Geology. Great hopes are justly excited in 
the minds of all well-wishers to the University by these events, and by reflec- 
tion on the great change of opinion which must have taken place since the 
period when Dr. Kidd, with the aid of Dr. Daubeny, Mr. Greswell and others, 
in vain attempted to raise a small sum by private subscription for building a 
modest receptacle for the various collections of Natural History. How little 
could these public-spirited individuals have foreseen, that within a few short 
years a sum approaching to £100,000 would be appropriated to the building 
and furnishing that splendid monument of Oxford's good will to science, the 
New Museum ! 

It would not be right, however, if, while speaking in just and sincere terms 
of praise of all that excites my admiration in the late proceedings at Oxford, 
I were to withhold the honest expression of my opinion on points on which 
I feel compelled to differ from the course pursued. I will therefore refer to 
two measures, one of which especially I cannot but regard as a mistake, 
The first is the repeal of the statute which enforced attendance on two courses 
of Professorial lectures ; a requirement, which may have had no small influ- 
ence in creating a taste for natural science among that large class of students, 
whose only object it is to obtain, in a creditable manner if possible, but at all 
events to obtain, the distinction of an Academical degree. At the same time 
I cannot but be sensible that the amount of instruction imparted in this way, 
even if the attendance were much more than nominal, must necessarily have 
been small, not from any want of competency in the teachers, but from the 
inherent defect of the system of lectures unaccompanied by examinations ; 
and on this account I the less regret the change. 

The second, and more serious mistake, in my humble opinion, is the re- 
jection by the Congregation in 1857 of the proposal of the Hebdomadal 
Council, that the Undergraduate, after passing his first two classical exami- 
nations, should be permitted to select his own line of study, and submit 
himself at his option to a final examination in any one of the four Schools, 


ADDRESS. lix 


that is, the Classical, the Mathematical, History and Law, or Natural Science. 
The Hebdomadal Council were I think right in believing that such mental 
discipline as classical study can impart—and far be it from me to undervalue 
it in the least—would be sufficiently secured by the classical requirements of 
the two first examinations; aud that the study of Mathematics and the Natural 
Sciences, besides imparting much valuable information, which might be exten- 
sively utilized in after-life, might equally be viewed as an important means 
of improving the intellectual faculties. There is another consideration which 
must not be lost sight of in deciding on the policy of the course then pursued. 
I think that it cannot in fairness be expected that a young man of the average 
abilities of those who contend for honours, and who is called upon to pass 
two classical examinations, and prepare for a third, before he is allowed to 
follow the bent of his genius and apply himself to his favourite study, can 
find time to attain a sufficient proficiency in it to pass a really creditable 
examination ; accordingly the necessary result will be that the Examiners will 
be obliged to lower the standard of honour, the rather that most of the students 
now come to the University without having acquiredeventheelements of scien- 
tific knowledge, and thus the first class may almost cease to be a distinction 
worth attainment. 

I cannot take leave of recent University changes without adverting to that 
great, that noble step, the institution of the Middle Class Examinations, 
whereby Oxford has furnished substantial aid to those more humble aspirants 
to knowledge, by whom a University education, however much desired, is 
quite unattainable. Whether this movement be viewed in its moral effect, as 
showing a kindly sympathy of the higher intellectual class with the struggling 
but deserving children of a lower sphere, or as the best expedient for bringing 
about a complete reform in our educational establishments, and therefore a 
great engine for advancing popular education—whether this grand and 
liberal step be viewed in one or both these aspects, it has given the most 
unmixed and heartfelt satisfaction to all who have the moral and mental 
improvement of the nation sincerely at heart; and greatly do I rejoice that 
such a satisfactory proof should have been given of a desire to make Uni- 
versity Institutions a general national blessing. 

Oxford, then, has shown herself fully equal to her glorious mission, and it 
was only a fitting sequel to such enlightened conduct, that she should be 
entrusted with the grateful task of educating the Heir apparent to the Throne 
of the most popular Sovereign who ever swayed the sceptre of this vast 
_ Empire. 

I shall perhaps be forgiven if my former connexion with Oxford, and the 
interest which I must ever take in everything appertaining to my own Uni-. 
versity, have induced me to dwell somewhat at length on the above matters. 
It is now time that I should direct my attention to the general domain of 
science ; but more particularly to that department to which my own labours, 
humble though they be, have been more especially devoted,—I mean the 


Ix REPORT—1860. 


science of Astronomy, a science, which, whether we consider the surpassing 
interest of the subjects with which it is conversant, or tbe lofty nature of the 
speculations to which its inquiries lead, must ever occupy a most distinguished, 
if not the first place among all others. 

In a discourse addressed in May 1859 to the Imperial Academy of 
Sciences of Vienna, by the distinguished Astronomer Littrow, a very full ac- 
count is given of the voluntary contributions of the private observers of 
all nations to the extension of the science of Astronomy ; and this discourse 
concludes with a remarkable sentence, of which our English Amateurs may 
well be proud: he expresses a hope that on the next occasion in which he 
shall be called upon to dilate on the same theme, he shall not as then have 
to mention English names in such preponderating numbers. 

At the beginning of the year 1820, when the Astronomical Society was 
founded, the private Observatories in this country were very few in number. 
The establishment of that Society gave a most remarkable stimulus to the 
cultivation of the science which it was intended to promote. 1 can give no 
better proof of this than the fact thatthe Nautical Almanac now contains a 
list of no less than twelve private Observatories in the United Kingdom, at 
nearly all of which some good work has been done; and in addition to this, 
some Observatories, which have been since discontinued, have performed most 
important services—I may instance that of the two Herschels at Slough, and 
that of Admiral Smyth at Bedford. 

It may not be uninteresting if I describe the nature and utility of some 
of the results which these several establishments have furnished to the world: 
I say the world advisedly, for scientific facts are the common inheritance of 
all mankind. 

But first a werd as to the peculiar province of the observatories which are 
properly called ‘ public,” such as the far-famed Institution at Greenwich. 
Their task is now more peculiarly to establish with the last degree of accu- 
racy the places of the principal heavenly bodies of our own system, and of 
the brighter or fundamental fixed stars, which are about 100 in number. 
But in the early stages of Astronomy, we were necessarily indebted to public 
Observatories for all the data of the science. On the other hand, their vo- 
luntary rivals occupy that portion of the great astronomical field which is 
untilled by the professional observer; roving over it according to their own 
free will and pleasure, and cultivating with industrious hand such plants as 
the more continuous and severe labours of the public Astronomer leave no 
time or opportunity to bring to maturity. 

The observations of our private observers have been chiefly devoted to 
seven important objects :— 

First. The observing and mapping of the smaller stars, under which term 
I include all those which do not form the peculiar province of the public 
observer. 

Secondly. The observations of the positions and distances of double stars. 


ADDRESS. Xl 


Thirdly. Observations, delineations, and Catalogues of the Nebule. 

Fourthly. Observations of the minor planets. 

Fifthly. Cometary observations. 

Sixthly. Observations of the solar spots, and other phenomena on the 
Sun’s disc. 

Seventhly. Occultations of stars by the Moon, eclipses of the heavenly 
bodies, and other occasional extra-meridional observations. 

And first as to cataloguing and mapping the smaller stars. This means, 
as you know, the accurate determination by astronomical observation of the 
places of those objects, as referred to certain assumed fixed points in the 
heavens. The first Star Catalogue worthy to be so called, is that which goes 
by the name of Flamsteed’s, or the British Catalogue. It contains above 
$000 stars, and is the produce of the labours of the first Astronomer Royal 
of Greenwich, labours prosecuted under circumstances of great difficulty, 
and the results of which were not given to the world in a complete form till 
many years had elapsed from the time the observations were made, which 
was during the latter half of the seventeenth century. About the middle 
of the eighteenth century, the celebrated Dr. Bradley, who also filled the post 
of Astronomer Royal, observed an almost equally extensive Catalogue 
of Stars, and the beginning of the nineteenth century gave birth to that of 
Piazzi of Palermo. These three are the most celebrated of what may be 
now termed the ancient Catalogues. About the year 1830 the attention of 
modern astronomers was more particularly directed to the expediency of re- 
observing the stars in these three Catalogues, a task which was much faci- 
litated by the publication of a very valuable work of the Astronomical 
Society, which rendered the calculations of the observations to be made com- 
paratively easy, and accordingly observations were commenced and com- 
pleted in several public and private Observatories, from which some curious 
results were deduced, as e. @., sundry stars were found to be missing, and 
Others to have what is called proper motion. And now a word as to the 
utility of this course of observation. It is well observed by Sir John 
Herschel, “ that the stars are the landmarks of the Universe; every well-deter- 
mined star is a point of departure which can never deceive the astronomer, 
geographer, navigator, or surveyor.” We must have these fixed points in 
order to refer to them all the observations of the wandering heavenly bodies, 
the planets and the comets. By these fixed marks we determine the situation 
of places on the earth’s surface, and of ships on the ocean. When the places of 
the stars have been registered, celestial charts are constructed ; and by com- 
paring these with the heavens, we at once discover whether any new body 
be present in the particular locality under observation: and thus have most 
of the fifty-seven small or minor planets between Mars and Jupiter been 
discovered. ‘Ihe observations, however, of these smaller stars, and the re- 
gistry of their places in Catalogues, and the comparisons of the results ob- 
tained at different and distant periods, have revealed another extraordinary 


Ixii REPORT—1860. 


fact, no less than that our own Sun is not fixed in space, but that it is con- 
stantly moving forward towards a point in the constellation Hercules, at the 
rate, as it is supposed, of about 18,000 miles an hour, carrying with it the 
whole planetary and cometary system; and if our Sun moves, probably all 
the other stars or suns move also, and the whole universe is in a perpetual 
state of motion through space. 

The second subject to which the attention of private observers has been 
more particularly directed, is that of double or multiple stars, or those which, 
being situated very close to one another, appear single to the naked eye, but 
when viewed through powerful telescopes are seen to consist of two or more 
stars. The measuring the angles and distances from one another of the two 
or more component stars of these systems, has led to the discovery that many 
of these very close stars are in fact acting as suns to one another, and revol- 
ving round their common centre of gravity, each of them probably carrying 
with it a whole system of planets and comets, and perhaps each carried for- 
ward through space like our own sun. It became then a point of great in- 
terest to determine, whether bodies so far removed from us as these systems, 
observed Newton’s law of gravity, and to this end it was necessary to observe 
the angles and distances of a great number of these double stars scattered 
everywhere through the heavens, for the purpose of obtaining data to com- 
pute their orbits. This has been done, and chiefly by private observers; and 
the result is that these distant bodies are found to be obedient to the same 
laws that prevail in our own system. : 

The Nebulz are, as it were, systems or rings of stars scattered through space 
at incredible distances from our star system, and perhaps from one another; 
and there are many of these mysterious clouds of light, and there may be 
endless invisible regions of space similarly tenanted. Now the nearest fixed 
star of our star system whose distance has been measured, is the brightest in the 
constellation Centaur, one of the Southern constellations, and this nearest is 
yet so far removed, that it takes light, travelling at the rate of about 192,000 
miles per second, three years to arrive at the earth from that star. When 
we gaze at it, therefore, we see it only as it existed three years ago; some 
great convulsion of nature may have since destroyed it. But there are many 
bright stars in our own system, whose distance is so much greater than this, 
as a Cygni, for example, that astronomers have not succeeded in measuring it. 
What, then, must be the distance of these nebule, with which so much space 
is filled; every component star in which may be a sun, with its own system 
of planets and comets revolving round it, each planet inhabited by myriads 
of inhabitants! What an overpowering view does this give us of the extent 
of creation! The component stars of these nebulz are so faint and appa- 
rently so close together, that it is necessary to use telescopes of great power, 
and with apertures so large as to admit a great amount of light, for their ob- 
servation. We owe it more especially to four individuals, that telescopes 
have been constructed, at a great cost and with great mechanical skill, suf- 


ADDRESS. xiii 


ficiently powerful to penetrate these depths of space. Those four indivi- 
duals are the Herschels, father and son, Lord Rosse, and Mr. Wm. Lassell. 
That praiseworthy nobleman, Lord Rosse, began his meritorious career by 
obtaining a First Class at this University, and has, as you know, spent large 
sums of money and displayed considerable mechanical genius in erecting, 
near his own Castle in Ireland, an instrument of far greater power than any 
other in the world; and with it he has observed these nebule, and employed 
skilful artists to delineate their forms: and he has moreover made the very 
curious discovery, that some of them are arranged ina spiral form, a fact 
which gives rise to much interesting speculation on the kind of forces by 
which their parts are held together. It were much to be wished that obser- 
vations similar to these, and with instruments of nearly the same power, 
should be made of the Southern nebule also; that this generation might 
be able to leave to posterity a record of their present configurations. The 
distinguished Astronomer, Mr. Wm. Lassell, the discoverer of Neptune’s 
satellite, has just finished at his own cost an instrument equal to the task, 
mounted equatorially; and I am not without hope that it may, at perhaps 
no very distant period, be devoted to its accomplishment. A recent com- 
munication from him to the Astronomical Society expresses satisfaction with 
the mounting of his instrument, and after many trials its great speculum has 
at last come forth nearly perfect from his laboratory. 

I am, however, warned by the lapse of time, that it will not be possible for 
me to exhaust the whole field, the limits of which I have sketched, in which 
private enterprise has been assiduously at work to enlarge the bounds of 
astronomical knowledge. I will therefore pass at once to the two most in- 
teresting subjects which remain, the observations of Comets, and of peculiar 
appearances on the Sun’s disc. 

Of all the phenomena of the heavens, there are none which excite more 
general interest than comets, those vagrant strangers, the gipsies as they 
have been termed of our solar system, which often come we know not whence, 
and at periods when we least expect them: and such is the effect produced 
by the strangeness and suddenness of their appearance, and the mysterious 
nature of some of the facts connected with them, that while in ignorant times 
they excited alarm, they now sometimes seduce men to leave other employ- 
ments and become Astronomers. Now, though the larger and brighter 
comets naturally excite most general public interest, and are really valuable 
to astronomers, as exhibiting appearances which tend to throw light on the 
internal structure of these bodies, and the nature of the forces which must 
be in operation to produce the extraordinary phenomena observed, yet some 
of the smaller telescopic comets are, perhaps, more interesting in a physical 
point of view. Thus the six periodical comets, the orbits of which have been 
determined with tolerable accuracy, and which return at stated intervals, are 
extremely useful as being likely to disclose facts, of which but for them we 
should possibly have ever rernained ignorant. Thus, for example, when the 


Ixiv REPORT—1860. ; 


comet of Encke, which performs its revolution in a period of a little more than 
three years, was observed at each return, it disclosed the important and unex- 
pected fact, that its motion was continually accelerated. At each successive 
approach to the Sun it arrives at its perihelion sooner and sooner ; and there 
is no way of accounting for this so satisfactory as that of supposing that the 
space, in which the planetary and cometary motions are performed, is every- 
where pervaded by a very rarefied atmosphere or ether, so thin as to exercise 
no perceptible effect on the movements of massive solid bodies like the planets, 
but substantial enough to exert a very important influence on more attenuated 
substances moving with great velocity. ‘The effect of the resistance of the 
ether is to retard the tangential motion, and allow the attractive force of 
gravity to draw the body nearer to the Sun, by which the dimensions of the 
orbit are continually contracted and the velocity in it augmented. The final 
result will be that after the lapse of ages this comet will fall into the Sun; 
this body, a mere hazy cloud, continually flickering as it were like a celestial 
moth round the great luminary, is at some distant period destined to be mer- 
cilessly consumed. Now the discovery of this ether is deeply interesting as 
bearing on other important physical questions, such as the undulatory theory 
of light; and the probability of the future absorption of comets by the Sun 
is important as connected with a very interesting speculation by Professor 
William Thomson, who has suggested that the heat and light of the Sun may 
be from time to time replenished by the falling in and absorption of count- 
less meteors which circulate round him; and here we have a cause revealed 
which may accelerate or produce such an event. 

In the progress of science it often happens that a particular class of obser- 
vations, all at once, and owing to some peculiar circumstance, attracts very 
general attention and becomes deeply interesting. This has been the case 
within the last few years in reference to observations of the Sun's dise, which 
were at one time made by very few individuals, and were indeed very much 
neglected both by professional and amateur Astronomers. During this sea- 
son of comparative neglect, there were not, however, wanting some enthusiastic 
individuals, who were in silence and seclusion obtaining data of great import- 


ance. 
On the 1st of September last, at 118 18™ a.M., a distinguished Astronomer, 


Mr. Carrington, had directed his telescope to the Sun, and was engaged in 
observing his spots, when suddenly two intensely luminous bodies burst into 
view on its surface. They moved side by side through a space of about 
35,000 miles, first increasing in brightness, then fading away; in 5 minutes 
they had vanished. They did not alter the shape of a group of large black 
spots which lay directly in their paths. Momentary as this remarkable phe- 
nomenon was, it was fortunately witnessed and confirmed, as to one of the 
bright lights, by another observer, Mr. Hodgson at Highgate, who by a 
happy coincidence had also his telescope directed to the great luminary at 
the same instant. It may be, therefore, that these two gentlemen have 


ADDRESS. Ixv 


actually witnessed the process of feeding the Sun, by the fall of meteoric 
matter; but however this may be, it is a remarkable circumstance, that the 
observations at Kew show that on the very day, and at the very hour and 
minute of this unexpected and curious phenomenon, a moderate but marked 
magnetic disturbance took place; and a storm or great disturbance of the 
magnetic elements occurred four hours after midnight, extending to the 
southern hemisphere. Thus is exhibited a seeming connexion between mag- 
netic phenomena and certain actions taking place on the Sun’s disc—a con- 
nexion, which the observations of Schwabe, compared with the magnetical 
records of our Colonial Observatories, had already rendered nearly certain. 
The remarkable results derived from the comparison of the magnetical 
observations of Captain Maguire on the shores of the Polar Sea, with the 
contemporaneous records of these observatories, have been described by me 
on a former occasion. The delay of the Government in re-establishing the 
Colonial Observatories has hitherto retarded that further development of the 
magnetic laws, which would doubtless have resulted from the prosecution of 
such researches. 

We may derive an important lesson from the facts above alluded to. 
Here are striking instances in which independent observations of natural 
phenomena have been strangely and quite unexpectedly connected together : 
this tends powerfully to prove, if proof were necessary, that if we are really 
ever to attain toa satisfactory knowledge of Nature’s laws, it must be accom- 
plished by an assiduous watching of all her phenomena, in every department 
into which Natural Science is divided. Experience shows that such obser- 
vations, if made with all those precautions which long practice combined 
with natural acuteness teaches, often lead to discoveries, which cannot be at 
all foreseen by the observers, though many years may elapse before the 
whole harvest is reaped. 

I cannot allude to the subject of Arctic voyages without congratulating 
the Association on the safe return of Sir Leopold M‘Clintock and his gallant 
band, after accomplishing safely and satisfactorily the object of their inter- 
esting mission. The great results accomplished with such small means, and 
chiefly by the display of those qualities of indomitable courage, energy and 
perseverance which never fail the British seaman in the hour of need, are the 
theme of general admiration ; but I may be permitted in passing to express 
some regret, that it was left to the devoted affection of a widowed lady, 
slightly aided by private contributions, to achieve a victory in which the 
honour of the nation was so largely involved,—the rather that the danger of 
the enterprise,—the pretext for non-interference—was much enhanced 
thereby, and the accessions to our scientific and geographical knowledge 
proportionably curtailed. 

The instances to which I have alluded are only a few of many which 
could be adduced of an insufficient appreciation of certain objects of 
scientific research. Large sums are expended on matters connected 

e 


lxvi REPORT—1860. 


with science, but this is done on no certain and uniform system; and 
there is no proper security that those who are most competent to give good 
advice on such questions, should be the actual persons consulted. It was 
partly with the hope of remedying these defects and of generally improving 
the position of science in the country in its relation to the Government, that 
the Parliamentary Committee of this Association was established; and it 
was partly with the same hope that I was induced to accept the honourable 
office of President of the Royal Society, though conscious at the time that 
there were very many far better qualified than myself to hold it. Many of 
those whom I am now addressing are aware of the steps which were adopted 
by the Parliamentary Committee, and subsequently by the Committee of 
Recommendations of this Association, for the purpose of collecting the 
opinions of the cultivators of science on the question,—- Whether any measures 
could be adopted by Government or Parliament that would improve our 
position? The question was afterwards referred to and discussed by thie 
Council of the Royal Society, who, on the 15th of January, 1857, agreed 
upon twelve resolutions in reply thereto. These resolutions recommend, 
among other things, that Government grants in aid of local funds should be 
applied towards the teaching of science in schools, the formation of Provincial 
Museums and Libraries, and the delivery of lectures by competent persons, 
accompanied by examinations; and finally, that some existing scientific body, 
or some Board to be created for the purpose, should be formally recognized, 
which might advise the Government on all matters connected with science, 
and especially on the prosecution, reduction, and publication of scientific 
researches, and the amount of Parliamentary or other grants in aid thereof ; 
also on the general principles to be adopted in reference to public scientific 
appointments, and on the measures necessary for the more general diffusion 
of a knowledge of physical science among the nation at large; and which 
might also be consulted by the Government on the grants of pensions to the 
cultivators of science. 'I was requested to transmit these resolutions to Lord 
Palmerston, and also to the Parliamentary Committee of this Association. 
Since that period these resolutions have been discussed by that Committee ; 
but partly because some of its most influential members have expressed 
grave doubts as to the expediency of urging their adoption at all, and partly 
from the want of a favourable opportunity for bringing them forward, nothing 
further has as yet been done. I thought, however, that the time was arrived 
at which it was only proper that I should explain the steps which had been 
already taken, and the actual position in which the question now stands. If 
it be true, as some of our friends imagine, that the recognition of such a body 
as has been above described, however useful it might prove if the public 
were disposed to put confidence in its suggestions, would only augment that 
feeling of jealousy which is disposed to view every application for aid to 
scientific research in the light of a request for some personal boon, to be 
bestowed on some favoured individual, then indeed its institution would not 


—" 


ADDRESS. Ixvil 


be expedient. I only wish that persons who entertain such views, would pay 
some attention to the working of the Government Grant Committee of the 
Royal Society, a body composed of forty-two persons selected from among 
the most eminent cultivators of science, and which is entrusted with the 
distribution of an annual sum of £1000, placed by Parliament at the disposal 
of the Royal Society at the suggestion of Lord John Russell, in aid of 
scientific inquiries. One of the rules of that Commiitee is, that no sum 
whatever shall be given to defray the merely personal expenses of the 
experimenters ; all is spent on materials and the construction or purchase of 
instruments, except in a very few and rare instances in which travelling ex- 
penses form the essential feature of the outlay. A list of the objects to which 
the grants are devoted has been published by Parliament; among them are 
interesting investigations into the laws of heat, the strength of materials used 
in building, the best form of boilers, from the bursting of which so many 
fatal accidents are continually occurring, the electric conductivity of metals, 
so important for telegraphic communication, and into many other questions, 
in the solution of which the public generally have the deepest interest. The 
cost of these researches has been defrayed by these valuable grants. They 
have provided also for the construction of better and standard meteorological 
and magnetical instruments, for the execution of valuable drawings of scarce 
fossils and zoological specimens collected with great labour by distinguished 
naturalists, for the reduction and publication of astronomical observations by 
some of our most highly esteemed Astronomers, and for physiological re- 
searches which have an important bearing on our knowiedge of the human 
frame. Time indeed would fail me were I to attempt to describe all the good 
done and perhaps evil prevented by the distribution of these grants; and 
yet no portion of the money can be said to be really received by those to 
whom it is appropriated, inasmuch as it is all spent in the various means and 
appliances of research; in short, to quote from a letter addressed to the 
Secretary of the Treasury, at a time when the grant was temporarily withheld, 
“by the aid of this contribution, the Government has, in fact, obtained for 
the advancement of science and the national character, the personal and 
gratuitous services of men of first-rate eminence, which, without this 
comparatively small assistance, would not have been so applied.” I think 
that we were justified in terming this assistance small; for it is really so 
in comparison with the amount of other sums which are applied to analogous 
objects, but without that wholesome control of intelligent distributors, 
thoroughly and intimately conversant with the characters and competency of 
those who apply for the grants. The recognition of such a Board as has 
been sketched out by the Council of the Royal Society, may not lead to 
a greater expenditure of public money, indeed it is much more likely to 
curtail it; as some who now apply for aid through the interest of persons 
having influence with those in authority, who are generally but ill-informed 
on the subject-matter of the application, would hesitate long before they 
e2 


[xvill REPORT—1860. 


made a similar request to those who are thoroughly conversant with it; and it 
is on this account that comparatively few of the applications to the Govern- 
ment Grant Committee are rejected. Moreover, inasmuch as every grant 
passed by the proposed Board would afterwards receive the jealous scrutiny 
of Parliament, whose sanction must of course be obtained, I am disposed to 
think that were I to support the establishment of such a scientifie Council, or 
the formal recognition by the State of some existing scientific body in that 
capacity, I should be advocating that which would prove a valuable addition 
to the Institutions of my country. 

Before I finally conclude my observations on the important question I 
have introduced to your notice, and on which perhaps I have already said 
too much at the risk of wearying you, I must guard myself against one 
misapprehension, and that is, that we are anxious to obtain a large augmenta- 
tion of the £1000 now voted by Parliament. This is by no means our wish ; 
that annual sum is in ordinary years sufficient, and sometimes more than 
sufficient, and there is nothing that would be more deprecated than any 
large increase; but there is a very general feeling among those most 
competent to form an opinion on these matters, that when the well-con- 
sidered interests of science and the national good demand an extraordinary 
outlay, such as cannot be defrayed out of the proceeds of the ordinary yearly 
grant,—as, for example, for surveying and exploring expeditions, for the 
establishment and maintenanee of magnetic observatories, for the purchase 
of costly astronomical instruments, for expensive astronomical excursions, 
such as that to Teneriffe,—that the expediency of the grant is more likely to 
be properly investigated and tested, if referred to those whose avocations have 
given them the requisite knowledge, than if the concession or rejection of the 
proposal be permitted to depend on such accidents, as, whether this or that 
individual apply, or this or that statesman fill the office of Chancellor of the 
Exchequer. 

I trust that I may be pardoned the long digression in which I have 
indulged, in consideration of the importance of the subject. 

Having detailed some of the valuable services of our amateur Astronomers, 
let me not be accused of being unjust to the professional contributors to the 
data of that noble science. Most valuable Star Catalogues have resulted from 
the labours of our public Observatories, and from Greenwich in particular. 
There are also two Observatories which have, as it were, a quasi public 
character, viz. the Radcliffe Observatory and that of Armagh, which have 
contributed much to this department of Astronomy. Your former President, 
the accomplished and learned Dr. Robinson of Armagh, has lately presented 
to the astronomical world a Catalogue of the places of more than 5000 stars, 
and in so doing has conferred a most important benefit on his favourite 
science. 

But it would be an unpardonable omission were I to neglect to express our 
gratitude to our great National Institution at Greenwich, for the manner in 


ADDRESS. xix 


which it has consistently discharged the task imposed upon it by its founder 
and those who inaugurated its first proceedings. The duty assigned to it 
was “to rectify the tables of the motions of the heavens and the places of 
the fixed stars, in order to find out the so much desired longitude at sea, for 
perfecting the art of navigation ;” and gloriously has it executed its task. 
For two centuries it has been at work, endeavouring to give to the determi- 
nations of the places of the principal fixed stars and of the heavenly bodies 
of our own solar system, and more especially of the Moon, the utmost degree 
of precision; and during the same period, the master minds of Europe have 
been engaged in perfecting the analytical theory, by which the many and 
most perplexing inequalities of the Moon’s motion must be accounted for 
and represented, before Tables can be constructed giving the place of our 
satellite with that accuracy that the modern state of science demands. 

The very important task of calculating such Tables has just been finished. 
Our able and accomplished Director of the National Observatory, Mr. Airy, 
had caused all the observations of the Moon made at Greenwich, from 1750 
to 1830, to be reduced upon one uniform system, employing constants 
derived from the best modern researches; and a distinguished Danish Pro- 
fessor, who had been for some time engaged in calculating new Tables of the 
Moon, availed himself of the data so furnished. Professor Hansen happily 
brought to his task all the accomplishments of a practised observer, and of 
one of the most able analysts of modern times, combined with the most 
determined industry and perseverance. In the completion of it he was 
liberally assisted by our Government, at a time when an unhappy war had 
deprived the Danish Government of the means of further aiding their Pro- 
fessor, and a great astronomical work had been suspended for want of £300, 
a sum which many do not hesitate to spend on the purchase of some useless 
luxury. Professor Hansen’s Tables are now finished and published. They 
agree admirably with the Greenwich Observations with which they have 
been compared, and the mode of their execution has been approved by those 
competent to express an opinion on such a subject. They have been 
rewarded also with the Gold Medal of the Astronomical Society, a distinction 
never lightly bestowed. 

In paying this tribute to the merit of Professor Hansen, I must not be 
understood as wishing to ignore, far less depreciate, that of three very emi- 
nent geometers—Plana, Lubbock, and Pontécoulant, who have devoted 
years of anxious and perhaps ill-requited labour to the investigation of the 
Lunar inequalities, but who have never yet embodied the results in the only 
form useful to Navigation, that of Tables. 

A curious controversy has lately arisen on the subject of the acceleration 
of the Moon's motion, which is now exciting great interest among mathe- 
maticians and physical astronomers. Professor Adams and M. Delaunay 
take one view of the question; MM. Plana, Pontécoulant, and Hansen the 

other. Mr. Airy, Mr. Main the President of theAstronomical Society, and 


lxx REPORT—1860. 


Sir John Lubbock support the conclusions at which Professor Adams has 
arrived. The question in dispute is strictly mathematical; and it is a very 
remarkable circumstance in the history of Astronomy, that such great names 
should be ranged on opposite sides, seeing that the point invalved is really 
no other than whether certain analytical operations have been conducted on 
right principles ; and it is a proof therefore, if any were wanting, of the extra- 
ordinary complexity and difficulty of these transcendental inquiries. The 
controversy is of the following nature :—The Moon’s motion round the Earth, 
which would be otherwise uniform, is disturbed by the Sun’s attraction ; any 
cause therefore which affects the amount of that attraction affects also the 
Moon’s motion: now, as the excentricity of the Earth’s orbit is gradually 
decreasing, the average distance of the Sun is slightly increasing every year, 
and his disturbing force becomes less; hence the Moon is brought nearer the 
Earth, but at the rate of lessthan one inch yearly ; her gravitation towards the 
Earth is greater, and her motion is proportionably accelerated. It is on the 
secular acceleration of the Moon’s mean motion, arising from this minute 
yearly approach, that the dispute has arisen ; so infinitesimally small are the 
quantities within the reach of modern analysis. Mr. Adams asserts that his 
predecessors have improperly omitted the consideration of the effect produced 
by the action of that part of the Sun’s disturbing force which acts in the 
direction of a tangent to the Moon’s orbit, and which increases the velocity ; 
his opponents deny that it is necessary to take this into account at all. Had 
not M. Delaunay, an able French analyst, by a perfectly independent pro- 
cess, confirmed the results of Professor Adams, we should have had the 
English and Continental Astronomers waging war on an algebraical question. 
On the other hand, however, the computations of the ancient Lunar Eclipses 
support the views of the Continent; but if Mr. Adams’s mathematics are 
correct, this only shows that there must be other causes in operation as yet 
undiscovered, which influence the result; and it is not at all unlikely that 
this most curious and interesting controversy will eventually lead to some 
important discovery in Physical Astronomy. 

You are aware that at the suggestion of Sir John Herschel an instrument 
was constructed for the Kew Observatory, to which the name of Photohelio- 
graph has been given, because it is adapted solely to the purpose of obtaining 
photographic representations of the appearances on the Sun’s disc. Many 
difficulties have been encountered in the use of this instrument, but by the 
zealous exertions of the late Mr. Welsh, Mr. Beckley, and Mr. De la Rue, 
they have been overcome. It is to the last-named gentleman, so distinguished 
for his successful prosecution of celestial photography, that the Royal Society 
have entrusted a grant of money to enable him to transport the Photohelio- 
graph to Spain, to observe the total eclipse of the Sun, which is now 
approaching, and great interest will attach to records of the phenomena of 
the eclipse thus obtained. 

In Chemistry I am informed that great activity has been displayed, espe- 


ADDRESS. lxx1 


cially in the organic department of the science. For several years past pro- 
cesses of substitution (or displacement of one element or organic group by 
another element or group more or less analogous) have been the main agents 
employed in investigation, and the results to which they have led have been 
truly wonderful ; enabling the chemist to group together separate compounds 
of comparatively simple constitution into others much more complex, and 
thus to imitate, up to a certain point, the phenomena which take place within 
the growing plant or animal. It is not indeed to be anticipated that the 
chemist should ever be able to produce by the operations of the laboratory 
the arrangement of the elements in the forms of the vegetable cell or the 
animal fibre; but he may hope to succeed in preparing some of the complex 
results of secretion or of chemical changes produced within the living 


organism,—changes, which furnish definite crystallizable compounds, such 
as the formiates and the acetates, and which he has actually obtained by 


operations independent of the plant or the animal. 

Hofmann, in pursuing the chemical investigation of the remarkable com- 
pound which he has termed Triethylphosphine, has obtained some very 
singular compound ammonias. Triethylphosphine is a body which takes fire 
spontaneously when its vapour is mixed with oxygen, at a temperature a little 
above that of the body. It may be regarded as ammonia in which an atom 
of phosphorus has taken the place of nitrogen, and in which the place of each 
of the three atoms of hydrogen in ammonia is supplied by ethyl, the peculiar 
hydrocarbon of ordinary alcohol. From this singular base Hofmann has 
succeeded in procuring other coupled bases, which though they do not cor- 
respond to any of the natural alkalies of the vegetable kingdom, such as 
morphia, quinia, or strychnia, yet throw some light upon the mode in which 
complex bodies more or less resembling them have been formed. 

The power which nitrogen possesses of forming a connecting link between 
the groups of substances of comparatively simple constitution, has been 
remarkably exemplified by the discovery of a new class of amide acids by 
Griess, in which he has pointed out a new method, which admits of very 
general application, of producing complex bodies related to the group of 
acids, in some measure analogous to the Poly-ammonias of Hofmann. 

Turning to the practical applications of Chemistry, we may refer to the 
beautiful dyes now extracted from aniline, an organic base formerly obtained 
as a chemical curiosity from the products of the distillation of coal-tar, but 
now manufactured by the hundred-weight in consequence of the extensive 
demand for the beautiful colours known as Mauve, Magenta, and Solferino, 
which are prepared by the action of oxidizing agents, such as bichromate of 
potash, corrosive sublimate, and iodide of mercury upon aniline. 

Nor has the Inorganic department of Chemistry been deprived of its due 
share of important advances. Schédnbein has continued his investigations 
upon ozone, and has added many new facts to our knowledge of this 
interesting substance; and Andrews and Tait, by their elaborate investigations, 


lxxii REPORT—-1860. 


have shown that ozone, whether admitted to be an allotropic modification of 
oxygen or not, is certainly much more dense than oxygen in its ordinary 
condition. 

In Metallurgy we may point to the investigations of Deville upon the 
platinum group of metals, which are especially worthy of remark on account 
of the practical manner in which he has turned to account the resources of 
the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, as an agent which must soon be very generally 
adopted for the finer description of metallurgic operations at high tempera- 
tures. By using lime as the material of his crucibles and as the support for 
the metals upon which he is operating, several very important practical 
advantages have been obtained. The material is sufficiently infusible to 
resist the intense heat employed ; it is a sufficiently bad conductor of heat 
to economize very perfectly the high temperature which is generated ; and 
it may be had sufficiently free from foreign admixture to prevent it from 
contaminating the metals upon which the operator is employed. 

The bearing of some recent geological discoveries on the great question 
of the high antiquity of Man was brought before your notice at your last 
Meeting at Aberdeen by Sir Charles Lyell in his opening address to the 
Geological Section. Since that time many lrench and English naturalists 
have visited the valley of the Somme in Picardy, and confirmed the opinion 
originally published by M. Boucher de Perthes in 1847, and afterwards con- 
firmed by Mr. Prestwich, Sir C. Lyell, and other geologists from personal 
examination of that region. It appears that the position of the rude flint- 
implements, which are unequivocally of human workmanship, is such, at | 
Abbeville and Amiens, as to show that they are as ancient as a great mass of 
gravel which fills the lower parts of the valley between those two cities, ex- 
tending above and below them. This gravel is an ancient fluviatile alluvium 
by no means confined to the lowest depressions (where extensive and deep 
peat-mosses now exist), but is sometimes also seen covering the slopes of the 
boundary hills of chalk at elevations of 80 or 100 feet above the level of the 
Somme. Changes therefore in the physical geography of the country, com- 
prising both the filling up with sediment and drift and the partial re-excava- 
tion of the valley, have happened since old river-beds were at some former { 
period the receptacles of the worked flints. The number of these last, already 
computed at above 1400 in an area of fourteen miles in length and half a_ 
mile in breadth, has afforded to a succession of visitors abundant opportunities 
of verifying the true geological position of the implements. 

The old alluvium, whether at higher or lower levels, consists not only of 
the coarse gravel with worked flints above mentioned, but also of superim- 
posed beds of sand and loam, in which are many freshwater and land shells, 
for the most part entire, and of species now living in the same part of France. 
With the shells are found bones of the Mammoth and an extinct Rhinoceros, 
R. tichorhinus, an extinct species of deer, and fossil remains of the Horse, Ox, 
and other animals. These are met with in the overlying beds, and sometimes 


ADDRESS. Ixxiii 


also in the gravel where the implements occur. At Menchecourt, in the sub- 
urbs of Abbeville, a nearly entire skeleton of the Siberian Rhinoceros is said 
to have been taken out about forty years ago, a fact affording an answer to the 
question often raised, as to whether the bones of the extinct mammalia could 
have been washed out of an older alluvium into a newer one, and so redepo- 
sited and mingled with the relics of human workmanship. Far-fetched as wag 
this hypothesis, I am informed that it would not, if granted, have seriously 
shaken the proof of the high antiquity of the human productions, for that 
proof is independent of organic evidence or fossil remains, and is based on 
_ physical data. As was stated to us last year by Sir C. Lyell, we should still 
have to allow time for great denudation of the chalk, and the removal from 
place to place, and the spreading out over the length and breadth of a large 
valley of heaps of chalk flints in beds from 10 to 15 feet in thickness, covered 
by loams and sands cf equal thickness, these last often tranquilly deposited, 
all of which operations would require the supposition of a great lapse of time. 
That the mammalian fauna preserved under such circumstances should be 
found to diverge from the type now established in the same region, is con- 
sistent with experience; but the fact of a foreign and extinct fauna was not 
needed to indicate the great age of the gravel containing the worked flints. 
Another independent proof of the age of the same gravel and its asso- 
ciated fossiliferous loam is derived from the large deposits of peat above 
alluded to in the valley of the Somme, which contain not only monuments 
of the Roman, but also those of an older Stone Period, usually called Celtic. 
Bones also of the Bear, of the species still inhabiting the Pyrenees, and of 
the Beaver, and many large stumps of trees, not yet well examined by bota- 
nists, are found in the same peat, the oldest portion of which belongs to 
times far beyond those of tradition; yet distinguished geologists are of opi- 
nion that the growth of all the vegetable matter, and even the original scoop- 
ing out of the hollows containing it, are events long posterior in date to the 
gravel with flint implements, nay, posterior even to the formation of the up- 
permost of the layers of loam with freshwater shells overlying the gravel. 
The exploration of caverns, both in the British Isles and other parts of 
Europe, has in the last few years been prosecuted with renewed ardour and 
success, although the theoretical explanation of many of the phenomena 
brought to light seems as yet to baffle the skill of the ablest geologists. 
Dr. Falconer has given us an account of the remains of several hundred 
Hippopotami obtained from one cavern near Palermo, in a locality where 
there is now no running water. The same paleontologist, aided by Col. 
Wood of Glamorganshire, has recently extracted from a single cave in the 
Gower peninsula of South Wales, a vast quantity of the antlers of a reindeer 
(perhaps of two species of reindeer), both allied to the living one. These 
fossils are most of them shed horns; and there have been already no less 
than 1100 of them dug out of the mud filling one cave. 
In the cave of Brixham in Devonshire, and in another near Palermo in 


Ixxiv REPORT—1860. 


Sicily, flint implements were observed by Dr. Falconer, associated in such a 
manner with the bones of extinct mammalia, as to lead him to infer that Man 
must have coexisted with several lost species of quadrupeds; and M. de Vibraye 
has also this spring called attention to analogous conclusions at which he 
has arrived, by studying the position of a human jaw with teeth, accom- 
panied by the remains of a mammoth, under the stalagmite of the Grotto 
d’Arcis near Troyes in France. 

In the recent progress of Physiology, I am informed that the feature per- 
haps most deserving of note on this occasion is the more extended and suc- 
cessful application of Chemistry, Physics, and the other collateral sciences 
to the study of the Animal and Vegetable Economy. In proof I refer to 
the great and steady advances which have, within the last few years, been 
made in the chemical history of Nutrition, the statics and dynamics of the 
blood, the investigation of the physical phenomena of the senses, and the 
electricity of nerves and muscles. Even the velocity of the nerve-force 
itself has been submitted to measurenient. Moreover, when it is now de- 
sired to apply the resources of Geometry or Analysis to the elucidation of 
the phenomena of life, or to obtain a mathematical expression of a physiolo- 
gical law, the first care of the investigator is to acquire precise experimental 
data on which to proceed, instead of setting out with vague assumptions and 
ending with a parade of misdirected skill, such as brought discredit on the 
school of the mathematical physicians of the Newtonian period. 

But I cannot take leave of this department of knowledge without likewise 
alluding to the progress made in scrutinizing the animal and vegetable 
structure by means of the microscope—more particularly the intimate or- 
ganization of the brain, spinal cord, and organs of the senses; also to the 
extension, through means of well-directed experiment, of our knowledge of 
the functions of the nervous system, the course followed by sensorial im- 
pressions and motorial excitement in the spinal cord, and the influence 
exerted by or through the nervous centres on the movements of the heart, 
blood-vessels and viscera, and on the activity of the secreting organs ;— 
subjects of inquiry, which, it may be observed, are closely related to the 
question of the organic mechanism whereby our corporeal frame is influ- 
enced by various mental conditions. 

And now, in conclusion, I may perhaps be permitted to express the hope 
that the examples I have given of some of the researches and discoveries 
which occupy the attention of the cultivators of science, may have tended to 
illustrate the sublime nature, engrossing interest and paramount utility of 
such pursuits, from which their beneficial influence in promoting the intel- 
lectual progress and the happiness and well-being of mankind may well be 
inferred. But let us assume that to any of the classical writers of antiquity, 
sacred or profane, a sudden revelation had been made of all the wonders 
involved in Creation accessible to man; that to them had been disclosed not 
only what we now know, but what we are to know hereafter, in some future 


ADDRESS. Ixxv 


age of improved knowledge; would they not have delighted to celebrate the 
marvels of the Creator’s power? They would have described the secret 
forces by which the wandering orbs of light are retained in their destined 
paths; the boundless extent of the celestial spaces in which worlds on 
worlds are heaped; the wonderful mechanism by which light and heat are 
conveyed through distances which to mortal minds seem quite unfathom- 
able; the mysterious agency of electricity, destined at one time to awaken 
men’s minds to an awful sense of a present Providence, but in after-times 
to become a patient minister of man’s will, and convey his thoughts with 
the speed of light across the inhabited globe; the beauties and prodigies 
of contrivance which the animal and vegetable world display, from man- 
kind downwards to the lowest zoophyte, from the stately oak of the pri- 
meval forest to the humblest plant which the microscope unfolds to view; 
the history of every stone on the mountain brow, of every gay-coloured 
insect which flutters in the sun-heam ;—all would have been described, and 
all which the discoveries of our more fortunate posterity will in due time 
disclose, and in language such as none but they could command. It is re- 
served for future ages to sing such a glorious hymn to the Creator’s praise. 
But is there not enough now seen and heard to make indifference to the 
wonders around us a deep reproach, nay, almost acrime? If we have neither 
leisure nor inclination to track the course of the planet and comet through 
boundless space ; to follow the wanderings of the subtle fluid in the galvanic 
coil or the nicely poised magnet; to read the world’s history written on her 
ancient rocks, the sepulchres of stony relics of ages long gone past, to analyse 
with curious eye the wonderful combinations of the primitive elements and 
the secret mysteries of form and being in animal and plant; discovering 
everywhere connecting links and startling analogies and proofs of adaptation 
of means to ends ;—all tending to charm the senses, to teach, to reclaim a 
being, who seems but a creeping worm in the presence of this great Creation 
—What, I repeat, if we will not or cannot do these things, or any of these 
things, is that any reason why these speaking marvels should be to us almost 
as though they were not? Marvels indeed they are, but they are also myste- 
ries, the unravelling of some of which tasks to the utmost the highest order 
of human intelligence. Let us ever apply ourselves seriously to the task, 
feeling assured that the more we thus exercise, and by exercising improve 
our intellectual faculties, the more worthy shall we be, the better shall we 
be fitted to come nearer to our God. 


O8S Tetdalige) fardeiich svat WA or Aine ae: mye 


; . : : , ~ os ioe? a 

Lp oa Fea 5 90 wal {> a Yeh Galyt | inher roe | a My he They 
i] ate - 
y ‘ p athe , 

VGs, Baiiiesls Sor aL: BPA hShe Fie THF re fee 


wit} u road ats 
Hind t Veet ope solani 


MAA odes) nas (hawt: ot Yee ; y yatta: Saree sits 4 


Sar Wa cit ye set “Ph haat Va rth . i te ce Ep el? guids 
SOLAS. ) ‘ big ‘ : ‘ 7 is 

@ perc ley Pan Rid Sasa - yup Ai : : (le of aati ¥i any. 
b , j 1 


P : ’ i . . “4: . 
Bie eos : 1 Chitose eines 4 iSéctgrigns Popes nt & ait 


4 
ison fet oh wil TA roly |b itin- ait). vs ie teroqecmay 
at. a » CAI a vbiwaper Baw rie , v ‘alileoehs deta 
ee EY Gh ARP EEG GO" “yi . a aks ' Aayipe toy Snsiih, 


Ssiy OT Fea Run ed erin cp 2 rl yj ix Anica 
Shadi ay ears to is wore sali 

Wie Qadivoetly Gd ies! pe Ha —prue ive : 
etd sizhe ei ile Hides: Saar emi Vinee ote 
yx Jie beanies der er dro - ce Wesose 


‘ nda eoeg eywojast ¥ aay f uh? Agoryt ical da Agta fl ea 


ay) i shire ha adear os ivesd ie * vet BS 


deciti nay org it toes f heonida sae cnet : no 


wl 
itt 130s) Morpers linda 29A 0 it WF sae 5 
i ia riey * df Wo ols! ue yett Ses wii: ciiiw -pitvewovo} 
nn} } a pi, 
i oe 
PRE HO Doditye. 7 eet a eae a? ha Oy) Pola S rio: ee 
PAY Bibs Gs 7) OFT} rest Sual gt. Vs + viyt ; i > drcHoleeyye 
fae bay eb iesgayl $ pil ME aff) BO ere! cd 9 ivttea ni ate 
SO ORS ave feck tartmet Phenin vr (ed ben. acivete wars W285 


“HAMA baisloo iz et ane @dife nts bnew «dtl ee 
Nh RET ot ge5t PERRO e! hte. ceed yOd gers lirtae. H ace ie 
tat Sodinar > trv it: 16 Chappe nh Yas $y Paid 
2 ee dene te yrs aioe at} sed) Ob: 2twork-e Gad Bir an 
Sppheals My of of DE 4 vhertéast paras art ele g| fay FE a 
SEW Tat Oe eet Soe a Gott Seige? ewe: =f scree werent 
Birt Mdilyid ont: coors SH ee alebgidyNercains ke anit 
eel at at hsdiit i Dee riqg im “sor ale tok ‘monwyithstet 
Src yeesrs yd biw ele wor ar wrnaess34) tai Det 
aw ligt. Bits al go tide iatiow. brivar Sadi tise), oc 

: = . per WO swe whanipu am 
’ ot setae tn W 24st <ealoun 


a > ~m, 
~ “ss , 
r ’ la 
» ae O18 . P 
bs hy or 4 


im ©. a > ’ i 
¢ eo Aes re Pans er Tg thx dhksi ha by ARS 
> " » La) ee enka ee . 24 ‘ 
5. ae Of O& “m3 5 MSs cdpesai 
é , a ire, \s ~* dit 
: ° tome’ < ae 
’ haps PEO af m at Wile Fe 
ng > 
1, _ Fs 
_ > _ 
' 2 ae ok - 


REPORTS 


ON 


THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1859-60. By a Com- 
mittee, consisting of JaMes GuatisHER, Esq., F.R.S., F.RA.S., 
Secretary to the British Meteorological Society, &c.; J. H. Guav- 
sTONE, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. &c.; R. P. Gree, Esq., F.G.S. &c. ; 
and K. J. Lowe, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.B.M.S. &c. 


In presenting a continuation of the Reports on the Observation of Luminous 
Meteors, it will be seen that the work is now placed in the hands of a Com- 
mittee, and it is with sincere regret that in presenting their first report, 
they have to announce the loss of Professor Powell, who died on the 11th 
of June, 1860. The preceding twelve reports were carried on solely by 
Professor Powell, but from the further prosecution of this labour he felt 
compelled to retire some little time since on account of failing health, having 
made arrangements for the continuation of the reports. Within the past 
year there does not seem to have been any unusual exhibition of meteors, 
either in August or in November; and there is little to be added to the ob- 
servations themselves ; in one instance only was the same meteor seen by two 
different persons, viz. that observed at Wrottesley Observatory and at Baldoyle 
(county Dublin), on March 10, 1860: this meteor was remarkable for its 
form and for its variation in colour, as noticed by both observers. It is much 
to be regretted that the observations of this meteor yet collected are insuf- 
ficient to trace its path, velocity, &e.; it is scarcely possible that so re- 
markable a meteor, visible from points so distant, can have passed unnoticed, 
and it is very desirable that if any observations may have been taken of it, 
that they should be forwarded to the Committee, for the purpose of being 
submitted to calculation. 

M. Julius Schmidt, now of the Royal Athens Observatory, in a communi- 
cation to M. W. Haidinger of Vienna, read by the latter at Vienna the 6th 
of October, 1859, before the Imperial Academy, has made some valuable 
observations upon some phenomena relative to the luminous tails of meteors, 
of which a résumé is given in the Appendix. An interesting paper has 
appeared in the Philosophical Magazine, April 1860, “On Luminosity of 
Meteors from Solar Reflexion,” by R. P. Greg, Esq. ; a brief analysis is given 
in the Appendix. In the Journal of the Franklin Institute there is a very 
interesting account of a large meteor seen over a large extent of country by 
daylight, on November 15, 1859; an abstract of this paper also appears in the 
Appendix. os 

1860. fs B 


Oct. 


Oct. 


Oct. 


Oct. 


Oct. 


REPORT—1860. 


Appearance and 


Brightness 
and Colour. 


Magnitude. 


erent eee ee ee eeee 


.|Globe form, twice the 
size of Ist mag. x 


star, as a spark. 


15 


21 


21 


22 


23 


=2nd mag. * 


Equal to 2nd mag. 


teeter nee 


6 30 p.m.|= Ist mag. x 


211 


a.m. 


Larger than 


p-m. 


of a lst mag, star. 
Planetary m ap- 
pearance. 


Three times the size| Orange, 


Velocity or — 


F 


Train or Sparks. Duration’ 


Peer ee ten enn eee e ee ennee 


Leaving a streak............ 


No streak or 
sparks. 
Slight streak 


separate 


Tne eee eee emma tenner en neee 


A streak composed of se-|Duration 0:3 sec. 


= to 2nd mag*...... =tolstmag.x,!Leaving a small mass of|Rapid. 


orange. 


and 
three times 


path, 


parate stars. 


Duratie 


separate stars in its| O:l sec. 


track. 


teen e eee teneenees 


Lasting 2 or 3 se 


No sparks .......... severe |Slow. Duratio 
2 seconds, { 


Direction or Altitude. 


om near # Pegasi, passing 
through y Aquarii to about 
3 Capricorni. 

om y Aquarii to 3 Capricorni 


Much 


red downwards from below 
Aquarius. 


oved from under « Ursee Ma- 
joris, from the direction of 
y Urs Majoris and fading 
away 2° beyond » Urs Ma- 
joris, having passed within 
30! of this star. 
oving horizontally from E. 
W. and crossing over 
2 Urse Majoris. 


ssed between Cassiopeia and 
the Pole Star, going towards 
-E. Its course was a line 


from  Cephei to E group of} 


Camelopardus, 


Rete teen een ewenenees Reser reeeeeeeee 


om the direction of Capella, 
starting at No. 36 Aurige, 


and fading away midway be- 
ween 9 Urs Majoris and 


Many 


No. 26 in the Lynx in a space 
devoid of stars. 


General remarks. 


in 
W.S.W. 


Moving on a slight 


curve, 


The meteors to- 


night gave a 
point of diver- 
gence in Cassio- 
ela, 


peia. 
Increased in bril-| 


liancy and disap- 
pearing at maxi- 
mum brightness. 
Much cloud. 
Aurora Borealis. 


Very bright for its! 


size. During the 
evening Aurora 


Borealis and 
lightning. 
At Highfield House 


at the time there 
was Aurora Bo- 
realis, lightning 


and snow. 


Lightning and 
snow. 


A singular meteor.|Ibid 


cloud and 
strong lightning 
i W.~ and 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 3 


Place, 


Highfield House. 


ener e neta enee 
eee eeneneerene 


One eaten eeeees 


Diss, Norfolk ... 


meteors.| Highfield House. 


Peete e eens 


Correspondent... 


Reference, 


Mr, Lowe’s MS. 


Tide “10 cil 


Thid. 


Ibid. 


A) Coccusnnacan Tbid. 


4 REPORT—1860. 
Appearance and Brightness : Velocity or ' 
Date. Hour Magnitude. and Colour. Train or Sparks. Duration. 
1859. |h m 3s 
Oct, 23) 8 1 p.m.|As a spark ............ Small S22. No sparks left............... Very rapid ; almo: 
instantaneously 
Oct. 23) 8 32 p.m.|= 2nd mag. «.........\Colourless .../No streak or train ......... Rapid. 
O-2 sec. 
Oct. 2311 46 30 |= 2nd mag. *, star-|Bright blue...|A streak left in its track. Rapid. 
like. 0-2 sec. 
Oct. 25) 2 O am./= 2nd mag. *......... IBIMOSscc5 5.0052 Withia train - j.ciuess ase Rapid. 
0-2 sec. 
ING Vie 2 Bebw een: 7. cccccecselcotecetoatsesee| cocenacarecatereetlee oan td oat tits on gu ccatoca nse aee URE senha et areeeeel 
&8 p.m. 
Nov. 2/12 45 a.m./= Istmag.*, appear-|...........ccc0ec.[escocsscescsccsccenccesscesectes Rapid :...\....:09 
ed as a flash, 
Nov. 3) 2 3 am./= 3rd mag.*......... Colowrless™. |Sireak: oerscjiecevnetoeoee RApIC y easvers 
Nov. 3) 2 4 am.= 3rd mag.......... Colourless™:*:|Streak Vscc0c:essesesteveee Rapid ....... PP 
Noy. 13) 2 50 am.'= 2nd mag. «......... pene Fe SELCHK sb ss  sapeuersrtertane Very rapid ...... 
IN OMe S| 2219 AML Ds. veacaeeetanec ss: van Iprilbanta® 30). siissvceveramast aves canst Instantaneous... 
orange scar- 
let. 
BMS LIA svi v0 vasigta tent akd assur aft dprotecgh caxcefuaned eles sect oa op ¥apesetgadare See ai a 
till 3a.m. 
Noy. 15) 8 55 p.m.|= in sizetoY¥. Globe Blue, bright Without sparks or train/Slow. Duration 
meteor. till it burst, then broke) O-4 see. 
into two or three small 
fragments and disap- 
peared. 
NOW 20) 8 Op iis 5.cecceeacandtee tesco. eee eee ee Ree eee ae SEROPRORSEPEPRY foe cuteagnecssbacs: 
Dee. 5 5 2 p.m.Twice the size of 2...'Colourless ...|.........s..0se00- Bs ott eenieee ISIOW.....0c000000eail 
Dee. 5 6 30 pm. = aba heiress Colourless) °F 2\55..ssccseceees coe Pevstsetern sees Eo sowie cam 
Bec, 5 9 25 ipim.j— Usbanmp.eric.s.-s--|...coecceteeteee es leer Meus sathonc te  SEEROOO SEC | ero 4 


om 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 5 


Direction or Altitude. 


m / Andromede towards §. 


45°. 

above t Draconis to near’ 
7 Herculis coming from the 
direction of Polaris. 
assed 15' BH. of bothsand x 
Ursx Majoris crossing over 
the star 36 in the Lynx, 
moving over 20° of space 
perpendicularly down. 
erpendicularly down from 
near No. 25 Canes Venatici. 


N. about 20° below the Pole 
Star, 


ell down from under Polaris 
at an angle of 80°, and fading 
away as it reached the Milky 


ay. 
m the zenith 
6 Persei. 
erpendicularly down through 
Cassiopeia. 
above the N. horizon, seen 
through a cloud. 


Poe Pe CREP eee CES C USS eee eee reer er) 


ell down in N.W. from 20° 
above the horizon, disappear- 
ing 10° above the horizon. 


C Slight Aurora Bo- 
downwards at an angle of] realis and distant 


General remarks. 


lightning. 


Temperature 24°°5 
at 4 feet, 18°°0 
on the grass. 


Many large me- 


teors, chiefly in 
N.E 


towards; 


Appeared, disap-| 
peared, and re- 
appeared four 
times in rapid 
succession, but 
never moved its 
situation. 


Lightning in N. at! 
the time. 


12 meteors. Clouds! 
numerous all 


Place. 


Highfield House. 


Observatory, 
Beeston. 


evening and 
night, and this, 
added to a full 
moon, caused 
most of the me- 
teors to be invi- 
sible. Faint Au- 
rora Borealis. 

An auroral arch at 
the time. 


Majoris only, moving over 
5° of space. 
ell down in W. from the alti- 
tude of 45°. 
ell perpendicularly down in 
§.W. from the altitude of 


40°, moving over 5° o 
space. ~ 


Tbid 


E. J. Lowe 


Highfield House.\Id. ............44. 


Observer. Reference. 


Mr. Lowe’s MS. 


se SAO BEE ROSE Ibid. 


DOR Sie cece ttae ce Ibid. 


Capt. A. §. IL/Tbid. 


Lowe. 


spare hich board re Ibid. 


6 _ REPORT—1860. 
io } 
Appearance and Brightness 5 Velocit; 
Date. Te Magnitude. and Colour. Erain.or Bparks. or reed 
1859. | h m 
Dec, 7 7 Op.m. |Larger than Jupiter,|Reddish ...... Long streak .........06000- Very rapid. D 
star-like. tion 2 secs. 
Dec. 14) 9 20 pm. }=2nd mag. *......... Orange ...... Sparks: ...1 cc clbswaavvevenbae Rapid. Durati 
2 secs 
1860. 
ans 62! 8 Open: |= 2p dnt BiZ0 Fh... se: 00-|vecns ska hlaess vc) oss snck cans snn4ss chess Faleren tthe Mita eer Ni ieee 
Jan. 24} 9 28 p.m. |Increased rapidly un-|Blue............ Train of separate sparks.../Slow. Duration ! 
til four times the secs. 
apparent size of| 
Jupiter. 
Many POA Mron 9) Ol cccssndeccesicdshistcusss{ecctecsossoatontce| dpgosneusG’s phaiteheooscesaesteds|Glaaaineetacsicce tam 
10 p.m. 
Feb. 24] 7 40 p.m. |=Venus .....cscceceeeelecsseceeeceeteoees With Calla ssiecesceonecsvoc|eobynntass ie eneceree 
Mar. 2/10 40 p.m. |=four timessize of }|Bright ......... Long tail......s.ssesees Wiese BloWisvvssesccey ea va 
Mar. 10] 8 40 p.m. |= Venus............... Bright as Ve-|Moderate speed, trail oOff.........:.cccsseeeuene 
nus. Colour} sparks left in its track 
of Venus. for 3 seconds after the 
meteor had vanished. 
Mar. 14} 8 45 p.m./Six times size of Ju-|Very bright, Burst into fragments...... Moderate speed .. 
piter. almost like 
lightning in 
appearance. 
Red in co- 
lour. 
Mar. 21) 7 15 p.m. |= Venus............... IBTignter than... .cs0s.cesesscesdentesse cress SIOW..:casssontagi 4 
‘ Venus. 
Mar. 21| 7 40 p.m. |= Venus............... Brighter’ thant|s.....:.:.ocssessasaetendtaceses Slow... ..<cs..005 
Venus. 
April 1) 8 10 p.m. |=2nd mag. « ......... Yellow......... Sani tall Oe ciecsscnecenevns SIGW Senseo. eee d 
April 17/Between 10)............ssccsetesscceseecssenescecanseselenessecenavccensessensescectvesselssveessastcesseeeeesn 
} & 11 p.m. 
ne Observations of Luminous Meteors 
Di. 
Aug. 16,11 45 p.m. |Equaltothe sizeof Ju- Bluish white..{It was accompanied by a|Slow, but its dura- 
i piter, but very supe- train. tion was short, as 
rior to that planet it did not travel 
1858. in brightness. above 5° or 8°. — 
Aug. 8| 8 45p.m.|Very bright, and/Blue............ It left a faint yellow train|Moderate........... i 
about the size o of light in its path. 
Jupiter. 
Aug. 8) 9 15 p.m. |Small but bright...... 13} rier cones Left a train visible for|Very slow .,....+.. 
several seconds. 
Aug 8) 9 38 p.m. |Small, about size of/Moderately {No train ...............:0008. Rapid in its mo- 
Saturn. bright. tion; visible for 
about 0:5 second 
only. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


7 


ee Sd 


Direction or Altitude. 
| 
‘rom 45° above the E. horizon, 

moved down at an angle 
of 40°. 

‘yom the Dragon’s Head, fell 
down at an angle of 40° to- 

wards W. 

‘ell down from 12° above the 
horizon in'8. by E. 

‘rom the direction of Polaris, 
passing midway between 3 
and Leonis, crossing ¢ 
Leonis, and fading away 
near 43 Leonis. 


Feet eeeeenaee Preece eee e eee we nanos 


Great Bear. 
n §.W., falling towards W.; 
half-way to zenith when first 


seen. 

m 60° altitude W. by N., 
falling down towards W. at 
an angle of 75°. 


Dee teweeeeeeeee 


§., fell down a long distance 
towards W., and passing 


Annee twee meee ee ee ee neearaenee 


m » Aurigs to Venus, over 
which planets it crossed, and 
then immediately vanished. 


PERN e reenter a een eeeneeereeseeeee 


from various Observers. 


started 10° from the zenith, 
ete west of the Milky 


Jay. 


ell down N. from about 45°|It was very light at|Blackheath 


from the horizon ; disappear- 
ed about 5° from horizon. 


tarted from a point 10° below}........+ 
@ Aquile, taking a westerly 


ell perpendicularly from 25° 
above « Virginis to a little 
south of that star. 


General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference. 
bsagedeccntiteds tetas Observatory, (R. Porter ....../Mz. Lowe’s MS. 
Beeston. 
Snow showers...... Mbidse asstas esses E. J. Lowe... |Ibid. 
GalOscctssccsamessss = Dbitling§esdcsss. sc. Td, ~csaenss iitesis. Thid. 
Sear eR Ricton res Oke bids, “aatverssses(lGsr wavsceracests:|EDIGs 
Six meteors seen...|[bid.  .......s.005 TAS 3s astro seee-(Lbids 
se sEhdENOSADNEE.c5 econ 1 mile W. of |Miss OC. Drége...|Ibid. 
Beeston. 
SddedcunscgenacccstReant 1 mile N.E. of |Mrs. R. Felkin...|Ibid. 
Beeston. 
Hseriestanctacestutcases Observatory, |Mr. R. Porter Ibid. 
Beeston. (assistant obs.) 
After the fragments|Highfield House.|Capt. A. 8. H.Tbid. 
were thrown out, Lowe. 
the meteor still 
moved on of the’ 
same size and 
brightness for a 
short distance. 
Meesdenadsstodcaas tents Observatory, {Miss Lucy White/Ibid. 
Beeston. 
Similar to the last.) Ibid. ............ Mr. R. Porter Ibid 
(assistant obs. ) 
Increased in size at\[bid.  ...:..4.444- ra RT ‘bid. 
last. 
Severalmeteorsmo-|Ibid. ....... .....[E. J. Lowe ......|[bid. 
ving veryrapidly. 
A POREROPERICOCOOLT SOE Greenwich ......|Henry C. Cris-[MS. communica- 
wick. tion. 
pacar IMG etc estes const sa | DOIG 
the time, and the 
stars in the path 
of the meteor 
could not beseen. 
pierise cdi ris fetes DIGS, hatise canes Tdi.) tiesaicaghas ,..{Lbid. 
J JaaeanaGeioss sat ere tale pid gist .comsern| Ls sceeveceeerste.(Lbid. 


8 REPORT—1860. ' 


Appearance and Brightness : Velocit: 
Date. Hour Magnitude. and Colour. Train or Sparks. or Detaieonl 
1858, |b m | | | 

Aug. 8) 9 44 p.m. /Equal in size to a 4th Very bright.../It left a thin train visible Slow...............5 

mag. * for about 1 sec, 

Aug. 8 9 52 p.m. Rather larger than Remarkably {No train ..,.........:00000 Very rapid ......05 

Saturn. bright. 
Aug. 8} 9 55 p.m. \Sizeofa3rd mag.*... Very bright./A very bright train. visible SlOW. 1.1.60 «ian 
Blue. for 3 secs. after the; 1 
extinction of the nu- ‘i 
1859. | cleus. 
Aug. 26} 8 24 p.m. |Six times the size of/Much brighter ................ccssseeeeeeseeseleaseaeaesans vesveeoal 
a Lyre. than a Lyre.) 

Aug. 30/10 14 p.m. |As bright as Capella |.........:0scccseslscccssscesssecesseseensovenanses Visible for about 3 

or 4 secs, 

Aug. 31) 7 5S p.m. |... ceseeesceeeseneeeeeses [Brighterwiisan| 00 25, .ins.s.fncsaacewacareel toutes PEAR 
any star then) 
visible. 

Sept. 22)Between _|Many shooting stars |............scccseleccccsecccseseeeentensenrecsecees Saree 

sunset and 
11 p.m. 

Sept, 24 Evening ...|Many shooting stars |............5.0++- | a slelnoa evpacweniecael Cone ene eee [Fetes ot aieeee oa 

Sept. 2810 20 p.m. Larger than Jupiter |Blue........+++. NQMC... wpe nccdae ccs ensnecounleceyreeksset nema : 

hee ZB a. | sacs svn ay csnnvvesefcugasted|exonnundersefeaier|saonsnas alana tate an 

Cig, 28}| Tsay Sark | Baprangeeseasceoosaccnonec: Very. bright....|Sceai.saasces Tee eee Visible for several 

secs. 

Oct. 27) 9° 9° p.m-|As lavge\as’ Capella... :|. 050: sscsepesses|-ccavecsonecaesoeantaev snes steeuelomemeetets Porcini 

aero! 7 GG peal. «16, Scape caucpeeee od usg Roser eroanoasegte SE RACHA COLDS RIOTS IASB NGA: Very rapid .,..,.. 

Nov, 7/ 9 33 pm... .sesceeeeeseneeneerenees As, bright) Wey. cepsovasesccpsmstoeenia ends (eemeemeanene ee er 

Capella. 

Noy. 9} 5 30 am. About 2° long......... Colour of red-|No sparks were seen ...... Its greatest bril- 
hot iron; its liancy lasted fo 
illuminating 30 seconds, buti 
power very remained visibl 
great. for 10 minutes. 

Nove 10) 9°40! pail... .cceneurcunsaeceeress Faint yellow. .'They left a train, similar'...........s00.:0000 “ 

to a faint streak. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 9 


————— 


Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference, 
ell from a little KE. of the Great)... ieee eee! Blackheath ...... (Henry C. Cris--MS. communica- 
Bear constellation diagonally’ | wick, | tion, 


towards the N.W., disappear- 
ing about 20° above the hori- 


zon. 

m 30° above the due §8.\Just before disap-\Ibid................ 1G BOR sacee eenre Ae ‘Tbid. 
horizon ; it went by W. to! pearingbelowthe| 

the horizon. horizon I di- 


stinctly saw it) 
separate, giving, 
at the same time 


a report like that! 
; of a distant rifle.| 
rom 40° above the E.S.B. ho-)..........cceeseeeseeees pid sesacpenve sett IGM) appear ate Thid. 
rizon to §.E., disappearing 
25° above the horizon. 
ell perpendicularly from near)............cc.cecseeens Wrottesley Ob-)W. P. Wakelin. |Ibid. 
a Ophiuchi to within 15° of servatory. 
the horizon. 
ell from 10° above » Ursx/This meteor paled Ibid.......,........ ees Rate Sere Tbid. 
Majoris, between » and Z, to} twice, and at- 
within a degree or two of] tained its maxi- 
12 Canum Venaticorum. mum brightness 
just before its 
disappearance. 
rom near w Cassiopeiz Gia-|,..............cseeeceee| Tidserocabevccstet TC Eee eee Tbid, 
gonally towards a point north 
of « Persei. 
bout Pleiades, moving W. to)............c.ccccseees (Ballater ...,...,.| J. H. Gladstone. |Tbid. 
Ee lage. ae: id. eee Ibid. 
orthern hemisphere; it fell)... eee Fort William, {Myrs. J. H. Glad-|Ibid. 
from W. to E. through 25°, Scotland, stone, 
descending from an altitude 
of 35° to about 25°. 
few degrees 8. W. of y Pegasi./It attained itsmaxi-/Wrottesley Ob-|F. Morton, Tbid. 
mum _ brilliancy) servatory. 


immediately be- 


fore it disappear- 
ed. 
descended vertically from the}...............s000000- 1] ays beadgnsonabponee Ne eiasgeeapsosase Thid. 
constellation Draco to within 
10° or 15° of the horizon. 
iE, from about 35° or 25°)..........cssccesseees CL ere Rare W. P. Wakelin. |Tbid. 
altitude. 
om midway between the Con-|............sseeeeeeeees iQ OEE" waRHocECCONre F. Morton ,..... Tbid. 
stellation Lyra and Hercules, 
at an angle of 45° to S. 
rom near 6 Pegasi, at an anglel............ccssece eee DIG Ona thece saa: We Srepccpapencies Ibid, e 
of 45°, to within 10° of the 
§.W. horizon. 
bout the same altitude as the|As it paled it got\Ibid. ............ ‘The under-gar- MS. 
Pleiades, and some 8° to the) gradually shorter dener at Lord 
south, and wider; it at Wrottesley’s, 
last looked like a the times by 
faint cloud. | F. Morton. 
m Capella to irius......... They were three in;Manchester ...... G. V. Vernon, 
number, 


10 


h 
37 


Feb. 16 


Mar. 3 


Mar. 10 


|Mar. 10 


REA Final: emawecenesas cede daenoseag 


REPORT—1860. 


Appearance and 


eer Magnitude. 


m 

10 p.m.|Its brightness was 
equal to that of a 
* of the Ist mag. 


10 35 p.m.|2nd mag. 


9 30 p.m. 


9 20 p.m. 


eee ee eee eee CTO eee ere eee 


9 20 p.m./The appearance gave 
the impression of 
3 feet in length. Its 
form was strictly 
defined, the front 
portion being in 
shape like the head 
of a lily, with a 
petal-shaped _out- 
line. From this it 
diminished grace- 
fully to the tail, 
not in straight- 
sided lines, but in 
curves. The tail 
was the  small- 
est, and apparently 
the most concrete 
portion of the 
whole. 

9 32 pm.|A bar of light in 
length equal to 
moon’s diameter, 
its breadth 3th o 
its length. 


Same 


Scarlet, 


Brightness 
and Colour. 


colour 
as Rigel. 


Velocity or 


Train or Sparks. Duration. 


No apparent train Very rapid ......008 { 


errr reer ere rer ererrrrire rrr creer ere reer rr 


pea- 
green. 


and of a red- 
dish colour. 


Bright 

brightest 
moonlight. 
Colour di- 
stinct and 
varied, the 
head pearly 
white, the 
tail bright 
ruby, with 
reddish- 

brown extre- 
mity,and the 
middle por- 
tions mark- 
ed by bands 
of various 
shades of 
colour. 


At first its 
colour was 
pure white, 
and as bright 
as Sirius. 
In its full 
the colour 
changed to 
green, and 
afterwards to 
a deep glow- 
ing crimson. 


as 


The outer portion of the 
stream was composed of, 
bright scarlet scintilla- 
tions. 


Lasted 5 seconds,| 
slow. 


oe 


It left behind a train of/The whole time was) 
pale yellow light. 2 secs. 4 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 11 


Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference. 
(t fell from near the zenith,|.................0cec00 Manchester ...... G. V. Vernon. 
passing, through Orion’s Belt, 
and disappeared when on a 
level with Rigel. 
assing nearly horizontally]...............:.cceee0s Hendon’ ......... Mr. W. Grubb. 
through Ursa Major. 
£ an elevation of about 600/After dropping per.'Sidmouth ...... T. H. 8. Pullen. 
feet its direction was 8.8.H.| pendicularly for 
a short distance 
it separated 
itself into about 
eighteen globu- 
lar masses of dif- 
ferent colours, 
some about 8 or 
10 inches in dia- 
meter, and the 
others from 1 to 
3 inches. 
t fell from an elevation of 60°|.........ccsecseeeeeeeee Osborne ......... J. R. Mann. 
and N.N.E., and disappeared 
in the N. E. at an elevation 


of about 10°. 
bout 50° in a N.E. direction.|After falling about|Coleraine. 
: 50°, it burst into 
a number  of| 
sparks, like a 
rocket. 


direction was that of a/About 30 secs. after|Baldoyle(county/J. P. Culverwell, Mr. Lowe's MS. 
Dublin). E 


line drawn from Orion’s Belt, 
through the Pleiades, and 
onward to the W. of Cassio- 
. disappearing in the 

partion of tp hemi- 
sphere. 


the disappearance 
of the meteor 
there was a low 
rumbling thun- 
der in the N.E., 
which continued 


sq. 


fully 2 mins. 


Vers ched tts MS. communica- 
tion, 


was seen at an altitude of 45°,|The stars for 15° Wrottesley Ob-J. H. 
on each side of 
its path were 
paled as by the 
presence of the 
full moon. 


and darted perpendicularly 
between the Pleiades and Al- 
gol to the horizon. 


servatory. 


12 REPORT—1860. 


a 


Velocity or 
Duration. 


Appearance and Brightness 
Magnitude.’ and Colour. 


Date. Hour. Train or Sparks. 


1860. |h m 
Mar. 10) 9 50 p.m./It appeared about/Very bright, at}...........csseeseseereeseeeeeees Visible for a secon 
2rds of the size of first purple- or two. 
the moon. red and 
then green, 
= Venus. 


DME |e Ol aeIM.| eacccesveusnesresseereres- Very brightiz.:| Aessseessat Winer coneesrsteavees 2 or 3 secs. sesevenns 


April 14) 9 4 pumi}.c.cesceeeeeeeesenseeseees Hiqual to VAI=| erica taevanvecsssnsssepecucen| sucnyeestshepa <x cneem re 
debaran in 
brightness. 


April 26] 7 52 p.M.)..ccccccscesscceeereereenes At first  bril-/It left a very luminous tail! It was visible about 
liant white,| behind it. a second. 

and = after- 
wards pur- 
ple-red. 


APPENDIX. 


No. 1.—In the Journal of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, February 
1860, is a collection of observations of a very remarkable meteor seen by 
daylight, on November 15, 1859, by Benjamin P. Marsh, Esq. 

This meteor made its appearance at about half-past 9 o’clock a.m. (New 
York time), the weather being perfectly clear, and the sun shining brightly. 

It was seen at Salem, Boston, and New Bedford, Massachusetts; Provi- 
dence, Rhode Island; New Haven, and many other places in Connecticut ; 
New York City; Paterson, Medford, and Tuckerton, New Jersey ; Dover, 
and other places in Delaware; Washington City ; Alexandria, Fredericks- 
burg, and Petersburg, Virginia. 

It was heard at Medford, New Jersey, and at all places in that State, south 
of a line joining Tuckerton and Bridgeton, and throughout nearly the whole 
of Delaware. : 

With perhaps two or three exceptions, it was not seen by any one in New 
Jersey, south of the Camden and Atlantic Railroad ; that is to say, through- 
out the very region where the report was loudest. 

Many persons there saw a momentary flash of light “like the reflexion of 
the sun from a looking-glass,” but could not tell where it came from. The 
appearance of the meteor as seen at many places is described, and the results 
from their discussion are as follows :— : 

1. The inclination of the meteor’s point to the vertical was probably about | 
35°, and the direction of its motion nearly west. The observations at Med- 
ford and Petersburg indicate a much more southerly movement, but those of . 
Washington, Alexandria, and Dover, require it to have been almost due west. | 

2. The column of smoke was near 1000 feet in diameter, and its base was 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 13 


Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference, 
Tt fell at an inclination of N.W.|It travelled about Bradford......... M. D. 
to W. 15° and then W. W. M. 
burst ; it appear- E. M. C. 
ed at first as J.C. 
though the moon Cc. W. 
had fallen to the 
earth. 
BING SO 5 ccosssccesssvctesoes It appeared sta-/Torquay ......... FR. Vivian. 
tionary, but in- 
creased in bright- 
ness for 2 or 3 
seconds, when it 
suddenly disap- 
peared. 
¢ darted from a point half-Its path was con-|Wrottesley Ob-|J. H. ............ MS. communica- 
way between the Pleiades} cave to the hori-| servatory. tion. 
and @ Persei to a point about} zon. 
one-third of the distance 
from Aldebaran to « Aurige. 
t fell from the zenith to the)......, eis depanySieeeaey op Manchester ...... G. V. Vernon. 


vertical about four miles north of Dennisville, at a height of near eight miles, 
which may be assumed to be the approximate position of one point in the 
meteor’s path. The height is inferred not merely from the angular elevations 
of the smoke as seen from different points, but from the interval between the 
flash and the report, as observed at Beasley’s Point. This position assigned 
to the base of the cloud, from local reports, coincides pretty nearly with that 
indicated by distant observations. 

At New Haven, latitude 40° 18’ 18", longitude 72° 55! 10", at an eleva- 
tion of 6°, the bearing was S. 35° 34! W.; and at Alexandria, latitude 38° 49', 
longitude 77° 4', at an elevation of 102°, it was N.763° E. These directions 
meet half'a mile west of Dennisville in latitude 39° 112/, longitude 74° 502/; 
the line from New Haven having a vertical height at this point of 292 
miles, and that from Alexandria 243 miles. Continuing the path, as ob- 
served at Alexandria, down to 94° elevation, we have corresponding azimuth 
764°, and the lines then meet half a mile north-west of Dennisville at a 
height of 225 miles; but this makes the nearest point in the meteor’s path 
twenty-four miles from Beasley’s Point, and consequently the interval there 
between the flash and the report two minutes instead of one, as observed. 
Besides, the observations on the smoke show pretty clearly that the minimum 
height at Dennisville could not have exceeded ten miles. We must there- 
fore conclude the meteor’s actual position to have been several miles east of 
that indicated by these distant observations. 

3. On the above supposition, the meteor’s path would reach the earth near 
Hughesville, on the north-western boundary of Cape May County, in which 
Vicinity, or perhaps still further west, it is probable that the meteor or some 
of its fragments will yet be found. 

4. Some observers must have seen the meteor at a height of more than 


14 REPORT—1860. 


100 miles; and, to have completed its path within their estimates of time, it 
must have had a velocity of from thirty to fifty miles per second. 

The extreme shortness of the time occupied in its flight, is proved not 
merely by the estimates of several observers, but by the failure of people in 
the vicinity of the explosion to distinguish the source of the sudden flash of 
light seen by them, and by the impression of even the most distant observers 
that it fell very near them. 

5. The sound was explosive, and moé caused by the falling in of the air 
after the meteor. In the latter case it must have been continuous and un- 
interrupted, but the testimony of Dr. Beasley and others shows that it ceased 
entirely and then began again. 

Supposing the meteor to have been a stony mass, we may, perhaps, con- 
sider the explosion to have consisted of a series of decrepitations caused by 
the sudden expansion of the surface, the whole time of flight not being suffi- 
cient to allow the heat to penetrate the mass. At the forward end these ex- 
plosions would take place under great pressure, which may account for the 
loudness of the sound. 

6. The estimated duration of the sound at Beasley’s Point was not less 
than one minute, indicating that the most distant point of the explosion was 
not less than twelve miles further from that place than its nearest point. 
Comparing this with the position of the assumed path, we find that, during 
the explosion, the meteor must have travelled fifteen or twenty miles, occu- 
pying about a second of time. 

7. The explosions were very numerous, arranged in two series, the whole 
occupying only half a second of time, but the individual sounds were distin- 
guishable, because of the different distances they had to travel to reach the 
ear. The velocity of the meteor being more than 100 times that of sound, 
the reports must have come in the order of distance and zoé in the order of 
their occurrence, causing the end of the explosion to be heard before the 
beginning. The faint rushing sounds first heard by Mr. Ashmead must 
have had their origin below the explosion, and been caused by the flight of 
the fragments towards the earth. If the direction of the first faint sound 
could be indicated by persons further west, it might serve to point to the 
place where the fragments fell. 

8. The meteor lost its luminosity with the explosion or shortly after, and 
hence was not seen by persons in Cape May County and vicinity, it being 
too much overhead to come within the ordinary range of vision, and the time 
of flight being too short to allow them to direct their eyes to it after seeing 
the flash. 

If the heat be due to the resistance of the air, it must be principally deve- 
loped at the surface of the forward half of the meteor. Consequently 
most of the explosions must occur then, and the force of each be directed 
backward, tending to check the velocity of the mass. In fact, we may per- 
haps consider the series of explosions to be merely one of the forms of the 
atmospheric resistance. This must increase rapidly with the density, although 
it may be insufficient to account for so great a reduction of speed as would 
entirely destroy the luminosity of the meteor before it reached the earth. 

9. Irom the tremendous force of the explosion, and from the fact that this 
meteor was seen by persons who were not within 200 miles of any part of 
its path, as at Salem, Massachusetts, and Petersburg, Virginia, we must cer- 
tainly conclude that it was of very considerable size; but we seem to have 
no data for any approximation to its actual dimensions. It was certainly 
heated to a most intense brightness; and the experiments of Professor 
J. Lawrence Smith, detailed in Silliman’s Journal, vol. xix. fol. 340, second 


a. te 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 15 


series, in which he found that a piece of lime, less than half an inch in dia- 
meter, in the flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, had, when viewed in a clear 
evening, at the distance of half a mile, an apparent diameter twice that of the 
full moon, show conclusively that no reliance can be placed upon calculations 
founded upon the apparent diameter ef bodies in a state of incandescence. 

10. The apparent form of the meteor, that of a cone moving base fore- 
most, may have been due to its great angular velocity, combined with the 
effect of irradiation above referred to. ‘The impression made upon the eye 
by the incandescent body itself, would doubtless be greater than that made 
by the sphere of light surrounding it. Consequently we should continue to 
see the body itself after the impression of the mere glare had faded awav ; 
so that the apparent diameter of the end of the tail may represent the actual 
angular diameter of the body. 

11. The invisibility of the meteor to persons at Philadelphia and vicinity, 
was no doubt due to the position of the sun, the direction of which then 
coincided with that of the meteor. 


No. 2.—Abstract of a paper by R. P. Greg, Esq., F.G.S., in the Philoso- 
phical Magazine, April 1860, “On Luminosity of Meteors from Solar Re- 
Hexion.” 

With reference to the cause of the luminosity of shooting stars, the author 
proposes to prove that their luminosity cannot arise from solar reflexion, 
a theory partially supported by Sir J. Lubbock and others. He observes 
that the very sudden appearance and disappearance of shooting-stars and 
small meteors, and their general resemblance on a small scale to comets which 
shine by solar reflexion, certainly favour the idea, either that suddenly enter- 
ing the cone of the earth's shadow they are instantly eclipsed, or conversely, 
become visible as they emerge from it; or secondly, previously self-luminous 
in planetary space, they may become suddenly extinguished on entering the 
denser atmosphere of the earth; or thirdly, they may suddenly become visi- 
ble and luminous only on entering the earth’s atmosphere by friction and 
compression, by rapid absorption of oxygen and sudden chemical action, or 
by electrical excitation. 

The author then refers to Sir J. Lubbock’s paper in the Philosophical 
Magazine for February 1848, and shows by a different treatment how un- 
likely, if not impossible, it is that ordinary shooting-stars (those not show- 
ing symptoms of active ignition within the lower limits of the earth’s atmo- 
sphere) can ever shine by reflected solar light ; and this simply from the fact 
that they would be too far off for us to observe such small bodies, at even 
the minimum distance at which (at certain times and places on the earth’s 
surface when and where we know they are very frequently seen) they 
actually could be so visible; and concludes his paper by remarking that, if 
his calculations, &c. be correct, the majority of shooting-stars do not shine 
by reflected light. 


No. 3.—M. Schmidt on the Luminous Trains left by Meteors, &c. 

M. Schmidt repeats an observation of M. Faye’s in the ‘ Comptes Rendus,’ 
vol. xxxii. p. 667, relative to the small amount of moveability in the tails or 
luminous trains not unfrequently left by meteors, which seems to prove that 
the former must be found in the atmosphere belonging to and surrounding 
the earth, and not in the firmament which lies beyond it. M. Faye observed 
one of these tails through the telescope, and he saw it “lingering for more 
than three minutes, without changing its place very perceptibly.—Other 
observers have observed them to remain for more than seven minutes.” M. 


16 REPORT—1860. 


Schmidt remarks on the strangeness of this stationary condition of the lumi- 
nous trains of meteors, likewise on the cloud-like appearances generally left 
by detonating meteors even in the day-time, when we come to consider the 
enormous velocity of the meteors themselves through the higher regions of 
the atmosphere ; but he says, “ we must recollect an easy and interesting ex- 
periment, by which we may obtain a similar result. If you take a common 
lucifer match, still burning, or when it is just about to become extinguished, 
and throw it from you in any direction, either quickly or slowly, you will 
in many cases perceive, either a straight immoveable line, or an undulating 
or curling line of white-grey smoke, standing still in the air, if the air is calm 
and not in motion.” 

M. Schmidt observes how important observations, whether telescopic or 
otherwise, are respecting the tails of meteors,—I1st, as regards their proper 
motion; 2nd, the downward curvature sometimes exhibited by them, and 
the way in which they break up and disperse; and 3rd, the means they may 
afford of ascertaining by parallax their height above the earth, a matter of 
very great importance for ascertaining at what heights the atmosphere ceases 
to have any influence. 

M. Schmidt then proceeds to cite a number of instances from his own 
catalogue of meteors, where tails have been observed of long duration, or as 
offering very peculiar appearances: e. g. 

1664. Aug. 3. A very large meteor with curved tail, seen at Papa, Hun- 
gary. 

1791. Nov. 11. At Gottingen and Lilienthal, a meteor left an undulating 
tail of a shining white colour, in parts alternately showing the prismatic 
colours ; then became more curved, and turned into vapour of a pale yellow- 
ish colour before finally disappearing. 

1798. Oct. 9. Brandes witnessed at Gottingen how the tail of a bright 
shooting-star bent itself within 15 seconds like a bow. 

1840. July 30. Ditto at Vienna, in 15 seconds also. 

1845. Oct. 24. Schmidt observed at Bonn the change in the form of the 
tail of a meteor in 4 minutes; it became severed and bent, and dissolved 
into small grey clouds. The whole mass moved 1° from its original place at 
final disappearance. 

1852. Oct. 26. A large meteor seen in Pomerania, left behind it a spiral 
tail 3° long, which contracted soon into a ball, and again passed into a spiral 
curve, finally assuming the shape of a capital Z. 

1854. Aug. 1. At Gottingen, a fine meteor left behind a bright tail 3! 
wide and 2° in length, lasted 8 or 9 minutes after dividing itself into three 
oval balls, and showing at first uneven undulations or knots, while the tail itself 
shortened and became more likea W. Whilst these changes took place in the 
tail, the whole mist-like mass moved along the sky in a nearly opposite direc- 
tion to the motion of the fireball itself; the tail had thus moved 9° in 8 minutes. 

1859. Aug. 9, 10, 11. During these three nights, M. Schmidt at Athens 
succeeded in observing, on four different occasions, the curving of meteor- 
tails through the telescope. The whole time, in three cases of visibility, was 
170", 140", and 220" respectively ; in one case only 10" or 12". The curva- 
ture of the tail began to be perceptible almost directly after the meteor 
vanished, and the proper motion in one direction very decided. In one of 
these cases, viz. on Aug. 11, a bright orange-coloured shooting-star left a tail 
visible to the naked eye 4" or 5", but through the telescope 220"; the direc- 
tion about from E.N.E. to*W.S.W. The following figure shows the real mo- 
tion of the tail, compared with the apparent motion of the shooting-star. 

The tail finally broke up into a number of small fragments. 


| 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 17 


ab, the apparent motion of the shooting-star. 

a, tail at end of 5th second. 

(, tail at end of 12th second. 

y, tail at end of 180th second. 

6, tail at end of 220th second. 

A B, apparent motion of the tail nearly at right 
angles to a b. 


Aug. 9. Representing, after another meteor, a 
similar movement of tail as compared with 
the meteor itself. 


B 


M. Schmidt states that credible cases, where the tails of meteors and shoot- 
ing-stars remain visible lunger than 5 seconds, are very rare and isolated. He 
cites thirty-nine instances from his own catalogue, of which we select seven 
instances of longest duration. 


1751. May 26. 3" 30™"...... Kraschina (Agram meteoric iron fall). 

fea0g.Oct. 10. 1° «...ee On the high seas. 

1840. July 30. Lo én ee ae), Vieniias 

1847. Jan. 10. LOM sess.» Vienua. 

1847. Nov. 10. YO" ...... Benares. 

1853. Aug. 26. 107 eae oe Mazzow. 

1856. Oct. 29. 30™....2.. Laybach. 

Among the thirty-nine instances given by M. Schmidt, there were more 
than one instance of the tail winding or doubling itself up, nay, of even 
vanishing and then re-appearing. 


Duration of Meteors. 

M. Schmidt also offers further remarks on the duration of meteors, and he 
observes how rarely they are visible for more than 1 second; that 0! 2! to 
1’ 5" is the usual time of visibility ; the practised observer knows that the 
majority in fact of shooting-stars only shine during the fraction of a second. 

In all probability the short moment during which the light shines is at the 
same time the moment of its partial and final extinction. 

The time during which a shooting-star is visible is a subject for the art of 
more refined observation, and M. Schmidt hopes that much attention will be 
directed “towards determining the duration with regard to colours and any 
anomalous motions of meteors.” In his treatise on Meteors, p- 15, M. Schmidt 
states how long the tails or luminous trains of meteors remain visible, with 
regard to colour, viz. as follows:— 

sec. Mean error. 
With white meteors, the mean =1-00 in 24 observations.... 0°05 
With yellow meteors, the mean=1'51 in 18 observations.... 0°15 
With green meteors, the mean =1-96 in 12 observations.... 0°29 


| 1860. c 


18 REPORT—1860. 


On the other hand, at p. 50, the time during which tails are visible upon the 
whole number, with regard to these different colours :— 


sec. 

‘Time of duration for pe atte ay =0°85 in 64 observations. .p. 1849. 
Time of duration for ae cota =0'90 in 80 observations. a.p. 1849. 
ibm ot iumeaoe snd lceee oe to = 128 in 14 observations. a-p. 1849. 
"Time of duration. for ite le a =1:60 in 5 observations. a.p. 1849. 
aap tte tcehe Avesta ee =0-91 in 12 observations. a.p. 1849. 


Likewise in the year 1850 the longer duration of the coloured meteors 
showed itself in the following proportional means :— 


secs. 
Duration of the white =1-16 in 12 observations. 
Duration of the yellow =1'25 in 8 observations. 
Duration of the yellowish red=1°41 in 6 observations. 


If we consider the time during which the light of the meteor itself lasted 
without regard to any other phenomena, we find in his catalogue the follow- 
ing instances which show that in the case of many thousand observations 
it is very rare that a shooting-star or meteor remains visible for more than 5 
seconds. 


Date. Duration. Place of observation. 
secs. 
1783. August 18 s..ccocsss+scenteejn 6 GO, |Lendon. 
184.2. November 1.........e0.00.6-, LO | |Hamburg. 
1842. November 7......cecseeseeves} 10 | |Hamburg. 
1842. November 21 ......ssseeeeee $  |Hamburg. 
1843. September 19 .........ceeee 7 | |Hamburg. 
1843. September 22 ,,,...seceeeeee 9  |Hamburg. 
1844. August Lh ccsesssadsnare: cer 6 |Hamburg. 
1846. August TO ccssesssdesces ees 8 (Bonn. 
1847. November 29 ......seeserees 8  |Bonn. 
1851. September 26 ..........c000. 11 Minster. 
1659 November S$” \ i. .icessene. 0s 10 =‘ |Miinster. 
LOS; “August Is. .5,.scessauereses< 35 _ |G6ttingen. 
1854. December 8.......2.se0ceee00| 8 |Vienna. 
1656: October Zon cesssevenscees 12 |Laybach. 
1857. ? sda fectee to gee ne. Mae | Mere 
1859, July 27 ieecdsivsgeeesaceee] «12 Athens: for 967 are 


The following remarks on the hypothesis that the intensity of the light 
of the meteors is caused by the oxygen in the atmosphere, are here translated 
verbatim from M. Schmidt’s communication to M. Haidinger :— 

“In consequence of the observations which were then being made by Ben- 
zenberg, Brandes, Felder, Heiss, by myself and others, in the year 1851, I 
examined into this question more closely, and I arrived at a result which was 


* Mr. Greg found one account of this meteor stating it was 20”, seen in an are of 75°. 


om 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 19 


indirectly opposed to that hypothesis: since it is a difficult matter thoroughly 
to refute old objections, however untenable, I may perhaps be permitted here 
to refer to them, and to refer to numbers instead of to opinions. 

“ We all know that the intensity of the light of shooting-stars is estimated 
according to the brightness of the stars, and we therefore, e. g., say that a 
meteor is of the first magnitude when its light equals that of Arcturus or 
Vega. If it shines brighter than Jupiter or Venus, we designate it a small 
fireball. If we put such numerical values for the shooting-stars so as to 
express the intensity of their light, and if we call A the mean height of the 
shining portion of the luminous track above the surface of the earth, we 
obtain the following mean proportional values, which, in the year 1851, I 
deduced from the observations then made (see my work, p. 111) :— 


Meteor of Ist magnitude, k=16:2 geographical miles, for 14 observations, 
Meteor of 2nd magnitude, A=15:°9 geographical miles, for 20 observations, 
Meteor of 3rd magnitude, A=10°8 geographical miles, for 24 observations, 
Meteor of 4th magnitude, k= 8:5 geographical miles, for 21 observations, 


Hence, therefore, it follows that the large meteors belong to the highest 
regions of the earth, where, as we generally suppose, there exists scarcely any 
air at all; that, however, the small meteors which have a feeble light are seen 
nearest to the earth, and occupy the limits of the atmosphere, where the latter 
still exists in a greater and more perceptible degree, and that they descend 
still lower. It is therefore not the oxygen of the air which is in the main the 
chief cause and origin of the burning or glowing of the meteors.” 


Note by Mr. Greg.—That the smaller shooting-stars are frequently nearer 
than the larger meteors, may possibly be still further supposed to be true, 
from the fact that usually they are seen to move more rapidly than the larger 
ones. Still exceptions may exist, as in the case of very large, and probably 
aérolitic fireballs moving horizontally and parallel to the horizon. 

The height at which meteors are not merely luminous, but can leave nearly 
stationary trains of light, is truly surprising; one would almost have 
imagined, at that distance from the surface of the earth, some retardation in 
space of the attenuated and upper stratum of air, as compared with the rapid 
movement of the earth on its own axis. 

It is to be regretted that the extreme limits of the auroral regions are not 
yet more precisely ascertained ; but it is not improbable that shooting-stars 
are commonly visible, or luminous, precisely in that very region, and that 
their luminosity may to some extent be owing to electrical excitation. 


No. 4.—In the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ vol. xxxvii. p. 547, M. Coulvier-Gravier 
gives a list of 168 bolides observed from 1841 to 1853, classed as follows:— 


Istisizenas sa sevetectevess Bl 
Ind SiZG, ess evseenieestere OO 
Brdheigers, sore yesscaied octe _98 


168 


of which latter, viz. those of the 3rd size, he states as being larger or brighter 
than Jupiter or Sirius; the relative or absolute size of the two other classes are 
notstated. These three classes described average arcs or paths as follows :— 


(1) 31... are of 42° 4! 

(2) 39... are of 26° 7! 

(3) 98 ... are of 22° 7 
c2 


20 REPORT—1860. 


Their directions at different hours of the night, and numbers, are given in 
the annexed Table :— 


6pe.m.to10p.m.|10P.m. to 2 a.m.| 2 4.m. to 6 A.M. 


Directions. Number. Number. Number. Totals 
N. 2 Ze Hae 4 
N.N.E. 2 A 2 4. 
N.E. 3 4 1 8 
E.N.E. . 1 5 y 8 
E. 1 Us 2 10 
E.S.E. 8 8 1 qs7 
S.E. 4 8 1 13 
S.S.E. A 9 5) 16 
8. 4. as 3 £4 
S.S.W. ] 4. 5 10 
S.W. oe 8 5 13 
W.S.W. 3 5 1 9 
Ww. 1 3 g 6 
W.N.W. 6 9 8 93 
N.W. 4 4 6 14 
6 


a ee 


The 44 bolides which were observed froin 6 p.m. till 10 p.mM., were seen 
during 6943 hours of observation, which gives one bolide for 15 hours 
47 minutes for that part of the night, of which the average is 9 o'clock. 

The 76 bolides from 10 p.m. till 2 A.M. were seen in 8483 hours of obser- 
vation, which gives one bolide for every 11 hours and 10 minutes for the 
second part of the night, with the mean of midnight. 

The 48 bolides from 2 A.M. till 6 A.M. were observed in 340 hours, which 
gives one bolide for every 7 hours and 5 minutes for the third part of the 
night, the mean being 3 A.M. 

The number of bolides being therefore inverse of the times as above, for 
each bolide, if one allows 100 for midnight, we should find from 


No. of bolides, 
6 10 10, average 9 P.M. ...... = 71 
10 to ¥, average midnight ... =100 
2to 6, average 3 A.M. ...... =158 


The number of bolides seen about 6 A.M. is triple the number of bolides 
observed in the evening, a result which accords with the horary and usual 
variations of shooting-stars generally. 

Out of 168 bolides observed, there were 101 which left longer and shorter 
trains of light of different degrees of duration. 

Out of the same number there were 20 which burst into sparks after a 
course more or less arrested by the rupture. 

Lastly, there were 8 which changed their original velocity, or became sta- 
tionary in their course; two which changed their direction towards the end 
of their path, and ove which had an oscillatory movement. 

M. Coulvier-Gravier elsewhere remarks that 6th magnitude falling stars 
have arcs or paths of from 40° to 9°. 


ca 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 21 


In the ‘ Comptes Rendus,’ vol. xlv. for 1857, p. 257, M. Coulvier-Gravier 
remarks, in a series of observations on the August periodical meteors during 
a period of twelve years, that the maximum number per hour, from 9 P.M. to 
10 p.M., are seen between the N.E. and E.N.E. to 2° 5! of N.E. From 2 to 
3 A.M. between E.S.E. and S.E., 3° of E.S.E. From 9 p.m. to 3 A.M. the 
maximum has advanced 65° towards the South (or 11° per hour); so that 
one would conclude that at 6 a.m. the maximum would be between the S, 
and S.S.E., 7° of S.S.E. 

The above is also confirmed by the general result for other months of the 
year, 7. e. the maximum for August being in the morning between the S. and 
S.S.E., the general average for the year, of shooting-stars, being E.S.E. 

Mr. G. C. Bompas’s valuable generalizations on this fact of the number 
of meteors increasing regularly from 6 P.M. to 6 A.M., as that the number 
appearing in the East is double the number originating in the West, are given 
in a résumé at p. 131 of the volume of the British Association Reports for 
1857, held at Dublin. 


No. 5.—Mr. R. P. Greg gives the following results, taken from a catalogue 
he has constructed of the most remarkable meteors on record, as regards 
their general observed direction ; without reference, however, to the precise 
hours of observation, a matter probably of less consequence in very large 
meteors moving near the earth’s surface, than in the case of ordinary sporadic 
shooting-stars. 


Month. No. of observations. General direction. 
January ...eceee. Li N.W. to S.E. 
February ...... 20 ? 
March | <<... 13 §.E. tO N.W. 
PANU ssc ts deaees 21 N. tos. 
Bae Vi ieasde- 15 E. to w. 
AIRING Weck aancsec.. 18 P 
Ge Tak cencbaas « 14 S.E. to N.W. 
PLUSUSE f.5. casees 24 ? 
September...... 22 N.W. tO S.E. 
October ......... 19 w. to E. 
November ...... 39 N.E. to S.W. 
December ...... 15 N. to s. 


The number for each month here varies quite accidentally, as details con- 
cerning precise direction are frequently wanting in the various published 
accounts of these phenomena. 


REPORT—1860. 


22 


GEIL | LOST {OGL | 461] 211 | 66 |} FST] 801} cL |S6 | O01] L01]€01)O0T} ~"""* sTeor 
0G CHG or joc let l2t 14e |9¢ |ee |oz lat Ves let let to senor | Sane vie doles * savin ne sW'eisinivie nin vidjaisi0.sin BblaieN b siainte yinl nislaareraiaimieialatell (, uepeu 
GE6 | GEIL || FOL) TAL} 6 | 28 | OST|e8 | OF | 04 |€8 |F8 | 88 |g8 Po” sepyog J -uy, sytopuessog) FEgT ‘onsopwyD srysmeysndog +5 
ater seins shir * akc oie prema LIF ‘d “TAX “JOA UsTBULLY , 8 Jtopuessog ) 
79 | GOL |16L |28 }69 | 19 }€8 | €9 | LE | eo |FE 129 18E 169 OMTPOIIE OG OF Pazeys OB GST YOM jo “av CGPRT OF “av FRG UTOAy 
‘soyT[OIQe PUR SapI[od JO onsopeyeo sty Jo siskyeuL s,roneyameg aq 
ee “ pe ea 00G¢ ‘d ‘tt ‘Toa Gueug pur oyyurg Aq uoYRisuey “Auouoysy 
89 SI8 {08 |06 | 44 |F9 |el|F4 | er |OS [aos | SF | 4G | ce | aemdog , 5 oSery WOAT SSapt[od PUR scoa}OUL o[qRyAeUIOL JO 4SIT 
Seine ‘(Fog ‘d ‘urx ‘snpaey soydu0p) stoajomm Suryeuojap pue soq1jo198 
SII | FSET |) 88 | SST} 806) ST | SST} S81} 246 {88 |99 |cL |e | 99 ‘stomoys o1toqjour Ayyy nou Jo eAIsUPOUT “CLZ] “CV 0} YG “aY WHOA 
‘SUOTRATASGO LOAjOUL osaUTyD youUNstp FCT Jo sisk{Teuy “yorq “| 
“OSBIOAB i aad ts). iste ee Lie th > ) wae a “<2 §67 
Apyguopy | STW || 9a | ‘AN| 0 ‘qdeg | ‘Sny | Atnpyeune) Aeyy | -ady |-zepy | ‘qagq | wer 
‘YJUOUL Yowa TOF coz “soytporay pue saprpog Fo xoaqum yy “AVIIOYNB onsopRyeo, 
‘] 1avy, 
‘Sain -q'y Ag ,,‘sdoajayy snout] uo suonvasasqg ,, *9 


23 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


‘soorjou oywatad pure speorportoed snortea osye £ OCgT “TOLMZ Ut yyeysTjasaH UapuOTSsLOJAMyeNT Top UT ONSOTLTRD 8,J[OAA JOpnyy { POgT aoy 
UETeUNY §Lopusscog Jo oumnyoa peyuermoetddng oyy ur ‘onsopeyeD s,rupryYyD 0} yuewmepddng yyue, oy Suteq ‘onsopeyep s1ysmepsnsog pue ‘Auouoysy aemndog 
sodery ‘saneywneg pure yozajonty ‘yprumtpg Jo sonsoypRyep ‘sjoday uoreoossy YsHMG {toystdoy [eNUUY fsoylLoajop Jo onFopRyey s~upepyg {suoyoojop 
Ipequorprey pue pavdoyg ‘vuuatA OY} UL sopAooJoTY OY} JO sonsopeyeD ‘GFT ‘Asojpoxoojop[ s,Mosmoyy, { UeTeUUY s,jaopuesdog {TeuMopr WeoLoULy sWweUr 
“T[IG ‘ourzesvyy yeorydosopryg uopuoy ‘ Aqdosopryg fo eumor suospoyoryy Sonbiskyg ep yo ormmyg ep sereuny ‘snpuoy soyduog—umoy poyeTpon » 


Tel 90 OFS 109 SIL OPP ft sypeqe.ag ao ‘soprfog: 

69 Lt IST 6L1 O6T OLT |" Sdoaqjout Suyeuojop pur ‘soyT[O1ay 

If GG SIT 16 101 OTe ae ere * (S[[B} WOAT Lo ot10q8) sozTTOAOW 
"fk +f. . . . * 

San | sou qandcuaed Pre a. peal aaonde Sanbane “wo drz98e(q 


‘mNSO[ICD §3aIH Ap. “[ aquy, Jo sisf{peuy 


CL | I8t Ze |oo i#8 (1s [or ie | eo jor 6 ter jez ie (qapojen%) OEST “a'V 07 OORT “a'v wos skepdsrp yetomne Jo coqum yy 


J a. e = Steen eee Peewee ewer ens eeeces See ee Wee enero serereeneerees (oSvcy) yyuout 
8T 816 AL {46 166 jl | 99 |FI |G JF [AT GT JOT | OT ee IOF pepaovaa saxeqs-Sutyooys jo sXvtdsrp yedroutad yo roqumyy 


0-961 | STST |] LET) S81 OFT) SET | 227/61) 16 | LOT} #6 | OTT}86 |9TT\ . * TSO TIDUS) 
0:96 | SSIT || ILL} GFT} 801) FOT| SFL|S6 | 8G |Z4 | 14 |GL SL | G6 | soprqoq ofdunig 


0-06 | 09F |}9G |9E | GE | TE |66 |9E | EE 166 |S |8E |9B | 16 |" be SS OHTTOAQV [RIOT 


——s 


LG | |F 16 IL |e jh je |G IT |B |9 |S Je |r vonsopmep saoneyumeg aq mow ‘gory ure}Ta0uQ “g 10D 
GOL | 86 | OL |L4T j€T |Ir |8 jst jor |¢ j9 |#r js |8 eee vrs erogjout Burywuojey “9 
0-L1 $0G ZL LI SI LI LI 0G 104 & GI SI 91 OL eed Meech eas 3m gis ope pe LAI YS 1 9u0js pu woay 7) » 
: *ySWOTJVAIASGO OSIUTY LY) FO PAISNIOXO ‘YOST "A'V 0} FRC “a*¥ 
' Tosy ‘sapTouRe pus seprfoq Jo endoyeyy gy jomexyeuy “Bay aT 


TABLE II.—Days of the Month on which Bolides cr Aérolites have been observed and recorded.—R. P. Greg. 


24 REPORT—1860. 


1 


SH OOD 1D Hh 1D HOD OH 9 19 09 OD LD IDNA CD HINO NON SO OD HNN 


lO AHKHA OCHA RDA MANANAANMH OR AN HAHAHA 


HIOANIMDOOOAHARANMOWVAMM MAOH 121A HOA 
= oe | . 


July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Noy. | Dee. 


= 
= AAANAND 1NANOOCHNMAEOANHNAANHHAMAMDOUMWA 
3 : 
m 
o 
as) 3 3 . : Z 
; EB CODA AAAANTHA POONA AHMOANHOG Fs ENN fo 
ia) r | 
Bl acne IMMA aIeD fee imc 
am 
mm 2 F see ee 
a Oa st 500 A160 09 69 OD I OT 69 19 1D sets St NOD dH fie 
< 
rill 
ae tee ae ne ot 
oP HAH ANOMOANHANAT INHOHOHOHHANAN tin 
o e ims ie 
ey 
Ef OD OO NON DH HD 0D OV 109 OD HID CT OD HY HOD HOD SH CT 
3 rt ’ 
er) 

e Tid HS SHAS SHAD IS SKHDS SHAH SSK SSH™ 
a aN oe ee Oe Oe ee Sy ray ay ot oo ot OGG CY CG GU CLES oo, 
cS) 5 : * orm, ey eee a A Us 

fat a ered, SG: 5 srt ICY SCs Sire OT as Ba | rh ae ea 


by 


Noy. 


Oct. 


nq | 3 , : aa one) -, Sans 
S$ QU Hl SCO sr iCN COGN rsirt (2 CGNs corti 8 rt ee od 
s|n 
8 ep s : Pe ve ae A A ie rin 
ct} 3 Sia: Koy Whos Tear St Nac ae OL Pea Geers swe cn chee 
Fig ede 
= 
3 a: 
=I b Bs a a hrike rea. mune, ° alee im 
aS} | S SODCDMIIAA 5 § SIMICIQOOM sririrt 3 5 300 rr4 5 3 309 
o nas : 
a) ae) 
oS i) . : ae 
5 5 IHN AAAN PARA HA IAM EP INRA in Pi inn iN 
mn mI 
S ; 
aa =| Pie PINAR INA Pd Ha A PP INRs i iin 
| 4 
3S a | Hin . = 1a : . 
& | btw: ei) Bsr ee ee Ai 
</4 
ey Ha . Daichl aves . 
Sane AGA PHORM IMAGHA ? PHAN : 
| ren 
Sl tia tia tame fi io f fom is in ia i i 
Fy 
» 2 erin . 
& St SOT oe SS Re) ett 
Lan) 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


Aérolitic epochs 
common to meteor 


Analysis of Taste II. 


Aérolitic epochs 
probably distinct 


Times of fewest 
aérolites. 


Times of fewest 
bolides. 


epochs ? from meteor epochs. 
6—10 February? | 8—10 January. Jan. 18—Feb. 6. February ...24—31. 
11—22 July. 1422 March. sAnaisly oo 20—25. | April ...... 19—26. 
4— 7 August. 5 April. April 29—May 7. OMG, Yecien 3— 8. 
- 1— 6 September. | 17—21 May. August ...21—31. | June 24-30. 
1— 5 October? 3—16 June. September 17—30, | July...... 1—10. 
9—13 November. | 3— 8 July. Dec. 16—Jan. 7. September 12—19, 


27—30 November. 
11—15 December. 


Observations on the preceding Tables, Se. 


1. While the number of bolides is considerably larger for December and 
January than for June and July, the number of aérolitic falls is about as 
large again for the latter as for the former period; the earth in her orbit 
in the first case being at her perihelion, in the latter at her aphelion. 

2. The distribution of the larger class of meteors is not so unequal 
throughout the year, if we make allowance for the immense number usually 
periodically observed in August and November, when meteors as large in 
apparent size as Jupiter, or even Venus, are not uncommon. March, May, 
June, and July furnish out of the total number generally observed of meteors 
of all sizes, the largest proportion of bolides, and especially of aérolites. 

3. There is a remarkable equality in the numbers of aérolitic falls for the 
first half of the year as compared with the second half, viz. 103 and 101 re- 
spectively. There does not appear to be any very remarkable preponderance 
in this class of meteoric phenomena during the periodic epochs for shooting- 
stars, 7.e. about the 9th of August and 10th of November. In the analysis of 
Table II. these epochs are more fully pointed out. There appear to be 
aérolitic epochs entirely distinct in themselves ; and it is worthy of remark 
that these epochs are apparently most distinctly marked, with regard to shoot- 
ing-stars and boiides only, during the first six months of the year; whilst all 
the epochs possibly common to both classes are seen to occur in the second 
six months of the year, with the single exception of one in February. 

4. Analyses of several catalogues are concisely given in Table I. for the 
purpose of convenient comparison. They vary more or less from each other, 
though not very materially; necessarily in constructing such catalogues, 
some latitude and difference of opinion may exist respecting what constitutes 
a proper bolide; and recorded observations may not always be very definite. 
If meteors of the size of Venus or Jupiter were included without discrimina- 
tion, the list of fireballs for August and November might be swelled out in- 
definitely ; e. g. hundreds of meteors of that size were seen on one night 
alone, November 13, 1833, in America. The practice of late years of look- 
ing out more particularly for shooting-stars at the usual August and Novem- 
ber periods, probably tends to increase disproportionately in all catalogues 
of bolides, the number of observations for those two months, though the 
November period appears for the present to have become very much less 
remarkable for meteoric displays than formerly. 

In constructing his own catalogue, Mr. Greg has endeavoured merely to 
insert such observations as might with most certainty be assumed to be 
remarkable for size and brilliancy. 


26 REPORT—1860. 


The catalogue itself may possibly appear in a future volume of the Reports 
of the British Association. 

An attempt has been made to separate (as aérolitic) the class of detonating 
meteors, of which more than 100 are separately given; great care having 
been taken to obtain the fullest and most accurate list of that class of me- 
teoric phenomena, as being most interesting and most important, but which 
has hitherto either been statistically too much neglected, or not sufficiently 
separated and distinguished from the class of fireballs without detonation ; 
large fireballs being frequently said to explode or burst, though when so ex- 
pressed only, it must be construed as without noise. It has likewise been 
the custom with some writers and observers to rank as aé€rolitic, all the larger 
class of fireballs, whether observed to burst with or without detunation. 
Probably one-third of the larger fireballs, 2. e. having an apparent diameter of 
15’ and upwards, burst with an audible explosion, this for those observed at 
night; of those similarly observed during daytime the proportion (according 
to Mr. Greg’s calculations) is greater, probably about one-half. It is a sin- 
gular fact, that out of 72 stonefalls, whose precise hour of fall has been 
recorded, only 13 occurred before noon, and no less than 58 fell between 
fioon and 9 p.m. Why so few should have fallen at night and before noon, in 
the morning, it is not easy to say, supposing it not to be the result of chance. 
If true that more aérolitic falls occur during daytime than during the night, 
it would seem that there is a greater tendency to encounter those bodies in 
their orbits, as they recede from the sun; that side of the earth most directly 
opposite to the sun being naturally most likely to come into actual contact 
with them. The above observations are taken for average of latitude, say 
48° north, and 10° west longitude. 

Dr. D. P. Thomson, in his ‘ Introduction to Meteorology,’ p. 302, states 
that meteors are of comparative rare occurrence in the Arctic Regions: this, 
if true, is curious and important, and deserves corroboration from some of 
the great arctic navigators now living in this country, and to whom applica- 
tion for any additional information might readily be made; the long winter 
nights in those parts being admirably adapted for observations (especially 
horary) of shooting-stars. 

The time of maximum meteor visibility being stated by M. Coulvier- 
Gravier and M. Bompas to be about 6 A.., it is rather singular that the 
times of maximum occurrence for aérolites and detonating meteors should 
be about the same hour p.m. 

5. Of the Chinese observations given by Biot, 900 were made in a period 
of only 79 years, viz. from A.p. 1023—1102; they include meteors of every 
apparent size from Jupiter to the Moon; likewise a certain number of aéro- 
lites, detonating meteors, meteoric showers, and doubtless some few auroral 
displays. The larger propurticn were observed in that portion of the sky 
included between the S.W. and S.E. 

M. Abel Rémusat, in 1819, has published other particulars, viz. of 100 
falls of stones and detonating meteors, which have been recorded likewise in 
Chinese annals, between the sixth century B.c. to 1223 a.p. In Biot’s list 
the 23rd of October presented the maximum number of observations. 

6. Further observations are to be desired respecting the zodiacal light, and 
every possible connexion between that phenomenon and that of shooting-stars 
cr meteors. Likewise further information concerning the heights at which 
meteors begin to be visible, and cease being visible. The question concern- 
ing the cause of luminosity in meteors is a highly interesting one, and still 
an open one. The phenomena displayed by the luminous trains or tails of 
shooting-stars and meteors is also a subject requiring much attention. ‘The 


DUBLIN BAY DREDGING COMMITTEE. 27 


theory that they shine by reflected solar light, has been refuted by Mr. R. P. 
Greg inthe April Number of the Philosophical Magazine. 

7. It is desirable to distinguish, if possible, between ordinary shooting- 
stars and aérolites ; Olmsted, Dr. Lawrence Smith, and Mr. Greg are strongly 
of opinion that a distinction may frequently exist, both orbital and physical. 

8. In a paper by Prof. W. Thomson in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for 
December 1854, “* On the Mechanical Energies of the Solar System,” is deve- 
loped more fully the idea of Mr. Waterston, that the solar heat can only be 
maintained, on any known principle, by immense numbers of meteorites 
constantly striking the surface or atmosphere of the sun, and thus producing 
by their enormous velocity and friction a never-failing source of heat. The 
chief objection to this theory arises from the fact that, as far as we prac- 
tically know anything of meteors, so far from the probability of their being 
swallowed up in the sun goes, we see the majority of them apparently re- 
curring without waste at periodical times, and that for a long term of years: 
this simple circumstance goes much against the probability of Mr. Waterston’s 
and Prof Thomson’s theory. 

Considering that the sun’s heat, as an effect of its light, must have been 
maintained for millions of years (as proved geologically) pretty much at its 
present value, it is not improbable that future calculations, and a more accu- 
rate knowledge of the phenomena exhibited by solar light, may enable us to 
reduce considerably the supposed absolute heat of the sun, as now measured 
by ah imaginary thermometer, and thus spare us the necessity of supposing 
that its heat is so great as to require myriads of meteors to be always rush- 
ing itito it to create a fresh supply of it. If the majority of meteors should 
be, as they probably are, merely minute and gaseous comets, not possessing 
a solid or stony nature, it would still more increase the chances against 
Mr. Waterston’s theory. 

9. M. Haidinger has recently published at Vienna some valuable 
papers on the crust and external forms of meteoric stones, in relation to the 
circumstances accompanying their fall and probable condition prior to, or at 
the moment of, entering the earth’s atmosphere. 


Report of the Committee appointed to dredge Dublin Bay. By J.R. 
Krinanan, M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology, Government School 
of Science applied to Mining and the Arts. 


Durine the autumn and winter months (1859) the author made several ex- 
ceursions to the bays fo the north of Dublin, the results of which will be em- 
bodied in the final Report. In the spring of 1860, finding that, owing to 
circumstances beyond their control, there was no prospect of systematic 
assistance from the other members of the Committee, the author determined 
to fix on a district to be worked systematically, and selected the series 
of bays between the Poolbeg Lighthouse and Bray as being the most Jikely 
to yield a good return as regards numberof species and variety of grounds. 
Accordingly, since the beginning of March, a series of systematic dredgings 
have been carried out in this district, the results of which are now communi- 
cated. The district may be conveniently divided into three sub-districts :— 
Ist. That between the Lighthouse wall and Kingstown east pier, including 
Kingstown Harbour. 2nd. The district between Kingstown east pier and 
the south end of Dalkey Sound, including the whole sound. 3rd. The bay 


28 REPORT—1860. 


between the latter point and Bray Head, in each case including the banks for 
seven miles off shore. 

Of these the following call for notice :— 

Bank 1.—The North Scallop bed lying about three miles off in district I. 
It consists of pure sand. Ophiurid@ are very common; Ophioconide not 
uncommon; Comatulide scarce; Asteriade not uncommon: one specimen 
of Asterias rosea, Miller (Cribella rosea, Forbes), occurred here. Other 
Echinoderms rare; Molluses are rare; Polyzoa and Tunicata are very com- 
mon; Crustacea, Decapoda, not uncommon, species few ; Amphipoda rare ; 
Cirrhipeda common; Annelida are scarce; and Polypifera very common. 
It may be generally noted, however, as unprofitable ground. 

2. Within this a bank of Pleistocene fine sand of considerable extent, but 
generally narrow in width: this contains very few living shells, but myriads 
of dead shells, from which all their organic constituents have been absorbed, 
and which are easily distinguished from the shells found in the next. 

3. The Shell Bank.—This, which I have only partially succeeded in tracing 
out, isa curious belt of broken and living shells, the dead shells being easily 
distinguished from those of the Pleistocene (Teleocene) beds. Many spe- 
cies of Crustacea are here found; Zoophytes are abundant in certain parts 
of it; Echinodermata are also common, chiefly Ophiocomide. Echinide, 
Sipunculide, and Holothuriade occur more rarely, at least to the dredge, as 
the oval tentacles of the latter are frequently brought up. This bank is 
most interesting, as it bears a close resemblance to the Turbot Bank of the 
Belfast Dredging Committee, many of the shells being identical; and one 
remarkable coral, as yet only found in the north seas of Ireland, has been 
detected in it by Mr. E. Waller (Sphenotrochus Wrightii). I have traced it 
nearly the whole way across districts 2 and 3, though in some parts its 
breadth is narrowed to a few yards; and it bears a constant relation to 
Bank 2, which in district 3 is called the “ Back.” 

4, Shanganagh Bank, a shingly, muddy, sand oyster-bed, formed from the 
influx of the river of the same name lying inside the Back in Killiney Bay.— 
Here Lupagurus levis first occurred to me; Asterias rosea, two specimens : 
Holothuriade are not uncommon ; Zoophytes and Polyzoa not uncommon. 
Of Mollusca some rare species occur here. 

5. Sorrento Bay.—This consists of dense gravelly sand. Here living 
Molluses are rare ; Nucula radiata occurs in some number, and very fine ; 
and Annelids are not uncommon ; Crustacea, except Hyade, are rare. 

6. Dalkey Sound.—This district requires almost a special description 
for itself, though not half a mile long, and barely a quarter of a mile broad, 
and the depth of water in no place, according to the Chart, exceeding at 
lowest spring tides 12 fathoms; yet species of every group are met with in 
it, which are ordinarily reputed to be deep-sea species. I have taken in it, 
and in it only, Ophidion imberbe, Pirimela denticulata, Hyas coarctatus, 
Inachus dorynchus, Ebalia Pennantii, and ynany other species which else- 
where have only occurred to me in 20-fathom water. In fact, the only spe- 
cies wanting here are those for which I would propose the name of broad 
sea species, such as Spatangus purpureus, Lupagurus levis, Inachus Dor- 
settensis, and Crangon Alimanni, none of which have ever occurred plenti- 
fully except outside the “ Back.” I defer a full description of this district 
until my final report, which I hope to present to the Association at their 
next meeting. 

7, The Cnook, a bank about seven miles from land in an easterly 
direction.—This consists of fine sand and large shells: Zoophytes are very 
common ; Oysters and Scollops also abound. Here I met several species of 


mo 


= 


DUBLIN BAY DREDGING COMMITTEE. 29 


Crustacea, which are rare elsewhere,—Lupagurus levis, Inachus Dorsettensis, 
Pinnotheres pisum, Tetromatus Bellianus, &c. The bank is not easy of 
attainment, as it requires smooth water for its proper working, and the past 
season in Dublin has been a succession of easterly and westerly gales. 

From all these grounds a number of species have been obtained ; of these, 
the Annelida and Zoophytes are yet undetermined, but the author hopes to 
put in a list of them at the next meeting of the Association. Of other 
groups, the following number of species have been determined :—Fishes, 10, 
one, Ophidion imberbe, new to Ireland: Mollusca, 188, exclusive of Polyzoa ; 
of these none are new to Ireland: Crustacea, 7); of these 5 are hitherto un- 
recorded in Ireland, 8 new to the east coast: Arachnida, 2: Echinodermata, 
$0, one, Asterias rosea, new to Dublin, &c. Spouges are omitted for the 
present. In the present immature condition of these researches, it were pre- 
mature to attempt any general conclusions; but the results as yet obtained 
go strongly to confirm an opinion advanced by the author some years since, 
regarding the absence of southern types on the Dublin coast, which occur 
further north, and which led him to the adoption of an eastern Irish or 
Dublin district, extending from Dundrum Bay to Carnsole Point. For the 
identification of most of the species the writer is responsible, with the ex- 
ception of the minute Molluscs; these Edward Waller, Esq., kindly took in 
hand—frequent recurrence of his initials in the accompanying list will show 
with what success. Great quantities of the fine sand obtained in these 
researches is yet unworked, so that it is probable that ere our next report 
other species may be added to those here given. 

To complete the work, the Committee would ask that the Committee may 
be appointed, with the addition of Edward Waller, Esq., as follows :—Pro- 
fessor J. R. Kinahan, Dublin; Dr. W. Carte; Professor J. Reay Greene; Dr. 
E. P. Wright, and Edward Waller, Esq.; and that a further sum, not exceed- 
ing £15, be placed at their disposal for this purpose, to enable them to 
COMPLETE this investigation. 


List of Species obtained in Kingstown and Killiney Bays, and a few from 
Baldoyle. 


Saxicava rugosa, living, very common. 


Psammobia Ferroensis, single valves, not 
arctica, living, not uncommon. 


common. 


Spheenia Binghami, living, one specimen : 
Dalkey Sound. 

Mya truncata, dead, not uncommon. 

arenaria, living, young specimens. 

Corbula nucleus, living, not common ; dead 
yalyes, very common. 

Lyonsia Norvegica, living, rare. 

Thracia phaseolina, living, rare, double 
valves. 

— villosiuscula, not rare. 

—— distorta, living, rare. 

on pretenue, dead, single valves 
only. ; 

Solen marginatus, dead, single valves only, 

—— siliqua, living, in Killiney Bay. 

— ensis, living, in IGlliney Bay. 

pellucidus, living, in some numbers, in 
Killiney Bay. 

Solecurtus candidus, single valves without 
epidermis: Shell Bank. 

——— coarctatus, a pair of valves: Dalkey 
Sound, 


tellinella, very common. 

Tellina crassa, very common. 

— incarnata, dead, single valves only. 

—— tenuis, living, rare. 

—— fabula, dead, single valves. 

solidula, rare, living. 

—— donacina. 

pygmeza, very rare, living. 

Syndosmya alba, common. 

Serobicularia piperata, one dead specimen, 
on Shell Bank. 

Mactra solida, rare, living here. 

—— subtruncata, one single valve. 

—— elliptica, very common. 

—— stultorum, rare here. 

Lutraria elliptica, dead, shells only. 

Tapes decussata, uncommon. 

pullastra, not uncommon. 

virginea, very common. 

Venus casina, uncommon. 

striatula, rare here. 

——- fasciata, common. 


30 REPORT—1860. 


Venus ovata, common. 

Artemis exoleta, common. 

lincta, not uncommon. 

Lucinopsis undata, rare. 

Cyprina Islandica, common, dead; not 
common, living here. 

Circe minima, E. W., very rare. 

Astarte sulcata, uncommon. 

triangularis, EH. W., not uncommon. 

Cardium echinatum, not uncommon, dead ; 
living small, rare. 

edule, rare here. 

— pygmzum, uncommon. 

—— Norvegicum, not uncommon. 

—— nodosum, very common. 

—— fasciatum, common. 

Lucina borealis, common. 

flexuosa, Killiney Bay, rare. 

spinifera, one single valve. 

Montacuta bidentata, H.W. 

substriata, on Spat. purpureus, 

Kellia suborbicularis, rare. 

rubra, E. W. 

Lepton nitidum, BH. W. 

squamosum, single valves, rare. 

Mytilus edulis, common. 

Modiola Modiolus, common. 

Crenella discors, common. 

marmorata, uncommon. 

Nucula nucleus, very common. 

— nitida, common. 

radiata, not uncommon, but local. 

Leda caudata, rare, living. 

Pectunculus glycimeris, living, rare and 
small; dead, large and uncommon. 

Lima Loscombii, rare. 

Pecten varius, rare. 

pusio, rare. 

—— tigrinus, not rare. 

maximus, not rare. 

opercularis, very common. 

Ostrea edulis, very common. 

Anomia ephippium. 

patelliformis. 

— striata. 

Chiton fascicularis, rare. 

—— marmoreus, rare. 

asellus, very common; other species 

et undetermined, 

Patella vulgata. 

—— pellucida. 

athletica, 

Acmza virginea, common; Dalkey Sound. 

testudinalis, 

Dentalium entalis, uncommon. 

tarentinum, dead, only fragments, rare, 

Pileopsis Hungaricus, rare here. 

Fissurella reticulata, uncommon. 

Emarginula reticulata, uncommon, 

Trochus zizyphinus. 

granulatus. 

Montagui, 

—— tumidus. 

— umnbilicatus. 

cinerarius. 

—— millegranus. 


Trochus magus, broken. 
helicinus. 

—— pusillus, H.W, 
Phasianella pullus. 
Adeorbis subcarinata. 
Littorina littorea. 

rudis. 

littoralis. 

Lacuna vincta. 

crassior, Shanganagh. 
Rissoa Beanii, H.W., one fragment. 
uly. 

— costata. 

parva. 

labiosa. 

—— punctura, E. W. 
inconspicua, E. W. 
semistriata, HE. W. 
soluta, one specimen, 
vitrea. 

striata. 

striatula, E. W. 
Skenea divisa, E. W. 
planorbis. 
Turritella communis. 
Cecum glabrum, EH. W.. 
Aporrhais pes-pelecani, 
Cerithium. 

adyersum, E. W. 
Scalaria Turtonis, broken. 
communis. 

Eulima polita, B. W. 
distorta, EH. W. 
bilineata, E. W. 


Chemnitzia fulyocincta: Shell Bank. 


elegantissima, E. W. 
indistincta, H. W. 
Odostomia eulimoides. 
insculpta, E. W. 
—— interstincta, E. W. 
spiralis, E. W. 
decussata. 

Natica monilifera. 
nitida. 

sordida. 
Velutina levigata. 
Murex erinaceus. 
Purpura lapillus. 
Nassa reticulata. 
incrassata, rare. 
—— pygmea. 
Buccinum undatum. 
Fusus antiquus, 
Islandicus. 
propinquus. 
Trophon Barvicensis, 
—— muricatus, 
clathratus, 
Mangelia turricula, 
—— rufa, 
septangularis. 
— linearis. 

—— nebula. 

—— costata. 

Cyprza Europa. 
Cylichna cylindracea. 


A 


DUBLIN BAY DREDGING COMMITTEE. 


Cylichna truncata, E. W. 


Amphisphyra Hyalina. 
Tornatella fasciata. 
Akera bullata. 
Scaphander lignarius. 
Philine aperta. 
Aplysia hybrida. 


Pleurobranchus membranaceus. 


-—— plunula. 

Eolis papillosa. 
Tritonia Hombergii. 
Doto coronata. 
Pholas dactylus. 
crispata. 
Aplidium fallax. 
Botryllus polycyclus. 
Ascidia mentula. 
— virginea. 
Molgula tubulosa. 
Cynthia aggregata. 
Hledone cirrhosus. 
Rossia macrosoma. 


Stenorhynchus phalangium. 


Inachus Dorsettensis. 
dorynchus. 
Hyas araneus. 

= coarctatus. 
Eurynome aspera. 
Cancer pagurus, 
Pilumnus hirtellus, 
Pirimela denticulata. 
Carcinus mzenas. 
Portunus puber. 
arcuatus. 

—— depurator. 
— holsatus. 

—— pusillus. 
Pinnotheres pisum. 
PEbalia Pennantii. 
Atelecyclus heterodon. 


Corystes Cassivelaunus. 


Pinnotheres pisum. 
Eupagurus Streblonyx. 
—— Prideauxii, 

— Cuanensis. 

— Ulidianus. 

—— Thompsonii. 
Porcellana longicornis. 
platycheles. 
Galathea squamifera. 
— strigosa. 

—— Andrewsii. 

—— nexa. 

— dispersa. 
Palinurus vulgaris. 
Homarus vulgaris. 
Crangon vulgaris. 
— fasciatus. 

— sculptus. 

— Allmanni. 

— bispinosus. 


Nika edulis, 


Detailed notes on the species will accompany the final Report. 


Hippolyte yarians. 
—— Cranchii. 

—— Thompsonii. 
—— pusiola. 
Yarrellii. 
Pandalus annulicornis. 
leptorhynchus. 
Palzemon serratus. 
— squilla. 
varians. 
Athanas nitescens. 
Lysianassa longicornis. 
Anonyx denticulatus. 
Ampelisca typicus. 
Urothoe marinus. 
elegans. 
Iphimedia obesa. 
Eblane. 
Acanthonotus testudo. 
Dexamine spinosa, 
Gammarus locusta. 
— fluviatilis. 
palmatus. 

—— Othonis. 
longimanus. 
Amphithoe rubricata, 
—— littorina. 
Podocerus falcatus. 
variegatus. 
Corophium longicorne. 
Chelura terebrans. 
Hyperia Galba. 
Caprella tuberculata. 
Comatula rosacea. 
Ophiura texturata. 
—— albida. 
Ophiocoma neglecta. 
Ballii. 

bellis. 

rosula. 

minuta. 
Uraster glacialis. 
—— rubens. 

— violacea. 
hispida. 
Cribella oculata. 
rosea. 

Solaster papposa. 
Asterias aurantiaca, 
Echinus sphera. 
— Miliaris. 


Echinocyamus pusillus, 


Spatan urpureus. 
ee hiaee cordatus. 
Cucumaria fusiformis, 
Hyndmanni. 
Thyone papillosa. 
Synapta inherens, 
Syrinx Harveii. 
granulosus. 


Sipunculus Bernhardus. 


Priapulus caudatus. 


31 


32 REPORT—1860. 


Report on the Excavations in Dura Den. 
By the Rev. Joan ANDERSON, D.D., F.G.S. 


In reporting on the operations and researches in Dura Den during the 
summer of 1860, the Committee laid open several large sections of super- 
incumbent boulder clay and of the underlying yellow sandstone, but were 
unsuccessful in obtaining any of the Pamphractean or Pterichthyan forms 
sought after. None of the workmen engaged in the excavations in 1837, 
when these organisms were found in great numbers, were living in the di- 
strict ; and the Committee, proceeding on the information of others, failed to 
detect the precise fossiliferous bed in question. Their labours brought them, 
however, to a point which cannot be far distant from these crustacean trea- 
sures, and they are hopeful that, on resuming their researches, they shall 
meet with the desired success. They proceeded to other sections of the rock, 
in the bottom of the ravine, and there they were richly rewarded with an 
abundance of the fossil remains of fishes, chiefly of the genus Holoptychius 
and other Celacanths. 

The yellow sandstone deposit, as described in the ‘Course of Creation’ 
in former papers of Dr. Anderson, consists of an alternating series of grits, 
shales, marls, and fine-grained sandstone, of various shades of colour. The 
fossil fishes are confined to one particular bed, which, when laid open, easily 
splits up, the organic materials determining the point of separation, and 
exhibiting often on a single flag from fifty to a hundred closely-packed and 
well-defined figures with scales, fins, and cranial plates quite entire. On the 
present occasion your Committee were surrounded by an intelligent group of 
lovers of the science, male and female, from Edinburgh, St. Andrews, Forfar, 
Dundee, and Cupar, and succeeded, after a few hours’ labour, in displaying to 
their eager gaze some of the largest and most beautiful specimens of these 
older denizens of our seas. 

It will not be necessary to describe in detail any of the well-known forms 
and characteristics of Holoptychius, the most abundant of the genera found in 
this deposit. But having submitted some of the most perfect of the spe- 
cimens to Professor Huxley, and as he thereby was enabled to detect some 
new particulars connected with the structure and figure of the genus, it will 
not be deemed out of place to give an abstract of his interesting descrip- 
tion, contained at length in Dr. Anderson’s ‘ Monograph of Dura Den*.’ 

“Tn studying,” says Professor Huxley, “ the new forms of Devonian fish 
which have been described, I found it desirable to obtain a more definite 
conception than was deducible from extant materials, of the characters of 
Holoptychius. To this end I examined a considerable number of specimens 
of Holoptychius Andersoni, contained partly in the collection of the British 
Museum, partly in that of the Museum of Practical Geology, and I have 
arrived at the following conclusions. Holoptychius Andersoni has very nearly 
the proportions of a carp, but its body is thicker and its snout is more rounded 
from side to side. ‘The greatest depth of the body is in front of its middle ; 
the length of the whole body is to that of the head nearly as five to one. 
The orbit is nearly circular, about one-fourth the length of the head. The 
cranial bones all exhibit a peculiar granular structure. The two parietals 
occupy a large extent of the upper wall of the cranium, and have the form 
of pentagons with their elongated bases turned inwards and applied to one 
another. The occipital region is covered by three bones, one median, and 
two lateral; the lateral bones having radiating striz on the posterior halves 


* Dura Den; A Monograph of the Yellow Sandstone and its remarkable Fossil Remains. 
By the Rey. J. Anderson, D.D., F.G.S, Edinburgh: Thomas Constable and Co. 


ON THE EXCAVATIONS IN DURA DEN. 33 


of their outer surfaces. The operculum is a broad bone, larger behind, 
where it is convex, than in front, where it is concave, and much longerthan 
it is deep. 

_ “The rami of the lower jaw are stout and strong, and form a very broad, 
almost semicircular arch. The characters of the scales are well known. 
The fins are lobate, and the dorsal fin is small and triangular. Sir Philip 
Egerton, in a valuable memoir recently read before the Geological Society, 
_expresses his belief that Holoptychius has two dorsal fins. I am very loath 
to controvert the opinion of so experienced and skilful an observer, the more 
particularly as specimens of Holoptychius with perfect tails are very rare, 
but one or two complete examples I have seen, leave no room in my mind 
for any other conclusion than that stated above.” 

Numerous perfect specimens of this remarkable fish have been obtained 
in our recent excavations, which show the lobate character of the fins as de- 
scribed by the learned Professor, as well as the unity of the dorsal organ. 
The entire form of the body of Holoptychius is likewise beautifully deve- 
loped in some of the specimens, where the caudal end appears gradually 
tapering toa point, and not at all dent up as represented in all former de- 
scriptions ; while the ventral lobe of the caudal fin, though rather shorter than 
the dorsal lobe, has nearly the same depth, and not in the ordinary sense 
of the heterocercal structure. 

In the course of our explorations we also succeeded in obtaining several 
perfect specimens of two new and hitherto undescribed genera of Ceelacanths, 
namely, Glyptolemus Kinnairdii and Phaneropleuron Andersont. 

The specific distinction of Glyptolemus Kinnairdit was proposed and 
adopted at the Meeting of the London Geological Society in honour of 
Lord Kinnaird, whose zeal in promoting the interests of geology is only 
equalled by his enlightened endeavours to advance the interests of anything 
connected with our social and industrial well-being as a statesman. The 
generic term of Glyptolemus was suggested on account of the marked 
sculpture of the jugular plates in one of the specimens. As described in the 
“Monograph” of Dura Den, the scales and fins likewise form strongly 
marked characteristics of this new genus. 

The scales are rhomboidal, and have an average short diameter of one- 
sixth of an inch. Twenty-four series are visible, and diverge from the me- 
dian line in the ordinary way ; they are larger on the anterior part of the 
ventral surface than on the posterior part, and at the side of the body than 
on the belly. They are pitted and ridged almost as in Glyptopomus, although 
somewhat thinner and less bony than in that fish. There are two dorsal fins 
which are situated very far back, the anterior edge of the root of the first 
being nine inches distant from the end of the snout in one of the specimens : it 
is remarkably slender, and of a semi-oval outline. The second dorsal fin is 
considerably larger than the first, being two inches on its longest axis, and 
its breadth about an inch in depth. The entire length of the body, in several 
of the specimens, varies from a foot and a half to nearly two feet. 

The other new genus discovered in the course of our explorations is the 
Phaneropleuron Andersoni, and from some very imperfect fragments named 
by Professor Agassiz as a Glypticus, but without describing or defining the 
genus. The generic appellation, now bestowed by Professor Huxley, ex- 
presses the most striking character of the fish—the curious development and 
obtrusiveness of its ribs, arising from their complete ossification as well as 
_ the thinness of the scales. The affinity of Phaneropleuron with the typical 
ceelacanths is indicated not only by its singular tail, but by its persistent 
ohh by its lobate pectoral and ventral fins, and by its well-ossified 
0. D 


34 REPORT—1860. 


superior and inferior vertebral elements. The scales remind one of Holo- 
ptychius, but are much thinner and differently sculptured. ‘The fins are more 
nearly of the structure of this genus in theirgeneral facies, though they differ in 
details. They are lobate in the lateral pairs, a character now regarded by one 
of our most eminent ichthyologic authorities, Sir Philip Egerton, as belonging 
to the entire family of Ccelacanths, and which Agassiz has also described 
in his elaborate account of the Glyptolepis of Clashbennie in the ‘ Poissons 
Fossiles.’ 

This locality, so richly stored with these and other forms of fossil remains, 
has now contributed largely to our stock of paleontological knowledge. 
Should the researches be continued, your Committee are sanguine, not only 
in the recovery of the long-lost bed of the disputed Pamphractus, but like- 
wise of new genera and new species still sealed up in the yellow sandstone 
museum of Dura Den*. Trilobites of a small type, Productz and Spirifers, 
are very numerous in the carboniferous shales of Ladeddie, which are in 
immediate superposition and stretch along the southern opening of the Den. 
About three miles to the eastward, in the irenstone deposits of Denbre 
and Mount Melville, large jaws, teeth, bones, and scales of the genus 
Rhizodus are in the greatest abundance and the most beautiful preservation. 
Thus the geologist may here study successively the upper beds of the Old 
Red Sandstone, the Mountain Limestone, Ironstone shales, and the Coal-mea- 
sures on the most northern limits of the Carboniferous system. Trap-rocks 
everywhere penetrate the series of sedimentary deposits, indurating the sand- 
stone, fusing the limestone, roasting the coal, and exhibiting proofs of those 
destructive agencies and deleterious impregnations by which the fishes of 
Dura Den were suddenly overtaken, silted up, and preserved in such num- 
bers and perfect forms in their stony matrix. 


Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical Garden of the 
Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. By James BuckMAN, 
F.L.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. &c., Professor of Botany and Geology, Royal 
Agricultural College. 


In presenting our Report for 1860, it will be necessary to remark, that on 
account of the peculiarities of the season, particularly its latetiess, and the 
fact of the unusual period of the Oxford Meeting, the Report before the 
Section at Oxford was made verbally, permission having been obtained to 
make a more full and written report when the experiments had attained to 
something like completion. It was reported before the Section that 200 
plots were in operation, which were classified as follows :— 


Plots 

Agricultural Plants........ Ss ortsticnt one OO 

Medical PiiGs. ieee as sre te weet es Se 
Psculent Vepetaples 2s"... c.p2c05 00 os 20 

Grasses, old and new plots............ -- 60 

Miscellaneous Plants <2 2.2... 20s>.: 22. 40 

Total 200 


Of these, at the Oxford Meeting it was reported that more than half were 
either new seeds only just germinated, while for the others they had made 


* See Reports of the British Association for 1858 and 1859. 


ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 35 


so little progress, that we almost despaired of any substantial results under 
such untoward circumstances. Still, however, we now offer remarks upon 
some of the more striking experiments, which it may be said are so far com- 
plete up to November. 


GRASSES. 


Sorghum saccharatum (Holcus saccharatus), Chinese Sugar-cane-—The 
fine summer of 1859 enabled us to grow this plant to a height of as much 
as 7 feet, as also to perfect its saccharine matter, at least in a very high 
degree. This success, which was pretty general all over England, had caused 
very flattering encomiums to be passed on the merits of this plant for agricul- 
tural purposes, especially as a green soiling food. The total failure, however, 
of our experiments for this season is not only instructive as to the great 
diversity of seasons, but should also teach us caution in recommending the 
extensive adoption of any new plant in our uncertain climate from only a 
single year’s growth. Our best plants did not attain 6 inches, and indeed our 
failure this year was more signal than our success the previous one. 

fgilops ovata.— Although our specimens are far later in coming to matu- 
rily than in any former season, yet the results are more striking than we have 
before observed. Even at the time of our writing (November), little of our 
crop for 1860 has ripened; but the spikes are longer than usual, whilst the 
stalks (culms) are taller; and added to this is the important result of a show 
of more and larger grain, of the shape of the wheat grain, so that we have 
searcely a doubt left as to this being the parent of the cereal or corn wheat. 
Again, as another evidence of the results and effects of cultivation, we have 
the crop of this year affected with all the epiphytical fungi to which wheat 
is liable, and the more so the more it is manured. 

Gyneria argentea, Pampas Grass.—-Our specimens, one of which flowered 
most beautifully last year, are all dead, so that however highly this plant 
may be recommended for naturalization in other parts of England, where the 
climate is milder, we cannot think it will ever be safe to trust to it on the 
“Stony Cotteswolds.” 

Of British Grasses, we have to report that we have had in operation during 
the present season as many as sixty plots; several of these are only our usual 
common English species, many of which are condemned to be resown on 
account of their inevitable admixture. Among the experiments of interest, 
we have to report the complete production of Festuca elatior from a plot of 
F, loliacea, in which the changes were as follows :— 

2nd year.— Festuca loliacea the rule, with exceptional cases of F’. pratensis. 

3rd year.—Festuca pratensis the rule, with exceptional cases of £’. elatior. 

4th year.—F. elatior increased. 

5th year, 1860.—Festuca elatior has complete possession. 

In reference to this, it will be remembered that we noted in a former 
Report the occurrence of F. elatior in Earl Bathurst's Park, which we then 
conjectured had been derived from the sowing of the seed of FP. pratensis. 
This year we have further to remark that here the e/atior form is the rule, 
and scarcely a vestige of the F. pratensis remains ; and very coarse and un- 
sightly it is as a glade in a park. 

We have now performed this experiment twice with the same result, and 
our views seem confirmed by the accidental case just referred to; we have 
then no doubt that the three forms just adverted to are but varieties of a 
single species ; and we have much pleasure in observing that our views in 
this and other cases of alike kind, derived from actual experiment, and 
reported upon to the Association in 1847, should be confirmed by the 

D2 


36 REPORT—1860. 


Specific Botanist as thus: under the head of ‘Meadow Fescue, Festuca 
elatior,’ see Bentham’s ‘ Handbook of the British Flora,’ p.602, we have the 
following :— 

“a. Spiked Meadow Fescue (fF. loliacea, Eng. Bot. t. 1821). Spikelets 
almost sessile, in a simple spike. Grows with the common form, always 
passing gradually into it. 

“b. Common Meadow Fescue (F. pratensis, Eng. Bot. t. 1592). Panicle 
slightly branched but close. In meadows and pastures. 

“ce. Tall Meadow Fescue (F.elutior, Eng. Bot. t. 1593 ; & arundinacea, 
Bab. Man.). A taller, often reed-like plant, with broader leaves, the panicle 
more branched and spreading. On banks of rivers, and in wet places, espe- 
cially near the sea.” 

Now, though well aware that these views are not generally shared by col- 
lecting botanists, we are yearly more and more persuaded that even greater 
innovations than now contended for y.ill be admitted; and we cannot help 
expressing pride and pleasure that we should for the last fourteen years 
have been conducting a series of experiments, many of which practically 
prove the truth of several of the theoretical views, with regard to what has 
been termed the “lumping” of species, of the author of the Handbook ; 
and we cannot here omit expressing our best thanks to the British Association 
for their assistance in prosecuting these interesting inquiries. 

Poa ( Glyceria) aquatica.—Our plot with this experiment still continues 
to exhibit 27 its entire space, without the slightest intermiaxture, the induced 
form we have before reported upon, which indeed is so different from the 
original grass, that at a first glance most observers would pronounce it to be 
large examples of Poa trivialis ; the differences, however, in all parts are as 
great between our induced form and that grass, as exists on comparing the 
induced form with the Poa aquatica. There can be no doubt that in 
this case the cultivation of the seed of a water grass in an upland situation 
has led to great changes, not, as has been supposed, brought about by cross- 
breeding or hybridizing, but the seed of the P. aquatica has at once been 
changed in the growth of the plants that came up from it ; and it now remains 
to see if the change be a permanent one, to which end we hope to be able 
to sow a plot of the seed of the induced grass next spring; but in the mean- 
time it may be well to remark, that although it has frequently seeded, yet 
that the bed is still free both from innovations from seedlings of its own kind, 
as also from those of other species. 

Poa (Glyceria) fluitans.—At the same time that the plot was sown with 
the seed of P. aquatica, another plot was occupied with seeds of the Poa 
Jluitans ; and we should remark that in both cases the seeds were drilled, and 
the drills remain intact to the present hour. Now the result is, that both 
plots were indistinguishable at the first time of flowering, and have so re- 
mained to the present hour; and with reference to the last form, it may be 
well to point out that, having been favoured by Messrs. Sutton of Reading 
with specimens of the collection of grasses which they keep in cultivation, a 
bundle marked ‘‘ Glyceria fluitans” is identical with our induced forms from 
both P. aquatica and P. fluitans. 

Poa aquatica and P. fluitans.—We offer no explanation of these; being 
wellacquaiuted with these two species, we can truly say that our induced form 
is widely different ; nor is it at all identical with any other British species. It 
is, however, still a matter of regret that we have not been able to procure 
ripe seed of these species from the district, as, so far as we can discover, none 
of the P. aquatica at least has ripened in the district. It may be well to 
mention, that even this shyness in the ripening of the seed of this now so 


i 


ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 37 


emphatically a water grass, is not without value as affording something like 
evidence that this species is perhaps after all out of place, and this may 
point to the fact that our induced form is the right one; at all events, it quite 
determines the fact that the name Glyceria is inapplicable, as it is a decided 
Poa in cultivation. 


Crop PLANTs. 


Pastinaca sativa, Parsnip.—Our ennobled examples of these were con- 
sidered so perfect, that it was thought advisable to consign the whole of the 
seed of 1859 to the Messrs. Sutton of Reading, as new varieties of any cul- 
tivated crop plant is always desirable, and more especially when, as in the 
present case, the new form has been directly derived, not from a variety, but 
from the original wild stock. In reference to the continued success of this 
experiment, Mr. Sutton reports in a letter of October 17th of this year as 
follows :— 

“ The Student Parsnip in our trial ground is the nicest shape of any, more 
free from fibres, and as large as the ‘ hollow crown,’ which is a good medium 
size. The flavour seems to be very nice.” 

This is the more important, as of late this useful garden esculent has much 
fallen into disuse, its want of flavour being the assigned cause. 

We must not omit to remark, that one of the most malformed specimens 
of parsnip, and also a highly digitated Swedish Turnip, were set aside for 
seeding, with a view to sowing next spring in the same kind of plots, as there 
seems reason to expect that such degenerate forms could only beget a 
degenerate progeny : with a view then to ascertain how far this degeneracy, 
or otherwise, may proceed, we first took careful portraits of the seeded roots, 
the seed of which is now put by for experiment. : 

Brassica oleracea—Having gathered some seeds of this wild cabbage 
from Llandudno, N. Wales, in August 1859, we sowed it in the summer of 
the present year in our private garden, from whence we removed some plants 
for a plot in our College garden. These, and our own examples, are already 
highly curious, as showing the tendency to run into so many of the cabbage 
varieties, e. g. long petioles ; the types known as “kale, greens,” &c., both 
with broad, more or less undivided leaves, and with a tendency to deep lobes 
and divisions. Others with short petioles, offer the true cabbage type; while 
these even now show tendencies for the production of sorts, as flat heads, 
sugar-loaf, green, red, and white varieties. These of course are what one 
would expect, but still it is curious to mark its progress. 

In speaking of the Brassica family, we cannot help expressing our conyic- 
tion of the justice of including the genus Stnapis with Brassica ; for just as 
our experiments incline us to the opinion that all our so-called species of 
this genus are after all only derivatives, so we believe that the Charlock 
Sinapis arvensis, L. is also an agrarian form of Brassica. Upon this, however, 
we want the experiments of a lifetime; still these would be replete with 
interest, and more especially as we find cabbage, rape, turnips, radishes, 
and mustard almost wholly attendant upon cultivation, and that not only 
with us, but in every variation of climate. How wild the thickets of Sinapis 
nigra, some 6 feet high, look on the banks of the Ohio! and yet we have the 
authority of Beck in favour of its introduction from Europe ; and so we have 
evidence of the crops in India being smothered with wild rapes, which our 
experiments show are principally Judbless varieties of the turnip. 

Mangel Wurzel——The inquiry connected with the growth of this crop 
is one which may be considered of interest in a physiological as well as an 
agricultural point of view, and hence we give its results in this place. 


38 REPORT—1860. 


It is tolerably well known that this valuable crop was introduced into 
cultivation with the hope that it would yield a valuable supply of food in the 
shape of leaves, whilst at the same time it was supposed to be capable of 
fully developing its growth of roots, the leaves then being employed for 
summer and autumn food, whilst the roots were to be stored for winter use; 
however, we were early struck with the fact, that using the leaves to any 
extent, would prejudice the crop of the roots, and we therefore twice before 
the last year instituted experiments upon this matter with a result that may 
be generally stated as follows. 

The Mangel Wurzel, stripped of its outer leaves from two to three times 
during their period of growth, do not produce half the weight of root of those 
left intact. 

And herein we thought that we had established the law, that as long as a 
leaf of Mangel was sufficiently sound to be useful as food for any animal, so 
long was it of use in aiding the proper development of the plant; but this 
statement has been controverted by the result of some experiments made at 
the Albert Agricultural Model Farm, Ireland, where it is stated that the 
result of taking the enormous quantity of 5 tons of leaves from the acre of a 
growing Mangel crop, was to increase the weight of roots at the rate of nearly 
54 tons. Now, under these circumstances we determined upon repeating the 
experiments upon a larger variety of Mangels this year. 

Ist. A set of experiments made with nine sorts of Mangel Wurzel planted 
with burnt ashes, duly thinned and tended as usual; the plots being 24 
yards square. 

2nd. Nine plots of the same sorts transplanted. 

The outer leaves of all these plots were taken off on the two following 
dates, September 4 and September 21. 

On the 12th of November the whole crops topped and tailed, consisting of 
twenty-four roots to each bed, half of which had been stripped of their outer 
leaves; thus twelve roots each, stripped and unstripped, gave the following 
results for both the untransplanted and the transplanted plots :— 


Untransplanted Plots. / Transplanted Plots. 

Names. Entire. |Stripped. | Entire. |Transplanted. 
lbs. oz. | Ibs. oz. lbs. oz. Ibs. 02+ 
J. Elvethan .0......cececcessccvcsessesese 8°10 at ea 14°10 5°10 
DopVellow, Globe; .c.testecsec enessvarcses peta D° 2) |: Seale ela 6:14 
Be med Glove 087. e lites eset 8 2 CAD OB Vis 3 
4. New Olive-shaped Red Globe...... 11:13 7°60) 44 12° 4 5: 6 
5. New Olive-shaped Yellow Globe 16°13 12.33 seo 11°14 7°10 
6. Sutton’s New Orange Globe ...... 9-5 312.) 6 10° 2 5: 3 
7. Improved Long Yellow .........++. 19: 0 Ol | 7.) 1910 We. 
1 8. New Long White ......ceccccecssecee es aoe 7 8 8 12°11 7 6 
Of SH VSMC ions zetcieen a deed sass cosas 16°15 So @) | 9 15°13 611 
OtB eee ppcxsostteeee meee Boner os 114°10 63° 3 121: 4 63° 6 


Here then we take these results from so many sorts as conclusive evidence 
upon this point, only remarking that, in all probability, had the season been 
one of an ordinary kind, the discrepancy would have been even greater, as 
this year the tendency of growth has been in favour of leaf development. 

The same experiments were tried with Kohl Rabbi, and withthe like results ; 
and it should be mentioned, with regard to all of them, that the seed was 
obtained from the Messrs. Sutton of Reading, and that it was true to sort. 


ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 39 


It s not a little remarkable that in both the Mangel and Kohl Rabbi the 
results have been greater in the transplanted than in the untransplanted plots, 
the former yielding a larger crop; this too has probably been favoured by 
the moist season, but as it is a subject of great farming interest, we shall 
renew our experiments upon this matter. 

Dipsacus fullonum et sylvestris.—Our plot of this year fully confirmed our 
view of last year, as to the specific identity of these two forms of this plant; 
for without being able to assert that we had decided D. fullonum from the 
seeds of D. sylvestris, or the opposite, yet the specimens glided soimperceptibly 
into either form, that, distinct as are decided examples, we were much puzzled 
in deciding as to the paternity of some of our specimens. 

To quote from English Botany, 2nd edition: ‘“ Hudson mentions this plant 
as growing about hedges. Inthe clothing countries, where it is cultivated 
for use, it may escape from the fields. There is much doubt concerning the 
value of its specific difference from the D. sylvestris.” 

Bentham is of the same opinion, so that our experiments in this only lay 
claim to a simple and practical method of confirming these views. Our 
notion at the same time is that it would be exceedingly difficult to find a 
wild example of the true D. fullonum ; that is, one which from its hard re- 
flexed bracts would be worth anything for fulling purposes. We have hunted 
long in the districts where the economic form of the Teasel is grown, and we 
have always been of opinion that where its seed has been scattered and allowed 
to grow wild, it lost its stiff hooked characters ; and, to say the least, even the 
best of them merged into D. sylvestris ; the fullonum being indeed a difficult 
plant to keep perfect, unless under constant change of seed and soil. 


WEEDS, &c. 


Thistles have formed the subject of several experiments during the past 
year, which will be referred to under the following names :—Carduus 
arvensis, C. acaulis, vars., C. tuberosus. 

Carduus arvensis.—Our experiments upon the growth of this plant were 
undertaken in order to explain their method of reproduction, as it had been 
disputed by the farmer that thistles were produced from seed. 

On September 2nd, 1859, were sown ten seeds which had been collected 
a few days previously ; by the 21st of the month these had all come up, and 
some began to show the secondary leaves, as in Diagram, fig. 1. By the time 
the prickly foliage became manifest, the cold weather had set in and all the 
plants apparently died. However, in February 1860 we noticed a bud just 
emerging through the soil, which induced us to take up a couple of the speci- 
mens and make drawings of them, of which copies will be seen at 2a and 2b. 

Here then at a and 6 are buds by which the continuance of the plant is 
secured, the buds a, 6 forming whilst 5, b are sending up leaves for the second 
year, so that by June the plants had advanced to the condition of fig. 3, in 
which, while a strong shoot is progressing above ground, a most extraordinary 
rhizomation is taking place below fig. 3, fully explaining how in the next 
season we may meet with a thicket of Thistles derived from a single plant. 

Here then it is obvious that the conclusions with respect to the Thistle not 
seeding, were the result of the small and inconspicuous plant which it makes 
the first year, and this apparently «lying, confirmed this view ; however, we 
see from this experiment that thistle seed is as fecundate as that of other 
plants, and as we have counted as many as 150 seeds from a single head of 
flowers, and as we may haye an average of ten heads of flowers to a single 
flowering stem, the eight tertiary buds at fig. 3 a, a may each represent a 


40 REPORT—1860. 


flowering head in the following season, which would thus give us the following 
sum as the seeding capabilities of a single Thistle plant, namely— 
150 x 10 x 8= 12000. 

These figures then will account for the “ Plague of Thistles” which one 
sometimes hears of, and points out most forcibly the importance of not 
allowing these plants to perfect their seed, and hence waste places and 
neglected waysides should carefully be watched in this respect ; but as this 
cannot adequately be done without compulsory enactments, it is interesting 
to find that some of our colonies have already instituted state laws with 
reference to this subject, and during the last Session of Parliament an attempt 
was made to get an act applicable for this object for Ireland. The destroying 
of such thickets of Thistles as we have described has ever been an object of 
interest with the farmer; and it is not a little curious to remark that the 
operations connected therewith have so much been regulated by rhyming 
directions, as follows :— 

‘ Thistles cut in April, 
Come up in a little while; 
If in May, 

They grow the next day; 
If in June, 

They ’Il grow again soon ; 
If in July, 

They ’ll hardly die; 

If in August, 

Die they must.” 

These words, uncouth as they are, are still meant to express some important 
facts in the natural history of the plant. It may be observed that, with the 
preparation we have described of underground buds, there can be no wonder 
at the quick reappearance of the plant on early cutting ; at the same time, 
if we consider that the whole of the aboveground parts of the plants 
would naturally die at the first approach of cold, we may conclude that the 
decree of 

“Tf cut in August, 

Die they must ”’ 
is more apparent than real. For while the tertiary buds are advancing to 
flower, they are also active in providing a still newer growth of rhizomata and 
buds to perpetuate the continuance of the plant; and hence we have no hesi- 
tation in saying that never can this thistle be destroyed by late cutting off its 
aboveground stems. However, even at this time much good may be done 
in keeping down the reproduction of the plant; for by the August mowing 
seeding is prevented, though even for this object we should prefer an earlier 
cutting, as one head of flowers usually ripens at a time, and not all at once. 

Carduus acaulis—We last year reported upon our experiments with the 
true acauline form and the slightly cauline examples of this species ; we have 
now to remark that the acauline examples maintain their normal condition, 
whilst the cauline ones, from being only about 3 inches high when selected 
for the experiment, have this year advanced to a complete thicket of stems 
nearly a yard high, some of which have as many as a dozen heads of flowers, 
and is a very showy and handsome plant. 

Carduus tuberosus.—The specimens originally discovered by us at Ave- 
bury Druidical Circle have now advanced to immense masses, both as regards 
their summer development of flowers and their tuberous rootstocks; the 
flowers are above 3 feet high, much branched and very showy, very different 
from the single, or at most two-headed flower-stems of the ‘ English Flora,’ 
pl. 2562, which, however, is a faithful representation of the plant we trans« 
ported to our garden. The tubers with us are as large as those of Dahlias. 


ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 41 


We should remark that this year we have a number of seedling plants which 
have come up wildly in different parts of our experimental garden, which we 
shall be curious to know if they become like their parents. With us it seeds 
so enorniously, that it can hardly fail to be a matter of interest as to how this 
plant, originally noticed as from Great Ridge between Boyton House and 
Fonthill, Wilts, should have been for so many ycars lost to our flora, whilst its 
present natural habitat on artificial earthworks, though truly ancient enough, 
would seem to point to its having been introduced to its present locality. 


Diagram showing the mode of Growth of Carduus arvensis. 


} 
f \ 77 Feb. 17, 1860. } 
mee ee 


3rd nat. size. 


Fig. 1. Seedling of the first year. 

Fig. 2. a & b. The position of the seedling plants in spring sending up secondary buds J, d. 

Fig. 3. The secondary shoot advanced to a large plant, while the rhizome extends and ter- 
tiary buds a, a are prepared for the following year. 


Bentham, in his description of the position of this plant, has the following 
remarks :— 

“Tn moist, rich meadows, and marshy, open woods, in western and south- 
central Europe, extending eastwards to Transylvania.” 

Its position at Avebury is so very different from this, that we cannot for- 
bear to describe it. Avebury Circles (of stones) are placed on an elevated 
plain of chalk, around which are elevated mounds or earthworks, the whole 
‘surrounded by a broad deep vallum, which is at all times perfectly dry, and it 


42 ‘“REPORT—1860. 


is on the driest and most exposed part of the mounds that the plant occurs. 
Its change from such a poor position to our garden, which though only un- 
manured forest marble-clay, is yet moist and stiff, will doubtless account for 
its wonderful growth. 

Cuscuta epilinum.—Our last year’s report on experiments in the growth 
of this Dodder excited so much attention, that we determined upon following 
out some additional ones in the present season, to which end we sowed two 
plots with flax-seed, as follows :— 

Plot 1. Flax-seed perfectly pure—The result was a very fine crop, per- 
fectly clean. 

Plot 2. Dirty Flax-seed with some seeds of Cuscuta epilinum infermixed.— 
This was scarcely half a crop, and the fine specimens of Dodder bearing 
down the partial crop, is at once an evidence of the mischief this parasite 
can do to the crop in question, as also of the perfect ease with which we can 
grow it ; so also how easy to prevent its presence in the flax-crop if we take 
care to sow pure seed. 

As regards the Clover Dodder, though this pest is yearly becoming more 
and more prevalent, yet this season has been especially bad for ripening its 
seed, and we are still in want of seed for special experiments upon it. 

Seeds of Orobanche minor have been collected this year with a view to a 
series of experiments upon it, as the Broomrape, like the Dodder, is yearly 
becoming more and more troublesome; and it would seem that Clovers are 
liable to attacks from both forms of the parasite, and in all probability of 
more than a single species of either; for, as regards Broomrape, we have col- 
lected the two forms O. minor and O. elatior from different Clover crops ; we 
still want to know whether the Cuscuta europea and C. Trifolit are specific- 
ally distinct. 

Myosotis —We last year reported upon some curious changes wrought in 
the cultivation of M. sylvatica, in which we gave it as an opinion that the 
M. palustris of authors was subject to great variations, giving rise to annual 
as well as perennial forms, the former introducing us to the M. sylvatica and 
others, as offsprings of M. palustris. Our present stock still bears out this 
view, as we have as derivatives from MW. sylvatica a still decreasing flowered 
form and annual and perennial conditions of our varieties. 

This year we introduced into the garden the very bright blue Forget-me- 
not of our ditches ; this in cultivation (the same plant) has become the small 
flowered light blue form which we take to be the M. repens of Don, as de- 
scribed by Mr. Babington. 

While upon this subject we must not omit to mention that, having been 
favoured with a packet of seed from the eminent firm of J. Carter and Co. of 
Holborn, under the name of Myosotis azurea major, we were much inter- 
ested in observing what kind of bedding plant it might make, particularly as 
in the Seed Catalogue for February 1860 we find the following remarks 
appended to the Myosotis species :— 

** Forget-me-not. These beautiful flowers are too well known to need 
recommendation : will grow around fountains, over damp rockeries, or in any 
moist situation. MM. azorica and azurea major are the finest.” 

Of course, from this announcement we expected something rather choice ; 
but our disappointment may be guessed when we found the result to be a 
very poor small light-coloured variety of MZ. palustris. 

Now, we are far from blaming the Messrs. Carter for this, as it will at once 
be seen that this was an induced form, and no one can at all answer for its 
permanency ; aud it may be that our position or some new circumstances of 

cultivation induced the change from an expected fine flower to a very insig- 


BALLOON COMMITTEE. 43 


nificant one. Still this affords another curious instance of the effects of cul- 
tivation upon this genus, which seem to tell us that we must not be too posi- 
tive in the specific distinctions adopted by authors for these plants. 


The effects of the season of 1860 have been remarkable in several particu- 
lars; we would, however, only refer to a few plants under experiment. 

Dioscorea Batatas, Potato Yam.—Smaller than ever; cannot be at all de- 
pended upon, even to make its seed in the Cotteswold district. 

The Cabbage tribe sadly cut up with us, but the Brussels Sprout was found 
to be the most hardy of any kind. 

Gyneria argentea.—Killed entirely, both in the College and our own 
private garden. 

Sorghum saccharatum.—Scarcely attained 6 inches in height against 7 feet 
of the previous year. 

Zea Mays.—Indian corn not 2 feet high, and died as soon as flowered. 

Roots of all kinds smaller than usual. 

Potatoes small in quantity and much diseased. 

Fruits have not attained their usual size, have not ripened, and are 
flavourless. 

Forest trees have made little wood, and their new shoots are not ripened. 

Garden flowers made little growth, shabby both in leaves and flowers. 

Plants perfected for less seed than usual. 

Cirencester, November, 1860. 


Report of the Committee requested “to report to the Meeting at 
Oxford as to the Scientific Objects to be sought for by continuing 
the Balloon Ascents formerly undertaken to great Altitudes.” By 
the Rev. Ropert Waker, M.A., F.R.S., Reader in Experimental 
Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 


{wn presenting their Report, the Committee would observe at the outset that 
the main object for which the former Committee (in 1858) was appointed 
remains yet unaccomplished ; and this is the verification of that remarkable 
result derived from the observations of Mr. Welsh in his four ascents in 
1852, viz. “the sudden arrest of the decrease in the temperature of the 
atmosphere at an elevation varying on different days, and this to such an 
extent, that for the space of 2000 or 3000 feet the temperature remains nearly 
constant or even increases to a small amount.” It is obviously important to 
determine whether this arrest represents the normal condition of the atmo- 
sphere at all seasons of the year. The ascents of Mr. Welsh were made 
between the 17th of August and the 10th of November. The question 
remains, whether this “arrest ” would be observed before the summer solstice 
as well as after, and whether there were any variations at different seasons. 
The changes in the temperature of the dew-point, consequent upon this in- 
terruption in the law of decrease of temperature, would extend our know- 
ledge of the condition of the atmosphere at such altitudes. To accomplish 
thus much would not require ascents to very great altitudes, although there 
are many objects to be attained by ascending as high as possible. The 
liberal offers that have been made by Mr. Coxwell and Mr. Langley, of New- 
castle, would enable observations to be made at a very moderate cost, and 
Mr. Langley appears fully competent to accomplish the task. There are 
also many other observations which may be made in balloon ascents which 


44 . REPORT—1860. 


may prove of very great value. Prof. W. Thomson is anxious that obser- 
vations should be made on the electrical condition of the atmosphere. He 
has described in the article on the Electricity of the Atmosphere in Nichol’s 
‘Cyclopedia,’ a portable electrometer, and also a mode of collecting electricity 
by that which he styles the water-dropping system, which would, in his 
opinion, be easily applicable. The observations might be carried on, first, 
by ascending to very moderate heights, and then going as high as possible. 
Dr. Lloyd desires that observations should be made for “the determination 
of the decrease of the earth’s magnetic force with the distance from the sur- 
face.” The failure of Gay-Lussac to detect any sensible change ought not 
to deter future observers. His methods were wholly inadequate; but Dr. 
Lloyd is of opinion that if attention be confined to the determination of the 
total force or its vertical component (instead of the horizontal), it would be 
easy to arrive at satisfactory conclusions. Sir David Brewster suggests that 
further information may be obtained as to the polarization of the atmosphere 
and the height of the neutral point. And, lastly, Dr. Edward Smith and 
Prof. Sharpey are desirous that experiments should be made as to “the 
quantitative determination of the products of respiration at different high 
elevations.” Dr. Smith has, as it is well known, been for the last two or 
three years engaged in experimental inquiries on inspiration, and he is so 
satisfied of the value and importance of the investigation, that he is not only 
willing, but desirous to make the requisite experiments himself. Dr. Smith 
has furnished directions as to the points to be observed and the mode of ob- 
servation. 


Report of Committee appointed to prepare a Self-Recording Atmo- 
spheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for observing 
Atmospheric Electricity. By Professor W. Tuomson, F.R.S. 


Your Committee, acting according to your instructions, applied to the Royal 
Society for £100 out of the Government grant for scientific investigation, to 
be applied to the above-mentioned objects. This application was acceded 
to, and the construction of the apparatus was proceeded with. The progress 
was necessarily slow, in consequence of the numerous experiments required 
to find convenient plans for the different instruments and arrangements to 
be made. An improved portable electrometer was first completed, and is 
now in a form which it is confidently hoped will be found convenient for 
general use by travellers, and for electrical observation from balloons. A 
house electrometer, on a similar plan, but of greater sensibility and accuracy, 
was also constructed. Three instruments of this kind have been made, one 
of which (imperfect, but sufficiently convenient and exact for ordinary work) 
‘is now in constant use for atmospheric observation in the laboratory of the 
Natural Philosophy Class in the University of Glasgow. The two others are 
considerably improved, and promise great ease, accuracy, and sensibility 
for’ atmospheric observation, and for a large variety of electrometric re- 
searches. Many trials of the water-dropping collector, described at the last 
Meeting of the Association, were also made, and convenient practical forms - 
of the different parts of the apparatus have been planned and executed. A 
reflecting electrometer was last completed, in a working form, and, along 
with a water-dropping collector and one of the improved common house 
electrometers, was deposited at Kew onthe 19thof May. A piece of clock- 


EXPERIMENTS UPON WROUGHT-IRON GIRDERS. 45 


work, supplied by the Kew Committee, completes the apparatus required 
- for establishing the self-recording system, with the exception of the merely 
photographic part. It is hoped that this will be completed, under the 
direction of Mr. Stewart, and the observations of atmospheric electricity com- 
menced, in little more than a month from the present time. In the mean 
time preparations for observing the solar eclipse, and the construction of 
magnetic instruments for the Dutch Government, necessarily occupy the staff 
of the Observatory, to the exclusion of other undertakings. It is intended 
that the remaining one of the ordinary house electrometers, with a water- 
dropping collector, and the portable electrometer referred to above, will be 
used during the summer months for observation of atmospheric electricity in 
the Island of Arran. Your Committee were desirous of supplying portable 
apparatus to Prof. Everett, of Windsor, Nova Scotia, and to Mr. Sandiman, 
of the Colonial Observatory of Demerara, for the observation of atmospheric 
electricity in those localities; but it is not known whether the money which 
has been granted will suffice, after the expenses yet to be incurred in esta- 
blishing the apparatus at Kew shall have been defrayed. In conclusion, it is 
recommended to you for your consideration by your Committee, whether 
you will not immediately take steps to secure careful and extensive obser- 
vations in this most important and hitherto imperfectly investigated branch 
of meteorological science. For this purpose it is suggested,—1. that, if 
possible, funds should be provided to supply competent observers in different 
parts of the world with the apparatus necessary for making precise and com- 
parable observations in absolute measure; and 2. that before the con- 
clusion of the present summer a commencement of electrical observation 
from balloons should be made. 


Experiments to determine the Effect of Vibratory Action and long- 
continued Changes of Load upon Wrouyht-iron Girders. By 
WivuiaM Fairsairn, Ksq., LL.D., F.R.S. 


AMONGST engineers opinions are still much divided upon the question, whe- 
ther the continuous changes of load which many wrought-iron constructions 
undergo, has any permanent effect upon their ultimate powers of resistance ; 
that is, whether a beam or other construction subjected to a perpetual change 
of load, would suffer such an alteration in the structure of the iron or the 
tenacity of the joints, that it would in time break with a much less force than 
its original breaking weight. But few facts are known, and few experiments 
have been made bearing on the solution of this question. We know that in 
some cases wrought iron subjected to continuous vibration assumes a crystal- 
line structure, and is then deteriorated in its cohesive powers ; but we are yet 
very ignorant of the causes of this change, and of the precise conditions 
under which it occurs. 

A few experiments were made by the Commission appointed to inquire 
into the application of iron to railway structures, to ascertain the effect of 
changes of load upon homogeneous bars of wrought and cast iron. They 
found with cast iron that no bar would stand 4000 impacts, bending them 
through one-half of their ultimate deflection, but that sound bars would 


46 REPORT—1!860. 


sustain at least 4000 impacts, bending them through one-third of their ulti- 
mate statical deflection. They ascertained also, that when the load was 
placed upon the bars without impact, if the deflection did not exceed one- 
third of the ultimate deflection, the bar was not weakened ; but that if the 
deflection amounted to one-half the ultimate deflection, the bars were broken 
with not more than 900 changes of load. With wrought iron bars they 
found no perceptible effect from 10,000 changes of load, when the deflections 
were produced by a weight equal to half the statical breaking weight. 

These experiments are interesting so far as they go, but they are very in- 
complete as regards wrought iron. For wrought-iron bars they were not 
continued long enough, nor do they apply to those larger constructions in 
which the homogeneous bar is replaced by riveted plates. The influence 
of change of load on riveted constructions possesses a special importance, 
from its bearing on the question of the proper proportion of strength in 
plate and tubular bridges. Do these constructions gradually become weak- 
ened from the continual passage of trains? and is it requisite to make allow- 
ance for such a deterioration by increased sectional area of material] in their 
original construction? These questions I have sought to solve by the fol- 
lowing experiments. 

As the load is brought upon bridges in a gradual manner, the apparatus 
is designed to imitate as far as possible this condition. A riveted beam is 
fixed on brickwork supports, 20 feet apart. Beneath this is placed a lever 
grasping the lower web of the beam, and fastened upon a pivot at the ful- 
crum. At the other extremity it carries the scale and weights. This lever 
is lifted clear of the beam, and again lowered upon it by means of a connect- 
ing rod attached to one of the arms of a spur-wheel placed at a considerable 
distance overhead. In this way any required part of the breaking weight 
can be lifted off and replaced upon the beam alternately by the revolution of 
the spur-wheel. The apparatus is worked night and day by a water-wheel, 
and the number of changes of load is registered by a counter. 

The girder subjected to vibration in these experiments is a plate girder of 
20 feet clear span, and of the following dimensions :— 


Sq. in. 
Area of top: 1 plate, 4in.x}in......,.. Sine. | 200 
2 2 angle-irons, 2X2X 79; ........ 2°30 
—— 4°30 
Area of bottom: 1 plate, 4 in.x1tin........... 1°00 
35 2 angle-irons, 2x2x73...... 14 
—— 340 
Web, 1 plate 155% 4.2.5. sb ds shi. cate eees 1:90 
Total sectional area .............0005 ; 8°60 
Depth, s,i006 9 ts02 06 Steaebesiniaswcls 16 ins 
Weight : ~ab.)5.52 pase peep sass oiss)) TD eowk 3.qns; 


Breaking weight (calculated) Ba sipn. aipisy emai 


This beam having been loaded with 6643 lbs., equivalent to one-fourth of 
the ultimate breaking weight, the experiment commenced. 


EXPERIMENTS UPON WROUGHT-IRON GIRDERS. 47 


Tas e I.—Experiment on Wrought-iron Beam with a changing load 
equivalent to one-fourth of the breaking weight. 


Date, Number of Deflection 


1860. changes of load. | produced by load. Remarks. 
March 21 0 0°17 
» 22 10,540 0-18 
i 7 craints O16 Strap loose and failing to lift 
; SB Oe bille. eh wile 5 5 é 
26 46,100 0-16 the weigt: 
‘ania 57,790 0°17 
eSB 72,440 0-17 
oe 85,960 0°17 
25.30 97,420 0°17 
ey on 112,810 0°17 
April 2 144,350 0°16 
‘ae 165,710 0:18 
ee 202,890 0°17 
o10 235,811 0°17 
ee 268,328 0°17 
oe | | 281,210 0-17 
3 («17 321,015 0°17 
3° «20 343,880 0°17 Strap broken. 
pH rg 390,430 017 
#428 408,264 0-16 
io. 28 417,940 0°16 
May 1 449,280 0°16 
a. Se 468,600 0°16 
ee 489,769 0'16 
ae 512,181 0-16 
Bald 536,355 0°16 
ue 560,529 0°16 
5 14 596,790 0°16 


As the beam had now undergone above half a million changes of load, 
that is, it had worked continuously for two months, night and day, at the 
rate of about eight changes per minute, and as it had undergone no visible 
alteration, the load was increased from one-fourth to two-sevenths of the 
statical breaking weight, and the experiment proceeded with till the number 
of changes of load reached a million. 


Tasxe IJ.—Experiment on the same Beam with a load equivalent to two- 
sevenths of the breaking weight, or nearly 33 tons. 


Date, Number of Deflection 


1860. changes of load. in inches. Remarks. 

May 14 0 0-22 In this Table the number of 
i elo 12,623 0°22 changes of load are counted 
me ay 36,417 0°22 from 0, although the beam had — 
, 19 53,770 0°21 j already undergone 596,790 
a 22 85,820 0°22 changes, as shown in the pre- 
» 26 128,300 0°22 ceding Table. 

» 29 161,500 0°22 
» 31 177,000 0-22 

June 4 194,500 0°21 
mt fF 217,300 0°21 
e 9 236,460 0-21 
s 12 264,220 0-21 
» 16 292,600 0°22 
m. 20 403,210 0:23 The beam had now suffered a 


million changes of load. 


48 REPORT—1860. 


TaBLeE IJI.—Experiment on the same Beam with a load equivalent to 
two-fifths of the breaking weight. 


Date, Number of Deflection 


1860. changes of load. in inches. Remarks, 


June 2 


7 0 
Sy 2S 5175 


The beam broke after 5175 changes with aload equivalent to two-fifths of 
the breaking weight, although with lesser weights it had appeared uninjured. 


Summary of Results. 


Ratio of load | Number of | Total number aes 
Table. | to breaking | changes with | of changes of een me Remarks. 
weight. each load. load. 
16 1:40 596,790 596,790 0-17 
10F 1:34 403,210 1,000,000 0:22 
III. 1:2°5 5,175 1,005,175 0:35 Broke. 


Since these experiments were made the beam has been repaired, and has 
made 1,500,000 additional changes with a load equivalent to one-fourth of the 
breaking weight without giving way. It would appear, therefore, that with a 
load of this magnitude the structure undergoes no deterioration in its molecular 
structure ; and provided a sufficient margin of strength is given, say from five 
to six times the working load, there is every reason to believe, from the results 
of the above experiments, that girders composed of good material and of 
sound workmanship are indestructible so far as regards mere vibratory action. 

As the experiments on this important subject are still in progress, we hope 
to bring the subject more in detail before the Association at its next Meeting. 


A Catalogue ¢f Meteorites and Fireballs, from a.p. 2 to A.D. 1860. 
By R. P. Gree, Esq., F.G.S. 


1. Turs Catalogue is intended partly as a sequel to the Reports on Lumi- 
nous Meteors, now continued for a series of years in the volumes of the British 
Association Reports, and partly as a continuation, in a corrected and extended 
form, of a Catalogue of Meteorites published by the author, in two papers 
on the same subject, in the Numbers of the Philosophical Magazine and 
Journal of Science for November and December 1854. 

2. The following works and periodicals have been consulted, viz—Thom- 
son's Meteorology, 1849; Transactions of the Royal Society ; Nicholson's 
Journal of Natural Philosophy ; Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy ; London, 
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine; Brewster's Encyclopedia, 
article “ Meteorite ;” Annual Register; Journal of the Asiatic Society of 
Bengal; British Association Reports; Proceedings of the Royal Irish 
Academy ; Spurgeon’s Annals of Electricity ; New Edinburgh Philosophical 
Journal ; Partsch’s, Shepard’s, and Reichenbach’s Catalogues of Meteorites ; 
R. Wolf’s, Chladni’s, Boguslawski’s, Quetelet’s, Baumhauer's, and Coulvier- 
Gravier’s Catalogues ; Dr. Clark’s Thesis on Iron Meteoric Masses ; Poggen- 
dorff’s Annalen; Annales de Chimie et de Physique; Comptes Rendus; Trans- 
actions of the Imperial Academy of Arts and Sciences of Vienna, 1859-60, 
papers by W. Haidinger; Transactions of the Royal Academy of Brussels ; 
Quarterly Journals of the Natural History Society of Zurich, 1856; Die 
Feuermeteore insbesondere die Meteoriten, &c., von Dr. Otto Buchner of 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, 49 


Giessen, 1859; Lithologia meteorica del Profesor Joaquin Balcells, Barce- 
lona, 1854; Report on Meteorites, by Prof. Shepard; Reports of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, United States; Silliman’s American Journal ; as well as 
various private notices and public journals. I have likewise to acknowledge 
the kind assistance and valuable information received from Herr P. A. Kessel- 
meyer, Dr. Buchner, Herr W. von Haidinger, and Professor Heis. 

3. The few abbreviations used in this Catalogue speak for themselves, and 
hardly need explanation. Where weights of meteorites are stated, it is gene- 
rally intended to denominate lbs. Troy, English, though sometimes the Vienna 
or Prussian pound has unavoidably been given. Tables of analysis are added 
at the end of the catalogues. Genuine cases of stone- or iron-falls and de- 
tonating meteors, are marked with an asterisk (*), and in the Tables count 
for 1; doubtful cases are marked in the Catalogue with a (?), and count as 4 
in the Tables. 

The numbers in some of the Tables, it will be found, do not quite agree 
with those in the corresponding Tables given in the Report on Luminous 
Meteors, in the Volume of the British Association Reports for 1860, owing 
to the circumstance that when that Report was presented at the Oxford Meet- 
ing the present Catalogue was not then quite completed. 

4. A few remarks are added to the Tables, which do not eall for much 
comment in this place, as they have mostly already been alluded to in the 
aforesaid Report. With regard to the November period for shooting stars, 
E. C. Herrick, of the United States, considers it to be advancing into the 
year; in A.p. 1202, it occurred about the 26th October; in 1366 on October 
30th ; so that the motion of the node of the zone or ring which furnishes 
these shooting stars, is at the rate of 3 or 4 days a century ; the period itself 
being a recurrent one probably of about 33 years. (See Silliman’s Journal, 
No. 91, p. 137, for January 1861.) 

5. In the Catalogue itself great care has been taken in separating the dif- 
ferent kinds of fireballs and aérolites; hitherto this has not been done with 
sufficient care, and large meteors have not unfrequently been called aérolitic, 
when not even any detonation has been reported; examples of this not 
unfrequently occur in the catalogues of Baumhauer, Kamtz, and Arago. 
Dr. Buchner of Giessen, and P. A. Kesse!meyer of Frankfort-on-Maine, will, 
I understand, shortly bring out catalogues of aérolitic falls, where details 
in matters concerning original authorities and geographical distribution, &c. 
will be given very fully. 

In the Tables at the end of this Catalogue, Class A includes only cases 
where stones or irons have really fallen; Class B, meteors accompanied by 
detonation ; Class C, first-class meteors mot accompanied by detonation ; this 
class includes all fireballs given in the catalogues up to the year 1820; after 
that time, only the most remarkable ones, as in consequence of the subsequent 
greatly increased number of observations from about that time, it is evident 
the described fireballs would probably be of smaller size than for older ob- 
servations ; Class D includes all fireballs mentioned in the catalogues and 
supplements, large or small, where no detonation was reported, and of course 
includes the C class. The Tables are so cunstructed, that a glance will suffice 
to show the results as regards numbers and dates, and the proportion which 
one class bears to another; some of them will be found to be not without 
some interest. 


Note—— Wherever the words “ Stone-fall” or “ Irou-fall” occur, it may be 
understood, as a rule, that such phenomenon was also accompanied by a 


detonating fireball, or at least by a detonation. 
1860. E 


REPORT—1860. 


50 


gi anorg 
“astou a @ Aq pamoypog ‘Teqary 

“[TPJ-9U0IS 

"IGG “a'°V 10 ‘[[vJ-9003g 

*[1e} ouryuodaas £ pat 0491p 

“MOTYLUOJIp pure Tego. 

“opp 

“109}9U Suyeuoyep v § (EG “a’v 10) 2 0991p 
“Ayquqord 4svj oy} sv ameg 0991) 

“pepSeg 0} 44Sno01q sau0j}g “£68 “a*V 10 ‘0941p 
*(488 40 ¢gg ‘a'v) OVP 

“T1eJ-9u04§ 

“partes “Treqo.y 

“0771p 

*[[af souo [jews Auvur { 0791p 

“0941p 

“o}NIp 

*[[2} S9U0}S [PADAAS £ [][VJ-9U0}S 

“0701p 

“o7VIP 0331p 

‘uOTyeUOJap pnoy v Aq paMoTfo} ‘0941p 

“qystAep = * yreqaay 

"T[2F souoys Auvut ‘0441p 

*(Kmyuao 449) 0991p 

“oWIp 

‘0941p 

UdT[eJ IO 9U0}s UOMTMOD v ‘OSeAy 04 Surpxodoe !{ 0941p 
‘aeypid J “0731p 
‘oVIp 

“OFFI 

“0741p 

-£1nyuad 4sIy 94} JO JyeY ysIy ay} BuLmp £ 0431p 
*[[UJrauojg 


“oy ‘syIVUD YT 


weetereee 


ee eeeeene 


seeeeeeee 


eereeeeee 


wees 


wees 


eeeeeeeee 


eeeeerees 


weeterene 


eeeeeeeee 


“moy ‘ayer 
mworpean¢y 


eeereeewe 


“a'S'S 07 “A'N'N 


“N04 °S 


weeeeeeee 


sereseeee 


aeereeeee 


veeeerens 


weeeerene 


“moto 


= 
- 


uns = 


seeeweree 


oy tp 
0131p 
oBuvy 


ween eeewe 


ee eeteee 
oo ewe eee 
eee eee nee 
eee ee ren 


eaeree eee 


Pred 


eee 
weeweseee 
seeeeeree 
eeeteeuee 


eevee ees 


oyIp 
op 
aBuv] 


eee eweeee 


weseeeeee 


weeaeeree 


oserneeee 


ee eee seen 


se eeseeee 


“qySIOM 10 321g 


seeeee 


wteeeeee 


i psine apn sles tie eats ake eps ae 


ys eeteewas +0 ones oenes Sunqssny 
becew cess cnveceesassewstens qd ky 


~~ Apeqy “uae Ny 
peecwewee tees ealyg *R0109 


|eeeeereseeeeceseeeeeeeeres® TUSTLY 


eruejodosapy ‘peqy-pomyy 


Free aS oclein oSRin quia. sctme ee Ne eum, ueder 


ewe eeee wee adiag ‘ 2 Upramog 
wee ¢ QOURAT 


wwee ee eee 


é 
seeveeseetesseners  ATOXES 
|eeeeereeeeeecereerens ueysoy seg 


Pema n et eeeweeee 


é 


|rorseceecomereecoaserweerts BITTIO 


* op 
seeeeeeeee Z ofgtp 


|rtteeeereeereeseereeeres 2 Q0URI| 
eee eet eweeee wiqeiy ‘rapuog 
|rreseeeeepssourg avau ‘eLtg 


steerer BOTITY 

meee QORIULL, 
* gdournueisiog 
Peeer eee eer eree 0341p 
seeeeereieeetteeeeereeeee — OITD 


ee eee een eee eeeeeeaeense reese 03}1p 
|oseeee Pewee hee eeeeeeee eunyg 


*Aq1[eOOTT 


‘O98T “a'V 0} Za" WO ‘soplog pue soypo1gy JO ensopeyey 


‘ait 10 Ayn t 


2) 
o 
a 


(Me he he Ae Oe Oe 
‘ 


o 


Oe Ae Oe Le 


Ae Ae Oe Ae Oe Ore 


eg 
*016 
986 
*OS6 


* 666 
* 126 
* C06 
2168 
*668 
*988 
*'9G8 
“68 
168 
* 628 
* 68 
#059 
*919 
206% 
#18 
*°G8G 
“F8S 
* OLS 
*0GG 
«TBP 
*OGP 
COUP 
* ESE 
OTE 
* PST 
*90T 
wOS=E 


#'Z 'a'V 


ABO] 


51 


“20URISQNS SUTMOTS Vise PUNOAS 94} WO puNo; udeq aAvy 03 pres au aSuey A19A 
¥ puv‘uaas sivqs Jurjooys Aue 'FEOL *A*V 10‘(4sT 10) qIOTTWdy *E6E0T p 
"val0D ur ‘arjsueoyy ye $ ¥/COT , 


"POST ‘I 19q0300 sv oues ATquqord $sumoj]epueA  ecoeT 3 
‘sndny to Ae "ZO 10 1Z0T a 


‘roneyuneg <q uals Os pure ‘suo 10} oMIeU plo ay} st UaS10g $ JETT ‘av ‘souoysyiey Atqeqoaduit jon 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


ose £ a[A4g “N sdeysod Somos Aq waats ostmoyty st g Aue *ggTT ‘Og euNe x 


‘uirdg papnyo 


“UdT[UF QAVY OF ples sjvoo Alo *g OIC e8ClT o -ut sdeyxad { ood010 Jo Vatdura ‘10: ‘vrUB}IINV;y=Odd0T0PY 07 “* ZOOL » - 
*(Auoxeg) eryesn'y ul He 0331p seweteesereeersene SUMO} [epur, ses é 'C0ETs 
‘SINGIN 10 puvjpory {0331p 0341p serees Coxe ‘ayeug}'** T 400] *FOLT 
‘0081 ‘a'v qnoqy *[e1A0s £0331p eeeseeeee eeeeee uredg ‘uoSeiry eee a + O008T 
“oqgtp| *ttsseee oeccececs Sse oecees * RIssnyy ‘SU198 TOMI A see F x098T-1¢Z1 
“eoqqip) vette nos Boiseaple eteaeteereeweesesees BLIDUBXOLY| 2 “O82 
‘apyunssiy A, qnoqe ‘ 0431p tet ewenee ween tees weet teense veeeeeteeene Auoxeg ‘B.inqzin Ay eee é Ara 
ay Auew £[[BJ-0u04g eee erenee seen eeeee eeereeeee eeeeeeteeseressene Sinquijpand aoe 92 Ayne *6PZL 
“Teqaay Sabaiius tp siptete Z ez "400 “661T 
“é T1BQa1g o1ptpos9e) pm ep CUTS Ie eg Aqne} "86 1T 
*0}1p 01}1p COUT 0 ie tt i é hae é eL61T 
‘op omtp omp| crest Rand sates ate Tas = i ns i SPELL 
‘op ouip op) tte eoeueleas Saris aicies Seeteeeneneeene 555 i “IGLL 
‘TUpelyyD 0} ‘ddng M01 § TYSMesnsog £yey dNYTpO.A98 Tet ew eee errr rr et eeenee secre evecescees é see é “68IT 
“FULSIOM “GT [ JO aWMOS { ][aJ SaUOyS JBADADS, “tte eT* saviasonse “eteeeeeesseees TINIZ[Ig ‘SUOJYI"** QE auNc] *°O8TT; 
*480004U9q JO 4Svay oy} mnOqY *; [[eF-UoIT ae vers Kuoxeg “erustpy|'** ACIN| * FOLT 
*(ondojeqeg s,toneyuneg) otporor) **tsee"** “**** TOUIPY VISY ‘[nsoyy|""* g yore] 2SETIs 
(QEIT ‘a@'v Jo) tajamerp soyout QT foyyIp) street “es orsurmyy, ‘uaqa[sapto|*** é ¥ COLL 
. “OVP Hee e eee eaeteeree abewsirwieewws RETRO TUL, ‘ero inby sae é ZIT 
=e [leJ-au0yg Oar eeeees sa eeeeees a teeevees te eeeeees vIUoWcy ‘UR A, aye] see é SOIL 
"TTeqaay cette Sia sestets By ae SC soqs os ve i “60IL 
*G ¢ qsn3ny 10 “eqory weeteeeee see eeeeeereseee tee T dag 
‘THdy 87 10 ‘(ondoreye9 s,ranequneg) oyrfo.98, “esued)""* OLTdy| “8601p 
*(endoyeyeg s,Tysmuv[snZog ) [[ej-au0ys Saisinsiaine yreurueg)*** é x O/0L 
"T[eqa.r1y tee wwenee weeeeeeee aD.Ie] oo eee wweeees 2 0000.10] ee 81 “C/OL 
EoUorge, cetteeees Riaisiecetniae eisiesisieis tteeesensereeessaseeerces “BITOO|"* : ¥1C0L> 
"eT[uyrauojg| cteereees tawmeaigue oitetsh adie reeeeceneneeees Soi i “ROL 
‘asIou 4vaIi8 pur yYSY oWoojaut| ** a aFIey] seecevoereneacoovrrrs FOOD0IOM|''' OF INL] *®GZOT 
"2 OZ8I {CH vIsiaq) Trerouoyg| + . eeevecces oe om sess coveee pOELTTT ‘Sny x0 Aqne “1Z0Ta 
“HOOM BY} URY} ADWYSIIq! ,C¢T yvoays “M 04 “SL oBrey verses Ff OODOLOTA|"** OT ABI] ~ "SLOT. 
*(rysMefsnSog ‘ ¢ tag uvidse9) ¢ [[ej-uory Serre r ee eeeeees "SqT 0002 seer eta vipuy “weliolg ery Q *600L 
“Tpeqary| ostttsees ee ooeaibe « Wettteeeeeeeneawereres 2 QOUMAT| 09] ys ae 
*(onoyeyeQ sraneyumeg) toojam omyorae) trees aoe sca uooul = sotteenereesecoceeres  HODDOLOMT|’** FT IUOS) ZOOL e 
. 2 “[eqoay weenenene errr Ts é jews 62 “ABN ‘0001 


*(g doquisoaq]) [re Ary pur Treqauy 


1860. 


REPORT 


“TeQeay, 
*TI8J-90035 

$ 1osjaW Suyeuojop 
*ouIp 

*(stutg 4B Wes Osye) [[Vqory 

*g puNog IO [Jay £ []VF-U0I] 

“[PJ-9U01S 

*[[eJ-au0}S 

*onIp 

*TRIVAVS £ OIIP 

“OZGT Awak ay4 at0zaq £ 0941p 

*Sq[ LZ 0} [ WorJ [eraAas £ 0941p 

*SQLOZT AUlos ‘udT[eF VaVY 07 Pres YOST | [1ef-au0Ig 
‘Sq, § 0} “q] T wor Auvtm £j[eJ-au01¢ 
*qxou=sdeysod £2 []vJ-au0js 

TeQory 

“yey A[uo syuryy tupepyg —“yyeqaay 

+2 Auwnure yy9g § Sau04s 9a.1y1 £ 0941p 

é‘W'd Z% $9U0 aBIv[ ONO | [[RJ-9UN0}5 
*[[BF-2u0Is 

‘oynp 

‘op 

*[[9J SAMOS VTuvl OMY £ []VF-aTO0Ig 

“Oy}Ip 

“Weqaty 

“eoy ye amty-ABp { sauoys ARpNoIsaA 4yySt, Aue 
“oyp 

*T[eJ-9u0IS 

*[[eJ-uo.] 

*T1eJ-2U0}S 

“Teqoay 

*[[BJ-au0s 

"OVP 

“eqe1g 

“OFFI ‘av 30U ‘OFET ‘a'y [Jo aUO {]]eJ-aU0}g 


*(sanesyuneg) ¢ o11[O198 


*(anZojeyep sroneyuneg) o1W1[0198 


“[[Bp-9U03Sg 


“TeQeay 


"2 ArenIqey IFZ = *Tyeqoay 


*O7g ‘SyAV UY 


nn 


WV ZG 
eetewerre 


‘WV 6 
wy FT 


seeeneees 


wee ee tenes 
eeceeeree 
peetereee 
sen eeeene 
se eeenees 
ee eeeeeee 
weet tteee 


‘mmoy $ 97VI 
$ uOIyeanqg 


Beeeeeeee 
seeeee 


“MH OF "AA 


eeccereee 


peeteeses 


eeseereee 


seeeeeeee 


Bee eeeeee 


waeeeeree 


we eeeseee 


seereeeee 


we eeseees 


ee eeeeeee 


Pre 


Corr errr 


eeeeeeeee 


st tewees 
cceeeves 
eeeeeceee 
Seeresees 
eeteceses 
seerseree 


eee eeeeee 


*MOTDaII(T 


uoow % 


0411p 
a31e[ 


weeeeeree 
Porseceee 
ee eeeeene 


JS4L 06 


adie] 


“Sql 022 


seeeerees 


eet eeeeee 


eeeeetens 
weareeons 
seeteneee 
oeetetees 
eee eeesee 
eeeeteres 


“QUSIOM IO azIg 


— 
eeesee suoyeyg 
Auoxeg ‘eisuunyy, 
veeeccece eiSurnyy, *pjaysueyy 
pepesinatestrensdsesr ss BINGO 
reer errr ry Ipeysisq[ey 
Hreteeeroes Kuoxeg JounaN 
reeseeeeeeeeeseerseeesrnee BUY) 
see teeeeeeee aourty ‘ulsnoulry 
tetevecorsereeeeevees  FINGSSNY 
eice(Ss eeaeuaecee uredg ‘uoStary| 
eteeeeteeuseeeeserreees grogentg 
Saneoeastanessheanewessc'ees//UthT)| 
: euIYyD ‘eNpqyY aA) 
Alea] CN *euaig 
* Bupry 
“Ulaon'y| 
Sroquounyy 
eusewoy ‘vuasag 
pescacesnie tee oT BHUT “Wa YsIsuyy) 
teereeeeseecees KipaT oN “BMAD 
phcpsian ects ecees em Tt ey ‘uvu-OF 
srreseees praatog 10 AUOXeS| 
Heese eeereeeneraee Ayu ay Oq.19IT A 
seseeeeeeeeeeeeeneeees QOUD LT 
teeeeseeeeeeeeertseetees grip 
medg ‘soding 
Setteeneereererrees BABE 
JoAoueyy ‘uapuryy | 
* Sanquaplo 
*QALYSY.10 J | 


*A]R 9] 
* Bug! 
“-O9NIp, 
sieteeeteeeecees (mT 
sereereesers IOUT BIS ‘UIPTY| 
Peer etna nreeseeeeessssetees BISATIS 


saeeeee 


sestegnnseseseenesven UBITIBIIOW 
ARCO RG IO ECROUHIS eH Han Capit 
Sevcoeaeiees ror Os 


“Aqyvo0r] 


see 


“Ie WW 
1 Avy 
“AON 
I *99q 
@ vady 
é 
FI oune 
82 Tudy 
62 oune 
Avy 


Sonuean 


aa. 


8I “AON 
22 “ydag 


mea. 


9% 


Me the 


I Avy 
Z 
IL ‘Sny 


0G WO) 


< 
et Aine 
6 ‘ur 
Zz Avy 
9% “42,1 


“qjuoUr 
jo Avq 


"POST 
*ZSSL 
* BPS La 


"LEST 
*GFSTp 
* 
a 
*'8ZS1 
* 

“OZST 
cous 
*9IST 
*TISL 
OST 

“66FI 


2 


*O6PL 
*'COPL 


* 


*TORL 
* O8FT 
*FLEL 


‘SOFT | 
* SEF 
*1ZFL 
*6LET 
*B9CL 
* 09ST 

"FOEL 
*BCCT 

"ESET 

"2ceL 
* OFEL 
COEET a 
* BEET 

“CZEl 

"LOT 


——$ —_——_—_ 


"ARO A 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, 


‘S(T OOT Inoqe Tove 
9014) “tauoIy uvtsyg oy} UO ‘zoyRINy IY “4snSny Jo pug 


*[[9f Jsnp par pue yortq sAvs yunoooe au0 


[loJ sau0js 


SI9T ¢ 
anso]eye9 


Sloneyuneg 0} Surproooe “orpporge fuapsaA ‘ey Joquieoaq xggcT 1 


“TUpr[YD 0} Surpsooor “Tey [nJyqQnog °g Arenuee eZsCT y 
‘aytuajoul [njyqnop £anSor 


“e129 sloneyoneg 0} Zutpioooe ‘oyyo1gy “Fz raquiaoeq 


€O9ST 3 


‘BUUATA 0} JU9S B1OM YOIYM JO INO} ‘LOYISIOG UL Za[OYSt 4¥ [Lay 
S9U0IS BFIV] OALT “LG/T ‘taAowyassay 0} Surproooy *havSunzy *'GGST 3 


j Pooyq pazejnSvoa arty 41 
TWOAZ U9T]LJ ALY 0} Plvs doULySqus vf eIsuLMY], ‘9 AIqWaAON * RECT 5 
“TYSMU[SNSOg 0} Surprooov QFE, “AuOXeg ‘RMD *'CFCT p 
*punord atj} O7UT s[ja OM Suttaquo ‘fa11eq v Jo azIs ayy 
9UO “Ud][eJ DAVY 0} ples sau0js ‘wA04s[IVy v Suing “gz dy <OPST 5 
‘sjunoo =f ¢*9TCT 
“dB 4UaJayIp 0} Surpxooor ‘qeJ ames ayy Ayqissog ‘vuryg | *gIcT/ 2° 
“O1IT[OQE Patapisuoo aq ATpiey uvo $ wAOIsIapuNy B 
SurMp UI|[e} avy 0} pres syoqiepunyy Gog “VISAS “et AMC ~GELT e 


“(eyoreyy YILZT) Teqoay) seereees 

“AUYSUOAIT JON “G*N “AuoZasy, ye $ yyeJ-auoyg) ses 
‘QSIOU PUB AYR] FVOIS YIM T2q 2 TSO {Tfefruoay) tees 
“[eqaay, teteeees 

*“(qsnSny jo pus) q[ey-au0}g 

“[eyrauoig) teers 

[yeqaay| terete 

“uorjeUuoyap B Aq PaMoT[oF ‘toajauI fray) settee 

“Cg ‘0 ‘8 ysn3ny) oIp eeereeeee 

[eqary| teeseeeee 

*o7NIp 

*(g auNL YIGL) SoU0ys BFR] [eIaA0s £ [[eJ-oU04g) 
CS ‘O ‘g aaquisdag) UoYtuojap pure acdqaut L194 
Te qe1g 

‘aumty-Aep {0241p 

*03Ip ouup 

“quO}S 9UO fO}TIP) “Wd FT 

"lay [eAoaas f][vJ-au0jg) wea Z 

“[Weqaay| settee 

*(anSojeyg soneyuneg 03 Surproooe) onyosge) ste 
‘uONeUOJap YI ‘OyIp| terete 

“UOYVUOJOp puL 109z9UM VBIv]] srs e** 

“[]ey-auojg| testes 

"2 0ZSI $ ¢ [[oF SOUO}S| teeters 

“[peqauy| stresses 

*(anZoreywg szoneyumeg 03 Surpr099r) orj1yo.19k 
“TeJ VIYT, *VISsNIG UL ‘}[eJ-3U04g 

‘aullj-Aep 9} Ul OUIZeSeU B 07 QI 4es : ¢ ONION 
* s[]eJ-au0Ig 

“O1gt[Odge 

“0941p 

“pares £Tyeqaay! seeeerere 


eeeeweree 


weereeees 


se eeeeeee 


eee eeeene 


weereeeee 


eeeweeeee 


weer ecece 


soetteeee 


eereeeeee 


eoetetons 


teres nonmgl | OL uRpy "eZ9T 
e ‘puesug qeauiog|"** of ‘urr] #Zz9T 
eSq[ £ <i * aroyey ‘aypayerl** sT ‘ady) *0Z9T 
seseesaen fanned sereeees nroquantag|"** ¢ "490 “6I9T 
*sqtoe nUa sd srele els etsetelg reer urdag |e Sny| 
Sexeseatts Hteeeeeeeeeneneneeseenee Burg] “AON|  % 
Seaeness Meetneeereeesen op uy "8191r 
eee eereee sent e ene tees young  Auvmiay dee 61 dag * 
Menesers Heteeeteeeerrerreeerrs UoLingl'! BT “RNY “CO9T 
we eeveeee Seve ee reereeeet cscs teceeces UeUey| see 8 ydag "109T 
execs srereeess QUOMEpATY ‘WOICARO|"** [ ‘ARV ‘O6SL 
Savencenwre Hreseereemeeeeereees Tronsiauny |" @ aunf] -KT6CT 
seeeeseeeeoress QAOULTT] “Uspla A ee CT 09q *98CIr 
Hitterertneeeee  6L "qaa PECL 
Seicnaioess ‘teeeeeeeeeanompatg)' Z ‘atyy| 
“Sql OF * Ape] “WeyAo.seg}** G curr] * Est 
“Sq 6F seeeeeeeonrSurmmygy 9% AINE) 18ST 
eoreetee éuasuiyoy see LZ Avy * OSC 


younZ)"" TL "0) “LEST 


eee eee ee Uloq see 6 COlLSly 
ceevccces sreneveeseeseeseereeeers oudsty | ** OL ‘uee] OST 
eeereeees sae ereeeereeeeneses IMNYWAzUTAA|""* PZ “AON *LOCT 
eeeeereee Teen eer ee eet enerenteteagees Buy} ¢ *'CQCT 
oeereseee tesa ee eereseree uredg BUOLE) LO see é *009I-00°L 
eee reeere se eenettteenees : see LI Ayn *99CT 
ste eeeeee uucesbusnitaeNcaue=i 6s STGTORETIUGT|| Sou “IvIN “FOCT 


“Sq 6¢ seer eseeeree ne8i0 7, ‘B10 quayg see IT Avy *1OCL 
eresevseseeeeeseee® guaTOgailty|"'* $Z 29d) <'09STa 
faeSungy| sé *6CSTy 

“Aeayl"* eg ‘AON| = * 
m+ guoeyal- 0% “LEGT 


1860. 


REPORT 


54 


“Teqery, 

‘90 OSAVT & $ 0741p 

*(onZojeyeg sAysmefsndoq) ¢ uapeg 4B ‘|[ej-9U09g 
auury-gyysta $074" 0341p 

“yoy AuvaU ! [[RJ-9U0Ig 

“Teqoay, 

“u998 WoMIMIOUIYA d1109}0UL ATO @ 

"FU St] JO UIeIZ 10 YLarys JYSIIq B JOT] 

“ouIp 

*ov41p 

“OuFIp 

*o74Ip 

“Te qe1g 

"(2 0¢91) Op 

“Tay Aueur ‘ [pej-au0jg 

“Teqerg 

*[[aJ AUO £ [[eJ-9U0}g 

‘umop pue dn spunoq ut paaout £ 0941p 

*O3}Ip 

“OID 

Arenure YIOT 10 § [yeqo.uy 

*erTVydysoA\ UL [AF [eLOAVS $ [[eJ-aU04g 

*][eJ-9u0}g 

MOU OM} SurT[Oy ‘pxrvoq-diys wo [ay £]pej-ou0ig 
"100990 

“(Lupelyg) ¢ [[eJ-MOat 10 T[eJ-att09 g 

"dQ6L1 “dvyy yWoH “eB pLIQpoo A AvaU “T[PJ-9U0}g 
"2001] “Teqaay 
*[[aJ UO f{[vf-am0}¢ 
‘Teqory 

*punos oytita} pur ‘aqo[s Ary yeord 


*aUO IDALT JO £][eJ-9U0}S 
“Ayeqy f [jej-au0js 


‘e.g Aytans oytoadg 


"8991 = *aUut}-9451U “[[eJ-at0}g 
“T[eqa.y 

‘suoryeuojop Aq porwedutoooe £ 0341p 
“T12F-9U04g 

“TLeQea: 


"(¢ JOqMDAON, YYLT) UOUOJap pure ‘TTeqaay 


“ony ‘syIVUayy 


eeueereee 
see enewee 
eee ee eeee 


qu sr’ 


eee eeeeee 


‘N'Y 8 


ee eeeeee 


wa $f 
“A'Y OT 
‘WV 9 


“Moy £94RI 
£ WOTJe.IN GT 


eee eweeee® 


eveeeeeee 


etnereeee 


eeeeereee 


ee eeeeee 


aeeeeteee 


erererene 
eeeereeee 
eeeretees 
seeeereee 
eee eeeee® 
seeteeeee 


seeeeneee 


*§ 02°N 


*m01}09I1] 


<P bye = 
eeteeseee 
we eeneeee” 


eet eeceee 


“Sq OI-+6 
“sql 00g +002 


we eeeeeee 


aFrvy 


aBiry 


see eeerereee VIIVAE ‘Burporq 
seer eewnnewes Biiysny *VIqeMs 
eee eee ee Aleqy ‘VU0.10 A 
eee eee eee eee ee ss ¢ Ayeyy 
j 4 seeee pT BOI 
AreSunyy 


“HAPIMG ‘VOU][VIN 
Oveeeeee S.1aqsauo y 
Pere rr cir) . BAI UIE 
Waesereneveserveceeseeneess TIBTLIN 
serve MIB, ‘puRsyT UdUNT 
teeeeeeeeeeeeeserees DOBETOZITMS 
purrployT “yyda1p.0q 
Sewer eee wes eeeeeenee Sanqure py 
tteserereseeeneertrereess QOuSTY 
eet e ete eweeeenee eee uasulynay 
eee ee eee eee errr eee eee Ty satden 


see eeweee 


Heese puupazqtAg eee 
purplazqiMg ‘snavpy)*** 


teeeerens KUBUTIAH ‘NVUdZ[OIg 


aSrey] 
*8Z0 [T 
95.10] 


Seer rt 


+'Sq[ FZ 


. Auoxeg “TR YOIM 7 
*q.1OJOYOOY, 
eee tttete Snes) 
Aresunyy ‘ayo 
 puvpsug “oo yjoyng 
stteeneeteeererereeees® HUUTIOT 
aouRIy ‘MosteA JUNOT, 
Pee eet eee ee hea watt teeeeee aU] 
sereee s KTOGLMAT, Isuausng 
sPSBSS Unie OBSBENOHAAESTIC ‘urdeg 
sev emeteeeesens BZUIIIA ‘9d[2O| 
seteronesleeness 8 BUEOIOMA ‘ol A 
Steen weer enteresees uasurqn yf, 
See Slog 10jIVY] 
“eergguRy ‘POU9A0I 4 
 WaSsTIQNy, 


“44 SI9M IO 921g: 


“ApLIOT 


7B urs] 
9 “PO 
meg 
"£8. “Q2a 
“" 0g oune 
“LT Ale 
“* QT. 99q 
“<6 Sny 
wee 8 ady 
pT Avy 
“eer tem 
see 9% dy 
“* 8%. "qad) 
see a das 
“6 Og “seh 
mae ae 
wer g “Sny 
vee I dag 
Tr Avy 
GT “ath 
“3, “nee 
we Btn 
91 
Fev 
“9. “84 
“BT 3aq] 
>, SnY 
vee a dy 
68 “AON 
e999 
fe ose 
og “rep 
=f Sar 
“" 7g oune 
5 
see 6 ady 
nee pz 
ey 
"* 8T ‘AON 
“qyuour 
jo seq 


* 8697 
*LE9T 

“POOL 
*SO9L 


“IVI 


55 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


“‘suoljovsuery, Teormdosopiy 


909 


*10J PAyOo] sauo}s ou 4nq ‘punoxrs ay} ur sojoy deep Auem Sunyeur ‘Tjaz 


Apoq Aroy oie, fvorewmer ‘eZo, el op oer ‘yg ‘uuMynY *OOLT OGY 


«FIOM » “S*N WLZ 10 ‘young ‘aurog *3 /T eq ‘GT APN * 
‘arqtjosse Atqeqoad 


*j10da.a pnoy & Y}IM 4SAng {1oajoUN VpquyIeMIt WV 


869T s 


Bos ou 


OJUL [[aJ JI UTM pAvay pUNos Surssty : OF OF YSty sapiur FZ WOT f u10yZoT 
pure viqvure(y sv [jaa sv “aap ‘eysutdog “("g °O I8TZ) TE URI *9L9T 2 


‘90U0 9U04S B {; BOIIAUIY Ut ‘44A0Janboy ye 4yvYz poyzeys OS|¥ ST 4] 
 Qouvly ut Atqeqord ‘y10Jotpoory Yor pojejs yOu st 4t $ yLOFayOoY x2 F9T - 


"ot TaN “2 Aine MIGI 10 OZ ouN *E99T p 

*pasnjuoo ATyUaptAs syunod0y “ggg ‘d 
‘OEQT OF UNMUIYZY 99g “AOJOUIVIP UI 499; G Jo soy v apeM 4say Suravy 
‘Ur SUTTeF Foor ayy Aq WaUI OM} paTfly pue 95e4709 v Jo Joor 944 YSnoIy} oy 


"78800 JSOM 


*OBIN) PUL BJO WaaMyoq *ZL JOquIDDa([ 4 
“QOUIAOIY UI UOSIVA JUNOP UO ‘GZ IEqUIAAON’ *'GEHT 10 LEOT , 


*(, ACW WSL {2 AvP WIZT) Woour sv yyStaq 

‘0331p 

*sSoUIadYG IAOqe saTtut Qe ‘]Teqory 

“TIeJ-2104g 

“Te qeay; 

‘[eraaag “gp “d ‘gZgr “MTA “Ytopusddo,g £ [[¥J-2M0Ig 
*EdyTorge £ Lo0ajaut 8.1] 

“Teqary, 

‘aUO ABIR] Bf [[RF-AN0AGg 

ATVI] *TeAVANS £][eJ-aU0}g 

‘(Tupelyg) {uoyeuojop Aq pomeduooor qeqory 
*(andoyeye9 s,ranequneg 0} Surpr0oor) o191o198 
*sprvmiaqje uotyeuojap { aprjoq yuRTTTLIG 

*ouuTp 

“Teqary 

“YSIY Saptur QE {poystuea Aypenpeas $f 10F ArvuoTye,s 
*o9ytp 

“0391p 

“op 

Teqory 


“0371p 

‘soovfd Anew ye woes { 0991p 

“0730p 

é"S ‘O ‘Ae page ‘Treqory 

*a8a[[09 weysary Ivau [fay [eA9Aas { [[eJ-aU01g 
"(ST taquiaydag) o491p 

‘Treqaay. 


*Auoxeg Tay} [eIdAVS $ [[vjJ-au09g 
*yeOq & OZUT [AJ £ [[BF-9u0Ig 
‘oqp 

RaeRe 


UOLUOJap { LOISIOD AVOU vas at} OFUE TAF 
: “opp 


searerees 


‘W'd G 
"Wd gy 
‘Wd GC 


sever enee 


seeeesoee 


eeveveeee 


eenereeee 


Sumdao 


seeteeees 


Wa J. 


fer ee eeee 


Seeeeesee 


“MN 04 ‘S'S 


ee eeereee 


seeeeeeee 


eoerevere 


"M04 °S 


eoreeeeee 


eeeeeenee 


eoeeeeeee 


Se eeeseee 


*M.09°R 


eecoveeee 


aSIe] sroesees TBySULION fspaaq|''’ QT ART ‘OLLI 
ddeseeue Heerentesaenreneeesseesers normal"! £ ‘0aQ] “G0ZI 
eoererere Pe ccerecccccccetseves SsouIIOYS see Te Aine *SOLT 
"Sql o£ “ereeereesespTuOpaovN “essueq|"*' £ ounr) * 
eoorereee Cerny puepsuq eee 0z “IRIN “OOLT 
Oeereeees COOCCEECECEOEET sit f= ‘puojaoieg oe CZ 29q x FOLT 
sensor eee POOP Peete ewer eteanees voreule sr eee nUngny % 3 
eeeeeeeee HOP e meee eeeeeeeeeee Apueuio Nn see L uee ‘OOLT 
fees * auieg ‘uasuTyeay|'** 6T At] *'869T3 
eeeeeeeee ee eee eUdIg ‘eutjoqueg sae eT uee */69T 
Oe eeeeces teeeeeees AreSunqy “IASOWA J, Soar “dy #2691 
@eorerere Aaa ages tte mie 10 wee a “ae *069T 
verre SaqeTS pau “WOysog|""* — 300) *'689T 
waco eees eee eeeeeeesene UNO |T] vee LT “ady} “8891 
ee eeerees Oe PCP ETOP Cece errr rer Sue nae 22 AvqN “1891 
uoou $ srreseeesens Sizdiary ¢Auemmay|** @L Ane} “989T 
. . es Bevpasvocsssccects Auewey)*** raG ‘Shy "S891 i 
- tewenee Aurqyug see Lt 
eeeeeeene eee tee eeroeesrssccene 9qe3so}404 eee et "KON 
eeeeeseoe penseonsepecesaccerse she RO GOUnY wee 61 Ae "F891 
reseasereessensensecenes! gaummmiongie 2 ott 
ve Kuvaayi* =e AV) "Z89T |) 
seewienle Heteeereresereerererees DUBEMOD|"* £T ‘90Cf } 
evcseccee eriseoseceporrec ences “MMOS IAdtaty coe T aune 
eee eee ereer err ery Tir uopuoT eee ST At IN ¥089T ( 
sees See snaepy see 2 ydag 
ceesemnns eres queT-uo-sz0jyuRAT |" 9 “qa ‘gsot | 
seeeeeree Se eee eer ereseceeeees Jlopuowag owe az Aen) *#LL9OL 
veers riseseestenseeeeeneenene gQUITTC)|*** 2 a ! 
eer puepsug | 
veeumeme vireteeeeesees ouptorng, aqttoyy|"** 
uoou—<z este tewerenene eneute $ Apesy o 
ij see eneeee bevereeeeeseserwegen WBLIOZ UW I 


1860. 


REPORT 


56 


“Tleqory pug [[Pj-9u07g 
*074(p 
“0331p 
*o}Ip 
“oyp 
*ozIp 
“0731p 
“0991p 
“oyIp 
*ovp 
"0741p 
“oup 
*0WIp 
“é4Sv] sv ames f 0941p 

“Yoleyy Ys 10 ¢ [peqa1y 

*JBAOAVS £ [[eJ-9U04g 

“OVP 

“Te qo1y 

IO} p.rvay ‘suOMBUOZOp JO satias v Aq pamoTfoy ‘toajauI 
‘punor sort ge] *é4XOU Sv ous £ [[eqary 
*[[eJ-9Uu0}g 

"TTeqa.ty 

*sq[ 9 Jo auo ‘dn payord ge £ [[ej-au039 

“Teqoay 

*[[ej-au0ig 

“Teqaay 

“(yore yy JO a[pprur) oproq Ystppat auy 

“Teqoay 

*purvlSsuT JO *s 1aA0 UOLZeUOJop pnoT f]eAo $ query 
“Tle qoay 

*punois 911} Uo papordxo pur [oF sseur Aroy ad.ivy & 
*“oVIp 

“T1eqay, 

"eg ‘d “ogy ‘Ar GuopusdZog £y[ey o1tjo19e 

‘aprfoq eB1e] 

*RISsnig £[[tj-9U0}9 
“MONVUOJIpP WIL ‘2 []eqouy 


“UOT}LUOJOp pur T[eqory, 


"eLt Ame 


*o7p ‘Syren yy, 


eee eeeeee 


ee eeeeens 


eee eeees 


she eeeeee 


otto wnene 
See eeeeee 


‘Wd | 


se eeseees 


see eeneee 


tee eewens 


wet eetene 


seetetees 


eoereccce 


seeeeneee 
see eeeeee 
seeeeeeee 


é°M'S'S 0} *O°N'N 


seerearee 


“mmoy £3781 
S uoryeung 


errr 


ee eeeteee 


eeetttons 


“oda 


— 


eet eeeeee 


we eeeeeee 
Fee eearee 
seat teee 
wet ee tees 
eee eeeee 
eeereseee 
Per eeeree 
we eeeeee 
ween tees 
see eeeens 
eeatesece 


“SAL 06 


oo 


uooul — 
eoccccvee 


E+'sqi St 


qyZIOM 10 aZIg 


pas Waveensy'e=5s aaaemen ener en TBE Ty 
Pee Tree errr Ty Z4ISNVT~19GO 
vsteserevansssesseanacienss Qegtant 
steeeeeee StMsayaG-19q0) 
ae Sener Aurosn J, 
7 MRSIT 
* uapong 
Soe SaRTLGy] 
*purpqaz}IMs 
“BAAD 
wen eeereceeeccccencce F19quaany 


teeeeeeeereeeoeeeesssgnuplatiaNn 
reteeeeeveceeeeees aignErT-I9q0 
ss eeesees BIMOOR ‘ZiIYOSEll] 
BTCC OCERSEROOO LOGE hae lsielil hy 
Reece eecccccerscsons StMsaytpag 
vlcusaiens oysdryagq Tea ‘vas ye 
poseeovezneessustss= > Sm BATE T\Y 


Soe een BIMSa[qIS 


tet eeee [eduqi0g 
RURAL ‘UOTUuIsio.1y 
*pUuRLIOZING 
* qpar3pnys 
steeeeeeereeseeeeeees DUBTLOZTING 


seereees odoing *N S$ pueysuyy|* 


seneeeeeeeeeeevees WOTINT £ Ayr] 
seeteeees os saIpuy qseny ‘Ay 0'] 
sereerees BIINOYOR § Stmsalyog 
tersssererercseesversess Kousondy 
Fe eee eee e ewer tees ereseee AueSunypy 
ttteeeeseeeresesereress DUB TUT 
vereeeees DTUTIIMUO ‘UITTIYIS 
tetesererres UDTINT PUB IULIG 
teeeee eee *"HURLIIZIIMG 
See cceeccetescesereeece “* UOLIMN 7 


*£41[200'T 


aYSpIO}XG ‘ArnGxty) 


. : ae 
PP xossy Pvojqsye yy eee 


nee 


BIMOYO, ‘Z}IMoosatq\*** 


6G 


NN 


MiMwWOangaaaae Ha 
NN 


te] 
Con 


FZ “LN 
OL ‘sny 
p ‘ure 
é 

9 “IRIN 
It ‘dy 
t ‘~O 
Il 

1g “AV 

“qqyuouL 


jo Aug 


ve 


“6321 


“BaLT 
LOLI 


“9SLT 
+ Pp 


CSL 


“I6LT 
* ° 
“6ILT 
{Stl lq 


CLILTe 
“OLLT 

*'GTLT 

*PILT 


* TILT 


"Iva 


es see ee ee een! er Ade ERE he RR Ve aM a ee ae aS 


“OLLI 103 A[quqoad arom ynq { zeLaumpassay 0} Sut */G OJ YJUW9Z 9Y} UI WIAs SOUIeTY "ZZ 19qQ0I0Q  -*CZLT p 
re “plone ‘/ TZ] AOF YLASTUL B SI 4T £490II09 you st sty, “AIeZuNFT ZOPLT ¢ > “YSit] sap Gz AALS yuUNOION JOYJOUY “puod—as & UI SaTtUT 
ce) “44 3!ay vers B 4e papofdxa pur ‘yorq popunog uayy ‘urese SGq="a {+p 4aaFQ008 ‘uses ys.1y UDA YSIY saptut OCT 3 41 pozernojeo Adley 

papusosep uay} pue ssaiZap Aq sor yr skes Jauyong ‘vas ayy oJUT UOTeU ‘adoingy usoy AON J9AO [UV uaas Ssapim Fy=-p Saqynutm 40d sajtur geg="a 


-079p YITM ][2J 02 pattaas Yyorya ‘[Teqamy y uotNoy, “ez Arenaqag *OFLT + SySry soptur QZ 2 4S1Nq f ployatay] 19a0 saptul cg UI9g “GT YLT *GILT 5 
“gL ysnSny ‘seuedieg se owes yy A[qeqoig ‘uousIAy ¢°gT 10q0199 y "ZL rnad ayy ‘sarqoyyue autos 02 Surpsoovox { punoy usaq aart O} pies 
“81 39Q 20g ‘uOUsIAY Iveu 410jduIeYD put seajuodieg sgt asnany 5 ‘kyeos pue Araaqis ‘ssvur ayyy-Ayjal y “purrs, Aqjay “FZ YOU «=e BIZT 4 

*auUeYD ay} O4UT [Jaz YO ‘TTeqory e@ ATUO ‘zyMIeYy 07 Satpsodoe ‘ynq ‘raney *4OI1L0D Bq 0} WIS JOU S2OP SIYy 4Nq ‘[[aF aUOJS B ALI 99e48 ‘GFRT 

-wneg 03 Zutpsooor ‘oytporay *purpsugq ‘praysundg ‘cp asnsny <eseszt 3 jo UONRIOOssy YS oy2 Jo sysoday ayy, *o3 ‘eissnag ‘AseBunyzy ‘erway 

"C{ST “91g d*AXXX] “JOA ‘olUNIYD op sayeuuy ‘aourynog ‘AessaT s*1E/T a -Og Uluses ‘QT IsNSnyY Jo toajaut ayy A[UO ATquqoad $AueSanyT eZ TLT e 


"(3g Av 10) 03}1p wasecesee Wee e twee eee seers eeeesenes XOSSh] g “av ‘OFLI 


un 
- 
4 
a 
a8 
1] 
Ed “0741p ‘aufomog|"** gT 390 
rs “]Teqoly, Soe te eS *uleyuty|* eT curr 
a ‘UMOp MO]] = MOTS "A'S 0} “AN wes “* uopuory|""* 2z 
z, *o11p seeeeeens eeeeeners eeerereee Srsegeregseegees cose vac TETE() L Avy "EFLI 
< *soqnulul yer0Aes yearys ‘ qayoor v ay $ 0771p “uTUr ]e19A08 ereeeeree et eeeeee Aeon eee weweeereteereee uopuory a "490 "CELI 
5 "Teqaiy) cee scndonc Htteeeaeeeeeeeresrees UOpUOT!': QE ‘aC 
"a “UOILUOJIP TIA ‘]Teqaay IN 0} “A'S 8 Ste) “sseyy ‘WaART] MON|""" $3 ‘AON) #ZPLL 
=} *[eqouy Suyeuojop £ ayous Jo ures £[eoru0d “ot 04 *AN ** 4udray Jo arsy {xassug}** TT ‘99q| *LFZT 
& “(CLPLT pur OFLT JO taqUt A) [[eJ-2U01g cae 9u0}s 9310] ores puewoatgs""  1aquLM| = 
a *(1ysmesnSog 03 Surp.090R) ontp sescccvos eaeeeeree weeenereesccses vin steis savSuny Z F F 
& *(onZoyezeQ Szaneyuneg 0} Surpro0s0v) o1porae] *ttee"* Soergcent Prasesees steceeenccereecerresscee==UOTHOT| ©¢Z “qad| *OPLT 
2] ‘yTeqaay] octets "S07 'N se eneeees sesaencrarescsceceeesess “HUITIG|“** B 208/) 
A “yZrq satu OY { UotyeUOJap YITMH AMO]S ‘N 03'S saseences “* puelsugq May ‘asputqaivg|"** ¢ oune] *6EELT 
fey *(anZojey29 s,Joneywneg 0} Surpro09ov) ¢ o1ytjorae} “ttt se" UOUBIAW|''S QT “300/ é 
f=) ‘TIeqaiy, * see sees punsug 8z 
| *punoj auo4s OU £3 OTZT]OI9" {0771p} “Wa & srreeseoeees oOuBTT ‘seuquadie) gl ‘any 
= -ysiura 41714 spunog <q Suryey pue Bursts yday <qpeqaay) cesses seseeeaee aceeeense "teeeeeensereeseresseveees SHB el Aloe 
© | 'WoztI0Y OY} YyIBoUEY pa] pnoyo Atay @ ayy] ttt *S 01'N searscpes reeveeees OSvradipory uvioa.ty|"** o¢ 
a] *"y10da1 pnoy v Liaheny qsanq eeccccese ee eeeeses adiey cee ceereccce pueyaay ‘AUITLVY G 00q 
= *(andojezeg S1ysMesnZog 0} Zurps0o0v) ory1o10v riessans seteeeres OG ORLIPW|""' 1g Av 
“a “0371p * BOlIoUry °N é 
o "0141p * EUaNo7 ‘AON 

“op eescesece streserereeeees  Semsaqy ag 

‘omp| steer etesccess eeccoeees sttepererseeseesevoes Fingsuaday] 

“Treqaay) vt siscnoane ovaccsiese Heterseeeeeeneeseeereee MODULO] 


“yy 3rAep Aq o[qIsta ‘0431p pegceseee sane qasiog, ‘ pursuyq *s 
“omp snes soteees agua 
“0341p “AA 0} * oSsey 


*TTeqory 4 see eeeree ee ereesae Saaraeens 


1860. 


58 


REPORT 


‘moNeuojap v Aq pamorfoy { 074") 
‘syivds pur [Iv} WIT poraedmosoe £ 0941p 

+e [Rolmyoaya { ¢ ure e 07 VIF Yas £O37Ip 

“Te qory 

*eIUOpadRY ‘aStoU 4ward YIM ysanq £44F1[Aep Aq 
“THeqory 

‘MOIwUojap fauTysuns 4YSUq UL MOpRYs v 4StO 

“aU }XOU ayy A[GIssOg ‘asTOU TIM papordxa £ [eotu0d 
*xassy] UI snuUDA = { pplyeyg ye woom= 

*(¢E]T aung) ¢ o1y Arerpuooutr uv pasnvo ! 0741p 


‘aprjoqg pipuards 

“Te qary 

‘UIVILIG 4VIIH IAO T[@ uses ‘ Aep sev yy Sty Surpzzep 
“0941p 

‘Teqaay 

‘a[seq pur ‘a[3ry ‘AvaaA ye uaas osie 
“oq Ip 

*(¢ Arenuep q19g 10) 0441p 

“Tle qoay, 

*1OajaU aUYy v 

Te qary 


“vrIqeieg UT 2°20 / {]TPJ-aU04g 

“é YS soptmn eT £2 [peqaay 

*]I0} Io years ou Sf uMOp +- ATteau { UOOU sv yYSt1q 
‘“Tleqory 

*99.¢ "a3 ‘ds $]yay omy $ [[eF-au04g 

*gg.¢ "13 “ds {yeroAas { [vf-au0j}g 

*q9YOOL B axl ‘0791p 

~  "Teqaay 

*UOISOTAXO yLaI3 pue 1OdJaUE { [][vJ-UO.AT 

*(1940}0Q YY [ 10) auo are] v £ [[RF-aU0X¢ 
“pajtey S aptfoq auy 

*onip 

*0MIp 

“Teqoay 

*(-4eQ s,raneyuneg 0} Surproo9v) orytporse { 0731p 
“(E°M 06 “SUT pue “N Zp “3eT) Teqory 


"oxy ‘syAeUlay, 


“Treqany 


JST years 


Sete aeons 


seeteeeee 


seeeeweee 


eeaeeeeee 


7G 


wa Z 
‘W'd g 


"Wd £9 


eet eneeee 


AOJS 


“nou { 94R1 
S uoTyeang 


"M'S 0} ‘AN 
“ACN 0}. ‘aS 
"M'S 0): °H'N 
"M'S 0} 'A'N 
“a's 0} (A'N 
"N 03'S 


see 


ee eeeeee 


oer ieeeee 


seeeeeeee 


seeeereee 


“M 09 °R 


eee eeeeee 


“A 0} °N 
uoou 
“aS 0} “AN 


seeeeeeer 


waeeeseee 


“UOTPOAIICE 


eee eeeeee 


oS1vy] 


o1Ip 
aS1vy 
uoow = 


eeeeeeeee 
teeeenere 


eee eeeene 


uo0u = 


tet eeeeee 


a3.12] 


eee eeeeee 


"sql TE 
+'sqi ef 


"Sq 9T+TL 
“Sl 06 


eet e enone 


weeeeteee 
eee eeeeee 


"44 319M 10 aZIg 


*  AQITT AN 
Apuns.ng 
aceseee NATE 
BOLUOTRSSAT] | 
TORR meee eet ee BOqTa A 
eeeecece purlsugq MON 
"NURI PUNOTMAN 
‘ow ‘xassy ‘yIVg 
Hemet emer m eee eerenenee sezeg 
ese eeeeeteeeeesesereees Avquog 
THteteeereneeeressene I9q89TTOD 
verre und $ys.mquipy 
seererees UQNOY 

* wo,3uTAIN 
aouvIy ‘auleg 
Poccoccnceeenssocecccces ausojo) 
weeccvcce Jas1auI0g “UOITIATI [A] 
evcee rerrrrr rr rrr purlsuq 
Peewee eeeetees Yad 
WapaMg 
PAONN B19], 
Oe e eee eee ee etesennene puro 
a ap al ea LCL 114s h dG | 
Ce ceevcesveeeccessccsene puede] 
treveeeereerers aoupry ‘semodry 


eee eee cere re 


sees 


feeeeee 


****SOUISIN 
Sent eeeeeneeene BIWLOID ‘TIRIsY 
sere er weeeee Apurution “410TN 
Hee eeereeeree y8no0109.1999g 
sere AT Ba 
* YOUAION 
Sinquieyy 
tesserae eeeeeeseaeeererens BIgOTIG 
Heeerersereees 1B909 OUR 


“AqIvoO'T 


aey 
BU 


“eAaauay|" 


€1 
“AON 
“TL 100 
“fT Ajae 
see -audy 
Pigg. “ap 
Pon 
eee F Av IN 
“9% 990 
“* G~T oune 
eo cia dy 
az -90q 
+ OF “AON 
Om -aag 
wee 62 ady 
8 rey 
"" 9z "qaq 
Gg 
a 
og tee 
“" 1% ‘AON 
pe > AGE 
eee cl “Sny 
19% “aa 
< 
L “ydag 
¢ Ane 
b ‘4dag 
6{ ounr 
ee 9Z ew 
Petal ee LYo) 
vi oe 
“ot Ame 
“7 aune 
see ZI "dy 
“6 "qog 
“0 “AON 
“yqyuoUuL 


“OSL 
*OGLT 
“PLT 


* 
*EcLT 
“OSLT 


*T¢LTs 
* 


59 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


*pavat] SOU UDTTM 4URISIP SoTtUL 
99 * W8as 4SIY UdYM [VONTIA *92 ‘YYNOMpaaMy, ‘OT ArenAgayT *ZL/T x 
“POOMst}}9g 3B G/LT Sv tues Aqissog “ETET ‘8Le “d 
*AXXX["[OA “OTUIITTD ap sapeuuy ‘afqqad snoaoris Ao13 vaytTouoIs VW ST Z/T ¢ 
*ATOaLLONUT YSnoyy ‘amos 0} Surpr09oe sT LT 10 
‘OFLI “a'v ‘vIjomMoy Ystyiny ur prasieseyy ye 10 *cg 19qG0}0Q OT 1 
“eAoe maps “Binquapuerg “gz Ane “ZOLT y 
"MET 92 UO vAoUay 
y2 palvoy pue uses useq IARY 07 pres yey} se ames ATqtssod S][ey oyTOIOe 
Seouvlg ‘asig ‘suvjqueyg sey iysmesuSog  “[{ 1equaAON [O/T g 
“ELOLT “purpsugq Man “OT AVI *OOLT 5 
*auo 4xau au} Ayqissod £3 GGZT *s,uYor yg ‘pur[punojmaN “PACT ¥2°09ZT o 


“Inopualds pamouar TIA uleSe: 
aSOI UIT} pure ‘YIAv9 dy} Spivaroy AJanbI[qo puadosap 0} pawaas : saytw QE ssau’ 
~IOAUT JOAO £ SalTUT GG OSpLIQueD 19A0 yYSay £ puodas v UTSOTIW YE =AqIO0TaA . 
‘OUlYS-SSOY 0} 9Spriquey Woy usag “(6% 10) 9Z JaqMIOAON “gEsT p 
“S[RUIMOL VUUATA 9} JO 9UO UL ][eF SI} JO yUNODOR ][NJ v paysiqnd Aya4ey 
Sey JeSurpreyy *1oyeS0} popyaa sureyo so odeys ayy ut [fay UOIT Jo sasseut 
omy ‘aoryd Yoo} UoyRUoyap 94} JaIZV “posedisstp Afaryua o10JOq AMO ue IOF 
a[qista Uorsopdxe ayy Aq 49] pnopodmnodea ayy, “wyworg “gz AVP CLT , 
“squoUr, 

~Svay Ul UMOp UaT[ey OAvY 07 pres ‘[Teqary v { vIsa]Ig “G6 AieMAqaT g*OGLT q 
"TJaus snomydins Su014s vB Sutavay “ysvur s/diys e pasoy 

“Uys * [[eqory o1440a[9 uv A[quqoud ‘uvaog onUeTTY “fF TaqUIBAON “GFT » 


Chant, -essteasd oagusvies veneers [escseeeenees —gonrarequonl |, 
*O1IP ee ewoeree eeeterees ob eaweeee Pere eee eee eres purlsuy see ¢ “Sny 
“0421p seeteeeee seeeneens weeteeeee ee eee eee re ers tdsa19 eee 6z Aqne "SILT 
‘onip wee eteeeee ee eeteee shes ween new eteeean ¢s8ayVq4g pou see éAqne 
“payiey + [eormod £,¢ Ur UOT}BUOJOp {Mors ! [Jeqoty] TT UL OG | ‘H's 0} “ALN uoout # wereeeseees QAUSOIMTIG!"" OL “Q) * SL Tx 
“MaT[Py aay 0} pies Satlo4s eee we enee eb eeeneee ee heaaeee “puryaty wee é é n 
*[[eqa1y eee eeenee wet eweree eeeeeedee *** UOZUTIO A wee 6 *AON 
‘pajvuojap { puodas v soztur FZ YSty sopu Fe $ peqaay] ett eMieey cee uooul< sereeere Huvpsug puw sours} ZT Aqne) TZ LT 
*(a[dounueysuog 0} Quas satt04s aq) [[ejrau0yg eee ar eereee rey “sql fp+'sqy PP [retierseeereeeesecen eens peissey “07 0 *OL1T: 
“uoleuojop pue [[eqaay . sddeentes seater eeeen eens “i oa ¢ aune * 
“yy 3ipAep Aq was aly Jo [eq v edovvcess otonnteve deeded ecdaeeecdnereeeces Amuaaog aay? “uee “G9LT 
“Ch. as ‘ds aq] gg Jo auo ‘[[ay omy f[[eJ-au0}g) “Wd F +'sq g¢ BIIvALT ‘UdTOAIDtaneyy|*** OZ AON] * 
"9G.¢ 13 ‘ds ‘[eraaas S]]vj-au0j}g) “wa co RoHS LN “sql $1 “ gouedy ‘ouqang ‘son7q|*** gt ydag} x*ggsT 
“T[eqaay. wee e tone Otte ween eee ewww eee wee Feet e ete wetewene purlsuq tee 9% "290 ‘ 
“YUM IY} JOoTpprursyy ynoqge fauojsazAvpe f[[vJ-au03g} “Wa G Seager a So ae weeeeeoewrre UBT ‘OystaqTy|""* GT Ajue] *'99/T 
*auIty auLos Suysey ‘Qu Sty OLTOdJOUL qysiaq e ee vests oe eetens eee reeeee! {Oreceneveneatees t= AFA TOM eeI  TAL *AON 
*(é LT 10q0}00) UoNeuoyap £ yuerTLIq {0731p moot = seteresenere NUvIsUT JO YNog}""* g oO] * 
‘aptfoq afuey v “a'S 0} “AN sowvensee Mitecerereerrorrens UOTMMaI|* G “SHY 
“4S1Tuns yenba £03}1p - sees eeeeeeene aSiey . +. seeee awWoy dee ¢ Avy CO/T H 
“Teqaay wee eeteee eeroeoree ore ewewae eee eee ane Slt g eee 61 “AON } 
“quenyiq £ prvoy ytodar pno] ve Sunsinq rayye ge] sttttts “MN 09 “S'S fore ecesenee  UIUCTOP ULE hE, *FOLT: 
*(€ FOLT 40) yTeqaay 196 “AL O}-- weeeeeeeeeesoeses DALY SPIOJ Pa gq 
“104 Aroy pure aiy jo aqols qsea v| ** . . . Phebe LOSEay ius sy etsnnad rok nty: “ydag 
"1O00WL au} sv qq 511q Oe OMe ween eee reste anne” Surpvay woe H 


“0741p 

“Te qety 

raqours Ainodea Surpino v 4yay ¢Surpzzep {]1e} eB.aey {0341p 
; “Io}Je WOLVUOJap 4eIIT { ajo] Ywaays aFxey 0741p 


: corm: #r tara sor an 


ee eetees 


eteewreee 


rer ore 


“ON 02 °AA'S 


dee 


see uapaag)*** 1B: 
Pda LEL (09.82 9 “plojapie af 


G 
Shaan aourdy jo qyno eee aL 


5 fU € 7 ul’) ut St 
‘anZo]e4e9 | 
“y10Jayooy *Z9.¢ “18 ‘ds ‘ ypay Aueur $ [[eJ-aU07g 
“Teqoay, 

*0G-¢ "a3 ‘ds { Tjay Aueur £[]2J-aU0}9 

*T roquiaydag 10 £ {eqauy 

“OF Suysey 431] pur ory Jo T[eq WYyStIq B 

“OVID 

“Teqaay, 

*(anZo]eyVO s,rysmesnZog 0} Surpsosor) o141;o198 
“We gery 

*39-G 13 ds : vip sayout g auo !]][ty-aU0,g 

*Z AOI £ 0941p 

“0998 4SIY UdT_M YSIY soptw cf £ 0341p 

“oWIp 


‘op. 


"EFT PO) "(2914 pro ‘Aine 434%) Teqazy, 
PURIp "spA OZ { Y8ty sepium Qe { ‘das rad sapwu zp ="a! 
*upooury 1aA0 UOTeUOJap { ,,09 1OF aTQISIA years 
(2°S'O ‘ysuny yIZ) [eqary 

“TTRj-91045) 

*][2F DUO ! [[ef-au0Ig 

*109]9UL 

“GZ O39T * 11eJ-Uor] 

“Tle qoay, 

*Q [ey-uosmt ¢ 2g TT udy £ oqp 

‘qdog “Bepy IU9H "ZTLLT “yreaumyso Ay UL $ [[eF-aU04g 
9611 “U9dS 4SIY UIYM YSIy saytul QQ {0331p 
“0721p 

*0741p 

*poyvuoyep ¢ [[eqoiy 

"UOIRUOJAP PUB IY SIT 0az0UN 

“(Z9LLT) Spear £ 11ey-eU0 7g 

“(699Z1) g2NTOIQe f OnIp 

“0771p 

“Teqery 

‘eruA[OA Ut f 0711p 

*Auvuliay $ [[vjf-awojg 

*IOI}JIU BB1vy B 

raumry-Aeq, §*¢9.¢ “13 “ds £ ]|vy-aU04g 


1860. 


REPORT: 


— 


60 


“orp ‘sxIBOAYy 


‘mmoy !99v1 
adorzein(, 


‘W'd 


s0F 


beeeccece 


uoou 


tee eweeee 
eee eereee 


0G Ul OG 


‘Wd 


Peeeescee 


ee eeeeeee 


‘N'Y OL 
AMO]S 
uoou 


ie 
>| lees bY 


*N 0} °S 


o. . 


eeereeeee 


were ereee 


ee eeerees 


ween eeere 


“ACN 0} *9'S'"S 
‘a's 0} *M'N 


*S 07 °N 


"AUNOM 04 “OS'S 


eee en eee 


fereesaee 


eeeeeenee 


eet eeeeee 


ey 


*MOTJIIII 


ae 
ook 


*SqI OT+0Z 


uns= 


weet eeeee 


wee eeseee 


eeeeeeree 


ee eeeeee 
Bee neseee 


uoow * 
uoow ¥ 


uoouw < 


Se eeereee 


*SZO ¢ 


woreserre 


seeeee 


weeree 


aeeeeeses 
wbererees 


aB1v] 


eee eeeees 


“sql 79 


Peeeeeree 


“SqI 6 


qystaa\ 10 aztg 


eee ‘Auvosny, 
xnvopiog ‘sapuey ‘uvjoqivg 
eecee “sssanatqoauUod 
auIBI ‘MoyeyD 
eetteveeeeerereees USNGUIpT 
Scskbawaneee pursag jo yynog 
FORO HOH e ee eee eee aUlI¢] 
Wtteeeeeeeeeeeeeeerees  DUBTOAT 
aUIV I -UO-7.10F ULI 
“* 900010] ] 
ovepenses eas BITRATE, “‘yprqstorq 
SOOPER eee ete dOUITeA 
tee eneeeeeeneerers Ayvyy Yon 
tteseeeereererreersress one 
oe onde 


rT 
eke 0G 
bye! 

tee Zz 4ydag 
“" 6g aune 
eee OL saidy 
st ‘day 
“7 gune 
BL "Gag 
“OE rune 
ae) 

see t ydag 
“og Aine 


oo ee eeee . ‘IN ‘uopuo7| - "0 
““purpoog ‘pueysugq ‘aouery|*** gt 
santeesensseroseroee s QaaTTUed|"** EL ‘Sny 
sreeeeeeccesersererteees — QOUIBTE|*** é 
Peee eco eEee OCI e ee eee eres ung)" Ayn 
ences seeeveuces aulag, ral ‘idy 
vipuy ‘a1oyey é 
- ee eeesereesans wedg MON eee Z “AON 


“-eeTmpUSUTqON ‘uoyseag)""' T cady 
eet eeeree pura. ‘poossijjad|*** é 


sete eee eee newenee ery dpapepitg) 
CPT ee ee eeee ree Teer cerry mya 


* uly ap Juatuaziedac) 
** OWOD Ivau ‘olIpuog 
tteseereeerereeerereseees GUIDE 
eee n tense Ruoouy ‘ouvliqry 
see seeaeeeneeeesoecee+* BIBTIQAON 
steeeeeeeeeeeesereeess — DIOTXG 

terse OorNaTy 
vissny ‘eZzaynIg¢ 
eee eceeetoesees .1nqog ‘qorpoy 


“Aqipeoory 


ao ite 190 
rac “Sny 
aes} “IRIN 


97 ‘Suny 
ane I I “dag 
“Qo, 10 ‘uve 
“ ¢, “any 
“11 Ane 
or Avy 
é 
“* 6T ‘adag 


BCEAO COE fy ah WeYawAA |? g Avy 
2G ROSES NI i (apie) i ‘euadig|"** LIT ‘AON 


“youl 
| jo deq 


#T6LT 


—*06L1 


“88L1 
i Bers 


“LBL1 


6 S8LT 


“PBLT 


# P) 


aeBLIq 
*Z8L1 

“IBLT 
é 


* 0821 
* 


“OLAT 
*8LLTe 
* 
WLLL 

é 


“QLLT 
* 
* 
“GLLT 
#ELLT 


"Iva 


61 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, 


*UdT[eJ IABY 04 ples souojg ‘asnoy uojyeg ‘cyudy x 


UOVUoZap YITA patucdurogoe | ‘ox ‘ulp1og ‘uapsaiq 


on 


6 


6621 ¢ 


“S2TRS 3B WIST PYF UO 

SOUO}S JO [[BJ OUI YIM [Loryuapy ATissog “aYOUTAITTIA “B YOUR “BGLT + 
*s19}0 0} Zurpxodov [fay oourysqns snourtan;Ig yep e 

£ anojezv9 szaneyuneg 07 Surprodoe ‘orytposge {Bursing soye soynuiU May B 


"8 YoleW *'96LT q 


JOQWOAON YIZT *[12 


padeys-ajpurds paaino Suoy v pey fuasuyj0H *[] 4oqMOAON “IGLT 3 
‘araydsowye ay} Jo Aqoyseja ay} Aq pasneo st Surpunoq 


SIY] sautseut sZutg ‘pnoyo ev puryaq Suysang ‘uwSe asoxr uayy 


‘ama ® 


paddoup way} ‘A\equozt0y paaour ysay t YSanquipy *TTIoquiaydag “Zest , 
“pula JO QuBOTLINY @ Suny *Z aaquiaydag ‘gg/T o 


"T[2F O09}eUT IO d1WTTo19e ue Aq pasneo useq aay 0} pasoddns 


*[1e} Surzeyq oBaey £ queryyaq 

*Z 010198 { UOeUOJep years vB Aq poamoT[os ‘0441p 

"g4SB] SB ous ¢ T}eqa1y 

*T[BJ-9u0}g 

“Tleqory 

*[le} ouTQUadJes & pey { 0441p 

“Tleqoay 

*peayt9AO UuOIsO[dxa dI109}9M pnoy v 

*Tyeqaay 

"GP-g "13 ‘ds £ ]]ej-au0jzs 

*ysty Sattur fy ueyy ssaq you { apijoq 

“TeQe.19 

*4SANq SUOOU 911} SB AFI] Sv fuIOF UI AB;NZa.at £ |Teqaay 

“OXOLIY JOA ‘810A Iva ¢ []ej-aUu0}¢ 

*[B1VAaS f][ej-9U0IG 

"04-13 ‘ds $0341p 

°07VIp 

*OF-g “13 ‘ds dn poyoid ET £ [[eJ-aU04¢ 

“Teqouy 

“SNUG axl] A[UO ysay 4e f ayqeiseA $]eAo {0991p 

; “O}Ip 

“0341p 

*ua][eJ VALT OF ples 4snp dtIOa}aur £ 0941p 

~ *O991p 
“onl 


‘Wd 


UST YL9148 


Peatesene 


eereeeee 


‘Wd g 
‘Wd ¢ 
‘Wd / 


S 


eeeterees 


weet teens 


i Ts7qQnoq 
‘sasnoy 


OM} JO UONVIFEYUOD snooURyNUIS Y “4yOJYULIy “ey isnBny “Gg/T > 
*19]J@ SayNULU aMIOS 
YIOX IOAO Ose apoydxo 07 pavayy = “gurrppaq A1aA ‘aprjoq e[quop v se yorM 
“Ud2I FY “SATU YOST JO VoULAsIp B 10J JOYIeFoye $ vURLY UT ApuNnSing 
JIAO UDIG "YSIY ,ZT AO OT UOZIoY 03 Jayyeaed Suraout uses ‘puejaay uz 
*pauazzoysoroy sdeysed “4say 4v uaes Yont you qIvy { syivds pur yeas e yoy 
£Suysing Aqeysed 1ayye “Wy 07 91971] B pauany § Spoq ueyI—<OT [!2} £ puodas 
Bur sap OZ ‘YB satu Og £ Gf JO due Uv AOJ DONO ye Oz aIQISIA { spavAL 
~Jayj@ JOSPUT\\ Jv p.ivay 6 10g wodar B YIM ‘atYsUTOOUTT 42A0 4ySIe4s 
OM4 OU 4sinq 0} paivadde f4uay 9A suooU qn Zz Jenba { y1OX 0} reSUIT 
“IN Woy ‘uooM tf suvpy youeyd ay2 ext, £ soysy purpayg ou Ur Uaes ysmtq 

“LOaJoUL J[QuyIeUlad pue pazeaqaao AJoA YW "WV F6 ‘QT 1090990 “EBsT 9 
“316 ‘d ‘AXXxX] ‘JOA ‘amtuTYyD ap sareuuy 

*punoid ay} ur ofoy anbyqo uv Saryeur ‘yay ouois y ‘aouvay Z°ESZT q 

‘amy Ar9A9 Surpoldxa ‘syzof pur spunog Aq poaout {o1upuog Z'g//T » 


‘a'S 02 ‘M'N 0yIp POOP Reece eee eeneseseeee pursuq soe Ct dag 


feeeeeens 


er eeeeere 


seereeees 


“I'S 0} *AN" 


tee eeeene 


eee eeeeee 


N 


oBav] “" “S'n “ssi ‘afnoy uowg)** ¢ udy| #664 Tr 
Tet eeeeee TO Oe emerson eeneneaes esuog tee 61 
RIpuy ‘sorvuog|"** ET ‘oaq| * 
POO e ee meme nereneesesene pursuq see 0% “AON 
o* . ‘ON ‘uasuq105 eae 6 490 
quay 2z 
* autag|*s g ydag}) ¢ 
Cnapanssasiassoxsreavo naMBiG|<* Ge. ANT 
Tt ee tw we seer erees gourly ‘sores see ZL * 
‘ietteseseeeees guoupaaitAl'? @ IRIN] “8641s 
errerrerrs uasuieD|"* eI Ane "L6L1 
* ‘om ‘Auruiay *N\* g cae q 
"yeSur10g ‘oxaig|""' GT “qaq| * 
“errs Bissny ‘eMyia7 ‘efefarg)*** — cuRr) #96/T 
“** GITYsysOX ‘98e9409 POA\|"** ET ‘oaq| * 
eee eeeeweree salpuy ‘uopsag see Cl ady *C6LT 
spereineese=sCA runt ‘euaig|"** OT oung] * 
sreeeeres nueisug 
*  purplequinyioN 
trepreeereerrseeseees DUDISUT 
*tteneeeseereeseseeesees aOUaKBIN 
tresteseseserercesensaeren gales: @7 “Sny 
. sreteeeeeee Suadrary 


aeeses 


ee eeeene Sete tees eseeens 


Peer eeeee - 


“sql 9¢ 


et eeeeee 


“POLI 
“COLT 


Sry 


ee teeeeee 


~1860. 


REPORT- 


“omp 
Teqer5, 
iydag F ‘paysiuea AWueysUr ysouye pue dn ayorq £0391p 
*o79Ip 

*o}}Ip 

: *o}VTp 
“THeqeay; 

rammn-AeqE “ec.g 13 ds {][ej-au0ig 

“Suysing 10338 suolyeuojep Z Aq paaroTjoy ‘0711p 

“Te qe4g 

"9Z-E “IS “ds f][eJ-aU0}g¢ 

*OUF1p 

“[eqeay 

“queIT[IIG §.10ayauI prpuatds 

@ sopltr g="a $ Udas 4SIY UsYyYM Ysry sopim ez fonqq 
*puodas | "QP. “Id ‘ds { ]pRJ-au03g 
*§ 194009 YIOT 10 pug ! 0331p 

*g yeo1qo9]9 | “ypeqoayg 
£ Zurpying Byons4s SuoteuUNzop pur 10ajouT § ¢ [[eJ-9U0}g 
“que [Ig “Wa Z% ‘woyeuojep ‘Tjeqaty 

*SUOTJVUOJAP  UdT[eJ IAVY 07 ples ONE £[[eJ-oUu0yg 

*YJAVS 09 [[9F II] I[T} LoBre] puv.ssZ1vy 403 {.1eys-Suryooys v 
*EZS ‘C°AIXX "TOA ‘Zegy opuess0g *“[[eJ-au0}g 


062d] “uoryeuojap v Aq pamoy[oF ‘[]eqoay 
‘B08 390 “Se ATy UOT, oas + nyQuop £ ][ejJ-aU0}g 
‘oNIp 
"o74Ip 


*} O1FT[OIaV £ 0991p 

*‘(GQsn3ny Jo pua) 0341p 

*07}1p 

“TLeqouy 

“Z0IpOrge { UOTJeMOYOp pur .oajour 

*(GQsnsny jo appprut ynoqe) 0341p 

“Te qe.1y 

“HT[BJ DAVY 0} plvssouo0js SUoT}eUOJep pue 1odjaUIyVeIS 
*punos SuISsIY v WII UMOps- fuoNeUOjap $ Teqery 
*oWIp 

“TLEQa1y 


— a 


- ‘oap ‘SyBULIyy 


eee eeeeee 


ny 


“AUN 0} ‘a'S 


ser eeeree 


"ANN 0} “D'S 
“a O} AL 


stew eeee 


eeeeeeree 


“ACNOM 0} SO'S'*H 


wee ewenee 


uMOp-- 


sen ew eres . a“ 


0G Wee14s “a'N OF “A'S 
“Wd [ “MN Of “O'S 


"M 0} °H 


eee eegeee 


seen eee seneneeee 


see eeseee wee e teens 


eee weees teeeneeee 


et eeeeee 


set eeneee 


wet eeeeee feeeteeee 


“MUN 0} “A'S 
“tN OJ “AMS 


seeeeeeee 


see eeneee 


‘moy £ 99v1 


“marzooI1d, 


‘ 


SUOlwan 


eee eeeeee 


noom = 


Aare eeeee 


ener eeeee 
ee weeeeee 


OBA] 


uoom = 
“SqI LT 98eBre] 


wee eeeene 


eeaeeetee 


eeeenees 


ee eeereee 


weeeeeees 


eeeeweeee 


*qyStaM 10 9ZIg 


= tie 


cieeeeeeeemensenneceneeilelen 
STP eSpuquny 


sec eenenen gene . 


UdpPIVAY | 


: “nessoq 
Sees eereeseeeeeeeenee pA Quan 
ween eee ee eenee MODSLTD *18s0q 
Cyiteerenrereterenren's UTTOGT 
See ee eee wees BInquazzAWMYOS 
seeceemenese UTTAR ‘Suisse yy 

“ SmMquaursrayye yy 


seeseegeerceneererene BAQTIOn 
‘squUp] !1dA0q 
srs yopuoT £ ysinquipy 
ss gouvny ‘asnpone, ‘ydy 
"¢ BAS 4e 
"Baoan 
"Tes"* JaqsaoIa'T “UOPION 4SCI 
eee at asprqurey 
overaceccncuces aOUeL] alSry 7] 

Hereeereeereretees BISOTIg 
erpuy “peqeyeyy| 
“"" sipantag 
Avy, YOoT ‘purpyoog 
HereteoenreeeMonng 
Peter teen ene Bainqurppant 
spunwpq43s Aing ‘1aqsayoyo9 
sory | ap quawmaiedag 
assesses par [te3y no py 
“ OPH 
ap VIS] 10 ‘sIOTPOUUOT, XN IS] 
aouely | eH 
ceriatetieeseeseeeereeetes gam 
BOWMIULY 4.10N 
“ praysumng-a[daayg { xassiy 
“*  OOTXOP 
“U0YSUIP[IOg 


“Aqyeo0'yT 


oa) 


“ue 

é 
*~O 
"ydag 
"AON 
‘Sny 
"190 
“any 
Ane 
aune 


*TO8T 


a 
* 0081 
“6621 


“ea 


= 


63 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


“ZUITISMON FV OSTV “LT YO *"FO8T 2 
sty} ayy padeyg xoajout E77 ‘gt isnsny ayy ‘sv odie] se 
99q aAvY 0} amos Aq preg “(2.9 “AON) ET TOQUIAAON “COST 5 
‘ “oLLoazour Jt sdeysed [nIQnop sR YW “WoAT snosay 
“Toyo FurareyWoo punoyz auoys poytayra v yo pur ‘[yeq o1tjoeT9 Ue ayT] BOP 
“voluUByig vipedopsoug ur yunovoe snouno v w9qey "p AINE *'EO8T » 
“orqporge A1qeq 
-o1d ¢ pxvoy 919M spunos Surssty pue astou puoy pur ‘yooys & $.moy ames 4e 
OTYSU[OOULT UL pue “xTOFION UI WeYYeME 4 WT} oUIes ynoqe uses : mode 
pue 4431 Jo ure1y e peg fuoztioy 943 Jo .¢] UNyIA 07 UMOP yYSreays Tay 


IOI [BAO 9BIey vB ‘duIYsUNs yYSIIq Suung ‘aSpuqueg % dep *EO8T p 
‘andy JI ‘snoring “MOUS Bq} WO puNoy sseu ayiy-ATjal e@ Aep yxou f punossd oy} 
U0 Surung aif 0} pativas 41 Uay} ‘prvay astou Burzzpm v $ punors 944 03 aso]o 

ssvd 0} pouloag 9 “Sinqlolg puejriopsaeg usomjog [Tz Auenuee “EQBgT o 
“C081 

IoF auizedey ATQIUOTY Vag *puLyyoog ‘Key, YOoT “gp rsqmaydag sZOST q 
“uoTTeF aavy 67 pasoddns sea 41 910M Ivau UOTLVSaA payo1oos pus 
‘WIV 4]9J OAT 07 £4907 90% JO INSIay quoredde uv ye ‘oaenbs yoaF OZ asnoy 
@ St odrR] sv paivadde aavy 0} ples SI Aodjout SINT, “G6LT ‘dy Wye ‘aSnoy 
uoyeg JO VY} YI popunojuoo AYUapAg “vorawy "N *¢O08T ‘Ss INdy » | 


| 
‘yyeqaay) . ties seb eeeeneees purysug “* T] ‘AON i 
"1123 sa04s Tews ¢ 30 ¢ £ [[vJ-au04g "Wd te eueeerece wereeeeee Ceceveccsccnene ermayog ‘essty oseitre dag) % i 
Opi) o27css6s" A teeeeees oeseeeeee eee eeeeeccescees ON “euuat, |"** Cl “any! 
*¢ UOJSOg 0931p seneeceee tse eeeege se eeenees seneeeee sec eeeeeeeeees UOqSOIT|""* GZ Ajng| / 
‘Treqary) et seeeeeeeees Joyedg adey i By } 
*£0-¢ “13 ‘ds $ uot ow £ [fay OGy {TTey-eU0;g|"W'V OT 10 9 Sose ers ereeeer vrereeees  BIABLOP ‘UTIMURYS|"** ZZ * 
syreqang| cen so= ereseeeee aeteeeees sb eeeenaceneees “-e ouryuadeg|""* 1Z Avy ; 

*OSIOg Ivau {[eAaAVs {][eJ-2u0}g| “Wa T COO Ue =<. Saree tae, | veers Ayegy ‘vuueg|"** GL “ady| *808T 

“oas Jad sapiut ¢ f oa}0UL vatsopdxe aFavl { {pej-ou0jyg| wv f= “MN 0} "O'S “sql 0O€ : * qMOTJDITIUOD ‘UOJSaAA|*** FL “V9q) * 

29 Joquiaydag towytp| ote . sereeeees seeeeeeee ED ecTticl@ ‘waung beat dag 

‘Teqaay se eeeeee . we eeeeeee we eeeeees Sennen teeta eee eeeeeee S1aqueiny tee 6 ‘Sny 
“mooulaye  F9.¢ “18 “ds £ [yey-aU0Ig “Sie "SqI O9T serrees HsuajoMg ‘UNpIOUIT]|*** ET * 
“0731p . * - . “"BADUaD, wee 9 “IRIN "2081 | 
“Tyeqaay. stern teeseweee Sener eter ee tee ewe reens pur[suq on rea 0a] } 
“3 COST “£agunod Jo queyxe qeard v dn parysry ee Th wiaucemserw eieeiecuces ob een eos ee aieneinieve ys) ‘easueMg|"** tL 00, { 
“aplpoq seeeeenes weeteeene steerer eee eee é ** 92 j 

*(anSojeye9 s,Janeyuneg 0} Surp1090v) ¢ OIMTOI9B teeeeeeee wee eeeene setae eeeeeees teeeerees oo IVUATO A\ << ey 4dag é 
"Trey Buoy { yeoruos f yueyjpiaq AoA £ [yeqouy ont “AL'NO} “AL'S uoow + “** MOyUOUpY ‘uopuoq|''* JT 
*1ODJOUU DuTyeUOJap wv 1aqJe ‘[[eJ-aU0}g MeO vier 4 ses saneET ‘gyoyssurseg|* 
“01.1 13 ‘ds Sayq-snovoeuoqivo {omy { [[eJ-3U0;g "2 OF "AL 
"Tyeqory ere . 
"99-¢ “AS ‘ds { ][eJ-aU04g 


*oyIp 


eee e eee eee ene ener eee 


“T1eqouy 

“AUN OU} Ur oF $ 94ST] vaI3 
“29081 + 0771p 

*O71P) ,BT Aea.t4s 


seereseee 


“¢908T 


Uapaag|'** 1Z 
Arnqsaarys|"** FT 


eee eter n ee eeee 


weteeeeee Wee ener renee ee eneeeeee . 


Ve 


spodoy ‘oossy “}11q ay} 07 Surprogoe) ¢ [1eJ-aU07g seeeee seeeeees Kam 


*07}1p seeeeees-BUUDIA PUB AYNASLIVD 
‘omp| avy steteeeeecseccossorseers BOIBTIRE |! *AON 
‘yyeqaay) eraeeveee ee eeneese eet eneeeeeeseneseenenees BIAoSag an “dag 
‘aprfoq ada] iernjgelniscale eoccccoce euernarke coe :ee0eeccccceoscdense qyoana yy one €Z 
“T19F 20143 ! gP.g "AF sds $]]wJ-9U0}g) “W'V ZG os7eccere +'sqi 69 * gounag ‘Aeuuojunyg|""* ¢ “Bny| * 
*tady wet 10 $ ¢9.¢ 13 ‘ds ‘][eJ-au0jg) “Wd F BOE? "sql fp + Auoxeg ‘uaqayxagq|"** ST * 
*[2J [eras £OL.g "ID ‘ds {\eJ-au0}g] "Wd g “H's 0} “a'N teeseeeeeees osnomnoy fapruaty|'** OT ‘ady| * 
‘onip cares ereseeneesteeerrereeesegiTtagtMory| "OF 
“{eqoay) tt caine wenuaeint Wseisersersecreeeeeers-gumaspieg!'? gz curr]  "ZIBT 
“Joyo puw UOT sUTeJUOD “*Z[]BJ-uoay} Sceascnea SERS sestcreseeee prpuy ‘coounSueg|"** €z % 
‘oyp] ct eeenaeihe eile ‘etaeeseeseeeeeees guBaTIG MAN!" BZ "AON 
ff TF aouvysqns snounras z £]Teqary tt eeeeeee see eeeene . ae eeeneee Srq apr} nae Aine 
‘soding IwoN “GFE AF “ds £ [fay g S[[BJ-auoIg] “W'A g sspssesss ¢ uiedg ‘sepjinSuvjzog|"** g Arne! * 
“199s 4Say MAYA YS sop 4 7 $4901 auguadsas Bayt]! ,OT 12138 : y serteeerrescons paguag $sleg|'’* CT Avy 
: “eyjoyosarnyy “6 F-g “AF “ds S$ yjayomy fy[RJ-ouorg} — ausiu 5 +°sqI £1 sreeeeerseseees BISSHYy ‘BABITOd!""” GL “AVIN] * 
g *o9n1p SANs ecoecccce aeeeeetee cop tovccccccevcasecessse ZNWITQ vee gI “qa LISI 
Pera) "(g g08T ‘raqui9090 (7 U162) eqay see eeeee Fee eereee Oeeeeseee serene eet eee ten ttteee puryiaai9 “08 29 
me *IOIJOUL OIGITOIOR] "Wd FG osgecepus ewgsesisee * uvdezeyy adey ‘oS1199/""" 8z * Py 
| *suva[IQ Ivau fT[aJ 9a1y} $ [[BJ-9U0}S] “Wd FT "SQL 02 +OF * gouvty ‘aT[IAuosivyg|*** ¢Z AON) = * 
o *q10,T-SaLOOJ{ WV £ 29.9 "13 "ds S][vJ-oU0Ig] “NV FLT "sql EL “+ puvjaty ‘Aueraddry|"** OT “Sny| * 
Py ‘eipuy “Ang JO a[pply, *9U0 adavy aUO * [[vJ-aU0}g “shgqeete “ peqeyeyg ‘anyg-yaagng|"** GE Apne) * 
Ay *[RIDAGS {][VJ-9U0IG] “Nd Z +'sqI ¢ tteeeeees BUITOIBD “N {TaMsRg|"** OF * 
2 *4 laf 40 punogy “roUYONE, pur OFvry £2 [eJ-Wwory] Stupbests “sql ON9T ““Bpeuaig MON ‘sesoy ByuRg|""* OZ Ady] ¢ q 
-Aavnuep pag Io f[feqauy) tt soecesece errr . seceevccese “= paquan Zz ‘ure ‘OSI 
“yeqoay) ce meuacuei tirseeerseee ump) GZ "29 
+4 UNOOUITY, ‘ZO8T “ABI SB BURG “I PJ-9104g ‘+ -ysuajourg ‘euryry|"s gg 
“Teqoxy Rs eouades sstiseeeeeseeeeserreres UOpUOT|'* ZL “IO 
‘onip sangoases Sitetesestsseeeeerreres UOTUNTA |"? GZ “AON 
‘op eeeeeeces erccecece er eeeeee PIO TEOTISOD INNS IEA oe 2/4 2 gz “any 
*TTeqaay see eeewee ereeereee weet eeeee Falmasl cise) cane SOR USS IBIING NT see 62 Aine 
(42, aun) pavoq-drys UO [Jay £ ][eJ-au0Ig eniea ee Paitin ys eel ‘Buoy oN ote eql 0% *% 
‘omip| cree pen snake Hi os qing “agit: Zp oune 
*Teqary a . seers gouany ‘suuog''' 6 “ady} “6081 
*woidad 917018 au} ul Q1BI aq 0} pies $ 0431p “aS 0} "MON ee eeeeeee stew eee w eee eeseeseee purjusdi5 aoe é 3 
“oyIp oup Risen cise tees creseeeeceeeenerens SQIDUT ASUG|t! % 
“PSBL ‘IGF “d ‘Ar [oA ‘Yiopuaszog  “[IvJ-ouds ek seererere  [eeeree (Ca prorayog?) Aavdunpy"  g * 
“yeqaay| ce peasenses Srbnene se letssieetreressesrereeres guuag!** Zz ‘09q}  *808T 
S ‘omg ‘syIVUloyY, canuaete *UOrpOIITT *yY 319M IO aZIg *A}ROOT ara “v9 X 


65 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, 


“wort Aue Ajooswos suIvzuo *E 1990100 *EIBT y 

*4 e10dAj4nyJ Wan *G AqUIAON * FIT 3 
*yq.tea 943 07 

saaind oroqvaed ur Yo Zurey ydoy syuawBery “woAavyT MON ¥*1Z YOUR ; 
"uyZg Arenuer 

SB UaATd yey} sv oues sdeyiad £ [[eqazy ev Ajuo ‘ uUMIg “g]gT ‘g yore o 


“19 UIDAON 
WICT 913 JO Aoajaut aya A[uo ‘soAauassoy 0} Surps090y *AreSunyy “Z18t p 
*209011) ‘OZ1199 Jo pues] ay} pur uedejyeyy adep usamjaq 
Bas YI OFUL TO} : oNIfo19e AYUApIAa ‘T[eqamLT “gz TIQUIIAON *O18T > 
“TNy1Qnop savadde siya ang § Aep 4eyy Jo yyStu ayy ut 
Use} oA 0} 9UI0S Aq pres : BPABIOT, 4 ‘sesoqy eyuesg “02 judy -O8t q fx 
“puRLIaz}IMG ‘aug *GZ JaqWI0aq “ZO8ST » 


“UOTYTILOJAP YIM ysinq Sekueg-ASey 4v £0331p 


*,G 1oj asiou Suyjquina ve Aq pamorjoy $ 0331p] wea TT "N UO} 
yeqaay, ree sreeens 
*yasiawl0g £ [[ey-au03g Sige tocs eonteenes 
‘aouvlg $¢¢.¢ «ad ‘ds $ [yej-ouojg| wa Fg st teeeees 
*4sanq £0331p) yomb 
qeqaay) cee 
"€GFET «"PaeMOl[oy UONVUOZap 4va13 fo9,Ip| “Wa Ef 
‘ommp) ce 
‘[eqoay) 
“UNIS YS oy} UL ‘YeTean( vou {]][ejJ-ou0jg|  uoo0H veressese 
“yy SipAep yenba £ 44H, ontoazaw qearB vl et teeeeeres 
yeqaay) ve 
‘dn payord squomSeay GT {[[vJ-au0jg| wa SF 


*19G0190 YIST 10 f 0911p 

“UBIPHOU O19UTBUI 9Y4 0} so[sue yy Su 4v $ 0941p 
“Teqoary 

*09-¢ “Ad dg -Aep-prur ye [[aJ Oary $ [[PJ-aU0Xg 
“0931p 

Tleqe.1y, 

*4Alne yap Jo £][eJ-ysnp $uoreUojop {10939 

“Te qaay, 

HOSOULII}VYT JO JUIMIUAIAOY ![VAdAas £ ][J-au09¢ 
“youn 98 Osye £ ][Rqarg 

*purury §70.¢ “19 ‘ds ! qvj-au0qg 

“0941p 

“0911p 

“Teqaay 

"968 “A “I *104 ‘EIST “IY Jo ‘uny “TI9} S9u0}s 

eV 9 "ydeog pur aiepy ye ! $9.¢ “19 “ds £ |][BJ-aU04g 
“1eqeay 

“Tae ,§ Ul UOBUOJap f Suoy ZT [re 

“4 9SNp pur ][vj-au0}g 


°S Sp1U.MO0} 


see eeeees 


rrr errr 


sees 


“AL 0} °OL 


“T'N 0} “A'S 


eeereseee Peer eseeeresessees AaeSangy)*** Ll “any % 
** Xaqing § pxojxg|*** €z “avyN| 
AreSunqy ‘yyseg|""* g ‘aee 
BOSCO lf ** Ainquoysepy/Ajne 10-Sny| * OTST 
"Sql 8 streseeeeressoasuey ‘AuStsseyg|'** ¢ 490] * q 
queiy[aq serreees DuRlsug ‘g fuepuoy|'* Ez 
oer Pee erreeecereesscecee uaduryi69 wee 91 dag 
WoO pnJ=  [eereseesseeesseeesee BOREAS FL * 
. eee eeere eee 194S90.10,\\ eee OL Avy 
evececcce seceevevece aouado]y tee 0g ad y 
"Sq CZ wseee - vIpuy ‘yeuripoo'y eee QT “qq * CISL 
ee eeeeeee HOt e weer eeneeee uopuoy ‘fa.tang eee Z 00(] 
av cue ahere ttitseeseresseseereteees WODSOT|'* & 
eee eeeeee Scere rages tame DLT ‘qzoq eee ¢ “AON * 2 
POO e weet eee eeesesaeese Auruitay see sal 400) 
seteee MOSstyIL) Il 
Seeeeeeee seers Sngssny 8 
+ sq] SI rrerrerery yy a DOURAT ‘uady see c ‘adag * 
eee eeeeee ie er OCCT Con 6 (re: ih| eee ¢ “any 
evieeeees retteeeerereeeeeseeeres  BAgTIaQ|** EZ 
. pire e teeceecapeceen eee OPULUL see ¢ Ayne * 
er ecceee . ere errr uIplag eve 61 ady 
“Sql OF : “"BIssmy ‘qnumyoRg|*** ¢ ‘qaq| * 
¢ ad1vy] seeeeeereess uot $dinqssny|"** sz uve] = “PLST 
ont tees See eeeeeeeee B1OgrA\ ‘xv]RyUuo'T see EL 0aq 
wea cwatee Heseteseeeeeeeseess DoBTapuNng|** OT 
‘treseeesaeenenseesseeea ONDOOA\ |" GB ‘AON 
wets Witeeeeeeseeeessoemia@ang|"** QZ “190 
aatysayy ‘sede |sdaguo'sny 
"Sql FO+GO+ZI\" “* yoMaury|*** OT 


see eweree 


uooW = 


see eee eeeee aurag see zZ ydag 
ee ‘sn “uu09 ‘UaAt ET MON aoe Fz 
pry 4, see 


REPORT—1860. 


x) 
© 


Se 


| -osuorqn-y-esseyy 3 “(Fest ‘Yxopua8og) T[ry-a108| 


‘ovIp 
"07!P 
+4 Areniqag Jo pua 10 £o71p 

"0y}1p 

*(g48e[ sv ames) 0791p 

“Teqeag 

*(anZopezeg Ss, Ly{sMe[snZo0g ) d171]o198 
*o371P 

“0341p 

*(queqsut yI9 10) TTeqory 
"2p.g 1D sds £]ey-au0jg 
“0991p 

*o3atp 

“Te qeay, 

"O2.¢ °13 “ds { |]vy-audg 
"Lp. 13 ds £ Tpey-au0jg 
“oyp 

*(g 4sB] se ouaes) [Teqory 
*4 U0 aB1v] BuO ! T[eJ-9U0IS 

‘preay asiou Zurquina pnoy | y4S1]-1was penba 
*o}Ip 

‘onp 

“OVP 

“0341p 

‘THeqery, 

“por uy} ‘anytq ‘4s15 9e o71M 

*ovIp 

“0731p 


*BISSY 


*9U0}S 2UQ, 


é OTC OF OFUT Tog “(Avy pxg 10) yuvrIAq £ 0991p 


“oVIp 
“onIp 
"0741p 
“ou11p 
"0741p 
“0741p 
“0VIp 

"Treqe.y 


*o29 ‘Syreuoy 


aeerereee 


see eeeeee 


eet eesees 


ser eeeres 


sen eeeeee 


Pre 


eeeeeeeee 


sts eeeeee 
eeererere 


‘WdZ 


eee eeetee 


woereeene 


Cet eeeeee 


ste eeeeee 


eee eneeee 


ee eeeeene 


“mMoy £aqet 
uoryeing 


eet weenee 


seeteeees 


see eeeeee 


seeteeens 


UOTJOOIICT 


"qy319M\ 10 9ZI1g 


Annette ewe enee 


* gulog 
wee ecececcveseneccces A&imqaayueg 
TA ee eee eee eee eee eens enves uoun4 

oo ae 
aeons eee e ee ecresesevsces qz0dsory 
seeeeeeeneees steeeeeee yazodson 


sreeeserrseess BIDRITOTY 
snbiaebe nee = TamTLy 
* pursuq 
rtteteeesseeeeeeeeoers Tngq9dg 
et eeeeee ysueloulg “ey pools 
seeeeeeees qroquatay| 
**BUulqy10 
BOLIWY YON) 
viuopadry ‘sa. 19| 4 
seeeeenee eiudyloA ‘ey IZ10gR7Z, see 
teereeeereretes upaag o1URY|** 
Htteeeeeeeesenssereerers genology)" 
eeeceereeettces aourly ‘soSoulrry eee 
teeveeesereeserees QaTysupooUNTy|*** 
“ purfjoog ‘umoyjaqdwed|::- 
teeteseeeeeseeseeeeneres  BEIQGIG|*** 
teseeteereneeeseeeeerees DUBISUT) 


ere reer rT : one 


seb ewesersessee 


weet een eeee 


eeeeenee Tyee 
SOA, eSprquny|*** 
seeeteweeeeeeeessees  DUOUUIYDIY|"** 
sasteerecasseseoeeeeone FIN GSINY a 
oo * uadugjo9|"* 

seeeeee ggsay|e 
eteeeteeeeseeeeeneeneers gutta see 
POeueeeeee TT eee RIMIYOR see 
** QUuUuO0Iey)-39-40'7|"** 
seesereeeeerens Sin uayqjon, vee 
steseeeeeeeeneeseerecens KpSuNgT|s+* 
FOR Ree nena ewan eeeeeee jAopyessnq vee 
eee ee ee teeeneeeeees see puryyoog Lad 


*AqR00'T 


9 “494 


Sl “ate 
8 ‘02d 
61 “AON 


9 "~O 
g ‘ydag 
L ‘8ny 
za Avy 
L3 

Lt 

OL ‘Ady 
81 

Z “ACT 
02 29d 
6L “3°20 
Et “Suy 


*"yquour 
jo seq 


“BI8I 


“L181 


“9T8I 


“Iva 


67 


*(09¢°d ‘Zzgt ‘Txx[“uUys,j1aqTIN) *10J payorvas 4ou asneoaq punoj 400 979M 
qoryas ‘sauoys Surypey Aq pasnvo uaaq aavy yim punos3 om} ur sajoy oy} yey 
SYUIYI LUpe[Yy) “1099 w Jo UoIso[dxa ayy Aq pasneo uaaq VAey Oo} pasoddns 

‘aqenbyjrea ue Sutnp patmooo ! [[ey [NFqQnop y ‘erunszawoOg eoyoreyp 
‘suorjyeuojap Aue JO UOTUIUI ON *1O9}aT yeaI3 v ATUO ‘s}UN0D 

“08 JOY}O f sou04s Jo JaMOYs B Skes OStIy ‘BZUBSOD 4°67 IOQWIAAON g 
*yourdey @ ojUr Surpey Suruqysry Jo oyo.ns ev Aq pasnvo 

‘guojs-ao1mind ayy aourysqns e Ayuo {auuSjarQ *9 ysn3ny ‘ozel J 


“OTIUI F JajawMeIp pazernoyeo 
MM ofF ‘S UOIaNG ‘oy ‘puryfieyy Ssjassnyoesseyy x'[z Jaquiaaon , 
“Punos UIaq AALY 0} pres ddUL\Sqns snoUNRIas Y x eT ysnFny P 
“6FST ‘sy10daxy “aos 
“Wg */¢ roy dn paqySiy sea pooysmoqySrau apoym om coe Aq Pi yO 
“IPRS PUL BIYOLT[VM Ul ysoreyoNg usamieg [Ee 19q0};09 *g TST F) . 
"Wosq.1eq 0} Surpros0e “g°Q = OE Your 4 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


“0941p 
“oyzIp 
‘Teqaay 


reer Ty 


“MIS 0} *S'N 


*pavay uaeq VARY 04 pres ose punos Sur 


ssi y #9 Areniqay y 


sees" TOpUOT ‘ueyuar70L f 


eriesesesrenasases ese Np uaaRl oo ig 


“2 ISU] sv oes ‘ 0731p os co | Me cwaces secees veeeeee oeee Aueuniay *** LT 
‘ou1Ip aia benedere asipanelants [iP esiowiviajnns. ollie cele betveileceaa tee nace youunyy *** oI Ae 
‘TeqQe19 se eeeeene seereeees seeceeere Sizdiery,"** 8z dy 
‘roajatu aSaey] teeteess sevecveee Petareitstelee pursy ssemouy, 3g)" 0% 
*(giopue3Z0g pue TYSMU[SNZOg ) ][eF O1V1[O19v PO ES >|) a ge OSU RU || OGd aU Becicoticig Jao * Blurdoulog|"** ¢ ‘aeyy|  Z q 
“oIp egaouinia nepsarg)""" SL “qoq “TZ81 
*04Ip eeerevecs “+ squegitt ag 
*ouIp eee eetene Veeeveesis: | | leuev hamiaie'ce Beet wwee seo ROTOR NT wae G 
“Treqary Sees wteeats Ree neecat: vauny|"* 6 90q 
‘eliquyeg = “4ySt[Aep oxy £ dn Sur Araao porysiy “""" so[sf uviuoy fezuasog|"** gz é a 
“MONCUOJIP YA ‘]Jeqaay] "tee tes onpeaier sn : “eISSN ‘YYPswuToyO|"*" Zp ‘AON! ¥ 
*(anZojeqe9 s,zoneyqumeg 04 BZurpioooe) oyouge| setts oo te a. eee. eee rones puejury ‘auug3aag|"** g -Sny 5 
yeqary] tte courcsdee ye Pune cnucmeet ye mealies obese naan eee unig)" 9g 
208 oung *ysdoqrAy “[[aF [eAaAVs { |[eJ-aU0}g] “wa So "N 03'S “SQIFI+OF °° eissny ‘Sroqvang ‘euxi7q)"*" Zr Aug] * 
“mmydyns Jo yjoums $][ej-auoyg} ttre eeeceeees “aI ¥ Sis ‘ SaeSuny ‘Sanquapag SO Hs x 
“0701p seeeeeeee eeeeeeees se eeneene se esecsevesccesiecesne yorusopuy|"** oT Avy 
‘Treqaqy] street acuweadue, | Wil)  Tsaricatieciel .  ilenmasee Sar pisvelnsale a Sanqssny}"** 8I 
*(anZopeyeQ s,raneyumeg 0} Surprcoor) o1t[o19e eaatides SOTA aaa Gules “7 enSnuy aevau ‘vas uil'** ¢ ‘ady! Z-0Z8T 
“aye |Z paeay uoeUOjap £ reqaay steeeeeee *M'S 0} ‘aN aBIv| aemary) “ssv ial Q10WIyeg Ce A % s 
‘oyytp| cutee Pes rir Neat liek Reactor Pec stgl Se Ce Ma Sahn “* gtayooyl': ET 
‘apljoqg ecccccese Ceseenace | Mol 0. Gacwamnitals mta(e a.pracste Spat ayaa oh o. Meyuaijoy)*** 8I 
roqgup] crereeess | teeters | tee fae Peeaatnee Rea enenes eiwayog|"** FT 
‘o1}1p ceccccees Meeeeesa se A cissweilde eg. wall Saicine centres ABO oSurmocy 4gl"" eT “AON 
"yyeqoeay eeereeeee ACSC Me ocerceca 3 sreinivieje tiv viele wees duamquy tee 
‘1240990 WIZT IO £Gg.¢ Adds {yay oaaqy { T[eJ-audyg| WV g seeeeeeee “ss pissnag "ean ‘zlog|""* m 
‘Teqary) . st teeeeee sfa|sioiels.e(sje.sigininte\eiaisiele seeee puesaq see 400 
“618I-EI8T 1leF * Snovoettoos pue yy Sty { pey-auogg] veeereees | terete | teeters dee “"" UByT JO as] ‘aso.yng|*** * 
“ypeqouy] ctttete pottcceiss : ¥ “= Temqoy|** 
“uoIsopdxo yuajora $ ][eqory ArOATIS oUyM ve] “Wa $38 access orones Ses OReB yA ‘asim? * p 


“toup| ot sere uundg 
*Teqa.y eeereeeee . ysanqim iI 
*¢ 109jo Ul Suryjeuojap “ BLUB Ww)" LT 
“[[eqeaiy eeeeevese see eeenes tone duaiaueAieenBine tsk to aes IZ hom tee LI 
*uorsopdxa pur 109}9UI snoutuny & a eeeeeeee wee eeeeee seeeeenee avec eeececeececerecne S.unoqsayO see oI * 
+) Tey aourysqns snourunyiq R £0331p see eeenee eeeweeree eeeeeeere een neee AB MION ‘RlURIysSIuyD wee el 
sIYBCaaUI sass ts eeeweeses Raeahorind sees naBurprebleyse+zsess a mIMMAG IM eS (6 
*[[ejJ-2u0j}s puv TOI} aAlso[dxo j[euls & “Wd g * 90URL] ‘s1aduy “es @ oun, #* 
ITM Suipoidxa “QySt[ 0110939 OL jo unLn[Oo qysiiq Buoy] 5 : SSS) RB POM: G “dy 
“syands Auew] “yeqory) * sterereeneenionceesoueseeesSigdigry Te 
“uorsopdxa pnoy qytIa qsanq ‘10939 UL SNOULUINT JSBA E: “M'S 0} “O'N a i ee Sa aa VIM A ‘puoW yoy ree (OD cd 
*(g4xou=) op) set eustsweehs b Set one Seeeteereeresteteeess BOLIQULY INIT G 
‘OUip|| =sss"="== eeceesene ae wiusscrsvvnteeglttestecciommg|ss: fe “ABIN 
*4 ISBl Sv oules £031p auleinievete'sle westdenr'a ssotseesnereracnansoneneeeo@igdign|ss® 6 
*o1yIp roeesnstens sTaSnUNtaNy |e: 8 
40M} £ 0771D “ee 2 BEIBAR PUL BIARLOT "*7L109 "aq 
-ounip Seo ou ORE ET Ica SORTS | (| -)qhrp | SO che 
soqp| octets a eeeeeeee uesivicy.sle sestuneerernenvesiner TOISQUOTT| °° PL 
*O}Ip te teeeeee ee eeeteee eeeeeenee wee wee ener eseeree B.1n0q.iay9 eee Il ‘uve ‘Zo81 
*oWIp eeneeeeee ee eteteee eeeeeecee palgietinme deinbaie's es ose at TO pak |e 8z 
*Z.0m} §q[eqaay) cette “ | 


QZ ABUITA AA SZyISNLT] *** OZ 10 CZ 
“MOIVUOJOP YIIM potueduodov £ 0941p Froquiawty : Sroquosg)** $% * 
“0731p 


1860. 


wen eewee sneselsn gus s psesess os te BaT(l@Ny nee Iz 
0771p wee eteeee se teeeeee sete we See t tena e eee purysugq|* Il 
‘owp) te seeeeeees chicago Srey hy a 
‘oyp) oe seneeeees Sarebiee sretreieeerreteerseres apUta Ay et & 

SAOMG sOITIp) <Poeeenes sosssezee }  fuoxeg $ Bizdiay)\""*Z10 [09q 
*014Ip| peeeees yoszqyaq| 0g 
*oyIp pysssaeeh entice acemeasu sem ROTUB Nees 82 "AON 
‘o1ip tees cones Vee oot SHereeeeeress JopIOMUOLIBA| OF 


“Teqory ee eeeeees eeeeeeeee le eccciseee specie ran api tne deere se TOK UR ae Ll 490, 
*B9S IY} OFUT [|} Puv ysinq $ YIIUEZ Wo.’ UMOp anbiyqo, ttt “077M rieteeeeeeeeereceseeeesers Bog gplees QT 
“yreqaay) tte eats sian Vieeiereeerererees prMaOg)'** g 
“UOT pozeay] VHT] ‘par pue Surmops| «*sss+e"* vas qels Z “4dag 
‘onp srreereeseees apsaaqyl"** Of 
“Treqoay teeeeeereserseeres  gompuy 4saq4l''’ QZ “SUV 
*“souTOng aag *JOTIIZUT OT[[VJOUL B Y}TAd [[9J S9UOFS|IVY te eeeeeee teen ee eee seen iceee sete eee een enee purely ‘OAR IX see IZ 
*uoirjo A[UO'O'd G.[suIe}UOD‘OT.¢°3'ds £]]aF¢E ‘][Vf-9U0}S| “Wa ¢ wstemiere +sqroze [7° aourry ‘oyogpay ‘seugang)|'*s Cy ouNf) *1Z8Te 
“yguour 
jo seq 


REPORT 


oy 


“INOY £ a9BI 
$ UOIZBANGT 


68 


*u01jOaIT "74 310M 10 9ZIg “AyRo0'T “vax 


*o7p ‘syrvmayy 


69 


pue ‘Tay souojs OM4 4Vq1 O[QUqord sudas 4x : Tey sty Jo AyeooT aYA sB UAATS 
ose SI‘pequyey[y Wody* |] "N Saytur cy ‘a1od.noy $ [joy 204s 9173 LBM "UOT SazUL 
QE JO BdURASIP 4B UVESSBM IOdIIW DUBS aYT, “qvuoq *'Og AequIBAON , 
*qS¥[ OY} JO yuUNODIE JayyoUN sdeysad fsdty ‘“Z[ 10 [T ysnony gq 
"61% oung ‘seusang x'CT aUNe , 


‘ga,Modag pue ‘uessy 
‘ndag ‘eyyeyg JO yey} UO Sv TIAA Se ‘[[eJ-9U0}S sty UO saSuIpiepA] Aq szaded 
quaoa1 t pue ‘vuudt,A Jo saouaI0g Jo Amapeoy [eladuly ayy Jo sZurjyIg 94} Jo 
syioday ag “10440 Yea UIOIZ VDURASIP BUNS 4R ‘paAJasaid UVaq VAY YOY 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, 


*(4 JoqUIBAONT 11g Jo) oyIp iG yeorys seeereeee se eseeees GRevevecetscadsesevencee anSeig *AON 
*oVIp seeereees seererene seeeeecee tence erences ears sece Saaqssiu0y 190 
*0741p eee oeeeessee Sbrb noha ceo USERQDeOOSe a A Gira 
‘ouIp e . Sp sees yoLyy 
ouIp : ot , i ‘uaSuiqny, 
*TTeqaay seetereee *M'S 0} “A'N oencevcce eee ceeeccetensccccctcees uaduig 
*60-¢ ‘AS ‘ds {yoy oy f][eJ-au0;g] +w'a EP Ser nae “SqLOL "gy faureyy {o10qa[qon ‘Sny| * 
. 3p seeeeeree eeereeeee see ee eens Terese ease aes TOR Ainge 
‘op| eee cascecses setestslees sree MiBUMMACE £1915] 
“0p weer o* stews eee eee es eee rsnsey 
“0711p Bs ; “MOJQTqU Avy 
“OWUIp id : * wepszog| 6 
‘omip) sere Ba ceesece eoemereas sterteeeeeesseeeeeseeeees TMgEt ess g 
‘ouqIp a evececee eoccevees Telpeisisiee sresreseereeceeeeeces  UIQUUBIN| "8" ady 
*g ISU] SB amuUs sdeyszad $0731p] ssttssee steeesees ceeeeeeee cveerensne radcneneets><* caagtipgnl| =~ Ge 
*o}Ip wearers eeeeeeeee seeeeecee cen ecereeueeeevucnetenne purySug|:: 4 
oC +] oo SORE paSe pene ECe SIC: Th 14 5] sh ghee Il ‘ure "CSS 
*]]eqaay|yasuns a10y Sohw nie sstonecorseensesuncerseesre amg see 12 "D8(] 
eyeyeqy §'eG.¢ «a8 ‘ds fyeroaes £ ][eJ-au0yg]-aq Suiuade| “AWN 03 ‘a'S +'sql 23 “-Bipuy ‘quo ‘a1odyayyng\""* og * fn 
*481nq pue payref f aay Jo ured f033Ip| “wv Z evecevece uoouw & voazaedssenscscs>roe4 sGRTmEMETW AS aaT 
*01Ip evccceccs devecccce vaeutetios steenesenseecssereeeeeonpTady OL 
‘oup| sees euSeeseus Raieleaie sie reseeeoeseeseerseseoes UneDpsaog|"** ZT 
"Teqary eeeeeeres weet eeree Seem eens Pee new ee eens Baqray)** Il 
*0171p op oe adr] Heese gorraaly "g FINO)! F “AON 
*(4.10q40}9Q pugz) 1oajour auy o uoow % * purlsug *s !uozysug):: 9z 
*ovN1p eeeee seeeeeees tteeeeeee seeseveceesecescecass Sanqay1og POON cd 
‘IWOID pure [ayo] “Teqaay] seers seccecees Senoatedn seenneecceseereeeees Binguatg|'** ET 400 
Zu1urezu09 ‘1a, arp Wi SayOUTE ynoqu 9U0}s oO £0931) EOI g9.g adds + aourary ‘qeuidy ‘ayeg etl’ eT * 
*g [elaaas * [[PJ-aUu0}g SuaGabives SEH oOOUNC sess WpAMG YpRIsRa|"** OT * 
“UOTJVUOJIP JeIIZ £ SayNUTU [RIBAS O[GISTA U1. “A OF “AL pocccesscnerss 55-2 ST BAOMM TOMI: aif «40dC) 3 
“op ee . ts seers Ugsog) tt 6% 
"T1eqa1y oo . steeeeeee ao sees . Sraqumoig aa £4 
*slItg 7¥ uses osye { yS1q sanSvaz gg { asinod outUedsas "AUN 0} ‘S'S pitkeoue” vereereseese  gouuLy ‘aT[ayooyy|""* OL 
“SMOPRYS 489 $109}9UL WUENTTLIG ISOM /£ ieans seeccnsce weeeeeeee cece eeeeeceesccsecesrsces sdyy|'t* ZII0LT 
-sod Suotsoydxa yea13 & YI UMOP [J Ly Jo ssvUl aTie]] “ttt SEO 229) eee srrressesss gyuatqog $aSQry|*** TL é q 
*]wolyo9]9 Ayqus] Teqaay) oc eeeceeees seeeeeeee sriteeseeeensss00neess aime se suat 


“So Tose WT Gee 
#9 


*oyp 
*ovip 
“oup 
“TeG99 

ihe Joqmajzdag § G¢.¢ “13 ‘ds { syuoMBeay Z £ [[eJ-aU0}g 
*paliey pur [Rao ! [jeqouy 

*PULT[O]] 1aA0 [[e uaas ‘ [[eqary 

: “Teqeng 

‘(andopejeg S,1oneyumeg 07 Surpsod9r) o141;0108 
‘sauoyspivg sdeyasad £ [jay sauoys 


"282 A[ue “Teqoay 
“moou 4ynoqe $99.¢ "13 “ds ! [[eJ-aU04g 
‘oyIp 
‘ovtp 
*o97Ip 
° “Teqaag 
= *SOUOJS JOY [RIOAIG ‘ayVArpeyAT UL { ]]VJ-aU0zg) 
O wy Z “yuelfuq § yeyuozvoy | parrey § [jeqauy 
r+ fsnoutsat wo *(anSoyuywg srysmejsnsog) onmtpo1a2 
“2 [[eqaay v 1097e |[aJ oourysqns | ‘onp 
a *oy4Ip 
S ‘onnip 
fy | ‘TeqQerg 
qq | *IOQMIDAON YIT IO £ |peqary 
| + oroaqour 1 119} saqmtdd uot Surareyuoo sauojspieyg 
‘ermayog uy *99.¢ “13 ‘ds { [[eJ-aUdIg 
‘auy-Aep {ary Jo aqoyS ysmnyiq [peu 
‘yalopuasz0g °¢ [Jaf snp ouoojaut pure ! 0431p 
‘ysnSny Y{[ 10 $094Ip 
TeGe1y 
*SSOUMOJSMOLIOG JW ‘*LOOJOT QueTTLAG 
“Teqoay, 
“EPL AR “es Z “uryuNoy, rwou {[[eJ-aM04g 
“Tle qeag, 
Os[y "Gz.g 13 ‘ds { yay syuamSeaz 9014} {[[eJ-aU04g 
*oyuaD 42] ‘UY, ep quomaziedaq *0941p 
‘OWIP 
“Weqorg 
) es 
~ dap ‘syIVUldyy 


seeeeeeee 


‘WV 


‘W'd Z 


tee eeee 


tee eeene 


Suissa 
¢ yornb 


“ 


eee eeeeee 
eeeeetees 


yomb 


uoou 
‘Wd 6 


eee weeeee 


“Moy fayeL 
Suorean¢y 


wet eeeeee eee eeeee 


Weta eeene ser eeeeee 


“SL O€ 
uoow = 


“M’'S 0} °O"°N 


we eeeeeee 


erases nes “QL [ 03°20 ] 


S41 OT 


“aS 0} “M'N 


eeateenee 


“M'N Of °O'S 


eee eeeaee 


uo0ouwl = 


seen eneee 
wee ee tees ween eneee 


“SaLF 


eee 


eeetetees 
ee eeeeene eeeeeeeee 
ee eeeeee tee eeeee 
set eeneee 


wen eeeeee 


see eeeeee 


“sql 


eee eeeee 


+'sqi Zt 


see eaeeee 


‘uoyoortqg | *y4yStaM IO azIg 


anseig 
Sizdiary 
srtrtresereeeereeeesees JOAOURET 
‘SDUELS YoImpurg ‘sayAyno 
“ gouRty qanoourvy 
ss qy98d49 
** Burpproyy 
eee eee ce eee RISSNY ‘uos1ay9 
“uiedg ‘odmeg |xp stypoas10 7 
treeeees ane sangg £ yop pare. 
meh ‘puepdueyy ‘Aouralur yy 
“*  Tlasseg 
S.nquaiuy 
seen eee tee etetaeeees SaaqsSiuo y 
eee e ee ee eee eee e eee Suaquoig 
iitesereseererrees pimp (Sul 
tieteeesanenseeeeeeeenets O7790W 
*Bimayod ‘sneynay 
ree Zingapseyy 
“ aouvly ‘suey 
seoreeroeres onSerg § uaSUBLIG 
Hiceeeeteneereererrers UOg 
eeesteeeessesreeseneeneess 2UTeTW 
sereeseoe  DISSNY ‘yeaIeyzIp.19}¢ 
* unviag ‘ye1qaz 
teerees Binqsaaqag 
ete ee eee voOllawy 3 ‘vsopuay 
Nttesstsrerrseceecvoeeee CUBIST 
bees sneeennpinsiecicngen S25 ZEOnT 
treeeerereerees QT1SMOSUIUNT 
; veers UL 
* BEaqig ‘8}03.4] 
Ceieeerereeseereeeees TOK 
so Kiva ‘eusojog ‘ozzvuay 
srersessveeersrearggupiy Aol 


Pee Tee rere 


ttt weeee 


** 3 sajden 


“Aqrqea0ry 


~ uyptog | 


61 


LT ‘PO 
rie 
“92 
PT 10 GT 
wee Ot 4ydag 
ag 
eee ¢ ‘Suny 
“8 92 
“ging 
“° 9%. sun 
“Or 
os 
“se ‘dog 
pz 
iE 
OT 
“2% sue 
oT 
“OT 
OL vq 
mg 
Of 
“+ $T “AON 
“0g 
** BD 190 
nee el ydag 
6g 
eee ral ‘Sny 
“' § oun 

LT tudy 

T ‘ey 

81 
“8 ‘gag 
“oy cue 
OT 
“9 90q 
“+ 9% “AON 

“yyuour 

jo keg 


mem 
ow 


“SO8L 


a. 


* q 


*FC8lu 


“S681 


“rea 


71 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


“uerderey 
qunowW wo ‘u104s-19punTy v Burmp ‘yozajan% 07 Zurpaxoooe ‘Tay auoys aS.ey 
® S(apuoity ut suyseg shes yunooov au0) auuorey-ya-yo7T = #asNNW ¢ 

“essapg 4 Wnasnul ayy WH sseat jediourd sayy, * GT ARIA + 
“TONLYUUNV 0} Surp.ioooe ‘IATYSI[I AA UL OSTe uses $ JoazauI adv, e ATUO ATquq 
oid ‘ondojeyeg s,taneyuneg 0} Sutprovoe ‘onyoisy ‘zt Ae *'GZ8I y 
"OZ8L ‘ZI AW ‘attyssojsaono[y) ur uses 
1OAJIM BBV] 9Yy1 se omes ay} ATqIssog “41 Aq paqoaye AWwa13 seM V[pooU OOM 
SBM 94} PUB ‘UOAL DI10949UA 9YI[ PAYOOT 41 {91 das BAY O} pres SI ‘UUOg Jo 
‘qye1a380N JOIg ‘uopuoyT Ul Ja[vop [eAoUIU B WHO.J 4 4YSnoq OM ‘OdTXayT 
UL PlLYIIMYOR “IY JO wotssassod ur st [Jay YoOupm woar Jo good 949 ‘4104 


"(é9Z81) BIND[eD ¢*g oquIaAON ; 
“9SIOU JOYITA 
‘s]Teq [[VUUs JO TaquINT ¥ OFUT SuryBarq ‘YITea JY} 07 [Tey pUe 4SeA 94} WHOA ayer 
-edas 0} pamivas snajonu 94} JO LO11A4,UI JY} JO yeg *ZO1YO ¢gAaqMIaAON 5 
“TUpelyD oF 
*sq[ £ 9U0 ‘[fay sous smog + ‘uOSIayD ¢'gz AINE p 
“GOB ‘Zap ‘d *xxx ‘[oa ‘ormyD 
epuny “ezgt ‘gt Aine ‘prpeyy ap 2330ze5 “Yon pasayns a33v0 pue aut 
$saloqs JO JaMOYs JUBpUNge ue Suledg ‘odmeD [ep sepioa0y ec Ane , 
“PT Ae 
Tl9F ‘syun0998 oMIOs 04 Zurpr0d08 : ysnyxAT Avou ‘uryuNOT, x gT AIenIgaq - 
“ET Asenuee sisyqjo ‘ ozzeuery 


Surpsoooe [uyyquog 


-yuery jo ‘rakamjassay “y “q 0} Surproooe $sytyy ‘uepdeg gl Av 3 qe ‘9 Axeniqag 9A13 saryioyyne sul0g +‘ozzeuay “ct Aivnure =x'PZST es 
*(anZojeyeo s,raneyuneg 0} Surpxoo0v) onrjorae| "°°" pssasicn nn * gouery ‘auu0Ie-49-907|""* ‘Bny| x n 
*F81NQ :Ulet} SOI (Gp £4axoo1 @ O¥IT f [Teqa1yg} yornb *O°N OF “AVS wacnsncecserosiviesseee! UNM ee Loge 
*109}9U1 9UY B eeeeeeees eeeescens aB.1eT ween eeneseee puesuq)|* 81 
‘oyup| ere ceceecere piexaaace seeteraeteeneeeaeeecrenerss QHTeET et! TT 
‘oq}Ip cette wvvenvaes se gasuapgl'* g 
“0171p ieisime "M'S'M OF “AND sve Sizdrary “9 
*O71Ip dere veeee ‘aN 0} *M'S eeetewens Tene eeewweeererese WlaqsuayUeLy ere ‘Sny 
‘oytp| ere eee beemadeet tseeeeteeeeeneeeeeeensBOLIOTE "6% 
*[]eqouy, . sereeeres eer TO eee eee t owen ereseee B1aq[aplayy wee 1z Ayne} 
(2 Ge8T)_"LL-€ ‘49 ds £ [ey-au0rg "sq 98 *  gojsoursayeyg ** 6T I 
“yaeds pate SurAvoy ‘paysiuea £ ysinyq te eeeeeee seeeereee uoow £ ptreeesereoeres QUISTaISIONO|D|""* ZT Avqn % x 
“Teqaay steeeeees seereeces ee enneee Preece reer eT etre rere MOSSPTH wee FL 
‘estou pur sdueivedde o1toajom snotind ve] *ttttttt* spreMumop vgaeeenss sreraceacccscosens IGMOTIqueERl=-=' pW 
*puno} sauojs ON “UOTZeUOJap pnor Aq paMoT[oy $ 0441p sKedxeees ones these q ** Ayeqy ‘oueSnq|"** cy * 
"C08 “d ‘gest “Teqery eeeeeeeee oer eeeees te teeeeee Seer errr ayoury, eq FL "qaq 
‘tunaueyyy 90g ‘afdoad yeraaas parry pur’; |[ay samoys| | “tttttee seecceeee eeeceeees eteeeeessneses sever) dersoan|*** 3 “9281 
(9281 “IITA ‘g1opuesdoq) é [[ej-wory ecerrrsoe ececcecoes eeeeeeeee oTrrererrrr Ty STTYSITEAA, ‘uapAeg woe Al An é 3 
ay * gUIvyy-UO-WOsyURTA!'* BT 
-Teqag Bee eee cease ‘= OTTeH|""* OT 
sre[nqo|3 AN yearys eeccccece’ eee eee eee | eq4no|e9\""° Z 
“years ou £ ysippar ttt eeeeee eo eee eeee Owe eee eee tee eee et toes UILIOg, eee TI 09q 
"Eq OYY-JaUIOD aFuey YIM ‘Tyeqouy) ,Fg yea.ys “M04 “5 * eqynoreg|""* 2z 
“[tey Buoy ‘a8iey f uoyout yonb| |Z yeors “AM 0} “H ‘eae “ UaET"** PT 
“0771p set eebewe! eee eeesee: eee eerene ORO O HEE e eters eweeseeee Slld eee 6 
"4svl oy} se ommes A[qeqorg ‘owip| ttt seveceeee seeeeeees. Titeerensessseeseeees SrQGgSIOTN|"** G 
“Treqaay ecswsavee: eH 
i “qqSyig Aq wees SuorouT yeyMOZLLON| ,,9 10 ,,G “AX OF eg)" ¢ 3 


REPORT—1860. 


72 


— . —_ 


“op 
“4ayOOI B OHI ySANq {yy St[uooUT= £ 0411p 
*oyp 
“0931p 
T1eqa.1g 
*¢79.¢ 13 ‘ds £44 St, puv astou Y4IM “[]PJ-aU0}g 

*9ULI] BUIOS OJ BIQISTA RII} 
*/@ JO s[vatazurt ye parvaddesip puv paivadde 90144 
*(anZopeqeg s,ranvyuneg 0} Surp.1ovoe) o41[0198 
‘splVmdioye CF.,Z UOIBUOJap $ yURTT[LAG pur FYI] IvaId 
raptjoq 
“TLR F903 
‘(ues | *s][Vqaty aa14) 
-ufy) UesLY JO JUDTUUIAAON “][aFSAWO}s £ *[[BJ-90}g 
*(anSojeyeg Sjaneyuneg 0} Sutpaoooe) o131[0198 
08d ‘QesL‘ulanyy “palll{ UeIpuy UY *¢ [[BJ-2U0IS 
*0G-¢ “Ad cds $ [[eJ-aU0}S 
‘JOqMIGAON TZ 40 ‘ aurysuns Surinp uses 
*109}9UI JU B 
*1aqou | *Teqary 
“UIP UL OE 0} ¥IST B WO paseasour $ ayFruns jenba 
"Zp.g "Ad "ds $1]ey-au04g 
*(1Fe “d *AIXXx TOA ‘Gegt “B30q) [[eJ-aU0Ig 
*YO UDAIS SUOTPLEL[YWIOS $ UdaId-sse1d auy 
TE Ge40. 
“1upelyo 07 ddng 40] StysMVsudog ut $ [[eVJ-aU0}g 
*UOLso[dxa UB PUB ‘As OI} PastoATsy FYST] OlLogjs We 
*ovuIp 
Teqoa1g 
(28 °990) *Z1-¢ ‘a8 ‘ds ‘ wort ou surezuod £ [[LJ-aL0Ig 
szagidne | *(qaneyuneg 0} Supsodoe) a1y1[o19e 
ULI} Jadiv] samy £ 07 yuLod & Wo.y pasvasour ‘[[eqaty 
sayeriq ‘gg.g “ad ds { syuamdesy aaa $ [[eJ-9d0}g 
*yaor9 | "e.g 3 ‘ds ‘yuawmSesy auo { [yej-au0yg 
uayosaddry ur £ ]yeqoay 
*EGZ8T ‘sytuds our poqedissip 
‘aay JO UIeIZ S queTIaq §yeoaqsep £ 0431p 
“yy dia 42] *1eqaay, 
ASIOU 4wIID YIM 4sanq $ 4uLIT[IWq pur aoiv] ‘ [[eqoay 


"29 ‘syBWody 


‘Wd Fy 


*w'd%/ynoqe 


set eeeeee 


eG UL ST 
KV 6 


wade 


‘Wade 
‘WV 


*Inoy $ ayer 
! uolyeing, 


*N 0} °S 


oe eeeeeee 


“A'S 0} °O'N 


*A\'S 0} “HN 


Oeeeeeree 


en etetene 


ee eeeeeee 


“a Sp1BMO}-- 


weer eeeee 
seeeeeeee 


“a'N 0} °AA'S 


seecesese 
seeee 
“202 °M 


seeeeedes 


“M'N 0} A'S 


BICEDER ICG | 


adivy 
uoowl= 


"Sq $3 


u0o0m = 


a3.1vy 


Pere eneee 


seeeeeree 


“Sq 9€ 
a312| 


*p 8, woowl = 
“Sd 


Soy 
eeeeeeree 


oe 


0-% “13 “ds 


“Sq1 ¥ 


adie] 
"Sql TI+'SqI¢ 


*sq[ [B49A0s 


*4yZI9M 10 9ZIg 


* emon|' 
“ urpag|"** 
uapeg $S1aquiaqar ya $B1aqtaay}*** 
evterieeneneeseaseeeren Qe AQ |*t* 
eeeeeeresereeees 3 rgqsuasnay|"** 
tereeer-OTTUSPIOJXO ‘UOPUNLT] 


“ meysurmarg ‘uoyseq3pq|"** 
Sesiauab adel esis Vcinbsehes SCOTS HET see 
Hetero eee ROUyy Ss ‘UMOY, aden, see 
seeseeteraeeeeterereeessens BaTaDg |e 
RBeainene n ‘asia MON, ra] see 
= 3 re" TOUUIG UN 
* vissmyy ‘[oS 7 -Lousety|*** 
veeeterseeeeee Juoprassn|*** 
etreeteseereeeeeeees BOLIOUILY NK 
seeses eg ery ferBto0ag ‘YyAs104|*** 
aI10'T ap yuLowayaedacy ‘A.ing}*** 
BE "ROLYY "Sg ‘uMoy adrg}''* 
aris -uuing | 
** aTepsarqqny ‘u0}10p]]"*" 
secetcces BIUIBATA, ‘puowyory wee 
Het ew ett teee Agyany, RONCHI bIA see 
tteeeeteasrerertes IOK MON 
* vyyoy|**: 
- earls 


stteeeeseeeeesensceseeeq OFTUBIY 


‘utr 
“ILI 
vad 
‘po 


“qq 
"AON 


*~O 


“Sny 


9z “dag 
Ane 
g Avy 
Il 
9 ‘AON 
Ol 0 
L "dag 
P oune 
Avy 
“24 
“uur 
“Sny 


Il 
81 


saryskquaq ‘310d |, y|"4dag 10'Sny 


GT 


retensebeversascreersess QUTIOUOT|s 101g) “AON 


““puvlodg uvissnyy *004SI[ VIG eo 
tet eweeeerene “ nyog-prny}"* 
* YOtmuaaty|*** 
“* gaSsouuay, “OT[TAYSUN ee 
eee errr reer vipuy ‘atodaazeyy coo 
oer Zunsomwec 
se eee etn rrevereeevevane vyynayeg|""* 
Nseeeeree teeteseesoreexnpaplog see 
sett eeeseeseeess aqeg| 


"SA ‘oureyy ‘o]ptAtaqe yA |°** 


*Ay1]e00'T 


G ‘PO 
0¢ 
“any 
6 Avy 
"qd 
29, 
€ “AON 


“ydag 


*yquoUL 
jo Aeq 


“Lest 


* " 


“OSsT 


¢ 3 
* 


* 


* 


é 
* 6681 


* 
* 


“8281 
*LO8L 
{8610 LZ8Ta 


oO 
7 


* 3 
*'1E814 


*9C8le 


PULD @ 


73 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


*¢d0ajaTY “pear aq pjnoo ad 4so][eus 944 
qe} ‘AsuazUT OS AUNT} BuO 4e 4YSTT oY, *,CT toy AtvuoNeys pourewor YOM 
pautroy pnojpo Aystor v u9yy ‘9383s AL0yZR[NpuN Ue UT {Ie} yYSI4q Suoy ev aueoaq 
‘spremuMmop poivadde yy31, Jo years y “W'Vg “[OIAT, “FT JOQWaAON | 

“pad ‘aniq ‘aztyAs £ asrou ou $44 SIs 
0} 480] [[1} OZIS UL FuisvasoUr [IMS ‘sprvavas quam $ UOOUT TNF BY} JO 9Lq} 07 
Yuaz ayy Ur wis WYSUq v WOT zis UT pasvatouy “WNoudT “GZ oUNL x 
‘andoleqeD S,lonvyuneg 0} Surpsod0e ‘xnvopiog “gz Auenure “zest , 
*A[snotavad 6 taquiaydag Jo [[ey 94} JO yuNOdoL pasnzuod B 
Ajaraum‘sodedsmou vuuar, v Jo ApLoyINE 94} UQ “BIARIOPY *AaqQuIddaqZ I 
‘OE8T ‘OT Nady ‘apazey syong ag “s*y"Y "A ‘20'T “ACJ Jo woIssas 
~sod ay} Ul st QUOys SIT, “A0}S90Ig AvaU ‘UOIUN] ‘CT AIeNIqQaT *'OEST y 
“T12qaay B WIOIZ JI 9424s JOU saoq = ‘uaTeUUy 


“SS0g pur ‘76g “mt ‘ze ‘mnydins pue snsoydsoyd jo yfaurs yvyy ‘aovyzans 


aur[eyshso por v YITM JU09s Jo sovard ayy] £ MJIqnoq ‘NS 6281 = 
“HT JOA ‘2amRy “[eqary ev AUG "gz Jaquiasdag -GZRT 5 
*parinoo0 uolso[dxe ay} 1aqJe UaT[ey savy 04 
pageys ore saoard + retqnoed ssajayysoaau £ poppaquut saqtaXd uoar pue anydjus 
Jo sajoyied yrtM ‘[eooreyo yovduod Jo pury v axl] oA0W $aouR\sqns Tnyaqnop 
Wey} e10Uur B aq 04 ary “py 07 suvadde ‘saysoyauepy Jo ‘uorssossod s,yyTWg *y 
“Y “AC UL Mou ‘uoIsto90 sity UO UaT[ey aAavy 04 pasoddus ‘dn payord 9y11094 
“aut ayy, “arysdquag’ “sAodiTyY  {8Z8T 10 JZ8T ‘1aQquiaqdag 10 ysnSny , 
"96% “Wt ‘zymyy 
osye taodudsmou ev woxy £ yey-auors [nyJQqnop y (¢¢z Avy) “Oe qsngny p 
“63e AeI S*gQ “oosaMUING Ut ‘OAYSVN ‘Yoorg oywaqy ¥g Avy 5 
‘atodoazeyy avou ‘Moy IV #2z Alenaqag q 
“OLoazour AT[Vat JOU ATquq 
-oid dn paxard uaaq aavy 04 pres avojs oy, *ap[taraye Ay wdaquiaydag , 


eeeeereee ore eetene 


ST eas 


ste eeeeee 


Teqo1y 
‘aouvivadde snoutuiny o110a}0u & 

“TeQoay, 

*yoUl09 99.e] 10 ‘yayoo1 v ayT] 

“Teqary 

“Suyzzep 

“Ys ‘ UoOUT snojnUIE.Ty AOYYeI pur {Ie} Suoy ev pey 
‘aNO OFUL BuIWIUN s{[eq aaIyy Aq JL se pawdy 

“Tleqety 


eet eeeeee 


"S$ 01 'N 


seer eeens 


‘ure.14 Suo] fanytq pure use1 $4s.1mq you pip Spadeys-read *S 0} 'N 
“BaAg[O [[BUIS £ 4ayOOI B ay] ysanq £ AT[e}UOZIZOY paaout “5 0} AL 
‘uon| *ovIp “0 0} “AA 
“MOTFEUOJAP PNOT YPM + 0931p yeah 

‘oytp| sttseeees stsaecees 

Teqaay ceeeceeee 


"ystuaaad Querpiiq £1[2q rapunod-pz v ay] 

“(789 stoneyuneg pue zjzWe y 07 Surpso9oR) ortyo.108 
“YW 7e uaas ose £4ySpAep Aq 

“489M [7 UL 980. 

“teqety 

“9 AOJ OGISIA ‘OpIM Cf INS] Jo Your prosy v yo] 

*oWWIp 

*¢ pavat] punos Furssty ev $ syreds yno aav3 § yeqary 

*MOLIOUZ YY *[[tJ-9U0}g9 

"eT At “Gg.¢ “AB ‘ds ‘][rJ-au0Ig 

*¢ Al@ ay} UI UOIeUOJap OL10a}9TI B 
“treqas 


eeeeseee 


/9 89148 


‘Wve 
“Wd fe 


see eeeeee 


*M 0} 


errr rT ae 


“Auvosny, 


“M'NUN 09 °O'S'a 


“M'S 0} “I'N 


"aS 0} “M'N 


* plemauniy|"* $z 
wee eeeeee eeeee Jordy, eee cae 
Sie: < - Decueraee Nea ss ar 


OH] —* |rseeeeeeerseeeesseeees gudologley 10 ZT 
sacedsone resesesesteseesseseereeeres UTTTG|"* Q "499 
aS.avy sereeececoeseeeees BIDUT GniaaI|'"* FZ AlN 
uoom = ; * asargq f yynourd}g|"** 6z 
uoou # ‘a8.ivy ss eernrpur ‘Iyjaq|"*' ¢g oun 
eeeeerene SOO tet eeeeeeeene see Sy “ 1e 
oer eetoes Fete eee eteeeens viIput ‘esueg wee 02 ARVIN 
aB1v] see eeerereeeeeeece vIpuy ‘anyany|"** Il “ady 
coseveuse seetereeeseeeereeererrerts MIO? GT 
asivy tenet ew weeeseee vIIquiey ‘oung a2 Youryy 


"+ Sraquaney|** £  *qaq 


wodadeses “= tog! eg 
a8iry Sestreeerrerreeseynpgpaog)' Z Uee 
“sq $9 eee ee ey PIAV.AO TA ee 09q 
afuey reeeeeeteesensens onTTTSploJada fy] |""* 

tmoow = sereeerone TraSNeySINGpIUpy|*** 


setae Jeso0g 
agar] be 


“ ypaunig|* 
“++ Sroquiazatay £ way Sisdoyy|"** 


gouvly ‘s1aI10g}*** 
Ayeqy ‘ousiyo,]|"** 


+2 ddg-UapIe[G = ¢ uaieyey = ¢ [[rJ-auoig 
*(anZopejeg s,Dysmeysnsog ) o11[o198 

‘Caze'd yay Moy) Aue ‘99 YIOT AO § [[eJ-aU04g 
“TI@qea8. 

*(sjaoday ‘oossy “I11gq) “AON TET IO £ [[eJ-at10}¢ 
“iceQl ‘ET JaqUIaAON se awes § [Teqory 

“Suyzzep ‘sired omy 04UL papraip 

“gy Stay Aq $smopeys ysvo {yy St] OLtOajour yYsIIq & 
‘wystt] “Treqary 
-IM} SULINP Yea.sys B 4JaT § YSIppest ‘ s[/eq ¢ 0JUT paplatp 
*ge.e 18 ‘dg -y1g aune Jo $ [[BJ-au01g 

-aZ OY} WOA, SUVA JYS!] OAOIjUI zIYM JURTTLIG B 
"W'd B “UOZTIOY BY} 0} YQIU] *109}9M BUY v 
slapunyy oy] papordxa f Aoajam yueI[LAq v 

“Ageryo Moovig yy *Ays ur dn Sty 

“Te qerg 


} *(onSojeyea Stoneyumeg) ¢ o1tjo1908 
© “yeulueyg yY “laquiadaq WIZZ «0 {][eJ-aU04g 
S *1o9}aU JUL 
‘anyq-ystuaaiS f aepnqols § [yeqa1y Suyzzep pur oie] 
‘|’ pavd-gunoo] ‘oad WET 10 $[[eqary Bae] 
fs [ev Ut patty uoszad v {yy Brom sages ¢ JO alo $ [[RF-9U0Ig 
S *[[2} SOUOIS BOAT, “SUOIZUOJEp PUB LOa}oUT $][eJ-9U04g 
i LOIVUOJap pur ‘T[eqory 
io *s109}OUL JO JBMOYS payeigayed oy} SuLinp usas 
*o9tp 
“queryiiq § yeqaty 
“4s1nq OU pIp § 18 (OST £ re} 10 YEa13s OU ‘0471p 
TeQ19 
*(enZojeqzQ s,raneyuNeg 0} Surpaosoe) o1}1;0198 
"o4Ip 
“Teqeay; 
‘wd S¢ ‘Buysing 1aye 29 uotjeUojep 
*(sqaoday ‘oussy *4l1g) [[BJ-au0I¢ 
TIeqerg, 
*(anZoreieg s,joneyuneg 03 Surpro90r) o1y1[o19e 
“quet[lig {sMopeys ysvo £ a1y JO Vqo[s B51] 
“Teqeag, 
~ ‘ 
™~ *o2p ‘sy reUay, 


“1reqazy) 


oer ve sees 


qysie 


ue 
AG ALIS 


MO]S 
‘WV 8 
OT 


ee eeeeees 


eee ee news 


eee eewene 


“Wd £9 


see verene 


see eowree 


Mos Alo 
‘wa Fg 


u& 10 16 


‘Inoy £aqeI 
$ UOT]BING 


eeeeeeee 
seeeeeree 
Oeerereee 


[eyUOZTLoy 


. oo 


uMOp + 


eee eeeee 


*M'S SplBVMO} 


*M04°S 


eee eeeeee 


sete eens 


“N O}A'S 
*MO}'H 


feseeeeee 


eeeeereee 
wee eeteee 
eeeeereee 


eo A'N SPIVMO4 


eeeeerees 


weetstees 
eeweeeeee 


“M 07 °2 


“woTyoart 


zoqrd 


e°SqI ST 


wee eereee 
see eeeeee 


eeeeetens 


snus, < 
“sq L 


eeeeereee 


uoom=— 


eee eereee 


“Sql O€ 


oe eeeeee 


+'sqig 


uoow £ 


eeeeerees 


u0o0oml = 


eereeteee 


ee reeeeee 


eeeeeecee 
eeeeeroce 


aSiey 


*q4319M 10 9ZIg 


Ll 


eeeeweene 


timayog ‘sneqnay 
seer etweeretens Ayporg ‘eyesueyy 
Pore cree reer re ere rere é sodeny 
see eeeeeeeee AreSunyy ‘uaqeyey 
F vOLauly "N 
seers gu Z0[0D 
s"QTTYSPIOJAIIFT “S 
stteeeeseeteeeserrereee S1988TLIG 
ssereeneeseees gary spsOJOIO]Y “S 
“** BIpUy ‘Iesstpy ‘seTeMieyy 
r “S ‘AQ ‘erydyapeityg 
vereeee nEIZUNG 

* BISOTIS ‘Braqyosupy 
seresreseeeooerees Bisa Jaddy 
Oe eee teem ew eres ysno1oqsurey 
sereeeerseeeeeeees KTOXES (294197, 
pelemenlseinsaclssaTRRTINY “etuAyOA 
. reese BOS WU 
* QAIqspI0Ja.19 Fy 
seeeeeaetenerereneeeesena IOTHUR 
“* uvysueysgy ‘ ieyepuey 
seeneteeerne PIALIOTN. ‘oysur|g 
rrrerrr ree ererr rere) Sinqselg 
f * $9784 paid) 
oo sane Auvwi95 
SrIaquMIgzAt AA SMasneys.nqpyty 
sec eereesoesece purpjoog ‘KeIS] 
seteeeseererses  QITH81948900 AA 
“-*¥STOGOT, ‘ysUIOSIe.LyORN 
reeeeeees JQqgQUOI 

andeig ‘B1aquainy 
Heeeeeeeeens  SBIDRTN 
“ees Bipuy “yeyeqary) JO “AA 
stteseeneneeeseeerereeseees UTOG 
teteseeeseeeeeeeeeersers DUBISUA 
* QITYSP1OJaII FY 


sone 


* reSunzy ‘eyezs|"** 


IT 
OT 


él 9? 
“AON JO pua 
errs 
06 
€1 40 ZT 
éT “AON 


—< % 400 
“ydag 
OT “sny 
gt Aine 
02 At 
61 ‘dy 
81 “IRIN 
“SSSI 
02 
61 
€I 29d 
61 ‘PO 
“yUoUL 
jo Avg 


om 
-” 


* 
to 


ao 
7, 


*SE81a 


75 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


*ge.[="a3 ‘ds § youquayoray 
04 Strpazodov ‘orro9joUr yOu st pur “fayxoIu OU ynq UOJ pue oTWASIe amOS Sut 
~UleqUOD PUNOF sea ‘ULIPIsqO Suljquasar ‘au0ys v f adUapIOUIOD pus uoNdad 
-ap jeodo uv Ajqissod 0 ‘qeataqoaya sdeysed ‘ureq e 0} a1 40s dAvY 07 ples 
SI Lodjzaul sy, “eouRIy ‘uly ep ‘Ad|[og iveu ‘pououg * ET IaqmaAON , 
"CLE ‘d ‘IAxxx ‘Toa “uuy ‘380g ‘astou pnor e 
ITM punod ay} UO JoAJasqo ay} WO Joey E [Jaq ‘eq *g raquiaydag b 
“rapunty Ayqissod four ayy 3e Apnopo §10jsa0uaIty 
Woa Sart ET ‘qOMSpTY y@ Aep owes dn payord ou0js oy7 papaddord you 
wou ‘toajaut aq} Jo Burysanq oy} A[quqoad $ aaryspaoyasopy ¥F ysnSny a 
‘purl ayy dn SuiyZnojd uo punoy Ajuo ssvar 
* PleY W0}909 vOJUT T[ay fUOTJeUOJAp pnoryT ‘uuay “oo UosyoIg *yE AINE o 
“saoeid rayy0 Auvut pue 
‘SUUOIGAH “Ypresynyg ye uaas osye { Zamquiaisr4\ TAO uouURd v ayIT asTOU 
Wim papordxe $4ydI] Jo urey pue syieds Squvipaq faq AA #ZT Aqng , 
"ANFO[UILD SLYsuvjsusog 9g —*Ysjusoyz1o1y, Jo ssanogq 7°77 YUN w 
“sastou uvouvtiayqns A[qissod S urefdxa 07 anoyIG “Wy g [IY WK'V [ Wor are 
ay} ur Afjuatedde pavay sasion ‘orp ‘vuaSeyrseg ‘oymy — ¢ "eg Arenuer I 
"PSBT AL IOA “Ege “d “350g ur ‘rupelyg Jo quawarddng yor s,LysMeT 
“snSog a8 ‘Sit{2 JO yUNODI SHOLIMd e OJ {ynU[VM % JO yey} 07 vad e Jo azts 
wory sadard Avjndsoa aTqeLy [[eUs [eIaAVg “neqoT “gy Arvnuer xGeg>t 4 
‘aag 
“Ud}4Z[ OY} IO oT AdYJOUR ‘MOFL[Eg ayV] Toy papuagur st uaqeyery ATq 


~issod ! geg[ ‘1aquiaaoy Cz Jo T]ey ULIALIOTY Oy) IO “Tey RTEZG 943 0q Avur 41 
> AWLOOT OYA TOF sv [JOA sv ‘SuyURA ST [Tey Sty JO uonvUojur astoaid a10y, 
“BIoRTeM pue AeSuny{ JO stapioq ‘uaywyey {GZ TOQUIOAON FPEST 5 
*aqtueIs Jo voard v ‘tuperyD 
0} Surpsoooe ¢ Snquny szadedsmau oxour v £ (4sT Jo) zg Arenuere “FeEgT ; 
“PEST [dy Jo pua ‘odery 0} Surpioooy “aeqepuey *saquaaon Jo pug q 
“punoy a19M spUIMZeIy 10 sau0ys g 
‘qovquoyorey 0} Surprooow : Aryoysnut Jo a1y1e1 Jy Aq PaMoOl[oy ‘uouued ¥ Jo 
yodar v oyT[ ‘UOKeUOJap pNoy eUG “eIATIOW ‘oysUeTY %*'Cz JAQUIIAON g 
“TAQWIAON YI0Z 9Y} JO 1oaqzaut 943 ATQIS 
“sod : ¢Z 1aqmaaoN ‘oysuelg ye [[ey 947 ATQeqoid ynq § syloday ‘oossy “31g 
das £ Junqsorg Ivau avak sty} sauozs Jo [[ey y “Banqserq “oz raquioao Ng 
"CEI ‘BT toquiaydag ‘[rery, 
“Iq Aq paquosap auo ay} A{qissod : aynurur e weyy a10ur a]qIsTA  WOOUT Tuy se 
IST $ aoj0u aqeard | FEgy 10 CesT noqy “Arist soquiaydag “gest » 
THAqQnog = *ULoF 
“ISOGOL “OL AIOE eEEsT p 
“UOTFEAITI GE 7B 
Surjsing ynoyjzta pareaddesip yr shes yunovov aug “seupeyy ¥'8T Youry 5 
‘atodyaiqny 48 ‘ZZ8T ‘OE ‘AON 
SB ouIug “eUUINe JaATY pue qefung oy} UaaMyoq SeIpUT “EEgT 10 ZEST q 
‘uayeuuy “S3o0g 
pue zyWIYY 0} Zurproooe ‘Teqary v ATuo ‘ purlSuy “ET 9quiaoaq “zest * 


Iv[NZuv uv Jo sauoys pres st 4t pur S [ox [rePT 


“THeQe49) 
“OUT, DULOS IOJ WOULD Jo Sursy oy] sastou pur $100j;our 
i i. “pavay UoTyRUOzIp OM £ ][[eJ-9U0Ig 
i] euSnu0om Suone fn naae ‘neaain wom 


“Laquio09ag YET 10 £44 3tupto ynoqge : as1ou ou hes ata 4 aS1v] id CEO Sinqapseyy pue ulplag|*** ZT ‘09, 
“Teqauy ttt eeeeee wet eneeee PILES IE 9) ” ‘stuory “WO}""* PT 
“(e PERL ‘TET Ia WasON se outs) Teqary se eeeeeee we eerneee Pee eet en eeeeeeeeesens Roweuly ‘N|*"* el 
“dotyeuojap pro, Ssmoprys 4SB0 £ [ley £ guadsapuRoUT ‘Wd 6 "aN OF “A'S i weeeeeeees OURLT ‘Uy, | aq)" €T “AON 
*punoa3 | “syreds ; paltey : anytq ‘ padeys-avad bs ah “aN 0} “A'S 8 puryoog) Bas ye)""" BT 
Bite) uo ssvur ayty-Ayjal v Surtavoy 1123 £av4s-Sutj00ys ee eeeeee eee eeeeee Pee teeeee . steerer eewe e405) see 9 dag 
Pe "13 ds £ [ey -auo1g Wd Ey io mre maa SIZ Hee wetter eeneeeeeene Joys0ualIg|""* F 
‘dn ysiy Ie 91 UL WoTssnou0d qvaad v teeter eens teseetees tet eeeees sroretnads ose" OTIS PLOPOII Py “sl p ‘Sny 
“(é I qsnsny 10 1¢ Aine 10) []eJ-uory oW'atz a O7°M “Sq 6 sn ‘Jossouulay, “oo wosyorq|"*" OF 
*s]]eq [eAAAOS 070 peprarp [re} tee eeeeee “M09 “0 . . sereesene UTIOT ‘ snyey|"** eT 
“UolyeuOJOp ‘ urety Suoy ‘][eq-uouugo v Oy “Wd Sg “MN OF O'S 3 Kf BIIQUII}AT AA, b url)" ZT Ane 
(e¢2 Auenure) Treqaty) oceeetees eeeeeeeee . .  wpeuary Man) 
“TIeqoary. YsIppoa B eeeteeeee “O02 wee eeeeee Sede eeeeretereesraes S1oqssiuoy 
“aston pure aoursvodde O1I09Ja UL I[GUYAVUIT B “Wd 6 a ed nN eee JoTUOdy uBISSnY pue uvissnig)*** 


feet een eee oyny, wee 
oeeseaecoe neqoy| . 


REPORT—1860. 


76 


Teqery 
“Kyunoo wyseng °“G.¢ ‘13 ‘ds § ][ey-au0ig 

“0441p 

“0331p 

“Tegany 

“feme popes pur payed Ayjenpes 

*109}9U OUY B 

“Te qeay 

‘aPTPMOYHO 4B £ yl[-snovovuoqgred £ T[ej-aU0j}g 

‘OL ysuSny 10 f10ajauI oy 

*ec.¢ 13 ‘ds {squamBesy ¢ { T[eJ-2U01g 

‘epLuryg UI Was Ose £ 4Sinq ‘AOa\aTE 4UeITTAG 
*QIOCUMLD IRI £ [}VJ-9U0}g 

“porter $01 Hers § querpiaq £ epyjoq o8.e] 

*pat ‘antq £ sMopeys 4svo 

sxaqye syaeds £ aytyM-raATIs WIIG $4yS1]-Aep Aq 
+9904S aJOYM IY} IOAO UES * O[QISIA ,,Q[ Yeea3s 
“THeqeag. 

‘aumdneqg “sMoprys 4seo 

*QOURLT *[[VJ-9U0}S 

*sIByS Pot OJUT 4sinq * Yystntq {Bao 

TH) QSIppat UIA 

“MOAT UazOU BHT] £ Y{St[-uns jenba 

*g¢.¢ “aS ‘ds ! ]Pj-au0qsg 

"9L.g 19 ‘ds $ sauogs [[eMs dUIU Jo [[eJ pur rojo 
*AZO[OLOIJO|_ SWMOsWMOY YT, 2g “| [BJ-aU0}g 
*(yxopuss3oq) []eJ-au0jg 

‘wy + £ATpno] poyeuozep £ Avp se 4ysiy £ parrey 

*E PERL ‘Blezs= { (sytoday ‘oossy “qq ) [[eJ-aU0Ig 
JO 1aMOYs aBAey Atoa $ aSTOU YITA ysanq {LodjomM oe] 
"G08 09 [ [ WLorT sou04s | *uotso[dxe ouaydsounye 
“BaS JB UaaS { ToqMIAON Jo yg IO pag fared 

QSTOU OU £ [1B} 410s 

+g [ROLIJOOJO ¢ puNoy aouRysqus [NJ}quop y “[]eqa14 
‘wa F {astou pue UOIso[dxe ‘ auTYsUNS SutInp 

{Iv} YSIppat puv a1ojaq agp £4S1nq OU prp £ queITTIIq 
‘aly UO WLaq UIPOOM v 9\{I| 

*sadULINOD Jv Plvay UoTyeuoJap $ SMopvyYs 4svo 
‘UOTYBUOJOP Pu IOAJItU 9FAe] 


Ox ‘syIVUldy 


eeeeeesee 
"Wd te 


eae eeees 


ee reeeeee 


108 P9198 


weneneees 


yomnb 
WY £6 


uOT 89148 


wel UL OF 
JG HeIA4s 


uS 04 wl 


Het en eens 


ut 9 


yonb 
AOS 
al 
uoou 
wa fg 
‘K'd ¢ 
MOIS £ ,E 


‘Wd ¥{[ 


AOS 
‘WV OL 
ST vats 


eeeteeene 


"Wd $9 
‘Wy 
‘mou { azel 
£ uorqeing 


errr 
“M'S 03 “SN 


oo 


eeereeeee 


yequozt0y 
“aS 0} ‘M'N 


eeeeeeree 


o'a'N 0} “MN 
"M'S 0} “SN 
*S OJ 'N 


“A°N'N 09 *AX'S’S 


eeeeeeeee 


“MN 0} “A'S 


see eeeree 


*A'S'S 0} “O'N'N 
10 "WV G 
UMOP 34310148 


*uOT}OONICT 


oa 
é°sqt 0S 


“Sq, 
“UDI {|G 
adit] 


snua, < 


asiry 


“sal & 
uoow < 


aFIv] 


“Sql 6T 
+a1% 
*SZO 9 


uoow $= 


eeeeeeeee 


ZL.g ‘13 ‘ds 
UOOUL SB ISAT] 
aie] 
aaIe] 
snuaA < 
a8] 
uoow # 


weeeeeeee 


*4y 319M 10 aZIg 


Pema ee eeen tee r tnt ewer nee 


OAL aes 


seeeseeeeeerereeeees UBTTTY 
verte Bipuy “gS f yeyoowmes 
eeeeseeeteeee® GTONT=ANS-9PUOD 
Pee B.moqiayo 
adoz] pooy jo aden 
stoseerseerone KUBULIOD|''* 6 

erpuy ‘aesrag ‘a1odvyepuryg|"** 9 

sreteeees NIOK MON ‘ueStyoryy|"" ST 
sete ee eeeees vipuy ‘roodinqyy see SI 
seeeees TODUOT “UOISUISUay|*"** ZT 
* nesaig|"** Z 

* zyugery|""* OF 
*g "fy ‘NOD9UUOD|"** FI 
seetteeeeesseerorees UDI)? T 

steesreeveceeosevooestpy SarSty|'*° 
seeeereeeees gquigaeqg ‘apneasg|"* 
eee eeeee puepaly aS *y109 see 0g 
* visapig taddq}""* 62 
cana} ‘UsATYMAN “5 ¢ 

serees KIVFuNGT ‘VUIAT-SsOIg|"** FZ 
Secenessecce JayemaSpug qseq|""* ¢ 

lerereserseeseerterrenreprngny| ** OT 
teeeesees KivSungzyT ‘emopoytp|"** ST 
seees gsno[noy, ‘[nosa,|"** ¢ 

“AreZunyzy ‘vag-ueyryq|"" é 
water [lzeig ‘OvoRI\ ee Il 
lesesteneeeetecsaeeseeees*® BIGQTIQ!'! ZZ 
serreeres roqdtueyynog ‘a1Avzy|""* G 


- 


stew en erent eee eeeewenee 


nee eeeeeeee 


secret eeeeeee 


allory ap quatmazredaq ‘Aang)"** 
tereseerees priqnjeg ‘ourssoy |" 


eee eee weet eeseeeene S.moqiy9 aoe Z ii ‘ure % 5 
eater ew eeeee quouparg TLOATY] see 8 “day *OE8T 
*Aqpeoo'T a hice “IVI T 


nejsatq|""" 8L “490 
ew eeeeeee QOUILOT] see SI dag 
"sg" ‘stounty)"** 0% “3ny 
OL oune 
tg “Ady 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


"Wd g § URIDO ULUIIaL 91} IOAO popoTd 

-xo Atqeqoad {spunos Sutfjor pue Surjyoes9 ose {QT 10; uouUd ayI] punos 

B ‘Jaye jf 10 ,Z $paysey 4 yS|IyA syrzeds yno Surmoiyy ‘Apuanbasqns pausoy 
sem auo yNq “[1e} OU asaya fdn YStpT ‘ox ‘“Brmsajyog xg Arenuere 

“yYSUNs 94} UL SMopoo OTeUSTId payoayor YOryAr ‘uIeI3 Buoy 

foddiyisueg Jo *Ay'g ‘Aeq ay} J0A0 Ayeuy Surystuea ‘sajdey 0} surezunoy 

IZZNAQGY ey} Wo ‘sapdeyy Jo WlopSuary aya Joao passed pue yoeq pourny ‘vag 
IYLUPY IY} AAO Udy aT “TT OAL ISA VW ‘sotdenNy “GZ JEQUIDAON o 
‘UMOP JYSteajs ApwaU PaaowW “YSinquipy *g taquIeAON y 
‘yquow oy} jo Sutuuisegq ‘oorxoypy ‘olajedonNy xAaqmIaAON w 

"(OL A ‘OFST A0J syorg 

JO yoog vax 9as) sivys Surpey Jo sapnqyypnt yyWM porueduosor ‘aig Jo 

qaays v ayt[ ‘uopuoTy ut ‘1aqmaydag Y}P 941 Jo “IN'V E pUv ‘Wd QT Udaa\jJ0q 
uaas Inodva uosuiito 10 “yy SI[ O1109}auI YsIppat aejnZurs y “¢E aaquiaydag | 
"(91495 ‘O ‘FT asndny) 9g snSny x 

‘da ySty AraA useq aay ysnut pur 

‘sgovtd aso [[v 3 aouvavadde omres oy} ApAvau poqyuasa.d fyeqouy sty} : a1enbs 
sandea[ OF[ JO ILYSIP U IQA) ‘Ow ‘QUURSNeT f AerquIND Ssiteg *g oun ¢ 
"2 (anSopezwg sJJOM) OL ‘Sny ‘young seouieg ‘Auvuiay “Gg asnny ; 

‘antq 10 ajdand aztsoddo ary ‘par adpa ouo ‘snaponu 


OqIYAA  9d¥I7 YSIppor B BurAvay ‘uozrioy aaoge og poystueA “ZT YOR y 
“gsanq 41 []1 WOOM 9y3 UeYy JaZie] AT[enpead emvoaq pue 

‘Ayptder [lay $ yjTUez oy} ur yoads 4y311q se uefeg ‘yI0Q ‘Og ysNSny 5 

*SOINUIUL [PIOAVS Payse] Yywanjg “Gg ysusny ; 

"Sf “Sse uy x°G ARP 3 
*sando]ejyvo UBWIIH IY} Jo Aue UT [[eF Sy JO UOYUAaTE OU aq 04 

Saas BIIYT, “eMopoyryy 4v ‘ey, Arenuve Ajqissog ‘euasny “2 ¢] [Udy p 
“dF eos $ saajow O¢p‘ze vovds ut paads aynjosqe { puovas 
B Saljour CERF YI YIM poads ‘sara pEFZ 10 ‘Aajomelp yooz QOS, $ USIy 
sopttd O/T ‘AYor\ JOA f wy Fy fasiou years $e pose] $ usippat req $ gue 
$ uasneysingp)} pur yorunyy yv osye usas : uoyeUOJap YIM ysanq { YstueesS 
SM 0} ‘QSPG FY = *UOZLIOY UlayyNos vy 07 UMOp AjAeoU YYIUZ 94 
SSO19V JUIM PUB “UONVAID .CF 4B “N 9} UT 9SOr S sqTeq AaTTeMs ¢ Aq pomoT[oF 
‘{1e9 [Vs B pey £o¢G Jo ore uv apeul { YSIy (99 {MOTs “Sg 0} *N ‘asnojnoT 

J9AO YSINTG “AYIA pur ajseg ye osje fasnojnoy, *g Arenuee x'vegT 5 

“UTEAY 10 [1H] OU f4SINq JOU PI] “POU DITALIG “AIAVFT ‘G AIQWIOAON gq 
*puooas v UL aTitd BF Jo JIRA YY AV Buros ‘YySry aay QOOT gnoqe Apjuor 
-eddy ‘1auyong 0} Suiprosoe gegy = ‘snojonu ay) ut afqudaosad Auoardde 
AWAVI Yep B ¢ 9[QISIA 4s|yM ANS UL UMOP MOT { pavay spunos Surpsipm ‘Bury 

~YORIO SSIXB S}L UO 278J01 0} paMlaag “Bimoqiayg “gl Arenute «981 2 


“oprjoq 


COORCIE ‘aS 0} ‘A'N uoowl = * spurisy] yorMpurg)"* g  -qagq 
“UOT}LUOJOP f SMOPRYS Surysvo £ 4ySi1q ‘Yornb ‘asuey] ,[ ey- | -AVN'M OF Ws'a| “py suoom = “euoyy fepeiuady|"* g ‘ure) *OF8Ta 
\Teqaay) ,,h years | aN 07 “An's mG <cocnnccscrbeasberssenss BTCC ae OTe toed : 
TAS 0} ‘TN quam pue yorq powiny $yasuns ai0jaq ene w wees "2 0} “AL a518] sas ete son eea ve cae eet eae Te ROTUENT -ee 62 3 
‘oyytp| rte es saneoes cio Oe seansenceces Z aT 
‘oytp| re segeeaees nemo oo steeeeeeenecereeeneeererees BULB? OT 
*yvaiys { suoryeuojap g Aq PaMoT[oy {0791p} Heatqdep “AM 0} °A sencesho ceeds: sontecssoS UGG. 6 
Teqory eee ereee se eeeeees eee “anSerg| 8 
*snuaA jo ozIs woIJ AljenpesS pasvaroul 7S ‘T'S 0} “AN uoom <% [rs * ydanquipy|*** g 
‘oyyip] tes =n trie ceeeeeres Heeteeeeteeereneeseerrenee BULB ttt g 
“[yeqaay) terete? Secenccee “gadsheor seeteeeeeeeceeeseeeesreees piggnay "'* T “AON 
“BU0JIP PUL YS] Jo [le1y {sarjoUL QOFT JoRSIOY eye] “waz PEED DS seresesesees (OlaTedON) ODIX9T\|"** “AON 
“uo14] “0191p . teens eee eeeoee se eeerenee et eeeree souvsIey wee 9 "190 
"omp] * quayy|** OL 
"EEL Joquiaydag ‘yfeqaay) “ttttttt* “ vueg)'*' ¢ ‘4dag 
- 4ysrAep Ayrvau 03 yurod e@ wosz $ yornb} 2,0 Yves *S 0} °N a31v] * eBluRqiy|"** 92 
“eqoag) Seasunges seteneene Veteeereeeseneeeeeeesneees BULIBG |"? OT 
*Treqory. auy v rit yeas eoeeeeeee eee eeeeee nee “A otP pue 'N oPF ‘pas 4e eee “sny 
*g young ye osje $ orp] * . seecseees seeveeeere * g0uvsIvtg 


“THeQo1y 
n 


“HOZTI0U 02 U to71—— £ aur 


‘smojoo Auew pu syieds yt 4s1nq 
“apryoq 

‘OSIOU JNOYITA ysinq 

"ZL-G AB ‘ds {]/BJ-au0}¢ 

"YIP ZZ 10 £ uoteuUojop pur |jeqaiy 
“YSN Swap saya OF ‘ [[eqoaiy adce] 
*qsanq * [[eqaly 
“duoja}] *S109}9UL BUY OMY 
-uvyQ pue Sinoqioyy 4v osje Sutuaas oweg *10aj0 
*1oa}aW prpuads @ 

"Buoy saxjout cy yey { ysinyq ‘oytp 

"[1eqaay a3.av] 

“UlOpARMIDJOg Je OST! Uses ! 9YSI[-[eduegq v oyI| 
"yeqauy, 

“suBry[ti4q 

“aptjoq 

‘aprjoq auy 

*"YsIy soptm e7 {ys { UOOU se 4YSIAq 
“UOIBUOJIP pue JOdz0N 

*0931P 

“Teqeug) 

*OMIp 

*ovIp 

‘oryIp 

*apl[oq 

0798319 YY “][BJ-auo0js 

"ELT oune § [[ej-au0qs 

“ysinyq 

*apryoq ad.r] 


REPORT—1860. 


“"ys1y Fe YSIY OF fYsinyq f epryjoq oFuv} 

+, GT Ul uotRUuOjag, «=*F 10 /¢ Yvo.9s 

“2 JXOU SB DUIVG “spuodas [e1OAOS Yeats { apTjog oF.e] 
"YSuaT UL sayout g auogs $ [[eJ-9U0}9 

“oproq 

*ouyIp 

*apTpog 99.1e] 

‘ovp 

Teqoeay 

*[eqoay ouy 


78 


“orp ‘syarVUEyy 


ih 


en ee ener 


WS 


see eeenee 


JST 3e0438 
“WV gy 


sent eeee 


‘Nv ¢ 


rrr? 


MOJS 


taeeeeees 
teen eeee 


see eeeene 


‘anoy £97e1 
S uoneing 


“ASA OF "2° 


wee neneee 


“A'S 0} “AN 
*M'S 0} “O'N 
“1'S 0} “M'N 
*a°S 04 
‘E'S 0} “A'N 


aeeeeeeee 


weeeeeree 


eeetereee 
eeeteeeee 


*M 0} ‘2 


eeeeeeeee 


“S'N O} ‘AL'S 
"M'N 0} ‘A'S 
*M'N 0} *a'S 


eet eeeeee 


we eeetene 


“M'N 0} ‘D'S 


uOIqoaIIT 


snusA < g 
“Sql 12 
aa.v| 


tt eeeneee 


quenyyriq 


eeeereeee 


se eneerees 


‘wn iF 
O30] 
aB1v| 


wee wee 


wee eeeeee 


"Sq IT 
“ae 


“m“oou [ny <= 


snuea < fF 


“4Y3I0M IO azIg 


ar aa eee 


ghee’ 


ha 


**°°**°BAQtIany 


a “ Bisatig ‘daoqauntn 
sets gouety ‘prnoyouayy 4S 
"** UDATT] MON SUAOJIONUG 
seetereoeees BIIBISENH, § VUE 
tt eee eweree Bl[eyseny $ RULIE 
8 O79 ‘vue 
MWeSsy IOAO ]]e 
ysy fey, 
sthasereeeeeeserestereneess NBII 
Steet ewww eeeee ‘ON ‘BIARIO TW 
teeseeeeeseeesseeereeeerens VIOLIN 
“* goueig ‘xnatwor 
sreeees srossnag 
oe sited 
os" WBpung puv uryqnq 
“ anysdmeyy MaN ‘proou0g 
Weeteetereseeserseeeeces OIUOIOT, 
seeeeeeeeenag 

*  satdey 
meee gouRig 
seeseeeeeeeeesceneeeeessa TOIT 
seteaeeseeaeeeseensesseee BUT A 
seseseenses*\ ATOWUDOI ‘apeseg 
“--Nuel[oT] queqeig ‘vapy 
“' wmeg 

* sayeqg poyluy 
siseeeeeeeeeeeeeaeeeremeers BONIGT 
seeveneeeeee TION MON ‘Aueqy 
se neeeeeeeee Ss “A ‘qnoloauu0d 
ve Areqaey, ‘saddaqyg ziySary 
: * BUUIe| 

“* BULIe 
“*  epeueyg 
seeetteeeeseresaeeeererees OTTIOG 
uaseyuadon 
Hsteeereeereeeeaaeeeeess Srogsn iG 


sees 


eee eee ee eeeeeee 


“Aq1v00'T 


ssereeneeeesBAQTOX)| 


190) 
9] 
OT 
wey 
mg 
az “Sny 
“Oe 
oe Aine 
“" oT oune 
“Te 
“" 66 
“67 
cae 38 
mG 
tee Z Aen 
see 8Z “ady' 
OT “aR 
OT 
6 g 
9 “aq 
“qqyuout 
jo &eq 


79 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


“sllvg ye uaes Ospy “6 Areniqay ¢ 
‘Apoq [eao ‘ 3urzzep $yeyxo0I B ayIT 
‘om ‘mogdsepy "Tz Jequieoeq 
*q10daz B pavay amos ‘4 FI, asue3 
uy “9zZIS UI “Seu 4sy Tenba sxvys Aueur ojut yay “Burysanq uy = ‘sa0e|[d 19440 
pue ‘premuayny ‘d1aqiapo ‘nejserg ‘Bioquosatpy ‘etsapig ¥°¢ Jaqma09q 
(¢ ySty sayrm Zop) “soaWeIp ur 4997 QOS‘ZT £ YIIe Ny 

WOIF S9IJOU OOPOEL U99q VARY 0} pleg “seg puRsUTAayY “gl ysnsny 5 
‘210 uoat-vad Ajduis ‘diaquaayy pure reZurpreyzy “07 Surpsooor ‘ors0a3aut 

jou ‘valley aavy 07 pres svad uvyy saZiv] you saUGyg ‘uM ‘OT ISNSnYy ; 
wa 6 “49d “W Aq 
*o7p ‘SUOIEINILD “OT “ON “XXX "[OA ‘snpuay sajydum0g sag “sayrut 49 FY Z10y 


491} PIINO[OD SNOTIVA Jo Zurystsuoo Trey, 


£ raqe JYSI Jo uresxy anqq Suoy { .9F Jo apngqyye ue ye uoZ0Y By 04 Prteaed 
peaour § puooas tad saxjout G10‘ pZ ‘eoeds ut ainjosqe ! Z60'ZZ ‘yyAeo Spaesar se 
aayrfer £ OTG‘L, paads quoredde ‘ ejoqradAy ue ur quamasom apeaSorjar O11} 
-ua00ed & aavy 0} pasoddng ‘oxy ‘sajouSeg ‘asnojnoy, ‘uasy 6 ouNne 5 
*S9}B}S Payluy) ‘GnoyoauUU0D ‘UMOJIOUTIg “CT YORI p 
‘TFAWQnop 19a qnq ‘sours *N ut dnojey 
“ULYD JE UOT|eJ BAVY 03 pres { aouLysqns oMOS 10 aUOys W “Cg AueNAgag , 
“OPUPRIYD JO ‘19aamoy “vyy oyt] Ar9A st uoItsodwoo ayy { jauena 
Sururys 314M apis}no £ aprsur ssorp ayt] { vpos api] B pu ‘eIsauSent “ears 
yuo ‘uost OU suTeyUOD $819 Q/.¢ syFiam £ o1t0ajaW 4ou ATqIssod ynq ‘punoy 
W90q GALT OF ples aN0}g —*g *-) ‘OATYSdMeFT MON ‘ploouo0g #1940999 q 
*7UN0DOB as[ey B 9q 0} Plvs BoUIG “epeURD “ZT YOAV ‘“OFST v 


‘oyqtp| steers “501 "A | iNaeranes teeseeseeeeeeesBrQqUIaNATA\ tt OZ 
7) 9)4 (60) [Ne ‘a'S 0} ‘AN wooul <= *seee* DUB[IOZIIMS Ur ‘OOTTISeq|"** GT 
*So1}9TU OPS‘C] YIIvV9 WOIJ VOULYSIp 4svoT a[qeqord “AN 07 "HS =| [[CG-MOUNBI= |reereereeerss HaSW fasnojnoyz|*': r 
‘astou qnoyjtM | “y[eqaay seseeeeee senteraes seeeeeceeeeeeeuseeneeesonen pS Ilse 4 ‘qa "ZEST 
saoaid aZ1e] [etaAes OyUT ysanq $ [[eqory yYBIIq aZaz] coerce COREL. stresses QOUBIT “QUOXIV “IS|"** GZ 
“ABp sv yy SI] Se f4sanq § payrez § querpiaq AoA ‘N 0} 'S uoom << gop Zurpiyg £modsepy|:s 7z t 
“TTeqauy padeys-jeao steeeeees seereeees sr-89.gT9Q|*** OT 
‘W'd Gp'g *{ UOTJEUOJOp £ YsmnTq § AYs 943 T];e dn paqysy ‘I'N 0} “A'S uoow [[nJ = |" BISITIS ‘S1aqQploy|"** G ‘oaq| x* q 
a} JQAO UOIZLUOZep snopuswer} B YIM 4sinq { 0991p SOQEOHOOD o81e] seeeceeecoescrcors @zresuaauey|'** CT * 
"uMo}] ‘saovyd Aueu ur uses £aproq aSavy seseeevas eeeeeseee seereesseereees BOTIQUIW UMONS'* OL 
"UMOp-- $ aS10] seereeees eerertes Paneer nee enenes weeees pl0ja.1o 7] le, | 
*(é OQMIDAON YIQ IO) £ eg AOZ MoztIoY 04 JarTeaed SUMO J\ Yersssess ern cieseescsseces = eprraate nen ig 
*[[RJ-9u03¢ “Sq. IT vig ‘aapuaA-UONog|*** G “AON| * 
"493901 B 931] MOJS woow = Ap1v9u * uoli(|** g 409 
“Treqoay] sees theeeeeee . auuokrg “<3 67 
‘op oyqip| crreeeees oaesesnas reseeeeesenserseceesnersers  gtpalers E@ 
idn ysry $ [rey Su0| pue Treqaay WsUq z Oeevesese Seesecsee phases toon sane sseaen ae ‘eaouany “*" OF 
*pat-ystmorfad £ qyS1aq AL years Oe eeesees see e er eeeseereteescsseenecs sieq|""’ 6 ‘ydag 
“smopeys] "T[eqaay| tees stteeteceeeveeners MYIOD|+++ QZ 
qseo + punox ‘[1e} 10 yeas ou § pidex $yejuoztioy| ,,F 10 ,,¢ *N 07'S uoow * smeyy fsnieg|*** gf 2 
“UdT[eJ BABY 07 pres sou0}s ‘ UONVUOJap IO JOdJaMI OU] “Wd OT manresees ae AO seresersereeere KeSunyy ‘ueay|'*' OT “Sny J 
4y3uq pue ][Np Ajayeuss9]e £ ]1e7 20 yeas OU) ,,G 10 _,F seeseeeee aeneeeeee Sehes cence sschaeseca= o> BAQUOR|** Ale 
“yaTajoNny 0} Surpi0v08 $ a1gI[0.198 seeeeeeee see eerees en eeeeee eee erereeeres enters scceos UrTIY oes LI * 
‘op feeeeeees rrr rr ere rere sjassnig ‘slo[q tee a Aque 
"Treqay seseeneee eraseeeeeeneeesereseoeees goupTTl * PT 
‘aOURIY “QoMOTT + *PG.g “13 ‘ds $ [yejJ-2u07g “Sql GL PAvuay-neaywyyH ‘aenSuy!*** ZL * 
“JI}IUURIP UT SatJaUII}ZUI YY ‘sMOpETS 4Svd { MOIS "ANN 0} ‘D'S aSAv] ““xnveplog ‘uady tsiaSuy** 6 oune Lua 
“queiqyug eveeeeree se eeeeece setensansrrcssaseccnsons. gmedaiml=* py { 
o ¢ Brin 


Wimmccr. p Ae) 


REPORT—1860. 


80 


P9148 3 rq 


pe 


“*Spu0das [CIIAIS 10} 
“queiyiiq Buoy 06 pur ‘apr ,P[ Ie} * yout0d v axIT 
*MO|S, 

(‘uasneynyy reo ‘uasneyps0N) “sqy 9 £ ]]TeJ-aU07g) 
*spawmiaye GT UL uovuoyap “A'S 


ut posvadde Ajuoppns $ dn ySry oT Fp  osip punor 4ysi1q, 


“48nd yor|q * []BJ-au0ISg 

*O}1IP} 

“aptjoq 

"74G.¢ 13 ‘ds {]Ja¥ omy £ ]]eJ-2U04S 
‘uns Jo 4YSIT OARS 


“Sunsinqg ynoyIM youNxe AyUeppns auvdeq) 


*Z0-¢ “43 ‘ds {uot OU sUID}UOD £ []vJ-2U0}g 
*ystmorod 

*Japunry 4e Xossng UT UV—S Os[e { 214 Jo sstuL aDaLT v 
“0141p 

“T1eqo4y, 

*(99¢ ‘d ‘pegyt cat ‘oa “330q) aaMoys v £ []vjJ-au0}7¢ 
‘wa £9 fuoeuojap Ssyteds £ 4s1y 9v 4ysaqyS11q 
“UOLUOJOp 4LaId $ [[eqory 4yBIaq A19A £ 09)1p 

*o1qIp 

“Te qQ944 

‘T[op pue yystaq Ajaqyeusogqe § dn ySiy £ queqyuq 
“Teqeag, 

‘syaeds] *4Se] Sv ames { LoayaU [NJWNvaq 
pure sjuowSseay por pue anjq our ysunq $,2¢ a[qisia 
*ywa.ys par £ [yeqaay ysiusatd 

‘Tnyqnop A194 *(zzMR yy) ][eJ-909g 

*payre, £ ySIy fF Inoge uozZLoY 04 JaT[v.ed poaout 
“MN ata] *ystu9ai3 OT 1OJ a[qista yeas Jo yavd 
UI papuadsap Ay Mojs Ua} £ UOZTIOY AACR .¢ 10 .Z A[UO 
“[[eqoiy fwd OT" ‘90.119 B UL poaow AT enpeas ud 
*sjied OM} OFUL UOTZLUOJZIP YIM PaprAIp 

‘aOUBIY 10 ! []BJ-9U0IS 

-euojap £ ‘Wa $6 4sanq S syteds fonTq {smopeys ysevo 
Bur uory] “SL £3 ‘Ilef-2u0}g 
*paaAind auredaq Yeat}g “ya d01 v VyI] 


*layje uorjeuojap £ [rey WY F1.1q) 


*oprioq 


"ow ‘SAVOY 


oot eeneee 
Seer 


yornb 


ee eateee 


we Ul 606 
"wd £G 
yf 89.148 


7) 10 WG 
We 22148 
yl ears 
‘Wd G 
‘W'd 06'S 
u& 
(% WOTyeys 


/G04,FY2a14s 


‘mmoy !99eI 
£ WOIyein(d 


ate eneses 


senretene 


ee eeeeree 


seereeree 


"H'S 0} "M'N 


ee eeeeees 
aeteneeee 


see eeeeee 


“M°S 0} “A'°N 


“a'S O} “ACN 


eer eeeree 


eer eweeee 


“MS 0} “A'N 


rrr! 


*uonoam 


L.¢ 13 +ds 


‘p soyoUr OT 


uoow = 


"Sq FIT ES 
aBie] 


see eeeeee 


“Sql ST 


etree eens 


aie] 


see eweeee 


9¢.¢ = ‘ud ‘ds 
a3.1e] 
aie 
Jayzidne = 


eeetseeee 
att eeeeee 
seeteeeee 


“wp {CT 


aZ1v] 


aoe, Aros 


tee eet eee 


é ‘Sql £ 
uns= ‘99.1v| 
#¢.¢ "1d «ds 

a3.1e] 


“VY FIOM IO aZIg 


UIsloAnog ap quod 
*  Sanquey 
* Sinquey 
‘s+ Kuvuliay £ uapuaAy UTaTy 


sreereee outa $ erpeydysa Ay 
Bipuy ‘qsiapueyy ‘uovzaur yy 
; qyo9119 
* BULIE 
ya. 
aouRLy 
tee eeereneees aourly ‘uoulie,[) 
“* puTporeg *g ‘aqpasdoystg 
Hee eee ee eeeenetewnes BZ.anquare fy 
wLysuyjON $ uopio0'T 
seeescceneeeneres TIODSIOSALY 
seerccescesvscccessesens sasnig 
see eweeee peqepemiy jo “WN 
seme ecerereseeseetoes “ON ‘BIsaTIs) 
“+ souduey fsaSsoq ‘qeurdy 
* ysinquery 
teeeeeeees OS pTaquing| 
steageeesceteeeeaeeseeers® BUTIR 
eee teeeeeeeeerneerereens BULB 
"8" QIasT] ap quama31edaq 


se eeeeeee 


seeeeee 


DATYSYAOA ‘4VSMO..Ie YY 


setae e retorts ewe seerseeee 


Feet teen reeset enenee 


Binq we Fy 
pac raeaesvennauites+ so? purysug, 
Sables sted 
***T1O]NOT 


ab 


see eeseeseceseeee® 


Peewee essen esene 


aiazo'yT ev] op ‘dag ‘so1gtuny) 


“" gsnoinoy, $ Jarjodyuoy, 
THeeeseeseseers BIABOID “ual 
BOCOGIIO IIIS jaya) pb] PA 6D) 
sisteseueceeeeeeoecessorees BITE T 


“Aqeo0'T 


é 
S.imqueyqy) 


2 VISITS, 


Go 
LT 
9T “adag 
“Suny 
Ayue 


og 
96 
(6 
1G 
neg 

oo 

FI 
c% 
06 


aune 
Av ln 
‘dy 


“AVTN 


“Mal 
‘ute 
*AON 
‘po 
09 


0g 
&@ 
mg 
8I 
ws 
0g 
mg 
ral 
ZI 
0g 
mg 
mg 
If 
Il 
Il 
ZI 
F 
8g 
9% 
Il ‘ady 
SI “eI 


"990 
*adag 


“‘Sny 


Ayne 


aune 


“yyuoUL 
jo keq 


“g "RO) + 


ae 
ev 


xX * * 


“OPS8L 


“va 


81 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, 


*Aju0 Japuny}y jo depo v Ajqtssog ‘raaouvzy 20% Arenaqog , 
“pare, { savys oyeredas Aueut Jo pasodwoo ‘snoponu 

"epZofO\ JO QUaWUIeAOD oy) UI ‘Suns 4y “ZT AaenAQaT , 
*499f OE IO OZ ueYy} Jorvau payovoidde oq 
JOU P[nod 41 YY [ay FF UOYM Joy OG “(CCRT “x "TOA “Bey "[1yq 998) yy] pue 

OSIOU FVOIT YIM [Jaq [Zerg ‘eyeooy ‘sony oyu “Arenuee x FPHRT g 
*sadsoA 94} UI prvay astou.at} { spuodas [ereAds 10J dn pouazySiy sem A130N0d 

apoyM oy} ‘amity ay, ye ABRoy YySnoyy, ‘ow ‘younz xz Jequiavaq o 
"Wd G {1OaZ0 a[quyivuloy ‘syivds ‘QouvApe ur Yo Marty, pray £ [Iz 

ON ‘sooeid say}0 pue ‘Aerawu0D ye osye ‘oxy ‘xnOWIT “TT Joquieo—qq u 
“UO 24} Uo ‘vyzI1UTIg 


qs14g 


‘efeysrqos-autposia,\\ JO "A'S ‘SISIOM OZ IV “BISSNY #9 1290990 
“vG Pasel 
Yay] JO puvq-yeerys 10 [ey oFrey sty, = *Banquez_ “zz Aoquiaidag | 


*suorqiod ouuadies [[eus O7UL J[aSzt paalossIp 

Ayenpeas ostp punosr yySiq oy,“ A\"S O4X UT parvaddy ¥9 ysnSny 4 
“yqavo oy4 
03 Ivou AI9A pauloas {Wad Q {UOZIIOY IwoU UMOP MOT { {9zNUIUI B SaTtUT GG 

5 *AA"S 0} O1y Jo sseuI pal-poojq Be MLYZUNION FY “G AtenAgaT “SPST ¢ 
(eg -d wayx “Tig “3eN JO [eummor YSinquipg oes) euNeG 

“SolJATY UL OUUOY IOP PUL L[eJoIP UDOMJOT “OE IOQUIOAON * ZEST + 
*SPIBAK 

“Joye Ie 94} UL spunos Surjquint Buoy { eisaytg WA0 TTY Ez 19qG0100 y 
“sq Z 10 ‘saumumuld ¢Fg 
Sioa § [Peqary siyy Jo sdeysod yonpoad oy ‘pooysmnoqySieu ayy ur punoy sem 
UOIT Of109}9UI JO ssBU Jes ‘TERT A[ne UT “STII 913 Jo apts 94} Uo punold 
24} YON0Z 0} poulvas pur ‘uaMOINeY JO so1yTATop VY} Suoye Vy Jo yeas B 


ay possed pry} ya £ yeurdg ur oxy Jo urer & OMT] [[9} PUe poprAtp-or JoYOUe 
$ MOPBIW B Fuogle [[OL pue punoss 94} 0} UMOp [[eF OF pawiaes YOIYA Jo ouo 
‘sqavd 90143 O3uL papratp § Axaz[iQ4e oy] SUOTZEUOJEp JO sattas B DOURIvaddesIp 
Joye Ajayeipswmwy ‘sadso, ‘jeurdg avau ‘yuswoyney xe Joqumiaoay g 
“rvaddesip 07 4say aya sem sing Yotyar [[eqory 
dy} JO yred oy} FXOU SUM YOIYM eos oY Jo ytvd yey, *,CT JO osip B QIK O 
Tleqo.1y @ 07 Zurseosout ‘1e)s-Zurjooys uoutmoo v axl] puv ‘4317 Jo yurod v se 
184g 9[0g 9Y} IB paouawWMOD Suravy se paqisosap st auto styy, ‘a1asy 4e ‘Quo 
qxau oY} Jo aoxI[d AIPJOUT WO. QUNODOR JayJOUR ATQeQoIT &gl IsNsny ; 
"Tey [NJIqnop 419A Y “G*N ‘SapogQaed Suryoor-anjeyaw ayy M-TaATIs ZurarezU0s 
SB OS[@ paqiosop SI 9U04S DILSMOMIEPT IYJ, “LCF “ON “NINsUT,] osfe ‘gge°d 
“pogT ‘at‘ddng “B80g 90g 9 “quosaad ye afquureiqo you 1999e] Yor Jo Savpnory 
-aed Joyjany ‘Yipavy 4B a10Jaq suvak UIOS T[IJ WY} JUOyS B Surjquioser Suay[ey 
DART OF ples “tapuny} pue Suzys, pue se o1yy ut Surpystym Aq porurdmoooe 
Ts 41eseq ayt[ ‘au0}s yoy YW “oiysytoX ‘oyBaorezT “cysnsny eZPSt o 
‘ayes moliepy ye Avp ouies 
TleJ-9U0}s 94} 0} sAayor ‘onZopezeg siy ut aneyUNeg *poysiuea pur dn ayx01q 
‘papuoose A[MO]S YOM IYOUS Youyq B Suravgy {OT ur asangy £ yy Byiay $ [rez 
OYI[-aYOuls v pry | nepsoag 4e Ajqeqo.d ‘tysmvjsnzog Aq usag *c ysnSny p 
*padeys-avod put 
aFiv] UO IY, “aot MaSTA Was sues JY} ATqeqolg “sg purjsuq “{{ Ane 5 
*9U0 1X9U 9} Se OURS 
*SIXE S}L WO 93Rj01 JOU PIP FT SLUT JoUTqeG sty} Wo ‘sueg “TT ANE q 
*Sd19ZO'T JuaMzIedag ‘asnayy pur ‘sorzneag “4g 4e Vpoldxa 07 pavay pue 
U9as OS[Y “puooas v Satu GF f 4seT 4e YSIY saptUI ZT “4sty 4e YSIY saplal FET 
*S O1'N ‘6G4' FL BINJOSGe $ CgO‘TZ DATIE[AL £ puodas tod soujaut ggz‘TZ paeds 
quaizdde ‘uoyom o1rmueo0es apeiSo.yor yim ‘oyoqraddy :41q1Q “FEPp “Eh 
*IAX ‘(OA ‘snpuay sazdwmog vag “40g Aq suOlIt[ND|eD *g OUNL X'ZFEBT ev 


she eeeree 


“uaas Ioazaut | “TTeqaay 
ou ynq ‘UOIywUOJap { M10}s-Mous B SuLINp ‘Aup-prur 


see eeeeee 


seeeeesee 


setae eee ereseee soideny {euudig wee 
COCR CUCOR DCE CRE SEETN nC /.0114:)) «| Ow 


Set eeeeee 
Oe eeeseee 
ate eeseee 
Pen eetees 


te eeeseee 


osuey Alaa 
k<¢ 


our y fasnayy $ xnowty)*** 
oe seeeeeeseseeee seo TBUySUl}qO 108 


THeQe1g 
*y29.148 Ystuaerd ! uoou A10xv[upun {[eIUOZTIOY “ANN 0} “D'S 

‘Teqaay| ttre secaeeeee 

‘oyqip) sseteseee Roabhcene 

“saprfoq) tet saeee 
“MDI JOB} [EIOAS ‘ssvul aF.aey AIBA {][eJ-Uo1]] "WV Z 
*plvol{ suoryeuojap oad { y[eqory yuerytaq Aras) “Wad OT 
“uOOUL UIyUaddas f4Y SIT suns [enba ‘aprjog qeorS| —-MOJS 

‘aptjoq) ees Reoasnnae 

*Z MTOsge ¢ y40dar pnoy £ dn ySy poop ayy ve] “Wa C mS ARR 


1860. 


REPORT 


82 


“OT A-Ysinyq 
“roajaum Arvu0ye4s snoLmMo 

*O771P 

“Optjog 

“yeas par £ payrey 

Tegery 

‘2 UONJBUOJOp £ [ley pur Joojom Ary a[qeyreuad 
‘9SIOU puv UOISO[dxe yeo1d £449I[-Aep ‘optjoq ouy 
*1oajauL [HFWNVIG 

*UOZIIOY 0} YITUAZ WOAT YRoIys SW9—as [JAA you ‘[jeqory 
*suOTJVUOJIp snor] ‘OPYM=JOATIS $ puno.l 
-OUINU PUL 4waIH ‘WV Z S[eoTUOd SuOOML UL J0z4311q 
ISTS PUL 90S ‘UIGT ‘WIST 4} UO OsTY *0941P 0771p 
"AON | *“1OIJOUL JURTT[IAG 
‘VOUBTY *19jJB ,F IO € UOTJwUOJop pnorT { Surjzzep 
*gG.¢ “13 ‘ds ‘; uoleuojep pur [[vj-au0yg 

“109jaU 9B.Ae] 

*109}9U JUY. 

*[Ie} [Tews * [eyUozZIIOY 

*Z OIPT]OIQe £ 109}9uM ATsO[dxa 

*yqsiu owes Smquweyzy ye ouo ose 

*O7}1P 

TRG219 

*BUOT SoAjOU J PUB 9pPIM OZ JoyooI B oy!] sosnag 3e 
*[BoluoD + yvaa3s Ystppea ‘ jeyUOzIIoY ApAvoU 

"4y311q pur oSze] ‘7491 Jo uret 10 yro.ys 

“TIeqeag 

“TTeqary ystusea3 

“0931p 

“Teqety 

*Ystpper £ asinod auruadaas 

“Te qeay, 

“s[asshig pue Zioquieg ose : spreMiaye F UoIyeUOJop 
*moyaA-uaplos § nytyneaq L194 

“Teqe19 

“Urey pot £10a}9Ur MOTTa<-uaplos 

SPUNOS TBOIsNUL+sauo [ets AULT f109}9UL ON][eJ-2110}S 


- “*§tloyo DUNO. +3 


*a1v ay) UT] "1124214 painojoo-pat yep 


"oy ‘SyIvUIOY 


lad ~MOTS | 


MOIS 


ee eeerene 


“ASS OF “Oo NN 
"M'S'M 0} “ANS 


‘WV OT 


‘aS 0} “M'N 
*S 0} 'N 
‘Ss OJ 'N 

“I'S 0} ‘M'N 


"N'VE “M'S OF *O'N 
WOP HBS 
ue 
m 
us 10 ue “MM 04} “a 


WY GF9 = oe 


eee eeee 


OTS 


“Aa°N°N O} °AA*S'S 


eet eeeeee eeatetees 


*M 0} 'S 
*M 0 *a 


0% 122.148 


eee weeeee 
sone eeeee 


eeeeeteee 


ane eeeees eeeeeeeee 


eeeeneeee ee eeeneee 


eeneerees eeeeereee 


‘Wd Ze ee eeeteee 
WAG ‘MOS *S O}'N 
. ‘ 
anoy {oye1 “nonoaa1g 


* WOTyeIN GT 


Ceweeeeee 


eeeeeesee 


eee ee ewes 


foeeeeeee 


woo "pF 


een eeeeee 


eet eenee 


eer eeeeee 


aBIeT 
ase Aros 
adel Aro 


eee eneee 


snua, = 


ee neeeees 


9/.¢ “13 ‘ds 
aS1e] 


*yYZ1aM IO 9ZIg 


seeee uoltq 
teeteeeeseeereeeeres YODUOT 
Sinquie yy 
sreseeeeeeeeteeenerteerees gripe 
meysuniox 

Sanqure fy 
croceeeeeees Bisaitg Braqauniy 
Sede eeeneenanes aourly gS 99999 
stesveeeeereesseererees YNOUIITY 
seees* sgoerd 194q}0 pur sit 
seater neeeee aouedy Ss ‘oesdvry 
tersee 9929 SuoIAOAW $ OvshBTy 
Sasori eeeeeerereeesongryy 
* Aequiog 
ayyeg Ams 90184 

aourty ‘ovskeq 
eee ee Aequog 
mu0g 
Pa Th 
ve seemows es HCNe) ‘s MoIpUy “ae 
eee eee eee rere ry Apaequo7y 
bs Ayes] *§ pur sajdey 
POR eee eet eee ee eeesewetee wnis[aq 
ween eerees sosnig funisjeg 
teem eee rent owe BISATIS ‘[[P19AQ 
Rete eee neem eweres Aequog 
ss" quoyyurrg § ypeysuIE(y 


see eeee 


st eeeee 


eer e twee ee eeee 


eee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeenes dinque py 
Raeas Spsmabehie shies tosis +S UCN TCT 
ola * BULIeg 


errr e reer ereryy 


“'saSnig 
Verietuaeeeseeeeersrens srossnig 
srseeeeee  Broquainn { VUE 
tere Banque yy 

“e URT 
Z.inquie yy 
sresesees QuOIAT, °09 ‘1949T[ TY 
seeeeeeesereeeneesens GBIMGUIPT 


seeteee 


“Ane007T 


~~" 
62 
Ot 
Lt 
it 
LZ 
02 
91 
ig 
i 
0Z 
"tt 0% 
LI 
ey 
Lz 
IZ 
cI 
ol 
0% 
oie 
0g 


iG 
06 
OL 
oe 

g 

9T 
or 
“3g 

1é 
Lé 
¥G 
02 
ol 


ai 
II 
62 
It 


"AON 


‘PO 


Ae 
“ady 


“qjuOUL 
jo keq 


a ee ee ee eS ee 


é 
*'CP8L3 


* 
“PPS 


“189K 


83 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. , 


*SUOT}ETNOTeO JO puly sey} url Uodn 
patpar aq 09 yoojraduit 003 9q ShBMTe 4SNUA s}UIUIAAOUI 109}9UI UO SUOT}LATAS 
“OQ ‘2/0 —'JIGIO 8,,00109 B AqLIOSOp YOu sa0p JI ‘a ‘2 ‘GUSTIAAOTL OLIQUODOTAT, 
qoolIp B WWM uns aq} punor vjoqieddy ue saqiosap yt Ajyuenbasuood pur 
‘puooas tod aoeds ut AjLOoTaADJNTOsYe SaajaU YFG'E/ ="a pur ‘qyIv9 oY spredeI 
se puodas sad saajau 009's4 =Ajtooyaa ‘squtod yuasayrp WoIF 109391 SIq} JO 
APE SUONBAIOSGO dt} WOT ‘OATS SUOTR[NOTLO SAMegq ‘avd 4I YOIYA WO 
T94SAS IB]Ja}S VY} 0} UIVSe UANJAL 0} 41 sossoAe.Ty Aya1oUt ‘oIa4sAs Ie[Os Ino But 
79901 YOM pue ‘Iayjour 0} UNS 10 1248 dUO MOA AOLdS sastOAeTy yey} BuO 
‘a “2 ‘Apoq Ae[[9qs-VAPUL UL SIT} SYUTYI IAQ “FFEST ‘LZ 19G0~Q “VON y 

"PLE-ELS “A ‘GFRT AOJ SJORT JO Yoog wax vag ‘uousmouayd yeowyoala ue 
SBM SIY} SHOPISUOD SIMBTT "g “AA JIG “aAIMOY f FT CT “Buoy “TF ,9¢ IT 
Ul 901 aWIes 4e UVES 1OdJaMI (7) adie] Y *; papeey afqnop “34317 d110a30uL 
que Iq pur years A194 “48800 avau ‘uoURqaT pue quulry “gt oun g 

*ovsde’y 38 ose fajjag xg Arenuee ,; 


“snpuoy soydurog “[ny}qnop sdeysad { ou0 yuasaytp pue yourjsip & ma0q 
aAvly] OF pres “WV g 4e aUO BY, *,[ UL paMmorioy astou {Suyzzep § uozw0Y 
PAGE GZ Uday ‘saou[d 19440 pur “29 ‘a1gzor] ‘oNskeT ¥-0% IAqUIAAON 5 

“(COTT “d ‘snpuay soqydur0g Jo “xx “Toa wOIy 
‘Y O0N 998) WOOM = sIoduy ye Ua—S OS[y “Wa FG ¥°2Z 1940100 p 
*paasasord St 41 Wade oTayAA [NJ}qQnop st 4r { oLIOajaUL Sead ‘punoy uaaq aavy™ 
0} ples auoys ay} LayJayM JqQnop auios st atayy, ‘ovskeT ¥ TZ IaqoQ , © 
“ojauelp samjamyue SF 
$ Suyey waTM Jase] YOnUT vagy “yurod v ys1y ye Syst “oT raquiaydag q 
“SUOT OFT [ie £ yyZuaz Ut .Q¢ Jo ore poamno 
B ur poaour § durey yySt1q aSrey e ayT] ‘ne[sorg ye $ years ysIppar v ATUO 
Suravay ‘poystava yorya ‘s1eqs FYSIIq [L1oAas oFUL ysmnq {saoetd Ge MOJy UT 
quas sjunoooe periejap Sdn ysiq 419A uveq savy ysnur {uasog ye u2aS OSTY 
“qURITTIIq * UIPIA UI ,g 10 ,F JO ¢ [rey Molfak-ystuseI9 { ayUROap-UIM eB OYIT 
*"M OF “Y] $ MOIS f [eWWOZIIOY f Sraquosnpy PY “eISeTIg *¢ aaquiaydag 3 


“aUIYSUOONL [(n} Sutmmp saoprys sro issetees puelyyiq eo Ue OL 
‘ounp “01'S avtearee  guegi* ¢ 
‘ "Teqouy WB MO} “OL o31R| “"" gsnomnoy)"** [  ‘aeyAL 
*qY4 31] Bu0Iys $ afquop ‘a ‘2 ‘Surqonoy Aypreou ‘omy| —- yon “A'S O} “O'N seeesces Treeetereroeeeeooupay ‘IINOIT]OD|"** TZ 
“0791p eee eet eeeeee te ewevere PCODODEGE EOC iif sani nee) fg [OO Il 
‘aprfoq ee eeee eee asae] AIOA POCO ic ‘urwmere) see OL 
*PlLYIJOH “Fg A9AO YSry saprargey faqoyS snooust 93.0] *M 0} ‘ sabres ssreeeess QouBly !purplaZjImg)"** Ee ‘qaq 
*"SMOPLYS SUMS 4svd $ UIeIy Buoj| ‘Wed CFG "aS 0} “A'N ¢adaepAraa |" aMO'J-INs-suoTeYyD|"** 9— ‘uer| ‘OFT 
*IO9JIUL a[qeyiemoat lala cai atarre oesrcccces vteds + eee Saenad Aequog nel 6 
‘asTou pur] WY O19 § years ouy ! toozaui| _,Z Yeas |-a's'M OF 'A'N'T kK<z fe Meineke eieteee Ree ASUIES| pent e 
ayOus YOnUL YATAd [Teqory aB1vy @ ‘UAN07 ayy JOAO qsanq steer eens seeeereee . eReee eee eee eee ree eer? ZAUITN see ¢ 22q * 
‘oypp| ce meet ncess seteneeeereeererseneres SHEBTBED|"** OZ 
*oVIp sane eene eeeteseee eet eweeeseee sew entees Avquiog nee + 
-ouIp onip I reereeeess Onapl'* Z “AON 
‘asiou ou Sqyeqaug) ts ‘ UR" 1 
“QUIMBAOU UI SUOTIVIAVA SHOLMd { payiey] jf years PUR AEN bp a = sees auog|"*" $3 “0 
j Surpysryas qaqnq B ayy asiou £ payiey $4neraq *S 01 'N seteeeees Rcreeeeesodseseoeeesrns lena NOIBA 
*yeal4s JO [rez ou { ystusaS scagotsg? t< tereeesereesees  KTVUNOD QUIYY 
"E1g “Sny ‘suoryeuoyap pnoy pue 4487 o110ajam EEOECEC POE) “* BmloreD *N ‘aT[IAa ade 
; “0971p 
“Teqauy Eieiece 
‘oyup| te meget cousdasee 
"parte? $09}0u auy wei eeeees seeereeee seseseees weeceeee- eee se" Wopuoy|*** 
“paurol] speqosy) crc: qreceeees seeeeeree berceseceneonsseieminseaiay sles 
Ajavau ‘1909880: sore : 


1860. 


REPORT 


84 


PA By 


‘aprfoq aSivy v 
“opifog euy 
“aprpoq 

“Te qaay 
*e°AON 1G = { TleqQory oF.1r| 
‘astou ou §4uadtes A1oy @ ay] 
*IO9JIUI DAL| 

"Wd G SZ dIWTOINe S UOTeUOJp $ QURITTIAG 

*[1e} Buoy £ ystmorpad £ ysty (09 9v [eJUOZIAOY £ MOTs 


“BISOTIS 


eeeeeeeee 


WXGL 480448 


nl 
/GL 94,6 4448 


*/% Aoy pnojo 
Yep [[euis v yoT fastou ou ‘{ syavds {[euls OzUr ysunq 
*aoltcy ye uaas Ose [Bao $ ;eRUOZIIOY AjAvoU 
*yXOU OY} SB ous { suOROSN.OD 
“Opl[og, parley 
“TRQeAD 
‘UOIJBUOJIP TIM ySINq {BAO {uoOM UBT} AOZYTIAG 
quadsatoydsoyd ysippar $g uoNeUoJop {GP'S f QUBTTTAG 
*yva.}s | "Wd ZG'G | yond f0331p 0491p 
*[te} LO ywarjs Buoy f4qSr1q 
Aedeag 
*syauds { Ays YYY-9U0 padaaood ApisommuN'yT “Wa FO] 
*]1e} ysippat £ poderys-]yaq 
° *€IODJOUL PUL SSBUL-LOA] 
*paptey Squeypiq {syreds ‘ ¢ punos Surssry £ 4s.1nq 
“i 4xou= {0341p 


“OVP 

*y9q 0} Surpszodoov ‘y}.189 Jo azI]Jo}us £ 0}1p 

*opr[oq 

‘Apnoyo £ yylu9Z Wor, SpyVMUMOp 

‘oxy ‘ayeuI7 *[Teqa.ty 


“RU q {4pUyswvg 4vosty ‘syavds Jo JaMoYs B UL 480] 
*JO[0IA £ s]TBqary [UUs Yo Surars [Jaq “Wa OE"R 
*pavay estou ou { [[eqary 34 st1q 

“(LL °d ‘pggt ‘At ‘Joa ‘yaopuedSo0qg) ¢ [[ej-2Uu0I1g 
‘uoeUoyop years § 4ydry IysIIAq 

"UO1JVUOJIP PUL [[LJ-9U0}g 

“1183 qtoys § ArdATIs FPSIAq 

‘Wd & {JLOYs-yVaYM v ayIT {2 ay UO UL B Yas 

*é YWva JO ayt[[ayes + 4ySijuoouw yenba § quenpiaq 


“Wa Chg 
"Wd 9 


ue 
0G 89138 
19 BaA4s 
"Wd +6 
/F10,EH89.48 


‘W'd CTOL 


Ww ¥6 
ypinb 


weeteeeee 


ye ‘MOIS 


"oy ‘syvUlayy 


“Inoy !97e1 
‘ uoleing 


eee eeenee 


é°H 07M 
*a'S 0} (AUN 


eaeteeeee 


é°O°N 02 °M'S 


+r "O'S Sple Moy} 
“M'UN'N 0} °S°S'S 


*M 0} 
“a'S OF (AN 
‘a OF "M 


eee eeeeee 


se eeeeveee 


“MIN'N 0} “S'S 


uUMOp —- 


uMOp -- 


*S 0} 'N 


eee eeeee 


‘mvp Suns = 
][eq-uouuvs = 


0431p 
adAvy 


queyyiaq 


eee eeeaee 


uooUl JO *p §F 
PST ‘adary 
k<9 
a3ue10 uv d¥IT 
k<F 


uoout *p = 
oyp 
adv] 
k <2 
uooul= 
oyIp 
aa.iv[ 
*mDIp SIYIUL ZT 


eae 
é°S OF °N uoow "p 
“nOtoaIIG 4yZI9M 10 921g 


* ney}}01p 
used 
ayourtay ‘uoltcy 
“+ sgonid sayio pus ‘nejsaig 
eee ere rere ry Bing wey 


Ecracmmser ster “Sse $ [Jamo] 
siseseseens=>se OOUG LT SUOI CT 


sreeeeres sgourd AuBat ! BISalIg 
srreseeee ZyUaTqOD § WOPYURAY 
“SaTBA\ SuopuoTy $ ayeSscunyy 
bade Heeseereeereens guUsn td 
*aaavnor snos A4.1a,] 
“OW ‘SURITIG) $ SLIVG 
weyqsunjoy | uopuoy 

meee guieg 
arrysoyg ‘Aanquat \y 
sseeeeeseerseomBUsUulION 
reese gugopsodq $ aady 4S 
Poe eee eT Tee Tere ee ere rere eee uoliq 
setters UMOCE t00 ‘puRlal] 
Peewee en eee Zraquvg $ jasseg 
“*s99uid JayjO pues Buoy, 


errr ree eee 


panmasbaecenvenscnas =" Qn OT Oi] 


AL 
Cee er eer 


Jaysaonopy 


PRRERED 7.Oe Goa ICDS OgeON yc lf 


“ Wopeg £ BLIuArg ‘uNLDd[o¢] 
oun ‘unjuy 
** SOOUIAOTY YSIUayyy 
* 4puqgsuLinc] 
AR U0ja10] 
Ruoduy ‘VyVANOV IV 
Oe eee newer eee eene TISOIS aadd 


teeeerees WOYONTT ap sasauaug |’ 


eee ee eneee ‘ 
sadgity £ asnojnoy, 


“AppLoo'T 


Ja}saono[ 9} 


slitq|" 


LI 

LI 

on | 

OL 

6 “PO! 

Gs 

cS 
dag 

3G 

Li 

OL 

1 ‘snuy 

I¢ 

cZ 

£3 

at 

at Arne 

61 

y 

¢ oun 

8 Avy 

1g 

GG 

[1G “AVX 

*yquouL 

jo Ae, 


an 
= 


“OFSTe 


Bild 


*y1edv 499} VUUITA 0009 
qnoqe 48 pUNoj a19M UOT JO SassvUL OM4 OY} !][9F VIY JO syva.ys por Oy pus 


‘uoisojdxa oS.1v[ auo { uaas toajayy “Juopsuuvondney ‘neuneig x'pT Aine 4 
“ara dsourye ay} o7ur passed aavy ysnui toajaut ayy Joord v ‘akey 0} Sutplooor 
$ dungiys Aqenpess “OL Tox a]qista pauremas yeyi pops sn[nund-o.L119 v ayIT 
JOS}t UodN punor pura 07 patiaas YOIM “jays pazuaput yYZuq v puryaq 
JT ** OF “AA P2AOUL SAaUYyONG 03 Supiodor ‘euUlA VY “OT Arenuer g 
"Ypluaz WOT YJNOS SpremMoy, “9 ArenuLe “PRT o 
*dULLO9JIUL [NJIQnop &v JoyW.C poazapisuod aq 
4SNUE PUL ‘ULOAT OT][LJIUM OU SUTLJUOD “ABD “g ‘puR[YNY stamMINg OST y 
‘BISaTIS Ul Saovid Aueyy *syavd 9a.y4 
JO pasoduioo ‘OQ, of pnopo yyStIq v yor] ‘OW ‘NEISAIq ‘gy 1aqMaAON w 
*ditoayaw AT[Bat Sead 
SI} JOYJOYM AQnOp YON st d1oyJ, “]JOWs s[quaoisesip v Sutavy po.tocoo 
“SIp Uaeq aARY 07 pits ‘sql ZPP JO BUOIS W "][PMOT xT] AaqWIAAON _ 
*[[Uq-uouurd *q[-g Ue Jo yyy OZIs yUaT 
seddv $ 109j,9u1 yURITTIIG SOUL B STM SIE ‘O[QISIA CT LOZ poasey yor “ued 
]P4jUdO SIT IvoU FYSI[ Ystpunor eB Zurcatos ‘pus youa ye dn Jlasyt pasayye3 uoyy 
“© Poysel Yeas suouruny ayy, ‘Avp se qysziry cuoliq” *G aaqmaaAoN x 
“UOZILIOY BAOGE GT 42 SO] Sq] 07 “MA f AqIdne ULqy AaZary 


*UOISNY JO 9}v45 
B UT Oq 0} pamtaas £ [Ivy pue years Suoy $4s1nq pur uMop ogg [fay {yeas 
A19A UOYLUOJap fsakory, pur saqivyg 3 os[y ‘sutq %*'G 19q0O x 
“O.MYSHEM UL pure ‘odpriquieg ye os[e uses Apuoanddy 
“‘puodas B UL Sarl FZ ‘OIL F°A\ OL AG *N £ YSIY saftut Tg Sastou YITA papord 
“x9 4t SAUS 4UNODDe JUG "YzIWaZ WO. sparMUMOp paaout { YyTUAZ Ur qd 
DLOIJIW FLOAT V UY UL f LOVJaWI TI] v MILYTUIVON 4 egzsaquaydag y 
“Rog ye 
Ajand Jost wort oy} to ‘xvoy wv st A10}s a]OUM aq} Jayya yng ‘dn payaid 
W9aq PUL Ud[es aavl{ 0} plus UOLL UY ‘puRjaty ‘Mog ‘og -Q[ asnSny 5 
"208 JO OpNzty[e uv yu UdaS 4SINT “JassegQ “LT asnSny ; 
*(Aoj0Ur 
“VIP 4997 OSE pue “ySty soyim 47%) puooas v salu ¢ *y “y UL yUMAAOM oprId 
~O1jaL | SpUOIS 98Z‘ZT UOIN[OAaL Jo 9UNIy | So.xjdUL YgFG Paads vax $ puodas 
dod saujaut 99¢6 paads quaredde ‘ saxjout Qoo'Zp aouranaddesip Jo ynamout 
qe Yva Wolf aouRysIp fsayam QOL ‘py [ea ‘asnojno, ez Aine o 
‘syteds ur Ayeuy pasvoddesrg ungny -9z aune p 
“RIRASNY UL ‘Avg uojaloyY xg JUNE , 
“WapUd A -Ula[ yy JO auojs ayy Surjquies 
“9d “Sq, Q 0} T INOGU Jo ]Jo} [eIBAIS S vUOLITY OyUoW AvaN x°g ALTY q 
°N 03°S ‘SAL}OU HLG‘ TT PoUL;SIp 4svoy f cGEe‘cy YZAva WO. doULysIP 4sa}vaL3 


£8 10 ,¢ Loy Years Vay +. UL (gf JO O18 ue UT papuadsap A[MoTS { aNTq azed 


Ssaqjom JGL'pT = Ayoojaa quaivddy  -uoyour o1ju90008 apesSorjat v 
fooURA[ UL ‘UO FY “;pLzSWAeC 4B Ud—aS Ose fyA0;Y URL “ZT 10q0;00 ¢ 


YIM “YyAVa OY} JO aztJaqes v aq AVUL LOdjaUL sity SKUs VG “LZ YORI » 


~Op YIM [fof sjuowBVyoMyE “TZ. AB‘ds $ ][ey-uoay 
*U01zeU0} | “aploy 
“YSty GT f aa-ysiniq) ZT yvaays 

*MOT[aA-YSIppas seer rates 
*9)IT] M-YSIMo][ad 
‘apltoq 
“qySiq £ [rey Bu] 
*¢ UOPUOT 4B UdaS OSTY ¢ VAS I9AO ASTOU Y4IM papoldxa 
"(EG/) “SQL G6 19430503 ‘[eIaAag “go. 1B ‘ds {[eJ-aU04¢ 
*1O9}aW JU e 


"Wd ge eeeeteeee 


“sql OS +2F 


Peete teeeeee vINIYyoR ‘neuneag see FI Atne % b 
AO e eee eaweeetnesceseueres vuleg]|'** Gz aune 
EERE ROURBEORODOO i TES | ho 92 
Se err rer cere nr ry uuog|'** OT 
uuog)|""" 6 

phe sep see has casien ce eee SOLA Y CH hi 
posscecsennedepes sch yesresar TOK yous} 3 
teen eeeeseene aaysuaapsoqy|""* GT ‘AVN * 
“'""BMOT “09 “UUIT MOLI +o GG * 
HERO EEO OS UECOSOCS <4 fa FOG 1z 


see eeseee 


“aN 0} +- 


eee eeeses 


snuaA <= 


ate eeeeee 


ee eeerees eee eee eee ery 


Av 
“ady 


eoccccese 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


‘onp Il 

‘onip 01 
*,L 105 Areu0192)8) "EG °G2q “aptoq ve € “q2I 
A[Iveu auo pur ‘umop—-Suryyey auo $ omy oquUI PeplAlp| ‘Wag “O'S 0} “ALN OL 
“W10}S-dap } ‘astou ou !Apsuoqur ut Surdiva years Byal] “AN 0} “A'S sessep see “UsUUIqUIID|'** g ‘uer 
-unyy eSutnp |[ay fuomoa][008,predayg uy *szogioyjip} ‘tt OPED 2E-o IB 'ds tg +g ‘eurorrg ‘sg ‘puryory|*** ramung | 
"gf.¢ 1d‘ds ! Sraquaugyogavou { [eroAas S]ej-auoig| "wa Z EQ é°Sq[ LT reevesees BrivaRd ‘ieyqJap ; 


Sy eeeeeeees ee teneeee FOO emer teem ete ee reseeeeae 


“" 


pea *2 SU] SB ours { ysintq § sMOpeYs 4svo 
‘aplpoq o3.te] 

“IojoMVIp UL sayour ZI f[G.¢ "AB “ds £ |[ey-auoig 
"ZapsOq WOSINITO YpTMA ‘ma8I3 

Eaetep 4q papray-atquop § pares pue podeys-aead 
uaaiS SuoztIoYy vAOqe OL {44 3IUq pue ad1ey Aron 
Teqary yq3r1q 

‘ou 

*oytp 

“aprjoq 

“S6PS1  ‘J[9s}t Surpurdxo aprym 4sanq 

“wvIp UL "Ul $Z aU0}g ‘MOIso|dxa yua[orA “]][BJ-aUOIg 
“purer, 

‘stay Aq paarasgo $ [jeqory 

‘qUaMAAOMT oUjUAdIas ‘pride. ‘Buoy F [1e7 

“apifoq 

“partes § ysinyq 

‘TeqQe1y 

*puodas WAP ot} 4e 4ueTTIIIq ysoul 

‘jlopsuuruipag ye ospy ‘ysanq £ |jeqaay v 

*[[eqauy aB.xe]] 

“poads render $4 10J Arvu0rye}s <yavou 

“op 

“oy41p 

*aprfoq 

“Treqory sy 81g 

“qy Sy [esuag v sv Suyzzep $yeymoztoy {ysanq $yueILAG 
"Tleqoay. Ystppaa 

*eprjoq 

"Tre, Suoy §4yS1, yea 

*Zastou SurzziyM $ yeasys Buoy  eproq aay 

“WV Z% § [Ivy Zuo] 

‘syinds {4s1nq ‘ ysippox ‘ysmypq {Uo sv yy StIq 
“THe qeay 

“1O}Je PUII} BULOS TOF YwI.14s B yoy ‘ UMOp yomb 
‘TIeqary sug ev 

“doajaut ouy e 

‘AYOUS JO PHOT IYSIIq v ayIT SMOpeYs ysvo £ wepnBa.tat 


"i 


1860. 


REPORT 


86 


‘ow ‘syvMayy 


enter eee ee eeeeese 


“Wd [ steeeeees 
u& "ON 0} “A'S 
w¥ seeeeeres 

/Ol 189148 *N0} *AL 
al ‘OTS "S$ 0} 'N 
‘Wd ¢ seeeeeeee 
steeeeere “°8 04 “HS 
OG Yea14s . . 
L109 389148 eeeteseee 
tet eeeeee “048 
006 FOF ,,8 
ih “AL'S SPIBMO} 
HEL HM GSS sascccccs 
weeeseees ~aehuieas 
,OT 189.148 ; 
AMO|s 
HOE 182148 “AN 0} 'a 
u& IO 6 seeeeeeee 


“a"N 0} A'S 


“a'N'H 0} 
9 10 1G “8 0} ‘N 
sescereee | ewer OW casts 
LB *S 02 'N 
MOIS ,,C rasan 


“mmoy 5 99er 
$ WOTJVING 


*“uOTjOaIICT 


sniig < ZI 
ary 


é°SL F 
aB.1e] 


aB1ey 


“UDI OE 
aB.ivy 


eee eeeee 


uooul ‘p £ 


seer eees 


k<2 
ee 


seeee 


aS.v] 


"ULDLD {G 


aB.v] 


ee eweweee 


wee et tees 
ee eeeeee 
wee eeeeee 


“Unip {CT 


*q43taM 10 9ZIg 


FOO mee meee ee eeeeens 


AIMqUaL 


seeeeeeeeess meee il 


HeresOnqIp 
teat eeeeeceesresereereeees BTID 
Se ere ysanquipy 
tee eeeeee sesuey.cy WH 48910, 
itteseeeteeeeenies | gripe 

é daysunyy 
ne[saig 
teeeeeeesormerrtees SEB 
Peesevece vee cdsbesees TUS UTI ON 
Poe eeee eee eee eee reece Ty ulyqna] 
uu0g 
‘saad Jayj0 pue sjaQ 
“* peasy 
sitteeseesseeen OIXG) 
tet eeeeweeee SO[[LES19 A, {sueg 
Httesseerseneerearstseeerrs  gtIBy 
sarvuag 
* BISaTIg ‘ZylUYyaty 
teeeee Aequog 
UNO 
pxojsurpare 
triserereerereeeesererees UBT 
ere eee eee eee eee ery AANQUdA AY 
Sab wnaceidenesninius oss ohee COR ACT 
mae * yeuoog ‘Arqmog 
eee ween uuog 
sroeeneeateiclessaesGCdarc Sted 
eteeteneeeeeeenereeeeseees QgUetT 
setees soovyd JayjO pur aud 


Seen eee tee tenet ee ener eseee 


eer Ter eee eee errr! 


seteee 


She esis se en'eapnewas'ss) (STOSRTTG|| 


“Ag1[200'T 


LI 
IT 
ey 

96 
61 
LT 
FI 
6 


“PO 


“ydag 


‘Sny 


87 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


*OUTATIO JO 4790 Jod YG ynoqe sureyuod uoT0d 

Auoys ayy, ‘wortsodutod ut ‘etavroyy, ‘oysuLTg Jo U04s 94} SaTquasar $ proy 
S,P[tyo B sv odue] se Apeatt £ adt oy} 07 UO Tag “4peysdory, ¥°£z Joquieoaq , 

*10NJOUL B[QVyIVUII V 
“WYStM JO 9S] Ur pure ‘souRIg Jo 4sv0o "N UO Woes OSTY “F Jaquiaydag 4 
€°Q[ FL “MOA snosayoyoru surejyuoH ‘oureyy ut auyseg x*'9¢ Avy ¢ 

*“WIOJ VAI]-pnopo passer v oyu yunays pue dn paaano Aye 

“npeid ye91}s IO 112} ayy { s1vys oyeredas O7UL AsIOU JOYITA PaAdfossip {nooo 
Ysinyq @ JO Se snajonu ay} f Smquapuraqnay ye uses Os[y ‘6g YOIeI + 
‘WV F ‘[[eq-Joyxoso B sv adel sv ‘ye FW *g YOUR y 

*sIaaTI RIpPNGesuoo], pue 


Vpn 94} JO uoUnl oy} 48 ‘1o0|BaN Jo "a's ‘uemIVyCE ¥'¢T ArenIqay 5 

"oO 04 USIT 09 MO Tay f oyym-soapig “7g Arenuep ; 
*[e,oUL 

poiaut parqmasar ‘ apis yoRa WO Tre} po194;¥0s [TEMS v peyT “Tz Arenuer , 
“TOTFUDAUE 

pue yydur @ oq 0} paedays Aq pareyg “9 *f ‘sesueyry *g taquio00qT p 
"M'S SpteMoz uo A[MOTS paxout uay? {4 AreuONe}s ATAU Uday ‘epnyzye 

JO Ch 0} YHUeZ Woy poraoud 4sIy {snoring ‘pIOJxQ ‘Oz JOqUIAAON , 
“LEST 40U ‘SFST 9q pinoyg ‘so[Zue syS11 ye Apavou punos 

Surdaams "g 0} *N WO asinod sy padueyg “Aequiog *f saqmiaydag q 
"¢ sawak /6¢'E/¢ Jo poutod fsoytu ZF ATTeUy 

uayy ‘YStq sopra FET 7s1y 3e Spuooas v Ur ZF IUaA ‘SUUg “GL ISNINY , 


nnn ee ee a eee ee eee eee eee 


*eIURIASTIYD 42 
cANISNY 9} UI paArasaid { sommes Qeg | ][eJ-au0j}g) Suruaae #S-¢ 13 “ds * I 
“1oagam auy] ttt eeaes tees Gestewones 
‘wy J “pariey you A eles OR Selecta ee Srereeeeenses  garusmpooury|""* 6Z 
“01D a) yeerys wectcocee ececcwese ec eevee ceeeesseeeneece Aequiog soe 91 
‘oyp) “te Hietetnereeseeireeeceteeee seyleee QT 
‘onIp eeceseces “meysuryj0N S08 (3 
*T[TeqQo1y sent e wees see eereee wee . eee eww tenes Avquiog see T "AON 
“Sul[Zzep {vas OUT UMOp [Jay UAYy “ys1y TeyUOZOY] ,& Years “ST 07° sreereeserss upmoog {Auquiog|'*' 6z 
*payrey ‘ aytq . wee te teeneee Settee rete te eeetereetons plojxe) oes 12 "~O 
gl (CL a ete . BULIed)"*" 8% 
‘98uri0 ue se aSary se qieqaag| ttre “oS 0 A'N Sone ie 8 al (Ubaconnorna veer ovale es sielsieie aie “esigi'*' 8 
*syieds UI UMOp ][9} patyj-auo pue 4simq $ yueIT[TIq),C0} ¢ yearys| *a"N 07 “A'S uoom'p € | meqSurjon { xessng|*** F x 
“quel £ystuaeiS ${eyuOZI0Y|  AOTS “HE O7 A eeneeesns ttreeseeeseeees ropa fsjassmig|'*’ [ ‘4dag 
‘op) ee ; “ guaegl' 6z 
‘r09}0u| ,,f 10 ,,€ seessceee seeneeres “ xtyl'? gz “Sny 
“9SIOU ou $ sMopegs 4svo £ 4s.nq £71ey ou £ querpiaq eeneweree steweeees ste eeeeee pecbisnny puelsuq ‘ XIV f uu0g see 62 
“T[eqaay) —-MOJS oes aang andeer es Vinee yuo €z 
“ysintg * Mojs) FE UL 02 “A 0} uooUt “pt “meysunjon | gt Aor 
*So]IUl QF 1940 pavay uorsojdxa ‘°z0 FT ‘{[ej-au0jg| “wa Ep *A'N 0} “S'S Grier eGs) [peesssarin slow v8 9a SQUIB 04 * f 
‘apyjoq auy) ttt seeeneeee seeeeves Merseeseseeeees SrQdRUO-BI-XIW|''! FZ 
“Ae, TOS 10 { aprjoq aSrey eeneeeaes eseiets Wainer eases BIGOTTC|*** BT 
Teqoay. . “ guogl* 4 se 
‘a[puvo ULMOY B ox] ‘s}red OM4 OVUT paptatp "AAS 0} “ON ssheaiens Bo: QUOUR uopuo7y|"** 0¢ 
“qySiptay Aq $ ystmoyjad § ysiqdand + 03'S [l@q-FOIOLIO B= |rrreeeeeereeeeeeeeeseeHIOIXO|"* BT 
“qySqimy Aq qqStaq) ste ‘S01 'N sevensees seeaeneseeserrecseeeoseeenOTXG|"* g Ady 
‘az1s ut] ‘MOY UL Jey I{ISIA YVa.tys| QE Yeorys qeteasans oom = seeees BVqIOPO|"** 6S I 
pasvasout Ayjenpesd { yeynozta0y £ pape, ‘padeys-ay1y Bi “AL 04 °S moou—< yjeg fqsnojgi""* g U 


horn! 


WOjZ BT JO d[suv Uv 4 [Ie eNO JUaS fF Be 


‘wo1qoaIIp $41] *109]9UL “Hp Suu) ‘oct oeeeeeeee 
2,08 IOJ yv9.148 ] ‘aprjoq wearers set eneeee weereeeee se eeeeeenees gS wal ‘UaARTT MON 1z 
$ UOZLLOY BAoge .9 4U OMY OJUL 4Ids fyeyUOZLIOY ‘Mos! CG] UI gf] “E'N 07 “M's ‘PSPS |" aseyjag fyyzog $weying)’* GL 3 
*sMOpeYs Surseo 4uyStaq $ ystuges3 Ssyivds yytm ysanq| prdes “MS UL -- &<Ff srreseeseeeseerpinuy fatodeloys|"** ZL ‘99q 
Wa £9 £ sT[eq ems] *uoIyvinp HST Neaa3s Wel see eneeee eereesees te eeeee te eeeeaee XIV ‘uuog “* 61 
OVUT 4SANG SquRT[IIq § YsIpper Spee PUL ]]vJ-9U07G) ‘das [eIIAaS e7AN 0} “SE a31e| ee Seas "? sipodiy, £ Apeqy|"** eT * J 
*WO1yeU0JOp poy § ! u0OUr se q]S11q “W'd 6 *MO} SE snuo, < Ff  |etpuy‘uoSezey 2 anySraassy|""* 6G * 
syearqs @ aaRS| octets “a 07 A snua, <F sserteertncccersedtesees. Como) g 
“ysty males 08 ‘4sInq !/Z 10x eros years We “01M aS.iry seeessoeeees Kequuog ‘uosezeyy|"** 7 
Oe yeaaye ¢ S[I2q 8 10 f Jo pasodumo0o peel; S aprjoq 1G “ASM 0} ‘O'N'G t< syong ‘weysuon $saysayg|"** ¢ 
“(UT pur UILYSUT30N 4v Was OSTY "Wid G tpot-aSuvto| Mos ‘,g |-AcNtM 09 ‘aS uoom -; pesoustaeatevss QUIT BOSUEMe|t:” Z Py 
“ult) “SUIUDAD oY} UL Ua—aS qoaya PUPIT TAG coebassaes ponerse sereseerees wpoTy ‘edwey|** [ ‘AON 
*pavaysj1odaraa1yy $ was JOU LO9}9 IN *SqTGT ‘{[[eJ-auois| “Wag “HT O7M $9-¢ a ‘ds *S*qfeurporeg: yy “09 serivgeg|*** TE * 
“urlquq 4e uaas osje auo $ 109j0UL OUY B sete weees see ee teen eeeee eee ee rr sfauyig}'** o¢ 490 
*(auOysSuTAV] 0} Surprov0v) Joajawt oTyT]010"| u00U mag ee ceennenne sreeeesereeess BOLI ‘nepRun y|'** ‘Bny| * > 
‘syieds [[euls puz [te} f Apoq [eo1u09 £ jeyuUoztaoy Ayrvau AMOTS u<z sreresreseseneeses Ta ILLaIsay|'" Gg “SNY 
S *sypleds § yjay yeorys quer Ae aueeusesis sreressees BIDUT SapuNqloog|*** £z 
ilo) *syieds ystppar £ anqq $ [va eecccvece woourjo & Farseesoersseessess sO RUBUIION Ss! ral 
Se fsayzey *[e] ou £ Yysintq AMOJS h<e Rs rrr uTBySUION | * OL Ane 
/G OF ,T WOIeUOZap pnoy § syieds f4s1nq { sMoprys ysvo| “Wa OT ‘MIN 0} ‘A'S aie] ae * eipuy ‘aayoeriny|"** 6g * 
a "eT Ayu Pastas Tl@J 300 pip Yor 
| ‘squataSeay yes9aas OL ayoI1q £ aduvs0 aed * guenizq Spengoes “E02 "MM snuaA < 0} *G |""* “Ss "fly “sseyy ‘aSpruquiey|*** syT oune 
2 “OSIP O[QISTA UGTA Aeda4y  Ystmoyad f 4uerypuaq ye aie = guppy % TOOT elles oa abs Seem UNO Gna Gre 
fq «« JOW_-F MOZIAOY AOTAQ [[aJ * Ystueers f aqo[Z pouyop-][aa| uoousayye “aN 02 °M'S air] mreserssesess BIDET QIVIBMUMLY |" Gg 
-astou] ‘Wd YEG 3v ‘QUZAep Lq {0741p . “MUN 0} ‘a's Hh=z os sesneshnentey ¥gtaB ast? re 
“aprjoq seeeesees ‘ +. : : Avquiog oe Avy 
“T[eqa1y. eet eweree Tee tereee Seer eee eeee vIpuy ‘yruoog see of 
Tre} Ou f auIy-Avp £ 0M} OJUL paprarp { T[eqary [eao| ,,Q¢ ‘Aojs Ta ie seten.csas porsecsrcernestadisess saa Oda nee 
“qsing $qurtyiuq) Mojs “T'S 0} “MN seeeeeeee serreees BrigpURyy § ABqUlog|G[ 10 9Z A 
‘ayl[-33e Sysmyq ‘uvow sz qysirq 0G Yeaajs | "T'S 0} “AN aie] sereeeoooeee upmOOd § ABWLOG|'** ET | q 
snajam DU ate |moeeeceerce “a O02 “A snuaa<¢ [7  UIpuy ‘Inssnupaumyy|'** OT 
“Ayavau AT[eyuoz10Y pasont ‘ auuTq MOJS “A'S 0} “A'N aprenesns “tipuy “typeqy"* # [dy 
*48Inq ! [leq} pat {users} test “M'N 0} ‘a'S aB1ry] * BULYD-ULYIOD|"** 9g 
*109j9UL aB1v] eeeteeeee a eeeeeeee eeeaseeee seeteeees T[epury y ‘ Avquiog Saar rd 
“UOreUojap + “Wd Fg f4sINq SYstMaeIs : ueNTIq] ,,Z Ut Oe “a'N 0} 'M'S uoow += “*4qving Syuuoog §Aequiog|*** GT * € 
“pai-ystuaai3 uayy ‘aztqM evcercese eeeereee aziry Pewee veeesereresesees uopuo7 see 9 “IVI 
“10a}9U 2818, “eae syeteeeressecceeeaseseve~ SumnUIN|" EG “dad 
“ysinqq H<z Herrssseseesareesscerserees Uapelees 7 cue] — "GRRT 
. ‘ . 
© "O29 ‘syIv Oy ‘teh wane mOTJOaITC, “44 819M IO azig “kyyeoo'y ice "way 


89 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


‘uuog 4@ sv ‘Cuvurzay ut pure ‘orrys 
-Aqiaq Ur uaas sdeyszad sea Joajaur siya { pavay astou oN *Zz Areniqay 1 
*é 41qI0 o1joquaed & ul pado *44Ava VYI Jo SapIU OT 
UIT 07 uMOp paddosp sajo1zaed pur syjeq SnourtuN] UOIso[dxa ayy Aaqye fare 
SnoUIMINy B ynq ‘Trey ou pey fysintq ‘Ystmorfad ‘ysippat {syaal Aq paaout 
£snuaA ULY} Jade] AoYVeI ‘sapTUM OOT 48 £ []oA\qAeT] 4 sv ‘uoOUT T[Ny aq} se ISIVT 
se paivodde ‘aourjsip sapiut gg yy “puovas & say QE Joe AIL90JaA [ear 
f satu GT A[Uo 4simq vaya ‘satu FE Uaas Jsiy UA WySIaF] ‘aaenbs saprat 
OG J9A0 SojnurOL aay 03 UO UI pvoY UOIso[dXiy “QGRTTAXXX *[Oa “Seypy [Yq ayy 
Ur 4f JO qunod0e Suoy ev uaAIs sey saysIE[N “A ‘A1oWIOSjUoW ‘YDIMUaETD 
*P10jXQ ‘uopuoTy ‘Kqany ‘proypag, 4e uaas seas IoajauU sy, xT] AueNAqag x 
“YOIMpurg 7e ‘Uaas ys1y UDYM YAY sop YE ynoqy *G AienIqay “OG8T ¢ 
‘TeuInor suLUMIT[Ig *s1vys Suiyooys Jo Avjdstp sug 
v Zuru9sa ayi uy *yunov0e s,paedayg ‘Jorg 99g *] JOQWIAON GEST 1 
“Buy 21 ‘C1 “wv $ZT qnoqe $ uorsojdxa ay} Jo punos ayy aq) Joye urese 
Spuooas aULOS pue SC] 10 ,,OT 1OJ aTQISTA Surjs.anq raqye syuswBeay ayy $ wrI0F Ut 
ATVINGOH “WosulyrY “A “ff WOIy uoLorMMMOD ayvsIg TT ASNSNY y 
“601 “d ‘0GgT 4103 
Suloday ‘oossy “Ig 99s ‘xoajaUI sty} JO yUNODOL [INF eIOg ‘OFT Aq soy 
OOE 3SL9] 4e Jo odULASIP v 190 UOas £ puLfary ‘ep{Ty “3g Joao A[quqoad ‘ySrq 


SoTIM Bg SCA S [Ie IO Yvans [Jems ev Ajuo peyy “purjary ye pur ‘ps0jSu07 
‘mRYsUION pue ‘ajsiIeQ ‘YySanquipy ye uaes os[y “6T Jaquiadaq’ g 
*san5O[ezeD S1ysMe[snSog pur ‘{ya100g [eAoy 
92 JO SuOIBSUBIT, AT} OSB ! QCRT LOf “SLI “Iq Vag “J[asqt sifodrry, Jo uM0} 
OY} OFUL W9yA Jo oMOS £][a¥ S9UO}s Jo TaMoYs v a1ayM ‘sodiay, pur stung, 
W99M4aq GY JO WvANs B IYI] Os[e voag “Surysinq taqje (j) saynutut gy inoqe 
plvay UOIVUOJap ¥ AOS 07 Zutproooe { 1axjJe anoy FF aqISIA pnopo 34 S14q 
B Fanojoo UL payieA “AYs UTaYINOS ayy UT Uaag “ATeI] XE] JaquIZAON , 
*y81Nq JOU pip fvpaysorq put MopAeD 4e uaas 
ose !Suyzzep Syeao fuyquq 410A0 [eotaA ‘vasuemg *Z JIQUIAAON 5 
‘dn peyord 
SUM 9048 OU JsvaT 4U ‘[[LJ-9U0}s v you ‘IoajzaUL ZuyeUOZap v ‘uoTdtOSap 
SAUOISSUIATT “AQ WOIy ‘VoLyy yNog ‘nepruny “ysnSny «x GFET p 
‘Wd J favqryeyy osye 6G] Tudy , 
“ALQWOg Woy sajtul QO JO aouR,sIp & 
‘aa]oSuryy 48 ose uaag + puodas aad say gE = ‘a $Aequog “cy [udy 4, 
“LOL “A ‘OGgT 103 Sqioday uoNRIoOSsy YsyIIg O08 ‘Ioa39mI sia 
JO JUNIE UL OT “AODJITU SII WOT ][EJ BUOYS B ATGEGOIG “Pp CT 01"p F 
‘syreds o7ur ysingq = *peqeSunimy ye pavay ‘¢ 04 F] ynoqu ur suomeuozep 
Om], ‘aivnbs saztiu 99g JO vase uv taA0 pus ‘AnSdnupauyy‘anySzaassy ‘peqes 
~uniny ‘atodvjoyg ‘yeuoog ‘yeng ye os[e uaas fArqmog *G] Your , 


‘mnojoo ystudas3 BJO ‘[[eqaay] terete ee taeeeee se eseeees “nessaq|"*’ 81 
*EUONLUOJap { [[eqoay que! see eeeees se eeeneee s wepyis ot) cadyil ¢ 
*0}Ip errr rr sere eeeee tence eeee Cer eeeteeeesesceeecce Ainqsatsy|""* LI 
“SNTIIG = Saprjoq Wal “M 0} Bc 9 eee eens eRe e meee rewerrses viIpuy ‘qeing|*"* 9 “IVIN 
*SIU4S [BIOAIS OFUL J[9S}I papratp yard 
ISP OY} SSpreMuMOp 8 40 ,f 1oJ+- ‘ pauyap Ayreapo| ,,F 10 ye é‘S 0} ‘a's's UOOU JO "p= |" ‘ow ‘Ainqsayfy $ uopuoTy|'** Zz I 
“EL! Suyzzep ‘umop—- ‘ ysiniq! padeys-avad Sqjeqaay] ‘wa CEG Pe Be uoow = “Wey SUIVON|** ET 
“YSIppad + [[eqa.y quLTyiiq Ssmopeys 4svo] “W'd gz'C Sra ae ade] vreee uuog)""* §1 
*.¢ poyse] yrans 
twa For {raye ,z opemsa[3Sig z9a0 UOLUOJap pnoy “H'S'S 0} “AV N'N | UOOM JO "P= errr ¢ CaBTING 07 doULZUdg)""* IT * x 
*[le} [[Vus ! yeas & yo, * prdew uoow ‘p £ priceuctoaustanscseus ese  Coaigdi-** (iT 
*snolind $ umop] “T[eqaay wet eeneee muo0ow wu 8 s "pag 4e Or 099 ON ae see L 
—- Sutddorp syaeds por {spreaysva padout puv 4sinq] FT ‘uorjze4s “rence Rss uoouw £ 03 +9 ‘quay ‘yoImpurg|"** G  “qaq f 
‘UMOP 4YS1e14s parour fyva.ys ev pey] _£¢ eheaee sa snua,A = 2 ** Samoqiayo|""* O¢ 
“Jaqye UOT{LUOJIp ! PIATA $4 SI] O10ejom] “WV fe anes uooul= srreeesugquISuaTyoy suuog)|'** 6 * 
“s[lejap 10x quomatddng gag *109}0UI Suyeuojep . . woueesece weccceseccccevcccouceses Aueunas “° = snap *0S8I 
“Atp SI} S109j9M1 puv sUOTso[dxo o10ajau [eraAas os * I 


“YSINIY + 0% UL UOFeUOZap pnoj ‘ syuomBuay oFUT ysInq 


ors 


*N 03'S 


sersreseees guTTOIeD, 


TES 


vspuooas [e19AVS TOF 4YSI] JO Years { ystmojod 
“ysinyq 
‘UeMpING 4SaA\ ‘YeIoOoURg “eIpUT UT £[[eJ-aU0Ig 
“paizy { spuovas otuos tof Aremoryeys ATIvau ‘ Sutzzep 
“api{oq 
*(TOqMOAON TIGT 10) ystaorjoa 
*api[oq 
“EFL AON °,0% TOF YRaTys f ay[-Joutod * ysanq 
“*BurujzyS1] Jo ysey B ay] spuoyo purtjaq uses 
*SUOTIL[[LIUMIOS ITA “GuBryIq 
“TLeq-JayoWo @ uv} tosavy £ ysmypq * ysanq 
*yearys B WoT £ Sz 
*ySry Sattar OG £ OE TOF yearys Sysinqq £ podeys-aved 
*; yeorajooja $2 uoM £Zy.g “Ad “ds ![[ef-auoig 
*[equozioy § MO[S 
*yvorqs 10 [Iey OU f OIyIp 
“Osntp 
“queryiaq § 0141p 
*oFWIp 
“queqyiag A19a ‘apo 
“ysin{q uatty ‘pat 
“apryoq 
“0131p 
ASIOU PUL IOUS FYTI[S ITM 4SANG AABY 07 pres * apr[or 
“10}s0q 19A0 | *OIJOUL YURIT[IG 
“eptfoq 
*syinds {1o09}aut 41{S11q 
*o GT 10} UMOp —- + [BAO 
*UaT[eJ IACI] OF ples sawozs * UoyeUOJap + 1Od}om 
“43r[-Aep [ny UL Wa—as 
* GT Ul UolyeUojop {9ZIS UT pasvodour + yuRIT[IAq 
*sa[tul a.aenbs Og J9AO NONLUOJEp YwaIB $ LOdjaUI 
“ui @ & Ur uoTeUojap { syaeds $ Buoy OL [res !ays11q 
‘aZIS UI 19}JO POLIVA! UOIBUOJop L.Aaye ,p ‘an{q-ystusa.d 
*YBII4S IO [12} ou Saprjog ayy Ava[O 

“MOZLIOY MOLA YURS FT SB yS.iNg 
‘Suisvatoap pue Bursvasour ‘syst opoajaum yy dq 


1860. 


‘Wd GET 


REPORT 


90 


‘aap ‘syleuley 


“parted * mystaq ~ 


eens 


oS TOF us 
WV ge 
OTS 
€ 8914S 
ue 
we 
ut 
ul Ul OCF 
MO[S 
‘Wd & 


eeeenenee 


06% 10F EF 
ue 


OF 12I148 


wee ee tees 


eee eeeeee 


ue 


Senn! 


Wy 
ue MOIS 
‘W'd OT 
‘wv TIT 
Wd £6 
“Wd 6 


ate eeveee 


0S 10 uSG 


“INOY £ 91BI 
 UOIyeung 


*N 0 'S 
“A'S 0} “AA'N 
“a°S 0} “AN 

“M 0} A 

"N07 M 
*M'S 0} “AN 


wee weeeee 


*M'S 03 °S'N 
“a'N O} ‘AVS 


‘a'S'S 0} “AN'N 


*M'S O} “O'N 
‘a'S 0} ‘aN 


“a N'N 0} “M'S'S 


‘MIN 0} ‘S'S 


weeeeeree 


“a'N 0} ‘A'S 
“MUN 0} ‘D'S 
“a°N O} “A'S 


see eeeeee 


“mOroaII 


eet eeee 


snuaA = 
snus, —< 
‘P P2G 
uoow + 
iG 
uoou & 
kK=Z 
aB.ivy 
aZiry 
é'P /F ‘a8.v| 


uoow = 
snuoA <= 
kK <2 
KR<¢ 
uoou jo "p & 
k<Z 
uoom = 
hk <zZ 
k<Z 


t= 


uoow “p = 
a31e] 
sna A = 
aie] 
a31e] 
woou = A[Ivau 
moo *p $ 


eeeeeeeee 


“4 319M 10 9ZIg 


weer ee eeeee UWIVZIN, s arodvioys 
ee-8* UIBUSUYION £ PlOJXO 
ooess pyreyg facodmassig 
GeO ‘plOJXC ! uopuoTy see 
. “TUR YSUJON 


. seem ee ween eeeee UTI g wee 
eer eeee eee SHIR see 
eet eee ee new eeeeneeees Aequiog|*** 
Pete ene n teen ewe eneeneeeee ullog tee 


“Bpruryd ‘00107, 
seseeeseeeeee® DIOTOIOLY "77 
eres uOg § ayfadeyy-eR[-Xty)"** 
SDCBO OB COCTO.F 31a) ‘g8priquieg|*** 
sesaseermesehenire da ‘guojao1Rg 
setegeeeesseeeereeeetee® QSnOTNOL 
Slit 
“TRY SUT}ION, 
*  gourzuad 
Sted 
sie 
Axeraddiy, 
sed) 
sie 
“"uosog f uIeyyuRss) 
veeeereeeees WB SULION 
teem eee eee eeeewenenee svequiog 
eee doUeL YT ‘a[aty 
uopuoy 
sseeeereereeeereee TIBAG SOPIIAQ 
* "9" ‘uaAvTT MAN 
weeeeeee Avquog 
p79 ‘gaauno0y, ‘uoltc] 
seen eaee By.) ‘arg oursy "N 
uuog 
seme ewer ee eereeererere Avquog 


eerere Terre rere 
Sn ee 
Seo 


seat eater eeer eee eeeestewaree 


PERE eee reer rr ed 


neysag 


“Aj TLOO'T 


9 “AON 


Aine 


aune 


ao 
7. 


* 


* KOK 


ope ay ee neha lee a te eS 


OO 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


paxord ysay way yoy A29A $*sq] G pue T Jo syuoMBey ‘wyerg pur RTPQeILA. 
JO SOSRTTIA OY} UT "ZO g ‘Sq GT SurySiam auo ‘soT[ON ye Svuoserey pur 
SITZA WaeA\joq T[aJ Souoys AuLPY “saNnseay AZ Jo voUeISIp & IOAO Uas { paavod 
~desip [[eqo1y 04} 10938 , OF asIoU snopuawAy Y *,0Z PaqSe] pue pnoyo AysTUL 
8 0} padueyo yorma ‘[1e} snourmmy e yyIM f dn ySty uaas [eqary quenyiq 
‘Aup rojo f-wa $¢ ye ‘uredg ur vuoSexuey, Jo “gq sanSvay F pue ‘euopso1eg 
JO "E'S sansea] QT ‘eljoquiiA puv sayny usamiegq *¢ sequiaaoN x [CRT Tr 
“40}e3Nsaauy , aq} JO ureydey ayy 
Aq youq yyBnorq uaunpoads y ‘syreng s,saje Ay Jo sug ¥¢ Jaquiaeq 
“Ggg “d "Ix ‘oa pur ‘Zcg “d “xx ‘[oA ‘[eSuag jo Aya190g aNVeISY ayy Jo eumor 
PS *99-E—1PF-€ SI au04s sity Jo uF ds ayy, ,azeuopzburpprg ,, s|eo roSut 
“PICH “WW YOM [etouroL B suIejUOD QUO}S SIYY SeyeYg *'OE JaquaAON ; 
“981Y 4 UOTOU Suryej01 v aAvY 0} pauitaas { paano suedaq YIM 
IPT SPROTD Ynwns yy AI IWYySIaq £114 Buoy { *ssepy “uuoD ‘aureyy ur uaas ose 
Ssyaeds f querpuq $yoyx01 v OMIT $ years 10 WIE YSU “Oe Jaquaydag 5 


*saqtidd Jo atnpou v sdeqaad pur £ [nyyqnop szayyex 

Ayurey199 © “WOIT snomnydyns pue eurwunye pur BOITIS BIOS f O[UeSTe OU UIey 

~W09 0} preg “punoid aya ur ajoye apeur { u0J [eotuoD § prey AIOA ‘pammojoo 

Wp $ZT-8 “AF -dg *(¢) au0qs-rapunyy v yo [ey ayy Soyeyad ‘BUOTIOIeg JO sT[a0 
“(eq umbeor aq $ yyUour ay} Jo SuruurGaq oy YW ‘raqmaydag sOGgl p 
“MYeaYysty 7B UIs OsTy */,)E LOJ paqse[ aston *'OT UNG , 

*SOIMULML [VIBAVS pase] Yvorys £ 4YSI]-Aep oyt] eAAR_T avau AyUN0d 

ay} dn poqysvy = -Apuvmoy szaao say ge ay Say § puoodas aod sopra sz ="a 

£ ysydund ‘ystmorad $ uozitoy ayy 9A0ge CZ U9IS F4noqR puodaS B UI LOT 

pao, *Apavarg 10 Apurws0ON ur ayi10 uaTyey aavy 04 pasoddns a10M sau03s 

fawos Aq preat{ uoteUOyap § uOCOTI TQ} 944 JO ozIs ayy AyAVoU ‘arIARyT] IvaN Uoas 

qse[ Udy | UOOUL jo azIs F ynoqe ysiy YY ‘atAYFY pure ‘uanoy ‘uaeg ‘samy 
“Ivy ‘seanvag ‘ausgidaiog ‘seg “yastory ‘Asseq taouryy*N ¥*¢ oun Tac 

“102-9499 ‘St[UaH 4B das ATUO svar jJasIT IOajaNI ay £ 1OY-a[-AsIOYD ‘a.0U 
“uoy, ‘uolig ‘uoT[HEYD ‘preqyuoy ye pavay suorsoydxa OM], *9 ouNe , 


*é T1aJ Souoys Auvu $ punoy syuowSesze {[eJ-ou0}g) “wa Se “AL'S 03 ‘H'N Giana da) nyse sree uredg ‘euoSeaieyz|'*: ¢ * q 
‘gSueto| ceeteeeee aeetvenes woour *p = “eres gnoourerg|*** p 
‘anyq AIOA $ Areuoreis qsry ye] sttteeees oeeseeeee aSaey seeeeecens "reeeeess BU SUTION “ @ “AON 
“WBYSUIyION 4e Ose § Aep se qs] {yeas Buoy § Moys! ,,7 10 ue "aN 04 °AUN WOOU "p F=  freeesereressse> KOTNG £ pLOJXO}"** OZ 
“qyStaq v8 “A'S 0 “SN uoou *p £ treetesencnoeseeseen BaangIBgl*' ET 
“ystppet Sspreadn paaom| *t******* Sacer uoout *p £ * ayedany|' g “4dag 
‘op yornb *a°S 0} “AN SNUIA <Z ftrreecsseseeseeeseeereeeee grpaless ZT 
‘ourp| ttteeeees seeeeoers snuaq <q ofe streteereeee Sanoquayg|*** 1g “uy 
*,,8 payse] years {4uamtour ev 10J adu0 404s $ 0431p uP “ASM OP NT] SNA <og = ft ee eee ec etter ec eeee wees sivq|*** 9 
‘uol}eUO\ap pue aprjoq eeersseres eenteeees trae eweee . aourly feud wee L Aine ava 
“at ax0jaq syiuds { ysippar £ Ajyuasedde avau ‘oy1p| ,7 yRe.4s “a SprvMo} APHRIU MOOS [rtrrsert resets esses sees qseyjaq|""* Zz 
‘omtp| ote seas siaee ssi Seetetteeeese serene UODUOT|"* Zz 
“MOS £48INg Jou pIp faprjoq| Fe years aB1vy] seeeeeeecsorers Ue Suopuo7y|''’ oz 
“ystuaadd) ttt eeesee Savy . ss Bamoreg|"* | oune 
“OUIl} OUTS OY} yNOGe ayenbyyrea f][eqo1y aBaey] -**seees- “M 0} °S a8] “CEpRpREGHOL BoM *g ‘sapuy]"** FZ 
“ystuaa13 pue ajdand teseeenes ee teeeeee a8.R] YOESHIC OSCR GCUD Fei ‘g10uuy On 14 Avy 
“PLOFXO 4B OSTY “YsnTq ‘ysinq $Aep se 4yFy] ,,¢ yeas | "AN 0 ‘aN WOOUT JO "p E |rerrreeee** Caen § woysaag|*** £z 
‘astou | "gG'¢ “ad ds SsqyuamSeay omy $ [[ej-au09g) ‘wag "A'S 07 “AN “SqIa : Breydqsa a ‘Yostayng|*** ZT Pady| * 
Surssuy £ yr 04 Jayfeaed ‘punoss aeau umop Moy Treqaay] sttteeses ine are 3 serseereeees BOLI " BlBAyeg|"** TL ary 
‘apryoq aB.1e] semeneres wee eeenee oor rrr unng $ ulays]OH Year 2 


‘Cure IFT 10) 0941p 

neday, 4v uaas osye { []eqory 

“T18} 0} Woes SsvuT youlq f4sunq £ aut} ye oUTYsUNS 
“£00198 ‘ areydsouye ur uotsojdxa oloajam B 


“apuo0a 


ween eeeee 


aSivy 


seeeeeeeecereeseeeee FiNquayyuas eee eT 
** aqjadeqg-ey-x1y}"** TT 
seteseessesseeness qomequaag|'** g F 
seesecoeeres KaBOLIAN ‘ Lita “uee| CISst 


REPORT—1860. 


92 


‘roow jo *p © yenbo $query 

4gpruiyag *¢ Aq padrasgo ‘1oajaw Suyeuojap 
+L Yeas £07431p 

*19]Je ,,¢ WOIyeuojap ‘WMOp FYSIEAYs $4qSt-Aep} 
“Trey eatds @ 4J2]! 

*yqiuaz spaemoy dn sayyet 
*/F UL of8 * WUBIN 

*, OT AOF UTeL} aUY * guURTTTIIG § eprjoq 
‘asiou Ou faprloq, 

“aploqg 

*sq1vd O4A\} OFUT paptalp, 

“OTP; 

‘UMOP JY SivI}s AIvau paaout ‘ [[eqary 
“aptjoq 

sured} [HyINVA § ,G PazSLT Lats + 0391p) 
‘VIPUL “Sql FP 9U0 ‘sauoys YE amos) 
*kvads] *yySuay UL sayour { ynoqe ¢ [[eJ-aU04g 
pUuL aSIOU SUIS BUISSIY v YIM VAS OJUL UMOP TIF 
‘quawiaddng vag += *Loa}au Buyjeuojap 

“ysinq * aprI[oq 

*PAMOT[OJ UORUOJEp § MOTs £ [Ivy ALay ‘ 10a39uI 
‘FZ-E “AB ds £ [[ey-9003g 

‘astou Ou { aUIYSUNs SuLINp Spaliez fvIsaig [Te 1940 Ud—aS 
*(guoysSuIAVT 0} Sutpxcodov) o1q1[0.198 

*snolind pue asiv] 

“viuvapisursy, ‘uaSinquaqaig *0g.¢ “Ad ‘ds ¢ |[ef-aU04g 
"éqsnSny ‘apijoq 

‘years & yay £ YS 

*,,OG JO} YS] osuaqur {apr ,] PUL Suoy ,f eq v dy! 
“yaerq 

*sino]od pazuryo 

"eg qseqag osje $ MOSsepH pue asung ye osje 

*IOAIMOT ‘Puno; | “ysIn[q 
gou auojs $(ouo sSuIATT “Iq 03 Surprosor) omtjosge 
“ySuy sopra QT fp “COT {99s B UT say FZ [ + 0931p 
‘aSIOU FNOGITA 4S.inq ¢ 0931p 


wv £11 


“Wd 0 OL 


-aprioq) 


“OWN: 
"aptjoq 


oo 


—— 


"079 ‘SyAVWyY 


“ACN 0} ‘S'S 


iB “AA 0} St 
“N'd F “aN O} “AMS 
WE A0 1% | “MS 0} °H'N 
9 Yeas | “aN 07 “A'S 
uF ‘ON 0} ‘AL'S 
OT 4243s 


bc Ren a. 
mi “M'S 0} “HN 
Ae “T'S'H O} “AUN AL 
ue “ACNUM O} ‘D'S 
aaa AROLAEGD 


wontesece 


oeerteeee 


“ASN 0} “S'S 


eee eetens 


"a°S*H 0} “MONA 
“ao OF "AA 


eee eenene 


uMOp —+- 


“707° 
“a'N 0} “M'S 


A\OTS 
Areuoysys Apwau 
“a 07° 
“a°N SPICMO} 


eee eeeeee 


8 ‘MOIS 
ys. 


eee ereees 


seaeeeeee 
aeeeeeeee 


“aS 07 "M'N 


“INOY $97zeL 


¢ uoTying woryoart, 


eel | Se 


adaey AI0A 
snus, <Z% 
uns jo "p = 
adr] 
uooul 0} *48[ 
snuoA < 9 
snuvA <9 


snus, =< % 
uoow jo ‘p = 
snus, <Z% 
snuvA <—% 
ZyP.g “13 ‘ds 
g1.¢ 13 ‘ds 
woo jo p = 
snus, <Z% 
2312] 
*SdT OT 
adie] 


“Sq[ 81 
aZAel 


wooul *p © 

uoow [Ny = 
aSary 

noow *p = 
k<9 


uoow = 


“4 B19 IO 9ZIg 


seteseewereees TIBI SUTIION 

eee were eee eee een enone suvulas 
seeeesee gut 

7979 ‘WIRY SATION £ NLOFION 
beecsereeseeeterstees BENBIOWOd | 
eee ee OITYSA ‘uaAaT 
veeeereneeeseereereres ess QOUBIG 
eteteeeereseeseereerenen  gUIBG 
**SIal3[y 
“+ MOZZRIN| 


sued 
eee e cece ees eceeesettaces MOSStID| 
seme e eterno ee ewe tee etteee Seq 
Sled) 
yeuyeg ‘aapMoZag 
sresserresecees Sirorg ‘TyUaIUD| 
ee eee ee eee eee eee eee tae eeee 1940) 
Perec ernest test awereeeee Auvurtay) 
Goines slitd 


se taeeeee 


seeeere 


“* nBIsatg £ BISA[IS 
teeeeeeee BOTW ‘Iwnyos , Watg 
seereseoesscooere* SR IBPU\ -OZIIN 
eccccccecccccecersees Aunqsay fy | 
oe ** SoAT 4S 

“"QNOWpIS 
sereeeee* BITELOPTED ‘[aqusy 4S) 
POee Pere Cee eee uopuo'y 
seseeeeoeees UNIO ‘ySanquipy 
seeteteeeeeeers ee QOUTLT *xnar¢] 
sees BOLIPY YINOS “UvWUTLOY 
ie : “+ asnojnoy, 

sees Bizdiary| 
Pee PETE TTT eee MOORID 
Seer eee SinoqsayD 


“quea0r] 


oorxayy ‘enyenyiyd|: 
* {reBungFT nylog | 


‘oaq@7—oune 


SAT 4S)" CG 


F 

#z ‘3das 
ra 

ol “ony 
bade t' oune 
El 

ol 


‘aq{—oun 
wee Z ady 
BT 

LOD Cy 
“+ ST ‘AON 


“TYUOUL 


jo keq 


5G ANT 


* 


*ES8T 


© 


a. 


P 


i 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


“paTpury aq 0} 304 00} sem 


gr ‘qno Sup wey A, “dn 4t poxord oy uosiod v mou spared Qgt anoge yay 
pue ‘layaweIp UL 499} OM ynoge ojey ,, AY[HU,, @ Aq papunosms oq 07 Suryey 


StL 


qs[tyM porvadde pur sto oy} wos poyoeordde dn payord quowSeay oyy, 


‘ony ‘syodat ssa] aAY 40 anoy Aq pamoT[oy ‘uOUULd oF1e] v Jo yey) ayy y10dar 


pnoy 2 Aq papadaid sem [ey ayy, “Sg 'y “UUs, “oo ujoourT 


jo 


*gysnany y 
“uTYy? ysndo fanydins jo Suyjous pue oy afr dn paxord sea 41 $ punos 
Surpsiy ‘Suyfor ‘Surysnar Jo pury v yyIM Ayasour ‘uoneuoyap 10 astou pnot 
Auv qnoyzM pues ‘paasasqo useq Suravy r0ajaw Aue ynoygim yjaq “euuarA 

JO "SZ0 F *G[ [=SowuuvsS NOL “yUayH Avou ‘Ma.ysoy-stUaq Ig ¥Zo0UNL g 
‘Tal ‘d ‘a1oajauonay sJaugong 


“pAvay UOTYLUOJIP IO paAjasqoO SvA\ 1Od}aM AU IVY pazeys JOU SI4] °*2/7.0 O18 


~laqiarqos ‘298.9 snaoydsoyd ‘167.9 418 G09 ‘JaxoIu GE9.¢ 
ft punoj preyraqy “Bx1oqjasuy ayy Jo yo; ayy ye ‘ 


IGS ‘uost sty} punoy aAvy 0} ples st psoydays Y “gT 19q0;00 


UOIT/GZ.Z6 UIL{UOD 04 
punoas ay) uo yoy-Sutuang 


PSST gs 


“MJOUNS Ul astMoyT UIag *,¢ ut cz A[snorAead padour 
Suosojdxa Jo ommiy ye YSiy spsed QOO‘OFT u22q aAey 0} poyezs St 100}0Ur 


“Toaouryy ur dn payoid usaq aay 03 ples sauozy ¥°gz 1240190 > 
"ES8T ‘1g Arenuer Jo Zurqis ‘Aya100g yeAoy ayy Jo suoTjoRVsuery, 


“IOd}oM Suywuojap W ‘uvuNIOY -aaquiadaq] o} au 


99s ‘uoustoUaYyd sty} Jo yuNoDde SnorAND v 4OJ : pNoyo Yor|q aSzR] B Jo axyUID 
ayy ur parvadde snajonu ay} § Apog ay} ury? seSu0] sau g 30 ¢ [184 ‘au 
aWOSs pose] ‘UOWVUOZap pue astou ! ¢ O1I[O19y 


“IWAOT LT Jaqwmeosqg p 
“Zaye] emMYyg cuvuNI 


“OM 38 udas 4Vy} sv oues ay} Ayqissod { uoNdiosap sauoj;sSuIAVy Iq WosT 
fuispnl ‘soajaw Suyeuojzap v Apjueseddy -voryy élaqmasaq oF oun , 


*gqaysunyy ye ‘Auvuay ul uaeg “Zt ysnZny gq 


ne *3S8T e 
*RUO[IDIVG JV AOSSAJOIg “4SIET “WEN ‘S][ooTeq 


umbvor ‘aq, Aq eunyooug snows t wos payoesyxq ‘uorsodwioo ut ouojs 
OYsUL[gY O11} sajquiasoy 


“SNA Yorjq puv ‘sapoyaed o1yjezou pomoys {dn 


o8T f3URTIUG ][eqo1y punor pue oniq 
“Oprloq 

"YO UMOAT} syteds pue [re9 $ punor £ 4a]01A 
*[BAO £ O44} ORUL Paptarp jte, £ aBaz] 
*BU0T (Cg Ywoays $ ystn{q 
*(¢-E—G.g) Sanqsiajog avau $0z.¢ “13 -ds £ ouoys 
*paystuea ATuappns £ ysintq 

*ystnyq 

*SOMLMIVAD QOL WYSIOM {QE.¢ AT -ds $ou0}s 

“4sing * aprfoqg 

“2qY SOM Ut soumEIS Cge+ “sqre+-*sq[g =sau04s da} 
"EG.¢ "13 ‘dg ] *(8-E—G.z) 2.g “a3 ‘ds $ ou03s 
0371p 

“0731p 

“YSIppat fuiei) Buoy ‘ apioq 

“O9STOU FNOYIIM 4sing f4ULTT[LIq pue aztyAr 

"24.1 a3 ‘ds $ ucay 

“Teqeay 

*109}OM SUNBUOJIp B 19}Je {][eJ-a00}¢ 
*aptoq 

*uleay [NJNvEG £ opr[oq 

*8]]8q OA} OFUL JTAS} POplAIp { yvaa}s ou 


7 a 


*(andopeye9g S FIONN 02 


/¥ AOjs 
/OT {89138 


seeeeeece 


eeeseeees 


‘Wd CPL 


‘Wad G 


yomnb 
pidex 


pider 


OTS 
uf 
eal 


uS& Hea 


sees 


148 


aes 


ee 


“AL'S 0} “O'"N 


eeersrees 


eee eecene 


“a WOd 
“ACN'M SPITM03 


“aS 0} “M‘N 


“A'S 0} “AN 
‘a'N 0} “A'S 
“aN 0} °A\'S 


“A'°S'H OF MN M 


See easeee 


nk<Ft 
*p § woo = 


snus, <7 
“sql é +01+62 
“Sq LS 


Pet eesees 


see eeeees 


snus, <Z 
uoow *p ¢ 


eoeweeeee 


eee etrene 


yTemMjing)"** 


 ysinquipg|** 


*OC8I 


euudt,|"** 

sivq}*** 
SPOR] “ULYOIIIT]"** 
BYyVOD ‘zivquy 


soaq “3g |""" 
Herre guages 
se mueysugjOK | tt 
trees ggSumaon|'** | 


debates k, 


‘y aay cli 


REPORT—1860. 


94 


*sa[tut g ATWO Uses 4seT “4SIy 4v YAY SopUr OT f Teqort 

‘[[aF SoUOyS VI, ‘*PL.g “AB “ds £ yej-ou0g 
‘SoTL F JOFYSroyR ye FT UL suoryBUojap G AO F f [TeQauy 
-dng 909 *s|[vq oyvaedas g 10 fF OJUT 9yOAq $ YJeqQa.y 
“juomoald] ‘uedinquagatg ‘Sanqspieg *[.¢°13"ds touojs 
*au04S 


‘astou OU fyvaI}s OU f SNOTIMD £ YSIN]q),,OG-T UI TI 


‘astou Ou syieds pue szuawSe.y oyu ysanq 

‘oyIP 

“eproq 

“querpiiq {spremumop ATMoTS passed sprem.10qjv 

*optpoq 

{ 10}}VUI snoulsat D1UeZ10 We UIe}UOD 0} pres faU0ys 

“OL 94,2 Zuysey ‘auiyquedies yeas {Wd 

‘eIPUT "S90 AD1e] OM} £ SOUO}S 

*OM} OFT PoprAtp $yuUeT[UG ‘10a}aW Suryeuojap 

; “MOOU SB 4YSIIq $ YysINTG 

"69 Judy 10 ¢.L0ajauUI OIVITOIQV 

*109}0UL SNOLIND puv Id.1v] 

*Sq[ LI AUO £ [fay 99.14} f [[eJ-9U09S 

‘apyjog o3.1v| 

“0741p 

*109}0U JUy. 

*eomoroe { Surssty puv Avads yA vos our [ay 
*parpstuva 

Ajuoppns ‘x Seu prg v@ se ueSoq $ Moyjad-ysippor 

"ip yeay] “2 4SR[ SB oueg ‘Wa g fsnolimo 

00g faourystp ysvoy Saji GT $4say 4B YSIY sopiM OC 

*spunos Zurssty f por oj ayy {smoprys 4svo 

“og “ery “unjog ‘aourreodde ysay 103j2 ,¢ UOIRUNOJOp 

“3 ory] ‘syieds yo ma.iyg pur IST yySiuq ve aavs 

-O19u {spnoyo ou {9g 1Of pvay1IAO UORUOJap 4vois 
*syptal <q poaout 
{puodas B Ut sajtur eT Jo AyOOTAA {4907 QOFZ your 
-eip juaiddy ‘10qje ,G uoyruojap grais ‘ anyq 
0} OPM IsuazUT fwd OTS Sastou ynoyyM syreds 

QTM ysing pue ‘ozry ‘suivg Fy “pat ‘e8ueso ‘u9eI8 

‘W'd Gf UaVS ySIY UI Gp f UMOp 4ySte44s Ap1vaU ]]a} 

“8339-98008 B sv adil $4ySy-sep £ aprjoq 


*spaequio'y 


*o2p ‘SyIvmMayy, 


smoy £ 99e1 


eeeeereee 

‘WY 08'S *H 0} “AL 
‘W'd CCP “a'N OF “A'S 
eeeeeeeee “M 0} ‘DL 
Sutuaaa eee eeenee 
Wa ay ebeeeceee 


73 f . 
“ASN 04 “O'S 
“M'N'N 03 “G'S'S 


oc Axeu01ye48 
MO|S sprvMUMOp 
Suruede eeeteeeee 
a¥ *M 0} SE 
u0eu sesenPwer 
wy ¢ SeaIeccler 
/0€ 189198 
7/9 BIAys |*A'S'H OF “MANA 
WY FOL uMop =r 
OTS a 
/F yeaays “mM 0} °H 
Wd F Sieeees > 
,02404,,9 106 eteiveee 
amydep Cente eee 
u¥ OF 1€ ¢°N O}'S 
“8 “aN O} “AUS 
Hee ‘aS 0} ‘A'N 
‘NV [TT | ‘ANN 0} °a'S'S 


‘ wo1qzeing MORAL 


| wee 


eeeeeeeee 


aBuey 


Sq 66 
k<=9 
uoom “p = 
snusaA <Z% 
k<s8 
"Sql tL 
‘uoom [[ny < 
OST+'sqi LE 
aB.1v] 
o8.v| 


eeteeeeee 


+'sq1 LT 


snueaA <Z% 


aDIV] 


uoow = 
OB.IV] 
a3.1v] 
PF OBE] 
“p Sayoul g 


see eeeees 


eeseeeeee 


‘p Ul CT 0} 
‘P ST 

uooul jo ‘p = 
“UDP |F 


9 


“qyS1aM IO aZIg 


e CUTE] 89 | 
soap ‘erpeydysoyy ‘AuvuIeD 
Wtieeeeecrrerrensenertoeee  gTIBG 
seesesees prpaTAsuety, eqeyg 
“-gouvay ‘auuo0X 

“wey SUTy{ON 
se" SOAT 3g f YQnoWsz10g 
slit 
Sled 
SdAT 4S 
*-cIRYySUIyION 
* <rvsunzy ‘eqey 
water ewe eweeene ‘s'n ‘eyOsouly 


se eeereeaseeeeees 


See ee ern 


o1euley ‘einpeyy ‘aa][euseg 
teesesesoess KipSunpy £ VUUITA 
terereres onrgsAqaac(, ‘plojysy 
ee “aUlyy ayneyy ‘uewyoog 
sss TUBUSUTPION 

terres BIOSsaag ‘ourzuaty|*** ZL “AON 
steeseteeeeeretrsseeres Wopqiery|''* @Z 
teecerseesenereseesesettens guivg]* #Z 
steseeeeeererenses goat agli 72 “900 
shee BITDOVA BIIATO, aroul*** LI “4das 
seneeerneersonecses BU BUMgON|** 1¢ 
“er TAN OMISJIOG ! SAAT IS|""' GZ 
peeccensiiess) TURN {sjassnag nay. ‘Sny 
Setters gupglt ge 
ween eee wee eeeee Ss a ‘eumeqryy aoe 8 Ajne 
: seeereee goumayl'* 6z 
. wee aourdy Ss ‘neg see 6 
"929 ‘uopeg £slivg f BAdIt 
-an {sjassnag { meySuyjon|* @  "qaq 
 QIAUPT SuoYySug §plojxols Z  ‘uer 
Viteeseeeeeteerterrerrenes guivgls* Tz ‘09q 

*yquour 
*AqjRo0'T +0 85 a 


p t+ AT 


o 
J 


* q 
“9C8le 
“ccs 


—_ 


“v9 


95 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


*snpudy 
sojdm09 03 Zuipsoooe ‘ovre[O ye g JO ou pur ‘unssny 4e {a} soMMEAZOTIY CF 
jO 9uojs au0 $ (auNOIey onez]) URdfatyUOP Ap UOJURD *'G JOqUIIDEC] o 

“Aueyiuig ut osje pur ‘Ayman yy ET taquiaydag , 
*syieds pamno[oo-ysippar no Surpuas pue ‘Surysanq yuoredde syt Jo auy youve 
UOIPIP SJt pasueyo Vd1M4 Iavy 0} ples St 1oajow styy, “[gT pue TZT ‘dd 
‘IOM S JOUNING sg “SlaqiapOQ pure Jsysunyy yv ose uaeg ef ysnSuy uw 
*[eoL140970 
Ayqeqoxd { punog auoys ou £ anydyns Jo yjams § moo vy “PARI “8CG8T 1 
‘osye preay 
suoleuojap years $ ATMOTS AIIA pOAOUL { UOOUT oY} UL} JVSiey som 90144 
10 OM} AMOS Aq UVES IOIJOUI ywaId YW “IAYIANJ satu QL yoqe [Jay paryy & 
£]lejoAOp 0} patusas YoryM “y1ede apart [ ynoqe dn payoid sauoys OMT, *(O98T 
‘TTX "JOA ‘vuuetA ye Auiaproy jeueduy sy} Jo suotjoesuery, OY) UL yUTODR 
S$ leSurpreyy vas) nBog ut uresseg avau ‘ynossuany yy «Lz toquievaq x 
*syuamMSe1y F OJUT UOOS paplAIp § 199A3-YSTMOT 
“jaf mojog ‘papoydxa 4t asaya yods ay A0AO Sty saptm #y ueyy o10m you 
SEM JI SARS STIOFT “USIY SafIUI [TT 10 OT ‘Sanquiaxn'y caAo $4s1nq peY 4T 10932 
AT plvay suoyeuoyap ¢ 10 F ‘erjeydysayy Ut S19qs[Q FW ¥* ZT Ieaquiavaqy ¢ 
paieaddestp A;yomb ‘syaeds ssapiaquinu Jo yno paulo} usaq VAVY 0} pawoas 
YOUTA ‘379198 IO 112} 91 ‘poystuva pey Ady} 104) A[oyerpowuut {Ay re[norpuadaed 
lleJ Ue pur doy 0} pomes sjyeqory pozeredas ayy, “suitg 4°6Z 19q010Q 


“404 USM UdTey VARY P[NOA FT TOM 
OJUL YAva Oy} WO Jo ‘a1oydsowye ay3 YSno1y} Suissed ut paqiosqe A[qIs 
sod {0931190020 ayf] 19948UI SnouIsal ayy, ‘uIZdaIqeq ‘eqey ‘CT [wdy y 
“OT 1OJ G1 Jo uonsod & £ ¢ 10 ,g Suysel ‘uoztr0y “A 0} 
"T OY} Woy IPI .[ Yosys yyq yo] “ejosouTWY “TT [dy “Z¢8T 9 
*(4aZuIpie yy 0} Surprvose) ourzuory, *'Z[ IaquieAoN ; 
"SGST ‘ARIN UIPS SI ‘stoajour out y 
UO FIOM S,JouyONg Ul AOIjJOUI SIqy} OF WATS yep ayy { UOTyeUOJOp pnoT & 
JaqJe ‘JOSSAA B 0} BSO]O BAS dI]} OFUL [[eJ 0} pautaag “Zs, Aaquiajdag “gCcgT o 
“GT oy adeys SezFiz pur yuoq e@ Sutcmnsse Ajjenpeas 
‘QIQISIA panuryuoo Yor ‘pnopo aqztym Aanodeva asuep v yal ‘taArtasqo auo Aq 
uves sv ‘sty} $ parvaddestp Apjuejsur yt MAYA ‘UOTVAD[A ,Q[ UIYIIA [VU spre 
“UMOP [[9J !UOZTIOY BAOge Cg Ua—aS ysIy [[eqamty “eueqery x*g Ajue p 
*sUOIP[NVS Surtuing v ayIT {tajouvrp ,p 10 ‘B89 ue 
SB 9SIV SUV JayJOUR ‘dSseT SaryaUIIyNHId CT SAvS JUNODIe 9UGQ “G ANAGaT 5 
*yeao $ ures ysttdind yoryy fspuooas May vB UT SoTIU QOE 
qUOM £U9dS 4ISIY UOYM YSIY soptmM YE “4yseig 0} pAryyO0D yg Woz AT[eX 
-aua3 pur ‘inmen ye ‘saSso\ ot} Ut ‘aynAspeg ye osje uaeas $ said x-zayT-aySuIS 
“90g 38 pavay uolsojdxa :-p,g sjassnig ye “pct sueqiy #*¢ Aieniqaq q 
“QUSTA\ JO VST pure sj[tAy UI UVas OS|Y ‘asiou & pieay 
Aayy paroury suossad amos pur !*Ay"g 07 “YN UBD JO OIARTT FV “AUSIT JO 
UUINTOI 10 PAOMS POUYap-][aM & IYI] Ys. 9V $ 199Je ,QT UdAD pu ,c JO saoeid 
SOS UL Uses ! UIe1} SNOUTUN[-lWaS d}IYM JUIpUEdIas v yor *y ArenUeS , 


eet ee eee teereneee 


*LOIJOU JUDY Use 


“IMo[od anyq $4sinq! //g ‘moys see eeeees 
‘apyjoq| “ttt mana ei 
*SO[TY 1G  aouvry ‘uvofaajyuoy fF.g aS ‘ds {souojs Z| ‘wa £ Bao as asa 


‘yy3y-Aep Aq woousaye 


/& Wearys 
“é4Sel sv oueg Pron 


“lodjomM Suyeuoyap Bagh IDO 


*astou 
TIA Zurpoydxa ‘prvd Meays v 04 aay 498 ‘oqoyS paqiust 
‘YO Surats pue Suryeqos [Jay { payeBuoya { oyq-yueoses0 
-syaeds] queyyiq ‘ syauds ysrippaa WIT 4s.mq 


tee eeeeee eeeeeeeee 


att eeeeee 


UMOP =~ ALOTS 


“prides £2 uoeUojap Buoys {wa f $ sMopeys ysvd a) “MN 0} ‘a'S “ssr* souuay fa0uBty Jo *N|'** ET “ydag 
poysiuea $ uazoytun { syaeds £ por-ystpirpM $ Buoy oe re} set weneee seeeeeeee uo0wl jo pt eer rrr uopuory|*** cL 
*jutod @ sv} ‘aptjoq) ,¢ ywerys | -A‘N'N 0} ‘a's's snua, <Z PRO GEO ISSCC LY iF FO 

“¢ WOTPEOJOp *1eqeay Th) oe ESS teen eeee poososeseess «omy Ii41 019 ‘uaog css 
‘OOIXOTT “SG ‘STAIVET 0 Burproooe { ppej-ouozg] ettew ees OL-¢ a3 ds fe (Rony vys0g) erparayls* T  “Sny 
“ysiniq § powvaddesrp pue ysanq) 2% wuooul Jo “p + “-creySanjON|""* Te 
"gg-¢ = “a3 ‘ds ‘ezztavtg avou ‘AreSunqy ur‘ auoys| = -wv g Ba ga ‘SL 62 be “ qvuueg ‘vaoyry]''* 61 


‘T'S O} ‘AN. 


foereeeee 


pvadmeavionerwe uo;dueytaaqo ay aM 
:p s,uoowm £0} *] sete e res eessesees WRYBUIYION see 
nk <z aalysjosdautog|"** Z 
‘SQIO6+9L |"° ouuoIwyD oyneTFT ‘unssny|""* G 
: . paseeats “+ garyspaojoropy |" Z 
serees ATR OUION) nee eT 


Soe er oy 


¢ OL1j09]9 
uoom = 


pecs sence seh sniesinees7s/l En 
Spo. 


1860. 


REPORT 


96 


psy purl wo aouvistp aUOs WW vas oY} JOAO 
uayM Jodar oyti0} @ fq paMmoT[oz ‘oojoUL 4UeTTTIAG 


pur “wa $6 snoponu oz £48Inq Sore .Gz ¢ ]Teqe1g 
‘syreds par} *soNUIW F IO E UL UOTFUOJIpP {0491p 
*suolyeuojap | ‘wa ty S querpiaq £[jeqory 


yeoi13 pue Ays ul soe fsouo ade] AueUL £ ][eJ-9U035 
*yse] 94] * GF OJ UOZTIOY 0} Jarjeaed £ [feqoay 
WOIf BUO WWaJayIp {ynU-BOD00 B SB dZAvT sv ‘0331p 
*patez £ OM} OJAI VsIOU YIM papraip £ MOTs ! 0921p 
“qayoor B ayi[ JSanq { avpnqoyps § [jeqoay 

*{[BOLIyooTa £ UOUULO B JO aSTOU YIM 4S.INq £109}9U1 93.10] 
*pG.¢ “a3 ‘ds £ [poy Aueu $ [[ef-au0xsg 


‘aqt-req £ paytey ‘[eao ! 0491p 


*SOSSUUL AL[NGoO[S our ysanq £ 0311p 
“Teqety 
*sjassnig JO UOIZOaIIp ot} UL f]yeEqQory 
‘adeys pasueyo 
Syjenprrs yor. “eT IOy pnopo tym 3qSIIq B 479} 
“uONeUOJap faptjoq yueqtq 
*‘suotyeuojap { uier Axor £ popiey f guet[Iaq $ prdes 
*“SpACMUMOP JYSBAYs paaour { Losjom ouy 
“TR Qeag 
‘4se[] seomeg “prot 
-19A0 PAI SpuNos ZuIZzZIYM pur ‘uoyeUoJspP Buoys 
*uaas [[eqa1y ou { pavay uoLUOJap 
*saptul arenbs (Pp IOAO SUOIQBUOYSp ‘OIIODJaUL f oLUIy-Aep 
*gg.¢ “13 ‘ds $ dn] *109}9UT OUY 
poexyotd *szo g ATuo $ 10a3auI Suryeuojep pure [[eJ-9Uu0Ig 
*pivay spunos Sutysni £ payre, ‘1o9z0u1 Suryeuoyap 
ePiOd 
*yu10d @ st papua pue urSaq { sMmoprys 4sto { ystuse13 
*1B[Nqops { [127 Ou 
*queiyiaq £ 0G 10; 34S Jo urery, ‘aduvro ‘yurd ‘pas 
*Ssq[ Z { toaqour 
Suyeuojzap B 19}Je Punoy sauo [[VUs [BAIAvs $ [[2J-au0ys 


eoerreees 


AMOTS 
‘Wd OL 
“Wd TZ 

MOIS ,,0¢ 


seereeeee 


9G 


seettroes 


v& UF 
WS %}F 16 


ag 


yasuns 
“WV £6 


eeerneere 


Ww II 
WY FIT 
‘N'Y OL 

HOF, YOA4s 
‘WY 06°L 
“wd &g 
7G 8914S 

08% OF 21 


AOJS 


‘Wd F 


‘aap ‘syAv May 


ee Se ee SSS SE ee 


“nou £94zR1 
$ uoryeing, 


“M04 'H 


"H'S'S 0} “M'N'N 
"MA 0} °° 
*N 03'S 
‘a'S 0} ‘A'N 
*M 0} a 
“aT O} *AN 
“AA 0} ‘HL 


"AUN 0} “a'S 
oA 0} “a 
‘d'S'S 0} “AM'N'N 


“Ax UL DAMOp 


totes 


*M'S 0} “H'N 
*S 0} ‘N 


eeeeeraee 


A eeeeeeee 


“SN 0} ‘ANS 
“aN 0} “A'S 
“AUN 0} ‘A'S 

Mos AIOA 
uUMOp —- MOS 
*N SpiBMoy 


etn eeeeee 


*MOTpOAII, 


uoom $= 
uoow $ 
a31e] 
+°S4I 03F 
ad.Ae] 
uoow = 
quer iq 
adel 
“sq 004 


uns Jo "p = 
qyS1ju0ow = 


eeeeeeees 


*SZO 9 


sth eweree 


snua, < Z 


?P Gl 
uooul jo "p = 


GF.g “13 «ds 


“4y 319M 10 azIg 


* epnuieg 


PHO e ee weet aeerereeeeee J9A0q 
eeeeeeeeereeees *S wal ‘gassauuay, 
teeeeeees OK *N ‘UOABTT MON 
*qelung ‘ndusy ‘vjesauiny 
|**uoaacy ‘ U0}19} [0S ysieypng 
sevens “* $9987g pazluy 
es $9903S payuy 
seeeesesTOOCIIATT £ WOIMqURN 
tereeeees sgsiqy ‘aSnoyy Uoywg 
ONT a] ‘ory ‘ pio0u0) AON 
x ogee 
 UNGua SAqaaq § + Spva'] 
"8" SNION ‘u0}S90q 
TOPO ewww ween ee qynoWpis 
ttrrsereeseeres saaonr “UO¥saag 
seeteteeeseneereesorers JOIST, 


wee 


"TOS “N ,0Z o€T ‘tas 48 
“os BIULaTO™ JO "WS 
se eeesccaces "s val ‘Kasia MON 
seeeseeses SDUBIST DIMpURS 
ttt eeessseosereeeeeee TBH SUTTION 


sreeseseesePUlOT A, ‘ZIP 
* purpiazzImg ‘Foysqoorsr 
"S ‘(Q ‘aossauuay, “A 
viseeeceeseceecesseseeseseeguigy gy 


teeseeees see HO9 HIOK MON 
seeeee BIpRydysa AA £ Auvutsy 


teeee Seeeeeeeseweees Stan 
. Hee SOTLY 
syseour'y * sysyoX § uopuo'T 


(ceesseas ses oc>sss-onIa Ue nO Ni 


“AqLOOT 


*g *q ‘Ayonquay “00 uostqueyy)" 


“gues 
ee HG 
wg 
a) ‘Sny 
"** BZIP] 
+ Bg 
“* 134100 
"02 
Lie 
“*g Ate 
a ee 
ae 
“OL 
“2m rey 
“IT “qed 
sepa eE 
6 
“¢ 20 
gz 
(a T 
ST aol 
“0% 
8 
“$2 
eee I 4dag 
og 
“oT 
osha ‘Sny 
“er 
“* 2e Aye 
“" gg oune 
= OF 
8% “22M 
*yyuoUl 
jo seq | 


mom 


“O98T 


Hm re 


* %& 
2 


*"6S8Te 


BLED @ 


97 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


“S2TIM QOT Jnoge Jo yy S10y eB ye snourtEN] amedaq ys1y JOOjONN 


sty} 3843 pasoddns stay “30d auo 38 pauoneis JoArasqo ue 0} saMUIM [e19Aa8 4se] 0} readde pynom punos ay} sny} pur ‘say g¢ 10 9Z JO 90UR4S1p @ 19A0 
P2INGLYSIp 9q P[NOA sstou OY) [eALOzUT yey} Ur 4ad ‘SuTysinq UT puodes e Jey ATUo Adnooo0 Ayyear 4y Siw 1093901 ay} YSnoyy roy { to9j0m 9q} JO Zunysing ayy jo 
HNseL BY} Oq 0} ‘soynutuL Vatu, 10 OM} BuTse[ ‘uorsopdxa a[qipne ay} Sdoprsuoo A[qeuoseas Ar9A ‘100491 Siy} UO podoy sty ur ‘qsreyy *A urefuag II (x) 


‘adoing 0} yuas Zuraq are susumtvadg euuat, yo Amaproy 
[eeduy 94} Jo suonovsuesy, oy} JO aUIN[OA puZF ay} Ur soded § JoSuIple py 
99g ‘spuBy pur sieduy ayy quinueq 03 se pjoa AJasuaquI os sem Yoram dn 
payord sem auojs UG “saUO ATVs GT 10 FT Aq pomoTjog ‘punoss ayy yooys 
Torys “uoHeUoyap yea1d v uayy ‘uaas sem Apoq Asay void y “py Aug ‘eyes 
~urBrey 48 aovjd yoo [[eJ ayy sdes yuNODOe JayJOUY “siequinu ut YAR aI) 
dn paysnold souoys o110039ur Jo 1aMmoys 3ea18 eB Udy { YyNOW-UOUURD e mod 
samey ayy ayiT “(¢ Buoy 4o9z ZT) 21g JO sauIey papoaoons sasiou ayy 04 { auI 
Suol & paysey !Surmieye pue auqns Ay~nyured euswousyd oy} [je {surez 
“UnoUI aq} Yooys puv ‘syuvzqeyur ay} pauayysiy suorsojdxe pue syaoys Jo 
Seas VY  "098T leqmiadaqj Jo pua ‘1adedsmau ,, SauIry, ,, 943 998 ‘Tey a[qeyeUL 
“ot SIG} JO JUNO UB OY “eIPUT ‘atoYyeT Jo “q'N ‘eAduey *'gz A[neG g 
“Alle UOZLOY BAouL 0} parvaddy ‘sayrur omy ugaq aAevy 0} paye[nd 
~[20 ‘Surpratp 19732 puooas wo [7eq 38.14 Jo ouR\sIp § Zuo] 06 UlRIy, ‘*p1x0daz 
WO S10919T PaAdasqo 4soq pUe a[qeyxIBWAL JSOUI BU} JO BUG ‘aAIND XaAUOD B 
yy Yo passed savy 07 ynq ‘yy1V9 ay} 09 [IJ 07 you pasoddns sea $4uUeys1p 
SofTtl [Tp Jnoge Yy1e9 ayi 07 Youordde yso1vou syt yy *A[UO ET JO ZT AIO 
“ojaA quaredde $ puooas ev sajtor gz uaeq oAeYy 03 paye[no[eo aoeds ur 4410 
~OTPA agnfosqe ‘peaytoAo ysoulje usyA rea ArVA pouiass {suaavay orUa 
al} ssoroe ysowye Apuordde pue ‘A[moys Ayautesyxa poaowr $yuenjiq 19s 
‘ ysiniq ‘ary pue syieds jo ures e Aq pomoyfoy ‘omy Ogut /& hoge ut 4y10der 
@ UTM poprAarp spleMsoyze [eq a[SUIs e 4SIY IW “W'd Cf'G WOge sayeig ET 
UP pue | yapraa ur Qug Aq sayroL QOOT Jo yIZuaT e A9A0 Uaag ¥ yz AINE 3 
*re[n3ue sau04s 
S4noge saynuror % paysey ‘Axoysnut ext 19430804 papusyq ara spunos ayy 
Uary4 pur ‘sioys-uouued ay] pavay 4s1y spunos JoUNSTP va1y}-AjUeM “4s1nq 


‘peayioao Apreau 4s1y preay o10M spunos ayy ‘pl00d0D MAN FV “1O9}0U ayy 
JO WOHOaLIp ayy UT 4sayzANJ sauo Jade] ay fapim ¢ Aq Buoy sayy vore ue 
TOAO [JF “OI “FG pur gE s19yIO “SqT GOT SuLyZIom auO ‘punoy at0OM 0g ynoqe 
Wor Jo ‘sauoas ayy, ‘orenbs sapim Qe] 100 preoy SUOT}VUOJaq] “suOIso[dxa 
99 tae APoamp punos Zurzziy ev yIIA spnoyo ayy ysnoayy [[af sou0ys yoryq 
* s19j9MeIp Z[=[eoluod urea f yueTTIIQ snaponu fariut v jo Z Apoq ay} jo 1aj00r 
“BIp powinssy “sauo}s vy} Sutddorp sa3ye uo ssed 04 ‘raaamoy ‘poieadde 4t 
‘soll [pf jnoqe papordxa yr ueyA yySIey $puooes s9d SITU F Sem AZIOOT 
“9A paye[noyeo syt fuged yoaup syt WoIy satUL GZ mnoge suoNRys 4% UOC au} 

JO azis ay} Jo porvadde soajaut ayy, “Wd GP'Z] ‘OIQ *[T ARI *098T a 
‘SMopeyYs 4svo | Suysing 10738 Ystuaesd ‘Ystppaa ‘atdand ‘ atrysayy 

Ur pue ‘uinqyortg ‘doreg ‘10d man ‘plojpeig 4B osje uaeag ‘QT yorey Pp 
*(*) O98T 10F aynANSUT UIPUeITg 94} Jo TeuANO f 99g ‘suOorso[dxa Jo sotIas OMT, 
‘SOTTO OT OF F JnogE ysing UsYyA yYSIaF{ ‘oUTYSUNS [[NF UL UVag -passan3 
oq Poo se aey se ‘puodas vB sapIu GG ynoge uoToUI yuoKedde { spuooas z 
UL SoTIUL OTT Jnoqe yyed ajqisia $spnojo Ayous Surino owos jim ‘sprea 
~40Ye OANULOL B Jnoge sj1odax pnoy pur ‘usas ysey v ATWO ‘peaqaaso vay A 
“Aegq orvmejacy ojut q[ey A[qeqord pjnom pue ! Aostar Mon Jo yxed urayynos 
9G} AOAO [BONAIA SUM AT “OB UB JO ,OZ 1O¥ ,,Z WYSIY Jo amy, *; waqsks 
ATVIOS OY} JO JoquioUL B a1ofatayy you $ ¢ a1foqraddy y1q4o § puodas v sayrut 
O€ 3Se9[ 32 = UoNoM Jodorg *19y¥eMm 94 UL [ay Ajqeqoad ‘punoy souoys on 
“HOUUB YOOT JO Surry ay} 03 Tenba yzodar $ erurst, pue a10UTyeg ‘Y10X MAN 
‘Kasiof MAN ‘FnoyOeUUOD UTI Uaes { saynUTH 9914} 10 OM} OF arenbs sarpur 

GG T0AO pavoy SuoIso[dxgy “A0ajaur a[quyIeuIer sou y *°¢T JaqmOAO ee 
OA MON ‘MayaTPeg FV IT asnsny g 
E93 Youryy ‘arenbs soyim F Jo var = 

Sutssty Tat souois pue ‘si0da S ani {sirans - 


REPORT—1860. 


98 


“ontp| 


*o}}Ip 
“ov}Ip 
‘op 
“[eqatg, 

‘JOSSOA B PIVOK UO Ta} sou0}g 
*¢ 0941p 

“IPOT 10 ¢ [peqo1y 

“T[2} OMI, “]]BJ-auoig 

“ov Ip 

"(42 Tady 10) ¢ 0331p 

“0741p 

*(¢ anZoyeye 4ST Ul g 490) 0141p 
“oyyp 

"0941p 

“OVI 

*¢ 0741p 

*¢ 0791p 

*¢ 0991p 

*¢ OIp 

“Tega 

*[[J-9U04g 

*¢ OIp 

“é [[eqaty 

*07}1p 


“é SPOT 


ay} JO WNos £ UOTZEMOJap YIM Ta} OmMy £ T]eJ-a009g 


‘zag uvidseg | 


"G/E pur Egg “av WadMjagt 


"2 01NIp 
“EouIp 

‘oytp 

g 09Ip 

"2 0191p 

“eTIeqeay 

*soul04s jO IaMoYs B 
“T1ey-2u03g 


‘op ‘syIVUayy 


eeneeeeee 


seeweeere 


araee 


eeeeereee 


we eeeeeee 


eeeneeeee 


wet eeeeee 


eeeeerese 


euereeees 


eeeeeeees 


BiCOUUATIG | 
IO INO} 


ee eweeeee 


eeererees 


on wees 
eeertroee 


eeererene 


een eeneee 


eaee 


eeeeetene 


beeretons 


“M04 °H 


eeererene 


*MOTOoIICy 


eet eweeee 


see eeeeee 


weeeeeene 


eeneeeeee 


eereeeeee 


eee eeeeee 


eres 


Peer eerey 


eeeeeeere 


weeee 


seeeeeree 


eeeeeeeee 


“44 319M 10 9ZIg 


. young, va 


eee 


qIe49petN}*** 
“ Tasurpyney|*** 


stag ULIpUy 4seq|"** 


tet en ee eeweneee 


ee eeteweneeeee wee 


* aourrg ‘Stoyjoreyg)*** 


Oo 


secaneeeseeserseereesereoes WOTIMT|*** 
veeesesees progtraneay|*** 


¢ 
sac eeeaceeeenrtevhesb sora IB aINIS wee 


seeeeeeee presuonery Sonn wee 


¢ 
seers OOTOyZqOFq|"** 


see eeeereeeteeerereee eluojAqeg eee 
eeccco res eeerseesrenseee Auemias) eee 
rer er Tee eer auloon'y see 


sewer eoeterens 


errr 


10 ‘UIMSE YY 


se ee we eeeeeeeee 


set eeeeeeeerees 


seat ee eeetereee 


seteeeeeeeeees BIGRIW JO BISIOg|"** 
seers Qidouryueysu09|"** 


he He he he Oe Oe GD) Oe he Oe Oe 


“AqvOO'T 


‘ANDOCTIVIVO AUVINAWATddAS YO NOILVONILNOO 


— 


Ce 


‘ I(T) 


0€ “AON 
St Av 
1¢ 
GI ‘qe 
< 
8 ‘AON 
cz “3dag 
L@ °*¥0 
SL oune 
LG “IRN 
6% “Ie 
CI 390 
82 
1z “3dag 
@ oune 
Og ‘“uee 
p Aw 
ae 
6 ‘ues 
JeuMNg 
¢ 
8a “AON 
#% “99d 


FI “dy 
FS *490 
g vudy 
“AON 
61 °*?0 
6 ‘dy 
Avy 

é 


“yuour 
jo seq 


“6891 
“OPOT 
*PPOL 
“eP9ol 
“OF9T 
*PEOT 
“OS9L 
“8691 
“S39L 
“619T 
“96ST 
“08ST 
“PLST 
“09ST 
“SPST 
“LEST 
“66ST 
“SEFl 
* 9661 
“LLIT 
“89IL 
*TSIT 
*OEIL 
“SII 
“¢60T 
“6S0L 
“646 
“186 
098 
*69L 
* 696 


“BOK 


99 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, 


“SIST 10 FIST Atqeqord £ uMouy you Tey Jo uy youxgy “ypeysueG x-eTgT g 


"0441p; 

“Teqory 

“Mnasnyy Staqjapioyy ay} Ur Mou {au04s 
“0941p 
"0371p 
“0731p 
*O74IP 
1eqa19 
*[1eJ-2u04g 
*03}Ip 
*034Ip 
0431p 
‘o1yIp 
~O}Ip 
“0341p 
“0431p 
“Gploqunyy) our ye Surutys uns £ 0441p 
“o14Ip 

0341p 

“ouIp 

"oWIp 

“op 

Treqerg 

‘TleJ-9U0}8 BION *s stoa}0N1 Aue 0431p 
*0}}Ip: 

*o}71p 

“0341p 

"0971p 

*014Ip 

*0941p 

“(é3UD IST Ur Seasaqqog — 490) op 

’ “OFIp 

“0741p 

"(éFD 4ST UL yorepy 487g) 0331p 


(‘é S181) 
“0% UE 09 JO ory “quRTTTIAg 


WO.G se amieg “Wnosny, e44nITeg oy} UT 
‘98D 4ST UI ‘sorpuy yseq a3] 


“0441p 
*074tp 
Wd OT €4y3q yonur § sjaed [Te19A98 OFUT 4s.INq £ 0431p 


“(€98Q 4ST ur BL Aeyy) op 


set eccees 


eeeeeesee 


eeeeweces 


Oeeeeeres 


“Wd | 


Seeconeee 


Pe eeeeeee 


Beet eeees 


eee eeeees 


Hew wweee 


eeeeccsee 


seeccceee 


eencesese 


eeettsece 


eeecesces 


ee eencnes 


tee eeecee 


seereeves 


eeeencere 


ot eeeeee 


see eeeeee 


eeeesees 


uMop-- 
"M07 


seesevces 


eeeeereee 


@eseneree 


seeerecce 


Beeeeeene 


tee eeeeee 


eee eneene 


errr erry 


rrr erry 


mentees 


Deteeeere 


SOO POP ewer erase eeseanessees yorpay eco 
Aa peaener eens SANS SILY, eee 
Ate eneeeereecesaceree qpeysueg wee 


on 
° 


'* DURPTAZ}IMG IO souRrg|"** 


oer Per ererre . eee 


eeeeecene 


* BIpuy ‘peqepesopy|"* 
veosasaainanesateestdeecess mass 


( 
Oe eee een eserenseetereccenns euieg|*** 


tet eeeensens young) "** 


¢ 
ted eee eeneneeereetneacreees ausag|"** 


tieteeseteeeeeeeseeeeseenpagtigny|*t* 
: “* Bollauly *g ‘uededog|**- 


Otte ee eeteeenes 


wn 


sessessaneanesazeesseseesse priggin sas 


¢ 


sree eeenroararag.|** 
seeseseereensenseresees gtugOnIT| 


“teeeoeees Bipuy ‘reqonbuery|*** 


mre 


seen tees seneee 


err errr errr rrr 


eer errr rer yy 


Se ettteeeteseee aoe 


ee Me AeA Ansan. 


neeee . 


SOO eet eeeeeeeee > eee 


Petre ereees Buojaoreg jo keg see 
** Buopeoirg ‘ymfyuoy|"** 
hh eee ey Young, eee 


FL 
Il 0d 


(4 
it 
9% “390 
£ ‘AON 
LU Ajne 
P oune 
Q 
13 “AON 
2 vq 
6 oune 
GL 90 
ZI “AON 
02 oune 
€ ‘0q 
Z 
L ‘sny 
“AON 
490 
1g Av 
¢ ‘4dag 
OL ‘sny 
oe Ato 
6¢ ‘Ady 
p Avy 
9% “qq 
GT ‘ues 
7 “AON 
GZ ‘00q 
IT ‘PO 


“4s1nq £outp| ateee ons 
o7Ip pe eeeeeee 


+ youuny|""* p “AON 
“ysnq $ ure} Buoy £ 0771p treereeSraquiayItAy|"** 61 “3dag 
‘oWIp teeeeeeee sosceveceeeesvorsessees  AnGsonVy 20 TT aq "CESL 
‘ouIp a) "MIN 0} “A'S seeeeeeee teecereroecsecooeses FIQQG MOI, peaig “Sny 
-gsanoo auijuadies $0y31p|  ‘w'v + *S OF 'N a3Ie] purpiezjimg pus Auvuitay "|" p “ure 
“o}Ip eereeseee . coe Poe eee eee eee ee eee) uuog eS I og "09d “SE8L 
‘opp seeeeeeee setae eeeeeeeeee é 9 OT “Sny 
‘oup| cutee? peceneree serseeeereetesseeereroreers guipal'?* QT ‘uur! — “O&8T 
‘oytpl| et seeeeneee + moovag|"** €% 
‘outp| eeeet seseeeeee “ younzl'* @ "490 
“oI aoe seereeeneneseee é earl 9 “ydag 
“431 quelypiq £0991p “T'N 0} "A'S seaeeersesereeseensee FIO UUOPIT A, mn 108 “‘Sny. 
0741p wee eneeee seetereee wees Bue ae 9% Aine "6281 
OVP aeeeeeeee . neusjny see 0¢ Aqne "8281 
“onIp seeesseeeeneeraeceeseneeesemoagtp|*** 97 
‘oyp ssssensenesteeerteeersees GLI |"** £900 
*oVIp eae eeeree ee eeeree * Zinquayeyosy aoe rad 
*o1p seeeneeee wee eeneee - BANPBWI14S i] see L dag 
*ouIp ser eeeeee é aoe 12 Ayn 
“ouIp seeeesees seseeeeee seceaeteteeeeeeeereesees oxnpARg|*? T Your] — "ZZ81 
*o7}IP eoereneee seeneeeee POteeneee se eeeeeeeeetone é see 9 dag ‘9Z81 
*syreds ysippor Our 4sinq 0331p seeeerene ‘a's 0} *M'N steeeeeee . 4peys[aygty, $0991p see 6 "AON 
of uolzeuojzap iM 0341p eeerenree tees . seeeevesesees SOQ UaWl AA, aoe 6 Sey 
‘ouip seeeeeeee pevenvney seeneeeeneneees “4 -qaq|  “GZ8T 
“2g 
GT ‘Sny| = "E281 
“* 6T une) = "G8 
“* BT ‘0a 
299 of das 
“Binqssny|""* ¢% “IeW| “128T 
sereneeeenene “ 2r 00 


Aaya staeenesensenrens 5 “+ 9g 


ee eeaeeee 


1860. 


REPORT 


‘oyntp] eee eoeseeeee pereneJep eeecccesesccece 


‘oyp| ott? veseeeees 
“op eereeetee 
“O1}Ip 
‘oyytp| vette oeeepeace 
‘owp| eet teveweees 


“oWIP 


nee eeneneneeeee 


Ae he Ae Oe Oe Oe 


seen ee eeeeeenee 


“op 

*oVIp ee eeereee eeeeeveee seeeeeeee Semen meee eee eeeeeeeetese youn see 8 Aung "OZ8T 

*074IP seeeeeeee peeeeeree se eevesee . eorrteee é Fg Ae ‘6181 

*souo JoTjems Z Aq pomojpoy fquel[Ig *0991p *saqeqg poyuy “uouMaA|** {T “Uer| “BIBT 


aeresesee 


2 {sey se owes £ 0391p eneeeee +. oeetecceccccecs r "27 
(é 291 10% ‘KaeSunf{ ) Treqeay ane eerene seeeeeeee seem rceee Pee é * 12 "09d 9181 


100 


*aorlein( “"yuuoUl 
10 ANO}{ jo Aug 


feds SP Ay ee SS ee eee 


‘O2p ‘SyIVUOY, BNCOUOERG | "7,4 819M IO ZI *ApI[LOO'T 


101 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, 


*oup 

"0741p 

“op 

"oyIp 

“query * 0391p 

“0331p 

"0931p 

0341p 

“0731p 

“oyIp 

*SOAIT, 92 OsTe {0431p 

“0p 

“0431p 

“O}4Ip 

°04}1p 

“0741p 

“0731p 

“Jaye uoleuojep f aurysuns Suump $ 0341p 
“0941p 

“0341p 

“0491p 

“0331p 

“0731p 

“0}4Ip 

“0931p 

“0441p 

“oyp 

*goulag 4e osye { [req Arey Bue] £0331p 
“0431p 

“0431p 

“0}4IP 

*| SOMMUTOL F IT(ISIA Yvarys £ o991p 
“0941p 

“0931p 

"0921p 

“0741p 

“OF}IP: 

“0731p 

“outp 

"(éUrY,] ap yuanrazmedeq) op 


seeeeesee 


Poesecees 


61 ers 


see eeeeee 


we eeeeeee 


Poreeeese 


tet eweree 


Coeeeseee 


“MN 0} “O'S 


“Mw 


eeeeeeens 


eeeeeeees 


“HE O4°M 


Oeeeeeres 


Peete rees 


“aS 02 


eeoresees 
errr rrr! 


N‘°M 09 ‘°O'S'a 


Ceeeeeses 


Pe eoeeree 


Gereeeees 


Be eeneeee 


eeeeeeens 


eeeveeres 


seeee 


eee eeweee 


eet eeeree 


* uuog)"** 
tresteeseeerseeees seeeeeeeeegagtp) eae 
tteeteeteseeereeeeereneees UTTiggg| te 
TOR meee eee eee eeeeeeeres Aporg tee 

“= arseg|-* 
“+ suueg|* 
ttesteeeesaseseeseneeneseeneeggaty|ses 
seeeeeeceeeccesovosso TPT SUIION eee 
*** gsnojnoy|*** 
“ypreS4nqg)"** 
sreeGimqzin gy § S1aquiezat Ay |*** 
Oe ere errr rey kequog 


Sede erecerereseveseseees puepsuy eee 
sereeseseeeseeeseneee HOTMMaaID) 
eeeeee Avquiog see 
***S.19q W194AL AA |*** 
Fee eee oe eerie soos MATIC UL} | ee 
teeeeeeeeeseesereeeeeves HUTT] *#* 


see oo . eee 


< 
eeeereseee young)" 


seeeeeereeeseeeeereeeeers BoB Tt 
reseeseneereeteaseeeneeeees  grrpagless 
stetesenesseeeseeesseees OMMOIO Tt 
ttteeeaeseteerenneesensees ange qa lene 
UEpasulaM pur B1aquioqatyy|*** 
sereeceeeccceeceecees SIQQUIOLITA\ see 
steseseesereeeeasseseenser Bae] t#* 
“*oygtp|** 
tteneteeesreseeeseneerenes goumnig| ee 
srteeescereeeeesseee SIQGMIVL AA eee 
teevevenesaeeseeveneeeeees UOT #84 
steeseeeees Quigg |e 
seeeeeeeeesees JgrMEG OB] SUOT]|*** 
resteeeeeeesaseseveerene masSny|*** 
setae reer aeseaeretessese yorunyy eee 
** Dayeysyorperny|*** 
seteeeseeeeeeeeeecrenreess GITIQ ET |*## 


oe ey) ko 


“OF8T 


“/% yoge ur] *ouIp 
UOTVUOJap Sus pue ‘Zz 10 l IO} mar qeaid $ 0431p 
*aslou ON 


‘wy f¢ 
WY F f48mq S4queriaq £099Ip] ,G1 Yeeas 
“0341p 

*0}41p) 

*o}1Ip 

*0V1p 

‘owip 

*o34Ip 

“ovp 

*o4Ip 

*o1Ip 

"014'p 
“op 

"0341p 

*O94Ip 
“ont 
“ouip 
*o7}1p 
“on1Ip 
“0941p 
asoo ‘padeys-read syjeqary Z {1oajour ayqnop ‘0431p 
‘QUIT UT ‘19113990}] “0391p 
¢uuog 4e Os[e £071p 
‘op 
“Teqary 

‘TUNASHY, YSU oy} Ur yuamsey ev $ [[ejJ-au0}g 
‘WIP 
“0931p 
“o}4Ip 
*0}41P 
*o}Ip 
*o#4Ip 
*pavay astou ou f4simq $ adzep £ 0491p 
*094tp 
“ouIp 

“0991p 

“Tegaay 


: 


ib 10208 


see eeeree 


see eeerne 


eee eeeeee 


se eeeenes 


Sl 


beeeeeeee 


REPORT—1860. 


‘wed OT 


beeen eeee 


eeetereee 


“BUr[OIED Y}ION 


eet eeeeee 
bee eaters 
‘Wa £9 


beereeeee 


eer eeeeee 


102 


“uorRng 


“2p ‘SyIVUlyy Jo INOFy 


oa’s 0} 
seeeeeees 
seteneree 

“MON 0} *S°N 


bee eereee 


baeeeeeee 
“M'N 03 *O'S 


bes eeeeee 


seeeeeeee 


“WOTPOIIIG, 


uoou < z 


hk <2 


“4 310M IO 9ZIg 


SUTTON 

Tyanig $ xty 

se" nelsaig §Zinquapyoayy|"** 
see ee ete compare seco recs5 area IZCTOGE see 
eee eee w enn ennee AanqsapAy . 
playsoola'T ‘uoySurmo ry apaseg|"** 
feeereeeterseeeses gmpumeasqoary|*** 
uayoniqieeg|*** 
“Ue SULJON nee 


Tmyesoy|"*" 


. 


“oqatp)"** 


** Sraquosarpy|"** 
se ee eee eeeee mreqsuryj0N ose 
tener P10JXO “Trqasoy see 
see eneeee vee Dre sUB ION 


sleq|*** 
eee eee eww eens Sylogq ‘pjaype.ig wee 
steeee veeeeeseeeees* TBUBUTIION eee 
“= ""99819UL0G ‘M0}SBq-9Ul0}G]"** 
**9UNOLED 42 4O'T PURE ad 
hehehe “XOXO ‘ yoojspoo \\\** 

mi pboate ethene shins * aUTAsaatty aA "** 
é - pLogxg|*** 
nejsaig|*** 
nee 99s OTB USUIZ}ON coe 
ravesenentsendeses tony’ = gmoy|** 
. : BUN IA * BISaTig|*** 


wesc cence reece nccesceecs 


é 
Se ELicl OEOELCEO Gi aye (| 


*Aq[B00T 


é 
€ 


83 
06 


© 
9 
I 


ey 
I ‘AON 


“ydag 
if 
I 


“qd 
00q 


dag 
‘any, 
‘Sny 


66 


G 


[ 


el 


P 


OL 


Aine 
AvIN 


cT 


3G 
é 
L 


06 
62 


9 
L 
L 


[ ‘ady 
[ ‘18 
“qed 
‘ure 
"AON 
[ *99q 
T ‘AON 

‘Sny 


GT Avy 


“yjyuour 
jo keq 


“6F81 


oO 
° 


“8P8I 


“L¥81 


“BOK 


103 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


*yovuznarly Ivan ‘mIayXog 4 osTe 
useg ‘parvaddestp 41 uoyA saytur (; [eorydessoa8) fF av pu ‘sajiu ¢ ye UdeS 
qSIy USA FYSIay Sat payeynoyeo siayy “MeJUNOUT [ayy ay} pue playuoystg 
ye prvoy uoNeuoyap ‘udyoyUNIN 4B OsTyY "Zz ArenIqoy  *'[G8T 5 

"6g aed ‘onSoT 


-ByBQ osje aag «‘ayenbyyAwa ue oy] puNo’Z 94} yooys ostou oy} { vIssnag 


YstayyY UT ‘saz a1enbs YO 19A0 prvdy Uadq AAT 07 std0s asIou ayy ‘ate 
94} YSno.1yy Suidy sparq oy] punos Surysna v Spavasaye pavay Loy} qySnoyy 
ajdoad pjajarg ye £ aul} 943 42 4svo10A0 Jauyer Ayg -gArenuee “CRT q 

“Aquoredde ‘1yey 
siya JO squnoooev poysiqnd oN  ‘somues3 g¢ pue sammesFopy ¢ paysiom 
Savy 0} Paqyys St aUo}s aIIQUa OY], “AULIe YOU 94} Jo epjeqey Jauo]og 
© JO UOTJOOII% OY} MOF SUM JuoMUFeAy SIN, ‘apuroMEyY *F ANE = BPST 5 


‘TAO + parte, Soyyrp) etree pore adIP] ““‘uapeg “laaouvyy ‘y10yyuery|*** TT ounce 
*0341p . Yee ee eecccvcee nie'e\Selgisielevin'a Suleatateie'elsiclaie Sraqieagy|"** 8I key 
*yeo14s aBrey £4q3r, 4094} 101104 01 £ 0931p sta as acuipveses: A eee eee eeeeneeees XIy|""’ 61 
“oyp| ssttetes ee eeeeees sesreeeee : Ssandamaless al 
‘Buljzzep £ syreds pue uoryeuojap yItM ysanq { 0341p uns= penseleseas> era Tray ae tee eb * 
*; uouamMousYyd oMoydsomye uv § ¢ orp Shin coon uguuEg {plepeqral' 1Z ‘qed 4 
*souo JUatayIp OMI, *09}1p : “ UuOg pur xty|""* Zz 
“queqiiq £094rp| ststttes sevees “oan reSingg “3 -oep “ISS 
‘ovIp| cette cisvavecers cveees “Tey SUTIION 07 
soqgtp] ceesetees | teeeeeees | aeteweene | foveee SERS TOUNSDOsaLEGH ““pqOFXQ|"** ET “AON 
‘oup i Gulpovincsicte Wete oe woySurpre(y wes 9 
“0741p arn uayoutyunan|*** GT 
‘oup stteeeees weyjuery|* % “ydag 
*O}4Ip Ceecscoce seereeee peceee sestecree*-Qaam wee 62 
‘OID Dada wenwace ature Ova weysunj0N Nore] 2Z 
*o}Ip eee eerees ee eerseee “zg1umyosqoo'T £ Sinqavyy art 91 
‘owtp| cette se eeeeees oe eeeeees Hrreereteesseresss<QODBIAT qu0g|*** OT 
"0131p eeevoccce eereecces eecccesee eRe cette ewe neste eensees Sinqopey ag at 
*0}41p oeoe . eee BOOM ewer w ene enne goulag $xry|t OL 
"0731p eeereeees see eeesee . see ee ¢ sueg ‘ auiag ove 8 
*saaysuny, “*portea $ querytaq $4smq £ 0341p eeceeceee eereceees “mip Rat Ramee eeeeeeeees sesccee Sanqieyy "0 
“0131p eocccccce seeresece Wedvecdss’ Laveen steeeseconseeoesns SMOOpBY “8 > ‘Sny 
“o1tp| ,OL ers vescesees eteeereeseeseeereeeerees TQISUNTA| QZ 
“0931p sees ate wae eeneee ‘up a *-Zizdiery Pais &Z 
0431p Peceseve ovcccpoce eoeeneeee OO meee tomers eeernsine purpysuq eee 6 
“quer $ 0331p ‘T'N 09 °A'S eeeeeeree sreeeeececeesceceeeee A TQQUIOWIT AA coe 9 Ni 
-O1}IP secccceee seeresees Trereseereerereceeee MBO BUTHON ea 6 
*oWIIp seneeeees . . . Broquasiayy soy 
‘oytp| ost tereeeeee seeceeeee sereeeereeeeconcecee TBUSUTNON =i Ont 
soup] seeteett taeceeeee oe eeeeeee sreetteeeeeeseeeeeres  ropuaatl ss g  ady 
‘op *ttevesesoeeeeeee eee pO SUIVON|"** l 
*qsanq £o3ytp| sttttt* *N 03'S . . “Broqmazat\y “@ aR 
“0741p OL eeeteenee ween eeeee tee teeereres “wey SUuIyjON s- 92% \ 


REPORT—1860. 


104 


“0971p 

*s punos Surzziya £ ysinyq £ VIP 
*0}41P} 

*syaeds 10 [Ivy ou £ OVP 
‘uoneuojep Aq paaor[oy £0991p, 
‘oyIp 

"0941p 

“oUIp 

“091p 

‘OW IP | 


“qySty esuozut £ 0971p) 

‘Wy Styrny Supp £ 0991p) 

“Te qe4g; 

"qorunyy 7 “GL ET Jo uoutoads y  *[[eJ-9U04) 
*O341D} 

‘ounIp 

*o}IP) 

“oy: 

“oP 

*,,6 paysv'T “Woreuoyap ¢parrey £ uer[iaq ‘0191p 
*o341p 

‘syrvds pure ‘pax ua} ‘aztqM £ 0991p 

“quoqjzIUMAa}uI §syxeds paano[od £ 0741p 

"eg Ang “Treqory 

‘uneshy, UdSUIUO.LD oY} UT ‘olUt}-ABp * [[BJ-9U0}g 
*034TD 

*o}1p 

“ysintq $ 0791p 
*o3}Ip 

‘E1¢gT ‘*syaeds 10 uresy ou £ [[eqory 

*PUNLUL 90 JOE 904s Jo IYZIOA\ “[[BJ-9U04g 
*2 qtodea @ Aq pamoT[oy 0991p 

“0741p 

"¢ WRT IUION Y OSTY *0771P 

“ApourpeyY ye OSTY — “FUBIT[LIq £0791p 


“E1981 


ap uayy ‘pasvatour S4yysiy Jo yuiod B 4s1y 4e £ 0431p 
“paysiuva pue pasea.to | ° *0W4Ip 
*ysinqq * TTeqeqy 


OW ‘SIVULAT 


OT 122498 


errr) 


eeeneesee 


id 
18 
EE 


seeweeeee 


weeeeeeee 


we eeeeeee 


eeeretens 


“uOTqeAN ([ 
10 INO}] 


*M 07 '°H 


eee eweee 


seereeeee 


ee eeeneee 


ee eee wee 


“H'S'H OF “M'N'N 


ee eeeeane 


set aneeee 


eeeeeeene 


“a'N’O OF “MIN M 
“M'S 0} ‘A'N 


eee eeeeee 
eee eeeeee 
we eewesees 


*M'N 0} 


eoeteeees 


eeeeeeeee 


*UOTJOO.IICT 


eee eeeeee 


aBie] 


teeeeevee 


“UDP {QT 


seeeeseee 


seeseeees 


eeeeeeeee 


ke= 
snue, < 


Aeeeerene 


uoom £ 


"Wy S1aM IO 9ZI1g 


Zyuvy $ Z1aqmayzst Ay 
ecneesrnsperses) TOHZING 
PPP Pee eee Pee Ja4ysuny]y 
teres Tord, pur pueplIZpIMS 
uayoILUNIN 
eeees S1aqss1u0y 
Fee ewer eeeeeeees 4pejsUe alto py 
seer eseeccceeeceecece uesuepy 
* qaysunyy 
“ 2OT 
Poe Pee P ee Pee eee eee | J94sunfy 
sreles csp” Aas ckeresers ORO MOT 
“* BOLITY yseq ‘pury-eyfue 
PPP PPP Pee Pee eee eee MOOBIY 
wee ecerereccsesseesesces uasuepiy 
ste" JoIsUNIA PUB UasULTIT 
* *  JaqysUNUIs 019.1 
sccrsesses-SIZd ony 
ulpiog { BIsafig £ oyIp 
SOOO ewe eee eee tees MOOTID 

“0491p 
* Joysun yy 
** s 9aysiaysooley { puvl[ozy 
seeeeeeeseeeoes DUBTIOH ‘appa 


seeeee 


*** ¢ QIIysiaqsaoIe'y | puel[oyy 
eeeeecscceesees Auoxeg ‘neSog 
treeresseseeeeeeoeee TBO SUIGION 
*uayoITyunaN £ JLT 
“es sBipRI ‘aLOT[ON 
srreseeteaneeersrrss 7 IOISUNTY 
rtetserserseenseneresere  MOQBIO 
Jaaoueyy ‘uaps9 A 
‘op ‘uuog £ 0331p 
PEGE Ec ‘J1opyassn $ 0991p 
Ronristetstee “-oMIp 


sO eee et eeeeeee seenescesseeees XIV 


*Aqyeo0'T 


eee JaTrauey 0 tha 


“oT 
1% 


mg 
“ T 
TT 
“6g 
“OTL 


wg 
“9 

rt 
62 
¥6 
91 
€L 
Il 
“6 

61 
él 
£3 
mg 

9 

Gg 

a 
LT 
Il 
FB 
ol 
“9g 
“9 

“9 

9% 
xa 
ol 


“IBY 


‘uer 
09(] 
90 
Aue 
oune 
Tudy 
“IRIN 
“qu 


“ues 


29 
‘any 


Ajae. 
oune 


Avy 
“uee 
20 
*AON 
"700 


dag 
“Sny 


*yyuOUL 
| jo Avq 


“PS81 


oO 
o 


“S81 


e 
*BE81 


“1S81 


BUEy 


2 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


"I 31] WO13 yno Surars ‘snus, < zZ ‘uoFuepry ye ospe wag *Zgy ‘d “xxx “JOA 

*¢ OYIO9}9UL B9T_—“BISATIG JO AyaIO0g ay} JO ssulpadd01g vag ‘soovjd Auew ye pavay uorsord 

~modag 03 aq you siya Avy ‘pury-eyfuem ‘umm “9 yore eErst » “X@ _ “ysdnq if uayM sapitd g ynoqe pur “4siy 4V sopIM ET 4YSIaq { sopiut YZ 
‘eplng pur ‘nedag ‘neqo7y ‘euar ye osye se ‘asiou ynoyIM = —-4e edeq Aq pajeuysea yyed sy jo yyBueq = “TT Joquis.a(ql «= ¥"ZGRBT aq 
syieds ojur ysinq ‘use1d usyy ‘MoTed 4sug ye ‘TojaUNEIp UI OT ‘SIzdiey yy ‘Bp[ny pue ‘uapeg ‘uowerg “j10;yURIy 4B UDES OSTY “TT ABI ‘ZEST z 


071 eeccences REPRISED GS ooo BORSRA ILO Gf ya) ED 82 
‘ounIp eeeeeeeeeeseereeeecreees pont oz 
“roLaMy YON oyp| ttt Cuohonccc --euaqepSeyy ag" §  “09q 
‘outp] ete Rr ereseee eetnee ae Hetseseeseesereeerestes uprplies g 
“0741p soreeeees tone cere eeeecenees uayoiryuneyy|*** 8 "AON 
“0931p oo rereeeveneeesesees TONSIOH[BM |" OT 
“0131p Seseereees er eeveree ser eeeeee qpeysueua Fy Am FI 
‘op| tte eenceseee seecseeee ssreteesontessens eet tTan OTH “TT 900 
“ouIp Sereeeees soesestes riessseeecseenaceceneseseespaata [*** 3g 
*0}IP aes ectshevcees sucuhseushot=¥c eager ess ote 4dag 
‘oyip| rte “04 “AL ; -aTaonDIENIS OT 
*noow ¢ = ‘aq 3t] years zoyip| snyess eeeeesees syetuseesuaseceseserens sqagumripg|-"* Bi ‘Suny 
‘ommp) tt or eneseee serpesesccaqrhreeece*encer=rscoagnmn ites aon CATE 
*0}Ip seeesceesceeeeceereeeeerons BOTIB [tf key 
"(Tudy q1Gz Jo) opp) tt" ir uaqoMyUIZ449T pueppejseqi||"** FZ 
‘oyup| merase caveniets etttestereeesseseeeseeseserpipe|st OT 
*onIp samen vse SOO COC Or seccecresenscvestcees qpeysuor9|"** TT sady 
0341p errr ry REESE ON HA eee 62 
‘oyutp] cette APRLOOK = -suafteaitiben| ae 
‘oynp| tees docnascoc soeaeties Spenco “euuatal' eT cure] — “Gegt 
‘owp) ce eedastons caeoa 00 Heeeeeesereeeesunotuagnyag|"" @  "29Q] 
‘ujdoutu 8 oyIT “WoNBUOJap YIM ysINq !0431p} “WY TT uMOP —- “so ‘uapquig ‘sueddaxy|''s JT * 
*[[eus £ 0931p eeeretene see eceees 5 wwe Fy £ 1948UN PY “TL “AON 
‘omp| tt SeChSec0- natecegna sore teseeess quompy|""' @ “490 
‘omtp| tes ptietion EucheveKe trteteaessecessererees sereesnarp|"* g 
0731p Pee eeeeee Be LER EE D OO ROOF) 1 (0) wae c 
*oyp) eee ee Br1oqualyey|"** z “ydag 
FOUND) Wecsterecrs Coecsnees seeteetepian|'* 6z 
0p oS eS SS Pee eeeees TtteeseeesecseeesoeeS 19QUaIJUIS see al 
“o7VIp teeeeeeee OOO ewerre eet eeesaeere MOORID eb) Zz Aqng 
‘owip| cette +. numosqnery|“** 
*oayIp ee tewneee te receeee eeerereee eeereeee a MOORID aoe Cl Ae 
MOON) a coo2eo2s tereeeees teeereees sete eeeeseevesseenseseee Siaqueg secu aur 
*ougIp eerecccorecescecesecscvosee Rind arise" 


—_ <= | <8 © 2) sy Sees Se 


a 274s 


“payrey $ Mots fo371p| : vee er reeeeeaee “oyIp ‘neaey|** 
‘Wa FG “4sinq ‘0g JO 18 £0991p “a'N 0} “A'S PULpIIZIIMG ‘Yougrg|"** GZ 
‘Wd 0Z'Z “ySt[Uoou 4Yysuq Sutanp £o1p “A'S 0} "a'N “uassorg $ uAyURI|** TT 


‘mDIp UL Eg 04 ,Z Syyed anbyqo foyyrp| “Wa £ *S 0} 'N ssreseee apeqsued)’'' g "ded 
“quer [Iq £0991p tt eeeeeee wean eeree een . BISSNAg ‘uay1og PORE 2h 
‘Wa J ‘wp your Sy f4ySt{u0om Surmp foyqrp}| sett “a 07 "MA peaee se UnlTayuRyy f 4ypeysmueg)'*’ [TL 
“Wd fg “yged anbryqo agiya ‘parley £04}1p seeeerees "M'S 0} ‘HN weeteeeee ee eee cre rrr wassaly [8G “AON 
*0WIP eececceee eeeereece see eeeres Coc ccereresevesccasrcose é yedaog eee 12 
*ystppat £ [req uayorq Auo] £0991p| ,,G 0} ,,h * wnigjog ‘uiranoy|'** 27 
“261900 ‘BAOANG We BuLINp sT[eqory OM £.0470p resetereeseapdrog|'** OZ 90 
‘OSIOU OU S OTMIM Fuoy B I[qISIA yeas £yuerTIAq £ oWIp AS “ACN AL OF “O'S vs Aueuay pesyuag|""* ZT 
«6S81 ‘OL “ny TeX purpiag * £0991p £ opp fee ee eee we eeeeeee Seems e ee rweer tt aeee eens sees Bulg see Z ‘Sny 
*aSlOU FOYIIM qsanq £ prpuazds £091p é ‘a's 07 “W'S sete teee Se eeeeteneeseenees udyoalyUna Ny AIS 3 Aine 
“UIA OU fanbrqo yyed £0931p ‘aS 0} *A‘N tee eeveee Ae bene cae eeeeneneees BIpey dso AA see CL Avy 
*quUrT[aq £071p seseereesee wae Pleyequa|"** 6L “IRIN 
q “OUIP| ,€ OF 6 es ** uatumen|* 06 “42d| — “6S8T 
S *OUUT} DUIOS 9[QISTA yeas $o4ytp] “ttt yes sIv[eQ ap seq|'** OF ‘AON 
tera} ‘ovtp| “W'a OGL steeeeees teeeeeeee teeeee vipeqdysa Ay £quOULa[O PO 
ae ‘WV O¢°ZL *queTT [IAG £ 0991p eeeeeeees we eeeeeee seeeeenee bebe noses GBT1O AT ‘ereydisa see g ‘pO 
| “payer Sspnoyo yysr1q our paarosstp 0391p} OTS *“M 0} *H uoom $= CPibReneSece Seen e TOT GUNA oe OL Gas 
ec “EOF, OQISIA Wea14s £0491p} ,,O1 04,,¢ “MON 0} “S'S sascha stteseeeeessesees Sinquapiol''? TL Ame 
ra) ‘syeds O7UL paapossrp $ojqrp]| *tt7**** The “* pUNUT4LO” pue taysunyl|"** Bz 
Be | STOH 5» ¢ “eumgp Ur “Iz “OUNP) EOF 1B “ACN OF "O'S COE ES — PIOPOQ ia"? 26 
S  00% {sept gy Jo yyStoy v qe syred ¢ oJuL4samq $oyytp] “Wa OT *“a'N OF “AMS Auoxeg Spuryjoyy fereydysoyy|*** Z 
fe imey g Soap) cere" Gioloe sssssnertevessrerssisenases oAOTT|"** Q  OUNE 
"Wd Tas) “astou ou £ querypiaq $091p eeereeene "MS 04 “a°N eee eee Bryer dasa A wee Li “qo 
“uOLeUOJop 6 ysinyq $ [rey paamo s 0}}1p “Wad Cre “1's 4 “MIN nopserescecserscest”“DUBIAOZIEME see 1% * 
“pale, f ysippadt $OM} OJUT paprAtp £0471p| ‘Wa G “AN 0} “AL'S : qloyayooy S[ayeyojnon|"** OT 
*OF}IP seereeeee se eeeeeee wee DEO UE LUA (ig fem 8 “ure erred | 
‘oyp| ee se teeeees eececseee Preeerereer ee * uoueg|"** GT ‘AON 
(cSOH * "So TUL c="a $ Sp 0} Ysry sa] tun LI £0791p eeeresees set eeeeee eeveeceee PO rete ewe t ewes ee ne eaeeees slit eee 62 ‘pO 
‘oup| te “M'S 0} “SUN taseesoce Hieseeseeetessecceseesesse BoTpaltes 7 Gaal *2O8T 
$2] *ou1p eeeeeeeee ee reesces h= see e ee eeresreneeasseeeee young)" Il 
&q sopiur (¢ uvWI9DH) g IOAO pavoy UOYLUOJ9p $ 0731p 2S 0} 'N *emayog|'"* G 400} * 
*1O9}9UL OJIYM QuddyUseUM { 0441p "M03 °H * young 6, Avy 
“quer LIq $ 0V41p uUMOp-- set eeeeee POOR e teen JoyeyojnaN wee GZ "ITN 
*NOTZBUOJOp quo]OrA Aq Po MOTTO} $ oy0p seeeeneee seeeeeeee Henne eee eee aren eee erpeydysa jy nee 91 *qoyy ¥ 
*Treqoay “aN 0} "A'S uoow = sereseeeeres XTW $ PUBLOZIIMG!*** G ‘"URP] "OC8T 
o |j—— oa neneerey —— 
=) Bo uORM ; . Ht “yquour : 
et O79 ‘sxe Mey 10 INO} worjoaATCT qu ZIM 10 aZzIg AqtROOrT jo kvq 19K 


107 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


foutzeseyy suemopuey fautzeSeyy ATIQUOW {*02x9 


*SU0}G OTLO9}9 UO JOINT “H *M Aq oporse ‘gpeT ‘eueyodonay, erpedopsoug 


‘sjoeq JO YOog awax s,qmry, !Q9gI-Test ‘sizdiery ‘uyer -y “y ‘opunysSunioyt\, pun o1ydesfoan 


‘gIMOUosY Jop apunery pun udzuEpaTI My uasuyeyiequqQ { aoueLy op InyNsUT,] § BIsaTIg JO Seyat00g oY} Jo sBurpovo0rg § ABojoroa}0qy 8,z}0Iey 
f suotearasqO S,ypruIyog *¢ ! OORT ‘aT[eE ‘AtmouoNsy jo (Z/fiuyassauyoogy) matday ATOM SIH £O9ST PUL GBGgT ‘assazy sadddgq Jo Aya1I00g ay} Jo 


SduIpPIao01g IY} JO sytoday {sayezey ypeysmueg ‘wMeyUeyW ‘audojog a4} 


£ Aydosopityg pue Aroystyy [eAnjeny Jo Teurnoe jayeyojnon {AT Weg ‘FERT AOF 


“any “S80q ‘tapelyo Jo andopeyeQ 94} Jo yuomarddng yIOT s,Lysaeqsn3og ! EFT ‘aISeq ye Aydosoyg [VINyeN Jo Aya10g ay} Jo SBurpaav01g { egy ‘319q 
“W9}IIM JO SpLooay [enuuy—: jusmefddng oy} ur Aj[eroodse aiow pue ‘andojeyeQ Surpasoid ay} url paz[Nstod ssoua1ejar pue say Moyne eUONIppy 


“Y}IUazZ 9} WOI UMOP BYSteXs [Tey 07 UIA 


q@ waas sem fAvIqmieD pue suaTMTY UaeMyaq UAT[ey AALY plNoa ‘punosd oy} 0} [TAF YL Jt puw foouvsy wr suopeyy 1aao Apoamp saptur qq Apeuy 
* plvy}70H "9g JOAO saptut [eorydessoes Og sem LoajoU sy} ‘Ug—as ysIy MONA, “JosUNpY Jo stay “Jorg Aq sreoyed jeuoytppy “¢g Ateniqag ‘gest ‘a7oAr 


*ATOJVUNZAOJUN 4SOT IO Prefstor udaq AAVT oUOYs SIT} Jo suaMIBeay aU, 
“610g sung “g’N ‘dn poyord way 4stom pur poo aymb sem § sapou.red 
OY[eJOUL BurUTYS TOU ysN1d apisjno AayyIOU pry yf “38a s,youp v sv adaey se 
qnoqe sea pue ‘soydey vou [[e} 0} usas se 4I f UOSpUeS 9[QuIAy palquias 


[29 Buoy £ 0471p 

*ovIp 

“ysinyq ‘0331p 

"Wt1q {Trey ow Spaama yyed £ 0931p 
‘ayy $ Zurzzep yey peorq Buoy {0341p 


*aSOU FHOYIIM 4sinq {0941p 

“oyIp 

“THe 9249) 

“Tey pue rapunyy jo w104s v Suranp Toyz £ [pej-au0yg 


eee eeeese 
woeeeneee 


19 21S 


"MIN 0} “D'S 
*M 0} SL 
*S 0} °N 
*NO}'S 


ye uaag 
quay v § Apnopo pue yep ToyzeI WYZIN ‘OVW ‘JasseQ ‘oz ArenUeP “E98T y 


“oI 9NOys oy} fTTeqoay Au sem oioq} aeadde you saop yy “QggT ‘et oung 
JO jaurjuay Ai1apuopuoyy oyy vas ‘purjery ‘aoydey G aune Z'098T q 


‘o1p ‘assay ‘premuapo ‘Siaqpaty 


‘WV G Noge saftor [eolydeis0es 9z Jo doueystp v IdA0 podtoosad 


aB1e] 


eereseee 


seer eneee 
eeeseeeee 


ory 
ee eenes 


seeeteveceeereeee- 1999 0NUISUIALY] see 
teorere sites) BIE YT £Jxopuesy] see 
teeeeseeeeeeroe Ugnsaa(q|"* 
TWassaly|*** 

Peete cece sec eessevecres yroysqyy|* 


* uapsaaq|"** 
|vrrert* peBauog ‘oa ‘aoqdey|** 
frssetiescees purjjoH 


1860. 


REPORT 


108 


29 QS yer ae 


“Test 


“SSSI 
“Pest 


“PE8I 
“9E8L 
“THEI 
“OF8L 


“PBT 
“CPL 
“OF8T 
“SPS 


“OS8I 
]1S8t 
OS8L 
TOS81 


“ES8T 
“LS81 
“LG81 
“8S8T 


“Taqusadaq “TOG UL9AO Ny 


SRT OVW YOY ur ‘OOST “a'v 0} ‘spremyorq pasueie “QOgT ‘a’v wo1 avaf yova ul syjyuOU soy} Surmoyg 


“6281 
“SSSI 


“OFS8L 
“GF8L 
“CPB 
“eP8L 


“PPST 


CPFSt 


“PPT 
“OF8T 


“6F81 
“OS81 
“OS8T 
“eS8T 


eSSst 


“OS8T 
“LS8T 
“LS81 


*19q 03909 


“L281 


sraquiaydag 


‘T Gav, 


“post 
“8081 


Ost 
“OI8L 
“GI8L 
“CI8I 


“SI8I 
“6181 
f0681 
9681 


¢ Lest 
“BE8T 
“OPSL 
PPEL 


fOS8T 
“TS8T 
e9c8T 
“LS81 


‘judy 


“poAdasqo Us0q IAB S109}9]A] Surjeuoyaqy 10 


*Areniqayq 


109 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


*St}UOUL Jay}O 949 [Je pue Arenuee 10J UO Os pure ‘NGgT UI Udas 919M Om} f S]s8a1 UOIOTdsNs amos YOryA uOdn ynq ‘paytodat a19M OMY QUOTE YOIA Ur 
‘ISS 01 Youq auou uay} ‘ggg] UT ou sem a1aY} £ GGRT IO OOST UL U9ES IOd}0UI FuLyeUOJop AO [[eF I7IPOAQe OU AumnuNS UT : SHY} peat oq 0} BIqGUI, SINE, 


a ee eee 


“T6FT 1201 

“G6FL “6201 

“SPST {8611 

“LSST “6FSL 

“LOST “GOCT 

“B19T “18ST 

“SOT “GEOL 

“LO9T “COLT 

“LE9T “LOLL 

“OPLT {TsO “SSZT 

“SGL1 “POET ¢300T “ST9OT "GGLT ‘O8IT {sett 

“COLT “PE9T ‘TIST “OPOL “POLT “82ST “1671 

“B9LT “PLOT “S09T “LP9T “Q9LT ‘OFST “POIT CPIST 

“GLLT “6891 “PSOL ‘OS9T *TLLT “T6ST “6LE1 “E8ST 

“GOST “POLT “ESL {BEL “O8LT “899 “06ST “96ST 

‘OI8T “PILI “B9LT “E8Z1 “06LT “90LT “OST “OE9T 
f 09ST “OI8T “COLT “GLLT COLL “S08T “GOL “T9ST ‘PS9OL 
“98ST “TI8T {BEL “LLL “BLLT ‘OI8T “SOL ‘08ST eS60L “9L9T “LEST 
“9S9L “PI8L ‘OSLT “86LT “OI8T “TI81 “6ELT “LL9L COST “ITZT “L491 
“GPOL “6181 “GOLT 2081 “OL8L “PI8T “BOLT “089T “0Z9T {sIZt “OFLT “8281 
“POLT C0681 “OLLI 9081 eStst {Ost “69LT “B69T “8391 “61LT COGLT “96FT 
“ZELL ‘0281 “LBL “8081 e9st “0281 “P6LT “LELL “6691 “TEZT “ELLET “OLST 
“TPLT “681 “6081 eSrst “9I8T USe81 “SO8T “ISLT “SILT ‘961 ELLLT CLSL 
“S6LT {6681 “e081 “SI8L “SI8T eSest “6081 “O9LT “T9LT “8641 “GBLT “8ST 
“86L1 “SEB8l “GT8T “PI8T “6181 f6681 “SI8I “O9ZT “BBLT “POST “96LT “GOL 
“e08T “SE8I “SI8L “6e8L “OZ8L ULSst “6181 “T6LT “C6LT “GOST “PISL “O69T 


“L081 “SEsl “6181 ‘6S8L €Ce8L “TESL “Test “E081 “6621 “9081 “GI8T “L691 


REPORT—1860. 


110 


eeeeee 


seeeee 


die 


seseee 


nis 


tl 
* 
* 
: 
oie 


rite tie 
MMO DITO OGDNAEHMOOMrNOMH 
* 


nia 


da 


*s[R}0], 
Apaea 


‘Sny 


“Atne ‘oune 


“uer 


‘O08T “av 0} FoRq O9ST *a'v 


wo. ‘avaz Yyoua 10} soquinu jv}07 pur ‘yuo yore Ul S109}9J\] Suyeuojag pur s]jeq oyToOIoy Jo soquinu ayy Surmoyg 


‘TJ TIVE 


“UMOUy 
-un 


qyuoyy 


“9881 
“2881 


*8E8L 


“68I 
“OPS8T 
“TP8L 
“OP8L 
“SPSL 
“PPst 
“CHST 
“OP8I 
“LP8L 
“SP8I 
“6P8T 
“OS8T 
*1S8T 
“OS8T 
“S981 
“PS8T 
“Ccsl 
“9S81 
*LS8T 
"8981 
“6981 
“0981 


“VOX 


111 


ball 


ain 


nia 


nic 
OO Hin Oa INNO NINN Oe 


mea 


mic 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 
miler jen 


Ada SH OD NI HIM OO oD 


met 


ns wet 
ANA N 


% seceee % seeres 


eoeeee eeeeee eeeeee eeneee 


teeeee eeeeee Ooeeee * stews 
* raeeee sence eoreee eeecce tees 
oeeees seeeee stews eoseee % * 


* * 
seeeee % 


% soeeee 


£ eeeeee 


Sx 


seeeee 


a f 


% * oereee 
Sx wc eeee * 


eeneee 


se enee 


seeeee 


eeeeee 


* we 


REPORT—1860. 


112 


OtRe 
: ia 
a 
is 
ag 


xa 
Lond 
ary 
oatan TAN 
tl 
[mel 


Ore oo am Nad HOD OD of oD 20 OD 
: 


ol 
mist st oD ono N 
N 


sone 
_= 
taal 
anwotDE 
: 


Ot: en ere ik: Oia 


*1aquIIa(T | ‘A9quIaAON 


"1990190 


I 
€ 
‘a 


a Ad HOD OAT MAAN 
— 
al 
eee 
“ee 


nl 
ANd TEN 
al 


a]: 
fo) jaan 
= 
— 


‘roquiaydag | -4ysn3ny “Aqne ‘ounce 


Lo | 


200 OD 


= Om 


1 oOON 


NON 


NANAeE 


2~N ANWAN 


oa) 


nie 


| ro) [anos 
a 


FV Ore Ve Oy eave ea ie 


qudy 


"yyuoJA, pue Leg 10J Cd pur “gq “YW sasse[Q Jo uolNqiysIg 


‘TIT @TaV I, 


A A SS ee ee 


He 
se NO 2 
re 


ea 
_ 
>No 
Nn 


a 
HA : 
N cc 
OAR 
- 
=e = 


NO 


— 


tl tulle 
wef lg |g 
oeleel ol 7 


NAAN NON 
N 
_— 


@/ 1 


Res 


< 


‘youryy «=| *Arenaqag | *Aavnuee 


OOS ee ee ee yes) 


| Sass ie Blo sie 2] o 


“qq00W 
jo eq 


1] 


a 


“S6L1 9} Z6Z1 "1641 "C6L1 "96L1 10 CELT 
“LOST 9} 66ST “66LT "SOST “08ST 
*608I “L081 "LIST ‘OST 
*LIB1 “CISTI “6181 "2281 °F SISI 
"$281 “et8L (| Aouanboay mmut "LOB "L281 
“IXBUI 29 WNL 
‘SE8I 0} OST “IES “IUTCL UL sivak “Csl "Ces 
qyste Jo Tear, 
“6E81 "6E81 -ur pesoddns y } “epgt “SEST 
*LF81 “LST *1S8T ‘OSS 
"PSST “CCS “681 *LS81 
*paarasqg *paqeno[eg *payelnoleg *paarasqo 
“SyIVUIO yy 
“sivaX WNUTUT YY *sIvaX WNUIxeyy 


"II pue ‘] safquy, Jo sisfjeuy 


shee 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, 


sa! 


aoe 


LONE TAN SH tal elie 
we] ig forefe fer foe] a | 7 
Tofedelel pte] 7 
mT rfel ad g tele] 7 
a a 


Neo IANANN 


eee 


tee 


114 REPORT—1860. 


34 | 
=) mA ot In so I~ OC aoonn OD Him ‘le corn —) 
oo (alan ian! aan ae N 
Ae 
3 MONN HNMH OMAH COMMID oO 
A ee ce 
5 InOinwD MONA ANSOH MOND WHO 
A ee Loe ae [on 
| 
_— 
=| : 
° vey 
> rot MMOD AOMN Atom OND ONWSO 
ao] 
=| 
3S 
> ey 
A B TRANS TRH ABete HANA AHHH 
n 
am 
= 
3 : 
© = HHA RTOS SNM HRMNOSO MON 
ro =a onl ae — 
o 
> 
~ 
o 
wm . 
. = i 
S r= 4 HANAN ANISM MANGO NMA ONAW 
— oa co] " 
ic} o 
Ka 2 
: are E 
H v4 5 INO N AOR HARD WHA WAWA 
5 
- 
A 
oa ad 
S ss NOAD ANTN AHN Aw Aww 
3 =I 
oOo 
mn . 
2 = 
s Eo oF 6 6 1D no rt eH MONN MOO > 
2 g : 2 : 
oo 
1S) 
ae : 
mn = 
oO oO 
so 5 One ANIM NMAN MAM NOs 
_ 
ree] 
= = 
-Q 
ro WAIN NAOSOM Nota AN: Wwi9s 
= % 
g BOHN FON Wnt Weise pein 
2 : 
6a 
= aN otno HORS 
BS AAG WOM OST Baad AeA 
AS 


115 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 


‘ZT 0% [LT raquiaoaq 

‘Of 02 JT aquiaaon 

"ET 0} ¢ aqUIaAON, 
*J 0} T 1240390 

“OL 0} [ raquiaydag 
“7 0} F ysndny 


“QT 07 z ounr 

23 03.8 Avy 

"02 99 g [dy 
"GS OF SVL Ye] 
“61 01 OT Atenigay 
OT 0} g Arenues 


*y Arenuee 0} OE Aequisd9aq 
"Gz 01 ST 1aqma00q, 
‘OL Jaqmasaq 0} [TE Joquiaaoy 
“Of 0} JT zequiaydag 
“1g 07 1g ysudny 
"L Av 02 62 [dy 
"GZ 04:12 [dy 
+s Areniqay 0} GT Arenuer 


*Saql[O1AV JSOML Jo sauity, 


*SOWPOIQY SIMI JO SOUT, 


"SL 03 [IT toqmsa00q 
“OE 03 JZ JOQuIDAON, 
"ET 0} G JaqaIaAONy 


*g 0} ¢ Aine "69 0} T 19qG079G) 
"J 07 ¢ oun "GT 0} [ taquiazdag 
"ZZ 02g ALIN *f 04 F ysn3ny 


"3S 04 ZT Aine 
“ET 01 g Arenuer 


"FZ 02 FL Yoreyy 
“E61 09 OT Arenagay 


*syoodg 1097971 
WoJz JOUNISTP 
sqoodg ontjo1oy 


‘sod 10aqaq 
0} WoUWIOD 
syvody otfo12y 


mo Han bbe 


OD Hun 9 ws ON 
ork] Ns 


NO eH tN OO 


"A TEV], 
3 if a 
; ss : 
L 6 I 
ot € uy 
(A bd eee 
£ € 3 
T T € 
I a m 


I I 
sas . ae 5 a 
* 2 = g og 
b , I ¢ 62 
€ b z ¢ 8% 
£ I z r la 
I g € g 9% 
I Entiat € So 


} 
: 
: 
; 
: 


12 


Ecc eee eeerereesee® a pue 9 + sopllog 
£91 Hee meee erent nteeeses DIPIOIIY [210 L 

89 Nessa  *sioaqaWW Suynra0ya(q 
Sei teeees Wf S][BJ-UOLT PUB -aU0}S 


syIuoUL XIs +5801) 


18 ¥6 fey Tete temas ereeeeee a pue 9 : §[240J, 
a L¥ Se eee CT SSPIQ 2 OIG 

cg LY 99 Sesieetcceeoneecors ASEUIO) + SOPILOg 

Ee $927 £47 seco eee eeeeeresoeeses dINITOIVe e307, 
Set | Ser | Fat Poe gt sxoazoy Sueur 
$02 €I ZL oft |W FS] [ef-uosy pue -auorg 

‘avy | “qaq | cure “suo 


P81 1cz OFL 0s9 €¥8 
$81 san4 861 $402 912 
$c3 92 ¢6 $19 i*6 
eg $82 €0l Le paca 
“UOT[ayLag *uoraydy “syjuouL “sqIUOUL *“Sq}MOW XIS 
“k[ng pues oune | ‘ue pur ‘00q IOPULMW XI Jomung xIg | pug JO ‘[e1413S[OS} 4ST 40 ‘[eI4T}s]OS 
s TA 19%, Jo sisffeay 
~ 
@ 
) TIA aTavV yi 
mg 
° 
fa 
me 911 goct | FEL | Sl | Sel} IIT | 641 | SOL] 64 L8 68 
oF Lsg cr €8 #S 9% 18 ag 0g 9¢ FE 
OL 6£8 16 86 6 68 a6 19 6F 1g Gc 
$e Scor | %60 cy | t9¢ | #1¢ ze | tPF LE Le | &c2 
$et Szgr | Set | fee | $91 FL | fet | Fe ral 6 $c 
02 OFZ Ol | t1z oc | 41 | $81 8% & 82 02 
todetoay | , : ‘ : 5 F af : : ; 
Aqyquoyy [e}0J, sag | ‘Aon | "390 | ‘3dag | “Buy | “Aug | coung | “Avy judy 
Cae SO A lise) Pe i a eee ape ble ee de eS ek sl 
© “YIUOT YORa Joy JOquINU YA ‘Sapljog pue s109}9]\] Suyeuoyaq, * sazpoiay 
— 
| 


‘TA AIAV YT, 


117 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS, 


OFT ¥F 201 “"W'd ‘S]e4OT, 1g 8st €f “wv ‘S[eI0], 

€ I Zz ZI 4 IT Ol $ 9 ZI 9} IT 

z 3G ae IT ° OT 9 6 P IT 9} OL 

91 ZI t OL 6 8 I L OL 36 

91 9 Or 6 18 6 z L 6 98 

6 € 9 8 FL S % £ 8 O72 

al ¥ 8 L 19 ¥ I ¢ i 19 

ai ¢ ial 9 04¢ T Pe 1 9 04¢ 

81 ¥ ial G OF L l at G %F 

2G rd 0z - 1¢ z z e F OE 

91 G Il € 4% £ I z ard 

L I 9 o OT e z ye Z OT 

8 T L I 0} Zt see ee . I 0} ZL 

Fs "$1099, *S|[@J-U01] “Wd F *S109}9 TY *S][@J-UOIT “wv 
STPIOL Suneuojog 10 -3U03§ *SInO}{ $1890, Suryeuojaq 10 -9U0}S “SAMO FT 
‘XI aTavyT 
| Ei 
16 362 Il ¢ L Sp Pee ee eee eceereteeesstees Jaquis09(] 
86 SF cI ¢ L 6 "tt JAQUIBAON 
6L foe el #9 8 9 ** 1340390 
ug £i¢ *L c OL Se PYTTITESLIT Tey y Jaquiaydag 
26 Ze LI £2 G Sp ewer ccccccscescccccereeses qsnsny 
19 Sip 1 6 ¢ $9 veers Ainge 
6% LE ¢ L ¥ 9 agune 
is Lg L c 6 z PTeeeEPTTESOOeEr TT Tee ere reece Ty Avi 
cc Sez 6 Sp Il ¥ Pee mee aren eeeereeesseseeeeee Judy 
cg ie as 6 eT rv ce bacoteeree tess + yore 
L¥ $82 G $¢ 8 : te = * Alen1ga,y 
99 £42 ¢ £e L By Pewee eseaset eases eeenseseee Arenute 
0) “gq pur y 49) “gq pur ¥ 0) “gq pur y 
“WqUOT 
*s]eq0, 098T 93 00ST “a'v *O08T 93 OOLT “av OOLT 93 T “av 


1860. 


REPORT 


118 


SI € 
FL 6 
ST él 
Il L 
£& 1é 


*s[e}0, | “00M | “AON | “900 | “ydag} “Bny | -Ajn¢ 


Il 9 8 5 8 eI HAO Owe ore ee ese eeeeeeenee uoT409IIp Ajraqynog WIA 


6 6 L L IL 9 FOP meee ete e ene etssenreenses uoljoerrp Ayaayato Ny WTA 
L EL eT OL OL 9 eee rrr errs worTyoaap Ay19989,\\, WM 
€l- al TAO e ene t ee weweseereneeeees uoTyoaa1p Aqaaqseq TEAL 


og | ze-| te | ez | €B | eg. [rcrrettreetstesseessesseeees suorqmazosqg Jo “ON 
| 


‘oung | “Avy | tudy | ‘ae | ‘qaq | ‘ure “SUOyy 


“OD pur ‘g “Y ‘sioajayA] ssv[o-ys1y pue aiy1[019y Jo uoNveaIp 843 Surmoyg 


‘X JIAV, 
838 9T a SOR er ewe ates eseesenne “Wad 9 0} uooN > UOOUIDIW 
Or aL 0g Weer ete e ee eene renee uO0ON, 0} ‘WV 9 : W0Ota10,7 
OFT tF 20T SOPs weer area eee eee renee saeeeee qysiupryy 03 uooN 
1¢ 81 ioe Cee ee ree wees we re eeeeessestensees uooN 0} qySiupryy 
19 FE €¢ stencestensvenetnie sen Clay g ay“ N'a iG 244 SIN 
OI 82 Z01 tthe te easeteeteceseeeseeee eyed 9 01 "W¥ g : keg 

@ *S10940] °s U0. 
“SEHIOL, Samed ae Bis site van a8 ou, 


A eer SSR ee ee oe eS 


"XI qe, Jo sisseuy 


CATALOGUE OF METEORITES AND FIREBALLS. 119 


REMARKS. 


1. While there appear to be eight yearly maximum and minimum aérolitic 
periods for the years generally, there are likewise some indications of other 
periods for some of the months taken separately. 

Some months may have major or longer periods of maximum, as Novem- 
ber, which perhaps has one of about 70 years (though for the sporadic 
showers, according to Herrick, one of 33 years, in which case the numbers 
of shooting stars should now be again on the increase, so as to culminate in 
1866). January has also probably a long or irregular period, as regards 
classes A and B. Of late years the numbers for December and January 
have evidently been on the increase, and especially as regards the former 
month, and this as regards all classes ; and the eighth to the seventeenth days 
appears to embrace a time favourable to a considerable increase over the 
average for the month. Tables I., II., II., and IV. § 

2. The proportionate numbers of each class appear to have varied at dif- 
ferent times for the different months. Table VIII. 

3. There appear to be aérolitic and meteor epochs both distinct from and 
common to each other. A proximate attempt has been made to show some 
of these in Table V.; perhaps some of these are more apparent than real; 
but the subject is worth consideration. 

4. While the aérolitic class, A and B, in its total is under the average for 
August, which is the principal and most constant month for an abundance of 
sporadic meteors, it is over the average for November, likewise a month 
noted for an abundant display of meteors and shooting stars ; and while there 
is an increase over the average of detonating meteors (though not of recorded 
Stone-falls), from the 9th to the 13th of November, i. e. precisely during the 
regular periodical appearance, it is uota little singular that the August aéro- 
litie period, if it may be so called, precedes by several days the usual period 
of greatest abundance of the shooting stars ; one being August 4 to 7, both 
inclusive, and the other August 9 to 12. See Table III. 

5. The decided preponderance of aérolitic phenomena, alluded to in the 
Report as occurring in the afternoon, as compared with the forenoon, will 
be seen clearly given in Table IX. 

6. As regards the observed direction of aérolitic and first-class meteors, 
there would seem not to be any very great tendency one way or the other ; 
it would have been natural to have expected a much more decided leaning to 
a Westerly direction. The sudden change from an Easterly direction in Sep- 
tember and October (about the time of the autumnal equinox), toa Westerly 
direction in November, is remarkable, and calls for especial notice. 

7. The considerable increase of aérolitic falls and meteors for the months 
of June and July over those of December and January has been previously 
alluded to in the Report itself. That more detonating meteors in proportion 
to Stone-falls should be recorded during the winter months than during the 
summer months, is precisely what might have been expected, and the reverse 
holds equally good. Tables VI. and VII. 

8. Taking the entire year, there is a much greater tendency towards equality 
of distribution in the aérolitic class than is the case with sporadic shooting stars 
and the smaller meteors; indeed, were it not for the excess in November (an 
excess common to every class apparently), the numbers of the former (Aand 
B) would be about equal for the first as for the second half of the year. 


120 REPORT—1860. 


CORRIGENDA ET ADDENDA. 


Page 53, line 22 from top: for “1596” read 1596.x. 

Page 59, line 18 from top: for “ Sarthé” read Sarthe. 

Page 62, 1804. Apr. 15. Geneva. fireball: add, s.to N.; also, followed by a train of smaller 
balls. 

Page 64, line 18 from top: for “ Aug. 10” read early part of Aug. 

Page 64, line 12 from bottom : for “ Iron-fail” read Stone-fall. 

Page 65, line 7 from bottom: fireball at Gottingen; add, followed by many smaller balls. 

Page 67, top line: for “1819. June 13. Jonsac’”’ read and add, 1819.x June 13. Jonsac, 
Charente, &c. &e. 

Page 70, line 5 from top: Gorlitz; fireball; add aérolitic ?. 

Page 71, line 11 from bottom: replace the (x) before May 12, by a (?). 

Page 71, line 12 from bottom: insert the (x) before May 19. Ekaterinosloff, &c. 

Page 72, line 6 from top: read February 27 or February 16. 

Page 72, line 11 from bottom of Notes: for “‘ Summer co.’’ read Sumner co. 

Page 73, line 3 fron top: add Vouillé near “ Poitiers.” 

Page 74, line 21 from top: for ‘ Okaninak ” read Okaninah. 

Page 82, line 6 from top: for ‘‘ Nuremberg ” read Nurenberg. 

Page 92, after line 5 from top: insert, Apr. 12. Berne. Fireball. 

Page 94, line 10 from top : for “ Columb ” read Columbus. 

Page 96, after line 16 from bottom: insert 1860.x Feb. 2. Alessandria, Piedmont. A stone- 
fall, Also omitted in the Tables. 


Report on the Theory of Numbers.—Part Il. By H. J. SrepnHen 
Smitu, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry, Oxford. 


39. Residues of the Higher Powers. Researches of Jacobi.—The principles 
which have sufficed for the determination of the laws of reciprocity affecting 
quadratic, cubic, biquadratic, and sextic residues, are found to be inadequate 
when we come to residues of the 5th, 7th, or higher powers. This was early 
observed by Jacobi, when, after his investigations of the eubie and biqua- 
dratic theorems, he turned his attention to residues of the 5th, 8th, and 12th 
powers*. It was evident, from a comparison of the cubic and biquadratic 
theories, that in the investigation of the laws of reciprocity the ordinary 
prime numbers of arithmetic must be replaced by certain factors of those 
prime numbers composed of roots of unity ; and Jacobi, in the note just re- 
ferred to, has indicated very clearly the nature of those factors in the case 
of the 5th, 8th, and 12th powers respectively. He ascertained that the two 
complex factors composed of 5th roots of unity into which every prime 
number of the form 5z+1 is resoluble by virtue of Theorem LV. of art. 30 
of this Report, are not prime numbers, i. e. are each capable of decomposi- 
tion into the product of two similar complex numbers; so that every (real) 
prime number of the form 5x+1 is to be regarded as the product of four 
conjugate complex factors ; and these factors are precisely the complex primes 
which we have to consider in the theory of ‘quintic residues, in the place of 
the real primes they divide. ‘To this we may add that primes of the forms 
5n+2 continue primes in the complex theory; while those of the form 52—1 
resolve themselves into éwo complex prime factors. Thus 


7=7; 1l=(2+a)(2+0°)(2+a*)\(2+a'); 13=13; 
19=(4—3(a+a*))(4—3(a?+2°)); 29=(5—(a+a'))(5—(a?+a°)) ; 
31=(2—2a)(2—2°)(2—a*)(2—a'), &e., 


* See a note communicated by him to the Berlin Academy on May 16, 1839, in the 
‘Monatsberichte’ for that year, or in Crelle, vol. xix. p. 314, or Liouville, vol. viii. p. 268, 
in which, however, he implies that he had not as yet obtained a definitive result; nor does 
he seem at any subsequent period to have succeeded in completing this investigation. 


q 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 121 


where @ is an imaginary 5th root of unity. Precisely similar remarks apply 
to the theories of residues of 8th and 12th powers,—real primes of the forms 
8u+1, 12”+1, resclving themselves into four factors composed of Sth and 
12th roots of unity respectively. By considerations similar to those pre- 
viously employed by him in the case of biquadratic and cubic residues, 
Jacobi succeeded in demonstrating (thorgh he has not enunciated) the for- 
mul of reciprocity affecting those powers for the particular case in which 
one of the two primes compared is a real number. But it would seem that 
he never obtained the law of reciprocity for the general case of any two 
complex primes; and indeed, for a reason which will afterwards appear, it 
was hardly possible that he should do so, so long as he confined himself to 
the consideration of those complex numbers which present themselves in the 
theory of the division of the circle. No less unsuccessful were the efforts of 
Eisenstein to obtain the formule relating to 8th powers, by an extension of 
the elliptical properties employed by him in his later proofs of the biqua- 
dratic theorem *. It does not appear that any subsequent writer has occu- 
pied himself with these special theories ; while, on the other hand, the theory 
of complex numbers composed with roots of unity of which the exponent is 
any prime, has been the subject of an important series of investigations by 
MM. Dirichlet and Kummer, and has led the latter eminent mathematician 
to the discovery and demonstration of the law of reciprocity, which holds for 
all powers of which the exponent is a prime number not included in a cer- 
tain exceptional class. 

40. Necessity for the Introduction of Ideal Primes.—The fundamental pro- 
position of ordinary arithmetic, that if two numbers have each of them no 
common divisor with a third number, their product has no common divisor 
with that third number, is, as we have seen, applicable to complex num- 
bers formed with 3rd or 4th roots of unity, because it is demonstrable that 
Euclid’s theory of the greatest common divisor is applicable in each of those 
cases. With complex numbers of higher orders this is no longer the case ; 
and it is accordingly found that the arithmetical consequences of Euclid’s 
process, which are of so much importance in the simpler cases, cease to exist 
in the general theory. In particular, the elementary theorem, that a number 
can be decomposed into prime factors in one way only, ceases to exist for 
complex numbers composed of 23rd + or higher roots of unity—if, at least 
(in the case of complex as of real numbers), we understand by a prime fac- 
tor, a factor which cannot itself be decomposed into simpler factors}. It 
appears, therefore, that in the higher complex theories, a number is not 
necessarily a prime number simply because it cannot be resolved into com- 
plex factors. But by the introduction of a new arithmetical conception— 
that of ideal prime factors—M. Kummer has shown that the analogy with 
the arithmetic of common numbers is completely restored. Some prelimi- 
nary observations are, however, necessary to explain clearly in what this con- 
ception consists. 


* See M. Kummer, “ Ucber die Allgemeinen Reciprocitiatsgesetze,” p. 27, in the Memoirs 
of the Berlin Academy for 1859. 

ft For complex numbers composed with 5th or 7th roots of unity, the theorem still exists ; 
for 23 and higher primes it certainly fails; whether ‘it exists or not for 11, 13, 17, and 19, 
has not been definitely stated by M. Kummer (see below, Art. 50). 

~ “Maxime dolendum videtur” (so said M. Kummer in 1844) “quod hee numerorum 
realium virtus, ut in factores primos dissolvi possint, qui pro eodem numero semper iidem 
sint, non eadem est numerorum complexorum, que si esset, tota hiec doctrina, que magnis 
adhue difficultatibus premitur, facile absolvi et ad finem perduci posset.” (See his Disserta- 
tion in Liouville’s Journal, vol. xii. p. 202.) In the following year he was already able to 
withdraw this expression of regret. 


122 REPORT—1860. 


41. Elementary Definitions relating to Complex Numbers.—Let ) be a prime 


a 
2 ark : 

number, and @ a root of the equation 2a =0; then any expression of the 
form 

F(a)=a,+a,a+4,0°+....+a,_,0*-” were en 

in which a@,, a,, @,,.+--+@,_., denote real integers, is called a complex inte- 

gral number. To this form every rational and integral function of @ can 

always be reduced; and it follows, from the irreducibility of the equation 

nal “ : 

ae tages that the same complex number cannot be expressed in this 

reduced form in two different ways. The zorm otf F(a) is the real integer 

obtained by forming the product of all the A—1 values of F(a), so that 


N.F(a)=N.F(a*)=... =N. F(a*—!)=F(a). F(a). F(a")... F(a*-!). 


The operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication present no pecu- 
liarity in the case of these complex numbers; by the introduction of the 
norm, the division of one complex number by another is reduced to the case 
in which the divisor is a real integer. Thus 


fa) _flayE()E(a’)-...F(@) | 

F(a) N.F(a) ; 
and f(a) is said to be divisible by F(a) when every coefficient in the pro- 
duct f(a)F(a*)F(a’)...F(a*—!), developed and reduced to the form (A), 
is divisible by N. F(a). When f(a) is not divisible by F(a), it is not, in 
general, possible to render the norm of the remainder less than the norm of 
the divisor; and it is owing to this circumstance that the common rule for 
finding the greatest common divisor is not generally applicable to complex 
numbers. If, in the expression (A), we consider the numbers a,, @,.--@,—2 
as indeterminates, the norm is a certain homogeneous function of order \—1, 
and of A—1 indeterminates; so that the inquiry whether a given real number 
is or is not resoluble into the product of \—1 conjugate complex factors, is 
identical with the inquiry whether it is or is not capable of representation by 
a certain homogeneous form, which is, in fact, the resultant of the two forms 


O44 77+ 4,07 Sy 4 +°:° +Gy2y?—*, 
and age 9 oo aR! i al ah tin 


The problem is considered in the former aspect by M. Kummer, in the latter 
by Dirichlet. The methods of Dirichlet appear to have been of extreme 
generality, and are as applicable to complex numbers, composed with the 
powers of a root of any irreducible equation having integral coefficients, as 
to the complex numbers which we have to consider here. Nevertheless, in 
the outline of this theory which we propose to give, we prefer to follow the 
course taken by M. Kummer: for Dirichlet’s results have been indicated 
by him, for the most part, only in a very summary manner *; nor is it in any 
case difficult to assign to them their proper place in M. Kummer’s theory ; 
while, on the other hand, it would, perhaps, be impossible to express ade- 
quately, in any other form than that which M. Kummer has adopted, the 
numerous and important results (including the law of reciprocity itself) con- 


* See his notes in the Monatsberichte of the Berlin Academy for 1841, Oct. 11, p. 280; 
1842, April 14, p. 93; and 1846, March 30; also a letter to M. Liouville, in Liouville’s 
Journal, vol. v. p. 72; a note in the Comptes Rendus of the Paris Academy for 1840, 
vol. x. p. 286; and another in the Monatsberichte for 1847, April 15, p. 139, 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 123 


tained in the elaborate series of memoirs which he has devoted to this sub- 
ject *. 

42. Complex Units——A complex unit is a complex number of which the 
norm is unity. If \=3, there is only a finite number [six] of units included 
in the formula +a". But for all higher values of X, the number of units is 
infinite. Nevertheless it is always possible to assign a system of »—1 units 
(putting, for brevity, 3(A—1)=,) such that ad/ units are included in the 
formula tatu ....u ts"; in which w,, t@,, Ws)+++%,—1 are the assigned 
units, and f, 7,, 2,,..-2,—1, are real (positive or negative) integral numbers. 
A system of units, capable of thus representing all units whatsoever, is called 
a fundamental system. The existence, for every value of A, of fundamental 


* The following is a list of M. Kummer’s memoirs on complex numbers :— 

1, De numeris complexis qui radicibus unitatis et numeris realibus constant, Breslau, 
1844. This is an academical dissertation, addressed by the University of Breslau to that of 
Konigsberg, on the tercentenary anniversary of the latter. It has been inserted by M. Liou- 
ville in his Journal, vol. xii. p. 185. 

2. Ueber die Divisoren gewisser Formen der Zahlen, welche aus der Theorie der Kreis- 
theilung entstehen.—Crelle, vol. xxx. p. 107. 

3. Zur Theorie der Complexen Zahlen, in the Monatsberichte for March 1845, or in 
Crelle, vol. xxxv. p. 319. 

4. Ueber die Zerlegung der aus Wurzeln der Einheit gebildeten complexen Zahlen in ihre 
Primfactoren.—Creille, vol. xxxv. p. 327. The date is Sept. 1846. 

5. A note addressed to M. Liouville (April 28, 1847), in Liouville’s Journal, vol. xii. p. 136. 

6. Bestimmung der Anzahl nicht zquivalenter Klassen fiir die aus Aten Wurzeln der Ein- 
heit gebildeten complexen Zahlen, und die idealen Factoren derselben.—Crelle, vol. xl. p. 93. 

7. Zwei besondere Untersuchungen iiber die Classen-Anzahl, und iiber die Einheiten der 
aus Aten Wurzeln der Einheit gebildeten complexen Zahlen.—Crelle, vol. x1. p- 117. (See 
also the Monatsberichte of the Berlin Academy for 1847, Oct. 14, p. 305.) 

8. Allgemeiner Beweis des Fermat’schen Satzes, dass die Gleichung 2*+-y%=7zA unlésbar 
ist, fiir alle diejenigen Potenz-Exponenten A, welche ungerade Primzahlen sind, und in den 
Zahlern der ersten 3(\—3) Bernouillischen Zahlen als Factoren nicht vorkommen.—Crelle, 
vol. xl. p.131. (See also the Monatsberichte for 1847, April 15, p.132.) This and the two 
preceding memoirs are dated June 1849. 

9. Recherches sur les Nombres Complexes.—Liouville, vol. xvi. p. 377. This memoir 
contains a very full résumé of the whole theory, and may be read by any one acquainted 
with the elements of the theory of numbers. 

10. A note in the Monatsberichte of the Berlin Academy for May 27,1850, p. 154, which 
contains the first enunciation of the law of reciprocity. 

11. Ueber die Erganzungssitze zu den Allgemeinen Reciprocitatsgesetzen.—Crelle, vol. xliv. 
p- 93 (Nov. 30, 1851), and vol. lvi. p. 270 (Dec. 1858). 

12, A note on the irregularity of determinants, in the Berlin Monatsberichte for 1853, 
March 14, p. 194, 

13, Ueber eine besondere Art aus complexen Einheiten gebildeter Ausdriicke.—Crelle, 
vol. l. p. 212 (Aug, 31, 1854). 

14. Ueber die den Gaussischen Perioden der Kreistheilung entsprechenden Congruenz- 
wurzeln.—Crelle, vol. liii. p. 142 (June 5, 1856). 

15. Einige Satze tiber die aus den Wurzeln der Gleichung aA =1 gebildeten complexen 
Zahlen fiir den Fall, dass die Klassenzahl durch A theilbar ist, nebst Anwendung derselben 
auf einen weiteren Beweis des letzten Fermat’schen Lehrsatzes.—Memoirs of the Berlin 
Academy for 1857, p.41. An abstract of this memoir will be found in the Monatsberichte 
for 1857, May 4, p. 275. 

16. Theorie der Idealen Primfactoren der complexen Zahlen, welche aus den Wurzeln 
der Gleichung w”=1 gebildet sind, wenn n eine zusammengesetzte Zahl ist.—Memoirs of the 
Berlin Academy for 1856, p. 1. 

17. Ueber die Allgemeinen Reciprocitatsgesetze unter den Resten und Nicht-Resten der 
Potenzen, deren Grad eine Primzahl ist—Memoirs of the Berlin Academy for 1859, p. 20. 
Tt was read on Feb. 18, 1858, and May 5, 1859. An abstract will be found in the Monats- 
berichte of the former year. 

A memoir by M. Kronecker (De unitatibus complexis, Berlin, 1845; it is his inaugural dis- 
sertation on taking his doctorate) connects itself naturally with the earlier memoirs of the 
preceding series. : 


124 REPORT—1860. 


systems of »—1 units may be established by means of a general proposition 
due to Dirichlet and relating to any irreducible equation having unity for 
its first coefficient, and all its coefficients integral. If, in such an equation, 
R be the number of real, and 2I of imaginary roots, there always exist 
systems of R+I—1 fundamental units, by means of which all other units 
can be expressed; or, in other words, the indeterminate equation “Norm 
=1” is always resoluble in an infinite number of ways, and all its solutions 
can be expressed by means of R+I—1 fundamental solutions*. The demon- 
stration of the actuai existence, in every case, of these systems of fundamental 
units (a theorem which is, as Jacobi has said+, “un des plus importants, 
mais aussi un des plus épineux de la science des nombres”) is of essential im- 
portance in the theory of complex numbers, and has the same relation to 
that theory which the solution of the Pellian equation 2*—Dy’=1 has to 
the theory of quadratic forms of determinant D. It may be observed, how- 
ever, that in the case which we have to consider here, that of the equation 
a 
= 7 =o the existence of fundamental systems of »—1 units has been 


a= 
demonstrated independently of Dirichlet’s general theory by MM. Kro- 
necker and Kummerf. 
If A=5, a+a-! is the only fundamental unit; so that every unit is in- 
cluded in the formula 
ta*(a+a-1)”. 


If \=7, the complex units are included in the formula 
ta* (atta) (a? +a), 


But for higher primes the actual calculation of a system of fundamental units 
involves great labour; and a method practically available for the purpose 
has not yet been given. It is remarkable that every unit can be rendered 


real (i. e. a function of the binary sums or periods a'+a—", &c.) by multi- 
plying it by a properly assumed power of a. We shall therefore suppose, in 


* To enunciate Dirichlet’s theorem with precision, let f(v)=0 be the proposed equation ; 
let 1, @g)+.. a» be its roots, and y(a,), (#,),..- P(#n) a system of n conjugate units. If 
the analytical modulus of every one of the quantities Y(«;), W(a2),...W(#,) be unity, the 
system of units is an isolated or singular system. The number of singular systems (if any 
such exist) is always finite, whence it is easy to infer that the units they comprise are 
simply roots of unity. For if ~(«) be a singular unit, its powers are evidently also singular 
units, and therefore cannot be all different from one another; 7. e. /(«) is a root of unity. 
If f(x) be of an uneven order, there are no singular units; if f(a) be of an even order, —1 
is a singular unit; and if /(a)=0 have any real roots, it is the only singular unit; whereas 
if all the roots of f(a#)=0 be imaginary, other singular units may in special cases exist. 

A 
tae 

nO =0 has 2(A—1) singular units included in the formula +e*, Ad- 
mitting this definition of singular units, we may enunciate Dirichlet’s theorem as follows :— 
a system of A units [A=I+R—1], e,(a), eo(),...ex(@), composed with any root #, can 
always be assigned such that every unit composed with the same root can be represented 
(and in one way only) by the formula 


w .€y(a)"1. €5(a)"2, @,(c)"3.... en()"A, 


where 7, 7%)... 7, are positive or negative integral numbers and w is unity, or some one of 
the singular units composed with a. 

The principles on which the demonstration of this theorem depends are very briefly indi- 
cated in the notes presented by Dirichlet to the Berlin Academy in 1841, 1842, and 1846. 

+ Crelle’s Journal, vol. xl. p. 312. 

{ See Kronecker, De unitatibus complexis, pars altera; and Kummer, in Liouville’s Jour- 
nal, vol. xvi. p. 383. 


Thus the equation 


ea. ee 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 125 


what follows, that the units of which we speak have been thus reduced to a 
real form. 

For all values of d greater than 5, the nuinber of systems of fundamental 
units is infinite. For if w,, w,,...%¢,—1 still represent a system of fundamental 
units, it is evident that the system E,, E,, ... E,—1, defined by the equations 


1,1 1,2 (1, #—1) 
E, = us , vee X UT gp 
(1), (2,2) (2, w—1) 
FE, =u, us a nsie.e Boe aes Me en CA 


Ewa) ae Se tea BS). | 

is also a fundamental system, if the indices (1, 1), &c. be integral numbers, 
and if the determinant 2+(1, 1)(2,2)....(—1, p—1) be equal to unity. 
And conversely, every system of fundamental units will be represented by 
the equations (A.), if in them we assign to the indices (1, 1), (2, 2), &e. 
all systems of integral values in succession consistent with the condition 
Z+(1,1)(2,2)(3, 3).--(u—I, p—1)=+£1; so that a single system of fun- 
damental units represents to us all possible systems. 

We shall also have occasion to allude to independent systems of units. A 
system of p—1 units, w,, w,,..U%,—1, is said to be independent when it is 
impossible to satisfy the equation 

ur ur ur at wee =1, 

whatever integral values are assigned to the indices 7,, %,, 2) +++ My—1> 
The equations (A.) will represent all possible systems of independent units, 
if we suppose that in them the indices (1,1), (2,2), (3,3)... receive all 
positive and negative integral values, subject only to the condition that the 
determinant A=3+(1, 1) (2,2).--(#—1, »—1) must not vanish. Every 
system of fundamental units is also independent; but not conversely. Every 
unit can be represented as a product of the powers of the units of an inde- 
pendent system ; but if the system be not also fundamental, the indices of the 
powers are not in general integral, but are fractions having denominators 
which divide A. Lastly, if ¢,(a), ¢,(a@),...- ¢u-1(@) be a system of inde- 
pendent units, the logarithmic determinant 


L.e¢,(@), L.¢,(a), aoe iewr Cr enc) A 
L.¢,(a@”), PC aP ay | ts sree ee Oe (ae Yop 


L. e(at~*), L. e(a”~*), Sey, Slee ema. )s 


in which y denotes a primitive root of X, is different from zero; and con- 
versely, if the determinant be different from zero, the system of units is inde- 
pendent. For all systems of fundamental units, the absolute value of the 
logarithmic determinant is the same; for any other independent system, its 
value is A times that least value. The quantities denoted by the symbols 
L.c,(a), L.e,(a), &c., are the arithmetical logarithms of the real units ¢,(«), 
&c., taken positively. 

43. Gauss’s Equations of the Periods——In Gauss’s theory of the division 
of the circle, it is shown that if X be a prime number, and if ef=A—1, the e 
periods of f roots cach, that is the quantities ,, 7,. 7, +++. 7,_,, defined by 
the equations 


126 REPORT—1860. 


0 , _2 ay 
iy ed! + av +a? E = evatoiets seal ° 
Et vet ~2e+1 (f—Ve+1 
Beutcee! . ce aatew cteebes +a! 
~e—1 ~Ze—1 3e—1 fe—1 
Ne-=a ta? +a’ + eee tar 


(y still denoting a primitive root of \), are the roots of an irreducible equa- 
tion of order e having integral coefficients, which we shall symbolize by 


F(y)=y°+ Ay '+A,y° 7+... A, ytA,=0 


(see Disq. Arith. art. 346). This equation is of the kind called Abelian; 
that is to say, each of the e periods is a rational function of any other, in 
such a manner that we may establish the equations »,=9(»,), 7,=0(n,)s 
7;=9(n,), «+++ 25=¢(ne-1); Where it is to be observed that the coefficients 
of the function ¢ are not in general integral. The determination of the 
coefficients of the equation F(y)=0 may be effected, for any given prime A, 
and any given divisor e of A—1, by methods which, however tedious, present 
no theoretical difficulty. Every rational and integral function of the periods 
can be reduced to the form a,y,+a,n,+4,n,+ --+a,_,n,_;. If we com- 
bine the equation 1+ 7,+7,+7,+..--+7e-1=0 with the e—2 equations, 
by which 75, 79, -+-+ 5 | are expressed in that linear form, we may elimi- 
nate 7,, 7) +++ %e—1, and shall thus obtain an equation of order e, satisfied by 
No te. the equation of the periods, or F(y)=0. This is the method proposed 
by Gauss (Disq. Arith. art. 346) ; M. Kummer, instead, forms the system of 
equations 


m7 == n, f+ (0,0), +(0, 1)n, +(0,2)n.+ --- +(0,e—1)ne-1, 
mm, =2,f+(1,0)n, + 1)n,+C1,2)n,+ ---+C1,e—1)ne-1, 
oN =n, f+ (2, 0)n,+(2, 1)n, +(2, 2)n.+ eee (2, e—1)me-1, 


~ . . . 7 . . . . . . . . . . . 


Ne =Ne-1f + (e—1, 0)n, +(e—1, 1)y, +(e—1,2)n,+ eee +(e— 15 e—1)ne-1, 


and eliminates 7,, 7,5 --.e—1 from them. The symbol (4, /) represents the 
number of solutions of the congruence y¥+*==1+y*+t*, mod A, w and y 
denoting any two terms of a complete system of residues for the modulus f; 
nx is zero for all values of k, excepting that 2,=1, if f be even, and m,=1, 
if f be uneven*. The systems of equations corresponding to the particular 
cases e=3, e=4, have been given by Gauss, who has succeeded in expressing 
the values of the coefficients (2, 2) in each of those cases by means of num- 
bers depending on the representation of \ by certain simple quadratic forms ; 
and has employed these expressions to demonstrate the criterion already men- 
tioned in this Report for the biquadratic character of the number2+. A 
third method has been given by M. Libri{: he establishes the formula 
ANL=M + n(1 +e.) + 0,(1 ben.) + +++ nea(1 Heres); 

in which N; represents the number of solutions of the congruence 

* Liouville’s Journal, vol. xvi. p. 404. 

+ Disq. Arith. art. 358, and Theor. Res. Big. arts. 14—22. 

+ See the memoir “‘ Sur la Théorie des Nombres,” in his ‘ Mémoires de Mathématique et 


de Physique,’ pp. 121,122. The notation of the memoir has been altered in the text. See 
also M. Lebesgue, in Liouville’s Journal, vol. ii. p. 287, and vol, iii. p. 113. 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 127 


1+ai+apg+...+a,=0, mod A*. 


If S,, S,, S,... denote the sums of the powers of the roots of the equation 
F(y)=0, this formula may be written thus, — 


k.k—-1 : 
ANL=\* + 8, +heS,+——g— &S, + woe Ses, 
or, solving for S,, S,,..., 


#8.4:=2 Ne—AN at “ns oo ~(-)N, —(r=1)*. 
From this equation, when the values of N,, N,, &c., have been determined, 
S,, S,,... may be calculated, and thence by known methods the values of 
the coefficients of the equation F(y)=0. Lastly, M. Lebesgue has shown 
that, if we denote by o, the number of ways in which numbers divisible by 
d can be formed by adding together & terms of the series y°, y',. . -yA-2, sub- 
ject to the condition that no two powers of y be added the indices of which 
are congruous for the modulus e, the function (A—1)F(y) assumes the form 


ALY —o, y+ ony* "— «2. +(—1)° oe] —(y—S)'t- 

But the practical application of any of these methods is very laborious 
when X is a large number, chiefly on account of the determinations which 
they all require of the numbers of solutions of which certain congruences are 

pobre mie es a ons 
susceptible. For e=2 the equation is vty. o, or, putting 
r=2y+1, r°—(—1)"A=0. The cubic and biquadratic equations corre- 
sponding to the cases e=3 and e=4 are also known from Gauss’s investiga- 
tions. The results assume the simplest forms if we put r=ey+1. We then 


have 

(1) e=3, 4A=M?+27N?, M=1, mod 3; 7°—3Ar—AM=0. 

(2) e=4; A=A’°+B’*; A=I1, mod 4; e=(—1)% 

[7°+(1—2e)A]?—4A (r—A)?=0f. 

Though these determinations are not required in M. Kummer’s theory, we 
have nevertheless given them here, in order to facilitate arithmetical verifi- 
cations of his results. The forms of the period-equations for the case r=8 
and e=12 can (it may be added) be elicited from the results given by Jacobi 
in his note on the division of the circle (Crelle, vol. xxx. pp. 167, 168.). 

44. The Period-Equations considered as Congruences.—An arithmetical 
property of the equation F(y)=O0, which renders it of fundamental import- 
ance in the theory of complex numbers, is expressed in the following theorem. 

“If g be a prime number satisfying the congruence gf=1, mod \, the 
congruence F(y)=0, mod q, is completely resoluble, 7. e. it is possible to 
establish an indeterminate congruence of the form 


F(y)=(y—%) (y—u,) «+» (y—ue-1), mod g, 


* In this congruence 2}, 2»,... x; are & terms (the same or different) of a complete system 
of residues for the modulus ) ; and in counting the number of solutions, two solutions are to 
be considered as different in which the same places are not occupied by the same numbers. 
A simpler formula for S;,,, may be obtained by considering 2, 2g, ... 2, to represent terms 


of a system of residues prime to A, and denoting by ey, the number of solutions of M. Libri’s 
congruence on this hypothesis. We thus find 8z+1=Ayx— f* (Liouville, vol. iii. p. 116). 

+ Liouville, vol. iii. p. 119. ‘ 

= M. Lebesgue, Comptes Rendus, vol. li. p.9. Gauss has not exhibited this last equation 
in its explicit form. See Theor. Res. Big. 2. ¢. 


123 REPORT—1860. 


Ups Uyy ++ + Ue—1 Aenoting integral numbers, congruous or incongruous, mod q*.” 
: : : ee 
A particular case of this theorem, relating to the equation ae =0 


(which may of course be regarded as the equation of the A—1 periods, con- 
sisting each of a single root), is due to Euler, and is included in his theory 
of the Residues of Powers; for it follows from that theory (see art. 12 of this 
Report), that the binomial congruence x\—1=0 (and therefore also the 


x— 


congruence =0, mod g) is completely resoluble for every prime of 


the form mA+1. 

A remarkable relation subsists between the periods 7,, 7, «++ me—1 Of the 
equation F(y)=0, and the roots 2,, 0,, Uz +++ Ue—1 of the conyruence F(y)=0, 
mod g. This relation is expressed in the following theorem :— 

«“ Every equation which subsists between any two functions of the periods, 
will subsist as a congruence for the modulus g when we substitute for the 
periods the roots of the congruence F'(y)==0 taken in a certain order.” 

It is immaterial which root of the congruence we take to correspond to any 
given root of the equation. But when this correspondence has once been esta- 
blished in a single case, we must attend to the sequence which exists among 
the roots of the congruence corresponding to the sequence of the periods. 
When w,, u,, ... %e—1 are all incongruous, their order of sequence is deter- 
mined by the congruences 


U,= (4), U=O(uU,), «++. U=G(Me-1), mod g, 
which correspond to the equations 
=I)» m= GCM)» +++ + Mo = HCMe=1)» 


and which are always significant, although the coefficients of @ are frac- 
tional, because it may be proved that their denominators are prime to the 
modulus g. When w,, %;+++%e—1 are not all incongruous [an exceptional 
case which implies that g divides the discriminant of F(y)], a precisely simi- 
lar relation subsists, though it cannot be fixed in the same manner, and though 
the number of incongruous solutions of the congruence is not equal to the 
number of the periods. (See a paper by M. Kummer in Crelle’s Journal, 


* This theorem was first given by Schoenemann (Crelle, vol. xix. p. 306); his demonstra- 
tion, however, supposes that g =e,—a limitation to which the theorem itself is not subject. 
The following proof is, with a slight modification, that given by M. Kummer (Crelle, vol. xxx. 
p- 107, or Liouville, vol. xvi. p. 403). From the indeterminate congruence of Lagrange (see 
art. 10 of this Report) 

x(a—1) (w7—2)....(v—g+1) =a! —2, mod g, 
it follows that 
(y—nx) (Y—g—1) (Y= MK—2) «+ YM IFAD SY 14)" — (Yn) 


=y! — ng! — (ym) =" —y, mod g, 
observing that ,.4=n,41naq» and that, if Ind g be divisible by e (or, which is the same 
thing, if g satisfy the congruence gf=1, mod X), np41nd g=7%- Multiplying together the 
e congruences obtained by giving to & the e values of which it is susceptible in the formula 
(y—nx) Y—2¢-1) YE 2) + (Y= Me) Sy" —y, mod g, 

we find 

F(y) F(y—1) F(y—2) «-- Fy—gt )=(y?—-)*, mod g; 
whence, by a principle to which we shall have occasion to refer subsequently (see Art. 69), it 
appears that F(y) is congruous for the modulus g to a product of the form 


(y—uy) (y=) + (Y—Ue_)- 


ee 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 129 


vol. liii. p. 142, in which he has established this fundamental proposition on 
a satisfactory basis.) 

45. Conditions for the Divisibility of the Norm of a Complex Number by 
a Real Prime*.—Instead of the complex number 


S(a)=a,+a, a+a,a’+.... +a), a\-%, 
let us now, for a moment, consider the complex number 

W(n)=e, NAC, M1 NaH +002 +Ce—1 Ne—1y 
which, with its conjugates 

Yin) =e, me, No lg Ng oe ee +Ce—1 No» 

b(n.) =e, M+¢, 1; +¢, 14 oe Sie +¢e_1 Ny 


eerste reoeeeeesere ee eoee sess ve vese 


W(ne-1) =e, Ne—1 +, No +e, Nees Ce} Ne—2 


is a function of the periods only, and is therefore a specialized form of the 
general complex number f(a); and let ¢ still denote a real prime, satisfying 
the congruence gf=1, mod d. By means of the relation subsisting between 
the equation-roots 7, 7,, -+ e—1, and the congruence-roots %,, %,) ++ We—1y 
M. Kummer has demonstrated the two following theorems :— 

(i.) “The necessary and sufficient condition that (7) should be divisible 
by q (z.e. that the coefficients ¢,, c,,...¢e—, should be all separately divi- 
sible by q) is that the e congruences 


W(u,) =e,u, +e, u,+0,U,+ .+++ +ee—1 M1 =0, mod g, 
Yu) =e,u, +e,u,te,u,t..0.+¢c-1u%, ==0, mod q 


W(Ue-1) =6, Ue-1 +6, Uy +e, U,+ . 60. +c] Ue~2 =0, mod qd 


should be simultaneously satisfied.” 

(ii.) “The necessary and sufficient condition that the norm of (7), taken 
with respect to the periods, z.e. the number (n,) p(n,)..+- W(ne-1), should 
be divisible by g, is that one of the e congruences 


Y(u,) =0, W(w,) =0,...+++b(we-1) =0, mod q, 
should be satisfied.” 


These results may be extended to any complex number f(a), by first 
reducing it to the form 


S(a)=, (n,) +a y, (n)) +a" p, (n.)+ vee fall Wye (1). 


This is always possible; for, since the f roots which compose any one 
period, ¢. g. 4,, are the roots of an equation y(a)=0 of order f, the coeffi- 
cients of which are complex integers involving the periods only}, we may 
simply divide f(a) by x(a), and the remainder will give us the expression 
of f(a) in the required form. Further, let g now denote a prime apper- 
taining to the exponent f (not merely satisfying the congruence gf =1, mod A, 
but also satisfying no congruence of lower index and of the same form). 
The two preceding theorems are then replaced by the two following, which 
are analogous to them, and include them. 


* The outline of the theory of complex numbers contained in this and the subsequent 
articles is chiefly derived from M. Kummer’s mémoire in Liouville, vol. xvi. p. 411. 

T Disq. Arith. art. 348. 

60. K 


130 REPORT— 1860. 


(i.) “The necessary and sufficient condition that f(a) should be divisible 
by q, is that the congruences 


(ux) =0, w, (ux) =0, aint (ux~)=0, mod g, 


should be simultaneously satisfied for every value of k.” 

(ii.) “ And the condition that the norm of f(a) should be divisible by 9, 
is that the same congruences should be satisfied for some one value of k.” 

When the congruences W, (wz )=0, Ww, (wr) =0, ... - by-1(&e) =0, mod g, 
are simultaneously satisfied, f(a) is said to be congruous to zero (mod q), for 
the substitution n,=u; These f congruences may be replaced by a single 
congruence in either of two different ways. Thus, if we denote by F(y,) the 
complex number involving the periods only which we obtain by multiplying 
together the f complex numbers 


FA FU FO Dy sss fet eel 


it may be proved that the single congruence F (w,)==0, mod q, is precisely 
equivalent to the f congruences 


W,(uz)=0, W,(uz)=0,.... bei (ux) =0. 
Or, again, if we denote by ¥(»,) a complex number congruous to zero for 
every one of the substitutions 7,=,, 7,>=U. +--+ 4)>=Ue—1, but not con- 
gruous to zero for the substitution 7,=u, (such complex numbers, involving 
the periods only, can in every case be assigned) *, it is readily seen that the 
same f congruences are comprehended in the single formula 


W (ne-x) f (a) =0, mod g. 


The utility of this latter mode of expressing the f congruences will appear in 
the sequel: the formula F(az-)=0, mod q, is of importance, because it 
supplies an immediate demonstration of the important proposition, that “if 
a product of two factors be congruous to zero for the substitution 7,=wz, 
one or other of the factors must be congruous to zero for that substitution.” 

46. Definition of Ideal Prime Factors.—To develope the consequences of 
the preceding theorems, let us consider a prime number gq appertaining to 
the exponent f; and let us first suppose that it is capable of being expressed 
as the norm (taken with respect to the periods) of a complex number (7), 
which contains the periods of f terms only; so that 


q=(n) Cm) + +++ (me-1)- 


If the substitution of uw, in W render Y(w,)=0, mod g, we may distinguish 
the e factors of g by means of the substitutions which respectively render 
them congruous to zero; so that, for example, U(x) is the factor apper- 
taining to the substitution n, =. 

We thus obtain the theorem that if f(a) be congruous to zero, mod g, for 
any substitution »,=w,, f(a) is divisible by the factor of g appertaining to 
that substitution. For if Y(,) be that factor of g, 


S(@) _ fle)Y(n Vn)» bne-1) , 
Wn) q ; 


but f(a) d(n,) W(n,) «++ (ner) is congruous to zero, mod q, for every one of — 
the substitutions y,=w,, 4,=U,, ++» 7,=Ue—-1; it is consequently divisible 
by q; i.e. f(a) is divisible by U(m,). A useful particular case of this theo- 
rem is that wz—7,=0, mod Y(n,), if Y(w,)=0, mod q. 


* Crelle, vol. lili, p. 145. The number W(7) of this memoir possesses the property in 
question. 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 131 


Again, it may be shown that these complex factors of g are primes in the 
most proper sense of the word: 2.e., first, that they are incapable of reso- 
lution into any two complex factors, unless one of those factors be a complex 
unit; and secondly, that if any one of them divide the product of two factors, 
it necessarily divides one or other of the two factors separately. That W(n,) 
possesses the first property is evident, because its norm is a real prime, and 
that it possesses the second is a consequence of the last theorem of Art. 4.5. 
For if W(,) divide f,(a) xf,(«), either f(a) or f(a), by virtue of that theo- 
rem, is congruous to zero (mod q) for the substitution »,=«,; that is to say, 
either f(a) or f,(a) is divisible by 1(»,). 

ow, if every prime g which appertains to the exponent f were actually 
eapable of resolution into e complex factors composed of the e periods of 
Ff roots, these factors would represent to us all the true primes to be con- 
sidered in the theory of the residues of Ath powers. And for values of J infe- 
rior to 11, perhaps to 23, this is, in fact, the case. But for higher values of 
X, the real primes appertaining to the exponent f divide themselves into two 
different groups, according as they are or are not susceptible of resolution 
into e conjugate factors. Let, then, g represent any prime appertaining to the 
exponent f, whether susceptible or not of this resolution, and let f(a) still 
denote a complex number which is rendered congruous to zero by the sub- 
stitution n,=w,; f(a) is said by M. Kummer to contain the ideal factor of q 
appertaining to the substitution n,=u,. ‘This definition is admissible, because 
it is verified, as we have just seen, when ¢ is actually resoluble into e con- 
jugate factors; and its introduction is justified, as M. Kummer observes, by 
its utility. To obtain a definition of the multiplicity of an ideal factor, we 
may employ a complex number ¥(7) possessing the property indicated in 
the last article. If of the two congruences 


C¥(n)]” f(a)=0, mod q”, 


[¥(n.)]"**f(a)=0, mod g”*+}, 
the former be satisfied, and the latter not, f(a) is said to contain 7 times 
precisely the ideal factor of g which appertains to the substitution »,=w,. 

47. Elementary Theorems relating to Ideal Factors—The following pro- 
positions are partly restatements (in conformity with the definitions now 
intreduced) of results to which we have already referred, and partly simple 
corollaries from them. They will serve to show that the elementary proper- 
ties of ordinary integers may now be transferred to complex numbers. 

(1.) A complex number is divisible by g when it contains all the ideal 
factors of g. If it contain all of those factors 2 times, but not all of them 
n+1 times, it is divisible by g”, but not by g”*!. 

(2.) The norm of a complex number is divisible by g when the complex 
number contains one of the ideal factors of g. If (counting multiple factors) 
it contain, in all, of the ideal factors of g, the norm is divisible by g’/, but 
by no higher power of g (f denoting the exponent to which g appertains). 

(3.) A product of two or more factors contains the same ideal divisors as 
its factors taken together. 

(4.) The necessary and sufficient condition that one complex number 
should be divisible by another is, that the dividend should contain all the 
_ ideal factors of the divisor at least as often as the divisor. 

(5.) Two complex numbers which contain the same ideal factors are 
identical, or else differ only by a unit factor. 

(6.) Every complex number contains a finite number of ideal prime fac- 
tors. These ideal prime factors (as well as the multiplicity of each of them) 
are perfectly determinate. 

K 2 


132 REPORT—1860. 


The prime number ) is the only real prime excluded from the preceding 
considerations. Since \=(1—a)(1—a’)..-.(1—a—}), it appears that the 
norm of 1—a is a real prime, and therefore 1—a cannot be resolved into 
the product of two factors, except one of them be a unit. Again, because 
the necessary and sufficient condition for the divisibility of a complex number 
by 1—a is that the sum of the coefficients of the complex number should 
be congruous to zero for the modulus \, and because the sum of the coeffi- 
cients of a product of complex numbers is congruous, for the modulus A, to 
the product of the sums of the coefficients of the factors, it appears that if 
the norm of a complex number is divisible by A, the complex number is itself 
divisible by 1—a; and also that if the product of two complex numbers be 
divisible by 1—a, one or other of the factors separately must be divisible by 
1—a. Hence 1—a is a true complex prime, and is the only prime factor of 
A; in fact, A=(1—a)(l—a’)... (1—ad—!)=e(a)(L—a)\-}, if e(a) denote 
. the complex unit 
1—a®? 1—a’° 1—ad-} 


ta 12 l—a 


The theorems which have preceded enable us to give a definition of the 
norm of an ideal complex number. If the ideal number contain the factor 
1—a m times, and if it besides contain &, k',k',...- prime factors of the 
primes g, q', g",.... appertaining to the exponents f, f', f", -... respectively, 
we are to understand by its norm, the positive integral number 


AM GS glES qMEF" 6.05 


a definition which, by virtue of the second proposition of this article, is 
exact in the case of an actually existing number. 

It will be observed that the number of actual or ideal prime factors (com- 
pound of Xth roots of unity) into which a given real prime can be decom- 
posed, depends exclusively on the exponent to which the prime appertains 
for the modulus A. If the exponent is f, the number of ideal factors is 


aa =e. Thus, if g be a primitive root of \, g continues a prime in the 


A-1 
complex theory ; if it be a primitive root of the congruence x 7 =I, mod A, 
it is only resoluble into two conjugate prime factors. This dependence of 
the number of ideal prime factors of a given prime upon the exponent to 
which it appertains is a remarkable instance of an intimate and simple con- 
nexion between two properties of the same prime number, which appear at 
first sight to have no immediate connexion with one another. 

It may be convenient to remark that the word Ideal is sometimes used so 
as to include, and sometimes so as to exclude, actually existent complex 
numbers; but it is not apprehended that any confusion can arise from this 
ambiguity, which it is not worth while to remove at the expense of intro- 
ducing a new technical term. 


48. Classification of Ideal Numbers——An ideal number (using the term 


in its restricted sense) is incapable of being exhibited in an isolated form — 
as a complex integer; as far as has yet appeared, it has no quantitative — 


existence ; and the assertion that a given complex number contains an ideal 
factor, is only a convenient mode of expressing a certain set of congruential 
conditions which are satisfied by the coefficients of the complex number. 
Nevertheless we may, without fear of error, represent ideal numbers by the 
same symbols, f(a), F(a), ¢(a@)..., which we have employed to denote 
actually existing complex numbers, if we are only careful to remember that 
these symbols, when the numbers which they represent are ideal, admit of 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 133 


combination by multiplication or division, but not by addition or subtraction. 
Thus f(a) x f(a), f(«)+f,(«), [f(«)]”; are significant symbols, and their 
interpretation is contained in what has preceded; but we have no general 
interpretation of a combination such as f(@)+f,(«), or S(«)—f(«)*. This 
symbolic representation of ideal numbers is very convenient, and tends to 
abbreviate many demonstrations. 


Every ideal number is a divisor of an actual number, and, indeed, of an 
infinite number of actual numbers. Also, if the ideal number ¢(a) be a 
divisor of the actual number F(a), the quotient ¢,(a)=F(a) +¢(«) is always 
ideal; for if ¢,(a) were an actual number, ¢(a), which is the quotient of 
F(a) divided by 9,(a), ought also to be an actual number, It appears, 
therefore, that there exists an infinite number of different ideal multipliers, 
which all render actual the same ideal number. It has, however, been shown 
by M. Kummer that a finite number of ideal multipliers are sufficient to 
render actual all ideal numbers whatever; so that it is possible (and that in 
an infinite number of different ways) to assign a system of ideal multipliers, 
such that every ideal number is rendered actual by one of them, and one only. 
Ideal numbers are thus distributed into a certain finite number of classes,— 
a class comprehending those numbers which are rendered actual by the same 
multiplier; and this distribution into classes is independent of the particular 
system of multipliers by which it is effected, inasmuch as it is found that if 
two ideal numbers be rendered actual by the same multiplier, every other 
multiplier which renders one of them actual will also render the other actual. 
Ideal numbers which belong to the same class are said to be egutvalent; so 
that two ideal numbers, which are each of them equivalent to a third, are 
equivalent to one another. We may regard actual numbers (which need 
no ideal multiplier) as forming the first or principal class in the distribution, 
and, consequently, as all equivalent to one another. If f(a) be equivalent to 
S(a@), and g(a) to ¢,(a), f(a) x g(a) is equivalent to f(a) x $,(a),—a result 
which is expressed by saying that “equivalent ideal numbers multiplied by 
equivalent numbers, give equivalent products;” and the class of the product 
is said to be the class compounded of the classes of the factors. 

49. Representation of Ideal Numbers as the roots of Actual Numbers.— 
An important conclusion is deducible from the theorem that the number of 
classes of ideal numbers is finite. Let f(a) be any ideal number; and let us 
consider the series of ideal numbers f(a), f(a)’, /(@)’,... These numbers 
cannot all belong to different classes; we can therefore find two different 
powers of f(a), for example [/(a)]” and [f(«)]”*”, which are equivalent 
to one another. But the equivalence of these numbers implies that [/(a@) ]” 
is equivalent to the actual number+1; ¢. e. that [/(«)]” is itself an actual 
number. We may therefore enunciate the theorem, “ Every ideal number, 
raised to a certain power, becomes an actual number.” 

The index of this power is the same for all ideal numbers of the same class, 
but may be different for different classes. By reasoning precisely similar 
to that employed by Euler in his 2nd proof of Fermat’s Theoremf, it may 
be proved that the index of the first term in the serics f(a), [/(«)]’, 
[/(@)]°..-, which is an actual number, is either equal to the whole number 
of classes, or to a submultiple of that number. This least index is said to be 
the exponent to which the class of ideal numbers containing f(a) appertains. 


* These symbols are, however, interpretable when f(a) and f,(a) belong to the same 
i ome ©) ae. is ae Xf, («) be both actual, f(«) +f, («) is the ideal quo- 
ent obtained by dividing 9 («) xf («)+¢@(«) xf, (a) by 9 (a). 

Tt See art. 10 of this Report, ‘ tye 


134 REPORT—1860. 


It would seem that for certain values of the prime A, there exist classes of 
ideal numbers appertaining to the exponent H, if H denote the number of 
classes of ideal numbers*. Such classes (when they exist) possess a property 
similar to that of the primitive roots of prime numbers ; 2. é., by compounding 
such a class continually with itself we obtain all possible classes, just as by 
continually multiplying a primitive root by itself we obtain all residues 
prime to the prime of which it is a primitive root. It has, however, been 
ascertained by M. Kummer that these primitive classes do not in all cases, 
or even in general, exist. 

The theorem of this article enables us to express ideal numbers as roots 
of actually existing complex numbers. ‘Thus, if g be a prime appertaining 
to the exponent f for the modulus X, and resoluble into the product of e con- 
jugate ideal factors ¢(n,), 9(7,), $(7,),+++$(ne_,), these ideal numbers, which 
will not in general belong to the same class, will nevertheless appertain to 
the same exponent h; so that [o(n,) 1", Co(m,)1’; ..- will all be actual num- 
bers. The power g” is therefore resoluble into the product of e actually 
existing complex factors. If we effect this resolution, and represent the 


factors of g” by &(n,), ®(n,)...., the ideal numbers $(1,); ¢(7,);++++ may be 
represented by the formule 


1 1 
(1) = [&(m,)]* o(1,) = [(,) 1" gs9)2) 

50. The Number of Classes of Ideal Numbers.—The number of classes of 
ideal numbers was first determined by Dirichlet. He effected this determi- 
nation by methods which he had previously introduced into the higher 
arithmetic, and which had already led him to a demonstration of the cele- 
brated theorem, that every arithmetical progression, the terms of which are 
prime to their common difference, contains an infinite number of prime 
numbers, and to the determination of the number of non-equivalent classes 
of quadratic forms of a given determinant t. Dirichlet’s investigation of the 
problem which we are here considering has never been published; but that 
since given by M. Kummer is probably in all essential 1espects the same, as 
it reposes on an extension of the principles developed in Dirichlet’s earlier 
memoirs. Our limits compel us to omit the details of M. Kummer’s analysis ; 
the final result, however, is, that if H denote the number of non-equivalent 


2 x a In this formula P is a quantity 


1 f i ae (7) ea 
classes of ideal numbers, H @ay=i* A 


defined by the equations 


P=9(8) 9(B°) o(8°).+.g(B*), 
0(BY=1+-y,B+ yf? + 738? + «+ +, , 


* See on this subject M. Kummer’s note “on the Irregularity of Determinants” in the 
Monatsberichte of the Berlin Academy for 1853, p. 194. M. Kummer’s investigation, 
however, is restricted to classes containing ideal numbers f(a) such that f(a)xf («*) is 
an actual number. 

+ See his memoirs on Arithmetical Progressions, in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy 
for the years 1837 (p. 45) and 1841 (p. 141), or in Liouville, vol. iv. p. 393, ix. p. 255. The 
first of these papers relates to progressions of real integers, the second to progressions of 
complex numbers of the form a+27. In the memoir “ Recherches sur diverses applications 
de V’analyse infinitésimale 4 la Théorie des Nombres” (Crelle, vol. xix. p. 24, xxi. pp. 1, 
& 134), Dirichlet has applied his method to quadratic forms having real and integral co- 
efficients; and in a subsequent memoir (Crelle, vol. xxiv. p. 291), he has extended this ap- 
plication to quadratic forms, of which the coefficients are complex numbers containing 7. 
See also Crelle, vol. xviii. p. 259, xxi. p. 98 (or the Monatsberichte for 1840, p. 49), xxii. p. 
375 (Monatsberichte for 1841, p. 190). Weshall have occasion, in a later part of this Report, 
to give an abstract of the contents of this invaluable series of memoirs. 


ae 


Be ——~ 7 eemeneii te eerie 


ed 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 135 


B representing a primitive root of the equation B\"'=1, y a primitive root 
of the congruence y~'=1, mod X, and y,, y,) ys)++- the least positive resi- 
dues of y, y’, y*,-.. for the modulus A; A is the logarithmic determinant 
(see art. 42 of this Report) of any system of »—1 fundamental units, and 
D the logarithmic determinant of a particular system of independent but not 


fundamental units, e(a), e(a”), e av Satan an , defined by the equation 
y q 


sin ine 2ik 
BfGee)G—e) Gwe 
e(a)= (la) (Ima) + jaan hire 7. 7 = eae 
sin rae 


so that 
L.c(a),  Lee(a"), Lee(ai*), +. Lee(at +) | 
L.e(a”), L.e(a”), L.e(a), aterae Leal 
D=| 1 .e(a”), L.e(a”), L.e(a%), .... L.e(a”) 


L.e(a?” ), L.e(a), L.e(a””),...- Lee (a), 


Each of the two factors and 2 of which the value of H is com- 


Ee 
(2\)#-} ” 
posed, is separately an integral number. That z is integral isa consequence 


of the relation which exists between the logarithmic determinant of a system 
of fundamental units, and that of any system of independent units; that P is 
divisible by (20)*—* may be rendered evident from the nature of the ex- 


pression P itself*. The factor a taken by itself, represents the number of 


classes that contain ideal numbers composed with the periods of two terms 
ata, a?+a-*,.... only; or, which is the same thing, it represents the 
number of classes each of which contains the reciprocal f(a@~") of every ideal 
number f(@) comprehended in it; aye? on the other hand, is the number 
of classes of those ideal numbers which become actual by multiplication 


with their own reciprocals+. The actual calculation of the factor 2 is ex- 


tremely laborious, as it requires the preliminary investigation of a system of 
fundamental units. For the cases \=5, \=7, the trigonometrical units e(a), 
e(a"), e(a””)... ave themselves a fundamental system, so that in these two 
P 
(2A)a~ 
presents somewhat less difficulty ; and M. Kummer (though not without great 
labour) has assigned its value for all primes inferior to 100. For the 
primes 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, that value is unity; for 23 it is 3, and then 
increases with extraordinary rapidity; so that for 97 it already amounts to 
411322823001 =3457 x 118982593. The asymptotic law of this increase 
is expressed by the formula 


cases D=A, and Rae The computation of the first factor 


* See the investigation in the next article. 
+ See the note already cited, “‘ on the Irregularity of Determinants,” in the Monatsberichte 
for 1853, p. 195. 


136 REPORT—1860. 


Lim [ Lipis pom |= 


CN aa 
when ) increases * without limit. It will be seen that the number of classes 
of ideal numbers for A=3, A=5, A=7, is unity; 7.¢., for those values of A 
every complex prime is actual. In the absence of any determination of a 
system of fundamental units for A=11, A=13, A=17, and A=19, it is not 
possible to say whether this is or is not the case for these values also. But 


from and after the limit \=93, the value of the factor indicates 


P 
a 
that a complex number is not necessarily a complex prime because it is 
irresoluble into factors. 

51. Criterion of the Divisibility of H by }.—The number of classes of 
ideal numbers, which we have symbolized by H, is not in general divisible 


by A; but in certain cases it may happen that it is so. The quotient 2 is 


never divisible by \, except when the other factor is also divisible 


lg 
2h)e-} 
by X. And it has been found by M. Kummer that the necessary and sufficient 


condition for the divisibility of by \ is that the numerator of one of 


BR 
Gry 
the first ~—1 fractions of Bernoulli should be divisible by A. The investi- 
gation of this singular criterion depends on a transformation of the function 
¢(() which enters into the expression of P. If we represent the product 
(yB—1) ¢(B)=(rn-2—-1) + (y- B+ Cyn) P? + 000 + VY, 
Ya—2)3*—*, in which every coefficient is divisible by A, by 


ALB, +B,B-+0,8+ ...B,_ 9°], or X43) 
(bm denoting the quotient a or I as ee if I represent the greatest 


integer contained in the fraction before which it is placed), we obtain by 
multiplication the equality 


(7° +1) P=d*h (B) 4B"). (BX); 
or, since y"+1 is divisible by X, and may be supposed not divisible by \°+, 


Se= HOME) HOM), 


C denoting a coefficient prime to. The congruence =0, mod A, 


P. 
(2A )R-} 
is therefore equivalent to the congruence 


¥(B) (6°) .... (B*—*) =0, mod d, 


which may, in its turn, be replaced by the following, 


Vy) Hy’). b(y*-?) =0, mod 2. 


For, if there be an equation which, considered as a congruence for a given 
modulus A, is completely resoluble for that modulus, any symmetrical function - 
of the roots of the congruence is congruous, for the modulus X, to the cor- 
responding function of the roots of the equation. The function J(() (3°) 


* Liouville, vol. xvi. p. 473. The formula is given without demonstration. 

t For y¥+1 and (y+-A)#-F1 are both of them divisible by \; but only one of them can 
be divisible by 2, since their difference is not- divisible by 2. We can therefore, without 
changing Yo 7, +++ Y,—g) determine y in accordance with the supposition in the text. 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 137 


pete), which is a symmetric function of f, /’, ... 2, the roots of 
the equation z*+1=0, is therefore congruous to f(y) p(y") --+- d(y*-?), 
which is the same function of y, y’, y’,-.. y*~?, the roots of the congruence 
gt+1==0, mod A. Hence the necessary and sufficient condition for the 
Meeabiity of —* 


i 
Qi by \ is that one of the » congruences included in the 


formula 
Uae) ==0, mod Ny w= 1,9, 3 ..- fh -nublemths wiis., (A) 
should be satisfied. Now y~@"-» Wy”) sbiy ee rewvar) A eaYa 0 


+... +d, 57°%—)3 01, observing that y,5 y, Y2++-Ya-2 are the numbers 


1, 2, 3,...N—1, taken in a certain order, and introducing the values of 
b,, b,, by eee 


z=r—1 
yr On-Di (yn!) = gon-1 TY” mod 2. 
z=] r 
This last expression may be further transformed as follows. If f(x) denote 
22 
any function of x, and F(a)= 2 f(x), we have the identical equation 
21 
z=vA-1 a z=y—1 r 
BT ees F (1M )=@—-1) FO) 
s=1 r z=1 Y 


y and 2 being any two numbers prime to one another. To verify 
this equation, we may construct a system of unit points in a plane; 
then the right-hand member is the sum of the values of f(a) for all unit 
points in the interior of the parallelogram (0, 0), (A; 0), (A; y), (0; y); 
while the two terms of the left-hand member represent similar sums for 
the two triangles into which the parallelogram is divided by its diagonal 


ye—hy=0. Writing then in this identity a°”~* for f(x), and employing 


=F 
the symbol F,,_, (x) to represent the sum 2 2”, or rather the function 
x=1 
My 20 a gy PMV ea 
—4+i2 ike ee aa a) by ie eae Ee eras 
oe 1.an—9.0.9. Tl. 2n—4.4 Ot 
+(—1) Be. Il.2n—1 2 


ei aie 

1T.2.11.2n—2 ” 

in which B, B,... B, are the fractions of Bernoulli, and which, when x is 
an integral number, coincides with that sum, we find 


x=)A—-—1 z=y—1 ‘ 
Bars, 2 Fea | W#l=G- ri @~))- 
x=1 X= Laster 
But F,,_; (A—1)=Fhs_i (A)—\2"-1 is evidently divisible by ; so that 
x=r—1 z=y—1 
> gn + >» anes [| = 0, mod X. 
x=] 2=1 Y 


The congruences (a) may therefore be replaced by the congruences 
«x=y-—1 

D2) \ peas [P| = (), mod A, which may be written in the simpler form 
z=] Y 


138 REPORT—1860. 


z=y—1 i 
>» Bays (-;)=o moda, 
z=] v4 


2r I (y—1)A 
uf Y 


are congruous (mod 2) to the fiactions—25 >) ett Rs taken in a cer- 
PY Y 


us 
tain order. But, by a curious property of the function F,,-»» demonstrated 
for the first time by M. Kummer, 


if we observe that (A being prime to y) the numbers J 5 I 
Y 


7B Bape (—2) (LD Ba (=D. 
r=] oF + 2nyn-1 


The condition for the divisibility of H by X is therefore that one of the p 
congruences included in the formula B, (y2”"—1) =O, mod 4, should be satis- 
fied. The last of these congruences, or B, (y?—1)=0, is never satisfied ; 
for it is easily proved that the denominator of B, contains \ as a factor, 
while y2*—1=(y"+1) (y#—1), though divisible by A, is not divisible by \?. 
And since, if n<p, y2”—1 is prime to d, that factor may be omitted in the 
remaining .—] congruences ; so that the condition at which we have arrived 
coincides with that enunciated at the commencement of this article. 

We have exhibited M. Kummer’s analysis of this problem with more ful- 
ness of detail than might seem warranted by the nature of this Report, not 
only on account of its elegance, but also because it exemplifies transforma- 
tions and processes which are of frequent occurrence in arithmetical inves- 
tigation *. 

52. “ Exceptional” Primes.—A prime number X, which, like 37, 59, and 


A—3 


67 in the first hundred, divides the numerator of one of the first frac- 


tions of Bernoulli, and which consequently divides the number of classes of 
ideal numbers composed with Ath roots of unity, is termed by M. Kummer 
an exceptional prime. Such primes have to be excluded from the enunciation 
of several important propositions ; and their theory presents difficulties which 
have not yet been overcome. Thus the following propositions are true for all 
primes other than the exceptional primes, but are not true for the exceptional 
primes. 

(1.) The exponent to which any class of ideal numbers appertains (see 
art. 49) is prime to X. 

(2.) The index of the lowest power of any unit which can be expressed 
as a product of zntegral powers of the trigonometric units is prime to. For 


that index is a divisor of " (see art. 42). 


(3.) Every complex unit which is congruous to a real integer for the 
modulus A is a perfect Ath power. (Whether X be an exceptional prime or 
not, the Ath power of any complex number is congruous, for the modulus A, 
to a real integer, viz. to the sum of the coefficients of the complex number.) 


* In Liouville, vol. i. (New Series) p. 396, M. Kronecker has given a very simple demon~ 
stration of the congruence 
2ndop (y2n—1) = (y2n—1) [1294-224 . + (N—1)2n], mod 3, 
which, combined with another easily demonstrated formula, viz., 
12n4-22n +. (A—1)2n =(—1)n—1BnX, mod 2 [n <p], 
leads immediately to the theorem of M. Kummer. 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 139 


(4.) If f(@) denote any (actual) complex number prime to d (é. e. not 
divisible by 1—a), a complex unit e (a) can always be assigned, such that 
the product F (a)=e(a) f(a) shall satisfy the two congruences 

F («) F(#—!) = [F(1)]’, moda, 

F («) =F (1), mod (1—<)’. 
A complex number satisfying these two congruential conditions is called a 
primary complex number; the product of two primary numbers is there- 
fore itself primary. This definition, in the particular case A=3, includes 
the primary numbers of art. 37, taken either positively or negatively. 

53. Fermat's Theorem for Complex Primes.—Let (a) be an actual or 
ideal complex prime, and let N=N. ¢ (a) represent its norm. A system of 
N actual numbers can always be assigned such that every complex number 
shall be congruous to one and only to one of them for the modulus ¢ (a). 
These N numbers may be said therefore to form a complete system of 
residues for the modulus ¢ (a); and by omitting the term divisible by 9 («), 
we obtain a system of N—1 residues prime to ¢ (a). 

Let g be a prime appertaining to the exponent f, so that N=@/, and let 
@ (a) or #, (no) be the prime factor of g which appertains to the substitution 
no=U ; the formula 

ata,a+a,a°+...+ar14f-], (A) 
will represent a complete system of residues for the modulus ¢, (7), if we 
assign to the coefficients dp, @,, a, .... the values 0, 1,2,...qg—1, in succession, 


For if f (@)=wWo(n0) +a, (mo) +--+... a/-! be-1 (m0) be any complex num- 
ber, f(a) is congruous for the modulus 9, (0) to Wo (%,) + api (um) +.-+af—! 
1 (uo), because up—no = 0, mod , (n,); that is, f(@) is congruous to one 
of the complex numbers included in (A); nor can any two numbers ay+ 
a,a+a,07+..+4 af, af! and 6) + 6,a+6,0°+... +b: af! included 
in that formula be congruous to one another ; for the congruence (ao>—bo) + 
a (a,—b,)+a*(a,—b,) + ... + af! (ap-1—b y_1) =0, mod ¢, (no), involves, 
by M. Kummer’s theory (see art. 45), the coexistence of the f congruences 
ao—bo =0, mod g; a,—b,=0, mod g; ..-a_1—b¢_1 =0, mod gq; ¢. e. the 
identity of the complex numbers a+ aa,+a*a,+...a¢/—laz_1, and bp +ab,+ 
@ b.+..+af/—1bz_;. It is worth while to notice that, if g be a prime ap- 
pertaining to the exponent 1, for the modulus A, @. e. if g be of the linear form 
m\+1, the real numbers 0, 1, 2, 3...g—1 will represent the terms of a 
complete system of residues for the modulus g(a); but if  (@) be a factor 
of a prime appertaining to any higher exponent than unity, a complete system 
will contain complex as well as real integral residues. 

By applying the principle (see art. 10) that a system of residues prime 
to the modulus, multiplied by a residue prime to the modulus, produces 
a system of residues prime to the modulus, we obtain the theorem, which 
here replaces Fermat’s Theorem, that if ~(a) be any actual number prime 
to » («), [y (@)]N-1=1, mod g(«). If we combine with this theorem the 
principle of Lagrange (cited in art. 11) which is valid for complex no less 
than for real prime modules, we may extend, mutatis mutandis, to the general 
complex theory the elementary propositions relating to the Residues of 
Powers, Primitive Roots, and Indices, which, as we have seen, exist in the 
ease of complex primes formed with cubic or biquadratic roots of unity. In 
fact, these propositions are of a character of even greater generality, and may 
be extended, not only to complex numbers formed with roots of unity whose 
index is a composite number, but also to all complex numbers formed with 
the roots of equations having integral coefficients, as soon as the prime fac- 
tors of those complex numbers are properly defined. 


140 REPORT—1860. 


54. M. Kummer’s Law of Reciprocity —We can now enunciate M. Kum- 
mer’s law of reciprocity. It appears, from the last article, or it may be 
proved immediately by dividing the N—1 residues of ¢(a@) into \ groups 
N-1 


of terms, after the following scheme, 
(0) Fig Tay ose) Fy 
eae 
(1) AN Oy + +++ OTN, 
A 
(2) PaO Lin» oats. 8 Fag si 
net PND 
(A—1) a\—ly,, a\—}, eeee ON 
A 
and proceeding as in art. 33 of this Report, that if ~(@) be any actual com- 
N-1 


plex number prime to ¢(@), Y(a) * is congruous for the modulus ¢(@) to 
a certain power a@* of a. This power of a may be denoted by the symbol 


tees “4 so that we have the congruence [v(a)] * = [HS], =* 


J - 
mod ¢(a@). The symbol ee roaen we may term the Atic character 


of Y (a) with regard to ¢(@), is evidently of the same nature as the corre- 
sponding symbols with which we have already met in the quadratic, cubic, 
and biquadratic theories, and admits of an extension of meaning similar to 
that of which they are susceptible. Availing himself of this symbol, M. 


Kummer has expressed his law of reciprocity by the formula eis 


Y(ay 
ACOMEN 


aon ,¢(@) and {(«) denoting real or ideal primes. But, to interpret 

%) 1» 

this equation rightly, it is important to attend to the following observations. 
(1.) When  (¢) and ¢ («) are both actual numbers, the formula supposes 

that they are both primary prime numbers. The prime 1—g is therefore 

excluded. 


(2.) The definition that we have given of the symbol [$3] becomes 
N 

unmeaning when ¢(@) is ideal, because no signification can be assigned to 
an ideal number which presents itself, not as a modulus or divisor, but as a 
residue. Let, therefore, i denote the index of the lowest power of ¢ (a) 
which is an actual number; 2. e., let 2 be the exponent to which the class of 
@ (a) appertains; and let [¢ (@) ]” represent the actually existing primary 
complex number which contains the factor ¢(«) # times, but contains no 


¢ (a) 
¢ (a) 
: : ; @ (a)* ; 
tion a perfectly definite meaning. Let then kre ] =a"; we may define 
A 


other prime factor; then the symbol [ | has by the preceding defini- 
A 


h 
the value of the symbol oe) by means of the equation Bal = 
y v(a)Ja > 2 ¥(@) 


h 
o (4) =a’, which, ¢f h be prime to , always gives a determinate value 


¥(«) 


ae 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 141 


a for [$ Ss , k being defined by the congruence AA ==h', modi. For the 


symbol [§ 3 


however to the condition that [¢(#)]” is primary. 

It will be seen, therefore, that the exceptional primes of art. 52 are ex« 
cluded from M. Kummer’s law of reciprocity, for a twofold reason :—first, 
because if \ be one of those numbers, the definition of a primary number is 
not in general applicable; and secondly, because, on the same supposition, 


] so defined, the law of reciprocity still subsists, subject 


the symbol 2) may become unmeaning. 
“ion ad j 
55. The Theorems complementary to M. Kummer’s Law of Reciprocity.— 
The prime 1—a, and its conjugate primes, as well as the complex units, 
are excluded from the law of reciprocity; but complementary theorems by 
which the Atic characters of these numbers may be determined have been 
given by M. Kummer. For a simple unit a*, we have the formula 
k jie 
On) =a* *® , With regard to A, which is the norm of 1—a, it may be 
A 


observed that if ¢ («) be a prime factor of a real prime g appertaining, for 


‘the modulus A, to any exponent f different from unity, z.e¢. if g be not of the 


linear form m\+1, the character of every real integer, and therefore of A, 


a 
with respect to ¢ (a) is+1, because, iff> 1, q = ! 5. divisible byg—1. But 


whatever be the linear form of g, the characteristic of X or x (A) (for so we 


x 
@ («) Ja 


shall for brevity term the index of « in the equation =at), is de- 
termined by the congruence 


x)= t Da, mod A, 


LS o 
D, being the value (for v=0) of the differential coefficient ee 
Moo v\h 
if @(a@) be an actually existent number, or of yee? if it be ideal. 


To obtain the characteristics of the units, M. Kummer considers the system 


of independent units 
E, (a), E, (a), eeeee Ey-1 (a), 
defined by the formula 


—2k —4k =2(u—1)k 
—] Y 


7 Y 
Ex (a)=e(a)e(a”)  e (at) ane ne (es 
in which e(a) represents tae trigonometrical unit of art. 50, and y is the 


sale primitive root of A which occurs in the expression of e(«). We have 
then, for x [E* (q”)] and x (l—a*), the formule 


n k 2k B, 2 
x CEx (2@")] = (—1)" (y*"—1) ah D,-2%, mod X, 
PRB N—I hk? 
and x(i—at)=— >, gNoT iB pf 
ht Bd-3 
—B, Du fre ee (= 1° oS Ba 


142 REPORT—1860. 


N representing the norm of ¢ (a), B,, B,...B,-1 the fractions of Bernoulli, 
and D,,, the value of the differential coefficient 

dm log ¢ (ea (or d™ log Le (e”)}" ) for v=0. 

dvu™ hdv™ 

These formule do not in general hold for the exceptional prime numbers ), 
which divide the numerator of one of the first »—1 fractions of Bernoulli. 
This is evident from the occurrence in them of the coefficients D,,, which if 
¢ (2) be ideal, and / be divisible by \, may acquire denominators divisible 
by A, thus rendering the congruences nugatory. It is sufficient to have 
determined the characteristics of the particular system of units E, (a), E, (a), 
---E,_, («), because, as that system is independent, every other unit e (a) 
is included in the formula 

e(a)=E, (a)™ E, (a)™ «6... Ey—1 (@)™«-1; 
so that x [e(a)] may be found from the congruence 

k= 


x Le («)] =s my x [Ex (a) ], mod A, 


which cannot become unmeaning, except in the case of the exceptional 
primes, because if D! be the logarithmic determinant of the system of units 
E, (@), E, (a), 1. Ei: (a),D and A retaining the meanings assigned ng them 
in art. 50, it may be shown that D is prime to X, and therefore 2 => xis 
also prime to ); 7. e.,the denominators of the fractions m,,72,,...™,—1 are prime 
to A (see art. 42). But M. Kummer has also given a formula which assigns 
directly the characteristic of any unit e (a) whatsoever. If Ax denote the 


value of the differential coefficient ance eS). for v=0, we have 
Vv 
k=p—1 
x le(a)i] =4,Sol+3 Au, Dy_ay» mod *. 
k= 


56. We have already observed (see art. 39) that it is impossible to deduce 
a proof of the highest laws of reciprocity from the formule which pre- 
sent themselves in the theory of the division of the circle. It is true (as we 
shall presently see) that the formule IV. and V. of art. 30 determine the 
decomposition of the real prime p (supposed to be of the form 4+ 1) into its 
A—1 complex prime factors ; but it will be perceived that these complex fac- 
tors occur, not isolated, but combined ina particular manner. From equation 
IV. of the article cited we infer that p= (a) w (a); let then y (a)=f (a,) 
FS (a) «+ +f (Gy) 5 %,)&,.+%, being « different roots (of which no two are re- 


i 
ciprocals) of the equation ~ 14; so that f(a,), f(a), --~f(@,) are one- 
p q 4=1 


half of the complex primes of which p is composed ; if e(a@) be any real 
unit, satisfying the equation e(a)=e (a), it is plain that e(a,)’e(a,)’... 
e(a,)” =1, or p(a)= te(a,) f(a,) Xe(a,) f(a) --. XE (a) f(a.)- The 
consideration, therefore, of the number (a) cannot supply us with any de- 
termination of the Atic character of f(@,) which will not equally apply to 
Sf (a,)xe(a,). But for all values of \ greater than 3, the number of real 
complex units is, as we have seen, infinite; and the character of any com- 
plex prime f(a) with respect to any other complex prime evidently changes 

* The formule of this article are taken from M. Kummer’s second memoir on the com- 
plementary theorems (Crelle, vol. lvi. p. 270). 


—_" = + = 


“a 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 143 


when f(a) is multiplied by a unit of which the Atic character is not unity. 
The inapplicability of the formule of art. 30 to any general demonstration of 
the law of reciprocity is thus apparent. The only equation of reciprocity 
that has been elicited from them is the following :— 


el (22) x.. ; (22?) =(t) x(t.) x.. x5 x 


in which ¢ (@) is a complex prime factor of a prime number p of the form 
m\+1, and q,, J.,+++-Ge are the e conjugate factors of a prime number g 
appertaining to the exponent f for the modulus X. This equation, which, if 
we adopt the generalized meaning of the symbol of reciprocity, may be writ- 


ten more briefly thus, (e%) =( q ) , was first obtained by Eisenstein, 
q Ja \o(@)/r 

who inferred it from M. Kummer’s investigation of the ideal prime divisors 
of (a) (see a note addressed by Eisenstein to Jacobi, and communicated 
by Jacobi to the Berlin Academy, in the Monatsberichte for 1850, May 30, 
p- 189). In a later memoir (Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxxix. p. 351), Eisenstein 
proposes an ingenious method—reposing, however, on an undemonstrated 
principle—for the discovery of the higher laws of reciprocity ; but it would 
seem that the application of this method failed to lead him to any definite 
result ; and it is unquestionably to M. Kummer alone that we are indebted 
for the enunciation as well as for the demonstration of the theorem. 

57. M. Kummer appears to have waited until he had developed the theory 
of complex numbers with a certain approximation to completeness, before 
proceeding to apply the principles he had discovered to the purpose which 
he had in view throughout, the investigation of the law of reciprocity. He 
succeeded in discovering the law which we have enunciated, in the year 
1847, and, after verifying it by calculated tables of some extent, he commu- 
nicated it to Dirichlet and Jacobi in January 1848, and subsequently, in 
1850, to the Berlin Academy, in a note which also contained the demonstra- 
tion of the complementary theorems relating to the units, and the prime 
divisors of X. From the analogy of the cubic theorem, it was natural to 
conjecture that the law of reciprocity would assume the simple form 


(2) =) for primes p, and p, reduced, by multiplication with proper 
anf A JA 


complex units, to a form satisfying certain congruential conditions. But 
to determine properly these conditions, 2. e. to assign the true definition 
of a primary complex prime, was no doubt the principal difficulty that M. 
Kummer had to overcome in the discovery of his theorem. If \=3, the 
single congruence f («)==f(1), mod (1—a)’, sufficiently characterizes a 
primary number; and since, whatever prime be represented by X, that con- 
gruence is satisfied by one, and one only, of the numbers included in the 
formula a* f (a), it was probable that it ought to form one of the con- 
gruential conditions included in the definition of a primary complex prime. 
In determining the second condition, M. Kummer appears to have been 
guided by a method which depends on the arithmetical properties of 


the logarithmic expansion of a complex number. If we develope log £2) 
I(@)—fQ) f(a) th 
in ascending powers of ~—2_“ \-/ and represent by L\*/ the finite num- 
oe fa) feos vinnie 
ber of terms which remain in this expansion after rejecting those which are 
congruous to zero for the modulus A, we are led, after some transformations, 
to the congruence 


144 REPORT—1860. 


Ufo = D, X, (@)+D, X, (a) +... +Dy—2 X,~2 (a), mod A, 


s=A—2 
where X; (a) represents the function = —-y~* a’, and Dy, denotes, as in 
i 
__ , Glog fe) 
art. 55, the differential coefficient EeRT In this congruence the first 


coefficient alone is altered when f(«) is multiplied by a simple unit ; and only 
the even coefficients are altered when f(a) is multiplied by a real unit. Now 
D, is rendered congruous to zero by the condition f(@) =f (1), mod (1—«)’; 
and M. Kummer has shown that, by multiplying f(a) by a properly chosen 
real unit, D,, D,,...D,—3 may be similarly made to disappear, so that we 
obtain 


-u = D, X,(a)+D, X,(a@)+ ...-+Da—2 Xa_2(a), mod d, 


a congruence which is proved to involve the second congruence of condition 
satisfied by a primary number, 2. e. f(a) f(a—!) =f(1)’, mod A*. 

58. The methods to which M. Kummer at first had recourse in order to 
obtain a demonstration of his theorem, consisted in extensions of the theory 
of the division of the circle. By such extensions he demonstrated the com- 
plementary theorems, and even a particular case of the law of reciprocity 
itself—that in which the two complex primes compared are conjugate. But, 
after repeated efforts, he found himself compelled to abandon these methods, 
and to seek elsewhere for more fertile principles. ‘I turned my attention,” 
he says, ‘to Gauss’s second demonstration of the law of quadratic recipro- 
city, which depends on the theory of quadratic forms. Though the method 
of this demonstration had never been extended to any other than quadratic 
residues, yet its principles appeared to me to be characterized by such 
generality as led me to hope that they might be successfully applied to 
residues of higher powers ; and in this expectation I was not disappointed f.” 

M. Kummer’s demonstration of the law of reciprocity was communicated 
to the Academy of Berlin in the year 1858, ten years after the date of his 
first discovery of it. An outline of the demonstration is contained in the 
Monatsberichte for that year; and it is exhibited with great clearness and 
fulness of detail in a memoir published in the Berlin Transactions for 
1859, which contains what is for the present the latest result of science on 
a problem which, if we date from the first enunciation of the quadratic 
theorem by Euler, has been studied by so many eminent geometers for 
nearly a century. It would, however, be impossible, without exceeding the 
limits within which this Report is confined, to give an account of its contents, 
which should be intelligible to persons not already familiar with the subject 
to which it refers. Taken by itself the demonstration of the theorem is, indeed, 
sufficiently simple; but it is based on a long series of preliminary researches 
relating to the complex numbers that can be formed with the roots of the 
equation w\=D («), in which D (@) itself denotes a complex number com- 
posed of Ath roots of unity. To those researches, and to the demonstration 
of the law of reciprocity founded on them, we shall again very briefly refer, 
when we come to speak of the corresponding investigations in the theory of 
quadratic forms, an acquaintance with which is essential to a comprehension 
of the method adopted by M. Kummer in his memoir. We may add that 
M. Kummer has intimated that he has already obtained two other demon- 


* Crelle, vol. xliy. p. 130-140. tT See the Berlin Transactions for 1859, p 29. 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 145 


strations of his law of reciprocity, which, though they also depend on the 
eonsideration of complex numbers containing w, yet do not require the same 
complicated preliminary considerations. 

59. Complex Numbers composed of Roots of Unity, of which the Index is 
not a Prime.—In a special memoir (see the list in art. 41, note, No. 16), 
M. Kummer has considered the theory of complex numbers composed with 
a root of the equation w"=1, in which ” denotes a composite number. The 
primitive roots of this equation are the roots of an irreducible equation of the 
form 


Fis)— isis aor sees 9 
Tl (w?—1) 0 (w?%P—1).... 


Py» Po Py» +--+ denoting the different prime divisors of x*. If W (x) be the 
number of numbers less than 2 and prime to it, F (w) is of the order p(n), 
and every complex number containing w can be reduced (and that in one way 
only) to the form f (w)=a) +4, +a, 0°+.... +4) ,0¥-1, The 
numbers conjugate to f'(w) are the J (~) numbers obtained by writing in 
succession for w the p (7) primitive roots of w*=1; and the norm of f (w 
is the real and positive integer produced by multiplying together the w (n 
conjugates: If g be a prime number not dividing z, the sum 
Bp=w* + wht + wh? + ...., 

in which the series of terms is to be continued until it begins to repeat itself, 
is termed a period. The ~ periods w,, w,,...@, remain unchanged if for w 
we write w%, wi’, etc. Hence, if g appertain to the exponent ¢ for the modu- 


lus 7 (i. e. if g satisfy the congruence g‘ = 1, mod m, but no congruence of a 
lower order and similar form), the number of different numbers conjugate to 


? 


a given complex number containing the periods only is at most a For 
brevity, a complex number containing the periods only—for example, the 
number 
Cote, BW, +0, D+ 10+. + ln Dy 
may be symbolized by f(@,), so that 
S (@)=%+e, WebC,Wapb voce Hey Dnke 
If 1,7, 7,,...are a set fhe) numbers prime to and such that the quo- 


tient of no two of them (considered as a congruential fraction+) is congruous 
for the modulus x to any power of g, the numbers conjugate to f (a) may be 


na 

* The irreducibility of the equation % = =0 when x is a prime was first established by 
et 

Gauss (Disq. Arith. art. 341). Tor other and simpler demonstrations of the same theorem, 

see the memoirs of MM. Kronecker (Crelle, xxix. p. 280, and Liouville, 2nd series, vol. i. 

p. 399), Schoenemann (Crelle, vol. xxxi. p, 323, vol. xxxii. p. 100, & vol. xl. p- 188), Eisenstein 

(Crelle, vol.xxxix. p. 166), and Serret (Liouville, vol.xv.p.296). The principles on which these 


demonstrations depend suffice to establish the irreducibility of the equation = 
gP  —] 
but they fail, as M. Kronecker has observed, to furnish the corresponding demonstration 
when 2, as in the text, is a product of powers of different primes. This demonstration was 
first given by M. Kronecker (Liouville, vol. xix. p. 177), who has been followed by M. De- 
dekind (Crelle, vol. liv. p. 27), and by M. Arndt (id. lvi. p. 178). 
+ For the definition of a congruential fraction see art. 14. 


1860. 


146 REPORT—1860. 


represented by f (a,), f (@,); f (@,.) --+.+ The periods are the roots of 
certain irreducible equations, each of which is completely resoluble when 
considered as a congruence for the modulus g; and the roots w,, w#,,+.+ of the 
congruences are connected with the roots a, @,,...of the equations, by a 
relation precisely similar to that enunciated in art. 44. ‘This relation M. 
Kummer has established by introducing certain conjugate complex numbers* 
Y (w,), ¥ (w,), ¥ (@. ),»++- involving the periods only, not themselves divi- 
sible by g, but each satisfying the x congruences included in the formula 
Y (@,) (Sir—Uj,.) =0, mod g, 
=y heh oo owe 

From these congruences it is easy to infer that, if f (@,, @2)++++@nr) =O 
be any identical relation subsisting for the periods, a similar relation 
SF (Uys Uap oo Un) =0, mod q, will subsist for the numbers %,, %,)+++Un; for 
we find 

WY (wy) f (Bry Bary ++ = V (G,) f (uy U2. ), mod g, 

i. @.f (Uy) Uy) +++) =0, mod g. Another important property of the complex 
number ¥ (@,) is that it is congruous to zero, med gq, for every one of the sub- 
stitutions 7, =U,, 7, =Ur,, DW, =Ur,, --. except the first: thus the congruences 
WY (uy,) =0, VY (u,.) =0 are satisfied, ... but not ¥ (w,)=0, modg. If, 
then, f (w) be any complex number satisfying the congruence W (a,)" f(w) 
=0, mod g”, but not the congruence V (a,)”"+! f (w)=0, mod g”*1, f (w) 
is said to contain m times precisely the ideal factor of g corresponding to 


* These complex numbers are defined as follows (see the memoir cited at the com- 
mencement of this article, sect. 3, and that in Crelle, vol. liii. p. 142) :—Let wy, be a period 
satisfying the irreducible equation ¢ (w;,.)=0, and let a,, a,,... be the incongruous roots of 
¢ (y) =0, mod g, 4,, 5,,... the remaining terms of a complete system of residues, mod g, so 
that ¢ (b,), 9 (5.),-+-- are prime tog. Since w,/ = w;,,, mod 9, and wyy=wz, We have, 
by Lagrange’s indeterminate congruence (see art. 10 of this Report) 

(@,—-4,) (7-4)... (@E—3,) (W7,—D,) .... == 0, mod g, 
or, since w,—3, divides ¢ (4,) etc., 
(51) p (Oy) +++» (yz, —a)) (WE—Ay) .-. = 0, mod G5 
i. e. (wy —4) (@,—a,)+--.==0, mod gq. We may now consider the x series of factors 
Sy iH SL CS i Ed 

corresponding to the m values of & [the numbers a,, a,,...are of course the same for two 
periods which satisfy the same irreducible equation, but not in general the same for any — 
two periods], and, retaining among these factors only those which are different, we may 
take for ¥ (w,) the complex number formed by combining as many of them as possible, in 
such a manner as to give a product which is not divisible by g, but which is rendered divi- 
sible by g by the accession of any one factor not already contained in it. It is evident that 
W (w,) cannot contain all the factors w;,—a,, @j,—4,,---+ 5 let us then denote by wa—u a 
factor which is not contained in W (w,); we thus obtain the relation 

Y (w,) (w,—u,) =0, mod g, 
or, changing the primitive root w into w”, 

WY (a,) (w,7.—Uz,) = 0, mod 7. 

The conjugates of Y (w,) are all complex numbers formed according to the same law as 
Y (w,) itself; and, besides Y (w,) and its conjugates, no other complex number can be formed 
according to that law. Also the number w, which corresponds to a given period w;, is ab- 
solutely determined as soon as we have selected the multiplier Y (w,); for if two of the 
factors w1,—d,, Wy,—4,,... were absent from ¥ (a,) we should have V (w,) (w,—a,)=0, 
¥ (w,) (w,—4,) =0, mod g; and thence (a,—a,) Y (w,) =0, mod g, contrary to the hy- 
pothesis that a, and a, are incongruous, and that V (w,) is not divisible by g. The corre- 
spondence of the numbers w,, v,,.-.+U,, With the periods w,, @5,;-.-+@p, can thus be fixed 


in ag many ways as there are numbers conjugate to YW (w,), @ ¢. in nd ) different ways. 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 147 


the substitution a,-=w;. Since it can be shown that the numbers conjugate 
to ¥ (a,) are all different from one another, it follows from the definition, 
that the quotient —— represents the number of conjugate ideal prime fac- 
tors contained in the real prime g, appertaining to the exponent ¢. If g bea 
divisor of 2, the definition of its ideal factors requires a certain modification, 
which we cannot here particularize. (See sect. 6 of M. Kummer’s Memoir.) 
The two definitions, corresponding to the cases of g prime to , andga 
divisor of 2, enable us, when taken together, to transfer to the general case 
when z is composite, the elementary theorems already shown to exist when 
m is prime (see art. 47). We may add that it is easy to prove, in the general 
as in the special case (see art. 48), that the number of classes of ideal num- 
bers is finite. 

60. Application to the Theory of the Division of the Circle-—We cannot 
quit the subject of complex numbers without mentioning certain important 
investigations in which they have been successfully employed. The first 
relates to the problem of the division of the circle. In this problem the 


s=p—2 
resolvent function of Lagrange = 627 (see art. 30) is, as is well 
s=0 


known, of primary importance. Retaining, with a slight modification, the 
notation of art. 30, and still representing by \ a prime divisor of p—1, and 


tee 
z ==0, let us consider the function F (a, x), 


by a root of the equation 


which is a particular case of the resolvent, and let us represent the quotient 
pate) F (a! x) by ¥z (@). We thus find 

F (att, x) 

LE @ 2) =v, (a) ¥, (a)... te s(a)F(aa), - . . (A) 
and in particular, observing that F (a, x) F (a\—!, a)=p, 

Bite. esrb (a ab. (a) .0.-Yr-a(h)y fn 6 et ew (2) 

a result which is in accordance with the known theorem that [F (a, x) ]* is 
independent of 2 and is an integral function of « only. The resolution of 
the auxiliary equation of order \, the roots of which are the ) periods of 


p—1 eP—l 
=X 


roots of the equation 7 =0, depends solely on the determination 


“e— 
of the complex numbers v, («), w, (~),..-.Wa—2(@). For when these com- 
plex numbers are known, we may equate F (a, a) to any Ath root of the ex- 
pression pw, (~) UJ, (%).-. Ya_2 (a); from the value of F (a, a), thus obtained, 

those of F(a’, 2), F(a’, a)....may be inferred by means of equation (1); 
and, lastly, from the values of F (1, x), F(a, 2), ... F (a4, 2), the values of 
the periods themselves are deducible by the solution of a system of linear 
equations. To determine the numbers w, («), ,(«),... M. Kummer assigns 
the ideal prime factors of which they are composed, employing for this pur- 
pose the results cited in art. 30. The equation yz (a) i. (a—-!)=p shows 
that Y% (a) contains precisely 1 (p—1) ideal prime divisors of p, and no other 
complex prime. To distinguish the prime factors of p contained in yy (a) 
from those contained in uz (a#-!) M. Kummer avails himself of the congruence 
V. of art. 30, viz., 


Il (m+n) 


mod p. 
Tlm.fin’ P 


Vino 


et. \!= eo, and w=y”, mod p, so that wu, u°,...w\—! are the roots of 
PAs 


148 - REPORT—1860. 


_— = 0, mod p; also, to adapt the formule of art. 30 to our present pur- 
pose, let @-"' =a, m=), n=h)N'; it will result from these substitutions, that 
We (u-") =0, mod p, if & and h satisfy the inequality [A] + [4A] >A, where 
[A] and [RA] are positive numbers less than \, and congruous, mod A, to h 
and kh respectively. If we represent by f(a) the ideal prime factor of p 
which appertains to the substitution «=u, this may be expressed by saying 


that vz(«) contains the factor f(a—"), if [i 4 Hi >, the symbols Hi 


and [FZ] denoting the least positive numbers satisfying the congruences 
L 


hx =1, mod X, and Ae=h, mod X. Assigning, therefore, to the number 

every positive value less than \ compatible with this condition, we may write 
te (a)= tar f(a-"), 

+a’ being a simple unit which may be determined by the congruence 

vz (a) = —1, mod 1—a)**: it is not necessary to add a real complex unit, 

for a reason which has already appeared (see art. 56, supra). From the 

expression for ¥z («) a still simpler formula for F (a, x) may be obtained, 


viz. m=h—] [= 
Lee rae Hy. LL ira 
n= 


61. Application to the Last Theorem of Fermat.—The second investigation 
to which we shall advert relates to the celebrated proposition known as the 


«“ Last Theorem of Fermat,” viz. that the equation 2” +y” =z” is irresoluble, 
in integral numbers, for all values of x greater than 2}. As Fermat himself 


* The numbers ;(«) are primary according to M. Kummer’s definition (art. 52); for 


F (a, x) F (ak, x) 


¥, (2) = F (e+, 2) = at, the summation extending to every pair of values of 
? 


y, and y, that satisfy the congruence y”!+-y/2=1, mod p, in which y represents the same 
primitive root of p that occurs in the expression F(#, xv). Hence ~z(1)=p—2= —1, 
mod X, and yz («) vz (2!) =p=1=[¥; (1)]*, moddA. Also ¥, («)—¥;, (1) is divisible 
by (l—«)?; for ¥%(L)=2 (y, +4y,)=3 (1 +4) (p—1) (p—2), observing that y, and y, 
each receive all the values 1, 2,...y—2 in succession. We have, therefore, the con- 
gruence ¥',, (1) ==0, mod X, from which it follows (see a note on the next article) that 
VY, (~) =, (1), mod (l—«)?, or yy, («) = —1, mod (1—<)?, as in the text. 

+ Liouville, vol. xvi. p. 448. _M. Kummer has also extended his solution of this problem 
to the case in which x is any divisor of p—1. See the memoir quoted in the last article, 
sect. 11. 

t Fermat’s enunciation of this celebrated theorem is contained in the first of the MS. notes 
placed by him on the margin of his copy of Bachet’s edition of Diophantus. It would seem 
that this copy is now lost; but in the year 1670 an edition of Bachet’s Diophantus was pub- 
lished at Toulouse, by Samuel de Fermat (the son of the great geometer), in which these 
notes are preserved (Diophanti Alexandrini Arithmeticorum libri sex, et de Numeris Mult- 
angulis liber unus, cum commentariis C. G. Bacheti V. C. et observationibus D. P. de Fermat 
senatoris Tolosani. Tolos 1670), ‘The theorems contained in them are, with a few excep- 
tions, enunciated without proof; and it may be inferred from the preface of S. Fermat, that 
he found no demonstration of thera among his father’s papers. Nevertheless, in the case of 
several of these propositions, we have the assertion of Fermat himself, that he was in posses- 
sion of their demonstration; and although, when we consider the imperfect state of analysis 
in his time, it is surprising that he should have succeeded in creating methods which sub- 
sequent inathematicians have failed to rediscover, yet there is no ground for the suspicion 
that he was guilty of an untruth, or that he mistook an apparent for a real proof. In fact 
these suspicions are refuted, not only by the reputation for honour and veracity which he 
enjoyed among his contemporaries, and by the evidence of singular clearness of insight 
which his extant writings supply, but also by the facts of the case itself. It would be inex- 


ie poy 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 149 


has left us a proof of the impossibility of this equation in the case of n=4, 
by a method which Euler has extended to the case of m=3, we may suppose, 
without loss of generality, that 2 is an uneven prime ) greater than 3, and we 


plicable, if his conclusions reposed on induction only, that he should never have adopted an 
erroneous generalization ; and yet, with the exception of the “ Last Theorem” (the demon- 
stration of which, after two centuries, is still incomplete), every proposition of Fermat’s has 
been verified by the labours of his successors. There is, indeed, one other exception to this 
statement; but it is an exception which proves the rule. In the letter to Sir Kenelm Digby 
which concludes the ‘Commercium Epistolicum, etc.’ edited by Wallis (Oxford, 1658), 


Fermat enuntiates the proposition that the numbers contained in the formula 22”41 are all 
primes, acknowledging, however, that, though convinced of its truth, he had not succeeded 
in obtaining its demonstration. This letter, which is undated, was written in 1658; but it 
appears, from a letter of Fermat's to M. de * * *, dated October 18, 1640, that even at that 
earlier date he was acquainted with the proposition, and had convinced himself of its truth 
(D. Petri de Fermat Varia Opera Mathematica, Tolose, 1679, p. 162). It was, however, 


subsequently observed by Euler that 22°-+1=4294967297 =641 x 6700417, i.e. that the 
undemonstrated proposition is untrue (Op. Arith. collecta, vol. i. p. 356). The error, if it is 
an error, is a fortunate one for Fermat; it exemplifies his candour and veracity, and it shows 
that he did not mistake inductive probability for rigorous demonstration :—‘ Mais je vous 
adyoue tout net,” are his words in the letter last referred to, ‘‘ (car par advance je vous ad- 
vertis que comme je ne suis pas capable de m’attribuer plus que je ne scay, je dis avec meme 
franchise ce que je ne say pas) que je n’ay peu encore démonstrer l’exclusion de tous divi- 
seurs en cette belle proposition que je vous avois enyoyée, et que vous m’avez confermée 
touchant les nombres 3, 5, 17, 257, 6553, &c. Car bien que je reduise l’exclusion a la 
pluspart des nombres, et que j’aye méme des raisons probables pour le reste, je n’ay peu 
encore démonstrer nécessairement la vérité de cette proposition, de laquelle pourtant je ne 
doute non plus & cette heure que je faisois auparavant. Si vous en avez la preuve assurée, 
yous m’obligerez de me la communiquer: car aprés cela rien ne m’arrestera en ces matiéres.” 

The “ Last Theorem” is enunciated by Fermat as follows :— 

“Cubum autem in duos cubos, aut quadrato-quadratum in duos quadrato-quadratos, et 
generaliter nullam in infinitum ultra quadratum potestatem in duos ejusdem nominis fas est 
dividere ; cujus rei demonstrationem mirabilem sane detexi. Hanc marginis exiguitas non 
caperet.” (Fermat’s Diophantus, p. 51.) 

Fermat has also asserted that neither the sum (ébid. p. 258) nor the difference (ibid. p.338) 
of two biquadrates can be a square. Each of these propositions comprehends the theorem 
that the sum of two biqnadrates cannot be a biquadrate; and of the second, we possess 
a yery remarkable demonstration by Fermat himself (#éd. p. 338; and compare Euler, 
Elémens d’Algébre, vol. ii. sect. 13; Legendre, Théorie des Nombres, vol.ii. p.1). The 
essential part of this demonstration consists in showing that, from any supposed solution 
of the Diophantine equation 24—y4=a square, another solution may be deduced in which 
the values of the indeterminates are not equal to zero, and yet are absolutely less than in 
the proposed solution, from which it immediately follows that the Diophantine equation 
is impossible. This method has been successfully employed by Euler (/oc. cit.) to demon- 
strate several negative Diophantine propositions, and in particular the theorem that the sum 
of two cubes cannot be acube. The only arithmetical principles (not included in the first 
elements of the science) which are employed by Euler and Fermat in their applications of 
this method, relate to certain simple properties of the quadratic forms x?+y?, 2?+2y?, 
a°+3y?; and as these principles seem inadequate to overcome the difficulties presented by 
the equation z”-+7"+2"=0, when x is > 4, it is probable that Fermat’s “ demonstratio 
mirabilis sane” of the general theorem was entirely different from that which he has inci- 
dentally given of the particular case. 

The impossibility of the equation 2”+y”+2"=0 for n=5 was first demonstrated by Le- 
gendre (Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences, 1823, vol. vi. p. 1, or Théorie des Nombres, 
vol. ii. p. 361. See also an earlier paper by Lejeune Dirichlet, Crelle, vol. iii. p. 354, with 
the addition at p. 368, and a later one by M. Lebesgue, Liouville, vol. viii. p. 49) ; for n=14, 
by Dirichlet (Crelle, vol. ix. p. 390); and for n=7, by M. Lamé (Mémoires des Savans 
Etrangers, vol. viii. p. 421, or Liouville, vol. v. p. 295. See also the Comptes Rendus, vol. ix. 


'p- 359, and a paper by M. Lebesgue, Liouville, vol. v. pp. 276 & 348). But the methods 


employed in these researches are specially adapted to the particular exponents considered, 
and do not seem likely to supply a general demonstration. The proof in Barlow’s Theory of 
Numbers, pp. 160-169, is erroneous, as it reposes (see p. 168) on an elementary proposition 
(cor. 2, p. 20) which is untrue. A memoir by M. Kummer on the equation 24+4y4=2*, 
in which complex numbers are not employed, and in which no single case of the theorem is 


150 REPORT—!1860. 


may write the equation in the symmetrical form rrity*t2*—0, The impos- 
sibility of solving this equation has been demonstrated by M. Kummer, first, 
for all values of X not included among the exceptional primes* ; and secondly, 
for all exceptional primes which satisfy the three following conditions :— 

(1.) That the first factor of H, though divisible by A, is not divisible by 
d? (see art. 50). 

(2.) That a complex modulus can be assigned, for which a certain definite 
complex unit is not congruous to a perfect Ath power. 

(3.) That B,, is not divisible by d*, B, representing that Bernoullian 
number [xk p—1] which is divisible by \+. 

Three numbers below 100, viz. 37, 59, 67, are, as we have seen, excep- 
tional primes. But it has been ascertained by M. Kummer that the three 
conditions just given are satisfied in the case of each of those numbers; so 
that the impossibility of Fermat’s equation has been demonstrated for all 
values of the exponent up to 100. Indeed, it would probably be difficult to 
find an exceptional prime not satisfying the three conditions, and conse- 
quently excluded from M. Kummer’s demonstration. 

We must confine ourselves here to an indication of the principles on which 
the demonstration rests in the case of the non-exceptional primes f. 


demonstrated (Crelle, vol. xvii. p. 203), is nevertheless of great interest for the number of 
auxiliary propositions contained init. Of the same character are the notes by MM. Lebesgue 
and Liouville, in Liouville’s Journal, vol. vy. pp. 184 & 360, and a few theorems given with- 
out demonstration by Abel, Guvres, vol. ii. p. 264. 

In the year 1847, M. Lamé presented to the Academy at Paris a memoir containing a 
general demonstration of Fermat’s Theorem, based on the properties of complex numbers 
(Comptes Rendus, vol. xxiv. p. 310; Lionville, vol. xii. pp. 137 & 172). It was, however, 
observed by M. Liouville (Comptes Rendus, vol. xxiv. p. 315), that this demonstration is 
defective, as it assumes, without proof, the proposition that a complex number can be repre- 
sented, and in one way only, as the product of powers of complex primes—a proposition 
which, as we have seen, is untrue, unless we admit ideal as well as actual complex primes. 
The discussion on M. Lamé’s memoir attracted Cauchy’s attention to Fermat’s Theorem; and 
the 24th and 25th volumes of the Comptes Rendus contain several communications from 
him on the subject of complex numbers [or polynémes radicaux, as he has preferred to term 
them]. In the earlier papers of this series, Cauchy attempts to prove a proposition which, 
as we have already observed (see art. 41), is untrue for complex numbers considered gene- 
rally, viz. that the norm of the remainder in the division of one complex number by another 
can be rendered less than the norm of the divisor (see Comptes Rendus, vol. xxiv. pp. 517, 
633 & 661). Llsewhere (iid. p. 579) he assumes the proposition as a hypothesis, and 
deduces from it conclusions which are erroneous (pp. 581, 582). But at p. 1029 he recognizes 
and demonstrates its inaccuracy. The results at which he arrives in his subsequent papers 
on the same subject are, for the most part, comprehended in M. Kummer’s general theory 
(Comptes Rendus, vol. xxv. pp. 37, 46, 93, 132, 177). In one place, however (p. 181), he 
enunciates, though without demonstrating, the following important result :— 

“Tf the equation a+ y+2=0 be resoluble, 2, y, z denoting integral numbers prime to 
A, the sum 

fake Sees e-em et +(e 
is divisible by \.” 

(Compare M. Kummer’s memoir in the Berlin Transactions for 1857, p. 64.) 

The investigation of the Last Theorem of Fermat has been twice proposed as a prize- 
question by the Academy of Paris—first at some time previous to 1823 (see Legendre’s 
memoir already cited, in vol. vi. of the Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences, p. 2), and again 
in 1850 (Comptes Rendus, vol. xxx. p. 263): at neither time was the prize adjudged to any 
of the memoirs received. On the last occasion, after several postponements of the date 
originally fixed for the award, the prize was ultimately, in 1857 (id. vol. xliv. p. 158), con- 
ferred on M. Kummer, who had not been a competitor, for his researches on complex num- 
bers. 

* Liouville, vol. xvi. p. 488, or Crelle, vol. xl. p. 131. 

+ See the memoir No. 15 in the list of art. 41. 


‘£ When A is not an exceptional prime, the equation v\+y\+z2*=0 is irresoluble not only 


OO 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 151 


We may suppose that \ is greater than 3, and that no two of the numbers 
2, y, z admit any common divisor. And first, let none of them be divisible 


ak— 


by 1—a, « still representing a root of the equation =0. Since for x 


we may write a’ a, we may assume that 2, y, z are of the form 

x=a+(1—«a)’ X, 

y=b+(1—«)’ Y, 

z=c+(1—«a)’Z, 
a, b, c denoting integral numbers prime to A, which evidently satisfy the con- 
gruence a+6+c=0, mod. The equation a\+y*-+2*=0 may then be 
written thus 

(way) (a+a2y) (w@ta%y)....(atary)=—2", 
No two of the factors of which the left hand member is composed can have 
any common divisor; each of them is therefore the product of a perfect Ath 
power by a unit; so that we may write, r+a°y=a?e(a)v*, e(a) denoting 
areal unit. Since wv’ is an actual number, it follows (remembering that ) is 
not an exceptional prime) that v is also actual ; hence v* is congruous, mod A, 
to a certain integral number m. Eliminating m x e(a@) between the two con- 
gruences x+a°y==ma’e(a), and +a “y=ma °e(a), mod Xd, we find 
a °(ata’y)—a°(x+a *y)=0, mod AX. For the modulus (1—«) this 
congruence is identically satisfied*. That it should be satisfied, mod (1—«)’, 
we must have the relation (@+)p==ds, mod X; whence, putting 
b 


—— =k, mod d, 
a+b 


we have p=s, mod X. Substituting this value for p, we find that the con- 
gruence 


a" (e@tacy)—ak (a+a-*y)—0 


is identically satisfied, mod (1—«)’*; but in order that it should be satisfied, 
mod (1—a)*, we have the condition 


s°b(2k—1) (R—1)—3s(k—1 .y"+ha")=0, mod A, 


where 2 and y' are the values (for~=1) of the second derived functions 
of # and y with respect to a. This conditional congruence must be satisfied 
for every value of s; either therefore k==1, mod A, or 2R=1, mod. The 
supposition A==1 is inadmissible; for it implies that a==0, mod A, contrary 
to the hypothesis. Hence we must have 2k=1, and a=, or, by parity of 
reasoning, a=b=c, mod Xr. But alsoa+b+c=0, mod A, whence we again 
infer the inadmissible conclusion a==b==c=0, mod X. 


in ordinary integral numbers, but also in any complex integers composed of Ath roots of 
unity. The demonstration does not possess the same generality when A is an exceptional 
prime satisfying the three conditions cited in the text. In this case M. Kummer has only 
shown that the equation #\+-y*+-z\=0 is irresoluble when we suppose that 2, y, z are 
ordinary integral numbers prime to X, or else complex numbers containing the binary periods 
a+a—!, one of which has a common divisor with i. 


* Since is divisible by (1—2)"—?, and since 9(«)=9 (1)-+(@-1) ¢'()+@-I2£O 
+...,it is readily seen that, if-<X—1, the conditions for the divisibility of ¢(«) by 
(1—«)” are ¢(1)=0, ¢'(1)=0,..... ¢°-)(1)==0, mod A. 


Le REPORT—1860. 


Secondly, let one of the numbers a, y, z (for example, z) be divisible by 
1—a; it will be convenient to consider the equation in the generalized form 


a +y*=E(a)(1—a)y™2%- 2.2 26 

in which a, y, and z are all prime to 1—a@, and E(a) is any unit. We may 
assume that the values of # and y are of the form 

x=a+(1—a)’X, 

y=b+(1—a)’Y, 
a and 6 being prime to X, but satisfying the relation a+5==0, mod 2. 
In the first place, m must be greater than]. For since v4 =a, and yA’ =B, 
mod (1 —a)*+1, if a*+y* be divisible by (1—a)*, a*+0' is divisible by A’, and 
therefore x+y by (l—a)‘*". Again, each of the factors x+ay, x+a7y, 
...a+a—1y is divisible once, and once only, by l—a; whence it follows 
that x+y is divisible by (1—a)”—**", and that no two of the d factors of 
a\+y* have any other common divisor than 1—a. Hence the A factors 


Rak6 s/o e+ay atar—ly 
(l—a)ma—r>+’ et ee eee 


are relatively prime, and may be represented by expressions of the form 


2 (a) $e" e (2) o> Ch eR Oe €x-1 (a) pa-1 * 


e, (a), €, (a), ... representing units, and ¢,\, ¢,°,.... Ath powers prime to 
1—a. Eliminating x and y from the three equations 


aty =e,(a)(1—a)™—**19,%, 
ata" y=e,(a)(1—2) 4, 
+ Gs y=es (a) (1—a) os’ 


we obtain a result of the form 


gr +e (a) o\=E, (a) (1—ay™™*6., . «+ (2) 
e(a@) and E,(a) denoting two units. But, as in the former case, it may 
be shown that r* and os* are congruous, mod X, to real integers, and 
(1—a)""~?*=0, mod d, because m>1. Hence (a) is also congruous to 
a real integer for the modulus X, and _is therefore a perfect Ath power by a 


property of every non-exceptional prime (see art. 52). The equation (2) 
therefore assumes the form Te 


x +yA=E, (a) 2 (1—ayer—a, 


If, therefore, the proposed equation (1) be possible, it will follow, by suc- 
cessive applications of this reduction, that the equation 


x +y\=E (a) (1—a)* <* 


is also possible. But this equation has been shown to be impossible; the 
equation (1) is therefore also impossible. 

62. Application to the Theory of Numerical Equations.—In the Monats- 
berichte for June 20, 1853 (see also the Monatsberichte for 1856, p. 203), 
M. Kronecker has enunciated the following theorem :— 

“The roots of any Abelian equation, the coefficients of which are integral 
numbers, are rational functions of roots of unity.” The demonstration of 
this theorem (Monatsberichte for 1853, p- 371-873) depends ona compa- 


heey 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 153 


rison of a certain form, of which the resolvent function of any Abelian 
equation is susceptible, with M. Kummer’s expression for the resolvent func- 
tion in the case of the equation of the division of the circle (see art. 60). 
It thus involves considerations relating to ideal numbers. 

Two propositions of a more special character, and closely connected with 
one another, have also been given by M. Kronecker (Crelle, vol. liii. p. 173). 
Their demonstration is immediately deducible from the principles of Dirich- 
let’s theory of complex units :— 

‘<Tf unity be the analytical modulus of every root of an equation, of which 
the first coefficient is unity and all the coefficients are integral numbers, the 
roots of the equation are roots of unity.” 

“Tf all the roots of an equation (having its first coefficient unity and all 
its coefficients integral) be real and inferior in absolute magnitude to 2, so 
that they can be represented by expressions of the form 2 cos a, 2 cos f, 
2 cos y,....the arcs a, 2, y are commensurable with the complete circum- 
ference.” 

In the following proposition M. Kronecker has extended a theorem of 
M. Kummer’s (art. 42) relating to complex units composed with roots of 
unity of which the index is a prime, to complex units composed with any 
roots of unity (Crelle, vol. liii. p. 176) :— 

« Every complex unit composed with the roots of the equation w=1, can 
be rendered real by multiplication with a 4th root of unity. If 2 be even, 
a 2nth root will always suffice; and if m be a power of a prime, an nth root 
will suffice.” 

The demonstration of this proposition is also deducible from Dirichlet’s 
principles. 

63. Tables of Complex Primes——In M. Kummer’s earliest memoir on 
complex numbers (Liouville, vol. xii. p. 206) he has given a table of the 
complex factors, composed of \th roots of unity, which are contained in real 
primes of the form m\ +1 inferior to 1000, A representing one of the primes 
5, 7,11, 13, 17, 19, 23. This memoir was written before M. Kummer had 
considered the complex factors of primes of linear forms other than mA+1, 
and before he had introduced the conception of ideal numbers. The com- 
plex prime factors of real primes of those other linear forms are, therefore, 
not exhibited in the Table; and the five numbers of the form 23m+1, 47, 
139, 277, 461, 967, each of which contains 22 ideal factors composed of 23rd 
roots of unity, are represented as products of 11 actual factors (each of 
which contains two reciprocal ideal factors). The tentative methods by 
which the complex factors were discovered are explained in sect. 9 of the 
memoir cited. Since the full development of M. Kummer’s theory, Dr. 
Reuschle has undertaken to complete and extend the Table. He has already 
given tables containing the complex prime factors of all real primes less than 
1000, composed of 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, 23rd, and 29th roots of unity, 
together with the complete solution of the congruences corresponding to the 
equations of the periods (see the Monatsberichte for 1859, pp. 488 and 
694, and for 1860, pp. 150 and 714). For 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, the complex 
primes are exhibited in a primary form; for 19, 23, and 29 they are exhibited 
in a form which satisfies the condition f(a) = f(1), mod (I—«)?, but not 
the condition f (2) f(a-!)=[f (1)}?, mod \. The ideal factors Dr. 
Reuschle represents by their lowest actual powers; for 23 this power is the 
cube, for 29 it is the square; for 11, 13, 17, 19, as well as for 5 and 7, all 
complex prime factors of real primes less than 1000 are actual. It appears 
from the Table (and it has indeed been proved by M. Kummer), that 29 is 
an “ irregular determinant” (see art. 49, note) ; for the number of classes is 


154 REPORT—1860. 


8, while the square of every ideal number (occurring as a factor of a real 
prime inferior to 1000) is actual. The methods employed by Dr. Reuschle 
in the caiculation of his tables have not yet been published by him. In 
some instances, as M. Kummer has observed, they have not led him to the 
simplest possible forms of the ideal primes. 

A particular investigation relating to the ideal factors of 4:7, composed of 
23rd roots of unity, has been given by Mr. Cayley (Crelle, vol. lv. p. 192, 
and lvi. p. 186). 

64. The investigations relating to Laws of Reciprocity, which have so long 
occupied us in this report, have introduced us to considerations apparently 
so remote from the theory of the residues of powers of integral numbers, that 
it requires a certain effort to bear in mind their connexion with that theory. 
It will be remembered that the complex numbers to which our attention has 
been directed are not of that general kind to which we have referred in art. 41, 
but are exclusively those which are composed of roots of unity. The theory 
of complex numbers, in the widest sense of that term, does indeed present to 
us an important generalization of the theory of the residues of powers; for 
the theorem of Fermat (see art. 53) subsists alike for every species of com- 
plex numbers. But the complex numbers of Gauss, of Jacobi, and of M. 
Kummer force themselves upon our consideration, not because their proper- 
ties are generalizations of the properties of ordinary integers, but because 
certain of the properties of integral numbers can only be explained by a 
reference to them. The law of quadratic reciprocity does not, as we have 
seen, necessarily require for its demonstration any considerations other than 
those relating to ordinary integers ; the real prime numbers of arithmetic are 
here the ultimate elements that enter into the problem. But when we come 
to binomial congruences of higher orders, we find that the true elements of 
the question are no longer real primes, but certain complex factors, composed 
of roots of unity, which are, or may be conceived to be, contained in real 
primes. For we find that the law which expresses the mutual relation (with 
respect to the particular kind of congruences considered) of two of these 
complex factors is a primary and simple one; while the corresponding rela- 
tions between the real primes themselves are composite and derivative, and, in 
consequence, complicated. It thus becomes indispensable, for the investiga- 
tion of the properties of real numbers, to construct an arithmetic of complex 
integers ; and this is what has been accomplished by the researches, of which 
an account has been given in the preceding articles. 

The higher laws of reciprocity (like that of quadratic residues) may be 
considered as furnishing a criterion for the resolubility or irresolubility of 
binomial congruences ; and this, though not the only application of which they 
are susceptible, is that which most naturally suggests itself. When the bi- 
nomial congruence is cubic or biquadratic, it is easy to resolve the real prime 
modulus into factors of the form a+ dp, or a+ bi (arts. 37 and 24), and equally 
easy to determine the value of the critical symbol of reciprocity by a uni- 
form and elementary process (see art. 36). For these, therefore, as well as 
for quadratic congruences, the criterion deducible from the laws of recipro- 
city is all that can be desired. But for binomial congruences of higher 
orders this criterion is not a satisfactory one, because of the difficulty of 
obtaining the resolution of a real prime into its complex factors, and also 
because of the impossibility of determining the value of the critical symbol 
by the conversion of an ordinary fraction into a continued fraction. 

The only known criterion applicable to such congruences is the following, 
_the demonstration of which is deducible from the elements of the theory of 
the residues of powers:—Let x”==A, mod p, represent the proposed con- 


ee ee 


———-. , —_ 


— 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 155 


gruence ; it will be resoluble or irresoluble according as the index of A is or 
is not divisible by d, the greatest common divisor of x and p—1, i.e. according 


as the exponent to which A appertains is or is not a divisor of er (see 


arts. 14 and 15). 

65. Solution of Binomial Congruences.—We now come to the problem of 
the actual solution of binomial congruences—a subject upon which our 
knowledge is confined within very narrow limits. 

When a table of indices for the prime p has been constructed, the resolu- 
tion of every binomial congruence, if it be resoluble, or, if not, the demon- 
stration of its irresolubility, is implicitly contained in it. But to use a table 
of indices for the solution of a binomial congruence is, as we have already 
observed in a similar case (art. 16), to solve a problem by means of a recorded 
solution of it. When the congruence a”==A, mod 7, is resoluble, its solu- 
tion may always be made to depend on that of a congruence of the form 
x’==a, mod p, where d is the greatest common divisor of x and p—1, and 
where aA‘, mod p, and ns==d, mod p—1. We may therefore suppose 
that, in the congruence a”==A, mod p, n is a divisor of p—1. This con- 
gruence (if resoluble at all) will have as many roots as it has dimensions; if 
— be any one of them, and 1, 0,, 6,,--.@n_, be the roots of the congruence 
x"==1, mod p, the roots of a*“==A, mod p, will be £, £0,, £0,,...£0n-1; so that 
the complete resolution of the congruence a”= A, mod p, requires, first, the 
determination of a single root of that congruence itself, and, secondly, the com- 
plete resolution of the congruence #”==1, mod p. With regard to the first of 
these requisites, in the important case in which the exponent ¢ to which A 
appertains is prime to 7, a value of x satisfying the congruence a"= A, mod p, 
can be determined by a direct method (Disq. Arith. arts. 66, 67). For, in 
this case, it will always happen that one value of z is a certain power A* of 
A, where & is determined by the congruence kn=1, mod ¢. Nor is it 
necessary, in order to determine #, to know the exponent ¢ to which A 
appertains; it is sufficient to have ascertained that it is prime to m; for, if 
we resolve p—1 into two factors prime to one another, and such that one of 
them is divisible by m and contains no prime not contained in n, the other 
will be divisible by ¢, and may be employed as modulus instead of ¢ in the 
congruence kn==1, mod¢. When this method is inapplicable, we can only 
investigate a root of the congruence #”==A, mod p-(where A is different 
from 1), by tentative processes, which, however, admit of certain abbreviations 
(Disq. Arith. arts. 67,68). The work of Poinsot (Réflexions sur la Théorie 
des Nombres, cap. iv. p. 60) contains a very full and elegant exposition of 
the theory of binomial congruences; but neither he nor any other writer 
subsequent to Gauss has been able to add any other direct method to that 
which we have just mentioned. 

66. Solution of the Congruence x"=1, mod p.—When a single root of the 
congruence x”= A is known, we may, as we have seen, complete its resolu- 
tion by obtaining all the roots of the congruence a”=1, mod p. The methods 
of Gauss, Lagrange, and Abel for the solution of the binomial equation 
x"—]=0 are in a certain sense applicable to binomial congruences of this 
special form. It is evident, from a comparison of several passages in the Dis- 
quisitiones Arithmetic *, that Gauss himself contemplated this arithmetical 
application of his theory of the division of the circle, and that he intended to 
include it in the 8th section of his work, which, however, has never been 
given to the world. In fact, the method of Abel+ which comprehends that 

* See Disq. Arith. arts. 61, 73, and especially art. 335. 

T See Abel’s memoir, “‘ Sur une classe particulicre d’équations résolubles algébriquement,”” 


156 REPORT—1860. 


of Gauss, and which gives the solution of any Abelian equation, is equally 
applicable to any Abelian congruence; zt. e. to any completely resoluble con- 
gruence of order m, the m roots of which (considered with regard to the 
prime modulus p) may be represented by the series of terms 


7, $(7)s g(r) +++. g9™—"(r), 
the symbol ¢ denoting a given rational [fractional or integral] function. 
And as we can always express the roots of an Abelian equation by radicals 
(i. e. by the roots of equations of two terms), so also the solution of an Abelian 
congruence depends ultimately on the solution of binomial congruences. 
When, for any prime modulus, an Abelian equation admits of being con- 
sidered as an Abelian congruence, so precise is the correspondence of the 
equation and the congruence, that (as Poinsot has observed in a memoir 
in which he has occupied himself with the comparative analysis of the equa- 
tion «*=1, and the congruence z”==1, mod p*) we may consider the ana- 
lytical expression of the roots of the equation as also containing an expression 
of the roots of the congruence ; and by giving a congruential interpretation T 
to the radical signs which occur in that expression, we may elicit from it the 
actual values of the roots of the congruence. An example taken from 
Poinsot’s memoir will render this intelligiblef. The six roots of the equation 


we 
= Sty are comprised in the formula 


x—1 
SLEW Eg 8 yo lh, Lid ee 
alt Nats 7 av —7 +321 Bir ii 5Vai-5V a | ; 


where the signs + and — are to be successively attributed to W —7, and 
where the product of the two cube roots is + Vor Sa according 


to the sign attributed to Va Considering the equation as a congruence 
with regard to the modulus 43, and observing that 


V —7= +6, mod 43, ¥21= +8, mod 43, 
we obtain in the first place 


‘Ov Ba yeet ey fh aad 
— atsv 16 +58 mod 43, 


Th. WA eS OL cee 

and gata s/22t gv —2 mod 43, 
the product of the two cube roots being congruous to +6 in the first formula, 
and to —6 in the second; and finally, observing that 

4/16 21, — 3, —18, mod 43, 

ee: 14, — 2, —12, mod 43, 

4/22 =—15, — 4, 19, mod 43, 

2/ —2 =+ 9, —20, +11, mod 43, 
sect. 3 (Guvres, vol.i. p. 114, or Crelle, vol. iv. p. 131), and M. Serret’s Algebre Supérieure, 
26th and 27th lessons. 

* “Sur l’Application de l’Algébre 4 la Théorie des Nombres,’’ Mémoires de l’Académie 


des Sciences, vol. iv. p. 99. 1s 
+ Gauss employs the symbol \// A, mod g, to denote a root of the congruence a" =A, mod p, 


just as he employs the symbol = mod p, to denote the root of the congruence Av=B, 


| 


ll tl il 


mod p. The congruential radical .’/ X, mod p, has of course as many values as the con- 
gruence x"= A, mod 2, has solutions; if that congruence be irresoluble, the symbol is im- 
possible. 

t See the memoir cited above, p. 125, 


bank 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 157 


and attending to the limitation to which the cube roots are subject, 
x= —8, +11, +21, or, —2,+4, +16; mod 43. 


Thus the complete solution of a congruence of the sixth order is obtained by 
means of binomial congruences of the second and third orders only. 

An essential limitation to the usefulness of this method arises from the cir- 
cumstance that it does not always (or even in general) happen that (as in 
the example just given) each surd entering into the expression of the root 
becomes separately rational. For that expression may itself acquire a rational 
value, while certain surds contained in it continue irrational, precisely as, in 
the irreducible case of cubic equations, a real quantity is represented by an 
imaginary formula. To illustrate this point by an example, let us consider 


7 
v1 9 with respect to the modulus 29{ Here in 


the same congruence 


the expression 


—1+¥—7 1 £74 Svan | 4 5e"[ 7-3 7-3 | 
pa Sel 7g tt va +5? 7-3 —7-5v a1 |, 
where p denotes a cube root of unity, we have, putting V —7= +14, and 
p=, 


2=— + : [eva|'+5 [-5vai] » =F=1, mod 29, 
the irrational cube roots disappearing of themselves. Again, putting 
p= 3 (1+ “=3), 
we find 
w=71tiv—3(5v a )=14(5V—7)" 
=74(7)'=7416=-—6 or —9, 
where every radical becomes rational of itself. Similarly taking the values 
¥—7=—14, p=5(—1 +¥.—3), we find z=—5 or —13. But lastly, 
putting V —7=—14, p=1, we find 


r=12+ SC+7 V2)43(14—7 V2). 


To rationalize this expression, we have to observe that 147 9, relatively 
to the modulus 29, is the cube of a complex number of similar form ; in fact, 
we have (14+7V2)=(5+11¥2)*, mod 29, whence x=—4. To elicit, 
therefore, the value of this root from the irrational formula, we are obliged to 
solve the cubic congruence x°=14+7 V2, which, although of lower dimen- 
sions than the proposed congruence, is probably less easy to solve tentatively, 
because 29 has 297—1=840 residues of the form a+b¥2, and only 29—1 
=28 ordinary integral residues; so that practically the method fails. Theo- 
retically, however, the relation between the analytical expression of the 
equation-rocts and the values of the congruence-roots is of considerable 
importance, and the subject would certainly repay a closer examination 
than it has yet received. We may add that, if m be a divisor of p—1l, 
t Ibid. p. 132. 


158 REPORT— 1860. 


the complete solution of an Abelian congruence of order m requires only 
two things,—lIst, the complete solution of the congruence 2m — ] =0O, 
mod p, and, 2ndly, the determination of a single root of a certain con- 
gruence of the form #”—a==0, mod p, in which a is an ordinary integer; 


a’ —] 


so that in this case (which is that of the congruence ; =0, mod 43) 


we obtain a real, and not only an apparent reduction of the proposed con- 
gruence*. 
It should also be observed that the primitive roots of the equation 


ar—] : : ‘ achsayy 
=0 furnish, when rationalized, the primitive roots of the congruence 


a2— 
“— =0,mod p. This, the only direct method that has ever been suggested 
x 


for the determination of a primitive root, appears to be the same as that 
referred to by Gauss in the Disq. Arith. (art. 73). 

Poinsot expresses the conviction that this method of rationalization is 
applicable to any congruence corresponding to an equation, the roots of 
which can be expressed by radicals+. With regard to equations of the 
second, third, and fourth orders this is certainly true. If, for example, the 
biquadratic equation F, (z)=0O be completely resoluble when considered as 
a congruence for the modulus p, so that F, (x)= (a—a,) (w—a,) (wx—a,) 
(x—a,), mod p, it is plain that the four roots of F(#)=0, and the four 
numbers @, @,, @,, a, may be obtained by substituting, in the general formula 
which expresses the root of any biquadratic equation as an irrational function 
of its coefficients, the values of the coefficients of the functions F (a) and 
(x—a,) (w—a,) (x—a,) (w—a,) respectively. But these two sets of coeffi- 
cients differ only by multiples of p; 7. e. the values of a,, a,, a,, a, can be 
deduced from the expressions of the roots of F (v)=0 by adding multiples 
of p to the numbers which enter into those expressions. But this reasoning 
ceases to be applicable to equations of an order higher than the fourth, 
because no general formula exists representing the roots of an equation of 
the fifth or any higher order. If, therefore, F(x)=0 be an equation of the 
mth order, the roots of which can be expressed by a radical formula, and 
which is also completely resoluble when considered as a congruence for the 
modulus p, so that F(a)=(a—a,) (w—a,)...(a@—ad,), mod p, it will not 
necessarily follow that the formula which gives the roots of F(z)=0 is also 
capable (when we add multiples of p to the numbers contained in it) of 
giving the roots of (vw—a,)(xw—a,)...(a—an)=0, 7. e. the roots of the con- 
gruence F(2)==0, mod p; and thus the principle enunciated by M. Poinsot 
is, it would seem, not rigorously demonstrated. 

67. Cubie and Biquadratic Congruences.—The reduction of cubie con- 
gruences to binomial ones has been treated of by Cauchy (Exercices des 
Mathématiques, vol. iv. p. 279), and more completely by M. Oltramare 
(Crelle, vol. xlv. p. 314). Some cases of biquadratic congruences are also 
considered by Cauchy in the memoir cited, p. 286. The following criteria 
for the resolubility or irresolubility of cubic congruences include the results 
obtained by M. Oltramare, /. c., and appear sufficiently simple to deserve 
insertion here :— 

Let the given cubic congruence be 


* This will be at once evident, if we observe that when the congruence #”=1, mod p, 
is completely resoluble, its roots may be employed to replace, in Abel’s method, the roots of 
the equation 7”™—1=0. 

+ See the memoir cited above, p. 107, and M. Libri, Mémoires de Mathématique et Phy- 
sique, p. 63. 


a 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 159 


a0?+360°+3c0+d=0, mod p, 


p denoting a prime greater than 3, which does not divide the discriminant of 
the congruence; 7. e., the number 


D= — a d+ 6abed—4ac?—4.db? +36’ e’; 

and in connexion with the congruence consider the allied system of functions * 

U=(a, b, c,d) (a, )*, 

H=(ace—0", > (ad—be), bd—c’) (2, y)’, 

®=(—a’ d+3abe— 26°, —abd+2ac?+b’ ec, acd—2b? d+ be’, 

ad*—3bed+ 2c’) (a, y)’, 
which are connected by the equation 
+ Duw’?=—4H'; 

let also w and ¢ denote the values of U and © corresponding to any given 


values of x and y, which do not render H=0, mod p. Then, if (GP )=-1 
P 
the congruence has always one and only one real root; if (=)= +1, it has 
P 


fy =e 
either three real roots, or none: viz., if a) = +1], it has three; 
3 


if (ete) p, or =p, it has none. The interpretation of the 
P 
eubic symbol of reciprocity will present no difficulty if we observe that ¥ —D, 


mod p, is a real integer if p=3n-+1, z.e. if (=)=» and that, if p=3n—1, 


el ir (> )=-1. we have V—D="—8x WID=(p—p")W ID, mod p, 


so that ¥ —D, mod p, is a complex integer involving p. It will however be 
observed that the application of the criterion requires in either case the solu- 
tion of a quadratic congruence, 7*==—D, mod p, or r°=+1D, mod p. 

Similar, but of course less simple, criteria for the resolubility or irresolu- 
bility of biquadratic congruences may be deduced from the known formule 
for the solution of biquadratic equations. 

68. Quadratie Congruences—Indirect Methods of Solution—The general 
form of a quadratic congruence is az*+2bx2+c=0, mod P;—p denoting an 
‘uneven prime modulus, and a a number prime to p. It may be immediately 
reduced to the binomial form 7*=D, mod p, by putting r=axz+6, D=0? 
—ac,mod p. ‘The number of its solutions is 2, 0, or 1, according as D is a 
quadratic residue or non-residue of p, or is divisible by p, and is therefore 


in every case expressed by the formula 1+(— ). 


If p=4n+3, and ~)=1, the congruence 7*— D==0, mod 9, is satisfied 


by 7=D"*), and r=—D”*, and is in fact resoluble by the direct method 
of art.65. But no direct method, applicable to the case when p=4n+1, 
is at present known. Two tentative methods are proposed in the sixth sec- 
tion of the Disquisitiones Arithmetic. They are both applicable to con- 
gruences with composite as well as with prime modules. This circumstance 


* See a note by Mr. Cayley in Crelle’s Journal, vol. 1. p. 285. 


yo 


160 REPORT—1860. 


is important, because, when the modulus is a very great number, we may not 
be able to tell whether it is prime or composite, and, if composite, what the 
primes are of which it is composed, although, when the prime divisors of a 
composite modulus are known, it is simplest first to solve the congruence for 
each of them separately, and afterwards (by a method to which we shall 
hereafter refer) to deduce from these solutions the solution for the given 
composite modulus. To apply the first of Gauss’s methods, the congruence 
is written in the form 77> =D-+ Py, P denoting the modulus. If in the formula 
V=D+Py we substitute for y in succession all integral values which satisfy 
the inequality —Pay<iP-Z. and select those values of V which are per- 
fect squares, their roots (taken positively and negatively) will give us all the 
solutions of the congruence. We should thus have I¢P or 1+I}P trials to 
make, I denoting the greatest integer contained in the fraction before which it 
is placed. If, however, we take any number E, greater than 2, and prime to 
P (it is simplest to take for E a prime, or power of a prime), of which the 
quadratic non-residues are @, 0, c,..., and then determine the values of a, 3, y, 
... in the congruences a==D-+aP, mod E, 5=D+£P, mod E, &c., we shall 
find that every value of y contained in one of the linear forms mE+a, 
mE+/, &c., gives rise to a value of V which is a quadratic non-residue of 
E, and which cannot, therefore, be a perfect square ; so that we may at once 
exclude these values of y from the series of numbers to be tried. A second 
excludent E! may then be taken, and by its aid another set of linear forms 
may be determined, such that no value of y contained in them can satisfy 
the congruence. Thus the number of trials may be diminished as far as 
we please. The application of this method is still further facilitated by the 
circumstance that it is not necessary actually to solve the congruences 
a=D-+aP, mod E, ... but only the single congruence D+ Py=0, mod E 
(Disq. Arith. art. 322). Gauss’s second method depends on the theory of 
quadratic forms; it supposes that the congruence is written in the form 
7?+D=0, mod P. By a tentative process (abbreviated, as in the first 
method, by the use of excludents) Gauss obtains all possible prime representa- 
tions of P by the quadratic forms of determinant —D; whence the com- 
plete solution of the congruence r+ D=0, mod P, is immediately deduced. 
This method involves the construction of a complete system of quadratic 
forms of determinant —D, or, if the prime factors of D be known, of one 
genus of forms of that system; it becomes therefore more difficult of appli- 
cation as D increases, whereas the first method is not affected by the increase 
of D. The second method, however, especially recommends itself when P is 
a very great number; in fact, if we do not employ any excludent, the number 
of trials required by the first method varies (approximately, and when P is 
a great number) as P, whereas, on the same supposition, the number of trials 
required by the second method varies as VDx VP. 

M. Desmarest (in his Théorie des Nombres) has proposed a method less 
scientific in its character than those of Gauss, but sometimes easily applicable 
in practice. He has shown that if the congruence 7+ D==0, mod P, be re- 
soluble, we can always satisfy the equation mP=2*+ Dy* with a value of 


> 
m inferior to i+; and of y not superior to 8. The demonstration of this 
theorem is not very satisfactory, and the number of trials that it still leaves 
is very great, viz. 3 Gr + s), 


The application of Gauss’s second method is rendered somewhat more uni- 


hi 


| 


| 


ed 
ys 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 161 


form, and at the same time the necessity for constructing a system of qua- 
dratic forms of determinant —D is avoided by the following modification of 
it:—By a known property of quadratic forms, whenever the congruence 
r’ +D=0, mod P, is resoluble, the equation mP=a°+ Dy’ is resoluble for 


some value of m < 2/2. By assigning, therefore, to m all values in suc- 
cession which are inferior to that limit, and which satisfy the condition 
(5) = (5) and then obtaining (by Gauss’s method) all prime representa- 


U 
tions of the resulting products by the form x?+-Dy’, we shall have r=+ 


ff 
r=+ oie .-.. mod P, 2’, y', x", y'! etc. denoting the different pairs of values 


of x and y in the equation mP=2?+ Dy’. 

69. General Theory of Congruences.—We may infer from several passages 
in the Disquisitiones Arithmetice, that Gauss intended to give a general 
theory of congruences of every order in the 8th section of his work, and 
that, at the time of its publication, he was already in possession of the prin- 
cipal theorems relating to the subject*. These theorems were, however, 
first given by Evariste Galois, in a note published in the Bulletin de Férus- 
sac for June, 1830 (vol. xiii. p. 438), and reprinted in Liouville’s Journal, 
vol. xi. p.398. An account of Galois’s method (completed and extended in 
some respects) will be found in M. Serret’s Cours d’Algébre Supérieure, 
Jecon25. The theory has also been independently investigated by M. Schoe- 
nemann, who seems to have been unacquainted with the earlier researches of 
Galois (see Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxxi. p. 269, and vol. xxxii. p. 93). In 
several of Cauchy’s arithmetical memoirs (see in particular Exercices de 
Mathématiques, vol. i. p. 160, vol. iv. p. 217; Comptes Rendus, vol. xxiv. 
p- 1117; Exercices d’Analyse et de Physique Mathématique, vol. iv. p. 87) 
we find observations and theorems relating to it. Lastly, in a memoir in 
Crelle’s Journal (vol. liv. p. 1) M. Dedekind has given (with important 
accessions) an excellent and lucid résumé of the results obtained by his pre- 
decessors. 

In the following account of the principles of this theory, the functional 
symbols F, ¢, ,... will represent (as in general throughout this Report) 
rational and integral functions having integral coefficients; we shall use p 
to denote a prime modulus, and @ an absolutely indeterminate quantity. As 
we shall have to consider the functions F(x), f(x), (a), ete., only in relation 
to the modulus p, we shall consider two functions F, (x) and F, (2), which 
differ only by multiples of p, as identical, and we shall represent their identity 
by the congruence F, (v)=F, (x), mod p, which is equivalent to an identical 
equation of the form F,(2)=F,(«)+p)(x). The designation “modular 
function,” which has been introduced by Cauchy (Comptes Rendus, vol. xxiv. 
p- 1118) will serve (though, perhaps, not in itself very appropriate) to indicate 
that the function to which it is applied is thus considered in relation to a 


* See Disq. Arith. art. 11 and 43. 

t Galois was born October 26, 1811, and lost his life in a duel, May 30, 1832. He was 
consequently eighteen at the time of the publication of the note referred to in the text. His 
mathematical works are collected in Liouville’s Journal, vol. xi. p. 381. Obscure and frag- 
mentary as some of these papers are, they nevertheless evince an extraordinary genius, un- 
paralleled, perhaps, for its early maturity, except by that of Pascal. It is impossible to read 
without emotion the letter in which, on the day before his death and in anticipation of it, 
Galois endeavours to rescue from oblivion the unfinished researches which haye given him a 
place for ever in the history of mathematical science. 


1860. M 


162 REPORT—1860. 


prime modulus. Since in any modular function we may omit those terms 
the coefficients of which are multiples of p, we shall always suppose that 
the coefficient of the highest power of z in the function is prime to p. 

If F(w)=f, (x) xf, (w), mod p, f, (w) and f, (#) are each of them said to 
be divisors of F(x) for the modulus p, or, more briefly, modular divisors of 
F(x), or even simply divisors of F(a) when no ambiguity can arise from this 
elliptical mode of expression. If a be a function of order zero, i. e. an integral 
number prime to p, @ is a divisor, for the modulus p, of every other modular 
function; so that we may consider the p—1 terms @,, @,, @,; -.. @p—1, of a 
system of residues prime to p, as the units of this theory, and, in any set of 
p—1 associated functions 

a E(z), a, F(@)p26e. apa EC), 
we nay distinguish that one as primary in which the highest coefficient is 
congruous to unity (mod p). 

If F(#) be a function which is divisible (mod p) by no other function 
(except the units and its own associates), F(x) is said to be a prime or irre- 
ducible function for the modulus p. And it is a fundamental proposition in 
this theory, that every modular function can be expressed in one way, and 
one way only, as the product of a unit by the powers of primary irreducible 
modular functions. The demonstration of this theorem depends (precisely 
as in the case of ordinary integral numbers) on Euclid’s process for finding 
the greatest common divisor, which, it is easy to show, is applicable to the 
modular functions we are considering here. For, if o, (a) and , (a) be two 
such functions [the degree of ¢,(#) being not higher than that of @, (x)], 
we can always form the series of congruences 


$:() = (x) $.(@) +7 $4(x), mod p, 
$2(@)=9.(#) $,(@) +7, 9,(@), mod p, 


Ce et eC eC De Mie Dc Sa YS OR RSM Je Sea eer Tt CT 


in which 7,, 7, ... denote integral numbers, g,(“), g,(#),-.. modular func- 
tions, and ¢,(«), ¢,(v),-... primary modular functions, the orders of which 
are successively lower and lower, until we arrive at a congruence 


px (2) =k (2) ort (@) +7 or42(w), mod p, 


in which 7,==0, med p. The function $741 (7) is then the greatest common 
divisor (mod p) of the given functions ¢, (w) and @, (a); and, in particular, 
if 441 (@) be of order zero, those two functions are relatively prime. We 
may add that, if R be the Resultant of ¢,(#) and ¢,(«), the necessary and 
sufficient condition that these functions should have a common modular 
divisor of an order higher than zero is contained in the congruence R=0, 
mod p*—a theorem exactly corresponding to an important algebraical pro- 
position. From the nature of the process by which the greatest common 
divisor is determined, we may infer the fundamental proposition enunciated 
above, by precisely the same reasoning which establishes the corresponding 
theorem in common arithmetic. Similarly, we may obtain the solution of 
the following useful problem :—“ Given two relatively prime modular func- 
tions A,, and A,, of the orders m and m, to find two other functions, of the 
orders m—1 and m—1 respectively, which satisfy the congruence 


A ke : Gat An Rene 1 ls mod Pp 
* See Cauchy, Exercices de Mathématiques, vol. i. p. 160, or M. Libri, Mémoires de Mathé- 


matique et de Physique, pp. 73, 74. But a proof of this proposition is really contained in 
Lagrange’s Additions to Euler’s Algebra (sect. 4). 


re 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 163 


The assertion that f(«) is a divisor of F(x), for the modulus p is for 
brevity expressed by the congruential formula 


F(«)=0, mod [p, f(#)], 


which represents an equation of the form 
F(x)=p9 (a) + f(#) 9 (2). 
Similarly the congruence F,(#)=F,(x), mod [p, f(x)], is equivalent to 


the equation 
P(e) =F) + po@) +f) Y @),- 

If f(x) be a function of order m, it is evident that any given function is 
congruous, for the compound modulus [p, f (x)] to one, and one only, of 
the p™ functions contained in the formula @,+a,¢7+ ...+@m-12™—}, in 
which a,, a,,...@m_—, may have any values from zero to p—1 inclusive. 
These p™ functions, therefore, represent a complete system of residues for 
the modulus [p, f'(2)]. 

A congruence F(X)=0, mod [p, f(z) ], is said to be solved when a func- 
tional value is assigned to X which renders the left-hand member divisible 
by f(«) for the modulus p; and the number of solutions of the congruence 
is the number of functional values (incongruous mod [p, f(#)]) which ma 
be attributed to X. The coefficients of the powers of X in the function F(X 
may be integral numbers or functions of x. The linear congruence AX=B, 
mod [p,f(«)], in which A and B denote two modular functions, is, in 
particular, always resoluble when A is prime to f(a), mod p, and admits, in 
that case, of only one solution. 

We shall now suppose that the function f(2) in the compound modulus 
Lp, f(«)] is irreducible for the modulus p,—a supposition which involves the 
consequence that, if a product of two factors be congruous to zero for the 
modulus Cp, f(«)], one, at least, of those factors is separately congruous to 
zero for the same modulus. We thus obtain the principle (cf. art. 11) that 
no congruence can have more solutions, for an irreducible compound modu- 
lus, than it has dimensions. For, if X==£, mod [p, f(x)], satisfy the con- 
gruence F,, (X)=0, mod [p, f(x)], we find 


Bn (X) == Fn (X)— Fn (2) = (X—£) Fn (X), mod [p, f(x)]; 


Fm—1 (X) denoting a new function of order m—1, whence it follows that if 
the principle be true for a congruence of m—1 dimensions, it is also true for 
one of m dimensions ; 2. e. it is true universally. 

70. Extension of Fermat's Theorem.—Let 6 denote any one of the p™—1 
residues of the modulus [p, f(x)] which are prime to f(x); it may be 
shown, by a proof exactly similar to Dirichlet’s proof of Fermat’s theorem, 


that 
Ge =1==1), mod [p, f(#)].........-.2.+- (A) 


This result, which is evidently an extension of Fermat’s theorem, involves 
several important consequences. 

It implies, in the first place, the existence of a theory of residues of powers 
of modular functions, with respect to a compound modulus, precisely similar 
to the theory of the residues of the powers of integral numbers with regard 
to a common prime modulus. A single example (taken from M. Dedekind’s 
memoir) will suffice to show the exact correspondence of the two theories. 
The modular function 6 is or is not a quadratic residue of f(«), for the 
modulus p, according as it is or is not possible to satisfy the quadratic con- 
gruence X*==0, mod [p, f(w)]. In the former case @ satisfies the congruence 

M2 


164 REPORT—1860. 


o3(p™-1) =], mod [p, f(x)]; in the latter, 04(?"-D==—1, mod [p, f()]. 
And, further, if 6, and 0, be two primary irreducible modular functions of 


the orders m and x respectively, and if we use the symbols lel and [F| to 
1 


denote the positive or negative units which satisfy the congruences 63‘?"—)) 
x= [zi]. mod (p, @,), and he hp [z| , mod (2, 0,), respectively, these 
2 


1 


two symbols are connected by the law of reciprocity [F| =(—1)”" Fe] ‘ 
2 1 


But the equation (A) admits also of an immediate application to the theory 
of ordinary congruences with a simple prime modulus. 

In that equation let us assign to @ the particular value x ; we conclude that 
the function #?”—1—1, is divisible for the modulus p by f(«), @.e. by every 
irreducible modular function of order m. Further, if d be a divisor of m, 
gP™—1—] is algebraically divisible by avP’—1 —]; whence it appears that 
gvP™—1_] is divisible, for the modulus p, by every function of which the 
order is a divisor of m. But it is easily shown that 2?”—!—1 is not divisible 
(mod p) by any other modular function, and that it cannot contain any 
multiple modular factors. Hence we have the indeterminate congruence 


vp™-1_] =I f(x), mod p, ......... sen hi 


in which f(x) denotes any primary and irreducible function, the order of 
which is a divisor of m, and the sign of multiplication [I extends to every 
value of f(x). This theorem, again, is a generalization of Lagrange’s inde- 
terminate congruence (art.10). We may infer from it that, when m is >1, 
the number of primary functions of order m, which are irreducible for the 
modulus 7, is 
m an py alee 
= [Pm 2p" + ph qa — Spi gas + ste > 

Gy» J «++ denoting the different prime divisors of m. As this expression is 
always different from zero, it follows that there exist functions of any given 
order, which are irreducible for the modulus p. 

A congruence F(a#)==0, mod p, may be considered resolved when we 
have expressed its left-hand member as a product of irreducible modular 
factors. The linear factors (if any) then give the real solutions; the factors 
of higher orders may be supposed to represent imaginary solutions. We have 
already observed that even when all the modular factors of F(«) are linear, 
we possess no general and direct method by which they can be assigned ; it 
is hardly necessary to add that the problem of the direct determination of 
modular factors of higher orders than the first, presents even greater diffi- 
culties. Nevertheless the congruence (B) enables us to advance one step 
toward the decomposition of F(2) into its irreducible factors ; for, by means 
of it, we can separate those divisors of F(«) which are of the same order, 
not, indeed, from one another, but from all its other divisors. We may first 
of all suppose that F(#) is cleared of its multiple factors, which may be 
done, as in algebra, by investigating the greatest common divisor of F() 
and I'(x) for the modulus p. The greatest common divisor (mod p) of 
F(x) and 2?-!—] will then give us the product of all the linear modular 
factors of F(x); let F(a) be divided (mod p) by that product, and let the 
quotient be F\(#); the greatest common divisor (mod py) of F,(x) and 
gP*—1—] will give us the product of the irreducible quadratic factors of F(x) ; 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 165 


and by continuing this process, we shall obtain the partial resolution of F(x) 
to which we have referred. 

71. Imaginary Solutions of a Congruence.—We have said that the non- 
linear modular factors of F(«)==0, mod p, may be considered to represent 
imaginary solutions. These imaginary solutions can be actually exhibited, 
if we allow ourselves to assign to # certain complex values. The following 
proposition, which shows in what manner this may be effected, is due to 
Galois :-— 

“If f(#) represent an irreducible modular function of order m, the con- 


gruence 
F(6)=0, mod [p, f(x)], 


is completely resoluble when F(a) is an irreducible modular function of 
order m, or of any order the index of which is a divisor of m.” 

To establish this theorem, write 0 for 2 in equation (B); we find 62"-!—1 
==II F(@), mod p, the sign of multiplication II extending to every irreducible 
modular function having m or a divisor of m for the index of its order. 
But the congruence 6?”—!==1, mod [p, f(x)], admits of as many roots as 
it has dimensions; therefore also every divisor of 9?”—1— 1, and, in particular, 
the function F(@) considered as a congruence for the same compound modu- 
lus, admits of as many roots as it has dimensions. 

Let the order of the congruence F(0)=0, mod [p, f(«)], be 6, and let 
any one of its roots be represented by 7; it may be shown that all its roots 
are represented by the terms of the series r, 7?, 7?°,... 77°}, For, if 
F(r)=0, mod [p, f(x)], we have also F (r?)=[F(r)]?=0, mod [p,f()], 
and similarly F(7?*)==[F (r)]”°=0, mod p; so that 7, 7?, 77’, ... 7?°—} are 
all roots of F(@)==0, mod [p, f(#)]. it remains to show that these 6 func- 
tions are all incongruous, mod [p, f(x)]. If possible let rp*+*' = ppt", 
mod [p, f(x)], & and k' being less than 6; we have, raising each side of this 

6—k' b+k 6 ° ee 
congruence to the power pé—"", rP°*"==rP", mod [p, f(x) ], i.e. rP*=r, or 
rP*—1==1, mod [p, f(x)], observing that rr°=r, mod Lp, f(x) ], because 
rP’-1__] is divisible by F(r) for the modulus p- We conclude, therefore, 
that 7 is a root, mod [p, f(«)], of some irreducible modular divisor of the 
function 6?*—1—], i. e. of some irreducible function of an order lower than 6; 
because & is less than 6; r is therefore a root, mod [p, f(x) ], of two different 
irreducible modular functions, which is impossible. 

If, therefore, we suppose x to represent, not an indeterminate quantity, 
but a root of the equation f(2)=0, we may enunciate Galois’ theorem as 
follows :— 

“Every irreducible congruence of order m is completely resoluble in com- 
plex numbers composed with roots of any equation which is irreducible for 
the modulus p, and which has m or a multiple of m for the index of its order. 

“ And all its roots may be expressed as the powers of any one of them.” 

72. Congruences having Powers of Primes for their Modules.—It remains 
for us to advert to the theory of congruences wiih composite modules—a sub- 
ject to which (if we except the case of binomial congruences) it would seem 
that the attention of arithmeticians has not been much directed. We shall 
suppose, first, that the modulus is a power of a prime number. 

The theorem of Lagrange (art. 11), and the more general proposition of 
art. 69, in which it is (as we have seen) included, cannot be extended to 
congruences having powers of primes for their modules. 

Let the proposed congruence be F (a) =0, mod p™; and let us suppose 
(what is here a restriction in the generality of the problem) that the coeffi. 


166 REPORT—1860. 


cient of the highest power of x in F(x) is prime to p, or, which comes to the 
same thing, that it is unity. Let F(a#)=PXQxR...mod p,—P,Q,R, 
.-. being powers of different irreducible modular functions. 1t may then be 
shown that F (7)=P’x Q'x R’..., mod p”, where P’, Q’, R',... are fune- 
tions of the same order as P, Q, R,..., respectively congruous to them for 
the modulus p, and deducible from them by the solution of linear congru- 
ences only. We have thus the theorem that F (x), considered with respect 
to the modulus p”, can always be resolved in one way and in one way only, 
into a product of modular functions, each of which is relatively prime (for the 
modulus p) to all the rest, and is congruous (for the same modulus p) to a 
power of an irreducible function. We may therefore replace the congruence 
F (x) =0, mod p”, by the congruences P!==0, mod p”, Q’==0, mod p™, 
R'=0, mod p”,... But no general investigation appears to have been given 
of the peculiarities that may be presented by a congruence of the form 
P! =0, mod p”, in the case in which P is a power of an irreducible function 
(mod p), and not itself such a function—a supposition which implies that the 
discriminant of F (x) is divisible by p. If, however, P be itself an irreduci- 
ble function, the congruence P! =0, mod pm, gives us one and only one solu- 
tion of the given congruence if P be linear, or, if P be not linear, it may be 
considered as representing as many imaginary solutions as it has dimensions. 
In particular, if we consider the case in which all the divisors P, Q, R,... 
are linear, we obtain the theorem :— 

«« Every congruence which considered with respect to the modulus p has 
as many icongruous solutions as it has dimensions, is also completely reso- 
luble for the modulus p”, having as many roots as it has dimensions, and no 
more.” 

If «=a,, mod p, be a solution of the congruence F (x) =0, mod p, and 
if that congruence have no other root congruous to a,, the corresponding 
solution z =a m, mod p”, of the congruence F (2) ==0, mod p”, may be ob- 
tained by the solution of linear congruences only—a proposition which is in- 
cluded in a preceding and more general observation. The process is as 
follows :—If, in the equation 


F (a, +Ap)=F(a,) + Ap (a,) +2 F(a.) +00 


we determine # by the congruence oF (a,)+kF'(a,)=0, mod p, (which is 


always possible because the hypothesis that (a—a,)* is not a divisor of 
F (x), mod p, implies that F’(a,) is not divisible by p*), and then put a,== 
a,+hp, mod p’*, we have F (a,)==0, mod p*. Similarly, from the expansion 


F (a,+kp*)=F (a,) +hp? F' (a,)+..-; 


a value of & may be deduced which satisfies the congruence F (a,+kp*) =0, 
or F(a,)==0, mod p*; and so on continually until we arrive at a congruence 
of the form F(am)=0, mod p™. But when F(z) is divisible (ior the 
modulus p) by (a—a)’ or a higher power of a—a, the congruence F(«)=0, 
mod p”, is either irresoluble or has a plurality of roots incongruous for the 
modulus p”, but all congruous to a@ for tle modulus p. Thus the congruence 
(«—a)’+kp(«x—b)=0, mod p’, is irresoluble, unless a==6, mod p; whereas 
if that condition be satisfied, it admits of p incongruous solutions, comprised 
in the formula z=a+pp, mod p’, p=0, 1, 2, 3,..p—1]. 


* If F (x) =(x—a,) $ (x), mod p, where ¢ (a,) is not divisible by py, we have F’ (x) = 
» («)+(a—a,) ¢' (x), mod p, or F’ (a,) = ¢ (a), mod p. 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 167 


73. Binomial Congruences having a Power of a Prime for their Modulus.— 
If M be any number, and Y(M) represent the number of terms in a system 
of residues prime to M, it will follow (from a principle to which we have 
already frequently referred : see arts. 10, 26, 53, 70) that every residue of that 
system satisfies the congruence a¥(™) ==], mod M,—a proposition which is 
well known as Euler’s generalization of Fermat's theorem*. In particular, 
when M=p”, we have x?”~'(p-1)==1, mod p™. This congruence has, 
consequently, precisely as many roots as it has dimensions—a property which 
is also possessed by every congruence of the form «¢=1, mod p™, d denoting 
a divisor of p"—!(p—1). This has been established by Gauss in the 3rd 
section of the Disquisitiones Arithmetice, by a particular and somewhat 
tedious method+. The simpler and more general demonstration which he 
intended to give in the 8th section}, was perhaps in principle identical with 
the following ; we exclude the case p=2, to which indeed the theorem itself 
is inapplicable :— 

Let d=dp", 6 representing a divisor of p—1, and m being < m—1; and let 
us form the indeterminate congruence 


x'—] ==(x—a,) (w—a,)....(%—az), mod p™—”, 
which is always possible, because #°—1 ==0, mod p, has 6 incongruous roots. 
It is readily seen that, if A and B represent two numbers prime to p, and if 
A==B, mod p’, A”*==B?", mod p*+s; and conversely, if A?°=B?*, mod prts, 
A=B, mod p"§. By applying this principle it may be shown that 
xp” —] = (xP"—a,P”) (xP”—a,p") .... (av"—azP"), mod p™. 
For if we divide a»"—1 by 2?"—a,”, the remainder is a,”"—1. But, 
because a,5== 1, mod p”—, a,6p” ==1, mod p”; i. e.a?”—a,P” divides v?"—] 
for the modulus p”. Similarly «2'»”—1 is divisible (mod p™) by 2"—a,P" 
ete. ; and since all these divisors are relatively prime for the modulus p, x5?" —1 
is divisible (mod p”) by their product ; 7. e., 
at" —] == (aP"—a,?”) (aP”—a,p) ... (a? —a,?”), mod p™. 

We have thus effected the resolution of «*»”—1 into factors relatively prime, 
each of which is congruous (mod p) to a power of an irreducible function ; 
since evidently (7?”—a?”") == («—a)?”", mod p. To investigate the solutions 
of x’»"— 1 ==0, mod p”, we have therefore only to consider separately the 
8 congruences included in the formula «?”==a?", mod pm. But each of 
these congruences (by virtue of the principle already referred to) admits 
precisely p” solutions, viz. the p” numbers (incongruous mod p”) which are 
congruous toa, mod p”—”. The whole number of solutions of a'»”—1 =0, 
mod p™, is therefore equal to the index dp” of the congruence. It further 
appears that the complete solution of the binomial congruence a?”—1 =0, 


may be obtained by a direct method, when the complete solution of the 
simpler congruence «'—|1==0, mod p, has been found. For we may first 


-* Euler, Comment. Arith. vol. i. p. 284. 

t Disquisitiones Arithmeticz, arts. 84—88. See also Poinsot, Reflexions sur la Théorie 
des Nombres, cap. iv. art. 6. 

} Disquisitiones Arithmeticz, art. 84. 

§ If A=B, mod pr, but not mod pr+1, we have A=B-+Apr, where & is prime to p- 
Hence A?* =(B+kp")P°=BPs>47BP%—! ptr LK ere K denoting a coefficient divisible 


by p; or AP°=B?*, mod p**”, but not mod p **”*", because £B?*—! is prime to p. This 
result implies the principle enunciated in the text. 


168 REPORT— 1860. 


(by the method given in the last article) deduce the complete solution of 
x'—1==0, mod p™~”, from that of «7—1==0, mod p; and then the roots of 
zx'p” —]==0, mod p™, can be written down at once. 

74. Primitive Roots of the Powers of a Prime.—All\ the elementary pro- 
perties of the residues of powers, considered with regard to a modulus which 
is a power of a prime number, may be deduced from the theorem just proved. 
In particular, the demonstration of the existence and number of primitive 
roots (art. 12) is applicable here also; so that we have the theorem :— 

“There are p—2 (p—1)  (p—1) residues prime to p”, the successive 
powers of any one of which represent all residues prime to p™.” These 
residues are of course the primitive roots of p”. 

If y be a primitive root of p, of the p numbers included in the formula 
y+hp (mod p’), p—1 precisely will be primitive roots of p*. For y+Ap 
is a primitive root of p* unless (y+/p)P—! =1, mod p’; and the congruence 
xzp—1==], mod p’, has always one, and only one, root congruous to y for the 
modulus p. But every primitive root of p* is a primitive root of p*, and of 
every higher power of p, as may be shown by an application of the princi- 
ple proved in a note to the last article, or, again, by observing that every 
primitive root of p”+! is necessarily congruous, for the modulus p™, to some 
primitive root of p™, and that there are p times as many primitive roots of 
p™t) as of pm. (See Jacobi’s Canon Arithmeticus, Introduction, p. xxxiii ; 
also a problem proposed by Abel in Crelle’s Journal, vol. iii. p. 12, with 
Jacobi’s answer, ibid. p. 211.) 

75. Case when the Modulus is a Power of 2.—The powers of the even 
prime 2 are excepted from the demonstrations of the two last articles—in 
fact, if m > 3,2™ has no primitive roots. Gauss, however, has shown (Disq. 
Arith. arts. 90, 91) that the successive powers of any number of the form 
8n +3 represent, for the modulus 2”, all numbers of either of the forms 82+3 
or 82+1; similarly all numbers of the forms 8%+5 and 8x+1 are repre- 
sented by successive powers of any number of the form 8z+5. If, there- 
fore, we denote by y any number of either of the two forms 82 +3 or 82+5, 
we may represent all uneven numbers less than 2” by the formula (—1)*y8, 
in which a is to receive the values O and 1, and f the values 1, 2,5,....g™-2, 
A double system of indices may thus be used to replace the simple system 
supplied by a primitive root when such roots exist. 

Tables of indices for the powers of 2, and of uneven primes inferior to 
1000, have been appended by Jacobi to his Canon Arithmeticus. 

76. Composite Modules.—-No general theory has been given of the repre- 
sentation of rational and integral functions of an indeterminate quantity as 
products of modular functions with regard to a composite modulus divisible 
by more than one prime. Aud it is possible that no advantage would be 
gained by considering the theory of congruences with composite modules 
from this general point of view. A few isolated theorems relating to par- 
ticular cases have, however, been given by Cauchy (Comptes Rendus, 
vol. xxv. p. 26, 1847). Of these the following may serve as a specimen :— 

“If the congruence I («)==0, mod M, admit as many roots as it has 
dimensions, and if, besides, the differences of these roots be all relatively 
prime to M, we have the indeterminate congruence 


F (v)=h (a—1,) (a@—r,) (w—r,) ...(e—r,,), mod M, 


k denoting the coefficient of the highest power of # in F (w).” 
But if, instead of considering the modular decomposition of the function 
F (x), we confine ourselves to the determination of the real solutions of the 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 169 


congruence F (2) =0, mod M, it is always sufficient to consider the con- 
gruences 


F(x)=0, mod A, F(«)=0, mod B, F(x)==0, mod C, ete., .... (A) 


where AX BxC..=M, and A, B, C,.. denote powers of different primes. 
For if «=a, mod A, «= 6, mod B, X =e, mod C, denote any solutions of 
the first, second, third ... of those congruences respectively, it is evident that, 
if X be a number satisfying the congruences X =a, mod A, X =), mod B, 
X==c, mod C (and such a number can always be assigned), we shall have 
F(X) =0 for each of the modules A, B, C,.. separately, and therefore for 
the modulus M; and further, if the congruences (A) admit respectively 
a, 2, y, +. incongruous solutions, the congruence F(«)==0, mod M, will 
admit axfxXy...inall; for we can combine any solution of F(x)=0, 
mod A, with any solution of F(«)=0, mod B, and so on*. 

77. Binomial Congruences with Composite Modules —The investigation of 
the real solutions of binomial congruences depends (in the manner just stated) 
on the investigation of the real solutions of similar congruences the modules 
of which are the powers of primes. With regard to the relations by which 
these real solutions are connected with one another, little of importance has 
been added to the few observations on this subject in the Disquisitiones 
Arithmetice (art. 92). If the modulus M=p* g’ re... »P> 4 7, «+» repre- 
senting different primes, the congruence «¥(™) = 1, mod M, possesses no 
primitive roots; for if m be the least common multiple of p*—! (p—1), 
q’— (q—1), r°-! (r—1),...., 2 will be less than and a divisor of J (M). 
But evidently, if x be any residue prime to M, the congruence «»—] =O 
will be satisfied separately for the modules p+, g°, r¢,.., and therefore for the 
modulus M ; 7. e., no residue exists, the first ~(M) powers of which are incon- 
gruous, mod M. If, however, M=2p* this conclusion does not hold, since 
the least common multiple of ~ (2) and  (p”) is W (2p™) itself; and we 
find accordingly that every uneven primitive root of p™ is a primitive root of 
2p™. When, as is sometimes the case, it is convenient to employ indices to 
designate the residues prime to a given composite modulus, we must empley 
(as in the case of a power of 2) a system of multiple indices. To take the 
most general case, let M=2?° p g? r¢ ..; let wu be any number of either of the 
forms 8x+3 or 8n+5, and P, Q, R,... primitive roots of Pe Covina VEX 
spectively. Then, if x be any given number prime to M, it will always be 
possible to find a set of integral numbers en, wn», &ns Sn, Yn ++ » Satisfying the 
conditions 


(—1)*" wen==n, mod 2°; O< , <2, 0 <n < 29%, 
p*r =n, mod p*; o< an <p" (p—1), 
Qa =n, mod g?; 0<Pn <q -'(q—1), 
R”=n, mod r*; o= An < re! (r--1); 


and these numbers form a system of indices by which the residue of m for 
each of the modules 29, Ee en Noes os (and consequently for the modulus M) 


* “Tnfra [i. e, in the 8th section] congruentias quascumque secundum modulum e pluribus 
primis compositum, ad congruentias quarum modulus est primus aut primi potestas reducere 
fusius docebimus’”’ (Disq. Arith. art. 92). It is difficult to see why Gauss should haye ae 
ployed the word “ fusius” if his investigation extended no further than the elementary 
observations referred to in the text. Nevertheless it is remarkable that Gauss in the 3rd 
section of the Disq. Arith. sometimes speaks of demonstrations as obscure, which are of 
extreme simplicity when compared with one in the 4th and several in the 5th section (see in 
particular arts. 53, 55, 56). 


170 REPORT—1860. 


is completely determined. (See Dirichlet’s memoir on the Arithmetical Pro- 
gression, sect. 7, in the Berlin Memoirs for 1837.) 

78. Primitive Roots of the Powers of Complex Primes.—Dirichlet has 
shown * that, in the theory of complex numbers of the form a+ 07, the powers 
of primes of the second species (see art. 25) have primitive roots; in fact, if 
a+bi be such a prime, and N (a+i)=a*+b°=p, every primitive root of 
p™ is a primitive root of (a+4-b7)™. On the other hand, if g be a real prime 
of the form 42+3, 9” has no primitive roots in the complex theory. For in 
general, if M be any complex modulus, and M=a* lf cy ..., a, b, ce, .. being 
different complex primes, and if A=N (a), B=N (6), C=N (e), ete. the 
number of terms in a system of residues prime to M, is A*~' (A—1) B®" 
(B—-1) C’"' (C—1).... And if we denote this number by w (M), every 
residue prime to M will satisfy the congruence 

av¥(M) = 1, mod M, 


which here corresponds to Euler’s extension of Fermat's theorem. If M=g™, 


2m—2, 2 


this congruence becomes #7 (¢ —1)==1, mod g”; but it is easily shown 


that every residue prime to g™ satisfies the congruence «¥”" “—1) =], 
mod q”™; 7. e., g” has no primitive roots, because the exponent g”—! (q’—1) 
is a divisor of, and less than, g2"—-1)(q’—1). Nevertheless two numbers y 
and y', can always be assigned, of which one appertains to the exponent g™—! 
(q’—1) and the other to the exponent g”—!, and which are such that no 
power of either of them can become congruous to a power of the other, 
mod g”, without becoming congruous to unity; from which it will appear 
that every residue prime to g” may be represented by the formula y* y', if we 
give to ~ all values from 0 to (q’—1) g™—! —1 inclusive, and to y all values 
from 0 to g™—!—1 inclusive. 

The corresponding investigations for other complex numbers besides those 
of the form a+0i have not been given. 

We here conclude our account of the Theory of Congruences. The 
further continuation of this Report will be occupied with the Theories of 
Quadratic and other Homogeneous Forms. 


Additions to Part I. 


Art. 16. Legendre’s investigation of the law of reciprocity (as presented in 
the ‘ Théorie des Nombres,’ vol. i. p. 230, or in the ‘ Essai,’ ed. 2, p. 198) is 
invalid only because it assumes, without a satisfactory proof, that if a be 
a given prime of the form 42+1, a prime 0 of the form 4%+3 can always 


be assigned, satisfying the equation ; =—1]. M. Kummer (in the Memoirs 


of the Academy of Berlin for 1859, pp. 19, 20) says that this postulate is 
easily deducible from the theorem demonstrated by Dirichlet, that every 
arithmetical progression, the terms of which have no common divisor, con- 
tains prime numbers. It would follow from this, that the demonstration of 
Legendre (which depends on a very elegant criterion for the resolubility or 
irresolubility of equations of the form aa*+dy’?+cz*=0) must be regarded 
as rigorously exact (see, however, the “ Additamenta” to arts. 151, 296, 297 
of the Disq. Arith.). In the introduction to the memoir to which we have 
just referred, the reader will find some valuable observations by M. Kummer 
on the principal investigations relating to laws of reciprocity. 


* See sect. 20f the memoir, Untersuchungen iiber die Thecrie der complexen Zahlen, in 
the Berlin Memoirs for 1841. 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 171 


Art. 20. Dirichlet’s demonstration of the formule (A) and (A’) first 
appeared in Crelle’s Journal, vol. xvii. p. 57. Some observations in this 
paper on a supposed proof of the same formule by M. Libri (Crelle, vol. ix. 
p- 187) were inserted by M. Liouville in his Journal, vol. iii. p. 3, and gave 
rise to a controversy (in the Comptes Rendus, vol. x.) between MM. Liouville 
and Libri. The concluding paragraphs of Dirichlet’s paper contain the appli- 
cation of the formule (A) and (A’) to the law of reciprocity (Gauss’s fourth 
demonstration ). 

Art. 22. From a general theorem of M. Kummer’s (see arts. 43, 44 of this 

—s 
Report), it appears that the congruence r*==(—1) * ), mod q, is or is not 
A-1 

resoluble, according as q? =+ 1, or ==—1, mod A,—a result which implies 
the theorem of quadratic reciprocity. This very simple demonstration (which 
is, however, only a transformation of Gauss’s sixth) appears first to have 
occurred to M. Liouville (see a note by M. Lebesgue in the Comptes Rendus, 
vol. li. pp. 12, 13). 


Art. 24. A note of Dirichlet’s, in Crelle, vol. lvii. p. 187, contains an ele- 
mentary demonstration of Gauss’s criterion for the biquadratic character of 
2. From the equation p=a’*+0’, we have (a+6)* =2ad, mod p, and hence 
(a+6)eP-0) == 24(P—1) at(P—)) h4(P—1) = (Qf )4(P—) at(P—), or, which is the 


same thing, 

()=en'? (2), hairs Tle Ap (A) 

But (2)=(&)=» because p==6’, mod a; and = (45 , or, ob- 
p a 


ye 
serving that 29=(a+6)’+(a—b)’, 
a+b 2 ta es) iy " 
Sal few a eee — fi(p-l) +hab 
( P )= =) ( ) 8 ja > 
since f*+1==0, mod p. Substituting these values in the equation (A), we 
find 23(p—1) = 24>, mod p, which is in fact Gauss’s criterion. 

Art. 25. In the second definition of a primary number, for “6 is uneven,” 
read “6 is even.” Although this definition has been adopted by Dirichlet in 
his memoir in Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxiv. (see p. 301), yet, in the memoir 
“Untersuchungen tiber die complexen Zahlen” (see the Berlin Memoirs for 
1841), sect. 1, he has preferred to follow Gauss. 


Art. 36. In the algorithm given in the text, the remainders p,, p,... are all 


uneven ; and the computation of the value of the symbol Po) is thus rendered 


4 
independent of the formula (iii) of art. 28. The algorithm given by Eisen- 
stein is, however, preferable, although the rule to which it leads cannot be 
expressed with the same conciseness, because the continued fraction equi- 


valent to 2° terminates more rapidly when the remainders are the least 


ia 
possible, and not necessarily uneven. 


Art. 37. In the definition of a primary number, for “@==+1,” read 
“a=—1.” But, for the purposes of the theory of cubic residues, it is 
simpler to consider the two numbers +(a+4p) as both alike primary (see 
arts. 52 and 57). 


Art. 38. Jacobi’s two theorems cannot properly be said to involve the 


172 REPORT—1860. 


cubic law of reciprocity. If (2 =1, it will follow from those theorems that 
of 3 


o a | (2) = or p*, they do not determine whether (2: =p, 
3 2 1/3 

or ps It is remarkable that these theorems, “forma genuina qua inventa 
sunt,” may be obtained by applying the criteria for the resolubility or irreso- 
lubility of cubic congruences (art.67) to the congruence r°—3Ar—\AM =0, 
mod g (art. 43), which, by virtue of M. Kummer’s theorem (art. 44), is re- 


soluble or irresoluble according as g is or is not a cubic residue of i. 


On the Performance of Steam-Vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and 
the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the Form of the Vessel. 
By Vice-Admiral Moorsom. 


(A communication ordered to be printed among the Reports.) 


In this the fourth paper which I now lay before the British Association, it 
may be desirable to recapitulate the points I have brought into issue, and for 
the determination of which, data, only to be obtained by experiments, are 
still wanting, viz.— 

1. There is no agreed method by which the resistance of a ship may be 
calculated under given conditions of wind and sea. 

2. The known methods are empirical, approximate only, and imply smooth 
water and no wind. 

3. The relations in which power and speed stand to form and to size are 
comparatively unknown. 

4, The relations in which the direct and resultant thrust stand to each 
other in any given screw, and how affected by the resistance of the ship, are 
undetermined. 

In order to resolve these questions, specific experiments are needed, and 
none have yet been attempted in such manner as to lead to any satisfactory 
result. 

The Steam Ship Performance Committee of the British Association have 
pressed upon successive First Lords of the Admiralty, the great value to the 
public service which must ensue if the following measures were taken, viz.— 

1. To determine, by specific experiment, the resistance, under given con- 
ditions, of certain vessels, as types; and, at the same time, to measure the 
thrust of the screw. 

2. To record the trials of the Queen’s ships, so that the performance in 
smooth water may be compared with the performance at sea, both being re- 
corded in a tabular form, comprising particulars, to indicate the characteris- 
tics of the vessel, of the engine, of the screw, and of the boiler. 

Hitherto nothing has come of these representations. 

In the paper read last year at Aberdeen, I showed, in the case of Lord 
Dufferin’s yacht ‘Erminia,’ how the absence of admitted laws of resistance 
interfered with the adjustment of her screw, and how, therefore, as a matter 
of precaution, a screw was provided capable of a thrust beyond what the 
vessel required. 

1 also showed, in the case of the Duke of Sutherland’s yacht ‘ Undine,’ how 
her screw, from being too near the surface of the water, lost a large portion 
of the ¢hrust due to its size and proportions. In other words, a screw capa- 
ble of giving out a resultant thrust in sea water of 5022 lbs., at a speed of 


ON THE PERFORMANCE OF STEAM-VESSELS. 173 


vessel of 9:26 knots an hour, did actually give out only 3805 lbs. ‘That is to 
say, the effect produced was the same as if that screw had worked in a 
fluid whose weight was about 48 Ibs. per cubic foot instead of 64 lbs. 

Tam now about to exhibit some other examples from among Her Majesty’s 
ships of war. 

The questions now before us are— 

1. The resistance of the hull below the water-line in passing through the 
water, and of the upper works, masts, rigging, &c., passing through the air, 
the weather being calm, and the water smooth. 

2. The relation in which the thrust of the screw stands to this resistance. 

[The Admiral here gave certain results from the ‘ Marlborough,’ the ‘ Re- 
nown, and the ‘Diadem,’ and proposed that a specific issue should be tried 
by means of the ‘ Diadem.’] 

What would I not give, he observed, for some well-conducted experiments 
to determine this beautiful problem of the laws which govern the action of 
the screw in sea-water! It is a problem not only interesting to science, but 
fraught with valuable results in the economical and efficient application of 
the screw propeller. 

After commenting on the performances of the U. S. corvette ‘ Niagara,’ the 
Admiral observed, I have no means of forming a very definite opinion as to 
how she will séay under low sail in a sea-way, how she will wear, how scud 
in a following sea, or how stand up under her sails, or whether her statical 
stability be too much or too little, or how the fore and after bodies are 
balanced. These are points to be determined, not by the mere opinion of 
seamen—-for a sailor will vaunt the qualities of his ship even as a lover the 
charms of his mistress—but by careful records of performances in smooth 
water and at sea, and a comparison of such performances with calculated 
results from drawings beforehand. Let a return of such things be annually 
laid before the House of Commons—we shall then know whether we are get- 
ting money’s worth for our money; and also we should receive all the benefits 
of public criticism towards improvement. We should not then allow defects 
to be stereotyped, till chronic blemishes are turned into beauties, or, if not 
so, then defended as things that cannot be remedied. 

I have now completed the task which four years ago I imposed on myself. 
Beginning with simple elementary principles, and ending with minute prac- 
tical details, I have, as I conceive, shown the process by which the improve- 
ment of steam-ships must be carried on. 

More than one hundred years ago scientific men, able mathematicians, 
showed the physical laws on which naval architecture must rest. A succes- 
sion of able men have shown how those laws affect various forms of floating 
bodies. Experiments have been made with models to determine the value 
of the resistance practically. With the exception of some experiments of 
Mr. Scott Russell, I am not aware that any have been made with vessels ap- 
proaching the size of ships to determine the relations of resistance to power, 
whether wind or steam. 

Ships have been improved, and modifications of form have been arrived at 
by along painstaking tentative process. The rules so reached for sailing ships 
have been superseded by steam, and we are still following the same tedious 
process, in order to establish new rules for the application of steam power. 

I think the history of naval architecture shows that it is not an abstract 
science, and that its progress must depend on the close observation and cor- 
rect record of facts; on the careful collating, and scientific comparing of such 
facts, with a view to the induction of general laws. Now, is there any where 


such observing, recording, collating, and comparing? and still more, is there 
such inducting process ? 


174 REPORT—1860. 


I can find no such thing anywhere in such shape that the public can judge 
it by its fruits. 

We are now in full career of a competition of expenditure, and England 
has no reason to flinch from such an encounter, unless her people should tire 
of paying a premium of insurance upon a contingent event that never may 
happen ; and if it should happen without our being insured, might not cost 
as much as the aggregate premiums. ‘Tire they will, sooner or later, but 
they are more likely to continue to pay in faith and hope, if they had some 
confidence that their money is not being spent unnecessarily. 

There is now building at Blackwall the ‘ Warrior,’ a ship to be cased with 
44-inch plates of iron, whose length at water-line is 380 feet, breadth 58 feet, 
intended draught of water (mean) 255 feet, area of section 1190 square feet, 
and displacement about 8992 tons, and she is to have engines of 1250 nomi- 
nal horse-power. 

Is there any experience respecting the qualities and performance of such 
a ship? Anything to guide us in reasoning from the known to the unknown ? 
Do the performances of the ‘ Diadem,’ ‘Mersey,’ and ‘Orlando,’ inspire 
confidence? Where are the preliminary experiments ? 

Before any contract was entered into for the construction of the Britannia 
Bridge, a course of experiments was ordered by the Directors, which cost not 
far short of £7000, and it was well expended. It saved money, and perhaps 
prevented failure. This ship must cost not less than £400,000, and may cost 
a good deal more when ready for sea. But there is another of similar, and two 
others building, of smaller size. What security is there for their success ? 

The conditions which such a ship as the ‘ Warrior’ must fulfil in order to 
justify her cost are deserving of some examination. The formidable nature 
of her armament, as well as her supposed impregnability to shot, will natu- 
rally lead other vessels to avoid an encounter. She must therefore be of 
greater speed than other ships of war. To secure this, it is essential that 
her draught of water should be the smallest that is compatible both with 
stability and steadiness of motion, and that she should not be deeper than the 
designer intended. ‘To ensure steadiness it is necessary, among other things, 
that in rolling, the solids, emerged and immersed, should find their axis in 
the longitudinal axis of the ship. To admit of accurate aim with the guns, 
her movement in rolling should be slow and not deep. Every seaman knows 
how few ships unite these requisites. 

It is not quite safe to speculate on the ‘ Warrior's’ speed; nevertheless I 
will venture on an estimate, such as I have stated in the case of the ‘ Great 
Eastern,’ whose smooth-water speed I will now assume to be 152 knots, as 
before estimated, with 7732 horse-power, when her draught of water is 23 
feet, her area of section, say 1650 square feet, and her displacement about 
18,588 tons. The speed of the ‘ Warrior’ in smooth water ought not to be 
less than 16 knots, in order that she may force to action unwilling enemies 
whose speed inay be 13 to 14 knots. 

The question I propose is the power to secure a smooth-water speed of 
16 knots. 

Reducing the ‘ Great Eastern’ to the size of the ‘ Warrior,’ and applying 
the corrections for the difference of speed of 3 knot, and for their respective 
coefficients cf specific resistance °0564 and ‘07277, the horse-power for 16 
knots is 7543. 

Raising the ‘ Niagara’ to the size of the ‘ Warrior,’ and applying the cor- 
rections for the difference of speed between 10°9 and 16 knots, and for their 
respective coefficients of specific resistance ‘0797 and ‘07277, the horse-power 
to give the ‘ Warrior’ a smooth-water speed of 16 knots is 7867, being an 
excess over the estimate from the ‘Great Eastern’ of 324 horse-power. 


ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 175 


If the power required for the ‘ Warrior’ be calculated by adaptation from 
the ‘ Mersey’ and the ‘ Diadem,’ it would be 8380 horse-power and 8287 re- 
spectively ; from which this inference flows :—that unless the mistakes made 
in the fore and after sections of the ‘Mersey’ and ‘Diadem’ are rectified in the 
‘Warrior,’ she will require above 8000 horse-power for a speed of 16 knots, 
notwithstanding her greater size and increased ratio of length to breadth. 

Before investing more than a million and a half of money in an experiment, 
commercial men would have probably employed a few thousand pounds in 
some sort of test as to the conditions of success. Perhaps such test may have 
been resorted to and kept secret for reasons of public policy. Perhaps it is 
intended that the ‘ Warrior's’ speed should not be greater than that which is 
due to five times her nominal horse-power, which could not exceed 152 knots 
with 6250 horse-power, under the most favourable conditions, and may be 
much less. 

The British Association, by becoming the medium of collecting facts and 
presenting them to the public, has done good service; but that service ought 
not to rest there. Collectively, the Association may be able to do little more. 
It can only act by affording public opinion a means of expression. But indi- 
vidual members may do much. Towards such opinion I am doing my part. 

I ask, in the cause of science, what is the system under which the Queen’s 
ships are designed and their steam power apportioned ; the organization by 
which their construction and fitting for sea are carried on; the supervision 
exercised over their proceedings at sea, in the examination of returns of per- 
formance and of expenditure ? 

During part of 1858 and 1859, two committees appointed by the Admi- 
ralty collected evidence and made reports on the Dock Yards and on steam 
machinery. I have read both reports with some attention. They are not 
conclusive, but they are entitled to respect. I have also read the replies and 
objections of the Government officers. There is a clear issue between them 
on some of the most essential principles of effective economical management, 
and on the application of science. 

A Royal Commission has been appointed to inquire into the system of 
control and management in the Dock Yards. This is so far good, but it 
does not go far enough. It does not comprise the steam machinery reported 
on by Admiral Ramsay’s Committee, and it cannot enter upon the questions 
Ihave just enumerated. Yet the efficiency of the fleet depends quite as 
much upon the adaptation of the machinery to the ship, and of the ship to 
the use she is to be put to, as it does upon the manner in which she is built. 
The Commission ought to be enlarged both in objects and in number of 
members. It consists of five members only. 


Report on the Effects of long-continued Heat, illustrative of Geological 
Phenomena. By the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.B.S., F.G.S. 


Tue chief occupation of those who during the present century have 
employed themselves in investigating the history of the earth, has been to 
develope the succession of its strata. In following this pursuit, they have 
found their best guide in the study of its organic antiquities, and have not 
been led, for the most part, to very precise views of the physical and chemi- 
cal changes which it has undergone. 

Yet there are questions in Geology to which no answer can be given with- 
out an accurate examination into these. In regard, for example, to the 


176 REPORT—1860. 


chronology of the earth, the observation of organic remains alone can never 
supply reliable data for reasoning. If we should attempt to draw inferences 
from biological analogies, and measure the duration of beds by the growth of 
imbedded skeletons, we should be stopped by the probability that the first 
species of every series were successively created in a state of full-grown 
maturity*, and by the intrinsic weakness of all comparisons instituted non 
part materia. 

Neither can any precarious mechanical analogies render the inquiry more 
definite, or give a logical value to our conclusions. We are not entitled 
to presume that the forces which have operated on the earth’s crust have 
always been the same. Were we to compare the beds of modern seas and 
lakes with the ancient strata, and assume proportionable periods for their 
accumulation, we must assume also that chemical and mechanical forces 
were never in a state of higher intensity, that water was never more rapidly 
evaporated, that greater torrents, fluid or gaseous, never flushed the lakes and 
seas, and that more frequent elevations and depressions never gave scope for 
quicker successions of animal life. To gain any real insight into these ob- 
scure pages of ancient history, we must have recourse to a strict induction 
of physical and chemical facts, and thence learn the probable course, and 
causes, of the wonderful series of changes which geology unfolds. 

I am not aware that any full and connected statement has been published 
of the facts which have been contributed by physical observations, and 
chemical experiment, towards elucidating the conditions of those changes, 
and propose therefore to preface the account which I have to give of experi- 
ments designed to throw light upon them, with a sketch of the progress of 
science in that department. 

Forty years have elapsed since the author of the ‘Mécanique Céleste’ 
drew attention to the fact that multiplied observations in deep mines, wells, 
and springs, had proved the existence of a temperature in the interior of the 
earth increasing with the depth. He remarked that, by comparing exact 
observations of the increase with the theory of heat, the epoch might be 
determined at which the gradually cooling globe had been first transported 
into space ; he stated the mean increase, collected from actual data, to be a 
centesimal degree for every 32+ metres, and added that this is an element 
of high importance to geology. ‘ Not only,” he said, ‘‘does it indicate a very 
great heat at the earth’s surface in remote times, but if we compare it with 
the theory of heat, we see that at the present moment the temperature of 
the earth is excessive at the depth of a million of metres, and above all at 
the centre; so that all that part of the globe is probably in a state of fusion, 
and would be reduced into vapour, but for the superincumbent beds, the 

* To suppose otherwise with regard to animals which take care of their young would be 
absurd; and hence it is probable also that this is the general system of creation. The most 
remarkable fact which modern geology has disclosed is the continual succession of newly- 
created species. It has been attempted to account for thes2 according to known laws of pro- 
geniture, by supposing numerous non-apparent links of transitional existence to fill up the 
gaps in the chain of derivation by which one species is presumed to have descended from 
another. But this is only twisting a rope of sand; conjectural interpolations cannot give 
coherence to a set of chains which are destitute of all evidence of continuity one with 
another, and between which, as far as our experience goes, Nature has interposed a prin- 
ciple of disconnexion. 

In using the word creation, we acknowledge an agenf, and own our ignorance of the 
agency, with regard to which, in this case, we only know that it is systematic ; for we see 
successive species accommodated to successive conditions of existence. 

+ M. Babinet (Tremblements de Terre, 1856), taking M. Waiferdin’s measurement from 
artesian borings, which gave 31 metres for ]° C. as the most exact, remarks, that the tem- 
perature at the depth of 3 kilometres must be above the heat of boiling water, and at that 
of 60 kilometres, about 2000° C., sufficing for the fusion of lava, basalt, trachyte, and 
porphyry. 


ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 177 


pressure of which, at those great depths, is immense.” ‘ These considera- 
tions,” he further added, “ will explain a great number of geological phe- 
nomena ;” and he instanced those of hot springs, which he accounted for on 
the supposition that rain-water in channels communicating from super- 
ficial reservoirs with the interior of the earth, thence rises again, heated, 
to the surface. 

Fourier, at the same time, expounded the methods by which, after extended 
observation of the internal temperature, and further experiments on the 
conduction of heat, he conceived that mathematic analysis might determine 
the epoch at which the process of cooling began, concluding in the mean- 
while from facts already known,—Ist, that no sensible diminution of tem- 
perature has taken place during the period of historical chronology ; 2ndly, 
that at a former era the temperature underwent great and rapid changes. 

Thus was a train of graduated causes, physical and chemical, introduced 
into Geology on the foundation of inductive reasoning, which is capable of 
resolving some of the chief difficulties of the science in our comparison of 
the present with the past. 

When, for instance, we read in the organic contents of the strata the 
history of a period when the climate was apparently uniform in all parts of 
the earth, and learn from the imbedded plants that the temperature of Arctic 
lands was once equal to that of warm latitudes at the present day, to account 
for these circumstances, we need no longer bewilder ourselves with hypo- 
theses ; we have a vera causa in the knowledge that the earth has passed 
through a state in which its temperature was due, not so much to a sun then 
veiled in clouds, as to a heat penetrating equally in all directions from the 
centre to the circumference of the globe. 

When, again, we contemplate a mountain range, and view the abrupt pre- 
cipices of some alpine chain, with its enormous masses of rock uplifted to 
- the clouds, and descending as many miles into the bosom of the sea, and 
when we compare such abnormal labours of nature with the petty risings 
of the earth’s surface in the existing state of things, we have a vera causa 
for that disparity, in the knowledge that there was a time when the eruptive 
forces of the seething mass within were greater, and when a weaker crust 
underwent vaster disturbances. 

Or if we examine the general structure of the strata, and see the same stra- 
tum contemporancously solidified over large portions of the earth’s circum- 
ference, and then observe the absence of consolidation in the actual opera- 
tions of nature, whether under the pressure of deep seas, or elsewhere, 
except in a few foci of igneous action, we have here also a vera causa 
of the difference, in the ancient prevalence of that high temperature which 
the laboratory of nature and art shows to be the most capable of lapidifying 
stony materials. 

Descending into the details of mineralogy, we find the same departure 
from the present order of nature in the constitution of minerals; and in the 
sequence of chemical effects of heat increasing with the age of the stratum, 
we see a real cause for the distinction. 

Thus, for example, to begin with the upper beds; the chemist knows that 
solutions of carbonate of lime, at the ordinary temperature, deposit crystals 
with the common form of calcareous spar, but near the boiling-point of 
water with that of drragonite. Now in the mineralogical collection of the 
Yorkshire Philosophical Society is a specimen of this mineral investing 
calcite, from the chalk cliffs of Beachy Head ; and if any one will examine the 
caves of calcareous grit on the Yorkshire coast, he will find them in some 
aie like those of volcanic rocks, or the mouths of hot springs, with 

. N 


178 REPORT—1860. 


Arragonite*. Here then we have proof of a certain modicum of heat existing 
in boiling-springs now extinct, which once pervaded these strata; for had the 
heat of the water which left this deposit been much more, or less, than about 
212° F., no such crystals could have been formed. Not far from the same 
locality, in a thin seam of the cornbrash Oolite, I have found nodules en- 
closing small Crustacea, the interior of which was filled with crystalline 
blende. No other trace of zinc is to be seen in the country aroundt. The 
same singular phenomenon may be observed in the neighbouring Lias-shale, 
where the chambers of the Ammonites frequently contain blendet. This is 
not a phenomenon peculiar to the district ; it illustrates the general con- 
dition of the-earth after these shells were deposited, and is best accounted 
for by the vera causa of an elevated temperature ; it indicates that the fumes 
of zine, or one of its volatile combinations, must have penetrated the strata, 
taking the form of blende in the chambers of the Ammonite, and having 
been sealed up in these, escaped decomposition. 

The same account is applicable to the dissemination of carbonate and sul- 
phide of lead and copper in the Permian and Triassic strata, and of the 
particles of metallic copper in the mountain limestone ; as well as to the de- 
posits of calamine in the hollows of that rock, on the conditions of which de- 
posits light is thrown by an experiment of Delanoue, who found that no pre- 
cipitate of carbonate of zinc is produced by limestone at the common tempera- 
ture, but that it is perfectly thrown down from a warm solution of its salts. 

And here also it is worthy of remark, that in the experiments of Forch- 
hammer to illustrate the formation of dolomitic strata, when a solution of 
carbonate of lime was mixed with sea-water at a boiling heat, the compound 
formed contained only 18 per cent. of carbonate of magnesia, but that the 
proportion of magnesia increased with an increase of temperature; in the 
experiments of Favre and Marignac, the composition of equal atoms, which 
is that of many natural beds of magnesian limestone, was attained by raising 
the heat to 392° F., and the pressure to 15 atmospheres; and in those of 
Morlot a mixture of sulphate of magnesia and calcareous spar was com- 
pletely converted, in the same circumstances, into a double salt of carbonate 
of lime and magnesia, with sulphate of lime. 

The probable history of all the caleareous and magnesian strata, with 
their interstratified cherts and flints, and interspersed chalcedonie fossils, is 
that they are products of submarine so/fataras, whence issued successively, 
in basins variously extended, gases and springs capable of dissolving pre- 
existent beds, which caused alternate depositions .of silica and carbonated 
earths, and intermitting from time to time, allowed intervals for the succession 
of organic and animated beings. 

The manner in which materials are furnished for extensive sedimentary 
deposits by processes of disintegration dependent on subterraneous ema- 
nations, has been observed by Bunsen in the solfataras of Iceland. He 
describes the palagonitic rocks, formerly erupted there, as undergoing con- 

* Dr. Murray informs me that this Arragonite is found in a little bay within six miles of 
Scarborough, in the seams and crevices of the upper calcareous grit. He describes it as 
fibrous, compact, or imperfectly mammillated, wanting the oblique cleayage of calcite, 
scratching Iceland spar, and flying into powder in the flame of a taper. Mr. Procter having 
at my request taken the specific gravity of a fibrous specimen, finds it 3, and confirms Dr. 
Murray’s description of the other characters of this mineral. 

+ The only peculiarity is that a basaltic dike traverses the district at a distance of a few 
miles from the site of the fossils. 

t The Lias fossils sometimes also contain galena. Blum describes a bivalve from a fer- 
ruginous oolitic rock near Semur, the shells of which consist entirely of crystalline lamin 
of specular iron; and a cardinia from the lower lias, according to Bischof, likewise consists 
of the same mineral, which we know elsewhere as a result of volcanic action. 


Le 


ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 179 


version by these means “ into alternate and irregularly penetrating beds of 
white ferruginous, and coloured ferruginous, fumerole clay, the deposits 
being disclosed to a considerable depth, and exhibiting in the clearest man- 
ner the phenomena of alternating colours.” ‘‘ One is astonished,” he re- 
marks, “ at observing the great similarity between the external phenomena 
of these metamorphic deposits of clay still in the act of being formed, and 
certain structures of the Keuwper formation. Thousands of years hence the 
geologist who explores these regions when the last traces of the now active 
fumeroles have vanished, and the clay formations have become consolidated 
into marl-like rocks by the silica with which they are saturated, may suppose, 
from the differently stratified petrographic and chemical character of these 
beds, that he is looking at fletz strata formed by deposition from water.” 
*« At the surface, especially, where the deposition is favoured by slow eva- 
poration, innumerable crystals of gypsum, often an inch in diameter, may 
frequently be observed loosely surrounded by an argillaceous mass. At the 
mountain ledge of the Namarféyall, and at Krisuvik, this gypsum is found 
to penetrate the argillaceous masses in connected strata and floor-like depo- 
sits, which not unfrequently project as small rocks where the lower soil has 
been carried away by the action of the water. These deposits are sometimes 
sparry, corresponding in their exterior very perfectly with the strata of gyp- 
sum so frequently met with in the marl and clay formations of the Tras.” 

The great disturbances and fractures, the trappean rocks, and the frag- 
ments of porphyritic conglomerates, at. the bases of these formations, tend to 
confirm the opinion of Bunsen, that they have had a metamorphic origin, an 
origin very probably common to other beds, whether consisting of marl, shale, 
or sand. All the sand-beds now forming are due to the disintegration and 
detritus of ancient sandstones, a process, which continued through a great 
lapse of time, has but coated some portions of the sea-side with unconsoli- 
dated sand. In the soundings of the Atlantic depths, the microscope, according 
to Maury, has failed to detect a single particle of sand or gravel. For the 
origin and consolidation of the inferior grits and shales we must look to ac- 
tions, mechanical and chemical, more potent than those which the present 
tranquil course of nature presents. In examining the carboniferous sand- 
stones of the Blue Mountains in New South Wales, with their shales and coal- 
beds, more than 12,000 feet in thickness, Darwin was ‘“‘surprised at obser- 
ving, that though they were evidently of mechanical origin, all the grains of 
quartz in some specimens were so perfectly crystallized that they evidently 
had not in their present form been aggregated in a preceding rock;” and 
he quotes Wm. Smith as having long since made the same remark on the 
millstone grit of England. If any one, in fact, will observe with a lens the 
surfaces of the quartz pebbles included in that grit, he will find on most of 
them numerous wnabraded facets, which bear evidence of a quartz-crystalline 
action having pervaded the rock whilst its consolidation was going on. 

There can be no better proof of widely-spread chemical action due to 
heat than the frequent presence of crystallized silica in every part of the 
stratified rocks. 

The deeper we descend in the strata, the more plentiful are the veins and 
beds of guartz, and the more manifest the signs of metamorphic action. 
Von Buch was the first to explain, on the principle of metamorphism, 
the change of calcareous rocks, in contact with pyroxenic porphyries, into 
dolomites ; and in 1835 the same principle was extended by Fournet to 
the metallization of rocks by contact with quartziferous porphyries, and to 
their felspathication and silicification by the contact of granite. “Since 
the theory of a central fire,” he observed, “has been confirmed by modern 
researches, all the great questions in the history of the globe appear suscep- 

N2 


180 REPORT—1860. 


tible of a simple solution, and it is astonishing that chemists have not yet 
carried their views in this direction. From the moment that we consider the 
terrestrial globe as a mass of which the different parts have successively 
undergone the action of fire, we must also conceive, as a necessary conse- 
quence, a series of chemical phenomena, such as calcination, fusion, cemen- 
tation, &c.,” meaning by this latter term, the mutual molecular inter- 
penetration of bodies in contiguity, a process of which I shall presently have 
to offer a remarkable example. 

There was one mineralogical chemist, however, of high eminence, who had 
long before carried his views in the direction desired by Fournet. In 1823, 
Mitscherlich, having examined the forms, and analysed the ingredients, of 
forty crystalline products of furnaces *, to which Berthier had contributed 
several parallel results of experimental processes, pronounced them identical 
with various native minerals, and in particular with peridot, pyroxene, and 
mica. In the artificial mica, however, he found Lime, of which granitic 
mica scarcely contains a trace; and this led him to speculate on the cause 
of the chief chemical distinction between the granite and trap formations, 
consisting in the absence of calcareous and magnesian silicates from the 
former. Supposing, he argued, that the primary rocks were formed at that 
stage of the earth’s refrigeration when 4ths of its water were in a state of 
vapour, the pressure on every part of its surface, computed according to 
Laplace’s calculation of the mean depth of the sea, would be 225 atmo- 
spheres + ; but under such a weight the affinity of lime for silica would cease ; 
hence the crystals of uncombined silica in Carrara marble. 

The surmise has since been brought into evidence by an experiment of 
Petzholdt, in which pulverized quartz, heated to whiteness with an equal 
weight of carbonate of lime in an open vessel, was found to form a silicate 
with the lime, but produced no combination when heated in a strong, close 
vessel of iron. 

The crystallization of the primary rocks was supposed by the early Plutonic 
theorists to be due to slow cooling ; but this principle alone does not satisfy 
the phenomena. The crystalline structure of granite is seen, for example in 
Glen Tilt, at Shap Fell}, and elsewhere, to be equally uniform in its partial 
irruptions into the superior strata, as where it appears to be the foundation 
stone of the earth's crust; it has crystallized in its accustomed manner, where 
it has penetrated fissures of the upper beds in plates as thin as the leaves of 
a book and threads as fine as a hair, and even where it is involved in the in- 
vaded stratum so that no junction with any vein can be observed. How 
could it have been thus injected in a state of fusion, unless of the most liquid 
kind? and how could the heat of such liquidity, in a material of which the 
fusing-point is so high, be otherwise than rapidly cooled down? 

Furthermore, the quartz which forms su large a constituent of granite, 
has always the specific gravity of crystalline silica, which exceeds that of any 
other species of silica. But Deville and others have shown that fusion 


* Annales de Chimie, tom. xxiv. p. 258, 1824. Mitscherlich sur la production artificielle 
des minéraux crystallisés—“j’ai trouvé, 4 Fahlun, du silicate et bisilicate de protoxide de 
fer, 2 Garpenberg, du mica et du pyroxene, les mémes figures crystallines, et tous les autres 
caractéres des minéraux correspondans, le bisilicate de protoxide de fer et de chaux, de 
magnésie et de chaux, les trisilicates de chaux, de chanx et de manganése, le fer oxidé (fer- 
rosoferricum), le protoxide de cuivre, le deutoxide de cuivre, ]’oxide de zinc, les sulfures 
de fer, de zine, de plomb, l’arsénieure de nickel, &c. &c., et beaucoup d’autres substances 
en cristaux bien prononcées. 

t In Mitscherlich’s Mémoire, as printed in the ‘Annales de Chimie et de Physique,’ 
tome xxiv. pp. 372, 373, the atmospheres are stated as 2250, deduced from a mean depth of 
sea, 96,000 feet, with a cipher too much, that is, in both cases. 

¢ I understand from Mr. Marshall that the ramified granite of Shap Fell is similarly 
crystallized with the rest of the rock, but finer grained. 


ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 181 


lowers this specific gravity to a constant amount, and that fused silica does 
not recover its density in cooling. Crystalline granite, as Delesse has shown, 
passes by fusion from the density of 2°62 to that of 2°32, and Egyptian 
porphyry from 2°76 to 2°48. . 

Again, the felspar in granite is encrusted by the quartz, the most fusible 
by the least fusible material, contrary to all experience of crystallization 
either from solution or fusion. 

Lastly, all the minerals of which granite is composed have been artificially 
produced, and their production has in every instance taken place at tempera- 
tures far below that of the fusing-point of that rock. ‘The first specimens 
of artificial felspar analysed by Karsten, and measured by Mitscherlich, 
were found in the lining of a copper furnace amongst a sublimate of zinc. 
Mitscherlich tried to obtain the like by fusing several pounds of native felspar 
in a porcelain furnace, and subjecting the mass to a process of slow cooling, 
but without success*. In the Mulden sinelting works, Cotta observed the 
walls of the furnace traversed, in the joints of its masonry, and in the cracks 
which it had undergone, by beautiful metallic veins, the sides exhibiting the 

_phenomena of impregnation and alteration as in the boundary walls of 
natural veins, and the ores consisting of galena, blende, iron and copper 
pyrites, purple copper, Fahl ore, native copper, &c. In like manner pyro- 


morphite (Pb’ P+4+4 Pb Cl), in well-formed six-sided prisms from the iron 
furnace at Asbach, was found attached to the stones of the masonry. There 
can be no doubt but that Karsten’s crystals of felspar, like these, were 
formed by gaseous sublimation; and an analogous process would account 
for the felspar observed by Haidinger in a basaltic cavity, under the form 
of Laumonite, and by Bischof in a porphyritic bed, in which a Trilobite 
also was found. 

A new view of the production of minerals has been opened by Ebelmen, 
who obtained the most refractory crystals of the granitic rocks, such as 
spinel, emerald, cymophane, and corundum, by segregation in the interior 
of a fused mass. They were formed at a heat far below that which would 
fuse either those crystals or granite, by means of the evaporation of a fusible 
and volatile medium. Gaudin also, on the same principle using a similar 
alkaline solvent, and substituting sulphuric for boracic and carbonic acids 
as the volatile ingredient, obtained the ruby. 

To the same category may be referred an experiment by Precht, who 
having added to a transparently fused frit, weighing 14 ewt., a considerable 
quantity of felspar, found, after cooling, that a large portion of this mineral 
had separated itself in foliated masses, and in several distinct crystals. 

The most important light, however, on this subject, especially in relation to 
metamorphic phenomena, is from the experiments cf Daubrée on the reaction 
of gaseous compounds upon various earthy bases. Conveying the chlorides 
of tin and titanium over lime at heats varying from 572° to 1652° Fahr., 
he produced crystals of tinstone and brookite; by variations of the same 
principle, at heats not exceeding redness, he obtained all the following mine- 
rals :—wollastonite, staurolite, peridote, disthene, willemite, idocrase, garnet, 
phenakite, emerald, euclase, corundum, zircon, periclase, spinel, augite, di- 
opside, gahnite, franklinite, hematite, felspar, and tourmaline in hexagonal 
prisms imbedded within crystals of guartz. The process was of this descrip- 
tion :—Chloride of aluminium, passed over lime at a red heat, produced 
corundum; chloride of siliciwm, passed in like manner over seven equiva- 
Jents of potash or soda and one of alumina, produced the different species 
of felspar : the latter named gas, decomposed by lime at the same heat, or 


* Mr. Marshall fused a large mass of granite, and cooling it slowly obtained no crystals. 


182 REPORT—1860. 


by magnesia, alumina, or glucina, gave erystallized quartz in the usual form 
of the pyramidal hexagon, passing below into a silicate of the associated 
bases. ‘“ The most remarkable part,” as Daubrée has remarked, “ connected 
with these reactions, in a chemical, and especially a geological point of view, 
is that the silicium and the silicates thus produced have an extreme tendency 
to crystallize, and that the crystallization takes place at a temperature far 
below their points of fusion.” “* The manner,” he adds, “in which quartz and 
the silicates are connected with the granite rocks has long been a difficulty 
in all the hypotheses on the formation of the rocks called primitive. Now 
we find, in our experiments, that guartz crystallizes at the same time with, 
or even later than, the silicates at a temperature scarcely exceeding a cherry- 
red heat, and consequently infinitely below its point of fusion.” 

M. Daubrée disclaims the supposition that those rocks themselves were 
formed after the formula of his experiments. Nevertheless, considering 
the probability that formations at higher temperatures, now obliterated, may 
have preceded that of the granitic rocks, observing the uniform erystalliza- 
tion of granite in the tenuity of its ramifications, as well as in mass, and 
perceiving that Daubrée by his process has reproduced almost all the granitic 
minerals, and among them not only the felspar, but the crystalline quartz 
of granite,—it must be admitted that such a theory is worth attention. 

Durocher has added to Daubrée’s researches two capital experiments, of 
direct geological application, in obtaining the sulphides of the mineral veins 
by the reaction of sulphuretted hydrogen on the chlorides of the metals in a 
state of vapour, and in having effected the metamorphism of limestone into 
dolomite in an atmosphere of the vapour of chloride of magnesium. 

A theory of sublimation, however, may admit of many modifications, 
and may be combined with the principle of segregation illustrated in the 
experiments of Ebelmen. Deville and Caron, having fused bone phosphate 
at a red heat in excess of chloride and fluoride of calcium, found that lime 
apatite crystallized out in cooling, and was easily separated by washing from 
the soluble salts. In like manner, with different bases and different chlorides, 
they obtained the numerous varieties of apatite and wagnerite. And they 
observed further, that all these minerals became volatile at a slightly elevated 
temperature in the vapour of the chloride amidst which they were formed. 

Senarmont, pursuing another course, had applied a heat somewhat ex- 
ceeding 662° Fahr. toan aqueous solution of hydrochlorate of alumina, con- 
fined in a close tube, and thus decomposing it into its volatile and solid 
ingredients, obtained corundum, distinctly crystallized and mixed with 
diaspore, the same substance under a different form, and with different 
chemical properties, thus repeating in a remarkable manner that process by 
which the same minerals are found in nature similarly intermingled. He 
also succeeded in eliminating crystals of quartz from hydrate of silica by 
dissolving the hydrate in water charged with carbonic acid, and gradually 
raising the temperature of the tube which contained it to a heat of from 
400° to 500° Fahr., and by analogous methods he obtained carbonates and 
sulphides identical with native minerals. In some of these experiments the 
process was so varied as to show that the separation of the anhydrous cry- 


stals was due to the gradual withdrawal of the dissolving gas. The hydrated © 


sesquioxide of iron, also heated in water of the temperature of 360° Fahr., 
was dehydrated, becoming magnetic. In an experiment by Wéhler, on the 


contrary, apophyllite dissolved in water at the same temperature, returned — 


on cooling to its original form, retaining its water of crystallization. To this 
class of discovery Daubrée has likewise added some valuable facts, having — 


obtained regular crystals of quartz, by decomposing, with the vapour of — 


water alone, the interior of a glass tube subjected to a low red heat ; at the 


¥ 


2 


ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 183 


same time silicates were formed, hydrated or anhydrous, according to the 
degree of heat; when fragments of obsidian were inserted, crystals of 
Rhyacolite appeared ; and the silicated water of Plombiére being substituted 
for plain water, and kaolin for obsidian, crystals of diopside insinuated 
themselves into the silicated substance of the tube, and the kaolin was 
changed into a substance possessing felspathic characters. 

All these experiments are adverse to the idea that the primary rocks have 
undergone fusion. The best natural criterion, perhaps, of the temperature 
at which they were formed, was afforded by the discovery, in 1828, of a 
method of manufacturing wltramarine, based on Vauquelin’s identification 
of a furnace-product with the Lapis lazuli found in granite and in primitive 
limestone. In some specimens which I possess of the latter rock, this 
beautiful mineral may be seen enamelling with minute specks, and with 
perfect distinctness, within and without, all the plates of the calcareous 
erystals, which are here and there interspersed with small crystals of sulphate 
of lime. The heat at which the artificial ultramarine is made is that of red- 
ness. A lower temperature will not suffice to produce the colour, and a 
higher destroys it. 

We can now better understand how Hunterite, a white felspathic mineral 
containing 11°6 per cent. of water, can have been formed where it is found ; 
a hydrated silicate of alumina in the bosom of molten granite is an anomaly 
for which high pressure would scarcely account; but if the rock was at the 
temperature only of a low red heat, the formation of this mineral, and of 
the hydrated micas, will no longer appear a marvel. 

Other notices of ancient degrees of heat have been observed in the 
strata. In a cavity within a quartz crystal from Dauphiné, Davy founda 
viscous inflammable fluid in small quantity, in a perfect vacuum*. In the 
cavities of other quartz crystals he found water and rarefied air. Sorby, 
having determined the amount of rarefaction in one such from a bed of 
mica-slate, in which he detected many others, calculated the temperature of 
the crystal at the time of its formation to have been 320° Fahr. In one case 
Davy found evidence of pressure which had condensed the elastic fluid in a 
erystal of quartz, and Brewster observed the like in crystals of topaz. 

From a general review of the researches now detailed, the following infer- 
ences may be drawn :— 

1. That all the consolidated strata, viewed chemically, bear marks of sub- 
jection to an action of heat agreeable to the theory of the earth’s refrigera- 
tion, in direct proportion to the age of their deposit ; and that they show that 
action most explicitly in the presence, throughout, but more abundantly as 
the series descends, of that peculiar form of silica which is chemically repro- 
duced by the action of heated volatile matter. 

2. That the igneous minerals were formed by molecular aggregation, at a 
heat not exceeding, perhaps, that of an ordinary fire, either as a residuum 
from the expiration of fusible and volatile materials, or more generally as a 
deposit from volatile forms of matter. 

As there are two classes of eruptive rocks, the guartzose and unquartzose, 
so there are two classes of emanation which accompany them, and deposit 
earthy minerals, differing for each class, in the neighbouring strata. They 
generally mantle round the rock, and but seldom penetrate it; as if it had 
rather made room for them to rise, than as if they made part of its substance. 
Yet they bear a resemblance to the character of the rock which they follow. 
Thus the erystallized owide of silicon is the characteristic ingredient of granite 


* Rose quartz from granite, and cornelian from trap, are coloured by a carburet of hydro- 
gen; crystals of graphite also have been found in quartz; but as carbonic acid must have 
existed before plants could grow, these facts are no proofs of antecedent organic structure. 


184 REPORT—1860. 


rocks; and the earthy minerals imbedded in the metamorphic strata around 
such rocks resemble quartz in being simple crystallized oxides,—innumerable 
gems, for instance, of the crystallized oxide of alumina—vast masses of the 
same, many tons in weight, in the form of emery, encysted in limestone 
which has been metamorphosed by rocks of granitic character,—still greater 
masses of crystalline sesquiowide of iron in similar relation to those rocks,— 
crystalline peroxide of tin shot through them into the strata above. 

In the eruptive rocks which followed the guartzose, these minerals, with 
almost all the quartz, died out, and were succeeded by others of a more 
complex nature appropriate to the porphyritic, trachytic, basaltic, and lavie 
eruptions. Yet all these, as well as the granitic, are attended by similar 
metalliferous veins, which grow very weak in the latest, but still show, at least 
as far as the eruption of the more ancient lavas*, a continued communica- 
tion with a common reservoir deeper seated than any of them. 

Davy saw the lava of Vesuvius issuing, as if forced up by elastic fluids, 
perfectly liquid, and nearly white-hot, its surface in violent agitation, with 
large bubbles rising from it, which emitted clouds of white smoke, consisting 
of common salt in great excess, much chloride of iron, and some sulphate of 
lime, accompanied with aqueous vapour, and with hydrochloric and sul- 
phurous acids. It contains also realgar and sulphide of copper, due pro- 
bably to the reaction of sulphuretted hydrogen on the chloride of the metal. 

In the early time of these eruptive emanations, when they escaped at 
many points with little interruption, the land rose only to low levels above 
the waters. As the crust of the earth grew more solid and weighty, and 
the vent was confined to fewer lines of shrinkage, the elastic elements of 
disturbance upheaved the incumbent beds with greater power, and the 


* Though the presence of quartz in lava has been denied, the following account of its 
coexistence with schorl in that of the valley of Maria in Lipari by Spallanzani shows that it 
does exist in ancient, perhaps basaitic, lavas, and strikingly illustrates the theory of its sub- 
limation, as here advanced. ‘‘ Among the lavas partly decomposed we find pumices and 
enamels containing felspars and scales of black schorls, and certain curious and beautiful 
objects, which derive their origin, in my opinion, from filtration. The lava is white and friable 
to a certain depth, of a petrosiliceous base, full of small cells and cavities, within which these 
objects make their appearance :—Tirst, minute crystals of schorl ; from the inside of these 
cells project very slender schorls, sometimes resembling minute chestnut bristles, sometimes 
a bunch, a plume, or a fan, to be ascribed to filtration after the hardening of the lava, since 
though it is common to find schorls in lavas, they are found incorporated within them, not 
detached as in this case. The second filtration has produced small guartzose crystals, and 
the manner of their distribution in prodigious numbers renders them a very singular phe- 
nomenon among volcanic objects. Wherever the lava is scabrous, wherever it has folds, 
sinuosities, cavities, or fissures, it is full of these crystallizations. The larger crystals extend 
to 34 lines, the greater part about 4a line. They consist of a hexagonal prism, infixed 
by the base into the lava, and terminated by a similar pyramid. Three crystals, among those 
I examined, were terminated by two pyramids, the prism being attached to the lava by a 
few points, and the prisms projecting out. The most regular are in small cavities, but not 
a few are on the surface of the lava. The Java, embellished with these, forms immense 
rocks and vast elevations hanging over the sea, which, whenever they are broken to a certain 
depth, are found to contain these crystals, with capillary schorls, not very numerous. I have 
in my possession a group of needle-formed crystals from Mont St. Gothard, within which 
are seven small prisms of black striated schorl. The same may be observed in these minute 
crystals. One of these was perforated from side to side by a needle of schorl, the two ends 
of which projected out. The tormation of these capillary schorls must have preceded that 
of the quartzose crystals; otherwise it is impossible to conceive how the former should have 
penetrated the substance of the latter. In remelting the lava in a furnace, the quartz 
crystals remained perfectly unaltered.” 

Spallanzani also states, that in this lava are garnets and chrysolites more refractory in the 
fire than the matrix ; and he adds that since Dolomieu’s visit to the adjoining stoves, when 
the whole ground on which they stood was saturated with hot vapours issuing everywhere 
from small openings an inch or two in diameter, at the time of his own visit these were 
reduced to one, exhaling some sulphur and encrusted with soft pyrites. 


— 


iT RWS 


ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 185 


mountain chains culminated to their utmost height. In the progress of re- 
frigeration the compressing and imprisoned forces became nearly balanced, 
and the residual predominance of the latter produces the phenomena of 
existing earthquakes and volcanoes. 

In the earlier periods, unmutilated skeletons, undisplaced scales, entire 
ink-bags, and florescent fronds, indicate conditions of nature which would 
now be called unnatural, a history of sudden death and speedy embalment, 
common, not to individuals only, but to generations and species. The pre- 
servation, in exquisite casts, of the most delicate organizations indicates a 
speedy but a tranquil entombment, which it would be difficult to refer 
to any other agency than that of gaseous emanation through the waters 
in which the plants and animals existed. Alcyonia and sponges, looking 
like recent specimens preserved in the places where they grew, point to a 
process of silicification, chiefly anhydrous, which anticipated decomposition. 
In the decreasing activity of internal heat and insalubrious emanations, we 
see the advancement of the physical and chemical conditions essential or 
advantageous to /ife; and with the progress of such conditions, favourable to 
the development of higher and higher forms of organization, we find a perfect 
correspondence in the natural history of organized fossils, and the increasing 
tones of the “ Diapason, closing full in Man.” 

From the theory of heat and the facts of geology, combined with physio- 
logical considerations, we learn that there was a definite era, in which the 
earth first became capable of supporting vegetable and animal life ; and we 
may account for the late appearance of man, by observing that there were no 
conditions adapted to the well-being and progress of human nature, till this 
state of things had yielded to a healthy atmosphere, a moderate heat, 
differentiated zones of life, stable forces, and a stationary standing ground. 

{In the rudimental ages of the earth we behold an ever-changing scene of 
new and fitful conditions passing in rapid succession. Through all the stages 
of its existence previous to the present uniformity, so favourable to the 
exercise of reason and the freedom of will and action, we see force gradually 
subsiding, and the time allowed to life expanded into a wider liberality. Our 
ideas of its duration, as compared with indefinite ages, are equally limited with 
our view of its magnitude, in comparison with space or matter ; we can find in 
geological data no chronology but that of priority; the fossil records even of 
its unconsolidated beds have not yet supplied us with the key of the cypher 
which should connect geology with human history. If ever we come to know 
the age of the primary rocks, or of the protozoic strata, it can only be by 
combining physical data with the experimental reproduction of granite, and 
a knowledge of the heat which the lowest organisms can bear, and live. 

Since Hall first applied chemistry to the service of geology, few attempts 
have been made in this country to pursue the path which he opened. In 
1833 the British Association entrusted to a commission, consisting of Prof. 
Sedgwick, Dr Daubeny, the late Dr. Turner,and myself, the task of illustrating 
geological phenomena by experiments which it was hoped might have thrown 
light on some of the subjects discussed in this Report. Disappointed of the 
greater part of the fruit of these experiments, I yet believe that the few 
results which I now lay on the table of the Section will not prove devoid of 
interest, especially as evidence of the low temperature at which bodies scarcely 
reputed volatile are capable of being sublimed. 

The iron furnaces of Yorkshire having been selected as furnishing the 
best field for these experiments, it fell to my lot to conduct them. Every 
facility was afforded me by the zeal and liberality of the proprietors and 
managers of two furnaces, one of which at Elsicar, belonging to the late Earl 
_ Fitzwilliam, and managed by Mr. H. Hartop, worked for a period of five 


186 REPORT—1860. 


years; the other at Low Moor, belonging to Messrs. Wickham and Hardy, pro- 
longed its unintermitting blast for fifteen years. The materials fur the experi- 
ments, in addition to those which I was myself able to supply, were provided 
partly by a grant from the Association, partly by an extensive donation of 
minerals and fossils from the stores of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. 
Professor Phillips also, who was then in charge of that Society’s Museum, lent 
me his valuable assistance. 

The object kept in view, in devising experiments of so long a duration, was 
to subject the greatest possible variety of materials to the greatest possible 
variety of conditions, such as it might be presumed had formed, or altered, 
rocks, minerals, and mineralized organic remains. 

These were arranged in numerous crucibles, upright and inverted, and 
within two strong tripartite boxes of deal bound with iron thongs; one 
of these was stored with large blocks and copious powders of granite, basalt, 
limestone, grit, and shale, with whole and pounded minerals of every kind, 
hydrates and anhydrates, the ingredients of a great variety of minerals com- 
pounded in proper proportions, all the different salts and elements calculated 
to react upon them, with almost every metal adapted to form veins or to re- 
gister heat ; the other contained organic substances, fossil and recent plants, 
shells, corals, reptiles, and bones, disposed in clay, sand, chalk, marble, gypsum, 
fluor, sulphates, muriates and other salts of soda and potash which might dis- 
engage volatile elements by their mutual action, to react on fixed constituents. 

At the Elsicar furnace I was allowed, whilst it was being built, to insert 
crucibles in the back of the masonry in immediate contiguity with the body 
of melted iron. At Low Moor it was agreed to place boxes filled with cruci- 
bles and materials under the bottom stone, before the furnace was built. 
This stone, consisting of millstone grit, 15 inches thick, though it gradually 
wears hollow in the centre, retains the iron fused upon it usually for fourteen 
or fifteen years, without being materially impaired. In its crevices are often 
found the beautiful cubic crystals of nitrocyanide of titanium, first brought 
into notice by Dr. Buckland. 

In this situation the temperature to which the contents of the boxes would 
be exposed could not be exactly foreseen. It was presumed that in the centre 
it would be near to the melting-point of cast iron. It will be seen by refer- 
ence to Plates IV. and V., which give a section and plan of the furnace, that 
the boxes did not occupy the whole space beneath the bottom stone. It oc- 
curred to me therefore, when these had been placed in position on a bed of 
sand, covered with the same material, and built up with fire brick, to deposit 
round them in asimilar bed of sand, and enclose in like manner within walls 
of brick, lumps of various metals, and of granite, sandstone, fossiliferous 
shale, and limestone. From these supplementary experiments are derived 
the most interesting of the results which I have to describe. 

For when at the expiration of fifteen years the furnace was blown out, I 
found nothing left of the boxes but the iron straps with which they were 
bound, in a state of oxidation ; a few crucibles and portions of crucibles only 
had survived the general wreck of their contents ; granites, basalts, limestone, 
choice minerals, measured pieces, weighed powders and compositions, had 
disappeared ; all the exactness with which Professor Phillips had arranged for 
identifying the altered substances by their position and by comparison with 
reserved specimens, was lost labour. 

Nor did I find the deposits in the Elsicar furnace, at the end of five years, 
to have fared any better. From all these carefully devised experiments I can 
produce but two worthy of notice. One of them exhibits the conversion of 
river sand into sandstone, with a vacuity in its axis left by the volatilization 
of arecent plant, The stone has considerable tenacity, and came out of the 


. 
a 


a 


ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 187 


erucible, with no adhesion to its sides, a perfect cast; no salt had been added 
to it, nor is any separable from it by boiling. The close cohesion of the 
grains of sand by the action of heat may have been facilitated by the inter- 
mixture of some impurities, referable to oxide of iron, and possibly to felspar. 
The only vestige of the plant is a skin of silica on the surface of the place 
which it occupied in the interior of the sand, coating the vacancy, but not 
furnishing an impression from which the character of the plant can be re- 
covered. ‘The stone showed signs of splitting from shrinkage in an oblique, 
or nearly vertical direction, a tendency which might probably have been more 
conspicuous had the experiment been on a larger scale. 

The other specimen is a translucent mineral of a pure blwe colour. This 
colour it does not lose when heated red-hot in the outer flame of a candle. 
Melted into a bead with carbonate of soda, it passes into a pure opake white ; 
the same also with a small proportion of borax; when the proportion of the 
borax is increased, the bead is transparent and colourless; dissolved in 
hydrochloric acid, the mineral loses its colour. The solution contains much 
sulphate of lime, and some silica and alumina, whether potash also, or soda, I 
have not determined ; tested with prussiate of potash, it shows no trace of 
copper; and none, or scarcely any, of iron. This substance therefore belongs 
to the class of minerals of which Lapis lazuli and Haiiyne are varieties. It has 
been formed irregularly under a thin crust of sand to which it adheres, is ini- 
bedded in sulphate, sulphide, and carbonate of lime, and accompanied with 
erystallized fluoride of lime. Whether this fluoride is a recomposition, or 
part only of the original mixture from which the blue mineral has been 
derived, I cannot say. The erucible certainly contained pounded fluor, and 
a sulphate, which underwent decomposition, and partially decomposed the 
fluoric crystals. 

But the objects to which I have alluded as possessing a new and unexpected 
interest, are the metals above mentioned as having been supplementarily 
placed, outside the boxes, under the bottom stone of the Low Moor furnace. 
The specimens consisted, originally, of pieces, of which chromographie plates 
have been appended to this Report, cut from a bar of zine, a block of tin, 
a pig of /ead, and a plate of tile-copper. They occupied, severally, the places 
marked in the accompanying ground plan of the furnace, 1, 2, 3, 4, as 
numbered at the time of the deposit. It will be seen that none of these 
pieces have undergone fusion, that of which the melting-point is lowest (the 
block tin) preserving perfectly its dimensions, the exact shape into which it 
was cut, and the sharp edges of the cutting. ‘The external coat of the 
tin, to the depth of from 1th to ith of an inch, is converted into deutoxide, 
crystalline, transparent, and of the same specific gravity as the native ore; 
between this and the metal, intervenes in some parts a space, which, with 
the striation of the metallic surface, indicates that a portion of the substance 
has been dissipated. 

Of the bar-zinc, more than half has been changed, though it preserves its 
original form, into a mass of crystalline oxide, interspersed with globules of 
the metal, burrowed in all directions with drusy cells and cavities, and 
showing extensive sublimation into the indurated sand which envelopes it. 
The nature of the sublimation is manifested by a number of prismatic spicula 
of metallic zine, about 4th of an inch long, standing within the cavities. 

But that which is chiefly remarkable is the tile-copper, in respect both to 
the temperature at which it has been volatilized, and the combination and 
interpenetration which its molecules, in a volatile state, have effected with its 
nearest neighbour, the dead. I have caused a drawing to be made of these 
specimens in their relative positions, as they lay in proximity to, but not 
touching, each other, having a portion of sand interposed. 


188 REPORT—1860. 


It will be seen that a very considerable portion of the copper plate has 
been dissipated, that the surface has been sweated down, and in some parts 
the whole substance has evaporated away. Bright crystals of red oxide of 
copper line the wasted surface, which is also covered above with a coat, 
ith of an inch thick, of mixed crystalline oxides of copper and lead; and 
in the hollow which the dissipation of the metal has left between it and the 
indurated sand, is a sublimate consisting of fine twisted coherent threads of 
metallic copper, like those met with in mines and slags. Where nearest to 
the lead, it has so intermixed its exhalations with those proceeding from 
that metal as to have spread over the upper leaden surface a coating of green 
crystals, consisting of a double oxide of copper and lead. Beneath, and round 
the lead, at its contact with the sand (which below has penetrated its sub- 
stance without altering its form), runs a pink skin, marking the path of the 
red oxide of copper. I cut the lump of lead in half, and found it not only 
traversed in the middle by a seam of mixed oxide, but, what was still more 
remarkable, dotted with spots of metallic copper, which had found their way 
to the very centre of the mass, and even reached the opposite side. 

That it was the metal in this case, as in that of the zinc, which became 
volatile, and was subsequently deposited in the form of specks and filaments 
of copper in some places, and combining with oxygen, as a crystallized oxide 
in others, cannot be doubted. To attribute these effects to thermal electricity 
would not be consistent with the facts; for there was here no contact, and no 
circuit. The penetration of the lead by the molecules of copper may be 
called Cementation, and be supposed to be due to capillary attraction of pores 
distended by heat acting on the volatile particles. 

But the surprising part of the result is, that the sublimation of copper by 
heat should have taken place at so low a temperature. These four metals, in 
close proximity, and all acted upon in the same manner, were their own 
mutual thermometers. It was impossible that the heat to which the copper 
plate, as a whole, had been subject could have been higher than the melting- 
point of the unfused lead and tin. I can attribute this unexpected fact to 
no other cause than the continual and protracted passage of hot currents of 
air and vapour, mingled perhaps with carbonaceous gas from the neigh- 
bouring wooden boxes*; and it seems probable that if the central portion 
of the bottom stone had withstood to the end the action of the furnace, or 
if the buried boxes had been protected with a vault of brick, more light 
might have been thrown on the transfer of molecules at moderate tempera- 
tures by similar effects produced on other materials. 

I owe an apology for having delayed this Report much longer than I 
should have done, had the bulk of the experiments been attended with better 
success. I have been reminded of them by the design of a member of the 
Association to institute some of a similar character with the added conditions 
of pressure and steam. Whoever should now undertake such experiments 
would conduct them on the vantage ground of the later researches which I 
have here noticed, and might obtain results of high interest to geological and 
chemical science. It may be doubted whether heat protracted through many 
years, or even extraordinary pressure, may be essential elements of such 
results. The unintermitted presence of volatile materials, for a considerable 
time, passing over and dwelling among those of greater fixity at temperatures 
mounting up to a red heat, may be the only needful condition; and if a fur- 


* Tf I am right in believing that an oolitic Echinus, Pecten, and Coral, and an Ammonite 
from the Lias, which I recovered from the furnace, are those marked in the Plan with the 
Nos. 8, 9, 10, then, as these were reduced to alkalinity, though without change of form or 
markings, it would follow that the carbonic acid under the same circumstances separates 
from lime at an equally low temperature of the mass, under the partial action of hot currents. 


ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 189 


nace were appropriated to this object, it is not difficult to conceive a con- 
struction and application of it which would fulfil such a requirement. 

If any one could succeed in effecting the synthesis of pseuwdomorphic 
crystals, or of granites and porphyries, he would certainly perform a great 
service to chemical geology. In the first of these subjects of experiment 
success is scarcely to be looked for, except in the metamorphic action of 
heated volatile agents. It is possible that granite also, and porphyry, might 
be formed by a process of volatilization ; or they might perhaps be produced 
as a residual igneous crystallization out of a mass, of which the flux had been 
removed from the denser substances by sublimation, solution, or pressure. 

It should appear that the production of marble is also a problem still un- 
determined. Rose has expressed an opinion, founded on his own ex- 
periments, that the solid substance which Sir J. Hall obtained, by igniting 
chalk under a pressure that prevented the extrication of the carbonic gas, 
cannot have been marble. Possibly the presence of an excess of the acid 
may be an additional requisite to the production of a perfect specimen. 

Since this Report was drawn up, I have seen a memoir by M. Daubrée* 
which contains a very able and complete exposition of the progress of 
geological chemistry. His observations on the deposit of zeolitic crystals 
and other minerals discovered in the interstices of the old Roman brick- 
work and concrete at Plombiéres}, which have undergone the action of sili- 
cated waters springing from the earth at a temperature not, now at least, 
exceeding 158° F., seem to have solved the problem of the deposit of such 
erystals and minerals in the vesicles of basaltic rocks, and to have proved 
them to be due to aqueous infiltration whilst the rock was still hot. 

His views on the formation of another class of minerals, and the origin of 
the granitic and other early rocks, seem to be not equally satisfactory. To 
these he has been led by his own late experiments on the effect of aqueous 
vapour in decomposing obsidian and glass. He propounds, with the difftidence, 
however, which belongs to a hypothetical speculation, a theory to the 
following effect—that in a primeval state of the earth, when the heat now 
known to exist in its interior extended to the surface, as that surface cooled. 
down to a certain point, the red-hot obsidian, or silicated glass, of its first 
coat was decomposed by water condensed from a state of vapour, under 
great pressure, at a red heat; thus the quartziferous rocks were formed, at 
first as a plastic sponge, and when the water had evaporated as granite, the 
schist and slates immediately superincumbent upon it being the residuary 
product of the mother-waters. 

But this speculation is open to grave objections. What principle of 
solidification, it may be asked, capable of compacting graaite, is included 
in a process of disintegration? What has become of the silicates involved 
in it, to which we might look for such solidification, but whieh are absent 
from granite? The mother-waters which it supposes are incapable of dif- 
fusing the peculiar minerals encysted in the proximity of granitic rocks 
even to the distance of thousands of feet. No less unaccountable would be 
the absence of all the zeolitic and opaline substances that might have been 
expected. Everything tends to show that whatever the power of this process 
may be, it must be confined, at least, to the lavas, basalts, and trachytes. 

That heated water has been so universal a solvent as M. Daubrée supposes, 
is rendered very improbable by a circumstance noticed by Cagniard de 
Latour in his celebrated experiments on vapour highly heated and com- 

* Etudes et expériences synthétiques sur le métamorphisme et sur la formation des roches 
erystallines, 1860. 

T The presence of fluorine in the apophyllite of Plombiéres is remarkable, the more be- 


cause Vauquelin analysed the waters with the express object of detecting this constituent, 
and denied its supposed existence in them. 


190 REPORT—1860, 


pressed. In one of these, the addition of a crystal or two of chlorate of 
potash to water at the temperature of 648° F., proved sufficient to prevent 
any action of the aqueous vapour on the glass ; so easily was it saturated by 
the presence of a more soluble material. 

Neither is it at all probable that any stratum which can be supposed to have 
preceded granite under extraordinary conditions of heat and pressure, can 
have resembled in any degree obsidian or glass) M. Daubrée takes the 
vapour expansion of the ocean over the globe as equivalent to a pressure 
of 250 atmospheres, somewhat exceeding Mitscherlich’s supposition before 
quoted. On this pressure Mitscherlich, as has been said, sagaciously re- 
marked, that it would probably materially modify the chemical affinities 
of bodies, and prevent the formation of silicate of lime. His anticipation has 
been experimentally verified; and an equally remarkable instance of the 
same principle has been lately observed by Mr. Gore, who has found, on 
immersing some fifty substances in carbonic acid liquefied by pressure, that 
in that state it is chemically inert, to such a degree as not to dissolve oxygen 
salts. In these cases it should seem that pressure favours homogeneous, or 
simple, at the expense of heterogeneous, or complex, attractions ; and there is 
all the less reason for admitting M. Daubrée’s supposition, that obsidian, 
or any vitreous silicates, preceded the granitic rocks. 

We may carry these ideas further ; we may extend our speculations from 
the heat and weight of a vaporized sea to the gaseous system of Laplace, and 
the ultimate atoms of Newton. ‘Then, as the heat by degrees radiated into 
space, and as the repulsive force yielded to the forces of attraction, the 
first compounds would be of the simplest order,—water, and hydrochloric 
acid,—the chlorides of potassium, sodium, silicon, and aluminium, the oxides 
of magnesium and calcium, with others of a like class. Here we have both 
the materials of the sea, and of the primary crust of the earth; and at the 
same time all the power of consolidation which free crystalline force and 
enormous pressure can give to materials indisposed by that pressure to enter 
into complicated combination. 

In contemplating the origin of granite, it is not, however, competent to 
us to regard it as a fundamental rock only, since it preserves the same 
erystalline character under various conditions of heat and pressure. But 
we must remember that the gaseous theory which we are imagining implies 
a residue, in an internal gasometer, of similar primary compounds confined 
in a highly heated, condensed, and elastic state at no great distance under 
our feet, from the sudden or gradual evolution of which it is not difficult 
to conceive that all the eruptive rocks and veins, and many of the pheno- 
mena of consolidation in the sedimentary strata, may be accounted for. 

Every rock of eruption, and every mineral vein, which has shot up into the 
strata, indicates such an origin. The porphyries, trachytes, basalts, and lavas 
are essentially chemical and erystalline compounds. They differ from the quart- 
ziferous rocks only in this, that the chief part of the siliceous ingredients which 
characterize the latter having been antecedently used up, the greater fusi- 
bility of the former has more or less obliterated their crystalline structure. 

In these speculations it matters not from what source we suppose the 
heat of the earth to have been derived. Perhaps, a law of gravity, together 
with the other forces of attraction, imposed on the ultimate particles of 
matter, may account for all the heat which is, or has been inthe world. In 
any case, the most probable inductive conclusion from our knowledge of 
the earth’s heat, and the phenomena of eruption, with the light thrown on 
the production of minerals by Daubrée’s first sertes of experiments, and 
those of Durocher, appears to be, that mineral veins and eruptive rocks 
are the result of gaseous combinations and reactions. As regards mineral 


—— 


43> 


ee oe ee ee ee ee 


> De a eran nei 


ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG-CONTINUED HEAT. 191 


veins, this, I believe, is the opinion of most observers. But we see the same 
metamorphic effects which are produced by them, equally produced by the 
presence of any eruptive rock. If a stratum of limestone be invaded, and a 
portion of it included in the invading substance, that portion is not unfre- 
quently impregnated with magnesia and converted into dolomite, equally by 
a mineral vein or a granitic rock. 

The advantages which this theory possesses over any that have yet pre- 
sented themselves, are that it accounts for all the following phenomena :— 

1. The characteristic structures of granite, and of gneiss and mica-slate,— 
which may be compared to the deposits of graphite in gas-retorts, solid 
where the carburetted gas aggregates its decomposed molecules of carbon in 
confinement, but faliated and quasi-stratified, where the gas chances to escape 
through cracks in the retort into the more open chamber of brick-work ;— 

2. The perfect uniformity of crystalline texture in granite, whether deep or 
superficial, in thin veins or solid masses, showing that neither great pressure 
nor slow cooliug have been essential conditions of its crystallization ;— 

3. The wide diffusion of zones or atmospheres round the eruptive, and 
especially the granitic rocks, of mineral substances, and metamorphic effects, 
a phenomenon which, together with that of the filling up of mineral veins 
from below, is not accounted for by any other theory ;— 

4. The metalliferous and quartziferous impregnations of the sedimentary 
strata. 

If, with Cordier, we divide the eruptive rocks into the guartzose (which 
correspond to the granites and earliest porphyries) ; and the wnquartzose, 
comprehending the fe/spathic (which correspond to the later porphyries and 
trachytes) ; with the pyroxenic (which correspond to the basalts and lavas) ; 
and if we consider all these as originating from gases, accompanied by 
aqueous vapour,—then the phenomena show the amount of such vapour 
present in the guartzose formations to have been almost infinitesimal, 
whilst that which attended some parts of the pyrowxenic formations was con- 
siderable. As regards the sedimentary siliciterous rocks, they show, in the 
semiopaline, semiquartzose composition of the siliceous beds, the action of 
anhydrous gas, aided by aqueous vapour. Aqueous vapour acts on silicates 
only at a heat approaching redness, and conveys no silica. Chloride of silicon 
would carry silica, and would diffuse it at a much lower heat, since it boils 
at a temperature below 140° F. 

Connected with the preceding speculations the following remarks may 
deserve attention. There is a singular resemblance of mineral and erystal- 
line constitution between the pyrozenic rocks and meteoric stones,—a re- 
semblance, in fact, so close as to indicate a similar mode of production out 
of the same materials. The late optico-chemical discoveries of Bunsen and 
Kirchhoff have shown, with a great degree of probability, that molecules of 
tron, nickel, and magnesium abound in the solar atmosphere; should the 
progress of those discoveries add silicon to this list, we have here again the 
chief materials, both of meteorolites and of pyroxenic rocks. In any ease, 
whether we suppose the meteorite to have been contemporaneous with the 
earth, or to be ejected from the moon, or emitted from the sun, our thoughts 
are led back to a time when the whole solar system consisted of the same 
ultimate atoms, and are confirmed in the opinion that the meteorites and the 
fundamental rocks of the earth have undergone similar processes of mole- 
cular and erystalline combination, the vitreous coat of the meteorite, and the 
vitreous character of the later lavas, being due also to the same causes :— 
Ist, to the fusibility of the material; 2ndly, toa more intense heat generated 
by a nearer proximity to an oxidating atmosphere; 3rdly, to a more rapid 
rate of cvoling. 


192 REPORT—1860. 


What our views, however, of the original constitution of matter may be, 
is a point of less consequence than what are the conclusions in geology to 
which we are conducted by observation and experiment. The general con- 
clusions to be drawn from the foregoing researches seem to be these :— 
That no theory of the earth consists with the phenomena, which does not 
take into account a heat of the surface once amounting to redness ;—that 
the most prominent chemical and crystalline compounds which laid the base- 
ment of the earth’s crust, and continued to penetrate it, as far as into the 
tertiary strata, have disappeared in the present eruptive system ;—that the 
nature, force, and progress of the past conditions of the earth cannot be 
measured by its existing conditions ;—that to deduce accurate inferences in 
the sciences of observation, the attention requires to be directed less to gene- 
ral analogies than to specific and essential distinctions. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 
PLATES IV. & V. 


Section, and Plan, of the furnace in which the deposits lay for 15 years, the number 
of each deposit, external to the boxes, being marked on the plan. 


PLATE VI. 


Fig. 1 (Plan No.4). Tile copper 5 in. X 2} in. X 3 in, coated with laminz of dark, 
red, crystallized oxide of copper, alternating with white and yellow crystallized prot- 
oxide of lead, and with a pink intermixture of crystallized oxides of copper and lead 
covered with sand indurated, but not vitrified, by protoxide of lead. 

a. Twisted filaments of metallic copper. 6. Crystals of red oxide. 

bb. Lamine of crystallized red oxide of copper alternating with protoxide of 
lead, and mixture of oxides of lead and copper. 

c. Particles of metallic copper. ec. Golden metalline spot. 

Fig. 2 (Plan No. 3). Pig lead, 4} in. x 3} in. X 2} in, View of upper surface, show- 
ing green and yellow double oxides of lead and copper, with spots of metallic copper. 

d. Cavity from which lead has sublimed. 
e. Spots of metallic copper. 
f. Double oxides of lead and copper. 


PLATE VII. 

Fig. 3 (Plan No. 3). Pig lead, vertical section, showing exterior and interior 
seams of mixed oxides of lead and copper, green, yellow, and red, with spots of me- 
tallic copper. 

g. Red oxide of copper between lead and indurated sand. 
h. Spots of metallic copper in the interior of the lead. 
i. Oxide of copper and lead. kk, Lead hardened by disseminated oxide. 

Fig. 4 (Plan No.4). Enlarged section of part of fig. 1, showing threads of metallic 
copper. 

Nie. 5 (Plan No.4). Part of fig. 1; enlarged view of pink mixture of crystallized 
oxides of copper and lead, with spots and threads of metallic copper. 


PLATE VIII. 


Fig. 6 (Plan No, 2), Block tin, 3 in. X 2 in. X 1 in., with a coat of transparent cry- 
stallized deutoxide from } in. to 4inch thick, 
1. Striated surface of metal beneath oxide. 
m. Crystals of deutoxide, transparent and colourless. : 
Fig. 7 (Plan No. 1). Zine bar, in indurated sand, fractured, showing a surface 
partly metallic, partly crystalline. 
n. Spiculz of sublimed metal. o. Seam of metal. 
Fig. 8 (Plan No.1). Showing cavernous face of oxide of zinc with crystals of do. 
p. Cupped hollows set with crystals of oxide of zinc, out of which globules of 
metal have sublimed. 


Bottem Stone 16 inches thack 


Dara Tar i ie TO 7 


aq7ia wae en a ores | 


D ‘ 


a od s nt th 
ara yin Me, 


REFERENCES. 


cies Iron rests upon the bottom Stone in the space < feet 4inches in the Section 
and the blast 1s introduced at the small Grclein D° The rigures tronv 1 te 23 on 
the Ground Plan represent the order and situation of the Deposits made in the cavity 
“on the outside of the Boxes. Lhe black tines in the centre of the Ground Plan repre - 
"sent the two Boxes whose two sides meet exactly tn the centre of the Furnace. 

e letters GR.B.C.D, agree with those marked on the Bocces. 


N° L. Zine bar. 2. Coral tn Coral Rag, Tie how Moor Pig Trow. 
; 2 Block Tin. ih = Jo. Lecten in Malton Oolite. 18. Septarium. 
" 4 3. Lig lead. plates Al. Coral, recent . 19. Flagstone : 
4. Tile Copper.| -7-8. LR. halk, 20. Granite . 
5. Lit Shale trom Black Ironstone. 13. N° 11,395. 2L. dnamonite trv Lias . 
6. Black Ball Zronstone. 4. Whale Vertebrx. 2%. Basalt. 
7. Jet. Ls Blue linestone with Shells, 23. Granite Yorks Streets 


8. Echirats in Malton Ovlite. 16. Magnesian Lanesterve . 


ia 
l 
f 


Ground Plan of the furnace . 


Opening where the Blast is introduced 


Bottom Stone L6 tnehes thick. 


Ts 


Front Arch where the 
Furnace ts worked. 


ae ra 

Ss Pe Fas 

2. ee ae 
+e at » 
oe 


> . + 
Oe tes : 
» 2 Aw wick j ba 3° “ae. 
Bf Foe es * 
; Cr ee “ 
7" RIOTS om 
* "y 2 e Pas © 


(Plan V°4 : 


(Plan V?3.) 


Fig 4& 
Plan Ni 4) 


hig 3 
(Plan 


Fig. 7. 
(Plan N71) 


fig. 6. 
(Plan ¥* 2) 


Fig. 8. 
(Plan N’1) 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 193 


Second Report of the Committee on Steam-ship Performance. 


CONTENTS, 

Report. ’ 

Appendix No. I.—Table 1. Table showing the results of performances at sea and on 
the measured mile, of 17 vessels of the Royal Navy, of 22 vessels in the Merchant 
Service, and of two vessels of the United States Navy, together with the particulars 
of their machinery. 

Table 2. Return of the results of performances of 49 vessels in the service of the 
Messageries Impériales of France during the year 1858. 

Appendix No. II.—Table 1. Quarterly returns of the speed and consumption of coal 
of the London and North-Western Company’s express and cargo boats, under 
regulated conditions of time, pressure, and expansion; from January 1 to De- 

cember 31, 1859. 

Table 2. Half-yearly verifications of consumption of coal of the above vessels, 
from January 1 to December 31, 1859. 

Appendix No. ITI.—No. 1. Form of Log-book used by the Royal Mail Company. 

No. 2. Form of Log-book used by the Pacific Steam Navigation Company. 

No. 3. Form of Engineer’s log used by the Peninsular and Oriental Company, 

No. 4. The Admiralty Form for recording the trial performances of Her Majesty's 
steam-vessels. 

No. 5. Board of Trade Form of Surveyor’s Return of Capabilities. 

Appendix No. IV.—Table 1. Showing the ratio between the indicated horse-power 
and the grate, the tube, the other heating, and total heating surfaces; also, between 
the grate and heating surfaces, and between the indicated horse-power and the coal 
consumed, 

Appendix No. V. Letter from Mr. Archbold, Engineer-in-Chief, United States Navy. 
Description of the hull, engines, and boilers of the United States Steam Sloop 

‘Wyoming’. 

Table 1. Return of performance of the ‘ Wyoming’ under steam alone. 

Table 2. Return of performance of the ‘Wyoming’ under steam and sail combined. 
Table showing the trial performances of the steam-vessels ‘Lima’ and ‘ Bogota’ 

when fitted with single cylinder engines, and after being refitted with double 

cylinder engines. Also the sea performances of the same vessels under both these 

conditions of machinery and on the same sea service. 


Report. 


Ar the Meeting of the British Association, held in Aberdeen in September, 
1859, this Committee was re-appointed in these terms :— 

“That the following Members be requested to act as a Committee to con- 
tinue the inquiry into the performance of steam-yessels, to embody the facts 
in the form now reported to the Association, and to report proceedings to 
the next meeting. 

“That the attention of the Committee be also directed to the obtaining of 
information respecting the performance of vessels under sail, with a view to 
comparing the results of the two powers of wind and steam, in order to their 
most effective and economical combination. 

“That the sum of £150 be placed at the disposal of the Committee for 
these purposes.” 

The following gentlemen were nominated to serve on the Committee :— 


Vice-Admiral Moorsom. William Smith, C.E. 

The Marquis of Stafford, M.P. J. E. M¢Connell, C.E. 
The Earl of Caithness. Charles Atherton, C.E. 
The Lord Dufferin. Professor Rankine, LL.D. 
William Fairbairn, F.R.S. J. R. Napier, C.E. 

J. Seott Russell, F.R.S. Richard Roberts, C.E. 
Admiral Paris, C.B. Henry Wright, Hon. See. 


The Hon. Capt. Egerton, R.N. 
1860. o 


194 REFORT—1860. 


Your Committee, having re-elected Admiral Moorsom to be their Chair- 
man, beg leave to present the following Report :— 

They have held monthly meetings, with intermediate meetings of sub- 
Committees appointed to carry out in detail matters referred to them by the 
General Committee. The Committee regret that they were deprived of the 
services of one of their members, Mr. Charles Atherton, at an early stage of 
the present inquiry, his public duties preventing his attending. 

They have been assisted by Corresponding Members ; noblemen and gentle- 
men, who, not being members of your Association, were not, by its rules, 
eligible as members of your Committee. Some of them, however, being 
owners of steam yachts, and others intimately acquainted with all matters 
relating to steam shipping, their cooperation was considered very essential, 
as introducing to the Committee gentlemen, not only capable of dealing with 
the subjects of this inquiry, but who also had it in their power to place in 
the hands of the Committee, materials, which, it is confidently hoped, will 
eventually lead to a correct and scientific knowledge of the laws governing 
economic Steam-Ship Performance. 

The Corresponding Members so elected were :— 


Lord Clarence Paget, M.P., C.B., &e. | Capt. William Moorsom, R.N. (since 


Lord Alfred Paget, M.P. deceased). 

Lord John Hay, M.P. Mr. John Elder. 

The Hon. L. Agar Ellis, M.P. Mr. David Rowan. 
The Earl of Gifford, M.P. Mr. J. E. Churchward. 


The Marquis of Hartington, M.P. Mr. Thomas Steele. 
Viscount Hill. 


It will be within the recollection of the Association that the labours of this 
Committee last year were almost exclusively devoted to explaining to the 
various shipping companies and others with whom they were in correspond- 
ence, the objects proposed, and suggesting such forms as, if accurately filled 
in, would accomplish the purposes contemplated by the British Association. 
Log-books were prepared, and copies furnished to the leading Steam Packet 
Companies. 

At their first meeting the Committee took into consideration the manner 
in which the grant of money placed at their disposal by the Association could 
be most judiciously applied, and after mature consideration it was unani- 
mously resolved :— 

“That to procure information from shipbuilders and engineers, it is found 
to be indispensable to hold personal intercourse with them, without which 
little progress is likely to be made.” 

The Honorary Secretary was accordingly deputed to wait upon the prin- 
cipal Shipbuilders, Engineers, and Steam Shipping Companies in London 
and its vicinity, to explain the objects of the Committee, and to solicit their 
cooperation by furnishing the Committee with authenticated returns of the 
sea performances of vessels, as well as of their trial trips. 

In this your Committee are happy to report that they have succeeded. All 
to whom application was made expressed concurrence in the objects of your 
Committee, and their willingness to render every information in their power. 
The great difficulty was to make a suitable selection of vessels as examples 
of ordinary performance in the mercantile navy. Press of business, and 
perhaps want of thoroughly understanding the aims of the Committee, induced 
them to throw the whole labour of making these returns upon the Committee. 
The log-books for a number of years, and any documents the Committee 
desired to see, were freely placed at their service; but the time required to 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 195 


wade through the masses of logs, together with the fact of the Association 
_ meeting this year nearly three months earlier than usual, rendered it imprac- 
_ ticable for more than a limited amount of work to be got through. It was 
therefore determined to make a selection of certain vessels, and to endeavour, 
as far as possible, to render complete the record of a few. 

Your Committee at the same time communicated with the Admiralty, with 
a view of instituting a similar comparison between the trial trips and ordinary 
performances of Her Majesty's vessels at sea. 

They much regret that they have not been able to obtain the latter. The 
Lords Commissioners, however, very courteously entrusted the Committee 
with the original returns of Her Majesty’s vessels during the years 1857, 
1858, and 1859, as furnished by the officers who conducted such trials, with 
permission to copy and make any use they thought fit of the information 
they contained. Diagrams of the engines taken on the trials during the year 
1859 were also furnished. ' 

Your Committee must remark with regard to these trial performances, that 
they do not appear to be instituted with any other view than as a trial of the 
working of the engines, excepting in a few instances, when experiments have 
been made to test the merits of certain screws. In very numerous cases, the 
officer distinctly reports that the boiler power is insufficient. The speed 
may or may not be taken at the convenience of the officers, but in no case 
: : any note taken of the economical efficiency of the engines with regard to 

uel. 

As your Committee are restricted to a record of facts, it is out of place 
__ here to suggest changes in the mode of conducting the trials of Her Majesty’s 
_ ships. The Committee would, however, fail in their duty if they did not avail 
themselves of this occasion to repeat their conviction, as expressed in their 
last Report,—“ That it would tend to the advancement of science, the im- 
provement of both vessels and engines, and to the great advantage of Her 
Majesty’s service, if the trials of the Queen’s ships were conducted ona more 
comprehensive plan, directed to definite objects of practical utility on a 
scientific basis, and recorded in a uniform manner.” 

In addition to the vessels of the British Royal and Mercantile Navies, your 
Committee have great pleasure in being enabled to lay before the British 
Association a return of forty-nine vessels in the service of the Messageries 
_ Impériales of France, obligingly furnished by a member of the Committee, 
Admiral Paris, and recorded in the form used by that Company ; also, of 
__ two vessels belonging to the United States Navy, the particulars of which 

have been extracted from the second volume of Mr. Isherwood’s recent 
__ publication, entitled “ Engineering Precedents.” They have been introduced 
_ into the Tables (see Appendix, Table I.). 

While this Report was preparing, the Committee were gratified by receiv- 
ing from Mr. Archbold, Engineer-in-Chief, United States Navy, two sets of 
tabulated returns of performance of the United States steam sloop of war 
_* Wyoming,’ under steam alone, and under steam and sail. 

___These returns are of peculiar value, as comprising particulars in a form 
which the Committee believe has never yet been published. Along with the 
_ data afforded by Mr. Isherwood’s book, they give the area of sail spread and 
_ the force of wind by notation, together with other particulars, useful for 
_ caleulations of results and for comparisons. 
_ These Tables are contained in the Appendix, with Mr. Archbold’s letter, 
and a description of the hull, engines, and boilers of the ‘ Wyoming.’ 
The returns furnished by the British Admiralty embrace 216 vessels and 
_ $53 trials, with about 900 diagrams. For the same reason as above stated, in 
o2 


— ere CU 


————————— 


‘© 


os ee agen fd Pe 


paneer 


Or ot ales) 


a 


196 REPORT—1860. 


case of merchant vessels your Committee were obliged to make a selection, 
and to endeavour, for the purposes of the present Report, to obtain a complete 
record of a few, in the form suggested by the Committee. With this view, 
application was again made to the Admiralty, asking for the additional parti- 
culars not embraced in the returns of trial performances already furnished, 
and stating that their Lordships were, of course, aware that the particulars 
given in those documents were of comparatively small value without others 
of the vessels, their engines, screws, and boilers. The Committee added 
that they were in possession of such full particulars from both companies and 
private firms, and they trusted also to be favoured with similar information 
from the Admiralty. To this communication, the Lords Commissioners re- 
plied that they regretted they could not at present supply the information 
desired; but they would be glad to receive a copy of the reports obtained 
from companies and private firms. Your Committee thereupon constructed a 
Table embracing the particulars of merchant vessels (Appendix I., Table 1), 
and also a blank table filled in with the names of Her Majesty’s vessels, 
selected as before mentioned, and containing the results of the test trials 
already given, and furwarded them to the Admiralty, begging that they 
might be favoured with the return of the table of the ships of war with the 
blanks filled in, adding, that if pressure of public business should prevent 
that being done, your Committee would send a person to copy the particulars 
on receiving the sanction of the Lords Commissioners to such a course. 

As a measure of precaution in case of failure on the part of the Admiralty 
to send the promised particulars in time for printing, your Committee ob- 
tained returns of the machinery of these vessels by application to the manu- 
facturers, personally and by letter. They avail themselves of this opportunity 
to thank Messrs. Boulton and Watt, Maudslay Sons and Field, and John 
Penn and Sons, for having so fully and so promptly responded to the call. 
They are, therefore, now enabled to lay before the Association a table com- 
prising the results of the trials furnished by the Admiralty, together with the 
particulars of engines, &c., furnished by the manufacturers: the figures in 
Clarendon type (see Appendix I. Table 1) denote the Admiralty returns, 

Your Committee regret that there are some particulars of the trials still 
wanting, as, for example, the evaporation of water and the consumption of 
fuel; but they believe that hitherto those items have not been recorded, It 
is earnestly hoped, now that public attention has been called to the subject, 
that a more exact and careful account may be taken, both on the measured 
mile and on ordinary service at sea. 

In compiling the Table of merchant vessels, a similar course has been 
adopted, viz. of gathering from the best sources the various details necessary 
to complete the Table. The Companies to which the vessels belonged, gave 
every information in their possession, not only of the vessels themselves, but 
also of their actual sea performances, and placed at the disposal of the Com- 
mittee the sea logs for every voyage, with permission to make such extracts 
as they deemed proper. For any additional information, they were referred 
to the constructors of the engines and vessels. Your Committee cannot 
speak in too high terms of the constant readiness to give information, 
although at considerable inconvenience to themselves, which the various 
Companies and private firms have invariably shown. They feel assured that, 
had time permitted, and if the requisite labour could be devoted to it, the 
whole shipping community would willingly contribute their quota of statistics : 
all that is wanted is uniformity of arrangement, and that a form similar to the 
one proposed by the Committee be generally adopted. 

The thanks of the British Association are especially due to the Royal 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE, 197 


Mail Steam Packet Company, to the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, to 
the London and North-Western Railway Company, to Messrs. Inglis Bro- 
thers, Messrs. Randolph and Elder, Messrs. Caird and Co., Messrs. R. Na- 
pier and Sons, and to Captain Walker, of the Board of Trade. 

Captain Walker very obligingly placed at the service of the Committee 
some of the books in which the vessels registered and surveyed by the Board 
of Trade are recorded, and your Committee are in possession of copies of the 
entries of 51 vessels, varying from 600 to 2000 tons register and upwards, 
registered in the ports of London, Liverpool, Southampton, and Glasgow, 
during 1858. These have formed a very useful guide in leading to a selec- 
tion of vessels from which to obtain the particulars requisite for comparison. 

Your Committee have been in communication also with the French and 
American ambassadors, with a view to obtaining the statistics of perform- 
ance of their respective navies ; and, after referring the matter to their home 
Governments, the Committee have received the assurance of their willingness 
to cooperate. 

Your Committee, being precluded by the terms of their appointment from 
discussing theories, or attempting to deduce laws, have, nevertheless, thought 
it not inconsistent to prepare a table of ratios based on the indicated horse- 
power, and showing the ratio between that element, as developed on the 
measured mile, and the grate, the tube, and other heating surfaces of the 
boilers producing it; also, between the grate and heating surfaces, and be- 
tween the indicated horse-power and the coal consumed. The Committee 
regret that this important item, the coal, is not more frequently recorded, 
very few private trials making any note of it; and in no instance brought 
under the notice of the Committee, have the Admiralty officers made known 
this element, so necessary for ascertaining the efficiency of the boilers (for 
Table of Ratios, see Appendix IV. Table 1). 

The following is a general summary of the result of the Committce's 
labours during the past session. They have obtained :— 

1. Returns of 353 trials by 216 of Her Majesty’s vessels of war during the 
years 1857, 1858, and 1859, with about 900 (898) diagrams taken during 
the trials in 1859; also notes, by the officers conducting the trials, of 
observed facts. 

Of these trials, fifty-eight made by seventeen of the vessels, have been 
selected by way of illustration, with the particulars of machinery obtained from 
the makers, and arranged in a tabular form. (See Table 1, Appendix 1) 
The names of the vessels are the ‘ Diadem,’ ‘ Doris,’ ‘ Mersey,’ ‘ Marlborough,’ 
‘Orlando,’ ‘Renown,’ ‘ Algerine,’ ‘Bullfinch,’ ‘Centaur,’ « Flying Fish,’ 
‘ Hydra,’ ‘Industry,’ ‘ James Watt,’ « Leven,’ ‘ Lee,’ « Slaney,’ and ‘ Virago.’ 
This Table also comprises the two American vessels, ‘ Niagara’ and ‘ Massa- 
chusetts,’ together with the British vessel ‘ Rattler,’ introduced for compari- 
son. 

2. Returns of 68 merchant vessels. 

Four diagrams taken during trials of the ‘ Atrato.’ 

Scale of displacement of the ‘ Atrato.’ 

Lines of ditto. 

Eight diagrams of the ‘Shannon’ taken during trials. 

Twenty-two of these vessels have been selected and tabulated. (See Ap- 
pendix I. Table 1.) Their names are— Anglia,’ ‘Cambria,’ ¢ Scotia,’ ¢ Tele- 
graph,’ ‘ Mersey,’ ‘ Paramatta,’ ‘Shannon,’ ‘ Tasmanian,’ ‘ Oneida,’ ¢ Atrato,’ 
‘La Plata,’ ‘Lima,’ ‘San Carlos,’ ‘ Valparaiso,’ ‘ Bogota,’ ‘ Callao,’ Guaya- 
quil,’ ‘ Undine,’ ‘ Erminia,’ ‘ Admiral,’ ‘ Emerald,’ and ‘John Penn. 

The returns of the first four, belonging to the London and North-Western 


198 REPORT—1860. 


Railway Company, are the mean of a number of trips on actual service be- 
tween Holyhead and Kingstown. ‘The returns of the ‘ Erminia,’ ‘Admiral,’ 
‘Emerald,’ and ‘John Penn,’ are measured mile performances only ; but the 
remaining 12 vessels, with the exception of the ‘ Undine, show their sea 
performances over distances of about 6000 consecutive nautical miles each, 
in addition to the performances on the measured mile. 

3. Return of the results of performance of 49 vessels in the service of the 
Messageries Impériales of France, recorded in the form used by that Com- 
pany. ‘The whole of these vessels are given in the Appendix. (Appendix I. 
Table 2.) 

4. Quarterly returns of the speed and consumption of coal of the London 
and North-Western Company’s express and cargo boats, under regulated con- 
ditions of time, pressure, and expansion, from January 1st to December 31st, 
1859—presented by Admiral Moorsom. (Appendix II. Table 1.) 

Half-yearly verifications of the consumption of coal of the above vessels, 
from January 1st to December 31st, 1859, (Appendix II. Table 2.) 

5. Forms of log-book used by the Royal Mail Company (Appendix III. 
No. 1), by the Pacific Steam Navigation Company (No.2), by the Peninsular 
and Oriental Mail Company (No.3), the Admiralty form for recording trials 
of Her Majesty’s vessels (No. 4), and the Board of Trade form of return of 
capabilities (No. 5). 

6. Table showing the ratio between the indicated horse-power and the 
grate, the tube, the other heating and total heating surfaces; also, between 
the grate and heating surfaces, and between the indicated horse-power and 
coal consumed. (Appendix IV.) 

From the above list, it will be readily conceived that the time of the Com- 
mittee has been fully occupied, as the task of copying and condensing from 
log-books is one involving a large amount of labour. Your Committee have 
not therefore, as yet, been enabled to conduct experiments on the plan 
recommended in their first Report presented to the Association in Aberdeen. 
They have, however, kept that branch of their inquiry in view; and through 
the courtesy of Mr. A. P. How, of Mark Lane, and of Messrs. Tylor and 
Sons, of Warwick Lane, they have been presented with apparatus of the 
value of about £60, consisting of salinometers, and an engine counter and 
clock; they have also at their disposal, for use whenever required, a superior 
dynamometer, and a compound stop-watch, and are now prepared to pro- 
ceed with experiments, should the Association see fit to renew their powers, 
and the consent of the Government be obtained. 

The Committee regret that they have not been able to collect any such 
information respecting the performance, under sail alone, of steam-vessels, 
as was contemplated by the Association, “with a view to comparing the 
results of the two powers of wind and steam, in order to their most effective 
and economical combination.” 

They must, however, draw attention to the synopsis given by Mr, Isher- 
wood, of the steam-log of the ‘ Niagara, in which her performances, “ under 
steam alone,” “under steam and fore-and-aft sails,” and “‘ under steam and 
square sails combined,” are set forth in such manner that those conversant 
with the subject will be enabled, without much difficulty, to assign its approxi- 
mate value to the power of the sails alone. 

In Mr. Archbold’s Table of the performance of the ‘ Wyoming,’ the addi- 
tional particulars of the force of the wind by notation, the area of sail set, 
and the indicated horse-power, which are not always stated in Mr. Isher- 
wood’s synopsis, afford the means of tolerably accurate comparison. 

It is a duty the Committee owe to themselves, to express thus publicly 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 199 


their sense of the services rendered to the Association by Mr. Henry Wright, 
their Honorary Secretary, whose untiring energy, indefatigable labours, judg- 
ment, and discretion, have enabled them to lay this information before the 
meeting. 

To Mr. Smith, a member of the Committee, their acknowledgements are 
due, as well for the use of a room in his offices, as for several sources of 
information opened to them by his influence. 

The Marquis of Stafford, by placing a room in his house at the disposal 
of the Committee for occasional meetings, has contributed materially to the 
personal convenience of the members. 

Of the grant of £150 voted by the Council of the Association, to defray 
the expenses of printing, postage, collecting information, &c., £124 3s. 10d. 
has been expended, viz.— 


o's fe 

Peprniuog last year’s Report ....... ...0--00cesncces Beware) oot 
SenmrIMinn present Report. ... 52). -saa- sees ecco recess (8 14.0 
To stationery and miscellaneous printing = GU Gt Mieedeecltn..0 5) RG Dee D 
EMUMINEIE sic ne, 2 50S iv Mete sae amo satel v olple ey ia bide She whee a ‘iain abe 
To sundry expenses, ‘including cab hire and railway fares, incurred 812 6 
by the Honorary Secretary whilst collecting information .... 812 6 
Votal expenditure 55.5% Vit. Fae. he's £124 3 10 


Balance of grant remaining unexpended....£25 16 2 


It was originally intended to institute inquiries, not only in London and its 
vicinity, but also in Glasgow, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol, Southampton, New- 
eastle-on-Tyne, &c., and for this purpose it would have been necessary to 
defray the expenses of an agent to conduct the inquiry; but the shortness 
of the session, together with the extended field which London presents, ren- 
dered that course impracticable. 

Your Committee feel, that a beginning having thus been made towards the 
means of a scientific investigation of the performance of ships under differ- 
ing conditions at sea and in smooth water, it would ill become the British 
Association for the Advancement of Science to drop the question, although 
expense as well as trouble is involved in its successful pursuit. 

They recommend the reappointment of a Committee, with a renewal of 
the grant, and with power to remunerate a clerk for such services as cannot 
be undertaken by any of its members. 

On behalf of the Committee, 
C. R. Moorsom, Vice-Admiral, 


19 Salisbury Street, Strand, London, Chairman. 
June 13th, 1860. 


WNote.—Since the above Report was written, and whilst in the press, infor- 
mation was forwarded to the Committee which has enabled them to compile the 
Table given in the Supplementary Appendix, showing very interesting com- 
parative results of two vessels, the ‘Lima’ and ‘ Bogota,’ when fitted with 
different systems of machinery. The Table shows the results of perform- 
ances on trial of these vessels when fitted with single-cylinder engines, and 
also at sea on a voyage of upwards of 6000 miles; also their performances 
when fitted with double-cylinder engines. 


ERRATA.—Larce TABLE—APPENDIX I. 


‘ Atrato’ on trial, Stokes Bay, Jan. 22, 1857, omit Indicated Horse power 1128°42. 
Ditto, ditto, Mar. 4, 1857, for Indicated Horse power 1198°22° 
yead 2396°44, 


200 


Appenp1x I.—TAsBLE 


Name of vessel. 


Guirinal ........... 


Seer +2 ane 
Méandre 


eee eeweneeee 


sere eeeee 


QOBITIS 5 i052 ateuien oat 


Bosphore ........- 
Hellespont ........ 
Qronteecsssed.<.2 
Philippe Auguste 
Merovée 
Cheliff 


Aventin ..........+. 
Leonidas ..........+ 
Tage ¥ 
Tancréde 

Télémaque 
Amsterdam 
Périclés 


se eeereeeee 


Totals 


see eeeene 


Nominal horse-power. 


REPORT—1860. 


2. 


revolutions. 
Mean number of reyolu- 
tions by counter. 


Corresponding number of 


| 24 
| 27-5] 2 


h num- 


Nominal power realized 
ber of revolutions obtained. 


corresponding wit 


Total distance run. 


Hours 


Under 
weigh. 


Under 
steam. 


h 


841 
2211 
805 


2781 
2677 
1686 
1822 
2359 
2269 


6106 
3244 
4320 
6870 

218 
63808 
5795 
5393 
5370 
2668 

890 
1174 
5512 
5454 
1223 
6129 
5104 
63874 


284945 
5815 


2793 
1967 
1911 
3108 
2537 
3514 
1862 
2018 
525 2 
2107 
1671 
1485 
2168 
2320 
1969 
2285 
1924 
1017 
1424 
2162 


2543 
2528 20 


1904 


116152 30| 92733 


2370 1893 


m m 
25| 1462 15 
2077 50 
2556 15) 
2622 15 
2786 10 


30 
40 
1400 40 
25 
25 
55 
45 
50 
36 


2125 55) 


Results of Performances of the Steam-ships in 


Mean pressure of steam. 


Mean cut-off. 


ee ee 


Mean vacuum in condenser. 


0°65 | 0:50 


ots 


nae 


Notz.—Metre = 3:2809 feet = 393702 inches 


} 


<3 


1,935,570 
2,180,496 

543,000 
2,268,404 
1,704,550 
1,414,570 


1,259,626 
1,350,790 


3-46) 0°33} 2,081,867 | 1099 
0, = 220549 Ibs, Avoirdupois, 


Consumption of coal. 


| 2 

= a3 = ? 3 Pet 3 u 
¢| 8 Total g | Fe '|eul es 
Ble e | £8 leelas 
A Sie ewes lee 
= [2 |ERg* 
K kilo. kilo. | kilo.| kilo 
- 1483 465 | 40) 48 
2 1390 432 | 3-7| 46 
: 1533 450 | 41) 48 
; 1248 384 | 3:4] 3-4 
Fi 14380 411 | 3:8} 3-9 
52 1675 416 | 45) 44 
3 1586 462 | 4:9) 5-4 
: 1529 414 | 47} 5-0 

. 1605 489 | 45 

“6% 1547 477 | 51 

> 1644 495 | 5-4 

“62 1130 345 | 4:7 

Y 1222 369 | 50 

2 1268 423 | 53 

E 1215 336 | 5:0 

a 3,336,095 | 1191 387 | 4:9 

: 1,983,785 | 1008 318 | 4:2 

1:33} 1,906,803 997 800 | 41 

q 2,950,203 949 3809 | 4:7 

9} 2,470,000 | 972 315 | 48 

bd} 3,692,912 | 1051 348 | 5:2 

47 


372 | 49 
348 | 46 
366 | 59 
372 | 46 


St SUB HS G2 DH HH HS CHS OUT HS HS OT OT UH CUT Ou 
HK ROMTROTATWHHAAAR WK MARSHESAS 


348 | 4:3 
339 | 5-4 
354 | 5:6 
806 | 4-2 
300 | 4-2 
309 | 5-4 
303 | 5:3 


288 | 48) 5-0 
306 | 5:4) 53 
836 | 53) 57 
821 | 51] 5-1 
279 | S51} 55 
267 | 54) 5:2 
279 | 5-7) 59 
246 | +7) 48 
303 | 43] 53 
383 | 47) 5-9 
270 | 49} 59 
212 | 5:0} 5:7 
282 | 3:9} 49 
330 | 5:3} 55 
261 | 47} 55 

5:2] 5:2 


358 | 48) 5:1 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 


201 


the Service of the “ Messageries Impériales” of France during the year 1858. 


Consumption of 


oil and tallow. 3 
B= | 
s 
pele 
n 
° 5 Zz 
Fe a) oO 
Total. 3 Py 
uo 
= a s 
i] 
o oO 
5 & S 
Ay 
kilo kilo knots 


. (184943 |10°521 


3774 | 0-214) 9:21 


Mean speed estimated. 


8:81 


9°30 


9°82 


peed 
of nine knots, 


Consumption of fuel per 


mi 


le reduced to the s 


oo He Be 
ict 


78 
352 


iS) 


Go 09 
— 
02 GO 


303 
329 


bo 
=I 
or 


291 


SSSs 
2 8 6 
© He O> 


Co poe 
Nol &) 
= 


35 

287 
246 
296 


300 
348 
458 
402 
359 
381 
450 
429 
298 
311 
308 
332 
275 
269 
282 
275 
277 
354 
297 
224 
232 
224 
499 
586 
293 
401 
359 
445 
287 
211 


16782 
342 


Distance run with 1000 
kilogrammes of coal at the 
speed of nine knots. 


métres, 
13,517 
14,684 
15,766 
16,939 
17,729 
18,311 
16,878 
20,181 
14,181 
13,741 
14,025 
18,843 
18,299 
13,096 
14,096 
15,592 
19,341 
22,547 
18,713 
18,472 
15,962 
12,673 
13,804 
15,484 
14,575 
12,338 
12,945 
18,639 
17,820 
15,494 
16,715 
20,165 
20,595 
19,668 
20,160 
14,723 
15,667 
18,652 
24,802 
23,856 
24,781 
11,120 

9,469 
18,985 
13,851 
15,460 
12,465 
19,318 
26,208 


| 


31,295 
16,945 


202 REPORT—1860. 


Appenpix IT.—Taste 1. Chester and Holyhead Railway—Steam-boat 
Express and Cargo Boats, under regulated conditions of Time, 


Passages. 


No. Average Agius 

of rate of jweight 
Vessel. Date. trips ed | “pn 

run, miles. |valves. 


5 1859. hm h h lbs 
Eupress: 1 Jan. to 31 March ...| 73 | 8 24%) 4 0 | 449 | 13-40 | 1 
reek 1 April to 30 June ...| 47] 7 380] 420 | 4 37 | 1364 | 15 
eg ta hota & 1 July to 30 Sept. ...} nil. 
1 Oct. to 31 Dee. ...... 36| 526| 424 | 449 | 13:08 | 15 
1 Jan. to 381 March ...} nil. 
Carebtia 1 April to 30 June ...| 836 | 5 29] 417 | 431 | 18:95 | 15 
a sr 1 July to 30 Sept. ...|75| 516] 413 | 427 | 1415 | 15 
1 Oct. to 31 Dec....... 44| 555| 421 | 441 | 1845 | 16 
1 Jan. to 31 March ...| 81 | 7 28%} 4 6 | 445 | 1326 | 15 
ate 1 April to 30 June ...| 34] 6 48] 416 | 440 | 1350 | 15 
ware ards 1 July to 30 Sept. ...| nil. 
1 Oct. to 31 Dec....... 41| 615] 420 | 449 | 1308 | 15 
1 Jan. to 31 March ...| nil. 
1 April to 30 June ...| 37] 5 0} 4 7 | 430 | 1403 | 10 
Telegraph ...... 1 July to 30 Sept. .../83| 6 7] 411 | 4 40 | 1350 | 10 
1 Oct. to 31 Dee. ...... 40| 6 O| 427 | 458 | 1268 | 10 
Sarge: 1 Jan. to 31 March ...| 77| 917 | 5 40 | 6 44 | 1039 | 15 
hee 1 April to 30 June ...| 76 | 9 27] 5 44 | 6 28 | 1083 | 15 
oir ae a 1 July to 30 Sept. ...| 63 | 8 33] 545 | 635 | 1063 | 15 
1 Oct. to 81 Dec....... 77|1215| 540 | 6 47 | 10:31 | 15 
1 Jan. to 81 March ...| 26} 1115] 615 | 755 | 884 | 12 
1 April to 30 June ...| 87 | 9 25 | 555 | 6 22 | 10-41 | 12 
sors 1 July to 30 Sept. ..... 75 | 12 45| 6 0 | 727 | 939 | 12 
1 Oct. to 31 Dec. ...... 49|1335| 635 | 816] 846 | 12 
1 Jan. to 31 March ...| 71]10 O0| 715 |] 8 3 848 } 10 
1 April to 30 June ..| 7{| 8 5| 7 O | 728 | 9:37 | 10 
bess! 1 July to 30 Sept. .../ 28/1115 | 6 O | 6 57 | 1007 | 10 
1 Oct. to 31 Dec....... $9). 11-15'-615 | 738 (1937) 18 
1 Jan. to 31 March ...| 56113 5| 545 | 656 | 1009 | 12 
1 April to 30 June ...| 65 | 735| 530 | 6 14 | 11-23 | 12 
1 July to 30 Sept. ...| 75 | 730| 520 | 6 7 | 11-44 | 12 
1 Oct. to 31 Dee. ...... 91 | .8 20} 5 20 | 6 30 | 10-76 | 12 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE, 203 


Department.—A Return of the Speed and Consumption of Coal of the 
Pressure, and Expansion, for the undermentioned Period. 


Coals consumed. 


Average 


Proportion of Per trip Per hour Per hour 
pressure] steam in cylinder. | including | including | exclusive of Remarks. 
aE getting up raising raising 
steam and | steam, bank- | steam, bank- 
while lying ing fires, ing fires, 
at Holyhead. &e, &e, 
Ibs. tons cwt. Ibs. |tons cwt. lbs. |tons ewt, Ibs. 
ir) iS a 121112 | 213 47) 2 30| * Heavy gale, W.N.W. 


bo b 


13 | f¢and none | 111714 | 211 40| 119 28| — Based engines. 


123 | 18andnone | 1210 3 | 211 101} 119 79 
133 26 11-15 37 | 212 11] 119 80 
133 2s 12 211 | 214 33} 2 1 50 
133 ze 138 17 66 | 219 28) 2 6 45 
12 coe 13 138 59 | 217 65) 2 5 63) * Heavy gale, W.N.W. 
19,|} “fzond2e | 12 998 | 215100; 2 3 98| Based engines, 
103 18 1813 71 | 216 90} 2 4 71 
HEPER  fecetezs000...-: 12 17 60 | 217 15) 2 4 35 
10 none Ther e | an A O82 oe lO 
93 none 1418 25 | 219 41) 2 6 65 
7s of) ISelswU 2S SS |p els ais 
7 a 13 13 54 | 2 2 32|/ 114 12 
7s 38 1415 96 | 2 4101} 116 78 
7s a8 1413823 | 2 4 23) 116 O 
103 none Sell64 | 11s 7 17 98 
RENN fr cers << :-+-5s-- 8) 895621) ll 618) 4k 
11 none GolD 28 \eil eT rAO 17 39 
103 none Cha) ZU de ale ste) 17 88 
9 none Qre2r dey ale 2ae72 isi alg 
TUM Niece so. .00e. 102 6£.| tit) 16) V. 6 i 
8 none 9: Te24-| 1 8+ 36) 1 3983 
| 83 none 11 221 |} 1 9 48] 1 4 95] Norg.—Orders are given 
to the vessels, in gales and 
10 | 2nd grade ll 724/112 86] 1 4 45/heavy head sea, to ease 
10 | land2 grade | 10 861 | 113 51} 1 5 10) the engines, which occa- 
10 | land2 grade | 10 11 20 | 114 54} 1 5 _ 6/sionally increases the ave- 
93 | land2 grade | 11 1812 | 115 39) 1 6 103) rage passage. 


and full speed 


204 REPORT—1860. 

Appenpix IJ].—Tarie 2. Chester and Holyhead Railway—Steam-boat 
Department.—Chester and Holybead Steam-boats’ Consumption of Coal 
for the Six Months ending 30th June, 1859. 


Total as shown 
b 


Num- Average mm, y 
Th th Total f 

Name of vessel. pees . = i pe i oe oe the sitar pair rasta 

coal on board. 

1859. tons ewt. Ibs. tons cwt. lbs. tons cwt. Ib. 

Anglia. ies cose roma oF li iy df] 147315 78] 1458 8 0 
Cambri March 31. 

sao a June 30 ... 11 15 37 493 11100| 426 4 0 

Bookin 2a. ho. pone 1313 591) 1532 11 47] 1575 13 0 
March 31. 

Telegraph ....... June 30 ... 12 17 60 476 8 92| 49812 0 

Hibernia ......... pores 13 13 b4f| 210918 23] 2104 19 0 

Hercules «........ Earring Sil Gfl) 533 18 94.) 585 15. 0 

Ocean seve son a nie? Wi eoraie “0 | p28 Th 

Sea Nymph...... Pet. ce Mgowar tls eae ee 

8137 0 31] 8202 3 0 


AprenpDIx II.—Tasre 3. Chester and Holyhead Railway—Steam-boat 
Department.—Chester and Holyhead Steam- boats’ Consumption of 
Coal for the Six Months ending 3lst December, 1859. 


1859 tons ewt, lbs. tons cwt. Ibs. tons ewt, Ib. 
Anglia ...sses.- {res | 36 | 1210 3 | 450 0108| 44917 0 
Cambria ......... Pept 30 | Te aay eat |) Wsle1l eeyaaieg 1000 
Sle RO {esr | 41 | 131371 | 56018111] 568 6 0 
Telegraph ......\{ Dees | fo | 1413 25¢| 170811 60] 1688 3 0 
Hibernia ......... {RPr sy? | 8 | i213 a3 f| 206015 91) 2074 16 
Hercules .......-. SPE EO ee ty 1087 12> be | ames aes 
Dcomtee ee {ree re dE 
Sea Nymph...... ort a ie ta ie + |; 1852 1b 1d iaeeeceee 

9820 14 27] 9823 


205 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE, 


*‘sUTeTOY 


— |—_—$———$ | 


*kepsojsaX uoou 


*u00U Je VdULzSIP pus duireag *SIOHUI[D Pu Soyse 93sB/\\ 
d0uls papuedxg 


Ss 


*adaeyo 
uo AyQUUNy 
‘wv “PLEMIOT *suoT[ea “aid ‘syd “syed | ‘syd «sped a 989 “Mo *Sq[ "949 SU0} “u01jdiasoq 
*Soy quaqed s0d “708 S[lUs “dn urea3s a oe | ee ee ee ee eee) Ss Ae 
und 90uvzsIqy Sinoy JO ‘ON sanoy JO "ON. 
: *WOIsIOTUT “1078 MA TO *“MOTTRL Tt) 


" *padrasqo | “wouolyd *yunov0v = |‘apnqtZuo] Jo} *paaresqo *quno20% 
TONCHEA | apnyZuory | epnzisuoy | apnyZuoy | aouasayiq | epnzyeT apnjzyey 


*apngziyey Jo 
aouatayt(y 


*aanqivdaq *90uv}sIq *osmnop 


| 
| 


*gorAgas § Auvdulog 943 Y}IM poqzoduU0d dounIs 
sumosto A19A9 pojoUu ATaNUIUL aq OF SI ULUNOD S14} UT 


‘adieyqo 
Ul sig9ULdUy 


Saou IE 
zazea jo Azisuaq 
*S][aM 307] 

Jo ainjesoduay, 


*1o7VAA Ss ,a9dULT 
-ua Jo uoyeInGg 


“spat. 
smoujey 
*sjouy 
*sasmmog 

sno Hy 


‘SHUVNAY 


“SITIO UI Ide 
JO JY S19Y adeIsAy 
*yo Jurmojq a10jaq 

*yoqzem rod 


pautnsuod s[vog 


*1ajomI0IEq, 
aur3ua jo yyS1ay uvayy 


qysram ut Avs ‘speoo 
jo uordumsuoo Ajin0xy 
*f[noy Surysroa 
aatsuvdxa jo aa13aq 
*yozeA\ Jad suonnypoaay | 
*agnuru Jad suoynjoaay | 
‘a3ned-tivs4s Jo 4 S1azT 
"798 S]IUs JO ‘ON 


*sanoy anoy AloAy 


wo1y 


ahs: ep aq} ‘Aep ————- Butanp 


diyg sAurduog yoxyoug meayg prey teMoy vrpuy ys9AQ4 OY} JO So'T *[ AIAV], —]]] Xlanaaay 


———— 


soouisug ys —SSCSCSCSCSSSSOSOOOOSOCOCOSSCOSSSSO:~C~CS TATU QUITTING, 
Noms -- aa a a PCLIAGING) 
“LopuvUTULOD ‘qoortOd 4 PUNOF pus ‘pxvog wo Surureutod SoNTURND oT} YITA 41 poawdurod ‘oroqv oy} pourmmex OAvT O AA 
‘anBdOa 044 JO 
mOTBUTULIe} 
ayy 4B paxvoq 
Oo Surureutayy 
“*** quourtedeg Surpreg | poumsuoo 
“** guounasdeq oursug J somyuen? 
p ajstnid nals sini oba\o(a(hiifin/e's nfolelole)o'eie/ slate s[eqoy, 
S 
Ze) 
@ adeoa 
Li qe] TOAy pxvod wo 
| Sururues Ayguengy 
B SQT | SAT | "STS | “S73 40-9 ur yjur yf uray ur “ay 
. PS] eds | cael egal a ceniegel [eal ase eee 
2 S| 12) d — 482 mee 4 Bele : : 
a ‘ong ‘Tony quayed ‘[voo yo toNdriosep pus | + | A rg wml Ss? Be ete. |) et og Ge 
pe Ayyenb oy} {amo00 prnoys Aue zr ‘Avpop jo pre bs as § | fe E Saeis ia 5 i E 3 |B 2 = a 8 = a 5 
{Mourypowmt pus [[nY JO uoryTpuoo ayy 04v98s aL0FT 4/9 3 EB | 25, |.85|9 Fail Ati eA ina el om &)}e] & sadvdod 019 
2 2, Ealee. ke & E | o g 3 B | 4 2 Fa ; F| ; Surmp popisia 8410q 
les aE] TEL S|FIEI* | 8 
‘(apis Jeyyo ey} UO panuyuos oq Aevum YOrYM) SYTeULOT *paxvoqg Wo poatooayy asBIOAy ‘sommgaedaq. “‘STRALLIW 


‘sinoy —— skep ———— ‘pardnooo oury, 
24} papua pus “————_ 7 “| “——_ Jo Aep ——_ 94} poouauimoy 


amaiealos ae eee Loe ce 


“euUBUe 0} youd pure OsteredeA 07 vueneg woz osvoA v OF 
diys-tvayg sAuvdu0g uonestaen ureayg oyloeg 94} Jo JoouSaq pure ‘191g ysuq “lapuruMOD oy} Aq uanjoy 


"——— "on adviog § JaWUILIIG *Z TIGV[.— ]]] XIGNaday 


206 


2 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 207 


Aprrnpvix JII—Tasrez 3. Peninsular and Oriental Company's Engineer’s 


Log. 
| 
aoe: 2 
4 o 2 2m 3 
i) 1 eH u = H Cay Se fe) 
q m ns a a 3 sv rc) o.|9 
3! 2 a] a a see I are es ‘dd _Joslofl/e. n 
dial & | 23] 8 |E5] & |3s/84)/ 88/238] a8] = 
B/Si/o; ® ee S| SB Sa |Gopeang let | as (0) = 
Date. o|e v 3B 10'S as} °o © | ssh hy bservations. 
O} ey a 2 S) 2S a = ee ad (eo Us = | 
Hels] 6 | os] ss] © l|eS| oe] 89] BE) BS] 3 
Bao Af SiS (ier | Se are |) Smee acy el eae 
o| 3 ya | = 8 & z O°} 90] & 
a) eB |g Bere patie oie 
o Ea iS) 
AppENDIx II].—Taste 4. 
Yard. 
Report of trial of Her Majesty’s steam vessel 
Date 
TIRE TIRES coc etic ccs sa ccece cece catesecececsavastevevedess 
REED Mee, Sync detache cakes eIdeehecd sa havadeasd divas 


Draught of water... { “Aft 


_ Number of revolutions of the engines ...............6.:00000 


BreRSHeR OU Mateby VALVE. .......c6ssccsccsesececeesseccacessensons 
MURR TE CONCENSCES « oi.cc5sascdedet odetaceLobadscencoetcdecass 


merower-as shown by indicator .............cccsssccsccseneseteeees 


o 


SRMES DEE C res tate apd svdcdocs tee. fa cbs deehewsesecasetuedaneds 


Indicator cards and tracings are attached to this Report. 


Remarks as to the performance of the engines, boilers, &c. 


Revolutions of aie 7 
No. of runs. exigines per minute. time. pore Mean speeds. peed 
Min. | Sec. 


| | EE 


Knots mean 
| of means. 


[Note—Appendix III. No. 5 carried to bottom of Tables opposite page 216. 


- 


208 REPORT—1860. 


ApprenDIx IV.—Tasce showing the Ratios between the indicated Horse- 


indicated Horse-power ; 


Name of vessel. 


VESSELS OF THE Unitep States Navy. 


Niagara (screw) Performance in smooth water 


Place and nature of performance. 


Ordinary actual performance at sea under 


also, between the grate and heating sur- 


Statute miles. 


$i. | Voasinenniesnabuas esas <ch’s cdadbaasnwe neve’ 
steam alone.s.sc.<cscs-cccespaees eee eee 
Sic \ weadacemerpenne ens haces ieiadeshoweveceen Ditto ditto, steam and square sail combined|11°51 
Ay. A avasgestpasenes seadatensersesdaesbadenseds Ditto ditto, steam and fore-and-aft sails...| 8°55 
ry) apbboseacastagcdo pce conenerecn et Conds Mean of the above sea performance......... 9°75 
Massachusetts (Screw) ....ssseceecsersereesees Performance in smooth water ............00+ 
ary i, WRI Gabor cnoatco. cote boscodoceantiqanc Ordinary performance at sea under steam 
BIONE ...,.0%.se0cceekeasists's deus sepanctnceoeee tet 
Sey Neha ciueaectat entre tears ieene asec Ditto ditto, steam and sail combined ...... 
Be CORR ees Necacemmconeamnedsas sent Mean of the above sea performances ...... 
VessEts or THE Roysn Navy. 
attler (screw ))i.ss-cccsossteccese<teonsvenosu0 On trial, Thames, Sept. 5, 1844 ............ 
ST lo rets tenia scae caece cat van chimtenatlenwes Ditto ditto Jan. 1845 ctasseecnaceen 
Fy) be casduenececcietedea teres d-cussauacecedensd Ditto ditto  Sept..5, 1851 .o.....0.0.2 
Sate WE cnet OM rcahnaek Glan de tenceetakeousasedes Ditto ditto Sept. 5, USS] « Stegivessask 
PiNdeMN(SCLEW)|.sece0— cavsmastesaseeaseeeesa4 .|Ditto, Stokes Bay, Oct. 20, 1857 ............ 
sh RAPIER EOE Corer Tee Mercreconcne ey ‘|Ditto ditto Oct. D1 ie hee 
Reh ME MsiewCecscssaesageteceteuncuesevepeeess as eae (Ditto ditto Nov 757.45 ee 
ay VL besiae canhapacscerages cece nants tentberst Ditto ditto Dee? 1, ae 
Phe Heaton eet coccr er scl Oaeae Ditto ditto Jansd 1858. ose 
gy was thversh Scents oss wetese neotauee ease eS Ditto ditto April 16, 1858 
WOVIS (CREW)... scrsnocsvecderspate ce tesecteer se Ditto, Stokes Bay, May 27, 1859............ 
3» (with common screw)...........+2+00++ Ditto ditto April : 21, 49, ecnuranaceel 
y, (common ser#w increased to 20) ...|Ditto ditto May 5,— 3, ieescnerete 
» (Ditto, with two foremost corners 
CUE NSED)) Paes oa de eee ep eee ede set Ditto ditto May 9, %,,. Weeseteue 
», (Ditto, with four corners cut off) .../Ditto ditto May 23, 5;  sectesstacee 
yy (TEENS RCKEW)!.;... accesses anesedee Ditto ditto May 25, 5, saeeetee 
» (Ditto ditto) ..|Ditto ditto May 27, 4, ss.sseerees 14 130 12-266} 
» (Ditto ditto) Ditto ditto dune $3, 5, sitvscateae 14:006 |12°15 
Marlborough (screw) ...sccsccecceeseeneeeees Ditto, Stokes Bay, June 1, 1859 ............ 12-94 
Bi es Soest ee ae Ditto ditto June 2, 4, sserseeveeee 12-92 
_ (with half-boiler power) ...|Ditto ditto DUNE D, 59 cevbecnanare 10-62 
A Ds 2 ae ee a ee Ditto ditto May 28, <5; <cbvecsweeee 12-24 
Mersey (Screw) <cte.0s<soecessacscosevevavouses Ditto, Stokes Bay, March 23, 1859 ......... 15-31 
(Renown: (screw) Sccseveecaceetvotneatwercas ies Ditto, Stokes Bay, April 19, 1858 ......... 12-902 |11-2 © 
Pe Pree SAM nS test ishicerd: notice Ditto, between Sheerness and Nore, Oc- 
LODER Og Ope ssacees «+. cosets suze saaceaneorsee 12-533 {10-88 
$50. | levesaswaies tc kocia ee gate eee OR ERT CEE Reon Ditto, between Sheerness and Sunk Light, 5 
October S07 feac.s.ccer.ceceoscne saeealeee 12-533 |10-838 
j5: .. cemvarapiebean semnebercevoubpans emt netors Ditto, between Sheerness and Swim Middle, | 
October, SO: TBAT. wins sisecgacacsnnceneumens 14-573 |12-65 
Oy. hesdaccutegabanecereeccesescenetmeetmenee es Ditto, down the Swim, October 30, 1837 .. 


-|14:573 [12°65 — 


oven 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 209 


power and the Grate, the Tube, the other heating and total heating surfaces and the 
faces, and between the indicated Horse-power.and the Coal consumed. 


. ic} fe} o * 5 
>) . Pr ene ap o obo fet tH 
Horse-power. og ee [es] 38 | ac oo S as | os Sy g. 
= -— Ps oF CE 62 "39 EPPS BSeé aa cs] as 
=0 se BO Rie) eee (ea as @H be ge. 3o.D 
sa 22 |Hal Ba aon | $3 2a ne 2° esh on 
—<———— a. Sem 57 st ago and On a2 [me] ae) oH 
32 So ag a? CE we oe HO mod Sd e go 
: Be | ge |os| $2 | 888 |a88| S2 | $8 |) BES) SBS] Se 
Be d Ba | £3 |sa| 4 (S25 /8e3'| $3 | S21 888] Fee] Fe 
3 g So | Sg | ho! =o leek loot] H8 | oS | sea] Saez] Ss 
S] d ox S [es] SB ogo] °30| Sm 29 a= HHS ot 
g 5 23 2.8 | os a cosa | ofa = °° on asa @¥ 
EI eq jase ios | 29 |S 28 gS | 88/48 eS aO 
4 A es a8 BS) $3 ae a ‘S @n 3 2) cd Sa 
a A | a4) al | & i é ma | § = 
: | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. 
1955-09 | 700 858 | 2-793 | -247| 6-556) 2-192) 8:748 85°386| 334) 3-529 


879-28 | 700 796 | 1-256 | 55414577 | 4873 19-451 |35°336| 334) 4-617 |41-813| 9.058 
77365 | 700 “905 | 1-105 | -625 16-567 | 5-538 22-107 \35°336| -334) 4-904 42-743 8-716 
837-31 | 700 *836 | 1:196 | -57815°308 | 5°117 |20-426 |35°336| 334) 4-987 |42-156) 8-452 
824-48 | 700 849 | 1:178 | -587\15-546 | 5-197 |20-744 |35°336 |- -334| 4-790 |42-269| 8-597 


(240-74 50° oe axe toll 


% (|10-280 10-281 |28:448) ... | 4-029 

—-168°81 30: oat w. =| 514 ie 14-661 |14:661 |28-448} ... | 4-401 

149-61 ae ioe ... |°988) | & | |16:543 |16:543 |28-448|) ... | 4-491 

16254 set bars .» | 585) ) & \115:227 115-227 28-448} .., | 4-429 
428 200 467 | 2-140 


436°7 200 “458 | 2-184 
499-2 200 “401 | 2-496 
519-2 200 385 | 2596 


2324-42 | 800 344 | 2-906 | -234) 5-131) +991} 6-122 26-16 193 
2325:96 | 800 *343 | 2°907 | 234) 5°035| +987) 6-022 |26:16 193 
2663-60 | 800 300 | 3°330 |-204) 4:478| +865 | 5°343 |26-16 193 
2587-50 | 800 *309 | 3°234 |-210) 4609) +894) 5:503 |26-16 193 
2685:04 | 800 “298 | 3°356 | -203) 4441} -858)| 5-299 |26:16 193 
2979 800 268 | 3°724 |-183| 4:004| +773) 4:777 |26-16 193 


3091 800 "259 |3°864 |-176| x we | 4659 [26-47 
2921-2 800 278 | 3-652 |-186| ... we. | 4:929 |26°47 
(2788-4 800 287 | 3486 |-195) ... ... | 5°164 |26°47 


2884-4 800 | -278 |3-606 |-189| ... ... | 4:992 |26-47 
2920-32 | 800 | -274 |3-650 |-186| ... we | 4:931 126-47 
2825-6 800 *283 |3-532 |-192| ... ... | 5-096 |26-47 
3091-1 800 | -259 |3-864 |-176) ... ... | 4658 |26-47 
3009'03 | 800 | -266 |3-761 |-188| ... ... | 4:786 |26-47 


3022 800 265 |3°778 | :180| 3:947| -762)| 4:709 |26:16 193 | 
3054-26 | 800 *262 | 3°818 |-178) 3-905] +754) 4-659 26-16 193 
1722-08 | S00 ‘A465 | 2-153 | 316) 6°926| 1-338} 8-264 |26-16 193 
273894 | 800 292 | 3-424 |-199| 4-355 | +841 | 5-196 26-16 193 


4044 1000 247 | 4-044 | -168) 3:702| +736! 4-438 |26-40 198 


3183 800 | -251|3:979 |-171| « | ... | 4524 126-47 
2864-75 | 800 | -280 |3:581 |-1901 ... | ... | 5-027 26-47 
2759-95 | 800 | -290 |3-450 |-197/ ... | ... | 5-218 26-47 


2837:36 | 800 282 | 3-547 |-192! ... we | 5'075 26-47 
2793 800 286 | 3491 |-195) ... vee | 91156 (26°47 


ao Particulars of the tube-surface were not furnished by the manufacturers of the engines. 
o0U. P 


on 


210 REPORT—1860. 


TABLE (continued). 


Speed. 
Name of vessel, Place and nature of performance. z 
F | 2 
= S 
3 | 
s 
m2 
Renown (screw) .......csscssccueeeneeseeeeees On trial, Stokes Bay, March 15, 1858 ...... 13-167 |11-43 
» (with half-boiler power) ......... Ditto. ditto ©) March 16-5 ers... 10°535 | 9:145 
Ditto ditto, “April Oy syn eseseceee 13-611 |11°815 
Ditto, Plymouth, August 22, 1859 ......... 14-97 {13-000 
Ditto, outside Breakwater, Oct. 7, 1859 ...\15°16 |13°160 
PANTERING (RCYOW): scccsesqessctaatiabiescoses eve: Ditto, Stokes Bay, April 9, 1858 ............ 10-71 | 9300 
MVE NGCFEW)! ipessshvusdrasspasengroseyesoue ++ Ditto, Stokes Bay, April 29, 1858 ......... 10:68 | 9:270 
Hee: (SCLOW)). i.>ssbcatancnsdosesscaseeaeay sens’ Ditto, Stokes Bay, April 13, 1858 ......... 10:68 | 9:270 
Ditto, Stokes Bay, April 28, 1858 ......... 10:77 | 9:350 
Ditto, Stokes Bey: June 20,1858: 2s..4.- 13°52 |11:736 
..|Ditto ditto. dune!S0/-9) 3) eeeee = 12-48 |10°794 
Ditto ditto July 2, ee ree 12-70 {11-025 
Ditto ditto July 6, i Abetesees 12°56 {10-908 
Ditto ditto July 8, bye ete 12-71 |11:038 
Ditto veiaitho) J uly l Die ss. eset cece 13°29 {11-536 
Ditto in Basin (Keyham), Mar. 28, 1859 
Ditto outside Breakwater (Keyham) May4, 
PBB: ova. <i} sbaes hs s0ueaeay aay eeeoe © ees area 
Ditto in Basin (Keyham), Sept. 6, 1858 .. 
Ditto outside Breakwater, Sept. 18, 1859... 
Ditto in Basin (Keyham), Sept. 1, 1859 .. 
Ditto between Sheerness and Sunk Light, 
March’23;, 1858 vcsiv.s. theth.t8-s-ereaeeee 11:60 |10:068 
Ditto outside Breakwater (Keyham), No- 
wember’'S, 1858) Sii.csi.ccisesses.erethncwens 
Gentanri(paddle)| .. .s:2.5.6ssc.+ee-.¢eegreeoee Ditto in Basin (Keyham), July 1B, 1859/7. Mers-0 
Sy | DRE a esi sutiwascipeeadecssumesenenmedest Ditto outside Breakwater, Oct. 22, ,, Ae 
Tuidustrys (screw), <siens+:capsbaresrssbenepeoee Ditto Long Reach, Jan. 12, 1858 ......... 8-41 | 7:300 
Fire Waibocrencaddonanicode 1 nos en isg sa: Ditto Lower Hope, Aug. 24, 1858 ......... 10:50 | 9-120 
Bulfinch (screw) .......sceccccsesssssereeeres Ditto, Lower Hope, March 5, 1856......... 10:13 | 8800 
= (Griffith’s propeller, with in- 
clined blades) ........ srarsecess Ditto ditto June 24, 1857 ......... 9-71 | £423 
: (Ditto ditto ditto) ...|Ditto ditto dune 26, “,,. 1 sieae 9:36 | €-121) 
3 | (Lowe's propeller) .naee eee Ditto ditto Sept. 10, |, ae 8:57 | 7-442 
. (Ditto Gitto)) ....0s-steeeeeuens Ditto ditto March 20, 1858). ce: 9:83 | 8534 
+ (Medwin’s propeller) ............ Ditto, Stokes Bay, July 8, 1859 9: 8-073 
+ (Ditto reduced)............00es-05- Ditto ditto March 2, 1859... 7-249 
»  (Philp’s propeller) ..........00... Ditto ditto Julyl, ,, 7-989 
» > ( (Ditto Ydilte): 7... Aes Ditto ditto Sept.27, ,, 7612 
eS (Hirsch’s propeller)..........:.... Ditto ditto  Oct.13,  , 8-015 
» (Ditto GILLO) sh seetepevenssse se Ditto ditto Feb.24, ,, 6843 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 


TABLE (continued). 


211 


Horse-power. 
fa | 3 
3s 4 
“| 
| z 
2754-64 | 800 . 
1429 800 
31826 | 800 
3617 1000 
3992 1000 
2939 80 
299°5 80 
303-6 80 
299-8 80 
1166 350 
1090-88 | 350 
1089-60 | 350 
1266-9 | 350 
1174-88 | 350 
1019-68 | 350 
1195 600 
1436 600 
258 300 
408-6 | 300 
480 300 
453124) 220 
394 220 
1122 540 
954 540 
2616 80 
317-4 80 
283 60 
24062 | 60 
21650 | 60 
222-67 | 60 
241-48 | 60 
196-82 | 60 
223-90 | 60 
220-13 | 60 
211-62 | 60 
24060 | 60 
199-68 | 60 


_ Ratio of nominal to 
indicated horse-power. 


ea) 
fre =) 
o_ 


Ratio of indicated to 
nominal horge-power. 


3443 
1-786 
3978 


3617 
3992 


3674 
3744 
3791 
3748 


3:33] 
3117 
3113 
3619 
3357 
2999 


1-992 
2°393 


860 
1-362 
1-600 


2-059 
1-791 


2-078 
1-767 


3:270 
3968 


4717 


4010 
3608 
3711 
4-025 
3280 
3731 
3669 
3527 
4-010 
3328 


rate-surface to 


d 


horse power. 


Ratio of 
indicate 


pod 
oO 
io?) 


& 


s 


: 8 fa | 83 
& 9 18se/] se 
qT “4 Oo 3 v 
#2 | ces | SEE 
SS |Sey|see 
Hg |ask| see 
ed |stn| gee 
IE Pe a e a 
5:240 
10:077 
4°525 
* 5:02) 
eh 4:549 
4:627| -476| 5:103 
4:°541| +467] 5:008 
4:479| -461| 4-941 
4533) -467| 5-003 
4-819} 1:089| 5-909 
5:152| 1-165] 6316 
5:157 | 1:165| 6°323 
4-436 | 1:002| 5:439 
4-783 | 1:081| 5-864 
5 867 | 1-209) 6-579 
6:587 | 1-889} 8-477 
5°482 | 1:572| 7-054 
8-981 
none | $442) 5-442 
none | 6:259| 6°259 
3°863 | 5°117| 8-981 
4-544} 6-018 |10°563 
4556) °906| 5-463 
3°755| +746} 4:502 
x 3'943 
4:638 
5155 
5-012 
4-621 
5-620 
4-984 
5-069 
5:274 
4-638 
5:589 


Ratio of heating surface 
to grate-surface, 


18-13 
18-13 


33°59 
33:59 


33°82 
23°82 


32°631 


32°631 
32631 


\32°631 


32°631 
32-631 
32°63] 
32-631 
32631 
32°631 
32'631 


& 


Ratio of other heatin 
surface to tube-surface. 


103 
103 
103 
103 
226 
+226 
226 


226 
"226 


°226 


286 
286 


1-324 
1-324 


198 
198 


* Particulars of the tube-surface were not furnished by the manufacturers of the engines. 


rhour | 


1 cy 

a | ag 
BS Tex 
ke | Ses 
aU ng E 
PSL) 8: 2, 
sae =r 
B23) £238 
eg | eee 
6.4 S44 
Ser RO 
49 3g 
Ss] |E 
o 


| 
| 


PQ 


Water evaporated per. 
hour per Ib. of fuel. 


REPORT—1860, 


TABLE (continued). 


Name of vessel: 


Mercnant VEssELs. 
cAmaelia (Paddle) sie wacece. se omence vei mane 


Cambria (paddle) 


Sconia | (pAddle)| veep tacstesaersess same hees toe! 


eee eee eee ry 


Tasmanian (screw) 


Onn e nee nent enter eeaeee 


TUTOR e meee eee e ent a ee eeenenes 


Oneida (screw) 
Callao (paddle) 
Lima (paddle) 


Ue eee ee ee eee ee re 


OORT e eee e meee nese eeeeeeenees 


Valparaiso (paddle) 


Bogota (Paddle) i ccsevescsksccsesscgasernars seek 
San Carlos (screw) 


CO er Cee eri 


Guayaquil (screw).......sssccccsssssseseeeaeees 


Erminia (screw) 


eee eee ee eee eee eee 


John Penn (paddle).....5.....0...sesvereaceee 


Speed, 


Place and nature of performance, g 
Fe 
z 

| a 
m 
| 
‘Mean of six special trips on ordinary 
| service between Holyhead and Kings- 

town, 29th September to 3rd October, 

1B D4: ss xs deckvasacgihes aca, eae ee 14:93 
Ditto ditto, 22nd to 26th May, 1856 ,..|14-07 
Ditto ditto, 17th to 21st May, 1855 ...|15-68 
Ditto of two trips, 29th May, 1855 ......... 15-24 
On trial, Stokes Bay, March 13, 1854...... 15°86 
Ditto ditto January 22, 1857...) ... 
Ditto ditto March 4, 1857 ...... . 
Ditto, Stokes Bay, April 21, 1859 ......... 15:31 
Ditto, Stokes Bay, June 7, 1859 ............ 16:08 
Ditto, Frith of Clyde, July 8, 1859......... 16:01 
Ditto, Stokes Bay, August 1, ,, ........ 16-60 
Ditto, Stokes Bay, June 15, 1858............ 16:42 
Ditto, Stokes Bay, July 27, 1858............ 14:86 


Ditto, Glasgow to Liverpool, Oct. 22, 1858.| 14-86 


Ditto, Liverpool to Kingstown, May 20, 
1859 


Ditto in the Clyde, Sept. 16, 1859 


eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee rer) 


Ditto, Glasgow to Liverpool, Sept, 22, 1859. 
Ditto in the Mersey, February 20, 1860... 


22, 


Ditto, Glasgow to Liverpool, March 
1860 


FOR enna reenter eee n ween eee eeeeeteeseseesees 


Measured mile, Greenhithe, July 6, 1858.. 
Holyhead to Mull of Cantyre, July 29, 30, 
TSO8s.Sasngeks eeonhiee sa guase Ceawat aoe cee 
Run in Lochs Ness and Lochy, Oct. 26, 
27, 28, 1858 


Dede meee e eee e eee eameereeereenes 


eee eenee 


Ditto in Stokes Bay, Oct. 12, 1858 
Ditto, Lower Hope, Feb. 6, 1860............ 


13°82 


14:40 
13°54 


13°82 
10-67 
11-49 

9-48 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 213 


TABLE (continued). 


= OV. ~ A q is ta 
Horse-power. 2 3 28 /a8 £ 5 = ~ co E £8 8 3 3 $s 
35 | SE [ses] 35 ge | ae ae oS reg iierey Eth, |) reise o 
Be | de ($21 $2 | S8olsae) 82 | #8 | eee} ses] Bs 
<3 = Fe | &$ |e2| 23 |Seh|set| 2 | $2 | es2) Ree] 84 
2 & Ge be 5 Seay te pales a3 So BOS] Fad aaa} 
3 | os og | he] AE |eoklwseok| 8 5 ao) sag o 6, 
S B | £3 | g8 [38] Se | cae] ces] 3&1 $2188 | sek] ae 
3.2 $ S28 Sa eae ‘Be Cs Sse | 5 2° = 
4 a ae Fe g EE se lé 2 | g2 3 as 3 & |e4 a 
| 
Ibs. 

816-07 | 330°52| -405 | 2-469 |-196) 4-769} -558) 5-827 |27-17 117| 6-837 

995-35 | 392°10| -394 | 2-538 | -166) 5-544] -452| 5-996 136-17 ‘081 | 5:787 

93418 | 379:92| :407 | 2:458 |-199| 4:943] +627] 5-571 |27-98 *127| 6-679 

| 1165-98 | 448 384 | 2:603 | +142) 6:3382| 1-377 | 7-368 |51-68 164) 6-69) 


ase 800 ee Soya iliecoe| iene noe w. (47-91 | 1-106 
coe ee eaten Poet tes Rec ... |47-91 | 1-106 
| 2396-44 | 800 3834 | 2-995 | 217) 3°346| 3-703} 7-049 |47-91 | 1-106 | 3-739 
1088 250 230 | 4°352 |-163) 4-044] +925) 4-960 |30-39 228 
2940 764 *260 | 3848 | -202) 4-998} +872) 5-871 |29-05 174 


{29285 | 774 264 |3°783 | -193) 5-042| 1-259] 6-302 |82-55 249 
3790 774 ‘204 | 4897 | +149) 3-896| -973| 4-869 |32°55 249 


‘| 2800 550 "196 | 5-091 | -182| 3:768| +537] 4-306 |23-6414| +142] 3-000 
FE 1912 450 1235 |4:249 | 222) 4:789| +795 | 5-584 |25-17 166 | 3-514 
11050 320 805 | 3:281 | +133) 1-904) 1-142] 3-047 |22-85 600 | 2-133 


| 1160 320 276 | 3°625 |-117| 1-465} 1-293} 2-758 |23-53 eee | 2615 
800 320 “400 | 2500 |-162) none | ... | 3-000 |18-46 -.. | 3080 
{1100 320 *291 |3:438 |-127|) 1-318} 1-091] 2 909 |22-85 “600 | 2-036 


500 120 “240 | 4:167 |-152| none} ... | 4:400/28-94 wee | 25852 


| 600 120 ‘200 |5-000 |-123) ... | ... | 3666/2973 | ... | 1-866 
157:09 | 50 | -318 | 3-142 | -287| 4-697/ 1-311! 6-009 |20:90 | -279 
15877 | 50 | -315 | 3-175 |-284) 4-648| 1-297) 5-945 20-90 | -279 
160-84 | 50 | 311 |3-217 |-281) 4-588} 1-281! 5-869 20:90 | -279 
5459 | 30 | 550 / 1-819] ... | 8172! 1-702} 9:875|38:174| 208 
798 | 150 | -188 |5-320|-162, ... | ... | 4-229 


214 REPORT—1860. 


AppENDIx V.—Letter from Mr. Archbold, Engineer-in-Chief, U. S. Navy. 


Office of Eugineer-in-Chief, 
Washington, D.C., May 12th, 1860. 

Srr,—I have the honour to transmit herewith, an abstract of the perform- 
ance of the U. S. Steam-sloop ‘ Wyoming,’ under steam alone, and under 
steam and sail, on the passage from Philadelphia to Valparaiso, Chili, col- 
lated from the logs of the engineer department of the ship. 

Iam unable to give you any account of her performances under sail alone, 
as in these logs no note of the sail is made when not under steam, and the 
ship’s logs are not sent to the Navy Department until the end of the cruise. 
No trial of the ship was made in smooth water uninfluenced by sea from 
which any data of value can be obtained. We do not try our ships at the 
measured mile, the guarantees required of the contractors of the machinery 
being on performances at sea, and for an extended length of time. The re- 
sults for each day, as shown by the abstracts, are not assumed to be strictly 
correct, as the data from which they are calculated are taken from the ordi- 
nary observations of the engine-room, subject to errors and inaccuracies 
unavoidable when the observers are so many, on duty for so short a time, 
and when attention is necessarily engrossed for the greater portion of the 
time in the care of the machinery. But as the errors are as likely to be on 
the one side of the truth as the other, the average and means will not be far 
from correct. 

Indicator diagrams were not found in the logs for each day, which will 
account for the omissions in some of the columns, and there was but one set 
taken during each twenty-four hours. The horse-power for the day was cal- 
culated from these diagrams, correcting for the average revolutions for the 
day ; and the horse-power for those days during which no diagrams were 
taken, is calculated from those taken on days when the circumstances of wind 
and sea were as nearly similar as could be found. The force of wind is 
expressed in our logs by numbers, as follows :—O, for calm; 1, light air; 
2, light breeze; 3, gentle breeze; 4, moderate breeze; 5, fresh topgallant 
breeze ; 6, strong single-reefed topsail breeze; 7, moderate gale, or double- 
reefed topsails; 8, fresh gale, or three-reefed topsails; 9, strong gale, or 
close-reefed topsails and reefed courses; 10, heavy gale, or close-reefed 
maintopsails and reefed trysails; 11, storm trysails, or storm staysails; 12, 
hurricane, or when no sail would stand. 

In the column headed “ cut-off,” the figures indicate the distance in inches 
the steam followed the piston. 

The apparent discrepancy in the consumption of coal for the days between 
October 25 and 31 inclusive, and some of the columns of which the coal 
was the dividend, arises from the distilling apparatus having been in use, 
making fresh water for ship’s use; the amount of fuel due to the water 
freshened having been deducted before dividing. It should be remarked, in 
justice to our system of surface condensing, that the vacuum shown by these 
abstracts is not so good by from 10 to 12 per cent. as has been obtained by 
the same engines on former occasions, or by condensers of the same class in 
other ships. 

I trust you will find in the abstracts everything necessary to the object 
you have in view, and you may depend upon the truthfulness of the result 
as nearly as they could be obtained from the data we have before us. We 
have, in common with your Association, felt the want of systematized 
authentic information upon steam-ship performance, and should feel obliged 
by the receipt of any facts in relation to any of your modern vessels of war, 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 215 


which the plan you have organized has developed; in return for which we 
shall be happy to render further service if desired. 
I have the honour to be, Sir, 
Your obedient Servant, 
SAMUEL ARCHBOLD, 
Engineer-in- Chief, U.S. Navy. 
Vice-Admiral C. R. Moorsom, 
Chairman of the Committee on Steam-ship Performance, British Association. 


Description and dimensions of the Hull, Engines, and 
Boilers of United States Sloop ‘Wyoming.’ 


Hutt. 


ft. in. 
Cpe SARA RACE AS ace crcocrortr rere ere rec 232 9 
Length SUE APE SUCCAS sector cre tsecodethsad acnsseccasaascmessicos | 209+” 9 
Length between perpendiculars. spadsoer Saco ebeacesoaneos IOsgNe 198 6 
Length of keel from back al of forward stern post...... 158 O 
Width of beam, moulded.. dageaactteteccdtincstgenatedeg Oe Oe 
Width of beam, extreme . LA SR ean OP ree Oa ie Ta | 
Depth of hold . Seen clessinaieecaedudelich caslecwss tans tceren 5 Het PU 
Space allotted to ‘machinery GonIGr ORO CONC OGL ANC. acc EAL COLOO ei meeN) eats: 
Draft of water (loaded) forward..........cssecssesesscesecees Pes 
Mreatmrot Water (lORdEd) Ait... eo... ecscecscveccsscsnsecenscess 13 4 
Area of immersed midship section ..........cscseesereeees sq- 391 O 

tons. 
SUEMREE GP as oh Pus o8 ti chavo escieek Vdeleedowsetay anleiaidtides Wipe aTE 
RIEL fee Ws cance ics aces oo soon cree ara icenessemedb ard gaens 997 
err ebele Of CHANCE 65.1. 266 66s és ccs caccensstesecsenendac 17 ao 
EMPIHIIEC OL (OXI 65 255.05. ca0cenacwecdins dcoacupugntebaddestas. 1a? 30! 

ENGINES. 


Two in number, horizontal, with double piston rods, and direct-acting ; 
slide valves, and independent cut-off valves, and situated 76 feet 6 inches from 
serew. One surface condenser common to both engines, containing 3000 
square feet of tube-surface. 


Cylinder, not jacketed, diameter............... 4 2 
Cylinder, stroke of piston .....ccscceeceeeeeeese 2 6 


The air-pump (one to each engine) is worked directly from the cross-head, 
and consequently has the same stroke as the steam-piston. Its piston is a 
barrel plunger, packed by a gland in the centre of the pump. The foot 
valves of vulcanized rubber are situated beneath the plunger, and the deli- 
veries above it. 

ft. in. 
Capacity of air-pump, one revolution............ eubic 3 3 
Area of foot valves, one end .............s000066. 8G: 179 5 
Area of delivery valves, one end .............5.  8q-» 270 O 


There is also a cold water circulating pump to each engine of the same 
dimensions as the air-pump. 


BoILers. 
Three boilers, with vertical water space tubes over the furnaces. Shells of 


916 REPORT—1860. 


iron, tubes of brass, placed two on one side of the ship (of which one con- 
sists of a single furnace and is used as an auxiliary or “ donkey,” and to sup- 
ply the deficiency of fresh water caused by leakage, &c.) and one on the 
other side, facing each other, with a fire-room fore and aft between them. 


ff. 


n. 
Length of boiler ......ccscseseeseeteeseeeeeasesee see eesunncenseeeseaes 94 9 
Breadth, including fire-roomj.e,. 2ssssesksgas es. aue~= ase aetee Eee 29 0 
Depth, ecclnsive Of BLEAMAATUM *. cate seme seosuds ose ceeen ease eee 107 2 
Depth, inclusive of steam drum 10 ft. diameter.................- 14 @2 
Fire-room, length) se. ccc case gecemens sos coals eieeslee ag ries eee eee ee 24 9 
Fire-room, Width oo, sect ose ctele ieusiecuiscecea uenowsisacteas stesseceeee 8 6 
Heating surface in all eariee se Beuekccsuee ser sceceoncs tithe ER EEaee sq.7890 O | 
Tubes, malength  ..).52,ccesencesnsasaot uss geeiieplosaace Seen meme 2 74 
Tubes, pecans GiaMeter | sicscccsscsesosetecescs snes coe eeReeeenere Oe 
Tubes; WP BUmver. <5... Yeh s scenes ones acs etecncss cpeacanaae 4.230 
FURNACES. 

ft. in 
Breadth, except “donkey,” which is 2 ft. Gin. .....ccsesee see eee 3°0 
Length .. Se eRe wreeioisrae bd bicision § oie selene Selenisealedce sa he aaa eee 5 10 
Area of all grates . - es ae 242 O 
Smoke-pipe, one telescopic, height w whieh’ up "(above grate) . 52 O 
MAMELSL coe ech se alebere ces one cc caamicncc ances icin cah\sin'ae eae carey sae eee 6 10 
ADGA, see cnaions sewieiaiaeesiesis pps seg pens aie petals anew 
Least area between tubes in all boilers seresconsnonceveseecnsncsee SMe . GU Go 

tons. 
Weight of Dotlers (1.00... senasevssevesceves esnsnusseenes ouesvenunawee 74°75 
Weight of water in Hellehen eco er O 41°37 

ft. “in 
Cubic contents of water space........:..sceccesssocrecseececoccecees 1484 0 
Cubic contents of steam space....,.... Slate athacete Mee 1318 O 
Contents of combustion Shambers ‘each farnace. soe acetate 6183 O 
Distance of fire-bars from top of furnace ........cceeceeeeeeee ees 2 30 
Distance of fire-bars from ash-pit . ......0c0000cassecuiceseressusvsce 1 4 

PROPELLER, one true screw of brass. 

ft. in. 
INumberofsblades' ..,. sssececrecoeccss cocesteleanatiownine osloctiveonten eee 4 0 
Diameter on SCLEW . ccaccecanecrmesetcese eee cies se ese won ceckeearneee Vas ’ 
WD AINeleriOl DOSS sc. csc cc sanaecor ientes teeta ce crcless souls cciumseanteee cee 1 93 @ 
Length .. sisindleve eS O0-4a TTR EEE Ee 2 6 
Projected ar area aL ‘tight ‘angles alee axis. as <eevee BQaue e436 


Total weight of machinery, spars, &e., with ‘water j in | boilers cease UD LIS oe, 
Carries 235 tons Anthracite coal. 


The coal used was Blackheath Anthracite of the hardest variety. Its 
analysis, as given by Professor Johnson, is—carbon, 92°12; water, hydrogen, 
and yolatile matter, 4°83 ; ashes, &c., 3°05. Specific gravity 1°477. 


Avrenpix V.—Tase 1. Performance of Un\\ted States Steam Sloop ‘ Wyoming’ under Steam alone. [ To face p. 216. 


Engin Boilers Ersporation 


a 


Wator-por.b, 


|| 
4 
| 

| 


ibe 
1461] 20-4 


1 » {1o99| 15a 
107 t 
Ww 2 130-36 | 10°82 | 49 
bY H 3106-66 erin 
10 1 NM 
106 1 1s 
83 1 21 119 
72 | 14 965) 13-7 919 
x 85 1, (1049) 21 
3 + (100015 | $50 [190-4 161-84 
a A 118:5| 0481] 7 
7 2 liso5 1335 | 
i | 864 [146-2/116-96 
7 ‘ 7Al |199-7|111-76 5 
138) 20 i iF 161-4 |122-66 he 
641) 17/8 aa | it 1, [2000 14-2 |1716 3 \195:88 |11-64 | i ‘ 
17 | 8002 wh | 86 | 69-4) 23-09),..| 1066) 18:46) 86 a /1244 a 


Appenpix V.—Taate 2. Performance of United} tates Steam Sloop ‘ Wyoming’ under Steam and Sail. 


m 7 Eng | Boilers. | 
g 3 gl, | 5 | = 
4 ; g § | a|é : i ae | | : 
: t j | sl alti (iat | m | ite (iba ibs ibe Be 
8 152 2 | 73 11:35 | 7|1195 | aus | 30 918] 4077 | J | | All plain 
8 M4 107 | 84 97311 lesan ell in 3] GS [9588 | \ea20 | eee | 3 
198 MW 5 A eet lor 661 | 2467 | 8 : 
5 i at 8303) 1265 [107 | 807/455 All plain, 9 hrs. 6150 
152 0 en ih Joo? | 832 | 7-05/2083 |28 |246 |10 Fore & aft, 15. 
155 8 allot fan 5 150° | 267 |203 | 95 | 33 
12 73 | lomt |fo 264 | 331 95 | All plain 
15 9 fe fc] er 175 |13 166 3:66 | Sib and staysails 
log 8 o fon don 161 | 100-9 | 8147/2558 6 | Foro and aft 
\s 7 152 ean [Non 139-2 | 830 | 902-96 3 | B44 
15 7 » |o 1166 | 811 2602 | 39-68) 
7 7 Ral asia fi 99-9 | 759 /448 | 
70405 {Lh 66 Me oerrelliy 900 1087 | 768 485 Square 
86 (508 [167 7 oi erase ican 8 | 986 93-3 a || 
| gj'w ay 7 8 wel il] cael eer sige | M1 Fore and aft. 6150, 
0 55 1 a5 RS fae | on] ae || Be 11000 Wl | 19-3 | 836) 1763 5°67 ” | 
05 6 | i 821488 8 who | ow | 4 ¥ [10 8588/1969 | 1004 | 947) 2118 538 All plain, 9705) 
6 | Smooth. | 8/8 4005 |178 Vd j252 |10}171-7 | 5636 4 {787 2 [15352 ) 2102 | 1803 [lod | 455-1 | 8-92 | a9; Fors and aft. /6150 
| | | 2017] 64 \377|7 893] 87 | 75 [2487)...| | 30 1328 $29) 28072 3-698 209 | 8-806 ‘| 


Avvenpix W.—Tanr 


5. (Brought from page 207.) Surveyors’ Return of Capabilities required by the $21st section of the Act 17 & 18 Vic. cap. 104. 


(Issued by the Marine Department of the Board of Trade in pursuance of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854 Port of 
| | val What gana coald | wo of 
Mama of spy ia | | Weight bunks carry, A required Namo and 
Mis lu. Hike it, | Dimensions | Particulars of engines Doilers por inch, aire 
regpuary, | | | No 
= Whe | Tangth {Forward (Kingine-room — When mado |Description {Diameter of cylinder —_|When mado _|No. | | 
| |Where | Broadth Aft (Register Whore Nominal 11, P. — |Longth of stroko \Where Description ] | } 
=a i ] |Depih Gross By whom Paddle or scrow {Revolutions por minuto {By whom (Thickness | | 
= — | ‘ch == aT ‘a 1 | may) | | a | 


SuprLementary Arrenpix- See note 


Tabfe showing the Trial Performance of the Steam-vessels ‘Lima’ and ‘ Bogota’ when fitted with Single Cylin 


Also the sea performances of the same vessels under both these q 


= 


at end of Report, page 199. 


der Engines, and after being refitted with Double Cylinder Engines. 


onditions of machinery and on the same sea service. 


=orsaango adler Gal 
Force and direction of Average 
- | i 
runs 
aioe ee scearaiog 
practice 
gy im Sa. . Knot note 
L a I ¥ Randolph and Elder's On trial betw Northerly MW 6 270,000 1160 1350 12-00 
p . i return 8, Iffsoo 38 [fresh breeze 786 0 Total 825 
: } is steaming 632158 
Lima Greenock to Liverpool 1851 | 1200 
aance between Panama and Valparaiso, and return 5 to March 9, 7 806 1272 0 | 
| Not 
Bog w nd Liverpool Wwpt. 22, 1859 la 46 Abeam. |Varinble Short a 15 16 | ascertained. 1100 (Dist.|180) 
between Panama and Valparaiso, and return ...{Dco. 31, 1859, toFol—. 91, 1860 750 20 | 0] 
. Ls (On trial from Green Liverpool Jon. 1852 ea 1 ' 
Fitted gle cylinder engines pitta | 1300 123 
Sea performance between Panama and Valparaiso, and return. ..,|Oct. 6 to Nov 734 3 | 1337 6 80 
Enginos 
aos iiss ee : 2 Condenser. | Air-pump. Piston Pregeore 
rr feteam 
rr | ind or deseripti Total = of eanic uum Preasurs z 
x Breas al Poewant| Aft | tral | ter of hat sort u t + Tart] Kind of | Cubl Kind of Cubi ek ot poe x | teen den cylinder. | racaun 
wheel | Paarsion ylindlers | stroke, |linders.| 4 sir-pomp. | cone engine | In fe 
a ie hin | in C17] Peat | ace ee ; SS 
SE 30 | ¥ | 12 | Peathering. } 40 (Patent 4 uble 4 Common. | Short slide and grid- ) 90 u 2s 21 32 
ailistatlis | oral | cylinder . | | _ iron, area 24 by 6. | : -. ‘Z 
26) % Ordina! 16 Side lover. 2ordinary,| 80 Ordinary | Hicks’s valves, short | 16 12} au 
i = | par oa ae ” ” ” ” | cack. s | slide, 30 by rt a 
ww 0 | 302 20} 1410) 260) 86) 31 4 12 | Feathering | 4.0 | f Patent double 50 4 |Common.} 250 | { Common | | Exhaust. short slide | 
r 11 113 }12 ©: » | 86 5 <4 oylindor. Two52 fe me li single- steam gridiron, 90 { 37 23 33 
86 3 | 9 rdinar e je 7 ake noting. } | aren 24 by 6, | 
3 34 Ordinary.| 11 | Side love 73 | 60| 2 ordinary] 80 | Ordinary. | [ Hicks’s short slide, } 4 
4 fall Wi i i ud ” cach » IL d0bys i Fe 
Boilers 
Dimensions of boilers | | Dimensions of | Cut : 
Pr 4 | ee Apel mrightott| sceakemeerer | Uweakers || Doe wbiacon- | Distance | Distanor | Actual Tube Tes 
ear | athe | w = man | Mageestnsnt | emmerrsnd | ffamtct, | fcr’ | min, fAtceary “he Namter and. | Load on | iio a Bate 
ys oh. | . heating surtac oe IE bert f] Aangth. | Diameter.| Material | ofchimmyn | “Talee | Shue | 
Z scape 7 = | . - | mn | cals jor an mab fe a "nh. im "Te ma VT: a sts = ——— 
26 ubular super 2 2 Total 100)|/& R 1600 6 ete Ld 5 | x a 
1435 heated to 400° | i 2 5 \{ Tabs 1700 |) 480 o}as6 50 8 | 6 oO | 1,5 | 
" Fi «|| Boilers 60} || W. . 2000 |} Tabe | 25 5 1, 5/diam. | 25 | 3024 | Purnishod b : 
)\ 1] Other 1500 | » lon = Sy [aie i te fs Furnished by Mesers. Randolph, Elder, and Co : 
4 | Tubular M0} 110 | 110 |ftotl 150)) 68.8. 1450 |19,7 bya] {Grate 252)) a | | | eal from log book of atic Beazs Navigation Company 
5 50 |12, 7 by 3 { Grate 0 2 23 ‘ ‘ = goer | 
iy No » || Boilers 80} | | WR. 2520 2 Hae: aBOuiH ‘ae alt ae ate | " 160 | 6 Oo 2 diam 16 | 6720 _ Consumption of coal por indic. horse-powor per hour =5:169 Ibs 
2 : ee Bale iaie/ | eran eee Fleet) eee | | high. 870384 Extracted from log-book of Pacific Steam Navigation Cow pany 
583 7 ” 5 =, oile liw.k2 Taube 2000 a |{2 0 |g 0 60 288 | 6 0 leo 6 2, 
| (Boilers 60} | | W. R. 2000 » (ome itoof{te#oo Hao llta) 4 | ; }1.6°0" diam.) 26 | 2240 |Rurnished by Messrs. Randolph, Elder, and Co 
‘ Tabular 10} 110 | 10 |r 150) l/c 1450 | 19, 7 bya | {Ome | | } | | wt 2279'S |Extracted from log-book of Pacific Steam Navigation Company 
se) i eee » || Boilers #0}||W.n 2520 | ||,” hoaeneaaa PA TS Peet Re ee | Wdinm.| 16 | 6720 |e tion of coul per indic. h 
| } || Other 1600 * aa) as: Hs 5 ‘ ; 3 72 onsurmption of coal per indice. horse-power por hour 60 Ibs 
Jon 4/ long 3694 (Extracted from log-book of Paciflo Steam Nev featon Conia 


vf 


Hor ig PP 


pes 


| 


‘est Vidiparion 


oe 
Press is Vahpursion, wd rota 
locoe to Vrrent 

to Valpuras, wd rears 


E he Léverpest, 
Se Saree ieee lane 


fo ser vm 
Lo he. Vises 


Menesend Mile, Gresnhvito.. 
Maas of Caney 


Mone 20, 8 , 
‘Aye 3 0 Ape 1, yd 


Saty 0180 
Fely 2 to wi, tas 
One 8, 21, 3m, At 
O28, tha 


140 rats sti 


here 10) 
G28 onary 


t 


3 hears steaming 


mig, BUOY with sale set 


30) hurare stenting 


Shonre 
10 


1A bets 44 min. 


1 directly abesd d 

; : 
row 6 530, ine 

to, light wind and fine 
fo 56, light winds & fine 
Variabh 

Miderate 

mtb ensterly Not 
setae 


Seat Wrens 


ary tight 


Northerly, fresh broexe 


dateroas weather 


| Light abend fir altern'y 


| steam 


Favours 


Strip 


Vortly fav 
Linof, 
i 

Milerale 
Moerate 


With 


Flatt 


fariable 


TA) berars 90 rai, 


At boone 


736 hore 46 win, Light head wind ded 


U6 boars 9 ic, 
208 boars Vb wi, | Laight bead wind, 


6 min M5 ane. 


Variable 


Vb, with and opninst 
With and againiot 


With and against 
5 bones 15 main, { ebb fs 


a es Hill water 


OT aninseneesiseminrsiinttie tiaras @ DOE 


es, 


| Flea 0 


Doe 
adverse ak 


Smooth 
| 
| Moderate 
| 
Smooth 
Moalerate 
ie no 


hort ea se 


Light Nad sen 


Heaxy 1 hours 


Calo 
Nonoatls 


| (3 tone 9 
0 | Upehoue$ | 
[iste 1 6 | 


1100 
100 11.0. 


70 00 


18 10.0 
70 0.0 


ih 00 
om 10.0 


9 00 
1K 00. 


Table showing the Results of Performance on the Measured Mile of Seventeen Vessels of the Royal Navy 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION. —COMMITTER 01 STEAMS 


and in additiotheit 8% Per 


of Twenty-two Vessels in the Merchant Servic 


Wf 


c 
ml) T ib) PL In. hi 
sim iF r Fis Pem|rcm| im | ‘ 
a | a | | | | 
| 1 aso low 2 Jraft) | § Horizontal Condensie| 72 
wi 70546 4 4 | UDinet Acting | 
i TIES) ao , a | 
| Teast |ene Dinet Acting Condensi] 245 
4} oc Ditto ait ‘ 
1] 4 Pet iis dit 
wea | 104 10 0 | 39 | wh 
we7 | 107 | 
| Pe 
1133 | 
ital | 
784 | 
betty : 
12003 Titto j 
| Trunk e | to 
ira 
0 0 ‘ | | su} Horizontal ma jo 
| 25) 0 a) | Moraontat e fi 
| Tht : 
Thilo 
i} | | | Ditto 
r 0 » 6 | ‘Trunk fo 
am 310 Dit 
04 TH Traak e | io 
ti ase : 
r - Thito 
i ; Taito 
s Dit 
: Tht 
Tht 
nes is | ite 
: ‘ Horizontal 1 
5 | trunk w|i 
eh 7 
Ditto 
: Dilla 
f mit 
Thitta 
Tit 
| Kl 
| ’ Ditto 
i} | | 
N ? o 24 |Com-l20 60 Oj Direet-seing Si oo 
} 2] 
inf HI 33 | mou. | Tht 00 
| linea 
i Ne 
| | a10« a o| » 3 | | | Dit 24 
109088 t o| 2» : | Dit 
2s 1 | 
1086 no | x0 0 | m2 H 
12009 10903 | 200 | m9 H 
17 038 ) ) 1 | 
1483 4 2 2 ; i : | 
11436 ( 12 10 312 13 2|3915|'3 0 len| 1a ee | 
B10 tah jour | | | 
10068 t1 O12 2 | | 1 50 
‘ cs) W615 4 Levolgsci|cxs| ~ | tf lever ; 
, 1) B15 3 pe ofS cits o| | 
7a” 9 lk 9 1 0 6 | 110 Js 0c Wes: | rh “pS 
719 2 23 2 7 161 330 {eau | | = 
11 , 3102 4 70/4 0| 30 lens] ao | 2 | 2 [3 0 
146 5 bz 8 170/% 0/3 0 ley 4 2 | al 
200 135 0 30 a o|8 4 6 0 oli4 fae %} 2 | 1)o19 Y | | Horizon s jl 6 
| 930 | 195 0 a ¢ 8 aj7 0 o;14aiag N 8\o18 4 | Ditto 1 
j m0 om | iso | a Bal7u coleolraise| of 2] slow a | j= ||| pie ; 
Ish 0 ro} 710/84 eolaolral|sa Puech ania 3) | | | | 5 aria: wie 
m8 vio | iso | mo 710)8 4| boleoli sla Hlhera\ Rel eee: | || Bis 
| | 
| my | Nut am | otf a he 2 | Lis 2s . 
| sons rain § ahs a} | | : Pras il mae 
337 | Dy | 13 013 3 fas : Thtto 
rd Hy A She | : 4 Duta : 
| | : 
| 5 Wok) 18710 | 20 fiseas] 9 0 | ea | | pee 00 2] Dooble patent cylinder... 49, (* 
| v0. 5 wor | ar 0 | 20 2 feng) $108 | so | | asp 29 10.0 0) 6 10] siteteer 7h 
osyia| os 103 | 102 7 | 27 0 Iieaag| 8.10 | 080 | et fo 00 06 0] Doodle Patent Cylinder | 52 1 
049 wn | oa | oa 2 leap] 0 8 | 8 fo » | 6 6 Sito Lever mi 
1" if | te sho 0 | ea [6 hs 00 05 0] Ditto 06 
| a Peath.| ” Ditto 
wot | aya cr ee a Z 
| | 1035 | dane | sits ian |19'20 | ast0 | 8 actus] = [33] Date 
| | | | ayo leheeh [97 10.0 0 5 ' 
| le vm | O| ae aloo cal nimi it 10 0 Side Love 108 
| ww | 904 Jaouso las | 123m | ssa 6 | m0 0 | gq 20 6] 120 | mi ; Oscillating » 
| a | Iss | elias 
| 5} 5 Doable Cylinder yt 
izFoo | | heal he 5) 16 Ditto ny 
} | Jou o} 4 a} 16 si 
mas | 1076 | | ho Jono} to 15 fara Sai he | 2 
=, | Mio olbo 1 | Ditto pe! 
| | 5 6 0}/S armed 6 ib oO | ¥ 
2 | 5 10 | 1 j arto} aso | 3 0 | 510] & O7/Sareld & I | Jom | | Trunk Inverted cylinders u 
ee | | wire 4m. | 0 740 1 10} rio} a] av [610] & spore) ene og | js} | Direct-acting hed 
: afar | 28 [510] 2.0 [soma tooo y | | vetiesl Sa 
} 4 | 22 | 0 1x0) ||| e06. 0\ll aa We Peel oo here le oo | Vere trunk gare 
40 | | oa | cl | fear el | " 
| 00 andalph and. Ekler's 
| Patent double cylinder 
ju1o 1 10| 10 Ditto dite 
soe Dilla ditto 
hy {tn t0 | 1220 Tito ditto 
{tt 10 | 1230 
Me Ditto ditto, 
anal THito ditto... 
ene Ditto ito 
Ditto 
100 | ob om 0 
wo om bnito (ne 
TUITE) quae L ur 
Dit 
1108 | ine v0 | 105 0 Ditto 
00,140} tine oof Lnverte, at an angle of a 
enon a0 Dito atte | a 
W377 vor Ditto 
ure wa 
Ga ‘ Thigh prema ya. 
7 ba 
‘Doable Cylinder ..... 
mt a6 neo 


[GH ASSOCIATION COMMITTEE 07 STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE 


Sea Performances over upwards of 6000 Miles; and of Ts 


Vessels of the United States Navy; together with the Particulars of their Machinery. 


Me 


== ———— ; DOILENS 
- ———— ee ~ 7 Ll Di = = > = T * 1 hom F | 
= , E )a| | a §s S. 
3 f= aise t Oivnlenn | cana Frnt tack | Brook 0 ? r i i = 
‘ : ts fave} a |e { 3 4 | { ‘ safe {a t ‘ 
. : 1) E [its | ahs - U0) I i 
$ § 43 fara | 3] pie at 100 | 3 1 D: Di t| 
r a : #100) 5 1 Date Ditto ed from Tih ee 
i : s v0] vo] wc iva ‘ (c 7 ast ot | eed : 
% , | 
2 = | F ) Bxtratted from the A Table of 
0 J Hae Sew 
ot ‘ " 21h, 4. 20) o|t 1 »| si200 | 19900 00 |e ‘ c A 7 
"i | i \ a| 0 ¢ 3} 1 Jno) 6 
21 : 4 ‘ , t | Ne 11 as | a 3} Dat 1 
: ot | to i a Dit Ditto 
‘ nae ‘ 6 | a8|2a| p a 
: a4 alo « i I 20 
| som F rn ‘ 
5 } ‘ 2 | 3\ 0 a | 5) ou mit tt Ey 
| er 2 : f 13 a aos r 77" iawn] 90 
: : P 
oli ' Int 1 4 
== ‘ Dit 
. 2 4 | s ( x 4 f f Two, 7) 1 
~ 3 i i J 
= a 0 sa) y | oft ae fills eal tesa ree Stabe. 1088 ‘4 om ta | 30 
oh 0| a0] 2 
D0 ; ‘ iy rr 2 wi} 8 One, 7°77 
1 
1 
3 I I 20 
u ( ‘ wr|s o|2 Tron. | One 29” diam, | 09 
Tits 1 H ita mt ty 
i z s 
= iM lo 8 © 
: i : oo 8 1 rf Py 
1 3 tla tht 1 Py 
2 i tla jt © | 
4 7 eu ‘ 0 S cs | 
- )2 m L. 1 f (Grat ” 10 2 414 Bul 7 4 i oO 8” diam 10 i} 
i |trcn Tile 4 10 23/24 14 bu 7 in 3,00 3 
: t ‘ 
« Sy 
125) u us| 6 0 es} Dite D a 
7 ; | 
“ 1s }a 0 | 25) 23) Dit ite Py 
= == ale. a) 1 » 
2 6| Dn s/o ¢ I 20 
= D ws ; 4 ri mw | v7 | (0 2 saleo 5 
j 188 : | Uae 246 3 3 4/20 | Bal 8 
: 13s] a2 a8 5 | 
BP 5 c 0 ° s|s E a r 2l6 0 Ir , am, | 12 
j bi { 1 $ 20|f0 14 o |e ola] 2. | mn a 
" re 4|T 6a} 09) 190 w7 4 1 “4 cor} fe 12 2u{110 19 63 Q One 9’ diam. ex, | 16 | 
i routes) 4 12 2a|1w 13 a 3|s bite | 70 16 | 
— Lin oa | i} ar | 
Silo. 7 us wa| ao} a ‘ ) m7 | 0/2 |r| tron. | 0: w.| 00 
} 3 {3 | it) pa Cy 
° ‘ T 46/163 u is | 4 i rd Iron, ‘Ona & 8” diam 
ei | Ta : (a | ati) at pi 
: | ae 
w | alc ea | Ee pa, 7 | a |144) tron. | ove a iam, 
z P ! é . | ad \ | | \ \ AMR atts \ THe 
= “ye a z : : meng) Cnt Peale ss wl \=\=| 
=) ; Wi cf 1s i : hn te sol200 10) | | 
v » 183 H | T# 3 a/200 10 | | 
BPS 7 | | | | 
. ; > = 2 a |. T 70] 110) 160) 7104 Gra sori 1 6 2 04 of 2 aj] 73 | 1s [an } roo. | Twos'diam, | 15 | 5390. | Adsl Moororn 
- : 2 (isstd ewe up| 4i7 100} 90) aK 0 0/68 0 0} 366 2 Grab tub be rnj}in 14) ws} 60| 3) pate | twos" dis Ditto 
= 3 il furnace 450 | | 
E r 2 | firs 7 Bt as r 70/116) 15.6] a0 seo | 935 | 1a | 6.1147 |Gratetsntnbesoivdl}| 1 6 2 0] of 1 a] 76 vies | 4 | a Ditto | Two 6’ dia 1s | est Ditto 
=, rs ” ‘, Fl Tuva vol i6}180 0 0|7 0 Gr 1060 loin 10] | oo! a Bro u Ditto 
wm | tp fur. 402 2 | ; : 
)an ¢ o0 : Ke 12 ¢ $0, ube Bul in 6 1o ros 190010 9 | OF ee = | Mafra. Caird aud Ca., of Green: 
: f 2 f : otal heal i it | saa | | Ditt 
3 1 aie in. 03h ab | Taito / Dito 
su - those it 7070, total 1ONDS | | ix Wepetel by permission of Royal Mail Company 
. > : ) ; ( a ( | 
; / 2 2 , { pages § sina tat | aiabaz anys log 
: ea 
. ‘ 4 | Totatar a3|100| 190) 137 rs00 [31a }100] 8°] Gen |r 1a ac} a2 0 | sos |o o}a ruse | Two 4 diam, 
. 7 4 olen 0 0 0 7 7 sal ‘m | . 1 Mait Con 
1 ‘ ww |e tar 40} ana wooo | e000 | asa | on} 26 | c.2asa 20 20 | 2100 | 0 10 | 94 | 94 rT x | a7 xi Com 
Br » | sibs 4 bare | 4 ° : | ee | | | i cares gsdiios| Bebe rom Ing books of Royal Mail Company. 
: <= , 2 = , i=) 70 © 0 F = 5 Nord maar F | tt, | ald Napier and s: 
} sme | 1 : j ” caleiadea cl azo | o92'0.0 |-s0r0)usco! os | a0n ‘@etatony | varia aco. |\vaes focal lon) ak |-rvoa'o tan. | 92 | ni | Moe Napier and Ss of Glo 
5 {io 4) far a rr tier 3088, 0 AWASOS , ; le Tit tures frags Tayal Bll Cowpany' log bo 
- 40 | Bz ) v wi | | a ¢ | ae ccc 1) Mail Coinpany 
oy * i my tp Oo 1 0) ou 2 tubalar re) 8 yy |e soit) sot 0.0} an1.00 | aos] 8973 | sa jo. c. 70128) Cr, 810, tobe 10,6008, 7 16 | inala s Tiras [Two 7/107 diam, 
: 7 | wa ; i Hog os | 24 . (ieee M | Go |e. 03035 | olbericanm 138 § | =i | pie Thtto tan foun Tioyal Mail Companys hog be 
‘ myiee| 2 x 1 oo} = Nhwartaip.-|as-2 | a0 | 8 
, H 7 p | a 00 1 ‘ BNP beret tc ec oo | 1 | coocmos |p. souy, ta. 916 ao as | ys} 7 0 Tron; |, One® diam, oran_| SP% A. and J. Inglis, of Glasgow 
414 : P f am | en | i ? Beal S| bu FIMO | ater LORE ANOTTS |» | Ditto Ditto tra] Bact froma Haya Mail Company’ Yog book 
- ae) 7 - Rraiy Fay f | | aes - s : | 1 sch Me Tlandalph, F 
ef ; » Jia . 3 ie lass) 10000) ¢ 450 | rate 134, tale 1100,7} 3 0 +s | s}0 0/44) 4 | tron sont | pilolph, Elder, & Co, of Glsaguw 
‘ ‘ : : a jae Lee ren) allo [ca th | other 108) oe : j Pa SL) 2fsind trom Tag took, by Foruiacoa 
: ae ay os ee rca) an | 2 fi | | sink | | Pea Navigation Company 
ole » : 7. : : a 00} sr00n | 414 forseaw} wo ola | 4p | 8 | at | mw | wt a bpletae vant 126/260] «| e200] e500] 760] 0) 1 | e400 |arte7,bating 2200/1 01010] 2 0 (eet Volos [co | sure | Meee ee eT oe cng, 
ie P : ot ; oH thy Nea tas ae 5 || 351 | ri 1 otal 0] a teisr Dio 
— fo oni & ‘ wr a7) i | | | | 
7 . - Cs - mo » ifs 257 1 n Vine o|mol|no| 700) 00] mm 0} | 6.600 | Grate 190, other 9400 40 20 0 ou Pr Randolph, Elder, & Co, of Glasgow, 
, ‘ a 3 Lio a ne ALS | Sat wil: <8 lax 6 Bs Mfato from log book of aciie Sten Navigns 
1 Tons ; . se : 4 | | apa 
t=. es ‘ : / 3 100 | 00 | 100) s001 6 xn |ante1uo, hes {2 0 3 0/2 0 1.0] @| gaia 28] 0} a Tran, 25 o% Kandalph, Rider, & ¢ 
4) ‘ al " be Wp ‘ snr 1300, 20 ao/so 10] 2) tive | ; 1 i fron lg took’ of Peele Steara 2 
— -—-26 : so | " a 
met! a te noo} aoo| 100] a0) 0, f y} sa }a ols Tron, daw, | on | suo Huandolph, Rider, & Co. 
aa : 0.01) aaa Tey || a poe } pio Din 7 | Meta fom og tok at Pacife Steam 
—4 Tmanp so | ¢ = | wr | ee n all vita 
toni) « - nen 2 i wD | o | 1000 }19} 4 mieT4, heating 2900. .| 3 0 Trvo. | One 6" 4" diam. 19 Teendsiph, Eder, and Co. 
omar i : wales) 2 a Di Tito 119) Ditto’ 
" " 
J at 
one as Pear oa ahd Iron. | Ooearea 708 Connel,(oember af the oomitien) b 
ne ata ais ‘ ne i Dita into on of the Maryuls of Stands 
fed th . e i pitts mito : 
| Garret tla 4 4) yg 90] 1000 2: Hews. | One, area aaa | TE MCounell, by permission of Lord Dalferin 
Viton phil 8 mb ‘ne 
tons with engine , Tron, ihito “ Tanikin, (member of the eomuitton) 
no} oof me i © \ 2 Ditto. ne 20 high, Thomas Steal, of Ayr, 
PO “ Dress, | Two #9" lam. John Pen snd Sons, of Greenwich. 


LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. 217 


Interim Report on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches. 


4 2 Donegal Square West, Belfast, 
; 23rd June, 1869. 
__ Dear Srr,—-With reference to the experiments on the gauging of water 
by its flow in triangular notches, authorized by the General Committee at 
Abeideen, I have to report, for the information of the Association, that, as 
they have to be carried on in the open air in a field adjacent to a waterfall 
at several miles distance from home, and as they require the formation of 
ponds and the construction of measuring tanks, sluices, &e., and involve 
careful and repeated observations continued often through whole days, fine 
summer weather free from both rain and wind is almost quite essential, and 
winter weather is peculiarly unsuitable. For these reasons, and on account . 
of my duties at Queen’s College here, I could not enter on the construction 
of the experimental works until the close of the College Session, which 
_ occurred only on the 9th inst. I have now, however, got the principal parts 
of the works constructed, and have got preliminary trials made, but I have 
found it impossible to have the final experiments ready for the very early 
Meeting of the Association which occurs in the present year. For these 
experiments a grant of £10 was placed at my disposal ; and in order to meet 
the costs already incurred, of which some, from the nature of the case, are at 
present uncertain, I now apply to the Treasurer for the whole amount of the 
grant, for which I shall account at next year’s Meeting, giving at that meet- 
ing my report on the experiments now in progress. 
I am, dear Sir, yours faithfully, 
James THomson. 


To John Phillips, Esq., LL.D., F.RS., 
Assistant General Secretary, British Association. 


List of the British Marine Invertebrate Fauna. 
ts [For the Dredging Committee of the British Association. ] 


bs NOTICE. 


) 


Tue following lists have been prepared in conformity with the desire of the 
Committee of the Natural History Section of the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science, which, at my suggestion, recommended the appoint- 
ment of a general Dredging Committee, with a liberal grant of money for 
the carrying out of its objects. 

_ It is intended to place these lists in the hands of the local Dredging Com- 
‘Mittees and naturalists engaged in researches in the most important districts 
of the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland, with a request that they may be 
returned, with notes on the conditions under which each species of the par- 
ticular district has been found, and memoranda of such additional species as 
may be obtained. By this means it is hoped to collect local lists of great 
nterest, and materials for a more complete catalogue of the Invertebrate 
Fauna of the British Seas. In the preparation of the present lists, I have 
Deen assisted by Dr. Baird and Mr. S. Woodward and other members of the 
Dredging Committee. The catalogue of Mollusca is taken from the work 
f Messrs. Forbes and Hanley; that of Crustacea has been obligingly fur- 
nished by Mr. Spence Bate; of Radiata by Mr. Stuart, of the Royal College 


218 REPORT—1860. 

of Surgeons; of Sponges by Dr. Bowerbank; of Rhizopoda by Messrs. 
Rupert Jones and Parker; and to Dr. J. E. Gray I am indebted for permis- 
sion to extract the list of Annelida from an unpublished work by the late 
Dr. Johnston, of Berwick-upon-‘weed. 


ROBERT McANDREW. 
Isleworth House, Feb. 10, 1860. 


*,* The nomenclature and arrangement are taken (with a few slight modifications) 
from the “British Mollusca” of Messrs. Forbes and Hanley. 
+t The species marked with an asterisk have been recorded as British since the time 


when Mr. Barrett prepared the following list. 


Octopus, Cuvier. 
vulgaris, Lam. 
Eledone, Leach. 
octopodia, Penn. 
Rossia, Owen. 
Owenii, Bail. 
macrosoma, Delle Chiaje. 
Sepiola, Leach. 
Rondeletii, Leach. 


Murex, Linneus. 
erinaceus, Linn. 
corallinus, Scacchi. 

Trophon, Montfort. 
clathratus, Linn. 
muricatus, Mont. 
Barvicensis, Johnston. 

Fusus, Lamarck. 
gracilis, Da Costa. 
propinquus, Alder. 
Berniciensis, King. 
Dalei, J. Sowerby. 
fusiformis, Broderip. 
antiquus, Linn. 
Norvegicus, Chemn. 
Turtoni, Bean. 

Buccinum, Linneus. 
undatum, Linn. 
Humphresianum, Bennett. 

Nassa, Lamarck. 
reticulata, Linn. 
pygmexa, Lamarck. 
incrassata, Miiller. 

Purpura, Lamarck. 
lapillus, Linn. 

Columbella, Zam. 
nana, Lovén. 

Mangelia, Leach. 
attenuata, Mont. 
costata, Pennant. 
brachystoma, Philippi. 

*Ginnaniana, Philippi. 
gracilis, Mont. 
Leufroyi, Michaud. 
linearis, Mont. 
nebula, Mont. 
purpurea, Mont. 
rufa, Mont. 


CEPHALOPODA. 


Atlantica, D’ Orbigny. 
Ommastrephes, D’ Orbigny. 
sagittatus, Lam. 
todarus, Delle Chiaje. 
Eblanz, Ball. 
Loligo, Lamarck. 


vulgaris, Lam.? (Forbesi, 


Stp. De 


GASTEROPODA. 


Order PROSOBRANCHIATA. 


septangularis, Mont. 
striolata, Scacchi. 
teres, Forbes. 
Trevelliana, Turton. 
turricula, Mont. 
Lachesis, P7sso. 
minima, Mont. 
Marginella, Lamarck. 
levis, Donovan. 
Ovula, Lamarck. 
atula, Pennant. 
? acuminata, Bruguiére. 
Cyprexa, Linneus. 
Europea, Mont. 
Natica, Lamarck. 
monilifera, Lamarck. 
nitida, Donovan. 
sordida, Philippi. 
Montagui, Forbes. 
helicoides, Johnston. 
pusilla, Say. 
Kingii, Forbes. 
Lamellaria, Montagu. 
perspicua, Linn. 
tentaculata, Mont. 
Velutina, Fleming. 
flexilis, Mont. 
levigata, Linn. 
? Otina, Gray. 
otis, Turton. 
Trichotropis, Broderip. 
borealis, Brod. 
*Triton, Lamarch. 
cutaceus, Lam. 
nodiferus, Lan. 


Cerithiopsis, Forbes & Hanley. 


*Naiadis, Woodw. 
*nivea, Jeffr. 


media, Linn. 


marmore, Verany (media, 


var.). 


Sepia, Lenneus. 


officinalis, Linn. 
elegans, B/. 
biserialis, De Montfort. 


*pulchella, Jeffr. 


tubercularis, Mont. 


Odostomia, Fleming. 


acuta, Jeffreys. 
alba, Jeffreys. 
conoidea, Brocchi. 
conspicua, A/der. 
cylindrica, Alder. 
decussata, Monz. 
dolioliformis, Jeffreys. 
dubia, Jeffreys. 
eulimoides, Hanley. 
excavata, Philippi. 
glabrata, Mih/feldt. 
Gulsonx, Clark. 
insculpta, Mont. 
interstincta, Mont. 
minuta, Jeffreys. 
nitida, Alder. 
obliqua, Alder. 
pallida, Mont. 
plicata, Mont. 
rissoides, Hanley. 
spiralis, Mont. 
striolata, Alder. 
truncatula, Jeffreys. 
unidentata, Mont. 
Warrenii, Thompson. 
*Lukisii, Jeff. 


Eulimella, Forbes. 


acicula, Philippi. 
affinis, Philippz. 
clavula, Lovén. 
Scillx, Scacchi. 


Chemnitzia, D’ Orbigny. 


clathrata, Jeffreys. 
elegantissima, Mont. 
fenestrata, Jeffreys. 


—— 


LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. 219 


formosa, Jeffreys. 
fulvocineta, Thomps. 
Mt indistincta, Mont. 
rufa, Philipp?. 
rufescens, Forbes, 
scalaris, Philippi. 
eximia, Jeffreys, 
Eulima, Risso. 
ome Linn. 
istorta, Deshayes. 
subulata, Donovan. 
bilineata, Alder. 
*stenostoma, Hanley. 
Stylina, Mleming. 
Turtoni, Broderip. 
 Cerithium, Bruguiére. 


metula, Lovén. 
reticulatum, Da Costa. 
| adversum, Mont. 
| *niveum, Jeff. 
Aporrhais, A/drovandus. 


pes-carbonis, Brongniart. 


pes-pelecani, Linn. 
- Turritella, Lamarck. 
communis, isso. 
Aclis, Lovén. 
ascaris, Turton. 
supranitida, 8. Wood. 
2? unica, Mont. 
nitidissima, Monzé. 
_ Ceeum, Fleming. 
trachea, Moni. 
glabrum, Mont. 
Scalaria, Lamarch. 
Turtoni, Turton. 
communis, Lamarch. 
clathratula, Monz. 
Greenlandica, Chemnitz. 
Trevelyana, Leach. 
Skenea, Fleming. 
? costulata, Miiller. 
? nevis, Philippi. 
Eemorbia, Fabr. 
? nitidissima, Adams. 
? rota, Forbes. 
Truncatella, Risso. 
Montagui, Lowe. 
Jetfreysia, Alder. 
opalina, Jeffreys. 
diaphana, Alder. 
globularis, Jeffreys. 
Rissoa, Frémenville. 
*Alderi, Jeffr. 
abyssicola, Forbes. 
anatina, Drap. 
Beanii, Hanley. 
calathus, Forbes. 
cingillus, Mont. 


_— 


Tornatella, Lamarck. 
 fasciata, Linn. 
ulla, Lamarck. 
hydatis, Linn. 
Cranchii, Leach. 


costata, ddams. 
costulata, Risso. 
crenulata, Michaud. 
fulgida, Adams. 
inconspicua, Alder. 
labiosa, Mont. 
lactea, Michaud. 
littorea, Delle Chiaje. 
muriatica, Lam. 
parva, Da Costa. 
proxima, Alder. 
pulcherrima, Jeffreys. 
punctura, Mont. 
rubra, Adams. 
rufilabrum, Adder. 
sculpta, Philippi. 
semistriata, Mont. 
soluta, Philippi. 
striata, Mont. 
striatula, Mont. 
ulvee, Pennant. 
ventrosa, Mont. 
vitrea, Mont. 
Zetlandica, Mont. 
Assiminea, Leach. 
Grayana, Leach. 
Lacuna, Turton. 
crassior, Mont. 
vincta, Mont. 
puteolus, Turton. 
pallidula, Da Costa. 
Litorina, Férussac. 
fabalis, Turton. 
litoralis, Zinn. 
litorea, Linn. 
neritoides, Linn. 
tenebrosa, Mont. 
palliata, Say. 
patula, affray. 
rudis, Donovan. 
saxatilis, Johnston. 
Adeorbis, S. Wood. 
subcarinata, Montz. 
divisa, Meming. 
Trochus, Linn. 
alabastrum, Beck. 
cinerarius, Linn. 
conulus, Linn. 
exiguus, Pulteney. 
granulatus, Born. 
crassus, Pulteney (lineatus, 
Da Costa). 
magus, Linn. 
miliegranus, Philippi. 
Montagui, Gray. 
striatus, Linn. 
tumidus, Mon¢. 
umbilicatus, Mond. 


Akera, Miiller. 
bullata, Linn. 
Cylichna, Lovén. 
cylindracea, Pennant. 
conulus, Desh. 


lineatus, Da Costa. 
zizyphinus, Linn. 
Margarita, Leach. 
undulata, Sowerby. 
helicina, Fabr. 
pusilla, Jeffreys. 
Cutleriana, Clark. 
Phasianella, Lamarck. 
pullus, Linn. 
Tanthina, Lamarck. 
exigua, Lamarck. 
communis, Lamarck. 
pallida, Harvey. 
Scissurella, D’ Orbigny. 
crispata, Fleming. 
Haliotis, Linn. 
tuberculata, Linn. 
Emarginula, Lamarck. 
reticulata, J. Sow. 
rosea, Bell. 
crassa, J. Sow. 
Puncturella, Lowe. 
Noachina, Linn. 
Fissurella, Lamarck. 
reticulata, Donovan. 
Pileopsis, Lamarck. 
Hungaricus, Linn. 
Calyptrea, Lamarck. 
Sinensis, Linn. 
Acmea, Eschscholéz. 
testudinalis, Miiller. 
virginea, Miiller. 
Patella, Linneus. 
vulgata, Linn. 
athletica, Bean. 
pellucida, Linn. 
levis, Pennant. 
Pilidium, Forbes. 
fulvum, Miiller. 
zxopies Forbes (Lepeta, 


ancyloide, Forbes. 
Dentalium, Linneus. 
entale, Linn. 
Tarentinum, Lam. 
Chiton, Linneus. 
fascicularis, Linn. 
discrepans, Brown. 
Hanleyi, Bean. 
ruber, Linn. 
cinereus, Linn. 
albus, Linn. 
asellus, Chemmn. 
cancellatus, Sow. 
levis, Pennant. 
marmoreus, O, Fabr. 


Order OPISTHOBRANCHIATA. 


*Lajonkaireana, Basterot. 
mamillata, Philippi. 
nitidula, Zovén. 
obtusa, Mon. 
strigella, Lovén. 


920 REPORT—1860. 


Bullxa, Lemarck. 
aperta, Linn. 
quadrata, S. Wood. 
scabra, Miiller. 
catena, Mont. 
punctata, Clark. 
pruinosa, Clark. 


Order NUDIBRANCHIATA. 
(From the Monograph of Messrs. Alder and Hancock, 1856.) 


truncata, Adams. 
umbilicata, Mont. 
Amphisphyra, Lovén. 
hyalina, Turton. 
Scaphander, Mon¢fort. 
lignarius, Linn. 


Aplysia, Gmelin. 
hybrida, Sow. 

Pleurobranchus, Cuvier. 
plumula, Mont. 
membranaceus, Mont. 

Diphyllidia, Cuvier. 
tineata, Otto, 


Doris, Linn. elegans, Leuck.. nana, A. & H. 
tuberculata, Cuv. Leachii, A. & H. stipata, 4. & H. 
flammea, A. f° H. aspersa, 4. & H. angulata, 4. & H. 
Zetlandica, 4. & H. ineequalis, Forbes. inornata, A. & A. 
millegrana, A. § H. pulchella, 4. & H. concinna, A. § H. 
Johnstoni, A. & H. quadricornis, Mont. olivacea, 4. & H. 
planata, 4. ¢ H. Tritonia, Cuvier. aurantiaca, 4. & H. 
coccinea, Forbes. Hombergii, Cuv. pustulata, 4. & H. ~ 


repanda, A. g H. 
aspera, A. & H. 
proxima, 4. 4 H. 
muricata, Miill. 
Ulidiana, Thomps. 
diaphana, 4. f H. 
oblonga, 4. ¢ H. 
bilamellata, LZ. 
depressa, 4. f H. 
inconspicua, 4. § H. 
pusilla, 4, & ZH. 
sparsa, A. § H. 
pilosa, Mil. 
subquadrata, A. & H. 
Goniodoris, Forbes. 
nodosa, Mont. 
castanea, A. & H. 
Triopa, Johnston. 
claviger, Mill. 
ABgirus, Loven. 
unctilucens, D’ Orb. 
Thecacera, Fleming. 
pennigera, Mont. 
virescens, A. f H. 
capitata, A. & H. 
Polycera, Cuvier. 
quadrilineata, Mudd. 
ocellata, A. & H. 
Lessonii, D’ Ord. 
Ancula, Lovén. 
cristata, Alder. 
Idalia, Leuckart. 


Hyalea, Lamarck. 
trispinosa, Lesweur. 


alba, A. & H. 
plebeia, Johnston. 
lineata, A. & H. 


Scylleea, Linn. 


pelagica, Linn. 


Lomanotus, Verany. 


marmoratus, 4. & H. 
flavidus, A. & H. 


Dendronotus, A. & H. 


arborescens, Miill. 


Doto, Oken. 


fragilis, Forbes. 
pinnatifida, Mont. 
coronata, Miill. 


JHolis, Cuvier. 


papillosa, Linn. 
glauca, A. & H. 
Alderi, Cocks. 
coronata, Forbes. 
Drummondi, Thomps, 
punctata, A. §& ZH. 
elegans, 4. & H. 
rufibranchialis, Johnst. 
lineata, Lov. 
smaragdina, A. & H. 
gracilis, A. & H. 
pellucida, 4. & H. 
Landsburgii, A. & 
alba, A. & H. 
carnea, 4. & H. 
glaucoides, 4. & H. 
Peachii, A. & H. 


PTEROPODA. 


HI. 


Flemingii, Forbes. 
Jeffreysii, Forbes. 
MacAndrei, Forves. 


Couchii, Cocks. 
ameena, 4. & H. 


Northumbrica, 4. & H. 


arenicola, Forbes. 
Glottensis, A. & H. 
viridis, Forbes. 
purpurascens, lem. 
cingulata, A. & H. 
vittata, 4. & H. 
cerulea, Mont. 
picta, 4. & H. 
tricolor, Forbes. 
amethystina, 4. & H. 
Farrani, 4. §& H. 
exigua, 4. § H. 
despecta, Johnst. 
Embletonia, 4. & H. 
pulchra, 4. & H. 
minuta, J. & G. 
pallida, 4. & H. 
Fiona, A. & H. 
nobilis, A. & H. 
Hermza, Lovén. 
bifida, Mont. 
dendritica, 4. & H, 
Alderia, Allman. 
modesta, Lovén. 
Proctonotus, A. & H. 
mucroniferus, 4. & H. 
Antiopa, 4. §& H. 
cristata, Del. Ch. 
hyalina, 4. & H. 


Spirialis, Lydoux & Soulcyet. Clio, Miiller. 


borealis, Zinn. 


LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 


Pecten, O. F. Miller. 
*aratus, Gmelin. 
Danicus, Chemnitz. 
maximus, Z777. 
niveus, Macgillivray. 
opercularis, Linn. 
usio, Pennant. 


similis, Laskey. 


tigrinus, Miller. 
varius, linn. 
striatus, Miiller. 
furtivus, Lovén. 
Lima, Bruguiere. 
hians, Gmelin. 
Loscombii, Sowerby. 
subauriculata, Mont. 


Ostrea, Linneus. 
edulis, Linn. 

Anomia, Linneus. 
aculeata, Miiller. 
ephippium, Linn. 
striata, Lovén. 
patelliformis, Linn. 


LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA, 221 


Avicula, Bruguiére. 
Tarentina, Lam, 
Pinna, Linneus. 
_ pectinata, Linn. 
Mytilus, Linneus, 
edulis, Linn. 
Modiola, Lamarck. 
barbata, Linn. 
modiolus, Linn. 
*ovalis, G. B. Sdy. 
phaseolina, Philippi. 
tulipa, Lam. 
Crenella, Brown. 
costulata, isso, 
decussata, Mont. 
discors, Linn. 
nigra, Gray. 
marmorata, Forbes. 
_ rhombea, Berkeley. 
Area, Linneus. 
lactea, Linn. 
*nodulosa, Miiller. 


raridentata, S. Wood. 


_ tetragona, Poli. 
Pectunculus, Lamarck. 
__ glycimeris, Linn. 
- Nucula, Lamarck. 
decussata, Sow. 
 nitida, Sow. 
nucleus, Linn. 
radiata, Hanley. 
tenuis, Afont. 
Leda, Schumacher. 
caudata, Don. 
emea, Miinster. 
Baiiam, Linneus. 
aculeatum, Linz. 
echinatum, Linn. 
edule, Linn. 
fasciatum, Mont. 
nodosum, Zurton. 
Norvegicum, Speng. 
*papillosum, Poli. 
pygmzxum, Don. 
rusticum, Linn. 
Suecicum, Reeve. 
meina, Bruguiére. 
borealis, Linn. 
divaricata, Linn. 
ferruginosa, Forbes, 
flexuosa, Mont. 
leucoma, Zurton. 
spinifera, Mont. 
iplodonta, Bronn. 
— rotundata, Mont. 
Kellia, Turton. 
 suborbicularis, Monz. 
rubra, Mont. 
Purtonia, Hanley. 
‘minuta, O. Fabr. 
ontacuta, Turton. 
bidentata, Mont. 
ferruginosa, Mont. 
substriata, Mont. 


epton, Turton. 
Clarkiw, Clark, 


“ 


nitidum, Turton. 
squamosum, Mont. 
*suleatulum, Jeff?. 

Galeomma, Twrton. 
Turtoni, Sow. 

Cyprina, Lamarck. 
Islandica, Linn. 

Circe, Schumacher. 
minima, Mont. 

Astarte, Sowerby. 
arctica, Gray. 
compressa, Mont. 
crebricostata, Forbes. 
elliptica, Brown. 
suleata, Da Costa. 
triangularis, Mont. 

Tsocardia, Lamarck. 
cor, Linn. 

Venus, Linneus, 
casina, Linn. 
fasciata, Don. 
ovata, Pennant. 
striatula, Don. 
verrucosa, Linn. 

Cytherea, Lamarck. 
chione, Linn. 

Artemis, Poli. 
exoleta, Linn. 
lineta, Puld. 

Lucinopsis, Forbes. 
undata, Penn. 

Tapes, Miihifeldt. 
aurea, Gmelin. 
decussata, Linz. 
pullastra, Wood. 
virginea, Linn. 

Venerupis, Lamarck. 
irus, Linn. 

Petricola, Lamarck. 
lithophaga, Retzius. 

Mactra, Linneus. 
elliptica, Brown. 
helvacea, Chemnitz. 
solida, Linn. 
stultorum, Zinn. 
subtruneata, Da Costa, 
truncata, Mont. 

Lutraria, Lamarck. 
elliptica, Linn. 
oblonga, Chemn. 

Tellina, Linneus. 
balaustina, Linn. 
crassa, Penn. 
donacina, Linn. 
fabula, Gronov. 
incarnata, Linn. 
proxima, Brown. 
pygmexa, Philippi. 
solidula, Pul¢. 
tenuis, Da Cosfa. 

Gastrana, Sch. (Diodonta, F. 

&§ ZZ). 
fragilis, Linn. 

Psammobia, Lamarck. 
costulata, Turt. 
Ferroensis, Chemn. 


tellinella, Lam. 
vespertina, Chemn, 
Syndosmya, Recluz. 
alba, Wood. 
intermedia, Thomps, 
prismatica, Mont. 
tenuis, Mont. 
Serobicularia, Schumacher. 
piperata, Gmelin. 
Ervilia, Turton. 
castanea, Mont. 
Donax, Linneus. 
anatinus, Lam. 
politus, Poli, 
Solen, Linneus. 
ensis, Linn. 
marginatus, Plt. 
pellucidus, Penn. 
siliqua, Linn. 
Ceratisolen, Forbes. 
legumen, Linn. 
Solecurtus, Blainville. 
candidus, Renieri. 
coarctatus, Gmelin. 
Mya, Linneus. 
arenaria, Linn. 
truncata, Linn. 
Corbula, Bruguiére, 
nucleus, Lam. 
ovata, Forbes. 
rosea, Brown. 
Sphenia, Zurton. 
Binghami, Turton. 
Newra, Gray. 
abbreviata, Lorbes, 
costellata, Desh. 
cuspidata, Olivi. 
Poromya, Forbes (=Thetis, 
Sby.). 
granulata, Myst. 
Panopxa, Menard dela Groye. 
Norvegica, Speng, 
Saxicava, Bellevue,” 
arctica, Linn. 
*fragilis, Nys¢. 
rugosa, Linn. 
Cochlodesma, Leach (=Peri- 
ploma, Sch.). 
preetenue, Pult. 
Thracia, Leach. 
convexa, Wood. 
distorta, Mont. 
phaseolina, Zam. 
pubescens, Pu/¢. 
villosiuscula, Macgill. 
Lyonsia, Turton. 
Norvegica, Chemn. 
Pandora, Bruguiére. 
obtusa, Leach. 
rostrata, Lan. 
Gastrocheena, Spengler. 
modiolina, Lam. 
Pholas, Linneus. 
candida, Linz. 
crispata, Linn. 
dactylus, Linn. 


222 


parva, Penn. 

striata, Linn. 
Pholadidea, Turton. 

lamellata, Turton. 

papyracea, Solander. 


Crania, Retzius. 
anomala, Miiller. 
Rhynchonella, Fischer. 
psittacea, Chemn. 


Aplidium, Savigny. 
ficus, Linn. 
fallax, Johnst. 
nutans, Johnst. 
Sidnyum, Savigny. 
turbinatum, Savig. 
Polyclinum, Savigny. 
aurantium, M.-Edw. 
Amouroucium, M.-Edw. 
proliferum, M.-Hdw. 
Nordmanni, M.-Edw. 
Argus, M.-Edw. 
Leptoclinum, M.-Hdw. 
maculosum, M.-Hdw. 
asperum, M.-Hdw. 
aureum, M.-Hdw. 
gelatinosum, M.-EHdw. 
Listerianum, M.-Edw. 
punctatum, Forbes. 
Distoma, Gaertner. 
rubrum, Savig. 
variolosum, Gaertner. 
Botryllus, Gaertner. 
Schlosseri, Pallas. 
polycyclus, Savig. 
gemmeus, Savig. 
violaceus, M.-Hdw. 
smaragdus, M.-Edw. 
virescens, 4. & H. 
bivittatus, M.-Edw. 


Stenorhynchus, Lamarck. 
phalangium, Pennant. 
tenuirostris, Leach. 

Achzeus, Leach. 

Cranchii, Leach. 

Inachus, Fabr. 
Dorsettensis, Penn. 
dorhynchus, Leach. 
leptochirus, Leach. 

Pisa, Leach (Arctopsis, Lam.). 
tetraodon, Leach. 
Gibbsii, Leach (lanata, Lam.) 

Hyas, Leach. 
araneus, Fabr. 
coarctatus, Leach, 

Maia, Lam. 
squinado, Herbst. 

Eurynome, Leach. 
aspera, Leach. 

Xantho, Leach. 
florida, Leach. 
rivulosa, Hdw. 


REPORT—1860. 


Xylophaga, Turton. 
dorsalis, Turton. 

Teredo, ddanson. 
bipennata, Turton. 
malleolus, Turton. 


BRACHIOPODA. 
Terebratula, Bruguiére. 
caput serpentis, Linn. 
cranium, Miller. 
capsula, Jeffreys. 


TUNICATA. 
rubens, 4. & H. 
castaneus, 4. & H. 

Botrylloides, M.-Hdw. 
Leachu, Savig. 
ramulosa, A. & H. 
albicans, M.-Hdw. 
radiata, 4. & H. 
rotifera, M.-Hdw. 
rubra, M.-Edw. 
Clavelina, Savigny. 
lepadiformis, O. F'. Miiller. 
Perophora, Wiegmann. 
Listeri, Wiegm. 
Syntethys, Forbes & Goodsir. 
Hebridicus, F. & G, 
Ascidia, Baster. 
intestinalis, Linn. 
eanina, O. F. Miill. 
venosa, O. F. Mull. 
mentula, O. F. Mill. 
arachnoidea, E. Forbes. 
scabra, O. F'. Miill. 
virginea, O. F. Miill. 
parallelogramma, O. F. 
Mill. 
prunun, Miil.? 
orbicularis, Mi7. 
depressa, 4. & H. 
aspersa, Miill. 
vitrea, Van Beneden. 


CRUSTACEA. 
BRACHYURA, 


tuberculata, Couch. 
Cancer, Linn. 
pagurus, Linn. 
Pilumnus, Leach. 
hirtellus, Leach. 
Pirimela, Leach. 
denticulata, Mont. 
Carcinus, Leach. 
meenas, Linn. 
Portumnus, Leach. 


variegatus, Leach (latipes, 


Penn.). 
Portunus, Leach. 
puber, Linn. 
corrugatus, Leach, 
arcuatus, Leach. 
depurator, Leach. 
marmoreus, Leach. 
holsatus, abr. 
pusillus, Leach. 
longipes, Risso. 
plicatus, Risso. 


megotara, Hanley. 
navalis, Linn. 
Norvegica, Speng. 
palmulata, Lam. 


Argiope, Deslongchamps. 
cistellula, Searles Wood. 
*decollata, Chemn. 


conchilega, O. F. Mill. 
echinata, Linn. 
sordida, 4. & H. 
albida, A. & H. 
elliptica, 4. & H. 
pellucida, A. & Z. 

Molgwia, #. Forbes. 
oculata, L. Forbes. 
arenosa, A. & H. 

Cynthia, Savigny. 
microcosmus, Savig. 
claudicans, Savig. 
tuberosa, Macgillivray. 
quadrangularis, Z. Forbes. 
informis, £. Forbes. 
tessellata, 2. Forbes. 
limacina, Z. Forbes. 
morus, £. Forbes. 
rustica, Linn. 
grossularia, Van Beneden. 
ampulla, Brug. 
mamillaris, Pallas. 
ageregata, Rathke. 
coriacea, A. & H. 

Pelonaia, Forbes & Goodsir. 
corrugata, Forbes & Hanl. 
glabra, Forbes & Hani. 

Salpa, Chamisso. 
runcinata, Cham. 

Appendicularia, Chamisso, sp. 


carcinoides, Kin. 
Polybius, Leach. 
Henslowii, Leach. 
Pinnotheres, Lazr, 
pisum, Penn. 
veterum, Bose. 
Gonoplax, Leach. 
angulata, Leach. 
Planes, Leach. 
Linnezana, Leach. 
Ebalia, Leach. 
Pennantii(tuberosa, Penn.). 


Bryerii, Leach (tumefacta, — 


Mont.). 
Cranchii, Leach. 
Atelecyclus, Leach. 
heterodon, Leach (septem- 
dentatus, Mont.). 
Corystes, Leach. 
Cassivelaunus, Leach. 
Thia, Leach. 
polita, Leach. 


—e ee 


LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. 


Dromia, Hdw. 

vulgaris, Edw. 
_ Lithodes, Latr. 

Maia, Leach. 

Pagurus, Fabr. 
Bernhardus, Linn. 
Prideauxii, Leach. 
Cuanensis, Thonvpson. 
Ulidianus, Thompson. 


Scyllarus, Fabr. 
arctus, Linn. 
Palinurus, Fabr. 
Homarus, Linn. 
Callianassa, Leach. 
subterranea, Leach, 
Gebia, Leach. 
stellata, Mont. 
deltura, Leach. 
Axius, Leach. 
stirhynchus, Leach, 
Calocaris, Bell. 
Macandrex, Bell. 
_ Astacus, Fadr. 
gammarus (Z.) (marinus, 
7 Fabr.; vulgaris, Ldw.). 
Nephrops, Leach, 
S WN orvegicus, Linn. 
— Crangon, Fabr. 
; vulgaris, abr. 
fasciatus, Pzsso. 
spinosus, Leach. 
sculptus, Bed/, 


_ Mysis, Lat. 
chameleon, V. Thompson. 
vulgaris, V. Thompson. 
Griffithsie, Beil. 
Lamorne, Couch. 
productus, Gosse. 
Oberon, Couch. 
Thysanopoda, Edw. 
Couchii, Bell. 
Macromysis, White(Themisto, 
Goodsir, Bell). 
longispinosus, Goodsir. 
brevispinosus, Goodsir, 
ynthilia, Whzte (Cynthia, 
V. Thomps., Beil). 


 Orchestia, Leach. 

littorea, Mont. 

_Deshayesii, Savig. 
Mediterranea, Costa (levis, 

S. Bate; littorea, var., 

_ White). 

Allorchestes, Dana. 
Nilssonii, Kréyer (Danai, 

‘Spence Bate). 

imbricatus, Spence Bate. 


ANOMOURA, 


Hyndmanni, Thompson. 
levis, Thompson. 
Forbesii, Bell. 
Thompsoni, Bell. 
fasciatus, Bell. 
Dillwynii, Spence Bate. 
Porcellana, Lamarck. 

platycheles, Penn. 
longicornis, Penn. 


MACROURA. 


trispinosus, Hai/stone. 
bispinosus, Westw., Kina- 
han. 
Allmanni, Kin. 
Pattersonii, Kin. 
Alpheus, Fabr. 
ruber, Hdw. 
affinis, Guise. 
Autonomea, Risso. 
Olivii, Risso, 
Nika, Risso. 
edulis, Risso. 
Couchii, Bell. 
Athanas, Leach. 
nitescens, Mont., Leach. 
Hippolyte, Leach. 
spinus, Sowerby. 
varians, Leach. 
Cranchii, Leach. 
Thompsoni, Bell. 
Prideauxiana, Leach. 
Gordoni, Spence Bate. 
fascigera, Gosse. 


STOMAPODA. 


Flemingii, Goodsir, 
Cuma, Edwards. 
scorpioides, Mont. 
unguiculata, Spence Bate. 
Vaunthomsonia, Spence Bate. 
Edwardsii, Kréyer. 
cristata, Spence Bate. 
Diastylis, Say (Alauna, Good- 
sir, Bell). 
Rathkii, Kr. (vostrata, 
Goodsir, Bell). 
Eudora, Spence Bate. 
truncatula, Spence Bate. 


AMPHIPODA NORMALIA. 


Nicea, Nicolet (Galanthis, 
Spence Bate). 
Lubbockiana, Spence Bate. 
Montagua, Spence Bate. 
monoculoides, Montagu 
(Lyphis monoculoides, 
White, Gossc). 
marina, Spence Bate. 
Alderii, Spence Bate. 
pollexiana, Spence Bate. 
Danaia, Spence Bate. 
dubia, Spence Bate. 


223 


Galathea, Faér. 
squamifera, Leach. 
dispersa, Spence Bate. 
strigosa, Fabr. 
nexa, Hmb. 
Andrewsii, Kinahan. 
Munida, Leach. 
Bamfica, Penn. (Rondeletii, 
Bell), 


Grayana, Thompson. 
Mitchelli, Thompson. 
Whitei, Thompson. 
Yarrellii, Thompson. 
Barleei, Spence Bate. 
pandaliformis, Beil. 
pusiola, Kroyer. 
Pandalus, Leach. 
Jeffreysii, Spence Bate, 
Kinahan. 
annulicornis, Leach. 
leptorhynchus, Kin. 
Palzemon, Fabr. 
serratus, Penn. 
squilla, Fabr. 
Leachii, Bell. 
varians, Leach. 
Pasipheea, Savigny. 
sivado, Risso. 
Pensxus, Fabr. 
caramote, Risso. 


Tphithoé, Spence Bate (Halia, 
Spence Bate, White). 
trispinosa, Goodsir, 
Bodotria, Goodsir. 
arenosa, Goodsir, 
Cyrianassa, Spence Bate (Ve- 
nilia, Spence Bate, White). 
gracilis, Spence Bate. 
longicornis, Spence Bate. 
Squilla, Fabr. 
Desmarestii, Risso. 
mantis, Rondelet. 
Phyllosoma, Leach. 
Cranchii, Leach, 


Lysianassa, M.-Edw, 
Coste, M.-Edw. 
Audouiniana, Spence Bate. 
longicornis, Lucas (Chau- 
sica, Sp. B., not M.-F.). 
Atlantica, Edw. (marina, 
Spence Bate). 
Callisoma, Hope (Scopelo- 
cheirus, Spence Bate). 
crenata, Spence Bate. 
Anonyx, Kréyer. 
Edwardsii, Kréyer, 


224 


Edwardsii, Kréyer. 
minutus, Krdyer. 
Holbolli, Kréyer. 
ampulla, Kréyer. 
denticulatus, Spence Bate. 
longipes, Spence Bate. 
obesus, Spence Bate. 
longicornis, Spence Bate. 
Opis, Kréyer. 
typica, Kréyer. 
Ampelisca, Kréyer (Tetro- 
matus, Spence Bate). 
Gaimardii, Kréyer (typica, 
Spence Bate). 
Belliana, Spence Bate. 
Westwoodilla (Westwoodia, 
Spence Bate). 
cxcula, Spence Bate. 
hyalina, Spence Bate. 
Monoculodes, Stimpson. 
carinatus, Spence Bate. 
Kréyera, Spence Bate. 
arenaria, Spence Bate. 
Phoxus, Kréyer. 
simplex, Sp. Bate (Kvéyeri, 
Spence Bate, not Stimp- 
son). 
plumosus, HoJdéll. 
Holbolli, Kréy. 
Suleator, Spence Bate. 
arenarius, Spence Bate. 
Urothoé, Dana. 
marinus, Spence Bate (Sul- 
cator marinus). 
Bairdii, Spence Bate. 
medius, Spence Bate. 
elegans, Spence Bate. 
Grayia, Spence Bate. 
imbricata, Spence Bate. 
Liljeborgia, Spence Bate. 
pallida, Spence Bate. 
Phiedra, Spence Bate. 
antiqua, Spence Bate. 
Kinahani, Spence Bate. 
Tsxa, M.-Edwards. 
Montagui, M.-Edw. 
Iphimedia, Rathke. 


Lestrigonus, Guérin. 
Fabricii, M.-Edw. 


REPORT—1860. 


obesa, Rathke. 
Eblanxe, Spence Bate. 

Otus, Spence Bate. 
carinatus, Spence Bate. 

Acanthonotus, Owen. 
testudo, Montagu. 

Dexamine, Leach. 
Loughrinii, Spence Bate. 
spinosa, Mont. 

Eusirus, Kréyer. ‘ 
Edwardi, Spence Bate. 
Helvetix, Spence Bate. 

Atylus, Leach. 
bispinosus, Spence Bate. 
Huxleyanus, Spence Bate. 
Gordonianus, Spence Bate. 

Pherusa, Leach. 
cirrus, Spence Bate. 
fucicola, Edw. 

Calliope, Leach. 

Leachii, Spence Bate. 

Lembos, Spence Bate. 
Cambriensis, Spence Bate. 
versiculatus, Spence Bate. 
Websterii, Spence Bate. 
Danmoniensis, Spence Bate. 

Adra, Kroy. (=Lalaria, Ni- 

colet). 
gracilis, Spence Bate. 

Eurystheus, Spence Bate. 
tridentatus, Spence Bate. 
tuberculosus, Spence Bate. 

Gammarella, Spence Bate. 
brevicaudata, M.-Edw. (= 

G. orchestiformis, Spence 
Bate). 

Crangonyx, Spence Bate. 
subterranea, Spence Bate. 

Amathia, Iathke. 

Sabinii, Leach. 

Gammarus, Fabr. 
locusta, abr. 
fluviatilis, Rese. 
gracilis, Rathke. 
camptolops, Leach. 
marinus, Leach. 
laminatus, Johnston. 


AMPHIPODA HYPERINA. 


Phronima, Lar. 
sedentaria, Fors. 


longimanus, Leach. ; 
palmatus, Mont. (insequi- 
manus, Spence Bate). 
grossimanus, Mont. 
maculatus, Johnston. 
Bathyporeia. Lindstrém 
(Thersites, Spence Bate). 
pilosa, Lindstrom. 
pelagica, Spence Bate. 
Robertsoni, Spence Bate. 
Leucothoé, Leach, not Kroyer. 
articulosa, Mont. 
furina, Savig. (procera, Sp. 
Bate). 
Pleonexes, Spence Bate. 
gammaroides, Spence Bate. 
Amphithoé, Leach. 
rubricata, Mont. 
littorina, Spence Bate. 
? obtusata, Leach. 
? dubia, Johnston. 
Sunamphithoé, Spence Bate. 
hamulus, Spence Bate. 
conformata, Spence Bate. 
Podocerus, Leach. 
faleatus, Mont. 
yariegatus, Leach. 
pulchellus, Leach. 
Jassa ?, Leach. 
pelagica, Leach. 
Siphonecetus, Kréyer. 
Whitei, Gosse. 
Erichthonius, M.-Edw, 
difformis, M.-Edw. 
Cyrtophium, Dana. 
Darwinii, Spence Bate. 
Corophium, Latreille. 
longicorne, Fabr. 
Chelura, Philippi. 
terebrans, Phil. 
Hyperia, Latreille. 
Galba, Mont. (Latreillii, 


Edw.=Metoechus medu- — 


sarum, Latr.). 
oblivia, Kréy. 


Typhis, Risso. 
nolens, Johnston. 


AMPHIPODA ABERRANTIA. (Lxmopipopa of Latreille.) 


Dulichia, Kréyer. 
porrecta, Spence Bate. 
falcata, Spence Bate. 

Proto, Leach. 
pedata, Leach. 
Goodsirii, Spence Bate. 


Protella, Dana. 
longispina, Kréyer. 

Caprella, Lamarck. 
linearis, Lar. 
Pennantii, Leach. 
tuberculosa, Goodsir. 
lobata, Miiller. 


acuminifera, M.-Edw. 
Cyamus, Lafreille, 

ceti, Linn. 

ovalis, Roussel. 

gracilis, Roussel. 

Thompsoni, Grosse, 


ISOPODA ABERRANTIA. (Anisopopa of Dana.) 


Arcturus, Zar. (Astacilla, 
Johnston; Leachia, John- 
ston.) 

longicornis, Sow, 


intermedius, Goodsir, 

gracilis, Goodsir. 
Anthura, Leach. 

gracilis, Mond, 


cylindricus, Mon¢. 

Tanais, 1f.-Edw. 
Dulongii, Aud. 
hirticaudatus, Spence Bate. 


ee 


LIST OF THE 


Apseudes, Leach. 
talpa, Mont. 

Anceus, Risso. 
mavyillaris, Mont. 
rapax, M.-Edw. 

Praniza, Leach. 
ceruleata, Mont. 


Munna, Kréver. 
Kroyeri, Goodsir. 
Whiteana, Spence Bate. 
Jzra, Leach. 
albifrons, Leach. 
Oniscoda, Lazreille. 
maculosa, Leach. 
Deshayesii, Lucas. 
Limnoria, Leach. 
lignorum, fathke (tere- 
brans, Leach). 
Idotea, Fabr. 
pelagica, Leach. 
tricuspidata, Desm. 
emarginata, Fabr. 
linearis, Lazr. 


Order I. PHYLLOPODA. 
Nebalia, Leach. 
bipes, O. Fabr. 
Artemia, Leach. 
salina, Linz. 


Order II. CLADOCERA. 
Eyadne, Lovén. 
Nordmanni, Lovén. 


Order IIT. OSTRACODA. 
Fam, I. Cytheride. 


_ COythere, Miller. 


flavida, Miill. 
reniformis, Baird. 
albo-maculata, Baird. 
alba, Baird. 
yariabilis, Baird. 
aurantia, Baird. 

' nigrescens, Baird. 
Minna, Baird. 
angustata, Minster. 
acuta, Baird. 
pellucida, Baird. 
impressa, Baird. 


fusca?, Johnston. 

Edwardii, Spence Bate. 
Liriope, Kréyer. 

balani, Spence Bate. 
Tone, Mont. 

thoracica, Mont. 


ISOPODA (NORMALIA). 


acuminata, Leach. 
appendiculata, Risso. 
Ligia, Fabr. 
oceanica, Jinn. 
Sphzroma, Latr. 
serratum, abr. 
rugicauda, Leach. 
Hookeri, Leach. 
Cymodocea, Leach. 
truncata, Leach. 
emarginata, Leach. 
Montagui, Leach. 
rubra, Leach. 
viridis, Leach. 
Nerzea, Leach. 
bidentata, Adams. 


ENTOMOSTRACA. 


quadridentata, Baird. 
conyexa, Baird. 
Cythereis, Rupert Jones, 
Whitei, Baird. 
Jonesii, Baird. 
antiquata, Baird. 


Fam. II. Cypridinide. 
Cypridina, M.-Hdw. 
Macandrei, Baird. 
Brenda, Baird. 
Marix, Baird. 
interpuncta, Baird, 


Order ITV. COPEPODA. 
Fam. I. Cyclopide. 
Canthocamptus, Westwood. 
Strémii, Baird. 
furcatus, Baird. 
minuticornis, Mill. 
Arpacticus, M.-Edw. 
chelifer, Miil?. 
nobilis, Baird. 
Alteutha, Baird. 
depressa, Baird. 


BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. 225 


Bopyras, Latr. 
squillarum, Laz. 
hippolytes, Kréyer. 

Phryxus, Rathke. 
hippolytes, Rathke. 
paguri, Reathke. 


Campecopea, Leach. 
hirsuta, Mont. 
Cranchii, Leach. 

Cirolana, Leach. 
Cranchii, Leach. 

Eurydice, Leach. 
pulchra, Leach. 

fea, Leach. 
bicarinata, Leach. 
tridens, Leach. 

Conilera, Leach. 
cylindracea, Mont. 

Rocinela, Leach. 
Danmoniensis, Leach. 
monophthalma, Johnston. 


Fam, II. Diaptomidz. 
Temora, Baird. 

Finmarchica, Gunner. 
Calanus. 

euchzta, Lubbock. 

Anglicus, Lubbock. 
Anomalocera, Templeton. 

Patersonii, Templeton. 


Fam. III. Cetochilide. 
Cetochilus, Vauzéme. 
septentrionalis, Goodsir. 
Pontella, Dana. 
Wollastoni, Lubbock. 
Pontellina, Dana. 
brevicornis, Lubbock. 
Peltidium, Philippi. 
purpureum ?, Phil. 
Coryceus, Dana. 
Anglicus, Lubbock. 


Fam. IV. Monstrillide. 


Monstrilla, Dana. 
Anglica, Lubbock. 


On what ani- 


On what ani- 


Bpeaics, mals found. decree mals found. 
Order V. Miilleri, Zeach.............../various fishes. 
SIPHONOSTOMA. centrodonti, Baird ......... sea bream. 
ey minutus, Oto holibut. 
Fam. I. Caligide. curtus, Miil/. ray. 
Caligus, Miiller. |Lepeophtheirus, Nordmann. 
diaphanus, Nordm. ......... various fishes. Stromii, Baird. ........... on salmon. 
rapax, M.-Edw. .......1.05. various fishes. pectoralis, Mill. .......s000 yarious fishes. 
1860. Q 


226 


Species. 


Nordmanni, M.-Edw. ...... 

hippoglossi, Kréy. ......... 

obscurus, Baird 

Thompsoni, Baird 
Chalimus, Burmeister. 

scombri, Burvit..........2.+. 
Trebius, Kroyer. 

caudatus, Kréy. ............ 

Fam. II. Pandaride. 
Dinemoura, Lafreille. 

alata; M-BOUEY. .....ccrsnes= 

lamnzx, Johnst............000. 


Fam. III. Cecropide. 
Pandarus, Leach. 
bicolor, Leach 
Cecrops, Leach. 
Latreillei, Leach 
Lemargus, Kroyer. 
muricatus, K7réy. ............ 
Fam. IV. Anthosomide. 
Anthosoma, Leach. 
Smithii, Leach ............... 
Fam. V. Ergasilide. 
Nicothoé, M.-Edwards. 
astaci, M.-Edw. 


ee eee 


Fam. I. Balanide. 
Balanus (Lister). 
tintinnabulum, Linn. 
spongicola, Brown. 
perforatus, Bruguiére. 
Amphitrite, Darwin. 
eburneus, dug. Gould. 
improyisus, Darwin. 
porcatus, Da Costa. 
crenatus, Bruguiére. 
balanoides, Linz. 
Hameri, Ascanius. 
Acasta, Leach. 
spongites, Poli. 


Order PODOSOMATA. 


Fam. I. Pycnogonide. 
Pycnogonum, Fabricius. 
littorale, Strozm. 
Phoxichilus, Latreille. 
spinosus, Mont. 


REPORT—1860. 


On what ani- 


On what ani- 


mals found. Species. mals found. 
sun-fish. Fam. VI. 
holibut. Chondracanthide. 
brill. Chondracanthus, De Za Roche. 
turbot. Zei, De la Roche ............ gills of dory. 
Lernentoma, De Blainville. 
on mackerel. cornuta, Miill. ...........0... gills of sole. 
SeeliMae,, ...ccsscseesseeee gills of gurnard. 
on skate. lophii, Johnst. ...1.1....080 pouches of an- 
Lerneopoda, De Blainville. gler. 
elongata, Grant ............ shark. 
harie. Galen Troy. ..... Jee shark. 
Br hake AalMIONEA TY, checidoeceeanee salmon, 
‘Fam. VII. Anchorellide. 
'Anchorella, Cuvier. 
on shark. uncinata, Mill. .........5.. on the cod. 
TUPOSH, MOY. ..use.seeeee ee on the cod. 
on sun-fish. 
Fam. VIII. Lerneide. 
on sun-fish, |Lernea, L. 
Pranchialts, Ji cic..3rces ae gills of cod. 
Lerneonema, M.-Edwards. 
Beate, SOY. oo... sce corks on the sprat. 
on shark. Baird, SGiernc acceso cteees herring. 
encrasicoli, Twrt. ............ sprat. 
on gills of lobster 
CIRRIPEDIA. 


Pyrgoma, Leach. 
Anglicum, G. B. Shy. 
Xenobalanus, Sfeenstrup. 

globicipitis, Steenstrup. 
Chthamalus, Ranzani. 
stellatus, Poli. _ 
Verruca, Schumacher. 
Strémia, O. Miiller. 
Alcippe, Hancock. 
lampas, Hancock. 


Fam. II. Lepadide. 
Lepas, Linn. 

anatifera, Linn. 

Hillii, Leach. 


ARACHNIDA. - 


Fam. Il. Nymphonide. 
Phoxichilidium, M.-Edwards. 
coccineum, Joknst. 
globosum. 
olivaceum. 
Pallene, Johnston. 
brevirostris, Johnst. 


ANNELIDA. 


anserifera, Linn. 
pectinata, Spengler. 
fascicularis, Ellis § Solander. 
Conchoderma, OZfers. 
aurita, Linn. 
virgata, Spengler. 
Alepas, Sander-Rang. 
parasita, Sander-Rang. 
Anelasma, Darwin. 
squalicola, Lovén. 
Sealpellum, Leach. 
vulgare, Leach. 
Pollicipes, Leach. 
cornucopia, Leach. 


Nymphon, Fabricius. 
gracile, Leach. 
grossipes, O. Fabr. 
femoratum, Leach. 
pictum. 
giganteum, Johnst. 


*,* The following list of British Marine Worms is copied, by favour of Dr. J. E. Gray, 
from an unpublished Catalogue by the late Dr. Johnston. 


Order I. TURBELLARIA. 


Fam. I. Planoceride. 
Leptoplana, Ehrenberg. 


subauriculata, Johnston. 
tremellaris, Miiller. 
flexilis, Dalyell. - 
atomata, Miiller. 


ellipsis, Dalyell. 
Eurylepta, Ehrenberg. 

cornuta, Miiller. 

Dalyellii, Johnston. 


. 


* 


LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. 


sanguinolenta, Quatrefages. 
vittata, Montagu. 

Planocera, Blainville. 
folium, Gruée. 


Fam. II. Planariade. 


Planaria, Miiller. 
ulvee, Oersted. 
affinis, Oersted. 
alba, Dalyell. 
variegata, Dalyell. 
? gracilis, Dalyell. 
? falcata, Dalyell. 


Fam. III. Dalyellide. 


Typhloplana, Ehrenberg. 
flustree, Dalyell. 

Convoluta, Oersted. 
paradoxa, Oersted. 


Doubtful species of this fam. 
Planoides fusca, Dalyell. 
Planaria hirudo, Johnston. 


Astemma, Oersted. 
rufifrons, Johnston. 
filiformis, Johnston. 

Cephalotrix, Oersted. 
lineatus, Dalyell. 
flustra:, Dalyell. 

Tetrastemma, Khrenberg. 
varicolor, Oersted. 
variegatum, Dalyell. 
alge, Dalyell. 

Borlasia, Johnston. 
olivacea, Johnston. 
octoculata, Johnston. 
purpurea, Johnston. 
Gesserensis, Miiller. 
striata, Rathke. 

Ommatoplea, Ehrenberg. 
gracilis, Johnston. 
rosea, Miiller. 
alba, Thompson. 
melanocephala, Johnston. 
pulchra, Johnston. 

Stylus, Johnston. 
viridis, Dalyell. 
purpureus, Dalyell. 
fragilis, Dalyell. 
fasciatus, Dalyell. 

Lineus, 7. W. Simmons, 
longissimus, Simmons, 
gracilis, Goodsir. 
lineatus, Johnston. 
murenoides, D. Chiaje. 
fasciatus, Johnston. 

_ viridis, Dalyell. 

_ albus, Dalyell. 
eckelia, Leuckart. 
annulata, Montagu. 
tenia, Dalyell. 

Serpentaria, H. D. S. Goodsir. 
fragilis, Goodsir. 
fusca, Dalyell. 


Order II. 
BDELLOMORPHA. 


Fam. I. 
Malacobdellide. 
Malacobdella, Blainville. 
grossa, Miiller. 
Valenciennxi, Blanchard, 
anceps, Dalyell. 


Order III. BDELLIDEA. 


Fam. I. Branchelliade. 
Branchellion, Savigny. 
torpedinis, Savigny. 


Fam. II. Piscicolide, 
Pontobdella, Leach. 
muricata, Linn. 
verrucata, Grube. 
areolata, Leach. 
levis, Blainville. 
littoralis, Johnston. 
campanulata, Dalyell. 


Order IV. SCOLICES. 


Fam. I. Lumbricide. 
Senuris, Hoffmeister. 
lineata, Miiller. 
Clitellio, Savigny. 
arenarius, Miiller. 
Valla, Johnston. 
ciliata, Miiller. 


Order V. GYMNOCOPA. 


Fam. I. Tomopteride. 
Tomopteris, Eschscholtz. 
onisciformis, Grube. 


Order VI. CHAATOPODA. 


Fam. I. Aphroditide. 
Aphrodita, Leach. 
aculeata, Linn. 
borealis, Johnston. 
hystrix, Savigny. 
Lepidonotus, Leach. 
squamatus, Linn. 
clava, Montagu. 
impar, Johnston. 
pharebratus, Johnston. 
cirratus, Fabr. 
semisculptus, Leach. 
pellucidus, Dyster. 
imbricatus, Linn. 
Species not defined. 
Aphrodita squamata, Dal- 
yell. 
lepidota, Pallas. | 
minuta,. Pennant. 
annulata, Pennant. 'e 
velox, Dalyell. 
Lepidonotus floccosus ?, 
Dalyell. 
Polynoé semisquamosa, 
Williams, 


227 


Polynoé, Oersted. 
scolopendrina, Savigny. 

Pholoé, Johnston. 
inornata, Johnston. 
eximia, Dyster. 

Sigalion, dud. § M.-Edwards. 
boa, Johnston. 


Fam. II. 
Amphinomenide. 
Euphrosyne, Savigny. 
foliosa, dud. §& M.-Edwards. 
borealis, Oersted. 


Fam. III. Euniceidee. 
Eunice, Aud. § M.-Edwards, 
Norvegica, Linn. 
annulicornis, Brit. Mus. 
antennata, Savigny. 
Harassii, dud. & M.-Edw. 
sanguinea, Montagu. 
margaritacea, Williams. 
Northia, Johnston. 
tubicola, Miiller. 
conchylega, Sars. 
Lycidice, Savigny. 
Ninetta, dud. § M.-Edw. 
rufa, Gosse. 
Lumbrineris, Blainville. 
tricolor, Leach. 


Fam. IV. Nereide. 


Nereis, Cuvier. 
brevimana, Johnston. 
pelagica, Linn. 
diversicolor, Miiller. 
cerulea, Linn. 
fimbriata, Miiller. 
imbecillis, Grube. - 
Dumerilii, dud. § M.-Edw. 
pulsatoria, Montagu. 

Nereilepas, Oersted. 
fucata, Savigny. 

Heteronereis, Oersted. 
lobulata, Savigny. 
renalis, Johnston. 
longissima, Johnston. 
margaritacea, Johnston. 


Fam. V. Nephthyide. 
Nephthys, Cuvier. 

cxca, Fabr. 

longisetosa, Oersted. 

Hombergii, Cuv. ? ? 


Fam. VI. Phyllodoceide. 

Phyllodoce, Cuvier. 
lamelligera, Turton. 
bilineata, Johnston. 
maculata, Linn. 
viridis, Linn. 
ellipsis, Dalyell. 
Griffithsii, Johnston. 
cordifolia, Dyster. 

Psamathe, Johnston. 
punctata, Miiller. 

Q2 


228 


Fam. VIT. Glyceridz. 
Glycera, Savigny. 

mitis, Johnston. 

dubia, Blainville. 

capitata, Oecrsted. 

nigripes, Johnston. 
Goniada, Aud. & M.-Edwards. 

maculata, Oersted. 


Fam. VIII. Syllide. 
Syllis, Savigny. 
armillaris, Miller. 
cornuta, H. Rathke. 
prolifera, Miiller. 
? monoceros, Dalyell. 
Gattiola, Johnston. 
spectabilis, Johnston. 
Myrianida, M.-Hdw. 
pinnigera, Montagu. 
Toida, Johnston. 
macrophthalma, Johnston. 


Fam. IX. Amytideide. 
Amytidea, Grube. 
maculosa(Nereis), Montagu 


Fam, X. Ariciade. 
Nerine, Johnston. 
vulgaris, Johnston. 
coniocephala, Johnston. 


Doubtful species. 
Nerine contorta (Nereis), 
Dalyell. 
Spio, Turton. 
filicornis, Miiller. 
seticornis, Zurton. 
crenaticornis, Montagu. 
Leucodore, Johnston. 
ciliatus, Johnston. 
Ephesia, Rathke. 
gracilis, Rathke. 
Spherodorum, Oersted. 
peripatus, Johnst. 
Cirratulus, Lamarck. 
tentaculatus, Mont. 
borealis, Lamk. 
Dodecaceria, Oersted. 
concharum, Oersted. 


Fam. XI. Opheliade. 
Ophelia, Savigny. 

acuminata, Oersted. 
Ammotrypane, Rathke. 

limacina, Rathhe. 
Travisia, Johnston. 

Forbesii, Johnst. 
Eumenia, Oers¢ed. 

crassa, Oecrsted. 


Fam. XII. 
Siphonostomide. 
Siphonostoma, Cuvier. 
uncinata, dud. & M.-Edw. 
Trophonia, Cuvier. 
plumosa, Miiller. 


REPORT—1860. 


Fam. XIII. Telethusidez. 

Arenicola, Savigny. 
piscatorum, Lamk. 
branchialis, Aud. §&M.-Edw. 
ecaudata, Johnst. 


Fam. XIV. Maldaniade. 
Clymene, Savigny. 
borealis, Dalyell. 


Fam. XV. Terebellide. 
Terebella, Montagu. 
conchilega, Pallas. 
littoralis. Dalyell. 
cirrata, Mont. 
nebulosa, Mont. 
gigantea, Mont. 
constrictor, Mont. 
venustula, Mont. 
tuberculata, Dalyell. 
textrix, Dalyell. 
maculata, Dalyell. 
Venusia, Johnston. 
punctata, Johnst. 
Terebellides, Sars. 
Streemii, Sars. 
Pectinaria, Lamarck. 
Belgica, Pallas. 
granulata, Linn. 


Fam. XVI. Sabellariade. 
Sabellaria, Zamarck. 
Anglica, Ellis, 
crassissima, Lamk. 
lumbricalis, Mont. 


Fam. XVII. Serpulide. 
Arippasa, Johnston. 
infundibulum, Mont. 
Sabella, Savigny. 
pavonina, Savigny. 
penicillus, Linn. 
vesiculosa, Mont. 
bombyx, Dalyell. 
Savignii, Johnst. 
volutacornis, Mont. 
Doubtful species, 
Sabella unispira, Sav. 
rosea (Amphitrite)» Sow. 
luna (Amphitrite), Dal. 
curta (Amphitrite), Mut. 


Protula, Risso. 
protensa, Philippi. 
Dysteri, Hualey. 

Serpula, Linneus. 
vermicularis, Ellis. 
intricata, Linn. 
reversa, Mont. 
Berkeleyi, Johnst. 
conica, fem. 
armata, Jem. 
Dysteri, Johnst. 

Ditrupa, Berkeley. 
subulata, Deshayes. 


Filograna, Berkeley. 
implexa, Berk. 
Othonia, Johnston. 
Fabricii, Johnst. 


Fam. XVIII. 
Campontiade. 

Campontia, Johnston. 

eruciformis, Johnst. 


Fam. XIX. ? Meade. 


Mea, Johnston. 
mirabilis, Johnst. 


Fam. XX. ? Sipunculide. 
Syrinx, Bohadsch. 
nudus, Linn. 
papillosus, Thomps. 
Harveii, Forbes. 
Sipunculus, Linneus. 
Bernhardus, Forbes. 
Macrorhynchopterus, Rondel. 
Johnstoni, Forbes. 
saccatus, Flem. 
tenuicinctus, M‘ Coy. 
Forbesii, MM‘ Coy. 
granulosus, M‘Coy. 
Pallasii, Forbes. 


Fam. XXI. Priapulide. 
Priapulus, Lamarck, 
caudatus, Wem. 


Fam. XXII. 
Thalassemide. 
Thalassema, Cuvier. 
Neptuni, Gaértner. 
Echiurus, Cuvier. 
oxyurus, Pall. 


Species inquirende. 

Nereis, Cuvier. 
iricolor, Mont. 
margarita, Mont. 
lineata, Mont. 
maculosa, Mont. 
rufa, Penn. 
mollis, Linn. 
octentaculata, Mont. 
punctata, Eneycl. Méth. 
noctiluca, Linn. 
pinnigera, Mont. 

Aphrodita, Leach. 
annulata, Penn. 
minuta, Penn. 

Spio, Turton. 
seticornis, Twrt. 
crenaticornis, Mont. 
calcarea, Templeton. 


Branchiarius, Mont. 


quadrangularis, Mont. 


Diplotis, Mont. 


hyalina, Mont. 


Derris, Adams. 


sanguinea, Adams. 


— 


| 
. 


LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. 


229 


ENTOZOA. 


*,* From Dr. Baird’s British Museum Catalogue; and Dr. Bellingham’s List of Irish 


Entozoa, in the ‘ Annals 


of Natural History,’ 1844. 


In what ani- 


Species. mals found. 


Order NEMATOIDEA. 
Fam. Filariade. 
Filaria, Miiller. 
? marina, Linn. ............ shad and cod. 


inflexo-caudata, Siebold ...|porpoise. 
Apiaceae eee cals hace antes o's + red gurnard and 
Trichosoma, Rudolphi. mullet. 
gracilis, Bellingh............- hake. 
Spiroptera, Rudolpht. 
BU earac asa tan ove sesebeos 00: skate. 
Fam. Ascaride. 
Ascaris, Linneus. 
osculata, Rud. ........0.0008- seal, [ny. 
Cyt P77) Ae eee viviparous blen- 
TIPIGA, PUA. ...0scosrcereesee: lophius. 
capsularia, Rud. ............ cod, &e. 
COMATIS, RUA. os cieaesescree ss flounder, &c. 
byatay Bud. ccs. es sce eee- cod, &e. 
constricta, Rud. ......6..65. sea-scorpion, Xe. 
rotundata, Rud. ............! skate. 
GREE OGHE Me acjs vobaa case's 0 herring. 
angulata, Rud.............6+ lophius. 
tenuissima, Zeder............ whiting. 
BUCCISA RUC cam siccsoies sees lump-fish. 


Fam. Sclerostomidz. 
Cucullanus, Miller. 


minutus, Rud. ...........08- flounder. 
heterochrous, Rud. ......... flounder. 
foveolatus, Lam. ........... plaice and dab. 
Stenurus, Dujardin. 
inflexus, Rud. (part.) ...... porpoise. 
Prosthecosacter, Diesing. 
inflexus, Rud. ........0.0.+4 porpoise. 
convolutus, Kuhn ......... porpoise. 
Order TREMATODA. 
Fam. Onchobothriadz. 
Octobothrium, Leuckart. 
lanceolatum, Leuck.......... shad. 
Fam. Capsalide. 
Capsala, Bosc. 
GCoccinea, CWV. ..cocseccdseees sun-fish. 
elongata, Nitzsch............. sturgeon. 


Fam. Distomide. 
Monostoma, Zeder. 
filicolle, Rud. ..........0.... sea bream. 


trigonocephalum, Rud. ...|turtle. 
Distoma, Retzius. 

appendiculatum, Rud. ...'shad, &c. 

hispidum, Viborg ......... sturgeon. 

megastomum, Fwd. ....:....'smooth shark. 


microcephalum, Baird .../spinous shark. 


¢ In what ani- 
Species. mals found. 

tumidulum, Rud............. pipe-fish. 
fulvums Rud. .;Sei se skate. 
Varietm ....cib.cccuseeeeene salmon, 
gibbosum ?, Rud...........+. haddock. 
rufo-viride, Rud. ............ conger-eel. 
reflemuamn ?'25.cdecks «et seeenee eyclopterus. 
OXCISUM, UA. yose.cs.ckeeees mackerel. 
seabrum, Zeder .........04. whiting. 
contortum, Rud. ............ sun-fish, 
nigro-flavum, Fwd. ......... sun-fish, 

Hirudinella, Garsin. 
clavata, Menzies ............ Bonito. 

Order 

ACANTHOCEPHALA. 

Fam. Echinorhynchide. 

Echinorhynchus, Miller. 
proteus, Westrwmb ......... flounder. 
ACUS a JIU) Godies aye sven tence cod, &e. 
gibbosus, Rud. ...........0065 herring. 
strumosus, Rud. ............ seal, 


Order CESTOIDEA. 
Fam. Rhynchobothride. 
||Rhynchobothrium, Blainville. 


corollatum, Aézldg.......... smooth shark, 
Tetrarhynchus, Rudolphi. 


megacephalus, Rud.......... spotted dog-fish. 

BOMAUSWIITUMs «0. t.c0snaccen salmon. 

GROSSUS; HUG, wcnncc>.cdecet: salmon. 

rugosus, Baird............0- salmon. 
Tetrabothriorhynchus, Dies. 

barbatus, Linn. ..........5. lemon sole. 


Fam. Teeniade. 
Bothriocephalus, Rudolphi. 


fragilis, Aad: t22 0s an sp-scenee shad. 
proboscideus, Bartsch. ...... salmon, &e. 
punctatus, Rud. ............ turbot, &e. 
tumidulus, Rud. ............ ray. 
microcephalus, Rud. ...... sun-fish. 
coronatus, Rud. ............ skate. 
corollatus, Rud. ...........- dog-fish, 
paleaceus, Rud. ............ dog-fish. 


Fam. Scolecide. 
Scolex, Miiller. 
polymorphus, Rud.......... turbot, &c. 
Order CYSTICA. 


Fam. Cysticide. 
Anthocephalus, Rudolphi. 


elongatus, Rud. ............ isun-fish. 
granulosus?, Rud. ......... whiting, &c. 
paradoxus, Drum. ......... turbot. 


230 


Order CRINOIDEA. 


Comatula, Lamarck. 
rosacea, Link. 
Celtica, Barrett. 
Sarsii, Diiben § Koren, 


Order OPHIUROIDEA. 


Fam. Ophiuride. 
Ophiura, Lamarck. 
texturata, Lamk. 
albida, Forbes. 
Ophiocoma, Agassiz. 
neglecta, Johnst. 
punctata, Forbes. 
filiformis, Miiller. 
securigera, D. & K. 
bellis, Link. 
brachiata, Mont. 
Ballii, Thonups. 
Goodsiri, Forbes. 
granulata, Link. 
rosula, Link, 
minuta, Fortes. 


Subfam. Euryalide. 
Astrophyton, Link. 
scutatum, Link. 
*Asteronyx, Miill. & Troschel. 
Loveni, M. & T. 


Order ASTEROIDEA. 


Fam. Asteriade. 
Uraster, Agassiz. 
glacialis, Linn. 
rubens, Linn. 
violacea, Miiller. 
hispida, Penn. 
rosea, Miiller. 
Echinaster, Miiller §- Troschel. 
oculatus, Penn. 
Solaster, Forbes. 
endeca, Linn. 
papposa, Linn. 


REPORT—1860. 


Palmipes, Link. 
membranaceus, Refz. 
Asterina, Nardo. 
gibbosa, Penn. 
Goniaster, Agassiz. 
Templetoni, 7omps. 
equestris, Gmelin. 
Abbensis, Forbes. 
Asterias, Linneus. 
aurantiaca, Linn. 
Luidia, Forbes. 
fragilissima, Forbes. 
Savignii, Audouwin. 


Order ECHINOIDEA. 


Fam. Cidaride. 
Cidaris, Leske. 
papillata, Leske. 
Echinus, Linneus. 
sphera, Miiller. 
Flemingii, Ball. 
miliaris, Leske. 
lividus, Lamk. 
melo, Lamk. 
Norvegicus, D. & K. 
neglectus, Lamk. 


Fam. Clypeasteride. 


Echinocyamus, Leske. 
pusillus, Miller. 

Echinarachnius, Leske. 
placenta, Gmelin. 


Fam. Spatangide. 

Spatangus, Klein. 

purpureus, Miller. 
Brissus, Klein. 

lyrifer, Forbes. 
Amphidotus, Agassiz. 

cordatus, Penn. 

roseus, Yorbes. 

gibbosus, Barrett. 


POLYZOA. 


Class ECHINODERMATA. 


Order HOLOTHUROIDEA. 


Fam. Pentactide. 
Cucumaria, Cuvier. 
frondosa, Gunner. 
? fucicola, Forbes & Goodsir. 
pentactes, Miiller. 
? Montagui, Flem. 
? Neillii, Flem. 
? dissimilis, Flem. t 
fusiformis, Forbes & Goodsir. 
Hyndmanni, Thomps. 
Ocnus, Forbes (=Cucuma- 
ria ?). 
brunneus, Forbes. 
lacteus, Forbes & Goodsir. 
Psolinus, Forbes. 
brevis, Forbes & Goodsir. 


Fam. Thyonide. 
Thyone, Oken. 
fusus, Mill. 
Abildg.) 
raphanus, Diiben § Koren. 
communis, F. & G. (Thy- 
onidium, D. ¢ K.) 
Portlockii, Forbes. 
Drummondii, Thomps. 
pellucida, Vahl (Cucuma- 
ria hyalina, F.). j 
Aolothuria, Linn. 
nigra, Couch. 
intestinalis. 
tubulosa, Linn. 


Fam. Psolide. 
Psolus, Oken. 
phantopus, Linn. 
Forbesii. 


(papillosa, 


Fam. Synaptide. 
Synapta, Esch. 
inherens, Mill. 
digitata, Mont. 


*,* Classified as in the British Museum Catalogue by Mr. George Busk. 


Order I. 
INFUNDIBULATA. 
Suborder I. Cheilostomata. 
Fam. II. Salicornariade. 

Salicornaria, Cuvier. 
farciminoides, Johnst. 
Johnstoni, Busk. 
sinuosa, Hassall. 

Onchopora, Busk. 
borealis, Busk. 

Fam. ITI. Cellulariade. 

Cellularia, Pallas. 

Peachii, Bus. 


cuspidata, Bush. 
Menipea, Lamourouzx. 
ternata, Ellis & Soland. 


Scrupocellaria, Van Beneden. 


scrupea, Bush. 

scruposa, Linn. 
Canda, Lamouroux. 

reptans, Pall. 


Fam. IV. Scrupariade. 


Scruparia, Oken. 
chelata, Linn. 
clavata, Hincks. 

Salpingia, Coppin. 
Hassallii, Coppin. 


Hippothoa, Lamourouc. 
catenularia, Jameson. 
divaricata, Lam, 

FEtea, Lamourouc. 
anguina, Linn. 
truncata, Landsb. 
recta, Hincks. 

Beania, Johnston. 
mirabilis, Johnst. 


Fam. VI. Gemellariadez. 
Gemellaria, Savigny. 
_loricata, hand * 
Notamia, Fleming. 
bursaria, Linn. 


‘ 
F 


+4 
x 
Z 
f 
# linearis, Hassall. 


LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. 


Fam. VII. Cabereade. 


Caberea, Lamourouzx. 
Hookeri, Ftem. 
Boryi, Aud. 


Fam. VIII. Bicellariade. 


Bicellaria, De Blainville. 
ciliata, Linn. 
Alderi, Bush. 

Bugula, Oken. 
neritina, Linn. 


flabellata, J. V. Thomps. 


avicularia, Pall. 
plumosa, Pall. 
Murrayana, Bean. 
turbinata, Alder. 
fastigiata, Fabr. 


Fam. IX. Flustrade. 


Flustra, Linn. 
foliacea, Linn. 
papyracea, Hillis. 
truncata, Linn. 
Barleei, Bush. 

Carbasea, Gray. 
papyrea, Pall. 


Fam. X. 
Membraniporide. 


Membranipora, De Blainville. 


membranacea, Linn. 
pilosa, Pall. 
coriacea, Esper. 
lineata, Linn. 
Flemingii, Bush. 
Rosselii, Audouin. 
Lacroixii, Savigny. 
monostachys, Bush. 
hexagona, Bush. 
Pouilletii, Audouin. 
spinifera, Johnst. 
craticula, Alder. 
unicornis, Fem. 
imbellis, Hincks. 
Lepralia, Johnston. 
Brongniartii, Aud. 
Landsboroviui, Johnst. 


reticulata, Macgillivray. 


auriculata, Hassall. 
concinna, Bush. 
verrucosa, er. 
violacea, ate 
spinifera, Johnst. 
trispinosa, Johnst. 
coccinea, Abildg. 


ciliata, Pall. 
Gattye, Landsb. 


_ Hyndmanni, Johnst. 


yariolosa, Johnst. 
hitida, Fabr. 


_ annulata, Fabr. 


bispinosa, Johns¢. 
Peachii, Johnst. 
yentricosa, Hassall. 


melolontha, Landsb. 
innominata, Couch. 
punctata, Hassall. 
figularis, Johnst. 
pertusa, sper. 
Pallasiana. 
labrosa, Busk. 
simplex, Johnst. . 
Malusii, Aud. 
granifera, Johnst. 
hyalina, Linn. 
ansata, Johnst. 
unicornis, F/em. 
ringens, Bush. 
fissa, Bush. 
Cecilii, Audouin. 
Barleei, Bush. 
canthariformis, Bush. 
umbonata, Bush. 
discoidea, Bush. 
bella, Bush. 
monodon, Bush. 
alba, Hincks. 
eximia, Hincks, 
Woodiana, Busk. 
Alysidota, Bush. 
Alderi, Busk. 


Fam. XI. Celleporide. 
Cellepora, Fabr. 
pumicosa, Linn. 
Hassallii, Johnst. 
vitrina, Couch. 
ramulosa, Linn. 
Skenei, Hillis & Soland. 
tubigera, Bush. 
armata, Hincks. 
avicularis, Hincks. 


Fam. XII. Escharide. 
Eschara, Ray. 
foliacea, Ellis & Soland. 
cervicornis, Soland. 
cribraria, Johnst. 
Retepora, Lamarck. 
cellulosa, Linn. 
Beaniana, King. 


Suborder IT. Cyclostomata. 


Fam. I. Tubuliporide. 

Tubulipora, Lamarck. 
patina, Zinn. 
hispida, Flem. 
penicillata, Johnst. 
truncata, Jameson. 
lobulata, Hassall. 
phalangea, Couch. 
flabellaris, Fabr. 
serpens, Linn. 
hyalina, Couch. 

Diastopora, Lamourouz. 
obelia, Flem. 

Idmonea, Lamourouz. 
Atlantica, Forbes. 

Pustulipora, De Blainville. 
proboscidea, M.-Edw. 


231 


deflexa, Couch. 
Orcadensis, Busk. 
Alecto, Lamourouc. 
granulata, M.-EHdw. 
major, Johnst. 
dilatans, Johnst. 
incurvata, Hincks. 


Fam. II. Crisiade. 

Crisia, Lamouroux. 

eburnea, Linn. 

denticulata, Lamk. 

aculeata, Hassall. 

geniculata, 1.-Edw. 
Crisidia, M.- Edwards. 

cornuta, Zinn. 

setacea, Couch. 


Suborder III. Ctenostomata. 


Fam. I. Aleyonidiadz. 

Alcyonidium, Lamourouz. 
gelatinosum, Pallas. 
hirsutum, FVem. 
parasiticum, Fem. 
mamillatum, Alder. 
albidum, Alder. 
hexagonum, Hincks. 

Cycloum, Hass. 
papillosum, Hass. 

Sarcochitum, Hass. 
polyoum, Johnst. 


Fam. IT. Vesiculariade. 
Amathia, Lamourous. 

lendigera, Linn. 
Vesicularia, Thompson. 

spinosa, Linn. 
Valkeria, Fleming. 

cuscuta, lis, 

uva, Linn. 

pustulosa, Johnst. 
Mimosella, Hincks, 

gracilis, Hincks. 
Avenella, Dalyell. 

fusca, Dalyell. 
Notella, Gosse. 

stipata, Gosse. 
Bowerbankia, Farre. 

imbricata, Johnst. 
Farrella, Ehrenberg. 

repens, Johnst. 

elongata. 

gigantea. " 

pedienlisie, Alder. 

ilatata, Hincks. 

Anguinella, Van Beneden. 

palmata, V. Ben. 
Buskia, Alder. 

nitens, Alder. 


Fam. III. Pedicellinidz. 
Pedicellina, Sars. 

echinata, Sars. 

Belgica. 

gracilis. 


232 


REPORT—1860. 


Subkingdom Ca@LenTerRata. 


Class HYDROZOA. 


*,* This list is compiled from Dr. Johnston’s “ British Zoophytes ” (2nd edit.), Forbes’s 
‘“‘ British Naked-eyed Medusz,” and the works of Mr. Alder, Prof. Allman, Mr. Cobbold, 
Mr. Gosse, Professor Greene, Rey. Thomas Hincks, Professor Huxley, Dr. T. Strethill 


Wright, &c. 
Order CORYNIDZ. 


Fam. I. Coryniade. 
Clava, Gmelin. 
multicornis, Johnston (re- 
pens, 7. 8. Wright; dis- 
creta, Allman). 
cornea, T. S. Wright. 
membranacea, T. 8. Wright. 
Vorticlava, Alder. 
humilis, Alder. 
Lar, Gosse. 

Sabellarum, Gosse. 
Hydractinia, Van Beneden 
(Podocoryna, Sars). 

echinata, Flem. 
carnea, Sars. 
Mpyriothela, Sars. 
arctica, Sars. 
Clavatella, Hincks. 
prolifera, Hincks. 
Coryne, Gaértner. 
pusilla, Zhr. 
Sarsii, Lovén (decipiens, 
Dujardin). 
ramosa, Ehr. (Listerii, Van 
Beneden). 
sessilis, Gosse. 
gravata, T. S. Wright. 
eximia, Allman. 


implexa, TZ. S. Wright 
(Tubularia implexa, 
Alder; ?C. Briareus, 
Allman). 

Cerberus, Gosse. 


stauridia, Dujardin. 
[Should be referred to 
the next genus. ] 
Stauridia, T. S. Wright. 
producta, T. S. Wright. 
Trichydra, T. S. Wright. 
pudica, T. S. Wright. 


Fam. IJ. Tubulariade. 
Eudendrium, Ehrenberg. 

ramosum, Linn. 

rameum, Pail. 

capillare, Alder. 

arbuscula, 7. S. Wright. 
Atractylis, T. 8. Wright. 

ramosa, Van Beneden. 

repens, 7. S. Wright. 

sessilis, T. S. Wright. 
Dicoryne, Allman. 

conferta, Alder (Eudend. 

confertum, Alder). 

Garveia, T. S. Wright. 

nutans, 7. S. Wright. _ 


Bimeria, 7. S. Wright. 

yestita (Manicella fusca, 
Allman). 

Tubularia, Linneus. 
indivisa, Linn. 
Dumortierii, Van Beneden. 
larynx, Ellis. 
gracilis, Harvey. 

Corymorpha, Sars. 
nutans, Sars. 
nana, Alder. 


Order SERTULARID®. 
Fam. I. Sertulariade. 
Halecium, Oken. 
halecinum, Eilis. 
Beanii, Johnst. 
muricatum, Ellis & Soland. 
labrosum, -A/der. 
tenellum, Hincks. 
Sertularia, Linneus. 
polyzonias, Linn. 
tricuspidata, Alder. 
tenella, Alder. 
Gayi, Lame. 
rugosa, Ellis. 
rosacea, Linn. 
pumila, Linn. 
gracilis, Hassall. 
Eyansii, Ellis & Soland. 
nigra, Pallas. 
pinnata, Pallas. 
alata, Hincks. 
pinaster, Ellis & Soland. 
Margareta, Hassall. 
fallax, Johnst. 
tamarisca, Linn. 
abietina, Linn. 
filicula, Ellis & Soland. 
operculata, Linn. 
argentea, Ellis & Soland. 
cupressina, Linn. 
fusca. Johnst. 
Thuiaria, Fleming. 
thuia, Linn. 
articulata, Pallas. 
Antennularia, Lamarck. 
antennina, Linn. 
ramosa, Lame. 
Plumularia, Lamarck. 
falcata, Linn. 
cristata, Lamk. 
pennatula, Ellis & Soland. 
myriophyllum, Linn. 
tubulifera, Hincks. 
pinnata, Linn. 
setacea, Ellis. 


Catherina, Johnst. 
echinulata, Lamk. 
similis, Hincks. 
frutescens, Ellis & Soland. 
halecioides, Alder. 
obliqua, Saunders (Lao- 
medea obliqua, Johnst.). 
Fam. IT. 
_ Campanulariade. 
Laomedea, Lamourouz. 
dichotoma, Linn. 
longissima, Pallas. 
geniculata, Linn. 
flexuosa, Hincks. 
Lovéni, Ad/man. 
gelatinosa, Pallas. 
angulata, Hincks. 
neglecta, Alder. 
pulchella, Wyville Thomson. 
lacerata, Johnst. 
tenuis, Allman. 
acuminata, Alder. 
Campanularia, Lamarck. 
yolubilis, Linn. 
Jobnstoni, Alder. 
Hincksii, Alder. 
raridentata, Alder. 
integra, Macgillivray. 
caliculata, Hincks. 
verticillata, Linn. 
[intertexta, Couch—a very 
doubtful species. | 
Calicella, Hincks. 
dumosa, Flem. 
gracilluma, Alder. 
parvula, Hincks. 
syringa, Linn. 
fastigiata, Alder. 
humilis, Hincks. 
Reticularia, Wyville Thomson. 
serpens, Hassall. 
Grammaria, Stimpson. 
ramosa, A/der. 
Coppinia, Hass. [The position 
of this genus is doubtful.] 
arcta, Dalyell. 


Order CALYCOPHORID JE. 
Fam. Diphyde. 
Diphyes, Cuvier. 
appendiculata, Eschscholtz. 
Order PHYSOPHORID#. 


Fam. I. Stephanomiade. 
(?) Halistemma, Huxley. 
rubrum, Vogt. 


—_—— 


LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA, 


Fam. II. Physaliadz. 
Physalia, Lamarck. 

pelagica, Eschscholtz. 
Velella, Lamarck. 

spirans, Forsk. 


Order MEDUSID. 


Fam. I. Willsiade. 
Willsia, Forbes. 
stellata, Forbes. 


Fam. II. Oceanidz. 

Turris, Lesson. 

digitalis, O. F. Miiller. 

neglecta, Lesson. 

constricta, Patterson. 
Saphenia, Eschscholtz. 

dinema, Péron. 

Titania, Gosse. 
Oceania, Péron. 

octona, Flem. 

episcopalis, Forbes, 

turrita, Forbes. 

globulosa, Forbes. 


duealis, Forbes & Goodsir, 


pusilla, Gosse. 


Fam. III. Ai’quoreade. 
Stomobrachium, Brand. 
octocostatum, Sars. 

Polyxenia, Eschscholtz. 
Alderi, Forbes. 

/&quorea, Péron. 

_ Forskalii, Forbes. 
Forbesiana, Gosse. 
vitrina, Gosse. 
formosa, Greene. 
sp., Greene. 


Fam. IV. Circeade. 
Circe, Mertens. 
rosea, Forbes. 


Fam. V. Geryoniade. 
- Geryonia, Péron. 
appendiculata, Fordes, 


Geryonopsis, Fordes. 
delicatula, Forbes, 
Tiaropsis, Agassiz. 
Patterson, Greene. 
Thaumantias, Hschscholéz. 
pilosella, Forbes. 
quadrata, Forbes. 
aéronautica, Forbes, 
octona, Forbes. 
maculata, Forbes, 
melanops, Forbes. 
globosa, Forbes. 
convexa, Forbes. 
gibbosa, Forbes. 
lineata, Forbes. 
pileata, Forbes. 
Sarnica, Forbes. 
Thompsoni, Forbes. 
hemispherica, O.F'. Miiller. 
inconspicua, Forbes, 
punctata, Forbes. 
lucifera, Forbes, 
Buskiana, Gosse. 
corynetes, Grosse. 
undulata, Forbes & Goodsir, 
confluens, Forbes 4 Goodsir. 
achroa, Cobbold. 
neglecta, Greene. 
typica, Greene. 
Slabberia, Forbes. 
halterata, Forbes. 
catenata, Forbes & Goodsir. 
Fam. VI. Sarsiade. 
Plancia, Forbes & Goodsir. 
gracilis, Forbes & Goodsir. 
Goodsirea, Strethili Wright. 
mirabilis, S. Wright. 
Sarsia, Lesson. 
tubulosa, Sars. 
pulchella, Forbes. 
gemmifera, Forbes, 
prolifera, Forbes, 
Hippocrene, Mertens. 
Britannica, Forbes. 
nigritella, Forbes. 


233 


crucifera, Forbes & Goodsir’ 
simplex, Forbes & Goodsir: 
dinema, Greene. 
Lizzia, Forbes. 
octopunctata, Sars. 
blondina, Forbes, 
sp., Claparéde. 
Modeeria, Forbes. 
formosa, Forbes, 
Diplonema, Greene. 
Islandica, Greene. 
Euphysa, Forbes. 
aurata, Forbes. 
Steenstrupia, Forbes, 
rubra, Forbes, 
flaveola, Forbes, 
Owenii, Greene. 


Order LUCERNARIDA. 


Fam. I. Lucernariade. 
Lucernaria, Miiller. 
auricula, Fabr. 
campanulata, Lame, 
fascicularis, Fem. 
Depastrum, Gosse. 
stellifrons, Gosse, 
Carduella, Allman. 
cyathiformis, Sars, 


Fam. IT. Pelagide. 

Aurelia, Péron. 

aurita, O. F. Miiller. 

campanula, O. Fabricius, 
Cyanea, Péron. 

capillata, Linn. 

Lamarckii, Péron. 
Pelagia, Péron et Lesueur. 

cyanella, Péron e¢ Lesueur, 
Chrysaora, Péron. 

hysoscella, Linn. 


Fam. III. Rhizostomide. 
Cassiopeia, Péron. 

lunulata, Fem. 
Rhizostoma, Cuvier. 


ima, Eschscholtz, pyramidata, Forbes & Good- pulmo, Gel. 
Bairdii, Johnst. sir. 
Class ACTINOZOA. 
*x* The list of Zoantharia is taken from Goase’a “ Actinologia.”’ ‘. 


Order ZOANTHARIA, 


Fam. I. Actiniade. 

inolobia, Blainville. 

dianthus, Blainv. 

agartia, Gosse, 

llis, Elvis, 

t Miniata, Gosse. 

__Yosea, Grosse. 

_ ornata, Holdsworth. 

 ichthystoma, Gosse. 
Nivea, Gosse. 

_ sphyrodeta, Gosse, 

pallida, Holdsworth, 


ite 


pura, Alder. 
coccinea, Miill. 
troglodytes, Johnst, 
viduata, Miid/. 
parasitica, Johnst. 
chrysosplenium, Cocks, 
Adamsia, Forbes. 
palliata, Forbes, 
Phellia, Gosse. 
murocincta, Gosse. 
gausapata, Gosse. 
picta, Gosse. 
Brodricii, Gosse, 


Gregoria, Gosse. 
fenestrata, Gosse. 
Aiptasia, Cocks. 
Couchii, Cocks, 
Anthea, Gaértner. 
cereus, Hilis, 
Actinia, Linn. 
mesembryanthemum, Evlis, 
Bolocera, Johnst. 
Tuedix, Johnst. 
eques, Gosse. 
Bunodes, Gosse. 
gemmacea, Hilis, 
thallia, Gosse. 


234 


Ballii, Cocks. 
coronata, Gosse. 
Tealia, Gosse. 
digitata, Mill. 
tuberculata, Cocks. 
crassicornis, Miill. 
Hormathia, Gosse. 
margarita, Gosse. 
Stomphia, Gosse. 
Churchix, Gosse. 
Ilyanthus, Forbes. 
Scoticus, Forbes. 
Mitchellii, Gosse. 
Peachia, Gosse. 
hastata, Gosse. 
undata, Gosse. 
triphylla, Gosse. 
cylindrica, Reid. 
Halcampa, Gosse. 
chrysanthemum, Peach. 
microps, Gosse. 
Edwardsia, Quatrefages. 
callimorpha, Gosse. 
carnea, Gosse. 
Beautempsii, Quatref. 
Arachnactis, Sars. 
albida, Sars. 
Cerianthus, J. Haime. 
Lloydii, Gosse. 
vermicularis, Forbes. 
Capnea, Forbes. 
sanguinea, Forbes, 
Aureliania, Gosse. 
angusta, Gosse. 
heterocera, Thomps. 
Corynactis, Al/man. 
viridis, Allman. 


*,* This list of British Foraminifera is taken from Prof. Williamson's “Recent 
Foraminifera of Great Britain,” published by the Ray Society. 


Proteonina, Williamson. 
fusifornis, W2lliamson. 
pseudospiralis, W2ldéamson. 

Orbulina, D' Orbigny. 
universa, D’ Orb. 

Lagena, «Walker. 
vulgaris, Williamson. 

var. clavata. 

yar. perlucida. 

yar. semistriata. 

yar. striata. 

yar. interrupta. 

var. gracilis. 

yar. substriata. 

Entosolenia, Hhrenberg. 
globosa, Walker. 

yar. lineata. 
costata, Williamson. 
marginata, Walker. 
yar. lucida. 


REPORT—1860. 


Fam. II. Zoanthidee. 
Zoanthus, Cuvier. 
Couchii, Johnst. 


sulcatus, (Gosse. 
Alderi, Gosse. 


Fam. III. 
Caryophylleade. 
Cyathina, Ehrenberg. 
Smithii, Fem. 
Paracyathus, M.-Edwards 
Tamilianus, Gosse. 
Thulensis, Gosse. 
pteropus, Gosse. 
Desmophyllum, Ehrenberg. 
Stokesii, M.-Edwards. 
Sphenotrochus, M.-Edwards. 
Macandrewanus, M.-Edw. 
Wrightii, Gosse. 
Ulocyathus, Sars. 
arcticus, Sars. 
Oculina, Lamarck. 
prolifera, Linn. 
Hoplangia, Gosse. 
Durotrix, Gosse. 
Balanophyllia, Wood. 
regia, Grosse. 


Order ALCYONARIA. 


Fam. I. Pennatulade. 


Pennatula, Linneus. 
phosphorea, Linn. 

Virgularia, Lamarck. 
mirabilis, Linn. 

Payonaria, Cuvier. 


quadrangularis, Pail. 


Subkingdom Protozoa. 


FORAMINIFERA. 


var. ornata. 
yar. lagenoides. 
var. quadrata. 
squamosa, Mont. 
yar. scalariformis. 
yar. catenulata. 
var. hexagona. 
Lingulina, D’ Orbigny. 
carinata, D’ Orb. 
Nodosaria, Lamarck. 
radicula, Linn. 
pyrula, D’ Ord. 
Dentalina, D’ Orbigny. 
subarcuata, Mont. 
var. Jugosa. 
legumen, Linn. 
var. linearis. 
Frondicularia, Defrance. 
spathulata, W2lzamson. 
Archiaciana, D’ Ord, 


Fam. II. Aleyonide. 
Alecyonium, Linneus. 
digitatum, Linn. 
glomeratum. 
Sarcodictyon, Forbes. 
catenata, Forbes. 
agglomerata. 


Fam. III. Gorgoniade. 
Gorgonia, Linneus. 
verrucosa, Linn. 
pinnata, Linn. 
anceps, Ellis. 
Primnoa, Lamarck. 
lepadifera, Linn. 


Order CTENOPHORA. 


Fam. I. Cydippide. 
Cydippe, Esch. 

pileus, Miill. 

Flemingii, Forbes. 

infundibulum, Mill. 

lagena, Forbes. 

pomiformis, Paterson. 


Fam. II. Calymnide. 
Bolina, Paterson. 
Hibernica, Paterson, 


Fam. III. Beroide. 


Beroé, Miiller. 
cucumis, Fabr. 
fulgens, Flem. 
borealis, Less. 

Alcinoé, Cu. 
rotunda. 
Smithii. 


Cristellaria, Lamarck. 
calear, Linn. 
var. rotifera. 
yar. oblonga. 
subarcuatula, Walker. 
var. costata. 
Nonionina, D’ Orbigny. 
Barleeana, Williamson. 
crassula, Walker. 
Jeffreysii, Williamson. 
elegans, Williamson. — 
Nummulina, D’ Orbigny. 
planulata, Lam. 
Polystomella, Lamarck, 
crispa, Linn. 
umbilicatula, Walker. 
var. incerta. 
Peneroplis, Montfort. 
planatus, Ficht. & Moll. 
Patellina, Williamson. 


did h 


LIST OF THE BRITISH MARINE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. 


_ corrugata, Williamson. 
Rotalina, D’ Orbigny. 
Beccarii, Linn, 
inflata, Mont. 
turgida, Williamson. 
oblonga, Williamson. 
concamerata, Mont. 
nitida, Williamson. 
mamilla, Williamson. 
ochracea, Williamson. 
fusca, Williamson. 
Sicbizerins, D Orbigny. 
bulloides, D’ Ord. 
Planorbulina, D Orbigny. 
3 vulgaris, D’ Ord. 
‘Truncatulina, D’ Orbigny. 
lobatula, Walker. 
apo D Orbigny. 
pupoides, D’ Ord. 
var. marginata. 
var. spinulosa. 
var. fusiformis. 
var. compressa. 


- 
. 


Tethya, Lamarck. 
cranium, Johnst. (not Mill.) 
 lyncurium, Johnst. 
eodia, Lamarck. 
Zetlandica, Johnst. 
‘Pachymatisma, Bowerbank. 
Johnstonia, Bowb. (Hali- 
' chondria, Johnst.) 
Halichondria, Fleming. 
panicea, Johnst. 
coalita, Johnst. 
- coccinea, Bowh. MS. 
glabra, Bowb. MS. 
inconspicua, Bowb. MS. 
caduca, Bowb. MS. 
 distorta, Bowb. MS. 
Dickiei, Bowb. MS. 
Batei, Bowb. MS. 
_ lingua, Bowd. MS. 
-corrugata, Bowd. MS. 
ulata, Bowb. MS. 
hompsoni, Bowb. MS. 
plumosa, Johnst. 


1; - eniacidon, Bowerbank 
(Halichondria, Johnst.). 
4 ii MS. 


Halina, 


var. convoluta. 
elegantissima, D’ Orb. 
scabra?, Williamson. 
Uvigerina, D’ Orbigny. 
pygmza, D’ Orb. 
angulosa, Williamson. 
Cassidulina, D’ Orbigny. 
levigata, D’ Ord. 
obtusa, Williamson. 
Polymorphina, D’ Orbigny. 
lactea, Walker. 
var. acuminata. 
. oblonga. 
. fistulosa. 
. concava. 
var. communis. 
myristiformis, Williamson. 
Textularia, Defrance. 
cuneiformis, D’ Orb, 
var. conica. 
variabilis, Williamson. 
yar. spathulata. 
var. difformis. 


rs 


albescens, Johnst. 
caruncula, Bowb. MS. 
Alderi, Bowb. MS. 
perlevis, Johnst. 
aurea, Johnst. 
pachyderma, Bowd. MS. 
crustula, Bowb. MS 
sanguinea, Johnst. 
armatura, Bowb. MS. 
floreum, Bowb. MS. 
earnosa, Bowb. MS. 
viridans, Bowh. MS. 
sulphurea, Bowb. MS. 
clavigera, Bowb. MS. 
subclavata, Bowb. MS. 
lactea, Bowb. MS. 
Dujardinii (Halisarca), 
Johnst. 
celata, Johnst. 
Bowerbank (Hali- 
chondria, Johmnst.). 
suberea (Halichondria), 
Johnst. 
ficus, Johnst. 
carnosa, Johnst. 
Bucklandi, Bowb. MS. 
Isodictya, Bowerbank (Hali- 
chondria, Johnst.). 
Peachii, Bowb. MS. 
rosea, Bowb. MS. 
permollis, Bowb. MS. 
indistincta, Bowb. MS. 
indefinita, Bowb. MS. 
Macandrewii, Bows. MS. 
dichotoma, Bowd. MS. 
cinerea, Johnst. 
ramusculus, Bowb. MS. 
sunulo, Bowb. MS. 
mammeata, Bowb, MS. 


235 


var. levigata. 
Biloculina, D’ F Orbigny. 
ringens, D’ Orb, 
var. carinata. 
Spiroloculina, D’ Orbigny. 
depressa, D’ Orb. 
var. rotundata. 
var. cymbium. 
Miliolina, Williamson. 
trigonula, Lamk. 
seminulum, Linn. 
var. oblonga. 
var. disciformis. 
bicornis, Walker. 
var. elegans. 
var. angulata. 
Vertebralina, D’ Orhigny. 
striata, D' Orb. 
Spirillina, Ehrenberg. 
foliacea, Philippi. 
perforata, Schultze. 
arenacea, Williamson. 
margaritifera, Williamson. 


sy LIST OF BRITISH SPONGES. 


fucorum, Johnst. 

Alderi, Bowd. MS. 

Normani, Bowd. MS. 

lobata, Johnst. 

Barleei, Bowb. MS. 

gracilis, Bowb. MS. 

Gregorii, Bowb. MS. 

Beanii, Bowb. MS. 

clava, Bowb. MS. 

infundibuliformis, Johnst. 

Desmacidon, Bowerbank(Ha- 

lichondria, Johnst.). 

zegagropila, Johnst. 

fruticosa, Johnst. 


Raphyrus, Bowerbank. 


Griffithsii, Bowb. MS. 
Dictyocylindrus, Bowerbank 
(Halichondria, Jolnst.). 
stuposus, Johnst. 
Howsei, Bowb. MS. 
ramosus, Johnst. 
aculeatus, Bowb. MS. 
ventilabrum, Bows. MS. 
fascicularis, Bowd. MS. 
rugosus, Bowd. MS. 
Haliclona, Bowerbank (Hali- 
chondria, Johnst.). 
palmata, Johnst. 
Montagui, Johnst. 
pygmza, Bowb. 
seriata, Johnst. 
simulans, Johnst. 
columbe, Johnst. 
gracilenta, Bowb. MS. 


Microciona, Bowerbank, MS. 


atro-sanguinea, Bowd, MS. 
armata, Bowb. MS. 
earnosa, Bowb. MS. 
ambigua, Bowb, MS. 


2936 REPORT—1860. 


levis, Bows. MS. brevis, Bowb. MS. ciliata, Johnst. 
spinulenta, Bow: MS. robusta, Bowb. MS. ensata, Bowb. MS. 
Hymeraphia, Bowerhank,MS. Halicnemia, Bowerbank, MS.  tessellata, Bowd. MS. 
vermiculata, Bows. MS. patera, Bowb. MS. Leuconia, Bowerbank (Gran- 
stellifera, Bowb. MS. Phakellia, Bowb. MS. (Hali- tia, Johnst.). 
clavata, Bowb. MS. chondria, Johnst.). nivea, Johnst. 
Hymedesmia,Bowerbank,MS. _ ventilabrum, Johnst. fistulosa, Johnst. 
Zetlandica, Bowb. MS. Dysidea, Johnston. Leucosolenia, Bowerbank, 
Halyphysema, Bowerbank, fragilis, Johnst. MS. (Grantia, Johnst.). 
MS. Spongia, Linneus, botryoides, Johnst. 
Tumanowiczii, Bowd. MS. pulchella, Johnst. coriacea, Johnst. 
Euplectella, Owen. limbata, Johnst. lacunosa, Johnst. 
mammillaris (Halichon- Grantia, Fleming. contorta, Bowb. MS. 


dria), Johnst, compressa, Johnst. 


ess 


_ > 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS 


OF 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS, 


MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 


MATHEMATICS. 
Address by the Rev. Prof. Price, 4.A., F.R.S., President of the Section. 


GENTLEMEN,—A custom has prevailed at our Meetings for some years for the Pre- 
sident of each Section to make a short address at the opening. The object of it I 
take to be twofold; first, to explain to new members the nature of the business which 
we have to transact; and, secondly, to suggest to all the course of rocedure, and 
the distribution of subject most convenient for the conduct of our business, The 
area of scientific research which this Section covers is very large, larger perhaps 
than that of any other; and its subjects vary so much, that while to some of 
those who frequent this room certain papers may appear dull, yet to others they 
will be full of interest. There are many and very good reasons why these subjects 
should be grouped. Some of them possess, probably in the highest degree attain- 
able by the human intellect, the characteristics of perfect and necessary science ; 
while others are at present little more than a conglomeration of observations, made 
indeed with infinite skill and perseverance, and of the greatest value ; capable 
probably in time of greater perfection, nay, perhaps, of most perfect forms, but as 
yet in their infancy, scarcely indicating the process by which that maturity will 

e arrived at, and containing hardly the barest outline of their ultimate laws, We 
have indeed sciences intermediate to these two extremes, in which some of the laws 
are already capable of mathematical expression, and from which results have been 
derived, and still many phenomena are as yet not brought within their comprehen- 
sion. But as all subjects which we regard in this Section are of one type, so are 
they rightly combined; and it will be, I venture to think, an evil day for natural 
Imowledge, when we cease to regard the forms of the sciences of space, number, 
and motion, as those to which all others ought to assimilate themselves. 

Now first of all in our Section stand Mathematics, both pure and applied. These, 
indeed, require very heavy and arduous study, inasmuch as they have peculiar 
nomenclature, language, and processes, and thus it is only to the few generally who 
have made them their particular study that they offer great interest. Mathematics 
have also now become so large in their grasp and so curious in their details, that I 
am, I am sure, only expressing the opinions of most analysts when I say that the 
whole of a man’s life is not sufficient for more than one branch of it. Indeed, 
and we are proud to say so, some members of this Association are devoting whole 
lives, and intellects too of the highest order, to the advancement of our knowledge 
in a particular direction. Take, for instance, the theory of homogeneous forms: 
in the history of science the names of Boole, Cayley, Sylvester will always be 
recorded, and in scientific treatises their labours will find a place. Or take again 
the theory of elliptic functions, or the calculus of probabilities ; the difficulties of 
these subjects require the utmost tension of the human mind, and even then they 
transcend its limits. To many of the usual attendants on this Section, these and 


__ kindred subjects may be dry and uninteresting. Well, if they are so to any of you, 
_ I must beg you to bear with us for a short time; these things have a deep and 


1860. 


2 REPORT—1860. 


significant meaning; and be assured too that they are not uninteresting to all; to 
many they give the purest pleasure; and I must ask you not to grudge them that 
during the few pale on the higher mathematics which we shall probably have. 
In passing, too, [ would remind you that very frequently our knowledge of natural 
phenomena depends on certain integrals, the properties of which can only be 
studied with a profound knowledge of the higher mathematics; and thus the pro- 
gress of one branch of knowledge depends on another, and is frequently stopped by 
our ignorance of that. 

_ To most of us, probably, the questions of applied mathematics will have greater 
interest; we are more familiar with the laws of nature, the mathematical interpre- 
tation of which, mixed mathematics, as they are called, take cognizance of ; we 
most eagerly catch at the results of those laws. Consider the Newtonian law of 
gravitation in its most general form; in its highest development in the lunar and 
planetary theories, a dry mathematical paper will thin our room; an astronomical 
paper will often fill it; and now too, perhaps, more than heretofore; for our 
interest in the subject has been keenly aroused of late. The lunar disturbances 
have been, as you know, calculated with greater precision, and new results have 
been arrived at, which exhibit certain discrepancies relatively to the old. I 
need do no more than allude to what has lately taken place at our own Royal 
Astronomical Society and at the French Academy; and express a hope that we 
shall have some communication on this subject from those who are here present, and 
are so well qualified to give it. Mathematicians, however, have been startled by 
an announcement that “ what is commonly called mathematical evidence is not so 
certain as many persons imagine; and that it ultimately depends on moral evidence ;” 
and moreover we are told that the “results of long and complicated mathematical 
calculations are not more than probably true.” This we can hardly believe; it 
takes us quite by surprise, and we hope for further light; if, however, we must 
wait for light, we must wait patiently; let us not forestal a conclusion which many 
of us venture to think is as yet, not to say more, unproved; let us wait for the 
new lunar theories, which are as yet unpublished, and for the new lunar tables, 
which are the results of these theories. I am told, however, already that Baron 
Plana has corrected his calculations, and that he finds the results arrived at by 
Delaunay and Adams to be in accordance with his amended formule. These new 
lunar calculations have taken us by surprise; but again I would say let us wait, 
“magna est veritas et preevalebit.” 

_ We are desirous, so far as is possible consistently with the convenience of con- 
tributors, to take the papers on mathematical subjects on the early days of our 
meeting ; and we shall es glad therefore if members who have papers on these sub- 
jects will announce them to the Secretaries without delay. And before I proceed 
further, we have a debt to pay, due by the cultivators of these branches of science, 
to those who have lately contributed reports on particular parts of our science to 
the British Association ;—to Mr. Cayley for his report on the present state of 
Theoretical Dynamics, and to Mr. Smith for the first part of his report on the 
Theory of Numbers. It is only they who have had to go through the existing 
literature in any one problem, say the Lagrangian equations, or the theory of the 
motion of a material system, that can form an adequate value of such papers as 
those I refer to: the literature is catalogued, indexed, and analysed; we know 
thereby all that has been done up to a certain point, and in our subsequent inves- 
tigations our commencement starts from the close of other men’s labours. We 
are hereby prevented from travelling over other men’s ground; and we avoid that 
most unsatisfactory plagiarism of them, “qui nostra ante nos dixerunt.” Vast and 
various are the benefits of our Association ; but I am inclined to consider as one of 
the greatest, the series of valuable reports which our published volumes contain ; 
and those last reports to which I have referred, for their learning, their deep re- 
search, their comprehensive views of the theories explained in them, will maintain 
the character shared by their predecessors. While we lament the loss of Dr. Pea- 
cock and others, to whom we owe the very able reports contained in the early 
volumes of our proceedings, we are proud to have worthy successors in our present 
talented contributors. 

We propose, next in order, to take those papers which treat of subjects within the 
grasp of mathematical symbols, at least partially, if not wholly; those whose laws 


iN cio 


an 


es 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3 


are sufficiently general for functional symbols, and from particular forms of which 
by mathematical processes other truths may be derived. Such are the subjects of 
Light, Heat, Sound, Electricity, Magnetism ; we propose to take these subjects in 
the latter days of this week, and the first day of next. We shall, of course, con- 
sult the conyenience of contributors; but it will tend, we think, to the orderly 
arrangement of our business if this order can be adopted. Vast indeed in their 
subjects are these sciences; and as discoveries are being daily made in them, 
we have a right to expect some interesting communications, either in the way 
of mathematical deduction from received laws, or as mathematical explana- 
tions of observed phenomena, or as simple experiments. I cannot help observing 
here the advantage of combining these sciences in the same Section with pure 
mathematics ; it seems to indicate that the laws of all are to be brought to the 
same test,—to the never-failing, to the unerring accuracy of measurement and num- 
ber ; we show hereby the character of the knowledge we are in search of ; not for- 
tuitous observation, but precise laws. The mind will wander in its imagination ; 
there is, indeed, no boundary to it; once, however, bring it back to the severe test 
of number and weight and measurement, and the discovery or the observation 
becomes valuable for its precision ; it thus leads to general laws, and sound mathe- 
matical reasoning derives from them the results they are pregnant with. 

And, finally, we come to the facts of meteorology and its kindred subjects, man 
of which are scarcely yet brought within any law at all; analogies have been traced, 
and concurrent events have been indicated in many cases; little, however, has been 
done: towards a satisfactory proof of a connexion between cause and effect. It is 
true that curves are traced, which purport to exhibit these effects; and they do so 
most graphically ; but, as mathematicians say, these curves are traced only by points, 
and the law is not known, or, in other words, we do not know the equation of the 
curve; so long as this is the case, our knowledge lacks precision. ‘These papers, 
howeyer, are frequently valuable, because they supply us with accurately observed 

_ facts, which will doubtless hereafter be brought within a law. This, however, I 
_ Suppose at present to be the state of the case; but we must not despise the lesser 
light because we have not the greater. I cannot pass over this class of papers (papers 
: of observed facts) without alluding to the loss which we all feel in the death of the 
late able Professor of Geometry, Professor Baden Powell. For some years past 
_has he continued his reports on the meteors or falling stars, or whatever you call 
_ them ; this year we have his last report, which, indeed, he has not lived to finish, 
_ but has been placed in the hands of Mr. Glaisher, and completed by him. In 
some of these subjects we shall, I hope, obtain large accessions to our fre lodee. 
__ Some few years ago I remember reading a complaint made by an eminent philo- 
Sopher on the decay of mathematical knowledge in Great Britain, and especially in 
“that of physico-mathematical knowledge. It is not my duty to make invidious 
distinctions ; but I am sure I am repeating the now common opinion of foreigners 
when I tell you that that complaint was made in quite the infancy of some of 
our older philosophers, and before the days of Cayley, Sylvester, Boole, Mac- 
“eullagh, Stokes, W. Thomson, and Adams. To this revival of science amongst 
us, doubtless, many causes have contributed ; and I believe that the periodical Yneet- 
‘ngs of this Association have done good service towards that revival; we have 
“hereby become acquainted with others who are engaged in the same pursuits as our- 
Selves, and stores of knowledge are communicated. Let us, however, bear in mind 
that our Association is formed for the advancement of science, and that we do not 
meet to hear of old things again in the old form; our motto is “progress.” Old 
things we do not discard, for they may be put before us in new forms: but we meet 
especially to promote the advance of the boundaries of natural knowledge, and we ask 
our members and others to lay before us the results of their investigations. And not 
mly in the papers which shall be read, but also in the elucidation of any difficulties 
which authors may favour us with, and in the discussions which it is my duty to 
nyite you to take upon these papers, will additions to our knowledge be made; 
and many remarks will, I venture to think, be made pregnant with matter for 
oughtful meditation hereafter. In all these discussions difference of opinion 
will doubtless arise ; but I am sure that a spirit of friendly and mutual concession 
l prevail ; and that in our search after truth we shall gladly and readily attribute 

0 those who differ from us the same pure motives which we claim to ourselves, 


|* 


t 


4: REPORT—1860. 


On some Solutions of the Problem of Tactions of Apollonius of Perga by 
means of Modern Geometry. By Dr. BRENNEcKE, of Posen. 

The author suggested a new solution, depending on a remarkable property of the 
centres of similitude of three given circles; e. g. a circle described around an exter- 
nal centre of similitude, with a radius equal to the geometrical proportional of its 
potential distances from the two circles, intersects all homogeneously touching circles 
orthogonally (around an internal centre all heterogeneously touching circles). Such 
a circle is called a potential circle. To get the two circles which touch the three 
given circles simultaneously internally or externally, take two external centres of 
similitude, draw the two potential circles, find their radical axis, which will contain 
the centre of similitude of the two circles which cut the three given circles in the 
same time externally or internally. By combining the three external centres of 
similitude, you find three potential circles and three radical axes, which all three 
coincide. Having found this straight line, which contains the centres, it is easy to 
find the centres themselves by introducing a fourth circle, the reHected mirror-image 
as it were of any of the three given circles, by means of the found radical axis, and 
finding out the two circles which touch the two symmetrical circles and any one of 
the three given circles. Dr. Brennecke has treated the subject at large in a book 
which has just now been published at Berlin, ‘ Die Bertthrungsaufgabe fur Kreis und 
Kugel,’ Th. Chr. Fr. Enslin, 1860, 8vo, illustrated by eighty-four diagrams, in which 
all information will be found concerning the most renowned problem of geometry, 
concerning the problem of tactions of three given circles or four given spheres. 


On a New General Method for establishing the Theory of Conic Sections. 
By the Rev. James Boorn, LL.D., F.RS. 


On the Relations between Hyperconic Sections and Elliptic Integrals. 
By the Rev. James Bootu, LL.D)., ERS. 

In this communication the author extended the analogies that the Continental and 
English geometers had established between elliptic integrals of the third order under 
the circular form, and the arcs of spherical conic sections, to the corresponding rela- 
tions between elliptic integrals of the third order and logarithmic form to the arcs of 
carves described in the surface of a paraboloid. 


On Curves of the Fourth Order having Three Double Points. 
By A. Cayrey, PRS. 

The paper is a short notice only of researches which the author is engaged in 
with reference to curves of the fourth order having three double points. A curve 
of the kind in question is derived from a conic by the well-known transformation of 
substituting for the original trilinear coordinates their reciprocals ; and the species of 
the curve of the fourth order depends on the pesition of the conic with respect to the 
fundamental triangle. 


Cn the Trisection of an Angle. By Parnricx Copy. 


Sx a aan 5 

On the Roots of Substitutions. By the Rev. T. P. Kirkman, A.M, PRS. 
To determine the number of roots of a given degree, of a substitution @ made with 

n letters, and of the rth order. A substitution @ which has not two circular factors — 

of the same order, has no roots which are not found among the series 


of its powers, ~apellegt et 


A substitution which has two or more circular factors of the same order, will have 
roots of an order superior to its own, and therefore not among its power. | 
Thus the substitution of the 3rd order made with 9 elements, 
__ 231564897 
~~ 123456789" 
has 1 square root of the 3rd order, 9 square roots of the 6th order, 9 fourth roots 
of the 6th order, 18 cubic roots of the 9th order, and 18 sixth roots of the 9th 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. is) 


order. These roots can be enumerated by a simple general method for @ of any 
order, made with 7 letters. 
The fundamental theorem is the following :— 
If n=Aa+Bb+Cc+......, the number of different groups of the order K, which 
is the least common multiple of ABC... ., of the form 
Os Oo nerc Osa, 
whereé hasa circular factors of the order A, d of the order B, &c.,is (wmu=1.2.3...2), 


TN 
, 


Rx A“B’C’..aanbaec... 


Rx being the number of integers, unity included, which are !ess than K and prime 
to it. 


The partition n=9=3.3=Aa 
gives WOO ee 5.4 
Rs 33. 73 phar 
groups, 166 ly ed Hy eerreei t0(G) 


j2 
of the third order, which is that of 6 and of 6°. 
The partition 
n=9=6.14+3.1=Aa+Bb 


gives TO 
fic pra Pacer ee ttn ta 
groups, 1p’... $’, eit Ss Lee att arTs On wh eh teh CED) 
of the 6th order. Every group (H) contains a group (G), namely, 
1 2 ht 


and ¢ of the 6th order is the square root of ¢? of the 3rd order, and the fourth root 
of * of the 3rd order. Also #” of the 6th order is the square root of ¢*, and the 
fourth root of d. 

The number of groups (H) being nine times that of the group (G), the group 166° 
will be comprised in nine different groups (H) ; that is, @ has nine square roots of 
the 6th order, and nine fourth roots of the same order. 

The partition 


n=9=9.1=<Aa 
gives OG 
‘ Ro 9 Cee Die a bled 
> groups, lyy? eee Vv’, . 28 @ e968, On Viewed te 8 eS le (J) 
of the 9th order. This comprises the group (G), 
f Wy 


where y’ has the cube roots p y' w" of the 9th order, and the sixth roots py? p’ 1p" 
of thesame order. ‘There are six times as many groups (J) as groups (G). Therefore 
106? 
will be found in six groups (J), and either 6 or 6? has 18 cube roots, and 18 sixth 
roots all of the 9th order. 
Inthe same manner it is easily proved that the substitution of the 2nd order(n=8), 
g'— 34127856 
12345678 
which has four circular factors of the 2nd order, has twelve square roots all of the 
4th order. These form with unity and 6’ the two groups following, 


12345678 12345678 
34127856 34127856 
58763214 23418567 
76581432 41236785 
23416785 78561234 
41238567 56783412 
87652143 85674123 


65874321 67852341 


6 ; REPORT—1860. 


which are of the form (IV.) discovered by Mr. Cayley (Phil. Mag. vol. viii. 1859, 
p- 34), who there first enumerated the forms of groups of eight. 
Two such groups can be completed with unity, and any one of the 


78 
ee] Oh Ae 
R,. 4°. 7 2 


substitutions of the form 6’, 
It is easy to form groups of Mr. Cayley’s form (II.) ; e. g., 
12345678 
34127856 
23416785 
41238567 
56781234 
78563412 
67852341 
85674123 


which is-one of the grouped. groups whose general theory I have handled in a memoir 
which will shortly see the light. 


On a new Proof of Pascal's Theorem. By the Rev. T. Rennison, M.A. 


On Systems of Indeterminate Linear Equations. 
By O. J. Stepnen Suits, .A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. 

The object of this communication was to point out the connexion which exists 

between particular solutions of indeterminate linear equations, and their most gene- 

ral solution. The principle upon which this connexion depends may be explained in 

a very particular case. Let the sytem of indeterminate equations reduce itself to the 
single equation 

Ag By z=, 1 gcrdip s gutgialaiia als a ietais aia seal) 


in which we may suppose A, B, C to have no commun divisor; let also a, 6, c and 
a', b', c’ be two different solutions of that equation in integral numbers; then, if the 
three numbers 

be'—0'c,. eai—op', 0 abl—alb =... x). 2» oases erets (2) 


admit of %o0 common divisor, the complete solution of the indeterminate equation is 
contained in the formule 


x=at+a'u, 
ies OL te wots a tea mia igas's Cgasphasletia en) 
z=ct+c'u, 


in which ¢ and wu are absolutely indeterminate integral numbers; but if the condi- 
tion (2) be not satisfied, the formule (3) will not represent all, but only some of the 
solutions of the equation (1). If, therefore, by any method, as for example that of 
Kuler, we have arrived at formule of the type of the formule (3), which demonstra- 
bly contain the complete solution of the indeterminate equation, we may be certain 
that the three numbers analogous to the numbers (2) admit of no common divisor. 
Thus, by applying Euler’s method of solution, which is explained in most books of 
algebra, to the indeterminate equation Aw+ By+Cz=0, we obtain the solution of a 
celebrated problem, first considered by Gauss in the ‘ Disquisitiones Arithmetice,’ 
of which the following is the enunciation. 
“Given 3 numbers A, B, C, to find six others, 
a, b,c, 
such that eli 0 
A=be'—b'c, B=ca'—ac', C=ab'—a'b.” 


Other methods more symmetrical, and perhaps not more tedious than that of Euler, — 


were also suggested in this paper for the treatment of indeterminate equations, and 
for the resolution of an important class of arithmetical problems which depend on 
those equations in the manner just explained. 


ee 


be eet 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7 


On a Generalization of Poncelot’s Theorems for the Linear Representation 
of Quadratic Radicals. By Professor Sytvester, M.A., F.RS. 


The author explained the application of Poncelet’s theorems, to practical ques- 
tions of mechanics in the case of forces acting in a single plane as in the theory of 
bridges. 

He next referred to the mode of extension of this theorem, suggested by Poncelet, 
applicabie to the case of forces in space, and pointed out its insufficiency, and, ina 
certain sense, its incorrectness, 

The essential preliminary question to be resolved in the first instance (after which 
the matter became one of easy calculation), was shown to be that of cutting off by 
a plane the smallest possible segment of a sphere that should contain the whole of a 
given set of points lying on the sphere’s surface. Some years ago Prof. Sylvester 
had proposed in the ‘ Quarterly Mathematical Journal,’ without any suspicion of 
its haying any practical applications, the following question :—* Given a set of points 
in a plane to draw the smallest possible circle that should contain them all.” By a 
singular coincidence, Professor Pierce, of Cambridge University, U.S., had studied 
this question and obtained a complete solution of it, which he had communicated to 
the author during the present meeting of the British Association. A slight con- 
sideration served to show that precisely the same solution as Professor Pierce had 
found for the problem of points in a plane was applicable with a merely nominal 
change to the sphere also; and thus the solution of a question set almost in sport 
was found to supply an essential link for the complete development of a method of 
considerable importance in practical mechanics. The author stated that it would 
be easy to draw up tables of the values of the constants appearing in the linear 
function, representing the resultant of three forces at right angles to one another, 
for the principal cases likely to occur in practice, the values of these constants 
depending solely upon the condition of relative magnitude to which the component 
forces are supposed to be subjected, 


Licut, Heat. 


On the Influence of very small Apertures on Telescopic Vision. 
By Sir Davin Brewster, A.M, F.RS. 


[The manuscript of this paper has been lost. | 


On some Optical Illusions connected with the Inversion of: Perspective. 
By Sir Davin Brewster, K.H., F.RS. 


The term “Inversion of Perspective” has been applied to a class of optical 
illusions, well known and easily explained, in which depressions are turned into 
eleyations, and eleyations into depressions. One of the most remarkable cases of 
this kind, which has not yet been explained, presented itself to the late Lady 


Georgiana Wolf, and has been recorded by her husband Dr. Wolf. When she was 


riding on a sand-beach in Egypt, all the footprints of horses appeared as elevations, 
in place of depressions, in the sand, No particulars are mentioned, in reference to 
the place of the sun, or the nature of the surrounding objects, to enable us to form 
any conjecture respecting the cause of this phenomenon. Having often tried to see 
this illusion, I was some time ago so fortunate as not only to observe it myself, but 
to show it to others. In walking along the west sands of St. Andrews, the foot- 
prints, both of men and of horses, appeared as elevations, In a short time they 
sank into depressions, and subsequently rose into elevations. The sun was at this 
time not very far from the horizon, on the right hand ; and on the left there were 
large waves of the sea breaking into very bright foam. The only explanation which 
occurred to me was, that the illusion appeared when the observer supposed that 
the footprints were illuminated with the fight of the breakers, and not by the sun, 
-Haying, however, more recently observed the phenomenon, when the sun was yery 
high on the right, and the breakers on the left very distant, and consequently yery 


8 REPORT—1860. 


faint, I could not consider the preceding éxplanation as well-founded. Upon 
attending to the circumstances under which they were now seen, I observed that 
the human footprints were all covered with dry sand that had been blown into them, 
so that they were much brighter than the surrounding sand, and than the dark side 
of the impression next the sun; and hence it is probable that they appeared to be 
nearer the eye than the dark sandin which they were formed, and consequently eleva- 
tions. After repeated examinations of them, I found the footprints appeared as 
elevations as far as the eye could see them; and they were equally visible with one 
or both eyes. But whenever the eye rested for a little while on the nearest foot- 
print, it resumed its natural concayity. 

I have observed other illusions of this kind, which are more easily explained, 
though they differ from any hitherto described. In the Church of Saint Agostino 
in Rome, there is above cach arch a painted festoon suspended on two short pil- 
lars; but instead of appearing in relief, as the painter intended, by shading the one 
side of them, they appeared concave, like an intaglio. In other positions in the 
church they rose into relief. Upon a subsequent visit to the church, I found that 
the festoon, or suspended wreath, was concave when it was illuminated, or rather 
when the observer saw that it was illuminated, by a window beneath it, and in re- 
lief when the eye saw that it was illuminated by a window above it, the object 
being similarly iluminated in both cases. In the common cases of inverted per- 
spective, the eye is deceived by looking at the inversion of the shadow in the 
cameo or intaglio itself; but in the present case the eye is deceived by perceiving 
that the body painted, supposed to be in relief, is illuminated by a light either above 
or below it. 

An optical illusion of a different kind presented itself to me in the Church of 
Santa Giustina at Padua. Upon entering the church we see three cupolas. The 
one beneath which we stood appeared very shallow; the next appeared much 
deeper, and the third deeper still. They were all, however, of the same depth, as 
we ascertained by placing ourselves under each in succession, and observing that it 
was always the shallowest. 


On Microscopie Vision, and a New Form of Microscope. 
By Sir Davin Brewster, KE, TRS. 


Io studying the influence of aperture on the images of bodies as formed in the 
camera, by lenses or mirrors, it occurred to me that in microscopic vision it might 
exercise a still more injurious influence. Opticians have recently exerted their 
skill in producing achromatic object-glasses for the microscope with large angles 
of aperture. In 1848 the late distinguished optician, Mr. Andrew Ross, asserted 
“that 185° was the largest angular pencil that could be passed through a micro- 
scopic object-glass,” and yet in 1855 he had increased it to 170°! while some 
observers speak of angular apertures of 175°. In considering the influence of aper- 
ture, we shall suppose that an achromatic object-glass with an angle of aperture 
of 170° is optically perfect, representing every object without colour and without 
spherical aberration. When the microscopic object is a cube, we shall see five of 
its faces ; and when it isa sphere or a cylinder, we shall see nine-tenths or more of its 
circumference. How then does it happen that large apertures exhibit objects which 
are not seen when small apertures with the same focal length are employed ? 
This superiority is particularly shown with test-ohjects marked with grooves or 
ridges, and obliquely illuminated. The marginal part of the lens will enlarge the 
grooves and ridges, and they will thus be rendered visible, not because they are 
seen more distinctly, but because they are expanded by the combination of their in- 
coincident images. Hence we have an explanation of the fact—well known to all 
who use the microscope,—that objects are seen more distinctly with object-glasses 
of small angular aperture. In the one case we have, with the same magnifying 
power, not only an enlarged and indistinct image of objects, but a false representa- 
tion of them, from which their true structure cannot be discovered; while in the 
other we have a smaller and distinct image, and a more correct representation of 
the object: 

But these are not the only objections to large angular apertures and short focal 
lengths. 1. In the first place, it is extremely difficult to illuminate objects when 


pw’ Os See ee ae eee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9 


so close to the object-glass. 2. There is a great loss of light, from its oblique in- 
cidence on the surtace of the first lens. 3. The surface of glass,—with the most 
perfect polish,—must be covered with minute pores, produced by the attrition of 
the polishing powder ; and light, falling upon the sides of these pores with extreme 
obliquity, must not only suffer diffraction, but be refracted less perfectly than when 
incident at a less angle. 4. When the object is almost in contact with the anterior 
lens, the microscope is wholly unfit for researches in which mechanical or che- 
mical operations are required, and also for the examination of objects enclosed in 
minerals or other transparent bodies. 5. In object-glasses now in use, the rays 
of light must pass through a great thickness of glass of doubtful homogeneity. It 
is a question yet to be solved whether or not a substance can be truly transparent, 
--in which the elements are not united in definite proportion,—in which the sub- 
stances combined have very different refractive and dispersive powers; and in 
which the particles are so loosely united that they separate from one another, as in 
the various kinds of decomposition to which glass is liable. 

If the best microscopes are affected by these sources of error, every exertion 
should be made to diminish or remoye them. 1. The first step, we conceive, is 
to abandon large angular apertures, and to use object-glasses of moderate focal 
length, effecting at the eye-glass any additional magnifying power that may be re- 
quired. 2. In order to obtain a better illumination, either by light incident verti- 
cally or obliquely, a new form of the microscope would be advantageous. In place of 
directing the microscope to the object itself, placed as it now is almost touching 
the object-glass, let it be directed to an image of the object, formed by the thinnest 
achromatic lens, of such a focal length that the object may be an inch or more ~ 
from the lens, and its image equal to, or greater, or less than the object. In this 
way the observer will be able to illuminate the object, whether opake or trans- 
parent, and may subject it to any experiments he may desire to make upon it. It 
may thus be studied without a covering of glass, and when its parts are developed 
by immersion in a fluid. 3. The sources of error arising from the want of perfect 
polish and perfect homogeneity of the glass of which the lenses are composed, are, 
to some extent, hypothetical; but there are reasons for believing,—and these 
reasons corroborated by facts,—that a body whose ingredients are united by fusion, 
and kept in a state of constraint from which they are striving to get free, cannot 
possess that homogeneity of structure, or that perfection of polish, which will allow 
the rays of light to be refracted and transmitted without injurious modifications. If 
glass is to be used for the lenses of microscopes, long and careful annealing should 
be adopted, and the polishing process should be continued long after it appears 
perfect to the optician. We believe, however, that the time is not distant when trans= 
parent minerals, in which their elements are united in definite proportions, will be 
substituted for glass. Diamond, topaz, and rock-crystal are those which appear 
best suited for lenses. The white topaz of New Holland is particularly fitted for 
optical purposes, as its double refraction may be removed by cutting it in plates 
perpendicular to one of its optical axes. In rock-crystal the structure is, generally 
speaking, less perfect along the axis of double refraction than in any other direc~ 
tion, but this imperfection does not exist in topaz. 


On the decomposed Glass found at Nineveh and other places. 
By Sir Davin Brewster, K.H., PRS. 


The different kinds of glass which are in common use, consist of sand or silex 
combined by fusion with earths or alkalies, or metals which either act as fluxes, or 
communicate different colours or different degrees of lustre or refractive power to 
the combination. 

In quartz or rock-crystal, which is pure silex, and in other regularly crystallized 
bodies, the molecules or atoms unite in virtue of regular laws, the pole of one atom 
uniting with the pole of another. Such substances, therefore, do not decompose 
under the ordinary action of the elements. The lens of Rock- Crystal, for example, 
found by Mr. Layard at Nineveh, is as sound as it was many thousand years ago 
when in the form of a crystal. 

* In the case of glass, however, the silex has been melted and forced into union 


10 REPORT—1860. 


with other bodies to which it has no natural affinity; and therefore its atoms, 
which have their similar poles lying in every possible direction, have a constant 
tendency to recover their crystalline position as when in a state of silex. For the 
same reason, the earths, alkalies and metals, with which the atoms of silex have 
been constrained by fusion to enter into union, all tend to resume their crystalline 
position and separate themselves from the silex. 

Owing to the manner in which melted glass is cooled and annealed, whether it 
is made by flashing or blowing, or moulding, the cohesion of its parts is not the 
same throughout the mass; and consequently its particles are held together with 
different degrees of force, varying in relation to points, lines, and surfaces. An 
atom of the flux, or other ingredient, may be less firmly united to an atom of silex 
in one place than in another, depending on the degree of heat by which they were 
combined, or upon the relative positions of the poles of the atoms themselves when 
combined. There are some remarkable cases where flint-glass without any rude 
exposure to the elements has become opake, and I haye seen specimens in which 
the disintegration had commenced a few years after it was made. In general, how- 
ever, the process is very slow, excepting in stables, where the prevalence of am- 
monia hastens the decomposition and produces all the beautiful colours of the 
soap-bubble. It is, however, from among the ruins of ancient buildings that glass 
is found in all the stages of decomposition ; and there is perhaps no material body 
that ceases to exist with such grace and beauty, when it surrenders itself to time 
and not to disease. 

In damp localities, where acids and alkalies prevail in the soil, the glass rots as 
it were by a process which, owing to the opacity of the rotten part, it is difficult to 
study. it may be broken between the fingers of an infant; and we often find in the 
middle of the fragment a plate of the original glass which has not yielded to the 
process of decay. 
~ In dry localities, where Roman, Greek, and Assyrian glass has been found, the 
process of decomposition is exceedingly interesting, and its results singularly beau- 
tiful, At one or more points in the surface of the glass the decomposition begins. 

It extends round that point in spherical surfaces so that the first film is a minute 
hemispherical cup of exceeding thinness. Film after film is formed in a similar 
manner, till perhaps twenty or thirty are crowded into the 50th of an inch. They 
now resemble the section of a pearl or of an onion, and as the films are still glass, 
the colours of thin plates are seen when we look down through their edges which 
form the surface of the glass. These thin edges, however, being exposed to the 
elements, suffer decomposition. The particles of silex and the other ingredients 
now readily separate, and the decomposition goes on downwards in films parallel 
to the surface of the glass, the crystals of silex in one specimen forming a white 
ring, and the other ingredients rings of a different colour. (See the Figure.) 

Such is the process round one point, but the decomposition commences at many 
points, and generally these points lie in lines, so that the circles of decomposition 
meet one another and form sinuous lines. When there are only two points, these 
eircles, when they meet, swround the two points of decomposition like the rings 
round two knots of wood; and in like manner, when there are many points, and 
these points near each other, the curves of decomposition unite as already mentioned, 
and form sinuous lines. When the decomposition is uniform and the little hemi- 
spheres have nearly the same depth, we can separate the upper film from the one 
below it, the convexities of the one falling into the concavities of the other. 

This general description was illustrated by drawings on the table, all of which 
were executed by Miss Mary King, of Ballylin, now the Hon, Mrs. Ward. 

But beautiful and correct as these drawings are, they convey a very imperfect 
idea of the brilliant colours and singular forms which characterize glass in a parti- 
cular stage of its decomposition, and of the optical phenomena which it exhibits in 
common and polarized light, 

When the decomposition has gone regularly on round a single point, and there 
is no other change, a division of the glass into a number of hemispherical films 
within one another takes place, the group of films exhibiting in the microscope cir- 
cular cavities, which under different circumstances become elliptical and polygonal. 

In salt water the decomposition of glass goes on more rapidly, as I haye found in 


—s 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 11 


examining one of the bottles brought up in the wreck of the ‘ Royal George ;’ and the 
same effect may be produced by a quicker process. M. Brame*, of Paris, having 
seen a notice of the decomposed glass from Nineveh which I read at the Association 
some years ago, succeeded in producing, in a very short time, regular and irregular 
circles of decomposition, in the centre of which there was always a small cavity or 
nucleus, This effect was obtained by immersing fragments of thick glass in a 
mixture of fluoride of calcium and concentrated sulphuric acid, or by exposing 
them to the action of the vapour of fluorhydrique acid. 

Such are some of the general phenomena of decomposed glass when seen by light 
reflected from its exposed surfaces ; but when we separate the films and examine 
them in the microscope, either by common or polarized light, a series of phenomena 
are seen of the most beautiful kind,—so various and so singular that it would be a 
vain attempt to describe them. A general idea of them, however, may be obtained 
from the drawings, and from a description of three varieties of these films. 

I. The first of these varieties has rough surfaces,—the roughness arising from 
an almost infinite number of hemispherical cavities on one side of the film, and 
hemispherical convewities on the other side. When these cavities are separated by 
flat portions of the film, they are perfectly circular; but when they are crowded 
together, they are irregularly polygonal, the sides of the polygons forming a sort of 
network, the cavities or convexities forming the meshes of the net. 

The convex and concave surfaces are not rough but specular, and reflect and 
transmit white light, exhibiting none of the colours of thin plates. 

In polarized light, each of the cavities, whether circular or polygonal, act as 
negative uniaxal crystals, exhibiting by the interference of the refracted and trans- 
mitted pencils the black cross, and the white of the first order in Newton’s scale, 
rising sometimes to yellow or falling to the palest blue, or disappearing altogether, 
according to the number or curvature of the films which compose it. 

Il. The second variety of these films has perfectly specular surfaces, in conse- 
quence of having almost no cavities. They exhibit in common light, and in a very 
beautiful manner, the colours of thin plates, the transmitted being complementary to 
the reflected light. This variety is exceedingly rare. In a specimen on the table 
the reflected light is blue and the transmitted yellow. In some of the fragments a 
few insulated circular cavities with the black cross occur, the tints which surround 
it being modified by the general tint of the film. 

lil. The third variety of decomposed glass consists of films containing cavities of 
all sizes and forms, from the 30th of an inch to such a size that they are hardly 
visible by the microscope, giving to the film which they compose a sort of stippled 
appearance, or an imperfectly specular surface. 

These cavities or combinations of hemispherical films are circular, elliptical, or 
irregularly polygonal. The colours which they reflect and transmitare complementary, 
and the tints and rings which in polarized light surround the black cross are curiously 
modified by the general tint of the fragment, and the curvature of its component 
films,—the black cross itself varying its shape with the form of the cavities. “When 
the cavities are flat, the black cross disappears as in thin slices of uniaxal crystals ; 
but the tints reappear, rising to higher orders by inclining the plate. 

The cavities are often arranged in sinuous curves, and encroach upon one another, 
so that the polarized tints appear only at the margin of the line which they form. 
They frequently run in perfectly straight lines, and when they are very small and 
invisible as cavities, their margins form in polarized light brilliant lines, which are 
often grouped in bands like the stripes in a ribbon. Sometimes they are only a few 
thousands of an inch in diameter, and might be used as micrometers in the micro- 
scope, every trace of the cavities which form them having disappeared. These lines 
of polarized light all disappear when they lie in the plane of polarization of the 
incident light, or perpendicular to that plane. 

Tn some specimens a decomposition has taken place on several points of the con- 
yex or concave surfaces of the cavities, so as to form new cavities ; and each of these 
minute cavities, often ten or twelve in number, exhibit the black cross with its tints, 
but disfiguring, of course, those of the cavity upon which they have encroached. 

In the three varieties of decomposed glass which I have described, the films are 


* Comptes Rendus, &c., Noy, 2, 1852. 


12 REPORT—1860. 


pure glass,—deriving their colour from the individual films of which they are com~- 
posed. This is obvious from the fact of their becoming colourless by a sufficient 
inclination of the plates, and also by the introduction of a drop of water or alcohol. 
When the fluid has evaporated, the films recover their original colour; and though 
a film of fluid has separated each of the almost infinitesimal layers of the glass, yet 
they adhere as firmly as ever after the fluid has evaporated. If an oil or balsam is 
introduced, it passes slowly and unequally between the layers, so that the retreating 
colour is bounded by a spectrum of the various tints which the film combines. 

But though the films themselves are glass, yet I have often found between them 
beautiful circular crystals of sélex, which are finely seen in polarized light, and exhi- 
bit many of the regular and irregular forms which I have represented in a paper on 
Circular Crystals lately published in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin- 
burgh.’ They are sometimes dendritic, and assume, round the ‘black cross, foliated 
shapes like the leaves of plants. At other times, but very rarely, they occur in 
circular groups,—related to a crystal of silex in their centre. One of these groups 
is so remarkable as to merit particular notice. Around a minute speck of silex 
there is formed, at a considerable distance from it, a circular band of equally minute 
crystalline specks, and at a greater distance a second circular band concentric with 
the first, and consisting of still smaller siliceous particles, hardly visible im the mi- 
croscope. By what atomic force, or by what other cause, the central crystal has 

laced its attendant crystals in regular circles around it, remains to be discovered. I 

ave already described a similar phenomenon, as produced during the formation of 
circular crystals under constraint, and when crystallizing freely ; but I am not aware 
that any other person has either seen the phenomenon or attempted to explain it. 

The films of decomposed glass, as I haye long ago shown, absorb definite rays of 
the spectrum like coloured media. They change, in the most distinct manner, the 
colours of different parts of the spectrum, and frequently insulate bands of purely 
white light, in or near its most luminous division. 

[The drawings referred to in this commnnication were laid before the Section, and 
some of the specimens of decomposed gluss were exhibited in the Museum in the course 
of the evening.] 


On his own Perception of Colours. By J. H. Gravstone, Ph.D., PRS. 


The author described himself as in an intermediate position between those who 
have a normal vision of colours, and those who are termed ‘‘colour-blind.”” These 
latter are usually unacquainted with the sensations of either red or green, and it 
becomes a desideratum to have good observations on those who are capable of acting 
somewhat as interpreters between them, and those who perceive every colour. By 
means of Chevreul’s chromatic circles and scales, Maxwell’s colour-top, coloured 
beads, &c., the author was able to determine the following points in respect to his 
own vision. He sees red, in all probability, like other people, but it requires a larger 
quantity of the colour to give the sensation than is usually the case; hence a purple 
appears to him more blue, and an orange more yellow, than to the generality of 
observers. He is perfectly sensible of green, or rather of two distinct greens, the 
one yellowish, the other bluish ; but between them there lies a particular shade of 
green, to which his eyes are insensible as acolour. This modifies his perception of 
many greens that approximate to what is to him invisible. ‘The shade occurs in 
nature on the back of the leaf of the variegated holly, and it may be produced in Max- 
well’s top by certain combinations of the coloured disc; the simplest being 


94°5 Brunswick Green (Blue Shade) + 5°5 Ultramarine =94 Black-+ 6 White. 


He finds that this shade, though invisible to him as green, is yet capable of neu- 
tralizing red when viewed simultaneously, but it does not neutralize so much red 
with him as with observers of o1dinary vision. 

While able perfectly to distinguish between red and green, the contrast does not 
readily catch his eye, especially at a distance; in fact, he is somewhat short-sighted 
in respect to these colours. He has reason to believe that, in his case, there has 
been a gradual improvement in his actual perception of colours, independently of his 
greater knowledge of them, though this is in opposition to the general experience of 


eS ee a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13 


those whose vision is in any way abnormal, and no other stance was known to the 
late Prof. George Wilson, whose book is the standard one on the subject of colour- 
blindness. 


On the Chromatic Properties of the Electric Light of Mercury. 
By J. H. Guapsrone, PA.D., F.RS. 


While examining the brilliant electric light produced in an interrupted current of 
mercury in the apparatus contrived by Professor Way, the author was struck by the 
strange manner in which it modified the apparent colours of surrounding objects, 
and especially with the ghastly purple and green hues which it imparted to the faces 
and hands of the spectators. This led him to an investigation of the subject, and a 
prismatic analysis of the light itself. Chevreul’s ‘cercles chromatiques ” showed 
yellow, green, and blue distinctly, but very little red, while the violet became remark- 
ably luminous. The modifications of colour in many bodies of known composition 
were then related, as for instance the green sulphate of iron which appeared colour- 
less, and the scarlet iodide of mercury which assumed a brownish metallic appear- 
ance. Substances capable of fluorescing exhibited that phenomenon with remark- 
able beauty. On analysing this light by means of a refractive goniometer, the author 
found it to consist of a great number of separate rays, and not to present in any 
part a continuous band of light. This was exhibited by means of a diagram in 
coloured chalks on black paper, by the side of a solar prismatic spectrum. The 
position of the different rays had been measured, and their relative intensity deter- 
mined. There are red and orange rays, but they are of the most feeble intensity ; 
some yellow rays of great brilliancy; two bright green rays; one blue ray of great 
luminosity ; and a number of violet rays. One of these latter is situated far beyond 
the limits of the visible solar spectrum, in fact at about Becquerel’s line N, and was 
bright to the eye, although it had passed through several pieces of glass—a medium 
that does not easily transmit the extra-violet rays. Its colour appeared to differ 
considerably according to its intensity, but might be described generally as a red- 
violet. The prismatic analysis explained fully the changes that red substances un- 
dergo when exposed to it—sometimes to brown, and at other times to purple, green, 
or whatever other colour in addition to red is principally reflected by them: it also 
explained all the other chromatic phenomena. Professor Wheatstone in 1835 de- 
scribed the spectrum of the electric light of mercury as containing seven definite rays ; 
and Angstrom has recently given a drawing of the lines that coincides closely with 
the observations of the author on the more luminous rays, and shows that the Swedish 
physicist had not seen the extra violet lines. From his figures also it appears that 
the air is excluded from the luminous cone of mercurial vapour in Way’s apparatus. 


On a New Instrument for determining the Plane of Polarization. 
By the Rev. Professor JELLErT. 


Professor Jellett described to the Section a new analysing prism, by which the 
plane of polarization of polarized light may be determined with great precision. 
This instrument consists of a long prism of cale-spar, which is reduced to the form 
of a right prism by grinding off its ends, and sliced lengthwise by a plane nearly 
but not quite perpendicular to its principal plane. he parts into which the prism 
is thus divided are joined in reversed positions, and a diaphragm with a circular 
opening is placed at each end. The light which passes through both diaphragms 
produces a circular field divided by a diametral slit into two parts, in which the 
planes of polarization are slightly inclined to one another. If then light which has 
been previously plane polarized be transmitted, it will be extinguished in the two parts 
of the field of view in positions which lie close together, and the light will become 
uniform in a position midway between these. This position determines the plane in 
which the incident light was polarized, with a precision much greater than has been 
otherwise attained. Professor Jellett stated that the different observations did not 
differ from one another by an angle greater than a minute, and that the instrument 
was equally applicable to the case of homogeneous light, 


14 i REPORT—1860. 


Note on the Caustics produced by Reflexion. 
By L. L. Linvexor, Professor at Helsingfors. 


There are, no doubt, few branches of mathematical physics that have been more 
often discussed than the reflexion and refraction of light, and the theory of these 
phenomena has consequently been gradually reduced to the greatest simplicity. The 
whole doctrine of catoptrics and dioptrics may indeed be said to be implicitly con- 
tained in the elegant principle successively developed by Dupin, Quetelet, and Gor- 
gonne, namely, that a system of rays that can be cut orthogonally by a particular sur- 
face, preserves this property after any number of reflexions and refractions. Never- 
theless, it appears to me that the theory of caustics has been somewhat neglected. 
Not but what there are many interesting researches on this subject that have been 
conducted with abundance of care, but because these, for the most part, refer to cer- 
tain very restricted cases, as for example, to reflecting surfaces of a particular kind. 
In examining from a somewhat more general point of view the theory of caustics 
produced by reflexion, I have arrived at certain results, which appear to me to be 
sufficiently curious to deserve a short notice. 

I suppose the reflecting surface to be of any kind whatever, and that it is illumi- 
nated by a bundle of parallel rays. Suppose, now, that two of these rays impinge on 
the surface at two points A and A! infinitely near each other. Unless certain par- 
ticular conditions are fulfilled, the corresponding reflected rays will not be in the same 
plane. In order, therefore, that the two rays may meet after reflexion so as to form 
a point in a caustic, the points A and A! must be related in a certain manner. Now 
it will be found that, starting from any point A, there will always be two different 
directions in which the consecutive reflected rays intersect, and by following these 
directions from point to point, certain curves will be traced on the surface, which play 
an important part in the theory of caustics, and which may be called catoptrical lines. 
These lines bear some analogy to the lines of greatest and least curvature, with which 
they sometimes coincide. Their form and situation depend not only on the nature of 
the surface, but also on the direction of the incident rays. Each point of the surface is 
the intersection of two catoptrical lines, which possess the remarkable property that 
their projections on the plane perpendicular to the incident rays, cut each other at 
right angles. ‘To each catoptrical line there is a correspouding caustic formed by the 
rays reflected from the catoptric, and these caustic lines themselves form a caustic 
surface, which in general consists of two sheets, corresponding to the two systems 
of catoptrical lines. 

Let a, y, and z be the coordinates of any point in the reflecting surface, and let the 
axis of z be parallel to the incident rays. Calling, as usual, the partial differential 
coefficients of s with respect to a and y of the first order p and gq, those of the second 
r, s, and #, we have for the catoptrical lines the simple equation 


dp . dy=dq .dr, 


dy CY Retain 
Wy Saati ia, 


which may be put in the form 


since dp=rdx+sdy, dg=sda-+ tdy. 
The quantities p, g, 7, s, and ¢ being all expressible in terms of x and y by means of 


the equation to the reflecting surface, the two values of =~ derived from the above 
a 


equation can also be expressed in terms of w andy. If this differential equation can 
be integrated, the resulting relation between 2 and y, together with the equation to 
the surface, determine the catoptrical lines. 
The point &, n, and ¢ of the caustic corresponding to x, y, z of the reflecting sur- 
face, is determined by the following equations :— 
dy 
t—s— 
sor ae tea ¢ 2s dz 
2p 2g pte] 2@=rt)’ 


Eliminating x, y, z by means of these three equations and that of the given surfaces, 
we obviously get the equation to the caustic surface ; and eliminating the same quan- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ‘15 


‘tities between the same three equations, and the two equations of any catoptrical line, 
we get the equations to the corresponding caustic line. 

As to the application of this theory it offers no difficulty. On directing my 
aig fon more particularly to surfaces of the second order, I obtained the following 
results :— 

(1) In the case of a sphere illuminated by parallel rays, the first system of catop- 
trical lines consists of great circles passing through the same point, the second of small 
citcles cutting the former at right angles. The equation to the caustic surface that 
corresponds to the first system is 

[4 +7?+0)—a* P= 2708 (E+7°), 
a being the radius of the sphere, while the second system has for its caustic a straight 
line passing through the centre of the sphere. 

(2) If the reflecting surface be an ellipsoid or a hyperboloid, either of one or of 
two sheets, and the incident rays are parallel to one of the axes, the projections of the 
catoptrical lines on the plane of the other axes are either ellipses or hyperbolas, whose 
foci coincide with those of the section of the surface by the same plane. 

(3) In the case of an elliptic paraboloid illuminated by rays parallel to its axis, 
the catoptrical lines form parabolas whose planes are parallel to one or the other of 
the principal sections of the surface. The caustic surface is reduced to two parabolas 
lying in the planes of the principal sections, and having the axis of the paraboloid for 
their common axis, but situated in opposite directions. ‘That which lies in the plane 
of the greatest of the principal sections is turned in the same way as the paraboloid, 
that lying in the perpendicular plane is turned in the opposite direction. Each of 
these parabolas has the same focus as the principal section to which it is perpendicu- 
lar, and a parameter equal to the difference of the parameters of the principal sections. 
Lastly, each of these caustic lines is perpendicular to the corresponding system of 
catoptrical lines. 

(4) In the case of a hyperbolic paraboloid illuminated by rays parallel to its axis, 
the catoptrical lines also form two systems of parabolas in planes parallel to the planes 
of the principal sections, and the caustic is again reduced to two parabolas situated in 
the same two planes, and turned in opposite directions, each having a parameter 
equal to the sum of the parameters of the two principal sections. 

There would be no difficulty in applying the above formule to surfaces of revolu- 
tion, to cylindrical conical developable surfaces, &c., but the preceding will suffice to 
give an idea of the results that may be deduced in certain cases. 


On the Results of Bernoulli's Theory of Gases as applied to their Internal 
Friction, their Diffusion, and their Conductivity for Heat. By Professor 
Maxwe tt, F.R.S.E. 


_ The substance of this paper is to be found in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for 
January and July 1860. Assuming that the elasticity of gases can be accounted 
for by the impact of their particles against the sides of the containing vessel, the 
laws of motion of an immense number of very small elastic particles impinging on 
each other, are deduced from mathematical principles; and it is shown,—1st, that 
_the velocities of the particles vary from 0 to o, but that the number at any instant 
having velocities between given limits follows a law similar in its expression to 
that of the distribution of errors according to the theory of the ‘‘ Method of least 
“squares.’’ 2nd. That the relative velocities of particles of two different systems are 
‘distributed according to a similar law, and that the mean relative velocity is the 
‘Square root of the sum of the squares of the two mean velocities. 3rd. That 
‘the pressure is one-third of the density multiplied by the mean square of the 
‘Velocity. 4th. That the mean vis viva of a particle is the same in each of two 
Ryaterns in contact, and that temperature may be represented by the vis viva of a 
‘Particle, so that at equal temperatures and pressures, equal volumes of different 
gases must contain equal numbers of particles. 5th. That when layers of gas have 
a motion of sliding over each other, particles will be projected from one layer into 
another, and thus tend to resist the sliding motion. The amcunt of this will depend 
on the average distance described by a particle between successive collisions. From 
the coefficient of friction in air, as given by Professor Stokes, it would appear that 


16 REPORT—1860. 


this distance is a inch; the mean velocity being 1505 feet per second, so that 


each particle makes 8,077,200,000 collisions per second. 6th. That diffusion of gases 
is due partly to the agitation of the particles tending to mix them, and partly to the 
existence of opposing currents of the two gases through each other. From experi- 
ments of Graham on the diffusion of olefiant gas into air, the value of the distance 
described by a particle between successive collisions is found to be =m of an 
inch, agreeing with the value derived from friction as closely as rough experiments 
of this kind will permit. 7th. That conduction of heat consists in the propagation of 
the motion of agitation from one part of the system to another, and may be calcu- 
lated when we know the nature of the motion. Taking sonaaa of an inch as a pro- 
bable value of the distance that a particle moves between successive collisions, it ap- 
pears that the quantity of heat transmitted through a stratum of air by conduction 
would be aa of that transmnitted by a stratum of copper of equal thick- 
ness, the difference of the temperatures of the two sides being the same in both 
cases. This shows that the observed low conductivity of air is no objection to the 
theory, but a result of it. 8th. That if the collisions produce rotation of the parti- 
cles at all, the vis viva of rotation will be equal to that of translation. This relation 
would make the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to that at constant volume 
to be 1°33, whereas we know that for air it is 1°408. This result of the dynamical 
theory, being at variance with experiment, overturns the whole hypothesis, however 
satisfactory the other results may be. 


On an Instrument for Exhibiting any Mixture of the Colours of the 
Spectrum. By Professor Maxwe tt, F.R.S.L. 


This instrument consists of a box about 40 inches long by 11 broad and 4 deep. 
Light is admitted at one end through a system of three slits, of which the position 
and breadth can be altered and accurately measured. This light, near the other end 
of the box, falls on two prisms in succession, and then on a concave mirror, which 
reflects it back through the prisms, so as to increase the dispersion of colours. The 
light then falis on a plane mirror inclined 45° to the axis of the instrument, and is 
reflected on a screen in which is a narrow slit. On this screen are formed three pure 
spectra, the position and intensity of each depending on the position and breadth of 
the slit through which the light was admitted. The portions of these spectra which 
fall on the slit in the screen pass through, and are viewed by the eve placed close 
behind it. A colour compounded of these three portions of three different spectra 
is seen illuminating the prisms, and can be compared with white reflected light seen 
past the edge of the prisms, ‘The advantage of the instrument over that described 
to the Association in 1859 is, that by the principle of reflexion the rays return in the 
same tube, so as not to require two limbs forming an awkward angle; while at the 
same time, by doubling the dispersion, the necessary length of the instrument is 
diminished. By means of this instrument many observations of colours have been 
taken. Some of these by a colour-blind person are published in the ‘ Philosophical 
‘lransactions ’ for 1860. 


Further Researches regarding the Laws of Chromatic Dispersion. 
By Munco Ponron. 


In this paper the author has revised, and improved in its details, his method of 
expressing the refractive index of a medium as a function of the wave-length. 

He employs A to denote the ratio of any particular wave-length referred to that 
of the fixed line B as unity. The numerical values of the wave-lengths of the lines 
C, D, E, F, G, H are given, as calculated from Fraunhofer’s measures. 

The author’s formula for expressing the refractive index (1) as a function of d is 

x” 
a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17 


-where » must be found by the method of trial and error for each medium in parti- 
cular, and e*, a» are certain known functions of and of the observed indices. 

Thus the formula contains three arbitrary constants, which must be determined 
from the results of observation. 

When these constants are properly determined for any medium, the formula, even 
in the case of the most highly dispersive media which have been observed, is found 
to represent very accurately the observations, the utmost error being only a few units 
in the fourth place of decimals. 


Experiments and Conclusions on Binocular Vision. 
By Professor Witt1aM B. Rocers, Boston, U.S. 


The following experiments, intended to test the theory of the successive com- 
bination of corresponding points in stereoscopic vision, are I believe in part new, 
and are in part modified repetitions of experiments already described by Professor 
Wheatstone and Professor Dove. 

1. Let two slightly inclined luminous lines, formed by narrow slits in a strip of 
black card-board, be combined into a perspective line, either with or without a 
stereoscope. Looking at this for a few seconds, so as to induce the reverse ocular 
spectrum, and then directing the eyes towards the opposite wall of the apartment, 
a single spectrum will be observed having the attitude and relief of the original 
binocular resultant. 

As a strong illumination of the lines is necessary to bring out the full effect, the 
card-board should be held between the eyes and some brilliantly white surface, as 
the globe of a solar lamp or a strongly illuminated cloud, care being taken to pre- 
vent the entrance of extraneous light. 

2. Using the same arrangement, let the luminous lines be regarded ¢n succession 
each by the corresponding eye, the ether eye being shaded so that no direct bino- 
cular combination can be formed. On looking towards the wall, it will be seen that 
the two subjective images unite to form a single spectral line, having the same relief as 
of the lines had been directly combined by simultaneous vision, either with or without 
a stereoscope. 

While the perspective image continues distinctly visible, let either eye be closed, 

the other being still directed towards the wall.’ The image will instantly lose 
its relief and take its position on the plane of the wall as an inclined line, corre- 
sponding to the subjective image in the eye that has remained open. When 
the subjective impressions have been sufficiently strong, it is easy to alternate 
these etlects, by projecting first the picture proper to the right eye, then that of 
the left, on the plane of the wall, with their respective contrary inclinations; and 
_ then looking with both eyes, we see the resultant image start forth in its perspec- 
tive attitude. 
d It is hardly necessary to say that to obtain these effects satisfactorily the lines 
_ should be very strongly illuminated, and the observer should have some practice in 
experiments on subjective vision. Under these conditions I have found the results 
to be perfectly certain and uniform. 

In these experiments, according to the theory of Sir David Brewster, the result- 
ant spectrum, instead of being a single line in a perspective position, ought to pre- 
sent the form of two lines inclined or crossing, situated in the plane of the wall 
without projection or relief. The conditions of the experiments are such as te 
exclude all opportunity of a shifting of the image on the retina, and such shifting is 
obviously essential to the successive combination of pairs of points required by the 
theory in the production of perspective effect. 

In reference to the first experiment, it might perhaps be maintained that, as the 
perspectiveness of the original resultant on which the eyes were converged formed 
part of the direct perception in first combining the lines, it would be likely through 
association to be included also in the spectral or subjective perception. But this 
consideration, which at best appears to me of little weight, is entirely inapplicable 
to the conditions of the second experiment. For here the eyes are in the first 
place impressed in succession with their respective images, and are not allowed to 
see the resultant ; and yet when they are together directed to the wall, the percep- 
tion of the single perspective resultant is at once originated. 

1860. 2 


Y 


' 
‘ 


18 REFORT—1860. 


3. Without resorting to these troublesome efforts of subjective vision, the fol- 
lowing experiment furnishes, as I think, conclusive proof that pictures successively 
eae on the respective eyes are sufficient for the stereoscopic effect. 

et an opake screen be made to vibrate or revolve somewhat rapidly between 
the eyes and the twin pictures ofa stereoscopic drawing, so as alternately to expose 
and cover each, while it completely excludes the simultaneous vision of any parts 
of the two. The stereoscopic relief will be as apparent in these conditions as when the 
moving screen is withdrawn. Here at each moment the actual impression in the 
one eye and the retained impression in the other, form the elements of the per- 
spective resultant perceived. 

{t seems clearly inferrible from these experiments, that the perception of the 
resultant in its proper relief does not require that each pair of corresponding points 
should be combined by directing the optic axes to them pair by pair in succession, 
as has been maintained. Nor is it necessary for the singleness of the resultant 
perception, that the images of corresponding points of the object should fall on 
what are called corresponding points of the retin. The condition of single vision 
in such cases seems to be simply this, that the pictures in the two eyes shall be such 
and so placed as to be identical with the pictures which the real object would form if 
placed at a given distance and in a given attitude before the eyes. 

4, I have of late years frequently repeated Dove’s experiments with instantaneous 
illumination, leading, as is well known, to similar conclusions. In these I have found 
it most convenient to use the momentary bright flash of the Leyden bottle, con- 
nected with the Ruhmkorff coil according to Grove’s plan. With a powerful 
coil of Ritchie’s construction, and a brass disc 8 inches in diameter having the usual 
concentric striation, I am able, even with a single flash, to see the luminous line in 
perspective, and by a quick succession of flashes, I can have it as steadily before 
me as if illuminated by the sun. 

A twin-drawing of a simple geometrical solid, placed in the stereoscope, and 
illuminated by the same means, appears single and in just relief in all cases where 
the flashes recur at short intervals, and very frequently presents the same appear- 
ance even with a single momentary light. 

To be assured that the effect was not due to the recollection of a previous stereo- 
scopic impression, I have caused slides to be introduced, of which the form could 
not be thus anticipated, and still have had no difficulty in describing the perspec- 
tive resultant as exhibited by the instantaneous illumination. 

5. On the inability of the eyes to determine which retina is impressed.—Let a 
small disc of white paper be fastened on a slip of black pasteboard of the size 
of a stereoscopic slide, and let this be so placed in the instrument as to bring the 
disc centrally in front of one of the glasses, the person who is to view it being kept 
in ignorance of the position of the spot. On looking into the instrument he will 
think he sees it with both eyes equally, and, without resorting to the expedient of 
closing his eyes alternately, will be entirely unable to determine whether the spot is 
before his right eye or his left eye. The spot appears to be placed in the mesial or 
binocular direction, and in the same position as that of the resultant image of two 
such discs, presented severally to the two eyes. 

It may be concluded from this that the mere retinal impression on either eye is 
unaccompanied by any conscious reference to the special surface impressed, and that 
the visual perception belongs to that part of the optical apparatus near or within 
the brain, which belongs in common to both eyes. 

This experiment is moreover interesting from its bearing on the law of visible 
direction. It shows that the sense of direction is just as truly normal to the central 
part of the retina that has received no light from the object, as to the part of the 
other retina upon which the white spot has been actually painted by the rays. In 
truth it is normal to neither, but is felt to be in the middle line between the two, 
that is, in the binocular direction. This experiment therefore contradicts the law, 
which assumes that the direction in which an object appears is always in the normal 
to the point of the retina impressed. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 19 


Régulateur Automatique de Lumiére Electrique. By M. Serr. 

To form the electric arch of light, it is first necessary to bring the charcoal points 
into contact, then gently to separate them by degrees, as they glow, afterwards to 
cause them to approach constantly, as they are wasted by use, carefully avoiding 
bringing them into contact. In order to keep the point of illumination fixed in space, 
each charcoal point must simultaneously approach the other, and that in the pro- 
portion in which each is wasted by use. In fine, for rendering the electric light 
useful, all these conditions must be self-produced with the utmost regularity, with- 
out any intervention of the human hand, that is to say, in a manner completely 
automatic; and this was the object the regulator was invented for. In a simple 
and easy manner, this apparatus, which may be compared to an extremely sensible 
balance, is composed of two mechanisms connected the one with the other, and yet 
independent ; when one acts the other is in repose, and reciprocally. One of these 
consists of an oscillating system,—the chief feature of the regulator destined to pro- 
duce the separation of the charcoal points, and also to determine their re-approach. 
The other mechanism, composed of wheel-work, has for its object to ensure the re- 
approach of the charcoal points in the proportion of their waste by use. The two 
port-carbons which carry the charcoal pieces are placed vertically one above the 
other. The superior is in connexion with the wheel-work, and is the positive elec- 
trode of the battery; the inferior depends as well on the wheel-work as on the 
oscillating system, and is the negative electrode. The superior port-carbon, by its 
weight, causes the inferior to ascend. The oscillating system forms a parallelogram, 
of which the angles are jointed, one of the vertical sides of which is suspended bya 
spring, and carries at its lower part a soft iron armature, placed over a horizontal 
electro-magnet. When the apparatus is in repose, the charcoals are in contact ; on 
the contrary, they separate when the circuit is completed and the voltaic arc ap- 
pears. As the wasting by use of the charcoals increases the length of the voltaic arc, 
the armature increases its distance from the electro-magnet, become less powerful, 
and the charcoals re-approach by a quantity frequently less than the one-hundredth 
of a millimetre; but according as they re-approach, the electro-magnet recovers its 
original power, the armature is attracted anew, and the charcoals stop until a new 
wasting gives rise to a new re-approach followed by a new stoppage, and so on in 
succession. In consequence of its extreme sensibility, it will work either with a 
voltaic pile or an electro-magnetic machine. 


On some Recent Extensions of Prevost’s Theory of Exchanges. 
By Barrour Stewart, M.A. 


On Rings seen in viewing a Light through Fibrous Specimens of Cale- 
spar. By G. Jounstone Stoney, M.A, F.R.A.S. Sc. 


The author mentioned that Sir David Brewster had drawn the attention of the 
Association, at the York meeting, to the beautiful display of four rings which may 
be seen on looking at a luminous point through fibrous specimens of calc-spar. 

In the present communication the forms of the rings were traced asa consequence 
of Huygen’s construction, and the points where rings vanish, or where irises pass 
into one another, were determined. The state of polarization was also examined, and 
the positions, in which two of the rings, which are faint, will be most conspicuous. 
The author drew particular attention to the great range of brightness of these faint 
rings, and to the circumstances attending the disappearance of one of them, in con- 
Sequence of a curious case of impossible reflexion, as offering peculiar facilities for 
testing rival hypotheses. 


On Thin Films of Decomposed Glass found near Oxford. 
By R. Tuomas. 


The films were observed on bottles of the form called magnums, which had been 
lying in the Cherwell above a century. The films formed by decomposition on the 
QF 


20 REPORT—1860. 


surface were easily detached, and submitted to observation. The reflected and trans- 
mitted tints were complementary to each other when held perpendicularly; they 
varied when the position was changed and the path of the rays became oblique. By 
examination under the microscope the films were found to be composed of a series of 
still thinner films, several of which were required for manifesting colours by trans- 
mitted light. In some cases as many as sixteen of these thinner laminz were counted. 
The colour is brightened in proportion to the number of lamine. When two films 
overlap, the tint produced is the mixture of the two—yellow and blue, for instance, 
producing green. In general the layers are flat and the colour uniform, but some- 
times undulated over bubbles, and then the colour is varied. Some specimens with 
a few bubbles show a difference of colour at the bubble with common light, and with 
polarized light the black cross and complementary colours appear. 


Ecvectricity, MAaGnertismM. 


On certain Results of Observations in the Observatory of His Highness the 
Rajah of Travancore. By Joun ALLAN Broun, F.RS. 


The following were noticed by the author. lst. With regard to the mode in 
which the diurnal law of magnetic declination varies from place to place, and the 
probable position and epoch of the line of least diurnal variation near the equinoxes. 
For this object two stations were chosen—one near the magnetic equator, 90 miles 
north of Trevandrum, the other about 40 miles south at Cape Comorin, where con- 
tinuous hourly observations were made during several months about the periods of 
the equinoxes. The most marked of the conclusions arrived at from these observa- 
tions were, that the minimum diurnal variation near the March equinox occurred 
earlier in the year at Trevandrum than at Shertally 90 miles north, and on the mag- 
netic equator ; that the law presented marked differences at the two places, near the 
epoch of minimum variation; and that the difference of the variations at the two 
stations occurred almost whoily between midnight, sunrise, and noon, the difference 
between noon, sunset, and midnight being comparatively small. 

2nd. Projected observations were exhibited in proof of the results communicated 
by the author to the Leeds Meeting of the Association, that the daily mean inten- 
sity of the earth’s magnetism increases as a whole or diminishes as a whole; so that 
if at any point on the earth’s surface the daily mean intensity increases, it will be 
found that it increases similarly at all other places in proportion to the absolute in- 
tensity at each place, allowance being made in cases of great disturbance to the 
greater value of disturbances in high latitudes. 

3rd. Projected observations were also exhibited, showing that the mean daily 
easterly declination of the north end of a magnet followed on the whole the same 
law of variation in both hemispheres, differing from the diurnal variation, where the 
north end moves east in the southern hemisphere, while it moves west in the north- 
ern hemisphere. 

4th. The author had investigated the laws of the diurnal variation of the baro- 
meter within the tropics. He had endeavoured to determine whether the chain of the 
Indian Ghats had any influence on the great atmospheric semidiurnal wave moving 
westward. Hourly observations had been made for a month in 1857, at a station 
on the eastern base of the Ghats, on the highest peak in Travancore, on the western 
base (all within a few miles), and at Trevandrum 20 miles distant, near the sea shore. 
Similar observations had been made in 1858, at four stations on the western face of 
the Agastier Malley, differing by 1500 to 1700 feet from each other in height, in 
correspondence with the Trevandrum Observatory. In these observations the greatest 
care was taken to have the best instruments, the times of observations were pre- 
cisely simultaneous, and instruments of all kinds were observed likely to give results 
related to the question examined : fifteen observers were employed, and the observa- 
tions continued hourly during a month. From these observations, it appears that 


—_—— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21 


the semidiurnal law of atmospheric pressure is the same at all heights up to 6200 
feet (on a sharp peak), from 9 p.m. to 9 a.m., both as regards epoch and range. The 
day variation (9 a.m. to 9 p.m.) is greatest for the lowest station, depending evidently 
on the temperature. The author connected these facts with the hypothesis proposed 
by Dr. Lamont and himself, that the semidiurnal variation is due to the inducing 
electrical action of the sun on our earth and its atmosphere. 

These and several other results, at present only partly worked out, would be pub- 
lished soon in detail. The printing of the observations made in the observatory of 
His Highness the Rajah of Travancore was proceeding as rapidly at Trevandrum as 
could be expected in Jndia, and the first sheets were in the author’s hands. 


On the Diurnal Variations of the Magnetic Declination at the Magnetic 
Equator, and the Decennial Period. By Joun ALLAN Broun, F.R.S. 


Solar-diurnal Variation.—The author stated that the observations made at the 
intertropical observatories had shown the fact that the law of solar-diurnal variation 
was opposite, or nearly opposite, at two seasons of the year; this result was made 
generally known to the scientific world by General Sabine, in his discussion of the 
St. Helena Observations. St. Helena, however, is too far from the magnetic equator 
to show the change from one law to the other, otherwise than as a shifting move- 
ment of the maxima and minima, which seem to slide in the course of a month or 
two from one position to the other; the whole range of the variation being consider- 
able at all seasons. Mr. Broun offered to the Section the results of five years’ 
observations made at the Trevandrum Observatory, about 90 miles south of the 
magnetic equator, which showed perfectly the mode of variation of the diurnal law. 

In the months of December, January, and February, the minimum of easterly de- 
clination occurs at 7; A.m., in the months from April to September, the mazimum 
occurs at exactly the same time. In the months of March and October a period of 
indifference is attained, when the variation becomes nearly zero, or the variation is 
a series of maxima and minima at different hours, and the range or total angular 
movement is reduced to about thirty seconds (0'5) when the mean of a few days 
is taken. The epochs at which this change takes place are neither those of the sun’s 
crossing the equator nor the zenith, and the epoch seems to vary from year to year. 
The March epoch is not distant from the vernal equinox, but the other occurs nearly 
a month later than the autumnal equinox. So far is the second epoch for the change 
from one law to the other from tliat of the sun’s crossing the zenith or equator, that 
August and September are the months of greatest diurnal range. 

Although Trevandrum is in 83° north latitude, it has a magnetic dip of 23° south; 
but the diurnal variations affect the character of the northern hemisphere more than 
that of the southern hemisphere,—the mean range for the months from May to 
September being nearly three minutes (3’), while for the months of December and 
January the range is only about two minutes (2’). 

Mr. Broun was the first to point out that the diurnal law at any place might be 

represented by the superposition of two variations, one resembling that peculiar to 
high north latitudes, the other resembling that peculiar to high south,—the northern 
part being always in excess in high magnetic north latitudes, and in excess for places 
in low magnetic north latitudes only for the sun north of a given line. It is evident 
that we may, by descending towards the magnetic equator, reach a station where for 
a given position of the sun the two variations will be equal or nearly equal, in which 
case for that position of the sun the complete extinction of the diurnal law may be 
expected ; this occurs approximately at Trevandrum. 
- When the diurnal range is examined with reference to the decennial period, it is 
found that the mean range had a minimum in the year 1856, the exact epoch of 
minimum being, perhaps, about January of that year; but when the ranges for 
given months are considered, some curious differences from the law are discovered. 
The yearly mean of monthly mean ranges, with the mean ranges for the months of 
March and October, are as follows :— 


22 REPORT—1860. 


Yearly Mean. March. October. 


i U i 
USHA sisi <iccviee (2p 244 ciepetore ersfaret NOOO. via aslahe shy Oe 
USD a) s15y0 lejetareelernp 210 LD njcine > ejsismie POLO ZO. ogee ele se OOO 
US5Gs.,0jaye ini eyes (te OOGs ota cle w wininin Ol OS Datel cle iwinys ate aut Oype 
1857... cceccece 2IBO.. cece e oe O'9AB..sereeeee O'989 © 
USD Gives diaicleiereye MAA LAs] oe viovsiapeya BL: DO Darden [= chess eumiesOut 


It will be perceived from this Table that the range for the month of March has 
gone on increasing from 1854 till 1858, the range for the latter year being more than 
double that for the former ; that while the minimum for the whole year occurred in 
1856, that for March occurred in 1854, or before that year. In the case of the 
month of October, the ranges differ little, that for 1854 being the greatest, and that 
for 1857 the least. It is conceived by the author that this curious variation in 
March and October is connected with a shift in the epoch of minimum diurnal 
variation. If this epoch happen near the middle of the month, the range for the 
mean of the month will be least; if it happen earlier or later, the greater range of the 
preceding or succeeding periods will preponderate in the monthly mean. Should this 
be the cause of the variation of range for March and October, it would follow that 
the two superposed variations which produce the total variation may change their 
relative values from year to year for a given place and for a given position of the sun. 

Lunar-diurnal Variation.—This variation, which was first remarked by M. Kreil, 
and afterwards, though quite independently, by the author, has since been discussed 
by General Sabine. The latter gentleman has made it a subject of inquiry, first, 
whether the lunar-diurnal variation within the tropics obeyed different laws for the 
moon north and south of the equator, like the solar-diurnal law; and 2nd, whether 
the decennial period could be perceived in the former as it is in the latter. His con- 
clusions in both cases have been in the negative. Mr. Broun has discussed five 
years’ observations at Trevandrum, from which he arrives at the following results. 

lst. That the lunar-diurnal law varies with the moon’s declination, but not to 
the extent of inverting the law. In all cases there are two maxima of easterly de- 
clination near the superior and inferior transits, and two minima for the moon near 
the horizon. If we consider the period about the solstice of December, we shall find 
that the greatest maximum occurs at the inferior transit for the moon furthest north, 
and at the superior transit for the moon furthest south. ‘The greatest minimum is 
near moonrise for the moon on the equator going north, and near moonset for the 
moon on the equator going south, while the minima are equal for the moon furthest 
north and furthest south. The epochs also vary slightly. 

2nd. The lunar-diurnal law, which remains nearly constant as regards epochs for 
all positions of the moon at any given season of the year, is the inverse in June of 
what it is in December ; so that, for the sun furthest north, the lunar-diurnal Jaw has 
its maximum where for the sun furthest south it has its minima, the latter occurring 
near the epochs of transit in June and July. In this way the Junar-diurnal law de- 
ee on the position of the sun relatively to the ecliptic, and not (or little) on that of 
the moon. 

The range of the lunar-diurnal variation is greatest near perihelion, which is just 
the reverse of the solar-diurnal law ; this appears to depend on the moon’s greater 
proximity to the sun as the cause of its magnetic action. The range is least near 
the epochs of the equinoxes, as for the solar-diurnal law. 

The cause of the great differences found by General Sabine in the laws for dif- 
ferent places in the same hemisphere, is attributed by the author partly to the com- 
bination of laws which vary considerably at the same place for different seasons. 
The author also pointed out that General Sabine’s failure to discover the decennial 
period in the lunar-diurnal variation may be due to the fact that, before he com- 
menced his discussion, he had first cut out all the disturbances beyond a certain 
limit, so that a greater proportion were rejected in the years of greatest disturbance. 
The decennial law is one affecting the regular diurnal variations, chiefly, through the 
disturbance; so that if the latter be omitted the effect should not appear (or appear 
but slightly) in the former. The projected observations were exhibited to the Section. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23 


On a New Induction Dip-Circle. By Joun ALLAN Broun, F.R.S. 


The idea of determining the earth’s magnetic intensity by its inducing action on 
soft iron was employed by Dr. Lloyd for the purpose of obtaining the magnetic in- 
clination. A soft iron bar being placed vertically, so that the induced magnetism of 
one end should act on a freely suspended magnet, the deflection thus produced was 
observed, and considered proportional to the vertical component of the earth’s mag- 
netic intensity ; the bar was then placed horizontal, and, the same end acting, the 
deflection was observed, which was in the same way considered proportional to the 
horizontal component : were there no sources of error, the inclination might be 
determined from these two angles. The iron bars employed always possess or 
acquire a certain amount of induced magnetism, the effect of which is eliminated by 
inverting the bar for the different deflections ; there are, however, still two sources 
of error which remain. The most important is that due to the different actions of the 
different parts of the bar in the vertical and horizontal positions. If the whole mag- 
netism were accumulated in one point at the acting end of the bar, this source of 
error would not have existed; but as the magnetism is distributed over the whole 
length, that part whose action is equal on both ends of the suspended magnet when 
the bar is in the vertical position, becomes greater on one end of the magnet than 
the other when the bar is in the horizontal position. It was probably for this rea- 
son that Dr. Lloyd’s method has never been put into practice. 

Last year, while observing with Dr. Lamont’s theodolite magnetometer, Mr. Broun 
employed a method for the determination of the absolute magnetic inclination, to 
which it is believed there can be no objection in low magnetic latitudes, and which, 
with the modifications proposed, may probably be used in all latitudes. 

In Dr. Lamont’s apparatus the variations of magnetic dip from place to place are 
determined by means of two soft iron bars clamped to a horizontal ring, the ring 
surrounding a freely suspended magnet, one bar vertically above the ring, the other 
vertically below it. By a series of observations of the deflections produced by the 
bars in different positions, inverted and exchanged from side to side, the effect of per- 
manent magnetism is eliminated, and the deflection due to the earth’s force is 
obtained ; the sine of this angle, multiplied by a constant, gives the dip for each place; 
the constant, however, requires the aid of the usual dip apparatus for its determina- 
tion, It is evident, however, that if we can incline the bars moving in the plane of 
the magnetic meridian till the observed deflection be zero (should there be no per- 
manent magnetism), and observe the angle through which the bars have been moved 
from the vertical, this angle will evidently be that of the magnetic inclination, for 
the bar will have been moved into the direction at right angles to that of the total 
force. This method, as thus stated, requires the determination of the vertical posi- 
tion of the bars ; and itis supposed that there is no permanent magnetism : as far as 
the latter supposition is concerned, the error is eliminated by reversing the bars; in 
order to render the determination of the vertical position unnecessary, it is only re- 
quired to observe the angular inclination of the bars, which (for each position) 
diminishes the deflection by an amount equal to the mean deflection previously ob- 
tained. It will be observed that for low latitudes, where the bars are moved little 
from the vertical, the objection applying to Dr. Lloyd’s method exists to so small a 
degree as to be negligible. 

This method, which Mr. Broun employed in Sndia, is, however, liable to error in 
high magnetic latitudes ; and the following is proposed for use in all positions. A 
small magnet, 2 inches long, is suspended by a silk fibre as with the usual declination 
Magnet; a small mirror attached to the magnet allows the determination of the 
magnetic meridian by means of a telescope having a prism near the wire at the eye- 
piece, as in Dr. Lamont’s apparatus. When the wire coincides with its image re- 
flected by the mirror (no disturbing cause being near), the magnet is in the magnetic 
meridian. A vertical circle in the magnetic meridian parallel to the magnet, and 
3 inches distant, centre to centre, has a soft iron bar clamped to the alidade, so that 
the acting pole of the bar is opposite the centre of the circle and the middle of the 
Magnet. The reading of the circle is first obtained for the bar vertical: the ver- 
ticality of the axis of the bar may he determined in different manners; the best, 


24 F REPORT—1860. 


perhaps, is to have the bar hollow, and to employ reflexion of a cross wire from a 
surface of mercury. ‘The bar is then moved in the magnetic meridian from the ver- 
tical position till the deflection of the magnet is zero; if the permanent magnetism 
acts with the induced magnetism, the movement of the bar will he greater than the 
inclination by a given angle; in turning the bar in the opposite direction (So as to 
invert it), the angle from the vertical will be less by the same amount. 

Since in the position at right angles to the magnetic force the induced magnetism 
is zero, the objection applying to Dr. Lloyd’s method does not exist ; there is, how- 
ever, still a source of error remaining that applies to both: as the magnetic inclina- 
tion increases, the position at right angles to the force can only be attained by moving 
the bar nearer and nearer to the horizontal, and as it approaches the horizontal, a 
certain amount of magnetism is induced in the bar by the small suspended magnet. 
Different methods have been imagined by the author to destroy or balance this 
action; but the best method he thinks will be to make observations with the bar at 
two different distances. ‘The magnetism induced by the small magnet in the bar 
may be represented by a weak magnet, whose force will vary inversely as the cube of 
the distance: as the action of this weak magnet will also vary inversely as the cube 
of the distance, the effect may be determined and eliminated by observations at two 
or more distances. 

Any error of the observation for the vertical position of the bar due to the non- 
coincidence of the axis of magnetism and of figure may be eliminated by turning the 
bar on its vertical axis of figure through 180°. 

The author remarked that the error due to the inducing action of the small 
suspended magnet might be rendered as small as we please, by employing a modi- 
fication of the method used by him in India. If the total deflection due to the bar 
vertical (direct and inverted) be determined, and we then observe the change of de- 
flection due to a given angular movement of the bar from the vertical, we may com- 
pute the movement necessary to render the deflection zero: the angular movement 
may be taken of such magnitude as to render the effect of the inducing action negli- 
gible. This modification requires, however, the determination of the angles of 
deflection, and therefore is far from the simplicity of the first method. The author 
pcinted out, that, since when the bar is at right angles to the direction of the total 
force any small movement of the bar will produce induced magnetism in proportion. 
to the size of the small angle of movement, this position is that best fitted to give 
the true position of the magnetic meridian with the least error of inclination. 

The author coneluded by stating that he had learned since his return to Europe 
that Dr. Lamont had also proposed a method differing from that of Dr. Lloyd. Dr. 
Lamont employed an astatic needle, and turned the bars into different azimuths by 
movement on a vertical axis, so as to produce different amounts of induced magnet- 
ism without changing the position of the bars relatively to the vertical. ‘This 
method, Dr. Lamont informed the author, had failed on account of the bars receiving 
different amounts of permanent magnetism in changing from azimuth to azimuth. 
This difficulty does not exist in Mr. Broun’s method, as the bar is always kept in the 
meridian, and is always brought to the position where the inducing action is zero. 


On Magnetic Rocks in South India. By Jouxn Avan Broun, £.R.S. 


The Moocoonoomalley is a granite hill rising about 800 feet above the sea, 5 miles 


south-east of Trevandrum, and about 35 miles north-west of Cape Comorin. General 


Cullen, the late British Minister at Travancore, had observed several anomalies in the 
magnetic dip in ascending this hill. The dip near Trevandrum and about the base 
of the hill was from 2° 30’ to 2° 40’ S.; on the top he found the dip to be from 
5° 52’ to 11° 23’ in different years, in which he probably slightly varied the position 
of observation. 

In December 1855 I examined the rock masses constituting the hill. The plain 
around the base is formed of a stratified rock known to Indian geologists by the 
name of laterite. The first rocks in the ascent are dark syenites, containing a con- 
siderable proportion of hornblende (in some cases the appearance is more like a 
greenstone) ; towards the middle of the ascent light-grey syenites become common, 


Paes “(elem i ts ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 25 


and at the top the rocks are pegmatites or granites. I first examined a small frag- 
ment of the rock presented to me by General Cullen, of a greyish-red tint, composed 
chiefly of felspar and quartz with particles of magnetic iron ore disseminated ; these 
particles were of about ;; to 34 inch in diameter, and without any regular form or 
smooth face (as far as my examination went), when a magnet was presented to one 
of these particles, detached from the specimen, it showed its polarity by tumbling 
over, if the homonymous pole was at first nearest the magnet. The specimen 
alluded to was about 5 inches long, 23 inches broad, and 12 inch thick, tapering 
and thinning off to one end (A). On presenting the different extremities to a freely 
suspended magnet (the declination magnet of the Trevandrum Observatory), the 
following results were obtained :— 


Se. div, 
Specimen away. Declination reading................ 0°00 
End A presented......... ais ous] dieiola alates aysTalers\inictalst voles aL se 
bigs re nieile) 0061 0jn  aje «, 2 ciaie) ssw 6is/e'S ie ea/sielas e'sb'es “fo be 
SideC  ,, WiatwyaYeheielesieveleyaieieketsWereiiveketeler aie Wes CCR ICY eal tas Wf 


aD eee aalaininls feipibisuate ehafelevalajainieiel ais eisitir leieliicie) ain: €S 


where the negative sign signifies repulsion of the north end of the magnet, and 
the positive sign attraction of the same pole. The changes of magnetic declination 
occurring during the experiments were observed by another instrument, and have 
been subducted. As the line of the magnetic axis of the specimen was evidently 
towards the direction of its greatest length, the northern end being towards A and C, 
it was desired to determine whether the same relation would hold true for any 
fragment ; for this purpose, two ends of the specimen were knocked off, leaving a 
fragment in the middle with a distance of a (towards A) to 6 (towards B) of nearly 
2 inches, while the breadth from C to D was nearly 3 inches; so that the longest 
dimension was now nearly at right angles to that of the whole specimen. The cen- 
tral fragment being placed at the same distance from the suspended magnet as in the 
previous experiment, the following were the results :— 


, Sc. div. 
Fragment away. Declination reading...........«+++. 0°00 
Binal as PreSenbed ore mie oso siahals;o)s-opcfeie) ovo) ajaicia/sje cicie’ heres: efeie = O79 


” 6 5 aie) e\agalelio.a alae ei bls\'eelclepatel's ¥aterp ales aiateeie sletek aL 
Side C = siat slat blaletel steel Yelatarciaverd al viciovetelechamiaecsrd Ory 
5)  D 3 so MaaNetele itciet allan. a/ah etotayatial eypeyeigce’ ‘epajape\ stale MCE LE 


The ends and sides show the same polarities as in the whole specimen, but with 
the north end of the magnetic axis turned more to the side D, for which the deflec- 
tion has increased. Upon presenting the small fragment constituting the end A of 
the specimen, the results were as follows :— 


: : Sc. div. 
Fragment away. Declination reading................ 0°00 
NGRASPLESENEEM 5 S40\ejsi0, 0/6 2:512t0. ears foinisiants szaoiefoys, sy e{e ate, —-OsSO 
Prac! = Rieke lal aefausieualal ¢ o¥e,a-a/oinis (ai c¥ 6, desta tela sie tern, 0°30 
SideC ,, selvinis[eletiois)olate'e\a| ois cial) esiecn eG) sitethec ian Oo LA © 
aD ee Bia ole cies sewccsicscswecsvenccceesue - O14 


Here it will be observed that the broken fragments of the specimen acted exactly as 
the broken parts of a magnet ; thus the end a in the central fragment gave a repul- 
sive effect of 0°79 scale divisions, while the end a’, the opposite face of the fracture, 
gave an attractive action of 0°36. 

Several questions of interest presented themselves in connexion with these rocks. 
Whether the hill as a whole would give results similar to those obtained from this 
specimen? Whether the lines of magnetic force in it had any relation to the lines 
of crystallization, or to those of the earth’s poles? Whether any particular direction 
was most favoured? or whether the magnetic axes vary from spot to spot, and the 
magneticules, possessing their present magnetism when tossed up in the liquid mass, 
had their positions determined by chance? 

On the 11th of December, 1855, I visited the hill, making observations with a 6-inch 


26 REPORT— 1860. 


dip-circle by Robinson ; the following differential results were obtained without 
reversing the poles of needle :— 


Oo 7 

10th December, 1855, 65 a.m. Base of Bill oy. 88 crc ccee econ 70 (9) 
Top of hill. Circle 43 feet above rock A 3 34 

oF, Circle 4 foot FF 1 6 

8» to 10 a.m. ae Circle 42 feet be B 130 

e Circle 4 foot fy, 1475 

Noon. Base of hill over laterite............ 1 50 

4" pM. Trevandrum Observatory ..,....... oo 


The bearing of the Trevandrum Observatory was observed approximately by a 
hand compass at the stations Aand B. At 43 feet above the rock the error was small ; 
but when placed on the rock A, the declination was found 10° west, while on B 
(9 feet W.N.W. of A) it was 35° east, the true declination over laterite being about 
3° east. 

The pegmatite and granite on the top of the hill seemed to form kinds of dykes 
running parallel to each other nearly north and south, and crossed by lines nearly at 
right angles to the direction, so as to form large blocks, between which the decaying 
rock has allowed the accumulation of soil to some depth. Blocks of about 9 inches 
diameter were cut out of the rock at A and B, having previously marked the direc- 
tion of the true north and south upon the upper surface, which was nearly horizontal. 
With these specimens I made the following observations. A specimen was placed 
with its centre at about 2 feet from the centre of the freely suspended magnet, and 
in the line at right angles to the direction of the magnet ; the points of the compass 
marked on the upper surface, when the specimen was in situ, were successively pre- 
sented to the centre of the magnet, and the scale readings of the instrument were 
observed. The direction of the plane of greatest force being found, the specimen was 
inclined at different angles to the horizontal, till the direction of the line of greatest 
force was determined. 

Specimen A: elliptic cylinder, axes 93 inches and 8 inches, average height about 
5 inches; a granite containing a small quantity of hornblende, colour reddish grey ; 
from about 1 foot west of the position A for the dip observation. The numbers fol- 
lowing are in scale divisions, each equal 15" nearly :— 


N. deflection ........ +21°4. S. deflection... .... —17°8 
ININ:ES 5 Ss oes feet a LOPE SIS W oka ee cco —17°3 
NEES PO aac ese! lbs “Have een, —15°3 
E. ry Su erevete'e -+o8s W. en bt atelaetets . — 2:3 
S.E. os Oe ee 193% ON Ws ay bere areata +14°5 
SiS Be yp ss altec eas — 15745 CIN Weiss Pe eaG ee -. +19°9 
S of lGae nse FeRe RING Wig sivaclaveinte « +21°4 


The direction of the plane containing the magnetic axis is in this case nearly 
north and south. On raising the point S. presented to the magnet, it was found 
that the north end of the magnetic axis dipped from 10° to 20° below the south 
horizon ; the exact position could not be determined, from the difficulty of keeping the 
centre of the specimen always at the same distance from the magnet. The result 
agrees with the fact that the dip observed on A was diminished, since the rock mag- 
net having here its south end uppermost, would necessarily attract the north end of 
the dipping needle. 

Specimen B: cylinder 10 inches diameter, 9 inches deep; upper surface red and 
weathered, interior bluish grey; contains besides the bluish felspar and quartz a 
large quantity of hornblende. The observations for B were made only for the north 
end of the axis. 


INGING We defection’: toc sie ccuviane © tou —36°4 
N. + aieleteyeteivia nidte'sretetele — 38°8 
TS iy eget Re Sere ae —44:0 
N.N.E. ar ie want recto Tense ats —42°4 
N.E. US MMR Ate cnetere eater oh eee. —36°0 


‘ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27 


The north end of the magnetic axis was here evidently nearly in the direction 
N. by E.3 E. Upon raising this point of the stone, presented to the centre of the 
magnet, the deflection diminished ; on lowering it, the deflection increased to 10°; su 
that the north end of the axis here inclined 10° above the horizon to N. by E. 3 E. 
This result also agrees with the increase of dip found at B. 

- In a third specimen examined, which was weakly magnetic, the north end of the 
axis made an angle of 80° above the N.W. by W. point of the horizon. 

From these results it is evident that though the direction of the magnetic axis 
may not vary much in small specimens, it does so in parts of the rock separated by 
a few feet only from each other; and it appears probable that it may be considerable 
for smaller distances than those under experiment. Neither do the directions of the 
axis seem to have any relation to the lines of crystallization. 

Another question was examined by me, namely, whether the magnetic intensity of 
the rock varied with the temperature. For this question I chose a specimen of 
about 6 inches long by 4 broad and 3 thick, taken from near the middle of the ascent 
of the hill. The observations were made in the same manner as for the temperature 
coefficient of a magnet. The specimen was placed in a wooden trough, into which 
water of different temperatures was poured: the deflections of the declination mag- 
net by the specimen at different temperatures were noted ; the variations of declina- 
tion during the experiments were eliminated by means of another instrument. The 
results are contained in the following Table :— 


Scale reading 


Be VER | comer ot | ene | tania ot 
hm ; Se. div. 
Dec. 20. 19 Ze war eae +88° 1:07 
A ee eee ea 
52 | Stone away 81°82 


The result is that the magnetic rock, like a steel magnet, loses force by an increase 
of temperature ; and, using the notation employed for steel magnets, the temperature 
coefficient is approximately 

g=0'000214, 
nearly the value obtained for steel magnets used in the British and Colonial Obser- 
vatories. 

The following may be considered as the conclusions at which I have arrived :— 

Ist. The rock fragments have determinate magnetic axes. 

2nd. Broken fragments resemble broken magnets, showing opposite polarities at 
the two surfaces of fracture. 

3rd. The magnetic axis varies from place to place within small distances. 

4th. The action of the whole hill on magnets freely suspended at moderate di- 
stances is nearly imperceptible; the opposite directions of the magnetic axis in the 
rocks rendering the total action nearly zero. 

5th. As in some cases the north end of the magnetic axis was found to the south- 
ward (as with specimen B), we cannot suppose that the magnetism of the small 
magnets has been due to the inducing action of the earth in their present position or 
since the rock mass became solid. 

6th. The directions of the magnetic axis have no relation to the lines of division 
of the rock masses. 

7th. The magnetic force of the rock masses varies with temperature like that of 
steel magnets. 


On a Magnetic Survey of the West Coast of India. 
By Joun ALLAN Broun, F.R.S. 
This survey was undertaken at the expense of His Highness the Rajah of Travan- 


28 : REPORT— 1860. 


core, for the purpose, in the first instance, of determining the exact position of the mag- 
netic equator (which passes through his territory) and the variations of intensity about 
the line of no inclination. This part of the survey was performed with considerable 
care, stations being chosen along the line of coast, at distances of from 10 to 15 miles, 
generally far from the chain of the Ghats, and in a flat country, covered in many 
places by backwaters or lagoons. The instrument employed was the excellent theo- 
dolite magnetometer of Dr. Lamont. The results were, that the magnetic south in- 
clination, instead of diminishing regularly from Cape Comorin northwards to the line 
of no dip, diminished through a space of 30 miles, increased through a similar space, 
and again diminished in the most capricious manner. The same irregularities were 
observed north of the estimated position of the equator. Some irregularities had 
been already observed by Mr. Caldecott, Mr. Taylor, and General Cullen; but the 
author had confirmed his results by observations at many different stations, and had 
come to the conclusion that a belt of disturbance for this element existed near the 
line of no dip. This disturbance could not be attributed to the influence of hills or 
of rocks, as no ground of greater elevation than 30 to 40 feet existed within several 
miles of those stations showing the greatest irregularities, no rocks were reached by 
borings of 30 to 50 feet deep, and none appeared upon the surface above the sandy 
soil near these stations. 

The survey was extended by the author on his way to Europe by observations at 
stations further north than those in Travancore, as Kodungalur, Kalikut, Mangalur, 
Goa, Rutnagherri, Bombay, and Aden. From this and the first part of the survey, 
the author found that the horizontal intensity was nearly the same from Cape 
Comorin to Bombay, showing, as the author conceived, that the lines of equal inten- 
sity followed (somewhat like the isothermal lines) the line of the Indian coast. This 
result agrees with that obtained by the Messrs. von Schlagintweit, whose previous 
observations indicate a great bend of the isodynamic lines from the Himalayas and 
towards Cape Comorin. The whole question, the author conceived, required careful 
examination by means of observations at more numerous stations, as the theory of 
the causes of the earth’s magnetic intensity, and the arrangement of the magnetic 
lines, were evidently involved in results which differed so much from what had been 
found elsewhere, especially from the results obtained by Dr. Lamont from his admi- 
rable magnetic survey of the greater part of the European Continent. 


On the Velocity of Earthquake Shocks in the Laterite of India. 
By Joun ALLAN Brown, F.R.S. (See GEoioey.) 


On a Mode of correcting the Errors of the Compass in Iron Ships. 
By A. Crarke, New South Wales. 


On Electrical Force. By Sir W. Snow Harris, F.RS. 


The author adverted to the assumed existence in nature of an electric fluid or 
fluids, an idea entertained by philosophers from the earliest periods of the history of 
electricity. Many thought that all bodies expire or inhale this fluid. In modern 
times less ambiguous views have been resorted to, and the doctrine of an electric 
fluid or fluids has been employed principally as aiding to link the phenomena into 
an intelligible and connected chain. The author thinks the time is fast approaching 
when it may be found desirable to abandon all idea of electrical fluids as the agency 
concerned in the development of electrical force, and treat this species of force as 
Newton did gravity, without any care as to its occult quality. For although it may 
be convenient and perhaps useful to employ analogical expressions in interpreting 
the phenomena and to facilitate description, as when we speak of the quantity of 
electric matter, of its tension, density, or thickness of stratum, &c., yet it must 
ever be remembered that, in using this figurative language, it is force and the laws 
of force with which we are dealing, and not with electrical fluids or other assump- 
tions as to its occult nature or quality. 


———._ ose. |.) = 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29 


The author proceeded to say that the foundation of all exact science is number, 
weight, and measure ; and that, as observed by an eminent writer, no branch of phy- 
sical knowledge could be held as being out of its infancy which did not in some way 
or the other frame its theory, or correct its practice with reference to these elements. 
He here described and explained the nature of a series of very beautiful instruments, 
by which the quantity of the electrical agency, its attractive force, its explosive 
power, and the effects produced, could be accurately measured. Having thus en- 
deavoured to bring the unknown agency we term electricity under the dominion of 
number, weight, and measure, the leading characteristics of electricity as a force 
were next brought under consideration. And first, we observe electrical power 
exhibits itself under two forms, usually termed vitreous and resinous electricity, or 
positive and negative electricity. These have been usually considered as arising 
out of two distinct and separate fluids, or of a single elementary fluid in a greater or 
less state of condensation. They are, however, one and the same force, and have 
the same relation to each other as the forces of compression and extension in the 
case of a bent bow or spring. We cannot have one without the other; and as in 
the latter instance we should gain but little by assuming the existence of elastic 
fluid or fluids as the source of elasticity, so in the case of electrical force we may as 
well look at once upon positive and negative electricity as elementary facts of which 
we have no adequate explanation. 

Secondly, we observe that whatever be the nature of electricity as a physical 
agency, it cannot exert itself equally in all directions at the same moment. In the 
case of gravity, the sun does not attract the earth with less force because it is 
exerting its gravitating power on the other planets. Such is not the case in the 
development of electrical force. The author here introduced a striking experiment 
in illustration of this; showing that a delicate electroscope, attracted toward an 
electrified circular plate placed vertically, became less forcibly drawn toward the 
plate from a distance when a second body was brought to share in the action. This 
is the result of a third characteristic of electrical force, termed electrical induction 
or influence, the laws and operation of which were now further explained and illus- 
trated. It is solely upon this species of electrical action, apparently of a sympa- 
thetic kind, operating at a distance, probably by propagation through the intervening 
medium, that electrical attractive force altogether depends: without it no exertion 
of power is possible. In electrical force bodies are first rendered attractable before 
they become attracted, and for the regular and full exertion of the attraction, both 
the bodies must be susceptible of unlimited electrical change. When this is the case 
the development of force is easily traced ; and the force will be found to vary as the 
square of the quantity of electricity in operation directly, aud as the squares of the 
distances inversely : of this some striking and very interesting experimental illustra- 
tions were given through the instrumentality of the electrical balance, delicately set 
up with complete means of adjustment for distance and force; and it was with re- 
markable precision the beam descended when under the influence of two attracting 
surfaces ; the quantity of electricity and the weights being given, the force of in- 
duction, upon which the resulting force depends, varies in the simple inverse ratio of 
the distance between the attracting surfaces, and depends, first, upon the direct in- 
fluence of the electrified surfaces, secondly, upon a reflected induction thrown back 
upon the excited body. The total force is in a compound ratio of these forces, and 
it is in this way we obtain a force in the inverse duplicate ratio of the distances. If 
from any cause either or both of the previous elementary actions be interfered with, 
then we have no longer this law ; so that any law of electrical force is possible, as 
found in the experiments of many eminent philosophers of past days—Muschenbroek, 
Brook, Taylor, Whiston, Martin, and others. The author thinks that the results of 
the experiments of these eminent men have been called unjustly in question; every 
result they arrived at is producible by careful manipulation. 

The author now brought under consideration the question of electrical force be- 
tween spheres, one charged with electricity, the other neutral and in a free state. 
This question had been often elaborately treated, and had been hitherto considered 
a physico-mathematical question of great intricacy. An analysis of the elements of 
this question was here entered upon. Upon the proved facts that the force varies 
with the quantity of electricity and is in the duplicate inverse ratio of the distance, 


30 REPORT—1860. 


two points may be found within the opposed hemispheres in which we may con- 
ceive the whole force to be collected, and to be the same as if proceeding from every 
point of the opposed hemispheres. These points approach the surface, and become 
the touching points when the spheres touch ; as the spheres separate they approach 
the centre, and reach the centre when the distance is infinite. If we call a the 
distance between the points of contact, and r=the radius of sphere, we have, 


putting F=the total attractive force, F « ; and calling the points of centre 


1 
a(a+ 2r) 
of force=gq q’, we have distance q q’=the tangent from either of the touching points 
to the opposite sphere; or if distance ¢ q'=D, we have Fz pt a 5° 

Several very remarkable experiments were now adduced in evidence of the truth of 
these formule. Spheres of variable diameters were put in opposition in the balance, 
the quantity of electricity measured, and weights placed in the scale-pan, as deter- 
mined by calculation; the distances being regulated accordingly, the scale beam 
bowed in obedience to the given law of force with extreme and wonderful exactitude : 
the experiments elicited much commendation. 

The author thinks that every observed operation of electrical action is reducible 
to simple and elementary laws free of complication, and may be investigated and ex- 
pressed by an easy mathematical analysis and forms of expression. He thinks that 
all the laws of nature are of the most simple kind, and only involve a simple rela- 
tion of cause and effect; if we double the cause we double the effect. To suppose 
an effect to be as the square or cube of its cause, is to suppose the effect to depend 
partly on the cause and partly on nothing. There is probably, taken as a simple 
elementary law, no such a law in nature as that of a force being in the inverse 
duplicate ratio of the distance. Take, for example, the case of gravity as central 
force, and assumed to be a species of emanation from a centre, it is true that 
at twice the distance we have only one-fourth the force ; but this is because the areas 
of the concave spherical surfaces, which we may imagine the emanation to fall upon 
at these distances, are to each other as 1:4; so that in any one point of the outer 
sphere there is only one-fourth the agency upon which the force depends, conse- 
quently only one-fourth the attraction; but this is a simple relation of cause and 
effect. Taking light as an emanation from a centre, the same result ensues. If 
there be only one-fourth the quantity of the emanation in any point, we can only 
have one-fourth the light, and thus light or gravity may be said to be in the inverse 
duplicate ratio of the distance. 


On the different Motions of Electric Fluid. By the Rev. T. Rankin. 


The author, from several very striking and vividly-described thunder-storms and 
their permanent effects, concludes that sometimes the electric fluid moves downward, 
sometimes upward, and sometimes horizontally. On one occasion, some years since, 
about two o’clock, on a night on which it had thundered almost incessantly, a loud 
whizzing sound was heard to pass over the rectory-house, which he judged to be an 
aérolite; a tree in the direction it had passed was struck; and from the nature of the 
injury inflicted, the conclusion was drawn that the motion of either the aérolite or 
of the electric fluid had been nearly horizontal. 


On the Phenomena of Electrical Vacuum Tubes, in a letter to Mr. Gassiot. 
By Professor W. B. Rocers, Boston, U.S. 
I send you, by my brother, a printed abstract of remarks made some months ago 


on the phencmena of the vacuum tubes, and a hypothesis as to the condition and 
cause of the stratifications. 


You will see that, with the aid of Mr. Ritchie and our skilful photographer, Mr. ~ 


Black, I have been experimenting on the actinism of these electrical discharges. 
_ In some more recent trials I have obtained beautiful photographs of the stratifica- 
tion, of which I send youa specimen, The tube, as you will see, is a straight one, of 


se a oe 


eS 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 


31 


uniform calibre. It is about 15 inches long, by $ inch diameter, and is marked 


by Geissler as containing phos. hydrogen. As you have 
perhaps observed, it gives the strata with extraordinary di- 
stinctness ; and after the action has been continued a little 
while, the strata near the blank end arrange themselves in 
pairs, consisting each of a bluish and a more reddish layer, 
separated by a blank interval from the next, as seen very 
plainly in the photograph. 

By a steady, rapid motion of the ratchet-wheel of Mr. 
Ritchie’s coil, it was easy to keep the strata almost perfectly 
stationary. The picture was obtained with eighteen turns of 
the wheel, each giving twelve sparks. With six turns a 
tolerably clear picture was secured. 

You see that the unilluminated space at one end made no 
impression, and that the intervals between the strata are also 
as devoid of actinic as they are of luminous rays. 


The picture of the winding tube, with bulbs, shows how 
superior is the actinism of the faint blue light of the negative 
end compared with the brighter and less refrangible rays of 
the opposite bulb. 


The third photograph was 
produced by the two slender 
Geissler tubes, containing re- 
spectively N and CO,. The 
former was placed below the 
latter as they were presented 
before the camera, and the 
current was sent through them 
in succession. To the eye the 
intense whitest light of the 


voit 
cai ies 


CO, tube was more dazzling than the crimson colour- 
ing of the other. Yet you will observe the picture 
made by the latter is far the stronger of the two, as 
indeed might have been expected from its more re- 
frangible illumination, 

This photograph was produced with half a turn of 
the wheel, that is, six successive flashes of the light. 
I am unable to state the aggregate time of exposure to 
the rays, as I have not yet ascertained the duration of 
a flash. This I hope, with Mr. Ritchie’s aid, to ac- 
complish at an early day. But if we assume the time 
to be as much as tenfold the duration of the electric 
spark, as measured by Wheatstone, we should have 


less than saath of a second for the entire time which 


the light required for producing this intensely clear picture. I believe that.a single 
flash would suffice, but I have not yet made the trial. 


32 REPORT—1860. 


General Abstract of the Results of Messrs. de Schlagintweit’s Magnetic Sur- 
vey of India, with three Charts. By M. H. von ScHLacintwEIt. 


M. Hermann de Schlagintweit gave a general report on the results obtained 
during MM. de Schlagintweit’s magnetic survey of India and High Asia, from 1854 
to 1857. 

He presented three charts, showing the lines of equal declination, dip, and inten- 
sity, from Ceylon up to Turkistén. Also the details of their observations as con- 
tained in the first volume of their work, ‘ Results of a Scientific Mission to India 
and High Asia,’ undertaken by order of the Hon. East India Company, was laid 
upon the table. 

The magnetic results were preceded by a communication of those latitudes and 
longitudes, particularly to the north of the Himalayas, which were either new as to 
localities or found to differ from previous determinations. 

For the construction of their charts, they most carefully compared also the previous 
observations ; such as, for the intensity in Northern India, Taylor’s and Caldecott’s, 
and particularly those recently made by Mr. Broun; for the declination along the 
coasts, the determination of the Indian Navy; but Capt. Elliot, their predecessor, 
having died before he could extend his survey from the Indian Archipelago to India, 
and the only detailed observations in the outer Himalaya (General Boileau’s, at 
Simla) being destroyed in the last mutiny, their observations must be considered as 
made in a territory novel for this branch of science; and a great part of them was 
besides made under circumstances so difficult, that unhappily one of the three 
brothers was killed in Turkist&n. 


The following results are particularly to be mentioned :— 


I. Declination.—1. A zone of too little easterly declination, of considerable ex- 
tent, was found inAssam. 2. In the north-western part of India the declination was 
found to vary more rapidly than in the surrounding territories. 3. In the region of 
the Kuerluen the declination was found more easterly than given by the approximate 
form of the isogonic lines as provisionally laid down till now for these regions. 

Il. The Dip.—This was found, of the three elements, the most regular in its 
general forms; though local deviations are not unfrequent, they are small and very 
limited. 

III. Total Intensity.—Two unexpected results presented themselves:—1l. A de- 
cided inflection of the isodynamic lines in the central and southern parts of India, 
2. A zone of depression all along the outer ranges and the base of the Himalaya. 

In reference to the first, M. de Schlagintweit pointed out, as particularly import- 
ant, that the very careful observations of Mr. Broun all along the western coast of 
India, made quite independent of, and subsequent to, their own, perfectly coincided 
with the lines based on their observations. 

The magnetic influence of a large surface of soil exposed to the physical action of 
a tropical insulation, and the non-existence of such an influence in the rainy and 
much more clouded regions of the outer Himalayas, were named as perhaps not un- 
connected with this phenomenon, so particularly characteristic in India. 


Outline of the Principles and Practice involved in dealing with the Elec- 
trical Conditions of Submarine Electric Telegraphs. By M. Werner 
and C.W. SteMENs. 


The authors, who have had very extensive experience in dealing with submarine 
and other electric telegraphs, state that the failures of the more extensive submarine 
lines commence generally by a gradual decrease of insulation. The cause of this 
failure has been found, in repairing these lines, to consist in a disintegration of the 
gutta percha by the electrolytical action of the currents employed in working the 
line in such places where the insulating covering was much below the average thick- 
ness, owing to excentricities, cavities, &c. In other places, where the gutta percha 
had been of uniform and sufficient thickness, not the slightest destruction took place ; 
but it might be laid down as an axiom, that “so long as there are any thin places 


b 
v 
é 
‘s 
7 
d 


> 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. aa 


allowed to remain in the gutta percha coverings of a submarine conductor, so long will 
their insulation fail by slow degrees.” 

Great improvements have of late been effected, which may be estimated by the 
fact that the covering of the Rangoon and Singapore cable, now in process of manu- 
facture, insulates ten times better if reduced to the same thickness of coating than 
the covering of the Red Sea and India cable did before it was laid; and these 
marked improvements are due to the greater care used by the Gutta Percha Com- 
pany, assisted by stringent electrical tests which the authors are charged by the 
British Government to apply. 

The chief characteristic of these tests is, that the conductivity of both the con- 
ducting wires and the surrounding coating, which is regarded in the light of an in- 
ferior conductor, is expressed in numerical units, capable of direct comparison. The 
unit of resistance adopted is that of a column of mercury, 1 metre in length and of 
One square millimetre sectional area, taken at the freezing-point of water (as de- 
scribed by Werner Siemens in Poggendorft’s ‘ Annalen,’ vol. cx.). In expressing 
the degrees of conductivity of both the wire and the insulating medium in definite 
units of resistance, not only the advantage of a more accurate comparison between 
the results of different indication is obtained, but subsequently, when the separate 
coils are united together to a single cable, it affords an admirable means of judging 
its electrical condition in comparing the total resistances of both the conductor and 
insulating medium with the sum of the resistance previously obtained in testing each 
coil separately ; but the principal advantage derived from this system of measuring, 
consists in the facilities it affords in determining the position of a fault in a cable 
while it is being Jaid and after submersion. In carrying this system into practice, 
MM. Siemens constructed coils of definite resistance variable from 1 to 50,000 units 
of resistance. 

The cables to be tested are placed for twenty-four hours in water regulated to 
75° F.; they are then removed into the testing tank of the same temperature, which 
is hermetically closed, and hydraulic pressure of at least 600 lbs. per square inch 
applied, in order to force the water into the cavities or fissures that may present 
themselves. 

It is a remarkable fact, which is also borne out by observation upon cables in 
process of submersion, that the application of hydrostatic pressure sensibly decreases 
the conductivity of gutta percha; which, however, increases again slightly beyond 
the former rate when the pressure is relieved. 

For a full description of the methods of testing employed, we must refer our 
readers to the paper itself. 

The authors give a description of a new instrument by means of which they test 
the inductive capacity of cables, which has also to be accurately ascertained for the 
purpose of detecting faults; and have affixed a Table containing many satisfactory 
results, and proving the correctness of a formula for calculating the specific induc- 
tion of cables, which was obtained by Professor Thomson and M. Werner Siemens 
by different scientific deductions. 

The specific inductive capacity of all gutta percha is shown to be nearly the same, 
and to be entirely independent of the specific conductivity of the gutta percha ; while 
India-rubber and Wray’s mixture are far inferior in specific inductive capacity, being 
equal to 0'7 and0°8 respectively, gutta percha being taken = 1. 

In this way the cable is examined repeatedly at the earliest stages of its manu- 

_ facture, in lengths of one knot, during the joining and covering of the cable, and 
finally during the paying out. 

The paper next gives a full description of the electrical tests to be applied during 
the paying out, and numerous formule by means of which faults in the cable are 

ascertained under various circumstances. By these means Messrs. Siemens were 


_ enabled to determine with great accuracy faults in the Indian cable, both during the 


“paying out and afterwards, which enabled the contractors, Messrs. Newall and Co., 
_ to effect the necessary repairs with a certainty which could not formerly be obtained. 


_ Respecting the prospects of success of new lines of submarine cables, the paper 
_ States that, owing to the great care used, the conductor of the Rangoon and Singa- 


pore cable is fully ten times more perfectly insulated than the best cable hitherto 
submerged ; and that it may confidently be expected that the result in practice will 
1860. 3 


4 


34 REPORT—1860. 


also greatly exceed that of previous experience; still the insulating material em- 
ployed remains the same, and is therefore liable to be affected by the same causes of 
failure. 

The frequent failure of gutta percha has given rise lately to several projects of 
substituting India-rubber and its compounds for the same, which, owing to the 
higher insulating properties and lesser inductive capacity of India-rubber, and 
above all, owing to its greater homogeneity and resisting power to effects of heat, 
give promise of valuable results in making electric telegraphs less liable to failure, 
The chief difficulty consisted hitherto in working India-rubber in such a way as to 
obtain uniform and perfect coatings upon the conductor without injury to the con- 
ductor itself. The authors have endeavoured to remove this difficulty in construct- 
ing a covering machine, which they brought before Section G of the Association. 

They conclude,—‘ We do not wish, however, to rest upon our individual efforts 
for the further development of this important new branch of applied science. Our 
object in writing this communication has been to show that, although submarine 
electric telegraphs have often failed, the experience gained has not been lost; and 
that in bringing the present stock of knowledge to bear upon the subject more com- 
plete success may be ensured.” 


ASTRONOMY. 


On the Forms of certain Lunar Craters indicative of the Operation of a 
peculiar degrading Force. By W. R. Birt, F.RAS. 


There are on the surface of our satellite three well-marked classes of lunar craters, 
those that are more or less complete in the outlines of the mountainous rings by 
which they are surrounded, having in many cases a somewhat deep interior, and 
appearing as excavations on the surface of the moon. Cleomedes, Geminus, and 
others in their neighbourhood are examples. We have also among the perfectly 
surrounded craters those that have their rings somewhat considerably elevated above 
the general level of the lunar surface. Tycho may be cited as the most perfect 
instance of the raised craters. Both these kinds agree in a very important particu- 
lar; the surrounding ring (whatever may be the varying altitudes of different peaks, 
or however certain portions may rise higher than others) is in this class complete ; 
there is no evidence of the operation of the peculiar degrading force, to which | shall 
presently allude—certainly not to any very great extent—in breaking down any por- 
tion of the surrounding annulus. 

A second class of lunar crater consists of those that, having the surrounding ring 
complete, do not exhibit the depth of such craters above specified, or the gradual rising 
from the general surface as seen so distinctly in Tycho; they stand out as it were 
above those portions of the surfaces of the moon where they occur—generally the 
Maria—as if the smooth undulating plains had come quite up to the rings which rise 
abruptly from them. Most of these craters have smooth level interiors; and there 
are instances of the first class situated in rugged mountainous districts possessing 
also a smooth interior. Plato may be quoted as an example. Many instances of 
this class occur in which the ring is but slightly raised above the interior and exte- 
rior surfaces. 

The third class, to which I am particularly desirous of referring, consists of such | 
craters as having apparently at some previous period of their history possessed a 
perfect ring; 2 degrading force, not such as may have produced the terraces and 
ravines which we notice in Copernicus, but something of a different character, has — 
invaded them from without, breaking down certain portions of the annulus, and ~ 
leaving only a portion of the walls standing: these craters mostly occur on the bor- — 
ders-of the Maria; and it is not a little significant that the broken portions are in- 
variably, so far as my observations extend, on the side next the Maria, the parts of 
the annuli opposite the Maria being more or less in their earlier state. 

The two undermentioned craters appear to be interesting examples of this class— 
Fracastorius, situated on the border of the Mare Nectaris, and Hippalus on the 


—— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 35 


border cf the Mare Humorum. The ring of Fracastorius is so much broken down 
towards the Mare Nectaris as to give the crater the appearance of a small bay, un- 
less viewed under a suitable illumination—a very early one—when the edge of the 
crater towards the Mare is seen as a series of low points or peaks casting very short 
shadows. The floor of the interior appears to be somewhat different from the sur- 
face of the Mare, and seems to be slightly depressed below its level. The crater 
Hippalus is highly interesting; seen under a very early illumination: the western 
half of the floor is rngged, having a number of hillocks scattered over it and two 
minute craters ; the eastern half is smooth, very like in appearance to the surfaces of 
the Maria; but the most remarkable feature is the line separating the crater from 
the Mare, just as though the Mare had come up to and swept away half the ring of 
the crater and a portion of its floor, the two extremities of the semicircular range of 
mountains being very distinct, especially the north-eastern, which terminates ab- 
ruptly ; not the vestige of a shadow is observed between the two, the light passing 
between them unobstructedly. 


On the Possibility of Studying the Earth's Internal Structure from Pheno- 
mena observed at its Surface. By Professor Hennessy, F.R.S. 


This the author showed to follow as a result from the comparison of the level 
surface, usually called the earth’s surface by astronomers and mathematicians, with 
the geological surface which would be presented if the earth were stripped of its 
fluid coating. He had made several comparisons of the arcs of meridian measured 
in different countries, and had been thus led to the conclusion that the surfaces in 
question were not only dissimilar, but that the former derived many of the irregular. 
ities which it is known to present from the influence of the obvious irregularities of 
the latter. In the absence of precise knowledge of the true figure of the surface of 
the solidified crust of the earth, as well as of the assumed level surface perpendicular 
to gravity, theory was necessarily somewhat in advance of observation upon this 
particular question. At present the number of unknown quantities involved in 
an inquiry as to the earth’s internal structure was greater than the number of condi- 
tions ; but by knowing the true surface, and adopting the results of established 
physical and hydrostatical laws relative to the supposed internal fluid mass*, we 
should be able to form as many equations as we have unknown quantities, and thus 
ultimately obtain a solution. 


On some Recorded Observations of the Planet Venus in the Seventh Century 
before Christ. By the Rev. Epwarp Hincxs, D.D., of Killyleagh, 
Ireland. 


There is a tablet of baked clay in the British Museum, the inscription on which, 
if I interpret it aright, contains a series of observations of the planet Venus, and a 
series of predictions grounded on the observations. The latter are of no value; but 
the former may in great measure, if not altogether, determine the law by which the 
Assyrio- Babylonian lunar year was regulated in respect to its intercalary months. 
The knowledge of this law, again, will either establish or disprove the view which I 
have Jong entertained, and repeatedly expressed, that the era of Nabonassar was 
an astronomical, and not a political one; and I may add, it is not impossible that it 
may furnish a test of the genuineness of the works attributed to Quthami and other 


_ supposed ancient Babylonian writers. For these reasons I am desirous that the 


observations which I suppose to be recorded should be submitted to astronomers. 
I now offer two, which will suffice to test the correctness of my interpretation of the 
records. If any astronomer will take the trouble to calculate whether what is here 


stated to have happened would have actually happened, and will communicate the 


result to me, I will, if he desire it, communicate to him other records of observations, 


as to the interpretation of which I feel less confidence than I do as to these. I observe 
_ that the Babylonian months are expressed by monograms, for which I substitute 
_ Hebrew names of months. The Babylonian day began at noon; and that day in 
_ the evening of which the new moon was first seen was considered to be the first day 


of the month. I suppose, but am not very confident, that the year of the first obser- 


-* See Reports for 1859, Trans, Sect. p. 5. : 
3% 


06 ae REPORT—1860, 


vation was —685. The month of Thamuz would begin in the spring. The second 
observation was some years later. ‘‘ On the 25th of Thamuz, Venus ceased to appear 
in the west, was unseen for seven days, and on the 2nd of Ab was seen in the east.” 
“On the 26th of Eiul, Venus ceased to appear in the west, was unseen for eleven 
days, and on the 7th of the second Elul was seen in the east.’”? This being an em- 
bolismatic year, the day last mentioned was necessarily its 184th day, and was 200 
days before the first day of the new year. If, then, this day can be determined from 
what is recorded of Venus, the commencement of two Babylonian years out of a 
cycle of eight will be determined. The foregoing had been communicated to the 
Royal Astronomical Society, but is not yet published. Dr. Hincks now added his 
conviction, that by combining those observations with that of the equinox, recorded 
on another tablet, a translation of which was given by him in the Transactions of 
the Royal Irish Academy, the determination of the year in which any of those obser- 
vations took place would determine the commencement of every Babylonian year. 
The Babylonians were acquainted with the approximate equality of eight tropical 
years, five synodic revolutions of Venus, and ninety-nine synodic revolutions of the 
moon. The first observation, if in the seventh century before Christ (which is pro- 
bable, though not quite certain—later than this it could not be), must have been 
in a year of the form —685 = 87. 


On the brilliant Eruption on the Sun's Surface, 1st September 1859. 
By R. Hoveson, F.R.A.S. 


While observing a group of solar spots on the Ist of September, I was suddenly 
surprised at the appearance of a very brilliant star of light, much brighter than the 
sun’s surface, most dazzling tothe protected eye, illuminating with its light the 
upper edges of the adjacent spots, not unlike in effect the edging of the clouds at 
sunset: the rays extended in all directions, and the centre might be compared to the 
dazzling brilliancy of the bright star « Lyre, when seen in a large telescope 
with a low power. It lasted five minutes, and disappeared instantaneously 
about 11525" a.m. Telescope used an equatorial refractor, 6} inches aperture, 
carried by clockwork. Power single convex lens 100, with pale neutral tint sun- 
glass. The whole aperture was used with a diagonal reflector. The phenomenon 
was of too short a duration to admit of a micrometrical drawing, but an eye-sketch 
was taken from which the enlarged diagram was made. 

The only other observer was Mr. Carrington at the Red dill Observatory, but a 
drawing was made of the spot by the Rev. William Howlett of Hurst Green, at 
noon, within half an hour of the occurrence. From a photograph taken at Kew 
the previous day, the size (length) of the entire group appears to have been about 
2 minutes 8 seconds, or say 60,000 miles. 

' The magnetic instruments at Kew and Greenwich were simultaneously disturbed 
at the same instant to a considerable extent. 


Prospectus of the Hartwell Variable Star Atlas, with six Specimen Proofs. 
By Joun Let, LL.D. 


The work announced is to form one of a series of quarto volumes, of which 
Admiral Smyth’s well-known ‘ A‘des Hartwelliane’ and ‘ Speculum Hartwellianum’ 
may be regarded as the commencement. It is to comprise maps of the vicinity of 
all stars of established variability, —at the present moment 102 in number. The 
light ratio or magnitude scale employed was explained, and six specimen proofs ex- 
hibited to the meeting. The scale of projection is unusually large and clear; 3 
inches to one degree, to avoid crowding and confusion. After dwelling at some 
length upon the unsatisfactory state of our knowledge of the variable stars, and 
making allusion to the most recent researches and discoveries, especially to those of 
Professor Argelander, Sir John Herschel, Mr. Hind, and Mr. Pogson, and to the 
annual ephemeris of the variable stars published by the last named astronomer for 
four years past, Dr. Lee remarked,— 

“A variable star usually remains unchanged for several nights, sometimes even 
for weeks, when either at maximum or minimum; and yet, owing to the difficulty 
of estimating absolute magnitudes correctly, and still more to the prevalence of haze 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. iA 


and other uncertain atmospheric fluctuations, the most practised eye would fail to 
fix at all satisfactorily, either the time or amount of greatest or least brilliancy. By 
comparing the variable with neighbouring stars, which are of course similarly affected 
by atmospheric influences, most of this uncertainty is however avoided; and by 
careful consideration of the rapidity of increase and of decrease, the time of maximum 
or minimum is very closely and easily limited. In order to make such comparisons, 
it is requisite to know the absolute magnitudes of the stars of reference pretty cor- 
rectly. A convenient number of stars in each map will therefore have the magni- 
tudes annexed in plain figures, omitting the decimal points to prevent their being 
mistaken for faint stars; and it is to render this aid to future observers of variable 
stars that the ‘ Hartwell Atlas’ is now being constructed.” 


On the Physical Constitution of Comets. 
By Professor B. Prerce, of Cambridge, United States. 


On the Dynamic Condition of Saturn’s Rings. 
By Professor B. Pierce, of Cambridge, United States. 


On the Motion of a Pendulum in a Vertical Plane when the point of suspen- 
sion moves uniformly on a circumference in the same Plane. By Professor 
B, Pierce, of Cambridge, United States. 


METEOROLOGY. 


On a Plan for Systematic Observations of Temperature in Mountain 
Countries. By Joun Bari, MRLA. 


Several members of the Alpine Club have agreed to unite in a plan of systematic 
observations of temperature in the Alps, and such other mountain countries as they 
may visit. It is possible that the plan of combined action may eventually be 
extended to other objects, but for the present it embraces only such observations as 
may be made with thermometers. As the intention of the present paper is merely 
to invite the suggestions, and if possible the cooperation, of members of the Physical 
Section, it seems unnecessary to state in detail the arrangements which are proposed ; 
and it will be sufficient to indicate generally the points to which it is believed that 
the observations about to be commenced may most usefully be directed. 

Ist. The condition of the upper parts of high mountains in regard to temperature 
is most imperfectly known. It may not be possible to learn much by direct con- 
tinued observations, but it is thought that by means of self-registering instruments 
we may add considerably to the little which is now known. It is proposed to place 
such instruments, and especially minimum thermometers, on as many of the higher 
peaks of the Alps as possible, and to register their indications in succeeding seasons. 
The chief practical difficulty in carrying out this branch-of the proposed plan is to 
find positions at great heights that are free from winter snow. It will be necessary 
to select vertical or nearly vertical rocks in order to attach the instruments thereto, 
and these are not always to be found very near to the highest summits of great 
mountains. 

2nd. It is a matter of much interest, but of considerable difficulty, to obtain 
measures of the effect of the lower strata of the atmosphere upon the radiant heat of 
the sun. The general opinion of mountain travellers is adverse to the use of the 
actinometer in any of the forms in which that instrument has yet been devised, and 
the same may be said in regard to other instruments proposed for the same purpose, 
The objections to observations with the black bulb thermometers are obvious and 
well known, but it is thought that observations made on a uniform plan, and with 
instruments of exactly the same dimensions and construction, would give compara- 
tive measures which would have some positive value, If it should be possible to 
obtain series of such observations made at two stations very different in elevation, 
and exactly simultaneous, they could scarcely fail to give valuable results. 

3rd. We are very ignorant at present as to the mode in which disturbances of 


38 REPORT—1860. 


temperature are propagated from one place to another in mountain countries. Con- 
siderable variations of temperature are not unfrequent, and sometimes occur very 
rapidly, usually if not always in connexion with changes of wind ; but we know very 
little of the way in which a disturbance of this kind is transmitted eitker in the 
horizontal or the vertical direction. It is conceived that a network of observations 
made by a considerable number of observers scattered over a district, such as Swit- 
zerland and Piedmont, would lead to some increase of our knowledge in this respect. 

4th. Observations on the temperature of the surface and upper layers of the soil 
have a considerable bearing on many questions connected with the distribution of 
plants. One difficulty in investigating these questions arises from the difficulty of 
comparing observations not made upon a uniform plan. It is thought that the 
adoption of uniform instruments, and a plan of observations previously agreed upon 
by all the members of the party, will much increase the value of their results. All 
the instruments used in these observations are exactly of uniform construction, and 
made by Mr. Casella with the utmost practicable regard to lightness and convenience. 
Each instrument is numbered for purposes of future reference. 


On Atmospheric Waves. By W.R. Birt, F.R.A.S. 


The object of this communication is rather elucidatory than otherwise. It is now 
twelve years since I had the honour to lay before this Association the last of my 
reports on the subject. During the interval it has doubtless occupied the attention 
of other minds, and some degree of misconception may have arisen which may call 
for some elucidatory remarks on my part, especially as the series of reports in our 
annual volumes has been referred to on the Continent, as establishing a priority of 
investigation into these phenomena on the part of the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science. 

It is now several years since Professor Dove announced as his conviction that the 
equilibrium of the atmosphere was maintained in the extra-tropical zones, more by 
parallel than superposed currents, that these currents had a shifting transverse or 
lateral motion, and in consequence, so to speak, they advanced “‘sideways.” I am 
not aware that Professor Dove connected these shifting parallel currents with baro- 
metric phenomena, although he did with thermometric. In the course of my inves- 
tigations into those phenomena termed atmospheric waves, I ascertained, by carefully 
discussing the records of the wind for the greater portion of November 1842, that 
not only such parallel compensating currents existed as stated by the Professor, but 
that during the period under inquiry, a similar system of parallel and compensating 
winds were blowing and moving at right angles to them. The arrangement of these 
cross winds was N.E.—S.W. and N.W.—S.E. I also found that these winds were 
intimately connected with barometric pressure, so that when the barometric curve 
Was projected and presented the wave form, the mind was led to group under the 
general term ‘‘ atmospheric wave,” at least ¢wo if not three distinct classes of phe- 
nomena. First, the winds succeeding one another, as we know they do with more or 
less regularity. Second, the pressure, a more or less continuous fall of the barometer 
generally succeeding a gradual and continuous rise: both these phenomena are 
capable of being represented by curves, the rising barometer mostly coinciding with 
the decreasing force of wind, and the falling barometer with its increase, so that a 
rising and falling curve will with more or less fidelity represent the passage over a 
station or a tract of country of the two compensating currents of Dove. It is not 
the mere rise and fall of the barometer, as such, that constitutes an atmospheric 
wave; the barometric curve itself is doubtless the complex result of two or more 
distinct variations of pressure connected with variations of wind as above. When 
these are disentangled, the mind is able to grasp the onward march of the two par- 
allel winds, accompanied by their respective pressures; so that true waves of press- 
ure really, I apprehend, sweep over a country; and applying the wave nomenclature, 
low pressures have been characterized as troughs and high pressures as crests. 

As illustrative of these remarks, I beg to exhibit on this occasion the most com- 
plete instance of opposite pressures that has come under my notice ; it is the opposite 
barometric curves at Alten and Lougan during the early part of November 1842: the 
curves will be found on page 39, ‘ Report,’ 1848. Iam indebted to Dr. Lee for the 
observations furnishing the curve at Alten. 


; 
: 


‘ 


=e ere 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39 


Observations on the Meteorological Phenomena of the Vernal Equinoctial 
Week. By M. Du Boutay. 


The author has been engaged for the long period of thirty years in endeavouring 
to ascertain whether there could be traced in the winds or weather prevailing about 
the equinox, in any given locality, a counexion with, or resemblance to, the winds 
and weather generally prevailing during the ensuing summer in the same locality, 
He infers from his observations that such is the case, and that the probable character 
of the summer in England may be predicated about the 25th of March, by noting 
the weather in the equinoctial week then just ended. He gave examples in support 
of his views. 


On the Effect of a Rapid Current of Air. By R. Dowven. 


On British Storms, illustrated with Diagrams and Charts. 
By Admiral FirzRoy, F.R.S. 


It is well known that no year passes in which the British islands are not visited by 
storms, and that they vary in degree of force from what seamen call a gale to a 
hurricane irresistible in violence. Only of late years, however, has it been supposed, 
and but recently proved, that nearly all, if not indeed the whole, of these remarkable 
tempests, by which a very notable amount of injury has been done, have been so 
much alike in character, and have been preceded by such similar warnings, as to 
warrant our reasoning inductively from the well-ascertained facts, and thence inferring 
laws. Every one looks back to some extraordinary storm as exceeding all others in 
his lifetime; but a tempest that is severely felt in one part of the country is not 
always extensive, but usually the reverse,—more or less limited in area, varying in 
range, direction, and force. It would be tedious to advert to some of even the most 
devastating tempests in much detail, therefore I propose to take three only as types, 
and glance summarily over their most marked features, hoping that the diagrams 
suspended around or lying on the table will supply enough additional facts. The 
first storm to which I would ask attention in passing is that so well and so fully 
described by De Foe, in 1703. He calls it (page 11) ‘‘ the greatest, the longest in 
duration, the widest in extent of all the tempests and storms that history gives any 
account of since the beginning of time... . . Our barometers,” he continues, “ in- 
formed us that the night would be very tempestuous; the mercury sank lower than 
ever I had observed it on any occasion” (page 25) ; it fell to 28°47 (page 30). This 
storm began at south and veered through the west towards north, round to the scuth, 
and then continued between south-west and north-west, with more or less strength, 
for a whole week! Very remarkable it is that not only did De Foe suppose this 
storm began near the southern coast of North America, but that it traversed England, 
France, and the Baltic, to lose itself in the Arctic regions. He recurs afterwards 
to its shifting from south-west to north-west, and coming from the west like other 
storms in the south of England, but does not advert to any corresponding north- 
easterly wind, nor had he evidently any idea of a rotatory or circulating atmospheric 
current. Probably accounts from the north of England were much less attainable 
then ; but it is noted that the north of England escaped the violence of that storm. 
I cannot now take more from De Foe, but venture to say that his graphic accounts 
of many storms, and the more comprehensive views of Dampier, are well worth the 
notice of even scientific meteorologists. To Franklin, Capper, Redfield, Reid, and 
Dove, besides other authorities, seamen may well be grateful; for their works, and 
those compiled from them, are facts and inferences at present trusted because demon- 
strated to be indisputably true. 

It is now necessary that other storms should be noticed, and in a much more 
precise manner ; but two alone will probably suffice as types. The ‘Royal Charter’ 
gale, so recent in our recollection, so remarkable in its features, and so complete in its 
illustrations, I may say, from the fact of its having been noted at so many parts of 
our coast, and because the storm passed over the middle of the country, is one of 
the easiest to deal with which has occurred for some length of time. I would 
therefore ask for a few minutes’ attention to this particular instance. There are 
four diagrams among those on the wall which refer particularly to the 25th and the 


40 REPORT—1860. 


26th of October last. Referring to the charts and the diagrams, it will be seen that 
the lowest barometer and a corresponding or simultaneous /ull prevailed over ten, 
fifteen, or twenty miles successively in the direction I have pointed out. But at the 
time that this comparative lull existed, there was around this central space what by 
some is called a vortex, but can hardly be appropriately termed a vortex, because 
there was no central disturbance : there were only variable winds or calm for a short 
time in the middle of this space, which was about ten or fifteen miles across. ‘The 
wind obtained a maximum velocity of from sixty to one hundred miles an hour, ata 
distance of twenty to fifty miles from this comparatively quiet space, and in suc- 
cessive meteoric eddyings crossed England towards the north-north-east, the wind 
blowing from all points of the compass around the lull, so that while at Anglesea 
the storm came from the north-north-east, in the Straits of Dover it was from the 
south-west; on the east coast it was easterly ; in the Irish Channel it was northerly, 
and on the coast of Ireland it was from the north-west. The charts show that there 
was a similar circulation, or cyclonic commotion, going or passing northwards from 
the 25th to the 27th, being two complete days from the time of its first appearance 
in (what is called) ‘the chops of the Channel,” while outside of this circulation the 
wind became less and less violent; and it is very remarkable that, even so near 
as on the west coast of Ireland, they had fine weather, with light winds, while in the 
British Channel it blew a northerly and westerly gale. At Galway and at Limerick 
on that occasion there were light winds only, I repeat, while over England the wind 
was passing in a tempest, blowing from all parts of the compass around a central 
similar “lull.’”’ The next storm that occurred was similar in its features, though it 
came from aslightly different direction. This storm was on the Ist and 2nd of No- 
vember, and its character was in all respects like that just described, now usually 
called the “Charter Gale.’? It came more from the westward, passed across the 
north of Ireland, the Isle of Man, the north of England, and then went off across 
the North Sea towards Denmark. Further than that distance facts have not yet 
been gathered; but, no doubt, in the course of a few months they will be. 

The general effect of these storms fell unequally on our islands, and less inland than 
on the coasts. Lord Wrottesley has shown, by the observations made at his Observa- 
tory in Staffordshire, that the wind is diminished or checked by its passages over 
land; and looking to the mountain ranges of Wales and Scotland, rising 2000, 3000, 
or 4000 feet above the level of the sea, we see they must have great power to alter the 
direction, and probably the velocity of wind, independently of the alterations caused 
by the changes of temperature. The very remarkable similarities of this storm of the 
1st and 2nd of November and that of the 25th and 26th of October, the series of storms 
investigated by Dr. Lloyd during ten years, and the investigations of Mr. William 
Stevenson in Berwickshire, require especial notice on this occasion. There is no 
discrepancy between the results of the ten years’ investigations published by Dr. Lloyd 
in the Transactions of the Irish Academy, the three years’ investigations published 
by Mr. W. Stevenson, and all the investigations which have been brought together 
during the last four years. They all tell the same story. Dr. Lloyd only found in 
ten years one instance even of a partial storm which differed; namely, one storm 
that came from the north in the first instance. Storms from the south-west are 
followed by sudden and dangerous storms from the north and east ; and these storms 
from the north and east do much damage on our coasts. Upon tracing the facts, it 
is proved that the storms which come from the west and south come on gradually, 
but that storms from the north and east begin suddenly, and often with extraordinary 
force. The barometer, with these north-eastern storms, does not give so much warn- 
ing upon this coast, because it ranges higher than with the wind from the opposite 
quarter. But though the barometer does not give much indication of a north-east 
storm, the thermometer does; and the known average temperature of every week in 
the year affords the means at once, from the temperature being much above or below 
the mean of the time of the year, of showing whether the wind will be northerly or 
southerly (thanks to Mr. Glaisher’s Greenwich observations). 

Now to revert to a few of the signs which preceded the ‘Charter gale.’ Fora 
few days before that storm came on, the thermometer was exceedingly low in a 
great part of the country; there were north winds in some places, and a good deal 
of snow; but nothing else extraordinary. There had been a great deal of exceed- 
ingly dry and hot weather previously. These facts, of course, require consider- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 41 


ation, but not now. I may just mention, that over our islands, and especially in 
the north of Ireland, at that time, on the 22nd and 23rd of October, barometers 
were very low. Many days preceding the ‘Charter storm,’ an extraordinary clear- 
ness in the atmosphere was noticed in the north of Ireland—the mountains of 
Scotland were never seen so prominently as they were in the few days preceding 
those on which the great storm took place. Every one is aware that last summer 
was remarkable for its warmth: it was exceedingly dry and hot. All over the 
world, not only in the Arctic, but in the Antarctic regions, in Australia, South 
America, in the West Indies, Bermudas, and elsewhere, auroras and meteors were 
more or less prevalent, and they were more remarkable in their features and appear- 
ances than had been noticed for many years. There was also an extraordinary dis- 
turbance of the current along the telegraph wires. They were so disturbed at times, 
that it was evident there were great electric or magnetic storms in the atmosphere 
which could be traced to no apparent cause. Lord Wrottesley, in his Address, adverted 
to some extraordinary facts respecting various circulating substances apparently 
absorbed by the sun. Perhaps these electric disturbances were connected with the 
peculiar action of the sun upon our atmosphere. Electrical wires above ground, as 
well as submarine wires, were unusually disturbed, and these disturbances were 
followed within two or three days hy great commotions in the atmosphere, or by 
some remarkable change. 

I will now refer to another subject—the question of areas or lines of barometric 
pressure. Professor Espy, of the United States, contends for a long line from north 
to south, or from one direction straight to another, and not only Espy but also 
some among our own countrymen. The principal object of making these sections, 
as it were soundings, of the atmosphere, shown in the diagrams, was to prove 
whether lines of pressure, or whether areas of pressure prevailed; and I think, 
when they are all closely looked into, they go to prove that while the atmosphere 
in the British islands varied in its pressure from time to time, such variation was 
not on a particular line, but extended over a large area. Before I leave this part of 
the subject, I may say, as some of the remarkable exceptions to the force of these 
particular storms, that at some places there was little or no wind; the barometer 
fell much, but there was no storm, for the wind circulating around these districts 
did not affect them, while at other places the storm was tremendous. It has been 
often asked whether the ship that was lost—the ‘ Royal Charter ’"—might have been 
saved ; and I will give an instance of what another ship did which took ordinary pre- 
cautions on that night. Whether the ‘ Royal Charter’ did take the right course it 
is not for me to say, but I hold in my hand the details of another kind of manage- 
ment within ten miles of the ‘ Royal Charter’ that night. The commander of this 
vessel, a sailing-ship and not a steam-ship (the ‘Royal Charter’ had the double advan- 
tage), was guided by the instructions laid down by Capt. Maury, who has treated 
the subject of winds in a practical manner, and has brought together a large amount 
of useful information; and although, as I am aware, he occasionally theorises when 
he has not facts enough for philosophy, as a practical man he has been guided by 
plain principles, intelligible to seamen generally. Unquestionably, Maury has 
brought together a great deal of valuable information, and made it generally avail- 
able. The following paper has come into my hands within the last few days very 
opportunely :-— 

_ “ Having had many threatenings of bad weather for several days past, I began to 
apply your views as to storms; and not having much sea-room, I considered them 
more closely. For three or four days before the 26th of October, we had very 
squally weather, with frequent sharp flashes of lightning from east to north-east. 
During the night of the 24th, I stood to the northward, and till noon of the 25th, 
with the wind strong from east-north-east. At noon I tacked, thinking that if the 
gale should come on, I might take the off-shore tack in the night, and have the 
vortex of the gale to the south-eastward. I stood on, therefore, till half-past five p.m., 
and then wore ship under short sail, when ina line with Holyhead and Bardsey, 
about ten miles or so distant from Holyhead, as near as I could judge, being thick 
and dark. At eight p.m., gale increasing, I took in close-reefed main topsail, and 
fore topmast stay-sail, having nothing then set but the main spencer and a small 
storm-mizen. It blew a complete West-India hurricane, but I drove off-shore, and 
I thought the force of the storm did not increase. I now think, from what other 


42 REPORT—1860. 


ships suffered which were to the northward of me at the same time, that further 
from me it blew harder. I did not suffer any damage whatever more than usual in 
ordinary blows; only a little chafe and some spray. The lightning alluded to above 
was very unnatural in its appearance, being of such a sharp flashing glare, without 
leaving off. Unless looking at the exact place of its flash, you could not tell from 
where the light actually came. 

(Signed) ‘‘ Witur1am J. Jouns, Commanding the Ship.’? 


** William Cumming, U.S.” 


These two instances are important; one of a ship managed in accordance with 
instructions published for seamen, being saved, while the other, which adopted a 
different course, was lost. ‘There is one special instance on which not only private 
but public interests were at stake, and where the ship to which I allude was seriously 
injured. There wasone of Her Majesty’s ships, a 90-gun ship, fitted up with steam- 
engine and other appliances, in the Atlantic, in the early part of October last. That 
ship had very bad weather near the edge of the Gulf-stream. A succession of circling 
storms occurred, and in every instance the ship was managed in direct opposition 
to the known laws of storms, was considerably damaged, and obliged to return. 
Now, that is a fact which ought not to have occurred in the British Navy at the 
present day. It might have been that there was some reason for such usually in- 
correct proceeding in one instance; but that there should have been any reason in 
three successive instances is more than we can conceive: any one can estimate the 
amount vf expense caused by a ship so brought back to England from her destination, 
The simple rule of seamanship is when facing the wind the centre of the storm will be to 
the right or on the right hand, therefore you should go to the left. In the southern 
hemisphere the centre is on the left hand, and you must go to the right. supposing 
that sea-room and circumstances enable you to choose. But these simple results 
are the consequence of very great consideration on the part of scientific persons,— 
particularly Sir W. Reid, Redfield, Capper, Espy, Dr. Lloyd, and others,—especially 
those in India, who have done so much, viz. Piddington and Thom. In this 
country no one has effected more than Sir W. Reid, who collected together all that 
had been done for many years, and published in a clear manner the results of his 
accumulated investigations. A very remarkable storm has been lately traced by 
Mr. Rowell, of Oxford, and his description published within the last few days. This 
storm occurred near Calne in Wiltshire, cutting through fields and trees, and in one 
place actually lifted a broad-wheeled waggon from the road over a hedge into the neat 
field! The violence of the wind was confined to a limited line. The downward and 
onward pressure of the wind was so great in that locality, that it acquired such 
elasticity as to lift opposing weights and carry them on. I have known such things 
myself. I have known the wind lift a boat into the air and shake it to pieces. We 
have all heard of houses being unroofed, of trees torn up by the force of the wind ; 
but this is the first time I have heard of a heavy waggon being lifted up and hurled 
over a hedge. 

I will only venture to make one or two observations in reference to the theory 
of these subjects. Dove, in his work, shows how currents of wind, parallel cur- 
rents, as he calls them, co-exist. A great polar current coming from the north 
and east is passing in one direction, while a current from the tropical regions is 
going in the other direction, nearly opposite; but to follow the theoretical consider- 
ations of how these great currents move from the Arctic regions towards the tropics 
and return to the Arctic regions, is a subject too large for the present limited time. 
Dove has shown most clearly in his work (which is translated into English), that 
circulation of the atmosphere in great polar and equatorial or tropical currents, pre- 
vail not only in our hemisphere, but everywhere. I can bear witness that his 
reasonings and particular views can be corroborated in every part of the world. 

The British Association has made application to Her Majesty’s Government to 
authorize arrangements for communicating warning of storms from one part of the 
country to the other; and, in conclusion, I will read the details of that arrange- 
ment which promises to he so beneficial. Arrangements have been authorized 
by the Board of Trade (under a minute from the President, dated June 6), in conse- 
quence of which a daily and mutual interchange of certain limited meteorological 
information will be transmitted between London and Paris, the results of five 


—— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43 


subsidiary communications to the central stations of Paris and London. Authority 
being thus given to collect and communicate, by the telegraph, particular meteoro- 
logical intelligence, a commencement may be made on the Ist of September, as the 
plan proposed is simple, and the machinery is ready. Once a day, at about nine 
A.M., barometer and thermometer heights, state of weather, and direction of wind 
will be telegraphed to London, from the most distant ends of our longest wires,— 
namely, Aberdeen, Berwick, Hull, Yarmouth, Dover, Portsmouth, Jersey, Plymouth, 
Penzance, Cork, Galway, Londonderry, and Greenock. Facts sent thus from five of 
these places, will be put into one telegram, and sent to Paris immediately, when a 
corresponding communication will be made from the southward Atlantic coasts. 
When threatening signs are not apparent, no further notice will be transmitted to 
or from London on taat day, respecting weather. But when indications are such 
as to warrant some cautionary signal at a certain part of, or along all our coasts, 
the words ‘‘ Caution,—North” (or ‘‘South’’) will be sent to some of the thirteen 
places specified, or to all of them, on the receipt of which a cone (or triangle) will 
be hoisted at a staff (point up for north, down for south), indicating the side whence 
wind may be expected. ‘This signal will be repeated along part of the coast by the 
Coast Guard, at such of their stations as may be authorized (at most of their stations 
flagstaffs are visible to coasters). Danger will be implied by a drum (or square), a 
cone, and perhaps, in addition, very great danger by a cone, a drum, and a second 
cone. [Thecones and drums may be made with hoops and black canvas, to collapse, 
without top or bottom. They will be the same in shape from all points of view, 


and unlike any other signal, such as a time-ball, used ordinarily.] As the Coast 


Guard extends all along the frequented parts of our shores, and as the telegraph 
companies are liberally willing to have instruments and signals placed at their ex- 
treme stations, in charge of and used by their officials, only the necessary materials 
and instructions will be required, all of which are ready or in progress. By vigilance 
at the central station, and by taking great care to avoid signalling too frequently, 
much may be done towards diminishing the losses of life on our increasingly crowded 
coasts. Property alone may be duly insured, but every wise precaution for the safety 
of life should, of course, be used. As an auxiliary measure, a concise Manual of 
Instructions for the Barometer will be circulated among maritime communities ; 
who, though they may have frequent access to ‘‘ weather-glasses ” of various kinds, 
do not generally know how to use them most advantageously. The following details 
may be useful, as well as interesting, to those who wish to investigate these subjects 
and examine the diagrams more critically :—The probable limits of error of the 
barometric curves on the synoptic sheets, 21st of October —2nd of November 1859. 
The observations at the regular observatories, such as Greenwich, Oxford, Cam- 
bridge, Highfield House, Kew, &c., have had all corrections applied, and have been 
reduced to sea-level, and the temperature of 32°. The returns from members of the 
British and Scottish Meteorological Societies (nearly ninety in number) have nearly 
all been corrected for the exact height above sea-level, all within a few feet. The 
corrections due to instrumental errors and reduction to 32° have (in most cases I 
believe) been applied by the observers. The Continental observations have been 
collected partly from the Dutch papers and partly from the ‘ Moniteur.’ Those from 
the former have been reduced to 32°, and, it may be presumed, have also beet cor- 
rected for instrumental errors. The heights of some stations are known ; the cor- 
rections due to those heights have been applied, and others are known to be little, if 
at all, above the sea-level. Any error in laying down a curve from such data can 
scaicely exceed two or three hundredths of an inch. The observations obtained 
from the ‘ Moniteur’ itis assumed are givendulycorrected. The heightsot the stations 
of ordinary observers are known for the most part pretty nearly, and corrections for 
such heights have been applied to the returns. Other corrections have only been 
applied in a few cases—observations sometimes recorded only to the nearest tenth, not 
being deemed worthy of any further correction. Those returns, however, of which 
the barometrical observations are evidently erroneous (from comparison with other 
more reliable neighbouring and contemporaneous obsevations), have been rejected 
altogether. On the whole, we may safely assume that even these observations, 
as laid down, are less than a tenth inerror. The heights of the lantern above the 
sea-level and of the tower, from the base to the vane, being known, the probable 
height of the barometer can be ascertained, The proper correction for the height 


44 REPORT—1860. 


thus estimated has been applied, and all returns suspected of being erroneous 
rejected. 


On the Similarity of the Lunar Curves of Minimum Temperature at Green- 
wich and Utrecht in the Year 1859. By J. Park Harrison, M.A. 


The author showed that, on the mean of twelve lunations, in 1859 the greatest 
amount of cold displayed itself at both the above-named stations between full and 
new moon: the difference between the mean minimum temperatures of the first and 
second halves of the lunation at Greenwich being 2°°4; at Utrecht 2°°0. There were 
two minima for night temperature both at Greenwich and Utrecht; they followed on 
full moon and last quarter. The least amount of cold was at first quarter. The 
difference between the minimum temperatures at first quarter and shortly after last 
quarter, on a mean of twelve observations taken at both stations, was nearly 7°. The 
difference in the means of the mean temperature of the day for forty-three years for 
the two periods of fourteen days, at the former place had been previously found to 
be 1° 1. 

Mr. Harrison expressed increased conviction that effects so contrary to expectation 
must be due to the presence or absence of cloud, or to its height above the earth,— 
to whatever cause this phenomenon may ultimately be assigned. 


On the Principles of Meteorology. By Professor Hennessy, F.R.S. 


The author contended that the principal object of meteorology was the prediction of 
the weather within certain probable limits. The great complication of atmospherical 
phenomena, and the influence of remote causes of disturbance, would undoubtedly 
render this extremely difficult. Although the atmosphere is itself one of the best 
examples of an unorganized body to which we could refer, yet its complicated and 
fluctuating phenomena suggest to us the mode in which such phenomena should be 
investigated. Any success could be expected only by treating the atmosphere very 
nearly as an organized body, and studying its abnormal conditions with the same 
continuity and generality of observation as is usually employed in physiology. Ob- 
servations made at stated hours have been found by themselves rarely capable of 
affording means to foretell the future conditions of the weather for even short 
periods of time. A careful study of the appearances of the sky, such as has been 
so long familiar to mariners and others interested in the conditions of our atmo- 
sphere, would, when made by men well prepared with preliminary knowledge of 
the principles of physical science, throw far more light upon the chief object of our 
search. Mr. Hennessy illustrated this remark by referring to some such observations 
which he had made during the month of June. Although he had at first consi- 
derable scepticism as to the possibility of obtaining correct results from the continuous 
photographical registration of atmospherical conditions, Mr. Hennessy was satisfied, 
from what he had witnessed during 1856 in the Radcliffe Observatory, that such a 
system was not only possible, but that it sometimes disclosed important changes 
which would have escaped the method of observation at stated hours. He instanced 
the connexion between the phenomena of thunder-storms and sudden barometric 
depressions, as pointed out by the late Radcliffe Observer at the Glasgow Meeting, 
and the connexion between days of great solar irradiation and minute vertical 
atmospheric currents, as pointed out by himself*. He concluded by pointing out 
the manner in which, from the increasing knowledge we possess of the influence of 
the ocean upon climate, the greater stability of its currents, compared to those of the 
atmosphere, may under the peculiar conditions of the British islands enable us to 
foresee many important changes within comparatively extended periods of timef. 


On Antarctic Expeditions. By Captain Maury, U.S. Navy. 
Observatory, Washington, 20th May, 1860. 
My pear Lorp Wrorrestry,—I hope the time is not far distant when circum- 
stances will be more auspicious than at present they seem; for, as soon as there appears 


* Report for 1858, Trans. Sect. p. 36. 
+ Report for 1859, Trans. Sect. p. 50. Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. ix, p, 324. 
Atlantis, yol. i. p. 396. Philosophical Magazine, April 1846, and October 1858, ; 


— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45 


the least chance of success, I shall urge the sending from this country an exploring 
expedition to the eight millions of unknown square miles about the South Pole. I 
hope that my letter to you upon the subject was sufficiently clear to satisfy your 
mind, and conclusive to enlist your influence with Her Majesty’s Government and 
the English people in the cause of Antarctic exploration. It is an enterprise in which 
the British nation may well take the lead, for it is nearer to them than to the rest of the 
world. There is Melbourne, your great commercial mart, that is already, in amount 
of shipping, a rival of Liverpool. It is within less than two weeks’ run by steamer 
from the borders of this unknown region. So, you observe that these eight millions 
of unknown square miles lie at your door, and the responsibility of permitting them 
so to lie longer will lie there too, ‘You go; we'll come.” An expedition might 
be sent from Australia with little or no risk. Two propellers, or even two vessels 
with auxiliary steam-power, might be sent out, so as to spend our three winter 
months in looking for a suitable point along the Antarctic Continent to serve as a 
point of departure for over-land, or over-ice parties. Having found one or more 
such places, vessels, properly equipped for land and ice and boat expeditions, might 
be sent the next season, there to remain, seeking to penetrate the barrier, whether 
of mountain or of ice, or both, until the next season, when they might be relieved by 
a fresh party, or return home to compare notes, and be governed accordingly. You 
know the barometer at all those places which have a rainy and a dry season, stands 
highest in the dry, lowest in the wet. Now, I do not find any indications that the 
Antarctic barometer has months of high range: it is low all the year. Therefore— 
if | be right in ascribing the apparent tenuity of the air there to the heat that is 
liberated during the condensation of vapour, from the heavy precipitation that is con- 
stantly taking place along the sea front of those “ barriers ””—we should be correct 
in inferring that the difference in temperature between the Antarctic summer and 
winter is not very marked. If, in a case like this, we might be permitted to indulge 
the imagination, we might fancy the “‘ barrier” to be a circular range of mountains, 
and that beyond these lies the great Antarctic basin. Beyond this range, as beyond 
the Andes, we may fancy a rainless region, as in Peru,—a region of clear skies and 
mild climates. Though the air in passing this range might be reduced below the 
utmost degree of Arctic cold, yet being robbed of its vapour, it would receive as 
sensible the latent heat thereof. Passing off to the Polar slope of these mountains, 
this air then would be dry air; descending into the valleys, and coming under the 
barometric pressure at the surface, it would be warm air. Leslie has explained how, 
by bringing the attenuated air down from the snow-line, even of the tropics,-and 
subjecting it to the barometric weight of the superincumbent mass, we may raise its 
temperature to intertropical heat by the mere pressure. In like manner, this Ant- 
arctic air, though cold and rare while crossing the “ barrier,” yet receiving heat 
from its vapours as they are condensed, passing over into the valleys beyond, and 
being again subjected to normal pressure, may become warm. We have abundant 
illustrations of the modifying influences upon climate which winds exercise after 
having passed mountains and precipitated their vapour. The winds which drop the 
waters of the Columbia river, &c. on the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains, 
make a warm climate about their base on this side, so much so that we find in Pied- 
mont Nebraska the lizards and reptiles of Northern Texas. Indeed, trappers tell me 
that the Upper Missouri is open in fall long after the Lower is frozen up, and in 
spring long before—several weeks—the ice in the more southern parts has broken 
up. The eastern slopes of Patagonia afford even a more striking illustration of 
climates being tempered by winds that descend from the mountains, bearing with them 
the heat that their vapour has set free. Thus you observe, that an exploring party 
after passing the barrier might, as they approach the pole, find the Antarctic climate 
to grow milder instead of colder. It would be rash in the present state of our in- 
formation to assert that such is the case ; but that such may be the case should not 
be ignored by the projectors and leaders of any new expedition to those regions, 
The existence of an open seain the Arctic ocean has, with a great degree of proba- 
bility, been theoretically established. But the circumstances, as strong as they are, 
which favour the existence of an open water there, are not so strong and direct as 
are the proofs and indications of a mild polar climate in the Antarctic regions. I 
have examined the immense library of log-books here for the lines of Antarctic ice- 


46 REPORT—1860. 


drift. There appear to be two, both setting to the north-east, one passing by the 
Falkland Islands, the other having its northern terminus in the regions about the 
Cape of Good Hope. Further south, icebergs are found all around; but in these 
lines of drift they are found nearest the equator. The space between the Falkland 
drift and the Good Hope drift is an unfrequented part of the ocean. It may there- 
fore be one broad drift, the edges of which only I have pointed out, The most active 
currents from the south do not run with this ice. Humboldt’s current is the most 
active, but it does not get its icebergs as far north as they come by these lines. 
This circumstance has suggested the conjecture that one part of the Antarctic Con- 
tinent must be peculiarly well situated for the formation of glaciers and the launching 
of icebergs. These lines of drift point to such a place. The facts stated in my 
former letter will, I trust, when considered in connexion with these views, impress 
you with the importance of the subject. So, trusting, and hoping that you will join 
with me in the cry, ‘ Ho for the South Pole!” 


On the Climates of the Antarctic Regions, as indicated by Observations upon 
the Height of the Barometer and Direction of the Winds at Sea. By 
Captain Maury, U.S. Navy. 

In the course of my labours connected with the wind and current charts, I had 
caused to be grouped 1,213,933 observations upon the direction of the wind at sea. 
Each one of these observations embraces a period «of eight hours, and aims to give 
the prevailing direction of the wind during that time. Thus each individual of my 
group is, in fact, itself the mean of many. ‘The result of the whole is presented 
diazrametrically in Plate I., in which the mean direction of the wind in each belt, 
and for the four quarters, is represented by the arrows correctly, both as to mean 
direction and average duration. 

From the labours of Lieut. Andrau and his colleagues at the Meteorological In- 
stitute of the Netherlands *, I obtained 83,332 observations upon the barometer be- 
tween the parallels of 50° N, and 36° S, at sea. This fine series was enriched by the 
observations at Greenwich, St. Petersburg, and Hobart Town on shore, and by Dr. 
Kane, Sir James Clark Ross, and Lieut. Wilkes at sea, du:ing their Arctic and Ant- 
arctic explorations. From these the barometric profile of the atmosphere (Plate I.) 
was constructed. 

The barometric observations on shore were not found in all cases to accord with 
those at sea. Moreover, those of Wilkes and Ross were the means of observations 
for only a few days. 

Our ‘ Marine Magazine,’ as the precious store of abstract logs may be called, con- 
tained many more, and which, by their great numbers, and in consequence of their 
having been made at all seasons of the year, would afford better mean results. In 
extension of Andrau’s series, I therefore added 6915, between the parallels of 40° 
and 60° south, from the log-books of this office. These, Andrau’s, and Dr. Kane’s 
in the ice, form the elements of the Barometric Curve, Plate II. 

Proceeding upon the supposition that, with regard to the general movements and 
the mean status of the atmosphere, we should have at sea the rule, on land the ex- 
ceptions, I commenced to group these observations for discussion. 

As the North Indian Ocean, the China and West India seas, where the monsoons 
blow, are known to present exceptional cases to the general movements of the winds 
at sea, the observations for them were excluded from the general summing up. 

Thus premising, the winds were taken from the pilot charts and grouped in belts 
5° of latitude broad. As a rule, the vessels that are cooperating with us seldom go 
on the Polar side of 60° north or south; for our fleet of observers consists for the 
most part of merchantmen, whom the channels of trade do not carry beyond these 
parallels; consequently the observations of the winds were arranged in 24 belts 
(12 on each side of the Equator) ; all the observations between the Equator and 
5° north, for example, being in one belt; and so on for every 5° of latitude. 

Now, considering that the general movements of the atmosphere, as exhibited by 


* Maandelijksche Zeilaanwijzingen van Java naar Het Kanaal. Als Uitkomsten Weten- 
schap en Ervaring Aangaande Winden en zeestroomingen in sommige Gedeelten van den 
Oceaan Uitgegeven Dour Het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorologische Instituut. Utrecht, 
1859. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47 


the winds at sea, are to and fro between the Equator and the Poles, all these obser- 
vations were arranged in two groups for each belt, and classed either as winds with 


northing, or as winds with southing, in them, as per Table, showing the average 
annual duration in days of winds. 


Winds with Northing, and Winds with Southing in them. 


Northern Hemisphere. Southern Hemisphere. 
Belts. No. of | Northing. | Southing. | Excess in days. || No, of | Northing. | Southing. | Excess in days. 
observa-|——— |__| ——__—_— ] obs erva-, ——__, —_______}—_______—_ 
tions. Days, Days, North. | South. || tions. Days. Days. | North. | South. 
Between 
0° & 5° | 67,829 79 268 w= | 189° || 72,945 83 269 .. | 186 
5&10 | 36,841 158 183 stele 25 || 54,648 72 283 Pregclten | 
10 & 15 | 27,339) 278 73 | 205 43,817 82 275 Sep 193 
15 & 20 | 33,103} 273 9] 182 46,604 9] 266 aoe 175 
20 & 25 |44,527| 246 106 | 140 66,395} 128 227 ve 99 
25 & 30 | 68,777) 185 163 22 66,635 147 208 rae 61 
30 &35 | 62,514) 155 195 “ah 40 || 76,254; 150 204 ies 54 
35 & 40 | 41,233) 173 179 a 6 107231) 178 178 0 0 
40 & 45 | 33,252) 163 186 oe 23 || 63,669) 202 155 47 
45 & 50 | 29,461 164 189 aaa 25 || 29,132) 209 148 61 
50 &55 |41,570) 148 203 oas 55 || 14,286) 208 151 57 
55 & 60 [17,874 142 213 308 71 =|13,617} 224 132 92 


6 Ey SPLIT LE AE eS 


{t thus appears that we have, as we already well knew, in each hemisphere a 
medial belt—a barometric ridge in the air—from which the prevailing direction of the 
wind on one side is towards the Equator, and from the other towards the Pole. In 
the southern hemisphere this ridge is sharp, being included between the parallels of 
35° and 40°; in the northern hemisphere, however, it seems to be less sharply de- 
fined, for the debateable ground, or helt, within which neither wind appears to have 
a very marked ascendency as to prevalence, extends from lat. 25° to 50° N. 

Proceeding from these belts towards the Equator, equatorial-bound winds become 
more and more prevalent ; or if we proceed towards the Pole, the polar-bound winds 
become more and more prevalent, — thus indicating the existence both near the 
Equator and in the polar regions of a permanent degree of aérial rarefaction suf- 
ficient to produce an indraught from a medial line or belt towards each. 

To ascertain the degree of rarefaction about the Poles, as far as the observations on 
the barometer at sea would indicate a result, the Barometric Curve (Plate Il.) was 
constructed from the data expressed in this Table, showing 


The Mean Height of the Barometer. 


No. of ob-|/  ratitude. |Barometer,| No- of ob- 
servations,|| servations. 


a 


Oto 5N/ 29-915 | 5114 || Oto $s.| 29-940 | 3692 

5 to 10 ,,| 29922 | 5343 || 5to10,,| 29-981 | 3924 

10 to 15 ,,| 29964 | 4496 ||10t015 ,| 30-028 | 4156 
15 to 20 ,,| 30-018 | 3592 ||15 to 20 ,.| 30060 | 4248 
20 to 25 ,,| 30081 | 3816 |/20 to 25 ,,/ 30-102 | 4536 
25 to 30 ,,| 30149 | 4392 || 25 to 30 .,| 30.095 | 4780 
30 to 35 ,,| 30-210 | 4989 ||30to 36 .,| 30052 | 6970 
35 to 40 ,,| 30124 | 5103 || 40 to 43 || 29-88 1703 
40 to 45 ,,| 30-077 | 5899 || 43 to 45 || 29-78 1130 
45 to 50 ,,| 30060 | 8282 || 45 to 48 ,,| 29°63 1174 
78° 37’ ,,| 29:759 |Dr. Kanel| 48 to 50 ,,| 29°62 672 

50 to 53 ,,| 29-48 665 

53 to 55 ,,| 29°36 475 
563 ,,| 29:29 1126 


| Latitude. (Barometer. 


It would seem from this curve, which by its regularity shows the observations at 


48 REPORT—1860. 


sea to be remarkably accordant, that the atmosphere is much more attenuated in 
austral than in boreal regions; and that the high barometer, with the light airs 
and baffling winds of the tropical calm belts, is the dividing atmospherical ridge, so 
to speak, between the low barometer about the Pole on one side and near the Equator 
on the other; and that the position of this ridge is determined by the degree of 
polar in contrast with the degree of equatorial rarefaction. The trade-winds rushing 
in on one side, and the counter trades on the other—as the polar-bound winds may 
be called—supply the indraught for these places of attenuated air and low baro- 
meter. 

It thus appears that the equatorial calm belt is a sort of thermal adjustment be- 
tween the calms of Cancer and Capricorn; which in turn are in adjustment to the 
dynamical power of the ascending columns of air in the equatorial and polar calm 

laces. 

The low barometer off Cape Horn has long attracted the attention of navigators. 
The low barometer in other longitudes south caused Wilkes, Ross, and others, to 
remark upon the diminished pressure in high southern latitudes, and upon the ap- 
parent inequality in the distribution of the atmosphere north and south of the 
Equator. 

The barometric observations between 40° and- 60° South, and which are quoted 
in the preceding Table, were collected in three groups—first, from the logs between 
the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, next from Australia to 80° West, and then 
about Cape Horn. The result showed that a low barometer is not peculiar to Cape 
Horn regions, but that it is general and circumferential in austral latitudes, dimi- 
nishing rapidly as we approach the Pole. 

The great extent of the austral water surface, with the vapour with which it 
keeps the “ brave west winds” of these regions loaded, and the heat which with the 
condensation of these vapours is liberated there, suggests the cause of this low 
barometer. 

If it be the vapour and the liberation of its latent heat that cause the permanent 
expulsion from Antarctic regions of so much of the atmosphere as this curve and 
these observations indicate, then should we not follow the argument up, and infer 
that the extreme cold of the Antarctic climate is by no means so seyere as that of the 
north? 

The unexplored regions of the south embrace an area of more than eight million 
square miles, or about one-sixth of the whole extent of the dry land surface that is 
contained on our planet. 

Since the attempts to penetrate those unknown regions, steam has been intro- 
duced upon the ocean, and the modern explorer has at his command a power which 
enables him to defy wind and tide. Hygiene on board ship has been so improved, 
that the sailor may now keep the sea for almost an indefinite period of time. The 
invention, the discoveries, and the improvements of the age, place in our hands the 
means of fitting out Antarctic expeditions, and of endowing them with powers that 
would have made any previous expedition there doubly effective. 

Under these circumstances, would it not be areproach upon the Christian nations, 
and especially upon those great governments who have agreed to unite ina common 
plan of physical research at sea, if so large a portion of the earth’s surface were 
permitted to remain unexplored ? 

Plate III. shows the furthest reach of Antarctic exploration. The tracks of Ant- 
arctic explorers, from Cook down to the present day, go to make up these limits. 

It is not the object of this paper to elaborate the views suggested by the observations 
offered with this paper; but rather to present the observations themselves, with 
such explanation as seemed necessary to enable others to understand them. 

If I have succeeded in doing this, all who will take the trouble to study them will 
find them very suggestive. M. F. Maury. 

Observatory, Washington, 11th May, 1860. 


On the Cause of the Descent of Glaciers. By the Rev. Henry Mose tey, 
F-.R.S., Canon of Bristol, Inst. Imp. Se. Paris Corresp. 


The fact of the descent of a body, when placed upon an inclined plane, due to the 


Plate 1. 


1 : 420 inch —1 month 
ith the wind ) eS 


— \ No indy = da, do, 


30 Report British Association, 1960. 


¢ 
ETN 
Polar 


REAS 


7 
6 Coute 
Ae 


ny Te NS 


Oe 


to 


ei TRON 
Netrait Wir ie ea 
oo 


~ 


Yeo tide <1 month 


Mio indy =o. do 


[ 
\ 


WS 
< 
> 
S 
> 
= 
& 
LL 
= 
ms 
S) 
w 
= 
= 
S 

{ 
S 
z 
~ 
& 
= 
S 
™_~ 
ee 

=) 
% 
& 
BS 
Pa) 
SS 
a) 
~ 
~ 
S 
S 
: 


itis Association, 1860. 


30% Report British Association, 1860. 


J a A 
REGI 


Plate 


3. 


OG 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49 


variations in its temperature, first observed in the descent of the lead which covers 
the south side of the choir of Bristol Cathedral, and communicated by me to the 
Royal Society in the year 1855, I have since confirmed by the following experi- 
ment. I fixed a deal board, 9 feet long and 5 inches broad, to the south side of my 
house, so as to form an inclined plane, and upon it placed a sheet of lead, turning 
its edges down over the edges of the board, and taking care that it should not bind 
upon it, but be free to move with no other obstruction than that which arose from 
its friction. The inclination of the board was 18° 32’, the thickness of the lead was 
one-eighth of an inch, and its weight 28 lbs. The lower end of the board was 
brought opposite to an upper window, and a “ vernier’’ was constructed which 
could be read from within, and by which the position of the lead upon the board 
could be determined to the 100th of aninch. I began to measure the descent of the 
lead on the 16th of February, 1858, and recorded it every morning between seven 
and eight o’clock, and every evening between six and seven until the 28th of June. 
The lead had descended between the 16th of February and the 30th of April (a 
period of seventy-four days) 10°61 inches, being an average daily descent of °1433 
inch. On the 4th of May it was drawn up the board again to its first position. 
Between that date and the 28th of June (a period of fifty-five days) it had descended 
11°97 inches, being an average daily descent of -2176 inch. Its descent was far 
from uniform, being on some days scarcely (if at all) perceptible, and on others 
amounting to nearly half aninch. The average daily descents in successive months 
from February to June were in 
inch. 
ODRUALY (¢: &graiejs-e-eroleln's 10; thele.0\ i clale eisiaielefeyelsi sien “LOOOO 
IVEAECH si avn, s\exaheieisre(sYeisiwioie, ele 'aloereaiciefeialre ini sen etF SOOG 
SNSUILesracele sie cecelm inate elmtoisrshate tole slvisieterstots aieieteintesll Otley. 
Rg dg arecayale Cues wcbsa a Genre clas “emia Soke es HEL 
pUAATD Gis «quo bs alada Feb ated evale: oxaieyerairass rola! ale. aro: oftttasat abs tere to ea ee 


Every variation in the temperature of the lead contributed to its descent. The 
extreme temperatures of the day and the night could not therefore determine its 
daily motion ; for with the same extremes of day and night temperature, there may 
be great differences in the number and amount of the intervening variations of tem- 
perature. It is the effect of these daily variations of temperature, up and down, by 
which the descent of the lead totalizes. Although, therefore, we are to look for the 
influence of the extremes of day and night temperature upon the daily descent, we 
are also to look for that of the variations between each two extremes. I accordingly 
remarked that it was on days when a thermometer in the sun varied its height 
rapidly and often, that the lead descended most. On the contrary, when the sky 
was open and the heat advanced and receded uniformly, the descent was less, although 
the difference of the extreme temperatures might be greater. It was least of all 
when there was continuous rain. During the night the descent of the lead was 
often imperceptible. I have explained the descent of the lead in a paper published 
in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society’ for April 1855. 

If we suppose the sheet of lead to become ice, and its dimensions to be incfeased 
20,000 times, and if for the board on which it rests we substitute a mountain side lying 
at a slope of 183°, we shall have a glacier 14 mile broad, 200 feet deep and 34 miles 
long, and which in no other respect than as it regards its length will be an exaggera- 
tion. By converting the lead into ice, its physical properties will, however, have been 
in some important particulars changed. It will have become twice as dilatable as lead 
is, that is, it will dilate twice as much by a given variation of temperature when un- 
opposed as lead does*. It will have become a more elastic substance than lead is, that 
is, it will be capable of overcoming a greater force opposed to its dilatation under a 
given change of temperature. It will have lost its ductility and have become friable, 
that is, its parts will have become more liable to separation from one another and 
its mass to disintegration. But, together with the last-mentioned quality, it will 
have acquired the property (called regelation) of easily, and under a moderate press- 
ure, returning from a state of disintegration to one of solidity; which qualities of 


* See the experiments of Schumacher at Pultowa, as detailed in the paper of W. Struve, 
“ Sur la dilatation de la Glace,” Mém. de l’Académie de St. Pétersbourg, ser. 6. tom. iv. 1848. 
1860. 4: 


50 REPORT—1860. 


friability and regelation have been shown by the experiments of Professor Tyndall 
to be sufficient (the requisite force ‘‘a tergo’’ being supposed) to account for its 
crushing its way through contractions in its channel, and reconstructing itself at the 
bottom of ice-cataracts. Now such a glacier, if it be supposed penetrable to external 
heat as lead is, could not but descend as lead does. In its descent portions of it 
would be thrust forward and compressed, and others would be dragged behind and 
crevassed. The melting of the lower part of such a glacier would favour its descent 
as compared with the lead whose mass remains unchanged. All these conditions 
might, however, be influenced by variations in the form of its channel and the incli- 
nation of its bed. Its motion would be like that of a snail clinging, but descending. 

The whole question, however, depends upon the penetrability of the glacier to 
external heat. On this point we have the high authority of Professor Forbes, 
founded on three series of observations on the motions of the Mer de Glace and the 
Glaciers des Bossons and des Bois. Of these observations, made in the summers of 
1842 and 1844, he has recorded the results in his ‘Travels in Savoy’ (2nd ed. 
p. 141), and in his recent work entitled ‘On the Theory of Glaciers’ (p. 131) ; and 
he has compared them with the mean daily temperatures of the air as recorded at 
Geneva and the Great St. Bernard. He has, moreover, represented the relation 
between the average daily motions of these glaciers, and the average daily tempera- 
tures of the air at the corresponding periods by means of diagrams, which it is im- 
possible to look at, however cursorily, without being struck with the fact (not to be 
better expressed than in the words of Mr. Forbes himself), that they establish a 
“close relation between the mean temperature of any portion of the year, and the 
velocity of the glacier corresponding to it*.’’ Moreover, it is not only on the sur- 
face of the glacier that this relation may be considered to have been observed. The 
glacier moves with different velocities at different depths; but all are related to its 
surface motion, so that the influence of variations of temperature, if felt on its sur- 
face, must penetrate throughout its depth. Being dilatable as lead is (but in a 
higher degree), and being thus shown to be sensible to variations of temperature 
throughout its mass, it cannot but descend as lead under the like circumstances does. 
Every variation of temperature, however slight, cannot but produce a corresponding 
descent, and such small variations, often enough repeated, might produce a descent, 
however great, even although at each change the glacier returned to the same tem- 
perature. The oscillation of the heat backwards and forwards is all that is required. 
For the purpose of this argument, the fact that a relation exists between the motion 
of a glacier and the external temperature is all that is required. It is not necessary 
to enter on a discussion of the causes out of which that relation arises. 


On Meteorological Observations for 1859, made at Huggate, Yorkshire, East 
hiding. By the Rev. T. Rankin. 


This communication was in continuation of similar observations and general 
remarks furnished, by the same author, to the Association for upwards of twenty 
years. ; 


On Thermo-barometers, compared with Barometers at great Heights. 
By M. R. de ScuitacintWEIr. 

M. Robert de Schlagintweit communicated some of the results which he had de- 
duced from comparisons of the boiling-point with direct barometric readings. These 
observations, taken by his brothers and himself during their journeys in India, the 
Himalaya, &c., at various heights and different periods, were chiefly made to test by 
direct experiments the correctness of the tables of the boiling-point of water corre- 
sponding to barometric pressure, of which the latest and the most detailed ones are 
those of Magnus, Regnault, and Moritz. 

Direct observations had been previously made in India, particularly by Colonel 


Sykes-; in America, Mr. Wisse made such experiments up to 14,000 feet; in High — 


Asia, Messrs. de Schlagintweit had occasion to carry on such observations up to 
heights exceeding 18,600 feet. 
A resulting Table of comparison was presented, an examination of which showed 


* Forbes, Theory of Glaciers, p. 130. 


3 
7 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 51 


that, for all practical purposes, the tables quoted above are quite accurate enough, 
though for great heights, they contain an error; the correction to be applied is 
small, and additive. The instruments with which Messrs. de Schlagintweit made 
their observations, were expressly made for the purpose; they ranged from 100° Cels. 
to 78° Cels., but had a length of 1 foot 9 inches, so that it was possible to divide 
each degree into fifty parts directly. M. de Schlagintweit drew attention to the 
accuracy of the results obtainable by these delicate thermo-barometers, which, as 
far as his experience goes, he considered to be quite comparable to the barometer, if 
used with all the necessary precautions, though for daily variations the barometer 
is preferable on account of the greater facility of reading. The circumstance that 
the thermo-barometer is much less liable to get out of order, makes it a most valu- 
able instrument for travellers. 


Messrs. de Schlagintweit’s Comparison of Boiling-pomts. 


Simultaneous baro- 
metric readings. 


Thermos! ' 
Name of the place of Wearand Dates barometer Millims. bd Fg 
observation, readings, es reduced to C. degrees. 
C. degrees. sah oiling |" 
8 point, 
C. degrees, 


Group I.—100° to 96°: Correction —0°-09 of the Thermo-barometer*. 


oO ° ° 
RAMU rete evisccnnr sce s TSG PAP Messen asa 97-99 7046 97:90 | —0:09 
BORGEDDE NG ccs -cict eset is ozsnes 1855, Sept. 12 ......... 96°84 675°7 96-75 | —0:09 
AARON Es racs 7a cers ve oes 1855, Sept. 12 ......... 96:73 6735 96:66 | —0:07 
RORAMMACH 0... scec cee escere es 1855, Sept. 15 ......... 95°85 652°9 95:81 | —0-04 
PORAMATD 50. sis sce ececaeces 1855, Sept. 16 ......... 95°85 651-7 95:76 | —0:09 
Group II.—95:99 to 94: Correction — 0°10 of the Thermo-barometer. 
EHOSIMALH .......csscersre- 1855, Sept. 9 iiveses-sn 94:06 610°4 93:99 | —0:07 
BEMOUKESEL,......0.00050004- 1855, Sept.8 .......<-.-« 93:99 | 6082 | 93:39 | —010 
MHOSIMAtH so... se... 1855, Sept. 9 ............ 93°98 607-0 93°84 | —0:14 
Gaurikind) <3.6.6..6..c8is0s 1855, Sept. 24 ......... 93:78 | 6033 | 93°67 | —O-11 
IGBNTIKUNA). S60. 05.s..ce.. 1855, Sept. 23 ......... 93:73 | 601-2 | 93:58 | —O-15 
Garand .........06.00c00- 1855, Sept. 19 ......... 93°64 601:0 93°57 | —0:07 
RUIUTALN Maio nis ceis's «a sis'eic'enels 1855, Sept. 29) .:.....-: 93:13 5873 92:95 | —0-18 
BAM Abs aca ncdstshcsevosecens. 1856, April 12 ......... 93-00 585°7 92:88 | —0-12 
Trichugi Narain............ 1855, Sept. 24 ......... 92:96 585-2 92°86 | —0:10 
Group III.—93:99 to 92: Correction—0°11 of the Thermo-barometer. 
IMIMASAUTA ......0650.000000- 1855, Sept. 28 ......... 90:76 | 537-9 | 9062 | —0-14 
Badrinath ..........0s00000 1855, Sept. 7 ....ss00000 90:20 5275 90:10 | —0:10 
PSBOTINAE « cass0 00 55<e0 ste. 1855, Sept. 5 ......0..05 90:18 526°6 90:06 | —0-12 
PSAUTINALN 4... 20000200s00e ees 1855, Sept. 6 ...........- 90°12 5256 90:01 | —O11 
Mangu Pass «............... 1855, Sept. 26 ......... 89°87 520-0 89:73 | —014 
“UN Baghageiocssdancteasa-ade 1855, Aug. 28..........-. 89°85 519-1 89:69 | —0-16 
Group IV.—91:99 to 90: Correction—0°'12 of the Thermo-barometer. 
sdarnath ..2...sasreseeivs- 1855, Sept. 20 .. ...... 88°68 498°] 88:61 | —0:07 
BEPOENALL ev cxddcvyis wae 1855, Sept. 20 ......... 88-67 497°8 88:59 | —0-08 
METI 5, ovocnesecesposie 1855, June 11............ 87:66 | 477:2 87:49 | —017 
REPU ors cise): pap ciaaan'en 1855, June 14,........... 86:70 | 459°6 86:53 | —017 
CUETO ASRS nse VSa5), Ulva worse scores: 84:72 4259 84:58 | —014 
Group V.—89-99 to 81: Correction —0°13 of the Thermo-barometer. 
PPUGAMIN: wiciciaesaesvees 1856, Aug. 16.........45 83-02 | 397-7 | 82:85 | —0-17 
PEMTEPASS: 5.)..csicdseevaernee 1855; July lOve. wrens 82-20 385°5 82:07 | —0-13 
HOMME ASS a scicsscsisesnee’ USS5 Alu yi Dy agave sores - 82°16 385°5 82:07 | —009 
Jbi Gamin Pass............ 1855, Aug. 18............ 81:56 | 375°6 81-42 | —0-14 


* The corrections of the thermo-barometer, given at the different groups, are values 
obtained by fundamental determinations. These determinations will be given in detail in 
yol. ii. of Messrs. de Schlagintweit’s ‘ India and High Asia,’ 1861. 


— 


4% 


59 REPORT—1860. 


On Practical Experience of the Law of Storms in each Quarter of the Gilobe. 
By Captain W. Parker Snow. 


From practical experience in several parts of the globe, Captain Snow confirmed 
the soundness of the theory of the Law of Storms brought forward by Admiral 
FitzRoy. In one place, well known to the Admiral, viz. the tempestuous seas about 
Cape Horn, he, Capt. Snow, had cruised for two years without the smallest damage 
to his vessel, and this owing to the attention he ever paid to those laws of nature 
in connexion with wind movements. 

On another occasion, off the coast of Australia, he preserved his little ship, by 
similar attention, in a terrific gale, when at the same time several other vessels were 
wrecked. He well remembered how his chief officer derided the idea of any storm 
theory being true, and, when referred to Reid and other stormists, said he had never 
heard of them, and did not believe in what they might say. But that same night 
the mate was convinced when the gale took the turn predicted by the captain. 

One more occasion Capt. Snow would refer to. Hewas coming home as passen- 
ger in asailing ship ; it was in the end of 1856. Within a few days’ sail from England 
a cyclone came down upon them. Clearly it was passing ahead, and Capt. Snow 
advised his brother captain to adopt those measures which prudence then suggested, 
and allow the centre to go by. After some argument this was done; but, to con- 
vince the master of the ship, Capt. Snow said that the correctness of his view of the 
case then, would be proved by the direction of the wind at that time in the South of 
England, which should be opposite to what they had it. Four days afterwards they 
took a pilot, and ascertained it to have been exactly so. 


Nore.—The above is merely the substance of remarks made when Admiral FitzRoy read 
his paper. They form the outline of what was read on a following day, by Captain Snow, 
when he entered upon details. 


Results of an Investigation into the Phenomena of English Thunder-storms 
during the years 1857-59. By G. J. Symons. . 


This paper contained an analysis of 1889 observations made in various parts of 
England during the three years ending December 31st, 1859. 

The average number of days on which thunder-storms occurred at one or more 
stations was 121, the number of days in each month being— 


JAMUANY? ier ot ele SiApril Jeeee. «oe 2i July). ete clove LS) \Octobercernent nO 
February....:. 2|May.......+. 18} August...... 14} November..... 6 
March........ 6|June.........-20|September... | 12|December,<.... 5 


The effect of thunder-storms on the various meteorological instruments was exa- 
. mined and described, special attention being drawn to those sudden oscillations of the 
barometer which occur during the height of a storm, and which have been found by 
_ Mr. Eaton, of Little Bridy, to be contemporaneous with tidal disturbances. The 
shape, colour, and disruptive force of lightning were also treated in detail, the 
| frequency with which it assumes a globular form being proved by the number of 
' eases in which it is so described: the determination of colour was not perfectly 
' satisfactory; the returns taken generally show that forked lightning is usually blue, 
sheet lightning being, on the contrary, white. Mr Symons, however, supposes that 
the colour may vary with the distance of the discharge from the observer, with the 
density of the air through which it passes, and with the existence or non-existence of 
other sources of illumination; but the subject is quite open to investigation: the 
disruptive force was shown to be often equal to a dead weight of 500 tons. 

The advantage of employing the gutters and rain-water pipes of private houses — 
as lightning conductors, by establishing perfect communication with the earth, and 
at the same time carrying a short rod from the gutter up the side of the chimneys, — 
was discussed ; the author’s opinion being that, although far from a perfect arrange- — 
ment, it would determine the discharge to the outside of the house rather than 
inside, its most frequent course; and from its trifling cost it seems more adapted for 
general use than the expensive forms hitherto employed. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53 


Notes on Atmospheric Electricity. 
By Professor Witttam Tuomson, LL.D., F.R.S, 


Two water-dropping collectors for atmospheric electricity were prepared, and 
placed, one at a window of the Natural Philosophy Lecture-room, and the other at 
a window of the College Tower of the University of Glasgow. A divided ring- 
electrometer was used at the last-mentioned station; an electrometer adapted for 
absolute measurement, nearly in the form now constructed as an ordinary house elec- 
trometer, was used in the lecture-room. Four students of the Natural Philosophy 
Class, Messrs. Lorimer, Lyon, M‘Kerrow, and Wilson, after having persevered in 
preliminary experiments and arrangements, from the month of November, devoted 
themselves with much ardour and constancy during February, March, and April to 
the work of observation. During periods of observation, at various times of day, 
early and late, measurements were completed and recorded every quarter-minute 
or every half-minute; the continual variations of the phenomenon rendering soli- 
tary observations almost nugatory. During several hours each day simultaneous 
observation was carried on on this plan at the two stations. A comparison of the 
results manifested often great discordance, and never complete agreement. It was 
thus ascertained that electrification of the air, if not of solid particles in the air 
(which have no claim to exclusive consideration in this respect), between the two 
stations and round them, at distances from them not very great in comparison with 
their mutual distance, was largely operative in the observed phenomena. It was 
generally found that after the indications had been negative for some time at both 
stations, the transition to positive took place earlier by several minutes at the 
tower station (upper) than at the lecture-room (lower). Sometimes during several 
minutes, preceded and followed by positive indications, there were negative indica- 
tions at the lower, while there were only positive at the upper. In these cases the 
circumambient air must have contained negative (or resinous) electricity. A hori- 
zontal stratum of air several hundred feet thick overhead, if containing as much 
positive electricity per cubic foot as there must have been of negative per cubic foot 
of the air about the College buildings on those occasions, would produce electrical 
manifestations at the earth’s surface similar in character and amount to those ordi- 
narily observed during fair weather. 

Beccaria has remarked on the rare occurrence of negative atmospheric indications 
during fair weather, of which he can only record six during a period of fifteen years 
of very persevering observation by himself and the Prior Ceca. On some, if not 
all of those occasions, there was a squally and variable wind, changing about rapidly 
between N.E. and N.W. On several days of unbroken fair weather in April and 
May of the present year the atmospheric indication was negative during short periods, 
and on each occasion there was a sudden change of wind, generally from N.E. to 
N.W., W., or S.W. For instance, on the 3rd of May, after a warm, sunny, and very 
dry day, with a gentle N.E. breeze and slight easterly haze in the air, I found about 
8°30 p.m. the expected positive atmospheric indication. After dark (nearly an hour 
later) it was so calm that I was able to carry an unprotected candle into the open 
air and make an observation with my portable electrometer. To my surprise I 
found a somewhat strong negative indication, which I observed for several minutes, 
Although there was no sensible wind in the locality where I stood*, I perceived by 
the line of smoke from a high chimney at some distance that there was a decided 
breeze from W. or S.W. A little later a gentle S.W. wind set in all round, and 
with the aid of a lantern I found strong positive indications, which continued as long 
as I observed. During all this time the sky was cloudy, or nearly so. That re- 
versed electric indications should often be observed about the time of a change of 
wind, may be explained with a considerable degree of probability, thus :— 

The lower air up to some height above the earth must in general be more or less 
electrified with the same kind of electricity as that of the earth’s surface, since this 
reaches a high degree of intensity on every tree-top and vegetable fibre, and must 
therefore cause always more or less of the phenomenon, which becomes conspicuous 
as the “‘ light of Castor and Pollux,’’ known to the ancients, or the “fire of St. 
Elmo” described by modern sailors in the Mediterranean, and which consists of a 


* About six miles south of Glasgow 


54 REPORT—1 860. 


flow of electricity of the kind possessed by the earth into the air. Hence, in fair 
weather the lower air must be negative, although the atmospheric potential, even close 
to the earth’s surface, is still generally positive. But if a considerable area of this 
lower stratum is carried upwards into a column over any locality by wind blowing 
inwards from different directions, its effect may for a time predominate, and give rise 
to a negative potential in the air and a positive electrification of the earth’s surface. 

If this explanation is correct, a whirlwind (such as is often experienced on a small 
scale in hot weather) must diminish, and may reverse the ordinary positive indication. 

Since the beginning of the present month I have had two or three opportunities of 

observing electrical indications, with my portable electrometer, during day thunder- 
storms. I commenced the observation on each occasion after having heard thunder, 
and I perceived frequent impulses on the needle which caused it to vibrate, indicating 
sudden changes of electric potential at the place where I stood. I could connect the 
larger of these impulses with thunder heard some time later, with about the same de- 
gree of certainty as the brighter flashes of lightning during a thunder-storm by night 
are usually recognized as distinctly connected with distinct peals of thunder. By 
counting time I estimated the distance of the discharge, not nearer on any occasion 
than about four or five miles. There were besides many smaller impulses, and most 
frequently I observed several of these between one of the larger and the thunder with 
which I connected it. The frequency of these smaller disturbances, which sometimes 
kept the needle in a constant state of flickering, often prevented me from identifying 
the thunder in connexion with any particular one of the impulses I had observed. 
They demonstrated countless discharges, smaller or more distant than those that gave 
rise to audible thunder. On none of these occasions have I seen any lightning. 
The absolute potential at the position of the burning match was sometimes positive 
and sometimes negative ; and the sudden change demonstrated by the impulses on 
the needle were, so far as I could judge, as often augmentations of positive or dimi- 
nutions of negative, as diminutions of positive or augmentations of negative. This 
afternoon, for instance (Thursday, June 28), I heard several peals of thunder, and I 
found the usual abrupt changes indicated by the electrometer. For several minutes 
the absolute potential was small positive with two or three abrupt changes to some- 
what strong positive, falling back to weak positive, and gathering again to a discharge. 
This was precisely what the same instrument would have shown anywhere within a 
few yards of an electrical machine turned slowly so as to cause a slow succession of 
sparks from its prime conductor to a conductor connected with the earth. 

I have repeatedly observed the electric potential in the neighbourhood of a loco- 
motive engine, at work ona railway, sometimes by holding the portable electrometer 
out of a window of one of the carriages of a train, sometimes by using it while stand- 
ing on the engine itself, and sometimes while standing on the ground beside the line. 
I have thus obtained consistent results, to the effect that the steam from the funnel 
was always negative, and the steam from the safety-valve always positive. I have 
observed extremely strong effects of each class from carriages even far removed from 
the engine. I have found strong negative indications in the air after an engine had 
disappeared round a curve, and its cloud of steam had dissolved out of sight. 

In almost every part of a large manufactory, with steam-pipes passing through 
them for various heating purposes, I have found decided indications of positive elec- 
tricity. In most of these localities there was some slight escape of high pressure 
steam, which appeared to be the origin of the positive indications. 

These phenomena seem in accordance with Faraday’s observations on the electricity 
of steam, which showed high pressure steam escaping into the air to be in general. 
positive, but that it was negative when it carried globules of oil along with it. 


Note on the Dispersion of the Planes of Polarization of the Coloured Rays 
produced by the Action of Magnetism. By M. Vervet, Paris. 

The researches in which I have been for some years engaged upon the magnetic 
relations of the plane of polarization, discovered as we all know by Mr. Faraday, 
have naturally led me to examine how these relations vary with the nature, or, using 
theoretical language, with the length of the undulation, of the light. The experi- 
mental method which I have employed is the general method introduced into science 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55 


by MM. Fizeau and Foucault, which consists in decomposing the white light after 
it has traversed the apparatus in which it-has suffered a certain modification ; and 
in examining how this modification varies from one extremity to the other of the 
spectrum thus obtained, selecting especially, for the numerical measure of the rela- 
tive effect, the seven principal rays which Fraunhofer has defined, and the length 
of those undulations he has determined. As the exact determination of the position 
of a plane of polarization requires that the light shall have a certain intensity, I have 
been obliged to confine myself to measuring the relations of beams which correspond 
with five rays, C, D, E, F and G. 

As in my previous researches, in order to operate upon certain bodies well de- 
fined and easily reproduced, I have always experimented upon liquids, contained in 
tubes closed at their extremities by transparent plates ; placing these tubes in the 
interior of a strong electro-magnetic coil, and so arranged that their two ends shall 
sufficiently pass the edges of the coil, to obviate the necessity of taking into account 
the action which the transparent plates themselves might exercise on polarized light. 
But under these conditions the employment of a powerful current was rendered ab- 
solutely necessary by the feebleness of the phenomena; and the nature of the experi- 
ments requiring that each liquid should remain for a long time under observation, 
an elevation of temperature was produced which easily reached 50° or 60° Centigrade, 
and which produced a contraction of the rotations observed, which it was very diffi- 
cult to correct. 

The only way of avoiding this source of error, was to place the tube containing the 
liquid in an annular collar continually traversed by a stream of cold water within 
the electro-magnetic coil,—a considerable complication to the apparatus. 

The coil which I employed was not less than 45 centimetres in length, 15 centi- 
metres in internal, and 30 centimetres in external diameter. It contained more than 
80 kilogrammes of copper wire 2°25 millimetres in diameter, and was set in action 
by a Bunsen’s battery of twenty or thirty elements. 

I have not yet quite finished my experiments, but I am now in a position to esta- 
blish one result, which does not appear to me to be unworthy of being communi- 
cated to the Association. M. Wiedemann, in a note published in 1851, believed that 
he might deduce from a small series of experiments, that if one submitted to the 
action of magnetism a substance capable of itself of turning the plane of polarization, 
such as the spirit of turpentine or essential oil of lemon, the rotation proper to the 
substance and the magnetic rotation were proportional to one another through all 
the colours of the spectrum. In order to submit toa decisive proof this law, which 
would be, were it true, of immense theoretical importance, I have just examined an 
extreme case, that of tartaric acid. We know that solutions of this acid induce in 
the planes of polarization rotations which do not increase from the red to the violet, 
as in ordinary cases, but which present in the interior of the spectrum a maximum 
whose exact position varies with the strength of the solution. Were the relations 
admitted by M. Wiedemann correct, the magnetic rotations of tartaric acid should 
present the same anomaly. My experiments have, however, proved, on the contrary, 
that the magnetic rotations in different solutions of this acid always increase from 
the red to the violet. There is no essential relation between the two orders of phe- 
nomena, as there is no analogy between their causes. 

On the other hand, my experiments show how the two phenomena may have ap-= 
peared in some cases proportional. They show, in fact, that in all cases the mag- 
netic rotations of the plane of polarization increase very rapidly from the red to the 
violet, but that the product of the rotations by the square of the length of the un- 
dulations, increase very slowly between the same limits; and one recognizes in this 
announcement, that which experiment has long ago demonstrated in most of the 
natural rotatory powers. 


Results of Self-registering Hygrometers. By E. Vivian, M.A., Torquay. 
Mr. Vivian reported to this Section a series of observations made with his new 
self-registering hygrometers, which were first exhibited before the Association at its 
Cheltenham meeting. One is a combination of the ordinary wet and dry bulb and 
the differential thermometers, registering the maximum and minimnm, or range during 


56 REPORT—1860. 


any period ; the other, by the continuous precipitation of the vapour from alcohol, re- 
cords the mean amount of difference between the wet and dry bulbs. The curves laid 
down from these instruments varied very greatly from that of the ordinary observa- 
tions at 9 a.m. The instruments are very simple, and not capable of derangement. 
Curves were also exhibited showing the character of the climate of Torquay during 
a long series of years, from observations periodicaily communicated to the Registrar- 
General. The comparison with the average of other places in England showed the 
climate of South Devon to be very much more equable, both in regard to temperature 
and humidity. The summers are as much cooler as the winters are more mild. 

The fall of rain is rather greater, but the number of wet days is less. Other curves 
exhibited the degree of confidence to be placed in the barometer in prognosticating 
changes in the weather, and the influence of the moon, which was only discoverable 
in the more disturbed state of the atmosphere at the times of the spring tides. 


Results of Ten Years’ Meteorological Observations at Stonyhurst. 
By the Rev. A. WELD. 


Stonyhurst College is situated in the county of Lancashire, in lat. 53° 50’ 40" N., 
and long. 9° 52’ W. It stands at an elevation of 380 feet in the S,E. vicinity of 
Longridge Fell, which rises upon elevated broken undulations from the bed of the 
Ribble to 1140 feet. In the centre of the garden, which commands a wide extent 
of country, was chosen the site for the observatory, having on all sides generally a 
free and distant horizon. The observatory contains a 5-foot equatorial, a meridian 
circle 23 feet diameter, a transit instrument, two transit clocks, and a considerable 
meteorological apparatus. The report opens with an historical sketch of the origin 
of the Meteorological Observations in 1847. The instruments have been compared 
with standards by Mr. Glaisher, of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. The report 
extends over ten years, from the beginning of 1848 to the end of 1857. ‘The chief 
instruments recorded have been the barometer; the dry and wet bulb; the highest 
and lowest readings of the thermometer in the shade; the highest of a thermometer 
with a blackened bulb exposed to the sun’s rays, and the lowest of a thermometer 
exposed upon grass ; the direction and estimated force of the wind, and the amount 
of cloud at the time of each observation; the daily and monthly fall of rain and 
snow; amount of evaporation from an exposed surface of water; the general cir- 
cumstances observed to attend Aurora Borealis and thunder-storms ; and a general 
description of the state of the weather and appearance of the sky. ‘The observations 
were recorded at 9 a.m., 1 P.M., 3 P.M., and 9 Pp. M., local time, which have been 
made, almost without exception, throughout. The report describes at length the 
methods used in recording and reducing the observations. Then follow the tables 
and very carefully executed curves and diagrams, with explanatory notes interspersed. 


GENERAL PHysIcs. 


Physics as a Branch of the Science of Motion. 
By J. §. Stuart Gienniz, MA. 


In order that the great aim of modern science may be accomplished, and 
mechanical principles be rigorously applied to physical and chemical phenomena, 
it seems clear that physical and chemical forces must be conceived in the same 
Way as mechanical forces. Therefore, as the general condition of the development 
of a mechanical force, and, consequently, of a mechanical motion, is a difference of 
pressures, and as a mechanical motion is in the direction of least pressure, a phy- 
sical or chemical force must be similarly conceived as a difference of pressures, and 
attractions and affinities explained as motions in the direction of least resistance : 
and as the cause of an ordinary mechanical motion is no supernatural or unrelated 
entity or agent, but simply the condition or relation of difference among a set of 
mutual pressures, so the causes of physical and chemical motions must he conceived, 
not as agents, but as relations. But as (though an absolute force is inconceivable) 


Re 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 57 


we may speak of a moving body as a mechanical force because it cannot come into 
contact, be brought into relation with another body without there being thus a dif- 
ference of the previously existing polar pressures on that body, and hence a motion 
or change of motion; so we may speak of heat, electricity, &c. as forces, because 
bodies in such states of molecular motion or tension cause a motion of other bodies, 
or of their molecules. And these forces are thus conceived, not as absolutely exist- 
ing agents acting on matter, but as conditions of matter. 

It is evident that this idea of force, by which all particular forces become one (by 
being referred to the same general conception of a difference of pressure), postulates 
a plenum. But this will prebably be now generally granted. If, then, there is a 
pleaum, we may conceive the influence which every part of matter exerts on every 
other, as acting not “ at.a distance,’ but through other intermediate matter, form- 
ing lines of pressure. Hence we may conceive a body or molecule as a centre of 
pressure, and see whether, retaining the usual mechanical conception of “ pressure” 
as “‘ a balanced force,” or ‘‘ virtual momentum,” such influence, or, more definitely, 
physical and chemical phenomena, become mechanically explicable. 

A molecule, therefore, or body, an aggregate of molecules, is conceived as a centre 
of lines of pressure ; the lengths and curves of these lines are determined by the rela- 
tive pressure of the lines they raeet; and lines from greater, are made up of similar 
lines from lesser molecules, and so on ad infinitum. In speaking of a molecule or 
body as such a centre of pressure, we may, for convenience sake, call it an atom. 
In chemistry, the term equivalent will be used exclusively, and not as more or less 
synonymous with atom, which I have thus ventured to appropriate for a new con- 
ception. 

edkid*or mutually determining centres of lines of pressure, may also be defined 
and mathematically considered as mutually determining elastic systems with centres 
of resistance. 

But these fundamental conceptions of centres of lines of pressure, or centrally 
resisting elastic systems, are not hypotheses, but convenient forms of the general 
conception of the parts of matter as mutually repelling. 

If, in a system of such atoms, the centres, whether molecules or suns, are all of 
equal mass, and at equal distances, the mutual repulsions of their lines will be equal 
in all directions ; there will be no difference of pressure, no moving force will be 
developed, and the conditions of equilibrium are satisfied. But it was shown that 
if there are in such a system differences in the masses of the resisting centres, or 
in their relative positions, the law of universal attraction, or approach of these 
centres, whether, in any particular case, equal or unequal, would follow as a me- 
chanical consequence of the deflection of the mutually opposing lines. 

But such centres may differ not only in mass, but intension. Tension is conceived 
as a state of unstable equilibrium, in which a (molecular) atomic centre, having been 
moved towards the next atom in any plane, rests in a position in which the pressure 
of its lines is increased in that direction, and correspondingly, of course, diminished 
in the opposite. Such is the general mechanical conception of polarity proposed in 
this theory. 

The phenomena caused by bodies in a state of static electricity are deduced from 
the conception of outward or inward tension in a closed curve. 

In dynamically electrified bodies the tension is conceived as longitudinal, and the 
poles as the ends towards and from which the molecules have been moved. A mag~ 
net is conceived as a body in which the molecules are in a permanent state of trans- 
verse tension ; and hence, evidently, as in Ampére’s theory, the analogy (except as 
to power on iron core) between a helix and a magnet. 

Induction is the necessary mechanical effect on adjacent bodies of electricity or 
Magnetism as above conceived. The character of that effect depends on the rela- 
tive conditions of the tension of the acting body, and of the mechanical resistance 
due to the molecular motion or aggregation of the bodies acted on. 

The various motions in the presence of electric or magnetic bodies are explicable 
as differential effects of (electric or magnetic) conduction, 

It is proposed to apply this general theory to the undulatory theory of light and 
heat, with the hope that the difficulties therein at present encountered may be hereby 
overcome, 


58 : REPORT—1860. 


As to chemistry, it may be briefly noted that its phenomena seem capable of being 
brought within the science of motion by deductions from the general conceptions of 
a body as a system of moving molecules (specific heat), which, the motion at every 
point being equal in intensity, is in a state of dynamic equilibrium; and of the 
formation of compounds, as the formation of new states of dynamic equilibrium. 


A General Law of Rotation applied to the Planets. 
By J. 8. Stuart Guienniz, M.A. 


The author directed attention to a table of elements which seemed to point to a 
general law for the angular velocity of rotation of the planets ; though, of the many 
formule calculated, none had as yet given perfect accuracy. 

But these tables gave a new law connecting the angular velocities of revolution 
with the distances. 

He referred the nullity of effect on the planets of the resisting medium which 
shortens the periods of Encke’s comet to a neutralization deduced from a hydrody- 
namical theorem. 


SounpD. 


On the Velocity of the Sound of Thunder. 
By the Rev. 8S. Earnsuaw, IA. 


The object of this paper was stated by its author to be, to solicit the attention of 
observers to certain phenomena which seem to indicate that the velocity of the 
sound of thunder is sometimes much greater than that of ordinary sound. He had 
himself noticed a case where the sound followed close upon the flash of lightning, 
though judging from the distance of the point struck (more than a mile) from him, 
the interval between the flash and the sound should have been upwards of five seconds. 
He stated also that Professor Montigny of Antwerp had communicated to him accounts 
of similar instances noticed by himself and M. Raucoux, curé of Temploux. One in 
particular was very remarkable. Ona certain night last autumn, Professor Montigny 
observed the lightning strike a farm at such a distance from him, that, according to 
the received velocity of sound, more than fifteen seconds ought to have elapsed before 
he heard the report, whereas it reached him in two seconds. This was confirmed 
to him the next day by the curé of Temploux, who being at nearly the same distance 
from the farm, heard the crack of the thunder in what he judged to be certainly not 
more than two seconds from the descent of the electric fluid. The difference in this 
case is so great between theory and observation, that errors of estimation of the time 
cannot possibly account for it. The two observers were more than 4000 métres 
apart. The author stated, that although there were in these instances such discre- 
pancy between them and the received theory, he had communicated investigations to 
the ‘Philosophical Magazine’ with which they were in perfect agreement, But, 
nevertheless, he hoped that some of the members of the Association would turn their 
attention to these phenomena, in order that it might be definitely settled, whether 
his theoretical deductions are, or are not, supported and confirmed by undoubted 


facts. 


On the Triplicity of Sound. By the Rev. 8. Earnsuaw, M.A. 
The fundamental idea of this paper is the hypothesis of finite intervals. Setting 
out from this, the author shows that the most simple elements of wave-motion are 


defined by the equation = +a, x being the displacement of an aérial particle at 


any time ¢. If the radius of molecular action extend over a large number of parti- 
cles, the method pursued by the author gives the velocity of ordinary sound 1130 


feet. He also shows that the velocity of a thunder-clap must of necessity be greater’ 


than that of ordinary sounds. There are two essentially distinct types of wave- 


motion, corresponding to the two signs with which k° is affected in the above 
equation ; the upper sign belongs to the thunder type, and the lower to-ordinary’ 


payers 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59 


musical sounds: and it is shown that for a given value of k there are three different 
velocities of wave transmission, viz. one corresponding to the upper sign, and two to 
the lower sign. This is what the author means by the triplicity of sound. The 
papers on this subject will be found printed at length in the ‘ Philosophical Maga- 
zine’ for June, July, and September. 


INSTRUMENTS. 


Description of an Instrument for Measuring Actual Distances. 
By Parrick ADIE. 


The telemeter consists of two telescopes so arranged in two concentric tubes, that 
the rays formed by two object-glasses, at or near the extremities of the tubes, are by 
means of reflectors brought together into one eyepiece in the middle of the tubes ; 
thus both telescopes are simultaneously pointed at the same object, one being move- 
able, and their relative angle taken from a scale and vernier, and this by reference 
to a table on the instrument gives the distance of the object looked at. The author 
has obtained measures to 5 yards in 500, and 20 in 1000 with a base of only 18 inches, 
The length of the arm and power of the telescopes being equal to such minute accu- 
racy, this promises to supply the link wanting to make the long range in gunnery use- 
ful. Its power is such, that with the 18-inch base, the one described, we can read to 
5 yards in 500, or 20 in 1000, and it may be used up to 4 or 5 miles with effect. 


Description of a New Reflecting Instrument for Angular Measurement. 
By Patrick ADIE. 


The instrument is a sextant or circle which the author proposed to name the bino- 
cular reflector. It consists of two telescopes, also so arranged as to work with one 
eyepiece, one telescope being directed to each of the objects whose angular distance 
is sought ; one of these is fixed below the limb, the other above it; and the rays are 
passed from the lower into the upper, by means of a reflector sending them at right 
angles through the centre of the instrument, which is hollow; these rays entering 
the upper telescope, are by means of a second reflector passed along with those of 
the other half which is open into the eyepiece. The point of this instrument is, that 
it gives the whole instead of half degrees as in Hadley’s principle, thus reducing the 
size of the instrument one-half, and the cost nearly in like degree; it will also be 
much less subject to disarrangement, and can measure any angle up to 180°. 


- Ona Pile with Sulphate of Lead. By M. E. BecquereE-. 


The pile of M. Edmond Becquerel is composed of an exterior receiver of zinc of 
an annular shape, and of a cylinder composed as follows, A cylinder of lead of 29 
centimetres (9} inches) long and about half a centimetre (,2,ths of an inch) diameter, 
is placed in the inside of a mould 13 centimetres (4°6 inches) in height, and 9 centi- 
metres is filled (2} inches) in diameter, with a paste of sulphate of lead pulverized, 
and 400 grammes water saturated with marine salt at 25° of the areometer, {being 
129 to 139 cubic centimetres. The mixture of these should be made very quickly. 
After the sulphate of lead has acquired a sufficient consistence, we remove it from the 
mould, and we cover it round with a bed of plaster of half a centimetre in thick- 
ness. ‘This pile is charged with water rendered saline with common (sea) salt about 
ath saturated. Its electromotive force is equal to the half of that of sulphate of 
copper, and its resistance to conduction is equivalent to 100 metres of red copper 
wire of a millimetre diameter. It has the advantage of being very simple, and of 
not requiring anything to keep it in action; it is put into action by a single liquid, 
and does not need a porous vessel. It possesses much constancy, and does not cease 
to act until the sulphate of lead is entirely reduced to the metallic state. M. Bec- 
querel had one in action composed of ten pairs, of which the circuit remained com=-: 
pletely closed for three months. : 


: 


60 REPORT—1860, 


On an Atmotic Ship. By the Hon. W. Bann, New South Wales. 


The proposal in this case was to employ a light keel and ship-formed body buoyed 
up by an elongated balloon, and two heavy weights guided by a rope slung from 
stem to stern, to alter the centre of gravity of the machine and direct its motion 
upwards or downwards at pleasure. To cause it to move onwards in any assigned 
direction, large but light and strong vanes were to be driven round, acting like the 
screw propeller of a ship. 


On an Improved Instrument for describing Spirals, invented by Henry 
Johnson. By the Rev. J. Bootu, LL.D., F.RS. 


Mr. Johnson’s instrument, which, looking to its practical use, he calls a volutor, 
admits of several varieties, and may be briefly described as follows:—The form 
which most clearly exemplifies the principle consists of a vertical axis resting on a 
horizontal plane, and retained on it by a metal point to prevent slipping or lateral 
motion. To this upright axis is attached one extremity of the horizontal arm or 
bar. The vertical axis passes through the extremity of the horizontal arm, or a block 
attached to the end of it, in such a way that the horizontal arm may revolve freely 
round the vertical axis. The remote extremity of the horizontal bar is furnished 
with a drum or pulley, over which a band or chain passes; one end of this band is 
affixed to the centre upon a level with the pulley, and the other end of the chain or 
band, after passing over the pulley at the outer end of the horizontal rod, returns 
and is attached to a slide which carries a pencil ur marking instrument. The hori- 
zontal bar is made to revolve, either by the hand directly applied to it, or by a string 
wound round a drum attached to the block revolving on the vertical axis. 

The chain or band is thus wound round the upright axis, while each succeeding 
coil encloses the preceding one, and is supported by a small plane projecting from 
the centre. The slide is drawn from the centre towards the drum at the other end 
of the horizontal arm, and thus the curve is traced by the pencil or other point, pro- 
gressively increasing its radius vector as the slide recedes from the axis. The addi- 
tion of small tubes to slide down, when required, to the junction, with an opening 
for the chain or band, will afford the means of varying the size of the axis, and con- 
sequently the interval between the successive spirals of the curve. The intervals 
between the spirals are determined by the size of the axis, and the thickness of the 
band coiled round it. When each coil round the cylindrical axis rises above the 
preceding one, without enclosing it, the spiral of Archimedes is described, as the 
radius vector is increased each revolution by the circumference of the axis, neglecting 
the inclination of the cord. 

A cone may be conveniently used as a centre, and the band wound round it in lieu 
of being wound in a flat coil; and the size of the centre may be enlarged, by wind- 
ing the band one or more times round the cone before tracing the curve. 

A number of pulleys are affixed to the slide and the block on the axis, and the 
curve may be modified by passing the band over one or more of them. 

As the vertical axis of the volutor, and the slide on the horizontal bar to which 
motion is communicated, are connected by a cord or chain passing over a system of 
pulleys, the length of cord which wraps round the vertical cylinder becomes 2 times 
the radius of the spiral, n being the number of pulleys attached to the slide which 
travels on the horizontal arm. Hence, by increasing m, we may diminish the mag- 
nitude of the spirals described by the volutor *. 

When, instead of the vertical cylinder round the axis, a grooved cone is sub- 
stituted, the width of the whorls increases with each revolution of the radius vector 
of the spiral ; and by substituting in succession a series of cones in the vertical axis, 
each of a different pitch, we may obtain spirals where successive whorls shall widen 
out in any given ratio. 

Recent improvements in the volutor, as shown in the annexed drawing, include 
arrangements for the vertical position of the pencil, as also for attaching the band to 
the base of the cone when required, and for applying the set of pulleys to either end 
of the horizontal bar. 


* In fact, the cord wound round the axis, and the end of the slide which carries the 
tracing point, are as power and weight in a system of mechanical pulleys. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61 


In addition to the spirals that are traced, when the band is wound first round the 
apex of the cone descending to the base, by the pencil receding from the centre, on the 
principle described; spirals may also be traced by the pencil approaching the centre 
from the extremity of the radius vector, when the pulleys are attached to the pencil 
end of the horizontal bar, and the band is wound round the grooved cone ascend- 
ing from the base. 


A A stand, with wheels moveable round the central point O. 

B Horizontal bar, passing through the horizontal tube D on stand. 

C Tracing pencil, pressed down by vertical spiral spring. 

D Horizontal tube on stand. 

E Set of pulleys on stand. 

F* Set of pulleys screwed on to the end of the horizontal har. 

G Band wound about the grooved cone at the centre, and passing over pulleys at F and ¥. 
- H Handle attached to grooved cone, and held stationary with one hand; while the stand 
carrying horizontal bar, &c., is moved by means of a winch handle attached to the top of a 
steel axis rising through the cone and handle. 

I The winch handle. 


On the Means of increasing the Angle of Binocular Instruments, in order to 
obtain a Stereoscopic Effect in proportion to their Magnifying Power. 
By A. Curauvet, £.R.S. 


In a paper on the stereoscope, which Mr. Claudet read before the Society of 
Arts in the year 1852, alluding to the reduction of the stereoscopic effect produced 
by opera glasses on account of their magnifying power, he stated that, in order to 
redress that defect, it would be necessary to increase proportionately the angle of the 
two perspectives. This he proposed to do by adapting to the object-glasses two sets 
of retlecting prisms, which by a greater separation given to the two lines of perspec- 
tives, would reflect on the optic axes images taken at a greater angle than the angle 
of natural vision. Such was the instrument that Mr. Claudet submitted to the 
British Association, to prove, as he has always endeavoured to demonstrate in various 
memoirs, that the binocular angle of stereoscopic pictures must be in proportion to 
the ultimate size of the pictures on the retina,—larger than the natural angle when the 
images are magnified, and smaller when they are diminished; which, in fact, is 


62 REPORT—1860. 


nothing more than to give or restore to these images the natural angle at which the 
objects are seen when we approach them or recede from them. For magnifying or 
diminishing the size of objects is the same thing as approaching them or receding 
from them, and in these cases the angles of perspectives cannot be thesame. Mr. 
Claudet showed that, looking at the various rows of persons composing the audience, 
with the large ends of the opera-glass, all the various rows appeared too close to 
one another, that there was not between them the distance or space which separates 
them when we look with the eyes alone; and he showed also that, with the small 
end, the distance appeared considerably exaggerated. But applying the sets of 
prisms to the opera-glass in order to increase the angle of the two perspectives, then 
looking at the audience as before, it appeared that the various rows of persons had 
between them the natural separation expected for the size of the image or for the re- 
duction of the distance of the objects. By applying the two sets of prisms before 
the eyes without the opera-glass, it was observed, as was to be expected, that the 
stereoscopic effect was considerably exaggerated, because the binocular angle was in- 
creased without magnifying the objects. But looking with the two sets of prisms 
alone at distant objects, the exaggeration of perspective did not produce an unplea- 
sant effect. It appeared as if we were looking at a small model of the objects 
brought near the observer. By the same reason, stereoscopic pictures of distant 
objects (avoiding to include in them near objects) can advantageously be taken at a 
larger angle than the natural angle, in order to give them the relief of which they 
are deprived as much when we look at them with the two eyes, as when we look 
only with one eye; instead of being a defect, it seems that it is an improvement. 
In fact, the stereoscope gives us really two eyes to bring out in relief the pictures of 
distant objects. 


On the Principles of the Solar Camera, By A. Ciauvet, F.R.S. 

The solar camera, invented by Woodward, is one of the most important improve- 
ments introduced in the art of photography since its discovery. By its means 
small negatives may produce pictures magnified to any extent; a portrait taken on a 
collodion plate not larger than a visiting card can be increased, in the greatest per- 
fection, to the size of nature; views as small as those for the stereoscope can be also 
considerably enlarged. This is an immense advantage, which is easily understood 
when we consider how much quicker and in better proportion of perspective small 
pictures are taken by the camera obscura, while the manipulation is so greatly sim- 
plified. There is nothing new in the enlargement of photographic pictures. This 
has been done long ago simply by attending to the law of conjugate foci; and every 
photographer has always been enabled, with his common camera, to increase or 
reduce the size of any image. For the enlargement, it was only necessary to place 
the original very near the camera, and to increase in proportion the focal distance. 
But the more the focal distance was increased, the more the intensity of light was 
reduced; and a still greater loss of light arose from the necessity of diminishing the 
aperture of the lens, in order to avoid the spherical aberration. Such conditions 
rendered the operation so long that it became almost an impossibility to produce any 
satisfactory results when the picture was to be considerably enlarged. For these 
reasons, it naturally occurred, that if the negative, having its shadows perfectly 
transparent and its lights quite black, was turned against the strong light of the sun, 
its image at the focus of the camera would be so intense that the time of exposure 
would be considerably reduced; so that, in order to employ the light of the sun, 
and follow easily its position without having to move constantly the whole camera, 
it was thought advisable to employ a moveable reflecting mirror sending the parallel 
rays cf the sun on a vertical plano-convex lens, condensing those rays on the nega- 
tive (placed before the object-glass and behind the condenser) somewhere in its 
luminous cone. Many contrivances for this object were resorted to, but without 
considering anything else than throwing the strongest light possible on the negative 
to be copied. The constructors of these solar cameras never thought it very im- 
portant to consider whether the focus of the condensing lens was better to fall before 
or behind the front of the object-glass, provided the negative was placed in the lumi- 
nous cone of the condenser. This want of attention has been the cause which has 
made the solar camera a very imperfect instrument for copying negatives. The 


i 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63 


beautiful principle of Woodward’s apparatus consists in his having decided the ques- 
tion of the position of the focus of the condenser, and in having placed it exactly on 
the front lens of the camera obscura. As this principle had not yet been explained 
when the invention was exhibited before the Photographic Societies of London and 
Paris, and not even by the inventor himself in the specification of his patent, 
Mr. Claudet has undertaken, in the interest of the photographic art, to bring the 
subject before the British Association, and to demonstrate that the solar camera of 
Woodward has solved the most difficult problem of the optics of photography, and 
is capable of producing wonderful results. This problem consists in forming the 
image of the negative to be copied only by the centre of the object-glass reduced to 
the smallest aperture possible, without losing the least proportion of the light illus 
minating the negative. The solar camera does not require any diaphragm to reduce 
the aperture of the lens, because every one of the points of the negative are visible 
only when they are defined on the image of the sun, and they are so exclusively for 
the centre of the Jens, the only point which sees the sun; while the various points 
of the negative, which from the marginal zone of the lens are defined against the 
comparatively obscure parts of the sky surrounding the sun, are, as it were, invisible 
to that zone; so that the image is produced only by the central rays, and not in the 
least degree by any other points of the lens, which are subject to spherical aberration. 
It is, in fact, a lens reduced to an aperture as small as is the image of the sun upon 
its surface, without the necessity of any diaphragm, and admitting the whole light 
of the sun after it has been condensed upon the various separate points of the nega- 
tive. It is evident that from the centre of the lens the whole negative has for back- 
ground the sun itself, and from the other points of the lens it has for background 
only the sky surrounding the sun, which fortunately has no effect in the formation 
of the image. Such is the essential principle of Woodward’s solar camera, which 
did not exist in that instrument when the focus of the condenser was not on the 
object-glass. This principle is truly marvellous ; but it must be observed, that the 
solar camera, precisely on account of the excellence of this principle, requires the 
greatest precision in its construction. For its delicate performances, it must be as 
perfect as an astronomical instrument, which, in fact, it is. The reflecting mirror 
should be plane, and with parallel surfaces, in order to reflect on the condenser an 
image of the sun without deformation; and in order to keep the image always on 
the very centre of the object-glass, the only condition for the exclusion of the oblique 
rays, the minror should be capable, by its connexion with a heliostat, of following 
the movements of the sun. The condenser itself should be achromatic, in order to 
refract the image of the sun without dispersion, and to define more correctly the 
lines of the negative; and a no less important condition for losing nothing of the 
photogenic rays would be, to have the condenser formed with a glass perfectly 
homogeneous and colourless. With such improvements, the solar camera will be- 
come capable of producing results of the greatest beauty ; and, without any question, 
its introduction into the photographer’s studio will mark a period of considerable 
improvement in the art. 


On a Reflecting Telescope for Celestial Photography, erecting at Hastings, 
near New York. By Henry Draper, M.D. 


In the summer of 1857, after the Dublin meeting of the British Association, a 
party visited Lord Rosse’s telescope at Parsonstown. We were shown the ma- 
chinery employed in its construction, and, as far as the weather permitted, its per- 
formance. 

That visit first led me to attempt constructing an instrument which should be 
specially adapted for celestial photography, for which purpose the reflector possesses 
such conspicuous advantages over any refractor. 

Those who are familiar with photographic operations know well how important it 
jis for the ensuring of uniform success, that the sensitive surfaces should always be 
placed in similar circumstances as to position, and that position must afford every 
facility for carrying on the necessary manipulations. 

It appeared to me that a modification of a form of mounting, proposed some 
time ago by Mr. Nasmyth, could be made to answer these requirements perfectly, 


64 REPORT—1860. 


and that a Newtonian reflector, sustained on hollow trunnions, through one of 
which the rays from the small mirror could come, would permit of operations being 
carried on upon a horizoptal table at the end of the trunnion with great ease. What- 
ever might be the altitude or position of the object the photographic table would 
always be horizontal. 

As I proposed that the telescope should not be less than 12 feet in focal length, 
an advantage would obviously arise from making the vertical axis of the framework 
beneath its centre of gravity. The observatory in which it should be placed would 
then require to be only one-half the diameter that would otherwise be demanded, 
A 12-foot tube could be worked with its frame in a cylindrical space, 13 feet in dia- 
meter and 13 feet in height. 

I therefore cast a speculum of 15 inches in diameter and 2 inches in thickness. 
The materials employed were Minnesota copper, regarded in America as the purest 
commercial form of that metal, and Banca tin. Their proportions were those re- 
commended by Lord Rosse. The cast was made in sand, 4 inches in thickness in 
every direction from the speculum, which was permitted to remain for two days un- 
opened, to ensure slow cooling. It proved to be perfectly successful. The machine 
used for grinding and polishing it was that of Lord Rosse. 

The tube of the telescope is of black walnut, bound externally by brass rings, and 

strengthened interiorly by iron ones. The trunnions at the little mirror are of gua- 
metal: they work on friction rollers of the same substance, supported on polished 
steel axles. 
- The telescope is moved in altitude, with the utmost facility, by the aid of counter- 
poising levers, which act perfectly, whatever the position of the tube may be. The 
pulleys through which these counterpoising levers work are also of gun-metai, sup- 
ported on friction rollers, with polished steel axles. The motion, upon a vertical 
axis, is accomplished by a cast-iron shaft, 2, feet in length and 3 inches in thick- 
ness, working at one end on a hemispherical termination in gun-metal, and the other 
sustained in a strong and ground cast-iron collar. 

The observatory in which this instrument is being placed is situated on a hill, 
400 feet above the level of the sea, at Hastings, about twenty miles north of New 
York. 

The edifice consists of a sunken chamber, excavated out of the solid rock. The 
walls of this chamber are substantially built of stone, laid in hydraulic cement. 
They are 9 feet high. On the top of these walls a lighter wooden edifice is raised, 
sufficient to make the building of the required height. The revolving roof is metallic. 
The ground plan is square, and 17 feet in the clear interiorly. As the frame of the 
telescope only requires a cylindrical space of 13 feet, the corners of the building are 
very available for the necessary photographic preparations. 

On the top of the stone wall is placed a circular gallery running entirely around 
the interior of the room, and enabling the operator to have access with great facility 
to the photographic table and the eyepiece trunnion of the instrument. The in- 
terior of the observatory is sheathed throughout with wood. 

This partly underground construction has been adopted for the purpose of ensu- 
ring a more complete invariability of the temperature of the mirror. A thorough 
ventilation is, however, secured whenever desirable, the local position of the edifice 
being such that the door of entrance is on the side of the hill at the level of the floor. 
The wooden sheathing is for the purpose of avoiding deposition of moisture. 

At the moment of writing this paper the building is unfinished, though rapidly 
approaching completion. The various parts of the instrument and the photographic 
arrangements are provided, and no difficulty is anticipated. 

This is the first observatory that has been erected in America expressly for celes- 
tial photography, and it is hoped that, considering the purity of the skies, it will 
yield good results. 

I expect also to derive considerable advantage from the method of darkening col- 
lodion negatives by the aid of protochloride of palladium, described by me in a paper 
read before the American Photographical Society, and which I think in this applica- 
tion will permit of good proofs being taken by unprecedentedly short exposures, 


_ 
—— 


y 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65 


On an improved Form of Air Pump for Philosophical Experiments. 
By W. Lavp. 


On the Chromoscope. By Joun Smiru, M.A., Perth Academy. 


The author sent a specimen of the cut-out card, by the rotation of which, in 
strong light, as sunshine, he could produce various colours. There were also dia- 
grams exhibited painted so as to represent the several colours and tints which the 
author had succeeded in causing to appear. The chromoscope, he said, was not the 
result of a happy accident, but was constructed to verify certain opinions which he 
had long entertained as to the cause of colour; that it not only produced colour, but 
explained the principle on which it was produced, and proved the necessity of intro- 
ducing a negative term into the theory of colour—the purpose for which it was con- 
structed. On the theory he said he would not enter, as he had explained it at the 
Meeting at Aberdeen, when he also made some experiments before Section A. 

The author’s object at present was to direct attention particularly to what he 
considered a most remarkable phenomenon connected with these experiments, which 
manifested itself in the change of colour which took place when the motion of the 
figure was reversed. The simplest illustration given, was a semidisc divided into a 
nuthber of concentric rings of equal breadth, each alternate ring being painted black 
or cut out of the card, and tbe card fixed on the axle of the machine at a point, 
exactly equal to half the breadth of one of the rings, from the centre of the disc. 
When the card is made to rotate, each ring is thus divided into two equal sections, 
and the section of a black ring is superposed, as it were, on a white, or a white on 
a black when in motion; or in each revolution of the machine there is produced a 
sensation of light and no light on the same spot of the retina. In this experiment 
each contiguous ring has a different colour, one purple, the other a greenish yellow, 
and each alternate ring has the same colour. 

Reverse the motion, the rings which were purple will now be yellow, and vice 
versd, those which were yellow will be purple. 

There was another diagram giving an analysis of this; showing how all the rings 
could be made of one colour, exhibiting discs wholly of purple rings, or wholly of 
yellow rings. 

He said that in these experiments, when the revolutions of the machine were more 
than thirty-two in a second of time, all colour was lost to the eye; among other 
reasons, demonstrating to the mind of the author, that the pulsations of light are 
not so frequent as science represents them to be. He considered every revolution of 
the machine equivalent to an effective pulsation of light; and that the usual experiment 
of placing the prismatic colours on a wheel, and making them revolve, only proves the 
inability of the eye to estimate such rapid vibrations, and not the composition of 
white light, for the colour produced is a grey, not white, and so is the colour of his 
cards when in such rapid motion. 

To represent refracting substances, such as prisms or other transparent crystals 
of any form, the author said it was necessary to make the cards revolve perpendi- 
cularly, in order to produce the form of a solid. Several of these were shown to 
the Section. A section of a ring produced the figure of a vase of a pink colour, with 
a greenish centre. A semiring produced a vase of a different form and of various 
colours, the brim being of a deep purple. A scroll composed of two semirings pro- 
duced a strange compound figure, the predominant colour being a deep dark green. 

Along these figures, in given conditions, there is a dark or a bright line, which he 
said was the axis of motion, and might be considered as the line of no motion or of 
no reflexion, ar of intermittent reflexion, according to the construction of the figure. 
The card can be cut so as to represent both phases—the black and the coloured—in 
the same figure. 

The author in his paper said, ‘‘ Are not these phenomena very like those of 
polarized light?’? only more astonishing, and more within the range of human 
research, After looking at these experiments he always felt disposed to put the 
question, ‘‘ What now is polarized light ?” 

He also added that the horizontal and perpendicular experiments were constructed 
on the same principle, and that the colours are the result of the same law. 

1860. 5 


66 REPORT—1860. 


In concluding the author said, ‘‘ He was anxious that philosophers should become 
acquainted with these experiments, as he considered that the ideas which they con- 
veyed, and the facts which they revealed, must modify our views of some of the cog- 
nate sciences ; and he was of opinion that they gave rise to a new theory of coloured 
refraction, sut that he was unwilling to enter on the subject of refraction, until 
scientific men were acquainted with the phenomena of the chromoscope.” 


CHEMISTRY. 
On Ozone. By Professor ANpreEws, M.D., F.R.S., MRLA. 


On the Deodorization of Sewage. By Dr. Brirp. 


On the Quantitative Estimation of the Peroxide of Hydrogen. 
By Professor B. C. Bropiz, F.R.S. 


On some Reactions of Zinc-Ethyl. By G. B. Bucxton, F.R.S. 


Note on the Destruction of the Bitter Principle of Chyraitta by the Agency of 
Caustic Alkali. By J. J. COLEMAN. 


On some remarkable Relations existing between the Atomic Weights, Atomic 
Volumes, and Properties of the Chemical Elements. By J. J. COLEMAN. 


The author commenced by referring to the labours of Kopp, Schroeder, Joule, and 
Herapath, respecting the atomic volumes of the non-gaseous elementary bodies. 
The term atomic volume being defined as “indicating the space occupied or kept 
free from the excess of other matter by the material atom itself together with its investing 
sphere of heat,” particular attention was directed to a fact noticed some time ago by 
Kopp, viz. that the atomic volumes of several elements correspond, so that they may 
be arranged in groups. The author then proceeded to show that, in taking a group 
of elements having equal or nearly equal atomic volumes, it would invariably be found 
that the element possessing the least atomic weight would be the most chemically 
active, the least reducible ; and, on the contrary, the element having the greatest 
atomic weight would be found to be the most chemically inactive, the most reducible 
member of the series. These important facts were demonstrated by quoting numerous 
groups, Thus, amongst others, were brought forward the following, viz. :— 


Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic 

weight. volume. weight. yolume, 
Manganese.... 27°6 ....;. 44 |-, jSulphur .... 16 ...... 101 
LUO OR ioe idoiad eae GOO 44 we Selenium.... 39° 25.535 101 
1.2 Cobalt mere ~ 29 Sz ieee 44 Lead. ..<cc; 103°7. ck Seeeeulaet 
| Nickel. 02.00) spent aa), | 0s A Silvet *.+teu) LOM, ei male 128 
(Copper........ 82 ...... 44 Gold i i.3. 197) chem 
Zine. . EO 13 Se eUoT Eusis nem OF, Chlorine .... 35°5 sseses 820 
2, + Palladium apn cnes aareleis aD. 6.4 Bromine.... 80 ..4... 320 
Platinum... sce Gomme eaa De Iodine .:.,4. 127 sacess 820 


Molybdenum .. 46 ...... 66 Antimony .. 129 ie 
Tungsten...... hs isle hs es 66 Bismuth ....< 213 wSigee re 


Comparing together the members of the first group quoted, it was noticed that man- 
ganese, having the least atomic weight, is the most chemically active, the most eager 
in entering into combination with other elements,—iron, nickel, cobalt, and copper 
following in due order; whilst the facility with which the respective metals are 


jel 5 ae Tee we eee OO }stinony 32 sae ee 
Se tf 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67 


reduced is exactly the reverse—copper with the greatest atomic weight being the 
most reducible, nickel and cobalt, iron and manganese following in order. 

In group 2, zinc being the most active, the least reducible, and, on the contrary, 
platinum the most inactive, the most reducible, another illustration of the law is 
afforded,—the striking differences between the weight of the atoms finding its repre- 
sentative in the equally striking differences between the properties of the respective 
metals. Similar results are afforded by the study of other groups; thus in the 
chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten group, chromium—the most active, the miost 
difficult to reduce, the metal forming the largest number of combinations,—possesses 
the least atomic weight of any member of the series, and precisely as the weight of 
the atom increases, in molybdenum, and then in tungsten, does the chemical activity 
decrease. 

The group sulphur and selenium offers a pertinent illustration of the existence of 
the law; selenium having an atomic weight 24 times greater than that of sulphur, 
being to a corresponding extent the more reducible of the two. 

Lead, gold, and silver afford another illustration of the universality of the law, 
lead having the least atomic weight, being the most active, the least reducible, and 
gold the greatest atomic weight, being the least active, the most reducible. 

In the group chlorine, bromine, and iodine, the relation is very evident (the atomic 
volume of chlorine being that of the liquid state), Phosphorus, antimony and 
bismuth, and many other groups, when studied in a similar manner, confirm the 
generality of the law, as applied to groups of elements having equal or nearly equal 
atomic volumes. 

These interesting results induced the author to extend the survey, and to institute 
a careful examination into the general relations existing between the atomic weight, 
atomic volumes, and properties of the whole of the elements. Considerable details 
were entered into, the results arrived at being summed up as follows :— 

1, That elements having a small atomic weight and a small atomic volume, such 
as carbon, aluminium, sulphur, are difficult toreduce from their compounds, When 
they are isolated, they are endowed with a certain degree of permanence; but the 
limit of their resistibility is easily attained. 

2. Elements with a small atomic weight and a large atomic volume, such as 
potassium, sodium, phosphorus, are invariably active, and difficult to keep in an 
isolated state. 

3. Elements having a large atomic weight associated with a small atomic volume, 
such as platinum, iridium, are characterized by their capability of resisting chemical 
and physical agencies. 

4, Elements possessing alarge atomic weight, associated with alarge atomic volume, 
such as gold, bismuth, have considerable chemical activity; but the motion of the 
atoms appears to be impeded by reason of their great weight. 

From an accumulated amount of evidence of this nature, the author came to the 
conclusion that the cohesive or attractive force of the chemical atom bears some 
marked relation to (if it is not represented by) the actual weight of the atom, and 
that it is to the repulsive forces associated with the atom that we must attribute the 
variations in the relative volumes of the elements. The correctness of this conclusion 
was further confiymed by reference to the atomic constitution of a numerous series of 
compounds ; but prior to entering into details, reference was made to those elements 
which possess the peculiar power of condensing upon their surfaces the molecules of 
the surrounding medium. 

Attention was called to the fact that elements or compounds possessing a small 
atomic volume are invariably found to be endowed with this property, provided the 
atomic weight is sufficiently high. 

Thus carbon, an element remarkable for its power of effecting surface condensa- 
tion, not only possesses a small atomic volume, but the smallest of any known element. 
Again, the atomic volumes of zinc and platinum are equal, but their atomic weights 
differ widely, that of zinc being 33 and of platinum 98 ; thus in this group of elements 
we find that the one possessing the greatest power of inducing surface condensation 
is the one endowed with the highest atomic weight. Other comparisons of a similat 
character, and leading to a similar result, induced the author to believe that ‘“ surface 
condensation is caused by the cohesive attraction of the solid exerted upon the sur+ 
vounding molecules of gas,” This idea was put forth some time since by Dr. Faraday, 

: hanes 5x 


68 REPORT—1860. 


The author further extended it by supposing that the amount of the power of effect- 
ing surface condensation is dependent upon, and corresponds with, the actual weight 
of the atom, but that the repulsive force which keeps the atoms asunder, acting 
in a contrary direction to the cohesive force, prevents that cohesive force from per- 
ceptibly acting upon the molecules of the medium in which the atom is placed. 

Resuming the consideration of the atomic constitution of compounds, particular 
attention was directed to the fact that, in a series of compounds of one metal (oxide 
for instance), it would be found that the compound possessing the most neutrality (the 
least activity) would have the greatest atomic number. The term “ atomic number ’”’ 
was defined as ‘‘denoting the total number of elementary atoms capable of being 
contained within the space which would be filled by a single atom, of hydrogen.” 
The numbers brought forward by the author were quoted from Gmelin’s works; but, 
as Gmelin’s atomic numbers denoted the number of compound atoms capable of being 
contained within a given space, his (Gmelin’s) numbers were by the author multi- 
plied by the total number of elementary atoms contained in an atom or equivalent of 
the compound. Thus, taking equal budks of lead and oxide of lead, it will be found 
that if the lead contains 1218 atoms, the oxide of lead will contain 1888 atoms, half 
of them oxygen, and the other half lead atoms, The following, amongst other series, 
were brought forward :— 


Atomic number. 
fCPromium. pees naciecs* DOE Hs .0i6 0,0 Ave.euevieia LACUVEs 
Sesquioxide of chromium.. 8610 ............ Neutral. 
Chromicideigunen acs este F200 ae aa idiee ue ea ACHIVES 


1, 


Manganese, .......++6+. 3220 ..00.4.ee0+6 Intermediate, 
2 Protoxide of manganese .. 2948 ............ Most active. 
* ‘) Peroxide of manganese.... 3777 ........+.+. Neutral. 
Manganic acid .........  ? 


TYOM (5 shaven side lara! sarawa MOS ORs.“ sbive a ssarente se deel OSGEaC Limes 
3 Magnetic oxide......... 3486 ............ Intermediate. 
* ‘)Sesquioxide............ 3715 .........+s- Most neutral. 

errieacid pea aecinasiss anal? 

Lead’. cine cuieasone vacees, L2LS epi leetiwe enn UV LOstiapinres 

Oxide ditto ............ 1888 : 
4. PEGE: © Sa Utiget e LLOBSI ee Re Intermediate. 

Peroxide of lead ........ 2475 .cceeveecee. Mostineutral. 


Mercury Perchloride,.... 878 .....0s.+.+. Most active, 
5. 4 Ditto Protochloride ...... 975 ............ Intermediate. 
Mercuryis:). sscccs carves L480 vspcavess cscs, east mctives 


Thus in the first series quoted the compound endowed with the most inactivity, the 
most neutrality, possesses also, of the three, the greatest atomic number, so that in the 
union of two atoms of chromium with three atoms of oxygen in the production of this 
compound, viz. the sesquioxide, considerable condensation must occur, Chromium 
is chemically active in one direction, oxygen in another; and on bringing the two 
together, the opposing forces appear to neutralize, and balance each other ; if the pro- 
portion of oxygen is increased, if one atom of chromium is united with three of oxygen, 
a compound is produced, not neutral, but endowed with great activity ; and connected 
with that activity is the important fact, that its constituent atoms are wider apart 
than the constituent atoms of the sesquioxide, the neutralmember of the series, 
Examining the succeeding series in a similar manner, equally striking and interesting 
results were obtained. 

The paper concluded with the following remarks :— 

To seek for an explanation of the phenomena we have been studying is a natural 
impulse; that an explanation cannot be given without resorting to hypothesis is very 
obvious ; but if an hypothesis can be advanced which will connect the facts together, 
which will tend to enlarge our views upon the subject, and which will not be incom- 
patible with well-known and established facts, surely that hypothesis, whatever it 
may be, is worthy of our present attention. There is no need to imagine the existence 
of any new force, any new agency; the whole of the phenomena can be satisfactorily 


TRANSAOTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69 


accounted for on the supposition that the force which gives chemical activity to the 
atom is identical with the force which keeps the atom asunder, and that the cohesive 
power of the atom is represented by its weight. ‘Thus potassium has a powerful 
chemical force, an electro-positive force (if we are so pleased to name it), and that 
force confers activity upon the atom, and by its self-repulsive nature keeps those atoms 
widely asunder, Chlorine has an activity of quite an opposite character, an electro- 
negative activity, and the self-repulsive nature of that force keeps its atoms widely 
apart, But when the two elements are brought together, the activity of the one de- 
stroys the activity of the other, the repulsive force of the one destroys that of the other ; 
consequently the coliesive force (a force represented by the weight of the atom) 
immediately comes into play, and its effects are manifested by the great condensation, 
the permanent character of the resulting compound. The argument then is, that it 
is chemical force or electrical attraction (for the two terms are by many considered as 
synonymous) which determines the combination of atoms; but that, when combina- 
tion actually occurs, the very force which occasions it is masked, neutralized, the 
elements of the compound being merely held together by the cohesive force, which 
corresponds with and depends upon the absolute weight of the atom. 

In conclusion, the author reminded the members of the Section that the hypothesis 
advanced should be considered separate and distinct from the numerous facts which 
it had been his object to bring before their notice, 


On a new Organic Compound containing Boron, 
By Dr. FRANKLAND and B, Duppa. 

The authors exhibited a new body obtained by the action of zinc-ethyl on boracie 
ether, in which the whole of the oxygen in boracic acid is replaced by ethyl, B(CH,). 
This boric triethide is a colourless, mobile liquid, spontaneously inflammable. ‘The 
authors are engaged in investigating the corresponding reaction on the ethers of car- 
bonic, oxalic, and silicic acids. 


Chemical Notes. By Dr. GLavstonz, F.R.S. 


The first of these notes referred to the gradual reduction of hydrate of cresyl into hy- 
drate of phenyl and other compounds through the agency of chloride of calcium or zinc : 
the second described a crystalline precipitate obtained by the addition of hydrofluoric 
acid to molybdous chloride: the third showed by an analysis of the diffusate, that when 
equivalent proportions of choride of sodium and nitrate of baryta are mixed together 
in solution and diffused, four salts exist contemporaneously in the liquid; or in other 
words, a portion of each acid combines with a portion of each base; thus affording an 
additional evidence of the generality of the law of reciprocal decomposition, 


On the Transmission of Electrolysis across Glass. 
By W. R. Grove, Q.C., F.RS. Sc. 


If glass, or an equally non-conducting substance, be interposed between electrodes 
in an electrolyte, so that there be no liquid communication around the edges, it is 
hardly necessary to say that, according to received opinions and experiments, no 
current passes, and no electrolysis takes place. Mr. Grove was led by some theoretic 
considerations to think that this rule might not be without an exception, and the follow- 
ing experiment realized his view:—A Florence flask, well cleaned and dried, was 
filled two-thirds full of distilled water, with a few drops of sulphuric acid added to it, 
and placed in an outer vessel, containing similar acidulated water, and which reached 
to the same height as the liquid in the interior. A platinum wire was passed through 
a glass tube, one end of which was hermetically sealed to the platinum, so that a small 
part of the wire projected beyond the tube. This tube passed through a cork fitted to 
the flask, and the platinum point was dipped into the liquid within the flask, anda simi- 
lar coated wire was dipped into the outer liquid, and the two wires connected with the 
extremities of the secondary coil of a Ruhmkorff’s apparatus. Upon the latter being 
excited by the battery, a stream of minute bubbles arose from both the platinum points, 
proving that electrolysis took place notwithstanding the interposition of the glass. The 
portions of the flask above the liquid, both outside and inside, were perfectly dry, so 


70 REPORT—1860. 


that there could have been no communication of the current over the surface of the 
glass. This was further proved by removing the outer wire a short distance from the 
liquid, when sparks passed nearly equal in length to those between wires from the ter- 
minals. As the outer wire was further removed, keeping it near the flask, sparks 
passed along the surface of the latter for a short distance; and as it was further re- 
moved from the liquid, still being near the flask, they ceased, thus showing that there 
was no passage of electricity over the upper and unwetted surface of the glass. With 
unacidulated water no electrolysis was observed, nor when a battery of thirty cells 
was used instead of Ruhmkorff’s coil. In the first experiment the evolution of gas 
gradually diminished, and ceased in about twenty minutes, but recommenced on rever- 
sing the current. Mr. Grove concluded that the electrolysis was effected by induction 
across the thin glass of the Florence flask, and that its cessation indicated something 
like a state of charge or polarization of the surface of the glass. 


On the Oxidation of Potassium and Sodium. By A. Vernon Harcourt, 


On the Composition of the Ash of Wheat grown under various circumstances. 
By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., and Dr. J. H. GitBerr. 


On the Atomic Weight of Oxygen. By Prof. W. A. Mitier, M.D., F.RS. 


In this paper the author pointed out some practical objections to Gerhardt’s pro- 
posal for doubling the atomic number for oxygen. 
~ It has been stated that one advantage which would be obtained by adopting the pro- 
posal, would be that it would remove all inconsistency in the vapour volumes of all 
compound bodies by representing them all as of equal volume. 

The author commenced by showing that this assumed consistency was only imaginary, 
inasmuch as such uniformity does not exist in nature. In addition to the differences 
existing between the vapour volumes of the protoxide and deutoxide of nitrogen, similar 
irregularities exist in the volume of chlorous acid, and of bisulphide of mercury and 
some other bodies. 

The practical objections, if a notation in harmony with this view were adopted, were, 
he stated, of still greater weight, and might be summed up as follows :— 

1. The ordinary notation is known to every one who has made the science of che- 
mistry his study. 2. All the memoirs, with the exception of a few in later years, are 
written in accordance with this system, and a change of notation would at once render 
these memoirs less easily accessible and intelligible. 3. The new notation required 
would not be in harmony with the language of chemistry, NO, for example, would be 
called binoxide of nitrogen, but written as a protoxide. 4. The present system of 
notation is capable of expressing all the later theories with perfect precision, while it 
is applicable to the older views; but the new notation is not applicable to many of the 
older views. By the ordinary notation, nitrate of potash, for instance, may be repre- 
sented either as a compound of potash and nitric acid (KO, NO,), or as a combination 
of potassium with nitrion (K, NO,), or as an aggregation of particles without indicating 
any specific mode of combination (KNO,); whereas, in the new notation, unless its 
principle is abandoned by doubling the formule, it is impossible that (KN Q,) should 
be represented as formed of potash and nitric acid. It would therefore be a retro- 
grade step thus to exclude from our notation the power of indicating the constitution 
of a large class of compounds upon a view which has long been more or less prevalent. 
5. Any extensive change of nomenclature or of notation, while the truth of the 
theory upon which it rests is still under discussion, cannot but lead to serious incon- 
venience. If such a practice were admitted, every new theory would be privileged to 
introduce a new language, which, in a continually progressive science like chemistry, 
would soon give way to an equally transitory successor. Chemistry, it must be re- 
membered, is not merely a science: it is also an art, which has introduced its nomen- 
clature and its notation into our manufactories, and, in some measure, even into daily 
life; it is therefore specially necessary to beware of needless innovation. Any system 
of notation, it must also be borne in mind, is a mere artificial contrivance to represent 


to the mind certain changes or certain hypotheses ; and to argue for a system of nota~ ~ 


_— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71 


tion as though it were anything more, as has sometimes been done, shows a want of 
true appreciation of its meaning. 

The question to be considered is not simply, what is in the abstract the best mode 
of notation, but what, considering all the circumstances of the science, possesses the 
greatest advantage. ‘That system of notation which is consistent with itself, and 
which lends itself most completely to the expression of the various theories and aspects 
of the science which have been maintained,-or may be maintained, is therefore, philo- 
sophically speaking, the best. And such grounds, it appeared to the author, exist 
for continuing to use the system hitherto generally adopted. 

The question of notation, it was observed, is entirely independent of Gerhardt’s 
theory of the atomic constitution of the elements to which he proposes to apply it, for 
even those who admit the truth of his hypothesis may still express it by the ordinary 
mode of notation. 


Remarks on the Volume Theory. By C. Mortrz von Bost. 


It is endeavoured to show that the theory of volumes which separates gases from 
other bodies must be untrue; that there is no generic difference, but a difference of 
degree only between gases on the one hand, and solid and fluid substances on the 
other; that therefore the three states of aggregation may be considered under the 
Same aspect. 

And it is suggested that one equal standard be introduced for the specific gravity 
of gases and other substances ; and that the attention of mathematicians be drawn 
to the numbers of equivalent weight and atomic volume (as obtained on using equal 
standard), with the view to solve the question whether those numbers being inter- 
preted as relative distances of equivalent masses, chemical processes can be accounted 
for by the law of gravitation. 


On a New Acetic Ether occurring in a Natural Resin. 
By Warren De ra Rue, F.R.S., and Dr. Huco Miuer. 


On the Isomers of Cumol. 
By Warren De 1a Ruz, F.R.S., and Dr. Huco Miuuer. 


On the Representation of Neutral Salts on the type of a Neutral Peroxide HO, 
instead of a Basic Ovide H,O,. By Lyon Prayrair, Ph.D., F.R.S. 


On the Analysis of some Connemara Minerals. By Tuomas H. Rowney, 
Ph.D., F.CS., Prof. of Chemistry, Queen's College, Galway. 


Connemara Andalusite——Occurs in right rhombic prisms, having apparently the 
same regular measurement as the Tyrol mineral; it has a rhombic cleavage, rather 
eminent but interrupted; lustre of cleavage planes rather high, and somewhat resinous ; 
colour of fracture reddish purple ; the cross fracture is dull. Occurs in a vein of mica- 
ceous schist associated with quartz and a silvery mica, apparently magnesian, Faces 
of crystals slightly blistered. 

Specific gravity 3-070. 
BOA evi Veetenaae Tides tet ee GCOS 
IMMUNE coal aniterinwenree us a3 case. COTS 
Sexquioxide-of ifon c.40ds<sgasacce, 18 
PMs Uncen ae Maendeauaece, 1°70 
HEASNERIN vlensite aot yy scans sy) | 80 


Traces of manganese ......... 95°33 


see ” 


Connemara Pyrosclerite.—Bluish green ; lustre somewhat waxy on the surface of a 
fracture, translucent; bears a polish, but not very high, owing to its being rather soft ; 
contains arborizations like those of moss-agate, generally of a brown and dark green 
colour; readily reduced to powder, and is decomposed by strong acids without gela- 
tinizing. 


72 REPORT—1860. 


Specific gravity 2-604. 


Silica scree eee tine AS SOO R ED Ot . 3471 
ATUMINGs 4 cscs sutsactieles siete clove = Weare of fe iis} 
Magnesia fais sie)+ -,s)biieje> sfeyeltyorseleele 36°56 
IWiatere cca Gre mee cpiatercieisls acfeute een terne 11°49 99°94 


Connemara Garnet.—Occurs in rhombic dodecahedrons with bevelled edges; faces 
of crystals have a metallic Justre, colour resembling bronze. The matrix appears to 


consist of the same mineral mixed with epidote. 


Specific gravity 3°585, 


39°77 


Sbtei Als doc seve Sen toto boe AAO 

i\linitnzy. Bptiadigao aac oeopouepoe . 15°49 
Sesquioxide of iron ........00+-000. 16°27 

LU ido. CApOOR SOOSHOTOG cur oO. ». 20°98 

VEL ORESIA boyy vuptc; afer) efecev els fol stalo' Ada ge cKO 
Minnganese ters e's io. « aie ale > seseeee  *48——100°05 


Analysis of the Matrix. 
Specific gravity 3°404. 


Si ieeaa wacveys basen foieimverassbel svolovalsielerensienere tise am. 


Alumina ........- stew sets's vlc clle > ve  LOrok 
Sesquioxide of iron ........: ..+.-. 1511 
Gimie!. 2 sya leite. pe aseeenee Bteis islets state) eae 
Magnesia ......... Secetiahice aiecenanicceone PL 
Traces of manganese ..... wesc vets ——99°21 


On the Composition of Jet. By Tuomas H. Rowney, Ph.D. F.CS., 
Prof. of Chemistry, Queen's College, Galway. 


The following results were obtained by the analysis of two specimens of jet and of 


a very pure coal, a portion of a fossil plant :— 


Jet No. 1. Jet No. 2. 

Specific gravity 1:2655 Specific gravity 1:1743 
Coke. dates cha APE O! een cscs core atv aehe tliye 27°38 
Volatile matter.. 58°81 Srscaas ae tele ; 72°62 

100:00 100:00 
Gaxbon, bi. bh.ccc ND GON sis oekaateeie hiesote choles 80:05 
Hydrogen...... GZ erryaita = save taps fohrrasohe) sis 7°21 
Nitrogen ..... aig dled tae eral sis rs. « usaeaeveves els 1-44 
say pe diLAN- Cea tiaiiri es meee 2 10°50 .. 
xygen 
PASH tees s\a'0)5 810 23.0 iS MOA PP ete BS teteissa sys SOM. 
100:00 100°00 


On Waterproof and Unalterable Smatll-arm Cartridges. 


Coal. 
1:2860 

71°65 

28°35 
100-00 


82°70 
5°42 
1:77 


imams UL 


cles 
100-00 


By T. ScorFern. 


On a New Form of Blowpipe for Laboratory Use. 


By Dr. HerMANN SPRENGEL. 


Mr, Symons exhibited some forms of Alkalimeters suggested by Mr. Wiers, 


On Thiotherine, a Sulphuretted Product of Decomposition of Albuminous 


Substances. 


By Dr. Tuupicuum. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73 


On the Occurrence of Poisonous Metals in Cheese. 
By Professor VoELCKER. 


The author stated that he had detected both copper and zinc in cheese: in some 
specimens copper, in others zinc, and in some both copper and zine were found. The 
description of cheese in which these poisonous metals were found was double-Glou- 
cester cheese. Skimmed-milk cheese, which was likewise examined for copper and 
zine, did not contain any metallic impurity. Stilton, and other varieties of cheese, 
have not as yet been examined; it must not therefore be inferred that cheese made 
in other districts than Gloucestershire contains poisonous metals. Inquiry in the 
dairy districts of Gloucestershire and Wiltshire has led to the discovery that in many 
dairies in these counties sulphate of copper, and sometimes sulphate of zinc, are 
employed in the making of cheese. The reasons for which these prejudicial salts are 
added to the cheese are variously stated. Some persons added sulphate of zine with a 
view of giving new cheese the taste of old; others employed sulphate of copper for 
the purpose of preventing the heaving of cheese. Dr. Voelcker also stated that he 
had found alum in Gloucester cheese, and mentioned that he had Jearnt that in some 
dairies alum was employed to effect a more complete separation of the caseine from 
the whey. 


On the Causes of Fire in Turkey-red Stoves. By Dr. W. WALLACE. 


GEOLOGY. 


Notes on two newly discovered Ossifevous Caves in Sicily. 
By Baron F. Anca. 


Founp in the Grotta de Olivella, near Palermo. Molar of Eleph. Africanus (the 
existing species), amidst bones and teeth of an extinct species of Hippopotamus, both 
in a well-marked fossil state, and infiltrated with hydrate of iron. 

Grotta de San Feodora, Molar of Eleph. Africanus, with abundant remains ; upper 
and lower jaws of Jiyena crocuta, determined by M. Lartet. 

Facts go to prove continuity of land between Sicily and the African continent, pro- 
bably along the line of the Adventure Bank of Admiral Smyth, stretching between 
Capo Bono, the promontory of Tunis and Marsala. The Admiral found only 75 
fathoms sounding upon the bank; but a deep sea to the north and to the south. 

Proofs of continuity with Sicily are found at Malta. 


Details respecting a Nail found in Kingoodie Quarry, 1843. 
By Sir Daviv Brewster, K.H., D.C.L., F.RS. 


On the Stratigraphical Position of certain Species of Corals in the Lias. 
By the Rev. P. B. Bropiz, IA., F.G.S. 


The author first alluded to the exact position of a species of Coral found in the 
Hippopodium bed near Cheltenham, and another locality near Evesham, where the 
same form was equally abundant. Another and distinct genus, a Monilivaltia allied 
to M. Stutchburyz, was procured in the same bed in Warwickshire, associated with 
numerous other fossils, and a section of the pit was given, Other and distinct species 
of Corallines, one of which frcm Gloucestershire belongs to the genus Cladophyliia, 
were known to occur lower down in the ‘ Lima beds,’ the probable position of the fine 
Isastrea Murchisoni, found occasionally in Worcestershire and Warwickshire. One 
or more additional species have been met with in the bottom beds of the Warwickshire 
Lias, which had not been previously observed so low down. The divisions of the 
Lias, which seem to be characterized by the presence of Corals, are—1, the Hippo- 
podium bed; 2, the Lima bed; 3, the White Lias; and 4, the Guinea bed. So that 
it would appear that Corals are more numerous in the Lias than has been usually 
supposed, and that they occupy certain zones in it, which future investigations may 
show to be as well marked and distinctive as that of any other particular organisms. 


74 REPORT—1860. 


A few Corals have been recorded from the Upper Lias, but they are smaller and less 
frequent than the above. 


On the Velocity of Earthquake Shocks in the Laterite of India. 
By Joun ALLAN Broun, F.RS. 

Mr. Mallet’s interesting observations on the velocity of earthquake shocks had 
drawn my attention to the subject ; and when earthquakes were remarked in Travan- 
core, the part, South of India, where I resided, I endeavoured to add something to 
our knowledge of the subject. 

Four earthquakes were perceived in Travancore during the year 1856; that to 
which I am about to allude was observed at the Trevandrum Observatory, August 22, 
where the commencement of the shock was noted accurately by the Observatory 
clock, at 4" 25™ 10° of Trevandrum mean time. The magnets in the magnetic 
observatory were dancing up and down with sharp jerks, but without any change 
of mean positions; a vessel containing water was wetted highest on the points to 
W.N.W. and E.S.E. The vibration of the bifilar magnet was 3°0 scale divisions a 
few minutes after the shock. On the 11th of the same month a shock had been 
felt at Trevandrum, and I had addressed a circular to several persons in the district 
for information as to the time, direction, and character of the shock: this circular 
had drawn attention to the questions of interest in connexion with such shocks. 
One gentleman at Quilon (thirty-seven miles N.W. of Trevandrum) was writing 
an account of the former shock when the shock of August 22nd occurred. Four 
gentlemen and one lady noted the time of the shock at Quilon; these times were 
as follows :—Mr. D’Albed’yhll and Mr. Newas (same watch), 45 20"; Capt. Carr, 
4h 95™; Mr. Stone, 4°19"; Mrs. Wilkins, 4" 16". A box chronometer by Dent 
was sent by me to Quilon, for the purpose of comparing it with the different 
watches or clocks used in the determination of the time of the shock: the rate of the 
chronometer was +8 seconds, and the error was determined before and after the 
comparisons, which were made August 27th. The following are the facts connected 
wth the observations :—Mr. Newas had set his watch, on the 17th of August, to 
6" 0” at sunrise; allowing for the height of the chain of Ghats where the sun rose, 
I have computed that sunrise must have been about 3 minutes before six o’clock : 
the watch had been allowed to run down after the shock, so that it could not be 
compared with the chronometer. Supposing the watch without any marked rate, 
the Trevandrum mean time of the shock was 4" 183™. Mr. Stone had set his watch 
August 17, by the time of the Trevandrum Observatory (where a ball is dropped 
daily at eleven o’clock). When compared with the chronometer, it had gained 3™ 35° 
giving a daily rate of about +21°°5; so that on the 22nd the error of the watch 
must have been about 1™ 47%, and the shock must have occurred about 4" 171™ 
Trevandrum mean time. This is by far the most important observation; the others 
can be considered only as approximate determinations. Capt. Carr’s watch was 
found fourteen minutes fast of Trevandrum time on the 27th; supposing the rate 
zero, the time of shock was 4" 11”. Mrs. Wilkins’s clock had been compared with 
the mess clock of the native regiment at Quilon, which was regulated by persons 
proceeding from Trevandrum, with the Observatory time, and which was found 
correct when compared with the chronometer. Mrs. Wilkins’s clock was three mi- 
nutes slow of Trevandrum mean time, making the time of the clock 4" 19", The 
four observations, therefore, corrected to Trevandrum mean time, gave— 


hm hm 
Mr. NewaS..eeseeeeeees 4 183 | Mrs. Wikins+.i..c..sc00 4005 
Stones. ces geepreen a lee The mean gives.......... 4 16% 


Capt. Catre..seeeeeeeee 4 11 

There can be no doubt that Mr. Stone’s observation is the most trustworthy, as 
his time depends on two comparisons with the Trevandrum Observatory, viz. on the 
17th and 27th; and the deduced error for the middle of the interval (the 22nd) can- 
not be far from the truth. Mr. Newas’s observation, which agrees with it within 
about a minute, depends wholly on the observation for the sunrise ; it is so far con- 
firmatory. Rejecting Capt. Carr’s observation, as differing too much from the others, 
the mean of the remaining three is 4" 18}. 

If we suppose the shock to have travelled in the direction from Quilon to Trevan- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75 


drum, which does not differ much from that indicated by the vessel of water, and 
take the distance at thirty-seven miles, we obtain a velocity of propagation of 470 
feet per second; and if we take the latest result at Quilon, or 4" 19™, we have still 
a velocity of only 530 feet per second—-little more than three-fifths of that found. 
by Mr. Mallet in wet sand. If we take the W.N.W. as the direction of propaga- 
tion of the shock, or any other than that direct from Quilon, the velocity will of 
course be diminished. It should be remarked that the laterite, which forms the 
upper stratum (about 30 feet deep) between Quilon and Trevandrum, is a clayey 
rock, in a semi-pasty condition of perhaps the lowest degree of elasticity ; and the 
laterite reposes in some places on strata of sand and clays. 


On the Course of the Thames from Lechlade to Windsor, as ruled by the 
Geological Formations over which it passes. By the Rev. J. C. CLurTer- 
Buck, M.A. 

The tortuous course of the Thames between Lechlade and Windsor shows that 
there must be some physical cause which obliges it to deviate from the straight line 
it would naturally take to its outfall. This is found in the obstructions encountered 
in its passage over or through the various strata, From Lechlade to Sandford the 
river finds its bed in the Oxford clay; it then passes through a narrow gap in the 
middle oolite to the Kimmeridge clay, holds its course on that clay, under the 
escarpment of the Iron-sand in Nuneham Park, turns the escarpment at Culham, 
passes to the Gault at Appleford, touches a ledge of the Iron-sand at Clifton Hamp- 
den, returns to the Gault, enters the Greensand near its junction with the Thame 
stream, passes to the Chalk, in which it finds its bed to the point,—which is the limit 
proposed for consideration, The natural obstructions are found at the junction of the 
different strata. The quantity of water flowing down the river, whether issuing in 
perennial springs, or thrown from the surface in flood, is due to the geological condi- 
tion of the district. The tributaries or feeders discharge more or less of perennial or 
flood water, as they carry the water from permeable or impermeable strata. The 
flooding of the district necessarily affects the sanitary condition of Oxford. The city 
itself is placed on a bed of gravel, overlying the Oxford clay, the surface of which 
undulates so that the water is stanked back in the gravel ; it was cutting through one 
of these undulations, in carrying out the Jericho drainage, that deprived many wells 
in Oxford of their water. As this bed of gravel extends beyond the limits of the city, 
on the subsidence of the floods, the water filtrates through the gravel, and thus 
noxious evaporation is diminished. Considerable accumulations have raised the bed 
of the river in many places, evidence as to the date of which is found in antiquities 
which have been discovered when constructing locks or weirs, or in dredging for gravel. 
At Sandford, arms of the time of Charles I. have been found 8 feet below the river- 
bed, relics of greater antiquity and at various depths have often been found in other 
places, where the bed of the river has been raised, or, as in some cases, entirely 
changed its course. The phenomenon of the formation of ice at the bottom of the 
stream, when the temperature falls to 20 Fahr., and the transportation of stones from 
the bottom by the ice rising to the surface, adds to the natural obstructions in the 
stream, and hinders the passage of the flood-waters by which so much damage has 
been done at various times in the neighbourhood of Oxford. The paper, which 
entered into full details, was illustrated with a map, sections, and diagrams, 


Photographs of a Paddle of Pliosaurus of great size, found at Kimmeridge, were 
exhibited by Mr. R. Damon, of Weymouth. = 


Remarks on the Elevation Theory of Volcanos. 
By Professor Dauseny, M.D., F.R.S. 

This paper was chiefly intended as a protest against the assumption of certain geo- 
logists, that because it had been shown, more especially by Sir Charles Lyell in his 
memoir published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1858, that sheets of compact 
lava have been formed on steep inclines, it therefore followed, that all voleanic moun- 
tains have been built up by a series of successive eruptions. 

Not denying that this explanation may serve for the oldest, as it certainly does for 
the more recent beds, which constitute such mountains as Etna and Vesuvius, the 


76 REPORT—1860. 


author contended that it is not applicable to the celebrated case of Jorullo, as described 
by Humboldt, nor yet to the volcanic islands thrown up in deep water at various times 
during the historical period. 

He was also disposed to refer the four trachytic Puys near Clermont, in Auvergne, 
as well as the still loftier Cones composed of the same material in the Andes, which 
Humboldt describes, rather to the upheaval of a softened mass of rock, than to the 
outburst of liquid lava. 

He appealed also to the crater-lakes in the Eifel country and elsewhere, as furnish- 
ing cases of upheaval, even where no lava had been ejected; and argued, that so long 
as the idea of paroxysmal action continued to be entertained with reference to rocks 
in general, it was probable that volcanic countries, above all others, would be subject 
to such operations. 


On the Mode of Flight of the Pterodactyles of the Coprolite Bed near Cam- 
bridge. By the Rev. J. B. P. Dennis, F.G.S. 

Coprolitic remains of Pterodactyle bone have afforded an opportunity of studying its 
microscopic characters, and this had led to the present attempt to show from the ana- 
logy of other flying animals, from the different modes of flight among birds, from the 
apparent adjustment of the haversian canals thereunto, and the harmonious perfection 
of the skeleton with the adaptation of the pectoral muscle to the same (so that even the 
humeral process of its attachment has its marked characteristics), that these and other 
analogies lead to the inference that considerable knowledge even of the mode of flight 
of this extinct reptile may be obtained from the study of its microscopical bone struc- 
ture. In elucidation of this subject, a brief account was given of the structure of the 
wing-bones of a bird, and of the mode of flight of the Gull, a bird distinguished for 
its elasticity and endurance on the wing, and in other respects very suitable for illus- 
trating the subject. 

A description was then given of fragments of Pterodactyle bone obtained by Mr. 
Barrett from the coprolite bed, most of which were portions of wing-bones of very 
thin texture. It was also shown that the Pterodactyle required not to be encumbered 
with muscular legs, and thus the vastus was only sufficiently developed to enable the 
animal to spring from the ground preparatory to flight (as the form of the femur also 
seemed to indicate); also the biceps, semitendinosus, &c., or their analogues, did not 
require any great development; while the gastrocnemius, as it would assist in the 
spring, was probably on that account fairly represented. The pectoral muscle, follow- 
ing the saurian type, must have been less voluminous than that of birds, flatter, with 
its greatest development in front, and in position comparing somewhat with that 
muscle in gulls and owls, birds of elastic but not rapid flight. The Pterodactyle was 
also shown to agree more with birds than with bats, especially in its omoplate, while 
the absence of a fercula implied no similar volume of muscle; the bones in like man- 
ner were permeated by air, or if some were not, they were yet filled with a light fatty 
substance or marrow to give additional strength to their light texture; and though the 
natural weakness of its muscular powers was considerable in comparison with birds, 
yet this was balanced by an extremely light framework, the weight of which predomi- 
nated in front, where the muscular force was more directly antagonistic; and above all, the 
admirable microscopic structure of its bone eminently conduced to its powers of flight, 
Delicate in the extreme to the unassisted eye, when examined under the microscope, 
the bone is found to contain numerous and large haversian canals in a very marked 
degree, comparing in their arrangement with those seen in the wing-bones of gulls; 
also lacunz well displayed, larger than those of a bird of flight, long and fusiform. 
From this correspondence of the characters of the haversian canals, of which illustra- 
tions were given, an inference seems capable of being drawn in reference to the flight 
of these large Pterodactyles, which, if they did not possess the dash of the falcon or the 
impetuosity of the wood-pigeon, yet sailed gracefully over primzeval seas with a lizht- 
ness and buoyancy, as it would seem, analogous in some degree at least to the con- 
spicuous grace of the gulls, which are the present ornament of our coasts. So in every 
respect is seen the wisdom displayed in the adaptation of means, each inadequate 
in itself, and the result is the production of one of the strangest anomalies, of 
which, if we had not had the clearest testimony, the imagination would have failed to 
picture,—a true Pterosaurian, in some respects perhaps more wonderful in its con- 
struction than bats or even birds, and being as fully capable of flight as they, teaching 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77 


us how great are the resources and how infinite the wisdom of Him who has done all 
things well, 


On the Corrugation of Strata in the Vicinity of Mountain Ranges. 
By the Rev. J. Dineie. 

This paper was in continuation of an attempt to determine the mechanical causes 
of the formation of the earth’s crust, and to trace its progress. The author described 
the varying forms of flexure, diminishing in intensity with their distance from the 
igneous axis, which characterizes the strata in the neighbourhood of the mountain 
chains; and showed how this form would arise from the action of the molten interior, 
by referring to the result of experiments upon the action cf fluids under like condi- 
tions. He expressed his obligations to Professor Rogers for the valuable information 
which he had derived from a paper of his in the Edinburgh Transactions, but de- 
murred to some of his hypotheses. Flexures at definite points must be produced by 
repeated or continued pressures, and not by paroxysmal action. The latter chiefly 
spends itself in earthquakes and volcanoes, which, upon the whole, can produce no 
continuous change of form, ‘The two forces, however, seem to be intimately related 
to each other; and if we suppose the one to be only the other in excess, we are 
supplied with a simple explanation of the connexion between the corrugated moun~ 
tain chains and the lines of earthquakes and volcanoes. 

As a corollary from the above views, it might be observed that they destroyed the 
idea of any distinct theory of volcanoes of elevation or eruption, as the quantities of 
elevated or ejected matter in the case of a fissure or a ruptured corrugation might be 
in any proportion whatever to each other. 


Remarks on the Ichthyolites of Farnell Road. 
By Sir Purrip ve M. Grey Ecerton, Bart., F.R.S. 

At the Meeting of the British Association last year at Aberdeen, I had an oppor- 
tunity of examining several speciimens of the small fishes found in the Old Red Sand- 
stone deposits of Farnell, and in the discussion which ensued upon the reading of 
Mr. Mitchell's paper, I took occasion to remark upon their several characters. I then 
stated that all the specimens I had seen belonged to the family Acanthodei, and the 
great majority of them to the genus dcanthodes, representing, however, a new species 
of the genus. I proposed inconsiderately to name this species 4. antiquus, a very 
inappropriate title, inasmuch as two contemporaneous species were subsequently ex- 
hibited by Mr. Peach. As, however, this name has not appeared in print, I propose 
to cancel it, and substitute 4. Mitchelli, as the original or type-specimen is in the 
possession of the Rev. Hugh Mitchell, of Craig. The other specimens I described as 
constituting a new genus corresponding in many characters with Diplacanthus, but 
differing in the shortness and position of the spines of the fins. I proposed for this 
genus the name Brachyacanthus. 

The specimens from the same locality recently received from Mr. Powrie are of the 
same species as those examined at Aberdeen. I learn, however, in a letter received 
from Mr, Powrie since I have examined his specimens, that he has in his possession 
others comprising at least two’ very distinct species of Dipiacanthus, one remarkable 
for its very strong anterior dorsal spine, and fragments belonging probably to other 
species. Mr. Mitchell also writes that another locality has been found rich in remains 
of Acanthodian and other fishes. Under these circumstances it would be premature to 
enter into any detailed account of these interesting ichthyolites. As the materials, how- 
ever, are sufticiently complete, I append a short description of Acanthodes Mitchelli. 

The specimens I have examined vary in length from 2 to 23 inches. The one I 
have selected for description attains nearly the latter dimensions. The greatest depth 
of the trunk occurs in advance of the ventral fins, where it measures rather more than 
half an inch, The head is small and elegantly sculptured. It measures about 1th of 
the total length. ‘The outline of the body is very graceful. It is fusiform anteriorly, 
and tapers gradually posterior to the insertion of the highly heterocerque tail. The 
orbit is placed very forward, and is embraced by the remarkable bony plates described 
by Romer as characteristic of the genus. ‘The peculiar structure of the gill-covers also 
corresponds with that of other species of 4canthodes, The pectoral spines are long 
and curved. The other fin-spines are slender and straight. The species differs from 
all others of the same period in the ornament of the head-bones and the form of the 


78 REPORT—1860. 


body. It is distinguishable also from Acanthodes Peachi, a new species discovered 
last year by Mr. Peach in the Caithness flags, by the form of the spines, the pectoral 
spines in the latter being straight, and the dorsal and anal spines curved. 


Photographs of Fishes, from Farnell in Fifeshire, were exhibited by Mr. W. Rocers, 
of Montrose. 


On a New Form of Ichthyolite discovered by Mr. Peach. 
By Sir Pattie Ecerton, Bart., M.P., F.RS. 

This fossil fish, discovered by Mr. Peach in the Caithness flagstones, is chiefly re- 
markable for the structure of the fins. The dorsal and anal fins are supported upon 
three interspinous bones in each organ, from which the fin-rays spread in tufts. A 
similar structure prevails in the caudal fin, It is nearly allied to Dipterus, and pro- 
bably belonged to the Ccelacanthoid family. The name Tristichopterus alatus has 
reference to the peculiar structure characteristic of the genus. 


On Circular Chains in the Savoy Alps. 
By M. A. Favre, Professor at the Academy of Geneva. 

The object of this memoir is to describe the peculiar structure of the mountain 
chains in Savoy, on the left bank of the river Arve. 

This region may be divided into several districts, which, in passing from Mont 
Saléve to Mont Blanc, are as follows: (1) the Tertiary, (2) the Cretaceous, (3) the 
Jurassic, and (4) the district of crystalline rocks. M. Favre treats of the second of 
these, in which the mountain chains surmounted by precipitous peaks are composed in 
great part of cretaceous rocks. This district is about 49 kilometres long from the 
river Arve to the lake of Annecy, by 24 broad. The loftiest mountain attains the 
height of 2760 metres above the sea-level, and there are several other summits be- 
tween 2300 and 2400 metres high. The geological formations which constitute this 
district are,—1. the Jurassic which occupy a very limited space; 2. the Neocomian; 
3, the Urgonian, which forms enormous escarpments, and constitutes the crest of the 
mountains; 4. the green sandstone; 5. the chalk; 6. the nummulite limestone ; fis 
the alpine macigno, which at its base contains various marls with fish scales, and 
above marls and sandstones associated with the Taviglianas freestone which is a 
species of volcanic cinder. 

One of the valleys of this district, that namely of Thones on Grand Bornant, is a 
longitudinal valley ; the others are transverse valleys watered by rivers arranged almost 
like the radii of a circle. This peculiarity in the direction of these rivers depends on 
that of the mountain chains; for the rivers in general cut the chain perpendicularly 
to their axes, and with the exception of Mont Charvin a la Pointe Percée, all the 
mountain chains of this district, and especially those on the borders, are in the shape 
of a quadrant, and lie in every direction that can be found in a quadrant. It is to 
these chains that M. Favre has given the name of circular chains. 

Mountain chains have long been remarked whose axes are more or less undulatory, 
others separating from a common trunk like the branches of a tree; strata, moreover, 
have been observed that rise to the surface of the ground in the form of the bottom 
of a boat; and the opposite phenomenon has likewise been observed, that namely of a 
mountain chain in the form of a vault or half cylinder sinking so as to disappear in 
the plain; but M. Favre is of opinion that the fact to which he has called attention is 
different from any of these, insomuch as it refers to entire chains, which are not only 
curved, but curved to such a degree that their extremities are at right angles to each 
other, 

M. Favre concludes his essay by calling attention to the fact that the chains of the 
Alps display the closest orographical resemblances to those of the Jura, which are 
now well known. Although the displacement of the soil is much greater in the Alps 
than in the Jura, in both are found groups either entire or broken, which in the latter 
case disclose in their interior, one, two, or three of the strata below that which forms 
their crest; in both are found combes, ravines, and valleys of the same form. M. 
Favre believes that the identity of these forms leads to the conclusion that the eleva- 
tion of the Alps and the Jura is due to causes of the same nature. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79 


On some Transformations of Iron Pyrites in connexion with Organic Remains. 
By AvPuonse GAGEs. 


I have to direct the attention of the Section to some facts regarding the transforma- 
tion of iron pyrites connected with fossil graptolites from Tinnaglough, Co. Wexford. 

These peculiar characteristic fossils of the Lower Silurian schists are found very 
often transformed into rhombic iron pyrites. 

This transformation into pyrites is now, since the observations of Pepys and others, 
easily accounted for, and therefore I have not to dwell upon it. 

Looking over some of those schists, we may observe the various transformations 
the fossil has passed through until it entirely disappears from the schist. 

I. Fossil] exhibiting some traces of organic matter, and not mineralized by pyrites. 

II. The same fossil transformed into rhombic iron pyrites. 

III, The transformation of the pyritic fossil into a corresponding fossil of aluminite. 

1V. A mere cast of the fossil, or indication of one only remaining. 

And lastly, in some neighbouring joints of the schist, a thin layer of sesquioxide of 
iron, alum, or of aluminite generally accompanied by free sulphur. 

Analogous phenomena may be observed in other fossils of the carboniferous form- 
ation, and especially in the lower limestone shale near Drogheda. 

One may observe in some points in which the fossil has been completely obliterated, 
a thin mineral layer of aluminous compounds, varying more or less in their chemical 
constitution. 

These facts are very suggestive in this sense, that if the processes of mineralization 
going on for ages have served to preserve many forms of organic beings, so also they 
serve to destroy them. 

We witness every day the destruction of a great number of pyritic fossils hy the 
mere action of air, and their transformation into sulphates, and sometimes, according 
to local circumstances, into sulphates and free sulphur. Whenever sulphur occurs 
in deposits containing organic remains, we are induced to believe that it has been 
formed in somewhat a similar way. 


On Snow Crystals observed at Dresden. By Dr. GEIN1Tz. 


On the Silurian Formation in the District of Wilsdruff. By Dr. GrtniTz. 


The discovery of Graptolites in the Lydit and Phthanit, lately made in the district 
of Wilsdruff, near the villages of Limbach, Lotzen, and Lampersdorf, a neighbour- 
hood where the azoic and metamorphic clay-slates, sometimes with true chiastolith, 
are predominant, now combines a considerable part of the most northern part of the 
Saxon Erzgebirge with the Silurian. : 

These black schists of Graptolites, with Monograpsus triangulatus, Harkness, Mon. 
priodon, Bronn, Mon. Becki, Barrande, and Mon. nuntius, Barrande, are continued in 
the schists of Graptolites on the northern slope of the Erzgebirge near Langenstriegis, 
not far from Frankenberg, Ober-Cainsdorf near Zwickau, Ronneburg, Oelsnitz, Hein- 
richsruhe near Schleiz, and various places of the district called Voigtland, where they 
indicate the same geological horizon as in Bohemia, the upper part of the Lower 
Silurian, or the base of the Upper Silurian of M. Barrande. All the species found 
in Saxony are described in the author’s ‘ Monograph of Graptolites,’ Leipzig, 1852. 


On the Metamorphic Rocks of the North of Ireland. By Rosert HarK- 
yess, F.RS., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in Queen's College, Cork. 


Almost the whole of the county of Donegal is occupied by rocks which appertain 
to the metamorphic series, consisting of gneissose rocks associated with limestones 
and quartz rocks. ‘The relation which these several rocks bear to each other, and to 
the syenitic masses which in some cases are found accompanying them, is well exhi- 
bited in the sections along the north side of Lough Foyle, from Malin Head to Inis- 
howen Head. On the S.W. side of Malin Head a protrusion of syenite is seen, which 
forms an axis in this portion of Ireland; and reposing on this axis there are found, 
first and lowest, quartz-rocks, succeeded conformably, on the north side, by flaggy 
gneiss; and on the southern side a like occurrence commonly takes place, In somé 


80 REPORT—1860. 


localities, on the southern side of this axis, limestone frequently intervenes between 
the underlying quartz-rocks and the overlying gneissose strata; and the limestones, 
scattered in small patches among the metamorphic rocks of the north of Ireland, oc- 
cupy this position with reference to the rocks of this character. The arrangement of 
these rocks in this part of Ireland, as regards position, is as follows: the lowest quartz- 
rocks succeeded by limestones, which are not persistent, but upon which, when present, 
great masses of chloritic gneiss are seen having usually a S.E, dip, often the result of 
reversed flexures. ‘Through these rocks, which are the Irish representatives of the 
strata of the Grampians, numerous trap dykes occur. 


Notes on the Geology of Captain Palliser’s Expedition in British North 
America. By Dr. HeEcror. 

The following remarks are explanatory of a section commencing at Lake Winnipeg, 
continued along the basin of the Saskatchewan River to the Rocky Mountains, and 
from thence to Vancouyer’s Island. his section is only intended to represent the 
more general results of this geological exploration, as a preliminary to the reports 
which are in preparation. 

The rocks east of Lake Winnipeg have been fully described by geologists. They 
are a part of the so-called Laurentine chain, and consist of granite and metamorphic 
rocks. On these lie Silurian limestones, cherty, and of magnesian character, with 
corals and shells, easily referable to Silurian types. Above these Mr. Hind has found 
Devonian strata, of which, however, I saw no trace farther south. The supposed line 
of their outcrop is marked by salt springs. 

The first well-defined strata in the Prairie country occur 150 miles west of Red 
River, and are indurated olive shales, with ferruginous bands and traversed by veins 
of clay ironstone, with a few small fossils, chiefly fish-scales, and a small, neat species 
of nucula. They are a deep-water deposit. 

At the elbow of the Saskatchewan River, the banks are formed of purple laminated 
clays, with lines of Septaria of various sizes, These Septaria yield fossils, which are truly 
cretaceous forms. ‘The most common are Baculites and Inocerami, These Septaria 
clays are also deep-sea deposits. ‘hey are again met with on the north branch of 
the Saskatchewan, 150 miles to north-west, and the course of this river is for some 
distance determined by these soft beds. At the Snake Portage, in lat. 54° N., L 
thought I observed them overlaid by thick grits and clays, which must be next de- 
scribed; but of this junction I am not certain, and the dip is so slight that they may 
be even underlaid by these grits. 

The latter strata, in beds often 200 feet thick, form high ridges, which range north 
and south, crossing both Saskatchewans, and also the Red Deer River, at the Nick 
Hills. They form mainly two parallel ranges, and between them occur clays with 
coal or lignite beds from 2 to 10 feet thick, and consistent in their strike from north- 
west to south-east. This coal is used at Fort Edmonton, and burns pretty well. 
Some vegetable impressions, like those of cypress and dicotyledonous leaves, are found 
in the shale, but no other fossils. 

As these coal-beds and shales occur in the river-beds, and at low levels compared 
with the surrounding prairie, it is manifest that the surface-beds of which these are 
composed, are of later age; but whether conformable with them or not, I am unable 
to say. 

To the south-east of the elbow of the Saskatchewan, at the base of the Coteau de 
Prairies, and at a locality on the Souris River known as the Roche Percée, is a group 
of marls, with limestone bands, containing so much iron as to weather of a bright ver- 
milion colour, and ash-coloured arenaceous clays, with their bands of lignite and 
silicified wood. Selenite crystals are abundant in these marls, often clustered in stel- 
late forms. ‘They are mixed with bands of grit, from a few feet to 30 feet in thick- 
ness; and these being generally of a soft nature, with indurated portions, weather out 
in the most grotesque forms. 

On the higher grounds traversed by Battle River, and again on Red Deer River, 
where they are seen to rest on the great lignite group, are also beds of marl, lime- 
stones with iron like those of the Roche Percée, beds of lignite and true brown coal, 
with silicified trees, and abundance of fossils of an estuarine character. Among these 
latter are oysters, a good deal like the Pacific species, Mytili, Cyprina, and other 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81 


marine forms in some beds; and in others Paludina is the prevalent fossil. On the 
very high grounds (such as the Ochéschis or Hand Hills and the Cyprees Hills), these 
strata pass up into sands, gravel, and beds of coarse shingle, which, at the same level 
(4000 feet above the sea), skirt the base of the Rocky Mountains, and there rest on 
the edges of upturned strata of various ages, 

All the strata which I have mentioned are covered with a mantle of drift, which 
does not rise much above 3000 feet; but near Battle River there seems to be a group 
of deposits which I have termed Tertiaries of the low grounds, 

The strata composing the Rocky Mountains may be briefly described as follows : 
—lIn crossing from the east, thirty or forty miles before entering the range, beds of 
grits and shales are observed much disturbed, but obviously dipping to the east. 
From a level of 4000 feet above the sea, the mountains rise as parallel ranges of cliffs 
from 3000 to 4000 feet in height. The first five or six of these ranges are composed 
of blue crystalline and earthy limestone in bold plications, including portions of the 
same grits and clays that are seen along the eastern base. ‘This group of strata must 
be several thousand feet in thickness, and contain fossils of Carboniferous age. To 
the west, and forming the range which in general determines the water-shed, is an 
immense thickness of quartzite and conglomerates, not much altered, and apparently 
horizontal. A wide longitudinal valley marks the line between this formation and 
the Jast mentioned, and is probably the site of a great fault. 

On descending the western slope of the mountains, while in the bottom of the 
valleys are vertical talcose slates, the higher parts of the mountains are composed of 
the same strata which form the eastern ranges, until the great valley is reached, 
which the Columbia and Kootanie rivers traverse, while their course is parallel to the 
range. 

West of this a belt of slates and semi-metamorphic rocks was crossed, followed by 
granite with true metamorphic rocks containing serpentine and marble, which brings 
us to Colville. 

South and west of this plain commence the great superficial floes of basalt with 
beds of tufa, which have emanated from the flanks of the Cascade range. The Cas- 
cade range itself consists of syenite and slates, with volcanic rock of recent date. 

The greater mass of Vancouver's Island is composed of the same metamorphic 
strata as at Colville; but along both sides of the Gulf of Georgia, which separate it 
from the mainland, and also forming the islands in that gulf, occur beds of grits and 
coarse conglomerate, much disturbed and resting on volcanic rocks, and containing 
the well-known deposits of coal and lignite as at Nanaimo and Bellingham Bay. 
These coal-bearing grits at Nanaimo, I found to be overlaid by Septarian clays, such 
as those I have found to the eastward of the Rocky Mountains, and containing the 
same cretaceous fossils, comprising Baculites and Inocerami. These clays are ob- 
served, again, to be covered by grits. Fossils were obtained at some distance below 
the coal at the base of the whole group, which have not yet arrived in England for 
examination, ‘They are, however, either lower cretaceous or oolitic forms. 


Remarks on the Geology of New Zealand, illustrated by Geological Maps, 
Drawings, and Photographs. By Prof. F. von HocustTerrer. 


Some Observations upon the Geological Features of the Volcanic Island of 
St. Paul, in the South Indian Ocean, illustrated by a Model in Relief of 
the Island, made by Capt. Cybulz, of the Austrian Artillery. By Prof. F. 
von HocusrEtrer. 


On the Six-inch Maps of the Geological Survey. 
By E. Hutt, B.A. BGS. 


On the Blenheim Iron Ore ; and the Thickness of the Formations below the 
Great Oolite at Stonesfield, Oxfordshire. By Epwarpv Hutt, B.A, 
F.G.S. 

The author described the position of this iron ore as occurring in the upper part of 
the Marlstone or Middle Lias, along the valley of the Evenlode, near Charlbury ; its 
1860. 6 


82 REPORT—1860. 


outcrop being traceable for some distance along both banks of the river. It is 
identical in geological position with the Cleveland ore of Yorkshire, and similar in 
its mineral character. ‘Che bed varies in thickness from 10 to 15 feet, and the ore is 
capable of being worked to an unlimited extent by tunneling into the hilly side from 
the outcrop. The fossils, which are local, consist of the usual Marlstone species, as 
Rhynchonella tetrahedra, Terebratula punctata, &c. 

Mineral Character.—At the outcrop, the iron-bed presents a rich ferruginous aspect ; 
but when followed to some depth below the surface, the original colour is found to be 
olive-green, and under the magnifying glass the stone appears oolitic. In this state 
the ore is probably a carbonate and silicate of iron—the latter imparting a green 
tinge. When exposed, it passes into a hydrated peroxide of iron. The remaining 
constituents are carbonate of lime, 10 per cent. ; silica, 12 per cent.; alumina, 7°8 per 
cent. Phosphoric acid is only present in minute quantity, viz. 0°55 percent. The 
chief market for the ore is expected to be South Wales*. 


Thickness of the Formations below the Great Oolite at Stonesfield. 


For the purpose of ascertaining the depth of the iron-bed below the Stonesfield 
slate, the Duke of Marlborough directed that one of the slate pits should be continued 
downwards till the ore was reached. This has not been accomplished ; for on reach- 
ing at a depth of 120 feet the Upper Lias Clay, the water flowed in so plentifully that 
the men were drowned out. With the assistance of numerous sections near Fawler, 
the deficiency in the series may be supplied; and the following are the results :— 


Succession of Strata at Stonesfield. 


feet. 
Great Oouire. 1, Upper Zone.—White limestone, resting on caleareous shales 
and marls (total thickness about) ............eceeseseevees itseadduwenl sascsttcae MOG 
2. Lower Zone.—Sandy shales, flags, and shelly oolite, with a band of 
“« Stonesfield slate” at 10 feet from the top ....... sh Debts cbecadee ss ocawub treet 80 
Inrerton Oorire. Upper Ragstone (zone of Ammonites Parkinsoni).—Large- 
grained, rubbly oolite, very fossiliferous, with Trigonia costata, Lima 
gibbosa, Terebratula globata, Clypeus Plotii... ........4. cadedvdasaceeeeepeees 30 
Urrer Lias Cray.—Blue laminated clay..........scccseseeseees Siiessaisvinteas inane sre 
Martstone. 1. Zron-bed.—Massive ferruginous rock, with Rhynchonella tetra- 
Peed, Cress bee ee Ee Perens re caaeaccsederssenobort e 10-15 
2. Sands, with iron concretions atop .........6...000e: vateeaee PTT Ce ace 


Lower Lirias Cray.—Thickness unknown. 


Comparing the development of these formations with that which they attain in 
Gloucestershire, the author showed that they all tended to decrease in thickness when 
traced from the north-west towards the south-east of England, and contended that 
these facts bore out the theory which he had on previous occasions endeavoured to 
demonstrate, that all the secondary rocks of England undergo attenuation towards 
the south-east. The following comparison had been arrived at from carefully mea- 
sured sections :— 


Comparative Sections. 


Gloucestershire. Oxfordshire. 
Maximum thickness. Minimum thickness. 
feet. feet. 
Fuller’s Earth ...... ae 40 0 
Inferior Oolite ........ . 264 5 
Sands... 20-50 0 
Upper Lias Shale ... 380 6 
Marlstone ..:...3.05.06-. 250 25 
Wowerdviasie ccs scree --- 600 (nearly) g 


The author considers it probable that under Oxford the Great Oolite is separated 


* As this ore extends under the property of the Duke of Marlborough, theauthor has 
named it the “ Blenheim iron-ore;” and for fuller details refers to his memoir, ‘‘The Geo- 
logy of the Country round Woodstock,” Mem. Geol. Survey, 1857. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 


from the Lower Lias by not more than 25 feet of strata, of which the Marlstone forms 
the greater part. 


Notes on some Points in Chemical G'eology. 
By T. Sterry Hunt, F.L.S., of the Geological Survey of Canada. 


Dolomites and Gypsum.—Mr. Sterry Hunt has shown, from the mode in whick dolo- 
mites occur and from the phenomena presented by their associated fossils, that these 
magnesian rocks cannot have been formed by the alteration of pure limestones, so that 
the theories of Von Buch and Haidinger, proposed to explain their formation, are 
really in nowise applicable. He has further shown, that in the famous experiment 
suggested by Haidinger and performed by Von Morlot, who asserted that by the 
action of sulphate of magnesia, in presence of water in an excess of carbonate of lime, 
at 200° C. under pressure, there is formed sulphate of lime and a double carbonate of 
lime and magnesia, the fact has been overlooked that in reality no double carbonate 
is obtained, but only a mixture of anhydrous carbonate of magnesia with carbonate 
of lime, and consequently not a dolomite, which is a chemical compound of the two. 

In Marignac’s modification of Von Morlot’s experiment, where the chloride is sub- 
stituted for the sulphate of magnesia, Mr. Hunt finds that a variable portion of this 
double carbonate is really formed, and remains mingled with the excess of carbonate 
of lime and anhydrous carbonate of magnesia, which is also a result of the reaction as 
before. Charles Deville’s late experiments, in which fragments of limestone were im- 
pregnated with magnesian solutions, and heated at the ordinary pressure, with forma- 
tion of soluble lime-salts and magnesian carbonate, are but imperfect repetitions of 
Von Morlot’s and Marignac’s processes, and none of these are applicable to the great 
majority of cases in which pure and magnesian limestones are associated in such ways 
as to show that they have been successively deposited from water, the latter sometimes 
enclosing pebbles and fossils of pure carbonate of lime. 

Mr. Hunt proceeds to show that, when mixtures of amorphous hydrated carbonate 
of magnesia with carbonate of lime are heated under pressure to a temperature of 
300° to 400° F., direct combination ensues, and dolomite is formed; and he gives 
reasons for supposing that this combination may take place slowly at much lower 
temperatures. 

It was, however, necessary to find a source for the magnesian carbonate which had 
formed these magnesian sediments, and here Mr. Hunt has signalized a remarkable 
and hitherto undescribed reaction, by which carbonate of lime decomposes sulphate of 
magnesia, not with the aid of heat and pressure as in Von Morlot’s experiment, but at 
the ordinary temperature. When a solution of bicarbonate of lime is mingled with a 
liquid containing sulphate of magnesia, a double decomposition takes place, and by 
evaporation at temperatures between 90° and 180° F., the lime is deposited in the 
form of gypsum, a very soluble bicarbonate of magnesia remaining dissolved, which 
is precipitated by further evaporation, If we conceive the carbonate of lime to be 
furnished by springs falling into a closed lake or basin, the carbonate of magnesia 
would be precipitated in a state of mixture with carbonate of lime, thus giving the 
elements of the dolomite which is always associated with stratified gypsum. 

Mr. Hunt has further shown that, by the action of waters containing alkaline carbo- 
nates upon sea-water, the lime is first precipitated, and at length there is formed a 
solution of bicarbonate of magnesia. To this agency he ascribes the vast deposits of 
magnesian rocks which exist independent of gypsum, and which sometimes contain 
‘an excess of carbonate of magnesia over that required to form dolomites, or lime being 
absent, are magnesites, 

The part which carbonate of soda has played in giving rise to carbonates of lime and 
magnesia must, according to Mr. Hunt, have been very important in former periods, 
The source of this has been the decomposition of felspar, which, in being reduced to 
‘clays, have lost the whole or a part of their soda in the form of silicate, which, converted 
into carbonate by the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, is now represented by the sea~ 
‘salt of the ocean and the carbonates of lime and magnesia of the rocky strata. Clays 
‘and argillites are unknown in the vast thickness of crystalline rocks which constitute 
in Canada the Laurentian system, lying beneath the Lower Silurian series. In these 
oldest rocks, the alumina exists in the form of felspar, in great part with a base of 
‘soda; but in the Silurian rocks, when altered, aluminous silicates abound, such as 


6* 


84 REPORT—1860. 


chlorite, epidote, and alumina-garnet, and in those strata where lime and magnesia 
are absent, chloritoid Andalusite, staurotide, and kyanite. These minerals, which are 
only formed in aluminous sediments that have lost their alkalies, become more and 
more abundant on the newer strata. 

‘The consideration of the composition of mineral springs, as Mr. Hunt has remarked, 
shows that the solvent action of water removes from sediments chiefly soda, lime, and 
magnesia, and with the concurrence of organic matter, oxide of iron, so that the more 
permeable strata, and generally more siliceous, retain scarcely any other bases than 
alumina and potash; the argillaceous and less permeable beds, on the contrary, retain 
the whole of their bases. ‘The operation of processes continually going on in nature 
therefore tends to divide the silico-argillaceous rocks into two classes, whose meta- 
morphism and displacement will give rise, on the one hand, to granites and trachytes, 
and on the other, to rocks made up of basic felspar and pyroxenes. : 

The author regards all the so-called igneous rocks as altered and translated sedi- 
ments, and distinguishes them by the name of exotic rocks, from the same sediments 
altered in situ, which may be called indigenous plutonic rocks. He insists upon the 
fact that the chemical composition and, for the most part, the lithological characters 
of all the varieties of intrusive rocks may be found represented in metamorphosed sedi- 
ments. 

Mr. Hunt has called attention to the fact, that as long ago as 1834 Keferstein 
advanced the opinion that all plutonic rocks are only altered sediments, and thus 
anticipated in part Sir John Herschel’s theory of earthquakes and volcanic pheno- 
mena, to which Mr. Hunt has given a wider extension, connecting it with Mr. Bab- 
bage’s speculations on the result of the rising of the isothermal lines in the earth’s 
crust, consequent upon the accumulation of sediments. ‘The first result of this heat 
would, as Mr. Babbage has shown, produce expansion and elevation ; but when meta- 
morphism takes place, the contraction attendant upon the conversion of the sediments 
into the denser silicates, such as chloritoid pyroxene, garnet, epidote staurotide, and 
chiastolite, must produce an effect directly opposite. In this way Mr. Hunt conceives 
that while the earth’s nucleus may be a solid, although incandescent mass of anhydrous 
silicates, we may suppose that the inferior strata, which are undergoing metamorphism 
and igneo-aqueous fusion, agreeable to the views of Poulett Scrope, Herschel, Scheerer, 
and Sorby, are contracting in such a manner, that we may possibly admit with Elie 
de Beaumont a shrinking of the fluid mass beneath, which will explain the great plica- 
tions of the earth’s crust, and thus reconcile this theory with the view of a solid 
nucleus. At the same time he is inclined to refer the great movements of elevation 
and subsidence, for the most part, to what Herschel has described as “ the disturbance 
of the equilibrium of pressure” consequent upon the transfer of sediments, while the 
yielding mass reposes upon a mass of matter partly solid and partly liquid. 

These views will be found in the ‘ Reports of the Geological Survey of Canada for 
1857 and 1858,’ where the experiments upon gypsum and magnesian rocks are given 
in detail. Also in a memoir published in the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological 
Society’ for Nov. 1859. 


On the Igneous Rocks interstratified with the Carboniferous Limestones of the 
Basin of Limerick. By J. Beetz Juxes, M.A., F.RS. 


The author called attention to some of the lately published sheets of the ‘ Geological 
Survey of Ireland,’ including this district, and stated that the ground had been sur- 
veyed by Messrs. Kinahan, Foot, O’Nelly, and Wynne. 

He gave a brief sketch of the physical structure of the country around Limerick, 
and then proceeded to describe its igneous rocks. These are of two kinds, trap and 
trappean ash. The trap varies greatly in texture and aspect, more perhaps than in 
mineral composition, ‘The trappean ash (or tuff) is the result of the mechanical ero- 
sion of the igneous rock, either during the time of its eruption or immediately after, 
and before it was buried under other aqueous rocks, It consists of grains or frag- 
ments of trappean material, varying from the finest powder to a coarse conglomerate, 
with blocks several inches in diameter, and often contains large and small fragments 
of limestone, and sometimes of other matters. 

It is perfectly stratified, lying in regular beds, interstratified both with the limestone 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 


and with the trap, and blends, almost insensibly, sometimes into one, and sometimes 
into the other rock. 

In the centre of the district, about Ballybrood, is a small hill of the lower coal-mea- 
sure shales, resting upon the upper limestone on one side, and on trap on the other. 
This trap attains a thickness of 800 or 1000 feet, and is chiefly contemporaneous bedded 
trap, but has some intrusive parts, which cut like dykes into the coal-measures. It rests 
on a bed of ash, and at its eastern end, at Nicker Hill, near Pallas, the most curious 
and complicated interstratifications of limestone, ash, and trap may be distinctly ob- 
served. 

Beneath this upper trap comes a regular band of upper limestone, 600 or 800 feet 
thick, surrounding the trap and coal-measures on all sides, and forming an oval basin. 

From underneath this another great belt of trap and ash crops out, forming a cor~ 
responding outer basin, the dimensions of which are about 12 miles from E. to W., and 
6 miles from N. to S. 

The lower limestone rises from underneath this, and undulates for some miles over 
the adjacent country. Towards the N.W. some of these undulations are sufficiently 
great to bring the upper limestone in again, underneath the present surface of the 
ground, and with that large parts of the lower trap and ash. ‘here are thus formed 
three considerable detached outlying basins of trap and ash, one round Cahernarry 
and Roxborough, another about the eastern side of the city of Limerick, and a third 
round Carrigagunnil. ‘There are also one or two small exhibitions of similar rocks 
towards the north, apparently on a rather lower horizon. 

The above igneous rocks are all bedded and interstratified with the limestones, 
except in a few places, where they seem rather to occur as small intrusive dykes, 
cutting through the other traps as well as the aqueous rocks. 

In many places the bedded traps become quite vesicular and scoriaceous, the vesi- 
cles being often filled with carbonate of lime and other minerals, and thus forming 
an amygdaloid. 

In some places these vesicular parts occur as irregular bands intermediate between 
bands of solid, compact, or even crystalline trap, precisely resembling the figures given 
by Sir C, Lyell of the junctions of different flows of lava on Mount Etna. 

There are, however, six other detached masses of igneous rock, five on the south 
and one on the north of the basin above spoken of, which are clearly intrusive masses 
rising up through the limestone, and not now connected with any overlying contem- 
poraneous sheets of trap. It is probable that these mark the sites of the volcanic foci 
or funnels, through which some of’ the sheets of trap flowed to the then surface, such 
sheets, with the upper limestone including them, having been long ago removed by 
denudation. It is also probable that similar small detached foci or funnels lie still 
concealed beneath the areas occupied by the contemporaneous traps and ashes. 

One of these detached masses, called Knock Dirk (not the hill which is called merely 
Dirk), is a true syenite, having crystalline particles of quartz mingled with felspar 
and hornblende. 

It is difficult to give any precise name to the rock comprising the other masses. 
Some of the traps, both intrusive and contemporaneous, would be commonly called 
felspar porphyry, others gréenstone, and others basalt. When the felspar porphyry 
loses its distinct crystals of felpar, it might perhaps be called felstone. Felstone, 
however, as understood by the author, means a rock composed of a trisilicated fel- 
spar, mingled with an overplus of silica in a state of paste; and it seems diflicult to 
suppose that silicated rocks proceeding in a molten condition through and over sucha 
basic substance as the carboniferous limestone, should still contain any uncombined 
silica, except in the heart of a large mass like Knock Dirk. It would seem, therefore, 
advisable to apply some other name, such as aphanite, for instance, to the compact 
felspathic rocks above spoken of. In the absence of precise chemical analysis, which 
the author regretted that he had been unable hitherto to procure, it had seemed better 
to speak of all the igneous rocks collectively under the vague but sufficiently intelligible 
designation of trap. 

Mr. Jukes also stated, that he was much struck with the very great resemblance 
between these trappean ashes and some of the traps, and those which he recollected 
to have observed in the volcanic islands in Torres Straits, where small detached yol- 
canoes have broken through the coral reefs, and formed rudely conical accumulations 
of stratified ashes containing lumps of coral limestone together with flows of horn-. 


86 REPORT—1860. 


blendic lava. It is probable that beneath the sea-level sheets of such lava and vol- 
canic ash lie interstratified with the coral limestone. Certainly, if Torres Straits were 
depressed, and these islands exposed to the breakers, horizontal beds of the ash and 
voleanic conglomerates would be derived from them, and spread over the surface of the 
coral reefs. 


On the Tynedale Coal-field and the Whin-sill of Cumberland and Northumber- 
land. By J. A. Knipe. 


The author points out the interesting fact of the true Newcastle coal being worked, 
and that most successfully, at a distance of about 40 miles west of the Great Northum- 
berland and Durham coal-fields at the locality named. The history of this and an ad- 
joining coal-field, called the Stublick, are both similar, viz. the stvata are thrown down 
many hundred feet by the prolongation of the 90 Fathom Fault, which is well known 
and may be well observed on the Northumberland coast at Cullercotes. The principal 
shaft sunk on this outlying coal-field, on the line of railway from Haltwhistle to Ald- 
stone Moor, is named the “ King Pit,’’ Midgeholm Colliery. The depth of the shaft 
is 506 feet 6 inches; there are five workable seams of coal, the aggregate thickness 
of which is 23 feet. 

The Great Whin-sill, or interstratified trap, may be traced, more or less, for many 
score miles in the counties of Cumberland and Northumberland, to its termination 
on the coast of the German Ocean, at Dunstanburgh Castle. At Wall Town, situated 
on the old Roman Road, north by west from Haltwhistle, a town and station on 
the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway, about 23 miles, the Whin-sill assumes a very bold 
bluff appearance, after emerging from the superincumbent limestone rock. In places 
it has a columnar structure, but has now much of its mural appearance changed by 
trees growing amongst the ruin and debris of the rocky structure; on the summit 
there is still a very perfect portion left of the Roman wall. ‘The author described the 
section through the limestone grit shales, ironstone, and Blenkinsop Mines to the King 
Pit and Tynedale Fault. 


On the Eruption in May 1860, of the Kotliigjé Volcano in Iceland. 
By W. Lauper Linpsay, I.D., P.LS. 


It may interest the Geological Section of the British Association to be informed 
that an eruption has recently occurred of the Kétltigj4 voleano, Iceland, from a visit 
to which island I have just returned, Had time permitted (which it does not) I in- 
tended to have drawn up for the British Association a brief account of the chief phe- 
nomena of the eruption in question, accompanied by drawings made on the 13th June 
inst., and a map of the district, and preceded by a summary of the preceding erup- 
tions of the same volcano, which are fourteen in number. I hope at greater leisure to 
prepare such a notice for some of the journals, 

Meanwhile I may concisely state that the volcdno in question is situated in the 
south of Iceland, about twenty miles from the coast, near, but considerably to the east 
of, the well-known Hekla, which has been quiescent since 1846. Kotltigj4 is part of a 
range, fifteen to twenty miles long, of glacier-covered mountains or “ Jokuls,” which 
include Eyafjalla, Myrdals and Godalands Jékuls; the average elevation above the 
sea being between 4000 and 5000 feet. The eruption began on the 8th of May last; 
it was preceded by earthquakes of a local character; the first indication of its advent 
being a dark cloud hovering over the summit of the mountain. The usual chief ejecta 
of K6tligj4, when in a state of eruption, are hot water, pumice, and ashes. On the 
occasion of the last, or fifteenth eruption, in May last, the most noteworthy pheno- 
menon was the enormous water-flocd sent forth, a flood which bore with it pieces of 
ice so large that they were stranded in the sea (twenty miles distant) at a depth of 20 
fathoms. ‘The flames which issued from the crater were on the 12th of May visible 
in Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, which is at least eighty miles distant; and on 
the 16th smoke rose to the height of 24,000 feet, this column of smoke being also 
visible in Reykjavik. I left Scotland for Iceland on the 8th of June inst., expecting to 
find K6tliigja still giving forth its fire and pouring out its floods of water. On the 13th 
we sailed close to the south coast of Iceland from Portland’s Hak westward, the wea- 
ther being beautiful and our view of Myrdals-Jokul and the neighbouring Jékuls ex- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87 


cellent: but all was quiet; not a vestige of smoke even was to be seen. Touching 
at the Westmanna Islands, we were informed that the Kétltigj4 eruption had ceased 
a few days previously, having done comparatively little mischief to the farms in its 
vicinity. 

[Derails of the eruptions above referred to, as well as an account of the Geology 
and Topography of K6tltigja, will be found in a paper by the author “On the Erup- 
tion in May 1860, of the Kotltigj4 Volcano, Iceland ”—accompanied with a Map 
“illustrative of the Physical Geography of that part of the South of Iceland in which 
Kotliigj4 is situated "—in the ‘ Ndinburgh New Philosophical Journal’ for January 
1861, p. 6, and pl. 2; and also in his “ Contributions to the Natural History of Vol- 
canic Phenomena and Products in Iceland” in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society 
of Edinburgh’ for 17th December 1860.]—June 1860. 


On some Reptilian Foot-prints from the New Red Sandstone, north of 
Wolverhampton. By the Rev. W. Lister. 


The object of this paper is simply to announce the discovery, in a fresh locality, of 
foot-prints of the Labyrinthodon, Rhynchosaurus, and of another animal, or animals, 
with which I am not acquainted. Hitherto, I believe, the remains of the Laby- 
rinthodon have only been found in Warwickshire, and the north of Cheshire and its 
neighbourhood ; and the Rhynchosaurus in the Grinsel quarry near Shrewsbury*. The 
foot-prints now discovered have been met with in Staffordshire, in a quarry of the 
New Red Sandstone, on the very borders of the Red Marl, at a place about six miles 
north of Wolverhampton, in the parish of Brewood, on the road between “The 
Stone House”’ and Somerford. “‘The Stone House,” which is given on the Ordnance 
Map, is near to Chillington Avenue Gates, and within 200 yards of the quarry. The 
bed in which the foot-prints occur is about 12 feet from the surface. One of the slabs 
was so thickly covered with impressions, resembling those of the Rhynchosaurus, as 
to make one feel that the animals which made them must have been very numerous 
on the spot. These were smaller than most of the others, and I have a strong im- 
pression that they were those of young animals, they were so uniform in size and 
form. But unfortunately, the slab, whick was from 5 to 6 feet long by from 3 to 4 
broad, was removed before I had an opportunity of re-examining it. 

The ripple-mark is very beautifully preserved on some of the slabs, and so is also 
the rain-drops; while in many cases the amount of sand deposited by each tide is 
readily discovered by the thickness of its layers, which lie one on the other, and which, 
by means of the ripple-mark, show also the direction in which the water flowed, or 
the wind blew, at the time they were deposited. The deposits of two, three, and, in 
some cases, of even four tides are easily seen. 

Some of the foot-prints of the Labyrinthodon are 10 inches in length; those of the 
Rhynchosaurus are from 1 to 2 inches. 


On the Koh-i-Noor previous to its Cutting. 
By the Rev. W. Mircuett and Prof. Tennant, F.G.S. 


On the Contents of Three Square Yards of Triassic Drift. 
By C. Moors, F.G.S. 


The author stated that several years ago he suspected the presence of triassic rocks 
in the neighbourhood of Frome, from accidentally finding a single block of stone on a 
roadside heap of carboniferous limestone, containing fish remains of the former age; 
but that for a long time he was unable to discover it in situ. More recently, when 
examining some carboniferous limestone quarries near the above town, he observed 
certain fissures which had subsequently been filled up by a drift of a later age. One 
of these was about a foot in breadth at the top, but increased to 15 feet in breadth at 
the base of the quarry, 30 feet below, at which point teeth and bones of triassic reptiles 


* After the reading of the paper, it was stated by Mr. Hull of the Government Survey, 
that impressions of the Labyrinthodon have been discovered in two or three other fresh 
localities, but they haye not, as I understand, been published.—W. L. ; 


88 REPORT—1860. 


and fishes were found. Usually these infillings consisted of a material as dense as 
the limestone itself, and from which any organic remains could only be extracted 
with difficulty. In another part of the section he was fortunate enough to find a de- 
posit consisting of a coarse friable sand, containing similar remains, In order that 
this might receive a more careful examination than could be given to it ou the spot, 
the whole of it, consisting of about 3 tons weight, was carted away to the residence 
of the author, at Bath, a distance of twenty miles; all of which had passed under his 
observation, with the following results:—The fish remains, which were the most 
abundant, were first noticed. Some idea might be formed of their numbers when he 
stated that of the genus dcrodus alone, including two species, he had extracted 45,000 
teeth from the three square yards of earth under notice, and that they were even 
more numerous than these numbers indicated, since he rejected all but the most 
perfect examples. Teeth of the Saurichthys of several species were also abundant ; 
and, next to them, teeth of the Hybodus, with occasional spines of the latter genus. 
Seales of Gyrolepis and Lepidotus were also numerous, and teeth showing the pre- 
sence of several other genera of fishes. With the above were found a number of 
curious bodies, each of which was surmounted by a depressed, enamelled, thorn-like 
spine or tooth, in some cases with points as sharp as that of a coarse needle; these 
the author supposed to be spinous scales, belonging to several new species of fish, 
allied to the Squaloraia, and that to the same genus were to be referred a number of 
hair-like spines, with flattened fluted sides, found in the same deposit. There were 
also present specimens, hitherto supposed to be teeth, and for which Agassiz had 
created the genus Ctenoptychius, but which he was rather disposed to consider 
(like those previously referred to) to be the outer scales of a fish allied to the Squa- 
loraia. It was remarked that, as the drift must have been transported from some di- 
stance, delicate organisms could scarcely have been expected; but, notwithstanding, 
it contained some most minute fish-jaws and palates, of which the author had, either 
perfect or otherwise, 130 examples. These were froin a quarter to the eighth of an 
inch in length, and within this small compass he possessed specimens with from thirty 
to forty teeth; and in one palate he had succeeded in reckoning as many as seventy- 
four teeth in position; and there were spaces where sixteen more had disappeared, so 
that in this tiny specimen there were ninety tecth! Of the order Reptilia there 
were probably eight or nine genera, consisting of detached teeth, scutes, vertebra, 
ribs, and articulated bones. Amongst these he had found the flat crushing teeth 
of the Placodus ; a discovery of interest, for hitherto this reptile had only been found 
in the muschelkalk of Germany,—a zone of rocks hitherto wanting in this country, 
but which, in its Fauna, was represented by the above reptile. But by far the most 
important remains in the deposit were indications of the existence of triassic mam- 
malia. Two little teeth of the Microlestes had, some years before, been found in 
Germany, and were the only traces of this high order in beds older than the Stonesfield 
slate. The author’s minute researches had brought to light fifteen molar teeth, either 
identical with, or allied to, the AZicrolestes, and also five incisor teeth, evidently be- 
longing to more than one species. A very small double-fanged tooth, not unlike the 
oolitic Spalacotherium, proved the presence of another genus and a fragment of a 
tooth, consisting of a single fang, with a small portion of the crown attached, a third 
genus, larger in size than the AZicrolestes. Three vertebrae, belonging to an animal 
smaller than any existing mammal, had also been found. The author inferred that 
if twenty-five teeth and vertebrae, belonging to three or four genera of Mammalia, 
were to be found within the space occupied by three square yards of earth, that por- 
tion of the globe which was then dry land, and from whence the material was in part 
derived, was probably inhabited at this early period of its history by many genera of 
Mammalia, znd would serve to encourage a hope that this family might yet be found 
in beds of cven a more remote age. 


Remarks on Fossil Fish from the North Staffordshire Coal Fields. 
By Witt1am Mouynevx. 

The author of this paper stated that little more than two years ago the fossil fish of 
the coal-field in question comprised, so far as was then known, a list of eight genera 
only, and those of a kind most commonly found in other home-representatives of the 
system. J.ast year, at Aberdeen, he had the honour, in connexion with Mr. Garner, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 89 


of exhibiting before this Section a collection of such remains, the generic number of 
which amounted to upwards of twenty, including some new to science, and others of 
a rare and interesting order. On the present occasion his principal object was to 
draw attention to some specimens obtained since the period alluded to. One of 
these, Ctenacan/hus hybodoides (Egerton), was in a perfect state of preservation. 
Another specimen was a lower jaw of Rhizodus, whose long powerful teeth, arranged 
in pairs, resembled in their curved points R. incurvus of the Ohio coal-field; but as 
there appeared to be doubts of its specific identity, probably it would prove to be a 
new species. There was also a fragment of a massive jaw of the same genus which 
presented features of much interest to the ichthyologist. 

Of the smaller ganoids exhibited, one represented a new genus, obtained from the 

deep mine ironstone shale at Longton, at the pit where ironstone was first worked 
for the purpose of manufacture in North Staffordshire. The specimen measured four 
inches in length, but was scarcely one inch in its greatest depth immediately behind 
the head ; the form being tapering and elegant. ‘The dorsal fin was placed but half 
an inch before the bifurcating point of the caudal, and slightly in advance of the 
anal fin, the rays being strong and articulated. The scales were rhomboidal in 
form, and profusely ornamented with raised lines, which assumed the character of a 
series of Gothic arches ranging from the centre of the scale. Some undescribed spe- 
cimens of Paloniscus, with many large teeth of Placoid fish, were also exhibited. 
__ The coal-field in question was found to be particularly rich in fish-remains ; and 
although little more than two years had been actively devoted to the subject, the 
generic list had during that time increased from eight to thirty-three in number, and 
the author felt sanguine that it would ultimately prove quite as rich in species as the 
Old Red of Scotland. These remains, it was stated, occur very irregularly ; some 
beds of ironstone in the upper division of the measures contain considerably more 
than others, but it was only in one instance, that of the new mine, that they were 
found forming a stratum from one to three inches in thickness. Though anything like 
perfect specimens were comparatively rare, the fine compact shales of the knowls 
and deep mine ironstones had lately produced some well-preserved specimens of 
Palzoniscus and Platysoma, 


Notice of a Fossiliferous Deposit near Farnell, in Forfarshire, N. B. 
By J.Pownrts. (Communicated by Sir R. Murcuison.) 


This deposit, which is situated on the south-east bank of the Pow Burn, about half a 
mile south-west of the Farnell Station of the Scottish North-Eastern Railway, 
mostly consists of fine greyish argillaceous shales, the lower portion splitting into 
laminz nearly as thin as writing-paper, and when first opened of a delicate cream- 
colour; the upper beds are thicker, and vary from a cream-colour to dark grey: in 
many places these are considerably stained by the infiltration of iron in solution. 
The dip is, at an angle of about 12°, in a nearly north-west direction, the strike thus 
following that of the Great Anticline which runs through Forfarshire, a little to the 
south-east, in a direction of from north-east to south-west nearly. 

This deposit rests conformably on a thick-bedded coarse dark red sandstone, and 
varying from 4 to 6 or 7 feet in thickness, is overlaid by coarse broken shales, above 
which is a considerable thickness of boulder clay and soil. Both from its position 
and peculiar organic remains, it can at once be recognized as occupying the same 
position in the Forfarshire formations as the Turin Hill and Carmyllie flagstones. 
Cropping out on the banks of a small stream, it was first noticed as affording indications 
of being fossiliferous by the Rev. Henry Brewster of Farnell, and pointed out by him 
as such to the Rev. Hugh Mitchell, who first discovered that, besides Parca decipiens 
and remains of Pteryyoli, &c., it contained small fishes in astate of wonderful preserva- 
tion; these being, with the exception of Cephalaspis and afew veryimperfect ichthyolites, 
the first fishes found in the Forfarshire sandstones: a paper was read, and a selection 
of these exhibited by Mr. Mitchell at the Meeting of the British Association held at 
Aberdeen last August (1859). Indisposition has prevented him continuing to aid in 
these explorations. 

The Earl of Southesk, on whose estates this deposit is situated, has lately most 
liberally opened up this deposit, and placed the examination of its contents under the 


90 REPORT—1860. 


superintendence of Mr. Brewster and myself: already a considerable portion has 
been carefully looked over, and has yielded to our researches some most interesting 
remains: these lie scattered through the whole deposit, but in the upper and coarser 
beds are for the most part both badly preserved and very fragmentary; in the lower 
fissile portions they are more perfect, and the state of preservation is generally very 
fine: no painting could equal the beautiful appearance some of the smaller fishes 
exhibit when the little slab in which they have been entombed is first opened up, and 
still damp. From the fragile nature of the matrix, great care is required in splitting 
it up; and in afterwards fitting up the specimens for preservation they are exceedingly 
apt to be destroyed. 

The Parca decipiens is the most abundant organism found; finely sculptured frag- 
ments of Plerygotus Anglicus and other Pterygoti are by no means uncommon ; and 
one or two varieties of as yet unnamed Eurypteride have been found, and are now in the 
collections of Mr. Brewster and Mr. Mitchell. But by far the most interesting feature 
of this deposit is the comparative abundance of small-sized fishes not found elsewhere 
in Forfarshire ; although Cephalaspis is frequently found in other localities along with 
Plerygotus, as yet not a fragment of this fish has been disinterred. All the fishes I 
have as yet examined, in a state of preservation sufficient for identification, belong to 
the family Acanthodii, and, in so far as I am able to ascertain, to the genera Acanthodes 
and Diplacanthus. Of the latter genus (Diplacanthus), two, if not more, very distinct 
species have, up to this time, been found; unfortunately these are very rarely entire, 
the deposit being a good deal fractured and faulted; although the largest of the 
Diplacanthus yet found does not seem to have been over 6 inches in length, only one 
nearly complete fish of that genus has as yet turned up; the other specimens show 
merely portions of the body, tail, &c. Of Acanthodes, the fishes, being small, are 
generally much more entire: of this genus I can only discern one species, and this, 
although provisionally named at the Aberdeen Meeting ‘ Acanthodes antiquus,” in 
no way differs, in so far as I can see, from the specimens of Acanthodes pusillus I have 
been able to procure for comparison (these, however, have all been very imperfect), 
further than the condition of the sediment in which they had been laid down, and 
similar natural causes might readily explain. : 

Although by no means prepared to assert the positive specific identity of the Far- 
nell fishes with those of the same genera found in Cromarty, Morayshire, &c., yet their 
general resemblance to these fishes found in our more northern deposits, in- my 
opinion, strongly points to the probability of our Forfarshire flagstones belonging to an 
epoch more nearly approximating in geological time to the fish-beds of the northern 
counties than has as yet been generally thought likely. 

Besides these, some very imperfect remains of fishes, evidently belonging to other 
families, have been found; it is to be hoped that further explorations may throw some 
additional light on the nature of these fragments (see p. 78). 


Sir R. I. Murcutson exhibited the New Geological Map of the Vicinity of Oxford. 


On the Geology of the Vicinity of Oxford. 
By Professor Puriuies, M.A., F.RS. 


On some New Facts in relation to the Section of the Cliff at Mundesley, 
Norfolk. By Josery Prestwicu, F.R.S. Se. 


The object of the author was to correct an opinion which prevailed regarding the 
superposition of the freshwater depusit at Mundesley. In the interesting sections 
of the Norfolk coast, given by Sir C. Lyell in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine ’ for May 
1840, the freshwater beds of Mundesley are represented as intercalated in the Boulder 
Clay. The wearing away of the cliff since that period has exposed a clearer section, 
from which it appears to the author that there is no intercalation of the beds; but 
that the freshwater beds overlie the Boulder Clay, and that they are newer than any 
portion of the cliff except a bed of the gravel which passes over them. They lie in a 
hollow worn through the upper beds and the Boulder Clay down to the sands beneath, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91 


and they are clearly separated from all these older beds by another and underlying bed 
of gravel. 

The author further noticed that the lower sands and gravels under the Boulder clay 
contained a layer of marine shells in a perfect state of preservation, consisting of 
Mytilus edulis (some with Balani attached) and Littorina littoralis, and traces of 
others. Again, below this is a seam of dark clay containing freshwater shells, chiefly 
the Pisidium amnicum, and a Unio, while a short distance lower is the well-known 
Forest bed with its elephant and other mammalian remains. He concludes by call- 
ing attention to the Mundesley deposit as being probably synchronous with the flint- 
implement bearing deposit of Hoxne. 


On Slickensides. By J. Price, 


On the Chronological and Geographical Distribution of the Devonian Fos- 
sils of Devon and Cornwall. By WiiLiaM PENGELLY, F.G.S. 


The limestones, slates, and associated sandstones of North and South Devon and 
Cornwall have, as is well known, caused much perplexity as to their real place in the 
chronological series of the geologist. Thanks, however, to the labours of Professor 
Sedgwick, Sir R. I. Murchison, Mr. Lonsdale and others, the problem is now gene- 
rally admitted to be solved; the rocks in question are the equivalents of the Old Red 
Sandstones of Scotland and elsewhere ; they belong to what is known as the Devonian 
age of the world. 

Some little difficulty, however, exists—or rather once existed—in the way of the 
full and unqualified acceptance of this decision. The rocks of Devonshire are crowded 
with the remains of invertebrate animals, especially sponges, corals, and shells; 
whilst the supposed contemporary deposits of Scotland and the adjacent isles are so 
rich in fossil fish, that, in the language of the late Hugh Miller, ‘‘ Orkney, were the 
trade once opened up, could supply with ichthyolites, by the ton and the shipload, 
the museums of the world*;” but the fossils characteristic of either of these districts 
are not found in the other. Scotland does not yield the mollusks and zoophytes of 
Devonshire, nor is there recorded in the Jatter district more than the faintest trace of 
the ichthyolitic wealth of the North. 

Though this fact may still have difficulties connected with it, they have ceased to 
be chronological; for Sir R. I. Murchison tells us that ‘‘ The same fossil fishes, of 
species well known in the middle and upper portions of the Old Red of Scotland, and 
which in large tracts of Russia lie alone in sandstone, are in many other places found 
intermixed, in the same bed, with those shells that characterize the group in its slaty 
and calcareous form in Devonshire, the Rhenish country, and the Bouionnais,” ‘‘ The 
fact of this intermixture completely puts an end to all dispute respecting the identifi- 
cation of the central and upper masses of the Old Red of Scotland with the calcareous 
deposits of Devonshire and the Eifel+.” 

Professor Sedgwick has proposed the following threefold division of the Devonian 
rocks of Devon and Cornwall :— 

«The first and oldest of these groups may be conveniently called the Plymouth 
group, using these words in an extended sense, so as to include all the limestones of 
South Devon and the red sandstones superior to the Plymouth limestones. The 
equivalent to this group in North Devon includes, I think, the Ilfracombe and Linton 
limestones as well as the red sandstones of the north coast. i 

«The second group includes the slates expanded from Dartmouth to the metamor- 
phic group of Start Point and Bolt Head, and is, so far as I know, without fossils: it 
may be called the Dartmouth group, and its equivalent in North Devon is found in 
the slates of Morte Bay, which end with beds of purple and greenish sand-rock and 
coarse greywacke. It ranges nearly east and west across the county. : 

“The third group is not, I think, found in South Devon; but in North Devon it is 
well-defined, commencing on a base-line of sandstone beds which range nearly east 
and west from Baggy Point (on the western coast) to Marwood (which is a few miles 
north of Barnstaple), and thence towards the eastern side of the county. This group 


* Footprints of the Creator, p. 2. T Siluria, Third Edition, p. 382. 


92 REPORT—1860. 


is continued in ascending order to the slates on the north shore of Barnstaple Bay ; 
but its very highest beds are seen on the south shore of the bay, dipping under the 
base of the culm-measures. 

“The equivalent of this third and highest Devonian group is found to the south of 
the great culm-trough in a group, near the top of which appear the limestone bands 
and fossiliferous slates of Petherwin. It may be called the Barnstaple or Petherwin 

roup*.” 
: Ponfesser Sedgwick recognizes the Plymouth group in the slates of Looe, Polperro, 
and Fowey in Cornwall f. 

Accepting, at least provisionally, these divisions, we have, when considered chro- 
nologically as well as geographically, what, as a matter of convenience, may be called 
five fossiliferous areas; namely, a deposit of the age of the Plymouth group in each of 
the districts, South Devon, North Devon, and Cornwall; and one of the Barnstaple 
age in each of the two latter. To avoid undesirable repetition, they will be spoken of 
throughout this paper as Lower South Devon, Lower North Devon, Lower Cornwall, 
Upper North Devon, and Upper Cornwall. ‘The terms ‘‘ Lower’’ and “‘ Upper”’ are 
to be understood as applied relatively only to the rocks of Devon and Cornwall, and 
not as embodying or implying any opinion respecting the co-ordination of these rocks 
with deposits of the Devonian age elsewhere. 

Had existing materials warranted it, it would have been desirable to have made a 
farther division, namely, one having reference to the mineral character of the depo- 
sits, as well as to time and place; for it is certain, as might have been expected, that, 
in the same area, some fossils are peculiar to the argillaceous beds, and others are 
found only in the calcareous strata; thus, for example, I learn from Mr. Godwin- 
Austen that he has found the remarkable coral Pleurodictyum problematicum in the 
slates, but not in the limestones, at Ogwell in South Devon. My own experience is 
in harmony with this; the same fossil occurs in the slates at Torquay and, in great 
abundance, at and near Looe in Cornwall; but not in limestone anywhere. At pre- 
sent, however, it would be premature to attempt a division of this kind. 

The object contemplated in the present paper is to give some account of the ancient 
population of the five areas, especially with reference to their distribution, so far as it 
was known when the Census was last taken. 

Amongst the things which have recently drawn my attention to this subject may be 
mentioned the following passage in the address of Professor Phillips as President of 
the Geological! Society of London. ‘‘ Only a small proportion of the fossils of North 
Devon occur in South Devonf.” And also the following statement by Professor 
Haughton:—“I do not believe in the lapse of a long interval of time between the 
Silurian and Carboniferous deposits, in fact in a Devonian period. 

«« The same blending of corals bas been found in Ireland, the Bas Boulonnais, and 
in Devonshire, where Silurian and Carboniferous forms are of common occurrence in 
the same localities §.” 

It should be remembered that the statement with which we have here to deal is that 
the ‘blending of corals” (the word is not fossils) “of Silurian and Carboniferous 
forms is of common occurrence in Devonshire.” 

I have consulted such registers as I have been able to command, and have thrown 
so much of their contents as bear on the questions before us into the following tabular 
form, for which, of course, no higher value is claimed than attaches to the original 
documents. 

The materials have been in a great degree derived from Professor Morris’s ‘ Cata- 
logue of Fossils.’ 

Every geologist must, of course, be aware of the numerous and elaborate Tables 
which Professor Phillips has introduced in his ‘ Paleozoic Fossils of Devon and 
Cornwall,’ when discussing subjects akin to those at present under consideration. In 
the preparation of this paper the author has in no way made use of the valuable data 
these Tables contain. 


* Quarterly Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. viii. p. 3. t Ibid. p. 14. 
t Quarterly Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xvi. p. xl. 
§ Voyage of the ‘ Fox’ in Arctic Seas, Appendix, No. IV. p. 387. 


93 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 


99 89 
(pe) ae SS : 
88 }8 1 t (Tt ,¢ , 19 |ezszetist oz Fre 
ola eee |og tesla belt egcle es 
Ui My 9 6 Jott || #¢ lle 
Pole reo pes g pital iee Stale Me 
rz | 1 T | 08 llogisalr |6 |-eg lz |t 
ot oferta dele flr |g te te 
I eee vee . eee I ro I (é; \ 6 eee 
Balu swwes| ess | xen Te line lee eealegy Sh eee 
wee tT TMS ee Le teeics 
Easier pt | cree |iomah oy olleeg cet ealaee he li 
2] 2 | avpoyP my} ag | SSE Ey 
& | = |-my| = | -ng a z/9} 2) 2 | 22 
B.| 8 | "a ol lo} Pole 
Be: ; oo): 
g ale 
gv a|2 
o 
0} WOOD *s[e}O, 


Eh OGL |G TET |Zhe)26)6F 


¥ \O19 , T T Gj 
wily [pep ares ectieates 
= ETE east le, Ena Las 
adele eat | eet eae alte 
© je /€ |" | °° Ir l¢ WZ lee |¢ 18s 
Se [Ese swe | aie Nate eee 
seth: peladetedalal 
of bailey cgeed tbs pe lena cat om 
wile bechaetlp clot sete eateales 
ie A bese baler Ce 
FIRS} eo Aleleidiale|s| 
BA) en) ca} cal | eal call ll O} zo 
DS SSS Sictsi jo} jos 
aciels|Shorls|e 
 ZlalZiT 9) Zolz 
b} |o b} | 
0} uomM0D 0} AvINOeg 


8F |¢ I¢ 
LP IPLIG 
6F |Z116 
B0T/9T\Z | 
IT |Z |¢ |" 
IL |8 {Z 
crt 19 |€ 
6F 02/9 
6° IF Io 
nm) QQ) 
@ | e| 5 


*s[eqoy, 


‘ttiersaeree es esseneeeres epodoreydag 
Peer rece eeesastteeeeee eens epodo.szaysey 
“*"BAvVITOURAG [owe T 
et eereecce epodomorrg 
sreeeersessessee BOZOAIG 
Seer eee eeeewnseetetesesetess va0RqSNID 
tM e were e eet eeetttaes eee eyeUapoulyoq 


seasereeseeseeeecrsrrseees pahtdooy, 
eeecucce vozoydiowy 


wee tte wee tees tt eeee 


*[PMULOD pue OAT Jo s[issoq uvtuoAac oy} Jo ‘aovdg pue oulry, ur ‘uorNqIYysIC] aynposgy ay} Surmoyg “[ a71aVyJ, 


We learn from the three left-hand columns of figures headed “Totals” in the 


94 REPORT—1860. 


Table, that, taken together, the five areas have yielded 347 species of fossils belong- 
ing to 97 genera and 49 families, of 9 classes of animals; namely, three classes of 
the subkingdom Radiata, one of Articulata, and five of Mollusca; hence 15 of the 
24 classes into which the existing animal kingdom is commonly divided are totally 
unrepresented in the series, as is the entire vegetable kingdom also. 

It is scarcely necessary to remark that the fossils of Devon and Cornwall do not 
fully represent the organisms of the Devonian age, as six other classes—Pisces, 
Pteropoda, Cirripedia, and Annelida amongst animals, and Cellulares and Monoco- 
tyledones amongst plants—have been found in rocks of this age elsewhere; and of 
these the last and first two have been met with in British localities. 

The most important class numerically is Brachiopoda, to which 108 species belong ; 
that is 31 per cent. of the entire series. The families and genera of Cephalopoda are 
richer in species than those of any other class, averaging 16 for each family and 10 
for each genus. 

The most striking fact in this connexion, is the abundance of Brachiopoda and 
Cephalopoda, and the paucity of Lamellibranchiate and Gasteropod species, as com- 
pared with the numerical rank of the same classes in the existing British fauna; this 
will, perhaps, be most strikingly exhibited by the following Table :— 


Taste II. 

Devonian Mol- Existing 

lusca of Devon British 

_and Cornwall. Mollusca. 
BYYOZB4) (55, Gisscinee ieee bed 42 PE gies 72 
Brachiopoda ......... pier NB iese th sis ag 15°5 
Lamellibranchiata ...... 186 abs car 359°5 
Gasteropoda......... Eat palidige a i ae 5215 
Cephalopoda sig iiahsbacn? L828. SM Aeash ceed 315 

1000 1000 


which has been thus computed ; in the left-hand column the aggregate number of the 
species of fossil Mollusca found in Devon and Cornwall has been put=1000, and the 
numbers belonging to each class equated to this; the right-hand column has been 
formed on the same principle, and is based on the data given by Forbes and Hanley 
in their ‘ History of British Mollusca.’ 

It appears then that within existing British seas, the Lamellibranchiates are about 
twenty-four times more numerous, specifically, than the Brachiopods, whilst within 
what may be called the same area, the latter were to the former during the Devonian 
period somewhat more than as 2 to 1; that is, they were then 50 times more abun- 
dant than at present in comparison.with the other great class of Acephala. In like 
manner it is seen that, relatively to the Gasteropoda, the Cephalopoda were, in this 
early age of our planet, seventeen times more numerous than now. It may be added 
that, within the district under notice, the registered species of Devonian Brachiopoda 
and Cephalopoda absolutely, and in a high ratio, exceed those belonging to the same 
classes within existing British seas. 

The five columns of Table I. headed “ Peculiar to,” and distinguished from one 
another by the initials of the five areas, show the number of fossil species which, so 
far as England is concerned, are peculiar to each; from which it appears that 296 
species are peculiar to one or other of them, leaving no more than 51 distributed 
amongst them. Lower South Devon monopolizes no fewer than 19] species in this 
way, whilst Lower North Devon is equally remarkable for its fossil poverty. 

Five areas, taken two, three, four, and five together, are capable of being formed 
into twenty-six different combinations. Not a single species is common to the 
five areas, and only one, Cyathophyllum celticum, is found in each of four of them. 
The well-known coral Favosites cervicornis is the only fossil found in each of the 
three contemporary deposits of Lower North and South Devon and Cornwall. Of 
two areas only, Upper North Devon and Upper Cornwall have the greatest number-— 
fourteen—in common.* 


_ * See in Table I. the ten columns headed “Common to,” and distinguished by combina- 
tions of initials of two or more areas. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95 


It must be understood that any one of the ten columns just noticed shows, not the 
total number of species common to the areas the initials of which stand at its head, 
but simply the number at once common and restricted to them collectively; thus the 
second of these columns, headed L. S. D., L.C., shows that five species are common 
and restricted to Lower South Devon and Lower Cornwall; but in the third column 
we find one species common to them and also to Lower North Devon, in the fourth 
one common to them and to Upper North Devon, and in the eighth one found in each 
of them and also in Upper North Devon and Upper Cornwall; hence there are eight 
species common to the two areas instanced, five being restricted to them collectively 
and three not. The same explanation applies to the other areas. Hence the total 
number of species found in any area will be ascertained by adding the figures in all 
the columns marked ‘“ Peculiar to”’ and ‘Common to” at the head of which the 
initials of the area are found; thus, for example, a total of 47 species of Zoophyta 
occurs in Lower South Devon, of which 40 are not found elsewhere in Devon and 
Cornwall. Moreover, as the column marked “Species” shows that the two counties 
have yielded a total of 49 species belonging to this class, it is evident that two of this 
total number have not been met with in Lower South Devon. And so on for the 
other classes and areas, as is shown in the five columns headed “Totals” and 
distinguished by the initials of the areas. 

Of the 347 species, 67 are met with in various parts of Continental Europe, and 
7 in North America; 6 of the latter being included in the European 67, and one of 
the 6 is also found in New South Wales; thus making a total of 68 common to Deyon 
and Cornwall and to districts beyond the British Isles*. 

Comparatively few of the Devonian fossils of the two counties appear to have been 
derived from the Silurian fauna ; eight species only are referable to that earlier period+. 
Amongst these are the three corals, Favosites fibrosa, Emmonsia hemispherica, and 
Chonophyllum perfoliatum. The first has been found in Lower Silurian rocks at 
Llandovery ; in the upper deposits of the same system in various parts of the typical 
Silurian country, in eight counties of Ireland, in Russia, and in three North American 
localities ; during the Devonian era it existed in several parts of Devonshire, in 
France, and in Germany. The second, Emmonsia hemispherica, dates its origin 
in Upper Silurian times, when it seems to have been confined to the area of modern 
North America, ranging from the State of Ohio to Tennessee; having outlived the 
Silurian period, it sent colonies to Spain and Britain and greatly extended its range 
in America. 

Chonophyllum perfoliatum differs from the two former in having always lived 
within narrow geographical limits; it occurs in Upper Silurian beds at Wenlock, and 
in Devonian in one quarry near Newton in Devonshire; but its appearance is not 
recorded elsewhere. 

The wide geographical range of the first two would seem to imply hardy plastic 
constitutions, fitting them for distant travel, and existence under varied circumstances; 
there is, therefore, nothing very surprising in their extended vertical range; it is, 
perhaps, worthy of remark, that the second seems to have disappeared at the very 
zenith of its widely extended power. 

The very limited distribution, in space, of the last of the trio would scarcely suggest 
the thought that such an organism would be likely to be capable of enduring physical 
and thermal changes such as, there are reasons for believing, considerable lapses of 
time have always introduced into any given area; changes probably similar to those 
which an organism would experience in passing to a distant locality in any one and 
the same period. 

On the other hand, the well-known fossil coral Favosites Goldfussi occurs in Devo- 
nian rocks in Devonshire, at Nehou and Visé in France, at Millar in Spain, in the 
Oural, in the States of Ohio and Kentucky in North America, and in New South 
Wales. It seems to have successfully struggled with the varying conditions of change 
of place, and might have been expected to be equally capable of contending with 
such as depend on lapses of time; nevertheless, the facts do not harmonise with such 


* See in Table I. the columns headed Eu. (Continental Europe), Eu. Am. (Europe and 
America), Am. (America), Eu. Am. Au. (Europe, America, and Australia). > 
+ See in Table I. the column headed “ Silurian,” 


96 REPORT— 1860. 


inferences ; Chonophyllum perfoliatum formed part of the Silurian and Devonian 
faunas, but was confined to the British area; Fuvosites Goldfussi was at home in 
every part of the world, yet it commenced and terminated its career within the De- 
vonian period. 

The rocks of Devon and Cornwall have 58 species of fossils in common with 
those of the Carboniferous group*, but no corals or sponges amongst them; so that 
it cannot be said that “there is a blending of Silurian and Carboniferous corals in 
Devonshire,” whatever there may be elsewhere; for though, as has been stated, three 
Silurian corals have been found, not one referable to the Carboniferous fauna has 
been exhumed there}. 

The species which thus passed from the Devonian into the Carboniferous period are 
found in the three principal fossiliferous deposits of Devon and Cornwall, as exhibited 
in the following Table :— 


Taste ITI. 

Totals. | L,S.D.| U.N.D.} U.C. 
iEehinodermatary, tie cieeis sis e poles 6 3 2 cv ee 
Cristaceain, hychieelisasde cite 1 1 see sae 
EVGzGWa sla agen eet gates tooo. 6 3 2 2 
Brachiopudateeauiner sy creeks 24 15 9 7 
Lamellibranchiata,..........08. 4 2 aoe 2 
Gasteroportats isis cise eg nc 6 tei 10 6 3 3 
Cephalopoda 3), Sivenca epic sees > ss 7 = 2 3 


The populations of the three areas seem to have been thus composed :— 

South Devon :—6 Silurians+220 new species (7. e. Lower Devonian)=a total of 
226, of which 34 passed into the Carboniferous. 

Barnstaple :—1 Silurian + 13 Lower Devonians + 64 new (Upper Devonians) = a 
total of 78, of which 18 passed into the Carboniferous. 

Petherwin :—1 Silurian + 15 Lower Devonians + 57 new (Upper Devonians) = a 
total of 73, of which 18 passed over to the Carboniferous. 

Of the ‘new forms” in the Barnstaple and Petherwin areas (64 and 57 respect« 
ively) 14 are common, : 

It is perhaps worthy of remark that the five areas have a smaller number of organic 
forms in common—closely connected as they are both in time and space—than with 
Devonian deposits in Continental Europe and elsewhere beyond the British Isles, or 
with the Carboniferous rocks of Ireland and Central and Northern England. 

Table I., to which attention has so frequently been directed, represents, so far as 
is at present known, the absolute distribution of the fossils in the two counties in 
which they occur ; but, for purposes of geological chronology, it is probably of greater 
importance to ascertain their relative distribution; this is shown in Table 1V., which 
has been calculated from Table I. thus : the total number of species in each class is 
put=1000, and the figures in the other columns equated to this, 


* See in Table I. the column headed “ Carboniferous.” 
+ See ‘Monograph of British Fossil Corals,’ by Messrs. Edwards and Haime, pp. 150 and 


212. 


97 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 


*snotaziuoqiz9 | : 


19 


“aeLINTTS : 


see 


one 


eee aoe 


0} uowm09 


6aF| 


C12 eee 


‘C'N’ 


oes 


SRO NGC) 


00 “a 'N‘O | 


*s[}0., 


eee levtleee 16 


wee [eeeleee! eee 


ar Sear 


eee 


| 
leet evelogz| cor foe 


lel gg learltg | 
a eareoen “sal 0G 


6 |9F/S9 | O€1| 8s | 8% 


ol 
Loma 
Lm! 


0} UOMIUIOD 


0} ielNoeg 


Lik 


099 
906 


Les 


teeseesererersseneees apodoreydag 
sersereeeeeereeeeeses pyodo19}9e0) 
TrreeeeeseeseespaBITOURAGI [Ue] 
MalelstaaVesiets e ciiWicte attr vpodotyorrg 
stteeerersesensnsessetesers gazo rer 
tereeeeeeeaneeeeneesees waguasnag 
tsteeeeereeseees pavaT@pOULYOG 
rereteeeeeeeeereseeeseoe Ba iUdOOT 


Feta wereereerneeeeses vozoydiouy 


“TPMUIOD PUL MOAI] JO S]Isso] URrUoAaT a3 Jo ‘aovdg puv awry, ur ‘uorNqIystq sarmjagy oy Surmoyg “Ay atavy. 


1860. 


98 REPORT—1860. 


Each area is marked by some class being relatively most abundant in it, as is ex- 
hibited below, thus* :— 


L. 8. D. L.N. D. L. C. U.N. D. U.C. 


Zoophyta. | Bryozoa. | Amorphozoa. | Lamellibranchiata. | Cephalopada. 


When ranged, in descending order, so as to show, relatively, the migration of their 
species from the Devonian to the Carboniferous era, the classes stand thus: Bryozoa, 
Echinodermata, Brachiopoda, Gasteropoda, Cephalopoda, Crustacea, Lamellibran- 
chiatat. 

The distribution of the genera is just as marked as that of the species; 92, out of 
the total 97, are found in Lower South Devon, and of these 45 are, in Britain, pecu- 
liar to it. Every genus of the classes Zoophyta and Brachiopoda occurs in it; the 
genera thus limited, however, are usually poor; 33 of the 45 contain each but a 
single Devonian species. The richest genus not found elsewhere is Acervularia, a 
group of corals belonging to the great Palaeozoic family Cyathophyliide ; it contains 
7 species, all peculiar to this area. One of the richest genera in the entire series 
is Clymenia, belonging to the class Cephalopoda; of this genus 11 species are found 
at South Petherwin, and not one is met with elsewhere in Britain. The genus Cyrto- 
ceras, with the single exception of C. rusticum (probably a synonym for Orthoceras 
arcuatum), is restricted to Lower South Devon, where it isrepresented by 12 species. 

The chronological range of the Devonian genera of Devon and Cornwall is shown 


below. 


Tasre V. 


pe eee Common to 
Ses re 
ees| 22 
eB Aa oO ze Devonian, Cerponteriity Carboniferous, 
2 fat Silurian, Silurian.’ Devonian. 
Amorphoz0a ....-...++ 4 3 1 So ese 
Zoophyta sse...cssessseee 20 10 5 3 2 
Echinodermata ......... 6 2 50 3 1 
Crustacea ....ersesessess 8 1 5 sie 2 
Bryozoa......- scauacstece 7 0 ne 5 2 
Brachiopoda............. 16 3 2 8 3 
Lamellibranchiata...... 17 2 1 9 5 
Gasteropoda. ..........4+ 14 2 aes 11 1 
Cephalopoda ............ 5 1 2 2 
a Se ees jee ee as 
1f 07a ee 14 41 18 


Some of the genera common to the Devonian and Carboniferous eras, are found 
also in more recent deposits, and even in the existing fauna. 

Such appear to be the prominent facts in connexion with the subjects under con- 
sideration. What is their interpretation? This is a problem more easily proposed 
than solved. Are we to believe that our knowledge of the geological record is too 
imperfect to warrant any important generalizations? Do our museums fully repre- 
sent the fossilized remains of bygone forms of life? Have all the extinct organisms 
already in our possession been registered in the published lists? Is the record itself 
so incomplete as to be altogether incapable of revealing to us the physical and organic 
history of our planet? Are the notions of biologists respecting specific distinctions 
sufficiently mature and uniform to warrant a reliance on their decisions? Some- 
thing must doubtless be conceded on each of these points; still there cannot but be a 


* See in Table IV. the columns headed “ Totals.” 
+ See in Table IV. the column headed “ Carboniferous.” 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99 


large outstanding amount of fact incapable of being thus explained away ; the problem 
demands some other solution. Suppose it true that in some cases the organic dissi- 
milarity, which has been described, was due to differences in the mineral character of 
the ancient sea-bottoms; still when we have two areas like Lower South and North 
Devon, consisting of contemporary, almost contiguous, and scarcely dissimilar depo- 
sits, one rich and the other poor in the variety of its organic remains, having together 
233 species yet no more than 8 in common, some other solution is obviously needed. 

Was there a terrestrial barrier separating the two areas? Was that which is now 
Central Devon occupied by dry land, which stretched far both east and west, while 
the waves of the Devonian ocean rolled over the north and south of the county? All 
the known physical facts are opposed to such a hypothesis. Moreover, 8 species 
actually did migrate from one area to the other; eight proofs, then, that a passage did 
exist, unless we suppose that both areas Were peopled from some more distant centre 
or centres of dispersion. 

It may be asked, were not these eight the remnants of an earlier (a Silurian) fauna? 
forms of life whose localization had been determined by an earlier distribution of land 
and water? Eight Silurian forms do make their appearance amongst the Devonians 
of Devon and Cornwall; are not these the very eight thus common? Nowit so hap- 
pens that they are not; in fact there is not a single Silurian form in the Lower North 
Devon series. This hypothesis then fails. Shall we hold with Professor Phillips, that 
“this unequal diffusion of definite forms of life may often be ascribed to eceanic cur- 
rents*?” 1 cannot but think that fewer difficulties attach to this than to any other 
hypothesis which has been proposed. It simply requires us to suppose that a per- 
sistent oceanic stream, flowing through Central Devon, separated the contemporary 
deposits of the north and south, and formed, by its thermal or other qualities, an all 
but impenetrable barrier to the marine tribes. 

Though, as we have seen, at least so far as Devonshire is concerned, the basis 
entirely fails on which scepticism respecting the existence of a Devonian period has 
been founded, namely, that ‘the blending of Silurian and Carboniferous corals is of 
common occurrence,” yet if the word “ fossil” be substituted for “ coral,” a blending 
of this kind certainly does occur, and doubiless the fact is not without a meaning. 
Eight species from the older and 58 found in the more modern (a total of 66) meet 
in Devon. Are they necessarily so many proofs that the rocks in which they were 
inhumed are not Devonian? It must be borne in mind that there are 281 species 
that are neither Silurian nor Carboniferous, but of an intermediate character. The 
paleontological argument then stands thus: there are 66 witnesses supposed to 
testify that the rocks are not Devonian, and 281 (upwards of 4 to 1) emphatically 
declare that they are. But the adverse witnesses are by no means agreed amongst 
themselves ; eight of them claim the rocks as Silurian, and fifty-eight as Carboniferous, 
Is there no way of interpreting their evidence, but that of sacrificing the Devonian 
system altogether? Are they not so many arguments in favour of the gradual pas- 
sage of system into system? so many difficulties in the way of a belief in catastrophes? 
by which I mean convulsions (or call it by any other name) which, from time to 
time, shook the very life out of the world, causing a series of universal and synchro- 
nous depopulations of our planet. May we not regard them as so many tints inter- 
mediate, both in quality and in place, between the extreme bands of the rainbow, 
uniting them into one beautifully graduated chromatic spectrum, so softly blending 
as to render it impossible to define the exact place of lines of demarcation? which 
perhaps have not, and never would have been supposed to have, a physical existence, 
had not observers hastily generalized from the imperfect evidence obtained during 
a period of colour blindness. 

But if the Devonshire rocks were handed over to the Carboniferous system, we 
should not be quit of the doctrine that some of the forms of one period have, at least’ 
in some instances, lived through it into the next; for the opponents of a Devonian 
period not only admit this, but rest their case on the alleged fact that “ Silurian and- 
Carboniferous forms are found blended together in Devonshire and elsewhere.” When, 
nearly a quarter of a century ago, Mr. Lonsdale first suggested that the fossils of 
South Devon, taken as a whole, exhibited a peculiar character intermediate to those 
of the Silurian and Carboniferous groups, he was perfectly aware that amongst them 


* Quarterly Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xvi. p. xl. 


Als 


100 REPORT—1860. 


were forms referable to each of these faunas, yet this did not deter him from making 
the suggestion, even in the face of a physical difficulty connected with the culmiferous 
beds of North Devon—subsequently removed by Prof. Sedgwick and Sir R. I, Mur- 
chison. 

And what has been the effect of the recent progress of discovery and nicer discri- 
mination on this question? Has it increased or decreased the evidence in favour of 
a Devonian period? In 1846 Sir H. De la Beche, discussing this subject, gave a 
total of 190 species noticed in South Devon which he disposed of thus: 75 Carboni- 
ferous forms, 10 Silurian, 8 common to Silurian and Carboniferous, and 97 peculiar 
to Devonshire*. At present—confining ourselves also to South Devon—the lists give 
a total of 226, of which 34 are Carboniferous, 6 Silurian, not one common to both, 
and 186 peculiar to the district; or putting the totals at each period =1000, and 
equating the separate numbers to this, the figures stand as in the following Table, and 
show a decided advance Devonianward. 


Taste VI. 
1846. 1860. 
Silurian..... BS Hate riebave ale eae 53 27 
Carboniferous.......... Cnet siete 395 150 
Silurian and Carboniferous ......... 42 0 
Pecnlrarthe re cette tte Cae eee hee 510 823 
1000 1000 


Doubtless the fact that the Carboniferous forms so greatly outnumber the Silurian 
has a meaning. Does not this greater organic affinity betoken a closer chronological 
connexion with the more recent than the more ancient period? Is it not an intima- 
tion that the lowest beds of Devonshire do not constitute the basement of the Devo- 
nian system? That the county has an ample development of Upper and Middle, but 
not of Lower Devonian rocks?” . 

Hitherto we have accepted the hypothesis that the South Devon rocks are more 
ancient than the Barnstaple and Petherwin groups, and that the two last are contem- 
poraries. It may perhaps be well before concluding this paper to glance at the bear- 
ings of the palzontological evidence at present before us on this point. Putting the 
entire series of fossils found in each of the three districts =1000 and equating accord- 
ingly, the numbers stand as below. 


Tarte VII, 


South Devon, | Petherwin. | Barnstaple. 


Rihana: a<u-deranuueasnieee 27 14 13 
Deyomianiisc sve fiers cueisia tee soatere 823 740 756 
Carboniferous ,.........e0008 150 2416 231 

1000 1000 1000 


Whence it seems tolerably safe to infer that neither of the three deposits is Carboni- 
ferous or Silurian, but intermediate, having a closer connexion with the former than 
the latter period, and that South Devon is the most ancient of the three groups; but 
the evidence is scarcely strong enough to carry any conclusion respecting the relative 
age of the remaining two; so far as it goes, it amounts to no more than a suggestion 
that Petherwin is rather more modern than Barnstaple. Be that as it may, the fossils 
found common to South Devon and each of them must be regarded as contributions 


* “Memoirs” of Geological Survey, vol. i. p. 96. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101 


from it to them; using the same notation as above, the figures stand—Lower Devo- 
nians in Petherwin 205, in Barnstaple 167; and intimate a relative age the reverse of 
that just suggested, so that the only thing proved is the insufficiency of the evidence 
to decide the point; unless, indeed, it leaves us where it found us, accepting the 
hypothesis that the two deposits are strictly of the same age. 

The figures now produced, though they fairly represent our present knowledge, can 
only be regarded as rough approximations. It is more than probable that whenever 
the Census is taken again, it will be found necessary to make, perhaps extensive, 
modifications in the Tables. 


On some Phenomena of Metamorphism in Coal in the United States. 
By Professor H. D. Rogers, LL.D., F.RS., F.GS., Glasgow. 


On the Geology of the Neighbourhood of Cambridge and the Fossils of the 
Upper Greensand. By the Rev. Professor S—epewick, F.R.S., F.G.S. 


On three undescribed Bone-Caves near Tenby, Pembrokeshire. 
By the Rev. Gitpert N. SMITH. 


The first of these caves was discovered about twenty years ago in blasting a cliff 
overhanging the sea at Caldy Island, for the purpose ofgtransporting the mountain 
limestone of which it is composed to the opposite coast of Devonshire. It had no 
external opening at that time: the side walls were vertical, or nearly so, the strata 
standing perpendicular to the plane of the horizon, as they frequently do hereabouts. 
The cave was formed by a stratum of considerable thickness, having disappeared at 
that place for some eight or ten yards, being probably of softer materials than that 
both above and below, supposing the mass to be restored to its natural horizontal posi- 
tion; and this apparently by the action of the sea in earlier periods. Both the walls 
and the roof have since been removed, so that now no cave exists there; but the floor, 
still containing fragments of bone, is covered with the debris of the quarrymen’s 
labours, 

While the cave yet remained I obtained from it the usual osseous relics of the cave 
mammals,—as bones of the Elephas primigenius, Rhinoceros, Sus Scrofa, Equus, 
Cervus, Bos, Ursus, Hyena, Felis Tigris or Leo, Lupus, Canis Vulpes, and some 
smaller Carnivora. Besides these bones, there were the remains of marine fauna— 
abundance of dorsal spines of some species of ray probably: these varied in length 
from I3 inch to 2 inches; and other portions of fish skeletons. 

The larger bones showed the same marks of gnawing described in the ‘ Reliquiz 
Diluvianz’ of buckland. Some of them exhibit down the edges impressions of the 
teeth of a Rodent, probably a rat. The nearer these bones lay to the surface of the 
red water-washed loam in which they were imbedded, the lighter they were, and more 
nearly approaching in every respect the condition of exposed bones of recent existing 
animals ; indeed many on the surface were sheep’s bones; but some on high ledges of 
the cave were in the same ponderous state as those below, which is usually called 
fossil. At this time geology had not so far progressed as to suggest the possibility 
of human remains, which therefore, if present, were not observed. 

The condition of the cave in general, and the situation of some of the bones in 
particular, suggested nothing of the probability of this being a den of hyenas, by whom 
the bones had been conveyed into its recesses. but quite the contrary. Hyzenas’ bones 
lay about precisely in the same condition as the rest: the whole seemed to have been 
forcibly driven into the cavern by the action of water; and some of the bones, par- 
ticularly a large ulna, 103 inches in diameter, were wedged firmly into fissures, just 
as pieces of drift wreck are observed to be on rocky coasts. 

It is assumed in the ‘ Reliquiz Diluvianz’ that the presence of hyena’s dung in 
these caves decides this point; but it should be remembered that the hyzna is a bone- 
rather than a flesh-eating animal, and that consequently the coprolitic balls are exceed- 
ingly hard, being composed almost entirely of phosphate of lime; and that they stand 
the action of water almost, if not altogether, as well as the bones themselves. M 
impression is that the whole were carried into the cave by water, and that the bones 


102 / REPORT—1860. 


were gnawed before they were deposited there. Moreover, if these Troglodyte follow 
the habits of their congeners in this latitude at present, they will be found to seek 
external, and even distant places for the purpose indicated. Badgers, for instance, 
resort to the same place nightly; and the ground glitters with the elytra of beetles, 
which at one time of the year constitute their principal food. It is an ill bird that 
fouls its own nest. The cleanly habits of dogs, too, are well known. 

A brief notice will suffice to mark the site of the second cave for future examination. 
It is on the same coast-line, and about the same sea-level, but further to the eastward. 
Like the former, its walls have been removed. The floor was covered with bones, which 
were shovelled into the sea when it was first broken into by the quarrymen. 

The particulars of the third cave will at this time be more interesting, perhaps, 
because with some of the same remains of Carnivora mentioned aboye, flint-implements, 
apparently of human workmanship, have been obtained. 

This cave is situated on the main land, and has a large open entrance half-way up 
the cliff, known to the inhabitants by the name of ‘the Hoyle.” I am not aware 
that it was examined with a definite purpose till about twenty years ago, when Major, 
afterwards Colonel, Jervis and Major Pugett exhumed two so-called flint celts, and one 
of metal, which were sent toamuseumin London. Lately a more careful examination 
has been made of the contents of the red loam which constitutes the floor of what may 
be called the first chamber of the Jong winding passage of which this cave consists, 
Teeth of the bear and hyzna were discovered in this deposit, together with a consider- 
able accumulation of sheep, pigs, and other existing animals. Here also are fish-bones, 
mixed with littoral shells like those of our present sea; among them may be named 
Patella, Cardium, Purpura lapillus, Mytilus, Littorina littorea, and Natica monili- 
fera. Most of these shells are found also in the raised beaches which appear at different 
heights ail round the adjacent coasts. 

Of the filling of these caves we have possibly some examples in the deep holes 
which occur in water-courses, over mountain limestone, in the neighbourhood, and 
which receive the mud and water after every glut of rain, for very many years, without 
becoming choked or full; but something more in the nature of a flood would really 
sometimes appear to be necessary to account for some of the phenomena. 


On the Selection of a Peculiar Geological Habitat by some of the rarer 
British Plants. By the Rev. W. 8. Symonps, M.A., F.G.S. 


The Rev. Mr. Purchas, who is now engaged on the Botany of Herefordshire, has 
divided the county of Hereford into twelve districts, and Mr. Symonds has been struck 
by the apparent selection of a peculiar geological habitat by some of the rarer British 
plants. 

The Snowdonian plants appear to affect the bands of volcanic ash that are inter- 
stratified with rocks of Snowdon. 

Lychnis viscaria grows in four botanical districts out of five in Great Britain on 
Greenstone; it grows on Stanner rocks, near Kington, with Scleranthus perennis. 
Carex montana is only found on the carboniferous limestone. Lathyrus Aphaca, in 
Worcestershire, affects the Keuper marls and sandstones. 

Mr. Symonds asks his brother naturalists especially to observe the flora of isolated 
trap rocks, and do him the favour of forwarding to him the result of their observation. 


On the Geological System of the Central Sahara of Algeria. 
By the Rev. H. B. Tristram, W.A., PLS. Sc. 


The paper, of which a short summary is appended, was compiled from the notes 
and observations made during a six months’ travel in the Sahara. The writer has no 
pretensions to being a geologist, nor was geology the object of his wanderings. 

But as so little is known respecting the characteristics of this portion of North 
Africa, he has not hesitated to give the result of his observations, in the hope that 
ae attention of more able and scientific naturalists may be directed to so interesting 
a field, 

On leaving the Atlas crest, and descending its southern slopes, we soon come upon 
the secondary rocks, which are the prevailing formation of the whole country between 
the Atlas and Laghouat. This district for about 400 miles due south is rocky, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103 


and with mountain-ranges running for the most part in parallel lines north-east and 
south-west, The southern slopes of the Atlas chain rise from a depression which in 
several parts, especially to the south of Tunis, is many feet below the level of the 
Mediterranean. From this depression the Sahara is for the most part a system of end- 
less terraces, some of which are only a few miles apart, while others are expanded into 
plains of from 50 to 100 miles in width, and which, so far as my observations and the 
information I could gather from native caravans and a trustworthy guide extended, in 
an unbroken series to within three days’ journey of Timbuctoo, when the traveller will 
probably find himself on the northern watershed of the valley of the Niger. 

As we advance, on every stage is written the record of the retiring ocean, which 
gradually, by the elevation of its southern shores, was driven back and back to the 
northward, till the last long inlet from the Gulf of Cabes to Tuggurt was drained and 
evaporated, leaving its traces in the salt plains, and occasional moisture of the Wed 
BRhir and Chott el Melah—the ancient Lake Tritonis. 

There are several singular exceptions to the course of the mountain-ranges above 
mentioned, which are generally the local causes of the oases, 

Thus at Laghouat we find several elliptical basins of diminishing size piled one on 
another. The lowest and largest rests on the flat surface of the secondary rock, which 
is the base of the whole system. Several great fissures, which pervade all these super- 
imposed basins, allow the water to percolate. It then rests on the impermeable rock, 
draining through a very thin stratum of gravel or sand into any depressions, whence 
it is raised by artesian wells, and creates an oasis. 

From the Sebaa Rous to Laghouat, all these ranges appear to belong to the lower 
chalk formation. Limestone predominates, and forms the ridges of the Sahari, Senalba, 
and Djellal mountains. It is of saccharoid structure, and of a variable colour, generally 
greyish white. In many of the plains there is sandstone, sometimes hard, and at other 
times so soft as to yield to the pressure of the fingers. This sandstone encloses nodules 
of flint of various colours and semi-transparent. By disaggregation these become de- 
tached from the softer medium in which they were imbedded. As the wind sweeps 
the sand, they form shingly beaches of pebbles, many of them of a pretty chalcedony, 
which is exported in some quantity to Paris. 

The upper deposit of limestone is marked by regular beds of gypsum of vast extent, 
which are found in every district of the Sahara, but never in the secondary formation 
of the Atlas region. 

South of Laghouat, the furthest French outpost, we came upon a shallow alluvial 
deposit of the very latest tertiary and diluvian formation. Near the mountains this is 
often composed of rolled pebbles in a limestone matrix. On the plains it is a white 
calcareous rock, a sort of crust, very hard at the surface, but soft and friable below, 
where it is mixed with green or grey clay, and epcloses many crystals of gypsum. 

The diluvian formation may be traced more or less distinctly, I believe, between 
all the ranges, even as far north as the Zahrez, near Djelfa. 

I was particularly struck by the fact that several of my fossil shells from these super- 
ficial deposits proved specifically identical with freshwater tertiary fossils from the 
region of the Black Sea. May not further research perhaps reveal, that at no very 
distant geologic epoch a vast chain of freshwater lakes, similar to those of North 
America at the present day, extended from the plateaux of the western Sahara as far 


as the neighbourhood of the Caspian? 

The basin of the M’zab country further still to the south supplied me only with a 
few fossils, apparently miocene. 

In turning from the M’zab southwards to Waregla, and thence north-east towards 
Tuggurt and the Gulf of Cabes, the geological system appears to be the same, but with 
fewer distinct little basins, and with more extensive diluvial deposits. 

As far as we could trace them, the basins are generally horizontal up to Biskra in 
the north, and Gufza in the east, or very slightly inclined, consisting of alternating 
beds of greensand (?), gypsum, and clay. These beds extend almost without inter- 
ruption, or with very slight depressions, from latitude thirty-one degrees north to 
thirty-five degrees north, and from longitude five degrees east to nine degrees east. 

The most interesting portion of this district is the Wed R’hir, a long line of depres- 
sion sloping from the Touareg desert, latitude thirty degrees north, and longitude five 
degrecs east (circiter), with its surface occasionally moistened by salt lakes, but with- 


104 REPORT—1860. 


out any springs of fresh water, yet affording at intervals throughout its whole extent 
a never-failing supply of sweet water, through artesian wells penetrating the upper 
limestone. An immense population is supported by this Wed R’hir, which is for many 
days’ journey one continuous line of oases, such as El Marier, ‘Tamerna, Tuggurt, 
Temacin, and after a further interval, in which its traces are lost, it reappears in the 
oases of N’Goussa and Waregla, and gradually is lost in the highlands of the south. 
But it is probable that even here the subterranean course of the water can be traced, 
and that the Touareg owe their means of subsistence to their knowledge of wells on 
this line. 

The Wed R’bir terminates in the Chott Melr’hir, a depression probably eighty feet 
below the Mediterranean sea-level and the lowest point of the whole Sahara. This 
basin extends eastwards to the Chott el Melah (Lake Tritonis), at a greater elevation, 
but yet scarcely rising to the sea-level, from which it is separated by some thirty miles 
of sand-hills and rocks. 

Proceeding northwards of the Melr’hir, we rapidly lose all traces of the diluvial 
deposits, and come upon the chalk, chalk-marl, and greensand in regular succession, 
dipping generally southwards. The three southernmost ridges of the Mons Aures, 
viz. the Djebel Checha, the Dj. Khaddou, and Dj. Amar, present us with these three 
stages of the cretaceous group in order. 

When we advance to the north of Biskra, the boundary between the Tell and the 
eastern Sahara, the mountains are composed of masses of nummulite limestone, with 
bands of gypsum and occasional interruptions of rock-salt, mixed with layers of marl. 
One of these mountains of rock-salt has been described long since by Dr. Shaw—that 
of El Outaia. 

There are many salt deposits, sometimes masses of isolated rock-salt, perfectly pure, 
of many hundred yards in circumference, as at Hadjera el Mehl (or Rochers de Sel), 
more frequently in the form of layers or incrustations on the plains near the Chotts, 
or beds of evaporated lakes. Some of the isolated rock-salt hills have been suggested 
to have been eruptions of argillaceous mud, gypsum, and rock-salt across the secondary 
and tertiary deposits. 

In such a country as the Sahara, we cannot expect to find much mineral wealth, 
beyond the salt, gypsum, and natron. There is a quarry of oxide of manganese in the 
Djebel Trisgrarine, traces of lignite and carbonized trees at Ain el Ibel, and many hot 
springs—some pure, others strongly impregnated with chlorine. The temperature of 
one of these I found to be 125° Fahr., of others from 75° to 95° Fahr. in one of the 
latter were swarms of a little fish, Cyprinodon dispar, also found in the warm springs 
of Egypt. 


On the Invertebrate Fauna of the Lower Oolites of Oxfordshire. By J. F. 
Wuireaves, F.G.S., Honorary Member of the Ashmolean Society, Oxford. 


Although the physical geology of the neighbourhood of Oxford is, with some ex- 
ceptions, tolerably well understood, our knowledge of its paleontology, especially of 
the invertebrate division of the animal kingdom, is very meagre and unsatisfactory. 
The only exception I am aware of is a detailed list of the fossils of the Stonesfield 
Slate, in a paper contributed by Prof. Phillips to the volume of ‘* Oxford Essays” for 
1855, entitled “ The Neighbourhoed of Oxford and its Geology.” 

The following brief sketch of the Invertebrata obtained from the Great Oolite, 
Forest Marble, and Cornbrash during several years’ collecting, must be considered as 
temporary only, nearly every day spent in practical investigation revealing fresh 
species, only a very small area having been carefully explored, and even that small 
area by no means so thoroughly as one could wish. Hence the few inductions that 
I have, as it seems to me, /egetimately deduced from facts, must be considered as 
approximate results only in the present state of our knowledge. ‘To Prof. Phillips's 
list of the fossils of the Stonesfield Slate, I am enabled to add twenty-eight species of 
Mollusca; these are,— 


Ammonites Waterhousei, Mor. and Lye. Nerita hemisphxrica, Roemer. 
Cerithium ? minuta, Sow. 

Natica canalicnlata?, Mor. and Lyc. costulata, Deshayes. 
Lulima communis, Mor.and Lye. (castsonly. rugosa, Mor. and Lyc. 


TRANSACTIONS 


Trochus spiratus, D’ Archiac. 

Pecten retiferus, for. and Lyc. 
personatus, Gold/uss. 

Hinnites abjectus, P/il. 

Placunopsis radians ?, Mor. and Lyc. 
socialis, Mor. and Lyc. 
Pteroperna pygmea, Koch and Dunker. 
Gervillia aviculoides ?, Sow. 

Modiola compressa, Portlock. 

Cardium Stricklandi, Mor. and Lyc. 


OF THE SECTIONS. 105 


Opis lunulatus, Sow. 

Astarte Wiltoni, Mor. and Lyc. 

angulata, Mor. and Lyc. 

—— squamula, D’ drch. 

pumila, Sow. 

Tancredia brevis, Mor. and Lye. 
curtansata, Phillips. 

Quenstedtia oblita, Mor. and Lye. (young.) 
Corbula involuta, Goldf. 

Pholas —— ? 


We may add also, on the authority of Dr. Wright, two Echinoderms, viz. Clypeus 
Plott, Klein, and Pseudodiadema Parkinsoni, Wright. 

In deep cuttings on the Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton Railway, between 
the Handborough and Charlbury stations (especially in two sections nearly opposite 
the village of Stonesfield), the lower zone of the Great Oolite is well exhibited. Near 
the Kirtlington station on the Great Western Railway several fine sections exposing 
the upper zone of the same formation may be studied with advantage: for detailed 
descriptions of these beds see Hull’s Memoir on the Geology of the country round 
Woodstock. Up tothe present date (June, 1860), the following is a list of the Inver- 
tebrata procured from these localities, 

From the lower zone in the railway cuttings nearly opposite Stonesfield :— 


Isastreea explanata, M‘Coy. 

— Montlivaltia trochoides ?, M.-Edw. 
Acrosalenia hemicidaroides, Wr. 
Echinobrissus Woodwardi, Wr. 
— Griesbachii, Wr. 

Clypeus Milleri, Wr. 

— Rhynchonella concinna, Sow. 
— obsoleta, Sow. 

Terebratula globata ?, Sow. 
maxillata, Sow. 

Ostrea Sowerbyi, Mor. and Lyc. — 
subrugulosa, Mor. and Lye. - 
—— gregarea, Sow. — 
acuminata, Sow. - 
Placunopsis socialis, Mor. and Lye. - 
Pecten lens, Sow. 

vagans, Sow. « 

Gervillia acuta, Sow. ~ 

new sp. 

Perna rugosa, Mor. and Lye. - 
Lima cardiiformis, Sow. — 
duplicata, Sow. ~- 

Modiola imbricata, Sow. ~* 
Mytilus sublzevis, Sow. - 

Arca emula, Phillips. 

Macrodon Hirsonensis, D’4rch. 


Trigonia Moretoni, Mor. and Lyc. ~ 
Cardium Buckmani, Mor. and Lye. 
—— Stricklandi, Mor. and Lyc. — 
Cypricardia Bathonica, D’ Orb. - 

— nuculiformis, Roemer. 

rostrata, Sow. (casts.) — 

Astarte angulata, Mor. and Lyc. — 
Cyprina Loweana, var., Mor. and Lyc. ~ 
Tancredia brevis, Mor. and Lyc. ~ 
new sp. 

Nezra Ibbetsoni, Morris. — 

Myacites dilatus ?, Phil. 

Pholadomya ovulum, Mor. and Lyc. — 
Heraulti, .4g. ; 
Cylindrites angulatus ?, Mor. and Lyc. 
Stomatia Buvignieri, Mor. and Lyc. 
Monodonta Labadyei, D’ Archiac. 
Trochus Ibbetsoni, Mor. and Lyc. 
Nerita rugosa, Mor. and Lyc. 
costulata, Desh. 

— hemispherica, Roem. 

Natica Michelini, D’ Arch. 

Chemnitzia, new sp. 

Nerinza Eudesii, Desi. 

Voltzii, Dest. 


From the upper zone, at the Kirtlington railway station and at Enslow Bridge.—By 
far the larger portion of this assemblage was obtained from the beds marked G, in 
Professor Phillips’s description of the secticn at the Kirtlington railway station. The 
species marked with an asterisk were procured from the Enslow Bridge quarries. 


Anabacia orbulites, Lame. 


*Clypeus Plotii, Klein. 
* Miulleri, Wright. 
Acrosalenia hemicidarvides, Wr. 


Diastopora diluviana, M.-Edwards. 


Rhynchonella concinna, Sow. 


Terebratula maxillata, Sow. 
digona, Sow. 

Placunopsis socialis, Mor. and Lye. 
*Pecten arcuatus, Sow. * 
annulatus, Sow. = 
Pteroperna costatula, Desi. ~ 
— emarginata, Mor. and Lyc. ~ 
Gervillia acuta, Sow. - 

— monotis, Desi. - 


106 REPORT—1860. 


Gervillia ovata, Sow. 
crassicosta, Mor. and Lye. 
Lima cardiiformis, Sow. 
Pinna cuneata, Phillips. 
Modiola imbricata, Sow. 
Arca Prattii, Mor. and Lye. 
zemula, Phillips. - 
Cucullea > 

Nucula Menkii, Roemer. 
variabilis, Sow. 

Limopsis ooliticus, D’ Archiac. - 


Cardium subtrigonum, Mor. and Lye. ~ 


—— Stricklandi, Mor. and Lyc. 


—— incertum, Phillivs (fide Lycet?). 


new sp. 

Lueina striatula, Buvign. 

cardioides, D’ Archiac. 
Sphera Madridi, Mor. and Lye. 
Cypricardia rostrata, Sow. 

~ Astarte squamula, D’ Archiac. 

~ —— Wiltoni, Mor. and Lye. 

-* extensa, Phillips. 

_Cyprina Loweana, Mor. and Lye. 

depressiuscula, Mor. and Lyc. 

Tancredia, new sp. 

Corbula inyoluta, Goldf. ~ 

new sp. 

~ Nezra Ibbetsoni, Morris. 

*Myacites Scarburgensis, Phillips. 

calceiformis, Phillips. 


*Pholadomya Heraulti, Agass. ~ 

* solitaria, Mor. and Lyc. ~ 
Actzonina oliveformis, Dunker. 

bulimoides, Mor. and Lye. 

parvula, Roemer. 

*Cylindrites brevis, Mor. and Lye. 

new sp. 

Bulla, new sp. 

Patella cingulata, Goldfuss. 

Phasianella elegans, Mor. and Lye. 

Leymeriei, D’ Archiac. 

Monodonta Labadyei, D’ Archiae. 

Trochus spiratus, var., D’ Archiae. 

—— Ibbetsoni?, Mor. and Lye. 

Nerita minuta, Sow. 

Nerita hemispherica, Roemer. 

Rissoina acuta, Sow. 

new sp. 

Chemnitzia, new sp. 

Eulima communis, Mor. and Lye. 

Natica intermedia, Mor. and Lye. 

> 

Ceritella rissoides, Bur. 

unilineata, Sow. 

Nerina Eudesii, Desi. 

Voltzii, Des. 

funiculus ?, Des/. 

Cerithium, new sp. 

Alaria trifida, Phillips. 

levigata, Mor. and Lye. 


* 


— decurtatus, Phillips. *Ammonites subcontractus, Mor, and Lye. 

Until the publication of the Monograph on the Mollusca of the Great Oolite (by 
Messrs. Morris and Lycett), but little was known respecting the fossils of this forma- 
tion. This monograph, too, was not so much an account of English Great Oolite 
fossils in general, as of a particular assemblage, restricted for the most part to a 
limited area around Minchinhampton. ‘The above lists of species appear to me 
chiefly interesting as tending to remove the apparent isolation of the Minchinhampton 
fauna. As in Gloucestershire, so in Oxfordshire, the Cephalopoda seem to be but 
sparingly distributed in the Great Oolite ; and but few species of carnivorous Gaste- 
ropods have yet been detected in the same formation near Oxford. 

As compared with the same zone of life at Minchinhampton, the upper beds of the 
Oxfordshire Great Oolite would seem apparently to have been deposited in seas of 
greater depth and of more tranquillity, Bivalves are commonly found with the valves 
united and the ligament preserved, and large reef-like masses of coral are not unfre- 
quent. In Oxfordshire a large proportion of the Great Oolite fossils range upwards 
into the Forest Marble and Cornbrash, and no inconsiderable series occur even as high 
as the €oralline Ovlite. Five species have not previously been detected in this for- 
mation, and eleven shells are quite new to science. From the Forest Marble at Islip 
and Kidlington I have collected the following species :— 


Placunopsis socialis, Mor. and Lyc. - 
Gervillia acuta, Sow. - 

Pteroperna costatula, Desi. ~ 

Lima cardiiformis, Sow. - 

duplicata, Sow. « 

Arca minuta, Sow. ~< 

Nucula variabilis, Sow. - 

Leda lacryma, Sow. ~- 

Limopsis ooliticus, D’Arch. ~ 
Trigonia Moretoni, Mor. and Lye. ~ 
costata, Sow. - 

Cardium Stricklandi, Mor. and Lye. ~ 
Cypricardia rostrata, Sow. — 

Astarte interlineata, yc. < 


Anabacia orbulites, Lame. 


Cricopora straminea, Phillips. 


Rhynchonella concinna, Sow. 
Terebratula cardium, Lam. 

var. bifurcata. 

Ostrea Sowerbyi, Mor. and Lyc. ~ 
acuminata, Sow. : 
Pecten rigidus, Sow. - 

— annulatus, Sow. ° 

lens, Sow. =» 

— arcuatus, Sow. « 

—— personatus, Goldf.- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107 


—Astarte minima, Phil. Eulima communis, Mor. and Lye. 
—— new sp. Rissoina duplicata, Sow. 
—Cyprina Loweana, Mor. and Lyc. levis, Sow. 


Corbis, new sp. new sp. 
-Tancredia truncata, Lye. Nerita minuta, Sow. 
Corbula inyoluta, Goldf. Brochus spiratus, D’ Arch. 
— Macneilii, Morris. - Ibbetsoni, Mor. and Lyc. 
—— new sp. Crossostoma discoideum, Mor. and Lyc. 
—— new sp. Pagodus nodosa, Mor. and Lyc. 
Pholadomya acuticosta, Sow. — Patella cingulata, Goldf. 
Cerithium quadricinctum, Goldfuss. Emarginula scalaris, Sow. 
Ceritella acuta, Mor. and Lye. Cylindrites acutus, Sow. 
— longiscata, Buv. Actzonina Luidii, Mor. 


The similarity between the fossils of this group and those of the Great Oolite is 
very remarkable ; many Minchinhampton fossils occur in it which, as yet, I have been 
unable to detect in the Great Oolite of this district. Teeth of fishes, which are so 
abundant in the Wiltshire Forest Marble, appear to be somewhat rare in the same 
beds in Oxfordshire. The Cornbrash at Islip and Kidlington has yielded the following 
assemblage. 


Cidaris Bradfordiensis, Wr. (plates and Lima impressa, Mor. and Lye.- 


spines). Mytilus sublevis, Sow. 
Pedina Smithii, Fordes. Modiola Sowerbyana, Bronn. - 
Acrosalenia hemicidaroides, Wr. — compressa, Portlock. — 
spinosa, Agassiz. —— bipartita?, Sow. 
Stomechinus intermedius, Agassiz (with —— aspera, Sow. 
spines attached). — imbricata, Sow. ~ 
Holectypus depressus, Leske. Lithodomus inclnsus, Phillips. - 
Echinobrissus clunicularis, Lihwyd. Macrodon Hirsonensis, D' Archiac. — 
Clypeus Plotii, Klein. Arca emula, Phillips. 
Pygurus Michelini, Coteau. Nucula Menkii, Roemer. ~ 
—— variabilis, Sow. - 
Anabacia orbulites, Lama. Leda mucronata, Sow. — 
———— lacryma, Sow. - 
Alecto dichotoma, Lama. Trigonia Moretoni, Mor. and Lye. ~ 


costata, Sow. ~- 

Goldfussi, dg. - if 
Cardium Buckmani, Mor. and Lyc. - 
Stricklandi, Mor. and Lyc. — 


subtrigonum, Mor. and Lyc. — 
> 


Peastopora diluviana, Milne-Edw. 
Cricopora straminea, Phillips. 


Rhynchonella Morieri, Dav. 
concinna, Sow. 
Terebratella hemisphzrica, Sow. 


Terebratula cardium, Lamarck. Cypricardia rostrata, Sow. (casts). ~ 
: intermedia, Sow. Bathonica?, D’Oré. = 
obovata, Sow. Cyprina Loweana, Mor. and Lyc. ~ 
Ostrea Sowerbyi, Mor. and Lyc. ~ Tsocardia minima, Sow. ~- 
acuminata, Sow. - Corbula involuta, Goldf. - 
costata, Sow. Macneilii, Morris. 
Placunopsis socialis, Mor. and Lye. ~ new sp. 
Pecten vagans, Sow. « Ceromya ——? 
— hemicostatus, Mor. and Lyc. ~ Pholadomya lyrata?, Sow, 
— arcuatus, Sow. « deltoidea, Sow. 
lens, Sow. Myacites gibbosus, Sow. 
annulatus, Sow. “ — decurtatus, Phillips. ~ 
— personatus, Goldfuss. ~ securiformis, Phillips. 
Gervillia acuta, Sow. « Gresslya peregrina, Phillips. - 
- ovata, Sow. - Patella cingulata, Goldfuss. 
new sp. Trochus ? 
Lima duplicata, Sow. ~ Monodonta, new sp. 
gibbosa, Sow. ~~ Chemnitzia variabilis, Mor. and Lyc. 
cardiiformis, Sow, < Actzonina Luidii, Morris. 


A careful study of the fossils of the Oxfordshire Cornbrash appears to me by no 
means favourable to that theory of Professor Buckman, that the Cornbrash assemblage 
of fossils, on the whole, more strongly resembles the fauna of the Inferior than that of 
the Great Oolite. 


108 REPORT—1860. 


Very few of the fossiis common to both the Cornbrash and Inferior Oolite are not 
found in the intermediate formation ; and in the above list of Cornbrash fossils, a large 
per-centage are well-known Great Oolite species. The great comparative rarity of 
the Cephalopoda is also noticeable, both in the Cornbrash and Forest Marble; one 
solitary, mutilated fragment of an ammonite in the Islip Cornbrash is the only 
example of this class I have seen from these two formations during several years 
active collecting. 


On the Intermittent Springs of the Chalk and Oolite of the Neighbourhood of 
Scarborough. By Captain Woovatt, M.A. F.G.S. 


On the Avicula contorta Beds and Lower Lias in the South of England. 
By Tuomas Waieut, M.D., F.R.S.E. and GS. 


The black shales, with their interstratified sandstones and bone-beds which lie at 
the base of the Lias, have by one class of observers been grouped with the Lias, by 
others with the Trias; the author had made a series of observations on these beds, 
where they are exposed at Westbury, Wainlode, and Aust, on the banks of the Severn; 
and at Penarth and Watchet, on the shores of the Bristol Channel: in all these sec- 
tions he had found several species of Conchifera, which are special to the beds, as 
Avicula contorta, Portl., Pecten Valoniensis, Defr., Mytilus minutus, Goldf., Cardium 
Rheticum, Mer., Lima precursor, Quenst., Neoschizodus posterus, Quenst., Cardium, 
sp., Cypricardia, sp., Anomya, sp., with several other small bivalve shells which he 
was unable to determine. He found the same beds at the base of the Lias in War- 
wickshire and Worcestershire ; and they have recently been found in Staffordshive by 
Mr. Howell, and several years ago were discovered by General Portlock in Ireland. 
In Germany Quenstedt calls these beds Vorlaufer des Lias; they are the true repre- 
sentatives of the Upper St. Cassian beds of German geologists, aud the Késsener- 
schichten of the Tyrolese. Since they were first described by Von Buch thirty 
years ago, they have formed the subject of many interesting observations by conti- 
nental geologists, although up to this time it has not been settled whether they belong 
to the Trias or to the Lias. ‘The Conchifera found in these beds in England are special 
to them, and none of the species pass into the true Lias; whereas it has been asserted 
by Sir Philip Egerton and Professor Agassiz that the species of fishes found in the 
Bone-beds of England and Ireland are ‘I'riassic forms. Should this statement hold 
good, the evidence for the triassic character of the Avicula contorta series will greatly 
preponderate over their liassic affinities. M. Jules Martin, in an able memoir, ‘ Palé— 
ontologie Stratigraphique de l’Infra-Lias du Département de la Céte-d’Or,’ has exa- 
mined these beds in the departments of Cote d’Or, Rhone, Ardeche and Isére, and has 
placed them all as Infra-lias. The absence of the Bone-bed from the French deposits, 
although found in Luxembourg, is remarkable; and therefore the evidence afforded 
by the fossil fishes is excluded from M. Martin’s estimate of the Paleontological afti- 
nities of these Infra-Liassic deposits. 

Dr. Wright divides the Lower Lias into six zones of life, each characterized by 
certain species of mollusca which are special to it; these are—lIst, the zone of Am- 
monites planorbis; 2nd, the zone of Ammonites Bucklandi; 3rd, the zone of Ammo- 
nites Turneri; 4th, the zone.of Ammonites obtusus; Sth, the zone of Ammonites oxy~- 
notus; and 6th, the zone of Ammonites raricostaius. Each of these zones was sepa- 
rately described, its fauna enumerated, and the localities where it was developed 

ointed out. ‘The Lower Lias in the South of England was compared with the Lower 
Tage of Wurtemberg, and the correlations of that formation in both countries pointed 
out. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109 


BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY, tnctupinc PHYSIOLOGY. 
GENERAL. 


On the Progress of Natural Science in the United States and Canada. 
By Purie P. Carventer, B.A., Ph.D. 


THe principal part of this communication was devoted to_an explanation of the 
principles and working of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, D.C. It 
was founded “ for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” and was 
not restricted either by nation or “red tape.” It gives aid to students in prose- 
cuting any branch of research ; carries on an extensive series of meteorological 
observations over the North American Continent; directs the Natural History 
observations of the various governmental Exploring Expeditions of the U.S. Govern- 
ment; superintends an intricate system of exchanges of books and specimens 
between individuals or Societies in Europe or America, in conjunction with the 
Royal Society, and with special exemption from customs; and gives to the world 
a large amount of original matter through the press. The entire Museum depart- 
ment of the United States Government, till lately deposited at the Patent Office, 
is now the property of the Smithsonian Institution, with authority to exchange 
duplicates. The publications consist of three classes—(1) the “ Smithsonian Con- 
tributions to Knowledge,” expensive works sold at cost price ; (2) the ‘Miscellane- 
ous Collections” of pamphlets, which are freely distributed; and (3) an annual 
yolume of Reports, &c. published at Government expense. In regulating exchanges, 
whether of books or specimens, the directors do not require a guid pro quo, but 
simply a friendly reciprocity ; their first desire being to make their materials useful 
to science, wherever that can best be done*. 

The Federal Government, as well as most of the Sovereign States, have published 
Reports on Geology and other branches of science, many of which are of the highest 
value. The ten quarto volumes on the ‘ Pacific Railroad,’ abounding in plates, 
contain a complete réswmé of the Natural History of the great western deserts and 
the Rocky Mountains, and may be purchased in Washington for about £5. The 
State of Massachusetts is giving liberal aid to Professor Agassiz in forming a 
magnificent museum at Cambridge University, which will be arranged geographi- 
cally. There is already a vast amount of material accessible to students, and of 
duplicates for exchanges. The State Museum at Albany is under the direction of 
the Regents of the University of New York. They have a large number of dupli- 
cate palxozoic fossils, available for exchange. The Academy of Natural Science of 
Philadelphia, the Lyceum of New York, and the Natural History Society of Boston, 
are well known by their publications. The Colleges of Yale, Amherst, and 
Charleston, 8.C., have also dore good service to science. In Canada, the Geologi- 
cal Survey under Sir W. Logan is not surpassed by any for admirable arrangement. 
The Natural History Societies both of Montreal and of Toronto publish periodicals. 
In M‘Gill College, Montreal, under Professor Dawson, and in the University of 
Toronto, under Professor Hincks, the study of natural science is steadily increasing, 
The importance of the magnetic observations at Toronto is well known; and a 
system of recording meteorological information, at the public grammar schools of 
Canada West, is now being organized in connexion with the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion. 


Remarks on the Final Causes of the Sexuality of Plants, with particular refer- 
ence to Mr. Darwin’s Work ‘ On the Origin of Species by Natural Selec- 
tion, By C.J. B.Dauseny, UD. LL.D., F.RS., Professor of Botany 
in the University of Oxford. 

Dr. Daubeny began by pointing out the identity between the two modes by which 
the multiplication of plants is brought about, the very same properties being im- 
parted to the bud or to the graft, as to the seed produced by the ordinary process 
of fecundation; and a new individual being in either instance equally produced. 


* All communications to the Smithsonian Institution should be addressed to ‘‘ Professor 
Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.” 


110 REPORT—1860. 


We are therefore led to speculate as to the final cause of the existence of sexual 
organs, in plants, as well as in those lower animals which can be propagated by 
cuttings. 

Que use, no doubt, may be the dissemination of the species ; for many plants, if 
propagated by buds alone, would bein a manner confined to asingle spot. Another 
secondary use is the production of fruits which afford nourishment to animals. A 
third may be to minister to the gratification of the senses of man by the beauty 
of their forms and colours. 

But as these ends are only answered in a small proportion of cases, we must 
seek further for the uses of the organs in question; and hence the author suggested, 
that they might have been provided, in order to prevent that uniformity in the 
aspect of Nature which would have prevailed if plants had been multiplied exclu- 
sively by buds. 

It is well known that a bud is a mere counterpart of the stock from whence it 
springs, so that we are always sure of obtaining the very same description of fruit 
by merely grafting the bud or cutting of a pear or apple tree upon another plant of 
the same species. 

On the other hand, the seed never produces an individual exactly like the plant 
from which it sprung, and hence by the union of the sexes in plants some variation 
from the primitive type is sure to result. 
~ Dr. Daubeny remarked, that if we adopt in any degree the views of Mr. Darwin 
with respect to the origin of species by natural selection, the creation of sexual 
organs in plants nlight be regarded as intended to promote this specific object. 
Whilst, however, he gave his assent to the Darwinian hypothesis, as likely to aid us 
in reducing the number of existing species, he wished not to be considered as advo- 
cating it to the extent to which the author seems disposed to carry it. He rather 
desired to recommend to Naturalists the necessity of further inquiries, in order 
to fix the limits within which the doctrine proposed by Darwin may assist us in 
distinguishing varieties from species. 


Botany. 


Dr. DAUBENY invited the Members to visit an experimental garden under his 
superintendence in the neighbourhood of Oxford, in which he had been carrying on 
some investigations connected with Agricultural Chemistry, the nature of which 
he proposed to explain on the spot. 


On a Plant Poisoning a Plant. By R. Downey. 
On Abnormal Forms of Passiflora cerulea. By Dr. C. Dresser. 
On the Morpholegical Laws in Plants. By Dr. C. Dresser. 


On the supposed Germination of Mummy Wheat. 
By the Rev. Professor Henstow, W.A., F.LS. 


The author introduced his observations by reading a letter from Professor 
Wartmann, of Geneva, who had recently found that seeds might be exposed to 
a temperature of 198° below zero of Fahrenheit’s scale, without losing the power 
of germination. Professor Henslow had himself exposed seeds to the tempe- 
rature of boiling water, and they germinated. The question of how long seeds 
would retain their vitality was one of great interest; and a Committee of this 
Association had reported on the subject, but they had not succeeded in making 
seeds grow which had been kept more than two centuries. He then showed that 
experiments recorded on the growth of mummy wheat were not trustworthy; 
and especially noticed the case which had been relied on so much, of the growth of 
mummy wheat by Mr. Tupper from seeds supplied him by Sir Gardner Wilkinson. 
He alluded to a sample of mummy wheat which he had carefully inspected grain 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 111 


by grain, and found among it two grains of a different variety from the rest ; these 
were perfectly fresh, whereas the others were dark-coloured, with decided indica- 
tions of decomposition and partial charring. Upon inquiry he was able to ascer- 
tain that this sample was a portion of a large stock, which had been taken from a 
catacomb some years previously, and had been exposed for sale in the jars of a 
corn merchant at Cairo, There could be no doubt an accidental admixture of a 
few recent grains left in the jars had taken place. In samples supplied by Sir G. 
Wilkinson to the late Robert Brown for the purpose of experiment, the latter 
had found in it a few grains of Indian corn! He thought it not at all improbable 
that the samples he had examined, and those furnished by Sir G, Wilkinson, might 
have formed portions of the same stock. 


On the Distinctions of a Plant and an Animal, and on a Fourth Kingdom 
of Nature*. By Joun Hoce, M.A, F.RS., PLS. &e. 


The author stated the great difficulty he had long experienced when examining 
some of the simpler living beings, in defining the characters of those primary 
forms of life, whether they belone to the vegetable or animal kingdom; and he 
considered that there may strictly be no distinction in nature between those king- 
doms; and that life in the lowest animal, as well as in the simplest plant, may be 
the same; still that it is necessary to draw a line of demarcation between them, for 
the purpose of classifying the numerous creatures or organisms existing in the world. 
Mr. J. Hoge then showed that he had, more than twenty years ago, demonstrated 
that locomotion, although apparently spontaneous, was no distinction of animality. 
Neither could the presence of iodine nor of starch be accounted a satisfactory test 
of vegetability. So the four chemical elements, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and 
oxygen, have been regarded for the same objects, though without positive success ; 
and even the green colouring matter, called “chromule,” or “ chlorophyll” (once 
supposed to belong exclusively to vegetables), has been shown to be likewise pre- 
sent in certain of the lower animals. But the author observed that the “two prin- 
cipal characteristics of an animal are undoubtedly the muscular and nervous systems, 
which do not exist in a plant, and which Prof. Owen has not included in his de+ 
finitions of a plant and an animal given in his new work on ‘ Paleontology,’ ” 
Mr. J. Hoge then referred to Linnzeus’s arrangement of all natural bodies into 
three kingdoms, and, after quoting his definitions of Lapides, Vegetabilia, and 
Animalia, said that they must at this day be accounted as insufficient and too 
concise; and, considering the great extension of science, both in Zoology and 
Botany, which had taken place since the time of Linnzus, he attempted to enlarge 
the definitions of those three divisions of natural bodies thus :—Minerals are bodies, 
hard, aggregative, simple, or component, haying bulk, weight, and often regular 
form; but inorganic, inanimate, indestructible by death, insentient, and illocomo- 
tive. Vegetables are beings, organic, living, nourishable, stomachless, generative, 
destructible by death, possessing some sensibility, sometimes motive, and some- 
times locomotive in their young or seed state; but inanimate, insentient, immus- 
cular, nerveless, and mostly fixed by their roots. Animals are beings, organic, 
living, nourishable, having a stomach, generative, destructible by death, motive, 
animate, sentient, muscular, nervous, and mostly spontaneously locomotive, but 
sometimes fixed by their bases. 

Further, as regards a fourth kingdom of Nature, the author having perused 
Prof. Owen’s ‘ Paleontology,’ published this year, found that he had introduced 
the “Kingdom Protozoa,” and placed it before the ‘‘ Kingdom Animalia.” He 

roved that there were objections to the term “ Protozoa,” which was formed by a 
foreign naturalist, and that it could not include those lower organisms, whose 
nature partook more of plants (Phyta) than of animals (Zoa) without creating 
errors; and since it appears tv many desirable to place those organic beings which 
are of a doubtful nature in a fourth or an additional kingdom, he suggested one 
under the title of the Primigenal Kingdom,—Regnum Primigenum continens 
Protoctista, ¢. e. Protophyta et Protozca. This would comprise all the lower 
creatures, or the primary organic beings—* Protoctista,” from mpdros, first, and 


* This entire paper, with the coloured Diagram, is published in the ‘Edinburgh New 
Philosophical Journal,’ yol. xii. (new series) for October 1860, pp. 216-225, 


112 REPORT—1860. 


krista, created beings—hoth Protophyta and Protozoa; and would also include 
the Sponges or Amorphozoa of M. de Blainville, although Mr. J. Hogg thought 
it better to substitute for the latter the name of Amorphoctista, derived from 
apophos, formless, and xriora, creatwres or organisms. ; ‘ 

Some having compared the Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms to éwo pyramids, 
which diverge from each other as they ascend, but are placed on a common base, 
the author conceived that that base might fairly represent the Primigenal King- 
dom, which embraces the lower or primary organisms of both the former, but 
which are of a doubtful nature, and can, in some instances, only be considered as 
haying become blended or mingled together. 

An accompanying diagram was exhibited, which represented the two pyramids 
springing from the same base: one, coloured yellow, denoted the Vegetable King- 
dom; the other was tinged blue, and signified the Animal Kingdom; whilst the 
base, common to both, was coloured ereen, which was intended to show by the 
union of the two former colours the blending of the two natures of the lower 
created beings comprised in the fourth, or Primigenal Kingdom. These pyramids, 
with their base, stood on a foundation tinged brown, thereby signifying the earth 
and the Mineral Kingdom. 


On the Normal and Abnormal Variations from an assumed Type in Plants. 
By M. 'T. Masters. 


The paper was illustrated by a large number of recent and dried forms of mon- 
strous plants and parts of plants. 

In this paper there was an attempt to show that no definite limits could be 
drawn between what are termed Variations and Monstrosities. Numerous instances 
of extreme degrees of variation and of polymorphism in plants, apparently depend- 
ent on external circumstances, were exhibited; among them two specimens of 
Ficus stipularis, the one taken fromaplant grown against awall, the other from a plant 
of the same species, and derived from the same original stock, but which had been 
treated as a standard. The differences in habit, size, form and texture of the leaves 
and other parts were such, that had the two specimens not been taken from the 
same plant, it would have been difficult to believe that they could have belonged to 
the same species. Allusion was made to the changes that naturally take place during 
the growth of some plants, and to the fact that a condition which is unnatural in 
one plant is the common condition in another. So also irregularity of growth, as 
it is the constant condition in some plants, and for many other reasons, cannot be 
considered an abnormal variation. On the other hand, Peloria, or a return to typical 
regularity, can hardly be considered abnormal. Again, certain changes which are 
physiologically abnormal are not so morphologically. ‘The paper concluded with a 
review of the principal points of distinction between variations and malformations, 
areyiew which showed that no arbitrary line could be drawn between them. 


On the Structure of Fern Stems. By G. Octrvie, M.D. 


The object of this communication was to determine the arrangement and rela- 
tions of those tissues in Ferns commonly regarded as analogous to the vascular and 
woody elements of the stems of the higher plants. 

In the case of the former the correspondence may be admitted without much 
hesitation, from the close resemblance of the vascular bundles of ferns to those of 
endogenous stems ; the fasciculi in both being imbedded separately in the general 
parenchyma, and each surrounded by a layer of soft cambium tissue. The peculi- 
arities of the Fern consist in the polygonal form and ladder-like or scalariform 
markings of its elongated cells or vessels, and in the disposition of the fasciculi, so 
as to form, by their anastomosis, the reticulated wall of a hollow cylinder, imbedded 
in the general parenchyma of the stem—an arrangement which is rarely departed 
from in our British ferns, though in Pter’s aquilina we find in addition two broad 
vascular bands in the central part of the stem, and in Osmunda and Hymenophyllum 
we have the netted cylinder replaced by a central vascular cord, as in the Lycopo- 
diacez. The correspondence of the hard tissues to the true stem-wood of the 
higher plants is more open to objection, notwithstanding the occasional resemblance 
in their minute structure, The so-called woody fibres of ferns are never, like those 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113 


of the Phanerogamia, associated with the vessels in the same fasciculus or layer ; 
nor are they ever surrounded by a stratum of cambium tissue ; but they are merely 
indurated and transformed portions of the general parenchyma, and this even when, 
as in some species, they form a sort of outer sheath to the fasciculi. Its great 
variability is another point which assimilates this element rather to such sclero- 
genous formations of the higher plants as nut-shells and other husky tissues, than 
to the proper wood of their stems. In some it occurs only as a thin cortical coating 
(Polypodium, Lastrea Filix-Mas, Asplenium Filic-Femina) ; in others it constitutes 
the entire mass of the rhizome, except a thin sheath of soft tissue surrounding the 
vascular bundles (Blechnwin, Osmunda, Hymenophyllum) ; while there are various 
intermediate forms in which it occurs in the guise of isolated nodules or filaments 
(Lastrea dilatata, L. oreopteris) of sheaths to the vascular bundles (Asplenium), or of 
one or more longitudinal tracts (Allosorus, Pieris). [These variations were illus- 
trated by magnitied sectional views of thirteen species, mostly British. ] 

The true homologue of the stem-wood of the Phanerogamia is to be sought, it 
haz been suggested, in a fibrous stratum which occurs in the fasciculi of some tree 
ferns, immediately within the cambium layer; for though these fibres have nothing 
of a woody character, and are mostly represented in our indigenous species only by 
an outer series of small and imperfectly developed scalaritorm vessels, it is the 
outer layer corresponding to them which is woody in the fasciculi of the endogenous 
stem, and in all the cases its development seems to show that it arises from a 
peculiar transformation of the cells of the cambium tissue. 


ZOOLOGY. 


On the Acclimatization of Animals, Birds, &c., in the United Kingdom. 
By Frank T. Buckianp. 


Remarks on the Respiration of the Nudibranchiate Mollusca. By CUTHBERT 
Cottincwoop, M.B., F.L.S., §¢., Professor of Animal Physiology in 
Queen’s College, Liverpool. 

The author described and exhibited drawings of a remarkable immature form 
of Z'riopa claviger, which had led to the observations he was about to make, 
more especially on account of the entire absence of the branchial plumes. He 
canvassed the various definitions given by authors of the term Nudibranchiata, 
and showed that, although it might with accuracy be applied to the family Dori- 
didee, the Molidide could not with propriety be called Nudibranchs, inasmuch as 
their papille were neither anatomically nor morphologically to be regarded as 
gills. These mollusks all respired by the whole surface of the body, more or less; 
and the author suggested that in the Doridinz the appendages to the body were 
supplementary to the branchial plumes; which, as a rule, were less developed in 
them than in the true Dorids, which were without such appendages. The fact, 
however, that there was no specialized apparatus for respiration in the A¥olidide, 
coupled with many analogies which that family bore to animals much lower in 
the scale of organization, seemed to separate them much more widely from the 
Nudibranchiata proper than was generally allowed. 


On the Nudibranchiate Mollusca of the Mersey and Dee. By CuTuBert 
Cottinewooo, M.B., F.L.S., &c., Professor of Animal Physiology in 
Queen's College, Liverpool. 

The author dwelt particularly upon the richnes3 of the estuaries of these 
rivers in this beautiful group, and especially referred to some very interesting 
forms, such as Doris depressa, D. subquadrata, D. proxima, and Eohs Landsburgi, 
E. concinna, &c., which were found in them. The most interesting of all, however, 
was Antiopa hyalina, a yery local species, only found at Hilbre Island, in the Dee, 

1860. 8 


114 REPORT—1860. 


where it was discovered by Mr. Byerley, and where the present writer had found it 
in the same rock-pool, with its congener A. cristata. He submitted the following 


Catalogue of the Nudibranchiata of the Mersey and Dee. 


Doris tuberculata. Mersey and Dee; common. 

Johnstoni, Mersey and Dee; once or twice. 

proxima. Mersey and Dee; common (nowhere else). 
— bilamellata. Mersey and Dee; abundant. 

pilosa. Mersey and Dee; not uncommon. 

— subquadrata. Dee; once (the second known specimen). 
depressa. Dee; once. 

Polycera Lessonii. Mersey; occasional. 

ocellata. Mersey and Dee; occasional. 

10. Ancula cristata. Mersey and Dee; common. 

11, Tritonia Hombergii. Mersey and Dee; occasional. 

plebeia. Mersey and Dee; occasional, 

18, Dendronotus arborescens. Mersey and Dee; common. 

14. Doto coronata. Mersey and Dee; very common. 

15. Eolis papillosa. Mersey and Dee; common. 

coronata. Mersey and Dee; common. 

17. —— Drummondi. Mersey and Dee; very common. 

18. —— rufibranchialis. Mersey and Dee; not uncommon. 
Landsburgii.. Mersey and Dee; rare. 

concinna. Mersey; common (the second known locality). 
21. —— olivacea. Dee (once taken), 

aurantiaca. Mersey and Dee; common. 

picta, Mersey and Dee; not uncommon, 

24, —_—exigua. Mersey; apparently rare. 

: despecta. Mersey; common. 

26. Embletonia pallida. Mersey (the only known locality); very rare. 
27, Antiopa cristata. Dee; occasional. 

28, —— hyalina, Dee (the only known locality); very rare. 


$9: GON SD Sup CO LS ps 


On Recurrent Animal Form, and its Significance in Systematic Zoology. By 
Curusert Cotiincwoop, M.B., F.L.S., §c., Professor of Animal Phy- 
siology in Queen’s College, Liverpool. 

The object of this paper was to call attention to the frequent recurrence of similar 
forms in widely-separated groups of the animal kingdom; similarities, therefore, 
which were unaccompanied by homologies of internal structure. These analogies 
of form had greatly influenced the progress of classification, by attracting the atten- 
tion of systematizers, while as yet structural homologies were imperfectly under- 
stood ; and, as a consequence, many groups of animals had been temporarily located 
in a false position, such as bats and whales by the ancients, and the Polyzoa and 
Foraminifera in more modern times. These resemblances in form were illustrated 
generally by the classes of Vertebrata, and more especially by the various orders of 
Mammalia,—the Invertebrata affording, however, many remarkable examples. 
Since no principle of gradation of form would sufficiently account for these ana- 
logies, the author had endeavoured to discover some other explanation, and had 
come to the conclusion, that the fact of deviations from typical form being accom- 
panied by modifications of typical habits, afforded the desired clue. Examples of 
this were given, and the principle educed, that agreement of habit and economy in 
widely separated groups is accompanied by similarity of form. This position was 
argued through simple cases to the more complex, and the conclusion arrived at 
that, where habits were known, the explanation sufficed; and it was only in the 
case of animals of low organization and obscure or unknown habits, that any serious 
difficulty arose in its application ; so that our appreciation of the rationale of their 
similarity of form was in direct ratio to our knowledge of their habits and modes 
of life. In conclusion, by a comparison of the Polyzoa with the Polyps, it was 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115 


shown that the economy of both was nearly identical, although they possessed 
scarcely anything in common except superficial characters; and this identity of 
habit was regarded as the explanation of their remarkable similarity of form. 

This it is published (as read before the Section) in the ‘ Annals of Natural 
History, for August 1860; and still more at length in the volume of ‘ Proceedings 
of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society’ for the past Session. 


Dr. DavBEny gave an account of some experiments he had performed on the 
subject of Equivocal Generation. He described the apparatus he had employed, 
and stated that, even after vegetable matter had been exposed to a temperature 
exceeding 300° of Fahr., and had been subsequently brought into contact with 
nothing but water carefully distilled, and with air that had been passed through 
sulphuric acid, indications of organic life were discoverable in it. 

r. Daubeny stated that Dr. Bowerbank and other gentlemen had examined the 
flasks in which he had performed his experiments on Equivocal Generation. No 
animal life was to be found, but a few filaments of fungi were visible. As the 
latter might possibly have been derived from the cork and linseed-meal, as was 
suggested by Dr. Bowerbank, he proposed to repeat the experiment under circum- 
stances which would eliminate these sources of error, 


——_ 


On the Intellectual Development of Europe, considered with reference to the 
views of Mr. Darwin and others, that the Progression of Organisms is de- 
termined by Law. By Professor Drarer, M.D., New York. 


The object of this paper was to show that the advancement of Man in civilization 
does not occur accidentally or in a fortuitous manner, but is determined by im- 
mutable law. 

The author introduced his subject by recalling proofs of the dominion of law in 
the three great lines of the manifestation of life :—first, in the successive stages of 
development of every individual from the earliest rudiment to maturity; second, 
in the numberless organic forms now living contemporaneously with us, and con- 
stituting the animal series; third, in the orderly appearance of that grand succes- 
sion, which in the slow lapse of geological time has emerged, constituting the life 
of the earth, showing therefore not only the evidences, but also proofs of the domi- 
nion of law oyer the world of life. 

In these three lines of life he maintained that the general principle is to differ- 
entiate instinct from automatism, and then to differentiate intelligence from instinct, 
In man himself three distinct instrumental nervous mechanisms exist, and three 
distinct modes of life are perceptible, the automatic, the instinctive, the intelligent. 

2 piey occur in an epochal order, from infancy through childhood to the more per- 
ect state. 

Such holding good for the individual, it was then affirmed that it is physiologi- 
cally impossible to separate the individual from the race, and that what holds good 
for the one holds good for the other too, and hence that man is the Archetype of 
Society, and individual development the model of social progress, and that both are 
under the control of immutable law; that a parallel exists between individual and 
natural life in this, that the production, life, and death of an organic particle in the 

_ person, answers to the production, life, and death of a person in the nation. 

Turning from these purely physiological considerations to historical proof, and 
selecting the only European nation which thus far has offered a complete and com- 
pleted intellectual life, Professor Draper showed that the characteristics of Greek 
mental development answer perfectly to those of individual life, presenting philo- 
sophically five well-marked ages or periods, the first being closed by the opening 
of Egypt to the Ionians ; the second, including the Ionian, Pythagorean, and Eleatic 
et, was ended by the criticisms of the Sophists ; the third, embracing the 

ocratic and Platonic, by the doubts of the Sceptics ; the fourth, ushered in by the 

Macedonian expedition and adorned by the splendid achievements of the Alex- 

andrian School, degenerated into Neoplatonism ; and imbecility in the fifth, to which 

the hand of Rome put an end. From the solutions of the four great problems of 

Greek philosophy, given in each of these five stages of its life, he showed that it is 
3” 


116 REPORT—1860. 


possible to determine the law of the variation of Greek opinion, and to establish its 
analogy with that of the variations of opinion in individual life. 

Next, passing to the consideration of urope in the aggregate, Professor Draper 
showed that it has already in part repeated these phases in its intellectual life. 
Its first period closes with the spread of the power of Republican Rome, the second 
with the foundation of Constantinople, the third with the Turkish invasion of 
Europe ; we are living in the fourth. Detailed proofs of the correspondence of these 
periods to those of Greek life, and through them to those of individual life, are 
given in a work now printing on this subject by the author in America. 

Having established this conclusion, Professor Draper next briefly alluded to many 
collateral problems or inquiries. He showed that the advances of men are due to 
external and not to interior influences, and that in this respect a nation is like a 
seed, which can only develope when the conditions are favourable, and then onl 
in a definite way; that the time for psychical change corresponds with that for 
physical, and that a nation cannot advance except its material condition be touched, 
this having been the case throughout all Europe, as is manifested by the diminution 
of the blue-eyed races thereof; that all organisms, and even man, are dependent for 
their characteristics, continuance, and life, on the physical conditions under which 
they: live; that the existing apparent invariability presented by the world of 
organization is the direct consequence of the physical equilibrium ; but that, if that 
should suffer modification, in an instant the fanciful doctrine of the immutability 
of species would be brought to its proper value. The organic world appears to be 
in repose because natural influences have reached an equilibrium. A marble may 
remain motionless for ever on a level table, but let the table be a little inclined, 
and the marble will quickly run off, and so it is with organisms in the world. From 
his work on Physiology, published in 1856, he gave his views in support of the 
doctrine of the transmutation of species, the transitional forms of the animal and 
also the human type, the production of new ethnical elements or nations, and the 
laws of their origin, duration and death. 


On some Specimens of Shells from the Liverpool Museum, originally from 
the Pathological Collection formed by the late Mr. Gaskoin. By the Rev. 
H. H. Hicerns, W.A., Rainhill, Liverpool. 


The late Mr. Gaskoin had in his museum a series of specimens, collected for the 
purpose of illustrating the pathology of the Mollusca, This series was in course of 
formation in the year 1835, from which period, to the time of his decease, Mr. 
Gaskoin devoted considerable attention to the selection, from various sources, of 
specimens of shells in any wise remarkable for distorted growth, or for the repair 
of injuries received during the life of the animal. Iam not aware that Mr. Gaskoin 
published or left in manuscript any account of the result of his observations in this 
department of Natural History. 1t is evident that in any case of abnormal growth a 
second, and still more a third or a fourth, instance of the same kind may afford a 
fair ground for a conclusion, which, if based upon a single instance only, would be 
of little or no value. ‘he extensive character of the series was in this respect very 
valuable. In the course of more than twenty years’ collecting, Mr. Gaskoin had 
enriched his pathological cabinet, not only with a great variety of mended fractures 
and distorted growths, but with many duplicates, sometimes of cases apparently 
altogether exceptional, and likely to be unique. A select series of specimens was 
then exhibited to the Section, and remarks were made upon them, which can 
scarcely be presented intelligibly apart from the specimens themselves. 


Notice of British Well Shrimps. By the Rev. A. R. Hocan, WA. 


The author exhibited specimens of some remarkable additions not long since 
made to our British Crustacea. They consisted of two species of Miphargus (Fon- 
tanus and Kochianus), and the new genus Crangonyx, with its single species swb- 
terrancus of Spence Bate. These species have been described and figured in the 
volume of the ‘ Natural History Review and Quarterly Journal of Science’ for last 
yea (1859). They are of great interest, as examples of a subterranean Fauna in 

ngland, analogous to that long known on the Continent and in America, The 


ea Or 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17 


first established instance of the occurrence of Niphargiin England, was Mr. West- 
wood's discovery at Maidenhead, Berkshire, of a well containing numbers of IV. 
aquiler. They have more recently been obtained from Corsham and Warminster, 
Wiltshire, and also from Ringwood, on the borders of the New lorest, Hampshire. 
Crangonyx subterrancus has occurred at the two latter places, but not at the first 
named, Miphargus fontanus is found at both Corsham and Ringwood, but with a 
difference in the shape of the gnathopoda and posterior pleopoda, amounting to a pro- 
bably distinct variety, if not species. The form of the gnathopoda, or hands, is 
worthy of attention, being each armed with a moveable claw of large size, forming 
a prehensile organ of great power. NV. fontanus is also possessed of small, yellow 
eyes, which distinguish it in a very marked way from the allied species (of the 
genus Gammarus) found on the Continent. Every member of the subterranean 
Fauna hitherto found has been destitute of eyesight. The movements of Niphargi, 
when kept in captivity, are interesting to observe; but Mr, Hogan states that ia 
has found great difficulty in preserving them alive. The longest period during which 
even the strongest specimens survived its capture was three wecks. ‘The average 
temperature of the water in which Miphargus and Crangonya are found is about 
50° Fahr., and they seem to propagate in recently-formed wells as freely as in old 
ones. In no case have any species of this family been found, either in this country or 
abroad, in open wells or other than artificial ones,—pumps, in fact. They are found 
at all seasons of the year, but most abundantly towards the end of the autumn. The 
largest size known among the English species (that of NV. fontanus) hardly exceeds 
half an inch. Mr. Hogan hoped that more extended observations would be made 
in Great Britain on this interesting family of Crustacea, as their economy and struc- 
ture are as yet very imperfectly known, and an accurate examination would be sure 
to reward the investigator with results at least as interesting as those already 
obtained regarding their allies by Vontinental naturalists. 


Mr. J. G. Jurrreys exhibited several specimens of the conmon whelk (Bucctnwm 
undatum) having double opercula; in one instance, a second or supplementary 
operculum being piled on the usual one ; and in the others, there being two separate 
opercula, instead of one, in each whelk. He adverted briefly to the different kinds 
of monstrosity which occur in animals and plants, and said he believed this to be 
the first case of a similar monstrosity in the Mollusca. He observed that the 
monstrosity under consideration appeared to be congenital, and not to have arisen 
from an accidental loss of the original organ, because in some of the specimens both 
opercula were cases of hypertrophy, and in the others of atrophy ; and he mentioned 
that all the specimens came from the same place (Sandgate in Kent), showing a 
repetition, and perhaps an hereditary transmission, of the same abnormal pheno- 
‘nenon ; and he suggested that thus permanent varieties might in course of time 
be formed, and constitute what some naturalists would call “ distinct species.” He 
adduced in support of this view, the case of a reversed monstrosity of the common 
garden snail (Helix aspersa), having been bred for many years in succession by the 
late M. d‘Orbigny in his garden at Rochelle, as well as many instances of a 
reversed form of almond whelk (Luss antiguus) having occurred in the same 
localities on the coasts of England and Portugal, such bemg the normal form in 
the crag. 


On the British Teredines, or Ship-Woris. 
By J. G. Jerrreys, PRS. 


After observing that his researches had not been confined to the British Tere~ 
dines, but that he had recently had an opportunity of meeting all the French 
naturalists who had published on the subject, as well as of studying all the access- 
ible collections and books, he treated the matter first in a zoological point of 
view, and gaye a short history of the genus Zeredo, from the time of Aristotle and 
his pupil Theophrastus to the present time ; especially noticing the elaborate mono- 

raph of Sellius, in 1733, on the Dutch ship-worm; the valuable paper of Sir 

Hverard Home and his pupil Sir Benjamin Brodie, in 1806 ; and the physiological 
essays of Quatrefages, in 1849, 


118 REPORT—1860. 


He showed that the Teredo undergoes a series of metamorphoses ; the eggs being 
developed into a sub-larval form after their exclusion from the ovary, and remaining 
in the mantle of the parent for some time. In its second phase (or that of proper 
larve) the fry are furnished with a pair of close-fitting oval valves, resembling those 
of a Cythere, as well as with cilia, a large foot, and distinct eyes, by means of which 
it swims freely and with great rapidity, or creeps, and afterwards selects its fixed 
habitation. The larval state continues for upwards of 100 hours, and during that 
period the fry are capable of traversing long distances, and thus becoming spread 
over comparatively wide areas. The metamorphosis is not, however (as Quatrefages 
asserts), complete ; because the young shell, when fully developed, retains the larval 
valves. He then discussed the different theories, as to the method by which the 
Teredo perforates wood, giving a preference to that of Sellius and Quatrefages, which 
may be termed the theory of “ suction,” aided by a constant maceration of the wood 
by water, which is introduced into the tube by the siphons. This process, according 
to Quatrefages, is effected by an organ which he calls the “ capuchon céphalique,” and 
which is provided with two pairs of muscles of extraordinary strength. Mr. Jeffreys 
was of opinion that the foot of the Teredo was the sole instrument of perforation. 
He instanced, in illustration of this theory, the cases of the common limpet, as 
well as of many bivalve mollusks, Echinus lividus, and numerous annelids, which 
excayate rocks to a greater or less depth; and he cited the adage of “ Gutta cavat 
lapidem non vi sed seepe cadendo,” in opposition to the mechanical theory. The 
Teredo bores either in the direction of the grain or across it, according to the kind of 
wood and the nature of the species ; the Teredo Norvegica usually taking the former 
course: every kind of wood is indiscriminately attacked by it. The Teredines con- 
stitute a peaceful, though not a social community; and they have never been known 
to work into the tunnel of any neighbour. If they approach too near to each other, 
and cannot find space enough in any direction to continue their operations, they en- 
close the valves or anterior part of the body in a case, consisting of one or more hemi- 
spherical layers of shelly matter. Sellius supposed that the Zeredo ate up the wood 
which it excayated, and had no other food ; and, labouring under the idea that it 
could no longer subsist after being thus voluntarily shut wp, he considered it to be 
the pink of chivalry and honour, in preferring to commit suicide rather than infringe 
on its neighbour. In this enclosed state the valves often become so much altered 
in form, as well as in the relative proportion of their different parts, as not to be 
easily recognizable as belonging to the same species ; and one species ( 7. divaricata) 
was constituted from specimens of Z. Norvegica which had been so deformed. The 
food of the Teredo consists of minute animalcula, which are brought within the 
vortex of the inhalant siphon, and drawn into the stomach. The wood which has 
been excavated also undergoes a kind of digestion during its passage outwards 
through the long intestine. The animal has been proved by Laurent and other 
observers to be capable of renewing its shelly tube, and of repairing it in any part. 
It is stated by Quatrefages (and apparently with truth) that the sexes are separate, 
impregnation being effected in a similar mode to that which takes place among 

alm-trees and other dicecious plants. There appear to be only five or six males 
in one hundred individuals. The Teredo perforates and inhabits sound wood only, 
but an allied genus (Xylophaga) has been recently found to attack the submarine 
telegraph cable between this country and Gibraltar at a depth of from sixty to 
seventy fathoms, and to have made its way through a thick wrapper of cordage into 
the gutta percha which covered the wire. The penetration was fortunately dis- 
covered in time, and was not deep enough to reach the wire. He gave several 
instances to show the rapidity of its perforating powers,—one of them haying been 
supplied by Sir Leopold M‘Clintock while he was serving with the author’s brother 
in the North Pacific. 

Mr. Jeffreys traced the geographical distribution of the Teredines, and showed 
that at least two species, which are now found living on our own shores, occurred in 
the post-pleistocene period; and he inferred from the circumstance of one of these 
species having been found in fossil drift wood, that conditions similar to the present 
existed during that epoch. Some species inhabit fixed wood, and may be termed 

ittoral,” while others are only found in floating wood, and appear to be “ pelagic.” 
Each geographical district has its own “littoral” species, and the old notion of 

he ship-worm (which Linnzus justly called “ Calamitas Navium”) haying been 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119 


introduced into Europe from the Indies was contrary to fact as well as theory, be- 
cause no “littoral” species belonging to tropical seas has ever been found living 
in the northern hemisphere, or vice versd. 1t is true that some species have been 
occasionally imported into this and other countries in ships’ bottoms, and that 
others occur in wood which has been wafted thither by the Gulf and other oceanic 
currents; but the former cases belong to littoral species, and never survive their 
remoyal, while the latter may be said to be almost cosmopolite. Every species of 
Teredo has its own peculiar tube, valves, and pair of “ pallets,” the latter serving the 
office of opercula, and by their means the animal is able at will to close completely 
the entrance or mouth of the tube, and thus prevent the intrusion of crustacean 
and annelidan foes. The length of the tube is, of course, equal to that of the 
animal, which is attached to it by strong muscles in the palletal ring, and varies 
in the different species from three inches, or even less, to as many feet. The in- 
ternal entrance or throat of the tube is also distinguishable in each species by its 
— transverse laminz, and it has frequently a longitudinal siphonal ridge. 
onstrosities occasionally occur in the valves and pallets; and in one instance the 
pallet-stalk is double, showing a partial redundancy of organs, as exemplified by 
the author with respect to the operculum of the common whelk. More than one 
species often inhabit the same piece of wood; and want of sufficient care by natu- 
ralists in extracting the valves with their proper tubes and pallets may account in a 
great measure for the confusion which exists in public and private collections, and 
which has thence found its way into systematic works. The Zeredines have many 
natural enemies. In the South of Italy, and on the North African coast, they are 
esteemed as human food. In Great Britain and Ireland, four species occur in fixed 
wood, and eleven others in drift wood, the latter being occasional visitants. Of 
these, no less than six have never yet been described, and two others are now, for the . 
first time, noticed as British. The number of recorded exotic species only amounts 
to six more, making a total of twenty-one ; but it is probable that, when the subject 
has been more investigated, a considerable addition will be made to this number. 

Mr. Jeffreys then explained the distribution of the littoral species on the shores of 
Great Britain and Ireland, and produced a synoptical list with descriptions of the 
new species. He believed all the Teredines were marine, except, possibly, Adanson’s 
Senegal species, and one which had lately been found in the River Ganges, the 
water of which is fresh for about eighteen hours out of the twenty-four, and brackish” 
during the rest of the day; but as a well-known exception of the same kind occurs 
in a genus of marine shells (47a), and the transition from fresh to brackish, and 
thence to salt water, is very gradual, such exceptions should not be regarded with 
suspicion or surprise. He concluded this part of the subject by exhibiting some 
drawings and specimens, and acknowledging his obligations to Dr. Lukis and other 
scientific friends. 

He afterwards treated the subject in an economical point of view, and remarked 
that, although the French Government had issued two commissions at different 
times, and the Dutch Government had lately published the report of another com- 
mission, which was appointed to inquire into the mode of preventing the ravages 
of the Zeredo in the ships and harbours of those countries, our own Government 
had done nothing. He alluded to the numerous and various remedies which had 
been proposed, during the last two or three centuries from time to time, some of 
which were very absurd; but he was of opinion, from a study of the creature’s 
habits, that the most effectual preventive would be a siliceous or mineral composi- 
tion, like that which has been proposed by Prof. Ansted for coating the decompusing 
stones of our new Houses of Parliament, or simply a thick coat of tar or paint, 
continually applied, which would not only destroy any adult ship-worms then 
living in the wood, but prevent the ingress of the fry. The Zeredo never com- 
mences perforation except in the larval state *. 

A Committee of the Association was formed, at the suggestion of Mr. Jeffreys 
to inquire and report as to the best mode of preventing the ravages of Teredo an 
other animals in our ships and harbours. 


* See also Papers by Mr. Jeffreys on this subject in the ‘Annals of Natural History’ 
for August and October 1860, 


120 REPORT—1860. 


Dr. LanxkesTer called attention to the completion of the first part of Mr. Black- 
wall’s work on British Spiders,—a copy of which he placed on the table. The 
work contains twelve coloured plates, and is one of the most complete monographs 
hitherto published of the class of animals to which itis devoted. It forms the Ray 
Society’s volume for 1859. 


—_—— 


On the Statistics of the Herring Fishery. By Cuanrtes W. Peacu. 


On Cydippe. By Joun Price, Chester. 


I will only remind my fellow-naturalists that the Cydippe (which has been, like 
everything else, retarded by this cold season) was pretty abundant in the Mersey 
on the 16th of June, and may therefore be looked for confidently on the coast 
henceforward. 

In order to enjoy the sight of this most enchanting Oceanid, I advise them— 

1. To provide tall glass jars, or, faute de mieux, the largest size of “sample bot- 
tles,” que¢e transparent, and with large mouths. The last can be taken to the shore 
in a frame like a cruet stand to hold several bottles, corked during carriage. 

. 2. To catch the animals in some cup or ladle large enough to take up a gill of 
water with them, to prevent damage. Best of all, ina 3 spherical ladle, with 
tubular handle. 

In either case, plunge it in a full inch in advance of the swimming Cydippe, to 
save the trains, which easily break. 

3. To keep them, when transferred to their permanent Jodging-jar, glass or 
a Ppebyeas as cold as possible; and never (except when examining them) in a 

ull light, 
‘ 4, ‘lo watch minutely for the ova (grey specks smaller than “Noctilucee”) floating 
near the surface; and ladle them out (say with a salt-spoon) as most interesting 
microscopic objects before and after hatching. 

5. To microscope, with a low power, Cydippes containing food ; easily known, as 
they are transparent. And if you get the right kind of prawn, they will capture 
and swallow them, but not shrimps. 

6, If Beroes are to be had, and Cydippes are “as plenty as blackberries,” re- 
member that the dutter are the natural food of the former, who will bolt as many 
as five, one after the other. 

7. By wniting the two last hints, my curious friends may see, by virtue of the 
ts ara of both animals, two digestions going on ( for a short time) at once. 
The Cydippe digests the prawn, whilst the Beroe digests the Cydippe. Qu. Inges- 
tion ?, Digestion ?, Indigestion ?. : 

8. To remember that a number of these creatures were kept in the “good old 
times” for 13 weeks, without plants, and only changing the water occasionally ; 
that these perished after all by mere accident, and that it is the pleasing duty of the 
rising generation to keep them all the year round under the improved régime. 


On the Aspergillum or Watering-pot Mollusk. 
By Lovett Reeve, F.L.S., F.G.S. 


The Aspergillum is a siphoned bivalve mollusk which ceases in an early stage of 
its existence to live free, and while yet no more than the eighth of an inch in length, 
sinks into the sand, or adheres to shell or stone, and directs its calcifying functions 
to the formation of a comparatively large tubular sheath. Upwards the sheath 
enlarges with the growth of the siphons for their special protection ; downwards 
the animal closes in the sheath by a disc like the rose of a watering-pot, fissured and 

erforated and bordered by a frill of small tubes.. The mantle of the animal, which 

as been observed once, and only once, on the shores of the Red Sea, enlarges on 
commencing its sheath growth, and a number of tentacles are emitted, each corre- 
sponding with a perforation or tube of the disc. Frequent distortion is imparted to 
the shell, more especially to the disc end of it, the scat of the mollusk, according to 
the circumstances of its place of habitation ; and when adhering to shell or stone 
the disc may be scarcely recognizable. Shells with the strength of growth even of 
Spondylus, hecome distorted by their inability to contend against the outward press- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121 


ure of foreign bodies. Shells, therefore, of the delicate and comparatively fragile 
growth of Aspergillum would be liable to extreme contortion. Asperyillum vagini- 
ferum, inhabiting the shores of the Red Sea, sinks into the sand, as may be seen 
by the particles of sand and shell débris that become agglutinated to the sheath, to 
the depth of eight to twelve inches and more ; the sheath is comparatively straight 
and symmetrical, and the protruding end becomes furbelowed. A season of rest 
ensues, another effort is made to extend the sheath, but the calcifying functions 
either have done their part, or are enfeebled. A little is added to the sheath, and 
the end is again furbelowed ; and in some specimens the process has been as many 
as eight times repeated. 

In adherent species, only one of which, 4. Strangez, inhabiting the shores of 
N.E. Australia, has been discovered, the disc is very much pressed in, Two speci- 
mens only have been collected, one affixed to the inner cleft of a mussel hinge, and 
one attached to stone. The peculiarity of this form of Aspergillum is that the 
sheath is formed in a square, and being formed, not in sand, but free, is tortuous and 
enveloped by a slight periostracum. 

Dr. Gray has stated his opinion in a recent memoir in the ‘ Proceedings of the 
Zoological Society,’ that the sheath of A. Stranget is an enlargement of the primi- 
tive pair of valves, and that it differs in this respect from the rest of the Aspergila, 
I incline to dissent from this opinion. Whether by a stretch of induction 1t be 
regarded as an enlargement of the primitive valves, or not, the relation between 
them [ hold to be the same in the sand-inhabiting species, as in the adherent species. 
Dr. Gray also draws a distinction between species which have a wavy depression in 
the sheath around the circumference of the valves, regarding the wavy depression 
as a part of the valves, of which only the umbones are seen. My own view is that 
at the time of the metamorphosis of the mollusk, the valves are not larger in any 
species than are defined by the smaller outline. When it is considered that the 
valves are discarded at this time, but not entirely, inasmuch as they are appropriated 
as material for a nucleus from which to develope a sheath, it is only reasonable to 
suppose that the new sheath matter would, in some species, obtain a wavy deposit 
corresponding with the outline of the nucleus. 


Remarks on the Geographical Distribution of recent Terrestrial Vertebrata. 
By P. L. Scrater, M.A., Ph.D., See.ZS. 

After enunciating the principles of the distribution of organic beings according to 
certain laws, independent of the influences of climate and other external conditions, 
and that of the “continuity ” of generic areas, which might, as a general rule, be 
extended to all natural groups, small and large, the author proceeded to point out 
what appeared to be the most natural primary divisions of the earth’s surface, as 
deducible from a careful study of the distribution of the terrestrial vertebrates. 
These were :— 

}. The Palearctic Region, embracing Europe, Asia north of the Himalayas, and a 
strip of Africa north of the Atlas. 

2. The Athiopian Region, embracing Africa inclusive of Madagascar, and Arabia. 

8. The Indian Region, including Southern continental Asia, Sumatra, Borneo, 
Java, and other islands down to the Straits of Macassar. 

4, The Australian Region, including New Guinea and adjoining islands, Australia, 
New Zealand, and Pacitic Islands. 

5. The Nearctic Region, including America down to the Southern limits of the 
Mexican Table-land. 

6. The Neotropical Region, including the rest of the New World and the West 
India Islands. 

These Regions were well characterized by their striking zoological peculiarities, 
as shown by the preponderance of certain types and the absence of others in each ; 
and by the fact that many of the families, more of the genera, and nearly all the 
species found in each were as a general rule distinct, of which numerous examples 
were given. These greater divisions of the earth’s surface or regions were subdi- 
visible into lesser areas or provinces, characterized by being the abode of distinct 
species, which in many cases represented one another in their different localities. 

An inquiry into the meaning of these laws of geographical distribution was then 


122 REPORT—1860. 


entered upon, and the question asixed, whether it was possible in the present state 
of our knowledge of the subject to arrive at any explanation of them. It was 
remarked that the only hypothesis yet put forward which would explain these laws, 
was that of “ genetic relationship ” between species or their descent from a common 
ancestral form. It was an acknowledged fact that the best naturalists were at 
issue as to the precise limits between representative species and local varieties. 
It was generally allowed that the latter were descendants of a common progenitor, 
and the reasons given for the belief in the case of “local varieties ” might be shown 
to be equally applicable to “representative species.” Specific differences being once 
granted to have originated from natural causes, it would be impossible to stop here, 
and it must follow that greater divergences may have resulted from the operation 
of similar agents acting through longer periods of time. 


On some Peculiar Forms amongst the Micro-Lepidopterous Larve. 
By H. T. Sratinron, FLAS. 

It is well known that the normal form of a ci ne et larva is a cylinder, flat- 
tened beneath, and slightly tapering and rounded at each end. To this, the typical 
form of a Lepidopterous larva, we have abundant exceptions in most groups; thus 
we have the woodlouse-shaped larvee amongst the butterflies, and again amongst 
the Bombycina; and in the latter group we have also numerous instances of larvee 
adorned with humps or large protuberances on several of the segments, and in some 
of the Noctuze larvee we observe a protuberance on the eleventh segment. 

The normal number of legs is sixteen, that is, six true legs and ten prolegs; but 
two of the latter are wanting in some of the Bombycina and in some of the Noctuina, 
and in the whole group of the Geometrina from four to six of the prolegs are 
wanting. 

In the group of the Torticina there are very few deviations from the typical form 
of the larva; but amongst the Tineina we find many genera which give instances 
of very considerable deviation from the regular cylindric form. 

Among the most curious forms in this family, the larvee of the genus Phyllocnistis 
may be mentioned; in these the hinder extremity is so drawn out that it reminds 
us of the rat-tailed larvee amongst the Diptera, though the object of the prolonged 
tail in the Phylloenistis larvee is very different. These larve are also perfectly 
apodal, and the structure of the mouth is peculiar: the jaws of all other Lepido- 
pterous larvee terminate in two sharp-pointed mandibles; the mandibles of a Phyl- 
locnistis are perfectly blunt and rounded, like the points of lace-scissors. The 
reason of this singular formation is pretty evident; the larve of the genera Coleo- 
phora and Lithocolletis, which mine in the interior of leaves, feed on the parenchyma, 
which they detach piece by piece by their sharp mandibles and swallow; but the 
larvee of Phyllocnistis, though feeding beneath the cuticle of the leaf, do not eat the 
parenchyma, and a leaf eaten by one of these larvee, if held up to the light, shows 
no trace of the attacks of the larva. On what then do they subsist? The larvae 
mine rather rapidly forwards beneath the cuticle, raising the cuticle from the epi- 
dermis, and they apparently devour something which they find between the two, 
which, as they do not seem to remove any solid matter of the leaf, must be of a 
juicy nature. It is no doubt essential to the comfort of these larve that the cuticle 
should not remain detached from the parenchyma in those parts of the leaf which 
the larva has passed over, and accordingly we find that the cuticle again becomes 
attached to the parenchyma immediately behind the larva, and that the cuticle 
may be let down gradually and gently is, I believe, the cause of the prolonged 
attenuated tail. The object of the blunt mandibles, in like manner, appears to be 
to avoid any risk of the larva piercing the cuticle, which by letting in the external 
air would probably be fatal to the existence of the larva, as these lary have to 
move their jaws in constant juxtaposition to the cuticle, which, in the aspen tree 
(which is frequented by the commonest species of the genus, P. sufiusella), is re- 
markably thin;; it must be a great convenience to the larva that the structure of its 
jaws is such that it can eat its fill without any danger of piercing the cuticle. 
Sharp-pointed jaws are necessary to a larva which feeds on the harder parts of 
leaves ; but to this, which only, as it were, sucks up the juice, sharp-pointed jaws 
are quite unnecessary, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123 


If a leaf eaten by this larva be held to the light no symptoms of its operations 
will be apparent; but if, instead of holding the leaf between us and the light, we 
look down on it slantways, we shall perceive some slightly iridescent tracks, which 
have very much the appearance as though a snail had been crawling across the leaf. 

Another peculiarity of this larva is that it never moults; its skin is apparently 
of so elastic a nature, that it grows with the larva; most larve cast their skins four 
or five times in the course of their lives, but this larva never once undergoes that 
operation. Besides this, it never sleeps; most larvee, after enjoying a hearty meal, 
may be found inactive and inert, in a position which conveys to us precisely the 
idea of sleep, but a Phyllocnistis larva never sleeps, it is always eating; from its 
exclusion from the egg to its being full-fed, night or day, its jaws are perpetually 
at work. This is not true only of the larva of Phyllocnistis, it occurs throughout 
the extensive genus of Nepticula. I have had abundant opportunities of observing 
these larvee at all hours of the day and night, and, unless they are ill or dying, 
they are invariably eating. Their jaws have certainly solved the problem of per- 
petual motion. 

Ehrenberg expressed surprise that the Infusoria never sleep; and Owen, after 
long watching the motions of the Polygastrica, concluded they were generally of 
the nature of respiratory acts, and not attempts to obtain food orayvoid danger. He 
adds, “ Very seldom can they be construed as voluntary, but seem rather to be 
automatic; governed by the influence of stimuli, within or without the body, not 
felt but reflected upon the contractile fibre; and therefore are motions which 
never tire.” 

But the motions of these small larve are certainly not automatic; you frequently 
see the larva turning its head about from side to side of its mine, as though con- 
sidering where it should eat a bit next, and immediately it has determined that 
point it sets to work with a will, little indicative of involuntary action. 


On the Effect of Temperature and Periodicity on the Development of 
certain Lepidoptera. By Dr. VERLOREN, of Utrecht. 


A Table was exhibited showing the period at which the pupe of the Sphing 
Tigustri were hatched. From these tables it appeared that the great proportion of 
the insects was produced in the middle of June, independent of the state of the 
temperature of the season ; and it appeared that in cases where the development of 
the insects had been retarded beyond the fixed period in one year, they appeared 
only during the limited period in the succeeding year. The observations had been 
extended through a number of years, and had enabled Dr. Verloren to establish 
seyeral other interesting physiological facts connected with the species in question. 


Mr. WEstwoop gave an account of an insect which, on account of its anomalous 
character, had been referred to three different orders of the class Insecta, and which 
forms the genus Acentropus of Curtis, the type being the Phryganea nivea of Oliver, 
regarded as Trichopterous by Curtis, and as Neuropterous by Stephens: Mr. West- 
wood had many years ago endeavoured to prove it to be Lepidopterous from a con- 
sideration of the structure of the perfect insect alone. The transformations of the 
ae having, however, been recently observed by Mr. Brown of Burton-upon-Trent, 
the opinion of Mr. Westwood had been fully borne out, as was shown by a series of 
highly magnified diagrams representing the details of the insect and its metamor- 
phoses, contrasted with those of the orders Trichoptera, Lepidoptera, and Neuro- 
ptera. The genus appears to be most nearly allied to the family Crambiz. 


On Mummy Beetles. By J.O. Westwoon, M.A, F.L.S. 


The object of this paper was to show that no change had taken place in the struc- 
ture and habits of several species of insects during the period which had elapsed 
since the embalment of the mummies buried in the pyramids of Egypt. A number 
of species of such insects had been recorded by Latreille in the work upon Egypt 
by M. Calliand; and Mr. Westwood exhibited species of the genera Necrodia and 
Dermestes found within the bodies of mummies by Dr. Pettigrew, and which must 
have found their way into such bodies during the process of embalment and before 


124 REPORT—1860. 


the final cere-cloths were applied. These insects were not specifically distinguish- 
able from existing species, although of a somewhat paler colour. 


On a Lepidopterous Parasite occurring on the Body of the Fulgora candelaria. 
By J. O. Westwoopn, M.A. F.L.S. 


After some general remarks on parasitism, the author gave a detailed account of 
the occurrence of the larvee of a species of moth on the body of the firefly (Fulgora 
candelaria), for which the name of Epipyrops anomala had been proposed by Mr. 
Bowring, by whom the transformations of the insect had been observed in China. 
Not only was the fact of the parasitism of the species as a Lepidopterous insect 
extremely unusual, but also the circumstance that it was not upon the ligaments of 
the body that the larva of this moth fed, but evidently upon the white waxy secre- 
tion so common amongst the Fu/goride, with which their abdomens are enyeloped, 
was quite anomalous, although wax-feeding habits were known to occur in the 
larvee of the species of wax-moths. The insect in question appeared to belong to 
the great family Bombycidz, and specimens were preserved in the British Museum 
and Hopeian Collection at Oxford. 


Notes on Tomopteris onisciformis. 2y Dr. E. Percevat Wricut, A.M. 
Dub. Owon., F.L.S., Lecturer on Zoology, Dublin University. 


In the summer of 1858, while investigating with Professor J. Reay Greene of 
Cork, the marine zoology of the south-west coast of Ireland, I had an opportunity 
of examining somewhat in detail the structure of that puzzling little annulose 
animal, called Tomopteris onisciformis. ‘The tidal current sets in very strongly from 
the Atlantic into the narrow entrance between Bere Island and the main land, and 
carries along with it, in the summer season, whole fleets of oceanic swimming 
creatures. ‘The number of naked-eyed Medusze and free Actinozoans is almost pass 
belief to those who haye not witnessed similar phenomena. Various little bays 
with hollow caverns line the sides of this channel, and in these the water lies very 
still and quiet ; here, too, vast numbers of the ocean swimmers congregate, imparting 
to the water almost a milky hue, which sometimes changes and presents an appear- 
ance as if oil had been cast upon it, owing to the highly prismatic colouring of the 
various Beroes, Aquoreas, Cydippes, Kc. A retired nook of this sort is a very 

aradise to the marine explorer, and such were to us places of very frequent resort. 
After a little practice, one’s eye got accustemed to the varied kinds of locomotion 
that distinguished more or less each species, so that when I first perceived T 
onisciformis swimming swiftly with its very peculiar wriggling movements, small as 
it was, I perceived it to be something new; and afew seconds served to transfer it 
to a glass collecting-jar. While the whole body was more or less employed, by 
successive wrigglings, in locomotion, yet it was quite obvious that true locomotion 
was assisted by the bipinnated series of paddle-shaped organs which are attached 
at each side of the body. When compared with the graceful floating and umbrella 
movements of an A%quorea, or the headlong paddle-wheel-like moyements of a 
Beroe or a Cydippe, it could not be truthfully described as graceful ; nevertheless, 
there was something about it very characteristic—something that even seemed to 
point out its proper natural affinities. One of the little creatures lived in apparently 
good health with me for about twelve hours, though incarcerated in a small glass 
jar holding but ten ounces of water; and it would have probably lived longer, but 

wanted its tail for examination, and the necessary compressicn of such an agile 
and slippery creature between two pieces of thin glass hastened its end. ‘lhe 
author then alluded to the papers by Dr. Carpenter, Messrs. Leuckart and Pagen- 
stecher and others on this creature, and gave an outline of its anatomy, alluding to 
the presence of cilia on the pharyngeal portion, to the peculiar structure of the 
central portion of the antenna-lke organs, to the tail-like extremity, and the 
presence therein of masses of Spermatozoa; and finally expressed his conviction 
that there could be no doubt as to its being a complete creature, and that its tail 
is not a zooid form, as hinted by Dr. Carpenter. 


7 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125 


PuysioLoey. 


On the Ultimate Arrangement of Nerves in Muscular Tissue. 
By Professor Beare, M.B., F.RLS. 


On the Leptocephalide. By Professor V. Carus, Leipzig. 


Dr. Kaup places the European species of this highly interesting family in four 
generic groups,—Esunculus, Hyoprorus, Tilurus, and Leptocephalus. 1t strikes at 
first, to find amongst the “ Apodal” fishes a form with well-developed ventral fins, 
viz. Esunculus, similar to the rest only in its transparency, and in wanting the 
generative organs, differing from them also in the distinctness of the dorsal and anal. 
Among the rest there are two well-established genera, Ziduwrus with its hair-like 
tail, and Leptocephalus. According to Dr. Kaup, Tilurus contains two species, tri- 
chiurus and Rissoi, but both are probably the same, as Risso? is most likely founded 
on a mutilated specimen. The chief character is taken from the tail here being 
shorter; Dr. Kaup adds, however, himself, “ perhaps defective in the tail.”” The 
species of the genus Leptocephalus are to be classed in two groups ; the type of the 
first is Z. Morrisii, that of the other is Helmichthys diaphanus ot Ratinesque. The 
former have the body compressed, the latter rounder, earth-wormlike body. Z. Mor- 
risti and ZL. Spallanzanii differ only by the height of the former, upon which 
argument one cannot lay much stress, as exact measurements of many individuals 
give very considerable differences in the relative height and length of the whole 
body, as well as of the head and the other parts. The species of the second group, 
L. punctatus, diaphanus, Kollikert, Gegenbauri, Bibroni, and Yarrelli, are representa- 
tives of at most two species, punctatus and diaphanus. The chief distinction is 
taken from the relative position of the intestinal outlet. I did not find in two 
specimens out of some dozens the same position of this orifice ; nor are the row of 
black points, which characterize the Z. punctatus, always so well developed, that 
they could be taken as a good character. However, the habits differ in some respect 
from that of the rest. L. longirostris reminds of Hyoprorus ; the latter is probably 
nothing but a further developed or an earlier form of the Z. longirostris, L. stenops, 
and ZL. brevirostris : the two last Muropean species of Dr. Kaup’s Synopsis I know 
only by his figures, but I am very much inclined to believe that they are to be 
judged like the others. 

Taking together the anatomical structure of the whole group, the absence of ge- 
nerative organs, the structure of their skin, their skull, their vertebral column, taking 
furthermore into consideration the variability of both the zoological characters and 
the proportional measurements, I cannot but come to the conclusion that all these 
fishes are nothing but /arval forms of others. The developed full-grown species to 
which all of them, except the Lsunculus Costar, belong, are most likely among the 
Ophidians, or other compressed forms (Cepola, and so on). Although Iam not yet 
able to state with certainty what species or even genera are to be studied in their 
development as giving Leptocephalideous larvee, yet I feel quite sure that the 
family under consideration will ere long be erased from the Systema Nature, just 
as the Ammoccetes has been excluded from the benefit of being reckoned a full- 
erown member of the Animal family. 


On the Value of “ Development” in Systematic Zoology and Animal 
Morphology. By Professor V. Carus, Leipzig. 


Although there may be some who will object to my bringing forward a topic of 
general bearing, and who would prefer to have stated some special facts and details 
new to science, yet I think that meetings of this kind afford the best opportunity 
of clearing up, or at least recalling to mind, questions which we are all familiar with, 
the true bearing of which, howeyer, we are very apt to lose sight of. Since Cuvier 
laid the foundation-stone of our modern classification of animals, there has been 
within the last thirty-three years much labour bestowed upon the mending his 
system, and looking for new characters by which his classes and orders may be 
either altered and arranged in a somewhat different manner, or still better founded. 
However, we look up to him not only as the reformer of the classificatory branch of 


126 : REPORT—-1860. 


zoology, but moreover as the founder of the natural system and of the science of 
comparative anatomy. 

As I intend to inquire into the value of one of the most striking characters of 
animals with regard to their classification, as well as to their typical organization, I 
may. be allowed to state, first, what is meant by a Systema Animalium, or in other 
words, what place the classification of animals takes among the branches of zoolo- 
gical inquiry. 

We are scarcely aware that we use the word system of animals in quite a differ- 
ent sense from thatin which Linneeus used it, and which was intended even by Cuvier 
when he arranged the animal kingdom anew according to its organization. Even 
Cuvier compares the system to a great catalogue of animals, in which every single 
one can easily be found and named. There is, however, one great feature stamped 
upon all forms of organized beings, which, although implied and even indicated in 
the system of Cuvier, yet has given to the system of animals quite another aspect, 
—I mean the relationship between different animals. Cuvier, and some later natu- 
ralists, and I may say some of the best, considered the system only as a servant to 
true science. Classification, according to them, is nothing more than, as Stuart Mill 
says, acontrivance for the best possible ordering of the ideas of objects in our minds, 
and at most “for causing the ideas to accompany or succeed one another in such a 
way as shall give us the greatest command over our knowledge already acquired.” 
Although a classification worked out in the most perfect manner in this way must 
also be one of the aims of our endeavours, yet I may say that our present classifi- 
eatory inquiries go further. They start from the very fact that the oldest forms, 
and for this reason the forms nearest to the original creation, do not represent any of 
those groups of individuals which we are used to call species ; nor can all of them be 
classed under the nowestablished genera, families, and orders, but only under the type 
to which all succeeding species belong. And although we cannot give the direct ex- 

erimental proof, yet we are bound by logicand by truths forced upon us from all other 

ranches of natural history, to say that these oldest original forms are the primeval 
forms of all living animals, which originated from them by continued generation 
and by accommodation to external circumstances continually and progressively 
changing*. Hereby the general bearing of the system of animals is totally changed. 
We consider it not only as an arrangement of the animals in such a manner as 
may help us best in gaining a general view of the animal world, and in placing 
and finding certain forms of it; but we try to make it the faithful expression of 
the state of our knowledge respecting the relation of all animals to each other. 

Passing from the much spoken of differences between artificial and natural 
systems, I may only state, that even that arrangement, which is mainly founded on 
the internal structure of animals, is nothing more than a somewhat modified form 
of artificial system, taking only one set of properties as basis of the classification. 
However, it is the best form hitherto proposed, because it takes into consideration 
more characters than any other arrangement, and leads us naturally forward in the 
study of animal life. There is as yet one great chasm which seyers the classifi- 
cation of minerals from that of animals. In the mineral world we are justified in 
speaking of species, as the identity of physical and chemical properties grants us the 
identity of all bodies endowed with these. In the animal world we have nothing 
but individuals, and all sorts of groups are entirely and totally artificial. The law 
of equal production of like from like through generations and generations, upon 
which the notion of the species mainly is based, cannot be trusted to, as we have no 
experience whatever that it holds good for the same animals under different circum- 
stances. 

Passing in review the leading characters upon which the different subkingdoms 
of the animal world are founded, we perceive at once that they change almost in 
every class. For although the general headings may be taken from the same system 
of organs, yet the splitting of the classes and orders into minor divisions is de- 
pendent on characters especially modified by these very classes and orders. And 
even here our classification is not quite consistent. Amongst the lower classes of 
animals, the comparatively simpler organization allows us to take the general form 
of the bodies as a character to be relied upon, yet no person would be able to calla 


* T first made the foregoing remarks in my ‘System of Animal Morphology,’ 1853, 
Tntroduction. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127 


etenophorous medusa a radiated animal. Similar instances may be taken from the 
higher divisions of the animal kingdom ; as they are known to all who are familiar 
with our zoological system, I should go too far if I were to specify what a little 
attention paid to different orders of animals will tellin a moment. The simple 
result of carefully looking through the established classes and orders of animals, is 
that there is only a relative weight to be laid upon the different groups of zoolo- 
gical characters. It depends entirely upon the whole typical organization, and on 
the correlation of parts as modified by that type. This correlation of parts, which 
allows us to draw a conclusion from the nature of one organ as to the nature of 
another, must naturally be changed by the physiological dignity of an organ, which 
in different types is not always the same; and it will become uncertain whenever 
the characters which we call specific are becoming indistinct themselves. 

I thought it necessary to state first in few words, that there is a difference in the 
value of zoological characters according to different classes, and I am of opinion 
that the progress of zoology as science depends mainly on the determination of 
this value in a sharper manner than it has been stated. I published some years 
ago some general remarks on this subject in a small pamphlet which will scarcely 
haye reached England. Since then my opinion has become still stronger, as I saw 
that the progress, which zoology owes of late years especially to some eminent 
British naturalists, was chiefly dependent on the circumstance that the point men- 
tioned was, with or without purpose, taken into consideration. 

The structure of animal bodies shows three different relations of complexity ; com- 
mon to all three are these two points; first, that a structure, at first simple, becomes 
more and more diversified ; secondly, that all the differences which appear one after 
the other make their appearance on a basis fundamentally equal and in itself not 
changing. They differ according to the difference of this substratum. In one case 
there is one and the same body changing and becoming more and more complex ; 
in the second case different members of one great fundamental type of organization 
constitute a series of forms, some less, some more diversified ; in the third case the 
very types themselves are to be regarded as members of one great series, showing 
less and greater complexity. The practice of scientific inquiry has severed these 
three different points of view into three different branches of science. The first is 
the history of development, which may just as well be called the comparative 
anatomy of the individual; the second is the comparative anatomy of the different 
types ; the third is the general morphology of the animal kingdom. These are the 
three different bearings which animals generally present to the zoologist with regard 
to their structure. Now we must ask, what use can we make of them, and of the 
first-mentioned especially ? As the zoologist has nothing before him but individuals, 
it is no wonder that the comparative anatomy of these will throw much light on 
their nature, their life, and their morphology. As long as it is kept in mind that 
all the facts of the history of development have relation to the individual, and to 
nothing else, so long nobody will object to the manner of inquiring, which is quite 
properly called the genetic method. 

All our zoological classification, however, tends toward the establishment of 
larger groups and types, and here comparative anatomy has its place. It is very 
significant, that in the Cuvierian system, which we all follow, its later alterations 
being quite irrelevant to the grand truths upon which it is founded, there is no 
use whatever made of the history of development, not even in one instance. It 
has been said that the emendations of this system, and the whole progress of 
systematic zoology, depend, if not chiefly, yet for a great part, on the employment 
of the genetic method. On this I may he allowed to make the following remarks, 
As comparative anatomy rests entirely on the knowledge of the structure of indivi- 
duals, everything which throws light on the individual will also throw light on 
comparative anatomy. But with regard to systematic zoology, we have not to 
deal with larval forms and immature individuals, but only with such as are able 
to propagate their individual, or if you like it better, specific form. We cannot, 
of course, put aside all embryological data in our systematic endeavours. How- 
ever, there is great danger in overrating the help they give us. A system based 
on anatomy alone is an artificial one, however true it may be; but its value is 
always great, and the more attention is paid to the physiological and biological 
bearings of structural facts, the greater will this value be. A classification of 


128 REPORT—1860. 


animals from embryonic data, however, is still more artificial; it takes only one 
small group of properties of the animals, and just a group which, by its being con- 
fined exclusively to individuals, forbids by itself the taking account of other pro- 
perties. There are so many striking examples of different development in animals 
related as nearly as possible, that by these alone the exclusive use of embryology 
a3 a basis for classification is defended. And if the fact of frogs developing with- 
out the intermediate stages of tadpoles be true (and I have no reason to doubt it), we 
have in one and the same species differences of development which would in other 
classes suffice to establish urders. B, this very instance it is shown that embry- 
ology also ha3 only a relative value as zoological character. Ournext inquiry ought 
to be directed here, a3 well a3 in all other cases, towards the establishment of the 
characteral standard of embryology. Nature herself assists us in the rightly 
weighing of this character of animal bodies, as almost in all cases it serves only to 
contirm and strengthen relations which have been found by other methods. 

While there is scarcely any ditficulty in giving to embryology amongst the other 
sets of properties its right place with regard to the classification of animals, there 
is, I should not like to say difficulty, but some seemingly perplexing complexity of 
phenomena and relations, when we are to make out the true bearing of embryology 
on animal morphology. Here I have to answer two questions: How must we look 
upon animal forms? and secondly, Are we allowed to explain analogous pheno- 
mena by methods not correlate to each other? Animal morphology, as the science 
of animal forms, has to explain these, that is to say, to bring them back to Jaws. A 
law manifested on different forms cannot be that of cause and effect, but only one of 
a constant repetition of the same phenomena under seemingly different conditions. 
The object of animal morphology therefore will be to show the constancy with which 
certain organs appear in certain groups of animals, and to showthat the relative posi- 
tion of these organs is always one and the same in the larger and lesser groups. With 
regard to the first part of these inquiries, there can be no doubt as to the utter failure 
of embryology. Nothing buta simple anatomical investigation can tell us whether a 
certain organ or system of organs is present in a certain division of the animal 
kingdom or absent ; and respecting the second part of our morphological researches, 
{ am equally inclined to doubt whether embryology gives us an insight into the 
anatomical specialities of a somewhat more complex animal by anything else, but 
by bringing before us certain forms which are not quite as complex as the animal 
which we dissect. And here we need not take embryological data; we have before 
us in every type of animals a whole series of more and more diversified forms, which 
by themselves offer that same series of simpler forms which we find in the indi- 
vidual, and even more clearly manifested, because an embryo is always endowed 
with certain individual or specific peculiarities, which we cannot at present account 
for at all. With respect to my second question, the embryologists say that two 
organs which are developed in two different ways cannot be considered homologous. 
Now, here I have to give a somewhat similar answer to that which I gave with 
respect to the embryological classification. The homology of parts is determined 
by the constant relative position of the organs in one andthe same type. An artery 
which runs up along the mesial line of the cervical vertebree, is homologically dit. 
ferent from an artery which runs along the jugular vein and the pneumogastric 
nerve. The morphological relations of a certain class cannot be determined but by 
comparing full-grown individuals, as all the organs do not work to the purpose of 
these individuals before the development is finished. And in this respect I must 
deny any influence of embryological researches on morphological questions. There 
is, however, another set of questions frequently brought betcre the morphologist, 
namely, whether two homologous organs are developed in the same way. It is 
easily seen that their homology must have been determined beforehand. It is of 
course of the greatest interest to know the differences of the development of the 
same organ in different representatives of the same type. But they show nothing 
more than the wonderful facility with which Nature arrives at the same results by 
different ways. They give us additional proofs of that immense richness of means 
with which the Creator of all animal bodies works out his plans, 


On the Deglutition of Alimentary Fluids. By Professor Cornett, M.D. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129 


On the Formation of Sugar and Amyloid Substances in the Animal Economy. 
By Dr. Roperr M*DonneE tt. 


After briefly noticing the history of the discovery by Bernard and Hensen of the 
matter named by the former “ glycogene,” the writer observed that the term now 
very generally adopted to indicate this substance, viz. “ amyloid matter,” seemed in 
the present state of our knowledge preferable, as it did not involve any theory con- 
cerning the ultimate destination of the material in question. It was proposed to 
embrace under the generic term amyloid substance, two varieties of the starch-like 
material known to exist in the animal economy, viz. that of the first species, or the 
amyloid substance of Bernard, a ternary compound isomeric with dried erape- 
Sugar, convertible by contact with animal ferments into sugar capable of fermenting 
on the addition of yeast—and that of the second species, or the amyloid substance of 
Virchow, a material, which, although in histological characters analogous to cellulose 
and starch, yet as met with in the prostate gland, spleen, choroid plexus, &c., has 
not yet been shown to be capable of conversion into sugar undergoing fermentation, 
and which cannot be considered free from the intimate admixture of azotized 
matters. 

Dr. M*Donnell discussed at considerable length the question as to whether the 
liver is endowed with the function of converting its amyloid substance into sugar 
during life and health, or whether some at least of this substance has not another 
destination, viz. that of becoming nitrogenized, and thus being, so to speak, raised 
from the class of ternary to that of quaternary compounds. 

Admitting that this is one of the most delicate questions in physiology, and being 
most unwilling to appear to dogmatize on the subject, the writer detailed a consider= 
able number of experiments on blood drawn from the right side of the heart of 
animals variously fed, which seem, on the whole, to support the view that trans- 
eon into sugar is not the normal destination of the amyloid substance formed 
in the liver, 


An Experimental Inquiry into the Nature of Sleep. 
Sy Arruur E. Durwam. 


Contributions to the Theory of Cardiae Inhibition. 
By Dr. Micuart Foster. 


On certain Alterations in the Medulla Oblongata in cases of Paralysis. 
By Rozert Garner, F.L.S. 


Tn this paper it was shown, and the fact illustrated by specimens, that in old 
paralytic cases the crus cerebri on the side of thecerebral lesion and the corresponding 
anterior column below the pons, but only to the decussation, are both found much 
atrophied, and this very frequently, though it has been almost entirely overlooked. 
In such cases the corresponding olivary body retains its plumpness, and these 

anglia, therefore, rather appertain to the columns to be seen on the floor of the 
ourth ventricle, and to the posterior or tezumentary portion of the crura. This con- 
nexion may be well seen by tearing down the hardened medulla oblongata through 
the locus niger, when it will be found that below the pons the posterior torn 
portion comes forwards and is firmly connected with the olives, 

The author appreciates the remarks of Turck and Van der Kolk, and goes on to 
notice how the olfactory and optic nerves are, in different animals, connected, some- 
times with the cerebrum principally, in other cases with the cerebral ganglia, or in 
others with the medulla oblongata; as they are subservient to the intellectual, the 
animal, or to the locomotive, respiratory and automatic functions. Some remarks 
on the origin of a few of the cerebral nerves in animals, and a denial that there is 
any well-marked distinction of an upper and lower tract in the ganglionic cord of 
such animals as the scorpion and scolopendra, as indeed was long ago shown in the 
last animal by Mr. Lord, form the conclusion of the paper. 


1860. g 


130 REPORT—1860. 


On the Structure of the Lepadide. By R. Garner, F.L.S. 


In this paper the author bore testimony to the high regard for truth with which 
Mr. Darwin has recorded his labours, in respect to these animals, though further 
observation has modified some of his conclusions, and indeed is still wanted. 

From finding fragments of shells, small pebbles, &c. in the cesophagus of the 
Lepas anatifera, the author supposes that this part acts as a gizzard, comminutin 
the food. With Poli he believes in the existence of a heart, situated on the back, 
a little posterior to the base of the second pair of cirri: however, these observers 
stand alone with respect to this point. The heart can only be seen in some speci- 
mens, according to the state of the tissues, which vary much. It receives its 
supply at the sides, and gives off vessels before and behind: other large and lon- 
gitudinal vessels exist. 

With respect to the canal running along the abdominal side of the peduncle, 
and communicating with the body of the animal, on each side, behind the adductor 
muscle, the author thinks that by means of it the cavity of the prosoma is distended 
with fluid, thus acting as an antagonist to the adductor, parting a little the shelly 
valves. The communicating opening lies betsveen the nerves and oviducts as they 
course between the peduncle and the body. 

Mr. Darwin thought that these oviducts conyeyed the ova from his ovaries, or 
the salivary glands of Cuvier, into the peduncle, where ova are found sure enough. 
But in some specimens, where they are distended with ova, the oviducts are easily 
traced from the peduncle down into the body of the animal, making a sweep, and 
apparently ending at the cavities and apertures called acoustic by Mr. Darwin, who 
informs us that Krohn has also made out this point. The little membranous, 
buskin-shaped follicle, found in this acoustic cavity, is sometimes wanting. 

Cuvier did not often use the microscope, or he would haye soon discovered that 
his so-called ovaries are, in reality, testes. 

Little need he said, after Mr. Darwin, respecting the nervous system. The sub- 
oral ganglion, besides being connected by a ring with the supra-oral ganglia, supplies 
the salivary glands, the adductor muscle, the viscera, and the mantle by means of a 
large anterior branch ; also it gives others to the mouth and first cirri, and is con- 
nected of course with the chain of ganelia between the other cirri. From the 
supra-oral pair of ganglia, which are in close apposition, two large nerves (anten- 
nary of Mr. D.) go to the peduncle, and two minute twigs to the eye, described 
exactly in the “ Lepadidie.” With respect to this eye Mr. Darwin observes, “in all 
the genera the double eye is seated deep within the body ; it is attached by fibrous 
tissue to the radiating muscles of the lowest part of the cesophagus, and lies actually 
on the upper part of the stomach; consequenly a ray of light, to reach the eye, has 
to pass through the exterior membrane and underlying corium connecting the two 
scuta, and to penetrate deeply into the body.” This is not quite all; the little 
organ is made perfect in its adaptation, by a small oval or lozenge-shaped trans- 
parent spot in these coverings to admit the light, and exactly behind this spot the 
eyelet may always be easily seen or found. In specimens of Conchoderma Hunteri, 
parasitic on the carapax of a crab from Amoy, this visual organ is situated between 
the mouth and the adductor. 

The so-called proboscis appears to act as an ovipositor, and probably in the pre- 
hension of the food. The ova are finally attached to the “ovigerous fraena” as 
broad sheets, with the assistance of a cement, which sometimes glues them unna- 
turally together. The fatty matter with which the mantle abounds appears to go 
to their nutrition, and is apparently taken in at the roots of the frana. In this 
mantle, in some species, the young animals are imbedded, and within its cavity 
‘impregnation takes place. 

The author’s specimens of Zepas came on shore last January at Kimmeridge, 
attached in vast quantities to a beam of pine. Some were a foot and a half in 
leneth; mostly simple, but others springing one from another. They are tenacious 
of life, and appear to be generally cast on shore upon our coasts in rough winter 
weather. The author has had large living Balani picked up in the Mersey, and 
has Lepadidse attached to nuts of China, the small shells of a Sepia, and minute 
ones on the shells of Zanthina and Spirula from the Gulf-weed, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 131 


On Saccharine Fermentation within the Female Breast. 
By Georce D. Giss, M.D., W.A., F.G.S. 


After referring to Vogel’s discovery of vibriones in human milk, and the suspicion 
he entertained that their origin was due to fermentation of the milk, but which was 
denied by subsequent observers, the author proceeded to state that his own researches 
into this question commenced in the latter part of 1854. At that time an infant seven 
weeks old was brought to him in the most extreme state of emaciation, whosé 
mother had the appearance of good health. The child, although but skin and bone, 
was healthy and piump at birth, and was in no way diseased; it had plenty of its 
mother’s milk, but never was satisfied, and seemed ravenous. The most profuse 
diaphoresis and diuresis had worn it toa shadow. ‘The mother’s milk was found 
to be rich in cream, neutral, sp. gr. 1032, and contained a large quantity of sugar. 
Examined under the microscope upon the instant of withdrawal from the breast, it 
revealed numbers of living animalcules, those known as the Vibrio baculus, but 
which he proposed to change to Vibrio lactis as more appropriate. These he con- 
sidered the result of fermentation of the saccharine element within the eland. 
There was an absence of mammary congestion and heat, which are usually present 
in such cases, but much general nervous excitement, which it was necessary to 
control by proper treatment. The child was supplied with an abundance of: good 
cow’s milk, and gradually weaned, after the lapse of some weeks, and ultimately 
completely recovered. The mother’s condition also improved ; the milk continued 
to be rich in cream and sugar for some time, varying in sp. er. from 1032 to 1035, 
and always neutral; the animalcules remained for some weeks, and finally disap- 
peared; and when drawn from the breast, the milk invariably turned sour much 
sooner than other examples of cows or healthy human milk. 

From 1854 to the present time the author has examined many hundred specimens 
of human milk, chemically and microscopically, and has occasionally found twospecies 
of animalcules to be present in the glands of those whose general health was dis- 
ordered from various causes during lactation, or where the process of lactation was 
unusually prolonged, or again, where the quantity of milk secreted was small and 
insufficient to satisfy the wants of the infant. At early lactation also, where the 
milk was good and plentiful, but with constitutional symptoms present as already 
referred to, both species were found, but not in the same individual. 

These creatures consisted, first, of the Vibrio lactis, resembling little rod or 
minute hair-shaped bodies, similar to those found in some of the other fluids of the 
body ; and secondly, of monads, which he has found to be far more frequent and com- 
mon than vibriones, and which he proposed to call Monas lactis, 

Both species were noticed at all periods of lactation, froma few days to upwards 
of twelve months; the colour and specific gravity of the milk varied, but it was inva- 
riably alkaline or neutral. The children were mostly skin and bone, resembling 
little old men, and soon died of inanition unless other food than the mother’s milk 
was supplied to them. It was not these little bodies that disagreed, but the healthy 
properties of the milk for assimilation were destroyed, by constitutional causes in 
the mother, which imparted as it were a galvanic shock through the agency of the 
uterine nervous system, at the moment of its secretion, giving rise to fermentation 
in the sugar alone, a substance the author believed the only one likely to produce 
it within the breast. This process did not necessarily give rise to the formation of 
lactic acid ; had it done so, it would have destroyed the animalcules ; moreover, in no 
single instance was the milk ever found acid. ' He referred to some experiments of 
Berthelot to show that fermentation of sugar could take place in alkaline fluids; 
and the rapidity with which milk containing these animalcules is decomposed and 
turns sour out of the breast, now generating a large quantity of lactic acid, the 
author considered a strong proof of fermentation having previously commenced 
within the breast. 

He believed it very probable that the animalcules were generated from the sur- 
face of the mucous membrane of the lactiferous tubes, by the fermentation of the 
sugar at the moment of its secretion from the blood, and this in some cases explained 
the large numbers present. The necessary connexion subsisting between the mam- 
mary glands and uterine organs, explained the influence of the latter in producing 
the heat and internal congestion of the former by reflex nervous agency, giving rise 
to the conditions described, in which the vitality of the milk was much impaired, 

* 


132 REPORT—1860. 


The author then briefly entered into the general question of treatment to be pur- 
sued, both for the parent and child, under the circumstances detailed. 


On Asiatic Cholera. By Sir CHARLES Gray. 


A Word on Embryology, with reference to the mutual relations of the Sub- 
kingdoms of Animals. By J. Rray Greene, B.A., Professor of Natural 
History in the Queen’s College, Cork. 


Tn a communication bearing the above title, the author endeavoured to explain 
that any real improvements in the arrangement of the animal kingdom which have 
been made since the time of Cuvier accorded well with the corresponding advances 
of comparative embryology. Thus only, indeed, were they shown to be true; for 
the method of gradations, whatever might be its value in suggesting affinities, 
could not, of itself, be deemed sufficient to prove them ; while its exclusive employ- 
ment had already, in too many cases, engendered errors, the further multiplication 
of which could alone be kept in check by a continual appeal to the test of develop- 
ment. From this point of view, the mutual relations of the five sub-kingdoms of 
animals appear as in the accompanying analytical Table :— 


THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


The organism does not exhibit a A blastoderm is formed, which 

division into true layers. divides into inner and outer 
Subkingdom 1. PROTOZOA. layers. 

The two layers of the blastoderm The blastodermal layers become 
undergo no further funda- further differentiated. The 
mental differentiation. There organism exhibits neural and 
is no distinction into neural heemal regions. 


and heemal regions. 
Subkingdom 2. CAALENTERATA. 


he hemal region is first deve- The neural region is first deve= 
loped. There is no segmenta- loped. 

tion of the blastoderm. 

Subkingdom 8. MOLLUSCA. 


SS ee 


The blastoderm may become an- The blastoderm divides into so- 
tero-posteriorly segmented, but matomes, A primitive groove, 
there is no formation of pri- dorsal and visceral plates are 
mitive groove, dorsal and vis- formed. 
ceral plates*, Subkingdom 5, VERTEBRATA. 


Subkingdom 4. ANNULOSA. 


The generalizations here expressed may, to a certain extent, be regarded as cO- 
rollaries from the well-known proposition of J. F. Meckel :—d. h. das hohere Thier in 
seiner Entwickelung dem Wesentlichen nach die unter ihm stehenden, bleibenden 
Stupen durchliuft, wodurch also die periodischen und Classenverscheidenheiten 
auf einander zuriickgefiihrt werden}. Fora Vertebrate ovum, before segmentation, 
differs but little, essentially, from an astomatous Protozoon. At a later stage, 
when the division of the blastoderm into serous and mucous layers has just taken 
place, it admits of easy comparison with the permanent forms of Celenterata, the 
simpler organisms of this group being little more than double-walled sacs of peculiar 
form, with one extremity open for the purpose of alimentation. 


* This proposition is stated and commented on by Professor Huxley in his recent memoir 
“On the Agamic Reproduction and Morphology of Aphis.” See especially § 5 of the same 
paper, entitled ‘‘The Embryogeny of the Articulata, Mollusca, and Vertebrata compared” 
(Linn. Trans. vol. xxii.). 

ft System der yergleichenden Anatomie, Erster Theil, p. 396. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133 


Recent researches on the structure of the Infusoria show that some members of 
that group, for example Vorticella, present a more or less obvious differentiation of 
their primitively homogeneous tissue into imperfect layers. A mouth, also, is con- 
stantly present. In these characters the higher Protozoa pre-indicate, as it were, 
certain structural features which are seldom absent among the members of other 
sub-kingdoms. So also do the more advanced Cclenterata, and especially the 
Ctenophora, foreshadow, in a manner, the anatomical peculiarities of some of the 
higher types. 

All this may be admitted as true, without in any way neglecting the fundamental 
distinction insisted on by Von Baer between the grade of development and the 
type of organization. 

t is to be observed with reference to the Annulosa, that the difficulty of enun- 
ciating propositions which shall be equally applicable to the Articulata properly so 
called (Arthropoda), and those lower annulose forms known collectively as Annuloida 
or Vermes, is still so much felt, as to render it doubtful whether these two great 
divisions should not be raised to the rank of separate subkingdoms. This, at 

resent perhaps the most important question in systematic zoology, has already 
ean answered in the affirmative by J. V. Carus, Gegenbaur, R. Leuckart, Siebold, 
and Vogt. 

The threo first-mentioned of these naturalists regard the Echinodermata as con-= 
stituting a seventh subkingdom. Of the propriety of separating this group from 
the Celenterata no doubt can any longer be entertained, although Prof, Milne- 
Edwards and a few other zoologists of repute still continue to unite these widely 
different forms under the oldname of Radiata. So long, however, as the arguments 
brought forward by Prof. Huxley remain unanswered, the author can see no reason 
to dissent from his conclusion, that the Echinodermata, while forming a distinctly 
circumscribed class, are nevertheless connected by true affinities with the division 
Annuloida. 


On the Mode of Death by Aconite. 
By Evwarp R. Harvey, M.A., B.M., Oxon. 

Death by aconite has been attributed by different observers to its influence upon 
each of the three vital organs, the heart, lungs, and brain. The following experiments 
were made with a view of determining, if possible, the organ whose functions were 
most directly interfered with by the poison. Fleming’s tincture was always used. 
In experiment 1, two minims of the tincture were injected beneath the skin of a 
dog. In 23 hours after injection the dog died. There had been no convulsions, 
no loss of consciousness, no apparent loss of sight, no change in the pupils, and no 
disturbance of the respiration: the two marked symptoms were vomiting and great 
prostration. On examination after death, the veins of the neck were seen to be 
enormously distended. The heart contained blood partially clotted in both auricles. 
The other organs were healthy. In experiment 2. on a rabbit, the heart was the 
organ first affected (its pulsations falling in 5 minutes from 140 in a minute to 100, 
and soon becoming laboured and irregular) ; the breathing then became distressed, 
and just before death there were convulsions. Post-mortem examination directly 
after death :—The veins of the neck and brain were distended with blood. The heart 
gave, when exposed, two very slight quiverings, not to be called contractions; all the 
cavities contained blood. The other organs were healthy. In experiment 8, 
similar symptoms during life and appearances after death were observed. Experi- 
ment 4, The heart of a frog having been exposed by removal of a portion of the 
sternum, the pulsations numbered 60 in a minute, and were forcible and irregular. 
After three or four drops of the tincture had been let fall into the thoracic cavity, 
the pulsations became very rapid, feeble, and irregular, and soon could no longer 
be felt: the beating here ceased: 10 minutes after death the heart was again 
pulsating, though much more feebly than in another frog killed by pithing. Ex- 
net 5. A young rabbit was killed by aconite, and another young one by a 

low behind the ears. In the animal killed by aconite, there was aslight fluttering 
movement of the heart, but there were no regular contractions, and galvanism pro- 
duced no effect whatever ; in the other rabbit, the heart was contracting regularly 
after death ; and when all contraction had ceased, galvanism occasioned slight but 
decided contractions, Experiment 6, Fiye minims of the tincture were injected 


134 : REPORT—1860. 


beneath the skin of a rabbit. In 40 minutes the pulse was intermittent, and 
had fallen from 168 in a minute to 36. The temperature within the ears, which 
at the time of injection was 97°, was 93°. The animal at this time was ex- 
tremely weak, and unwilling to move; twenty minutes later it was more lively; 
the pulse beat 60 in a minute, and the temperature within the ears was 96°. 
The heart’s pulsation slowly and steadily increased, and the animal recovered. 
Experiment 7. In a very young rabbit which received beneath the skin four 
minims of the tincture, similar symptoms terminated in recovery. In the latter 
case the temperature fell from 97° to 89°. In each case the only sign of cerebral 
disturbance was an extreme weakness of the hind legs, which perhaps amounted 
to temporary paralysis ; the breathing was never distressed, and but little hurried. 
Loss of power of the heart and of the muscles generally, with a fall of temperature, 
was the marked symptom, and the condition of the animals improved or deterio- 
rated coincidently with the state of the heart. Experiments 8 and 9. In two 
rabbits poisoned by aconite the heart and large veins were distended with blood. 
In experiment 10, where there had been during life no symptoms of asphyxia, the 
right side of the heart alone contained clots; a little liquid blood escaped from 
both ventricles. This is the only evidence throughout the experiments of death 
from asphyxia. With this exception, all the preceding experiments led to the 
conclusion that aconite kills by its action upon the heart, and that the disorder of 
the brain and lungs, when present, is due to the congestion consequent upon the 
heart’s failure. To discover if the circulation was affected by the outward application 
of the tincture to an inflamed part, a frog’s web was placed under the microscope, 
and inflammation excited by a little mustard; the whole web was then moistened 
with a few drops of the tincture; no effect whatever was observed for two hours 
during which the web was under the microscope. It remained to be seen if the 
poison acted directly upon the muscles or nerves. For this purpose experiments 
were made upon frogs: galvanism was applied under various circumstances, and 
though the experiments were not sufficiently numerous to decide the point, the 
conclusion arrived at was, that aconite acts immediately upon the nerves, and 
through them upon the muscles—the heart among the number—and that that organ 
is the first of the vital organs whose function is interrupted. The latter experiment 
will be repeated, as well as others which have been instituted on the antidotes of 
aconite. 

Several very careful analyses of the blood and urine of animals under aconite 
were made, but beyond the increased quantity of urine, nothing worthy of parti- 
cular comment was discovered. 


On the Anatomy of Stenops Petto, Perodicticus Geoffroyi of Bennett. 
By Professor Van per Hoeven. 


. It is not for the first time that I make a communication on this species to the 
British Association (see Report of the British Association for 1850, Trans. Sect., 
p: 125*). On a former occasion I proved that this species, first described, or rather 
commemorated, at the beginning of the foregoing century, by Bosman, in his Dutch 
work on the coast of Guinea, belongs to the group of the genus Stenops of Iliger 
or Nycticebus of Geofivoy. I haye now the pleasure of bringing here to the meeting 
a nearly complete anatomical monograph of this species. It was in the begin- 
ning of 1857 that I received two well-preserved male specimens of the Potto, pre- 
sented to me by a Surgeon in the service of the army of the Netherlands, then 
residing at George d’Elmina. I placed them in the hands of a Candidate of 
Medicine, F. A. W. van Campen, to procure him a good argument for his disserta- 
tion. That able young man, who had devoted himself to the study of anatomy, died 


* In the few lines inserted at that page the name Lemur Pollo occurs twice, but is a mis- 
print for Lemur Potto. 1 avail myself of this opportunity to correct another fault, not of the 
printer, but of myself. ‘The late excellent zoologist E. T. Bennett has not stated in his de- 
scription of the Perodicticus (Proceedings of the Zoological Society, part 1, 1830, pp. 109, 110) 
that the tarsus was elongated. For the words, ‘* The tarsal bones were of the same shape as 
in Svenops, and the statement of Bennett, that the tarsus was elongated, is incorrect ” read 
‘* The tarsal bones were of the same shape also in Stenops, and my former opinion, that the 
tarsus was elongated, is incorrect,” 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135 


before he could obtain his degrees. I received his notes and wrote after them the 
Monograph, which was edited in 1859 by the Royal Academy of Sciences of the 
Netherlands in its seventh volume (Ortleedkundig Ondersock yan der Potto van 
Bosman door F. A. W. van Campen, Med. Cand. Uit zesse nagelasen aan 
seekeningen byeen gebragt door J. van der Hoeven (Met due Platen Amsterdam, 
Ato, 77 pp.). Except the female organs of generation, a species, scarcely known 
thirty years ago, is now more completely investigated than many species of the 
mammalia living in Europe. : 

The little but very natural group of Mammalia called Lemuride, is one with 
whose investigation I have been often and at different times engaged. It is well 
known that zoologists have given the name of a hand to every extremity in which the 
thumb is opposable to the other fingers. Some haye such only on the posterior ex- 
tremities, as the opossum (Didelphis) of America and the Chiromys of Madagascar. 
Those are called Pedimana, or hind-handed, Others haye this structure both in the 
anterior and posterior extremities, as in the case in the greatest number of monkeys, 
and in the lemurs (Quadrumana). Man is the only species of the order Bimana 
where the opposable thumb exists on the anterior extremities only. Amongst the 
Quadrumana the Lemuridx are distinguished by the nail of the second finger of the 
hind feet, which is erected, compressed and sharp (of a subulate shape), while the 
other fingers have flat nails. I found that in all the species the fourth finger, both 
of the anterior and posterior feet, is the longest. In the apes, on the contrary, as in 
most other mammals having five fingers, the third is the longest of all. To those 
characters, sufficient perhaps for the systematic zoologist, we may add, after what 
is known by the investigations of Cuvier, Fischer, Meckel, W. Vrolik, Burmeister, 
A. Smith, Kingma and myself, several anatomical characters, as, for instance, that 
the lower jaw is divided into two distinct lateral parts (as in many other mammals, 
but neyer in the monkeys); that the orbit is notclosed by the interposition of the ala 
magna ossissphenoidei between the malar and frontal bones, so that the fisswwa orbitalis 
inferior is not distinct from the temporal fossa*; that there exists a flat, mem- 
branaceous or aponeurotic tongue-shaped appendage beneath the tongue, terminated 
in slender slips forming a pectinated tip; that the first pair of cerebral nerves is 
represented by large corpora mammillaria, and that the uterus (in those of which 
the anatomy is known) has two cornua, and not that pyriform shape which it 
assumes in the monkeys and in woman. 

The whole group is confined to the eastern hemisphere of our planet. The 
greatest number of species lives only in Madagascar; some are found on the continent 
of Africa in tropical regions; and some in East India, chiefly in the isles at the 
south and east coast of Asia. 

I distinguish the Zemurina into two groups. In the first there is only one nail of 
the hinder feet erected and subulate; in the other, not only the second, but also the 
third has that shape. To this second group belongs only the genus Tarsius, living 
in Celebes, Borneo, and the Philippine Isles. It scems not to be proved that there 
is more than one species of that genus. ‘The tarsus is very elongated, 

To the first group belong all the other Zemurina. In those the superior inci- 
sors are placed by two pairs, and a vacant space is left between them in the middle. 
Some of those have the tarsal bones elongated like Zursiws; the calcaneum and 
navicular bone forming two slender elongated bones placed near cach other like 
the radius and ulna in our fore-arm. This genusis Ofolionus or Galago. In others 
the tarsus is not elongated. Some have only two incisors in the lower jaw 
(Lichanotus, Propithecus); others have four in both jaws. To this last subdivi- 
sion belong the genus Lemur (stricto sensu) and Stenops. The first has a long tail, 
the second a short, or only rudimental tail, or no tail at all. The last is the case 
in the slender and small Ceylonese species (Stenops gracilis). All species of Stenops 
have a short index to the fore-hand; i Stenops Potto there is an exaggeration of this 
generic peculiarity, and the index has only two phalanges. The species is further 
distinguished by the peculiarity that some spinous processes of the neck, covered 


* In Tarsius the orbit appears to be closed behind, but the deviation from the other 
Lemurid@ is more apparent than real; the great ala of the sphenoid bone is not concerned in 
the formation of the hind wall of the orbit, but the malar bone is enlarged. 

+ Propithecus seems to make an exception, but it ismore an apparent than arealone. See 
Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1832, p. 21. 


136 REFORT—1860. 


only by a thin corneous epiderm, pierce through the fur like prickles. They are 
those of the fifth to the last cervical, and of the first two dorsal vertebree. 


Observations on the Teredo navalis, and the Mischief caused by it in Holland. 
By Professor vAN DER HoeEven. 


It is well known that the Zeredo has been greatly destroying the piles which 
were employed in the construction of the dykes of Holland in the beginning of the 
preceding century, chiefly in the years from 1730 tol733. Since that period it is 
scarcely recorded that any mischief has been produced by that bivalve till the year 
1827, when in the province of Sealand it again became noxious. But it was chiefly 
in the years 1858 and 1859 that the species increased very much, and the destruction 
produced by it was the cause of a committee of members of the Royal Academy 
of Science being formed, with the view of inquiring concerning the damages in 
different localities, and as to the best means of protecting timber against their ravages. 
I have the pleasure to place the Report of those gentlemen, published some weeks 
before I left Leyden, in the hands of the gentleman who has given such an elaborate 
dissertation on the Ship-worm to this meeting of the British Association. He will 
I hope make known hereafter the chief contents to the English naturalist. From 
the comparison of different records, it seems to result that the species, which it is 
well known now was not imported from foreign and warmer seas, exists always on 
our coasts, but that there are some periods of greater occurrence, produced as it 
seems by high temperature of the year and by dry summers. 

Different experiments have proved that some proposed means of preserving tim- 
ber against the ship-worm are only useful for a short time, or even not useful at all ; 
such are mixtures of fine fragments of broken glass and fat, different oil-paintings 
and the like ; such is also the imbibition with different solutions of salts, sulphate 
of copper, acetate of lead, and others. The best success, on the contrary, yet 
obtained was by creosoting timber, a result also obtained in this country, as is 
stated in the ‘Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers.’ I think myself 
fortunate in having the opportunity of placing the book I have brought with me in 
the hands of a Member of this Association who has such a great knowledge of a 
subject, to the elucidation of which, in a practical point of view, the Committee of 
the Academy of Amsterdam has given its conscientious and laborious consider- 
ation. 


On the Development of Pyrosoma. By Professor Huxtey, F.R.S. 


On the Nature of Death from the Administration of Anesthetics, especially 
Chloroform and Ether, as observed in Hospitals. By Cuar.es Kipp, M.D. 


The author haying collected and tabulated 109 deaths from chloroform, 22 from 
ether, and 2 from amylene, believes himself to be in a position to offer some ex- 
planation of these accidents. 

Of these 133 deaths, 90 occurred in male patients, and 43, or less than half that 
number, in females, though anesthetics have been largely used in midwifery practice, 
Such occurrences are very rare in children. 

From 250,000 to 300,000 operations of all kinds have been performed under the 
influence of anesthetics, and chiefly of chloroform, and in some hundreds of severe 
cases the patient has been more than an hour in a state of deep anesthesia. In all 
these latter cases not a single well-attested instance is on record in which death 
has taken place from simple stoppage of the functions of life, or narcotism of the 
system by the chloroform. Fully 80 per cent. of all the deaths, and nearly all 
those from chloroform, have occurred from trivial operations, from very small doses, 
and suddenly before the anesthetic had produced its full effect. The author does 
not contend that death cannot occur in the human subject from long-con- 
tinued inhalation of chloroform, but only that it has not been observed to do so 
in hospital practice. It seems probable that when anesthesia is once established in 
a favourable surgical subject, respiratory action is diminished, and the breathing 


for a definite interval proceeds on a diminished scale, almost as it does in the case 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137 


of hybernating mammals. On the other hand, if respiration by fresh pungent 
chloroform, vomited matter, &c., be disturbed, slight spasm of the glottis may 
take place through the recurrent laryngeal nerves. This occurs occasionally in 
strong and healthy, but nervous subjects, and especially in trivial cases; and the 
occurrence of death in such instances from a few drops of chloroform is to be 
attributed to this disturbance and stoppage of the respiratory muscles at the end 
of the irritant or second stage—this being the dangerous point in administration of 
chloroform. It may be considered almost as an established law, that patients suf- 
fering under old disease and severe nervous irritation or neuralgic pain bear chlo- 
roform best. 

Dr, Kidd thinks that statistics for future use ought to be examined in two ways: 
first inductively, and then by comparing the several groups of facts collected, and 
deducing from them conclusions applicable to practice. Single “ positive instances ” 
lead only to false conclusions. Though a single instance in a case of pure physical 
science may be all that is requisite, as in the case of measurements of atomic ele- 
ments, angles, &c., this is not the case in so complicated a matter as the one under 
discussion, in which it is necessary to generalize, not from single facts, but from a 
comparison of groups of facts. 

In surgical practice under chloroform we have to fear, not so much deep insen- 
sibility as the production, first, of apnea from muscular inaction, or spasm of the 
Berta of the neck by irritation of the excito-motor respiratory apparatus. The 

eaths from chloroform may be proved to be of an accidental character, and many 
deaths during operations are charged to chloroform which would have occurred 
equally before chloroform was used, and would then haye been put down to some 
other cause. For instance, of 45 deaths recorded by Dr. Snow, 6 were attributable 
to fright. Those which really follow chloroform commonly occur before the ope- 
ration, and seldom or never as the result of a long tedious operation: of 85 deaths 
which have been classified, 9 were cases of delirium tremens, and of the remainder 
not one followed a capital operation. 

The fact also that in 300,000 operations of all kinds chloroform has saved from 
6 to 10 per cent. of lives, as held by Prof. Simpson and the author, also tends to 
eer that the cause of death, at least in hospitals, is of an accidental character, 

rom ageneral survey of the facts, the author finds that the deaths from chloroform 
are all sudden, and many of the nature of “ fit.” Chloroform has a powerful irritant 
action upon the pneumogastric nerve; and it is found that a similar irritation by 
electricity causes vomiting and stops the action of the heart. Hence syncope may 
possibly occur, if this irritation or (tetanoid ?) apnea of the respiratory muscles 
and laryngeal nerves be reflected to the heart through the cardiac nerves of the same 
pneumogastric trunk : this mode of death is most remarkable, for instance, under the 
analogous agent—amylene. The general effect of the introduction of chloroform into 
surgical practice has been good; and where it acts badly the author believes that 
the cause may often be found in the tendency in patients themselves to defer sub- 
mitting to an operation till too late. Upon a comparison of the present surgical 
death-rate with that of 1846 immediately before the introduction of chloroform, it 
appears 10 per cent. lower; and further, of the deaths which have taken place, 
one-fourth have been in persons who have previously taken chloroform without ill 
effect. Both these facts support the author’s view of the accidental nature of 
death from chloroform. 

The fact of death from chloroform occurring in slight operations and early in 
the administration, has been remarked by all the chief observers, viz. MM. Robert 
of Paris, Denonyilliers, Paget, Snow, and Brown-Séquard. The opinion that this 
is due to disease of the heart is erroneous. In most fatal cases the heart has not 
been found diseased. Thus in 4 cases in London hospitals, the post-mortem ex~ 
aminations of which were attended by the author, the heart-fibres were examined 
and found healthy, though one of them (at Guy’s) was reported in the medical 
Journals as a marked case of fatty heart. In 18 deaths reported in Journals which 
presented some visible lesion, 8 only showed diseased heart. Again, in 24 deaths. 
from ether, the cause appears to have been extreme hebitude, muscular relaxation 
and exhaustion, and in some consequent hemorrhage following operations. 

On the other hand, numerous patients known to have diseased hearts have taken 
chloroform without any bad result, and in hundreds of animals death has been. 


138 REPORT—1860. 


observed to take place through the respiratory muscles first, the heart suffering as 
a mere consequence. There have been probably 100 deaths from chloroform, and 
twice as many patients saved from impending death by the proper use of restora- 
tives, the chief of which is artificial respiration, which ‘ wakes up ” the respiratory 
muscles. These restoratives have been directed so as,to excite the reflex and respi- 
ratory system of nerves. Some patients have probably been lost by means used on 
the theory of fatty or obstructed heart. Intoxication, delirium tremens, and hysteria 
all contraindicate the use of chloroform; and it was also found during the Crimean 
war, and more recently at three several seats of war in Italy, that nervous fright- 
ened prisoners were particularly bad subjects for it. Any condition of violent 
emotion (“exaltation of sensibility”) would appear to approach that state which 
causes spasm of the glottis, trachelismus, Xc., while depressing emotion (fright ?) 
may lead tosyncope. Dr. Snow does not seem to have noticed the effect of delirium 
tremens; but in 85 fatal cases, collected by the author in the hospitals, 9 appear 
due to it, or to intoxication ; the mischief is probably owing to the cerebral hemi- 
spheres, medulla, and reflex system in the spinal cord being weakened by alcohol. 
In 4 well-authenticated cases the heart was still beating after respiration had 
ceased ; this is also very often seen in experiments on animals; and probably obser- 
vation only is wanting to establish the more frequent occurrence of this phenc~ 
menon in man. In the author's opinion the heart is one of the very last organs 
which is depressed by chloroform, and this fact it is which renders its use compa- 
ratively safe. He fears rather the implication of the “respiratory tract.” The chief 
conclusions at which Dr. Kidd arrives are as follows :— 

1, Ether is little if at all superior to chloroform. In “ ether mixtures” the 
ether is first inhaled pure. Ether causes the pulse to intermit, and is to be avoided 
where we fear excessive hemorrhage or muscular relaxation ; but in dislocations 
and in midwifery it has some points in its favour, but not in a mixture with chloro- 
form. Ether, too, in a sick room may take fire, but chloroferm does not. 

2. There is less reason to fear the effect of anesthetics in women and children 
and in severe operations, than on robust men ; especially if given to the use of intoxi- 
eating liquors, or when the operation is connected with tendinous parts, in which 
cases syncope often follows when no chloroform is used. 

3. Hospital experience tends to prove that chloroform is less dangerous in pro- 
portion as the operation for which it is used is more severe. When once the pai- 
pebral conjunctiva is insensible, there is a period of safety during which the respira- 
tory action is diminished like that of hybernating mammals ; the heart remains unaf- 
fected, but the pulse becomes larger. The many instances in which this has been 
seen, seem to overpower isolated cases of death from diseased heart and chloroform, 
and should encourage hopeful views on the use of anesthetics. 

4. Idiosyncrasy has probably little or nothing to do with deaths from anesthetics, 
if we omit habits of intoxication, hysteria, and tendency to “fits.” Thus re- 
peated trials of chloroform (“ trials Cessai”) on a patient are a mistake, and nowise 
affect the chance of his safety on any given occasion. 

5. There are two, or perhaps three modes in which anesthetics may cause death, 
and which require watching. (a) Ether may do so at some uncertain interval 
of time during the first twenty-four hours after an operation. (8) Chloroform in- 
stantly, by an action on the laryngeal-recurrent and double respiratory centre in the 

neumogastric nerves. In half these cases, probably, as in apnea or asphyxia, the 
fieart is still beating; and (y) in other cases by syncope (as a coincidence ?). 

6. In several cases, e g. those of delirium tremens, the death probably occurs 
because ordinary restoratives fail to act in consequence of the imperfect reflex ner- 
vous system; but in cases of impending death, we are to have recourse to artificial 
respiration by pressure (rather than the Marshall Hall plan), since this also acts 
upon the engorging cavities of the heart; tracheotomy if we have reason to fear 
spasm of the glottis or asphyxia; sudden dashing (not too long continued) of cold 
water; fanning of fresh air on the face, &c.; but as the spasm may subside, we are 
not to do too much at first. Acupuncture, quickly done, of the muscles of the neck 
is recommended in order to irritate the spinal accessory and phrenic nerve, but not 
the eighth pair; and “ Faradisation ” here also is most valuable. 

7. Our experience of oxygen gas, common galvanism, &c. as restoratives is not 
encouraging at present. Injection of port wine into the rectum is better, or the 


iP. 


nied 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 139 


transfusion of any simple saline fluid into the veins, as has been tried in the case 
of animals poisoned with chloroform, and as in the analogous collapse of cholera. 


On a Hydro-spirometer. Ly Dr. Lewis. 
On the Development of Buccinum, By Joun Lussock, LR, PLS, 


In the year 1851 MM. Koren and Danielssen published a memoir* on the 
Development of the Eggs of Buccinum undatum and Purpura lapillus, in which 
they gave an interesting account of the development of the young mollusks, and 
especially excited the surprise of naturalists by certain statements regarding the 
amalgamation of several eggs to form one embryo. 

The two above-mentioned species produce peculiar capsules, each containing 
several hundred eggs. The capsules of Purpwra are bottle-shaped, those of Buc- 
cinum are like around cushion, and are attached to one another in clusters, and 
fastened to rocks, shells, or sea-weeds. Often, however, they are detached and 
thrown up on the shore, so that they are familiar to all those who ever walk along 
the beach near high-water mark. The egg-capsules of Purpura are attached singly 
to the rocks. It was already known that, although each capsule contained a great 
number of eggs, only a small number of embryos, from fifteen to thirty, came to 
maturity. 

MM. Koren and Danielssen gave a very extraordinary account of the phenomenon, 
According to them the eggs grouped themselves in masses, round which a common 
skin was formed, and thus numerous ova combined to form one embryo. This 
account of a process, so different from that with which we are familiar in other 
animals, was not likely to pass long without either confirmation or opposition ; and 
accordingly Dr. Carpentert, having studied the development of the eggs of Purpura 
lapillus, disputed some of the statements made by MM. Koren and Danielssen, gave 
a very different explanation of the whole phenomenon, and added the high authority 
of Messrs. Busk and Huxley in confirmation of his view. 

Dr, Carpenter had no opportunity of making any observations on the embryology 
of Buccinum, but he convinced himself that the egg-capsules of Purpura lapillus 
contain two sorts of bodies, namely true eggs and “ yolk-spheres,” which, however, 
are at first undistinguishable from one another. After a while, however, “all the 
egg like bodies in the capsule begin to show signs of cleavage. In the greater part 
of them, the two segments produced by the first cleavage are equal, or nearly so; 
and each of these again subdivides into other two, which are alike equal ;” after 
which the division becomes irregular. These are the so-called “ yolk-spheres.” 
Some few of the egg-like bodies, on the contrary, divide into two wnequal segments, 
These are the true eggs, and each embryo takes its origin from one of these. The 
embryo then developes rapidly in itself a central hollow or stomach, a wide ceso- 
phagus, and two lobes covered with cilia. It then commences to swallow the yolk 
matter around it, and this is the reason that the number of embryos is so much 
smaller than that of the egg and yolk-spheres. 

MM. Koren and Danielssen by no means gaye up their theory, but after repeat- 
ing their observations, they reiterated their statements }, giving, however, it must 
be confessed, figures much more nearly resembling those of Dr. Carpenter than the 
ones contained in their first memoir. 

Finally, Dr. Carpenter, in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist.’ for 1857, has 
published some further remarks on the subject, and adds, in addition, the testimony 
of Dr. Dyster to the truth of his assertions. This is the present state of the ques- 
tion; and considering how common are the egg-capsules of Buccinum, it is remark- 
able that no one has tested MM. Koren and ces wee’ statements in reference to 
that genus. 

The whole subject is one of great interest; and though I could not doubt the 
truth of statements made from independent observations by four such excellent 
authorities as Messrs. Carpenter, Bush, Huxley, and Dyster, yet MM. Koren and 


* Bitrag til Pectinibranchiernes Udviklingshistoire. I have not seen the original work 
but there is a translation of it in the Ann. des Sc. Nat. for 1852. 

t Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, vol. iii. p. 17. 

{ Fauna Littoralis Norvegiz, vol. ii, 


140 REPORT—1860. 


Danielssen, though wrong as to Purpura, might still be quite correct in the case of 
Buccinum, and I was very anxious to repeat their observations. It could not be 
denied that it was @ priori probable that what was true of Purpura, would also 
apply to Buccinum. Still, if I had any bias, it was in favour of MM. Koren and 
Danielssen. Many insects present us with a case in many respects parallel. In 
Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Neuroptera, and the Geodephagous beetles, 
each ege is accompanied by several vitelligenous cells, or as we might call them in 
the words of Dr, Carpenter, yolk-spheres. After a while the walls of the vitelli- 
genous cells disappear, and the whole group unites to form an egg. Here we have 
undoubtedly a certain similarity with that which, according to MM. Koren and 
Danielssen, occurs in Purpura and Buccinum. 

Buccinum undatum has been stated * to lay its eggs from the beginning of January 
to the end of April. On our south coast of England, howeyer, it begins earlier, for 
I found some fresh ones at Brighton last November. I was not then able to examine 
them with much care, but in February last I received from My. Lloyd two packets 
of egg-capsules, in which I have succeeded in tracing the development of the 
embryos. 


When I received them, the germinal yesicle had already disappeared, and the’ 


eges consisted of yelk-particles immersed in a viscid substance. According to 
MAL. Koren and Danielssen, each egg is surrounded by a chorion and a vitelline 
membrane, but I was as little able in the case of Buccinum, as Dr. Carpenter was in 
that of Purpura, to discover any trace of these structures; and I think I can safely say, 
from the appearance of the eggs, and from their behaviour when crushed, that they 
were surrounded by no definite membrane. Many of the eggs, indeed, resembled 
MM. Koren and Danielssen’s fig. 16 (Ann. des Se. Nat. 1852, vol. xviil.), in which 
a thick outer membrane is apparently present ; but this arises, as will be presently 
described, from a condensation of the yelk-particles leaving a clear border of the 
viscid substance. 

The presence of a vitellime membrane certainly seems to me improbable, but 
about the so-called chorion Iam more doubtful. MM. Koren and Danielssen men- 
tion (i. ¢. p. 258) that it early disappears, and this may haye already taken place 
in my specimens as well as in those of Dr. Carpenter. 

The eggs in my egg-capsules did not coalesce. They collected certainly in a heap, 
but they remained quite separate from one another, and showed no tendency to unite. 

Very few showed any trace of segmentation. In this respect my observations, 
so far as they go, are quite in accordance with those of MM. Koren and Danielssen. 
There is, however, always a certain amount of suspicion attached to negative evi- 
dence, and it seems a priori very improbable that Purpura and Buceinum, which 
agree so closely in most points connected with their embryology, should differ in 
such an important matter. 

Dr. Carpenter considers that the capsules of Purpura contain two sorts of egg- 
like bodies, which, however, can be distinguished from one another only by their 
modes of segmentation. 

I was not able to perceive any difference in the eggs of Buccinum, except that in 
some the yolk-granules were condensed, so as to leave a margin of the clear, glairy 
substance; but it must be remembered that in each capsule only a very few eggs 
undergo segmentation at one time; and the process appears to be altogether so 
irregular, that my observations do not enable me to come to any satisfactory con- 
clusion on this point. It would be desirable to investigate the formation of the 
eggs in the ovary, both of Buecinum and Purpura, in order to determine whether 
or no they are all originally alike, and if not, to determine the points of difference, 

It would also be well worth while to ascertain the relation which the segmenta- 
tion of the yolk bears to the development of the embryo. 

It is so generally present throughout the animal, and apparently so universal in 
the Mollusca, that strong evidence would be required to show that Buecinum forms 
any exception to the general rule; and yet, as far as my observations went, the 
process certainly seemed to be subject to considerable irregularities. 

The whole subject of yolk-segmentation is one of great interest. 

Among the Entozoa, it appears to occur in certain species of Strongylus, Ascaris, 
Gordius, Mermis, and Echinorhynchus, and in Filaria, Filaroides, and Spherularia. 


* Ann. des Sc, Nat. 7. c. p. 258, 


‘ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141 


Van Beneden asserts that it occurs in the Cestoids generally ; but this is denied 

by Kolliker, as far as concerns Tenia and Bothriocephalus. There is a similar differ- 
ence of opinion as regards Cucullanus elegans, in which species Siebold (misled, 
according to Kolliker, by the large size of the two primary embryo cells) supposed 
that there was a true segmentation. The figure given by Kolliker sufficiently 
explains how such a mistake might have occurred*, Van Beneden also denies that 
any segmentation occurs in Echinorhynchus, a difference of opinion which may have 
arisen from different species having been examined, since, while segmentation has 
been observed in Ascaris nigrovenosa, acuminata, succisa, osculata, labiata, brevi= 
caudata, &c., it appears, according to Kolliker, to be absent in Ascaris dentata. It is 
evident therefore that this species cannot be naturally included in the same genus 
as the others, and that the two groups, however similar, are in reality very remote 
from one another. 

Oxyuris ambigua and Gyrodactylus have been also asserted to develope without 
yolk-segmentation, though in the case of the latter there appears to be some doubt. 

In the Annelids it has been observed in Polynoe, Exogone, Clepsine, Nephelis, 
Protula, Hermella, &c., and is not known to be absent in any, 

Ithas also been observed in the Tardigrada and in Lacinularia. Among the 
Articulata, it has been noticed in Nicothoe by Van Beneden, in Diaptomus and 
Cyclops by Claus (which I also can confirm). On the other hand, in Insects} and 
Daphnia I have sought for it in vain, and it is unmentioned by Rathke and Heroldt 
in their works on the development of Asellus, Oniscus, Astacus, and the spiders, 
though in the two latter cases it may perhaps be represented by the dispersion and 
reunion of the “ Keimscheibe.” 

Among the Mollusca it has been described in Acteon, Aplysia, olidia, Dentalhium, 
Doris, Limax, Limnea, Planorbis, Teredo, Tergipes, Tritonia, &e. 

Among the Bryozoa it occurs in Aleyonella. 

In Salpa it has been observed by Kolliker, while in Pyrosoma it would appear, 
according to the recent researches of Huxley, to be impossible. 

All this, however, is a digression, and I must return to my Buccinum. 

The ege-capsules were sent to me on the 19th of February, at which date the eggs 
in most of them were diffuse, though in some they had already begun to collect 
together. At this time no embryos had appeared. On the 29th the eggs were 
more closely compacted, and each capsule contained from five to twenty embryos. 

The eggs now adhered together in a more or less compact mass, but showed 
no tendency to amalgamate, and were very easily separable from one another by 
the point of a needle, Imbedded in and about the mass were the embryos; the 
smallest consisting apparently only of a clear substance, surrounding the almost 
unaltered yolk, and having on one side an enormous orifice or mouth leading into 
a central cavity. The more advanced embryos already showed traces of the ears 
and the salivary glands, and began to swallow the other eggs whole. In spite of a 
careful search, I never found any collections of eggs simply surrounded by a mem- 
brane, as described by MM. Koren and Danielssen and figured, /.c. fig. 17. Embryos 
containing more than three or four eggs always possessed the salivary glands and 
auditory organs. Nevertheless, were Messrs. Koren and Danielssen’s theory correct, 
such masses ought to be tolerably frequent. 

Nevertheless, the young embryos were so voracious and swallowed so many other 
eggs that they became greatly distended, and on a superficial view appeared some- 
times as in MM. Koren and Danielssen’s fig. 17 (Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1852, pl. 5). 
By turning these over, however, with a little care, the ciliated lobes could always 
be discovered. At this period also the eggs sometimes adhered together so as to 
form rounded masses; but in such cases they were quite separate, were surrounded 
by no membrane, and were easily separable from one another. Nevertheless, if 
masses such as those described and figured by MM. Koren and Danielssen 
formed one stage in the normal development, it is very unlikely that I should 
never have come across a single specimen in this stage. 

Moreover, even in the smallest embryos we see already a broad cesophagus, and 


* Van Beneden appears also to have fallen into the same error. See Mém. sur les Vers 
Intestinaux, p. 275, 1858. 

+ Leuckart supposed that he had found it in Diptera, but he was doubtless misled by the 
vitelligenous cells. 


142 REPORT—1860. 


laree that a needle can easily be introduced into it. If, however, the in- 
pwnage? be simply by imbibition through the skin, these would be of no use. 
Moreover it is very common to see other eggs actually in the cesophagus of the 
embryos in the act of being swallowed ; or we might almost say that an embryo is 
seldom seen without an egg in its cesophagus. - In Purpura, according to Dr. Car- 
penter, the yolk is swallowed particle by particle ; in Buecinum, on the contrary, 
the ecos not having undergone any segmentation, are swallowed whole, and the 
process of deglutition is therefore probably less rapid and more easily seen. The 
presence of yolk matter in the cesophagus of Purpura may also be more plausibly 
ascribed to accident than in Buceinwm, where, from the large size of the egg com- 
pared to that of the embryo, it cannot take place without a considerable tension of 
the i and the swallowing must therefore apparently be a work of some 
ate tae ee suggests (Ann. des Se. Nat. J. c. p. 26) that the so-called eggs 
are probably only “des spheres vitellines, dont l’envelope utriculiforme présenté 
un peu plus de consistance que d’ordinaire, et que, par conséquent, Vagregat dont 
nait le corps de Yembryon est le résultat du groupement des sphéres vitellines d un 
seul ceuf, et non le produit de la reunion de plusieurs ceuts primitivement distincts. 
Tt will be seen, however, from the preceding description, that iitoug M. Milne- 
Edwards was fully justified in the scepticism with which he regarded the descrip- 
tion given by MM. Koren and Danielssen, he was not equally happy in his 
attempt to explain away the supposed anomaly. 


L 2 


Fig. 1. Embryo in outline, to show the mouth and digestive cavity. 
Fig. 2. Young embryo in the act of swallowing an egg. 


On the Influence of Systematized Exercise on the Expansion of the Chest. 
By ArcuiBaLtp MacLaren. 


Exercise is the most important agent in physical growth and development, inas- 
much as it qualifies the condition, the action and the influence of all the others. This 
importance is not always appreciated, because the effects of exercise on any part of 
the body but the muscular system are imperfectly understood. All exercises may 
be classed under two heads, Recreative and Educational. ‘The first of these em- 
braces all our school games, sports and pastimes,—a most valuable list, but quite in- 
sufficient to produce the perfect development of the body :—1st, because the parts 
of the body chosen to execute the movements of the game are those which can 
do them best, not those which need the exercise most ; 2nd, because it isa distinc- 
tive feature in the bestand most ardently practised of them, that they give a large 
share of employment to the lower half of the body, and but little (some not at all) 
to the upper half; and 3rd, the little which they do give is almost monopolized by 
the right side, The tendency of these exercises is therefore to develope the lower 
half of the body to the exclusion of the upper. It must always be remembered that 
while in developing a limb to its full power and perfect conformation, we do that 
and nothing more ; in developing the trunk of the body, we do that and a great deal 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143 


more, we directly aid in the development of all the organs which it contains, The 
oint to be desired is the uniform and harmonious development of the entire body; 
ecause the strength of a man is but equal to that of his weakest part, while the 
natural tendency is to gauge and estimate the general strength by the power of 
the strongest part. This equal development is to be obtained only from systema- 
tized exercise, prepared upon a clear comprehension of what is required, and based. 
upon a knowledge of the structure and ascertained functions of the parts of the 
body to be employed, and of the laws which govern growth and development. The 
inadequacy of recreative exercise to produce this development is fully borne out 
by the frames of the youths who yearly arrive in this University from our public 
schools. As the case now stands, every one who so arrives here does so with the 
upper part of the body greatly in arrears. So distinctly is it in arrears, that an 
average of 2 inches in girth of chest is obtainable in the very first term of his prac- 
ticeinthe Gymnasium. This rate of increase is not sustained beyond the first term, 
therefore it must be chiefly expansion of the cavity of the chest; and it must be 
an arrears of expansion, otherwise it would be sustained, secing that the process 
which produced it is increased and accelerated in the advancing courses of exercise. 
The operations of systematized exercise are equally important and decided in other 
directions, and especially in the rectification of abnormal spinal developments. 


On the Artificial Production of Bone and Osseous Grafts. 
By M. Outter. 


M. Ollier exhibited some specimens illustrating the results of his experiments on 
the production of bone, and summed up in the following propositions :— 

1, When the periosteum is detached from a bone, one end remaining attached, 
bone is formed in the direction of the periosteum, its form and size being deter- 
mined by the size and position of the membrane. 

2. After union has begun to take place between the periosteum and the soft parts, 
the pedicel may be divided, but bone will still continue to form. 

3. If the periosteum be removed altogether and inserted among the soft parts, it 
will make an attachment, and bone will be developed. 

4. If the inner surface of the periosteum be scraped off in part, no bone will form 
on the portion so treated. 

5. If the matter scraped from the inside of the periosteum be brought into con- 
tact with soft parts, bone will be developed from the periosteal cells. 

6. Ifa bone be taken out of its periosteal sheath, new bone will be produced ; 
but if a segment of such sheath be removed, no bone forms in that space, 

7. Ifa bone be removed entire with its periosteum and inserted into soft parts, 
eo will take place, and new bone will be deposited from the periosteum on 
the old. 

8. If, in a piece of inserted bone, a part be deprived of periosteum, that part dies 
or is absorbed. Thislatter process may take place by the denuded portion becoming 
either encysted or ecciel, to suppuration; as a general rule, in animals that are 
healthy, and live in the country, the process of encysting takes place; while in 
feeble animals and those living in towns, suppuration is the ordinary result. 


Experiments on Muscular Action from an Electrical point of view. 
By Dr. C. B. Ravcwirr. 


On the Process of Oxygenation in Animal Bodies. 
By B. W. Ricuarpson, M.A., M.D. 


So soon as the discovery of oxygen by Priestley became an established fact in 
the world of science, inquiries were set on foot as to the influence of this substance 
on animal bodies. The term by which it was long known, “vital air,” indicates 
sufficiently the interest that was attached to it ina physiological point of view. 
Priestley himself made various physiological experiments with oxygen, in which 
line of research he was followed by Lavoisier, Beddoes, Sir Humphry Davy, Hill 
and several other celebrities of the declining eighteenth, and rising nineteenth 
century. From the researches of various experimentalists, it had been concluded 


144 REPORT—1860., 


that the inhalation of oxygen in the pure state, by giving rise to a greater absorption 
of the gas, sets up an increased oxygenation in the body,—hypercausis, and inflam- 
matory conditions, general and local. This view, first promulgated by Dr. Beddoes, 
and followed up by many contemporary writers, was probably the basis of the 
chemical nomenclature of disease invented by Baumé, in which disorders were 
divided into those of oxygenation, of calorification, hydrogenization, azotification, 
and phosphorization, with remedies of the same names for their treatment, 

A second conclusion as to the influence of oxygen on animals, intimated (also 
from experiment) that oxygen, when inhaled in the pure form, is even less active 
than as it exists diluted in common air; that, instead of increasing the combustion 
of the body and its activity, it lessens these, and that animals exposed to it too long 
die from coma attended with a steady and undiminishing exhaustion. The idea 
that less oxygen is absorbed when the gas is breathed in the undiluted state was 
supported by Davy: the statement that the gas destroys by narcotic exhaustion 
was doubtfully suggested by Priestley, and openly by Broughton. For years this 
view of the question has been the one most commonly taught in this country. 

The last conclusion that had been drawn from experiment relative to the effects 
of pure oxygen was, that it has no injurious influence on life. Lavoisier, in his later 
a ie aie seems to have drawn this inference, and Regnault has greatly con- 

rmed it. 

In 1852, with these conflicting data before him, those of Regnault only excepted, 
Dr. Richardson commenced an inquiry into the whole subject, which he had con- 
tinued, with intermissions, to the present time. The author here narrated his earlier 
experiments, from which he came to the conclusion that animals of active respiration, 
as dogs, cats, and pigeons, on being subjected to a constant stream of freshly made 
oxygen, become subject to inflammation, owing to the rapid destruction of the 
tissues,—hypercausis. In further experiments, he found, however, that his rule was 
not common to all animals; for rabbits and frogs were kept by him even for weeks 
in oxygen without apparent injury. On the data, therefore, he gaye the following 
as the first major proposition of his paper :— 

The influence of pure oxygen, as an excitant, differs according to the animal ; 
being most marked in animals of quick respiration and high temperature, and least 
marked or nil in those of feeble respiration and lower temperature. 

Up to 1856 the author had felt assured that oxygen, when it destroys life in the 
‘actively breathing animals, does so by causing a too rapid oxidation of tissue and 
the so-called inflammatory process ; and he believed that the symptoms of narcotism 
and paralysis, named by Broughton, were due without doubt to one or other of 
two possible errors, introduction of carbonic acid, or modifications of the air-pressure 
exerted on the animal. In 1857 he began to suspect that his view was not strictly 
correct; but he had no proof either one way or the other until the present year, 
when a new observation opened a new phase of the question. Having made on one 
occasion forty gallons of oxygen, and having, by the side of the reservoir containing 
the oxygen, another reservoir of equal size filled with water, Dr. Richardson deter- 
mined, in order to economise both labour and material, to collect the oxygen from 
the supplying reservoir, after it had passed through the chamber containing the 
animals. He arranged also to wash the oxygen in alkaline solution until it was 
free of carbonic acid altogether, to pass it over sulphuric acid to remove any am- 
monia, and finally to charge the second reservoir with it and to use it again, 
sending it thus backwards and forwards from one reservoir to the other until it 
was all used. 

When the apparatus was complete, he placed four warm-blooded animals, a cat, 
a dog, a pigeon, and a rabbit, with two frogs, in a large chamber, and at 11 o’clock 
in the morning commenced the transference of the oxygen, passing it through the 
chambers at the rate of 2000 cubic inches per hour. In six hours the whole of 
the primitive oxygen, minus nearly 1000 cubic inches which had been lost in 
respiration, was transferred into the second reservoir. The gas was now tested, 
and having been found to give no reaction to lime-water, it was driven back 
through the chamber and washed again thoroughly with potash, to he received 
once more into the reservoir number one. As the first charge of oxygen was passing 
through the chamber, there were exhibited no signsdifferent from those of excitement, 
which had before been seen; but as the second charge passed through, all the 


Aen 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145 


animals became depressed and drowsy. After an interval of four houts, the current 
was again changed, and the oxygen, purified most carefully of extraneous matter, 
was a third time given to the animals. It now became more obvious that every 
animal was under some peculiar depressing influence ; even the rabbit did not escape. 
The symptoms were entirely different from those arising from carbonic acid. The 
breathing was quick, but easy and tranquil. There was not the slightest approach 
to convulsion. ‘The pigeon buried its head under its wing, and simply drooped and 
slept. The four-footed animals sat with their four lees straight and their heads 
between them, nodding as if in profound and pleasant sleep; they were aroused 
with difficulty, and fell off again in an instant. ‘Then the fore-legs slowly gave way 
forward, as if paralysed ; and, before the third charge of the oxygen was three parts 
over, the pigeon was dead, and the kitten was so nearly dead that it was not easy 
to detect its chest movement; the dog gaye no sign of sensibility, but breathed 
softly ; the rabbit was fast asleep. ‘The frogs alone were unaffected. 

At this crisis, a little air was pumped out of the chamber through lime-water ; 
it gave less indication of carbonic acid than the common air which the experiment- 
alist was breathing. 

The animals were then removed, and a lighted taper was placed in the chamber. 
The taper burnt with more brilliancy than in the air, but with a slight yellowness 
of flame. 

The animals were all nearly dead. The kitten died a few minutes after removal ; 
the rabbit recovered in two hours; the dog seemed paralysed in the limbs for the 
preaterpart of the day, but recovered. When the bodies of the pigeon and the kitten 
were opened, there was found no indication of asphyxia. The lungs were inflated 
and red; the heart contained blood on both sides, but the blood in each side was 
of the same hue, neither being very dark; the brain was bloodless; the other organs 
were natural. The appearances in the pigeon corresponded with these with the 
most minute accuracy. ; 

Dr. Richardson next narrated the histories of several other experiments, from 
which he derived, apparently to demonstration, the following and second major 
proposition :—Oxygen, when breathed over and over again, although freed entirely 
from carbonic acid or other known products of respiration, loses its power of sup- 
porting life ; the process of life ceasing, not from the introduction of a poison, but 
as by a negation, or a withdrawal of some principle extant in the primitive oxygen, 
which is essential to life. 

The last section of the paper had reference to the influence of oxygen on muscular 
irritability; and various experiments were again given. On them the author 
founded the third major proposition. 

Oxygen, while it is essential to muscular irritability and muscular power, exerts 
its influence over muscle, not as a direct excitant of muscular contraction, but by 
supplying to the muscle an agent or force by which the muscle is fitted for contrac- 
tion on the application of an exciting cause. 


The Action of Tea and Alcohols contrasted. By Kowarv Smitu, M.D., 
EL.B., F.RS., Assistant Physician to the Hospital for Consumption 
and Diseases of the Chest, Brompton, §c. 


In this paper the author stated the results of a series of original inquiries into 
the influence of these two substances which appeared in the Philosophical Trans- 
actions for 1859. 

The general expression of the action of tea is, that it increases all vital actions, 
and causes the elimination from the body of more material than it supplies. 

It inereases the ease, frequency and depth of respiration, but does not much 
affect pulsation. 

It increases the action of the skin, as shown by the increase of perspiration; and 
as in the conversion of fluid into vapour there is a thousand-fold increase in the 
absorption of latent heat, perspiration must cool the body. 

It wnereases, and does not disturb, nervous, mental and muscular action, and it 
is not followed by reaction. 

Small doses often repeated have fourfold the effect of a large dose. 

1860. 10 


146 REPORT—1860. 


Large doses cause nausea and narcotism. 

The addition of acids and fat, as cream, lessens its action on the skin and increases 
pulsation. 

The addition of an alkali, as soda, increases the action upon the skin and renders 
it more soothing, but a caustic alkali destroys it. 

Hence the author considers that it is inapplicable in the following conditions of 
the system, viz. :— 

In the absence of food (except when a large meal has been recently taken), and 
therefore at breakfast, unless the system be replete with food, as from a late and 
large supper, In the ill-fed, and in those of spare habit. 

In prison or other dietaries, in which it is a duty not to allow the supply to ex- 
ceed the real wants of the system, except in the cases in which the powers of 
assimilation are defective, and then as tea, like other nitrogenous matters, has been 
shown by the author to promote the assimilation of starchy food, it may prevent 
the waste of undigested food. 

When unusual muscular exertion is made, unless there be also an abundance of 
food and the skin acting insufficiently. 

In those who perspire too easily and profusely. 

In low temperatures, except in connexion with abundance of fat, since then the 
action of the skin should be reduced to a minimum. 

In very early life, when all the vital actions are rapidly performed. 

He considers also that it is more suited to the following states :— 

Tn the after part of the day, when the powers of assimilation have been shown by 
him to be enfeebled, and when food has accumulated in the body, 

In old persons, 

In hot climates, with lessened powers of assimilation; with excess of heat and 
excess of food. 

In those who usually transform food imperfectly. 

In those who take too little exercise, and eat too much. 

In conditions in which. gout is likely to occur. 

In those who haye the skin inactive. 

In all states in which there is excess of food, not, perhaps, in relation to the 
wants of the system always, but in relation to the power to transform it, and 
especially where there is excess of heat, as to soldiers on march exposed to the 
eastern sun, 

The author then compared these deductions from science with the actual instinct- 
ive habits of mankind in different climates—the test to which all such inquiries 
must be ultimately subjected—and showed that there is a most striking correspond- 
ence, as, for example, the frequent use of tea alone by the sedentary, corpulent, fat 
and starch-eating Chinese, and, with the addition of an acid, by the industrious poor 

-and exposed classes in that country, and by all classes in the cold of Russia ; the 
addition of milk or cream in our climate; our habit of taking food with tea when 
we regard it as a meal, and of drinking it after dinner in hot weather when we 
would perspire more freely ; the enjoyment of it by the poor, who live chiefly on 
bread, which is imperfectly digested; and the large appetites of teatotallers. 
__ Hence he was of opinion that tea had a more powerful action upon the body, both 
for good and eyil, than has hitherto been understood, and believed it to demand 
the regulation which attends the administration of a medicine; and especially 
urged it to be supplied to soldiers in hot climates, to be drunk cold or hot in small 
-doses during exposure to heat. 

In reference to alcohols, the author showed that ales, wines, and spirits differ 
in their action, not only because they contain varying amounts of alcohol, but have 
other ingredients, as volatile oils and ethers, salts, gluten and sugar, and thence 
each must always be discussed separately. He showed that neither the public nor 
the medical profession substitute a given amount of alcohol and water for these 
various substances, but admit that each substance has a special action, and that 
even impurity and newness are held to be deteriorations in any member of the 


a 
same class. s 


He showed that all alcohols lessen the action of the skin and increase the force 


medicinal actions, 


and frequency of the action of the heart, and that these are their true dietetic and 5 


; TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147 


__ When the usual dose of a spirit or alcohol was taken duly diluted with water, 
_ he had found, by numerous experiments, that the following sequence of pheno- 
- mena took place :— 

_ L Upon the heart, probably by the direct contact of the alcohol, and occurring 
in 2 to 4 minutes, 

2. Upon the brain, in from 3 to 7 minutes, as shown by the effect upon conscious- 
ness, mental and sensual perceptions, 

. 3. Upon the spinal cord, as shown by lessened tone, lessened power of controlling 
and lessened desire to use the muscles, a sense of purring through the whole 
system, and the sensation of heat and cold. 

4, Upon the respiratory nervous tract. 

5. Upon the secretory (sympathetic nervous) system. 

The exhilaration of spirits, accompanied by sense of heat, swelling and redness of 
the skin, occurred in the first stage, and continued about 30 minutes, and this was 
gpanged for taciturnity, chilliness, and sense of miserable depression in the second 
stage. 

Alcohol usually increases the activity of the respiratory actions in a moderate 
degree ; as did also whisky in many instances, and rum commonly, whilst brandy 
and gin lessened them. 

Beers he believed to act also by their sugar and gluten, and thus tend to pro- 
mote the digestion of starchy food; but for this purpose only small quantities, as 
by an ale-glass, should be taken ata time, so as to obtain this action apart from the 
alcoholic action. 

The author also appended a few remarks on the action of coffee, on account of 
its parallel use with tea, and proved that whilst both agree in increasing vital 
action, they differ in the important particular of their action upon the skin, 
Coffee usually lessens the action of the skin, and thereby renders it dry and hot, at 
the same time increasing the action of the heart, and, as a further consequence of 
the former, increasing the action of the kidney, or failing that, inducing diarrhoea, 
Hence it is applicable in conditions widely differing from those suited to the 
use of tea. 

Tn contrasting tea and coffee with alcohols, the author found only one analogy 
with tea, viz. that of beers, since both tend to promote the digestion of starchy 
food, and therefore both the teatotallers and the anti-teatotallers may be equally 
right. There is no similarity whatever between the action of tea and alcohols ; but 
both are in their essential actions opposed, whilst there is an important correspond- 
ence in the action of alcohols and coffee. The use of tea in the arctic regions 
must be associated with that of alcohols, or the substance having an equivalent 
but less perceptible and more enduring action upon the skin, viz. fats, whilst rum 
is less injurious to the sailor of all countries than brandy or gin would be, by its 
special power of increasing the respiratory and other vital actions, When it is 
conjoined with milk, it is the most perfect restorative known. 
- The author did not regard any of these substances as true food, viz. substances 
which by their own elements directly nourish the system, but haying the special 
_ power of curtailing the power of assimilating other food. Hence, although there 
may not be “more nutritive matter in a pint of beer than will lie upon a sixpence,” 
there is a power whereby other food is made more useful to the system. 


Pe ee se lel ,lrlC eee 


eet tial thd Ven Ieee Bile ek 


4 The Physiological Relations of the Colouring Matier of the Bile. 
4 By J. L. W. Tuupicuum, M.D. 


The author having convinced himself by experiment that the ordinary method of 
purifying cholochrome (the colouring matter of bile) does not give a uniform 
material, has sought for such a reaction as would give the rational composition of 
this substance in order to establish its formula by metamorphoses. Such a reaction 
he has obtained with nitrous acid, which, when passed in the gaseous state into 
water, alcohol, or ether containing cholochrome in suspension in a finely divided 
state, decomposes the latter with effervescence due to the evolution of nitrogen. 
There remains in the vessel a new acid, viz. cholochromic acid, insoluble in water, 
but soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform, and yery changeable on exposure to 
air, It crystallizes in dark-red rhombic octohedra when its solution in chloroform 


; 7 Lo 
S 10 


x 


148 REPORT—1860. 


is evaporated in a current of hydrogen or coal-gas, and the crystals much resemble 
those of hematoidine. The hematoidine extracted by Valentiner and Briicke 
from gall-stones and ox-bile has some resemblance to this new acid. From the 
above reaction it is evident that cholochrome, like the other acids of the bile and like 
hippuric acid, leucine and tyrosine, and many other substances connected with the 
human economy in health and disease, is an amido-acid, i. e. an acid in which the 
nitrogen is contained in the form of amide (NH?) ; this radical replacing one equi- 
valent of hydrogen in the hypothetical acid, of which the cholochromic is the oxy- 
acid, the radical (N H’) in the amido-acid being replaced by peroxide of hydrogen 
(110?) in the oxyacid. 

With nitric acid, cholochrome yields an amorphous yellow substance, little 
soluble in water, nitro-cholochrome, a crystallizable acid easily soluble in alcohol, 
perhaps nitrocholic acid ; and a colourless syrupy acid easily soluble in water, and 
yielding a crystallized salt with ammonia, perhaps cholesteric acid or a homologue. 
Chlorine transforms the brown matter, cholophaine, into the green cholochloine in 
the space of a few minutes. The process of Heintz required several weeks for 
effectine the same transformation. The continued influence of chlorine produces 
the red cholochromic acid, which exists, however, only for a moment, being trans- 
formed into white chlorocholic acid, little soluble in water, more soluble in alcohol. 

These researches have been undertaken by Dr. Thudichum, partly with a view 
of ascertaining the pathological process which gives rise to certain casts of the 
biliary ducts, previously described by him in the ‘ British Medical Journal.’ He 
believes it to resemble the putrefaction of bile in a stoppered bottle. If the process 
is acute, it constitutes “ biliosity or biliousness;” if more chronic, it gives rise to 
casts of the ducts and gall-stones; if it extend to the liver-cells, it constitutes ma- 
lignant jaundice. 

The author further intimates that, since the above reaction with nitrous acid is 
now ascertained, the therapeutic eflects of nitric and nitro-hydrochloric acids in 
various forms of jaundice, which are already recognized by many practitioners, are 
deserving of further investigation and trial, His own experience is in favour of 
these remedies, 


GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. 


Opening Address by the President, Sir Ropericx Impey Murcuison, 
D.C.L., F.RS., V.PR.GS. & V.P.R.GS., Director-General of the 
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. 


Durine the last two years only, the President of each Section of the British Asso- , 


ciation having usually opened the business of the Meeting by a short address, it fell 
to my lot to offer a few words to the Geographers and Ethnologists who were as- 
sembled at Lecds in 1858. I there expressed the satisfaction I felt in proposing, at 
the Edinburgh Meeting in 1850, the formation of a separate Section for Geography 
and Ethnology, to occupy the place left vacant by our Medical Associates who had 
seceded to found an Association of their own. ; 

Until that year Geography had been attached exclusively to the Geological Section, 
in which it was almost submerged by the numerous memoirs of my brethren of the 
rocks, whilst Ethnology, forming a Sub-Section, with difficulty obtained a proper 
place of meeting. Now, however, both these sciences are, [ am happy to say, fully 
represented, and I trust that the result of the coming week will show that the sub- 
jects to be illustrated will attract so many members to our hall, as will prove that 
Geography in its comprehensive sense is as popular in Oxford as it is in the metro- 
polis. 

Before I enter upon the consideration of any memoirs which may be laid before 
us, let me allude to a few of the subjects of deep interest which have been illustrated 
by British Geographers in various parts of the world in the two years which have 
elapsed since I had the honour of last presiding over you. 

In Africa, the earlier discoveries of that great traveller Livingstone have been fol- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149 


lowed by other researches of his companions and himself, which, as far as they go, 
have completely realized his anticipation of detecting large elevated tracts, truly 
Sanatoria as compared with those swampy and low regions near the coast, which 
have impressed too generally on the minds of our countrymen the impossibility of 
sustaining a life of exertion in any intertropical region of Africa. The opening out 
of the Shire river, that grand affluent of the Zambesi, with the description of its banks 
and contiguous lofty terraces and mountains, and the discovery of the healthfulness 
of the tract, is most refreshing knowledge, the more so as it is accompanied by the 
pleasing notice, that the slave trade is there unknown except by the rare passage of 
a gang from other parts. Again, this portion of the country so teems with rich 
vegetable products, including cotton, and herds of elephants, as to lead us to hope 
that the spirit of profitable barter, which powerfully animates the natives, may lead 
to their civilization, and thus prove the best means of eradicating the commerce in 
human beings. 

Whilst Livingstone was sailing to make his last venture, and to realize the promise 
he had given to his faithful Macololo friends, that he would return to them, and 
bring them kind words from the Queen of the people who love the black man, Cap- 
tains Burton and Speke were returning from their glorious exploits in a more central 
and northern region of South Africa, where they had discovered two great internal 
lakes or freshwater seas, each of not less than 300 miles in length. 

I may here notice, to the honour of our Government, and particularly to that of the 
present Secretary of Foreign Affairs, that the undaunted Captain Speke, associated 
with another officer of the Bengal army, Captain Grant, has received £2500 to enable 
him to terminate his examination of the great Nyanza Lake, under the equator, and 
we have reason to hope that he will find one of the chief feeders of the White Nile 
flowing out from its northern extremity, and thus determine the long-sought pro- 
blem of the chief source of that classic stream. 

I also trust, that in the last and most arduous portion of his efforts in proceeding 
northwards, he will be assisted through the cooperation of Her Majesty’s Consul at 
Khartum on the Upper Nile in traversing the country immediately to the north of 
the equator, where notraveller, ancient or modern, has ever penetrated, and which is 
inhabited by wild and barbarous natives. After a residence of sixteen years in that 
region, and having made many trading expeditions to the confines of this unknown 
region, that bold and experienced man, Consul Petherick, is, I am persuaded, the 
only European who can afford real assistance to Captains Speke and Grant; and 
if by their united efforts the true source or sources of the Nile should be discovered, 
Britain will have attained a distinction hitherto sought in vain from the days of the 
Roman Empire. 

During the week of our meeting, Mr. Petherick will bring before us his project, 
which I trust you will support*, either for ascending the Nile to its source or 
affording effective assistance to Captain Speke, without which it is much to be feared 
that the gallant officer will never be able to traverse the savage tracts which intervene 
between the Nyanza Lake and the highest part of the Nile yet visited by any 
traveller. 

If we turn to the Polar Circle, we see what individual British energy has been 
able to elicit from the frozen North. There, indeed, notwithstanding many a well- 
found expedition sent out to ascertain the fate of Franklin, all our efforts as a nation 
had failed, when the energy and perseverance of a woman, backed only by a few 
zealous and abiding friends, accomplished the glorious end of satisfying herself, and 
of proving to her admiring country, that in sacrificing their lives, her heroic husband 
and his brave companions had been the first discoverers of the North West Passage. 

For her noble and devoted conduct in having persisted through so many years 
to send out expeditions at her own cost, until she at length unravelled the fate of 
the ‘Erebus’ and ‘Terror,’ the Royal Geographical Society of London has rightly 
judged in awarding to Lady Franklin one of its Gold medals, whilst the other has 
been appropriately given to that gallant and skilful officer Sir Leopold M‘Clintock, 
who in the little yacht the ‘ Fox’ so thoroughly accomplished his arduous mission. 
He not only ascertained the death of Franklin, and the subsequent abandonment of 


'* A Subscription List in furtherance of this great object is opened, headed by Lord Ash- 
burton and Sir Roderick Murchison, 


150 REPORT—1860. 


his ships, but also showed that the great navigator had discovered vast breadths of 
Arctic lands and seas which were entirely unknown when he left our shores, and 
had even remained so until the truth was revealed by the expedition of the ‘ Fox.’ 

The geographer who compares the map of the Arctic regions as laid down by 
Parry and others up to the year 1845, when Franklin sailed, and marks on it all that 
he is now known to have added in the two brief summers before he was beset, and 
then inspects any one of the most recent maps, even up to the year 1858 inclusive, 
and traces the discoveries made by M‘Clintock and his associates, Hobson, Young, 
and Walker, will see what vast additions to geographical knowledge have been made 
by the last expedition of Lady Franklin. 

Such services are indeed worthy of the highest national reward, and I have, I am 
happy to say, reason to know, that a monument in commemoration of the glorious 
deeds of Franklin and of his having been the first to discover a North West Passage 
will be erected, and also that the officers and crew of the ‘ Fox’ will receive that recom- 
pense to which they are so justly entitled at the hands of their admiring countrymen. 

Whilst on this subject, I may well express the satisfaction and pride I felt as the 
President of this Section, when the officers of the British Association asked us, the 
Geographers, to bring forward one of our distinguished men to deliver a lecture 
on one of our manifold subjects, before the body of men of Science assembied 
at Oxford. As this is the first occasion since our foundation on which geographical: 
discovery has been considered to be of sufficient scientific importance to occupy the 
attention of the whole meeting, I rejoice in the fact, and also in the knowledge that 
Captain Sherard Osborn, so well known to us through his charming ‘ Arctic Stray” 
Leaves,’ and other books, as well as by his laurels won in the Crimea and the Sea 
of Azof, is to be the lecturer, and that he who is so experienced an ice-man is to 
give us a sketch of the discoveries of Franklin, as laid open by the last researches of 
Sir Leopold M‘Clintock. ; 

And here I may well say, that every justice will be done to any subject connected 
with the conditions of icy seas, including the proposed submarine telegraph by the 
Faroe islands, Iceland and Greenland to Labrador ; for never at any of our former 
meetings have I seen so many explorers met together who have rendered their names 
eminent through Arctic and Antarctic discoveries. Under their observation the 
paper which is to be brought before us by Captain Parker Snow of the Merchant 
Marine, warmly urging a further search after the missing crews and scientific records 
of the ‘Erebus’ and ‘ Terror’, will be ably scrutinized. The names of Admiral Sir 
James Ross, Sir Edward Belcher, Captains Ommaney and Sherard Osborn, when 
united with those of Sir J. Richardson and Dr. Rae, are truly guarantees that the 
question will have so much light thrown upon it, as will either satisfy the public 
that no additional important results as respects the lost expedition can be achieved, 
or they will stimulate us to fresh exertions. For, though all the Arctic voyagers 
with whom I have conversed are satisfied that there is now no longer the hope, which 
I long cherished, of saving a human life, still every man of science must wish that 
strenuous efforts should be made to recover, if practicable, some more of the many 
scientific records of the lost expedition which may have been left in various places 
around the spot where Franklin breathed his last. 

In the vast possessions of British North America much additional knowledge has 
been gained by the successful explorations of Palliser and his associates, Hector, 
Blakiston, and Sullivan, not only as respects the great fertile prairies watered by the 
Saskatchewan and its affluents, but also touching the practicability of traversing the 
Rocky Mountains within our territories by passes lower than any which exist to 
the south of the boundary of the United States. 

At this stage of our inquiries it would be very hazardous to speculate on these 
passes being rendered available for railroads ; the more so, as the wild region lying to 
the west of the Rocky Mountains—i. e. between them and those parts of British 
Columbia which are gold-bearing, and are beginning to be inhabited by civilized people - 
—is as yet an unexplored woody region. We may hope, however, that such routes of 
communication will be established as will connect the Red River settlements with 
the prairies of the Saskatchewan, and these last with the rich auriferous tracts of- 
British Columbia. And if the most northern lines be found too difficult for railway 


communication, through the severity of the climate and physical obstacles, let us 


_— oe 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151. 


hope that by giving and taking ground in an amicable manner with our kinsmen of 
the United States, we may be enabled by a more southern railroad to traverse the 
prairies on either side of the neutral boundary, and then pass down the river Co- 
Jumbia to Vancouver Island. By this operation the great Gulf of St. Lawrence and 
Hudson’s Bay on the east, may eventually be placed in communication with the 
noble roadsteads of Vancouver Island and the adjacent mainland on the Pacific. At 
all events, Britain will doubtless not be slow in establishing communications between 
the Atlantic and Pacific, first by the electric telegraph, next by ordinary roads, and 
finally, it is to be hoped, in part at least, by railroads. 

On these subjects we are to be favoured at this Meeting with a paper by Captain 
Synge, in addition to the vivdé voce communications of Captain Palliser and his asso- 
ciates. 

Having not as yet had access to many of the papers which are to be communi- 
cated to this Section, I can allude to a few more of themonly. In a Memoir on the 
Geographical Distribution of Plants in Asia Minor and Armenia by my distinguished 
friend M. Pierre de Tchihatcheff, you will find some remarkable results as flowing 
from the long-continued researches of that ardent and successful traveller. After 
accounting for the absence of some plants and the profusion of others in given 
localities as dependent on climatal conditions (an example of which is, that the grape 
there flourishes in one tract at the great height of nearly 6000 feet above the sea), 
M. de Tchihatcheff brings out some striking statistical data, showing the vastly 
greater abundance and variety of vegetation in Asia Minor compared with that of 
any other country. He points out that the plants of five mountains only amount 
in number to double the entire quantity of British plants, and concludes with an 
eloquent regret that these classic regions, so blessed by the hand of the Creator, and 
which in the earlier history of mankind were replete with highly civilized communi- 
ties, should now, through misgovernment, be the scene of oppression and barbarity. 

Another distinguished Russian geographer, M. N. Khanikoff, who has explored 
large portions of Persia and the adjoining countries, will bring before us his maps 
and descriptions of the mountainous tracts of the countries of the southern parts of 
Central Asia, where the lofty mountains.ef Ararat, Demavend, and Savalan form the 
chief elevations of the region to which we look as the cradle of our race. 

But, to revert to subjects connected with Britain. In no portion of the surface of 
the globe have we made such great and rapid advances as in Australia. Doubtless 
much of this progress in settlement and civilization, particularly in Victoria, is due to 
the discovery of those enormous masses of gold which are producing far and wide 
such powerful effects. But looking to the work of purely geographical pioneers, I can 
declare, that some of the most valuable and daring researches from the earliest days 
to the present time have been completed, wholly irrespective of profits gained 
through the attraction of the precious metal. The great discoveries of Sturt, Eyre, 
and Leichhardt were made before the existence of gold was known; and even now, 
when it is the most seductive of baits to entice the traveller, see what vast regions 
the brothers Gregory have laid open in Northern, Eastern, and Western Australia 
without the recompense of a single yellow nugget. Again, look to South Australia, 
where gold is scarcely known, at least in any appreciable quantity, and see what its_ 
inhabitants have done in pushing far into the interior, simply to acquire fresh pas- 
ture-lands. In contemplating these recent discoveries, we read with astonishment 
of what one individual, Mr. M‘Dougall Stewart, has accomplished in so short a time,’ 
and of the privations he underwent to realize the existence of freshwater streams 


and oases on the borders of the great interior saline desert. 


Still more were we surprised when we learned that this great continent, the rivers 
of which were so long considered to be useless, has had its one mighty stream, the 
Murray, rendered navigable for 1800 miles. With its affluents, the Darling and 
Murrimbidgee, this river may indeed be said to have been laid open for 2500 miles, 
i. e. between many new towns which have sprung up in the interior and the sea— 
and all this by the clearing away of the stems and stumps of trees, the result of ages 
of decay. 

There are now indeed in England some of the eminent men, whether governors, 
statesmen, or explorers of this great colonial region, who will, I hope, before we’ 
atljourn, throw fresh light on these recent discoveries, 


152 REFORT—1860. 


Having presided for several years over the Royal Geographical Society, it has been 
my duty to pass in review the progress made by the sons of Britain in different parts 
of the world, and it has ever been to me a source of the sincerest gratification to 
watch the rapid strides made by the colonists of Australia, and to observe how they 
have carried with them all the energy of our race into the land of their adoption. 
if I traced with deep interest the explorations of their boldest travellers through the 
bush—and witnessed with delight the working out of that golden wealth, of which 
perhaps, because I was a Highlander as well as a geologist, I had a sort of second 
sight—or if I revelled in seeing their ports filled with ships, and abounding in com- 
merce—not all these attributes have rejoiced me more than the knowledge | acquired, 
that our Australian colonists are truly and sincerely attached to Britain and their 
Sovereign. 

As it is out of my power on the present occasion to advert to all the recent ad- 
vances in ethnology, I will now only say, that, besides many communications from 
other gentlemen, including Mr. Lockhart’s excellent notes on China, my eminent 
and valued friend, Mr. John Craufurd, will give us two memoirs; the one, “On the 
Relation of the Domesticated Animals to Civilization ;” the other, “‘ On the Aryan, 
or Indo-Germanic Theory ;” each of which will, I doubt not, be worthy of the Pre- 
sident of the Ethnological Society of London. 

Let me, however, offer a few general observations on those sciences, to the culti- 
vation of which the business of this Section is devoted. Geography, regarded only as 
the description of the outlines of the earth, and the determination by astronomical 
observations of the relative position of hills, rivers, valleys, and coasts, to be laid down 
by the topographer on a map, is but the key-stone of that splendid science when 
viewed in its most comprehensive bearings. For, of how much real value is it 
deprived if not followed in its train by all the affiliated sciences which relate to the 
phenomena of our,mother earth! How infinitely is the important basis of our 
science enriched by the descriptions of the animals and plants which, living on the 
surface of our planct, are distinguished by forms peculiar to each region—such dis- 
tribution being coincident with relative differences of climate! 

Again, as a weather-beaten geologist, 1 know full well, that the science which I 
have most cultivated would be void of a foundation if it did not rest on the principles 
of physical geography ; for much of the labour of the geologist consists in restoring, 
not in imagination, but by a positive appeal to data registered on tablets of stone, 
the former outlines of sea and earth at different successive periods, whilst he marks 
the various oscillations of land and Avater as well as the necessary accompaniments 
of grand meteorological changes. 

If therefore the geographer is guided to the relative position of his localities by 
the lights of astronomy, he also knows that accurate observation of all terrestrial 
changes is of the highest value in enabling his ally the geologist to interpret and 
read off the former conditions of the crust of the earth. Just as geography in its 
present phase is necessarily connected with ethnology, so its earliest features as a 
science can best be thoroughly comprehended by the geologist. His is the province to 
bring to the mind’s eye various relations of land and water through the olden periods, 
when most of our present continents were fermed bencath the sea; and to trace the 
successive elevations and depressions which characterized epochs long anterior to 
the existence of man. Even in those remote times when some lands were elevated 
and others depressed, we have ascertained that the waters and the earth were occu- 
pied by various animals which successively lived and died to be followed by other and 
more highly organized races, until at length a being endowed with reason was created. 

And when, having gone through all the long epochs of geological time, we ap- 
proach the period when man appeared, how interesting is it to endeavour to unravel 
the changes which our lands underwent from that recent geological date when the 
British Isles formed part of the terra firma of Europe! ‘Then at a later period, how 
inviting is it to mark the signs of the commixture of the rudest and earliest works of 
man with the remains of animals, most of which are now extinct, yet mixed up with 
others which have lived on to our own day! 

Thus, whilst the geological geographer visits the banks of the Somme, and sees 
such an assemblage of relics beneath great accumulations formed by water (as I have 
recently witnessed myself), he is compelled to infer, that at the period when such a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 153 


phenomenon was brought about, the waters which have now diminished to an ordi- 
nary small river, rose in great inundations to the height of 100 feet and more above 
the present stream, and swept over the slopes of the chalk on which the primeval 
inhabitants were fashioning their rude flint instruments —when, as I would suggest, 
they might have escaped to the adjacent hills, and saving themselves from the sweep- 
ing flood, have left no traces of their bones in the silt, sand, or gravel. 

This linking on of geology with human history and the works of primeval art 
comes legitimately under our consideration, and here we have just as full right to 
discuss and test this question as my dear friends the geologists, the more so as it 
was to this connexion between geology and history that Lord Wrottesley has called 
the attention of the Association in his Presidential Address. 

Then, again, as we descend with the stream of time until we reach historical 
records, the geographer next endeavours to throw light on the marches of the great 
generals of antiquity and the sites of ancient cities; and then truly the geologist, 
geographer, and ethnologist become united with the antiquary and historian. Taking 
our recent British example of the discovery of the Uriconium of the Romans at 
Wroxeter in Shropshire—where is the geographer who has looked at the mounds of 
earth which till recently covered that ancient city, and is not convinced, that causes 
arising from the combined destruction by man and natural decay, have produced the 
mass of overlying matter on the shores of the Severn, which has hidden from our 
vision one of the famous Roman towns of Britain ? 

As I have delighted in tracing the sites of the battles of our great British chief 
Caractacus*, and in unravelling the age of those Silurian rocks in which he made 
the chief defences of his own kingdom, so I can now bring back to my imagination 
how the legions of Ostorius may have been reinforced from that Uriconium, which 
has just been disinterred from its earthy covering by the zealous labours of the 
enlightened antiquary Wright, now a Secretary of this Section. 

In this manner we see, that as our inquiries necessarily stimulate us on the one 
hand to recede to the very earliest traces of man upon the globe, so, on the other, 
we are led on into that department of Art and Archeology which connects the present 
with the past, and are thus enabled to offer to the consideration of our associates 
and auditors, subjects of prevailing and universal interest—subjects which will, I 
doubt not, be handled with redoubled zest, now that we are again happily met 
together for the third time in this very ancient seat of learning. 

In conclusion, Ladies and Gentlemen, I have now only to congratulate you on the 
recent rapid extension of geographical science throughout the enlightened classes of 
our countrymen. Brought up with a profound reverence for the works of God, and 
a due admiration of the fivest efforts of man, those sons of our gracious Sovereign 
who are of sufficient age to profit by extensive travel, are already proving, that in 
their spirit of adventure they are true Englishmen. The heir to the crown, after 
rambles in our Scottish Highlands and travels on the continent, is about to quit this 
his Alma Mater, and, to the great joy of our colonists, to visit North America, and 
there rivet still more strongly the link which binds the loyal people of those pro- 
vinces to the mother country ; whilst Prince Alfred, after cruizing in the Mediter- 
ranean, is now sailing across the Southern Atlantic to Bahia, not without having 
ascended on his way to the very summit of the Peak of Teneriffe. The willing co- 
operation of the last and present President + of the Royal Geographical Society 
demonstrates that our nobility are as much alive to the vast importance of our 
subject as the middle classes of the community. On my own part, having laboured 
zealously in diffusing geographical knowledge among my countrymen, I can truly say 
that my gratification is now complete in seeing that this Section is second in popu- 
larity and utility to no branch of the British Association. 


On the Caravan Routes from the Russian Frontier to Khiva, Bokhara, 
Kokhan, and Garkand, with suggestions Sor opening up a Trade between 
Central Asia and India, By 'V. W. ArxKtyson. 


* See the Preface to the ‘ Silurian System.’ 
t Earl de Grey and Ripon, and Lord Ashburton. 


154 REPORT—1860. 


On the Caravan Route from Yarkand to Mai-matchin, with a short account 
of this Town, through which the Trade is carried on between Russia and 
China. By T. W. AtKinson. 


On the Manufacture of Stone Hatchets and other Implements by the Esqui- 
maux, illustrated by Native Tools, Arrow-heads, §e. By Captain Sir 
EI. Bencuer, NV. 


Sir Edward commenced by setting forth his belief in the connexion of the north- 
ern littoral tribes of Asia, America, and Greenland in habits, customs, and language, 
differing less in this latter point than in our counties in England, Wales, or Scotland. 
Comparing the American with tlie Asiatics, the Tchutchi, he found the latter more 
experienced or accomplished in music, manufacturing their own violins, and per- 
forming wonderfully, imitating @ la Paginini on one string the sounds of various 
animals ; they were also good buffoons and actors as imitating the anctics of bears, 
&c. But as regards the useful arts, or those calling for invention or energy in over- 
coming difficulties, improving tools, weapons, &c., they were much inferior to the 
Esquimaux of America, and certainly far below them in mental acquisitions. Sir 
Edward then gave an interesting description of the habits and manners of the tribes 
with which he lived in contact near Icy Cape. He obtained great influence over 
them, and so long as he continued to teach them any new mode of working they 
submitted to his direction. He had no doubt, if necessity had compelled him to re- 
main there (as he was wrecked there), he might have existed and possibly become one 
of their chiefs. This disposition on their part to associate with and be instructed 
by white men, confirmed him in the notion he had entertained, that possibly one or 
two of the crews of the ‘Erebus’ and ‘Terror’ might have escaped and be now 
willingly living among them. 

The principal object of the paper was to explain the stone implements found 
among them, and similar to those of Celtic origin, as well as their mode of manu- 
facturing them from a vein of chert at hand. Sir Edward saw them obtain the 
chert from the stratum, work them into spear and arrow-heads, and there purchased 
the articles as well as the tools employed which were explained in detail to the Meet- 
ing. No hammer or blow is used in splintering off the conchoidal splinters to form 
the serrated edges, but a tool of deer antler effects this by pressure on the faces alter- 
nately. Sir Edward also observed that the same process is adopted by the Indians 
of Mexican origin in California, by the natives of the Sandwich Islands, as well as 
Tahiti, 2300 miles asunder. Other curiously wrought and interesting instruments, as 
planes, drill bows, &c., were exhibited, all manifesting great skill and a higher degree 
of mechanical ability than we could expect from an untutored race—indeed a race 
taking the lead pre-eminently in meeting scientifically those wants occurring in savage 
life. With reference to their ornamentation of their drill bows, &c., Sir Edward 
maintained that they exhibited proofs of record, which Dr. Rae considered to be 
wanting in the tribes encountered by him some degrees to the eastward. Steam, 
and the mode of using it, to bend or straighten bows or arrows, was constantly em- 
ployed by them; and Sir Edward concluded by expressing his conviction that these 
people were in a condition to be rendered useful by civilization, and thus epen more 
lucrative trade with the western and southern nations in the Pacific. 


On the Aryan or Indo-Germanie Theory of Races. 
By Joun Crawrourp, FAS. 


The object of the writer of this paper is a refutation of the Aryan or Indo- Genial 
theory, or that which supposes all the peoples from the eastern confines of Bengal 
to the western shores of Spain and Britain to be of one andthe same race of man, on 
the evidence of a fancied identity of language. A few of the main objections advanced 
by the author may be stated. The theory supposes a people, whose language was the 
Sanskrit, to have migrated at some unknown time, spreading east in one direction 

and west in another, and to have performed these prodigious migrations, although an 
agricultural people, or in other words, one of fixed habits. ~The theory makes men 


aS ae ee Oe; ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ‘ "455 


who are black like the Hindus, brown like the Russians, and fair like the Standina- 
vians, to be of one and the same race, insisting that the Greeks of Alexander and the 
Englishmen of Clive had the same blood in their veins as the Hindus whom a hand- 

ful of them vanquished. As to the supposed identity of race from the evidence of 
language, the author considered it sufficiently disposed of by the notorious fact that 
many of the languages of Hindustan spoken by people asserted to belong to the 
Aryan stock, had no fundamental relation to the Sanskrit tongue of the supposed 
Aryans. In Europe, the isolated Basque language was evidence to the same effect. 


On the Influence of Domestic Animals on the Progress of Civilization (Bir ds). 
By Joun Crawrurp, F.R.S. 


The object of this paper, one of a series on the same subject, was to show the 
effect of the domesticated animals in the civilization of man, and was confined to 
birds. The author showed that out of the vast variety of the feathered creation, not 
above nine or ten species had been domesticated, while there was a wide range in 
the quality and amount of the domestication which even this small number had 
attained. The origin of a few of the species only could be traced to particular 
countries, as the common fowls to India and China, the turkey to Mexico, and the 
gallinze to Africa. But he seemed to think that the first domesticated of the greater 
number was common to several countries, as the grouse, pigeon, duck, to most 
countries of Europe and Asia. The author further showed that the numbers of 
birds domesticated by a people might be considered a measure of their relative civilis 
zation. Thus savages possessed no domestic bird at all; barbarians very few, and 
the most advanced only the whole number. Thus the savage tribes of America pos- 
sessed none at all. The Mexicans possessed but one. The more advanced tribes of 
the South Sea had one, the common fowl, while the Australians had none. The 
Malayan nations were possessed of two, the common fowl and duck; the Persians 
of these and the pigeon, and Hindus of the last three with the peacock ; and the 
Chinese of five, the common fowl, the goose, the pigeon, and two species of pheasant, 
It is the more civilized nations of Europe alone that possess the entire number, 


On certain remarkable Deviations in the Stature of Europeans. 
By R. Curt. 


On the Existence of a true Plural of a Personal Pronoun in a living 
European Language. By R. Curr. 


On a Set of Relief Models of the Alps, §c. 
By Captain Cysurz, Imperial Austrian Artillery. 


The author desires to introduce to the notice of this Meeting a set of models, in- 
tended to facilitate instruction in the manner of delineating the features of the ground 
on topographical maps, and lately introduced into the technical schools of Austria. 
It is the first aim of the author to lead the pupil, by means of these models, to a 
correct understanding or appreciation of form, as the only way of producing a first- 
rate topographical draftsman. Instead, therefore, of setting him to imitate drawings 
from paper, his studies and copies will be made from models, and, at a more advanced 
stage, from nature itself. These models represent, first, inclined planes or slopes, 
separate, in combination, or intersecting each other. It is from these the pupil acquires 
the first idea of the principle upon which depends a correct delineation of the ground.. 
Secondly, we have three models which represent the most characteristic and most 
widely distributed features of the ground. Having acquired from the preceding a 
thorough knowledge of fundamental principles, the pupil will proceed to delineate 
upon paper the following models. ‘These represent, first, an undulating country ; 
secondly, a plateau formation, with deeply-cut valleys; thirdly and fourthly, some 
mountainous tracts. Contour lines have been laid down upon the whole of these 
models with mathematical accuracy. The horizontal projection of some of the most 
difficult sections has also been added, to illustrate the manner of filling up the con- 


156 REPORT—1860. 


tour lines and laying down auxiliary contours. It has not, however, been thought 
advisable to do more, as otherwise the pupils would avail themselves of these facilities 
to too great an extent. A small instrument for measuring the gradients, and a scale 
showing the intensity of the shading (hachorres) for various degrees of acclivity, are 
to be made use of in copying the models. ‘The author believes that the use of 
models, judiciously selected, will engage the pupil’s uninterrupted attention ; he will 
overcome mechanical difficulties with greater facility, and will not be so wearied as 
by the tedious, but abortive, and, in reality, useless attempts to copy a topographical 
drawing placed before him, ‘The author would add, that his models have been made 
of galvanoplastic copper, and are therefore not so liable to breakage as plaster-of- 
Paris models. 


On the Arrangement of the Forts and Dwelling-places of the Ancient Irish. 
By the Rev. Professor Graves, M.A. 


On certain Ethnological Boulders and their probable Origin. 
By the Rev. Epw. Hincxs, D.D. 


The author began by observing that, if a geologist were to see a mass of stone 
lying in a place where all the rocks around were of a totally different character, he 
would not be satisfied till he had accounted for its being there; till he had found 
whence it came, and at what period, and by what agency it was brought. He be- 
lieved that like inquiries should be made, and might be answered, respecting ethno- 
logical boulders ; by which he understood words ‘occurring in writings of remote 
antiquity, which were of a totally different character from the words of which the 
writings were mainly composed. He believed that it would be possible, by help of 
these boulders, to trace the people to whose Janguage the words belonged, along the 
line by which they must have travelled, forward to the point where their migration 
terminated, and backward to that where it must have commenced. In the pre- 
sent paper he proposed to do this in a particular case, the discussion of which 
was peculiarly appropriate to the present meeting, as it related to that language, a 
proficiency in which was the acknowledged glory of Oxford. 

The language of the Assyrian inscriptions is of the family called Semitic, that is, 
of the same family with Hebrew; and by the way it resembles this language in some 
important particulars, such as having a Niphhal conjugation, more closely than it does 
any other known language of that family. It is remarkable also that the copious 
inscriptions which exist in this language were all written between the writing of the 
earliest and the writing of the latest books of the Old Testament; so that it would 
seem that no language could be expected to clear up what is obscure in these books 
so well as the Assyrian. 

In these Semitic inscriptions, however, numerous words are to be met with which 
are evidently not Semitic. One class of such words was pointed out several years ago 
by Sir Henry Rawlinson. They belonged to the language of Chaldea or Accad, which 
was spoken to the south of Assyria, and which he pronounced to be an Hamitic 
language, akin to the Egyptian. 

In a paper read at the Dublin Meeting of the British Association in 1857, of which 
a copious abstract is given, pp. 134-143 of the Report, Dr. Hincks took a very 
different view of the matter. He maintained that this Accadian language represented 
a sister language to that which is the common parent of all the Indo-European lan- 
guages ; the common parent of these two, which he called the Japhetic language, 
being a sister to the Egyptian language and to the common parent of all the Semitic 
languages. He now aflirmed that the views contained in that paper (with which he 
must, for brevity, assume that his hearers were acquainted) were fully confirmed by 
his subsequent researches, and that he had met with nothing inconsistent with 
them. The linguistic pedigree there laid down was so fully established by induction 
from a number of verbal pedigrees that it needed no further confirmation. Still, 
comparisons of Indo-European words with words of one of the languages above 
named, which was not Indo-European, would be found useful, and that in three 
ways :— 

1, Such a comparison might establish the fact of a word having been in use in the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157 


original family from which the Indo-European races have sprung. This fact may be 
inferred from the word being used by remote subfamilies ; but its being used by two 
subfamilies (or even by a siagle one), and being also found in one of the languages 
that are cognate to the original Indo-European, but not derived from it, is still 
stronger evidence. Thus the word horse, which is peculiar to the Teutonic family, but 
which is cognate to the Latin curro, ‘‘I go like a horse, 7. e. I run,” is shown to 
have been in use in the original Indo-European family from its evident connexion 
with the Accadian kurra. The original Indo-European root must have been kurs. 

2. Such a comparison may determine the original form of an Indo-European root, 
which varies in the different languages known to us; as it may also determine the 
original Semitic form. For example, in p. 141, Report for 1857, the facts that the 
original Indo-European form of the second numeral was iwi and the original Semitic 
form thni, could only be established by a comparison of the different forms known to 
exist with the Accadian mi, as explained in that paper. In treating of the words for 
“lion,” No. 14, he was ignorant that the Assyrian word was libbu. Comparing 
this with the Accadian /ig, he now thinks that the Semitic form must have been ligh, 
and that this was also the Japhetic form. The Indo-European root would be ligw. 
In Latin this would be declined lix, livis; and, as (s)nix, (s)nivis gives snow in 
English, and snig, sneg in the Letto-Sclavonian languages, so /éwe in modern and 
lew in older German correspond to lix; and lig might be the ancient Letto-Sclavo- 
nian root, equivalent to these. 

3. An etymological relation between Indo-European words may possibly be 
established if both can be shown to correspond to the same word in a language 
which is not Indo-European. ‘Thus, the relation between yAvkis and yAéaca is not 
generally admitted by Greek lexicographers ; though if the words be written as they 
would be in the Cadmean alphabet (see p. 142 of the former paper), yAok-Fes and 
yox-1a, the resemblance is easily seen. But this relationship is established when 
we find that ghlu is used in Egyptian both for “sweet” and for “tongue.” The 
Latin dulcis, originally dlucvis, is cognate to these. 

Enough, however, on the subject of the Accadian words occurring inthe Assyrian 
inscriptions. They present no ethnological difficulty, as the people who spoke the 
language to which they belonged lived close to Assyria. The case is the same with 
the Semitic words which occur in the Egyptian inscriptions. He pointed out one in 
1845; MID“ achariot;” used also for “ chariots ;’’ the Egyptians not generally 
expressing the vowels, and thus writing the terminations eth and 6th alike. Mr. 
Birch has since found another meaning, ‘‘ round bucklers,’’ which appears to be the 


Arabic we pe These are Canaanitish words, expressing objects brought from 


Canaan. 

There were words, however, in the Assyrian inscriptions which Dr, Hincks be- 
lieved to be Indo-European; and as no Indo-/uropean people had been hitherto 
recognized as existing on the west of Assyria, their existence presents an ethnolo- 
gical difficulty which the author seeks to explain in this paper. 

The words in question were ligwindinas and ldsanan. The former occurs on a 
great slab or altar in the north-west palace at Nimriid (B. M. Series, pl. 44, I. 17). 
Every other word in the sentence is of known signification. ‘“ Z. alive I took cap- 
tive.” From the context it must necessarily be the name of an animal, in the plural 
number (being joined toa plural adjective) and in the accusative case (being governed 
by a transitive verb). Every one who has the slightest knowledge of the grammar 
of the Semitic languages must see that ligwindinas cannot be a Semitic accusative 
plural; and every one that knows anything of the grammar of the Indo-European 
languages must see that it is a regularly formed Indo-European accusative plural. 
Taking it as Sanskrit or Zend, the nominative singular would be ligwind?; taking 
it as Greek, it would be ligwindis or ligwindin. Whatever be the particular language 
to which it belongs, and whatever be the meaning, its being Indo-European ought 
uot to be questioned. The other word, /dsanan, has puzzled the interpreters of the 
Assyrian inscriptions as much as any other word. It occurs in several contexts : 
«king ldsanan’’ after ‘‘ king of Assyria” on Bellino’s cylinder, 1. 1; ‘ ruler of the 
tribes /dsanan,” on the Tiglath Pileser cylinder (I. 29), “ wielder of the sceptre ldsa- 
nan,” same cylinder (VI.56). ‘Assur the great lord has made me to possess (? yusad- 
limanni ; the first radical may be 7, 0 or 4) the kingdom ldsanan,” Bellino’s cylinder, 


158 REPORT—1860. 


1.4. In all these contexts, a genitive of the name of a people who were not Assy- 
rian seems required. Yet ldsanan is an impossible form for a Semitic genitive. The 
word }W), “a language, i. e.a people speaking a language,”’ suggests itself at once; 
but its genitive plural would be disandti. The idea that ldsanan should be resolved 
into two words, the first being Jd, the negative particle, suggested itself also; but to 
this also there were insuperable objections. Sanan is, no doubt, the theme of an 
adjective; but when joined to a noun it must have a case ending. In the first con- 
text the rules of grammar would require sannu, in the second sanndii, in the third 
sanatii euph. for sanandi. In the fourth sarrut is in construction, and would require 
a genitive after it, and not an adjective. The same might be said of kissat in the second 
context. Besides, /é sanan would mean “ not fighting,’’ and would be the very last 
title that a king of Assyria would apply to himself. The translation “‘ unchanging,”’ 
which has been suggested, would require Jd sanah, in place of Id sanan, if the case 
ending were to be omitted, which, however, it could not be.- Whether, therefore, 
ldsanan be regarded as one Assyrian word or as two, it presents insuperable diffi- 
culties. These, however, disappear at once if it be considered as an Indo-European 
word. It has all the appearance of an Indo-European genitive plural from a nomi- 
native /dsas; and such a word is just what will suit all the contexts. Accordingly, 
the recognition of ligwindinas as Indo-European led immediately to the recognition 
of ldsanan as so too. 

The next question to be considered is to what country the Indo-European people 
who used these words belonged. 

The account of the hunting expedition in which the Assyrian king took the lig- 
windinas is preceded by that of his receiving tribute from the people on the coast of 
Syria, beginning with the Tyrians and ending with the Arvadites. This renders it 
probable that his hunting was on the west of Assyria; and indeed he states in the 
Payement Inscriptions that he hunted on the banks of the Euphrates. Again, if the 
word ldsanan signified a people, other than the Assyrians, over whom Tiglath Pileser 
acquired dominion, they must have been to the west or north of Assyria; for he 
mentions no conquests towards the south; and we know from the inscription of 
Sennacherib at Bavian that he was defeated by his southern neighbours, his capital 
taken, and his gods carried off by them. He could have had no dominion over the 
Medians, or any neighbouring people that have been hitherto supposed to be Indo- 
European. 

This. leads to the inquiry whether the Egyptian or Assyrian inscriptions afford any 
grounds for the supposition that an Indo-European population was located in Syria. 
Fifteen years ago Dr. Hincks pronounced certain names published by Champollion 
as those of the chiefs of the Khita, to be Indo-European. Four names terminating 
with stro, as Champollion read the characters, were published by him, the former 
part of the first name, which was that of the chief of the nation, being Khita, the 
name of the nation. Dr. Hincks affirmed in 1845 that this name must be Indo- 
European, and must mean ‘lord of Khita.’”’ He read the latter part of the name 
swar, connecting it with kipios. M. de Rougé adopted this interpretation of the 
name, but said that the second element in it was the Semitic sar; to which it was 
replied that no Semitic compound could be formed as M. de Rougé supposed. 
« Lord of Khita”’ would be Sar-Khitti, not Khita-sar, according to the mode of 
arrangement of the elements of a compound name adopted by all Semitic people. 

From the fact of these names being Indo-European, Dr. Hincks at first inferred that 
the enemies of Rameses 11. were Scythians, as Champollion had supposed; but it 
was subsequently proved that they lived within a short distance of Egypt; and their 
capital Kadish, formerly read Atish, was identified with a place on the Orontes, 
south of Emessa. They were, in short, the AKhattaya of the Assyrian inscriptions, 
and the Hittites of the Old Testament; and their religion, as shown by the Egyptian 
inscriptions, was clearly Canaanitish. How then could they have Indo-European 
names? 

Conceiving it to be certain that some of their chiefs had such names in the time of 
Rameses II., Dr. Hincks reconciled this fact with the other by supposing that Indo- 
Europeans had previously overrun their country, and acquired dominion over it; 
but that they had adopted the religion and probably the language of the conquered 
people; at any rate they had failed to impose upon them their own language. The 
Kita had chiefs with Indo-European names, and doubtless of Indo-European race; 


ee 


acer 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159 


just as the English in the twelfth century had Norman chiefs with Norman names; 
but the great body of the people had in both instances remained unchanged. 

There was thus evidence that a body of Indo-Europeans had conquered the coun- 
try north of Mount Lebanon before the reign of Rameses II.; and on the other 
hand, there was evidence that at the marriage of Amenholp III. the Egyptian empire 
extended to Naharina or Mesopotamia. During this interval a peculiar form of 
sun-worship was introduced into Egypt, and obtained a temporary superiority. That 
this worship was of Aryan origin and that its introduction synchronized with the loss 
of the foreign conquests of the Egyptians, are generally admitted by Egyptologists. 
The middle of the reign of Amenholp III. must therefore have been about the time 
when the Indo-European invasion in question took place; 7. e. according to Lepsius, 
1506 u.c.; according to Bunsen, 1468; according to Dr. Hincks, about 1390. 

Of the four proper names of Hittite chiefs which, according to Champollion, 
ended in siro, three are supposed by Dr. Hincks to signify lords of different people ; 
the fourth (Sopa-siro of Champollion) he reads Asp-iswar, ‘lord of the horse.”’ This 
reading (which, as well as the worship of the sun which these Indo-Europeans prac- 
tised, suggests their close connexion with Persia) is confirmed by the name of Kus- 
taspi, king of Kummukh, or Commagene, who, along with Razin of Damascus 
and Minikhimi of Samaria, paid homage to Tiglath Pileser II]. It would appear 
that this Indo-European immigration took deeper root in uorthern than it did in 
southern Syria. The name Kustaspi is evidently a compound, signifying, like that 
of the father of Darius, ‘‘ having .. . . horses ;”’ the meaning of the participle wista 
or kusta being uncertain. In Sanskrit and Zend such compounds require no suffix 
at the end. Assuming that kusta signified “chosen,’’ kustaspa gen. kustaspahyd 
would signify ‘‘ having a chosen horse, or chosen horses.’’ Here, however, a suffix 
isadded. The name is kustaspi, which would have for its genitive kustaspinas. This 
marked difference is an argument for the diversity of the Indo-Europeans of Syria 
from the Persians, though they resembled them in their sun-worship and in using aspa 
for ‘‘horse.’’ Another argument to the same effect is derived from the impossibility 
of a Persian population making an incursion into Syria. Not only is the Semitic 
population of Assyria interposed, but either Media or Elymais would have to be 
traversed, in the latter of which the language was of a totally different character 
from any Indo-European one; while in the former a dialect of Persian was used, in 
which we know that aspa did not signify “a horse.”” In the Behistun inscription, 
which was in this dialect, ‘horse”’ is expressed by asma, instead of by aspa, as at 
Persepolis. See lines 86, 87 of the first column, where dasha and asma (in pure 
Persian dasti and aspa) are translated in the Scythic, or rather Elymean version, 
published by Mr. Norris, by the well-known Accadian words habba and kurra, 
which are constantly used in the Assyrian inscriptions for ‘‘elephants”’ and “ horses.” 
The true translation of the passage is this: ‘‘ I divided the army. A part I made to 
be carried by elephants. The other part I made to swim with the horses.” 

These considerations lead to the conclusion that the Indo-Europeans in Syria did 
not come from Persia; but that the Persians and they formed part of the same body 
of immigrants, which divided into two bodies inArmenia or the neighbouring country. 
‘The next thing to be considered is the evidence which may exist of such a people 
having been settled in northern Syria and the country to the north of it. 

This evidence consists of proper names of men preserved in the Assyrian inscrip- 
tions, which appear to be Indo-European compounds; and of names of districts 
which end in a sibilant which disappears when the word is inflected, and which 
must therefore be the sign of the Indo-European nominative singular ; also of names 
of districts in the genitive singular, which also terminates in s. 

A series of proper names of princes which all terminate alike is found in the Tiglath 
Pileser cylinder; namely, Kaltantiru, Kiliantiru, and Sadiantiru. The fact of the 
latter parts of the three names being the same, is strong presumptive evidence that 
those names are Indo-European. ‘To determine their respective meanings is, how- 
ever, the part of philology and not of ethnology. The name Kashkash, which oc- 
curs in the Sallier Papyrus No. 3, as that of a country in alliance with the Khita, is 
manifestly the Kaskaya of the Assyrian inscriptions; and the Muskaya of these last, 
the 7W/ of the Hebrew Scriptures, is the Mushush of the Egyptian inscriptions, or, 
as it should rather be written, the Muskusk ; for in ancient times the Egyptians, like 


160 REPORT—1860. 


the Assyrians, had no SH. They expressed that sound in foreign words by their 
double letter SK. In both these instances the final sibilant, which is preserved in 
the Egyptian, disappears in the Assyrian gentile adjective. Inthe name of Carche- 
nish (Gargamusk of the Assyrian and Egyptian inscriptions) the case ending is pre- 
served in Hebrew, Assyrian, and Egyptian. In Tarshish it is preserved in Hebrew, 
but lost in Egyptian. This name has not been met with in the Assyrian inscrip- 
tions; but the Greek form Tapo-ds shows that the second sibilant in the Hebrew word 
is acase ending. In the Tiglath-Pileser inscription names of districts are always 
expressed in the genitive, the character signifying ‘‘ country ”’ which precedes them, 
being to be read as a noun in construction, mat. Some of these genitives are Assy- 
rian, as Kummukhi, ‘‘ (the landof) Kummukh;”’ but others are to all appearance 
Indo-European, as Ligrakhinas, Ammaus, Adaus, Skaraus. These last three have 
a strong resemblance to the genitives of the Persian nouns in ush, such as Margaush, 
Babilaush. The aw was pronounced as two syllables. 

The next point investigated was the interpretation of the words of this language, 
ligwindinas and Idsanan, and their connexion with like words in other languages. 
The former word was supposed to be equivalent to Acovroeidets, and the latter to 
Aady. It was observed that Aéwy was a secondary word for “lion,”’ the participle of 
a verb, which was itself derived from the primitive word Nis, originally AceFs. The 
words first introduced were nouns, from which verbs were derived. Thus mus, 
mouse, expressed the idea to which the name was first assigned. It had been stated, 
and assigned as a reason why the Sanskrit language ought to be acknowledged as 
the parent of the European languages, that Sanskrit was the only language in which 
the verb “to steal,’ from which mouse, ‘‘the stealer,’”? was derived, was known to 
exist. It is very true that the Sanskrit noun signifying ‘a mouse” was derived 
from a Sanskrit verb signifying “to steal ;’’ but this verb was itself derived from 
a primary noun signifying ‘‘a mouse,’”’ which was preserved in Greek, Latin, and 
Teutonic, though unknown in Sanskrit. As in English we say “‘ to ape a person,” 
meaning ‘‘to do to him what an ape does,” 7. e. “to imitate him ;” so we might 
say ‘‘to mouse a thing,” meaning ‘to do to it what a mouse does,” i, e. “to steal 
it.” In Wilson’s Sanskrit dictionary four different forms of the verb ‘‘ he mouses it” 
are given; but the roof, the primary noun mus, is not to be found in the language 
at all. So much for this argument in favour of the antiquity of Sanskrit, as com- 
pared with the European languages cognate to it! Whatever weight it has is in the 
opposite direction. 

Using the primary for the secondary Greek word for “ lion,” and the uncontracted 
form, we should have AvoeSéas. In the Cadmean alphabet, in which ¢ was only 
used as a semivowel, this would be written \eFoFevdéas ; and the word preserved in 
the Assyrian inscriptions, if expressed in the same alphabet, would be deyFevdevas. 
The other word ldsanan, expressed in this alphabet, would be Aagovor, or at least 
might be so rendered; for, as long a expressed the sound of a in fall or in father, 
the corresponding short a might have the sound of 0 in folly (which would be ex- 
pressed by 0) as well as that of ain fat. So the Assyrian Aranta became ’Opdvrns 
in Greek. In this same Cadmean alphabet, \aév would be Adadoy: the o being here 
“ «iBSndov,”’ or deceptive ;—written, but not pronounced; as it was so late as the 
time of Pindar. 

The dropping of the sibilant between two vowels being admitted to have taken 
place in a great number of instances (if not in every instance where it was originally 
unaccompanied by a consonant or semivowel) by all Greek grammarians ; and the 
wv of the genitive plural being also admitted by Bopp and others to have been 
originally ovov and then oov (as pei¢@ was originally pei{ova and then pei{oa), there 
is no difficulty whatever in deriving the second Greek word in classical use from that 
preserved in the Assyrian inscriptions. The former of the two words, however, 
requires some remarks. 

In the first place, it is not generally admitted that -éas, from a nom. sing. -7s, has 
sprung from évas. It is commonly supposed to be from evas. The point suggested 
is, that the Ur-Griechisch word now discovered is evidence that this supposition is 
not altogether correct. It is admitted that a compound adjective in -7s, the latter 
element of which is a noun in -os -eos, such as dvo-jrevns, b1-erns, would have originally 
formed its genitive in -écos. Such a word would correspond to a Sanskrit noun in 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161 


ds, as dur-mands. But the question now raised is whether there may not be com- 
pounds, the last element of which is a verbal root, or a primary noun from which 
this is derived, to which the suffix.in was attached as implying possession; and 
whether the in of such compounds has not become in the nominative -7s, -és; so that 
these adjectival terminations are in some instances the equivalents of the Sanskrit 
adjectival terminations 7,7. his is supposed by Dr. Hincks to have been the case 
in such instances as pudo-erd-7s, d-hyd-ns, tTpt-np(er)-ns, &c.; the roots being 1d 
(Fed), AaO and epes. ‘The original form of the suffix implying possession he supposed 
to be ith, which was liable to pass both into ts and intoin. Thus, in the first person 
plural of active verbs the original form meth, written -yer, -ped (retained in the pas- 
sive, where we have in classical Greek -<8a), became pey and dialectically wes. Itis 
this ¢h, written in the old alphabet r or 6, which is so apt to be dropped between 
vowels, and at the end of a word, and which in the latter position, if not dropped, 
must be changed into c or y. In reality, the root which is above written epes was 
eped, ereth. 

The addition of the suffix in, implying possession, to a compound, is unusual in 
Sanskrit; but instances may be produced. One is, according to Bopp, dmndya-sdr- 
iz. In Lithuanian, however, a suffix is generally added to the compound. It ap- 
pears in the present languages as 7, which Bopp supposes to have been za, but which 
may have been originally ix, The usual form ofa Lithuanian compound is did-burn-is, 
rot-pon-is, tri-kamp-is; na-baga-s, without the suffix, is spoken of by Bopp as 
exceptional. 

This is one reason for supposing that the language to which these words belong 
was of Lithuanian origin. The suffix in, which appears not only in ligwindinas, but 
in the proper names nom. Kustaspi, gen. Ligrakhinas, may be connected with the 
Lithuanian is and the Greek js, but is abhorrent to the genius of both the Sanskrit 
and Zend languages. 

The difference between Fevd and Fe.d seems also to require some observations. 
The root is fed ; and according to the custom of the Indo-urcepean languages, and 
especially of the eastern family, or families of them, a nasal may be introduced 
between a short vowel and the consonant which follows it. The Greek ec and oF 
were in the old Cadmean alphabet the representatives of the long vowels # and @%. 
They are equivalent to iy and ww, ¢ and F being in that alphabet semivowels; and 
these long vowels were substituted for « and o followed by a nasal, when that nasal 
was omitted. It is worthy of notice, however, that in the inscription on a broken 
obelisk in the British Museum, in the first column, where the king enumerates the 
animals that he had taken or killed, or rather designed to do so (blanks for the 
number being left before each name of an animal, which were never filled up), men- 
tion is made in the twenty-third line of “ ligwidini’’ followed by the plural sign. 
The omission of the nasal in the word, as here written, shows that it was not essen- 
tial. ‘The plural sign after mi is here substituted for the Indo-European termination 
nas. Possibly digwidini is intended for the nominative singular feminine ; or it may 
be the nominative ligwidi with the Assyrian termination of the accusative plural. 

The word wida is used in Old Prussian for ‘likeness ;”’ sta-wida and ka-wida 
representing the Latin ¢alis and qualis. This is another indication of a connexion 
between the languages to which these words belong, and the old Lithuanian. 

A third indication of this is derived from the name /dsanan. As used in the 
Assyrian inscriptions, it denoted the Indo-European tribes on the west of Assyria ;— 
those who called themselves by this name. Exactly in the same way, the Egyptians 
applied the name )3) to the Semitic tribes in whose language this word signified 
“the peoples.”” Now this word /édsanan was originally /d/hanan; and while its 
stern is the same as that of the name of the Lithuanian people, it has other affinities, 
which are very remarkable. The Lydians, AvSoi, were evidently a branch of the 
same people; notwithstanding the mythic derivation of their name given by Hero- 
dotus. but their identity with the Lutan or Ludan of the Egyptian inscriptions is 
equally certain, and still more important, as it shows us that fora considerable time 
before they pushed their conquests to the neighbourhood of Egypt (viz. to Mount 
Lebanon), they had been warring against them on their northern frontier, when 
their empire extended to Mesopotamia. 

The termination of this name requires some remarks. It may be the Semitic- 


186°. 11 


162 REPORT—1860. 


plural ending, which the Egyptians borrowed from those tribes which intervened 
between them and these Ludan; or it may be the accusative plural of the Indo- 
European name. It may be well, however, to compare it with the termination of 
another proper name, which occurs in the Sallier Papyrus No. 3, and which appears 
to refer to the very same people. A name is found there, which Champollion read 
Iwan and took for the Jonians. It has since been ascertained that the character 
which Champollion read has for its value ari or ivi. The name therefore is driwan, 
the Aryans or noble people, a title which the Indian and Persian branches of this 
people which descended from the north applied to themselves, and which (it would 
seem) the Syrian branch of the same people also used. The an at the end of these 
two names is probably the same element; and the fact of its being preceded by w, 
when not preceded by a consonant, suggests a third explanation of it. It may be the 
suffix which appears in rdjan (nom. rdjd), Saiwewr, latron (nom. latro) and ahman 
(nom. ahma), which suffix was probably the theme of the first numeral, denoting a 
noun of unity. Thus Ariwan would be ’Apior, or ‘Ipiwy, from the latter of which it 
is just possible that ”"Ioy may be derived. 

Whatever may be thought of this last derivation, it seems clear that the Indo- 
European glosses, found in the Assyrian inscriptions, are in the language of a people 
which had separated, some centuries before the date of the earliest Assyrian inscrip- 
tion, from the Aryans of Persia, and which had probably accompanied these in their 
migration from the northern region which they originally inhabited; and that while 
a portion of these western Aryans remained in Syria and the adjacent countries, the 
main body of them proceeded westward through Asia Minor and across the Bospho- 
rus or Hellespont, forming the Hellenic or Ionic people of the Greeks ; which mingled 
with the Pelasgians (a more ancient Indo-European race akin to the Italian tribes), 
and by their union formed the different dialects of Greek with which we are acquainted. 
It is probable, but not so certain, that the language of the people from whom all these 
Aryan tribes were derived, was Lithuanian in its oldest form. 


A New Map of the Interior of the Northern Island of New Zealand, con- 
structed during an Inland Journey in 1859. By Professor F. von Hocu- 
sTETTER ( Vienna), Geologist of the Austrian Novara Expedition. 


On the Antiquity of the Human Race. By Dr. J. Hunt. 


On the Geographical Distribution and Trade in the Cinchona. 
By V. Hurtavo. 


The different species of the tree which yields the bark known in commerce as 
Peruvian bark, and from which the sulphate of quinine is obtained, grow on the 
slopes of the Andes, at a height which varies according to the latitude and the topo- 
graphical situation of the mountains where this precious vegetable production has 
been found. In New Grenada it grows on the central branch of the Cordillera, 
which extends from the province of Paito, and separates the two valleys of the Cauca 
and Magdalena, being most abundant in the districts of Pitay6 and Almaguer. It is 
also found on the mountains above Finagamga, near Bogota. The Pitayo bark has 
been the richest in quinine; and as in that locality the cuttings have been carried on 
to the greatest extent, the article is nearly exhausted. The same may be said of the 
Finagamga variety, which, although not so rich as the Pitay6, is prized on account 
of its being of easier labour. The Almaguer bark, which at first was hardly saleable, 
is now used to a great extent in Philadelphia and London, on account of the scarcity 
of the two former species. The best bark is found on the Pitay6 mountain, at a 
height of from 8000 to 11,000 feet above the level of thesea. ‘The tree grows among 
the numerous species of Alpine vegetation which cover those mountains with thick 
forests, either in clusters or scattered about. For that reason it varies in size. Like 
all trees of a cold climate, it is of slow growth, and requires a great many years to 
arrive at a good height. Some of them have been found so large as to yield forty 
arrobas of green bark, which, when dried up, is reduced to about a third of its 
weight. Others only produce about ten arrobas, As this tree is chiefly found in 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163 


wild, cold, uninhabited mountains, constantly covered by clouds, there has been no 
system in cutting, nor any study made to ascertain how long a spot should be left at 
rest before undertaking new cuttings. It is known that the roots produce a great 
many shoots after a tree is cut down, and that these require about fifty years to be- 
come of a middling size. Young trees are also found growing from seeds, The 
nature of the soil seems to determine the qualities of the alkalies contained in the 
bark, quinine being most abundant in Pitayd, and cinchonine in Almaguer. But 
rocky mountains and ravines are the spots where nature has placed this vegetable 
species, The author is not aware that any bark trees have been found on the western 
Cordillera, which separates the valley of Cauca from the Pacific coast, which ridge 
never attains the elevation of perpetual snow in those latitudes. It only remains to 
state, that the price of good sound Pitay6é bark, which had gone down in London to 
1s. 8d. per pound, is now as high as 2s. 6d., and some very inferior lots have been 
sold at 3s. The Almaguer sort, which was entirely neglected two years ago, is now 
accepted by manufacturers at from 1s. to 1s. 4d, per pound. No mention is made 
of the Bolivian bark, the most esteemed in commerce, as the author is not personally 
acquainted with that trade. 


On Alphabets, and especially the English ; and on a New Method of Mark- 
ing the Sound of English Words, without change of Orthography. By the 
Rev. Professor JARRETT, M.A. 


On the Origin of the Arts, and the Influence of Race in their Development. 
By R. Knox. 


A brief Account of the Progress of the Works of the Isthmus of Suez Canal. 
By D. A. Lance. 


On the Jaczwings, a Population of the Thirteenth Century, on the Frontiers 
of Prussia and Lithuania. By R. G. Laruam, M.D. F.R.S. 


In the middle of the thirteenth century, the Jaczwings were a powerful nation, 
between the Vistula, the Niemen, and the Upper Dnieper. At the present moment, 
a small population, called by the neighbouring Lithuanians Jodwezhai, and distin- 
guished by a dark complexion and certain peculiarities of dress and manners, is the 
chief representative of the name. A few localities—(1) Jaévis Pol=Jaczving Land, 
(2) Jatvis Stara= Old Jatvis, (3) Jatvis Nova=New Jatvis, (4) Mogilki-Jadzhvin- 
gowski=Jacxving Graves, and (5, 6, 7) three villages named Jatvesk, complete the 
fragments. The name, having come to us through Latin, Polish, German, Bohemian, 
and Russian mediums, is hardly twice spelt alike, e. g. we have Jazuingi, Jasuingi, 
Jacuingi, Jacwingi, Jaczwingi, Jatwingi in the German and Polish; Jatvyagi, Jatviazhi, 
Jatviezie, &c., in the Russian. To these add Getwezeu, Getuinzete, and even Geta. 
In speculating upon the ethnological affinities and the former extension of these 
tribes, in the direction of both the Gothini and the Gothones of the classical writers, 
this multiplicity of variations must be borne in mind. In respect to the immediate 
affinities of the nation at the particular time under notice, the evidence is very decided 
to their being members of the same family, and to their speaking the same language 
with the Prussians (i.e. the occupants of East Prussia before the German Conquest), 
the Lithuanians, the Samogitians, and the Letts. Their locality supports these 
statements, as do the few words which have come to us from their language. Whe- 
ther they were equally Lithuanic in blood, is another questiun. The few, but ia- 
portant details of their history derive their interest (as do those of the Lithuanic 
family altogether) from the peculiar character of the great religious contest which 
they represent. With the Greek Christianity of Russia on the east, and the Papal 
influences on the west, Lithuania and Finland were not only the last strongholds of 
Paganism, but were acted upon as such in two directions. The resistance, however, 
of the Lithuanians was most obstinate; and the most obstinate of the Lithuanians 
were the Jaczwings. Their annihilation, too, was most complete. In 1264, a 
great battle broke their power. In the fifteenth century not even the — of the 

11 


164 REPORT—1860. 


Jaczwings remained. A more moderate notice simply says that the name of the Jacz- 
wings was very rare and known to few. Conjointly with the special details of the 
Jaczwings themselves, those of the populations with which they came in contact 
should be studied—those of Russia and Poland, cut up into duchies; of Gallicia, a 
powerful principality ; of Lithuania, a kingdom under Mindovy, vacillating both in 
creed and politics; of North-Eastern Ger:nany under the Knights of the Teutonic 
order; and, finally, of Volhynia occupied by Comanian Turks, and partly overrun by 
Mongols. Details, however, of this kind are beyond the pale of the present notice, 
which is chiefly made for the sake of drawing attention to the history of a nation— 
the pre-eminently Pagan nation of Europe—once powerful, but now fragmentary, 
the blood of which must still be found in more than one district where the language 
is German, Lithuanic, Polish, or Russian. 


On the latest Discoveries in South-Central Africa. 
By Dr. D. LivincsTone. 


The following letter from Dr. Livingstone was read to the Section :— 
River Shiré, Nov. 4, 1859. 

The River Shiré has its source in the green waters of the great Lake Nyassa (lat. 
14° 23'S., long. 35° 30’ E.). It flows serenely on in a southerly direction, a fine 
navigable stream, from 80 to 120 yards in breadth, expanding some 12 or 15 miles 
from Nyassa into a beautiful lakelet, with a well-defined water horizon, and perhaps 
5 or 6 miles wide; then narrowing again, it moves quietly on about 40 miles, till it 
reaches Murchison’s Cataracts. After a turbulent course of 30 miles, it emerges 
from the cataracts a peaceful river capable of carrying a large steamer through the 
remaining 112 miles of its deep channel, and joins the Zambesi in iat. 17° 47'S., 
100 miles from the confluence of that river with the sea. The valley through which 
the Shiré flows is from 10 to 12 miles broad at the southern extremity of Lake 
Nyassa, but soon stretches out to 20 or 30 miles, and is bounded all the way on 
both sides by ranges of hills, the eastern range being remarkably lofty. At Chihisas 
(lat. 16° 2' 3S., 35° 1'E.), a few miles below the cataracts, the range of hills on the 
left bank of the Shiré is not above 3 miles from the river, while the other range has 
receded out of sight. If from Chihisas we proceed in a north-easterly path, a three 
hours’ march places us on an elevation of upwards of 1000 feet. This is not far 
from the level of the Upper Shiré valley (1200 feet), and appears to be its prolonga- 
tion. Four hours’ additional travel, and we reach another plateau, 1000 feet higher, 
and in a few hours more the highest plateau, 3000 feet above the level of the sea, is 
attained, and we are on an extensive table-land, which, in these three distinct divi- 
sions, extends to Zomba (lat. of southern end 15° 21’ S.). It is then broken; and © 
natives report that, north of Zomba, which is 20 miles in length from north to south, 
there is but a narrow partition between Lakes Nyassa and Tamandua (Shirwa). 
Three islands were visible on the west side of what we could see of Nyassa from its 
southern end. The two ranges of hills stretch along its shores, and we could see 
looming through the haze caused by burning grass all over the country the dim out- 
lines of some lofty mountains behind the eastern hills. On the table-land are 
numerous hills and some mountains, as Chicadgura, perhaps 5000 feet high, and 
Zomba (which was ascended), from 7009 to 8000 feet in altitude. From this table- 
land we can see, on the east of Lake Tamandua, the Milanje Mountains, apparently 
higher than Zomba and Mount Clarendon, not unworthy of the noble name it bears. 
All this region is remarkably well-watered; wonderfully numerous are the streams 
and mountain rills of clear, cool, gushing water. Once we passed eight of them 
and a strong spring in a single hour, and we were then at the end of the dry season. 
Even Zomba has a river about 20 yards wide, flowing through a rich valley near its 
summit. The hil! is well wooded also; trees, admirable for their height and the 
amount of timber in them, abound along the banks of the streams. ‘Is this country 
good for cattle?” the head man of the Makololo, whose business had been the 
charge of cattle, was asked. “‘ Truly,” replied he ; “‘ don’t you see the abundance of 
such and such grasses, which cattle love, and on which they grow fat?”” And yet 
the people have only a few goats, and still fewer sheep. There are no wild animals 
in the highlands, and but few birds; and with the exception of one place, where we 


— 


> tw 


el PS? OL TS Oe ra 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 165 


saw some elephants, buffaloes, &c., there are none on the plains of the Upper Shiré, 
but the birds, new and strange, are pretty numerous. In the upper part of the 
Lower Shiré, in the highlands, and in the valley of the Upper Shiré, there is a 
somewhat numerous population. The people generally live in villages and in hamlets 
near them. Each village has its own chief, and the chiefs in a given territory have 
a head chief, to whom they owe some sort of allegiance. The paramount chief of 
one portion of the Upper Shiré is a woman, who lives two days’ journey from the 
west side of the river, and possesses cattle. The chief has a good deal of authority ; 
he can stop trade till he has sold his own things. One or two insisted on seeing 
what their people got for the provisions sold to us. The women drop on their knees 
when he passes them. Mongazi’s wife went down on her knees, when he handed 
her our present to carry into the hut. One-evening a Makololo fired his musket 
without leave, received a scolding, and had his powder taken from him. “If he 
were my man,” said the chief, “I would fine him a fowl also.’’ The sites of their 
villages are selected, for the most part, with judgment and good taste. Astream or 
spring is near, and pleasant shade-trees grow in and around the place. Nearly 
every village is surrounded by a thick high hedge of the poisonous Euphorbia. 
During the greater part of the year the inhabitants could see an enemy through the 
hedge, while he would find it a difficult matter to see them. By shooting their 
already poisoned arrows through the tender branches, they get smeared with the 
poisonous milky juice, and inflict most -painful if not fatal wounds. The constant 
dripping of the juice from the bruised branches prevents the enemy from attempting 
to force his way through the hedge, as it destroys the eyesight. The huts are larger, 
stronger built, with higher and more graceful roofs than any we have seen on the 
Zambesi. The Boabab (spreading place) is at one side of the village; the ground is 
made smooth and level, and the banians, the favourite trees, throw a grateful shade 
over it. Here the people meet to smoke tobacco and bang; to sing, dance, beat 
drums, and drink beer. [In the Boabab of one small village we counted fourteen 
drums of various sizes, all carefully arranged on dry grass.] Some useful work, too, 
is performed in this place, as spinning, weaving, making baskets and fish-nets. On 
entering a village, we proceeded at once to the Boabab, on which the Strangers’ hut 
is built, and sat down. Large mats of split bamboo are politely brought to us to 
recline on. Our guides tell some of the people who we are, how we have behaved 
ourselves since they knew us, where we are going, and what our object is. This 
word is carried to the chief. If a sensible man, he comes as soon as he hears of 
our arrival; if timid or suspicious, he waits till he has thrown his dice, and given 
his warriors, for whom he has sent in hot haste, time to assemble. When the chief 
makes his appearance, his people begin to clap their hands, and continue clapping 
until he sits down; then his councillors take their places beside him, with whom he 
converses for a minute or so. Our guides sit down opposite them. A most novel 
scene now transpires ; both parties, looking earnestly at each other, pronounce a word, 
as ‘‘ Amhinatu” (our chief or father), then a clap of the hands from each one— 
another word, two claps—a third word, three claps—and this time all touch the 
ground with their closed hands. Next, all rise clapping—sit down again, and—clap, 
clap, clap—allowing the sound gradually to dieaway. They keep time in this most 
perfectly, the chief taking the lead. ‘The guides now tell the chief all they please, 
and retire, clapping the hands gently, or with one hand on the breast; and his own 
people do the same, when they pass the chief, in retiring. The customary presents 
are exchanged, after a little conversation with the chief, and in a short time his 
people bring provisions for sale. In some villages the people clapped with all their 
might when they approved what the chief was saying to us. In others, the clapping 
seems omitted in our case, though we could see it was kept with black strangers who 
came into the village. The chief at the Lake, an old man, came to see us of his own 
accord,—said he had heard that we had come, and sat down under a tree,—and he 
came to invite us to take up our quarters with him. Many of the men are very 
intelligent-looking, with high foreheads and well-shaped heads. ‘They show singular 
taste in the astonishingly varied styles in which their hair is arranged. ‘Lheir 
bead necklaces are really pretty specimens of work. Many have the upper and 
middle as well as the lower part of the ear bored, and have from three to five rings 
in each ear. The hole in the lobe of the ear is large enough to admit one’s finger, 


166 REPORT—1860. 


and some wear a piece of bamboo about an inch long init. Brass and iron bracelets, 
elaborately figured, are seen; and some of the men sport from two to eight brass 
rings on each finger, and even the thumbs are not spared. They wear copper, brass, 
and iron rings on their legs and arms; many have their front teeth notched, and 
some file them till they resemble the teeth of a saw. The upper lip ring of the 
women gives them a revolting appearance; it is universally worn in the highlands. 
A puncture is made high up in the lip, and it is gradually enlarged until the pelelé 
can be inserted. Some are very large. One we measured caused the lip to project 
two inches beyond the tip of the nose; when the lady smiled the contraction of the 
muscles elevated it over the eyes. ‘‘ Why do the women wear these things?” the 
venerable chief, Chinsurdi, was asked. Evidently surprised at such a stupid ques- 
tion, he replied, ‘‘ For beauty! ‘They are the only beautiful things women have; 
men have beards, women haye none. What kind of a person would she be without 
the pelelé? She would not he a woman at all with a mouth like a man, but no 
beard.”” One woman having a large tin pelelé with a bottom like a dish, refused to 
sell it, because, she said, ker husband would beat her if she went home without it. 
These rings are made of bamboo, of iron, or of tin. Their scanty clothing—the 
prepared bark of trees, the skins of animals (chiefly goats), and a thick strong cotton 
cloth—are all of native manufacture. They seem to be an industrious race. Iron 
is dug out of the hills, and every village has one or two smelting houses; and from 
their own native iron they make excellent hoes, axes, spears, knives, arrow-heads, &c, 
They make, also, round baskets of various sizes, and earthen pots, which they orna- 
ment with plumbago, said to be found in the Hill Country, though we could not 
learn exactly where, nor in what quantities: the only specimen we obtained was not 
pure, At every fishing village on the banks of the river Shiré men were busy spin- 
ning buaze and making large fishing-nets from it; and from Chihisas to the Lake, 
in every village almost, we saw men cleaning and spinning cotton, while others were 
weaving it into strong cloth in looms of the simplest construction, all the processes 
being excessively slow. This is a great cotton-growing country. The cotton is of 
two kinds, ‘‘ Tonji manga,” or foreign cotton ; and ‘ Tonji cadji,”’ or native cotton. 
The former is of good quality, with a staple from three-quarters to an inch in length. 
It is perennial, requiring to be re-planted only once in three years, The native 
cotton is planted every year in the highlands, is of short staple, and feels more like 
wool than cotton. Every family appears to own a cotton patch, which is kept clear 
of weeds and grass. We saw the foreign growing at the Lake and in yarious places 
for 30 miles south of it, and about an equal number of miles below the cataracts on 
the Lower Shiré. Although the native cotton requires to be planted annually in the 
highlands, the people prefer it, because, they say, “‘it makes the stronger cloth.” 
It was remarked to a number of intelligent natives near the Shiré lakelet, ‘‘ You 
should plant plenty of cotton, and perhaps the English will come soon and buy it.” 
** Surely the country is full of cotton,” said an elderly man, who was a trader and 
travelled much. Our own observations convinced us of the truth of this statement. 
Everywhere we saw it. Cotton patches of from 2 to 3 acres were seen abreast of 
the cataracts during the first trip, when Lake Tamandua was discovered, though in 
this journey, on a different route, none were observed of more than half an acre. 
They usually contained about a quarter of an acre each. There are extensive tracts 
on the level plains of both the Lower and Upper Shiré, where salt exudes from the 
soil. Sea island cotton might grow well there, as on these the foreign cotton be- 
comes longer in the staple. The cotton-growers here never have their crops cut off 
by frosts. There are none. Both kinds of cotton require but little labour, none of 
that severe and killing toil requisite in the United States, The people are great 
cultivators of the soil, and it repays them well. All the inhabitants of a village, 
men, women, and children, and dogs, turn out at times to labour in the fields. The 
chief told us all his people were out hoeing, and we saw in other parts many busy 
at work, Ifa new piece of ground is to be cultivated, the labourer grasps as much 
of the tall dry grass as he conveniently can, ties it into a knot at the top, strikes his 
hoe through the roots, detaching them from the ground with some earth still adhering, 
which, with the knot, keeps the grass in a standing position. He proceeds in this 
way over the field. When this work is finished, the field exhibits a harvest-like 
appearance, being thickly dotted all over with these shocks, which are 3 feet high. 


5 oe 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167 


A short time before the rains several of these shocks are thrown together, the earth 
scraped over them, and then the grass underneath is set on fire. The soil is thus 
treated in a manner similar to that practised in modern times among ourselves on 
some lands. When they wish to clear a piece of woodland, they proceed in precisely 
the same way as the farmers in Canada and the Western States do,—cut the trees 
down with their axes, and, leaving the stumps about 3 feet high standing, pile up the 
logs and branches for burning. They grow lassaver in large quantities, preparing 
ridges for it from 3 to 4 feet wide, and about a foot high. They also raise maize, 
rice, two kinds of millet, beans, sugar-cane, sweet potatoes, yams, ground-nuts, 
pumpkin, tobacco, and Indian hemp. Near Lake Nyassa we saw indigo 7 feet high. 
Large quantities of beer are made, and they like it well. We found whole villages 
on the spree, and saw the stupid type of drunkenness, the silly sort, the boisterous 
talkative sort, and on cne occasion the almost up-to-the-fighting- point variety, when 
a petty chief, with some of the people near, placed himself in front, exclaiming, 
“TI stop this path; you must go back.’’ Had he not got out of the way with greater 
speed than dignity, an incensed Makololo would have cured him of all desire to try 
a similar exploit in future. It was remarked by the oldest traveller in the party 
that he had not seen so much drunkenness during all the years he had spent in 
Africa. The people, notwithstanding, attain to a great age. One is struck with the 
large number of old grey-headed persons in the highlands. This seems to indicate 
a healthy climate; for their long lives they are not in the least indebted to frequent 
ablutions. ‘Why do you wash yourselves? our men never do,” said some women 
at Chinsurdi to the Makololo. An old man told us he remembered having washed 
himself once when a boy, but never repeated it; and from his appearance one could 
hardly call the truth of his statement in question. A fellow who volunteered some 
wild geographical information followed us about a dozen miles, and introduced us to 
the chief Moena Moezi by saying, “‘ They have wandered ; they don’t know where 
they are going.”” ‘‘Scold that man,” said a Makololo head to his factotum, wha 
immediately commenced an extemporary scolding ; yet the singular geographer would 
follow us, and we could not get quit of him till the Makololo threatened to take him 
to the river and wash him. The castor-oil with which they lubricate themselves 
and the dirt serve as additional clothing, and to wash themselves is like throwing 
away the only upper garment they possess. They feel cold and uncomfortable after 
awash. We observed several persons marked by the small-pox. On asking the 
chief Mongazi—who was alittle tipsy, and disposed to be very gracious,-—if he knew 
its origin, whether it had come to them from the sea, ‘‘ He did not know,”’ he said, 
“but supposed it must have come to them from the English.”’ Like other Africans, 
they are somewhat superstitious, A person accused of bewitching another and 
causing his death, either volunteers or is compelled to drink the Maiori, or ordeal. 
On our way to the lake a chief kindly led us past the next two villages, whose chiefs 
had just been killed by drinking the Maiori. When a chief dies his people imagine 
that they may plunder any stranger coming into their village. A chief, near Zomba, 
at whose village we took breakfast on our way up, drank the Maiori before our 
return, and vomiting, was therefore innocent. His people we found manifesting their 
joy by singing, dancing, and beating drums. Even Chibisa, an intelligent and power- 
ful chief, drank it once, and when insisting that all his numerous wars were just, 
and that his enemies were always in the wrong, said to us, “‘ If you doubt my word, 
I am ready to drink the Maiori.’”” On the evening of the day we reached Moena 
Moezi, an alligator carried off his principal wife from the very spot where some of 
us had washed but a few hours before. We learned on our return that he had sent 
messengers to several villages, saying, “ He did not know whether we had put 
medicine on the spot, but after we had been there his wife was carried off by an 
alligator.’’ The first village refused to sell us food, would have nothing whatever 
to do with us, and the chief of the next village, who happened to be reclining in the 
Boabab, ran off, leaving his wooden pillow and mat behind. The women seldom 
run away—baving more pluck perhaps than the men. When a person dies, the 
Women commence the death-wail, and keep it up for two days, A few words are 
chanted in a plaintive voice, ending by a prolonged note: a—a, or o—9, or ea, ea, 
e—a. ‘The corpse is buried in the same hut in which he dies. It is then closed up 
and allowed to fall into decay. We found one village in mourning, on the banks of 


168 REPORT—1860. 


the Upper Shiré. The chief’s father had died some time previous. They had not 
washed themselves since, though washing is practised more or less on these plains; 
and they would not wash until some friends at a distance, who possessed muskets, 
had come and fired over the grave. The badge of mourning consists of narrow 
strips of Palmyra leaf, tied round the head and arms, sometimes round head, neck, 
breast, knees, ankles, arms, and wrists. They have the idea of a Supreme Being, 
whom they name Pambé, and also of a future state. The chief Chinsurdi said they 
all knew that they lived again after death. ‘‘ Sometimes the dead came back again, 
—they appeared to them in dreams, but they never told them where they had gone 
to.”’ This is an inviting field for benevolent enterprise. There are thousands needing 
Christian instruction, and here are materials for lawful commerce, and a fine healthy 
country, with none of the noxious insects with which Captains Burton and Speke 
were tormented, and, with the single exception of 30 miles, water communication 
all the way to England. Let but a market be opened for the purchase of their 
cotton, and they can raise almost any amount of it, and the slave trade will speedily 
be abolished. 


On the Mountain Districts of China, and their Aboriginal Inhabitants. 
By W. Locxuart. 


Much of the empire of China with which we are best acquainted, consists of the 
plains that lie near the mouths of the rivers, as they find their way to the sea-board, 
and it is here that the important ports for our trade are situated. The interior of 
the country is richly diversified ; the land rises considerably towards the hilly districts, 
that slope from the chains of mountains that traverse all the western provinces and 
spread themselves out through the central part of the country, being in fact the east- 
ern spurs of the Kwan-lun and Himalaya ranges, that rise in Northern India to a 
vast height, and gradually pass down through the north and south of Tibet towards 
China. The Kwan-lun range passes into the northern and central provinces of 
China, and the Himalaya into the southern and south-western provinces, while 
the Tien-shan or Celestial Mountains and the Altai chain pass into Mongolia and 
Mantchouria, commonly called Chinese Tartary. 

In the mountainous regions of China the country is very beautiful, and combines 
the varieties of scenery found in other similar districts ; many of these portions of the 
empire are brought into communication with the sea coast, by means of the large 
rivers that flow through all the rich and fertile central provinces, offering great 
facility for the interchange of the various commodities of different parts of the em- 
pire. These rivers form in fact the high roads of the country. 

For purposes of communication in the mountain districts, and to facilitate the 
transit of goods, many roads have been cut at great expense and with much labour 
over the passes between the high ridges. The great road from Pekin to the south- 
west through Shen-si to Sze-chuen, is by amountain route, whichrequired great ability 
and skill to make passable; many years were spent in this work, and it is a monu- 
ment of the patience and perseverance by which it was accomplished; by this road 
merchants and officers constantly travel between the capital and the western frontier. 
The road from Shan-si to Kan-suh is one of the most extensive works of the kind in 
China. Besides these great trunk roads, there are several other mountain routes, by 
which goods are carried from province to province across the mountains, one of 
which may be mentioned, as the well-known Mei-ling pass between Kwang-tung 
and Kiang-si; it is 24 miles long, and over it all the tea and silk that go to Canton 
are carried on men’s shoulders. Much might be said regarding these mountain 
roads of China, Lut it is impossible to enter on the subject here. 

It is among these mountains and in the valleys they enclose, that many tribes of 
people dwell who are probably the aborigines or natives of the land. The great 
mass of the people who inhabit China are those who dwell in the cities and villages, 
cultivating the land, following the pursuits of commerce, and acknowledging the 
authority of one emperor; these may be considered to be the Chinese of the present 
day; but in the islands of Formosa and Hainan, as well as in the western frontier, 
dwell those native savage tribes, who acknowledge no submission to the Emperor of 
China, dwell among their owr hills, and have ever maintained their independence. 


SE ee 


= 


Ss va 


Se PD ee TF Pe 


“a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169 


The island of Formosa is divided from north to south by a chain of mountains 
that cuts the island in two. On the western side live the Chinese, who passing 
from the opposite coast of Fuh-kien, have gradually driven away the aborigines to the 
eastern side ; some barter is kept up between these two parties, but they are generally 
in a state of hostility, and constant vigilance is required on the part of the Chinese 
to guard against the attacks of the natives, and this interferes very much with their 
intercourse. The natives are governed by their own chiefs, who keep up a kind of 
government. The occupations are tilling the ground, working in the mines in the 
mountains, weaving coarse cloth, fishing, and washing the sand of certain districts 
for gold. 

The Aurelia Papyrifera, from the pith of which rice paper is made, grows in For- 
mosa. These native tribes also inhabit the mountain districts of the island of Hai- 
nan. The Chinese live on the eastern coast, where they have large fishing stations, 
for the supply of Southern China with salt fish ; and the natives dwell by themselves 
on the western side, and maintain their independence and separation from the in- 
truders on their coast. 

The mountainous regions of the Nan-ling and Mei-ling between Kwang-si and 
Kwei- chau give lodgment to many clans of these aborigines, who are called Miau- 
tsze, or “children of the soil,’’ which they no doubt are. It is singular that any of 
these people should have maintained their independence so long and not been com- 
pelled to submit to Chinese rule, surrounded as they are by the Chinese people. 
This race presents so many physical points of difference to the Chinese, as to lead 
me to infer that they are a more ancient people than the latter, and the aborigines 
of Southern China. They are smaller in size and stature than the Chinese, have 
shorter necks, and their features are more angular. The degree of civilization they 
have obtained is much below that of the Chinese. It is not known what language 
they speak, but the names given to the parts of the body and the common articles 
about their boats, by some boatmen who visited Canton some years since, showed 
that it was evidently not Chinese. 

There are about forty tribes of these Miau-tsze scattered over the mountains of 
Kwang-tung, Kwang si, Hu-nan, and Kwei-chau, speaking several dialects, and dif- 
fering among theniselves in their customs, government, and dress. The Chinese 
government keep troops at the foot of the mountains to restrain these tribes, who, 
though often hostile, are on the whole inclined to live at peace, but resist every attempt 
to penetrate into thcir fortresses. ‘The tribes are often at strife among themselves, 
which becomes a source of safety to the Chinese, who are ill able to resist these hardy 
mountaineers. It would appear that the race called the Chinese people, spreading 
over the magnificent country they had found, drove back the Miau-tzse or ‘‘sons of 
the soil,’ those on the coast taking refuge on the islands of Formosa and Hainan, 
while those to the westward sought their homes among the mountains in their 
neighbourhood ; and there they have remained a separate people, divided into various 
tribes, ruled over by governors or chiefs of their own; the larger number of these 
Miau-tsze have maintained their independence, but some have taken office in the 
Imperial army, and have associated themselves with the Chinese. Various opinions 
are entertained as to the religious doctrines of these Miau-tsze, who appear not to 
be wholly idolaters; some of the tribes have a tradition of a Supreme God, who 
created the world, but their knowledge is very indistinct and imperfect. The chief 
source of information about these people is derived from a series of coloured draw- 
ings ; one of the most perfect of such series that has been obtained was exhibited 
in the Section; the drawings were evidently taken by some Chinese traveller who 
visited the mountain tribes. Each drawing illustrates one of the tribes, and presents 
a group of the people in sume characteristic occupation or amusement, and is accom- 
panied by a short description of the tribe to which it refers. 

These people are interesting from the fact that they must have a variety of ancient 
customs among them, and also because they are the sons of freedom; and however 
great may be the difference between us and them, they have a certain affinity with 
us, and may some day bid us a hearty welcome to the Jand of their forefathers. 
They are dispersed over the mountains cf Southern and Central China, and live in 
a changeable state of relationship to the Chinese around them ; sometimes they fight 
in open war, at others they rob and plunder, and sometimes they buy and sell. 


170 REPORT—1860. 


These Miau-tsze live to a great extent on the eastern slopes of the mountains, 
whose western slopes, in South-Eastern Asia, are peopled by the numerous tribes of 
Laos and Shans, and more particularly of the Karens, who are our tried and faithful 
adherents in the territory of Burmah; and there are probably strong marks of simi- 
larity of origin and identity of race between the Miau-tsze of China and the Karens 
of Burmah and Pegu. 


Journey in the Yoruba and Nupé Countries. By D. May, RN, 


History of the Ante-Christian Settlement of the Jews in. China. 
By Dr. Maccowan, U.S. 


Critise in the Gulf of Pe-che-li and Leo-tung (China). By J. Mickie. 


On the Formation of Oceanic Ice in the Arctic Regions. 
By Captain Suerarp Ossory, #.N., F.R.G.S. 


On the Course and Results of the British North American Exploring Expe- 
dition, under his Command in the years 1857, 1858, 1859. By Captain J. 
PALLISER. 


The first part of this paper was occupied with a sketch of the course of the expedi- 
tion, illustrated by a large map. — Starting from England in May 1857, the expedi- 
tion reached Lake Superior by New York and the United States, from whence they 
travelled in canoes to the Red River settlement, then with horses and carts across 
the Plains to the north-west to Carlton, where the first winter was spent. During 
that season Captain Palliser travelled back to the States on business, and Dr. Hector 
reached as far west as the Rocky Mountains. In June 1858 the expedition resumed 
its westward course, and in August reached the line of the Rocky Mountains. The 
remaining two months before the winter set in was occupied in exploring the Moun- 
tains, resulting in the discovery of four passes. ‘The second winter was spent at 
Edmonton, where the expedition reassembled in October. Captain Blakiston returned 
to England from this place. The winter of 1858-59 was spent in various explo- 
rations into the Rocky Mountains with the purpose of learning their winter aspect, 
The furthest of them reached almost to Mount Brown. In spring of 1859 M. Bourgeau 
returned to England, his term of engagement having expired ; and the rest of the party, 
accompanied by two English gentlemen, the late Captain Brisco and Mr. Mitchell, 
proceeded through the Blackfoot country along the South Saskatchewan and bound- 
ary line, till in August they again separated to explore the mountains; Captain 
Palliser and Mr. Sullivan undertaking the west slope, and Dr. Hector to endeavour 
to pass direct to the valley of Fraser River. The party again rejoined at Fort Colvile, 
and from thence descended the Columbia river to the sea. A necessary delay at 
Vancouver Island allowed of a visit to the coal mines at Nanaimo, and also to Fraser 
River, after which the expedition returned to England by California, Panama, and 
the West Indies, having been absent exactly three years. 

The territory which has now been examined and mapped by this expedition ranges 
from Lake Superior to the eastern shore of the lesser Okanagan Lake, and from the 
boundary line to the watershed of the Arctic Ocean. This large belt of the continent 
was explored in three seasons. 

The first season was devoted to the examination of its south-eastern portion 
between Lake Superior to the elbow of the south branch of the Saskatchewan, and 
from the British boundary line or 49th parallel to Fort Carlton, in lat. 52° 52’ N., 
long. 106° 18’ W. 

The second season was devoted to the examination of the territory between the 
two Saskatchewans, to the exploration of the Rocky Mountains, and to the discoyery 
of the passes available for horses in the British territory. 

The third season commenced with a long journey from our winter quarters at Ed- 


monton in lat. 53° 34’ N., long. 113° 20’ W., through the Blackfoot country to the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 171 


most western point in the neighbourhood of the boundary line, previously reached 
by the expedition from the eastward in 1857. A westward course was then resumed 
along the country between the South Saskatchewan and the British boundary line, 
thence once more across the Rocky Mountains. Finally, the connexion of a route 
practicable for horses was effected the whole way from Red River settlement across 
the continent to the Gulf of Georgia, entirely within British dominions. 

This large belt of country embraces districts, some of which are valuable for the 
purposes of the agriculturist, while others will for ever be comparatively useless, 

The extent of surface drained by the Saskatchewan, and other tributaries to Lake 
Winipeg, which we had an opportunity of examining, amounts in round numbers to 
150,000 square miles. This region is bounded to the north by what is known as the 
“ strong woods,” or the southern limit of the great circum-arctic zone of forest, 
which occupies these latitudes in the northern hemisphere. This line, which is in- 
dicated in the map, sweeps to the north-west from the shore of Lake Winipeg, and 
reaches its most northernly limit about 54° 30’ N., and long. 109° W., from where 
it again passes to south-west, meeting the Rocky Mountains in lat. 51° N., long, 
115° W. Between this line of the “strong woods” and the northern limit of the 
true prairie country there is a belt of land varying in width, which at one period 
must have been covered by an extension of the northern forests, but which has been 
gradually cleared by successive fires. 

It is now a partially wooded country, abounding in lakes and rich natural pasturage, 
in some parts rivalling the finest park scenery of our own country. Throughout 
this region the climate seems to preserve the same character, although it passes 
through very different latitudes, its form being doubtless determined by the curves 
of the isothermal lines. Its superficial extent embraces about 65,000 square miles, 
of which more than one-third may be considered as at once available for the pur- 
poses of the agriculturist. Its elevation increases from 700 to 3500 feet as we ap- 
proach the Rocky Mountains, consequently it is not equally adapted throughout to 
the cultivation of any one crop; nevertheless at Fort Edmonton, which has an altitude 
of 2000 feet, even wheat is sometimes cultivated with success. 

The least valuable portion of the prairie country has an extent of about 80,000 
square miles, and is that lyingvalong the South Saskatchewan, and southward from 
thence to the boundary line, while its northern limit is known in the Indian languages 
as ‘ the edge of the woods,” the original line of the woods before invaded by fire. 

On tae western side of the Rocky Mountains, in the country which we examined, 
there were but few spots at all fitted for the agriculturist, and these form isolated 
patches in valleys separated by mountain ranges. 

As the next result of our explorations, I shall briefly mention the different passes 
through the Rocky Mountains which we explored, alluding to the chief advantages 
and disadvantages of each. 

The Kananaskis Pass and the British Kootanie Pass were examined by myself, 
Of these I consider the Kananaskis Pass the preferable one, both on account of its 
direct course through the mountains and its easier ascent. 

The ascent to the height of land from the east is through a wide gently sloping 
valley, and the immediate watershed is formed by a narrow ridge, which, if pierced by 
a short tunnel, would reduce the summit level to about 4600 feet above the sea. The 
descent to the west, into which Kananaskis Pass opens, is comparatively easy. 

The British Kootanie Pass also opens out into the Kootanie River valley, but the 
altitude here to be overcome is much greater, amounting to 6000 feet. ‘Chere are 
likewise two ridges to be passed, which fact would form a very strong objection to 
this pass. 

The Vermilion Pass, which was traversed by Dr. Hector, presents on a whole the 
greatest natural facilities for crossing the mountains without the aid of engineering 
work, as the rise to the height of land is gradual from both sides, a feature which 
seems to be peculiar tothis pass. It would thus be impossible to diminish its summit 
level (which is less than 5000 feet), as is proposed in the case of Kananaskis Pass, 
but on the other hand it would be the most suitable for the construction of an easy 
waggon road. 

This, like the other two passes I have mentioned, also strikes the Kootanie River 
close to its source; but last summer Dr, Hector crossed the mountains by another 


172 REPORT—1860. 


pass from the head of the north branch of the Saskatchewan, directly to the Columbia 
River, in the vicinity of the boat encampment. 

Leaving this latter pass out of consideration for the present, as all of the others 
open to the Kootanie River, it becomes necessary to consider the course by whch it 
may be practicable to reach the coast of the Pacific without crossing to the south or 
American side of the boundary line. It was with great difficulty for this purpose 
even a partial examination of the country could be effected, owing to the rugged 
valleys which intersect it in a direction parallel to the mountains, and which, though 
not formidable themselves, are covered with such dense forest as to present obstacles 
tothetraveller. Notwithstanding these difficulties, Mr. Sullivan succeeded in making 
his way on the north side of the boundary line, and at the same time following a 
system of transverse valleys, which might allow of the construction of a road with- 
out much trouble from the mouth of Kananaskis Pass to the Columbia, above Fort 
Colvile. From this point westward I myself ascertained that it would be possible 
to reach the valley of the Okanagan, by which I believe the Americans have already 
commenced to connect the waggon road of the Columbia with the upper country cf 
the Frazer River. While pointing out the circumstances that seem to favour the 
possibility of carrying a road.through British territory, from the Saskatchewan to 
the Pacific, I wish to refrain from expressing any opinion as to the expediency of 
undertaking at the present time a work which would involve a vast amount of labour 
and a corresponding heavy expenditure. For how long a time in the year such a 
road would remain open, is a question as yet unanswered, and which has a most 
important bearing on the subject. In addition, the difficulty of direct communication 
between Canada and the Saskatchewan country, as compared with the comparatively 
easy route through the United States by St. Paul’s, renders it very unlikely that the 
great work of constructing a road across the continent can be solely the result of 
British enterprise. 

Not the least important results of the expedition are the meteorological observa- 
tions, which have been carefully conducted during the whole period of the explorations, 
both in the winters and summers, whether we were stationary or travelling. I lay 
stress upon this fact, as it affords materials for ascertaining the exact nature of the 
climate, and means for a correct comparison between its nature and that of Canada. 

The hourly magnetic observations were conducted by Lieutenant Blakiston, R.A., 
assisted by the other members of the expedition, during the winter of 1857-58. 
These were not, however, carried on during the winter 1858-59, owing to the return 
of Lieutenant Blakiston with the instruments; the magnetic declinations however were 
attended to. 

The astronomical observations and computations were placed in the hands of Mr. . 
Sullivan, and the geographical position of the several salient points of the map are 
determined principally by his lunars, the rates of chronometers being, of course, too . 
unsteady to be depended on while travelling through so rough a country, 

The large botanical collection of our botanist, M. Bourgeau, has already been sent 
to Kew Gardens, where the specimens have been carefully arranged by himself under 
the inspection of Dr. Hooker, who highly values them. 

Dr. Hector’s specimens of fossils, &c. were from time to time transmitted to Sir 
Roderick Murchison at the Jermyn Street Museum, but from the nature of the subject 
much time must elapse before the results can be laid before Her Majesty’s Government. 

In conclusion, I have great pleasure in bearing testimony to the unceasing zealand 
energy of my companions, whose valuable assistance has been instrumentalin bringing 
the expedition to so successful a termination, i 


AppENDUM 1.—Remarks concerning the Climate of the Saskatchewan 
District. By Dr. Hector. 


The winter temperature is about 21° Fahr., ranging, however, in regular succes- 
sions from high to low temperatures. In January 1858 it was as high as 40° above 
zero for a few hours, accompanied by rain and high wind*. In that instance, how- 
ever, between 4 p.m. and 9 P.M. it fell from +37° to —13,a difference of 50° in five 
hours. The greatest depression of the thermometer in both years was about the 12th 


* January 3rd, 1858, at Fort Edmonton. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173 


of February. Throughout the winter the snow falls in storms, which seldom last 
more than two tothree days. The first fall generally occurs in the month of October, 
but that always disappears again before the snows of November commence, which 
are permanent for the winter. From the open country the snow evaporates very 
rapidly, so that the prairies are never deeply covered ; but in the woods it accumulates 
till spring. In some districts of the country more snow falls than in others; for 
instance, at Fort Pitt, about 400 miles east of the mountains, there is generally 3 feet 
to 4 feet of snow in spring, while close along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains 
it seldom exceeds 6 inches, and disappears very early. At Fort Edmonton the snow 
always disappears fully a fortnight sooner than at Fort Pitt, although both places are 
in the same latitude, but the former 3° further to the west. 

The rivers generally freeze up about the 12th of November, and it is curious that the 
Saskatchewan “ ¢akes,’’ as the local term has it, on the same day both at Edmonton 
and Carlton, places distant from one another nearly 500 miles. In 1858 the ice 
broke up on the 7th of April, but in 1859 not till the 26th of that month. But this 
does not show the whole of the remarkable difference in those two seasons ; for in 
the former the ice rotted away gradually, while in the latter it “‘gave”’ in a single 
night from a sudden flood which followed the first warm weather. 

A spring season hardly exists in the Saskatchewan, for in a few days everything 
bursts into full verdure after the breaking up of winter. June is generally a wet 
month; and much rain also falls during the first half of July, but atter that period 
the summer is very dry. There is little or no thunder in the higher country, unlike 
the Red River settlement, where for a certain season thunder-storms are of daily 
occurrence. 

The nature of the snow-line on the Rocky Mountains gives a clew to the climatal 
arrangement of the country to the east. Although there are many of the mountains 
in the eastern part of the range which exceed those to the west in altitude, only few 
of their valleys are filled with glaciers. The great glaciers at the source of the north 
branch of the Saskatchewan are fed from fields of ice and perpetual snow, that may 
be considered as lying on the western slope of the range. The diminished altitude 
of the snow-line towards the west is thus proved. The reasonis, that the prevailing 
winds are from the west, and in rising to cross the mountains they are cooled, and 
so deprived of their moisture, which ceases to be deposited after they pass over the 
greatest altitude. 

Concerning the Indians of the west side of the mountains, he stated that the tribes 
are very numerous, and principally support themselves on fish. In most of the 
tributaries of the Columbia the salmon swarm in such numbers as to taint the air at 
a certain season of the year when their bodies are cast up on the banks. These fish- 
eating Indians are of very low grade, as wherever Indians obtain their living easily 
they invariably become debased. Thus the Indians to the east of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, that dwell! in the strong woods, and live by the chase of animals, such as the 
Moose-deer, which requires great skill and sagacity, are vastly superior to the Indians 
of the plains, who, living on buffalo, with ease obtain abundance of food. 

He adduced the case of the Sarcees, who belong to a tribe of M°Kenzie River 
Indians, called the Chepeyans, who are perhaps the finest Indians on the continent ; 
and yet these Sarcees, from havirg left their natural course of life some centuries 
back, and taken to the plains, where they live among the Blackfoot tribes, have be- 
come the worst Indians of the Saskatchewan. Their constitutions have become en- 
feebled, as is shown by the prevalence of goitre among them, the whole tribe being 
affected with this disease almost without exception, whereas it seldom or never occurs 
among other Indians. The half-breeds who live in the Forts of the Upper Saskat- 
chewan are very subject to goitre, the cause for which is very obscure. 


ADDENDUM 2.—Remarks concerning the Tribes of Indians inhabiting the 
Country examined by the Expedition. By Mr. Sutuivan. 


Mr. S. pointed out that the northern portion was occupied by the Crees, which are 
‘the most prominent tribe of the country, and best known to white men. The district 
along the South Saskatchewan and towards the boundary line, he stated was inhabited 
by a collection of allied tribes, all speaking nearly the same language, and known as 


174 REPORT—1860. 


the Blackfoot. This term comprises the Blackfoot proper, the Blood Indians, 
Peagans, Gro Ventres, Sarcees, and several others. ‘The Sarcees, however, are really 
very different Indians, and have their relations far to the north on M‘Kenzie River. 
He next spoke concerning the languages of the tribes, of which he has prepared voca- 
bularies, stating that that of the Crees is very perfect, having a very effective system 
of grammar, which has been ably developed by the missionaries, who have also 
invented a system of syllabic characters, by which the Indians soon learn to read 
and write in their own language. These characters could also be applied to all the 
other Indian languages he examined east of the mountains, excepting Sarcee, which is 
too guttural. 

He remarked that a very interesting, though small tribe, known as the Mountain 
Stoneys, had been induced by the Wesleyan missionary to commence a little agricul- 
ture. It does not amount to much, however, their principal crop being turnips, 
which they generally pull and eat raw before they are nearly grown. Of the very 
different habits of Indians which inhabit the woods from those of the plains, he men- 
tioned in addition the curious circumstance, that in a camp of the former Indians 
there is never any noise ; and even in conversation they talk almost at an inaudible 
pitch, a habit derived from their stealthy habits in hunting; whereas a camp of Plain 
Indians resembles a fair, as drums beating, whooping, and singing is continued all 
day and all night. 


On his proposed Journey from Khartum in Upper Egypt to meet Captain 
Speke on or near the Lake Nyanza of Central Africa. By Consul 
PETHERICK. 


On the Formation of Icebergs and Ice Action, as observed in the Hudson's 
Bay and Straits. By Dr. J. Rar. 


The manner in which icebergs are generally formed is so well known that it would 
be out of place to mention it here, but I have observed in Hudson’s Bay and Straits 
these ice-islands formed in a mode different from that usually described. 

Along these shores there are high and steep cliffs fronting the sca, and having deep 
water at their base. Many of these cliffs face to the south-eastward. In the winter 
falls of snow are frequent, and as almost every snow-storm is followed or accompanied 
by a gale of northerly or north-westerly wind, the snow is blown over the cliff and 
deposited in deep drifts at the cliff- foot on the ice, which is forced down by the weight. 

As I have known a drift-bank of 20 or 30 feet formed by one gale of wind of as 
many hours’ duration, it may be readily understood how in the course of a winter an 
accumulation of snow to the depth of several hundred feet may be formed, extending 
in a sloping direction to seaward thus :— 


As soon as warm weather comes on in spring the surface snow is thawed; the 
water percolates downwards until it reaches the snow, which is colder than the 
freezing-point, and the whole is frozen into a solid mass of ice. 

This process goes on to a greater or less extent according to the severity of the 
season, the quantity of snow, and the amount of windy weather, until the snow- 
formed ice attains great thickness and breaks off in large masses in the form of ice- 
bergs. 

In Hudson’s Bay the icebergs formed in this manner are small and scarcely de- 
serving the name, but in the Straits they are large and lofty. 

When passing through the Strait near to the north shore, J have seen some of 
these lying close to the cliff from which they had become detached, and showing 
projections and hollows corresponding to the form of the rocks from which they 
had broken away. 


I 


: 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175 


Whilst wintering at Repulse Bay on the Arctic circle in 1846-47 and 1853-54, 
I had an opportunity of observing the manner in which boulders are taken up and 
transported by ice. 

In the early part of winter, when the sea-ice has attained considerable thickness, 
it adheres at low water to any stones it may rest upon, and as the tide flows, raises 
these from the ground. As the ice increases in thickness, these stones, some of them 
3, 4, or 5 feet in diameter, are gradually imbedded in the ice, which attains a depth 
of 8 feet or more. 

In the spring the surface-ice wastes away by the combined action of thaw and 
evaporation, whilst it is still acquiring fresh thickness underneath. 

In the month of June, the boulders, which in the autumn were under the ice, now 
appear on its surface, and may be floated off to great distances, when the ice is broken 
up whilst still strong, by the action of winds and currents. 


On the Aborigines of the Arctic and Sub-Arctie Regions of North America. 
By Dr. Raz. 


Remarks on some of the Races of India and High Asia (in connexion with 
Casts exhibited). By Ropert von SCHLAGINTWEIT. 


Mr. Robert de Schlagintweit gave a short sketch of the aboriginal tribes of Cen- 
tral India, as also of the race inhabiting the country between the Karakorim and 
Sayan Shan, which go by the name of the Turks. He also presented, in illustra- 
tion of his remarks, some metal casts* of native faces taken from life. The tribes 
composing the population of the mountain regions of Central India are the Kols, 
the Gods, the Bils, and the Santals, 

In physical conformation these people differ most distinctly from either Hindoos 
or Mussulmans. In their religious observances also, and the habits of domestic life, 
they have nothing in common with their neighbours. The language originally 
spoken by them is now almost entirely lost, and it was only with great difficulty 
that we could collect from old people any remains of their former idiom. 

Though there exist many affinities amongst the four tribes above mentioned, yet 
each preserves its peculiar and characteristic features. The complexion is remark- 
ably dark, nearly approaching the colour of Negroes; the mouth is extremely large, 
though the lips, which are scarcely ever parallel to each other, are not very fleshy ; 
the nose is broad and flat, and the hair, which is generally shaved off or cut very 
short, stands out stiff and straight. Though at first glance these tribes may show a 
superficial resemblance to the African race, yet a closer examination will disclose 
characteristic differences, especially with reference to the lower part of the head, 
which is more prominent and considerably stronger with the Negroes. By some 
ethnographers a remote affinity with Australian tribes has been pointed out; but 
the likeness, on closer comparison, proves merely an apparent one. 

The mountainous countries inhabited by the Kols, Bils, and Santals are, for the 
greater part, covered with dense jungles, and at certain seasons of the year become 
so unhealthy as to prove extremely dangerous for every one except the natives them- 
selves,—a most remarkable instance of the fact, that some human tribes are capable 
of living under conditions altogether fatal, or nearly so, to others. 

Cultivation can only be carried on to a very limited extent; and the inhabitants 
chiefly occupy themselves in cutting down trees, and in hunting the wild animals 
with which their country abounds. 

The clothing of this rude people is very scanty, consisting merely of a small piece 
of unbleached cloth for the loins, and another piece of the same wound round the 
temples, so as to leave a great part of the head exposed to the powerful rays of the 
sun. They have no shoes, but sometimes wear a kind of sandal made of rough 
wood, and shaped to the foot, with another small round covering of wood at its 
upper end, to afford a hold for the toes. 

Their sole weapons are axes, in the use of which they display considerable experts 


* These casts are a selection from Messrs. de Schlagintweit’s collection of 275 heads, 
published (1859) by T. A. Barkt at Leipzig. 


176 REPORT—1860. 


ness. For dwellings, they erect for themselves miserable huts constructed of bam- 
boo and the leaves of various trees. 

The contempt with which they are universally treated by their neighbours, the 
Hindoos, has rendered them extremely shy and suspicious ; whenever I approached 
one of their villages, they invariably left their huts and tried to conceal themselves 
in the dense jungles of the neighbourhood. Though I had the necessary supply of 
guides with me, yet their services in this respect were indispensable on many occa- 
sions. 

M. de Schlagintweit passed on to the Turks, a people particularly recommending 
themselves to his notice, as presenting marked differences from all the tribes he had 
had occasion to observe. 

This remarkable race inhabits those parts of Central Asia which to the north of 
Tibet are interposed between the Komakorinn, the Sayan Shan, and considerably to 
the east of it. In many respects they show points of resemblance to the Mongols, 
but nevertheless form a separate and distinct tribe, and may be considered as the 
original stock from which the Turks in Europe have sprung. Even at the present 
day the true Tarkish language holds its ground amongst them ; and though, on com- 
parison with the kindred idiom used by the European Turks, there are many dialectic 
deviations to be observed, yet it is evident that the Turks in Central Asia have pre- 
served the purity of the original tongue, whilst the related race in Europe have 
modified it with a considerable ailmixture of Persian and Arabic words. 

Like their European brethren, the Asiatic Turks are fanatic Mussulmans, honest, 
active, and hospitable, and far more civilized than their neighbours the Tibetans. 
Their manners are characterized by the strictest observance of punctilious etiquette, 
some of the ceremonies being so complicated as to raise up an almost impassable 
barrier for all strangers. 

The native dress is rather handsome and rich, varying according to the seasons. 
For winter, or when travelling over the mountains, the Turk wears a Jong fur coat, 
woollen trowsers, and a round fur cap. The stockings are of felt, and so long that 
they can be drawn over the trowsers, when they are fastened by an ornamental 
ribbon above the knee. So far, the dress, which we had to assume ourselves when 
disguised, is very convenient; but the shoes are so thin as to offer but a slight 
protection to the feet. The summer costume consists also of a coat and trowsers, a 
light cap for the head, and boots reaching up to the knee worn without any stock- 
ings. 

Yarkand, their chief place, as also Kashgar, is one of the most important and 
flourishing places of Central Asia. ‘The population is in general a wealthy one, and 
live in good solid houses. 

The inhabitants of the mountainous parts are mostly shepherds; the principal 
occupation of those in the plains is trade, which they carry on with horses and 
Bactrian camels along routes apparently impracticable for loaded animals. The 
merchants travel as far south as Ladak and Pesham, and to the north find their way 
to the shores of the Issikul lake. On the west they penetrate beyond the Russian 
frontier ; but towards the east commercial intercourse is restricted by the large 
desert, stretching along the eastern part of the Kuenluen. 

It may here be mentioned, that the caravan route from Yarkand to Ladak leads 
for more than fourteen days’ march over uninhabited mountain country, at an eleva- 
tion of from 14,000 to 16,000 feet. Passes above 18,0U0 feet in height occur; and 
the whole district is so bare and sterile, possessing so little vegetation, that the 
traders are obliged to carry with them even the food for their animals. 

By far the greater part of the trade between India and High Asia, including the 
adjoining parts of Russia, is carried on by the Turks. 

In conclusion we may remark that, besides our special geographical observations, 
we had occasion to collect various specimens of manufacture, mostly from Turkish 
and Tibeto-Indian parts; and we consider ourselves fortunate in being able to add 
more than 207 specimens to the splendid general collection now accumulated, under 
the energetic direction of Dr. Forbes Watson, within the walls of the India House 
Museum. 


er aS -..-~-~-~ 


. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177 


On the Tribes composing the Population of Morocco. 
By Lieutenant Epvwarp ScuLaGintweIr. 


This paper was read by Mr. Hermann Schlagintweit, who stated that his brother 
Edward, First Lieutenant in the Bavarian Army, had joined the Spanish forces 
during their iate campaign in Morocco. Subsequently he had made a second visit 
to Morocco in furtherance of certain scientific purposes of his own, when he received 
the most valuable assistance from the well-known British Resident in that country, 
Mr. James Drummond Hay*. 

The principal population of Morocco, the Moors, are a mixed race, deriving their 
origin partly from the Berbers and partly from the Arabs. They form the most 
numerous section of the inhabitants of the towns. Their complexion is compara- 
tively fair, not unlike that of the inhabitants of Southern Europe, while the colour 
of their hair is various, comprising both light and dark shades; the form of the face, 
as well as of the figure in general, betrays a tendency to stoutness. With regard to 
character, but little can be said in the way of praise. Like most Orientals, the 
Moors are false and covetous, grovelling in the lowest servility before their superiors, 
and full of arrogance and cruelty to those below them. This race took very little 
part in the late war, while the following ones showed themselves as possessing much 
greater energy, and capable, under proper guidance, of quitting themselves well in 
active service. 

The various tribes of the Berbers or Brabers must be considered as the original 
inhabitants of this district. They were found already in possession of the country 
on the arrival of the Romans, as appears from the geographical terminology used by 
the latter in reference to these parts. The interesting work of “Al Hasem” of 
Granada—better known under his name, when a Christian, of ‘‘ Leo Africanus,’”’— 
shows, moreover, that during their conquests in North-western Africa (650-700 
A.D.) the Arabs were frequentiy engaged in conflict with these primitive tribes. 

Like the Fellahs in Egypt who have succeeded in preserving the ethnographical 
type of the ancient inhabitants, so here also it occurs that, in spite of the many 
changes in the dynasties of the country, the pure type of the Berbers is still repre- 
sented by a considerable proportion of the population. They chiefly inhabit Mount 
Atlas and its spurs, but have also extended themselves as far as Fez, Mekinéz, and 
the towns along the sea-coast. ‘ 

In Morocco two principal tribes of the Berbers can be distinguished: the 
Shlockhs, who are settled in villages and towns; and the Amazirgens, forming a 
migratory and unsettled population. 

The Kbilas (Kabiles) and the Shayvas in Algiers must also be considered as be= 
longing to the Berber race. [n person they are thin, but sinewy; their hair brown, 
occasionally reddish, and with those from the southern provinces rather dark. 
Though in general character not unlike the Moors, they are a much more active 
people, are good cultivators of the soil, and make hardy soldiers. One tribe in par- 
ticular of the Berbers, the Hudnyas, have played an influential part at various 
times in the military history of Morocco. Like the Ianichars, they formed a strong 
and formidable guard, though often in opposition to the government; but were at 
last disbanded and scattered throughout various cantonments of the country. 

The Riffers inhabit the mountain ranges along the Mediterranean, which begin 
at Tetuan and reach to Cape “Tres Forcas.’’ Confined as they are to their almost 
inaccessible mountains, they form a distinct and well-marked race, their language 
even differing considerably from the Arabic. There are six principal tribes into 
which they are divided,—the Ghoniaras, Aksenayas, Bukone’a, Tems’manes, Gvelayas, 
and Kebdanas. They are almost entirely independent of the Emperor of Morocco, 
the small yearly tribute paid to him being offered rather to the head of their church 
than to their Emperor. The greater part of them are robbers and pirates ; and, in- 
deed, in the late war, when posted in the town of Tetuan for its defence, they 
exercised their native calling with a zeal and cruelty which considerably accelerated 
the surrender of the place. 

The Sis race. These tribes approach the Negro type in respect of complexion 


* During his stay in the country Mr. Edward Schlagintweit took many facial and cranial 


_ casts, besides making numerous detailed measurements. 


1860. 12 


178 REPORT—1860. 


and general proportions, but their character is better than that of the preceding 
races. They are very active both in trade and agriculture, and evince great dexterity 
in the manufacture and use of arms. Their dependence upon the Emperor is of the 
same nature as that of the Riffers. 


Geography of the North Atlantic Telegraph. 
By Colonel Ta. P. SHAFFNER, of the United States. 


The Route—Lands and Seas.—The route of the telegraph is from Scotland vid 
Farée Isles, Iceland, Greenland, and Labrador, to Quebec, there connecting with 
other lines to different parts of America. 

The sea sections of the proposed telegraphic route are as well known to nautical 
geographers, excepting, perhaps, the places sounded by the Telegraphic Expedition 
last autumn (1859) between Labrador and Greenland, and between Greenland and 
Iceland. The bottoms of those seas were found to be deep mud, and acable once laid 
thereon will lie undisturbed for all time. Icebergs float, and there is no part of the 
sea in which the cables will be laid where the bergs will reach the bottom. Arcfic 
navigators, with whom the author has had the pleasure of conversing since his arrival 
from the voyage of last autumn, agree that if the cable can be carried into deep 
fiords on the respective coasts, there will be no danger of interruptions from icebergs. 
The author has seen such fiords on the coasts of Labrador and Greenland, and 
therefore regards the problem as solved. 

The land sections are not of serious importance. A telegraph line can be con- 
structed on land wherever the foot of man can be placed. Lines have been built 
over hills and valleys where neither waggon nor beast could go, and these regions 
were in the great Mississippi valley, a country having great variety of soil, surface, 
and climate. 

Farée Isles.—The cable wiil be landed at Thorshaven, the capital of the Farde 
group, and from thence a few miles by land to Westerman’s haven. ‘The island is 
hilly, the roads inferior; there is but little cultivation; pasturage good ; the people 
intellectual; religion Lutheran ; it sends one member to the Danish Parliament; it 
has a governor, sheriffs, and other officers of state: the climate is about the same as 
Copenhagen, more mild than Stockholm, Quebec, Montreal, or Boston. 

Icelund will be traversed by the line from Berufiord or Portland to Reikiavik. 
The people are highly educated, and a considerable trade is carried on between them 
and the Europeans. The French have some 120 vessels fishing on the south coast. 
They have free trade with foreign countries, and all the fisheries are free. The in- 
habitants are industrious and religious, and have their own local Parliament. The 
country is partially cultivated, but much of the island is covered with lava. The 
climate is moderate ; the ice never interrupting navigation on the south and west 
coasts. There will be no difficulty whatever in running the telegraph across Iceland. 

Labrador.—The cable will be landed in Hamilton Inlet, lat. 54°30’ N. The 
line will then be run either to the Gulf or to the River St. Lawrence. This country 
is rolling or hilly, and covered with timber, principally pine, spruce, and juniper. 
The trees are large, many being 15 or 20 inches in diameter at the base. ‘There is 
much grass where the country is open. Turnips,- potatoes, and other vegetables are 
cultivated to a limited extent. The inhabitants are mostly Esquimaux. They are 
civilized, under the teachings of the Moravian missionaries. ‘There is a station of 
the Hudson’s Bay Company on Hamilton Inlet, about 50 miles from the sea, The 
coast is hilly and barren. Fishermen from Newfoundland are scattered along the 
coast, and many are employed in Hamilton Inlet. The cod and herring fisheries 
are the most profitable. The country is not much settled. There will be difficulties 
to be met in the construction of the line, and maintaining it across Labrador; but 
these difficulties will not be so great as those which have been overcome in other 
countries; for example, in Newfoundland, and the Southern and Western States of 
America. The line across Newfoundland traverses marshy and uninhabited regions, 
wholly unknown to the world until a few years ago, when it was explored for the — 
telegraph. 

Greenland.—The section of the route the least known is Greenland; and 
-although that part of the country proposed to be traversed is not so cold as the 
climate of St, Petersburgh, a city of some 700,000 inhabitants, yet-there prevails 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179 


the most erroneous impressions in regard to the temperature of that interesting and 
wonderful country. Whether it is a continent, or numerous islands extending to the 
North Pole, is a problem yet to be solved. In the southern portion we find green 
valleys, covered with grass and vegetation, surrounded with mountains towering into 
the heavens ; and these in the morning are covered with white glittering snow, which 
with the mid-day sun disappears, leaving exposed their blackened minarets and spires. 
The scenery is grand and picturesque. 

The coasts of Greenland are barren hills and mountains. Along the shore are 
many islands. The fiords penetrate to the interior 10, 20, or 30 miles. Some of 
these bring out ice, others do not. Into one of the fiords which are free of ice will 
be carried the telegraph cable, as indicated inthe map. The water is very deep, and 
no iceberg can reach the bottom, or go far up their meanderings to their heads. 
They do not freeze, except in narrow places, where there is still water. A cable can 
be easily laid from the sea into one of these fiords, and when brought to land it can 
be well secured against native ice, as is the case at many places in America, and on 
the belts and sound of the Baltic Sea. 

The exact locality where the line is to cross Greenland has not been determined, 
but it will be in the southern portion, not 60 miles north of Cape Farewell. The 
particular kind of surface to be traversed—whether green valleys, or mountain ranges 
—is not fully known, but in either case no insuperable difficulties can be foreseen. 
What it is in the interior, or whether there be ice there or not, no one knows. 
Col. S. found alluvial soil on the ice several miles distant from the sea, and it may 
have been blown there from the interior. Some 12,000 deer are killed in the Holsten- 
berg district every year. They disappear in winter, Whither do they go? 

The ice travelled over by Colonel Shaffner was solid freshwater ice. The snow 
falls in small quantities. On the plateau some considerable collections of water were 
seen. There were many deep crevices. The thickness of the ice no one has been 
able to determine. The author does not believe it entirely rests upon the earth, but 


_ it forms bridges, and perhaps where he went it was 4000 feet above the level of the 


sea; or perhaps there was a cavern beneath, 1000 feet between the ice and the earth, 
exceeding in grandeur the great Mammoth Cave of America, with its 200 subterranean 
avenues. This may seem most wonderful, but he had many reasons for believing 


_ that it was possible. He had been in some of the caverns, and heard a waterfalt 


resembling the rushing of a river over rocks. The bergs from the fiord blinks, he 
noticed were clear and clean ice; no gravel or earth either in or on them, excepting 
those that were near the shore. If the ice were upon the earth in the interior, we 
might expect to find some earth in the bergs. He has seen boulders on bergs, but 
they came from the glaciers of the north, or from the sides of the blinks crushing” 
against the mountains as the ice moved from the interior. The inhabitants are Danes 
and Esquimaux. The Julianahaab District is the most southern in Greenland, and 
has about 2600 Esquimaux. They are all civilized, and mostly members of the 
Lutheran Church. There are afew Moravians. The children are baptized, and at 
fourteen years old confirmed. They have churches and schools, and they preach, 
sing, and pray. In the principal churches they have organs and some fine paintings. 
The town of Julianahaab has about 300 inhabitants. The people received the 
yisit of the party last autumn with much joy. The houses were stone and frame, 
and covered with slate. It is not cold enough for double windows. They had cows 
and sheep. The Esquimaux lived in stone huts covered with earth, fully as com- 
fortable as many log cabins that Colonel Shaffner has lived in when in the western 
forests of America. 
_ The Esquimaux are honest and good-hearted. They never steal unless on the 
verge of starvation. The men treat their wives well. The children are never 
whipped. Peace, love, and domestic happiness seem to be more common to them 
than to the more civilized races. It will not be difficult to have a telegraph line 
Maintained in Greenland, with the aid of such people; and, in fact, a telegraph 
line can be constructed across the hills, the valleys, and the fiords of Greenland, and 


_ it can be maintained thereafter with much more facility and certainty than has been 


done across the plains of Russia, the mountains of Norway, the swamps of New- 
foundland, the inundated lands of the Mississippi, the uninhabited forests of America, 
or the Alpine ranges of Europe. 


19*- 


180 REPORT—1860. 


On the Lost Polar Expedition and Possible Recovery of its Scientific 
Documents. By Captain PARKER Snow. 


Captain Parker Snow, in addressing the audience upon the subject of his paper, 
stated that the great object he had in view was to keep before the public the fact 
that we had not yet done all that might be done as regarded the lost polar expedi- 
tion. Thuse who went out in that expedition ought, none of them, ever to be for- 
gotten ; and it was our duty to persevere in ascertaining their real fate until posi- 
tive evidence came forward concerning it. This evidence, he asserted, had not yet 
been found; and he was prepared to show that more could be obtained if right mea- 
sures were taken. 

He then commenced his arguments by giving an analysis of Franklin’s instruc- 
tions, and pointed out how certainly numerous scientific observations of great value 
must have been made by the officers in that expedition. He enumerated the differ- 
ent searching expeditions, and with much pleasure dwelt upon the exertions made 
by the several leaders and subordinates engaged upon this work, many of whom he 
named. He next pointed out Dr. Rae’s discuveries, and then those of the ‘ Fox’ 
under the present Sir Leopold M‘Clintock, doing full justice to one and all. After 
this, he dissected the whole information that had been obtained by making the fol- 
lowing remarks :— 

« First of all,’’ said he, ‘‘ what do we know for a certainty concerning the lost 
expedition? Why this: 105 persons landed at Point Victory in April 1848, and 
Captain Crozier (one of their chiefs) said that he or they, or some of them, were going 
to start on the 26th for Back’s Fish River. They do not say a word about being in 
want of assistance, nor yet that they are suffering. They have abandoned their 
ships and are going southward, even as Captain M‘Clure had intended to do with a 
part of his crew. 

“This is all we positively know from any written evidence. What else we know 
is from other testimony. It is as follows :—Three skeletons—perhaps belonging to 
the 105, perhaps not—have been found; also a boat. Forty of our countrymen 
were seen by the natives in the spring of 1850 walking to the Fish River, where, 
later in the year, it is said that some of them died. ‘Traces of others have been 
found part of the way up the Fish River, and along the Boothian Isthmus, the coasts 
of Boothia, and King William Island. Rumours of white men, going westward 
along the coast of America, have been heard for several years past. To Cape War- 
ren, the Peel River, the Fish River, and, about the Melville Peninsula, strange tales 
attach great interest. These places have yet to be searched, and the mystery con- 
nected with them examined. 

“‘Such.is what we know. Now what is it we suppose? Briefly this:—From 
April 1848 to the spring of 1850 is two years. Clearly the party must have been 
wandering about during that interval. What so likely as that, in the summer of 
1848, they found open water for their boats, and went away to the westward (or at 
all events one party did), and tried to reach the Mackenzie or Peel River. Some may 
have perished, some have gone another way than by the coast (possibly by a direct 
channel yet undiscovered by us), and finally, being unsuccessful in their western 
route, they return to the eastward for Fish River, and perhaps a few of them to- 
wards Lancaster Sound, or the channels leading into Baffin Bay; in fact, to any 
place, where a hope of relief, and where good hunting would be presented. 

“This hypothesis would explain away the lapse of time, and account for only 
forty being seen by the natives in 1850. It is further strengthened by other circum- 
stances founded on negative facts. 

“They did not take away any of the Fury Beach stores, though well known to 
them as existing at only about 200 miles’ distance: they did not send information 
of distress through the Esquimaux or Indians, as we now know could have been done, 
even as Captain Collinson and Captain Maguire sent notices of relief: they did not 
say a word about being starving or in want of immediate aid; and many other 
things they did not do, which we should expect would have been done, in case of 
great distress. Hence we may infer that in April 1848 they were not so badly off 
as is supposed. Had they been so, why did they not visit the Fury Beach stores 
and get relief? Those stores are even now in excellent order, as may be known from 
Captain M‘Clintock’s published Journal. Yet we find them unused, at all events 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181 


for any large supply, though it is possible they may have been visited by a few of 
the lost party. 

«Remarks have been made about the Franklin Expedition suffering from Goldner’s 
provisions. But, independent of all other argument on this point, there is one fact to 
be got over, before we can agree to such an idea ;—the ships wintered at the threshold 
of their explorations, yet afterwards went onward into unknown regions instead of 
returning, as wisdom would have dictated, on finding their stores defective! 

“« Another fact to be well considered is, that close attention to all the information 
obtained from the natives, leads to a belief that the actual ground where the whole 
truth could be known has not yet beenexamined. The natives told Captain M‘Clin- 
tock that the white people had gone to a place where there was plenty of salmon. 
Now we know the lakes of South Boothia abound in salmon. 

“* Again, the Esquimaux referred to parts known by certain names ; as, for instance, 
Amitoke, Neitchillee, and Akkollee. ‘These parts, however, were not visited by our 
late explorers, perhaps from not knowing where they were. But a careful reading 
of the various Arctic Voyages of Parry, Ross, Simpson, and Back, would have 
shown that the places named, all exist about the Boothian Isthmus southward; and 
it is there, and in adjoining localities, we find all the plate and other articles in pos- 
session of the natives. 

“More argument could be brought forward; but it is enough to call attention to 
one other important fact, viz. that Ross and his small crew, after being frozen in 
for three years, managed to escape from a position almost identical with that of 
Franklin’s ships, and then get home by way of Lancaster Sound. 

“That we have no traces of the Franklin crews attempting the same thing is very 
singular. We must therefore infer either that they were not in absolute distress, 
or else that one party did visit Fury Beach without being able to leave a notice. Be 
it as it may, assuredly the Expedition would never have abandoned their journals 
and other documents, without first placing them in some sort of security. When 
Ross escaped he carried even minerals with him! These with other things he had to 
abandon ; but he deposited them in a secure place, and they were afterwards brought 
home to England in a whaling ship sent expressly to the locality for them. Can we 
suppose that the officers and crew of a national expedition like Franklin’s—and withal 
a scientific one—would not take equal care to preserve the records of their labours ? 
The question needs no answer. There can be little doubt about it in the minds of all 
impartial persons; and it only requires a good summer search to know the truth.” 

Captain Snow then brought forward evidence to show that life could be prolonged 
in the arctic regions, and that the place was not so destitute as generally supposed. 
Sir R. Murchison himself had given good reasons in support of this view; and 
Lord Wrottesley, Baron von Humboldt, Sir Francis Beaufort and others had ex- 
pressed something similar. The burial of the dead, too, was another thing not to be 
forgotten. Three sailors were buried suitably on shore, therefore it is almost certain 
Sir John Franklin would have been interred in like manner; and as the Esquimaux 
are very. superstitious concerning the dead, it is possible important records can be 
found near the locality where the illustrious chief is known to have died. 

Other arguments were brought forward by Captain Snow, who stated that he had 
a committee formed of well-known names to aid him in a renewed search he was 
prepared to make in a small vessel of from 75 to 100 tons if sufficient means could 
be raised. A brave American (Mr. Hall) was already on his way there to try and do 
the work ; and it was for our credit and honour that another attempt should be made 
by our own flag to complete that which comparatively could now be easily done. 


On the Proposed Communication between the Atlantic and Pacific, via 
British North America. By Captain M. H. Synce, R.E. 


On the Geographical Distribution of Plants in Asia Minor. 
By PuerrE DE TCHIHATCHEF, 


On the Excavations on the Site of the Roman City of Uriconium at Wroxeter. 
: By Tuomas Wricut, F.S.A. 


182 REPORT—1860, 


STATISTICAL SCIENCE. 


Opening Address by Nassau W. Senior, M.A., President of the Section. 


In 1856 the General Committee of the British Association decided that the Section 
over which I have the honour to preside should be entitled “The Section of Econo- 
mic Science and Statistics.” 

I have looked through the papers which since that time have been commu- 
nicated to us, and I have been struck by the unscientific character of many of them. 

I use that word not dyslogistically but merely distinctivingly, merely as ex- 
pressing that the writers had wandered from the domain of science into that of art. 
* I need scarcely remind you that a Science is a statement of existing facts, an 
Art a statement of the means by which future facts may be brought about or in- 
fluenced. A Science deals in premises, an Art in conclusions. A Science aims 
only at supplying materials for the memory and the judgment. It does not pre- 
suppose ash purpose beyond the acquisition of knowledge. An Art is intended to 
influence the will: it presupposes some object to be attained, and it points out 
the easiest, the safest, or the most effectual conduct for that purpose. 

The subjects to which the British Association has directed our attention are 
Economic Science, and Statistics. 

Economic Science, or, to use a more familiar name, “The Science of Political 
Economy,” may be defined as “ The Science which states the laws regulating the: 
production and distribution of wealth, so far as they depend on the action of the 

uman mind.” 


I say, “so far as they depend on the action of the human mind,” in order to 


mark to which of the two great genera of sciences, the Material, or, as they are 
usually called, the Physical, and the Mental, or, as they are frequently called, the 
Moral, sciences, Political Economy belongs. 

Unquestionably the political economist has much to do with matter. The 
phenomena attending the production of material wealth occupy a great part of his 
attention; and these depend mainly on the laws of matter. The efficacy of ma- 
chinery, the diminishing productiveness, under certain circumstances, of successive 
applications of capital to land, and the fecundity and longevity of the human 
species, are all important premises in political economy, and are all laws of matter. 
But the political economist dwells on them only with reference to the mental 
phenomena which they serve to explain; he considers them as among the motives 
to the accumulation of capital, as among the sources of rent, as among the regulators 
of profit, and as among the causes which promote or retard the pressure of popula- 
tion on subsistence. 

If the main subject of his studies were the physical phenomena attending the 
production of wealth, a system of political economy must contain a treatise on me- 
chanics, on navigation, on agriculture, on chemistry—in fact, on the subjects of 
almost all the physical sciences and arts, for there are few of those arts or sciences 
which are not subservient to wealth. All these details, however, the political 
economist avoids, or uses a few of them sparingly for the purpose of illustration. 
He does not attempt to state the mechanical and chemical Jaws which enable the 
steam-engine to perform its miracles—he passes them by as laws of matter; but 
he explains, as fully as his knowledge will allow, the motives which induce the 
mechanist to erect the steam-engine, and the labourer to work it. And these are 
laws of mind. He leayes to the geologist to explain the laws of matter which 
occasion the formation of coal, to the chemist to distinguish its component elements, 
to the engineer to state the means by which it is extracted, and to the teachers of 
many hundred different arts to point out the uses to which it may be applied. 
What he reserves to himselfis, to explain the laws of mind under which the owner 
of the soil allows his pastures to be laid waste, and the minerals which they cover 
to be abstracted ; under which the capitalist employs, in sinking shafts and piercing 
galleries, funds which might be devoted to his own immediate enjoyment ; under 
which the miner encounters the toils and the dangers of his hazardous and laborious’ 
occupation; and the laws, also laws of mind, which decide in what proportions the 


+4 tein) eed se 


ae 


—— eo 


ere) Oe ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183 


produce, or the value of the produce, is divided between the three classes by whose 
concurrence it has been obtained. 

When he uses as his premises, as he often must do, facts supplied by physical 
science, he does not attempt to account for them ; he is satisfied with stating their 
existence. If he has to prove it, he looks for his proofs, so far as he can, in the 
human mind, Thus the economist need not explain why it is that labour cannot 
be applied to a given extent of land to an indefinite amount with a proportionate 
return. He has done enough when he has proved that such is the fact; and he proves 
this by showing, on the principles of human nature, that, if it were otherwise, no 
land except that which is most fertile, and best situated, would be cultivated. All 
the technical terms, therefore, of political economy, represent either purely mental 
ideas, such as demand, utility, value, and abstinence, or objects which, though some 
of them may be material, are considered by the political economist so far only as 
they are the results or the causes of certain affections of the human mind, such as 
wealth, capital, rent, wages, and profits. 

The subject matter of political economy is, I repeat, wealth. The political 
economist, as such, has nothing to do with any of the other physical or moral. 
sciences, or with any of the physical or moral arts, excepting so far as they affect the 
production or distribution of wealth. Whether wealth be a good or an evil, whe- 
ther it be conducive to human morality or to human happiness, that it be hoarded 
or that it be consumed, that it be accumulated in masses, or that it be generally 
diffused, are questions beyond his science. His business is to state what are the 
effects on the production and distribution of wealth, or, to use a shorter expression, 
the economic effects, of accumulation and of expenditure, of the different kinds of con- 
sumption, and of the aggregation in a few hands, or the division among many, of the 
things of which wealth consists. Whenever he gives a precept, whenever he ad- 
vises his reader to do any thing, or to abstain from doing anything, he wanders 
from science into art, generally into the art of morality, or the art of government. 


The science of statistics is far wider as to its subject matter. It applies to all 
phenomena which can be counted and recorded. It deals equally with matter and 
with mind. Perhaps the most remarkable results of the statistician’s labours are 
those which show that the human will obeys laws nearly as certain as those which 
regulate matter. 

here are countries in which we find year after year the same number of marriages 
at the same ages and in the same proportion to the population, the same number 
of children to a marriage, the same number of bankruptcies, and the same number 
of crimes and suicides, committed at the same ages, and by each sex in permanent 
proportions; in which the average height, the average weight, the average con- 
sumption and production of commodities, and the average longevity, of men and of 
women, continue for long periods unaltered. 

There are others in which the number or the proportion of these events varies; 
in which marriages, births, deaths, crimes, consumption and production, and even 
the average stature are different at different periods. This uniformity, or these 
differences, are detected by the statistician. His task is over when he has stated and 
recorded them. It is the business of the legislator to draw from the figures of the 
statistician, practical inferences. To ascertain the circumstances, moral, commercial, 
or political, under which the tribute paid by his countrymen to insolvency, crime, . 
sickmess and death, has been increased, has been diminished, or has remained 
stationary—these circumstances will often appear to be under control, and by 
watching the statistical results of every attempt to control them, he will ascertain 
whether they we under control or not. 

We have been told that a statesman “reads his history in a nation’s eyes.” 
I should rather say that he reads it in a nation’s figures. 

But it is not only to the statesman that statistics are useful, many of the most 
important and most useful employments of capital depend onthem. Vital statistics 
are the base of life insurance. They decide the value of annuities, of life estates, 
and of reversions. Every man in the management of his property has to consult 
them. The statistics of fires regulate fire insurance, those of wrecks regulate 
marine insurance, Wherever the success or failure of an undertaking depends on 


184 REPORT—1860. 


the calculation of chances, and wherever the events subject to those chances have 
been observed and recorded in numbers sufficient to afford an average, the prudence 
or imprudence of the undertaking depends on that average. To give that average 
is the business of the statistician. ‘To act on it is the business of the speculator. If 
in London one house in two thousand were burnt down every year, nothing would 
be gained or lost by insuring houses in London at a shilling per cent. per annum. 
If one in a thousand were burnt down, such insurance would beruinous. If only one 
in three thousand, it would be very profitable. But, I repeat that the observation, 
the recording and the arranging facts, which is the science of statistics, and the 
ascertaining, from observation and from consciousness, the general laws which 
regulate men’s actions with respect to production and exchange, which is the 
science of political economy, are distinct from the arts to which those sciences are 
subservient. We cease to be scientific as soon as we advise or dissuade, or even 
approve or censure. 

I said, that I had been led into this train of thought by looking through the 
papers which have been communicated to this Section since 1856. I find that we 
received during that year ‘“ Suggestions on the education of the people.” 

We had a paper, “On the general principles by which Reformatory Schools 
ought to be regulated.” We had another, “On the importance of open and public 
Competitive Examinations.” 

In 1857 we had one on the prevention of crime ; one on the reasons for extending 
limited liability to joint-stock banks; and one on the apprenticeship system in re- 
spect to freedom of labour. 

In 1858 we had one on the principle of open competition ; one on public service, 
academic and teacher’s examinations; one on the importance of a colonial penny 
os to the advancement of science and civilization ; and one on the race and 

anguage of the gypsies. 

If it be said that in all these papers, except indeed the very last, there was a 
reference to statistical facts, or to economic principles, and that therefore they were 
properly communicated to this Section, the answer is, that there is no province of 
the great arts of legislation, of administration, of commerce, of war, indeed, of any 
of the arts which deal with human feelings, in which frequent reference must not 
be made to political economy, and occasional reference to statistics. There is 
scarcely a moral art therefore of which we should not be able to take cognizance. 

But I do not think that such an extension of our jurisdiction would be advi- 
sable. I believe that in mental, as in manual arts, the division of labour is useful. 
Within the strict limits of economic science and statistics a large field is open to us. 
It appears to me that we shall do well, if, as far as may be practicable, without 
much inconvenience, we confine ourselves within it, and deviate as little as we can 
into the numerous arts to which those sciences afford principles. 


On the True Principles of an Income Tax. 
By the Rey. J. Bootu, LL.D., F.RS. 


On Educational Help from the Government Grant to the destitute and neg- 
lected children of Great Britain. By Mary CARPENTER. 


The educational movement, as such, is of comparatively recent date in our 
country. ‘The importance of popular education was not generally acknowledged in 
England fifty years ago: but yet as early as in the sixteenth century there were 
distinct efforts made to give instruction to the very poorest, as is proved by the King 
Edward and many other endowed Charity Schools. These gradually became 
employed by a higher class than the children for whom they were originally in- 
tended, and a part of the population were uncared for. In 1781 Raikes began the 
first Sunday school for outcast children; in 1800 Bell and Lancaster began day 
schools, to give gratuitous instruction to the very lowest. Now the Sunday schools 
no longer receive the vagrant children, and the Bell and Lancaster schools have 
gradually merged into the National and British pay schools. A large class of the 
people are instructed by these schools, but those who most need instruction are not 
able to attend them. 


“At the Educational Conference in 1857, H.R.H. Prince Albert stated that there’ 


Rs 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185 


are 2,200,000 children in England and Wales not at school, whose absence cannot 
be traced to any legitimate cause. If Government educational help is given to 
any portion of the population, it ought, for the good of society, to be directed 
efficiently towards these. From this uneducated mass spring the pauperism and 
crime which are so great a national burden. Union Inspectors find the state of 
degraded ignorance in which children usually come to the workhouse indicative 
of the existence of a large portion of the population untouched by existing institutions; 
in Liverpool, out of 19,386 persons apprehended in 9 months, only 3 per cent. could 
read and write. Industrial and Ragged Schools alone have attempted distinctly to 
act on this class. Wherever they have been well conducted and efficiently supported 
they have completely effected the object intended, but many have failed from want 
of teaching power. The children of this class, in addition to ordinary instruction, 
must have much moral and industrial training, and schools capable of acting on 
them must be adapted to their wants, and of a very different character from the 
ordinary pay schools. 

The Committee of Council on Education, in administering the Parliamentary 
Grant, have adapted their regulations to the pay schools; in 1859, 6222 Certiti- 
cated Teachers for them were partially paid, receiving £86,528 ; Assistants, £6244; 
Pupil Teachers, £252,550; thus providing a good teaching power for 9555 schools. 
No teaching power (except a gratuity to certified masters, who very seldom are 
qualified for such schools) and no educational help is allowed to the schools for the 
destitute and neglected children. 

The importance of giving an efficient teaching power to the lowest and most 
ignorant children was acknowledged by Parliament in 1849, when an annual grant of 
£30,000 was made to teachers in union schools, with a much lower test than that 
required for certificated masters. The Parliamentary Committee of Inquiry, in 
1853, into the Condition of Criminal and Destitute Juveniles, reported the “ bene- 
ficial effects produced on the most destitute classes” by the Ragged and Industrial 
schools, and their need of help from the Educational Grant; that aid is still re- 
one to carry out efficient action on the destitute and neglected children of 

rreat Britain. 


On the Economical Results of Military Drill in Popular Schools. 
By Evwix Cuanvwicx, Esq., C.B. 


On the Physiological as well as Psychological Limits to Mental Labour. 
By Enwin Cuapwick, £sq., CB. 


The business of education still requires for its successful prosecution, scientific ob- 
servation, and the study of the subject to be operated upon—the human mind, Even 
to empirical observation, it should have suggested itself that the mind has conditions 
of growth which are required to be carefully noted, to adapt the amount of in- 
struction intended to be given to the power of receiving it. It is a psychological law 
that the capacity of attention grows with the body, and that at all stages of bodily 
growth the capacity is increased by the skilful teacher's cultivation. Very young 
children can only receive lessons of one or two minutes’ length. With increasing 
growth and cultivation, their capacity of attention is increased to five minutes; then 
to ten, and at from five to seven years of age, to fifteen minutes. With growth and 
cultivation, by the tenth year a bright voluntary attention may be got to a lesson 
of twenty minutes; at about twelve years of age to twenty-five minutes; and from 
thence to fifteen years of age, about half an hour: that is to say, of lessons requiring 
mental effort, as arithmetic, not carried beyond the point at which the mind is 
fatigued, with the average of children and with good teaching. By very skilful 
teachers and with very interesting lessons, the attention may be sustained for longer 
eriods; but it is declared by observers that prolonged attention beyond average 
imits is generally at the expense of succeeding lessons. 

The preponderant testimony which I have received in the course of some inquiries 
into educational subjects, is that with children of about the average age of ten, or 
eleven, or a little more, the capacity of bright voluntary attention, which is the 
only profitable attention, is exhausted by four varied lessons to subjects and exer- 
cises requiring mental effort of half an hour each in the forenoon, even with inter- 


186 REPORT—1860. 


vals of relief. After the mid-day meal the capacity of voluntary attention is gene- 
rally reduced by one-half, and not more than two half-hour lessons requiring mental 
elfort can be given with profit. 

The capacity of attention is found to be greater in cold weather than in hot, in 
winter than in summer. 

I collect that the good ventilation, lighting, and warming of a school-room will 
augment the capacity of attention of the pupils by at least one-fifth, as compared 
with that of the children taught in school-rooms of the common construction. 

Talso collect, that the capacity of attention varies with bodily strength and 
weakness, It is reported to me that school-boys, of nearly the same ages and con- 
ditions, of the same school-rooms, and under the same tuition, being weighed, and 
divided into two classes, the light and the heavy, the attainments, as denoted by 
the number of marks obtained, were found to be the greatest with the heaviest, 
that is to say, those of the greatest health and bodily strength. 

These were chiefly of town-born children, of common habits. The robust 
children of rural districts, of less cultivated habits of attention, are found to be 
slower in receiving ideas; but with cultivation they are brought up to equal 
capacities of attention, and to greater retentiveness of the matter taught, than the 
common classes of town-born children. 

There are differences in the capacities of attention in different races, or in the 
habits of attention created previously to the school-period by parents of different 
races. The teacher of a large school in Lancashire, who had acted as a school- 
teacher in the southern counties, rated the capacity of attention of the native Lanca- 
shire children as 5 to 4, as compared with those in Norfolk. In other instances the 
differences were wider. 

Experienced teachers have testified to me that they can and do exhaust the 
capacity of attention, to lessons requiring mental effort, of the great average of 


children attending the primary schools in England, in less than three hours of. 


daily book instruction, namely, two hours in the morning, and one hour after the 
mid-day meal. 

Infants are kept in school, and the teacher is occupied in amusing and instruct= 
ing them, for five or six hours, but the duration of mental effort in the aggregate 
bears only a short proportion to the whole time during which they are kept 
together. So in schools for children of more advanced ages. Even the smaller 
amount of mental effort in infant schools is, however, subject to dangerous excess. 
I am assured by a teacher in the first infant school established in Scotland, that he 
did not know a pre-eminently sharp child who had in after life been mentally 
distinguished. 

In common schools, on the small scale, the children will frequently be not more 
than one-half the time under actual tuition; and in schools deemed good, often 
one-third of their time is wasted in changes of lessons, writing, and operations 
which do not exercise, but rather impair the receptive faculty. 

It may be stated generally that the psychological limit of the capacity of attention 
and of profitable mental labour is about one-half the common school-time of 
children, and that beyond that limit instruction is profitless, 

This I establish in this way. Under the Factories Act, whilst much of the in- 
struction is of an inferior character and effect, from the frustration of the provi- 
sions of the original bill, there are now numerous voluntary schools, in which the 
instruction is efficient. The limit of the time of instruction required by the statute 
in these half-time schools for factory children is three hours of daily school teaching, 
the common average being six in summer and five in winter. There are also 
pauper district industrial schools, where the same hours, three daily, or eighteen 


in the week, or the half-time instruction, are prescribed; which regulation is in” 


some instances carried out on alternate days of school teaching and on alternate 
days of industrial occupation. Throughout the country there are now mixed schools, 
where the girls are employed a part of the day in needlework, and part of the day 


in book instruction. Now I have received the testimony of school inspectors and” 
of school teachers, that the girls fully equal in book attainments the boys who are. 


occupied during the whole day in book instruction. The preponderant testimony is 
that in the same schools, where the half-time factory pupils are instructed with the 


full-time day scholars, the book attainments of the half-time scholars are fully equal 


eee 7 aaa a — = SS 


ee eee eee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187 


to those of the full-time scholars, 7. e. the three hours’ are as productive as the six 
hours’ mental labour daily. The like results are obtained in the district pauper 
schools. In one large establishment, containing about six hundred children, half 
7 and half boys, the means of industrial occupation were gained for the girls 

efore any were obtained for the boys. The girls were therefore put upon half- 
time tuition, that is to say, their time of book instruction was reduced from thirty- 
six hours to eighteen hours per week, given on the three alternate days of their 
industrial occupation, the boys remaining at full school-time of thirty-six per week 
—the teaching being the same, on the same system and by the same teachers, the 
same school attendance in weeks and years, in both cases. On the periodical 
examination of the school, surprise was expressed by the inspectors at finding how 
much more alert mentally the girls were than the boys, and in advance in book attain- 
ments. Subsequently industrial occupation was found for the boys, when their 
time of book instruction was reduced from thirty-six hours a week to eighteen; and 
after a while the boys were proved upon examination to have obtained their previous 
relative position, which was in advance of the girls. The chief circumstances to 
effect this result, as respects the boys, were the introduction of active bodily exer- 
cises, the naval and the military drill, and the reduction of the duration of the 
school teaching to within what appear to me to be the psychological limits of the 
capacity of voluntary attention. 

When book instruction is given under circumstances combining bodily with 
mental exercises, not only are the book attainments of the half-time scholars proved 
to be more than equal to those of the full-time scholars, but their aptitudes for 
applying them are superior, and they are preferred by employers for their superior 
alertness and efficiency. 

In the common course of book instruction, and in the average of small but well- 
managed long-time schools, children after leaving an infant school are occupied on 
the average six years in learning to read and write and spell fairly, and in acquiring 
proficiency in arithmetic up to decimal fractions. In the larger half-time schools, 
with a subdivision of educational labour, the same elementary branches of instruc- 
tion are taught better in three years, and at about half the annual expense for 
superior educational power. 

The general results stated, I have collected from the experience during a period of 
from twelve to fifteen years of schools, comprising altogether between ten and twelve 
thousand pupils. From such experience it appears that the general average school- 
time is in excess full double of the psychological limits of the capacities of the 
ayerage of children for lessons requiring mental effort. 

_ LT haye not hitherto been enabled to carry my inquiries to any sufficient extent 
for astatement of pees results, to the schools for children or youth of the 
higher ages, but I believe it will be found that the school and collegiate require- 
ments are everywhere more or less in excess of psychological limits. I gather that 
the average study, continuous and mental labour, of successful prizemen at the uni- 
yersities is from five hours and a half to little more than six hours of close mental 
labour or exertion from day to day. An able Oxford examiner informs me, that if 
he ever hears that some one is coming up for examination who has been reading 
twelve or thirteen hours a day, he is accustomed to exclaim, “that man will be 
lucked!” and during his experience of thirteen years a3 an examiner at Oxford, 
e has never known an instance to the contrary. In respect to the mental labour 
of adults, it is observed by Sir Benjamin Brodie in his ‘ Psychological Inquiries,’ 
“A man in a profession may be engaged in professional matters for twelve or 
thirteen hours daily, and suffer no very great inconvenience beyond that which may. 
be traced to bodily fatigue. The greater part of what he has to do (at least it is so. 
after a certain amount of experience) is nearly the same as that which he has done 
many times before, and becomes almost matter of course. He uses not only his 
previous knowledge of facts, or his simple experience, but his previous thoughts, 
and the conclusions at which he had arrived formerly; and it is only at intervals 
that he is called upon to make any considerable mental exertion. But at every step 
in the composition of his philosophical works Lord Bacon had to think, and no one 
can be engaged in that which requires a sustained effort of thought for more than 

a very limited portion of the twenty-four hours, &e. 
r But great things are accomplished more frequently by moderate efforts persevered. 


188 REPORT—1860. 


in with intervals of relaxation during a very long period. I have been informed 
that Cuvier was usually engaged for seven hours daily in his scientific researches ; 
but these were not of a nature to require continuous thought. Sir Walter Scott, 
if my recollection be accurate, describes himself as having devoted about six hours 
daily to literary composition, and his mind was then in a state to enjoy some lighter 
pursuits afterwards. After his misfortunes, however, he allowed himself no relaxa- 
tion, and there can be little doubt that this over-exertion contributed as much as 
the moral suffering which he endured to the production of the disease of the brain, 
which ultimately caused his death. Sir David Wilkie found that he was exhausted, 
if employed in his peculiar line of art for more than four or five hours daily; and 
it is probable that it was to relieve himself from the effects of too great labour that 
he turned to the easier occupation of portrait-painting. In fact, even among the 
higher grades of mind there are but a few that are capable of sustained thought, 
ete day after day, for a much longer period than this.”—P, 9-13. 

Sir Benjamin Brodie has stated to me that he subsequently ascertained that in 
the above passage he had rather exceeded the limits of the mental labour of Sir 
Walter Scott, who, in a conversation on the topic, in the presence of Sir Charles 
Lyell and Mr. Lockhart, had declared that he worked for three hours with pleasure, 
but that beyond about four hours he worked with pain. Sir Benjamin states to me 
that he is of opinion “that for young children three or four hours’ occupation in 
school must be even more than sufficient, and that they will be found in the end to 
have made greater progress, if their exertions are thus limited, than if they are 
continued for a longer period.” 

In large public establishments in which I have had an executive direction, I have 
not found it practicable to sustain, on the average, for longer than six hours per 
diem, from day to day, continuous and steady mental labour on the part of adults. 

I find ground for the belief that as more and more of mental effort and skill is 
required in the exercise of the manual arts, the hours of work must be more and 
more reduced for the attainment of the best economical results without waste of 
the bodily power. 

The psychological limits to mental labour are governed by phystological limits, 
which in the case of young children are first indicated by bodily pain experienced, 
in continued sedentary constraint, from suppressed muscular activity, or from mus- 
cular irritability. As respects children, the physiological case is put in the follow- 
ing letter which I wrote to Professor Owen, and in his answer :— 


“Dear OwEN,—Permit me to submit to you for your consideration and for my 
instruction, some questions on topics of observation made from time to time offi- 
cially on the common practice of popular education, whether, in the duration of 
sedentary attention which its theory requires, it is not at variance with elementary 
principles of physiology ? 

“First, let me observe upon the very young of our species, their mobility at the 
periods of growth, particularly in infancy,—their constant changes of bodily position, 
when free to change,—their incessant desire for muscular exertion,—their changes, 
short at first, longer as growth advances,—these changes being excited by quickly 
varying objects of mental attention, and forming incessantly varying alternations of 
exertion and repose, with manifestations of pleasure when allowed free scope for 
them, of pain when long restrained. Now to what physiological conditions do 
these alternations of exertion and repose subserve ? 

“ When obstructed and subjected to constraints for long periods, and when pain 
and mental irritation and resistance are excited amongst classes, are not the pain and 
resistance to be taken as a remonstrance of nature against a violation of its laws ? 

“The theory of the common practice of school instruction is of five and as much 
as six hours’ quietude, and for intervals of three hours each, perfect muscular inac- 
tivity and stillness of very young and growing children from seven to ten years old, 
and during this constrained muscular inactivity, continuous mental attention and 
labour. 

“To ensure these conditions of continued bodily inactivity and prolonged mental 
labour, the common office of the schoolmaster is everywhere a war for the repres- 
sion of resistances and incipient rebellions. But are not these resistances excited 
by nature itself? Are not dase cutting, whittling with knives, mischief, conditions 


en wae = 


| atte caine 


ey ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 189 


of irritability, manifestations of excessive constraints against physiology? If the 
condition of muscular inactivity were completely enforced, what does physiology 
tell us may be expected from these restraints? I might ask you, indeed, whether 
much of the insanitary conditions of our juvenile and very young populations are 
not consequences following from them ? 

“First, there is the proverbial pale-facedness of the young scholar, and a lower 
bodily condition of those who are subject to the confinement of schools, even of the 
best construction and ventilation, than of those who are free from them and at 
large, at liberty to follow natural instincts. 

“ When the weakly fail in health in a marked degree under the restraints of the 
school, the remedy 1s restoration to natural freedom, which commonly leads to 
improved health. I cannot but attribute to the lowering of the system and bodily 
debility produced by this excessive school constraint (even where there is good ven- 
tilation), and the consequent exposure to epidemic conditions and other passing 
causes of disease, a large share of our juvenile mortality, especially between seven 
and ten years of age, when the opportunities of retrieving the effects of the school 
constraints by athletic exercises are less than at later periods. 

“But the constraints of a school are accomplished most fully in girls’ schools, more 
especially in boarding schools, where the sedentary application of young children 
is extended to eight hours daily, and diseases are attendant upon them, which I 
cannot help ascribing largely to violations of the laws of physiology. In Manchester, 
with the increase of prosperity, an increased proportion of females have been sent 
to boarding schools and high class schools with long hours; and I am assured 
by Mr. Roberton, who is especially conversant with the diseases of females, that 
the proportion of the mothers of the middle class who cannot suckle their own 
children is increasing. He has shown me statistically that, with all the care be- 
stowed upon females who have been so highly educated, the failures and deaths 
in childbirth are full sevenfold greater than amongst females of a lower condition 
in life, who have had less school restraint and sedentary application, and more 
freedom and muscular development in childhood. Cases of spinal distortion, ner- 
vous disorder, nervous mania, and hysteria, prevail peculiarly amongst the middle 
and higher class of females, whose education has been of prolonged sedentary occu- 
pation, even under the best sanitary conditions in other respects. As applied to 
them, it is a proverbial observation that ‘ailing mothers make moaning children.’ 
A lady who was eminent as a boarding-school teacher, but who has retired from 
business, has observed painful evidence of the injury done by the prolonged hours 
of sedentary application which custom and the demands of parents require, and 
she confirms the experience of the best half-time schools, that better instruction 
might be given in shorter hours. I have received a body of evidence from able 
teachers, that they can and do exhaust the capacity of attention to book instruction 
in half the time for which sustained attention to such instruction and bodily in- 
activity is demanded by custom. 

“But what I seek is the sanction of your opinion, as to whether, if the laws of 
physiology be duly consulted for providing a sound body for a sound mind, other 
treatment is needed than that which prevails in schools, of requiring five or six 
hours of sedentary occupation for children in the infantile stage, and seven or eight 
for those in the juvenile stage? I appeal to you more particularly from the fact, 
that in lectures and papers the teaching of physiology is insisted upon as an addi- 
tional element of popular education, and an additional demand of time in those 
schools, the whole condition and theory and attempted practice of which, though 
not yet so recognized generally by professors of the science, appears to me to be a 
large violation of it, and an offence against infantile nature. 

“ Yours ever, &e.” 


“My pEAR Cuapwicx,—I have perused and carefully considered every point in 
the inquiry which you have addressed to me, and I concur completely with your 
belief in the agreement with nature of the changes you recommend in the distribu- 
tion and change of the periods devoted to school restraint and studies, and to bodily 
exercise and relaxation. 

“All the nutritive functions and actions of growth proceed more vigorously and 
rapidly in childhood and youth than in mature life,—not merely as regards the 


190 ; REPORT—1860. 


solids and ordinary fluids, but also in the production of those imponderable and 
interchangeable forces which haye sometimes been personified as ‘ nervous fluid,’ 
‘muscular force,’ &c. Using the latter term to exemplify my meaning, the excess of 
nervous force is in the child most naturally and healthily reduced by its conversion 
into muscular force ; and at very short intervals, during the active or waking period 
of life, the child instinctively uses its muscles, and relieves the brain and nerves of 
their accumulated force, which passes, by the intermediate contraction of the mus- 
cular fibre, into ordinary force or motion, exemplified by the child’s own movements, 
and by those of some object or other which has attracted its attention, 

“The tissues of the growing organs, brain, muscles, &c., are at this period of 
life too soft to bear a long continuance of their proper actions; their fibres have 
not attained their mature tone and firmness; this is more especially the case with 
the brain-fibre. The direct action of the brain, as in the mental application to learn- 
ing, soon tires; if it be too long continued, the tissues are unhealthily affected ; the 
due progress of growth, which should have resulted in a fibre fit for good and con- 
tinuous labour at maturity, is interfered with; the child, as an intellectual instrument, 
is to that extent spoiled by an error in the process by which that instrument was 
sought to be improved. 

“The same effect on the muscular system is exemplified in the racers that are 
now trained to run, at 21 or 3 years’ old, for the grand prizes at Doncaster or Epsom. 
The winner of the ‘ Derby’ never becomes an ‘ Eclipse’ or ‘ Flying Childers,’ because 
the muscular system has been overwrought two or three years before it could have 
arrived at its full development, which development is stopped by the premature 
oyer-exertion. 

“Tf the brain be not stimulated to work, but is allowed to rest; and if, at the 
same time, the muscles be forbidden to act, there then arises, if this restraint be 
too prolonged, an overcharged state of the nervous system. It is such a state as 
we see exemplified in the caged quadruped of active habits, when it seeks to relieve 
it by converting the nervous into the muscular force to the extent permitted by its 

rison, either executing a succession of bounds against the prison-bars, like the agile 
eopard, or stalking, like the lion, sullenly to and fro. 

“Tf the active child be too long prevented from gratifying the instinctive impulse 
to put in motion its limbs or body, the nervous system becomes overcharged, and 
the relief may at last be got by violent emotions or acts, called ‘passion’ or ‘naughti- 
ness,’ ending in the fit of crying and flood of tears, 

“ But all these impediments to a healthy development of the nervous system 
might be obviated by regulations, based on the system which you rightly advocate, 
providing for more frequent alternations of labour and rest, of study and play, of 
mental exertion and muscular exercise ; in other words, by briefer and more frequent 
periods allotted to those phases of educational procedure, and modified to suit two 
or three divisions of the scholars, according to age, 

“The powers and workings of the human frame concerned in the complex acts 
and influences, which you have asked me to explain physiologically, are amongst 
the most recondite and difficult in our science. You will therefore comprehend 
and excuse my short-comings in trying to fulfil your wish. But, on the main point, 
T have no doubt that your aim is in close accordance with the nature of the delicate, 
and, for good or evil, easily impressible organization of the child. 

“ Believe me, ever truly yours, 
* RICHARD OWEN,” 


It is difficult to separate distinctly the evils arising from the excess of simple 
bodily inactivity, from the results of the common insanitary conditions of schools— 
bad ventilation, bad lighting, bad warming, and overcrowding. These, however, 
are attended by epidemic and eruptive diseases, which ravage the infantile com- 
munity, Simple constraint appears to be attended by eneryation and obstructed 
functions, and thence maladies of another class. The preventive of these is the 
occupation of children, with means of physical training, with systematized gym- 
nastics, including swimming, and the naval and military drill. Where there have 
been good approximations to the proper physiological as well as the psychological 
conditions, as in the half-time industrial district schools, epidemic dossei have 
been banished, and the rate of mortality reduced to one-third of that which prevails 


— 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 191 


amongst the general community, and in England and Wales alone, where upward 
of a quarter of a million of children are annually swept away from preventible 
disease, which enervates those who survive. Four labourers, who have had the 
advantage of this improved physical and mental training, are proved to be as effi- 
cient as five or more of those who have not. I am prepared to show that by ad- 
ministrative improvements in the application of the principles in question, double 
the population may be physically and mentally trained well at the expense of 
educating the existing numbers ill. 


On Local Taxation for Local Purposes. By R. Dowven. 


Dr. Whewell on the Method of Political Economy. 
By Henry Fawcert, W.A. 


On Co-operative Societies, their Social and Political Aspect. 
By Henry Fawcett, M.A. 


On the Province of the Statistician. By J. J. Fox. 


On Sanitary Drainage of Towns. By J. Hircuman. 


On the System of Taxation prevailing in the United States. 
By E. Jarvis, Boston, U.S. 


On Serfdom in Russia. By Dr. MicuEtsen. 


On the Economical History and Statistics of the Herring. By J. M. 
Mitcue ty, F.R.S.S.A., one of the Secretaries for Foreign Correspondence 
- of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, &c. 


_. The author said that he read this paper with the view of drawing public atten- 
tion to the great national importance of the Herring F ishery on the British coasts; 
and stated that the propriety of affording every encouragement and protection to 
it has been already affirmed by this Association, in its roposing for one of its 
objects “The improvement and extension of the British Fisheries ;” and the author, 
im pointing out its importance, quoted the following extract from Baron Cuvier's 
‘Natural History of Fishes,’ vol. xx. pp. 30, 31:— 

“ Par son inépuisable fécondité le hareng est une de ces productions naturelles 
dont l'emploi décide la destinée des empires. La graine du cafier, la feuille du thé, 
les épices de la zone torride, le ver & soie, ont moins influé sur les richesses des 
nations que le hareng de l’océan septentrional; le luxe ou le caprice demandent 
les premiers, le besoin réclame le second. La péche de ce poisson fait partir 
chaque année, des cdtes de France, de Hollande, des Iles Britanniques, des flottes 
nombreuses pour aller chercher dans le sein d’une mer orageuse, la moisson 
abondante et assurée que les légions innombrables présentent & la courageuse 
activité de ces peuples. Les evandes politiques, les plus habiles économistes, ont 
vu dans la péche du hareng la plus importante des expeditions maritimes; ils ]’ont 
surnommées la grande péche. Elle forme des hommes robustes, des marins intré+ 
pides, des navigateurs expérimentés. L’industrie que s’empare des produits de ce 
péche sait en faire l'objet d’un commerce, source des richesses inépuisables.” 

Many Acts of Parliament for the purpose of encouraging the fishery, from an 
early period downwards, had been passed by the Legislature; but, owing to the 
want of the knowledge of the natural history and habitat of the herring, they 
proved either injurious or abortive, although bolstered up with bounties and pre- 
miums ; and the fishery would not have become of any importance had not a local 
board of unpaid Commissioners been established, with efficient officers acquainted 
with the localities, so that the fishery might be prosecuted with success at the 


192 REPORT—1860. 


properly ascertained seasons. The Board was established in 1808, and its beneficial 
operations would be proved by the statistics of the progress of the fishery; and it 
will be seen that this fishery became, and is now, one of the greatest and most 

rosperous in the world, and is now only in danger from improper interference, if it 
is not guarded and controlled by the influence and opinions of scientific and intelli- 
gent men, such as are found at this Association. 

To prove the great interest that is taken by other maritime nations in the Herring 
Fishery, he stated that an interesting discussion took place at the French Academy 
in 1855, on the question of the migration of the herring, with no satisfactory 
results, from the want of the knowledge of facts: also, that the Government of 
Norway had been occupied for several years past in legislating with the view of 
promoting the Herring Fishery on the coasts of that country; and that in Sweden 
an elaborate report had been prepared, by the authority of the Government of that 
country, by one of the heads of the civil department, M. von Wright, with the 
view of obtaining information as to the cause of the total disappearance of the vast 
shoals of herrings that formerly visited the Swedish coasts; and that the Govern- 
ment of Holland is anxiously occupied in obtaining information on the subject, and 
has employed scientific men to investigate the subject of the visits of the feria 
and to prepare reports. The results of these observations, made on board of forty- 
five of the Dutch fishery busses, are given in a work published by the authority of 
the Dutch Government, which has been thought of such importance that the 
British Board of Trade has ordered a translation of it to be made and published for 
general information ; and it is important that it should be known that this move- 
ment of the Government of Holland is caused by the lately rapid declension of the 
Dutch Fishery, and that Government, seeing the rapid progress of the British Fishery 
on our coasts, has established a system of superintendence and regulation similar to 
that so successfully promoted by the Fishery Board. 

He said that there were many subjects for inquiry which do not properly belong 
to our Fishery Board, the Commissioners of which and their officers have special 
duties to perform under legislative enactments, and it may therefore be considered 
as a reproach to this country, which gains so abundant a supply of food of the best 
description, while at the same time securing a large force of useful mariners ready 
to detnd our coasts, and in the day of peril to man our navy, that no efficient 
efforts have yet been made to elucidate the natural history of the herring. 

At the present time we seem to pay too little attention to the fostering of our 
native industry; it is surely obvious that in encouraging the search for gold in our 
colonies, we are losing, or sending away from our own country, some of the most 
enterprising and industrious of our inhabitants, not easily to be replaced ; while by 
encouraging the search for the golden treasures on our own coasts, as truly said by 
the distinguished author, Cuvier, we create those men of so much yalue to a 
maritime country—“ INTREPID AND ROBUST MARINERS,” besides adding every year 
additional suPPLIEs OF FOOD and “INEXHAUSTIBLE RICHES.” 

To prove the great advantage of the system of superintendence and inspection of 
the Fishery Board and their officers, some statistics were given of the progress of the 
Fishery : among others the following :— 

When the Fishery Board was first established in 1808, the quantity of herrings 
cured and salted in barrels was 99,185 barrels, while in 1855 the quantity cured 
was 766,703 barrels; and adding the quantity sold fresh, 130,759 barrels, we find 
the total quantity of herrings caught in that year was 897,462 barrels—yielding at 
a moderate calculation the value of one million sterling, which may be safely taken 
as the average annual value of the herrings fished on the coasts of Scotland, without 
calculating the quantity caught at Yarmouth and other places on the English and 
Trish coasts, which are principally sold fresh or smoked. 

Before an efficient system of legislation and regulation was adopted in this 
country, the demand from abroad was inconsiderable, but it has annually increased 
since: for instance, in 1812 the quantity exported to the Continent was only 4720; 
in 1815 it amounted to 35,891; in 1840 to 82,351; in 1845 to 143,754; in 1850 to 
257,103; and in 1855 the quantity exported was 344,029. And to show how rapid 
the progress has been in foreign markets of the sale of British herrings, he gave the 
amount of the British, Dutch, Danish and Norwegian herrings imported into one of 
the largest exporting towns in Prussia (Stettin) in successive years. 


— 


I 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193 


In 1825 there was imported there—from 


Great Britain. Holland. Denmark, Norway. 

18,160 A295 1960 6,758 

In 1845 81,189 2457 307 44,264 
In 1850 = 116,53 508 470 12,567 


and in 1855 the quantity of British herrings amounted to 160,572 barrels—about 
nine times the quantity sent in 1825 to Stettin; and as the herrings are carefully 
separated, assorted and packed into proper-sized barrels, cured under the eye of the 
inspecting officers, the British herrmgs have become known, in consequence, as 
a safe and staple article of commerce, and are imported into various other ports; 
for instance, there were exported to the following ports in 1855— 


sed Soa HQ gp Or iSnNEnes SOOD GS DIC . 14,417 
PIE, FO ean ek fee tame natinie «has mte 59,204 
Eipnpere’. fsck cerhutiace coe ee 26,774 
aerate POF: Set eee hae ee ee 60,577 
IreTnen 24 PL Se ee Soe ee es salen 6,754 
Rotterdam, for the Rhine ......,.......5% 7,955 
Chater Paris, NEU etree ta etal tsa 8,244 
SLOG , Were hiked oer a Sofia PG SEA ies 160,572 
Maleate artoteler VE P55 0 es bee 344,207 


And it is interesting to know that at the fishery stations in Scotland there were 


. employed in the year referred to, Fishing Boats 11,251, the tonnage being 77,794; 


and the fishermen, coopers and others employed, amounted to 91,139, of which 
91,189 people directly employed, 39,266 were fishermen. These statistics apply to 
the Scottish coasts only, where the greatest shoals of herrings resort ; but there are 
other places, as already stated, such as Yarmouth, where many of the fishermen are 
occupied in fishing herrings in the usual seasons. 

Tt is necessary that the truth should be known as to the progressive prosperity 


and increase of the Herring Fishery, because there are some authors who are in- 


clined to depreciate our national productions and progress; for instance, we find 
McCulloch, in his ‘ Dictionary of Commerce,’ which is considered a text-book and 
standard work by a certain class of readers, saying “the Dutch have uniformly 
maintained their ascendency in the Herring Fishery since the earliest period,” and 
that “ ours remains in a very unhealthy and feeble state.” 

_ As already stated, the Dutch Herring Fishery is in a declining state, and instead 
of 300 busses proceeding annually to the fishery, as was the case not many years 
ago, the number has been gradually decreasing, and does not now exceed 60 busses ; 
but on our coasts great prosperity is evident from the progress of the population, 
the increase of towns ‘and villages, and from the comfortable state of the fishermen 
and their families, and the great circulation of wealth that must exist by an annual 
increase of one million sterling taken out of the sea on our own coasts. 

The value of this great fishery should teach us the propriety of carefully fostering 
and protecting it; and to enable us to do so efficiently, we must have some know- 
ledge of the natural history and habits of the herring, as well as accurate statistcis. 
He said he was prepared to prove that the herring was a native of the seas adjacent. 


_ to the coast to which it resorted; and in conclusion, he said that to promote its 


prosperity, or even to protect it, legislation was necessary, and power should be 
given to prevent the disturbance of the spawn, and the indiscriminate destruction 


_ of the young herring or fry. The fishery grounds during the proper season shonld 
_ be attended by the proper number of ships of war, to prevent disputes and disturb- 


ance among the fishermen, and to prevent the large fishing vessels from driftin 
into the smaller ones. He recommended that the Fishery Board established in 
Scotland, should be extended to England and Ireland, as calculated to increase the 
rosperity of the fisheries and the number of fishermen and seamen suitable for 
e€ navy. 
_Betore concluding he produced a copy of a letter written by him to the Right. 
Hon. the Lord Adyocate of Scotland, to prove that it is absolutely necessary for 
1860. i 


194 REPORT—1860. 


the protection of the fishermen and the merchants that the system of inspection by 
the Fishery Officers be continued to preserve order among the fishermen during the 
fishing season, to prevent the fishermen using illegal nets, and to prevent the 
fishermen being defrauded by illegal measures; and more particularly as the 
merchant buys perhaps several thousand barrels at a time, that the necessity of 
opening the barrels and seeing the herrings may be avoided; and the various onerous 
duties of the officers he thus enumerates : — 

“J, They are the police of the fishery, who maintain and have the power to en- 
force order. Much fraud and disorder existed before the officers were appointed ; 
at ae such cannot exist without being repressed. [This may be said to be the 
only constabulary force paid out of the national funds in Scotland, and costs only 
£14,000 per annum. The constabulary force in Ireland, paid out of the national 
funds, costs £650,000 per annum. | 

“2, They protect the fishermen in this way,—the measure or cran by which they 
are paid for their fish must be of legal size and branded. Formerly it was often 
made too large, and the fishermen were defrauded. 

“3, They prevent the meshes or squares of the net from being made below the 
proper size, which, if so made, would take the young and inferior herring. 

“4, They see that the fishermen do not fish during the day and on Sunday. 
In a paper I read at the Literary Institute the other day, I proved that three im- 
portant fisheries were annihilated by this practice of fishing during the day. 

“5, They prevent, as far as they are authorized by law, the destruction of the 
fry and spawn, which would diminish or annihilate the herrings. 

“6, They point out to the tyro fish-curer the mode of cure. 

“7, They see where the fishing localities rise into importance, so that they can 
point out where creeks may be improved, by forming fishing harbours and shelter 
for the fishermen. 

“8, They see that the herrings are cured within twenty-four hours after being 
caught. 

«9, They see that the different kinds of herrings are properly separated and 
packed in different barrels. 

“10. They see that they are properly gutted. 

; “11. They see that a sufficient quantity of salt is put into the barrels with the 
errings. 

“12. They see that they are properly packed in the barrels. 

“13. They see that they are, after ten days, properly filled up with a sufficiency 
of herrings and pickle. 

“14, They see that the barrels are of the proper legal size. 

“15. They see that the barrels are of the requisite materials and strength, which 
they formerly were not. ° 
é ‘ie They see that no branded barrel is used a second time to cover inferior 

sh. 

“17. And when all the requirements are attended to, they apply the brands to 
the various descriptions of herrings as they have been assorted. There are several 
brands applicable to the different kinds—the highest being the crown brand and the 
word ‘full.’ The applying the crown brand isa proof of the officer having watched 
the progress of the cure. It is, in short, the mere Finis coronut opus—the opus, or 
work, has been going on since the herrings were fished, and the crown proves that 
the herrings are merchantable; but the various operations require careful attention 
during the whole year.” 


On some suggested Schemes of Taxation, and the Difficulties of them. 
By W. NewMarcu. 


Hints on the best Plan of Cottage for Agricultural Labourers. 
By Henry Joun Ker Porter, MRA. 


The present condition of the dwellings of farm labourers requires, I believe, with 
some exceptions, improvement no less than the abodes of the labouring classes in 
larye towns. The drainage and ventilation are generally admitted to be imperfect ; 
but the eyil of too much cold air is severely felt in some districts with which 1 am 


TRANSACTIONS OF TIE SECTIONS. 195 


acquainted ; I have found cottages built of what I have seen in New Zealand and 
Australia, and there called “ wattle and dab” or wicker work, covered with untem- 
pered mortar: these walls cannot keep out the piercing cold in winter; the frame- 
worl: on which the roof rests frequently gives way, and the doors and windows can- 
not be kept water-tight. 

Ihave turned my attention towards their improvement. I haye had the large 
heayy thatched roofs, where they are good, supported, while new brick walls 
have replaced “the wattle and dab,” and new doors and;windows have been added. 
I found this alteration cost from £10 to £12 each cottage, and the occupiers were 
quite willing to have 5 per cent. on the outlay added to their rent. 

With reference to new buildings, I have the pleasure to present to this Section 
of the British Association the drawings of a cottage which I found from practical 
experience to be the best suited to the labourer in rural districts. It combines the 
advantages of at least three airy bed rooms, a lofty kitchen or living room, and an 
apartment which may be turned either into a parlour or a bed room, where the 
family is large ; or if neither of those apartments are required, it may form an outer 
kitchen or scullery. A lean-to is added to the end of the house, which forms 
a barn to hold the gleaning, the fuel, or other matters, without which no labourer’s 
cottage can be kept neat and comfortable. Two peculiar features in the cottages I 
have built I beg to refer to. Ventilation is secured by a4-inch square opening near 
the ceiling in each apartment; this opening leads the foul air into a small flue of the 
same size carried up to the gable of the house, and finding egress in a narrow open- 
ing in the outer side of the wall. When the cottage is built of brick, this adds 
nothing to the expense; when built of stone, it is only the additional cost of the 
round tiles for forming the flues. Several of these flues may lead to the upper one, 
which of course must be proportionably enlarged to carry off the increased quantity 
of air. In Ireland I built twenty dwellings in a double row of houses, at one side 
opening into a court yard, the other into the street of alarge market town. Fevers 
prevailed in the following year, and several deaths occurred amongst the labouring 
classes, and not one death amongst the 100 individuals occupying those houses. 
I built two villages on the same estate, and the medical gentleman whose duty it 
was to visit the labouring classes on that property, bore testimony to the value of 
the system adopted for ventilation. The other peculiarity in these houses was the 
mode in which the window-sashes were made, Hvery one acquainted with English 
cottages of the last half-century, is aware of the misery and expense of lead lights, 
neyer keeping out cold and always wanting repair. Metal has been substituted, 
and these are often so imperfect that they fit badly and neither exclude wet 
nor cold; it is the case in school-houses in the parish in which I reside, and there 
was no expense spared in their erection. To avoid these difficulties, I adopted 
wood for the outer part of the sash, the inner divisions being formed of 3 inch 
hoop iron cut half through where they intersect, and thus forming one of the 
strongest sashes possible, with the advantage of being able to add to or take from 
the outer sides of the sash, to make them fit tightly ; they open on a pivot let into the 
sash on each side, thus giving the whole size of the window, when necessary, for the 
admission of fresh air. “I have made a very rude attempt at a model before breakfast 
this morning, but it will serve to show the plan of forming the window with the 
hoop iron. I have erected one such cottage in the county of Huntingdon, upon the 
estate which is placed under my management as agent; and so many tenants have 
requested 4wo houses each on their farms, that I am about to build several more, 
the money being advanced by the Land Improvement Society, to be paid by instal- 
ments in 31 years, thus giving the estates, the tenants, and the labourers the imme- 
diate benefit of the improvement, while the proprietor of the estate, who is only 
tenant for life, will not be obliged to expend so very large a sum, which might 
have the effect of curtailing other improvements. The tenants in every case have 
agreed to pay 5 per cent. increased rent for the outlay, and these rents will be paid 
by labourers, who gladly settle down where they find constant employment and 


comfortable and healthy dwellings. 


On the Systems of Poor Law Medical Relief. By ¥. Purvy. 


13* 


196 REPORT—1860. 


Notes on various Efforts to improve the Domiciliary Condition of the 
Labouring Classes. By Henry Roserts, FSA. 


It is only within the past fifteen or twenty years that much attention has been di- 
rected to this subject, and considering its importance in regard to a very numerous 
class of the community, I trust that a brief statement of facts, drawn from experience, 
and tending to show by what means the object is most likely to be obtained, will not 
be deemed foreign to the investigations of that branch of the British Association 
which is devoted to Economic Science and Statistics. 

That an undertaking which in its commencement may appear very easy should 
in its progress encounter some unexpected difficulties, is of such common occur- 
rence, that it would be almost an exceptional case were it otherwise in this 
instance. But to be daunted by difficulties is foreign to the character of Britons, and 
it should be so especially when the object aimed at is the benefit of our fellow- 
creatures. 

I assume that something of the actual domiciliary state of vast masses of our 
fellow-subjects is known to most, though but few have sounded the depths of its 
misery or of its degradation, and none can fully estimate its evil results. Whilst 
on the Continent for the recovery of health, I have seen and heard it so often 
referred to, that, when recommending the subject to the attention of influential 
persons in different countries, I could not but think of those words, “ Physician, 
heal thyself.” 

The first associated efforts of a practical character were commenced in England, 
shortly after the investigations made by Government authority into the state 
of the poor, subsequent to the first outbreak of cholera in the metropolis. Two 
societies were then formed by philanthropic individuals, with a view to work out 
and to exhibit a practical remedy for the great social evils resulting from the con- 
dition of the dwellings of the working classes,—a remedy which would commend 
itself to extensive adoption, and be the means of stimulating the owners of existing 
houses from self-interested motives, to improve and render them healthy abodes, 
and afford the evidence of practical results in support of an appeal to the legisla- 
ture for a somewhat unprecedented interference with private property. 

The first established of these Societies, though the second to commence building, 
which it did in 1845, is the Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings 
of the Industrious Classes. Up to the present time it has expended on its ten 
distinct ranges of dwellings £89,613 14s. 10d., of which £71,528 2s. 6d, has been 
laid out on six separate blocks of dwellings in different parts of the metropolis, which 
accommodate 395 families ; the net return received from them, for the year ending 
31st March last, after deducting all current expenses and repairs, amounted to 
£2687 4s. 4d., being about 33 per cent. on the outlay. On two lodging houses 
for single men,—one of them new, which has accommodation for 234, and the other 
old, which provides for 128,—the return, owing to the want of sufficient occupants, 
has been very unsatisfactory ; such indeed as to involve a considerable loss, which 
proves that the buildings are’either too large, or in some way unadapted to the class 
of men frequenting their neighbourhood. 

It is worthy of observation that the same result has attended a similar lodging 
house at Marseilles, built outside the town, for 150 men, too far from their daily 
occupation, whilst many such houses elsewhere, on a smaller scale, accommodating 
from 50 to 100 men, and near to their work, have fully succeeded; in some instances 
they have been gradually increased, which is the case at Leeds and at Liverpool. 
Of two adjoining houses, built on the Boulevard de Batignolles in Paris, to accom- 
modate together 203 men, and having on the ground floor a restaurant and café, 
one was closed two years since. In this instance, however, the failure is doubtless 
in some degree attributable to defective management. 

The second established Society in London, that for Improving the Condition of 


the Labouring Classes, commenced its first building in 1844. It has constructed — 
four distinct ranges of new buildings, which accommodate .97 families in separate — 


dwellings, provide 94 rooms for single women, and lodgings for 104 single men, as 


well as a public wash-house with baths. It has also renovated and fitted up, in — 


three distinct localities, old houses which lodge 158 single men. These several 
dwellings and lodging houses have all been im full occupation since 1851, Within 


—————— ee Ul hl ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 197 


the past six years, three entire courts in different localities have been taken by 
the same Society; and the condition of the houses, which were indescribably filthy, 
and occupied by the lowest class of tenants, has been completely changed. The 
number of rooms collectively contained in these courts is 275, and there is also a 
single men’s lodging house with 40 beds. The total expenditure on these new 
and old buildings, with the land, has been £43,631 17s. 3d. 

The form in which the accounts of this Society are presented does not afford the 
same facility for ascertaining the pecuniary return on the capital invested, as those 
of the Metropolitan Associations do; and one of its undertakings,—that in Portpool 
Lane, the Thankseiving Model Buildings, which was commenced in 1850 with 
contributions received after the removal of the cholera,—was avowedly of so 
experimental and mixed a character, that the pecuniary results are not a criterion 
applicable to other cases, excepting as a caution against providing largely in one 
building for single women. The average occupation of 64 rooms, which progressed 
very slowly at the commencement, has not exceeded 50 to 52; and more stringent 
regulations, with regard to the hours of closing, and more constant supervision 
than in the men’s lodging houses, are proved to be indispensable. The public wash- 
house and baths, though a boon to the neighbourhood, have not been remunerative. 

The receipts and expenses of the different buildings during the year 1852, for 
which I can personally speak to the management of this Society, having then acted 
on its committee and as its honorary architect, were,— 


Bagnigge Wells: self-contained houses and flats for 23 £ 8 ds 
families, and rooms for 30 aged females. Outlay on} Receipts 875 7 7 
land £1045, building £5025. Expenses 82 6 9 

Net return 203 0 10 

Streatham Street: houses for 54 families built on flats : r - 
fire-proof, and with galleries. Outlay, ground rent panaiat Sea 5 ; 
£50, building £8916 16s, Od. PP 2 

; Net return 499 9 3 

George Street: lodging house for 104 men, six stories . 
high, including basement offices, and four floors of ssh os 7 ‘ 
dormitories. Outlay, land £1200, building £5226, P 

Net return 812 5 2 

Charles Street : lodging house for 84 men formed out of . 
three old houses, ‘renovated and thrown into one. Bs — ae Hs 4 
Outlay on repairs and furniture £1163 14s, 2d. P 

Net return 184 15 2 


King Street: lodging house for 22 men. An old house, 
on the repairing and furnishing of which £135 was 
expended. 


Receipts 111.9 8 
Expenses 73 13 11 


Netretun 3715 9 


The rents received from these houses have varied but slightly since they were 
opened, up to the present time, and they are generally well-filled, the families chan- 
ging but seldom. The cost of repairs is not included in the expenses which are 


above stated ; they should be taken as averaging $ per cent. on new, and generally 


from 1 to 2 per cent. on old buildings. 

Calculating 4 per cent. interest on the cost of the land, the clear return on the out- 
lay of £19,467 16s. Od. on the three first-named piles, which are new buildings, is 
5; per cent., from which, deducting ~ per cent. for repairs, leaves 4} per cent. net. 
It should, however, be observed, that the return from the Streatham Street family 
houses is higher than from the other two, amounting to 5 per cent. net, and the 
rents of the family houses were mostly fixed below those usually paid for similar 
accommodation. The two lodging houses, which were old buildings and lease- 


_ hold, yielded a return of about 17 per cent. ; and deducting 2 per cent. for repairs, 
_ they gave a net return of 15 per cent. 


The outlay in putting the three old courts into a good sanitary state, with suit- 


198 REPORT—1860. 


able fittings, including the lodging house, has been £7226 1s. 4d.; and the clear 
return for the year ending 31st December 1858, was £203 14s. 3d., from which 
deducting 14 per cent. for the expense of repairs, leaves about 1} per cent. net on 
the outlay. 

From these figures it would appear that whilst in the metropolis old buildings 
may be renovated and fitted up for men’s lodging houses, with the prospect of at 
least a fair remunerative return, although this has not been the case invariably, 
the putting of old courts and blocks of dwelling houses for families into a good 
sanitary condition, unless they are obtained at an unusually low price, is not likely 
to yield a satisfactory return on the outlay, even taking 4 to 5 per cent. as the lowest 
rate of interest which such investments should yield, after provision has been made 
for repairs, and a sinking fund to pay off the capital, which there should be, espe- 
cially in the case of leasehold property. 

It is well also to notice that the actual benefit resulting from these efforts has 
not been conferred to the extent which might be supposed, on those who were the 
occupants of the courts, when they were taken by the Society, as a considerable 
portion of them have been ejected, in order not only to reduce the number of occu- 
pants to a due limit, but also to secure a more eligible set of tenants. 

It may, however, be stated here, that a Society has for the past three years been 
successfully in operation at Hastings, established mainly through the instrumenta- 
lity of Dr. Greenhill, and called the Hastings Cottage Improvement Society, which 
avowed “the fixed determination to spare no pains in securing the main object of 
benefiting the tenants, and at the same time not to discourage the good cause by a 
commercial failure.” With an expenditure to the present time of £9246 in pur- 
chasing and putting old dwelling-houses into good condition, a dividend of 6 per 
cent. has been paid.. Judging from what I have seen of the Society’s labours at an 
early stage, it is simply that of putting the acquired property into the condition 
which any kind-hearted considerate landlord would desire for his own tenants; 
and this has been done with as little disturbance of the existing occupants as pos- 
sible. The operations of this Society derive much advantage from the seg Ba 
of two visitors, whose duty is to inspect the houses every fortnight. The forma- 
tion of a reserve fund at the rate of 1 per cent. per annum, and also of a beneyo- 
lent fund amongst the tenants, deserve notice. 

The physical results obtained by the two Societies in the Metropolis have been 
of a very marked character. For the four consecutive years 1850 to 1853, the 
average number of deaths in all their houses was only 15-6 per 1000, as compared 
with 27 to 28 per 1000 in the districts immediately around them, and of 26 per 
1000 in the Metropolis generally, whilst there has been an almost entire freedom 
from the special diseases to which the lower classes are more peculiarly subject, 
not even excepting cholera. That such returns should not have been regularly 
continued by the second named of these societies, is cause for regret. A very beneficial 
influence has been exercised on the localities in which the houses are situated, 
especially those occupied by families; and it may be confidently asserted that the 
most sanguine expectations of their projectors have been realized in every respect, 
excepting that of their financial returns, and the extent to which it was anticipated 
that the example would be followed. 

Had the returns generally proved more remunerative, doubtless a greater number 
of similar houses would have been built; yet, although they are but a drop in the 
bucket, when the extent and vast population of London is considered, they are not, 
as compared with what has been done at Paris, encouraged by a large government 
subvention, by any means as insignificant as might be inferred from a remark made 
in the last number of the Quarterly Review, that “the wants of the displaced poor 
have with us been utterly neglected.” It is too true that in the Metropolis of 
Great Britain, as well as in that of France, the formation of new streets, and the 
removing masses of miserable dens, has only increased the evil, by crowding yet more 
those that remain. I can, however, after minutely examining all which had been 
done or commenced in Paris two years ago, and ascertaining the additions since 
made, confidently assert that Ingland, which took the lead in this effort of prac- 
tical benevolence, has done much more through the unaided force of that motive, 
than has been accomplished in France, with the stimulus of a government subyen- 
tion of 10,000,000 francs. 


OO  ——— orrererree oe 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 199 


The number of improved dwellings for working people which have been con- 
structed in London, either by local associations, or by individuals, following more 
or less closely the plans of those built by the two societies before referred to, for- 
bids their detailed notice ; they may be learnt from my paper on “ the Improvement 
of the Dwellings of the Labouring Classes,” given in the Transactions of the 
National Association for the promotion of Social Science for 1858. On this occa- 
sion I shall only allude to such of them as especially illustrate the points which it 
is the main object of this paper to prove. 

At Shadwell, close to the line of the Blackwall Railway, a number of miserable 
dwellings, tenanted by the lowest class of persons, came by inheritance into the 
foo of a private gentleman, W. E. Hilliard, Esq. of Gray’s Inn: actuated 

y the most philanthropic views, he decided on endeavouring to improve, not only 
his own property, but also by example the immediate neighbourhood, and his 
efforts have been crowned with signal success. The old dwellings have been 
replaced by an entire street of considerable length ; on both sides of which houses 
for accommodating in the whole 112 families have been built, on the general plan 
of H.R.H. The Prince Consort’s Exhibition Model Houses 1851, with an open stair- 
case, giving access to each pair of upper floor tenements. The twenty-eight blocks 
of four houses cost £487 each ; and after allowing for ground rent and all charges, 
I can state, on the authority of the owner, that “they continue to pay upwards of 
six, in fact nearly seven per cent. asa net return on the investment; and what,” he 
adds, “is perhaps of more consequence, they are almost constantly let, and are ap- 
preciated by the tenants, who, as a rule, are pretty stationary, and not migratory, 
as that class frequently are. 

- “We have before us in this case, an outlay of nearly £14,000 on new buildings 
which contain 448 rooms, kitchens or sculleries included, yielding from 6 to 7 per 
cent., whilst we have seen that the cost of obtaining and putting into sanitary con- 
dition three old courts, which contain 275 rooms, and a lodging house with 40 beds, 
has been upwards of £7000; and in that instance the return on the outlay has been 
1} per cent., after deducting 14 per cent. for repairs, but making no allowance for a 
sinking fund.” 

' The Strand Building Company, on their houses for 25 families in Eagle Court, 
has last year paid a dividend of 4} per cent. to the shareholders. 

The Victoria Lodging House for married soldiers, built by an association of officers 
of the battalion of Guards, near the Vauxhall Bridge Road, and containing 54 tene- 
ments or 112 rooms, was the first practical result of the interest manifested in this 
object by H.R.H. The Prince Consort in connexion with the Great Exhibition. 
I allude to it partly as showing how justly the late Duke of Wellington estimated 
the probable effects of placing that small building in the barrack yard at Knights- 
bridge, when, as Commander-in-chief, he objected to the situation lest it should 
cause a feeling of dissatisfaction in the army, with the want of any accommodation 
for married soldiers ; an evil which the Marquis of Anglesea told me His Grace 
apprehended the country to be then unprepared to remedy. Since that time, 
separate dwellings for the married non-commissioned officers and men of the regiment 
stationed at Chatham garrison, as well as for the engineers, have been built; and 
during the present session of Parliament £30,000 have been voted for married 
soldiers’ quarters. 

The Windsor Royal Society, established in 1852, has now £9000 invested in new 

cottages and in two lodging houses, the net returns from which enable them to 
pay a dividend of 4 per cent. to the shareholders. ata aets ? 
_ At Liverpool, on a range of dwellings for 23 families, built in Upper Frederick 
Street after the general plan of The Prince Consort’s Exhibition model-houses, 
43 per cent. is realized. The Association at Brighton has also built one block of 
six houses on the same plan, and they pay a fair return on the cost. 

Not fewer than twenty societies for providing improved dwellings for the work- 
ing classes have, to my knowledge, been established in various provincial towns in 
England; and whilst their operations are, without exception, beneficial in regard to 
the occupants, the pecuniary results have varied considerably. In such under- 
takings, competent skill and watchful supervision are most important elements 
of success. In order to show what may be done with sound judgment and care- 
ful management, I instance one example, in addition to those already given; and 


200 REPORT—1860. 


as that is taken from Scotland, I may observe that the urgent necessity for such 
efforts is as great in the two sister kingdoms as it is in England. 

The Pilrig Model Buildings, near Leith Walk, Edinburgh, were commenced in 
1850 ; they consist of forty-four dwellings in three blocks, with access on both sides, 
the upper floor tenements being approached from the opposite side to that on which 
the ground floor tenements are entered. The greatest economy, consistent with 
fitness and durability, was maintained in the construction, so that the total cost of 
the forty-four houses, including drains, &c., was only £4052 15s. 9d., being on an 
average about £92 per house, with scarcely any extras. The rent of the whole is 
£303 19s. Od., varying from £5 5s. per house up to £9 15s., one half of them not 
exceeding £6 6s, per house. Higher rents might have been charged had not the 
committee desired to benefit a class of persons who could not afford to pay more. 
After deducting all expenses,—feu duty £22 14s, 10d. ; insurance £6 12s, 6d, ; rates 
and taxes £13 11s. 23d. ; repairs £13 4s. 7d.; management £21 6s, 3d., and paying 
a dividend of 5 per cent. (less income tax) amounting to £196 16s, 6d.,—a balance 
of £30 15s. 1d. was last year added to the sinking fund, from which a expenses, 
such as painting and papering, are defrayed. This fund now amounts to about £150. 
Having had the opportunity of seeing these houses when returning from the 
Aberdeen Meeting last year, I refer to them with pleasure, as in many respects 
worthy of imitation, and am not surprised at hearing that the demand for them is 
generally at least six times equal to the supply. 

The facts given thus far, refer exclusively to buildings in towns: with regard to 
country districts, in which there is an equal necessity for exertion, the number 
of improved cottages built by landed proprietors, as well as by other large em- 
ployers of working people, such as manufacturers, railway and other public com- 
panies, owners of collieries, mines, quarries, &c., has within the past twelve years 
been very considerable; and it is to the increased feeling of responsibility in this 
respect, as well as to more enlarged views of their own interest on the part of 
employers, that we must mainly look for the much needed improvement in the 
domiciliary condition of our rural population, and of those whose industrial em- 
ployments are remote from towns. 

In thus saying I do not forget that in many places Benefit Building Societies 
present a useful machinery for enabling the working classes to obtain improved 
dwellings, and that much good may result from judicious advice given to their 
members in the selection of such plans as will enable them to obtain a healthy 
and convenient home. In many places on the Continent, societies haye, within 
the past ten years, been formed by philanthropic persons to build suitable houses 
for working people, and likewise to afford facilities which enable their occupiers, 
by small periodical payments in addition to the rent, to become the owners of their 
own dwellings; the parties who advance the money being satisfied with 4 per 
cent. interest, and the security of a sinking fund to pay off the capital. Such 
buildings act as a savings’ bank, promoting sobriety and habits of forethought. 

The beneficial effects resulting from a diffusion of sanitary knowledge amongst 
the working population generally, and the importance of their being led to under- 
stand and feel how greatly they are personally interested in the possession of a 
wholesome dwelling, ought on no account to be overlooked by those who seek to 
promote this object. Great evils which have arisen out of the selfish system, 
pursued in some close parishes, of pulling down cottages in order to obtain relief 
from a burden which is thereby thrown on a neighbouring parish, loudly call for 
legislative interference. 

In regard to populous towns, and the metropolis more especially, the facts which 
have been stated lead to the conclusion, that the evils of overcrowding which 
result from a demolition of large masses of dwellings of the working classes, effected 
for the carrying out of popes improvements, can only be prevented by a parlia- 
mentary enforcement of the construction of suitable buildings in the place of 
those destroyed. A standing order of the House of Lords for the investigation of 
such cases exists, but it appears thus far to have been practically a dead letter. 

Whilst the pressure consequent on these destructions is felt by all classes of the 
working population within their influence, facts have been brought to light by 
experience, which conclusively prove that no efforts of societies, or of individuals, 
can remedy the existing state of wretchedness, which is a consequence of sanitary. 


ey he eer pg, 


Bie 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 201 


defects and of overcrowding in the lowest class of dwellings. Nothing can effect 
this much-needed remedy, but the extension to all tenements in towns and thickly 
populated neighbourhoods, which are let at low weekly rents, of such legislative 
interference as is universally admitted to have been of the greatest benefit in the 
case of common lodging houses. Within the limited jurisdiction of the Corporation 
authorities in the City of London, such a power was conferred in 1851, and it is judi- 
ciously exercised under the supervision of the Medical Officer of Health, to the great 
benefit of the poor, and with a marked diminution in the returns of mortality, 
which have fallen since that date from 25 to 23 in 1000. 

In the case of all new buildings, proper drainage should be enforced by authority, 
prior to their commencement; the want of it is a most fruitful source of sickness, 
and consequent expense to the public. 

In the preceding notes my aim has been to draw only such conclusions as are 
fully supported by the facts adduced. I cannot, however, omit glancing at this 
subject from one other point of view, and that the most important in which it can 
be presented for consideration, its bearing on our fellow-creatures as moral and 
accountable beings. The experience of a right rev. prelate, when formerly rector 
of St. Giles-in-the-Fields, one of the most thickly-populated and poverty-struck 
parishes in London, must give peculiar weight to the following words: “The 
physical circumstances of the poor paralyse all the efforts of the clergyman, the 
schoolmaster, the scripture reader, or the city missionary, for their spiritual or their 
moral welfare. .... Every effort to create a spiritual tone of feeling is counteracted by 
a set of physical circumstances which are incompatible with the exercise of common 
morality. Talk of morality amongst people who herd, men, women and children 
together, with no regard of age or sex, in one narrow confined apartment! You 
might a talk of cleanliness in a sty, or of limpid purity in the contents of a 
cesspoo 

Our prisons are no longer hot beds of fever* and of moral contagion as they 
formerly were: may it not be asked in this Association, whether, with the advance 
of science, the reproach to which England is justly amenable on account of the 
domiciliary state of our labouring population, ought not to be effaced ? and, whilst 
self-interested motives might be urged on many, the divine command, “thou shalt 
love thy neighbour as thyself,” lays a serious responsibility on all who have it in 
their power to promote an object so indispensable to the well-being of our poorer 
neighbours. 


MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


Tue President, mm opening the business of the Section, took occasion to refer 
to the great loss Mechanical Science had sustained, since: the last Meeting, in the 
deaths of Brunel and Stephenson. He then made some brief remarks on the recent 
progress of Mechanical Science, especially in the use of heat to produce motive 
power. 


On the Mechanical Effects of combining Suspension Chains and Girders, and 
the Value of the Practical Application of this System (illustrated by a Mo- 
del). By P. W. Bartow, F.R.S. 


* At the black assizes held in Oxford in July 1577, the gaol fever spread from the prisoners 
to the court, and within two days had killed tne judge, the sheriff, several justices of the peace, 
most ofthe jury, as well as a great number of the audience, and afterwards spread amongst the 
inhabitants of the town. 


202 REPORT—1860, 


of successful small ones, which had given satisfactory results in every way, except 
that they had failed after a short time for want of strength. Mr. J. Lawrence, in 
1855, rifled a 63-inch gun with three shallow broad grooves, like an Enfield, and 
fired a lead and zinc bullet, like the Infield. At an elevation of 5°, the range was 
2600 yards—150 more than Sir W. Armstrong’s; but the gun burst after about 
50 rounds. Mr. Whitworth, after making some excellent small arms and nine- 

ounders, tried a large gun with 4 inches bore, and sides 9 inches thick; but 
it burst. He then tried another, 11 inches thick, and it too burst. He had, how- 
ever, since made a stronger cannon, whose success was absolute proof that the one 
thing wanting in the other was strength. Capt. Blakeley explained his own 
method of obtaining strength, which consists simply of building up the gun in 
concentric tubes, each compressing that within it. By this means the strain is 
diffused throughout the whole thickness of the metal, and the inside is not unduly 
strained, as in a hollow cylinder made in one piece. As the whole efficacy of the 
system depended entirely on the careful adjustment of the size of the layers, Capt. 
Blakeley said he was not astonished that Sir W. Armstrong had lately failed 
utterly in his attempts to carry it out, because he did not put on the outer layers 
and rings with any calculated degree of tension; “they were simply applied with 
a sufficient difference of diameter to secure effectual shrinkage,” to quote his own 
words at the Institution of Civil Engineers. To show that the late failure by Sir 
W. Armstrong did not disprove his, Capt. Blakeley’s, theory, he quoted oficial 
reports of a trial of a nine-pounder made by himself in 1855, which showed an 
endurance sevenfold that of an izon service gun, and threefold that of a brass gun, 
as well as of an 8-inch gun, from which bolts weighing 4 cwt. had been fired, and 
of a 10-inch gun which had discharged bolts weighing 526 lbs. Mr. Whitworth’s 
last new 80-pounder was another instance of the successful application of Capt. 
Blakeley’s pr:nciple. To quote Mr. Whitworth’s own words,—“ It was made of 
homogeneous iron. Upon a tube having an external taper of about one inch, a 
series of hoops, each about 20 inches long, were forced by hydraulic pressure. Ex- 

eriments had enabled him to determine accurately what amount of pressure each 

oop would bear. All the hoops were put on with the greatest amount of pressure 
they would withstand without being injured. A second series was forced over 
those first fixed.” This gun was so made at Capt. Blakeley’s suggestion, except- 
ing that the rings were put on too tight, which might prove a cause of weakness, 
The method of rifling adopted by Capt. Blakeley cannot be made intelligible with-- 
out a diagram; but it may be described as a series of grooves of very shallow 
depth, so arranged as to exert a maximum force in the direction of the rotation of 
the bullet with a minimum force in a radial or bursting direction. Capt. Blakeley 
exhibited in the court of the building in which the Section met, a 66-pounder, 
constructed on his own plans, from which he had thrown shells to a distance of 
2700 yards, with only 5° of elevation, which was stated to be a range 300 yards 
greater than that of Sir W. Armstrong’s 80-pounder. 


On a deep Sea Pressure Gauge, invented by Henry Johnson, Esq. 
Read by the Rev. Dr. Bootu, F.R.S., §e. 

In deep sounding the pressure is too intense to admit of measurement by the com- 
pression of any highly elastic fluid in a small portable instrument. Water, however, 
possesses a slight degree of elasticity, and an instrument recording the compression 
of an isolated portion of water by the pressure of the sea, will show the compression 
of the water at the depth to which it has been lowered. 

Mr. Canton, who in 1761 communicated his observations to the Royal Society, 
found in water, compressed under a glass receiver, by the pressure of an additional 
atmosphere, a diminution in bulk equal to one part in 21,740; and in water placed 
under a receiver a similar expansion when the air in the receiver was exhausted. 
Mr. Perkins, more recently, found a diminution of bulk of “>ths in water under a 
pressure of 1120 atmospheres. The theory of increased pressure at great depths is 
corroborated by a very interesting experiment made by the distinguished voyager 
Rear-Admiral Sir James Clark Ross, who lowered, to a great depth, a bottle fitted 
with a tube, with a cork suspended so as to enter the tube, if, as anticipated, the 
water in the bottle, condensed under heavy pressure, should expand upon the raising 
of the bottle and the removal of the pressure. Upon the return of the bottle to the 


a a 


. cation of a pressure of 1000 lbs. to the square inch on 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 203 


surface, it was found that the cork had been forced some distance along the tube, and 
the amount of compression and of subsequent expansion were thus roughly estimated. 

The pressure gauge exhibited, may, in its present form, be considered as a small 
hydraulic press ; of which the ram is forced into the 
cylinder by the increasing pressure of the sea when 
sinking, and expelled by the expansion of the water 
in the cylinder when rising. It consists of a small 
tube or cylinder having at one end a tap through 
which water is admitted; the tap having in addition 
to the opening admitting water, a smaller opening 
for the escape of air. At the other end of the cylin- 
der is a packing-box, through which a round bolt or 
solid piston passes. A scale by the side of the pis- 
ton contains the degrees of compression, and an 
index at the further end of the scale is drawn along 
the scale by the piston when forced by increasing 
pressure into the cylinder, and secured by a spring 
in its position, where it remains when the piston 
is pushed back by expansion of water in the cylinder 
to its former position. The scale and index are pro- 
tected by a tube screwed on to the cylinder, and the 
cylinder is protected from the risk of indentation by 
an outer tube. In an experimental instrument the 
packing-box has remained water-tight underthe appli- 


the piston; so that the isolation may be considered 
sufficiently perfect, as in actual use this pressure on 
water in the cylinder would be counterbalanced by 
the external pressure of the ocean. The packing-box 
is just large enough to admit the packing, which con- 
sists of vulcanized caoutchouc rings, stretched upon 
the piston, and consequently adhering closely to it. 
A moderate application of the packing-box screw 
presses these rings against the packing-box, and a 
perfect isolation of the water in the cylinder is thus 
obtained. A slight Jubrication of the rings, by the 
addition of a small quantity of lard between them, 
renders the amount of friction attending the motion 
of the piston very trifling. 
In ascertaining the pressure of water, the amount A—Cylinder. 
of friction overcome should be added to the com- p__Pp, 
pression recorded by the index, to obtain the total ¢_Opening in Tap for admission 


amount of pressure. Some portion of the diminu- of water. 
tion of bulk will probably be cccazioned by variation D—Opening in Tap for escape of 
of temperature, and which causes a greater variation air. 


in bulk at high temperature. As 4000 parts of sea- E—Packing-box. 

water at the temperature of 86° Fahrenheit, con- F—Packing-box Screw. 

tracted to 3987 parts at the temperature of 65°, G—Piston. 4 

being ;}3;5 parts for 21°; while from the tempera- 5 hes of Se Pace 

ture of 65° to 35°, the diminution to 3977 parts ~ ceustenduder. 

was only at the rate of ;1°; parts for 30°,—the expansion and contraction of the 
cylinder by yariation of temperature counteract the variation of water to avery small 
extent, being about ;;4,5th parts for 40° Fahrenheit. 

' The experimental instrument indicates a compression of about one part in 20,000 
per atmosphere (estimated at 15 lbs.) at the temperature of 60° Fahrenheit. 

The experiments will be varied by the use of a glass bulb with a long stem, finely 
graduated, with a stopper of vulcanized caoutchouc, and in the tube an elastic ring 
which is pushed during compression by the stopper towards the bulb, and remains 
to mark the degree of compression. 


204 REPORT—1860. 


On Road Locomotives. By the Earl of Caituness. 

The author referred to what had hitherto been done in this direction, and the 
importance of attention being given to the construction of them as feeders to the 
Railway system. He described the arrangement adopted in one which he had had 
built for his own use, and which was successful. The carriage was exhibited in 
action, and made several trips in the street under his Lordship’s guidance. In the 
discussion which took place, great stress was laid on the importance of Parliament 
reducing the turnpike tolls in respect of such carriages, which, in reality, were in 
no way injurious to the road, 


On Water Meters. By Davin Cuavwicx, Assoc. Inst. C.E., Manchester. 
After pointing out the defects in some of the water-meters at present in use, he 
described the high-pressure piston water-meter of Messrs. Chadwick and Frost, 
which obviated these defects, and secured the correct measurement of water at all 
pressutes and velocities of discharge, without the use of tumbling-levers, springs, 
or flexible diaphragms, by a more compact and simple arrangement than any other 
piston meter; but, without a diagram, it would be impossible to make its con- 
struction intelligible. 


A New Mode of obtaining a Blast of very High Temperature in the 
Manufacture of Iron. By E. Cowper. 


The blast is obtained by an adaptation of the principle of Siemens’s regenerative 
furnaces. A hot blast of a temperature of 1800° Fahrenheit can readily be obtained, 
and this without the destruction of iron tubes—-the substance used in contact with 
the air being the most refractory fire-brick. This mode of obtaining a blast was 
in successful operation at Messrs. Cochran’s iron-works. The temperature of the 
blast could be regulated to any required degree. The heat might be obtained with 
far greater economy than by any method hitherto known. 


The Cylindrical Spiral Boiler. By Joux Evver. 
{A communication ordered to be printed entire in the Transactions of the Sections.] 


The object of the construction of this boiler is to obtain a form with all the useful 
properties of the simple cylindrical high-pressure boiler on shore adapted to steam- 
ships. 

The following advantages appear to be attained over the ordinary marine boiler, 
namely :— 

1. A form of boiler capable of carrying higher pressure, and presenting more 
heating surface, and of a more effective description from a given weight of material. 

2. A boiler capable of being easier cleaned and repaired in both water and fire 
spaces. 

Wes A boiler capable of producing superheated steam to any practical temperature. 

4. A less average specific gravity of water whilst working at sea with the usual 
amount of feed and blow-off, and a more perfect combustion chamber, and better 
formation of flue surface. 

5. The pressures being altogether internal, the boiler is not liable to collapse, a 
danger lately ably demonstrated by Mr. Fairbairn ; and as the diameters of the various 
cylinders are reduced to the minimum size for permitting the tradesmen to pass 
through, clean and repair them, the boiler, when formed of ordinary thickness, 
possesses enormous strength without stays. 

6. The expense of the boiler per square foot of heating surface is about the same 
as that of the ordinary boiler, and is capable of carrying five times the pressure.. 

The general construction_of this boiler is as shown in the accompanying plans, 
and as follows :— 

There are twenty-four round boilers or tubes, of not less than nineteen inches in 
diameter, twenty-two of these forming, when bound together, a cylindrical vertical 
shell; the twenty-third, a centre boiler concentric to that shell; and the twenty- 
fourth, a spiral coil-boiler winding spirally round between the centre boiler and those 


es a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 205 


composing the circumference shell: these boilers contain the water, and the spaces 
between them the fire. 

The feed water passes first into the spiral compartment, or No. 24, and from it 
into the centre compartment, or No. 23, and then into each in rotation, and blows 
off at the last compartment, or No. 1, thus rendering the water in No. 24 nearly pure 
sea-water, and gradually from compartment to compartment more dense, till it blows 
off at No. 1 at the usual density, and thus makes the average specific gravity of the 
water less than usual. 

The twenty-two outside boilers are 24 feet long, 19 inches diameter, and 55; of an 
inch thick; the bottom ends are conical for 3 feet, and kneed outwardly to give a 
larger diameter of furnace, say 12 feet diameter. There is a furnace-door for every 


alternate tube, or say, eleven furnace-doors, equally divided round the base of the 


boiler, giving great facility to the firemen for doing their work efficiently. In firing 
it is proposed to charge all the fresh coal round the circumference of the fire, in order 
that the hydrogen of the coal may be consumed separately from the carbon; and as 
the furnace has great altitude, the combustion will be completed in vertical flames 
from the coals, and will thus prevent the carbonic acid gas, given out from the com- 
bustion of the carbon, coming so much in contact with and preventing the com- 
bustion of the hydrogen, as is usual in ordinary furnaces. 

The centre compartment, or No, 23, is 30 feet long, 34 inches diameter, and 2 of 
an inch thick, with 3 feet at the bottom and top, conically reduced to 18 inches 
diameter, forming a man-hole door; the upper end of this vertical tube forms a 
reservoir for the steam of the whole twenty-four compartments, and acts as a super- 
heating apparatus, and may be carried up the funnel to the extent necessary to 
superheat the steam to 400 degrees; the steam-pipe is taken from the top of this 
boiler to the safety-valve chest, fastened on the front of the boiler low down, which 
serves as a water-trap during the discharge from the safety-valve chest, the steam- 
pipe to the engines being taken off the same pipe at a higher level than the escape 
steam. The spiral compartment, or No. 24, is about 100 feet long, 34 inches 
diameter, and 2 of an inch thick, made of best iron boiler plate ; the ends are conical 
for 3 feet, formed into man-hole doors; this spiral boiler makes four or five con- 
volutions close round the centre one, and is bound close to the circumferential 
boilers by hollow stay-bolts, and fastened to the centre one at each end only ; in the 
same manner the steam and water flow through the whole boiler by these hollow 
stay-bolts or rivets, and complete the entire circulation of water and steam; the 
whole of these twenty-four compartments or boilers terminate at the bottom, about 
1 foot below the fire-grate, and are supported on six stanchions from the ash-pit 
beneath, making a free passage for the air under the great bar; the circumferential 
compartments or boilers terminate at the top 6 feet above the ship’s deck, and have 
each a man-hole door forming the cover; the funnel is made conical at the bottom 
to embrace the internal diameter of the boiler-shell and draw off the smoke in the 
usual manner: this completes the whole boiler proper; but in order to prevent 
radiation of heat, a thin outer casing of iron is made (9 inches) clear of the boiler all 
round, terminating about 7 feet from the stoke-hole floor ; and above, at the level of the 
galley or funnel-house, this casing is lined with felt and thin wood to keep the deck 
and the adjacent parts cool, and retain the heat. The twenty-two straight cylindrical 
boilers or compartments are constructed in the sides by four plates 24 feet long and 
16 inches broad, rolled to a 93-inch radius curve at the iron works, leaving no plate 
setting for the boiler maker of this description. 

The plates of Loiler No. 24, or the spiral compartment, are delivered flat by the 
iron-maker, and are bent to the spiral curve by one blow of a large spiral concave 
block falling upon a counterpart convex one, prepared by the constructors of the 
boiler. This operation has been found to simplify the making of this spiral cylin- 
drical boiler to about the same amount as the straight cylindrical boilers. The 
conical ends are bent in the same manner as the spiral plates,‘and the whole work of 
plate bending is reduced as far as possible to machine work. The products of com- 
bustion, after leaving the furnace, have to travel spirally upwards a distance of 100 
feet, and must of necessity be continually rotating during that time, and prevent the 
possibility of any portion passing off without being brought frequently in contact 
with the heating surface of the boiler; and will therefore be cooled down to the 


206 REPORT—1860. 


minimum temperature compatible with a given amount of cooling surface, or the 
greatest quantity of heat extracted from the products of combustion, before their 
escape to the atmosphere. The soot forming usually inside of boilers will not be so 
injurious in this arrangement, as it will fall down through the external crevices, and 
also between the spiral and the centre boilers into the furnace below, and be thrown 
overboard with the ashes. 

This spiral coil and all the heating surfaces will keep more clear of flue dust than 
usual, and will consequently be more efficient in that respect, as well as save the 
usual trouble and loss by sponging experienced in the ordinary tubular boilers at sea. 
Also as the products of combustion must pass off at the rate of at least 7 feet per second 
in this as in the ordinary boilers, it will take upwards of 14 seconds from the time 
it leaves the furnace till it arrives at the top of the boiler; whilst if the boiler were 
of the ordinary tubular type, it would pass in about two seconds along the whole 
heating surface of the boiler; the gas has therefore seven times more time to give 
out its heat, and its revolving tendency will not admit of the same strata of gas 
passing along the passages after it is cooled down, as is the case with the ordinary 
boiler, but will bring the hot products of combustion usually occupying the centre 
of the tubes of a tubular boiler in contact with the cooling surfaces, and reduce the 
whole products of combustion to one temperature before entering the chimney. 

In cleaning the salt or sludge out of these boilers, the man- and sludge-hole doors 
are taken off the top and bottom (and the hose with fresh water may be played down 
through from the top, and the refuse run out at the bottom). ‘lhe man in charge 
can also pass down through the whole boiler, the dimensions necessary for this pur- 
pose being made the minimum and maximum of the various compartments of the 
boiler; and are specially constructed to maintain to the engines steam at much 
higher pressure than usual, in order to admit of a much larger amount of expansion 
to be developed by the engines, which are all on the double cylinder expansive prin- 
ciple. The constructors are now making the boilers for three steam-ships on this 
principle, two of which are for carrying Her Majesty’s mails on the Pacific between 
Valparaiso and Panama (as described by the writer at the meeting of the British 
Association at Leeds); and it has long been his desire to be able to construct boilers 
for marine purposes without stays, and with no surface exposed to the collapsing 
tendency, which in so many cases has been the cause of loss of life aboard of steam- 
ships. The boilers now described have no large flat surfaces and no stays, the whole 
tendency of the pressures being to inflate the boiler plates, and, if possible, to give 
them a stronger form; the smallest diameter is large enough to give access to the 
men in charge, and the largest diameter 34 inches and 3 thick,—dimensions that can 
carry several hundred pounds pressure on the square inch before rupture could take 
place. Such a form the writer adopts, with great satisfaction to himself, as a con- 
structor sending machinery abroad, where the usual form of boiler gives him consi- 
derable anxiety. In comparing the construction of this boiler with that of the 
ordinary tubular one, in the latter angle-iron ribs and stays now compose a large 
portion of the weight and expense; contribute no heating surfaces; and if one stay 
breaks, which is not an uncommon occurrence, the next is placed in great danger ; 
and if it gives way, the whole may follow in rotation, and a serious accident be the 
result. In the former boiler, however, the plates may be reduced to a very small 
amount of thickness by tear and wear before explosion could be expected. 

Having thus described the objects of the spiral boiler, it may not be out of place 
to give the following statement of the comparative evaporative power and temperatures 
of the gases in the furnace and chimney of the spiral boiler, with three of the ordi- 
nary types of boiler now in general use. 

Fig. 1 is a vertical section of the cylindrical spiral boilers as fitted on board the 
Pacific Royal Mail Company’s steam-ships ‘San Carlos’ and ‘ Guayaquil,’ by 
Messrs. Randolph, Elder, &c. Fig. 2 is a sectional plan of the same, taken near the 
level of the water-line in fig. 1. Fig. 3 is a vertical elevational view of the same— 
the exterior casings which surround the circumferential vertical tubes (and which 
are shown in figs. 1 and 2) being in this view removed. 

It will be seen from these figures that there are in these boilers 21 tubes in all, 
viz. 19 circumferential vertical tubes, 1 central and 1 spiral tube. 

The three types experimented upon were, first, a common cylindrical land boiler 


—) =" = 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 207 


(figs. 1, 2, and 3) 33 feet long, 5 feet Ginches diameter, with two round flues 19 inches 
diameter through the centre ; this boiler had 40 feet of heating surface to the nominal 
horse-power of the engine: the two flues contained 20 feet, and the shell 20 feet per 
nominal horse-power ; the furnace was below the boiler at the fore-end, had a fire-grate 
of 26 square feet; the fire passed underneath the boiler to the opposite end from the 
furnace, and returned along the sides, and then passed back again through the flues 
to the chimney. The temperature above the centre of the fire was found to be, upon 
one occasion, 3200°; at the top of the bridge 1730°; the temperature of the gases 


Fig. 1. ; Fig. 2. 


58 

— a = SS EE 

=6\=—b2—s5s—B-— Ba 

deel tee Bay 


NESS 


gradually reduced as they passed back the remaining length of 26 feet under the 
boiler and along the side flues, till they entered the centre flues at 1163°, and left 
them at about 800°. Thus the furnace containing a surfece of 2 feet per nominal 
horse-power reduced the heat about 1500°; the shell of the boiler behind the furnace, 
of about 18 feet per nominal horse-power, reduced the temperature about 600°; and 
the flues containing a surface of 20 feet per nominal horse-power reduced the tem- 
perature about 350°. The temperatures of the gases in the flues were found to be 
about the same in the centre as at the top; but at the bottom of the flue the tempe- 
ratures of the gases were at the fore-end rather less than at the top, but towards the 


Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 


_ back end the temperature of the bottom of the flues reduced gradually below the 


temperature at the top to the extent of 300°. Upon another occasion the tempe- 
rature over the centre of the fire was found to be 3610°; at the top of the bridge 
1739°; and the different temperatures of the flues were as indicated in fiz. 1, where 
the average temperatures of the flues at B‘=$26°, B’= 879°, B’= 937°, B'= 959°, 
and at B’ = 981°. Thetemperatures at the top of the flues at C? = 982, at C' = 1034°, 
at C?=1087. The temperatures at the bottom of the flues at A’= 571°, A? = 603°, 
A? = 678°, At=764°, A°=822°. It would therefore appear that, notwithstanding 
the large amount of surface in this boiler, the evaporative power is very inferior, as 


208 REPORT—1860. 


\ 


the amount of heat taken out of the gases per square foot of heating surface is very 
small; and that the natural conclusion is that the gases pass along in straight lines, 
and only the thin stratum in contact with the surface is cooled down. In the results 
of the spiral boiler (fig. 6) three times the quantity of heating surface was found to 
reduce six times the quantity of gas from the same temperature of 3200°, to a tem- 
perature of 4800 instead of 800°, showing that a more complete turning over of the 
gases is much wanted in our land boilers. The water evaporated per hour in the 
land boiler referred to was found by meter to be 2000 lbs., and the coal, best 
Glasgow quality, found to be 300 lbs. per hour; making about 62 lbs. of water per 
pound of coal. During the measuring of the water evaporated by the meter, indicator 
diagrams of the engine were taken with a view to cal- 
culate the weights of steam by the ordinary method, and 
the calculations were found to agree with the meter; 
these calculations can be repeated and substantiated at 
any time. The second type of boiler tested was that of 
the ordinary steam-boat horizontal tubular boiler (fig. 
4); the example chosen was one in a first-class ocean 
steamer; the temperature of the furnace was found to 
be 3200°, and the inside of the funnel about 1100°. The 
heating surface of this boiler was 22 feet per nominal 
horse-power, and the water evaporated about 83 lbs. per 
pound of coal, according to the calculation from the 
diagrams. The coal consumed was about 20 lbs. per 
square foot of fire-grate, of the best Glasgow coal. 

The next example taken was that of a first-class ver- 
tical tubular boiler (fig. 5), on Mr. David Napier’s 
principle, now universally selected on the Clyde for river 
steamers. This boiler had a surface of about 22 feet 
per nominal horse-power; the temperature of the fire 
was found to be about 3300°, and in the funnel 1160°; 
the weight of water evaporated was found by calculation to be 83 lbs. per pound of 
coal consumed, and the weight of combustion about twenty pounds square foot of 
fire-grate. In the spiral boiler (fig. 6) of the ‘San Carlos,’ ‘ Guayaquil,’ and ‘ Prinz 
van Orange’ the boilers were found to give the following peculiar results :—first, 
that even with Scotch coal there was no smoke emitted from the chimney, and no 
carelessness on the part of the fireman seemed to occasion the formation of smoke ; 
second, that the boilers showed a bright furnace, indicating first-class draught; the 
temperature of the funnel was found to be 480°, whilst the fire was at its greatest 
energy. ‘he heating surface was, in the case of the ‘San Carlos’ and ‘ Guayaquil,’ 
2200 square feet, the coal consumed 1400 lbs. per hour, and the water evaporated 
11 Ibs. per pound of coal consumed; the fire-grate contained about 76 square feet, 
and the rate of combustion about twenty pounds per square foot of fire-grate. The 
heating surface of the boiler was 18 feet per, nominal horse-power ; the coal consumed 
was Glasgow best steam coal. The stoke-hole was found to be remarkably cool, 
and the boiler, which was loaded to 52 lbs. on the square inch steam pressure, and 
tested to 150 lbs. on the square inch water pressure, was found to be perfectly tight. 
In the case of the ‘ San Carlos,’ I may mention that that ship has now steamed about 
20,000 miles, and the vessel has not been in any one port more than three days ; 
during that time she has been consuming soft Chili coal for a considerable part of 
her voyage, and the merits of the long flue show a decided advantage in this boiler 
over the ordinary tubular boiler for the native bituminous coal of South America. 

In order to give a more extended form of the comparative evaporative power of 
various flues and tubular boilers, the writer begs to lay before this Association the 
accompanying Table. It shows several proportions of heating surface and evapora- 
tive powers of several ships that have come under his notice. He can certify the 
accuracy of most of these particulars, except that shown in the last column, which 
is taken from Professor Rankine’s report on the performance of the ‘Thetis.’ This 
vessel has about six times more heating surface in her boilers in proportion to the 
coal consumed, than any example the writer is aware of. The boiler is Craddock’s 
patent boiler, though that inventor’s name appears rarely to be mentioned in con- 


i TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 209 


nexion with the said vessel. Efficient, however, as this boiler must be as an evapo- 
rator, it cannot possibly accomplish the quantity shown in this Table. 

The theoretical quantity of water capable of being heated from 90°, and evaporated 
at, say 212°, with an infinite quantity of heating surface and a perfect fire, is some- 
where about 133 lbs. per pound of coal; whilst from the diagrams represented in 
Professor Rankine’s report of the ‘Thetis’ performance, 18 lbs. weight appear to 
a be about the quantity of water per pound of coal. This calculation I have made 
from the diagrams published, and any party interested may repeat the calculations. 

The calculation is made as follows : the area of the large cylinder, as shown in the 
diagram, is 1380 square inches, or 9°583 square feet. The four revolutions of piston 
marked on the diagram 493, 52, 53, and 52 revolutions per minute, with a stroke of 
23 feet, or say 258°12 feet per minute, gives 258°12 X 9°583 X 60=146433 cubic feet 
per hour. And if we take the average pressure shown in the four diagrams at the 
end of the piston stroke, supposing the barometer to be 14°5 lbs., we find the weight 
of that steam to be about 44 cubic feet per pound: this number therefore, divided 
by 44, gives the quantity of steam as 3300 pounds per hour; to this must be added 
2'> for contents of ports and clearance, which makes 3465 pounds of steam. 

This clearly gives the weight of the steam per hour given out of the cylinders 
after the work is performed, to this therefore must be added the quantity of heat 
that must have disappeared during the performance of the work; this, in the case 
of the ‘Thetis,’ is about + of the entire heat; we must therefore add +, or say 
3465-+693=4158 pounds of water must have been raised from a temperature of 
about 100° and evaporated, or say 18 lbs. of water to the pound of coal said to be 
consumed ; this result is about equal to 20 lbs of water evaporated at 212°, to the 
pound of coal consumed; a quantity quite absurd. 


Comparisons of certain Results obtained fram Certified Diagrams of Steamers ‘Elk,’ ‘ Earl of 
Aberdeen,’ ‘ Valparaiso,’ ‘ Pride of Erin,’ ‘ Inka,’ ‘ Europa,’ ‘ Cambrian,’ and ‘ Thetis.’ 


areas 


Tec’ 


oe OS a —- 


t Elk. yo Velbig P ride cf Inka. | Europa.| Cambrian, Thetis. 
Nominal H.P. ......... 250 380 320 | 400 | 80 648 472 80 
Indicated ditto ......... 780 780 826 | 960 | 272 {1207 | 1072 226 
Proportion of indicated 
H.P. to nominal II.P. 3°28 2°05 2581; 2:4 | 3:8 1:863| 2°272 a 2°82 
i. : ft F Two 52) | wo { |T'wo 28 ? ne 21 
Diameter of Cylinder... 57in. | 7 Oin. { Two 90 | 72{ Two 48\ 7 20 775 One 42 
L 5 ft. 6 in. 6ft. 5ft. |5ft.6in.| 3ft. 8ft. | 7ft. Gin. 2ft. Gin. 
Number of Strokes per 
MBTMITIUCE ........esseceseee 25 175 24 Ze ae 153 16 52 F 
‘B oilers, Flue or Tubular} Tubular. Flue. Flue. | Flue, | Flue. | Flue. | Flue. ete rs fe 
Area of Fire-grate...... 144ft. 190ft. | 130ft.| 252 50 314 247 
2 ea of Heating Surface 4000 4300 2400 | 4400 | 480 | 7000 | 5400 About 4000 
Coals consumed per hr.) 3360lbs. 3584 2520 | 4928 | 672 | 5100 | 4480 226 
Quality of Coal .........|Glasgow best.|Newcastle.| Welsh. | Welsh. | Welsh. |Welsh.| Welsh. Good. 
‘Steam evaporated per 
Mlb. of Coal ............ 7354 6°87 774 | 7159] 81 ah 7509 |15 Ibs. about. 
Estimate, water evapo- 
EU isos assccce ves 81 74 8-6 79 9:0 8°5 8°3 18]bs. 
Voal consumption per 
indicated H.P.......... 4071 4:358 | 3:05 | 5°126] 2:47 | 4:2 4:17 1:018 
fire-grate per nominal 
MEE Etecieoscesesceee Coeceee 576 5) 406] *63 625] 484] 536 


It therefore appears that in the report referred to, the indicated power of the said 


diagrams may be correct, but the coals said to be consumed per indicated horse- 

_ power per hour, namely 1°08, must be wrong ; and before a proper comparison could 

be established between the merits of the ‘ Thetis’ ’ boiler and that of any other boiler, 

a correct trial of the former would be necessary. In the mean time we have but to 
1860. 14 


210 REPORT—1860. 


consider that the report of Professor Rankine was based upon one hour’s consumption 
of say 230 lbs. of coal, and compare that with a mass of boiler, water and firebrick, 
weighing 20 tons, at a temperature of say 300°, it is evident that the mass of heat in 
proportion to the coal consumed is so great, that no conclusion should be made from 
such an experiment; also, that when the quantity of coal said to be consumed, viz. 
230 lbs., is compared with area of fire-grate, say 40 square feet, it is evident that 
the result should not be depended upon, as no ordinary comparisons could be made 
of the condition of the fires before and after the experiment. In conclusion, let me 
ask of every party present to consider the trial trips of steam-ships and boilers in 
their true lights, and before drawing any inferences from such short trials, make a 
perusal of results obtained from sea voyages. The evaporative power and economy 
of boilers is one of the most important subjects for this Society to consider. We 
need only refer to the able Report drawn up by the Steam Shipping Committee of 
the British Association, to show how mixed up the question of the relative efficiency 
of the boiler and engines is generally considered. Indeed the American navy 
returns form the only reports showing the evaporative power of the boilers in this 
list, and the whole merit of a good evaporating boiler is often sacrificed to the cha- 
racter of the engines. With regard to the ‘ Thetis,’ I would recommend any mistake 
to be remedied as soon as possible, as there are many contracts, involving much 
responsibility, formed in consequence of this report, that will lead to serious loss and 
disappointment to the steam-shipping interest, and the engineering profession of this 
country. 


On the Density of Saturated Steam, and on the Law of Expansion of Super- 
heated Steam. By WiivtAM Farrearry, LL.D., F.RS. §c. 


This ee contained a continuation of the experiments detailed in a paper read 
by My. Fairbairn at the Aberdeen Meeting, and which had been carried on in con- 
junction with Mr. Tate. Experimental determinations had been obtained of the 
density of steam fully confirming the anticipations of Mr. Thomson and Mr, Ran- 
kine, that the vapour of water does not exactly obey the gaseous laws. They show 
that the density of saturated steam is always greater than that given by the gaseous 
laws, even for temperatures as low as 136° Fahr., and at pressures below that of the 
atmosphere. The experiments at present extend over a range of temperature from 
186° Fahr. to 292°, or from 2°6 to GO Ibs. pressure per square inch, The general 
result obtained is expressed in the following formule, which closely agrees with the 
experiments, 

49513 


v=25'62+ Pp— 7 6 8 ee iy ol) Sa erie (.) 


49513 
iP => ——_—_, — 0:72 ’ ‘ ‘ cece ‘ ’ . . , 2. 
oe. Ce 
where v is the specific volume or ratio of the volume of the steam to that of the 
water which produced it, at the pressure P, expressed in inches of mercury. 


On the subject of superheating steam, the experiments throw some light, which _ 


the author hopes to follow up by a special series of experiments. They show that 
within a short distance of the maximum temperature of saturation the rate of ex- 
pansion is variable, being higher than that of a perfect gas near the saturation point, 
and rapidly decreasing, till at a point at no great distance above the temperature of 
saturation it becomes sensibly identical with that of a perfect gas, 


On an Atmospheric Washing Machine. By Joun Fisuer. 


The action of this machine was derived from streams of air forced through the 
water from below. The author in his paper observed, that for effectual use the water 
must never be of a higher temperature than 140° of Fahrenheit. It was stated 
that machines on this principle, driven by steam-power, had been for some time 

ast in successful overation for cleansing the soiled laces at Messrs, Fishers’ manu- 
actory at Nottingham, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 211 


On Giffard’s Injector for Feeding Boilers. By WitttaM Froupe. 


In this instrument a jet of steam taken from the boiler and issuing from a pro- 
perly tapered orifice, is met by and enveloped in a regulated supply of water, either 
cold or of limited temperature. 

The column formed by the combination of water and steam is made to impinge 
on the aperture of a similarly tapered orifice, of rather smaller area, connected with 
the feed-pipe; and penetrating this orifice, it flows in a continuous stream into the 

boiler. 

The rationale seems to be as follows :—were it possible to condense such a jet of 
steam by a simple abstraction of temperature, it would collapse into a jet of water 
having only ;5;th of its previous sectional area, its particles, however, retaining 
the same weight and velocity, and therefore the same momentum for each unit of 
time which they had possessed as steam. And since the momentum of a jet is the 
exact dynamic equivalent of the pressure which produces it, this water-jet would 
possess a momentum equal to that of a jet of equal diameter taken from a boiler 
having 1700 times the pressure of that from which itself had issued as steam, and 
wouid be capable of penetrating a boiler having a pressure enlarged almost in the 
same proportion. 

In the injector the water which is added condenses the steam and becomes incor- 
porated with it, forming a compound jet which possesses for each unit of time the 
same momentum which the jet of steam possessed. And if the supply of water be 
duly regulated, the sectional area of the compound jet may be precisely adapted to 
the orifice of the feed-pipe. 

Now were that orifice equal in area to the steam-jet orifice, and were a jet of 
water allowed to issue from it under the same pressure which discharged the steam, 
the water-jet would have the same momentum for each unit of time as the 
steam-jet had, and therefore as the compound jet derived from it; and the two 
would precisely neutralize one another when brought into opposition. If, however, 
the steam-jet orifice be the larger of the two, then the jet derived from it, if reduced 
by condensation to the diameter of the smaller, will be the stronger in the same 
proportion, since it will possess the momentum due to the larger area of pressure ; 
it will therefore drive back the water which is striving to escape from the feed-pipe, 
and will pass as a continuous stream into the boiler. 

The water supply is considered to be correctly adjusted when the passage takes 
place without an overflow of steam or water; but the test is deceptive; for an over- 
flow of steam merely implies that the supply of water is barely sufficient to condense 
the steam into a jet as small in section as the feed-pipe orifice ; an overflow of water 
merely implies that though the steam is fully condensed, the supply of water has 
enlarged the compound jet to a section exceeding that of the feed-pipe orifice. 

In reality the operation should be brought as near as possible to the latter limit ; 
for though it will indeed seem to be proceeding quietly and properly in all the inter- 
mediate stages, it will be found that the compound jet, when not so enlarged as to 
fill the feed-pipe orifice, possessing its full momentum in a smaller section, will have 
energy enough to take up with it and carry into the boiler a considerable quantity of 
air, wasting thus not only its own power, but in a high degree that of the engine 
also, when it is a condensing one, since it encumbers the air-pump with extra duty. 


On a Process for covering Submarine Wires with India-rubber 
for Telegraphic purposes. By WavteR Hatt. 

The author exhibited a model of his machine, which effected the object by wind- 
ing strips of rubber, and moistening the same with naphtha during the process of 
covering ; the wire thus formed being covered with a thread of vulcanized India- 
rubber, and the whole afterwards subjected to a temperature of 140°. The wires 
thus covered were protected with a plaited covering of hempen cord, into which 
longitudinal steel wires were introduced for the purpose of giving strength, 


Suggestions relative to Inland Navigation. 
By Professor Hennessy, F.R.S, 
The fact that the forces operating in canal and river navigation are so different 
14.* 


912 REPORT—1860. 


from those of sea navigation, shows that a totally different construction may be 
adopted for the vessels employed. The short heavy barges with clumsily rounded 
bows and broad sterns should be entirely abandoned. Boats of very great length, 
compared to their breadth cf beam, may be used for canals with considerable economy 
of power in proportion to the cargo. The highest perfection of lines may thus be 
attained so as to secure the smallest amount of resistance to motion, and the least 
disturbing effect to the canal banks. For this object also a selection might be made 
among the varieties of the screw propeller, which would obviate any lateral disturb- 
ance of the water and drive it backwards rather than sideways. In some cases the 
above suggestion as to the shape of boats could not be realized without lengthening 
locks, and wherever these are numerous, jointed vessels, like those proposed for the 
Indian rivers, might be employed. The loss of water in passing locks would be the 
same as fora train of entirely separate boats, while the resistance to propulsion 
would be considerably less. Steam-propelled boats thus constructed would proba- 
bly realize the twofold result of economy in power and increase of speed to the 
highest limit advisable for traffic in heavy goods. 


On the Longitudinal Stress of the Plaie Girder. By Catcorr REILty. 


On Suggestions for an Electro-Magnetic Railway Break. 
By Dr. B. W. Ricuarpson. 


On the Character and Comparative Value of Gutta Percha and India- 
rubber employed as Insulators for Subaqueous Telegraphic Wires. By 
S. W. Sitver. 


After pointing out some of the mistakes prevalent on the subject of the insula- 
ting properties of india-rubber, a comparison was made by the writer between the 
relative advantages and the insulating power of india-rubber and gutta percha 
respectively. Insulation in the case of a submarine cable depends upon two causes 
or properties of the bodies used:—1. The specific non-conducting power of the 
substance ; 2. its impermeability, by which the original insulating conditions may 
be maintained. The insulating power of gutta percha is very high; but, in the 
case of a submarine telegraph cable, its porosity renders it a very imperfect insulator 
in practice. India-rubber, with lower specific insulating properties (as would 
appear from experiments made in dry air), is, nevertheless, practically a far more 
efficient insulator, by reason of its complete impermeability, while in addition it 

ossesses a lower inductive capacity. It was pointed out that impermeability is as 
important a question as specific non-conductility in an insulator of such cables; and 
that even if a substance could be found insulating perfectly in dry air, it still might 
in practice be of questionable utility for submarine lines, owing to its porosity, as 
was the case with gutta percha. There was now no difliculty in covering wires 
with india-rubber. 


On Improvements in Iron Ship-building. By W. Simons. 


Diagonal Beams.—Each range of beams is placed in the reverse diagonal direction 
to the range of beams, above or below it, so that collectively the vessel’s beams con- 
stitute a complete system of horizontal diagonal trussing. 

Fore and aft along the middle of each range of beams are riveted strong iron 
clamps; and along the centre of the ’tween decks are secured in long lengths along 
the inside of the frames, strong, angle, back-to-back iron clamps. For these beams, 
various degrees of obliquity may be adopted; but the angle chosen by the author (re- 
presented in a plan which was exhibited) will probably best answer the combined 
purpose of a beam and diagonal truss. 

It is a well-known fact that the beams, as at present placed, do not prevent the 
straining of a vessel, but merely form a connexion between the vessel’s sides and a 
framework to support the deck. ; 

The hatchways and mast partners are framed in the usual manner, and the masts 
are wedged on both the upper and lower decks, 


ae 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 913 


The decks may be laid also diagonally in a reverse direction to the beams, and may 
be edge-bolted throughout and made of hard wood. 

This system of decks, by which the objectional butts are entirely avoided, is 
more particularly adapted for 4 or 5-decked battle-ships, where the strain from the 
weight of the guns and action of propeller is found to strain and twist them so 
much. 

Iron Waterways are formed in the following manner. Every iron beam is made with 
a vertical projection on its upper edge at both ends; this projection is about 7 inches 
deep and 20 to 40 inches broad, according to the tonnage of the vessel. On the 
upper edge of these projections are riveted double-angle iron. On the front or bosom 
of these projections is riveted, in long lengths along the beams, heavy angle-iron, 
say 6+5. Over this are then placed the plates which form the waterway ; these are 
rounded over on their inside edge, which is riveted to the heavy angle-iron inside ; 
the top of the plate is double riveted down to the double angle-iron on each beam 
end: the outer edge is riveted to the angle-iron along the sheer strake, where it is 
securely iron-caulked. 

Round any angle-iron frames necessary to project through the waterway is fitted 
exactly a doubling piece, which is securely caulked round the frame. 

The usual iron stringer and wood water-ways are thus superseded, and this iron 
water-way, it is submitted, forms a serviceable and complete box gunwale. 

The beam-end projections form also stronger and improved knee fastenings, par- 
ticularly to the upper part of the beam, where hitherto in iron vessels such a knee 
has not yet been adopted, although considered essential in timber vessels. 

In fact, for the convenience of stowage and passengers’ berths, the knee or the 
under side of all iron beams on this principle might be dispensed with. Of course, 
this waterway can be adopted with either diagonal beams or common beams. 

Plating diagonally with two thicknesses of plate, each in the reverse diagonal 
direction to the other, or with one thickness in combination with frames arranged in 
the reverse diagonal direction. 

In the former case, both thicknesses of plating will be riveted together, and the 
butts arranged to make shifts with cach other; by this mode of construction the 
present vertical frames become unnecessary, and even the keel not essential. In 
place of these are substituted, in long lengths, internal longitudinal stringers, 
clamps and keelsons, about 5 feet asunder; these would have the advantage over the 
present internal longitudinal fastenings, of being fitted and secured directly to the 
skin of the fabric through which they may be fastened every 3 inches; by this 
system it is not requisite that the plate butts be more securely riveted than the rest 
of the external skin, as it will be evident that such a vessel could not break asunder 
at the butts or vertical joints like a postage-stamp, as was described in the case of 
many late wrecks of iron ships constructed on the present mode. 

Timber vessels of 2000 tons have been planked on. this principle with complet 
success. 

Keelsons made in the following manner have greater strength as a backbone, and the 
necessary rigidity to receive the thrust of diagonai central hold stanchions or trusses. 
Every floor, or alternate floor, is made to project up in the middle in the form of a 
square. Round these projections are fixed angle-iron, to which the upper and side 
plates of the keelson are secured in the form of abox. Bilge and sister keelsons may 
be also formed on the same principle. 

The keelson required by Lloyds for their highest classed iron vessel, has only four 
rivets to secure it to the top of each floor ; consequently, when by accident the strength 


_of the bottom is tested, these rivets of course break, leaving the strength of the floors 


and keelson as a backbone untested, while with the above improved keelson, the 
floors are so well fastencd to the keelson, that they must break before the keelson 
will yield. 

Diagonal Central Hold Stanchions or Trusses.—in place of the common vertical 
hold and ’tween-deck pillars or stanchions in two lengths at present in use in wood 
and iron vessels, most of which are made portable, and intended merely for the sup- 
port of the deck, the inventor forms, from stem to stern, a range of diagonal trussing 
in bars of one length, the joint object of which is to strengthen he fabric and sup- 
port the deck, 


914 REPORT—1860. 


These trusses are placed to cross each other in a reverse diagonal direction, so as 
to resist either a tensional or compressive strain; they are made of 5 X 2 flat iron, are 
securely riveted above to every second or fourth upper deck-beam, and below, a butt 
on, and are secured to the upper side of the keelson. They are riveted together at 
their points of intersection, and where they cross the line of the old beams, a double 
central back-to-back 7 X 6 angle-iron clamp is riveted to every truss and beam. If 
desired, a similar angle-iron clamp may be riveted along at the junction of their 
upper extremities with deck beams. 

The angle of these stanchions is about 60°, that being found best suited to the 
convenience of the hatch arrangement. The hatchways and masts can easily be left 
clear. 

It is submitted, these stanchions form a central range of diagonal trussing at a 
part of a vessel requiring support, and which hitherto has not had such; they will be 
of great service in connecting together two strong frameworks, namely a vessel’s 
bottom, and her upper deck platform. The writer also places the diagonal stanchion 
in athwartship direction; this he has found reduces vibration in steamers, besides 
clearing the screw-shaft. On these principles of construction, the writer’s firm have 
nearly completed at Glasgow a 900-ton iron Indiaman, named ‘The R. Mackenzie ;’ 
and he is glad to state that the result of such practice has more than realized the 
expectation formed from the theory; and respecting the element of expense, he finds 
that such a vessel costs £2000 less than a Thames or Mersey-built timber ship of 
the same size and class. 

Plate Butt Frames.—In an iron vessel plated in the common manner, the writer 
uses butt-frames. In the place of the usual mode of securing the vertical joints of 
the external plating on an iron internal strop between the frames, they are secured 
upon a frame in the following manner. There is bent round the exterior of every 
alternate angle-iron frame, a long continuous plate of some breadth and thickness, 
as the ordinary butt-strop ; this plate is punched before being fixed to the frame ; the 
plate-butts or vertical joints are then arranged to be riveted only on this continuous 
butt-frame. 

If longer outside plating be desired, every third frame may be constructed as a 
butt-frame. 

If preferred, the continuous butt-strop may be placed between the frames, in one 
length, from keel to gunwale. 

By either of these modes of securing the butts of common plates, no short butt- 
strops are required, and it is evident that a vessel having her butts or vertical joints 
so secured, is greatly increased in point of strength, and that there is little or no 
liability to break asunder at those points, 

Ceiling.—For the purpose of increasing the strength of iron vessels, the ceiling 
from the bilge keelson up to the gunwale is made of angle-iron or flat iron in one 
Jength placed diagonally and from 12 in. to 10 ft. apart, tailing from the centre of 
the vessel to the extremities. The port side of a ship being reverse to the starboard 
side, these diagonal ceiling bars are riveted to the reverse angle-iron of every frame, 
and their extremities secured to the gunwale angle-iron and bilge keelson. 

These iron ceiling side trusses, in conjunction with my centrai range of stanchion 
trussing, yield great strength without occupying space, and both can be adopted 
with advantage in timber vessels and in battle-ships. If preferred, these diagonal 
ceiling bars may be of wood in iron vessels. 

Tron Masts.—The writer plates iron masts and spars diagonally from top to bottom, 
the plates winding round the entire length and riveted together. He also forms an 
iron mast of diagonal spiral lattice-work riveted together at their points of inter- 
section. 

If desired, such a mast may be stayed transversely in its interior throughout. The 
writer also fixes winches to iron masts, with their spindles through the sides of the 
mast, the aperture required for such spindles being compensated by an internal 
doubling plate. 

War Ships.—Between the seams of the external planks of wood battle-ships 
exposed to shot, the writer inserts iron or steel plates, in thickness from 1 to 2 inches, 
and in breadth the entire thickness of the planks to which they are secured ; these 
being in long lengths, are bolted vertically to the planks above and below them, and 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 215 


besides increasing the strength of the vessel, will form a resistance to shot or shell : 
they may be placed from 6 or 8 inches asunder. 

In wood battle-ships, he also fastens along the interior sides of their gun decks, 
vertical iron plates, from 1} to 23 inches thick, close secured and bolted through the 
side. Such are for the purpose of resisting the shot after it has spent its force in 
penetrating the external wood side. 

For the same purpose, he places fore and aft along the interior of the gun decks 
of wood battle-ships, angled metal shields, the apex of each being in the centre line 
of the gun ports, and bolted there through the side of the ship: where the upper and 
lower edges of these shield plates join the beams above and below, they are strongly 
bolted to the beams and to each other. 

In an iron battle-ship or ram, he builds the side of the hull above water and plates 
it with 2 or 23-inch thick iron or steel. Outside of this he timbers, planks, fastens, 
and caulks the wood side of a battle-ship, not for the purpose of strength, but for a 
resisting medium, in which a common ball may spend its force before coming into 
contact with the internal angle- plated shields, which it is submitted will then turn 
aside the ball from penetrating into the interior. 

These angled shields answer also for beam knees, the weight and cost of which 
may be dispensed with. 

It is submitted, that owing to such angled shields, the reduced thickness of shield 
plates protected by the timber side, the diagonal arrangements of four tiers of beams, 
and the central diagonal trussings, an iron battle ram so constructed would have less 
displacement, greater strength, more buoyancy, greater speed, and be more credit- 
able to the engineering science of this country than those now building at an expense 
of 11 million, the designs of which were not thrown open to public competition, 
although the Exhibition building, St. George’s Hall, and some of the first engineer- 
ing structures in England, are the result of such a course. 


A Novel Means to lessen the frightful Loss of Life round our exposed 
Coasts by rendering the Element itself an Inert Barrier against the Power 
of the Sea; also a Permanent Deep-water Harbour of Refuge by Artifi- 
cial Bars. By Admiral Taytor. 


On Street Railways as used in the United States, illustrated by a Model of a 
Tramway and Car, or Omnibus capable of conveying sixty persons. By 
G. F. Train, of Boston, U.S.A. 


In America such a car is drawn by a pair of horses. The tramway is laid in 
the centre of the street, and the rail is so shallow that it offers no obstruction 
whatever to carriages crossing it. In wide streets two such tracks are laid down, 
one for the going and the other for the returning traffic. Mr. T. stated that in the 
cities of America the system was in constant use, and was now an absolute neces- 
sity there. He saw no difficulty in carrying out the system in our English 
towns or in London. Where there were inclines, an extra horse would be used ; 
and where a street was not wide enough for two tracks, he would put down asingle 
track there, and bring the trafic back by a line laid in a parallel street. He had 
received a concession to bring out his system in Birkenhead, and he hoped by 
September to be able to show itin operation there. All he required was leave from 
the authorities in any town to lay down his trams and run his carriages. 


On a Mode of covering Wires with India-rubber. 
By Messrs. WERNER and C. W. SIEMENS. 


The authors exhibited a very ingenious machine for accomplishing this object. 
These gentlemen use no solvent or heat whatever, but take advantage of the pro- 
perty which india-rubber possesses of forming a perfect junction when newly-cut 
surfaces are brought together under pressure. The core or wire, with the ribbon 
of rubber applied to it longitudinally, is pushed into an orifice, which serves as a 
guide to carry them into the machine, so that the superfluous rubber is cut off by 
what may be termed a revolving pair of scissors, formed by a disc of steel with a 
sharp edge revolving excentrically against a stationary plate, and immediately, by 


216 REPORT—1860. 


means of two grooved wheels, the edges are pressed together, and thus the wire 
becomes encased in a perfect tube of india-rubber. As many additional tubes as 
may be desired can be then ee on. The machine is also applicable to the coat- 
ing of wires with what is known as Wray’s Compound, with yulcanized India- 
rubber and other compound substances containing India-rubber. 


APPENDIX. 
PuHysIoLoey. 


On the Deglutition of Alimentary Fluids. 
By Professor J. H. Consett, M.D. 


In this paper the author describes two distinct forms of deglutition ; that while the 
alimentary bolus is propelled with rapidity over the epiglottis, fluids can flow in 
two streams, one at each side of the epiglottis and of the aryteno-epiglottic folds, 
without the danger incidental to its passage over the central aperture of the larynx. 
He believes that such occurs in the newly-born infant and mammal during suction ; 
it can take place in the sipping of fluids, swallowing of the saliva, and even during 
drinking in a continuous Speake. Ordinary drinking is accomplished by gentle 
muscular movements, which should not be confounded with the gulping of fluids. 
In gulping, the fluid is rapidly and forcibly propelled backwards through the 
isthmus of the fauces, each gulp requiring a separate act of deglutition; such act 
much resembles the deglutition of solids. The author contends that when the infant 
or mammal seizing and retaining the nipple, sucks in the fiuid in an almost con- 
tinuous stream, the process of respiration is not totally interrupted, as should 
occur if the fluid absolutely passed in the middle line over the epiglottis; it is 
argued that the salivary secretion is swallowed safely during sleep ; fluid carefully 
introduced into the mouth of persons in a state of insensibility, passes into the 
pharynx; fluid poured gently into the mouth of a patient whose head rests upon 
one side, flows backwards by a gentle act of deglutition, which is chiefly performed 
in this instance by the muscles of the corresponding side; fluids cannot be shaped 
like solid food into a definite form ; alimentary drinks must be subject, in their course, 
to the laws which regulate the passage of fluids in other cases; the root of the 
tongue being narrow and the organ convex on its upper surface, fluids must naturally 
have a tendency to flow from the middle line to either side ; during the mastication 
of solid aliment, the juices expressed by the action of the teeth and pressure of the 
tongue, rapidly escape backwards, so that the bulk of the mass is considerably 
diminished before the deglutition of the solid part is attempted; during inflam- 
matory affections of the tonsillitic glands, the swallowing of fluids is attended with 
difficulty, while a moderately sized portion of solid aliment, which proceeds in 
the middle line, may be transmitted with comparative facility; when a single 
gland is much inflamed, deglutition is chiefly performed at the opposite side. 

In experiments made by the author on the dead body, fluid poured upon the 
dorsum of the tongue passes backwards into the pharynx in two streams, through the 
grooved channels situated at each side of the epiglottis and aryteno-epiglottic folds. 

From all these considerations, it is inferred that in the living body, during the 
deglutition of fluids, the uvula falls forward upon the tongue in front of the epi- 
glottis; thus both uvula and epiglottis afford protection to the respiratory apparatus. 
The fluid is divided by the uvula into two currents, which descend at each side 
of the root cf the tongue, under the half arches of the palate, as water flows under 
the arches of a bridge; and such is the principal use of the uvula. The anato- 
mical arrangements in the human body are perfectly adequate for the transmission 
of fluid in this safe manner. The anatomy of the porpoise, in which the larynx 
rises for several inches above the level of the tongue, affords a strong confirmation of 
this view, which is further sustained by instances in which the epiglottis has been 
destroyed, wounds of the throat, &c. The distinctness of the two forms of deglu- 
tition is also indicated by the fact that the mouth may be filled with food, and yet 
drink can be swallowed without displacement of the solid aliment; the newly-born 
infant can perform suction in a perfect manner; on the other hand, the power of 
swallowing solid focd is gradually acquired, and the organs of deglutition are trained 
by successive steps to the safe performance of this process, 


‘= =? 


INDEX I. 


TO 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


OBJECTS and rules of the Association, 


XVil. 
Places and times of mecting, with names 
of officers from commencement, xx. 

Treasurer’s account, xxiv. 

Members of Council from commence- 
ment, Xxv. 

Officers and Council for 1860-61, xxviii. 

Officers of Sectional Committees, xxix. 

Corresponding Members, xxx. 

Report of Council to Gexeral Committee 
at Oxford, xxx. 

Report of Kew Committee, xxxi. 

Report of Parliamentary Committee, xliv. 

Recommendations adopted by the Ge- 
neral Committee at Oxford :—involv- 
ng grants of money, xlv; applications 
for reports and researches, xlvi; ap- 
plications to Government or public 
Institutions, xlvill; communications to 
be printed entire among the Reports, 
xviii. 

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated 
to scientific objects, xlvii. 

General statement of sums paid on ac- 
countof grants for scientific purposes, 1. 

Extracts from resolutions cf the General 
Committee, liv. 

Arrangement of General Mectings, liv. 

Address by the Right Hon. the Lord 
Wrottesley, ly. 


Actinozoa, British, list of, compiled by 
Rh. M° Andrew, 233 :—Zoantharia, 233 ; 
Aleyonaria, Ctenophora, 234. 


Aérolites and bolides, catalogue of, by 


R. P. Greg, 50. 

Agricultural College (Royal), Cirencester, 
Prof. Buckman on the growth of plants 
in the Botanical Garden of the, 34. 


Anderson (Rey. Dr.), report on the exca- 
vations in Dura Den, 32. 

Annelida, British marine, list of, compiled 
by R. M°Andrew, 226 :—Turbellaria, 
227 ; Bdellomorpha, Bdellidea, Scolices, 
Gymnocopa, Chectopoda, 227. 

Arachnida, British marine, list of, com- 
piled by R. M*Andrew, 226. 

Atherton (Charles), report on steam-ship 
performance, 193. 

Atmospheric electricity, Prof. W.Thomson 
on an electrometer for observing, 44, 


Balloon ascents to great altitudes, report 
on the scientific objects to be sought 
for by, 43. 

Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricul- 
tural College, Cirencester, report on 
the experimental plots in the, by Prof. 
Buckman, 34. 

Brachiopoda, British, list of, compiled 
by R. M*Andrew, 222. 

Brewster (Sir D.), report on the scientific 
objects to be sought for by continuing 
balloon ascents, 43. 

Bridges, experiments on the effect of 
vibratory action and long-continued 
changes of load upon wrought-iron 
girders of, by W, Fairbairn, 45. 

Buckman (Prof. J.), report on the expe- 
rimental plots in the Botanical Garden 
of the Royal Agricultural College, Ci- 
rencester, 34. 


Caithness (the Earl of), report on steam- 
ship performance, 193. 

Cephalopoda, British, list of, compiled by 
R. M°Andrew, 218. 

Ccelenterata, British marine, list of, com- 
piled by R, M*Andrew, 232. 


218 


Congruences, the period-equations con- 
sidered as, 127. 

— , binomial, solution of, 155. 

, 2 =1, mod gp, 155. 

—, cubic and biquadratie, 158. 

> quadratic,—indirect methods of 

solution, 159. 

, general theory of, 161. 

, extension of Fermat’s theorem, 163. 
——, imaginary solutions of a, 165. 
——, having powers of primes for their 

modulus, 165. 

, binomial, having a power of a prime 
for their modulus, 167. 

Crop plants, experiments made at the 
Agricultural College, Cirencester, on 
the growth of, 37. 

Crustacea, British, list of compiled by 
R. M‘Andrew, 222 :—Brachyura, 222 ; 
Anomoura, Stomapoda, Amphipoda 
Normalia, 223; Amphipoda Aber- 
rantia (Lemodipoda), Isopoda Aber- 
rantia (Anisopoda), 224 ; Isopoda(Nor- 
malia), Entomostraca, 225 ; Cirripedia, 
226, 


Devonian fish, new forms of, 32. 

Dredging Dublin Bay, Prof. Kinahan’s 
report on, 27. 

Dublin Bay, Prof. Kinahan’s report on 
dredging, 27. 

Dufferin (Lord), report on steam-ship 
performance, 193. 

Dura Den, report on the excavations in 
the yellow sandstones of, by the Rev. 
Dr. Anderson, Prof. Ramsay, Prof. 
Nicol, and D. Page, 32. 


Earth, researches on the physical and 
chemical changes of the, 175. 

Echinodermata, British, list of, compiled 
by R. M*Andrew, 230 :—Crinoiea, 
Ophiuroidea, Asteroidea, Echinoidea, 
Holothuroidea, 230. 

Egerton (Hon. Capt.), report on steam- 
ship performance, 193. 

Electricity, atmospheric, Prof. W. Thom- 
son on portable apparatus for observ- 
ing, 44. 

Electrometer, atmospheric, self-recording, 
report on the construction of a, by 
Prof. W. Thomson, 44. 

, portable, for atmospheric observa- 
tion, by Prof. W. Thomson, 44. 

Entozoa, British marine, list of, compiled 
by R. M°Andrew, 229 :—Nematoidea, 
Trematoda, Acanthocephala, Cestoidea, 
Cystica, 229. 


Fairbairn (W.), experiments to determine 


REPORT—1860. 


the effect of vibratory action and long- 
continued changes ofload upon wrought- 
iron girders, 45; report on steam-ship 
performance, 193. 

Fauna, British marine invertebrate, list 
of, by R. M°Andrew, 217. 

Fireballs and meteorites, catalogue of, by 
R. P. Greg, 48. 

Fish, fossil, in the yellow sandstone of 
Dura Den, 32. 

Flax plant, on the growth of the, 42. 

Foraminifera, British marine, list of, com- 
piled by R. McAndrew, 234. 

Forbes (Prof. J. D.), report on the scien- 
tific objects to be sought for by con- 
tinuing balloon ascents, 43. 

Fossil remains in the Dura Den yellow 
sandstone, 32. 


Gasteropoda Prosobranchiata, British, 

Het of, compiled by R. M*Andrew, 
18. 

—— Opisthobranchiata, British, list of, 
compiled by R. M*Andrew, 219. 

— Nudibranchiata, British, list of, 
compiled by R. M*Andrew, 220. 

Gauging of water by triangular notches, 
Boe report on the, by J. Thomson, 

Geological phenomena, on the effects of 
long-continued heat, illustrative of, 
175. 

Girders, wrought-iron, experiments on, 
by W. Fairbairn, 45. 

Gladstone (Dr. J. H.), report on observa- 
tions of luminous meteors, 1. 

Glaisher (James), report on observations 
of luminous meteors, 1. 

Grasses, experiments made at the Agri- 
cultural College, Cirencester, on the 
growth of, 35. 

Greg (R. P.), report on observations of 
luminous meteors, 1, 22; catalogue of 
meteorites and fireballs from A.D. 2 to 
A.D. 1860, 48. 

Harcourt (Rev. W. Vernon), report on 
the effects of long-continued heat, 
illustrative of geological phenomena, 
175. 

Heat, long continued, Rev. W. V. Tiar- 
court’s report on the effects of, illus- 
trative of geological phenomena, 175. 

Holoptychius, fossil, some new particu- 
lars on the structure and figure of the 
genus, 32. 

Hydrozoa, British marine, list of, com- 
piled by R. M*Andrew, 232:—Cory- 
nide, Sertularide, Calycophoride, 
Physophoride, 232; Medusidz, Lucer- 
naridz, 233. 


4 


INDEX I. 


Invertebrate fauna, British marine, list 
of the, by R. M°Andrew, 217. 


Killmey Bay, shells obtained in, 29. 

Kinahan (Prof.), report on dredging in 
Dublin Bay, 27. 

Kingstown Bay, shells obtained in, 29. 


Lloyd (Rev. Dr. H.), report on the scien- 
tific objects to be sought for by con- 
tinuing balloon ascents, 43. 

Lowe (E. J.), report on observations of 
luminous meteors, |. 


Marine invertebrate fauna, British, list 
of, by R. M°Andrew, 217. 

M‘Andrew (Robert), list of the British 
marine invertebrate fauna, 217. 

M°Connell (J. E.), report on steam-ship 
performance, 193. 

Messageries Impériales of France, table of 
results of performances of steam-ships 
in the service of, 200. 

Meteor, very remarkable, observations of 
aj. 12; 

Meteorites and fireballs, catalogue of, by 
R. P. Greg, 48. 

Meteors, luminous, report on observa- 
tions of, by J. Glaisher, Dr. Gladstone, 
R. P. Greg, and E. J. Lowe, 1. 

——, luminosity of, from solar reflexion, 
15; onthe luminous trains left by, 15; 
on the motion of the tail of, 17 ; on the 
duration of, 17 ; on the hypothesis that 
the intensity of the light of, is caused 
by the oxygen in the atmosphere, 18; 
list of 168 bolides observed from 1841 
to 1853, 19; results of the most re- 
markable as regards their general ob- 
served direction, 21. 

Mollusca, British, list of, compiled by R. 
McAndrew, 218. 

Moorsom (Vice-Admiral) on the perform- 
ance of Steam-vessels, the functions 
of the screw, and the relations of its 
diameter and pitch to the form of the 
vessel, 172. 

, chairman of the committee on steam 

ship performance, second report, 193. 


Napier (J. R.), report on steam-ship per- 
formance, 193. 

Naval architecture, Admiral Moorsom 
on, 172. 

Nicol (Prof. J.),report on the excavations 
in Dura Den, 32. 

Numbers, Prof. Smith’s report on the 
theory of, 120; residues of the higher 
powers, researches of Jacobi, 120; neces- 
sity for the introduction of ideal primes, 


219 


121; elementary definitions relating to 
complex numbers, 122; complex units, 
123; Gauss’s equations of the periods, 
125; the period-equations considered 
as congruences, 127; conditions for 
the divisibility of the norm of a com- 
plex number by a real prime, 129; 
elementary theorems relating to ideal 
factors, 131; classification of ideal num- 
bers, 132; representation of ideal num- 
bers as the roots of actual numbers, 
133; the number of classes of ideal 
numbers, 134; criterion of the divisi- 
bility of H by A, 136; “exceptional ” 
primes, 138; Fermat’s theorem for 
complex primes, 139; M. Kummer’s 
law of reciprocity, 140; the theorems 
complementary to M. Kummer’s law 
of reciprocity, 141 ; complex numbers 
composed of roots of unity, of which 
the index is not a prime, 145; appli- 
cation to the theory of the division of 
the circle, 147; application to the last 
theorem of Fermat, 148; application 
to the theory of numerical equations, 
152; tables of complex primes, 153 ; 
solution of binomial congruences, 155 ; 
solution of the congruence «*=1, 
mod p, 155; cubic and biquadratic 
congruences, 158; quadratic congru- 
ences—indirect methods of solution, 
159; general theory of congruences, 
161; extension of Fermat’s theorem, 
163; imaginary solutions of a congru- 
ence, 165; congruences having powers 
of primes for their modules, 165; bi- 
nomial congruences having a power of 
a prime for their modulus, 167 ; primi- 
tive roots of the powers of a prime, 
168; case when the modulus is a power 
of 2,168; composite modulus, 168 ; 
binomial congruences with composite 
modulus, 169; primitive roots of the 
powers of complex primes, 170; addi- 
tions to Part I., 170. 

Page (D.), report on the excavations in 
Dura Den, 32. 

Paris (Admiral), report on steam-ship 
performance, 193. 

Plants, Professor Buckman’s report on 
the growth of, in the Botanical Garden 
of the Royal Agricultural College, 
Cirencester, 34. 

Polyzoa, British marine, list of, compiled 
sae M°Andrew, 230:—Infundibulata, 
230. 

Porifera, British marine, list of, compiled 
by R. M°Andrew, 235. 

Protozoa, British marine, list of, compiled 
by R. M°Andrew, 234. 


220 


Pteropoda, British, list of, compiled by 
R. M°Andrew, 220, 


Railways, experiments on cast and 
wrought-iron girders, by W. Fairbairn, 
45. 

Ramsay (Prof. A. C.), report on the ex- 
cayations in Dura Den, 32. 

Rankine (Prof.), report on steam-ship 
performance, 193. 

Roberts (Richard), report on steam-ship 
performance, 193. 

Russell (J. Scott), report on steam-ship 
performance, 193. 


Sabine (General), report on the scientific 
objects to be sought for by continuing 
balloon ascents, 43. 

Sharpey (Dr.), report on the scientific 
objects to be sought for by continuing 
balloon ascents, 43. 

Shells, list of species obtained in Kings- 
town and Killiney Bays, 29. 

Ships. iron-cased, remarks on, by Admi- 
ral Moorsom, 174. 

Ships, steam, Admiral Moorsom on the 
performance of, the functions of the 
screw, andthe relations of its diameter 
and pitch to the form of the vessel, 
172. 

Shootng-stars, on, 1. 

Smith (Prof. H. J. S.), report on the 
theory of numbers, Part IT., 120. 

Smith (Wm.), report on steam-ship per- 
formance, 193. 


REPORT—1860. 


Sponges, British marine, list of, compiled 
by R. M°Andrew, 235. 

Stafford (Marquis of), report on steam- 
ship performance, 193, 

Steam-ship performance, second report 
of the committee on, 193. 

Steam-vessels, Admiral Moorsom on the 
performance of, the functions of the 
screw, and the relations of its diameter 
and pitch to the form of the vessel, 
172. 

Sykes (Colonel), report on the scientific 
objects to be sought for by continuing 
balloon ascents, 43, 


Thomson (James), interim report on the 
gauging of water by triangular notches, 
21 


Thomson (Prof. W.), report on the scien- 
tific objects to be sought for by con- 
tinuing balloon ascents, 43; report on 
the construction of a self-recording 
atmospheric electrometer for Kew Ob- 
servatory, and portable apparatus for 
observing atmospheric electricity, 44. 


Walker (Rev. Prof.), report on the scien- 
tific objects to be sought for by con- 
tinuing balloon ascents, 43. 

Weeds, experiments made at the Agri- 
cultural College, Cirencester, on the 
growth of, 39. 

Wright (Henry), Hon. Secretary of the 
committee on steam-ship perform- 
ance, second report, 193, 


INDEX IT. 


221 


INDEX II. 


TO 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE 
SECTIONS. 


AccaptaNn language, Dr. Hincks on 
the, 156. 

Aconite, E. R. Harvey on the mode of 
death by, 133. 

Adie (P.), description of an instrument 
for measuring actual distances, 59 ; de- 
scription of a new reflecting instrument 
for angular measurement, 59. 

Africa, South-Central, Dr. Livingstone’s 
discoveries in, 164. 

Agricultural labourers, H. J. Ker Porter 
on the best plan of cottage for, 194; 
H. Roberts on, 196. 

Air-pump, improved form of, W. Ladd 
on an, 65. 

Alcohols and tea, the action of, contrasted, 
by Dr. E. Smith, 145. 

Algeria, Rev. H. B. Tristram on the geo- 
logical system of the central Sahara 
of, 102. 

Alimentary fluids, on the deglutition of, 
216. 

, J. Ball on systematic observations 

of temperature in the, 37. 

, Capt. Cybultz on a set of relief 
models of the, 155. 

Alps, Savoy, Prof, Favre on circular 
chains in the, 78. 

America, British North, Dr. Hector on 
the geology of Captain Palliser’s expe- 
dition in, 80. 

American, British North, exploring expe- 
dition, Capt. J. Palliser on the course 
and results of, 170. 

Anesthetics, Dr. C. Kidd on the nature 
of death from the administration of, 
136. 

Anca (Baron F.) on two newly disco- 
vered ossiferous caves in Sicily, 73. 

Andalusite, Connemara, analysis of, by 
Prof. Rowney, 71. 

Andrews (Prof.) on ozone, 66. 

Angular measurement, P. Adie on anew 
reflecting instrument for, 59. 

Animals, domestic, J. Crawfurd on their 
influence on the progress of civiliza- 
tion, 155, 


Animal and a plant, J, Hogg on the di-~ 
stinctions of an, 111, 

Animalcules in human milk, G, D. Gibb 
on, 131. 

Antarctic expeditions, Capt. Maury on, 44, 

Antarctic regions, Capt. Maury on the 
climates of the, 46, 

Aryan or Indo-Germanic theory of races, 
J. Crawfurd on the, 154. 

Assyrian inscriptions, Dr. Hincks on the 
language of the, 156. 

Asia, Central, R. von Schlagintweit on 
the aboriginal tribes of, 176. 

Aspergillum, or watering-pot Mollusk, L. 
Reeve on the, 120, 

Assyrio-Babylonian 
Hincks on the, 35. 

Atkinson (T, W.) on the caravan routes 
from the Russian frontier to Khiva, 
Bokhara, Kokhan, and Yarkand, 153 
on the caravan route from Yarkand to 
Mai-Matchin, 154. 

Atlantic (North) telegraph, geography of 
the, by Col. Schaffner, 178. 

Atmospheric electricity, Prof. W. Thom- 
son on, 53. 

Atmospheric waves, W. R. Birt on, 38. 

Atmotic ship, Hon. W. Bland on an, 60. 

Atomic weight of oxygen, Prof. W. A. 
Miller on the, 70. 

Atomic weights, atomic volumes, and 
properties of the chemical elements, 
J.J. Coleman on some remarkable re- 
lations existing between the, 66. 

Avicula contorta beds and lower lias in 
the S. of England, Dr. T. Wright on 
the, 108. 


lunar year, Dr, 


Ball (John) on a plan for systematic 
observations of temperature in moun- 
tain countries, 37. 

Barlow (P. W.) on the mechanical effects 
of combining suspension chains and 
girders, 201. 

Barometer, J. A. Broun on the laws of 
the diurnal variation of the, within the 
tropics, 20, 


. 
b] 


222 


Barometers, M. R. von Schlagintweit on 
thermo-barometers compared with, at 
great heights, 50. 

Barometric pressure, Admiral FitzRoy on 
the areas or lines of, 41. 

Barometric readings, M. R. von Schlagint- 
weit on some results deduced from com- 
parisons of the boiling-point with, 50, 

Beale (Prof.) on the ultimate arrangement 
of nerves in muscular tissue, 125. 

Becquerel (E.) on a pile with sulphate of 
lead, 59. 

Beetles, mummy, J. O. Westwood on, 123. 

Belcher (Capt. Sir E.) on the manufacture 
of stone-hatchets, &c. by the Esqui- 
maux, 154. 

Berbers or Brabers of Morocco, E. Schla- 
gintweit on the, 177. 

Bernoulli’s theory of gases as applied to 
their internal friction, their diffusion, 
and their conductivity for heat, on the 
results of, 15. 

Bile, Dr, Thudichum on the physiological 
relations of the colouring matter of the, 
147. 

Binocular instruments, A. Claudet on the 
means of increasing the angle of, 61. 
Bird (Dr.) on the deodorization of sewage, 

66. 

Birt (W. R.) on the forms of certain lunar 
craters indicative of the operation of a 
peculiar degrading force, 34; on atmo- 
spheric waves, 38. 

Blackwall’s (J.) work on British spiders, 
notice of, 120, 

Blakeley (Capt.) on rifled cannon, 201. 

Bland (The Hon. W.) on an atmotic ship, 
60. 

Blast of very high temperature, E. Cow- 
per on a new mode of obtaining a, 204. 

Blenheim iron ore, E. Hull on the, 81. 

Boats for inland navigation, Prof. Hen- 
nessy on, 212. 

Boiler, cylindrical spiral, J. Elder on the, 
204. 

Boilers, W. Froude on Giffard’s injector 
for feeding, 211. 

Bone and osseous grafts, M. Ollier on the 
artificial production of, 143. 

Bone-caves near Tenby, Rev. G. N. 
Smith on three undescribed, 101. 

Booth (Rev. Dr.) on the relations be- 
tween hyperconic sections and elliptic 
integrals, 4; on a new general method 
for establishing the theory of conic sec- 
tions, 4; on an improved instrument 
for describing spirals, 60; on the true 
principles of an income tax, 184; ona 
deep sea pressure gauge invented by 
Mr. H. Johnson, 202. 


REPORT—1860. 


Boric triethide, a new organic compound, 
Dr. Frankland and B. Duppa on, 69. 
Boron, Dr. Frankland on a new organic 

compound containing, 69. 

Bose (C. Moritz Von), remarks on the 
volume theory, 71. 

Brennecke (Dr.) on some solutions of the 
problem of tactions of Apollonius of 
Perga by modern geometry, 4. 

Brewster (Sir David) on some optical il- 
lusions connected with the inversion of 
perspective, 7; on the influence of 
very small apertures on telescopic vision, 
7; on microscopic vision, and a new 
form of microscope, §; on the decom- 
posed glass found at Nineveh and other 
places, 9; on a nail found in Kingoodie 
quarry, 73. 

British coasts, J. M. Mitchell on the im- 
portance of the herring fishery on the, 
191, 

British Islands, Admiral FitzRoy on the 
storms of the, 39. 

Brodie (Prof. B. C.) on the quantitative 
estimation of the peroxide of hydrogen, 
66. 

Brodie (Rev. P. B.) on the stratigraphical 
position of certain species of corals in 
the lias, 73. 

Broun (John Allan) on results of obser- 
vations in the Observatory of His High- 
ness the Rajah of Travancore, 20; 
on the diurnal variations of the mag- 
netic declination at the magnetic equa- 
tor, and the decennial period, 21; on 
a new induction dip-circle, 23 ; on mag- 
netic rocks in South India, 24; on a 
magnetic survey of the west coast of 
India, 27; on the velocity of earth- 
quake shocks in the laterite of India, 74. 

Buccinum, J. Lubbock on the develop- 
ment of, 139. 

Buckland (Frank T.) on the acclimatiza- 
tion of animals, birds, &c., 113. 

Buckton (G. B.) on some reactions of 
zinc-ethyl, 66. 


Caithness flagstones, Sir P, de M, G. 
Egerton on a new form of ichthyolite 
discovered by W. Peach in the, 78. 

Caithness (Earl of) on road locomotives, 
204. 

Cale-spar, on rings seen in viewing a light 
through fibrous specimens of, 19. 

Cambridge, Rev. J. B. P. Dennis on the 
mode of flight of the Pterodactyles of — 
the coprolite bed near, 76. 

Camera, solar, A. Claudet on the prin- 
ciples of the, 62. 

Canada, short notice of the progress of 


INDEX II. 


natural science in, by P, P. Carpenter, 
109. 

Cannon, rifled, Capt. Blakeley on, 201. 

Carpenter (Mary) on educational help 
from the Government grant to the de- 
stitute and neglected children of Great 
Britain, 184. 

Carpenter (P. P.) on the progress of na- 
tural science in the United States and 
Canada, 109. 

Carus (Prof. V.) on the value of “ deve- 
lopment” in systematic zoology and 
animal morphology, 125; on the Lep- 
tocephalidz, 125. 

Caustics produced by reflexion, Prof. 
Lindelof on the, 14. 

Cayley (.4.) on curves of the fourth order 
haying three double points, 4. 

Chadwick (David) on water meters, 204, 

Chadwick (Edwin) on the physiological 
as well as psychological limits to mental 
labour, 185; on the economical results 
of military drill in popular schools, 
185. 

Cheese, Prof, Voelcker on poisonous me- 
tals in, 73. 

Chemical elements, J. J. Coleman on 
some remarkable relations existing 
between the atomic weights, atomic 
volumes, and properties of the, 66. 

Chemical geology, I. S. Hunt on some 
points in, 83. 

Chest, A. MacLaren on tie influence of 
exercise on the expansion of the, 142. 

China, W. Lockhart on the mountain 
districts of, and their aboriginal in- 
habitants, 168. 

Chloride of calcium, gradual reduction of 
hydrate of cresyl into hydrate of phenyl 
and other compounds through the 
agency of, Dr. Gladstone on, 69. 

Chloride of sodium and nitrate of baryta, 
when equivalent proportions of, are 
mixed together in solution and diffused, 
four salts exist contemporaneously in 
the liquid, Dr. Gladstone on, 69. 

Chloroferm, Dr. C. Kidd on the nature of 
death from, 136. 

Chromatic dispersion, M. Ponton on the 
laws of, 16. 

Chromatic properties of the electric light 
of mereury, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on 
the, 13. 

Chromoscope, J. Smith on the, 65. 
Cinchona, V. Hurtado on the geographi- 
cal distribution and trade in the, 162. 
Civilization, on the influence of domestic 

animals on the progress of, 155. 

Classification, Prof. V. Carus on the value 

of development in, 125. 


223 


Clarke (A.) on a mode of correcting the 
errors of the compass in iron ships, 28. 

Claudet (A.) on the means of increasing 
the angle of binocular instruments, to 
obtain a stereoscopic effect in propor- 
tion to their magnifying power, 61 ; on 
the principles of the solar camera, 62. 

Classification of animals, J. R. Greene on 
embryology in reference to the, 152. 

Climates of the antarctic regions, Captain 
Maury on the, 46. 

Clutterbuck (Rev. J. C.) on the course of 
the Thames from Lechlade to Windsor, 
as ruled by the geological formations 
over which it passes, 75. 

Coal-field, Tynedale, on the, 86. 
Coal-fields, North Staffordshire, W. 
Molyneux on fossil fish from the, 88. 
Cody (Patrick) on the trisection of an 

angle, 4. 

Coleman (J. J.) on some remarkable re- 
lations existing between the atomic 
weights, atomic volumes, and proper- 
ties of the chemical elements, 66; on 
the destruction of the bitter principle 
of chyraitta by the agency of caustic 
alkali, 66. 

Collingwood (Prof. Cuthbert) on the re- 
spiration of the nudibranchiate mol- 
lusea, 113; on the nudibranchiate mol- 
lusea of the Mersey and the Dee, 113; 
on recurrent animal form, and its sig- 
nificance in systematic zoology, 114, 

Colour-blindness, Dr, J, H. Gladstone on, 
12. 

Colour, J. Smith on the chromoscope, to 
verify certain opinions as to the cause 
of, 65. 

Colouring matter of the bile, Dr, Thudi- 
chum on the physiological relations of 
the, 147. 

Colours, Dr. Gladstone on his own per- 
ception of, 12. 

Colours of the spectrum, Prof. Maxwell 
on an instrument for exhibiting any 
mixture of the, 16. 

Connemara, Prof. Rowney on the analysis 
of some minerals of, 71. 

Coprolite bed near Cambridge, Rey. J. B. 
P. Dennis on the pterodactyles of the, 
76. 

Corals in the lias, Rev. P. B. Brodie on 
the stratigraphical position of certain 
species of, 73. 

Corbett (Prof. J. H.) on the deglutition of 
alimentary fluids, 216, 

Cornwall and Devon, W. Pengelly on the 
chronological and geographical distri- 
bution of the Devonian fossils of, 91, 

Cottage. for agricultural labourers, H. 


224 


J. K. Porter on the best plan of, 194 ; 
H. Roberts on, 196. 

Cowper (E.) on a new mode of obtaining 
a blast of very high temperature in the 
manufacture of iron, 204. 

Crawfurd (John) on the influence of 
domestic animals on the progress of 
civilization, 155; on the Aryan or 
Indo-Germanic theory of races, 154. 

Crustacea, British well shrimps, new, 
Rev. A. R. Hogan on, 116. 

Cull (R.) on certain remarkable deviations 
in the stature of Europeans, 155; on 
the existence of a true plurafof a per- 
sonal pronoun in a living European 
language, 155, 

Cumberland and Northumberland, J. A. 
Knipe on the Tynedale coal-field and 
the whin-sill of, 86. 

Curves of the fourth order, having three 
double points, A. Cayley on, 4. 

Cybulz (Captain) on a set of relief models 
of the Alps, &c., 155. 

Cydippe, J. Price on, 120. 


Daubeny (Dr.) on the elevation theory 
of volcanos, 75; on the final causes of 
the sexuality of plants, in reference to 
Mr. Darwin’s ‘Theory, 109; experi- 
ments on equivocal generation, 115. 

Death by aconite, on the mode of, 133; 
from the administration of anesthetics, 
on the nature of, 136. 

Deglutition of alimentary fluids, Prof. J. 
H. Corbett on the, 216. 

De la Rue (Warren) on a new acetic 
ether occurring in a natural resin, 71; 
on the isomers of cumol!, 71. 

Dennis (Rev. J. B. P.) on the mode of 
flight of the Pterodactyles of the copro- 
lite bed near Cambridge, 76. 

Devon and Cornwall, W. Pengelly on the 
chronological and geographical distri- 
bution of the Devonian fossils of, 91. 

Devon, South, E. Vivian on the climate 
of, 56. 

Devonian fossils of Devon and Cornwall, 
W. Pengelly on the chronological and 
geographical distribution of the, 91. 

Dingle (Rev. J.) onthe corrugation of strata 
in the vicinity of mountain ranges, 77. 

Dip-circle, induction, new, J. A. Broun 
on a, 23. 

Dispersion, chromatic, M. Ponton on the 
laws of, 16. 

Distances, P. Adie on an instrument for 
measuring, 59. 

Dolomites and gypsum, T. S. Hunt on, 83. 

Donegal, north of, Prof. Harkness on the 
metamorphic rocks of, 79, 


REPORT—1860. 


Dowden (R.) on the effect of a rapid cur- 
rent of air, 39; on a plant poisoning a 
plant, 110; on local taxation for local 
p poses, 191. 

Draper (Dr. H.) on a reflecting telescope 
for celestial photography, erecting at 
Hastings, near New York, 63; on the 
intellectual development of Europe, 
considered with reference to the views 
of Mr, Darwin and others, 115. 

Dresser (Dr. C.) on the morphological 
laws in plants, 110; on abnormal forms 
of Passiflora czerulea, 110. 

Drift, triassic, from the neighbourhood of 
Frome, C. Moore on the contents of, 87. 

Du Boulay (M.) on the meteorological 
phenomena of the vernal equinoctial 
week, 39. 

Duppa (B.) on a new organic compound 
containing boron, 69. 

Durham (Arthur E.) on the nature of 
sleep, 129. 


Earnshaw (Rev. S.) on the velocity of 
the sound of thunder, 58; on the tri- 
plicity of sound, 58. 

Earth’s crust, Rev. J. Dingle on the for- 
mation of the, 77. 

internal structure, Prof. Hennessy 
on studying the, from phenomena ob- 
served at its surface, 35. 

Earthquake shocks, in the laterite of In- 
dia, J. A. Broun on the velocity of, 74. 

Earthquakes and volcanic phenomena, T. 
S. Hunt on the theory of, 84. 

Education of the destitute and neglected 
children of Great Britain, Mary Car- 
penter on help from the Government 
grant for the, 184, 

, E, Chadwick on the physiological 
as well as psychological limits to mental 
labour, 185, 

Egerton (Sir P. de M, G.) on the ichthy- 
olites of Farnell Road, Forfarshire, 77; 
on a new form of ichthyolite discovered 
by Mr. Peach, 78. 

Eggs of Buccinum, on the development 
of, 139, 

Elder (John) on the cylindrical spiral 
boiler, 204, 

Electric fluid, Rev, T. Rankin on the dif- 
ferent motions of, 30. 

light, M. Serrin on an automatic 

regulator for, 19, 

light of mercury, Dr. J. H. Gladstone 

on the chromatic properties of the, 13. 

telegraphs, submarine, C. W. Sie- 

mens and M, Werner on the principles 
and practice involved in dealing with 

the electrical conditions of, 32, 


OO a 


INDEX Ii. 


Electrical foree, Sir W. S. Harris on, 28. 

indications during day thunder- 

storms, Prof. W. Thomson on, 54. 

vacuum tubes, Prof. W. B. Rogers 
on the phenomena of, 30. 

Electricity, atmospheric, Prof. W. Thom- 
son on, 53 

Electro-magnetic railway break, on an, 
212, 

Electrolysis across glass, W. R. Grove on 
the transmission of, 69. 

Embryology, J. R. Greene on, with refer- 
ence tc the mutual relations of the sub- 
kingdoms of animals, 132, 

Equations, indeterminate linear, Prof. H. 
J. S. Smith on systems of, 6. 

Equinoctial week, vernal, M. Du Boulay 
on the meteorological phenomena of 
the, 39. : 

Esquimaux, on the habits and manners of, 
and on their manufacture of stone- 
hatchets, 154. 

Ether, Dr. C. Kidd on the nature of death 
from, 136. 

Ethnological boulders and their probable 
origin, Rey. Dr. Hincks on, 156. 

Ethnology, R. von Schlagintweit on some 
of the Aborigines of India and High 
Asia, 175. 

Exercise, A. Maclaren on its influence in 
physical growth and development, 142. 

Eyes, Prof. W.B. Rogers on their in- 
ability to determine which retina. is 
impressed, 18. 


Fairbairn (William) on the density of 
saturated steam, and on the law of ex- 
pansion of superheated steam, 210. 

Farnell, Forfarshire, J. Powrie on a fos- 
siliferous deposit near, 89. 

Farnell Road, Forfarshire, Sir P. de M. G. 
Egerton on the ichthyolites of, 77. 

Faroé Isles, some remarks on the, by Col. 
Schaffner, 178. 

Fauna, invertebrate, of the lower oolites 
of Oxfordshire, J. F. Whiteaves on the, 
104, 

Favre (Prof. A.) on circular chains in 
the Savoy Alps, 78. 

Fawcett (Henry) on the method of poli- 
tical economy by Dr. Whewell, 191; 
on cooperative societies, their social and 
political aspect, 191. 

Fern stems, Dr, G. Ogilvie on the struc- 
ture of, 112. 

Fish, fossil, from the N. Staffordshire coal- 
fields, W. Molyneux on the, 88. 

, remains of, in the triassic drift in 

the neighbourhood of Frome, C, Moore 

on, 87, 


1860. 


225 


Fishes found in the old red sandstone de- 
posits of Farnell, Forfarshire, Sir P. de 
M. G, Egerton on, 77, 89. 

Fisher (John) on an atmospheric wash- 
ing machine, 210. 

Fishery, herring, J. M. Mitchell on the 
importance of the, 191, 

FitzRoy (Admiral) on British storms, 39. 

Fluids, alimentary, on the deglutition of, 
216. 

Forfarshire, Sir P. de M. G, Egezton on 
the ichthyolites of Farnell, 77; J. 
Powrie on a fossilferous deposit near 
Farnell, 89. 

Formosa, island of, W. Lockhart on the, 
169, 


Fossil remains in two newly-discovered 
caves in Sicily, Baron Anca on, 73. 
Fossil fish, from the North Staffordshire 
coal fields, W. Molyneux on the, 88. 
fishes, of the old red sandstone of 
Farhell, Forfarshire, Sir P. de M, G. 
Egerton, 79, 89. 

Fossiliferous deposit near Farnell, in For- 
farshire, J. Powrie on a, 89. 

Fossils, British North American, Dr. Hec- 
tor on, 80. : 

, Devonian, of Devon and Cornwall, 

W. Pengelly on the chronological and 

geographical distribution of the, 91. 

of the lower oolites of Oxfordshire, 

J. F. Whiteaves on the, 104. 

of the triassic drift in the neigh- 
bourhood of Frome, C. Moore on, 87. 

Foster (Dr. M.) on the theory of cardiac 
inhibition, 129. 

Fox (J. J.) on the province of the statis- 
tician, 191. 

Frankland (Dr.) on a new organic com- 
pound containing boron, 69. 

Freshwater deposit at Mundesley, J. 
Prestwich on the, 90. 

Frome, C. Moore on the fossils of the 
triassic drift in theneighbourhood of, 87. 

Froude (William) on Giffard’s injector for 
feeding boilers, 211. 

Fulgora candelaria, J. O. Westwood on a 
lepidopterous parasite on the, 124, 


Gages (Alphonse) on some transforma- 
tions of iron pyrites in connexion with 
organic remains, 79. 

Galvanic battery with sulphate of lead, 
M. E. Becquerel on a, 59. 

Ganoids, notice of one representing a new 
genus, by W. Molyneux, 89. 

Garner (Robert) on certain alterations in 
the medulla oblongata in cases of pa- 
ralysis, 129; on the structure of the 
Lepadide, 130, 

15 


226 


Garnet, Connemara, analysis of, by Prof. 
Rowney, 71. 

Gaskoin’s (Mr.) pathological collection of 
shells, 116. 

Gases, Bernoulli’s theory of, as applied 
to their internal friction, their diffusion, 
and their conductivity for heat, Prof. 
Maxwell on the results of, I5. 

, ©. M. von Bose on the theory of 
volumes which separates them from 
other bodies, 71. 

Gauge, deep-sea pressure, Rev. Dr. Booth 
on a, 202. 

Geinitz (Dr.) on snow crystals, 79 ; on the 
Silurian formation in the district of 
Wilsdruff, 79. 

Generation, equivocal, experiments on, by 
Dr. Daubeny, 115. 

Geology, chemical, T. S. Hunt on some 
points in, 83. 

Gerhardt’s proposal for doubling the 
atomic number for oxygen, some prac- 
tical objections to, by Prof. W. A. Mil- 
ler, 70. 

Gibb (Dr. G. D.) on saccharine fermen- 
tation within the female breast, 131. 
Giffard’s injector for feeding boilers, W. 

Froude on, 211. 

Gilbert (Dr. J. H), on the composition 
of the ash of wheat, 70. 

Glaciers, Canon Moseley on the cause of 
the descent of, 48. 

Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on his own percep- 
tion of colours, 12; on the chromatic 
properties of the electric light of mer- 
cury, 13 ; chemical notes, 69. 

Glass, decomposed, R. Thomas on thin 
films of, 19. 

, decomposed, found at Nineveh, Sir 
D. Brewster on, 9. 

Glennie (J. S.S.) on physics as a branch 
of the science of motion, 56; on a ge- 
neral law of rotation applied to the 
planets, 58. 

Graptolites, A. Gages on the transform- 
ation of iron pyrites connected with, 79. 

—— in the Lydit and Phthanit, discovery 
of, in the district of Wilsdruff, Saxony, 
Dr. Geinitz on, 79. 

Graves (Rev. Prof.) on the arrangement 
of the forts and dwelling-places of the 
ancient Irish, 156. 

Gray (Sir Charles) on Asiatic cholera, 


132. 

Greene (Prof. J. R.) on embryology, with 
reference to the mutual relations of the 
subkingdoms of animals, 132, 

Greenland, some remarks on, by Col. 
Schaffner, 178. 

Greenwich and Utrecht, J. Park Harrison 


REPORT—1860. 


on the similarity of the lunar curves of 
minimum temperature at, 44. 

Grove (W.R.) on the transmission of 
electrolysis across glass, 69. 

Gutta percha and india-rubber, as insu- 
lators for subaqueous telegraphic wires, 
W. Silver on, 212. 


Habitat of plants influenced by nature of 
strata, Rev. W.S. Symonds on the, 102. 

Hall (Walter) on a process for covering 
submarine wires with india-rubber, 
211. 

Harcourt (A. Vernon) on the oxidation 
of potassium and sodium, 70. 

Harkness (R.) on the metamorphic rocks 
of the north of Ireland, 79. 

Harris (Sir W. 8.) on electrical force, 28. 

Harrison (J. Park) on the similarity of 
the lunar curves of minimum tempera- 
ture at Greenwich and Utrecht, 44. 

Hartwell variable star atlas, 36. 

Harvey (Edward R.) on the mode of death 
by aconite, 133. 

Hatchets, stone, of the Esquimaux, Sir 
E. Belcher on, 154. 

Heat, Prof. Maxwell on the results of 
Bernoulli’s theory of gases as applied 
to their internal friction, their diffusion, 
and their conductivity for, 15. 

Hector (Dr.) on the geology of Captain 
Palliser’s expedition in British North 
America, 80; on the climate of the 

‘ Saskatchewan district in British North 
America, 172. 

Hennessy (Prof.) on studying the earth’s 
internal structure from phenomena ob- 
served at its surface, 35; on the prin- 
ciples of meteorology, 44; suggestions 
relative to inland navigation, 211. 

Henslow (Rev. Prof.) on the supposed 
germination of mummy wheat, 110. 

Herring, J. M. Mitchell on the economi- 
cal history and statistics of the, 191. 

Higgins (Rev. H. H.) on some spe- 
cimens of shells from the Liverpool 
Museum, 116. 

Hincks (Rev. Dr.) on recorded obserya- 
tions of the planet Venus in the seventh 
century before Christ, 35; on certain 
ethnological boulders and their probable 
origin, 156. 

Hitchman (J.) on sanitary drainage of 
towns, 191. 

Hochstetter (Prof. von) on the geological 
features of the volcanic island of St. 
Paul, in the South Indian ocean, 81; on ~ 
the geology of New Zealand, 81; ona 
new map of the interior of the Northern 
Island of New Zealand, 162. 


INDEX II. 


Hodgson (R.) on a brilliant eruption on 
the sun’s surface, 36. 

Hogan (Rev. A. R.) on British well 
shrimps, 116. 

Hogg (John) on the distinctions of a plant 
and an animal, and ona fourth king- 
dom of nature, 111. 

Houses for the labouring classes, on, 194, 
196. 

Hudson’s Bay and Straits, Dr. J. Rae on 
the formation of icebergs and ice action 
in the, 174. 

Hull (Edward) on the Blenheim iron ore, 
and the thickness of the formations be- 
low the great oolite at Stonesfield, Ox- 
fordshire, 81; on the six-inch maps of 
the Geological Survey, 81. 

Hunt (Dr. J.) on the antiquity of the hu- 
man race, 162. 

Hunt (T. Sterry) on some points in che- 
mical geology, 83. 

Hurtado (V.) on the geographical distri- 
bution and trade in the Cinchona, 162. 

Huxley (Prof.) on the development of 
Pyrosoma, 136. 

Hydrate of cresyl, gradual reduction of, 
into hydrate of phenyl and other com- 
pounds through the agency of chloride 
of calcium or zinc, Dr. Gladstone on, 69. 

of phenyl, gradual reduction of 

' hydrate of cresyl into, through the 
agency of chloride of calcium or zinc, 
Dr. Gladstone on, 69. 

Hygrometers, self-registering, E. Vivian 
on results of, 55. 

Hyperconic sections and elliptic integrals, 
Rev. Dr. Booth on the relations be- 
tween, 4. 


Icebergs and ice action, Dr. J. Rae on the 
formation of, in the Hudson’s Bay and 
Straits, 174. 

. Iceland, W. Lauder Lindsay on the erup- 
tion in May 1860 of the KGtliigja vol- 
cano in, 86. 

» Some remarks on, by Col. Schaff- 

ner, 178. 
Ichthyolite, on a new form of, discovered 
by Mr. Peach, 78. 

Ichthyolites of Farnell Road, Forfarshire, 
Sir P. de M. G, Egerton on the, 77. 
India, Central, R. von Schlagintweit on 

the aboriginal tribes of, 175. 

, South, J. A. Broun on magnetic 

rocks in, 24. 

, J. A. Broun on the velocity of 

earthquake shocks in the laterite of, 74. 

and High Asia, general abstract of 

the results of Messrs. de Schlagintweit’s 

magnetic survey of, 32. 


227 


India, West Coast of, J. A. Broun on a 
magnetic survey of the, 27. 

Indians, Mr. Sullivan on the tribes of, in- 
habiting the country explored by the 
British North American expedition in 
the years 1857-1859, 173. 

India-rubber, Messrs. Werner and Sie- 
mens on a mode of covering wires 
with, 215. 

India-rubber and gutta percha as insu- 
lators for subaqueous telegraphic wires, 
W. Silver on, 212. 

Indo-European languages, Dr. Hincks on 
the, 156. 

Indo-Germanic theory of races, J. Craw- 
furd on the, 154. 

Integrals, elliptic, and hyperconic sec- 
tions, Rev. Dr. Booth on the relations 
between, 4. 

Interference of light, phenomena pro- 
duced by decomposed glass found at 
Nineveh, Sir D. Brewster on, 9; at 
Oxford, by R. Thomas, 19. 

Invertebrate fauna of the lower oolites of 
Oxfordshire, J. F. Whiteaves on the, 
104. 

Ireland, North of, Prof. Harkness on the 
metamorphic rocks of the, 79. 

Iron, E. Cowper on a new mode of ob- 
taining a blast of very high tempera- 
ture in the manufacture of, 204, 

Iron ore, Blenheim, E. Hull on the, 81. 


Jaczwings, a population of the 13th cen- 
tury, Dr. R. G, Latham on the, 163. 

Jarrett (Rev. Prof.) on alphabets, 163. 

Jarvis (E.) on the system of taxation pre- 
vailing in the United States, 191. 


_ Jaundice, Dr. Thudichum on nitric and 


nitro-hydrochloric acids in, 148. 

Jeffreys (J. G.) on the British teredines, 
or ship-worms, 117; on specimens of 
the common whelk having double oper- 
cula, 117. 

Jellett (Rev. Prof.) on a new instrument 
for determining the plane of polariza- 
tion, 13. 

Jet, Prof. Rowney on the composition of, 
72, 

Johnson’s (Henry) improved instrument 
for describing spirals, 60; deep sea 
pressure gauge, 202. 

Jukes (J. Beete) on the igneous rocks 
interstratified with the carboniferous 
limestones of the basin of Limerick, 
84, 


Kidd (Dr. Charles) on the nature of death 
from the administration of anesthetics, 
especially chloroform and ether, 136, 

[5>* 


228 


Kimmeridge, paddle of pliosaurus of great 
size found at, Mr. R. Damon on a, 75. 

Kirkman (Rev. T. P.) on ‘the roots of 
substitutions, 4. 

Knipe (J. A.) on the Tynedale coal-field 
and the Whin-sill of Cumberland and 
Northumberland, 86. 

Knox (R.) on the origin of the arts, 163. 


Labouring classes, H. Roberts on various 
efforts to improve the domiciliary con- 
dition of the, 196. 

Labrador, some remarks on, by Col. 
Schaffner, 178. 

Labyrinthodon, Rey. W. Lister on foot- 
prints of the, from the new red sand- 
stone north of Wolverhampton, 87. 

Tadd (W.) on an improved form of air- 
pump for philosophical experiments, 65. 

Lange (D. A.) on the progress of the 
Isthmus of Suez Canal, 163. 

Latham (Dr. R. G.) on the Jaczwings, 
163, 

Lawes (J. B.) on the composition of the 
ash of wheat, 70. 

Lee (Dr.John), prospectus of the Hartwell 
variable star atlas, 36. 

Lemuridz, Prof. Van der Hoeven on the 
anatomy of the, 135. 

Lenses, diamond, topaz, and rock-crystal, 
best suited for, Sir D. Brewster on, 8. 

Lepadide, R. Garner on the structure of 
the, 130. 

Lepidoptera, Dr. Verloren on the effect of 
temperature and periodicity on the de- 
velopment of, 123, 

Lepidopterous larvz, micro-, H. T. Stain- 
ton on some peculiar forms amongst 
the, 122. 

parasite on the body of the firefly, 
J. O. Westwood on a, 124. 

Leptocephalide, Prof. V. Carus on the, 
125. 

Lewis (Dr.) on a hydro-spirometer, 139. 

Lias, Rev. P. B. Brodie, on the stratigra- 
phical position of certain species of 
corals in the, 73. 

Lias, lower, in the south of England, Dr. 
T. Wright on the, 108. 

Light, electric, M. Serrin on an automatic 
regulator for, 19. 

Lightning conductors, G. J. Symons on 
employing the gutters and rain-water 
pipes of private houses as, 52. 

Limerick, J. B. Jukes on the igneous rocks 
interstratified with the carboniferous 
limestones of the basin of, 84. 

Limestones, carboniferous, of the basin of 
Limerick, J. B. Jukes on the igneous 
rocks interstratified with the, 84, 


REPORT—1860. 


Lindelof (Prof.) on the caustics produced 
by reflexion, 14. 

Lindsay (Dr. W. L.) on the eruption in 
May 1860, of the Kétltigj& volcano in 
Iceland, 86. 

Lister (Rev. W.) on reptilian foot-prints 
from the new red sandstone, north 
of Wolverhampton, 87. 

Liverpool Museum, on some specimens of 
shells from the, 116. 

Livingstone (Dr.) on the discoveries in 
South Central Africa, 164. 

Lockhart (W.) on the mountain districts 
of China and their aboriginal inhabit- 
ants, 168. 

Locomotives, road, Earl of Caithness on, 
204, 

Lubbock (John) on the development of 
Buccinum, 139. 

Lunar craters, W. R. Birt on the forms of, 
34. & 

Lunar curves of minimum temperature at 
Greenwich and Utrecht, on the simi- 
larity of the, 44. 


Macgowan (Dr.), on of the ante-chris- 
tian settlement of the Jews in China, 
170. 

Machine atmospheric, for washing, J. 
Fisher on an, 210. 

MacLaren (Archibald) on the influence 
of systematized exercise on the expan- 
sion of the chest, 142. 

Magnesian rocks, ‘I’. S. Hunt on, 83. 

Magnetic declination, J, A. Broun on the 
mode in which the diurnal law of, 
varies from place to place, and the 
probable position and epoch of the line 
of least diurnal variation near the 
equinoxes, 20, 

— declination, J. A. Broun on the 
diurnal variations of the, at the mag- 
netic equator, and the decennial period, 
21, 


equator, J. A. Broun on the 

diurnal variations of the magnetic decli- 

nation at the, 21. 

rocks in South India, J. A. Broun 

on, 24. 

survey of the west coast of India, 

J. A. Broun on a, 27. 

survey of India, Messrs. de Schla- 
gintweit’s general abstract of the re- 
sults of, 32, ; 

Magnetic-induction dip-circle, new, J. A. 
Broun on, 23. 

Magnetism of the earth, the daily mean 
intensity of the, increases as a whole 
or diminishes as a whole, J, A, Broun 
on, 20, 


INDEX II. 


Mammalia, triassic, C. Moore on remains 
of, in the drift in the neighbourhood of 
Frome, 88. 

Man, J. Crawfurd on the Aryan or Indo- 
Germanic theory of the races of, 154, 

Maps, topographical, Capt. Cybulz on 
models to facilitate instruction in deli- 
neating the features of the ground on, 
155. 

Masters (M. T.) on the normal and ab- 
normal variations from an assumed type 
in plants, 112. 

Maury (Captain) on antarctic expeditions, 
44; on the climates of the antarctic 
regions, 46. 

Maxwell (Prof.) on the results of Ber- 
noulli’s theory of gases as applied to 
their internal friction, their diffusion, 
and their conductivity for heat, 15; on 
aninstrument for exhibiting any mixture 
of the colours of the spectrum, 16. 

May (D.), journey in the Yoruba and 
Nupé countries, 170. 

M*Donnell (Dr. Robert) on the formation 
of sugar and amyloid substances in the 
animal economy, 129. 

Measuring actual distances, P. Adie on 
an instrument for, 59. 

Measurement, angular, P. Adie on a new 
reflecting instrument for, 59. 

Mechanics, Prof. Sylvester on the appli- 
cation of Poncelet’s theorems for the 
linear representation of quadratic radi- 
cals to practical questions of, 7. 

Medulla oblongata, R. Garner on altera- 
tions in the, in cases of paralysis, 129. 

Mental labour, E. Chadwick on the phy- 
siological as well as psychological limits 
to, 185. 

Mercury, electric light of, Dr. J. H. 
Gladstone on the chromatic properties 
of the, 13. 

Mersey and Dee, Prof. Collingwood on the 
nudibranchiate mollusca of the, 113. 
Meteorological observations at Stony- 

hurst, results of, 56. 

—— phenomena of the equinoctial week, 

_ M. Du Boulay on the, 39. 

Meteorology, Prof. Hennessy on the prin- 
ciples of, 44. 

Michelsen (Dr.) on serfdom in Russia, 
191, 

Mickie (J.), cruise in the Gulf of Pe-che-li 

. and Leo-tung, China, 170. 


Microscope, new form of, Sir D. Brewster 


on a, 8. 
Milk, human, G. D. Gibb on living ani- 
~ malcules in, 131. 
_ Miller (Prof. W. A.) on the atomic weight 
of oxygen, 70. 


229 


Mitchell (J. M.) on the economical history 
and statistics of the herring, 191. 

Mitchell (Rev. W.) on the Koh-i-Noor 
previous to its cutting, 87. 

Mollusca, Nudibranchiate, Prof. Colling- 
wood on the respiration of the, 113; 
of the Mersey and Dee, 118, 

Mollusca, on the Aspergillum, or water- 
ing pot, 120. 

Molyneux (William) on fossil fish from 
the North Staffordshire coal-fields, 88. 

Moon, W. R. Birt on the forms of certain 
lunar craters in the, 34, 

Moore (C.) on the contents of three square 
yards of triassic drift, 87. 

Morocco, E. Schlagintweit on the tribes 
composing the population of, 177. 

Morphology, animal, Prof. V. Carus on the 
value of development in, 125. 

Moseley (Rev. Canon) on the cause of the 
descent of glaciers, 48, 

Motion, science of, J. S. S. Glennie on 
physics as a branch of the, 56. 

Mountain countries, J. Bell on a plan for 
systematic observations of temperature 
in, 37. 

Mountain ranges, Rev. J. Dingle on the 
corrugation of strata in the vicinity of, 


Moors of Morocco, a mixed race, E. Schla- 
gintweit on the, 177. 

Miller (Dr. Hugo) on the isomers of cu- 
mol, 71; on a new acetic ether occur- 
ring in a natural resin, 71. 

Mundesley, Norfolk, the cliff at, J. Prest- 
wich on some new facts in relation to, 
90. 

Murchison (Sir R. I.), his address as Pre- 
sident of Section E, 148. 


Navigation, inland, suggestions relative to, 
by Prof. Hennessy, 211. 

Newmarch (W.) on some schemes of 
taxation and the difficulties of them, 
194, 

Nineveh, Sir D. Brewster on the decom- 
posed glass found at, 9. 

Northumberland- and Cumberland, J. A. 
Knipe on the Tynedale coal-field and 
the whin-sill of, 86. 


Observatory, Travancore, J. A. Broun on 
results of observations in the, 20. 

Ogilvie (Dr. G.) on the structure of fern 
stems, 112. 

Ollier (M.) on the artificial production of 
bone and osseous grafts, 143. 

Oolite, great, at Stonesfield, Oxfordshire, 
E. Hull on the thickness of the form~ 
ations below the, 81. 


230 


REPORT—1860. 


Oolites, lower, of Oxfordshire, J. F.| Pierce (Prof. B.) on the dynamic con- 


Whiteaves on the invertebrate fauna of 
the, 104. 

Optical illusions connected with inversion 
of perspective, Sir D. Brewster on, 7. 
Organic remains, A. Gages on some trans- 
formations of iron pyrites in connexion 

with, 79. 

Osborn (Captain Sherard) on the forma- 
tion of oceanic ice in the arctic regions, 
170. 

Ossiferouscavesin Sicily, newlydiscovered, 
Baron Anca on, 738. 

Owen (Prof.), letter to Mr. E. Chadwick 
on the physiological limits to mental 
labour, 189. 

Oxford, notice of the new geological map 
of the vicinity of, by Sir R. Murchison, 
90. 

Oxfordshire, J. F. Whiteaves on the inver- 
tebrate fauna of the lower oolites of, 
104. 

Oxygen, Prof. W. A, Miller on the atomic 
weight of, 70. 

Oxygenation in animal bodies, Dr. W. B. 
Richardson on the process of, 143. 


Palliser (Capt.), on the course and results 
of the British North American Explor- 
ing Expedition, 170. 

Paper, rice-, from the pith of the Aurelia 
papyrifera, W. Lockhart on, 169. 

Paralysis, R. Garner on alterations in the 
medulla oblongata in cases of, 129. 

Peach (C. W.), anew form of ichthyolite 
discovered by, 78; on the statistics of 
the herring fishery, 120. 

Pembrokeshire, Rev. G. N. Smith on three 
undescribed bone caves near Tenby, 
101, 

Pengelly (William) on the chronological 
and geographical distribution of the 
Devonian fossils of Devon and Corn- 
wall, 91. 

Perspective, inversion of, Sir D, Brewster 
on some optical illusions connected with 
the, 7. 

Peruvian bark, the places where the tree 
grows which yields the, 162. 

Petherick (Consul) on his proposed jour- 
ney from Khartum in Upper Egypt to 
meet Capt. Speke on’or near the lake 
Nyanza of Central Africa, 174. 

Phillips (Prof.) on the geology of the 
vicinity of Oxford, 90. 

Photography, celestial, H. Draper on a 
reflecting telescope for, erecting at 
Hastings near New York, 63. 

Physics as a branch of the science of mo- 
tion, J. S.S. Glennie on, 56. 


dition of Saturn’s rings, 37; on the 
motion of a pendulum in a vertical 
plane when the point of suspension 
moves uniformly on a circumference in 
the same plane, 37; on the physical 
constitution of comets, 37. 

Pile with sulphate of lead, M.E. Becquerel 
on a, 59. 

Placodus, teeth of the, discovered in the 
triassic drift, in the neighbourhood of 
Frome, by C. Moore, 88. 

Pliosaurus, a paddlo of, found at Kim- 
meridge, 75. 

Planets, J. S. S. Glennie on a general law 
of rotation applied to the, 58. 
Plant and an animal, J. Hogg on the dis- 

tinctions of a, 111. ~ 

Plants, British, Rev. W.S. Symonds on 
the selection of a peculiar geological 
habitat by some, 102. 

, on the morphological laws in, 110. 

, M. T. Masters on the normal and 

abnormal variations from an assumed 

type in, 112. 

, on the final causes of the sexuality 
of, in reference to Mr. Darwin’s theory, 
109. 

Playfair (Dr, Lyon) on the representation 
of neutral salts, 71. 

Poisoning, E. R. Harvey on the mode of 
death by aconite, 138. 

Polar expedition (Franklin’s), Capt. Snow 
on the, and the possible recovery of its 
scientific documents, 180. 

Polarization, plane of, Prof. Jellett on a 
new instrument for determining the, 
13. 

. M. Verdet on the dispersion of the 
planes of, of the coloured rays produced 
by the action of magnetism, 54, 

Poncelet’s theorems for the linear repre- 
sentation of quadratic radicals, Prof. 
Sylvester on a generalization of, 7. 

Ponton (M.) on the laws of chromatic 
dispersion, 16. 

Porter (H. J. Ker) on the best plan of 
cottage for agricultural labourers, 194. 

Powrie (J.) on a fossiliferous deposit near 
Farnell, in Forfarshire, 89. 

Prestwich (Joseph) on some new facts in 
relation to the section of the cliff at 
Mundesley, Norfolk, 90. 

Price (J.) on Cydippe, 120; on slicken- 
sides, 91. 

Price (Rev. Prof.), address as President 
of Section A, 1. 3 

Pterodactyles of the Coprolite bed near — 
Cambridge, Rev. J. P. B. Dennis on 
the mode of flight of the, 76. ; 


INDEX II. 


Purdy (F.) on the systems of poor-law 
medical relief, 195. 

Pyrites, iron, A. Gages on some transfor- 
mations of, in connexion with organic 
remains, 79. 

Pyrosclerite, Connemara, analysis of by 
Prof, Rowney, 71. 


Quadratic radicals, Prof. Sylvester on a 
generalization of Poncelet’s theorems 
for the linear representation of, 7. 

Quinine, V. Hurtado on the barks from 
which it is obtained, 162. 


Radcliffe (Dr. C. B.) on muscular action 
from an electrical point of view, 148. 
Rae (Dr. J.) on the formation of icebergs 
and ice action in the Hudson’s bay and 
straits, 174; on the aborigines of the 
arctic and sub-arctic regions of N. Ame- 

rica, 175. 

Railways, street, as used in the United 
States, G, F. Train on, 215. 

Rankin (Rev. T.) on the different motions 
of electric fluid, 30; on meteorological 
observations made at Huggate, 50. 

Reflexion, Prof. Lindiléf on the caustics 
produced by, 14. 

Reeve (Lovell) on the Aspergillum or 
watering-pot mollusk, 120. 

Reilly (Calcott) on the longitudinal stress 
of the plate-girder, 212. 

Rennison (Rev. T.) on a new proof of 
Pascal’s theorem, 6. 

Respiration, B. W. Richardson on the 
process of, 143. 

Rhynchosaurus, Rev. W. Lister on foot- 
prints of the, in the new red sandstone 
north of Wolverhampton, 87. 

Richardson (Dr. B. W.) on the process of 
oxygenation in animal bodies, 143 ; on 
an electro-magnetic railway break, 212. 

Riffers of Morocco, E. Schlagintweit on 
the, 177. 

Rings seen in viewing a light through 
fibrous specimens of calc-spar, on, 19. 

Road locomotives, Earl of Caithness on, 
204. 

Roberts (Henry) on various efforts to 
improve the domiciliary condition of 
the labouring classes, 196. 

Rocks, igneous, T. S. Hunt on, 84. 

3 Magnesian, T. S. Hunt on, 83. 

—, plutonic, T. S. Hunt on, 84. 

, Magnetic, in South India, 24. 

Rocks, metamorphic, of the N. of Ire- 
land, Prof. Hennessy on the, 79. 

gneous, interstratified with the car- 

boniferous limestones of the basin of 
Limerick, J. B. Jukes onthe, 84. 


231 


Rocky Mountains, British North America, 
Dr. Hector on the strata composing the, 
81. 

—— Mountains, Capt. J. Palliser on 
explorations in the, 170. 

Rogers (Prof. H. D.) on some phenomena 
of metamorphism in coal in the United 
States, 101. 

Rogers (Prof. W. B.), experiments and 
conclusions on binocular vision, 17; 
on the phenomena of electrical vacuum 
tubes, 30. 

Rotation, J.S.S.Glennie on a general 
law of, applied to the planets, 58. 

Roots of substitutions, Rev. T. Kirkman 
on the, 4. 

Rowney (Prof. T. H.) on the analysis of 
some Connemara minerals, 71; on the 
composition of jet, 72. 


Saccharine fermentation within the female 
breast, on, 131. 

Sahara, central, of Algeria, Rev. H. B. 
Tristram on the geological system of 
the, 102. “ 

Sandstone, new red, north of Wolver- 
hampton, Rev. W. Lister on some foot- 
prints of the Labyrinthodon, Rhyncho- 
saurus, &c. in the, 87. 

, old red, of Farnell, Forfarshire, 
Sir P. de M. G. Egerton on the fishes 
found in the, 77. 

Saskatchewan territory, British North 
America, examination of, by Capt, Pal- 
liser, 170. 

, Dr. Hector on the climate of the, 
172. 

Schlagintweit (Lieut. Edward) on the 
tribes composing the population of 
Morocco, 177. 

Schlagintweit (H. von), general abstract 
of the results of Messrs. de Schlagint- 
weit’s magnetic survey of India, 32. 

Schlagintweit (Robert von) on thermo- 
barometers, compared with barometers 
at great heights, 50; on some of the 
races of India and High Asia, 175. 

Schools, educational, E, Chadwick on the 
physiological as well as psychological 
limits to mental labour, 185. 

Sclater (P. L.) on the geographical distri- 
bution of recent terrestrial vertebrata, 
121. 

Scoffern (T.) on waterproof and unalter- 
able small-arm cartridges, 72. 

Sea pressure gauge, deep, on a, 202. 

Sedgwick (Rev. Prof.) on the geology of 
the neighbourhood of Cambridge and 
the fossils of the upper greensand, 
101. 


232 REPORT—1860. 


Semitic inscriptions, Dr. Hincks on, 156. 

Senior (N. W.), address as President of 
Section F., 182. 

Serrin (M.), régulateur automatique de 
lumiére électrique, 19. 

Shaffner (Colonel Tal. P.), on the geo- 
graphy of the North Atlantic telegraph, 
178 


Shells, pathological collection of, Rev. H. 
H. Higgins on a, 116. 

Ship, atmotic, Hon. W. Bland on an, 60. 

Ship-building, iron, W. Simons on im- 
provements in, 212. 

Ship-worms, J. G. Jeffreys on the British, 
117. 

Shiré river and valley, and inhabitants, in 
South-Central Africa, Dr. Livingstone 
on the, 164. 

Sicily, Baron Ancaon two newly dis- 
covered ossiferous caves in, 73. 

Siemens (C. W.) and M. Werner, outline 
of the principles and practice involved 
in dealing with the electric conditions 
of submarine electric telegraphs, 32. 

Silurian formation in the district of 
Wilsdruff, Saxony, Dr. Geinitz on the, 
19. 

— schists, Lower, A. Gages on the 
transformation of iron pyrites connected 
with fossil graptolitesfrom Tinnaglough, 
Co. Wexford, 79. 

Silver (S. W.) on gutta percha and india- 
rubber as insulators for subaqueous tele- 
graphic wires, 212. 

Simons (W.) on improvements in iron 
ship-building, 212. 

Smith (Dr. Edward) on the action of tea 
and alcohols, 145. 

Smith (Prof. H. J. S.) on systems of in- 
determinate linear equations, 6. 

Smith (John) on the chromoscope, 65. 

Smith (Rey. G. N.) on three undescribed 
bone-caves near Tenby, 101. 

Smithsonian Institution, P. P. Carpenter 
on the principles and working of the, 
109 


Snow (Capt. W. Parker) on the lost Polar 
expedition and the possible recovery of 
its scientific documents, 180. 

Sound, Rey. S, Earnshaw on the triplicity 
of, 58. 

Sound of thunder, Rev. S. Earnshaw on 
the velocity of the, 58. 

Species, Prof. Draper on the intellectual 
development of Europe, considered with 
reference to the views of Mr. Darwin 
and others on, 115. 

Spectrum, colours of the, Prof. Maxwell 
on an instrument for exhibiting any 
mixture of the, 16, 


Spiders (British), notice of Mr. Black- 
wall’s work on, 120. 

Spirals, on an improved instrument for 
describing, 690. 

Sprengel (Dr. Hermann) on a new form 
of blowpipe for laboratory use, 72. 

Staffordshire (North) coal fields, W. Mo- 
lyneux on fossil fish from the, 88. 

Stainton (H. T.) on some peculiar forms 
amongst the micro-lepidopterous larve, 
122, 

Stars, variable, prospectus of the Hartwell 
atlas of, 36. 

Statistics, address by N. W. Senior at 
Oxford, 182. 

Steam, saturated, W. Fairbairn on the 
density of, 210. 

Steam-ships, cylindrical spiral _ boiler 
adapted to, by John Elder, 204. 

Steam, superheated, W. Fairbairn on the 
law of expansion of, 210. 

Stenops Potto, Prof. Van der Hoeven on 
the anatomy of, 134. 

Stereoscopes, A. Claudet on the means of 

‘ increasing the angle of, to obtain an 
effect in proportion to their magnifying 
power, 61. 

Stewart (Balfour) on some recent exten- 
sions of Prevost’stheory ofexchanges,19. 

Stonesfield, Oxfordshire, E. Hull on the 
thickness of the fermations below the 
great oolite at, 81. 

Stonestield slate, J. F. Whiteaves on the 
fossils of the, 104. 

Stone hatchets, Sir E. Belcher on their 
manufacture by the Esquimaux, 154. 
Stoney (G. J.) on rings seen in viewing 
a light through fibrous specimens of 

cale-spar, 19. 

Stonyhurst, results of ten years’ meteo- 
rological observations at, 56. 

Storms, British, Admiral FitzRoy on, 39. 

, arrangements for communicating 
warning of, from one part of the country 
to the other, 42. 

Storms, Captain W. Parker Snow on 
practical experience of Admiral Fitz- 
Noy’s law of storms in each quarter of 
the globe, 52. 

Strata, Rev. J. Dingle on the corruga- 
tion of, in the vicinity of mountain 
ranges, 77. 

Substitutions, Rev. T. P. Kirkman on the 
roots of, 4. 

Sugar and amyloid substances, Dr. R. 
M°Donnell on the formation of, in the 
animal economy, 129. 

Sullivan (Mr.) on the tribes of Indians 
inhabiting the country explored by the 
British N, American expedition, 173. 


INDEX II, 


Sun’s, surface, R. Hodgson on a brilliant 
eruption on the, 36. 

Siis tribes of Morocco, E. Schlagintweit 
on the, 177. 

Sylvester (Prof.) on a generalization of 
Poncelet’s theorems for the linear repre- 
sentation of quadratic radicals, 7. 

Symons (G, J.), results of an investiga- 
tion into the phenomena of English 
thunder-storms, 52. 

Symonds (Rev. W. S.) on the selection 
of a peculiar geological habitat by some 
of the rarer British plants, 102. 

Synge (Capt. M. H.) on the proposed com- 
munication between the Atlantic and 
Pacific, vid British North America, 181. 


Tactions of Apollonius of Perga, Dr. 
Brennecke on some solutions of the 
problem. of, by modern geometry, 4. 

Taylor (Admiral) on means to lessen 
the loss of life round our coasts; also a 
permanent deep-water harbour of 
refuge by artificial bars, 215. 

Tchihatchef (Pierre de) on the geogra- 
phical distribution of plants in Asia 
Minor, 181. 

Tea and alcohols, their action contrasted, 
by Dr. E. Smith, 145, : 

Telegraph, North Atlantic, Col. Schaffner 
on the geography of the, 178. 

Telegraphic wires, S. W. Silver on gutta 
percha and india-rubber as insulators 
for, 212. 

Telegraphic wires, Messrs. Werner and 
C. W. Siemens on a mode of covering 
with india-rubber, 215. 

Telegraphic wires, submarine, W. Hall 
on a process for covering with india- 
rubber, 211. 

Telegraphs, electric submarine, M. Wer- 
ner and C, W. Siemens on the princi- 
ples and practice involved in dealing 
with the electrical conditions of, 32. 

Telemeter, P. Adie on an instrument for 
measuring actual distances, 59. 

Telescope, reflecting, for celestial photo- 
graphy, H. Draper on a, 63. 

Temperature, minimum, at Greenwich 
and Utrecht, J. Park Harrison on the 
similarity of the lunar curves of, 44, 

Temperature in mountain countries, J. 
Ball on a plan for systematic observa- 
tions of, 37. 

Tenby, Rev. G. N. Smith on three un- 
described bone-caves near, 101. 

Tennant (Prof.) on the Koh-i-Noor pre- 
vious to its cutting, 87. 

Teredines, British, J. G. Jeffreys on the, 
117. 


233 


Teredo navalis, Prof. Van der Hoeven on 
the, 136. 

Thames from Lechlade to Windsor, Rev. 
J. C. Clutterbuck on the course of the, 
as ruled by the geological formations 
over which it passes, 75, 

Thermo-barometers compared with baro- 
meters at great heights, R. von Schla-~ ° 
gintweit on, 50. 

Thomas (R.) on thin films of decomposed 
glass found near Oxford, 19. 

Thomson (Prof. W.) on atmospheric elec- 
tricity, 53. 

Thudichum (Dr.) on thiotherine, 72; on 
the physiological relations of the co- 
louring matter of the bile, 147. 

Thunder, Rev. S. Earnshaw on the velo- 
city of the sound of, 58. 

Thunder-storms, English, G. J. Symons 
on results of an investigation into the 
phenomena of, 52, 

Tomopteris onisciformis, notes on, by Dr, 
E. P. Wright, 124. 

Topaz, white, of New Holland, particu- 
larly fitted for optical purposes, Sir D. 
Brewster on, 8. 

Train (G, F.) on street railways as used 
in the United States, 215. 

Travancore, observatory of, J. A. Broun 
on certain results of observations in 
the, 20. 

Triassic drift, C. Moore on the contents 
of three square yards of, from the 
neighbourhood of Frome, 87, 

Tristram (Rev, H. B.) on the geological 
system of the central Sahara of Algeria, 
102. 

Turks in Central Asia, R. von Schlagint- 
weit on the, 176. 

Tynedale coal-field, J. A. Knipeon the, 86. 


United States, P. P. Carpenter on the 
progress of natural scienve in the, 109; 
on street railways as used in the, 215. 

Utrecht and Greenwich, J. Park Harrison 
on the similarity of the lunar curves of 
minimum temperature at, 44. 


Vacuum tubes, electrical, Prof. W. B. 
Rogers on the phenomena of, 30, 

Van der Hoeven (Prof.) on the anatomy 
of Stenops Potto, 134; on the Teredo 
navalis, 136. 

Vancouver's Island, geology of, Dr. Hec- 
tor on the, 81. 

Venus, planet, on some recorded observa- 
tions of the, in the seventh century be- 
fore Christ, 35. 

Verdet (M.) on the dispersion of the 
planes of polarization of the coloured 


934 


rays produced by the action of mag- 
netism, 54. 

Verloren (Dr.) on the effect of tempera- 
ture and periodicity on the develop- 
ment of certain lepidoptera, 123. 

Vertebrata, terrestrial, P. L. Sclater on 
the geographical distribution of, 121. 

Vision, binocular, experiments and con- 
clusions on, by Prof. W. B. Rogers, 17. 

Vivian (E.), results of his new self-regis- 
tering hygrometers, 55. 

Voelcker (Prof.) on poisonous metals in 
cheese, 73. 

Volcano (the Kotligja) in Iceland, W. 
L. Lindsay on an irruption of, 86. 

Volcanos, Dr. Daubeny on the elevation 
theory of, 75. 

Volume theory, C. M. von Bose on the, 71. 

Volutor, Rev. Dr. Booth on an improved 
instrument for describing spirals, 60. 


Wallace (Dr. W.) on the causes of fire 
in Turkey-red stoves, 73. 

Washing machine, atmospheric, by J. 
Parker, 210. 

Washington, Smithsonian Institution at, 
P. P. Carpenter on the principles and 
working of the, 109. 

Water, D. Chadwick on a meter for the 
correct measurement of, 204, 

Water-meters, D. Chadwick on, 204. 

Weeds, exposed to a temperature of 198° 
below zero of Fahrenheit’s scale not 
losing the power of germination, Prof. 
Wartmann on, 110. 

Weld (Rev. A.), results of ten years’ me- 
teorological observations at Stonyhurst, 
56. 

Werner and Siemens (Messrs.), outline 
of the principles and practice involved 
in dealing with the electrical conditions 
of submarine electric telegraphs, 32 ; 


REPORT—1860. 


on a mode of covering wires with india- 
rubber, 215. 

Westwood (J. O.) on mummy beetles, 
123 ; on a lepidopterous parasite on the 
body of the Fulgora candelaria, 124. 

Wexford, iron pyrites connected with fos- 
sil graptolites from Tinnaglough in the 
county of, A. Gages on, 79. 

Wheat, mummy, Prof. Henslow on the 
supposed germination of, -110. 

Whelk, common (Buccinum undatum), on 
specimens having double opercula, 117. 

Whin-sill of Cumberland and Northum- 
berland, J. A. Knipe on the, 86. 

Whiteaves (J. F.) on the invertebrate 
fauna of the lower oolites of Oxfordshire, 
104. 

Wiers’s (Mr.) alkalimeters, 72. 

Wilsdruff, Saxony, Dr. Geinitz on the 
Silurian formation in the district of, 79. 

Wolverhampton, Rev. W. Lister on rep- 
tilian foot-prints in the new red sand- 
stone north of, 87. 

Woodall (Captain) on the intermittent 
springs of the chalk and oolite of the 
neighbourhood of Scarborough, 108. 

Woodward’s solar camera, A. Claudet on, 
62. 

Wright (Dr. E. P.) on Tomopteris onisci- 
formis, 124. 

Wright (Dr. Thomas) on the Avicula con- 
torta beds and lower lias in the south 
of England, 108. 

Wright (T.) on the excavations on the 
site of the Roman city of Uriconium at 
Wroxeter, 181. 


Zoology, systematic, Prof. Collingwood 
on recurrent animal. form, 114; Prof. 
V. Carus on the value of development 
in, 125. 


ONS the - 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT 
OF SCIENCE. 


The Published Reports of Proceedings at the Meetings of the Association 
may be obtained by Members on application to the under-mentioned Local 
Treasurers, or Agents appointed by them, at the following prices, viz.— Reports 
for 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, 1857, 1858, at two-thirds 
of the Publication Price; and for the purpose of completing their sets, any of 
the first seventeen volumes, of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third 
of the Publication Price. 


TREASURER. DEPOT FOR THE REPORTS. 
LONDON .......«...John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S. Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Printing 
a 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street. Office, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. 

LOCAL TREASURERS. DEPOTS. 

York............... William Gray, Esq., F.G.S. ........... Yorkshire Museum. 
CAMBRIDGE ......C.C. Babington, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. ... House of the Philosophical Society. 
EDINBURGH...... William Brand, Esq. .......+s+e+seeeeeee Union Bank of Scotland. 
DuBLIN............John H. Orpen, LL.D. ............2.0.018 South Frederick Street. 


BRISTOL .......... William Sanders, Esq., F.G.S. ........Philosophical Institution, Park Street. 
LIVERPOOL .,,...Robert M¢Andrew, Esq., F.R.S. .....7 North John Street. 

BIRMINGHAM ...W. R. Wills, Esq. .....cs.sseeeeeeeesss bitmingham. 
GLASGOW.......-.Professor Ramsay, M.A. ...ssess0000+e. Lhe College. 

MANCHESTER «:..R. P. Greg, Esq., F.G.S..............ee<Chancery Lane. 

SWANSEA .........John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., F.R.S. ...Swansea. 

IPSWICH... ........0. B. Alexander, Esq. ....+e.sseeeeeeee North Gate House. 

BELFAST .........Robert Patterson, Esq., M.R.I.A.....High Street. 
HULL....-s.0050e6.dmund Smith, Esq. ....ssseeseeseeeee Hull. 

CHELTENHAM ...Richard Beamish, Esq., F.R.S. ......Cheltenham. 


Associates for the Meeting in 1858 may obtain the Volume for the Year at the same price 
as Members. 


PROCEEDINGS orf THE FIRST ann SECOND MEETINGS, at York 
and Oxford, 1831 and 1832, Published at 13s. 6d. 


Contents :—Prof. Airy, on the Progress of Astronomy ;—J. W. Lubbock, on the Tides; 
—Prof. Forbes, on the Present State of Meteorology ;—Prof. Powell, on the Present State 
of the Science of Radiant Heat ;—Prof. Cumming, on Thermo-Electricity ;—Sir D. Brewster, 
on the Progress of Optics ;—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Present State of Mineralogy ;—Rev. 
W. D. Conybeare, on the Recent Progress and Present State of Geology ;—Dr, Prichard's 
Review of Philological and Physical Researches. 

Together with Papers on Mathematics, Optics, Acoustics, Magnetism, Electricity, Chemistry, 
Meteorology, Geography, Geology, Zoology, Anatomy, Physiology, Botany, and the Arts; 
and an Exposition of the Objects and Plan of the Association, &c. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRD MEETING, at Cambridge, 1833, 
Published at 12s. 


ConTENTS :—Proceedings of the Meeting ;—John ‘Taylor, on Mineral Veins ;—Dr. 
Lindley, on the Philosophy of Botany ;—Dr. Henry, on the Physiology of the Nervous Sy- 
stem ;—P. Barlow, on the Strength of Materials ;—S. H. Christie, on the Magnetism of the 
Earth ;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Analytical Theory of Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics;— 

G. Rennie, on Hydraulics as a Branch of Engineering, Part I. ;—Rev. G. Peacock, on vercaa 
Branches of Analysis. 

Together with papers on Mathematics and Physics, Philosophical Instruments and Mecha- 

nical Arts, Natural History, Anatomy, Physiology, and History of Science. 


236 


PROCEEDINGS or tue FOURTH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 1834, 
Published at 15s. 


Contents :—H. G. Rogers, on the Geology of North America;—Dr. C. Henry, on the 
Laws of Contagion ;—Prof. Clark, on Animal Physiology ;—Rev. L. Jenyns, on Zoology ;— 
Rev. J. Challis, on Capillary Attraction ;—Prof. Lloyd, on Physical Optics;—G. Rennie, on 


Hydraulics, Part II. 
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Association 


and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue FIFTH MEETING, at Dublin, 1835, Pub- 
lished at 13s. 6d. 


ConTENTS :—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of the 
Mathematical Theories of Electricity, Magnetism, and Heat;— A. Quetelet, Apercu de 
l’Etat actuel des Sciences Mathématiques chez les Belges ;—Capt. E. Sabine, on the Phe- 
nomena of Terrestrial Magnetism. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHE SIXTH MEETING, at Bristol, 1836, Pub- 
lished at 12s. 


ConTENTS :—Prof. Daubeny, on the Present State of our Knowledge with respect to Mine- 
ral and Thermal Waters ;—Major E, Sabine, on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial 
Magnetic Force in Scotland ;—J. Richardson, on North American Zoology ;—Rev. J. Challis, 
on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids ;—J. T. Mackay, a Comparative View of the more 
remarkable Plants which characterize the neighbourhood of Dublin and Edinburgh, and the 
South-west of Scotland, &c.;—J. T. Mackay, Comparative Geographical Notices of the 
more remarkable Plants which characterize Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of the London Sub- 
Committee of the Medical Section on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Second Report 
of the Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Report of the Dublin 
Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous System; 
of the Recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;—Rev. B. Powell, on determining the 
Refractive Indices for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in various media;—Dr. Hodgkin, 
on the Communication between the Arteries and Absorbents ;—Prof. Phillips, Report of Experi- 

ments on Subterranean Temperature ;—Prof. Hamilton, on the Validity of a Method recenily 
proposed by G. B. Jerrard, for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Daubeny’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or true SEVENTH MEETING, at Liverpool, 1837, 
Published at 16s. 6d. 


ConTENTS :—Major E. Sabine, on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at dif- 
ferent points of the Earth’s Surface ;—Rev. W. Taylor, on the various modes of Printing for 
the Use of the Blind ;—J. W. Lubbock, on the Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;— 
Prof, T. Thomson, on the Difference between the Composition of Cast Iron produced by the 
Cold and Hot Blast ;—Rev. T. R. Robinson, on the Determination of the Constant of Nutation 
by the Greenwich Observations ;—R. W. Fox, Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic 
Veins, and the Temperature of Mines ;—Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical 
Section of the British Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and 
the Organs producing them ;—Dr. G. O. Rees, Report from the Committee for inquiring into 
the Analysis of the Glands, &c. of the Human Body ;—Second Report of the London Sub-Com- 
mittee of the British Association Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;— 
Prof. Johnston, on the Present State of our Knowledge in regard to Dimorphous Bodies ;— 
Lt.-Col. Sykes, on the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under the British Go- 
vernment ;—E. Hodgkinson, on the relative Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Iron 
obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Strength and other Properties 
of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast;—Sir J. Robison, and J. S. Russell, Report of 
the Committee on Waves ;—Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the 
Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at. different Points of the Earth’s Surface ;— 
J. Yates, on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communication with the 
outward Air, on the Plan of Mr. N. J. Ward, of London, 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Traill’s Address and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


Eien! WA). 


etry. 


———EEE————— ee 


237 


PROCEEDINGS or toe EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838, 
Published at 15s. 


ConTENTS :—Rev. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Chan- 
nel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt;—Report on the Discussions of Tides, prepared 
under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—W. S. Harris, Account of the Progress and 
State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Major LE. Sabine, on the Magnetic 
Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British Islands ;—D. Lardner, LL.D., on the Determi- 
nation of the Mean Numerical Values of Railway Constants ;—R. Mallet, First Report upon 
Experiments upon the Action of Sea and River Water upon Cast and Wrought Iron ;—R. 
Mallet, on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic and Organic 
Substances. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s Addresa, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839, 
Published at 13s. 6d. 


ConTEnTs :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Refractive 
Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media ;—Report on the Ap- 
plication of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculatiocs to Rev. W. Whewell, in a Letter from T. G. 
Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, on some Galvanic Experiments to determine the Existence or 
Non-Existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Moun- 
tain Limestone formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alton Moor ;—Sir D. Brewster, 
Reports respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland ;— 
Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British Association at their 
Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;—E. 
Forbes, Report on the Distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles ;—W. S. 
Harris, Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at Plymouth 
Dockyard. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840, 
Published at 15s. 


ConTENTs :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the recent Progress of discovery relative to Radiant 
Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first volume of the 
Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ;—J. D. Forbes, Supple- 
mentary Report on Meteorology ;—W. S. Harris, Report on Prof. Whewell’s Anemometer, 
now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on ‘‘ The Motion and Sounds of the Heart,” by the 
London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40 ;—Prof. Schénbein, an Account of 
Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and 
Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, 
Wrought Iron and Steel ;—R. W. Fox, Report on some Observations on Subterranean Tem- 


' perature ;—A. F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839 


and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institution, Bir- 
mingham ;—Sir D. Brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Ob- 
servations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist, 1838 to Nov. 1st, 1839 ;—W. 
Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata ;—C. J. B. Williams, M.D., 
Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-Tubes ;—Rev. J. S. Henslow, 
Report of the Committee on the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major E. Sabine’s 
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHze ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth, 
1841, Published at 13s. 6d. 


ConTEnTs :—Rev. P. Kelland, on the Present state of our Theoretical and Experimental 
Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M. D., Report on Poisons ;— 
T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell; 
—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith Tide Observations, under the direction of the 
Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth 
during the past year ;—Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintend- 
ing the scientific co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Obser- 
vations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro- 


‘vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M, Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of a Com- 


238 


mittee to superintend the reduction of Meteorological Observations;—Report of a Com- 
mittee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee for obtaining In- 
struments and Registers to record Shocks and Earthquakes in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of 
a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries 
into the Races of Man ;—Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata 
in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by 
means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experi- 
ments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—R. Owen, Report 
on British Fossil Reptiles ;—Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway 
Constants ;--D. Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the 
Mean Value of Railway Constants ;—-E. Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a 
Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines. 

_ Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or toe TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester, 
1842, Published at 10s. 6d. 


ConTENTs :—Report of the Committee,appointed to conduct the co-operation‘of the British 
Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;— 
J. Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;— 
W. S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Second 
Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds; 
—C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee 
for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D., Abstract 
of Prof. Licbig’s Report on Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;— 
R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;—R. Hunt, Researches on the 
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—L. Agassiz, Report 
on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Ap- 
pendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot 
and Cold Blast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earthquakes 
in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant Indicator for 
Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting En- 
gine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the Form of 
Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed “to consider of the Rules by which the Nomencla- 
ture of Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis ;’’—Report of a Com- 
mittee on the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices 
of Progress in special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork, 
1843, Published at 12s. 


CoNnTENTS:—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether 
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and 
Steel;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British As- 
sociation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Sir 
J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteoro- 
logical Obseryations;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam- 
Engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality 
of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of 
Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee 
on the Form of Ships;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines;—Report 
of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering 
the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to 
them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons; 
—Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report ;—Report of the Committee for the Translation 
and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach on the Habits of the Marine 
Testacea ;—E, Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the AZgean Sea, and on their 
distribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British 
Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the 
British Fossil Mammalia, Part II. ;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the 
junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst i—W. 


LL’ 


239 


Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Diy. ZJnvertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and 
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or true FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844, 
Published at £1. 


ConTENTS :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder and A* 
Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the 
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—Report of a 
Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the 
Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report 
on some recent researches into the Structure, Functions, and Ciconomy of the Araneidea, 
made in Great Britain ;—Earl of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ; 
—Rev. W. Y. Harcourt, Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other 
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering 
Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines; 
—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race ;—Fourth Report 
of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—W. Fair- 
bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention of Smoke ;—F. Ronalds, Report con- 
cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee 
appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simulta- 
neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence 
of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par- 
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland, Report on 
the recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee 
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, 
Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative 
of the former existence in that continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order 
Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers 
at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves; 
—L. Agassiz, Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J. 
S. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Re- 
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tut FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge, 
1845, Published at 12s. 


ConTENTS :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the 
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa- 
tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report 
on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843; 
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof, Erman, on 
the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self- 
Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;— 
W.R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre- 


' sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair, 


Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting 
of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;— 
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals and Vege- 
tables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton, 
1846, Published at 15s. ’ 


ConTENTS:—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth 
Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck on the Colouring Matters of 
Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac- 
tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L. 
Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof. Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical 


240 


Researches on Sea Water;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for 
1829;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the 
Iron Manufacture in Great Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;— 
Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;— 
J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D., Report on the Crystalline Flags ;—Addenda 
to Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tue SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford, 
1847, Published at 18s. 


ConTENTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de- 
grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the 
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt, 
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on 
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan- 
dinavia ;—-W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes; 
—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and 
Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of 
completing our knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re- 
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizental 
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and recent 
progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research 
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to 
other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian 
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classificatiof¥ of Languages ; 
—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the 
Modern Celtic Dialects still extant ;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the 
Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric 
Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col. 
E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con- 
stants for 1829. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea, 
1848, Published at 9s. 


ConTENTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;— 
J. Glynn on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth 
Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At- 
mospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use 
made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt, 
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of 
Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem- 
perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof. 
Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on 
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them; with anin- © 
troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation 
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. Phillips, Notice of further 
progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre- 
tary ;—-A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee 
relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and 
Meteorological Observatory until December 1850. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis_of Northampton’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tut NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 
1849, Published at 10s. 


ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Earl 
of Rosse, Notice of Nebulz lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the 
Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied to the Fossil 
Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ; 
—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and 


————— eC 


PS OCT OSA IGEN.» 


241 


Animals ;—Ninth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seéds ; 
—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from 
Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—i. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway 
Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or rue TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 
1850, Published at 15s. 


ConTEnTs :—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Rev. Prof. 
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Dr. T. Williams, on the Structure and 
History of the British Annelida;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken 
at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840, to the 31st of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on 
the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth 
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen. 
Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob- 
servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British 
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and 
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por- 
tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of 
our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of 
Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse 
of the Sun on July 28, 1851. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom~ 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich, 
1851, Published at 16s. 6d. 


CoNTENTS :—Rey. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Eleventh Re- 
port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on 
the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of 
Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider 
the probable Effects in an Giconomical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro- 
pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs 
in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com- 
pounds ;—Rey. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;—= 
Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on the Facts of 
Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on the System of Meteoro- 
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States ;—Col. Sabine, Report 
on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto- 
graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory ;—-F. Ronalds, Report concern- 
ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850, to July 31, 
1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or raz TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast, 
1852, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTs :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Twelfth 
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;—Rev. Prof. 
Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the In- 
fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants;—A Manual of Ethnological 
Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Sta-~ 
tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the 
Conduction of Heat;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges, 


_ on the Composition and Giconomy of the Flax Plant ;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater 
_ Fishes of Ulster; —W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland;—W. Wills, 


onthe Meteorology of Birmingham ;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water-Wheel ;—J. B. Lawes 


and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of 


Animals. 
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


1860. 16 


242 


PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull, 
1853, Published at 10s. 6d. 


Contents :—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53; 
—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Oldham, on the Rise, 
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull ;—William Fairbairn, Experi- 
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which 
lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;— 
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition 
and Economy of the Flax Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the 
Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations; 
—John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the 
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur- 
face, as compared with that of the Earth;—R. Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake 
Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical 
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of 
strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Harth- 
quake Phenomena (continued). 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS ofr tue TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver- 
pool, 1854, Published at 18s. 


ConTENTS:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ; 
—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats;—Rev. 
Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel 
Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;— 
Colonel Portlock, Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting 
Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers 
of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54 ; 
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G. 
Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, 
on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the 
Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on 
the Growth and Vitality of Seeds. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tot TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 
1855, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTS :—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-Mines and 
Revolving Storms;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers 
of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions, Part 3 ;—C. Spence Bate, on the 
British Edriophthalma ;—J. F. Bateman, on the present state of our knowledge on the Supply 
of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the, Growth and 
Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854—55 ; 
—Report of Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those pro- 
perties of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to the 
durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical Objects in 
Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain- — 
Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel- 
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s. 


ConTENTs ;—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report upon the — 
effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the last 
fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on progress in Re- 
searches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde, 
1856 ;=—Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;—Prof. 
Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigo- 


243 


nometry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of Logarithms ;—R. MacAndrew, Report 
on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and Neighbouring Seas, and 
the physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the present 
state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;-— 
T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British Shores ; 
——Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical Expla- 
nations of these Phenomena: Part I. ;--Dr. T. Wright on the Stratigraphical Distribution of 
the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various 
Temperatures ;——C. Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J. S. Bowerbank, on 
the Vital Powers of the Spongiadz;——Report of a Committee upon the Experiments conducted 
at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Provisional Report on 
the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals 
for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Progress in Researches on the Measure- 
ment of Water by Weir Boards;--R. Mallet, on Observations with the Seismometer ;—A. 
Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to con- 
sider the formation of a Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tut TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at Dub- 
lin, 1857, Published at 15s. 


Conrents :—A. Cayley, Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Six- 
teenth and final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ; 
—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull;—Report of a 
Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measuring and Registering the Tonnage 
of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and to frame more perfect rules, in order that 
a correct and uniform principle may be adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities 
and Working-Power of Steam Ships;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of 
some Deep Mines in Cornwall;—Dr. G. Plarr, De quelques Transformations de la Somme 

— & tlt Bil+15¢|+1 

0 yéltiytl+et|+1 
est exprimable par une combinasion de factorielles, la notation atl+1 désignant le produit des 
t facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c....(a+¢—1);—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine Zoology 
of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish Channel ;—Charles 
Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the extent to which Mercantile Steam Trans- 
port Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of Shipping, as respects the Proportions of 
Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. 8. Bowerbank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spon- 
giadez ;—John P. Hodges, M.D., on Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee 
on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of 
Luminous Meteors, 1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, C.E., on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to 
sustain the passage of Railway Trains ;—Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., on Electro-Chemistry ; 
—John Simpson, R.N., Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the ‘ Plover’s’ 
Wintering-place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852—54 ;—Charles 
James Hargrave, LL.D., on the Algebraic Couple ; and on the Equivalents of Indeterminate 
Expressions;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and Equatorial 
Mountings ;—Professér James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical 
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William Fairbairn on the Resistance 
of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging 
Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspen- 
sion Chains, and a Comparison of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders, 
to produce equal deflections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, M.A., Evidences of Lunar 
Influence on Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into 
Liverpool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta- 
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


, a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme 


PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds, 
September 1858, Published at 20s. 


Conrents:—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake Phe- 
nomena ;— Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857-58 ;—R. H. 
Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea, or true Spiders, especially on the 


16* 


244 


internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report of the Committee on the 
Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the ]uead Mining Districts of Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the 
Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene, 
Report on the Marine Fauna of the South and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on 
Experiments on the Measurement of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major- 
General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael 
Connal and William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported 
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock, and Port 
Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ; Report of the Committee on Ship- 
ping Statistics;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments employed in the Mag- 
netic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin 
Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dub- 
lin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings, 
with reference to the necessity for improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation 
on the Rivers of British India;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Com- 
mittee ;—Appendix to Mr. Vignoles’ paper ‘‘ On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sus- 
tain the passage of Railway Trains ;’’—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and 
the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and Meteorological Ob- 
servatories;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Anemometer. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tur TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen, 
September 1859, Published at 15s. 


Contents :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and Present 
State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of Plants in the 
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field 
Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated 
Crops ;—A. Thomson, Esq. of Banchory, Report on the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools ; 
—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahago, Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Re- 
sults obtamed by the Mechanico-Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William 
Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for 
Railway Trains ;—Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for 
1858-59 ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59 ; 
—Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting 
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esgq., late Re- 
sident in Nepal, &c. &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn, Report on 
the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—G. C. Hyndman, 
Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James Oldham, Continuation of Report 
of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull;—Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Trans- 
port Economy as affected by the Consumption of Coals ;—Warren de la Rue, Report on the 
present state of Celestial Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil 
and Recent Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the 
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request of the 
British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The Patent Laws: 
Report of Committee on the Patent Laws;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar Influence on the Tem- 
perature of the Air;—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Construction.of the Self-recording 
Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew Observatory of the British Association ;— 
Prof. H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers: Part I.;—Report of the 
Committee on Steam-ship performance ;—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee 
of the British Association appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan, 
Preliminary Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the 
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PE et ee 


List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement 
of Science, to whom Copies of this Volume [for 1860] are supplied 
gratuitously, in conformity with the Regulations adopted by the General 


Committee. 


[See pp. xvii & xvin.] 


HONORARY MEMBER. 
HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE CONSORT, 


LIFE MEMBERS. 


Adair, Colonel Robert A. Shafto, F.R.S., 
7 Audley Square, London. 

Adams, John Couch, M.A., D.C.L., 
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Lowndsean Professor 
of Astronomy and Geometry in the 
University of Cambridge; Pembroke 
College, Cambridge. 

Adie, Patrick, 16 Sussex Place, South 
Kensington, London. 

Ainsworth,Thomas,The Flosh, Egremont, 
Cumberland. 

Aldam, William, Frickley Hall near Don- 
caster. 

Allen, William J. C., Secretary to the 
Royal Belfast Academical Institution ; 
8 Wellington Place, Belfast. 

Allis, Thomas, F,L.S., Osbaldwick Hall 
near York. 

Ambler, Henry, Watkinson Hall, Oven- 
den near Halifax. 

Amery, John, F.S.A., 
- Stourbridge. 

Anderson, William (Yr.), Glentarkie, Fife. 

Andrews, Thos., M.D., F.R.S., M.R.1.A., 
Vice-President of, and Professor of 
Chemistry in, Queen’s College, Belfast. 

Ansted, David Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., Lecturer on Geology at the 
Royal East India Military College, Ad- 
discombe; Athenzum Club, and Bon 
Air, St. Martin, Guernsey. 

Appold, John George, F.R.S., 23 Wilson 
Street, Finsbury Square, London. 

Archer, T. C., Professor of Botany in 
Queen’s College, Liverpool; Higher 
Tranmere, Cheshire. 

Armstrong, Sir William George, C.B., 
F.R.S., Elswick Engine Works, New- 
castle-upon-Tyne. 

Arthur, Rev. William, M.A., 26 Campden 
Grove, Kensington, London. 

Ashburton, William Bingham Baring, 
Lord, M.A., F.R.S., Bath House, Pic- 
cadilly, London, and The Grange, 
Hants. 


Park House, 


Ashton, Thomas, M.D., 81 Mosley St., 
Manchester. 

Ashworth, Edmund, Egerton Hall,Turton 
near Bolton. 

Atkinson, John Hastings, 14 East Parade, 
Leeds. 

Atkinson, Joseph B., Cotham, Bristol. 

Atkinson, J. R. W., 38 Acacia Road, 
Regent’s Park, London. 

Atkinson, Richard, jun.,31 College Green, 
Dublin. 

Auldjo, John, F.R.S. 

Austin, Rev. William E. Craufurd, M.A., 
New College, Oxford. 

Ayrton, W. §., F.S.A., Allerton Hill, 
Leeds. 


Babbage, Charles, M.A., F.R.S., 1 Dorset 
Street, Manchester Square, London. 
Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A.,F.R.S., 
Professor of Botany in the University 
of Cambridge; St. John’s College, 

Cambridge, (Local Treasurer). 

Backhouse, John Church, Blackwell, 
Darlington. 

Baddeley, Captain Frederick H., R.E., 
Ceylon. : 

Bain, Richard, Gwennap near Truro. 

Bainbridge, Robert Walton, Middleton 
House near Barnard Castle, Durham. 

Baines, Edward, Headingley Lodge, 
Leeds. 

Baines, Samuel, Victoria Mills, Brig- 
house, Yorkshire. 

Baker, Henry Granville, Bellevue, Hors- 
forth near Leeds. 

Baker, Johu, Dodge Hill, Stockport. 

Baker, William, 63 Gloucester Place, 
Hyde Park, London. 

Baldwin, The Hon. Robert, H.M. Attor- 
ney-General, Spadina, Co. York, Upper 
Canada. 

Balfour, John Hutton, M.D., Professor of 
Botany in the University of Edinburgh, 
F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S.; Edinburgh. 


[It is requested that any inaccuracy in the Names and Residences of the Members may be communicated to 
Messrs, Taylor and Francis, Printers, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London.] 


246 

Ball, John, M.R.I.A., F.L.S., 18 Park 
Street, Westminster. 

Ball, William, Rydall, Ambleside, West- 
moreland. 

Barbour, Robert, Portland Street, Man- 
chester. 

Barclay, J.Gurney, Walthamstow, Essex. 

Barclay, Robert, Leyton, Essex. 

Barker, Rev. Arthur Alcock, Rector of 
East Bridgeford, Nottinghamshire. 

Barnes, Thomas, M.D.,F.R.S.E., Carlisle. 

Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S., 11 Victoria 
Square, Reading. 

Bartholomew, Charles, Rotherham. 

Bartholomew, William Hamond, 5 Grove 
Terrace, Leeds. 

Barton, John, Bank of Ireland, Dublin. 

Barwick, John Marshall, Albion Street, 
Leeds. 

Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D., Minting 
near Horncastle, Lincolnshire. 

Bateman, Joseph, LL.D., F.R.A.S., J.P. 
for Middlesex, &c., 24 Bedford Place, 
Kensington, London. 

Bayldon, John, Horbury near Wakefield. 

Bayley, George, 2 Cowper’s Court, Corn- 
hill, London. 

Beale, Lionel S., M.B., F.R.S., Professor 
of Physiology and of General Morbid 
Anatomy in King’s College, London ; 
61 Grosvenor Street, London. 

Beamish, Richard, F.R.S., 2 Suffolk 
Square, Cheltenham. 

Beatson, William, Rotherham. 

Beaufort, William Morris, India. 

Beck, Joseph, 6 Coleman Street, London. 

Beckett, William, Kirkstall Grange, Leeds. 

Belcher, Captain Sir Edward, R.N., 
F.R.A.S. 

Bell, Matthew P., 245 St. Vincent Street, 
Glasgow. 

Bennoch, Francis, The Knoll, Blackheath, 
Kent. 

Bergin, Thomas Francis, M.R.I.A., 49 
Westland Row, Dublin. 

Berryman, William Richard, 6 Tamar 
Terrace, Stoke, Devonport. 

Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A., Leeds. 

Binyon, Thomas, St. Ann’s Square, Man- 
chester. 

Bird, William, 9 South Castle Street, Li- 
verpool. 

Birks, Rev. Thomas Rawson, Kelshall 
Rectory, Royston. 

Birley, Richard, Sedgley, 
Manchester. 

Birt, W. Radcliff, F.R.A.S., lla, Wel- 
lington Street, Victoria Park, London. 


Prestwich, 


Terrace, Glasgow. 


MEMBERS TO WHOM 


Blackwall, John, F.L.S., Hendre House 
near Llanrwst, Denbighshire. 

Blackwell, Thomas Evans, F.G.S., Mon- 
treal. 

Blake, Henry Wollaston, F.R.S., 8 Devon- 
shire Place, Portland Place, London. 
Blake, William, Bishop’s Hull, Taunton. 
Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S., St. 

Leonard’s-on-Sea. 

Bland, Rev. Miles, D.D., F.R.S., 5 Royal 
Crescent, Ramsgate. 

Blythe, William, Holland “Bank, Church 
near Accrington. 

Bohn, Henry G., F.R.G.S., York Street, 
Covent Garden, London. 

Boileau, Sir John Peter, Bart., F.R.S., 
20 Upper Brook Street, London; and 
Ketteringham Hall, Norfolk. 

Bond, Walter M., The Argory, Moy, 
Ireland. 

Bossey, Francis, M.D., 4 Broadwater 
Road, Worthing. 

Bowerbank, James Scott, LL.D., F.R.S., 
3 Highbury Grove, London. 

Bowlby, Miss F, E., 27 Lansdown Cres- 
cent, Cheltenham. 

Brady, Antonio, Maryland Point, Essex. 


Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A., 54 Upper 
Leeson Street, Dublin. 

Brakenridge, John, Bretton Lodge, 
Wakefield. 


Brebner, James, 20 Albyn Place,Aberdeen. 

Brett, John Watkins, 2 Hanover Square, 
London. 

Briggs, Major-General John, F.R.S., 2 
Tenterden Street, London. 

Brodie, Sir Benjamin Collins, Bart., 
D.C.L., President of the Royal Society ; 
Broome Park, Betchworth, Surrey. 

Brooke, Charles, B.A,, F.R,S., 16 Fitzroy 
Square, London. 

Brooks, Samuel, King Street, Manchester. 

Brooks, Thomas, (Messrs. Butterworth 

~ and Brooks,) Manchester. 

Broun, John Allan, F.R.S., Astronomer 

“to His Highness the Rajah of Tra- 
vancore ; Observatory, Trevandrum, 
India. 

Brown, Samuel, F.S.S., The Elms, Lark- 
hall Rise, Clapham, London. 

Brown, Thomas, Ebbw Vale Iron Works, 
Abergavenny. 

Brown, William, 3 Maitland Park Villas, 
Haverstock Hill, London. 

Bruce, Alexander John, Kilmarnock. 

Buck, George Watson, Rae: Isle of 
Man. 


5 Buckman, James, F.L.S., F.G. Si Profes- 
Blackie, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S., 10 Kew | 


sor of Natural History in the Royal 
Agricultural College, Cirencester. 


Ge 


BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 


Buckton, G. Bowdler, F.R.S., 55 Queen’s 
Gardens, Hyde Park, London. 

Budd, James Palmer, Ystalyfera Iron 
Works, Swansea. 

Buller, Sir Antony, Pound near Tavistock, 
Devon. 

Burd, John, jun., Mount Sion, Radcliffe, 
Manchester. 4 

Busk, George, F'.R.S., Sec. L.S., 15 Har- 
ley Street, Cavendish Square, London. 

Butlery, Alexander W., Monkland Iron 
and Steel Company, Cardarroch near 
Airdrie. 


Caine, Rev. William, M.A., Greenheys, 
Manchester. 

Caird, James T., Greenock. 

Campbell, Dugald, F.C.S.,7 Quality Court, 
Chancery Lane, London. 

Campbell, Sir James, Glasgow. 

Campbell, William, 34 Candlerigg Street, 
Glasgow. 

Carew, William Henry Pole, Antony 
House near Devonport. 

Carpenter, Philip Pearsall, B.A., Ph.D., 
Cairo Street, Warrington. 

Carr, William, Blackheath. 

Cartmell, Rev. James, B,D., F.G.S., 
Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge. 

Cassels, Rev. Andrew, M.A., Batley Vi- 
carage near Leeds. 

Chadwick, Charles, M.D., 35 Park Square, 
Leeds. 

Challis, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.S., Plu- 
mian Professor of Astronomy in the 
University of Cambridge ; Observatory, 
Cambridge. 

Chambers, Robert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., 
1 Doune Terrace, Edinburgh. 

Champney, Henry Nelson, St. Paul’s 
Square, York. 

Chanter, John, 2 Arnold Terrace, Bow 
Road, Bromley. 

Cheetham, David, Staleybridge, Man- 
chester. 

Chesney, Major-General Francis Rawdon, 
R.A.,'D.C.L., F.R.S., Ballyardle, Kil- 
keel, Co. Down, Ireland. 

Chevallier, Rev. Temple, B.D., F.R.A.S., 
Professor of Mathematics and Astro- 
nomy in the University of Durham. 

Chichester, Ashhurst Turner Gilbert,D.D., 
Lord Bishop of, 31 Queen Anne Street, 
Cavendish Square, London, and The 
Palace, Chichester. 

Chiswell, Thomas. 


Christie, Samuel Hunter, M.A., F.R.S., 
Ailsa Villas, St. Margaret’s, Twick- 
enham, 


24:7 
Clark, Rey. Charles, M.A., Queen’s Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 
Clark, Henry, M.D., 74 Marland Place, 
Southampton. 


Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S., Rastrick, 
Yorkshire. 

Clay, William, 4 Park Hill Road, Liver- 
pool. 

Clayton, David Shaw, Norbury, Stock- 
port, Cheshire. 

Coathupe, Charles Thornton, 3 Park Row, 
Bristol. 

Coats, George, 6 Park Terrace, Glasgow. 

Coats, Peter, Woodside, Paisley. 

Coats, Thomas, Fergeslie House, Paisley. 

Cobbold, John Chevallier, M.P., Tower 
Street, Ipswich, . 

Cocker, Jonathan, Higher Broughton, 
Manchester. 

Cole, Henry Warwick, 3 New Square, 
Lincoln’s Inn, London, 

Colfox, William, B.A., Bridport, Dorset- 
shire. 

Compton, Lord Alwyne, Castle Ashby, 
Northamptonshire. 

Compton, Lord William, 145 Piccadilly, 
London. 

Conway, Charles, Pontnwydd Works, 
Newport, Monmonthshire. 

Cooke, Arthur B., 6 Berkeley Place, Con- 
naught Square, London. 

Cooke, William Fothergill, Telegraph 
Office, Lothbury, London. 

Cooke, William Henry, Elm Court, Tem- 
ple, London. 

Corbet, Richard, Adderley, Market Dray- 
ton, Shropshire. 

Cotton, Rev. William Charles, M,A., New 
Zealand. 

Courtney, Henry, M.R.I.A,, 34 Fitz- 
william Place, Dublin. 

Cox, Joseph, F.G.S., Wisbeach, Cam- 
bridgeshire. 

Crampton, The HonourableJustice, LL.D., 
M.R.1.A., 3 Kildare Place, Dublin. 

Crewdson, Thomas D,, Dacca Mills, Man- 
chester. 

Crichton, William, 1 West India Street, 
Glasgow. 

Crompton, Rey. Joseph, Norwich, 

Cropper, Rev. John, Stand near Man- 
chester. 

Curtis, John Wright, Alton, Hants. 

Cuthbert, J. R., 40 Chapel Street, Liver- 
pool. 


Dalby, Rev. William, M.A., Rector of 
Compton Basset near Calne, Wilts. 

Dalton, Rev. James Edward, B,D., Seae 
grove, Loughborough. 


248 


Dalzell, Allen, The University, Edinburgh. 

Danson, Joseph, F.C.S., 6 Shaw Street, 
Liverpool. 

Darbishire, Samuel D., Pendyffryn near 
Conway. 

Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, M.D., 
LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in 
the University of Oxford; Oxford. 

Davis, Sir John Francis, Bart., K.C.B., 
F.R.S., Hollywood, Compton Green- 
field near Bristol. 

Davis, Richard, F.L.S., 9 St. Helen’s 
Place, London. 

Dawbarn, William, Wisbeach. 

Dawes, John S., jun., Smethwick House 
near Birmingham. 

Dawes, Rey. William Rutter, F.R.A.S., 
Haddenham near Thame, Oxon. 

Dawson, Christopher H., Low Moor, 
Bradford, Yorkshire. 

Dawson, Henry, 14 St. James’s Road, 
Liverpool. 

Dawson, Wiiliam G., Plumstead Common, 
Kent. 

Deane, Sir Thomas, Dundanion Castle, 
Cork. 

De Grey and Ripon, The Ear] of, 1 Carl- 
ton Gardens,-London. 

De la Rue, Warren, Ph.D., F.R.S., Cran- 
ford, Middlesex ; and 110 Bunhill Row, 
London. 

Dent, Joseph, Ribston Hall, Wetherby, 
York. 

Devonshire, William, Duke of, K.G., 
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Devonshire 
House, Piccadilly, London; and Chats- 
worth, Derbyshire. 

Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F.R.S., Great 
George Square, Liverpool. 

Dikes, William Hey, F'.G.S., Wakefield. 

Dilke, C. Wentworth, F.G.S., 76 Sloane 
Street, London. 

Dingle, Rey. J., Lanchester, Durham. 

Dobbin, Leonard, jun., M.R.I.A., 27 Gar- 
diner’s Place, Dublin. 

Dodsworth, Benjamin, St. Leonard’s Place, 
York. 

eA George, Clifton Grove near 

York. 

Donaldson, John, Professor of the Theory 
of Music in the University of Edin- 
burgh; Edinburgh. 

Donisthorpe, George Edmund, Holly 
Bank, Moortown, Leeds. 

Donnellv. William, C.B., Auburn, Mala- 
hide, Ireland, 


Dowden, Richard, Sunday’s Well, Cork. ° 


Downie, Alexander, 3 Upper Hamilton 
Terrace, St. John’s Wcod, London. 
Ducie, Henry, Earl of, F.R.S., 30 Princes 


MEMBERS TO WHOM 


Gate, London; and Tortworth Court, 
W otton-under-Edge. 

Duncan, Alexander, Rhode Island, United 
States, 

Duncan, James, M.D., Farnham House, 
Finglass, Co. Dublin. 

Dunlop, William Henry, Annan Hill, 
Kilmarnock. 

Dunraven, Edwin, Earl of, F.R.S., Adare 
Manor, Co. Limerick; and Dunraven 
Castle, Glamorganshire. 


Earnshaw, Rev. Samuel, M.A., Sheffield. 

Eddison, Edwin, Headingley Hill, Leeds. 

Eddison, Francis, Headingley Hill, Leeds. 

Eddy, James R., Carleton Grange, Skip- 
ton. 

Edmondston, Rev. John, Ashkirk by 
Hawick. 

Edwards, J. Baker, Ph.D., Royal Insti- 
tution Laboratory, Liverpool. 

Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart., 
M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., Oulton Park, 
Tarporley, Cheshire. 

Eisdale, David A., M.A., 6 St. Patrick 
Street, Edinburgh. 

Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M., Grimstone 
House near Malton, Yorkshire. 

Ellis, Thomas Flower, M.A., F.R.S., At- 
torney-General of the Duchy of Lan- 
caster; 15 Bedford Place, London. 

Enys, John S., F.G.S., Enys, Cornwall. 

Erle, Rev. Christopher, M.A., F.G.S., 
Hardwick Rectory near Aylesbury. 

Evans, George Fabian, M.D., Waterloo 
Street, Birmingham, 

Ewing, Archibald Orr, Clermont House, 
Glasgow. 

Ewing, William, 209 Brandon Place, 
West George Street, Glasgow. 

Eyre, George Edward, F.G.S., Warren’s 
Stoney Cross, near Lyndhurst, Hants. 


Fairbairn, William, C.£., LL.D., F.R.S., 
Manchester. 

Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., F.R.S., Ful- 
lerian Professor of Chemistry in the 
Royal Institution of Great Britain; 21 
Albemarle Street, London. 

Farren, Edwin James, Hanover Cham- 
poe Buckingham Street, Strand, Lon- 

on. 

Faulkner, Charles, F.S.A., F.G.S., Ded- 
dington, Oxon. 

Fawcett, Henry, Trinity Hall, Cam- 
bridge. 

Fischer, William L. F., M.A., F.R.S., 
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the 
University of St. Andrew’s, Scotland, 

Fleming, William, M.D., Manchester. 


ae: tee bie 


—————————————— ee 


BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 


Fletcher, Samuel, Ardwick Place, Man- 
chester. 

Forbes, David, F.R.S., F.G.S., A.1.C.E., 
7 Calthorpe Street, Birmingham. 

Forbes, James David, LL.D., Principal 
of the University of St. Andrews, 
Sec.R.S.E., F.R.S., St. Andrews. 

Forbes, Sir John, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Forrest, William Hutton, Stirling. 

Forster, Thomas Emerson, 7 Ellison Place, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Forster, William, Ballynure, Clones, Ire- 
land. 

Fort, Richard, Read Hall, Whalley, Lan- 
cashire. 

Fortescue, Hugh, Earl, K.P., I'.R.S., 17 
Grosvenor Square, London; and Castle 
Hill, Southmolton. 

Foster, Charles Finch, Mill Lane, Cam- 
bridge. 

Foster, George C., Sabden, Lancashire. 

Foster, H. $., Cambridge. 

Foster, John, M.A., The Oaks Parsonage, 
Loughborough, Leicestershire. 

Foster, Michael, F.R.C.S., Huntingdon. 


Foster, S. Lloyd, Five Ways, Walsall, 


Staffordshire. 

F ge Robert, 23 Rutland Square, Dub- 
in. 

Fox, Charles, Trebab, Falmouth. 

Fox, Rev. Edward, M.A., New College, 
Oxford. 

Fox, Joseph Hayland, Wellington, So- 
merset. 

Fox, Robert Barclay, Falmouth. 

Fox, Samuel Lindoe, ‘l'ottenham. 

Frankland, Rev. Marmaduke Charles, 
Chowbent near Manchester. 

Frazer, Daniel, 4 La Belle Place, Glasgow. 

Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S., 
TheAthenzum Club, Pall Mall, London, 

Frerichs, John Andrew, 1 Keynsham 
Bank, Cheltenham. 

Frith, Richard Hastings, C.E., Terenure 
Terrace, Co. Dublin. 

Froude, William, Elmsleigh Paignton, 
Torquay. 

Fullarton, Allan, 19 Woodside Place, 
Glasgow. 

Fulton, Alexander, 7 Woodside Crescent, 
Glasgow. 


Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A., 
Leigh House, Lower ‘Tooting, Surrey. 

Galton, Douglas, Captain R.E., F.R-S., 
F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor 
Place, London. 

Galton, Francis, F.G.S.,42 Rutland Gate, 
Knightsbridge, London, 

Garrett, Henry, Belfast, 


249 


Gaskell, Samuel, 19 Whitehall Place, 
London. 

Gething, George Barkley, Springfield, 
Newport, Monmouthshire. 

Gibson, George Stacey, Saffron Walden. 

Gilbart, James William, F.R.S., London 
and Westminster Bank, Lothbury, Lon- 
don. 

Gladstone, George, 
Common, London. 

Gladstone, John Hall, Ph.D., F.R.S., 28 
Leinster Gardens, Hyde Park, London. 

Goodman, John, M.D., The Promenade, 
Southport. 

Goodsir, John, F.R.S. L. & E., Professor 
of Anatomy in the University of Edin- 
burgh ; Edinburgh. 

Gordon, James, 16 Bridge Street, Inver- 
ness. 

Gordon, Rev. James Crawford, M.A., De- 
lamont, Downpatrick, Downshire. 

Gotch, Rey. Frederick William, LL.D., 
7 Brunswick Square, Bristol. 

Gotch, Thomas Henry. 

Graham, Thomas, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., 
Master of the Mint, London. 

Grahame, Major Duncan, Irvine, Scotland, 

Grainger, John, Rose Villa, Belfast. 

Gratton, Joseph, 32 Gower Street, Bed- 
ford Square, London. 

Graves, Rey. Charles, D.D., Professor of 
Mathematics in the University of Dub- 
lin,M.R.I.A.; 2 Trinity College, Dublin, 

Graves, Rey. Richard Hastings, D.D., 
Brigown Glebe, Michelstown, Uo. Cork. 

Gray, John, Greenock. 

Gray, John Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., Keep- 
er of the Zoological Collections of the 
British Museum; British Museum. 

Gray, William, F.G.S. (Local Treasurer), 
Minster Yard, York. 

Grazebrook, Henry, jun., 37 Falkner 
Square, Liverpool. 

Greenaway, Edward, 40 Kensington 
Park Gardens, Notting Hill, London. 

Greenhalgh, Thomas, Astley House near 
Bolton-le-Moors. 

Greswell, Rev. Richard, B.D., F.R.S., 
Beaumont Street, Oxford. : 
Griffin, John’ Joseph, F.C.S., 119 Bunbill 

Row, London. 

Griffith, Sir Richard, Bart., LL.D, 
M.R.I.A., I.G.S., Fitzwilliam Place, 
Dublin. 

Griffiths, S. Y., Oxford. 

Guinness, Rev. William Smyth, M.A,, 
Beaumont, Drumcondra, Co. Dublin, 
Gurney, Samuel, M.P., F.G.S., 25 Princes 

Gate, London. ~ 
Gutch, John James, 88 Micklegate, York. 


F.C.S., Clapham 


250 


Hailstone, Edward, Horton Hall, Brad- 
ford, Yorkshire. 

Hall, T. B., Coggeshall, Essex. 

Hambly, C. H. B., 55 Gell Street, Sheffield. 

Hamilton, Mathie, M.D., Warwick Street, 
Glasgow, 

Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, LL.D., 
Astronomer Royal of Ireland, and 
Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in 
the University of Dublin, M.R.I.A., 
F.R.A.S.; Observatory near Dublin. 

Hamilton, William John, F.R.S., For. 
Sec.G.S., 23 Chesham Place, Belgrave 
Square, London. 

Hamlin, Captain Thomas, Greenock. 

Harcourt, Rey. William V.Vernon, M.A., 
F.R.S., Bolton Perey, Tadcaster. 

Hardy, Charles, Odsall House, Brad- 
ford, Yorkshire. 

Hare, Charles John, M.D., 41 Brook 
Street, Grosvenor Square, London. 
Harley, John, Ross Hall near Shrewsbury. 
Harris, Alfred, Ryshworth Hall near 

Bingley, Yorkshire. 

Harris, Alfred, jun., Bradford, Yorkshire. 

Harris, George William. 

Harris, Henry, Heaton Hallnear Bradford. 

Harrison, James Park, M.A., Garlands, 
Ewhurst, Surrey. 

Harrison, William, Galligreaves House 
near Blackburn. 

Hart, Charles, 54 Wych Street, Strand, 
London. 

Harter, William, Hope Hall, Manchester. 

Hartley, Jesse, Trentham St., Liverpool. 

Harvey, Joseph Charles, Cork. 

Hatton, James, Richmond House, Higher 
Broughton, Manchester. 

Haughton, William, 28 City Quay, Dublin. 

Hawkins, Thomas, F.G.S., Down Court, 
Isle of Wight. 

Hawkshaw, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., 43 
Eaton Place, London. 

Hawthorn, Robert, C.E., Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne. 

Hayward, Robert Baldwin, M.A., Har- 
row-on-the- Hill. 

Hemans, Geo, William, C.E., M.R.I.A., 
32 Leinster Gardens, Hyde Park, Lon- 


don, 

Henry, Alexander, Portland Street, Man- 
chester. 

Henry, William Charles, M.D., F.R.S., 
Haffield near Ledbury, Herefordshire. 

Hepburn, J. Gotch, Clapham Common, 
Surrey. 

Herbert, Thomas, Nottingham. 

Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S., 
9 Hyde Park Gardens, London; and 
Claremont, Manchester. 


MEMBERS TO WHOM 


Heywood, James, F.R.S., 26 Palace Gar- 
dens, Kensington, London, 

Heywood, Robert, Bolton. 

Higgin, Edward, Liverpool. 

Higson, Peter, Irwill Terrace, 
Broughton, Manchester, 

Hill, Rev, Edward,M.A.,F.G,S.,Sheering 
Rectory, Harlow. 
Hill, Sir Rowland, K.C.B., F.R.S., 
F.R.A.S., Secretary to the Post Office, 

London. 

Hindmarsh, Frederick, F.G.S., 17 Buck- 
lersbury, London. 

Hindmarsh, Luke, Alnwick, 

Hoare, Rev. George Tooker, Tandridge, 
Godstone. 

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D., F.R.G.S., 35 
Bedford Square, London. 

Hodgkinson, Eaton, F.R.S., F.G.S., Hon. 
M.R.I.A., Professor of the Mechanical 
Principles of Engineering in University 
College, London; Eaglesfield House, 
Park Place, Higher Broughton, Man- 
chester, 

Hodgson, Adam, Everton, Liverpool. 

Holden, Moses, 13 Jordan Street, Pres- 
ton. 

Holditch, Rev. Hamnet, M.A., Caius 
College, Cambridge. 

Holland, P, H. 

Hollingsworth, John, 
Greenwich. 

Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.I.A., Doloughs 
Park, Co. Dublin. 

Hopkins, William, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., 
Cambridge. 

Horner, Leonard, F.R.S., Pres. G.S., 
17 Queen’s Road West, Regent’s Park, 
London. 

Horsfall, Abraham, Leeds. 

Houldsworth, Henry, Newton Street, 
Manchester. ; 

Hoyle, John, Brown Street, Manchester. 

Hudson, Henry, M.D., M.R.I.A., 23 
Stephen’s Green, Dublin, 

Hull, William Darley, F.G.S. 

Hulse, Edward, D.C.L., All-Souls Col- 
lege, Oxford. 

Hunter, Thomas C., Greenock, 

Hutton, Robert, M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Put- 
ney Park, Surrey. 

Hutton, William, North Terrace, West 
Hartlepool. 


Lower 


Londen Street, 


Ibbetson, Captain L. L. Boscawen, Cheva- 
lier Red Eagle of Prussia with Swords, 
Chevalier de MHohenzollen, F.R.S., 
F.G.S. 

Ingram, Hugo Francis Meynell, Temple 
Newsam, Leeds. 


BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 


Inman, Thomas, M.D., Rodney Street, 
Liverpool. 


Jackson, James Eyre, Tullydory, Black- 
water Town, Ireland. 

Jacob, John, M.D., Maryborough. 

Jamieson, Thomas F., Ellon, Aberdeen- 
shire. 

Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E., 
Jardine Hall, Applegarth by Lockerby, 
Dumfriesshire. 

Jarratt, Rev. John, M.A., North Cave 
near Brough, Yorkshire. 

Jee, Alfred S., 6 John Street, Adelphi, 
London. 

Jeffray, John, 
Glasgow. 

Jenkyns, Rev. Henry, D.D., Professor of 
Divinity and Ecclesiastical History in 
the University of Durham; Durham. 

Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, M.A., F.L.S., 
1 Darlington Place, Bathwick, Bath. 

Jerram, Rev. S. John, M.A., Witney, 
Oxfordshire. 

Jerrard, George Birch, B.A., Long Strat- 
ton, Norfolk. 

Johnson, Thomas, The Hermitage, Frod- 
sham, Cheshire. 

Johnstone, James, Alva near Alloa, Stir- 
lingshire. 

Johnstone, Sir John Vanden Bempde, 
Bart., M.P., M.A., F.G.S., 27 Gros- 
venor Square, London ; and Hackness. 

Jones, Christoplfer Hird, 2 Castle Street, 
Liverpool, 

Jones, Major Edward. 

Jones, Josiah, 2 Castle Street, Liverpool. 

Jones, Robert, 2 Castle Street, Liverpool. 

Jones, R, L., Princes Park, Liverpool. 

Joule, Benjamin, jun., New Bailey Street, 
Salford, Manchester. 

Joule, James Prescott, LL.D., F.R.S., 
Oakfield, Moss-side near Manchester, 

Joy, Rev. Charles Ashfield, Abbots Brom- 
ley, Rugeley, Staffordshire. 

Jubb, Abraham, Halifax. 


8 Elmbank Crescent, 


Kay, John Robinson, Boss Lane House, 
Bury, Lancashire. 

Kay, Rev. William, D.D., Lincoln Col- 
lege, Oxford. 

Kelsall, Henry, Rochdale, Lancashire, 

Ker, Robert, Auchinraith, Glasgow. 

King, Mervyn Kersteman, 1 Rodney Place, 
Clifton, Bristol. 

Knowles, Edward R. J., 23 George Street, 
Ryde, Isle of Wight. 

Knowles, William, Newport, Monmouth- 
shire. 


251 


Knox, G, James, 2 Finchley New Road, 
St. John’s Wood, London. 


Laming, Richard, 10 Clifton Villas, Maida 
Hill West, London, 

Langton, William, Manchester. 

Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, K.G., 
D.C.L., F.R.S., Trust. Brit. Mus., 54 
Berkeley Square, London; and Bo- 
wood Park, Wiltshire, 

Larcom, Major Thomas A., R.E., LL.D., 
F.R.S., M.R.1.A,, Phoenix Park, Dub- 
lin. 

La Touche, David Charles, M.R.I.A.,, 
Castle Street, Dublin. 

Leatham, Charles Albert, Wakefield, 

Leatham, Edward Aldam, Wakefield. 

Leather, John Towlerton, Leventhorpe 
Hall near Leeds. 

Le Cappelain, John, Highgate, London, 

Lee, John, LL.D., F.R.S., 5 College, 
Doctor's Commons, London; and 
Hartwell House near Aylesbury. 

Lee, John Edward, F.G.S., The Priory, 
Caerleon, Monmouthshire. 

Lees, Joseph, jun., Glenfield, Altrincham. 

Leeson, Henry B., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., 
The Maples, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight. 

Lefroy, Colonel John Heury, R.A., F.R.S., 
War Office. 

Legh, George Cornwall, M.P., High 
Legh, Cheshire. 

Leinster, Augustus Frederick, Duke of, 
M.R.I.A., 6 Carlton House Terrace, 
London. 

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F,R.S., Car- 
clew near Falmouth. 

Lindsay, Charles. 

Lindsay, John H., 317 Bath Street, Glas- 


gow. 

Lingard, John R., F.G.S., Stockport, 
Cheshire. 

Lister, John, M.D., F.G.S., Shibden 
Hall near Halifax; and 6 Porchester 
Terrace, Bayswater, London. 

Lister, Joseph Jackson, F.R.S., Upton, 
Essex. 

Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G,S,, Stank Hill 
near Warwick. 

Lloyd, Rey. Humphrey, D.D., LL.D., 
F.R.S, L. & E., M.R.1.A., Trinity Col- 
lege, Dublin. 

Lloyd, John Buck, Liverpool. 

Lobley, James Logan. 

Locke, John, Sandford Terrace, Ranelagh, 
Dublin. 

Lockey, Rev. Francis, Swainswick near 
Bath. 

Loftus, William Kennett, F.G.S,, Cal- 
cutta. 


252 


Logan, Rev. Thomas, M.A., The Manse 
of Haggs, Stirlingshire. 

Logan, Sir William Edmond, F.R.S., 
F.G.S., Director of the Geological Sur- 
vey of Canada; Montreal, Canada. 

Lubbock, Sir John William, Bart., M.A., 
F.R.S., Mansion House Street, Lon- 
don; and High Elms, Farnborough. 

Lubbock, John, F.R.S., 11 Mansion 
House Street, London ; and HighEIms 
Farnborough. 

Luckcock, Howard, Oak Hill, Edgbaston, 
Birmingham. 

Lundie, Cornelius, Perey Main, Newcas- 
tle-upon-Tyne. 

Lupton, Arthur, Newton Hall, Leeds. 

Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., 
F.R.S., F.G.S., 53 Harley Street, 
Cavendish Square, London, 


Macadam, Stevenson, Ph.D., I’.R.S.E., 
Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh. 

McAll, Rev. Edward, Rector of Brigh- 
stone, Newport, Isle of Wight. 

M‘Andrew, Robert, F.R.S., Isleworth 
House, Isleworth, Middlesex. 

MacBrayne, Robert, Messrs. Black and 
Wingate, 9 Exchange Square, Glasgow. 

McConnel, James, Manchester. 

M°Connell, David C., F.G.S., 12 Claren- 
don Crescent, Edinburgh. 

Mackenzie, James, Glentore, Scotland. 

Macrory, Adam John, Duncairn, Bel- 
fast. 

Macrory, Edmund, 7 Fig Tree Court, 
Temple, London. 

McCulloch, George, M.D., Cincinnati, 
United States. 

MacDonnell, Rev. Richard, D.D., Provost 
of Trinity College, Dublin, M.R.I.A.; 
Dublin. 

McEwan, John, Glasgow. 

Macfie, R. A., 72 Upper Parliament 
Street, Liverpool. 

M‘Gee, William, M.D., 10 Donegall 
Square East, Belfast. 

Maclver, Charles, Abercromby Square, 
Liverpool. 

Mackinlay, David, Pollokshields, Glas- 


ow. 

Malahide, Talbot de, Lord, F.R.S., Mala- 
hide Castle, Malahide, Ireland. 

Malcolm, Frederick, Stoke-on-Trent, 
Staffordshire. 

Mallet, Robert, F.R.S., M.R.IA., 11 
Bridge Strect, Westminster; and 1 
Grosvenor Terrace, Monkstown, Co. 
Dublin. 

Manchester, James Prince Lee, D.D., 


MEMBERS TO WHOM 


Lord Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S., Palace, 
Manchester. 

Marling, Samuel S., Stanley Park, Stroud, 
Gloucesternhire. 

Marshall, James Garth, M.A,, F.G.5., 
Headingley near Leeds. 

Martin, Francis P. Brouncker, 14 Bruton 
Street, Berkeley Square, London. 

Martindale, Nicholas, Peter Lane, Ha- 
nover Street, Liverpool. 

Martineau, Rev. James, 10 Gordon Street, 
Gordon Square, London. 

Mason, Thomas, York. 

ess Daniel, 58 Mount Pleasant, Liver- 
pool. 

Mather, John, 58 Mount Pleasant, Liver- 
pool. 

Matthews, William, jun., F.G.S., Edg- 
baston House, Birmingham. 

Maxwell, James Clerk, M.A., Professor 
of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy 
in King’s College, London, 

Maxwell, Sir John, Bart., F.R.S., Pollok 
House, Renfrewshire. 

Maxwell, Robert Percival, Finnebrogue, 
Downpatrick, Ireland. 

Mayne, Rev. Charles, M.R.I.A.,22 Upper 
Merrion Street, Dublin. 

Meadows, James, York Place, Rusholme 
near Manchester. 

Meynell, Thomas, Yarm, Yorkshire. 

Michell, Rev. Richard, B.D., Preelector 
of Logic, Lincoln College, Oxford; St. 
Giles’ Street, Oxford. 

Miller, Patrick, M.D., Exeter. 

Miller, William Allen, M.D., F.R.S., 
Professor of Chemistry in King’s Col- 
lege, London. 

Mills, John Robert, Bootham, York. 

Milne, David, M.A., F.R.S.E., Edin- 
burgh, 

Milner, W. Ralph, Wakefield, Yorkshire. 

Milner, William, Liverpool. 

Moffat, John, C.E., Ardrossan. 

Moore, John Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., Corswall, Wigtonshire. 

Moore, Rev. William Prior, The College, 
Cavan, Ireland. 

Morris, Rey. Francis Orpen, B.A., Nune 
buruholme Rectory, Hayton, York. 
Morton, Francis, Hermitage, Oxton, 

Cheshire. 

Morton, Henry Joseph, Basinghall Street, 
Leeds. 

Moss, W. H., Kingston Terrace, Hull. 

Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey,G.C.St.S., 
M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., 
V.P.R.G.S., Director-General of the 
Geological Survey of the United King- 
dom; 16 Belgrave Square, Lundon. 


BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 


Murchison, J. H., F.G.S., Surbiton Hill, 
Kingston. 

Murray, John, C.E., 11 Great Queen 
Street, Westminster, London. 

Muspratt, James Sheridan, Ph,D.,F.C.S., 
College of Chemistry, Liverpool. 


Napier, Captain Johnstone. 

Napier, Right Honourable Joseph, 4 
Merrion Square, Dublin. 

Nasmyth, James, Patricroft near Man- 
chester, 

Newall, Robert Stirling, Gateshead-upon- 
Tyne. 

Newlands, James, 2 Clare Terrace, Liver- 
pool. 

Newman, Francis William, Professor of 
Latin in University College, London ; 
7 Park Village East, Regent’s Park, 
London. 

Newman, William, Darley Hall, near 
Barnsley, Yorkshire. 

Nicholson, Cornelius, F'.G.S., Wellfield, 
Muswell Hill, London. 

Nicholson, John A., A.M., M.B., Lic. 
Med., M.R.I.A., Balrath, Kells, Co. 
Meath. 

Nicholson, William NichoJson, Roundhay 
Park, Leeds. 

Noiloth, M. S., Captain R.N., F.R.G.S., 
St. Mary’s Cottage, Peckham, and 
United Service Ciub, London. 


O'Callaghan, Patrick, B.A., Cookridge 
Hall, Leeds. 

Odling, William, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., 
Kennington Road, London. 

Ogilvie, George, M.D., Lecturer on the 
Institutes of Medicine in Marischal 
College, Aberdeen. 

Oldham,Thomas,M.A.,F.R.S.,M.R.I.A., 
F.G.S., Superintendent of the Geolo- 
gical Survey of India; Calcutta, 

Ommanney, Erasmus, Captain R.N., 
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 40 Charing Cross, 
and United Service Club, Pall Mall, 
London. 

O’Reardon, John, M.D., 35 York Street, 
Dublin. 

Osler, A. Follett, F.R.S., Hazelwood, 
Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord 
Bishop of, F.R.S., 26 Pall Mall, Lon- 
don, and Cuddesdon Palace, Wheatley, 
Oxon. 

Palmer, William, 12 North Parade, Bath. 

Parker, Alexander, M.R.I.A., William 
Street, Dublin. 

Parker, Charles Stewart, Liverpool. 

Patterson, Robert, M.R.1I,A. (Local Trea- 


253 


surer), 6 College Square North, Bel- 
fast. 

Pearsall, Thomas John, F.C.S., Mechanics’ 
Institution, Southampton Buildings, 
London. 

Pease, Thomas, F.G.S., Henbury near 
Bristol. 

Peckover, Alexander, F.R.G.S., Wis- 
beach, Cambridgeshire. 

Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S., Wisbeach, 
Cambridgeshire. 

Peckover, Daniel, Woodhall near Brad- 
ford, Yorkshire. 

Peckover, William, F.S.A., Wisbeach, 
Cambridgeshire. 

Pedler, Lieut.-Colonel Philip Warren, 
Mutley House near Plymouth. 

Peel, George, Soho Iron Works, Ancoats, 
Manchester. 

Perigal, Frederick, 28 Hereford Square, 
Brompton, London. 

Peters, Edward, TempleRow, Birmingham. 

Petit, Rev. John’ Louis, 9 New Square, 
Lincoln’s Inn, London. 

Philips, Edward, 35 Church Street, Man- 
chester. 

Philips, Herbert, 35 Church Street, Man- 
chester. 

Philips, Mark, The Park near Manchester, 

Phillipps, Sir Thomas, Bart.,M.A.,F.R.S., 
Middle Hill near Broadway, Worces- 
tershire. 

Phillips, John, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., Reader in Geology in the Uni- 
versity of Oxford (Assistant General 
Secretary) ; Museum House, Oxford. 

Phillips, Major-General Sir Frowell, Uni- 
ted Service Club, Pall Mall, London. 

Philpott, Rev. Henry, D.D.,” Master of 
St. Catharine’s Hall, Cambridge. 

Pike, Ebenezer, Besborough, Cork. 

Pitt, George, 11 Pembridge Villas, Bays- 
water, London. 

Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A., Rec- 
tur of St. Runwald’s, Colchester. 

Pontey, Alexander, Plymouth. 

Poppelwell, Matthew, Rosella Place, 
Tynemouth. 

Porter, Henry John Ker, Brampton Park, 
Hants. 

Portlock, Major-General Joseph Ellison, 
R.E.,. UL.D.,. F.R.S.,. V.P.G.8., 1 
Whitehall Yard, and 58 Queen’s Gar- 
dens, Hyde Park, London. 

Pounden, Captain Landsdale, Junior 
United Service Club, London; and 
Kildare Street Club, Dublin. 

Poynter, John E., Clyde Neuck, Udding- 
ston. 


Pratt, Samuel Peace, F,R.S., F.G,S. 


254 


Preston, R. Berthon, 10 Abercrombie 
Square, Liverpool. 

Prestwich, Joseph, F.R.S., Treas. G.S., 
2 Suffolk Lane, City, and 10 Kent Ter- 
race, Regent’s Park Road, London. 

Pretious, Thomas, H.M. Dockyard, De- 
vonport. 

Price, Rev. Bartholomew, M.A., F.R.S., 
F.R.A.S., Sedleian Professor of Natural 
Philosophy in the University of Oxford; 
Pembroke College, Oxford. ~ 

Pritchard, Andrew, 2 St. Mary’s Place, 
Canonbury, London. 

Prower, Rev. J. M., M.A., Swindon, 
Wiltshire. 

Pumphrey, Charles, Nailsworth, Glouces- 
tershire. 

Pusey, J, E. Bouverie, Christ Church, 
Oxford. 


Radford, William, 
Sidmouth. 

Ramsay, William, M.A., F.S.S., Professor 
of Humanity in the University of Glas- 
gow, (Local Treasurer) ; The College, 
Glasgow. 

Ramsbotham, John Hodgson, M.D., 16 
Park Place, Leeds. 

Rance, Henry, Cambridge. 

Randolph, Rev. Herbert, M.A., Marcham 
near Abingdon. 

Ransome, Robert, Iron Foundry, Ips- 
wich. 

Ratcliff, Charles, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 
Downing College, Cambridge. 

Rawlins, John, Birmingham. 

Rawlinson, Colonel Sir Henry C.,K.C.B., 
F.R.S., H. M. Envoy to the Court of 
Teheran, 

Rawson, Thomas William, Halifax. 

Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.S., 
Hayton near Pocklington, Yorkshire. 

Reade, Rev. Joseph Bancroft, M.A., 
P.R.S., Ellesborough Rectory, Tring. 

Redfern, Professor Peter, M.D., 4 Lower 
Crescent, Belfast. 

Renny, Lieut. H. L., R.E. 

Rhodes, John, Leeds. 

Richardson, Sir John, C.B.,M.D., LL.D., 
F.R.S., Lancrigg, Grasmere, West- 
moreland. 

Riddell, Lieut.-Col. Charles J. B., R.A., 
F.R.S.; India. 

Rinder, Miss, Gledhow Grove, Leeds. 

Roberts, Richard, C.E., 10 Adam Street, 
Adelphi, London. 

Robinson, H. Oliver, 16 Park Street, 
Westminster. 

Robson, Rev. John, D.D., Glasgow. 

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S., 18 


M.D., Sidmount, 


MEMBERS TO WHOM 


Upper bedford Place, Russell Square, 
London. 

Ross, Admiral Sir James Clark, D.C.L., 
F.R.S., Aston Abbotts House, Ayles- 
bury. 

Ross, James Coulman, Wadworth Hall, 
Doncaster. 

Roundell, Rev. Danson 
Gledstone, Skipton. 

Rowland, John, 30 Terminus Road, Brigh- 
ton. 

Rowney, Thomas H., Ph.D., F.C.S., Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, 
Galway. 

Rowntree, Joseph, Pavement, York. 

Rowntree, Joseph, Newtown, Leeds. 

Rushout, Capt. the Hon. George, F.G.S., 
10 Bolton Street, Piccadilly, London. 

Russell, Norman Scott, 37 Great George 
Street, Westminster. 

Russell, William J., Ph.D., Derwent 
Lodge, Chad Road, Edgbaston, Bir- 
mingham. 

Ryland, Arthur, Birmingham. 


Richardson, 


Sabine, Major-General Edward, R.A., 
D.C.L., Treas. and V.P.R.S., 13 Ash- 
ley Place, Westminster. 

Salt, C. F., 88 Canning Street, Liverpool. 

Salt, Titus, Crow Nest, Lightcliffe, Halifax. 

Salt, William, 20 Lombard Street, London. 

Sanders, William, F.G.S., (Local Trea- 
surer), 21 Richi:ond Terrace, Clifton, 
Bristol. 

Satterthwaite, Michael, M.D., Lindow 
Grove, Alderley near Wilmslow, Che- 
shire. 

Saunders, William, Manor House, Iffley 
near Oxford. 

Schemman, J. C., Hamburgh. 

Schlick, Commandeur de, 15 Rue Belle- 
chasse, Paubourg St. Germain, Paris. 
Schofield, Robert, Vicar’s Walk, Rochdale. 
Scholes, T. Seddon, 16 Dale Street, Lea- 

mington. 

Scholey, William Stephenson, M.A., Clap- 
ham, London. 

Scholfield, Edward, M.D., Doncaster. 

Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A., LL.D., 
F.R.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geo- 
logy in the University of Cambridge, and 
Canon of Norwich; Trinity College, 
Cambridge. 

Senior, George, Barnsley. 

Shaen, William, 8 Bedford Row, London. 

Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., Rugby. 

Shaw, Bentley, J.P., Woodfield House, 
Huddersfield. 

Shaw, C. Wright, 3 North View, Mount 
Vernon, Liverpool. 


a 


BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 


Sherrard, David Henry, 88 Upper Dorset 
Street, Dublin. 

Shortrede, Lieut.-Col. Robert, F.R.A.S. 

Sillar, Zechariah, M.D., Rainford near 
Liverpool. 

Simpson, Rev. Samuel, Douglas, Isle of 
Man. 

Simpson, T., M.D., Minster Yard, York, 

Sirr, Rev. Joseph D’Arcy,D.D.,M.R.1.A., 
Castle Hill, Winchester. 

Slater, William, Princess St., Manchester. 

Sleeman, Philip. 

Smith, Rev.Geo. Sidney, D.D., M.R.I.A., 
Professor of Biblical Greek in the Uni- 
versity of Dublin; Aughalurcher, Five- 
mile-Town, Co. Tyrone. 

Smith, Henry J. Stephen, M.A., F.R.S., 
Savilian Professor of Geometry in the 
University of Oxford; Balliol College, 
Oxford. 

Smith, Heywood, 25 Park Street, Gros- 
venor Square, London. 

Smith, James, Berkeley House, Seaforth 
near Liverpool. 

Smith, John, Shelbrook House, Ashby- 
de-la-Zouch. 

Smith, John Metcalfe, (Bank), Leeds, 
(Local Treasurer). 

Smith, Rev. J. D., Kingstown near Dublin. 

Smith, Rev. Philip, B.A., St. James’s 
Lodge, St. James’s Road, Croydon, 
Surrey. 

Smith, Protheroe, M.D., 25 Park Street, 
Grosvenor Square, London. 

Smith, Robert Mackay, Bellevue Cres- 
cent, Edinburgh. 

Smyth, C. Piazzi, F.R.S., Astronomer 
Royal for Scotland, Professor of Prac- 
tical Astronomy in the University of 
Edinburgh; 1 Hill Side Crescent, 
Edinburgh. 

Smyth, John, jun., M.A., C.E., Milltown, 
-Banbridge, Ireland. 

Solly, Edward, F.R.S., Holme Court, Isle- 
worth, near London. 

Solly, Samuel Reynolds, M.A., F.R.S., 
10 Manchester Square, London. 

Sopwith, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., 43 Cleve- 
land Square, London. 

Sorby, H. Clifton, F.R.S., Broomfield, 
Sheffield. 

Spence, Joseph, Pavement, York. 

Spiers, Richard James, 14 St. Giles’s 
Street, Oxford. 

Spottiswoode, William, M.A., F.R.S., 12 
James St., Buckingham Gate, London. 

Sprague, Thomas Bond, M.A. 

Squire, Lovell, Falmouth. 

Stainton, Henry Tibbats, F.1..S., Mounts- 
field, Lewisham, Kent, 


255 


Stainton, James Joseph, F.L.S., F.C.S., 
Horsell near Ripley, Surrey. 

Stanley, Lord, M.P., F.R.S., St. James’s 
Square, London. 
Stewart, Henry Hutchinson, M.D., 
M.R.I.A., 71 Eccles Street, Dublin. 
Stokes, George Gabriel, M.A., D.C.L., 
Sec.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Ma- 
thematics in the University of Cam- 
bridge ; Pembroke College, Cambridge. 

Stoney, George Johnstone, M.A., F.R.S., 
M.R.I.A., Secretary to the Queen’s 
University, Ireland; Dublin Castle, 
Dublin. 

Strickland, Arthur, Bridlington Quay, 
Yorkshire, ; 

Strickland, Charles, Loughglyn, Ballagh- 
adereen, Ireland. 

Sykes, Colonel William H., M.P., F.R.S., 
47 Albion Street, Hyde Park, London. 

Symonds, Frederick, F'.R.C.S., Beaumont 
Street, Oxford. 

Symons, William, Dunster, Somerset. 


Tate, Alexander, 41 Upper Sackville St., 
Dublin. 

Tatham, George, Leeds. 

Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A., Principal 
and Professor of Ecclesiastical History 
in Manchester New College, London ; 
22 Woburn Square, London. 

Taylor, James, Culverlands near Read- 


ing. 

Taylor, John, F.R.S., (General Trea- 
surer), 6 Queen Street Place, Upper 
Thames Street; and Chester Terrace, 
Regent’s Park, London. 

Taylor, John, jun., F.G.S., 6 Queen 
Street Place, Upper Thames Street, 
London. 

Taylor, Richard, F.G.S., 6 Queen Street 
Place, Upper Thames Street, London. 

Taylor, Vice-Admiral J. N., C.B., 27 
Burton Crescent, Tavistock Square, 
London. 

Taylor, William Edward, Millfield House, 
Enfield near Accrington. 

Tennant, James, F.G.S., Professor of 
Mineralogy and Geology in King’s 
College, London; 149 Strand, London. 

Thompson, Frederick, South Parade, 
Wakefield. 

Thomson, Corden, M.D., Sheffield. 

Thomson, James, M.A., C.E., 2 Done- 
gall Square West, Belfast. 

Thomson, James Gibson, Edinburgh. 

Thomson, William, M.A., LL.D.,F:R.S., 
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the 
University of Glasgow; The College, 
Glasgow. : 


256 MEMBERS TO WHOM BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 


Thornton, Samuel, The Elms, Highgate, 
Birmingham. 

Thorp, The Venerable Thomas, D.D., 
F.G.S., Archdeacon of Bristol; Ke- 
merton near Tewkesbury. 

Tidswell, Benjamin K., Brown Street, 

- Manchester. 

Tinné, John A., F.R.G.S., Briarly Aig- 
burth, Liverpool. 

Trevelyan, Arthur, Wallington, Newcas- 
tle-upon-Tyne. 

Tuckett, Francis Fox, Frenchay, Bristol. 

Tulloch, James, F.R.S., 16 Montagu 
Place, Russell Square, London, 

Turnbull, Rev. Thomas Smith, M.A., 
F.R.S., Blofield, Norfolk. 

Tweedy, William Mansell, Truro, Corn- 
wall. 

Tyndall, John, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor 
of Natural Philosophy in the Royal In- 
stitution of Great Britain, Albemarle 
Street, London. 


Vallack, Rev. Benj. W. S., St. Budeaux 
near Plymouth. 

Vance, Rev. Robert, 16 Montpelier Hill, 
Dublin. 

Vaux, Frederick, Central Telegraph Office, 
Adelaide, South Australia. 

Vernon, John, Hayman’s Green, West 
Derby, Liverpool. 

Vivian, H. Hussey, M.P., F.G.S., 5 Up- 
per Belgrave Street, London; and Sin- 
gleton House, Swansea. 


Waldegrave, The Hon. Granville, 26 Port- 
land Place, London. 

Walker, Joseph N., F.L.S., Caldeston 
near Liverpool. 

Walker, Rev. Robt., M.A., F.R.S., Reader 
in Experimental Philosophy in the Uni- 
versity of Oxford, (General Secretary) ; 
Wadham College, Oxford ; and Culham 
Vicarage, Abingdon. 

Walker, Thoinas, 10 York Street, Man- 
chester. 

Ward, William Sykes, F.C.S., Claypit 
House, Leeds. 

Waterhouse, John, F.R.S., 
Halifax, Yorkshire. 

Watson, Henry Hough, F.C.S., The Folds, 
Bolton-le-Moors. 

Way, J. Thomas, F.C.S., Professor of 
Chemistry, Royal Agriculturai Society 
of England ; 15 Welbeck Street, Caven- 
dish Square, London. 

Webb, Rev. Thomas William, M.A., 
Cloisters, Gloucester. 

Western, T, B., Felix Hall, Kelvedon, 
Essex. 


Wellhead, 


Westhead, Joshua Proctor, York House, 
Manchester. 

Westley, William, 24 Regent Street, 
London, 

Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S., 
Master of Trinity College, Cambridge ; 
Lodge, Cambridge. 

Whitaker, William, B.A., F.G.S., Geolo- 
gical Survey Office, 28 Jermyn Street, 
London. 

Whitehouse, Wildman, 16 Hyde Vale, 
Blackheath. 

Whiteside, James, M.A., Q.C., M.P., 2 
Mountjoy Square, Dublin. 

Whitty, John Irwine, D.C.L., LL.D., 
M.A., Civil Engineer, Ricketstown 
Hall, Carlow. 

Whitworth, Joseph, F.R.S., The Firs, 
Manchester, and Stancliffe Hall, Derby- 
shire. 

Willert, Paul Ferdinand, Manchester. 

Williams, Caleb, M.D., Micklegate, York. 

Williams, William, Crosby Hall, Bishops- 
gate Street, London. 

Williamson, Alex. W., Ph.D., F.R.S., 
Professor of Practical Chemistry in 
University College, London; 16 Pro- 
vost Road, Haverstock Hill, London. 

Williamson, Rey. William, B.D., Datch- 
worth, Welwyn, Hertfordshire. 

Wills, Alfred, 4 Harcourt Buildings, Inner 
Temple, London. 

Wilson, Alexander, F.R.S., 34 Bryan- 
ston Square, London. 

Wilson, F., Dallam Tower, Milnthorpe, 
Westmoreland. 

Wilson, John, Bootham, York. 

Wilson, John, jun., West Hurlet near 
Glasgow. 

Wilson, John, Seacroft near Leeds. 

Wilson, Rev. Sumner, Horton Heath, 
Bishopstoke, 

Wilson, Thomas, M.A., Crimbles House, 
Leeds. 

Wilson, William Parkinson, M.A., Pro- 
fessor of Pure and Applied Mathematics 
in the University of Melbourne. 

Winsor, F. A., 57 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 
London. 

Wollaston, Thomas Vernon, M.A.,F.L.S., 
Southernhay House, Kingskerswell, 
Newton Abbot, Devon. ; 

Wood, Rt. Hon. Sir Charles, Bart., M.P., 
10 Belgrave Square, and Hickleston 
Hall, Doncaster. 

Wood, Rev. H. H., M.A.,F.G.S., Holwell 
Rectory, Sherborne, Dorset. 

Wood, John, St. Saviourgate, York. 

Wood, Rev. William Spicer, M.A., Oak- 
ham, Rutlandshire. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


257 ~, 


Wood, William, Monkhill House, Ponte- | Worthington, Robert, Cheetham Hill near 


fract. 

Woodd, Charles H. L,, F.G.S., Roslyn, 
Hampstead, London. 

Woodhead, G., Mottram near Manches- 
ter. 

Woods, Edward, 5 Gloucester Crescent, 
Hyde Park, London. 

Worcester, Henry Pepys, D.D., Lord 
Bishop of, 24 Grosvenor Place, Lon- 
don. 

Wormald, Richard, 10 Priory Road, Kil- 
burn, London. 


J 


Manchester. 

Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A., 
Mansfield. 

Wright, Robert Francis, Hintor Blewett, 
Somersetshire. 


Yarborough, George 
Mount, Doncaster. 

Yorke, Colonel Philip, F.R.S., 89 Eaton 
Place, Belgrave Square, London. 

Younge, Robert, M.D., Greystones near 
Sheffield. 


Cooke, Camp’s 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS, 


Abernethy, Robert, Ferry Hill, Aberdeen. 

Acland, Thomas Dyke, F.C.S., Sprydon- 
cote near Exeter. 

Airston, Dr. William B., Broomrigg, 
Dumfriesshire. 

Allan, Alexander, Scottish Central Rail- 
way, Perth. 

Allman, George James, M.D., F.R.S., 
M.R.1.A., Professor of Natural History 
in the University of Edinburgh; 21 
Manor Place, Edinburgh. 

Anderson, Patrick, Dundee. 

Andrews, William, M.R.I.A., The Hill, 
Monkstown, Co. Dublin. 

Argyll, George Douglas, Duke of, F.R.S., 
Campden Hill, Kensington, London, 
and Inverary Castle, Inverary, Scot- 
land. 

Atherton, Charles, H. M. Dockyard, 
Woolwich. 


Baily, William H., F.G.S., Acting Pa. 
lxontologist to the Geological Survey 
of Ireland, 51 Stephen’s Green, Dub- 
lin. 

Balding, James, M.R.C.S., Barkway, 
Hertfordshire. 

Barrett, E. B. (Surgeon), Welshpool. 

Barrington, Edward, Fassaroe, Bray, Ire- 
land. 

Barrington, Richard, 8 Trafalgar Terrace, 
Monkstown, Co. Dublin. 

Becker, Ernest, Ph.D., Buckingham Pa- 
lace, London. 

Beckles, Samuel Husbands, F.R.S., 
F.G.S., 9 Grand Parade, St. Leonard’s- 
on-Sea. 

Beke,CharlesT., Ph.D.,F.S.A.,F.R.G.S., 
Bekesburne House, Kent. 

Bell, George, Windsor Buildings, Dum- 
barton. 


1860. 


Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A., Wor- 
cester College, Oxford. 

Billings, Robert William, (Architect,) 4 
St. Mary’s Road, Canonbury, Lon- 
don. 

Bird, James, M.D., F.R.G.S., 27 Hyde 
Park Square, London. 

Blakeley, Captain A. T., Holywood, Co. 
Down. 

Blunt, Captain Richard J., Bretlands, 
Chertsey, Surrey. 

Botterill, John, Burley near Leeds. 

Brazier, James S., F.C.S., Lecturer in 
Agriculture, Marischal College, Aber- 
deen, 

Brebner, Alexander C., Audit Office, 
Somerset House, London. 

Brett, G., Salford. 

Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., 
F.R.S., V.P.R.S. Ed., Principal of the 
University of Edinburgh; Allerly by 
Melrose, N.B. 

Bright, Sir Charles, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 
12 Upper Hyde Park Gardens, and 
1 Victoria Street, Westrainster. 

Bright, Edward B., 2 Exchange Build- 
ings, Liverpool. 

Brodhurst, Bernard E., 20 Grosvenor 
Street, Grosvenor Square, London. 
Brooke, Edward, Marsden House, Stock- 

port, Cheshire. 

Brooke, Peter William, Marsden House, 
Stockport, Cheshire. 

Brown, Henry, Rawdon near Leeds. 

Brownlee, James, 173 St. George’s Road, 
Glasgow. 

Burrows, Montague, M.A., Commander 
R.N., Cleveland House, Park Terrace, 
Oxford. 


Cail, John, Stokesley, Yorkshire. 
Li, 


258 


Calvert, Professor F.Crace, Ph.D., F.R.S., 
F.C.S., Royal Institution, Manchester. 

Carson, Rev. Joseph, Trinity College, 
Dublin. 

Carte, Alexander, A.M., M.B., F.L.S., 
Director of the Natural History Mu- 
seum of the Royal Dublin Society, 
Dublin. 

Carter, Richard, C.E., Long Carr, Barns- 
ley, Yorkshire. 

Cayley, Arthur, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 2 
Stone Buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, Lon- 
don. 

Chadwick, David, Salford. 

Church, William Selby, B.A., University 
College, Oxford. 

Clapham, Samuel, 17 Park Place, Leeds. 

Claudet, A., F.R.S., 107 Regent Street, 
and 11 Gloucester Road,Regent’s Park, 
London. 

Coleman, J. J., Lecturer on Chemistry, 
&c., Commercial College, Halifax. 

Cook, E. R., Stamford Hill, London. 

Corbett, Joseph Henry, M.D., Professor 
of Anatomy and Physiology in Queen’s 
College, Cork. 

Corner, C. Tinsley, 9 New Brown Street, 
Manchester. 

Cowper, Edward Alfred, M.I.C.E., Colne 
Cottage, Twickenham Common. 

Cranage, Edward, Ph.D., The Old Hall, 
Wellington, Shropshire. 

Cruickshank, John, (Banker), Aberdeen. 

Crum, Walter, F.R.S., Thornliebank 
near Glasgow. 

Cull, Richard, 13 Tavistock Street, Bed- 
ford Square, London. 

Cunningham, William A., Manchester 
and Salford Bank, Manchester. 


Dancer, J. B., F.R.A.S., Manchester. 

Darbishire, Charles James, Rivington 
near Chorley. 

Dashwood, Charles, Thornage near Thet- 
ford, Norfolk. 

Da Silva, Johnson, Burntwood, Wands- 
worth Common near London. 

Davis, J. Barnard, F.S.A., Shelton, Staf- 
fordshire. 

Davy, John, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., 
Lesketh How, Ambleside. 

Deane, Henry, Clapham, London. 

Dennis, J. C., F.R.A.S., 122 Bishopsgate 
Street, London. 

Dibb, Thomas T., Little Woodhouse, 
Leeds. 

Dicker, J. R., 29 Exchange Alley North, 
Liverpool. 

Dickson, Peter, 28 Upper Brook Street, 
London. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Dobbs, Archibald Edward, Balliol Col- 
lege, Oxford. 

Domvile, William C., Thorn Hill, Bray, 
Dublin. 

Donkin, W. Fishburn, M.A., F.R.S., 
Savilian Professor of Astronomy in the 
University of Oxford; 34 Broad Street, 
Oxford. 

Dove, Hector, 71 Hope Street, Glasgow. 

Drummond, James, Greenock. 

Dufferin, Viscount, F.G.S., Dufferin 
Lodge, Highgate, London; and Clande- 
boye Down, Ireland. 

Duns, Rev. John, F.R.S.E., Torphichen, 
Bathgate, Scotland. 

Durham, Arthur Edward, F.R.C.S., 
F.L.S., Demonstrator of Anatomy in 
Guy’s Hospital, London; 43 Trinity 
Square, Southwark, London. 


Edmond, James, Cardens Haugh, Aber- 
deen. 

Elder, John, 121 Bath Street, Glasgow. 

Elliot, Robert, Wolflee, Hawick. / 

Evans, Griffith F. D., M.D., St. Mary’s, 
Bedford. 

Everest, Colonel Sir George, Bengal Artil- 
lery, F.R.S., 10 Westbourne Street, 
Hyde Park, London. 


Ferguson, James, Auchinheath and Craig- 
nethan Gas Coal Works, Lesmahago, 
Glasgow. 

Fielding, James, Mearclough Mills, Sow- 
erby Bridge. 

Findlay, A. G.,F.R.G.S., 53 Fleet Street, 
London. 

Fishwick, Captain Henry, Carr Hill, 
Rochdale. 

FitzRoy, Rear-Admiral Robert, F.R.S., 
38 Onslow Square, Brompton, Lon- 
don. 

Foster, Peter Le Neve, M.A., Society of 
Arts, Adelphi, London. 

Fowler, Rev. J. C., LL.D., F.A.S. Scot., 
The Manse, Ratho, by Edinburgh. 

Fowler, Richard, M.D.,F.R.S., Sal isbury. 

Fox, Joseph John, Church Row, Stoke 
Newington, London. 

Fraser, James P., 2 Laurence Place, 
Dowanhill, Partick by Glasgow. 

Freeborn, Richard Fernandez, L.R.C. 
Phys., 38 Broad Street, Oxford. 


Gages, Alphonse, Museum of Irish In- 
dustry, Dublin. 

Gassiot, John P., F.R.S., Clapham Com- 
mon, London. 

Gerard, Henry, 13 Rumford Place, Liver- 
pool, 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 259 


Gibson, Thomas F., 124 Westbourne 
Terrace, Hyde Park, London. 

Gibson, William Sydney, M.A., F.S.A., 
F.G.S., Tynemouth and Newcastle. 
Glennie, J. S. Stuart, F.R.G.S., 6 Stone 

Buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London. 

Grant, Robert, M.A., F.R.A.S., Professor 
of Astronomy in the University of 
Glasgow; Observatory, Glasgow. 

Greene, Professor J. Reay, M.R.I.A., 
Queen’s College, Cork. 

Greenwood, William, Stones, Todmorden, 
Lancashire. 

Greg, Robert Philips, F.G.S., (Local 
Treasurer), Outwood Lodge, near 
Manchester. 

Gregor, Walter, Macduff, Banff. 

Griffith, George, M.A., F.C.S., Jesus 
College, Oxford. 


Hall, Hugh F., 17 Dale Street, Liverpool. 

Hall, John Frederick, Ellerker House, 
Richmond, Surrey. 

Hall, Walter, 10 Pier Road, Erith. 

Hancock, John, Lurgan, Co. Armagh. 

Harcourt, A. Vernon, New College Street, 
Oxford. 

Harcourt, Rev. L. Vernon, West Dean 
House, Chichester. 

Harkness, Robert, F.R.S., F.G.S., Profes- 
sor of Geology in Queen’s College, 
Cork. 

Harrison, Rev. Francis, M.A., Oriel Col- 
lege, Oxford. 

Hartnup, John, F.R.A.S., Observatory, 
Liverpool. 

Hawkes, William, Eagle Foundry, Bir- 
mingham. 

Hay, Sir Andrew Leith, Bart., Rannes, 
Aberdeenshire. 

Hector, James, M.D., 13 Gate Street, 
Lincoln’s Inn, London. 

Hennessy, Henry, F.R.S., M.R.L.A., 
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the 
Catholic University of Ireland, Dublin; 
Wynnefield, Rathgar, Co. Dublin. 

Hepburn, Robert, 8 Davies Street, Berke- 
ley Square, London. 

Hervey, The Rey. Lord Arthur, Ickworth, 
Suffolk. 

Higgins, Rev. Henry H., M.A., Rainhill, 
Liverpool. 

Hill, Laurence, Port Glasgow. 

Iiincks, Rev. Edward, D.D., Killyleagh, 
Ireland. 

Hirst, John, jun., Dobcross, Saddle- 
worth. 

Hitchman, John, Leamington. 

Hogan, Rev. A. R., M.A., Puddletown, 
Dorchester. 


Hollond, Loton, 3 Lansdown Place, Chel- 
tenham. 

Hopkinson, Joseph, Britannia Works, 
Huddersfield. 

Hough, Joseph, Leeds. 

Hudson, Robert, F.R.S., Clapham Com- 
mon, London. 

Huggon, William, 30 Park Row, Leeds. 
Hunt, James, Ph.D., F.S.A., Hon. Sec. 
Ethnol. Soc.; Ore House; Hastings. 
Hunt, Robert, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining 
Records, Museum of Practical Geology, 

Jermyn Street, London. 


Ingham, Henry, Wortley near Leeds. 


Jack, John, Belhelvie, Aberdeen. 

Jacobs, Bethel, Hull. 

James, Edward, 9 Gascoyne Terrace, 
Plymouth. 

James, Edward H., 9 Gascoyne Terrace, 
Plymouth. 

James, William, Sutton Road, Plymouth. 

Johnston, A. Keith, 4 St. Andrew Square, 
Edinburgh. 

Jones, John, 28 Chapel Street, Liverpool. 

Jones, T. Rupert, F.G.S., Assistant Se- 
cretary Geol. Soc. of London; and 
Lecturer on Geology and Mineralogy 
in the Royal Military College, Sand- 
hurst ; 18 Bessborough Gardens, Pim- 
lico, London. 


Kay, Alexander, Atherton Grange, Wim- 
bledon Park, Surrey. 

Kaye, Robert, Mill Brae, Moodiesburn 
by Glasgow. 

Ker, A.A. Murray, D.L., Newbliss House, 
Newbliss, Ireland. 

Kinahan, G. Henry, Geological Survey 
of Ireland, 51 Stephen’s Green, Dublin. 

Kinahan, John R., M.D., St. Kilda, Sandy- 
cove, Dalkey, Kingstown, Ireland. 

Kirkman, Rev. T. P., M.A., F.R.S., 
Croft Rectory, near Warrington. 

Kirkwood, Anderson, 151 West George 
Street, Glasgow. 


Lace, Francis John, Stone Gappe, Cross 
Hills, Leeds. 

Ladd, William, 11 & 12 Beak Street, 
Regent Street, London. 

Lalor, John Joseph, 2 Longford Terrace, 
Monkstown, Co. Dublin. 

Lankester, Edwin, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., 
8 Savile Row, London. 

Lassell, William, jun., Tue Brook near 
Liverpool. 

Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S., Greenford, 
Middlesex. 


260 


Lempriere, Charles, D.C.L., St. John’s 
College, Oxford. 

Leslie, William, M.P., Warthill, Aber- 
deenshire. 

Liddell, The Very Rev. H. G., D.D., 
Dean of Christ Church, Oxford; Ox- 
ford. 

Ligertwood, George, Blair by Summerhill, 
Aberdeenshire. 

Lister, Rev. William, Bushbury, Wolver- 
hampton. 

Liveing, G. D., F.C.S., St. John’s College, 
Cambridge. 

Livingstone, Rev. T. G., M.A., Minor 
Canon of Carlisle Cathedral; 6 Vic- 
toria Place, Carlisle. 

Lord, Edward, York Street, Todmorden. 


M°Connell, J. E., Wolverton Park, Buck- 


inghamshire. 
Maclaren, Archibald, Summertown, 
Oxon. 


Maclaren, Charles, Moreland, Grange 
Loan, Edinburgh. 

Marriott, William, Leeds Road, Hud- 
dersfield. 

Matthews, Rev. Richard Brown, Shal- 
ford near Guildford. 

Melly, Charles Pierre, Riversley, Liver- 


pool. 

Miles, Rev. C. P., M.D., Principal of the 
Malta Protestant College, St. Julian’s, 
Malta. 

Millar, John, Lisburn, Ireland. 

Mirrlees, J. Buchanan, 128 West Street, 
Tradeston, Glasgow. 

Mitchell, John Mitchell, Mayville, Edin- 
burgh. 

Moffat, T., M.D., F.R.A.S., Hawarden, 
Chester. 

Moir, James, 174 Gallowgate, Glasgow. 

Monk, Rev. William, M.A., Aubrey 
Villa, Cambridge. 

Moore, Arthur, Monkstown Lodge, Co. 
Dublin, Ireland. 

Moore, Charles, F.G.S., Cambridge Place, 
Bath. 

Morton, George H., F.G.S., 9 London 
Road, Liverpool. 

Muir, William, Britannia Works, Man- 
chester. 

Murgatroyd, William, Baok Field, Bingley. 

Murton, James, Silverdale near Lancaster. 

Mylne, Robert W., F.R.S., F.G.8., 21 
Whitehall Place, London. 


Neate, Charles, M.A., Professor of Poli- 
tical Economy, Oriel College, Oxford. 

Neild, William, Ollerenshaw, Whaley 
Bridge near Stockport. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Newton, Alfred, M.A., F.L.S., Elvedon 
Hall, Thetford, Norfolk. 

Norfolk, Richard, Messrs. W. Ruther- 
ford and Co., 14 Canada Dock, Liver- 
pool. 

Northcote, A. Beauchamp, F.C.S., Rose 
Hill Terrace, Worcester. 

Nunneley, Thomas, Leeds. 


Ogilvie,C. W. Norman, Baldowan House, 
Dundee. 

Oldham, James, C.E., Austrian Cham- 
bers, Hull. 

O’Leary, Purcell, M.A., Sydney Place, 
Cork. 

Ormerod, T. T., Brighouse near Halifax. 

Outram, Thomas, Greetland near Ha- 
lifax. 


Peach, Charles W., Custom House, Wick. 

Pengelly, William, F.G.S., Lamorna, 
Torquay. 

Percy, John, M.D., F.R.S., Museum of 
Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, 
London. 

Petrie, William, Ecclesbourne Cottage, 
Woolwich. 

Pochin, Henry Davis, Quay St., Salford. 

Procter, William, 24 Petergate, York. 

Pugh, William, Coalport, Shropshire. 

Purdy, Frederick, F-.S.S., Principal of the 
Statistical Department of the Poor 
Law Board, London; Victoria Road, 
Kensington, London. 


Radcliffe, Charles Bland, M.D., 4 Hen- 
rietta Street, Cavendish Square, Lon- 
don. 

Randall, Thomas (Mayor of Oxford), 
Grandpont House, Oxford. 

Rankin, Rev. Thomas, Huggate, York- 
shire. 

Rankine, W. J. Macquorn, C.E., LL.D., 
Professor of Engineering, F.R.S.L.&E., 
59 St. Vincent Street, Glasgow. 

Rennison, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Queen’s 
College, Oxford. 

Reynolds, Richard, F.C.S., 13 Briggate, 
Leeds. 

Ritchie, George Robert, 24 Stockwell 
Park Road, Stockwell, London. 

Roberton, James, Gorbals Foundry, 
Glasgow. 

Roberts, Henry, F.S.A., The Atheneum 
Club, Pall Mall, London. 

Roberts, John, 101 Upper Parliament 
Street, Liverpool. 

Robinson, C. B., The Shrubbery, Lei- 
cester, 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Robinson, Robert Spencer, Admiral of 
the Blue, 86 Eaton Place, Belgrave 
Square, London. 

Rogers, Professor H. D., The University, 
Glasgow. 

Rogers, James E. Thorold, Professor of 
Economic Science and Statistics in 
King’s College, London. 

Rolleston, George, M.D., Lee’s Reader in 
Anatomy in the University of Oxford ; 
New Inn Hall Street, Oxford. 

Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S. 

Round, Daniel George, Hange Colliery 
near Tipton, Staffordshire. 


Scott, Robert H., Trinity College, Dublin ; 
18 Ranelagh Road, Dublin. 

Shaw, Norton, M.D., Secretary to the 
Royal Geographical Society, London, 
15 Whitehall Place, London. 

Shewell, John T., Rushmere, Ipswich. 

Siemens, C. William, 3 Great George 
Street, Westminster. 

Sleddon, Francis, 2 Kingston Terrace, 
Hull. 

Sloper, George Elgar, jun., Devizes. 

Sloper, S. Elgar, Winterton near South- 
ampton. 

Smeeton, G. H., Commercial Street, 
Leeds. 

Smith, Brooke, Birmingham. 

Smith, Edward, M.D., F.R.S., 6 Queen 
Anne Street, London. 

Smith, Henry A., 5 East Craibstone 
Street, Aberdeen. 

Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D., F.R.S., 20 
Grosvenor Square, Manchester. 

Smith, William, C.E., F.C.S., 10 Salis- 
bury Street, Adelphi, London. 

Spence, Peter, Pendleton Alum Works, 
Newton Heath, Manchester. 

Stafford, The Marquis of, 2 Hamilton 
Place, Hyde Park Corner, London, 
and Talbot House, Ross-shire. 

Stevelly, John, LL.D., Professor of Na- 
tural Philosophy in Queen’s College, 
Belfast. 

Stewart, Balfour, Kew Observatory, 
Richmond, Surrey. 

Stoney, Bindon B., M.R.I.A., 89 Wa- 
terloo Road, Dublin. 

Story, James, 17 Bryanston Square, 
London. 

Stuart, William, 1 Rumford Place, Liver- 
pool. 

Stuart, William Henry, Birkenhead. 

Stubs, Joseph, Park Place, Frodsham, 
Cheshire. 

Symonds, Captain Thomas Edward, 
R.N., London. 


261 


| Symonds, Rev. W. S., F.G.S., Pendock 
Rectory, near Tewkesbury. 

Symons, G. J., 129 Camden Road Villas, 
London. 


Talbot, William Hawkshead, Southport, 
Lancashire. 

Teschemacher, E. F., 1 Highbury Park 
North, London. 

Thompson, George, jun., Pitmedden, 
Aberdeen. 

Thorburn, Rev. William Reid, M.A., 
Starkees, Bury, Lancashire. 

Townsend, John, 11 Burlington Street, 
Bath. 

Tristram, Rev. H. B., MAS EL LSe 
Castle Eden, Durham. 

Turnbull, John, 276 George Street, 
Glasgow. 

Tuton, Edward S., Lime Street, Liverpool. 


Varley, Cornelius, 7 York Place, High 
Road, Kentish Town, London. 

Voelcker, J. Ch. Augustus, Ph.D., F.C.S., 
Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, 
Royal Agricultural College, Ciren- 
cester. 


Waddingham, John, Geinting Grange, 
Winchcomb, Gloucestershire. 

Walker, Charles V., F.R.S., Fernside 
Villa, Red Hill near Reigate. 

Wallace, William, Ph.D., F.C.S., Che- 
mical Laboratory, 38 Bath Street, 
Glasgow. 

Walton, Rev. W., M.A., F.R.S., Great 
Moulton, Norfolk. 

Wardle, Thomas, Leek Brook, Leek, 
Staffordshire. 

Warington, Robert, F.C.S., Apothe- 
caries’ Hall, London. 

Watts, John King, F.R.G.S., St. Ives, 
Huntingdonshire. 

Webster, John, 42 King Street, Aber- 
deen. 

Weston, J. W., 32 St. Ann Street, Man- 
chester. 

Wight, Robert, M.D., F.L.S., Grazeley 
Lodge, Reading. 

Wilde, Henry (Engineer), Manchester. 

Wilkinson, Robert, ‘Totteridge Park, 
Herts. 

Willet, John, C.E., 35 Albyn Place, 
Aberdeen. 

Wood, George, M.A., Bradford, York- 
shire. 

Woodall, Captain John Woodall, F.G.S., 
St. Nicholas House, Scarborough. 

Woolley, Thomas Smith, South Colling- 
ham, Newark. 


262 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Wornell, George, 11 Queen’s Crescent, | Wright, Thomas, F.S.A., 14 Sydney St., 


Reading. Brompton, London. 
Worthy, George S., 32 Park Street, 
Bristol. Yates, Edward, 30 Compton Terrace,. 


Wright, Henry, 2 Hamilton Place, Lon- Islington, London. 
don. 


Printed by Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. 


a2 :”:—C Oe ee 


ELST OF PGA TES. 


PLATES 1., II., III. 


Illustrative of Captain Maury’s paper on the Climate of the Antarctic 
Regions, as indicated by observations upon the height of the Barometer, 
and direction of the Winds at Sea. 


PLATES IV. to VIII. 


Illustrative of the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Report on the Effects of long- 
continued Heat, illustrative of Geological Phenomena. 


4 hy 


4 
By «i 
s. ——— a 
Le 
] 


ahs | 
¥ 


i DEEL § 


yi eer 


tis 

atti 
{ 
t 
2 


Ps