Skip to main content

Full text of "Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science"

See other formats 


“ a 
ote 00 plrty thy 


a. 


Serates Sieh ee terse 
Sthigseesecs 
ptreat ayes 


3 

Behts teres 

i ie ost 
- 


3 


inate 
wleres ponte ce rect be ges 
7 eal pane: 


— 
Peaecapcre toatl 


Faastetes Senn Sel 


wv 


a “ 


7,4 


«REPORT 


THIRTY-FIRST MEETING 


ans. ar 
Ja PES 2g 
| oa 
OF THE d >) 
Giistoat 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR THE 


ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; 


HELD AT MANCHESTER IN SEPTEMBER 1861, 


LONDON: 
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
1862, 


PRINTED BY 


TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET, 


.@)) 
ALERE i FLAMMAM. 


CONTENTS. 


Ossects and Rules of the Association .........cecsesscecessessceceecescne 
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement. .........+++e++008 
Treasurer's Account 

Table of Council from commencement .........csccceceececseecesceecenees 


Page 
Xvi 


xX 


XXiV 
XXV 


MPESEIUURG ONUGIL  <,ssceccsdstics doc ccevcc cons cunecsecgescdsasdisaltscedssee XKVIL 


Officers of Sectional Committees 
Corresponding Members.. sep toeseecepecacees 
Report of the Council to ce Genes Genuine 6 


XXIX 
XXX 
XXxi 


ETRE LEW CCOMMICEE’ <5 -ccasceccensesee~auuisacapn sepsceevacss) XRMILL 


Report of the Parliamentary Committee..............c.sesccenescersecseeee XXKIX 


Recommendations for Additional hehe a ede eee in ae XXXix 


Synopsis of Money Grants . o Seagate Sb <p ep 

General Statement of Sums a ro Scientific Parhised FL Ree 
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee ..............6008 
Arrangement of the General Meetings .....2.......cssecceecoesceeceaceses 
SE CRS TMOG 655504 «cre veisensst deems reidewkideanld Reesners de: epee 


REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. 


Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1860-61. By a Com- 
mittee, consisting of James GLAIsHER, Esq., F.R.S., of the Royal 
Observatory, Greenwich, Secretary to the British Meteorological 
Society, &c.; J. H. Guapstone, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. &c.; R. P. 
ae ae F.G.S. &c.; and E. J. Laney Esq, F.R.A.S., M.B.M.S. 


as on Ae ubiop of Brae Diet are, Scie aioe aa on athe Bodily 
Functions of Prisoners.—Part I. By Epwarp Suiru, M.D., LL.B., 
F.R.S., Assistant Physician to the Hospital for Consumption, Tega 
ton; ade W. R. Mityer, M.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Convict ete 
Wakeficld. With Appendices. .. és 


Freight as affected by Differences in stihe is namic pene of Jam 
ships. By CHarLves AtuErton, Chief Engineer, H.M. Dockyard, 
IG De 3/25 best AER Uae HOMIES) VLAD. ILIAD cabal is 

Report on the Progress of Celestial ens since the Aberdeen 
Meeting. By Warren Dr LA Rug, F.R.S... Tere 


xlili 

xlv 
xlix 
xlix 


li 


82 


94 


iv CONTENTS. 


On the Theory of Exchanges, and its recent extension. si BALFOUR 
Srewart, A.M seeeies 3 


On the Recent Progress and Preeke Coniitean of Muaielurine Che- 
mistry in the South Lancashire District. a Drs. E. SciruxcK, 
R. Aneus SmituH, and H. E. Roscoe ......... 


On Ethno-Climatology; or, the Acclimatization of a! ae Janeen 
Hunt, Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.S.L., Foreign Associate of the Anthropolo- 
gical Society of Paris, Honorary Secretary of the Ethnological Society 
OEMGMUON, casiesces anecnswon se saunas vacencussicss ess cus sdeusonsn cas vosses buneewives 


On Experiments on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches.. By 
James Tuomson, M.A., Professor of Civil Engineering, .Queen’s 
Wollere,, Beliast 2. occ scccexdensens 


Report on Field Experiments and siiaiatee y Researches on the Con- 
stituents of Manures essential to cultivated Crops. el Dr. AUGUSTUS 
VorEtcKER, Royal Agricultural College, Cireucester.. 


Provisional Report on the Present State of our Baca seen 
the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea. By Henry 
Hennessy, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Catholic 
University of Ireland ...........cesecseesescseccsc concen sscconsnecesensceesoe nes 


Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds of the 
Genus Apteryx living in New Zealand. By ‘Puitip Luriey Scia- 
TER and FERDINAND VON HOCHSTETTER .......0.cesceeceeceesee ceccacecs 


Report of the Results of Deep-sea Dredging in Zetland; with a Notice 
of several Species of Mollusca new to Science or to the British Isles. 
By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.R.S., F.G.S.. 


Contributions to a Report on the Physical sheet of he ter By 
J. Puttxires, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Geology, Oxford . 


Contribution to a yaa on the aie sical rally of the Moon. ai Ws 
R. Birt, F.R.A.S. . se 3 


Preliminary Report of the nese Committee for the se Mere and Dee. 
By Dr. Cotttncwoop and Mr. ByerLey.. ned seasectharaeeeeelts 


Third Report of the Committee on Stedna-ahip F Performance.......+...000 


Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of Preventing the Ravages of 
Teredo and other Animals in our Ships and Harbours. By J. Gwyn 
JERE REWS yee: GEUGaSs GUas.cvbs ledaidselbaaiates oblésh Wai becbes~cn's alleen eaeee 


Report of the Experiments made at Holyhead (North Wales) to ascer- 
tain the Transit-Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, 
through the local Rock Formations: by command of the Royal Society 
and of the British Association for the ee of Science. ‘se 
Rosert Mattet, C.E., F.R.S. 


On the Explosions in British Coal-Mines se dios the year 1859. By 
Tuomas mei B.A., Head Master of the School alice “ Con- 
way, Liverpool .. Beet iclatinacloanekeseuccmpcnsns sseegs ee 


Continuation of La a on Steam ee cone at Hull. By JAmeEs 
Oxpuam, C.E., Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers......... 


Brief Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland. es 
Professor G. Dickie, M.D... eee Heh at ae wgaeeaee 


Page 


hbk 


176 


200 


. 201 


o- 


£323 


CONTENTS. 


On the Psychical and Physical Characters of the Mincopies, or Natives 
of the Andaman Islands, and on the Relations thereby indicated to 
other Races of Mankind. By Professor Owen, F.R.S. &c. 


Report from the Balloon Committee. By Colonel Syxes, M.P., F.R.S. 


Report on the Repetition of the Magnetic Survey of England, made at 
the request of the General Committee of the British Association. 
By a ErwArb cpt R.A., President of the pinto 
BEOERCEY SS icccuncce ses s 


Interim Report of the enna for Dredging 0 on wie North a East 
Coasts of Scotland.. wisi 


On the Resistance of Hos ‘Plates t to , ‘Statical’ Pranuve aa fave come of 
Impact by Projectiles at High Velocities. By W1LLIAM ee 
Esq., LL.D., F.R.S. &c., President of the Association .......... 


Continuation of Report to determine the Effect of Vibratory Action fae 
long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders. By 
WiLtram Fainparny, amy LL.D., F.R.S., &c., President of the 
Association. sseialarapebictesis/ahip ce's si'elo 


Report of the cictseied on via Rane of Pies a habe cries depesldseh ob.adhiak 


Report on the Theory of Numbers.—Part III. By H. J. Sreruen 
Smitu, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the Uni- 
Mereteyral Oxford ts... cctase sce ascess’ Eveseeadvenueivempncatcececatscsae decker 


292 


v1 CONTENTS. 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS 


OF 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. 


MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 


MatTHEMATICS. 
Page 
Address by G. B. Arry, Astronomer Royal, President of the Section ............ 1 
Mr; A. Cayvnex ion: Curves ofthe Third Order <5.....2s0cesceocsst>ssecee ser eesmeaede 2 
Mr. Tuomas Dosson on the General Forms of the Symmetrical Properties of 
Platic mUMANPICS eucsheseadtecse sek hes seaanetcoes anicasennseeccntes re smcneanr eee ont saa cunenene 2 
C. F. Exman’s Inquiry into the Fundamental Principles of Algebra, chiefly 
with regard to Negative and Imaginary Quantities.......sssesssseesereeeeees veces 4 
M. Brerens ve Haan on Definite Integrals .............4. Goa sce seatocey sous uer ements 4 
Sir W. R. Hamitton on Geometrical Rests in Space ...sececercecscseeeeseceeesecee 4 
Rev. T. P. KirkMAN on the Roots of Substitutions ..........cssscecesececeeeseeeees 4 
Professor Pricsr on the Influence of the Rotation of the Earth on the Apparent 
PauhvolvayElcavysbaritCle sc cedececcascnusceeacresSesnavcccssesessoccvieses aucesearctasenres 6 
Mr. W. H. L. Russet on the Calculus of Functions, with Remarks on the 
sD liconyao tm leCtiiCliyioscsscanscmeseecseaaesawseenvavesaneacrenses/sesdccceaueassaedenemnes 9 
Mr. Witu1am Sportiswoope on Petzval’s Asymptotic Method of solving Dif- 
PEN ENE tel SEG UAMOMS centers ccsechsicccaseensaracacssesashonessoncee=aatbensevarenpeee=eeuce 10 
on the Reduction cf the decadic Binary Quantic 
conte CanonicalyHOUmll.dccscasee-cessasavacessdsavyseceecheaescavees ous sapensavecermereers 11 
Professor SyLvEsTER on the Involution of Axes of Rotation .........sscsseeeeeeees 12 
ASTRONOMY. 
ViswIN ee punirek Oa tHe CANIM ANAG leenacspisessensusaccscasnstnh=satsucsianseseSalsaessanrs sox ip ehe 
The AstRoNoMER Royav’s Remarks on Dr. Hincks’s Paper on the Acceleration 
of the Moon’s Mean Motion as indicated by the Records of Ancient Eclipses 12 
Mr. J. 8. Sruarr Guenniz on the Resistance of the Ether to the Comets and 
Planets, andvonithe) Rotationof the latter .s....00s ssss-+:scsccecscovncesecssmeseenced 13 
Mr. R. P. Gree on M. Haidinger’s Communication on the Origin and Fall 
of Aérolites ......02000...... apaopoce ner Seeeemeninncinesiesscsiasesssoncswecsnasnaeseteeeeenmes 13 
M. W. Haipincer’s attempt to account for the Physical Condition and the 
Fall of Meteorites upon our Planet .........-....4. SoventecuceSousscccesiesemtummneeees 15 
- Rev. Epwarp Hincxs on the Quantity of the Acceleration of the Moon’s 
Mean Motion, as indicated by the Records of certain Ancient Eclipses ........ 22 
Mr. Danret Vaucuan on Cases of Planetary Instability indicated by the ap- 
pearance of Temporary Stars...... Fedteenseetbassesevan cosees € egecaasietien hanes seveeee 24 


CONTENTS. 


Puysics. 


Mr. J. S. Sruarr Guenniz on the Application of the Principle of the Conser- 
vation of Force to the mechanical explanation of the Correlation of Forces... 


Professor W.THomson’s Physical Considerations regarding the Possible Age 
UB MICROLN TS LICAL-scoesccesccccdccestvectearessrccedsseaRuecresssscrerascesevssesss ec seeeee 


Lieut, Heat. 


Sir Davip Brewster on Photographic Micrometers.........+++. andesontescssedasce 
— on the Compensation of Impressions moving over the 
PROUMAjowns eves cnavevsucdseae asus sunevatesacsvectasasdadelesddiepesos¥easer! svedeessosececcecs 
—_——— on the Optical Study of the Retina.......... “A Hoo actt Ag 

—— ——— on Binocular Lustre .,..........-sccecececsessoerseseverceserecs 


Mr. J. ALexanpER Davizs’s Observations upon the Production of Colour by 
the Prism, the Passive Mental Effect or Instinct in comprehending the En- 


largement of the Visual Angle, and other Optical Phenomena.............s00008 
Mr. Tuomas Ross on Presentations of Colour produced under novel conditions ; 
with their assumed relation to the received Theory of Light and Colour....... 
Mr. Wiri1am Tuomas Suaw’s Method of interpreting some of the Pheno- 
BUCH NMUI PLE ame ayes acd ne aneccneensae aac sniedany's sa neenecnenesenesneacn sees eceenanse> ove 
Mr. Joun Smirtu on the Chromascope, and what it reveals .........sccsecseceeeees 
on the Prism and Chromascope......ssseescssscssssseeess esseeseoe 

Mr. Tuomas Sutton on the Panoramic Lens......,.... peaencaes crn nottentecs paren 


Mr. H. H. Vivian’s Microscopic Observations on the Structure of Metals..,... 
Mr. J. J. WaLKER’s Observations on an Iris seen in Water, near Sunset....... 


> 
Evectricity, MAGNETISM. 


The AstRoNoMER Roya on Spontaneous Terrestrial Galvanic Currents ...,.. 


on the Laws of the Principal Inequalities, Solar and 
Lunar, of Terrestrial Magnetic Force in the Horizontal Plane, from obser- 
vations at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, extending from 1848 to 1857... 


Mr. Latimer Crark and Sir CHarxes Bricut on the Formation of Stand- 
ards of Electrical Quantity and Resistance......c.sesssscsoeseceronteseesccesspes hits 


Mr. J. P. Gassror on the Deposit of Metals from the Negative Terminal of an 
Induction Coil during the Electrical Discharge in Vacuo.............0.. teceanes 


Professor Hennessy on a Probable Cause of the Diurnal Variation of Magnetic 
Dip and Declination......... aeecccsenesersncees Saeear deperaeassnachaaes naa dallo poineciparaee 


Mr. FLEEMING JENKIN on Permanent Thermo-Electric Currents in Circuits of 
one Metal......... Maen aass vatnacases savannas octianmemeenone aechasaeusdatssepa piletp veh “ntens 


Rev. H. Lroyp on the Secular Changes of Terrestrial Magnetism, and their 
Connexion with Disturbances ...,........0.. savatesseeccossacsepaacis Saieearias paeaeo dae 


Mr. C. W. Siemens on an Electric Resistance Thermometer for observing 
Temperatures at inaccessible situations ......... saaseadas BoP Bec: Bae pepe delete a 


Messrs. ARCHIBALD SmiTH and F. J. Evans on the Effect produced on the 
Deviation of the Compass by the Length and Arrangement of the Compass 
Needles; and on a New Mode of Correcting the Quadrantal Deviation....... 


Mr. F. J. Evans on H.M.S. Warrior’s Compasses ........4 seth AREAS SAS eee 
Mr. B. Stewart on the Photographic Records given at the Kew Observatory 


ha the great Magnetic Storm of the end of August and beginning of Septem- 
BEL S59) vsccacdseecncnrsces ececccveccccnscocsccence wecsernccnss eeccceeee eeseascecves oe 


vil 
Page 


26 


27 


vill CONTENTS. 


Mr. G. Jounstone Stoney on the Amount of the direct Magnetic Effect of the 
Sun or Moon on Instruments at the Earth’s Surface....cccccocscsestsssseeseseees 


Mr. Cuartes Tomiinson on Lightning Figures, chiefly with reference to those 
Tree-like or Ramified Figures sometimes found on the Bodies of Men and 


Animals that have been struck by Lightning ....s...seceeeseeseees seceereseseesoees 
METEOROLOGY. 

Mr. I. Asn on the Causes of the Phenomena of Cyclones «..ccecceroecscescerees oe 

Mr. Joun Atuan Broun on the supposed Connexion between Meteorological 

Phenomena and the Variations of the Earth’s Magnetic Force....... oeseeeenes , 

Mr. Witi1am Danson on the Law of Universal Storms.......s.ecseeesseseseees ve 


Mr. Witt1aMm Fairsairn on the Temperature of the Earth’s Crust, as exhi- 
bited by Thermometrical Returns obtained during the sinking of the Deep 
WMirreta faa KINHElG vcncncnccecesd consebe ccs’ oases snecdddesscccsdeess 


Rear-Admiral FirzRoy’s Tidal Observations .....sessececeseeeeerere dodeende anbsisslavs 
Dr. J. H. Guapsrone on the Distribution of Fog around the British Isles...... 


Mr. James GuaisHer on a Deep-Sea Thermometer invented by Henry John- 
SON, Esq. ssesseceseee swele Sate R eth, coaches senae ve trabeidn ests idasn once te eeds Foddataaeacs ‘ 


on a Deep-Sea Pressure-Gauge invented by Henry John- 
Oia JOE -centec cer eee Seti eelndte dine swe venetewb once bucledevocudewseduccosadestd Meares Py 


on a Daily Weather Map; on Admiral FitzRoy’s Paper 
presented to Section A. relative to the Royal Charter Storm; and on some 
Meteorological Documents relating to Mr. Green’s Balloon Ascents.........+++ 


Mr. J. T. Gopparp on the Cloud Mirror and Sunshine Recorder ..........+e++0+ 


Professor Hennessy on the Connexion between Storms and Vertical Disturb- 
ances of the Atmosphere ..........+ BB CUS undo c CHO UCann IOS aDUne EH aagcisuneerincducech: icpaat 


Mr. Wiiu1am Hopkins on the Theories of Glacial Motion ........scescesesereneee 


Mr. W. S. Jevons on the Deficiency of Rain in an Elevated Rain-Gauge, as 
caused by Wind......sseesssesserees dbs cad feats de deeekeVab be eWardvenvvervneeitxedeenrsceine 


Mr. H. W. Craw ey on a Solar Halo observed at Sydney, Cape Breton, Nova 
Scotia, August 13, 1861 ...........e000. BPO CODE CHOCUL Sos cOnicceoe dbo -oroandkceocuacnece 


Mr. Perer J. Livsry’s Description of a Mercurial Barometer, recently invented 


by Mr. Richard Howson, Engineer of Middlesborough-on-Tees .........+.+++ 
Mr. E. J. Lowe on the Great Cold of Christmas 1860, and its destructive 
LOR nS err aad ap mm aD A dacs ae cr ean alice dat suiva teeren AAR ABER me 


Letter from Captain Maury on the importance of an Expedition to the Antarctic 
Regions, for Meteorological and other scientific purposes. (Communicated by 
the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty) .ess.ccssccssssseeseseceeeessscessusseues 


Mr. Joun E. MorGan on an Anemometer for Registering the Maximum Force 
and extreme Variation of the Wind...........+. eneobbesene poccbovesssnentenae tated eee 


Rev. T. Ranxrn’s Meteorological Observations at Huggate, Yorkshire .. 


Mr. C. W. S1emens on a Bathometer, or Instrument to indicate the Depth of 
the Sea on Board Ship without submerging a Line ............seeecceeeeeeeeeeeees 


Mr. Bacrour Stewart on a New Minimum Mercurial Thermometer proposed 
yalViiie Casella ce eseuccscccesseeesss esa scarstences eeasesecae PaBASRGARSAR SSE Biridast sens es 


Mr. G. J. Symons on British Rain-fall . 
Rey. W. Watron on some Signs of Changes of the Weather eeecoenonceone Sacqics 


Page 


47 


48 


74 
74 


CONTENTS. 
CHEMISTRY. 

Address by W. A. Mituzr, M.D., F.R.S. &c., Professor of Chemistry, King’s 
College, London .........ceecesseceeeees Annas ced se ensneg@eesecacecescas aieaelideebicndeaecees 
Professor ANDERSON on the Constitution of Paranaphthaline or Anthracene, 
and some of its Decomposition Products..........sssssssssescessecseseceteeeesens eee 
Professor ANDREWS on the Effect of Great Pressures combined with Cold on 
the Six Non-condensable Gases. ......sseceseceseeeseteencees Tol O A SEO AR He a 
Dr. Cracz Carvert on the Chemical Composition of some Woods employed 
in the Navy.........- peak ebitceeaat ccunnaseneiiolsa sess canes Saaisaelonee aaa sereene eas Sseaoce 
on the Chemical Composition of Steel ....... Seescnajane Singer 

Professor DauBeny on the Evolution of Ammonia from Volcanos .........2se++++ 
Mr. H. Deane on a particular Decomposition of Ancient Glass....... seeaantee ad 
Dr. Detrrs on Morin, and the non-existence of Morotannic acid ...... eqanevacech 
Mr. G. C. Foster on Piperic and Hydropiperic Acids...........ssscessecesecesesees 


Professor GALLoway on the Composition and Valuation of Superphosphates... 
Dr. J. H. Grapstone and Mr. G. Giapstone on an Aluminous Mineral from 


Pes Uipper Chalk nearsBrig btn we cceseresh ects seswoaeveedsacessbocestasisenaedecs Poca 
Dr. J. H. Grapsronz on the Emission and Absorption of Rays of Light b 

certain Gases....... Radenece tds dese snacsceascaneien enescaracaeeatiecs eencnSaqetascenss vee 
Mr. W. GossacE on the History of the Alkali Manufacture............sceeseseees 
Mr. J. J. Grirrin on the Construction of Gas-Burners for Chemical Use...... 
Mr. W. J. Hurst on the Sulphur Compound formed by the Action of Sulphu- 

retted Hydrogen on Formiate of Lead at a High Temperature ..........0.00e00s 


Dr. Jouie and Professor W. THomson on the Thermal Effects of Elastic Fluids 


Mr. J. B. Lawes and Dr. J. H. Girzerr on some points in connexion with 
the Exhaustion of Soils...........+se0e0s sp iirbsie vm gusiiels weed eenancie pach stecileciveeetees el 


Dr. J. H. Luoyp on Purifying Towns from Sewage by means of Dry Cloacz... 
Dr. S. Macavam on the Proportion of Tin present in Tea-Lead.......... Rodeaeede 
on the Proportion of Arsenic present in Paper-Hangings...... 
on an Economical Mode of boiling Rags, &c. with Alkaline Ley 


Mr. W. Marrrorr on the Separation of Ammonia from Coal-gas..............0. 
Mr. Joun Mercer on Madder Photographs.............+ AScnCr nigh ecueetnede Serra 
Professor W. A. Mitier on Photographic Spectra of the Electric Light ........ 
Dr. Morrar on Atmospheric Ozone ............++ deh eid Pbicta dria ihe apote veut boradteh chau : 


on Sulphuretted Hydrogen as a Product of Putrefaction............ 


Mr. Wiitram Roserts on the Solvent Power of Strong and Weak Solutions 
of the Alkaline Carbonates on Uric Acid Calculi..............006 sooaket Abdevssaesce 


Professor Roscok on Perchloric Acid and its Hydrates............ccseece0s faaserves 
Drs. Russevt and MarruressEN on Vesicular Structure in Copper..........0+++ 


Dr. Swiru (of Sydney) on certain Difficulties in the way of separating Gold 
RPMI AGU AMeeerdcnscdreccoecettcans Carastsesdeserttaneactatees eos estes ScAnaoeeBhandastte 


Professor TENNANT on a Specimen of Meteoric Iron from Mexico .......... tesece 
Mr. Cuartes Tomiinson on the Cohesion-Figures of Liquids ............s00se008 


Dr. Voetcker on the Composition of Crystallized Moroxite, from Jumillo, 
near Alicante .........0. siisiebtemenuaiducuting cde tices eaese prclevececteras sh ctracmeeriecsecnseee 


Dr. Watvace on the Composition and Properties of the Water of Loch Katrine, 
araupylien! Mi GlassOW ve.cacesscsstavenssccrtcecsecccectnconeaees SLOoopuckicchcanesemanisan 


ix 


Page 


75 
76 
76 


ye 
17 
77 
78 
78 
78 
79 


79 


79 
80 
81 


82 
83 


84 
85 
85 
86 
86 
86 
87 
87 
88 
89 


90 
91 
92 


92 
93 
93 


93 


94 


x CONTENTS. 


Drs. WiLtrAmson and Russet on an Apparatus for the rapid Separation and 
Measurement of Gases..........ceccseseescscsecesssnvecs saclcantdssensiaveseeaeasteaceaacise 


GEOLOGY. 


Address by Sir Ropertcx Impzy Murcutson, President of the Section........ 


Mr. W. H. Barty’s Paleontological Remarks upon the Silurian Rocks of Ire- 
TAG Lt See SeacBoneasadhootoe Soden daedt dodacei serindaHan auaunBoSbovoeScadanriscsoSIgdnclonaend 


Mr. T. W. Barrow’s Remarks on the Bone-caves of Craven .....sssceeescsceceeee 


Mr. E. W. Brnney’s succinct account of the Geological Features of the neigh- 
bourhood of Manchester.......scscscsesescncnencecesesecsseeetececersccsesesetes apnea 


Mr. J. Bonwick on the Extinct Volcanos of Australia .........sseeseceseresnceee eee 
Mr. Antonio Brapy on some Flint Instruments, &c. exhibited to the Meeting 
Mr. AtexanperR Bryson on the Aqueous Origin of Granite............seseseseeee 


Rev. C. R. Gorpon on the Laws discoverable as to the Formation of Land on 
BhewGl Gberasee eee sate ie sea etebosaics aeidaas caisloaab ra cesleeculen chinesaaaeeccecseusmas anaeecetns 


Mr. C. Goutp on the Results of the Geological Survey of Tasmania............. 
Mr. A. H. Green on the Faults of a portion of the Lancashire Coal-field...... 
Dr. Hacen’s Comparison of Fossil Insects of England and Bavaria...... =SASSHee 
Professor Harkness on the Old Red Sandstone of South Perthshire ............ 


—______——— on the Sandstones and their associated Deposits of the 
Valley of the Eden and the Cumberland Plain.............+.4.. ae one niaeetaeeeeenen 


Mr. D. Mitne Home’s Notice of Elongated Ridges of Drift, common in the 
Southiof Scotland: called ‘* Keainis’ setae os. cds sci ec ebeneceveles seca sueattecteemeee 


Mr. Epwarp Hutt on Isomeric Lines, and the relative Distribution of the 
Calcareous and Sedimentary Strata of the Carboniferous Group of Britain... 


Professor Jukes on the Progress of the Survey in Ireland.............s.scceseeeeeee 


Mr. J. G. Marsuatt on the Relation of the Eskdale Granite at Bootle to the 
Schistose Rocks, with Remarks on the General Metamorphic Origin of 


Granitermee anc owes ss ceseeuestecouseassccesncsasnscns ssce Bonen Pes loss ecremeeee advvetantenasse 
Mr. Greorce H. Morton on the Pleistocene Deposits of the District around 
Liverpool.....cecoscsseosessonceecaseeeuss sesiecaisse(nasccrweamne saevessosenacersse esesvecenent 


Mr. C. Moors’s Notes on two Ichthyosauri to be exhibited to the Meeting.... 


Information from Professor Haidinger respecting the Present State of the Im- 
perial Geological Institution of Vienna. (Communicated by Sir R. I. Mur- 
CHISON) .osscccncccveccccctccsesncscscevcccsansses Shasisleias Sieiisinioaiennenwelpeaconsanveenns see 

Maps and Sections recently published by the Geological Survey, exhibited by 
Sins Wi ROBESON: sec ecceccssnbeciees os senieiennenclecjepn~aesaaceesinnsnnssacpasuhteaa sel 

Professor OwEN on a Dinosaurian Reptile (Scelidosaurus Harrisoni) from the 
Nuowenrslias Of CHapmOut hear seescssratesesaseasms'ocssiscnsensneacisienes Rov one seme 

——— on the Remains of a Plesiosaurian Reptile (Plesiosaurus Aus- 
tralis) from the Oolitic Formation in the Middle Island of New Zealand..... 


Mr. W. Patrerson on certain Markings in Sandstones.,....+...seseeeees saneee a 


Mr. W. PENGELLY on a new Bone-cave at Brixham...... Pere Pre: ees 


on the Recent Encroachments of the Sea on the Shores of 
Torbay ......ccccsesescceecssroscscccrccetncscstneecrsscecscsasanascsseaseecessaasses eocnseces 


on the Relative Age of the Petherwin and Barnstaple Beds. 
on the Age of the Granites of Dartmoor ......... essesererseeess 


Page 
95 


123 


124 
124 
127 


CONTENTS. 
Pruressor Putixirps’s Notice of the Post-glacial Gravels of the Valley of the 
PRTC eae ceca tsccete crease Medessethendandssecccndsodmtescseacsatctee Raa bintitiice watlewsttcs 
Mr. T. A. Reapwin on the Gold of North Wales..............scscsessesececcccseecs 
Mr. Ricuarpson on the Details of the Carboniferous Limestone, as laid open 
by the Railway Cutting and Tunnel near Almondsbury, north of Bristol...... 
Mr. J. W. Satter on the Nature of Sigillarie, and on the Bivalve Shells of 
GHC MOOeliorintaatnee seers octccecnlecl sselesmucicesscesecnal dees some teen seam te ess cueacaracnlsiek 
Mr. R. H. Scorr on the Granitic Rocks of Donegal, and the Minerals asso- 
NTP MUCK WIEN seco css ceoestswbanos dunt aad qccenae ns adenisontg sweat esteth as eveseb sees 
Mr. Harry Seevey on the Elsworth Rock, and the Clay above it ............+6 
Rev. W. S. Symonps on some Phenomena connected with the Drifts of the 
MEVELESAVOD) NMINE) AMC NUISKS \) iiesaviensaa\tclsavesisoppactesiive tite sa sete ter sebsciie fals 
Professor VAUGHAN on Subterranean Movements .........ssscececseecevesseteeeenees 
Mr. W. WurncoppP on the Red Crag Deposits of the County of Suffolk, con- 
sidered in relation to the finding of Celts, in France and England, in the 
rift OL then EOst-PliocanerEEriOd)s. soweank acdccsecadevnscldasetovscacecduendasaneseuniase 
Messrs. J. T. Witk1nson and J. WuHiTaxker on the Burnley Coal-field and 
BRNO SS OOUCEN Sit. asasqetdt «nema fon dulnismcnslss's/o' ssisen signe enascaspies ce vanes esses 
Mr. A. B. Wynne on the Geology of Knockshigowna in Tipperary, Ireland... 
Mr. J. Yates on the Excess of Water in the Region of the Earth about New 
edad emits CAUSES AUG BIMCCES ececesecnescacsssdtesshaasheodsccve decd seseaevenscnsese 
BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY, incitupinc PHYSIOLOGY. 

Remarks by Professor BaprnGTon (Chairman) ........seeeseseee adult ainsieeplemleceias 
Dr. T. Atcocx on some Points in the Anatomy of Cypr@a ......escscsesseeesecees 
Dr. Puirie P. Carpenter on the Cosmopolitan Operations of the Smith- 
BUNA TETBEHE ILD CLON o./nneacawvateversepectes suse deianc sasidubs viele uocuvoss evewsbasvacackoes 
on the Variations of Tecturella grandis............ see 

Dr. Joun Crevanp on the Anatomy of Orthagoriscus Mola, the short Sunfish 
Mr. Curnsert Coriincwoon’s Scheme to induce the Mercantile Marine to 
assist in the Advancement of Science by the intelligent Collection of Objects 
of Natural History frem all parts of the Globe ..........ccscccecescscececsceeeusees 
Mr. J. Cousurn on the Culture of the Vine in the Open Air...........ceeceeeees 
Mr. W. Danson on Barragudo Cotton from the Plains of the Amazon, and on 
the Flax-fibre Cotton of North America...........s.seceees aitdaaeee vee onboured ase 
Professor DausEny on the Functions discharged by the Roots of Plants; and 
on a Violet peculiar to the Calamine Rocks in the neighbourhood of Aix-la- 
ROEM G eettaaeedceeaetsteenssemucldhoceseenedcentacas Madedaigncsanedewsstns ter cetosuee taceews eee 
—--——- on the Influence exerted by Light on the Function of 
LANES sctslaeiee'aleatlet vse's'sesivesteatvetettdss Sguanstetcncacdser soadtiacawecseaunacawcecaenenccae Ba eeise 
Mr. H. Fawcerr on the Method of Mr. Darwin in his Treatise on the Origin 
EP SPECIES sa se a csnu elie dustin states cacae salar madatindeaht »eadueasaesattenee deeendeuemeeveestkis 
Mr. Georce D. Grss on the Arrest of Puparial Metamorphosis of Vanessa 
Antiopa or Camberwell Beauty.........sscecsscecssceeeees de aeanApasistesendnieemedens 
Dr. J. E. Gray on the Height of the Gorilla ............e0008 Spaesteee Sek getans alee 
Mr. H. L. Grinpon on the Flora of Manchester .........sssesseeeseseoee See Asin 
Rey. H. H. Hieerns on the Arrangement of Hardy Herbaceous Plants adopted 
in the Botanic Gardens, Liverpool......... iawn ghiuaiaa easteetaetne de austin déawaenie seers 


xl 
Page 


137 
137 


137 
137 
138 


138 
140 


140 


141 


Xli CONTENTS. 


Rey. T. Hrncxks on the Development of the Hydroid Polyps, Clavatella and 
Stauridia, with Remarks on the Relation between the Polyp and its Medu- 


soid, and between the Polyp and the Medusa ........sssecssssseeccssacssscscccceese 
— on the Ovicells of the Polyzoa, with reference to the views of 
IPEOLeERSO}, EVURICY, « ncacanesade sense secencar sass sareeandes¥etencsinnacasee¥atenucsdactes +5 
Rey. A. KR. HoGAn, on, Daphnia Schappert rc. vwsiscasscasnessneesssenc0scescanacsusee¥ue~ 
Mr. J. Gwyn Jerrreys on an Abnormal Form of Cyathina Smithiiess....-++0++: 
Dr. JEssen on the Absorbing Power of the Roots of Plants ....-.seessseseeeeees eee 
Mr. Maxwett T. Masters on the Relation between Pinnate and Palmate 
CAVES /sy0.cenevscue esses BOP OECLOCPELECK Oe OG CDCR ROS CEKEe oT ede edaseaees 
Mr. J. M. Mircuett on the Migration of the Herring...........ccscseseeeeeeeeees - 
Rey. ALrrep Meriter Norman on the Crustacea, Echinodermata, and Zoo- 
phytes obtained in Deep-sea Dredging off the Shetland Isles in 1861.......... 


Professor OwxNn on the Cervical and Lumbar Vertebre of the Mole (Tulpa 
FHUMOP CO, U2) gnitalsndacasiold« vo'eWeineeis «side a/sitis viele osa\eadiesielashrs viv sls aaiglaoderese¥¥euh bogs eas 


on some Objects of Natural History from the Collection of 
PY Tep Unt ist ttonee divaae’s oiesienebe siamo nes paste ddesPe eda vedeue Mega demen kent ve eee genes 


Statistics of the Herring Fishing. (Communicated by Mr. C. W. Pracn)...... 


Dr. P. L. Scrater’s Remarks on the late Increase of our Knowledge of the 
SSIRUL DU OUSENMEOS © adeipcce nesta «noha 0c exe as de vetiduwe acing ow sbynuidh ce seas wacker 


Mr. H. T. Stainton on a New Mining Larva, recently discovered ...........s00« 


Mr. A. STANSFIELD on Varieties of Blechnum Spicané collected in 1860 and 
Mia eamecawaties'snsatenecesdewccwlde ccs ctl cues dcendesteanenemsesccetetcas sabeeties teas esata samen 


Professor WyviLLE Tuomson’s Observations on the Development of Synapta 


MITETONS oc Come ea cago kdode cava de eudcccccuceCoweneqhotanartte neacssnwee casoetectieroneeee geaane 

Mr. Turren West on some Points of Interest in the Structure and Habits of 

Spiders.....seereeee Guedeescecevucveutucuscustestetendseasvereress esecuaneesaenentenvense cees 
PHyYsIoLoey, 


Professor Lrionet S. BEALE on the Structure and Growth of the Elementary 
Parts (Gells). of hiving Beitigs st sca. .da<ctvecvetevctessdyddecseetaeset at eekcea see tee 


Dr. Joun CLELAND on a Method of Craniometry, with Observations on the 
Warieties of Pornt of the Human SRW So. ccnscecanstervvnecessedaserentas-+sseters 


Dr. Joun Davy on the Action of Lime on Animal and Vegetable Substances .. 
on the Blood of the Common Earthworm .............sseeeseeeses 


on the Question whether the Hair is subject or not to a sud- 
menuChanee Of COlOUL .. vc cccsssecse-tcenscneneceaeeed mine sus fainie Sasewensineey en seen engias 


Mr. R. Garner’s Observations on the Encephalon of Mammalia .............+0+ 


Mr. Arspany Hancock on certain points in the Anatomy and Physiology of 
therDibranchiate Cephalopoda. .........cascecsatananankeoscseuaces@hearge hess teen 


Professor, divRtu.on,Neryes without Kind {...Agetaylesneoss ac sucteedes cpecven seen tere 
on the Pneumatic Processes of the Occipital Bone...........060 
on Portions of Lungs without Blood-vessels..........scsceeeerss 


Dr. Cuartes Kipp on Chloroform Accidents, and some new Physiological 
Facts as to their Explanation and Removal .,..........cecccsecesscesseesececesesvecs 


Dr. J. D. Moret on the Physical and Physiological Processes involved in 
MICHSA HON iwanGiemepide deltemon daanetep <oapet $4.08 «)xestase dagtja’s «#h aide ceulephaqeatyh egeeeshe are 


Dr. Movarr on Prison Dietary in India........c..-cccceceeeeeeennes deer everest ranvaees 


Page 


145 


145 
146 
146 
147 


148 
149 


151 
152 


155 
156 


158 
159 


159 
162 


162 


164 


164 
165 
165 


166 
166 


166 
167 
167 
167 


167 


168 
170 


CONTENTS. xiii 


Professor H. Mixxer on the Existence and Arrangement of the Fovea Centra- 
lis Retin in the Eyes of Animals........ececsessses By sie csicigaslouaeemon tec caGee vsasiea. 171 


Professor Remax on the Influence of the Sympathetic Nerve on Voluntary 
Muscles, as witnessed in the Treatment of Progressive Muscular Atrophy by 


DPEGMMALY WNCCEIC OUFFCNES sere cec= as ccovenestssecseMMbens ss seevevecases ices scetneds cece 171 

Dr. B. W. RicHarpson’s Physiological Researches on the Artificial Produc- 
PSN GMO AL ATAU Grew items = oa aneaeue hire cr pa adss scnuessheaepsarsacedsh fandasspee ces aeaay salaries 171 
Physiological Researches on Resuscitation ........... 172 

Mr. Cuartes Ropertson on the Cervical and Occipital Vertebrz of Osseous 
APES REMPE ade ee Os ats cc ko iet «cose ek neces ett cee aeeeeec ences qateesetts anceucetebets osteceecees 172 

Dr. Grorcr Rosginson on the Connexion between the Functions of Respira- 
ETIMRAMAE DULCE 1 ON .na05acwinesnasessisels odiheindas dagitn, <ldele Munuatsance eeee dk oaniges deat 173 
Professor RoLLeston on the Anatomy of Pteropus......csccesecscsecsceteeseereenee 173 
on some Points in the Anatomy of Insectivora ..........+++ 173 


on the Homologies of the Lobes of the Liverin Mammalia 174 
Dr. Epwarp Smit on the Influence of the Season of the Year on the Human 


S PeUEULIcdecereadteranaaccn, Bamoeon.n ohe HoneibSu Stag oaDAner Bas - cco ecdt oto -punrreonscanebac 175 
Mr. J. Toynsee on the Action of the Eustachian Tube in Man, as demonstrated 

Pye WEE ONtZBY RYOULOSE OPE tsa duceinecs asia ch detctecdes sasaces sop ehiscecaskucsesteckssevaease 176 
Dr. J. TurnBuu on the Physiological and Medicinal Properties of Sulphate 

of Aniline, and its Use in the Treatment of Chorea......ssesse0e ea detacwenee 177 


GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. 


Opening Address by Mr. Joun Crawrurp, President of the Section, on the 


Connexion between Ethnology and Physical Geography ............c00000s sanede LY. 
Mr. R. Atcocx’s Journey in the Interior of Japan, with the Ascent of Fusi- 

YAMA... es eseveeceveeeeeeees So oesnsaseerecsecccsascesdessiscecsctecnerecelectsesccctevessecsens 183 
Hon. J.Baxer on Australia, including the Recent Explorations of Mr. Macdonald 

SUT Gad ceo coo AIR OAO CEE COAG AEROS IeOC PRU btNuse seca srensemseat scoupaecueearan lnc 184 


Dr. Cuartes T. Bexe on the Mountains forming the Eastern side of the Basin 
of the Nile, and the Origin of the Designation ‘ Mountains of the Moon,’ as 
BIH IEO EO AICI Lancet aaarepaans tunes tepid Seich ve se apaie<aaiou.e} oat cpareinds epee sb ce'sriele ti 184 


’s Notice of a Volcanic Eruption on the Cuast of Abessinia. 186 


Admiral Sir E. BetcnHer’s Remarks on the Glacial Movements noticed in the 


Vicinity of Mount St. Elias, on the North-west-Coast of America ..........++ 186 
Extracts from a Letter written by R. Bripez to W. Botuaert on the Great 

Earthquake at Mendoza, 20th March, 1861 ..........ccsescesscscscsscaterseeesesace 187 
Mr. P.O’Catiacuan on the Cromleachs and Rocking-stones considered Ethno- 

TOPICAL ys. sseeacneaessaees ed cape piacaah days deuiasasiioetcaace nas ds cis dosehlaw'Sdepinias easinaslees'eac 187 
Captain CamEron’s Notices on the Ethnology, Geography, and Commerce of 

BBE CAUCASIAN. is. sisniiee ¢rioslasas do ascivess) rae peal cinae ies aie eels pablaslapeneptes sweee 189 
Mr. P. B. Du Cuaitiu on the Geography and Natural History of Western 

Equatorial Africa ..........cccecee0 Maeteaisieetsccivas ish isbacmslelymaciecaiasesGapansinasacs Reece 189 


on the People of Western Equatorial Africa............. 190 
Mr. Joun Crawrurp on the Antiquity of Man, from the Evidence of Language 191 
Mr, R. Cutt on the Antiquity of the Aryan Languages ......ssscesseceseeeeeeeees 193 
Mr. L. Daa on the Ethnology of Finnmark, in Norway...........6 CRT A ER 193 
Mr. Henry Duckworru on a New Commercial Route to China.........+00e0000+ 194 


Xiv CONTENTS. 


Dr. James Hector on the Capabilities for Settlement of the Central Parts of 
British North America.........ccccscsccescesseres eseengere cara sven naWavcasss= tedteeenten 


Rev. A. Hume on the Relations of the Population in Ireland, as shown by the 
Statistics of Religious Belief...............cseeeeeee spacenase ead nent ee eiatemeaeeeiaee 


A Letter from Sir Hercules Robinson, Governor of Hongkong, relating to the 
Journey of Major Sarel, Capt. Blakiston, Dr. Barton, and another, who are 
endeavouring to pass from China to the North of India. (Communicated by 
Sir R. [. MURCHISON) f.cesiecesescdeeve cccscadssccvcnssccscsedeovevessersecseesees see 


Substance of a Letter from the Colonial Office, on the Exploration of N.W. 
Australia, under Mr. Gregory. (Communicated by Sir R. I. Murcuison)... 


Mr. Joun Ramsay’s Remarks on the Proposal to form a Ship Canal between 
East and West Loch Tarbert, Argyllshire .......sscecssesecsssesseresseeecereresecees 


Sir Henry C. Rawiinson on the Direct Overland Telegraph from Constanti- 
Nople to Kurrachee........s.cccsccseccsserecccnrscecscepeepesscescccssecseccececsasacocnse 


Colonel SHarFrner on the Spitzbergen Current, and Active and Extinct Glaciers 
in South Greenland.........csccccssccsscccrersceccscenessccrccsscsccsccosacosconecssaces eee 


Mr. B. C. Smarr on the English Gipsies and their Dialect ...........sssseeeeeeees 


Captain W. P. Snow on the Geographical Science of Arctic Explorations, and 
the advantage of Continuing it .........seseseececeesceceesepeeescecssecneecessstensncase 


Mr. H. Wise’s Remarks on a Proposed Railway across the Malay Peninsula.. 
Dr. R. Wottaston’s Account of the Romans in Britain .........eeseseeseeeeeeeees 


STATISTICAL SCIENCE. 


Address of Witt1am Newmancu, F.R.S., President of the Section ..........+4. 
Mr. Henry AsHwortH on Capital Punishments and their Influence on Crime 


—______———— on the Progress of Science and Art as developed in the 
Bleaching of Cotton at Bolton ........ssscsesessecsceescnrcccssescserssesscsseccosteses 


Mr. R. H. Baxewe tt on the Influence of Density of Population on the Fecun- 
dity of Marriages in England ..........ceseccsescscerecetscncsessetrsccecssnscsscsresecs 


Mr. Toomas Bazury’s Glance at the Cotton Trade .........scccccccccsvcsscneccnsse 


Rev. W. Carne on Ten Years’ Statistics of the Mortality amongst the Orphan 
Children taken under the Care of the Dublin Protestant Orphan Societies ... 


Mr. Davip Cuapwick on the Progress of Manchester from 1840 to 1860...... 
Dr. W. CrarKkeE on a Revision of National Taxation......sscssssescscerecnceseeeves 


Mr. J. T. Danson on the Growth of the Human Body in Height and Weight 
int} Malesifrom)17.to. 300Years of Agett t...cbsececssccecy ode Soetusevacnedarenacmeens 


Mr. Wirii1am Danson’s Observations on the Manufacture of the Human Hair, 
as an Article of Consumption and General Use...........sscecsssersenseecseeeerens 


Captain Donne tty on the Aid now granted by the State towards the instruction 
of the Industrial Classes in Elementary Science—its Nature and Results .... 


Dr. W. Farr on the Recent Improvements in the Health of the British Army. 
Mrs: Prison’ on Sanitary Improvements)...c+.c5+s-<.s0+...0ccssecastocereseesreomeeenbens 


Mr. James T. Hammick on the General Results of the Census of the United 
Kingdom in 1861...... cnaiessosnsecceeeeecerescvacsraecsesceecssasede st spe neameammmees 


Mr. J. Heywoop on the Inspection of Endowed Educational Instilutions...... 


Rev. A. Hume on the Condition of National Schools in Liverpool as compared 
With) thes Populations. VSG lieseedees. sce <b escavestniac2a, Mtawseydee Leics cascls dbian ot antab ape 


Mr. C. E. Macqueen on the True Principles of Taxation .....cscceecseeee Seseedone 


Page 


195 


196 


209 
216 


216 


217 


223 
225 


CONTENTS. 


Rev. W. N. Moxeswortu on the Progress of Cooperation at Rochdale......... 


Alderman Nerxp on the Price of Printing Cloth and Upland Cotton from 1812 
to 1860 ...... eoewa. cevarcuccccccescccccsccccecececouesecdvedssscesecscese Seovecccccevecccce 


Mr. W. Newmarcu on the Extent to which Sound Principles of Taxation are 
embodied in the Legislation of the United Kingdom..............scesseseseeeseres 


Mr. Epmunp Porrer on Cooperation and its Tendencies..........sesseeeeseseeeees 


Mr. Frepericx Purpy on the Relative Pauperism of England, Scotland, and 
MB eMLS ONT SUOL sccsescees coceactaciscvtesccscesesscscacescsscncectheriederecn aces ss ab ba 


Mr. E. J. Reep on the Iron-cased Ships of the British Navy ..........seseeeseees 
Rev. Canon Ricuson on the [ncome-Tax .......csesssssssverecceecsscsecencesseescscees 
Professor J. E. T. Rogers, Can Patents be defended on Economical Grounds? 

on the Definition and Incidence of Taxation......... 
Mr. Joun SHurrLeworru’s Account of the Manchester Gasworks......... snes 


Dr. Joun Srrane on the Altered Condition of the Embroidery Manufacture 
of Scotland and Ireland since 1857 ..... seccscecs pecenasrrcc=ans sfandencbenece wopetrless 


——____—————- on the Comparative Progress of the English and Scottish 
Population as shown by the Census Of 1861........2..sessesseceeeecseevsctereeeees 


Colonel Syxes’s Notes on the Progress and Prospects of the Trade of England 
Sen MIN ASIC Sd orenarcanewercens as tepes sans cc csacensyenatsevecdedcacdadsassces seis 


Mr. Cuartes THompson on some Exceptional Articles of Commerce and Un- 


desirable Sources of Revenue ........ssssescecserscescscscseens 2 JOSPSESeE ceanabeeronase 
Rey. W. R. THorsurn on Cooperative Stores ; their Bearing on Atheneums, &c. 
Miss Twinine on the Employment of Women in Workhouses.......... “pon ee 
Dr. J. Watts on Strikes .......+0008. SESE OOS HOO OJODULGQaS naga cap OCedECaDCaRMEeEaGrern sc 


MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


Address of J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S., President of the Section............. “5 
Sir W. G. Armstrone on the Patent Laws .............04 cdovowectvcterstobeven sees 
Dr. G. Arnort on Railway Accidents, from Trains running off the Rails ...... 
Mr. T. Aston on Elongated Projectiles for Rifled Fire-arms............:sseeseesees 
Mr. J. F. Bareman on Street-Pipe Arrangements for Extinguishing Fires...... 
Mr. Epwarp T. BeLiyousse on the Applications of the Hydraulic Press........ 
Captain Braxexy on Artillery versus ArMOUr .........eccsceescoscceceecetececeevenes 
Mr. Davip Cuapwick on Recent Improvements in Cotton-Gins ..............0. 


Dr. Eppy’s Proposal for a Class of Gunboats capable of engaging Armour- 
plated Ships at Sea, accompanied with Suggestions for fastening on Armour- 


1" UE ES Sos cada coadadnes Une Cn AB EC As BRECBOCTRCE ECC tCCoREE ECR ace toc AEE ena ae epee . 
Mr. Peter Errertz on a Brick-making Machine.............sesceseceseseacscseeeees 
Mr. Joun Haworrua on a Perambulator and Street Railway ..............6. Areas 
Mr. Anprew Henverson on the Rise and Progress of Clipper and Steam 

Navigation on the Coasts and Rivers of China and India ..............00. eters 
Mr. James Hicern on a Sledge Railway Break............sseseseens sadey pula wit riaeieide 


Colonel Sir Henry James on Photozincography, by means of which Photo- 
graphic Copies of the Ordnance Maps are chiefly multiplied, either on their 
original or on a reduced or enlarged scale .........csscsecseeeccesceccavenseevsences 


Mr, W. B. Jounson on the Application of the Direct-Action Principle ......... 


XV 
Page 
225 


229 


230 
230 


243 


246 


247 
248 
248 
249 


250 
252 
252 


263 
263 


XVi CONTENTS. 


Page 
Mr. R. A. Macriz on Patents considered Internationally......sssscsereseererserees 263 
Professor W. J. Macquorn RanxineE on the Resistance of Ships ...s++ss+eee0e 263 
_———_____________. Appendix to a Paper ‘‘ On the Resist- 
ance Of Ships 7 .......sscssccssescssscesccecsenecccnecsecorenesessenceeesscessenescsescosens 264 
Mr. J. Rosrnson on the Application of Workshop Tools to the Construction 
of Steam-Engines and other Machinery ........scseseeeeeceeceeseeseenecees possesses DOA 
Mr. C. W. Sremens on a System of Telegraphic Communication adopted in 
Berlin in case Of Fires......0cssecscscccaccceccascessenesacsce sovccsoscnacs vaepfaseeebee +» 264 
Mr. F. W. Suertps on Iron Construction; with Remarks on the Strength of 
Tron Columns and Arches ......sscscscscesssectscecsesceestnceaecessascesanersreeceneses 265 
Mr. W. Spence on Patent Tribunals...........+- HencBbcocneeerse sipepaneo cacteeee eet 
Mr. B. B. Sroney on the Deflection of Iron Girders........:ceeeeecesesreeeeereress 265 
Mr. W. Tate on Bailey’s Steam-pressure Gauge ......ssscscseeeeseeeeeeeneceee neseoe 200 
Mr. T. Wegster on Property in Invention, and its Effects on the Arts and 
Manufactlres...icicsscsecscscovcsecsrescceveesasessessoe CEL POLO RA DOn cess iaucee niseee 206 
APPENDIX. 
Mr. Isaac AsuHE on the Causes of the Phenomena of Cyclones .....ss.seseeeeee si 2OO. 
Professor J. E. T. RocErs on Prices in England 1582-1620, and the Effect of 
the American Discoveries upon them during that period............s.sss00s Senpes 1200 
Mr. Daniex Stone on the Rochdale Cooperative Societies ......+++++ssssee+ enter OG 
Mr. Witi1am Westcartu on the Commerce and Manufactures of the Colony 
OLPVICCOL As rs, sc scecsecsscoce-coscsesensaasesersssansieesssseussis dese sane sewsn« sncedeueeeeier 269 
Mr. Ricuarp Vary on the Commercial Relations between England and 
WUPANCOa tees aceceeecesssWesecs msd cota suleeceaboceeces came csseacdeaencnterses ees esnedtees «- 269 
Mr. T. A. Wexton’s Examination of the increase of density of Population 
in England and Wales 1851-61 .........sseseeeeeeees son's Cush pueweneaceas Frereecaeeay ei. 
Mr. Henry Fawcerrt on the Economical Effects of the recent Gold Discoveries 269 
Professor F. Crack Catvert on some Woods employed in the Navy.........++ 269 
Messrs. SILVER on Telegraphic Wires.......ssssesesseseerseseesees Sp cdtucs deed seise a? OD 
Mr. Septimus Mason on a Locomotive for Common Roads....... Sodtaheerts cone. 20D 
Mr. T. S. PripEaux on Economy in Fuel ..........ssecssscescoescnsensseveseece eoeees 209 


Mr. S. Bateson on an improved Feed Water Heater, for Locomotive and other 
BOMerscsrcerscerneceess seaterece Senres oncar Raa APO PAT caeneasess waspacans spebanauns 


OBJECTS AND RULES 


or 


THE ASSOCIATION, 


—>——_ 


OBJECTS. 


Tue Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by 
other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more 
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those 
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an- 
other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to 
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind 
which impede its progress, 
RULES. 
ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. 


All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be- 
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con- 
form to its Rules. 

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So- 
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in 
like manner, to become Members of the Association. 

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of 
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- 
bers of the Association. 

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council 
or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- 
bers of the Association. 

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General 
Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual 
Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General 
Meeting. 

COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES. 


Lirz Memssrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They 
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub- 
lished after the date of such payment. ‘They are eligible to all the offices 
of the Association. 

Awnuat Susscrisers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds, 
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive 
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission 
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their 
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu- 
lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and ail 
future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis : 
but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub- 
sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of 
One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association. 

Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound. 
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be 
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office. 

1861. b 


a 


XVili RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


The Association consists of the following classes :— 

1, Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid 
on admission Five Pounds as a composition. 

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad- 
mission T’en Pounds as a composition. 

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the 
payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in- 
termission of Annual Payment. ] 

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the pay- 
ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following 
year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay- 
ment. | 

5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound. 

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council. 

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual 
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price, 
according to the following specification, viz. :— 

1. Gratis —Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo- 
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further 
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a 
further sum of Five Pounds. 

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a com- 
position. 

Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub- 
scription. 

2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication 
Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a 
composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a 
Book Subscription. 

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscrip- 
tion. 

Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for 
that year only. ] 

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any 
of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa- 
tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of 
the Publication Price. Application to be made (by letter) to 
Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet St., London. 

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries. 


MEETINGS, 

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place 
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre- 
vious Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Offi- 
cers of the Association. 

GENERAL COMMITTEE. 

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or 
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the 
following persons :— 

1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with 
authors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association. 

2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society, 
which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects 
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. 


RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. X1x 


3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceed- 
ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions. 

4, Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three, 
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any 
place where the Association has formerly met. 

5, Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who 
are specially nominated in writing for the Meeting of the year by the Presi- 
dent and General Secretaries. 

6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are 
ex-officio members of the General Committee for the time being. 


SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. 

The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con- 
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches 
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof. 

The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would 
particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and 
brought under consideration at the next Meeting. 

The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of 
particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons, 
for the information of the Annual Meetings. 


COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. 

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which 
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, 
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise 
to be adopted for the advancement of Science. 

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re- 
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com- 
mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General 
Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom- 
mendations. 

LOCAL COMMITTEES. 

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to 
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. 

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those 
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. 


OFFICERS. 
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or tore Secretaries, and a 
Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. 


COUNCIL. 
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be 
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council 
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the 
Meeting. 
PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS. 
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve 
his right of property therein. 
ACCOUNTS. 
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors 
appointed by the Meeting, 12 


‘stra “bso ‘poomfoyy souer F 4 é rat a 
sw “a “Aten *O “AA SMA OVW YOMIPIS *V AO Foes eeeeeeeeencrney ‘NOLUGOT SIONVUA CUOT OL 


‘CW Surapy AA 
‘sy wad “bsg ‘axel aaqed (079 “S' Td “WoqIeH “AL ‘40u PUL UOH = *S"H' aL “Tog ‘wove uyor 
*bsq “unt ‘xopAey, pxvyony ‘beg ‘xogy ofa ogo (ooceecs ste trteseetesesseesssseseserseceres ss2' pet SPEBEY "L'a ug spa “Mesh acter 
alee TOUS faeeeop Ogura “TTEMEHM LOSSAIOUd ‘ATU OL 


PTUTUSECEPEET Ee Pee ‘ 
{ 4ivg ‘poomsayy utmeluog ut gpat “eg oung ‘MESHHONV SY 


*S'T'r SyptWIg WoRTUIVE “TOD 
‘sta “soy ‘shuvp MoUs * AL weer e eee ence reer tessa eresee ‘LW “JOUR PLOT *AgTLOJ{ JO [LV OYL 
‘hsq ‘Buus uyor ¢ *‘oqumoaspg JUNOT JO [VA ONL 
"ATT ‘OOIN ‘df A “bsg ‘[OpPrT serpuy L's "wa “Woysmorg Ped AS ‘E'S ‘Yoousery pio] [woway ~soleyy 
sbsq ‘12180 WOT "SUA “bsp ‘uosSpoH ydasor pe ceceee cer esseecesccecccssesssseser*® OUBIVIIETT jediuug “Aa AIDA 4 , 3 Neate uaa 
: sreeeseeegurer “beg “tsop uyor "ad ‘wosurqoy “UW WL “AW ONL OR “Sa Rot Gann nnr ete on ‘ATU OWL 


‘Suwa “Meg ‘ouvqsiig “WL a8 } ‘ost ‘ZI saqmiaydag ‘MooSVTH 
teeeeeeeee soured “ANVATIVAVANE JO SINDUVN UL 


‘at ‘uoysEyerg, woydog 
‘siya “bsg ‘oyseg oBs0ap Lorrrsss tte  eyMOMyUC JO [VA ‘uojduvy won jo sinbre yy 


"Sa “VW ‘woysuyor Lossayorg 
*S'D'A “uojMA “UAL 
‘ory “STA “uoeuepy uyor 

*jood 


-s9avy “Horyngysuy [ehoy ‘sold ‘Jaye *N ydesor 
bso ‘aqing aoxyepy “MAA “CW “TAL tossejorg 


Tere eee ee eee “ff fra . ‘ . oy, 
ory “SUA “gano0odwH WOWIIA “AL “AML ML Popegn aS yd ‘CNVINAENOHLYON 40 THN UL 


eee se Soi & ‘a'S'wa “Dsq *<q1aS uyor sou aut} “SEBT “0g qsn3ny ‘aNK-NO-@TLSVOMAN 
seme reece ssseeeeesscresseseses ‘V'Ss'a “oud ‘ueyindg jo doystgy au 


“Zest ‘11 soqtuezdog “1o0auTArT 
teeeeeeeereseseeeses UODUOT JO Aqs19 ATU) ayy Jo x0][99 


-uvyo “S'D'A “S'H'A ‘NOLONITUNA JO THVA UL 


‘bsq ‘wapuasoH aA S'S'W'a CCT PUM "Of *S'OTA “SAT “arvaquog “ql “AN “AOL Y 7 ‘gest ‘oe ysndny “Tousixg 
Oy Sonny “CW ‘<uaqned LOSS2JOLg shee cerecaeneereesesoessoseoeees sunray ‘aoyduiey3410N jo smbav Al ay! * 09 Sonny 'TO'd “AINMOCSNV'T IO SINDUVN ou, 
"cest ‘Ol ysnSny ‘NITAAG 


OA at ‘pkoyry tossoyorg “Ad me eneeceevocsevesasvesssevcssererscssesgny Seqeare yy TTOMOTAA “AA *AOIT 0 
"oy ‘puvpry jo yehor *UOISY *moytUe ate “AM US POP eRERER TEP ‘SVS Wa “UMOJUBIUXO, qunoostA ols peesencesscsesseerrerrry GAOTT LSOAOUd “AGU ouL 


eee eee ee eres es eraseseseeeseseesseseseseses "SUA TTOMoT AL "Mh ‘AOU 
ee ee eee siate\e)ais siRipn/steie/*R Ne Eys yi “sa “qieg 109193 | Aas) ap dywyd sg 
‘S'ud “T'0'a ‘woze uyor 'S'DO'd “S'T'd ‘Waauon jo doystg OuL 


"A'S 199g ‘uosUIqoy UYyor ITS dee ecenceeseeceeeeenerecseeeserress SO DT "OMT iy 
“prod “fo M ‘ANVESIUA TIVINOGMVI “L UIS 


"pest ‘8 taquiojdag ‘NOUN ANIAG 
‘oy COB 'S'W'A S9qQIOT Lossajyorg 


OR eot OOO LE SOOO ren WO OR CAC TGs TSE CILMI 6 al ¢ ( ‘MOST OI Ge il 99 "AOL 
once eccecceeee ee eesesscsresscesesssesnyny begmye Ty ‘JoISMOTE PIAVCL IIS 
“gest ‘cg oune ‘TDCINANVO 


‘OWT TTaMoq AA "MA ‘A0T ene ee aren necerscecsescscesescesssecesas square Srpeye(T 
‘ . . “9 SecueaTe cy Gouye ‘ ‘ 

‘S'D aT ool OWN ‘MO[SUa HT IOSSojog *ADT se eeereccoacesererssoseseesesyny yesoyy qyomouoysy “SH Auy ‘a '9 "SD'a' A Suda Vi yWOIMDGAS WVdaV AGU WL 
"Zest ‘6L ung ‘axoaxO 


see ee rowers es ere eeesesee 90S [ood ‘sald “S'e' a “TOA AN “AA “AOU : 5 
om “Sota “s'a'd “a'd ‘GNVIMONE “M ‘ATU OL 


‘oy SS WA CVI ‘Wedod tossojorg “ANY Sf * 
were eneee ‘ON fury xy ‘TSW ‘JoysMIIgT pug Ag 


‘oR “SMa “a'N ‘Auaqned sossajorg U******** 
SOA HS WA OVW SANT 1OSS9JOL Yo. ce eeee cesses erreur gir oY" ante ‘iget ‘Le zoquiosdeg ‘x¥0X 
ee ae en stat) Spd Sra CVI Goa HoUPEA ALL 26 Hyp “gua OTIC VITAL TUVE ML 
“SLNAGISSYd 


*SaluvVLAYOaS 1V901 “SLNAGISSYd-35IA 


*jUAMIUIUAUIOY) SIT WLOIT ‘SotTVJaIIIG [VIO'T 
pur ‘syuapisatg-sot A ‘SyUoptsarg YA “WoreIoossy TSM OY} JO Surjoop JO soury, pue sooetq 9} SUIMOYS BGR, “] 


se eeeenevenceesneenectenes trrecuay 1gQg fee A'aA ‘soq1og *q *f Iossajorg 

sereeeeess ogra A CCM UOSHY 'd "AN Jossojorg — “qsInquipy 
gea “bsg ‘poy, somes | 3° Aqist9Atu ayy 30 jedoung “asa A “A'd ‘eT Uyor *Aey AIO, *osst “1G Aur ‘moanaNrag 

AW “CM “Moje LossoJord OSH Sad “SW'd OT'O'd “HU ‘ouuqsrig "Jy SVUIOTTL Ug TeLoUaE) Lvs sr teres se teesee cece sses ec sMaIpUY "9g “prenosT 

Te aN os coeojort aoe) tot {S'S 'aa “(tetousp-oonsnp p10) odor prava “uoH IMAM (98 PuE soWATES “3g Jo eaTTOD part ous JO Tedound 
seeeeees “oad “TO ad “LM ‘Ar0qasox JO Ued UL | “A RT'S wad “ATT “HM ‘WALSMAUE CIAVG UIS 

teeeeeeemcrarr Her ony qavoyIVD JO [UT OL, 
trtseereeeesereees USinquipmy JO JOsoIg PlO'T oY} ‘WOH sn 


"STA “a'S' 
"ARTS wy ‘ 


lh SRE TOTS EE | x be Seovereeeae gaa Spode ‘Atpeagl 10880} 


ante i & *6PST “GI soquiajdas ‘WVHONIWaIg 
sh aciew 8D 1005 “Sara WT DS UIMIEC SALLY Praeareg pear Sad § Seer 
eae ae aD sktaresoiats sagegrear OT? 4 Coa “HUE ‘od Wao stg ‘WOH arcu [ SVU “Wan “d'd ‘NOSNIGOU ‘U LATA UL 
treteeereeserssecured (Ko[sa}}01M PIOT ay, ‘AQMOsLIvP Jo [ley oyL 


"PIANC “38 JO doystel POT OGL ‘Sua “dW “bsg ‘UUIATA "Hf 
aye oon ad Sa er enor "a AaB en Oey SOAR AA ee 
. a . . ‘Sa ‘gepuryy jo uvaq oq} ‘aoyy Ara aU, Teen eee eee ween eee eee ++ +m “Aqo100g [efoyy 


oe etl treeereeeeerseeeserrgin sary “opty ‘oper \L°H wg | oy} Jo yuepisaig ‘NOLANVHLYUON JO SINDUVI UL 
tere e eee ee eres eguareg lanedy qunoost, “L'M ‘ong jo smbavyy any, 


“stst 6 ysndny ‘vasNvMS 


fs ‘Araqned 
. Gh omuaas “wT ) “Sud “ad ‘ezsuunysa A, Jo uvad ayy ‘aay M24 *p10jxQ | 
ae a BRS a er jo Aqis19.AtU/) aut 105 °c Sorte ora “bsq ‘qumoojsg [[euyong “9 sewoyy, 


*ZE8t ‘ez oung ‘axoaxg 
eee eneerereeserseres ProjxO Jo Aztsaaatu au} 10} ‘Unt 


teeeeeseeees AqsIQAlU) 94} JO LO]JoouLyD-adIA OU | “SUA “T'O'aA “MUG ‘SITONI AUUVH LUACOU UIS 
steeeeee eguarer ‘prope Jo doystg pxory OL ‘SUL ‘8880 JO [way OUT, 


‘bsq ‘Apoort ‘0 ‘HL 


"C'W vl AruaH | 


terror “Tod mit W “Weg ‘uojuNeS L 951094) AIS *OFST ‘OI Jaquiajdag ‘NOLAWVHLNOG 


cies Seeenae See easeserl MGUG) Saltey OM OE, Ws (Sad 'S'4S'0'D ‘NOSIHOUNN AGA MOMMACOU UIS 
“OW ‘UoystomMypeg yunosIA "TOC ‘WOJINGYSY pio0'T 


ICEL G 9 Wd & ‘qanoloqie x JO [VG ayy, ‘“Aa}SayOUTA\ Jo smbae yy auL 


PENRO Wie ‘Swa 'TO'da “Vv Ww “bsg “Say a‘) 


"StU “CVI “pajsuy tossojorg "CEST ‘61 oune ‘aDaINAWVO 
Sw'a CW “bsg ‘surydoyy wert Ay 


tereeeeeeesces sary faysury 'H AO "C'C “weytiy "fay fer o7R “SUA “MUG “TAHOSUGH ‘M ‘A NHOL UIS 


teen seeeceeeseeersesssTOTMION JO doystg ONL ee ai 


wee eeee ‘Sw “TO'a “bso ‘Aepeaey ezyorpy 
‘Sa CHM Wosmorg pnd mg ‘aH ‘AaPLOA\ Weng UYOr “LOH OY, 
eee eee ‘SO ‘qjedi0 pr qunoost, 'S'u'a “OUBI[IM ZF eq 


"PESL ‘gz raqmiaydag ‘Na0K 


"'S'T'a “bsg ‘eudery semmoyy, sreeorrg “(Ag JO uted) ‘d'd ‘MOOOVAd 'D ‘ATU UL 


's'D'd “bsg ‘preyeH went, 


bsg ‘realQ "mA “Ds “LaYaTAy Wen 
*ulqng ‘O.L'a ‘Wosaep ‘sop ‘Aa 
"VW ‘4][2499g UYoOr Jossajorg 


"SPST ‘ZT ysnSny ‘xu0D 


reeseeeees wep QP Sod UOTUCH "MALTS Pos eceeseeeeeeesesseeeees guage ‘ASSOU JO TUVE OWL 


“bsg “980q4 WARTTTTAA 
*S'W'd “A'TT ‘Aqsoroog * Ay “aay 


II NA ST II TN SOIL YS TH ¢ *yn0010 FT cdl 


tereererree seu Soren OW Tarn “aT T “bsa “WBED preyont 
feeb e eee ee eer et eres tere nongeg GCprpry “opeay ‘uUOIIwT] [aUO[OD="4naVT 


oe . puryaty jo eho TIMIOUOISy oO Ua a Tg la Us | “uo We FY “Vy Wey, Ig a ‘ 3 ‘ 
. ‘d {Pee ed OP cas wiamisios Se Ms ci mRMetE lela Sietenete niacsis nisisled - wang ‘woreg JoryO p1ory OUT, Ui iaa'sniaha hoes He PeRCtET Re Ptery eee teerrnca: AC taer eeE 
aon bis dat . aa cs d eA osee mtbeie wivisiele 6 (sy elatate ete .siaKm t+++* pueyaay JO LO][aoULYD pIO'T aL ‘Sue onord “ad ‘a LOTT ATUHAWAH “A our, 
9200, 5h SEUMAL GY 2+ >= os “+++ apIyBleyy op JOGIET, PLOT —*arepyty Jo smbaeyy aL, d a 


eee ee ee “unqnd ‘adatjog Aqrut1y, Jo qSOAOIg au. 
PS I meth yy hry ee OAR AT pro'yT ay} ayquinou0y WSN au 


Je SBE 9 man eee ee eee ee a ee ee pcapen, ae ‘gost ‘9 asndiny “KVENaLTAHO 
"Saad “Dsa ‘YStUBA PLBYONT) 2.0... cece ee eee 8 wa 7 coe snes Se Meat jo Rite patie UL BPs) es cf s 7 PXOFXO 30 Aqis19A10 ayy ur Auejog Jo r0ssay 
*y'at ‘uosurqoy "3dup  iarcasconcanewaccinatetewcrte Soin D ramet And irat ietreg aed OU Swa “a TT “d'W'ANAGNV “A "9 SATUVHO 


ed seen ‘SUT owt *MOsmmON,y, WRT AA IOSsaJOIg 
yar Tedoy ay} Jo Joyseyl “S'U'aA “VIL pe aD, svmoyy, 
‘bs ‘armor WRIT AL . eee eee eee eee eee eee ees een t a oe SH ‘cng raze MA “ocet er roqurayda f 
a 3 ve pie join piaje'nisinis,sjsiani oib\ele 08 ©\e;giteiv-e/s/0ia\e rerenT araee ‘ S ‘MODSVT5 
'It ‘Wosiopuy seuloyy, Lossayorg AR T'S Ha “bsy ‘qi Qe | titeereeerrrgoe Sour TTAOUVY JO TMA UL 


‘aii ‘Zuviyg uyor TEPC REUR eee eee eee eee ee "Sa “att WW qWeoAT sapeyqo 1g 
Peer eneacevescerectvesaccweceses enpegiare yy “qreq ‘outpace WITT IIS 
POePee Ree eee eee eee ‘aq ‘auvreyoeyy pedroutsg ‘soy Ara, OUT, 


ee eeeees tee ee eres ee eeceeees souninpe gr CuegeT ‘soqeA syooig ydasor 
| ee ay Svwa og R TS a “bsa ‘Yossoy wren AL 
ae seeee eee were eres eeree tereeeess QSpuquiey ‘a: atop Aqua, F 2 mojdag 1007aRAT 
et Me AUWUIT AUMIOMT oc. tacae abies eareny “ogy SSearten Mer AE RRRNIACHESIDTAAGEEI Screen k teen T 
SAI CN. HOSTED qo eS ee eee en ee ayy wong roma (Se “ACMOUNVE TO TEVA OWL 
See ay ‘Sod “SU Ca‘ “Wed “uoyzedq Aorp sedyeyy ep dyad 41g 
eee eee ee eee ee SV UA Cosy WAL ‘Ka]soz}OL A pio'y ou. 
eeeeee ei ed aces Ce ee een IOSSAJOIg ae “ eqomstee aha 
; ; ; treereeeeresscurer (sayks TOO" mMaIT = *S"H a “bsg ‘aouedg wrenytAA Y 
| eT ssorueNooNT TMH ‘seat * Deny awe, WoW. - fgoroog “SOT PU IT TMH aU Jo "Sag “Vesa “Dag 4s04y sapmUY bevsesee sees eeeeeeseers es" Kowog “TM “qm “9s 
Sya1005 "Td 7B WT OH “dA “CW 424009 AIO ) rong eg yey SyOLMSpag “Jorg ‘ANT “SY TO" ‘Aupeseg siossoorg (7B “S'O'A “S'U'd'A “VW “bsg “SNIMdOH WVITTIAL 
: trevereees sGureg ‘Ysnorogsopuoy Ploy —*S"A' “OTSILVD JO Peg OL, 
tetesceseeesrcrerrry (K9A0}G LOSSAOIG ‘SYA ‘SPHOIG “4H *H) JOssazorg 
seeweeee seeeeeee Segway SW sad “C' ‘WOSUIqoY “WL “Ae ; Bhar 
*MOSTIAA “d “AA JOSSOjOIg | **°"** rerereesee aspnag ‘axal[og §,useNt) ‘sold “aid ‘hauaH *S *d "AO “ast “I sag ag ga ag ee 
‘aw 299, wey ee ee ee ee eee aah ph Bees bs Ne ‘ad ‘syouly preapa *AIY ee OS ar ak roy : 421005 je. OY oq} jo aA 
“bs ‘UOTTV O'r mM See ee see ecenaeereceeesccese emcee y ‘qqoegrpad +y Aue 1g 2 svat], Asaqyary [eso ANIAVS aquvadaa TANOTOO 
eet eee oe eee eee eee “oy ‘sold Www *Oss0q] jo eq aL 
Ree OE eal Les 1 f “Toa ‘ua][Tystuug Jo [eH OWL 
s . te eeeeeeeeeeeeeseees shear “UaqsoM “VL ‘LW “bsop ‘ploqqog ‘9 *¢ 
sitar “bsg “omosunyy peal reg ‘u0ja “T° qm ‘Swag “qaeg ‘neaptog 'q uyor a | “19st ‘eAqne ‘HOIMSaT 
‘bsg ‘TEPpIa May oB100H ) “NA MOIPPHAL “a “a TUVITEAN, Bese orceaqrelian ees eclienie ee oarietats txprocesesonanee ts ssanmpaeceis ye kin Rentals 


"a ‘bea ae wea SO eC COCOA <irs Cis Mn 125 (14 ‘yor Spag sossajorg “aay { -oxsy “SHA ono'a “bsg ‘XUV ITHAGIA ADUOTD 
Svwa a WW SPMCUD Lever eeeees YOIMIO NY jo doysig. pioyT 94L ‘a’ W ‘wie yse[puey paxory OL 


“S3IUVLSUSSS 1V¥507 *SLNAGISAUd-3DIA “SLN3GISaud 


a 


"ST “Sua “y'W ‘uo8arqeg *9 "9 srossajorg 


perreneeececesesersee sear gag “T'O'd “WIHT ‘829015 ‘9 'D poe 
re ed "S'd'O *"Solg “OWT ror" “WW ‘suep i | =f A1OSSOJOIT 
eee ey yesoxy JaNIOU0ISY “OW bs ae) a OWT iv Si ‘Arty ‘a 9) 
ee ey ‘SU rod fe “WW it IMZpPIS 1OSsaJOlg *AOY anL 
aSpuquirey ‘adayqoo Aju, Jo rayseyy “Sa “A “TM AN * MA ‘AAT it 


*ZO8I ‘1 19903999 ‘ADaIaaNVD 

Senn ae a Se BP MERE Ie aSpiqured jo Ayis 
Jaa) 94} ur Aqdosopnyg yeyuswmedxg” pus [emnjen Jo 

Tossajorg uvlmosyoer “S'a'ay “WW ‘SITTIA ‘HY “ADU O“L 


‘WW ‘Zureary ‘g ‘9 ssh 


BOO UO. bab Store uvaq TAT: ‘ULMpooy) Aoarey ‘aay 419A, aL 
ao TY pag Bee pes ‘TO vVit “ow “bso *qyIOMNITI AA. qdasor 


beg “wnt ‘guiosuey my31y ir ri ei rr aay ‘Lit “bsq ‘soumy, [Teurdsy somue 


eer Se ae’ 
‘bsq ‘preN peyly 
‘s'O'a “v'a “bsg ‘ourysiqaeg”*d "WL 


<iadeis a1 016 do nic Cs rena HET aE ‘1981 ‘fF toquiajdag “AALSHHONV IT 
sate soosscstacescoes epmarer tata oomtor Crocatiog fe (7 SW a'O CO'TT “OMe “NEIVEHIVE HVITILA 
RCC Li rn oe | “rw “qreg ‘u0q03 fain “TI ap dymg 1g 


‘SD “SW “a'd “saysoyouryy Jo doysig pioy oy, 
er ies ‘SOWA ero">d o OW ‘Kapueyg pio'y ouL 
Tet teeeeeeeeeeeeeseececeraeseresees acute ‘QIQUISOTT JO LC OULL, 
SW WAS Wa VW UpaOd tossajorg «SUA CW ‘puepy Aossajorg 
Ce ee ‘SO “Old “Sar “a'qgTt “OW ‘uaqned AIOSSIJOIg 
heres prope “YoY s1YO Jo uvad “a'd ‘TEPPYT “HD 'W Ae AIA EYL 


Ce ee ie iy 


‘'s'O'a “Wt “bsq ‘qygty 281025 
"S'O'a “Wit “bs ‘yytas “sg “¢ 'H 
I 


“Sra “a'd “pr1ojxo jo doysig pro'y ouL, 
‘S'la “CW ‘a0jsaT[oy a31005 


ee ee ‘SVU a “ow “Wh “TI ‘assoy jo ped a7L 
SATYSPIOFXO JO UBUAINAYT pIO'T “S*H' a TO’ “YBnosoqie yp Jo yn IL, 
** plojxQ JO AZISLAAIU A) BY} JO AOT[aNUBYQ-2dI,A “T'O’C ‘BUNaL *y “AVY ONL 
* *P1OJXO JO “ATU 94} JoroTaoURYD “T'D'G “O'd “OM ‘Aqued Jo [eg OUT, 


*ugapraqy jo 4yun0D 243 Jo rauaAu0D “gag “a'TT “bsg ‘uosmoyy, ' 


‘ogst ‘Ze oung ‘aaoaxg 


f 

es] “UP OTM OWT “Sud “wosurspoy "| Jossajorg 

Feet eeneeeeeeeeerereceesenneteneeaere seen eenaesereret ee © 4I9189T9 
“y'g “soosox “aE “HT rOSsayorg “UBYL "90S “Td 2B “HVT “Sead “Sa “a1 “bsg ‘omor y300sarg sourer 

| “US WU “S'U'd'A “VM ‘ADISHLLOUM CUOT OL 


ee es ee eeee "SW “aa ‘aosulqoy "a *L ‘AQ ouL 


th eeeesseegenred Swen ‘amooeH ‘A "MM *AQY OL, 
‘bs OMA “aT UNOL nae 
ab 1G OULU g 1OSsojorg 


“S'O'A CO'S'U'A ‘IOOIN “f¢ tOssajorg 


ae eet Sa “T'0'd.“s448'0'H ‘aostqom yl “1 Yowepoy Tig 


"6S8I ‘FI daquiojdeg ‘naaauaay 


esee es ennenye fermen be . ‘ . 
Sut Lod HM sesmord Pav US (++ tIOSNOO MONIUd AHL SSANHSIH IVAOU SIH 


were eee eens +] <1 dat ¢ “mod OWA “qed ‘jeyosio NN “a uyor ag 
pia Sie rene ere Ty Posen nie ede» Vareteohs Se TO apa tO An9 ay} JO JSOAOIT priory auL 
“Sra SL SoM “aT ‘ueepseqy jo [eg OU 


sete eeeercererseceneecenecerecsssomrey Mx ‘UOMO JO aN WL 


| “4 newer : ste ee eee ee ‘SoU “TW “T9'a “bsq ‘SOUT OJ ZOUO TT ’ 


wee wwe “SOA SW “Dbsa ‘Teysae yy quey somes 
eee eee ee ee ed aspiiquieg ‘adatjoo Aqwunsy, JO 1948e 

“SVU “S'O'd CWT WOH “Sa a “Od “TMT AN “AL ‘AO OTL, 
were eee “S'O'a “omy “TW “qe ‘109103 Kary sedyey op dt md ag 
Wee riiA See vie.cieg 0 clei SRie Ser sai “WA ‘soureg ae "W “u0oy 94, TY a7.L 


‘WA “bsq ‘uos[tqy seuroy, 
‘s'O'a “bs ‘prey soxdg “Wy 
*y'q ‘sxouly svuoqy *s0z7 


"SSSI ‘2g zaquiojdag ‘sagary 
tee ee eee eeeeceeceeaeeeeeeeeesers TOMASI, YSMUG O73 
jo sjuoujsedeg A£10};814y eINQeNY 93 Jo yUepuazutiadng 
“so'a°s'Tas'a'd'A“T'0'C “C'W ‘NAMO CUVHOIN 


seers gy “dl “Yawapoy yunoasta p1ory aq, 


"S'W ad ‘eSvozuo0jyy psoy oy 


a ee 


b 81 LEseF 


& S&L FFG 


tl 


ocooooeocecececosco 
ocooooceocecocooeonse 


nooooco 


mooooco 


Lol 


c 7 LL POH e eet PP eeeetteeeeeessereresesee SI9INSCILT, jeo0'T 
pue Jomsvary, [eae ay} JO puey Ut OIG 
OL 8 Lea eee sraqueg ay ev soured 
detenvasgersreseeerseeeeesatereaeseneeeee®  SOIMUBIY JO SUINIYSUOD 
eeecereee : “+ ‘squoosy auldly 
serrtesesenseeeeeeeseerers IQABAA JO SUISNVD 
seseeeerenseaneecensranegersenecensegenacsssenesseseereees* JOTCT UOSL 
siteeeeeresereeeeesessseseseseoes cuOTIATOS() OY AeABOIOY-0JOU 
Verereeseeeeetteeeeee TOIT) CIC 
seq pur Aassoyy Ul Suispoiqg 
SUOTJOVSULIT, It} 0} XAPUT payisse[g 
OOO ee eee ee HOOP EEE EOE HEHEHE EEE E HT Hee ease eeEEeeeere® sAOITV yeonmeyg 
“MINIMOIII) 4ev suOyeL0[AxT 
tressereveree  QSEUBUTSIT JO S|ISSOT 
sa receccecscsecceraeacesasceeeosssssree OOTBTIIOJION ,S[OSSAA-WI}S 
POCO em H eee reese H HEE H eee e eet OE HHH EOE OHH eee seeeee® Sas jo Ayyianjog 
seteaeesreerteenesesetserseereesenesress CT BINT FO SUOTVAVOXT 


Pee eet et ee temaeeeseeeee 


0 0 & T98T 0341p 071g 

0 0 cs PTUTTETET Tee 0981 ‘90941U1 0100, Buspar 
reteeereererensees NUIBTIONS JO JSVOD JSUT] PUL YON Suspoaq, 
4, Huesacesac sense es’)>*s ets nTOUIMom gy: ayenbyeq 
seeresers KTOIVATIASYO MOY JO JUIMYSI[GeIs| oy} Sururequreyy 
SOP Pee eee entre eaters eereeeree® sjosuog which) jad ¢ 00cs jo aseyoing 
GOS BOP TERE CRE RDI AIT ISA fe (CONSE ZL ‘SaLIe}Ug 
9 61 G9 ‘ttt SuysaTy YjouatTy, 94} JO *02 ‘Surrvasug 
8 IL 8ezF Suyooy yQuiu-Ajyuomy, aya Jo yaoday Sunuug 
srereeeeeseeseeeescTQnSBal], [VIO] OY} pue JaINsvaIy, [e.IdUay 

ayy Aq sjuowkeg jeyuepiouy pur, ‘Sursysaapy ‘s}10dayy 


Supurg ‘Suyutg Aipung ‘Suysoyy p1loyxQ jo sosuedxg Ag 


“SENGNAVd 


b Sl Leger 


UALSAANVT NIMC 
< “shopipny ‘LOISSV9 ‘d “£ 
‘MVHS NOLUON 
"4091100 punoj pue paulwMmexT 
Cen LG2 Ss tae oe 
SP Go ees gangensig yderSouyvy pue 
‘sour'y S,aAaoq ‘apuryery ‘sivqg Jo anso[eye9g 
0 FI 0s Sessasie>caeevebaterenes sus USA UTIOOT jo sy1odey I0q 
(PEre) 4 F “ZIA—suoteorqnd JO [8S 
0% GGG Teteeeetesstteessesetsseeeeeseseeesersees son QOO/F WO SYIUOU 
ZI pur yoog “yuao sad ¢ QOCIF uo puaepraiq syyWOW 9 
0 0 £9F Oe eereeceessoreceses ouIp 0341p ‘SJOMOLy, SIpeyT 
0 0 9¢9 TOP ewer eaeeeereesses 0341p 0431p ‘sJOMOL], So}RID0ssy 
0 0 66€ opp op ‘suodrrosqng yenuuy 
0 0 0&2 doUIS pue Taaplaqy 3@ suortsoduo0y ayy 
Q JL BIZ cette qunosoY 4st] WOIF pAvMAOZ WYSNOIG vour[Vg OF, 
Ds F 


“SLdIGOaL 


‘(UMLSAHONVIN 3%) 19ST toquiaydag uF 
0} (ONILAGN AUOAXO Jo yuowsouswmos) gggt ounp y37Z Woy TNNOOOV SAANASVAUL TVYAINAD FHL 


“AONAIOS FO LNGNAONVACV AHL YOL NOILVIOOSSV HSLLTda 


MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


XXV 


II. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who 
have served on the Council in former years. 


Aberdeen, Earl of, LL.D., K.G., K.T., 
F.R.S. (dec*). 

Acland, Sir Thomas D., Bart., M.A., D.C.L., 
E.R.S. 


Acland, Professor H. W., M.D., F.R.S. 

Adams, Prof. J. Couch, M.A., D.C.L., E.R.S. 

Adamson, John, Esq., FL. S. 

Ainslie, Rev. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem- 
broke Hall, Cambridge. 

Airy,G. B.M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Astronomer 
Royal. ‘ 3 
Alison, ProfessorW. P.,M.D.,F.R.S.E.(dec#). 

Allen, W. J. C., Esq. 

Anderson, Prof. Thomas, M.D. 

Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.R.S. 

Argyll, George Douglas, Duke of, F.R.S. 
L. & E. 


Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S. 

Ashburton, William Bingham, Lord, D.C.L. 

Atkinson, Rt. Hon. R. ,Lord Mayor of Dublin. 

Babbage, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. 

Babington, Professor C. C., M. A., FBS. 

Baily, Francis, Esq., F.R. S. (deceased). 

Baines, Rt. Hon. M. T., M.A., M.P. (dec*). 

Baker, Thomas Barwick Lloyd, Esq. 

Balfour, Professor John H., M.D., F.R.S. 

Barker, George, Esq., F.R. 8. Gilad. 

Beamish, Richard, Esq., E.R.S. 

Beechey, Rear-Admiral, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Bell, Professor Thomas, V.P.L.S., F.R.S. 

Bengough, George, Esq. 

Bentham, George, Esq., Pres.L.8. 

Biddell, George Arthur, Esq. 

Bigge, Charles, Esq. 

Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S. 

Boileau, Sir John P., Bart., F.R.S. 

Boyle, Rt.Hon. D.., Lord J ustice- Gen!. (dec*). 

Brady,The Rt. Hon. Maziere, M.R.1.A., Lord 
Chancellor of Ireland. 

Brand, William, Esq 

Breadalbane, J ohn, malin of, K.T., F.R.S. 

Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., enim 
ERS. L. & E., Principal of the Uni- 
versity of Edinburgh. 

Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M., Bart., 

K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S. "(dect), 

Brodie, Sir B. C., Bart., D. CL. V.P.R.S. 

Brooke, Charles, B.A. FERS. 

Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Brunel, Sir M. I., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Buckland, Very Rey. William, D.D., F.R.S., 
Dean of Westminster (deceased). 

Bute, John, Marquis of, K.T. (deceased). 

Carlisle, George Will. Fred., Earl of, F.R.S. 

Carson, Rev. Joseph, F.T.C.D. 

Cathcart, Lt.-Gen., Harlof, K.C.B., F.R.S8.E. 
(deceased). 

Chalmers, Rev. T., D.D. (deceased). 

Chance, James, Esq. 

Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of. 

Christie, Professor 8. H., M. A., F.R.S. 

Clare, Peter, Esq., F.R. AS. (deceased). 

Clark, Rev. Prof, M.D., F.R.S. (Cambridge. 


Clark, Henry, M.D. 

Clark, G. T., Esq. 

Clear, William, “eq. (deceased). 

Clerke, Major 8. K.H., R.E., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Clift, William, Esq., FRS. (deceased). 

Close, Very Rev. F., M.A., Dean of Carlisle. 

Cobbold, John Chevalier, Esq., M.P. 

Colquhoun, J. C., Hsq., M.P. (deceased). 

Conybeare, Very Rey. W. D., Dean of Llan- 
daff (deceased). 

Cooper, Sir Henry, M.D. 

Corrie, John, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Crum, Walter, Esq., F.R.S. 

Currie, William Wallace, Esq. (deceased). 

Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Daniell, Pr ofessor J. F, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Darhishire; R. D., B.A., F.G.8 

Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D. C.L., F.B.S. 

Darwin, Charles, Esq., M.A. FRS. 

Daubeny, Prof. C. G. B., M.D.,LL.D., F.B.S. 

DelaBeche, Sir H. T., C.B., F.R.S., Director- 
Gen. Geol. Surv. United Kingdom (dec*). 

De la Rue, Warren, Ph.D., F.R.S 

Derby, Earl of, D. 0. sb Chancellor of the 
University of Oxfor d. 

Devonshire, William, Duke of, M.A., D.C.L., 
F.R.S 


Dickinson, “Joseph, M.D., F.RS. 

Dillwyn, Lewis W., Esq,., ERS. (deceased). 

Donkin, Professor 'W.F , M.A., F.R.S. 

Drinkwater, J. E., Esq. (deceased). 

Ducie, The Ear] of, E.R.S. 

Dunraven, The Earl of, F.R.S. 

Egerton, Sir P. de M. Grey, Bart., M.P., 
E.R.S. 

Eliot, Lord, M.P. 

Ellesmere, Francis, Earl of, F.G.S. (dec*). 

Enniskillen, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Estcourt, T. G. B., D.C.L. (deceased). 

Fairbairn, William, LL.D., C.E., F.R.S. 

Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S8. 

FitzRoy, Rear-Admiral, F.R.S. 

Fitzwilliam, The Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Fleming, W., M.D. 

Fletcher, Bell, M.D. 

Foote, Lundy E., Esq. 

Forbes, Charles, Esq. (deceased). 

Forbes, Prof. Edward, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Forbes,Prof.J.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,Sec. R.S.E., 
Principal of the University of St. An- 
drews. 

Fox, Robert Were, Esq., F.R.S. 

Frost, Charles, F.S.A. 

Fuller, Professor, M.A. 

Galton, Francis, F.R.8., F.G.S. 

Gassiot, John P., Esq., ER. Ss. 

Gilbert, Davies, D.C. L., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Gladstone, J. H., Ph.D. E.R.S, 

Gourlie, William, Esq. (deceased). 

Graham, T., M.A. D.C.L., F.B.S., Master of 
the Min 

Gray, John i, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. 


. Gray, Jonathan, Esq. (deceased). 


XXVi 


Gray, William, Esq., F.G.S. 

Green, Prof. Joseph Henry, D.C.L., F.RB.S. 

Greenough, G. B., Esq., F. Pa 8. (deceased). 

Griffith, George, M. A., F.C 

Griffith, Sir R. Griffith, Bt., LLD, M.R.LA. 

Grove, W. R. , Hsq., M.A., "ERS. 

Hallam, Henry, Esq., M. A, ERS. (dec!), 

Hamilton, W. J., Esq., F.R.S., For. Sec. G.S. 

Hamilton, Sir Wm. R., LL. he Astronomer 
Royal of Ireland, MRLA, FE.R.AS. 

Hancock, W. Neilson, LL.D. 

Harcourt, Rev. Wm. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S. 

Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Earl of, E.BS. 

Harford, J. 8., D.C L., F.R.S. 

Harris, Sir W. Snow, F. RS. 

Harrowby, The Earl of, F.R.S. 

Hatfeild, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased). 

Henry. Ww. C., M. D., RS 

Has Rey. P. 8., D. D. , President of Queen’s 
College, Belfast. 

_Henslow, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.L.S. (dec). 

Herbert, Hon. and Very Rey. ‘Wm. LL.D., 

F.L.S., Dean of Manchester (dect). 

Herschel, Sir John F. W., Bart., M.A., D.C.L., 

E.R.S. 


Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S. 

Heywood, James, Esq., F.R.S. 

Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S. 

Hincks, Rey. Edward, D.D., M.R.1.A. 

Hincks, Rey. Thomas, B.A. 

Hinds, 8., D.D., late Lord Bishop of Norwich 
(deceased). 

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D. 

Hodgkinson, Professor Eaton, F.R.S. (dec*). 

Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S. 

Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S.. 

Hope, Rey. F. W., M.A., ERS. 

Hopkins, William Esq., M. A., LL.D., F.RS. 

Horner, Leonard, "Esq., E.R. S., Pres.G.s. 

Hovenden, V. F., Esq., M.A. 

Hugall, J. W., Esq. 

Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G-.S. 

Hutton, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased). 

Ibbetson, Capt.L.L. Boscawen, K.R.E.,F.G.S8. 

Inglis, Sir R. H., Bart., D. CL. , MP. (dec!) 

Inman, Thomas, M. D. 

J acobs, Bethel, Esq. 

Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S. ideeesend), 

Jardine, ‘Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E. 

J effreys, John Gwyn, Esq., ERS. 

Jellett, Rey. Professor. 

Jenyns, Rey. Leonard, F.L.S. 

Jerrard, H. B., Esq. 

Jeune, Rey. F., D.D., Vice-Chancellor of the 


University of Oxford. 

Johnston, Right Hon. William, late Lord 
Provost of Edinburgh. 

Johnston, Prof. J. F. W., M.A., F.BS. 
(deceased). 


Keleher, William, Esq. (deceased). 
Kelland, Rey. Prof. P., M.A. F.R.S. L. & EB. 
Kildare, The Marquis of, 

Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S. 
Lansdowne, Hen. Marquis of, D.C.L.,F.B.S. 
Larcom, Major, RE,, LL.D., E.R.S. 
Lardner, Rey. Dr. (deceased), 


REPORT—-1861. 


Lassell, William, 1 ied E.R.S. L. & E. 

Latham, i Ge; .. ERS. 

Lee, Very Rev. ‘Tek D.D., F.R.S.E., Prin- 
cipal of the University of Edinburgh 
(deceased). 

Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.S. 

Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, late 
Speaker of the House of Commons. 

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S. 

Liddell, Andrew, Esq. (deceased) 

Liddell, Very Rev. H. G., D.D., Dean of 
Christ Church, Oxford. 

Lindley, Professor John, Ph.D., F.R.S. 

Listowel, The Earl of. 

Lloyd, Rey. B., D.D., Provost of Trin. Coll., 

Dublin (dec*). 
ms Rev. H., D.D., D.C.L., F.B.S. L.&E., 
M.R.IA. 


Londesborough, Lord, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Lubbock, Sir John Ww, Bart., M.A., F.R.S, 

Luby, Rey. Thomas. 

Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., 
E.R.S. 

MacCullagh, Prof., D. L., M.R.I.A. (dec*). 

MacDonnell, Rev. RB. D.D., M.R.LA., Pro- 
vost of Trinity College, Dublin. 

Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal. (dec*). 

MacGee, William, M.D. 

MacLeay, William Sharp, ed, ELS. 

MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S. 

Malahide, The Lord Talbot de. 

Malcolm, Vice-Ad. Sir Charles, K.C.B. (dec*). 

Maltby, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord 
Bishop of Durham (deceased). 

Manchester, J. P. Lee, D.D., Lord Bishop of. 

Marlborough, Duke of, D.C.L. 

Marshall, J. G., Esq., M.A., F.G.S. 

May, Char rles, Esq., FRAS. i 

Meynell, Thomas, Esq., F.L.S 

Middleton, Sir William F. F, Bart. 

Miller, Professor W. A., M.D. Treas. and 
V.P.RBS. 

Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., For. Sec.R.8. 

Milnes, R. Monckton, Esq., D.C.L., M.P. 

Moggridge, Matthew, Esq. 

Moillet, J. D., Esq. (deceased). 

Monteagle, Lord, F.R.S. 

Moody, J. Sadleir, Esq. 

Moody, T. H. C., Esq. 

Moody, T. F., Esq. 

Morley, The Ear! of. 

Moseley, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.R.S. 

Mount-Edgecumbe, ErnestAugustus, Earl of. 

Murchison, Sir Roderick T.,G.C.S8t.8., D.C.L., 

. ERS. 

Neild, Alfred, Esq. 

Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.8.E. 

Nicol, D., M.D. 

Nicol, Professor J., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 

Nicol, Rev. J. P., LL.D. 

Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar- 
quis of, V.P.R.S. (deceased). 

Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G.,M.A., 
EBS. (deceased ). 

Ormerod, G. W., Esq., M.A., F.G.S. 

Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D. (deceased). _ 


‘ 
| 


MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


Orpen, John H., LL.D. 


Osler, Follett, Esq., F.R.S. 
Owen, Professor Richd.,M.D.,D.C.L.,LL.D., 
R.S 


Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord 
Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S. 

Palmerston, Viscount, K.G., G.C.B., M.P., 
E.RB.S. 


Peacock, Very Rev. G., D.D., Dean of Ely, 
F.R.S. (deceased). 

Peel, Rt.Hon.Sir R.,Bart.,M.P.,D.C.L.(dec*). 

Pendarves, H. W., Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Phillips, Professor John, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S. 

Pigott, The Rt. Hon. D. R., M.R.1.A., Lord 
Chief Baron of the Exchequer in Ireland. 

Porter, G. R., Esq. (deceased). 

Portlock, Major-General, R.E.,LL.D., F.R.S. 

Powell, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Price, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. 

Prichard, J. C., M.D., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Ramsay, Professor William, M.A. 

Ransome, George, Hsq., F.L.S. 

Reid, Maj.-Gen. Sir W., K.C.B., R.E., F.R.S. 

deceased). 

Rendlesham, Rt. Hon. Lord, M.P. 

Rennie, George, Esq., F.R.S. 

Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S. 

ee! Sir John, C.B., M.D., LL.D., 

Richmond, Duke of, K.G., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Ripon, Earl of, F.R.G.S. 

Ritchie, Rev. Prof., LL.D., F.R.8. (dec*). 

Robinson, Capt., R.A. 

Robinson, Rey. J., D.D. 

Robinson, Rey. T. R., D.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 

Robison, Sir John, Sec.R.S. Edin. (deceased). 

Roche, James, Esq. 

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S. 

Rolleston, George, M.D., F.L.S. 

Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S. 

Roscoe, Professor H. H., B.A. 

Rosebery, The Earl of, K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Ross, Rear-Admiral Sir J. C., R.N., D.C.L., 
E.R.S. (deceased). 

Rosse, Wm., Earl of, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA. 

Royle, Prof. John F., M.D., F.R.S. (dec*). 

Russell, James, Esq. (deceased). 

Russell, J. Scott, Esq., F.R.S. 

Sabine, Major-GeneralEdward,R.A., D.C.L., 
LL.D., President of the Royal Society. 

Sanders, William, Esq., F.G.S. 

Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Oe; Rev. Prof. Adam, M.A., D.C.L., 


Selby, Prideaux John, Esq., F.R.S.E. 

Sharpey, Professor, M.D., Sec.R.S. 

Sims, Di , Hsq. 

Smith, Lieut.-Colonel C. Hamilton, F.R.S. 
(deceased). 


XXVll 


Smith, Prof. H. J. §., M.A., F.B.S. 

Smith, James, F.R.S. L. & EB. 

Spence, William, Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Spottiswoode, W., M.A., F.R.S. 

Stanley, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord 
Bishop of Norwich (deceased). 

Staunton, Sir G. T., Bt., M.P., D.C.L., F.B.S. 

St. David’s, C.Thirlwall,D.D.,LordBishop of. 

Stevelly, Professor John, LL.D. 

Stokes, Professor G.G., M.A.,D.C.L.,Sec. B.S. 

Strang, John, Esq., LL.D. 

Strickland, Hugh E., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Sykes, Colonel W. H., M.P., F.R.S. 

Symonds, B. P., D.D., Warden of Wadham 
College, Oxford. 

Talbot, W. H. Fox, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. 

Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A. 

Taylor, John, Esq., F.R.S. 

Taylor, Richard, Esq., F.G.S. 

Thompson, William, Hsq., F.L.S.(deceased), 

Thomson, A., Esq. 

Thomson, Professor William, M.A., F.R.S. 

Tindal, Captain, R.N. (deceased). 

Tite, William, Esq., M.P., F.R.S. 

Tod, James, Esq., F.R.S.E. 

Tooke, Thomas, F.R.S. (deceased). 

Traill, J. S., M.D. (deceased). 

Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Turner, Samuel, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S. (dec*). 

Turner, Rey. W. 

Tyndall, Professor John, F.R.S. 

Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S. (deceased). 

Vivian, J. H., M.P., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Walker, James, Esq., F.R.S. 

Walker, Joseph N., Esq., F.G.S. 

Walker, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. 

Warburton, Henry, Esq.,M.A., F.R.S.(dec*). 

Ward, W. Sykes, Esq., F.C.S. 

Washington, Captain, R.N., F.R.S. 

Webster, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S. 

West, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). 

Western, Thomas Burch, Esq. 

Wharncliffe, John Stuart, Lord,F.R.S.(dec*). 

Wheatstone, Professor Charles, F.R.8. 

Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., F.B.S., Master 
of Trinity College, Cambridge. 

White, John F., Esq. 

Williams, Prof. Charles J. B., M.D., F.R.S8. 

Willis, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. 

Wills, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased). 

Wilson, Thomas, Esq., M.A. 

Wilson, Prof. W. P. 

Winchester, John, Marquis of. 

Woollcombe, Henry, Esq., F.S.A. (deceased). 

Wrottesley, John, Lord, M.A.,D.C.L., F.RB.S. 

Yarborough, The Ear! of, D.C.L. 

Yarrell, William, Esq., F.L.S. (deceased). 

Yates, James, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. 

Yates, J. B., Esq., F.S.A., F-R.G.S. (dec?). 


OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1861-62. 


TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). 


Sir RopERIcK I. Murcuison, G.C.St.8., F.R.S. 
Major-General EDWARD SaBinF, R.A., D.C.L., Pres. B.S. 
Sir PHitie DE M. GREY EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. 


PRESIDENT. 
WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Esq., LL.D., C.E., F.R.S. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS. 


The EARL OF ELLESMERE, F.R.G.S. ‘ THOMAS BAZLEY, Esq., M.P. 
The LorD STANLEY, M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. JAMES ASPINALL TURNER, Esq., M.P. 
The LoRD BISHOP OF MANCHESTER, D.D., F.R.8., | JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., Pre- 
F.G.8. sident of the Literary and Philosophical Society 
Sir PHitrie DE Mapas GREY EGERTON, Bart., of Manchester. 
M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S. JOSEPH WHITWORTH, Esq., F.R.S., M.I.C.E. 


Sir BENJAMIN HEYWOOD, Bart., F.R.S. 


PRESIDENT ELECT. 


Rey. R. WILLIS, M.A., F.R.S., Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy 
in the University of Cambridge. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. 
The Very Rev. H. Goopwin, D.D., Dean of Ely. J.C. ADAMS, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Pres.C.P.5., 
The Rev. W. WHEWELL, D.D., F.R.S., Master of Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry 
Trinity College, Cambridge. in the University of Cambridge. 
The Rev. A. SED@wicK, M.A., D.C.L, F.R.S., | GG. STOKES, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., See. R.S.,Lucasian 
Woodwardian Professor of Geology in the Uni- Professor of Mathematics in the University of 


versity of Cambridge. Cambridge. 
G. B. Arry, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Astronomer 


Royal. 
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT CAMBRIDCE. 


C. C. Bapincron, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.8., Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. 
G. D. Liverne, Esq., M.A., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Cambridge. 
The Rey. N. M. FERRERS, M.A., Gonville and Caius College. 


LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT CAMBRIDCE. 
The Rey. W. M. Campion, M.A., Queen’s College. 


ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


BATEMAN, J. F., F.R.S. GLADSTONE, Dr. J. H., F.R.8. SHARPEY, Professor, Sec. R.S. 

CRAWFURD, JOHN, Esq., F.R.S., | Grove, WILLIAM R., F.R.S. SPoTTIswooDE, W., M.A., F.R.S. 
Pres. Eth. Soc. HEYWOOD, JAMES, Esq., F.R.S. | SyKES, Colonel W. H., M.P., 

DAvBENY, Dr. C. G. B., F.R.S. Huron, RoBERT, F.G.8. F.RB.S. 

DE LA RUE, WARREN, Ph.D., | LYELL, Sir C., D.C.L., F.R.S. TrrE, WILLIAM, M.P., F.R.S. 
E.R.S. MILLER, Prof.W.A., M.D., F.R:8. | WEBSTER, THOMAS, F.R.S. 

FrrzRoy, Rear-Admiral, F.R.8. PorTLOCK, General, R.E., F.R.S. | WHEATSTONE, Prof., F.R.S. 

Gatton, Francis, F.R.S. PRICE, Rey. Prof., M.A., F.R.S. | WILLiAMson, Prof. A. W., F.R.S. 


Gassior, JouN P., F.R.S. 


EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and 
Assistant-General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the T'rustees, and the Presidents of former years, 
viz.—Rev. Professor Sedgwick. The Marquis of Lansdowne. The Duke of Devonshire. Rey. W. V. Har- 
court. The Marquis of Breadalbane. Rey. W. Whewell, D.D. The Earl of Rosse. Sir John F. W. 
Herschel, Bart. Sir Roderick I. Murchison. The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir David Brewster. 
G. B. Airy, Esq., the Astronomer Royal. General Sabine. William Hopkins, Esq., LL.D. The Earl of 
Harrowby. The Duke of Argyll. Professor Daubeny, M.D. The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. Professor 
Owen, M.D.,D.C.L. The Lord Wrottesley. 


GENERAL SECRETARY. 
WILLIAM Hopkins, Esq., M.A., LU.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY. 


JouHN PHILLIPS, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.8., F.G.8., Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford, 
Museum House, Oxford. : 


CENERAL TREASURER. 


WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.A.S., 10 Chester Street, 
Belgrave Square, London, 8. W. 


LOCAL TREASURERS. 


William Gray, Esq., F.G.S., York. John Gwyn Jefireys, Esq., F.R.S., Swansea 

C. C. Babington, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Cambridge. J. B. Alexander, Esq., Ipswich. 

William Brand, Esq., Edinburgh. Robert Patterson, Eeq., M.R.LA., Belfast. 

John H. Orpen, LL.D., Dublin. Edmund Smith, Esq., Hull. 

William Sanders, Esq., F.G.S., Bristol. Richard Beamish, Esq., F.R.S., Cheltenham. 

Robert M‘Andrew, Esq., F.R.S8., Liverpool. John Metcalfe Smith, Esq., Leeds. 

W. R. Wills, Esq., Birmingham. John Forbes White, Esq., Aberdeen. 

Professor Ramsay, M.A., Glasgow. Rey. John Griffiths, M.A., Oxford. 

Robert P. Greg, Esq., F.G.8., Manchester. ; 

AUDITORS. 

Dr. Norton Shaw. John P. Gassiot Esq. Dr. E. Lankester. - 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XXIX 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE 
MANCHESTER MEETING. 


SECTION A.-—-MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 

President.—G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal. 

Vice-Presidents.—J. P. Joule, LL.D., F.R.S.; Rev. Professor Price, M.A., F.R.S. ; 
The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.; Major-General Sabine, R.A., D.C.L., 
LL.D., Pres.R.S.; Sir David Brewster, K.H., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E.; Rev. 
T. P. Kirkman, M.A., F.R.S. 

Secretaries.—ProfessorJ. Stevelly, LL.D.; Professor H.J.S. Smith, M.A.,F.R.S. 5 
Professor R. B. Clifton, B.A., F.R.A.S. 


SECTION B,— CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS 
TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTs. 

President. —W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, 
London. 

Vice-Presidents,—Professor Anderson, M.D.,F.R.S.E.; Professor Andrews, M.D., 
F.R.S., M.R.1.A.; J. P. Gassiot, F.R.S.; J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S.; W. R. 
Grove, M.A., F.R.S.; Dr.Schunck, F.R.S.; Dr. Stenhouse, F.R.S.; Professor A. W. 
Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S. 

Secretaries.—G@. D. Liveing, M.A.; A. Vernon Harcourt, M.A. 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. 

President.—Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,D.C.L., LL.D.,F.R.S., Director-Gene- 
ral of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. 

Vice-Presidents.—E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.; Sir P. de M. G. Egerton, Bart., 
M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.; Earl of Enniskillen, F.R.S., F.G.S.; J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S., 
F.G.S.; General Portlock, F.R.S., M.R.I.A., F.G.S.; Rev. Professor Sedgwick, 
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 

Secretdries.—Professor Harkness, F.R.S., F.G.S.; Edward Hull, B.A., F.G.S.; 
T. Rupert Jones, F.G.S.; G. W. Ormerod, M.A., F.G.S. d 


SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. 
President.—C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the University 
of Cambridge. 
Vice-Presidents.— Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.; Professor Owen, M.D., 
D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. ; Professor Daubeny, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 
Secretaries.—Thomas Alcock, M.D.; Edwin Lankester, M.D., F.R.S.; P. L. 
Sclater, Ph.D., M.A., F.R.S.; E. Percival Wright, M.A., M.D., M.R.1.A., F.L.S. 


SUB-SECTION D.—PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCE. 

President.—John Davy, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E. 

Vice- Presidents.—Professor Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S.; Professor C. J. B. Williams, 
M.D., F.R.S.; Dr. Roget, F.R.S. 


Secretaries.—Edward Smith, M.D., F.R.S.; William Roberts, M.D. 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. 
i oo Crawfurd, Esq., F.R.S., President of the Ethnological Society, 
ondon. 

Vice-Presidents.—Sir R. 1. Murchison, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.; Rear-Admiral Sir 
James C. Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.; Vice-Admiral Sir E. Belcher, C.B., F.R.S. ; Colonel 
Sir H. Rawlinson; Rev. Professor Sedgwick, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.; Major-General 
Chesney, R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. 


Secretaries.—James Hunt, Ph.D.; J. Kingsley; Norton Shaw, M.D.; W. Spot- 
tiswoode, M.A., F.R.S. 


SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 

President.—William Newmarch, F.R.S. 

Vice- Presidents.—William Farr, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. ; James Heywood, F.R.S.; 
Lord Monteagle, F.R.S.; Alderman Neild; Right Hon. Joseph Napier; Edwin 
Chadwick, C.B.; Daniel Noble, M.D. ; Rev. Canon Richson, M.A. ; Colonel Sykes, 
M.P., F.R.S.; W.N. Massey, M,P.; William Tite, M.P., F.R.S. 


XXX 


REPORT—1861. 


Secretaries.—Rev. Professor J. E. T. Rogers, M.A.; Edmund Macrory, M.A.; 
Professor R. C. Christie, M.A.; David Chadwick, F.S.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E. 


SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


President.—J. F. Bateman, Esq., C.E., F.R.S. 
Vice-Presidents.—Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., F.R.S.; Thomas Fairbairn, Esq. ; 
Captain Douglas Galton, F.R.S. ; The Mayor of Manchester; Rey. T, R. Robinson, 


D.D., F.R.S.; 
Rev. Professor Willis, M.A., F.R.S. 


J. Scott Russell, Esq., F.R.S.; Thomas Webster, M.A., F.R.S. ; © 


Secretaries. —P. Le Neve Foster, Esq., M.A.; John Robinson, Esq.; Henry 


Wright, Esq. 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 


Professor Agassiz, Cambridge, Massa- 
chusetts. 

M. Babinet, Paris. 

Dr. A. D. Bache, Washington. 

Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Amsterdam. 

Professor Bolzani, Kazan. 

Dr. Barth. 

Dr. Bergsma, Utrecht. 

Mr. P. G. Bond, Cambridge, U.S. 

M. Boutigny (d’Evreux). 

Professor Braschmann, Moscow. 

Dr. Carus, Leipzig. 

Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, Breslau. 

M. Antoine d’Abbadie. 

M. De la Rive, Geneva. 

Professor Wilhelm Delffs, Heidelberg. 

Professor Dove, Berlin. 

Professor Dumas, Paris. 

Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Paris. 

Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin. 

Dr. Eisenlohr, Carlsruhe. 

Professor Encke, Berlin. 

Dr. A. Erman, Berlin. 

Professor A. Escher von der Linth, 
Zurich, Switzerland. 

Professor Esmark, Christiania. 

Prof. A. Favre, Geneva. 

Professor G. Forchhammer, Copenhagen. 

M. Léon Foucault, Paris. 

Prof. E. Fremy, Paris. 

M. Frisiani, Milan. 

Dr. Geinitz, Dresden. 

Professor Asa Gray, Cambridge, U.S. 

Professor Henry, Washington, U.S. 

Dr. Hochstetter, Vienna. 

M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg. 

Prof. Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr., Griess- 
wald, Prussia. 

Professor Aug. Kekulé, Ghent, Belgium. 

M. Khanikoff, St. Petersburg. 

Prof. A. Kolliker, Wurzburg. 


Prof. De Koninck, Liége. 

Professor Kreil, Vienna. 

Dr. A. Kupffer, St. Petersburg. 

Dr. Lamont, Munich. 

Prof. F. Lanza, 

M. Le Verrier, Paris. 

Baron yon Liebig, Munich. 

Professor Loomis, New York. 

Professor Gustav Magnus, Berlin. 

Professor Matteucci, Pisa. 

Professor P. Merian, Bale, Switzerland. 

Professor von Middendorff, St. Petersburg. 

M. l’Abbé Moigno, Paris. 

Professor Nilsson, Sweden. 

Dr. N. Nordenskiold, Finland. 

M. E. Peligot, Paris. 

Prof. B. Pierce, Cambridge, U.S. 

Viscenza Pisani, Florence. 

Gustave Plaar, Strasburg. 

Chevalier Plana, Turin. 

Professor Pliicker, Bonn. 

M. Constant Prévost, Paris. 

M. Quetelet, Brussels. 

Prof. Retzius, Stockholm. 

Professor W. B. Rogers, Boston, U.S. 

Professor H. Rose, Berlin. 

Herman Schlagintweit, Berlin. 

Robert Schlagintweit, Berlin. 

M. Werner Siemens, Vienna. 

Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm. 

Professor J. A..de Souza, University of 
Coimbra. 

M. Struvé, Pulkowa. 

Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm. 

M. Pierre Tchihatchef. 

Dr. Van der Hoeven, Leyden. 

Prof. E. Verdet, Paris. 

M. de Verneuil, Paris. 

Baron Sartorius yon Waltershausen, 
Gottingen. 

Professor Wartmann, Geneva. 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XXX1 


Report of the Council of the British Association, presented to the 
General Committee at Manchester, September 4, 1861. 


(1) The Council were directed by the General Committee at Oxford to 
maintain the Establishment of the Kew Observatory by aid of a grant of 
£500. At each of the meetings of the Council, the Committee of the Observa- 
tory have presented a detailed statement of their proceedings, and they have 
transmitted the General Report for the year 1860-1861, which is annexed. 

(2) Asum not exceeding £90 was granted for one year, and placed at the 
dispesal of the Council for the payment of an additional Photographer for 
carrying on the Photoheliographical Observations at Kew. On this subject 
the Report of the Kew Committee, which is annexed, may be consulted. 

(3) A further sum of £30 was placed at the disposal of Mr. Broun, Dr. 
Lloyd, and Mr. Stoney, for the construction of an Induction Dip-Circle, in 
connexion with the Observatory at Kew. The result of this reecommenda- 
tion is stated in the Report of the Kew Committee. 

(4) The Report of the Parliamentary Committee has been received by the 
Council for presentation to the General Committee to-day, and is printed for 
the information of the Members. 

(5) Professor Phillips was requested to complete and print, before the 
Manchester Meeting, a Classified Index to the Transactions of the Associa- 
tion from 1831 to 1860 inclusive, and was authorized to employ, during this 
period, an Assistant ; and the sum of £100 was placed at his disposal for the 
purpose. 

Professor Phillips reports that he has secured the assistance of Mr. G. 
Griffith, of Jesus College, Oxford, in carrying on the Index, which had been 
already much advanced by the help of Mr. Askham, and states that with the 
aid thus afforded he had hoped to be able to complete the work within the 
time specified. Though this expettation has not been realized, specimens of 
the work are laid before the Meeting. 

(6) Professor Phillips requested the attention of the Council to circum- 
stances regarding his own health and occupations, which are gradually render- 
ing it necessary for him to prepare to withdraw from the duties of the As- 
sistant General Secretary, which have been for many years intrusted to him; 
and suggested that opportunity might be taken of this announcement to con- 
sider whether the arrangements connected with the Secretariate should remain 
unchanged, or be modified. 

The Council regret to have received letters from Professor Walker, General 
Secretary, dated 15th March and 20th April, stating that, on account of in- 
disposition which required cessation from labour, it would not be in his power 
to continue his attention to the official business of the Association at the next 
Meeting. 

Under these circumstances the Council requested Professor Phillips to draw 
up in writing such statements and suggestions as might appear to him likely 
to assist the Council in considering the steps to be taken in consequence of 
these announcements*. 

(7) The communication of Professor Phillips in reference to the appoint- 
ment of a General Secretary having been considered, the following Resolu- 
tion was adopted :— 


That the President, and the gentlemen who have formerly acted as General 
Secretaries, viz. the Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Sir R. I. Murchison, and 


* The statement drawn up by Professor Phillips in consequence of this request was 
eee in the Minutes of the Council, and separate copies were laid before the General 
ommittee. 


XXXI1 REPORT—1861. 


Major-General Sabine, together with Professor Phillips, be a Committee 
to consider and report the steps which they deem it advisable for the 
Council to take in regard to the appointment of a General Secretary ; 
and that their Report be printed and circulated among the Members of 
Council previous to their meeting in Manchester on the 4th of Septem- 
ber next. 

By the following Report, which has been received from these gentlemen, 
the General Committee will learn with satisfaction that, if it be their 
pleasure to elect him, the services of a most efficient and experienced Mem- 
ber, who has discharged many offices, including the Presidency, with great 
benefit to the Association, are at their disposal for the duty of General 
Secretary. 


Report of the Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Sir R. I. Murchison, and Maor- 
General Sabine. 


Considering the present state of health of the General Secretary of the 
British Association, the Rev. Professor Walker, F.R.S., and the announced 
withdrawal at no distant period of Professor John Phillips, F.R.S., from the 
post of Assistant General Secretary, which he has so long held, and with such 
very great advantage to the British Association, we the undersigned, as 
requested by the Council to propose some suitable arrangement, have now to 
express our unanimous opinion that Mr. William Hopkins, F.R.S., of St. 
Peter’s College, Cambridge, is eminently qualified to fill the post of Joint 
General Secretary. ; 

We beg to add that, having applied to Mr. Hopkins, we find that he cor- 
dially accepts the offer, and, with the sanction of the Council, will be ready 
to commence his duties at the ensuing Manchester Meeting. 

The consideration of the future relation of Professor Phillips to the British 
Association is postponed, in compliance with his own request. 


Former General 


Rop. I. Murcuison, Saureities 


WILLIAM VERNON Harcourt, 
July 25, 1861. EDWARD SABINE, 


The Council have resolved, in conformity with the recommendation of this 
Report, to propose to-day in the General Committee that W. Hopkins, Esq., 
M.A., F.R.S., be elected General Secretary. 

(8) The following Foreign gentlemen, eminent in Science, who were 


present at the late Oxford Meeting and took part in the proceedings, were 
elected Corresponding Members of the British Association :— 


Dr. Bergsma, Utrecht. M. Khanikoff, St. Petersburg. 
Dr. Carus, Leipzig. M. Werner Siemens, Vienna. 
Prof. A. Favre, Geneva. Prof. B. Pierce, Cambridge, U.S. 
Dr. Geinitz, Dresden. Prof. E. Verdet, Paris. 


Dr. Hochstetter, Vienna. 


(9) Major-General Sabine communicated a copy of the Statutes of the 
Humboldt Foundation, now definitely organized, and of a Circular issued by 
the Committee, announcing that about £8000 had been secured as a Capital 
Fund, and that about £260 will be available in the year 1862 for the general 
object of assisting Researches in Natural Science and Travels, in which Hum- 
boldt was conspicuously active. ‘The disposition of the fund rests with the 
Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and is open to applications from Scie 
entific Travellers of all nations. 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXlii 


(10) The Council are informed that Invitations will be presented to the 
General Committee at its Meeting on Monday, September 9, to hold the next 
meeting in Cambridge. ‘The invitations formerly offered on the part of 
Birmingham and Newcastle-on-Tyne will be renewed on this occasion ; and 
other invitations will be presented from Bath and Nottingham. 


Report of the Kew Committee of the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science for 1860-1861. 


The Committee of the Kew Observatory beg to submit to the Association 
the following Report of their proceedings during the past year. 

It was noticed in a previous Report that General Sabine had undertaken 
to tabulate the hourly values of the magnetic elements from the curves given 
by these instruments. These values have been reduced under his super- 
intendence, and some of the results have been embodied in the following 
papers which he has communicated to the Royal Society :— 

(1) On the Solar-diurnal Variation of the Magnetic Declination at Pekin. 
—Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. x. p. 360. 

(2) On the Laws of the Phenomena of the larger Disturbances of the 
Magnetic Declination in the Kew Observatory : with notices of the progress 
of our knowledge regarding the Magnetic Storms.—Proceedings of the 
Royal Society, vol. x. p. 624. 

(3) On the Lunar-diurnal Variation of the Magnetic Declination obtained 
from the Kew Photograms in the years 1858, 1859, and 1860.—Proceedings 
of the Royal Society, vol. xi. p. 73. 

The Superintendent, Mr. Stewart, has also communicated to the Royal 
Society a description of the great magnetic storm at the end of August and 
beginning of September 1859, deduced from the Kew Photographs. 

Mr. Chambers continues to be zealously employed in the magnetical de- 
partment, and attends to the self-recording magnetographs, which have been 
maintained in constant operation. 

The usual monthly absolute determinations of the magnetic elements con- 
tinue to be made; and the dip observations from November 1857 to the 
present date (282 in all), a large portion of which were made by the late 
Mr. Welsh and Mr. Chambers, have been made available by General Sabine 
in connexion with some previous observations of his own for determining 
the secular change in the magnetic dip in London, between the years 1821 
and 1860. See Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xi. p. 144. 

The instruments for the Dutch Government alluded to in the last Report 
have been verified at Kew and taken away. They consisted of a set of self- 
recording magnetographs with a tabulating instrument, two Dip Circles, and 
one Fox’s Dip Circle for Dr. Bergsma; also of two Unifilars, one for Dr. 
Bergsma and one for Dr. Buys Ballot. 

Shortly after the despatch of these instruments, another set of self-record- 
ing Magnetographs were received at Kew, in order to be tested previous to 


_ their being sent to Dr. Bache, of the United States, and these were despatched 


in the early part of this year to America, along with a tabulating instrument, 
a Unifilar, and Dip Circle, all of which were verified at Kew. 

The staff at Kew are at present occupied with a third set of these instru- 
ments, along with a Dip Circle and Unifilar, for the University of Coimbra ; 
and Prof. Da Souza of that University is engaged at present at the Kew 
Observatory in examining his instruments, and in receiving instructions 
regarding them. 

It will thus be seen that no fewer than three sets of these instruments 
1861. : c 


XXXIV > REPORT—1861. 


have been furnished during this last year, under the superintendence of the 
Committee, and it has hitherto been deemed advisable for the interests of 
science that no charge should be made for their verification. As this, how- 
ever, is an operation involving labour and a large expenditure of time, an 
application was made to the Royal Society for the sum of £90 from the 
Donation Fund, in order to cover the expense of verifying these three sets 
of instruments, while it was arranged that in future a charge of £30 for 
verification should be added to the cost of each set. This sum was at once 
granted by the Council of the Royal Society, and it will be found among 
the receipts in the financial statement appended to this Report. 

In addition to the instruments already mentioned, the following have also 
been verified at Kew Observatory :-— 

For the Havana Observatory, a set of differential magnetic instruments, 
also a Unifilar, Dip Circle, and an altitude and azimuth instrument for abso- 
lute determinations of the magnetic elements. 

For Dr. Smallwood, Montreal, a Unifilar, Dip Circle, and Differential 
Declinometer. 

For the Astronomer Royal, Greenwich, a 9-inch Unifilar. 

For the Rev. W. Scott, Sydney, a Unifilar and Dip Circle. 

For Dr. Livingstone, Africa, a Unifilar, Dip Circle, and Azimuth Compass. 

For Mr. Jackson, Bach. of Science, Ceylon, a Unifilar and Dip Circle. 

Mr. Jackson and M. Capello, of the Lisbon Observatory, have also received 
instruction at Kew in the use of instruments. 

The meteorological work of the Observatory continues to be performed in 
a satisfactory manner by Mr. George Whipple ; and here the Committee de- 
sire to mention that, both from the report of the Superintendent and from 
their own observation, each member of the staff at present attached to the 
establishment seems to interest himself in the duties he is called upon to 
discharge. 


During the past year, 150 Barometers, 660 Thermometers, and 8 Hydro- 


meters have been verified at the Observatory. 

Seven Standard Thermometers have also been constructed and disposed 
of. Dr. Bergsma and Dr. Buys Ballot were each presented with one of 
these instruments. 

For some time telegraphic reports of the meteorological elements were 
daily sent to Admiral FitzRoy’s office, the expense being defrayed by the 
Board of Trade; but these despatches were ultimately discontinued, on 
account of the Board of Trade having only a limited sum disposable for 


meteorological telegraphy, and Kew being too near London to prove a use- 


ful station. 

At the last Meeting at Oxford it was announced that the Kew Heliograph 
was about to be transported to Spain for the purpose of photographing, if 
possible, the so-called red flames visible on the occasion of a total solar 
eclipse. ‘That the mission had most successfully accomplished the object 


contemplated was known in England on the morning of the 19th of July, 


1860 (the day after the eclipse), by the publication in the ‘ Times’ news- 
paper of a telegram sent by Mr. Warren De la Rue from Rivabellosa, near 
Miranda, where the Kew party were stationed. 

It will be remembered that, at the suggestion of the Astronomer Royal, 
the Admiralty had placed at the disposal of the expedition of astronomers 
H.M. Ship ‘Himalaya,’ and that the Government Grant Committee of the 
Royal Society had voted the sum of £150 for the purpose of defraying the 
aes of transporting the Kew Heliograph with a staff of assistants to 

pain. 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE, XXXV 


As the scheme became matured, it was deemed desirable to extend con- 
siderably the preparations originally contemplated; and actual experience 
subsequently proved that no provision which had been made could have 
been safely omitted. Originally it was thought that a mere temporary tent 
for developing the photographs might have answered the purpose ; but on 
maturing the scheme of operations, it became evident that a complete photo- 
graphic observatory, with its dark developing-room, cistern of water, sink, 
and shelves to hold the photographs, would be absolutely necessary to ensure 
success. An observatory was therefore constructed in such a manner that 
it could be taken to pieces and made into packages of small weight for easy 
transport, and at the same time be readily put together again on the locality 
selected. The house when completed weighed 1248 lbs., and was made up 
in eight cases. Altogether the packages, including house and apparatus, 
amounted in number to thirty, and in weight to 34 ewt. 

Besides the Heliograph, the apparatus comprised a small transit theodolite 
for determining the position of the meridian, and ascertaining local time and 
the latitude and longitude of the station, and also a very fine three-inch 
achromatic telescope, by Dallmeyer, for the optical observation of the phe- 
nomena of the eclipse. Complete sets of chemicals were packed in du- 
plicate in separate boxes, to guard against failure through a possible accident 
to one set of the chemicals. Collodion of different qualities was made 
seusitive in London, and some was taken not rendered sensitive, so as to 
secure as far as possible good results. Distilled water, weighing 139 lbs., 
had to be included ; and engineers’ and carpenters’ tools, weighing 113 lbs., 
were taken. 

Mr. Casella lent some thermometers and a barometer, and Messrs. 
Elliott an aneroid barometer to the expedition. 

The preparations were commenced by Mr. Beckley (of the Kew Observa- 
tory) early in the year 1860; and in June Mr. De la Rue engaged Mr. 
Reynolds to assist Mr. Beckley in completing them. 

Mr. Beckley and Mr. Reynolds were charged with the erection of the 
Observatory at Rivabellosa ; and so well were the plans organized that the 
Observatory and Heliograph were in actual operation on the 12th of July, 
the expedition having sailed from Plymouth in the ‘ Himalaya’ on the 
morning of the 7th. This could not, however, have been so expeditiously 
accomplished without the energetic cooperation of Mr. Vignoles, who met 
the ‘ Himalaya’ in a small steamer he had chartered to convey the expedi- 
tion and their apparatus into the port of Bilbao, and who despatched the 
Kew apparatus, as soon as it was landed, to the locality he and Mr. Dela Rue 
had agreed upon. This was situated seventy miles distant from the port of 
landing, and accessible only through a difficult pass. Mr. Vignoles had also 
taken the trouble to make arrangements for accommodating the Kew party, 
and for the due supply of provisions—a matter of some importance in such 
a locality. 

Besides Mr. De la Rue, Mr. Beckley, and Mr. Reynolds, the party con- 
sisted of Mr. Downes and Mr. E. Beck, two gentlemen who gave their 
gratuitous services, and of Mr. Clark, who acted as interpreter, also kindly 
assisting during the eclipse. Each of the party had only one thing to attend 
to; and thus rapidity of operation and certainty of result were secured. 

The total expenditure of this expedition amounted to £512; the balance 
of £362 over the amount granted by the Royal Society has been generously 
defrayed by Mr. De la Rue. 

Upwards of forty photographs were taken during the eclipse and a little 
before and after it, two being taken during the totality, on which are depicted 

c2 


XXXVi REPORT—1861. 


the Juminous prominences with a precision impossible of attainment by hand 
drawings. ‘The measurements which have been made of these prominences 
by Mr. De la Rue show incontrovertibly that they must belong to the sun, 
and that they are not produced by the deflection of the sun’s light through 
the valleys of the moon. The same prominences, except those covered over 
during the moon’s progress, correspond exactly when one negative is laid 
over the other; and by copying these by means of a camera, when so placed, 
a representation is obtained of the whole of the prominences visible during 
the eclipse in their true relative position. The photographs of the several 
phases of the eclipse have served to trace out the path of the moon’s centre 
in reference to the sun’s centre during the progress of the phenomenon. 
Now, Rivabellosa being north of the central line of the moon’s shadow, the 
moon’s centre did not pass exactly across the sun’s centre, but was depressed 
a little below it, so that a little more of the prominences situated on the 
north (the upper) limb of the sun became visible than would have been the 
case exactly under the central line, while, on the other hand, a little of those 
on the southern limb was shut off. It has been proved, by measuring the 
photographs, that the moon during the totality covered and uncovered the 
prominences to the extent of about 94” of arc in the direction of her path, 
and thata prominence situated at a right angle to the path shifted its angular 
position with respect to the moon’s centre by lagging behind 5°55’. On 
both the photographs is recorded a prominence, not visible optically, showing 
that photography can render visible phenomena which without its aid would 
escape observation. Copies of the two totality pictures are being made to 
illustrate Mr. De la Rue’s paper in the Report of the ‘ Himalaya’ Expedition 
by the Astronomer Royal. . 

Positive enlarged copies of the phases of the eclipse, nine inches in dia- 
meter, have also been made by means of the camera, and will be exhibited 
at the Manchester Meeting. 

The Heliograph has since been replaced in the Observatory; but few 
opportunities have occurred for using it, in consequence of the pressure of 
other work ; latterly, however, Mr. Beckley has been requested to carry ou 
some experiments with the view of ascertaining whether any more details 
are rendered visible when the full aperture of 3 inches of the telescope is 
used, than when it is reduced to about one inch and a half. Up to the pre- 
sent time no definite conclusion can be drawn from the results obtained ; so 
that, at all events, an increase of aperture does not appear to givea strikingly 
better result when a picture of the same size is taken with various apertures 
of the object-glass. More experiments, however, are needed before this 
point, which is one of some importance in guiding us in the construction of 
future instruments, can be answered definitely. Mr. Beckley has obtained 
sun-pictures of great beauty during the course of these experiments. 

The work of the Kew Observatory is now so increased that it has become 
absolutely imperative to make some provision for working the Heliograph 
in a way that will not interfere with the current work of that establishment ; 
and Mr. De la Rue has been requested by his colleagues of the Kew Com- 
mittee to take charge of the instrument at his observatory, where celestial 
photography is continuously, carried on. This request Mr. Dela Rue has 
kindly acceded to; and he.will for a time undertake to record the sun-spots 
at Cranford, as long as it is found not to interfere with his other observations. 
Mr. De la Rue has contrived, and had made by Messrs. Simms at his own 
expense, an instrument for measuring the photographs, which will much facili- 
tate the reduction of the results. ‘It consists of a fixed frame in which work 
two slides, moving at right angles to each other. Each is furnished with a 


REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. - XXXVil 


vernier reading to =,,th of an inch. The top slide works on the lower 
slide, and carries a hollow axis 44 inches diameter, on which rotates hori- 
zontally a divided circle reading to 10", and this carries a second circle on 
the face of which are fixed four centering screws. An image intended to 
be measured is placed on the upper circle, and is centred by means of the 
adjusting screws ; it is then adjusted by means of the upper circle in any 
required angular position with respect to the lower divided circle, so as to 
bring the cross lines of the photograph in position under a fixed microscope, 
supported on an arm from the fixed frame. By means of this instrument 
the sun-pictures are measured so as to determine the diameter to = ,>th of 
the radius ; the angular position of any part of a sun-spot and its distance 
from the centre are thus readily ascertained ; or the differences of the right 
ascension and declination with respect to the centre are as easily read off to 
the same degree of accuracy. 

Mr. De la Rue has recently produced by his large Telescope an image of 
a solar spot, and portion of the sun’s dise, far superior to anything before 
effected, and which leads to the hope that a new era is opened in heliography, 
and that the resources of this Observatory might be further developed in 
that direction. 

At the last Meeting of the Association the sum of £90 was voted for an 
additional photographer, and of this sum £50 has been received. The Com- 
mittee suggest that the balance of £40 be granted again at this Meeting, as 
the full sum will be required during the ensuing year. A detailed account 
of this expenditure will be presented in the next Annual Report. 

Allusion was made in last Report to an instrument constructed by Prof. 
William Thomson, of Glasgow, fer determining photographically the electric 
state of the atmosphere. ‘This instrument has been fitted up at Kew, where 
it has been in constant operation since the beginning of February last. It 
has been found to answer well in a photographie point of view, and Prof. 
Thomson has expressed himself much pleased with the results obtained. 
The mechanical arrangements connected with the fitting up of this instru- 
ment were devised and executed with much skill by Mr. Beckley, the 
Mechanical Assistant, who has also recently made a working drawing of the 
instrument for Prof. Thomson, who intends to publish a description of it. 

The arrangements made by Mr. Francis Galton, in the Observatory Park, 
for testing sextants, and which were alluded to in last Report, are now almost 
complete ; and six sextants sent by Captain Washington, R.N., Her Majesty’s 
Hydrographer, have been verified. 

The Observatory was honoured with a visit from His Imperial Highness 
Prince Napoleon on the 9th of September last. His Highness expressed 
much satisfaction at witnessing the efficient state of the Institution. 

Application has been made to the Commissioners for the International 
Exhibition of 1862, for a space of 40 feet by 20, in which to exhibit as 
many as possible of the instruments in use at the Observatory, including 
those which are self-recording. 

The Committee desire to express their thanks for a valuable addition 
which has been made to the Library at Kew, consisting of a very large number 
of the Greenwich publications, presented to them through the kindness of the 
Astronomer Royal. 

It will be observed by the annexed statement that the expenditure of last 
year has exceeded the income by about £90; but as this year comprised 
five quarters, it is hoped that the usual annual grant of £500 will cover the 
expense until the next Meeting of the Association. 

Kew Observatory, Joun P. Gassior, 

“August 30, 1861. Chairman. 


REPORT—1861. 


_XXXY1ll 


‘“NOLLOHA “ad 


— 


Ea ee ae a es 


iene ei Ne. ee ee 
“1981 


*Ayuo read v Jo siozavnb-9a1q} 10J useq Suravy yunovoe 


qstl ayy Ur yey} ‘JayeNb & puv avak JU OJ St AVIA SI} ‘OI ‘SoLIeTeS IO aINyIpUadxa ayy yeyI pue ‘ “ps se BL Jo WHS aY1 Aq poatooar asoyy 
povoxa papuadxe syunoue oy} yey} puy T pur ‘our 0} pazuasaad sxoyonOA oy} YITA JT porvdotoo puv yunodde oAoqe 94} pauIWEXE oAry ] 


4 ¢& Gf 


8 OL 86LF 


OT Ot 
Ot ZT 


9 GL 
9T LT 
0 6F 
Ot £3 
9 0¢ 
FI &P 


SAOAANS S&S & 


ps F&F 


bletho =e 


0 OL 
ee 2 se co T 19Q039O 


ek — al — 2 — a — 0s — ee — 
i=) 
a 
N 
eal 


"s 


ss 


soeeepanecesenseesessrasseoeess QOUBIET 


""* TORT “19G0PO WOT OF puevy Jo ua 
{ *-9Spay e@ Suyueld yo pur ‘yo41p 

| @ YIM adnsopoua Surpunosins jo 4809 
sreeseeseeeeces sosuadxa Aqjad pues o3v10910g 
treseesecees sony (KaTpuryy ‘sasuadxy asnozy 
tteeertseaeteesenneeeeereereres® SBC) PUL §[BOD 
*wadeysog pur ‘syoog ‘Arau0yeig ‘Buynuitg 
“'"**TOSBI, put ‘1ojuadieg ‘1aSuouuosy 
srreeeesoese eon S100], ‘STBaIVI ‘snyereddy 


esenenneeeenterereseeesg7T ae (TQRT 
‘z, saqmojdeg Surpua ‘syeoun cz “OIG 

Lee eee 42 ‘TO8T 
‘TT yore Surpua ‘s3]9044 9% ‘out 

7 Ne, cate Bee "8g 48 ‘098I ‘OL 
Joquiaydag Surpus ‘eyeoas iat ‘ye, “iL 
erseeeneesenses “SO 4u “TORT 'Z 10q 
-miaydag Surpus ‘syoom 79 *Aop00€ _T 
ssereteeeaenertereseeeeaeees TOT COT 
Jaqmaydag Zurpuo ‘1aj.1enb auo £0441 


viteeeeaeerneeneeseerarteeres TQQT (QT 
aung Surpua ‘sxo3aenb moj ‘atddiy \\ "9 


Prat 4 rics @anralb cae ‘9 1940199 


Zurpua ‘sioyrenb say ‘stoquivyg ‘oO 
A SeeeeneenrnneesessessoeartsesesesQQcTig’ 
[ -xa Suryoavsy Ayj,0d roy pamorye ‘0941 


BZurpue ‘staqzaenb aay ‘aVaaig “g{ OF 
—! ‘om ‘SOLIR[es 
“SINGWAVd 


8 GL 86LF 


a a YT 
8 SL 9g ‘'''''9t WOdN poMojsoq INOGr] pue r93900T 

-ONOo[Y Burpx«ooar-jjas sity ypLM pajoau 

-u0d sasuodxd OF UOSMIOYT, “MA Jorg wow 
0 0 06 ‘sydeaZojouseyy Jo UONVOgLIOA 94} IOJ 

Ayatoog yekoy oy} Jo puny uoyeuog oy} woy “ 
Gola? Sa 

0 T 98 shee eeeereeseneretes suvioydg mol 

0 9 LI cigele« cekisle rowies AA re ITU i ay} mol 

0 8T 4 “""" apery Jo prvog oy} woIy 

‘pS F —SUIMINAYsUy JO MONOUIIOA oy} Oy “ 
0 0 00G “ts JaMsvarT], [eI9UIy 9Y4 WOIZ POAtooIy 
GB LL itiittieeereesseseesers gumogoe yse] mouy oounleg 
ps ¥ 


“SLdIGOTe 


“19ST “p uaquardag 07 ‘O98T ‘SI aung wosf uoynuossp YsuIMg ayp Jo aayumog may ay) fo syunoooy 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. XXxix 


Report of the Parliamentary Committee to the Meeting of the British 
Association at Manchester, in September 1861. 


The Parliamentary Committee have the honour to report :— 

That on the 19th of July they met the Steam Performance Committee, by 
appointment, at the Admiralty, and had, in company with the Members of 
that Committee, an interview with the Duke of Somerset. 

That in the course of that interview the Chairman of your Committee 
shortly explained the motives which had induced the British Association to 
appoint the Steam Performance Committee, and called upon Mr. Fairbairn, 
who thereupon stated and explained the principal suggestions contained in 
the Report of the Steam Performance Committee, which had been prepared 
and agreed upon, and will be presented to this Meeting; and urged upon 
His Grace the expediency of carrying them into effect. 

The Duke of Somerset, in reply, stated certain objections which he en- 
tertained to some of the suggestions, founded chiefly upon the circumstances 
that sufficient time could not be allowed for the various experiments con- 
sistently with the interests of the service, and that the ships of the Royal 
Navy only employed steam occasionally, and only as an auxiliary power ; 
but His Grace was understood to agree to supply such information to the 
scientific public as could be done without improperly interfering with the 
performance of ordinary duties. 

The Dukes of Devonshire and Argyll, the Earls of Enniskillen, Har- 
rowby, Rosse and De Grey, Lord Stanley and Sir John Pakington, must be 
considered as having vacated their seats in your Committee, in pursuance of 
the resolution adopted at Liverpool in 1854 ; but your Committee recommend 
that they should be re-elected. Your Committee also recommend that 
the two vacancies in the House of Commons List be filled by the election of 


Sir Joseph Paxton and Lieut.-Col. Sykes. 
WrottesLey, Chairman. 


RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE 
MaAncuHester MEETING IN SEPTEMBER 1861. 


[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary of 
the Committee, except there be a specific nomination.] 


Involving Grants of Money. 


That the sum of £500 be appropriated, under the sanction of the Council, 
for maintaining the Establishment at Kew. 

That the sum of £40 be placed at the disposal of the Kew Committee for 
the employment of the Photo-heliometer. 

That the cooperation of the Royal Society be requested in obtaining a 

‘series of photographic pictures of the Solar Surface; and that the sum of 
£150 be placed at the disposal of the Kew Committee for the purpose. 
__ That Professor Airy, Lord Wrottesley, Sir D. Brewster, Col. Sykes, Sir 
J. Herschel, General Sabine, Dr. Lloyd, Admiral FitzRoy, Dr. Lee, Dr. Ro- 
binson, Mr. Gassiot, Mr. Glaisher, Dr. Tyndall, and Dr. W. A. Miller be 
requested to form a Balloon Committee ; and that the sum of £200 be placed 
at their disposal for the purpose. ‘ 

That Professor Williamson, Professor Wheatstone, Professor W. Thomson, 
Professor Miller (of Cambridge), Dr. Matthiessen, and Mr. F. Jenkin be a 


xls. REPORT—1861. 


Committee to report upon Standards of Electrical Resistance; and that the 
sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. R. P. Greg, Mr. E. W. Brayley, and Mr. Alex. 
Herschel be a Committee to report upon Luminous Meteors and A€rolites ; 
and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Fleeming Jenkin be requested to continue his Experiments for 
determining the Laws of Permanent Thermo-electric Currents in broken 
metallic circuits, and to report thereon; and that the sum of £20 be placed 
at his disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor Hennessy, Admiral FitzRoy, and Mr. Glaisher be a Com- 
mittee to study, by the aid of instruments specially devised for the purpose, 
the connexion of small vertical disturbances of the atmosphere with storms, 
and to report thereon; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal 
for the purpose. 

That Mr. Alphonse Gages be requested to continue his Researches on 
Mechanico-Chemical Analysis of Minerals ; and that the sum of £8 remaining 
undrawn from the grant of last year be again placed at his disposal for the 

urpose. 
4 That Dr. Hooker, Mr. Binney, and Professor Morris be a Committee to 
prepare a Report on the connexion between the external form and internal 
microscopical structure of the Fossil Wood from the Lower Coal-Measures of 
Lancashire; and that the sum of £40 be placed at their disposal for the 
purpose. 

That Sir C. F. Bunbury *, Mr. Binney, and Mr. H. Ormerod be requested 
to prepare a Report on the Flora of the Lancashire Coal-fields ; and that the 
sum of £40 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. R. H. Scott, Sir Richard Griffith, Bart., and the Rev. Professor 
Haughton be a Committee to prepare a Report on the Chemical and Mine- 
ralogical Composition of the Granites of Donegal and the Rocks associated 
therewith; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the 
purpose. 

That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Alder, and the Rev. Thomas Hincks be a 
Committee to Dredge the Dogger Bank and portions of the Sea Coast of 
Durham and Northumberland; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their 
disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Dr. Dickie, Professor Nicol, Dr. Dyce, and 
Dr. Ogilvie be a Committee for Dredging on the North and East Coasts of 
Scotland; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Dr. Kinahan, Dr. Carter, and Mr. E. Waller be a 
Committee for conducting the Dredging Report of the Bay of Dublin; and 
that the sum of £15 ve placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Dr. Collingwood, Mr. Isaac Byerley, Rev. H. 
H. Higgins, and Dr. Edwards be a Committee to Dredge the River Mersey 
and Dee; and that the sum of £5 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Dr. Lukis, Mr. C. Spence Bate, Mr. A. Han- 
cock, Dr. Verloren, and Professor Archer be a Committee for the purpose of 
Reporting on the best mode of preventing the ravages of the different kinds 
of Teredo and other Animals in our Ships and Harbours; and that the sum 
of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. P. Lutley Sclater, Mr. R. J. Tomes, and Dr. Giinther be a 
Committee to Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the West 
Indian Vertebrata; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the 
purpose. 
* Sir C. F. Bunbury has declined to act. 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xli 


That Dr. P. Lutley Sclater and Dr. F. Hochstetter be a Committee for the 
purpose of continuing their investigations as to the Species of Apteryz in New 
Zealand ; ant that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Professor W. H. Harvey be a Committee 
to draw up a Report on the Fishes of Dublin Bay and the Coasts of Leinster ; 
and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. P. Lutley Sclater and Dr. E. Perceval Wright be a Committee 
to assist Dr. P. P. Carpenter in preparing a Supplementary Report on the 
Mollusca of N.W. America; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their dis- 
posal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Collingwood, Mr. John Lubbock, Mr. R. Patterson, Dr. P. P 
Carpenter, Mr. J. A. Turner, M.P., and the Rev. H. H. Higgins be a Com- 
mittee to Report on the Collecting of Objects of Natural History by the 
Mercantile Marine, with £5 at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Edward Smith, F.R.S., and Mr. W. R. Milner be requested to 
continue their inquiries into the influence of Prison Discipline and Dietary 
over the Bodily Functions of Prisoners; and that the sum of £20 be placed 
at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Thomas Webster, the Right Hon. Joseph Napier, Sir W. Arm- 
strong, Mr. W. Fairba rn, Mr. W. R. Grove, Mr. James Heywood, and Ge- 
neral Sabine be a Committee (with power to add to their number) for the 
purpose of taking such steps as may appear expedient for rendering the 
Patent Law more efficient for the reward of the meritorious Inventor and 
the advancement of Practical Science; and that the sum of £50 be placed at 
their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor J. Thomson be requested to complete his Report of Ex- 
periments on the Gauging of Water; and that the sum of £15 be placed at 
his disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. William Fairbairn, Mr. J. E. M¢Connell, and Mr. William Smith 
be a Committee (with power to add to their number) to investigate and re- 
port on some of the Causes of Accidents on Railways, more particularly those 
accidents consequent upon the failure of the materials and apparatus used in 
the Construction and Working of Railways, and in the Rolling Stock; that 
the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That the Committee on Steam-ship Performance be reappointed; that the 
attention of the Committee be also directed to the obtaining of information 
respecting the performance of vessels under Sail, with a view to comparing 
the results of the two powers of Wind and Steam, in order to their more 
effective and economical combination ; and that the sum of £150 be placed at 
their disposal. ‘That the following ncblemen and gentlemen be requested to 
serve on the Committee, with power to add to their number:—The Duke 
of Sutherland; The Earl of Gifford, M.P.; The Earl of Caithness; Lord 
Dufferin; Mr. William Fairbairn, F.R.S.; Mr. J. Scott Russell, F.R.S.; 
Admiral Paris; The Hon. Captain Egerton, R.N.; The Hon. Leopold Agar 
Ellis, M.P.; Mr. J. E. M¢Connell; Mr. W. Smith; Professor J. Macquorn 
Rankine; Mr. James lt. Napier; Mr. Richard Roberts; Mr. Henry Wright, 
to be Honorary Secretary. 

That Mr. J. Oldham, C.E., Mr. J. F. Bateman, Mr. J. Scott Russell, and 
Mr. T. Thompson be a Committee to conduct a series of Tidal Observations 
in the Humber; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the 
purpose. 

That the sum of £600 be appropriated for the purpose of printing an Index 
to the Volumes of Reports and Sectional Proceedings of the Association, 
from 1831 to 1860 inclusive. 


xlii REPORT—1861. 


That Professor Phillips be authorized to employ for the ensuing year an 
Assistant, and that the sum of £100 be placed at his disposal for the purpose. 


Applications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants 
of Money. 

That Professor G. G. Stokes be again requested to furnish a Report on 
Physical Optics. 

- That Mr. A. Cayley be again requested to furnish a Report on the Recent 
Progress in the Solution of certain Problems in Dynamics. 

That Mr. Archibald Smith and Mr. F. J. Evans be requested to abstract 
and report upon the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee, 
and other recent publications on the same subject. 

That Mr. Johnstone Stoney be requested to report on the Present State 

‘of Molecular Physics. 
That Dr. Lloyd, General Sabine, Mr. A. Smith, Mr. G. Johnstone Stoney, 
Professor Airy, Professor Donkin, Professor W. Thomson, Mr. Cayley, and 
the Rev. Professor Price be requested to inquire into the adequacy of exist- 
ing data for carrying into effect the suggestion of Gauss to apply his General 
‘Theory of Magnetism to Magnetic Variations; and to report on the steps 
proper to be taken to supply what may still be wanting, and generally on the 
course to be adopted to carry out Gauss’s suggestion. 

That Dr. Crace Calvert be requested to draw up a Report on the Che- 
mical Composition and Physical Properties of the Wood employed for Naval 
Construction. 

That Dr. Williamson, Dr. W. A. Miller, Dr. Andrews, Professor Brodie, 
Professor W. H. Miller, Dr. Lyon Playfair, and Dr. Angus Smith (with 
power to add to their number) be requested to inquire into the best means 
of effecting a registration and publication of the Numerical Facts of Che- 
mistry. 

That Dr. Williamson, Dr. Angus Smith, Dr. Christison, Mr. W. De la Rue, 
Mr. Grove, Mr. Webster, Mr. Bateman, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, Professor 
Brodie, and Professor W. A. Miller be requested to consider whether any im- 
provements can be suggested in the present practice respecting scientific 
evidence, as taken in courts of law, and to report any such suggestions of 
improvement as may appear practicable to the ensuing Meeting at Cam- 
bridge; that the Committee have power to add to their number. 

That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. R. MacAndrew, Mr. G. C. Hyndman, 
Dr. Edwards, Dr. Dickie, Mr. C. L. Stewart, Dr. Collingwood, Dr. Kinahan, 
Mr. J. S. Worthey, Dr. E. Perceval Wright, Mr. J. Ray Greene, Rev. 
Thomas Hincks, and Mr. R. D. Darbyshire to act as a General Dredging 
Committee, with a general superintendence of all other Dredging Com- 
mittees appointed by the Association. 

That M. Foster, M.D. be reappointed to report upon the Present State of 
our Knowledge in reference to Muscular Irritability, he having been unable 
from ill health to prepare it for the present Meeting. 

_ That Admiral Sir E. Belcher, Sir J. Rennie, Mr. G. Rennie, and Mr. Smith 
be requested to report on the Rise and Progress of Steam Navigation in 
the Port of London. 

That Mr. W. Fairbairn, Mr. J. F. Bateman, Professor Thomson, and Mr. 
J. G. Lynde be requested to report on Experiments to be made at the Man- 
chester Waterworks on the Gauging of Water; with power to add to their 
number. 

That in the opinion of the Committee a large and extensive Reform in the 


tee! Fy 


Sees ee ee 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xliil 


Patent Laws and their administration is necessary and urgent; that the dis- 
cussion which took place indicated the means for effecting such reform ; that 
the Parliamentary Committee of this Association might be advantageously 
employed in bringing the subject before Parliament, and that they be re- 
quested to give their attention to the subject, and to take the necessary steps 
for the purpose. That Mr. Webster and Mr. Grove be requested to make the 
communication to the Parliamentary Committee. 

The following recommendation was referred to the Parliamentary Com- 
mittee :—“ That application be made to the Charity Commissioners of Eng- 
land and Wales to provide sufficient means for the Classification and Con- 
densation of the Accounts of Charities sent in Annually to the Charity Com- 
missioners.” That Mr. Heywood be requested to communicate with the 
Parliamentary Committee. ; 


Involving Applications to Government or Public Institutions. 


That a Committee, consisting of Dr. Robinson, Professor Wheatstone, 
and Dr. Gladstone, be requested to make application to the Board of Trade 
for Experiments on the Transmission of Sound Signals during Fogs. 

That it be represented to the Secretary of State for India, that inquiries 
into Prisons similar to those made by Dr. Mouat on the Prisons of Bengal, 
as detailed by him from his printed Reports, be instituted in the other Pre- 
sidencies of India, especially in those of the Punjaub and the North-West 
Provinces. 

That Dr. Davy, Dr. Smith, and Mr. Miller be a Committee to make a 
representation in this matter to the Secretary of State for India. 


Communications to be printed entire among the Reports. 


That Dr. Lloyd’s Paper, on the Secular Changes of Terrestrial Magnetism 
and their Connexion with Disturbances, be printed entire in the Sectional 
Proceedings of the Association. 

That the Report of Drs. Schunck, Smith, and Roscoe, on the Recent Pro- 
gress and Present Condition of Manufacturing Chemistry in the South 
Lancashire District, be printed entire among the Reports. 

That Dr. James Hunt’s Paper, on the Acclimatization of Man, be printed 
entire among the Reports. 

That Mr. Charles Atherton’s Paper, on Freight as affected by difference 
of the Dynamic Performance of Steam-Ships, be printed entire among the 
Reports. 

That Mr. E. J. Reed’s Paper, on the Iron-Cased Ships of the British Ad- 
miralty, be printed entire in the Sectional Proceedings. = 


Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by 
the General Committee at the Manchester Meeting in September 
1861, with the name of the Member, who alone, or as the First of a 
Committee, is entitled to draw the Money. 


Kew Observatory. igt"b.c02 
For maintaining the Establishment at Kew..........ssssss00.55 500 O O 
Pees oo ~~” €arried forward...... £500 0 0 


xliv REPORT—1861. 


agian forward...... 
For Photo-heliometry at Kew ...........0.000+ nade 
For Photographic pictures of the Sun. 


Mathematics and Physics. 


Syxes, Colonel, and Cummittee.—Balloon Ascents .......+«++ 
Wixtiamson, Professor, and Committee.—Electrical Resist- 

ance .., sackeaaps 
GLAISHER, Mr. “and Cannas ET amido ‘Meteors Bpaser 
Jenkin, Mr. —_Thermo- BIectricity .....0..scecseoncs cor sacieceneones 
Hennessy, Professor, and Committee.—Connexion of Storms 


Chemical Science. 
Gaces, Mr.—Analysis of Rocks .........sesssssesrseaseeesevesenes 


Geology. 


Hooker, Dr., and Committee.-—Lancashire Fossil Wood ...... 
Hooxer, Dr., and Committee.— Lancashire Carbonaceous 

Plora,%..:... Deiseaeeenanen 
Scott, Mr., and Committee. Rocks of Donegal . sia dele Ruma as 


Zoology and Botany. 


Jerrreys, Mr.,and Committee——Dredging Coasts of Durham 
and Northumberland ............csccssesesceeeseeeceseccoececsenens 

JeFFReEYS, Mr., and Committee-—Dredging North-East Coast 
of Ireland. .......... 

JEFFREYS, Mr., and Committee. Dredging i in Dublin Bay .. 

Jerrreys, Mr., and Committee.—Dredging in the Mersey .. 


JEFFREYS, Mr., and Committee—Ravages of Teredo ......... 
SciaTer, Dr., and Committee——West Indian Vertebrata ...... 
Scrater, Dr., and Committee.—Apteryx ....... oobi 
Wricat, Dr., and Committee.—Fishes in Dublin Bay . poulteeee 


SciaTeEr, Dr., and Committee——Mollusca, N.W. America ... 
CoLtincwoon, Dr., and Committee.—Collecting of Natural 


Physiology. 
Smitu, Dr. E., and Mr. Mitner.—Effects of Prison Discipline 


Mechanical Science. 


WessTeEr, Mr., and Committee.—On Patent Laws... 

Tuomson, Professor J—Gauging ....... Saceee 

FarrBairn, Mr., and Committee -—Railwe ay “Accidents......... 

SUTHERLAND, Duke of, and Committee.—Steam-ship Perform- 
ance 


OLDHAM, Mr.,. and Committee. Tide Observations, “Hinhber 


For Printing of Index to Reports and Transactions and Sec- 
tions, from 1831 to 1860 inclusive .........sscsccececeeceeuseeee 
For Assistance to Professor Phillips...........ssssscsccccssessesees 


ce) se Wd. 
500 0 0 

40 0 O 
150 0 O 
200 


So) 

o 
oooo ©& 
oooo 9° 


8 0 0 
40 0 O 
40 0 O 
20. 0 20 
25 0 0 
25 0 0 
15°%0: 0 
5 0 0 
10 O O 
10j20. 0 
50 0 0 
10 0 O 
10 0 O 
5 0 0 
20 0 0 
50 0 0 
15 0 0 
25 0 0 
150 0 O 

25 0 0 
600 0 0 
100 0 O 


Total ......£2263 0 O 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


‘xlv 


General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for 


Scientific Purposes. 
£85 d. £ 3s. d. 
1834. Meteorology and Subterranean 
Tide Discussions ....ccccreeeseeess 20 0 0 Temperatures... ccaccacesscsasssess 2h011') 0 
1835 Vitrification Experiments......... 9 4 7 
Tide Discussions iterate iloks » 62 0 0 Cast Iron Experiments............ 100 0 0 
British Fossil Ichthyclo 105 0 0 | Railway Constants... 28 7 2 
VOTO.» so0nke Land and Sea Level..........0.... 274 1 4 
£167 0 0 | Steam-vessels’ Engines...... wees 100 0 0 
1b86 Stars in Histoire Céleste ......... 331 18 6 
Tide Discussions ...,.......0...-- 163 0 0 ce a Sp er hia epryne os ‘ - 
British Fossil Ichthyology ...... iil aie Rit cleo Sona ars ocean 10 10.0 
Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 0 | CUIMAL SECKENONS. «sseseee-seeees e 
5 = Steam-engines in Cornwall . 50 0 0 
Experiments on long-continued Atmospheric Air 1610 
eee ree nb | Cast and Wrought Iromses.aseese 40 0 0 
Refraction Experiments arageeceapy Lon 04 0 sabi has cp | cecrabhagerr ale eaairile 
Tater Naintion 60 0 0 Gases on Solar Spectrum......... 22 0 0 
eer imcters BRERA 15 6 0 Hourly Meteorological Observa- 
: RY ee aa tions, Inverness and Kingussie 49 7 8 
ae Fossil Reptiles .......se.sseeeeeeee8 118 2 9 
1837. Mining Statistics cessseeeseteeseees 90 0 0 
Tide Discussions .,,......0e..000. 284 1 0 £1595 110 
Chemical Constants .........e000. 2413 6 
Lunar Nutation..........c0...0006 70 0 0 : , 1840. 
Observations on Waves..........+- 100 12 0 | Bristol Tides.........cesserereereee 100 0 0 
Paden at Bristol..........s0.02 0000 . 150 0 0 | Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6 
Meteorology and Subterranean Heart Experiments ............. 18 19 0 
Temperature ...ssseereesseeeeeee 89 5 0 | Lungs Experiments ............ 8 13 0 
Vitrification Experiments......... 150 0 0 | Tide Discussions ..........0000. 50 0 0 
Heart Experiments .......... eeeee 8 4 6 | Land and Sea Level............. «- 611 1 
Barometric Observations ......... 30 0 0 | Stars (Histoire Céleste) .,....... 242 10 0 
EEMNICUETS) oeeccssecevetscovsisiacee, 11.18 ..6)) Stars (Lacaille) vt vearctesavees 14.15 6 
£918 14.6 oS (Catalogue) ......... sesereeee 264 0 0 
tmospheric Air ....sscccccoseeeee 15 15 0 
1838. Water on Iron ......... sovsssscense 10 0 O 
Tide Discussions ..........e+0ee... 29 0 0 | Heat on Organic Bodies ......... 7 0 0 
British Fossil Fishes ............ 100 0 | Meteorological Observations...,.. 5217 6 
Meteorological Observations and Foreign Scientific Memoirs .,.... 112 1 6 
Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0 | Working Population.,............. 100 0 0 
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... se 60 0 0 | School Statistics.........0000.000 50 0 0 
Animal and Vegetable Substances Forms of Vessels .....csssseese00e 184 7 0 
(Preservation of) .s+.....0.40eee 19 1 10 | Chemical and Electrical Pheno- 
Railway Constants .......... coors 41 12 10 MENA wsssecssecssecseererseeseseeee 40 0 0 
Bristol Tides ........ss00sss:es0eeee 50 0 0 | Meteorological Observations at 
Growth of Plants .....s00..000. 75 0 0 Plymouth sseeeesssseseeerseseese 80 0 0 
Mud in Rivers .......sesseseeees.ee 3 6 6 | Magnetical Observations ...,..... 185 13 9 
Education Committee secsesseceee 50 0 0 “£1546 16 4 
Heart Experiments ............... 5 3 0 
Land and Sea Level............... 267 8 7 1841, 
Subterranean Temperature ....... 8 6 0 Observations on Waves......002... 30 0 0 
Steam-vessels.s......ssssseesseeseees 100 0 0| Meteorology and Subterranean 
Meteorological Committee ...... 31 9 5 Temperature ......ss.sseeeseeeree 8 8 0 
Thermometers .,...,+0eesseeeee006. 16 4 0] Actinometers........... secsssreereee 10 0 0 
£956 12 2 Earthquake Shocks .....,......... 17 7 0 
———— Acrid POISONS........0.00.008 secvccee OOO 
; 1839. Veins and Absorbents ............ 3 0 0 
Fossil Ichthyology.........sesee000+ 110 0 0 | Mud in Rivers veecececccsccoeeese 5 0 0 
Meteorological Observations at Marine Zoology......sssesesecseeese 15 12 8 
Plymouth sesseeeseveseeseesseeeee 63 10 0 | Skeleton Maps ...eccccsssccsseeeeee 20 0 0 
Mechanism of Waves ...00...... 144° 2 0] Mountain Barometers ...00...... 618 6 
Bristol Tides sssessersersterrreees 35 18 6 | Stars (Histoire Céleste)ssessereeee 185 0 0 


. 


xlvi REPORT—1861. 


£ 3s, 
Stars (Lacaille) .ccccsscscsesseseses 79 5 
Stars (Nomenclature of) ......... 17 ¥" 
Stars (Catalogue of") ..........0++ . 40 
Water on Tron ........-.00ecseeesee 50 ; 
Meteorological Observations at 
THVErMESS - -sssscucoscscsscovesavtis 20 0 
Meteorological Observations (re- 
duction Of) .sesese0e secasedseute 25 0 
Fossil Reptiles .....scescsecssseees . 50 0 
Foreign Memoirs .......0+... bee G2e 0 
Railway Sections ......scs0ereee-08 38 1 
Forms of Vessels ...... sdesceccesse 193 12 
Meteorological Observations at 
Plyniouth. 1... scsdeevtviessvests. DO" O 
Magnetical Observations ......... 61 18 
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 
Tides at Leith. +ss.sscssessses00 vice 1500 
Anemometer at Edinburgh ...... 69 1 
Tabulating Observations ..... be 9 6 
Races of Men sessssssececssveovese «8650 
Radiate Animals ......sss.s00008, 2 0 


d. 


ooaos 


o 


t £1235 10 11 
1842. 

Dynamometric Instruments .,.... 113 11 2 
Anoplura Britanniz ...........0+ - 5212 0 
Tides at Bristol..... obsbdebeee sooses OO, SIO nO 
Gases on Light........,..++++ poosedmnal) LAY, 
Chronometers  .,.....+65+ prabeieee 026 AZ 6 
Marine Zoology,.,...... sos onbtenpsopeeslld 75). 510 
British Fossil Mammalia ......... 100 0 
Statistics of Education ............ 20 0 0 
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0 
Stars (Histoire Céleste)..........0. 59 0 0 
Stars (Brit. Assoc, Cat, of) ...... 110 0 0 
Railway Sections .......... sevessss 161.10 O 
British Belemnites,............s0008 50 0 0 

Fossil Reptiles (publication of 
Report) ...... ppassscdwesvatl edits . 210 0 0 
Forms of Vessels sesiisisesssseodss 180 0 0 
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6 

Meteorological Experiments at 
Plymouth ,,...,....... spareseaneeoe EO 

Constant Indicator and Dynamo- 
metric Instruments ...... £5 0d50090. O00 
Force of Wind ...... eanandestene aq LO Sneed 
Light on Growth of Seeds ...... S200 
Vitali Statistics, ceccnsececes saceanes WOU OLD 
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 8 1 11 
Questions on Human Race ...... (felt is oC 
£1449 17 8 

.. 1848. 

Revision of the Nomenclature of 
SfAISip..050 535 veveosrersrensensesis 2dr 0 

Reduction of Stars, British Asso- 
ciation Catalogue ............006 95.0 0 
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0 

Hourly Meteorological Observa- 
tions at KingussieandInverness 77 12 8 

Meteorological Observations at 
Plymouth “osc sscescrrponecsssoat 55 0 0 

Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- 
mometer at Plymouth .,,.... 10 0 0 


£ s. d. 
Meteorological Observations, Os- 
ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0 
Reduction of Meteorological Ob- 
servations ......+« Seseleceue sat aaa) OL0) 
Meteorological Instruments and 
Gratiities) ic. cconcccecasneas sspetvanmone Gin 0 
Construction of Anemometer at 
Inverness ......e00e oevececeserece 56 12 2 
Magnetic Cooperation ............ 10 8 10 
Meteorological Recorder for Kew 
Observatory .......06+ seserscscesemo J0TNO 
Action of Gases on Light......... 18 16 1 
Establishment at Kew Observa- 
tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni- 
ture and Sundries ...........+0. 3 loot 2 og 
Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0 
Oxidation of the Rails of Railways 20 0 0 
Publication of Report on Fossil 
Reptiles scpsscceweenees Seseeesee 40 0 0 
Coloured peti of Railway 
Dections..;:tecctetarseancersererets 147 18 3 
Registration of Earthquake 
Shocks ...... cnemexpeaunenasneme = med. 10). 20 
Report on Zoological Nomencla- 
LUTE r00.....00000 Soenbs aces cspsew LOO. 0 
Uncovering Lower Red Sand- 
stone near Manchester .,....... 4 4 6 
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 5 38 8 
Marine Testacea (Habits of ) 10 0 0 
Marine Zoology.......:+++0++ spessaet oop aly 
Marine Zoology.......sseeseeseeeeee 2 14 11 
Preparation of Report on British 
Fossil Mammalia ..... oaaeeeAae - 100 0 0 
Physiological Operations of Me- 
dicinal Agents ....... weseosener es neal BODE IE 
VitalsStatisiits "vss, sccercseottces see 36 5 8 
Additional Experiments on the 
Forms of Vessels sssoucisoacsses 04 (070 
Additional Experiments 0 on the ; 
Forms of Vessels ......... aa dsipy Og Oe 
Reduction of Experiments on the 
Forms of Vessels ............2++ 100 0 0 
Morin’s Instrument and Constant 
Indicator) 2,055.45 sppeasdentoaass 69 14 10 
Experiments on the Strength of 
Materials: ssscsererearseassrnneeetlb meu 
£1565 10 2 
————— 
1844, 
Meteorological Observations at 
Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0 0 
Completing Observations at Ply- 
MAOUCH: os. 5cescckscceeevedeeuees - 85 0 0 
Magnetic and Meteorological Co- 
operation ...... oSebesestciteds ao 25 8 4 
Publication of the British Asso- 
ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 35 0 0 
Observations on Tides on the 
East coast of Scotland ......... 100 0 0 
Revision of the Nomenclature of 
Stars .....sss.sseguasebsesess O42) GB) U9INI6 
Maintaining the Establishmentin 
Kew Observatory. s..ssesetiecs 117 1718 
Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 3 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


nla Bs) Gs 
Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0 
Subterraneous Temperature in 
Treland ....c....cscsesssesessstees’ = 5 | O 
Coloured Drawings of Railway 
Sections ..cc/0..82ccditeatiwesed 15 17 


Investigation of Fossil Fishes of 
the Lower Tertiary Strata ... 100 0 
Registering the Shocks of Earth- 
quakes .iississsssceesseseeo1842 23 
Structure of Fossil Shells......... 20 0 
Radiata and Mollusca of the 


#Bgean and-Red Seas.....1842 100 0 0 
Geographical Distributions of 
Marine Zoology..........--1842 010 0 
Marine Zoology of Devon and 
Reta NG coy. cocszscccsspsavncses 10" 0, .Q 
Marine Zoology of Corfu aaeesdeea LU Uy 0 
Experiments on the Vitality of 
PEO Bimeavsivassesccescstecnens ieee 
Experiments on the Vitality of 
Rerditntclsccccccasssstecsssck Oda 9 "6." s -8 
Exotic Anoplura ........s000 15 0 0 
Strength of Materials ......,..... 100 0 0 
Completing Experiments on the 
Forms of Ships .....,0esseseeee . 100 0 0 
Inquiries into Asphyxia ......... 10 0 0 
Investigations on the Internal 
Constitution of Metals ......... 50 0 0 
Constant Indicator and Morin’s 
Instrument, 1842 ..,............ 10 3 6 
£981 12 8 
1845. 
Publication of the British Associa- 
tion Catalogue of Stars......... 351 14 6 
Meteorological Observations at 
Inverness ...... Gasrecdsscdeace 2930) 168i 
Magnetic and Meteorological Co- 
Operation ...secceceseeeeeee EL 16 16 8 
Meteorological Instruments at 
BEGIN BUr’H v.cscsssecsncscccess 1811 9 
Reduction of. Anemometrical Ob- 
servations at Plymouth......... 25 0 0 
Electrical Experiments at Kew 
Observatory ssecscscssccsessssess 43 17 8 
Maintaining the Establishment in 
Kew Observatory ..........00. 149 15 0 
For Kreil’s Barometrograph...... 25 0 0 
Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 0 
The Actinograph ...... Rescate seene los 0) 0 
Microscopic Structure of Shells... 20 0 0 
Exotic Anoplura ............1843 10 0 0 
Vitality of Seeds,..............1843 2 0 7 
Vitality of Seeds............ ee than’ Mall a 
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0 
Physiological Actionof Medicines 20 0 0 
Statistics of Sickness and Mor- 
fality in VOLK “iicscccssspcsenses 20 0 0 
Earthquake Shocks ..........1843 15 14 8 
£830 9 9 
1846. 
British Association Catalogue of 
Stars Chicccovevvannaccenss edkOoe 211 15 0 


: £& s. d. 
Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0 
Computation of the Gaussian 

Constants for 1839......+00..-... 50 0 0 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory ....00......00. 146 16 7 
Strength of Materials............... 60 0 0 
Researches in Asphyxia............ 616 2 
Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0 
Vitality of Seeds -3.:....:....1844 2 15 10 
Vitality of Seeds .....3.....,1845 712 3 
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0 
Marine Zoology of Britain ...... 10 0 0 
Exotic Anoplura -4...........1844 25 0 0 
Expensesattending Anemometers 11 7 6 
Anemometers’ Repairs .......... cep eae Orn 
Atmospheric Waves .......0... 38 3 3 
Captive Balloons .......... 1844 819 3 
Varieties of the Human Race 
1844 7 6 3 
Statistics of Sickness and Mor- 
tality in York ...seccocssosees 12 0 0 
£685 16 0 
1847. 
Computation of the Gaussian 
Constants for 1839 ..... eaeneess | OUR SU 
Habits of Marine Animals ...... 10 0 O 
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0O 
Marine Zoology of Cornwall ... 10 0 0 
Atmospheric Waves .....+...++ Sa 
Vitality of Seeds .......4......00. Pee: Pray any / 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory ...,,.ss0000.55 107 8 6 
£208 4 
1848. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory ......seseeeeee Pit loL k 
Atmospheric Waves ............... 3 10.9 
Vitality of Seeds “............0ceeee 915 0 
Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0 
On Colouring Matters ..i........ 5 0 0 
On Growth of Plants,.............. 15 0 0 
£275 1 8 
1849. 
Electrical Observations at Kew 
Observatory ......sc0csseesceeeee 50 0 O 
Maintaining Establishment at 
CULO ats cavtsereseescnsecsetentenss: 10 5 oi i 
Vitality of Seeds ......... PEO ML iat a | 
On Growth of Plants.............. 5 0 0 
Registration: of Periodical Phe- 
NOMENA ........00008 mareescueuse 10 0 0 
Bill on account of Anemometrical 
Observations sessecssssessseereeee 13 9 O 
£159 19 6 
Sa 
1850. 
Maintaining the Establishment at 
Kew Observatory ..s......000... 255 18 0 
Transit of Earthquake Waves... 50 0 0 


xlviii REPORT—1861. 
£5 a. £s. d. 
Periodical Phenomena ......00. 15 0 0 1856. 
Meteorological Instrument, Maintaining the Establishment at 
AZOLES civscceevsecreverccesernse 25 0 0 Kew Observatory :-— 
eel 1855......£500 0 0 
Abe Wd 1851. Strickland’s Ornithological Syno- 
Maintaining the Establishment at NYS wis «seeesdsussccsvenasemmnaenlOOs Oly 0 
Kew Observatory (includes part Dredging and Dredging Forms... 913 9 
of grant in 1849) ..s.secseeeeeee 309 2 | Chemical Action of Light... 20 0 0 
Theory Of Heat .....+seeeeee oeeveeee 20 1 1) Strength of Iron Plates ..... seasees 1G LO 440) 510. 
Periodical Phenomena of Animals Registration of Periodical Pheno- 
and Plants ....,seeeseees Soop essen 5 0 0 Hen aes sdedie Baw ick Bude Ee OOO 
Vitality of Seeds seeeeerecoscceree . 5 6 4 Propagation of Salon deeawethes 10 0 0O 
Influence of Solar Radiation,..... 30 0 0 e744. 13 9 
Ethnological Inquiries ............ 12 0 0 ———= 
Researches on Annelida ,....... pee) tee 7 1857. 
£3919 7 bape i 2 ie Ee we at wey GG 
EW Observatory cesseesscseeeee 
po ee 1852. Earthquake Wave Experiments... 40 0 0 
Maintaining the Establishment at Dredging near Belfast ...... sees eLO, OED 
Kew Observatory (including Dredging on the West Coast of 
balance of grant for 1850) ... 233 17 8) — Scotland..scscsseeseseerseeseeee 10 0 0 
Experiments on the Conduction Investigations into the Mollusca 
of Heat seeseeacerecsccccesececeace 5 2 9 of California ..... wcceasecees 10 0 0 
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 0} Experimentson Flax .......0. 5 0 0 
Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15 0 0} Natural History of Madagascar.. 20 0 0 
Researches on the British Anne- Researches on British Annelida 25 0 0 
lida... senveccesesesececeeasers 10 0 0} Report on Natural Products im- 
Vitality of Seeds ........046 seeeece 10 6 2 ported into Liverpool ......... 10 0 0 
Strength of Boiler Plates ........ - 10 0 0} Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10 0 0 
£304 6 7] Temperature of Mines ........... on ag BD 
1853. Thermometers for Subterranean 
Maintaining the Establishment at Observations seevessererererereee 9 7 4 
Kew Observatory cagbacdeeene . 165 0 0 Life-Boats ..cnascesoucsesepecancccncs 5 0 0 
Experiments on the Influence of £507 15 4 
Solar Radiation.......c..ecsesees P5=40) 10 1858. 
ee on the British Anne- Maintaining the Establishment at 
~ eipeaaganey tage Sanlgae seat 10 0 0 Kew Observatory .....sseseseeee 500 0 0 
2 on an € East Coast o Earthquake Wave Experiments.. 25 0 0 
5 COU AN ss sccessereeeseseceoosens + 10 0 0} Dredging on the West Coast of 
Ethnological Queries sss 5 0 0 | Scotland sssssscssseesesereeseree 10 0 0 
£205 0 0 | Dredging near Dublin ....... sudo) ONGC RED 
1854. ————— | Vitality af Seeds’. .csicsctcssscsseen SEO O 
Maintaining the Establishment at Dredging near Belfast sodas coucae aimee eee 
Kew Observatory (including Report on the British Annelida... 25 0 0 
balance of former grant) ..... . 33015 4 Experiments on the production 
Investigations on Flax ............ 11 0 0 of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20 0 0 
Effects of Temperature on Report on the Natural Products 
Wrought Iron .............0. «- 10 0 0 imported into Scotland\..s..0i00 10) 00 
Registration of Periodical Phe- £618 18 2 
pomena ttt eeaeeeeeeeeeeecnsane veo, 10 0250 1859. Ta ane 
ae Annelida ........00. sees 10 0 0] Maintaining-the Establishment at 
ality OF Seeds. <cassessstecscdive, Wb Dael: 9S Kew Observat 
Bonluction Gh Eee: y ALOTY seeeeeeeseeeees 500 0 0 
stsseeeeeveesee 4 2 0] Dredging near Dublin ............ 15 0 0 
£380 19 7 | Osteology of Birds........00..00 50 0 0 
1855. | Irish Tanicata 22.0.2... sces0s sopee to. 0 1G 
Maintaining the een ae Manure Experiments ......++8.. . 20 0 0 
Kew Observatory ... veces 425 0 0 | British Medusid@ .....cc:ccseues 5 O @ 
Earthquake Movements an “ep 10 260% Dredging Committec.........+«+.. a aes OO ae 
Physical Aspect of the Moon...... 11 8 5 | Steam Vessels’ Performance...... 5 0 0 
Vitality of Seeds .....0..00.5..6 . 10-7 11 | Marine Fauna of South and West 
Map of the World............ Seas ie 0 of Treland® <cscees.seceees sedecseces NORE SIO 
Ethnological Grescs oasis ty at bs ..0 Photographic Chemistry ......... 10 0 0 
Dredging near Belfast ............ 4 0 0 Lanarkshire Fossils ...secss0000. 20 0 1 
Balloon ASCents..eserssseesenseerree 39 11 0 
£480 16 4 STF i ey 
Bs = £684 11 1 


~~ 


RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xlix 


1860. So Si 0a ae te, he 
Maintaining the Establishment Earthquake Experiments,........ 25 0 0 
of Kew Observatory............. 500 0 0 | Dredging North and East Coasts 
Dredging near Belfast......... weaey 16 6" 0 of Scotland...... cecesseccccsenseee 20 0 0 
Dredging in Dublin Bay........... 15 0 0 | Dredging Committee :— 
Inquiry into the Performance of 1860...... £50 0 ab "2 0 0 
Steam -vessels.....secsessesesssees 124 0 0 1861 ..... - £22); 0 0 
Explorations in the Yellow Sand- Excavations at Dura Den..,....... 20 0 0 
stone of Dura Den.............+. 20 0 0 | Solubility of Salts ............+ Sr ee RT CCH 
Chemico-mechanical Analysis of Steam-Vessel Performance .,,,.. 150 0 0 
Rocks and Minerals....... eeeeee 25 0 0 | Fossils of Lesmahago ....,....... 15 0 0 
Researches on the Growth of Explorations at Uriconium .......20 0 0 
Plants......... Sean ee xen stasecee 10 0 20 | Chemical Alloys: . ....ccccsecssonsee 200) 0 
Researches on the Solubility of Classified Index to the Transac- 
DIBIEN tah debae evasnesees sasneavaencde 70) 90/570 tions ......... neeaidghans mesduies sce 100 0 0 
Researches on the Constituents Dredging in the Mersey and Dee 5 0 O 
of Manures........... axessuedescne: SO) Or Ol |h Dip CIrelerstdsest sonaston ate Weossese GO 40 
Balance of Captive Balloon Ac- Photoheliographic Observations 50 0 0 
GUNES, cnsancnecceescscscee Sbdeaseee, 1. 10516. | CPrisop Diet | .v.ss3.heasdderencedent. 20/1 10, 10 
£1241 7 © | Gauging of Water.,............... 10 0 0 
—— Alpine ASCORtS Re cnuae ss csteds ae sine Gp 1 
1861. Constituents of Manures ....,.... 25 0 0 
Maintaining the Establishment £1111 5 10 


of Kew Observatory ............ 500 0 0 


Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee. 


Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur- 
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting 
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a 
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re- 
mains disposable on each grant. 

Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso- 
ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that 
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be 
ordered by the General Committee. 

In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call 
on the Treasurer, William Spottiswoode, Esq., 19 Chester Street, Belgrave 
Square, London, S.W., for such portion of the sum granted as may from 
time to time be required. 

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate 
the payment of personal expenses to the members. 

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua- 
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be 
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may 
remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object. 


1861. d 


1 REPORT—1861. 


General Meetings. 


On Wednesday Evening, September 4, at 8 p.M., in the Free Trade Hall, 
The Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S., resigned the office of President to William Fair- 
bairn, Esq., F.R.S., who took the Chair and delivered an Address, for which 
see page li. 

On Thursday Evening, September 5, at 8 P.M., a Soirée, with Microseopes, 
took place in the Free Trade Hall. 

On Friday Evening, September 6, at 8 P.m., in the Concert Room, Pro- 
fessor W. A. Miller, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on Spectrum Analysis. 

On Saturday Evening, September 7, at 8 P.M., a Soirée, with Telegraphs, 
took place in the Free Trade Hall. 

On Monday Evening, September 9, at 8 p.., Professor Airy, Astronomer 
Royal, delivered a Discourse on the late Eclipse of the Sun. 

On Tuesday Evening, September 10, at 8 P.M., the attention of the 
Members was called by Dr. E. Lankester, F.R.S., to the labours of the 
Field Naturalist’s Society, and to the Jarge collections in Natural History 
placed in the Free Trade Hall. 

On Wednesday, September 11, at 3 P.m., the concluding General Meeting 
took place in the Free Trade Hall, when the Proceedings of the General 
Committee, and the Grants of Money for Scientific purposes, were explained 
to the Members. 

The Meeting was then adjourned to Cambridge*. 


* The Meeting is appuinied to take place on Wednesday, the Ist of October, 1862. 


ADDRESS 


BY 


WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Esq., LL.D., C.E., F.R.S. 


GeENTLEMEN,—Ever since my election to the high office I now occupy, I 
have been deeply sensible of my own unfitness for a post of so much distinc- 
tion and responsibility. And when I call to mind the illustrious men who 
have preceded me in this Chair, and see around me so many persons much 
better qualified for the office than myself, I feel the novelty of my position 
and unfeigned embarrassment in addressing you. 

I should, however, very imperfectly discharge the duties which devolve 
upon me; as the successor of the distinguished nobleman who presided over 
the meetings of last year, if I neglected to thank you for the honourable 
position in which you have placed me, and to express, at the outset, my 
gratitude to those valued friends with whom I have been united for many 
years in the labours of the Sections of this Association, and from whom I 
have invariably received every mark of esteem. : 

A careful perusal of the history of this Association will demonstrate that 
it was the first and for a long time the only institution which brought toge- 
ther for a common object the learned Professors of our Universities and the 
workers in practical science. These periodical reunions have been of incalcu- 
lable benefit, in giving to practice that soundness of principle and certainty 
of progressive improvement, which can only be obtained by the accurate 
study of science and its application to thearts. On the other hand, the men 
of actual practice have reciprocated the benefits thus received from theory, 
in testing by actual experiment deductions which were doubtful, and recti- 
fying those which were erroneous. Guided by an extended experience, and 
exercising a sound and disciplined judgment, they have often corrected 
theories apparently accurate, but nevertheless founded on incomplete data or 
on false assumptions inadvertently introduced. If the British Association 
had effected nothing more than the removal of the anomalous separation of 
theory and practice, it would have gained imperishable renown in the benefit 
thus conferred. 

Were I to enlarge on the relation of the achievements of science to the 
comforts and enjoyments of man, I should have to refer to the present epoch as 
one of the most important in the history of the world. At no former period 
did science contribute so much to the uses of life and the wants of society. And 
in doing this it has only been fulfilling that mission which Bacon, the great 
father of modern science, appointed for it, when he wrote that “ the legiti- 
mate goal of the sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions 
and riches,” and when he sought for a natural philosophy which, not spending 

d2 


lii REPORT—1861. 


its energy on barren disquisitions, “should be operative for the benefit and 
endowment of mankind.” 

Looking, then, to the fact that, whilst in our time all the sciences have 
yielded this fruit, Engineering science, with which I have been most inti- 
mately connected, has preeminently advanced the power, the wealth, and the 
comforts of mankind, I shall probably best discharge the duties of the office 
I have the honour to fill, by stating as briefly as possible the more recent 
scientific discoveries which have so influenced the relations of social life. I 
shall, therefore, not dwell so much on the progress of abstract science, im- 
portant as that is, but shall rather endeavour briefly to examine the applica- 
tion of science to the useful arts, and the results which have followed, and 
are likely to follow, in the improvement of the condition of society. 

The history of man throughout the gradations and changes which he 
undergoes in advancing from a primitive barbarism to a state of civilization, 
shows that he has been chiefly stimulated to the cultivation of science and 
the development of his inventive powers by the urgent necessity of providing 
for his wants and securing his safety. There is no nation, however barba- 
rous, which does not inherit the germs of civilization, and there is scarcely 
any which has not done something towards applying the rudiments of science 
to the purposes of daily life. 

Amongst the South Sea Islanders, when discovered by Cook, the applied 
sciences (if I may use the term) were not entirely unknown. They had 
observed something of the motions of the heavenly bodies, and watched with 
interest their revolutions, in order to apply this knowledge to the division of 
time. They were not entirely deficient in the construction of instruments of 
husbandry, of war, and of music. They had made themselves acquainted 
with the rudiments of shipbuilding and navigation, in the construction and 
management of their canoes. Cut off from the influence of European civili- 
zation, and deprived of intercourse with higher grades of mind, we still find 
the inhérent principle of progression exhibiting itself, and the inventive and 
reasoning powers developed in the attempt to secure the means of subsistence. 

Again, if we compare man as he exists in small communities with his con- 
dition where large numbers are congregated together, we find that densely 
populated countries are the most prolific in inventions, and advance most 
rapidly in science. Because the wants of the many are greater than those of 
the few, there is a more vigorous struggle against the natural limitations of 
supply, a more careful husbanding of resources, and there are more minds 
at work. 

This fact is strikingly exemplified in the history of Mexico and Peru, and 
its attestation is found in the numerous monuments of the past which are 
seen in Central America, where the remains of cities and temples, and vast 
public works, erected by a people endowed with high intellectual acquire- 
ments, can still be traced. There have been discovered a system of canals 
for irrigation ; long mining-galleries cut in the solid rock, in search of lead, 
tin, and copper; pyramids not unlike those of Egypt; earthenware vases 
and cups, and manuscripts containing the records of their history ; all testi- 
fying to so high a degree of scientific culture and practical skill that, looking 
at the cruelties which attended the conquests of Cortes and Pizarro, we may 
well hesitate as to which had the stronger claims on our sympathy, the victors 
or the vanquished. 

In attempting to notice those branches of science with which I am but 
imperfectly acquainted, I shall have to claim your indulgence. This Asso- 
ciation, as you are aware, does not confine its discussions and investigations 
to any particular science; and one great advantage of this is, that it leads to 


ADDRESS. liii 


the division of labour, whilst the attention which each department receives, 
and the harmony with which the plan has hitherto worked, afford the best 
guarantee of its wisdom and proof of its success. 

In the early history of Astronomy, how vague and unsatisactory were the 
wild theories and conjectures which supplied the place of demonstrated 
physical truths and carefully observed laws! How immeasurably small, 
what a very speck does man appear, with all the wonders of his invention, 
when contrasted with the mighty works of the Creator; and how imperfect 
is our apprehension, even in the highest flights of poetic imagination, of the 
boundless depths of space! These reflections naturally suggest themselves 
in the contemplation of the works of an Almighty Power, and impress the 
mind with a reverential awe for the great Author of our existence. 

The great revolution which laid the foundation of modern Astronomy, 
and which, indeed, marks the birth of modern physical science, is chiefly 
due to three or four distinguished philosophers. Tycho Brahe, by his 
system of accurate measurement of the positions of the heavenly bodies, 
Copernicus, by his theory of the solar system, Galileo, by the application of 
the telescope, and Kepler, by the discovery of the laws of the planetary 
motions, all assisted in advancing, by prodigious strides, towards a true 
knowledge of the constitution of the universe. It remained for Newton to 
introduce, at a later period, the idea of an attraction varying directly as the 
mass, and inversely as the square of the distance, and thus to reduce celes- 
tial phenomena to the greatest simplicity, by comprehending them under a 
single law. Without tracing the details of the history of this science, we 
may notice that in more recent times astronomical discoveries have been 
closely connected with high mechanical skill in the construction of instru- 
ments of precision. The telescope has enormously increased the catalogue 
of the fixed stars, or those “landmarks of the universe,” as Sir John Herschel 
terms them, “ which never deceive the astronomer, navigator, or surveyor.” 
The number of known planets and asteroids has also been greatly enlarged. 
The discovery of Uranus resulted immediately from the perfection attained 
by Sir William Herschel in the construction of his telescope. More recently, 
the structure of the nebule has been unfolded through the application to 
their study of the colossal telescope of Lord Rosse. In all these directions 
much has been done both by our present distinguished Astronomer Royal 
and also by amateur observers in private observatories, all of whom, with 
Mr. Lassell at their head, are making rapid advances in this department of 
physical science. 

Our knowledge of the physical constitution of the central body of our 
system seems likely, at the present time, to be much increased. The spots 
on the sun’s disk were noticed by Galileo and his contemporaries, and enabled 
them to ascertain the time of its rotation and the inclination of its axis. 
They also correctly inferred, from their appearance, the existence of a lumi- 
nous envelope, in which funnel-shaped depressions revealed a solid and dark 
nucleus. Just a century ago, Alexander Wilson indicated the presence of a 
second and less luminous envelope beneath the outer stratum, and his dis- 
covery was confirmed by Sir William Herschel, who was led to assume the 
presence of a double stratum of clouds, the upper intensely luminous, the 
lower grey, and forming the penumbra of the spots. Observations during 
eclipses have rendered probable the supposition of a third and outermost stra- 
tum of imperfect transparency enclosing concentrically the other envelopes. 
Still more recently, the remarkable discoveries of Kirchhoff and Bunsen require 
us to believe that a solid or liquid photosphere is seen through an atmosphere 
containing iron, sodium, lithium, and other metals in a vaporous condition. 


liv REPORT—1861. 


We must still wait for the application of more perfect instruments, and 
especially for the careful registering of the appearances of the sun by the 
photoheliograph of Sir John Herschel, so ably employed by Mr. Warren De 
la Rue, Mr. Welsh, and others, before we can expect a solution of all the 
problems thus suggested. 

Guided by the same principles which have been so successful in Astronomy, 
its sister science, Magnetism, emerging from its infancy, has of late advanced 
rapidly in that stage of development which is marked by assiduous and 
‘systematic observation of the phenomena, by careful analysis and presenta- 
tion of the facts which they disclose, and by the grouping of these in gene- 
ralizations, which, when the basis on which they rest shall be more extended, 
will prepare the way for the conception of a general physical theory, in which 
all the phenomena shall be comprehended, whilst each shall receive its 
separate and satisfactory explanation. 

It is unnecessary to remind you of the deep interest which the British 
Association has at all times taken in the advancement of this branch of 
natural knowledge, or of the specific recommendations which, made in con- 
junction with the Royal Society, have been productive of such various and 
important results. To refer but to a single instance, we have seen those 
magnetic disturbances,—so mysterious in their origin and so extensive in simul- 
taneous prevalence, and which, less than twenty years ago, were designated 
by a term specially denoting that their laws were wholly unknown,—traced 
to laws of periodical recurrence, revealing, without a doubt, their origin in 
the central body of oursystem, by inequalities which have for their respect- 
ive periods, the solar day, the solar year, and still more remarkably, an 
until lately unsuspected solar cycle of about ten of our terrestrial years, to 
whose existence they bear testimony in conjunction with the solar spots, 
but whose nature and causes are in all other respects still wrapped in entire 
obscurity. We owe to General Sabine, especially, the recognition and study 
of these and other solar magnetic influences and of the magnetic influence 
of the moon similarly attested by concurrent determinations in many parts of 
the globe, which are now held to constitute a distinct branch of this science 
not inappropriately named “ celestial,” as distinguished from purely terres- 
trial magnetism. 

We ought not in this town to forget that the very rapid advance which 
has been made in our time by Chemistry is due to the law of equivalents, 
or atomic theory, first discovered by our townsman, John Dalton. Since 
the development of this law its progress has been unimpeded, and it has had 
a most direct bearing on the comforts and enjoyments of life. A knowledge 
of the constituents of food has led to important deductions as to the relative 
nutritive value and commercial importance of different materials. Water 
has been studied in reference to the deleterious impurities with which it is so 
apt to be contaminated in its distribution to the inhabitants of large towns. 
The power of analysis, which enables us to detect adulterations, has been 
invaluable to the public health, and would be much more so, if it were 
possible to obviate the difficulties which have prevented the operation of 
recent legislation on this subject. 

We have ancther proof of the utility of this science in its application to 
medicine; and the estimation in which it is held by the medical profession 
is the true index of its value in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. The 
largest developments of chemistry, however, have been in connexion with 
the useful arts. What would now be the condition of ealico-printing, 
bleaching, dyeing, and even agriculture itself, if they had been deprived of 
the aid of theoretic chemistry ? 


ADDRESS, ly 


For example, Aniline—first discovered in coal-tar by Dr. Hofmann, who 
has so admirably developed its properties—is now most extensively used as 
the basis of red, blue, violet, and green dyes. This important discovery will 
probably in a few years render this country independent of the world for 
dye-stuffs ; and it is more than probable that England, instead of drawing 
her dye-stuffs from foreign countries, may herself become the centre from 
which all the world will be supplied. 

It is an interesting fact that at the same time in another branch of this 
science, M. Tournet has lately demonstrated that the colours of gems, such 
as the emerald, aqua-marina, amethyst, smoked rock-crystal, and others, are 
due to volatile hydrocarbons, first noticed by Sir David Brewster in clouded 
topaz, and that they are not derived from metallic oxides, as has been hitherto 
believed, 

Another remarkable advance has recently been made by Bunsen and 
Kirchhoff in the application of the coloured rays of the prism to analytical 
research. We may consider their discoveries as the commencement of anew 
era in analytical chemistry, from the extraordinary facilities they afford in 
the qualitative detection of the minutest traces of elementary bodies. ‘The 
value of the method has been proved by the discovery of the new metals 
Czsium and Rubidium by M. Bunsen, and it has yielded another remark- 
able result in demonstrating the existence of iron, and six other known 
metals, in the sun. 

In noticing the more recent discoveries in this important science, I must 
not pass over in silence the valuable light which chemistry has thrown upon 
the composition of iron and steel. Although Despretz demonstrated many 
years ago that iron would combine with nitrogen, yet it was not until 1857 
that Mr. C. Binks proved that nitrogen is an essential element of steel, and 
more recently M. Carou and M. Fremy have further elucidated this subject ; 
the former showing that cyanogen, or cyanide of ammonium, is the essential 
element which converts wrought iron into steel; the latter combining iron 
with nitrogen through the medium of ammonia, and then converting it into 
steel by bringing it at the proper temperature into contact with common 
coal-gas. There is little doubt that in a few years these discoveries will 
enable Sheffield manufacturers to replace their present uncertain, cumbrous, 
and expensive process, by a method at once simple and inexpensive, and so 
completely under control as to admit of any required degree of conversion 
being obtained with absolute certainty. Mr. Crace Calvert also has proved that 
east iron contains nitrogen, and has shown that it is a definite compound of 
carbon and iron mixed with various proportions of metallic iron, according 
to its nature. 

Before leaving chemical science, I must refer to the interesting discovery 
by M. Deville, by which he succeeded in rapidly melting thirty-eight or 
forty pounds of platinum—a metal till then considered almost infusible. 
This discovery will render the extraction of platinum from the ore more 
eh and, by reducing its cost, will greatly facilitate its application to 
the arts. 

It is little more than half a century since Geology assumed the distinctive 
character of a science. Taking into cousideration the aspects of nature in 
different epochs of the history of the earth, it has been found that the study 
of the changes at present going on in the world around us enable us to under- 
stand the past revolutions of the globe, and the conditions and circumstances 
under which strata have been formed and organic remains imbedded and 
preserved. The geologist has increasingly tended to believe that the changes 
which have taken place on the face of the globe, from the earliest times to 


lvi REPORT—1861. 


the present, are the result of agencies still at work. But whilst it is his 
high office to record the distribution of life in past ages and the evidence of 
physical changes in the arrangement of land and water, his results hitherto 
have indicated no traces of its beginning, nor have they afforded evidence of 
the time of its future duration. Geology has been indebted for this progress 
very largely to the investigations of Sedgwick and the writings of Sir 
Charles Lyell. 

As an example of the application of geology to the practical uses of life, 
I may cite the discovery of the gold-fields of Australia, which might long 
have remained hidden, but for the researches of Sir Roderick Marchison in 
the Ural Mountains on the geological position of the strata from which the 
Russian gold is obtained. From this investigation he was led by inductive 
reasoning to believe that gold would be found in similar rocks, specimens of 
which had been sent him from Australia. The last years of the active life 
of this distinguished geologist have been devoted to the re-examination of 
the rocks of his native Highlands of Scotland. Applying to them those 
principles of classification which he long since established, he has demon- 
strated that the crystalline limestone and quartz-rocks which are associated 
with mica schists, &c., belong by their imbedded organic remains to the 
Lower Silurian rocks. Descending from this well-marked horizon, he 
shows the existence beneath all such fossiliferous strata of vast masses of 
sandstone and conglomerate of Cambrian age; and, lastly, he has proved the 
existence of a fundamental gneiss, on which all the other rocks repose, and 
which, occupying the North-western Hebrides and the west coasts of Suther- 
land and Ross, is the oldest rock-formation on the British Isles, it being 
unknown in England, Wales, or Ireland. 

It is well known that the temperature increases, as we descend through 
the earth’s crust, from a certain point near the surface, at which the tem- 
perature is constant. In various mines, borings, and artesian wells, the 
temperature has been found to increase about 1° Fahr. for every 60 or 65 
feet of descent. In some carefully conducted experiments during the sinking 
of Dukinfield Deep Mine (one of the deepest pits in this country), it was 
found that a mean increase of about 1° in 71 feet occurred. If we take the 
ratio thus indicated, and assume it to extend to much greater depths, we 
should reach at two and a half miles from the surface-strata at the tempera- 
ture of boiling water; and at depths of about fifty or sixty miles the tem- 
perature would be sufficient to melt, under the ordinary pressure of the 
atmosphere, the hardest rocks. Reasoning from these facts, it would appear 
that the mass of the globe, at no great depth, must be in a fluid state. But 
this deduction requires to be modified by other considerations, namely, the 
influence of pressure on the fusing-point, and the relative conductivity of 
the rocks which form the earth’s crust. To solve these questions a series of 
important experiments were instituted by Mr. Hopkins, in the prosecution 
of which Dr. Joule and myself took part; and after a long and laborious 
investigation, it was found that the temperature of fluidity increased about 
1° Fahr. for every 500 lbs. pressure, in the case of spermaceti, bees-wax, and 
other similar substances. However, on extending these experiments to less 
compressible substances, such as tin and barytes, a similar increase was not 
observed. But these series of experiments has been unavoidably interrupted ; 
nor is the series on the conductivity of rocks entirely finished. Until they 
have been completed by Mr. Hopkins, we can only make a partial use of 
them in forming an opinion of the thickness of the earth’s solid crust. 
Judging, however, alone from the greater conductivity of the igneous rocks, 
we may calculate that the thickness cannot possibly be less than nearly three 


ADDRESS. lvi 


times as great as that calculated in the usual suppositions of the conductive 
power of the terrestrial mass at enormous depths, being no greater than that 
of the superficial sedimentary beds. Other modes of investigation which 
Mr. Hopkins has brought to bear on this question appear to lead to the 
conclusion that the thickness of the earth’s crust is much greater even than 
that above stated. This would require us to assume that a part of the heat 
in the crust is due to superficial and external, rather than central causes. 
This does not bear directly against the doctrine of central heat, but shows 
that only a part of the increase of temperature observed in mines and deep 
wells is due to the outward flow of that heat. 

Touching those highly interesting branches of science, Botany and Zoology, 
it may be considered presumptuous in me to offer any remarks. I have, 
however, not entirely neglected in my earlier days to inform myself of certain 
portions of natural history, which cannot but be attractive to all who delight 
in the wonderful beauties of natural objects. How interesting is the organi- 
zation of animals and plants; how admirably adapted to their different func- 
tions and spheres of life! They want nothing, yet have nothing superfluous. 
Every organ is adapted perfectly to its functions; and the researches of 
Owen, Agassiz, Darwin, Hooker, Daubeny, Babington, and Jardine fully 
illustrate the perfection of the animal and vegetable economy of nature. 

Two other important branches of scientific research, Geography and 
Ethnology, have for some years been united, in this Association, in one 
Section, and that probably the most attractive and popular of them all. We 
are much indebted to Sir Roderick Murchison, among other Members of the 
Association, for its continued prosperity, and the high position it has 
attained in public estimation. The spirit of enterprise, courage, and perse- 
verence displayed by our travellers in all parts of the world have been 
powerfully stimulated and well supported by the Geographical Society ; and 
the prominence and rapid publicity given to discoveries by that body have 
largely promoted geographical research. 

In Physical Geography the late Baron von Humboldt has been one of the 
largest contributors, and we are chiefly indebted to his personal researches 
and numerous writings for the elevated position it now holds among the 
sciences. To Humboldt we owe our knowledge of the physical features of 
Central and Southern America. To Parry, Sir James Ross, and Scoresby, 
we are indebted for discoveries in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Geo- 
graphy has also been advanced by the first voyage of Franklin down the 
Copper Mine River, and along the inhospitable shores of the Northern Seas, 
as far as Point Turn Again ; as also by that ill-fated expedition in search of 
a north-west passage ; followed by others in search of the unfortunate men 
who perished in their attempt to reach those ice-bound regions, so often 
stimulated by the untiring energy of a high-minded woman. In addition to 
these, the discoveries of Dr. Livingstone in Africa have opened to us a wide 
field of future enterprise along the banks of the Zambesi and its tributaries. 
To these we may add the explorations of Captain Burton in the same con- 
tinent ; and those also by Captain Speke and Captain Grant, of a hitherto 
unknown region, in which it has been suggested that the White Nile has its 
source, flowing from one of two immense lakes, upwards of 300 miles long 
by 100 broad, and situated at an elevation of 4000 feet above the sea. To 
these remarkable discoveries I ought to add an honourable mention of the 
sagacious and perilous exploration of Central and Northern Australia by 
Mr. M‘Dougall Stuart. 

Having glanced, however imperfectly, at some of the most important 
branches of science which engage the attention of Members of this Associa- 


lviii REPORT—1861. 


tion, I would now invite attention to the mechanical sciences, with which I 
am more familiarly acquainted. They may be divided into Theoretical 
Mechanics and Dynamics, comprising the conditions of equilibrium and the 
laws of motion; and Applied Mechanics, relating to the construction of 
machines. I have already observed that practice and theory are twin sisters, 
and must work together to ensure a steady progress in mechanical art. Let 
us then maintain this union as the best and safest basis of national progress, 
and, moreover, let us recognize it as one of the distinctive aims of the annual 
reunions of this Association. 

During the last century, the science of Applied Mechanics has made 
strides which astonish us by their magnitude ; but even these, it. may reason- 
ably be hoped, are but the promise of future and more wonderful enlarge- 
ments. I therefore propose to offer a succinct history of these improvements, 
as an instance of the influence of scientific progress on the well-being of 
society. I shall take in review the three chief aids which engineering science 
has afforded to national progress, namely, canals, steam-navigation, and rail- 
ways ; each of which has promoted an incalculable extension of the industrial 
resources of the country. 

One hundred years ago, the only means for the conveyance of inland 
merchandize were the pack-horses and waggons on the then imperfect high- 
ways. It was reserved for Brindley, Smeaton, and others to introduce a 
system of canals, which opened up facilities for an interchange of commo- 
dities at a cheap rate over almost every part of the country. The impetus 
given to industrial operations by this new system of conveyance induced 
capitalists to embark in trade, in mining, and in the extension of manufac- 
tures in almost every district. These improvements continued for a series of 
years, until the whole country was intersected by canals requisite to meet 
the demands of a greatly extended industry. But canals, however well 
adapted for the transport of minerals and merchandise, were less suited for 
the conveyance of passengers. The speed of the canal-boats seldom 
exceeded from two and a half to three miles an hour; and in addition to this, 
the projectors of canals sometimes sought to take an unfair advantage of the 
Act of Parliament, which fixed the tariff at so much per ton per mile, by 
adopting circuitous routes, under the erroneous impression that mileage was 
a consideration of great importance to the success of such undertakings. It 
is in consequence of short-sighted views and imperfeci legislation that we 
inherit the numerous curves and distortions of our canal system. 

These defects in construction rendered canals almost useless for the con- 
veyance of passengers, and led to the improvement of the common roads 
and the system of stage coaches; so that before the year 1830 the chief 
public highways of the country had attained a remarkable smoothness and 
perfection, and the lightness of our carriages and the celerity with which 
they were driven still excites the admiration of those who remember them. 
These days of an efficiently worked system, which tasked the power and 
speed of the horse to the utmost, have now been succeeded by changes more 
wonderful than any that previously occurred in the history of the human 
race. 

Scarcely had the canal system been fully developed when a new means of 
propulsion was adopted, namely, steam. I need not recount to you the 
enterprise, skill, and labour that have been exerted in connexion with steam 
navigation. You have seen its results on every river and every sea; results 
we owe to the fruitful minds of Miller, Symington, Fulton, and Henry Bell, 
who were the pioneers in the great march of progress. 

Viewing the past, with a knowledge of the present and a prospect of the 


ADDRESS. lix 


future, it is difficult to estimate sufficiently the benefits that have been con- 
ferred by this application of mechanical science to the purposes of navigation. 
Power, speed, and certainty of action have been attained on the most 
gigantic scale. The celerity with which a modern steamer, with a thousand 
tons of merchandise and some hundreds of human beings on board, cleaves 
the water and pursues her course, far surpasses the most sanguine expecta- 
tions of a quarter of a century ago, and indeed almost rivals the speed of the 
locomotive itself. Previous to 1812 our intercourse with foreign countries 
and with our colonial possessions depended entirely upon the state of the 
weather. It was only in favourable seasons that a passage was open, and 
we had often to wait days, or even a week, before Dublin could be reached 
from Holyhead. Now this distance of sixty-three miles is accomplished in 
all weathers in little more than three hours. The passage to America used 
to occupy six weeks or two months; now it is accomplished in eight or nine 
days. ‘The passage round the Cape to India is reduced from nearly half a 
year to less than a third of that time, whilst that country may be reached by 
the overland route in less than a month. These are a few of the benefits 
derived from steam-navigation; and as it is yet far from perfect, we may 
reasonably calculate on still greater advantages in our intercourse with distant 
nations. 

I will not here enter upon the subject of the numerous improvements 
which have so rapidly advanced the progress of this important service. 
Suffice it to observe that the paddle-wheel system of propulsion has main- 
tained its superiority over every other method yet adopted for the attainment 
of speed, as by it the best results are obtained with the least expenditure of 
power. In ships of war the screw is indispensable, on account of the security 
it affords to the engines and machinery, from their position in the hold below 
the water-line, and because of the facility it offers in the use of sails, when 
the screw is raised from its position in the well to a recess in the stern pre- 
pared for that purpose. It is also preferable in ships which require auxiliary 
power in calms and adverse winds, so as to expedite the voyage and effect a 
considerable saving upon the freight. 

The public mind had scarcely recovered itself from the changes which 
steam-navigation had caused, and the impulse it had given to commerce, 
when a new and even more gigantic power of locomotion was inaugurated. 
Less than a quarter of a century had elapsed since the first steam-boats 
floated on the waters of the Hudson and the Clyde, when the achievements 
thence resulting were followed by the application of the same agency to the 
almost superhuman flight of the locomotive and its attendant train. I well 
remember the competition at Rainhill in 1830, and the incredulity every- 
where evinced at the proposal to run locomotives at twenty miles an hour. 
Neither George Stephenson himself, nor any one else, had at that time the 
most distant idea of the capabilities of the railway system. On the contrary, 
it was generally considered impossible to exceed ten or twelve miles an hour ; 
and our present high velocities, due to high-pressure steam and the tubular 
system of boilers, have surpassed the most sanguine expectations of 
engineers. The sagacity of George Stephenson at once seized upon the 
suggestion of Henry Booth, to employ tubular boilers; and that, united to 
the blast-pipe, previously known, has been the means of effecting all the 
wonders we now witness in a system that has done more for the develop- 
ment of practical science and the civilization of man than any discovery 
since the days of Adam. 

From a consideration of the changes which have been effected in the 
means for the interchange of commodities, I pass on to examine the progress 


lx REPORT—1861. 


which has been made in their production. And as ‘the steam-engine has 
been the basis of all our modern manufacturing industry, I shall glance at 
the steps by which it has been perfected. 

Passing over the somewhat mythical fame of the Marquis of Worcester, 
and the labours of Savery, Beighton, and Newcomen, we come at once to 
discuss the state of mechanical art at the time when James Watt brought his 
gigantic powers to the improvement of the steam-engine. At that time the 
tools were of the rudest construction, nearly everything being done by hand, 
and, in consequence, wood was much more extensively employed than iron. 
Under these circumstances Watt invented separate condensation, rendered 
the engine double-acting, and converted its rectilinear motion into a circular 
one suitable for the purposes of manufacture. But the discovery at first 
made little way; the public did not understand it; and a series of years 
elapsed before the difficulties, commercial and mechanical, which opposed its 
application, could be overcome. When the certainty of success had been 
demonstrated, Watt was harassed by infringements of his patent, and law- 
suits for the maintenance of his rights. Inventors and pretended inventors 
set up claims, and entered into combination with manufacturers, miners, and 
others, to destroy the patent, and deprive him of the just fruits of his labour 
and genius. Such is the selfish heartlessness of mankind in dealing with 
discoveries not their own, but from which they expect to derive benefit. 

The steam-engine, since it was introduced by Watt, has changed our 
habits in almost every condition of life. Things which were luxuries have 
become necessaries ; and it has given to the poor man, in all countries in 
which it exists, a degree of comfort and independence, and a participation 
in intellectual culture unknown before its introduction. It has increased 
our manufactures tenfold, and has lessened the barriers which time and space 
interpose. It ploughs the land, and winnows and grinds the corn. It spins 
and weaves our textile fabrics. In mining it pumps, winds, and crushes the 
ores. It performs these things with powers so great and so energetic as to 
astonish us at their immensity, whilst they are at the same time perfectly 
docile, and completely under human control. 

In war it furnishes the means of aggression, as in peace it affords the bonds 
of conciliation ; and, in fact, places within reach a power which, properly 
applied, produces harmony and goodwill among men, and leads to the 
happiest results in every condition of human existence. We may, therefore, 
well be proud of the honour conferred on this country as the cradle of its 
origin, and as having fostered its development from its earliest applications 
to its present high state of perfection. 

I cannot conclude this notice of the steam-engine without observing the 
changes it is destined to effect in the cultivation of the soil. It is but a 
short time since it was thought inapplicable to agricultural purposes, from 
its great weight and expense. But more recent experience has proved this 
to be a mistake, and already in most districts we find that it has been pressed 
into the service of the farm. Thesmall locomotive, mounted on a frame with 
four wheels, travels from village to village with its attendant, the thrashing- 
machine, performing the operations of thrashing, winnowing, and cleaning 
at less than one-half the cost by the old and tedious process of hand labour. 
Its application to ploughing and tillage on a large scale is, in my opinion, 
still in its infancy, and I doubt not that many Members of this Association 
will live to see the steam-plough in operation over the whole length 
and breadth of the land. Much has to be done before this important 
change can be successfully accomplished; but, with the aid of the agri- 
culturist preparing the land so as to meet the requirements of steam- 


ADDRESS. lxi 


machinery, we may reasonably look forward to a new era in the cultivation 
of the soil. 

The extraordinary developments of practical science in our system of 
textile manufacture are, however, not entirely due to the steam-engine, 
although they are now in a great measure dependent on it. The machinery 
of these manufactures had its origin before the steam-engine had been applied, 
except for mining purposes; and the inventions of Arkwright, Hargreaves, 
and Crompton were not conceived under the impression that steam would 
be their moving power. On the contrary, they depended upon water; and 
the cotton-machinery of this district had attained considerable perfection 
before steam came to the aid of the manufacturer, and ultimately enabled 
him to increase the production to its present enormous extent. 

I shall not attempt a description of the machinery of the textile manufac- 
tures, because ocular inspection will be far more acceptable. I can only 
refer you to a list of establishments in which you may examine their opera- 
tions on a large scale, and which I earnestly recommend to your attention. 
I may, however, advert to a few of the improvements which have marked 
the progress of the manufacturing system in this country. 

When Arkwright patented his water-frames in 1767, the annual consump- 
tion of cotton was about four million pounds weight. Now it is one thousand 
two hundred million pounds weight,—three hundred times as much. Within 
half a century the number of spindles at work, spinning cotton alone, has 
increased tenfold; whilst, by superior mechanism, each spindle produces 
fifty per cent. more yarn than on the old system. Hence the importance to 
which the cotton trade has risen, equalling at the present time the whole 
revenue of the three kingdoms, or £70,000,000 sterling per annum. As late 
as 1820 the power-loom was not in existence, now it produces about fourteen 
million yards of cloth, or, in more familiar terms, nearly eight thousand 
miles of cloth per diem. I give these numbers to show the immense power 
of production of this country, and to afford some conception of the number 
and quality of the machines which effect such wonderful results. 

Mule-spinning was introduced by Crompton, in 1787, with about twenty 
spindles to each machine. The powers of the machine were, however, 
rapidly increased ; and now it has been so perfected that two thousand or 
even three thousand spindles are directed by a single person. At first the 
winding on, or forming the shape of the cop, was performed by hand; but 
this has been superseded by rendering the machine automatic, so that it now 
performs the whole operation of drawing, stretching, and twisting the thread, 
and winding it on to the exact form, ready for the reel or shuttle as may be 
required. These, and other improvements in carding, roving, combing, spin- 
ning, and weaving have established in this country an entirely new system of 
industry; it has given employment to greatly increased numbers, and a more 
intelligent class of work-people. 

Similarly important improvements have been applied to the machinery 
employed in the manufacture of silk, flax, and wool; and we have only to 
watch the processes in these different departments to be convinced that they 
owe much to the development of the cotton manufacture. In the manufac- 
ture of worsted, the spinning jenny was not employed at Bradford until 1790, 
nor the power loom until about 1825. The production of fancy or mixed 
goods from alpaca and mohair wool, introduced to this country in 1836, is 
perhaps the most striking example of a new creation in the art of manufac- 
ture, and is chiefly due to Mr. Titus Salt, in whose immense palace of 
industry, at Saltaire, it may be seen in the greatest perfection. In flax 
machinery the late Sir Peter Fairbairn was one of the most successful 


lxii REPORT—1861. 


inventors, and his improvements have contributed to the rapid extension of 
this manufacture. oa 

I might greatly extend this description of our manufacturing industry, 
but I must for the present be brief, in order to point out the dependence of 
all these improvements on the iron and coal so widely distributed amongst 
the mineral treasures of our island. We are highly favoured in the abun- 
dance of these minerals, deposited with an unsparing hand by the great 
Author of nature, under so slight a covering as to bring them within reach 
of the miner’s art. To them we owe our present high state of perfection in 
the useful arts; and to their extended application we may safely attribute 
our national progress and wealth. So that, looking to the many blessings 
which we daily and hourly receive from these sources alone, we are impressed 
with devotional feelings of gratitude to the Almighty for the manifold 
bounties He has bestowed upon us, 

Previously to the inventions of Henry Cort, the manufacture of wrought 
iron was of the most crude and primitive description. A hearth and a pair 
of bellows was all that was employed. But since the introduction of 
puddling, the iron-masters have increased the production to an extraordinary 
extent, down to the present time, when processes for the direct conversion 
of wrought iron on a large scale are being attempted. A consecutive series 
of chemical researches into the different processes, from the calcining of the 
ore to the production of the bar, carried on by Dr. Percy and others, has led 
to a revolution in the manufacture of iron; and although it is at the present 
moment in a state of transition, it nevertheless requires no very great dis- 
cernment to perceive that steel and iron of any required tenacity will be 
made in the same furnace, with a facility and certainty never before attained. 
This has been effected, to some extent, by improvements in puddling; but 
the process of Mr. Bessemer, first made known at the meetings of this 
Association at Cheltenham, affords the highest promise of certainty and 
perfection in the operation of converting the melted pig direct into steel or 
iron, and is likely to lead to the most important developments in this manu- 
facture. These improvements in the production of the material must, in 
their turn, stimulate its application on a larger scale and lead to new con- 
structions. 

In iron shipbuilding, an immense field is open before us. Our wooden 
walls have, to all appearance, seen their last days; and as one of the early 
pioneers in iron construction, as applied to shipbuilding, I am highly gratified 
to witness a change of opinion that augurs well for the security of the 
liberties of the country. From the commencement of iron shipbuilding in 
1830 to the present time, there could be only one opinion amongst those 
best acquainted with the subject, namely, that iron must eventually supersede 
timber in every form of naval construction. The large ocean steamers, the 
‘ Himalaya,’ the ‘ Persia,’ and the ‘Great Eastern,’ abundantly show what 
can be done with iron; and we have only to look at the new system of casing 
ships with armour-plates, to be convinced that we can no longer build 
wooden vessels of war with safety to our naval superiority and the best 
interests of the country. I give no opinion as to the details of the recon- 
struction of the navy,—that is reserved for another place,—but I may state 
that I am fully persuaded that the whole of our ships of war must be rebuilt 
of iron, and defended with iron armour calculated to resist projectiles of the 
heaviest description at high velocities. 

In the early stages of iron shipbuilding, I believe I was the first to show, 
by a long series of experiments, the superiority of wrought iron over every 
other description of material in security and strength, when judiciously 


ADDRESS. Ixili 


applied in the construction of ships of every class. Other considerations, 
however, affect the question of vessels of war; and although numerous 
experiments were made, yet none of the targets were on a scale sufficient 
to resist more than a six-pounder shot. It was reserved for our scientific 
neighbours, the French, to introduce thick iron plates as a defensive armour 
for ships. ‘The success which has attended the adoption of this new system 
of defence affords the prospect of invulnerable ships of war, and hence the 
desire of the Government to remodel the navy on an entirely new principle 
of construction, in order that we may retain its superiority as the great 
bulwarks of the nation. A committee has been appointed by the War Office 
and the Admiralty for the purpose of carrying out a scientific investigation 
of the subject, so as to determine, first, the ‘best description of material to 
resist projectiles; secondly, the best method of fastening and applying that 
material to the sides of ships and land fortifications; and, lastly, the thick- 
ness necessary to resist the different descriptions of ordnance. 

It is asserted, probably with truth, that whatever thickness of plates are 
adopted for casing ships, guns will be constructed capable of destroying 
them. But their destruction will even then be a work of time; and I believe, 
from what I have seen in recent experiments, that with proper armour it 
will require, not only the most powerful ordnance, but also a great concen-~ 
tration of fire, before fracture will ensue. If this be the case, a well-con- 
structed iron ship, covered with sound plates of the proper thickness, firmly 
attached to its sides, will, for a considerable time, resist the heaviest guns 
which ean be brought to bear against it, and be practically shot-proof. But 
our present means are inadequate for the production of large masses of 
iron, and we may trust that, with new tools and machinery, and the skill, 
energy, and perseverance of our manufacturers, every difficulty will be 
overcome, and armour-plates produced which will resist the heaviest existing 
ordnance. 

The rifling of heavy ordnance, the introduction of wrought iron, and the 
new principle of construction with strained hoops, have given to all countries 
the means of increasing enormously the destructive power of their ordnance. 
One of the results of this introduction of wrought iron, and correct principles 
of manufacture, is the reduction of the weight of the new guns to about 
two-thirds the weight of the older cast-iron ordnance. Hence follows the 
facility with which guns of much greater power can be worked, whilst the 
range and precision of fire are at the same time increased. But these 
improvements cannot be confined to ourselves. Other nations are increasing 
the power and range of their artillery in a similar degree, and the energies 
of the nation must therefore be directed to maintain the superiority of our 
navy in armour as well as in armament. 

We have already seen a new era in the history of the construction of 
bridges, resulting from the use of iron; and we have only to examine those 
of the tubular form over the Conway and Menai Straits to be convinced of 
the durability, strength, and lightness of tubular constructions applied to the 
support of railways or common roads, in spans which, ten years ago, were 
considered beyond the reach of human skill. When it is considered that 
stone bridges do not exceed 200 feet in span, nor cast-iron bridges 250 feet, 
we can estimate the progress which has been made in crossing rivers 400 or 
500 feet in width, without any support at the middle of the stream. Even 
spans, greatly in excess of this, may be bridged over with safety, provided 
we do not exceed 1800 to 2000 feet, when the structure would be destroyed 
by its own weight. 

It is to the exactitude and accuracy of our machine tools that our 


lxiv REPORT—1861. 


machinery of the present time owes its smoothness of motion and certainty 
of action. When I first entered this city, the whole of the machinery was 
executed by hand. There were neither planing, slotting, nor shaping 
machines, and, with the exception of very imperfect lathes and a few drills, 
the preparatory operations of construction were effected entirely by the 
hands of the workmen. Now everything is done by machine tools, with a 
degree of accuracy which the unaided hand could never accomplish. The 
automaton, or self-acting machine tool, has within itself an almost creative 
power; in fact, so great are its powers of adaptation, that there is no opera- 
tion of the human hand that it does not imitate. For many of these improve- 
ments, the country is indebted to the genius of our townsmen, Mr. Richard 
Roberts and Mr. Joseph Whitworth. The importance of these constructive 
machines is, moreover, strikingly exemplified in the Government works at 
Woolwich and Enfield Lock, chiefly arranged under the direction of 
Mr. Anderson, the present inspector of machinery, to whose skill and 
ingenuity the country is greatly indebted for the efficient state of those great 
arsenals. 

Amongst the changes which have largely contributed to the comfort and 
enjoyment of life, are the improvements in the sanitary condition of towns. 
These belong, probably, to the province of social rather than mechanical 
science; but I cannot omit noticing some of the great works that have of 
late years been constructed for the supply of water, and for the drainage of 
towns. In former days, ten gallons of water to each person per day was 
considered an ample allowance. Now thirty gallons is much nearer the rate 
of consumption. I may instance the water-works of this city and of Liver- 
pool, each of which yield a supply of from twenty to thirty gallons of water 
to each inhabitant. In the former case, the water is collected from the 
Cheshire and Derbyshire Hills, and, after being conveyed in tunnels and 
aqueducts a distance of ten miles to a reservoir, where it is strained and 
purified, it is ultimately taken a further distance of eight miles in pipes, in 
a perfectly pure state, ready for distribution. ‘The greatest undertaking of 
this kind, however, yet accomplished, is that by which the pure waters of 
Loch Katrine are distributed to the city of Glasgow. This work, recently 
completed by Mr. Bateman, who was also the constructor of the water-works 
of this city, is of the most gigantic character, the water being conveyed in a 
covered tunnel a distance of twenty-seven miles, through an almost impass- 
able country, to the service reservoir, about eight miles from Glasgow. B 
this means forty million gallons of water per day are conveyed through the 
hills which flank Ben Lomond, and after traversing the sides of Loch Chon 
and Loch Aird, are finally discharged into the Mugdock basin, where the 
water is impounded for distribution. We may reasonably look forward to 
an extension of similar benefits to the metropolis, by the same engineer, 
whose energies are now directed to an examination of the pure fountains of 
Wales, from whence the future supply of water to the great city is likely to 
be derived. A work of so gigantic a character may be looked upon as 
problematical; but when it is known that six or seven millions of money 
would be sufficient for its execution, I can see no reason why an undertaking 
of so much consequence to the health of London should not ultimately be 
accomplished. 

In leaving this subject, I cannot refrain from an expression of deep regret 
at the loss which science has sustained through the death of one of our 
Vice-Presidents, the late Professor Hodgkinson. For a long series of years 
he and I worked together in the same field of scientific research, and our 
labours are recorded in the Transactions of this and other Associations. 


ADDRESS. lxv 


To Mr. Hodgkinson we owe the determination of the true form of cast-iron 
beams, or section of greatest strength; the law of the elasticity of iron under 
tensile and compressive forces; and the laws of resistance of columns to 
compression. I look back to the days of our joint labour with unalloyed 
pleasure and satisfaction. * 

I regret to say that another of our Vice-Presidents, my friend Mr. Joseph 
Whitworth, is unable to be present with us through serious, but I hope not 
dangerous, illness. To Mr. Whitworth mechanical science is indebted for 
some of the most accurate and delicate pieces of mechanism ever executed ; 
and the exactitude he has introduced into every mechanical operation will 
long continue to be the admiration of posterity. His system of screw- 
threads and gauges is now in general use throughout Europe. We owe to 
him a machine for measuring with accuracy to the millionth of an inch, 
employed in the production of standard gauges; and his laborious and 
interesting experiments on rifled ordnance have resulted in the production 
of a rifled small-arm and gun which have never been surpassed for range 
and precision of fire. It is with pain that I have to refer to the cause which 
deprives me of his presence and support at this meeting. 

A brief allusion must be made to that marvellous discovery which has 
given to the present generation the power to turn the spark of heaven to the 
uses of speech—to transmit along the slender wire for a thousand miles a 
current of electricity that renders intelligible words and thoughts. This 
wonderful discovery, so familiar to us, and so useful in our communications 
to every part of the globe, we owe to Wheatstone, Thomson, De la Rive, 
and others. In land-telegraphy the chief difficulties have been surmounted, 
but in submarine telegraphy much remains to be accomplished. Failures 
have been repeated so often as to call for a Commission on the part of the 
Government to inquire into the causes, and the best means of overcom- 
ing the difficulties which present themselves. I had the honour to serve on 
that Commission, and I believe that from the report, aud mass of evidence and 
experimental research accumulated, the public will derive very important 
information. It is well known that three conditions are essential to success 
in the construction of ocean telegraphs—perfect insulation, external protec- 
tion, and appropriate apparatus for laying the cable safely on its ocean bed. 
That we are far from having succeeded in fulfilling these conditions is 
evident from the fact that out of twelve thousand miles of submarine cable 
which have been laid since 1851, only three thousand miles are actually in 
working order; so that three-fourths may be considered as a failure and loss 
to the country. The insulators hitherto employed are subject to deteriora- 
tion from mechanical violence, from chemical decomposition or decay, and 
from the absorption of water; but the last circumstance does not appear to 
influence seriously the durability of cables. Electrically, india-rubber 
possesses high advantages, and, next to it, Wray’s compound and pure gutta- 
percha far surpass the commercial gutta-percha hitherto emp'oyed ; but it 
remains to be seen whether the mechanical and commercial difficulties in 
the employment of these new materials can be successfully overcome. The 
external protecting covering is still a subject of anxious consideration. The 
objections to iron wire are its weight and liability to corrosion. Hemp has 
been substituted, but at present with no satisfactory result. All these diffi- 
culties, together with those connected with the coiling and paying out of 
the cable, will no doubt yield to careful experimeut and the employment of 
proper instruments in its construction and its final deposit on the bed of 
the ocean. 

Irrespective of inland and international telegraphy, a new system of com. 
oo has been introduced by Professor Wheatstone, whereby inter- 

861. e 


lxvi REPORT—1861. 


course can be carried on between private families, public offices, and the 
works of merchants and manufacturers. This application of electric currents 
cannot be too highly appreciated, from its great efficiency and compara- 
tively small expense. To show to what an extent this improvement has 
been carried, I may state that @ue thousand wires, in a perfect state of 
insulation, may be formed into a rope not exceeding half an inch in 
diameter. 

I must not sit down without directing attention to a subject of deep 
importance to all classes, namely, the amount of protection inventors should 
receive from the laws of the country. It is the opinion of many that patent 
laws are injurious rather than beneficial, and that no legal protection of this 
kind ought to be granted ; in fact, that a free trade in inventions, as in 
everything else, should be established. I confess I am not of that opinion. 
Doubtless there are abuses in the working of the patent law as it at present 
exists, and protection is often granted to pirates and impostors, to the detri- 
ment of real inventors. This, however, does not contravene the principle 
of protection, but rather calls for reform and amendment. It is asserted by 
those who have done the least to benefit their country by inventions, that a 
monopoly is injurious, and that if the patent laws are defended, it should be, 
not on the ground of their benefit to the inventor, but on that of their utility 
to the nation. I believe this to be a dangerous doctrine, and I hope it will 
never be acted upon. I cannot see the right of the nation to appropriate 
the labours of a lifetime, without awarding remuneration. The nation, in 
this case, receives a benefit; and assuredly the labourer is worthy of his 
hire. Iam no friend of monopoly, but neither am I a friend of injustice ; 
and I think that before the public are benefited by an invention, the 
inventor should be rewarded either by a fourteen years’ monopoly or in 
some other way. Our patent laws are defective, so far as they protect 
pretended inventions; but they are essential to the best interests of the 
State in stimulating the exertions of a class of eminent men, such as 
Arkwright, Watt, and Crompton, whose inventions have entailed upon all 
countries invaluable benefits, and have done honour to the human race. To 
this Association is committed the task of correcting the abuses of the present 
system, and establishing such legal provisions as shall deal out equal justice 
to the inventor and the nation at large. 

I must not forget that we owe very much to an entirely new and most 
attractive method of diffusing knowledge, admirably exemplified in the 
Great Exhibition of 1851, and its successors in France, Ireland, and America. 
Most of us remember the gems of art which were accumulated in this city 
during the summer of 1857, and the wonderful results they produced on all 
classes of the community. The improvement of taste and the increase of 
practical knowledge which followed these exhibitions have been deeply felt ; 
and hence the prospects which are now opening before us in regard to the 
Exhibition of the next year cannot be too highly appreciated. ‘That Exhi- 
bition wiil embrace the whole circle of the sciences, and is likely to elevate 
the general culture of the public to a higher standard than we have ever 
before attained. There will be unfolded almost every known production of 
art, every ingenious contrivance in machinery, and the results of discoveries 
in science from the earliest period. The Fine Arts, which constituted no 
part of the Exhibition of 1851, and which were only partially represented at 
Paris and Dublin, will be illustrated by new creations from the most dis- 
tinguished masters of the modern school. Looking forwards, I venture to 
hope for a great success and a further development of the principle advo- 
cated by this Association—the union of science and art. 


ADDRESS. lxvii 


In conclusion, my apologies are due to you for the length of this address, 
and I thank you sincerely for the patient attention with which you have 
listened to the remarks I have had the honour to lay before you. As the 
President of the British Association, I feel that, far beyond the consideration 
of merely personal qualifications, my election was intended as a compliment 
to practical science, and to this great and influential metropolis of manufac- 
ture, where those who cultivate the theory of science may witness, on its 
grandest scale, its application to the industrial arts. As a citizen of Man- 
chester, I venture to assure the Association that its intentions are appreciated ; 
and to its members, as well as to the strangers who have been attracted here 
by this meeting, I offer a most cordial welcome. 


; "hoy. pe ten al 
Ci qeltnaits. ras pq eles bok” 
1 seca SP homed vt ees vaca 
NEEM bn ah tachi sk Suto, 
- ek bhi? eaariditen heme cnet biseryae La 
Veh attth rset fi ttise find ite tay pi et be jn) 

Re ety Yer coat 1s Ae ‘} of? sai bras adm pet 3 
Bd 2 ado eterna), off te oclaieee poh 
Deak G 474 Annee.) a ted Paolino’. ch ie ee 
Ais ibe a8 Yai wile Mogens ot) ote Matra : 
sect law Ta liairs. sere aa es 


——— ; 
. 
~ 2 
“wi ? 
~/} s a: ; 
inp 
. 
f 
Ted Li “ “ a 
os . 
a - = - ~ gl 
‘ 
Mes 7 —* 
il ee - _ 
ay a =e 4 
_ . 
—_ 
‘Lay ae 
ns | > 
We 
iy ’? uth * ; 

AM ai». ap 26, Po) oy yi O 
GEA xy eee Wy vie 
by A ae ot 

tee Keine Le eee oF yer « 


MS See o 2) 1 ea temew 
pet NH» Sie eet Dries ao 
wa! ehiradiaa 5 hie grat ct “e- é 
an ae eS } a ek Barly 
Marve ote apy ale Cae es . 
beres'yi). eles Pat fel Tee's 
peed. veo + aleds bn ie 
a cease rabies aie Dips 4 ia oo 


eb po ¥ 


a a 


Ox pA Neate 


> eres a ~ 
an oe: PhS OME 
> tS howe 
Plasto > paper as ‘* ; 
, i) at. ge. ae Poe; |” 
Sgt ori 


REPORTS 


ON 


THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1860-61. By a Com- 
mittee, consisting of James GuatsHER, Esq., F.R.S., of the Royal 
Observatory, Greenwich, Secretary to the British Meteorological 
Society, &c.; J. H. Guapstone, Esg., Ph.D., F.R.S. &c.; BR. P. 
Gree, Esg., F.G.S. &c.; and K. J. Lowe, Esq., F.R.A.S., 
M.B.M.S. &c. 


Tue Committee, in presenting this report upon the Luminous Meteors of 
the past year, feel that the arrangement for collecting this information is far 
from perfect, as for the most part the number of observers, Members of the 
Association, who have sent observations are very few indeed. 

During the entire year 1860 the number of meteors were few, and the sky 
during the nights of both the August and November epochs was generally 
overcast over the whole country, and scarcely any meteors were seen. 

In the August just passed, the sky for the most part was clear, and many 
meteors were observed. 

It was stated in the Report for last year, that the remarkable meteor of 
March 10, 1860, must have been seen by many persons, and it seems to have 
been so, but no observations were taken by them of elevation, direction, &c. ; 
and we are not in possession, even now, of sufficient information upon which 
to base calculations. 

In the Catalogue of Meteors observed this year, of one alone have accounts 
by three observers been received, that of July 16, 1861, as seen by the Duke of 
Argyll, at Kensington; Mr. Frost, at the Isle of Wight; and Mr. Howe, at 
Greenwich : the three observers agree as to the place of its origin, viz. near 
a Lyre, but Mr. Howe says it moved towards the N.E., whilst Mr. Frost 
says its motion was towards the §.W., just in opposite directions to each 
other*. Another meteor, that of August 6, at 11.15, was seen by two ob- 
servers ; the one at Manchester, the other near Macclesfield, but in neither 
case are sufficient data recorded. 

The Committee regret that but one account of all the remaining meteors 


in the catalogue has been received, and nothing can therefore be added to the 
observations themselves. 


* This was also probably the one seen at Tunbridge Wells, at Darlington in Yorkshire, 
and at Namur in Flanders, and of which an approximate orbit has been calculated by Mr. 
Alexander S. Herschell. (See Appendix, No. 3.) 

1861. B 


to 


REPORT—1861. 


They would earnestly press upon the Members of the British Association 
the necessity of more complete and numerous observations, noting the times 
of appearauce and disappearance, by a watch regulated to railway time, or 
whose error from railway time is known nearly ; the size, colour, and general 
description of the meteor, and its place among the stars at its first appear- 
ance and at its last appearance. If. these particulars were received from 
three or four observers, separated from each other by some little distance, 
sufficient information would be furnished to determine in many cases the 


Date. : Appearance and Brightness 


Velocity or 
Magnitude. and Colour. 


Duration. 


Train or Sparks. 
1849. 
Aug. 11] Midnight |Globular; 12 times the Bright blue ...|..cceecesecsecereeeseeeresserees 30 seconds ......... 
size of Venus when 
seen in her full 

splendour. 
pba sberossee Intensely Burst into fragments of a 
white. red colour. 
Saenboooog Purple ......... 


cern eel een eases tse es ews see enemas seen esse sesee reese esse esl eee 


Bradford. 

Hi Besanodoncad Beare Ads heere Scarlet before 
bursting, 

green after- 

wards. 

Brilliant:s 5 seswesessaes Reddish 


p.m.|= Ist mag. * ......--(Blue  «--.404+-/Streak left .......s.eee00ee AS 


6\From 10 till|Six small meteors|Colourless ...|Slight trains .. 
from 2nd to 4th 
mag. 


and as|Bluish ......... Ill. jescsedvesvenccsesascesss 1 second; move 
bright. over 20° of sky. 


one pity Bren icons + 60 (BTN a ee ee 
night. 


from 01 sec. 
1d sec. 


10)11 15 p.m.|/Twice the size of ..seee...(Left a streak in the sky/Slow; duration 
Venus, and brighter. which lingered after the) second. 
meteor had vanished. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


3 


distance of the meteor from the earth, its path, size, velocity, &c., and 


thus render these reports far more valuable than 


they are at present. The 


following Catalogue contains a list of all the meteors, accounts of which have 
reached the Members of the Committee, arranged in their order of occur- 


rence. 


In the Appendix following the Catalogue are abstracts from some of the 
most important papers which have appeared, during this year, connected with 


this branch of science. 


Observer. Reference. 
choseeeec J. Atkinson .......MS. communica- 
tion. 
SRE CCRSAE SEOCOREL SOE See Appendix No.1. 


+ Collected by 
Mr. Greg. 


Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. 
In the S.; burst into fragments).............+00.0.c0004 Siberia 
| With a great flash, followed 
| by detonation. 
PMMERPOEAW cco evonscscecacseess Light as day ...... Athlone — and 
! Holyhead. 
(In the westerly part of the|...........ccscsecceees Bradford. 
_ heavens; no noise. 
SUMMER Getetaearcorases-csccerscnena|ecnca-cécawansescxasses Alderly Edge, 
Cheshire. 
BME ess cacsesce Bid Seunsedcanvsacsseccoseslesessasccoscsscsssuccoen| NEWDOLt,) 111 
Salop 
Fell, inclining in an arc of 15°..)..........scseeeeeeeseee Leeds. 
Moved downwards  towards)........+.......cceee0ee Blackburn. 
W.S.W. 
From Polaris towards a Ursz]......ces..s.ccesseseees Plymouth......... 
Majoris. 
Tn Ursa Major and Ursa Minor|From direction of|H.M.S. S. ‘ Hi- 
Cassiopeia. malaya,’ Ply- 
mouth Break- 
water. 
From the zenith towards N.W.|...............-0:seeees H.M.S.S. ‘ Hi- 
horizon. malaya,’ Bay 
of Biscay. 
Tn northern heavens ............ Counted 17 finellbid ............... 
meteors. Light- 
ning over France. 
In northern heavens ............ Counted 24 me-|Ibid............... 
teors, some very 
brilliant. Fre- 
quent lightning 


over France. 
Fell from direction of zenith,| Very fine and warm.|Fuente del Mer, 


almost across Mars. Several very; near Santan- 
small meteors) der, North 
seen, but not) Spain. 


nearly so many 
as on the evening 
of 4th and early 
morning of 5th 


instant. 


E. J. Lowe ..,...,MS. communica- 
tion 

TOs Secouseouscteon Ibid. 

ler ieesetcs ces cee Ibid. 

Vif asarsseadestect Ibid. 

1G SRS Ibid. 

1 Pee BR ae ria er Ibid. 


ee 


B2 


qd REPORT—1861. 
Appearance and Brightness - Velocity or 
Dee ues Magnitude. and Colour. To ee Duration. 
1860. | h m : 
July 13/10 10 p.m.|= Ist mag. +, and|Intensely blue/No separate streak; disap-|Rapid ............... 
twice as bright. peared instantaneously. 
15 or 16/11 0 p.m.|About the size of thel.........-++e++0 Long tail, somewhat re-|-.....++sseessereesceeee 
full moon ; oblong. sembling a rocket. 
25/Froml0p.m.|Small .........s0seeeees Colourless <.-\-.2.2.ccasscoseseenaneneoeeepseee TRAC semen eee 
till 1 a.m. 
of 26th. 
OW oe aan sinew hike apdark Perpen-|-.a.cmavescvavsces|cvcsacecsaseshenebeccesseseseveccl ea suduccerenh<nes=aa" oie 
dicular line. 
US | KOw 28 span. |! 2nd MAP, el sucess cel esasereeateeneeson INONGC*+csccosccsncccceneeeee Instantaneous ...... 
7] 0 16 am.}= 2nd mag.*......... BNE snapehcoads| are i eee eet oc pee cease About 1 second . 
20) 9 45 p.m.]......00 ee sua eastae nase Blue, — enve-|Red sparks ...cesseseeseseeee Slow......... scsesteell 
loped in a 
white mist. 
Oct. 13) 9 O p.m.|About 3 the size of/White ......... Tail like a rocket, andj3 or 4 seconds..... 
the moon. with reddish sparks. 
15] 1 22 am.|About the size ofl..............c00 ight train: <css....s--seeeees 0°5 second ....... : 
Venus. 
20] 6 45 p.m.jSplendid meteor ...... Brilliant ...... Long streak...... secseeeeeees 5 or 6 seconds..... 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 5 


Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference. 


{From Vega towards west ho-|Very small meteors|Reinosa(amongst|E. J. Lowe .......MS. communica- 


rizon, moying over 8° ofsky.) could be seen,| the Spanish tion. 
Several very small ones, less) owing to the| mountains). 
than 6th magnitude. great purity of 


the air at this 
great elevation. 
Thestars brighter 
than I ever saw 
them before. 
Fell from about 30 degrees|The state of the|Banff. 
S.W. of the horizon, passing} atmosphere was 
a few degrees S. of Arc-| very electrical; 
turus. several electric 
clouds were seen 
traversing the 
valley of the Spey. 
In various directions ............,A number of me-|Santander ....../E. J. Lowe ...... Ibid. 
teors, all small. 


Fell from the zenith towards|When a few yards|Little Bridy...... H. S. Eaton...... Ibid. 
the earth. from the earth 
there was a sud- 
den blaze, as of a 
rocket bursting, 
and soon after 
there was a sound 
as of shot falling 
upon the leaves, 
but no‘fragments 
have been found. 


From a. few degrees N.|,..............coeeeeee-(Craven Hill,|J. H. Gladstone..|Ibid. 
of Arcturus, through 15° London. 
of space. 

From about the middle of}, ................ccc000 Greenwich Park.|H. S. Eaton...... Ibid. 


the constellation Draco, 
to within a degree of « 


Bootez. 
Tn the N.E.; from about 90°/When about 20°\New York ......|. iraseseLopecenced .-[Tbid. 
to 40°. from the zenith, 
it burst into two 
pieces, which tra- 
velled parallel to 
each other for 
the remainder of 
DS ak = ‘ ae the course. 
n the southern sky; travelled|Cast shadows, and/Dover .........---|R. P. Greg ....../Ibid. 
E. and W. for about 25° or| finally burst into . a 
30°. sparks or frag- 


ments at about 
an elevation of 
40°. Seemed 
very near; could 
hear no report. 
In _the INGW.;" .at: an’ €levas|eoeee ss -....|Greenwich ....../J. MacDonald ...|Ibid. 
tion of 75°; disappeared in 
the W. at an elevation of 30°. 


From « Persei to « Urse Ma-|Atmosphere  very|Ibid.......... saecn| Weekends Ibid 
joris for about two-thirds of} clear ; bright J. nded.” % 
the distance. moon; day before 


the first quarter. 


6 REPORT— 1861. 


$$ $$$ I 


Appearance and Brightness : Velocity or 
Date. Hour. Ae tide. and Colour. Tremaior Apambe Duration. 
1860. |h m 
Oct. 20/10 O p.m./= 2nd mag. *......... Colourless ...|NONE .....-seessesesececeeees 2 seconds.....+...++ . 
Nov. 1] 8 30 p.m.\Larger than Mars ...|Yellowish; the/Rocket-like _discharges,/3 seconds ..........- 
fragments and a streak left behind. 
red, _ blue, 
and yellow. 
1; 8 35 p.m.|Splendid meteor ...... About Che} Sau, .2: eeeceeecscsccoesscccsecs|seeteeeesevescanaeceseas 
colour and 
brightness 
of Arcturus. 
2} 7 3 p.m.|= 2nd mag. *......... Blue v5.2 vaseeset pureak lefte... J. cccssscsncsaue Rapid! vicea-c-seo 
7| 8 46 p.m.|Larger than Ist mag.x|Blue............ Detached sparks in its|Rapid ............... 
track. 
1510 23 p.m./About 2nd mag.* ...|Bluish ......... NONE 4..¢ccczcs Weccencenenneee Rapid-..22é32 24-0 
20) 8 55 p.m.) Larger than Ist mag.x|Bluc..........c.jececcssseseseseccesrsueeeeenences Rapidsc.con..d-t-a8 
Dec. 11) 6 25) p.m:iSplendid meteor ...5..|socsscsaccosanetee us eae esteteedeces-sceceeseos 1 second 2.0.5. .cc009 
W510 LS) pm.|— Ist mag. <.....00.|.sscctaven edoeee oo} sascecees Hel eecuescaceveesotaefucuneensseewonyeatt same 
PQIO) pm Gl). ceseveencusacssccescsseces}.cSesscacveseseeeetecte. Meee etc cde co aemeceee Rapid .........s60.08 
10 p.m. vs 
20/10 25) pam: /2nd mag) x: <.dsennescccl-cesseccecaccesece IASSPark: 25. ccese secs cs scscc[rosmnedevetesssovecs=aam 
1861. 
Jan.~ ) | Sod ommecacese Splendid’ meteor ......|..<.....-cccss-0s|saccosasccevassonostnek SeoaeEEee sete cmeene nase naa eee 
6) 2 20 a.m./= 2nd mag. #..:...... Bluish ....... o-|AS @ Spark ......ccseereesees Instantaneous ...... 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


Direction or Altitude. 


In N., starting at an altitude/This meteor 


’ of 45°, falling at an angle 
of 45° towards N. horizon, 

_ and terminating at Ursa 
Major. 


7 


General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference. 


ap-|Highfield House|E. J. Lowe ......,MS. communica- 
peared, disap-| Observatory. tion. 
peared, and re- 
appeared. four 
different times 


during its pro- 
gress. Many other 
meteors during 
the evening. 


Moved from S. to W.; start-/The pauses in mo-|BeestonObserva-|[d.  .........+«+...|Ibid. 


ing from below y Pegasi; 
moving downwards towards 
W., and when about » 
Aquarii, burst and threw 
down fragments like the 
discharge of a rocket, the 
fragments falling perpen- 
dicularly down; then moved 
on to ¢ Aquarii, when it burst 
a second time, and threw 
down perpendicularly ; then 
moved on about 3°, and in- 
stantly vanished. 


In the N.W., passing N. paral-|The sky clear, and|Swanage . 


lel to the meridian for about 
25° or 30°. 


tion were very] tory. 
apparent. The 
meteor moving 
at an angle of 
45°, along which 
a streak was left; 
the fragments, 
however, fell 
perpendicularly 


down. 


Rev. F.C. Penrose} Ibid. 


moonvery bright. 


From altitude of 65° due W.;|Brilliant | Aurora|Observatory, E. J. Lowe ......|Ibid. 
fell perpendicularly down. Borealis. Beeston. 

From 6 Urse Majoris, almost|......... ap vcseapaieone IDid....seecccceesoe[EC. s.seeeeeeee ..».|[bid. 
horizontally towards the E., 
inclining downwards 2°. t 

Fell down perpendicularly from]-+++....sss..-+-.00+ ..|Royal Observa-|W. C. Nash ......|Ibid 
a point a little above Polaris to tory. 


within 5° of the N. horizon. 


Fell 10° amongst cloud, from/A fine meteor ......|Observatory, 


E. J. Lowe ......|Ibid. 


altitude of 30° in S.S.E., Beeston. 
moving towards S. 
Fell from the zenith towards|Visible | through Leyton, Essex...|/H. S. Eaton...... Ibid. 
the S.W. Nimbus cloud, 
; rain falling at the 
time. 
Tn N.W., at about 45°. ......... Disappeared and|Observatory, E. J. Lowe ......|Ibid. 
reappeared four; Beeston. 
times. Aurora 
Borealis. 
Biitacscsocrestcess vaceswecwaceel'oe's' Several meteors ...|Ibid....... Noses enn Ed araseedaceresss DIC: 
In W.N.W. at about 45° ....,./As a spark. It Tbid..........466...|TQ.  seseees--seeeee[L bid. 
appeared, disap- 
peared, and reap- 
peared _ several 
times. 
Passed over the Island, and €X-|....ccsscscsessceseeeees Bermuda. 


ploded some distance from 
_ land with a loud report. 


Shot rapidly across Corona|Apparentlynear the|Highfield House E. J. Lowe 


Borealis, at an angle of 45° 


towards N. horizon. 
\ 


earth. Observatory. 


eee a aennen nen 


8 REPORT—1861. 


Appearance and Brightness - Velocity or 
Date. Hour. tiaeniinde: ahd Color, Train or Sparks. aration. 
1861. |h m 
Jan. 7| 7 51 p.m.|Size of Venus .........|Blue............(Light train ofred sparks.../20 seconds ........ 
eben 206 SO) pam. ooo. ccevcsece sed Lbevesave peceneacaned de00as| 0 See gaviway uc. atamekes ateoet WL AwatuUt cite bvasevedll 
11/ 8 12 p.m./Brighter than any of Red .......... ..|None ........ fecdaes ceverceeelessccsesececeseeeeeesees 
the fixed stars. 
spa Oa | Santee Os. cocdewese's ..(Deep blue ...|.... eed. ahaa bossessusesvecwe 2 seconds..... veeseng 
17| 6 28. p.m.|Large .......ececcceeso|ereeee seaaadtee dl clo ashatGsa te oateteraertt ceartieotnes dite oaavdeweass og 
Mary 4) esewetkio tose Like a cone, MOViNg).-+..sccereeeeeee+|Lail like & COMEE...2+eeeere+|.cseeneceseceeeeerersees 
base foremost ; the 
light equal to that 
of melting iron. 
10) 8 50 p.m./= 2nd mag. x .........|-2ceseccceedereees NOMG cc ccdssecuautitetens ote lto2seconds ... 
Apr. 10/10 25 p.m.|Splendid meteor ...... Brilliant white|Long train of light ......... SOW: aiuto wake: a 
12) 7 40 p.m.|Splendid MetOOTWwaseducekesensaithy| NONG i vadseiscapes.oceseccauds|suancceesacnseuseasneal 
about twice the 
size of 2. 
May 19) 8 45 p.m.|Size of 2, .......00...00./Straw COlOUr...,NOME ....ssceeeeeccnceeseeees 1 second ,..,..++008 
June 30/10 0 p.m.|= Ist mag. * ......... Blue: vcve+--.2° Streak long ..,.eccseccseesccn|eccccnseerneseyeerasaes 
SO PEVENINE Sd srcsscseereresccsssest Seven |censrasacenestoeps| enomenee sees ot eccbeocscadsmabiey|sonweb aeghiahen dass ool 
July 3) Midnight, |= Jupiter ............|Straw colour,../None ...,.....6 auageonehe= "|About 1 second ... 
or a few 
minutes 


| after. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 9 


. 


Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference. 
$ 
Vhen first seen was very near|...... aon shalewarsthings eee(Chester ......006 R. L. Jones ...,MS. communica- 
Mars ; disappeared a few de- tion. 
grees above the horizon. 
|.W., immediately followed by)...... disleeveteRiss)s,(Alenhedds: 202. T. Bewick ......|[bid. 
a vivid flash of lightning. 
a the W.; fell towards the)................... .... {Tavistock Place..|Mrs. J. H. Glad-|Ibid. 
horizon from the neighbour- stone. 
hood of the Pleiades. 
ell from the N.E. about 70°,|.,.....ccccccccsseeees Greenwich ....../J. MacDonald...|Ibid. 
and disappeared in the KE. 
about 50°. 
1 due S., at an altitude off... Highfield House.|/E. J. Lowe ......|Ibid. 
48°, 
yeas sse5sas-s secececcescesceees It appeared to come|Ballarat, 
out of a cloud;| Australia. 
when it fell to 


the ground, it 
ploughed up the 
earth for a_ di- 
stance of twelve 


ards. 
com Capella to the Pleiades... Cloudless pe ee Greenwich ...... W. C. Nash...... Ibid. 
loving S.W. to N.E., nearly in/It suddenly disap-|Manchester ...... R. P. Greg ...... Ibid. 
the zenith, at the rate of 25°) peared as if par- 
in 4 seconds. : tially bursting, 


leaving a beauti- 
ful purple fire for 
1 or 2 seconds, 
The course was 
most distinctly 
serpentine ; seve- 
ral shooting stars 
seen at the same 
time, their paths 
being at right 
angles to the 
larger one. 
Nucleus round, 
and surrounded 
in front and on 
all sides by lumi- 
nosity, even on 
the forward part. 
peared in the constellation|.........+. sesseeeeeeee | WOking, Surrey. 
Leo, near Jupiter, passing 
through Orion, terminating 
near the Pleiades. 
the S., at an elevation of 60° ;|When at an eleva-|Greenwich ......|J. MacDonald ...|Ibid. 
disappeared at about 30° tion of about 45°, 
behind aclump oftreesabout| it disappeared 
half a mile distant. behind a cloud 
aud reappeared 
at an elevation 


of 40°. 

ossed Polaris ...,.........-e0e.|Peculiar  auroral|Highfield House.|E. J. Lowe ......|Ibid. 
glow-like. 

Reicctcesecssae. rare s+eeeee|Many fine meteors.|Ibid..........02..0{Id. © ..c0ceeceeeeees Ibid. 


S.W. direction. 


10 REPORT—1861. 
Appearance and Brightness : Velocity or 
Date. Hour. Magnitude. and Colour. Train or Sparks. i Duration. 
1861. | h m 
July 7/10 30 p.m.|Large .......seseeeeeeee Brilliant ......|Sparks emitted during the]........... 
whole of the course. 
16/10 50 p.m.|= 4 times the size of| Yellowish...... Splendid train...............|5 to 6 seconds..... 
approximate} Ist mag. +. 
time. 4 
16|Before 11 ]...cecssscecoeeveescosees 64 besctonaoqcossace None, but one large spark].............60... oem 
p-m. was given off just before 
it was lost sight of. 
16/p.m. DAT SE seeucd cacscncesss|heemeteeene sate ses Burst oe eee ee 11 seconds ......« 
16/11 33 p.m.'Resembled a signal!............+4+---/A brilliant train ............ 5 minutes ...... ” 


rocket of large size. 


16|11 40 p.m.|Magnificent meteor.../Blue 


18/11 30 p.m.|Fine, like a rocket .../White 


sete sneer eesnseeee 


Blue- 


20} 9 O p.m./2 > Venus 
Aug. 6] 9 50 p.m.}= Ist mag.+5; a very 
fine meteor. 


6|11 42 p.m./Small, but bright 


| 
| 


wa lewesewene 


Leaving a thin pencil of|/20 to 30 seconds. 


eeeeeeee 


light. : 
seeeee ost ‘|Long and brilliant train. ../4 seconds......... 
besaee ses(NONE coe...eceseceeeeeeseseee/Almost momenta 


Direction or Altitude. 


sed from « Lyre in a N.E. 
direction to the horizon. 


above the horizon. 


shot along the sky from E. 
o W. 
jot straight down to the ho- 
on from a moderate alti- 
de. 


st high up in the air......... 
m the zenith to the E. of 
aLyrz; passedtoa point afew 
egrees below 6 Urse Majoris 


peared between 3 Cygni and 
Lyre. 


the zenith, near « Lyre, 
going in aS. W. course ; dis- 
appearing a few degrees 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


General remarks. 


Warrington. 


It burst noiselessly|Greenwich Park.|J. Howe ...... 
about 10° from 
the horizon. 

Its extreme bright- 
ness, and_ its 
rapid and steady 
motion were 
singularly _ stri- 
king and beauti- 
ful. This meteor 
gave one, irre- 
sistibly the im- 
pression of a 
body moving 
very near, if not 
quite within the 
atmosphere 0 
the earth. 


Kensington ...... Duke of Argyll. 


Yorkshire, and 
Namur in 
Flanders. 

A peculiar feature/Sandown, Isle of|W. M. Frost. 
in this train was,| Wight. 
that although on 
its first appear- 
ance it was to 
the eye perfectly 
straight, it soon 
became curved 
in a direction op- 
posite to that in 
which the wind 
was _ blowing; 
and as it faded, 
portions of it 
were drifted in 
that direction, 
until they were 
lost in the 
brightness of the 
Milky Way. 


See eeeeerees Pee e eee es eas FOO reer rears esse OSs sua te tants tnsesnsae 


The moon _ was\Doe Castle, co,/R. P. Greg ...... 
shining at the} Donegal. 
time, and nearly 
in the position 
of the meteor, 
viz. W.N.W. 

Eicemaeescucesen sce .+»-.|Nantwich. 

Fine night Beditesss Greenwich ......)W. C. Nash...... 


saabecete ees edeeesocaees MbidipeerssadecsutesfLGstacacereesce des: 


11 


communica- 


REPORT——1861. 


Appearance and Brightness : Velocity or 
Date. Hour. Magni cate. Sai Golane Train or Sparks. Tarstion. 
1861. |h m s 
Aug. 6/11 15 p.m.|= three times the|Very pale blue... .ec.csseeeeeeseeeee 18 to 20 seconds... 
diameter of Venus. 
G\LT ASaypim.|.../. secew ede he csieuede plore) waesedeotouwel Sodveqesbaw iwdsddevab ate olte des obteeek. paced avitetescoae 
SHO) V4 pani icecss, Seecsceoddenc-caceunfeweswentsce-assoee IN ONG y «Ses. da oow nent ooemen Almost momentary 
8/10 21 p.m.|= 2nd mag. #......++ BIUC) © .cdesve ss Small train .........000.00-+- From 1 second to 
2 seconds. 

8/10 25 p.m. Small ...eseesereeeserse seeseeeeseeeesnees NONE .-crcoocesceesceoes--ene Lisecond .......--+04 
8/10 28 p.m.j/= 3rd mag. & .......06]-.000.6.---enees ei|NODC seccepeeee-cecesr eee Very rapid ......0 
8/10 31 p.m.|Very small .........00+|,...cccscseesenere NONE wccecsscesccece-+-senees 1 SECON .coeeesseee 
8/10 32 p.m.|= 2nd mag. €...200...|,.seeercessesseves Small train oe........-ce00ee 2 seconds......e+0es 
8/10 39 p.m.|Very brilliant, much].............0+++ Small but very brilliant) ooo... eee eee 

brighter than Ca- train. 
pella. 
8/10 41 p.m.|Small ........-.ceseeeeelecceeeeeceeeceeees NONE ....--..erevecesneeeeres 1 second ......++++8 
8/10 43 p.m.|Very faint .......--++-|..seseeenes-eeveee NOME fisiann so sien cavande~ an -0'tebyge oceania. tate aea 
8/10 46 p.m.|Very fine, = Ist mag.x|...............+6 Leaving a brilliant train of/2 seconds...........- 
some degrees in length.. 
8/10 47 p.m.|Very small .........s00|.s.ccsecscesseese INONE. ss .csts.scsesscscsenscess Rapid’ ssccnconscsvoum 
SLOP SE pam: | Very fine ....ce.-<s0.-|csees0-cossegvaers Leaving a train about 20°\2 to 8 seconds...... 
in length. 
8/10 53 p.m.|Very fine, = Ist mag. *|....6+....se0008 ../Train 20° in length......... 2 secondS....-+..-+0s 
S10 59 p.m.|= Ist mag. % .....0006],..oesceesseceeves No train or sparks ...... ++|.......secees docccsseay 
SILL 3 p.m.|Very small .....0000..|.secccvees-acussce NONE wccccecccccccscccssesece Me cavoteceyeedatoeueae 
9| 9 58 30 |=Ist mag.x............ BING sss. ccueees Stream of light ........... Duration 0°8 sec.. 
p.m. 
910 0 30 |= I...... 2. eeccreneesees BIG =. <<. mene Long tail.........0..secceseee Rapid ..... pawsbee a 
p-m. 
9110 14 30 |=3rd mag.x ......++ Colourless .../As a spark; no stream of|Instantaneous ..... 
p-m. light. 
9/10 16 30 |=3rd mag.x, and in-|Yellow......... Sitreakis:. csbsdsssssecevsseeet Duration 0°1 sec... 
p-m. creased to 1st mag.* 
O}LO AG? pam: — And Aes pwc ss.e0+|:0sceses seeders. os INONE | ...6se0c4engeea Sareea 1 second ....000c0e0 
9110 18 30 [Small ......000... 2.000 Wellowny\:...-4 Slight streak ...... savyectes Duration 0:1 sec... 


p.m. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


13 


Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. ‘Reference. 
n the S8.S.E., at an elevation|The night was|Manchester...... R. E. B. ..........MS. communica- 
| half between the horizon and beautifully clear.| tion. 
the zenith. 
in the S.S.E., appearing to fall)... ..........ececsuce Prestbury, near|W. N. ....0..,.00+ Ibid. 
) beyondthe range of surround- Macclesfield. 
ing hills. 
m Cygnus to a Aguile ...... Fine clear night ...)Royal Observa-|J. Howe ......... Tbid. 
tory, Green- 
wich. 
hot upwards through Cassio-/Fine clear night ...|Ibid.............46 W. C. Nash...... Ibid. 
peia. 
m « Andromede across «Fine clear night ...|Ibid...............5 ifs hs een + Ibid 
Pegasi. 
Passed in a westerly direction|Fine clear night ...|Ibid................ NGS cose swatexsaes oc Ibid 
| across Vulpecula. 
Passed rapidly from « Cygni to|Fine clear night ...|Ibid................ Tok We eesti. Ibid 
Sagitta 
assed from « Cygni to Del-|Fine clear mahi 5) [baie S aeso ae W. C. Nash and|Ibid. 
phinus. J. Howe. 
ell in a N.E. direction past|,..............cccsossss Wbidivs. tavecassté W. C. Nash...... Ibid. 
and near Capella. Its course 
| did not appear longer than 
| 10° or 12°. 
Passed from Cepheus to Sagitta.),.............cccceeeeee ‘Nt ES SPaae Seen J. Howe ......... Ibid. 
m 6 Draconis to midway]............cc..cccseces Dd seacssstesnccsed Ne kestasesstcncens Ibid 
| between 12 Canum Venati- 
| corum and «¢ Ursz Majoris. 
m « Lyre to Cassiopeia ...|....... pRaracesvacmcvace ADIGE od, -esaeaee, Ii be lereeereacn ee Ibid 
Passed downwards about 10°........scecssee0..-.-. ee Bone W. C. Nash ......{Ibid. 
E. of « Ophiuchi. 
ppeared near ® Draconis and)..................00c00 Ubidscss<<--ssaesece J. HOWE? <.:.s255- Ibid. 
passed to Arcturus. 
m « Lyre, passed to the E. of}...........+4. oy coral c ees ave EAL sopasasinortee Ibid 
a Corone Borealis to 6 Ser- 
pentis. 
ell perpendicularly from a Co-|...............eececeeee Unit beaaee eerereey: W. C. Nash Ibid 
fone Borealis to the horizon. 
‘om y Draconis to Polaris ...|..........s.c000.. AA || LG EPR cee: te ee J. Howe .........|Ibid. 
orizontally from 1° abovel...........csscssceseees Highfield House|E. J. Lowe ...... Ibid 
@ Urs Majoris, coming from Observatory. 
the direction of Perseus. 
from y Aquarii, nearly hori-|..........,....ssseesee Ube gn okt die feather asee|Lbid. 
zontally, inclining slightly 
downwards, and ending at 
the Milky Way. 
om vy Lyrz, through 95 Her-|No increase in size|Ibid................ Mads Setseasdeact --t0~2 Ibid. 
eulis, coming from direction 
of the Swan. 
ing from E. to W. down)Length of are 15°..|Ibid................ Td, acxe2saseneeees Ibid. 
at an angle of 45°, passing} 
immediately under 3 Urse} 
| Majoris, and crossing Canes 
| Venatici. 
was seen a little distance|Cloudy............... Royal Observa-|W. C. Nash...... Ibid. 
| below and to the E. of Ca- tory, Green- 
| pella. wich. 
Yown at an angle of 60° from)...............sceeeeeee Highfield House|E. J. Lowe ...... Ibid. 


| 3° below Arcturus. Observatory. 


14 REPORT—1861. 
Appearance and Brightness ‘ Velocity or 
a oie Magnitude. and Colour. sh Duration. 
1861. | h m s 
Aug. 9/10 21 p.m.)/=2nd mag.x ...... ...|Reddish ...... Many sparks ............ ...|/Duration 0°2 sec. 
ONLI DUA trclcsatecosaseeeaoessectte>s eu [Metireeeta Peo ceek None. .c.cs-ccsseceten coats 1 second .......0081 
9110 24 45 |=8rd mag.* ........ Yellowish....,.|Streak left .............5 ...(Duration 0°2 sec. 
p.m. 
9/10 29 p.m.|=3rd mag.* ......... Blnels 2h. Stremk lety.., )..2.0ee Instantaneous .... 
910 29 5 |=8rd mag.x .........|Blue............ Streak ..-sesstsess «esters .....|Instantaneous ....| 
p.m. 
SLOVs epi: | Small ceocercases-conees Bluetcsssseacess Small train ....... sosecuseuee 1 second ......... : 
9/10 34 30 |=3rd mag.x ......... Yellow i<--<2: Streaks vec <cctsaseveseres ...»-| Instantaneous .... 
p-m. 
9110 36 p.m.|=4th mag.* ......... Mellow sa.e-- Streak .......ccscccessccsssees Instantaneous .... 
9110 37 p.m./=3rd mag.* .........|Bluish ......... NIKERK cencxssenesuasteceeses Instantaneous .... 
9110 38 p.mi]=2nd mage ..sceecea[eececreeceeeeeeees Small train .......... erccseey 2 seconds.....s..0 
9)10 41 40 |=8rd mag. .........|Colourless ...|/Streak .........secsseeceeeeeee Rapid; —_durati 
p.m. 0:2 sec. 
9110 43 p.m./=3rd mag.* ...... Be Biceco eR once Nome <...:sesquenene o-sse0e|l, SECOND ,0022.. <a 
9}10 47 p.m.|Very bright ...csecee|eee--seeeeeeeeeees INONG. <..c-ssesesseeestece -++e-|Momentary ....... 
9110 47 50 |=3rd mag.x .........|Reddish ...... Streak, which remained|/Duration 0:5 sec 
p-m. after the meteor had 
itself vanished. 
9/10 51 p.m.|/=2nd mag.x ....... ..|Reddish ...... Streak .......++00 eevcccecesen Duration 0:2 sec 
9/10 52 30 |=, in size, and in-/Blue............ Streak :ivcsesaesteree seesseeee/Duration 0°3 se 
p.m. creased in magni- disappeared 
tude,andmore espe- maximum brig 
cially in bright- ness suddenly. 
ness. 
910 52 31 |=6th mag.* ......... \Colourless ...|Streak ..... seeeceeacescesncees Same speed as 
p-m. and apparen 
connected wi 
it. Rapid. 
910 55 p.m.|=I1st mag.x......... .--(Deep blue_.../Leaving a thin streak ...|Duration 3 secs. 
9/10 56 15 |=2nd mag.x ......... Colourless ...|Streak ............ccsse-e «Rapid; _ durati 
p.m. 0°2 sec. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 15 


| 
Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference. 


ing 10° N. of Sword-|Disappeared at|Highfield House|E. J. Lowe ..,.../MS. communica- 


handle of Perseus. maximum bright-| Observatory. tion. 
; ness. Arc 1°. 
om Lacerta to « Delphini ...|Cloudy............... Royal Observa-|J. Howe ......... Ibid. 
tory, Greenw®. 
m 5° below Polaris, andjArc 3° ...........- Highfield House/E. J. Lowe ...... Ibid. 


moving from direction of 
Sword-handle of Perseus. 


cross y Draconis from direc-|Arc 7° .....e...see0es 1650: BAe ape eee Md pigen apie tads ccwacs Ibid. 
tion of Cassiopeia. 
om below Polaris, coming/Arc 5° ..,........000. bids bat oo cscan: Ted: she waafnatenicess Ibid 
from direction of Cassiopeia. 
m # Aquilz to a Ophiuchi. |...............c00.cseee Royal Observa-|J. Howe ......... Ibid. 
tory, Green- 
wich. 
cross + Cassiopeiz, from di-|Arc 5° .......00..0000 Highfield House\E. J. Lowe ...... Ibid. 
rection of the Swan. 
om) near ¢ Urse Majoris|..................c00+ MDid:s<c2sscesseasrs Le tereceossastnce Ibid. 
down from direction of 
Perseus. 
rom slightly N. of s Cassio-jArc 0° 30’ ......... bid osstece.ccoeese Wee cee sseuecc scene Ibid. 


pei; rose upwards, incli- 
ning slightly N. (from direc- 
tion of Perseus). 


BeeOvent to a CoOrone)..........ccccscosseses Greenwich ...... J. Howe ......... Ibid 
Borealis. 
‘om below o Aurige, andjArc5°..............- Highfield House\E. J. Lowe ...... Ibid. 
moved upward on a circular Observatory. 
are (discordant). 

a §.W. direction across|\Cloudy............... Royal Observa-|W. C. Nash...... Ibid. 
Equuleus. tory, Green- 

wich. 

t out from the clouds near]...................e006 Witt bose eancosescnee TO eaascoacesscssce Ibid. 
Polaris. 

oss @ Pegasi, and through|Are 7° ............... Highfield House|E. J. Lowe ...... Ibid. 
% Pegasi (from direction o 
Perseus). 
‘om x Ursze Majoris (from di-|Arc 4° ..........0004. Ulcrti peer Greonccre iG BY Rater peccerod: Ibid. 
rection of Perseus). 
‘om about H. 10 Camelopar-|Arc 10° ..........+. NDidssaeteeecee sce NOS vasntcpongreaes Ibid. 
di, crossing above o Aurigze 
(from direction of Perseus). 

H. 7 Camelopardi down-|..................2..06- DD 1ds28 2, taccex-ass Woy. adinavasccenses Ibid. 
wards at an angle of 45°. 
near a Cygni, passing|Rather cloudy...... Greenwich ...... J. MacDonald.../Ibid. 


beyond and within a few 

degrees of « Pegasi. 

om H.15 Urs Majoris downjArc 15° ............ Highfield HousejE. J. Lowe ...... Ibid. 
at an angle of 45° (from di- 

rection of Cassiopeia). 


16 REPORT—1861. 
Appearance and Brightness . Velocity or 
Deke ae Magnitude. and Colour. Prsimer Sparks: Duration. 
1861. |h m s 
Aug. 91057 40 |=2nd mag.x ......... Colourless ...|/Streak .........00c0-.sssceeee Rapid 
p.m 
910 59 p.m.|=3rd mag.x .c.-+0..- Colourless ...|Streak ...............sssseseee Very rapid; dur 
| tion 0:1 sec. 
911 4 p.m.|= Ist mag.eee......e0e Reddish ...... Streak. ..0.csccsssisessssssvaes Duration 0°5 sec 
911 4 1 |=2nd mag. ......... Reddish ...... Streak.....0sccen.0s eet ee ahd Duration 0°5 see. 
p-m. 
911 4 2 |=8rd mag.* ......... Colourless ...|Streak ..........-0.cseceseeeee Duration 0°2 sec 
p.m. 
| 
9111 16 p.m.|=3rd Mag.x ....0.000]...ccreeeeeenereee ae ssocecerarcscasteascaate 1 second ......... 
: | : 
OND 33 spam | Bie es cceccene ah cceecaes| snavcstanesmvaessy |Left a train some degrees|3 seconds........., 
in length. 
10/0 3 a.m.|Very small ............ White ......... Non@ ...-dc.ccoossedshesowswas Duration 0°5 sec 
10} 9 15 p.m.|Small ....0+-.seeesseeee|serseeeeeereeeeees INQHE 2 as senccpencesseeneners 1 second .......... 
10) 9 18 p.m,|Smmall .......sesseeeeeee|eceesseeeeeeeeeees INONE: «5: Vi isccccscesenguces 1 second ........+. 
10} 9 20 p.m./Magnificent meteor. The head ap- The tail was a long streak|4 seconds.......... 
The length of the) peared a of red fire, from which 
head and body; massofblue sparks were emitted; 
together was about) fire. The! which rapidly became 
equal to the di-| bodya mix-| extinct. 
stance between the) ture of 
pointers of the bright pur- 
Great Bear. ple and 
crimson. 
10} 9 25 p.m.|=Ist mag.x.....s.secee|..c.eeeceneeeenes Left a train 15° long ......]........sseucewsopaae 
10} 9 30 p.m.|= Ist mags. .s.......-2|s..n0-s-ceereeoee \Left a train visible for 10}...............c.c00e 
seconds. 
10} 9 30: p.m.|Small ...... 2. sc2..23005 WIRES ce i20 None  L.iccsdecesssasv veces: BS 8EC. sed. .0cam 
10] 9 38 p.m.j==2nd mag.x ......000|....--scceeceeesesleoeceeccssccncccoetatsecoseusccec|ecsnenn+-teseesersous 
10) 9 43 pan.|— sed MASH ..ceescee|.c-oeeeeccudvansee|sousovesdoncswarcgssccuccnsessess|aueen>=ast=aenedoeaal 
10| 9 48 p.m.|=2nd mag.* .........\Green .. ...... Might streak. 22. /:csses+-|saatesaensaces0os-mm 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 17 


Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. | Reference. 
‘rom midway between « and Arc10° ............. Highfield fa ie J. Lowe .......MS. communica- 
y Urse Majoris; fell down tion. 
at an angle of 45° towards 
the N. horizon (from direc- 
tion of Perseus). 
From just above @ Urs Ma-)Arc 5° ...ese.ccseeeee {bid....... saehnae an(lGom adspanerre ....(Lbid. 
Joris down towards N, (from 
direction of Perseus). 
Yownwards in S.W., and cross-/Are 18°. ............ UDG eecsstevasenccihtled Gissacssseupes \[bid. 
ing s Coronz Borealis. 
rossing Arcturus, and fallingArc 15° ......... eee EDIT Fetes awoecvost Waste. Rivecuueee Ibid. 
downwards (from direction 
of Perseus). 
Jown in N. below Polaris (from/Are 5°. (FromflbidsssicsesccvesolQe. cesses ceveccoee Ibid. 
direction of Perseus). 11.10p.m.cloudy | 
night. ) 
hot out from behind the clouds|...........00cc.cceseees ‘Royal Observa-,W. C. Nash...... Ibid. 
in a N.W. direction across tory, Green- 
Delphinus. wich. 
rom Cassiopeia to 3 Ursa Ma-|............ccceeeeeeeee UDG ssc ceseh doaiesee J. Howe ......,.. '[bid. 
joris. 
‘om y Draconis to within'Thin clouds......... Greenwich ...... Mn Mac Donald...|Ibid. 
about 10° of Arcturus. 
om « Cygni to Cepheus...... A very fine night.../Royal Observa-'J. Howe ......... Ibid. 
tory, Green- 
f wich.’ 
om Delphinus to @ Pegasi ...|-00...:.0scccccccceecees Ibidtcserts. cane Dik chchanins cunt sx) Onde 
om N.E. to S.W. at an eleva-|A clearly defined/ Midway between H. Vignoles _ ,..|Ibid. 
tion 50° above the horizon.) streak of yel-| Bilbao and the 
The apparent distance} lowish-red light} mouth of the 
travelled by the meteor was) was left behind,| river about 5 


fully one-third of the chord! visible for about! miles from the 
of the celestial arc, occupy-| 4 minutes. Se-| sea. 

ing while visible the central) veral — meteors 

part thereof. were seen on this 


evening. 
from @ Lyre towards the E.\.........0c0c0eceereees ‘Cranford ....... «(W. De la Rue... Ibid. 
| 
———. s 
carly im zenith; trail re-|.....cccccccecccecsesves EDI sisscncevaeseot hss veceactee seacec}LDIG 
mained visible for 10 seconds 

\to the W. of « Lyre. 

om the neighbourhood of|Clear ............... Greenwich ..,....{J. MacDonald...|Ibid. 


Ursa Minor, in the direction 
of Arcturus for about 15°, 


Atre of track E.S.E. from 3°.........csssssccepeeeee Cranford .........|W. De la Rue..,.|Ibid. 
below « Pegasi to « Aquarii. 


aS 


meeOt< track: E.S.B.,. in -alsscsccsssseescceecsececs EDidiyveesecsdcens Ldvenrccwep hives Ibid. 
‘direction parallel to N. 3°. 


ie 


See naemapeerar qeery Aster Greenwich ......!J. Mac Donald.../{bid. 


18 hi REPORT—1861. 


Appearance and Brightness BEN Velocity or 
babi ee: Magnitude. and Colour. ‘Treitne  e Duration. 
1861. |h m 

Aug. 10} 9 49° p.m.}= 2nd magex cisssere-leeeeeecterervereerlers seeneceseeescscteeneaenecssege|sesseseeeseeneraonenees 
TOROS Piel ecscersccassopnaabesesense|-=seqsens weahsanss|tctaescesnsiwacteeeaas cianeodb sel ba eee cangeatechosuee 
10) 9 56 p.m.j=Srd magex ceeeeeeee BUG Lilshtsnsens NONE siccocecsvacsocceecses +/2 SCCONGS....0eeeees 
10] 9 31 p.m. |Fine ...ccc.cecceceseeeree|ecereesesees ..+...|Leaving a train some de-'3 seconds.+«....004) 

grees in length. 
10] 9 38 p.m.|=Ist magex.......scceeleccsssscrcseserees Leaving a train 20° in2 seconds....... oa 

length. 
10} 9 5G p.malecerceeeee asacsteieones apsilsoWwiahl.sckecses|ececess Direcdes anckne pia baopep ania sabia at sag Ktesterd 
10} 9 57 p.m.|=2nd magex sesccccee[ecsecseerenececee [NOME ceececcenesecersanearers 1 second ...s.060 
V0} 99/159) pitn.| sc sicesoscocecnstetaseeceor|-ncueen Gras shes soslcckwabevscncvesetpeatescns sopmeamueenns esssceatsieeee ! 
LOMO: “LD pim.|Small .<.ccescecders cene]-ocusiintesotvans« None; ssi cdeoss ekasiabash ate Momentary ....+«, 
LO}1O ‘1 P.M......sscccssssssescccseres|sercerecceosesenarlece rT eee or ce é 
10 10 2 P-TD.} sees eehece ccc ectccecectcce| sete eee bseeserpeniecencceesensverensoee secvceeee waleeeceteeees seesettere 
LO}LO GE p.m] =Qnd mag.x ...ceccee[ecreereereeeseeees INGE? saceccs-chevcuapeteeeaee 1 second .....+.. 
1010 7 psm.]=2nd mag.x .....0...|eerseererseesereee sedssescdassseates fussdhescantenn taeeeases anes seams 
16)10 94 p.m.}=2nd mageX ....,.004|seeeeee sessdevens[NOME scceesscesenssesseenceee|4 SCECONAS. 5.40008 
10/10 10} p.m.|=3rd mag.* ..... cov dbebvanyeandidevers|NORE, . 2«sngeds ol }ias cle cnpateas 1 second ...... “ 
VOLO) L4, tpimas|—2ndimapecy tecececs:|seretenanens [esedcl.ccseossocsnursae bgunebasnls ake) teaee cvaekehis cree 
LO LO MUGEN iercecenssspsrcaeenassaseclacenens Fildhicaves| Waanasacksxataabaep biccbersedbene|tecssccoetaswscesecal 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 19 


Direction or Altitude. General remarks. 


Reference. 


Place. Observer. 


————— — ——. 


entre of track S.S.W.; moved),,....04........ccceeess Cranford .........|W. De la Rue... 
from § Aquilz for 20°. 


: 


entre of track E., about 10° 
above horizon. 


oe 5 


Tom a few degrees N. of the ho-|.,.,............. ....J. MacDonald... 
rizon, continuing very nearly 
parallel to it for about 15°. 

fine meteor was seen to pass 
from « Draconis to Arcturus. 
‘om  Aquilz to Cassiopeia 


MS. communica- 


ete ta eeeteee 


Pecsesle LOWE! sonecsdes 


dsadedtedeaaanda Td. sevccesseeseces 


sie? sessseees| We De la Rue... 


eévage W. C. Nash...... 


a Urs Majoris. 
entre of track S.E., near « 
Aquile. 


aw 


om A Draconis towards the 
N. horizon. 

mire of track S.S.E., 10° 
above horizon. 


.|W. De la Rue... 


seevcee| Eo Ue LNASTL oo. eee 


eee dedceusccenesestgsazy(CXANMOLG epesseese W. De la Rue... 
tion 15°, ; ree . 
om a point a few degrees|..., Greenwich ...... W. C. Nash... 


abowe Arcturus in a S.W, di- ; 
rection. 


Lae ctaieapeuiente 1 RR erer rey Sp 
-....]W. De la Rue... 


weer eseseeaesee | Less rsciserssvens 


20. REPORT—1861. 

Appearance and Brightness : Velocity or 
= eet Magnitude. and Colour. ‘TriniOr Sparse Duration. 
1861. |h m 

Aug. 1010 16 p.m.) =Ist magekeesceseereejecoeees Rieger Leaving a train about 15°)2 seconds.,....++++«4] 
in length. 
10,10 18 p.m.)= Ist mag.%, as Dril-|....seeeecsereeees PCO ee oe cosedcealcevevctectedesreus sesame 
liant as Venus. 
10)10 19 p.m.J=2nd mag.x crorcccssleccsccrerceereeres Fine train .,.cccsecssseccees 1 second ......000648 
TQ10) ZO pam, |Small . . sc... creseccanae|orreeane seen yeas NOnC. Jepsreuees onceeseanecten 1 second ....s...s008 
10)10 21 p.m.;=3rd mag.# .....600e Des a Md A train about 10° injl to 2 secs. .......0 
length. 
10/1123) p.m;|Small .....<cccsccavsositeseneee sb eceun es Faint train ......ee0e poenanee 1 second .......00.0 
VOWOE2LSF pim.|Small Sci.sevccsuacccessldauadessecss shes WOVE: is devenanee coocsscaveseee|l SECOND susseveseeel 
10)10 24 p.m.|............ sdoaee nbaceaealnWies Phetinecse'san peaesasepusreise sviatedhesbvenes diecseesvvecs'yens eesneel 
10|10 24 p.m.|Small ...........eeeee malsasdiswagsb=becsae NONE cr pcececnscte enemas sees 1 second ......... “ 
10\10 25 p.m.|/=Ist mag.x.....006 sea Mtaceesetssedescus {Leaving a train some de-)2 seconds......... ood 
grees in length. 
10/10 25 p.m./fwo meteors, both........ Reeeanmees seeevecesescecgcecscencevac|eoscesseceecesscnscoeces 
brilliant; = Ist 
mage. 
10)10 26 p.m.j=2nd mag.% ..scceces|eseeee sesccersreee/NONE .essssesssscesssereoeee lL SECOND sssseenerenell 
10 10 26 p.m. seccectevecvccerececetcceve POETETERTTIISE ITT TST ELIS TILT errr 
10 10 2H p.m. =a TNAG.Hretverceeee|seerececvesccesese Left a train PrYTTTITIT i 
10/10 27 p.m.'=2nd mag.x ......++ Blush ss. chess A train about 5° in length'2 seconds. .....+«+« 


BOG 27> pin. Snell “/eeayeouvh stieanlecdects: 


seereweses 


‘None 


eeedewe! 


1 second .sccsecveee 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 2] 


Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference, 
From 3 Ursz Majoris to within],..,........ juntas ++s.|Greenwich ....,. J. Howe ......... lug communica- 
a few degrees of Arcturus. tion. 
Centre of path S.S.E.......sssee]...ceescsseesssteserenes Cranford ......6+. W. De la Rue...|Ibid. 


is “a Aquilles 
— 


. a Capricorni 


From Equuleus to @ Capricorni |+++++++++++++++esseeeees Greenwich ...... W. C. Nash...... Ibid. 
From Cassiopeia to a Persei ...|:+++++esseeeseteeeeesees Ibid aeaess desdede oval Jb ELOWE):c; 00 cess Ibid. 
From Lacerta to Delphinus ...)---s+++-sseeeeseeeeeeees ND cays sdaes sssaea| We ©. INDSI ceascc Ibid. 
From y Urs Majoris to s Vir-|-++...+- niaggesetseoune TDidssecéseosse<oe: J. Howe ......... Ibid 
ginis. é 
From @ Herculis towards the|sss.ssscssesseceeseseees bila: cwectessccenee W. C. Nash’...... Ibid. 
S.W. horizon. 
Centre of path S.W., 3° below)-+-.+++ maesauanse ++se.(Cranford .........,W. De la Rue...|[bid. 
a Lyre. 
From @ Cygni to « Herculis ..,|.::sssssesssseeeeesees Greenwich ......|W. C. Nash......|Ibid. 
From Polaris to Corona Borealis|......ssssssesssseseeees Tbidtac5.: ttsceeens J. Howe .....i... [bid. 
entre of path E. .........ceceeess papaseenasbasae tess an ‘Cranford ......... W. De la Rue...{Ibid. 


near Cygnus. y S ; 
Appeared a few degrees below|.--.--+.-++- sede Aeeewtel Greenwich ......|W. C. Nash.,..... Thid. 

@ Pegasi, and pursued a Hp 

course about 15° in length 

parallel to the S. horizon. 


mtre of path E.S.E., TICAT | seeeeeeeesesseseceses ..|Cranford ......... W. De la Rue...{Ibid. 
horizon. F : F 
entre Of path E.S.E. .....secc[reeeeseesseeeeeesseeseee|LDICecseeseeerenenes UG BEF e: Sbudien as Ibid. 
lige 
» . > 
Pega si, 
s 
UP. egasv. 
ppeared at a point a st eal en aa Royal Observa-W. C. Nash....../Ibid. 
degrees above «a Andro- tory, Green- 
medz to between @ and / wich. 
Pegasi. 
Passed from a Coronze Borealis!......02....ssee6 sesees DBis .s.atseensasoo.|d-tlLOWChseseedens Ibid. 


to « Serpentis. 


22 REPORT—1861, 


Appearance and Brightness F Velocity or 
Date. Hour. Oe nitule. and Colour. Train or Sparks. Duration. 
1861. | h m | 
Aug. 10|10 28 p.m.|Small sebesosbgsssassccs[ersousatecsqessscs|NOME sveccereneces ceennnay i3 1 second ....s.eeeeeell 
JO|10 28 pu.m.|..cccccccrersersrseecneeeseleoes teecececsscecs|secees suecdescaveasevacdsuscaness seesnateneeeeeeneseceneal | 
10/10 29 p.m.|= Ist mag.+, brilliant}.......se.sceeees Left a long train 15° long]...crscseerseceseresees : 
as Venus. F | 
10/10 31 p.m.[= 2nd magix csessecefecreereeceesereees Small train’, cacscececccswoese Isec. ...cccertteea , 
10 10 32 p.m. = 2nd mag.* eccccccerlccccccccece Ce td bh OOOO ee eereeeres eeeeeeee 1 BOCs Seccncecccevecn 
10|10 32 p.m.|= Ist mag.x ....00-. Bright .,,...ccs|ssecseasccsecssecccseccceecenss|teeeseaes Sassauent cone ea 
1O}10 324 pms} Bnd MAG. rsceeceslecceonpecnrneccena|teessseeesseeeeveeeneresserees des|PSECH sesyet beste ' 
10|10 353 p.m.|= 2nd mag. ....... oe [BUC seccesescee [terres teeeeeees tition ti seeeesfL to 2 Seconds......}) 
7 I, 
10|10 37% p.m.|= 2nd mag.% ssesss...[essceeneeee qaaneet NOG» sevessovesstseceddaetess Momentary .........) 
TOLORSS “Pan. M We <sscasacorefenscssnertesrsnanvextessccs Train of some degrees in|2 seconds............ 
length. 
10/10 39 p.m.|= Ist MAagex ccsssicesleccceecenes deseana|*heeeeeseesueeesaseeecesoneecess[tenennenetesseesnaeauesel, 


10]10 39 p.m.|= 2nd MAG. ..sccceceleccsssrercereeeeee|MCAVING A HAIN esssecseeee[2 SECONDS. sereeesees 


10/10 42 p.m.|Small .issccssccccsseves|scesssccseceessees{ NOME seeeeeseeeeeseesseseses|L SECOND sescseeeseeel 
HGP 420 gab. sceseshoccon sce hecoteane lit eee Mae eHow aA te bees ee A 
10|10 43 p.m.|Very bright ..ecscese|ssessseeesseseeees]SMAll train ssssesseeeesssere(L SECOND sseserseseeel 
10/10 45 pim.|Small ../.....secccceeselersens POS a Noneinsecane debt setnsacvenees 1 second ..csesseeoel ! 
10|10 47 p.m.|Small but very bright|.....ssssssssees NONE: ,acevectaceeteceneeeeners L second ....tcevsoes | 
10/10 49 p.m./Small ....,.cccccccccssslesssssscsssesesses| NOME seececcoesssees seveseere|L SCCON sa sevseeeeeel 
10/10 504 p.m. Ras ceescuberes sesessseee|L SOCOM seessseescal 


10|10 51 pm. 1 second ..........05 | 
10|10 513 p.m. Almost momentary} 
10|10 52 p.m. 1 SECON ......e00008 ; 
10|10 564 p.m. T S€COnd ..cece.s.ee8 
10|10 58 p.m.|/Very fine ......,.scecceslecocscescsccveeees Leaving a beautiful train 2 seconds.......... | 

about 30° in length. 
16|11 14 p.m./= Ist mag.* ,........ Blue c...0.peeses A train about 20° in length/2 to 3 seconds...... q 
10|11 17 p.m./Small ......... See epee eee None: cccdicuetteesatescateane 1 second ...,...00+ - 
10)11 59 p.m.J= 2nd mag.x ........./00 saguaseaateenes Small train ....... PACE crs 2 SECONAS.c+..s000e a 
11) 1 50 am.|}= 3rd mag. ,........ Colourless ...|Streak ....cecccesecsseeeeeenes Instantaneous ...... 
11) 1 51 a.m.}Increasedto 1stmag.x,|Red, & 3 times|/Train ...... vavopecescosesseea|VETY-TADIG .cosccsutl 

and disappeared at] as bright as . 


maximum brightness.| 1st mag.x. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 23 


Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference. 
From @ Herculis to # Lyre ...|.....sesscsceseesereeeees|ROYal Observa-\J. Howe ........./MS. communica- 
tory, Green- tion. 
wich. 


Centre of track E.N.E., 15°)... secees,,{OFanford ...005..:/W. De la Rue... |Ibid. 


see eaeressete 


ahove horizon. 
.ppeared about 30° above ho-|., 
rizon, disappeared about 15° 
above horizon. 
‘rom Cassiopeia to « Persei .. 


See OOOO eee ee ee eesesees 


rom 6 Draconis to 6 Urse'!......... forenetots caves 
Majoris. 
Centre of track E.N.E., abouti....... waesunaacndhscns 


30° above horizon. 
assed from y Urse Majoris tol.. 


the N.W. horizon. 
assed from a Andromed t0 @]..e.cssecepeseeseesnsees 
Pegasi. 
From 2 Pegasi to 8 Pegasi......|......ssceeesessesees es 
from £ Urse Majoris to Leol..........,.... A) Fos 
Minor. » 
entre of path E.S.E., 4° abovel..........ccssssescessees 
horizon. 
from a point situated between).........sss000. gisen ces 
& Cygni and Sagitta to p 
Herculis. 
from Corona Borealis to @)........sceeee0s a astece 
Lyre. 
Jentre of path S.E., 9° above/Cloudy............... 
horizon. 
from ¢ Delphini to a little}..........ecsceeee sere 
above y Aquilz, 
rom 6 Serpentis to a Libre...|......... aasndeocaeseves 
ell perpendicularly from )......cccccsscescceseees 
Arietis to the horizon. 
RE EMMPEIELCHIIS, TO C0), ccecerccescssgapecsecs 
Scorpii. 
assed from a Cygni ‘to al......... veseeerepeseeee 
Lyre. 
m « Cygni to B Delphini ...|.........000...ceeeseees 
assed rapidly a few degrees|.......ssccscsocesseee 
above y Pegasi. 
mis Cygni to Equuleus ......)..............ceeeseeeee 
assed rapidly from 1 Andro-|.........sssesees “rE 
medz to y Pegasi. ~ 
‘rom « Pegasi past Delphinus|..............00s00-0008 
‘to @ Aquile. 
rom @ Lyre to 3 Serpentis ...}....... agehareassebera at 
B Ursz Majoris towards|...........- Cea RRORE 
the N. horizon. 
assed in a 8.E. direction across}.........s0sssseseese os 
y Pegasi. ; 
cross centre of Pegasus,/Arc 20° .......00... 


coming from direction o 

Perseus. 

om direction of Perseus, and/Arc 9° ...cccrereeesss 
passing 10° N. of Aldebaran. 


{Tbid....ccessaseeces 


Core eeteeteeees 


Royal Observa-|J. Howe ......... 

tory, Green- 

wich. 
DbIGs sek casecceces Nb -+\ ccc cbtitiscenes 
Cranford .........,W. De la Rue... 
Royal Observa-|W. C, Nash...... 

tory, Green- 

wich 
IAs so tean-cnenseeel iCall isaccdssacrs saa 
HG Eee? ea eh! LG Beer oer 
EBid.asuseas apbawese Je HOWE: 203.5005: 
Cranford ......... W. De la Rue... 
Royal Observa-|W. C. Nash ...... 

tory, Green- 

wich, 
Nbitievevscacssaeess? J. Howe ....... a 
Cranford ......... W. De la Rue... 
Royal Observa-/W. C. Nash...... 

tory, Green- 

wic 
DBidscissdeeeseence De sHOWC%s .csessse 
Wbidssccgascccssenc: W. C. Nash...... 
EDid egenadesesasvcs|J ol LLOWGC) sapsedess 
Mes, seemananescs «o| Ws C. Nash .osees 
Did sencades Seoses J. HOWE: ..-s0dse- 
Dd cesesearwecstes W.C. Nash...... 
NOG rasreno seat erg OE socear codeine 
EDiG@eccapgppecnses 2) We ina segesacaesp as 
TDide, Jcscovescesaes| Js ELOWO\pescagh 
Ibid....... acon W. C. Nash ...0.. 
Wiidaseesasyoce=s Pom bh ns scogepcermact “re 
Tbid:: =. see Bucseases Pde vassiess penccepes 
Highfield House|E. J. Lowe ...... 

Observatory. 
MDidoccenesaccscenes|LGe Wecesave cee i 


Ibid. 
Ibid. 
Ibid. 


Ibid. 


Ibid. 
Ibid. 


Ibid, 
Ibid. 


Ibid. 
Ibid. 
Ibid. 
Ibid. 
Ibid. 
Ibid. 
Ibid. 


Ibid. 
Ibid. 


Ibid. 
Ibid. 


Ibid, 


Ibid. 
{bid. 


Ibid. 
Ibid. 


Ibid. 


94 REPORT—186l. 


Appearance and | Brightness . Velocity or 
Date Honr. Mitaghitude. and Colour. he Seer Duration. 
1861. | h m s : . 
Aug. 11} 1 51 20 |=Ist mag.t,..-.-+.-|Red, very |Train eccoeeseseocceeecesseeee{ RADIA oe 
a.m. bright. 
+ 153 a.m.|=3rd mag.# -eeeosee. Bluish ......... Streaks....... eaGebdoseaki canes O°2 secs cnccscvesse 
"| 1 58 a.m. =2nd mag.* «..+00+- Blues........+- nae dossauns evescccceeoess| 02 SCCescsccevescacal 
ll} 1 59 ob | See MAQ.K eeeeee sic BIO ixscwde ances) SEROMA Canceses Seedutsecs occas {O'S SOCtstaccsswensee 
11} 1 59 Bp beget Magix seve soit] DIU c se vedeveees bicep wassansoarecasanonouneee (2) BECseswe.cveceee a 
11] 1 59 40 |= 2A ..resseseverene Very _ bright|A long tail which lingered|Rapid (aA 
| a.m. red. 
T]} 1 5QAR | ccccooscvsccnscvccneccsoscs|oasciusnsseaseseees|seeveneee Seccessedeess evcesecsoes|ses erie seees 
a.m. 
11,2 2 am.)=3rd mag.* «...0.00- |Blue............)Streak ...s0e0 sececsceens coceetOPl SEC. .ocescescseon 
t 
) 
11} 2 5 am/Small ..... éoaceuicneeen \Indistinct......:Streak .....sccessees ovecsweese| IOADIG, cavpepers eis! 
au eget. tk VSnnll. *.c.b-adiesorenes | Wet che Be eee iStreak ....c006 iepecuescasaacde (HADIG |. <csancuva avon 
| a.m. 
11} 2 6 am.) =2nd mag.x ........ | peor saeeeds oho eh Streak .......c000 peveaneaesa [Rapid ....cs-cecssad 
{ 
11] 2 6 30 |=2nd mag.x ......... [Bltesameecse [Streaks.0..csscducocs sivensebead RADIO jsacscsansceed 5 
a.m. 
11] 2 9:30 |=3Srdmag.x. ......:.. i seateiss san Streak ......... masicgsacudesen Rapid. .0:..ccccosseg 
a.m. | 
11} 2 11 a.m.|=2nd mag. ......... Red sasceses-ses pa easiesavdegaed Secnpeseah OD sRECsaccsacsaaee a 
| 
Vl) 2 12) aim.|=1st mag. <......- tRed ......eeeeee| Streak .5...scssccccosccccssess O52 SCC iearepewes coed 
11] 2 14 a.m.}=2nd mag.x ......... ‘Blue soccescen! Streak .....0.c000 Sasees seamen RApIGL ...5is0usoneu 
13) 2 14 305 —Srd magn ce. ec.cs a Bat root Sik aavannae Susdaewds peer Rapid ...scceseessa 
a.m. 
11; 2.15 a.m.|=2nd mag.* ......... Colourless ... Streak .......064 eocccscene soc{MADIG! covcsesneneia 
11) 215 30 |=2nd mag.* ..........Colourless ...|Streak .........ssseee secesees{RAPIC sosceeees eoeeas 
a.m. 
11/ 2.17 am.'=2nd mag.* ......... Bite se tecace SEEM ccccscoseeoresstrvuustel Rapid ...cccsssousal 
MT 2 Vii Mop SMA. coeur ceesenavevesa|sscsoneaxetee dicts] aaaepascanpennastanccaxs sesacone|eeee Seanagnnane sas acee . 
a.m. 
HT (21 Skala, | SIAN cocassesehesccussus| scaveessavee peeves SPL cecvascuapyaclenseaeaeae Rapid ..,sccccees ool 
11; 2 20 Saha sovassuesTsases ate \Colourless 5 ae sneaguese sovmocgecmenese Rapid .......0000. 
| | 
11| 2 20 15 i. savages Gercesces Colourless © ...|Stréak ..2......cecccovases-eos Rapid ...ccecscscsea | 
\ a.m. | ; 
11! 2 22 30 |=3rd mag.* ......... Colourless, ..:'Streak .cescessncsaseeesesneu- Rapid ...-+eeeeeeee “ 


“s ea 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 25 


| 
Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. i Reference, 
ae s. 
om direction of Perseus,!.........csccsesesseeess Highfield House|E. J. Lowe ...... |MS. communica- 
amongst cloud in N.E. ; alti- Observatory. tion. 
tude 40°. 
om 1° S. of Sword-handle of/Are 1° ..........0008- Tbidseseseds aegarsee LG Uh ap 2 ay oa Ibid. 
Perseus. 
‘om direction of Perseus, start-|Arc 5°; faded at![bid............008. ld Wececcectecss .... Ibid. 
ing exactly on Aldebaran. max. brightness. 
‘om direction of Perseus, dOWn|.scece..eeeeesecececeaes Disses tscnsdsece MOE ye somaaecnoeincs Ibid. 
from Capella. 
m direction of Perseus, near!..........cceeeeeteeeees IDids. cecteeeteccee Nd ginescesttsvcsecs: ‘Ibid. 
E. horizon. 
m direction of Perseus,!Arc 30° .........06 BDI. gofectea. sseves Td. cesssceeneeees| Ibid. 
Starting 15° from the 
Sword-handle of Perseus, 
and passing across 3 Urse 
Majoris. 
Bea W., altitude 45°|....cccccs. igeneudesuses LIS caussteceasss ce DAE ceusascasectate Ibid. 
amongst cloud. 
om direction of Perseus, doWN,|......sccsecscseeececees Widcacesdeeren cece Widow naa teat os ests de Ibid. 
passing midway between 
Pleiades and Capella. 
epeirom Girection Of  Per-|......cessiescosssescoes Dd spats ove oe wcacths Weastexs Ibid 
seus. 
EMME IDNR: cclsoesecn'ceses| acces sosssscsseesesssos TDi: gactates oxceech Lal, asetnasudsedaes \[bid. 
| 
N., moving towards Ursaj/Arc10°,from direc-|[bid................ hd Soedensessact cow ‘Ibid 
Major. tion of Perseus. | 
NSE. (from direction of Per-|Arc 10° ......../.-.|[Did......cssccceees TAM pewvecesstestix: ‘Ibid. 
seus). | 
E. of Aldebaran, from di-jArc 5° ...............! Bide ctmedtewamees dst scsesas Perce hee ‘Ibid. 
rection of Perseus. 
wards across Cassiopeia,/Arc 5° ............00: IDG cccandetsccnece Tid itewsvaecevc es ae Ibid. 
from direction of Perseus. 
BNE ., from 15° above thel........cccccscscscscess WDiGeescaseeteocess NOW ccesencdiceter Ibid. 
horizon, falling perpendicu- 
larly down. 
direction of Perseus,|.......... adecveusucans Whitd senses evacnefLUe eencsceescatens| Ibid. 
moving across the Ram. 
ym direction of Perseus, Cross-|.......ssesceeeees paodeaLUltles. reese daseses Wels Mccecercnesteaces Ibid. 
ing Pleiades. 
m direction of Perseus,|........ scineemecarecacis MDid ss ee seaceseesos(LGs. ocesteenap Reece Ibid 
starting 3° S. of Pleiades, 
falling down at an angle o 
50°. 
WMMOOREECHION Of  PErseis,|...ccccccsscsceseccecess| MDidecccseseccoesee: Id. scvecesee}1 DIC. 
crossing « Pegasi. | 
below Pleiades, from direc-|.,,......... eresscharass Ibid. Seaveeses{htley eecssviastesvee Ibid. 
tion of Pleiades. 
N.E. amongst clouds.........|...ceeseee chceb ste there Pidcccsspececacess| Id .. Ibid. 
Mieeeurection Of  Perseus,]|.....cccc.c.ccseccrcesss IDDidececcoatic acess Wds~ vane Bbc west is Ibid. 
perpendicularly down to 
Castor. 
wn towards Aries, from di-|.........006. Besbawacses [Didi tsviecsssacssen We, sescue was Bache Ibid 
rection of Perseus. f 


26 REPORT—1861. 


Appearance and Brightness : Velocity or 
Date. Hour, Magnitude. and Colour. Train or Sparks: Duration. 
1861. |h m s 
Aug. 11] 2 22 30 |=3rd mag.* «..... Colourless .../Streak ...... Sevusdcodevanccube| EODPIG vepcctevacc 
a.m. 
11| 2 22 40 |=3rd mag.x ......... Colourless ...|Streak ...... apdenosbnsweaeones Rapid .,....eseeee 
a.m. , 
11] 9 20 p.m.|=2nd mag.* .........| Blue...........- Streak .escsscseceesescnssceves Rapid wssesesseevegy 
11] 9 24 psm.|=2nd Mag.x sreeeeeee|ereeeeeereeereeeee Streak ..ccsereceeecsseesessees Rapid .cc.cc.cceced 
RUG G, grat en oe cepadevcneacon|scasttguagataoammnbeeapeseeuatyavend oars teeny assde calves na 
11/10 47 30) [Small .......ccceeeeess.[eesees Greceesetven|sccnceuesencacsdcussste scumccceat{aceeeer cost arehee tae 
p-m. 
1l 10 48 p-m. Small seeseees faeeeneees|teeese eeereeeeeane Streak eeeenennee rrrrrrr errr Rapid sereeeteee ocenl 
11/10 50 p.m.|=3rd mag. .....000. Colourless ...|Streak ....0..sssscssesssecenes Rapid svscessaseet § 
12/12 59 a.m.|=3rd mag.x .........,Colourless ...|Streak ......sesccessreeeeeeees 0°2 SEC... ccocte cca 
12/12 59 20 |=3rd mag. .........|Colourless ...|Streak ...++seeecescsseeeeeeees 0°2 SEC..3i00, By 
a.m. | 
12) 1 O am.|=3rd mag.* ..,....../Colourless .../Streak .....+sees00 Eee O°l 8€C..0t,-cenceal 
12} 1 010 |=8rd mag.* ......... Colourless ...|Streak ......-eeseee Seorbrction: FRADICL  saeesea cee owl 
am. 
12) 1 2 am.j=3rd mag.x ...... ...(Colourless ...|Streak ....... sdausenstaseentes Rapid ...sc0.cseeeen 
12} 1 6 30 {=2nd mag.x ......... Colourless ...|/Streak ......cecccccsneccsscsce|escesersscencecssenrsall 
a.m. 
12} 110 am.|=6th mag.x ......... Colourless .. * 
12} 1 14 am.|=—6th mag.x ......... Colourless ... P 
12) 118 am.j=3Srd mag.* ....... ..{Colourless ...|/Streak ....... davasatoees castes RSDIO “sscneseeaeen 
12} 1 20 am.|=8rd mag.x .........,Colourless .../Streak ...... edecseonsscytoaes Rapid Re 
12} 1 20 30 |=3rd mag.x .........\Colourless .../Streak ......seeseesees serena ODI Syuhte cae 
a.m. ; 
12) 1 22° am.J/=3rd mag.* ......... Colotrless ...|Streak ........sccccscsseecessef RADI escceeyeqonti 
12| 1 24 am.|=3rd mag.¥ ......... Colourless ...|Streak .......0046 Aerts etsy) Rapid. ccatveqasey 
12| 1 27 am.|=2nd mag.x ......... Colourless ...|Streak....,...sscscsesesceaons Rapid ..-...c00 8 
12} 1 29 30 |Small ...... skeevers: ...(Colourless .,,/Streak .......00. re Rapid ,..... seeeeeny 
a.m. 
12}10 0 p.m. |Small ..sccccescerssceeeseerseteeserrssene| NOME seeeeesssesereeeereene oil SCCODG ys .0y cage 
12/10 2 p.m.|Small ............. if re is iis: hy (0) Ree, PS 1 second ......, coat 
1210 413 p.m.|Very bright, =2ndBlue ......... Leaving a train 10° in|! to 2 seconds..... 
mag. length. 
13] 9 25 p.m.|=Ist magx ......... We ae vr [TEAM scthesccostenceces ateieee SLOW — seonsevecees . 
13] 9 26 p.m.|=Ist mag.¥ ......... Btiish *....020-[ Tenth” “ssteesseeneteeceemeatest SIGW?' Scccseraseae 


1310 1 p.m.j=8rd mag.* .........|Blue  ......... Drain’ <.sssesbeteicccem hose 2 seconds....+.4. “ 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 27 


Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference. 


ET | | |S I | 


om dircction of Perseus ; at).....+...sseseesee.see-/Ekighfield HousejE. J. Lowe .......MS. communica- 


2.24 a.m. became cloudy. ape tion. 
BRASH HRIB oi ceesccessceeseoses]s sedvedeseates ..|Ibid.... Selves... (Tbid. 
pm amongst clouds, in N.B.,|....ssessecseccesccssees[LDICs.cceceeceuetes WoW cedecds cs UiEbids 
perpendicularly down. 
oss Arcturus (from direction).....0...sessceseeeeenee POI A aivtoesesede: 0 sovesccasevesse[ LDC. 
of Perseus). 
oss Arcturus... Be ee Tits cer eres, | jit tae eer eee Ibid. 
S.W., half-way to zenith anal aedentedeissspsecvesees bideccvscaseee aaa Ibid. 
om y Capricorni (direction of}....... ss caaesapacereces bids st-tvensexsae {let awasnenshae tect Ibid. 
Perseus). 
bm @ Urse Majoris (from di-|.......secssscsscscenes Nid ieacesebeneae wacavesbe meubed Ibid. 
ection of Perseus). 
om direction of Perseus,/Arc 20° ........0.. EDIGssetdstseewsves.|LOn aieeee Retest Ibid, 
downwards at an angle of 45° 
o near §.S.E. horizon. 
dm direction of Perseus,|..........+ Sraanavacess NDAs ccacshaccavcee miiscssascanenches Ibid. 
rossing ¢ Delphini. 
bm direction of Swan, Cross-|............ssesesseeees Tbidsessccssuescetes em stag aneeae ts Ibid. 
ng # Arietis. 
ross vw Pegasi, from direction|...........sssecseseeess IDId ss casesbeescesee Sect seas -{LDid. 
of Perseus. 
ym about 14 Arietis, from|Arc 7° ......... vewess DIG Wawesssvssers Lanes Wevetsved Ibid. 
direction of Perseus. 
m direction of Perseus,/Arc15° ............ [0G Eoaearey ecee weeekavegs cubs Ibid. 
srossing half below » Piscium 
d vy Pegasi. 
yeral small meteors ........[.4+ sdanhsadcddoce geese [bidees: ss stassedstlds--ssshR Mere bide 
Sword-handle of Perseus,/Arc 12’ ............ 1h) GG aeeea es Boe Manbsvccavuetas Ibid. 
on S.E. side. 
bssing ¢ Pegasi, from direc-|Arc 10° ............ TWid....eceseeseeeeflds scecereseoesyes Ibid, 
jon of Perseus. 
.E., altitude 45°, down at/Arc10° ............ EDId 208k feos sept Gace eoey.{Lbid. 


angle of 80°, from direc- 
ion of Perseus. 
N.E., altitude 55°, down at/Are3°...... Risastaes Dbidsevcscesecscees ef cabesdcnttseee:| tbls 
n angle of 45°, from direc- 
ion of Perseus. 


ssing 7 Piscium, from direc-|............se00e eewealDIGssctessteeesacas  seseveeseesesen/LDIC. 
‘ion of Perseus. 
RMBRMEEUUN Sees 0 cs case.0:|sccccnssssacectesesssces UDidY e2.04s.cveeers ePieweseseassaeus: Ibid. 
wards from Algol, perpendic.|/Arc 3° ..........+000. Mids fa cventew sens 5 ONS CRE Ree: \Ibid. 
Jiscordant. 
from below y Andro-lArc 5° ..........0.00. bid. sceceses so NGS ces sareewsore: Ibid. 
edz (from Cygnus). 
sed from Cassiopeia to al....... Sceaeae Se chdcace Royal Observa-|J. Howe ......... Ibid. 
egasi. tory, Green- 
wich 
m Polaris to Cassiopeia ...|.... deédétess Batehoatad. Abid S525. 3. Cortes i On reer ome ee Ibid. 
n A Lyre to « Herculis ...|.......000 Suesspecwde ss EDIE, Fei ane'hoa ed sult W. C. Nash and|[bid. 
J. Howe. 
wn across Aquarius (from}.........+++... sencane Highfield House\E. J. Lowe ,..... Ibid. 
irection of Perseus). Observatory. 
m near « Pegasi. Discordant)...........sscsesseeeees Ebidt seseseseet ster LLG secede ee ge Ibid. 
sed from f to y Pegasi......... Es Re eesti Royal Observa-|W. C. Nash....../Ibid. 


tory, Green- 
wich. 


REPORT—1861. 


; Appearance and Brightness se Velocity or 
Date. Hour. Magnitude. Est Calonk: Train or Sparks. Teter. 
1861. |} h ms : 
Aug. 14/12 39 30 |=3rd mag.x .......+ 'Colourless ..-)Small train ....... ioe sSiasueave 0°5 SEC...ce0csseee 
a.m. Y 
14/12 39 45 |=3rdmag.¥ .......-- Colourless ...)Small train .....-ecsseceee ...{Slow, duration 0% 
a.m. sec. ; 
14/12 44 am./=4th mag.# coerce Colourless -os{SMall trajn .....s.6s seceeeses|LnStantaneous ...s4! 
14/12 45 a.m.|/=3rd mag.* «sees Colourless .../Streak ..,.c0ssosececereessress Rapid, duration 0° 
| sec. | 
14/12 47 a.m.J/=3rd mag.x esecreeee ‘Colourless .,./Streak ....ssssessseceereeees-[Rapid, duration 04 
sec. 
1412 50 16 |=3rd mag.* ......... (Reddish ...... ETE Kteensueesmeavicreeianete .. (Rapid ...... voaesn 
a.m. 
14/12 51 5 |=2nd mag.x .eveceee. BWC 1 mecwenves) SULEAK vevcctitenaeescweneatcist 0°3 seC.inssccveae P 
a.m. 
14,1 4 am.)=3rd mag.* ...... [Colourless ...|Train .sssecccsescoescoeeseees Instantaneous vl 
14/10 5 p.m.j=Ist mage ...000.../ White ....0000 A long and bright train ...|3 seconds....++.+0« 
14/10 15 p.m.|=2nd mag.* s..sceseelesscsocseeesseeees Small train ....cscssseesevees 2 seconde.....eesee 
V4|LOS2cypim: Small ..,c0s seis. cssnape] weeusaboehesnans None) cos cancoumaness sietahe 1 second ...... cool 
TANTO) 34.Gpim-|Small* ccvs>otastwonespenlcceeeeaenten exons NINONGC: caceassncbessueavee cece 1 second .....s008 
V4/11 14 p.m.) =3rd magek ....sss-ecccerssseeeceeees INGHO | sesceceaehscsavsense ait 1 second er 
14\11 27 p.m.|=8rd mag.x ......... Wibitevsti;.ss..| Small train .......c00.s00000e 1 second ....04+ : 
15} 9 59 p.m.|=2nd mag.* ......... NViDIGeizss bscs es! Short train ...5....sceesceees 1 second ....+++40s 
1510 8 p.m.]=2nd mag. ......ccelecceerreceeceneees Small train ....scscsceseserss 1 to 2 seconds, ..¥ 
21) 8 53 p.m.jLarge .........0606 eevee] WuMtGiider.sesel4 cuenaVaencssenans ievcernepsoathe 3 or 4 seconds...) 
26,11 5 p.m.J= Ist mag.# ......... BING treeancn: Leaving a thin streak i to 2 seconds...) 
light. 
10) Fegpam:|Small. .....000ehdéveeeeses|seanen wachaetecses None: , .dsisessas dvesauventoans 1 second ied 


No. 1.—A large meteor, October 25th, 1859, was seen at Holyhead, 
Anglesea; and at Ballinaman, 13 miles west of Athlone, in Ireland. 

1. As seen by Mr. Harris, C.E., at Holyhead At about 7.15 p.m. a bright 
ball of fire appeared directly overhead, illuminating the dense masses of 
vapour which filled the sky at the time, and rendering objects around as 
The appearance lasted two or three seconds; it was 
blowing nearly a gale at the time, and immediately after the rain came down 


visible as if by day. 


like a deluge. 


2. As seen by Thomas C. Carter, about 13 miles west of Athlone.—The 


APPENDIX. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 


Direction or Altitude. 


wn across « Arietis, from 
direction of Perseus. 
om Sword-handle of Perseus. 
From direction of Perseus. 


‘ross 6 Andromedz, from/Arc 7°,......00...00- 


direction of Perseus. 
wn from just above @ An- 

dromedz. 

wn from between 6 and y 

ndromedz. 

» from 10’ S. of y Andro- 

medz. 

rpendicular down, inclining 

. from Swan to 12° N. of 

Perseus. 

om » Pegasi towards Cassio- 
eia. 

ssed from 5° E. of « Lyre to! 

a Corone Borealis. 

“ygni to Cassiopeia............ 
m « Draconis to 3 Cygni ... 
m 6 Pegasi direct, downward 
ourse to horizon. 

m f Trianguli to f Persei... 
m /3 Persei to « Arietis...... 


sed from a Cygni to Cas- 
iopeia. 


descended vertically from|.........00. 


0° S. of Arcturus for a 
istance of about 8°, disap-| 
aring behind a cloud. 
from the neighbourhood, 
f Polaris towards the 


en horizon for about 


from the zenith, passing 
hrough the tail of Urse 
ajoris, disappearing about 
0° below. 


General remarks. 


Direction of Cas- 
siopeia. 

Direction of Cas- 
siopeia. 

Arc 3°. Discordant 


Hee meee ee aeeseseeseseees 


Seen een eee aseeeneeeeees 
eee ee ween tee eereneees 


SOO eee ee eet tenes aeeeee 


Very fine, stars very 
bright. 


Greenwich, Tra-|J. MacDonald ...\Ibid. 
falgar Road. 


ING) s scesncendesvieens 


Greenwich, Nel-|Id. ..,...s00++...jLbid. 
son Street. 


29 


Place. Observer. Reference. 

Highfield House!E. J. Lowe ...... MS. communica- 

Observatory. tion. 
LNG Cae ene ot no mree Ratitagsacetesdeesss Ibid. 
bids JR eeca a sos (Uda tenaeeaepeeseas abide 
Widieesstecccancsss Td ecastccacevoce | ule 
MDidessse teas cdeseek Ii Een REA eaeer veeee{LbDid 
DIG ee ettes cae scac es 11 <2 Ba ..Lbid 
UDidvbevccscccecces ay ee Seotceates Ibid 
Mil essx wesseceacea| Ulsan samen ves ance Ibid 
Blackheath ...... J. Glaisher ...... pid 
New Cross ...... J. Howe ......... Ibid 
Mbid.2c 0 .Siccdads ce Dida (5 ec eee Ibid 
NDidl arevatewstesed Me <3 vaptete sue scien Ibid. 
Greenwich ...... W. C. Nash...... Ibid. 
Highfield House|E. J. Lowe ...... Ibid. 

Observatory. 
Greenwich ..,.../W. C. Nash...... Ibid. 
DIGS ciiwcecsnacaeee J. Howe ..... vee. (I bid. 

..(Royal Hospital,/W. T. Lynn....../Ibid. 
Greenwich. 


sky was clear, when about 7.30 p.m. (Irish time ?) a meteor, at first about the 
size of a star of the first magnitude, swiftly approached from the direction of 
the Pleiades; itadvaneed rapidly, increasing in size, forabout four orfiveseconds, 
giving out an intensely white light; at the end of that time it changed colour 
to a bright ruby-red, and then it seemed to change its course as well as to 
lose velocity ; almost immediately after that it burst into fifteen or sixteen 
bright-green particles that remained visible some two seconds more, and then 
altogether disappeared. The whole phenomenon lasted perhaps eight seconds ; 
its direction was about N.W. or N.N.W.* 


* There can be little doubt that these two observations related to one and the same meteor. ~ 


30 REPORT—1S6l1. 


No. 2.—The following accounts of the remarkable meteor of June 11th, 
1845, of which some descriptions have already been published in preceding 
Reports, have been forwarded to us, as first seen by the Rey. F. Hawlett, 
F.R.A.S., near Adalia, Asia Minor :— 

1. Towards the close of the 18th we started, after one of the sultriest days 
I almost ever experienced; at 11 a.m. the thermometer was 98° in the coolest 
part of Mr. Purdie’s house, whilst not a breath of wind was astir. I know 
not whether the stagnant heat may have contributed to the occurrence of a 
very splendid meteor which we witnessed that evening. We had entered the 
mountainous district north-west of Adalia, the sun had recently set in a per- 
fectly cloudless sky, and the twilight was coming on, when there suddenly burst 
out in the north a meteor that resembled in appearance a bright but perma- 
nent flash of lightning, whose upper extremity lay a little to the east of the 
pole-star. The length of the flash, as near as I could judge, was about 50°— 
certainly more than half the space between the zenith and the horizon 
(sloping downwards towards the west of north) ; and that which I presumed 
was the vapour resulting from the explosion presented for several minutes 
the same shape as the original flash, and being strongly illumined (as I took 
it) by the upslanting rays of the vanished sun, appeared about the bright- 
ness of the rising moon, which was then about at the full. Absorbed as we 
all were by the magnificence of the spectacle, which elicited from the Turks 
repeated cries of “Allah, Allah,” I forgot to note by my watch the time which 
might elapse until an explosion should be audible, and was only reminded of 
the omission upon hearing a dull heavy report like that of a distant piece of 
ordnance boom on my ear, after an interval we then judged of some 7 or 8 
minutes. According to this estimate, the sound, if it came to us from the 
meteor, and which (it was so peculiar) I think was the case, must have 
travelled to us from a distance of 90 miles (sound travelling 1140 feet per 
second), and owing to the altitude of the meteor must have had its origin in 
the highest and rarest regions of our atmosphere. 

This brilliant visitant gradually appeared to grow larger and more diffuse, 
as to breadth more particularly, and at last to break up into detached por- 
tions, which were beautifully decked in luminous colours of red, orange, and 
silvery green. Finally the coloured portions, having taken meanwhile a 
slightly westerly course, by degrees faded away, having continued visible at 
least 20 minutes to half an hour. We were informed that the meteor was 
seen at Philadelphia (160 miles west). 

2. From ‘ Malta Mail.’ 

The brig ‘ Victoria’ saw this extraordinary appearance when in latitude 
86° 40’ 56” north, and longitude 13°44 36” east, being becalmed and without 
any appearance of bad weather; her topgallant and royal masts suddenly 
went over the side, as if carried away by a sudden squall; and two hours after 
it blew very hard from south and east, but suddenly again fell calm, with an 
overpowering stench of sulphur and an unbearable heat. At this moment three 
luminous bodies were seen to issue from the sea at the distance of about half 
a mile from the vessel, which remained visible for about 10 minutes; soon 
after it came on to blow hard from the south-east, and the vessel ran into a 
current of air the reverse of that just experienced (900 miles west of Adalia). 

3. Letter from Amab, on Mount Lebanon. 

On the same day, about half an hour after sunset (very nearly the same 
time), the heavens presented an extraordinary and beautiful appearance. A 
fiery meteor, composed of two luminous bodies, each appearing at least five 
times larger than the moon, with streamers and appendages to each, joining 
the two, and looking like large flags blown out by a gentle breeze, appeared in 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 31 


the west, remained visible for an hour, and taking an easterly course gradually 
disappeared. ‘The appendages appeared to shine from the reflected light of 
the main bodies, which it was painful to look at for any length of time. The 
moon had risen half an hour before, and there was scarcely any wind (350 
miles south-east of Adalia). 

Accounts from Erzeroum, in Asia Minor, describe a sudden fall of the 
thermometer on June 21st (three days after), which usually ranges in summer 
between 20° and 22° Reaumur, to 5°, and a further fall of two more degrees 
during a heavy snow-storm which lasted three days, after which the thermo- 
meter suddenly rose to 21°. The greatest consternation prevailed among 
the inhabitants, who thought the warld was coming to an end. 

At Malta the heat was excessively oppressive, the thermometer ranging 
from 87° indoors in shade to 140° exposed to the hot air. At St. Antonio, 
the coolest spot in the island, the governor was compelled to rig up Indian 
punkahs and order an extra supply of ice*. 


No. 3.—The following additional notice of the meteor of July 16th has 
recently appeared in the ‘London Review’ of August 10th, 1861, written 
by Mr. Alexander S. Herschel :— 

“ Excellent observations at Tunbridge Wells, and at Darlington, in York- 
shire, afford the following conclusions upon the orbit of the first meteor of 
Tuesday evening, the 16th of July. If this were not an electrical phe- 
nomenon of extraordinary magnificence, it came from space as a body of one- 
third of a mile in diameter, drawn towards our sun from some initial path, 
in which it must have had a native velocity of at least twenty-three miles a 
second (exceeding by four miles that of our earth in her orbit). The meteor 
first became visible 320 miles above Namur (in the south of Flanders), and in- 
clined downwards at 20° to about 100 miles above the North Sea, 250 miles 
due east of Perth, where it suddenly disappeared, soon after separating into 
two parts. The whole course of 500 miles was performed in 10 to 12 seconds 
of time ; and if we neglect the action of the earth, which can only deflect a 
satellite 3° in a minute, the path was from over the head of Sagittarius, and 
presents a direct hyperbolic orbit of eccentricity of 111°, and obliquity 45°, 
leading from the descending node (where it encountered the earth) to an 
apse at 156° in advance along its course, and within 16,000,000 miles of the 
sun.” 

Note—The time of this meteor is not given by Mr. Herschel in this 
notice, but he speaks of it as the first meteor seen that evening ; it is very 
possible that this was the one seen also at Greenwich, the Isle of Wight, and 
Kensington, about 11 p.m, though it does not appear to be quite clear. It - 
may be observed that large meteors seem to have been not unfrequently 
observed about the 17th of July. An observed altitude of 320 miles for a 
meteor ismost unusual. Though it is true, as observed by Mr. Herschel, and 
proved by elaborate calculations by Walker (see ‘American Philosophical 
‘Transactions’ for 1841), that the influence of the earth's attraction is very 
inconsiderable on passing meteors, yet in calculations on the real orbits of 
meteors, taken generally from observations founded on positions more or less 
within the limits of the atmosphere, it must not be forgotten that the elasti- 
city of the atmosphere itself must have a tendency to make the meteor 
deviate more or less from its true path, materially qualifying the elements of 
its ellipticity, and rendering somewhat uncertain whether it is hyperbolic 
or not. 


* Sir W. S. Harris considers it probable this was an electrical phenomenon. 


39 REPORT—1861. 


No. 4.—1. One of the most interesting falls of meteorites, and for a longtime 
the only one of metallic iron which had been witnessed, took place at 
Hraschina, near Agram, on May 26th, 1751. At a meeting of the Imperial 
Academy of Vienna, April 14th, 1859, M. Haidinger produced the Latin 
document referring to it (which had never been published), and the original 
German translation ; also a second document, lately discovered in the Impe- 
rial Cabinet of Minerals at Vienna, accompanied by two plates representing 
the phenomena as observed at Szigetvar (or Gross-Sziget), '75 miles east 
of Hraschina. Ata meeting held on February 3rd, 1860, he presented a 
third document, discovered in the archiepiscopal library at Agram, describing 
the same phenomena as seen at Biscupeez, near Warasdin, 17 miles north, a 
little east of Hraschina. 

Prof. Haidinger also drew attention to the meteor seen on May 26, 1751, 
between 6 and 7 p.m., west of Gross-Sziget. It was first observed as a flash 
of light, without noise ; immediately afterwards it resembled a tortuous chain, 
extending directly west, terminating in the middle height of the air as a fire- 
ball, leaving a long tail. On arriving in the lower strata it resembled an 
enormous sparkling fireball, with a chain-like tail in the higher regions, the 
last traces of which faded away at about 10 p.m. At Biscupecz it was 
observed as a small cloud from which some noise emanated, and which after- 
wards disappeared *. 

Two pieces of iron fell to the east of Hraschina, one of 71 lbs. penetrating 
4. feet 6 inches into the ground, at present preserved in the Imperial Cabinet 
of Vienna; the other of 16 Ibs., which had been distributed partly at the 
place of its fall, and afterwards at Presburg, every vestige of which is lost. 
From the computations of various observations it appears to have passed from 
Neustadt to Hraschina, or from north to south from 48°35’ to 40°6' 2”; and 
from west to east from 28°18’ to 34°, east of Ferro. 

No observations. were taken of its velocity ; but its height before its fall at 
Hraschina, viewed from Szigetvar, was from 30° to 35°—equal to about 44 to 
523 miles. Prof. Haidinger remarked upon the vast difference between the 
apparent size of the meteor and its solid contents. A body 15 inches in 
diameter at 75 miles distance is invisible; yet the meteor is pictured as if of the 
size of the sun. The appearance of the chain indicates the time when the 
solid portions became visible ; they are, however, only the paths of the lumi- 
nous bodies; and that they do not form straight lines is very natural, if we 
take into consideration the flat shape of the meteorite, which must have been 
tossed from side to side by the resistance of the air. If the rapid compres- 
sion of the air is sufficient to annul the cosmical velocity, it certainly can pro- 
duce the elimination of light—the fiery phenomena. ‘These two points esta- 
blished, as a natural consequence two phenomena result, which belong to 
the character of fiery meteors. The solid nucleus of a meteor is nota globe ; 
it passes undoubtedly through the resisting medium with its centre of gravity 
foremost, producing, on account of the unequal distribution, a rotation of its 
mass, which increases in rapidity, whilst the velocity of its motion diminishes 
in a direct ratio. 

The report of the Hraschina meteor was heard as far as Warasdin, which, 
taking Hraschina as a centre, gives an area of nearly 1000 square miles over 
which the sound was audible. 

The Hraschina iron was the first in which the highly crystalline structure 
of meteoric iron was observed, and Haidinger gives an account of the cir- 
cumstances under which the discovery was made. Alvis von Widmannstit- 
ten, a highly educated and thorough iron-master, had a plate of the mass cut 


* See American Journal of Science, 2nd series, vol. xxxii. No. 94, July 1861. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 33 


off 14 by 1 inch in size and 5%, oz. in weight ; this was carefully polished for 
the purpose of examination when exposed to heat. But what a surprise ! 
After the colour of the principal mass had passed through the various shades 
of straw-yellow, brownish-yellow, violet, and blue, there remained groups 
of triangles of straw-colour parallel lines, the blue and violet intervals 2 to 
4 line wide, the straw-yellow lines 4 to {—a splendid phenomenon. This was 
the first observation, and the figures were called ‘“‘ Widmanstitten’s figures,” 
in honour of the discoverer. ‘The method of etching by acids was introduced 
after this discovery. 

2. Leitform.—In a paper on a typical form of meteorites, presented at 
the meeting of the Imperial Academy of Vienna, on April 19th, 1860, by 
Prof. Haidinger, he suggests some new and interesting ideas. The paper is 
accompanied by two plates of the appearances of meteoric stones from Stan- 
nern and Gross-Dwina, which are complete in themselves, and may be con- 
sidered as individuals of their kind, which at the same time show distinctly 
one of the periods through which they have passed. 

In viewing meteorites there must be a starting-point from some funda- 
mental considerations proved by the phenomena themselves, in order to arrive 
at an understanding of their forms and conditions. These are, Ist, the stone 
leaving the extra-terrestrial space as a solid ; 2nd, its velocity being greater 
on entering the earth’s atmosphere ; 3rd, it is retarded by the resistance of 
the air; 4th, the “ fireball” (or luminous envelope of the meteor) formed by 
the compression of the air and the rotation of the stone resulting therefrom ; 
5th, the termination of the first part of the path is marked by a detonation, 
the so-called explosion, the vacuum inside of the fireball being suddenly filled 
by the surrounding air. 

The Stannern stone seems to have passed through the air with its rounded 
side first, and shows over its surface effects resulting from a uniform action of 
the atmosphere upon it whilst the crust was in a viscous state. The lustrous 
crust is surrounded by a protruding gibbosity ; the stone had sharp edges 
which in the foremost direction of the meteorite were melted off and blown 
towards the back part. The time of the passage through the air generally 
lasts only a few seconds. The rising temperature producing the crust belongs 
to this period, since the stone came from the planetary space with a tempera- 
ture of 100° C. below freezing-point. Some meteors get heated very rapidly ; 
masses of iron will sometimes get red-hot whilst one composed of some other 
substance will be quite cold inside ; and as soon as the detonation takes place, 
and the fireball disappears, the inside and outside temperatures of the me- 
teorites are soon counterbalanced and the crust rapidly cools, especially at a 
height where the temperature is very low. 

The stone of Gross-Dwina, which in its general character is allied to those 
of Timochin, Zebrak, and Eichstadt, shows a great dissimilarity on its two 
principal planes, one being smooth, and the other rough. The form is that 
of a fragment altered only on its surface. Characteristic of this meteorite is 
a ridge which passes over the “head” of it; and corresponding with it there 
was one passing over the back part of it. The roundish spots where a 
melting off has commenced have a striking resemblance to the impressions of 
figures in dough ; they are generally to be found on the side best protected 
during its passage. 

3. St. Denis- Westrem.—At a meeting of the Imperial Academy of Vienna 


on October 4th, 1860, Director Haidinger gave an account of this meteorite. 


The fall took place without detonation, and only a slight noise was heard 
similar to the rattling of carriages, on June 7th, 1855, 77 P.M., near the town 
of St. Denis-Westrem, 23 miles from Ghent. 

1861. D 


34 REPORT—1861. 


It fell thirty paces from a man and woman, penetrated the ground about 
2 feet, and was immediately dug up; it was hot, of a bluish-black colour, and 
smelled sulphurous. It weighed 700°5 grammes, its sp. gr.=3'293. Its form 
was similar to that of an “ ananchites,” having a flat elongated base and an 
arched enclosure. It has the character of areal fragment, and is encrusted 
all over. The crust is uneven on one side, whilst the other is more even and 
equally rounded, the edges between the rough surface and rounded planes 
being well marked. 

The stone resembles those of Reichenbach’s second family, “ somewhat 
bluish stones.” The stone contains disseminated iron and pyrrhotine,—the 
latter, sometimes filling up vein-fissures, giving it the character of a fragment 
from a very large mass—a mountain of rock. Disseminated through the 
whole mass were spots of iron-rust and crystalline globules, which leave im- 
pressions when falling out of the brittle mass. 

4. Indian meteorites.—At the meetings of the Imperial Academy of 
Vienna, on June 8th, November 3rd, and the last one in the year 1860, M. 
Haidinger gives accounts of the Calcutta meteorites which had been acquired 
a short time previously by the Imperial Cabinet of Minerals. 

(1.) The meteorite of Shalka fell in a rice-field about 80 yards south of the 
village, on November 30th, 1850, a few hours before sunrise ; it was witnessed 
by two persons. The nqise, compared with thunder, was not very loud; the 
stone penetrated 4 feet into the earth ; fragments were found 3 feet deep ina 
circle of 20 feet radius. Only one stone fell, which may have been 3 feet long. 
It came from the south, at an angle of about 80°. The stone is very peculiar ; 
the white portions resemble pumice, whilst the darker resemble pearlstone ; 
it is friable like cocolite. The real fracture shows greasy lustre. It does 
not contain any metallic iron. It belongs to Reichenbach’s first family, 
first group. 

(2.) A fall of meteorites occurred on December 27th, 1857, at Quenggouk 
in Pegu; three stones, evidently fragments, were tound tive and ten miles 
apart. It had the appearance of a large umbrella in flames, as observed 
at a place ninety miles south of Quenggouk, at an altitude of 40° or 50°, 
giving a report like that of a monster gun. Another observation, taken 
on board the ‘ Semiramis,’ about 200 miles S.E. of where it fell, describes it as 
having had at first the appearance of a large star increasing to three times 
the size of the moon, leaving behind a long tail, and falling towards the east. 
Haidinger gives the height at 80 or 120 miles. 

(3.) This fall occurred at Dhurmsala in the Punjab, accompanied by a tre- 
mendous noise, the earth being shaken in convulsions. The direction was 
N.N.W.to S.S.E. The fragments penetrated to a depth of 1 to 17 feet; the 
largest weighed 320 lbs. The fall took place July 14th, 1861. 

(4.) The fall of meteorites at Futtehpore on November 30th, 1822, is men- 
tioned. 

(5.) The real locality of a stone which was found in 1846, and which 
Piddington supposes to be from Assam, is not known. It is beautifully 
marbled, very solid, and resembles the meteorites of Seres, Barbotan, and 
others of the third family of Reichenbach. The crust is dark greyish-black, 
sp. gr. at 17° R.=3°792. 

(6.) The fall of the Segowolee meteorites took place on March 6th, 1853. 
All the stones were pyramidal, and weighed from 7 to 4 lbs. The crust is 
very thin, not over 7 line in thickness, dark-reddish brown. The whole con- 
dition gives proof of a slight fusibility. : 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 35 


No. 5. The meteoric iron from Tula, Russia.—In the year 1846, a mass of 
iron of over 15 puds (542 lbs.) was found 43 miles from Marunskoje. Dr. 
Auerbach has given us the first notice of it. The principal mass consists of iron 
with pieces of meteoric stones imbedded. They are real fragments separated 
from larger masses by mechanical force. The metallic nickeliferous iron 
formed veins in the granular rock, the latter consisting of a mixture of me- 
tallic iron and a silicate of iron and magnesia. The Widmanstatten’s figures 
in this iron show a striking resemblance to those of Burlington, Owego 
County, New York. 

Judging from analogies observed upon our earth, Haidinger has come to 
the conclusion that before the stones were imbedded in iron they were united 
as portions of real rocks in one and the same celestial body, from which they 
came to our earth. 

The forms of the larger and smaller lumps show, however, many peculia- 
rities which require a more thorough investigation. 

The meteoric iron from Nebraska was obtained from N. Holmes, Esq., 
of St. Louis. The original mass weighed 35 lbs., and was found 25 miles 
west of Fort Pierre. A segment of the Vienna specimen cut parallel with a 
octahedral plane showed striz of half a line in width, intersecting at angles 
of 60° and 120°, with the triangular and rhombic intervals between the en- 
closing ledges of schreibersite covering the whole etched surface. The 
Widmanstiitten’s figures show a close resemblance to those of the Red River 
iron preserved in the Yale College cabinet. 

Fall of the Meteor of Parnallee, near Madura, in Hindostan. By 
W. Haidinger, Ordinary Member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. 
(Presented at the sitting of February 7th, 1861.)— 

A communication from Professor Silliman causes me to report on the fall 
of a meteor which occurred on February 28th, 1857, about noon, near the 
village of Parnallee, south of Madura, at the northern extremity of Hindostan. 
Mr. Silliman wrote to me that the meteorite (which is deposited at Western 
Reserve College, at Hudson, Ohio) had, according to the chemical analysis 
made by Dr, Cassels, of Choktaws, Ohio, been found to contain only 3 per 
cent. of metallic iron, and amongst it 17 per cent. of nickel. He expects to 
receive a fragment of it, and they also intend to send us a portion of the lat- 
ter- Now I was enabled, in answer to the above, to communicate several 
statements which had not been known to Mr. Silliman. 

Already in the summer of 1858, I read the excellent account drawn up by 
the head of the American Mission at Madura, Mr. H. S. Taylor, respecting 
the fall of the meteor itself,—two stones of immense size having fallen, one 
weighing 37 lbs. and the other weighing four times as much, or 148 lbs. 
This account is given in the ‘ Transactions of the Geographical Society of 
Bombay ’ for 1857; also the ‘Atheneum ’ [probably the Madras ‘Atheneum’ ] 
contained a notice of it. Only in 1859, when our operations commenced 
for the increase of the collection of the meteorites of the Imperial Mineral 
Cabinet, I wrote to Dr. G. Buist, secretary of the Society and editor of the 
Bombay Times. But Buist was just in the act of removing to Allahabad, 
and could not intercede in the matter; so then I applied to Mr. Taylor 
himself, and I also wrote to Madras. It now became evident that the larger 
stone was being sent to the Museum of Madras, but that the one weighing 
37 lbs. which he received back again, had been sent to Hudson in America. 


_ Mr. Taylorwas kind enough to give me the address of ProfessorCh. A. Young, 


to whom I then wrote directly, and who already a fortnight ago had the 
kindness to promise us a beautiful specimen of this meteorite of Parnallee, 
D2 


36 REPORT— 1861. 


which I shall in due course place before the students and fellow-mem- 
bers of my class. I could even have delayed my present communication 
respecting the fall itself until then, as no accounts of it are to be found in 
any European book. 

According to Mr. H. S. Taylor’s account, the two stones fell a little north- 
east of the village of Parnallee, 9° 14’ N. and 78° 21’ east of Greenwich, ac- 
cording to the map of the Government Survey. According to the direction 
of the hole which they made in striking the ground, they came from about 
N. 10° W. inclining to the perpendicular at an angle of from 15° to 20°, the 
smaller one nearly perpendicular. They were fixed in the ground in such 
a manner that that part of the surface which was the most rounded or convex 
was placed towards the bottom; this was, as Mr. Taylor expressly states, 
in accordance with the centre of gravity, and therefore the very position which 
the meteorites had to take in passing through the resisting atmosphere. The 
larger stone struck into the ground in a ploughed field to the depth of 2 
feet 5 inches, the smaller one to the depth of 2 feet 8 inches; the smaller 
one had not the appearance as if it were a fragment of the larger one; the 
specific weight of the smaller one is, according to Taylor, 3°3. The larger 
stone when grown moist showed on the round surface a crack, which after- 
wards became still wider, perhaps in consequence of oxidation: the report 
caused by its fall was considered terrible by the natives, like two thunder- 
claps as one stone struck into the ground after the other; and the echo lasted 
for some time, although that was not so loud. They were heard as far as 
Tuticorin, to the south, on the coast of the Gulf of Manaar, at a distance of 
forty English miles ; very loud at Madura, which is sixteen miles off. 

Several persons were near the spot when the fall took place, and yet nobody 
saw either of these large bodies as they fell, owing, as they think, to the velo- 
city of the motion. A cloud of dust rose from the places where they struck 
the ground; Mr. Taylor could still see the hollow which had been caused in 
the compressed earth. Up to the 21st of April, when he examined the 
locality and obtained the stones, there had been no fall of rain. 

Their shape, although somewhat irregular, is compared to large cannon-balls 
covered with a black crust as if smoked, in the interior like granite, with 
particles of iron. Taking into account the short time during which the phe- 
nomenon lasted, the fact of the stones striking into the ground without any 
one having seen them approaching in the atmosphere, all this might tend to 
show that the ground was struck by a real “ horizontal shot.” 

M. Haidinger, of Vienna, recommends as convenient in certain cases that the 
observed apparent tracks or paths N. N.E. ibs S.E. Ss. 
of meteors should be approximately 
mapped down, on the principle of a 
Mercator’s chart, and that the alti- 
tude and geographic orientation 
should be carefully inscribed in a 
diagram like the annexed figure, in 
order afterwards to be able, by com- 
parison with the precise time, hour, 
day, and year, to find the point from 
whence they were coming. A B 
would be the track of a meteor seen 
first at A at an altitude of 75° in the N.N.E., and disappearing or bursting 
at an altitude of about 40°; while C D might denote a meteor that seemed 
to move horizontally from 45° N.E. to 45° S.E., its true course being from 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. OM 


north to south, but visible from the side. Similarly a meteor appearing at 
A might move obliquely downwards to F, disappearing at 15° in the south- 
east, and: be represented by a line joining those two points. 


No. 6. Extracts from a letter from Professor Cocchi, at Florence, to 
Mr. Greg. 

“At 9 o'clock p.m., 25th July, 1847, when I was riding from Prato to 
Florence with a relation of mine and a man-servant, an enormous igneous 
body appeared over our heads, rushing towards the north. Our horses were 
much terrified, and we saw everything around us as if it were daylight. We 
heard no detonations after the disappearance of the meteor, which was many 
times larger than the moon, but a kind of hissing sound, not unlike the flying 
of some bird. I think it must have passed very near us; at least, we expe- 
rienced a sense of heat at the time, and when its light was extinguished we 
could for some seconds distinguish in the air a phosphorescent light. 

*On the 4th or 5th of October, 1859, I was walking with my two 
brothers near our country seat of Tarrarossa, at about 8 p.m., when suddenly 
our attention was attracted by a splendid fire-ball flying rapidly in a S.W. 
direction ; the apparition lasted some seconds, when it disappeared beneath the 
horizon. I heard no detonation, but my brothers stated they heard it in spite 
of the great distance ; if so, the fragments of this meteoric body fell down 
into the sea, not many miles from Tarrarossa. 

“ My friend Professor Compani, of Siena, wrote to me some time ago about 
a similar event which terrified and dismayed Siena, and made many of its 
citizens leave their shaking houses in a great hurry. He says, ‘In December 
last (1860), about the 16th day of the month, an enormous bolide traversed 
the sky over Siena, which a few minutes afterwards made a terrible noise in 
its progress ; it left in its track many sparks. Judging by the ear, the explo- 
sion must have taken place between Asciano and Buonconvento ; some indeed 
aver having seen fall, in some places, sparks of fire; nothing, however, was 
found.” 


“Florence, August 8th, 1861.” 


No. 7.—Extract from Dr. Buchner’s Work on Fire Meteors. 

‘It has been contended by many, in opposition to Chladni’s (1820) opinion, 
that large fire-balls are totally different from shooting-stars, that they are 
quite a different class of bodies. Davy, L. Smith, and Shepard, who are the 
advocates of this opinion, among other things insist upon this point, that 
if both are analogous bodies there would also, at the time of the periods 
for shooting-stars, especially in the months of August and November, neces- 
sarily fall more aérolites. They contend that no instance of any observation 
made could be stated, that whenever an aérolite has been seen, it equally made 
its appearance by itself alone, and not in connection with other meteors. 

“ Even though the rich November streams of 1779, 1830, and other years 
have not actually been shown to have been abundant as regards meteorites, 
yet the recent modern comparisons made are such as may cause us to fairly 
admit the homogeneous nature of the two phenomena. Baumhauer compared 
the fire-meteors for the single days in the year, as also has Rudolph Wolf at 
Zurich. Accordingly, leaving out the days on which no fire-meteors or a few 
only were observed, we have the following days as having been particularly 
plentiful as regards large fire-balls and falls of meteor-stones. 


38 REPORT—1861. 


Baumhauer. Wolf. Greg*. Baumhauer. Wolf. Greg*. - 
January2... 6 5 11 | AugustlO .. 7 11 ll 
wLlOks 0) 5 8 seebildys 2 5 10 
sft Ss 6 0 6 Bolt eae 5 0 15 
Feb. Anes O 5 3° |asept.yaegl ae (0) 5 7 
” 6): 7 7 a a5) Ove % (@) 9 
Perl Gotan 6 5 8 aye bowens 6 6 vi 
Mareh.*1..:00 5 5 9. :| Octobend ge. y446 6 11 
a Sa; 5 0 6 oP et scr 0 5 e 
a epiligts 0 5 4 sre 2Sre 5 0) 8 
Aprils ap9) 2. 5 5 5 Nov-tis90e 4. 6 13 
a LOi ec 4: 5 5 op OLDE 0 5 LZ 
mt BOW tz 4 5 al gh gl 2hy<5 8 a 1] 
May 17 B00 5 O 5 ” 13 eee 9 9 16 
joie eet 6 0 4 pf LGY ee 0 15 10 
June fa 76s (0) 5 6 aOR: 5 8 14 
Joly HLT wdsee 10 7 1l Si ZO 5 5 9 
SAS pare 6 8 10 | Dee. 2 ye% 4 5 6 
August 8 ... 6 5 12 Pat ate 4 q 12 
suck Dws 4, 5 10 spe lligiss 0 cL 15 
iLO 5 10) 6 Sg lS 6 5 10 
est ale at 5 5 LZ, nro Ole 0 5 8 
“ Sik 4 5 6 


‘Mr. Greg himself is, however, favourable to the notion that the larger and 
probably aérolitic class of fire-balls, e.g. such as those seen in July or at long 
and uncertain intervals, are dissimilar in character and orbit to the small and 
more common sporadic meteors. It would be, however, premature as yet to 
offer any dogmatic opinion on this point. 

“Upon the whole, it may be taken with some confidence that there are 
periods when a larger class of fire-balls and falling stones are more numerous 
than at others; and it is rather singular that this class does not seem to be so 
abundant at the August epoch as might have been expected; in fact, they 
seem to be more numerous towards the end of July and the first three or 
four days in August, the great epoch being the 9th and 10th days.” 


No. 8.—A. In the volume of the Dublin British Association Report, page 143, 
it states that M. Coulvier-Gravier did not assign any reason why more meteors 
are seen in the east quarter than the west quarter of the heavens. But 
Mr. Bompas seems to have given a very neat solution (page 144), that is, on 
the supposition that all meteors are equally distributed in space, not only the 
reason of that, but why we see more towards 6 a.m. than at 6 p.m. Pro- 
bably his reason is a correct one, and perfectly sound; there may possibly 
be others. 

In diagram No.1 let it be supposed there are meteors, AB, crossing obliquely 
and in one direction; and it is possible the majority of them may really do 
so (or the obliqueness of their paths may be considered the resultant, or ap- 
parent resultant, of the combination of the earth’s motion in her orbit and of 
the meteor’s motion). If the average of meteors pass the earth’s orbit ob- 
liquely, such a result as fig. 1 shows might likewise explain how it is we should 
see more meteors in the early morning than in the evening, and also a ten- 
dency to see a larger proportion in the east than in the west. 


* The numbers here appended are taken from Mr. Greg’s Catalogue published in the 
Oxford Reports for 1860, given here for the sake of comparison. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 39 


The time when most meteors are seen would probably also be the time 
when we should observe them most nearly moving at right angles to their 


true directions. 
OI B Giang, \ 
a \ 


UNL AG 


wes West 6pm. 0 a.m G\ East eed 
\ 


O, observer. z” observer’s zenith. 


B. Olmsted, in his ‘ Mechanism of the Heavens,’ a popular little hand-book, 
gives a diagram (fig. 2), the object of which is simply to show the reason 


A 


Let ABC be the vault of the sky, and O the observer. Let 1, 2, 3, 4 represent par- 
allel lines towards the earth. A meteor passing through 1’1, or axis of vision, would appear 
stationary at 1’. A body falling at 2 2 would seem to describe the short arc 2’2’, ora 
concave path in the sky ; and similarly a body falling through 3 3 would appear to describe 
the larger arc 3’ 3’, &c. Hence those meteors which fall nearer the axis of vision would 
describe shorter arcs, and move slower, while those further from the axis and nearer the 
horizon would seem to describe larger arcs, and move with greater velocity. The meteors 
would all seem to radiate from a common centre 1’, which was the case on Nov. 13th, 1833. 


why there should appear to be a radiant point for shooting-stars, and why near 
that point in the heavens no meteors or very few were seen, or if seen why 


their tracks near that point appeared so short, and in other parts longer (and 
why perhaps also, on the principle of fig. 1, more numerous towards the east). 


40 REPORT—1861. 


C. May it not be presumed that the majority of meteors seen at night must 
be coming towards the sun, their average distance from us while visible 
being not more than 50 or 100 miles; while the earth, being 7000 miles in 
diameter, would consequently intervene as a shield in keeping out of sight 
the majority of meteors coming directly from the sun, and whose paths we 
come across? If two meteoric stones struck opposite sides of the earth at the 
same moment, 12 M., we might almost presume one was going to, and one 
from, the sun. It would certainly be interesting to know whether the ma- 
jority of meteors are going to or from the sun, or passing the earth’s path 
at right angles, obliquely or parallel. _ 

D. It is quite possible that two shooting-stars, m and m! (fig. $) might each 


Fig. 3. 


appear to project on the sky apparently a similar and common track Z’ Z", 
though in reality moving nearly at right angles to each other’s direction, the 
only difference being a shorter or longer visible path. The angle might even 
in some cases perhaps be more than 90°, and the two meteors coming 
obliquely and from opposite directions ; yet an observer at o would be unable 
to tell in which direction the meteor moved; in either case it would seem to 
pass downwards in the ordinary way. This helps to show the difficulties in 
these cases, and to negative results in catalogued descriptions giving the 
directions meteors have appeared to move. 

E. Why is it that meteors are so seldom seen near the horizon even on a 
clear night? Is it because of the atmosphere, or that they would necessarily 
in that position be too far off? If they do not come nearer the earth’s sur- 
face than 40 miles without being consumed or extinguished (fig. 4), we should 


Fig. 4. 


ae ae Faw i eee 
eee l PADRES SS: 
z Pe Be ears 3 Pheng a 


ee 
——— 


Harihs surface 


more frequently see them at Z’, only 40 miles off, than at Z, 150 miles distant ; 


| 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 41 


and as that possibly (say 150 miles) is above the average limit of visibility, we 
perceive perhaps why we do not often see shooting-stars very low down in the 
horizon. It might be desirable as frequently as possible to record the length 
of the visible ares described by shooting-stars, and the time in moving along 
these arcs, to see if the average varies at different hours of the night, for dif- 
ferent quarters of the heavens, as well as at different times of the year. 

F. In making averages from tabulated statements, say for a whole year, in 
reference to meteors, the enormous preponderance of meteors seen on a few 
days only, viz. August 9-12 and November 10-13, which, being periodic 
and generally moving in parallel right lines and in one direction, must have 
a tendency to disturb to some extent any attempt to fairly tabulate the more 
scattered observations during the rest of the year. 

However, Olmsted’s account of the great meteor-shower in 1833 seems 
to prove that there were then hardly any known meteoric appearances 
(whether as regards tracks, luminosity, size, direction, velocity, &c.) which 
were seen on that night that one is not accustomed to see or read of at 
all other times put together. Most, too, were seen in the east, and moving 
from thence towards the north-west ; so that we might not unreasonably infer 
that most shooting-stars at all times much resemble each other. 

G. Humboldt describes a shower in Mexico, on the night of the 12th of 
November, 1799, thus :—‘“ They vose from the horizon between the east and 
north-east points, described ares of unequal magnitude, and fell towards the 
south.” They were seen in many other parts of North and South America 
on the same night, and in Labrador they were observed to fall down towards 
the earth. 


No. 9.—WMeteors of August 1860.— At Paris, Coulvier-Gravier states the 
mean hourly number at midnight, of shooting-stars, on August 9th was 62 ; 
on August 10th, 54; or about ten times as large as in the middle of July. 
At Rome, the observations of Secchi gave a decisive maximum on the 10th 
of August. The observations of Bradley at Chicago, and of Herrick at New 
Haven, Connecticut, U. S., gave the increase of shooting-stars on the nights 
of the 9th and 10th of August, 1860, at about six times the common average, 
and their apparent direction nearly all from the vicinity of the constellation 
Perseus. 

At Yale College, Connecticut, U.S., 565 falling stars were seenon the night 
of the 9th of August and morning of the 10th, between 10 p.m. and 3 A.M., 
by six observers. The majority first appeared in the south-west quarter of 
the sky, with a westerly direction ; several left behind luminous trains, but 
none appeared to explode: none seemed larger than Venus; three-fourths 
conformed to the usual radiant in Perseus. 

Meteors of November, 1860.—In the United States a slight tendency to an 
increase over the average was noticed; the conformable ones coming from the 
usual point in Leo, exactly as in the great shower of November 13th, 1833. 
Professor Twining, of New York, observed on the morning of the 14th four- 
teen meteors, of which nine were conformable and five not conformable. 

The total number actually observed by Professor Kirkwood and five 
assistants in Indiana, on the night of the 12th of November and morning of 
the 13th, in six hours, amounted to 381, distributed as follows :— 


Reet to 1) PM. ae eee Brom. <1 toe 2 A.M. «,.'', t=O 
From 11 to midnight. .°. .. 66 From 2to 3am. «9. 2 . 90 
From midnight tol am. . . 68 From 3to 4am... . . 46 


The Shooting-stars of August 1861.—‘“ M. Coulvier-Gravier has forwarded 


42 REPORT—1861. 


to the French Academy his annual report on this subject, especially for 
August 9th, 10th, 11th, but including the time from July 15th to August 
14th. The average number of these meteors per hour, at midnight, for 
July 15th, 18th, 19th, was 6°5; for July 28th, 29th, 30th, was 13°63 
for July 31st, August Ist, 2nd, was 22-4; for August 4th, 5th, 6th, was 
27-2; and for August 9th, 10th, 11th, was 50°8. For August 12th, 13th, 
14th, the average per hour was only 24-4. M. Coulvier-Gravier’s calcula- 
tions show that the year 1858 marked the term of the decrease of the number 
of these phenomena since 1848—the epoch of their greatest number. Since 
1858 their number has gradually risen; and we may hope therefore for the 
reappearance of the meteoric splendours of August. 

Further observations on these brilliant phenomena, by Father Secchi, at 
Rome, appear in the Cosmos. On August 9th, forty shooting-stars were seen 
between 9 and 10 o'clock p.M.; on August 10th, between 9 and 103, 133 
appeared ; and in the same period of time on August 11th, the number fell 
to seventy. Secchi therefore concludes that these phenomena are not 
meteorological, but cosmical. He adds that he considers the most rational 
explanation to be the admission that the sun is surrounded, in addition to 
the comets and planets, by a ring formed of small bodies, which cuts the 
ecliptic at the point where the earth is situated on August 10th; and as every 
year the earth returns to this point on the same day, and as, also, this point 
may correspond with a condensed portion of the ring, we therefore see a 
great number of these small bodies, attracted by the mass of the earth, fall 
into it, and become inflamed by contact with our atmosphere. This theory 
he considers to be confirmed by the constancy of their directions, which are 
parallel and contrary to that of the earth in its orbit on that day.”—E#xtract 
Srom the ‘ Illustrated London News’ of September 14, 1861. 

Note.—In generalizing from observations on the August periodical meteors 
at any one spot on the earth’s surface, it should be remembered that the 
hourly numbers seen vary considerably with the locality. In 1833, the 
great and wonderful display of meteors on November 13th was almost en- 
tirely confined to the area of the United States; and the total numbers per 
hour observed of late years simultaneously at different stations appear to 
vary. Secchi’s theory of the ring of meteors is pretty much that which 
Sir John Herschel advanced some time ago, and seems to be well worthy 
of acceptance ; their orbits must in all probability be more elliptic than 
that of the earth’s orbit. 

August Meteors. 

“S1r,—The August meteors this year have been more numerous than usual. 
Last year, both at the August and November epochs, the sky was completely 
overcast ; so that it was impossible to determine their number, or, in short, to 
make any observations at all. During the August epoch of the present year 
(1861), although there was much cloud at times, there were periods of clear 
sky which enabled me to make some good observations. 

“ Several letters in the Times have given a Persei as the point of diver- 
gence of the August meteors; this is not correct, as the point is very near 
n Persei: a line drawn from  Persei to a Cassiopeiz will pass through this 
point at a distance of less than 2° from 7 Persei. The meteors increased in 
number as the night progressed, z.e. there were more about 2 A.M. than at 
10 p.m. 

“The nearer the meteors were to 7 Persei, the shorter were their paths ; 
those with long paths were mostly 45° or more from this point. Those near 
Perseus were longer in moving over 1° of space than those at a distance from 
this point. 


A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 43 


«The meteors about Perseus were mostly small, some only just distinguish- 
able, the larger ones were usually 40° to 60° from 7 Persei. 

«A meteor, almost upon the point of divergence, scarcely moved amongst 
the stars. The year before last I saw one evactly on this point; it became 
visible, increased in magnitude, and then disappeared without moving. 

“No meteor was observed to move towards n Persei, all moving away from 
that star. On the 14th there were a number of meteors discordant, but on 
the 11th and 12th scarcely one whose path produced backwards would not 
have touched the point near 7 Persei. 

“ There was a great similarity in the meteors. Nearly all had tails or streaks 
which lingered for a short time after the meteors themselves had vanished, 
and nearly all were of the 2nd to 4th magnitude. 

“A meteor seen through a telescope of 23 inches aperture, with a power of 
20, had a decidedly planetary appearance, the tail being phosphorescent-looking, 
not fire-like. The duration was too brief to make any very careful observa- 
tions; and the meteor itself was small, viz. 3rd magnitude. 

“ The weather on the above days was warm, and the wind between W. and 
S.W. 


“ E. J. Lowe.” 
“Observatory, Beeston, August 20th, 1861.” 


No. 10.—M. Le Verrier has just applied the results of his researches on the 
four planets, Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars, totherectification of existing 
astronomical tables. From the perturbations observed in the orbits of these 
planets, he has come to the conclusion that there exists in our system a con- 
siderable quantity of matter which has not hitherto been taken into account. 
Inthefirst place, he supposes that there must exist within the orbit of Mercury, 
atabout 0°17 of the earth’s distance from the sun, a mass of matter nearly equal 
in weight to Mercury. As this mass of matter would probably have been 
observed before this, either in transit over the sun’s dise or duriug total 
eclipses of the sun, if it existed as one large planet, M. Le Verrier supposes 
that it exists as a series of asteroids. Secondly, M. Le Verrier sees reason 
to believe that there must be a mass of matter, equal to about one-tenth of 
the mass of the earth, revolving round the sun at very nearly the same dis- 
tance as the earth. This also he supposes to be split up into an immense 
number of asteroids*. Thirdly, M. Le Verrier’s researches have led him to 
the conclusion that the groups of asteroids which revolve between Mars and 
Jupiter, and sixty of which have been seen, and named, and had their ele- 
ments determined, must have an aggregate mass equal to one-third of that of 
the earth. He thinks it not at all unlikely that similar groups of asteroids 
exist between Jupiter and Saturn, between Saturn and Herschel’s planet, and 
between the latter and Neptune. 

Haidinger reports that M. Julius Schmidt, of the Royal Observatory, 
Athens, is continuing his observations, it is said, on the phenomena pre- 
sented by the luminous trains of meteors, with interesting results. It is in- 
tended to publish some particulars in the next year’s report on luminous 
meteors. 

The following recent publications on meteoric literature may be especially 
noticed. 

1. Versuch eines quellenverzeichnisses zur Litteratur tiber Meteoriten : 
von Dr. Otto Buchner von Giessen. Published at Frankfort-on-Maine, 1861. 

2. By the same author, and a very valuable and comprehensive work, 


* It is very possible the meteorites which from time to time fall to the earth may be the 
representatives of this group of Le Verrier’s. 


44 REPORT—1861. 


Die Feuermeteore, insbesondere die Meteoriten historisch und naturwissen- 
schaftlich betrachtet. Giessen, 1859. 

3. Kengott tiber Meteoriten. Zurich, 1860. 

4, Recherches sur les Météores et les lois qui les régissent: par M. Coul- 
vier-Gravier. Paris, 1859. 

5. Ueber den Ursprung der Meteorsteine: von P. A. Kesselmeyer. 
Frankfurt am Main; accompanied with a most valuable catalogue of meteor- 
ites and 3 maps. 


Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily 
Functions of Prisoners.—Part I. By Epwarp Smita, M.D., LL.B., 
F.R.S., Assistant Physician to the Hospital for Consumption, Bromp- 
ton; and W. R. Mitner, M.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Convict Prison, 
Wakefield. With Appendices. 


Tue Committee appointed at the late Meeting of the British Association, 
“to prosecute inquiries as to the effect of prison diet and discipline on the 
bodily functions of prisoners” have the honour to state that they have ful- 
filled the task assigned to them so far as time and opportunity have per- 
mitted ; but they regret that, on the one hand, they have not been able to 
gain access to some information which they required, and, on the other, 
that the great extent of the inquiry has prevented the completion of the 
series of researches, to which they attach great importance. Hence they 
purpose on the present occasion to present the first part of their report, 
which will include some general remarks on the management and present 
system of dietary and punishments in county gaols, with the various re- 
searches which they have hitherto made into the influence of prison disci- 
pline over the weight of the prisoners, the precise influence of prison 
punishments over the respiratory function and the elimination of urinary 
products, with the ordinary discipline of the gaol and with certain forms of 
labour. 5 

In conducting their researches the Committee have had in view not only 
the letter but the spirit of the resolution by which they were appointed, and 
have understood their prime duty to be the elimination of important physio- 
logical facts, for which the discipline enforced in gaols offers good opportu- 
nities. Whilst, therefore, determining the various matters which will be 
discussed in this the first part of their report, they have also been very de- 
sirous to investigate some of the more recondite questions in nutrition—as, 
for example, the relation of the nitrogen ingested to that egested ; and having 
obtained the valuable aid of Mr. Manning in making chemical analyses, they 
have concluded two extended series of inquiries at Coldbath Fields and 
Wakefield Gaol, in which the relations of the ingested and egested nitrogen 
have been largely inquired into; but the great care required in this part of 
the inquiry, and the very extended character of the subject, have induced the 
Committee to withhold the results hitherto obtained until another occasion, 
when, should they be permitted to do so, they will present them with addi- 
tional inquiries in the second part of their report. 

With these explanatory observations, the Committee proceed to state the 
results of their inquiries, and, first, to offer some general remarks upon the 
management, the dietary, and the punishments in county gaols. 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 45 


GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 


Tue MANAGEMENT OF County GAOLS. 


The management of county prisons is placed almost exclusively in the 
hands of the County Magistracy, and is therefore liable to as much diversity 
as there are Boards of Visiting Justices. The Secretary of State must ap- 
prove of any “rules” within the meaning of the Act, and he also approves 
of the scale of dietary; but hitherto he has not exercised his power to insist 
upon uniformity in dietary ; and hence, within certain limits, the Visiting Jus- 
tices regulate the dietary. There are also three* (nominally four) Inspectors 
of Prisons for England, appointed by the Home Secretary, who visit the pri- 
sons periodically, and report their condition to the Home Office, and also 
suggest to the Visiting Justices from time to time such changes as they may 
think to be desirable; but they have no power to interfere with the orders 
of the Visiting Justices, if the orders are within the provisions of the law and 
the “rules” of the prison. Hence the sole authority in county gaols under 
normal conditions is the Board of Visiting Justices. There is a scheme of 
dietary which was recommended by the Home Office, under the admini- 
stration of Sir James Graham; but it is not always adopted, and there is no 
plan whereby uniformity is ensured. 

It thence follows that there is the greatest diversity in the gaols both as 
to punishment and dietary, and to a consideration of this your Committee 
directed their first attention. 

A “Return of Dietary for Convicts, &c.” was issued in 1857, which gives 
the dietary in the various convict and county prisons, but there has not 
been any general return obtained as to the nature of punishment inflicted, 
and the plan pursued in carrying out hard-labour sentences. As it was 
very desirable that some authorized information upon these points should be 
introduced into this report, Mr. Bazley, M.P., most readily and kindly un- 
dertook to move for one in the form given in the Appendix (II.), but, after 
having it entered upon the “Orders for the day,” he failed to obtainthe sanc- 
tion of the Government, and withdrew it. The Committee venture to hope 
that the British Association may think this of sufficient importance to lend 
their aid in obtaining it during the next Session of Parliament, and would 
remark that, although the proposed return has a formidable appearance, its 
tabulated character tends to reduce, and not to increase, the expense of print- 
ing and the labour of writing. 


PUNISHMENTS. 


In the absence of this authorized return, the Committee quote the results 
of an inquiry previously made by Dr. Smith, who addressed a letter to the 
governors of upwards of sixty county gaols, and was favoured with their re- 
plies. The general expression of the results is as follows :— 

“Jn our county prisons some find no labour at all, others only that of 
ordinary trades, others have crank-labour + alone, others treadwheel-labour 
alone, whilst in many one of the two, or both of the two latter forms of hard 
labour are conjoined with some kind of trade. In many the treadwheel and 
erank are unprofitably employed, whilst in others they are used as mills or 
pumps. Insome, women even work some kind of crank and the treadwheel. 

* The number is now reduced to two.—Feb. 1862. 

t When the term “ crank” is employed in this report, it is intended to indicate the in- 
strument turned by hand, and technically known as the “‘hard-labour crank.” This differs 


from other hand cranks only in that it is purposely arranged for non-remunerative work, 
and indicates the number of revolutions which have been made in a given period. 


46 REPORT—1861. 


In some the treadwheel and crank are exceptional employments; in others they 
are universally used for a small part of the sentence; whilst in a third class 
they are the constant employments during the whole term of imprisonment. 
In most gaols they are chiefly employed for short sentences, and therefore 
for small crimes, and with insufficient food, whilst the light occupations are 
reserved for long sentences, with greater crimes, or frequent repetition of 
crime, and sufficient food. In some they are worked for an hour without 
intermission ; in others thirty, twenty, fifteen, ten, and down to four minutes 
only ata time. In some they are enforced for three hours daily, and simply 
as exercise; whilst in others the labour endures ten hours. In many, boys 
of fourteen years of age work the wheel and the crank; whilst in others, 
able grown men make shoes or pick oakum only. In some the ordinary rate 
of the ascent on the treadwheel is fifty-six steps of 8 inches each per minute, 
whilst in others it is so low as thirty. In some the ordinary pressure on the 
crank isseven pounds; in others, twelve pounds,—the pressure being certain, 
and demonstrated by weights in one, and uncertain, depending upon the 
turns of a screw in another. In some the ordinary number of revolutions 
per day is 14,400 ; whilst in others, in which the crank is still the chief in- 
strument of punishment, it varies from 13,500 to 7000 or 6000, at the discre- 
tion of the surgeon, the prisoner being in all these instances without disease. ° 
In some the day’s work may be performed in any part of the twenty-four 
hours, with the index of the instrument in sight of the prisoner; whilst in 
others, as the New Bailey, Salford, it must be performed before the night 
and with the index outside the cell, so that the prisoner is unable to ascer- 
tain, from time to time, how much labour he has yet to perform. In some, 
pumping is employed for an hour only, and even during that short period, 
as at Reading, there is no method of determining if any individual prisoner 
is labouring or not; whilst in others, the labour is for the whole day, pump- 
ing water into the sewers. 

“ Oakum-picking is no labour in one prison, and hard labour in another; 
and in the latter it is two pounds for a day’s work at Wandsworth, and three 
pounds at the Coldbath Fields, whilst it is five pounds at a workhouse ; and 
the rope itself differs greatly in the amount of labour which is required to 
tear it to pieces. In some the prisoner, by good conduct, obtains lighter 
labour, a commendatory badge, and a pecuniary reward ; in others it is tread- 
wheel labour from the beginning to the end of the imprisonment, whilst in 
many, as at Wandsworth, the change of labour is due neither to crime, sen- 
tence, nor conduct, but simply to the variation in the number of the pri- 
soners. 

“In addition to all this, in some prisons the separate system is strictly 
enforced and a mask worn, whilst in others hundreds of prisoners sit together 
in the room picking oakum; and, finally, in some the cat is so heavy, and 
the officer’s arm so strong and willing, that the prisoner is for a time made 
insensible to pain after a few strokes, whilst in other prisons it is so light as 
to leave very little evidence of its use.” 

Hence it appears that the utmost diversity exists in the different county 
prisons as to the instruments of punishment employed, the condition in which 
they are kept, the amount of labour which they exact, the amount of a day’s 
work, the system of progressive change in the use of the various means of 
enforcing labour, and, in fact, in all that concerns the carrying out of the 
sentences of hard labour. 

DIETARY. 

In reference to dietary, the diversity is even more striking ; for so various 

are the schemes contained in the “ Return of Dietaries for Convicts, &c.,” 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 47 


referred to, that it is impossible, by any method, to give an analysis of the 
amount of nutriment which they supply. An abstract of the most notice- 
able parts of the return is given in the Appendix (I.); and it is proposed 
to state in this place only a few general facts. 

It is customary to provide several scales of dietary, increasing in the nutri- 
ment supplied according to the duration of the imprisonment; so that with 
the shortest sentences, as three, seven, or fourteen days, the only food given 
is bread and gruel*; whilst for prisoners condemned to long terms of impri- 
sonment the diet is generally an abundant one of meat, vegetables, bread, and 
gruel. The, terms of sentence to which these several classes apply vary in 
the different gaols; but usually a sentence of four months carries with it the 
highest scale of dietary. In nearly all gaols the prisoner is on entrance 
placed upon his proper scale of dietary; but in the Kendal, Carlisle, and 
other prisons he begins with the lowest scale, and gradually ascends as his 
duration of imprisonment continues. 

It is also usual to vary the dietary from day to day; so that there is a con- 
siderable daily variation, not only in the kind and quantity of food, but in 
the amount of nutriment supplied. There is commonly an increased dietary 
given to those who are condemned to hard Jabour ; but the modes in which 
sentences of hard labour are carried out differ so much, that this is practically 
valueless. There are gaols in which the treadwheel is worked for short 
periods with a dietary of bread and gruel only*. But in none is there any 
attempt to estimate in a scientific manner the amount of increase of nutri- 
ment which is proportioned to the increased labour. Usually there are three 
meals a day allowed (at St. Albans there were only two); and of these the 
first and last consist commonly of bread and gruel. The amount of flesh 
supplied in the highest scale of dietary varies greatly, as, for example, from 
6 ozs. of cooked meat without bone in the Middlesex and Brecon Prisons, 
and 73 ozs. of uncooked meat with bone at Wakefield, to (until very recently ) 
an entire absence of that food in the Cardiff Gaol. Very small quantities of 
milk, cocoa, oatmeal, cheese, and tea are given in a few gaols; but com- 
monly the dietary consists of meat, soup, potatoes, bread, and gruel in various 
proportions, and with various systems of alternation. 

The surgeon has power to add to the dietary if he should see fit; and such 
additions are commonly bread or milk. Bread and water are rarely given 
as an ordinary dietary*, except for “ prison offences;” and for these the pri- 
soners may be condemned to the dark cell and bread-and-water dietary for 
a period not exceeding three days at one time. If the prisoners have been 
condemned to hard labour, this most severe punishment may be extended to 
one month ; but after three days he is fed on bread and gruel. Flogging is 
resorted to in various prisons as a part of the sentence upon prison offences, 
if the prisoner have been convicted of felony ; and a return in reference to it 
has recently been issued. The gaols in which the largest number of prisoners 
were flogged for prison offences were those which had the most non-remu- 
nerative punishments ; and in this respect the gaols at Manchester and Liver- 
pool offer a striking contrast. In military prisons it is understood that the 
punishments are still more severe, since they are inflicted under the Mutiny 
Act; and it is very desirable that authorized returns should be obtained 
from them. 

The foregoing general observations may suffice to show that he who at- 
tempts to ascertain the effect of the present system of prison punishments 
and dietary undertakes an inquiry of the widest kind, and, with the diversity 


* In the Gloucester Gaol bread and water are still given as a dietary: 


48 REPORT—1861. 


of system which exists, he will need to present nearly as many reports as 
there are gaols to be reported upon. 


SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES. 


The Committee now proceed to consider the effect of prison discipline 
over the bodily functions of the prisoners, and will include in their report 
the result of the inquiries made by them into the variation of the weight of 
the prisoners, the excretion of nitrogen and carbon, the quantity of air in- 
spired, and the rate of pulsation and respiration. 


VARIATION IN WEIGHT. 


The value of weight as an indication of the healthfulness and vigour of 
the body is one of a very general character only, and, when applied to test 
the effects of any agent over a number of men relatively to each other, is of 
little worth until all the men have been brought into nearly the same bodily 
condition. The weight of the body is due to many circumstauces of very 
different values, as, for example, to the contained food and excretions, the 
amount of fluid in the circulation and in the tissues, the deposited fat, and 
to the size of the bones, quite apart from the nitrogenous elements to which 
reference is essentially made when an estimation is attempted of the vigour 
and healthfulness of men. Many of these elements can never be truthfully 
estimated ; but in prison discipline it has been ascertained that some of them 
are removed during the earlier periods of imprisonment—as, for example, fat 
and superfluous fluid; and, with the reduction in weight which follows, the 
body gains a higher relative nitrogenous composition. 

When, therefore, the body has been so reduced in weight by the labour 
and discipline enforced, the condition of the men may be compared with 
greater truthfulness, and weight will be a fair index of the vigour and health- 
fulness of the system. Hence, whilst investigations into the infiuence of 
prison discipline over the weight of the prisoners must be regarded as of 
great value, they must give place in importance to such as determine the 
influence of the discipline over each separate function of the organism. 

Much difference of opinion exists in gaols as to the value of the test of 
weight ; and in many it is so lightly esteemed that it is not applied at all. In 
other gaols it is usual to weigh the prisoners on entrance and discharge ; and ~ 
in a few the weight is taken monthly ; but in none is it effected with such 
rigorous exactitude as to fit the results for the use of the physiologist. It 
is manifest that the weighings should be made before breakfast, and after 
emitting the excretions, and also that the prisoner should be weighed naked, 
or the clothes be weighed apart and the weight of them deducted carefully 
on each occasion ; for otherwise the former will lead to an error of Z lbs. in 
either direction, and the latter to an error of a smaller amount, even if the 
external clothing be the same on each occasion. ‘This, however, is not at- 
tended to in any gaol, but the prisoners are weighed at various hours, and a 
standard weight is allowed for the clothes. 

Mr. Milner has investigated this subject during a period of more than ten 
years, including several thousands of prisoners, and embracing the questions 
of duration of imprisonment, employment, season, and others of a subordi- 
nate importance; and to these the Committee will now refer. Appendix IIL. 

The diet on the convict side at the Wakefield House of Correction is 
liberal and uniform, consisting of 20 ozs. of bread, 4 ozs. of cooked beef, 
2 pint of soup, 1 lb. of potatoes, # pint of skimmed milk, and 2 ozs. of oat- 
meal. The dress is sufficiently warm. The prisoners have running and 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 49 


walking exercise during nine hours per week, and are all employed in some 
manufacturing occupation, as mat- and matting-making, tailoring, or shoe- 
making. There are not now any of the proper prison punishments, as the 
crank and the treadwheel, used at that gaol. The cells offer a capacity of 
900 cubie feet, and 35 cubic feet of air per minute for each prisoner, with a 
mean monthly temperature varying from 56°9 in March, to 66°°5 in August. 
The average age of the 4000 prisoners under inquiry was 263 years, of whom 
25 per cent. were under 21 years, and were therefore still at the period of 
growth. 

In reference to duration of imprisonment, Mr. Milner states as follows :— 

“ Duration of Imprisonment.—I have divided the time of imprisonment 
at Wakefield into periods of two months each, and have tabulated six of 
these periods, so as to show the variation of the weight of the men during 
the first twelve months of their stay. (Appendix IV.) I have not carried 
the table any further, as very few prisoners remained longer than twelve 
months, and those that were detained beyond that time were chiefly invalids, 
and, consequently, cases from which no general inferences could be fairly 
drawn. 

“ The table shows the gains and losses in bi-monthly periods, and also the 
proportion of prisoners who had to be placed on the extra diet list, who 
were first placed on the list during each period. The number placed on 
extra diet during the first twelve months of their stay, was 1393, out of which 
number 3°14 per cent. were put on during the first two months, and 12°31 
per cent. during the second two months. 

“The stage of their imprisonment had evidently a very marked effect. 
During the first two months the majority gained weight; in the second 
bi-monthly period a large loss occurred, equal to nearly twice the amount 
gained in the first period; in the third period there was still a loss, but not 
to so great an amount; the next three periods show a steadily increasing 
gain. 

“For a due understanding of these fluetuations, it is necessary to consider 
the circumstances under which prisoners are received into this prison. They 
are all brought from other prisons after having been tried and sentenced to 
various periods of transportation, or penal servitude; they have consequently 
passed through the period of anxiety which elapses between committal and 
trial, during which time, I have reason to think, men often fall off very much 
in condition and health. When we receive them their fate is decided, and 
they know the worst. In a large proportion of cases, I believe this is fol- 
lowed by a feeling of relief and by a reaction of the mind against the de- 
pression under which it had previously been suffering ; later on, the con- 
tinued imprisonment begins to tell and it becomes necessary to give extra 
diet to counteract its depressing tendency. A reference to the tables shows 
that it was thought necessary to give extra dict to a large number of prisoners 
during the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth months. The number of pri- 
soners who were placed on the extra dict list for the first time during these 
four months, was nearly twenty-one per cent. of the prisoners in confinement, 
and 60 per cent. of the whole number who were put on extra diet during 
the twelvemonths. 

“The effect of this addition to the dict is shown by the gradual and pro- 
gressive improvement during the last three bi-monthly periods, when the 
amount gained, added to the gain of the first period, nearly restored the 
equilibrium of the mass. 

* Prison Employment.—In Appendix V. the employments of the prisoners 


wl siesibated into five groups, putting into each group the classes of work- 


50 . REPORT—1861, 


men who, as a class, were most nearly associated in the average amount 
gained or lost during their stay ; and when arranged on this principle, it will be 
found that the groups also represent very accurately the amount of muscular 
force required to be expended in the respective kinds of work at which they 
were employed. 

“ The first group consists of men employed in picking oakum, an occupa- 
tion in which the labour is merely nominal; and it will be seen that these 
men gained nearly two pounds each on the average, and that a large per- 
centage of them were gaining weight. Tle oakum-pickers are placed in a 
group by themselves, as they consist principally of exceptional cases, a large 
proportion of them being men who, from weakness or infirmity, were unfit for 
real labour; many were, on medical grounds, employed in the garden, and 
had extra allowances. The second group contains men working at sedentary 
trades, as tailors and shoemakers, as well as a few employed in writing and 
other light occupations. Of these men a large per-centage gained weight, 
and the average gain was nearly a pound and three quarters per man. ‘The 
third group comprises carpenters, mechanics, and men employed in winding 
the yarn into balls, or winding it on to bobbins for the mat-makers. The 
men in this group generally work standing, and therefore a greater number 
of muscles have to be brought into play. The weight of work, however, is 
thrown on the arms, and the legs have little more to do than to support the 
body in a convenient attitude. A smaller per-centage of these gained weight, 
and the average amount gained was less. The fourth group contains the 
men employed in weaving canvas, in making mats in the loom or on boards, 
and also a small number (thirty-six) who were engaged in platting coir, or 
in binding mats. The work of all these men is decidedly heavier than that 
of the men forming the preceding groups, and the majority of these were found 
to have lost weight. ‘The last group contains only one class of work, viz. the 
weaving of coir matting; but the effects of this were so very decided that 
it was necessary to give it a place to itself. 

** The weaving of coir matting by hand is a very laborious occupation: 
the yarn is coarse and rough, so that the friction between the thread of the 
warp and weft is great, and to produce good firm work the weft has to be 
heavily and repeatedly struck, in doing which the muscles of the arms and 
trunk are brought into powerful action; the legs have also to be employed 
in working the treddles, and, in consequence of the power required to work 
the loom, the weaver cannot work sitting. 

“ The effect of this greater expenditure of muscular force is very manifest ; 
for nearly 80 per cent. of the men so employed lost weight during their stay, 
and the average loss per man was nearly seven pounds. 

“ The influence of the various employments would have been much more 
marked if it had not been, in some degree, counteracted by the extra diet 
given to those men who were falling off very much in weight; and the num- 
bers to whom it was found necessary to give extra diet, in each class, also 
bore a pretty close relation to the amount of muscular force expended. 
Among the men employed in coir-picking, 26°8 per cent. had to be placed 
on extra diet; in the second group 26-4 per cent.; in the third 36:8 per 
cent.; in the fourth group 39-4 per cent.; while of the matting-weavers 
60'1 per cent. required additional food. 

“ Treadwheel Labour.—The Committee have not been immediately asso- 
‘ciated with inquiries into the influence of the proper prison punishments 
over the weight of the prisoners, such as the treadwheel, crank, and shot-drill ; 
but their inquiries warrant them in stating that the normal action of these 
punishments is to reduce the weight of the prisoners... In the absence of the 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. ‘651 


‘Return’ above referred to, it will not be possible for the Committee to 
discuss this influence satisfactorily. 

* The only returns in reference to treadwheel labour which have been 
obtained are given in the Appendix (VI.), and have been kindly furnished 
by the governor of the Wakefield House of Correction ; but they comprehend 
only a small number of prisoners, for the use of that instrument was discon- 
tinued in consequence of the serious loss of weight which it occasioned. 

“ The average loss of weight was 2'63 lbs. per man during the first week’s 
labour, 4°57 lbs. at the end of the second week, 6 lbs. at the end of the 
third week, and 7*7 lbs. at the end of the fourth week. The progressive de- 
¢clension in weight with duration of labour is very striking; but it must not 
be presumed that it would be continued indefinitely, since a point must be at 
length reached when the weight would be so reduced that it will remain 
‘nearly stationary; and the time required to arrive at that point will vary with 
the fulness of the body, the tone of the tissues, the nature of the dietary, and 
the severity of the labour. The greatest loss of weight always occurs in the 
earlier weeks of imprisonment. 

“ Age, Weight, and Season—On the subordinate questions of age, 
weight, and the season of the year, Mr. Milner found that those prisoners 
who were at the period of growth did not grow according to the scale ob- 
served in others more favourably circumstanced, but lost weight in‘an in- 
creasing ratio ; so that, conversely, he found that the deerease-in the virtual 
loss of weight occurred as the age increased. ‘The prisoners gained weight 
from March or April to August or September, and lost in the winter months. 
The loss of weight of the prisoners varied as the height; so that the taller 
men required an inereased quantity of extra food. Appendix VII., VIII., 
and IX. 

« Summary.—On summing up the whole question it was found that, with 
the arrangements of that prison, which. were more favourable than the ave- 
rage of prisons both in dietary and punishment, there was an average loss 
on the. whole weighings, although 3635. of. 4000. men. were under forty 
years of age.” 

From the foregoing tables and remarks it will appear that the weight of 
prisoners is much below that of persons of the same age and height ina 
state of freedom, and also that loss of weight during imprisonment is the 
normal condition of prison discipline. ; 

This result doubtless depends partly upon the relation of food and exer- 
tion, and partly upon the inability of the system to assimilate the ordinary 
‘food of mankind with a rapidity sufficient to meet the wants induced by 
constant and great labour. The Committee do not purpose on the present 
occasion to consider the question of the exact amount of food required to 
meet the wants of the prisoners; but as in the foregoing remarxs reference 
-has been frequently made to the necessity of giving extra diet in order to 
avert loss of weight, it is deemed right to introduce two interesting facts 
which came under Mr. Milner’s observation. 

Liffect of Milk.—The effect of milk in arresting loss of weight was most 
striking, and in a degree far beyond that of the relation of its nutritive 
‘elements to the waste of the system. Thus the addition upon his recom- 
mendation of only + pint of skimmed milk, containing not more than 7 grs. 
of nitrogen, to the daily dietary, was followed by a reduction in the extra 
diets from 22°55 per cent. in 1853 to 15:08 per cent. in the first nine months 
after the additions in 1854, 15:27 in 1855, 14°08 per cent. in 1856, to 9°56 
-per cent. in 1857. As the extra diets represent the cases permanently losing 
‘Weight, it is manifest that milk was the proper remedy to meet the loss, aud 

| E2 


52 ae - REPORT—1861. 
that it acted not simply by supplying a small quantity of nitrogen to obviate 
the waste of the nitrogenous tissues, but in an indirect manner by improving 
the general nutrition of the system in the matter pointed out by Dr. Smith 
in the ¢ Phil. Trans.’ of 1859. 

Effect of Tea.—The effect of tea in lessening weight was also largely in- 
vestigated by Mr. Milner in 1857, both as an addition to the ordinary dietary, 
and in substitution of the oatmeal contained in the gruel. 

Four divisions of the prison, each containing between forty and fifty 
prisoners, were chosen for observation and comparison. 

The divisions chosen were Nos. 2 and 3 in B and C wings. 

The prisoners in the division No. 2 were chiefly employed in mat-weaving, 
and those in division No. 3 in mat-making. 

The prisoners in the 2nd division of B wing had a pint of tea given to 
them iz addition to the regular diet of the prison. The prisoners in the 
3rd division of B wing had a pint of tea given to them iz place of the pint 
of gruel served out for supper; the prisoners in the 2nd and 3rd divisions 
of C wing remained on the regular dict. All the prisoners in these four 
divisions were weighed every week during the continuance of the observa- 
tions. At the end of the period the result was thus :— 


lb. 
The prisoners in the 2nd division of B wing had gained on the 0°31 
AVETAZE. ceesececeice wala dels a oe ewe seietp ae 
The prisoners in the 2nd division of C wing had on the average Orde 
gained ja .a 0s on dh Pealiata ates (age dale la ah ys Wisval aan Si dipl al tiesto ee 
Showing a virtual loss by the prisoners who had had tea in addition | ,, 
o ; O13 
to the regular diet, Of .....00scecseceees 40 Big el be he, cee 


The prisoners in the 3rd division of B wing had gained on the average 0°04 
The prisoners in the 3rd division of C wing had gained on the | 9.95 


AVETALE. 2 oak aaviee cae e> eveiafereth ais Sie» Rie set nin ly bisa 
Showing a virtual loss by the prisoners who had had tea in place O14 
of gruel, of ....... ee a ka etch v's isle ois naw 


Thus, so far as the results obtained from one set of prisoners may be 
compared with those obtained from other sets, it must be admitted that these 
experiments prove that the use of tea tended to lessen the weight of the 
prisoners, and consequently to show that it is unsuited as an article for extra 
diets. - 


RespIRATION AND PULSATION. 


The Committee now proceed to give the details of their inquiries into the 
influence of the agents under consideration over some of the vital processes © 
of the body, and first those of the respiration and pulsation. The inquiries 
comprehend experiments as to the quantity of air inspired and of carbonic 
acid expired, and the rate of the functions of respiration and pulsation. In 
reference to tne value of the quantity of respired air as a measure of vital 
action, the Committee refer to the inquiries previously made by Dr. Smith 
and published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1859, which have 
shown that, whilst there is not an unvarying relation between the air inspired 
and the carbonic acid expired in ordinary respiration, but that the ratio 
increases with the severity of the exertion, there is such a correspondence 
that the one may be used as a measure of the other in ordinary inquiries, and 
especially that the measure of the air inspired may be used as a measure of 
the relative effects of similar agents. 

The effects of the most laborious prison occupations, as the treadwheel, 
crank, and shot drill, over the respiratory function and over pulsation have 


ON FRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 53 


been determined by Dr. Smith, by experiments made upon himsclf in Cold- 
bath-fields, Wandsworth, the New Bailey Salford, and Canterbury prisons. 
The experiments upon the quantity of air inspired were made by the aid of 
a spirometer, which was a dry gas-meter with an inverted action and enlarged 
apertures, and was connected with the body by a mask which enclosed the 
nose, mouth and chin, and prevented ingress and egress of air, except 
through pre-arranged valvular openings. This was bound upon the head 
with straps. The spirometer was adapted to register from 1 to one million 
cubic inches. The inquiry in reference to the carbonic acid was made by 
the aid of ‘a double set of the apparatus elsewhere described *. 

With Treadwheel..Labour.—The effect of treadwheel labour varies in 
different prisons with the rapidity of the ascent, and other phenomena, Thus 
at the Coldbath-fields prison. the amount of air inspired per minute during 
two minutes after having been upon the wheel five minutes, and again during 
two minutes after having been upon the wheel thirteen minutes, was, in 
various experiments, from five to six times the quantity expired at rest, viz. 
2900, 2605, 2350, 2350, 2435, 2460, and 2450 cubic inches, giving an 
average of 2500 cubic inches per minute. 

At the New Bailey, Salford, the average of experiments made upon two 
days gave only between three and four times the quantity at rest, viz., 1839 
cubic inches per minute. 

At the Canterbury gaol the amount was even less, and varied from 1607 
to 1820 cubic inches per minute ; but as the rate of ascent varied greatly at 
that treadwheel, it was impossible to obtain fair average results. 

The rate of respiration at Coldbath-fields was about double that at rest, 
viz., 27, 264, 25, 233, 244, 25; and 26 per minute. At the New Bailey it was 
24 per minute; at Canterbury it was still less, and varied from 214 to 24 per 
minute. The depth of inspiration at Coldbath-fields was from 3 to 4 times 
that at rest, viz., 1074, 914, 94, 100, 993, 984, and 944 cubic inches. The 
rate of pulsation at Coldbath-fields was more than double of that at rest, viz., 
150, 172, and 168 per minute; at the New Bailey 159, and at Canterbury 
140 to 158 per minute. That of the prisoners was at the New Bailey from 
125 to 155 per minute ; and at Canterbury, from 118 to 142 per minute. 

Such was the effect of the labour during the period of exertion; but in 
order to determine the full influence it is necessary to refer to the intervening 
periods of rest also; and in doing so it will be found that, during the whole 
period of rest allowed, the functions were never restored to their normal 
action. 

At Coldbath-fields, after thirteen minutes’ rest, the quantity of air inspired 
was still nearly double of that at rest, viz., 980 and 815 cubic inches per 
minute ; and at the New Bailey, after four minutes’ rest, it was 855 cubic 
inches. The rate of respiration at Coldbath-fields was reduced to an addi- 
tion of about 4, viz., 183, 15, and 164 per minute, and at the New Bailey 
to 18 per minute. 

The depth of respiration was nearly one-half greater than during normal 
rest, viz., 53, 48, and 49 cubic inches at Coldbath-fields. 

The rate of pulsation at Coldbath-fields was one half more than the normal 
. amount, 110,97, and 120 per minute, whilst. at the New Bailey it was reduced 
to 109 per minute. 

These two sets of inquiries, when conjoined with the knowledge of 
the prescribed duration of each, enables us to compare the effect of these 
modes of punishment at the different gaols, notwithstanding the almost un- ~ 


* ¢ Health and Disease as influenced by the Daily Seasonal and other Cyclical Changes in 
the Human System.’ By Edward Smith, M.D., F.R.S. Walton and Maberly. : 


54 REPORT—18061. 


accountable diversity which exists in the use of them; and the result will 
show, in a most striking manner, the great accuracy with which experience 
enables ordinary officials to regulate their system of punishment to the full 
powers of endurance of the prisoners. 

It is customary at Coldbath-fields for the prisoners to work and rest 
during fifteen minutes alternately; but at the New Bailey they are placed 
upon the wheel during twelve minutes, and have only four minutes’ rest 
before the labour is renewed. Hence, the actual period of labour at Cold- 
bath-fields is only 3? hours, but at the New Bailey it is six hours daily ; and 
although the Jabour is lighter at the New Bailey than at Coldbath-fields the 
total effect per day is the same in both prisons, as the following estimate 
proves :— ' 

: CoLDBATH-FIELDS. 
Total daily. 

Cubic Inches. 

32 hours’ work with 2500 cubic inches of air inspired per minute 562,500 
33 ~~ ‘rest with 1000 hs is My 225,000 
) 787,500 


New Baley. 
6 hours’ work with 1850 cubic inches of air inspired per minute.. 666,000 
2 5 rest with 950 » 2 e 114,000 
780,000 


Thus, with the use of instruments differing so greatly in power over the 
human system, the plan pursued in each gaol is so well adapted to the 
usual powers of the body, that the difference in the effect is only equal to 
about three minutes’ actual labour upon the treadwheel at Coldbath-fields, 
and four minutes’ at that at the New Bailey. This result illustrates also the 
accuracy of the method of inquiry thus adopted. 

The influence of this kind of labour over the production of carbonic acid 
as well as over the rate of the functions, was established by another set of 
experiments made in a similar manner at Coldbath-fields prison. 

The apparatus employed was that already mentioned, and was used withont 
inconvenience when placed upon a shelf over the wheel and at a suitable 
distance from the person to be experimented upon. As there was neces- 
sarily some adverse weight placed upon the expiration by the collection of 
the carbonic acid, it was not thought advisable to measure the air inspired 
also, lest the result should be vitiated by placing some impediment upon both 
acts of respiration at a time when the deepest and most frequent inspirations 
were demanded; and hence that part of the inquiry was abandoned. The 
ascent of the body upon the wheel was 28°65 feet per minute, and the weight 
to be lifted was 200 lbs., and hence the labour actually performed was 
equal to lifting 575°558 tons through 1 foot per day. The duration of the 
labour was a quarter of an hour at a time, and the carbonic acid was col- 
lected during three minutes after having been upon the wheel five minutes, 
and during two minutes after ten or after thirteen minutes. Thus the car- 
bonie acid was collected during five of each fifteen minutes. The quantity 
obtained per minute was between five and six times that expired in normal 
rest, viz., 43°36 grains, 42°9 grains, and 48°66 grains on different days, the 
latter quantity having been found soon after a good prison-dinner of soup. 
The average excretion of carbonic acid under the influence of treadwheel- 
labour was thus 45 grains per minute. 

The rate of respiration was 22, 21, and 20, and that of pulsation 150 per 
minute on each of the occasions referred to. 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 55 


The carbonic acid was also collected in the interval which followed the 
labour, viz., during three minutes after four minutes’ rest, two minutes after 
ten minutes’ rest, and two minutes after thirteen minutes’ rest; and, on the 
average of the whole, the rate of excretion was above that at rest, viz., 9°14 
grains per-minute. The quantity of air inspired was also measured at the 
same periods, and was somewhat less than that which occurred in the previous 
experiments, viz., 680, 590 and 600 cubic inches, 560 and 540 cubic inches, 
and 560 and 570 cubic inches per minute. The rate of respiration was 17, 16 
and 15, and the rate of pulsation at the end of the 15 minutes’ rest, was 102 
per minute. 

Thus the results obtained from inquiries into the quantity of air inspired 
and of carbonic acid expired during treadwheel-labour closely correspond, 
and show that at Coldbath-fields the influence of that mode of punishment 
is to increase the elimination of respiratory products from five to six 
times during the period of actual labour. 

With the Hard-labour Crank.—The next series of experiments refer to the 
influence of the crank as an instrument of punishment. This instrument is 
simply a hand-mill which demands a certain expenditure of force to move 
the handle, and is described as having a pressure of such a number of pounds 
as may be requisite to depress the handle from the horizontal to the vertical 
position. It is not used profitably, and is worked by each prisoner separately 
in his cell. Experiments have been made at Wandsworth and the New Bailey 
prisons in the manner already described. 

At Wandsworth the cranks are Appold’s patent, and are of superior con- 
struction. They move with a minimum pressure of 7 lbs., but the pressure 
required to move them may be increased to 10 or 12 lbs. by a prepared set 
of weights. The usual number of revolutions which the prisoner must 
make per day of ten hours, is 13,500; but that number may be reduced at 
, the discretion of the Surgeon. The index is in sight of the prisoner, so that 
he may ascertain the progress of his work, 

The experiments were made at several periods on two days with 7 Ibs. and 
12 lbs, pressure, and with varying rates of speed. The rate which was the 
most natural was forty revolutions per minute, but the prisoners generally 
performed about thirty per minute. The effect upon the system varied 
much, both with the pressure and the speed; but, excepting the rate of 
pulsation, the very interesting fact was educed, that the total effect of the 
day's work in performing the required number of revolutions was nearly 
the same, whether the rate was 30 or 45 per minute. Wath 7 lbs. pressure 
and 30 revolutions per minute, the quantity of air inspired was somewhat 
less than double of that at rest, viz., 9124} cubic inches per minute, with 17 
respirations and 92 pulsations per minute. With the speed increased to 
45°7 revolutions per minute, the quantities of air inspired were increased 
to nearly three times that at rest, viz., 1336 cubie inches, with 21°5 re- 
spirations and 113 pulsations per minute. 

With 12 lbs. pressure and 30 revolutions per minute, the quantity of air 
inspired was between 2 and % times that at rest, viz., 1260 cubic inches; 
the rate of respiration 24°7, and the rate of pulsation 111°5, per minute. 
‘Two experiments gave almost identically the same results, the only difference 
being 3 pulsations, -4 respiration, and 3 cubic inches of air per minute. 
With the speed increased to 44°7 revolutions per minute, the average of two 
experiments gave 1898 cubic inches of air, or about 4 times that at rest, 
with 24-7 respirations and 150 pulsations per minute. 

The effect of speed in reference to the day’s work of 13,500 revolutions 
may be thus shown :— 


56 REPORT—1861. 


1. With a pressure of 7lbs. With 30 revolutions per minute 7 hours 
831 minutes will be employed in completing the task, and the total quantity 
of air inspired will be 415,636 cubic inches ; but if the rate be 45°7 revolutions 
per minute, the task may be completed in 4 hours 55:4 minutes, and the 
total quantity of air inspired will be 345,654 cubic inches, giving a difference 
of 7982 cubic inches, or only 6 minutes’ labour at the greater speed in favour 
of the increased speed. 

2. With a pressure of 12lbs. With 30 revolutions per minute the total 
quantity of air inspired will be 571,158 cubic inches, and with 44°7 revolu- 
tions per minute it will be 573,196 cubic inches per minute, quantities 
which for all purposes may be regarded as identical. 

Hence the law is established that the effect upon the system of the whole 
day’s work varies little with the speed, provided there be a fixed number of 
revolutions per day. 

The experiments in reference to the effect of the two pressures with the 
same kind of crank, show that with the ordinary rate of revolution the in- ° 
fluence of the 7 lbs. to the 12 lbs. is a little more than as 8 to 5, or in general 
terms it may be affirmed that 31 hours’ labour with the 12 lbs. pressure is 
equal to 5 hours with 7 lbs. pressure. When the rate was increased beyond 
the ordinary one, the relative effect of the greater pressure was somewhat 
higher. 

“The cranks used at the New Bailey prison are much inferior to those 
found at Wandsworth, and the pressure employed cannot be rigorously 
determined. The medium amount of pressure was estimated at 7 lbs. ; and the 
effect of this labour with a rate of revolution of 36°5, 39°5, and 40 per minute 
was to cause the inspiration of nearly double of that of the 7 lbs. crank at 
Wandsworth, viz., 1793 cubic inches of air per minute, with 214 respirations 
and 155 pulsations per minute. When the pressure was increased to the 
one of nominally 9lbs., the quantities were nearly 75 per cent. higher than 
that of the 12 lbs. crank at Wandsworth, viz., 2105 cubic inches of air, with 
231 respirations per minute. Hence the effect was much greater at this 
than at the Wandsworth prison, and the pressure, although nominally the 
same, was fearfully different. 

Such is the effect of crank-labour, an effect which time for time is less 
than that of the treadwheel ; but the experience in prisons proves that crank- 
labour is not inferior in severity to that of the treadwheel, and, in the ob- 
servation of many, has long been believed to exceed it. The inquiries now 
recorded enable us to determine this question with exactitude, and to show 
that, when the duration of the labour is taken into considevation, the effect of 
the crank at the New Bailey is so great that the treadwheel may be used as 
a relief from it. 

In comparing the effect of crank- and treadwheel-labour, it has been shown 
that the 12lbs. crank at Wandsworth and the so-called 7 lbs. crank at the 
New Bailey, are equal time for time to that of the treadwheel at the New 
Bailey, but that the effect of-the so-called 9 lbs. crank at the New Bailey is 
nearly equal to that of the treadwheel at Coldbath-fields, when considered 
time for time; but as the time of actual daily labour with the crank is double 
that of the actual labour on the treadwheel, the whole daily effect must be 
so striking as double of that of the treadwheel. Can it be wondered at 
that the punishment ofthe lash and of the dark cell for neglect of work is 
frequent at the New Bailey, and in general in all prisons where the ordinary 
punishments are very severe ? 

With the Shot-drill—This punishment is common in military prisons, but 
in civil prisons it is used unfrequently and rather as an exercise and an alle- 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 57 


viation from more severe labour. The labour varies with the weight of the shot 
to be carricd, the weight of the body, and the rate of speed. The weight of the 
shot is known and regulated, but varies in different prisons, whilst the speed 
is dependent upon the will of the presiding officer. With a 16 Ibs. shot at 
Coldbath-fields, the average of three inquiries showed that the quantity of 
air inspired amounted to nearly 4 times the amount at rest, viz., 1800 cubic 
inches per minute; and the rate of pulsation was 146 per minute; but with 
the 24.lbs. shot the quantities increased to 1850 cubic inches, and 154. pulsa- 
tions per minute. ‘The increase in the quantity of air inspired corresponded 
with that observed by Dr. Smith when carrying various weights at the 
“quick march,” viz., an increase of 7 cubic inches for each lb. of weight. 
The 32 lbs. shot is commonly employed in military prisons, but no experi- 
ments have been made with it. The chief sense of suffering in this labour 
is found in the arms and hack, from the frequent stooping and lifting which 
are required, and therefore it is evident that persons of different height 
and bulk will be influenced variously. 


EMISsION oF NITROGEN. 


The next series of inquiries to which reference will be made, are those 
which show the influence of prison discipline over the excretion of nitrogen, 
and which constitute the most laborious and extended portion of these re- 
searches. They consist of two sets, one of which was prosecuted at Cold- 
bath-fields under the immediate supervision of Dr. Smith, and the other at 
Wakefield under that of Mr. Milner. The same series were also employed 
to determine the relation of the ingested and egested nitrogen ; but this part 
of the inquiry will, as has been already mentioned, be reserved for the second 
part of this report. 


EXPERIMENTS AT COLDBATH-FIELDS Prison*, 


In the first set of inquiries four prisoners in Coldbath-fields prison were 
selected who had been some time in prison, and who worked the treadwheel 
on three days in each week. Their ages varied from 22 to 43 years, their 
height from 5 feet 2} inches to 5 feet 7 inches, and their weight from 
105-1 Ibs. to 122°6 lbs., and the averages were 32 years, 5 feet 41 inches, 
and 113°75lbs. They were spare but in good health, and their habits of 
body were tolerably regular. By the kindness of the Visiting Justices and 
the governor of the prison, Mr. Lambert, the third officer, took these men 
under his immediate charge, and collected the urine, weighed the feces, 
weighed the food and the body, superintended the meals, the period of 
exertion, and the whole general arrangements of the inquiry. The inquiry 
occupied 26 days. The dietary was uniform, with the exceptions to be 
presently mentioned, and consisted of 20 ozs. of brown bread, 1 pint of cocoa, 
1 pint of gruel, 44 ozs. of lean and 14 oz. of fat cooked meat, 8 ozs. of boiled 
potatoes, 1 oz. (reduced to ? oz.) of salt, and 30 ozs. of water ; and one of the 
men had 62 ozs. of extra bread perday. The average quantity of solid food 
was 34 0z., and of fluid 70 ozs., daily, besides the ingredients of the gruel 
and cocoa, and the extra bread of one of the prisoners. The. exceptions 
made in the dietary were as follows:—No salt, except that in the cooked 
food, was allowed during four days; and 33 ozs. of extra fat, 1 0z. of tea, 
1; 02. of coffee, and 2 ozs. of alcohol, were separately given through suc- 
ceeding periods of three days each. 


* For further details than are included in this Report, see ‘ Philosophical Transactions,’ 


. 


58 _- REPORT—1861, 


The discipline enforced consisted of treadwheel-labour on three days 
weekly, from 74 a.m. to 53 P.M., comprehending a period of 33 hours of 
actual labour, and an actual ascent of 1°432 mile, and was equal to lifting 384 
tons through 1 foot dailys On the alternate days the labour was oakum- 
picking, or similar light occupation, and on Sunday there was perfect rest. 

The urine was collected in bottles which were used also whilst passing 
feces. Two collections only were made on Sundays, viz., those of the day 
and night, but on the weekdays the urine was also collected separately, 
from 6.15 to 7.15 A.m.; and on the treadwheel-days from 7.15 to 8.25, a.M. 
These two latter sets of quantities were termed “ basal quantities,” since by 
one it was hoped to determine the actual rate of urinary excretion in the 
absence of food, and by the other the influence of treadwheel labour apart 
from any other influence. The analyses for urea and chloride of sodium 
were made by Dr, Smith; but those of the food and feces, and the final 
analyses of the urine were kindly made by Mr. Manning. The samples for 
analysis were taken with the utmost care. The details of this investi-. 
gation are very numerous; and probably it may suffice to give the follow- 
ing principal results of the inquiry. 

Urea.—The proportion of urea to each lb. of body-weight, both on 
days of labour and on those of rest, was much above that found in the 
ordinary conditions of life, viz., from 4°39 grains to 4°74 grains, or an 
average of 4°58 grains to each lb. of body-weight. It was less than 
4 grains to each lb. on only one occasion in each of the lighter, and 
on three occasions in each of the two heavier men, whilst Dr. Smith 
found in himself with about the same food, but with much greater weight 
of body, an average proportion of only 2°75 grains to each Ib. The cause 
as well as the significance of this fact is not clear; for, as it occurs with rest 
as well as labour, it can scarcely be an evidence of increased degradation of 
tissue, and as the food allowed is not much beyond that which a man in 
health would ordinarily eat, it cannot be the result of an undue ingestion of 
nitrogenous food. The probable explanation is that already referred to, viz., 
that the nitrogenous tissues in the bodies of prisoners after a certain term of 
imprisonment, bear a larger proportion to the weight of the whole body than 
is found in health under ordinary conditions, since, by the labour and disci- 
pline of the jail, they have lost much of their fat and the fluid contained in 
the tissues is reduced to a minimum quantity. The average weight of these 
men was much below the ordinary weight of men of their age and height. 
If this be the true explanation, the relation of urea to body-weight loses 
much of its physiological importance. 

The urea excreted during treadwheel-labour before breakfast showed that 
such exertion had no definite influence over the elimination of that product. 
In one of the cases the excretion of urea was much greater than in the 
others. There was some diversity in the quantities evolved by the others; so 
that in one they were the same in labour as at rest, in another there was an 
excess of 2°5 grains per hour with rest, and in the 3rd there was an increase 
of 1:9 grain per hour with labour; but on the average, of all the three over 
the whole period, there was ‘2 grain per hour less evolved with labour than 
during rest ; and on the average of all the four prisoners, this defect was so 
much as 24 grains per hour. There were numerous occasions on which 
there was an excess with labour, viz. 28, 33, and 71 per cent. of the observation 
in the three cases above separated. The greatest excess with labour was 
7°5 grains, and the greatest defect with Jabour was 5°3 grains per hour, and 
both occurred in the same person. 

As this inquiry occupied only 80 minutes at one time, it is very probable that. 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE, 59 


the urea produced would not be eliminated within that period, and hence we 
cannot take this as indisputable evidence of the effect of treadwheel-labour. 
The variations above referred to were also, in part at least, due to the varia- 
tion in the quantity of urinary water which was secreted during that period ; 
aud it is just possible that, notwithstanding every eare, the bladder might not 
have been completely-emptied on each occasion. ; 

The total daily excretion of urea was the least on the Sunday, greater on 
the days of light labour, and the greatest on days of treadwheel-labour, on 
which occasions the average quantities were 494, 512, and 528 grains, 
giving a daily increase on treadwheel-days of 16 grains over that of days of 
light labour, and of 34 grains over that of perfect rest. There were some di- 
versities in the results, owing, apparently, to the fact that on two occasions 
the elimination of the urea due to the treadwheel-days was in part deferred 
until the next day, when there were remarkable meteorological disturbances, 
and thus gave the appearance of greater elimination on the days of light or 
of no Jabour. From this cause one of the cases gave an average de- 
crease of 51 grains of urea on the days of treadwheel-labour, but in the 
other three prisoners the increase with labour was 37, 59, and 21 grains 
daily. The largest increase on the treadwheel-days was 144 grains, and the 
largest decrease 100 grains per day. 

Urinary Water—The quantity of urinary water evolved was, on the total 
average, 10°4 per cent. greater on treadwheel than on other days, viz., '74°7 
and 67°7 fl, ozs., and the same relation held good in each of the cases, 
Thus 


Register No. of Prisoner. On Treadwheel days. On other days. 


ozs. OZS, 

858 79°4: 73°15 
948 82°87 70°8 
1040 67°9 63°8 
1041 68°9 62'9 


The quantity of fluid drank was the same on each day, and the amount 
lost by perspiration was much greater on treadwheel-days than on other 
days ; and hence the blood and tissues must have lost considerably more fluid 
with great labour than occurs with rest. 

Chloride of Sodium.—The evolution of chloride of sodium was very 
great, owing to the large quantity taken with food, but was somewhat less 
on treadwheel days than on other days, viz., 509 and 520 grains. When 


_ ‘the quantity of chloride of sodium taken with the food was diminished, the 


same relation was still maintained, but in a less degree, viz., 492 and 437 
grains. There was much variation in the results. 

Hence, from all these inquiries, it follows that there is an increased 

elimination of urea and urinary water with treadwheel-labour, but the 
former is much less and the latter much more than we should have expected, 
Neither of them are efficient measures of the true effect of exertion. 
_ Feces.—The determination of the daily evacuation of feces was rendered 
difficult from the habit of one of the prisoners to have an evacuation only on 
alternate days, and the only method by which we could make an approxima- 
tion to the daily evacuation was to divide the quantity on alternate days into 
two equal parts, and reckon one part on the day on which no evacuation 
eccurred. The feces were also placed under the date of the preceding day, 
as they clearly were due to the conditions of that day. The following are 
the principal facts educed :— 

1. The average weight of the feces daily was double of that found in 


60 REPORT—186]1. 


ordinary life, and varied on the average of the different prisoners, from 7*1 to 
10:1 ozs., and gave so large a total average as 8°55 ozs. The extremes of 
single observations were 1°75 and 26°59 ozs. The proportion to the solid 
food was 22+ per cent. 

2. The weight was increased on Sunday by 44°3, 70, and 74 per cent. of 
that on all days. 

3. The weight was lessened on the treadwheel-days from that observed 
on Sundays, by 41, 53°3, and 42°6 per cent. in three cases, and from the 
average of all days by 14°8 and 21°1 in two cases, whilst in the 3rd case the 
weight was equal on all days. 

4. The least evacuation occurred on the Saturday (which was also a 
treadwheel-day), and the diminution from the weight of all days was 26°1, 
57°6, and 34°6 per cent., and from that on Sundays no less than 48, 75, and 
62 per cent. 

5. The proportion of water contained in the feeces was very uniform from 
day to day, viz., 73°5 per cent., and varied only from 71-8 to 77°6 per cent. 
on different days. It was above the average on Sundays and a little below 
the average on treadwheel-days. 

6. The quantity of nitrogen in each oz. of fresh feeces varied from 4°36 to 
4°9 grains, and was, on the average, 4°646 grains. The total daily quantity 
thus evacuated, was, on the average, no less than 41°8 grains. There was a 
considerable increase on the Sunday, and a marked decrease on the Saturday, 
and it was below the average on treadwheel-days, and in both of these 
respects it corresponded with the gross weight of the faces. The actual 
amounts under the three conditions were 59°9, 35°8, and 4.0'53 grains, giving 
an increase of 43°3 per cent. and a decrease of 14°3 and 3 per cent. There 
was a very interesting fact noticed in reference to the relation of nitrogen in 
the urine and feces on the Sunday, and which showed, probably, that the 
assimilation of food was lessened on a day of perfect rest following one of 
hard labour, viz., that the increase which was observed in the nitrogen in 
the faeces on the Sunday corresponded accurately with the decrease observed 
in the urine on that day, viz., a decrease of 13 and 18 grains of urea in the 
urine, and an increase of nitrogen, reckoned as urea, in the feces, of 71°33 

rains. 
; 7. The case which had the extra allowance of 62 ozs. of bread daily, 
evacuated the largest amount of feces, both on the total average and on 
Sundays,—a fact of great significance in reference to the kind of food which 
should be selected for extra diets. 

Summary.—Thus, on reconsidering the foregoing results obtained from 
this large series of inquiries, the following general facts were elicited :— 

The prisoners emitted much more urea and feces than occurs in ordinary 
life. 

On Sundays, with entire rest, the amount of urea was commonly lessened, 
but the nitrogen in the feces was increased in the same degree. The whole 
weight of the faeces was increased. 

With treadwheel-labour there was a small increase in the amount of urea 
and of urine evolved, whilst there was a small decrease in the evolution of 
chloride of sodium in the urine, in the weight of the feces, and the nitrogen 
and the fluid contained in the feeces. 


On Saturdays, with treadwheel-labour, the diminution in the weight and 


nitrogenous matter of the feeces was considerable. 

With increase in the allowance of bread to a prisoner who was believed to 
need extra diet, there was a considerable increase in the weight of the faces 
and loss of their nitrogen, and particularly with rest. : 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 61 


Experiments with Fat, Tea, Coffee, and Alcohol.—The foregoing observations 
will be again referred to at the end of the report, and will form a basis upon 
which the Committee may offer some recommendations; and before closing 
the analysis of this inquiry the Committee propose to state the results of 
certain short experiments which were made upon the effect of fat, tea, coffee, 
and alcohol when temporarily added to the dietary. It is not proposed 
on this occasion to enter into detail, since the results obtained point to the 
desirability of conducting similar inquiries through much longer periods. 

The issue of the inquiries was as follows :— 

1. During the period of the administration of 33 ozs. of extra fat daily, the 
amounts of urea and urinary water excreted were 529 grains, and 69°17 ozs. 
on the average of all the cases, showing that no noticeable change had been 
produced. 

2. During the withdrawal of 3 of an ounce (328 grains) of chloride of 
sodium daily, the quantity of that salt excreted by the urine was reduced 
from 506 to 184 grains daily, the difference being almost exactly the amount 
which had been withhela. After the full supply was renewed, it was some 
days before the whole again appeared in the urine. 

3. The excretion of urea was lessened during the administration of the tea 
to 402 grains on the second, and 508 grains on the third, which was a 
treadwheel-day. The exact amount of the diminution cannot be determined, 
since in the three preceding days two treadwheel-days were included, and 
thus this basis of comparison was unduly elevated. 

The excretion of chloride of sodium was increased to 542 grains per day. 

The quantity of urinary water evolved remained unchanged. 

4. The urea, which had fallen during the action of tea, remained below the 
average during the action of coffee (which was administered after the ex- 
periments on tea), but it rose 42 grains daily, and at the end of the period 
was scarcely below the quantity normally evolved. The quantity of chloride 
of sodium evolved was 50 grains daily less than with the tea, viz., 494 
grains. 

The quantity of urinary water was not changed. 

5. The urea was also lessened during the action of alcohol, to the extent 
of 26 grains per day below the normal quantity ; but it was still 14 grains 
per day higher than the quantity to which it first fell with the tea. The 
effect was much more evident with treadwheel-labour on the first day ; for, 
instead of an increase with labour, there was an elimination of 43 grains less 
than occurred on the previous day with rest, but on the third day the in- 
erease with labour was 111 grains over that evolved on the Sunday. On 
the first day the barometer fell greatly and tended to prevent the elimination 
of urea. The greatest effect was upon the elimination of urinary water, 
being a diminution of no less than 20 ounces per day on the average of the 
three days; and as there was an unusual thirst during the administration of 
the alcohol (without, however, any additional fluid food being allowed), it is 
easy to see in how great a degree alcohol tends to temporarily fix fluid in the 
tissues of the body, and in doing so to restrain the emission of urea. There 
was also a large diminution in the excretion of chloride of sodium, but it cor- 
responded precisely with the diminution in the urinary water. The quantity 
evolved daily was 352 grains, or a diminution of 27-5 per cent. 

Hence the effect of tea, coffee, and alcohol in lessening the emission of 
urea appeared to be temporary only, and in the case of alcohol was associated 
with retention of fluid in the body, and consequently with an increase of 
weight. The information thus obtained renders it important to test the in- 
fluence of cach article over a much longer period, 


62 3 REPORT—1861. 


/ 


EXxrerIMENTS AT THE WAKEFIELD Prison. Apprenprx X. 


In June 1861 another series of inquiries were prosecuted in Wakefield Goal 
of a character similar to those just related. Mr. Milner took charge of all 
the observations which were made within the prison; Dr. Smith made the 
analyses for urea and chloride of sodium; and Mr. Manning kindly deter- 
mined the dry matter and the nitrogen in the food, faeces, and urine. 

Four men of regular habits and. in good state of health were selected. 
Two were weavers of cocoa matting, which is a very laborious occupation, 
and two were tailors. Their ages were 19, 22, 24, and 28 years; their height 
was 643, 66, 663, and 67 inches, and their weight was 118 lbs. 11 ozs., 
125 lbs. 121 ozs., 146 Ibs. 11} ozs., and 146 lbs. 153 ozs. The girth around 
the nipples was 32? inches, 34 in., 35} in., and 353 in., giving an average 
of nearly 343 inches. The total averages of age, height, weight, and girth 
were 233 years, 661 inches, 134 lbs, 82 ozs., and 344 inches. 

They had been fed on the highest class of prison dietary ; but as that con- 
sisted of some variety of food, it was deemed advisable to give them a uni- 
form daily diet during one week before the experiments began, and it was 
continued without intermission until the inquiry terminated. ' 

The food supplied daily was in part fixed, and in other part variable in 
quantity. The fixed quantities were those of meat, oatmeal, and potato, 
and the variable ones those of bread, salt, and water. Milk was given in a 
fixed quantity, but the amount supplied was not uniform in both classes of 
prisoners. - 

The meat consisted of 5 ozs. of lean and 1 oz. of fat cooked beef, without 
bone. Thesupply of oatmeal was 2 ozs., and 16 ozs. of cooked potato; 20 ozs. 
of skimmed milk were given to the tailors, and 25 ozs. to the weavers. The 
daily quantity of bread eaten was on the average 30*4 ozs. by the tailors, 
and 343 ozs. by the weavers, or a general total of 27:35 ozs. 136°5 grs. of 
chloride of sodium were eaten (besides that contained in the bread) by the 
tailors, and 63°5 grs. by the weavers, giving an average of 100 grs.; but 
there was some considerable variation from day to day. One of the tailors 
ate an average quantity of 199°3 grs.; whilst the other tailor ate only 73°8 grs. 

The quantity of water which was drunk, besides that contained in 1 pint 
of gruel, was only 23°8 ozs. on the average, giving with the milk a total sup- 
ply of fluid of 66:3 ozs. The weavers drank much more than the tailors, 
and the total daily quantities in the two classes was 80°5 ozs. and 52°1 ozs. 
The solid food was 51°8 ozs., and the fluid 66°3 ozs., or a total of 118 ounces 
daily. 

The men arose at 6 A.M., and having passed urine and feeces were imme- 
diately weighed. The scales employed were good ones, and the weight was 
taken to jth of an ounce. The prisoners were weighed naked. The weight 
of the feeces and urine was ascertained daily, by the aid of balances kindly 
lent by Messrs. Avery, of Birmingham, up to 63 A.M.; and the degree of con- 
sistence of the feeces was recorded under five heads, viz. scybalous, well- 
formed, formed but soon subsiding, soft, and liquid. A fair sample of the 
bread, oatmeal, potato, meat, and milk was sent up to Mr. Manning from 
time to time as changes in the supply occurred. A portion of the mixed 
quantities of faeces and the urine of each set of prisoners was most carefully 
taken and sent for analysis daily ; but delay sometimes occurred in the trans- 
mission, so that the analyses were usually made on the third day after the 
evacuation. The greatest care was taken to avoid loss by evaporation and 
otherwise, and to prevent decomposition. The observations included thirteen 
days besides the week of preliminary dietary, and the following are the 


principal results which have been obtained :-— 
\ 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE, 63 


Weight of body.—The average weight of three of the prisoners during the 
inquiry was greater than that recorded on the day preceding the commence- 
ment of the inquiry, but there was a loss of weight in the fourth. ‘The aver- 
age gain was, in the tailors, 154 ozs. and 174 o0zs., and in one of the weavers 
$1 0zs., but in the other weaver there was a loss of 34 0zs. The greatest gain 
in the different cases was 1 lb. 134 ozs. and 1 lb. 74 ozs. in the tailors, and 
$4 ozs. and 1 lb. 11 ozs. in the weavers; and the greatest loss 14 oz. in one 
tailor, 1 1b. 24 ozs, and 44 ozs. in the weavers. There was not an unvarying 
progression in the weight during the week, but in every case there was an 
inerease from the Saturday to the Sunday, and the amounts were as follows: — 
114 ozs. and 101 ozs., 93 ozs. and 5 zs. in the tailors; 6} ozs. and 18} ozs. 
194 ozs. and 3l4 ozs. in the weavers; or an average increase of 13°62 ozs. 
on the Sunday. 

Urine: quantity —The largest quantities which were evolved in one day 
were 25,321 grs. (56'6 ozs.) and 26,624 ers. (59°17 ozs.) in the tailors, and 
97,791 grs. (62°3 ozs.) and 32,924 grs. (74 ozs.) in the weavers, The average 
daily quantity was 41°2 ozs. in the tailors, and 47°51 ozs. in the weavers, 
viving a total daily average of 44°35 ozs. There was a large increase on the 
Saturday, and a marked decrease on the Sunday, as the following figures 
prove :— 


Friday. Saturday. Sunday. 
OZS. ozs. OZS. 
Two tailors ..... — 49°] 39°45 
3% Fe eee es 37°85 48°95 37:9 
Two weavers .... — 51°92 44°98 
3 + 2 ROR NES 49°5 57°25 43° 


The average decrease from the Saturday to the Sunday was 10:29 ozs. 

Specific gravity—The specific gravity of the urine varied from 1016 to 
1027°5, but there was singular uniformity in the general results. In the 
tailors it was 1023-7 and 1025, and in the weavers 1024°37 and 10246, 
giving a total average of 102435 in the tailors, and 1024-45 in the weavers. 

Urea.—The analysis for urea was made by Liebig’s method, from a test 
solution which had been prepared in large quantity and used daily in other 
experiments. The chloride of sodium was not removed, but its amount was 
duly determined and deducted. 

The total average daily quantity of urea evolved was 655°65 grs., of which 
608°4 grs. were emitted by the tailors, and 702°9 gers. by the weavers; the 
maximum and minimum amounts were 790 and 456 grs., the former in the 
weavers; and the latter in the tailors. In the weavers the quantity exceeded 
700 grs. in 7 of 13 days, whilst this occurred only 3 times in the tailors, and 
in only one instance during the inquiry was it below 500 grs. daily. 

The quantity of urea to each pound of body-weight was 4°812 grs. in the 
tailors, and 4°675 grs. in the weavers; but it varied in the former from 3°72 
to 5°82 grs., and in the latter from 3°62 to 5:39 grs. on different days. 

The quantity of urea was always lessened on the Sunday. In the tailors 
the diminution from the Saturday to the Sunday was 145 grs. and 122 ers., 
and in the weavers 26 and 92 grs., giving a total average diminution of 
96°25 grs. 

The quantity in each ounce of urine was, on the average, 149 grs. in the 
tailors, and 15°25 grs. in the weavers, giving a total average of 15075 grs. 
The maximum and minimum quantities were 18°8 and 12°3 in the tailors, and 
17°84 and 13°53 in the weavers. 


Chloride of Sodium.—The average quantity of chloride of sodium evolved 


64 : REPORT—1861. 


was 3:37 grs. per 6z. in the tailors, and 3°18 grs. per oz. in the weavers, giving 
a daily emission of 138°844 grs. in the former, and 148°5 grs. in tire latter. 

Feces.—The general character of the faeces was homogeneous and mode- 
rately cohesive, but on a few occasions there was a variety in the consistence. 
In the 52 observations 32 exhibited feeces formed but soon subsiding, 7 
well formed, 1 scybalous, 2 soft, and 9 of mixed character, and no one per- 
son offered any marked difference in these characters. The bran of the brown 
bread was easily seen in the faeces. The average daily evacuation was 
6°98 ozs. in the tailors, and 8°52 ozs. in the weavers, giving a total daily aver- 
age of 7°75 ozs. ‘There were somewhat considerable daily variations, so that 
the maximum and minimum quantities were, in the tailors regarded separ- 
ately, 11°41 ozs. and 4°32 ozs., and in the weavers 14°42 ozs. and 1°72 oz., 
but in no instance was there the omission of a daily evacuation. 

The quantity of nitrogen per cent. found by Mr. Manning by the volu- 
metric method varied from *71 gr. to 1°16 gr. in the tailors, and from ‘97 gr. 
to 1°35 gr. in the weavers; but the total average in the two classes was ‘93 
in the tailors, and 1°12 in the weavers, giving 1°025 gr. in the whole. 

The total daily elimination of nitrogen by the faces was found to be 
27°45 grs. in the tailors, and 40°93 grs. in the weavers. The variation in the 
amount of feces on Sunday from that of other days was not uniform, since 
it was Jess in the weavers and was equal in the tailors. 

It will have been observed that there were many differences in the results 
obtained from the prisoners occupied in the two kinds of labour; and as one 
of the objects had in view was to show these differences, the two trades were 
selected which, in that prison, offered the greatest dissimilarity in the amount 
of exertion required. - 

Of these two sets of prisoners, the weavers of cocoa matting, when com- 
pared with the tailors, were older, taller, heavier, and broader; they ate 
more bread, milk, and water. ‘They lost weight, whilst the tailors gained 
weight. They emitted more urine, urea, chloride of sodium, and feces with 
their contained nitrogen; they exhibited much less diminution of urea on 
the Sunday, and a little less urea to body-weight. 

It is not possible to compare the results of this inquiry very closely with 
those already described at Coldbath-fields, since in the latter inquiry the 
quantity of bread and water was rigidly fixed, whilst in the former there 
were daily variations. The quantity of bread taken was greater at Wakefield 
than at Coldbath-fields, and would so far increase the amount of urea pro- 
duced, whilst the variable quantity of water taken from day to day would 
vary the elimination of that product. Yet these causes of variation are not 
of great value, and upon the whole it will be seen that there is a very close 
correspondence between the products of the weavers at Wakefield and those 
who worked the treadwheel at Coldbath-fields. 

The weight of the men at Wakefield was more than that at Coldbath-fields, 
the quantity of urine and of fluid drank was less, and that of urea was greater, 
but the proportion of urea to body-weight was very nearly the same. In both 
there was more urea with labour, and less on Sunday. ‘There was less chlo- 
ride of sodium in the urine as there was less supplied in the food. The weight 
of the feces and the contained nitrogen were the same in both places. 

Conclusion.—The Committee cannot close this first part of their report 
without offering a few remarks in the nature of deductions or suggestions, 
but, inasmuch as the duty confided to them is limited to a consideration of 
the influence of prison discipline over the bodily functions of the prisoners, 
and the present is only a part of their report, they feel that they cannot 
‘express their views at any length. 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 65 


- ‘The Committee venture to think that the time is’ approaching when the 
whole subject of prison discipline must be reconsidered, and when a deter- 
mination may be arrived at as to the propriety of continuing a system which 
when practised occasions vast waste of the vital powers of the prisoners, 
and vast expenditure of money to provide a dietary which, although scarcely 
sufficient, is far beyond that provided for the poor in workhouses, and beyond 
that obtained by the working classes in general. The different systems 
adopted in prisons are furnishing some evidence as to the relative value of 
three plans,—viz., 1st, waste of animal force by the treadwheel and the crank ; 
2nd, the use of manufacturing operations; and 3rd, the effect of simple de- 
tention and instruction without labour; and these, when conjoined with the 
intelligent efforts put forth in the sister island, may almost suffice to guide 
those to whom its consideration may be intrusted. 

It is, however, certain that if much bodily labour be enforced, whether in 
a profitable or unprofitable manner, there must be an expensive dietary to 
supply the reparative material ; and no plan can be so wasteful as that which 
enforces profitless labour, and supplies an expensive diet to meet its demands. 

The Committee also think that some steps should be taken to ensure uni- 
‘ formity in prison discipline throughout the kingdom ; so that not only should 

great care be exercised (as at present) to apportion the sentence to the 
crime, but also that wherever the sentence is pronounced the carrying-out 
‘of it shall be also proportioned to the crime. This may be effected in the 
dietary, and yet allow such a variety of food as may be found relatively 
economical in different parts of the kingdom; for the nutritive value of various 
kinds of food is now tolerably known, and the quantity of each to give the 
same nutriment may be estimated. So also in reference to punishments. It 
is quite possible that the instruments should be of uniform construction, 
that by supervision they should be kept in uniform order, that the speed at 
which they are worked should be uniform, and the amount of a day’s work 
should be universally the same, subject only to the opinion of the Surgeon as 
to the fitness of any individual to perform the required task. A committee 
of scientific men would find no difficulty in placing all this upon a satisfac- 
tory basis, if they were only authorized by the Government to do so. 
_ It is also easy to estimate the amount of labour required in ordinary ma- 
nufactures, at least so far to keep within the bodily powers of the prisoners ; 
for we have the advantage of common experience as to the effect. of such 
labour in ordinary life. But the Committee are of opinion that, when all 
the above-mentioned care shall have been taken, the effect of the proper 
prison punishments, as the treadwheel, crank, and shot-drill, upon the pri- 
soners will still be very unequal, since it varies greatly with such natural 
conditions as the height, weight, age, and previous occupation of the person. 
Hence these punishments must be at all times objectionable. 

The Committee defer until another occasion their recommendations in 
reference to the exact adaptation of labour to supply of food; but they take 
this opportunity of stating that, as it involves the fundamental question of the 
propriety of making the dietary an instrument of punishment, it will be 
necessary ¢n limine to decide the latter question. When Sir James Graham 
appointed the Commissioners to draw up the present scheme of dietary, he 
expressly directed that the dietary should not be used as an instrument of 
punishment; but the Committee venture to affirm that the food supplied in 

_ ‘the lowest scale is so totally unequal to the wants of the system, that it can 
only be regarded as an instrument of punishment; and that it is so regarded 
: ace criminals and magistrates may be inferred from the dislike which 
- 


66 REPORT—1861. 


old offenders have to short imprisonment with its low dietary, and from the 
value which magistrates attach to this their most formidable agent. 

Without expressing a strong opinion upon this point, the Committee ven- 
ture to assert that a dietary of bread and water, or bread and gruel, cannot be 
enforced without doing serious injury to the prisoner’s health ; and that this is 
fundamentally recognized may be inferred from the fact that all agree that 
a high scale of dietary is absolutely demanded in long imprisonments. The 
Committee assert that the injury is one of degree, and that the shortness of 
the imprisonment prevents the ill effects being observed, which with a long 
imprisonment have been proved to increase the mortality in gaols. 

The Committee hope that, on philanthropic grounds, the principle may be 
established in prison discipline, that the prisoner shall not be so treated that 
when he leaves the gaol he shall be less able to earn his living than he was 
when he entered it, and that, punishment and reformation being sought toge- 
ther, some plan may be adopted which shall accord with that principle. 

The fundamental fact of the duty of apportioning food to the labour per- 
formed needs to be re-established. At present the attempt is nugatory ; but 
the Committee venture to hope that the principle will meet with universal 
concurrence, and that their labours afford at least some of the means whereby 
the estimation may be made. 

The great value of the system of extra dietary cannot be too highly esti- 
mated ; but the very admission implies that there is a defective adaptation of 
the general scheme of dietary to the wants of the system, and that almost the 
life of the prisoner is, throughout a large part of the imprisonment, at the 
discretion cr negligence of one officer, viz. the Surgeon. 

The Committee also venture to affirm that bread is far inferior to milk as 
an article of extra diet, as the experiments detailed in this report prove. The 
detention in prisons certainly lessens the power of assimilating food; and 
hence it is quite possible that whilst a given quantity of food would sustain 
aman out of gaol, it would not sustain him with the same labour in gaol. 
The object of extra diet is not so much to give additional material, as to 
give the kind of food which will aid the system in making a better use of 
that ordinarily supplied. Extra diet of bread (when the dietary is the 
highest scale) is in great part wasted, and increases disproportionately the 
amount of waste passing off by the bowel. 

In conclusion, the Committee urge the great importance of making better 
use than heretofore of the unparalleled opportunities which prisons afford 
of working out the most important and difficult questions in nutrition, with 
a view to supply information for the more just and economical manage- ~ 
ment of gaols, and for the advance of a science which is so essentially con- 
nected with the daily life of the community. Such questions are, the true 
value of white bread over brown bread in prison and other dietary ; the exact 
influence of various kind of food, and especially of such as tea, coffee, milk 
and alcohol, which act chiefly by modifying the action of other food ; the 
exact relation of a given quantity of food to a given amount of labour; the 
causes of the defective power of assimilation of food in prisons, and the relation 
of the elements of the food taken to those which are fixed in and thrown out 
of the body. The Committee feel that the importance of such inquiries is 
not by any means so well understood as it should be, and that some officials 
have a natural repugnance to anything which may interfere with their ordi- 
nary routine; but they trust that the expression of the opinion of this great 
Association, and the additional knowledge which they and others have en- 
deavoured to discover, may open prisons to such inquiries. 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 67 


' The Committee will cheerfully undertake to lend their aid in further 
elucidating these matters, if it should be the pleasure of the Association to 
reappoint them; but they very respectfully represent the urgent necessity 
which exists for the appointment, by the authority of Government, of one or 
more Commissioners to reconsider the subject of dietaries, and to recom- 
mend plans whereby uniformity in the nature and action of the instruments 
used in prison punishments may be effected throughout the kingdom. 


APPENDIX I. 


On the Inequalities in the Dietary of County Prisons ; being an Analysis of 
the “ Return of Dietaries for Convicts,” $c., issued in 1857*. 


Forty-three only of eighty-seven county prisons have adopted the scheme 
of dietary recommended by the Government ; and in reference to the forty- 
four prisons which dissent from that scheme, it will be evident, from the fol- 
lowing statement, that much of the inequalities in their various dietaries is 
attributable to the defects of the Government scheme, much to mere caprice, 
something to very defective knowledge as to the requirements of the human 
system, and something more to the absence of a desire to avoid injury to the 
prisoner. We shall first give in a few words the dietary of the Government 
scheme, and then describe the dietaries of all the prisons which have striking 
peculiarities. 

There are five classes of dietaries recommended by the Government, ac- 
cording to the duration of the sentence, and such that the quantity and 
quality of food are increased from the beginning of the imprisonment as the 
duration of the sentence is increased. 

Up to twenty-one days, only bread and gruel are given, but under seven 
days the bread (1 lb.) is given at dinner only, whilst over that period twenty- 
four ounces are distributed over the three meals. Under seven days, females 
receive as much bread for dinner as the males; but over that period they 
receive but half the quantity. . 

From twenty-one to forty-two days with hard labour, and to four months 
without hard labour, three ounces of cooked meat with bread and potatoes 
are given for dinner twice per week, one pint of soup (containing the same 
quantity of meat) with bread twice, and simply bread and potatoes thrice 
per week. 

From forty-two days to four months with hard labour, and beyond four 
months without labour, three ounces of meat is given daily in soup or other- 
wise. 

Beyond four months with hard labour, the quantity of meat is increased 
four times per week to four ounces, and an increase of half a pound of pota- 
toes is added,—soup, potatoes, and bread being supplied on the other days. 
Sweetened cocoa for breakfast is also given thrice per week. 

_ The erroneous principles upon which this scheme is founded are, the ap- 
portionment of food according to duration of sentence, the insufficiency for 
short sentences and for hard labour, and the variation from day to day; but 


* It is probable that some changes have been made in the dietaries of some of the County 
Gaols, and particularly in those marked with an asterisk (*), since the réturn of 1857 was 
issued, and since the following analysis was made; but of this there is no authorized inform. 
ation. The analysis will, at least, show the state of the dietaries when the return was issued; 

af F2 


68 REPORT—1861. 


having already pointed them out in a paper published in the Transactions of 
the Society for the Promotion of Social Science, we shall not pursue that sub-) 
ject on this occasion, but at once proceed to consider the dietaries opposed 
to this scheme. 
The Welsh gaols, as a whole, have a reduced scale of dietary ; but one of 
them, viz. the Cardiff Gaol*, is the most remarkable in the deficiency ; whilst 
another, the Brecon Gaol, is nearly equally remarkable for its plenty. It is 
instructive to notice how widely the schemes differ under different adminis- 
trations, whilst the condition of the inhabitants of the localities must be much 
the same. In the Cardiff Gaol there are four classes of prisoners, the highest 
including all those condemned for periods exceeding fourteen days, a term 
searcely equal to the second class of the government dietary, and even in 
that no meat or other animal food in any form is given. For breakfast and 
supper there is half a.pound of bread and two ounces of oatmeal made into 
gruel, whilst at dinner there is only half a pound of bread and one pound of 
potatoes. But if the prisoner should be condemned to hard Jabour he will. 
receive one pint and a half of soup, made from two ounces of Scotch barley 
and two ounces of rice, and it is the same whether he is condemned to hard’ 
labour for fifteen days or fifteen months! If the prisoner is condemned for 
more than seven and less than fourteen days, he receives for dinner half a 
pound of bread only. If not exceeding three days or seven days, the break- 
fast and supper consist of half a pound of bread only, whilst the dinner is 
composed of half a pound of bread, and in the latter case of one pound of 
potatoes in addition. Thus, if he be confined for three days or for fourteen 
days, half a pound of bread only is sufficient for the dinner; but, if it be for 
seven days, he is supposed to need one pound of potatoes in addition! This 
is the worst dietary in the whole of the county gaols; but the dietary of the 
Derby Gaol* shows that Englishmen as well as Welshmen are sometimes fed 
with the almost entire absence of animal food. The Derby dietary is divided 
into three classes ; but we are not favoured with the grounds of this division. 
In the first class there are six ounces of bread and one pint of porridge for 
breakfast, whilst in the second and third classes the quantities are increased 
to eight ounces and one pint and a half. The word porridge docs not imply 
that excellent article which we remember to have enjoyed in boyhood, but it 
consists of a quarter of a pint of milk and three-quarters of a pint of water, 
and one ounce and a half of oatmeal, instead of two ounces ordered by the 
Government to each pint of gruel. The supper consists of four ounces of 
bread and one pint of gruel (we are not informed as to the ingredients of the 
gruel) for the first class, six ounces of bread and one pint of porridge for the 
second, and eight ounces of bread and one pint of porridge for the third. 
The dinner in the first class is ten ounces of bread only; in the second class 
there are eight ounces of bread and one pound of potatoes five times per 
week, and eight ounces of bread and one pint of soup twice per week (the 
excellence of the soup is not stated); in the third class eight ounces of bread 
and two pounds of potatoes! twelve ounces of bread and one pint of soup 
thrice, and twelve ounces of bread and four ounces of meat once per week. The 
points of greatest interest are the excessive amount of farinaceous food, and 
the great defect of animal food. There is also a note appended to this return, _ 
stating that cases do sometimes occur of prisoners losing weight! If in the 
Wakefield Prison, to which we shall refer presently, a very large number of 
the prisoners lose weight under the best management, and with a much better 
etary, it is not wonderful that at Derby they should lose weight sometimes, 
We should be glad to know if they are weighed accurately and periodically ; 
if they enter the prison having an average weight; what percentage in each 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 69 


class lose weight during their imprisonment; and what is the tone of their 
muscular system on discharge? The note also states that when they lose 
weight the surgeon orders them to have extra milk, or bread, or meat. But 
essential articles of diet should not be left to the chance of the negligence. or . 
indiseretion of even the best of men. 
- The Brecon Gaol offers a contrast to both of the foregoing. Thus, for 
periods exceeding fourteen days, the prisoner receives six ounces of meat 
with eight ounces of bread on four days in the week, and also half a pound 
of potatoes if under, and one pound of potatoes if over, two months. On the 
other days the dietary is only bread and potatoes. For breakfast and supper 
the dietary for all periods is eight ounces of bread and one pint of gruel, but 
on alternate days the oatmeal is boiled in the meat liquor. There is also a 
further advantage given in substituting for potatoes, when they are bad, four 
ounces of rice and one ounce of treacle or sugar. The Middlesex prisons 
also give six ounces of meat at one meal. In the Coldbath-fields Prison, 
and the House of Correction, Westminster, twenty ounces of bread are equally 
divided between the three meals. There is also a pint of cocoa to the highest 
class (exceeding two months) and one pint of gruel to others; for breakfast ; 
whilst at supper there is one pint of gruel to the highest class, and half a 
pint to others. The dinner, besides bread, contains, in the highest class, six 
ounces of meat and eight ounces of potatoes four times per week, or one pint 
and a half of soup thrice per week. In the second class (two weeks to two 
months) there is the same quantity of meat and potatoes twice, one pint of 
soup twice, and one pint of gruel thrice per week. But in the lowest class 
it consists of bread and gruel only. 
The Lincoln House of Correction at Spalding has also a dietary better 
than that recommended by the Government, since, in addition to the meat, 
‘there is allowed one pint of soup; but the ingredients of the soup are not 
stated. It has also the advantage of giving meat daily in the fourth and fifth 
class, apart from the soup, and thus the important article of diet is evenly 
distributed ; and since the soup is probably made from the meat liquor, it 
increases the quantity of fat which is supplied to the prisoners. 
The Newgate Prison, Lincoln Castle, and the Pembroke Gaol are re- 
markable in having but one scale of dietary each for all the prisoners, thus 
. avoiding the fallacy which results from varying the dietary according to the 
term of imprisonment. They, however, differ very much in the quantity and 
quality of food which they deem to be proper for their prisoners. Thus the 
_ Newgate Prison and Lincoln Castle adopt Class 4 of the Government scheme. 
. The Pembroke Gaol affords only one quart of oatmeal gruel (the quantity of 
oatmeal is not stated) and three-quarters of a pound of bread for dinner. At 
breakfast there is a luxury found only at this gaol, viz. tea and butter; so that 
_the meal consists of a pint and a half of tea, one pound of bread, and one 
ounce of butter. The supper is composed of one quart of milk pottage (the 
constituents are not given) and three quarters of a pound of bread. This is 
a remarkable dietary, and one which on paper must be very satisfactory, 
except in the absence of animal food. A foot-note states that “the surgeon 
orders extra food when necessary;” but the nature of the food which he may 
order is not stated. The largest quantity of bread is contained in this dietary, 
-viz. two pounds and a half of bread daily. We should like to know the 
result of the entire avoidance of fresh vegetables, a circumstance also pecu- 
liar to this prison, if the return be true. 
_ Another peculiarity is met with in the three Gloucester gaols (one of 
which, the House of Correction at Horsley, is under the direction of a name 


70 REPORT—1861. 


well known in prison management), viz. the exhibition of the same food on 
each day of the week. The plan of varying the food with the class is pur- 
sued, but, with the exception of the third class, the food is not varied from 
day to day. In the lowest class the food is simply eight ounces of bread at 
each meal. In the second class one pint of gruel is added to the breakfast 
and supper. In the third class eight ounces of potatoes are added daily, and 
three ounces of meat twice in the week. In the fourth and fifth classes the 
meat is given daily, and in the fifth class the potatoes are increased to one 
pound. There is also another point worthy of notice which is peculiar to 
these gaols and the Lincoln House of Correction, Spalding, viz. the admi- 
nistration of meat on every day in the week to the two highest classes, apart 
trom or to the exclusion of soup. There are thus two important cireum- 
stances redounding greatly to the credit of those who have the supervision 
uf these institutions in the county of Gloucester. 

The peculiarity of administering the same food on each day of the week 
is also met with at the Cardiff, Flint, Sussex, and Wilts gaols. The poverty 
of the Cardiff dietary has already been stated, and the Flint Prison dietary 
is very far removed from liberality. Thus for fourteen days it affords simply 
one pound of bread and four ounces and a half of oatmeal daily. For six 
weeks, one pound and a quarter of bread, four ounces and a half of oatmeal, 
and half a pint of milk daily, and for all periods beyond six weeks a quarter 
of a pound of bread is added daily, and two pints of soup per week. 

The Sussex Prison at Lewes gives to all classes half a pound of bread and 
one pint of gruel for breakfast and supper. For fourteen days the dinner is 
eight ounces of bread only ; for six weeks one pint of soup is added on three 
days per week; for four months the soup is given daily ; and for all periods 
beyond, one pound of potatoes is added daily. The dietary at Petworth is 
more liberal. Thus, after one month the dinner consists of half a pound of 
bread, four ounces of meat, and one pint of soup; and after three months, 
one pound of potatoes is added daily. The dinner at this prison is therefore 
very excellent after the expiration of the first month. The two county gaols 
in Wiltshire have the same dietary. All prisoners not sentenced to hard 
labour receive one pound and a half of bread and one pint of gruel daily, and 
after fourteen days have one pint of soup in addition. This is all the dietary 
with hard labour from fourteen to forty-two days: viz., to fourteen days with 
hard labour the dietary is simply one pound and a half of bread and one pint 
of gruel daily; from six weeks to three months one pint of soup is added 
daily from the commencement ; and when the term exceeds three months, one 
pound of potatoes is given daily after three months. ‘This scheme is not 
equal to the Gevernment allowance. 

The dietary in the Lancaster House of Correction at Preston varies chiefly, 
but not exclusively, with age, viz. under et. thirteen, under et. seventeen, 
and over zt. seventeen. In these, the breakfast and supper eonsists of four 
ounces of bread and one pint of gruel, six and two-thirds ounces of bread 
and one pint of gruel, and six and two-thirds ounces of bread and two pints 
of gruel respectively. 

The dinner of the first class is four ounces of bread and one pint of gruel 
thrice; four ounces of bread, four ounces of meat, and one pint of soup 
once; four ounces of meat and half a pound of potatoes once; four ounces 
of bread and one pint of soup once ; and the singular combination of half a 
pound of potatoes with one ounce of cheese once per week. In the second 
ciass the scheme is varied simply by the administration of six and two-thirds 
ounces of bread daily ; and the third differs from the second in doubling the 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 71 


quantity of potatoes, cheese, gruel, and soup. The soup, however, does not 
contain meat, and the gruel is very poor. ; 

There are certain limitations, depending upon the duration of the sentence. 
Thus, for seven days the diet is twelve to twenty ounces of bread daily. For 
fourteen days boys and girls receive half of the second-class rations, and for 
a month adults have half of the third-class rations. There is also a great 
and unique curiosity in the list of limitations which refer to itch patients, 
who receive but twelve ounces of bread per diem, whether as a punishment 
or a cure for their uncleanness is not stated. We cannot but regard this as 
a meagre dietary, since we cannot tell in what degree the discretionary power, 
which a foot-note states to rest with the governor and surgeon, in increasing 
the dietary after three months’ imprisonment, is exercised, and, so far as 
adults are concerned, it appears that the only increase which can be made 
extends to ten ounces of bread only. 

A gaol which has for its governor another gentleman of the name of Shep- 
herd, viz. the Wakefield Gaol, is also remarkable in its dietary, but in a dif- 
ferent direction from any of the foregoing. The peculiarity is in the greater 
variety of food and the care which is taken to make it palateable. The di- 
stinction into classes is maintained, and in the highest classes is so extended 
that it begins only after twelve months’ imprisonment. The breakfast and 
supper are alike, except in the highest class, and consist of one pint of gruel 
only in the first class (seven days), whilst in the second and third six ounces 
of bread are added; in the fourth class eight ounces of bread are allowed, 
and in the fifth class the same quantity of bread is allowed, and milk substi- 
tuted for gruel for breakfast, but not for supper. The dinner in the first 
class is one pound of bread. In the second class it consists of half a pound 
of bread and one pound of potatoes twice, four ounces of bread, with one 
pint of pea-soup or a pint and a half of gruel twice, plain pudding and one 
ounce of treacle twice, and twelve ounces of bread alone once per week. In 
the third class the bread and potatvues alone is restricted to once per week; 
four ounces of bread, one pound of potatoes, and three ounces of cooked 
meat are given once; four ounces of bread, a plain pudding, and one ounce 
of treacle once ; whilst four ounces of bread and one pint of soup, pea-soup, 
or Irish stew, are given four times per week. In the fourth class the bread, 
meat, and potatoes are given twice (once being instead of bread and potatoes 
alone), the other diets remaining the same. In the fifth class the bread, 
meat, and potatoes are given thrice, the same with half a pint of soup added 
twice, and bread and Irish stew alone twice per week. The soup does not 
contain meat, but is made from meat liquor, oatmeal, and vegetables. The 
pea-soup has the large quantity of six ounces of peas and four ounces of car- 
rots per pint, with mint and pot-herbs. The Irish stew contains three or 
four ounces of meat with sixteen ounces of vegetables. The plain pudding 
is a quart made from eight ounces of flour. As the soup is partly made 
from bones, which are boiled for twenty-four hours, it contains a very essen- 
tial article in abundance, viz. fat. Altogether, this is not only the most 
elaborate dietary in the return, but it seems to be the ultima Thule in that 
direction, and whatever may be its defects, it certainly evinces an anxious 


_ desire not only to feed the prisoners sufficiently, but to treat them with the 


consideration due to beings who have the sense of taste. Yet with this diet- 
ary, and with the entire absence of the treadwheel and the crank labour, a 
very large proportion of the prisoners are reported weekly as losing weight. 
_ The Hertford Gaol at St. Albans * offers some peculiarities by which it 
might have been ranged with the foregoing, but it has one which is quite 


72 REPORT—1861. 


distinctive, viz. the absence of supper. The hours of meals are not given; 
but the fact is stated that only breakfast and dinner are allowed, even to 
those condemned to hard labour, both males and females. Surely this is 
cruelty, and must result from gross ignorance of the wants of the system and 
the responsibilities of those who devised and retain the plan. If there is no 
excess of food left over from the previous day, in those prisons where a meal 
is given at 6 P.M., upon what do the St. Albans prisoners sustain the exer- 
tion of hard labour before the breakfast, when the previous meal was the 
dinner on the previous day? If sleeplessness results from both repletion 
and want of food, we should like to know how deep is the repose of the 
Hertfordshire felons. The unenviable refinement to which we have referred 
is also further seen in the absence of division of the classes by time, so that 
all the prisoners are fed alike during the first week of imprisonment, whether 
they are sentenced to hard labour or not, and for whatever duration; aud 
after the first week the dietary is the same, except that it is varied in refer- 
ence to labour, and further varied in reference to the sex condemned to hard 
labour. Thus there is no increase in the dietary, and hence the nature of 
that dietary is of vast importance. The breakfast uniformly consists of 
twelve ounces of bread and a pint of gruel, except when associated with 
hard labour, when there are sixteen ounces of bread for the men. The 
dinner consists of twelve ounces of bread and one pint of soup (the ingre- 
dients are not stated) four times, and twelve ounces of bread alone thrice 
per week. To females condemned to hard labour, the soup is given daily, 
and there is a further addition for males of four ounces of bread. There 
are thus one pound and a half or two pounds of bread given daily as in 
other schemes of dietary, but it is ill distributed, and whilst there are several 
points in the dietary to be commended, the absence of supper deserves con- 
demnation. As a contrast to this we may refer to the Welsh gaol at Car- 
narvor, in which supper is not only allowed, but it is enriched by the addi- 
tion of a pint to a pint and a half of broth ; but to this we shall again advert. 

We may now consider certain peculiarities in reference to the articles of 
food supplied, which have a certain degree of interest, and in a few instances 
affect an important principle. 

In the four Northumberland gaols the quantity of oatmeal is increased and 
given as porridge where the Government has recommended simply gruel. 
This contains six ounces of oatmeal, instead of two ounces, as ordered for 
gruel, and milk or treacle water. There is also one pound of suet pudding 
given in the third, fourth, and fifth classes in place of the meat, bread, and 
potatoes recommended by Government. It may be questioned if one pound 
of suet pudding is equal to three ounces of cooked meat without bone, half 
a pound of bread, and half a pound of potatoes ; and as the quantities of the 
component articles are not stated, we cannot determine such an inquiry. It 
has, however, this merit, which involves a principle so much neglected in 
prison dietary, viz. the administration of fat with the starch, and is therefore 
so far to be commended. It is also to be noticed to the credit of these in- 
stitutions, that the dietary of the first two classes is better than that recom- 
mended by the Government, since in the first class each prisoner receives 
eight ounces additional oatmeal, besides milk, and in the second class there 
is an addition of eight ounces of potatoes to the dinner. In the return of 
the Alnwick House of Correction there is no provision made for prisoners 
sentenced to a larger term of imprisonment than six weeks, and there is spe- 
cific mention of half a pint of milk in addition to one pint of porridge for the 
breakfast and the supper, but no bread is allowed at those meals. 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 73 


The other north-country gaols, of Cumberland and Westmoreland, also 
make large use of oatmeal and milk in their schemes of diet, and the scheme 
is the same in both gaols. The quantity of bread is reduced, and to so re- 
prehensible a degree that, for prisoners confined from seven to fourteen days, 
four ounces of bread alone constitute the whole dinner,—a quantity of food 
less than is supplied at any other prison. For seven days six ounces of bread 
are given at each meal; with hard labour for six weeks, and no labour for 
three months, one pint of soup is added to the dinner thrice, one pound of 
potatoes thrice, and three quarters of a pint of milk once per week; and 
when the terms are increased to three months, and beyond three months re- 
spectively, three ounces of cooked meat and half a pound of potatoes are 
given, instead of one pound of potatoes, twice per week. When the sentence 
of hard labour is beyond three months, four ounces of uncooked meat, four 
ounces of bread, and one pound of potatoes are given for dinner thrice per 
week, whilst one pint of soup supplants the meat thrice per week, and three- 
quarters of a pint of milk and six ounces of bread constitute the Sunday’s 
dinner. The use of oatmeal is restricted to the breakfast and supper, when 
four or five ounces, with half a pint of milk, without bread, constitute the 
meal. : 

The Monmouth Gaol is also remarkable in the quantity of oatmeal sup- 
plied to the prisoners, and for the introduction of Indian meal as an article 
of diet. The two first classes are unchanged, except that the term of the 
‘second is extended to four weeks. In the third and fourth classes, which 
extend respectively to three months and beyond three months, the breakfast 
consists of no less than eight ounces of oatmeal and half a pint of milk, and 

‘the supper of six ounces of oatmeal with half a pint of milk and half a pound 
of bread. Both of these are largely in excess of the Government allowances, 
and approach much nearer to the wants of the system. The dinner in the 
third class consists daily of eight ounces of Indian meal and half a pint of 

-milk, whilst in the fourth or highest class that food is administered on three 

_days per week ; four ounces of cooked meat, without bone, and twelve ounces 
of potatoes twice, and one pint of broth (containing three ounces of cooked 

“meat without bone) twice in the week. We believe this to be a better diet- 
ary than that recommended by the Government ; and a foot-note appended to 

the return is satisfactory on this head. It states: ‘“ The general health of 
the prisoners is good ; and, for the most part, they leave the prison in better 
condition than when they came in. Prisoners of the third and fourth class 

_are weighed on receipt and discharge ; they are kept in association, and they 
almost invariably increase in weight while in prison.” It would be interest- 

ing to know if they enter with an average weight. 

A large division of the gaols which offer peculiarities of detail are the 
Welsh. We have already remarked that generally the dietary of the gaols 
of the Principality is less nutritious than that of English gaols, and we may 
further state that only three of the thirteen county gaols have accepted the 
Government scheme. 

In the Carmarthen Gaol the prisoners condemned to hard labour for any 
term receive meat but twice per week; and that is in the form of soup, of 
which a quart is given; but the ingredients are not stated ; twelve ounces of 
bread are given with it for terms exceeding two months. When the term 
exceeds three months two ounces of cheese and one pound of potatoes, or 

-one pint of gruel, substitute the meat soup on three days per week; but no 
cheese is allowed for shorter periods; and thus a prisoner may be kept at 
hard labour for three months and receive twelve ounces of bread for dinner 


G4 REPORT—1861. 


daily, with a quart of meat soup twice, and one pound of potatoes, and one 
pint of gruel each thrice per week. The breakfast and supper invariably 
consist of half a pound of bread and one pint of gruel. 

The Carnarvon Gaol introduces a new article of diet, and is unique in 
this particular, viz. buttermilk, one pint of which is added to the dinner 
twice per week. The whole dietary differs from that recommended by the 
Government, and is a subject on which the authorities of the gaol have 
either doubt or pride, if we may judge by the multitude of certificates which 
they have been pleased to append to the return. In all the classes a pint 
to a pint anda half of broth is administered for supper thrice per week 
instead of gruel, and given alone in the first two classes, but with six or eight 
ounces of bread in all the others. This is made from the meat liquor, with 
two ounces of peas, and with green vegetables, and is, therefore, a very valu- 
able addition to the dietary. ‘There is a diminution in the quantity of bread 
and an increase in that of potatoes in the proportion of two ounces of the 
former to half a pound of the latter. Soup is given on three days per week 
to prisoners condemned fer periods exceeding twenty-one days; but no meat 
is allowed separately, except for longer periods than three months, and then 
three ounces of meat are given separately on three other days per week. 
Taken as a whole, it is an improved dietary. 

The dietary of the Merioneth Gaol at Dolgelly is full of peculiarities. It 
introduces four new articles of diet, viz. cheese, bacon, milk, and boiled rice ; 
but they are not all given on one day or on any fixed rota, but each is con- 
tingent: so that three ounces of bacon meat, without bone, may be substi- 
tuted for eight ounces of bread and four ounces of cheese, or one quart of 
pea-soup or broth, and four ounces of bread; and one pound and a half of 
boiled rice is regarded as an equivalent for the bread and cheese in one 
place, and for half a pound of bread alone in another. One quart of milk 
and eight ounces of bread may be substituted once per week for any of the 
above dinners. Excepting these various contingencies, which give a com- 
plex air, the scheme is simple; for it only provides for two classes, compre- 
hending prisoners condemned, respectively, to fourteen and exceeding four- 
teen days, without labour; so that a plain bread-and-cheese dinner, or any of 
the above-mentioned alternatives, is considered sufficient for dinner for any 
period, however long. Broth or soup is given for dinner to the first class. 
The gruel, broth, and pea-soup are each weaker than the gruel and soup re- 
commended by the Government. We cannot but regard this dietary asdefec- 
tive in having so many contingencies, and those which differ much in nutri- 
tive value, whilst they are regarded as good substitutes for each other; but 
since the average use of each kind of diet is not stated, it is impossible to 
estimate the true value of this dietary. The extra food allowed for hard 
labour is ridiculously insufficient, viz. six ounces of bread per day ; and the 
whole scheme demands immediate revision. 

The Montgomery Gaol also provides bacon as an article of diet to the 
highest ciass, or those exceeding three months’ imprisonment. The quantity 
allowed is two ounces without bone, added to one pound of potatoes and half 
a pound of bread four times per week, whilst on other days the dinner con- 
sists of one pint of soup and half a pound of bread. For periods varying 
from two weeks to three months, the bacon is omitted. In the first class, one 
pint of soup is given on the Sunday, whilst on other days the dinner consists 
of half a pound of bread only. Bacon as an article of prison dietary is valu- — 
able, since it supplies fat, and is also savoury. 

‘Lhe Denbigh County Gaol at Ruthen introduces us to another noveltr, 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 75 
' 
 yiz., scouse, which is composed of beef cut into small pieces, and potatoes, 
in such proportion that one pound and a half of scouse contains 2°18 ounces 
-of meat. This has the very patent evil of inaccurate division to each pri- 
soner. The whole dietary is very meagre, since, for all prisoners condemned 
to an imprisonment exceeding a month, the dinner thrice per week is one and 
_a half pound of scouse, half a pound of bread, and one pound of potatoes 
four times per week. When the term does not exceed one month, the din- 
ner is composed of five and one-third ounces of bread and one pound of 
potatoes, whilst for seven days five and one-third ounces of bread only con- 
stitutes the dinner. 

In the Glamorgan Gaol at Swansea, the prisoner sentenced to more than 
one month’s imprisonment receives a bread-and-cheese dinner, as at some 
other Welsh gaols; but in this one pound of potatoes is added. This is 
given thrice per week, whilst half a pound of bread and a pint and a half of 
soup, containing four ounces of coarse meat, are given four times per week. 
No meat and cheese are allowed for a less period than one month. 

Space will not permit us to continue the analysis of these returns further ; 
but we may remark that at the Bucks and some other county prisons no 
extra food for hard labour is stated in the return; at the Dorset Gaol, a bread- 
and-cheese dinner is provided three times per week for the highest class; at 
Durham the dietary is reduced in value for periods up to six months ; at 
Huntingdon there are some meaningless changes in reference to the quantity 
of bread allowed; at the Southampton Gaol, three ounces of cheese are 
considered an equivalent for one pint of soup containing four ounces of raw 

meat without bone, four ounces of potatoes, one ounce of rice, &c.; and at 
Devon, the soup contains but two ounces of raw meat per pint. 

We have thus made it very evident that uniformity in dietary is not one 
of the characteristics of our prisons, and that those who are condemned to 
imprisonment receive very different treatment in different parts of the king- 
dom. Indeed the diversity is so great, that it would be in vain to prepare a 
tabular statement of the dietary of the forty-four prisons of such moderate 
dimensions, and with so much approach to uniformity, that even the most 
painstaking student could study it with the hope of understanding it; for it 
would be impossible to reduce the return to more general forms, with a view 
of comparing them and committing them to memory. 


AprEnpi1x II. 


Punishments and Dietaries of Prisoners,—Address for Returns of the punish- 
ments inflicted under sentences to “ hard labour”— 
Of the working of the treadwheel ; 
Of the pressure and working of the crank ; 
Of the weight of Prisoners, and the variations of it due to treadwheel 
and crank labour ; 
in the City, Borough, and County Gaols of the United Kingdom: 
and, of the Dietaries sanctioned for Prisoners in the City and Borough Pri- 
sons of the United Kingdom, and in those County Prisons of the United 
Kingdom in which the Dietary has been changed since the Return of 
“Dietaries for Convicts, &c.” ordered by the House of Commons to be 
printed, 21st day of March, 1857, or in which the Dietary is not correctiy 
set forth in that Return:— 


‘ 


REPORT—1861. 


76 


srnoqey s,Aep 
aut jo uonvurmsay pue qUAMADUIWIUIOD JO SANOTT 
*saqoUl UL YURI dy JO a[purvy Jo tyZuary | 
sroquinu Arvu 
-Ipio oy} Woy WOeLIeA Ioy AyIIOYINe pu spuno.y 


i *sanssoid yua 
4 -ragip yt Avp sad suonnjoaosr Jo roqrunu savurpag 
& “IDUOSIL] AY} JO JYSIS UTGATIM Xeput 919 sq | 
“Iap10 Duryp1om Asvo 
ur ydoy pue pojoodsur Ayyeorponod syurio oy ory 
*paqeindsar pue poqeurysa aanssoad ayy st Mozy | 
*syuedo ayy 
PAOUT 07 parmba. ‘sq] Ur a.tnssaad Jo syuNOW snoLte A 
“party skemye Jooya oy} uodn soovjd omy [fe ory | 
*[aatar 914 
jo woynyoaar aya jo Aypider aga SuryeynSor yo apoyw 
“Aprep joay ory wodn Jouosirg yore sy | 
= : | 
r se 3 FS IOJUTA\ UT 
a Sek 28 
E a 3 stouMINg Uy | 
A “ATIep JaoyA a3 uodn omy yey, | 
i “UOISSIMII9INT JO SINOTT | 
BB “INOQV] [YApva.4 JO snoqy | 
au e 
Ses 3 “soma uy | 
Bae Sg 
z56a 8 ‘rong UT | 
‘sayour ur days jo yq3107f | 
P = : “Udo AA | 
a “WoW | 
PI Fs *papIPUL St Yous YoryA Sutinp aury Jo yysuey oy, | 
x 3 ‘pasn are Ady} YOIYM ut Japso ary, | 


*padojdma syuomystund oxy, | 


WEIGHT. 


Average loss of weight 
with Treadwheel or Crank 


1858, 


im 


d 


risoners receive 


1 


qt aout 03 pornbar 4ysIem pue ‘soured Jo pury 


labour of all prisoners 


1859, and 1869, of each age 


1860, committed with 


in 


on entrance. 


“syjuom fF 03 ¢ 


*SyQUOUL ¢ 0} Z 


“st}UOU Z 0} T | 


sentences of 


“tapun pue YUOUL T 


‘9DAVYOSIP WO *Sq[ UI SSOT [BIO J, | 


‘aDIVYOSIp UO *sq] UL UIeS [eI], | 


“aoUvAZUI WO “Sq UT qq diem (401, | 


“poysioar qoquunyy | | 


‘sprvadn pur of 
“CP 04 GE 
"GE 03 GS 


“GS 07 OT 


‘URL @ JIM papeoy uoM 


*pajonpap sayjo]o at]} JO IYSIOM 9Y4 ST | 


‘adIVYSIP UC | 


*90UR.1VUI UO | 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 7 


Dietaries for Convicted Prisoners, in City and Borough Prisons, and in those 
County Prisons in which the Dietary has been changed since the Return of 

_ “Dietaries for Convicts, &c,” ordered the 27th day of February, 1857. 
Total quantities per week in each Scale of Dietary, in ounces and parts of an ounce. 


Other 
Scale Milk. articles of 
No. dietary. 


2 


Nos. of scale with treadwheel and crank 


| Duration of sentence under each scale. 


3) 
= 
fo) 
— . 
~ 
S 
i 
- S|. o 
o fo) . 
° Peal sy : rH Ae 
° = a= ao =|2 
Blslsls lee g 22/2 
a & C= 
a a a ira) = | o-5 
a 
oD | wie S als 
— °o = o emt fem | 
so ry S)o to elale 
Se a : ® 
O|a|2 s/ 2/5 > : See ey 
3 Ola|/2& no} Yislisa . 
2 ) 3| 2/22 Potties = S -BlFlalg Care 
Wr, na Slealo n | |S Pp ire SIS 
sg -|S/)E15 4 -16/S| [slo] 1s slal sis |- =|3 
a 3 EISlSl5 = a) s.|2 o|a2\p/c nm) = 3/3 
a 3s =H SF 3 Oo ls | = ra Os |/a; es o 
= . S|. s|.-|2\ole - ale 
SS iS)0 oS] ll elo/2}) |Slale Blasl[olol/e}ai Sepals 
S Fle SlsleiSlslSlsislSlolelsis!] Sl sisis Sfx reales 
Isl e/S“/S/S/S/2/8/ 815 \Sl2/5/-3/ S| s|8| S/S le)e/3 sls 
&e. |Z |A\S PE |B BIO | | OIA Ie [20 JOE IO |e | he | IE Jen ele 


AppenpDIx VI.—West-Riding Prison, Wakefield. 
A Table showing the average Weight of Prisoners on Receipt and Discharge 
in each Class of Diet. (Taken for Two Years.) 


Number of Average weight on 
eh Prisoners ||} —______. 
| weighed. Receipt. Discharge. 
| 1856. Ibs. Ibs. 

Me) Lable 1...........000+0.5. 64 113-7 112-9 
PM cecrteesncsensasees 1030 124:3 122-4 
| |. SECO ee 757 121-5 119-6 
MUN) yy As cesesce Apa cee 156 1285 1294 
SD ROSocEs ee seeEen eee 48 127°6 125-9 
} 2055 12345 121-80 
| 1860. 
SAHIN acca ctec.o3sas200- 174 128-9 128-0 
PeEealsecancssenssccoee 1091 124-1 1218 
SPERM cccncasssleccbscnes 799 1211 1183 
Petal csacscuscescws-s- 108 126:7 125°4 
RL eicsccncecces--tene 72 125-4 126°5 
2244 123°50 121-29 


A Statement of the Number and Weight of Prisoners employed at the Tread- 
mill in the West-Riding Prison at Wakefield. (Total of Classes.) 


Average 
Weeks on Treadmill. Persons. | Loss in lbs. loss 
in lbs. 
One week on Treadmill ........ Al 108 2°63 
Two weeks aoa Medeacsce ede 26 119 4:57 
BRYCE WEEKS ~~ 5y-— scasceccece: 10 60 6:0 
Four weeks a Soot tera 5 38 77 


REPORT—1861. 


78. 


F680 86802 = ece'se yAGmal 
tard sco‘ FPS 0981 69-1 90¥'E 6c0'% 9¢8T 4 
0% 629'F OLS 6981 96:3 GL8'F 996% CCgt 
0% Glas Ores 8gsI 0-8 L¥6'9 F28S FSsi sereeeeeeees ATBOIUING 
GFL £29'e- LES LSB 89-2 99F'8 9663 ess 
ae oce'ce LIFT preMIoF 4y Inorg ¢- 799'8 984% GEST 


—— 


ps —_—- SS 


‘SSOTT ODBIOAY *sSO'T “Sq *s1oUOSIg ‘ON “B10 X *88Ory OSBIOAY "S807 ‘SQ *‘SIOUOSIIG ‘ON | *s1t0q 


1s | gscoe | res || 0-2 G29 | Lez || 0-7 size | oFee || 6F-1 Lege | Lave 
LI imo og =| at ||: Tt [aren e6 ee | st jmp eee | os |] 9-1 [uo ¢6 8g ¢ 
ra 6st | 80 || eo |uep ge Tet |] &t1 ist | get || cr [ura o6e | ser | F 
LG gzee | 66L || 62 6leg | Los || ¥3 rees | 068 || GT fisor | eae | ¢ 
FS e19 | 1601. || 0% e4ee | SsIL || oS ose | eret || 6-1 986 | 6FIL| & 
6-0 wt «| FA || 60 tor | Zot | 90 69 |901 | 91 | ser -| Z6 I 
‘0981 “6981 “89ST “£981 eee 
£9-1 gore | scos joes | cesr |oces| oe | sre9 | przez ||s9-¢ | gore g6ce || oe | F998 | 98te 
Ll 18 sr || se | 00% 19 || 90 | 19 th || ve | eee 1 | 38 | 108 iz g 
60 |ueoger |ger || ez | gce 62 || 93 | tr tt || £8 | Ise wi || se | see Ht | F 
61 errr | Lee || Os | Ze9r ees || te | 66cs | sce || 6 | 8z6z cot | oe | voze | sis | e@ 
61 e961 | ogor || a | .zoce |crit|| ee | sese | sert|| 4e | resp | Zeer] ee | seep | seer] f 
8-0 eg 19 || et | Zet a a 03 || Lt | ost 68 || #1 | Gor ck I 
> y b> ty b > 7 > F 
es| FF | 23lg3| $F |f21 88] fe [fei ge] fe | be] Fe] ge | oe | ee 
Fo # & # ag # 5 # de a * & 2 ae & § op @F 3° 
2 2 2 = 2 : a Prd 
“9S81 “eest “FS8I “e981 “Eos 


Cppyo rAd ‘uosug Surpry ysoqy) ‘apoya ayy yo Aveuuwng wv yy 1941080) ‘aatsnpour ‘OOST oF GEST svat 
Supnp Asejzo1q JO ssv[Q yous ur ‘sivax oUINY UI AdUOSIIg oye Jod yYS1oAQ Ul sso'T oSvaoae oy} Surmoys AIaV, W—"]]] XIaNaday 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE: 


91 | 84 | 006 | & SFI | Le GSt © [''** StoAveM-3urqye yy 

sereesresigate[d-t109 
sreees STOSIUQ-JOIN 
*** SIOABIM-SBAUBS) 
sereee* STOABOM=~JRIN 
seresere SIONVUI-JU IA 


| seeneeeeree SIODULM | 


€-GE 81-0 7 60:9 26S. |0:GZL | — | G-OFLIT} S-STOIT| 2% | 88h | &-9F ~8I | [E61 | Z98T | OOOF TROL 


1-09 18:9 ar 76-6 £8-F |0-19Z1} — | O-LPFL | 0-O8T 


¥-6€ ell a 16: I¢g |G-pzez] — | &-689 | OSSSh | SF | BEd | OOF 98 | ZSIl | 928 | F90 


8-9E = 0G-T F6-G 92-9 — |0-€2€ | 0-289 0-096 9¢ | 8-6& | 9-FS cl | Lol | ZFI | 696 
seeeeeees STQIUIGIVD 


**** SNOQULT[IOST 


¥:9Z =) IL-1 96-7 £1-9 — |¢&-L0F8| $1096 | 0.6008 | 6S L-28 | 9-2 GL | feo | 218 | TEVT | 9 7 ssoxeneoys 
Cer eet trees soe SLO[IV], 
8:92 ae €8-T 68:2 6L-L — |0-08L | S18 GII€ | Il | hee | €99 | 8 &6 OF TZ jrveeeetssstayoid-s109 
rd ‘poysiom | ‘poysiem | “suISoT ‘Surares F . ‘ 3 ; a 
19 douostd | couosiad | aouostd | aouostad | , > , 2 “Law | qyStoM | qysroM | "AIR | -qYSIOM | “QSIOM | S 
Be 3 gad ssory | aod uiey | rad ssory | aod uep BSONT | Ure qSOrh peurey |-uoyejg| Suisory amtpeD -T01y8}g Fatah Surrey gas MOST YG el MM 
wo a a ur guourso;dug 
5 
= a asRIOAy 99N spunog Jo ‘ONT SIOUOKIIT JO osvJMOOIEg | sdoUOstIg JO Toqumm jy ze i 


<INoge’T 0} IYSI9AA JO UON[a1 oY} Sumoyg—'A XIGNaddy 
hh EEE 


00-001 | ¥0-0 = | LUG | zz-< |0-9291| — | ¢zi16e| ¢-1FPZe| 6-6 | 2-9F | Fer | LZe88 | FLO8T} Ss89T) 9eL8E TROL 
toe | e9et | ZESL | LLa8 | WHOM? 2 GUeaoly 
19G | 61E% | Lek | TlEg  yqu9} 29 YIUIN 
eo | FFOe | 896% | STZ9 | WUT 2» YyUaAIg 
OFZ | SE8E | 060E | e992  -YPXIs 29 WIM 
1cZ | LFLF | 886% | OSSZ | “ YXINoF 79 pry, 
CoOL | FLEE | 106E | O86L | ‘OW puodes 2 4SITy 


| 


88-8 3 £19 G06 LUE — |O0-19¢ | 008 | G-I¢ee | BIT | OIF | GLE 
86-ST = 6L-0 0% GGG — |G-€19 | 0-089F | S-EFZS | 8-01 | S-Fh | LFF 
86-66 = £00 L6-1 81-3 — |0-89F | 0-6009 | O-Z2F9 | GOL | &Sh | BFP 
18-66 16:0 = FL Z1-G =| 0-F291; — | $9818 | $6969 | £6 0-05 | €-0F 
16-41 9F-0 ap. L6G 6-1 |0-F198] — | O-€886 | 0-692¢ | $6 9-69 | 6-LE 
PLE = ic) OF-G LG:% — |&-666I| -8018 | 0-8E00L} 8-8 &ér | 68P 


“poysiom | paysrem | “dutso “Sururesd 
® a Saatcd bales dance aouostad | ture. “480' “poure. ‘hae | -qyfom | qqSrem| Are [gq trem | audio | 3°8 
26 g aod ssory | aod urey | rod sso7q | sod urey PRUE me afOT peu) |-uonnig] Suisory |Surure5|-woryeyg) Surso0T SSULae4) Eee POPOV M Ie 
pms Ss 5 | juouuosadwy jo oBvyg 
8 & osB10Ay ON spunog jo "ONT sxouOsLtg jo oSujuso10g | saxomOstIg JO dequmyy te 


uauuOSslAdwy jo UOIeANp OF FYSIOAA JO UOTFL[AL BY} Surmoyg— A] XIGNaddy 


uo 
anvquedle gd 


orp Baye 


REPORT—1861. 


O 


uU 


G-OFLIL | STOLL 


G-LLE 0-906 
G-28LE | G-0&86 
08089 | 0-19€9 
G-GEEL | OLS 
0-0F CLG 


480'T “paurey 


spunog jo requ yy 


‘qys10M | 4yS10.M 


-u0yejg| Suiso7y |Surare9|-uoyRyg) SusoTy |sururey 


“poystam 
sromostid 
JOON 


SLOMOSIIg JO aduju9010 gq | SIOMOSIXG JO Loqum pT 


“yy Siafy 0} JYSIAAA JO UOTVE[AI ay} SuUIMOYS—'T]]TA XIGNaddy 


“qaTp Bayxe 


osvjue019 


80 


‘BY 0} JYSIOMA JO UORIeI yy SUIMOYS— TIA XIGNaddy 


60:9 6-4 |O-S6E | — 
66-2 Ors | S12 mS 
FO-2 TZ-9 |0696 | — 
ELS 99-¢ me WOE 
66-9 c9:¢ — | 0-8& 
PPP CLG — |¢-L£1 
“SUISOT “surares 
souenad | ouotad) sor. | sup 
aseraAy ION 
60-9 66-9 | 0-GéL | — 
19:4 66-9 — |0-868 
68:9 GF-9 |0:98f | — 
GS-9 ¢0-9 IHS i 
OL-9 8é-G |¢-8éIT| — 
L0-4 rEg | ¢-ST ae 
¢9-P 99:¢ —= 9-98 
18-7 OL-9 =. .| 9-299 
ocr | 6eL | — |oP£I 
*SUISOT “‘surured 
aeuosud | cauostid } | f 
ged ssoq | aod ureg | “SOT | THRO 
advIOAy q°N 


g-L99 G- C86 

G-98¢6 | G08 

G-6666 | 0-8796 
‘G81GE | 0-0686 


G-918 0-108 
G-6E9 0-686 
G-O&P 08601 
0-66 G-EL6 


spunog jo taqum yy 


DHOHROGVAMm | & 
WA Of od Hin | + 


“qu siem | 4qdtoM 


5 : “qu S1oM | 9.dTAA 
geo SEMA S) “TOnNS| Suisory | Surive.9|-u0ye7g] Suiso7 |3 wary 


AN 


paysta. 
saouostad 
JO ‘ON 


SIOUOSIIG Jo osvjueodIeg | siouoslag JO Laqumyy 


Ssteeeeseenees TRIO T. 


Teeeeeesensecey poy 
sreereesnerss yf 19 
seacree  99—e9 
eee “""79—6G 
arene “'* 6@ Japuy) 


— 


‘soyouy ur yy sey 


ee | aaa eee 


G-OFLIL| S-STOLT 


teseeoes THOT, 


““spivadn pur [Pp 


59 “OF—I2 
“0&—&6 
cHeaneeeanenee 7 
“61 


oe 


ody 


> 
. ‘ 
; 
- 
/ 
, 
‘ 
. 
- 
is 
. y 
j - 
« 4 


ad) 
tiie 
} { inti ; ? wry | 
at 7 ght 
tAt J eu si 
*BtR PS esl ok be 243 i b 
Phe Pte | A bag 
OFF Aa) TE Pipes PES TAG) REC NOUNS lems 
; SiOt) OS. t Mes { IRS eee) ee 
TeG! he Ane ees . Wn 29340 hes 
pest | Dh say fe a WB Bee | 
4 


AL) ware) 


ws 


_—Experiments made at Wakefield Gaol, 1861. 
[ To face page 81.] Aprenpix X. Pp 
Two Tarrors.—Light labour. 
ily Egesta. 
Daily Ingesta. | pelea Weight of body, 
| : in Ibs. and ozs, 
Chloride of Sodium] Water pee quite is, lesen |) Glesac: avoirdupois. ~ | Urea 
ci besides that in the 7 , juantity. D tol ll 
ron Bread, esi a La (not in food). | Quantity. Nitrogen. y: | a b. 
] | x Per ‘Total in |{n each) Total | eye 
Iw Jo. | N No. ‘= No. | No. | Aver-| fl, oz. |Total!,,. | urine | fl.oz | daily || No. | No. | Aver- d 
No. | No. | Aver- | No.| No. No. | No.| Aver- cent. Jdaily.| U™&| and of in 192. | 184. } age. 
182, | 184. | age. |182./184./ 48% |182./184.| age. | 182. | 184, ba 182, | 184. | age. acim ily. | pray | aca urine. | iB 
| | | | | | | | | 
=S = ica es esi i} j s. | grs. | prs | grs. 124 13 |117 94 
161. | ere | ers, | gre. |ers./ ers.| gre. floriflon foe ea | 9:66 S04) %. | So l15i5 125 23|117 8 
June 28 | 10,913) 10,898) 10,906]194 | 49 | 121-5 |18 |103) 148 | ABI snes) | ge laze lies 21 
» 29 | 10,849 10,338) 10,594)1413 753, 1085 |16 | 17 433 | 719 | ... allies 
Sindy } 10,792) 11,192) 10,992/2013) 453 1235 |15 |17 271-0 30 se is alae ny 
July 1 | 10,908) 10,748) 10,828/1873| 87}, 1375 | 4 |10 Bas Bi we Iie Tale 5a 
2 (10,988) 10,727|10,858\190 | 86 | 138 | 29 | 31 | aoe eee | a7 | gsr (los 1agiiis 199 
"3 | 12,612, 10,500) 11,556/1923, 92 | 1422 10 | 5 2a ote) ge l1g66 lies sills tok 
” ‘4 | 9,652| 10,145) 9,899|178 {1024 140:2 | 9 | 34 Boa aullara | yaso}\idemai| t1gnN7 
” 5 | 10.430) 10,446| 10,438|224 |115 | 1695 | 8 | 74 ree aaa ee oor laane7|i2s 16y\i1s 92 
m6 | 4,275) 10,095) 10,685)202 1433) 1727 |174 8 3 55 | é 
oe 10,854) 10,343) 10,599]1903) 423) 166: | 93/11 425 | 37-9 | 144 | 546 | 2555] 28027] 4:0 |1516 126 43/119 3) 
3 | gisz7| 9,697\192 | 30 | 39:0 | 38:7 | 17-04| 660 | 307-4] 337°88| 4:0 |1548 [126 0 \119 14{ 12253) 5:38 
rate Mase) 11,334] 104381231 ag) ise \18 | 7 415 | 37-65| 18:8 | 708 | 376-6) 401-02) 4-0 | 1506 |125 113/118 9 |192-14) 5:79 
a 830) 11, 58 y i "65 | 16: 37| 331-93] 4:0 | 158-6 125 133/119 54/1226 | 5:3 
» 10 Beis)izs Gey 40 | 1285 |114) 94 40:0 | 39°65| 164 | 650 | 303:7| 331-93] 4 
Two Martinc Weavers.—Heavy labour. 
f 
Daily Ingesta. | Daily Egesta. 
Pace, Weight of body, 
Chloride of Sodium = Uri Chloride of in Ibs. and ozs. Urea 
Bread. ae that in the| (9) Vater Seperers |e a matty Urea. | Nitrogen, daily. f avoirdupois. | 
Date. | lyeadtes (not in food). | Quantity. | Nitrogen. Quantity. D Sodium, to an 
= body- 
| Per | Total Per | |Total in |Ineach| Total weight, 
No. | No. | Aver- | No.| No.| 4 vcraze,| No-| No. | Aver- || No. | No. or daily | No. | No, | Aver-| fl. oz, |Total| t:,¢,| urine | fl. oz. | daily No. No. | Aver- . 
7. | 39. | age. | 7. | 39. Be) 7. | 39.| age | 7. | 39. | pon’) quan-| 7. | 39. | age. | of daily. “| and | of | in 7. 39. | age. 
| oth. tity. urine, feces. | urine. | urine. 
1e61. | gr. | gre. | prs. | ers. ra floz|\flen|| sonl| era |\gess |) real |) ges igen 8}147 34] 146-87| ers. 
June 28 | 12,948) 12,848) 12,918| 864) 38} we 36:8 | 623 | 49°55| 13:74) 671 | 313-4 24 10 |146  65|146°51 £55 
» 29 | 14,543] 14,664) 14,604) 88 | 39) | i | 427 | 6115] 57°92] 138 | 717 | 3350) ... | 27 34146 43) 146-25) 4-9 
wy 30 | 11,528) 14,305) 12,917| 783)None| ,..... 14 |16 | 15 663 | 5°88 | 1°03 | 26-41 | 41°06) 48°9 | 44°98) 15°36) 691 | 3229) 349:31] 24 64146 11 | 147-1 | 4-7 
July 1 | 13,607 13,475) 13,541) 69 | 374) 53:2 [40 | 174) 283 | 2-03 |10:33 | 1-24 34-16 | 53:8 | 40° | 46:9 | 14-76] 692 | 323°3) 35746) 3:3 93/146 11 |147-15) 4-7 
» 2) 18,127) 12,407/12,767) 73 | 37 | 55° [40 |29 | 344 |}1011 | 852] 1-15 | 46-26 | 53-9 | 357 | 45:8 | 13°89| 637 | 297°3| 34356) 39 104146 134| 146:75) 4-34 
» 3 | 13,629) 13,758) 13,694) 884) 42 | 65:2 |29 |40 | 344 | 80 |13-:0 | 110 | 50-71 | 29-4 | 429 | 4615] 15-42) 558 | 262°6| 313:31| 3:6 03/146 114) 1469 | 3.62 
| » 4 | 13,314) 13,412) 13,363105 | 403) 727 |40 |40 | 40 | 5-35 | 9:23 | 1-04 |34-66 | 455 | 45° | 45°25 15:9 | 710 | 331-8) 366-46) 3:6 5} 146 14 | 147-11) 4°83 
n 5 29 14,586) 13,709 86 | 41} 635 |40 |40 | 40 || 432 | 7-94 |0°97 | 26:01 | 55° | 44- | 49-5 | 15-45) 765 | 357°3| 385-31] 3:3 2 146 03) 146:58) 5-21 
m § | 12,260) 14,050 13,155) 93 | 50 | 71:5 [40 |29 | 344 |10-94| B64 [1-35 |57°8 | 74 | 40S | 57-25| 13:53] 775 | 362-1] 5199 | 27 4 |146 10 | 146-43) 5°29 
m7) 18264) 15,540 13,207) 82 | 254) 58-7 |304/14 | 224) 1-72 |14-4 | 1-00 | 35-28 | 48°5 | 37-5 | 43° | 15°87) 683 | 319°1| 354-38) 27 3} 147 124] 147-98) 4°61 
Bias 12,687| 12,650) 8554) 745 133 |40 | 36h }10-7 | 5-28 |1-31 | 45°81 | 49° | 44° | 46:5 | 15-2 | 707 | 3303) 376-11] 36 143}147 12 | 147-32) 4:8 
I REE ees Ode 88 | 763) 822 |50 |40 | 45 |) 674 |1284 | 1-05 |45°03 | 46° | 46> | 46° | 16:0 | 736 | 343-9) 388-93] 3:6 |165:6 ||144 154)147 114] 146°34) 5:02 
i K i 2 66) 73 |40 }29 | 34} | 10-48 | 10-45 |1-05 | 481 | 42° | 465 | 44-25] 17-84] 790 | 369°1| 417-2 | 3:6 | 1593 |144 941147 24| 146-36) 5°39 


It 


81 


ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 


*poydiom 
aouosid 
aod ssory 


pe 8L-c 
81-0 91-6 
i 06-2 
= 60-2 
LT-0 60-€ 
61-0 66:6 
— 66-3 
ae 66-1 
¥00-0 90-2 
= 166 
as L13 
0£-0 60-6 
80-0 40-6 
6S-0 oE-% 
10-0 F266 
£0-0 OL-2 
— LE. 
a ¥2-3 
= C3-6 


“poysiam | -Burs0T 
azauosiid | aonostid 
dod urey | aod ssory 


asB10aAy 


Fa-% 


8-2 
60-6 


IL-2 
GE-6 
FPS 
90.6 


€1-2 
F0-2 
91-2 
¥S-6 
99-6 
IL-3 
LL% 
GE-3 
PLS 
18-1 
10-6 
92-2 


“dares 
qzouosraid 
aod urey 


G-LFLPF | O-9FESF 


G-ESF06 | S-99F FS 
0-88dF¢ | ¢-6/881 


¢-06S01 | ¢-£600T 
0-6696 | 0-609TT 
G-PSLOL| S-LE82L 
G-Z69E1| 0-848 


0-9S€¢ | 0-LEZE 
G-606E | G-ShEE 
0-C06E | 0-G1¢E 
¢-080F | 0-€0€€ 
O-€8F2 | G-6L8F 
G-GETS | S-93FE 
O-I8EE | 0-2cES 
0-G64E | &-SZ8¢ 
G-8L9¢ | 0-O1ZE 
GOles | S-8161 
0-1S0F | 0-0F1€ 
O-FLOP | S-€2Z¢ 


spuneg jo zaquinyy 


*u0S¥ag 0} IYSI9AA JO uONRIaI 


fae | qu dross | -qydiom 


“qu d1I0M 
-001484g| Sutso7y |duturey| -u0eg 


duurey | poysiom 
srouostad 


6 L-9F see 9d DTOU 
¢-6 GF syyuow zomumuNg 
€-6 | 6-6F SYJUOM 19zUT AA 
8-6 ¥-9F Joqrenb yIN0, 
4-6 9-SF ***soqrenb pny, 
¢-6 EP Jaqienb puodag 
88 | Seo vee gaqrunb 48x07 
6:6 €-LP cesses g9qut909¢] 
€-OL | SFr seseee JqUIOAO NT 
6-6 €-LF “eeeeeeee TOGO} 
6-8 T-1S 

£6 L-¢¢ 

8-6 0-FF 

9-6 | 0-68 teeseeeeeoee gun p 
9.6 L-9F eteeeavereees KETV 
6 6-FF sees rudy 
£8 | 9:29 “oryaTE 
1-01 | €-8F * Areniqag 
6-8 ¥-6F 


50 “ONT 


Si19uOsIIg JO odujUI0IAg g1ouOsIIg JO cequm yy 


ay} SuimoygS—y] x1anaaay 


82 : REPORT—1861. 


Freight as affected by Differences in the Dynamic Properties of Steam- 
ships. By Cuar.tes ATHERTON, Chief Engineer, H.M. Dockyard, 
Woolwich. 


THE national importance of steam shipping is a theme which demands no 
demonstration; and any attempt to originate, promulgate, and popularize 
inquiry into the comparatively economic capabilities of the steam-ship as 
devoted to the international conveyance and interchange of the products of 
nature and of manufacturing art, irrespective of its application as an engine 
of war, is a task which requires no laboured introduction in support of its 
being favourably received for consideration by an association devoted to the 
advancement of science. 

The former papers on ‘ Tonnage,’ ‘ Steam-Ship Capability,’ and ‘ Mercan- 
tile Steam Transport Economy,’ which the author of this further communica- 
tion has been permitted to present to the British Association, and which 
appear in the volumes of its ‘ Transactions’ for the years 1856, 1857, and 
1859, were devoted to an exposition of the technicalities of the subject as 
respects the mutual quantitative relations which displacement, speed, power, 
and coal hold to each other in the construction and equipment of steam- 
ships with a view to the realization of definite steaming results. So far, 
therefore, these investigations have had reference to the constructive equip- 
ment of steam-ships; but the course of inquiry now submitted for considera- 
tion is intended to be a practical exposition of the extent to which the expense 
per ton weight of cargo conveyed is affected by the various conditions of 
size of ship, dynamic quality of hull with reference to type of form, weight 
of hull with reference to its build, the economic properties of the engines 
with reference to the consumption of fuel, and the steaming speed at which 
the service is required to be performed, all which circumstances, respectively 
and in their combinations, affect the economic capabilities of steam-ships for 
the conveyance of mercantile cargo, and consequently freights charged, to 
an extent not publicly known because hitherto not specially inquired into 
nor promulgated by the press, and which in the distinctive details above set 
forth do not appear to have been duly appreciated even by the parties most 
deeply concerned in the mercantile control and prosecution of steam-shipping 
affairs. The aggregate expenses incidental to the prosecution of steam 
transport service must generally regulate the average rates of freight at. 
which goods are conveyed; and, seeing to what an extent the ultimate cost 
of manufactured goods is dependent on the cost of transport, often repeated, 
as freight charges generally are in the various stages of transition of material 
from the raw to its manufactured condition and its ultimate consumption as 
a manufactured article, it becomes evident that this investigation especially 
concerns the manufacturing interests of the country. Economy of price 
inducing quantity of consumption, is the characteristic feature of the manu- 
facturing enterprise of the present day ; and it is the absolute cost of goods 
which affects consumption, irrespectively of the various causes in detail by 
which the cost may have been enhanced. Under these circumstances, it is 
remarkable to what extent the manufacturing interests, though keenly alive 
to legislative imposts, whether foreign or domestic, affecting the cost of 
goods, and sensitively. jealous of legislative interference in the control of 
labour, as affecting the cost of manufacture, pass wholly unheeded deficien- 
cies and imperfections in the practical control of shipping with reference to 
freight charges, though equally affecting the ultimate price of manufactures. 
Such incongruity demonstrates the necessity for popular exposition and 
inquiry into the various circumstances and combinations of circumstances 


| 


ON FREIGHT AS AFFECTED BY DYNAMIC PROPERTIES. 83 


which directly affect the expenses incidental to the conveyance of merchan- 
ilise by steam-ships, and by which the rates of freight are in the aggregate 
necessarily regulated. Freight, therefore, is the text of the following dis- 
course, to which attention is directed under the various aspects of steam- 
ship construction and management, by which freight charge is affected, and 
which may be classified under ten heads or sections, as follow :— 

Section A.—Freight, as affected by variations of the size of the ship by 

which the service is performed. . 

B.—Freight, as affected by variations in the constructive type of 
form of the hull. 

C.—Freight, as affected by variations in the working economy 
of the engines, with reference to the consumption of coal. 

D.—Freight as affected by variations in the constructive weight 
of the hull, with reference to its load displacement. 

E.—Freight, as affected by variations in the constructive type 
of form combined with variations in the working economy 
of the engines. 

F.—Freight, as affected by variations in the size of ship com- 
bined with variations in the constructive type of form and 
in the working economy of the engines. 

G.—Freight, as affected by variations of the steaming speed at 
which it is required that the service shall be performed. 

H.—Freight, as affected by variations of the size of ship com- 
bined with variations of speed. 

I.—Freight, as affected by variations of the speed combined 
with variations of the working economy of the engines. 

K.—Freight, as affected by variations of the speed combined 
with variations in the type of form, working economy of the 
engines, and weight of hull. 

It will be observed that it is not proposed to determine the actual amount 
of prime-cost expenses incidental to the prosecution of steam-ship enterprise, 
by which the scale of freight charge may be chiefly regulated, but it is pro- 
posed to demonstrate, with reference to a specified unit of performance, the 
ratio or comparative scale of cost, in which the prime-cost expenses incidental 
to the conveyance of cargo per ton weight of goods conveyed ona given 
passage is, ceteris paribus, affected by each of the various circumstances or 
conditions set forth under the ten different heads above referred to. 

The fundamental consideration on which it is proposed to base this inves- 
tigation is this, that, within moderate limits of variation, the investment inci- 
dental to the fitting-out of steam-ships for commercial transport service is 
approximately proportional to the quantity of shipping as measured by the 
constructors’ load displacement of the ships, and the amount of working- 
power employed as measured by the indicated horse-power, also that the 
interest on investment, upholding of stock, and all other annual expenses in- 
cidental to the working of steam-ships, such as coals, stores, and wages, 
harbour dues, insurance, and pilotage, are approximately proportional to such 
investment; and further, as the mercantile service of steam-ships employed 
on a given station generally requires that their passages shall be periodical, it 
is assumed in the following calculations that the number of passages made 
annually by each ship is the same in all the different vessels assumed to be 
employed on the same service and brought into comparison with each other. 

It is particularly to be observed that these calculations and deductions of 
comparative freight charges are not of general application to different 
services, but have reference only to the special service which, as an example 

ei 


84 : REPORT—1S61. 


of the system of calculation for any service, has been adopted as the unit of 
performance, namely, the performance of a ship of 5000 tons displacement, 
employed on a passage of 3000 nautical miles aud steaming at ten knots per 


V3D2 
hour,—the coetficient of performance, by the formula in b= being 


C=250, and the consumption of coal being at the rate of 2lbs. per indicated 
horse-power per hour, which data have been assumed as the base of the fol- 
lowing tabular statement, consisting of 21 columns, the purport of which is 
as follows :-— 
Column 1st.—Reference to divisions or sections of the subject under con- 
sideration. 
2nd and 2l1st.—Designations of the vessels referred to in the various 
sections. 
3rd.—Size of the ship as determined by displacement at the draft to which 
it is intended by the constructor that the ship shall be loaded. 
4th.—Steaming speed at which the vessel is required to perform the 
passage. 
' 5th.—Coefficient of dynamic performance of the vessel by the formula 
Vv? D2 
ao 
ind. h.p 
6th.—Consumption of coal per indicated horse-power per hour expressed 
in lbs. 
7th.—Coefficient of dynamic duty with reference to coal consumed by 


3Pp2 


v*D2 : : , 
formula AW W being the average consumption of coal expressed in cwts. 


per hour. 

8th.—Power required to propel the vessel at the required speed expressed 
in indicated horse-power and calculated by the forniula, indicated horse- 
Vv*D2 

C 

9th.—Length of passage to be performed by the ship without re-coaling 
expressed in nautical miles. 

10th.— Weight of hull, including all equipment complete for sea (exclu- 
sive of engines, coal, and cargo), taken at 40 per cent. of the load displace- 
ment. 

11th—Weight of engines and boilers in working order, including all 
equipment for sea, taken at the rate of 5 ewt. per indicated horse-power. 

12th.— Weight of coal required for the passage, calculated on the fore- 
going data. 

13th—Cargo, as determined by the load displacement less the weight of 
hull, engines, and coal. 

14th.—Investment in the hull of the ship, including rigging, furnishing, 
and all other equipment complete for sea, taken at £50 per ton weight of hull. 

15th.—Investment in the engines, including spare gear and all equipment 
for sea, taken at £15 per indicated horse-power. 

16th.—Total investment in hull and engines. 

17th.—Comparative rates of freight or ratios of cost expenses per ton of 
cargo, being proportional to the investment divided by the tons weight of 
cargo conveyed. 

18th.—Ratios of cost expenses per ton of cargo, with reference to that 
incurred by ship A, taken as the unit of performance, and which is expressed 
by the number 100, si 
~ 19th.—Ratios of cost expenses per ton of cargo with reference to the cost 


power— 


| 
| 


ON FREIGHT AS AFFECTED BY DYNAMIC PROPERTIES. 85 


incurred by ship A, taken as the unit of performance, and which is expressed 

by £1 per ton. . 
20th.—Comparative freight on 100,000 tons of goods, assuming the freight 

by ship A to be at the rate of £1 per ton of goods conveyed. 
2\st.—Designations of vessels referred to in the sections. 

The table (next page) may be interpreted as follows :— 

Section A.—Freight, as affected (ceteris paribus) by variations of the 
size of ship. 

By reference to the table (next page) it will be observed that as the ship’s 
size (column 3) is reduced from 5000 tons displacement to 4000 tons, {the 
expenses per ton of cargo (column 17) become increased in the ratio of 49 
to 51, that is, in the ratio of 100 to 104 (column 18), showing an increase 
of 4 per cent.; or, expressed in money, assuming £1 per ton to be the rate 
of freight by ship A, of 5000 tons displacement, the rate by ship A,, of 
4000 tons displacement will be £1 Os. 10d., and by following the table it 
appears that the rate of freight by ship A,, of 3000 tons, will, as compared 
with ship A, of 5000, be increased 8 per cent., amounting to £1 ls. 8d. 

er ton. 
J The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods (column 20) 
by the vessels A, A,, A,, respectively would be £100,000, £104,000 and 
£108,000. 

Thus, in a merely mechanical point of view, and irrespectively of various 
mercantile and nautical considerations which may limit the size of ships, we 
see the benefit of performing goods transport service by large vessels in pre- 
ference to small ones, provided that adequate cargo be always obtained and 
that no delay be thereby incurred. But it is to be observed that if the 
5000-tons ship A, instead of being loaded with its full cargo of 2395 tons, 
be loaded only with the quantity of cargo (1878 tons) that could be carried 
by the 4000-tons ship, A,, the freight expenses per ton of cargo would, in 
this case, be enhanced in the proportion of 63 to 49, that is, in the proportion 
of 128 to 100, or 28 per cent., or, expressed in money, in the proportion of 
£1 4s. 10d. to £1, the same being a higher rate by 24 per cent. than the 
freight charge at which the 4000-tons ship, A,, would perform the service. 
By pursuing the calculations from the data adduced by the table, it will be 
found that the economic advantage of the 5000-tons ship, A, as compared 
with the 4000-tons ship, A,, will be entirely sacrificed if its cargo be reduced 
from 2395 tons to 2305 tons, or be only 90 tons, or 32 per cent. deficient 
of its fullload. Also, as compared with the ship A,, of 3000 tons, the 
advantage of the 5000-tons ship A will be lost if its cargo be reduced from 
2395 tons to 2218, or be only 117 tons deficient of its full load. 

Hence it appears that the superior economic capabilities of large ships in 
a mechanical point of view for the conveyance of goods may, in a mercantile 
point of view, be very soon sacrificed by mismanagement in assigning larger 
vessels for the discharge of mercantile service than is demanded by the trade, 
notwithstanding the economic superiority of large ships when promptly and 
fully loaded. 

Secrion B.—Freight, as affected (eeteris paribus) by variations in the 
constructive type of torm of the hull. 

The relative constructive efficiency of mercantile ships in a purely dynamic 
point of view, as respects type of form (irrespectively of materials and 
workmanship), is now generally recognized as being determined by their co- 


efficients (C) of dynamic performance, as deduced from actual trial of the 
. 73 9 


ships, and calculated by the following formula ind Bes =C, which may be 
expressed as follows :— 


ce | a | | | | | | a | 


Constructor’s 
load displace- 
ment 


Designation sof 
Vessels 


Tons 

5000 
A, | 4000 
A, | 3000 
A 5000 
B, | 5000 
B, | 5000 
A 5000 
c, | 5000 
c, | 5000 
A 5000 
D, | 5000 
D, 5000 
A 5000 
E, | 5000 
E, | 5000 
A 5000 
F, | 4000 
F, | 3000 
A 5000 
G, 5000 
G, | 5000 
A 5000 
H, | 4000 
H, | 3000 
A 5000 
I, | 5000 
1, | 5000 
A 5000 
K, | 5000 


REPORT—186l. 


4 5 6 
B | ss les 
Sa | ea [es 
eo ar) 25 
ga| #e lo" 
n a 
V3 Dg 
Knots. |Ind.h.p.| Lbs. 
10 | 250 | 2 
10 250 2 
10 250 2 
10 | 250 
10 | 200 
10 150 
10 250 2 
10 250 3 
10 250 4 
10 250 2 
10 250 2 
10 | 250 
10 | 250 2 
10 | 200 3 
10 150 4 
10 | 250 2 
10 | 200 3 
10 150 4 


12 250 2 
14 250 2 
10 250 

12 250 2 


10 250 | 2 
12 250 | 3 
14 250 | 4 
lo | 250 | 2 
1 | 225 | 3 
14 |200 | 4 


Coefficient of 
dynamic duty. 


Ww. 
14,000 
14,000 
14,000 


14,000 
11,200 
8,400 


14,000 
9,333 
7,000 


14,000 
14,000 
14,000 


14,000 
7,467 
4,200 


14,000 
7,467 
4,200 


14,000 
14,000 
14,000 


14,000 
14,000 
14,000 


14,000 
9,333 
7,000 


14,000 
8,333 
5,600 


Power. 


Ind. h. p, | N. miles, 


1170 
1008 
832 


1170 
1462 
1950 


1170 
1170 
1170 


1170 
1170 
1170 


1170 
1462 
1950 


1170 
1260 
1386 


1170 
2021 
3209 


1170 
1702 
2283 


1170 
2021 
3209 


1170 
2245 
4012 


10 


ll 


: 
WEIGHT oF | 
' 
: 


Hull and its 
equipment 


Tons. 
3000 2000 
3000 1600 
3000 1200 
3000 2000 
3000 2000 
3000 2000 
3000 2000 
3000 2000 
3000 2000 
3000 | 2000 
3000 2500 
3000 | 3000 
3000 2000 
3000 2000 
3000 2000 
3000 2000 
3000 1600 
3000 1200 
3000 2000 
3000 2000 
3000 2000 
3000 2000 
3000 1600 
3000 1200 
3000 2000 
3000 2000 
3000 2000 
3000 2000 
3000 2250 


3000 | 2500 


their equip- 
ment 


= 
e 
nw 
eo 
& 
fb 
| 
| 


292 
561 | 
1003 


ON FREIGHT AS AFFECTED BY DYNAMIC PROPERTIES. 87 


12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 | 21 
_ WEIGHT oF INVESTMENT. e863 gees gis ea % 
os 2 | s3 Gee | tees |Esess] $83 | 35 
ds 6 | 283 | sda | a | 225 | S872 |eB353) 28S 188 
23 a. |s8s | 84 | 3 BBs | Seas [soa] BSS | ge 
25 Chale a2 ogs [FF he “ge s = {4 
- Investment i ; 
Tons. Tons. £ £ £ Cargo. Ratios. | £ s. d. £ 
$13 | 2395 |100,000 | 17,550 |117,550| 49 100 | 1 0 0)100,000!4 
270 | 1878 | 80,000} 15,120] 95,120] 51 104 | 1 0 10/104,000 4, 
223 | 1369 | 60,000] 12,480} 72,480| 53 108 | 1 1 §8/108,000'A, 
313 | 2395 |100,000| 17,550 |117,550| 49 100 | 1 0 0/100,000;A 
392 | 2243 |100,000°} 21,930 |121,930| 54 110 | 1 2 0)110,000/B, , 
522 | 1991 | 100,000 | 29,250 | 129,250} 65 132 | 1 6 5/132,000/B, 
313 -| 2395 |100,000| 17,550/117,550 | 49 100 {1 0 0/100,000A 
470 | 2238 |100,000 | 17,550 |117,550| 52 1066 }1 1 tigress 
627 | 2081 |100,000 | 17,550{117,550| 56 114 |} 1 2 10/114,000C, 
313 | 2395 {100,000 | 17,550 |117,550| 49 100 | 1 0 0/100,000A4 
313 | 1895 |125,000 | 17,550 |142,550 | 75 153 | 110 1|183,000 0, 
313 | 1395 |150,000 | 17,550 | 167,550 | 120 245 | 2 9 0/245,000)D, . 
313 | 2395 | 100,000! 17,550 |117,550} 49 100 | 1 0 0/100,000.A 
588 | 2047 | 100,000 | 21,930 {121,930 | 59 rp PT 2 0/120,000 £, 
1044 | 1472 |100,000 | 29,250 |129,250| 88 179 | 1 15 10)179,000E, 
313 | 2395 | 100,000] 17,550 /117,550| 49 100 | 1 0 0/100,000A 
506 | 1579 | 80,000] 18,900 | 98,900] 62 126 | 1 5 2|/126,000F, 
742 712 | 60,000 | 20,790 | 80,790 | 113 230 | 2 6 0/230,000F, 
313 | 2395 | 100,000 | 17,550 |117,550 | 49 100 | 1 0 0)100,000/A . 
451 | 2044 |100,000 | 30,315 {130,315 | 64 131 |1 6 2/131,000G, 
614 1584 | 100,000 | 48,135 | 148,135 93 182 | 116 5/182,000/G, 
313 | 2395 | 100,000 17,550 |117,550 | 49 100 | 1 0 0/100,000'A 
380 | 1595 | 80,000 | 25,530 |105,530 | 66 134 | 1 6 10134,000;H, 
437 792 | 60,000 | 34,245 | 94,245 | 119 243 |2 8 ingen 
313 | 2395 | 100,000 | 17,550 [117,550 | © 49 100 |1 0 0 preense 
677 | 1818 |100,000 | 30,315 |130,315 | 72 147 |1 9 5/147,0001, 
1228 970 |100,000 | 48,135 | 148,135 |. 152 310 | 3 2 0/310,0001, 
313 | 2395 |100,000 | 17,550 | 117,550 | 49 100 {1 0 0,100,000, A 
751 | 1438 [112,500 | 33,675 | 146,175 | 102 208 | 2 1 8 208,000K,. 
Tose} Oo] oe, a ui or 3.) iii mee TK 


et 


88 REPORT—1861. 


Multiply the cube of the speed (V’) by the cube root of the square of the 
displacement (D2), and divide the product by the indicated horse-power 
(Ind. h. p.) ; the quotient will be the coefficient (C) of dynamic performance. 

To enter upon the various uses to which this formula is applied would be 
irrelevant to the matter now under consideration. Suffice it to say that 
the numeral co-efficient obtained as above set forth affords practically a 
means by which the mutual relations of displacement, power, and speed 
of a steam-ship of given type of form, and of which the coefficient is 
known, may (ceteris paribus) be deduced, and it affords a criterion indi- 
cating, whatever be the size of the ship, the constructive adaptation of its 
type of form for mechanical propulsion, as compared with other types of 
form tested by the same rule—the condition of the vessels as respects clean- 
ness of immersed surface, stability, and other essential properties, being 
assumed to be the same; and we now proceed to show to what extent, 
under given conditions, freight per ton of goods conveyed is affected by 
variations of type of form, as represented by variations of the coefficient 
of performance. 

By reference to the table (Section B), it will be observed that as the 
co-efficient of dynamic performance is reduced from 250 to 150, the ex- 
penses become increased in the ratio of 100 to 132, or 32 per cent., or, 
assuming the freight by ship A, of which the coefficient of dynamic per- 
formance is 250, to be at the rate of £1 per ton of cargo, the charge by 
ship B,, of the same size, but of which the coefficient is 200, will be 
£1 2s., being an increase of 10 per cent.; and the charge by ship B,, of 
the same size, but of which the coefficient is 150, will be £1 6s. 5d., being 
an increase of 32 per cent., as compared with the rate of freight by ship 
A, of which the coefficient is 250. 

The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels 
A, B,, B,, respectively, would be £100,000, £110,000, and £132,000. 

Seeing, therefore, that variations of the type of form, as indicated by 
variations of the coefficient of dynamic performance, even within the limits 
of 250 and 150, which are of ordinary occurrence in steam-shipping, affect 
the expenses incidental to the conveyance of mercantile cargo, under the con- 
ditions referred to, to the extent of 32 per cent., the coefficient of dynamic 
performance which a ship may be capable of realizing, being thus (ceteris 
paribus) a criterion of the economic working of the ship with reference to 
power, becomes a highly important matter for directorial consideration in the 
purchasing or disposal of steam-ships. 

Section C.—Freight as affected (ceteris paribus) by variations in the 
working economy of the engines with reference to coal. 

The relative working economy of marine engines as respects the con- 
sumption of coal per indicated horse-power per hour is evidently an important 
element for consideration as affecting freight,—to illustrate which, it has been 
assumed that variations in mercantile practice extend from 2 lbs. per indicated 
horse-power per hour to 41bs. The consumption of so little as 2 lbs. per 
indicated horse-power per hour is not usually attained, but being now ad- 
mitted to have been achieved, and such having become a matter of contract 
stipulation, it may be looked forward to as the probable future consumption 
on board ship generally, although the ordinary consumption of existing 
steamers cannot at the present time be rated at less than 4lbs. per indicated 
horse-power per hour. 

By reference to the table (Section C), it appears that, under the special 
conditions of the service under consideration (namely vessels of 5000 tons 
displacement employed on a passage of 3000 nautical miles, and steaming at 


ON FREIGHT AS AFFECTED BY DYNAMIC PROPERTIES. 89 


the speed of 10 knots an hour), by increasing the consumption of coal from 
2\bs.to 4\1bs. per indicated horse-power per hour, the expense per ton of 
goods conveyed becomes increased in the proportion of 49 to 56, that is, in 
the proportion of 100 to 114, being an increase of 14 per cent., or, assuming 
the freight by the standard ship A, consuming 2]bs. of coal per indicated 
horse-power per hour, to be at the rate of £1 per ton of cargo conveyed, the 
rate of freight by ship C,, consuming 3 lbs. per indicated horse-power per 
hour, will be £1 1s. 2d., being an increase of 6 per cent., and the rate of 
freight by ship C,, consuming 4:lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour, will be 
£1 2s. 10d., being an increase of 14 per cent. per ton of goods conveyed 
under the conditions referred to. 

The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels 
A, C,, C,, respectively would be £100,000, £106,000, and £114,000. 

Section D.—Freight charge as affected (ceteris paribus) by variations in 
the constructive weight of hull with reference to the size of the ship as de- 
termined by the load displacement. 

To illustrate this matter it has been assumed that the weight of hull, 
including the whole equipment complete for sea (exclusive of engines, coal, 
and cargo) may vary from 40 per cent. of the load displacement to 60 per 
cent., under which limitations, by reference to table (Section D), it appears 
that, under the special conditions of the service underjconsideration, by in- 
creasing the weight of hull from 40 per cent. of its displacement to 60 per 
cent., and assuming the cost of the hull to be in proportion to its weight of 
materials, the expenses or freight charge per ton of cargo conveyed become 
increased in the proportion of 49 to 120, that is, in the proportion of 100 to 
245, being an increase of 140 per cent., or, assuming the freight charge by 
the standard ship A, of which the weight of hull is 40 per cent. of the load 
displacement (2000 tons) to be at the rate of £1 per ton of goods conveyed, the 
rate of freight by ship D,, of which the weight of hull is 50 per cent. of the 
load displacement (2500 tons), will be £1 10s. 7d. per ton, being an increase 
of 53 per cent., and by ship D,, of which the weight of hull is 60 per cent. 
of the load displacement (3000 tons), the rate of freight becomes £2 Qs. per 
ton, being an increase of 145 per cent. per ton of goods conveyed under the 
conditions referred to. 

The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels 
A, D,, D,, respectively, would be £100,000, £153,000, and £245,000. 

Hence, in the construction of steam-ships we see the importance of quality of 
material and excellence of fastening as a means of reducing weight, and the dis- 
advantage that attends heavy-built ships, such as war-steamers, for discharging 
mercantile service. Hence also we see the deficient steaming endurance or 
limited armament of high-speed armoured ships unless built of enormous 
size, as measured by their load displacement, and the disadvantage of types of 
form which require the aid of ballast to insure stability. 

Section E.—Freight is affected (ceteris paribus) by variations in the 
constructive type of form combined with variations in the working economy 
of the engines. 

By reference to the Table (Section E), it appears, under the special con- 
ditions of the service under consideration, that by an inferior type of form, as 
indicated by the coefficient of performance being reduced from 250 to 150, 
combined with an inferior construction of engines, as indicated by the con- 
sumption of fuel being increased from 2 lbs. to 4lbs. per indicated horse-power 
per hour, thereby reducing the coefficient of dynamic duty (column 7) from 
14,000 to 4200, the expense or freight charge per ton of goods conveyed 
becomes increased in'the ratio of 100 to 179, being an increase of 79 per 


90 REPORT—1861. 


cent. ; or, assuming the freight charge by the standard ship A, of which the 
coefficient of performance is 250 and rate of consumption 2 lbs. per indicated 
horse-power per hour (giving a coefficient of dynamic duty 14,000), to be at 
the rate of £] per ton of goods conveyed, the rate of freight by ship E,, of 
which the coefficient of performance is 200, and consumption of coals 3lbs. per 
indicated horse-power per hour (coefficient of dynamic duty 7467) becomes 
#1 4s. per ton, being an increase of 20 per cent., and by ship E,, of 
which the coefficient of performance is 150, and the consumption of coal at the 
rate of 4 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour (coefficient of dynamic 
duty 4200), the rate of freight becomes £1 15s. 10d., being an increase of 
79 per cent. per ton of goods conveyed under the conditions referred to. 
The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels A, 
E,, E,, respectively, would be £100,000, £120,000, and £179,000. 

Hence, in the control of steam-shipping, we see the importance of the co- 
efficient of dynamic duty (column 7), as indicating the economic efficiency 
of the ship in a mercantile point of view, with reference to the merits of her 
hull and engine construction being made a subject of contract stipulation. _ 

Section F.—Freight as affected (ceteris paribus) by variations in the size 
of the ship combined with variations in the constructive type of form and in 
the working economy of the engines. 

By reference to the Table (Section F), it appears, under the special con- 
ditions of service under consideration, that by the size of the ship being 
reduced from 5000 tons displacement to 3000 tons displacement, combined 
with an inferior type of form, as indicated by the coefficient of performance 
being reduced from 250 to 150, and an inferior construction of engine, as 
indicated by the consumption of coals being increased from 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. per 
indicated horse-power per hour, the expense or freight charge per ton of 
goods conveyed becomes increased in the ratio of 49 to 113, that is, in the 
ratio of 100 to 230, being an increase of 130 per cent.; or, assuming the 
freight by the standard ship A, of 5000 tons, of which the coefficient of per- 
formance is 250, and the consumption of coal at the rate of 2 lbs. per indicated 
horse-power per hour, to be at the rate of £1 per ton of goods conveyed, the 
rate of freight by ship F,, of 4000 tons, of which the coefficient of per- 
formance is 200 and the consumption of coal at the rate of 3 lbs. per indicated 
horse-power per hour, will be £1 5s. 2d., being an increase of 26 per cent., and 


by ship F,, of 3000 tons displacement, of which the coefficient of performance — 


is 150 and the consumption of coal at the rate of 4: lbs. per indicated horse- 
power per hour, the rate of freight becomes £2 6s., being an increase of 130 
per cent. per ton of goods conveyed under the conditions referred to. 

The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels 
A, F,, F,, respectively, would be £100,000, £126,000, and £230,000. 

Hence also we observe by comparison of ships E, and F,, how important 
becomes the question of magnitude when ships of inferior dynamic duty are 
employed on a given service, the comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons 
of goods conveyed by the vessels E, and F,, on the service referred to, being 
£179,000 and £230,000, being an increase of 28 per cent. solely in conse- 
quence of the magnitude of the ship being reduced from 5000 tons displace- 
ment to 3000 tons, the coefficient of dynamic duty (4200) being in both 
cases the same. 

Section G.—Freight as affected (ceteris paribus) by variations of the 
steaming speed at which it is required that the service shall be performed. 

It is proposed to illustrate this most important elemental consideration by 
reference to rates of speed within the range of present practice, namely, from 
10. to 14 knots per hour. i 


ON FREIGHT AS AFFECTED BY DYNAMIC PROPERTIES. 91 


_ By reference to the Table (Section G), it appears that, under the special 
conditions of the service under consideration, by increasing the speed from 
10 to 12 knots per hour, the expense or required rate of freight per ton of 
goods conveyed becomes increased in the ratio of 49 to 64, that is, in the 
ratio of 100 to 131, being an increase of 31 per cent.; and by increasing the 
speed from 10 to 14 knots, the expense, or required rate of freight per ton of 
goods, becomes increased in the ratio of 49 to 93, that is, in the ratio of 100 
to 182, being an increase of 82 per cent. Hence, assuming the freight by the 
standard ship A, of 5000 tons, making a passage of 3000 nautical miles at 
10 knots per hour, to be at the rate of £1 per ton weight of goods conveyed, 
the rate of freight by ship G,, steaming at 12 knots per hour, will be required 
to be £1 6s. 2d. per ton weight of goods conveyed, and the rate of freight by 
ship G,, steaming at 14knots per hour, will be required to be £1 16s. 5d. per 
ton of goods conveyed. The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons 
of goods, by the vessels A, G,, G,, steaming at 10, 12, and 14 knots per hour 
respectively, would be £100,000, £131,000, and £182,000. 

Hence we see how onerous are the obligations which usually impose on 
mail-packets a rate of speed higher than that which would be adopted for 
prosecuting a purely mercantile service ; and as no service can be permanently 
and satisfactorily performed which does not pay, it follows that the inade- 
quacy, if any, of a high-speed postal subsidy must be made up by surcharge 
on passengers and cargo, and is therefore, pro tanto, a tax upon trade. 

Section H.—Freight as affected (ceteris paribus) by variations of the size 
of ships combined with variations of steaming-speed. 

We will suppose the size of the ships to be 5000, 4000, and 3000 tons 
displacement, and the steaming-speed to be at the rates of 10 knots, 12 knots, 
and 14 knots per hour respectively. 

By reference to the Table (Section H), it appears that, under the special 
conditions of the service under consideration, by reducing the size of the ship 
from 5000 to 4000 tons, and increasing the speed from 10 to 12 knots per 
hour, the expense or required freight charge becomes increased in the ratio 
of 49 to 66, that is, in the ratio of 100 to 134, or 34 per cent.; and by re- 
ducing the size of ship from 5000 to 3000 tons, and increasing the speed 
from 10 knots to 14 knots, the required freight charge becomes increased 
in the ratio of 49 to 119, that is, in the ratio of 100 to 243, being an increase 
of 143 per cent., or a multiple of 23 times nearly. Hence, assuming the 
rate of freight by the standard ship A, of 5000 tons, steaming at 10 knots, to 
be at £1 per ton weight of goods conveyed, the required rate of freight by 
ship H;, of 4000 tons, steaming at 12 knots, will be £1 6s. 10d., and the 
required rate of freight charge by ship H,, steaming at 14 knots per hour, 
will be at the rate of £2 8s. 7d. per ton weight of goods conveyed. 

The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels 
A, H,, H.,, respectively, will be £100,000, £134,000, and £243,000. 

Hence also we observe by comparison of ships G, and H,, how important 
becomes the question of magnitude when the service demands a high rate of 
speed, the comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods conveyed 
by the vessels G, and H,, on the service referred to, being £182,000 and 
£243,000, being an increase of 33} per cent., solely in consequence of the 
ship being reduced from 5000 tons displacement to 3000 tons, the coefficient 
of dynamic duty (14,000) being in both cases the same. 

Section I.—Freight as affected by variations of speed combined with 
variations of the working economy of the engines. 

Assuming the rate of speed to be 10 knots, 12 knots, and 14 knots, and 
the consumption of coal to be 2 |bs., 3 lbs. and 4 Ibs. per indicated horse-power 


92 REPOCRT—1861. 


per hour respectively, by reference to the Table (Section I.) it appears that 
by increasing the speed from 10 knots to 12 knots an hour, the rate of con- 
sumption of coal being also increased from 2 Ibs. to 3 lbs. per indicated horse- 
power per hour, the required freight charge becomes increased in the ratio of 
49 to 72, that is, in the ratio of 100 to 147, or 47 per cent. ; and by increasing 
the speed from 10 knots to 14 knots per hour, the rate of consumption of 
coal being also increased from 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. per indicated horse-power per 
hour, the required freight charge becomes increased in the ratio of 49 to 152, 
that is, in the ratio of 100 to 310, being an increase of 210 per cent., or 
more than trebled. Hence, assuming the expense or required freight charge 
by the standard ship A, steaming at 10knots per hour, and consuming 2 lbs. 
coal per indicated horse-power per hour, to be at the rate of £1 per ton of 
goods conveyed, the required freight charge by ship I,, steaming at 12 knots 
an hour and consuming 3 lbs. of coal per indicated horse-power per hour, will 
be at the rate of £1 Qs. 5d. per ton of goods, and the required freight charge 
by ship I,, steaming at 14 knots per hour and consuming 4 bs. of coal per 
indicated horse-power per hour, will be at the rate of €3 2s. per ton of goods 
conveyed. The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the 
vessels A, I, I,, respectively, would be £100,000 £147,000, and £310,000. 

Hence we see how onerous are the obligations of increased speed, if at- 
tempted to be performed with engines of inferior contruction, as respects 
economy of fuel. 

Section K.—Freight as affected (ceteris paribus) by variations of the 
speed combined with variations in the type of form, working economy of the 
engines, and weight of bull. 

The object of this section is to show the effect even of small differences 
of practical construction, when operating collectively to the detriment of a 
ship, combined with the obligation of increased speed. 

By reference to the Table (Section K) it appears that, under the special 
conditions of the service under consideration, by increasing the speed from 
10 to 12 knots, with a ship of inferior type of form, as indicated by the co- 
efficient of performance being reduced from 250 to 225, and of inferior 
engine arrangement, as indicated by the consumption of fuel being increased 
from 2 to 3 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour, the weight of hull being 
also increased 5 per cent., namely, from 40 per cent. to 45 per cent. of the 
constructor’s load displacement,—by this combination, the expense per ton of 
goods conveyed becomes increased in the proportion of 49 to 102, that is, in the 
proportion of 100to208, beingan increase of 108 per cent., or morethan doubled ; 
or, assuming the freight by the standard ship A to be at the rate of £1 per ton, 
the rate of freight by ship K,, under the differences above referred to, 
becomes £2 1s. 8d.; and it is to observed that if the speed be increased to 14 
knots, whilst at the same time the coefficient of performance is reduced to 
200, the consumption of fuel increased from 2 lbs. to 4|bs. per indicated horse- 
power per hour, and the weight of the hull increased 10 per cent., namely, from 
40 per cent. of the load displacement to 50 per cent.,—under these conditions 
the entire load displacement of the ship K, will be appropriated by the weight 
of the hull, engines, and coal, leaving no displacement whatever available 
for cargo; that is to say, the vessel K, is utterly unable to perform the con- 
ditions of the service as a mercantile steamer. 

The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels 
A and K, respectively would be £100,000 and £208,000. 

Having thus fully explained the Table, it may be observed that, as re- 
spects the relation which subsists between the dynamic properties of vessel 
A, taken as the standard of comparison in the foregoing sections, and the 


ON FREIGHT AS AFFECTED BY DYNAMIC PROPERTIES. 93° 


‘dynamic properties of mercantile steam-ships generally at the present time, 


it might be regarded as invidious to refer to and particularize the actual per- 
formances of vessels presently employed on commercial service; but it may 
be affirmed generally that the ocean performance of mercantile steam-fleets 

: ae V* Dz 
does not average a coefficient of economic duty, by the formula Ww 3, 


exceeding 5600, whilst modern naval architecture and engineering have prac- 
tically shown that with certain types of form the coefficient of performance 
may be expected to vary from 250 to 300, and that some engines of modern 
construction have consumed only from 2 lbs. to 23 lbs. of coal per indicated 
horse-power per hour, thus practically constituting a possible coefficient of 
economic duty as high as 14,000, which has therefore been assigned to ship 
A in the foregoing table, and whereby, under the conditions of the service 
referred to, viz. ships of 5000 tons displacement steaming at 10 knots per 
hour on a passage of 3000 miles, the conveyance of goods per ton weight 
may be expected to be performed at fully 30 per cent. less cost than would 
be necessarily incurred under the same circumstances by vessels of the same 
size, but of which the coefficient of economic duty does not exceed 5600; and 
this comparative difference would be greatly exceeded if the size of ships be 
reduced, the length of passage increased, or the speed accelerated. 

From the foregoing statements it appears that public interests in the great 
matter of Freight demand that steam-ships only of the most effective con- 
struction, as respects hull and engines, be employed on mercantile service. 
Bad types of hull and wasteful engines, necessarily, as we have seen, enhance 
freight, increase the cost of production, and consequently curtail consumption, 
thus constituting a blight on national industry. A check on these evils, 
highly conducive to the gradual reduction of freight expenses by steam-ships, 
would at once be instituted by making it a matter of contract stipula- 


3 2 
tion that a definite coefficient of dynamic duty, by the formula We 


should be realized on test trial of the ship, at the builder’s load displacement 
and steaming at the stipulated speed. Unquestionably, for years past, in our 
popular marine engineering, prejudice and expediency have retarded pro- 
gress; marine engineering practice has not duly availed itself of the established 
truths and science of the times: expansion, superheating, and surface con- 
densation, now being reanimated as the basis of modern improvements, are 
but the legacies of a bygone age hitherto neglected. 

It is only by directing public opinion to bear on such subjects of general 
interest, that any prevalent evil can be corrected; and surely an appeal on 
the important subject of “ freight,” as affected by differences in the dynamic 
properties of steam-ships, cannot be more appropriately made to any public 
body than to the British Association, under the presidency of a man especially 
distinguished and honoured in the path of practical science, and assembled 
at Manchester, the birth-place of free trade, and the manufacturing capital 
of the world. 

CHAS. ATHERTON, 
Chief Engineer, H,M. Dockyard, Woolwich. 


94 REPORT—1861,. 


Report on the Progress of Celestial Photography since the Aberdeen 
Meeting. By Warren DE ta Rog, F.R.S. 


Ar the Aberdeen Meeting I had the honour of communicating to this 
Section a Report on the State of Celestial Photography in England, which 
has since appeared in the Transactions of the Association. 

Since that period I have pursued my investigations in this branch of 
astronomy, and have ascertained some facts which I believe will be of interest 
to the Meeting. 

In the first place I beg to recall to the recollection of Members who may 
have read my paper, and to re-state for the information of those who have not 
done so, that it was intended at the period of the Aberdeen meeting that the 
Kew photo-heliograph should be taken to Spain in order, ¢f possible, to photo- 
graph the luminous prominences, or, as they are usually called, the red 
flames, seen on the occasion of a total solar eclipse. 

The words implying a doubt as to the success of the undertaking were 
advisedly inserted, because very little information could be collected from the 
accounts of those observers who had witnessed previous total eclipses, as to 
the probable intensity of the light of the corona and red flames in comparison 
with that of other luminous bodies. My impression was that I should fail in 
depicting the prominences in the time available for doing so, because I had had 
the Kew instrument tried upon the moon and had failed utterly in getting even 
a trace of her image on the sensitive plate, and the corona and prominences 
together were not supposed to give as much light as the moon. I therefore 
pointed out the desirability of other astronomers making attempts to depict 
the phenomena of totality by projecting the image of the prominences direct 
on to the collodion-plate without enlarging it by a secondary magnifier, as is 
done in the Kew instrument. 

It was fair to assume, with the great experience I had acquired in celestial 
photography, that I should succeed with the Kew instrument if success were 
attainable ; and I knew that far more reliable results would be obtained by 
its means than by the other method, which I recommended simply because it 
seemed to me to offer a greater chance of at least a partial success. 

Two theories existed, as is well known, to account for the red prominences. 
The one, prominently supported by the Astronomer Royal, was that they 
belonged to the sun; the other, which is still supported even by an astrono- 
mer who obtained photographs of them at the last eclipse, was that they are 
produced by the diffraction of the sun’s light by the periphery of the moon. 

It will be seen, therefore, not only ise essential it was to obtain photo- 
graphic images of the prominences, but also how important it was to obtain 
such perfect images of them that they could not be confounded with 
purely diffractive phenomena if such existed, and that the images should be 
on such a scale that the defects common to collodion could not be confounded 
with them. “The pretty near” would have been far more readily accom- 
plished ; but having the whole bearing of the subject fully impressed on 
my mind, I preferred to make a bold venture, and either accomplish what I 
aimed at or fail entirely. 

Fortunately 1 was successful, and to that success the steadiness of my 
staff much contributed. We now know that the luminous prominences 
which surround the sun (for they do belong to him) can be depicted in 
from 20 to 60 seconds, on the scale of the sun's diameter equal 4 of the 
object-glass employed. That is to say, an object-glass of 3 inches aperture 
will give a picture of the prominences surrounding the moon 4 inches in 
diameter. 


ON THE PROGRESS OF CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 95 


_ The next subject to which I have to call your attention is the photographic 
depiction of groups of stars—for example, such as form a constellation like 
Orion,—in other words, the mapping down the stars by means of photography. 
I have made several experiments in this direction, and have obtained satis- 
factory results, and I believe that at last I have hit upon an expedient 
which will render this method of mapping stars easy of accomplishment. 
The instrument best adapted for this object is a camera of short focal length 
compared with its aperture,like the ordinary portrait-camera,—the size of the 
lens being selected to suit the scale of the intended photographic map, and the 
camera, of course, mounted on an equatorial stand with a clock-work motion. 
The fixed stars depict themselves with great rapidity on a collodion- 
late; and I have experienced no difficulty in obtaining pictures of the 
Pleiades by a moderate exposure even in the focus of my telescope ; they 
would be fixed much more rapidly by a portrait-camera. The difficulty 
in star-mapping does not consist in the difficulty of fixing the images of 
stars, but in finding the images when they are imprinted; for they are no 
bigger than the specks common to the best collodion. It is of no service 
attempting to overcome the difficulty by enlarging the whole picture; but 
something may be done by causing the images of the stars, which are 
mere spots, to spread out into a cone of rays by putting the image out of 
focus and thus imprinting a disc on the plate instead of a point. Last year 
was so fully employed that I have not yet had time to develope fully this 
method, but I have ascertained its practicability. 

Some curiosity naturally exists as to the possibility of applying photo- 
graphy to the depiction of those wonderful bodies the comets, which arrive 

enerally without anything being known of their previous history and abso- 
utely nothing as to their physical nature. It would be valuable to have 
photographic records of them, especially of the nucleus and corona, which 
undergo changes from day to day; and hence such a means of recording 
these changes as photography offers would be the best, beyond comparison, if 
the light of the comet were sufficiently intense to imprint itself, 
_ On the appearance of Donati’s comet in 1858 I made several unsuccessful 
attempts to delineate it with my reflector on a collodion film, but without 
success; and on the appearance of the comet of the present year I made 
humerous attempts to depict it, not only with my telescope, but also with a 
portrait-camera ; but, even with an exposure of 15 minutes (minutes, not 
seconds), I failed in getting the slightest impression, even with a portrait- 
_lens.. Hence the conclusion may be arrived at that the actinic ray does not 
exist in sufficient intensity in such a comet as that of 1861 to imprint itself, 
and therefore photography at present is inapplicable to the recording of the 
Appearances of these wonderful bodies. 

I now return to Heliography. Experiments conducted at the Kew 
Observatory by my request have shown that, for an image of the sun of any 
given size, when once the aperture of the telescope has been ascertained 
which is sufficient to produce the picture with the necessary degree of 
Tapidity, it is not beneficial to increase that aperture ; that is to say, no more 
details are depicted, nor does the picture become sharper, so as to bear a 
greater subsequent enlargement in copying, than when the smaller aperture 
is used. It has also been established, experimentally, that it is not well to 
enlarge the image beyond a certain point by inereasing the magnifying 
power of the secondary magnifier and thus to cause the Tays to emerge at a 
very great angle. These results are such as I should have anticipated ; but 
as it was, nevertheless, desirable to produce pictures of the sun’s spots, with 
a view to their close study, on a scale considerably greater than the pictures 


96 . REPORT—1861,. 


produced by the Kew instrument, I commenced some preparations at my 
own observatory for the purnose of trying whether it would be possible to 
procure such pictures with my reflector. On maturing my plans I found that 
the apparatus which it would be necessary to use would be so weighty that 
the telescope would require to be strengthened considerably to support the 
additional weight in the awkward position in which it would have to be placed ; 
and it did not at first appear how this could be conveniently done. 

Ultimately I found the means of adding a radius-bar and of supporting the 
plate-holder, which carries a plate 18 inches square at a distance of 4 feet 
from the eye-piece ; but here another difficulty occurred, namely, that the 
image of the sun was so powerfully heating, that, if allowed to remain fora 
very short time on the instantaneous slide, it heated it and ultimately set fire 
to some part of the apparatus. A trap easy to be moved over the mouth 
of the telescope had to be contrived, so as to open just before the instantane- 
Ous apparatus was brought into action and shut again immediately after. 
wards. At last these mechanical difficulties were surmounted, and I 
commenced my experiments to ascertain the best form for the secondary mag- 
nifier: these experiments are still in progress, and some important difficulties 
remain to be overcome before pictures of the sun’s spots will be obtained 
with that degree of sharpness which shall leave nothing to be desired. 

With an ordinary Huyghenian eye-piece, employed asa secondary magnifier 
and placed somewhat nearer the great mirror than would be its position for the 
most perfect optical picture, in order to throw the chemical rays further on and 
thus bring them to focus on the plate, Ihave obtained some sun-pictures, of 
very considerable promise, on the extremely large scale of the sun’s diameter 
equal to 3 feet. These pictures have only been very recently procured, and 
I submit then to the Section because I believe that an interest is felt in the 
progress of celestial photography, and that the Members prefer to take part 
in the experiments, as it were, by watching their progress, rather than to 
wait until the most perfect results have been brought about. I may state 
that the mechanical and chemical difficulties have been surmounted, and that 
the only outstanding one is the form of the secondary magnifier*. When this 
has been worked out, perfect sun-pictures 3 feet in diameter will be obtain- 
able with a telescope of 1 foot aperture, in less than the 20th of a second 
of time. ‘These pictures, when taken under suitable circumstances, may be 
grouped so as to produce stereoscopic pictures, which must throw consider- 
able light on the nature of the spots. 

It appears to me that such results must be of value to science, and that 
the records of the state of the sun’s photosphere, both as regards spots and 
other changing phenomena, which are obtainable by means of photography, 
are worth collecting and discussing, and that ultimately they will throw con- 
siderable light on terrestrial meteorology. 

It is agreeable to me to work at this problem so as to point out the means 
by which success is attainable, and I may for a time carry on the records ; 
but it will, on reflection, be seen that these observations (if continued, as 
they should be, for years) are likely to prove a too serious tax upon the 
leisure and purse of a private individual. 


* Mr. Dallmeyer has lately assisted me in working out this problem, and has produced 
already two new secondary magnifiers, each of asomewhat different construction. With their 
aid I made a considerable step in advance, but on November 7th, 1861, was stepped by the 
lateness of the season. 


ON THE THEORY OF EXCIIANGES, 97 


On the Theory of Exchanges, and its recent extension. 
By Batrour Srewarr, A.M. 


Ir is now somewhere about seventy years since Professor Pierre Prevost 
of Geneva conceived the rudimentary idea which ultimately became de- 
veloped into the Theory of Exchanges. In the ‘Journal de Physique’ for 
April 1791, we find a memoir by him “On the Equilibrium of Heat ;” and 
from that period until 1832 he wrote many memoirs in confirmation and 
extension of his views. 

The leading feature of this hypothesis is perhaps best expressed in the words 
which Prevost himself employed to characterize it, when he called his theory 
that of a moveable equilibrium of temperature. 

In order to comprehend more precisely the meaning of this phrase, let us 
imagine to ourselves a large vacuum-chamber, the walls of which are black, 
and do not reflect light or heat. Lampblack will therefore be the most 
appropriate substance with which to cover them. Let us also suppose that 
the whole chamber is kept at a uniform temperature, and that we place a 
thermometer in the enclosure. It is well known that this thermometer will 
ultimately denote the same temperature to whatever portion of the enclosure 
it may be carried, and that this temperature will be that of the walls of the 
chamber. The bulb of the instrument is therefore in a state of equilibrium 
with regard to heat,—a condition of things brought about and sustained, not 
by currents of air, since the chamber is supposed to be a vacuum, but by that 
faculty called radiation, in virtue of which a hot body communicates its heat 
to a distant cold one, even through an absolutely vacant space. This equili- 
brium may be of two kinds. 

1. It may be a statical or tensional equilibrium, that is to say, an equili- 
brium of repose, in which, from the exact balancing of two opposite tendencies, 
the bulb of the thermometer neither reeeives heat nor gives it away. 

2. It may also he an active, or, as Prevost calls it, a moveable equilibrium, 
in which the bulb is constantly giving away heat to the enclosure and re- 
ceiving back in return precisely as much as it gives away, so that its tem- 
perature is neither increased nor diminished. 

It was this latter view of the subject which Prevost took,—a view which, 
besides having a certain amount of inherent probability, has, I think, earned 
a fair claim, from the great number of facts which it groups together under 
one law, to be viewed as a correct expression of the truth. To return to our 
thermometer : the bulb,-under the circumstances above mentioned, is supposed 
by this theory to be constantly giving forth radiant heat at a rate depending 
only on the temperature of the bulb, and independent of that of the enclosure. 

On the other hand, it is receiving back from the enclosure an amount of heat 
depending only on the temperature of the enclosure, and wholly independent 
of that of the bulb. Thus its expenditure depends upon its own temperature, 
its receipts upon that of the enclosure, and when these two are of the same 
temperature, the expenditure of the bulb is exactly balanced by its receipts. 
The circumstance which seems to have brought this idea vividly before 
the mind of Prevost, was the well-known experiment by which Professor 
Pictet* showed what may be termed the reflexion and concentration of cold. 
That philosopher took two concave reflectors, making them face one another, 
and while in the focus of the one he placed a thermometer, in that of the 
other he placed a lump of ice, the effect of which was that the temperature 
of the thermometer immediately began to fall. If we admit that cold is a 
) positive principle, and not a mere negation, we shall of course be able to ex- 


| 


/ * Essais de Phys. p. 82. 
1861. H 


98 REPORT—1861. 


plain this experiment as easily as if a hot bulb had been placed in the one 
focus, raising the temperature of the thermometer in the other. But this 
explanation being inadmissible, it occurred to Prevost that the theory of 
a moveable equilibrium would account for the phenomenon. Let us adopt 
this hypothesis, and suppose, in the first instance, that a body of the same 
temperature as the thermometer is placed in the other focus. It is obvious 
that this body will not affect the thermometer. Heat is doubtless con- 
tinually leaving the bulb ; but this receives back precisely as much heat as it 
radiates, a considerable portion of that which it receives being the heat which 
leaves the body in the opposite focus, and which by the laws of reflexion is 
concentrated on the bulb. If we next suppose that the other body is of a 
higher temperature than the thermometer, it is easy to see that the same laws 
of reflexion will cause an increase of heat to be especially felt by the bulb, 
since each of the rays of heat which reach it by virtue of the reflector will 
be more intense than the corresponding ray which it gives away. Should, 
however, the body in the opposite focus be of a lower temperature than the 
thermometer, the rays which the former emits, and which, by virtue of the 
reflector,reach the bulb, willall be lessintensethan the corresponding rays which 
the bulb gives forth, and thus the same cause which formerly made the ther- 
mometer peculiarly sensitive to an increase in the temperature of the opposite 
body, will now make it equally sensitive to a diminution of the same. 

We are thus furnished by the theory of exchanges with an explanation of this 
important experiment, which, it is remarked by Prevost in his first memoir of 
1791, cannot well be explained by an immoveable equilibrium. 

When Leslie* published his experiments on Heat, the theory of exchanges 
was not slow to exhibit that appropriating quality which is ever the mark , 
of truth. In the hands of Prevost, these experiments, instead of demand- 
ing a new hypothesis, were easily explained by means of the old one. Let 
us take, for instance, the fact discovered by Leslie, that good reflectors of 
heat, such as metals, are bad radiators. Prevost (in a treatise on Radiant Heat, 
Paris, 1809) shows how this fact follows from his theory, remarking that in 
a place of uniform temperature a reflector does not alter the distribution of 
heat, which it would do if, joined to a good reflecting power, it possessed also 
that of being a good radiator. It is interesting to note Prevost’s mode of 
expressing himself on this subject, as it shows that he entertained an opinion 
correct, as far as it went, with regard to internal radiation. He conjectures 
that a good reflector is a bad radiator, because, as it reflects the heat from 
without, so it also reflects the heat from within. 

Lambert+ of Berlin, and Leslie, both proved by experiment that the radia- 
tion of a heated surface in any direction is proportional to the sine of the 
angle which this direction makes with the surface ; and it was demonstrated 
by Fourier{ that this law is the necessary consequence of the theory of ex- 
changes, in those cases where the reflecting power of the body may be dis- 
regarded. He shows, in this demonstration, that if we refuse to admit the 
truth of the law of sines, and suppose that the intensity of the rays emitted 
does not vary with the obliquity of the surface, a central molecule can 
only acquire a temperature equal to half that of the surrounding enclosure. 
Fourier accompanied this proof with an attempt to account for the law of 
sines, in which he supposes that there is in every case a physical surface of 
very small thickness, in which surface the radiant heat emitted by a body 
takes its rise ; but, with the knowledge which we now possess, this cannot, I 
think, be considered a very happy explanation. 


* Inquiry into the Nature and Propagation of Heat, 1804. t Pyrometrie. 
¢ Translated in the Philosophical Magazine for February 1833. 


ON THE THEORY OF EXCHANGES. 99 


I now come to the researches of Dulong and Petit on Radiation* (trans- 
lated in the ‘ Annals of Philosophy,’ vol. xiii. p. 241), which afford a peculiar 
evidence in favour of the theory of exchanges. In order to perceive the bear- 
ing of this evidence, let us take the case of a black body, say a thermometer 
with a blackened bulb, cooking in a black enclosure, devoid of air, through 
the influence of radiation alone. In this case Dulong and Petit proved, by ex- 
periment, that the velocity with which the bulb cools will be in every instance 
accurately represented, if we suppose it to radiate heat at a rate depending 
only on its own temperature, and to receive back heat at a rate depending only 
on the temperature of the enclosure. Whatever evidence may be derived 
from this research is therefore wholly in favour of the theory of exchanges. 

The next step in the progress of this theory was one which led to a truer 
conception of that law of which the law of sines may be considered an approxi- 
mate expression, and was made by Provostaye and Desains. In a paper pub- 
lished in the ‘ Annales de Chimie’ for 1848, these authors prove experiment- 
ally that which was theoretically recognized by Fourier, viz. that, when there 
is reflexion, the law of the proportionality of the radiating power to the sine 
of the angle which the ray makes with the surface becomes altered. In the 
ease of glass in a field of constant temperature, they show that the sum of 
the reflected and radiated heat at all angles will be a constant quantity; and 
equal to 93°9 per cent. of the lampblack radiation of that temperature, the 
difference, viz. 6-1 per cent., being supposed to be due to diffusion. The idea 
which pervades this paper is one which had previously been recognized by 
Prevost and Fourier, but which proved particularly fertile when worked out 
by Provostaye and Desains. It may be stated thus. Returning to our 
hypothetical chamber of constant temperature, with a thermometer placed 
inside of it, this instrument will give the same indication in whatever manner 
we alter the substance of the walls, provided their temperature be left the 
same; whence we may infer that the sum of the radiated and reflected heat 
from any given portion of the walls which strikes the thermometer, will be 
independent of the substance of which this portion is composed. We thus 
perceive that it is not precisely correct to assert that the reflective power of a 
body varies inversely as its radiative power, the proper statement being that, 
in the case of constant temperature, the sum of the heat radiated and re- 
flected by a body is a constant quantity. 

But these authors were aware that something more than this was necessary 
in order to ensure a complete equilibrium of temperature; they perceived that 
the sum of the radiated and reflected heat from a body, while equal to the lamp- 
black radiation, must also be unpolarized, even as the heat from lampblack is 
unpolarized, in order that both streams under comparison may behave in the 
Same manner with respect to any surface on which they may happen to fall. 
Since therefore the radiated and reflected heat taken together must be un- 

_ polarized, and since the latter portion is at a certain angle polarized in the 
plane of incidence+ it follows that the former, or the radiated heat, must be 
partly polarized in a plane perpendicular to that of emission. Experimen® 
tally this is known to be the case. It had been previously shown by Arago 
that the rays which leave solid and liquid incandescent bodies obliquely 
are polarized in a plane perpendicular to that of emission, and Provostaye 
and Desains found the same law to hold with regard to heat. Their ex- 
periments are contained in the ‘ Annales de Chimie’ for 1849, their source of 
heat being a plate of platinum maintained at a red heat by the flame of an 

| alcohol lamp. 

_ We thus perceive that at this stage of the inquiry a perfectly distinct con- 

* Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. vol. vii. p. 113. + Professor Forbes, Edin, Phil. Trans, 1835, 

H2 


100 REPORT—1S6l. 


ception had been formed of the character, with respect to intensity and 
polarization, of the heat emanating from the surface of a body in different 
directions, necessary in order that the condition of equilibrium of tempe- 
rature be fulfilled. No attempt, however, seems to have been made to split 
up this body of heat into its constituent wave-lengths, with the view of ascer- 
taining whether the same laws of equilibrium hold for each of these which 
hold for the body of heat taken as a whole. Internal radiation, as a subject 
for experiment, seems also to have been overlooked, and its essential con- 
nexion with the theory of exchanges does not appear to have been recognized. 

In March 1858, I communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh the 
results of an éxperimental research having reference to the two points just 
mentioned. By means of a thermo-electric pile and galvanometer the fol- 
lowing facts were established :— 

1. The radiating power of thin polished plates of different substances was 
found to vary as their absorptive power; so that the radiation of a plate of 
rock-salt was only 15 per cent. of the total lampblack radiation for the same 
temperature. 

2. It was shown that the radiation from thick plates of diathermanous 
substance is greater than that from thin plates, no such difference being 
manifested when the substances are athermanous. 

3. It was found that heat radiated by a thin diathermanous plate is less 
transmissible through a screen of the same material as the heated plate than 
ordinary or lampblack heat, this difference being very marked in the case of 
rock-salt. 

4. Lastly, heat from a thick diathermanous plate is more easily transmitted 
through a screen of the same nature as the source of heat than that from a 
thin plate. 

All these facts are easily explained by means of the theory of exchanges. 
Let us recur to the hypothetical chamber before introduced, the sides of which 
are covered with lampblack and kept at a constant temperature, and let us 
hang up in this chamber two slices of polished rock-salt, of which the one is 
twice as thick as the other ; these plates will ultimately attain the temperature 
of the sides of the chamber, when their radiation will exactly equal their 
absorption. Now, since the thick plate will absorb more than the thin one of 
the heat which falls upon them from the walls, it will therefore also have a 
greater radiation than the latter; as, however, both plates, being diathermanous, 
absorb only a small portion of the heat which falls upon them, the radiation 
of both will be comparatively small. We have thus an explanation of the 
experimental fact that diathermanous bodies radiate very little heat, and that 
their radiation increases with their thickness. We see also why in an ather- 
manous body an increase of thickness does not augment the radiation,—the 
reason being that, since it is already athermanous, this increase cannot pos- 
sibly make it absorb more heat, and therefore cannot make it radiate more. 

We are therefore brought to recegnize internal radiation as a consequence 
of the theory of exchanges ; but the question now arises, Is the radiation of a 
particle independent of its distance from the surface? A little reflection will 
enable us to answer this question in the affirmative; for it is evident (neg- 
lecting the surface reflexion, which does not really alter the result arrived at) 
that the amount of heat absorbed by two plates of any substance placed 
loosely together is not different from that absorbed by a plate equal in thick- 
ness to the two, and hence the radiation is the same also in both these cases. 
I have likewise shown experimentally that the heat from two plates of rock- 
salt placed the one behind the other, is the same as that from a single plate 
equal in thickness to the two. 


ON THE THEORY OF EXCHANGES. 101 


Presuming therefore that the radiation of a particle is independent of its 
distance from the surface, let us endeavour to realize what takes place in the 
interior of a substance of indefinite thickness in all directions, and kept at a 
constant temperature. Let us suppose that a stream of radiant heat is con- 
stantly flowing past a particle A in the direction of the next particle B. Now 
since the radiation of B is by hypothesis equal to that of A, the absorption 
of B must be equal to that of A. But let us notice what has happened to 
the stream of heat in passing A. Part of it has been absorbed by A, but on 
the other hand it has been recruited by the radiation of A, and this being 
equal to the absorption, the stream of heat when it has passed A will be 
found unaltered by its passage with regard to quantity. But it must also 
remain unaltered with respect to quality, otherwise when it falls on B, the 
amount absorbed by B will be different from that absorbed by A; and hence 
the radiation of B will be different from that of A, which is contrary to 
hypothesis. The absorption of A is therefore equal to its radiation in quality 
as well as in quantity ; or in other words, we have a separate equilibrium for 
every description of heat. We have thus an explanation of the experimental 
fact already alluded to, that a body is particularly opake with regard to that 
heat which it radiates, since we see that a substance is predisposed to radiate 
that description of heat which it absorbs. 

It is easy also to perceive why heat from a thick plate may be more easily 
transmitted through a screen of the same nature as the source of heat, than 
that from a thin plate, the reason being that the rays from the furthest por- 
tion of the heated plate have already been sifted in their passage through the 
plate, and hence that that portion of them which escapes is more easily able 
to penetrate a screen of the same material. 

I have before alluded to a conclusion derived by Provostaye and Desains 
from the theory of exchanges, that in an enclosure of constant temperature 
the sum of the radiated and reflected heat from any portion of the walls is 
equal to the lampblack radiation of that temperature. This is a case which 
evidently comes under the scope of the law, which provides for a separate 
equilibrium for every description of heat ; hence we may assert that the sum 
of the radiated and reflected heat is in this case equal to the lampblack radi- 
ation in quality as well as in quantity; and we are thus also led to perceive 
why opake bodies heated up to the same temperature always radiate the same 
description of heat. 

We come now to the subject of light; and since radiant light and heat 
have been shown by Melloni, Forbes, and others to possess very many pro- 
perties in common, it was of course only natural to suppose that facts analo- 
gous to those mentioned should hold also with regard to light. One instance 
will at once occur in which this analogy is perfect. For, as all opake bodies 
heated up to the same temperature radiate the same description of heat, so 
also when their common temperature is still further increased, they acquire 
a red heat, or a yellow heat, or a white heat simultaneously. 

The idea of applying these views to light had occurred independently to 
Professor Kirchhoff and myself; but, although Kirchhoff slightly preceded 
me in publication, it will be convenient to defer the mention of his researches 
till I come to the subject of lines in the spectrum. 

In February 1860, I communicated to the Royal Society of London a 
paper in which certain properties of radiant light were investigated, similar 
to those already treated of with respect to heat. 

In this paper it was mentioned that the amount of light radiated by 
_ eoloured glasses is in proportion to their depth of colour, transparent glass 
giving out very little light; also that the radiation from red glass has a 
greenish tint, while that from green glass has a reddish tint. 


102 REPORT—1861 


It was also mentioned that polished metal gives out less light than tar- 
nished metal, and that, when a piece of black and white porcelain is heated 
in the fire, the black parts give out much more light than the white, thereby 
producing a curious reversal of the pattern. 

All these facts are comprehended in the statement that in a constant tem- 
perature the absorption of a particle is equal to its radiation, and that for 
every description of light. 

It was also noticed that all coloured glasses ultimately lose their colour in 
the fire as they approach in temperature the coals around them, the expla- 
nation being, that while red glass, for instance, gives out a greenish light, it 
passes red light from the coals behind it, while it absorbs the green, in such 
a manner that the light which it radiates precisely makes up for that which it 
absorbs, so that we have virtually a coal radiation coming partly from and 
partly through the glass. 

In another paper communicated to the Royal Society in May of the same 
year, it was shown that tourmaline, which absorbs in excess the ordinary ray 
of light, also radiates, when heated, this description of light in excess, but that 
when the heated tourmaline is viewed against an illuminated background of 
the same temperature as itself this peculiarity disappears. 

It is now time to advert to the spectrum observations which have recently 
excited so much attention, and which are intimately connected with the sub- 
ject of this Report. Our countryman Wollaston*, and after him Fraunhofer, 
were the first to show that in the solar spectrum numerous dark bands occur 
which indicate the absence of light of certain definite refrangibility. Other 
new bands were artificially produced by Sir David Brewster in his remark- 
able experiment, in which the spectrum was made to pass through nitrous- 
acid gas; and it was thus rendered probable that those which occur in the 
solar spectrum are also in some way due to absorption. Professor W. H. 
Miller of Cambridge, and the late Professor Daniell, extended this property 
to chlorine, iodine, bromine, euchlorine, and indigo. 

When the spectra produced by the ignition of various substances were 
examined by Sir D. Brewster§, Sir J. Herschel ||, Messrs. Talbot 4], Wheat- 
stone**, W. A. Miller++, and others, their contrast to the solar spectrum 
was exceedingly remarkable. 

While the latter may be described as a continuous spectrum intersected 
with dark bands, the spectra of artificial substances are for the most part 
made up of bright, discontinuous, highly characteristic bands of light in a 
dark background, and their general appearance is that of the solar spectrum 
reversed}{. I think Fraunhofer was the first to notice that a bright band 
corresponding in refrangibility to the double dark band Dof the solar spectrum 
was produced by the yellow light of a flame containing sodium; and this ray 
was shown by Professor W. A. Miller§§ to occur in the flames of lime, 
strontia, baryta, zine, iron, and platinum, while, according to Angstrom, it 
was found in the electric flames of every metal examined by him. Professor 
Swan |||| afterwards showed that an exceedingly small proportion of common 
salt called forth this line. All these philosophers, but particularly Angstrém, 

* Philosophical Transactions 1802, p. 378. 

t London and Edinb. Philosophical Magazine, vol. ii. p. 381. 

t Philosophical Magazine, 1833. § Edinburgh Phil. Trans. 1822. 


|| Edinburgh Phil. Trans. 1822. §[ Brewster’s Journal of Science, vol. v. 
** British Association Report for 1835. 


Tt British Association Report for 1845, or Philosophical Magazine, vol. xxvii. p. 81. 

t{ Professor W. A. Miller exhibited at this Meeting of the British Association (Manches- 
ter 1861) photographs of the spectra of several metals, and I have since been informed that 
he is pursuing the subject with success. 


§§ Philosophical Magazine, August 1845. ||| Edinburgh Transactions, 1856. 


ON THE THEORY OF EXCHANGES. 103 


seem to have been impressed with the idea that the same physical cause 
which produces the dark bands of the solar spectrum, produces also the bright 
bands in the spectra of incandescent bodies. 

In a paper by Angstrom* (a translation of which will be found in the 
‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for May 1855), the author refers to a conjecture 
by Euler, that a body absorbs all the series of oscillations which it can itself 
assume ; “ and it follows from this, says Angstrom, that the same body when 
heated so as to become luminous must emit the precise rays which at ordi- 
nary temperatures are absorbed ;” after which remarkable conjecture, now 
amply verified by experiment, he goes on to say, “I am therefore convinced 
that the explanation of the dark lines in the solar spectrum embraces that of 
the luminous lines in the electric spectrum.” 

In connexion with this subject it may not be out of place to introduce the 
following extract of a letter from Prof. W. Thomson to Prof. Kirchhoff, 
dated 1860. Professor Thomson thus writes :—“ Professor Stokes mentioned 
to’me at Cambridge some time ago, probably about ten years, that Professor 
Miller had made an experiment testing to a very high degree of accuracy 
the agreement of the double dark line D of the solar spectrum with the 
double bright line constituting the spectrum of the spirit-lamp burning with 
salt. I remarked that there must be some physical connexion between two 
agencies presenting so marked a characteristic in common. He assented, 
and said he believed a mechanical explanation of the cause was to be had 
on some such principles as the following :—Vapour of sodium must possess 
by its molecular structure a tendency to vibrate in the periods correspond- 
ing to the degrees of refrangibility of the double line D. , Hence the pre- 
sence of sodium in a source of light must tend to originate light of that 
quality. On the other hand, vapour of sodium in an atmosphere round a 
source, must have a great tendency to retain in itself, 7. e. to absorb and to 
have its temperature raised by light from the source, of the precise quality 
in question. In the atmosphere around the sun, therefore, there must be 
present vapour of sodium, which, according to the mechanical explanation 
thus suggested, being particularly opake for light of that quality, prevents 
such of it as is emitted from the sun from penetrating to any considerable 
distance through the surrounding atmosphere. ‘The test of this theory must 
be had in ascertaining whether or not vapour of sodium has the special 
absorbing power anticipated. I have the impression that some Frenchman 
did make this out by experiment, but I can find no reference on the point.” 

The experiment alluded to by Professor Stokes in this conversation was 
made by M. Foucault, who in July 1849 communicated to the Institute the 
result of some observations on the voltaic arc formed between charcoal poles. 
He found, to use his own words, that this are, placed in the path of a beam 
of solar light, absorbs the rays D, so that the dark line. D of the solar light is 
considerably strengthened when the two spectra are exactly superposed. 
When, on the contrary, they jut out one beyond the other, the line D appears 
darker than usual in the solar light, and stands out bright. in the electric 
spectrum, which allows one easily to judge of their perfect coincidence. 
Thus the arc, he continues, presents us with a medium which emits the rays 
D on its own account, and which at the same time absorbs them when they 
come from another quarter. 

To make the experiment in a manner still more decisive, Foucault pro- 
jected on the arc the reflected image of one of the charcoal points, which, 
like all solid bodies in ignition, give no lines; and under these circumstances 
the line D appeared as in the solar spectrum. 


* Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen,’ vol. xciv. p. 141. 


104 REPORT—1861. 


In October 1859, Professor Kirchhoff of Heidelberg made a communica- 
tion to the Berlin Academy on the subject of Fraunhofer’s lines, which, along 
with Foucault’s communication, has been inserted by Professor Stokes in the 
‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for March 1860. Professor Kirchhoff thus de- 
scribes the result of his experiments :— 

“On the occasion of an examination of the spectra of coloured flames, not 
yet published, conducted by Bunsen and myself in common, by which it has 
become possible for us to recognize the qualitative composition of complicated 
mixtures from the appearance of the spectrum of their blowpipe-flame, I 
made some observations which disclose an unexpected explanation of the 
origin of Fraunhofer’s lines, and authorize conclusions therefrom respecting 
the material constitution of the atmosphere of the sun, and perhaps also of 
the brighter fixed stars. 

‘“‘ Fraunhofer had remarked that in the spectrum of the flame of a candle 
there appear two bright lines, which coincide with the two dark lines D of the 
solar spectrum. The same bright lines are obtained of greater intensity from 
a flame into which some common salt is put. I formed a solar spectrum by 
projection, and allowed the solar rays concerned, before they fell on the slit, 
to pass through a powerful salt-flame. If the sunlight were sufficiently re- 
duced, there appeared in place of the two dark lines D two bright lines ; if, 
on the other hand, its intensity surpassed a certain limit, the two dark lines 
D showed themselves in much greater distinctness than without the employ- 
ment of the salt-flame. 

“ The spectrum of the Drummond light contains, as a general rule, the two 
bright lines of sodium, if the luminous spot of the cylinder of lime has not 
long been exposed to the white heat; if the cylinder remains unmoved these 
lines become weaker, and finally vanish altogether. If they have vanished, 
or only faintly appear, an alcohol flame into which salt has been put, and 
which is placed between the cylinder of lime and the slit, causes two dark 
lines of remarkable sharpness and fineness, which in that respect agree with 
the lines D of the solar spectrum, to show themselves in their stead. Thus 
the lines D of the solar spectrum are artificially evoked in a spectrum in 
which naturally they are not present. 

“Tf chloride of lithium is brought into the fame of Bunsen’s gas-lamp, the 
spectrum of the flame shows a very bright sharply defined line, which lies 
midway between Fraunhofer’s lines B and C. If, now, solar rays of moderate 
intensity are allowed to fall through the flame on the slit, the line at the 
place pointed out is seen bright on a darker ground ; but with greater strength 
of sunlight there appears in its place a dark line, which has quite the same 
character as Fraunhofer’s lines. If the flame be taken away, the line disap- 
pears, as far as I have been able to see, completely. 

“I concluded from these observations that coloured flames in the spectra of 
which bright sharp lines present themselves, so weaken rays of the colour of 
these lines, when such rays pass through the flames, that in place of the 
bright lines dark ones appear as soon as there is brought behind the flame a 
source of light of sufficient intensity, in the spectrum of which these lines 
are otherwise wanting. I conclude further, that the dark lines of the solar 
spectrum which are not evoked by the atmosphere of the earth, exist in 
consequence of the presence, in the incandescent atmosphere of the sun, of 
those substances which in the spectrum of a flame produce bright lines at 
the same places): 54... 

“‘ The examination of the spectra of coloured flames has accordingly ac- 
quired a new and high interest; I will carry it out in conjunction with Bunsen 
as far as our means allow. In connexion therewith we will investigate the 


ON THE THEORY OF EXCHANGES. 105 


weakening of rays of light in flames that has been established by my observa- 
tions. In the course of the experiments which have at present been instituted 
by us in this direction, a fact has alreacy shown itself which seems to us to 
be of great importance. The Drummond light requires, in order that the 
lines D should come out in it dark, a salt-flame of lower temperature. The 
flame of alcohol containing water is fitted for this, but the flame of Bunsen’s 
gas-lamp is not. With the latter the smallest mixture of common salt, as 
soon as it makes itself generally perceptible, causes the bright lines of sodium 
to show themselves.” 

This interesting investigation, which was translated by Professor Stokes 
in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for March 1860, came before me in time to 
permit of my adding a supplement to a paper “On the Light radiated by 
Heated Bodies,” which has been already alluded to. In this supplement it 
was attempted to explain the fact noticed by Kirchhoff, that the Drummond 
light requires, in order that the lines D should come out in it dark, a salt-flame 
of lower temperatnre. This is a phenomenon analogous to that presented 
when a piece of ruby glass is heated in the fire. As long as the ruby glass 
is of a lower temperature than the coals behind it, the light given out is of a 
red description, because the ruby glass stops the green: the green light is 
therefore precisely analogous to the line D which is stopped by an alcohol 
flame into which salt has been put. Should, however, the ruby glass be of a 
much higher temperature than the coals behind it, the greenish light which 
it radiates overpowers the red which it transmits, so that the light which 
reaches the eye is more green thanred. This is precisely analogous to what 
is observed when a Bunsen’s gas-flame with a little salt is placed before the 
Drummond light, when the line D is no longer dark, but bright. 

Such was the explanation ; but in the meantime Professor Kirchhoff had not 
been idle. Pondering on the circumstance that the Drummond light re- 
quires a salt-flame of lower temperature, in order that the line D should come 
out in it dark, he was soon led to see the connexion between this fact and 
_ the theory of exchanges. In a communication laid before the Berlin Academy 
of Sciences on the 15th of December1859, he had already recognized this con- 
nexion, and in a subsequent communication to Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen,’ dated 
January 1860, he shows it to be a mathematical consequence of the theory 
of exchanges that a definite relation must subsist between the radiating and 
absorbing power of bodies for individual descriptions of light and heat. 

This investigation proceeds upon the assumption that in an enclosure of 
uniform temperature the distribution of radiant heat will remain unaltered, if 
any one body be removed and another of a different substance, but similar 
dimensions, be substituted exactly in its place. The reasoning is somewhat 
elaborate, but ultimately leads the author to a definite relation between the 
radiating and absorbing powers of bodies for individual descriptions of light 
and heat. 

He has expressed this relation very clearly in the following form. 

Let R denote the intensity of radiation of a particle for a given description 
of light at a given temperature, and let A denote the proportion of rays of 


this description incident on the particle which it absorbs; then ri has the 


same value for all bodies at the same temperature, that is to say, this quotient 
is a function of the temperature only. 

_ Professor Kirchhoff in this communication details some experiments which 
he had made upon incandescent bodies. In confirmation of his assertion 
that a body which remains perfectly transparent at the highest temperature 
never becomes red-hot, he placed in a platinum ring of about 5 millims, diae 


106 REFORT—1861. 


meter a small portion of phosphate of soda, and heated it in the dull flame of 
Bunsen’s lamp. The salt melted, formed a fluid lens, and remained perfectly 
transparent ; it, however, emitted no light, while the platinum ring with which 
it was in contact glowed brilliantly. Kirchhoff also showed that a plate of 
tourmaline cut parallel to the axis which absorbs the ordinary rays in excess, 
radiates the same in excess. These results are similar to those which I com- 
municated shortly afterwards to the Royal Society, and which have been 
already mentioned. 

It was likewise stated by Kirchhoff in this paper, that Bunsen and he had 
reversed the brighter lines of the spectra of potassium, calcium, strontium, 
and barium, by exploding before the slit of the spectral instrument mixtures 
of sugar of milk and chlorates of the respective metals during the passage of 
the sun’s rays, 5 

Allusion has already been made to Kirchhoff’s application of this law of 
reversal, in order to determine the constituents of the solar atmosphere. By 
means of this principle he has been enabled, he believes, to trace the presence 
of iron and other metals in the photosphere of our luminary, having found 
that the bright lines which occur in the electric spectra of those metals cor- 
respond in position with dark lines in the solar spectrum. Iron,” he says, 
‘tis remarkable on account of the number of the lines which it causes in 
the solar spectrum. Less striking, but still quite distinctly visible, are the 
dark solar lines coincident with the bright lines of chromium and nickel. 
The occurrence of these substances in the sun may therefore be regarded as 
certain. Many metals, however, appear to be absent; for although silver, 
copper, zinc, aluminium, cobalt, and antimony possess very characteristic 
spectra, still these do not coincide with any (or at least with any distinct) 
dark lines of the solar spectrum.” 

It has been shown, in the course of this Report, how the law which connects 
together the radiating and absorbing power of bodies for individual deserip- 
tions of heat or light follows immediately from the theory of exchanges. 
But physicists have been anxious to establish this law as the result of some 
simple fundamental property of matter. Euler, we have seen, and Angstrom 
after him, predicted its existence, assuming as a fundamental principle, that 
a body absorbs all the series of oscillations which it can itself assume. 

Professor Stokes also, in commenting on the discovery of Foucault and 
Kirchhoff (Philosophical Magazine, March 1860), uses these words :—‘ The 
remarkable phenomenon discovered by Foucault, and rediscovered and ex- 
tended by Kirchhoff, that a body may be at the same time a source of light 
giving out rays of a definite refrangibility, and an absorbing medium ex- 
tinguishing rays of the same refrangibility which traverse it, seems readily 
to admit of a dynamical illustration borrowed from sound. We know that 
a stretched string which on being struck gives out a certain note (suppose 
its fundamental note) is capable of being thrown into the same state of vibra- 
tion by aérial vibrations corresponding to the same note. Suppose now a 
portion of space to contain a great number of such stretched strings, forming 
thus the analogue of a ‘medium.’ It is evident that such a medium on 
being agitated would give out the note above mentioned, while on the other 
hand, if that note were sounded in air at a distance, the incident vibrations 
would throw the strings into vibration, and consequently would themselves 
be gradually extinguished, since otherwise there would be a creation of vis 
viva. ‘The optical application of this illustration is too obvious to need coim- 
ment.” 

Professor Tyndall also, in the Bakerian Lecture for this year, “On the 
Absorption and Radiation of Heat by Gases and Vapours, and on the Physical 


| ON THE THEORY OF EXCHANGES. 107 


\Connexion between Radiation, Absorption, and Conduction,” has given a very 
lucid statement of a hypothesis of this kind, accompanied with a remarkable 
‘experimental verification. 

On the supposition that an ether envelopes the molecules of matter (just 
‘as the air surrounds the string of a musical instrument), the author points out 
'that the reciprocity of absorption and radiation is a necessary mechanical 

consequence of this theary, on the principle of the equality of action and 
foveal He then goes on to say, “the elementary gases which have been 
examined all exhibit extremely feeble powers, both of absorption and radia- 
tion, in comparison with the compound ones. In the former case we have 
oscillating atoms, in the latter oscillating systems of atoms. Uniting the 
atomic theory with the conception of an ether, it follows that the compound 
molecule, which furnishes points d’appui to the ether, must be capable of 
accepting and generating motion in a far greater degree than the single atom, 
which we may figure to our minds as an oscillating sphere. Thus oxygen and 
hydrogen, which taken separately or mixed mechanically produce a scarcely 
sensible effect, when united chemically to form oscillating systems, as in 
aqueous vapour, produce a powerful effect. Thus also nitrogen and hydrogen, 
which when separate or mixed produce but little action, when combined 
to form ammonia produce a great action. So also nitrogen and oxygen, 
which, as air, are feeble absorbents and radiators, when united to form 
oscillating systems, as in nitrous oxide, are very powerful in both capacities.” 

This great absorbing power which belongs to a compound molecule is a 
yery interesting result, and seems to be well explained by this hypothesis; but 
whether all compound gases without exception are more absorptive than their 
components, in the absence of experimental evidence may, I think, admit of 
being questioned. | 

It has been shown in this Report that internal radiation follows immediately 
from the theory of exchanges, and is independent of the distance from the 
surface. In an unerystallized medium, this radiation will, by the principle 
of sufficient reason,.be equal in all directions; but here a question arises 
which shapes itself thus :—Let us suppose a polished surface of indefinite 
extent, bounding an uncrystallized medium of indefinite thickness ; and placed 
Opposite to this surface and parallel to it let us imagine an indefinitely ex- 
tended surface of lampblack ; and finally, let the whole arrangement be kept 
ata constant temperature. Now we know the quantity of heat which radiates 
from the lampblack in directions making different angles with the surface ; 
and since the proportion of this heat which after striking the polished surface 
penetrates it in a certain direction must be equal to the quantity of heat 
which leaves this surface from the interior in the same direction, it can be 
readily conceived how, by means of optical laws, we may be enabled to tell 
the internal radiation, in different directions, of the solid to which this surface 
belongs. It is remarkable that the internal radiation deduced by this method 
for an uncrystallized body is equal in all directions—a result which we have 
seen may also be arrived at by the principle of sufficient reason. 

In order to define internal radiation, let us conceive a square unit of sur- 
face to be placed in the midst of a solid of indefinite thickness on all sides, 
| and consider the amount of radiant heat which passes across this square unit of 

surface in unit of time, in directions very nearly perpendicular to the surface, 
| and comprehending an exceedingly small solid angle 6g. Call this heat Rég, 
| then R may be viewed as the intensity of the radiation in this direction. 
Now if R denote the radiation of lampblack, and p the index of refraction 
| of an uncrystallized medium, it may be shown that the internal radiation as 
| thus defined is equal to Rp’. 


| 


108 REPORT—1861, 


Before concluding this Report, there is one fact which I think internal | 
radiation may serve to explain in some such way as the following. Suppose 
we have two substances opposite one another, one having the temperature 
of 0°, and the other of 100°, the latter will of course lose heat to the former; 
let us call its velocity of cooling 100. Suppose now that, while the first 
surface still retains the temperature 0°, the second has acquired that of 400°; 


then we might naturally expect the velocity of cooling to be denoted by 400 ; © 


but by Dulong and Petit’s law it is much greater. The reason of the increase 
may perhaps be thus accounted for:—At the temperature of 100° we may 
suppose that only the exterior row of particles of the body supplies the radia- 
tion, the heat from the interior particles being all stopped by the exterior ones, — 
as the substance is very opake for heat of 100°; while at 400°, for the heat 
of which the particles are less opake, we may imagine that part of the 
radiation from the interior particles is allowed to pass, thereby swelling up 
the total radiation to that which it is by Dulong and Petit’s law. 


On the Recent Progress and Present Condition of Manufacturing 
Chemistry in the South Lancashire District. By Drs. EK. Scuuncx, 
R. Aneus Situ, and H. EK. Roscoe. 


Ir has been frequently suggested by persons engaged in manufacturing che- 
mistry in this neighbourhood, that, as Manchester is the centre of a large 
district in which the growth of those branches of industry immediatély de- 
pendent upon chemical science has been so extraordinarily rapid, and in 
which their extent is now so vast, it would be fitting and desirable to pre- 
sent to the Chemical Section of the British Association, at its Meeting in 
Manchester, a short report on the recent progress and present condition of 
the chemical manufactures of the South Lancashire district. 

In drawing up such a Report, thesc to whom the task of collecting and 
editing the matter was entrusted have endeavoured, in the first place, to give 
some idea of the progress which has been made in the trade, by describing 
as concisely as possible those new processes, or those improvements on old 
ones, in which any point of sufficient scientific interest presented itself; and 
in the second place, to give a statistical account, as accurate as possible, of the 
present yield of the very large number of chemical works in the South Lan- 
cashire district. As a description of the rise of the Lancashire chemical 
trade from its commencement would have much exceeded the limits of such a 
Report, the authors decided upon confining themselves, as arule, to the collec- 
tion of facts regarding the improvements and new processes introduced du- 
ring the last ten years. Notwithstanding this limitation it has, however, been 
found that the labour of arranging the matter was much more considerable 
than was at first supposed ; and the authors feel that, in spite of the great 
amount of time and trouble they have expended upon it, the Report is still 
far from complete, and they fear that in one or two minor points inaccuracies 
may have crept in: they believe, however, that several points of great scien- 
tific interest will be presented to the notice of the Section—points which 
hitherto have only been known to the practical manufacturer ; and they feel 
sure that the statistics they have been able to collect will give to the scientific 
world a notion of the importance, in a national point of view, of the chemical 
trade of South Lancashire. 

The authors wish especially to remark that by far the largest portion of 
the facts and statements which they are about to lay before the Section have 


PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 109 


been verbally communicated to them by various gentlemen practically engaged 
in the chemical manufactures of this neighbourhood, who have, in a most 
liberal manner, not only opened their works to minute inspection, but have 
themselves devoted a considerable amount of time and personal labour in 
minutely explaining all those processes which they deemed of scientific in- 
| terest, thus throwing open their accumulated store of practical as well as 
theoretical experience. 
| Where the attention and interest shown by all the numerous gentlemen to 
whom the authors had occasion to apply has been so great, it appears almost 
invidious to mention any names; but in thanking all, the authors cannot for- 
bear to state that to Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co. of Cornbrook, Mr. Gos- 
sage and Mr. Deacon of Widnes, Mr. Spence of Pendleton, Mr. Shanks of 
St. Helens, and Mr. Higgin and Mr. Hart of Manchester they are especially 
indebted for a large amount of valuable information. 

In conclusion, it may be stated that it has been the aim throughout the 
Report to describe the various improvements effected during the last ten years 
so far only as they are of scientific interest, and carefully to avoid entering 
into those details of manufacture which to a great extent regulate the economic 

production of the article, and which, though they are all-important to the 
trader, are of slight interest to the man of science. 


| I. Sutpuuric AcIp. 


No substance produced by the manufacturing chemist is equal in import- 
ance to sulphuric acid, since it is quite indispensable in the production of 
‘many other articles, as well as in many manufacturing processes. In the 
production of soda-ash, and consequently of-soap and glass, of muriatic, 
nitric, and other acids, of alum, sulphate of copper, bleaching powder, &c., 
| in bleaching and dyeing, its use is quite essential. To produce it econo- 

mically on the large scale is therefore an object of considerable importance, 
and numerous improvements have consequently been introduced into the 


manufacture with the view of bringing it to the highest state of perfection. 
Tn order to give an idea of the degree of economy practised, we may men- 
tion that an eminent manufacturer informs us that he obtains from 100 parts 
of sulphur 280-290 parts of sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1°85, which, even sup- 
posing the sulphur to be pure, is as near the calculated quantity (306) as can 
be expected in practice. Very few manufacturers, however, employ sulphur ; 
most of them use pyrites, the only objection to the latter being that it con- 
tains arsenic, so that the product is consequently contaminated with arsenious 
acid. The Irish pyrites contains 33 per cent. of sulphur, whilst the Spanish 
pyrites contains as much as 46 percent. The ordinary burner for pyrites is 
well known, and answers sufficiently well when the ore is in large lumps, 
since the quantity of sulphur left in the residue does not exceed 3 per cent. ; 
but considerable difficulty is experienced in operating on the smaller pieces 
and powder, technically called smadls. In burning these in the ordinary 
way, in the case of Spanish pyrites, from 8 to 10 per cent. of sulphur remains 
behind and is lost. By mixing them with clay and forming the mixture into 
balls before burning, this loss may be reduced to about 4 per cent. It is 
indeed possible to continue the operation until the quantity of sulphur left 
unconsumed amounts to only 2 per cent., but the time required for this pur- 
pose is found to be too long to make it worth while to do so. Mr. Spence 
of Manchester has, however, devised a plan for effecting this object in an 
economical manner, which may be shortly described as follows :—In the first 
place the smalls are riddled out, the large lumps being put into the ordinary 


110 REPORT—1861; 


burner. The smalls are then placed on a hearth of firebrick 40 feet long 
and 6 or 7 feet wide, which is heated from below, and has a current of air 
passing over it to burn the sulphur and convey the sulphurous acid into the 
chambers. The material is introduced at the end furthest from the fire, 
where it only experiences a gentle heat, and is gradually moved forward to 
where the heat is greatest. If the ore is ground, the sulphur may in this 


kiln be completely burnt. We may mention, by the way, that the introduc- ~ 


tion of Spanish and Portuguese pyrites has caused the rise of a new branch 
of industry in the extraction of the small quantity of copper which these 


ores contain. The manufacturers do not, however, find it advisable in gene- 


ral to extract the copper themselves ; they sell it to the smelter. 

The manufacturers of oil of vitriol have recently availed themselves of 
another source of sulphurous acid. In Hill’s process of purifying gas, 
hydrated peroxide of iron is employed instead of lime. After being used for 
some time the material is exposed to the atmosphere, in order to re-oxidize 
the reduced oxide of iron. The process is repeated thirty or forty times, 
after which it can no longer be employed for the purification of gas. It 
contains, however, 40 per cent. of sulphur, and the manufacturers make use 
of it in the same way as pyrites for the production of sulphurous acid. 
From 1 ton of the material they obtain about 1+ ton of hydrated sulphuric 
acid. 

Mr. Harrison Blair’s improved sulphur-burner is especially valuable as 
economizing space in the chambers, by preventing the sulphurous acid from 
being diluted with too large an excess of air, as is the case with the ordinary 
sulphur-burners. In this arrangement the sulphur falls into the burner 
through a vertical hopper, air being admitted by an opening in front in suf- 
ficient quantity to cause combustion of a portion of the sulphur, and by the 
heat thus evolved to melt and volatilize the remainder. The vapour of the 
sulphur is then supplied with a jet of air, from the side, carefully regulated, 
and burns with a flame of great size. By means of this arrangement, one 
chamber of a capacity of 25,000 cubic feet is stated to produce weekly 
21 tons of rectified acid, whereas, by using the ordinary burner, a chamber of 
the same capacity would produce only 11 tons. 

The tendency in this district has been to increase the size of the sulphuric- 
acid-chambers. ‘The largest that we have heard of has a capacity of 112,000 
cubic feet. 

Many manufacturers employ Gay-Lussac’s method, invented sixteen or 
seventeen years ago for economizing nitric oxide. Pure sulphuric acid of 
sp. gr. 1°75 is poured down a column filled with coke, so as completely to 
moisten it. The waste nitrous fumes from the chambers, which would other- 
wise be lost, are then passed through the column and absorbed. The liquid 
is diluted with water to a sp. gr. of 1°50 and heated with steam, nitrous 


fumes are evolved, which pass off into the chambers and are used instead of — 


fresh gas. By this means a saving of more than 5O per cent. of nitrate of 
soda is effected. Others, however, do not employ this method, as they find 
that with the present low price of nitrate of soda, £12 per ton, it does not 
pay to collect and absorb the waste oxides of nitrogen. 

The use of platinum stills for the rectification of sulphuric acid has 
been almost entirely abandoned, and their place supplied by glass retorts, 
which are now made mach larger and of better quality than formerly. They 
are placed either over the naked fire, or else in iron pots containing a little 
sand ; and when carefully protected from currents of air, the breakage is not 
found to be excessive. The acid thus obtained is said to be more transpa- 
rent and less coloured than that prepared with platinum. 


PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE, 111 


We estimate the weekly production of sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1°85, in 
this district, exclusive of that which is used in the manufacture of soda-ash, 
at about 700 tons. 


II. Tut MANuFAcTURE OF SoDA. 


In the most important chemical manufacture of the district, that of soda- 
ash, but few changes in principle have taken place during the last ten years, 
the essential points of the original method of Leblanc (1797) being still 
adhered to; although minor alterations have been introduced in the various 
processes. The extent of the manufacture has, however, largely increased 
since the year 1851. The value of alkali made annually in England is 
estimated at two million pounds sterling; of this, half is made in the South 
Lancashire and half in the Newcastle district. In the year 1860 the average 
quantity of common salt (chloride of sodium) decomposed per week in the 
alkali works of the South Lancashire district amounted to 2600 tons. This 
quantity of salt requires for its decomposition 3110 tons of sulphurie acid 
of sp. gr. 1°60, and produces 3400 tons of hydrochloric acid of sp. gr. 1°15. 
The weight of salt decomposed serves as the simplest measure of the activity 
of the alkali trade, as this raw material is worked up into a variety of pro- 
ducts the exact relative quantities of which it is not easy to estimate. 
Through the kindness of the leading firms in the alkali trade in this neigh- 
bourhood we are, however, enabled to lay before the Section a reliable 
approximate estimate of the total quantities of these various products now 
made in the district ; viz. salt-cake, soda-ash, soda crystals, caustic soda, and 
bicarbonate of soda :— 


Statistics of the Lancashire Alkali- Trade, 1861. 


Tons 
Common salt (Na Cl) decomposed per week ..........+- 2600 
Sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1°6) used .........0s esc ee ce eees 3110 
Hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 115) produced ...........+4: 3400 
Soda-ash sold per week...... 22: .ecdsecscssecseace -« 1800 
Salt-cake sold per week ...........0. sla, aaa ee 2 dscees 180 
Soda crystals (NaO CO,+10 HO) sold per week ........ 170 
Bicarbonate of soda sold per week........... cacdesiine 225 
Caustic soda (solid) sold per week ............05 wezeaa, 90 


Since the year 1852 the alkali-trade in the South Lancashire district has 
more than tripled, in that year only 772 tons of common salt being con- 
sumed per week. 

These large quantities of products now manufactured are derived from about 
twenty-five works, varying from a yield of 175 to 25 tons of ash per week; 
the chief localities in which the trade is carried on are, St. Helens, Runcorn 
Gap, and Widnes Dock near Warrington, the neighbourhood of Bolton, and 
Newton Heath near Manchester*. Some idea may be formed of the extent 
of the Lancashire alkali-trade when it is stated that two large firms are 
engaged solely in breaking the limestone used by the alkali makers in the 
Widnes district alone. 

_ It would far exceed the limits of this Report were we even to mention the 
very numerous patents for improvements in the alkali-trade taken out since 
1851. Suffice it to say that none have succeeded in materially altering the 
process. Many plans have been proposed for avoiding the loss of sulphur, 
_* The numbers here given include the yield of three works beyond the limit of the 


county—two situated on the Cheshire side of the Mersey at Runcorn, and one at Flint—but 
all sending their products to the Lancashire markets. were 


112 REPORT—1861l. 


the great drawback of Leblanc’s original method ; but none have been as yet 
found to be practically successful, if, indeed, we except a process used by the St. 
Helens Patent Alkali Company, in which the bisulphide of iron (iron pyrites), 
being roasted in a reverberatory furnace with common salt, yields volatile 
sesquichloride of iron, salt-cake, and peroxide of iron, which are separated 
by lixiviation. A process, theoretically most promising, has been proposed by 
Mr. Gossage, to whom the alkali-trade owes so much, by which all loss of . 
sulphur is avoided ; but even this plan has not yet been successfully worked. 
It depends upon the following facts: (1) that moist carbonic acid decomposes 
sulphide of sodium, forming carbonate of soda and sulphuretted hydrogen ; 
and (2) that dry peroxide of iron is reduced by sulphuretted hydrogen—tree 
sulphur, water, and protoxide of iron being formed,—the latter part of the 
process having been patented by Mr. Thomas Spencer in 1859. The salt- | 
cake, made in the usual way, is in this process reduced by ccal, and the fused 
sulphide allowed to flow through a tower filled with heated coke, in which it 
meets a current of moist carbonic acid; the carbonate of soda runs out at 
the bottom of the tower, whilst the sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid 
gases pass upwards through a tower filled with peroxide of iron in porous 
masses. The sulphur is there deposited upon the oxide of iron, and the mass 
only needs burning in the ordinary pyrites-kilns to yield sulphurous acid 
again. The numerous plans proposed for regaining the sulphur from the 
alkali-waste have also all proved abortive ; nor indeed is this to be wondered 
at when we consider the mechanical difficulties of dealing with a mass of 
material amounting in some works to 600 tons weekly, and when we like- 
wise remember that the waste contains only from 15 to 20 per cent. of sul- 
phur, which, if it could all be easily extracted, would only make the mass 
worth about 15s. per ton. 

The improvements of detail effected in the soda-manufacture since the 
year 1851 have mainly been the following :— 

(1) Greater attention to economical working in all the branches than was 
formerly given, especially in the burning of pyrites, and in the evaporation 
of the black-ash liquors, which is now wholly effected by the waste heat 
from the black-ash furnaces. The arrangement for the evaporation of the 
black-ash liquors by means of the spent heat of the black-ash furnaces was 
proposed by Mr. Gamble of St. Helens, and by him liberally presented to 
his co-manufacturers. 

(2) The process of lixiviation of the black ash is more completely accom- 
plished than formerly by the employment of the very ingenious and simple 
arrangement originally proposed by Mr. Shanks, and by him given to the 
soda-trade. According to Mr. Shanks’s method, all pumping of the liquors 
or handling of the black ash is avoided, a much more perfect abstraction of 
the soluble constituents is gained, and a great saving in expense of evapora- 
tion is effected. 

(3) In some works the black ash is now made by machinery, under a 
patent granted to Messrs. Elliot and Russell in 1853, and more recently 
improved by Messrs. Stevenson and Williamson of the Yarrow Chemical 
Works, Newcastle. In this method the mixture of salt-cake, coal, and lime- 
stone is introduced into revolving iron cylinders, lined with firebricks, and 
heated by a furnace, so that thus the process of manual stirring is avoided. 

(4) The soda-ash is now in many alkali-works packed into casks by 
machinery. 

Since the year 1851 an entirely new branch of the manufacture has been 
introduced by the preparation of solid caustic soda, an article now largely 
exported to America and other localities, to which carriage is expensive. 


PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. LVS 


In the preparation of solid caustic soda advantage is taken of the facts, that 
in all the black-ash liquors nearly one-third of the total alkali is present 
as the hydrate, and that on concentrating these liquors by boiling, the whole 
of the carbonate, and the greater part of the chloride, sulphate, and other 
neutral salts separate, and may be removed by mechanical means, leaving 
in solution the caustic alkali with a small quantity of sulphides and cyanides 
which are oxidized by nitrate of soda, as afterwards described. Sometimes, 
however, it is found convenient to caustitize with linie the whole of the 
black-ash liquor before evaporation : the caustic alkali must then be prepared 
in a dilute solution ; otherwise, as is well known, a complete decomposition 
does not occur. In order to utilize the heat wasted by the necessary evapo- 
ration of the lye, Mr. Dale has patented a plan for boiling down the caustic 
liquors in closed iron boilers, employing the steam for motive power or for 
heating purposes. . Mr. Dale finds that the liquors may be thus concentrated 
to sp. gr. 1°30 without in any way injuring the boilers. When the lye has 
obtained the above strength, it is concentrated in open iron pans, and nitrate 
of soda is added to oxidize the sulphides and sulphites, large quantities of 
ammonia being evolved. As soon as the greater portion of the uncombined 
water has gone off, and the mass begins to undergo igneous fusion, the 
cyanides are decomposed by the nitrate—nitrogen and oxygen gases being 
liberated, and the carbon of the cyanogen appearing as a crust of finely 
divided graphite. This interesting fact of the production of graphite by 
decomposition, probably, of the cyanides, was first observed by Dr. Pauli of 
the Union Alkali-works of St. Helens. The caustic soda thus prepared is 
often perfectly white, although generally of a greenish colour from traces of 
manganese; it contains neither iron nor alumina, the former being precipitated 
as an insoluble anhydrous peroxide, and the latter separating out as a crystal- 
line alkaline silicate of alumina. 

In concentrating the strong lye, the manufacturers were much troubled by 
the continual boiling over of the fusing mass, but this has been remedied by 
an ingenious application of the “Geyser” principle, also used in the kiers 
employed in bleaching cotton goods, which we saw in operation at Messrs. 
Gaskell and Deacon’s Works at Widnes. At the bottom of the round pan 
in which the evaporation is conducted is placed a conical pipe of sheet iron, 
open at both ends, and reaching about an inch above the level of the fusing 
mass. This tube does not rest. close to the bottom of the pan, openings 
being left for the entrance of the liquid. In contact with the heated iron, 

‘steam is formed at the bottom of the tube, and the liquid is thus forced out 
at the top of the tube, preventing altogether any violent ebullition occurring 
in the other part of the pan, and consequently effectually stopping the boiling 
over of the fused mass. 

The proposition recently made by Kuhlmann for the employment of the 
alkali-waste as a cement is not new, Mr. Deacon of Widnes having used this 
waste material for making floors twelve years ago. 

The investigations of Mr. Gossage on the constitution of black ash have 
been the base of a very important branch of that manufacture. This gentle- 
man, so long ago as 1838, expressed his doubts as to the correctness of the 
view taken by Dumas and other chemists concerning the composition of the 
black ash, namely, that the separation of the soluble carbonate of soda from 
the compounds of sulphur and lime by treatment with water depends upon 
the formation of an insoluble oxysulphide of calcium. Mr. Gossage showed 
that in all the liquors obtained by dissolving the black ash nearly one-third of 
the total quantity of alkali is present as caustic soda, and that this closely 


corresponds to the excess of caustic lime practically employed, whereas in 
1861. tis? 


114 REPORT—1861. 


the dry substance no caustic soda can be dissolved out by alcohol. Hence 
he concluded that the black ash consists of a mixture of carbonate of soda, 
caustic lime, and monosulphide of calcium, and that when the mass is treated 
with water, caustic soda and carbonate of lime are formed, the monosulphide 
of calcium itself being insoluble in water. This theory of the composition 
of black ash is now generally adopted by chemists practically engaged in 
alkali-making, and has received confirmation by the subsequent paoly ie of 
Mr. F. Claudet and others. 

The growth of the soda-ash manufacture has been so rapid, and so many 
changes have been caused by it in the chemical arts, that a short sketch of 
its history may with great propriety be added to this portion of our subject— 
this sketch being in the main an abridgement of Mr. Gossage’s paper read 
before the Section.. Previous to 1793, soda was made almost entirely from 
the ashes of sea-weed obtained from Alicante, Sicily, Teneriffe, Scotland, and 
Ireland. Potash from Russia, France, and America supplied its place to a 
large extent ; now, however, soda supplies the place of potash, even in those 
countries from which we formerly obtained potash. In 1794 a French Com- 
mission decided that Leblanc’s soda-ash process was the best proposed. The 
Government made it known to the public in 1797. The inventor died in 
poverty ; but many manufacturers rose up in France and obtained great suc- 
cess. It was little known in this country till 1823, when the duty of £30 a 
ton was taken off salt. 

In connexion with soda, muriatic acid. and chlorine must be named. 
Although Scheele, a Swede, discovered chlorine, Berthollet discovered its 
bleaching properties. The process was introduced into Scotland by Professor 
Copeland of Aberdeen; and in 1798 Mr. Charles Tennant of Glasgow 
patented a solution of chloride of lime as a bleaching-liquor, which was fol- 
lowed up by the invention of the present bleaching-powder. When com- 
mon salt is decomposed by sulphuric acid, the muriatic acid from which the 
chlorine is obtained is set free ; when this process was performed by bleachers 
the duty on the salt was remitted, but they were compelled to throw away all 
the sulphate of soda formed—a strange and most wasteful act. This con- 
tinued till 1814. About this time occurred the expiration of Tennant’s patent 
for bleaching ; and crystals of carbonate of soda were gradually introduced at 
£30 per ton. Mr. Losh, of Newcastle, had made use of Leblanc’s process 
almost from its publication, but on a small scale. In 1802 he sold soda-crystals 
at £60 per ton; the. present price is £4 10s. But in 1823 may be dated the 
commencement of the soda-ash manufacture in this country, when Mr. James 
Muspratt erected his works at Liverpool. 

The decomposition of the salt was made chiefly in open furnaces ; so that 
an enormous amount of muriatic acid was sent into the air, and soda-works 
were removed from towns when the Woulfe’s apparatus was not used for con- 
densation. To remedy this loss, Mr. Gossage invented, in the year 1836, the 
coke tower as at present used. The acid gases percolate through a deep 
bed of coke, which fills a high tower, and which is supplied with water 
trickling through the porous material. Mr.Gossage and Mr. Shanks are said 
to have so purified the gas at Messrs. Crossfield’s works at St. Helens, that it 
did not-even render a solution of nitrate of silver turbid. 

In 1838, when the King of the Two Sicilies monopolized the trade in 
sulphur, it was raised in price from £5 to £14 per ton, when the Irish pyrites 
began to be used. This again led to the extraction of the copper from 
the spent pyrites, and also of the silver, a process commenced by Mr. Gos- 
sage in 1850. Mr. John Wilson began to extract the gold, but without com- 
mercial success. 


PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 115 


Since Mr. Muspratt began his works the price of soda has been reduced 
60 per cent., although the raw materials have fallen only 10 per cent. 

There are about fifty soda-works in Great Britain; and the following 
amounts are made, as far as is known :-— 


3000 tons of soda-ash per week. 

2000 tons of soda-crystals per week. 
250 tons of bicarbonate of soda per week. 
400 tons of bleaching-powder per week. 


About 10,000 persons are employed in these operations, exclusive of those 
engaged in procuring salt, coal, pyrites, and limestone, and in the transporta- 
tion of the materials. 

The new French Treaty reduces the import duty into France 15 per cent., 
or 36s. per ton. At the time of making the Treaty, it was estimated that 
59,000 tons of salt were used in France for soda, and 260,000 in Great 
Britain. 

The following Table gives the amount of materials used at present for the 
production of 1 ton of soda-ash, and their prices :— 


Ege eee A 

2 tae-of, Irish, pyrites’ .<.0/<.6 2.0 <0) lea L160 
L hewt nitrate of soda. oi. om a6 sci eien) ie 2D 0 
14 ton of salt...... pintdlaial oldig dG3.9/m tints We LON ack) 
14 ton of limestone .............--. 010 O 
Sa SONS OL FOL 2). 6. co spasiaw yeven piemane Bosak, O 
£4 8 0 

Chronology of the Soda Trade. 

Peri - : Quantity . 

eriod. Raw Materials used and Prices. mianeearede Prices. 
. 1790 | Barilla and Kelp. Not known. Not known. 

1792 | Leblanc’s process invented and ap-|Not known. Not known. 
plied in France. 

1814 | Crystals of soda, made from bleach-|Not known. Soda-crystals £50 
er’s residua, and by Mr. Losh from per ton. 
brine. 

1823 | Mr. Muspratt’s Works commenced,|Probably 100 tons per|Soda-crystals £18 

and using— weekof crystalsand| per ton. 

1824 | Common salt at ......... 15s. per ton.| soda-ash. Soda-ash £24 per 

MUIDLUGAL anessccnsessee.s< £8 per ton. ton. 
DANG Hee Weretieet.seces ees 15s. per ton. 
Woaliatiece, eesc~sss-rc5. 0s: 8s. per ton. 

1861 | 50 works in operation in Great Bri-\5000 tons per week. |Soda-crystals £4 
tain, using Leblane’s process, raw 10s. per ton. 
materials in Lancashire costing, ~ |Soda-ash £8 per 

Common salt .............. 8s. per ton. ton. 
Sulphur from pyrites...... £5 per ton. 
Limestone....,......00.- 6s. 8d. per ton. 
Wael cosas Ge cscepersaneneetesn 6s. per ton. 


III. Bheacninc-PowreEr. 


In some alkali-works the waste hydrochloric acid is employed to evolve 
tarbonic acid from limestone for the manufacture of bicarbonate of soda from 
soda-crystals; in others the acid is used for the preparation of bleaching-pow- 

12 


116 REPORT—1861. 


der and bleaching-liquor, both of which products are made in large quantities 
in the distriet, 155 tons of bleaching-powder* being made each week. 

The only points in this manufacture which call for remark are :— 

(1) An ingenious process for preparing chlorine without the use of 
binoxide of manganese is used by Mr. Shanks of St. Helens. The process is 
as follows :—Hydrochloric acid is added to chromate of lime, sesquichloride 
of chromium and free chlorine are produced, and the free chlorine is used 
for making bleaching-powder. Then lime is added to the sesquichloride of 
chromium, and the precipitated sesquioxide reconverted into chromate by 
heating with lime in a reverberatory furnace. 

(2) The regeneration of peroxide of manganese from the waste liquors 
containing chloride of manganese has, as is well known, been performed with 
success by Mr. Charles Dunlop, so much so that the product obtained is 
almost pure. Dr. Gerland of Newton-le-Willows has communicated to us the 
following process for recovering from these liquors not only peroxide of 
manganese, but also the nickel and cobalt which they contain. The liquors 
are first neutralized with limestone, and then caustic lime is added until all 
the iron is precipitated as hydrated peroxide of iron. The precipitate, after 
washing and drying, may be used as yellow ochre. The filtrate contains 
manganese, nickel, and cobalt. The two latter metals are precipitated as 
sulphides by means of a solution of sulphide of calcium (obtained from black- 
ash waste), which is added until the precipitate ceases to be of a pure black. 
The precipitate is now collected and subjected to the well-known manipula- 
tions for separating the metals. The supernatant liquid is siphoned off, and 
the manganese contained in it is precipitated as hydrated protoxide by adding 
milk of lime. The oxide is washed by decantation and thrown on calico for 
draining. It is converted into the higher oxide simply by the agency of 
heat and air, and is generally obtained as a fine black powder containing 
70 per cent. of peroxide. The average quantity of cobalt contained in 1 ton 
of manganese is 10 lbs., and of nickel 5 lbs. 


IV. Cuiorate oF PorTasu. 


From 4 to 5 tons of this salt are manufactured weekly in this district. 
It is employed for making matches, and also as an oxidizing agent in steam 
colours on calico. 


V. HyposuLeHItTE oF SopA. 


This salt is manufactured by Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co., to the extent 
of 3 tons weekly. It is prepared by passing sulphurous acid through a solu- 
tion of sulphide of sodium, and purified by recrystallization. It is used by 
paper-makers, by photographers, and by bleachers (known as antichlor). 


VI. SinicaTEe oF Sopa. 


The experiments of Fuchs, Kuhlmann, and others have shown that the 
alkaline silicates may be employed with success for the purpose of coating 
building-stones of a soft or porous nature, thus enabling them to resist 
the action both of air and water, Another use has been found for them 
in this district, viz. as a substitute for cow-dung in calico-printing ; and they 
are also extensively employed by soap-manufacturers in place of the resinates. 
Silicate of soda is the compound employed. The process of manufacture is 
simple. Sand and carbonate of soda are melted together, a sufficient quan- 


* Of this quantity 70 tons are produced at St. Helens, 40 at Runcorn and Runcorn Gap, 
and 45 in Flint. : 


PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 117 


tity of the latter being taken to prevent the watery solution afterwards gela- 
tinizing. The product has the appearance of glass, transparent in thin 
layers, and variously coloured in mass, from pale yellow to brown or black, 
the colour being due to the presence of carbon. Occasionally it is of a pale 
green. As it is difficult to reduce it into fragments by pounding, on account 
of its extreme brittleness, it is found advantageous to allow the fused mass 
to run directly into water, by which means it is immediately broken up into 
pieces of a convenient size. About 10 tons per week are produced in this 
neighbourhood. 
VII. ARSENIATE OF Sopa. 


This salt has of late come into very general use as a substitute for cow- 
dung in calico-printing, for which purpose it is much better adapted than 
the phosphate or silicate of soda, as it does not attack the alumina mordants 
to so great an extent as those salts. It is generally prepared by fusing 
arsenious acid with nitrate of soda and caustic soda. Without the addition 
of caustic soda, an acid arseniate would be formed. In this way, however, 
a considerable loss of arsenious acid takes place. Mr. Higgin, of this city, 
has therefore invented and patented a process, by which this loss is prevented. 
He dissolves the arsenious acid in caustic soda, adds nitrate of soda, introduces 
the mixture into a reverberatory furnace, and allows the heat of the fire to 
pass over the surface. In the first instance ammonia is given off, then nitric 
oxide. The heating is continued until the paste is perfectly dry. This pro- 
_ cess is attended by a saving, not only of arsenious acid, but also of nitrate 
of soda. The advantages attending the use of arseniate of soda for dung- 
ing are, that a greater proportion of the mordants becomes fixed, and that 
the colours are superior and the whites purer after dyeing than with other 
materials. Its use is also attended with greater economy. It is to be re- 
gretted that so valuable a substance as this should also be one of so highly 
poisonous a nature. 

The quantity produced in this district amounts to 10 or 12 tons per week. 


VIII. BicuRoMATE oF PoTASH. 


We have nothing new to report regarding the manufacture of this salt. 
About 14 tons are produced weekly in our district. 


IX. PrusstATEs oF PoTasu. 


From 4 to 5 tons of yellow prussiate of potash and 1 ton of red prussiate 
are produced in this district per week. 


X. SuPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 
Weekly production in this district, 500 to 600 tons. 


XI. SuLPHATE oF BARYTA. 


Of this salt, which is usually sold under the name of “ blanc fixe,” about 
2 tons are made in this district by precipitation. The plan pursued is very 
simple: Derbyshire heavy spar is heated with carbon, the sulphide of 
barium thus obtained is decomposed with muriatic acid, and from the solution 
the baryta is precipitated as sulphate. When prepared in this manner, it is 
found to be better adapted for the purpose to which it is applied than the ore 
simply ground, as it possesses more body as a paint than the latter. 


- XII. Epsom Satts. 
Weekly production in this district, 20 tons. 


— 


118 REPORT—1861. 


XIII. ALum. 


One of the most important improvements introduced into our chemical 
manufactures during the last twenty years is the new process of making 
alum, first patented by Mr. Spence in 1845, and carried out on a large scale 
by Messrs. Spence and Dickson since 1847. Before that time the alum 
manufactured in this district was confined to a small quantity made from 
pipeclay, our chief supplies being derived from Whitby. By the old process, 
60 tons of the oolitic shale of Yorkshire were required in order to produce 
1 ton of potash alum and 1 ton of Epsom salts. By Mr. Spence’s process 
50 tons of shale yield 65 tons of ammonia-alum. Mr. Spence employs the 
shale found underlying the seams of coal in this district. This shale, which 
is black from the organic matter contained in it, is piled up in heaps about 
4. or 5 feet high, and slowly calcined at a heat approaching to redness. Before 
calcination the alumina of the shale will not dissolve in sulphuric acid; and, 
on the other hand, if the heat be raised too high, so as to induce a partial 
vitrification of the clay, the alumina is again rendered quite insoluble in acid. 
The calcination lasts ten days, the heaps being supplied daily with fresh shale. 
When sufficiently calcined, the material is soft and porous, and of a pale brick- 
red colour. The calcined shale is then placed in covered pans, each capable 
of holding 20 tons of the material, and is there digested from thirty-six to 
forty-eight hours with sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1°35. The liquid is kept at 
a temperature of 230° Fahr., partly by fire underneath the pans, and partly 
by the introduction of vapour from a boiler containing gas-liquor. This 
part of the process was patented by Mr. Spence in 1858-59, it having been 
found unnecessary to treat first with acid and then with alkali, the com- 
bined treatment answering quite as well, provided there is an excess of acid 
present. The volatile ammonia-salts of the gas-liquor pass over into the pans 
and are decomposed by the acid ; the ammonia of the remainder is liberated 
by the addition of lime. The liquor is now run off into cisterns, and kept 
continually agitated while it cools, in order to promote the formation of 
small crystals. The crystals are allowed to drain, and washed with the 
liquor which runs off from the blocks of alum. No iron is found in the 
crystals, though there is an abundance in the mother-liquor in the shape 
of persulphate of iron. To this succeeds the so-called Foching process, 
which simply consists in rapidly recrystallizing. This is effected by Mr. 
Spence through the agency of steam, without the addition of water. The 
crystals are thrown into a hopper, at the bottom of which they come into 
contact with a current of steam, which dissolves them rapidly, fresh crystals 
being successively added in quantities sufficient to prevent the escape of the 
steam. By this means 4 tons of crystals may be dissolved in one half to three 
quarters of an hour. The solution runs immediately into a leaden tank, 
where it is allowed to settle for three hours, and deposits a quantity of matter 
insoluble both in water and acid, supposed to be a compound consisting of, or 
containing subsulphate of alumina. The clear liquor is now allowed to run 
into tubs, the bottoms of which are formed of Yorkshire flags each 6 feet in 
diameter, and the sides of moveable staves 6 feet long, which are kept in their 
places by hoops and screws. After standing from five to eight days, the 
hoops are unscrewed and the staves removed, when a mass of crystallized 
alum of the form of the tub appears. After standing eight days longer, a 
hole is made at 8-10 inches from the bottom, and a quantity of liquor runs 
out. The mass is generally 18 inches thick at the bottom, and 1 foot at the 
sides, and contains 3 tons of marketable alum, while the liquor contains 1 ton, 
which goes back to the pans. 


PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 119 


Tn 1850-51, Mr. Spence made about 20 tons of alum per week. The 
quantity now made by him amounts to 110 tons, of which 70 tons are pro- 
duced in this district. Fully half of the total quantity manufactured in 
England (300 tons per week) is made by his process. 


bel 


XIV. ProrosuLPHATE OF IRON. 


This salt is manufactured in large quantities in this district, principally for 
the use of dyers, the amount being about 80 tons per week. The process of 
manufacture pursued here is as follows :—Iron pyrites, derived from the coal- 
measures, and commonly called here coal brasses, is piled up in heaps, 
watered and exposed to the atmosphere. A process of slow oxidation takes 
place. Sulphate of iron with an excess of sulphuric acid is formed. The 
latter is removed by means of scrap iron. ‘The salt is obtained by evapora- 
tion of the liquor, and is tolerably pure. An inferior quality is procured 
from the mother-liquor, which contains alumina. 


XV. Comrounns or TIN. 


Chlorides of Tin.—The quantity of these compounds (estimated as crystal- 
lized protochloride of tin) manufactured in this district amounts to about 
163 tons per week. 

Stannate of Soda.—This compound has for some time been extensively 
used for the purpose of preparing calicoes which are intended to be printed 
with so-called steam colours. It is usually obtained by fusing metallic tin 
or finely powdered tin ore with nitrate of soda. It has been found that the 
addition of 5 per cent. of arseniate of soda causes a saving in tin, by render- 
ing, as it seems, the oxide of tin less soluble in the sulphuric acid, through 
which the goods are subsequently passed. 

Stannate of soda is also prepared from scrap tin by Mr. Higgin’s process. 
Various attempts, with more or less success, have been made at various times 
to separate the tin and the iron of serap tin, or waste tinned iron, and so 
utilize the former metal. Mr. Higgin acts on the scrap with a mixture of 
muriatic acid and a little nitrate of soda. When muriatic acid is used 
alone, the iron dissolves more rapidly than the tin, but when nitrate of soda 
is added, the tin is acted on in preference. The whole of the nitrate of soda 
disappears, ard the resulting products are bichloride of tin, chloride of 
ammonium, and chloride of sodium, in accordance with the following equa- 
tion: 

4 Sn+10Cl H+ Na NO,=4 Sn Cl,+ NH, Cl+ Na Cl+6 HO. 
The bichloride of tin is then converted, by the excess of tin present, into 
protochloride. A little iron dissolves at the same time and is separated by 
means of chalk, which precipitates the protoxide of tin, leaving the iron in 
solution. The former is then converted, by fusion with nitrate of soda and 
caustic soda, into stannate of soda, with evolution of ammonia. The iron 
stripped of the tin is employed for the precipitation of copper. 


XVI. Copper OREs. 


Mr. William Henderson has introduced into this district a mode of dealing 
with very weak copper ores, which has been found extremely successful at 
Alderley, where the sandstone contains only 13 per cent. of copper, in the 
form of carbonate and arseniate. The sand containing the copper is put 
Into wooden vats with muriatie acid, and fresh sand added until the amount 
of copper is sufficient for saturation. The solution is then drawn off, and the 
copper precipitated by waste or scrap iron. In this way ores otherwise use- 
less have become valuable. 


120 REPORT—1S861. 


Another mode of attaining this object, and one in many cases to be pre- 
ferred, is by using sulphuric acid and boiling down the solution of sulphate 
of copper so as to obtain crystals, or still further, viz. to dryness. This is 
then heated in a furnace having a plate, or floor, of brickwork or tiles, the 
fire being applied beneath, and not passing over the salt of copper: the 
sulphate is decomposed, and sulphuric acid passes off. But the decomposi- 
tion is more effectual when carbon is added ; in this way sulphurous acid is 
driven off, and it is then led into a chamber, and being treated with nitrous 
fumes in the usual way, sulphuric acid is formed, which is again used for the 
solution of the copper in the ore. If the ore contains suboxide of copper, it 
is previously roasted for oxidation. Phosphates, arseniates, carbonates, and 
oxides may be treated by this process. 

For sulphides of copper Mr. Henderson roasts with common salt, having 
previously reduced the ore to fine powder. The chloride of copper is vula- 
tilized and condensed in a Gossage coke tower. The sulphate of soda re- 
maining may be washed out of the non-volatile portion, and the copper pre- 
cipitated from the solution flowing from the tower. He separates by this 
means the metals whose chlorides have a different rate of volatilization: 
chlorides such as chloride of silver are obtained in the flue close to the fur- 
nace. 

We do not allude to the other inventions contained in Mr. Henderson’s 
patents, as we are not aware of any being in use in this district. 


XVII. Nirric Acip. 


About 48 tons of nitrate of soda per week are used in this district for 
making nitric acid. The salt yields its own weight of acid of sp. gr. 1°40. 
Nitric acid is used here for making the nitrates of copper, lead, alumina, 
and iron, for oxidizing tin, for etching, and also for making aniline from 


benzole. 
XVIII. Oxatic Acip. 


One of the most important and most interesting of the new manufacturing 
processes which we have to describe in this Report is one for the preparation 
of oxalic acid, invented and patented by Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co., 
gentlemen to whom we owe a number of highly ingenious and useful prac- 
tical processes. The method of preparing oxalic acid hitherto employed 
consists, as is well known, in acting on organic substances, such as sugar or 
starch, with nitric acid. This process has now been superseded by that of 
Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co., which depends on the action exerted by 
caustic alkalies on various organic substances at a high temperature. That 
oxalic acid is one of the products formed by this action is a fact well known 
to chemists, but one that has not until recently been turned to any practical 
use. In the year 1829, Gay-Lussac published a short memoir*, in which 
he announced that he had succeeded in obtaining oxalic acid by heating 
cotton, sawdust, sugar, starch, gum, tartaric acid, and other organic acids 
with caustic potash in a platinum crucible. Since that time the subject 
has not been attended to either by scientific chemists or by practical men, so 
far as we know. Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co. are, we believe, the first 
persons who have succeeded in carrying out the process in practice on a 
large scale. In their attempt to do so they were met by a number of 
serious obstacles, chiefly of a practical nature. These, however, they have, 
by dint of uncommon ingenuity, and by the application of an amount of 
perseverance of which, perhaps, but few men are capable, succeeded in 


* Annales de Chim. et de Phys, t. xli. p, 398. 


PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 121 


overcoming, and the process is now in full and successful operation at their 

works at Warrington. With a most praiseworthy liberality, these gentlemen 
have furnished us with full particulars regarding their process. They have 
also allowed us to see it in operation, and we are therefore able to lay before 
the Section all the details necessary for becoming acquainted with its prin- 
cipal features. 

The only practical suggestion contained in Gay-Lussac’s memoir, consists 
in his proposal to convert cream of tartar by this method into oxalate of pot- 
ash. At that time tartaric acid was cheaper than oxalic acid, and the sug- 
gestion might therefore, under the circumstances of the time, have proved of 
some practical value. It was evident, however, that for the purpose of ensu- 
ring success a cheaper material had to be chosen. Messrs. Roberts, Dale 
and Co. found woody fibre in the shape of sawdust to answer perfectly. Gay- 
Lussac states, as the result of his experiments, that potash may be replaced 
by caustic soda. Mr. Dale found, however, that woody fibre produces hardly 
any oxalic acid with caustic soda. On the other hand, when potash is used 
alone, the process is not remunerative. This difficulty was overcome by em- 
ploying a mixture of soda and potash, in the proportion of two equivalents of 
the former to one of the latter, which produces the desired effect quite as well 
as potash alone. In what manner the soda acts in this case can only be con- 
jectured : whether in conjunction with the potash it takes the place of the 
latter, or whether it merely promotes the fusibility of the mixture, is merely a 
matter for speculation. The solution of the mixed alkalies having been 
evaporated to about 1°35 sp. gr., sawdust is introduced, so as to form a thick 
paste. This paste is then placed on iron plates in thin layers and gradually 
heated, the mass being kept constantly stirred. During the heating-process, 
water is in the first instance given off. The mass then swells up and disen- 
gages a quantity of inflammable gas, consisting of hydrogen and carburetted 
hydrogen. A peculiar aromatic odour is at the same time evolved. After 
the temperature has been maintained at 400° Fahr. for one or two hours, 
this part of the process may be considered as complete. The whole of 
the woody fibre is now decomposed, and the mass, which has a dark- 
brown colour, is entirely soluble in water. It contains, however, only from 
1: per cent. of oxalic acid, and about 0°5 per cent. of formic, but no acetic 
acid. What the nature of the principal product intermediate between the 
woody fibre and the oxalic acid is has not yet been determined; it seems 
well worthy of further investigation. The mass is now exposed still longer 
to the same temperature, care being taken to avoid any charring, which 
would cause a loss of oxalic acid. When perfectly dry, it contains the 
maximum quantity of oxalic acid, viz. from 28-30 per cent. (C,O,+3 HO), 
but still no acetic acid, and very little more formic acid than before. The 
absence of acetic acid is surprising, as it is generally supposed to be an 
essential product of this process of decomposition. It is possible that the 
acetates may be converted into oxalates as they are formed ; but, on the other 
hand Gay-Lussac states that acetates when heated with caustic alkalies yield 
chiefly carbonates, and but a trifling proportion of oxalates—a conclusion to 
which Mr. Dalé has also been led from direct experiments with acetates*. 

The product of the heating-process, which is a grey powder, is in the next 
place treated with water heated to about 60° Fahr. In this the whole dissolves, 
with the exception of the oxalate of soda which is either contained in it, or 
is formed by double decomposition on the addition of water, and which, on 
account of its slight degree of solubility, falls to the bottom. ‘The use of the 


_ * It may be mentioned that the process of decomposition takes place equally well in close 
vessels. It must therefore be accompanied by a decomposition of water. 


poy, REPORT—1861. 


soda in this part of the process is sufficiently apparent. The supernatant 
liquid is drawn off and evaporated to dryness, and the residual mass is heated 
in furnaces in order to destroy the organic matter and recover the alkalies 
which it contains, and which are employed again after being causticized for 
acting on fresh sawdust. In consequence of the elimination of soda, the 
relative proportion of the two alkalies recovered from the liquor is, of course, 
different to what it was at the commencement; and before being used again 
the quantity of each alkali contained in the mixture must be ascertained. 

The oxalate of soda, after being washed, is decomposed by boiling with 
hydrate of lime. Oxalate of lime falls to the bottom, and caustic soda passes 
into solution, and may be employed again for any purpose to which it is ap- 
plicable. The resulting oxalate of lime is decomposed by means of sulphuric 
acid, the proportions employed being three equivalents of acid to one of the 
oxalate ; and the liquor decanted from the sulphate of lime is evaporated to 
crystallization in leaden vessels. ‘The crystals of oxalic acid, which are slightly 
coloured by organic matter, are purified by recrystallization. 

From about 2 Ibs. of sawdust 1 lb. of crystallized oxalic acid may be 
obtained. There is no loss of oxalic acid. The only loss experienced is in 
alkalies. The quantity of acid at present manufactured by Messrs. Roberts, 
Dale and Co. amounts to 9 tons per week ; and their works are capable of 
being extended so as to produce 15 tons, which is supposed to be the total 
quantity consumed throughout the world. Their plant is extensive and 
costly, and bears evidence of an uncommon spirit of enterprise on the part 
of the proprietors. 

“In order to give an idea of the effect which the introduction of this pro- 
cess has had on the market, it may be mentioned that the selling price of the 
aeid at this time is 8d. to 9d. per lb., whereas in 1851 it was 15d. to 16d. 
per lb. 

Oxalic acid is used extensively in calico-printing, woollen-dyeing, woollen- 
printing, silk-dyeing with wood colours, in straw-bleaching, and for making 
binoxalate of potash, the so-called “salt of lemons.” 


XIX. Pyrotigngous AciIp. 


The only improvement introduced into the manufacture of this acid during 
the last few years consists in the use of sawdust instead of wood in the 
process of destructive distillation. The sawdust is introduced into the front 
of the retort through a hopper, and is gradually moved to the other end by 
means of an endless screw, worked by machinery. During its transit it 
becomes completely carbonized, the gaseous and liquid products escape 
through a pipe, while the charcoal is allowed to fall into a vessel of water. 
The latter precaution is necessary, since the carbon is obtained in such a 
minute state of division that no cooling in the air or in closed vessels would 
be sufficient to stop the combustion. In other respects the process does 
not differ essentially from that with wood. No more acid is obtained than 
with wood, and less naphtha. The quantity of the former varies, however, 
with the temperature employed. The usual temperature is that of a dull red 
heat. From 1 ton of sawdust 100-120 gallons of liquid, containing 4 per 
cent. of glacial acid and 15 gallons of tar, are obtained, and 100 parts of 
the crude distillate yield 3 of naphtha. The advantage consists in the 
cheapness of the material employed; but, on the other hand, one of 
the resulting products, viz. the finely divided charcoal, is comparatively 
worthless. 

This invention forms the subject of Mr. Halliday’s patent, which was taken 
out in the year 1848-49. Quite recently Mr. Bowers has patented another 


PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 123 


plan, which consists in passing the sawdust into the retorts by means of an 
inclined plane, and a series of scrapers. 

Quantity of acid manufactured weekly in Manchester :—12,000 gallons, 
containing about 4 per cent. of glacial acid. 

The value of the acid is £3 per ton, whilst that of the tar is from £4 to 
£4 10s. 

The quantities of red liquor (acetate of alumina) and iron liquor (prot- 
acetate of iron) made may be stated here, as they are always made by means 
of pyroligneous acid, and generally by the same parties who manufacture the 
acid. Red liquor, 12,000 gallons. Iron liquor, 6000 gallons. 


XX. SrarcH AND ARTIFICIAL Gums. 


About 20 tons of starch and 34 tons of gum-substitutes, made by roasting 
farina and other kinds of starch, are produced in this district per week. 

No change has taken place in the process of manufacturing starch from 
flour. The old process of fermentation is still adhered to. 


XXI. PuriFicATIoNn oF Resin. 


Several very interesting and successful processes have lately been patented 
by Messrs. Hunt and Pochin of Salford, for the purification of resin. The 
aim of these gentlemen, who have devoted a large amount of time and atten- 
tion to this subject, is to produce a bright, nearly colourless, solid and brittle 
resin from the common dark and impure commercial article. This end 
they attain by distilling the resin in an atmosphere of. steam at about 10 lbs. 
pressure. The several resinous acids which on distillation by themselves 
split up into gaseous products and volatile oils of very variable composition, 
are mechanically carried over, it would appear, in presence of steam, as is 
well known to be the case with stearic and the other higher fatty acids; and 
a solid product, which cannot be distinguished from the finest resin, is 
obtained from a very impure material. In their patent of 1858, Messrs. 
Hunt and Pochin specify the formation of three distinct solid products 
during different stages of the process; these they distinguish as a, (, and. 
yresin. These three several substances present the characteristics of resins, 
but clarified and to a great extent deprived of colour. They are either 
separately or in combination applicable to and useful in the manufacture of 
several important articles, such as soap, size, candles, paper-size, varnish, 
and japan; and they may be used for distilling to produce resin-oils. 

About 60 tons per week of this purified resin are now manufactured in 
this district under this patent. 


XXII. Orncanic CoLtourinc-MATTERS. 


There are few substances of more importance to the manufacturers of this 
district than those which are employed in imparting colour to the various 
fabrics, especially those of cotton, produced here. Of these substances the 
majority are derived from the animal or vegetable kingdom. Indeed, with 
the exception of oxide of iron and chromate of lead, very few mineral sub- 
stances are at the present time made use of alone by the dyer or printer. 
The greater intensity, beauty, and variety of the dyes which are wholly or 
in part composed of organic matters causes them to be preferred; and the 
increase of skill and knowledge of scientific principles on the part of dyers 
and printers has also led to their more exclusive employment. When it 
is stated that the quantity of dye-woods (logwood, peachwood, sapanwood, 
barwood, fustic, quercitron bark) consumed weekly by the dyers of this 


124 REPORT—1861. 


district amounts to 300 or 400 tons, that the weekly consumption of the 
same by printers is about 60 tons, that from 150 to 200 tons are in the same 
time converted into extracts, and that 150 tons per week of madder are 
used up, exclusive of what is used for garancine, &c., some idea of the mag- 
nitude of the interests depending on the employment of these materials may 
be formed. 

The chemistry of colouring-matters is still in its infancy. Indeed, so few 
of them have as yet been prepared in a state of purity, that we have hitherto 
been able merely to lay down a few general principles applicable to all. The 
direct applications of science in this branch of the arts are therefore few. 
The purely practical improvements which have been introduced in dyeing 
and printing within the last twenty years are, however, numerous and im- 
portant. Among these may be mentioned the invention of steam colours, 
which certainly dates from an earlier period, but has of late years received a 
much more extensive application—the improved methods of preparing extracts 
of dye-woods—the fixation of insoluble pigments on fabrics by means of 
albumen—the introduction of artificial colouring matters, such as murexide, 
and the various colours from aniline. 

In the present Report we must, however, confine ourselves to the improve- 
ments which have been made in the preparation of the materials used for the 
purpose of dyeing, without entering into the subject of the dyeing-processes 
themselves. 

No dyeing-material has received so much attention, both on the part of 
scientific chemists and of practical men, as indigo. The chemical properties 
of its most important constituent have been fully investigated, and its beha- 
viour when applied in practice carefully examined. It is perhaps on this 
very account that we find nothing of importance to report under this head. 
With the exception of a new method of reducing indigo by means of finely 
divided metals, patented by Leonard, we do not suppose that any important 
improvement has been introduced in connexion with this dye-stuff. 

Of no less importance in the art of dyeing is madder, the material with 
which the most permanent reds, purples, and blacks are produced. The 
methods which have been proposed for more effectually utilizing this impor- 
tant dye-stuff are very numerous indeed, though exceedingly few of them 
have been found to be of practical value. They may be divided into two 
classes, viz., those having for their object to render available the greatest 
amount of colouring-matter, and those which tend to produce more perma- 
nent or more beautiful colours. The first object seems to be perfectly 
attained by converting the madder by the action of acid into garancine. 
This preparation is becoming more and more extensively used. There are 
printing-establishments in which nothing else is employed in the production 
of madder colours. Even in turkey-red dyeing it is beginning to be much 
used, thus proving the fallacy of the opinion formerly entertained, that no 
preparation of madder could be made to supply the place of the crude mate- 
rial in this process. The garancine for this purpose is manufactured in 
Holland. It is said to be made by treating the roots with dilute sulphuric 
acid containing 35 per cent. of the weight of the madder of concentrated 
acid (the usual proportion in this country being about 25 per cent.), and 
boiling for several hours. By this means the pectic acid, one of the most 
hurtful constituents of the root, is removed. ‘The residue left after the ordi- 
nary process of madder dyeing still contains a quantity of colouring-matter 
in a state of combination. By treating it with sulphuric acid a product is 
obtained called garanceux, which is again used for dyeing. The quantity of 
garancine manufactured in this district, exclusive of garanceux (which is 


PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 125 


mostly made and consumed by printers themselves), is estimated at about 
1200 tons per annum, which would require about three times its weight of 
madder for its production. 

Of the second class of inventions bearing on madder, perhaps the most 
successful is that which was patented by Pincoffs and Schunck in the year 
1853. It is well known that in order to produce the finer descriptions of 
madder colours, such as pink and lilac, on cotton fabrics, it is necessary 
to subject the dyed goods to a long series of operations, such as soaping, 
aciding, &c. These processes are always attended with some risk of failure ; 
and besides that, a very large quantity of madder (an excess, in fact) must 
be employed in dyeing, in order to obtain the ultimate effect desired. It is 
evident that, if the impurities (resins, pectine, &c.) accompanying the 
colouring-matters in the root could be removed or destroyed, the opera- 
tions necessary after dyeing might be dispensed with or much curtailed, 
since the object of these operations is precisely the removal of these im- 
purities from the dyed fabric. In the preparation of ordinary garancine 
a portion of these impurities is removed, but those which are insoluble, 
or difficulty soluble in water, remain behind for the most part, and subse- 
quently exert a prejudicial effect in dyeing. Now the invention referred to 
above consists in subjecting garancine whilst in a moist state to the influ- 
ence of an elevated temperature in close vessels (or what comes to precisely 
the same thing, to the action of high-pressure steam) for several hours. 
What takes place during this process is not exactly known. According to 
some experiments undertaken by one of us, if appears that the two red 
colouring-matters contained in madder, viz. alizarine and purpurine, are not 
in the least degree affected by it, whereas the pectic acid and some of the 
resinous colouring-matters are charred, and thus rendered insoluble and inno- 
cuous. Be this as it may, the result of the process is a product which, when 
used for dyeing, yields colours requiring very little after-treatment in order 
to give them the required degree of brilliancy, whilst they are quite as per- 
manent as those produced by madder itself. The use of this material is 
attended by a saving in dye-stuff, mordants, and soap, as well as in time and 
‘labour. The results are also more certain. Moreover, when other colours, 
such as brown and orange, are introduced in combination with madder colours, 
the effect is much superior to that produced with madder, where the soapings 
required to yield the desirable brightness deteriorate the other colours. 
_ There are other advantages of a practical nature attending its use which 
need not be here referred to. It has, however, one disadvantage, viz. that from 
some unexplained cause it is not well adapted for dyeing pink; and for this 
colour it is therefore still necessary to employ unprepared madder. The pro- 
duct has obtained the name of Commercial Alizarine, since the effect in dye- 
ing is similar to that of the pure colouring matter, alizarine. It is manufac- 
tured on a large scale by Messrs. Pincoffs and Co. Since its introduction in 
1853, more than three million pieces of calico have been dyed with it in our 
_ district and in Scotland. 

_ Mr. Higgin prepares commercial alizarine by boiling garancine with water, 
carbonate of soda, and alittle ammonia. The liquid, which is alkaline at 
first, is boiled until it becomes acid. A short boiling gives a garancine 
adapted for dyeing purple, whilst a boiling of twenty-four hours yields aliza- 
rine. 

_ We may here mention Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co.’s process for pre- 
paring lakes, as the compounds of organic colouring-matters with various 
bases are usually called. Such lakes, with a basis of alumina, have for a long 
time been made from peachwood, sapanwood, and other dye-woods; but 


126 REPORT—1861. 


they had several disadvantages, which restricted their use in practice. They 
were not permanent, they had little body, and they were gelatinous and con- 
sequently cracked in drying. These disadvantages have been obviated by 
Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co., who employ oxide of tin as a base instead of 
alumina, and produce lakes which, owing partly to their physical condition, 
and partly to their chemical composition, possess the requisite degree of per- 
manency and intensity of colour. The lakes prepared by the above-men- 
tioned firm are sold to the paper-stainers, who make use of them for the 
manufacture of a peculiar style of paper, called mock flocks, which form an 
excellent imitation of true flock papers, and are consequently used in large 
quantities. 

Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co.’s process for making a scarlet lake from 
barwood, which is peculiar, may be here shortly described. The colouring- 
matter of this wood is very slightly soluble in water. The ground wood is 
therefore simply treated with boiling water, to which the requisite quantity 
of precipitated oxide of tin is added. The boiling water dissolves some 
colouring-matter, which is immediately separated by the oxide of tin, and 
more colouring-matter then passes into solution to be precipitated as before, 
the process being continued until the compound acquires the requisite inten- 
sity of colour, and the wood is exhausted. The whole being now left to 
repose, the wood, which is heavier than the dyed oxide of tin, sinks to the 
bottom, leaving the pigment floating in the liquid. The latter is decanted 
off, passed through fine sieves to separate some woody fibre, and allowed to 
stand. The lake is deposited, and after being pressed is ready for use. The 
quantity of this lake manufactured weekly by this firm is 2 tons, and the 
price 8d. per lb. 

The production of artificial colouring-matters for practical purposes has 
of late attracted much attention among scientific men and manufacturers. 
To this class of products belongs Murexide, a body which, as far as we know, 
does not occur ready-formed in nature. This substance, which was first 
discovered by Prout, and subsequently examined by Liebig and Wohler, was 
until very recently unknown out of the laboratory of the chemist. This arose 
from the circumstance that uric acid, the only known source of murexide, 
has not until recently been found to occur anywhere in large quantities. 
The discovery of large beds of guano in various parts of the world has fur- 
nished us with a material containing a sufficient quantity, however small, of 
that acid to render the manufacture of murexide on a larger scale practicable ; 
and it is now prepared in quantities surprising to those who have only seen 
it made on the small scale in the laboratory. The process pursued may be 
shortly described as follows :—The guano is first treated with dilute acid, in 
order to decompose the ammoniacal salts coutained in it. The residue left 
by the acid is treated with caustic soda in order to dissolve the uric acid, and 
the solution, decanted from the insoluble portion (consisting of phosphates, 
sand, &c.), is supersaturated with muriatic acid. The precipitated uric acid 
is filtered off, washed with water, and dried, when it has the appearance of a 
brownish-white crystalline powder. The next part of the process consists in 
treating the uric acid with nitric acid. Measured quantities of the latter are 
poured into pots of about 1 gallon capacity, which stand in water for the 
purpose of being kept cool. A certain weight of uric acid is then introduced, 
in small quantities at a time, into each pot—a process which occupies about 
ten hours. The liquid has now a dark-brown colour, and is generally covered 
with a crystalline crust, consisting of alloxan and alloxantine. It may be 
remarked that the process does not succeed well unless both these substances 
are present—a fact already known from the researches of Liebig and Wohler. 


PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 127 


The liquid is then transferred to an enamelled vessel, diluted with water, and 
mixed with an excess of carbonate of ammonia when the object is to pro- 
duce murexide or purpurate of ammonia. Generally, however, carbonate 
of soda is used, and in this case the product is purpurate of soda. The pre- 
cipitated murexide or purpurate of soda is separated by filtration, washed 
and dried. It has the appearance of an amorphous, puce-coloured powder. 
The quantity manufactured by Mr. Rumney, of Manchester, amounted at 
one time to 12 ewt. per week, for which about 12 tons of guano were re- 
quired. The price was at first 30s. per lb., but has now fallen to 15s. In 
printing cotton goods with murexide, nitrate of lead is used as a solvent, the 
solution properly thickened is printed, and the goods are then passed through 
a bath of corrosive sublimate. Other methods are employed, but they all 
depend on the use of salts of lead and mercury. The colour produced by 
murexide is so brilliant as almost to justify the belief entertained by Liebig 
and Wohler, that the celebrated Tyrian purple of the ancients was obtained 
by its means. 


XXIII. Anrizinge Cotours. 


The artificial colouring-matters from aniline and other bases have of late 
attracted much attention, and various plans have been devised for pro- 
ducing them. The usual method of obtaining aniline-purple, the so-called 
“Mauve,” consists in submitting salts of aniline in watery solution to 
the action of oxidizing agents, such as chromates or permanganates, or 
the peroxides of manganese and lead. To these processes we may add 
another, patented by Messrs. J. Dale and A. Caro, and carried out in prac- 
tice by Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co. This process is based upon the 
fact that salts of aniline, when heated with solutions of perchloride of 
copper, completely reduce it to the state of protochloride, with the simul- 
taneous formation of a black precipitate containing aniline-purple. Messrs, 
Dale and Caro dissolve one equivalent of a neutral salt of aniline m water, 
and boil this solution during several hours with a mixture of copper salts 
and alkaline chlorides corresponding to 6 equivalents of perchloride of 
copper. After the reaction is completed the mixture is filtered, the black 
precipitate well washed and dried, and afterwards extracted repeatedly with 
dilute alcohol in order to dissolve out the colouring-matters, which it con- 
tains in a remarkably pure state. These manufacturers have also produced 
aniline-reds by heating anhydrous hydrochlorate of aniline with nitrate of 
lead at 360° F. The product of this reaction is a bronze-like brittle mass, 
which contains aniline-red, always accompanied by purple colours. Boiling 
water extracts the red colouring-matters and separates them from the purple 
dyes, which after some purification constitute valuable substitutes for the 
mauve colour. 

The method of fixing these colouring-matters to cotton, invented by 
Mr. Dale, jun., which promises to be valuable, may be mentioned here. The 
goods are prepared with a solution of colouring-matter and tannin, and are 
then passed through a bath containing tartar emetic. The affinity of the 
former substances for antimony determines the fixation of the colour on 
the fabric. 


XXIV. Disinrecrants. 


The manufacture of disinfectants has now become a regular and constant 
one ; and since the inquiries instituted on the subject by one of us and Mr. 
M‘Dougall of this city, the use of those made in this district has been 
enormously increased. Mr. M‘Dougall manufactures, near Oldham, a disin- 


128 REPORT—1861. 


fecting-powder, in which the properties of carbolic and sulphurous acid are 
taken advantage of. This powder is used to prevent decomposition in 
stables, cowhouses, and among accumulations of putrescible matter, and 
generally for the prevention of decomposition in manures. A liquid is also 
prepared with carbolic acid and lime-water, which is applied for the purpose 
of preventing decomposition in sewers, thus carrying out the idea first started 
by one of us, of purifying whole cities by preventing the generation of gases 
in sewer water, or among accumulations of refuse. This liquid is also used 
to prevent the decomposition of animal matter when it cannot at once be 
made use of, especially in the case of meat brought to market, or animals 
that have died in the fields) The powder, which is called “ M‘Dougall’s 
disinfecting-powder,” is simply a mixture of the sulphites of lime and mag- 
nesia with the carbolates of the same bases. The carbolates of lime and 
magnesia are formed by simply boiling carbolic acid for a long time with the 
bases in a caustic state. The solution consists of carbolic acid dissolved in 
lime-water. It is extremely bulky ; still -.jth to ;;sth part of the bulk of 
the sewer water is sufficient to disinfect the latter. The solution of the powder 
has also been used to some extent in dissecting-rooms, where it immediately 
destroys any noxious smell, and at once liberates the fingers of the operator 
from the peculiarly nauseous odour which so often attaches to them. It has 
also been found useful in the treatment of sores, as well as of dysentery. 
M. Lemaire has lately read papers on tar oil and phenic acid; but Man- 
chester claims priority in the application and explanation of these prepa- 
rations. 

Mr. M‘Dougall has also applied carbolic acid to the destruction of para- 
sitic insects on sheep, and has in many districts entirely driven out the 
arsenical preparations by the use of this acid united with fatty substances. 
Sheep dipped in it are not liable to be attacked by tick, even when left for 
some months among other sheep infested with it. Foot-rot and other diseases 
of sheep are also said to be prevented and cured by its use. 

Mr. Pochin has introduced lately a very extensive manufacture which has 
greatly affected the mode of using alumina, and also the manufacture of 
alum. The substance is called alum-cake, It is sulphate of alumina with 
about 16 equivalents of water and silica. Very fine white clay is stirred 
round with sulphuric acid of about 140°0 sp. gravity, then warmed to about 
100° F., and poured into a square trough with moveable sides. In a few | 
minutes the action of the acid on the clay becomes very violent, and a 
sulphate of alumina is formed with the silica of the clay intimately mixed. 
If very strong sulphuric acid is used, the action becomes so violent that the 
whole mass is thrown out of the trough. The whole hardens into a compact 
mass difficult to break. To facilitate the fracture, wedges of iron were 
pressed into the mass when soft, the sides of the trough were taken down, 
and by striking the wedges the whole was broken into pieces. Now, how- 
ever, a more elaborate machine is used to break it up into small portions. 

In this manufactured article there is a large quantity of alumina, viz. 12°38 — 
per cent. in a soluble form; the trouble of crystallizing is avoided, and the © 
silica is in no way injurious in most cases. In some cases, where alum is — 
used with resin for paper size, the addition of the silica is indeed consi- 
dered an advantage. At any rate, the manufacture is constantly increasing ; 
if silica be objected to, it is allowed to fall down, and a clear solution of 
sulphate of alumina remains. 


ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 129 


On Ethno-Climatology ; 01, the Acclimatization of Man. By James 
Hont, Ph. D., F.S.A., F.R.S.L., Foreign Associate of the An- 
thropological Society of Paris, Honorary Secretary of the Ethnolo- 
gical Society of London. 

[A communication ordered to be printed among the Reports. ] 


One of the most important and practical duties of the ethnologist at the 
present day is the endeavour to discover the laws which regulate the health 
of man in his migrations over the world. The generally received opinions 
on this important subject are, however, vague and unsatisfactory. 

From some cause, it is the popular belief that man stands entirely alone 
in the animal kingdom with regard to the influence exerted on him by 
external causes. We are told that man can thrive equally well in the 
burning heat of the tropics and in the icy regions at the poles. 

I purpose, therefore, in this paper to examine how far the supposition of 
man’s cosmopolitan power is warranted by an induction from the facts at 
present known to us., We can gain nething in Climatology from “a priori” 
arguments, as it is entirely an experimental science; and hitherto we have 
not been able to foretell with any certainty the exact effect which any 
climate would exert on an individual or a race. No one who reflects on the 
important bearings which the question of man’s cosmopolitanism introduces 
will be inclined to doubt the gravity of the question, and its claims to the 
serious attention, not only of ethnologists, but of all who are interested in 
the great problem of man’s future,destiny. This question then has equal 
claims on the attention of the philosopher and the statesman. Our data 
‘may be at present insufficient to found an exact science of Ethno-Climato- 
logy, but I trust to be able to show that there exist the outlines of a great 
science, which bids fair to prevent that waste of human life which has 
hitherto characterized the reckless policy of British colonization. Dr. Bou- 
din, who is well known for his researches on this and kindred subjects, has 
recently called the attention of the Anthropological Society of Paris to the 
question, and laments the great inattention which public men have hitherto 
given to such an important and grave subject. He very justly observes, 
“The problem is certainly one of the most important in the science of 
ethnology; for it goverus the great questions of colonization, of recruiting 
men destined for distaut expeditions, and of fixing the duration of the sojourn 
of foreign troops at certain stations, so as to render them effective in war. 
This question touches public health and social economy.” Nor will it be 
necessary for me further to ask attention, when it is considered how largely 

_ the British nation is practically interested in having a correct and physiolo- 
gical system of colonization. 1 therefore bring this subject under your con- 
sideration with a desire of calling public attention to the powers of acclima- 
tization possessed by the races of man in general, and by Europeans in 
particular. It is asserted that to man belongs the exclusive privilege of 
being the denizen of every region; for that with plants and animals such is 
not the case. This explanation has as often been accepted as satisfactorily 
showing that man enjoys privileges over the animal and vegetable kingdoms. 
That races of men are found in every climate is perfectly true; but a slight 
examination into the differences and peculiarities of the races of men will 
show that this argument is not so forcible as at first sight it appears. 
) Theorists have often indulged in boasting of the superiority of man over 
the animal kingdom in his migrations over the world; but these writers 
| have forgotten that it is civilization which greatly aids man to adapt himself 
| (for a time) to every climate, We have heard much, too, of the acclimati- 
| 1861. K 


| 
i] 
| 


130 REPORT—1861. 


zation of animals; but there has been great exaggeration as to what has been 
really effected. 

No one will attempt to deny that, physically, mentally, and morally, there 
does exist a very considerable difference between the denizens of different 
parts of the earth; and it is not proposed to inquire whether the various 
agents which constitute climate, and their collateral effects, are sufficient to 
produce the changes in physique, mind, and morals which we find; but, 
simply taking the various types of man as they now occur on the earth, we 
have to determine whether we are justified in assuming that man is a cos- 
mopolitan animal, and whether the power of acclimatization be possessed 
equally by all the races of man known to us. 

The conditions which prevent or retard the acclimatization of man are 
physical, mental, and moral. It is, however, impossible to discuss the effect 
of climate only on man, because we find that food is inseparably connected 
with climate, and that both are modified by the physical conformation of the 
districts inhabited. The exercise or neglect of mental culture must also be 
considered. It is therefore nearly impossible to decide to which class we 
must ascribe certain effects ; but there can be little doubt that all these causes 
act in harmony, and are insensibly bound together. In speaking, therefore, 
of climate, I use the word in its fullest sense, and include the whole cosmic 
phenomena. Thus, the physical qualities of a country have an important 
connexion with climate; and we must not simply consider the latitude and 
longitude of a given locality, but its elevation or depression, its soil, its 
atmospheric influences, and also the quantity of light, the nature of its 
water, the predominance of certain winds, the electrical state of the air, &c., 
atmospheric pressure, vegetation, and aliment, as all these are connected with _ 
the question of climate. 

Now we find man scattered over the globe, and existing and flourishing 
under the most opposite circumstances. Indeed, there seems no part of the 
earth in which man could not, for a period at least, take up his dwelling. 
When Capt. Parry reached 84° of north latitude, it was the ice, and not 
the climate, which prevented him from reaching the pole. Man may live 
where the temperature exceeds the heat of his blood, and also where mer- 
cury would freeze; so man may exist where the atmospheric pressure is 
only one-half of what it is at the level of the sea. Men have been found 
permanently residing 12,000 feet above that level. 

There is a difference between the climate of the N. and S. hemispheres 
under apparently the same circumstances. ‘Thus, the European cannot live 
for any time at any great elevation in the northern hemisphere. The 
highest inhabited place of Europe has generally been considered to be the 
Casa Inglese, a small building of lava on Mount Etna, near the foot of the 
uppermost crater, 9200 feet above the level of the sea. There is, however, 
a house in the Theodal Pass, between Wallis and Piedmont, at an elevation 
of 10,000 feet*. These buildings are, however, only inhabited during the — 
summer months. In the southern hemisphere there are permanent inhabit- 
ants in regions from ten thousand five hundred feet to twelve thousand fect 
above the level of the sea. Dr. Tschudi, who has himself resided in these 
regions, describes what is known as the “ Puna sickness,” which is what may 
be called a mountain-sickness, and very much resembles sea-sickness. The 
Peruvians live and thrive well at elevations of from seven to fifteen thousand 
feet above the level of the sea—heights said by some observers to be often 
destructive to the whites. This difference between the north and south 
hemispheres is caused, perhaps, by the difference in attraction at the north 


* Perty, Vorschall der NaturwissenSchaften, 1853. 


ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 131 


pole. In the northern hemisphere the ascent of a high mountain causes a 
rush of blood to the head, and in the southern there is an attraction of blood 
to the feet; hence the cause of the sickness. 

Au examination of the human race shows us that every family presents 
different modifications, which are doubtless connected in some way with the 
nature of the cosmic influences by which they are surrounded. We know 
that some plants and animals are peculiar to certain regions, and that if trans- 
planted to other climates they degenerate or die ; such is the case with man. 
In every climate we find man organized in harmony with the climate; and if 
he is not in harmony, he will cease to exist. The general scale of power for 
enduring change is in certain respects in unison with the mental power of 
the race, and is also dependent on the purity of blood. Uncivilized and 
mixed races have the least power, and civilized pure races the greatest. 
Every race of man, however, has certain prescribed geographical salubrious 
limits from which it cannot with impunity be displaced. Such, at least, is 
the lesson I have drawn from existing data. It is civilization which chiefly 
enables the European to bear the extremes of climate. Indeed, a people 
must be civilized to some extent before they desire to visit distant regions. 
The Esquimaux, for instance, is perfectly happy in his own way, and has 
no desire to move to a warmer climate. His whole body and mind are 
suited for the locality ; and were he moved to a warm climate, he would 
certainly perish. The whole organism of the Esquimaux is fitted solely 
for a cold climate; nor is such a supposition problematical and inexpli- 
cable by known physical laws. On the contrary, the physiological expla- 
nation of such a phenomenon is quite simple. Thus, the European going 
to the tropics becomes subject to dysentery; and-the Negro coming to 
Europe, to pulmonary complaints. Europeans who have recently arrived 
at the tropics are instantly known by their walk and general activity. This, 
however, soon subsides, the organic functions become disturbed, the pulse 
and circulation are more active, the respiration less so, while the muscular 
fibre loses its energy ; the stomach also becomes very weak. The action of 
the skin becomes abnormal, while the heat acts on and excites the liver. 

It is often stated that tropical climates stimulate the organs of generation, 
but this is contrary to experience. That there is a low state of morality, 
and that theinhabitants of these regions are essentially sensual, cannot be 
denied ; just as the cold region is distinguished by the gluttony of its 
inhabitants, and temperate regions by increased activity of brain. 

The geography of disease has a most important bearing on this subject. 
It is somewhat strange that man suffers more from epidemics than animals, 
and this is probably owing to his neglect of the laws of diet, which require 
to be adapted to every climate. Thus we find that the temperate zone, 
which ought to be by far the healthiest, has more diseases than either the 
hot or the cold zones. The cold zone has but a small number of diseases ; 
and in the torrid zone the number is not large, although the diseases 
are generally very malignant. Attempts have been made to classify diseases 
into three categories—those of hot, cold, and temperate regions. Such a 
classification is, however, arbitrary and most unsatisfactory ; for ihe same 
climate may be found in each of the three regions. In the tropics there are 
temperate and cold regions, just as there is equatorial heat in the temperate 
zone. Dr. Fuchs* distinguishes these three regions of disease. The first he 
ealls the Catarrhal region. This is so denominated because catarrh of the 
respiratory organs predominates in it. ‘Catarrh,” he says, “is the com- 


* Medicinische Gecgraphie. By Dr. C. Fuchs, 1853. 


132 REPORT—1861. 


mon cause of disease in the north temperate zone, between 1300 and 3000 
fect above the level of the sea; in the central temperate zone, between two 
and seven thousand; within the tropics, between seven and fourteen thou- 
sand feet; in the cold zone, near the level of the sea.” The other two 
regions he calls the Entero-mesenteric region, in which gastric complaints 
predominate, and the Dysenteric region, in which there is no scrofula or 
tubercular disease. Without entering into the value of this classification, 
medical statistics seem to prove that there are three zones:—lst, the cold 
or catarrhal zone; 2nd, the tropical or dysenteric zone ; and $rd, the tem- 
perate or gastric and scrofulous zone. This last zone, however, seems to 
be subject to the diseases of the other two zones, which prevail respectively 
according to the seasons. The scrofulous zone ceases at an altitude of two 
thousand feet above the level of the sea; here there is no pulmonary con- 
sumption, scrofula, cancer, or typhus fever. 

It has been suggested that the perfection of the races in the temperate 
zone depends on the conflict to which they are subjected by the irruption 
of diseases from the other zones,—the unfavourable climatic conditions 
producing a human organism eapable of resisting them. Dr. Russdorf* 
says, ‘* The climatic conditions of the temperate zone act in the formation 
of blood in such a manner that a large quantity of albumen is present in 
it. This richness in albumen is manifestly requisite to produce and nourish 
the powerful brain which distinguishes the Caucasian race; for the brain 
mainly consists of albumen combined with phosphorated fatty matter.” 
“Tt is the brain of the Caucasian which determines his superiority over 
the other races; it is the standard of the power of the organism; it might be 
termed the architect of the body, as its influence upon the formation of 
matter is paramount. The effect of the atmosphere upon the formative acti- 
vity of the organism and upon the metamorphosis of matter is so great, that 
it is, for instance, on the intluence of the oxygen absorbed by the skin and 
the lungs that the metamorphosis of the albumen into muscle, &c., directly 
depends. The atmosphere of the temperate zone favours such a change of 
matter that the blood remains rich in albumen, so that a large brain can be 
nourished. But this richness in albumen is also the cause of many charac- 
teristic diseases, when this substance, under the process of inflammation, is 
morbidly excited in the tissue of the organs and destroys their anatomical 
structure or organic mechanism. That general condition, in which the con- 
sumption of the albumen by the organic metamorphosis is deficient, is well 
known as the scrofulous predisposition of the European, which is unknown 
among the inhabitants of the tropics and the cold zone.” 

Two questions then await a solution: 1st, Can any race of men flourish, 
unchanged both mentally and physically, in a different ethnic centre from 
that to which it belongs? 

2nd, Can any race of men move from its own ethnic centre into another, 
and become changed into the type of that race which inhabits the region 
to which it migrates ? 

Now, races of men moving from one region to another must either dege- 
nerate and become extinct, or flourish with the same distinctive characters 
that they have in their own regions, or they must gradually become changed 
into new types of men suited to their new positions. 

That new races of men are being formed at this time is highly probable, 
as where, for instance, we have in a particular region a class of men with the 
same temperament and character. ‘This may, as in the case of America, 


* Vortriige zur Forderung der Gesundheitslehre (The Influence of European Climate). 
By Dr. C. von Russdorf, 1854. Berlin. 


ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 133 


give rise to a new race, but still belonging to the European type, just as we 
have in this country the distinctive class of the Quakers, &c. But this 
change in the so-called Anglo-Saxon race could have been effected without 
removing them out of their own region. If these men had congregated 
together in Europe, we should have had a group of men with different fecl- 
ings and opinions from our own. The congregation of a number of men 
and women of similar character would always tend to increase or intensify 
the special characteristics of the descendants of such people. Some writers, 
in their anxiety to prove that climate has nothing to do with the varieties 
of man, deny that there is any change in the European inhabitants of 
America; but recent events have given strong proof that there is a change, 
both in mind, morals, and physique; and while this change is not to be 
entirely ascribed to the climate, there still is good presumptive evidence that 
the Europeans have changed in America, especially in North America. In 
the children of the colonists there is a general languor, great excitability, 
and a want of cool energy. As they grow up, they neglect all manly sports. 
This general excitability and want of coolness and energy are also seen in the 
whole Yankee race. The women become decrepit very early, and conse- 
quently cease to breed while still young. It is also affirmed that the second 
and third generations of European colonists have small families. Some 
fifteen years ago, Dr. Knox stated publicly that he believed the Anglo- 
Saxons would die out in America if the supply of new blood from Europe 
was cut off. Such an assertion was, indeed, startling for any man to make ; 
it seemed to bear on the face of it a palpable absurdity. But, as time 
has passed on, this statement certainly became less baseless, and is now, at 
least, an hypothesis as worthy of our attention as any other explanation of 
this difficult question. Emerson has recently remarked on this extraordinary 
statement of Dr. Knox, that there is more probability of its truth than is 
generally thought. Emerson* says, “ Look at the unpalatable conclusions 
of Knox—a rash and unsatisfactory writer, but charged with pungent and 
unforgetable truths.” He continues, “The German and Irish millions, like 
the Negro, have a deal of guano in their destiny. ‘They are ferried over the 
Atlantic, and carted over America to ditch and to drudge, to make corn 
cheap, and then to lie down prematurely to make a spot of green grass on 
the prairie.” 

I do not purpose to give any categorical answers to the queries suggested, 
but simply to bring forward some facts, and to give the opinions of some 
men who have paid attention to this and allied questions. Thus I trust to 
lay a basis for further investigation, and induce more labourers to enter the 
field for the purpose of developing this important question. 

We must not take latitude simply as any test of climate; for the general 
climatological influences are very different in various regions. ‘Thus, it has 
been noticed that the west coast is colder than the east in the southern 
hemisphere, while in the northern the cast is colder than the west}. In 
the French Antilles, the temperature is between 62° F. to 77°F. on the 
shore, and descends to 55° F. or 60° F, at eight hundred metres above the 
level of the sea. At Fernando Po, the greatest heat known was from 83° to 
100° F.; generally it is about 73°F. So French Guiana is said not to have 
a higher temperature than Algeria. Some parts of Australia and New 
Zealand are nearer the equator than Algiers, and yet the temperature and 
salubrity are very different. ‘The effect of light is also most important, and 


* The Conduct of Life. By R. W. Emerson, p. 10. 
+ See what Darwin says respecting the fig and grape ripening in South America much 
better on the cast than on the west coast. 


134 REPORT—1861. 


is not merely confined to the skin, but affects the whole organism. The pre- 
sence of light modifies the qualities of the air; it also acts on the nervous 
system. If we look at the analogy of the effect of the absence of light on 
organized beings generally, we shall readily understand the influence which 
it exerts on man. Europeans, indeed, who live in darkness have colourless 
skin, the muscles soft, and the whole body bloated. It is, therefore, a ques- 
tion which has yet to be decided, how far the Esquimaux’s ill-formed frame 
may be produced by the want of light. And here we find that insensibly 
our attention is called to the vexed question of the unity or the plurality of 
origin of mankind. With that subject, however, we have at present nothing 
to do. It is, however, on the assumption of unity of origin that the cos- 
mopolitan powers of man have been imagined to exist. I hold the questions 
of unity or plurality, however, to be of little or no consequence in the pre- 
sent state of our knowledge. 

When we see that plants and animals vary in different climates, we are led 
to expect that man will also vary with the climate. Plants growing like 
trees in the tropics, become dwarfed in cold climates. It would, indeed, be 
strange that, as all animais vary, man should remain unchanged. But while 
admitting that man exists in harmony with external circumstances, we do 
not admit that one type of man can be changed into another. As the rose 
will under no change of external circumstances become a blackberry, so 
neither will a dog become a wolf, nor a European an African Negro. We 
shall, therefore, principally confine our attention to the inquiry whether man 
migrating from one region to another gradually degenerates. If there is 
degeneration going on, it is simply a question of time, as to how soon his 
race will become extinct. I shall, therefore, contend that any race migrating 
from one centre to another does degenerate both mentally and physically. 
Indeed, the psychical change produced in man by climatological influence is 
as soon visible as the change produced on his physical frame. When, for 
instance, the European goes to Africa, he, for a short time, retains his vigour 
of mind; but soon he finds his energies exhausted, and becomés listless, and 
nearly as indifferent to surrounding events as the natives. There is, how- 
ever, a considerable difference in the effects produced both on individuals of 
the same race, as also on the different races of men. Some are affected im- 
mediately on their arrival, and then appear to become partially acclimatized ; 
often the disease increases until it becomes very serious; again, others are 
attacked, without any warning, with either inflammation of the brain or liver. 
Others, again, do not appear at first to be at all affected; but gradually the 
strength gives way, the countenance becomes despondent, and chronic disease 
of the liver or stomach results. 

Neither can the inhabitants of tropical regions generally withstand the 
influence of removal to a cold climate. Much, however, depends on race ; 
for the different races of man have different degrees of adaptability for 
change of climate. We cannot, however, yet decide the exact powers of 
each race, as ethno-climatology is a new study, and a long series of obser- 
vations is required before a satisfactory answer can be given. 

Before I proceed to indicate the sort of evidence we can get from that 
most valuable of all modern sciences, statistical science, I think it will 
be well that I should quote some few authorities to show that there is an 
agreement between the most -recent writers on this subject and the lesson 
we learn from statistics. Dr. A. S. Thomson, who has paid great attention 
to this subject, observes, “ There is little doubt that the tropical parts of 
the world are not suited by nature for the settlement of natives of a tem- 
perate zone. European life is but with difficulty prolonged, much sickness 


ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 135 


is suffered, and their offspring become degenerate and cease to propagate 
their species in a few generations; and should necessity foree Europeans to 
perform the drudgery of labouring in the field, their lives will be rendered 
still shorter, and their existence little better than a prolonged sickness.” 
Dr. Thomson has entered into the various attempts of the Portuguese, Dutch, 
English, French, and Danes to colonize India. He has also dwelt on the 
attempts of the Dutch and Spaniards at colonization in the Indian Archi- 
pelago, and also on the state of European colonies in tropical Africa and 
tropical America. His conclusion is, “ that man can only flourish in climates 
analogous to that under which his race exists, and that any great change is 
injurious to his increase and also to his mental and physical development.” 

Sir Alexander Tulloch well observes, that military returns, properly orga- 
nized and digested, serve as the most useful guides “ to point out the limits 
intended by nature for particular races, and in which alone they can thrive 
and increase”—boundaries which neither the pursuit of wealth nor the dreams 
of ambition should induce them to pass, and proclaim, in forcible language, 
that man, like the elements, is controlled by a Power which hath said, 
“ Hither shalt thou come, but no further.” 

Let us glance at the attempts of the French to colonize the North of Africa. 

The mortality of the civil population in France is about twenty-five in a 
thousand, while the average mortality of the civil population in Algiers, in 
1853, was 43°5, and in 1854, 53°2 ina thousand. “In all the localities of 
Algiers, without exception,” says M. Boudin, ‘the mortality of the Euro- 
pean population exceeds by far, not merely the normal mortality of England 
and France, but even that of the cholera years in these two countries.” 
Notwithstanding these facts, the population is annually increasing by the 
influx of immigrants. As regards other colonies, the following table, quoted 
by M. Boudin from the official report of the Ministry of Algeria, published 
in 1859, speaks for itself :— 


Births. Deaths. 
Vr ee a ie 20,095 20,675 
“FATED REE POE ae eI Set 2,333 2,830 
MMII LE Tihdh ese uck Be tet oye coeradhis 2 cats sous 18,934 20,775 


This would be more satisfactory had the proportion of the women to men 
been also given. 

But, before I proceed on this side of the question, I would call attention 
to the statement frequently made by the President of this Section. On 
one occasion, for instance, Mr. Crawfurd* said, ‘“‘It has been confidently 
asserted that the British possessions in India are an unfit residence for the 
permanent dwelling of Englishmen, although within the same latitudes with 
the warm parts of America, and portions of it even more distant from the 
equator.” “No less an authority,” continues Mr. Crawfurd, “ than the late 
Duke of Wellington gave it as his opinion that Europeans, especially in 
Lower Bengal, most of which is without the tropics, would die out in a third 
generation ; but it is certain that this was an hypothesis of His Grace un- 
supported by facts.” Mr. Crawfurd further contends that the Duke of 
Wellington's observation was made at an unfavourable time, and that at 
present the case is very different. Now all recent facts and observations 
prove that the Duke of Wellington was right. From numerous private in- 
quiries of residents in India I have obtained confirmation of this opinion. 
We have, moreover, the most extensive writers and observers on tropical 
diseases giving exactly similar opinions. 

* “On the Effects of Commixture, Locality, Climate,” &c., Transactions of the Ethnologi- 
gal Society, New Series, vol. i. p. 89, 1861. 


136 REPORT—1861. 


Sir Ranald Martin* says, “ Of those Europeans who arrive on the banks 
of the Ganges, many fall early victims to the climate, as will be shown here- 
after. That others droop, and are forced, ere many years, to seek their 
native air, is also well known. ‘That the successors of all would gradually 
and assuredly degenerate if they remained in the country cannot be ques- 
tioned ; for already we know that the third generation of unmixed Europeans 
is nowhere to be found in Bengal.” 

William Twining also made the same assertion many years ago. 

Another recent authority on Indiat, Mr. Julius Jeffreys, says, “ Few 
children of pure English blood can be reared in the plains of India, and 
of that few the majority have constitutions which might cause them to 
envy the lot of those who die in their childhood. The mortality of bar- 
rack children is appalling, especially in the months of June, September, 
and October. At Cawnpore from twenty to thirty have died in one month. 
In short, the soldiery leave no descendants of unmixed blood.” Major- 
General Bagnold{ has also said, that the oldest English regiment, the 
Bombay “ Toughs,” notwithstanding that marriages with British females 
are encouraged, have never been able, from the time of Charles II. to this 
time, to raise boys enough to supply the drummers and fifers. Dr. Ewart § 
says, “Our race in process of time undergoes deterioration, physically and 
intellectually, with each succeeding generation, and ultimately ceases to 
multiply and replenish the earth.” He also says, “that there is a certain 
deterioration of our race always, under present circumstances, tending to 
extinction in this country.” 

It remains, therefore, with Mr. Crawfurd and those who agree with him to 
accept these facts, or explain what has become of the descendants of the half 
million of people who have gone to India. It is generally supposed that there 
is a process of acclimatization going on with Europeans living in the tropics ; 
but the reverse is rather the case. Itistrue that the mortality is sometimes 
greater at first, but this is owing to the clearing out of the weakened and other 
defective constitutions which had been broken down by disease or intempe- 
rance. When this has taken place, there appears to be an improvement; but 
after the first year there is a gradual decline in health, and sickness and 
mortality greatly increase. We have exhaustion and degeneracy, but no real 
acclimatization. Although Europeans suffer less on going to colder regions, 
still we observe the same fact in that case. Dr. Armstrong and others have 
observed that Europeans resist the cold of the polar regions better the first 
year than they do the second, and that every subsequent year they feel the 
effects of climate more. 

This fact can be amply proved by statistics. As age increases, so does 
mortality in any place out of the native land of a people. 

Dr. Farr gives the average per thousand of England and Wales as— 


Ages 20—24, 25—9. 30—34. 35—39. 40 and upwards. 
Mortality 8-42 9-21 10°23 11°65 13°55 


Now, if we compare this with a part of a valuable table prepared by Sir 
Alexander Tulloch ||, we at once can estimate some of the deleterious effects 
of change to different climates on Europeans, from January 1, 1830, to 
March 31, 1837. 


* Influence of Tropical Climates, &c., 2nd edit., by Sir R. J. Martin, p. 137, 1861. 

T The British Army in India. By Julius Jeffreys, F.R.S. 1858, p. 172. 

{ Indigenous Races of the Earth. Article “ Acclimatization,” by Dr. Nott, p. 557. 

§ Digest of the Vital Statistics of Europeans in India. By Joseph Ewart, M.D. 1859. 

| Report of the Commissioners on the Reorganization of the Indian Army. 1859, p.179, 


ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY, 


137 


Stations. 18 to 23.| 25 to 33.) 33 to 40. | 40 to 50. 
UMERUREPECRETA, cSULUD OC bh eateb ies lee ccs ccbecs: 18:7 23°6 29°5 34-4 
Malia. .:.iissces Mediterranean......... 13 23:3 34 56°7 
BRIMBTISIANGS Jes eceps sce assclepicsss-eenisle 12-2 20-1 24:4 24:2 
Mediterranean Stations generally....... 35-5 22-2 28-1 33° 
DRPMMNAS. cco c ec | an crecccneca ts ccs scacnace 16 42 42 76° 
Nova Scotia .... } North America..,.... 14 22-5 30'8 41°5 
SOTA ccs tee PETER ss kceCeccacteedcuseen 19-7 27°83 37'8 35 
Windward and Leeward command .. 50 74 97 123 
AUR ds Sava ck seh veh vs ot sabes esac sealer ZO 107 131 128 
Cape of Good Hope..... Rracisdtsasskakests 9 20°6 29°7 32 
BMMPEDIENSI Nee sScncvecvccccesssseesesaccccacsc 20:8 375 52:7 86°6 
1 OLAS GR sgconposcoSeCE Onna aoiebtawese ss 24 55 86:4 126°6 
Bombay..... Cree Waccceastesceseesstrecees 18-2 34-6 468 71-1 
BRIRALNGS rs cin wadec outs cvadadesscbacuwceats 26 59°3 70:7 86°5 
BRIA octal cbs si San vans sce iscacecuacvsess 23°8 50°3 50°6 83°3 
A modification of ee same results is found from 1837 to 1847. 
Age. Age. Age. Age. 
90-95. 2530. $0—35. 35—40. 40 and upwards. 
Mediterranean | 16.3 oo ates (oe 234 344 
stations 
Canada 
se Dts , ~ 2, E 35° 
Nara Scotia \ 13°1 17°7 19 20°3 56 
Wamaica ...... 60° 50° (ER 83° oT" 


The following very useful table I have collated from the valuable Army 


Report for 1859. 


show the different periods that men had been located at each station. 
Although this table is valuable, it must be borne in mind that it is only for 


one year. 


it would be very desirable if some tables were given to 


‘Troops are so continually changing stations that we must only 


receive the suggestive evidence of such a table for what it is worth. It will 


be seen that there are no deaths in some stations at forty years of age and 
upwards ; this is, however, simply because it frequently happens that there 
are no men in a regiment above that age. 


Annual ratio of deaths per thousand living, at the following ages, in 1859: 
eg xt S bo s | Ue | 
Seep aeer Peis tprhas 
; & | & % 3 | + & 
Healthy districts in England and | 583 | 7:30 | 7-93 | $:36| 9 9:86 
DVIGR es assceniccnaasuccectse.es=ses z 
England and Wales generally ...... 7Al | 8:42 | 9:21 | 10-23 | 11-63 | 13-55 
Household Cavalry ......-...seceeeee- ses 3°38 | 6°85 | 9°05 | 16:13 | 15-04 
Dragoon Guards and Dragoons.....} 5°07 | 4:0 |12:96 |15°0 | 15°86 | 34:48 
POs GUBLON ecctecvgcneserreasesscesses 7:92 | 7:34 | 7:80 | 12-07 | 26-47 | 9:71 
Infantry Regiments.......000..-e0+00 5°$2 | 7-21 | 7-80 | 11:97 | 18°31 | 15°50 
Depot Battalions.......... =o Gest 6°31 | 20-13 | 12°39 | 20-11 | 37-97 | 44-78 
PEK MANGA cies otverddacrecescastcvascess an : : ‘ ; ae 
Nova Scotia, KC. visssserevssssescsssse j a0 os 
Newfoundland.. a aoe ; 
RPANAGD ......00ssreverssecuensy : i : 
Mediterranean generally F ; : ° 
Cape of Good Hope ........ceseee “scl Nakecg 7-93 |14:69 | 9:31 |14:78 | -60 
Australian Colonies .........++0..+6 an 194 | 691 | 7:06 | 2659 | 23°81 
Negro in W. Indies, W. and L. | : 4 ; j X, 
command...... Sabunendandin esitxe a | See 
Ceylon Rifles ......,..c0seeseereseveeeee| 10°99 | 8:23 | 8-72 | 9:68 | 11:05 | 14-49 | 


138 é REPORT—1861. 


With officers and the civil servants in Bengal, we also find that the mor- 
tality greatly increases with length of residence, notwithstanding the great 
advantage which they have of being able to return to their native country. 
“ Out of 1184 deaths among officers,” says Sir Ranald Martin*, “the pro- 
portion occurring annually in each rank, and at each age, has been as 
follows :— 


é a . : 42 = 
aA) 2 6 z 3 #2, is] eo a ys 
Bo Bo -2 ar Bao 39 2 fo 
Percentage of oe 3 a ze a £2 ge 8 Be 
=> ~O = 
deaths. 2h 12 ‘22, a8 ie 2@2 €3 
Of Ze ag og 2a 2he gs 

= Ze = 2 ns bas o 

3 AS S Ss io} o 

Died annually : F 
per thousand 59°4 48-4 41:0 34°5 275 23:4 31:2 
of each class. 


“ The mortality among the civil servants, for a period of forty-six years, 
from 1790 to 1836, exhibits almost precisely the same results, viz. :— 


PEs | 08 22 28 28 28 28 
Percentage of =o #8 fe ge S255 £2 2% gs 
6 Se _ = =“ 
aut obe | S2 | Sg | 8g | 82 | 8B | Re 
B88. |ogke heb | 88 >| Bbedoh ener 
< <q”? <% <2 <2 =<" =<" 
Died annually 
per thousand 48°6 36°4 35°4 23°4 16°6 20°8 19°9 
of each class. 


“ Between ten and fifteen years’ service is the period when leave of absence 
is allowed to those who choose to return to Europe for three years, which 
of course must have a material tendency in reducing the mortality of that 
class.” ' 

The high mortality of our own army at home may also be greatly ascribed 
to the weakening influence of the climates of many of our foreign stations. 
The annual mortality per thousand was— 


Age. Age. Age. Age. Age. 
20—24. 25—29. 30—34. 35—39. 40andupwards. 
Infantry. ia ; ; ¥ “4.4 
From 1837 to 1846 i ls A: Sa a 
To 18600 tm Seq TOL | op FBO. ALOT 1831 
Depét battalions, Lig13 1239 20:11 37:97 44-78 
in 1857 
Englond.and Wales) gig’ ° oar? 19080" 1163 tee 
generally 


In the useful Army Statistical Report, from which these facts are taken, this 
high mortality of the depét battalions is acknowledged to be “attributable 
to the number of men serving in them whose constitutions have been im- 
paired by foreign service, and many of whom have been sent home to the 
depot labouring under chronic disease contracted abroad +.” 

We can best estimate the deleterious influence of climate by comparing 
the relative mortality of native and foreign troops. Everywhere we see the 
same law. At Gibraltar, the deaths per thousand of the Malta Fencibles 


* Loc. cit. p. 96. + Statistical, Sanitary, and Medical Report for 1859, p. 28. 


ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 139 


(although nearly all old men) was, in 1859, 8:19, while with the British 
troops it was 18-08 per thousand. On the West Coast of Africa, there are 
no white troops to compare with the black troops. The Army Report says, 
“The force consisted entirely of blacks, with the exception of four or five 
European sergeant-majors, of whom three died in the course of the year— 
two of fever at the Gambia, and a third of dysentery at Accra.” 

The deaths of black troops at Sierra Leone, in a thousand, was 14-02 ; 
at the Gambia, 25-44; and on the Gold Coast, 25°06. The mortality 
of the white troops serving at Ceylon, from 1837 to 1846, was 41°74 
per thousand ; and in 1859 the mortality decreased to 35:06: while, with 
the so-called black troops, the deaths in a thousand, from 1837 to 1846, 
were 26°71; and in 1859, 10°19. The ratio of mortality with the Ceylon 
Rifles (Malays) is the same as that of the male population of this country. 
In the same Report we find, under the head of China, what are called 
“ native troops,” which we discover to be Bengal Native Infantry, &c. The 
mortality of these trocps from India is at the rate of 53°73 per thousand, 
without reckoning those who died subsequently from disease contracted 
in China; while, with the British troops serving in China, the mortality 
slightly exceeded that of the Indian troops, being 59°35 per thousand—no 
less than 42°58 of this number having died of miasmatic disease. Sir T. G. 
Logan, in his Report on the Sanitary State of the Army, says, “The topo- 
graphical character, however, of Hong Kong was:acknowledged to preclude 
improvement to any considerable extent in the health of European troops, 
and its retention as the chief military station of the command could not 
be thought desirable in a sanitary point of view. The principal medical 
officer’s report refers to the circumstance that the annual expenditure of 
men by death and invaliding had been averaged at 20 per cent., being more 
than double of what it is in India; and that, notwithstanding every means 
had been taken, and no expense spared, to preserve the health of the troops, 
the results were still very unsatisfactory.” 

But the great mistake which most writers on the, diseases of tropical 
countries commit is the neglect to ascribe the large amount of disease to 
the true source, viz. the inadaptibility of Europeans to tropical countries, 
Nearly every medical writer on the diseases of India tries to prove that the 
large mortality is produced by some preventable cause ; but a little inquiry 
into the diseases which attack the natives and Europeans will destroy this 
delusive hope. First, then, with a given strength of Europeans and natives 


we find that, with the three sorts of FEVERS, intermittent, remittent, and 
continued, there are in 


_ co Sgt aaaees 3-76 deaths of Europeans to 1 Native. 
MOMDAY £2.25... + Pps hes i [RO yess 
MIE SES a or 12 Sie mas ‘3 LOR cass 


The admissions for fever amongst Europeans were from 


Percentage of admis- 
sions to strength. Deaths. 


1812 to 1815 .olecescseccs. 84°85 6:50 
Bengal 1850 t0 18548 ooseccccceess,100°25 100-06 

1810°%0 1818s Bee 2-91 
Bombay 4 1850 to 1854.) 6810 078 
Wadra, .§ 1829 to 193200 29:52 1-21 


1848: to 1851. ...desscevesie QBS, ~ 0°52 


140 REPORT—186l. 


While with the native troops the following is the result :— 
Percentage of admis- Percentage of deaths 


~ sions to strength. to admissions. 
Bengal from J 1826 to 1838... 41°30 1:32 
5 11839 to 1852 | .....6.08...' 53°16 0:96 
Borke f 1803 to 1898 ............ 53°18 1:80 
Y <Pod) WSOR Me WBHS Ne. 1.28 46°55 1:18 
: LSSete BSS Ashi 2127 1-46 
Madras ) scr gpladmdG52 24.1.1 .°285 1-01 


The large amount of deaths among the native soldicrs may be greatly 
ascribed to the inadaptibility of our English pharmacopeeia. Since our con- 
tact with the natives they are every year becoming mure liable to all sorts 
of diseases, but especially fevers and bowel diseases. The high mortality 
amongst the natives must, therefore, be greatly ascribed to our inability to 
check disease in them. The deaths to the number of admissions are even 
greater amongst the natives than amongst Europeans. This, in itself, is a 
pretty good evidence for the assertion that a healing art has yet to be dis- 
covered for their constitutions. 

Then with pysENTERY and DIARRHGA, the proportion of deaths of Euro- 
peans to natives is in 


Bengal .......... 11°67 of Europeans _ to 1 Native. 
Bombay \i5 > s:,0% » 873 55 to | “ 
Madrasain «cts. fax 6°53 = to 1 ‘ 


The contrast is sufficiently great with fevers and dysentery ; but it is still 
more marked with hepatitis :— 


In Bengal, 60 Europeans die of HEPATITIS to 1 Native. 

Bombay, 44 =o , igen Bee 

Madras, 30 os . | et Ey 
Even in those hot-beds of disease, the Indian jails, we find the inmates are 
far more free from hepatitis than our own troops in Bombay : the Europeans 
are attacked thirteen times oftener than the natives; in Bengal, forty-three 
times; and in Madras, our soldiers one hundred and seventy-eight times 
oftener. 

Some writers have endeavoured to show that this disease is produced in 
Europeans by intemperance. But Dr. Morehead* says, “The evidence 
that intemperance in drinking exerts a particular influence in the produc- 
tion of hepatitis is by no means conclusive ;” and he also says, “‘ The occur- 
rence of hepatitis, on the other hand, in its severest form is not an unusual 
event in persons of temperate habits,—a statement which practitioners in 
India generally will, 1 am sure, amply confirm.” 

With cHoLeERA, the ratio of mortality is in 


Denpeal ey asses 500 6: Europeans to 1 Native. 

Bombay............2°6 ” ly» 

Madvas are F. 25218 99 Lg 
There is also another fact which demands attention, viz. the increase of 
mortality in cases attacked with this disease. Whatever may be the cause, 
there seems to have been far higher mortality in Bengal since 1838, and in 
Madras since 1842, than before those periods. Thus, the relative mortality to 
the cases treated in Bengal has risen in each period of five years, from 1818 
to 1853, from 26°71, 31:17, 21°80, 26°91, 55°53, 45°22, and 41:92 per 
cent.; and in Bombay, during the same time, from 18°53, 22°71, 30°58, 


* Diseases of India. By Charles Morehead. 2nd edit. 1861, p. 363. Longman and Co, 


ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 141 


18°87, 37°33, 45°46, and 43°17; and in Madras, from 1829 to 1851, from 
27°11, 27°63, 48, and 62°31. 

There has been an increase of mortality of natives to cases treated, in 
Madras, of 7°26 per cent.; in Bengal the mortality is about the same; and 
a decrease of 3 per cent. in Madras. 

With phthisis (consumption) the percentage of mortality to a given 
strength is— 

In Bengal ............11 deaths of Europeans to | Native. 
Bombay ........ videtitg i Da tg 
Thus, the deaths of Europeans from phthisis even exceed the native pri- 
soners in our Indian jails. 

In the various OTHER DISEASES which have not been mentioned, the 
mortality is far higher, being, in Bengal, as 3 Europeans to 1 native, and in 
Bombay as 3:2 Europeans to 1 native. 

Many writers have observed that, with the natives, those most free from 
disease are those who toil all day in the burning sun, with no covering at all 
on the head. Ignorance as to the difference of race has induced some 
commanders to attempt thus to harden the Europeans, with results some- 
thing frightful to contemplate. 

One of the regiments that had been the longest in India, the Madras 
Fusileers, is stated to have been reduced from eight hundred and fifty to 
one hundred and ninety fit for duty. Many similar cases have been pro- 
duced by needless exposure. Mr. Jeffreys says, “that Her Majesty’s 44th 
Regiment in 1823 were nine hundred strong, and a very fine body of men. 
The commanding officer insisted that confinement of the men during the 
day was effeminate, and continued drilling them after the hot season had 
begun. But the men suffered the penalty of the officer’s ignorance. Tor 
some months,” says Mr. Jeffreys, “not less than one-third, and for some 
weeks one-half, of the men were in hospital at once, chiefly with fever, 
dysentery, and cholera. I remember to have seen, for some time, from five 
to ten bodies in the dead-room of a morning, many of them specimens of 
athletes.” Experience has shown that it is not the absolute exposure to 
the sun from which Europeans suffer; it is the subsequent effects which are 
to be dreaded. On a march, the European will appear to be equal to the 
thick-skinned native; but he soon learns that such is not the case. 

The European soldier is also unfitted to stand the effects of a cold climate 
after some years’ residence in India, and dreads to return home to encounter 
the cold and hardships of English peasant-life. With officers, who can 
return to enjoy all the comforts and luxuries of civilization, the case is dif- 
ferent. The few soldiers who remain in India have more or less chronic 
diseases, which, says Mr. Jeffreys, “ would render the attainment of any- 
thing like longevity out of the question.” 

Seventy-seven per cent. of the European troops in Bengal are under thirty, 
twenty-three per cent. above that age; or ninety-four per cent. are under 
thirty-five, the remaining six above that age. 

From Dr. Ewart* we learn that the European army has hitherto disap- 
peared in Bengal in about ten and a half years; in Bombay, in thirteen and 
a half; in Madras, in seventeen and a hali’; or in all India, in about thirteen 
and a half years. We find the percentage of deaths to strength amongst 
European regiments, in Bengal, 6°94; in Bombay, 5°52; in Madras, 3°88. 

Thus we find that, on adding all these diseases of European troops together, 
we get a mortality of at least seven per cent. for the whole of India, while 


* A Digest of the Vital Statistics of the European and Native Armies in India. By Joseph 
Ewart, M.D., Bengal Med. Staff, - 


142 REPORT—1861. 


with the native troops the mortality does not amount to a half per cent. 
Sir A. Tulloch says, that “the total loss from all causes has been at least 
seventy per thousand ;” and that “ the proportion invalided annually may be 
taken at about twenty-five per thousand more, and twenty-five per thousand 
to men not renewing their engagements ;” making altogether twelve per 
cent., or one hundred and twenty per thousand. He further observes, that 
the number of recruits raised during peace, from 1845 to 1849 inclusive, 
was less than twelve thousand; and that, with a force of eighty thousand in 
India, we shall require nine thousand and six hundred of them for India, 
“ unless,” as he observes, “means can be adopted to reduce mortality and 
invaliding.” 

Mr. Jeffreys says, the mortality of troops in India amounts to ten per 
cent. He observes, “ The casualties amongst the troops have, during peace, 
amounted per annum to at least one thousand in every ten thousand; in 
England and her healthy colonies they have ranged from about ninety to a 
little above two hundred.” Such being the undisputed fact, there is no 
doubt, as Sir A. Tulloch has observed, that ‘the selection of healthier 
stations for our troops than those they have hitherto occupied is no longer 
a matter of choice, but one of necessity, as we cannot hope to keep up the 
large European army required to hold India without the strictest attention 
to this important measure.” The late Sir H. Lawrence devoted much of 
his life to the solution of this question in a practical manner. ‘There is no 
doubt that removing our military stations to the hills isa measure demanding 
serious attention. Sir Ranald Martin is of opinion that, in Bengal and 
the N.W. Provinces, the malaria might be escaped by an elevation of from 
two thousand five hundred to four thousand feet. That this would be ad- 
vantageous is quite probable; but we shall not find in the hills the same 
climate we have in this country. We may escape the influence of malaria- 
diseases, just as we escape the yellow fever in the West Indies, at an eleva- 
tion of from two to three thousand feet. The Report for the Re-organization 
of the Indian Army gives the mortality from 1815 to 1855, exclusive of 
casualties, at a hundred thousand men, “ the greater portion of whose lives,” 
the Report says, ‘might have been preserved had better localities been 
selected for the military occupation of that country.” But are there any 
places even in the hills in which Europeans can be reared without gradually 
becoming degenerated? This is a serious question, to which science can as 
yet give no positive reply. Looking at the wisdom which is displayed in 
the general distribution of mankind, we shall be inclined to answer in the 
negative. It has been presumed that, because yellow fever is in a great 
measure escaped in Jamaica at an elevation of about two thousand five 
hundred feet, this elevation would be sufficient to escape malarious dis- 
eases in other parts of the world; but such is not the case. If we ascend 
to any great height, we often get out of the region of malaria, and into the 
region of bowel-diseases. It is also affirmed* that “ intermittent fever origi- 
nates in some of the Himalayah stations. At Aboo also, during the malarious 
months, ague is very prevalent. Dr. Cooke (Bombay service), in his annual 
report of the Khelat agency, states that ‘ Khelat, the highest inhabited spot 
of the Beloochistan table-land, standing seven thousand feet above tlie level 
of the sea, is also malarious.’” 

It has also been said by Sir John Lawrence, Brigadier-General Chamber- 
lain, and Lieutenant-Colonel Edwards, that, besides our soldiers not liking 
to live in the hills, the natives have not the power of believing in what they 


* Diseases of India. By Dr. Moore, Bombay Medical Service, and in charge of the Sani- 
tarium for European troops at Mount Aboo. 1861, p. 48. - ) oe 


ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 143 


cannot see; and they join in asserting that “there are sick men whom the 
hills make worse, and healthy men whom they make sick*.” General Sir 
A. Tulloch also allows+ that the stations at 8000 or 9000 feet of elevation 
“are less healthy than was expected, because the men suffer from what is 
called a hill diarrhoea, which reduces them very much indeed.” Many other 
authorities and facts tend to show that it is a great fallacy to assume that 
temperature and climate are at all the same thing. There may be the 
same ethnic climate, with vast difference of temperature. China, for in- 
stance, has very different temperatures; but this has hardly a perceptible 
effect on the race. 

Dr. Ewart, like many other writers on this subject, has a theory which he 
believes would enable Europeans to be reared in India. He says, “The 
average standard of health of our race in this country would bear compa- 
rison with that of any race on the face of the civilized world, or of any 
people in Europe, provided the sources of malaria were dried up.” 

Although this is wholly a gratuitous assumption, we still have evidence 
to show that a very slight change is sufficient to make a considerable 
change in the health of soldiers. Mr. M‘Clellandt{ says, “that out of a 
European force of little more than one thousand, there were four or six 
funerals daily ; and this great mortality was checked by a change to the hills, 
which were only one hundred or one hundred and fifty feet high. It is 
probably a mistake, however, to attribute this favourable change in the 
mortality to the climate; it was doubtless far more due to the influence on 
the brain and nervous system. If the cause which produces ennui amongst 
all classes of European residents in India could be eradicated, then perhaps 
the case might be different. A number of plans have been proposed to en- 
able the European to live in India. In 1853-4, the expenditure for cinchona 
bark and quinine amounted to £11,686. It is now proposed to give quinine 
as a prophylactic for fevers, and there will be a demand for £46,744 worth§. 
But the process that is now seriously proposed by Desmartis ||, in harmony 
with his theory of inoculation, is to transfuse a small quantity of blood taken 
from the natives into the veins of Europeans visiting such places as India, 
Brazil, or the West Coast of Africa! I would only beg to express a hope 
that in transfusing this blood they will not also transfer any of the mental or 
moral characteristics of these indigenous races into the European. If any 
process, however, can be devised to make Europeans like the natives, then we 
must remember that, instead of being able to hold down one hundred and 
fifty millions of people with about one hundred thousand men, we should 
want avery different number. It is only possible to hold India as long as 
Europeans remain the superior race. It has been asserted that, although 
they cannot bear the sudden change to a tropical climate, they can gradually 
become accustomed to the change. It seems a fair test of the influence of 
climate on race, to study its effects on the children of those who have be- 
come accustomed to the change, or, as it is sometimes falsely called, “ accli- 
matized.” Here there can be no question as to the effects of climate. We 
have seen what is the result of attempting to raise European children in India, 
and nearly the same result meets us elsewhere. Speaking of the effect of 
climatic influence on such children in Ceylon, Sir Emerson Tennent observes, 
“If suitably clothed, and not injudiciously fed, children. may remain in the 

* Papers connected with the Reorganization of the Indian Army. 1859, p. 6. 
t Minutes of Evidence on the Reorganization of the Indian Army, p. 266. 

t Medical Topography of Bengal, &c. 1859, p, 135. ; 

§ Ewart, p. 47. 

|| Quelques mots sur Jes Prophylaxies. Par S. P. Desmartis. Paris, 1859, 

4] Ceylon. By Sir James Emerson Tennent. 1860, p. 79, “ 


144 REPORT—1861. 


island till eight or ten years of age, when anxiety begins to be excited by the 
attenuation of the frame and the apparent absence of strength in proportion 
to development. These symptoms, the result of relaxed tone and defective 
nutrition, are to be remedied by change of climate, either to the more lofty 
ranges of the mountains or more providently to Europe.” 

Many writers, who contend that Europeans can become completely ac- 
climatized; contradict themselves in their statements respecting the rearing of 
children. Mr. Robert Clarke, who has some eighteen years’ experience on the 
Gold Coast and at Sierra Leone, goes so far as to say*, “It is questionable 
whether persons of colour are better able to bear up against the influence 
of climate than persons of pure European blood, provided the latter are 
sober in their habits. There can be no doubt that Europeans, on their first 
arrival in West Africa, are in greater danger of losing their lives than the 
former; but when once they have become acclimatized, they seem generally 
to withstand the influence of the climate better than coloured people, 
provided, I repeat, they are temperate in their habits.” If this be so, we 
should not expect to find great mortality amongst children born of ‘ tempe- 
rate, acclimated Europeans.” But Mr. Clarke says}, “Great difficulty is 
experienced in rearing European children, They in general thrive admi- 
rably until teething begins. It is at this epoch they are frequently harassed 
with intermittent fever, which by repeated occurrence causes enlargement 
of the spleen and functional disturbance of the stomach and bowels, when 
they soon became cachectic, and unless removed to a more genial climate 
drop into an early grave.” 


Some authors think that the question of the European propagating himself — 


in the tropics has been settled by the fact that for three centuries the Spanish 
race has lived and thrived in tropical America. Mr. Crawfurd says, ‘‘ The 
question whether the European race is capable of living and multiplying in 
a tropical or other hot region seems to have been settled in the affirmative 
on a large scalein America. Of the pure Spanish race there are at present 
probably not fewer than six millions, mostly within the tropics.” But it is 
a wholly gratuitous assumption, unsupported by facts, to suppose that any- 
thing like this number of the Spanish race exist in America. If we were to 
read for Mr. Crawfurd’s “millions” the word “ thousands,” we should per- 
haps be nearer the truth. In Mexico it is estimated that there are not more 
than ten thousand of the pure racet, reckoning both creoles and immigrants, 
What a small proportion is this to those who left their native land and have 
never returned again! For three hundred years Spain has poured out her 
richest blood on her American colonies, almost at the price of her own 
extinction, without the slightest prospect of being able to establish a Spanish 
race in Central America. Never was there a greater failure than the attempt 
of the Spaniards to colonize tropical America. Those who have watched 
the gradual change of the Spanish colonies must be convinced of the fallacy 
of quoting this as a case of successful colonization of tropical countries by 
Europeans. When the continual influx of new blood from Spain was taking 
place, the change was not so much observed ; but, now emigration has ceased, 
the pure Spanish race is diminishing rapidly. All recent observations show 
that the Indian blood is again showing out ina most remarkable manner. In- 
stead of the Spaniards flourishing, there seems every prospect of their entire 


* Reports of II. M. Colonial Possessions for 1858, Part ii. p. 33. 

‘+ Topography and Diseases of the Gold Coast, 161, p. 48, 

+ It has since been asserted in the Cortes, by Don Pachero, that the pure Spanish race in 
Mexico does not amount to more than eight thousand. In 1793, Humboldt estimated the 
pure Spanish race in New Spain to consist of 1,200,000, 


| 


| 


) 


ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 145 


extinction, unless fresh blood is sent from Europe. The extinction of the 
Spanish race in America was likewise predicted more than twenty years ago 
by Dr. Knox. There is no doubt that this result has been greatly owing to 
the mixture of Spanish and Indian blood. 

The laws regulating the mixture of human races do not directly concern 
the question of acclimatization; it has been found, however, that there is a 
different vitality between the offspring of the Spaniard and the Indian female, 
from that between the Englishman and the Indian woman. So also there is 
a different power of life between the offspring of the Portuguese and English 
with the negro woman. It can hardly be questioned that the Spanish race, 
like all other dark Europeans, are better suited for warm climates than the 
white Europeans. M. Boudin gives some statistics to show that the Spaniards 
and Italians also suffered less in the Great Russian campaign. Perhaps this 
may be explained by other causes. 

On several occasions the Spaniards have attempted to colonize the beau- 
tiful island, Fernando Po, but have entirely failed. The last trial was made 
in 1859, when three hundred and fifty colonists were sent out, provided with 
every necessary; but at the beginning of 1861 they had nearly all died, the 
few remaining returning home entirely broken down in health. 

On the change effected in Europeans by a residence in Ceylon, Sir J. 
Emerson Tennent observes*, “ The pallid complexion peculiar to old resi- 
dents is not alone ascribable to an organic change in the skin from its 
being the medium of perpetual exudation, but in part to a deficiency of red 
globules in the blood, and mainly to a reduced vigour in the whole muscular. 
apparatus, including the action of the heart, which imperfectly compensates 
by increase of rapidity for diminution of power.” This author very properly 
warns all habitual dyspeptics from a long sojourn at Ceylon. Gouty patients 
are, however, owing to the greater cutaneous excretion, entirely cured. We 
find that Europeans die mostly of cholera and inflammation of the liver, 
while negroes die of pulmonary consumption. Ceylon is hot for Europeans, 
and cold, especially in the forests, in comparison to the coast of Guinea. 

Of the island of Cuba, Mr. Tylor has just written}t, “ The climate of the 
island is not unfavourable for a mixed negro and European race, while to 
the pure whites it is deadly. It is only by intermarriage with Europeans, 
ce continual supplies of emigrants from Europe, that the white population 
is kept up.” 

_ In the Reports of the Colonies for 1858 and 1859, we only find the births 
and deaths of the different populations of one colony given. From these we 
learn that, at Antigua, in 


1858 the births of white population were 50 deaths 75 


1859 os + os 91 + 140 
1858 e black ” 952 as 979 
1859 as Fe 5 1005 » 894 
1858 5 coloured a 238 “> 226 
1859 ~ o 49 250 » 205 


Although this classification (of white, black, and coloured){ is not very 
Scientific, yet it would be of very great utility to get such simple returns. 
from all our colonies, with the percentage of women. 
_ Our experience of other races than the European is limited. Mr. Craw=, 
furd contends that the Chinese become easily acclimatized in nearly all ree. 

* Loc. cit. p. 78. 
_ fT Anahuac; or, Mexico and the Mexicans. By Edward B. Tylor, 1861, p. 12. 

{ The coloured population are sometimes called brown, These terms are generally used. 
to “ed a mongrel breed of some sort, 

. L 


146 P REPORT—1861. 


gions; and Pruner-Bay says “ that the Turanian is, in physical respects, the 
true cosmopolite.” 

_ I have already stated that latitude is no test of climate; so I would now 
state, that as neither heat nor cold is the cause of the physical differences of 
mankind, so neither is it mere heat or cold which affects man injuriously. 
That the Chinese have a large range of temperature is true, but they have 
not the great power of being acclimatized that many imagine. Fifty thou- 
sand Chinese have gone to Australia, and the same number to California ; 
and perhaps about twenty or thirty thousand to Cuba, and six thousand to 
the Mauritius. This is a misfortune for both Australia and California; but 
there is hope for Cuba, as the Chinese are said not to be able to work there. 
Mr. Tylor says*, “ Fortunately for them, they cannot bear the severe planta- 
tion-work. Some die after a few days of such labour and exposure, many 
more kill themselves; and the utter indifference with which they -commit 
suicide, as soon as life seems not worth having, contributes to moderate 
the exactions of their masters. A friend of ours in Cuba had a Chinese 
servant who was impertinent one day, and his master turned him out of the 
room, dismissing him with a kick. The other servants woke their master 
early next morning with the intelligence that the Chinese had killed himself 
in the night to expiate the insult he had received.” 

We are at present quite unable to say whether the Chinese will ever be- 
come acclimatized in California or Australia. It is to be hoped, however, 
that they will not be able. The Chinese have taken no women with them to 
either place; but in Australia some of them are living with native women, 
and this may be the means of producing a hybrid race of Chinese-Aus- 
tralians. Whether this may stay the current of extinction which seems 
settling on the Australians, or whether it may aid in their destruction, are 
questions beyond the limits of this paper. Of the Indian immigrants to the 
Mauritius, we learn that the deaths exceeded the births by three hundred 
and eleven, but we are not told of the percentage of women. 

The mortality generally of the colony was— 


AT PS54 se seonccs exces denen ecceveensarsosnit. Det Ceuks 
ESTE cations cocaatinae tian th ase ascase posites ves 1th a9 ap 
POG snr eavedanstlekeatarnstuya-tcngeteoal hit anales 
PSO eregeacciisas castes versteacnett nes <43 25 * Ny 
OIE Get on nis allan tis aain anh d= oig'eb unis sha Kas eet eae 

In Trinidad, the total Indian population was, in 1859, thirteen thousand 
four hundred and forty-seven, and the deaths 2-7 per cent. ; but amongst 
the arrivals from Madras, the mortality was 7-7 per cent. 

In 1859, the mortality of the Calcutta coolies was 2 per cent. 

Of the Malays all we know is, that the Dutch took some to the Cape, 
and the race still remains there, but whether pure or mixed we know very 
little; we also are not informed if their numbers are increasing or decreas- 
ing. Of the Red Indians we only know that, on being removed from their 
native soil, they soon perish: it is ‘uncertain how much of this must be 
ascribed to the climate, or how much to the inability of the race to alter their 
manners and customs. 

The royal family of the Sandwich Islands who visited England in 1827 
all died, as did most of their attendants, of tubercular disease, after only three 
months’ visit. tee 

So the Andaman Islander taken to Calcutta by Dr. Mouat was soon 
ce by the climate, and obliged to be returned to his native land to save 

is life. 
* Loc. cit. p. 13. 


ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 147 


But perhaps the negroes offer the strongest proof of the fallacy of saying 
that all races of men are cosmopolitan. We have ample and positive evidence 
that they cannot perpetuate themselves beyond about the fortieth degree of 
north or south latitude. Indeed, in their own region the ascent of a high 
mountain will kill them, sometimes nearly instantly. Thus, out of the eight 
Africans who ascended with Beecroft the Saint Isabel Mountain*, at Fer- 
nando Po, no less than five died. 

The negro seems to thrive in the southern states of America; but it is 
far from probable that he is suited to all tropical countries. Sir A. Tulloch 
and Dr. Bennett Dowler coincide in opinion that the negro will die out in 
the West Indies and the Mauritius. At Cuba, Mr. Tylor sayst, “there are 
fifteen thousand slaves imported annually ;” he also adds, “that the Creoles 
of the country are a poor degenerate race, and die out in the fourth genera- 
tion.” The race is only kept up in Egypt and Algiers by constant immigra- 
tion. 

In the Mauritius, the deaths in five years exceeded the births by upwards 
of six thousand, in a population of sixty thousand. 

Dr. Boudin says, “In Ceylon, in 1841, there was not a trace of the nine 
thousand negroes imported by the Dutch government before the English 
domination. Of the five thousand negroes imported by the English since 
1803, there remained only, in 1841, about two hundred to three hundred, 
although females were imported to preserve them.” 

Of the 4th West Indian Regiment placed, in 1819, in garrison at Gibraltar, 
nearly all perished of pulmonary disease in fifteen months. 

The statistics of the mortality of negroes in the different States have clearly 
shown the influence of climate. The farther they go north, the higher be- 
comes the rate of mortality ; they seem to die of consumption, just like thé 
monkeys and lions in the Zoological Gardens. 

It is difficult to determine the exact amount of influence exerted by race 
in resisting particular diseases. It has, however, been shown that the negro 
race on the West Coast of Africa, especially, is exempted from yellow fever, 
and that a very small portion of African blood is sufficient to resist the 
influence of this disease. 

All the dark races seem less liable to yellow fever than thé white man. 
Both the Red Indian and the Southern European are more exempt than 
the Englishman. 

Mr. Clarke} says, that when the yellow fever broke out at Sierra Leone 
in 1837-8-9, 1847, and 1859, he never knew of a single negro or even of 
a man of mixed blood being attacked. He also-says, that in 1837 and 1839 
small-pox broke out among the negroes, and disappeared at the same times 
as the yellow fever appeared. With the plague the dark races are affected 
far more than the white, being the reverse of the law with the yellow fever. 
Dr. Nott contends that the predisposition to yellow fever is just in proportion 
to the lightness of the skin; and that with plague the reverse is the case. 

The Jewish race, and not the Chinese race, are, however, nearest to being 
eosmopolitan. It is asserted that they live and thrive all over the world. If, 
however, we come to examine the evidence of this fact, we find that many 
of the people reputed to be Jews have no claim whatever to that question- 
able honour ; such, for instance, as the many reputed cases of black Jews. 

Dr. Boudin, although an advocate for the non-cosmopolitan powers of 


a The greatest height at which this mountain was ever estimated was that by Consul 
Hutchinson, who thought it was twelve thousand feet. 
_ t Loc. cit. p. 12. 


~ Remarks on the Topography and Diseases of the Gold Coast, p. 28. 
L2 


148 REPORT—1861. 


man generally, makes an exception in favour of the Jewish race, and says 
that this race has settled the question that one race is cosmopolitan. 

The statistics which have been published respecting the Jews in different 
countries seem to show that the Jew is subject to different physiological laws 
from those of the people by whom he may be surrounded. This phenomenon 
may, however, be explained by other physiological laws. M. Boudin supports 
his views from the difference in the statistics of disease and death of the 
Jews and the other colonists in Algeria. But the conditions of these two 
are very different. The Jews have been in Algeria for a considerable time, 
while the colonists are going there daily. Had M. Boudin proved that a 
number of Jews and Frenchmen went to Algeria at the same time, and that 
the Jews became more easily acclimatized, it might go some way towards 
showing the advantage of the Jewish race over the Frenchman, if we could 
not explain the phenomenon on other grounds. Had M. Boudin proved 
satisfactorily that the Jew was cosmopolitan, we should not easily be in- 
duced to admit that this was inexplicable by physiological laws. I do not 
pretend to enter into any of the causes which may have enabled the Jew to 
appear favoured; but we must not hurriedly admit that there are excep- 
tional laws in favour of any one race. On the same plea that M. Boudin 
has claimed an exception in favour of the Jews, we may also advocate one 
on the part of the Gipsies. The chief cause, however, of the apparent 
superiority of the Jews over some other races is the fact that they are a pure 
race. All pure races support the influence of change better than mixed races. 
The nomadic Arabs, as long as they remain pure, can also live in very differ- 
ent temperatures and climates. The Chinese are also generally a pure race ; 
and it is possible that the nearer the race approach the original type, the 
greater power they have in enduring change of climate. But enduring 
change of climate is not acclimatization. A process of acclimatization should 
enable a race to perpetuate itself in a new region, without supplies of new 
blood from its own region, and without, of course, mixing with the indigenous 
races of the invaded.country. The recorded historical migrations of nations 
do not give us sufficient evidence to make us believe in different laws from 
those which are in existence at this time. 

I am fully sensible of the great difficulty there is at present of defining 
the exact limits of the various ethnic centres. When I speak therefore of 
the European centre, I would also observe that this region is not necessarily 
confined to the portion of the earth we call Europe; on the contrary, I 
should include the whole of those original inhabitants of the Mediterranean, 
such as the Phceenicians, as belonging to the European centre. The modern 
Jews*, for instance, who are most probably lineal descendants of the old 
Pheenician merchants, are vastly superior to any purely Asiatic race. Never 
was the Jew more calumniated than by saying that he is an Asiatic! We 
all know the distinctive characteristics of the various Asiatic races, and 
nowhere do we find a people at all resembling the Jews. The only explana- 
tion I have ever heard given of this contradiction is that by Mr. Burke. 
That gentleman contends that there is a hierarchy not only in ethnic centres, 
but similarly in their climates; and that any race coming from an inferior — 
centre to a higher centre is thereby improved, other conditions being equal, 
and provided of course that the change be not too violent. Thus he points 
out the fact that the Jew has not degenerated in Europe, but has greatly 
improved in spite of all disadvantages. He also very truly observes, that 
no one will contend that the climate of Palestine will suit an Englishman as 


* I do not include in this term the fair-haired, blue-eyed race found in the Levant, and 
who are called Jews by Mr. Layard and Dr, Beddoe, f 


i 


ON EFHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 149 


that of England suits a Jew. We have, however, evidence to show that the 
climate of Palestine does not suit a Jew—a pretty good test that it is not his 
native land. Many writers have noticed this; but I will only quote the im- 
partial evidence of Eliot Warburton, who says*, “It is a curious but well- 
ascertained fact that the Jews do not multiply at present in the native city 
of their race ; few children attain to puberty, and the mortality altogether is 
so great, that the constant reinforcements from Europe scarcely maintain the 
average population.” 

The great majority of the Jewish race isin Europe. The entire number of 
Jews, according to M. Boudin, is computed to be four millions three hundred 
thousand ; and of these there are in Europe three millions six hundred thou- 
sand, in Africa four hundred and fifty thousand, in Asia two hundred thou- 
sand, America forty-eight thousand, and in Australia two thousand. Thus, 
more than three-fourths of the entire number of Jews are in Europe, and 
only a fraction of 2; in Asia. Mr. Burke conceives it possible that even the 
Negro might be improved in the long run by coming to Europe under 

‘favourable circumstances, “ though this,” says Mr. Burke, “ would not apply 
to the lower and unprogressive portions of the type, but to its advancing 
sections.” Our researches have rather tended to show, however, that 
although they may not degenerate like Europeans going to an inferior 
centre, they still are incapable of becoming acclimatized anywhere in 
Europe, and we much doubt if even out of Africa. We are unable, in the 
present state of our science, to do more than see that ethnic centres do exist, 
without being able to define their exact linits or their number. 

In a former part of this paper I incidentally touched on the influence of 
the mind in conquering physical agents. Maltebrun, Goethe, and Kant 
have all given their testimony in favour of the power of the mind in resisting 
disease. And this subject becomes important with reference to some statis- 
tical facts respecting the difference in mortality between the officers and 
men in India and elsewhere. Thus, with bowel-complaints in India, there 
were in Bengal only three more deaths of European officers in a ratio of 
ten thousand than in the same number of sepoys; and in Madras eighteen 
fewer deaths took place than in a similar number of sepoys{. Dr. Cameron 
also affirms that the ravages of cholera did not affect the officers or other 
Europeans in a like grade of life; and he says that “ the small mortality 
amongst the officers of European regiments in Ceylon is very remarkable t.” 
Indeed, the whole medical records teem with instances of the influences 
which the mind possesses in the production and removal of disease. It is 
possible that much may be done to enable our troops to-exist in India and else- 
where by attention to the necessity that exists for mental as well as physical 
exercise. Much might also be effected were the differences of temperaments 
more studied, and a judicious selection made of those fitted for hot, and those 
for cold, climates. 

Two questions were asked Sir Ranald Martin, who is a great advocate for 
hill-stations and for other reforms in the army; his answers§ are important. 

“1st. But is there no such thing as acclimatization ? 

«© A. No, I believe not. 

“9nd. Physically, you do not think that acclimatization exists ? 

« A. I think it does not.” 

These answers express the result of my own inquiries into this subject. 

I have endeavoured to show from such facts as are at hand that man 


* The Crescent and the Cross, 1851, eighth edition, p. 334. 
+ Ewart, p. 122. { A note in Sir E. Tennent’s ‘Ceylon,’ p. 82. 
§ Minutes of Evidence, ‘ On the Reorganization of the Indian Army,’ p. 172. 


150 REPORT—1861. 


cannot be rapidly displaced from one region and located in another without 
injury. This must be admitted ; but it may be answered that it ean be done 
slowly—that if it cannot be done in one generation, it may be done in time. 
Now it is quite evident that “time is no agent” in this case; and unless there 
is some sign of acclimatization in one generation, there is no such process, 
A race may be living and flourishing in its own centre, but sometimes a very 
slight change into a new region will produce the most disastrous results. 
The Spaniards, for instance, cannot with impunity migrate into the new re- 
gion on the opposite coast. In Egypt we see exemplified perhaps the most 
remarkable proof of what I have stated. From time immemorial Egypt has 
been ruled by foreign races, but not one has left any descendants. Mr. War- 
burton* has briefly expressed himself on this point in these words :—“ The 
Turk never or rarely intermarries with Egyptians, and it is a well-known fact 
that children born of other women in this country rapidly degenerate or die ; 
there are few indigenous Turks in Egypt. Through the long reign of the 
Mamelukes there was not one instance, I believe, of a son succeeding to his 


father’s power and possessions.” These Mamelukes were generally adopted ° 


Circassian slaves, who adopted others in their turn; and they had plenty of 
Circassian women imported to perpetuate their race, but with no better results 
than have met all other invaders. Of the English residents at Cairo the 
same writer observes, ‘‘The English seem to succumb, for the most part, 
to the fatal influence of this voluptuous climate, and, with some admirable 
exceptions, do little credit to the proud character of their country.” 

The English also, when sent to any part of the Mediterranean, suffer far 
more than in England. It has been proposed to locate British troops at these 
stations for a time, before they proceed to India. ‘The caution that a warm 
climate requires change of habits might do good; but we strongly suspect 
that if troops were located in the Mediterranean for a few years before pro- 
ceeding to India, the mortality would be far higher when they arrived there. 
If also, with a view of colonizing India, we were to send a colony, for a ge~ 
neration or more, to dwell in the Mediterranean, we should get a degenerate 
race who would have few of the qualities of the British race. Wherever we 
go, we may apply the question in a similar manner. The distribution of 
mankind over the globe is the result of law, order and harmony, and not of 
mere chance and accidental circumstances, as too many would have us 
believe. From the earliest dawn of history, races of men existed very much 
as they do now, and in the same locations. Jewish history, both monumental 
and written, tells us that the Jew has not changed for the last three thousand 
years ; and the same is the case with all other races who have kept their blood 
pure. I would therefore say that it is as difficult to plant a race out of its 
own centre, as it is to extinguish any race without driving it from its natural 
centre. The Tasmanians and American Indians have both been extinguished 
by removal from their native soil; and this is nearly the only process yet 
discovered of extinguishing any race of man. The object of this paper, 
however, is simply to suggest to ethnologists and geographers the necessity 
of a further investigation of the important question of acclimatization. 


* Loc. cit. p. 67. 


a 


ON THE GAUGING OF WATER BY TRIANGULAR NOTCHES. I5I 


On Experiments on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches. By 
James Tuomson, M.4., Professor of Civil Engineering, Queen’s 
College, Belfast. 


In 1858 I presented to thé Association an interim Report on the new me- 
thod which I had proposed for the gauging of flowing water by triangular (or 
V-shaped) notches, in vertical plates, instead of the rectangular notches, with 
level bottom and upright sides, in ordinary use. I there pointed out that the 
ordinary rectangular notches, although for many purposes suitable and con- 
venient, are but ill adapted for the measurement of very variable quantities 
of water, such as commonly occur to the engineer to be gauged in rivers and 
streams ; because, if the rectangular notch be made wide enough to allow the 
water to pass through it in flood times, it must be so wide that for long 
periods, in moderately dry weather, the water flows so shallow over its crest, 
that its indications cannot be relied on. I showed that this objection would 
be removed by the employment of triangular notches, because, in them, when 
the quantity flowing is small, the flow is confined to a narrow and shallow 
space, admitting of accurate measurement; and as the quantity flowing 
increases, the width and depth of the space occupied in the notch increase 
both in the same ratic, and the space remains of the same form as before, 
though increased in magnitude. I proposed that in cases in which it might 
not be convenient to form a deep pool of quiet water at the upstream side of 
the weir-board, the bottom of the channel of approach, when the triangular 
notch is used, may be formed as a level floor, starting exactly from the ver- 
tex of the notch, and extending both up stream and laterally so far as that 
the water entering on it at its margin may be practically considered as still 
water, of which the height of the surface above the vertex of the notch may 
be measured in order to determine the quantity flowing. I indicated theo- 
retic considerations which led to the anticipation that in the triangular 
notch, both without and with the floor, the quantity flowing would be pro- 
portional, or very nearly so, to the 3 power of the height of the still-water 
surface above the vertex of the notch. As the result of moderately accurate 
experiments which I had at that time been able to make on the flow in a right- 


angled notch, without floor, I gave the formula Q=0°317 H2, where Q is the 
quantity of water in cubic feet per minute, and H the head of water, as 
measured vertically, in inches, from the still-water level of the pool down to 
the vertex of the notch. This formula I submitted at that time tempo- 
rarily, as being accurate enough for use for many ordinary practical pur- 
poses for the measurement of water by notches similar to the one experi- 
mented on, and for quantities of water limited to nearly the same range as 
those in the experiments (from about two to ten cubic feet per minute), but 
as being subject to amendment by future experiments which might be of 
greater accuracy, and might extend over a wider range of quantities of water. 

Having been requested by the General Committee of the Association to 
continue my experiments on this subject, with a grant placed at my dis- 
posal for the purpose, I have, in the course of last summer and of the present 
summer, devoted much time to the carrying out of more extended and more 
accurate experiments. The results which I have now obtained are highly 
satisfactory. I am confident of their being very accurate. I find them to 
be in close accordance with the law which had been indicated by theoretical 
considerations ; and I am satisfied that the new system of gauging, now by 
these experiments made completely ready for general application, will prove to 
be of great practical utility, and will afford, for a large class of eases, import- 
ant advantages over the ordinary method—for such cases, especially, as the 
very varying flows of rivers and streams, 


552-0- REPORT—1861. 


The experiments were made in the open air, in a field adjacent to a corn- 
mill belonging to Mr. Henry Neeson, in Carr’s Glen, near Belfast. The 
water-supply was obtained from the course leading to the water-wheel of the 
mill, and means were arranged to allow of a regulated supply, variable at plea- 
sure, being drawn from that course to flow into a pond, in one side of which the 
weir-board with the experimental notch was inserted. The inflowing stream 
was so screened from the part of the pond next the gauge-notch, as to prevent 
any sensible agitation being propagated from it to the notch, or to the place 
where the water level was measured. For measuring the water level, a vertical 
slide-wand of wood was used, with the bottom end cut to 
the form of a hook (as shown in the marginal figure), the £ 
point of which was a small level surface of about one- 
eighth of an inch square. This point of the hook, by 
being brought up to the surface of the water from below, 
gave a very accurate means for determining the water 
level, or its rise or fall, which could be read off by an 
index mark near the top of the wand, sliding in contact 
with the edge of a scale of inches on a fixed framing which 
carried the wand. 

By other experimenters a sharp-pointed hook, like a 
fishing-hook, has sometimes, especially of late, been used 
for the same purpose, and such a hook affords very accu- 
rate indications. The result of my experience, however, | 
leads me to incline to prefer something larger than the |=>{=————_ 
sharp-pointed hook, and capable of producing an effect on 
the water surface more easily seen than that of a sharp-pointed hook ; and 
on the whole I would recommend a level line like a knife-edge, which might 
be from one-eighth to half an inch long, in preference either to a blunt point 
with level top or asharp point. The blunt point which I used was so small, 
however, as to suit very perfectly. If the point be too large, it holds the 
water up too much on its top as the water in the pond descends, and makes 
too deep a pit in the surface as the water ascends and begins to flow 
over it. The knife-edge would be free from this kind of action, and would, 
I conceive, serve every purpose perfectly, except when the water has a sen- 
sible velocity of flow past the hook, and in that case, perhaps, the sharp point, 
like that of a fishing-hook, might be best. 

To afford the means for keeping the water surface during an experiment 
exactly at a constant level, as indicated by the point of the wooden hook, a 
small outlet waste-sluice was fitted in the weir-board. The quantity of water 
adinitted to the pond was always adjusted so as to be slightly in excess of 
that required to maintain the water level in the pond at the height at 
which the hook was fixed for that experiment. Then a person lying 
down, so as to get a close view of the contact of the water surface with 
the point of the hook, worked this little waste or regulating sluice, so as to 
maintain the water level constantly coincident with the point of the hook. 

The water issuing from the experimental notch was caught in a long trough, 
which conveyed it forward with slight declivity, so as to be about seven or 
eight feet above the ground further down the hill-side, where two large 
measuring-barrels were placed side by side at about six feet distance apart 
from centre to centre. Across and underneath the end of the long trough 
just mentioned, a tilting-trough 6 feet long was placed, and it was connected at 
its middle with the end of the long trough by a leather flexible joint, in such 
a way that it would receive the whole of the water without loss, and convey 


it at pleasure to either of the barrels, according as it was tilted to one side 
or the other. 


_WaterLeve 


— 


ON THE GAUGING OF WATER BY TRIANGULAR NOTCHES. 153 


Each barrel had a valve in the bottom, covering an aperture six inches 
square, and the valve could be opened at pleasure, and was capable of 
emptying the barrel very speedily. The capacity of the two barrels jointly 
was about 230 gallons, and,their content up to marks fixed near the top for 
the purpose of the experiments was accurately ascertained by gaugings 
repeated several times with two- or four-gallon measures with narrow necks. 

By tilting the small trough so as to deliver the water alternately into the 
one barrel and the other, and emptying each barrel by its valve while the other 
was filling, the process of measuring the flowing water could be accurately 
carried on for as long time as might be desired. With this apparatus, quan- 
tities of water up to about 38 cubic feet per minute could be measured with 
very satisfactory accuracy. 

The experiments of which I have now to report the results were made on 
two widths of notches in vertical plane surfaces. The notches were accu- 
rately formed in thin sheet iron, and were fixed so as to present next the 
water in the pond a plane surface, continuous with that of the weir-board. 

The one notch was right-angled, with its sides sloping at 45° with the 
horizon, so that its horizontal width was twice its depth. The other notch 
had its sides each sloping two horizontal to one vertical, so that its horizontal 
width was four times its depth. 

In each case experiments were made both on the simple notch without a 
floor, and on the same notch with a Jevel floor starting from its vertex, and 
extending for a considerable distance both up stream and laterally. The 
floor extended about 2 feet on each side of the centre of the notch, and about 
23 feet in the direction up stream, and this size was sufficient to allow the 
water to enter on it with only a very slow motion—so slow as to be quite 
unimportant. The height of the water surface above the vertex of the 
notch was measured by the sliding hook at a place outside the floor, where 
the water of the pond was deep and still. 

The principal results of the experiments on the flow of the water in the 
right-angled notch without floor are briefly given in the annexed table, the 


H. Q. ce. 
7 39°6 +3061 
6 26°87 *3048 
5 LOG "3053 
4 9°819 *3068 
3 4°780 *3067 
2 1°748 "3088 


quantity of water given in column 2 for each height of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 
inches being the average obtained from numerous experiments comprised in 
two series, one made in 1860, and the other made in 1861, as a check on the 
former set, and with a view to the attainment of greater certainty on one or 
two points of slight doubt. The second set was quite independent of the 
first, the various adjustments and gaugings being made entirely anew. The 
two sets agreed very closely, and I present an average of the two sets in the 
table as being probably a little more nearly true than either of them sepa- 
rately. The third column contains the values of the coefficient ¢, calculated 
for the formulaQ=c H2, from the several heights and corresponding quantities 
of water given in the first and second columns, H being the height, as mea- 
sured vertically in inches from the vertex of the notch up to the still-water 
surface of the pond, and Q being the corresponding quantity of water in 
cubic feet per minute, as ascertained by the experiments. It will be ob- 
served from this table that, while the quantity of water varies so greatly as 


154 REPORT—1861. 


from 13 cubic feet per minute to 39, the coefficient ¢ remains almost abso- 
lutely constant; and thus the theoretic anticipation that the quantity should 
be proportional, or very nearly so, to the 3 power of the depth is fully con- 
firmed by experiment. The mean of these six values of ¢ is *3064; but, being 
inclined to give rather more weight, in the determination of the coefficient 
as to its amount, to some of the experiments made this year than to those of 
last year, I adopt *305 as the coefficient, so that the formula for the right- 
angled notch without floor will be 
& 
Q='305 H*. 

My experiments on the right-angled notch with the level floor, fitted as 
already described, comprised the flow of water for depths of 2, 3, 4, 5, and 
6 inches. They indicate vo variation in the value of e for different depths 
of the water, but what may be attributed to the slight errors of observation. 
The mean value which they show for c is ‘308 ; and as this differs so little 
from that in the formula for the same notch without the floor, and as the 
difference is within the limits of the errors of observation, and because some 
consecutive experiments, made without and with the floor, indicated no 
change of the coefficient on the insertion of the floor, I would say that the 
experiments prove that, with the right-angled notch, the introduction of the 
floor produces scarcely any increase or diminution on the quantity flowing for 
any given depth, but do not show what the amount of any such small increase 
or diminution may be, and I would give the formula 

Q='305 H? 
as sufficiently accurate for use in both cases. The experiments in both 
cases were made with care, and are without doubt of very satisfactory accu- 
racy ; but those for the notch without the floor are, I consider, slightly the 
more accurate of the two sets. 

The experiments with the notch with edges sloping two horizontal to one 
vertical showed an altered feature in the flow of the issuing vein as com- 
pared with the flow of the vein issuing from the right-angled notch. The 
edges of the vein, on issuing from the notch with slopes two to one, had 
a great tendency to cling to the outside of the iron notch and weir-board, 
while the portions of the vein issuing at the deeper parts of the notch would 
shoot out and fall clear of the weir-board. ‘Thus, the vein of water assumed 
the appearance of a transparent bell, as of glass, or rather of the half of 
a bell closed in on one side by the weir-board and enclosing air. Some 
of this air was usually carried away in bubbles by the stream at bottom, 
and the remainder continued shut up by the bell of water, and existing under 
slightly less than atmospheric pressure. The diminution of pressure of the 
enclosed air was manifested by the sides of the bell being drawn in towards 
one another, and sometimes even drawn together, so as to collapse with 
one another at their edges which clung to the outside of the weir-board. 
On the full atmospheric pressure being admitted, by the insertion of a knife 
into the bell of falling water, the collapsed sides would instantly spring out 
again. ‘The vein of water did not always form itself into the bell; and when 
the bell was formed, the tendency to the withdrawal of air in bubbles was 
not constant, but was subject to various casual influences. Now it evidently 
could not be supposed that the formation of the bell and the diminution of 
the pressure of the confined air could occur as described without producing 
some irregular influences on the quantity lowing through the notch for any 
particular depth of flow, and this circumstance must detract more or less 
from the value of the wider notches as means for gauging water in compa- 
rison with the right-angled notch with edges inclined at 45° with the hori- 


ON THE GAUGING OF WATER BY TRIANGULAR NOTCHES. 155 


zon. I therefore made numerous experiments to determine what might be 
the amount of the ordinary or of the greatest effect due to the diminution 
of pressure of the air within the bell. I usually failed to meet with any per- 
ceptible alteration in the quantity flowing due to this cause, but sometimes 
the quantity seemed to be increased by some small fraction, such as one, or 
perhaps two, per cent. On the whole, then, I do not think that this cireum- 
stance need prevent the use, for many practical purposes, of notches of any 
desired width for a given depth. 

My experiments give as the formula for the notch, with slopes of two 
horizontal to one vertical, and without the floor, 


Q=0°636 H?, 

and for the same notch, with the horizontal floor at the level of its vertex, 
zB 
Q=0°628 H?, 


In all the experiments from which these formulas are derived, the bell of 
falling water was kept open by the insertion of a knife or strip of iron, so 
as to admit the atmospheric pressure to the interior. The quantity flowing 
at various depths was not far from being proportional to the 4 power of the 
depth, but it appeared that the coefficient in the formula increased slightly 
for very small depths, such as one or two inches. For instance, in the notch 
with slopes 2 to 1 without the floor, the coefficient for the depth of two 
inches came out experimentally 0°649, instead of 0°636, which appeared to 
be very correctly its amount for four inches’ depth. It is possible that the 
deviation from proportionality to the 3 power of the depth, which in this 
notch has appeared to be greater than in the right-angled notch, may be 
due partly to small errors in the experiments on this notch, and partly to the 
clinging of the falling vein of water to the outside of the notch, which would 
evidently produce a much greater proportionate effect on the very small 
flows than on great flows. The special purpose for which the wide notches 
have been proposed is to serve for the measurement of wide rivers or streams 
in eases in which it would be inconvenient or impracticable to dam them up 
deep enough to effect their flow through a right-angled notch. In such 
cases I would now further propose that, instead of a single wide notch, two, 
three, or more right-angled notches might be formed side by side in the 
same weir-board, with their vertices at the same level, as shown in the an- 


nexed figure. In cases in which this method may be selected, the persons 
using it, or making comparisons of gaugings obtained by it, will have the 
Satisfaction of being concerned with only a single standard form of gauge- 
hotch throughout the investigation in which they may be engaged. 

~ By comparison of the formulas given above for the flows through the two 
notches experimented on, of which one is twice as wide for a given depth 
as the other, it will be seen that in the formula for the wider notch the co- 
efficient ‘636 is rather more than double the coefficient *305 in the other. 
This indicates that as the width of a notch, considered as variable, increases 
from that of a right-angled notch upwards, the quantity of water flowing 


16°) ads  REPORT—1861. 


increases somewhat more rapidly than the width of the notch for a given depth. 
Now, it is to be observed that the contraction of the stream issuing from an 
orifice open above ina vertical plate is of two distinct kinds at different parts 
round the surface of the vein. One of these kinds is the contraction at the 
places where the water shoots off from the edges of the plate. The curved 
surface of the fluid leaving the plate is necessarily tangential with the surface 
of the plate along which the water has been flowing, as an infinite force 
would be required to divert any moving particle suddenly out of its previous 
course*. The other kind of contraction in orifices open above consists in 
the sinking of the upper surface, which begins gradually within the pond or 
reservoir, and continues after the water has passed the orifice. These two 
contractions come into play in very different degrees, according as the notch 
(whether triangular, rectangular, or with curved edges) is made deep and 
narrow, or wide and shallow. From considerations of the kind here briefly 
touched upon, I would not be disposed to expect theoretically that the coeffi- 
cient ¢ for the formula for J-shaped notches should be at all truly proportional 
to the horizontal width of the orifice for a given depth; and the experi- 
mental results last referred to are in accordance with this supposition. I 
would, however, think that, from the experimental determination now arrived 
at, of the coefficient for a notch so wide as four times its depth, we might 
very safely, or without danger of falling into important error, pass on to 
notches wider in any degree, by simply increasing the coefficient in the same 
ratio as the width of the notch for a given depth is increased. 


AppENDIx.—April 1862. 


With reference to the comparison made, in the concluding sentences of the 
foregoing Report, between the quantities of water which, for any given depth 
of flow, are discharged by notches of different widths, and to the opinion 
there expressed, that we might, without danger of falling into important 
error, pass from the experimental determination of the coefficient for a 
notch so wide as four times its depth, to the employment of notches wider in 
any degree, by simply increasing the coefficient in the same ratio as the width 
of the notch for a given depth is increased, I now wish to add an investi- 
gation since made, which confirms that opinion, and extends the determina- 
tion of the discharge, beyond the notches experimented on, to notches of any 
widths great in proportion to their depths. This investigation is founded on 
the formula for the flow of water in rectangular notches obtained from ela- 
borate and careful experiments made on a very large scale by Mr. James B. 
Francis, in his capacity as engineer to the Water-power Corporations at 
Lowell, Massachusetts, and described in a work by him, entitled ‘ Lowell 
Hydraulic Experiments,’ Boston, 1855+. That formula, for either the case 
in which there are no end-contractions of the vein, or for that in which the 
length of the weir is great in proportion to the depth of the water over its 
crest, and the flow over a portion of its length not extending to either end is 
alone considered, is 


BS gelog Us CMP Nay a eg isso ee et 
where L,=length of the weir over which the water flows, without end-con- 
tractions; or length of any part of the weir not extending to 

the ends, in feet: 


* This condition appears not to have been generally noticed by experimenters and writers 
on hydrodynamics. yen MM. Poncelet and Lesbros, in their delineations of the forms 
of veins of water issuing from orifices in thin plates, after elaborate measurements of those 
forms, represent the surface of the fluid as making a sharp angle with the plate in leaying 
its edge. t+ The formula is to be found at page 133 of that work. 


ON THE GAUGING OF WATER BY TRIANGULAR NOTCHES. 157 


H,=height of the surface-level of the impounded water, measured 
vertically from the crest of the weir, in feet: 
and Q,=discharge in cubic feet per second over the length L, of the weir. 


It is to be understood that, in cases to which this formula is applicable, 
the weir has a vertical face on the upstream side, terminating at top ina 
level crest ; and the water, on leaving the crest, is discharged through the 
air, as if the weir were a vertical thin plate. 

To apply this to the case of a very wide triangular notch:—Let A BC be 


the crest of the notch, and A C the water level in the impounded pool. Let 
the slopes of the crest be each m horizontal to 1 vertical; or, what is the 
same, let the cotangent of the inclination of each side of the crest to the 


horizon be =m. Let A E, a variable length, =a. Then E D=—. Let 


EG be an infinitely small element of the horizontal length or width from A 
to C. Then EG may be denoted by dx. Let g=quantity in cubic feet 
per second flowing under the length w, that is, under A E in the figure. 
Then dq will be the quantity discharged per second between ED and GF. 
Then, by the Lowell formula just cited, we have 


dq=3'33 dx 2; 
whence, by integrating, we get 
5 
g=333+.227+C, 
mz 


in which the constant quantity is to be put =0, because when #=0, qg also 
=0. Hence we have 


q=2x333- Le? eee, Phtiyt 30 Biiwon's Serials 605 
ms . 

Let now H,= height in feet from the vertex of the notch up to the level 
surface of the impounded water =B K in the figure. Then A K=m H,. 
Let also Q, = the discharge per second in the whole triangular notch = 
twice the quantity discharged under AK. Then, by formula (2), we get 


5 
Q,=+4 x 3°33 Xx 1m | ly 
i mz 
Osa il DE a le able oie eatin tr cdabyent Se, 4 eg ety | 


To bring the notation to correspond with that used in the foregoing Report, 
let Q=the quantity of water in cubie feet per minute, and H=the height 
of the water level above the vertex in inches, 


or 


Then Q=7. and kaos and, by substitution in (3), we get 
C= Sarma eee ne OS Oe 0 ed aan (4) 


- This formula then gives, deduced from the Lowell formula, the flow in 
cubic feet per minute through a very wide notch in a vertical thin plate, when 
H is the height from the vertex of the notch up to the water level, in inches, 
and when the slopes of the notch are each m horizontal to 1 vertical. 


158 REPORT—1861. 


As to the confidence which may be placed in this formula, I think it clear 
that, for the case in which the notch is so wide, or, what is the same, the slopes 
of its edges are so slight, that the water may flow over each infinitely small 
element of the length of its crest without being sensibly influenced in quan- 
tity by lateral contraction arising from the inclination of the edges, the for- 
mula may be relied on as having all the accuracy of the Lowell formula 
from which it has been derived ; and I would suppose that when the notch is 
of such width as to have slopes of about four or five to one, or when it is of 
any greater width whatever, the deviation from accuracy in consequence of 
lateral contraction might safely be neglected as being practically unimportant 
or inappreciable. 

This formula for wide notches bears very satisfactorily a comparison with 
the formulas obtained experimentally for narrower notches, as described in 


the foregoing Report. For slopes of one to one the formula was Q="305 H?, 


and for slopes of two to one the formula’ was Q=-636 H®. To compare 
these with the one now deduced for any very slight slopes, we may express 
them thus :— 


For slopes of 1 to 1 ........0secseccensenseseneseceneee  Q= "305 mH” 
And. for slopes of 2 t0. L:..sccoe-cocestevesdeosses Q='318 m H? 
While for any very slight slopes, or for any very 
wide notches, the formula now deduced from 5 
the Lowell Oe 18 ....s.dasesssoceccsoessscscsecssens |= Oem as 


The very slight increase from ‘318 to 320 here shown in passing from i 
the experimental formula for notches with slopes of two to one, to notches 
wider in any degree—that slight change, too, being in the right direction, 
as is indicated by the imerease from 305 to ‘318 in passing from slopes of 
one to one, to slopes of two to one—gives a verification of the concluding 
remarks in the foregoing Report; and this may serve to induce confidence 
in the application in practice of the formula now offered for wide notches. 


Report on Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Con- 
stituents of Manures essential to cultivated Crops. By Dr. AuGustTus — 
Voe.tcker, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. 


In a Report read at the Aberdeen meeting, and subsequently printed in the — 
‘ Transactions of the British Association,’ will be found recorded a number 

of field experiments on turnips and on wheat. Sirflilar experiments upon 

these two crops have since been continued from year to year, and a new 

series of field experiments has been undertaken on the growth of barley. 

In connexion with these field trials 1 have made numerous laboratory — 
experiments on the solubility of the various forms and conditions in which — 
phosphate of lime is likely.to be presented to growing plants, and have 
likewise studied to some extent the influence of ammoniacal salts and a few 
other saline combinations on the solubility of the various forms in which — 
phosphate of lime occurs in recent and fossil bones, in apatite, and other 
phosphatic materials. 

The present Report will comprehend two sections. In the first I shall 
give the results of my field experiments on turnips, wheat, and barley ; im 
the second section reference will be made to the solubility of phosphatic | 
materials in various saline liquids. § 


" 
, 


‘ 


FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON MANURE CONSTITUENTS. 159 


lst Part: Field Experiments. 


Before giving an account of recent experiments on turnips, wheat, and 
barley, not incorporated in the Report for 1859, it may appear desirable 
briefly to state the chief deductions that naturally flow from my previous 
experiments, extending over five seasons. 

In these experiments I found that, amongst other particulars— 

1. Ammoniacal salts, such as sulphate of ammonia, used alone, had a 
decidedly injurious effect upon the turnip crop, even when used in small 
quantities. 

2. Purely ammoniacal manures applied to swedes at first checked the 
growth of the plant, and had ultimately no beneficial effect on the crop, 
either alone or in conjunction with phosphates. 

3. Phosphates used alone, but in a readily available condition, produced a 
larger increase in the yield of turnips than mixtures of phosphates with 
ammoniacal matters. 

4. Sulphates of potash and soda had no decided effect on turnips. 

5. Sulphate of lime likewise was ineffective as a manure for turnips on the 
soil on which the experiments were tried. 

* 6, On the other hand, ammoniacal manures, so inefficacious for root-erops, 
produced a considerable increase in the yield of wheat, grown on a soil 
similar to that of the experimental turnip-field. 

7. Nitrate of soda, applied by itself, and still more soain conjunction with 
common salt, gave a very large increase per acre, both in straw and corn. 

These are the principal results of previous field trials. _Chemico-agri- 
cultural experiments, however, are of little or no practical utility, unless 
they are continued from year to year for a long period, and tried on a variety 
of soils, in good and in bad seasons, in a manner which allows us, if not to 
eliminate, yet clearly to recognize the disturbing influences of climate, sea- 
son, condition of soils, and other circumstances which often affect the produce 
in a higher degree than the manures on which we experiment. A single 
field experiment is as likely to lead us in a wrong as in a right direction. 

I have therefore continued field experiments similar to those already re- 
ported upon, and proceed with an account of field trials on turnips made in 
1859. 


Field Experiments on Swedish Turnips made in 1859. 


The field selected for experimental trials in 1859 was in tolerably good 
condition. It bore clover in 1857, and wheat in 1858. The soil is mode- 
rately deep and well drained. A portion of the soil, taken from a large 
sample from different parts of the field, was submitted to analysis, and the 
following results obtained :— 


Moisture (when analysed) ...........2000008 
Organic matter and water of combination ...... 9°616 
Oxides of iron and alumina .............c00e00000. 19°660 
APDONMES GMMMEE ©... oc. sdsesterscde.csisecgecasces , 9'OUD 
TPO CenNrmMI pes SS erence te sho cesses so tes 345 
8 PGS Plieirve meters tre ee eee eee 07 


: Mapnesia, neneaer erste: es UO ee AN *783 
BOGEAOD css cpp ce ener teesne acs cancs--canseamane) I oOo 
PPOs. anedhis ous: AMG a BONS wc c's nocd oscoedies snubs “090 
( Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly clay)...... $0 60'525 


100-098. 


160 REPORT—1861. 


t Meta 


This soil contained hardly any sand that can be separated by the mechanical 


process of washing and decantation. It contains, like most of the soils on 
our farm, an appreciable quantity of sulphate of lime and also of phosphoric 
acid. It is not so rich in carbonate of lime as many others of our fields, and 
is rich enough in clay to be called a good agricultural clay. 

An acre of this land was divided into 20 parts. The different manures, 
after having been mixed with burnt soil for the sake of better distribution, 
were sown on the 6th of June, the land was ridged up, and the seed (Skirving’s 
swedes) drilled on the following day. The distance between the drills was 
22 inches; the plants were singled out 12 inches apart. The portion of the 
field on which the experiments were tried was left unmanured. 

The following list exhibits the arrangement of the experimental field, the 
kinds of manure employed, and their quantities calculated per acre :— 


Experiments upon Shkirving’s Swedes, in field No.7, Royal Agricultural 
College Farm, Cirencester, 1859. 


er acre. 

Plot 1 was manured with 15 tons of rotten dung. 

Plot 2 was manured with 15 tons of rotten dung and 2 ewt. of super-— 
phosphate. 

Plot 3 was manured with 3 ewt. of superphosphate. 

Plot 4 was manuged with 1 ewt. of superphosphate. 

Plot 5 was manured with 6 ewt. of superphosphate. 

Plot 6 was manured with 3 ewt. of gypsum. 


Plot 7 was manured with 2 ewt. of superphosphate and 1 ewt. of guano, s 


Plot 8 was manured with 3 ewt. of guano. 

Plot 9 was manured with 1 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia. 
Plot 10 was left unmanured. 

Plot 11 was manured with 3 ewt. of fine bone-dust. 

Plot 12 was manured with 2 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia. 
Plot 13 was manured with 3 ewt. of turnip manure. 

Plot 14 was manured with 1 ewt. of nitrate of soda. 

Plot 15 was manured with 6 ewt. of turnip manure, 

Plot 16 was manured with 3 ewt. of salt. 


Plot 17 was manured with 3 cwt. of bone-ash treated with sulphuric acid. | 


Plot 18 was manured with 3 ewt. of dissolved bone-ash and | ewt. of sul- 
phate of ammonia. j 

Pict 19 was manured with 3 ewt. of sulphate of potash. a 

Plot 20 was manured with 3 ewt. of dissolved bone-ash and 1 ewt, of 
nitrate of soda. 

On each plot of the experimental field a remarkably even and good plant_ 
was obtained. The roots continued to grow as late as November; they were 
therefore left in the field until the 8th of December, when the crop was — 
taken up. The roots were topped and tailed and cleaned, and the whole — 
produce of each plat then carefully weighed, with the following results:— 


i] 


‘Table- showing the produce per acre of swedes, topped and tailed and — 
cleaned, and increase per acre over the unmanured portion in field No. 7, 
Royal Agricultural College Farm, Cirencester, 1859. 


4 


Produce per acre. Increase per acre. 

Plot. Manure. tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. 
1. 15 tons of farmyard manure......... 18 10 2 2&..3 16 1 20° 
2. 15 tons of farmyard manure and 2 . 
ewt. of superphosphate ...... 17 6 8 4.4.2 12 2 @& 


FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON MANURE CONSTITUENTS. 161 


Produce per acre. Increase per acre. 
Plot. Manure. tons. cwt. gqrs, lbs. tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. 
3. 3 ewt. of superphosphate ......... LWP | aie Cig a ly aia RS 
4. 1 cwt. of superphosphate ......... Bf Oper meen, | PE) OG 
5. 6 cwt. of superphosphate ......... ab eee oS 
Seeewt. OF Pypsum ................. 16 14 T° "40°22" °0 0 °° 0 
7. 2 ewt. of superphosphate and 1 cwt. 
MePPeruviall PunG cc tee 1S 11 TBO ely OG 
8. 3 ewt. of Peruvian guano ......... Ig 1, 2. pe0 ates LD 
9. 1 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia ...15 17 3 12..1 3 2 8 
PEMA eee es scr cecccescecetescce LA 14 VO! 4 OO OPO 
Il. 3 ewt. of fine bone-dust ...........18 9 2 16..3 15 1 192 
12. 2 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia ... 16 17 3 12..2 3 2 8 
13. 3 ewt. of turnip manure ............ Ae thomas oD dO TG 
14. 1 ecwt. of nitrate of soda............ 1S yo len Seka. bo OO 
15. 6 cwt. of turnip manure............20 7 0 16...5 12 3 12 
16. 3 cwt.ofcommon salt ............15 16 1 0O..1 #1 3 Qf 
17. 3 ewt. of dissolved bone-ash ...... 20 a a aero hg 
18. 3 cwt. of dissolved bone-ash and 
1 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia 20 6 3 24...5 12 2 20 
19. 3 ewt. of sulphate of potash ...... 1 Nag ld ee se a a a aa | 
20. 3 cwt. of dissolved bone-ash and 
1 cwt. of nitrate of soda ...... aR On om as Gro) EtG 


In looking over the list of the different manures employed in these experi- 
ments, it will be noticed, in the first place, that certain simple salts which 
commonly enter into the composition of artificial manures have been used 
separately. It is not likely that we shall ever understand the action of com- 
plicated manures if we do not carefully study the separate effect of their 
component parts on vegetation. For this reason one plot was manured with 
sulphate of ammonia, another with sulphate of lime, a third with sulphate of 
potash, a fourth with chloride of sodium, and, finally, one with nitrate of soda. 

In the next place, we have in Plot 17 phosphates chiefly in a soluble con- 
dition, and free from organic matter or anything else but sulphate of lime, 
which is necessarily produced when bone-ash is treated with sulphuric acid. 
In another plot (No. 18) we have the same materials in conjunction with 
sulphate of ammonia; and in No. 20 we have them united with nitrate of 
soda. Then with respect to the form in which the nitrogen is applied in 
these experiments, I would observe that we find it in farm-yard manure, 
partly as ready-formed ammonia, partly in the stage of semi-decomposed 
nitrogenized organic matter. In sulphate of ammonia it exists of course as 
a salt of ammonia; for nitrate of soda, we apply nitrogen in the shape of 
nitric acid. In guano nitrogen exists, partly, only in the form of ammoniacal 
salts,—the greater portion of nitrogen being present as uric acid and other 
organic compounds, which readily yield ammonia on decomposition. And 
lastly, we have all these different forms in which nitrogen can be conveniently 
applied to the land combined, together with phosphates, in the turnip manure. 

The results of these experiments, though unsatisfactory in some respects, 
are nevertheless interesting and suggestive in others, and worthy of. some 
comments, 


Plot 1. Manured with 15 tons of farmyard manure per acre :— 
tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. 


Produce’ “uA MPA. 1 Sikes 594 
AriereaseonioneAe GA J HLGOTES 20 
Plot 2. Manured with 15 tons of farmyard manure and 2 ewt. of super- 
phosphate per acre :—~ 
1861. M 


162 REPORT—1861. 


tons. cwt. qrs. Ibs. 


Proguéé’ 2oe. stones satel ceellh 0 capes 
WNGYCASE,) Socacs aerate ree ane ee 


In comparing the weight of roots from these two plots, it would appear 
that the additional quantity of supersulphate has had rather an injurious than a 
beneficial effect. We must, however, not entertain such a view, although 
the experiments before us appear to favour it; for the common experience 
of farmers is, that even well-manured land yields a better crop of swedes when 
the seed is drilled in with 2 or 3 ewt. of superphosphate of lime. I have 
reason for believing that on plot No. 1 more roots were grown than on 
plot No. 2; for I find the land on one side of the experimental plots yielded 
17 tons 6 ewt. 1 qr. 20 lbs. per acre, and on the other side it gave 17 tons 
18 cwt. 24 Ibs. per acre. This land was manured with about 15 tons of 
farmyard manure and 3 ewt. of superphosphate per acre. This produce 
agrees well with the weight of the roots on the second plot, manured with 
dung and superphosphate. Still we have a difference of nearly 12 ewt. of 
roots in the two plots adjoining the experimental lots; and ought, therefore, 
to remember that the natural variations of the land, and other purely acci- 
dental circumstances, may readily give a difference in the produce of differ- 
ent portions of land which have been treated in every respect alike. Indeed, 
if the difference in the produce does not amount to more than 1 ton or even 
1j ton, I fear we cannot do much with the results. It certainly would be 
rash to lay stress on such differences, and to use them as arguments in proving 
or denying the efficacy of certain manuring matters. 

Plots 3, 4, and 5. Manured with superphosphate of lime. 

The superphosphate used in these experiments had the following composi- 
tions :— 


PANU ete cesciaac Ne est sivas ssaggssss an sapags ottnne dE EU 
PPA ABBICOD occur asettcaas Bete il ee 4-21 
BIPDGSpHste Gr UME... cnc ccarveegenenesssneparsa egal 
Equal to bone-earth (rendered soluble) ...... (31°63) 
Endoluble, Phosphates -ia.e<assqyeeseseceaiuas=0s 4°11 
Hydrated sulphate of lime .............eeeeeeee 46°63 
Alkaline salts (common salt chiefly) ......... 10°78 
PMU eae ctacnioch ng ca aiiacagat can tahign aise ces aauaads ox ae 
100-00 


This superphosphate was chiefly made from bone-ash, and contained but 
very little nitrogen. We have thus here another proof that a good crop of 
roots can be obtained on clay land with superphosphate alone, containing but — 
little nitrogenized or other organic matters. _ . 

Plot 7. Manured with Peruvian guano and superphosphate. 

Plot 8. Manured with Peruvian guano. 

The difference in the yield of these two plots is not more than 6 ewt., which — 
is too insignificant to decide the question whether in the case before us — 
Peruvian guano alone had a better effect upon the crop than the mixture of 
superphosphate and guano. In former years, however, I have found that — 
Peruvian guano produced not nearly so great an increase as superphosphate — 
alone, or a mixture of superphosphate and guano. There are, no doubt, 
soils for which guano is the most: profitable manure, even for root-crops ; — 
but this is rather the exception, and not the rule. 4 

On the soil of the experimental field, nitrogenized matters appear to have 


* Containing nitrogen ...csessecsecsseeves “34 
Equal to ammonia .y+csseeseees vovverne “AE 


FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON MANURE CONSTITUENTS. 163 


had a slight beneficial effect, which was not the case in the experiments 
which I tried on other soils in past years. 

Plots 9 and 12. Manured with sulphate of ammonia. 

The sulphate of ammonia used on Plot 12 has had a better effect on 
swedes than in former years. The effect, however, was not great when com- 
pared with that produced by phosphatic manures. 

Plot 11. Manured with 3 ewt. of fine bone-dust. 

Bone-dust, as might have been anticipated, gave a considerable increase. 
The bone-dust used in this experiment was very fine, it having been specially 
reduced to a coarse meal. On analysis it was found to consist of— 


Moisture O11, 6209. fads Se) RO ay cede BR 


Organic fanmebrone. pau emy £ ou Tore 30°61 
Phosphates of lime and magnesia......... 51°67 
Carbonate of lime’ ..............cesesececeees 6:03 


PA ANNCHSANES Ayo dceoceeiecksecacsceee cite "58 
Bigd thie Te. Ba Bo, aoe 


Plot 14. Manured with 1 ewt. of nitrate of soda. 

I am not aware of any accurate experiments in which nitrate of soda has 
been used by itself for turnips. The effect which so small a quantity as 
1 ewt. of nitrate of soda produced on the crop was decidedly beneficial, for 
it will be seen that as large a produce was obtained with 1 ewt. of nitrate of 
soda as with 3 ewt. of fine bone-dust. This result is certainly encouraging, 
and suggests a series of trials with nitrate of soda upon root-crops. The 
nitrate should be used in such trials by itself, as well as in conjunction with 
superphosphate or bones. 

The nitrate of soda used in this experiment was a good sample, which 
contained 95°68 per cent. of the pure salt. : 

- Plot 16. Manured with 3 ewt. of common salt. 

Common salt, it will appear, has had little or no effect in this experiment ; 
but it does not follow that it may not be beneficially applied to swedes, in 
conjunction with phosphatic fertilizers. 

Plot 17. Manured with 3 ewt. of dissolved bone-ash. 

In preparing this manure, 100 Ibs. of good commercial bone-ash were 
mixed with 70 lbs. of brown sulphuric acid ; and after some time this mixture 
was dried up with 50 Ibs. of sulphate of lime. By this means an excellent 
superphosphate was obtained, as will be seen by the following analysis. The 

manure, being made of bone-ash, did not contain any ammoniacal salts nor 
appreciable quantities of nitrogen. 


Composition of dissolved bone-ash. 


MED fi si ivisns -cseessces sd ds dda pa diin hai 
PEIN. de. ceed die dos .cceia cg daibdate doce BEI 
Biphosphate of lime ............csecesseeeseeeeeee 19°64 
Equal to bone-earth rendered soluble ......... (30°65) 
Insoluble phosphates ............ as en delete dvds "86 
Hydrated sulphate of lime ...............00006. 64°96 
Alkaline salts “Gaaaingane eng nbslotslsesiessgeease tM 
Sand 0..i:tg) Ate MOREE ayes sos ckceel nee RSOS 


100:00 
* Containing nitrogen beebeeseeedberegessenoes 3-71 
Equal to ammonia Gree eboorecreerebrnceserons 4°50. 


M2 


164 REPORT—1861. 


The result of this plot affords another proof that a good crop of swedes 
may be obtained with a superphosphate in which all the phosphates are 
rendered soluble, and which contains no nitrogenized matters. 

Plot 18. Manured with 3 ewt. of dissolved bone-ash and 1 ewt. of sulphate 
of ammonia. 

In this experiment the addition of sulphate of ammonia to dissolved bone- 
ash appears to have done no good whatever. 

Plot 19. Manured with 3 ewt. of sulphate of potash. 

The sulphate of potash used in this experiment was a good commercial. 
sulphate. It produced about the same increase as 2 ewt. of sulphate of 
ammonia ; and, in comparison to the effect which phosphatic manures pro- 
duced, must be considered as a manuring constituent which did not seem to 
be required on the soil on which the experiments were tried. 

Plot 20. Manured with 3 cwt. of dissolved bone-ash and 1 ewt. of nitrate 
of soda. 

The addition of nitrate of soda to the dissolved bone-ash gave only 14 ewt. 
more roots than the dissolved bone-ash used by itself—a quantity far too small 
to be regarded as a proof that nitrate of soda increased the efficacy of the 
dissolved bone-ash. From the preceding experiments I think we may safely 
draw the following conclusions :-— 

1. They point out in the most decided manner the great superiority of 
phosphatic matters as manuring constituents for root-crops. 


2. It appears that a sufficient quantity of soluble phosphates renders other 


fertilizing matters superfluous on soils that have a constitution similar to that 
of the experimental field. 

3. Ammoniacal salts do not appear to have any specific effect on the 
turnip-crop. 

4. Alkaline chlorides and sulphates produced no effect. 

5. Nitrate of soda had a beneficial effect upon the turnips. 

6. Sulphate of lime was inefficacious as a fertilizer for swedes in the ex- 
perimental field. 


Wheat Experiments made in 1860. 


The field on which the experiments were tried is quite level. It contains 
numerous fragments of oolitic limestones, no sand, and a large proportion of 
clay. The depth of the cultivated soil is about 9 inches on an average. 
The surface soil was well cultivated; it passes by degrees into limestone- 
rubble mixed with clay, and then rests on the great oolite limestone-rock. 


Two acres of this field were accurately divided into 8 plots, measuring + of — 


an acre each. 
Plot 1 was manured with 4 ewt. of wheat manure per acre, specially pre- 
pared, being a mixed mineral and ammoniacal manure ; cost £1 12s. per acre. 
Plot 2 was manured with 23 ewt.of Peruvian guano per acre; cost£1 12s.6d. 


Plot 3 was manured with 13 ewt. of nitrate of soda; cost £1 10s. peracre. — 
Plot 4 was manured with 14 ewt. of nitrate of soda and 3 ewt. of common — 


salt ; cost £1 13s. per acre. 

Plot 5 was manured with 3 ewt. of common salt per acre; cost 3s. 

Plot 6 (unmanured). 

Plot 7 was manured with 2 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia; cost £1 16s. per 
acre. 

Plot § was manured with 32 bushels of soot per acre; cost 16s. 

These manures were all sifted through a fine sieve and mixed with coal- 
ashes, so as to obtain, for the sake of better distribution, 20 bushels of the 
mixture. This was sown by broadcast distribution, on the 27th March, 1860. — 


# 


i 


FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON MANURE CONSTITUENTS. 165 


The wheat dressed with nitrate of soda, and that dressed with nitrate of 
soda and salt, began to show the effects of these dressings four days after 
their application, by a much deeper green colour than could be observed on 
any of the other plots. After a week’s time the wheat on the plot dressed 
with sulphate of ammonia, next to the plot manured with guano, assumed 
a darker green colour; and lastly, the wheat on plot No.1 turned darker 
green. There wasa marked difference of the plots 5 and 6, dressed with salt 
and left unmanured, and the rest of the experimental plots. The nitrate of 
soda plots, throughout the growing season, looked more luxuriant and darker 
green than the rest; and the wheat here was rather taller than on the other 
plots. On plot 6, manured with salt, the wheat was shorter in the straw than 
on plot 5, where no manure was applied. The wheat-crop was reaped in the 
last week of August, and thrashed out on the 27th of September, 1860. 

The guano used as a top-dressing was genuine Peruvian guano of best 
quality. 

The nitrate of soda contained 953 per cent. of pure nitrate. 

In the commercial sulphate of ammonia I found 963 per cent. of pure 
sulphate, and in the soot 24 per cent of ammonia. 

The wheat manure was the same as that employed in my experiments made 
in 1859, and contained in 100 parts— 


WWoistare’ feces ays cas ccecesccsesseenseseosges | La'OO 
Sulphate of ammonia*® .........es:eeeeeeee. 10°97 
Soluble organic matter} ....seeeeeee eeeee 8°08 
Insoluble organic matter t ...seeeeeseeeee 14°72 
Biphosphate of lime ..,..... See se 


Equal to bone-earth rendered soluble ... (5°52) 
Insoluble phosphates (bone-earth) ..... « 9°45 
Sulphate of magnesia Pte e Fer se 61 


Hydrated sulphate of lime Bi haaaliAbe soy 
RHEE cease coi nasap< enc gdsene 


The following table gives the yield in corn and straw of each experimental 
plot, the manures employed, and the produce calculated per acre. 


Manures employed, and sown Produce thrashed out, 

March 27, 1860. September 24, 1860, 
| : ‘ Grain, 2480 lbs., or 42 bushels 
Plot 1. Mixed mineral and ammoniacal 2 Ibs.; calculated at 59 Ibs. per 
wheat-manure, 4 cwt. per acre. bushel. Straw 1 ton 13 ewt. 


1 qr. 20 lbs. 
: Grain, 2720 lbs., or 46 bushels 6 
Plot 2. Peruvian guano, 23 entrar} lbs.; weight of bushel, 59 Ibs. 
Straw, 1 ton 16 ewt. 12 lbs. 
Plot 3. Nitrate of soda, 14 ewt. per acre. ka ; re een es tebe? 
qrs. 16 Ibs. 


Grain, 2804 lbs., or 47 bushel 
Plot 4. Nitrate of sodaand salt, 15 cwt. ‘a1 bs me mS ra id Bacher 


and 3 ewt, Straw, 1 ton 19 ewt. 3 qrs. 24 
Ibs. 
* Containing nitrogen .........40 2°32 T Containing nitrogen ...cosssee 3°53 


Equal to ammonia .s....es00e- 2°82 Equal to ammonia .....- erence 4°28 


166 REPORT—1861. 


Manures employed, and sown Produce thrashed out, 
March 27, 1860. September 24, 1860. 
Grain, 2080 lbs., or 35 bushels 15 
Ibs., at 59 lbs. per bushel. Straw, 
1 ton 3 ewt. 3 qrs. 16 lbs. 
} i 2004 lbs., or 33 bushels 57 


Plot 5. 3 ewt. of common salt. 


Plot 6. Unmanured. Ibs., at 59 lbs. per bushel. Straw, 
1 ton 7 ewt. 20 lbs. ee 
: in, lbs., or 44 bushels, at 
Plot 7. Sulphate of ammonia, 2 cwt. per wes ee nated: Sic el ten 
git 18 ewt. 8 lbs. 
Grain, 2460 lbs., or 41 bushels 41 
Plot 8. 32 bushels of soot. 1 Ibs., at 59 lbs. per bushel. Straw, 


1 ton 13 ewt. 3 qrs. 24 lbs. 


This tabular statement of results suggests the following remarks :-— 

1. The natural produce of this field, it will be seen, amounted to nearly 
34 bushels. The grain on all plots was lighter than it is usually, and weighed 
only 59 lbs. per bushel. 

2. Nitrate of soda and salt produced the greatest increase in grain and 
straw—a result well corresponding with the results obtained in 1859. In 
grain we have an increase of 13 bushels per acre, and in straw an increase 
of 12 ewt. 3 qrs. 4: lbs., upon the unmanured portion of the field. 

This large increase was obtained with an expenditure of £1 13s. per acre— 
an outlay which, even at a lower market-price of wheat, paid excellent interest. 

3. Nitrate of soda applied by itself was not quite so beneficial, but still 
gave a large increase both of grain and straw. 

4. Chloride of sodium, or common salt, on the other hand, hardly increased 
the yield in grain, and slightly reduced the yield in straw. 

Common salt certainly has the effect of checking the growth of wheat, and 
is therefore frequently employed in cases in which the wheat is too luxuriant 
or, as it is called by farmers, too proud-looking. Such wheat has a tendency 
to fall down before the grain is quite ripe, especially if the season happens to 
be wet and stormy. Common salt is used by farmers for the purpose of pre- 
venting the laying of wheat, and is said to strengthen the straw. It does so, 
not by supplying to the wheat-plant a constituent deficient in the soil, but by 
retarding the abundant development of the halm of wheat and other cereals. 

5. Next to nitrate of soda, Peruvian guano was the most efficacious and 
most economical manure for wheat. 23 cwt. per acre gave an increase of 
12 bushels of wheat over the unmanured portion, besides an increase of 9 
ewt. of straw. 

6. 2 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia per acre, applied by itself, gave a larger 
increase than 4 cwt. of a mixed mineral and ammoniacal manure, containing 
less ammoniacal and more mineral compounds than the 2 ewt. of sulphate 
of ammonia. 

Thus, the latter gave an increase of 10 bushels of grain and 11 ewt. of 
straw, whilst the mixed mineral and ammoniacal manure gave only an increase 
of 8 bushels of grain and 6 ewt. of straw, in round numbers. 


Field Experiments on Barley made in 1860. 


Precisely the same experiments as those made upon wheat were tried on 
barley. Twoacres of the barley-field were divided into plots of 3 of an acre 


each, and the various top-dressings sown by manure distributor on the 25th 
of April. 


FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON MANURE CONSTITUENTS. 167 


The soil of this field is considered a good barley soil. It is full of lime- 
stone, gravel, and fragments of oolitic stones of larger size, and, like most 
soils in the neighbourhood of Cirencester, contains much clay. On analysis 


it gave— 
INTSMIUTC” © voces cseseoott Corres tert ie ech ocr, 10°254 
Organic matter and matter of combination ...... 6°94:7 
Oxides of iron and alumina .................2..000. 12°754 
nbs PHOTO BClE 2. 22085 25h tek A ee EIR, *659 
Oanbonate OF hme VSIA 18640 
Pradtace Of Hate WH He Aaa ak SE *397 
MMIC MA ets esded Tie bv aces es see eae ee tog Sve cdtnes due "195 
MPOEASED Bee TE Rae ce hak oda cae cah abe cle obo eeeegenes ‘967 
POGUE sede reek ask thee eeeke wach ee oe bandos dca sdaeee tes *309 
Silica (soluble in dilute caustic potash)............ 14-018 
Insoluble siliceous matter and loss (chiefly clay) 34864 


100°000 


| The following tabular statement embodies the yield in grain and straw 
which the several plots furnished. 


Produce of Corn and Straw.—Experiments with top-dressings on Barley. 
Grain. Straw. 


(a eS 
At 56 Ibs. per bushel. 

No. 1. Mixed mineral and ammoniacal } _ lbs. bush. Ibs. ewt. qrs. lbs. 
manure, 4 cwt. per acre; } 2524 45 4 22 2 16 
cost £1 12s. 

No, 2. Peruvian guano, 23 ewt.per acre; | 9 
cost £1 12s. 6d. ici st en Bhi: P nk 

No. 8. Nitrate of soda, 15 ewt. per] ovsg 49 14 mu 3 0 
acre; cost £1 10s. per acre. 

No. 4. Nitrate of soda 14 ecwt., and 
3 cwt. of common salt; cost | 2706 48 18 23 3 16 

£1 13s. 

No. 5. 3 ewt. of salt per acre ; cost 3s. 2308 41 12 to. 2°" 

MMMPENGEDINE — 0.55 .--ceereaseecceevewes, OL dH 38 46 1 ig 0° 

No, 7. Sulphate of ammonia, 2 cwt.] o¢49 47 10 22 0 22 

er acre; cost £1 16s. 

No. 8, abe 32 bushels per acre; oa 2688 Pree 20 226 


These barley experiments, on the whole, gave results corresponding to the 
results obtained in the wheat experiments. Thus, the plots dressed with 
nitrate of soda gave the largest increase, and sulphate of ammonia used alone 
gave a larger increase than the mixed mineral and ammoniacal manure, 

The results do not, it is true, exactly agree in all particulars; but perfect 
agreement cannot be expected in field-experiments. 

Thus, in the barley experiments, guano appears to have produced a less 
favourable result than in the wheat experiments, whilst the mixed mineral 
and ammoniacal manure appeared to be better adapted for barley than for 
wheat. 

‘Whether this was the case, or whether the apparent differences in the 
effects of the same dressings on barley and wheat were due to differences in 
the composition and condition of the soil of. the experimental fields, I am 
unable to decide. 3 


168 REPORT—1861. 


The preceding experiments, I think, furnish convincing proofs that, through 
the instrumentality of purely nitrogenous manures, the produce of our grain- 
crops may be very considerably increased, whilst the same manures appear to 
be of no beneficial effect upon root-crops, at least on soils similar in character 
to those on which the experiments were made. 

In making this statement, it is not maintained that mineral matters are less 
essential to cereals than to root-crops; for I take it for granted that no che- 
mist or vegetable physiologist at the present time will consider the ash- 
constituents of plants less essential for cereals than for turnips and other 
root-crops. No amount of nitrogenous manure can replace these earthy 
matters, which enter into the composition of all cultivated plants. 

But, at the same time, it is a matter of experience that on many soils no 
reasonable amount of mineral fertilizing constituents will increase the yield 
of wheat or barley, whilst on these soils a moderate amount of a purely 
nitrogenous manure will contribute to a large increase in the amount of 
corn which can be raised from the same soils. 

It is hardly necessary to say, that the larger increase, as a matter of course, 
removes more mineral matter from a land dressed with anammoniacalorpurely 
nitrogenous manure than from land not so treated; nor can it be denied 
that on sandy and naturally sterile soils the application of fertilizing materials 
containing exclusively nitrogen, in some form or theother, will tend to the rapid 
exhaustion of such soils; it is nevertheless a fact that the great majority of 
English soils are so rich in mineral matters that no fear need be entertained 
of the land becoming permanently deteriorated by the occasional use of 
nitrogenous matters on wheat-soils. 

With respect to the combination in which nitrogen appears to be most 
generally assimilated by plants, and to be most grateful to wheat and barley, 
and probably to vegetation in general, I am of opinion that nitrie acid is 
by far the most usual form in which nitrogen is taken up by plants. Nitrates 
certainly produce a more rapid and more energetic effect than ammoniacal 
salts on all plants which are benefited by nitrogenous matters. 

Nitrates have been found, by Dr. Sullivan and by myself, in a great variety 
of plants, and may be detected without much difficulty in every arable soil, 
when a sufficiently large quantity of soil is operated upon. In porous lime- 
stones, and in soils containing chalk and gravel, ammoniacal salts appear to 
be readily transformed into nitrates; hence the constant presence of traces 
of nitric acid in the limestones of buildings, and of the occurrence of nitrates 
in more considerable quantities in the well-water of towns. During the 
period of the most energetic growth of plants, that is, during the summer 
season, the process of nitrification no doubt proceeds with greater rapidity 
in the soil than during autumn and winter ; and, in all probability, the luxu- 
riant growth of plants during summer is materially assisted by the greater 
proportion of nitrates in the soil. Ammoniacal salts certainly benefit vege- 
tation, and so do nitrogenous organic matters, but it may be questioned 
whether these matters have not to be ultimately converted into nitrates 
before they can be of real utility to vegetation. Taking into account all the 
laborious experiments which have been made of late by Boussingault, by 
De Ville, and Dr. Gilbert and Mr. Lawes, with respect to the assimilation 
of nitrogen by plants, and bearing in mind agricultural experience and the 
results of direct manuring experiments, I think we shall find— 

1. That there is sufficient evidence for regarding the free nitrogen of the 
atmosphere as incapable of supplying plants with food which they can utilize 
in forming albuminous matters. 

2. That nitrogenous organic matters, such as hoofs, horn, wool, hair, and 


FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON MANURE CONSTITUENTS. 169 


similar substances, are slow-acting fertilizers, which have to be transformed 
into soluble combinations before they can benefit plants. 

3. That ammoniacal salts are more energetic fertilizing matters, which, 
however, are fixed in the soil at first, and retained in it during the colder 
periods of the year, and which are gradually changed into nitrates and 
rendered soluble during the most active period of plant-growth. 

4. That, in the shape of nitrates, nitrogen is not only the most active, but 
also the most abundant and common combination from which plants derive 
their nitrogen. 


Qnd Part: On the solubility of phosphate of lime in various forms of phos- 
phate of lime and phosphate of magnesia, in pure distilled water, and in 
various saline solutions. 


Solubility of various phosphatic matters in distilled water. 


The amount of phosphate of lime which water is capable of taking up 
from different materials depends,amongst other circumstances, on the physical 
condition of the materials. 

Thus, hard crystalline phosphatic materials, even when finely powdered 
and left a long time in contact with water, do not yield so much phosphate 
of lime to water as more porous substances in a shorter period. 

In the following experiments, a considerable excess of the finely powdered 
materials was mixed with about half a gallon of cold distilled water, and 
repeatedly shaken up from time to time and left in contact with the water 
for a week, except otherwise stated. The clear liquid was then drawn off 
with a siphon, and filtered perfectly clear. A pint was then evaporated to 
dryness, the residue dissolved in as little hydrochloric acid as possible, then 
precipitated with ammonia, and in some instances the precipitated phos- 
phates were redissolved and thrown down a second time with ammonia. 

In experimenting with phosphatic minerals, it is not sufficient merely to 
evaporate the watery solution to dryness; for, besides phosphate of lime, 
water dissolves more or less carbonate of lime, magnesia, traces of alkalies, 
&c., which, added to the weight of the phosphate of lime, in many instances 
would give the latter far too high. In each case 2 pints of liquid were 
evaporated separately, and the following results obtained :— 


Amount of phosphate of lime 


(3Ca0, PO,) dissolved in 
1 pint. per gallon, 
Exp. grs. grse 


Pure tribasie phosphate of lime, precipitated, burnt, | Ist *28 ...... 2:24 
SIME TEINBEL Hic. foo csicccessersesconnecssaceasese. §:- 200 [2d ane nee, SG 
Pure tribasic phosphate of lime, precipitated and | Ist °72 ...... 5°76 
still moist ...... Mee eee sient. becisuieds couleswecdapteen ess) fe SHO) Op) Median roy 
Pure bone-ash, made from the shank-bone of a horse, ) Ist *13 ...... 1°04 
washed with water for a long time before trying | 2nd°17 ...... 1:36 
the solubility in water. (This bone-ash was made { 3rd +14 ...,., 1°12 
Sua WETy- GOLG OMG.) .65... so sUeNsescsvesoveseseens’} SUM TS 3.025.920 


Amount of tribasic phosphate of 
_ lime dissolved in 
1 pint. per gallon, 


ers, 
: j THELPES s.s.ar0 SOU 
Commercial sample of American bone-ash .,..... toe ee 


It will be seen that precipitated phosphate of lime in a moist condition is 


170 REPORT—1861. 


greatly more soluble in water than the same material dried, burnt, and then 
finely ground. . 

In the next place, I have experimented upon bones in various forms and 
conditions, as will be seen by the following data. 

Shank-bones of ox, coarsely ground and long soaked in water before 
the experiment was begun. This bone-dust was very hard and close in texture. 
The first pint, which was evaporated to dryness and further treated as stated 
above, was removed from the bone-dust after the water had been in contact for 
3 days. After that time 1 pint contained -06 grs., or *48 grs. per gallon, of 
phosphate of lime left for 12 days in contact with bone-dust ; the 2nd pint 
produced *10, or *80 per gallon. 

Ist pint gave ‘46, or 3°68 per gallon. 

2nd pint gave °53, or 4°24 per gallon. 

A very porous sample of commercial bone- 
dust, 7000 grs. of solution gave ......... 


Commercial bone-bust 1 


\ *54, or 5:40 per gallon. 


Amount of phosphate of lime 
dissolved 
by 7000 grs. of solution; by1 gallon. 
Boiled bones (the refuse of glue-makers) ................. ‘59 or 5°90 
Boiled bones (the same sample, after it had | 


become quite rotten by keeping 10 weeks 62 or 6:20 
AD WAGED) Vitec Vai s iie bce iies odse den diecsessd } 

The pith of ox horns (sloughs rather de- ; \ . 
COMPO Yi Hiss Mi vets VO ee. } pint gaye “Of Rh men 


Tt has been noticed already some years ago, by Professor Wohler, that — 
rotten bones yield to water more phosphate of lime than fresh ones. My 
experiments fully confirm this observation, and they moreover show that 
the more porous the bone, the more readily it yields phosphate of lime to 
water. 

I may mention here that, some time ago, I examined the tank-water con- 
taining the drainings and washings of the kennels at Harlow. The 
drainings were highly offensive to the smell, although not much discoloured. 
An imperial gallon, filtered perfectly clear, on evaporation furnished 36:86 
grs. of solid residue, and in this residue I found ‘44 of phosphate of iron and 
4°28 grs. of phosphate of lime, thus showing that phosphate of lime is soluble 
to a considerable extent in water charged with putrefying animal matter. 

Phosphate of magnesia, and phosphate of magnesia and ammonia, are con- 
siderably more soluble than phosphate of lime, as will be seen by the follow- 
ing determinations :— 


Amount dissolved by 
1 pint. by 1 gallon. 
Exp. grs. grs. 
Phosphate of magnesia (3 MgO,,PO,), burnt | Ist -87  ...... 6:96 
and finely ground | .icsssvededsscnissicansoute J BNE BQ. oxox 7:12 
; f is Ast 1°78 esis 14°24 
The same in moist condition .................. 2nd-1°8O — .s6sce 14°48 
Phosphate of magnesia and ammonia(2MgO, | Ist 1°62 ...... 12:96 
PO,, NH,O), in moist condition ......... 2nd, 1°68. eee 13°50 


In the next place, I give the amount of phosphate of lime dissolved by 
distilled water from the following phosphatic materials :— 


In I pint. In 1 gallon. 
PEPMViAl Pues ches. ues. <ccqnceen eee ee SOVar) cesses 2-46 


FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON MANURE CONSTITUENTS. 171 


= ei In1 _ 
Kooria mooria guano ..........secccesseeeeeeees eo ae in it 
ea Fee en Secale 
Monks Island phosphate ................:000000 Le he ost - 
Suffolk coprolites f (gen ee ain “73 
Cambridgeshire coprolites ...............00068 | dna “ chi bd 
Estramadura phosphorite ,.........+2s++sseees es Be oe = 
BUMPMEPIAT APACS .0. cc. cco ccasce ves acnenecavdes Due bs sy: a 


Norwegian apatite treated with water charged {Ist °33  ...... 2°64 
Be WIEh CATDONIC ACIC .......2....0cccceeeeanseee | ZOE, BD. cones 2:80 


It will be seen that the harder and the crystallized phosphatic minerals 
yield a much smaller quantity of phosphate of lime to water than the more 
porous and amorphous materials. 


Solubility of phosphate of lime in solutions of sal ammoniac. 


The solution of sal ammoniac employed in the following experiments con- 
tained 1 per cent. ofsalammoniac. A large excess of phosphate of lime was 
placed in a bottle and repeatedly shaken with a solution of sal ammoniac. 
After a lapse of seven days the clear liquid was drawn from the undissolved 
phosphate of lime and filtered; 1 pint was then evaporated to dryness and 
heated ; the residue was dissolved in a few drops of HCl, and the solution 
precipitated with ammonia. 

In the same manner the experiments with bones, bone-ash, and Cambridge- 
shire and Suffolk coprolites were executed, and the following results obtained : 


Amount of phosphate of lime dissolved by water containing 1 per cent. of sal 
ammoniae in solution. 


1 pint contained, Calculated 
per gallon. 

Exp. grs. grs. 
Precipitated phosphate of lime (3 CaO, PO,), | Ist 2°77 ...... 22°16 
: still ‘aaa GaAs by oo son spnicanigcsens vnc 2nd 267 was 21°36 

ure bone-ash yielded to distilled water Bel tee 
1:20 gers. of piaphdte per gallon ......... 39) ‘faeces {3 i 
Commercial bone-ash yielded to distilled | Ist °40 ofbone-ash 3:20 
water 1°76 of phosphate per gallon ...... 2nd °37 » 2°96 

_ Coarse hard bone-dust yielded to distilled) j. 49 ; 
water, after 3 days,*48 of bone-earth; after = d 47 ine ti "96 
Be days, “BO. SUE | sonccrc wale 7 T/A 88,4 
Cambridgeshire coprolites yielded to dis- lst °20 16 
: vid exe ‘60 
ne 2s eS be ates alae 
Suffolk coprolites yielded to distilled water) Ist ‘15 ...... 1:20 
“56 grs. of phosphate per gallon ,........ } 2nd *13 1-04: 


In all these experiments the solubility of phosphate of lime has been con- 


172 REPORT—186l1. 


siderably increased by the presence of sal ammoniac in the water with which 
the phosphatic materials have been brought into contact. 

In the case of precipitated phosphate of lime, the difference in the solu- 
bility in distilled water and water containing sal ammoniac is very great 
indeed. In mineral analyses in which phosphate of lime has to be determined, 
the filtrate from the phosphates contains usually sal ammoniac, and in this 
solution phosphate of lime, it has been shown, is soluble to a considerable 
extent ; it is therefore desirable to remove from this solution the lime by oxa- 
late of ammonia, then to evaporate to dryness, and to drive off the ammonia- 
cal salts by heat. In the residue the small but appreciable quantity which ought 
by no means to be neglected in accurate analysis will be found, and may 
be determined by 2NaO, PO, and ammonia. 


Solubility of phosphate of lime in solutions containing 1 per cent. of carbonate 
of ammonia. 


Carbonate of ammonia, like sal ammoniac, appears likewise to render phos- 
phate of lime more readily soluble than it is in pure water. This will be seen 
by the following results :— 

Amount of phosphate Calculated 
dissolved in 1 pint. per gallon. 
grs. 


Exp. grs. 
Lh : Tet" 142" Cae 11°36 
Precipitated phosphate of lime .............6. oud 140 tue 11:20 
; ety tae 1°68 
Suffolk coprolites Oui), ssa 176 
‘ : : Ist, 1S ae oeaeee 1°52 
Cambridgeshire coprolites —......sseceeeeeees Sud ear ce 168 


Solubility of phosphate of lime in water containing 1 per cent. of common salt. 


I have now to mention experiments which have shown me that neither 
chloride of sodium nor nitrate of soda has increased in any marked manner 
the solubility of phosphate of lime in the materials used in my experiments. 

The results obtained with solutions containing 1 per cent. of chloride of 
sodium are embodied in the following table :— 


Amount of phosphates dissolved by water containing | per cent. of chloride 
of sodium in solution. 


Calculated 
In 1 pint. per gallon. 
Exp. rs, gis. 
Ist. .°52,. .. dean 2c 
naa : 2nd. 55 eeseke 4°40 
Precipitated phosphate of lime .......... Sed: Aap Loe 4644 
Qth 957 aee 4°56 
Pure bone-ash yielded 1:20 grs. of bone- 12 3 
earth to water per Ballon: [sicssec. akaatkacpe Ose = 
Commercial bone-ash yielded 1°76 grs. of | Ist *16  ...... 1°28 
bone-earth to water per gallon ............ 2nd | .*18... as 1:44 
‘ 4 : : Istoc::1O sees 80 
Cambridgeshire coprolites ........scsssseeeeeee Onda koe alae 96 
. Uist ipo O Rig renctons 80 
Suffolk coprolites 45. 'sguoecesthescuxiatnes icone: Outi se Basi eos. 96 


It might appear that in the first four experiments the presence of common 
salt had reduced the solubility of precipitated phosphate of lime; but I do 


TRANSMISSION OF SOUND-SIGNALS DURING FOGS AT SEA. 173 


not think this was the case in reality, for the difference in the results obtained 
with distilled water and water containing 1 per cent. of salt is due to the 
fact that in evaporating the solution of phosphate of lime a considerable 
quantity of common salt is left, the removal of which necessitates the use of 
distilled water. The washings necessarily contain a little phosphate of lime ; 
hence the apparent diminished solubility of phosphate of lime in solutions 
containing 1 per cent. of salt. 


Solubility of phosphate of lime in solutions containing 1 per cent. of nitrate of 
soda. 


The following results were obtained in precisely the same way as in the 
experiments with chloride of sodium :— 


Amount of phosphate 
of lime dissolved by Calculated 
1 pint. . per gallon. 
Exp. rs. gTs. 
Precipitated phosphate of lime in moist] 1st ‘87 ...... 6°96 
RIESE 90 vee cor tet Sade cuvastacdnesarcsesectuak CUE MeO anda ck 6°80 
3 : TSE te benthan 1°44. 
Commercial bone-ash ......... ..2sceesesesseesee et eo as 160 
: LR Se cr cian 1:04 
BMH CBDROIILCS > sn oesdiiiess ceevonwenkee vdbsee athing on 80 


: ‘ae om TStpe UB caves “96 
Cambridgeshire coprolites .........ssseseseeeee Pa 5 eabopeiaany fF 


It appears from these experiments that nitrate of soda has no influence on 
the solubility of phosphate of lime; forthe differences in the amount of phos- 
phate of lime obtained from solutions containing 1 per cent. of nitrate of 
soda, and from distilled water left in contact with phosphate of lime, are too 
small to be due to any other cause than to the necessary errors which attach 
to all analytical determinations of this kind. 


Provisional Report on the Present State of our Knowledge respecting 
the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea. By Henry 


Hennessy, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Catholic 
University of Ireland. 


In accordance with a request from the President and Committee of Section 
A, I have drawn up the following provisional report on the state of our 
knowledge relative to sound-signals during fogs at sea. 

It is unnecessary to enter into any details as to the methods in actual use 
for signalling vessels during fogs. These methods are admittedly imperfect ; 
they have been devised with little regard to scientific principles, and they do 
not fulfil the purposes for which they are intended*. The objects to be at- 
tained by sound-signals during fogs are twofold: first, to reveal the presence 
of ships to each other, or of light-houses and beacons to ships ; secondly, to 


* Admiral FitzRoy furnishes an illustration, by an extract from a letter of the late Captain 
Boyd, relative to a dense fog which prevailed in a part of the Irish Channel on the day be- 
fore the ‘Royal Charter’ storm. Only a few explosions from guns fired with full charges 
from the seaward side of the flagship at Kingstown were heard on board the Holyhead 
packet, when the distance of the latter did not exceed one mile. The fog-bell was heard 
when the packet was about half a mile distant, but only when the fog had lifted. We may 
conclude, therefore, that as long as this fog rested on the water the bell was useless, and 
the heavy firing was only partially useful. See “Storms of the British Isles. Tenth num- 
ber of Meteorological Papers, published by authority of the Board of Trade,” p. 44. 


174 REPORT—1861. 


reveal the relative directions in which such objects may happen to lie. On 
both of these points some information has been collected by the recent 
Commission of Light-houses and Beacons. The amount of this information 
is, however, remarkably meagre when contrasted with the elaborate details 
furnished by the portion of the report relative to optical signals. This cir- 
cumstance is freely admitted ; and at p. xviii of the Report the desirableness 
of further experiments on the question of sound-signals is distinctly declared, 

But as the Commissioners received suggestions from several men of science 
who had paid attention to the phenomena of sound, a condensed sketch of 
such suggestions will be found to present much of the knowledge we possess 
upon this question. Before presenting a brief summary of these views, it is 
right to point out that the earliest experiments which have any important 
bearing upon the subject were instituted many years ago by M. Colladon, 
on the Lake of Geneva. I refer to his well-known researches on the pro- 
pagation of sound in water. The manner in which the acoustical properties 
of air are diminished by fogs has recently induced men of science (including 
many of those who communicated their views to the Commissioners of Light- 
houses) to recommend the employment of water as a medium for the trans- 
mission of sound. Almost all we know upon this matter is due to M. Col- 
ladon*. At first he found that subaqueous sounds were totally reflected at 
the surface, at such angles as rendered it impossible to hear them above 
water for distances exceeding 200 metres. To remove this obstacle to his 
researches he contrived a very ingenious apparatus, that we may for brevity 
call a hydrophone. Its shape resembled that of a common tobacco-pipe, 
with a broad and very shallow bowl. Its total length was about 5 metres, 
or a little more than 16 feet. ‘The pipe was about 18 inches in diameter, 
tapering at the end close to the ear, where it terminated in an orifice of about 
8 inches. The mouth of the bowl was closed by a partition, whose surface 
amounted to a little more than 2 square feet (20 square decimetres). The 
hydrophone was entirely made of thin sheets of tinned iron. With this ap- 
paratus M. Colladon could hear a bell under water at a distance of 14,000 
metres as well as he could by simply plunging the head at a distance of 200 
metres. Subsequent to his earlier experiments, M. Colladon succeeded in 
transmitting distinctly audible sounds under water to the distance of 35,000 
metres. The noise of the waves and wind produced little or no effect in 
diminishing the subaqueous sound, which could be clearly distinguished 
even when the observer’s boat had to be held by several anchors in tempes- 
tuous weather. The intensity of the sound was so little weakened by di- 
stance, that M. Colladon concludes that the decrease is as the simple distance, 
and not as the square of the distance, as in the air. This is explained by 
considering that the propagation of sound takes place in a sheet of water, 
limited between two surfaces, from which vibrations are totally reflected at 
acute angles. On these grounds, as well as from his experiments, he foresees 
the possibility of transmitting sounds at sea to distances of some hundreds of 
thousands of metres, and of applying such sounds to purposes connected with 
navigation, such as occupy us in the present inquiry. One of his most re- 
markable results is that of the existence of an acoustic shadow under water. 
This was proved by the effect of an interposed wall, in experiments made 
along the shore of the lake. This result is especially important in assisting 
in determining the direction of a given sound by the interposition of screens, 
and on this point water seems to possess decided advantages over air. 


* Mém. de l’Inst. Savants Etrangers, v. p. 320. Letter to M. Arago, Annales de Chimie 
et de Physique, p,525, vol. ii. 3° série. 


‘ "wed 


TRANSMISSION OF SOUND-SIGNALS DURING FOGS AT SEA. 175 


The suggestions of scientific men to the Commissioners of Light-houses 
refer principally to sounds propagated in air. Dr, Robinson points out that 
the sound should be as discordant as possible with that of the wind and 
waves, which are said to belong to C. He thinks that sound should be pro- 
duced as near the sea-level as possible. Mr. Mallet calls attention to explo- 
sive sounds as assisting the ear in ascertaining direction. Admiral FitzRoy 
suggests sharp high-pitched notes, with trumpet-mouthed devices for ascertain- 
ing the direction. He thinks that the source of sound should be at a low 
level. Sir John Herschel recommends the trial of a battery of steam-whistles 
blown by high-pressure steam; by a combination of three or several sets of 
three whistles pitched exactly to harmonic intervals (key note third, fifth, and 
octave), and with a rattle which intensifies the action on the auditory nerve. 
He also suggests concave reflectors, and the subaqueous propagation of sound 
by explosions in the foci of large and heavy parabolic reflectors. Professor 
Potter suggests the use of ear-trumpets, in order to assist observers. Pro- 
fessor Rankine recommends a parabolic ear-trumpet for the determination of 
direction. The Abbé Moigno maintains that a continuous grave sound spreads 
further than a very acute violent sound. Thus he instances the greater 
distance at which the sound of a cannon can be heard compared to thunder. 
He suggests resonant tubes like those attached to Savart’s acoustical ap- 
paratus. He thinks such resonant tubes far more effective than reflectors, 
He also recommends, for ascertaining direction, the use of a differential ear- 
trumpet, like Dr. Scott Alison’s stethophone*. He thinks that sound should 
be produced close to, or even in the water, and that a series of defined sounds 
could be arranged beforehand, one being assigned to each maritime station. 
He refers to M. Colladon’s experiments for details relative to subaqueous 
sounds. Mr. J. Mackintosh, of Liverpool, makes a suggestion in complete 
accordance with M. Colladon’s conclusions. He suggests a deep well in 
light-ships, whence the sound of a large bell might be propagated all around 
through the water. A kind of hydrophone applied from a vessel to the 
water might enable an observer to find the position of the light-ship. These 
suggestions contain nearly all the information presented in the Report on 
Light-houses and Beacons. Remarks made by other gentlemen are either 
equivalent to some of the foregoing, or have reference only to some improve- 
ments in the details of the existing system of fog-bells. 

Professor Wheatstone has informed me that it had been his intention, in 
co-operation with the late Mr. Robert Stephenson, to institute a series of ex- 
periments on sound, with reference to fog-signals. For this purpose Mr. 
Stephenson intended to employ his own yacht ; and had he been spared longer 
to science, the information we possess would probably have been less meagre 
than it is. Professor Wheatstone thinks that a battery of shrill whistles 
very nearly, but not entirely in unison would be most effective in forcing 
sound through a fog. Liquid and solid conductors should be as much as 
possible availed of during fogs. Water would be a far better conducting- 
medium than air for assisting in the determination of direction. 

If we are entitled to come to any positive decision upon the evidence which 
we possess, I should say that water seems to present in a higher degree 
than air during fogs, the qualities required in a sound conductor. High- 
pitched sounds seem to be generally acknowledged as most penetrating 
during fogs, but we have little information as to the detection of the direction 
of such sounds. On the other hand, we already possess a clue to the direc- 
tion of subaqueous sounds in M. Colladon’s acoustic shadow. Upon the 


* Proceedings of the Royal Society, and Phil. Mag. May 1858. 


176 REPORT—1861. 


whole, I have been led to the conviction that further experiments are re- 
quired, which, if properly devised, will not only lead to some important 
practical results, but perhaps throw light on obscure portions of the theory 
of sound. I may be permitted to suggest, therefore, that experiments should 
be made, Ist, on the best kind of sound for penetrating fogs; 2nd, on the 
adaptation of the principle of interferences for determining directions ; 3rd, - 
on the best mode of utilizing the sound-conducting properties of water, by 
the use of screens and hydrophones ; 4th, on the best construction of double 
ear-trumpets for assisting observers in deciding upon the direction of a given 
sound; 5th, on the influence of winds in modifying the intensity and ap- 
parent direction of sounds. 


Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds of 
the Genus Apteryx living in New Zealand. By Puitie Luriry 
ScLATER and FERDINAND von HocasTeETTER. 


THERE appears to be sufficient evidence of the present existence of at least 
four species of birds of the genus Apteryx in New Zealand, concerning 
which we beg to offer the following remarks, taking the species one after 
the other, in the order that they have become successively known to science. 


1. APTERYX AUSTRALIS. 


Apteryx australis, Shaw, Nat. Mise. xxiv. pls. 1057, 1058, and Gen. Zool. 
xiii. p. 71; Bartlett, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850, p. 275; Yarrell, Trans. Zool. 
Soc. i. p. 71. pl. 10. 


The Apteryx australis was originally made known to science by Dr. Shaw 
about the year 1813, from an example obtained in New Zealand by Capt. 
Barclay, of the ship ‘Providence.’ This bird, which was deposited in the ~ 
collection of the late Lord Derby, was afterwards described at greater length 
in 1833 in the ‘ Transactions of the Zoological Society’ by Mr. Yarrell, 
and was still at that date the only specimen of this singular form known to 
exist. Examples of Apteryx subsequently obtained, though generally referred 
to the present species, have mostly belonged to the closely allied Aptery« 
mantelli of Bartlett, as we shall presently show, though specimens of the 
true Apteryx australis exist in the British Museum and several other 
collections. 

The original bird described by Dr. Shaw is stated by Mr. Bartlett (Proc. 
Zool. Soc. 1850, p. 276) to have come from Dusky Bay in the province of 
Otago, Middle Island, where Dr. Mantell’s specimen, upon which Mr. Bart- 
lett grounded his observations as to the distinctness of this species and 
Apteryx mantelli, was also procured. 

Dr. Hochstetter was able to learn nothing of the existence of this Apteryx 
in the province of Nelson in the same island; and the species is so closely — 
allied to the Apterya mantelli, as to render it very desirable that further — 
examples of it should be obtained, and a rigid comparison instituted between — 
the two. At present, however, we must regard this form of Apleryx as — 
belonging to the southern portion of the Middle Island. : 


2. APTERYX OWENII. 


Apterya owentt, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1847, p. 94; Birds of Australia, } 
vi. pl. 3. 


BREA PM, - . 


ON THE BIRDS OF NEW ZEALAND. 177 


Owen’s Apteryx, which is readily distinguished from the preceding species 
and A. mantelli by its smaller size, transversely barred plumage and slender 
bill, was first described by Mr. Gould in 1847, from an example procured 
by Mr. F. Strange, and “believed to have been obtained from the South 
Island.” Since that. period other specimens have been received in this 
country, which have sufficed to establish the species ; and from the informa- 
tion obtained by Dr. v. Hochstetter, there is no doubt of this being the com- 
mon Apieryx of the northern portion of the Middle Island. 

“Jn the spurs of the Southern Alps, on Cook’s Straits, in the province of 
Nelson,” says Dr. v. Hochstetter, ‘that is, in the higher wooded mountain- 
valleys of the Wairau chain, as also westwards of Blind Bay, in the wooded 
mountains between the Motucka and Aorere valleys, Kiwis of this species are 
still found in great numbers. During my stay in the province of Nelson I 
had myself two living examples (male and female) of this species. They 
were procured by some natives, whom I sent out for this purpose, in the 
upper wooded valleys of the River ‘ State,’ a confluent of the Aorere, ina 
country elevated from 2000 to 3000 feet above the sea-level. It appears that 
this Apéeryz still lives very numerously and widely spread in the extended 
southern continuations of the Alps.” 


3. APTERYX MANTELLI. 


Aptery# australis, Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl.-9. 
— mantelli, Bartlett, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1847, p. 93. 

The characters which distinguish this commoner and better-known Aplerya 
from the true A. australis of Shaw were pointed out by Mr. Bartlett at the 
meeting of the Zoological Society held on the 10th of December, 1850. 
“This bird differs from the original Apteryx australis of Dr. Shaw,” says 
Mr. Bartlett, “in its smaller size; its darker and more rufous colour; its 
longer tarsus, which is scutellated in front; its shorter toes and claws, which 
are horn-coloured ; its smaller wings, which have much stronger and thicker 
quills; and also in having long straggling hairs on the face.” th 

Mr. Bartlett tells us that, as far as he has been able to ascertain, all speci- 
mens of Apterya mantelli are from the Northern Island ; and this is completely 
confirmed by Dr. von Hochstetter’s observations, which are as follows :— 

“Tn the northern districts of the Northern Island this species of Apterya 
appears to have become quite extinct. But in the island called Hou-tourou, 
or Little Barrier Island (a small island, completely wooded, ranging about 
1000 feet above the sea-level, and only accessible when the sea is quite calm), 
which is situated in the Gulf of Hauraki, near Auckland, it is said to be 
still tolerably common. In the inhabited portions of the southern districts 
of the Northern Island also, it is become nearly exterminated by men, dogs 
and wild cats, and here is only to be found in the more inaccessible and less 
populous mountain-chains—that is, in the wooded mountains between Cape 
Palliser and East Cape. 

“But the inhabitants of the Northern Island speak also of two sorts of 
Kiwi, which they distinguish as Kiwi-nui (Large Kiwi) and Kiwi-iti (Small 
Kiwi). The Kiwi-nui is said to be found in the Tuhna district, west of Lake 
Ly a and is, in my opinion, Apterya mantelli. The Kiwi-iti may possibly 
be Aptery« owenii, though I can give no certain information on this subject.” 


4. APTERYK MAXIMA. 
| ®The Fireman,” Gould in Birds of Australia, sub tab. 3. vol. vi. 
_ Apteryx maxima, Bp. 
861. N 


‘178 REPORT—1861. 


“ Roa-roa” of the natives of the Southern Island. 

The existence of a larger species of Apferyx in the Middle Island of New 
Zealand has long ago been affirmed, and though no specimens of this bird 
have yet reached Europe, the foliowing remarks of Dr. v. Hochstetter seem 
to leave no reasonable doubt of its actual existence :— 

“Besides Apteryx owenii, a second larger species lives on the Middle 
Island, of which, although no examples have yet reached Europe, the existence 
is nevertheless quite certain. The natives distinguish this species not as a 
Kiwi, but as a foa, because it is larger than A. owenti (oa meaning ‘long’ 
or ‘ tall’). 

rf JohiR aaa Provincial Surveyor in Nelson, who returned from an 
expedition to the western coast of the province while I was staying at Nelson 
in his Report, which appeared in the ‘Nelson Examiner’ of August 24th, 
1859, describes this species, which is said to be by no means uncommon in 
the Paparoa chain (a wooded range of about 2000 to 3000 feet in elevation 
between the Grey and Buller Rivers), in the following terms:—‘ A Kiwi 
about the size of a Turkey, very powerful, having spurs on his feet, which, 
when attacked by a dog, defends himself so well as frequently to come off 
victorious.’ 

“My friend Julius Haart, a German, who was my travelling companion in 
New Zealand, and in the beginning of the year 1860 undertook an exploring 
expedition to the southern and western parts of the province of Nelson, 
writes to me in a leiter dated July 1860, ten miles above the mouth of 
the river Buller, on the mountains of the Buller chain (which, at a height of 


from 3000 to 4000 feet, were at that time—it being winter in New Zealand— H 


slightly covered with snow), that the tracks of a large Kiwi of the sizeof a 
Turkey were very common in the snow, and that at night he had often heard 
the singular cry of this bird, but that, as he had no dog with him, he had 
not succeeded in getting an example of it. He had, nevertheless, left with 
some natives in that district a tin can with spirits, and promised them a 
good reward if they would get him one of these birds in spirits and send 
it to Nelson by one of the vessels which go from time to time to the west 
coast.” 

In concluding this brief Report, we wish to call attention to the importance 
of obtaining further knowledge respecting the recent species of this singular 
form of birds whilst it is yet possible to do so. We see that one of them 
(the Apteryx mantelli) is already fast disappearing, whilst its history, habits, 
mode of nidification, and many other particulars respecting it are as yet 
altogether unknown. We therefore trust that such members of this Asso- 
ciation as have friends or correspondents in any part of New Zealand will 
impress upon them the benefits that they. will confer on science by 
endeavouring to procure more specimens of, and additional information con- 
cerning, the different species of the genus Apéeryx. 


Report of the Results of Deep-sea Dredging in Zetland ; with a Notice 
of several Species of Mollusca new to Science or to the British Isles. 
By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.R.S., F.G.S. ; 

Tue Report was submitted by the author, as one of the General Dredging — 

Committee, not so much for the sake of announcing his discovery of new 

species, as of maintaining certain views which he had ventured to suggest on 


Me 


‘ 


RESULTS OF DEEP-SEA DREDGING IN ZETLAND. 179 


former occasions with respect to the geographical distribution of the marine 
fauna of Europe. A yachting excursion which he had taken in the course 
of this summer, accompanied by two scientific friends, to the northernmost 
part of the British Isles, together with an examination of the upper tertiaries 
in Saffolk and Norfolk which he had since made in company with Mr. Prest- 
wich, gave the author a better insight into the scope of such distribution 
than had resulted from his previous researches, and confirmed his belief that 
the division into separate areas or “ provinces,” which had been proposed 
by so many systematists (all of whom held different opinions as to the ex- 
tent and limits of such “ provinces”), was erroneous, and that the present 
distribution must be referred to a state of things which has indeed passed 
away, but left a very distinct impress of its action. The author is inclined: 
to take the Coralline Crag as a starting-point, and to consider the marine 
fauna of Europe, Northern Asia, the Cis-Atlantic zone of Africa, and part 
of North America, as having been closely related at a comparatively recent 
epoch, and as forming one common area of origin. Many species of Mol- 
lusea once existed at both extremities of this vast district—e.g. Mya trun- 
cata and Buccinum undatum; and other species hitherto supposed to be 
restricted to the Mediterranean (viz. Monodonéa limbata and Cerithium vul- 
gatum, with its variety C.calabrum) have lately been discovered by Professor 
Sars on the coasts of Finmark. It is also probable that the recent exploration 
of the Greenland seas by Otto Torell and others may reveal further instances 
of asimilar kind. Very little has hitherto been done towards the investiga- 
tion of the Arctic fauna. It by no means follows that an extremely rigorous 
or “arctic” temperature prevailed in those places where we find the remains 
of some Mollusca whieh now inhabit only the seas of colder regions, or, vice 
versd, that the presence in these regions of fossil shells belonging to species 
which now inhabit only more southern seas indicates the former prevalence 
of a warm climate. The temperature of the sea at certain depths is well 
known to be very equable; and it is only littoral or shallow-water species 
that would be exterminated or affected by a change of climate. Some kinds 
appear to be more hardy than others, and to have survived considerable and 
perhaps frequent changes of temperature; while others have undergone a 
limited modification of form, and are considered by some naturalists as 
distinct (or “ representative”) species. A great deal, however, yet remains 
to be done, by accumulating facts, and a critical comparison of recent with 
fossil species, before a complete or satisfactory theory of distribution can be 
established. 

Mr. Jeffreys contrasted his experience of this dredging expedition with 
those he had made to other parts of the British coasts as well as to the 
Mediterranean, and also with the accounts he had received of similar expe- 
ditions to the’ coasts of Norway and Sweden—showing the far greater 
difficulties which attended an exploration of our northernmost sea, by reason 
of the variable and often tempestuous weather, and of that line of coast being 
unsheltered from the prevailing winds. He, however, succeeded in procuring 
three species of Mollusca new to scicnce, which he proposed to name Mar- 
garita elegantula, Aclis Walleri, and Nassa? Haliaéti, besides twelve other 
species which were new to the British Isles. Of these last, ten are Scandi- 
navian, one is Mediterranean, and the other had hitherto been known only 
asa Crag fossil. He reserved the description and particulars of these species 
for a work on British Conchology which he had undertaken. He ascertained 
that the Gulf-stream never impinges on any part of the coast which he had 
examined, although the climate was temperate. 

|The author noticed the occurrence at considerable depths (nearly 80 
n2 


180° * REPORT—1861. 


fathoms) of living Mollusca which usually inhabit the shore or very shallow 
water, viz. Lamellaria perspicua, Nassa incrassata, and Cyprea Europea, 
all of them being widely diffused species,—thus apparently illustrating the 
view entertained by the late Professor Edward Forbes, that those species 
which have the widest horizontal range have the greatest vertical depth. 
Judging, however, from the great depth at which he found the fossil shells 
of some Mollusca (e.g. Pecten Islandicus and Mya truncata var. Uddeval- 
lensis) which inhabit much shallower water in the Arctic zone, the author is 
disposed to believe that the bed of this part of our Northern Sea has sunk 
since the so-called “ glacial” epoch, and that this cireumstance may possibly 
account for the above-mentioned occurrence of sublittoral species at such 
depths. 

With respect to the comparative size of those Mollusca which are common 
to the seas of the North as well as of the South of Europe, the author re- 
ferred to an observation made by Mr. Salter, in a recent number of the 
‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,’ that some fossil shells which 
Mr. Lamont had brought from Spitzbergen were larger than those of the 
corresponding species in our own mountain limestone ; and he remarked that 
the same rule appears to apply also to marine plants, for he never saw such 
gigantic fronds of the Laminaria saccharina, which fringes all our coast- 
line, as he did in the voes of North Zetland. 

The author concluded by paying a just tribute of respect to the labours of 
Professors Sars and Lovén, Malm, Moérch, Asbjérnsen, and other Scandi- 
navian naturalists, who were investigating the Mollusca of the Northern seas 
with a zeal and accuracy worthy of our emulation. 


Contributions to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the Moon. 
By J. Puiuuies, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Geology, Oxford. 


Proressor Puitiips noticed the result of his sketches of parts of the surface 
of the moon, and also described Mr. Birt’s contributions to a report on seleno- 
graphy, which had been undertaken by direction of the General Committee 
at Oxford, with the view of discovering the character of the moon’s surface 
as influenced by previous physical events. Professor Phillips's observations 
related especially to the mountain Gassendi, to which his attention had been 
directed’ by the Comniittee in 1852, but included also drawings of remarkable 
‘rills,’ and other interesting peculiarities, in Aristarchus, Archimedes, and 
Plato. 

The rills to which Prof. Phillips had given principal attention were—(1) the 
well-known stag’s-horn rill E. of Thebit, which appeared to be what geolo- 
gists call a ‘ fault’ or ‘slip,’ one side elevated above the other, and with some 
inequality in the dislocation when the shadow is accurately inspected; (2) 
the long rill on which the small crater called Hyginus is situated; (3) the 
group of parallel rills about Campanus and Hippalus. Regarding these it 
was remarked that the drawing of Madler, which, like all the work in his 
great map, was obviously a careful one, differed in one point from that made 
by Prof. Phillips. This difference may be thus stated. In Madler’s drawing 
three parallel riills appear in the space between Campanus and Hippalus ; 
the middle one, shorter than the others, passes between two small hills. 
Prof. Phillips draws these two hills near to each other, and records no rill, 
running between them. The rill between these hills and Hippalus appears in 


ON THE PHYSICAL ASPECT OF THE MOON, 181 


both drawings ; but Prof. Phillips continues it further to the south, even into 
the erater marked A, which is likewise traversed by the longest rill of all, 
that, viz., nearest to Campanus, Another rill is traced by Prof. Phillips quite 
across and through the old crater of Hippalus ; and all the rills appear to him 
to be rifts or deep fissures, receiving strong shadows from oblique light, and 
even acquiring brightness on one edge of the cavity. Their breadth appears 
to be only a few hundred feet or yards. He exhibited drawings of these 
objects on a large scale, one being a section across the crater of Gassendi, 
another a map of the curious region extending from Aristarchus and Hero- 
dotus along the interrupted rift or valley which opens by a seeming delta 
into the seeming dried sea-bed with indented coasts on the south. 

Speaking of Gassendi, of which he had made drawings under different 
eonditions of light and shade, from sunrise on the mountains to mid-day, 
and slighter sketches at later hours, he remarked, in addition to what has 
been recorded by Madler, the much-varied character of the ‘ rings,’ the deep 
narrow fissures across the ring on the S.E. side, the rocky character of the 
central elevations in the interior area, the rough terraces and ridges within 
the great ring on the east and also the north-west side, the occurrence of 
only two small craters in the northern part of the area, and the variation of 
colour on the surface, without shadow, according to the change of the angle 
of incidence of the sun’s rays. 

He also drew attention to the existence of delicate ramifications of small 
ridges and hollows in the S.W. part of the area, which had a marked con- 
vergence towards the broad lip of the deep-attached cavity known as the 
Spoon. He expressed his great desire to receive drawings of Gassendi as 
seen at noon and at later hours of the lunar day, 


Contribution to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the Moon, 
By W. R. Brat, F.R.A.S. 


On the present occasion I propose confining my contribution to the physical 
features characterizing the well-known spot Plato, some of which are fami- 
liar to astronomers, while others, I have some reason to believe, have not 
hitherto been pointed out. I have included all that have come under obser- 
vation during the twenty-nine months between January 1860 and May 1862, 
inclusive, in a synopsis of objects suitable for further telescopic observation. 
This synopsis of objects is necessarily izcomplete. To each object observed 
I have appended, in italics, the number of times it has been the subject of 
special observation ; so that every one inserted in the key-plan has been seen 
by me at some time during the interval of the observations above mentioned. 
The entire period of the visibility of Plato is embraced in the observations, 
which are, however, more numerous under the morning and mid-day illumi- 
nations than under the evening. Those features that have been more fre- 
quently observed may of course be regarded as being more fully established, 
at least for the period embraced by the observations; the synopsis forming a 
groundwork for the more effectual observation of Plato, especially as re- 
gards the interesting questions of absolute repose now existing on the moon’s 
surface, or the progress of change such as may be detected by human eyes. 
Forty-five series of observations contributing to the synopsis, and extending 
from January 5, 1860, to July 29, 1861, I have arranged in the order of the 
moon’s age, in a MS, volume which is deposited in the library of the Royal 


« 


182 REPORT—1861. 


Astronomical Society. The remainder, twenty-three, bringing the observa- 
tions to May 12, 1862, are at present in my hands, and are intended to form 
part of a second volume, should I be able to pursue the observations. The 
arrangement of the volume is such that it can be used as an ephemeris of 
the successive appearances of the crater, as well as being indicative of those 
objects that require careful and steady watching. 

One of the most interesting objects among those newly pointed out is a 
terrace on the south-west interior slope. It, with a ravine in the same neigh- 
bourhood, is of an exceedingly delicate character, being brought out (espe- 
cially the terrace) by the gradual change in the direction of the incident solar 
ray. 

Accompanying the synopsis are two illustrative figures. Fig. 1 is a some- 
what rough key-plan of the crater, the ellipse being that of the greatest open- 
ing presented by Plato. This key-plan possesses no pretensions either to 
accuracy of detail or correctness of locality, micrumetrically considered ; it is 
only offered as a guide to the general and relative positions of the objects 
included in the synopsis. Fig. 2 is a section indicated by observation of the 
south-west interior slope of Plato, showing the terrace or ledge Y, one of the 
new features brought to light by this series of observations. The reader is re- 
ferred to Beer and Midler’s large map of the moon, and is specially requested 
to compare the delineation of the crater as they have given it with the key- 
plan accompanying this Report. A careful comparison of them will show 
the features they have in common, and the departures that may exist in those 
determined by the present series of observations from the representations of 
the same features as given by Beer and Midler. Schréter has given some 
of the features mentioned, especially the mountain-range (7), which he marks 
p, the mountain v, the shadows of the three peaks y, 6, and e, the mountain 
c, which in Schréter’s drawing is marked D, and the crater y, which is no 
longer in existence—if Schroter really saw a perfect crater as he has deline- 
ated it. In another delineation of Plato by Schréter, showing the two mark- 
ings ¢ and & on the interior of the north-east slope as he observed them on 
December 11, 1788, he also gives a remarkably round cloud-like appear- 
ance, not unlike in character to the one that has been so constantly a subject 
of my own observation, marked f in the key-plan. These delineations may 
be found in his ‘ Selenotopographische Fragmente,’ t. xxi. 

To render the results of the inquiry of greater value, a careful microme- 
trical survey of Plato, when presented under the greatest visual angle, would 
be important. Every well-determined spot would be laid down in its aceu- 
rate position as seen from the earth under that angle; and if such a survey 
were executed with the requisite precision, one epoch only being fixed on, 
and no reduction to a mean state of libration admitted, it would not be dif- 
ficult, after a few years’ observations, to judge of the probable fixity of aspect 
presented by the most prominent features, and changes, if any, would soon 
render themselves apparent. 


Synopsis of objects in Plato suitable for telescopic observation, with reference 
to fixity or variability of absolute aspect. 


By absolute aspect, I mean the aspect dependent on the object itself, its 
form and constitution,—not an aspect dependent on the variability of the 
incidence of solar light, or on the variability of the direction of the visual 
ray as the object is seen from the earth, the one indicated by the moon's age, 
the other by the libration of the moon. 


ON THE PHYSICAL ASPECT OF THE MOON, 183 


Fig. 1. 


Key-plan of Plato, from observations by W. R. Birt, F.R.A.S., between January 5, 1860, 
and October 19, 1861. 

I. x.—A short range of mountains running at first nearly at right angles 
to the mountainous rim of Plato, from a break in the northern or, rather, 
north-western portion of the rim. This range of mountains is of a curved 
form, and terminates in the mountain ~. It constitutes the western rim of 
a crateriform formation to the north of Plato. 

This mountain-range has been the subject of eleven observations between 
January 1860 and May 1862. Schroter had previously observed it, and 
marked it ». Under a suitable illumination, a shallow depression is seen 
westward of this mountain-range, the land rising a little on the westward of 
it, so that a somewhat narrow valley is enclosed between the two. There are 
two well-defined peaks on the eastern or highest range, and a small one be- 
tween them and the rim. 

II. 72.—A break on the north-western rim of Plato, which is doubtless the 
continuation of the narrow valley west of the mountain-range (7). It is 
distant about 0°75 of the longest diameter of the apparent ellipse from the 
east, and is very distinctly shown in the drawing of Schroter. 

The observations of this break in the rim of Plato have been numerous. 
On three occasions the valley-like character of it has been recorded. Under 
a suitable illumination, a bright streak from Anaxagoras to Plato may be 
seen terminating near this break. 

Il. m.—A bright spot on the north-west portion of the rim, close to and 
east of the valley (7). On the 28th of May, 1860, I have recorded a high 
alpine mountain in the locality of this spot. ek 

This bright spot has been observed on nie occasions, and on one occasion 
as a dusky spot. 

1V.—The interior slope of the north and north-east border. This slope 
undergoes variations of luminosity, according as the incidence of the solar 
rays vary; it has two dark oval markings. 

V. 2.—Under a somewhat late illumination, 21-5 days moon’s age, the 
rim of this part of Plato presents the appearance of a sharp angle in the 
neighbourhood of the westernmost of the two oval markings, and from this 
point an irregularly formed crag overhangs the slope. This crag has also 
been seen under the morning illumination. 

There are strong indications of a circular range of mountains existing on 
the north of Plato, of which the range (v) forms the western side: the in- 
cluded area is crossed by two dark but narrow lines, which appear to be of 


184 REPORT—186l. 


the nature of fissures. They, with the circular range, have only been 
observed once. (See key-plan, fig. 1.) 

VI. i—The westernmost of the two oval markings. 

VII. &.—The easternmost of the two oval markings. 

Schréter appears to have observed them on December 11, 1788: he has 
figured them ont. xxi. fig.6. They have been observed by the writer on 
Jifteen or sixteen occasions at least. 

VIL. p.—A bay-like indentation in the north-east rim seen under the 
mid-day illumination. It has been observed on five occasions. It is not 
shown in the key-plan, but its Jocality is indicated by the letter p. 

This indentation, which is best seen about full moon, or about fifteen or 
sixteen days of the moon’s age, marks, I appreliend, the form of the rim of 
Plato hereabout. It is well shown in a sketch by Webb, under date of 1855, 
October 24, ten to eleven hours; the sketch is preserved in the volume of 
Observations on Plato deposited in the library of the Royal Astronomical 
Society. It is approximately figured at p, detached from the key-plan of the 
crater, as it is only visible for about two days near the full. 

IX. g.—A short, light spur in the neighbourhood of p, which, with the 
shadow within the cavity 2, appears to indicate the existence of a ledge or 
terrace in this part of Plato. It has only been observed once. 

X. £.—A bold rock jutting intg the interior, casting a well-defined shadow 
eastward in the morning and forenoon, and westward on the floor of the 
crater towards sunset: it is more frequently observed as the eastern extre- 
mity of the longest diameter of the apparent ellipse. 

This rock is one of the finest and most conspicuous objects in the neigh- 
bourhood of Plato during the morning illumination, glowing in the rays of 
the sun like molten silver. From about 7:5 to 85 days of the moon’s age, 
it is seen as a very brilliant point at the eastern extremity of the crater; 
during the next two days (from 85 to 10°5 days of the moon’s age) it is 
very distinguishable, standing out as a bold rock, and casting a well-defined 
shadow eastward; during the next three days (from 10°5 to 13*5) it loses its 
shadow, but continues a perceptibly bright object, imparting to the eastern 
extremity its peculiar brilliancy at this age of the moon. It is now lost for 
some time. About nineteen days of the moon’s age it has been seen very 
distinctly ; two days later, viz. at twenty-one days, its shadow has been seen 
on the floor of Plato; and about this time, or rather later, it has been seen 
standing out in fine and bold relief, a magnificent object, its height above 
the general altitude of the ring being apparent not only by the acuminated 
character of its shadow on the floor of the crater, but by its towering consi- 
derably above the general summit. It appears to be a formation in a mea- 
sure distinct from the ring itself, and greatly allied in its character to that of 
Pico on the south of Plato; indeed, it deserves as conspicuous a position on 
a map as Pico. It possesses two bold spurs on the north-east and south- 
east. Its very appearance is exceedingly suggestive, especially when taken 
in connexion with a formation immediately south of it. Both should be most 
carefully and scrupulously watched, in order to determine if any degrading 
forces are at work hereabout, 

This rock has been observed under the morning and forenoon illumina- 
tions on eighteen occasions, and under the evening on jour occasions, 
Schroter gives a rude figure of it in t. xxiii. 

XI. s.—A spot situated on the eastern exterior slope of Plato: it is slightly 
to the north of eastward of the rock Z, and was seen, on October 14, 1861, 
moon’s age 10°55 days, to be a gently rising protuberance on the eastern 
slope of the rock @, in the neighbourhood of the north-eastern spur, 


pevidy 


ON THE PHYSICAL ASPEOT OF THE MOON. 185 


XII. 4£—A small erater south of eastward of the rock ¢: it is deseribed, 
March 22, 9 30 (1861), to be almost due east of the longest diameter of 
Plato. It is situated on one of the spurs of ¢. 

The rock ¢, the spot s, and the crater ¢, form a conspicuous triangle, seen 
to great advantage on March 21, 1861. They have been observed in con- 
nexion on three occasions. 

XIII. A.—The /argest crater in the neighbourhood of Plato, figured by 
Schroter, t. xxiii... and marked ¢ by him, but A by Beer and Madler. 

XIV. y.—Schroter also gives another crater of about the same'size, which 
he marks x, north of Plato. In his delineation it is placed about midway 
between Plato and the Mare Frigoris. In the whole course of my observa- 
tions I have not met with this crater, nor have I seen anything similar to 
that delineated by Schroter. On the night of August 27, 1861, moon’s age 
21°53 days, I found a very interesting object on the northern boundary of 
the bright ground north of Plato. It consisted of a semi-elliptical range of 
mountains very similar to a half-erater, the existing portion of the ring not 
greatly elevated above the surface; the south-east side was more elevated 
than the south-west, so that its external slope caught the rays of the after- 
noon sun, which rendered it the most brilliant object in the immediate 
locality. The south-west portion of this half-ring was seen to terminate a 
little short of the line of junction of the bright ground north of Plato and 
the dark ground of the Mare Frigoris, the south-east portion being cut 
off sharply by the south edge of the Mare Frigoris. I did not observe any 
difference of level between the lighter rugged eround on which the half-ring 
was seen and the darker and smoother surface of the Mare Frigoris. The 
situation of this half-ring is very near the locality given by Schroter for the 
perfect crater. I have indicated it on the key-plan by Schroter’s mark x. 

I also observed this object on September 13, 1861, under the morning 
illumination, moon’s age 8°87 days; and again on September 25, moon’s age 
21°08 days. It requires the precise angle of illumination and visual ray to 
catch it. 

XV. W.—An interesting marking just south of the rock £, somewhat of 
the character of a crater, apparently triangular in its form, but on closely 
serutinizing it seen to be a somewhat shallow depression having a gently 
eurved rampart. Under a suitable illumination, the shadow of this rampart 
has been seen well defined within the enclosure. The south-east rim of this 
apparent crater, with the contiguous portion of the rim of Plato, forms the 
continuation of a chain of mountains which takes its rise at an isolated 
mountain south-east of Plato (c) (see key-plan, fig. 1). ‘This chain of moun- 
tains is well seen under the evening illumination about 21°5 days of the 
moon's age. 

The position of this depression is on the upper part of the eastern slope of 
Plato. It is separated from the large crater by a portion of the eastern rim 
of Plato, which also forms its waster rim. On May 2, 1860, the colour of 
the interior was very slightly, if any, darker than the surface exterior to 
Plato, and much lighter than the floor of Plato. It has been observed on 
Jifteen occasions. 

XVI. o.—A small crater at the external common base of the rock ¢ and 
the depression W. It has been observed twice. 

XVII.—The south-east rim of the crater Plato. 

XVIII. c.—A mountain south-east of Plato. The chain of mountains, of 
low altitude, running from it in a eurved direction to Plato formed part of 
the ring of the ancient crater called Newton by ap bel It has been 
observed at least on three occasions, 


186 REPORT—186l, 


The existence of this mountain is well established, having been observed 
by Schroter, and marked by him D; by Beer and Madler, and marked by 
them ¢; and by the writer, as above. The chain of mountains is given 
somewhat differently by each observer, but no doubt can be entertained of 
its existence. 

XIX. Y.—A very narrow ledge or terrace within the interior of the south- 
west border of Plato, appearing as a lucid fringe when the shadow of the 
summit of the border is sufficiently narrow to allow of the illumination of 
the floor of the terrace. See fig. 2, in which 


Fig. 2. 


® 


8 
Section of the south-west interior slope of Plato, the Hartwell Ledge, from observations 
by W. R. Birt, F.R.A.S. 
F. Represents the floor of the crater. 
S—S. The south-west interior slope. 


Y. The terrace or ledge. 

a. The summit of the slope. 

Z. A ravine exterior to the crater. 

S—S. The incident ray when the ledge is in deep shadow, the entire floor 
being illuminated. 

S'—S'. The incident ray when the ledge is partly illuminated. 

S’—S". The incident ray when it is wholly so. 

On May 18, 7 0, 1861, I observed the interior shadow of the western rim 
to fine off on the south-west side. It presented the appearance of a very fine 
line, with avo bright spots, as if there were two small mountains on the ledge 
or terrace. With Dr. Lee’s permission, I propose to designate this terrace 
the Hartwell Ledge. 

This ledge has been observed on seven occasions. 

XX. aa.—The summit of the south-west slope; observed on_ jive occasions. 

XXI. Z.—A ravine on the surface exterior to Plato ; observed on thirteen 
occasions. 

XXII. y.—A high peak on the south-west wall, recognized in the early 
morning illumination by its long shadow stretching far along the floor; 
observed on sta occasions. Schroter has figured the shadow. 

XXIII. 6—A high peak on the west wall, recognized as above, and 
figured by Schroter; observed on éwo occasions. 

XXIV. ¢.—A similar peak on the north-west wall, also figured by Schrier, 
and observed twice. 

These three peaks occasion at sunrise a well-marked indented shadow, 


Oratty 1 


ON THE PHYSICAL ASPECT OF THE MOON. 187 


which rather rapidly recedes as the sun becomes elevated above their horizon. 
Beer and Midler have indicated, measured, and marked them respectively 
y, 5, and e. The shadows have been well seen by the writer on the floor of 
Plato, with an additional peak. 

XXV. b.—A dark-black spot in the shadow, most probably the peak é, 
which under the early morning illumination would present such an appear- 
ance. My observations under the evening illumination have been too few to 
recognize it as a bright spot, nor have I noticed either y or e as black spots 
in the morning shadow. This black spot occupies precisely the position of 
é, just north of the termination of the longer axis of the apparent ellipse 
exactly opposite the reck Z. It has been observed on three occasions. 

XXVI. A.—A conspicuous mountain south-west of Plato, on the ring of 
Schréter’s Newton, and nearly abutting on the ravine Z (XXI.). Beer and 
Madler mark it A, but place it too far to the south-east. It has been observed 
on nine occasions. 

Under a very early illumination it may easily be mistaken for a crater 
(see also XXIX.7). There is a gradual rise of the land from the north- 
west towards the mountain, which itself rises from a depression, the western 
cliff of which is very abrupt. 

XXVII. dd.—A group of mountains in the Alps, forming with ) and y an 
isosceles triangle, A and y being the base. There is a little discrepancy here. 
The mountain A has been brought nearer to dd on the key-plan than it would 
be on Beer and Midler’s map, to give it its proper position with regard to Z, 
aa, and Y (see XXVI.A). It is the author's intention, as early as convenient, 
carefully to triangulate the most conspicuous objects near Plato. 

XXVIII. G.—A small crater, a little to the west of 6, somewhat closely 
abutting on the summit; it is marked G by Beer and Madler. I have 
observed it twice. It is very probably the same as w, in Schroter’s drawing. 
_ XXIX. ».—A mountain on the exterior western slope of Plato: it is 
situated in the line of the longer axis of the apparent ellipse. On March 22, 
1861, it was seen with the shadow eastward; it had a rounded summit, and 
the western slope was shining with considerable brilliancy. It has been 
observed eight times. Its situation with regard to dd and y (see key-plan) 
requires to be determined ; also its real character, whether it be a mountain 
or acrater. On some occasions, under an early illumination, it has been 
described as a crater; on others, as a mountain. From the description of 
~ March 22, 1861, it would appear to be a mountain. It is very conspicuous 
about the time of full moon as a bright lucid spot. 

XXX. ee—A considerable depression east of 7, and between it and the 
western rim of Plato. Observed éwice, under a very early illumination of 
Plato. 

XXXI. ce—A somewhat long dark line, in the nature of a shadow with 
a short spur, apparently the shadow of a mountain across the western wall 
of Plato; the long dark line observed only once, the spur twice. The exact 
direction of the line requires determination. 

XXXII. ».—A conspicuous mountain north-west of Plato, marked » by 
Beer and Madler; it is figured by Schroter with some smaller mountains 
and a crater, ¢, north-west of it. It was well seen on May 18, 1861; also 
on July 15, 1861, when two well-marked, distinct rocks were seen north-west 
of it. It has been observed on seven occasions. 

XXXIII. ff-—Three mountain-masses (supposed to be vy and the moun- 
tains north-west of it; they are not given in the key-plan) in the neighbour- 
hood of the mountain y. The westernmost of these mountains not over- 
bright, but the others very bright. 


188 MOON REPORT—1861. 


XXXIV. gg.—A crater figured by Schréter, and marked by him 4, at the 
western extremity of the three mountains ff. The writer observed and 
figured it on January 8, 1862; but did not see it on March 8, 1862, when 
the moon was nearly of the same age. 

The floor of Plato presents some exceedingly interesting appearances. It 
is figured by Beer and Midler as being crossed by four streaks of a some- 
what lighter tint than that of the general surface of the floor (see the large 
Map). These have not been observed within the epochs limiting the period 
of the observations forming the basis of this Report, January 1860 and May 
1862; but a remarkable, broad, branching, whitish, cloud-like streak, crossing 
the floor at certain epochs of the moon’s age perpendicularly, and at others 
when it is more distinctly apparent in a diagonal direction (f’) (see key-plan, 
fig. 1), has been seen very frequently ; in fact, during the continuance of the 
observations, it may be regarded as having possessed a decided characteristic 
of constancy. 

The change of direction of this marking as the sun passes from west to 
east in his lunar-diurnal course is very interesting, and is in some measure 
indicative of the nature of the surface of the floor, the direction being 
apparently dependent on some peculiarity of reflection in the surface. It 
appears to be connected with the bright mountain (m) on the north-west 
rim, as under certain angles of illumination it is seen invariably to take its 
rise therefrom. This isa feature that requires careful watching. It has 
more than once been traced to the rayed crater Anaxagoras, and on a very 
favourable occasion was seen to be connected with the ray that terminates 
near the bright mountain m. It is only visible during certain. epochs of 
illumination. 

Schréter appears to have observed, in December 1788, a somewhat similar 
marking, but of around form (consult his figs. 6,7 and 8, t. xxi.), Taking the 
three periods of observation, Schréter’s, Beer and Miidler’s, and the writer’s, 
it would seem that the markings of the floor are of a variable character. 

The portion of the floor not covered by this marking, and the whole when 
it is not visible, undergoes variations of tint, from a decided greenish tint just 
after sunrise, when it mostly appears with a delicate smooth surface, to a deep- 
blackish grey, of a diluted inky character, at mid-day, the smoothness of sur- 
face having considerably disappeared. 

Beer and Midler have indicated three or four minute specks on the sur- 
face; Gruithuisen detected seven. One, nearly central, I have more or less 
constantly observed under suitable angles of illumination. The Rev. T. W. 
Webb has also observed this central speck, It is marked g on the key-plan. 


Preliminary Report on the Dredging Committee for the Mersey and 
Dee. By Dr. Cotytinewoopn and Mr. BYERLEY. 


Tuis Committee was appointed last year at Oxford, and the present Report 
was a résumé of all that had previously, and since then, been ascertained 
concerning the Marine Fauna of that region. The past season having been 
very unfavourable for dredging operations, several important families still 
remained unexplored, chiefly among the minuter Crustacea, Annelids, Ento- 
mostraca and Foraminifera. The following comparison of ascertained 
species with those of the British Fauna will serve to show some of the 
results given. 


189 


ON THE DREDGING COMMITTEE FOR THE MERSEY AND DEE. 


“eoorued erpuoyoTe yy seeseeseeesrerel. 


eres eee 


“MMT UeATGUMOsOUL VIUTOW “SIULOOISSBaO BITRAT,|** 
‘suvards Bye A | Bile BIamy exuesy‘snopid oddrpig|"* 

“RSOUTJLIOS BOPSULOVT V4 

*EIOILTIV]Y VIALTNIG) ByLoyey viavnUMyg “eprumd viaemysog] Fp 
“PSTATPUL BIRBTGN Tet ees 


“TOMSOUTFBT 
-93 wantpruo Lory ByCOTIOT BIABTTOUIA) wow eeecveecstccs 
“STUNUIMOD elreuMony))|*** BlMso.t vutooorgdg ‘suaqna AOISBLTA I" “=e es Eee 
“TMAQUIYUOA opLayTydary |teesteereeeres 


*SLIRS 
‘opeats vaydiseg|-[NA TosuetD ‘stuLooITMUUY snyepuRg oF 
“TISMOIPUWY BOTyRTVD “SIULODLSUO] BULT[eOIOg ‘snmMseq| OG 
‘snunepaatssen soqsh109 “‘SBURUT SNUTOTED 
‘eyelnoue xvpdouoy “coyemdep snunjz10g iG 


64 
"eprpuro *q ‘eyedstaz0 
“RILIOMIVUL ByoNOTD |svpoyg ‘eywounsy vA py ‘eppyos vury 
‘eWVAO SNMOA ‘SITMO}TW ‘eNORJHOPT|-[aT, ‘efMpe uMIpaeD ‘st~Mpo sup~yAPT 991 
“eUUIONONSI[OT “VyLapenbqus suo. ‘sMOOSALOGAe SNJOTO.Ap 
‘epred eruojopqurg ‘eurpedqedonwy|-wog ‘eumrxord *q ‘eyetpoureytq swocy oor 


‘eyrode Bey Ng "esnyqo wuts 6 
‘ejOUIA =| “UMyepuN wMULong ‘sniidey vand 
T ‘AOISSVID VUNOVT “BAPTA VOSSIY)|-IMgG ‘VAN Voss ‘vatoy}IT VULTOITT 


*BISSONT ‘Stes NA sndoyoO See er eOO Derr eerensesonnes * eoTUEyyE jordeg e L 
‘ony ‘stauopy Aosops 
-uy ‘opadazoy, ‘(nuegnnby) ysy-jos 


‘oy “Ysy-Soqy poyodg 
-uy ‘yedQ ouoseaqy snoomue.y 


‘ouryT pueg ‘peoyyng pouty 


Teyons-duny ‘Aepsuy ‘Uoasinyg)“eyong snonjoug ‘“TeAe\\ aossory OIG 
=i “soroodg 
‘soloods o[qpytemot pur omy ‘sotoods quvUTtMOp IO ONsTAO}OBIVD | “YSHIAT 


eeeeewere|. 


wWWP caucuee "MOT seeenmersseeceveos STDNOTG 
seeneassesleasasananestesaneleeeeeessseeeees VOZONTIOW 
Sees ghee ous iuny «She taneSevnah | SSeMhen~ Ganilaneg ar 
£ % wepriaepnurduey 
% 61 weeeee weperrepnyieg 
ste reeaeswaseneces L sseeesees  ooptukaog 
—: Vozouda yy 
g 2 SUC 
sopaeWWeepes ds oes II “So WLYNUTCONINO 
“exouad gy joqy “seeeemsens VaTTONN 
6 seers eee VOVULSONOLNG 
Bee ¢ tpodosy 
“soy INT so" Bpodeuroyg 
bea 
£ L sarees “emodR TL 
2 $ “" BmMomMOUy 
g nyi seseeseee wm AT OBI, 
— VaOVESAID 
ot - eee eweceeerere VIVOINOT, 
£ OF *** VIVINONVUGITIONY'T 
Zz 9 sere") WOVIHONVUATEA NT 
2 ra ejerTouvcqoyysidg 
£ 12 *** equrpouRrqosorg 
—! S@odOugIsV 
& 9 vereeeeecee"SadOdOTVHde() 
z 6L bee ee TT ONIUV]AL 
“sowedg _ 
qnoqe “oy oy 


‘aoyszodorg | pu Aossayy 


derati 


i 


m 


The writer avoided enter 
them for a future and more 


10NS, reserving 


g upon any general cons 


complete report. 


190 $3 REPORT—1861. 


Third Report of the Committee on Steam-ship Performance. 


ConTENTSs. 
Report. 
Appendix, Table 1.—Table showing the results of the performance of H.M. vessels, fur- 
nished by the Admiralty. 

Table 2.—Table showing the results of the performance of six of H.M. vessels under 
various circumstances. 

Table 3.—Table showing the results of the performance of H.M.S. ‘ Victor Emmanuel,’ 
when at sea. 

Table 4.—Return of seven trials on the measured mile in Stokes Bay of H.M.S. ‘ Victor 
Emmanuel.’ 

Table 5.—Table showing the results of the performance of a number of vessels in the 
Merchant Service under various circumstances. 

Table 6.—Quarterly returns of the speed and consumption of coal of the London and 
North-Western Company’s express and cargo boats, under regulated conditions of 
time, pressure, and expansion ; from January 1st to December 31, 1860. 

Table 7.—Quarterly verifications of consumption of coal of the above vessels, from 
January 1 to December 31, 1860. 

Table 8.—Return from the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company of the average time 
of passage and consumption of coal of the Mail Steamers for six months ending 
June 30, 1860. 

Table 9.—Return from the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company of the average time 
of passage and consumption of coal of the Mail Steamers for three months ending 
September 30, 1860. 

Table 10.—Return of the results of performance of 50 vessels in the service of the 
Messageries Impériales, 1859. 

Table 11.—Return of the results of performance of 50 vessels in the service of the 
Messageries Impériales, 1860. 

Table 12.—Return of average passages of Mail Packets and consumption of coal for six 
months ending March 31, 1861. 

Table 13.—Log of Steam-ship ‘ Ulster,’ April 6, 1861. 

Table 14.—Log of Steam-ship ‘Leinster,’ on trial from Holyhead to Kingstown, 
April 4, 186]. 

Circular as issued from the Committee on Steam-ship Performance. 
Form as issued from the Committee on Steam-ship Performance. 


Rervorr. 


At the meeting of the British Association held at Oxford in June 1860, 
the Committee was re-appointed in the following terms :— 

«That the Committee on Steam-ship Performance be re-appointed, to 
report proceedings to the next meeting. 

«That the attention of the Committee be also directed to the obtaining of 
information respecting the performance of vessels under sail, with a view to 
comparing the results of the two powers of wind and steam, in order to their 
most effective and economical combination. 

** That the sum of £150 be placed at the disposal of the Committee.” 

The following noblemen and gentlemen were nominated to serve on the 
Committee :— 


Vice-Admiral Moorsom, The Hon. Capt. Egerton, R.N. 

The Duke of Sutherland William Smith, C.E. 
(formerly Marquis of Stafford). J. E. McConnell, C.E. 

The Earl of Caithness. Professor Rankine, LL.D. 

The Lord Dufferin. J. R. Napier, C.E. 

William Fairbairn, F.R.S. R. Roberts, C.E. 

J. Scott Russell, F.R.S. Henry Wright 

Admiral Paris, C.B. (Honorary Secretary). 


With power to add to their number. 


The following gentlemen also assisted your Committee as corresponding 
members ;— 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANGE. 191 


Lord C. Paget, M.P., C.B. Captain Hope, R.N. 
Lord Alfred Paget, M.P. Captain Mangles. 
Lord John Hay, M.P. T. R. Tufnell. 

The Earl of Gifford, M.P. William Froude. 
The Marquis of Hartington, M.P. John Elder. 
Viscount Hill. David Rowan. 

The Hon. Leopold Agar Ellis, M.P. J. McFarlane Gray. 


Captain Ryder, R.N. 


Your Committee re-elected Admiral Moorsom to be their Chairman, and 
at his decease the Duke of Sutherland succeeded him. 

Your Committee having held monthly meetings, and intermediate meetings 
of a sub-Committee, presided over by the Chairman, beg leave to present the 
following Reports :— 

At the last meeting of the British Association, after the Committee’s Report 
had been presented, Admiral Moorsom read a paper before the Mechanical 
Section on the Performance of Steam Vessels, and a discussion ensued which 
demonstrated the great want that is felt by men of science, both in England 
and in other countries, of definite knowledge based on actual experiment re- 
specting the resistance offered by vessels of various sizes and types, to being 
drawn through the water. As the means of trying such experimenis could 
only be satisfactorily obtained from a Government having every description 
of vessel in its service, your Committee determined urgently to renew their 
applications to the British Admiralty, that that body should, for the benefit 
of science generally, conduct a series of experiments; and to state that the 
Committee were even prepared to advise upon or conduct such experiments, 
if the Admiralty so desired. 

The Chairman accordingly communicated with the First Lord of the Admi- 
ralty, repeating the various arguments hitherto advanced, with concise state- 
ments of the general nature of the detailed experiments deemed necessary, 
and which are briefly as follows :— 

1, The specific resistance of certain ships selected as types, and of the fol- 
lowing displacements, viz.,—about 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 
7000 tons, and upwards. Such resistance under traction being measured by 
dynamometer, and under the three following conditions :— 


(1.) Of the hull when launched. 
(2.) Ditto with machinery on board. 
(3.) Ditto when ready for sea. 


2. The thrust of the screw, measured by dynamometer, when propelled by 
steam under the two last of the above three conditions, and under similar 
circumstances of smooth water and calm. 

3. Full particulars of the dimensions and form of the ships, of the boilers 
and furnaces, of the engines, and of the propeller. 

4. Detailed particulars of the performances of the same or similar ships in 
snooth water at the measured mile, with the particulars and conditions set 
forth in a Form of Return which accompanied the memorandum, or any other, 
more comprehensive or effectual, that might be given. 

5. The actual performance of the same or similar vessels at sea, with the 
particulars and conditions set forth as aforesaid. 

Your Committee would remark in passing, that from the date of their first 
appointment, they have not ceased, on every available occasion, to press this 
subject upon the attention of the authorities ; but, up to the present time, 
your Committee are not aware that any experiments of the kind have been 
undertaken. 


- In the Report presented to your Association at Oxford, it is stated that a 


192 a4 REPORT—1861. sy 


table of certain of Her Majesty’s vessels, seventeen in number, had been con- 
structed, containing the results of the best trials as conducted by the Govern- 
ment cfficers, and that it had been forwarded to the Admiralty with the 
request that the additional particulars of the hull and machinery might be filled 
in. The table, however, did net arrive in time to be inserted in their Report. 

Your Committee have great pleasure in being now enabled to lay it before 
your Association in the state it has been received from the Admiralty. 
(Appendix, Table 1.) They would remark in connexion with this return, 
that it appears that the authorities have not been in the habit of recording 
either the quantity of coals consumed or the evaporation of water, and they 
have made application to the Admiralty that in future these desiderata may 
be obtained. 

In compliance with the terms of the resolution appointing the Committee, 
viz., “ That the attention of the Committee be also directed to obtaining infor- 
mation respecting the performance of vessels under sail, with a view to com- 
paring the results of the two powers of wind and steam,” your Committee 
have to state that hitherto they have been unable to obtain such comparisons 
in the case of merchant vessels, but in the Table given in Appendix, Table 2, 
particulars of one of H.M. vessels are recorded under three conditions, viz., 
under steam alone, under sail alone, and under steam and sail combined, 
and of two under the two latter conditions only. 

These are especially useful, as they show the effects produced by powers 
brought to bear upon the hulls of vessels under the same conditions as to 
draft and trim, but differently applied. ; 

In endeavouring to collect this information from officers in H.M.’s service, 
the Committee were desirous that the application should be made with the 
concurrence of the Admiralty, and a circular was accordingly issued to a se- 
lected number of officers, accompanied by a form, which they were requested 
to fill up and return. At the request of the Admiralty, copies of these docu- 
ments were submitted for their inspection. 

The circular stated that the Committee had apprized the Admiralty of the 
Committee’s proposal to communicate with such captains and engineers of 
H.M.’s vessels as might be disposed to assist the British Association in obtain- 
ing facts for scientific calculations relating to the performance of ships at sea, 

The form proposed was as simple as was consistent with the object of ob- 
taining data necessary for calculation, and the Committee conceived that the 
time required to fill up such forms would not interfere with the duties of the 
respective officers. It also stated that the Committee invited the co-opera- 
tion of officers for the benefit of science alone, and that one of the fundamental 
rules laid down by the Association in directing their labours was as follows:— 

«The object of the Committee is to make public recorded facts, through 
the medium of the Association, which, being accessible to the public in that — 
manner, will bring the greatest amount of science to the solution of the diffi- — 
culties now existing to the improvement of the forms of vessels and the qua- 
lities of marine engines. ‘They will especially endeavour to guard against 
information so furnished to them being used in any other way.” 

Your Committee issued the Circular and Form of Return (see Appendix, © 
p- 198) to upwards of 200 of H.M.’s captains in commission, and to their chief 
engineers through the captains. 

Numerous replies have ‘been received promising returns; but the distance 
at which most of the vessels are stationed, namely, China, the East Indies, 
and America, has precluded our receiving such particulars in time for this 
Report. Returns, however, of seven vessels have been received, six of which 
are given in Appendix, able 2; and the seventh vessel, the ‘ Victor Emman- 
uel,’ being returned in a different form, is given separately in Appendix, 


PAQUEBOTS. 


RESULPATS DE LA NAVIGATION DES PAQUEBOTS DES SERVICES MARITI S DES MESSAGERIES IMPERLALES 


NT L'ANNEE 1859. 


Coxsomaatiox 


Coxsomsation Dz Cuannoy, 
Jo'Hurce sr px Sure, 


te Moyenne, 


Total du Parcours 

Heures de Chauffe. 

Henrea de Marche, 
ne par Henre, 


Amérigne... 
Thabor 
Sinai 
Carmel 
Danube 


Cydnns.... 
Phase 
Neva... 
Pausilippe 
Quirinal .. 


Euphrate . 
Gange 
Indus 
Hydaspe 
Simois .. 


Jourdain .... 


Méandre 
Hermus 


Alexandre. 


Caire ... 


Lougsor 
1p baer 
Osiris 


Capitole 


Vatican 


Henry IV. 


Sully 


Bosphore 
Hellespont 


Oronte ... e000 


19,290. 


17,889. 


19, 
19,; 
18,488 


oF 


12,808 
13,019 
14,518 
17,083 


20,278. 


16,283 
21,129 
16,141 
11,532 


12,736 


14,803 
12,172 
16,198 
16,910 
18, 


15,551 
13; 
22,408 
23,356 
18,408 


Phillippe Auguste 


Mérorée 
CHF s.seecsresne 
Mitidjah ... 


Balkan .., 


Taurus .. 


Sphinx . 


Tage 


Télémaque 


Amsterdam 


Péricle: 


Toravx ., 


Movesnzs.... 


19,303 
17,104 
16,836 
23,300 
20,664 


23,678 
17,161 
16,605 
19,518 
22,663, 
29,714 


801,468 


17,423 


TABLE 11 


ARITIMES DES WESSAGERIES IMPERIALES PENDANT L'ANNEE 1800. 


RESULTATS DE LA NAVIGATION DES PAQUEBOTS DES SERVICES M 
Coxposncstion | 


t F r sl 3 z - Coxsounanion 9e Cnansox. — |ufentwarou Sem] g 
s 3 € 2 = S > Ey mary 
g | gg g a E S| 84 a z/3 g | se] 2 
EE | = Zi, 2 z/3 z Fs 3 
PAQUEROTS, A Ee & 2 3 = 3 Be 2 a / 4, g | Fl 
° 2 = = nee o> I Py 3 a5 3 
é 4 g 8 2 £3 PH Toratn, & | ee 53 s 
z 4 g é z al ls ta : 
é = s a 8 g a | 8” os 3 
= & Sau RS; & 
-' } 
Cheraur. Chers hom hk. om i c G j 
Gui oh se ¥ pie co be Metres, Motre Kilo. | Kilo. |Neuds.| Neuds,| Kilo. 1 
amiss . 460 18 1640 | 393 2662 36 2318 0 O00 | 0°63 | Engrand| 0°50} 4986 | 0: 29. 7887 0178 9100 iy 650 woaRe 
Navarre 400 18 1616 | 387 2296 16 2206 10 O81 | 063 o'sl 067 | 405 | 0147 9368 0'221 9:86 671 ah 
Est Gs 507 85 9098 rian 4 a fe : . 9,726 
stramadare 460] 18 | 1607 | 885 | 59003 171 15 | 084 | 064 | Engrana| 0-45} 477 | 0-103 | 2,789,109 | 2378] 711] 51| 61 | 6378 | 0230 | 10:01 75 Ze 
Béarn 400 | 3s | 1442} 313 | 48703 eareapl larval (ose lle acteawn|hercallitaaatl oan h areon aya "1 3 = eee (PRO LE 
: 3 a 0 5B | 4 p14 | 3,404,513 | 2264] 7 o| 72] 4306 | o149 | 9:55 : pets 
Amérique ., 450] 54 | acx0| 390 | 49783 apres hecnlers : pe i aE cd sh y140 | 9'55 | 9100 | 630 | B795 
oso | 060} 497] 0905) 2,857,348 | 1855] 573] 41| 47 | 4161 | 0243 | 9°70 404 | ais 
Thebor 70 4 20:30 | 318 7800 M78 655 06 
es 2 E E BAT 097 050 | 416 | 0°08 247,177 | 1996 y, 74 195 Fi a 
Sinat 37o | 24 | gos} ais | 32343] 1163 35 ey heer Mtacalhaealts BeeT Lg AORN ele BIC ie ATES) | OLB) HAO; een | OSB | LG, OAD 
szo | 24 | 208s] a2 | 7e03$] 3364 90 Pa ebay ees ois | 1,452,724 | 1463) 450| 39 | 40 | 2732 | 0178 | 977 | .. | 381 | 14576 
Sa = ae: 5 I 57 | 390 | O'247] 3,18 : ” 89} = . y 
37 | 63 Enea assy 6200 Fon a nee aan eee oo 402 7| 43] 6828 0164 | 10°30 | 10'80 | 308 18,035 
e a 2,700,20 653] s519| #2] 40 | 6140 | 0102 y 6 % 
aro { es | 6o11 {347 | 9808} 2870 2ons-40--|-063-|-0 ~ elas ‘i 3 ja | 9:00) 900 | 510 0,69! ; 
63-}-063 oso 0:65} #08 | 1-21 | 2,401,000 | 1146] sag} 1| 3:3} 7498 | 0231 | 986 | 106 + 209 te 
Phase .... : 370 63 o271 | 368 9542 9350 10 naa . . pic) 
z ~ S271 | 808 | 9542 | 335 2795 a6 | 065/085 | o83 | 069] 390/133 | 3,908 07 Pileat F : 
Neva vs 370 | 634 | e1ea| 860 | 10784 | 3221 15 10 | 063 | 065 ose | 068 | 416 | 161 , = Ba AOOAT SES) aaa Re | Boas 2 S10 al cee 
Euphrate 350 25 sea | 11130}] 4140 35 asc. o | 04 | 067 pie ea lees peau 91 athe 487 | 37 | 3'8' 6657 0142 | 10°67 | 10°82 | 276 20,107 
Pausilippo. 320 8704 | 4430 20 | 9514 55 | 063/005 | 075 | 062] 30 6 al ee 4:9 | 62] 9906 | 0202 | 995 | 1050 | 492 | 18,160 
: 39 20 | 2514 5 2 | 397 | 0 aia\ |) age Sa 
Quirinal .., 320 8272 | 3380 paar 40, ||hoea|(oest!) ssa) load realtor I SO EA RM ALE Ye CO Peo ata PELE eo 
23 3 2 | 3:86 | 0 9 97 : 
; 1B | 036 1,980,960 | 197 300] gp | 44| 3641 0117 | 10°65 | 1095 | 257 21,585 
100, 7176 | 2995 45 0°69 | 0:60 5 
2035 E a} 065 | 61 2 0205 | 1691 | ary re 
300 11088 | 4390 35 053 | 0:83 a. 156 eal ba a eae Pa ks a oa * oe pees 
ee Bs cer lice eats os ees to | 0:66) 6:01 | 0'80 | 5,703,603 | 1565] 513 62} 60} 0962 | os | 956 456 | 12,180 
es SS 3 56 065 | 055] 3:08 | 0:00 | 1,26: 6 f Sh pt 97 ean : 
Hydaspe ..... 240 8323} | 3388 | os | 067 | Engrand| 063 | 4:01 | 049 | 9,200,03 ae Ue eee sade Boh ats iene 
Simo a lle | 33) 4 9) 3,300,035 | 119 ( ‘ 77 — 
Simos 240 is Zeal) See \Iseneie yl) erent of | Heese tease Bon gaa’ laes' lait latte 11 ) 396} 49 | 68] 6770 0207 9:00 | 9:37 | 397 13,985 
pene a | aia Ei 8,448,943 | 1035 | go9| 43] #1) 6702 | oor | 1007 | 1050 | 246 | 22,515 
oa 240 | 32 | 2586] 216 | 10033 | 4408 40 070 | 08 | En grana} 0°65 a 
Borysthéne . 240 91338} | 3379 35 | tell arn ee | ) 8,854,902 | 1170] 354] wa | 64 | 4981 0151 916 ros 14,920 
: 70 35 | os | 06 5 70 ie f ee 4 || 378 92 
Méandre ., 20 | 32 | 2395 83 | 9305 avila | : to 3,470,001 | 1175 | 381 | 4g | 62] 7005 | ov36 p40 | 358° | 15,480 
2 eS itt 2 a7 5 ros | o70]| 2.63 909 5 | | x 
240) 72 | 6408 7085 | 2647 40 | | 03 | 0°83 | En grand| 050 | Epa 1209} 387] so} 66] 8773 | 0165 . | 850 |] 15,460 
3. | En granc ae i , 
240 | 73 | e769] 225 | 7561 | 9353 30 hecnilacs |} wes. Wenallaralle Soe 1023} a21| 42} 47} 8898 | 0176 | 9°55 | p95 | oso | 19,385 
| 07 6 78 67 | 3°50 | 1°26 8,445 | 92 ; 7 me a 
220 | ors ; ¥ | 126) 2,186,445) 021) 288] sa | #0} 4775 | o801 | 968 | 1035 21,676 
221 215 | 19°30] 197 54103 2089 0 | 0:39 | 065 052 065 | 408 | 0:075| 2,029,950 
220 | 216 | 20:05 | 205 | 20203 os 76) 2,022,050) 968 / s72| 44| 40 | 2864 | O140 | 777 | 9:10 | 600 | 11,070 
ayn Pe ete cae , 050 | 400 | 018 838,067 | 916 | . a ues 5 
a1 | 2072| 217 | 72054 Peta Werle aig! 41] 44] 1111 | o1s2 | 857 | soo | 63 | 15,735 
SP | BU a (20284 )naLIs | C88 043 | 005 3 | 4:12 | 0072) 2,016,707 | 1016 | gea | 4a | 40 | 6008 | o21s | B40 | a7 | 13,015 
Bap angel Paeal|! ssa cll saa eae 085 | 045} 400} 013 | 2,905,873] 952| 360/43 461 3327 | oro | 702 | a7 a eu 
6} 080} o74 | 061) 408] 009 | 1,109,747] 854] go, 4o|| 9134 CERES eS 
201 7 t Fi sn 8) B'S Ord | B46] . 343 | 16,195 
200 | 67 | 4920] 172 | 71694] se73 063] 088] ox - on 
200 | 67 | 6080} 177 | 40903] 2170 60 | oa | 0-85 it on BY e 2,268/862 | O14) 916 | 45) 53) 4862 | oe | B72 434 | 16,605 
200 | 29 180 | 9681 | asso 40 039 | 064 0 a 0 a i ie 211 | 1,540,408] 927) 300/ 46] 62] 216 | o12 | oo | oss | aor 18, F 
2 A z i 77 2] 443 | 077 | 3,926,45 ie 5 : y: a 307 ,07 
so) 167 | 8798 | 4053 35 GuNeca Nees =|: id 5494] 976] 342| 4g} 64) 8382 | o110 | 855 | s7e | 3 = 
200 | 24 160 549 I En grand] 0°65 | 3°43 | 0:087| 8,003,640 | 1075 : 876 | 380 14,590 
2 60 85493 | 4080 95 erie si Rakeralecall eee sed 830 | 63! 64) 2046 0126 | 045 | 956 | 309 17,940 
098! 2,766,0 4 | 9 
i 200 | 45 | 4519 32603 | 1994 40 Ake Tit SBP) MB AO AAO 905 | ... | aeo | 17,395 
Ss 200 = 7 165 - - a iy 
: 200 | 45 | 47-90 65164 | 919 10 aa 80 | 00) gel) 167 | 1.046405 | B23\) 921 lar] 41] 8014 | oss | 77 
Bosphore s........./ 180 | 265 | 25 reall trod exes. os | 040| 367 |108 | 1,769,200| a0 | 270] 4o| a7 | a705 | o 70 | ... | 498 
Gakiais se ES 059 | 9 (eG Te 270 | 4 207 | 8:00 way '\\"so;100 
TOBE eererreensne] 180 | 25 40 Fad) ae oe o81 | oto] 299] 026 | 1,001,026] 854] 970] a | 48 | 260 ‘ ! | 976 | 20,10 
Philippe Auguste.., 180 265 42843 2 63 095 047 | 2°91 | 008 1,076,614] Bol si , 5 0196 O45 950 246 22,545 
si 1787 060 | En grand] 0:62} 292] 014 | 1, 997,0 12 STEN ed [pata RE PC + i 280) |) 24,180 
Métovée ...... 1s0 | 95 123 | 53 M0702 | 877 | 288) va] 1} 1802 | o177 | 906 oss | 10,453 
= 2 2 aan RACH allege . | 285 433 
Cheliff ........ : } 2 35 | 474 20 | 042 | 0:67 GRE , 
Mitidjah Beh eepell cae 5010} ] 8231 40 | 2423 0 | Os | O59 3.09 | 009 | 411,000) 860] a30| 48| 64| 770 | on10 | 72 
es idjah ., 160 60 43°88 | 156 6409 Bey 30 a 5 Ale 0°60 | 363 | 1:37 | 2,059,100] g50} 368] a7] 61} 2409 0216 | 786 | 800 | 433 12,815 
Balkan raarilledai tae 2407 2 0 | 065 | 005 Geral eta 2 0138 | 700 5; A 
o | 2 2620] 150 | 71293 aie a es ‘65 | 3°72 | 088 | 1,508,783 | Bo. 7 Sais a) 1605 9,165 
aa ts caren ere 94 | 3478 50 | 2278 0 | 07 Oe) fro ll/na |e 3) 204! 50] 61} 2847 | o214 | 815 | S27 | geo | 15,305 
23 | 2744] 156 | 63934] 2950 49 | 1707 ig 27 2,084, pest ceyedllsealhcte||are 8 5,306 
at 28 707 10 | 077 oda tata ll RG Ge LOT Pe a et AS eH 268 | 20,716 
Sphinx .. 160 a05 | 2439 oe of 7 400,961 | 746] 931 | ae] £7 | 3072 02 4 26) 20,716, 
Tag } : 1a7_| 46774) 2489 96 | 1747 40 | 090 | 065 230 | 960] ... | 205 | 27,060 
| ee ee alas Sry ll den cll Se 5 | oes | 080) 305/033 | 1,208, 
a, N# | 1956 20 | 1468 2 5 | 0°65 806,407 | a7 | 270) 40 | 6 8 y 
“élémaque Sh iea60 me % Saree 20 | 035 | 005 O07 oes | 355 | 09 1 6} 68) 3167 | O70 | B02 
aC Ss 2439] 173 | 564393 | 2015 10 | 1810 45 a 5) O21 | 1,093,368 | 732) 276] 46] 6:1] 280 
materdam ......| 150 1985 | 194 | 2437 050/067 | 0687 | O62] 361] O82 cae s 2807 | 0287 | B05 
Péricld | 985] 124 | 2437 | 1186 10 | 944 50 | 0: me A 27 | 1,417,200} 7s2! 959] 4a] 4 
BB rereeseeree| 120 ores | 191 50 | 040/ 0057! oe | oo! a16| 0 - 2 | 25) #6) 2789 | o231 | 9:02 5 
278 b) 6110 | 2160 25 | 2008 1 ‘ ‘ 38 688,511] 693} 240} 4 F > 21,410 
: 2008 10 | 060/00] oor | o¢o| 298] orc | aeasoss | eis! on | eal col ame || oe gz.000 
Topix ey 4 234,085) Bit) 201) 61) 5:0} 2135 | ose | g42 ae 
Nt 11,748 [328,020 |132,722 25 |108,160 35 as | = | =o = 28,220 
coe os : ; ... [126,048,359 |59,00 | cae 
39 J69,300|10,200| ... | ... j216,443 | 9:a05 | 
ws .. [18,807 | 819,448 


Movenxes 260 5 56 Ms ‘z 
qi 23: 6,560 427 518,06; 6 | 60! 4,309 0187 | 92 976 66 
2, 2 2,123 12 1 os 
. . 518, 1,186] 384] 4 
5 4¢ 18) 
7 80 7 6,389 | 
| 


TABLE 3.—PERFORMANCE OF H.MS. “VICTOR EMANUEL” AT SEA. 


Draught of Water. ENGINES. SCREW. = 
= He 
DATE AND NATURE OF EXPERDIENT. g 2 Pe Eee s r 2 a a5 3 Direct on of 
g g i 5 zg fi | si | ¢ ¥ § F See | ae =a Zig |g | Statoorsea, Wind Ball et, 
z E . g 2 2 = Se | oss z & g 3 Bes] £8 28 | 5 as regards Ship. 
si a 
Stakes" < : Bier me) oni |e te, || ata || cone), |(onge te Knots, | Knots. | Knots Ri evi) ||| Rone.) |) bas || ewks)/ Knots é = sa 
Trial at Stokes’ Bay, November 98, 1856 { Not} BP] SE] iP] Bes | HS | 2098 | Full speed,. ugg | are2 | 24" | 107 flere ae | ROE ane or sie, [fNot stated ....] 693 | 183 { inet, |} Not stated. Viagoe stated | afons 
- December 90, 1858....0cc0uene| mo | 17 8 | 2011 | 19 1 | 3516 | 798 | 4 2122 ” 1445 | 12:0 245 | 160 » 5 7 is 3 Fi 2 eis | isa |, * rg Ditto. 
Trial with four-baded screw, January 15, 1 » | 17 6 | 29011 | 19 2 | 3544 | 800 | 4 2079 ” B16 9) 22698) /) Sk) || 109 » » ” 2 ay # s F ess | ies | 5 By Ditto. 
4 s February 15, 1858 ne an ae) 3544 | 800 | 4 Se cab era oe ie i = 1 g » » » i an ip i: 573 | 108 | ,, ‘5 = Ditto, 
= S February 28, 1858 . Sys BW St 3544 | g00 | 2 250 |) Two pes loo | 993 | 101 92 » » FA 5 _ i z eas | is2 | ,, BS Pech , wal Ditto. 
Berehaven to Gibraltar, March 9, 1859 10 | 93 1 249 6135 | 1060 | 3 749 | Throttled ... 949 oe 33 341 8500 46 504 | 3:9 = 337 | 163 | 2to3 | Mod. swell ...) 3pointsonbow, Ditto. 
> = March 16, 1859 - << 10} 23 7 4% 3 4956 1083 8 794 ce Di ah 10°06 Be me 155 8651 45 3°83 62 a ar: 799 224 | 1to2 | Smooth water | 4pointsonbow) Fore & aft sails, 
Steaming throuzh the Gulf of Gibraltar, March 17,1850}... | 22 7 | o4 3 4936 | 1033 | 3 1195 |f mitment] 3 | 75 | 985 | 243 | 6050 47 | 673 | 20 » __ wsni{! 864 ||| 108) | Gtoe!| Mod. avell ...| Ahead ........|_ None, 
= 2 > July 12,1859 | 9 | 22 9 | 23 oF 4947 | 1032 | 3 Betis pice aeal pala lu Wl: || S| BEE Ss 49 | 447 | 23 | Good Welsh 744 | 200 Smooth water | Calm... Ditto. 
Alexandria to Cape Passero, with fleet, August 15,1859] ... | 2210} | 24 7 5067 | 1050 | 2 B41 {think } 722 | 46 262 | 36:3 | 1568 45 | 304] 65 - 220 a4 Bt Wier ollie. Dies 
= 2 » August 16, 1859} 2210} | 24 7 5067 1050 2 346 tion, & Throt. 7722 60 222 80°7 1904 64 a4 58 S 379 106 7 - alean Ditto, 
Malta to Gibraltar with fleet, September 18,1859 .....,| .. | 28 6 | 25 1 : 7 | 3 101 a os | 30 | 68 | cow | o672 63 | 1068 | 12 oa 27 | 78] Ttos |{ Hery Sh°P" | 4 pointsanbow} Fore & aft sails, 
Malta to Gibraltis, Princess Royal in tow, Sept.21,1859 2 | 93 4 | 25 0 1074 | 3 1151 » trop | 80 |) 8:00 | 279 | Bria 49 | 637 | 31 yen 477 | 184 | 1to2 | Smooth. |{ 7 Boint bee}! Ditto, 
3 e = Sextma ase! 4: | 23 8 | 9421 sles | 1060 | 8 54 s ooo | 45 479 | 615 | 2956 a8 | 60 | 35 | Wolshverysmau] 114 | 92 | 8 | Mod.swell ...| Sf pointe on 41 Ditto, 
Corfu to ses, ship's bottom very fonl, June 4,1860......) 74] 2210 | 25 0 6135 | 1001 | 2 519 » 861 58 2 817 | 2240 43 344 | 53 | Welsh very good) 398 | 112 | 1 tog | Slight swell ,.| Apointson bow] Ditto, 
Zanti to Argostoli, June 11, 1880..... 5 | 23 0 | 4 8 5105 | 1056 | 2 7 » Gey) 20) 80. 806 | 2240 284 | 204 | 68 Fiens 421 | 119 Smooth .........| Calm... None, 
Steaming out of Argostoli, June 14, 1860 . 23] 29 9 41 5105 1056 2 999 2 10°08 70 3:08 304 2296 23 202 | 68 » » 362 102 Bp = a at, wiscrenenes | eLn eto 
Malta to Navarino (spare screw), July 4, 1860 8 | 23 1 | 9 65 6255 | 1079 | 2 1108 » iss | 75 334 | gos | 2240 93 | 260 | 75 | Middling Welsh) 412 | 115 | 6 | Mod swell ...|'6} points on b, { ott, plain sail, 
= 2 » July 28, 1860... 4 | 27 | 46 5000 | 1010 | 2 1461 a 1073 | 76 323 | 308 | 3136 | 250 23 | 373 | 54 | Good Welsh 22 | 906) 2 i Vonshe ela oe 
2 5 September 7, 1860 33) 2210 m7 6060 1049 2 677 a 8:69 70 169 194 2240 20:0 33 285 | 70 a 543. On the quarter| { ea } 
2 = September 13, 1860...| 10] 23 0 | 2% 3 5030 | 1044 | 2 500 a ei7 | 48 337 | 412 | 2083 | 196 so | 387 | 62 |Smallandbad...| 230 \liereaa eee ee 
= = » September 14, 1861 1] 210 | 4 6 5045 | 1017 | 2 684 2” 804 4a 454 60'8 | 3808 340 65 773 | 2°68 a 130 366] 4 | Heavyheadsw, Fn wa] Ditto. 
Beyrout to Corfu, October 14, 1860.........ssessesseseee $3] 23 0 2 8 6105 1056 2 592 ” 869 63 2:39 275 2660 23°75 45 37 53 {eas pat } 446 125 | Oto2 | Smooth........ i val Ditto, 
Py October 15, 1860 10}| 23 0 | 24 8 6105 1056 | 2 13 8'57 34 562 » 869 61 259 297 | 2716 24°26 48 39 5°03 7 a 426 119 | 1to3 » wes] 5} points on b| All plain sail. 
: October 17, 1860 5 | 30] 4 8 510 | 1056 | 2 | 14 | 853] 33 512 ; 843 | 6:0 243 | 288 | 2352 | 210 47 | 35 | 57 a 420 | 118 0 9 sevn} Cal, None. 


Exerses. 
Nominal horse power 
Diameter of cylinder 
Length of stroke 3 feet 6 inches 
Pressure per square inch on safety valves = 20 lbs. 
Steam cut off by slides at °653 of the stroke (mean). 


764 inches, 


Screw Prore.rers. 


Original, Spare, Area of fire-grate ta 436 square feet. 

ft. in. ft. in. ‘Area of opening over bridges 924 
Diameter 18 3 18 1 » throngh tubes Cavey 
Length 3 1 3.0 Area of chimney 451 
Pitch 26 2 25 11 ‘Total heating surface yoo, 


TABLE 4. 
RETURN OF SEVEN TRIALS ON THE MEASURED MILE IN STOKES BAY, OF H.M. SHIP “VICTOR EMANUEL.” 


Borens. 


EEE 


cl} 
5 5 Bes g E E 5 
SEE: me 38 SEE 33 ae =a es 
2° Za 3 3 a 
& Bg 7 =F & 
| 
Date of Trial 28 Noy. 1868. | 80 Deo, 1856, 16 Jan, 1858, {15 Feb, 1858,| 26 Fob. 1858. | 9 Sopt, 1868. | 9 Sept. 1858, 
Trial made in : Stokes Bay. | Stokes Bay. Stokes Bay. | Stokes Bay. | Stokes Bay. | Stokes Bay. | Stokes Bay, 
Horse Power by Admiralty Rale ... 600 Horses. | 600 Horses, 600 Horses. | 600 Horses.| 600 Horses. | 600 Horses, | 600 Horses. 
Maker's Name ; Maudslay, | Sons & Sener aaeaereoetie 
Draught of Water (Forward) 17 ft, 2in, | 17 ft, Bin, 17 ft. 6 in. 17 ft. 5 in. 23 ft. 9 in. 29 ft. 3 in, 
Ditto (Aft) < oo H 20 ft. 8 in. 20 ft. 11 in. 20 ft. 11 in, 21 ft. O in, 26 ft. O in. 26 ft. Oin. 
Weight on Safety Valve per square inch 20 Ibs. 20 Ibs. 20 Iba, 20 Ibs. 20 Ibs. 20 Ibs, 
Pressure of Steam in Boilers (per sq. in.) by Guage 20 Ibs. 18 to 20 Ibs. 20 Ibs. 20 Ibs, 20 to 21 Ibs. | 19 to 20 Ibs, 
Vacuum in Condensers (Forward) 294 23 22 234 23 py 
Ditto (Aft)...... = r rere 23h 23 23 22 23 yy 
Number of Revolutions of Engines, Mean., 654 56 61 61 42:4 66'833 45°875 
Mean Pressure on Cylinders per square inch 19°68 Ibs, 19°63 Ibs. 21:12 Ibs. 2'536 Ibs. | 16:28 Ibs. 22°12 Ibs. 1442 Ibs, 
Indicated Horse Power 2008'28 2122" 20708 2210115 125098 2974 1277°32 
Speed of Ship, Knots 11922 12:00 11826 11713 9:939 10874 91075 
Weather, Force of .,, No. 3. No.3 to 4, No. 2 to 3 No. 4 to 5. No, 4. No. 4. No.4. 
Wind by Admiralty Standard ........... Starboard |Port Bow when| Direct ahead when | Ahead when} On port bow | On port bow | On port bow 
e Beam, —_|downthe course, down the course, | up course, |when up course.| down. course. | down course, 
State of the Sea acer erin sianatl weucerented Smooth. Smooth. Smooth, , 
Ship if Rigged, or otherwise .... .| Not Rigged. | Not Rigged, | Not Rigged. | Not Rigged. Not Rigged. | Rigged. Rigged. 
Weights on Board a ah Not Known. | Not Known, Not Known, | Not Known.} Not Known, | Not Known. | Not Known, 
Properter. 
Pees 2Bladed, | 2 Bladed, Slade ive ‘orm ot ee t} 3 Binded, | 2 Blades 
182 189 82 182 182 53 
Pitch .. 26:2 209 26:0 260 260 262 262 
Length .... a 81 81 a1 BL 81 a1 31 


Area of Midship Section at Mean Draft of Water of 19 ft. 2 in, 
Guns, 91. 


Ditto at Draft of Water of 24 ft. 2in, = 1060°0 square feet. 


= 78426 equare feet. 
Breadth (Extreme), 66 ft, 4 in. 


Length between Perpendiculars, 230 ft, 3in. Tonnage, 3086. 


Contents of steam space .., ,, 
Total water at working height 


2592 cubic feet, 
97°7 tons. 


Machinery by Maudslay, Sons, and Field, made in 1860, 


Engines horizontal direct, 


= 
2 


“OORT “ASENTIATS TOK 
ONIGNG ‘SHINOWY STUN], AOA SUANVAIG TV AHL do Tyo) 40 EO Res. 3) Gxy sdovssVg 40 SKI] SOVERAY ANE do NUAISY V 0 $t se0r | OL OT 6tOT 


*KNVYdNOO LaxOVd KVALS ee gO ALIO—6 ATAVL 


4 . 
09 () 2 08 0 o | 4 | se 6 st & wy 8 Chor | ems a ‘s cee Tn 
{ 
og 99 86 0 9 98 ie & % & % OF ve * ki « 404819] 
oog 09 69 o9 | 9 | or | o9 F or F 9 9 VoL “ us ti WON 
ose 09 Pe licyeilatel Malena) Ge |) va Seca « “ “ vATosayy 
086 oF 99 9 g It ee F or & ee 9 gor | soquioydog par Gsndny ‘Aine | > anyyay eouLty 0 OL se'Zt| 69 & BaPLT os 
‘ar Y ‘soon "aq | yma |vsuoy | "uk "Y “uw W pa 
m9 ar 
sauog | 97088 vsaputéo ‘esmaay | ouong | yeSn01 | ailov epee tera bere a ta u 
yoo | wyauoy | anyon paw | a ‘arya ‘BTUs A 82 9T IE 
‘wnajg dn Sonyy03 ett uy 
Sarpnjoot ‘dug, ; IN 2 Be 
‘SEXIONG aad paminsuny (vo) “SHOVESVd } 0 9 66h FOL IL 009 We IL 
fn 


or "Te saqarasacy |" 
aL Og zaqumaydog |” 
vw ~ og aung | 


Cent SoH a0 
2 


oP 
[ 0 9 gor | os mt osty |4 ie 
; 
} 0 6 OOF | 8 SI TE 19 I oL 
0 1 gas |98 0 Le0G 


OPT ON Kare 4OU PICT 
098 09 &L * | er.} st 9 ae P9sTe 07 487 Samay wquanjod 4S oe 
0 6 gare | & ST sore Halt 
sg | zt | or | t oF F | i 09 
. e | 3 ot |0 oF ¥] ot F fo 9 wet fo Mog ung oF 98T THY a 0 4 Gob | 99°F ALE T 
cog a) 9 : Lie 
6 | 6 Ir }9 oo | ot > | Ot 6 Sites liars 4sTe WouUp 07 9ST Atunucl 99 F LLe 8a 
us | st | mt | 4 oy ¥IG ae 
wo om rr n 0 eras | 49 4 0626 Bree 
{ ie | st | st | % oF ¥| Ot F iT 9 | oat moe oun 07 38T [Udy Salis 
ose 09 89 | P ear aaahee pe aS = 
88 & st |0 sb | OL F 03 9 +6 © 481g yorRyy 07 9ST Jaunuee oud aMay'T ‘sat oD Sqr yo L 
rele | (te ore $232 2 Pe z 
a — BEES st 3 
£ o It ol F 9 rae “wos oun 07 487 [Edy | “ Feze BL Ea = 
oa oF 99 1 Le 25 g Ey 
0 8 rae & Ff 8 Oat fee 488 More oF 9ST Aswnuey e25 Fs a2 3 
+ YU a Ol ‘my | my Bes 71 35 = 
ote = 22 3 
+ Si¢ = =a 
aopomik F | = 
76 peq | -ogeioay | “ys 2095 soot | 2 rte 
spam oy fois do oh i; cag oy cee “QUST ‘ISTE BATHAOTT ONIASE SISO} EL AML HOS TVOD 40 NOMENASAOD 
2d pomaueuy 81009 os ‘SLVOUNVaIS—CVAHATON ONV UAISAHO—4 ATIVE 
“suxIOXG “sapvesval 
On OO ee 
‘opst “Mog Nn 
OXIGAG SHINO XG Hod BYANVALS TIVY IHL do TVOQ do igen A) GY aovesYq 40 UNIT AOVATAY AML AO NUAIEY VY 
‘ANVANOO LAMOVd WVAIS NIT@AC JO ALIO~8 ATAVL 
| | 
OF GI T | 66 9 T | TL 9 BT opuad 487. for | or wat | og 9 | s8 ¢ | OF OL; OF “9A ISTE 93 390 IST 
BI U1 1 isos © | o4 & IT] oped pugwast | fOr | Gt | sRor | 9s 9 | 9 9 | 2 4 | Bh adog tog 09 Sine 4ST 
} : pods qyny paw mt te 
786 T |el et I | es or or {poets ee fot | ct | opot | 98 9 | of 9 | 09 8 | SZ sung qos oF [Ady 4sT 
or et T | oy ot T | eg oF TT opusd pug 7st | For | st | coor | os 9 | 26 9 | SE 6 | Fo [> MoMUT asTE oF UU ysT 
= i 
cor ar 0 |ae G 1 |e M1 8 IN st | eee oF 4 | 4t 9 | OF or] 2e “aC STE 99-290 BI 
eo Ti g Tilo 9 8 ae SI | 166 s 4] 0 9 | OF IL] 9% adog TOs 99 SNE IST 
Wo tio 1 j|oo At 8 uN a | 906 e £] 0 9 | 09 8 | s& | onng qOR OF Edy 4ST 
(Osi oear 4 8 T/m%o 6 UN for | ct | oss og 4 | St 9 | OP Gr] es | yosVyL a8TE 09 “ULL IST 
BO T/4 6 1 |98 9 OF UN 1s ot | oor | zo 9 | 09 ¢ | SF S | F | sung qyOg 09 [Ady 357 
wily 1 4 Ce net ae UN 18 or | 148 & 8 | OF 9 | O8 OT) OF | qoauyyastE Oy UML 4ST |” 
of BT T /o 6 & | 19 TE GT te or | 3 Test | Ww 9 | 99 F | SB & | GB |" “VC STS 03 990 48T |” 
6 tT |tre 3 | oF F oT tt 18 bie e0.0r | 99 9 | OT 9’ O OL} 4 “90 ISTE 03-290 BL 
560 Gloire 6 | 16 8 Tt tt th st oot | vs 9 | 98 9 | 8 8 | BL sydog W308 01 Syne 4ST 
% O01 Ti 2 & |e 6 TT tt 8 Eis soot | % 09 | w 8 | O B | une TOR OF [Ady 48T 
BOLT 6 44 9 6/099 0 OT tt 18 a oor | te 9 | GF 9 | SF B | 99 )° WoMUTT ISTE 09 uUL ysT 
W St &@ | gor ol & | 14 & PT TIN i) or 09.81 we? ol? oe 9 09 “OOCT INTE OF “IO IST 
vo et so |of 0 & | 16 TT BI TIN 6 or | sont | os » | or ® | BE 9 | OL slog noe 09 Sap 987 
oo 6t c |14 9 @ | OL ot WI UN 6 ot | cost | os » | 9 # | 88 B | 4x | oung qos oF Tdy osT 
ens ot 81 FE pov fF Yer | ot Test | oF P | Br F | M8 Oo | BE “99d STE 09 YO 8T 
69 &L 6 ol et FE pu FE er | or e2et | se p | ot p | 9 9 | SP “dog Mg OF Aye AST 
ow 6 & 6 8 AE paw of tor | at cost | oe p | a & | op 2 | a2 | cane yaog oF [Ely gst | 
op ol 6 as UY puw $f yal or O8.8E wep] ore | St o | Oo | Youuyy 9876 09 “OME AST |” 
Fa uo Faoy soyu pu AOyT 04 [oodsvary wory | WOO & Hi tt el cae op o tT Pe dog mog oF Stop a8 
0 6 6 AU &r tt cae a 19 go | yoawpy asrg 09 ue aT |” 
fa 6 6 9 St TE puv gf tr | or ont | oF # | OF DP | OF DO | 09 * 09 ISTE OV 290 AST |" 
wr eo OL Bt §t & ar Shot 9 9 a) oro 03 sadog tog 09 {yor 3ST 
4 8 Lie ot et | 9 Let | 18 9 | G ® | o 9 | 89 orn (OE OF ELV 98 
oo 2 8 al tt et | or oget | ob p | 8 FB | 2 0 | OO | HAVIN LE OP “WUE ysT 
qt 80 00D ‘age | vqr | oe | uy] cue “0ST 
Peas ee rage b 
og fae) 2 Wt = b g 
Le t Ey | efcey a Fy i 4 
a Boag |fgeaz| of | 28 ¢ E 8 
‘SMUV WAL E i fe Re d oa Ey rag 
Bee LF Ere | kb ba | ig| & 
| _ 4 Nw B = ——————— a 
saynannog ¥1¥09 5 i] _ senovesra 


a 


*poytod pouoyuoUuLopUN on) toy Lod eG, PUN ‘OANA ‘OMYL, JO KHON PUD PoWw[AAor sopuN “#yvoKT OFM) Puw swordygy Ot) JO [WOO Jo VOR dUNAIOD PUY Spoodg ony go mange VW 
WNANIUVAIG LVOUNVIIS-AVAVIEVG CVSUEVTOI (NV WtSt bs he \ 


‘Oo WW 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION—COMMITTEE ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE, 
TALE 1—RETURN Of PERFORMANCE OF HER MAJESTY’S VESSELS, FURNISHED BY THE At 


| PROPELLERS 
PERPORMANCE UNDER TRIAL ACTUAL MEASUREMENTS OF SILIP, - 
Ww 4 Paopte, 
SAME OF VESSEL i = TT : 
Tas ones ans: Dosen co ENTE 4 Ps E i|i = fs oo 
E: 4\5 i Z CHINE iH af = 
a =) Wheel — ee 22 ei z|4 | | 55 Kiled of Engine. Jeet =| 
Date Pliee | Time occupied ina Te < i PS Ee 5 ts z g|z 3 
mn] May & 1880 won) Outside Breakwater (Keyan) See Remarks, Moderate swell 06 | co a” | bra] 209 | a yo | oe: se etal er | Fas) Diet orsoo al P| Bt 
mn —-| September 18, 1858 Ditto | Not recondal Not reconked 180 0 | 46 0 710] 2 0} ah | Bb | Cyetoitd| 18 5 10 | Dinost a7 | Mack 
September 1, 1850 Ditto. “4 + = _ a 18 0 | a6 0 7w)2 0) of | é iW | 5 6) Ditto 2 47 | ust 
March 23, 1853 Hetwirs Sherrnews and Sunk Light | 6 houre 5 a = ; 3 i B 4sa124 | 20 11503 100s | 105 0 | a2 10 70/3 7] 9 | 1b | Vibrating) 0 | 2 8 Side Lever osu 45 | Bot 
= an] August 6, 1858 Hetwven Sheerness and Mouse Light. ae a 5 5 > a we [Sceremarks} 14 sor2 77% | 15 0 | 3210 70/37] 3 | 1 2 v6 |6 6| Dito : a ” 45 | Dood 
Gute se = October 22, 1859 ‘Oateate Breakwater (Kesha), - . 5 4 : 5 ) Not ascertalped v 1/3 o| 6 23 | Common| 2625 |6 | Direet 2 & 4 | Boel 
Tebestry (with common screw) = January 12, 1808 Teas Fes ” ” . » “ ” Dad | 70 | Vertical Oscillating a ” 124 | Tact 
Sean == jean ie te | : lice 5 he |e real es Sen Waseda) ire aes Alimenelesclies 
Dickie (si eeees wee) Apel 36, 183 | site Buy \ ous Navy al ; ; r lisa! | 1200 | ee | rrorisontal : Ss ties 
= (Gx) a | October 80,1 Ditto | Crane No. 3abeum Not recone 5 A qsyoo | 1033 | Ditto sisson 2 » 1204) ihe 
u 
(October 21, 1857 Ditto =: | bruns Nearly calm or 5 Se . 19498 11001 | Ditto = a2 sola ” 120 
November 7,1 Ditto | 6 runs | catn F A ; 5 Ss 19835 174 es Dit saan . 2 |4 oly z 120 
| December 1, 1857 | Ditto, 4 runs No.9 on pe Low down cours A * n 4 13717 a2 Jacl eid Ditto = @ |sola . 120 
January 1, 16: Ditto rons Nofev.ousbowspcound as i 5 19702 1809 703 | 10 60 eel Dilia averse s | 0) 5 120 
March 23,1560 | Ditto | trun No to3 variable Bs Not recorded = 5 A 130s (| 19200 sas | 39 six elle) eal ; : Ditto = ow |s 0) 7 160 |p 
| | marks 
April 9, 1857 — | | | Not recorded | ‘a 5 . aos | 158 10709 0 1615 | 8 ax 0b) iy essed : Horizontal High Pre sure w 1 oO) 2 f fie 
| Apel 29, 1857 | | ie e ; 5 0 soos | 180 10075 0 iss | 9 A { | Ditto... ; ie (i als 
| April 13, 1657 s | a 5 S 5 » 5 wooo | 16k 10075, ° 1005 | 8 ah) 4 Ditto ss scayae as, Le ISH at 
| Es 2 a Es se | 155 10707 aso | 195 0 isos | 7 : | alta 5 wall Ditto “ 1 is |2 6s Wee 
= : | oruns No.3 5 e i 5 toorss | 7 12429 10701 | 20 0 200 | 10 Eon at party end eso] | } Horizontal si.ssus 53) | 3) 2 | Common... 
| 
~ Ditto SA hres No, 9 on «. bow down couse : a 7 5 7 10800 | 70°75 yeas 11025 0 10 aw w}pim}4olaoxn20]o Niassa Ditto sss | 
we (Ease with 1 Bake endef 2 fore ah Dae... = | orcs —.. | No. & abiead ap course w bs = : ‘ ys009 | 01 iese | 10008 ry 10 Saar neerll vem eng 2.0 | hare} Dilton 2 
= (ties) (Gitte) un] Saly 8, 186 =site Ditto... eon} Grane 2 | No.3 ahead up course S 5 a a % 1i7ess | 80 12710 11085 0 10 95 0F YE #olsanz0] 2 | Ditto = | 
= (ethecce ers) —| Jaly 10, 1857 one} Ditto ene Pe | 30, 4 aliesd ap course 5 “ 4 es 5 toives | 70 12244 11538 0 10 wom} so} 6 4)30%10) 29 | Ditto sess ae | 
a | ae i = } a arava saa Verma es - a 118072 | ea | See remarks 0 0 uy} 3 o)64|3 0x16) 2 | | Ee Ditto wines ene } 
No.2 10 3 up cmurve on «. bl Not recorded oot c ” ® 805420 | 6400 weai7 | 117 6 | o1 24 | r100 | 25 a7 3 | 3 7) 80 }a~2 0) 9 ss i Ditto vase ae i 
Title ou ® bow down ear recorded ” ” 273804 O 12235 17625 | 245 0 OL 2h | 178 | 95 2 9 310/680 |3l0~80 2 Ditto, = > 
No. 4.00 bow and quarter " Fy ” » awa | oa yiss = 190 | oo | 2 0 | eva] an xo} 4o]00)30x23]2 F Double Trunk =.= 
| No. 2 00 port bow up. 5 zi F 5 é ror | 140 9200 sora | 100 0 | 22 0 | 132! 6 8 14) 9:0 | 1 Ob)0 v}e O10 | 9 Donble Trank Iigh Ps esure . 
X61 00 x Wow dito 1 “ é us — = 2200. nye} wow), | 7219 | ton o | eo | aE] 6 79h) 1th @ote lorem ewe) 2 i a ees Dita asker ramcamaes| 
Taly 2, 1850... No. 1 on p. bow down cvus 7 = Vs ” “ somis | i746 2 79:0 | 100 0 | 22 0 | 12] 0 o ot} 1 2] 210)0 oxo of] 2 | o | om Ditto 
October 13, 1860 No.9 to 400 p.b. vp coor “ ” suo Bi ono Suis | 109 0 | 22 o | a2] 0 6 8}| 0 | 1 tb }o1y* o10 | 2 \-o 13) ow i) Dees nna 
Tune 24, 1857 .. on | Colm Ey ‘ » ewer | 19015 ono 84s2 | 106 0 | 22 0 fiosa| o 6 Os) Ot) 20 |1 eke 1 o | a | o 2) oa | ss cea Ditto series scans : 
September 10, 1857, No. 2on port Low up cournd 4, ™ amor | 176 87 wuz | 10 | 20 | in| o 5 ok} 0 ot | Naito 0 « 010 | 2 | o of} o2s | i | Ditto. Nize 
‘March 90,1558 . Ge . Smoot: ” ” ths 108 omy e564 | 100 Oo 20 We) 0 57 1 of) 210) }1 Bae 1 oO 2 o1 oso \ DiRO evissisnasesncares manne: { 

Dowie (with ealergel scree SY ia 6 corners ext of).| May 23,1860... No, 2 on port bow op conn) * Not recorded ” ” a0] | 6a nes ioe 0 eo 7H | 10 ai 36 Ce |. Double Trunk ......0... 2 | Common | NO |= 
en ee April 21, 1859 2 No.3direetlyabesddowne} =, ; i . suave | cies aos — | areas o | 4s 0 | 73a} 10 m2 o|3o}oo0|s6 085 | i Dilan s 3 of) 
= (enlarged acrow SY dix. with 2 corners cet off.| May 9, 1550 coat Modevyort bow xpooand =, - . 3 sais | oo 1ys7t | 120 | sto 0 | 48 0 | 728 | 10 an|ae|solso | Ditto. z 5 7} ino 
ee ee nen) May 57, 1560 No.4WSonp.Le ny coun rs 4 iy SOUL | 5825 wias | 12200 | 20 0 | 43 0 | 7H] 10 sao | 40] 510 \3a8 1138 \ ie Ditto | 2 wf 10 
ee screw cole 87) ..| May G, 1B m oun] 0, 3 om », Low down ovursel 4 ) " Ss oreas | asa5 vols 11820 | 40 0 | 48 0 | 730] 10 wu|sol}74jao | a Thitte “ 2 » no 
a on} May 25, 1850 Dita ens rely Ae Go| é A « sono | 4oeay] 19708 © | 191 | ay 0 | 43 0 19 m2} 4a| 610 ]a8 vas aca b ; wmf BMG |S Ole] ya) M0 
a eee eS Tene 3, 1600... Ditto., F No, Lt abead down ewaree “ Py 5 " w soos | 6971 Ww ging | sw 0 | 43 0 10 soo] 4] 610 |a 8 1193 | ; —.| E30 | 4 oO} ge » =| U0 

Not recorded. iy i n » ” BOLT oo 12628 loess | os 0 oF 1 30 a6 si1ij3ac6 WT Shae |e Oj] ge « «| 00 
‘and Sank Light , or ie " " 27500028) 52185 12088 loss} ou 0 | oF 10 ao} ao] 81 lao 1075 ct ales Soh 38 [4 0} 2 = pu 
ined Guim middle ..,.......| 6 hoare onder weigh eae x 2 ~ “) » ee 2897/8500! 64a 14007 1205" | au 0 | 65 4 16 golds 0a}/s81is 0 1075 i me] BOW | 4 0} 8 mn «| NO 
br. ; 
Downtthe Sein .......... of ee + a “ ~ Py rj 2708 on WseT ies | oo | 6S oo 700 | 16 wo] s 6) ariaa nia . : ‘DiItB0 ns ssnces enesesansen sso 2 |4 0) s = | 10 
— LSS ees SS Stokes Bay ooo ssn No, 3 to # wheal down, wbles " ” wtp ” STONOL | oe 19108 lis | shh o | 55 4 | 1080 so/ao|}sijsa Gs 4 sone] DIR seoyiseerinaennnmionmnne| SOF IG |b 0) 8 nn) MO 
led ae ; Tite en rues | No. 4 slightly on p, b, down) . aa . y ” we | ANG wea 9145 | 2h 0 | GF 4 | 1060 wolso}aijsoa unis ae wssems}) DILL) s-secesorressesinnmmecrmeenest | MON OG, 1G DS = no} MO 
° Ditte Bese, Ciro aac eaten] (Maurlv vals! =| : = 5 4 3 5 gio | 605 12005 1616 | os 9 | 65 & | 1082 gsolasa)s8ijae 1076 bSayrcon Paticagh eats Nehvces |e re woernenve] SES | 4 0) 9 » «| 10 
| Pateot Le’ ay 


— 


[ase 


? 
4 
> 4 


Si = = 7 Dimwensons of Grate-Tubs,and | = s 
re i BS ii H ciber eave sure” | 38 | Sy ds 
zag : = 5 235 | 3% Say 
= cd a 28, 
in |# ie ip : ; Hi) ie 
is 2 FS B H 4 ze | & H 
Toon 
3 in ol J 
7 Common tabular One 09 wish, 707 ie | 10 Speed not ascertained, a eonsoqnenco of tha Sa 
te ‘One 41 6” high, 6° 0% da. | 11 ‘Trial (or special purposes, not for speod. 
ed “ 10 Ditto 
wis 3 7 One 30’ 4" high, 0% dia | 8 ‘Trial interrupted; speed not to be relied uncom. 
ure 5 a 
ure % 35 Common tabular 1 12 20 One 47! high, 7/9" dia | 10 
rt 20 10}14 110 One 33 0" Wieh, 9°10" di | 12 Paral poche into the arven arn of mii 
12 205 1 16 1 Ooe 4770" high, Yoda | ye tection and displacement not knowa, 
Pt) Shr, 1 18 20 Oue 60’ 0 hist, 8/9 dis | 90 
w 1 18 20 ” ” » 
100 16} 1 18 20 a F} 20 
10) 10 1 To EE 0 
10 1h 1 18 20 on 
160 134 i 18 20 a my 
0 2 1 16823 ‘Tro 4! 0” high, 7/0 dia | 99 Diades of screw bolted on with flanges. 
ow o 3 2 AL Be ‘One 20° 4" high, 2’ 2" dia | a5 
ous o a st 04 5 , o 
06 3 Bo re is 3 0 
ons « 3 rove FD) 0 
“0 20 6 ) 
» 2 lies toate sy gelupllies 
0 1802 6 3 ” ” ” 
0 18 to) 6 3 » . » 
49 10020 o High Boilers. i q 20 . af 
5 Trial for special purposes, not for speed. Laer 
“0 171020 6 i 1s190 i y » "Ho of stew a uegative quaally. 
100 » 6 Pn 19 One 70 0” high, 84" dia. | 29 
100 17 to 20 6 a 19 ” ” 0 
19" 10} 8 fy a 18 ‘Two 56/0" high, 6'8" dis, | 23, 
o2s* oo 3 | Cylinde tubular! a on One 21° 0” high, lee oO 
os =) 3 5 3 ou . » | \ 
os ow) a 3 a ou ” ” " oo. ‘ 
oS adhe a (ive ve Bs Tyaunersion of screw a negative quantity, 
os ©) 0 a : wake ” 5 * o 
035 | 3 a ” > 0 
5 w) 00 3 a ” " 0 
10" feo | 20) ©} Common tubule os | ou vias ras, | One 60’ 0" high, 8” ai, | ap 
6 uw | ou 112 ” . oy 
108 0 | 10k 
6 a bu ow oho Wad as A 4 
102 foo} 195 
5 | ote et Tia AS Ey as 
102 ‘00 ) Boy os | om bis liae2 
Im wo) 0 U » 20 » 
6 28 | oH os s3 22/1 a 
1% me 10 ot rs A | OM os ip Sie » a 20 
ry 4 102 | on 9 aos val y One 61 high, 7! 8° dia, 
1s" so] 17 6 20 
18 5 aa) bee 00 za aafi 2 
wo| 19h 0 “ * 20 
a E 8 Pi 4 | ot on a3 14/1 z 
18 - 103 ao| 2 | 20 
a | ow 099 se 7 4) 1 % ' 
18 o 10 fo] 29 . a3 12/1 J 
ps ae 0 os | OM on » ae 
oy . 1 | 438 i rae ae Fick. ert e 2 
16 - doy | 04 eo) i a | os on 23 13a}1 % a 
8 ” US | 462 wm) 2 : 
* includ. acrewshalt | 


a = Al 
= {GrateT and Heating |_ £2 z | 
Taek, iF | 
i | ‘ | 
z ; 3 | esr Mets, ¥ f jo:|| 0 ass | Onal0'0” dia, 69’ high. | 90 | Welsh Con 
Ti bet 106k i ry 1 1 1 1 11 1 ‘ x | 
7 ‘ c ‘ 1 171 el ba 
1088 i ‘ 10 1711 et eee 
s BP Ons s h P | 
5 ; ser santa ‘ 1 a] 181 1 | tes) (Two 010" 8” 1.09 « Seats ud | 
la 17 1 a 4) 11 ¢ ul 1 i uo1 add ¢) 1116 6 re \¢ * . Welsh d | 
Sa 1 1 \ ‘| 1 100 08 1 18 45'8 0 | Welsh (good! if 
7 1 17 724] 1 2: c i 1 1 8 34 | 
7 rn One?’ 2” dia. 6" 21 | 
tha 5 lla V Noralers Wheall aes 51a 1 14 | 2h 2 | 
| ; | 
i 2 ¢ 107 soldiers with their ba and | 
| f bet 
1 1 } 2145 1 of provisions for the 
| 
ho whole of the backs and t if Oro b top farnas d three-quarters of tat a 
This H. Ps Ls ken 0 practi tal 
| 
| | 
= = a ——— — > a = a Bo | REMARKS, | 
sa |i Tubs, end 3 Tene 
3 = = S 4 | | 
5 = | | 
5 : = 2 : E < 3 | Ae 
i sh | 
6 ¢ r ‘ 105 9 450 V14)] 14 11 , 13 Tron, j 
oloo 70 150 > |f Total! oo rant pa) tae ny 12 Two 4’ Gf” dia.; area Fitted ue 4 4 Rid 
1/12 2 4 Q 0 |iw0 | 1 ay Ae ‘ Manso] sretnt a/c c 01 fae z | 
150 2 a f E A froin Log E et | 
olin » | 100 |s males ax se 3 0 f 12) t T dia, 24° Consumption of coal per LICE 
: . i : Extracted from I Pa N 
ted with Me i 
oli 0 e o| o « 0 | Td | soon |lessce, 300 2020/1020) ¢ 0 In One 6 6" d ferret are | 
rut : Extracted from Lox Book of the £ 
alli : : ‘ : (32) tion of coal per LHI 
: F akg Extracted from Lag E Y 
0/12 of} 10 cals r0.11 eer (Tard) 4 orl n , ron. | $One a4" dia A leseerey F 
aie j 24 12 5 i s3i47 Sie aD 
0/1 0/1 o| o| 36.0 | a9 | 70 | 4: ao | aon of 0 | Morn’s 0 |o40) |Commen fin ‘ : Two d! dia, 20 high F d by the W : 
oli o| as 0! a0 0 | 10 | 12% 4 0 ow 0240/1020 | % saa wha | a ay Ones W' dia, which | d by tho West India M 
o}12 o| 24 o 0| 30.0 |1o !is0 | x4 | oa 02.0] 143 0 | 5) ent yy t 
2 2 2 1 1 = Dito , 
is (Lamtapalenk } oy | | 
6} 9 6}13-0 ae ena et a o-} stent 9 ‘ send irery i One F'diam,, area 33 wf and S 
6} 9 04s dl oiso | 1158 M oe | a : 
oj} 0 40 oj} » 4 Total 04 » i | | One 8 feet diamet: + 
DB c i! 0 MN a < (Lamb's palent ¥ | | and Tena 
‘ ‘ i r : ean 1 Vr r 2 1 » | Oneo din. a an ofa brid Son, 
= (4 7 5 Ditto 
o|m ejay o F u fre ge TM Mtesn 2 4 | Sfeang 8 Sh AL Dag | One 6° 640%, area 3818 | dfewre R. Nay 
4 (Extracted from permission 
= Hlanbspiav | U_ Peninsular and Oriental Company 
0/10 o|a7 0 uo « 0 T ‘ ata 
, st ‘ Vor lps Noo 2 | ffs"thek) ‘Two 680” high 6,07 diaun, |" Furnished by the Peninsular aml Osieatal Cot 
0| 10.10) 19-0 taor 0 |l)vas0 f)e5" ? Eis tipped sear Rey lad | a reatar aie § Farnlshed by Thames Ship Buittiog Gage 
2 | | Cand from Messrs. Penn and 
0! 1910/17 © I 8 Mean 6 | Mean 1 0 2 | isp]o o/"e ae One 8 dia Furnished by Messrs Paweett 2 ¢ 
| { Butmcted from Loz Book t 
o| 0 0 7 | 700 | 1 y Mean 2 0" Mon 7 L p s0'| 10 160 One 7’ O° dia, arca44aq.tt.| “Furnished by Mose Cte 
| Di 
ol 7 mus 10 0 | 10 | aa 7 2210] 0 7 | 208 0 5/343 } ( Onea'10 2 
‘ 1 4 1 1 nit 2 ‘| tal f ; le sig dices alee ae 
6} i110] 19 ol 4 esa} ania | 27 1a | mesrelriia] a 6 Gola a) , lon Dit 
Qos a 04s) 1 ‘ v4 z 110}1 64] 0 opr 3 1 ools im Ono 12 7Bsbarea | Dit 
Pito 1 ¢ 0 7 iw 1 7 8 410 i PT 2 18110 sly A oo 3 
Chee : : ace) meat Two 1 169ar.| ¢ by Messrs Ji and W. Da 
0 |Mlameter 0 7 ) an} wo] a 7 Nea 110h1 ob} 1 7h 1 70 | One18" di.15 1s, 256" area! 1 
1 7 1 | 
0 ol 13 (0 180 1230 a0 20 Leslanals alinrib od uYerpwaa} [7 PO}, Jonesy’ di, 407g), Sy aes | {Parmbsted by Proteeor J, 2 I D 
| Lote dB Napier: Bogie by Memes 5 
SHEEN are cor H at] 
u ss Uae | § x47 bighS Pi Lo DSA 1 Oy)" NY area dba y oq Trenech, $4) Faraished hy Mesers. Tam t 
| | 
= tt aN" apart 3 The intrestoction of Lamb and Summer's supatheater appears to have elfen x z 
; roma ening Wal ix, fore aid aft maine, malo aye fore aad alt foes clase heehee wie ee oe a ee of 19,30 1 speed with £1 
revolaions ot screw permalnuie ade weam alone, Ende, Spent sae eat lake hale wh brenag sity wiihts aboot oponteur where 
fore And aft foresaliand wansgral, wou maln etayual 10'0 knots -Bxpecimeot mgd ou wlstance af 49M bablice alte ey SOR Peo the ini a 


experira 
your As: 
y The L 
same off 
Your | 
owners, 
of merch 
the data 
before lo: 
thus obta 
The tl 
Oriental 
Pacific S 
Company 
Sons, the 
Fawcett, 
The Pe 
spection 
«Delta, 
extracts t 
Copies 
Calcutta, 


performar 


two con 
Jengthene 
enable th 


than heret 
Tn th 

fomewhat 

ing the Tr 


fitted with 
cylinder en 
these condi 


e hull a ¢ 
A glance 
will at on 
of view 
The Lon 
of the sp 
regulated 
cember 31 


fare contain 
regularity 
1861. 


BRITISIE 


RESULT 


TADLE 2—SHOWING THF 


ASSOCTATION 


COMMITTER 


PRNFORMANOROF) MIX 


STEAMSHIP PEE 


HEE 


MAJESTY 


nfables 3 and + 

ighe measured mile 
Your Committ 

experiments under 


our Association, 


thus obtain 
The thank 
Oriental Compa 


Calcutta, at 
performances 


(Appendix, Tal 
The London 


Committe 


ordinary 
two condition 
lengthened 4 
enable the n/ 


= good re 


great capa 


qualities w 


than heretofo 


are contain 
regularity 1 
1861. 


- rar. 
i } 
V 
1 . | 
High Prow I anita ; 
Vertical Direct Actives ‘ar 
Inverted Cylind : Lo 
as 14 
{ ) | 
Lhd [ied ban | af) Be = lee 
Ovelttati a ° 


r ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 193 


Tables 3 and 4. ‘This is the more valuable, as the returns of seven trials on 
the measured mile are given with it. 

Your Committee are aware that several officers are conducting a series of 
experiments under various conditions, which it is their intention to report to 
_ your Association, through this Committee, on their return home. 

The Log-book, compiled by your Committee, is also being filled up by the 
_ same officers, with a similar object. 

Your Committee have met with great success in their applications to ship- 
owners, engineers, and builders for information respecting the sea performances 
of merchant vessels. In no case have they met with a refusal to supply all 
_ the data in their possession, and your Committee have reason to believe that 
_ before long the records kept on the voyages will be amplified, and the data 
_ thus obtained be published periodically by shipowners themselves. 

The thanks of the Committee are especially due to the Peninsular and 
Oriental Company, to the London and North-Western Company, to the 
Pacific Steam Navigation Company, to the City of Dublin Steam Packet 
Company, to Messrs. Morrison and Co. of Newcastle, to Messrs. Penn and 
Sons, the Thames Shipbuilding Company, Messrs. R. Napier and Son, Messrs. 
Fawcett, Preston and Co., and Messrs. J. and W. Dudgeon. 

The Peninsular and Oriental Company freely offered their books for in- 

spection, and placed the logs of their vessels ‘Candia,’ ‘Ceylon,’ ‘ Columbia,’ 
* Delta,’ ‘ Nubia,’ and ‘ Pera,’ in the hands of the Committee, to make any 
extracts they deemed useful. 
_ Copies of voyages from Southampton to Alexandria, and from Aden to 
Calcutta, and return of those vessels respectively, were taken, and the average 
performances worked out. They are given in the Table of Merchant Vessels 
(Appendix, Table 5). 

The London and North-Western Railway Company have furnished your 
Committee with information of especial value, viz., the trial performance and 
ordinary working performance of one of their vessels, the ‘ Cambria,’ under 
two conditions—the first as originally constructed, the second after being 
lengthened 40 feet. Data of this description are precisely those required to 
enable the naval architect to judgé what are the qualities which constitute a 
good vessel, and assist him in designing vessels possessed of high speed, 
great capacity, limited draught of water, economy of power, and all the 
qualities which constitute good sea-going ships, with much greater certainty 
than heretofore. 

In the same table (No. 5) your Committee have thought fit to repeat a 
somewhat similar return, given in their last Report, viz., a Table, &c., show- 
ing the Trial Performance of the steam vessels ‘ Lima’ and ‘ Bogota’ when 
fitted with single-cylinder engines, and after being refitted with double- 
cylinder engines; also the sea performances of the same vessels under both 
_ these conditions of machinery, and on the same sea-service. 

_ These returns, therefore, show the difference of performance of a vessel 
_ with the same machinery but lengthened in her hull, and of two vessels with 
the hull a constant, but with entirely different engines. 

___A-glance at the column showing the consumption of coals in each case 
- once demonstrate the importance of the subject in a commercial point 
of view. 

The London and North-Western Company have likewise furnished returns 
_ of the speed and consumption of coal of their express and cargo boats, under 
_ regulated conditions of time, pressure, and expansion, from January 1 to De- 
_ cember 31, 1860 (Appendix, Tabie 6). Similar returns for 1858 and 1859 
_ are contained in the two former Reports of this Committee, and show the 
, ieee. with which the service has been conducted. 

i ° oO 

. g 


| 
} 
| 
/ 


194 REPORT—1861. 


- Your Committee would again call the attention of shipowners to the system 
of trials which has resulted in the combination of perfect regularity and effi- 
ciency of service with economy (so far as the vessels and machinery would 
admit) which this series of returns exhibits. 

In the first Report of this Committee, presented to your Association at the 
Meeting held in Aberdeen, a series of tables are given, showing the method 
which was adopted for ascertaining the working capabilities of each vessel. 
The following explanation was furnished by Admiral Moorsom, and illustrates 
the means by which the proper service to be obtained from a vessel may be 
estimated* :— 

«‘When the four passenger vessels, ‘ Anglia,’ ‘ Cambria,’ ‘ Hibernia,’ and 
‘ Scotia,’ were first employed in August 1848, the commanders were autho- 
rized to drive them as hard as they could, subject only to the injunction not 
to incur danger.” 

After some months’ trial the qualities of each vessel and her engines were 
ascertained, and a system was brought into operation which continues to the 
present time. (Tables 3-14.) 

The Returns Nos. 2 and 6 show the results of the hard driving and the 
commencement of the system periods. ‘The column indicating ‘‘ 'Time,”’ 
‘« Pressure,” and ‘‘ Expansion,” is the key to the columns “‘ Average Time of 
Passage,” “‘Weight on Safety Valves,” and ‘Proportion of Steam in Cylin- 
der,” and, as a sequence, also to the consumption of coal. 

«Time a minimum” shows the hard driving. ‘Time a constant ” shows 
the system. The relations of ‘‘ pressure” and ‘“‘ expansion ” show how, under 
hard driving, the highest pressure and the full cylinder produced the highest 
speed the wind and tide admitted, or how, the time being a constant, those 
two elements were varied at the discretion of the commander, within prescribed 
limits, to meet the conditions of wind and tide. 

The result of the system on the coal is a decreasing consumption. 

The Return No. 1 shows the results of certain trials under favourable con- 
ditions, but in the performance of the daily passage by four of the vessels, 
which results are used as the standard tests with which the results of each 
quarter’s returns are compared. 

For example, the, ‘Scotia’ at 15-9 statute miles an hour consumes 6840 
Ibs. of coal as a standard. (See Table 4.) 

In the Return No. 3, at the speed of 12°96 miles she consumed 5226 lbs. ; 
the first at the rate of 430 lbs. per mile (see Table 5), and the second at 
about 403. : 

Again, in the succeeding quarter, the ‘Scotia’ consumed 7528 lbs. at 
14°65 miles an hour, or more than 518 lbs. per mile. 

Here was a case for inquiry and explanation. It will be observed that in 
Return No. 1 the consumption of the ‘Scotia’ at ordinary work at sea is 
5820 lbs. per hour, and it is only when the consumption exceeds 6840 Ibs. 
that it becomes a subject of question, the difference between those figures 
being allowed for contingencies. 

No. 4 (see Tables 12, 13) is a Return which shows the difference between 
the issues of coal each half year, and the aggregate of the returns of con- 
sumption, the object of which needs no elucidation. . 

No. 5 (see Table 14) shows the duration of the boilers, with particulars of 
the work done. The saving in money under the return system, as compared 
with hard driving, was of course very considerable, and the latter was only 
justifiable as a necessary means of learning the qualities of each vessel, to be 
afterwards redeemed by the economy of the system. 

The ‘ Hibernia,’ it will be seen, was unequal to the service; and I may 

* See Volume of Transactions of the Aberdeen Meeting, 1859, page 276. 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 195 


here observe that experience has shown me that in machinery, as in animal 
power, it is essential that it should be considerably above its ordinary work. 

The want of this extra power was a defect of the early locomotive engines, 
whose cost of working per mile was very considerably higher than that of 
the engines now in use. 

This defect, which is that of boiler-power, prevails largely in steam-vessels, 
and especially in the Queen’s ships. 

It would be easy to show how system must tend to economy; and the 
saving of coal is apparent from the returns, and of course all the engine stores 
‘are commensurate. 

But the repairs—the wear and tear—involve a much more important ele- 
‘ment of economy than even a reduced consumption of coal. 

The Return for 1860 is accompanied by a check account of the consumption 
‘of coal. (Appendix, Table 7.) 

The City of Dublin Steam Packet Company have obligingly furnished 
returns of the consumption of coal and average time of passages of their mail 
boats ‘ Prince Arthur,’ ‘ Llewellyn,’ ‘ Eblana,’ and ‘St. Columba,’ from Janu- 
ary 1st to December 30th, 1860, the last quarter embracing the fast vessels 
‘Leinster’ and ‘ Ulster.’ (Appendix, Tables 8 and 9.) 

Your Committee were invited to attend a trial of the latter vessels between 
Holyhead and Kingstown, and a deputation, consisting of Admiral Moorsom, 
the Duke of Sutherland, Lord Alfred Paget, Mr. Wm. Smith, C.E., Mr. J. 
E. M°Connell, and Mr. H. Wright, attended. They were kindly assisted by 
Mr. Watson, the Managing Director of the Company, in obtaining informa- 
tion connected with these vessels and their performances. The particulars 
of these trials will be found in Appendix, Table 5. 

A deputation from your Committee, consisting of Mr. W. Smith and Mr. 
Wright, also at the invitation of the London and North-Western Railway 
Company, attended the trial of the ‘ Admiral Moorsom,’ a new cargo boat 
built expressly for the conveyance of live stock. The particulars are given 
in Appendix, Table 5, to which your Committee would direct attention, as 
the speed obtained, and the steadiness exhibited by the vessel in a very heavy 
sea, excited considerable surprise. They have received numerous invitations 
from other companies and shipowners to attend the trials of their vessels. 

Your Committee have been in correspondence with the Imperial naval 
authorities of France and of the United States. 

The latter have already published various trials conducted with admirable 
skill and precision, and embracing most of the particulars asked for by the 
‘Committee. 

In France, the Company of the Messageries Impériales have for some time 
given annual averages of the results of the navigation of the vessels in their 
service, for private use only ; but on the application of your Committee to be 
supplied with such returns, copies were at once forwarded, with a letter from 
the President stating that, although it was not the usual custom of private 
companies to make public the information requested, and although the Report 
transmitted to them (the Committee’s 2nd Report) contained no analogous 
comparison of the state of the great English companies who perform similar 
service, nevertheless they have not hesitated to accede to the Committee’s 
wish, by contributing as much as lay in their power,—thus proving their cor- 
dial sympathy with the useful object the British Association have in view. 

The Tables of Results of their vessels, 50 in number, for the years 1859 
and 1860, are given in Appendix, Tables 10 and 11, constituting, with the 
one given in the last Report, a valuable series extending over three consecu- 
tive years, 

o2 


196 REPORT—1861. 


Your Committee take this opportunity of expressing their satisfaction in 
being able to report, that since the commencement of their labours in 1857, 
the interest that has been taken in Steamship Performance, and the desire to 
assist the Association in eliciting information on the subject, not only by 
officers of the Royal Navy, but also of the merchant service, fully bear out the 
opinion expressed at the meeting of the Association in Dublin, that this subject 
was second to none in importance, and that its steady pursuit would tend 
very materially to the advancement of the science of shipbuilding and marine 
engineering. 

The following is a general summary of the results of the Committee’s 
labours during the past season. They have obtained— 

1. The particulars of the machinery and hulls of seventeen of H.M.’s vessels, 
and the details of 58 trials made during the years 1857, 1858, and 1859, sup- 
plied by the Admiralty. The Committee are in possession of copies of the 
diagrams taken during the trials in 1859, with notes of observed facts by the 
officers conducting the trials. The names of the vessels are the ‘ James Watt,’ 
‘ Virago,’ ‘ Hydra,’ ‘ Centaur,’ ‘ Industry,’ ‘ Diadem,’ ‘ Mersey,’ ‘ Algerine,’ 
* Leven,’ ‘ Lee,’ ‘Slaney,’ ‘Flying Fish,’ ‘ Marlborough,’ ‘ Orlando,’ ‘ Bull- 
finch,’ ‘ Doris,’ and ‘Renown.’ (Appendix, Table 1.) 

2. Returns of seven of H.M.’s vessels when at sea, under various circum- 
stances, viz., under steam alone, under sail alone, and under sail and steam 
combined. The names of these are the ‘Colossus,’ ‘ Chesapeake,’ ‘ Flying 
Fish,’ ‘ St. George,’ ‘ Clio,’ ‘ Sphinx,’ and ‘ Victor Emmanuel.’ 

3. Return of the London and North-Western Railway Company’s steamboat 
‘ Cambria’s ’ trials and ordinary performances as originally built, and after being 
lengthened ; also of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company’s vessels ‘ Lima’ 
and ‘Bogota,’ when fitted with original and other machinery ; also of the new 
cargo boat, the ‘ Admiral Moorsom.’ 

4. Returns of the Peninsular and Oriental Company’s boats ‘ Colombo,’ 
*‘ Candia,’ ‘ Ceylon,’ ‘ Delta,’ ‘ Nubia,’ and ‘ Pera,’ when on voyages between 
Southampton and Alexandria, and between Suez and Bombay respectively, 
together with particulars of their machinery and hulls furnished by the 
builders and engineers. 

5. Returns of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company’s vessels ‘ Guaya- 
quil’ and ‘ Valparaiso,’ with particulars of trials and sea voyages during 1860. 

6. Returns of the trials of the vessels ‘ Leonidas,’ ‘ Mavrocordato,’ ‘ Pene- 
lope,’ furnished by Messrs. Morrison and Co., and the ‘ Thunder’ and ‘ Midge,’ 
by Messrs. J. and W. Dudgeon. 

7. Tables showing the Results of the Navigation of the steamboats in the 
service of the Messageries Impériales, during the years 1859 and 1860. 

8. Returns of the London and North-Western Company’s steamboats 
* Anglia,’ ‘ Cambria,’ ‘ Scotia,’ ‘ Telegraph,’ ‘ Hibernia,’ ‘ Hercules,’ ‘ Ocean,’ 
and ‘Sea Nymph,’ under regulated conditions of time, pressure, and expansion, 
from January 1 to December 31, 1860. Half-yearly verification of the con- 
sumption of coals for the same period. 

9. Return of the average time of passage and consumption of coal of the City 
of Dublin Steam Packet Company’s mail steamers ‘ Prince Arthur,’ ‘ Llewel- 
lyn,’ ‘ Elbana,’ and ‘ St. Columba,’ for six months ending June 30th, 1860. 

10. Ditto ditto, with the addition of the fast steamers ‘ Leinster” and 
* Ulster,’ for three months ending September 30th, 1860. 

11. Return of the average passages of the mail packets ‘ Leinster,’ ‘ Ulster,” 
‘Munster,’ and ‘Connaught,’ for, six months ending March 3lst, 1860. 
(Appendix, Tables 12, 13, and 14.) 

12. Return of the trial of the ‘ Leinster’ and ‘ Ulster’ between Holyhead 
and Kingstown. . (Table 5.) 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 197 


13. Diagrams or indicator cards* have been received, taken from the fol- 
lowing ships : :—‘ Cambria,’ ‘ Admiral Moorsom,’ ‘ Leinster’ and ‘ Ulster,’ ‘ Co- 
lombo’ (lengthened), ‘ Nubia,’ and ‘ Thunder.’ 

The sum of £150 voted by the Council of the Association to defray the 
expenses of the Committee has been expended, and the statement of the ex- 
penditure, which could not be prepared in time for publication with this Re- 
port, will be presented by the Committee at the Meeting. 

The thanks of the Committee are especially due to Mr. Wm. Smith, C.E., 
a member of the Committee, for the large amount of assistance he has ren- 
dered in collecting information, as also by placing a room in his offices at the 
disposal of the Committee. 

Your Committee, in conclusion, have the painful duty to record the death 
of their late Chairman, Admiral Moorsom, and the regret which they have 
felt at the melancholy event which has deprived them of their Chairman, and 
their sense of the great loss which has thus been sustained by your Associa- 
tion and by the scientific world at large, as well as by the distinguished pro- 
fession to which he belonged. 

(Signed) SUTHERLAND, 


Offices of the Committee, Chairman, 
19 Salisbury Street, Adelphi, London. 


Apprnpix.—TaB.LeE 12. 


Return of the Average Passages of Mail Packets and Consumption of Coal 
for Six Months, ending 31st March, 1861. 


in Coal consumed, including getting up Steam. 
Name of Vessel. saber t Tey A 
Trips Fore ae, Anthracite. | Bituminous. } Total, paTupl 
J heya) 8 tons. tons. tons. | tons. ote. | 

Leinster............ 183 3 41 5 2437 3956 6393 34 13 
POSTON ato ojen a 0 203 3 50 0 4244 2316 6566 32 («6 
Munster............ 146 | 3 52 0 2679 | 2718 | 5397 | 36 5 
Connaught......... 192 3 42 0 4179 | = 2124 6303 | 32 16 


Note.—The ‘ Ulster’ and ‘Munster’ encountered a larger proportion of severe weather 
and fogs than the ‘ Leinster’ and ‘ Connaught.’ 


AppenDIx.—TaBLeE 13. 
Steam-ship ‘Leinster.’ On trial from Holyhead to Kingstown, April 4, 1861. 


Boiler Gauges. 
Steam. Barometer. Revolutions. 
Fore. Aft. 
lbs inches, 

First half-hour ......... 25 26 24 27 264 

Second) Thy. vesecceee gale 262 234 263 26 
Third Cae BOgROOeS | 24% 265 233 26 254 
RGUITEA | ieoeewekee | 244 26 233 263 253 
Fifth $94 7) Neceneens = 20) 26 234. 26 254 

Sixth Sy eo Maceaeeies }* 25 26 233 26 26 
Neventh 4, —ssiese- | 25 264 24 264 253 


No. of Revolutions as per Counter, 4957. 
Length of Passage, 3 hours 28 minutes. 
Total Consumption about 49 tons. 


* The indicator diagrams may be seen, by any one interested therein, by aye eaoes at the 
Offices of the Committee. » 


198 REPORT—1861. 


AprENDIX.—TABLzE 14. 
Steam-ship ‘ Ulster.’ On trial from Kingstown to Holyhead, April 5, 1861. 


Revolutions. Counter. Vacuum. 
per min 

At starting ............ 21 seebwert iN) ateieses 133 
First half-hour ......... 223 23 702 \ Bee 
Second)» eke vetee 223 223 1370 eney 
Third Py Peace: 23 23 2026 

Fourth 55/1) sdeves.s- 23% 223 2716 

Fifth ell «tide atnever 233 23 3398 

Saxtheee) man ( Veen 22 221 4095 

OSAP A i se revace concede 22 224 4792 

Time of Passage, 3 hours 30 minutes. Total Consumption, about 36 tons. 


No. of Revolutions as per Counter, 4792, 


Circular referred to at page 192. 


British AssociaTIon.—ComMItTTEE oN STeAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 
19 Salisbury Street, Strand, London, W.C. 
November 21st, 1860. 

S1r,—Enclosed i is a Form which the Steam-ship Performance Committee 
of the British Association hope you will kindly fill up at your convenience, 
and transmit to me. 

The Committee have apprised the Admiralty of their intention to commu- 
nicate with such Captains and Engineers of H.M. Ships as may be disposed 
to assist the British Association in obtaining facts for scientific calculations 
relating to the Performance of Ships at sea, and have, at their Lordships’ 
request, sent them a copy of the Form. 

The Form proposed is as simple as is consistent with the object of obtaining 
data necessary for calculation, and the Committee are under the impression 
that the time required to fill up such Forms cannot interfere with the duties 
of the respective Officers. 

It is, however, to be clearly understood that it is for objects of science 
alone that the Officers are invited thus to aid the labours of the British Asso- 
ciation, one of whose fundamental rules is laid down in the following terms :-— 

«« The object of the Committee is to make public such recorded facts through 
the medium of the Association, and being accessible to the public in that 
manner, to bring the greatest amount of science to the solution of the diffi- 
culties now existing to the scientific improvement of the forms of vessels and 
the qualities of marine engines. They will especially endeavour to guard 
against information so furnished to them being used in any other way, and 
they trust they may look for the co-operation of Members of the Yacht Club 
having steam yachts, of Shipowners, as well as of Builders and Engineers.” 

I am, Sir, your obedient Servant, 
C. R. Moorsom, Vice-Admiral and Chairman, 


ERRATA AND ADDENDUM IN TABLE V. 


Col. 12, last line but one, for “ about 64,700”, read “ total 64,700.” 
Col. 60, for “2” read “ with.” 
Col. 14 requires the following explanation :— 
Actual speed ...........45 dase veadensssasptosts soscseesascee 10°6 knots. 
Dedueted! for tide <<..2 2... castsacceetucs eter eee 0:6, 
Speed through the water under sail and steam at 
84 revolutions per minute .......1...-ceseeeeeeeeeees 10:0 
Previously ascertained speed under steam alone at 
» 84 revolutions.,,. 


ceeeeeeeeseeteseeee Se eeeeeeeeteeeereres j ” ? 


ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 199 


-Brririsn Assocration.—CoMMITTEE ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 
Return of H.M.’s Steam-ship 


Date, day, the day of 18 


MAGGIE «2.60.0 0c.ccccescsenesesesssesercecss 
Longitude 
Ship’s Course........-..scscsesecssccerseesecsensserevsecsscsseeerees 


Winp :— 
SPAT enc Ges lc ces iaccecaccctescasdeenersecssfocshan dees 
EEC ccs dacehe Viddsadicsctadepecvacsvececdudavesveedsdd 
Bate Of SER lsiiceesccee Poche ha dan cceanectees age yeydtts eee asdirbee 


UnveEr SAIL ALONE :-— 
AMI ESEPEADTING 564 cu bse. cdeedasabileveqeucepiaqecs tire fe czar pean 
SMUT INET AMER re 7 aciad c eu0 eek ies en eaaergh-magsd deans sepaced sass 
Description of Sail set ........---se-esesseregecessscsscversqeens one 
Average Speed per hour .............--sssssesecseesecseseereesees 


Unver Sait AND STEAM COMBINED :— 
SU MMETIME SETTRE CE Crs tances cece sasiecr scecuseraxceavecs'rateateteacs 
PPRCHRGETSAIVSEL oiccsoknccececcsececsbidetutasetecscadsceusvecdssdzite 
Description of Sail set ............ Ge cduceins=eWdles -Ysrhhidabs a> sre 
Average Speed per hour ......ssesseseeerree quepeesy conseepasey aes 


' Unprer STEAM ALONE :— 
eH OE MELGUEN. ceeus's ce ssdssep scedsoyertsven Vag skooaba oa roe NCA 
Average Speed per hour .ssssssccceeeeesenr sever Mees sveacenin css 


ENGINES :— 
Cut-off in proportion Of Stroke ..secscecesseessseseeseeeeseeeees 
Lap of Slide Valve............- eerste ahtageats auseeeuen apveeeanaxe 
Average Revolutions per Minute .......-scsssesseescresseseeeees . 
Mean pressure of Steam at or near Cylinder .......sssss000, Se 
Mean pressure in Cylinder .......... sedecnse rrr re 


* BAROMETER :— 
Vacuum PTUTTITTT TTT Peeeeerernessrcegasseses eevcrceeeees 
PEESSUTE ...0cccarercceess-o0e awe staseee™ Srccnaretusdes seen sidehshates 


Temperature of Sea-water ..ssrccccseereecsessesnseseceeseeserene 
Slip of Screw..,......++ Ao CORA o sepcebaNas shras epee sapcagene 


Boiters :— 
No. of Furnaces at Work ........sssseeesereeee ae cee ee 
Square Feet of Grate Surface at Works.........0.-sssseeaeeeees 
Square Feet of Heating Surface at Work............s0s.sseeeeee 
Weight to which Safety Valve is loaded per Square Inch... 
Pressure of Steam per Square Inch in Steam Chest ......... 
Density of Water ...........ssseseeeees dds dadgs Sheets ht pans cabanvs 
Consumption of Coal per hour..........seeeeseeeeescsceesseecrees 
Description of Coal during period ...........0.-.sseeeeeeees Soke 
Indicated Horse-power, with Diagrams .........+ cls daaebieeece 
Evaporation of Water per hour .........+..+05 abeAsb=dten gant ove 


Dravueut or WATER :— 
On Leaving Port—Forward .......sescsesseecseceeccneceseeennerss 
Ditto ditto Aft....... poaeey ae rel chepeceees adr cf one 
On Arriving in Port—Forward ........ Gepaceseas ccs. Crees 
Ditto ditto Ai) sonccecs=se aaeceenaes Kor Heceonce anaes 


REMARKS ....... Rorecucaneanccess eakcsdeerecenss ScENaahacvaeateecmes 


Office, 19 Salisbury Street, Strand, 
London, W.C. Signature 


Date 


200 REPORT—1l1S861. 


Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of Preventing the Ravages of 
Teredo and other Animals in our Ships and Harbours. By J. Gwyn 
JEFFREYS, F.R.S., F.G.S. 


Since the last meeting, Mr. Jeffreys went to Holland for the purpose of 
investigating the experiments which are being made there, under the direction 
of the Academy of Sciences at Amsterdam, and with the sanction of the 
Dutch Government, in order to check the destructive ravages of the Teredo 
marina; and he was accompanied by Dr. Verloren, of Utrecht, another 
member of the Committee. The progress of these different experiments is 
periodically and carefully recorded ; but it will take many years before the 
result can beshown. From an elaborate report of the Dutch Commission, 
published last year, and which was placed by M. Van. der Hoeven in Mr. 
Jeffreys’s hands, it appears that no efficacious remedy had at that time been 
discovered. Even the expensive process of creosoting the timber failed in 
one instance where the piece of wood thus treated was in contact with another 
piece which had not been creosoted ; the Teredo having indiscriminately per- 
forated both pieces of wood, first attacking the uncreosoted wood. Mr. Jef- 
freys had also lately seen a piece of wood used in the construction of harbour 
works at Scrabster, which, although it had been creosoted to the extent of 
10 pounds to the square foot (having been first dressed and cut), was exca~ 
vated on every side by the Zimnoria lignorum. Iron-headed or scupper nails 
afford very little protection, as the Zeredo and Limnoria work their way even 
through the rust, unless it is very thick, the valves of the Teredo becoming 
stained in consequence. The remedy suggested by Mr. Jeffreys (viz. a coating 
of some siliceous or mineral composition) had not been tried in Holland or 
France. Among other communications received by Mr. Jeffreys on the sub- 
ject was one from Mr. William Hutton, of Sunderland, who had recently 
taken out a patent “for preventing the destruction of timber from the action 
of marine animals.” His process is to force into the wood a soluble silex, or 
water glass, with muriate of lime. If this process is not expensive, it would 
no doubt answer the desired purpose ; but it is probable that the same object 
would be attained by merely soaking the wood in a solution of this kind, or 
even laying it on the wood witha brash. It would seem to be sufficient if the 
outer layer of the wood were coated or glazed in such a manner that the 
composition would not crack or peel off. 

Although the different kinds of Teredo are locally and partially distributed 
on our coasts, the wood-boring Crustacea (and especially Limnoria lignorum) 
occur everywhere in countless numbers, and on the whole do the greatest 
damage to our harbour works. Mr. Jeffreys endeavoured to obtain, through 
a member of the Committee who resided at Plymouth, permission from the 
Admiralty to institute some experiments in the Dockyard there, having been 
informed that very considerable damage had been sustained in that port 
during many years past from the last-mentioned cause. But, although a 
copy of the Association’s Praceedings was furnished to the First Lord and 
Secretary to the Admiralty, and the Port-Admiral expressed his approval of 
the experiments being tried, and forwarded the application to the Admiralty, 
permission was refused. It does not appear that the Admiralty or Govern- 
ment have taken any steps to prevent further loss, or even to inquire into the 
matter. 

Notwithstanding this discouragement, Mr. Jeffreys will persevere, with the 
assistance of the other members of the Committee, in doing all that is possible 
to ensure such an important and national object as the protection of our ships 
and harbours from the destructive attacks of these animals. 


» red 3 ; , 
prs os 


ta 


SM*Report British Arcociation 196) 
r -- - —————_—_————_- — 


4000 2000 Feet 


O00 


HOLYHEAD HARBOUR 
PLANS, an SOUNDINGS 


OF 


J.M.RENDEL, C.E 
1850 


Line of 


Soundings am 


Ynys Gyby 
Reef 


“ 


Inner Platters 


y 


Sac QO? SY 
fics 


HARBOUR 
Dry at low water 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. (201 


Report of the Experiments made at Holyhead (North Wales) to ascer- 
tain the Transit-Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, 
through the local Rock Fermations: by command of the Royal Society 
and of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. By 
Rosert Mater, C.L., F.R.S. 

In my “Second Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena,” in the 

Report of the British Association for 1851, the transit-velocities were expe- 

rimentally determined of waves of impulse produced by the explosion of 

charges of gunpowder, and these velocities shown to be— 


In wet sand.............. 824915 feet per second, 
In discontinuous granite.... 1306:425 feet per second, 
In more solid granite ...... 1664°574 feet per second, 


the range of sand employed having been that of Killiney Strand, and of 
granite that of Dalkey Island, both on the east coast of Ireland. These 
results produced some surprise on my own part, as well as on that of others, 
the transit-velocities obtained falling greatly below those which theory might 
have suggested as possible, based upon the modulus of elasticity of the 
material constituting the range in either case. 

I suggested as the explanation of the low velocities ascertained, that the 
media of the ranges (like all the solids constituting the crust of the earth) were 
not in fact united and homogeneous elastic solids, but an aggregation of solids 
more or less shattered, heterogeneous, and discontinuous; and that to the loss 
of wis viva, and of time in the propagation of the wave from surface to sur- 
face, was due the extremely low velocities observed. 

The correctness of this view, and a general corroboration of the correct- 
ness of the experimental results themselves, have since been made known by 
the careful determinations by Noggerath and Schmidt respectively, of the 
transit-velocities of actual earthquake waves in the superficial formations of 
the Rhine country and of Hungary, and by myself in those of Southern Italy, 
all of which present low velocities coordinating readily with my previous 
experimental results. 

In the Report above mentioned, I suggested the desirableness of extending 
the experimental determination of wave-transit to stratified and foliated 
rocks, as likely to present still lower velocities than those obtained for shat- 
tered granite, as well as other important or suggestive phenomena. The 
operations in progress at the Government quarries at Holyhead (Island of 
Anglesea, North Wales), of dislodging vast masses of rock by means of gun- 
powder for the formation of the Asylum Harbour there, appeared to me to 
present a favourable opportunity of making some experiments upon the stra- 
tified rock formations of that locality, by taking advantage of the powerful 
explosions necessary at the quarries. These quarries are situated (see Map, 
Pl. II.) on Holyhead Mountain, on its N.E. flank, in metamorphic quartz 
rock, and in 1852 (a vast mass of material having been already removed) 
presented a lofty, irregular, and nearly vertical scarp, reaching to 150 feet in 
height above the floor of the quarry in some places. 

From this wall of solid rock the process of dislodgement was continued, 
not by the usual method of blasting, by means of small charges fired in 
jumper-holes bored into the rock, but by the occasional explosion of large 
mines, containing at times as much as nine tons of gunpowder lodged in one 
or in three or more separate foci deep within the face of the cliff, and formed 
by driving “headings” or galleries from the base of the mural face into the 
rock. From the charges of powder placed in bags at the innermost extre- 
mnities of these headings, which were stopped up by several feet of “ tamping ” 


202: REPORT—1861. 


of stone, rubbish, and clay, conducting wires were led out to a suitable and safe 
distance, so that on making by these the circuit complete between the poles of a 
powerful Smee’s galvanic battery, a small piece of thin platinum wire adjusted 
within the charge of gunpowder became heated, and ignited the powder. 
The explosion thus followed instantaneously the making contact between the 
poles of the battery. 

Experience has enabled the engineers charged with the work so exactly 
to proportion the charge of powder to the work it is intended to perform in 
each case, that no rock is thrown to any distance; the whole force is consumed 
in dislocating and dropping down to its base as a vast sloping talus of disrupted 
rock and stone the portion of the cliff operated on; in fact, at the moment 
of explosion the mass of previously solid rock seems to fall to pieces like 
a lump of suddenly slacked quicklime. The shock or impulse, however, 
delivered by the explosion upon the remaining solid rock, behind and around 
the focus, and propagated through it in all directions outwards, as an elastic 
wave of impulse, was at an early stage of the operations remarked to be so 
powerful, that it could be felt distinctly in the quaking of the ground at 
distances of several hundred yards, and was sufficient even to shake down 
articles of delf ware from the shelves of cottages a long way off from the 
quarries. 

Early in 1853 I visited those quarries, and examined generally the adja- 
cent locality and rock formations, and having satisfied myself that these 
operations could be made available, I applied to my distinguished friend, the 
late lamented Mr. Rendel, C.E., the engineer-in-chief of the Asylum Harbour, 
and readily obtained from him permission to make such experiments as should 
not interfere with the progress of the works. 

The prosecution of these experiments having been favourably represented 
to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and to the Council 
of the Royal Society, a sum of money was voted by each of these bodies 
respectively, and placed at the author’s disposal, with the desire that he should 
undertake and conduct the experiments. 

It was not, however, until the summer of 1856 that my own avocations and 
various preliminaries allowed any progress to be made with the experiments 
themselves. Negotiations had to be entered on with several parties ; with 
the occupier of some land at Pen-y-Brin, about a mile to the east of the 
quarries, where the most suitable spot for placing the seismoscope ‘(the obser- 
ver's station O, see Map) was found, for permission to enter his land, and level 
down to a horizontal surface the face of the rock here occupying the sur- 
face of the ground, and to erect an observer's shed over it; and with the 
Electric Telegraph Company, for the hire of insulating telegraph poles and 
wires, and for their erection over the range intervening between this spot 
and the highest reach of the quarry hill. 

As these great blasts are fired only occasionally and at uncertain intervals, 
and being prepared must be fired without postponement, and within a given 
hour of the day, namely, during the workmen’s dinner-hour (12 to 1 P.m.), 
when the quarries are clear of men, and therefore safe from accident, it became 
at once obvious that very frequent journeys, both on my own part and on that 
of such assistants as I should require, would have necessarily to be made to 
and from Holyhead ; and to economize as much as possible the large expen- 
diture that must thus arise, I applied to the City of Dublin Steam Packet 
Company, and to the Chester and Holyhead Railway Company, through 
their respective Secretaries, representing the scientific character of the un- 
dertaking, and requesting on their parts cooperation, by their permitting 
myself and my. assistants, with any needful apparatus, to pass free to and 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 203 


from Holyhead by their respective vessels from Kingstown Harbour. After 
much fruitless correspondence I regret to say that both these Companies 
refused to render any assistance whatever, a boon the refusal of which 
greatly increased the expenditure for these experiments. Lastly, I placed 
myself in communication with Messrs. Rigby, the contractors for the vast 
works of the Quarries and Harbour, and in August 1856 received from them 
the assurance of every assistance that they could afford consistently with the 
prosecution of the works. To them, to Mr. R. L. Cousens, C.E., the acting 
engineer for their firm on the works, and to Mr. G. C. Dobson, C.E., chief 
engineer on the work under Mr. Rendel (since under Mr. Hawkshaw), my 
thanks are due for the best and most cordial assistance upon all occasions. 

The position for the observer’s station and seismoscope upon the levelled 
floor of rock at Pen-y-Brin having been fixed upon, the first operation neces- 
sary was to obtain an accurate section of the surface in the line between that 
and the quarries, a geological section of the rock formations along the same 
line, and with precision the exact distance in a straight line, from some fixed 
point adjacent to the quarries, to the observer's station. The fixed point 
chosen at the quarries was the flagstaff at the bell, which is rang whenever 
a blast is about to be fired, this being so placed that from it measurements 
and angular bearings, with the line of range O W (Map), from the various 
sites of future explosions could readily be made, and thus the exact distance 
of each focus of explosion (to be hereafter experimented on) from the seismo- 
scope at O ascertained, the flagstaff always remaining undisturbed as a 
fixed terminal at the quarry end of the range. The whole surface, O to W, 
was carefully levelled over, and the distances chained, as given in the diagram, 
Pl. III. section 2. fig. 1. The roughness of the ground and its inclination, 
however, rendered direct measurement of the range of wave-path with suf- 
ficient accuracy impracticable, and it was found necessary to obtain it trigo- 
nometrically. For this purpose a base line of 1432 feet in length was mea- 
sured off along the rails of the tramroad which connects the quarry with the 
east breakwater, between the points A and B (Map, Pl. II.), where the road 
fortunately was found straight and nearly level. 

This was measured with two brass-shod pine rods, each of 35 feet in length, 
of the same sort, and applied in the same manner, as I used in 1849 for 
measuring the base of one mile on Killiney Strand, for the particulars of 
which the “Second Report on Earthquakes,” &c., Report Brit. Assoc. 
1851, p. 274, &c., may be referred to. The base was measured forwards and 
backwards, with a result differing by less than 3 inches. The flagstaff at the 
spot marked W in the Map is not visible from the observer's station, owing 
to some intervening houses and other objects ; a staff was therefore set up at 
S, upon the hill-side. The point O was connected by angular measurements 
with the extremities of the measured base A and B; the triangles OBS and 
OSW were then obtained, whence that OBW was arrived at, from which 
finally the distance OW (the constant part of the range) was ascertained to 
be=4584'80 feet. The triangle OBW was used as a check upon that OSW, 
as the angles at O, S, and W had to be taken, owing to local circumstances, 
smaller than is desirable. The lengths of the side OW obtained from the 
two triangles separately closely agreed; and as a further check, the side 
SW, which gave, trigonometrically, a length of 671°07 feet, when actually 
measured as a base of verification, gave 67205 feet. 

I was also enabled to connect the side OS with a trig-point P, upon the 
western breakwater, and another at R, the positions of which are defined 
upon the accurate surveys of the harbour in Mr. Dobson’s’ possession, 
as a further means of verification. We may therefore view the length of the 


204 REPORT—1861. 


constant part of the range between the observing station and the flagstaff, its 
other permanent terminal, as equal to 4585 feet, neglecting fractions. 

The base of the staff at S was found to be 68°78 feet above the level of 
the horizontal surface of the rock at Pen-y-Brin (the observing station O), 
and the base of the flagstaff at W is 5°70 feet above the same point O. 
The levelled surface of rock at O is 84 feet above the mean tide-level of the 
sea in the Asylum Harbour; and the average rise and fall of spring tides at 
Holyhead is 18 feet; the line of rock, therefore, through which the range 
passes is, except as respects surface water, permanently dry to a considerable 
depth. The majority of the headings are driven into the face of the quarry 
cliff horizontally, at from 10 to 20 feet above the level of the floor of the 
quarry, which is on nearly the same level as the point W. Hence, prac- 
tically, the actual range of transmission through the solid rock of the impulse 
from each heading when fired, to the seismoscope at the observer's station, 
may be considered as a horizontal line, and no correction of distance is 
required for difference of elevation at the two extremities of the observing- 
range in the reduction of our results. 

The Island of Holyhead, as may be seen on consulting the sheets (Nos. 77 
and 78) of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, consists mainly of 
chloritic and micaceous schist or slate and of quartz rock. The latter forms 
the north-west portion of the island; and in it alone are situated the Harbour 
quarries, upon the side of Holyhead Mountain (as it is called), the same 
rock rising to its summit, which is 742 feet above the sea, mean tide-level. 
The junction of the quartz and of the schist or slate rock runs in azimuth 
N. 24° E. where it crosses the line of our range, which it intersects at an 
angle horizontally of 73° 30’. 

The schist or slate rocks here overlie the quartz, abutting against the flank 
of the latter, apparently unconformably, and having an inclined junction whose 
dip is towards the south-east, and probably, at the place where our range 
intersects, having an angle of dip of about 65° with the vertical. The point of 
junction is situated about 900 feet from the flagstaff W ; so that about 2100 
feet, on the average, of our actual ranges Jay in quartz rock, and the re- 
mainder, or 3750 feet, in the schist or slate formation, taking the mean total 
range at 5851 feet. The general tendency of the schist is to a dip to the north- 
west, varying from 5° to 20° from the horizontal ; but no well-defined bedding 
is obvious either in it or in the quartz. 

Lithologically, the quartz rock consists of very variable proportions of pure 
white, light grey, and yellowish quartz, and of white or yellowish-white 
aluminous and finally micaceous clays. In many places the mass of the rock 
presents to the lens almost nothing but clear and translucent quartz, breaking 
with a fine waved glassy fracture, striking fire with steel, extremely hard 
and difficult to break, and showing a very ill-defined crystallization of the 
individual particles of quartz, which have all the appearance of pure quartzose 
sea-sand that had become agglutinated by heat and pressure coacting with 
some slight admixture of the nature of a flux. The specific gravity of such 
portions, as determined for me by my friend Mr. Robert H. Scott, A.M., 
Secretary to the Geological Society of Dublin, is 2656. From this the rock 
passes in many places into a softer and more friable material, consisting, when 
minutely examined, of the same sort of quartz-grains, with a white pulveru- 
lent clay, containing microscopic plates of mica disseminated between them ; 
this fractures readily, but will still strike fire with steel, and its average spe- 
cific gravity is 2°650. 

Both, but particularly the harder variety, are found often in very thick 
masses of nearly uniform quality, separated by great master-joints, though 


Plate 3 


EARTHQUAKE EXPERIMENTS, HOLYHEAD QUARRIES. N22. 


Section of surface O to S of Map and Geological Section of Range 


es, Hol head 


Exper Ut & ms F) iV. Heating N°33. Quarry NE. Exper. Vo Keadin Exper 1. Heading NE 84 Quarry NOF 


Fase © it Face ef (UIT ILS tect in, hetaht Face CI HS tet iw Dght 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 205 


searcely to be considered as beds; but usually the mass, viewed in the large, 
is heterogeneous in the highest degree, massive and thick in one place, full 
of joints and even minutely foliated in others, and everywhere intersected by 
thin and thick veins of harder quartz, agglutinated sand, and, elsewhere, 
friable sand, and of soft sandy clay. 

Both the quartz rock and the schist of the island are intersected by three 
great greenstone dykes (of inconsiderable thickness, however), none of them 
interfering with our range, and by one or more great faults, all of which 
run through nearly the whole island in a N.W. and S.E. direction, and by 
humerous other minor faults and dislocations, some of which may be seen 
as cutting through our line of range at f, g, k, J, in Plate III. section 2. 
No. 11. 

At a short distance behind the quarry cliff, and seat of our several ex- 
plosions, a great clay dyke occurs in the quartz rock—a wall, in fact, of. 
about 20 feet in average thickness, running in the direction marked on the 
Map (Plate II.), and with a dip of only about 20° from the vertical. 
This consists of strongly compacted clay, nearly pure white, and more or 
less mixed with fine sand and grains of mica, but cannot be called rock, 
though continually passing into stony masses. Lying as it does in rear of our 
experimental headings, it was of some value, as presenting a dead solid anvil 
to the pulse from each explosion, in the contrary direction to that of the 
observed wave of impulse, and hence causing a larger and more distinctly 
appreciable wave to be transmitted in the direction towards the seismoscope. 

The schist rock, in colour, passes from fawn-colour and light-greenish 
ashen-grey into a rather dark tea-green. It owes its colour to disseminated 
thin layers of chlorite, and probably of black or green mica in minute scales, 
between which are thicker layers of quartz, presenting identically the same 
mineral characters as those of the quartz rock beneath. These layers, owing 
to the small relative hardness and cohesion of the chlorite and mica, present 
planes of weakness and of separation; the rock is, in fact, everywhere thinly 
foliated, the average thickness of a plate seldom exceeding 0°2 of an inch, and 
averaging about one-half that thickness. These foliations are twisted, bent, 
doubled up, and distorted in every conceivable way: the contortions are 
often large, the curves having radii of some feet, with minor distortions 
within and upon them ; but most commonly they are small; so that it is rare 
to get even a hand specimen presenting flat and undistorted foliations, while, 
quite commonly, hand specimens may be found presenting, within a cube of 
four or five inches, two or three curves of contrary flexure, often in all three 
axes, and with curvatures short, sharp, and abrupt, almost angular. There 
is a general tendency observable in the greater convolutions to conform more 
or less to the surface contour of the country; so that the largest and flattest 
folds are found to occupy, with an approach to horizontality, the topmost por- 
tions of the great humps or wmbos of schist rock that form the characteristic 
of the landscape, and so rolling off in folds smaller, steeper, and more con- 
voluted towards the steeper sides, as though these masses had slipped and 
doubled upon themselves when soft and pasty. 

Occasionally, however, where deep cuttings have exposed the interior of 
such surface-knolls, it is found sharply convoluted and twisted in all direc- 
tions, and without any relation to the existing surface of the country. Every- 
where this mass of minutely structured, convoluted, and foliated rock is cut 
through by joints of separation, with surfaces in direct and close contact, and 
by thin seams and veins of hard and sometimes pretty well crystallized quartz, 
now and then discoloured by oxide of iron, and with minute cavities filled 
with chlorite and mica, and with others of agglutinated quartzose sand, whose 


906 ‘ REPORT—1861. 


bounding-lines pass off rapidly, but gradatim, into the prevailing substance of 
the rock. It is by no means of equal hardness; some portions (and these 
occur without any order or traceable relationship throughout the mass) are 
much thinner in the foliation, and the layers of chlorite and mica nearly as 
thick as those of the intervening quartz, both being so attenuated, that to 
the naked eye the edge of the foliation presents only a fine streaky appearance 
of lighter and darker green-grey tint. The softest, however, readily strikes 
fire with steel, and throughout the whole mass of the rock (for the length of 
our range) it is so hard, coherent, and intractable as to be only capable of 
being quarried by the aid of gunpowder, and with very closely formed 
jumper-holes. 

The specific gravity of the densest portions of the schist rock reaches 2°765; 
that of the softer averages 2-746. When the rock, whether hard or soft, is 
broken so that the applied surfaces of the foliations are visible, they are 
often found glistening and greasy to the feel, from flattened microscopic 
scales of mica, or possibly of talc. 

The quartz rock fractures under the effect of gunpowder into great lumpy 
masses, with much small rubbish; the schist under that, from jumper-hole 
blasts, breaks up into coarse, angular, knotted, and most irregular wedges, 
the foliations breaking across in irregularly receding steps, and (throughout 
our range at least) a stone with a single flat bed being perhaps unprocurable. 
Both rocks are absolutely dry, or free from all perceptible percolations of 
surface-water issuing as springs, nor does the rain penetrate their substance 
by absorption for any appreciable depth,—both indications of their generally 
compact structure. 

The faults with which our range is intersected, in four places, at a hori- 
zontal angle of about 75°, are not far from vertical, dipping a few degrees to 
the N.W. They occur at the points marked f, g, ’, , on the Geological Sec- 
tion (Plate III. section 2); and the disturbed and shattered plate of rock 
between each pair respectively appears to have sustained a downthrow (or 
the rocks at either side the contrary) of a few feet, 10 to 12 probably. 
The surfaces of the walls of these faults, so far as I can judge from rather 
imperfect superficial indications, appear to be in close contact; and such is the 
character of all the small faults that intersect the formation hereabouts. 

I have been thus tediously minute in describing the character of the rocks 
throughout our range, because, if experimental determinations of earth-wave 
transit are to become useful elements of comparison in the hands of the seis- 
mologists of other countries with the observed transit-times of natural earth- 
quake-waves, and a means of controlling such observations, it is essential 
that the means be afforded of accurately comparing the rock-formation tra- 
versed in both cases. 

From what has been described, it will be remarked that the rock here 
chosen for experiment presents in the highest degree the properties capable 
of producing dispersion, delay, and rapid extinction of the wave of impulse, 
so far as its structure is concerned, although the modulus of elasticity of a 
very large proportion of its mineral constituents (silex) is extremely high, and 
its specific gravity as great as that of Dalkey granite. Added to its minutely 
foliated and mineralogically heterogeneous character, with its multiplied con- 
volutions, we have five great planes of transverse separation in the range, one 
of these forming the plane of junction of the quartz and schist, with innume- 
rable minor planes of separation at all conceivable angles to each other in 
both rocks ; and yet we have highly elastic and dense materials forming the 
substance of both rocks, and their general mass remarkably free from open 
veins, fissures, or cavities. 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 207 


We have also two different rocks, the one transmitting the impulse into 
the other, yet neither so widely differing from the other in molecular and other 
physical characters as to make any great or abrupt effect upon the wave at 
the junction probable. In fact, widely, to the first glance, as the quartz 
rock and the schist rock appear to differ, there is less real distinction 
of physical character between them than would be supposed: both are 
composed of the same siliceous sand in about the same size of original 
grains, variously enveloped, in the one in chlorite and mica, and in the 
other in white or grey clay and mica; both have, in ancient geological 
epochs, doubtless derived their materials by degradation and transport from 
a common source, as respects their main constituent, the silex ; both have 
been submitted to approximately similar pressures, and probably like tem- 
peratures ; and the agglutinating flux has probably been mainly the same for 
both, viz. the minute proportions of alkalies derived from the waters of an 
ancient ocean. The main difference in physical structure, viewed upon the 
broad scale, between the quartz rock and the slate is this (as regards our 
experiments ) :—that the great joints and planes of separation on the whole 
approximate to veréicality in the former, while in the latter, with the ex- 
ception of some larger faults and dykes, the planes of separation are twisted 
and involved in all directions, but tend more to approach horizontality. 

More interesting conditions could thus scarcely be found for experimental 
determination of the transit-rate of earth-waves, or more desirable for future 
comparison with that of earthquake-waves themselves ; much more instructive, 
indeed, were the actual conditions than if the means-of experiment presented 
by these vast quarry operations had been in the most regular, undisturbed, 
and horizontal stratified rock, like some of the mountain limestone of Ireland, 
or the finest and densest laminated roofing-slates of Wales. In such ranges 
we can predict that the transit-velocity would at least be high. In the 
medium chosen for these experiments it was impossible even to guess what it 
might be found. 

I proceed to describe the instrumental arrangements made for the observa- 
tion of the impulse-wave transmitted from the blasts chosen, and for the de- 
termination of the transit-time along the range of wave-path. Over the 
surface of solid rock that had been chiselled down to a level tabular surface 
at (O) Pen-y-Brin, a timber-shed was erected, of sufficient size to place the 
observer, an assistant, and all the instruments proper to that spot, under cover 
and secured from the wind. ‘The side to the N.W. was open, to permit of 
observation along the line of range, with the means of partially closing it in 
high winds. 

Along the line of the boundary-wall of the railway next Pen-y-Brin, 
and thence along up to the highest and most distant point of the quarry 
cliffs, a line of telegraph-posts was planted, and upon these two properly 
insulated iron wires were hung, in such a manner that at any point along 
their length over the quarry cliffs, a pair of branch wires (covered with 
gutta percha) could be led off, and in like manner another pair to the apna- 
ratus in the observing-shed at Pen-y-Brin, thus giving the means of galva- 
nically connecting the extremities of the range in any way that might be 
required. 

The mines in use at the quarries frequently consist of two, three, or four 
separate chambers and charges,which are all fired simultaneously (see PI.IV.); 
but each charge is fired by a distinct pair of wires, igniting a fine platinum 
wire interposed in the circuit and immersed in one of the powder-bags. The 
arrangement of this platinum wire in its hollow wooden frame to prevent 
disturbance, and its connexion with the large conducting wires, are practi- 


208 REPORT—1861. 


cally the same as those adopted by me in 1849 at Killiney, and will be 
found fully described in ‘Second Report on Earthquakes,” &¢., Report of 
British Association for 1851, p. 277. 

When several charges are to be fired simultaneously, all the electro- 
positive wires from each chamber are collected into one mercury-cup in 
connexion with one pole of the battery, and all the electro-negative wires 
into another mercury-cup. Upon making contact between the latter and 
the second pole of the battery, the current at the same moment ignites all 
the platinum wires passing through each pair of wires as a separate con- 
ducting path. This method requires considerable battery power, but is the 
only certain or reliable one for firing simultaneously a number of separate 
charges. When an attempt is made to pass the current from one pole of 
the battery through a single pair of wires, and through all the fine platinum 
priming wires in succession to the return pole, there is extreme risk that the 
first or second platinum priming, owing to its attenuated section of wire (in 
virtue of which indeed alone it becomes ignited at all), may interpose so 
much resistance to the current as to prevent the ignition of the third, or 
fourth, or other subsequent primings, or that the first priming-wire may 
get absolutely fused or broken by the first-ignited powder, and so cut off all 
communication with the others befvre they have been heated sufficiently. 

A neglect of this obvious consequence of Ohm's law of resistance 
appears to have been the cause of failure very recently, in an attempt to 
ignite a number of mines of demolition simultaneously, at Chatham. From 
the great magnitude of the charges frequently fired at Holyhead, and the 
very serious consequences that failure of ignition would involve, the battery 
power habitually employed is wisely of superabundant power. It consists 
of a Grove's battery of thirty-two cells, each exposing ninety-six square 
inches of platinum element. It is but justice to my friend Mr. R. L. Cou- 
sens, C.E., to whose assistance in these experiments I am so much indebted, 
to add, that during the several years he has controlled these vast blasting- 
operations a single failure of ignition has never occurred. 

For the above reasons, and from the necessity that in the event of any 
failure of such apparatus as I might require for experiment, in making 
contact and firing the mine at a given moment, the power should still be 
reserved to Mr. Cousins to fire it directly afterwards in the usual way, so as 
not to interfere with the works, I was led, finally, to devise the following 
magneto-galvaniec arrangement, by which, at a signal given from the sum- 
mit of the quarry cliff (where the firing-battery is usually placed, nearly 
above the mine or heading then to be fired, and at a safe distance back 
from the edge of the cliff, usually about 100 yards) that all was ready, I 
should myself, stationed at the observing-shed (O), be enabled to com-. 
plete the contact and fire the mine, and do so in such a way as to register 
by means of the chronograph the interval of time that elapsed between 
the moment that I so made contact (or fired) and the arrival of the wave 
of impulse through the rocks of the range or wave-path, when made visible 
by, and observed by me in, the seismoscope. 

For this purpose such an arrangement was required as, upon contact 
being made by me at the observing-shed (O), should set in motion such a 
contrivance, situated upon the quarry cliff, at the remote end of the tele- 
graph wires, as should there instantly close the poles of the great (Grove’s) 
firing-battery and so fire the mine, and in the event from any cause of this 
result not taking place at the preconcerted moment, that then it should be 
free to Mr. Cousens or his assistants to close the poles of the firing-battery by 
hand in the ordinary way. 


bi ast abt mi gn pelt ap ¢ eegltier -tel 
eee aw siede H paved BRAG desl cca ph 


“wmeodary ji 


9 fir : 
& watt ys t 
isieis 
Pay ree 
Ne yi 
& hah « 


Pte m be 
vttbe ok 
i 


- ses ee 
: i 
: 
4 " = 
ves ais 
trie 5 ; 
P : 
7 ra 
Fiz : , 
: ta ae se) ; 3 
aA as 
- , ~ ; 
aan 


wins Be ait tr lec x B's. Map teeth 9 Pier 


4 
. 
hy 


* 20 PEN hy # Pee 


A De aay r wits wa | 


. 
MMH i itm (ues: xis} typtteads ear w 4 pate psseeet |, 4. gies 

pO MMT Aiea s18 to Agu sale Cavan aie SEF aut 
ib ‘ ; ; haiti a iit “et. PE EH et dew “ 

Bocas ee Deiguierd aks TEINS cite sh he RTE 0 CER Sa ae 

IHR {4 in worthy ANS bigkts et eae fhe, abet by rk: Shida. 
fhe bem ode miay dated ‘ieile’ tis ME it crcuyhd i Pirtieanliys yx yido80 he 

) phoney only be telnet maka} p iy ehh Mibverdw + y By tamed ; 
fy 0G POH ites wal dead sis ade anh = P ee MKT paket 
(} donnoct Bigeionovding: ahi ie Mostly \ciles tbs BOTT <P chew: 
: PO eae t “sD tpdahleo uy cigars ul =. * ; ER ¥- “fag ese 


— Hlevation: of the tontuct Malcer 


Wer amntact madang Battery 


eb  — exe z 


of Gronoaraph 
. 


The Telescope i 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 209 


In PL. IV., in which (fig. 1) this arrangement is figured (without reference 
to scale), A is one of the headings seen in the cliff-face at part of the quarries. 
Above the cliff at B is placed the Grove’s firing-battery; the conducting 
wires from its poles pass down the face of the cliff and into the heading, 
uniting at the platinum priming-wire in the midst of the charge of powder, 
the further end of the wires terminating in mercury-cups at the contact- 
maker C (about to be described). From the electro-magnet of the contact- 
maker, the two insulated wires are led along upon telegraph poles from 
the summit of the cliff down to the observer’s station at Pen-y-Brin, where 
they terminate also in mercury-cups, one forming the e+ and the other 
the e— pole of the contact-making battery E placed there. This battery 
consisted of six of the usual moistened-sand batteries in use for telegraph 
purposes. 
The chronograph (D) was placed upon the levelled rock adjacent to this 
battery, and conveniently for its lever (m) being acted on by the left hand of 
the observer, when lying at full length upon the ground, with his eye to 
the seismoscope based upon the rock at I’, its optic axis being situated in 
the vertical plane of the line of wave-path or range F A, close to the 
seismoscope, and at the same level as the eyepiece of that instrument. A 
very good achromatic telescope was adjusted upon its stand, so as to bring 
the heading about to be experimented on, together with the whole face of 
the cliff and the firing-battery, &c., within its field,—the eyepiece of this 
telescope being fixed at about a distance of 6 or 8 inches from that of the 
seismoscope, and so that the eye of the observer, while lying at ease and 
with the left hand upon the lever of the chronograph (m), could be instantly 
transferred from the one instrument to the other. In this state of things, 
when the proper signal (by the exhibition of a red flag) was made, and at a 
preconcerted time as nearly as was practicable, by those stationed at the 
firing-battery at B, that “all was ready,” I applied my eye to the seismoscope, 
and pressed down the lever (m) of the chronograph with a sharp rapid move- 
ment ; this instantly closed the poles of the contact-making battery C, causing 
the galvanic current to pass through the electro-magnets of the contact-maker 
away at the quarries at C. This directly closed the poles of the Grove’s firing- 
battery at B, and fired the mine. The moment I observed the arrival of 
the wave of impulse propagated through the range from the explosion at A 
in the seismoscope at F, I withdrew my hand from the lever of the chro- 
nograph (m), and thus stopped the instrument, the interval of time between 
its having been started and stopped thus registering the (uncorrected) time 
of transit of the wave for the distance A F. It will now be necessary briefly 
to describe the several instruments separately. The seismoscope and chro- 
nograph have been aiready fully described in the account of the experi- 
ments made in 1849 at Killiney and Dalkey (Second Report on Earthquakes, 
&c., Report of Brit. Assoc. 1851), to which reference may be made. 

_ Briefly, the seismoscope (fig. 3*, Pl. IV.) consists of a cast-iron base-plate, 
on the centre of the surface of which is placed an accurately formed trough (6), 
12 inches long, 4 inches wide, and 2 inches deep, containing an inch in 
depth of pure mercury, with its surface free from oxide or dust, so as to 
reflect properly. The longer axis of this trough is placed in the direc- 
tion of the wave-path, the base of the instrument being level. At the 
opposite end of the trough are placed standards with suitable adjustments : 
that at the end next the centre of impulse carries a tube (c), provided with 
an achromatic object-glass at its lower end, and a pair of cross wires (hori- 
zontal and vertical); its optic axis is adjusted to 45° incidence with the 
oe surface of mercury in the trough. At the other end of the trough 

1861. P 


210 REPORT—1861. 


an achromatic telescope (a) with a single wire is similarly adjusted, so that 
when the moveable blackened cover (e e) is placed over the trough, &c., no 
light can reach the surface of the mercury except through the tubee. The 
image of the cross wires in the latter is therefore seen through the tele- 
scope a, clearly reflected and defined in the surface of the mercury, so long as 
the fluid metal remains absolutely at rest; but the moment the slightest 
vibration or disturbance is by any means communicated to the instrument, 
the surface of the fluid mirror is disturbed, and the image is distorted, 
or generally disappears totally. The telescope magnifies 11°39 times 
linearly, and the total magnifying power of the instrument to exalt the 
manifestation to the eye of any slight disturbance of the mercurial mirror is 
nearly twenty-three times. Its actual sensibility is extremely great. In 
the present case, however, this was not needful, as the impulse transmitted 
from these powerful explosions produced in all cases the most complete 
obliteration of the image, and in those of the most powerful mines experi- 
mented on caused a movement in the mercury of the trough that would 
have been visible to the naked eye. Indeed, in that of the 24th Novem- 
ber, 1860, the amplitude of the wave that reached the seismoscope was so 
great as to cause the mercury to sway forwards and backwards in the trough 
to a depth that might have been measured. 

After the earth-wave has reached This instrument, a certain interval of 
time is necessary for the production of the wave in the mercury, and for its 
transit from the end of the trough next c, where it is produced, to the mid- 
length where it is observed. This involves a correction in the gross transit- 
time as observed with it. For the methods by which the constant for this 
(seismoscope correction) was determined I must refer again to Report of 
Brit. Assoc. 1851, pp. 280, 281. It amounts to 0'*065 in time; and as the 
effect of this will in every observation appear to delay the arrival of the 
earth-wave at the instrument, this constant in time, converted into distance, 
must be added to the rate of wave-transit otherwise obtained. 

The chronograph (originally devised by Wheatstone) is shown in fig. 1*, 
Pl. IV. It consists, in fact, of a small and finely made clock, deprived of its 
pendulum, but provided with a suitable detent (shown more at large in 
fig.4*), by which the action of the weight upon it is kept always arrested, 
but can immediately be permitted to take place in giving it motion, upon 
pressing the hand quickly upon the lever g. 

The running down of the weight causes the anchor and pallets of the 
escapement (#) rapidly to pass the teeth of the escapement-wheel (a), so that 
the clock “runs down” by a succession of minute descents; and thus the 
motion is practically a uniform one. - It follows that as more weight is added 
this velocity becomes greater, and by such addition the instrument may be 
made to measure more and more minute fractions of time. 

It registers time upon two dials (fig. 2*), each with an index: one of these is 
fixed on the axis of the escapement-wheel (a), and its dial is divided into thirty 
smaller and six larger divisions; the pinion on this axis is to the wheel 
upon the weight-barrel (6) as 1:12. This carries the other index, and its dial 
has twelve divisions, so that one of its divisions corresponds to an entire 
revolution of the former one. The value in actual mean time due to the 
movement of the instrument, as thus recorded, requires to be ascertained by 
reference to a clock beating seconds, so that the number of revolutions of 
the index 6, and parts of revolutions of that of a, during an interval of, say, 
30 seconds, may be determined by the mean of several experiments. For 
the methods of performing this with the necessary correctness, I again refer to 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 211 


Second Report on Earthquakes,” &c., Report of Brit. Assoc, 1851, pp. 287, 
289, &e. 

- On the present occasion, as a considerable time elapsed between the suc- 
cessive experiments, during which the oil on the instrument more or less 
changed its state, and as some were made in summer and others in winter, 
it became necessary to rate the chronograph anew for each experiment, or’ 
at least to verify the former rating; for this end it was necessary to provide 
a suitable loud-beating seconds clock with a divided arc to the pendulum, as 
none such could be procured at Holyhead. The same weight was con- 
stantly used with the chronograph, and the extreme differences found in 
the rating during the several years that these experiments have been in 
progress were no more than the following :— 


Nov. 1856. Value in mean time of one division of the dial (a) = 0:01485 
May 1861. Value of same 4 : 4 . - = 0°01806 


Taking for illustration the former value of the smallest division of the 
dial (a), we see that each division of the dial (6) is equal to one revolution of 
the index (a), and equal to 

001485 x 30 = 04455, 
and one revolution of the index (0) equal to 

04455 x 12 = 5!"346,— 
an absolute rate of movement of the instrument not widely differing from 
that employed in the experiments of Killiney and Dalkey, with which it is 
desirable that the present results should be comparable. Half a small divi- 
sion of the chronograph can be read; we therefore in these experiments 
possess the means of recording time to within 0'-0074, or to nearly ;ygpths 
of a second. 

The additional apparatus of the chronograph consisted merely of such 
arrangements that the releasing lever (7), when pressed down by the hand 
applied to the wood insulator at m, should dip at ¢ into a mercury-cup, and 
so make contact by the wires (6, 6’) between the poles of the contact-making 
battery (E). 

It remains to describe the contact-maker (fig. 2, Pl. IV.). ¢ is the base of 
the instrument of mahogany, carrying a vertical and bent arm (d) of cast 
iron, into the upper forked end of which the central iron bars, of about {ths 
of an inch in diameter, of the electro-magnets a, a (seen in plan in fig.3) are 
secured by a cotter; the coils of covered wire round these are continuous, 
the wire (6) from the e+ pole passing at its further end from the first coil 
over to the second, and at the extremity of the latter passing off to the e—pole 
by 8’, the junctions being effected by mercury-cups in the usual way. 7 is 
a sliding piece of wood, secured upon the base ec when adjusted in place by 
the screw at s; this carries a wrought-iron lever armature (c), whose arms 
are as 8:1, the shorter and rather heavier end being adjusted so as to be 
beneath the poles of the electro-magnets, and at such a distance beneath 
them that, upon passing the current through the coils, the magnets shall 
readily attract the short end of this lever, snatch it up into contact with the 
poles of the magnets, and in doing so depress the other or remote end of 
the lever. The latter extremity of the lever is provided, as seen more at 
large in figs. 4 and 5, with a forked pair of copper poles amalgamated, 
which, when depressed by the action of the electro-magnets, dip into the mer- 
eury of the cups f and f, and in doing so close the holes of the firing-battery, 
the conducting wires from which (# and h) dip respectively into mercury- 
cups, which by a tube bored through the wood are in permanent communi- 
cation with f and f (cups) respectively. The lever and forked poles, &c., 

P2 


WS: REPORT—186]. 


are provided with various screw adjustments as to position, range, &c., and 
a slender spring beneath the lever, ensuring that it shall not be accidentally 
moved by wind, or other cause, until acted on by the powerful grasp of the 
magnets. 

This instrument was found to answer admirably well. It may be observed, 
in passing, that it gives the means of exploding mines at almost any distance 
through telegraphic wires, and by any moderate contact-making power, and 
may admit of valuable applications hereafter for the explosion, at a determi- 
nate instant, of mines for purposes of warfare. 

It is obvious that a certain loss of time must occur at this contact-maker, 
in reference to our experiments—that, in fact, the total time registered by 
the chronograph at D is too great by the minute interval that elapses 
between the arrival of the galvanic current in the coils at a and the dipping 
of the poles f, f into the mercury-cups. With the same battery power at E 
and conducting wires, this delay is practically constant. Its amount, how- 
ever, required to be determined, and the ¢ime, when converted into distance, 
added to the gross transit-rate previously ascertained. 

For this purpose the following little apparatus was employed. Its prin- 
ciple, though not the precise details of its construction, is shown in 
fig. 6, Pl. IV. Upon a vertical steel spindle (s) revolving upon an agate step 
at bottom, and in a polished brass collar at top, a cylindric barrel is placed, 
of 1 inch diameter, having an escapement-wheel and anchor-escapement (v) 
at its lower end, all the parts being made as light as possible. Upon the 
upper end of the spindle a circular disk of Bristol board (cardboard), f, of 
12% inches diameter, is secured by a light screw collar (¢) gripping the disk 
firmly, so that it and the spindle must revolve together. Both the upper and 
under surfaces of the card-disk, for an inch or two from the circumference, 
towards the centre, were slightly rubbed with violin-player’s hard rosin, and 
the whole, resting upon its base B, placed so that the disk should rotate 
horizontally. A fine elastic silk thread is wound a few turns round the 
barrel, and passing over the sheave (7) sustains a weight (W), by the descent 
of which, when required, rotation can be given to the disk, &c., the weight 
itself being large in proportion to the inertia of the rotating parts. By suit- 
able changes in the disposition of the parts of the contact-maker (chiefly in 
getting the cast-iron arm d, fig. 2, out of the way), it was placed at C with 
respect to the disk ; so that the lower poles of the electro-magnets (a, a) were 
just above the upper surface of the card-disk, and the short end of the lever 
armature (€) just below the same, the card running free in the small space 
between, and the centre of the magnet-poles being exactly at a radius of © 
6 inches from the centre of the disk.. Nearly at right angles on the disk to 
this, the chronograph (D) was placed and firmly fixed : a fixed point (shown 
in part only in the fig. g), formed of a bit of cylindrical mahogany, with its 
lower end rosined, was so fixed as to be about ;4,th of an inch above the 
upper surface of the disk. The lever (m) of the chronograph, divested of its 
forked pole, and having a small rectangular rod of brass substituted, was so 
adjusted that its sustaining spring beneath should press this brass terminal up 
against the under surface of the disk at p, directly below the fixed point or 
stop (g), and bending the cardboard there, press its upper surface into con- 
tact with the lower end of g. 

Thus the weight W being free to descend, this arrangement at p acted as 
a detent to keep the disk from moving; but when the lever (m) was pressed 
down to start the chronograph, the disk immediately became released, and 
began to revoive by the action of the weight W. At E the contact-making 
battery, or one of equal power, was placed, one of its poles being connected, 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 213 


through the rheostat (R), by conducting wires with the coil of the electro- 
magnet (a), and terminating at the e+ pole at the mercury-cup (7), which 
was in connexion with the other or e— pole of the battery. 

The rheostat was adjusted so that the resistance equalled that of the 
conducting wires along the telegraphic poles between C and D, E (fig. 1, 
Pl. 1V.). In this state of things, when the lever (m) of the chronograph 
was pressed down, the disk ( f) instantly commenced rotating; but directly 
afterwards the electro-magnet (a), whose current was established by the first 
movement, attracted the lever armature (e) through the disk, and the latter 
was arrested by being gripped between the pole of the magnet and the 
armature. The are of the circumference of the disk then, at the centre 
of the magnet-pole (7. e. with 6 inches radius), that was intercepted between 
the marked spot (p) whence it started and that at which it was arrested, 
became a measure of the time lost or elapsed between starting the chrono- 
graph at the observer's station and making contact at the firing-battery in 
the actual experiments. 

The are thus intercepted was converted into time, from the descent of the 


weight (W), by the common formula ¢= cn s being given and equal to },th 


the length in feet of the are described by the circumference of the disk before 
being arrested ; and this was capable of being controlled by measuring by the 
chronograph itself the actual time of a given number of successive revolu- 
tions, and parts of revolutions, of the disk. The total number of complete 
revolutions made being taken by reckoning the coils wound off the barrel 
upon a mean of ten experiments with this apparatus, the delay at the contact- 
maker appeared to be no more than 0!"0143, which converted into distance, 
at the greatest transit-rate observed, gives a correction of 17°3 feet per second, 
and at that of the least of 12°8 feet per second, both additive. 

It may be remarked that the small error due to inertia, &c. in this apparatus 
tends nearly to correct itself, the extremely small time lost at starting of the 
disk being very nearly equalled by its tendency to be carried a little too 
far by the velocity impressed. The whole inertia also of the disk, barrel, &c. 
was extremely small in proportion to the moving weight W. 

Another correction requiring to be attended to in these experiments was 
the time of hang-fire in the charge of the mine, that is to say, the time 
required for the burning of such a portion of the whole charge of powder 
as should be sufficient to rupture the rock around, and so start off from 
the focus the wave-impulse perceived in the seismoscope—in other words, 
the time lost between the instant of first ignition of the powder, viewed 
as simultaneous with that of making contact at the firing-battery B, and 
the starting of the wave of impulse to be measured. 

In my former experiments at Killiney Bay, it will be recollected that it 
was in my power to determine this experimentally and rigidly, the moderate 
charges of powder there employed admitting of this, and that I found it 
amount for 25 lbs. of powder to 0'"050513, or to about 3;th of a second. 
Such is, in fact, the time that the full charge of a 68-pounder takes to burn. 
But in the present case direct experiment was impossible, and the value for 
this correction can only be approximately obtained by observing the time that 
elapsed in some instances between the moment of making contact at B, and 
the first great visible movement of rock at the face of the heading. This 
observation I made in three instances, noting the time by a delicately made 
chronoscope, by M. Robert, Rue du Coq, Paris. The results gave 0-05, 
0'04, and O'"8 for the time of hang-fire respectively, noting from the first 
visible movement of rock at the face of the heading. This would give a mean 


‘ 


214 REPORT—1861, 


of 00566, or very nearly 0'"06 for the time of hang-fire, which can be 
viewed, however, only as an approximation. It must vary slightly with 
every different “ heading,” depending as it does upon a great variety of con- 
ditions, but probably much more upon the exact proportion subsisting in any 
given case between the actual resistance of the rock to the powder employed, 
than upon the absolute quantity of the latter, although the total mass of 
powder burnt is also an element. The greatest observed difference between 
the greatest and least hang-fire amounted to 0-03, which, converted into 
distance at the mean transit-rate of our experiments, would give a possible 
maximum error due to this cause of about 31 feet persecond. The probable 
error cannot be more than about one-half that amount. ‘This correction, 
converted into distance, is also additive. 

By the methods thus described the experiments were commenced and 
conducted up to the middle of 1857; great trouble and difficulty, however, 
were experienced from the outset in keeping the arrangements in working 
order, and so as to be efficient when wanted at the very brief notice that 
could be afforded me beforehand by the officers in charge of the works, 
when suitable headings were about to be fixed. The entire line of telegraph 
wires, the observer's shed, &c., were exposed to mischief and depredation, 
and to injury in that tempestuous place by storms, &c. The long intervals 
between the experiments involved preparations and adjustment of every part 
of the galvanic apparatus afresh upon each occasion ; and for the most trifling 
repairs workmen had to be brought from Conway, or even from Manchester, 
as also, in every case, to make good the branch-conductors from the tele- 
graph wires. The length of the range and hilly character of the ground 
also produced much difficulty in being assured that all was right from end 
to end against the moment at which the firing was obligatory, as well as 
great personal fatigue at a moment when composed ease and freedom from 
fatigue were most desirable for good observation. 

These difficulties, in great part foreseen, had early caused me to turn 
my attention to the practicability of so adjusting at the observing-station a 
telescope of large field and clear definition, and so disposing the Grove’s 
firing-battery and other apparatus at the quarry cliff, that all could be clearly 
seen from the former point, and the act of making contact at the firing- 
battery observed by myself with distinctness and certainty, the two extre- 
mities of the range being thus, as it were, visually brought together. 

Two attempts to experiment in the summer and autumn of 1857, ren- 
dered abortive by derangements of the galvanic apparatus, caused me finally 
to abandon it, though unwillingly. I found, however, with some satisfaction, 
that, subject to the possible fatality of a cloud settling over the quarry cliff, 
and so shutting it out from sight just at the critical moment, the telescopic 
arrangement, on trial, really seemed to offer quite as accurate results as the 
more complex method, and more difficult to manage, of galvanic contact- 
making ; and the new mode was thus continued to the end of the experiments. 


The firing-battery being so disposed upon the sloping brow of the quarry cliff © 


facing my station as to be clearly visible to me, as well as every movement 
of those employed there, a code of signals was arranged between myself 
and Mr. Cousens, by which we should mutually become cognizant of the 
state of preparation, &c., and successive acts at our respective stations. When 
all was ready at both ends for the explosion, the final signal was made by 
Mr. Cousens, by elevating a bright red flag (mounted upon a short and 
light staff) to a vertical position, the lower end resting on a fixed point; a 
prearranged interval of a few seconds (usually 10”) intervened, when he 
dropped the red flag, rotating it upon the lower end of the staff held in the 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 215 


right hand, and with the left made contact of the poles of the firing-battery 
at the same instant that the flag reached the horizontal position. Standing 
facing me, and as distinctly observable by me upon each occasion as though 
Ihad been close beside him, my own eye and attention were directed to 
Mr. Cousens’s left hand; at the instant that I observed the contact made by 
him, I released my chronograph, and at once transferred my eye from the 
eyepiece of the observing-telescope to that of the seismoscope. A moment 
elapsed before my own eye adjusted itself to the focus of the latter; but the 
length of transit-period of the wave (always above 4") gave ample time for 
this, and then at the disappearance of the cross wires, as in the former ease, I 
arrested the chronograph. The only source of time-error introduced by this 
plan was that of the probability of some slight inequality of speed in dipping 
the poles to make contact on Mr. Cousens’s part (which may be called 
his personal equation), and the introduction of a somewhat larger value 
than before to my own personal equation—in the former arrangement that 
being due to consent between my hand and observation by the eye of 
one object, in the latter between the hand and observation of two objects. 
As regards the first, several experiments were made by Mr. Cousens and 
myself at the firing-station, by his repeatedly lowering the red flag and making 
(the movement of) contact, the contact-maker (fig.2, PI.IV.) and chronograph 
being so arranged as to register the total interval of time in each case 
between the first visible motion of the red flag and the completion of 
contact; others were so made as to register the time between the hori- 
zontal position of the red flag and the completion of contact. The result 
gave a minimum error of 0'-009, and a maximum of 0'-017. The mean 
error, 0!-013, is thus almost equal to the constant due to the contact- 
maker (in previous arrangement), with this difference, however, that the 
error in the present case might be either + or —. In twelve experiments 
nine were +, or additive; that is to say, the contact was made more slowly 
with the left hand than the flag was dropped with the right. The probability 
is therefore 3:1 that the error would be always additive, and would not 
exceed 0!"013, even if my observation was wholly directed to the flag; but 
as I directed my attention as completely as possible only to the movement 
of the contact-making hand, it is still less, and therefore, as not amounting 
to more than 6 or 7 feet per second in transit-time, may be neglected alto- 
gether. As regards my own personal equation of observation, it will be seen, 
on reference to “Second Report,” &c. (British Association Report, 1851, 
p. 305, &c.), of the former experiments at Killiney, where it was ascertained 
for both observers that its amount is much too minute to enter sensibly 
into the present results; and it is needless to say that this is a fortiori the 
case as respects.the time lost in transmission of the galvanic current through 
the 12,000 or 13,000 feet of conducting wire. 

The diagrams (Plate III.) give, to one scale, horizontal sections of the 
several headings from the experiments on which transit-results have been 
deduced, and a vertical section also of No. 31, quarry No. 9, as illustrative in 
this respect of all the others. The line of heading, from the face of the cliff up 

to any focus of charge, turns, it will be seen, thrice at right angles to itself, 
the object being more effectually to confine the effort of the powder when 
fired, and prevent the mass of “tamping” from being blown out. Results 
have been deduced from two headings, each of single focus, two of double 
focus, one of triple focus, and one of four foci,—the face of the cliff blown 

out varying, as marked in each case in the figure, from 60 feet to 120 feet 

in height, and the total weight of powder fired at one time being from 2100 
Ibs. up to the enormous charge of 12,000 Ibs., or nearly 6 tons. 


216 REPORT—1861. 


It was necessary to ascertain the exact distance in a right line from each of 
these headings, wherever situated, to the observing-station O, at Pen-y-Brin ; 
and for this purpose, previously to each explosion, the distance of the mouth 
of the heading was measured with accuracy (which the ground admitted 
of) from the flagstaff at W (see Map, Plate II., and Section 1, Plate II.), 
the exact distance of the latter having been previously determined from the 
observing-station O, as already described. 

The angle of azimuth made at the flagstaff by the line of constant range 
(O W), and by the line joining the flagstaff and mouth of the heading, was 
observed in each case, and we thus had the requisite data, from which was 
calculated, by the usual formule, 

2 (A+B)=90°—1C 


2 ? 
log tan 1 (A—B)=log (a—b)+log tan 3 (A+B)—log (A+B), 

C being the observed angle, a@ and 4 the known sides from flagstaff to O, 

and from flagstaff to the mouth of the heading. 

Thus the actual range of wave-transit from the focus of each explosion 
to the seismoscope at O was finally obtained. The positions respectively 
of each are marked by a black dot, and numbered in order of the date of 
experiment upon the Map (Plate II.), taken from Mr. Rendel’s chart of 1850, 
published by the Admiralty. Upon it the measured base (A B), and tri- 
angulation for obtaining the constant range (O W), and for checking that 
measurement, are marked. The actual wave-paths are therefore in right 
lines from the dots No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, &c., to the point O. The coast-line 
and position approximately of the cliff-faces of the quarries, and the superficial 
line of junction of the quartz-rock and of the slate, are also marked. The 
great clay dyke passing through the quartz rock at the quarries in rear of 
the headings is marked by a pair of interrupted lines. 

The Map is to a scale of 17 inch to 1000 feet, but is not quite exact as 
to filling in details on land; the important distances here concerned are 
therefore marked in by figures. 

In the opposite Table (p. 217) our chief numerical results are comprised 
at one view. 

The first result that strikes the eye at once in regarding the Table (p. 217) 
is, that, with the exception of the experiment No. 1, all show that the transit- 
rate tends to increase in velocity with the increased quantity of powder 
fired,—in other words, that the loss of velocity in the same rock is less, in 
some proportion, as the force of the originating impulse of the wave is greater, 
and its amplitude greater therefore on starting. 

This is apparent if the uncorrected transit-rates (col. 8) be arranged 
in the order of increased weights of powder exploded, thus : 


Taste II. 
Number of experiment ...... 2 3 1 6 4 5 
lbs. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. lbs. Ibs. 
Weight of powder ............ 2100 2600 3200 4400 6200 | 12,000 


Uncorrected transit-rate ee eee i : : ” 
(feet per second) «+.| 967°93 Ee 26 | 896712 | 99611 }1173-87 | 1210-79 


Experiment No. ] forms the only exceptional case, and the departure is 
not a wide one; so that the result cannot be viewed as accidental or due to 
any balancing of errors, but as the expression in so far of a fact of nature. 


217 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 


9 £58-090T LFL-F9 1-966 6F2-S 69-8625 000'€T OOF F "PON ‘FSON [terres TT ACI “T98T 
g 16F-6821 104-84 61-0181 T9L-F €L-860S 00098 00081 “SON “O8"ON f""""*""" $B "AON “O98T 
7 ZLT-0S31 08-94 £8-E411 ooF-g 8F-60F9 0000 002'9 “ON =| “EE'ON [terres gE ‘0a ‘£S8T 
€ 682-0F01 669-€9 96:146 F6S-9 PILLE9 000'6 009% *6 ON “IS"ON [terres gt Av ‘Z8T 
G C16-0601 G16-29 £6-296 899-¢ LG-9LFS oos‘s 01's “€ ON “OLON [°° T AON ‘9S8T 
T 89€-FS6 86.86 61-968 OPEL €6-6869 000'0T 002'¢ *6°ON ‘OP ON |"*""8"*** ST “AON “QG8T 
‘oas aad yaa} | ‘00s 19d yaoz | °008 aod yooz {Sspuooas *490F “Su “sq 
‘20URySIp UT | , *I9A.TASqO 
*(6 *[09) + a peponooun | qieues} haiy ‘poaomer | ‘popordxe | *xrenb *Burpvay 
ba woryde1109 | adoosourstas an pits jo omy Surpesy jo yoor Jopavod out ou} “Suipvoy Surry 
N 48.0 TTA IY} 10F so ee + | paasasqo | axjuao ueam | josyS1oa jo go Jo JO 07°C 
oyei-jIsuVry, | W014W001100 be he 1e407, jo sourjzsip | oyvmixosddy | 4yS10\\ oyunyY | Jequiny 
duy ysayq | POMPSAO 140], 
‘II ‘Or 6 8 *L 9 Sg v ‘§ % ‘T 


*peaysjopy “si Nsay [eJUsMIAodxy|—ponlag PSuUvI}-OAPAA 


‘| ATIVE 


218 REPORT—1861. 


Nor is it due to relative differences of different experiments in the lengths 
of range, in the quartz rock and in the slate respectively, as might be 
imagined ; for the experiments Nos. 2, 5, and 6 had wave-paths of about 
1400 feet in quartz only, and embrace the lowest and the highest velocities, 
while Nos. 1, 3, and 4 had about double this range or wave-path in quartz, 
with velocities not widely different from each other, or from No. 2. 

There are four corrections altogether applicable to the uncorrected transit- 
rates, col. 8, Table I., as already referred to, viz.— 

Ist. That for the liquid wave in the seismoscope, which, as a delay in 
time, is, when converted into distance, always +. This correction has 
been already applied in cols. 9 and 10, Table I. 

2ndly. That for the time of hang-fire of each explosion in the rock, the 
constant in time for which has been given, =0”-056. 

It appeared, however, uncertain whether this should be converted into di- 
stance, as probably nearly constant for every experiment, or in what way 
it might be variable, in relation to the weight of powder, and other circum- 
stances of each. The result disclosed in Table II., however, appears to 
indicate that the conversion into distance should be proportionate to the 
respective gross or uncorrected transit-rates, assuming, as we may now do, 
that these are functions of the originating impulses and resistances together, 
in each instance. This may not be absolutely true, but is the nearest ap- 
proximation we can make. This correction in distance is also always +. 
3rdly. The loss of time at making contact,—whether galvanically, in 
which we ascertained the constant in time to be =0”-0143, when converted 
into distance always +, or by the hand (of the firing party), when we found 
it was in time =0”:013, which in distance might be either + or —. 
The probability being so much in favour of the latter being positive, I have 
ventured to apply it as always so, which also renders all the experiments 
more truly comparable. 

4thly. The personal equations of the observer and time of transit of the 
galvanic current, both of which may be neglected. 

Applying these several corrections, we obtain the following Table and final 
numerical results :— * 


TasxE IT.—Wave-transit Experiments. Corrected Results. 


Up 2: oe 4. 5. 
N Observed rate of | 2nd correction, | Transit-rate with |3rd correction, Final 
transit per sec., | for hang-fire of | 2nd correction, making corrected 
4 uncorrected, explosion taken] col. 2-+-col.10, | contact into | transit-rates, 
exper-| col. 8, Tab. I. | in distance. Tab. I. distance. col. 3+ col. 4. 
feet per sec. feet per sec. feet per sec. feet per sec. | feet per sec. 
Te 896712 50°183 1004°551 11-649 1016-200 
Pel 967:93 54°204 10857119 13°831 1098-958 
3. 977°26 54°726 1095508 13°975 1109-483 
4, 1173°87 65°737 1315-908 15260 1331-168 
5. 1210-79 67°804 1357°295 15°740 1373°035 
6. 996711 55°792 1116-649 12°949 1129598 


The limits of error in these results would seem to be, that the 2nd correc- 
tion may amount to 15°5 feet per second in excess, and the error from all 
other instrumental or observational sources may be estimated probably at 
not more than 10 feet per second, so that the results may be deemed true to 
within 254 feet per second + or — . 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 219) 


The general mean derivable from the whole of the experiments taken to- 
gether gives 1176-407 feet per second for the transit-rate. The results, how- 
ever, obviously form two groups, viz. Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 6 from the smaller 
charges of powder, and Nos. 4 and 5 from the greater ones. 

The mean from the four first is 1088°5597 feet per second, and that from 
the two last is 1352°1015 feet per second ; and taking a mean of means from 
both of these, we obtain a final result of 1220°3306 feet per second as the 
mean transit-velocity of propagation, in the rocks experimented on, of a 
wave-pulse produced by the impulse of a charge not exceeding 12,000 lbs. 
of powder. We may be justified in concluding that the velocity of wave-pro- 
pagation (or transit) really does increase with the force of the original im- 
pulse ; it would be vain, however, to attempt to deduce the law of such 
increase from the results before us. 

The experiments of Mr. Goldingham at Madras, on the retardation of 
sound in moist air, and the theoretical researches of Mr. Earnshaw, both, by 
analogy, rendered @ priori probable what is now for the first time, so far 
as I am aware, experimentally shown. 

It follows, then, on reference to my former experiments at Killiney Bay, 
that the rate of wave-propagation in highly stratified, contorted, and foliated 
rock is intermediate between that for dense wet sand and for discontinuous 
and shattered granite. Adopting the first mean from the smaller charges of 
powder, as better comparable with the Killiney experiments, which were 
made with charges of only 25 lbs. of powder, and which would doubtless have 
been higher velocities with heavier charges, we obtain the following series :— 


Transit-rates of Wave-propagation. 


Snuwetsand |....4...5... SEs ( tes 33 824915 feet per second. 
In contorted and stratified rock (quartz 5 

PaliGlate) ei anes ciel 416 dashed LOaRe RR i 4 
In discontinuous granite........ oe» 1306425 ” ” 
In more solid granite .............. 1664574 9 9 

We may infer, even adopting the highest mean of these experiments 
(1352°101 feet per second) for comparison with the transit-rate for discon- 
tinuous granite, and bearing in mind that the former velocity is due to the im- 
pulse originated by a mean charge of 9100 lbs. of powder, while the latter was 
due to one of but 25 lbs., that for equal originating impulses the rate of propaga- 
tion of waves analogous to earthquake-waves of shock must be less generally, 
if not always, in contorted stratified rocks than in crystalline igneous rocks 
analogous to granite, the amount of shattered discontinuity being the same 
in both. 

The general mean obtained, viz. 1220°33 feet per second= 13°877 statute 
English miles per minute, coordinates, as might be expected, with the more 
trustworthy of the older attempts to determine the velocity of propagation 
of earthquake-waves in nature (see Table 8, “Second Report on Earth- 
quakes,” &c., Report of Brit. Assoc. 1851, p. 316), and still more so with the 
more recent and exact determinations of such velocities made by Néggerath*, 
who found it 1376 Paris feet per second; by Schmidt+, of the shock about 


" * pas padheber vom 29 Juli, 1846, im Rheingebiet, &c. V. Dr. Jakob Néggerath. 4to, 
onn, 1847. 

+ Untersuchungen tiber das Erdbeben am 15 Jan. 1858. J. F. Schmidt, Astronom, 
Mittheilungen der Kais.-Kénigl, Geog. Gesellschaft, 11. Jahrgang, 1858. 


220 REPORT—1861. 


Mincow in Hungary, and by myself in the (late) Neapolitan kingdom, after 
the great shock of 1857, where I found that the velocity of propagation in 
the shattered limestone and argillaceous rocks of the shaken region was even 
below what has been here determined for the harder and more compact rocks 
of Wales, also of stratified structure. Experiment and observation have 
thus alike sustained the three provisional conclusions anticipated by me as 
to the transit-velocities of earthquake-waves in nature (at the conclusion of 
«Second Report,” &¢c., Report of Brit. Assoc. 1851, p. 316), in passing 
through formations different in character. 

In experimenting with these great explosions at Holyhead, I have been 
enabled to see that such great impulses, though offering the advantages of a 
greatly extended range, and hence larger total time-period for measurement, 
do not in reality admit, from various contingent circumstances, of greater, or 
perhaps of as great accuracy of transit determinations, as do much smaller 
explosions, such as those specially made at Killiney Bay. These great explo- 
sions, however, elicit phenomena visible in the seismoscope, which are too 
faint to be distinct when due to smaller charges, and which analogize closely 
with the succession of vibratory and wave movements observed in natural 
earthquakes. In the larger of these great explosions, as the impulsive wave 
approached the instrument, the previously steady reflected image of the cross 
wires did not at once disappear ; the definition of the wires rapidly became 
obscured, the obscuration increasing for an instant to a flickering of the 
image, preceding its obliteration, at the same moment that the oscillation 
then communicated to the trough caused the mercury to sway from end to 
end, in a liquid wave, whose amplitude was sufficient to cause variable flashes 
of light to be transmitted to the eye, with the changing inclination of the 
reflecting-surface of the undulating mirror,—the image of the cross wires 
reappearing (but now oscillating with the movement impressed upon the 
mercury in the direction of the wave-transit) by passing through a second 
phase of flickering and vibration, but in the reverse order, before becoming 
perfect in definition as at the commencement. 

I had thus presented visibly before me the “ tremors” that nearly invari- 
ably are described as preceding and following the main shock and destructive 
surface movement in every great earthquake. The phenomena appear to be 
identical, however premature it may be to propose a precise and adequate 
explanation of their production. 

There appear to be ¢hree elements upon which the wave-transmissive 
power of a rock-formation mainly depends, viz. the modulus of elasticity of 
its material, the absolute range of its compression by a given impulse or im- 
pact, and the degree of heterogeneity and discontinuity of its parts. As has 
been already described, the range of wave-transit of these experiments 
passed through two rock-formations, quartz and slate, differing in name 
and in several respects in structure, yet very much alike, as has been re- 
marked, in intimate composition. It remains to show experimentally that 
they do not differ in these conditions of transmissive power to such an extent 
as materially to affect the results. 

If a perfectly elastic ball be dropped upon a mass of perfectly elastic rock, 
whose volume may be considered as infinite with respect to that of the ball, 
the latter will rebound to the height from which it descended ; and if the 
same ball, though not perfectly elastic, be dropped in succession upon like 
masses of two different rocks, it will rebound from each to a height less than 
that from which it fell, and the value of which will depend mainly upon the 
elasticity, the depth of the impression, and the degree of discontinuity of the 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 221 


rocks respectively. We have therefore thus got the means of very simply 
determining, in a sufficiently approximate manner, the relation between the 
velocity of impact and that of recoil, a quantity that bears the most intimate 
relation to the wave-transmissive power of rocks or other like bodies. To 
conduct this experiment I dropped an ordinary ivory billiard ball upon a 
number of different masses of the quartz-rock, and also of the slate, both 
in situ, and upon very large isolated blocks, making the impacts both 
transverse to the stratifications and foliation and in the same planes as these, 
in both sorts of rock. The ball was dropped from a constant height of 
5 feet above the point of impact, and beside a graduated scale held vertically 
by an assistant, by means of which, after a little practice, and skill in 
choosing by trial a point of impact, from which the ball shall rebound 
vertically only, it is easy to observe with considerable accuracy the height 
to which it recoils, the eye being gradually brought to the same level as that 
to which the ball rises, so as to read the scale free from parallax. 

If H and & be the height from which the ball has fallen and that to which 
it rebounds, then 


which may be viewed as a symbol of the above relation, and closely con- 
nected with the wave-retardation respectively. In the quartz-rock I obtained 
the following results :— 

From the hardest and densest blocks or masses, and edgeways to the lami- 
nation, the ball recoiled 2°33 feet; v is therefore =sV/h=12°251 feet per 
second. 

From the softer and more earthy masses, and transverse to the planes of 
lamination, the recoil was 1°50 feet, and v=9'822 feet per second. 

And in the slate-rock,— 

From the hardest and densest, edgeways to the foliation, the ball recoiled 
2:00 feet, or V=11°341 feet per second. 

From the least hard and dense, and transverse to the planes of foliation, 
the recoil was 1°417 feet, and v=9°546 feet per second. 

The mean value for the quartz rock is thus 


pelo 251 +9822 


3 =11°036 feet per second ; 


and for the slate rock, 


11°341 +9°546 
gin sh abhor =10°443 feet per second ; 


and as H = 5 feet, V =17°935 feet per second, we have 
10°443 


R,=]7.935 =0'576 for the slate, 
and 
11°03 
Rose =0'558 for the quartz, 


numbers which differ so slightly from equality as to indicate that there is 
no great difference of transmissive power in the two rocks. Indeed this is 
rendered certain by consideration of the experiments themselves. Previously 
to their commencement I expected that in every instance the range in quartz 


999 REPORT—1861. 


would have been extremely short in relation to that in slate, and very nearly 
the same in all cases. The circumstances of the works subsequently obliged 
me to increase the range in the quartz, and to adopt “ headings” for experi- 
ment, three of which have a range in quartz of nearly double that of the 
other three, as seen in the two following Tables :— 


TasiE 1V.—Shortest Ranges in Quartz. 


; U ected 
No. of experiment. atc nae Range of quartz..| Range of slate. 
feet per sec. feet. feet. 
2 967-93 1600 3877 
5 1210-79 1300 3738 
6 996-11 ‘ 1400 3829 
Uncorrected mean transit-rate of Nos. 2,5, 6 ....:++++0041058°27 feet per second. 
Ratio of ranges in quartz to slate ......... 1 : 2°66. 


TazsLe V.—Longest Ranges in Quartz. 


Uncorrected 


No. of experiment. traisit-tata, 


Range of quartz. | Range of slate. 


——. 


| | 


feet per sec. feet. feet. 
1 896°12 2850 5733 
4 1173°87 2700 3704 
3 977:26 2650 3727 
Uncorrected mean transit-rate of Nos. 1, 4, 3...... ddeeed 1015°75 feet per second. 
Ratio of ranges in quartz to slate....... ook 3 1°32. 


_ In each of the two groups everything is as nearly as possible alike ; there 
are two explosions of moderate charges and one great explosion in each. 
They differ only in this, that in the first group (Table IV.) the range in 
quartz, in proportion to that in slate, is very nearly double that in the latter 
(Table V.), being in the ratio of ¥°66 : 1:32; yet, as will be observed, 
the mean transit-rate in both groups is almost alike, being in the ratio of 
1058°27 : 1015: '75. This would be obviously impossible if either one rock 
or the other exercised any well-marked accelerating or retarding influence 
upon the transmission of the wave. 

In their direct relation to seismology the interest of the foregoing results 
is not as great as when some years since I commenced these experiments. 
At that period no knowledge whatever existed as to the relation that subsists 
in nature between the velocity of transit and the velocity of the particles in. 
waye-movement in actual earthquakes. Geological observers, in fact, did 
not appear to be aware of any such physical distinction ; and those who were 
so, presumed that the velocity of the particles was like that of transit, ex- 
tremely great, and that some simple relation would probably be found. 
between them. 

The first determinations of velocity of the particles in wave-movement that 
have ever been made, namely, those by myself of the great Neapolitan earth- 
quake of 1857, have dissipated this notion, however, and proved that the 
velocity of the particles in even the greatest shocks is extremely small, not 
exceeding 20 feet per second in very great earthquakes, and probably never 
having reached 80 feet per second in any shock that has occurred in history. 


| 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 223) 


No simple relation appears as yet between the transit-velocity and that of the 
particles ; and however interesting and important both to general physics and 
to seismology may be further determinations with exactness of the former, 
it is to the observation and measurement of the latter, by the methods pointed 
out in the Report upon the Neapolitan Earthquake*, and there employed, 
that we must look as instruments of future seismological research. 

I proceed to lay before the Association the results of some experiments 
upon the modulus of elasticity of perfectly solid portions of both these 
rocks, with a view to the interesting question of the relation between the 
theoretic velocity of transmission, if the rock were all solid and homo- 


geneous (V= VA 2q 5? e being that modulus), and the actual velocity found 


by the preceding experiments. 

Subsequently to the conclusion of the experiments at Holyhead, referred 
to above, I have been enabled to complete a series of experiments upon the 
compressibility of the rocks which formed my range there, and have de- 
termined their moduli of elasticity, &c. The inferences derivable from this 
latter series form the proper sequel to what has preceded, and they throw 
some new and not unimportant light upon several points of earthquake 
dynamics. The experiments were made upon cubes cut from solid and 
perfect pieces of the rocks by the lapidary’s wheel, each 0°707 inch upon 
the edge—each side, therefore, presenting a surface of 0°5 square inch; 
and the utmost care was taken to preserve perfect parallelism between the 
opposite boundary planes, so that, when compressed between hardened steel 
surfaces, fracture should not result by mere inequality of pressure. 

The experiments were made at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, with the 
very accurate and excellent machine used for testing compression and ex- 
tension of metals in the gun-factory; and I have to express my thanks to 
Lieut.-Col. Anderson, C.E., the Superintendent of that department, for the . 
valuable assistance afforded me through his attention. The specimens ope« 
rated on consisted of two each from the following four classes, namely— 

_The hardest and the softest slate-rock, and the hardest and the softest quartz- 
rock, which occur within the range or neighbourhood of my experimental 
explosions at Holyhead ; and from each of these classes or varieties of the 
_ two rocks; cubic specimens were compressed, Ist, in a direction transverse 
to the plane of lamination, 2nd, parallel to the same, all the cubes being so 
cut out of the rock that two sides were, guam proz., parallel to the plane of 
natural lamination or jointing. The load (50 lbs.) first applied was consi- 
dered zero, being only sufficient to ensure a complete bearing in all parts 
of the instrument. The subsequent loads advanced by 1000 lbs. at a time, 
up to the crushing of the specimen ; and at each fresh load the amount of 
compression was measured by beam-callipers, with instrumental arrange- 
ments that admitted of reading space to ‘0005 of an inch. 

The experimental results, as obtained, are recorded in the following 
Tables, from No. 1 to No. 8 inclusive; and in the succeeding Tables 9 
and 10, the results of the former are compared, and the mean compression ‘ 
deduced for each 1000 lbs. of pressure applied upon a prism of each of the 
four classes of rock (two of slate and two of quartz), of one inch square | 
surface, and one inch in height, and under both conditions as to the relative 
direction of pressure and of lamination. 


* Now in the press. Chapman and Hall, London: 2 vols. 8vo. 


224 


REPORT—1861. 


HortyuHEAD Rock CoMPRESSION. 


Tas_e J.—Experiments A, on Hard Slate; pressure 
transverse to lamination. 


Hard 


Slate. 


hi 


Compression Compression Total co a 
ae Mee are ine é Pbk of the eas due to | sions mse an rites 
experi- |") square inch. column the successive by the load on ja column of unit 
ment. of 0°707 inch. loads. column of 0°707. | height=1 inch. 
lbs. in. in. in. in. 

1 50 085 “000 “000 “000 

2 1,000 “081 004 “004 0052 

3 2,000 “078+ -003+ “004 “0052 

4 3,000 078+ 003+ “004 *0052 

5 4,000 078 “003 “004 *0052 

6 5,000 078 003 007 “0091 

7 6,000 077+ “OO1L+ 007 -0091 

8 7,000 077 001 “008 “0104 

9 8,000 076+ -001+- “008 0104 
10 9,000 076+ *001+- “008 0104 
11 10,000 076+ “001+ 008 0104 
12 11,000 076 “001 008 0104 
13 12,000 076 “001 “009 “0117 
14 13,000 075+ “001+ “009 *0117 
15 14,000 075+ “001+ “009 -0117 
16 15,000 075+ -001-+- “009 “0117 
17 16,000 075 “001 “009 “0117 
18 17,000 075 “001 “009 *0117 
19 18,000 075 “001 -009 “0117 
20 19,000 075 *001 “010 “0130 
21 20,000 074+ “001+ “010 0130 
22 21,000 074+ “001+ “010 -0130 
23 22,000 074 “001+ “010 “0130 
24 23,000 074 “001 “O11 -0143 
25 24,000 Crushed “001 “O11 *0143 

Tas eE IJ.—Experiments B, on Hard Slate; pressure Hee SO 
parallel to lamination. 

1 50 "130 “000 000 “0000 

2 1,000 “120 “010 “010 *0130 

3 2,000 “100 “020 “030 0390 

4 3,000 “099+ 001+ “031+ 0403+ 

5 4,000 098 “001 032 “0416 

6 5,000 097 “001 “032 “0416 

7 6,000 “096 “001 *032 °0416 

8 7,000 "094 “002 °036 “0468 

9 8,000 “092+ 002+ "038+ *0494 
10 9,000 0924 0024 038+ “0494 
ll 10,000 *092+ 002+ “038+ 0494 
ie 11,000 092 “002 °038+- 0494 
13 12,000 "092 *002 *0384- 0494 
14 13,000 092 “002 038+ *0494 
15 14,000 092 002 *038-++ “0494 
16 15,000 090 “002 “040 0520 
17 16,000 “089 “001 “041 *0533 
18 17,000 086 “003 “044 "0572 
19 18,000 *085-+- “001+ *045- °0585+4 
20 19,000 *085-+ “001+ *045-+4 *0585-+- 
21 20,000 0854. -001+4 *0454 “0585+ 
22 21,000 085 “001 °045-+- *0585+4 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE 


TABLE II. (continued.) 


WAVES, 225 


Number Compression Compression Total compres- | Total compres- 
of eee, A aisigaee of the be es due to | sions prodpned sions rede to 
experi- | _) square inch, column the successive by the loads in | a column of unit 
ment. of 0°707 inch. loads. column of 0°707.| height=1 inch, 
lbs. in. in. in. in. 
23 22,000 085 001 045+ *0585-+- 
24 23,000 085 “001 “045+ °0585+- 
25 24,000 "082 003 “048 "0624 
26 25,000 082 003 “048 0624. 
27 26,000 080 “002 050 -0650 
28 27,000 077 003 053 “0689 
29 27,000+ Crushed “003 053 0689 
Tas_e IIJ.—Experiments C, on Hard Quartz; pressure 4.4 Pe 
transverse to lamination. 
1 50 "100 000 “000 -0000 
2 1,000 097 003 003 0039 
3 2,000 095+ *002+- 003 0039 
4 3,000 “095+ -002+ 003 0039 
5 4,000 “095+ *002+- 003 "0039 
6 5,000 095+ 002+ 003 *0039 
7 6,000 “095 002 003 0039 
8 7,000 095 “002 “003 “0039 
9 8,000 095 002 005 “0065 
10 9,0v0 “094 “001 "006 0078 
11 10,000 093+ “001+ 006 “0078 
12 11,000 *093-+- *001+- 006 0078 
13 12,000 “093+ 001+ 006 0078 
14 13,000 093 7001 006 “0078 
15 14,000 093 “001 “006 “0078 
16 15,000 093 “001 006 0078 
17 16,000 093 001 007 “0091 
18 17,000 0924 0014+ -007 “0091 
19 18,000 “092 “001 007 “0091 
20 19,000 "092 001 008 “0104 
21 20,000 “091+ “0014+ °009+- “0117+ 
22 21,000 088 003 012 *0156 
23 22,000 083+ 005+ 012 “0156 
24 23,000 “083+ 005+ 012 0156 
25 24,000 *083+- *005+- "012 0156 
26 25,000 “083 005 012 *0156 
27 26,000 083 005 °017 0221 
28 27,000 “082+ “001+ 017 0221 
29 28,000 ‘082+. -001+ 017 *0221 
30 29,000 -082+- “001+ 017 *0221 
31 30,000 “082 001 017 0221 
32 31,000 “082 001 °017 0221 
33 32,000 082 001 018 0234 
34 33,000 “081+ “001+ 01S *0234 
35 34,000 081 001 "019 0247 
36 35,000 080+ -001+- 019 °0247 
37 36,000 080 “001 020 0260 
38 36,000-+ Crushed ‘001 020 -0260 


226 REPORT—1861. 


Tasie 1V.—Experiments D, on Hard Quartz; pressure  gara Quartz. 
parallel to lamination. 


i Compression Total compr tal compres- 

Nee ay ae ein on pa ‘of the a due to | sions orodiieel aon pedused to 

experi- pai, soe ae ne column the successive by the loads in | a column of unit 

ment. pret ea of 0°707 inch. loads. column of 0°707. | height=1 inch. 

lbs. in. in. in. in. 

1 50 "106 “000 “000 -0000 
2 1,000 "106 “000 “000 “0000 
3 2,000 106 “000 “000 “0000 
4 3,000 106 “000 “000 “0000 
=) 4,000 "106 “000 000 “0000 
6 5,000 "102 “004 “004 0052 
7 6,000 "100+ “002+ “004 *0052 
8 7,000 “100+ “002+ “004 0052 
9 8,000 “100+ “002+ “004 “0052 
10 9,000 “100 “002 “004 0052 
11 10,000 “100 “002 “004 “0052 
12 11,000 100 “002 *006 ‘0078 
13 12,000 “098-+- “002 -006 -0078 
14 13,000 "O98) - Sa “002 “008 0104 
15 14,000 097 > Va=00T “009 “0117 
16 15,000 096 “001 - “010 0130 
17 16,000 093 003 "013 “0169 
18 17,000 “092 “001 “014 “0182 
19 18,000 090+ “002+ “014 *0182 
20 19,000 “090 “002 “016 0208 
21 20,000 Crushed 002 016 0208 


TasLEe V.—Experiments E, on Soft Slate; pressure 


4 F Soft Slate. 
transverse to lamination. 


1 50 “088 “000 “000 
2 1,000 087 “001 “001 
3 2,000 “086+ “001+ “001 
4 3,000 “086 “001 "002 
5 4,000 “085 “001 “002 
6 5,000 “085 “001 003 
7 6,000 “079 006 “009 
8 7,000 077+ “002+ “009 
9 8,000 077+ 002+ “009 
10 9,000 077 002 “009 
il 10,000 °077 002 009 
12 11,000 077 "002 O11 
13 12,000 075 “002 013 
14 13,000 “060 “015 028 
15 14,000 “050 “010 “038 
16 15,000 Crushed 010 038 


Nore.—The cube E was 0°693 inch on the side, and the necessary reductions haye been 
made in column 2 and subsequent ones. 


TC ~~ a0 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 227 


Tasyie VI.—Experiments F, on Soft Slate; pressure 
parallel to lamination. 


Soft Kill Slate. 


ti 


Number Compression Compression Total compres- | Total compres- 
of ies geniiphae - readies of the ee ee due to | sions prodaca sions reanned to 
experi- |°_ : column the successive by the loads in | a column of unit 
ment, =1 square inch. of 0°707 inch. loads. column of 0°707. | height=1 inch. 
lbs. in. in. in. in. 
1 50 107 “000 “000 “0000 
2 1000 “105 “002 002 “0029 
3 2000 102+ “003+ 002 "0029 
4 3000 "102 “003 002 "0029 
5 4000 “102 003 005 *0072 
6 5000 099 "003 *008 0115 
7 6000 097 "002 ‘010 "0147 
8 7000 “089 008 018 0129 
9 8000 -080 009 027 ‘0389 
10 8000+ Crushed 009 027 0389 


Norr.—The cube F was 0°693 inch on the side, and the necessary reductions have been 
made in column 2 and subsequent ones. 


Tas Le VII.—Experiments G, on Soft Quartz; pressure 


5 z Soft = uartz. 
transverse to lamination. 2 y 


1 50 093 “000 000 “0000 
2 1,000 093 -000 “000 “0000 
3 2,000 093 “000 ‘000 -0000 
4 3,000 “090 7003 003 0043 
5 4,000 “086+ “004+ “003 0043 
6 5,000 “086+ 004+ 003 0043 
7 6,000 086 “004 003 "0043 
8 7,000 “086 “004 007 “0101 
9 8,000 “085+ ‘001+ 007 “0101 
10 9,000 “085+ “001+ "007 “0101 
ll 10,000 085 “001 “008 0115 
12 11,000 084 “001 “009 “0129 
13 12,000 “081 003 “012 *0176 
14 13,000 068 013 025 “0359 
15 14,000 060 Crushed before being fully wadded. 


Nore.—The cube G was 0°694 inch on the side, and the necessary reductions have been 
made in column 2 and subsequent ones. 


_ Tasxe VIII.—Experiments H, on Soft Quartz; pressure 


parallel to lamination. Quartz. 


] 50 170 000 “000 “0000 

2 1000 144 026 026 0374 

3 2000 101+ “043+ “069 “0992 

4 3000 101 043 "069 0993 
5 4000 100 “001 070 "1007 
| 6 5000 099 “O01 ‘071 "1021 
| 7 6000 098 001 072 1036 
| 8 7000 049 049 021 1741 
| 9 7000+ Crushed before the increased load was applied. 


Nore.—The cube H was 0°695 inch on the side, and the necessary reductions have been 
made in column 2 and the subsequent ones. 
Qe 


228 REPORT—1861. 


Taser IX.—Slate Rock.—Results of compression compared.—Column of 
unit length=1 inch. 


A x B E F 
Number Pressure in 
of pounds on unit Hard slate Hard slate Soft slate Soft slate 
experi- of surface across lamina. with the * across with the 
ment, =1 square inch. lamina. lamina. lamina. 
lbs. in. in. in. in. 
1 50 “0000 “0000 -0000 0000 
2 1,000 *0052 “0130 0014 0029 
3 ZOUORUE = vecenss 0390 
4 3,000 SAAC 0403 0029 2 
5 4,000 ce *0416)/ SRG) Goce “0072 
6 5,000 ae i "0043 “0115 
7 GRO) es COM "0129 0147 
8 7,000 “0104 “0468 \O0H 1 ~peeae 0259 
9 8,000 eee "0494 foun “0389 
10 9,000 Seen cannes casted Crushed 
il 10,000 
12 11,000 senses sawiss 0158 
13 12,000 “0117 eee 0187 
14 13,000 wees ooepee 0404 : 
15 14,000 ORE 3: | Meanie 0548 | 
16 DS O00 A occas 4 +0520 Crushed 
17 G00.  Kesees 0533 
18 17,000 Skaeee 0572 
19 PS U00. onal.) ines - “0585 
20 19,000 “0130 
21 20,000 
22 21,000 
23 22,000 
24 23,000 0143 
25 24,000 Crushed *0624 
26 25,000 
27 26,000 nuaess *0650 
28 27,000 eavcee *0689 
29 28,000 tase Crushed 
30 29,000 
in. in. in. in. 
Mean compression for “0006217 *0025000 *0039144 0037000 
each 1000 Ibs. on up to up to up to up to 
unit of surface ...... 23,000 lbs. 26,000 lbs. 14,000 Ibs. 7000 Ibs. 


TABLE X. 


Quartz Rock.—Results of compression compared.—Column of unit 
length=1 inch. 


Cc 


D G H 


Ree Eessare in = - 
t) ounds on unit rt: H { Soft 
experi- . of Shap ee acre iene with the f pepo: Seo 1 
ment. | =1 square inch. lamina, lamina. lamina. 
Ibs. in. in. in. in. 1 
1 50 0000 “0000 “0000 -0000 é 
2 1000 "0039 ecacee Ub4)l ) aeereee °0374 ; 
3 2000 aaeuve fawan coed 0992 é 
4 3000 Fach nite "0043 "0993 4 
5 4000 Basins soocacuull J eesees “1007 


oe 


“h, 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 229 


Taste X. (continued.) 


eT El 


Cc D G H 
Number Pressure in 
of pounds on unit Hard quartz Hard quartz Soft quartz Soft quartz 
experi-~ of surface across lamina. with the across with the 
ment. =1 square inch. lamina. lamina, lamina. 
lbs. in. in. in. in. 
6 5,000 oseeve “0052 ri 1021 
7 6,000 “Ao PP aecoce, ae ts *1036 
8 7,000 Senate iti. [ Snares “0101 1741 
9 8,000 0065 eeeues eens Crushed 
10 9,000 “0078 
11 10,000 ee igual “0115 
12 he a oe -0078 "0129 
13 LOU hy A Peper rare oon "0176 
14 13,000 Seana *0104 *0359 
15 EEO 0 Pe a Ne : 0117 Crushed 
16 TH000% ti! HOS 5 0130 
17 16,000 “0091 0169 
18 AOU Oa as lan sacs ° 0182 
19 18,000 
20 19,000 0104 0208 
21 20,000 0117 Crushed 
22 21,000 "0156 
23 22,000 
24 23,000 
25 24,000 
26 25,000 
27 26,000 *0221 
28 27,000 
29 28,000 
30 29,000 
31 30,000 
32 31,000 : 
33 32,000 0234 
34 33,000 
35 34,000 °0247 
36 35,000 
37 36,000 0260 
38 37,000 Crushed 
in. in. in. in. 
Mean compression for “0007085 *0010947 -0014666 0172666 
each 1000 lbs. on up to up to up to up to 
unit of surface ....... 35,000 ibs. 19,000 lbs. 12,000 lbs. 6000 Ibs. 


An examination of these Tables presents some remarkable and, so far as 


I am aware, now for the first time observed results. 

As might have been expected, the quartz-rock is much less compressible 
generally than the slate-rock, with this exception, however, that the softest 
specimens of quartz-rock, and those alone, are much more compressible than 
the softest slate, when both compressed in the direction of or parallel to the 
lamination. 

: In this direction of compression, the hardest slate is more than double as 
compressible as the hardest quartz. 

When compressed transverse to the lamina, however, the hard slate and 
hard quartz prove to have very nearly the same coefficient of compres- 
sibility, which is very small for both; while the softest slate. and the softest 
quartz, compressed in the same way (transverse to lamina), have also nearly 
_ the same coefficient of compressibility, but one about four times as great as 
for the hardest like rocks. 

These facts point towards the circumstance of the original deposit and 
formation of these rocks as their efficient causes. Both rocks consist of 


230 REPORT—1861. 


particles more or less wedge-shaped and flat, and angular fragments more or 
less crystalline, deposited together, with their larger dimensions in the planes 
of lamination, which lamination has been produced by enormous compression 
in a direction transverse to its planes. Hence the mass of these rocks has 
already been subjected to enormous compression in the same direction as that 
in which we now find their further compressibility the least. But, besides 
that we might from this cause alone anticipate a higher compressibility when 
the pressure is applied to them parallel to the lamination, another condition 
comes into play: their aggregation of flat, wedge-shaped particles, when thus 
pressed edgeways, tends powerfully to their mutual lateral expansion, and 
hence to their giving way in the line of pressure. 

The per-saltum way in which all the specimens of both rocks yield, 
in whatever direction pressed, is another noteworthy circumstance. On 
examining the Tables I. to VIII., it will be seen that the compressions do 
not constantly advance with the pressure, but that, on the contrary, the rock 
occasionally suffers almost no sensible compression for several successive 
increments of pressure, and then gives way all at once (though without 
having lost cohesion, or having its elasticity permanently impaired) and com- 
presses thence more or less for three or four or more successive increments 
of pressure, and then holds fast again, and so on. This phenomenon is pro- 
bably due’to the mass of the rock being made up of intermixed particles of 
several different simple minerals, each having specific differences of hardness, 
cohesion, and mutual adhesion, and which are, in the order of their resist 
ances to pressure, in succession broken down, before the final disruption of the 
whole mass (weakened by these minute internal dislocations) takes place. 

Thus it would appear that the micaceous plates and aluminous clay- 
particles interspersed through the mass give way first. The chlorite in the 
slate, and probably felspar-crystals in the quartz-rock, next, and so on in 
order, until finally the elastic skeleton of silex gives way, and the rock is 
crushed. It is observable, also, that this successive disintegration does not 
occur at equal pressures, in the same quality and kind of rock, when com- 
pressed transverse and parallel to the lamination. It follows from this con- 
stitution of these (and probably of all) rocks that very different powers of 
transmitting wave-impulses must arise when the originating forces vary 
considerably in amount produced of primary compression. It is almost 
superfluous also to point out the great differences in wave-transmissive power 
in directions transverse and paraliel to lamination that these experiments dis- 
close. They prove to us that, in an earthquake shock of given original power, 
the vibrations will have the largest amplitude when transmitted in the line of 
lamination, but may be propagated with the greatest velocity in directions 
transverse to the same, assuming in both cases the rock solid and unshattered. 

In Table XII. the general results are deduced, and the mean compressions 
for each of the rocks calculated, and finally the moduli of elasticity are 
obtained, in pounds and in feet ; the specific gravities adopted in calculating 
the latter being those given in the body of the paper, as follows :— 


Tasie XI. 
Weight of a prism 1 foot 
long and 1 inch square. 
sp. gr. Tbs. 
Hardest Slate ....... sus Spada UE 2°763 ~ 1°1992 
Softest Slate .....-...+6 Bs ee pede 2°746 1:1918 
Hardest, Quaxtaeesaserct=sscvepe--s cues 2°656 1:1528 
DOLMest, QUALIZ ceetanessretes ers CoPAnebace 2°653 11515 
Mean ‘for Slate sesccceesrcccccerstinescck- 2°7545 1°1955 
Mean for Quartz .)ci.s.cdec.eccdecacvues 2°6545 1°1522 
General mean for both rocks ......... 2°7045 11739 


bh 


231 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARFHQUAKE WAVES. 


1693-9 
O6FF-8 
VI6LY 


OOTL-O1 
F6P9-F 
OLE-G 
G¢89-€ 


G{19-11 
LYLLG 
801Z-1 
0&68-F 


OFE8-1 
TPG9-S 
O€8L-2 
GEVGT 


at § 
quatro 


“1y209 


G19'680'T 
BGS ‘Shs 
17S‘99S'T 


F89'SLF 

SFL‘6FS'T 
ocr'066E 
690'FF8'T 


LLY‘TSZ 

PLS‘eel'l 
669'096°% 
69LTL0'T 


£10'296'E 
SLL'199'T 
SSL‘IZ1'9 
FES'90L'9 
"4a0y 


“AL 
“AyIOTysvya 
jo 
sn[npoy, 


660°622'1 
668216 
088‘298'T 


Lz9'FFS 

£06°Z19'T 
1ol‘L6c'F 
C8o'F06'S 


915'68z 

Tse‘ 1S¢'T 
9FZ GOP'S 
Ges Lal 


19F L9¢°F 
000°000‘% 
e9Z¢0'L 
FOF'ZFO'S 
“Sql 


*AyOyseya 
jo 
snjnpoyy 


86891 
lbawAl 
#8991 


Ica 
920'ST 
BEL‘ZS 
11891 


8h6‘9 
ages 
SSL‘t 
98G‘ST 


GFE‘ LT 
G1g'Ss 
C60'CE 
¥10‘02 

“qaay 


*(uoIs 
-saudai0d) 
uolsatjoo 


0S2'61 
OSL'6I 
OSL‘8I 


000‘F1 
00081 
00S'SZ 
00S‘6I 


000‘8 
000'6 
000'FT 
000‘ST 


000‘0% 
000'LZ 
000'L8 
000'F% 
“Sql 
2005 
-Ims jo 41un 
9} UO proy 


jo snjnpoyy | Surqsnag 


629'S1 
0sZ‘9T 
008'F1 


000‘ZT 
000‘81 
00¢'9T 
000‘LT 


000‘2 
000'9 
000'TT 
00061 


000°LT 
000'8T 
000‘zE 
000'ZZ 
“Sq[ 


*moIssaad 
-W09 IOJ 
UT] ONselA 


0606£00- 
OFETSO0- 
0¥89600- 


9081600: 
0001E00- 
¢£80100- 
0896600- 


999ZL10- 
000L€00- 
999F 100+ 
VPI6E00- 


L¥60100- 
000S200- 
¢80£000- 
£129000- 


“UL 


“ST OOOT 1OF 
aoRj.ins yun 


jo yua1oyyjeog 


— 


Le sae puv ¢[ SON) suOoeTpP Y4Oq UT pue 
Jos pue pavy ‘zz1enb pur oje[s oF Uo [e1oNIy 
{ seeeeanabensceessessensessavasreneessesess (77 DUB OT 
"SON ) SUOTIDAITP Y}0q 1OJ ULM “yJOs pu pavy ‘zeny 
{ ree ee eT eee reer ere rer rrr rrr rer rrr TT ree Gai pue 6 
*SON) SUOTJAIIp YOq 10F UvIUT ‘Jos pue pavy ‘o}eI9 
*suvau fo upau paznjnajn) 
UOTJVUIMIL] 07 7aynLnd 7/08 puv puny IOJ URIUT ‘zjIeNy 
“MONBUIMILT 02 2ayyvund 2fos puv puny 10} URatA ‘azRIg 
“** LONVULMR[ ssouoD Pfos puy pany JO; BAU ‘Zq1BUy 
“""* TOLBUIUIL] SsoLon Zfos puD pany LOY UBAUT ‘d4R[g 
*subaue paqvjngyvy 
soteseeevenscoreree TOTQBUTUB] 07 ayvund gsazfos ‘z\1eNe 
sraseeeeescerereereees TLOTIBUTUIR] OF qaynund ysap fos ‘garg 
“ TorjeUTMe] ssouon psazfos ‘z,.1eNy 
sseenesecesecseesssee sees TOT BUIOIG] S80000 qsazfos ‘aqeIS 


seoeeeeeoneees TOTIVUIMME] Of Jaz/vADd Jsapuny ‘zy1eN 
* MOIeULUIR] 07 gayDund ysapuvy ‘d4e1S 
eeneee So Sae ee eo oe OM CMLL I SSOMID psapapy WAR UI) 
Pe Rome w eee eee erseereeste UOVULWE] SSOu0D psapany ‘a4R1S 


*OINJONAYS 04 


uo uorssaidmos | uorejer ur aInsseid jo uoTjOaIp puB ‘YoY Jo sse[O 


‘ZyAUNH pue oyvjg—'o»y ‘Ajo1}sepy JO pue uolsayo) Jo snnpoy “p9onpad s}pnsea [eauary 


‘TIX TTAV[—NOIssauaWog A00Y AVAHATOTFT 


ao 
= 


eA H If ONO 


“ON 


232° ‘ REPORT—1861. 


In Table XII. the load on the unit of surface (1 square inch) at which the 
elastic limit of the rock is passed, and that at which it is finally crushed, 
together with the modulus of cohesion or resistance to compression, are also 
given, and will be useful to the engineer and architect. In the last column, 
the value of my own modification of Poncelet’s coetficient T, (la force vive 
de rupture) is calculated in foot pounds, and represents the relative work 
done at fracture in each case. 

To apply the results thus obtained to those of experimental wave-trans- 
mission at Holyhead. 

Poisson has shown (Traité de Mécanique, vol. ii. p. 319) that the velocity 
of wave-transmission (sound) in longitudinal vibrations of elastic prisms is 

vu94 


' Ra ane er ¢ | 


When g has its usual relation to gravity, 7 and p are thedength and weight 


of the prism, and =*, A being a weight that is capable of elongating the 


prism by an amount=<¢/, or extending it to the length 


i(1xé). 

Substituting, we have 
vas é 
pe’ 


but A: W::6:1, W being the weight capable of doubling the length of the 
prism. Therefore 


or V= VgL- gf 0) Shela a, eee 


So that L being the modulus of elasticity of the solid, expressed in feet, the 


velocity of wave-transmission through it, if absolutely homogeneous and 
unbroken, is 


V=5674V/L: = «|. «se eel 


Where, owing tu want of homogeneity, or to shattering, or other such con- 
dition, as found in natural rock, the experimental value of V differs from 


the above theoretic one, we may still express the former by the same 
general form of equation— 


Via Eo. a 


in which the coefficient « expresses the ratio to g that the actual or experi- 
mental bears to the theoretic (or maximum possible) velocity of wave-trans- 
mission. 

In the slate- and quartz-rocks of Holyhead, I ascertained the mean lowest 
velocity of wave-transmission (for small explosions or impulses) to be 1089 
feet per second (omitting decimals), the mean highest velocity 1352 feet 
per second, and the general mean velocity from all, 1220 feet per second. 

Applying Eq. IV. to these numbers, and adopting the values of L given 
in Table XII. (mean of Nos. 9 and 10), we obtain 


—— 
VL 


and for the three preceding velocities, « has the following values :— 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 233 


1089 1089 
bicolV SS eereee SoS => ———_ = (J 
? IDES “= "79917262 1708 9 o> 


1352 
Bi Va 988 Deis dis eS ee 01 
¥ 2917462 1708 


1220 
ee ee 


W2917262 1708" — 

The actual velocity of wave-transmission in the slate and quartz together, 

therefore, was to the theoretic velocity due to the solid material as 

a: Wg or 0°714 : 5°674, or 1:00: 7°946. 
From which it results, that nearly seven-eighths of the full velocity of wave- 
transmission due to the material is lost by reason of the heterogeneity and 
discontinuity or shattering of the rocky mass, as it is found piled together 
in nature. 

This loss would be proportionately larger with still smaller originating 
impulses, and vice versd, but in what proportion we are not at present in a 
position to know. 

If we may for a moment allude to final causes, we cannot but be struck 
with this beneficent result (amongst others) arising from the shatterea and 
broken-up condition of ali the rocky masses forming the habitable surface of 
our globe, viz. that the otherwise enormous transit-velocity of the wave-form 
in earthquake shocks is by this simple means so reduced. 

That this retardation is mainly effected by the multiplied subdivisions of 
the rock, and in a very minor degree by differences in the elastic moduli of 
rock of different species, is apparent on examining the Tables IV. and V. of 
the previous part of this Report referring to the experiments at Holyhead. 

Although, therefore, we are now enabled, from what precedes, to calcu- 
late values for a, for the slate rocks and for the quartz of Holyhead, sepa- 
rately, and thus obtain separate values for V’, for each of those rocks; the 
result would probably be more or less delusive, as we have no possible 
means of deciding what is the relative amount of shattering and disconti- 
nuity for equal horizontal distances, in each of these two rocks; nor what 
the relative retarding powers, of planes of separation running in variable 
directions, and at all possible angles, across the line of wave-transit, as 
compared with their retarding powers, if either all transverse to, or all in the 
same direction as, the wave-path. 

The greatest possible mean velocity of wave-propagation, im rock as per- 
fectly solid and unshattered as our experimental cubes, is determinable for 
both slate and quartz in the two directions of transmission, viz. transverse to 
and in the line of lamination, from Eq. III., and the mean values of L in 
Nos. 9 and 10, and 11 and 12, Table XII., as follows :-— 


ft. per sec. 


- Mean of slate and quartz aaa V=5-674 2917262 =9691 


EO SABNAAG ION i oo ti6 56 05500.8, 015 
Mean of slate and quartz in line of 
lamination 


\ V=5:674/ 910914 =5415, 


both in round numbers; or the transverse is to the parallel transit-rate 
nearly as 1°8: [:0. 

This great difference of velocity, due to the difference in the molecular 
properties of the material of the rocks in their opposite directions, is, as our 
Holyhead experiments prove, almost wholly obliterated by the vastly in- 


234 REPORT—186l. 


creased degree of discontinuity and shattering, in the directions approaching 
that of lamination, or transverse to the wave-path in the first case. 

It is necessary to guard against any misconception as to the import of this 
result. The fact ascertained and just enunciated is this, that the velocity of 
wave-transmission is greater in the material of these rocks in a direction 
across their lamination than in one longitudinal to the same, provided or 
assuming the material be perfectly unshattered in both—as homogeneous, in 
fact, as the small speecimen-cubes experimented upon. And were the whole 
mass of the rock, as it lies in the mountain-bed, as homogeneous as such 
cubes, then the velocity of wave-transmission would actually be greater 
across long ranges of natural lamination, than edgeways to them. The oppo- 
site, however, is often the case; the wave-transit period is slower as the 
range of rocky mass is more shattered, discontinuous and dislocated. 

These conditions most affect rocks in nature in or about their planes of 
bedding, lamination, &¢., and hence most retard wave-impulses transverse 
to these planes; so that the more rapid wave-transmissive power of the 
material of the rock in a direction transverse to the lamination may be more 
than counterbalanced by the discontinuity of its mass transverse to the same 
direction. 

The results of Wertheim, on the transmission of sound in timber, 
proved the velocity to be greatest in a direction longitudinal to the fibres 
and annual layers of wood; less in a direction perpendicular to the same, 
and radially outwards from the centre of the tree towards its exterior ; and 
least of all in a direction, guam proz., parallel to the annual rings, and per- 
pendicular to the longitudinal fibres; that is to say, in each case the velocity 
of sound was rapid in proportion to the less compressibility of the wood in 
the same direction. His results might seem at first to conflict with those 
which I have announced. Any such conclusion, however, would be a mistake; 


on the contrary, my results perfectly analogize with those above alluded to. - 


The difference between the cases is, that wood in mass, however large, is 
practically homogeneous and unshattered, and that tts direction of least 
compressibility is longitudinal to its lamine (or annual layers) ; whereas the 
direction of least compressibility of rock is transverse to its lamine which 
have been already powerfully compressed in this direction. In fact, as 
respects the question here in point, there is no true analogy in strueture 
between the lamination (by annual rings) of wood, and the lamination or 
bedding of rock. 

It follows from what precedes, that earthquakes and rocks, as both ac- 
tually occur in nature,—the rocks being of a stratified or laminated form 
(generally all sedimentary rocks),—must present the following conditions as 
to rate of transit of shock :— 

Ist. If such rocks were perfectly unshattered, and the beds or lamine in 
absolute contact, the shock would be transmitted more rapidly across these 
than in their own direction. 

The difference is more in favour of the transverse line, in proportion as 
the rock is made up more of angular sedimentary particles of very unequal 
dimensions, the longest being parallel to the general lamination, and in 
proportion as the imbedding paste is softer in relation to such particles. 

Some sedimentary rocks no doubt exist, made up of particles perfectly 
uniform and equal in all three dimensions, and without imbedding paste— 
such as the lithographic stones of Germany, the Apennine marl-beds, &c., 
in which (assuming the above condition as to continuity) the transit-period 
would be alike in all directions probably. 

2nd. The actual amount of shattering and discontinuity in nature being 


a tee 


ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 235 


_ usually greatest, upon the whole, in planes parallel to bedding or lamination, 
_ the transit-rate of shock is most generally fastest in the line of the beds or 
lamination, rather than across them. 

Or, at least, this latter condition may interfere with the former to the extent 
of partial, complete, or more than complete obliteration. 

I am not aware that any experiments have previously been made upon 
the compressibility, &c., of the slate- and quartz-rocks of Holyhead ; and as 
these rocks are being employed there upon a vast scale for submarine 
building works, it may not be out of place to draw a few conclusions of a 
character useful to the practical engineer from the data that have been ob- 
tained. Some conclusions may be drawn which are applicable to all classes 
of laminated rocks in the hands of the engineer. 

It is a very prevalent belief that slate-rock (for example), in the 
form of the sawed roofing-slate of Anglesea or of Valentia (Ireland), will 
bear a much greater compressive load when the pressure is in the direction 
of the lamine, than in one across them. ‘This the preceding experiments 
prove to be wholly a mistake—one that has very probably arisen from some 
vague notion of an analogy with timber compressed the end-way of the 

rain. 
C It is now certain that Silurian slates and quartz-rock, and probably all 
sedimentary laminated rocks, whether with cleavage or not, are much weaker 
to resist a crushing force edgeways to the lamina, than across the same, and 
that the range of compressibility is much greater, for equal loads, in the 
former direction. 

The facts now ascertained as to the great relative compressibility of lami- 
nated rock in the direction of the laminz also points out the reason of the 
great bearing power to sustain impulsive loads, which the toughest and 
most cohesive examples of slate-rocks, such as the slates of Caernarvonshire, 
present ; for there can be no grounds to doubt that the high compressibility 
of rocks of this structure in the plane of the lamina is also accompanied 
with a high coefficient of extensibility, although probably confined within 
much narrower limits as to inceptive injury to perfect continuity. 

My experiments point out, that the Silurian slate of Holyhead (the mean 
both of the hard and the soft) is crushed by a load across the lamina of 
_ about 1250 tons per square foot, and that its molecular arrangement is per- 
manently injured at a little more than 1000 tons per square foot. 

The quartz-rock (the mean of both hard and soft) is crushed by a load, 
applied in the same manner, of 1630 tons per square foot, and its molecular 
arrangement is permanently injured at less than 1000 tons per super foot. 
The quartz-rock gives the highest measure of ultimate resistance, but it is 
the less trustworthy material when loaded heavily. 

Neither of these sorts of rock, if loaded so as to be pressed zn the direction 
of the lamina, would sustain more than about 07 of the above loads at the 
crushing-point and at that of permanent injary, respectively. From the 
extreme inequality found within narrow limits in both rocks as quarried, 
neither should be trusted fer safe load in practice with more than about 5th 
of the mean load that impairs their molecular arrangement, as ascertained 
from selected specimens, or (say) not to more than 50 tons per square foot 
_ for passive or 25 tons per square foot for impulsive loads. 

The high relative compressibility of laminated rocks in the direction of 
the lamina might probably be made advantageous use of, where they are 
employed as a building material, for the construction of revetment or other 
walls of batteries exposed to the stroke of cannon shot, by building the 
work (under suitable arrangements to obviate splitting up) with the planes 


236 REPORT—1861. 


of the laminz in the direction of the line of fire, z.e. perpendicular to the 
faces of the work; for on inspecting the last column in Table XII. which con- 
tains the values of T, under the several conditions of rock and of compres- 
sion, it is at once apparent how much greater is the “ work done” in crushing 
the slates and the quartz in their toughest and most compressible direction, 
z.e.in the direction of the lamina. Twice as much work is, upon the average, 
consumed in crushing the rock in this direction, that suffices to destroy 
its cohesion in the one transverse to the lamina; and the proportion in the 
two, in the case of the softest quartz (Nos. 5 and 8), is as much as about jive 
to one. 

It would be unsuitable, however, to the present memoir to pursue further 
here such practical deductions suggested by the results obtained experi- 
mentally. 


On the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859. By 
Tuomas Dosson, B.A., Head Master of the School Frigate “ Con- 
way,” Liverpuol. 


In my Report “On the Relation between Explosions in Coal-mines and Re- 
volving Storms,” read at the Meeting of this Association, at Glasgow, in 
1855, I have given my reasons for thiuking that the freedom of the atmo- 
sphere of a mine from noxious gases, and the occasional abundant issue of 
such gases into a mine, are ia a great measure dependent upon certain con- 
ditions of the pressure and temperature of the external atmosphere. ‘This 
dependence is, indeed, a consequence so direct and obvious of the first prin- 
ciples of pneumatics, that we may speak with certainty of the kind of influ- 
ence exerted by the atmosphere in restraining or augmenting the flow of in- 
flammable gases into a mine ; and we have only to inquire whether this influ- 
ence is ever exercised to such a degree as to charge a mine up to the point 
of explosion. 

It is, I think, now generally admitted that a high atmospheric pressure 
tends to check the issue of gases into the workings of a mine, and that a low 
pressure favours their copious effusion from the broken coal and deserted 
goaves. 

It is also evident that a low temperature of the external air makes the 
ventilation of a mine brisk and effective, while a high temperature of the air 
above renders the ventilation sluggish, and causes the gases to accumulate 
below. 

I have compared the dates of all the fatal explosions in British coal-mines, 
as given in the Reports of the Government Inspectors of Mines, with the 
corresponding barographical and thermographical records for several years, 
and find that this comparison tends to confirm in a very striking manner the 
conclusions arrived at in my Report of the year 1855. 

Were the Government Inspectors to give in their Reports the dates of all 
explosions of gases in mines, whether fatal or not, and also the dates of days 
when mines have been in a dangerous state from the abundance of gas, but 
explosion avoided, the evidence of atmospheric influence would soon be placed 
beyond doubt. Seeing that the great atmospheric disturbances with which 
we are here concerned generally extend nearly simultaneously over Britain 
and the adjacent countries of the Continent, I have been at some pains to 
obtain the dates of all the great explosions in the coal-mines of France and 
Belgium; but I was told at the Ecole des Mines, in Paris, that they had no 


a : f 
cue Fi 
¥ 
" ~ 
ae 
. P 
‘ x © 7 . 
: : ~ ; } a fee 
. e al i 
‘ . z 
i rs a 
" af hs ja 
7 e e: . - 
i ot © i ' F is i } hj 
r 5 A ty rf ? _—— 
§ ‘ lt» hee bs - * no 
eR ies = j trite 
ye ‘ ‘ > at i, > a 
ie | ; a aren - en 
= ' » 2 a . hd yi 
% , Ss ; * eo 
woe eo ; ‘ yar 7 
. 2 ¢ - : 
. - ** 
é +. - a 
' ? 
a me 
‘ P 
* - 7 
. : ; § ’ ; ae 
. ‘ ; * . ak 7 c 
_ ‘ ' tPA s auth iy. 3 1 ate in on 
> * 
. “S 


“TL GZ 


“ULOE 


Of hemor u'r 


Wosgay OMLOU“T, 


‘G AP 


‘T99T ‘OOSSK : qT podny Py Te 


: “Ter 
ue ed ot ve ausrer : 


ToOL 


ON THE EXPLOSIONS IN BRITISH COAL-MINES. 237 


such record, and a communication with the director of the mines of Belgium 
was also fruitless. 

The dates for the year 1859 ofall the fatal explosions in the coal-fields of 
England, Scotland, and Wales are marked in the meteorological diagram 
(Plate V.), in which one day is represented by a horizontal space of one- 
twentieth of an inch, and 20° Fahr. by a vertical height of one inch. 

For the meteorological data I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Milner, 
the surgeon of Wakefield Prison, where the instruments are read every 
six hours, night and day. The portion of the diagram for the months of 
October and November, showing the state of the atmosphere during the 
passage of the ‘ Royal Charter’ storm, has been compared with observations 
made at Oxford, Kew, Stonyhurst College, Lancashire, and the Bishop’s-rock 
Lighthouse, Scilly Isles ; and the general agreement fully warrants the selec- 
tion of the Wakefield curves as a fair type of the state of our atmosphere 
during the year 1859. 

The curve of mean temperature is from results in a paper by Mr. Glaisher 
in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society ’ for 1850. 

If there were no connexion whatever between the weather and the condi- 
tions that favour an explosion in a coal-mine, it would be found that the 70 
or 80 vertical lines that denote fatal explosions would be scattered, as if by 
chance, over the whole diagram, without any apparent reference to the great 
depressions in the barometric curve, or to-the great and sudden rises in the 
thermometric curve, But this is not the case in any of the years that I have 
examined. On the contrary, it is found that the lines of explosion have a 
very decided tendency to group themselves about the few great atmospheric 
perturbations of each year ; and to leave a very conspicuous and highly sig- 
nificant blank in spaces, of a whole month’s duration oceasionally, where the 
pressure has been uniformly high and the temperature moderate. 

In the 68 explosions of 1859 are found three dense groups and a number 
of equally instructive blanks. 

The first group falls between the 11th of January and the 17th of Febru- 
ary, during which period the diagram shows that even the nocturnal tem- 
perature was considerably above the mean daily temperature, and the baro- 
metric curve exhibits a succession of deep indentations marking the passage 
of a series of storms. 

The dates and localities of the explosions forming this group are :— 


January 11, Bewdley. January 29, Aberdare, S. Wales. 
12, Atherstone. February 2, Dudley. 
15, Huddersfield. 3, Coatbridge, Scotland. 
17, Ayr, Scotland. 9, Willenhall. 
19, Wigan. ——— 12, Wednesbury. 
25, Stevenston, Scotland. —— 17, Wigan. 
29, Burslem, Staffordshire. 

Two cases of death from suffocation by gas fall within this group, viz.,— 

On February 1, at St. Helen’s, and 
— 18, at Tiviotdale, Rowley Regis. 

An interval of a fortnight follows, with a high atmospheric pressure, and 
no fatal accidents in mines from gas. 

During March, and the first week of April, the temperature is far above 
the mean, and two well-characterized cyclones send the mercury in the baro- 
meter at Wakefield down to 28-83 on the 14th, and to 28°91 on the 28th. 

The second great group of 14 explosions falls in this interval; 8 explosions 
happening within 8 consecutive days—exactly coinciding with one of the 


238 REPORT—1861. 


greatest disturbances both of pressure and temperature during the whole 
year. The dates are :— 


March 3, Fenton. March 29, Dudley. 

9, Framwellgate, Durham. 31, St. Helen’s, Lancashire. 
—— 14, Whiston, Lancashire. April 1, Congleton. 
—— 17, Sheffield. 1, Merthyr. 


—— 21, Wrexham. 4, Kilmarnock. 
—— 24, Coatbridge, Scotland. 5, Hilda, Durham. 


— 29, Hopton, Manchester. 5, Leeds. 


A miner was suffocated by gas at Aberdare on the 3rd of March. 

No more great groups occur until October; but there is scarcely a single 
explosion that does not point to atmospheric influences, and in some eases in 
a very unmistakeable manner, as those of the 27th and 28th June, after the 
maximum thermometer had marked 81° F. and 80°75 F. on the two pre- 
ceding days, and the minimum thermometer showed 57°25 F. and 58°25 F. ; 
and the two explosions on the 12th July, the maximum thermometer having 
marked 85°25 F. and 90° F., and the minimum thermometer 52°25 F. and 
67°50 F. on the two preceding days. It will also be observed that there is 
an entire absence of explosions from July 30 to August 31, a period of high 
atmospheric pressure and mean temperature. 

The dates of explosions from April 5 to the end of September are :— 


April 16, Holywell. N. Wales. June 28, Wigan, Lancashire. 
— 20, Wakefield. July 12, St. Helen’s, Lane. 
97, Aberdare. —— 12, Wakefield. 
May 9, Airdrie, Scotland. 30, Tolleross, Scotland. 
17, Pendleton, Manchester. Aug. 31, Stevenston, Scotland. 
June 3, Nantyglo, Wales. Sept. 3, Walsall. 
— 11, Church, Manchester. —— 16, Tipton. 
— 16, Bilston. — 26, Radcliffe, Manchester. 


—— 27, Tredegar, Wales. 

The dates of fatal accidents from suffocation by gas during this period 
are :— 

May 18, Bathgate, Scotland. July 8, Halifax. 
July 5, Chesterton. Aug. 16, Aberdare. 

In the beginning of October the temperature was unusually high, even the 
minimum thermometer ranging above the mean for several days. On the 
7th and 8th the reading of the minimum thermometer at Wakefield was 56° 
F., and three fatal explosions happen on the latter day. On the 18th began 
a remarkable atmospheric paroxysm which lasted until the 10th of Novem- 
ber, and of which the ‘Royal Charter’ sterm, on the 26th October, was 
only a portion. During this interval there were lost by shipwreck on the 
British coasts 877 lives and 77 vessels. On the very day that the ‘ Royal 
Charter’ steamship was lost in a violent storm, there occurred three fatal ex- 
plosions, two in England and one in Scotland. 

The October group contains 14 explosions, to which may be added 4 cases 
of death from suffocation by gas, of which the respective dates and localities 
are :— 


Oct. 3, Walsall. Oct. 8, Robert’s Town, Leeds. 
5, Seacroft, Leeds. 12, Newport, Shropshire. 
—— 7, Dudley (suffocation). ——. 14, Aberdare, South Wales. 
-—— 8, Prescot, St. Helen’s. — 14, Heaton, Northumber- 
—— 8, Pendlebury, Manchester. land (suffocation). 


in orenlin Wes 9 


Nn cn 


aie 


™ 


ON STEAM NAVIGATION AT HULL. 239 


Oct. 17, Groveland Pit, Rowley Oct. 22, Washington, Durham. 
Regis (suffocation). —— 24, N. Bitchburn, Crook. 
— 18, Tiviotdale Pit, Rowley —— 26, Tipton. 
Regis. —— 26, Longton. 
— 20, Hampstead (suffocation). —— 26, Tollcross, Scotland. 


22, Dean Hall, Leeds. 


It is instructive to compare this group of accidents in October, when the 
atmospheric conditions were highly favourable to the presence of inflam- 
mable gases in coal-mines, with the entire blank shown by the diagram in 
August, when the atmospheric conditions were as decidedly of an opposite 
tendency. 

The only fatal accidents from gas in mines during November and Decem- 
ber were by explosions, thus :— 


Nov. 2, Royton, Manchester. Dec. 1, Burton-on-Trent. 
11, Donnington. 6, Walker. 
— 14, Dukinfield. —— 24, Atherton. 
—— 924, Royton, Manchester. —— 26, Ormskirk, Lancashire. 
— 26, Wakefield. —— 28, Leeds. 


Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull. By ‘James 
O.puay, C.E., Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers. 


In 1853, when I made iny first Report to the British Association on the rise 
and progress of steam navigation at Hull, we had twenty-one sea-going and 
twenty-three river steamers; now we have sixty-six sea-going and twenty- 
five river steamers belonging to the port. 

There are also belonging to places on the waters of the Humber, more or 
less, but chiefly trading with our port, twenty-six steam-vessels of different 
kinds, and there are about twenty to twenty-three steam-ships belonging to 
other English ports and foreign states regularly trading to Hull, giving a 
total of about 140 in one way or other using the port of Hull; while in 1853 
the total fleet of every class and country amounted to eighty-one, giving an 
increase of fifty-nine. 

Notwithstanding the many losses and changes which have occurred amongst 
our steam-vessels since my Report at Aberdeen two years ago, I am enabled 
to say that we never possessed so numerous and so fine a fleet as at the 
present time,—a fleet which, for efficiency and seaworthiness, may compare, 
tonnage for tonnage, with any other port. 

It is not, however, the number of steam-ships connected with the port that 
is the true criterion on which to judge of an advance or otherwise, but the 
amount of tonnage of actual business performed on which we can draw true 
conclusions ; and I find as a proof, that while in 1840 the gross tonnage 
(steam and sailing) on which dock dues were paid amounted only to 
652,508, in 1852 it had reached 799,866, and in 1860 it had attained 
1,215,203 tons ; and while the actual steam tonnage in 1840 only amounted 
to 174,832, in 1852 it had reached 305,021, and in 1860 it was found to be 
603,328, having within a fraction doubled in eight years. And what is still 
more remarkable is, that although steam is fast taking the lead, and has so 
wonderfully advanced, the sailing-ship tonnage has also in a most astonishing 
ratio increased ; for in 1840 this class of tonnage amounted to 477,676, in 
1852 to 494,845, and in 1860 to no less than 611,875 tons. 


240 REPORT—1861. 


The above statements of tonnage relate solely to inward traffic, and not 
outward. 

These facts not only justify the Dock Company in the steps they are now 
taking to extend the dock-space and wharfage-accommodation so imperatively 
demanded, but will show the necessity of still further providing for the great 
increase of space which, from the rapidly growing trade, and the increase in 
number and size of our steam-ships, we may fairly anticipate will shortly be 
wanted. 

To check and hold back the supply of necessary water-space is to produce 
a retrograde effect; and not to meet the wants of the port is to encourage 
any rivals who may be ambitious enough to attempt to take our trade from us. 

Great inconvenience has long been felt by steam-ship owners for want of 
more extended accommodation. At present the total area of the dock is 
under 43 acres for the whole of the shipping; but to give the facilities 
required it ought to be double that amount. An extension of 17 acres is, 
however, at once to be added to the present space in the construction of the 
Western Dock, specially for the steam-shipping, in addition too of an enlarged 
entrance tidal basin to be common to the Humber and Western Docks. ~ 

Let therefore the Dock Company be true to its own real interests and those 
of the port at large, and long delays and expensive conflicts in obtaining the 
necessary accommodation for the rapidly increasing fleet of steamers will no 
longer be known and felt, and Hull, which has long held the proud position 
of the third British port, will still continue to maintain that honourable post. 

With the young and vigorous new blood recently imported into the directory 
of the Company, and with its active, talented, and enterprising officers at the 
head of its executive, the port asks for and expects extension of dock-space 
and every modern and improved appliance, to facilitate all the varied opera- 
tions, and to meet liberally all its rapidly growing wants. 

I have only to add that during the last ten years upwards of 120 steam- 
ships have been built and equipped at the port of Hull, several of which are 
from 1000 to 3000 tons burthen, reflecting the highest credit both on the 
builders as well as on the port. 

Austrian Chambers, Hull, August 1861. 


Brief Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland. 
By Professor G. Dicxigz, M.D. 


Tue district to which the Report refers comprehends that part of Ireland 
which lies to the north of a line passing to the west from Dundalk, em- 
bracing ten entire counties and part. of other two. 

The information respecting the native flora of this district has been derived 
mainly from the following sources :—Dr. Mackay’s ‘Flora of Ireland ;’ a 
valuable list contributed by D. Moore, Esq., of the Glasnevin Botanic 
Garden ; notes contributed by Mr. Hyndman, of Belfast ; the MSS. of the 
late Mr. Templeton, of Cranmore, liberally placed at my disposal by Mrs. 
Templeton; and lastly, records of species observed by myself during ex- 
cursions to different parts of the north of Ireland. 

Details will be given in the full Report for insertion in the next volume 
of the Transactions of the Association. 

It will be sufficient here to give a summary of the results. The standard 
adopted is the ‘ British Flora,’ by Sir W. J. Hooker and Prof. Arnott; and 
in order to bring out the botanical features of the district, the types of 
Mr. Watson (in his ‘ Cybele Britannica’) afford the best means for comparison. 


ine lenn eae 


PSYCHICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE MINCOPIES. 241 


The total number of species of Pheenogams in the district may be estimated 
at 725. In the entire flora of the United Kingdom, those of the English 
type are 396, the Scottish 68, Highland 108, Germanic 196, Atlantic 60. 
In the district there are 166 of the English type, 39 Scottish, 22 Highland, 
17 Atlantic, and 3 only of the Germanic type; the remainder of course 
embracing those of general occurrence in Britain, hence called the British 
type. 
"The fora therefore is characterized by a large admixture of species 
belonging to the English and Scottish types, with a fair proportion of those 
called Western or Atlantic; the number of Highland species is small, as 
miglit have been expected, owing to the physical characters of the country ; 
those of the Germanic type are still fewer, only three out of 196 British 
species being referred to that type. 


On the Psychical and Physical Characters of the Mincopies, or Natives 
of the Andaman Islands, and on the Relations thereby indicated to other 
Races of Mankind. By Professor Owen, F.R.S. &e. 


[A communication ordered to be printed among the Reports. ] 


Tur Andaman Islands extend from 10° 32! to 13° 10! N. lat., and are situ- 
ated in 92° 30' E. long.: they are divided into Great and Little; the former, 
consisting of three islands, called North, Middle, and South Andamans, are 
so closely contiguous as to form one tract of 140 miles long, and not more 
than 20 miles across the greatest breadth, having a surface of 2800 square 
miles, and inhabited by a race of undersized or dwarf blacks, notorious for 
their audacity and implacable hostility to all strangers. The skin is of a sooty 
darkness; the hair of the head black, crisp, apparently short, and growing in 
small detached tufts; the nose is broad, short, and rather flat, but not parti- 
cularly widened at the end, with the expanded nostrils of the Guinea negro; 
the lips are thick, but less prominent than in the Guinea negro: they are 
said to shave off or eradicate the hair of the face, except the eyelashes; it is 
doubtful, at least, whether naturally they are devoid, as they appear, of beard, 
moustaches, and whiskers. The hands and feet are small; but the heel does 
not project, as in some African negroes. 

The following notices of the habits and manners of the Mincopies, or 
natives of the Andamans, are condensed from the ‘‘ Reports’’ of the able 
Superintendents and Surveyors of the convict settlements recently established 
by the East Indian Government on these islands; particularly from the state- 
ment of a Brahmin Sepoy, one of the transported mutineers, who, aiter esca- 
ping from the convict establishment, passed upwards of a year (from April 23, 
1858, to May 17, 1859) with a tribe of Andamaners*. His statement 
accorded with previous accounts, that the diminutive aborigines of these 
islands have no notions of a Deity or a future state; that both sexes go naked. 
_ They generally inhabit the jungle along the sea-coast ; but are migratory, 
rarely residing many days in one spot. ‘They are divided into parties of from 
twenty to three hundred, including the usual proportion of males and females, 
adults and children; all having similar features, colour of skin and eyes, 
the same language, habits, and customs. After puberty, the females have 
promiscuous sexual intercourse, save with their own father, until they are 
chosen or allotted as a wife, when she is required to be faithful to her hus- 


* Selections from the Records of the Government of India, No. XXV., “ Andaman Islands,” 
Preface, p.vi. Iam indebted to General Sir Proby Cautley, F.R.S., for a copy of this volume. 


1861. R 


242 REPORT—1861l. 


band, whom she serves. Brothers may have connexion with their sisters 
until the latter are married. Sexual connexion may take place before the 
men, women, and children of the party. ‘‘ If any married or single man goes 
to an unmarried woman, and she declines to have intercourse with him, by 
sitting up or going to another part of the circle, he considers himself insulted, 
and, unless restrained, would kill or wound her. Ihave seena young woman 
severely wounded in the thigh in such a case. All the women ran away 
into the jungle, and the men who restrained the violent man from further 
wounding her seemed to regard the matter lightly, as they laughed while 
they held him back*.” 

The bridegroom and bride smear their bodies in stripes with red earth 
moistened with turtle-oil, and squat on leaves spread over the ground ten or 
twelve paces apart. They sit in silence for about an hour. The man who 
marries them takes the bridegroom by the hand and leads him to where the 
bride is, and having seated him, without saying a word, presents him with 
five or six iron-headed arrows, and leaves them sitting in silence by each other 
until it is dark. 

A pregnant woman performs her duties almost to the time labour com- 
mences. The party halts an extra day when she is confined. Several 
female friends collect around the woman in labour to assist her by punkahing 
away the flies and mosquitos. When the child is about to be born, she stands 
up, supported by the females, spreads out her legs, and the child is taken 
into the hands of one of the women ready to receive it. The umbilical cord 
is cut, about a finger’s breadth from the body, but no ligature is applied. 
The afterbirth is allowed to be voided without assistance. Some hours after, 
the mother is anointed with the usual unguent of red earth and turtle-oil: 
she eats and drinks as usual. Convalescence is very rapid; and if the party 
has to move on the morrow, the recently-delivered woman accompanies them 
on foot. The child is washed in cold fresh water, poured upon it either from 
a bamboo water-vessel or a shell. Its wet body is dried by the hand, which 
is heated before the fire, and quickly and repeatedly but very gently applied. 
Any woman of the party who is suckling gives the new-born child her breast 
for a day or two untilits mother’s milk comes: children are suckled as long as 
their mothers have milk to give them. If it rains during a march, a few leaves 
are sewn together with rattan, and used as a covering for the infant. The 
parents are fond of the children, and reciprocally. 

The men go into the jungle to hunt for pigs; the women stay in the en- 
campment, supply the drinking-water, firewood, catch fish and shell-fish, cook 
the food ready for the men’s return, make small fishing-nets, baskets, and 
spin twine. They catch the fish left by the ebb-tide by means of a small 
hand-net stretched over a hoop, and collect shell-fish from the rocks. They 
tattoo by incising the skin with small pieces of glass, without inserting 
colouring-matter, the cicatrix being whiter than the sound skin. ‘The women 
‘make a sling, six inches wide, to suspend the infant or young child, which 
sits in the loose turn, with the legs passing over the mother’s loins or hips. 

Boys about the age of three years play with little bows and arrows, and 
when about eight years they are capable of taking a good aim and accom- 
pany their fathers into the jungle. The girls are very fond of playing 
with the sand on the beach, raising it into a circle or square around them, 
calling the interior their house (boov), and imitating the manners of their 
mothers. 

In their encampments, which enclose an open central place, there is 


* Report and evidence of the Brahmin sepoy. 


PSYCHICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE MINCOPIES, ‘243 


usually one hut, square in form, built and roofed in with much more care 
and attention than the others, and generally richer in pigs’ and turtles’ heads ; 
it is the residence of the local chief, who issues the orders as to the fight and 
retreat when necessary. 

On a death occurring, the corpse is removed from the interior of the hut to 
a distance of a pace or two, where it remains until burial, which takes place 
a few hours after. The thighs are drawn up to the belly, the legs flexed upon 
the thighs; the arms placed straight upon the chest and belly, so that the 
hands project between the thighs; and thus, enveloped in leaves, the body is 
tied up like a bundle by cordage of strong creepers, the ends being knotted 
together to form a sling, which the carrier, with his back turned towards the 
corpse, puts over his head and shoulders, and with the assistance of two men 
rises with his burden, and is accompanied by two or three men, relatives of 
the deceased, to the burial-place. This is usually about a mile inland from 
the sea-shore. The grave is an irregularly round hole about three feet deep, 
dug with a pointed piece of stick, the earth being thrown out by the hands. 
The body is lifted into the grave by means of the sling, the earth filled in and 
forming a small mound. 

Before the corpse is prepared for burial, the wife and one or two near rela- 
tives sit down and weep overit. Two or three months after burial, when the 
flesh has decomposed and been eaten by land-crabs and ants, some near rela- 
tives of the deceased proceed to the spot and disinter the bones; and having 
bound them together with creeper-cords, carry them to the encampment and 
spread them out, when these are wept over by the relatives, each of whom takes 
a bone, the nearest relative taking the skull and lower jaw, which may be 
carried suspended by a cord from the neck for months. ‘The bones are some- 
times bound to the posts of the hut. 

The chief weapons of the Andaman race are bows and arrows, the latter 
with iron heads. A chief has been observed to have a spear, his bow and 
arrows being carried by a henchman. 

The hair is shaved, the skin scarified in certain maladies, and the tattooing 
performed by pieces of glass—chips of bottle-glass skilfully detached by sharp 
blows of a stone. 

The materials for the above weapons, viz. iron and glass, are obtained from 
wrecks. If flint-nodules were present in the Andamans, no doubt the native 
instinct, and notices of the appearances of accidental fractures of such nodules, 
would have led to the formation of the primitive knife from flint, as from glass, 

The Andamaners appear to be devoid of fear; they are powerful for their 
size; can carry greater burdens than the Hindoos; are swift runners, and 
clear rapidly, by jumping, the fallen trees of the jungle and rocks of the tidal 
shore. As climbers they are little inferior to monkeys, being used from child- 
hood to climb the lofty, straight, unbranched trees of the forest in quest of 
fruit and honey. They are excellent swimmers from their childhood, and 
wonderful divers, ‘fishing for shell-fish in deep water.” ‘I have seen,” 
deposes the sepoy, ‘‘ three or four of them dive into deep water and bring up 
in their arms a fish, six or seven feet in length, which they had seized.”.... 
«They could perceive canoes approaching long before they were visible to me, 
and could see fruits and honeycombs in the jungle which I could not. Their 
vision penetrates to great depths in the sea, where they could see and shoot 
fish with arrows, when the object aimed at was not apparent tome. They 
see well at night, catching fish in the pools left by the tide at that season, and 
shooting the wild pigs which come to the coast to drink by night.” By their 
acute sense of smell they often detect afar off the existence of fruit in the 
neighbouring lofty trees. 

R2 


944 REPORT—1861. 


In regard to their maladies, the sepoy deposes :—“I never met with any 
one affected with gonorrhea, syphilis, itch, piles, small- -pox, or goitre; but 
I have seen them affected with vomiting, colic, diarrhcea, intermittent fever, 
headache, ear-ache, toothache, abscesses, rheumatism, catarrh, cough, painful 
and difficult respiration. The only remedies I have seen used are ‘ red earth 
rubbed up with turtle-oil,’ a cold infusion of certain aromatic leaves, the 
wetted leaves being applied to the head or other inflamed parts, and local 
bleedings by sharp splinters of bottle glass.” 

They spin ropes, make wicker baskets, large nets for catching turtle, 
smaller nets for catching fishes; and they scoop out their canoes by means 
of a small kind of adze, tipped by a semicircular blade of iron. Thus, for 
all their immediate wants, invention has supplied the instruments called 
for by the nature of the surrounding objects and sources of food. ‘It is 
impossible,” writes Dr. Mouatt, Inspector- General of Jails, Calcutta, ‘‘ to 
imagine any human beings to be lower in the scale of civilization than are 
the Andaman savages. Entirely destitute of clothing, utterly ignorant of 
agriculture, living in the most primitive and rudest form of habitations, their 
only care seems to be the supply of their daily food.” Thus the low grade of 
humanity, hardly raised above that of the brute animal, with the dwarfish 
stature and dark sooty colour of the Andamaners, have always made a further 
knowledge of their physical characters peculiarly desirable. 

I am enabled to contribute the present notice of the osteological and dental 
characters of the Mincopie race, by the opportunity kindly afforded me by 
Dr. Fred. J. Mouatt, Inspector of Indian Jails, who brought over the bones of 
an adult male native of the Andamans, which he has since presented to the 
British Museum. The proportions of the bones indicate a well-formed, robust, 
adult male of four feet ten inches in height. The bones present a compact 
sound texture, with the processes, articular surfaces, and places of muscular 
attachments neatly defined. The cranium (Plates VI. and VII.) is well 
formed, not exceeding disproportionately in any diameter ; it might be classed 
with those of the oval type (Plate VII. figs. 1 and 2). The frontal region 
is rather narrow, but not very low for the size of the cranium; it recedes or 
passes by a regular curve from the glabeila (Plate VI. g) upward and back- 
ward to the vertex, v. The frontal, much of the sagittal, and the upper part 
of the coronal sutures are obliterated. Part of the lambdoidal suture is very 
complex, and sinks below the level of the contiguous bones at the lower 
angle and ‘additamentum,’ /. The alisphenoid (6) joins the parietal (7) on 
both sides of the head. The glabella is but little prominent; the nasals (15) 
are not flat, but are moderately developed. The alveolar parts of the upper 
and lower jaws slightly project. The chin is a little produced, is not deep. 
The malar bones (2g) are not unusually prominent : in this respect, as well as 
in the minor breadth of the cranium, the skull departs from the type of the 
Malay. The zygomatic process of the squamosal (27) is slender. The 
styliform process of the alisphenoid overlaps the inner angle of the vaginal 
process. The cranial bones are not above the average thickness. 

The following are the principal dimensions of this cranium :— 


in. lin. 
Length, from inion 7 to premaxillary border (22) (178°0).... 7 0 
Do: from ‘do.'to’ glabella (160-0). 2.00.0. 00. 2b es 6 4 
Breadth of the cranium (144-0) kee eee eee ee ee es 5 4 
Circumference of the cranium (409°0) ... Be SESISG 
Ante-posterior diameter of the interior of the craniuni (150° 0)... 5 9 
Transverse diameter of ditto (145-0) .........0 eee e eee ees soe / 
Vertical diameter of ditto (115°0) ............ Ie Lens 33! a 


PSYCHICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE MINCOPIES. 245 


The spine of the occiput is not so developed as to interrupt the convex con- 
tour of the occipital part of the skull; the lower occipital crest is rather more 
developed than the upper one. ‘The mastoids (g) are moderately developed ; 
there is no supermastoid ridge, nor any process from the paroccipital (4). The 
base of the skull offers all the strictly human characteristics. There is no ex- 
cess in the size of the orbits or of the auditory apertures; a sharp ridge pro- 
jects from the lower boundary of the anterior nares. ‘The lower jaw shows a 
variety in the shape of the coronoid process (30) which is occasionally seen in 
Europeans; it is broader and lower than usual; the front border is more 
convex at its upper half, and forms with the concave lower part a deeper and 
more decided sigmoid curve. The ascending ramus forms a less open angle 
with the horizontal ramus than in most Negro and Australian skulls. 

The teeth (Plate VII. fig. 3) equal in size the average of those of Indo-Eu- 
ropeans; they correspond in this respect with those of the European figured 
in my ‘ Odontography,’ plates 118 and 119. Although they are large in pro- 
portion to the size of the jaws, they are markedly smaller than are those of 
the Australian figured in the same plates. In the upper jaw of the male 
Andamaner the true molars, as in most Europeans, diminish in size from the 
first (m 1) to the third (m3). The fissure which penetrates the grinding 
surface from the outer side to the middle of the crown had its end unoblite- 
rated in m 1, and retained its whole length in m 2. The enamel was worn 
from the inner half in both teeth, but in a less proportion in m 2; it wasalso 
slightly worn from the outer tuberclesin m1. The degree of abrasion of the 
teeth, according to the age cf the individual, is such as might be expected 
from the mastication of a diet consisting chiefly of fish and fruit. In the 
lower jaw the dentine is exposed on the three outer tubercles of m 1; the 
crucial figure is not obliterated in m 2; m 3 is larger, as usual, than in the 
corresponding tooth above. The upper premolars are implanted by a fang 
which is divided at its base into an outer and inner root. ‘The undivided fang 
of the lower premolars is longitudinally grooved on the outer side. In the 
upper jaw, m1 and m 2 are implanted by one inner and two outer roots, m3 
by one antero-external root and one postero-internal root. All the lower 
molars have distinct anterior and posterior roots. ‘There was no irregularity 
in the position, nor any sign of decay in the teeth. 

The articulations of the skull with the vertebral column in the present 
skeleton of the Andamaner agree with those of the male sex in the highest 
variety of the human species. One of the most characteristic differences 
between man and all other mammals consists in the fact that the human 
head is balanced in the erect posture, only requiring slight muscular action 
to steady it, while the skull of the chimpanzee and all lower mammals pre- 
ponderates anteriorly, and needs to be sustained by the action of powerful 
muscles and elastic structures. To preserve the equilibrium of the human 
head, the cerebrum in its growth extends more backward than forward, deve- 
lopes the posterior lobes with their contained structures peculiar to man, and 
produces a concomitant expansion and production of the occipital part of the 
cranium during the progress of general growth from infancy to adult age, 
whereby the back of the head becomes balanced against the increasing weight 
of the face. 

All the bones of the trunk and limbs of the male Mincopie present the specific 
and generic characters of Homo sapiens, Linn. ‘The sigmoid flexure of the 
clavicle (52) is well marked. The scapula (51) agrees with that variety of form 
which shows a minor extent of the supraspinal tract, and a greater breadth 
of the lower part of the subspinal tract, with a more produced angle between 
the surfaces for the teres major and teres minor muscles, on the inferior costa. 


246 REPORT—186l. 


The inferior costa describes a continuous concave curve from the angle to the 
base of the coracoid, without any suprascapular notch. The os innominatum, 
calcaneum, astragalus, and bones of the hallux or great toe, peculiar to man, 
contrasted as strongly with the quadrumanous characters of those bones as in 
the highest of the human races. The first lumbar vertebra had the diapophysis, 
metapophysis, and anapophysis distinct, and almost equally developed, and 
well illustrated the true serial homology of the longer diapophysis of the suc- 
ceeding lumbars. In many European skeletons the diapophyses of the first 
lumbar vertebra are more developed than in that of the Andamaner. The 
ridges, processes, and surfaces for muscular attachment are well and neatly 
defined on the several limb-bones of this skeleton, and agree with the charac- 
ter for agility in running, climbing, and swimming assigned to the Andaman 
race. 
The following are the dimensions of the limb-bones :— 


Scapula. in, lin, 
Length from end of acromion to inferior angle .......... Satie: AE 
Breadth from upper and outer angle to lower border of glenoid 
canmty> aii, 5 ¢ a fee. aes «a efsts, ee)o Walt ty. te (i450 50 
Os Innominatum. 
OUP Cel op sat cet ican eee oR RE e eer err fee! 
Breadtit.of, tam, ./i6 <,.i 3» << ad peleuatahes te Costas i ta a ote pe 
Humerus.| Ulna. | Radius. /Femur.} Tibia. | Clavicle. 
in. lin, | in. lin. her lin. | in. lin.} in, lin.| in. Tin. 
Aen Cty sk ¥oc -trcmceon sab ae senewareys 12.2 10 8 9 Tb |7. 5) 14. 3) Aor +2 
Transverse diameter of upper end 1 10 Ty's 0 10 3 4 
(Daron Middle & cn ceecsseetnesseenese ee 0 6 0 63; 011; 1 1 
eS 1 3 29 


The above dimensions of parts of the skeleton indicate that they are from an 
individual of four feet ten inches in height. 

The Andamaners, or Mincopies, are called by most of the observers who 
have described them ‘“ Negrillos,’ or dwarf Negroes. They have no 
knowledge, and appear to have no idea, of their own origin. It has been 
surmised that they might be descendants of African Negroes, imported 
by the Portuguese for slave labour in their settlement at Pegu, and which 
had been wrecked on the Andamans. But the recorders of this hypo- 
thesis allude to it as a mere hearsay—‘‘ We are told that when the Por- 
tuguese,” &c. (Calcutta Monthly Register, or India Repository, November 
1790, pp. 15-17). Neither the skull nor the teeth of the male Andamaner 
above described offer any of the characters held to be distinctive of the 
African Negroes. The cranium has not the relative narrowness ascribed 
to that of the Negro; it presents nothing suggestive of lateral compression ; 
it conforms to the full oval type, with a slight degree of prognathism, 
and is altogether on a smaller scale than in the Indo-European exhibit- 
ing that form of skull. It is to be presumed that the Portuguese would 
import from the Guinea coast, or other mart of Negro slaves, individuals 
of the usual stature; and it is incredible that their descendants, enjoying 
freedom in a tropical locality affording such a sufficiency and even abun- 
dance of food as the Andamans are testified to supply, should have degene- 
rated in stature, in the course of two or three centuries, to the characteristic 
dwarfishness of the otherwise well-made, well-nourished, strong and active 
hatives of the Andaman Islands. I conclude, therefore, that they are abori- 


PSYCHICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE MINCOPIES. 247 


gines; and merely resemble Negroes in a blackness, or rather sootiness, of 
the tegumentary pigment, which might be due to constant exposure during 
many generations of this nude and primitive race. Their prognathism is not 
more than is found in most of the Southern Asiatic peoples, and indeed in 
the lower orders of men in all countries, and may be due or relate to the 
prolonged sucking of the plastic infant. The growth of the short, crisp hair 
of the scalp, by small tufts, shows a resemblance of the Andamaners to certain 
Papuans, as, e. g., those of New Caledonia. But the skull and dentition of the 
Andaman male are as distinct from the Australian type as from that of the 
West-coast Negro. ‘There is no supranasal ridge due to a sunken origin of 
the flattened nasal (15) bones; neither the malar (25) nor zygomatic arches 
show the strength and prominence that mark them in the Australian male; 
there is no excessive size of molar or other teeth. The styliform processes of 
the alisphenoid are more produced; the lambdoidal suture is more complex ; 
the alisphenoids (g) are relatively broader. From the present opportunity of 
studying the osteology and dentition of the Andamaner, the ethnologist derives 
as little indication or ground of surmise of the origin of the race in question 
from an Australasian as from an African continent; and there is scarcely 
better evidence of his Malayan or Mongolian ancestry. Upon the whole, the 
skull offers the greatest amount of correspondence with those of such of the 
dwarfish, dark, and presumed aboriginal inhabitants of the Philippines, Java, 
Borneo, and Ceylon, which I have had the opportunity of examining. I cite 
the descriptions of two of these crania from my Catalogue of the Osteolo- 
gical Series in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. In that of 
an aboriginal native of Luzon (No. 5531), ‘‘ the cranium is short, moderately 
broad, rather low, with a narrow and receding forehead. The glabella is 
prominent through the development of the frontal sinuses; the nasals are 
moderately prominent, as are likewise the malars and upper jaw. The chin 
is well developed. The entire skull is rather small. The chief individual 
peculiarity is seen in the development of the right paroccipital, which is 
longer than the mastoid, and presents an articular surface for joining its 
homotype, the diapophysis of the atlas. The left paroccipital tubercle is 
also well marked. The deviation from the Human type here presented, if 
compared with the skull of an inferior mammal, e, g. the Bear, or the Dog, 
will be perceived to be areturn to a more general type, which is manifested by 
the more constant development, in the Mammalian series, of the paroccipitals 
or transverse processes of the occipital vertebra.” (Vol. ii. p. 861.) In the cra- 
nium of a Veddah, or aboriginal of Ceylon (No. 5539), ‘‘the cranial cavity is of 
small size, with the forehead narrow and receding: the glabella is moderately 
prominent through the development of the frontal sinuses. The sutures are 
well marked; that of the lambdoid is particularly complex, and sinks below 
the level of the contiguous bones at its lower angles*. The supramastoid 
ridge is well marked; the mastoids are moderately developed: the paroccipitals 
are rudimentary. The zygomatic processes of the temporals are very slender ; 
those of the malars have the lower border convex, descending below them. 
The styliform processes of the alisphenoid are low, or short, subquadrate, but 
unusually extended backwards and outwards, overlapping the inner angle of the 
vaginal processes. A trace of the maxillo-premaxillary suture remains on 
the palate: the maxilla is slightly prognathic: the molar teeth are small. 
This cranium has probably belonged to a female: it agrees in the chief cha- 
racters with the skull from the Philippines (No. 5531).” (Ib. p. 863.) 

I am not cognizant of any anatomical grounds for deriving the Andaman 


* Mr. C. C. Blake has noticed this character in other Veddah skulls. See ‘ Medical Times,’ 
May 17, 1862. 


248 a REPORT—1861. 


people from any existing continent; but, in making these remarks, I would 
offer no encouragement to the belief that they originated in the locality to 
which they are now limited. 

It has been said that ‘‘ their language shows them to belong to the same 
division with the Burmese of the opposite continent.” But late vocabularies 
oppose this view. ‘The Burmese, moreover, show the average stature ‘of 
the southern Asiatic men; and it would be as pure an assumption to affirm 
that they had been derived from the Andamaners, as that these were degenerate 
descendants of the Burmese. 

The few undersized, dark-skinned aborigines, as they are termed, of the 
Great Nicobar, of the Philippines, of Java, Borneo, Sumatra, and Ceylon, are 
driven furthest into the interior by immigrants of other races, and are the 
least likely to have emigrated or equipped vessels for the purpose of voyaging 
to other lands. The average-sized Malay and Chinese, and the like later 
colonists of the Indian Archipelago, are those that have the command of the 
sea; and the Andamaners are certainly not their descendants. 

Combined geological, geographical, and zoological researches have made 
us cognizant of the fact of the formation and destruction of continental tracts 
of land in the known course of the earth’s period of existence. The Andaman 
Islands, like the Nicobar, Java, Sumatra, and Ceylon, may have been parts 
of some former tract of dry land, distinct from, and perhaps pre-existent to, 
that neighbouring and more northern continent which has been the scene of 
the elevation of the Himalayan range of mountains, in part—perhaps a great 
part—within the tertiary period. ‘This has been the opinion of geologists 
for some time back, and is alluded to by Professor Ansted in his ‘Ancient 
World,’ pp. 322, 324. ‘The extensive collections and assiduous comparisons 
of the animals of Ceylon by Sir J. Emerson Tennent have added valuable 
evidence in favour of such opinion*. ‘The Andamans are forty miles distant 
from the nearest islands, the Cocos, on their north, and seventy-two miles 
distant from the Nicobar Islands on their south. There is a mountain 2400 
feet in height called ‘‘ Saddle Peek,” probably volcanic, on the main island ; 
and there is a volcanic island in the vicinity called ‘‘ Barren Island,” with an 
active volcano. The whole of the shores of the Andamans are skirted by 
continuous coral-reefs. It is plain that the Andamans are the active seat of 
those causes that influence the change in the relations of land to sea. We 
should doubtless err, therefore, in any speculation on the origin of their popu- 
lation, if we were to assume that the Andaman Islands were such as they 
now are when they received their first human inhabitants. 

The cardinal defect of speculators on the origin of the human species 
seems to me to be the assumption that the present geographical condition of 
the earth’s surface preceded or coexisted with the origin of such species. 
The monogenist, on that assumption, bent on tracing all human races from 
one source and one existent centre, exaggerates the application and value 
of casual remarks to show, for example, that ‘the Australians are not 
a pure race, but hybrids between true Negroes and a Malayan or yellow 
race.” (See Quatrefages’ ‘ Unité de l’Espéce Humaine,’ 12mo, 1861, p. 173.) 
And the polygenist invokes a separate creation of each race for each existing 
continent or island-home of such race. (Agassiz, in Nott and Gliddon’s 
‘Types of Mankind.’) 

The Andamaners are perhaps the most primitive, or lowest in the scale of 
civilization, of the human race. They have no tradition, and, as has been 
before remarked, apparently no notion of their own origin. Finding in their 
bows and arrows and their hand-nets implements that answer for acquiring 
the principal articles of food which their locality yields, they have carried 


* Natural History of Ceylon, 8vo, 1861. 


ee. eee a 


L9GL Uuomor 


imp 


West 


Ww 
W 


+H Ford 


31” Report, British Association 186) 


GH Ford 


= # 

—, B 

= : 

= 

ic) — 

2 = 
ol 
Ay 


REPORT FROM THE BALLOON COMMITTEE. 249 


the inventive faculties no further. At best they may have availed themselves 
of the wrecks during the last century or two of their insular existence, to 
barb their arrows with iron instead of fish-bone, and to get from broken 
bottles such trenchant fragments as our oldest-known Europeans obtained 
from broken flints. The animal appetites are gratified in the simplest 
animal fashion; there is no sense of nakedness, no sentiment of shame. 
The man, choosing promiscuously for one or more years after puberty, then 
takes, or has assigned to him, a female who becomes his exclusive mate and 
servant; and the reason assigned for this monogamy is that she may be 
restricted, while he may continue to select from the unmarried females as 
before. The climate dispenses with the necessity of any other protection of 
the body than a paste of earth and oil. Any rudiment of a cincture relates 
solely to the convenience of the suspension of weapons or other portable 
objects. They are not cannibals. Implacably hostile to strangers, the 
Andamaners have made no advance in the few centuries during which their 
seas have been traversed by ships of higher races. Perhaps the sole change 
is that of the materials for weapons derived from casua] wrecks, to which 
allusion has already been made. 

Enjoying, therefore, the merest animal life during those centuries, why 
may they not have so existed for thousands of years? The conditions of 
existence being such as they now enjoy, on what can the ethnologist found 
an idea of the limitation of the period during which the successive genera- 
tions of Andamaners have continued so to exist? Antecedent generations of 
the race may have coexisted with the slow and gradual geological changes 
which have obliterated the place or continent of their primitive origin, what- 
ever be the hypothesis adopted regarding it. 

In every essential of human physical character, however, the present Min- 
copies or Andamaners participate with their more intellectually gifted 
brethren. The size of the brain, indicated by the cranial chamber, promises 
aptitude for civilization. ‘The Andamaners resemble the orangs and chim- 
panzeee only in their diminutive stature; but this is associated with the well- 
balanced human proportions of trunk to limbs: they are, indeed, surpassed 
by the great orangs and gorillas in the size of the trunk and in the length 
and strength of the arms, in a greater degree than are the more advanced 
and taller races of mankind. 

PLATE VI. 


Side view of the skull of the male native of the Andamans: natural size, 


a PLATE VII. 
ne ~ — } of the same skull, on the scale of 4 an inch to an inch. 


Fig. 3. Bony palate and grinding surface of the teeth of the same skull: natural size. 


Report from the Balloon Committee. By Colonel Syxxs, M.P.,F.R.S. 


Proressor WALKER, after the appointment of the Committee at the Aberdeen 
Meeting, having communicated to Colonel Sykes his inability to undertake 
any active labours with respect to carrying out the objects for which the 
Committee was nominated, Colonel Sykes put himself into correspondence 
with Mr. Langley, a gentleman of Newcastle, who offered to construct a 
suitable balloon, provided an advance of money were made to him. The cor- 
respondence however was without result, and Colonel Sykes in consequence 
thought it unnecessary to invite the opinions of the other members of the 
Committee with respect to the objects to be sought for in balloon-ascents, 


250 REPORT—1861. 


as means were wanting, whatever those opinions might be, to give practical 
effect to them. Colonel Sykes was not at the meeting at Oxford last year, 
and no action having been taken by the Balloon Committee, it has dropped 
through and is extinct. 

Within a few months past Mr. Simpson, of Cremorne Gardens, has con- 
structed a balloon at a cost of £600(the ‘ Normandie’), with a sufficient 
capacity to carry two persons to great heights, which might be available for 
the objects of the Association. ‘lhe occasion has therefore arisen when the 
re-appointment of a Balloon Committee might take place; and as one of the 
chief objects of the last Balloon Committee, viz. the verification of the former 
results of the ascents undertaken by the authority of the Association, remains 
unchanged, Colonel Sykes, with the approval of those members of the late 
Balloon Committee with whom he has had an opportunity of conversing, will 
move the re-appointment of the Committee with a grant of £200. 


Report on the Repetition of the Magnetic Survey of England, made at 
the request of the General Committee of the British Association. 
By Major-General Epwarp Sasine, R.A., President of the Royal 
Society. 


Tue Magnetic Survey of the British Islands, corresponding to the epoch of 
January 1, 1837, which had been undertaken in 1836 at the request of the 
British Association, was completed in 1838, and a coordinated Report of the 
observatious of the Dip and Force, contributed by each of the five Members of 
the Association who had cooperated in the execution of the Survey, was pub- 
lished in the annual volume for 1838, accompanied by Maps of the Isoclinal 
and Isodynamie Lines embodying the results of the Survey. The observa- 
tions of the third element, the Declination, which were made chiefly by one 
of the cooperators, Sir James Clark Ross, were not published until a later 
date, when, having been reduced and coordinated by myself, they were 
included in a memoir printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1849, 
entitled ‘On the Isogonic Lines, or Lines of equal Magnetic Declination in 
the Atlantic Ocean in 1840,” in which they completed in a very satisfactory 
manner the N.E. portion of the map accompanying that memoir. 

The Magnetic Survey of 1837 deserves to be remembered as having been 
the first complete work of its kind planned and executed in any country 
as a national work, coextensive with the limits of the state or country, and 
embracing the three magnetic elements. The example thus presented was 
speedily followed by the execution of similar undertakings in several parts of 
the globe; more particularly in the Austrian and Bavarian dominions, and 
in detached portions of the British Colonial Possessions, viz. in North America 
and India. ‘The immediate object of such surveys is to determine for the parti- 
cular epoch at which they are made, the positions of Lines of equal Declination, 
Inclination, and Magnetic Force in the area of the Survey; the angles at which 
the three classes of lines respectively cross the geographical meridians ; and 
the distances in geographical miles, measured in directions perpendicular to 
the lines, which correspond to equal increments of each of the magnetic ele- 
ments. By the extension and multiplication of such surveys far more satis- 
factory materials are supplied for the construction of general magnetic maps 
of the globe than are afforded by the desultory observations which had pre- 
viously formed their only basis, This, as already stated, is the immediate 
object of such Surveys; but they have in prospect another and a scarcely less 
important purpose, in contributing by their repetition at stated intervals to 


ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 251 


supply the best kind of data for the gradual elucidation of the laws and source 
of the secular change in the distribution of the earth’s magnetism, perhaps 
the most remarkable of the yet unexplained natural phenomena of the globe. 

It was in this view that the General Committee of the British Association, 
assembled at Cheltenham in 1856, considering that in 1857 twenty years 
would have elapsed since the epoch of the first Survey, passed the following 
Resolution,—“ That a Committee, consisting of General Sabine, Professor 
Phillips, Sir James Clark Ross, Mr. Robert Were Fox, and the Rev. H. 
Lloyd, be requested to undertake the Repetition of the Magnetic Survey of 
the British Islands.” The five members of the Association named in this Reso- 
lution were the same by whom the former Survey had been made, and were 
all living at the time of the Cheltenham Meeting, Dr. Lloyd and Mr. Phillips 
being present at it. I was myself on the continent for the recovery of health, 
but on my return in the autumn of 1856, finding my own name standing first 
in the list of the Committee, I lost no time in making such arrangements as 
seemed suitable for the accomplishment of the purpose which the Associa- 
tion had in view. Dr. Lloyd undertook the Irish portion ; Scotland and the 
islands to its North and West were placed, with the consent of the 
Committee of the Kew Observatory, in the able hands of Mr. Welsh, the 
Superintendent of that establishment, and a grant of £200 was obtained from 
the Admiralty towards the payment of his travelling expenses. For some 
time I cherished the hope that the repetition of the English Survey might be 
accomplished (as on the previous occasion) by the joint labours of the Mem- 
bers of the Committee: but at length it became evident that circumstances 
of health or the pressure of other employments and duties stood in the way of 
a combined operation; which would have necessitated also a great amount 
of additional labour in the intercomparison of the different instruments and 
methods employed. I have made therefore the whole of the observations for 
the isoclinal and isodynamic lines myself; but having only a portion of each 
year at my disposal, they have required the summers of 1858, 1859, 1860, 
and 1861, causing January 1, 1860, to become the middle epoch of the 
Survey, in respect to these two of the three elements. The detail of the 
observations, the conclusions derived from them, and the maps of the two 
elements, constitute the two first divisions of the present Report; the third 
division, containing the observations upon which the map of the isogonic 
lines for 1857 is based, together with the comparison of these lines with 
those of the earlier Survey, and the deduction of the mean secular change of 
this element in the interval, has been contributed by Frederick John Evans, 
Esq., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Compass Observatory of the Royal Navy 
at Woolwich. 

The premature decease of Mr. Welsh, accelerated it is feared by his too 
persistent exposure in the second year of the Scottish Survey, left the reduc- 
tion and publication of the northern portion of the British Survey to his 
successor at Kew, Mr. Balfour Stewart, by whom a report has been presented 
to the General Committee, which report is printed in the annual volume for 
1859. There remains, therefore, now, for the entire fulfilment of the desire 
embodied in the Resolution of the General Committee at Cheltenham in 
1856, only the Irish portion of the Survey, which has been undertaken by 
Dr. Lloyd, to whom have been added as coadjutors, by his own request, the 
Rey. Professors Galbraith and Haughton, and George Johnstone Stoney, Esq. 
Dr. Lloyd has acquainted me that it is his wish, and that of the gentlernen 
associated with him, that the Irish portion of the Survey should be published 
in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy.’ The present is there- 
fore the concluding Report addressed to the British Association of the 
Committce nominated by them at the Cheltenham Meeting in 1856. 


S52: ri REPORT— 1861. 


Division I.—Dip. 


In selecting an instrument to be employed, in a magnetic survey, for the 
purpose of determining the position, direction, and distance apart of the 
isoclinal lines, care must be taken, Ist, that its ‘‘ probable error” be small, so 
that the observations made at the different stations of the survey may be 
as far as possible comparable with each other; and 2nd, that what is usually 
termed the ‘ Index Error” be either so small as to be practically insignificant, 
or that, if of significant amount, its value should be carefully determined by 
a sufficient examination at a base station, so that the general conclusions of 
the survey may be comparable with those of similar surveys made in other 
countries at the same epoch. The instrument selected for this survey was 
one of the well-known English pattern which has been adopted for some 
years past at the Kew Observatory; the circle was 6 inches in diameter, 
fitted with both verniers and microscopes, and with two needles, each 33 
inches in length. An examination of the results obtained with twelve circles of 
this pattern with their 24 needles in 282 determinations made by different 
observers at the Kew Observatory, has been published in the 11th volume of 
the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ pp. 145-162. The circle there 
distinguished as No. 30 was the one selected for the English survey, and 
was employed at all the stations of observation in 1858, 1859, and 1860. In 
the autumn of 1860, the English survey being then supposed to have been 
completed, No. 30 was sent to the Magnetic Observatory at the Isle Jesus, 
near Montreal in Canada, on the application of Dr. Smallwood, Director of 
that observatory ; but the pressure of other avocations having obliged me 
to defer for a few months the preparation for the press of the results obtained 
in 1858, 1859, and 1860, I was enabled in the summer of 1861 to add four 
more stations on the eastern coast of England, and for these observations 
I obtained from the Kew Observatory the use of the Circle No. 33, which 
(with its two needles) had been one of the twelve employed in the-com- 
parison at Kew, of which the account is published in the ‘ Proceedings of 
the Royal Society’ as above stated. Referring to that account, it will be 
seen that 28 of the 282 determinations at Kew with the twelve circles were 
made with No. 30, and 49 with No. 33; and after the proper corrections for 
secular change and annual variation, we find the “ probable error” of a single 
determination to be with No. 30 +1°25, and with No. 33 +118; whilst the 
“ probable error” derived from the 252 determinations obtained with the 
twelve circles is +1°45. We may therefore regard Nos. 30 and 33 as instru- 
ments superior rather than inferior, in the intercomparability of the results 
obtained with them, to the average of their class; which class is, I believe, 
unsurpassed by any other form of instruments in use either in our own or in 
any other country for the determination of the magnetic dip. 

In regard to the question whether any and what “index correction” should 
be applied to the results obtained with Nos. 30 and 33, it may be seen by 
an examination of the results in the ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society’ 
already referred to, that the mean result of the 28 determinations at Kew 
with No.30 exceeded the mean of the 282 determinations with the twelve circles 
by +08, and the mean of the 49 determinations with No. 33 exceeded the 
mean of the 282 by +07. These differences have appeared too small to 
require the assignment of a specific index correction to Nos. 30 or 33; it is 
sufficient to record the circumstance, and to remark that it is possible that 
the values of the isoclinal lines at the epoch of January Ist, 1860, given in 
the present memoir, which rest on the results obtained with these circles, 
may be a fraction of a minute, or even a whole minute too high. 


ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 


253 


I proceed in the following Table to state the observations of the Dip made 
with Nos. 30 and 33 at the several stations of this survey: the observations 
were made by myself, unless where otherwise noted. 


TABLE I.—Observations of the Magnetic Dip with Circle 30 at Kew. 


Mean Dip. 
- Poles re- 
Date. Needle.| Azimuths. | versed and 
Needle in- 
verted. 
ie} ° ° é‘ 
1858. March 30. I |30 and 120] 68 28°3 
“1 30. T , |GO8 5, | X50)| (68) 2956 
7 BO.) 'r O85; 80)| 168) 23-2 
a 30. E iGo 4,0. 250)| G8) 2572 
a 30.| 2 © 5 80} 68 25°1 | 
- 20. || 2) »g0i83, | 120/] 168 26:9 
“5 30. 2 |60 5 150] 68 27°0 
», June 9. I © , 180] 68 211 i 
A 9. 2 Ou) 180)! O84 20-Gyl 
1859. ,, Jan.11.| 1 © 5 180] 68 23°7 ) 
“A Pais I © 45 180] 68 24°6 
” 12. 2 © 5, 180] 68 23°7 
0 12. 2 © 5 80} 68 24°4 
oF 24. I O) 5,2 1c0 || 68) 22-7 
x 24. I oO , 180] 68 21°6 
7 Aree 2 © 5 180] 68 24°1 
a Zine I © 5, | 180.) 163) 22:2 
» Mar. 8. 1 o , 180] 68 21°7 
a) Say ez © 5 180] 68 22°2 
9 17. I © 45 180] 68 21°7 
ae 17.| 2 © 4», 180] 68 2474) 
(1) 1858. Sept. Mean at the Station... 63 23°7 


Station and Date. 


St. Leonards. 

(2) 1858. June 23. 
23. 
26. 
26. 
I. 
re 


” 
” 
” 


» July 


Llandovery. 
(3) 1858. July 21. 
21. 


Stonyhurst. 
(4) 1858. Sept. 30. 


Observer. 


Mr. Welsh. 


Mr. Chambers. 


Mr. Welsh. 


Mr. Chambers. 


Taste I. (continued). 


Needle. 


1 Direct ... 
2 Direct ... 
1 Direct... 
2 Direct ... 
t Direct ... 
2 Direct ... 


1 Direct ... 
2 Direct ... 
1 Direct ... 


. | 2 Direct ... 


x Direct ... 


.| 2 Direct ... 


1 Direct ... 


* Observed by the Rev. W. Kay. 
+ Since the observations were made at Stonyhurst, I have received a memorandum from 
the Rey. Alfred Weld, of the results of observations made subsequently by himself and the 
Rev. W. Kay, in the Gardens of the College, with the Dip Circle and its needles obtained 


(through the Kew Observatory) for Stonyhurst College, They are as follows :— 


Marked End. 


N. Pole. 


47°8 
416 
50°7 
41'0 
49° 


05°3 
15°7 
03°7 
14°2 
02°7 
12°8 


53°3 


S. Pole. 


o7'I 


\ 
| 
| 


69 13°70 


70 00°2* 70 0o'2T { 


Place of 
Observation. 


In the Magnetic 
House cf the 
Observatory. 


Place of 
Observation. 


In the grounds 
of Dr. Blakis- 
ton at Holly- 
bank. 


[ In the grounds 
of W. Leeves, 
Esq.,St.Mary’s 
Cottage. 


{ \In the gardens 


of the College. 


[Over. 


254 


TaBLE I. (continued). 


REPORT—186l, 


Marked End. | 
Station and Date. Needle. Means. Place of | 
N. Pole. | S. Pole. Observation. | 
Glangwnna. BS on ey, au 
(5) 1858. Oct. 5.| 1 Direct...) 69 52°5 | 70 11°7 | 70 02"1 
* 5.| 2 Direct ...| 70 02°8 | 70 00°6 | 7oo1'7 _. | |In the grounds 
+ 8.| 1 Direct ...| 6g 50°6 | 70 10°8| 70 00°7 70 02°04 | of Mrs. Hunt. 
as 8. | 2 Direct ...! 70 05°2 | 70 02°0 |*70 03°6 
tae ve : 
(6) 1859. June 13.| 2 Direct... 09'2 | 68 06°8| 68 o8'o 
ae ” 13. | 2 Inverted.) 67.55"1 | 68 071} 68 ort aes Ae ms a of 
55 14.| 1 Direct ...| 67 59°4| 68 13°2 | 68 06°3 Oca baa eee 
a 14.| 1 Inverted.) 67 50°5 | 68 16°6| 68 03°6 oa 
@) Torquay. 2 ; 
7) 1859. June 23.| 1 Direct...) 67 53°3 8 15°3| 68 04° 
“ 23.| 1 Inverted.| 67 47°5 | 68 13°1| 68 sor naan pers Sas 
” 24.| 2 Direct ...) 68 11°7| 67 59°7 | 68 05°7 °3°7 H a Hot fa 
ss 24.| 2 Inverted.) 68 og*r | 67 59°9 | 68 04°5 PURE SSAGHSS 
a Edgecombe. 
(8) 1859. June 25.| 1 Direct ...| 67 59°38 | 68 19°8 | 68 o9°8 
+ 25.| 1 Inverted.) 67 50°5 | 68 re 68 aie 68onn pole Lit 
” 25.| 2 Direct ...| 68 20°9 | 67 59°9 | 68 10°4 °7"9 Edi Ki i i 
FAA 25.| 2 Inverted.) 68 13°0 | 68 02°2 | 68 07°6 penne: 
Penjerrick. 
(9) 1859. June 28.| 1 Direct...) 67 59°4 | 68 19'0 | 68 og'2 ( 
7 28.| 1 Inverted.| 67 52°2 | 68 17°8 | 68 =| 
rr 28.| 2 Direct ...| 68 17°0 | 68 03°4 | 68 10°2 
op 28.| 2 Inverted.| 68 12°2 | 68 02°6 | 68 07°4 68 08 | on pelt 
» July 4.| 1 Direct...) 67 589 | 68 18°5 | 68 08°7 i r ee ies 
4.| 1 Inverted.| 67 51°6 | 68 17°2 | 68 0474 | Ore 
Er 4.| 2 Direct ...| 68 14°1 | 68 o2°1 | 68 o8'1 
45 4.| 2 Inverted.| 68 21°0 | 68 03°8 | 68 12°4 L 
Lew Trenchard. 
(10) 1859. July g.| 1 Direct ...| 68 o9°6 | 68 27°5 | 68 18°5 In the grounds 
= g-| x Inverted.) 68 07°4 | 68 22°8 | 68 151 5g ace of Edward Ba- 
Pe g-| 2 Direct ...| 68 2074] 68 15°6 | 68 18:0 175 ring Gould, 
35 g-| 2 Inverted.| 68 22°8| 68 13°8 | 68 18°3 Esq. 
( Broome oe Ee : 
11) 1859. July 20.| 1 Direct...) 67 51°5 | 68 14°4 | 68 03°0 ; 
i 20.| 1 Inverted.| 67 48°4| 68 12°5 | 68 ae ee shine 
7 20.| 2 Direct ...)67 59°0 | 67 56°4 | 67 57°7 | 6943. eae Cola 
ey 20. | 2 Inverted.) 68 07°6 | 67 57°5 | 68 02°5 et 2 Brod oan 
i 21.| 1 Direct...) 67 52°5 | 68 16°7 | 68 04°6 PR ie Bart., 
FS 21.| Inverted.| 67 48°38 | 68 09°4 | 67 59°1 Seg 
Note continued. 
Date. Needle. Dip. Observer. Date. Needle. Dip. Observer 
° Se py ° 
1858. Nov. 2. Ar. 69 57 44 Weld. 1859. May 12. A2. 70 02 17 Weld. 
iut4. (Ak. 70103,30 Weld. Nov. 17. Ar. 69 57 48 Weld. 
» 14 Ar. 70 04 21 Weld. » 24. Ar. 69 56 39 Weld. 
1859. Aprilig. Ar. 70 or 13 Kay. Dec. 10. Ar. 69 59 39 Weld. 
May 8 Ax. 70 03 39 Weld. » 10. Ar. 69 57 38 Weld. 


Mean of the 10 observations........sse+0+ 


oO , ut 
70° 00’ 27 


The results are in every case the mean of Poles Reversed and Needle Inverted. 


* Observed by Miss Anna Hunt. 


PN Bm 


- * 


ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 


. 


Station and Date. 


Jordan Hill. 
(12) 1859. Sept. 10. 
10. 
10. 
5 10. 


Fern Tower. 
(13) 1859. Sept. 30. 


; 30. 
y 30. 
a 30. 
pct.» 3. 


” 3 
Jardine Hall. 


(14) 1859. Oct. 5 
” 5 
” 5. 
” 5. 
” 8 
8 
Scarborough. 
(15) 1859. Oct. 11. 
” Il. 
m4 II. 
” II 
* 12 
12 
Cambridge. 


(16) 1860. May 


” 


” 


Llandovery. 
(17) 1860. July 30. 
30. 
30. 
30. 
30. 
30. 
Aug. 1. 


I. 


” 


Stackpole Court. 
(18) 1860. Aug. 21. 


” 


” 10. 


” 
” 
” 


TABLE I. (continued). 


Needle. 


1 Direct 
1 Inverted. 
2 Direct... 
2 Inverted. 


2 Direct ... 
2 Inverted. 
1 Direct ... 
1 Inverted. 
1 Direct ... 
1 Inverted. 


-| 2 Direct ... 
-| 2 Inverted. 


1 Direct ... 


1 Direct ... 
1 Inverted. 


1 Direct... 
1 Inverted. 
2 Direct .. 


.| 2 Inverted. 


1 Direct ... 
1 Inverted. 


1 Direct ... 
1 Inverted. 
2 Direct ... 
2 Inverted. 


1 Direct... 
1 Inverted. 
2 Direct ... 
2 Inverted. 
*2 Direct... 
*2 Inverted. 
*z Direct... 
*r Inverted. 


2 Direct ... 
2 Inverted. 
1 Direct .. 
1 Inverted. 


1 Direct... 
1 Inverted. 
2 Direct ... 
2 Inverted. 
1 Direct... 
1 Inverted. 


1 Direct... 
1 Inverted. 


.| 2 Direct... 
.| 2 Inverted. 


1 Inverted.| 


Marked End. 


N. Pole. 


° 
wet 7X 


71 
71 
72 


s 
42°3 
40°0 
29°7 
22°8 


° 
71 
71 
71 
71 


26°6 
19/9 
31°8 
32°0 
32°8 
29a. 


45°0 
39°7 
55°7 
52°8 
52°0 
54°8 


10°2 
O3'1 
58°9 
52°3 
10°O 
06"9 


58°7 
52°4 
39°4 
3970 


19°6 
23°4 
10°2 
09'2 
Coe 
210 
21'0 
25°0 


53°8 
53°5 
og’! 
og"! 


o6'o 
07°8 
48°5 
50°6 
04°0 
05°0 
18°7 
16°7 
o1'6 


O3°3 


Spare needles. 


S. Pole. 


71 30°1 


215 or agtg 


ro amy 70439 


70 4I'l 


| 
“ie 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


255 


Place of 
Observation. 


Inthe groundso: 
James Smith, 
Esq., F.R.S. 


F.R.S, 


Stokes, Lens- 
fi eld Cottage. 


St. Mary’s Cot- 


Cawdor, F.R.S. 


In the orchard 
of the Rectory. 


minus. 


256 ; REPORT—1861. 


TaBLE I. (continued). 


Marked End. Pace GE 
Station and Date. Needle. Means. : 
N. Pole. | S. Pole. Observation. 


Folkestone. 
(21) 1860. Oct. 8.| 1 Direct ...! 67 35:2 | 68 04°6 | 67 49°9 
- 8.| 1 Inverted.) 67 3379 | 68 oc0°g | 67 4774 


On the seabeach 
west of the 
a 10.| 2 Direct .../ 67 5071 | 67 45°9 | 67 48°0 Pavilion Hotel. 
3 10,| 2 Inverted.) 67 52°7 | 67 48°3 | 67 50°5 

Cleethorpe. 
(22) 1861. Sept. 14.) 1 Direct ...| 69 29°5 | 69 29°8 | 69 29°6 
14.| 1 Inverted.| 69 29°5 | 69 27°9 | 69 28°7 
14.| 2 Direct ...| 69 28°4| 69 2874 | 69 2874 
14.| 2 Inverted.| 69 31°6 | 69 32°2 | 69 31°9 


In a field north 


Circle No. 33- of the village. 


Lowestoft. 


(23) 1861. Sept. 23.| 1 Direct ...] 68 34°0 | 68 42°2 | 68 | 


2 23-| 1 Inverted.) 68 35°6 | 68 402 | 68 37°9 
Circle No. 33. 23.| 2 Direct ...| 68 37°2 | 68 39°4 | 68 38°3 
23.| 2 Inverted.) 68 37°8 | 68 42°4 | 68 4074 


Denes. 

Cawston. 
(24) 1861. Sept. 30.| 1 Direct...) 68 44°5 | 68 57°5 | 68 sr°o 
30. | 1 Inverted.) 68 46°0 | 68 57°1 | 68 51°6 
30.| 2 Direct ...| 68 49°7 | 68 54°38 | 68 52°2 
30. | 2 Inverted.} 68 51°4| 68 55°6 | 68 53°5 


‘ In the orchard 
Circle No. 33. of the Rectory. 

Cromer. 
(25) 1861. Oct. 2.| 1 Direct ...| 68 50°6 | 68 59°4| 68 55° 
1 Inverted.) 68 49°4| 68 56:2 | 68 52° 
2 Direct ...| 68 54°2 | 68 56°3 | 68 55° 


570 
2°8 
53 1 On the N.W. 
2 Inverted.| 68 56°5 | 69 00°6 | 68 58°5 68 55°3 
3°4 
TO 


Circle No. 33. Cliff. 


2 Direct ...| 68 50°4 | 68 56:4 | 68 53° 
2 Inverted.| 68 5175 | 69 02°5 | 68 57° 


On the Upper 
68 38°6 and Lower 


ay 


Tas_e I. (continued). 


Mean Dip. | 
. P Poles re- Place of 
Station and Date. |Needle.| Azimuths. | versed and | Observer. Gheecyatinn, 
Needle in- 
verted. 
Kew. ° ° ° / 
(26) 1860. Oct.22.| 1 oand 180 | 68 18:0 \ 
- 22. 2 © 5 180] 68 20°6 
= 22. 2 oO , 180 | 68 21'2 In the Magnetic 
2 22. rt |o ,, 180] 68 14'9 }|Mr. Stewart. House of the 
as 23. Ty} © 5, @x8o He. 68x76 Observatory. 
% 29. I © 5 180] 68 19°2 
”» Os) mee © 4 180 | 68 23°0) 
Mean at the Station... | 68 19'2 


Table II. recapitulates the stations of observation, with their latitudes and 
longitudes taken from the maps of the Society for Diffusing Useful Know- _ 
ledge, and the mean dips at the respective epochs of observation given in — 
Table I. reduced to the mean epoch of January Ist, 1860, by the propor- — 
tional parts of the annual change according to the rates assigned in a sub- 
sequent page (261). 


ROI P A yer 


ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 257 


TABLE II. 
Stations. Lat.=A.|Long.=p| Dip=0. Stations. |Lat.=X.}/Long.=p| Dip=9. 
° ‘ oOo 4 °o / °o ‘ o4 ° ‘ 

Kew .....s0000..) 51 29 |0 18 W.] 68 20°3 || Jardine Hall ...) 55 10 | 3 24. W.| 70 4374 
St. Leonards .,.! 50 51 |0 33 E. | 67 44°5 || Scarborough ...! 54 17 | 0 23 W.| 69 58°0 
Llandoyery...... 52 or |3 45 W.| 69 09°3 || Cambridge...... 52 13 |o O6F. | 68 42°7 
Stonyhurst...... 53 51 |2 28 W.] 69 57:2 |) Llandovery...... 52 of | 3 45 W.| 69 112 
Glangwnna...... 53 08 |4 14 W.| 69 58°8 || Stackpole Court! 51 38 | 4 55 W.| 68 59°9 
Teignmouth ...) 50 33 |3 30 W.| 68 03° || Cawston......... 52 47 | 1 12 E. | 68 5573 
Torquay ......... 50 28 |3 32 W.| 68 o2°2 || Margate ......... 51 23. | 1 23E. | 68 07°7 
Mt. Edgecombe| 50 21 |4 11 W.| 68 06:4 || Folkestone...... 5105 | 1 10K, | 67 51°0 
Penjerrick ...... 50 08 |5 07 W.| 68 06°6 |} Cleethorpe ...... 53 32 |9 00 69 33°4 
Lew Trenchard.| 50 39 |4 11 W.| 68 16:1 || Lowestoft ...... 52 30/1 45E. | 68 425 
Broome Park...| 51 14. |0 18 W.| 68 oo’o || Cawston.........) 52 47 | 1 12D. | 68 56°1 
Jordan Hill...... 55 52 |4 19 W.| 71 29°5 || Cromer .........) 52 56 | 1 17 E. | 68 59°3 
Fern Tower...... 56 22 13 50 W.| 71 2374] Kew .......00...] 51 29 | 0 18 W.| 68 2172 


Mean epoch 1st January, 1860. Mean latitude, 52° 20’=);. Mean longitude 1° 41’ W.=p. 
Mean dip at the central station 68° 59’2=6). 


The stations and dips contained in the preceding Table require to be 
combined according to the method described in the ‘ British Association 
Report’ for 1838, p.68 (and adopted in the British Magnetic Survey for 
1837), in order to determine (z) the angle which the isoclinal lines in England 
make with the meridian, and (7) the distance between them corresponding 
to differences of 1° of dip measured on the normal or perpendicular to the 
direction of the isoclinal lines themselves. Thus, if we make a and 6 co- 
ordinates of distance, in geographical miles, of the several stations in lon- 
gitude and latitude from the central position, and if we put 7 cos uv=z, and 
rsinu=y, we have from Table II. 26 equations of condition of the form 


0—0,=axr-+ by ; 
combining these by the method of least squares, we find 
x=+0°:1993; y=+0°5911; w=—71°29'; and r=0'-624. 


The most probable dip at each station will therefore be given by the 


formula 
6= +68° 59"2+0:1993a+0°59114, 


a and 6b being the distances in longitude and latitude, expressed in geogra- 
phical miles, from the central position in 1°41! W. longitude, and 52° 20'N. 
latitude. 

Table III. contains in columns 2 and 3 the values of the coordinates 
a and 6 for the stations named in column 1; in columns 4 and 5 are 
placed the values of (0—6,), in column 4 as observed, and in column 5 as 
calculated ; in columns 6 and 7 the dips at each station are shown, viz. the 
observed dips in column 6 and the calculated dips in column 7; and in the 
final column the differences are stated between the observed and calculated 
dips. From these differences we obtain +3!85 as the probable error of the 
observed dip at a single station in this survey. This small amount of pro- 
bable error will doubtless contrast favourably with the results in countries 
where igneous rocks are of more frequent occurrence than they are in 
England; it includes both station anomalies and the effects of magnetic dis- 
ao as well as observational and instrumental errors. 

l. s 


258 REPORT—1861. 


Taste III. 

(u—p,) cos A.| (A—A,)- 0—6,. 0. Observed 

Stations eet te SE MN as aN ST 

. = cu- cu- 

a. &.  |Observed. lated, |Observed. late) lated. 

(1.) (2.) G@) | @ | G1 @ | @ [-@ 

Miles. Miles. ; 1 o oy is 

Kew sasecsccssee — 52 — 5x | — 389 | — 4or5 | 68 2073] 68 18°7| +-01°6 
St. Leonards ... — 85 — 89 |— 747 |— 79°5 | 67 44°5| 67 49°7|] —05'2 
Llandovery...... + 76 — 19 |+ tor |-+ o4'o | 69 09°3 | 69 03:2 | +-06'1 
Stonyhurst......) + 28 + 9r |+ 580 }-+ 594 | 69 57°2 | 69 58°6| —or4 
Glangwnna...... + 92 + 48 [+ 59°6 |+ 46°7 | 69 588} 69 45°9 | +12°9 
Teignmouth ... + 68 —107 |— 563% | — 49°7 | 68 03°1 | 68 o9°5 | —06%4 
Torquay ......... + 70 —1Iz |— 57°90 | — 52°3 | 68 02°2 | 68 069 | —04"7 
Mt. Edgecombe + 96 —119 |— 52°38 |— 51'2 | 68 064} 68 o8'0| —o1'6 
Penjerrick ...... +131 —132 |— 52°6|— 519 | 68 06°6| 68 07°3 | —oo'7 
Lew Trenchard.| + 95 —101 | — 43°1 | — 40°8 | 68 16°12] 68 18:4] —o2°3 
Broome Park ... — 52 — 66 |— 59°2 | — 494 | 68 co'0 | 68 09°38 | —og'8 
Jordan Hill .,.) -+ 89 +212 | +150°3 | +143°0 | 71 29°5 | 71 22°2| +07°3 
Fern Tower...... + 71 +242 | +1442 | +157°1 | 71 23°41 71 363] —12°9 
Jardine Hall ... + 59 +170 | + 104°2 | +13112°3 | 70 43°4.| 70 51°§ | —o8°r 
Scarborough ...| — 46 +117 | + 58°83 |+ 60°0 | 69 58°0! 69 59°72] —or'2 
Cambridge ...... — 66 — 7 |— 165 |— 17°2 | 68 42°7| 68 42°0] +00°7 
Llandovery...... + 76 — 19 | + 1270 /+ 40 | 69 11°2 | 69 03°2] +08°0 
Stackpole Court} +120 — 42 | + 00°7 | — oo'g | 68 59°9| 68 583] +01°6 
Cawston ......... — 104 + 27 | — 03°09 | — 04°7 | 68 55°3| 68 54°5| +00°8 
Margate .....+... —I115 — 57 |— 51°5 | — 56°6 | 68 07°7] 68 02°6| +05"2 
Folkestone ...... —107 — 75 |— 682 }— 65°6 | 67 51:0] 67 53°5| —02°6 
Cleethorpe ...... — 60 + 72 |+ 342 |+ 30°7 | 69 3374] 69 29°9| +03°5 
Lowestoft ...... —125 + 10 |— 16°7 | — 19°0 | 68 42°5| 68 4or2| +02°3 
Cawston........- —I04 + 27 |— 0371 | — 04°7 | 68 56°21} 68 54°5| +01°6 
Cromer ..,..0.} —108 + 36 |+ oor | — o0'2 | 68 5973] 68 59°0| +0073 
KNEW, csuguxssenas — 52 — 5% |— 37°38 | — 4o°5 | 68 21°21 68 187} +02°5 


The direction of the isoclinal lines in England thus found for January 1, 
1860, is from N. 71°22’ E. to S. 71° 22'W. The direction found in the 
previous survey (by observations at 132 stations by five observers) was from 
N. 65° 05! E. to S. 65° 05! W. (Brit. Assoc. Report, 1838, pp. 85 and 86). 
The central geographical positions are only a few miles distant from each 
other, being respectively 52° 38! N., and 2° 07! W. in 1837, and 52° 20' N., 
and 1°41! W. in 1860. From the large amount of the difference in the 
direction of the lines at the two epochs (6° 17'), it is scarcely possible to 
doubt that in the interval between 1837 and 1860 a real change has taken 
place in this respect, and that the isoclinal lines passing across England have 
increased the angle which they make with the geographical meridians; a 
change implying that in the interval the secular diminution of the dip has 
been greater on the West than on the Hast side of the island. 

In the survey of 1837, r was found =0'575, and in that of 1860=0'624; 
the geographical distance between the lines has therefore increased in the 
interval in the proportion of 0'624 to 0'575; a change implying that the 
secular diminution of the dip has been greater in the Southern than in the 
Northern parts of England. 

The difference in the rate of secular change on the east and on the west 
sides of England may be also shown directly by the comparison of the obser- 
vations at two stations, Margate and Lew Trenchard, one on the east and 
the other on the west side; the stations were common to both surveys, the 
observer being the same at the two periods and the localities identical: the 


ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 259 


instrument employed in the earlier survey was a circle and two needles by 
Gambey, free from any appreciable error, and in the later survey, No. 30 
and its two needles already described: the results were as follows :— ~ 


Margate. Lew Trenchard. 

Lat. 51° 23’ N., Long. 1° 23! E. Lat. 50° 39! N., Long. 4°11! W. 
OE ree 69% 02'-9'|. July $0, 1888, cc scmenece 69° 19"0 
tas AGO ....2s pen ccnese 68° 05!-9 | July 9,1859 ...........0002 68° 17!4 
Secular changein22‘9 years 57"0 | Secularchangein21 years 1° O1"6 
Annual change ..........+. 2''49 | Annual change............ 2""93 


This comparison shows that the mean annual secular change in the interval 
between the surveys was a decrease of 2!:49 at Margate on the east coast, and 
of 2'-93 at Lew Trenchard on the borders of Devonshire and Cornwall. 

The amount of the difference in the rate of secular change on the east and 
west coasts corresponding to the change in the value of wu, may be further 
and more fully exemplified by comparing the values of the dip at the two 
epochs 1837 and 1860 at Lowestoft on the extreme east of England, and at 
the Land’s End at the extreme west; the values in 1837 being taken from 
the map of the isoclinal lines for January 1837 accompanying the report of 
the survey of that epoch, and those in 1860 being computed by the formula 
obtained by the survey of 1860, 


Lowestoft. Land’s End. 
Lat. 52° 30’ N., Long. 1° 45! E. Lat. 50° 05! N., Long. 5° 40’ W. 
Dip in the Isoclinal ae 2 UY Bie Ty 
ESP ride. ee Master OR BE MT PE Cok lec snabes 69 21:0 
Dipin January 1860, com- 
puted by the formula i , 
8=€8° 5924-01993 a EGO y a! os arnt pee en nésievalbaaanpe aqech 68 10°0 
+0°591i 6 | ———— —_———— 
Secular change in 23 years BAB" fice ckscosssviecscscosccocton css 1 11:0 
Annual change ............ ESOL ret satdedeoare apes ctie tsetse 3°09 


If we now bring together the values of the annual secular change during 
the 23 years preceding 1860 as shown by these four comparisons, placing them 
in order from East to West across our island, and introducing in its proper 
place 2'63, the annual secular change at Kew in the 21 years preceding 1859 
as known from other sources (Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol.xi.p.158), 
we have as follows :— ‘ 

Lowestoft,.....00006.. 2:36 Lew Trenchard ......... 2°93 
MAT AA ciiiekeecciesen,, 249 Land’s End..........006.. 3°09 
Wis ndash sles -lossieses)  21GS 


The increase in proceeding from east to west is shown consistently. The 
annual values derived from determinations including intervals of above 
' 20 years, are of course mean values. The surveys furnish no direct means 
of judging whether the secular change has been uniform or otherwise at any 
of the stations. At one of the stations only, i.e. Kew, we have reason to 
believe, from the observations recorded in the ‘Proceedings of the Royal 
Society’ referred to above, that the change has been uniform during the 
whole period from 1837 to 1860 (and also for several years preceding 1837) ; 
ot are not entitled to assume a similar uniformity at any of the other 

stations. 
Proceeding now to the increase in the value of 7 in the interval between 
the two surveys,—the difference in the rate of secular change of dip in the 

82 


’ 


260 REPORT—1861, 


northern and southern parts of England which is implied thereby may be 
similarly shown, by comparing the dips in 1837 and 1860 at two geographical 
positions, one in the extreme north, and the other in the extreme south of 
England. Taking as the northern station the intersection in the map of 
January 1837 of the isoclinal line of 71°30' with the parallel of 55° N. 
latitude, which takes place in the longitude of 3° 00! W.,—and for the southern 
station the intersection of the isoclinal line of 69° in the same map with the 
parallel of 51°, which takes place in 0° 07’ East longitude,—-and comparing 
these values with the values computed for January 1860 by the formula cor- 
responding to that epoch, we have— 


North Geog. Position. South Geog. Position. 
Lat. 55°, Long. 3° 00’W. Lat. 51°, Long. 0° 07’ E. 


Dip in the map corresponding to tO. ents Peer 
AUN REN ELAS 5 costes seclenmnen tangs } OE 0 ee 
Dip on January 1, 1860, computed 
by the formula 107, BOB | \ackimgaatonn kav ae a 
0=68° 59'"2+0"1993a+0'59116 —— - = 
Secular change in 23 years ........... MTD. wasendtics| s Sik neo 
PTV CHATG. 7 - cicienantis eV dasick ove igs Oe A 2'-68 


The comparison shows that the méan annual secular change in the interval 
of 23 years between the surveys was 205 on the northern border of England, 
and 268 at a station on the south coast. Thus it is seen that the annual 
rate of decrease of dip has varied in different parts of England in proceeding 
from east to west, from 2°36 at Lowestoft to 3°09 at the Land’s End; and 
in proceeding from north to south from 2°05 at a position in 55° to 2°68 at 
a position in 51° N. latitude. 

In viewing the map in which the isoclinal lines for 1837 and 1860 are 
represented in comparison with each other (Pl. VIII.), it is seen that there 
are three points where the amount of secular change in the interval must have 
been the same, viz. the three points where the lines of 68°, 69°, and 70° in 
1837 intersect respectively with those of 69°, 70°, and 71° in1860; since at each 
of these points themean annual change must have been (60' +23 years= ) 262. 
These three points are seen to be in a curved line which crosses England 
from the vicinity of Folkestone to the Irish Channel, and would impinge 
upon the east coast of Ireland a few miles north of Dublin. Kew, also, where 
the mean annual decrease of the dip in the same interval has been 2'63, is as 
nearly as may be on the same line. At all stations north and east of the 
line the mean annual secular change in the 23 years has been less than 2’62, 
and at all stations south and west of the line greater than 262. Ina pre- 
ceding page we have the mean annual change at four stations (Lowestoft, 


Margate, Lew Trenchard, and Land’s End) situated at points on the east’ 


and west sides of England, and at two geographical positions (55° N. and 
8° W., and 51° N. and 0° 07’ E.) at north and south points. An intercom- 
parison of the respective values of annual change at these six localities with 
2-62, and of their geographical distances from the aforesaid line of 262 
measured in every case on a perpendicular to that line, shows that an increase 
of 0’1 in the annular secular change for every 30 geographical miles towards 
the N.E., and a decrease of 0'-1 for every 30 geographical miles towards the 
S.W., will represent very approximately the observed values. We are thus 
furnished with a seale by which the variation in the mean rate of the secular 
decrease of the dip in different parts of England in the interval between the 
two surveys may be approximately assigned; the limits being an annual 
decrease of 3’°1 at the Land’s End, and of 20 at Berwick. If we should per- 


ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 261 


mit ourselves to extend the same scale of variation to the north of Scotland, 
we should find the mean annual decrease reduced to 16. The ‘very small 
corrections required to reduce the results of the observations of the present 
survey toa common epoch (January |, 1860), as shown in Table II. p. 257, 
have been estimated in accordance with this scale of variation : the whole of 
the observations were made within two years of the common epoch. 

The line which has been indicated as connecting the intersections of the 
isoclinals of 68°, 69°, and 70° of 1837 with those of 69°, 70°, and 71° of 1860, 
is marked on the map by a faintly dotted line. It is in fact a line com- 
posed of nodal points, on which the isoclinals passing through them may be 
conceived to have turned, as on pivots, in the interval of 23 years, and 
(irrespective of their common and uniform movement of translation to the 
north) to have undergone a change of direction, becoming more southerly on 
the eastern side of the nodal line, and more northerly on its western side. 


Division Il.—Jntensity of the Magnetic Force. 


For the purpose of ascertaining the position, direction, and distance apart 
of the isodynamic lines, or lines of equal Total Force, two methods were 
employed, viz. (a) the determination at different stations of the values in 
absolute measure of the horizontal component of the force, which values, 
being combined with the dip of the needle observed at the same time and 
place, give the absolute values of the total force; and (b) the determination 
of the variations of the total force itself at the different stations, by observing 
the positions of equilibrium of a dipping-needle between the action of the 
earth’s magnetism and that of a small constant weight with which the needle 
is loaded. It may be convenient to discuss these methods and their results 
separately ; and with this view we may commence with the determinations 
of the absolute value of the horizontal component of the force. 

a. Horizontal Force in Absolute Measure —aA full description of the in- 
“struments, and of the method employed in these experiments, is given in 
App. I. of the article on “ Terrestrial Magnetism ” in the 3rd edition of the 
‘Manual of Scientific Inquiry,’ published under the authority of the Ad- 
miralty. The collimator magnet employed as a deflector was numbered 5, 
and was used throughout the experiments. Its moment of inertia (KX), in- 
cluding the suspending stirrup and other appendages, was determined at 
Kew, by the late Mr. Welsh, in June 1858, by the mean of experiments 
with three cylinders B, C, and D, of which the weights and dimensions were 
respectively as follows— 


in. in. gTs. 
15 pee length 4°0193 ; diam. 0°3917 ; weight 1029,62, 
oa length 40488; diam. 0°3929 ; weight 104442, 
3 peas length 4°0131; diam. 0°3916 ; weight 1029,71, 


whence K was found =0°73100 at 60° Fahr.; and the log of *#K= 
1°72513 at 30° Fahr. 1°72531 at 60° Fahr. 1°72549 at 90° Fahr. 
1°72519 at 40° Fahr. 1°72537 at ‘70° Fahr. 
1°72525 at 50° Fahr. 1°72543 at 80° Fahr. 


The correction for the decrease of the magnetic moment of No. 5, produced 
by an increase of 1° Fahr.=(q)=0:00011 (¢,—é)+°0000006 (¢,—¢)’, ¢, being 
the observed temperature, andé=45°. The induction coefficient (1) =0°000252. 
These were both determined at Kew by the same careful experiinentalist. 
The angular value of one seale-division of the vibration apparatus=2'-27. 
The graduation of the deflection bar, compared with the verified standard 
measure of the Kew Observatory, was without error within the limits which 
were used. The rate of the chronometer and the arc of vibration were too 


(08 2 el 


262 REPORT—1861. 

small throughout the experiments to require corrections to be applied on 
their account. The constant P, depending upon the distribution of magnet- 
ism in the deflecting and suspended magnets (the same magnets having heen 
used throughout), was determined by the experiments in Table IV. made at 
Kew by Mr. Chambers :— 


TaBLeE 1V.—Deflections with Collimator 5 at distances 0°9 ft. and 1:2 ft. to 
determine the value of P. Observed by Mr. Chambers. 


Distance o'g ft.=7; 17s 100069 ; £=45°.|| Distance 12 ft.=7r) ; ifs 1'00029; ¢=45°. 
0 0 
; m’ 4 m 
1859. Temp. |Deflections.| Log xy 1859. Temp. |Deflections.| Log oa 
° ° ‘4 “i °o fe} “4 “fl 

ED. Is. e ce 52°6 23\ XY) 45 g°r2046' | Feb. £7... 52°6 8 45 52 911984 
Eat 53°3 21 13 34 912145 “sylks pocdtie 5383 8 52 00 912489 
Ps ee 53°1 2115 00 | 912155 ae iReteats 53°1 8 50 25 | 9:12357 
Sinica: 41°4 21 15 24 | 9*12096 ib, dinacde 414 8 48 15 | 9g*12z104 
oe Re 44°8 21 14 16 9°12076 HOG Macks 44°83 8 48 09 g°12118 
PRE a tae 47°3 21 13 34| 9°12070 PaRL it 47°3 8 47 56 | 9'12117 
Mar. 2...... 56°5 2I 09 42 9°12007 || Mar. z...... 56°5 8 46 04 9°12027 
Pe An canss 63°5 21 07 45 911995 oy) Aveo sis 63°5 8 45 26 9°12028 
NICRY co escdaateneysereecess log A=9'12073 Mean .2 ods cacbasdensten log A’=9°12153 

, 

Whence P= (A-a)= (4-3) =—-00337. 
rT? 


The experiments detailed in Tables V. and VI. were made with Collimator 
No. 5, in June 1858, and in January and March 1859, by Messrs. Welsh and 
Chambers, to determine the value in British units of the magnetic force at 
the Kew Observatory, adopted as the base station of the Survey. 


TABLE V. (see opposite page). 
TasiE VI.—Conclusions from Table V. 


Date. Distance. X. m. 0. pe» Observers. 
ft. ott: 
1858. June 17...) o'9 3°7894. | °5178| 68 23°3| 10°289 | 
June 18 ...| o'9 3°7847 | °5177| 68 23°3| 10°276 Mr. Welsh. 
June 18...) o°9 3°7858 | °5179| 68 23°3] 10°279 J 
1859. January 15| "0 3°7918 | *5121| 68 22°4] 10°288 
January 15 ro 3°7894 | *5118] 68 22°74] 10°282 
January 19} 0o'9 3°7880 | 5126] 68 22°4] 10°278 
January 19 12, 3°7930 | *5114.| 68 22°4] r0°292 
January 20} 12 3°7993 | °5120| 68 2274] 10°308 
January 20} o'9 3°7910 | °5123| 68 22°4} 10°286 Mir. Chambers, 
March 2...| 09 3°7933 | °5020|] 68 2274] 10°292 
March) 2.2) 3°7966 | *5022] 68 22°4| ro‘301 
March 4...) 1°2 3°7957 | 5019] 68 22°4] 10°299 
March 4...| o'9 3°7953 | °5024| 68 2274] 10°298 


Mean corresponding to January 1859............ 10°290 | 


x=nJ mx 2% maJ mk. ¢=X sec 0. 


9 in June 1858 from 115 observations at Kew (68° 23’-2 on July 1, 1858). 
9 in January and March 1859, from 54 observations at Kew in those months (Pro- 
ceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xi. pp. 150, 151 and 152). 


263 


ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 


yy 


ong: Sa 


[0 a 


sloquivyg ‘ay\l | Vz0gz.o oe Mt ee oer} LL171.6 $v lo 1z S.£9 6.0 COTY ae 
*sroquieqy “ayy, | £664z.0 aad + ee ce zfr71.6 gz SHg $.£9 7.1 © iS UROL Sake 
‘sraqmeyg “ay | 1662z.0 ies we are ct r£1z1.6 to of g S.9S ZI ae a ec 
*sIaquieyg ‘Ij, | 000gz.0 sss He sled eet 6g17z1.6 zb 60 1% $.9S 6.0 pestss@ OTD TAT 
5 x Sg£00, @.05 ZgIz.S oSt £5 gf 1z v.6r 6.0 Erecrdiqg, ste 
eee { 2600" 2.05 Bgtz.s sm vhot.6 bE gf 12 8.3h 6.0 asigzaatt 
AERO a Whee n| detec a Psrgapee- | goree’ | eek | lh, sAMBeb dee caeiome Hae a ayer al eee? 
: : OII00, 6.15 $Szz.$ ogt Lt LS g v.0$ ZI re 
SEO AML 894880 {ace £.28 Sofz.S eat vL6er.6 {a 9S g 6.6% ZI ESOS de maldo 
magativho te | SeaeoN reat eel aove de Ul) opel) oSEnemO ae] ge gael ere Lee ele ree 
‘woqmong “aw | Soleco| {Zero | oy | eee a veal eo 
4 ; ‘ Sof1.6 
} ZI £00, bbb 6912.5 o$t % ' 
sg IB A Raa tere 9.6¢ S917. oSt 6S of Sx o.Lt Ot pesave in ‘uee 
6S gr 
"USM “IN | 6£26z.0 fae om ooo me or 2 1% L.zg ms siti Se 
: ‘ : bogt1.6 
i $17Z00, $.L9 z£oz.S oSz 
TSIRAS APD 4ikxe6e.0 ene 8-99 $102. o$z GP Zour L.z9 pe perro rise 
= : £Zzo0, ZL $zo0z.$ oSz bE gb iz Z.EL .0 pepe Lr #9 
UST9M “I | $2z6z.0 cidde. bl wont eh 09S £1,6 Ez gh rz etl 6:0 sore Zr oun 
° 8 (iene | ° ° "yy "Sor 
“Xu B07 ‘= dmay| “L= ory, | “siqia jo ‘on x 807 n= uoyoepag |°7= ‘dmoy} ‘“= 4ysIq 
*T9ATOSIO ue a Jt gt AB ‘aye 
Ofc. eG os }s en oy ee }{ —07) 54.8 paws <= 
te PG 9)F— + pol x Tos AY eee pe, 


"UOTJLIIA JO syusMMTIEd xT ‘uoNoapeq Jo syuowiedxy 
SE ee ee Se ee at cee) TSF ee ees ee ee | 


‘A TIAV], 


REPORT—1861. 


264 


$6z00. 
9729.0 {| cGro0, 
£6z00, 
ob£9z.0 { Caran, 
gotoo, 
8809%.0 { goroo. 
gztoo, 
ee { gztoo. 
ootoo, 
SvLLz.0 ootoo, 
ooboo, 
ogtoo. 
SggLz.o { etch 
EGLIp.o { ogtoo. 
ogfoo, 
ogfoo, 
SgLLz.0 { deean, 
£to0f.0 ogfoo. 
“xu S07 aL 
H 


uU 


xX 


209 


gLlZb.s 
£ogf.S 
1£L6.5 
£69£.5 
zSgE.S 
£S96.5 


ob6z5 
3662.S 


6997. 
£697.5 
8887.5 
Ltgz.S 
€Lgz.$ 
7Lgz.S 
0162.$ 
£062. 
£6gz.S 


oLlt1.$ 


‘L=omny, 


oSé 
oSz 
oof 
oSz 
oSz 
oz 


oSz 
tov 


oSz 
o$z 
oS 
oSt 
oSz 
ost 
oS% 
oSt% 
oS 


o$% 


SUOTIBAQIA 
JO "ON 


eee 2 cc 
see L tc 
see 73 
aR 
Some d “ec 
“1 990 
eee €r “a 
* €rqdag 
eee bz “a 
eee tz “ce 
. bz “ee 
"or sé 
"Or “cc 
°° OF “ 
‘OL “ce 
“OL “ce 
“or ‘Sny 


Ame 
"Sgt 


*a4eq 


fe 


{Sr4q—90— 241 ba=xu 


“MOTPeAQIA JO syuatuTedxT 


‘sasha Aq opeur jye o1aa. szuottsedxa osoyy, 


[e1sAVS OY} 4e ‘G 


Fes om Sz to £z |g.Lv/ 6.0 
} ox951.6{ Iv 10 £¢ |1.gb} 6.0 
TTT 6b go fz |g.6b| 6.0 
} stgsr.6{ gz 60 Ez |g.6b| 6.0 
Pew LE fx Sz |6.65|6.0 
} z1091.6 1 gz fr Ez |g.bS | 6.0 
ooLt1.6 gh go gr: |S.LL] 0.1 
} gtlbz.6 < obLt1.6 gS Sz zz |¥.SL)| 6.0 
£rb1.6 $v to zr |S.bL} 1.4 
saue gbL1.6 €£$ gz zz 0.02 | 6.0 
cbltr. 
gflbr.6 z& gz zz |0.0£| 6.0 
\ Lzgtr.6 or 6z zz = {g.£2| 6.0 
Sogt1.6 of 62 zz |8.69| 6.0 
brghr.6 

L6Lb1.6 zi 6z zz |6.69| 6.0 
gzghr.6 Sz oz zz 0.69 | 6.0 
Okt dt bz 12 |b.95 | 6.0 
oggzr.6{ Lz bz 1% |¥.85 | 6.0 

“ / ie} ie} . 
u 
ca nfo] 

wl ASE oan et &_X 

d {@ Mba HT f OU of =a 


“molayeg jo syuawtsadxy 


TIA 2T4V 


oe §& 


ES 5 
seeeeey Aqne 
"8581 


*a}eq 


POP e ee eeeeeseerees “ 


SeeeweeeceoeveeeooOUUMOUB[E) 
eee “ic 


“4sanqAuoys 


POP e eer es seers sees “cc 
“ 
iT) 


* Argsopuryy 


Peete teeeeereeceee 


‘treseeeeseeees SHIvHOOTT "4g 


“1014819 


“W9Y] WO POATJap SUOISNPOUOD OY} *T]IT.\ eqeJ, pue ‘Aaaang oy} Jo suoryrys 
"ON AOPVUITTJOD YPM opvUt ‘UOI}VIQIA PUG UOIZDIHaq JO syusWIedxa ay} Jo s[ivjap ay} suLe}UOD “JJA BqUT 


265 


ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 


6£g%z.0 


988%z.0 


ob£Sz.0 
o1bSz.o 


7 


£Sovz.0 


¥gzLz.0 


6z697.0 


L1LSz.0 
£69Sz.0 


£56Sz.0 
o9£Sz.0 
L6z97.0 


aa SS sa 


62S bz.0 
Q7zz£7.0 


SoLLz.o 
P£ogz.0 
$Sogz.o 
PS7gz.0 
691g7.0 


LLEgz.0 { 


mien! 


ZS 7200. 
ZS 700. 
z$ 700. 
725700. 


O1I7Z00, 
O1IZO0O, 


OIZOO. 
00700, 


$6100. 
$6100, 


gzz00. 
97700. 
£8100. 
£gr100, 
Lzzoo. 
Lzzoo. 
06000. 
06000, 
ogf00. 
ogfoo. 
99700. 
99700, 


1$z00, 
1$Zz00, 
1$zoo. 
1¥z00, 
1vzoo, 
1vzoo. 
1vzoo. 
61700, 
zbzoo, 
zbzoo, 


z.69 
2.79 
£.19 
£.19 


0.79 
0.19 


0.65 
oS 


0.19 
0.65 


9.6¢ 
0.25 
g.6S 
6.09 
L.9S 
0.65 
0.£9 
0.£9 
¥.89 
0.L9 

.09 

29 


v.19 
8.49 


4.99 
0.6L 


9.%9 


z.59 
0.9 
z.b9 
0.69 
0.7L 


PIL¥.S 
ZOLy.S 
£99+.S 
1vLv.$ 


Lggt.$ 
£Lov.S 


£gfv.S 
f£ev.s 


zozS.S 
tozS.S 


IEr£.5 
bSr£.S 
oové.s 
61v£.S 
bbrt.$ 
gS1b.S 
Lgorv.$ 
zZ1ov.$ 
Lofv.S 
Lotv.S 
olgf.S 
£06£.5 


96%.$ 
£1ZS.$ 
ogZS.$ 
£00£.5 
glgz.S 
gzlz.$ 
0097.S 
0997.S 
o0z$z.$ 
gz. 


oz 
ogf 
ogf 
oth 


oov 
oz 


ozb 
ot 


ogf 
ogv 


oSt 
ost 
oS? 
oSf 
oSf 
oSb 
ost 
oS& 
oof 
oof 
oof 
o$z 


oor 
oSf 
oov 
oSf 
oS£ 
oSf 
oof 
oS€ 
oSf 
oSf 


+ a“ 
€ “ce 
g “cc 
£ 00 
lz 
Lt “ 
tz “ 
Ez se 
Li “cb 
Li 4dag 
*Iggt 
6 “c 
6 “ 
9 “ 
9 *~0 
rr, 8 
Ir ydag 
cA ee 
77% ‘ONY 
gt “i 
gt Ame 
Lr “ 
Lr keyg 
*O9gI 
CB en 
Hb; “ 
L "490 
cn 4 
I “ec 
4 
of 
ot “ 
gr “cc 
gi oune 


*6Sgr 


een eeeeneee 


een eeeeraeee 


see meeweeeee 


ste eeewenene 


| 
} 
} 
} 
} 


stern ew eeeeenee 


i 
} 


Beer enenree 


ee ees eeneeseee 


Coe eerecsere 


\ 
J 


6L111.6 


ooorr.6 


grsor.6{ 


ZL171.6 


$6660.64 


g6tor.6{ 


gLL11.6 
gzgir.6 


€pS11.6 { 
thier.6 4 


bogr.6{ 


$S6£1.6 
$1£51.6 
gSbr1.6 
767z11.6 


LSEr11.6 
ggt11.6 


1gbrr.6 { 


7 Lt 
vS LE 
6£ of 


Sx ££ 
6£ bf 
6r zt 
vz 61 
bY gt 
LY go 
to Lo 
So Lo 


vS zo 
gt vo 
Lb tr 
fv Sr 
go LS 
gb 3S 
££ 6+ 
gS 64 
zS So 
gf Lo 
1$ ZS 
St LS 


Of 
loy4 
o@ 


ok 
fey 
ley4 
ley 4 
o@ 
Iz 
1% 
It 


loys 
o@ 
tek 
o@ 
ot 
lor 
loy4 
ley 4 
4 
1@ 
le4 
loy4 


1S Lb 
gt tb 
gt ob 


zr fv 
Si tr 
££ Sb 
tO ov 


5.89 
S.L9 


S.Lo 


0.19 
0.19 
0.09 
$.65 
¢.6S 
0.LS 
0.L$ 
0.LS 


¥.£S 
0.28 
g.6S 
$.6$ 
$.9S 
1.9$ 
$.gS 
ZL 
8-29 
0.£9 
0.09 
0.09 


L.£9 
o.bL 
z.59 


0.79 
9.19 
$.L9 
$.S9 


6.0 
6.0 
6.0 


6.0 
6.0 
6,0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 


6.0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 


6.0 
6.0 
6.0 
6,0 


6,0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 


eee ¢ “ 
eee ¢ “a 
eee S "490 
eee Lz sc 
eee Lz “ 
coe [Z “ 
eee bz “cc 
eee tz “a 
eee Li a“ 
eee Ltr “cc 


oo 6 “c 
Soe SC 
eee 9 ‘“ 
“9 400 
Cos a ¢ 4c 
"+ rr qdag 
OO Ar A +“ 
“Iz Sny 
eee 91 “ 
sgt Ayne 
ore LT “ 
ve Lr key 
CE 
oon OL ‘“ 
"8 "490 
coo rr “ 
ory Aine 
oon of “ce 
ir ol A “ 
coe Ly “ 
* Zr oune 
6Sgr 


see eecceesecereces “ 


Fe eeoeeeserenerene “ 


seetesenueereeseesers JOMIOIO 


eee eeesenteseerese “ 
Peewee ster eesensees “ 


see eeeeersonseceesons U0ISMED 
oe 6“ 


** 4J03S907] 


ad107749919 


eecencesteccssvess auoysom]O 


Pere reassesescere 


sone HO}8AED 


weeees 


41n0g ejodgoe7s 


AMAOpULT'T 


** gopliqmeg 


eeeeesece 


eeeeesensessces 


seuseusesvectve ysnoroqieosg 
seeeeeeeseeeeee TET QUIDICS 
strevesevons NIDUOUALT, MOT 


se etereeceessecece “ 


eerereeeeereccvee yorsalueg 
6“ 


ae eeeeeeroeseerece 


Por eeeeeereseresee “ 


yynowmusiay, 


266 REPORT—1861. 


TasxeE VIII.—Conclusions from Table VI. and VII. 


Stations. Date. X. 
KEW ccccs-cccncanss 1859. January.cs...]  seeees 
St. Leonards ......|1858. July ......... 378670 
Llandovery......... Aug. & Sept.) 3°6722 
Stonyhurst......... October...... 3°5512 
Glangwnna.,,....... October...... 3°5708 
Teignmouth ...... 1859. June ......006 3°8388 
Penjerrick ......... June & July} 3°8371 
Lew Trenchard ,.. Duly scaseveves 3°8128 
Jardine Hall ...... October...... 3°4.638 
Scarborough ...... October...... 3°5717 
Cambridge ........./1860. May ..... sedel on 3° 9G50 
Llandovery......... July seh si es 3°6820 
Stackpole Court... August ...... 3°7330 
Cawston .......0000- September...| 3°7112 
Margate .......00. a October...... 3°8252 
Folkestone......... October...... 3°8614 
Cleethorpe.......+. 1861. September... 376283 
Lowestoft ......00. September...) 3°7521 
Cawston..e.cceceeee September...) 3°7105 
Cromer, s.csccetes ae October...... 3°7008 


xa mix; maV mx . 2; ¢=X sec @; 6 from Table I. 


b. Variations of the Total Force determined by the Statical Method.—This 
method is described in the ‘Manual of Terrestrial Magnetism,’ 3rd edition, 
pp- 27 & 28, section B. The Dip Circle No. 30 was furnished with two addi- 
tional needles, Nos. 3 and 4, the poles of which were at no time reversed or 
disturbed. No. 3 was an ordinary‘dipping-needle, and No. 4 a similar needle 
loaded with a small fixed and constant weight, deflecting it from its natural 
position in the magnetic direction. The frame carrying the microscopes was 
fitted to receive and retain No. 4 securely in a constant position when used to 
deflect No. 3. 

The experiment consists of two processes: the first being the observation 
of the position of equilibrium of No.3 between the action of the earth’s 
magnetism and that of No. 4 used as a deflector; the north pole of No. 4 
being directed alternately towards the (magnetic) north and south: and the 
second process being the observation of the position of equilibrium of No. 4 
between the action of the earth’s magnetism and that of the small fixed and 
constant weight with which it is loaded. 

By the first process we obtain the inclination to the horizon of No. 3 when 
deflected by No. 4 =w,= half the difference between the readings (ina single 
position of the circle and needle) with the north pole of No. 4 directed alter- 
nately north and south ; and by the second process we obtain the inclination 
to the horizon of the loaded needle observed in the four positions of the 
circle and needle =n. Then 6—n=w is the deviation of the loaded needle 
from the position due to the earth’s magnetism alone, @ being the mean dip 
observed with needles 1 and 2 at the same time and place. 

We have then the following expression for the total force (#) at each 


station, 
cos 
p = Ang Sons 
sin @ sin u, 


7 oe ve 


; 


re 
: 


ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 267 


where A is a constant obtained by the formula 
oon sin wu sin v, 
cos 0 cos 9 ‘ 
from observations made at a base station where X and 6 have been carefully 
determined. 
The Observatory at Kew having been taken as a base station, the experi- 
ments detailed in Tables IX. and X. were kindly made at my request by 


Messrs. Stewart and Chambers in January 1859 and October 1860, to de- 
termine the value of the constant A at those epochs. 


Tasie [X.—Observations made at the Kew Observatory by Mr. Chambers 
in January 1859, with needles 3 and 4 of Circle 30, to determine the value 
of the constant A. 


X=10:290 (Tables V. & VI.). 0=68° 22’ 18” (Proceedings of the Royal 
Society, vol. xi. p. 151). 


Date. Ne U. Uy. 


° U “ ° i “ ° ‘ “ 
January 13 ...0«-| —17 38 00 | 86 00 18 | 30 27 23 


Tye wo: —17 38 17 | 86 00 35 | 30 27 50 
seeees] —17 45 22 | 86 07 4O | 30 25 02 


we AzD —17 55 30 | 86 17 48 |} 30 25 o9 
9 «BX avevee] —1I7 53 54 | 86 16 12 | 30 26 30 
Be 22a awewae —18 07 49 | 86 30 07 } 30 26 34 
Means ......., »-| —17 49 49 | 86 12 07 | 30 26 25 


: Whence A= log 0°87498. 


TasLe X.—Observations made at the Kew Observatory by Mr. Stewart in 
October 1860, with needles 3 and 4 of Circle 30, to determine the value of 
the constant A. 


X=10-290 (Tables V. & VI.). @=68° 196 (Proceedings of the Royal 
Society, vol. xi. p. 154). 


Date. 7) u. Uy. 

° td ° ‘ ° ‘ 
October 17.........| —22 38 90 57°6 | 29 23°7 
Wit A ecseveaes —22 45 gi 04°6 29 24°2 
oy UY Parc —22 45 gi 04°6 29 21°5 
“ES eee —22 42 gi o16 29 21°7 
Heh leanne: —22 34 go 53°6 29 24°5 
EE eae ct —22 37 go 56°6 29 24°5 
MVIGATISN. 3 cusenesees —22 40°2 90 59°8 29 23°3 


Whence A= log 0°87524. 


It appears, therefore, that the constant A was substantially the same at an 
early stage and at the close of the survey experiments. The value employed 
| has been A= log 0°87516. 


Table XI. exhibits the results of the statical determination of the Total 
Force at the stations of the survey where that method was employed. 


1Sz.or 1$%,0r £.Lb Lg L.gt an oe 3S ae 
orf.or L.6v Lg g.fo 9.98 gi— 09 sovsee Oy 73 eee eee eeeeeterens “ 
L1£.01 zz£.0L S.$$ Lg 6.65 8.98 gi— (ole) trees OT 6“ ec encveeneccesccne “eo 
oz§.or LSS Lg $.6S 0.20 61— 09 ; *#Pheeeres TOISMED, 
ggt.cr ggf.or Z.1£ 98 9.28 off LrI— GS ese sreenc, nb ane “*"ain0y afodyorig 
LS£.or LS£.or S.£& L£g z.£S gz gr— 19 wresereeeresens STQAQDURTT 
S.or Lr— €s . “ 
brib.or 14.01 £.S1 Lg g.bb a = €S + ySnoxoqaeog 
goS.or goS.or S.SS Sg g.zt g.1t tet ie Trereseveeee TBTT QuIpIEs 
@Z.71 °i— steer omeeeeeee “se 
979.01 979.01 $.gz $3 eH) 6.95 £1— LS get * JOMOT, Way 
i £.6£ 61— €Z skin's sips Baaie ‘“ 
eS Stz.or Stz.01r o.zb Lg Z.1% cep bse EL ssoeessveses $187 OUIOOI 
a brf.o1r bf.ox 6.6% 98 g.2$ 28 ees He vere" paeyoUady, oT] 
1,00 61— ‘ . 
i. IZz.Ol Igz.0r 1.g0 Lg Z.9t L.6S gr— 69 . tees yorraltiag 
@Lz.0L 7LZ.01 £.t0 Lg b.07 b.9S gr— 09 reese Gz 66 [esse -QqtODaSpy JUNOT 
a tbhz.0L zbz.o1r g.gz Lg 9.Sz 1.2 61— 19 eacserpic) (Pai ree staewseevers es ken bIOm, 
i O8z.O1 g.zo Lg 1.L1 6.25 . a 
eal LLz.01 4 0gz.or B.S 98 1.61 1.67 gr— 09 tis 
tL7Z.01 g.S1 Lg o.L1 6.11 61— +9 vrores Or gune 
“6S gr 
£fv.or ££b.o1 zS51 Sg 4,20 Zor St $$ "6 490 
6gf.01r grb Sg 1.0 gf gI— 09 * £ dag 
glt.or s Sgf.or 1.£z 98 %.38 tor Li— 89 nconeiee GUM TU? [sesherhs serena ue 
ogf.01 $.90 98 @.1I S.€S 91— 1g stress Zz bb |neeeeeeeerereee TQAODURTT 
$zz.01 V.6£ 98 g.oF 6,08 gr— 09 pecsesiS) me Alii = 
C.6v b gl . oo gz “ac sé 
bez.org O78 6.6z 98 6.g¢ vv gr— gl reese gz th |estentensene “ 
£.5¢ Z severe Ez bb soacvececees “ 
gfz.or L.6z 98 9.0b Z1v st—{ zg [eres €z oume [eeeeeseeeee* spatuoaTy “3g 
i , ° “gSor 
fo) —_— —_—— _——— overeat 
7 ci) “n "mn lh “dwoy, *21eq u0Neig 


"IX T1AVL; 


ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 269 
The values of the total force at the several stations derived by the abso- 


lute and by the statical methods are collected in Table XII., together with 
the latitudes and longitudes of the stations. 


TABLE XII. 
Total Force =¢. 


Station. Lat. N. |Long. W.| Absolute | Statical 
8: | Method. | Method. |Adpted. 


| | eS | a | a 


KEW cccscovcesccseseee 51 29 o 18 | 10 290 | 10'290 | 10°290 
St. Leonards .,,......] 50 51 | —O 33 | 10'225 | 10°224 | 10°225 
Llandovery ......... 52 OF 3.45 | 10°349 | 10°378 | 10°363 
Stonyhurst ..<...... 53 51 2 28 | 10°385 |.-.-ence 10°385 
Glangwnna ..essevee 53 08 4. 14 | 10°448 | 10°433 | 10°440 
Teignmouth ..0...... 5° 33 3 30 | 10283 | 10°277 | 10'2g0 
TOrquay.......ce-oeeee 50 28 332 |eweceees 10°242 | 10°242 
Mount Edgecombe .| 50 21 4 I |-----0e -| t0°272, | 10°272 
Penjerrick ........000 50 08 5 07 | 10°303 | 10°281 | 10°292 
Lew Trenchard...... 50 39 4 11 | 10°308 | 10°344 | 10°326 
7 Broome Park......... 51 14 O 18 |eeseeee o| 1O'245 | 10°245 
Fern Tower ....+000- 56 22 3 50 : 10°626 | 10°626 
Jardine Hall.........] 55 10 3 24 | 10°496 | so"508 | 10°502 
Scarborough ......... 54. 17 © 23] 10°43% | 10°414 | 107423 
Cambridge.........++ 52 13 | —o 06 | r0°280 |........- 10°280 
Llandovery .........| 52 O1 3.45 | 10°350 | 10°357 | 10°354 
Stackpole Court ...| 51 38 4 55 | ro'gor | 10°388 | 10°395 
Cawst0n......sscceeee. 247 | —1 12 | 10°307 | 10°317 | 10°312 
Margate...... ceneeeees 51 23. | —1 23 | 10°255 | ro'25r | 10°253 
Folkestone 51 05 | —I 10 | 10227 |..ceeeee 10°227 
Cleethorpe............ 53 32 © 00 | 10°356 |....ceee 10°356 
Lowestoft .......000.. 52 30 | —I 45 | 10°303 |.cceeeee 10°303 
Cawston....... ae 52 47 | —I 12 | 10°292 |.-.eeeee 10°292 
Gromer wcoceess seenens 52 56 | —21 17 | 10'29T |--.eee e+| 10°291 


Tas_e XIII.—Differences in the values of ¢ by the Absolute and Statical 
Methods at Stations where both methods were employed. 


Station. Absolute—Statical. Station. Absolute—Statical. 
St. Leonards......... +oor Jardine Hall ......... —"o12 
Llandovery ......+.. —"029 Scarborough ....++.4. +017 
Glangwnna .,,...... +015 Llandovery ..,...... —‘007 
Teignmouth ,,....... +'006 Stackpole Court ... +013 
Benjerrick:.......0ice0: +'022 Cawston...... Sprout —‘o10 
Lew Trenchard...... —'036 Margate....cccescsoees +004 


Sum of the + differences, ‘078; sum of the — differences, 094; excess of — differences, 
o16 in 12 determinations ; or ‘oor on the average, being about one ten-thousandth of the 
whole force. 


The mean latitude of the 24 stations in Table XIL. is 52° 13’, and the 
mean longitude 1°38’ W. The mean force at the central position is 10°332=9’. 
The stations, and the adopted values of ¢, contained in Table XII. being com- 
bined in the usual manner, give (z) the angle which the isodynamic lines 
make with the meridian= —57°35"7, (or their direction is from N. 57° 35"7 
E. to S. 57°35"7 W.;) and 7, or the rate of increase of the total force is a 


270 REPORT—1861. 


normal direction =:00102 (in British units) for each geographical mile. The 
formula for computing the total force at each station (¢) is 
¢=10°332+°000557 a+ °000878 6, 


a and 6 being coordinates of the distance of the station from the central 
position, expressed in geographical miles. 
The observed and computed values of the force at the several stations are 
shown in Table XIV. 
Tas_e XIV. 


9. Differences. 
Station. == a | Observed 
Observed. Computed. | Computed. 


———_ | | | 


IEGW, sna theueishacss sheomie cs 10°290 10°266 +024. 
St. Leonards ..1,..-2....0. 10°225 10°214 + oI! 
Llandovery ......+0e..000 10°363 10°363 "000 
Stonyhurst ........0...06 10°385 10°435 —=j95e 
Glangwnna ..... Seheessees|) | (LO'AAO 10°433 +'007 
Teignmouth .......... Sicesl, cove a0 10°283 — Helen 
AEDYOQUAY ce censps sence see ee, 10°242 10°281 —"039 
Mount Edgecombe ....-..] 10°272 10°288 —'016 
WENJERTICK tpsapates<socecee, 10°292 10°297 = O05 
Lew Trenchard 10°326 10°304. +022 
Broome Park 10°245 10°252 —*007 
Pern Tower Srcsessses0ne, 10°626 Io"59I +°035 
Jardine Epil 3... 10°525 10°521 +*004 
Scarborough .,,....0.s0000.|  10°423 10°416 +'007 
Cambrideececss. .ssseesects 10°280 10°296 —"016 
Llandovery ...cescseeeeees 10°354 10°363 —"009 
Stackpole Court ....,.... 10°395 10°369 +7026 
CawsbOm iis cclovs canhwatec es 10°312 10°305 +°007 
Margate.......... atts eee 10°253 10°225 +°028 
Folkestone......cssseveses ee]. 10°227 10°213 +014 
Cleethorpe......csecsseseees|  10°356 10°369 —'013 
TLOWeRtON < S,icosdesesccce es 10°303 10°278 +025 
CAWELONrettevedcestar ss cess 10°292 10°305 "013, 
OrOMEC eet eeeece etree 10'291 IO°31I —"020 


The “ probable error” at a single station is ++*o14. 


In the map of the isodynamic lines accompanying this survey, the line of 
10°332 (in absolute measure, British units) is distinguished by a strong un- 
broken line passing through the central station in lat. 52° 13’ and long. 
1° 38’ W. ; the lines of 10°200, 10°300, 10°400, 10°500, and 10°600 being re- 
presented by fainter but also unbroken lines. All are computed by the formula 


$=10°332+ 000557 a+°000878 8, 


for the intersections of the isodynamic lines with the meridians of 2° E., 1° E., 
0°; 1° W., 2° W., 3° W., 4° W., 5° W., and 6° W. 


. We have now to compare with these the lines determined by the previous 
survey in 1837. The general Table of the results obtained in that survey by the 
statical method are given in pp. 190, 191, and 192 of the Report of the 8th 
(Neweastle) Meeting of the British Association in August 1838; it contains 57 
determinations of the total force at stations in England, by five observers acting 
independently of each other, but adopting the same general principle of ex- 
periment, The method of determining the value of the force in absolute 
measure had not then been introduced, and the values of the force at the 
different stations are expressed in that Table (as was then the custom) rela- 


pea y- 


ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 271 


tively to the force in London expressed by 1:0000; each observer taking some 
spot in the immediate vicinity of London as his base station, and thus ren- 
dering the results of all the observers intercomparable. The stations, their 
latitudes and longitudes, the initial denoting the observer, and the observed in- 
tensity of the force, are collected in the following Table (XV.); the initials 
F., L., P., R., and S. refer respectively to Mr. Robert Were Fox, Dr. Lloyd, 
Professor Phillips, Sir James Clark Ross, and myself. Adopting the same 
central position as that of the present survey, viz. 52° 13! N. and 1° 38 W., we 
have the coordinates of distance aand bas shown in Table XV., and combining 
these data in the customary manner, we obtain 10051 as the representative 
value of the whole series at the central position expressed in terms of its own 
arbitrary scale. The force in absolute measure at the same central position 
derived from the experiments of the present survey is 10°332 in British units. 
Omitting for the present the consideration of any secular change which may 
have taken place in the value of the force in the interval between the two 
surveys, we are thus furnished with the means of expressing the results of the 
first survey in terms which bring them in immediate comparison with those 
of the second survey. The absolute values thus obtained for the several sta- 
tions of the first survey are placed in column 8 of Table XV., and being com- 
bined in the manner described in pp. 99-101 of the British Association Report 
for 1836, we obtain for the survey of 1837, e=+°000521, y= +°000742, 
u=—54° 52’, and r=:0009; and the formula for computing the force in 
different parts of England corresponding to the observations of the same 
survey is ¢=10'332+°000521 a+ "000742 6, 

a and being coordinates of the distance from the central position in 1° 38’ W. 
and 52° 13’ N., expressed in geographical miles. The several values thus 
computed are placed in column 9, and. the differences between the computed 
and observed values in column 10. From the latter we find the probable 
error of a determination at a single station=+-012. (Table XV. see p. 272.) 


The direction of the isodynamic lines in England thus found for the epoch 
of the present survey is from N. 57° 355 E. to S. 57° 35'5 W. The diree- 
tion found by the preceding survey was from N, 54° 54’ E. to 8. 54° 54! W.; 
the central position being the same in both surveys. It appears, therefore, 
that the isodynamic lines “passing across England have increased the angle 
which they make with the geographical meridian in the interval between the 
two surveys. The change is similar in character to the change in the direc- 
tion of the isoclinal lines in the same interval, but somewhat less in amount. 

In the survey of 1837, the rate of increase of the magnetic force in each 
geographical mile towards the N.W., measured in the direction perpendicular 
to the isodynamic lines, was ‘00091 ; in the survey of 1860 00106. There- 
fore in the interval the increase of the force towards the N.W. had become 
more rapid, and the isodynamics corresponding to equal increments of force 
more closely packed. Hence we may infer that in the northern parts of 
England the secular increase of the force had been greater than in the 
southern parts. 

Plate IX. exhibits the fundamental lines of the two surveys in comparison 
with each other. Both pass through the central position in lat. 52° 13’ N. 
and long. 1° 38' W.; that of 1837 at an angle of —54° 54’, and that of 1860 
at an angle of 57° 35"5. Each has the value of 10°332 in British units ; 
which is accurate for 1860, being subject only to errors of observation or of 
the hypothesis by which the observations are combined ; but in 1837 is less 
certain, because no account is taken of the secular change which may have 
taken place in the absolute value of the force in the interval between the 


272 


Station. 


ERR 
Thirsk 


Seat wetereee 
seeeeeeee 


seater ereee 


Penrith 
Carlisle 


Bente eeeweee 


Whitehaven 
Douglas 
Castleton 
PCCMON. so ssccrssscs 
Flamborough 
Scarborough 


fete na eeeee 


aeneee 
seen eee eeees 


eee eenee 


eee eenweeeeeee 


Doncaster 
Hambleton......... 
Osmotherly 
Sheffield 


Pate eeeee 


seneee 
Cee eeneeeee 


weeeee 
sevens 
teteee 
feeeee 


Coenen nereneeer 
Feet eneeeeee 


Merthyr 


see keenennas 


Dunraven Castle . 


Aberystwith 
Holyhead 
Margate is 
WDOVEE cree ccens eeesee 
ayn estore Seensers 
Eastbourne......... 
Cambridge ......... 
Brighton ......... 
Worcester Park... 
Eastwick Park ,.. 
Tortington ......... 
St. Clairs ......... 
Ryde ...scsccses 

Salisbury ......... 
Coombe House ... 
Clifton z.avestetees 
Chepstow , 


Hereford......... s 
Lew Trenchard ,,. 
Falmouth sscosess. 


Long. W.| Lat. N. 


a2), 0(3+), 
© 07 | 51 31 
2 00" "55°45 
Ton 54 14 
1 37 | 54 58 
142 | 55°25 
244 | 54 554 
245 | 54 40 
254 | 54 54 
255 | 54 22 
2 56 | 54 32 
3.95 | 54 22 
3 33 | 5433 
427 | 54 10 
440 | 54 04 
443 | 54 13 
o 08 54 08 
0 24 | 54 17 
Basz5 his 29) 
105 | 53 58 
be AI Oe Hie 
I 15 | 54 20 
118 | 54 22 
Pg iy pee 2 
Ti 5QY alba 2S 
245 | 52 434 
253 | 53 23 
xf) CISIPS 6} 244 
3.12 | 53 11 
3.2% | 51 57 
3 2% | 5! 43 
3.37 | 51 28 
405 | 52 25 
4 37 | 53 19 
—I 23 | 51 23 
—1i1g | 51 08 
0125 | S147 
—o 16 | 50 47 
—007 | 52 13 
° 08 5° 50 
O47 “| 51 23 
Oplg anes. 17 
On34r #1 HO 59 
I 08 50 44. 
110 | 50 44 
147 | 51 04 
2 34 | 51 31 
2Ag60 Perez 7 
2 41 Sr 38 
244 | 52 04 
411 | 5° 39 
5 06 | 50 09 


REPORT—1861. 
TABLE XV. 
x: \Intensity. Coordinates of 
> London distance. 
2 =1:0000. 
5 a. b. 
(4.)| (5+) (6.) | (7-) 
Mens I'oo00 | — 57|— 42 
R. | 110254 | + 12] +212 
P. | orgs | — 10}-+121 
P. }| 1.0173 | — xz/|-+165 
R. | ror65 |}— 1/4165 
S. | 10147 | — 1|-+165 
S. | ro1sg |-+ 2] +192 
R. | 10173, | + 38] +162 
S. | 110176 |+ 38|-+162 
P. | ror84 |-+ 38}+147 
P. | rorg8 | + 44] +161 
P. | ror82 |-+ 45) +129 
P. | ror8z | + 45)+139 
P. | ror96 | + 51) +129 
S. | 110176 |+ 67/-+140 
P. | 110208 |+ 99}-+117 
P. | 110203 | -+-107]--111 
P. | rorg2 | +108} +120 
Ba} w:e083 yl —— 53 \- Exar 
P. | rro103 | — 43] +124 
Be parORg5< | — 35) 113.6 
P. | 10126 | — 19]-+105 
P. | 10096 | — 18}-+ 78 
P. | 1:0134 | — 13] +127 
P. | 1.0128 | — 12| +129 
P. | ro124 |} — 4/-+ 69 
Ps.) worog.|-F 9) 4- 35 
L. | 1:0077 |+ 41|}-+ 30 
S. | 10057 | + 41|+ 30 
P. | rto106 | + 45|}-+ 70 
L. | rorrz | + 49]/+ 71 
S. | rors [+ 49/-+ 71 
P. | rorro | + 56|+ 58 
S. | roo60 | + 63| — 16 
S. | roo81 |-+ 63] — 30 
S. | 1.0078 | + 74) — 45 
S. | rroroo | + g0|+ 11 
L. | 1.0144 | +107|-++ 66 
S. | 0°9979 | —113| — 50 
S. | 0'9945 | —111]— 65 
L. | 10030 | — 74)/+ 34 
F. | 09937 | — 72|— 86 
L. | r'ooor | — 64 fete) 
L. | 09955 |— 57|— 83 
S. | 1.0006 | — 50}— 50 
F. | 0'9993 | — 49| — 56 
S. | o'9990 | — 40] — 83 
P. | 1.0002 | — 19] — 89 
P. | 0'9972 | — 18] — 89 
L. | 1.0006 |-+ 6] — 69 
F. | 1.0026 | + 35] — 42 
L, | rroo30 | + 36] — 46 
L. | roog1 | + 39] — 35 
L, | 1.0046 | + 41] — 9 
S. | roogs | + 96] — 93 
F. | roor8 | +133] —124 
S. | roorg | +133] —124 


Intensity in British] pifrer- 


Units. 

Com- 

Observed. puted. 

(3.) (9-) 

10'280 | 10'270 
10°540 |-10°495 
10°439 | 10°417 
10°457 | 10°454 
To"449 | 10°454 
TO°43I | 10454 
10°443 | 10°475 
10°457 | 10°472 
10°460 | 10°472 
10469 | 10°461 
10°484 | 10°474 
10°467 | 10°451 
10°466 | 10°458 
10°48 | 107454 
10'460 | 10°471 
10°493 | 10°470 
10°488 | 10°470 
10°477 | 10°477 
10°365 | 10°389 
10°386 | r0‘402 
10418 | 10°415 
10°409 | 10°400 
10°378 | 10°381 
10°417 | 10°419 
TO'41r | 10°422 
10°407 | 10°381 
10°388 | 10°348 
10°359 | 10°375 
10°338 | 10°375 
10°388 | 10°407 
10°395 | 10°410 
10°428 | 10°410 
10°393 | 10°404 
10°34 | 10°353 
10°363 | 10°343 
10°360 | 10°337 
10°382 | 10°387 
10°428 | 10°437 
10°249 | 10'236 
10°223 | 10°225 
10°310 | 10°317 
10'215 | 10'230 
10'28r | 10°299 
10°233 | ro‘'242 
10°286 | 10°269 
10°273 | 10°264 
10'270 | 10°249 
10°282 | 10°256 
10°251 | 10°256 
10°286 | ro0'284 
10°306 | 10°318 
10°310 | 10°316 
10°322 | 10°326 
10°327 | 10°346 
10°326 | 10°314 
10°298 | 10°309 
10°295 | 10°309 


Probable error of a single determination --’o12. 


ence. — 

Observed 
—Com- 
puted. 


(10.) 
+o10 
+1055 
+022 § 
+1003 | 
—'005 
—'023 
—"032 
"O15 
—"0o12 
+008 
-+'o10 
+'016 
+008 
+1027 
—‘o1l 
+1023 
+:o18 

“000 
—"024, 
—'016 
+'003 
+009 
+003 
—*002 
—‘orr 
+026 
+040 
—‘o16 
= "O37 4 
—‘oIg” 
—'015 
+'018 — 
—‘oIr 
—"o12 
-+'020 — 
+1023 
—'005 
—"009 
+1013 
—"002 
—*‘007 
"ors 
—'018 
—"009 
+017 
+009 
+'o21 
+:026 
—"005 4 
+'002 
—‘oIz | 
—*006 
— "00m 
‘org | 
+‘o12 
—"oIr 

“| 


q 


LU Keport, British Ae 


ation 1961 


T 


A ne — - 


y 
Lye 1 peel Sines 


Lines of equal Magnetic L ii 
4 


ES iv bee A 
: A ’ anuaiylSSjand Januniy lst 
\ a } ( 4 ba / fs 
Si " \ 

ve 2 

An "es \ 
Y) ‘ ) SM | SF 
=< a: ——— a 
rN: a 


k \ 
\ : a 
J i= Y ~\ 
( 
) — ( terpe S 
Lay : 
a 2 b~Y Se 
kt 
} 
f 
| 
J 
/ af 
é 
| rf 
) 
> Gaupbrids 
i s 
my 


= 


lines are those of 1837. 


ean * The bro 


The witroken those of 1860. 


Went 


Tongieuile 


late 9. 


: Lyd ye WUC S ined 51 
OU vied 
( og L : a ode 
on J i equal i Ve Yeevite « Prove 
oe 7 


y . IDsty y iy 
OGnua oy BY and o Sines TSOO. 


in British Units. 


The ‘broken lines are those of 1837. 
The unbroken these of 1860. 


East Longitude 
T.W. Lowry fe- 


The hroken: lin 


The unbroken the 


Wert longi ngrade 
Wea Lengituls ; 


Plate 10. 


Annual decrease 


Ju W. Lowry fe 


. 
Naat 

y ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 273 
ei 

ero surveys. We have no means of estimating with precision the operation 
. of the secular change in this interval, inasmuch as we have no absolute 
“measures of the force at so early a date as that of the survey in 1837. The 
‘only satisfactory determinations which we now possess, from which an 
approximate value of the secular change for one particular station, and for a 
part of the interval, may be inferred, are the absolute measures made monthly 
‘at the Kew Observatory since April 1857. From these the force appears to 
have increased between April 1857and March 1862 at an average rate of 00125 
annually. Ifwe assume the same rate of increase to have taken place in the 
same years at the central position, which is not far distant from Kew, and if 
we extend the assumption so as to include the whole interval between the 
tio surveys, the value of the fundamental line of the survey of 1837 would 
be 10°303 instead of 10°332; and the isodynamies for 10°200, 10°300, 10°400, 
-10°500, and 10°600 for 1837 in Plate ii., computed by the formula 


10°332+ 00052 a+°00074 6 


(a and 4 being the distances in longitude and latitude in geographical miles 
from the central position), and represented in the Plate by broken lines, 
would each require to be diminished by 0:029. It is obvious, however, from 
the increase in the value of 7 (viz. ‘00091 in the earlier survey, and ‘00106 
in the later), that the secular increase of the force must have been greater 
in the northern parts of England than at Kew, or generally those in the 
southern parts of the kingdom. We must recognize also the operation of 
the increase in the value of w from 54° 54’ to 57° 355 in producing a small 
diminution in western longitudes of the secular increase observed at Kew, 
and which has been inferred to have been still greater in the northern and 
eastern parts. It is to be hoped that the series of monthly determinations at 
Kew, which appear to give a satisfactory approximate measure of the secular 
change of this element during the last five years, may be continued until the 
survey be repeated at the expiration of a third interval; and that in the 
mean time determinations similar to those at Kew, and equally satisfactory, 
may be made in other parts of the British Islands ; the present conclusions 
regarding the secular change of the force in the interval between 1837 and 
1860 must be necessarily imperfect. 


Division IlI.— Declination. 


[Contributed by Frederick John Evans, Esq., R.N., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Compass 
| Department of the Royal Navy.] 


Plate X. exhibits a comparative view of the isogonic lines, or lines of 
equal magnetic declination, corresponding to the epochs 1837 and 1857. 
The lines corresponding to the first of these epochs have been drawn in con- 
formity with a map of the isogonic lines crossing the British Islands in 1840, 
published in plate 23 of ‘ Johnston’s Physical Atlas’ (2nd edition), contributed 
to that work by Major-General Sabine. The authorities on which the lines 
for 1840 were drawn may be found in a memoir in the Philosophical 
Transactions for 1849, art. xii. The small corrections required to reduce 

these lines to the epoch of 1837 have been made. 
_ The isogonics corresponding to the later epoch (1857) rest on the autho- 
rity of the observations contained in the subjoined Table (No. XVI.). The 
instruments chiefly used were either the Admiralty Standard Compass, or 
- Kater’s Azimuth Compass; all of which had undergone previous examina- 
} Hoey adjustment at the Compass Observatory at Woolwich. 

. Fe 


274 REPORT—1861. 


TasLe XVI.—Magnetic Declinations. 


' 
aE ea meet Seale pre ee 
d 
Station. Lat. Long. Date. 
° ‘ ° / 
Bridlington ......ccccccssasecuessveresecere 54 5N. o 12 W. | 1856. Sept. 2 
PSLOUMP EON sensor eetssvaageeseceaeeanaecun: 54 5 oO 12 1856. Sept. 3 
MGIUNUREY cess pve ausarecurceashaessopavensess 53 34 aaa 1856. Sept. 4 
Woolwich, Compass Observatory ...... 51 29 o 2K. | 18s75 Jan. ae. 
| Shoreham .............-.sssssseseseseesesvees 5° 51 o 15 W. | 1857. July 8 ... 
4 1858. Sept. 24x... 
Start POWMIE. «<.<c¢es cuasscaceecnaquaddtncacepa 50 13 3 39 1859. Aug. 18... 
857. Aug. Oe 
Salcombe, near the Bar ......,.csee+e.0+- 50 13 347 { 1808. Sepi. = 
| RUGMG LICRO ccc cea vasgncs <cceseadieasetees Gadest 50 13 3 50 1859. ae a 
i 1857. Aug. 18 ... 
| BOM VARS 052: ch ace espace sncdangewosegsecacee 5° 14 § 52 { 18e8, Sent. 7am. 
bias 1857. Aug. 14... 
| Bigbury ........sceseossesseceeccesooeraceooese 50 17 3 53 { 1808, Ser. i 
: 857. Aug. a 
| Wennel Hill, Bigbury Bay ...........6+- 50 18 3 56 { 1308. Sept. a 
| Plymouth, Stoke ...............sessessesess 50 23 4 10 { ee aly : P 
a Stonehouse .......cese0e0s acer 50 22 4 8 1856. — * F 
5: ept. i 
1857. May 22 ... 
“A MPQUOOM c.cuayestaccescestaceds 50 20 AF 1808, Sept. 27%... 
1859. Oct. 26x... 
1857. July 3 ... 
rs Mahar! ..ccsscecacseasees déscdeeee 50 20 4 12 \ = peut 15 es 
= ept. 1 
856. Jan. A 
LUGE HOT” Cebeperigeet kee rece cerrrt ec seyeee 5° 13 4 48 { a a ; f 
Falmouth, St. Just .2:..........cesesesuees 50 11 ge » Jan. 7... 
Cornwall, St. Agnes Beacon ............ 50 18 33 1858. Nov. 9%... 
Mounts Bavics..sassec<4,43¢5:- 50 10 5 3 1860. Dec. 5x... 
Scilly Islands, St. Martin's Head......... 49 58 6 16 1859. Aug. 4*... 
Brehar Island.............. 49 57 6 21 1861. Aug. 16%.. 
Tenby, St. Catherine Island............... 51 40 4 43 1856. = 2g) .<. 
| Jaiver pool asesssnasaccnsss (aan cas egeeyaasese=- 53 25 cies 4. Tan Lit 
| Jersey, St. Helier’ io.c.s4es<hsasasacaanes: 49 12 a 5 1857. July 13 


* Observations not employed in 


ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 275 


Coasts of England 


My 7 Declination. 
Greenwich 


Mean Time of 
Observation. | Observed. 


Ob k 
Reduced to January Te, 


1, 1857. 


Rear-Admiral Sir J. C. Ross. 


is al Mr. Evans, R.N. 


: 
= 
. 
"i 
| 


Commander E. Burstall, R.N. 
Commander H. L. Cox, R.N. 


Captain G. Williams, R.N. 


Commander Alldridge, R.N. 
Mr. W. W. Rundell. 
Mr. Evans, R.N. 


H 
Commander H. L. Cox, R.N. 


to 
~r 
or) 


REPORT—1861. 


Taste XVII.—Magnetic Declinations. 


Station. Lat. 


N. 
Lough Swilly, Binnion Bay.......e0+..++ 55 17 1855. Aug. 17. «+ 
Rathmullan, Hill Head.............0.00000 EE UG ' 59 DIEGX7 aaae= 
os Ait  vaseuctudeccsdeecdoee ee 1856, Jan. 2 ..ee0e 
” ” See eeeseeeerecneerees ” ” 
” 99 eet eeeeeneeee weeee ” 
Mulroy Bay, Daulty Island..........00+08 55 13 
dralesy Canal Basin vetcrcceccsses oscaseses 52 16 
” p) en CEPT) Cane teen eenes ” 
” sR) <u pweunecenens noaade oa 
a Blennerville Church 52 15 
” ” ” 
” op ot ~ * \euwagetevreswur ” 
» Large Samphire Island ......... 52 16 
is See oe bee oP ee eepee wens 


»,  Samphire ‘Jsland Lighthouse... 52, 16 


” 5t AR eet eee tees ” 
Kenmare, Cleanderry ..... eeseeeecsaeanss 51 44 
ee aah Sam svcseeusanndesesicee i 
” 39 Reet tena sennener ~ ogy 
Bearhayen, Dinish Island ............... 51 39 
”» |) er SEPT T Pee ” 
” 5 er CTP OT ELT Tres) ” 
” ” Seer eeteseeee ” 
” ” Ceeeeescenee ” 
” ” Oe eeeeteteest * ” 
DWIRIGN ccosevesce tutes sdececectees wideaenenes 52 8 
NINCLWIGK: <u: cccacaseescagsesevs Seceuceres Ache 52 11 
WWilCNtId. son cesssctacontescurens cogecetedossees 51 55 
Crookhavyemi:;.t. 02. csehcccesesee eee eee 51 28 
Castlehaven). ..é.iiésenstesaseeacx Siveuerstwae 51 30 ” 
Larne, the Curran 54 52 1856. 
” ” 2 3e ” 
” ” ” ” 
Dundalk ..... Fin Bh maya ee ee 1858. 
5 Guasuaesuin stusds cerienecasSastneanes 53) 5% 
Strangford....... Seweurest os inewcews avsamenes 54 20 
Dublin, Magnetic Observatory..........+ + 2 53 22 1857. Jan. 30 


® Observations not employed in 


ate 


ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 277 


Coasts of Ireland. 


Seomnivich Declination. 
Mean Time of oo Observer. 
Observation. US 
Saeen | Observed: January 3, 1857. 
West. West. 

hm of ey, Sidead; 

cupisecee 27-1 os 26 54 \ 

2 30P.M 27 19 27 9 

cA fae 27 1 : 

“pe eo 18 a a 27 12°5 Captain G, A. Bedford, R.N, 

3 OPM 27 23 27 17 

4 2PM 27 19 oss sie 27 14 ) 

I 38 P.M. 27 36 2 ax 

3 40P.M 27 27 27 25 + 27 29 

I 38 P.M 27 32 7 fae Th 

© IOP.M, 27 29 27 26 

2 40 P.M 27 2 27 Igt> 27 21°3 Commanders R. Beechey 

© 40P.M 2722 27 19 and A, G. Edye, R.N. 

440 P.M 27 32 27 29 

4 40 P.M 27 28 27 25 i 32 | 

: 40 P.M 27 27 27 231 27 29 | 

55 P.M 27 37 27 35 

I 15 P.M 26 38 26 31 i} 

I 10P.M 26 45 26 40+ 26 38 

2 10F.M 26 47 26 43 

3 OPM, 26 56 26 50] 

2 10P.M, 26 54 26 47 Commander W. H. Church, R.N. 

3 25P.M. 27.03 26 58 : 

3 40P.M 26 35 26 30 | a6 42°5 

2 40P.M 26 42 26 36 

3 10P.M 26 39 26 34 

o 8PM ZT am N sisie ce cis 27 44 

3 37P.M by fs (hae I 27 41 

4 32M aatiseee|| - eieie whe 5739 Commander A. G. Edye, R.N. 
ir 8am 26 36 cece MOT 2 

10 304.M DOL we I). siaels a's 26 53 

2 23P.M 25 54 25 43 \ 

II 23 A.M 26 8 2ST ra Ge BATH: olit 

IO 23 A.M 25 42 26 4 z 

sy Josoog AS apy Mls enoode 26 34 } Mr. H Hoskyn, RNs 

ec essees 26 25 seeeee 26 30 

ee ccccee 25 48 covves 25 53 7 

10 25 A.M. ZG TAO. |) stewie = me 25 As Rev. J. Galbraith, M.A. 


the construction of the Chart. 


278 : REPORT—1861. 


TasB_LE XVIII.—Magnetic Declinations. 


“Station. Lat. Long. Date. 
N W. 
° va ° / 
ThursO -.6..ccesesese Assevevereceees five dnasceat 58 36 2 35 1856. June 25 
Loch Eribol, Hoan Island.................. 58 34 4 40 n June 27 
An Mp0 bfaaaesaansenaenseceee as 5) » dune 28 
Hebrides, Carloway «..0<:0s......-..:-2000 58 17 6 47 ». | Auge at 
A CON) CROCE ORCEY CAA Ere eiaeras i * » Aug. 26 
CUI RAKIM pascisvasans staremnceaseaehok-reace 57 16 5 44 no) \AUge:2 
Hebrides, North Uist, Loch Maddy ...| 57 36 7 8 1858. Nov. x 
Hebrides, Monach Islands, Shillay...... 57 ax 7 42 1859. Aug. * 
Hebrides, North Uist, Loch Eport ...... G7 ae 7 11 390 PO Ghee ae 
Barra Sound, Friday Island............... 57.3 7 23 1861. Oct. 15% 
Little Loch Shell 58 1 6 26 1856. Sept. 18 . 
Hy 4 oh » sept. 19 .. 
Oban, Dunolly Hill 56 25 5 27 ee fs es 
” ” ” ” ” Jan 2s 
” ” ” ” ” Jan 3+ 
” ” ” ” » Jan 4.. 
” ” ” ” ” Jan 7 + 
” f it i #9: aaaibee > Gres 
” ” ” ” ” Jan. 11 .. 
»  Kerrera Island 56 25 5 30 yn) ete ae - 
Firth of Forth, near Dunbar............... 56 o 2 32 1855. Oct. 24 ... 
n IBEX UUM wosewancs loses teams Fe 2 29 1856. June 23 ... 
” WONG eneprscvess sncddeWaas 55 57 Bex » Aug. 23 «.. 
+ Redheughieie.c.0c0-- cones. BP Gs 2 16 “1 a a: 
w Fast Castle .....:.....-... =F 2 14 ” ” : 
PU PATDS iis cscenctacsccceparss msl oacdatateasn ay 4% » — pepts 16", 
” Coldingham shore ............ 55 54 2 8 ” ” 


* Observations not employed in 


TasLe XIX.—Magnetic Declinations observed at Sea 


28E. | 1856. Apr. 16 ... 
i ” ” ‘2 dD 


DDH OWUNN DAD 


ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 279 


Coasts of Scotland. 


Declination. 
Greenwich 
Mean Time of Observer. 
; Reduced to 
Observation. | Observed. January 1, 1857. 
West West. 
h m ° a“ ° é ° / 
II I5 A.M. i at ne HR 26 1 \ 
2 48 P.M. 27 18 27° 7 2 
6 45 P.M. 27 16 27 16 ad 2% 
4 27 P.M. 28.7 27 59 27 $7 
BXi27, P-M» 28 3 27 55 Captain H. C. Otter, R.N. 
4 om on 21 Fe ie tied ef Fe Observations made with Adie’s 
; Hea pu ds pe ey 3 Variation Needle. 
3 15 P.M. 28erG.6i|y, aete 28 31 
© 30 P.M. Dr oAti ely Gos ates) 27 50 
2 OPM. 27 24 27 17 
9 45 P.M. 27 20 27 19 sae ) 
2 22 P.M. apis 273 
2 22 P.M. 27°65 29005 
I 55 P.M. awe 27.0 
I 55 P.M. Sy 26 56} 27 06 
1 50 P.M. a7 4 26 67 Commander E. Bedford, R.N. 
2 20 P.M. 27 6 27 2 
2 IO0P.M. 27 6 apt 
2 22 P.M. SOTAG. © Shire Wihses 26 39 
Il IOA.M. 24 56 24. 50 \ 
II IO A.M. 24 36 24 30 al 
II IOA.M. SAO met) astess= 24 31 Lieut. F. Thomas, R.N. 
2 10 P.M. 24 37 2422) 3, a Observations made with Adie’s | 
4 IO P.M. 24 29 24 22 4 Variation Needle. 
oO IOP.M. 24 28 24 20| 3,30 
10 10 A.M. 24 23 24. 20 | 
the construction of the Chart. 
off Coasts of United Kingdom. 
4 5AM. 19 44 | eeeeee 19 41 : ! 
6 25 A.M. LO 5a 5. | wieeds 19 56 Captain H. C. Otter, R.N., in 
5 OP.M. 20% SLUG} qistengey 2052 H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine.’ 
5 40 P.M. TORSZ ONT le aies=noe 19 50 
6 oT. 26 B7C oe 2 Baan 20 34 Nort.—The ship’s head in each 
7 304M. 23 2Gr. |) >) obese 23 26 case was placed on the point 
3 10 P.M. 25530 || fences Se Meine of no deviation, and the engines 
7 45 P.M. Ce ty Amal emery tr 28 18 eased. 
7 25 A.M. Be LON tons autsec 28 13 


= hee ee eee 


280 REPORT—1861. 


Interim Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East 
Coasts of Scotland. 


Art the Aberdeen Meeting of the British Association, a Committee was ap- 
pointed for the purpose of carrying on a system of dredging on the North- 
eastern Coast of Scotland, consisting of Dr. Ogilvie, Dr. Dickie, Professor 
Nicol, Dr. Dyce, and Mr. Peach ; and £25 was granted for that purpose. 
Of this sum £5 was allotted to Mr. Peach, to enable him to conduct investi- 
gations at Wick. 

In 1860 the few weeks available for dredging, before the meeting of the 
Association in July, were so tempestuous and generally unfavourable, that no 
part of the grant was expended ; but in the course of the autumn, a trial was 
made off the coast of Banffshire. During the past summer, 1861, several 
dredging expeditions were planned and completed off the Bay of Aberdeen 
and adjacent coasts, none exceeding a distance of twelve miles from land. 

The Committee in Aberdeen considered it advisable to receive the aid of 
others besides Mr. Peach, and to have trials made at points intermediate 
between Aberdeen and Wick, in order to render the investigations as complete 
as possible; and with this view the assistance of the Rev. W. Grigor, of 
Macduff, was asked, and readily accorded, a.part of the grant being allotted 
to him. They have also secured the cooperation of another zealous naturalist, 
Mr. Dawson, of Cruden. This gentleman has just put at their disposal a 
valuable and interesting report on the Mollusca of Cruden Bay; but the 
others have not yet had sufficient time to allow of any report ; and at Aber- 
deen, the examination of the materials collected being still in progress, the 
Committee are under the necessity of reserving the details for a further report. 
The general results, however, have been such as to lead them to hope that the 
sum of £25 will be granted for one year more, in order that the dredging 
may be further carried on, and at greater depths and distances from land. 

No regular dredging has previously been conducted on this part of the 
Scottish coast; but the Committee have now the satisfaction of observing 
that, owing mainly to the admission of parties of students of the University 
to the dredging excursions, a feeling of interest has been awakened in the 
pursuit, from which the best results may be anticipated, and there can be no 
doubt that several ardent young men have thus been thoroughly trained in 
carrying on such operations in the open sea. ; 

The Committee would urge these as reasons for a renewal of the grant, 
that they may be thus enabled to procure materials for a complete report at 
the meeting of the Association in 1862. 


GEORGE OGILVIE, for the Commitiee. 
August 31, 1861. 


On the Resisiance of Tron Plates to Statical Pressure and the Force 
of Impact by Projectiles at High Velocities. By Witu1aM Fair- 
BAIRN, Esa., LL.D., F.R.S., &c., President of the Association. 


Tue discovery of the application of iron plates as a means of defence against 
ordnance of great power and force are of recent date, and are attributable to 
His present Majesty the Emperor of the French. Since 1858 numerous 
experiments have been made to test the quality of the iron, and to determine 
the thickness of the plates employed for that purpose; but it is only of late 
years that the value and importance of this description of defence has been 


SD Oe See 6 ke reo, Ss. 


Le 


os 

: RESISTANCE OF IRON PLATES TO PROJECTILES, 281 

" qscertained as a covering for the sides of ships of war. The very powerful 

_ resistance of iron to projectiles at high velocities has directed most of the 
maritime powers of Europe to the advantage of armour-plating ships for the 
purpose of protecting them from the destructive effects of shot; and it has 
now been proved that a sheathing of plates 43 inches thick, covering the 
sides of a ship, extending to a depth of six feet below the water-line, is a 
sufficient protection against existing guns of the heaviest calibre. It is true 
that more powerful ordnance may be successfully tried against plates from 
5 to 53 inches thick, but they are too heavy for general use on board ship; 
and as vessels of the present tonnage are not calculated to carry plates of 
greater thickness than 43 or 5 inches, it is more than probable that the 
country must be content with such protection as plates of these dimensions 
can afford. 

Much, however, depends on the quality of the material of which they are 
composed; and the object of this communication is to furnish not only data 
for the manufacture of them, but to point out their mechanical properties 
and the best mode of attaching them to the ship. 

There are two descriptions of vessels to which armour-plates may be applied, 
namely, those of iron, and the present existing vessels, composed entirely of 
wood. In the present state of our knowledge, it is desirable that all vessels 
of war should be formed of iron; but the transfer is a work of time, and the 
question now for consideration is, how to make our present wooden ships invul- 
nerable, and how to apply the material to effect a maximum power of resistance 
toshot. This is the great question for solution, and the Admiralty, fully alive 
to the importance of the change, has instituted a long and laborious series 
of experiments to determine these results. 

It is well known that all substances of a brittle nature are easily broken 
by impact, and the best kind for resisting blows is a tenacious, tough, and 
ductile material. To secure all these properties is a desideratum in the 
manufacture of iron plates, and one which never ought to be neglected. In 
submitting the following results obtained from the experiments, it may be 
interesting to show the chemical compositions of some of the best irons ex- 
perimented upon, and those marked with the letters A, B, C, and D, when 
carefully analysed, were found to contain the following ingredients :— 


Mark. Carbon. Sulphur. Phosphorus. Silicon. Manganese. 
A. 001636 0-104 0-106 0°122 0:28 
B. 0:03272 0-121 07173 0-160 0:029 
4 0-023 0-190 0-020 0°014 0°110 
D. 0:0436 0-118 0:228 0°174 0°250 
E. 0170 0:0577 0-0894 0-110 0°330 


Comparing the chemical analysis with the mechanical properties of the 
irons experimented upon, we find that the presence of ‘023 per cent. of carbon 
causes brittleness in the iron; and this was found to be the case in the ho- 
mogeneous iron plates marked C*; and although it was found equal to A 
plates in its resistance to tension and compression, it was very inferior to the 
others in resisting concussion or the force of impact. It therefore follows, 
that toughness combined with tenacity is the description of iron plate best 
adapted to resist shot at high velocities. It is also found that wrought iron, 
which exhibits a fibrous fracture when broken by bending, presents a widely 


* Homogeneous iron is that description of iron or steel which is not rolled or manufac- 
tured from piled bars, but obtained by the boiling process from the furnace, where the amal- 
gamation is complete; or, in other words, it is obtained from cast ingots according to the 
Bessemer process, or direct from the bloom as it leaves the puddling furnace. 


282 REPORT—1861. 


different aspect when suddenly snapped asunder by vibration or a sharp 
blow from a shot. In the former case the fibre is elongated by bending, 
and becomes developed in the shape of threads as fine as silk, whilst in the 
latter the fibres are broken short and exhibit a decidedly crystalline fracture. 
But, in fact, every description of iron is crystalline in the first instance; and 
these crystals, by every succeeding process of hammering, rolling, &c., 
become elongated, and resolve themselves into fibres. There is, therefore, 
a wide difference in the appearance of the fracture of iron when broken by 
tearing and bending, and when broken by impact, where time is not an ele- 
ment in the force producing rupture. 

The mechanical properties of iron best calculated to resist the penetration 
of shot at high velocities are enumerated as follows. 

The plates were subjected to statical tensile strain, to compression, and to 
punching, with the following results. 


1. Specific Gravity. 
The mean specific gravity of the 13, 2, 23, and 3-inch plates of each series 
were as follows :— 


2 A) EO ee 7°8083 
Bs OUAUGS oe 0. oe 7°7035 
A DIKES sins) aan nsege ek 7°9042 


TD Piaf eS es oeinia 9xcsl eeunk Ce 
The order of merit is therefore C, A, B, D. These results coincide with 
the following tests. 
2. Tensile Strength. 
The statical resistance to tensile strain was as follows :— 


Tensile strain per square inch in tons. 
Thinner plates. Thicker plates. 


PL DIGSES Pe duns anigte ts Ny eS 24°64 4 
B plates . ° pe OUD 5 0//niE, = 23°354 
GC DIBROMs ac ici t gine 80) OLN vo eis Se Bee 
th aa De bain Mies 24°171 


The general order of merit in this case is C, A, B, D. The homogeneous 
metal plates have the highest tenacity, but decrease in strength progressively 
as the plates increase in thickness. 


3. Ductility of the Plates. 


A measure of the ductility of the plates is afforded by the ultimate 
elongation under tensile strain. 
Ultimate elongation per unit of length. 
Thinner plates. | Thicker plates. 


A DIRECE 9 osc niriadsan& OBS trace a2 2723 
kc ee ae (OSG Geese 2459 
CDIALOB ss ots. sinlsbaw dic) LBS O mater x .< °2725 
LD FS eee 0 ES Aer aa 1913 


Here the order of merit is nearly the same as that for density and tenacity. 
On the whole the elongations increase progressively with the thickness for 
iron plates, and decrease for homogeneous metal plates. But with iron the 
ductility is nearly the same for 2, 23, and 3-inch plates. 


4. Resistance to Impact. 
Mr. Mallet has pointed out that the product of the tensile breaking weight 


RESISTANCE OF IRON PLATES TO PROJECTILES. 983 


and the ultimate elongation of iron indicates its resistance; or, in other words, 
the product of the tenacity and ductility of iron affords a measure of the 
dynamic resistance of the material, or its resistance to impact. The following 
numbers give this coefficient of rupture : — 


Mallet’s coefficient in foot pounds. 
Thinner plates. Thicker plates. 


Ab plateyis hace ktis say BOA ak Darna 7544 
B plates dine Wee et bias PAG ane. 8% 6476 
@iplatesy se fo cs. eualeae = MODOO wees LOO 
LOG oer Sat ean: SS ee Pi Al ae 5115 


To ascertain this coefficient with accuracy, rather longer specimens should 
have been tested ; but, bearing in mind this source of inaccuracy, the numbers 
strikingly correspond with the results obtained by impact. It is not of much 
use to compare directly the resistances obtained with those givenabove, because 
the former were made with such large intervals (half-inch) in the thickness 


_of the plates that they afford no criterion of the relative values of the dif- 


ferent descriptions of iron. But we may compare the iron and steel plates, 
where the difference of resistance, being greater, is to some extent indicated 
in the experiments with ordnance. 

Dynamic resistance. 


Thickness of plates. Tron plates. Steel plates. 
ERA Ran ch tivated wi secnattacites ert LOOM sees le ce 
One and a half inch ......... WMICO Ve Gare 119 
wane hesnx <1 geile dea alae 2 ot ls OGni es see 20: 
iEwovand: avhalfiinches..5 204.8% | 1°00) ..5. 5 ii le) 
SHMCE INCHES: seyind we eros seated s wie OO Mame ese 0°88 


With these results obtained by simple pressure, we compare those obtained 
by ordnance. The resistance of the iron plates being again taken as unity, 
the resistance of the steel plates was as follows :— 


Weight of Mean thickness Dynamic resistance. 
projectile. of plates. Iron. Steel. 
OS Rie Saad ao, © Tiel Socase ae STON Aso Was 1EOT 
Bettas. E20 os caste t POO on Vevey WLS 
OCH ere e iss. Lalo! clove «/<.0t.- FO) vate cee LOU 
Ace eres: oats, = 40s exeemeeueg UUM A crusenen ie) | 


From the above it will be seen that there is quite as close an approximation 
in the ratios in these two tables, for corresponding thicknesses of plate, as 
could be expected from the nature of the experiments. Both the series of 
experiments (viz., that with dead pressure and that with ordnance) indicate 
the same increasing resistance of the iron plates, and decreasing resistance of 
the steel plates; and the ratios of their relative resistances are nearly the 
same. In making the comparison, the resistance to ordnance is assumed 
to be as the square of the thickness of the plates—a law which will here- 
after be demonstrated. 

The relative values of the plates in resisting shot are, according to the ex- 
periments with dead pressure, as follows :— ; 


POEMS ac atas «ccm. asp F 1000 
BgPlSteS | Nai pe cae dea cw «aide 858 
© plates. oewan sees. oe 1095 
1 plates: 42 dottgtate..'2 Be 688 


These numbers are deduced from the results on the 13, 2, 24, and 3-inch 
plates. With 3-inch plates the iron is much stronger than the steel. 


284 REPORT—1861. 


5. Resistance to Compression. 


The results on compression have no direct bearing on the resistance to 
projectiles ; it is not therefore necessary to give an abstract. 


6. Statical Resistance to Punching. 


These experiments were arranged in three series with a view to determine 
the resistance to punching with different sizes of shot, with different thick- 
nesses of plate, and with flat- and round-faced punches. 


First Series of Experiments. 


In this series the punch was flat-faced, and in all respects similar to the 
projectile of the wall-piece employed at Shoeburyness. ‘The resistance of the 
plates was as follows :— 


Thickness of Mark of Statical Resistance 
Plates in inches. Plates. to punching in lbs. 
HAS Siew oye 0 ove Pkeieuaie,s gue alae 
BE cscs tren. Sekeieioe 19,428 
0°25 «0.06. nee Baste: 5h 31,604 
1D) 3 Sepécarstocapseseueretarae 18,980 
BAL y svawates/sibiorsy siaele . 57,956 
DS ser starseege. sue eee eee 57,060 
MU Sarin “(7 Rey ORI 2:8 71,035 
Dis. sfc Sok arene eaeks 49,080 
he |e: ERE Cer 84,587 
Cre R { Tig i. atlas 82,381 


The shearing strain varied from 13 to 20 tons per square inch in the case 
of iron, and from 21 and 23 tons with homogeneous metal. 


Second Series of Experiments. 


Punch flat-faced, and half an inch in diameter. Holein die-block beneath 
14 inch diameter. The resistances to punching were as the following 
numbers :— 


Thickness of Mark of Statical Resistance 
Plates in inches. _ Plates. to punching in lbs, 

; PAGE? Arch chatuptateiteh vkdle 33,980 

Sse raiete areiale’s > @ aGsreenOn OTe 

0'50....:. pian Agneta HOS Lise eink 48,100 

' Dies cir Serenade hemes 31,345 

Be ee eee 46,996 

OT Die oeee Re te lana coe Rote a 48,788 

1D Ae i hI 48,146 

| Been gos oF ees A 62,584 

Bice wm sani pee oe Ba ne ». 60,696 


In this case the shearing stress per square inch of section varied from 17 
to 193 tons in the case of iron, and from 183 to 27 tons in the homogeneous 
metal. 

In both these series the plates stand in the same order of merit, which is 
also identical with that in which they were placed as regards tenacity and 
density, viz. C, A, B, D. Their relative value is as follows :— 


PE ee 06 8,0 0 sje OUD 
BS PES ane cia fo) cee 0°907 
PRES lee oie Cass pee 1168 


Pr paces ey oe as ae eee ratte 0°873 


RESISTANCE OF IRON PLATES TO PROJECTILES. 285 


Third Series of Experiments. 


In this series a punch of the same diameter as the bullet of the wall-piece 
was employed, but it was round-faced, like the cast-iron service shot. The 
same die was employed, the object being to determine the difference of pene- 
trating power of round- and flat-faced projectiles. In the following table the 
resistances are given, and those of the flat-faced punch of the first series are 
placed. beside them, for comparison. 


Statical Resistance to punching in Ibs. 
Flat-faced punch. Round-faced punch. 


Pepiates sis «ass BS TGBGiL os viele ts 61,886 

Half-inch ) B plates ........ BT.0GQc5, 32/./d 48,788 
plates. | C plates ....... oh TRO SGe ote dst hran 85,524 
Diplates/s3 5 «2% 49'OSO) aaa nei. . 43,337 

Three-quarter- { B plates ........ SELDON Lawl anh « 98,420 
inch plates. | D plates ........ yee el beets byes .e- 98,571 
Meansoan!accits se OOOLE 72,754 


These figures show that the statical pressure required to punch plates of the 
same thicknessis about the same, whether the punch be round- or flat-faced. 

It is further shown in a detailed manner that, for the same pressure, the 
volume displaced by indentation is the same for flat- and round-faced punches. 

Thence it follows that, where the plate does not exceed in thickness the 
diameter of the punch, the depth of indentation is much greater with round- 
than with flat-faced punches. 

And lastly, since the dynamic resistance which corresponds with the resist- 
ance to projectiles, varies as the product of the statical pressure and the depth 
of indentation, it thence follows that the dynamic resistance to round-faced 
projectiles is much greater than the resistance to flat-faced projectiles. 

The general laws indicated in these experiments are as follows :— 

1. Size of shot or punch.—The resistance varies directly as the circum- 
ference of the shot. 

2. Statical resistance of plates of different thickness.—With plates of 
different thickness the statical resistance varies directly as the thickness. If 
the thicknesses be as 1, 2, 3, &c., the resistances will be as 1, 2, 3, &c. 

3. Indentation.—The ultimate indentation can only be approximately ob- 
tained during experiments on punching; it varies directly as the thickness 
of the plates. For flat-faced punches we may assume it to be one-half the 
thickness, and for round-faced punches the whole thickness of the plate, 
when the thickness of the plates is less than the diameter of the shot. 

4. Dynamic resistance, or resistance to projectiles —The dynamic resistance 
varies as the product of the statical resistance and the ultimate indentation 
of the plates. But both these quantities vary nearly as the thickness of the 
plates, directly. Hence the dynamic resistance varies in a ratio which is 
nearly that of the squares of the thicknesses of the plates. So that if the 
thicknesses be as 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., the dynamic resistances will beas i, 4, 9, 16, 
- &c. And the dynamic resistances will be nearly twice as great for round- 
as for flat-faced projectiles. 


7. Computation of a general Formula for the Resistance of Iron Plates to 
Progectiles. 


Assuming the laws stated above as the result of the experiments on punch- 
ing, the following formula has been deduced by equating the dynamic re- 
sistance to the work accumulated in the shot. 


286 REPORT—186]. 


Let ¢ be the thickness of the plate in inches, w the weight of the shot 
in lbs., v the velocity of the shot at the moment of impact in feet per second, 
r the semidiameter of the shot; then, from the experiments at Shoeburyness, 


2 


WV 
i= S38 74OLO Pi PS SON ate iS wees (1.) 
w 33749400 
SSF a ee pile a dia )e Oi ele id tiv idiie Bins eal ole (2.) 


fi v 


From the first of these formule we can find the greatest thickness which 
will be penetrated by a shot of a given size and at a known velocity. From 
the second we obtain the coordinate values of the weight and size of the shot 
necessary to punch a plate of a given thickness. The formule are only 
approximate, but they are as accurate as is necessary until the velocity of the 
shot at impact has been more closely ascertained. It will then be time to 
determine what modification is necessary to secure an entire agreement with 
the experimental results. It may be stated, however, that the formule do 
not apply to those cases in which brittle plates break up by transverse flexure. 

As respects the fastening of armour-plates, the Committee on Iron have 
been inundated with schemes from all quarters, but none of them have as 
yet met the requirements of the case; and until further experiments are tried 
to equalise the resistance of the fastenings to the resistance of the plates, we 
are unable to look forward to anything approaching satisfactory results. Bolts 
and nuts have been tried, and found defective. Strong countersunk rivets 
have been used, with better success when the plates are attached without 
wood or any other intervening substance to the skin of the ship; but even 
these have been found defective, and are inadmissible when a lining of oak or 
teak intervenes between the armour-plates and the sides of the ship. An 
ingenious contrivance has been recommended by Mr. Scott Russell for 
attaching the armour-plates to the ship, and that is a series of bars, in the 
form of the letter T,, along the sides of the vessel, between the joints of the 
armour-plates and the web part a, projecting about an inch and a half beyond 
the thickness of the plates, heated by a large blowpipe and riveted continu- 
ously over the edge of each plate. This system of fastening answers well, 
but can only apply to ships composed entirely of iron, and when the shield- 
plates rest directly upon the sides of the ship. Extended experiments are 
yet required to solve this difficult question, and we have every reason to 
believe they will not be wanting, when other conditions connected with the 
changes now in progress have been realized. 


Continuation of Report to determine the Effect of Vibratory Action and 
long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-Iron Girders. By 
WixuiaM Farrsairn, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., &¢., President of the 
Association. 


Ar the close of the Oxford Meeting it was announced that the experiments . 


on this important subject were still in progress, and that hopes were enter- 
tained that they might be completed in time for the Manchester Meeting. 
Confirmatory of that promise, we have now to submit the results of a still 
more extended inquiry into the effects of vibratory action on molecular con- 
struction. It will be in the recollection of the Meeting that, fifteen years 
ago, experiments were made which led to the designs and construction of 
the Conway and Britannia Tubular Bridges, on the Chester and Holyhead 


. 

- 

4 
‘ 


EXPERIMENTS UPON WROUGHT-IRON GIRDERS. 287 


Railways. Since that time some thousands of bridges have been built en- 
tirely of wrought iron. The introduction of a new material, and the uncer- 
tainty of its durability, led the Board of Trade to determine that the strain 
should not exceed 5 tons per square inch on any part of the structure. 
These requirements appeared to be founded on no fixed principle; and the 
bridge recently erected across the River Spey having been objected to as 
not in accordance with this standard, it was resolved (with the consent and 
at the expense of the Board of Trade) that the question whether the conti- 
nuous changes of load, and the vibration by which they were accompanied, 
did or did not lead to fracture. This was the question for solution; and the 
experiments now recorded have ina great measure determined to what extent 
bridges of this kind can be loaded without incurring danger from fracture. 

It is well known that the power of resistance to strain of wrought-iron 
plates in combination depends upon the principle on which they are united ; 
and unless the parts are permanently established, the five-ton tensile strain per 
Square inch might lead to error. For the purpose of ascertaining the effects 
of the changes of load and vibration causing rupture, a small iron-plate beam 
of 20 feet clear span, and 16 inches deep, representing the proportions of one 
of the girders of the Spey Bridge, was constructed, and exposed to strains and 
conditions similar to those produced by the passage of heavy trains over a 
girder bridge. 

The beam, as already described (page 46 of the Report of the Oxford 
Meeting), was first loaded with one-fourth its breaking weight, and with this 
load it sustained about one million changes without injury. The load was 
then increased to nearly one-half the breaking weight, when it broke after 
5175 changes. From this it appeared that bridges were not safe when loaded 
to one-half the weight that would break them*. Having arrived at this 
result, the beam was taken down and repaired, and the experiments renewed 
with two-fifths the breaking weight, when 158 changes were made to bring 
the parts repaired to their bearing. The load was then reduced from 4-6785 
tons to 3°54 tons, when 25,900 changes were effected. After this the load 
was again reduced to 3 tons, one-fourth the breaking weight, when 3,150,000 
changes were recorded. Ultimately the load was increased to 4 tons, or 
one-third the breaking weight, when it broke by tension across the bottom 
flange after sustaining 313,000 changes of that load. 

In calculating the strain on the area of the metal after deducting the rivet- 
holes, which, it must be remembered, were larger in proportion in the small 
beam than in bridges full size, it was ascertained that the beam suffered no 


deterioration with strains of 74 tons per square inch; but with 10 tons it 


broke with only 5172 changes, as may be seen in the following Tables of ex- 
periments. 
Taste I1V.—Beam repaired. 
The beam broken in the preceding experiment was repaired by replacing 
the broken angle-iron on each side, and putting a patch over the broken 
plate equal in area to the plate itself. Thus repaired, a weight of 3 tons was 


placed on the beam—equivalent to one-fourth of the breaking weight ; that is, 


eGvegiec ata acieees tes ss . 4470 lbs. 
Shaekless. just cee... ate (cn 
Half weightof beank iv. os... .20) SEBS 5, 
Scale,and, 8 -Ubsacep esc c cesseecteiee 434 4, 
6793 


With this weight the experiments were continued as before. 
* See Report of Thirtieth Meeting, page 48. 


288 


TABLE IV. 


REPORT—1861. 


Me EET SET RSET GSE GR 


a a ee | es 


1860. 
Aug. 9 


Aug. 11 
» 13 


Number of changes 


of load. 


158 


12,950 
25,900 


Deflection in 
inches. 


22 


ee cs | es ec a a | 


Aug. 13 
» 16 

» 20 
ae 

» 20 

» dl 
Sept. 1 
» 8 

» 15 

» 22 

» 30 
Oct. 6 
» 13 

» 20 

» 27 
Nov. 3 
» 10 

» 17 

» 23 
Dec. 1 
” 8 

ay, AD 

5) 22 

» 29 
1861. 


25,900 
46,326 
71,000 

101,760 
107,000 
135,260 
140,500 
189,500 
242,860 
277,000 
320,000 
375,000 
429,000 
484,000 
538,000 
577,800 
617,800 
657,500 
712,300 
768,100 
821,970 
875,000 
929,470 
1,024,500 


1,121,100 
1,214,000 
1,278,000 
1,342,800 
1,426,000 
1,485,000 
1,543,000 
1,602,000 
1,661,000 
1,720,000 
1,779,000 
1,829,000 
1,885,000 
1,945,000 
2,000,000 
2,059,000 
2,110,000 
2,165,000 
2,250,000 
2,727,754 
3,150,000 


18 
18 
"18 cress 
18 
18 
18 
"18 
18 
18 


Remarks. 


ee 


The load, during these changes, 
was equivalent to 10,500 lbs., 
or 4°6875 tons, at the centre. 

During these changes the load on 
the beam was 8025 lbs., or 
3°54 tons. 


Load reduced to 3 tons, or one- 
fourth the breaking weight. 


en ee cerearnnntereneinnennenentnntiinemnmttteeteerecetnenetuteereatrts teeters 


. 


EXPERIMENTS UPON WROUGHT-IRON GIRDERS, 289 


TABLE V. 


Number of changes} Deflection in 
of load. inches. 
0 2 The weight was again changed, 
4,000 “2 being increased to 4 tons on 
2 
2 


Remarks. 


126,000 the beam, equal to + of break- 
237,000 : ing weight. Beam broke across 
313,000 the bottom web. 


Summary of Results. 


Ratio of load| Number of | Total number Deflection ; 
Table. | to breaking | changes with jof changes of | ~° eae a Remarks. 
weight. each load. load. i hag 
No. I. 1:4.9 596,790 596,790 0°17 
Il. 1:3°4 403,210 1,000,000 0:22 
III. 1:2°5 5,175 1,005,175 0°35 Broke. 
IV 1: 2°56 12,950 12,950 | Not recorded 
+7 1:3°39 12,950 25,900 0°22 
f 1: 4:00 3,124,101 | 3,150,000 0°18 
Vi 1: 3°00 313,000 3,463,000 0:28 Beam broke 
across the 
bottom web. 


From the above it would appear that, within the limits of one-fourth the 
breaking weight, wrought-iron beams are perfectly safe, as may be seen from 
the results of Tables I. and II., where 1,000,000 changes were effected with- 
out any visible deterioration of the material ; and if we add to this the results 
of Table IV., we have upwards of 4,000,000 changes, which, at 30 trains per 
diem over the Spey Bridge, would be equivalent to the prolonged period of 
400 years. Now as we do not advise bridges to be loaded beyond one-sixth 
of the load that would break them, we may reasonably consider them per- 
fectly secure for a much longer period of time. Much, however, depends 
on the quality of the material, and a sound principle of uniting the joints, all 
of which have been determined by experiment when devising the plans and 
designs for the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges. To these we may 
safely refer, and above all to the selection of the material, which in those 
parts of girders subjected to a tensile strain should be of the best double 
wrought plates, and equal to a test of 22 to 24 tons per square inch. The 
use of this superior quality of iron for the bottom flanges of girders would 
give an increase of one-tenth of strength to that of common boiler plates. 

There is no economy in the use of inferior material for this purpose; as 
its employment is attended not only with loss of character, but is highly dan- 
gerous as regards the public safety. 


The Law of Patents. 


Mr. James Heywoop, M.A., F.R.S., read the Report of the Committee on 
the Patent Laws, which was founded upon, and embodied the following re- 
solutions, agreed upon by the Patent Committee in London :— 

1. That all applications for grants of letters patent should be subjected to 
a preliminary investigation before a special tribunal. 

1861. U 


290 REPORT—1861. 


2. That such tribunal shall have power to decide on the granting of 
patents, but it shall be open to inventors to renew their applications notwith- 
standing previous refusal. 

3. That the said tribunal should be formed by a permanent and salaried 
judge, assisted when necessary by the advice of scientific assessors, and that 
its sittings should be public. 

4. That the same tribunal should have exclusive jurisdiction to try patent 
causes, subject to a right of appeal. 

5. That the jurisdiction of such tribunal should be extended to the trial 
of all questions of copyright and registration of design. 

6. That the scientific assessors for the trial of patent causes should be 
five in number (to be chosen from a panel of thirty to be nominated by the 
Commissioners of Patents), for the adjudication of facts, when deemed neces- 
sary by the judge or demanded by either of the parties. 

7. That the right of appeal should be to a Court of the Exchequer Cham- 
ber, with a final appeal to the House of Lords. 

8. That for the preliminary examination, the assessors (if the judge re- 

quires their assistance) should be two in number, named by the Commis- 
sioners of Patents from the existing panel; the decision to rest with the 
judge. 
: 9. That the Committee approve of the principle of compelling patentees 
to grant licenses on terms to be tixed by arbitration, or in case the parties 
shall not agree to such arbitration, then by the proposed tribunal or by an 
arbitrator or arbitrators appointed by the said tribunal. 

It would be seen, Mr. Heywood said, that the recommendations of the Com- 
mittee were very important, as they proposed the appointment of a special 
tribunal. He presumed the cost would be defrayed out of the £70,000 which 
was annually realized by the granting of patents, after the law officers of the 
Crown and other officials had received their fees ; but at the present time a 
large proportion of this sum was, he believed, applied to the reduction of 
the taxation of the country. 


Resolutions passed at a meeting of the Committee of the Manchester Patent 
Law Reform Association, held on the 30th of August, 1861, the Mayor 
of Manchester in the chair. Communicated by N. S. Hughes. 


“ That in consequence of very peculiar views propounded by certain per- 
sons, that inventors have no claim to remuneration for their inventions, how- 
ever good and useful; that the value of an invention must not be considered 
in reference to the benefit of the inventor, but its utility to the public; and 
that the inventive genius of man does not require any stimulus nor deserve 
any reward, These novel doctrines, in connexion with the Meeting of the 
British Association and the Great Exhibition of next year, have caused the 
Committee of the Manchester Patent Law Reform Association to reconsider 
the views and resolutions they have so often discussed and adopted at their 
numerous meetings since 1850. Without intending to justify the present 
laws in all their details, knowing the many defects which this Committee 
advocated previous to the alteration in the Patent Laws in 1852, but which, 
owing to the mischievous opinions of misdirected parties, were overthrown, 
and consequently remain to be remedied, they consider it their duty to record 
a few of the Resolutions extracted from the minutes of their proceedings, 
which have been discussed and considered in every shape and form, both in 
committee and in public meetings assembled frequently in the Town Hall in 
this city :— 

“}, That it is universally acknowledged that discoveries, inventions, and 


THE LAW OF PATENTS. Sor 


improvements relating to mechanical and chemical science have very greatly 
conduced to the civilization of mankind, the progress of commerce, and the 
wealth of nations. 

“2, That the ingenuity of Englishmen especially has effected many valu- 
able inventions and improvements in almost every department of science and 
manufactures, whereby the commerce, wealth, and power of the British 
dominions have been promoted to an extent unparalleled in the annals of 
any other nation. 

**3. That in order to develope to the fullest extent the inventive talents of 
our countrymen, every encouragement and security should be given to in- 
yentors consistent with the public welfare. 

“4, That the present very heavy expenses, loss of time, and other incon- 
veniences, occasioned by the intricate routine or operation of passing through 
a great number of useless forms to which the inventor is subjected in obtain- 
ing letters patent, exhibit a tendency not calculated to encourage, but abso- 
lutely to baffle and paralyze the efforts of a class so essential in maintaining 
the commercial pre-eminence of this kingdom. 

“5. That for many of the most valuable discoveries and inventions, this 
country is indebted to the expansive minds of operatives and individuals in 
humble life, who are prevented from securing to themselves the advantages 
of their inventions on account of the present expensive process of obtaining 
protection by royal letters patent. 

“6. That inventors should not, in obtaining patent right for their inven- 
tions, be burdened with any more expenses than such as may be absolutely 
necessary for the establishment and maintenance of one government office 
and for publishing full particulars of all patents granted. 

“7, That for want of an official record of patents easy of access to the 
public, many patents are taken out for the same invention, to the serious loss 
and discouragement of pateutees and manufacturers. 

‘8. That the practice of allowing six months to specify the particulars of 
inventions, for which letters patent have been granted, operates very injuri- 
ously both to patentees and the public, is a source of constant annoyance to 
persons contemplating patents for inventions, and gives rise to much useless, 
frivolous, and expensive litigation. 

“9. That the present state of the law involves an expensive, dilatory, in- 
convenient and uncertain mode of obtaining redress in cases of infringement 
of patent right ; that the Judges of the land have been frequently at variance 
in their decisions, and that juries are seldom found qualified to understand 
the matters in dispute. 

10. That Commissioners be substituted for the law officers of the Crown, 
to consist of one person eminently conversant with mechanics, and one con- 
versant with chemistry ; the third, in order to form a quorum, to be a bar- 
rister, or, if necessary, one of the law officers. 

*‘]1. That the juries to try patent cases shall be scientific men, conversant 
with the subject in dispute. 

“Tt will be seen from the above extracts that some of the suggestions were 
embodied in the Patent Law Amendment Act of 1852, viz. a very great re= 
duction in the cost of obtaining letters patent, a simplification of the process 
of application, and the publication of all specifications recorded, forming one 
of the most complete libraries of invention and scientific progress extant; 
but still this Committee is well aware that further improvements are neces- 
sary; and, in considering such further improvements, the interests of the 
public and the inventor must be taken jointly, and not separately.” 


u2 


292 REPORT—1861, 


Report on the Theory of Numbers.——Part Ill. By H. J. Srepuen 
Smita, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the Univer- 
sity of Oxford. 


(B) Theory of Homogeneous Forms. 


79. Problem of the Representation of Numbers.—A rational and integral 
homogeneous function (a guantic according to the nomenclature introduced 
by Mr. Cayley), of which the coefficients are integral numbers, is, in the 
Theory of Numbers, termed a form (Disq. Arith. art. 266). The form 
is linear, quadratic, cubic, biquadratic or quartic, quintic, &c., accord- 
ing to its order in respect of the indeterminates it contains; and binary, 
ternary, quaternary, &c., according to the number of its indeterminates. 
Thus 2’?+y’ is a binary quadratic form, 2°+y°+2°—3ayz a ternary cubic 
form. A form is considered to be given, when its coefficients are given 
numbers; and a number is said to be represented by a given form, when 
integral values are assigned to the indeterminates of the form, such that the 
form acquires the value of the number. If the values of the indeterminates 
are relatively prime, the representation is said to be primitive; if they 
admit any common divisor beside unity, it is a derived representation. 
Thus 13 and 8 can be represented by a*+y’; for 3°+2°=13, 2°+2°=8 ; 
and the first of these representations is primitive, the second is derived. 
The first general problem, then, that presents itself in this part of the 
Theory of Numbers, is the following, “To find whether a given number 
is or is not capable of representation by a given form, and, if it is, to find 
all its representations by that form.” The number of different representations 
of a given number by a given form may be either finite or infinite; in the 
former case the complete solution of the problem of representation consists 
in the actual exhibition of the different sets of values that can be given to 
the indeterminates of the form: in the latter case it consists in assigning 
general formule, in which all those values are comprised. It is in either 
case sufficient to consider primitive representations only; for if the given 
form f be of order m, and the given number N be divisible by the m'” powers 


d,”, d,",...++, the derived representations of N by f coincide with the 


widwet . N 
primitive representations of dm qm" by the same form. 

80. Problems of the Transformation and Equivalence of Forms.—A form 
Sa, Wa, «+++ &'n) is said to be contained in another form f,(2,; @) «+++ &x)s 


when /, arises from f, by a linear transformation of the type 
— U U ' 
LAA, UTA, Vater eves +a, 0 ro 
ped ' “ 1 
UA UF Ay ol ote eeeee $y, 0 y 
— ! U U 
0, =A, 1% 1G, ot at: ops! eae +4, n? 


in which the coefficients a; ; are integral numbers and the determinant is 
different from zero*. This transformation we may, for brevity, describe as 
the transformation |a|. When |a| is a unit-transformation, z.e. when the 
determinant of |@|is a positive or negative unit, the inverse transformation 


* Gauss says that fy is contained in A, even when the determinant of transformation is 
zero (Disq. Arith. art. 215). _ But we shall find it more convenient to retain the restriction 
specified in the text, 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 293 


of |a|, which will be a transformation of the same type as {a}, will have all 
its coefficients integral numbers ; so that in this case f,, which contains f,, is 
also contained in it. When each of two forms is thus contained in the other, 
they are said to be equivalent. If f, contain f,, and f, contain f,, f, will con- 
tain f,; for if f, be changed into f, by the transformation |q@|, and f, into f, 
by the transformation |b|, it is clear that f, will be changed into f, by a 
transformation |T|, of which the constituents are defined by the equation 


T; 5=4),101,5 + 4,260, + Srerraaere + Fj Pn, js 


The transformation | T | is said to be compounded of the transformations | a| 
and |6|, and this composition is expressed by the symbolic equation 


|T|=la|x|2, 


in which it is to be observed that the order of the symbols |@| and | 5| is not, 
in general, convertible. When, in particular, f, is equivalent to f,, and f, to 
ft, f, is equivalent to f,; z.e. forms which are equivalent to the same form 
are equivalent to one another. All the forms, therefore, which are equivalent 
to one and the same form, may be considered as forming a class. All the 
invariants of any two equivalent forms have the same values; but it is 
not true, conversely, that two forms which have the same invariants are 
necessarily equivalent. Nevertheless it may be conjectured that all forms 
of the same sort (z.e. of the same degree, and the same number of indeter- 
minates), the invariants of which have the same values, distribute themselves 
into a finite number of classes ; and this conjectural proposition is certainly 
true for binary forms of all orders, and for quadratic forms of any number of 
indeterminates. It is readily seen that if a number be capable of representa- 
tion by one of two equivalent forms, it is also capable of representation by 
the other; and that the number of representations is either finite for both, or 
infinite for both, and, if finite, is the same for each. The general problem, 
therefore, of the representation of numbers (which we have already enunci- 
ated) suggests naturally the following, which we may term that of the 
equivalence of forms: ‘‘ Given two forms (of the same sort), of which the 
invariants have equal values, to find whether they are, or are not, equivalent, 
and if they are, to assign all the transformations of either of them, into the 
other.” The number of transformations may be either finite or infinite; if 
finite, the transformations themselves, if infinite, general formule containing 
them, are required for the complete solution of the problem. 

When f, is not equivalent to, but contains f,, the invariants of f, are 
derived from those of f, by multiplication with certain powers of the 
modulus (i.e. of the determinant) of the transformation by which f, is 
changed into f,; viz. if I be an invariant of f; and if ¢ and m be the orders 


mi 


of I, and of f, or f,, the corresponding invariant of f, is a” I, a denoting 
; mi, , , 
the modulus of transformation, and the number ~~ being always integral. 


This observation enables us to enunciate with precision a problem in which 
the preceding is included: “Given two forms, of which the invariants have 
values consistent with the supposition that one of them contains the other, 
to find whether this supposition is true or not, and, if it is, to find all the 
transformations of the one form into the other.” But, in every case, the 
solution of the problem in this more general form may be made to depend 
on the solution of the problem of equivalence. For every transformation of 
order m, and modulus a, arises, in one way and in one only, from the com- 
position of two transformations |@| and |v|, of which the latter is a unit- 


294 REPORT—1861. 
transformation, and the former one of the finite number of transformations 
included in the formula 
Py Fy Fy 3. +. Pa AP 
-wken 
-- hy. ak Scere thoes. 


n 


O, po Rey gees 
OS Osmp ia cc .2 3's 


O30 a0 Atos Ba 


in which p, Xp,X.-.... Xp,=a, and 0%; <p; (Phil.Trans.vol.cli. p. 312). 
To determine, therefore, whether the form f, can be transformed into f, by 
a transformation of modulus a, we apply to f, all the transformations (C.) in 
succession, obtaining a series of transformed forms ¢,, ¢,,-.... If none of 
the forms ¢ are equivalent to f,, f, cannot contain f,; but if one or more of 
the forms ¢ be equivalent to f,, f, will contain f,, and all its transformations 
into f, may be obtained as soon as the transformations of the forms ¢ into f, 
have been determined. This is the method proposed by Gauss for binary qua- 
dratic forms (Disq. Arith. arts.213,214); it is evidently of universal application; 
but the following modification of it possesses a certain advantage. Instead of 
representing | T| by the formula | T|=|a|x|v|, we may employ the formula 
| T'|=|v|x|a|, in which |v| is a unit-transformation as before, and |a| is 
one of the transformations included in the formula (C.), where, however, the 
inequality O<k; ;<p; is to be replaced by OX; ;<y;; the transformations 
thus defined we shall call the transformations (C’.). If we now apply to f, 
the inverse of each transformation included in (C'.), we shall obtain a 
series of forms ¢,, ¢,, ¢, -.+++- of which the coefficients will not necessarily 
be integral numbers, because the coefficients of the inverse transformations 
are not necessarily integral. If all the forms ¢,, ¢,, ..-.. be fractional, or if 
none of those which are integral be equivalent to f,, f, cannot contain f,; 
but if some of them be integral, and equivalent to f,, it is plain that f, con- 
tains f,, and that all the transformations of f, into f, may be obtained by 
means of the transformations of f, into those forms ¢ which are equivalent 
to it. The advantage above referred to consists in the circumstance that 
the rejection of the fractional forms ¢ diminishes the number of the problems 
of equivalence which must be solved to obtain the complete solution of the 
question proposed (compare Disq. Arith. art. 284, and note). 

81. Automorphie Transformations.—The unit-transformations by which a 
form passes into itself are the automorphics of the form; thus re rs is an 

> 

automorphic of a*—3y*. When every invariant of a form is zero, the form 
may pass into itself by transformations of which the modulus is different 
from unity; for example, z°—4ay+4y*, a binary quadratic form of which 


the discriminant is zero, passes into itself by the transformation is ak of 
> 


which the modulus is 4. In like manner it is to be observed that when two 
forms of the same sort have all their invariants equal to zero, it may happen 
that each of them passes into the other by transformations of which the 
modulus is not a unit. But in this Report we shall have no occasion to 
consider these exceptional cases, whether of equivalence or of automorphism, 
and we shall therefore employ these terms with reference to unit-transforma- 
tions exclusively. If |T,| and | T,| be automorphiecs of a form f, | T,|x|T. 


2 
and | T, |x| T,| are also automorphics of f; so that, in particular, every power 


Cin a Him" 


256 


Cina 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 295: 


of an automorphic is also an automorphic. (The positive powers of a trans- 
formation are, of course, the transformations which arise from compounding 
it continually with itself; its negative powers are the positive powers of its 
inverse. See Mr. Cayley’s Memoir on the Theory of Matrices, Phil. Trans. 
vol. exlviii. p.17.) Hence, if a form have a single automorphic, of which no 
two powers are identical, it will have an infinite number of automorphics. 
The importance of automorphic transformations in the solution of the 
problems of equivalence and transformation will be apparent from the 
following considerations. If 7, and f, be two equivalent forms, |/| a given 
transformation of f, into f,,|,| and |a,| the general formule representing 
all the automorphics of f, and f, respectively, all the transformations of 
f, into f, will be represented by either of the formule |«,|x|/| or 
|A|x\a,|. And again, if f, contain f,, and if we represent by |, |, |%,|,..-: 
certain particular transformations of f, into f,, obtained by compounding 
each transformation (C), which gives a form @ equivalent to f,, with some 
one transformation of ¢ into f,, then all the transformations of f, into ff, will 
be comprised in a finite number of formule of the type 


Ie let, |B Mae fe, | ob aie en ce ; 


|, | still denoting indefinitely any automorphic of f,. Or, if we employ the 
second method of the preceding article, the same transformations will be 
represented by 


[a,|x]A,] Ja|x[Atb lal |x|a"h oe. , 


where |@, | is any automorphic of f,, and |%,'|, |f,'|, |f,'|, ...... are certain 
particular transformations of f, into f,, obtained in a manner sufficiently in- 
dicated by the method itself. It appears, therefore, that when we know all 
the automorphics either of f, or f,, we can deduce all the transformations 
of f, into f,, from une of those transformations when f, is equivalent to f,, 
and from a certain finite number of them when f, contains, but is not equi- 
valent to, f,. We may add, that when one transformation of two equivalent 
forms, and the automorphics of either of them are known, those of the other 
are known also, for we evidently have the equation 


—|,\-1 
|, |=|4|~" x|a,|x|2|- 

82. Problem of the Representation of Forms.—We give the enunciation of 
one other general problem, which may be said to occupy a middle place 
between the problems of the representation of numbers, and of the equi- 
valence of forms. By using a defective substitution of the type 

Ay TA, oH 00 eee Dy poh np 
il i ee gg oh gigs 


UU U U 
Ly Ay UE Ay gh oF... esses Bann np 


a form f,(x,,x,,...+.2,,) may be changed into another f, (z’,, 2',,...-. z!,,_,) 
of the same order but containing fewer indeterminates. The form f, is said 
to be represented by f,; and the representation is proper or improper accord- 
ing as the determinants of the system do not, or do admit of any common 
divisor besides unity. Our third general problem therefore is, ‘Given two 
forms of the same order, of which the first contains more indeterminates 
than the second, to find whether the second can be represented (properly or 
improperly) by the first, and, if it can, to assign all the representations of 
which it is susceptible.” If the second form contain only one indeterminate 


296 REPORT—1861. 


(i.e. if it be an expression of the form Az”), the problem reduces itself to 
that of the representation of the number A by the form f,. If, again, f, contains 
as many indeterminates as f,, the problem becomes that of the transformation 
of f, into f,. We may add that the problem of improper representation may 
be made to depend on that of proper representation, by methods analogous 
to those by which the problem of transformation depends on that of equiva- 
lence. (See Disq. Arith. art. 284, where Gauss treats of the improper re- 
presentation of binary by ternary quadratic forms.) 

83. It is hardly necessary to state that what has been done towards obtaining 
a complete solution of these problems is but very little compared with what 
remains to be done. Our knowledge of the algebra of homogeneous fornis (not- 
withstanding the accessions which it has received in recent times) is far too 
incomplete to enable us even to attempt a solution of them co-extensive with 
their general expression. And even if our algebra were so far advanced as to 
supply us with that knowledge of the invariants and other concomitants of 
homogeneous forms which is an essential preliminary to an investigation of 
their arithmetical properties, it is probable that this arithmetical investiga- 
tion itself would present equal difficulties. The science, therefore, has as 
yet had to confine itself to the study of particuiar sorts of forms; and of 
these (excepting linear forms, and forms containing only one indeterminate) 
the only sort of which our knowledge can be said to have any approach to 
completeness are the binary quadratic forms, the first in order of simplicity, 
as they doubtless are in importance. Of all other sorts of forms our know- 
ledge, to say the least, is fragmentary. 

We shall arrange the researches of which we have now to speak in the 
following order, according to the subjects to which they refer :— 


1. Binary Quadratic Forms. 

- Binary Cubic Forms. 

. Other Binary Forms. 

. Ternary Quadratic Forms. 

. Other Quadratic Forms. 

. Forms of order 2 decomposable into x linear factors. 


D Or Oo dO 


The theory of linear forms (7. e. of linear indeterminate equations) we shall 
refer to hereafter. That of forms containing only one indeterminate will 
not require any further notice. 


(1) Binary Quadratic Forms. 


84. Instead of confining our attention exclusively to the most recent 
researches in the Theory of Quadratic Forms, we propose, in the following 
articles, to give a brief but systematic réswmé of the theory itself, as it 
appears in the Disq. Arith., introducing, in their proper places, notices, as 
full as our limits will admit, of the results obtained by later mathematicians, 
We adopt this method, partly to render the Jater researches themselves more 
easily intelligible, by showing their connexion with the whole theory; but 
partly also in the hope of facilitating to some persons the study of the Fifth 
Section of the Disq. Arith., which, probably owing to the obscurity of 
certain parts of it, is even now too much neglected by mathematicians. 
This section is composed, as Lejeune Dirichlet has observed (Crelle, vol. xix. 
p- 325), of two very distinct parts. The results contained in the former of 
the two (arts. 153-222) are for the most part those which had been already 
obtained by Euler, Lagrange, and Legendre; but they are completed in 
many respects; they are derived, in part at least, from different principles, 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 297 


and are expressed in a terminology which has been adopted by most sub- 
sequent writers. The second part (arts. 223-307) is occupied, after some 
preliminary disquisitions (arts. 223-233), with the ulterior researches of 
Gauss himself. We proceed then tu give a summary of the definitions and 
theorems contained in the first of these two portions. 

85. Elementary Definitions. —The quadratic form aa*+2bxry+cy’ is 
symbolized by the formula (a, 5, c) (2, y)°, or, when it is not necessary to 
specify the indeterminates, by the simpler formula (a, 6,c). The second 
coefficient is always supposed to be even; and an expression of the form 
px’+qazy+ry? (in which g is uneven) is not considered by Gauss as itself a 
quadratic form, but as the half of the quadratic form (2p, g, 27). The 
discriminant 6°—ae of the form (a, b, c) is called by Gauss the determinant 
of the form; an expression which at the present time it would be neither 
possible nor desirable to alter. When two forms are equivalent, they are 
said to be properly equivalent if the modulus of transformation is +1, but 
improperly equivalent if it is —1. Only those forms which are properly 
equivalent to one another are considered to belong to the same class; two 
forms which are only improperly equivalent are said to belong to opposite 
classes. This distinction between proper and improper equivalence is due to 
Gauss, and is of very great importance. In what follows, unless the con- 
trary is expressly specified, we shall use the terms equivalence and auto- 
morphism to denote proper equivalence and proper automorphism. It is readily 
seen that the greatest common divisors of a, 2b, c, and of a, b, ¢ are the same 
for (a, 6,¢) and for every form equivalent to (a, b,c) ; if each of those greatest 
common divisors is unity, (a, b,c) is a properly primitive form, and the class 
of forms equivalent to (a, b,¢)a properly primitive class; if the first greatest 
common divisor be 2, and the second 1, the form, and the class of forms 
equivalent to it, are termed improperly primitive. Every form which is not 
itself primitive, is a numerical multiple of some primitive form of a less de- 
terminant, and is therefore called a derived form. Thus x*+3y? is a pro- 
perly primitive form of det.—3, 2x°+2ay+2y’ is an improperly primitive 
form of the same determinant ; while 22°+6y*, 4a°+4ay+4y" are derived 
forms of det. —12. 

In all questions relating to the representation of numbers, or the equiva- 
lence of forms, it is sufficient to consider primitive forms, as the solution of 
these problems for derived forms is immediately deducible from their solution 
for primitive forms; but in certain investigations connected with the trans- 
formation of forms the consideration of derived forms is indispensable. (The 
problem of art. 82 coincides with that of the representation of numbers, in the 
case of binary forms of any order.) 

The nature of the quadratic form (a,b,c) depends very mainly on the 
value of its determinant, which we shall symbolize by D. (1) If D=0, the 
form (a, 6,¢) reduces itself to an expression of the type m(px+qy)’, 
p and qg denoting two numbers relatively prime, and m being the greatest 
common divisor of a, b,c. The arithmetical theory of such expressions, 
which are not binary forms at all, since they are adequately represented by 
a formula such as mX*, is so simple, and at the same time diverges so much 
from that of true binary quadratic forms, that we shall not advert to it 
again in this Report, and in all that follows the determinant is supposed to 
be different from zero. (2) When D is a perfect positive square, the form 
(a, b,c) reduces itself to an expression of the type m(p,7+q,y) (P.t+qey), 
i.e, it becomes a product of two linear forms, Owing to this cireum- 
stance the theory of forms of a square determinant is so much simpler 
than that of other quadratic forms, that we shall not enter into any details 


298 REPORT—1861. 


with regard to them, though it is not necessary to exclude them (as is the 
case with forms of determinant zero) from those investigations which 
relate simultaneously to the two remaining kinds of quadratic forms; viz. 
(3) those of a negative determinant, and (4) those of a positive and not 
square determinant. An essential difference between these two kinds of 
forms is, that whereas both positive and negative numbers can be represented 
by any form of positive and not square determinant, forms of a negative deter- 
minant can represent either positive numbers only, or negative numbers only. 
For if the roots of a+2b0+¢8°=0 be real, it is clear that ax*+2bay+ cy’ 
will have values of different signs, when the ratio y: 2 falls between the two 
roots and when it falls outside them’; but if the roots be imaginary, the form 
will always obtain values having the same sign (viz. that of a or c), whatever 
the ratio y:x may be. If (a, b, c) be a positive form (7.e. a form repre- 
senting positive numbers only) of a negative determinant D=—A, 
(—a, —b, —c) is a negative form of the same determinant, and can repre- 
sent negative numbers only. We see, therefore, that there are as many 
positive as negative classes for any negative determinant; and as everything 
that can be said about positive forms or classes may be transferred at once, 
mutatis mutandis, to negative forms and classes, we shall in what follows 
exclude the latter from consideration, and, when we are speaking of forms of 
a negative determinant, confine ourselves to the positive forms. 

Since 2? — Dy’, or(1, 0,—D), is a form of determinant D, we see that one class 
at least of properly primitive forms exists for every determinant; and the class 
containing the form «*—Dy’ is called the principal class. Improperly pri- 
mitive forms only exist for those determinants which satisfy the condition 
D=1, mod 4; since, if (a, 6, ¢) be improperly primitive, we have 5=1, mod 2, 
a=c=0,mod 2. But for every determinant satisfying this condition, one 


class at least of improperly primitive forms exists; for (2 1, —25*) is an 


improperly primitive form of determinant D, and the class containing it may 
be called the principal class of improperly primitive forms. 

86. Reduction of the Problem of Representation to that of Equivalence.— 
The problem of the representation of numbers depends, first, on the solution 
of a quadratic congruence, and, secondly, on the solution of a problem of 
equivalence. This dependence is established by the two following theorems:— 

(i.) When the number M admits of a primitive representation by (a, 0, c), 
the quadratic congruence 27—D=0, mod M, is resoluble.” 

For if am?+2bmn-+en?=M be a primitive representation of M, let p, v be 
two numbers satisfying the equation my—ny=1; we then find 


(am? + 2bmn + en*)(ap? + 2bpy + ev”) = (amp +b[ my +np] +env)’—D; 
or =D, mod M; if Q=amp+b[my+np]+eny. 


We have already referred to this result in art. 68. 

The representation am? + 2bmn + cn* of the number M by the form (a, d, c), 
is said by Gauss to appertain to the value © of the congruential radical 
WD, mod M. To understand this definition with precision, it is to be 
observed that if in the expression of Q we replace p and » by any two other 
numbers satisfying the equation my—nyu=1, the new value of Q will be of 
the form ©+M; and conversely, values for » and » can always be found 
which shall give to amp+b[mv+mp]+enyv any assigned value of the form 
Q+kM. Two different representations of M appertaining to the same value 
of 4 D, mod M, are said to belong to the same set. 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 299 


(ii.) “If M admit of a primitive representation by the form (a, 4, c) apper- 
taining to the value © of D, mod M, the two forms (a, 6, c) and 


°—D 
(ma? 


are equivalent ; and conversely, if these two forms are equivalent, M admits 
of a primitive representation by (a,5,c) appertaining to the value Q of 
WD, mod M.” 

To establish the first part of this theorem, we observe that the assertion 
that M admits of a primitive representation by the form (a, 6, c) appertaining 
to the value @ of /D, mod M, implies the existence of four numbers 
M, N, 1, v, satisfying the equations 


mv—np=l, 
am? +2bmn+en>=M, Mess han ta ebb old a (k) 
amp+b[my+np] +env=Q. 
If, therefore, we apply to (a, 6,c) the transformation i | the resulting 
? 


form will have M and Q for its first and second coefficients respectively ; 


its third coefficient will therefore be oa) 


, because its determinant must be 


o—D 
M 
conversely, the equivalence of the two forms (a, b,c) and 


o_D 
M, Q, —-—— 
( dela 


D; i.e. the two forms (a, ,c) and (a, Q, ) are equivalent. And, 


implies the existence of a transformation 


Mm, pL 
Vv 


a: of (a, , c) into 


O?—D\, 
(a, o, ; 


i.e. it implies the existence of four numbers m, 7, p, v, satisfying the equa- 
tions (k); or, finally, of a primitive representation of M by (a, 6, ¢) apper- 
taining to the value © of /D, mod M. 

_ If (A, B, C) be a form equivalent to a form (a, 6, ¢) by which 


M=am’?+2bmn+en? 
is represented, and if a8 be a transformation of (A B C) into (a, 4, c), it 
Pp y3 


is clear that 
(A, B, C)(am+ Bn, ym+in)?=(a, b, c)(m, nyP=M. 

Two such representations of M by equivalent forms are called corresponding 
representations ; and we may enunciate the theorem, ‘ Corresponding repre- 
sentations of the same number M by equivalent forms appertain to the same 
value of the expression / D, mod M,” the truth of which is evident from the 
nature of the function Amu+B[mv+np]+Cny, which is a covariant (in 
respect of m,n and p, v) to Az’+2Bay+ Cy’. 

To obtain, therefore, al! the primitive representations of a given number 
by a given form (a, 6, c), we investigate all the values of the expression / D, 
mod M. If Q,,Q,,.... be those values, we next compare each of the forms 

?—D 


(a1, 2, -F- 


300 REPORT— 1861. 


with (a,6,c). If none of them be equivalent to (a, b,c), M does not admit 
of primitive representation by (a,6,¢); but if one or more of them, as 


22—D 
(1, 2“ 


biting all the transformations of (a,b, c) into (a OQ, 


) be equivalent to (a,b, ¢), let be 7 be the formula exhi- 


o7—D 


): then all the 


primitive representations of M by (a, }, ¢), which appertain to the value 
Q, of 4/D, mod M, are contained in the formula (a, b, c)(a, y)P=M. 

87. Determination of the number of Sets of Representations.—It appears 
from what has preceded, that if S denote a system of representative forms of 
determinant D (i. e. a system of forms containing one form, and only one, for 
every class of forms of determinant D), the number of different sets of pri- 
mitive representations of M by the forms of S is equal to the number of 
different solutions of the congruence #°==D, mod M. If, in particular, 
M be uneven and prime to D, it is clear that M can only be represented 
by properly primitive forms; and in this case the number of solutions of 
the congruence z°==D, mod M, z.e. the number of sets of primitive re- 
presentations of M by the properly primitive forms contained in S, is 


expressed by either of the two formule n(1+(2)) or (3) in which 

p and 6 denote respectively the prime divisors of M, and those divisors of M 

which are divisible by no square; while (9) and (2) are the quadratic 
P 


symbols of Lagrange and Jacobi (see arts 16, 17, 68,76). If » denote the num- 
ber of different primes dividing M, the common value of the two expressions 


a(1 +(5)) and 2(3) is 2" or zero, according as the condition (G)=! is 


satisfied by every prime divisor of M, or is not satisfied by one or more 
of them. When D is =1, mod 4, § will certainly contain improperly 
primitive forms; and the unevenly even number 2M (where M is still sup- 
posed prime to D) will admit of primitive representation only by the impro- 
perly primitive forms contained in S (for if © denote any root of the con- 


a 
gruence 2°==D, mod 2M, © will be uneven, sie even, and the form 


2 20 ee 
(aL oe 2M 


primitive representations of 2M by these improperly primitive forms will be 
the same as the number of sets of primitive representations of M by the pro- 
perly primitive forms in S. 

The problem of obtaining the derived representations of M by (a, 6, c) 
depends on that of finding the primitive representations of a given number 
by a given form (see art. 79). Two derived representations of M are said to 
belong to the same set, when the greatest common divisor of the indetermi- 
nates, which we will symbolize by w, is the same for each, and when the two 


) will be improperly primitive). And the number of sets of 


bier ; M : : , 
primitive representations of —, from which they are derived, appertain to 
we 


the same value of ,/D, mod et Adopting this definition, we may enunciate 
Ww 


the theorem, “If M be an uneven number prime to D, the whole number of 


‘she 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 301 


sets of representations of M (and if D=1, mod 4, of 2M) by a system of re- 


presentative forms of determinant D is zi d denoting any divisor of D.” 


We may add that, as before, M will be represented only by properly primi- 
tive forms; and, when D=1, mod 4, 2M only by improperly primitive 
forms*. 

88. Reduction of the Problem of Transformation to that of Equivalence.—- 
It has been shown in art. 80, that the general problem, “ Given two forms of 
unequal determinants, to decide whether one of them contains the other, 
and if so, to find all the transformations of the containing into the contained 
form,” can be reduced to the simpler problem of the equivalence of forms, 
For the sake of clearness we shall here point out how the first of the two 
general methods of that article is to be applied to quadratic forms. If of 
two forms f and F the former contain the latter, the determinant of F is a 
multiple of that of f by a square number, viz. by the square of the modu- 
lus of transformation. Let the determinant of f be D, and that of F, De’; 
also let m and p be any two conjugate divisors of e, so that #pu=e. Then 
every transformation of which the modulus is e may be expressed in one way, 
and one only, by the formula ia x es , in which & denotes one of the 

> ’ 


a, B 
Y é 
If, therefore, we apply to the form fall the transformations included in the 


m,k 
0, p 


we shall obtain a series of forms ¢,, %,,.... of determinant De®. If none of 
these forms be equivalent to F, F is certainly not contained in f; but if one 


m, k : 
0, p 


is equivalent to F, let | hs | represent indefinitely any transformation of ¢ 
? 


numbers 0, 1, 2, 3,....m—1, and 


is any unit-transformation whatever. 


formula 


(of which the number is equal to the sum of the divisors of e), 


or more of them, for example, ¢, arising from the transformation 


into F; then f passes into F by any one of the transformations included in 
m, kh a, | 
0, pe 9 
the series ¢,, ¢,,.... which is equivalent to F, it is readily seen that the 
transformations of f into F, which are thus obtained, are all different, and 
that they include all possible transformations of f into F. 

We have supposed the number e to be positive, 7.e. we have supposed 
that f contains F properly. To decide whether f contains F improperly, we 
have only to examine whether any of the forms ¢,, 9,.... be improperly 
equivalent to F; and if any one of them be so, to combine the transforma- 
tion of f into it, with its (improper) transformations into F. 

89. Problem of Equivalence.—It remains to speak of the problem of 
equivalence. Of the three parts of which this problem consists, viz. (1) to 
decide whether two given forms are equivalent or not, (2) if they are, to 


the formula x . If we take in succession for ¢ every form in 


* The theorems of this article will not be found in the Disq. Arith. If, in their expression, 


we transform the symbols (7): (3) by the law of reciprocity, we obtain results which co- 


incide with those given by Lejeune Dirichlet in his memoir, “ Recherches sur l’application 
etc.,” sect. 7 (Crelle, vol. xxi. p. 1-6). 


302 REPORT—1861. 


obtain a single transformation of one form into the other, and (3) from a 
single transformation to deduce all the transformations, the last only admits 
of being treated by a method equally applicable to forms of a positive and 
negative determinant. We shall therefore consider it first. The solution which 
Gauss has given of it (Disq. Arith. art. 162) depends on principles which 
are concealed (as is frequently the case in the Disquisitiones Arithmeticz) 
by the synthetical form in which he has expressed it. We shall not therefore 
repeat the details of his solution, but shall endeavour to point out the basis 
on which it rests. 

Let f=(4, b,c) (x,y)? be transformed into F=(A, B, C) (a, y)? by two 
Ao B, and Ife B, 
Yo 9 Yv 6 
transformations of which the determinants are equal in sign as well as in 
magnitude to the same positive or negative number e. Let also, for brevity, 


X,=a,c+By, Y= yot+oy, X,=a,e+B,y, Yi=y.2+6,y, 


so that f(X,, Y,)=f(X,, Y,) =F(a,y); we have then the algebraical theorem— 

“The homogeneous functions F(2,y) and X,Y,—X,Y, differ only by a 
numerical factor, not containing z or y.” 

The truth of this theorem is independent of the supposition that the 
coefficients of the given forms and given transformations are integral num- 
bers. Its demonstration is implicitly contained in the formule given by 
Gauss; or it may be verified more indirectly by the consideration, that if w 
be a root of the equation a+ 2bw+ew*=0, we have, simultaneously, 


different, but similar transformations, 


; t.e. by two 


 & + BQ’ ~~ a,+B,07 


© denoting in each case the same root of the equation A+2BQ+CO?=0, an 
assertion which would not be true, if the equal determinants @,8,—B,y, and 
Yo+ GQ _ %1+6,0 
a,+BQ a,+p,0 
coincides with the equation A-+2BQ+CQ?=0; i.e. X,Y,—X,Y, is identical 
(if we neglect a factor not containing x or y) with F(a, y). 

Comparing this conclusion with the identity 


[F(2,y) =X, Y,) xf(X,, Y= : 
DCO yg - (A) 


@,6,—f,y, were of opposite signs. Hence the equation 


we obtain a second result of the same kind— 

“ The function aX,X,+0(X,Y,+X,Y,)+cY,Y, differs from F(a, y) only 
by a numerical factor not containing z or y.” 

Let m be the greatest common divisor of A, 2B, and C; U and T the 
greatest common divisors of the coefficients of 2*, ay, and y? in X,Y,—X,Y, 
and aX,X,+6(X,Y,+X,Y,)+eY,Y, respectively ; m being a positive integer, 
but the signs of U and T being fixed by the equations 


aX,X,+0(X,Y,+X,Y,)+eY,Y, . 
he ey (r) 


SS YS 


which are implied by the two algebraical theorems that have preceded; the 
numbers T, U, and m will satisfy the equation T’—DU*=m’, which is obtained 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 303 


by combining the equations (A) and (), and will serve to express the relation 
Qo» B, G1, 1 
3 : 


0 “Oo 


which subsists between the transformations and Solving the 


iD 
equations 


U U 
X,Y,—X,Y,= at y) =— fio ¥,) 
aX,X,+5(X,Y,+X,Y,)+ceY,Y, =a, y)= = f(X» ¥,) 


for X, and Y,, we find 
mX,=(T—6bU)X,—cUY,, 
mY, =aUX,+(T+8U)Y,; 


or, finally, equating the coefficients of w and y, 


@,,|__ 1 se Ta,—U(ba,+cy,), Teaues ta 
Ym” |Ty,+U(ae,+by,), Td, + U(as, +69, 
1 T—4U, —cU ay B | 
Ciek visgl laa A HAA oad aedletneatinn coscacckt va nae 


If we suppose the complete solution of the indeterminate equation 
T’—DU’=m’* to be known, the formula (C) supplies us with a complete 
solution of the problem, ‘‘ Given one transformation of f into F, to deduce 
all the similar transformations of f into F.” For if we suppose in that 
formula that T and U denote indefinitely any two numbers satisfying the 
indeterminate equation, it will appear (1) that every transformation of f into 
F is contained in (C) ; (2) that every transformation contained in (C) is a 
transformation of f into F ; (3) that no two transformations contained in (C), 
and corresponding to different values of T and U, are identical. Only it is to be 
observed that the transformations (C) are not, in general, all integral. They 
are so, however, when e, the modulus of transformation, is a unit, a supposi- 
tion which we have not yet introduced; i.e. when the forms f and F are 


either properly or improperly equivalent ; because < =a and a are then 


evidently integral; whence it may be inferred that tees and oe are 


So too. 

90. Expression for the Automorphics of a Quadratic Form.—To find the 
automorphies of any quadratic form it is sufficient to consider the case of a 
Go» B, 
Yo 9 


i 1 , we obtain from the formula (C) the following general ex- 
> 


the identical trans- 


primitive form. Putting thenf=F, and taking for 


formation 


pression for the automorphies of f, 
a, B on 1 x T—6U, —cU 
El m aU, T+éU 


where m=1, or 2, according as f is properly or improperly primitive. The 
nature of this expression for the automorphics depends on the value of D. 
If D be positive and not square, let us represent the least positive numbers 
satisfying the equation T’-DU’=m’* by T, and U,; we then have, by a 


Nee ak dec aia what iy 


304 REPORT—1861. 


known theorem, the following formula for all the solutions in which T is 
positive, 
T,+U.¥ oe pallet 
m m 
k denoting any positive or negative integral number. 


From this we can can infer that if a | be the automorphic in the 
Bey 


formula (D), arising from the values T,, U, of T and U, all the other proper 


, and are included in the formula 


ay B, 
Ya» 0, 
| e| representing one or other of the identical transformations 
1,0 1) 

Joa {amd | ot 

If D be a negative number, the only solutions of the equation T7— DU*=m? 
(except in two cases presently to be noticed) are T=+m,U=0. Hence 
the only proper automorphics of a form of negative determinant are the two 


automorphics are powers of | Ms Bs 

Yr Or 
k 
> 


|e| x 


identical transformations i | and a A The two excepted cases 
? ts 


are (1) D=—1, m=1; (2) D=—3, m=2. In the former case we have 
for T and U the four values +1, 0, and 0, +1; whence the proper auto- 
morphies of a form of det. —1 are the four transformations supplied by the 
k 
formula | gine 
silanes 

six in all, viz +2,0; +1,1; and +1, —1; whence six automorphics, 
comprised in the formula 


If D=—3, m=2, the solutions of T°+3U°=4 are 


3(1—), —}e/" 
2a, 2(1+8) |’ 

exist for an improperly primitive form of det. —3. We may add that in each 
of these two cases, in addition to the proper automorphics we have found, 
there exist an equal number of improper automorphics. 

From the formula (C), compared with the theory of representation con- 
tained in art. 86, it follows that if (a, b,¢) («, y)"=M be any representation 
of M by (a, 6, c), all the representations of the same set are included in the 


formula [etn Typha thy] . For forms of a positive and 


m m 
not square determinant the number of representations in each set is there- 
fore infinite. For forms of a negative determinant the number of represen- 
tations in each set is, in general, two; and if [«, y] be one of them, the other 
is [—a, —y]. Butif the determinant be —1, or if the form be derived from 
a form of det. —1, the number of representations in each set is four; and if 
the form be an improperly primitive form of det.—3, or be derived from 
such a form, the number of representations in each set is six. 

91. Expression for the Automorphics—Method of Lejeune Dirichlet We 
have inferred the expression (D) of the automorphics of f, from the formula 
(C) of which it is a particular case. But it is plain, from the general theory 
of art. 81, that, when f and F are equivalent, we can conversely infer the 
formula (C) from (D). This method has been preferred by Lejeune 
Dirichlet, who obtains the automorphics of a primitive form f=(a, 8, ¢), of 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 3805 


which the determinant is not a positive square, by the following process 
(Crelle, vol. xxiv. p. 324). If ee 
have evidently 
a(aa? + Qbay +ey*)=[art+(b+VD)y] [axt+(b—VD)y], 

=[(aa+[b+ 7 Djy)x+ (48+ [6+ 7D ]o)y] x 

[(aa+ [6— VD] y)x+ (48+ [6—VD]6)y], 
an equation which, for brevity, we may write 
(petqy) (p+ qy)=(PxtQ,x) (Pe+Qy), 


and which implies one or other of the two following systems :-— 


ap pict PL. i. eee 
(1) PiP2 |e 2? P Q, ? P, Q,’ 


=PpPP-: Pi %. P. Yo 
(2) PiP2 P, 2? P. Q,’ P, Q, 


» if 


a 
Y 0 


P—1(T—UyD], T and U denoting rational numbers, and m still repre- 


be any rational automorphic of f, we 


If (1) be the system which is satisfied by 


, let .=1(T+UyD} 


Re, 


senting the greatest common divisor of a, 2b,c. These assumptions are 
“y: D. . : . . 
legitimate, because £ and o contain no irrationality but »/ D, and are con- 


. . 1 2 . . . . 
jugate with regard to /D. Substituting in the equations 


P,_Q_1 
Gg tae WN 
PP. Qed 

=2=— 2 — - (T—U D), 
Pz WG ms ne 


for P,, P23 Gy» 23 Py» P,; Q,, Q,; the expressions which these letters represent, 
and equating the rational and irrational parts, we find 

a,6|_ 1. |T—&bU, —ceU 

¥5 3| Sans La, F eeU 

In this expression T and U satisfy the equation T’—DU’=m’, because 
P,P.=P,P,. From this we infer that 2a—Sy=1 ; further, if we now introduce 
the condition that a, 8, y,d are to be integral and not merely rational 


numbers, it will follow, because y, d—@, —£ are integral, that oa 0, <U 


are also integral; i.e. that U itself, and consequently T’, is integral; so that 
the formula at which we have arrived coincides exactly with the formula 
(D). The system (2), treated in a similar manner, leads to the conclusion 
adi—y3—=—1; whence it follows that that system can be satisfied by no 
proper automorphic of ff 

This method, as Dirichlet observes, has the advantage of putting in a 
clear light the difference between proper and improper automorphism. <A 
proper automorphic changes each of the two factors, into which the form 
may be decomposed, into a multiple of itself by a complex unit of the form 


+ [T+U¥ D] ; whereas improper automorphics, which only exist for parti- 


cular kinds of forms, change each factor into a multiple of the other. A 
61. x « 


306 . REPORT—1861. 


similar distinction subsists between proper and improper equivalence; the 
radical y D entering with the same sign, or with opposite signs, into the factors 
which are transformed into one another, according as the transformation is 
proper or improper. 

92. Problem of Equivalenee—Forms of a Negative Determinant.—To 
complete the solution of the problem of equivalence, we consider, first, forms 
of a negative, and then those of a positive and not square determinant. 

A form (a, 6, c) of a negative determinant D=—A, which satisfies the 
conditions enunciated in the following Table, is called a reduced form. The 
symbols [26] ete. are used to denote the absolute values of the quantities 
enclosed within the brackets. 


General Conditions. Special Conditions. 
1. [26]S<[a@]. \, 1. Tf a=e,.b20. 
2. [2b]S[e]. 2. If [26]=[a], b=0. 


3. [a JS[e]. 


The essential character of a reduced form is sufficiently expressed by the 
two symmetrical conditions [26]<[a@], and [2b]<[c]. The third general 
condition (which combined with the first implies the second), and the special 
conditions, are, it may be said, artificial restrictions, intended to enable us to 
enunciate with precision the theorem that “every class contains one, and 
only one, reduced form.” 

To show that one reduced form always exists in any given class, we select 
from the given class all those forms in which the coefficient of «* is the least; 
and again, from those forms we select that one form, (a, 6, c), or those two 
forms, (a, 6, c) and (a, —b, ec), in which the coefficient of y* is the least. The 
single form (a, 6,c), or the two forms (a, 8, ¢), (a, —6, c), thus obtained, will, 
it is easy to see, satisfy the general conditions; and since, if a=e, or again 
if [26]=[a], the opposite forms (a, 6, c) and (a, —b, ¢), each of which 
satisfies the general conditions, are equivalent, and therefore both belong 
to the given class, it is clear that a form always exists satisfying the special 
conditions proper to these cases. That only one reduced form exists in each 
class may be proved by employing a principle due to Legendre (Théorie des 
Nombres, vol. i. p. 77). 

“If f=(a, b,c) be a form satisfying the general conditions for a reduced 
form, f(1, 0) or a is the least number (other than zero) which can be repre- 
sented by f; and f(0, 1) or ¢ is the least number which can be represented 
by f, with any value of the second indeterminate different from zero.” 

For, if we wish to find the least numbers that can be represented by /, it 
will be sufficient to attribute positive values to # and y in the formula 

f=ax?—2bay+cy’, in which we suppose 6 positive as well asa ande. But 


S(z—1,y)=f(a, Salleh fags peeing ape 
S(@y—1I)=fl@, y)—2(y—#) — (e— 2b)y —e(y—1), 

from which equations it appears that if in the formula f(«, y) we diminish 

by a unit that indeterminate which is not less than the other, we diminish, 

or at least we do not increase, the value of f(x,y), a conclusion which leads 

immediately to the principle enunciated by Legendre. 

From this principle it follows that a form satisfying the general conditions 
of reduction is the form, or one of the two opposite forms, to which we are 
led by the process of selection above described. If, therefore, there be two 
reduced forms in the same class, they must be two opposite forms (a, 6, ec) 
and (a, —6,¢). Butit is easily proved that two such opposite forms, each 
satisfying the general conditions of reduction, cannot be equivalent, unless 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 307 


either [2b] =a, or a=c; in which cases only one of the two forms satisfies 
the special conditions. In every case, therefore, there exists one, and only 
one, reduced form in each class. 

To obtain the reduced form equivalent to a given form, we form a series 
of contiguous forms, beginning with the given form and ending with the 
reduced form (Disq. Arith. art. 171). Two forms of the same determinant, 
(a, b, c) and (a’, b', c!), are said to be contiguous when c=a', and 6+b'=0, 
moda’. Two contiguous forms are always equivalent; for if b+6'=ya', the 
former passes into the latter by the transformation a rigcy 
> 

Let, then, (a,, 6,,a,) be the given form of det. —A, which is supposed not 
to satisfy the general conditions for a reduced form. Let 6,+6,=p,a,, —), 


denoting the minimum residue of b,, mod a,, so that [26,]<a,; and let a, 
B+A 


represent the integral number - - The form (a,,6,,@,) will be con- 


‘ 1 

tiguous, and therefore equivalent, to (a,,5,,a,). Leta third form, (a,, 5,, a), 
be similarly derived from (a,,5,,a,), and let the series of contiguous 
forms (a,, 6,, a,), (a; 5,, 4), (@,5 5,, @3),+-- be continued until we arrive 
at a form (a,,6,,4@,,,), in which a,,,=¢@,- We shall certainly arrive at 
such a form, or we should have a series of numbers a,, a@,, a@,,.... all re- 
presented by the form (a,,5,,a,), and yet continually decreasing for ever ; 
whereas a form of negative determinant can acquire only a finite number 
of values inferior to any given limit. The form (a,,0,,@,,,), in which 
a, <4,,, ,, satisfies the general conditions for a reduced form. For by the law 
of the series of forms [26,]<a,; and since a, <a,41, we have also 


[26,,] SF +1 

Again, the process can always be terminated in such a manner as to give a 
form satisfying the special conditions for a reduced form. If a,=a,,,, and 
6,, is negative, instead of stopping at the form (a,, },,a,), we continue the 
process one step further and obtain the reduced form (a,,—85,,a,). If 
—2b,,=a,, instead of the form (a,, 6, a,,),we take the form (a,;—8,,, @,4 1) 
which is contiguous to (a,,_,,5,_,,@,),for the concluding form of the series. 

The transformation |T,| by which (@,, 5,,a@,) passes into the equivalent 
reduced form (a,, 0, a, fee is 


0, — | 0, —1 0, —1 
ee ee te cece x 
| 1, Fy . 1, Pe + 1, Bn 
where b;_, +4; 
—— 
a: 


t 


or if we represent the successive convergents to the continued fraction 


by Q” Q” a .. ++, 80 that P=0, P=—1, Pp=—py oo) Q=1, Q=p, 
1 2 
Q,=,",—1,..., we may express | T,,| by the formula 
ree u re 
{ | Tn | — Q,-p Q, ir 
x2 


308 REPORT—1861. 


The theory of the reduction of quadratic forms was first given by Lagrange. 
(See his ‘ Recherches d’Arithmétique’ in the Nouveaux Mémoires de I’ Aca- 
démie de Berlin for 1773; see also his Additions to Euler’s Algebra, art. 32; 
a memoir of Euler's, “ De insigni promotione scientiz numerorum,” Opuse. 
Anal. vol. ii. p. 273, or Comment. Arith. vol. ii. p. 140; Legendre, Théorie 
des Nombres, premiére partie, sect. viii. ; Disq. Arith. arts. 171-173; M. Her- 
mite in Crelle’s Journal, vol. xli. p. 193.) The method is applicable to forms 
of a positive, as well as to those of a negative determinant; but when the 
determinant is positive, the reduced forms are not, in general, all non-equi- 
valent. When the determinant is negative, it is as applicable to forms, of 
which the coefficients are any real quantities whatever, as to those of which 
the-coefficients are integral numbers. We shall revert hereafter to the con- 
sequences which M. Hermite has deduced from this important observation. 

We have now a complete solution of the problem of equivalence for forms 
of a negative determinant. ‘To decide whether two forms f, and f, of the 
same negative determinant are equivalent or not, we have only to investigate 
the reduced forms ¢, and @, equivalent to f, and f,: according as ¢, and ¢, 
are or are not identical, f, and f, are or are not equivalent; and if they are 
equivalent, all the transformations of f, into f, are obtained, by compounding 
the reducing transformation of f,, first, with the automorphics of ¢,, and then 
with the inverse of the reducing transformation of f,. 

93. Problem of Equivalence for Forms of a Positive and not Square De- 
terminant.—The solution of the problem of equivalence for forms of a posi- 
tive and not square determinant occupies a considerable space in the Disq. 
Arith, (arts. 183-196). But, as Lejeune Dirichlet has observed, in a 
memoir which he has devoted to this problem (“ Vereinfachung der Theorie 
der binaren quadratischen Formen,” in the Memoirs of the Academy of 
Berlin for 1854, or in Liouville, New Series, vol. ii. p. 353), the demonstra- 
tions relating to it may be greatly abbreviated by employing certain known 
results of the theory of continued fractions. The following method does not 
differ materially from that proposed by Lejeune Dirichlet ; nor indeed is it, 
in principle, very distinct from that of Gauss, the connexion of which with 
the theory of continued fractions he has suppressed. 

We shall suppose that the forms which we consider are primitive—a 
supposition which involves no loss of generality ; and we shall understand, in 
what follows, by a “ quadratic equation,” an equation of the form 


a,+2b,0+4,0°=0, 
in which 4,?—a, a, is positive, and a,, 5,, a, are integral numbers without any 
common divisor. Such a quadratic equation we shall symbolize by the formula 
[a,,5,,a,], and we shall regard the two quadratic equations [a,,,,a,], 


[—a,, —b,, —a,] as different. If,/) denote the positive square root of 
6,°—a, a,, it is convenient to call 


bien. 554) eee VD 

a, a, 
the first and second roots of [a,, b,, a, ] respectively ; so that if we change 
the sign of the equation throughout, we change at the same time the deno- 
mination of the roots. Whenever therefore a root of a quadratic equation, 


and the denomination of the root, are given, the quadratic equation itself is 
given. It is readily seen that if two forms (a,,0,, @,), (A, B,, A,) be pro- 


perly or improperly equivalent, so that | ™ p transforms (q,;,)a,) into 
q : 7% 6 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 809 


(A,, B,, A,), the corresponding roots of the quadratics 

a, +2b,0-+a,w°=0, A,+2B,Q4 A,0’?=0, 
yt0Q, 
at pa 
or of opposite, denominations, according as the equivalence is proper or im- 
proper. Let the first root of the equaticn [a,, 6,,a,] be developed in a 
continued fraction, of which all the integral quotients are positive except 
the first, which has the same sign as the root. In this process we obtain a 
perfectly determinate series of transformed equations, each having a com- 
plete quotient of the development for its first or second root, according as it 
occupies an uneven or an even place in the series, counting from the pro- 
posed equation inclusive. The complete quotients eventually form a period 
of an even number of terms; there exists therefore a corresponding period 
of transformed quadratic equations, which will be of the type 


[a,, Bos a, ]; [%, By a]; [a,, Bos Gs]; Ee [01,19 By Js 


Every equation of the period has one of its roots positive and greater than 
unity, the other negative and less in absolute magnitude than unity; and if 
we suppose (as we shall do) that we begin the period with an equation 
occupying an uneven place in the series of transformed equations, the positive 
root of any equation of the period will be its first or second root, according 
as it occupies an uneven or an even place in the period. 

To apply what has preceded to our present problem, we require the fol- 
lowing lemma (see sect, 2 of Dirichlet’s memoir, or M, Serret in Liouville, 
vol. xv. p. 153). 

“Tf » and Q be two irrational quantities connected by the relation 


a where a, 6, y, 6 are integral and ad6—GSy=+1, the develop- 
ments of w and © in a continued fraction will ultimately coincide, and the 
same quotient will occupy an even or an uneven place in both developments 
alike, if aa —By=-+1, but an even place in the one, and an uneven place in 
the other, if aa—By=—1.” 

A quadratic form (a, (3,, @,) of positive determinant, is said to be reduced * 
when the roots of [a,,3,,a,] are of opposite signs; the absolute value of 
the first root being greater, that of the second less than unity. A series of 
reduced forms equivalent to any proposed form (a,, 0,,@,) can always be 
found. For, if the first root of [@,,6,,a,] be developed in a continued frac- 
tion, and if its period of equations (beginning with an equation occupying 
an uneven place in the series of transformed equations) be represented as 
before by [a,) By» %,], [a By %], 2 ~~ + + [Op Boz_y %], the forms 
(Gigy Bos %,)) (G4, —Byy &y)y 00 0 0 + (op 1, —Pop_y» %) Will be all reduced and 
all equivalent to (a,,5,,@,). These forms, so deduced from the develop- 
ment of the first root of the equation [a,, ,,a@,], we shall term the period of 
forms equivalent to (a,, 5,, @,), or, more briefly, the period of (a,,b,,a,). It 
will be seen that each form of the period is contiguous to that which precedes 
it, and that the first is contiguous to the last. 

We can now obtain a complete solution of our problem. If (a,, b,, a,) 
and (A,, B,, A,) are equivalent, the first roots of [a@,,6,,a,] and [A,, B,, A, ] 
will be corresponding roots, and the developments of these two roots will 
ultimately coincide, giving one and the same period of complete quotients. 


i.e. those which are connected by the relation w= , are of the same, 


o= 


* These reduced forms are not to be confounded with the reduced forms of the last article. 


310 : REPORT—1861. 


And, since the same complete quotient will occur in an even or in an un- 
even place alike in each development, it will be a root of the same denomina- 
tion in the quadratic equation determining it in each development. The 
period of equations will therefore be precisely the same for each develop- 
ment; and the same equation may be taken as the first equation of each 
period. Consequently the periods of (a, b,, a,), (A,, B,, A,) are identical. 
Two forms therefore are or are not equivalent, according as their periods 
are or are not identical. To obtain the transformations of (a,, b,, a,) into 
(A,, B,, A,), when these two forms are equivalent, let the complete quotients 
in the development of the first root of [a,, 6,, a,] be w,, w, ...+-+, and let 


the convergent immediately preceding w,,,, be 7 Similarly, let ,,, and 


“5 be a complete quotient and a convergent in the development of the first 


root of [A,,B,,A,]- Then, if o,=Q), (where p»==M, mod 2), all the trans- 
formations of (a,, b,, a,) into (A,, B,, A,) are comprised in the formula 


Pu-—v Py |—1 


Pui» Pu 
Qu—pv Qi b 


VWu-1 ? Vy 


| T| denoting any automorphic of the form corresponding to the equation of 
which w,,, or Q),,, is a root, 

It should be observed that a reduced form is always a form of its own 
period. To prove this, we remark that reduced forms are of two kinds; 
they are either such as («,, 3, @,), where the first root of [a,, B,, a, ] is 
positive, or such as (a, —,, @,), where the first root of [a,, —G,, a,] is 
negative. Now a reduced form such as (a, /3,, «,) is evidently a form of 
its own period, for the equation [a@,, 3,,@,] is itself an equation of the 
period in the development of its first root. And a reduced form such as 
(a,, —,,@,) is also a form of its own period. For if we develope the second 
root of [a,, 3,, %,], we obtain a period of equations of which [«,, B,, a, } 
is itself one. Let [a,, 3,,a,] be the equation immediately following 
[a,, ,,%,] in this period; then [a,, G,,a,] isan equation occupying an even 
place in the period of equations arising trom the development of the first 
root of [a,, f,,a,], and consequently (a,, —{,, «,) is a form in the period of 
(a, B,,%,); te. it is a form in its own period, because it is equivalent to 
(a, B., %, ). a : E 

It follows from this that no reduced form can be equivalent to a given 
form, unless it occur in the period of that form. 

The inequalities satisfied by the roots of any equation of a period give 
rise to certain inequalities which are satisfied by its coefficients. These in- 
equalities (which are not all independent) are, 


(i) [a,.J<2VD; [B,.]<VD; [e¢,]<27D. 
(ii) “D—[B,]<[e,J<VD+[6,]; 
(iii) V¥D— [8,J<La,J< V¥D+ [B,]- 


The same inequalities are, of course, satisfied by the coefficients of a reduced 
form ; its middle coefficient is, moreover, positive. And conversely, every 
form whose middle coefficient is positive and whose coefficients satisfy these 
inequalities is a reduced form. 

94. Improper Equivalence—Ambiguous Forms and Classes—If it be re- 
quired to find whether two forms (a, 6,¢) and (a', b', c!) of the same positive 


x |x 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 311 


or negative determinant are or are not improperly equivalent, it will suffice 
to change one of them, as (a, 6,¢), into its opposite (a, —b,c), and then to 
solve the problem of proper equivalence for (a, —b, ¢) and (a’, b’,c’). If 
it be found that these two forms are properly equivalent, let | T| represent 
any transformation of the first into the second; then the improper trans- 
formations of (a, b, c) into (a', 6’, ec!) will be represented by the formula 


Kw) 
ey | iT}. ) 

It may happen that two forms are both properly and improperly equivalent 
to one another ; when this is the case, each of the two forms, and every form 
of the class to which they belong, is improperly equivalent to itself, z.e. 
admits of improper automorphics. A class consisting of such forms is said 
to be ambiguous (classis anceps—classe ambigiie). An ambiguous form is 
a form (a, 6, c) in which 26 is divisible by a; if 2o=ya, the ambiguous 


form is transformed into itself by the improper automorphic ie se |; and 
> 


if |T| be the general expression of its proper automorphics, all its improper 


x|T|. Every ambiguous 


automorphics are included by the formula ia = 
? 


form belongs to an ambiguous class, and, as we shall presently see, every 
ambiguous class contains ambiguous forms. 

To complete the theory of equivalence, we shall here briefly indicate the 
solution of the problem, “To decide whether a given form is improperly 
equivalent to itself or not, and if it is, to find its improper automorphics.” 

When the determinant is negative, it follows from the principle that two re- 
duced forms cannot be equivalent, that no reduced form, the opposite of which 
is different from it and is also a reduced form, can be improperly equivalent 
to itself. Hence the only reduced forms which have improper automorphies 
are those in which 6=0, or 2b=a, or a=c. In the two former cases the 
reduced form is ambiguous, in the latter it has the improper automorphic 
0, 1 
7,0 
biguous form (2a—2b,a—b,a). These considerations supply a sufficient 
criterion for deciding whether a form of negative determinant is equivalent 
to itself or not. If it is, its improper automorphics are given by the formula 
|T|x|7r|x|T|-*; |T| denoting the reducing transformation of the given 
form, and |7|any improper automorphic of the reduced form. For forms of a 


, and is moreover contiguous and therefore equivalent to the am- 


positive determinant, we observe that if (a,, B,» @,), (@» —Byp%)y- ee eee 
(Go, 1» —Bo,_1» %) be the period of (a, b,c), the period of (a, —3, c) is 
Os — Pap 19 Sap—1)2 (%op—1; Paya» %ap—a)> + *°>** (@,,8,,%,)» For (a, —6,c) 


is equivalent to (a, —,, 1) % 1), because (a, b, c) is equivalent to 
(G5, 4» —Pox—1> &,); and by a known theorem, the period of equations in 
the development of the second root of (a, b,c) is [a.. —By_y> %z_1]> 
[ep_1» — Popa» Capo ]s+++++ [a,,—f,, a], the equation [a,,—Box_» %z_1] 
occupying an even place in the development; this period is therefore the 
period of equations in the development of the first root of [@,,—Py,_ > %ox_1] 3 
i.e. the period (a, — [az y» %p_1)» (%2%-1» Pox—o» %on—2)s ++ (> Bos a,) is the 
period of (a,, —.,_ 1» %,_1)» OF, which is the same thing, of (a, —b,c). If we 
now suppose that (a, 4, c) is improperly equivalent to itself, it will be properly 
equivalent to (a, —6, c); and these two forms will have the same period, 


312 REPORT—1861. 


which we shall represent by (po Yo» P:)> (Py Yy» Po)» &e. If pys Qo Py) be 
any form of this period, the associate of (p,, 4,» P,4,) % e the form 
(lP,4.19 Yx» Pa)» Will also be a form of the period, and the indices of these two 
forms in the period will differ by an uneven number, because the signs of the 
numbers p, P,,;.-+-are alternate. From this we can infer that there will 
be two different forms in the period, each of which will be immediately pre- 
ceded by its own associate; so that the type of the period will be 


(Po Yor Pids (Pv Uv Pods s+» (Prev Ue—v Pr)» 
(Pp W—v Peo)» (Pe U2 Pea)» + © + (Pr Yo» Po)s 


where for simplicity we have supposed that (p,, ¢,, p,) is one of the two 
forms which is preceded by its associate; the other is (py, Qu_y Pp_y): 
These two forms are ambiguous, for it follows from the contiguity of each 
form to that which precedes it, that 27, = 0, mod p, ; 2g,_,==0,mod p,. We 
arrive therefore at the conclusion that the period of every ambiguous class 
contains two ambiguous forms; either of which enables us, as in the case of 
forms of a negative determinant, to obtain all the improper automorphics of 
any form of the class. 

Gauss has shown (Disq. Arith. art. 164), by an analysis which it is not 
necessary to explain here, that if f contain F both properly and improperly, 
an ambiguous form contained inf, and containing F, can always be assigned. 
This theorem comprehends the result which we have incidentally obtained in 
this article, that every ambiguous class contains ambiguous forms. (See also 
a note by Dirichlet, in Liouville, New Series, vol. ii. p. 273.) 

95. The important theorem, that for every positive or negative determi- 
nant the number of classes is finite, is a consequence of the theory of reduc- 
tion. To establish its truth, it is sufficient to employ the reduction of Lagrange 
(art. 92), which is applicable to forms of a positive determinant having inte- 
gral coefficients no less than to forms of a negative determinant, and which 
shows that in every class of forms of determinant D there exists one form at 
least the coefficients of which satisfy the inequalities [26]<[a], [26]<[e]. 


These inequalities give, if D be negative, acs— 5 D, [vl=v—2; and if 


D be positive, [ac]<D, [2]<¥V = The number of forms whose coefli- 


cients satisfy these inequalities is evidently limited; therefore, a fortiori, the 
number of non-equivalent classes is finite. 

To construct a system of representative forms of det. D, we have only to 
write down all the forms of det. D whose coefficients satisfy the preceding 
inequalities, to which we may add [a]<[c]. If the determinant be 
negative, it only remains to reject the forms which do not satisfy the special 
conditions; if it be positive, we must examine whether any of the forms 
which we have written down are equivalent; and, if so, retaining only one 
form out of each group of equivalent forms, we shall have the representative 
system required. 

A few particular cases of the theory merit attention from their simplicity. 

If D=—1, there is but one class of forms, represented by 2*+y’; and by 
the theorems of arts. 87 and 90, the number of representations of any uneven 
(or unevenly even) number by the form 2°+7? is the quadruple of the ex- 
cess of the number of its divisors of the form 42+1, above the number of its 
divisors of the form 42+3. (See Jacobi in Crelle’s Journal, vol. xii. p. 169 ; 
Dirichlet, ibid. vol. xxi. p. 3. In counting the solutions of the equation 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 313 


x°+y°=2p, Jacobi considers two solutions, such as #7+y,°=2p and 
27+y,=2p, to be identical, when 2,°=2,", y,°=y,?; the number of solu- 
tions is thus a fourth part of the number of representations.) In particular 
every prime of the form 4%+1 (and the double of every such prime) is 
capable of decomposition in one way, and one only, into two squares relatively 
prime ; and, conversely, every uneven number capable of such decomposition 
in one way only is a prime of the form 42+ 1. 

If D=—2, x’ +27’ represents the only class of forms; and every uneven 
number can be represented by z7+2y’, in twice as many ways as it has divi- 
sors of either of the forms 82+ 1, or 82-+3, in excess of diviscrs of the forms 
8n+5, or 82+7. (Dirichlet, doc. cit.) In particular every prime of either 
of the forms 82+1 or 8%+3 is decomposable in one way, and in one only, 
into a square and the double of a square. 

Again, for each of the determinants —3 and —7, there is but one properly 
and one improperly primitive class, which may be represented by the forms 
C1, 0, 3) and (2, 1,2); (1, 0,7) and (2,1,4). Uneven numbers are there- 
fore represented by 2*-+3y’, in twice as many ways as they have divisors of 
the form 3z+1, in excess of divisors of the form 32—1; and by a°+7y’ in 
twice as many ways as they have divisors of the forms 7x +1, 2, 4, in excess 
of divisors of the forms 7x+3,5,6. Similarly, x?+4y° represents the only 
primitive class of det. —4. 

For each of the eleven positive determinants of the first century 2, 5, 13, 
17, 29, 41, 53, 61, 73, 89, 97, there is but one properly primitive class; there 
is also for the ten uneven determinants ene improperly primitive class. Re- 
presenting any one of these eleven numbers by D, by [T, U] the least solu- 
tion of T’—DU*=1, and by M an uneven positive number prime to D we 
may enunciate the theorem, 

“The equation 2°—Dy’=M is capable of as many solutions in positive 
numbers x and y, satisfying the conditions #< ‘TM, y= UM, as M 
has divisors of which D is a quadratic residue in excess of divisors of which 
D is a quadratic non-residue.” 

Thus the number of solutions of the equation x°—2y’=M, where M is an 
uneven number, and 0<#<3 / M, 0<y<2¥ M, is the excess of the divisors 
of M of the forms 82-+1 above its divisors of the forms 82 +3. 

The conditions 0<#=TM,0<y=<U 7M, which are satisfied by one 
representation, and only one, in each set, are obtained by considerations to 
which we shall hereafter refer (art. 100). 

96. The Pellian Equation.—The two indeterminate equations, T7—DU’?=1 
and T’—DU’=4, are, as we have seen, of primary importance in the theory 
of quadratic forms of a positive and not square determinant. When the 
complete solution of these equations is known, we can deduce, from a single 
representation of a number by a form, every representation of the same set; 
and, from a single transformation of either of two equivalent forms into the 
other, every similar transformation. The same equations also present them- 
selyes in the solution in integral numbers of the general equation of the 
second degree containing two indeterminates, and enable us in the principal 
case in which it admits an infinite number of solutions to deduce them all 
from a certain finite number. This fundamental importance of the equation 
T’—DU’*=1 was first recognized by Euler, who has left several memoirs 
relating to it (see Comment. Arith., vol. i. pp. 4, 316; vol. ii. p. 35; also 
Euler’s Algebra, vol. ii. cap. vii.) ; but the equation itself had already given 
rise to a discussion which forms a well-known passage in the scientific history 
of the seventeenth century. Its solution was proposed by Fermat (see the 


314 , _ REPORT—1861. 


Commercium Epistolicum of Wallis, Ep. 8) as a challenge to the English 
mathematicians, and especially to Wallis. The problem was at first misunder- 
stood by Lord Brouncker and Wallis, who each gave a method for its solution 
in fractional numbers ; not attending to the restriction to integral numbers 
implied, though not expressed, in Fermat’s enunciation, without which the 
problem is of a very elementary character. Ultimately, however, they ob- 
tained a complete solution by a method, which Wallis describes in the Comm. 
Epist. Epp. 17 (postscript) and 19, and in his Algebra, capp. xeviii. and xcix., 
attributing it to Lord Brouncker, though he seems himself to have had some 
share in its invention. This method is the same as that which is given by 
Euler in his Algebra, and in the first of the memoirs above cited, and which 
is attributed by him to Pell*. It differs, in form at least, from that now em- 
ployed, and was evidently suggested by the artifices of substitution employed 
in Diophantine problems. It is most easily explained by an example. If 
T’—13U?=1 be the equation proposed, the process would stand thus :— 


(1) 3U<T=<4U; let T=3U+2,; —40’+6Uv,+0,°=1, 
(2) v,<U<2v,; Jet U=v,+,; 30,°>—2v,v,—40,°=1, 


(3) V,<0,<20, 5 let Vv, =U, +P; 3 —3y, +40,v, + as 1, 
(4) v,<v,<2v, ; let V,=V, +0, 5 4v,’—2v,0,—3v0,7=1, 
(5) v,<v,<2v,; let v,=v,+0,; —07+6v,v,+40,/=1, 
(6) 6v,<v,<7v,; let v,=6v;+4, ; 4v,,—6v,v,—v, =1, 
(7) v,<v,<2v,; let vj =v,+v,; —3v*,+2v,0,+407=1, 
(8) v,<v,<2v,; let v,=v,+2, ; 3v,?—4,v,—30,7=1, 
(9) v,<v,<2v,; letv,=v,tv,; —4v,°+2v,v,+3v,°=1, 
(10) =u <v,<2v,; letv,=v,+0,,3  v,’—6v,v,,—40,7=1. 


In the last equation we may put v,=1, v,,=0; whence T=649, U=180. 
It will be seen that the success of the method depends on its leading at last 
to an equation in which the coefficient of one of the indeterminates is +1. 
Wallis does not prove that such an equation will always occur; and the de- 
monstration which he has given of the resolubility of the equation T7—DU*=1 
is inconclusive. (See his Algebra, cap. xcix.; the reader will find the 
paralogism which vitiates his reasoning in the proof of the lemma, upon which 
it depends ; see also Lagrange’s criticism in the 8th paragraph of the Additions 
to Euler’s Algebra; and Gauss, Disq. Arith. art. 202, note.) It is evident that 
the method of solution employed by Wallis really consists in the successive 


determination of the integral quotients in the development of aia a con- 


tinued fraction ; in addition to this, Euler observed that ais itself necessa- 


rily a convergent to the value of D ; so that to obtain the numbers T and U 
it suffices to develope /D in a continued fraction. It is singular, however, 
that it never seems to have occurred to him that, to complete the theory of 
the problem, it was necessary to demonstrate that the equation is always re- 
soluble, and that all its solutions are given by the development of “D. His 
memoir (Comment. Arith. vol. i. p. 316) contains all the elements necessary 


* There does not seem to be any ground for attributing either the problem or its solution 
to Pell; and it is possible that Euler may have been misled by a confused recollection of 
the contents of Wallis’s Algebra, in which an account is given of the method employed by 
Pell in solving Diophantine problems. Nevertheless the equation T?—DU?=1 is often called 
the Pellian equation after him, probably upon Euler’s authority, tO 


POO OT se ihe 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 315 


to the demonstration, but here, as in some other instances, Euler is satisfied 
with an induction which does not amount to a rigorous proof. The first ad~ 
missible proof of the resolubility of the equation was given by Lagrange in 
the Mélanges de la Société de Turin, vol. iv. p.41. He there shows that in 
the development of /D, we shall obtain an infinite number of solutions of 
some equation of the form T°—DU*=A, and that, by multiplying together 
a sufficient number of these equations, we can deduce solutions of the equa- 
tion T’—DU*=1. But the simpler demonstration of its solubility, which is 
now to be found in most books on algebra, and which depends on the com- 
pletion of the theory (left unfinished by Euler) of the development of a 
quadratic surd in a continued fraction, was first given by Lagrange in the 
Hist. de l’Académie de Berlin for 1767 and 1768, vol. xxiii. p. 272, vol. xxiv. 
p- 236; and, in a simpler form, in the Additions to Euler’s Algebra, art. 37. 
Lastly, Gauss, who in the Disq. Arith. avoids the use of continued fractions, 
has shown that if we form by the method which he indicates, the period of 
any quadratic form of det. D, we may infer the complete solution of the 
equation T*—DU*=1, or =4, from the automorphics of any reduced form, 
according as the form is properly or improperly primitive. (Disq. Arith. art. 
198-202.) 

To express conveniently the principal theorems relating to these equations, 
we employ the following notation*, The numerator of the continued 
fraction 


ELEM tal oe 

GW Yn 
is called the cumulant of the numbers q,, g,,...¢,, and is represented by 
the symbol (¢,, 9.» 9,---,); the denominator is evidently the cumulant 
(Ga Ys» ++ Yn)» Accents are sometimes employed to indicate that the first or 
ast quotient of a cumulant is to be omitted; ‘thus “psialsgins ote In) 
= (Ga Yo +++ In)» Gv Yo Io ++ + In) = (G9 Go Ur + Gna)» “Cv Yo» * In) 
=(Yx Ys ++Qn—1)- A periodic cumulant is represented by the notation 
(G4 Ga» + + In)» the suffix indicating the number of times which the period 
is repeated, and a point being placed over the first and last quotients of the 
period. In what follows m represents 1 or 2, according as we are considering 
the equation T?—DU*=1, or =4. fas 
(i-) If py, pos +++ Mo, be the period of integral quotients in the develop- 
ment of either root of a quadratic equation of determinant D, which we 
suppose properly or improperly primitive according as m=1, or m=2, the 
positive numbers T, and U,, which satisfy the equation T?—DU?=m?, are all 

contained in the formule 


—=5 (A,+4,), 
U, B, Ac Se T, 3 
ii _—-* — 2B, wc : 


where i j e < 
A= (Hy Bo ++ Har)» B= (Hy Hy + ++ Hax)a> 
T= "(up P2> a Pox) A,= "(wp Ba + Pode? 


* This notation is due to Euler (see Nov. Comm. Pet. vol. ix. p. 53, and the memoir 
already cited, “‘ De usu novi algorithmi in Problemate Pelliano solvendo.” Comment. Arith. 
vol. i, p.316). The convenient term “ cumulant ” has been introduced by Professor Sylvester 


(Phil. Trans. vol. exliii. p. 474), who has also suggested the use of accents to indicate the 
omission of initial or final quotients. : 


316 REPORT—1861. 


and «,+2(,0+a ,6°=0 is the quadratic equation determining the quotient p,, 
in which we suppose for simplicity that a, is positive. 

If, in particular, we consider the quadratic equation 6>—D=0, or rather 
a?>—D—2a0+0°=0, where a’<D<(a+1)’, we have m=1, p,=2a, and we 
find, by the symmetry of the period in this case, 


a 2(A,+4,)=(@ P22 Bs2 * + Boks 2a, Hareees He We 
U,=(H» Pao e* + Bogs 2a, Hao sees Por)a—v 


which are Euler’s formule for the solution of the equation T?—DI?=1. 
(ii.) We have already observed (art. 90) that when T, and U, are known, 
T,, and U, are defined by the equation 


£3 ,a/p | Ee ae 


m m 


Either from this equation, or from the cumulantive formule for T_, U, 
we infer that T,, and U, satisfy the equation of finite differences, 


QT 
ese Ve+1+0z=0; 


so that the two series, of which T, and U, are the general terms, are each a 
recurring series, the scale of relation being 1, _ 27, SAL. 
m 


It is convenient to observe that T_,=T,; but U-z=—U;. 
(iii.) If we denote by y the imaginary are 
2 log ‘Cae ae “>, 
a m 
U,v”D Ts 


P T : 
we have evidently —!=cos —=siny, —“= cosx 
Yn % mt vs m ¥ 


The analogy implied by these formule enables us to transform many trigono- 
metrical identities into formule containing T, and U,. For example, from 
the formule cos (¢+0)=cos ¢ cos O+Fsin ¢ sin 8, sin (¢+6)=sin ¢ cos 0+ 
sin 0 cos ¢, we have, putting g=ap, 0=y), where w and y are any positive 
or negative integers, 


mt 


= sina. 


Tesy= 2[Ts Ty £DUz Uy], 


Usay=—(Ts U,+ Ty Uz]. 
(iv.) It is also found that 


x(a—1) 


2 T OAT aN b QT 
Te=(-1) * (2, -20,2%,...(-1)*4 53), 


m m” m 

U mi 1. QT 
2 (a ee —D@—2) f S21» Sel a (=) Sa 
U, (1) ( mm’? - m’ or. m ) 


(v.) If g be any integral number whatever, we can always find a solution 
[T,, U,] satisfying the congruences T, = T,=m, mod g, and U. = U,=0, 
mod g. If [T,, U,] be the least solution satisfying these congruences, A will 
be less than 2g, and the residues (mod qg) of the terms of the two series T, 
and U,, will each form a period of A terms, so that we shall always have 
Trtna = Ty Ui a= Up mod g 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 317 


If U,, be the first number of its series which is divisible by g, we shall have 
either \'=A, or 2\!=.. In either case, the only numbers U which are divisible 


Tek! 
by q, are those whose indices are divisible by \’; and the formula | T;,., =a] 


comprises all the solutions of the equation T?—Dg*U’=m’?. Thus, in 
solving the equation T?—DU?=m?, we can always substitute for D its 
quotient when divided by its greatest square divisor. (See Lagrange, Ad- 
ditions to Euler’s Algebra, art.78. Gauss, Disq. Arith.art.201.Obs. 3 and 4.) 

We may add, that if g be a prime (an uneven prime when m=2), and if 
~g* and q be the highest powers of g, dividing U, and m respectively, 
q*** will be the highest power of g dividing Un. (Dirichlet, in Liouville’s 
Journal, New Series, vol. i. p. 76.) 

(vi.) The methods of Lagrange and Gauss are applicable to the equation 
T’—DU?*=4, only when D=1, mod 4; because they suppose the existence of 
an improperly primitive form of det. D. In all other cases the equation 
T’—DU*=4 may be divided by 4, and reduced to the form T?—DU?=1 : viz. 
if D=0, mod 4, T is even; and if D = 2, or = 3, mod 4, Tand U are both 
even. A similar reduction takes place if D=J1, mod 8; the equation 
T’—DU*=4 admitting in that case only even solutions. Butif D = 5, mod 8, 
T’—DU*=4 may or may not have uneven solutions; and no criterion is known 
for distinguishing @ priori these two cases, If T?—DU?=4 admit of uneven 
solutions, its least solution [T,, U,] will be uneven ; its even solutions will be 
comprised in the formula ['Ts,, Usn], and consequently [4T3n, $U3n] will 
represent the solutions of T*—DU*=1. 

(vii.) The equations T?—DU’*=—4, T7—DU’= —1 are not resoluble for 
all values of D, but only for those values for which —1 is capable of represen- 
tation by the principal form of det. D. Whenever the period of integral quo- 
tients in the development of D consists of an uneven number of terms, 
these equations will be resoluble, and conversely. This will always happen 
when D is a prime number of the form 4n+-1, and may happen in many other 
cases, but never can happen when D is divisible by any prime of the form 
4n+3. If T’—DU*=—1 be resoluble and [T,, U,] be its least solution, the 
formula [T2n+1, Usr+1] contains all its solutions, and [T2,, Usn] all the solu- 
tions of T7—DU’=1. If, in addition to the supposition that T7—DU?=—1 
is resoluble, we suppose that T?—DU*=4 admits of uneven solutions, 
T’—DU*=—4 will also admit of uneven solutions; and if [T,, U, ] be its least 
solution, [Ton+1 Uen+i]5 [Tons Ven], [Z Tén+3, 3 Usn+3]> [z Tény + Ten] 
will represent all the solutions of T?’—DU*=—4, =4, =—1, and =1, 
respectively. It is evident that these considerations will frequently serve to 
abbreviate the process of finding the least solution of T’—DU’=1. (See a 
memoir of Euler’s in the Comment. Arith. vol. ii. p. 35. 

(viii.) The “Canon Pellianus” of Degen (Havniz 1817) contains a Table, 
giving for every not square value of D less than 1000, the least solution of 
the equation T°—DU*=1, together with the development of /D in a con- 
tinued fraction. Its arrangement will be seen in the following specimens :— 


357 18, 1, 8, (2) 
133, 4, 17 
180 
3401 
97 OS 18s 1,1, Cb) 
1, 16, 3, 11, 8, (9, 9) 
6377352, 


62809633. 


318 REPORT—1861. 


The numbers in the third and fourth rows are the least values of U and T 
in the equation T7—DU?=]. The first row of numbers is the period of in- 
tegral quotients in the development of /D: it is continued only as far as 
the middle quotient, or the two middle quotients, after which the same quo- 
tients recur in an inverse order. Thus, 


180=(1, 8, 2, 8, 1); 
3401 =(18, 1, 8, 2, 8, 1); 
6377352=(1, 5, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 5, 1, 18, J, 5,1, 1, 1,1, 1, 1, 5, 1); 
62809633=(9, 1, 5, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 5, 1, 18, 1, 5, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 5, 1). 


The numbers in the second row are the denominators of the complete 
quotients ; 2. e. taken alternately positively and negatively, they are the ex- 
treme coefficients in the equations of the period. Thus the period of equa- 
tions for 357 is [—33, —18,1], [1, 18, —33], [—33, —15, 4], [4, 17, 
—17], [—17, —17, 4], [4,15, —33]. The first half of the period of 
equations for 97 is [—16, —9,1], [1, +9, —16], [—16, —7, 3], [3; 8, 
+11], [—11, —3, 8], [8, 5, —9], [—9, —4, 9], [9, +5, —8], [—8, 
—3, 11], [11, 8, —3], [—3, —7, 16], the second half being composed of 
the same equations in the same order but with their signs changed. The 
middle coefficients of the equations are not given in the Table; but if 
[a , Bry @r41]5 [or+1, Pati, +2] be two consecutive equations, of which 
the former determines the integral quotient pa, they may be successively cal- 
culated by the formula Aj41=pa %41+fa- 


Lagrange has proved that if a#’—Dy°=H, and H be < VD, — “is always a 


convergent to D; so that a number less than ¥ D is or is not capable of 
representation by the principal form of det. D, according as it is or is not in- 
cluded among the numbers of the second row. 

The second Table of the “ Canon” contains the least solution of the equa- 
tion T’—DU’=—1 for those values of D less than 1000 for which that equa- 
tion is resoluble. 

Mr. Cayley (Crelle, vol. liii. p. 369) has calculated the least solution of 
the equation T’—DU*=4, or Te DU*’=—4, for every number D of the 
form 8-+5 less than 1000, for which those equations are resoluble in uneven 
numbers. ‘This Table, as well as Degen’s second Table, is implicitly con- 
tained in the first Table of the ‘‘ Canon,” as appears from the theorem of 
Lagrange just cited. 

(ix.) The theory of the equations T7—DU’=1 and =4 is connected in a 
remarkable manner with that of the division of the circle*. Let X=2u+1 
represent an uneven number divisible by & unequal primes, but having no 
square divisor; let also the numbers less than d and prime to it be repre- 


sented by a or 4, according as they satisfy the equation ({)=1, or ()= —1; 
and let X=O be the equation of the primitive Ath roots of unity. The form of 


2air Qhir 
this equation (seeart.59) implies that Se * +Ze * =(— 1)"; we have also the 
2air Qhir 
relation Xe * —Ze * =i" av) \, which is easily deducible from the formule of 


* See Dirichlet, “ Sur la maniére de résoudre ]’équation 2?—yu?=1 au moyen des fonctions 
circulaires,”’ Crelle, vol. xvii. p. 286. Also Jacobi’s note:on the division of the circle, 
Crelle, vol. xxx. p. 173. : 


—— eee 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 319 


Gauss (see arts. 20 and 104 of this Report, or Dirichlet, Crelle, vol. xxi. pp. 141, 
7 2air 2bir 2air 
142). From these values of Xe * and Ze * we infer that on(e—e* ) 
2Qbir 
and ance a ) are two quantities of the form Y+7°Z /A, and Y—#°Z VX, 
Y and Z denoting integral functions of w with integral coefficients; i. e. 
that 4K=Y?—(—1)"A’Z*. From this equation, which is a generalization 
of that obtained by Gauss for the case when 2X is a prime (Disq. Arith. 
art. 357), we can deduce a solution of the equation T7—AY’=4. In the 
Qaim’ 


formula on(v—e ‘ Javsiez VX, let us first write 7 for x, and then —7 
for 7, and let us denote by X,, Y;, Z, X_, Y_, Z_; the values which X, 


Y, and Z acquire when 7 and —: are written for z. We thus find, denoting 
the number of numbers less than ) and prime to it by A’, 


oe (-.*) (syangrra) =2v+11008(G+5) 


=[Y:Y-:+AZiZ-—i] + VALE Ze ZV] : 


or, writing 
T for 3, Y,Y_,+AZ,Z_;], Ufori[i”’Z,Y_,4+0-”Z_Y,]; 


and observing that X;X_,=1, 
(T+U VA) =20 co'($ +2), TAU 4, 


where it is easily seen that T and U are integral numbers. When yp is even, 
we may obtain a solution of the equation more simply by writing +1 or —1 
for x. (See the notes of Jacobi and Dirichlet already referred to.) 

It is to be observed, however, that the solution obtained by these methods 
is not in general the least solution. Its ordinal place in the series of solutions 
depends (as we shall hereafter see) on the number of classes of forms of det. D. 

97. Solution of the General Indeterminate Equation of the second degree.— 
The solution of the indeterminate equation ax* + 2bay+ cy’ + 2dx + 2ey+f=0 
depends on the problem of the representation of a given number by a qua- 
dratic form. We confine ourselves to the case which presents the greatest 
complexity, that in which b°-—ac=D is a positive and not square number. 
The methods of solution contained in Euler’s Memoirs relating to it (see 
Comment. Arith. vol. i. pp. 4, 297, 549, 570, vol. ii. p. 263; and the Algebra, 
vol. ii. cap. vi.) are incomplete in several respects: first, because Euler 
always assumes that a single solution is known, and only proposes to deduce 
all the solutions from it; secondly, because it is not possible, from a given 
solution, to deduce any other solutions than those which belong to the same 
set with the given solution, whereas the equation may admit of solutions be- 
longing to different sets; and lastly, because he gives no method for distin- 
guishing between the integral and fractional values contained in the formulz 
by which w and y are expressed. The first complete solution of the problem 
was given by Lagrange in his Memoir “ Sur la solution des Problémes Indé- 
terminés du second degré” (Hist. de l’Académie de Berlin for 1767, vol. 
xxiii. p. 165-311). But the following method of solution, which is different 
in some respects and much simpler, will be found in a subsequent memoir, 
“Nouvelle méthode pour résoudre les problémes indéterminés en nombres 
entiers” (Hist. de l’ Académie de Berlin for 1767, vol. xxiv. p. 181); and in the 
Additions to Euler’s Algebra (paragraph 7). If we multiply by aD and 
write p for ax + by +d, g for (b?—ac) y+ (bd—ae), M for (6d—ae)*—(6’—ace) 
(d’—af ), the given equation becomes g’—Dp*=M. _ Confining ourselves 


320 REPORT—1861. 


to the primitive representations of M by g*— Dp’ (the derived representations, 
corresponding to the different square divisors of M, are to be treated sepa- 
rately by the same method), we see that, since p and M are prime, q is of 
the form M7r+Qp, where 7 and © are two new indeterminates of which the 
latter may be supposed <[ZM]. On substituting this value for g, it will 


appear that N= is necessarily integral, z. e. that QO is one of the roots of 


M 
the congruence Q’—D ==0, mod M;; and the equation will assume the form 
Np’?+20pr + M?r*=1, in which every admissible value of Q is to be employed 
in succession. The development of either root of the equation N+200+ 
Mé’=0 will give all the values of p and 7 which satisfy the equation 
Np?+20pr+Mr?=1, because 1 is the minimum value which the form 
(N, ©, M) can assume. (See the Additions, paragraph 2, and especially 
arts. 33-35.) Or again, if we apply the transformation of art. 92 to the 
form (N, ©, M), we obtain an equation of the type Pa”? +2Q2' y'+Ry"’=1, 
in which Q*—PR=D, and P< /D; wheuce, if #!'=P2!+Qy/, we finally 
deduce 2!?— Dy”=P, all the solutions of which (see art. 96, viii.) are neces- 
sarily given by the development of »/D in a continued fraction. Applying 
either of these methods (the latter is not given in the Memoir, but only in the 
Additions to Euler’s Algebra) to every equation of the form Np?+2Qp*+ 
Mr’=1 which can be deduced from the equation g’—Dp*=M, or from the 
equations of similar form obtained by replacing M by the quotient which 
it leaves when divided by any one of its square divisors, we obtain a finite 
number of formule of the type 
aT+BU+y a'T+B'U+y! 
Ca 3 a a ? 

[T, U] denoting any solution of the equation T?7—DU’=1. These for- 
mule are fractional ; but by attending to the principle of art. 96, v., we can 
ascertain for each pair of formule whether they contain any integral values 
or not, and if they do contain any, we can substitute for the single pair of 
fractional formule a finite number of pairs not containing any fraction. 

The form in which the solution of this problem has been exhibited by 
Gauss is remarkable for its elegance. Let 
a, b, d 
¢, f =A, and 6 representing the greatest common divisor of b7—ae, 

ep 


cd —be, ae—bd, let ,=D! += " 2S Balog then putting D'e= 


X+p, D'y=Y-+q, we find aX?+26XY+cY’=D'A'’. If [Xz, Yn] denote 
indefinitely any representation of D‘A! by (a, b,c), we have only to separate 
(by Lagrange’s method) those values of X,, Yn which satisfy the congruences 
Xn+p=0,Y"+qg=0, mod D’, from those which do not, and we shall obtain 
a finite number of formulz, exhibiting the complete solution required. 

98. Distribution of Classes into Orders and Genera.—The classes of 
forms of any given positive or negative determinant D, are divided by 
Gauss into Orders, and the classes belonging to each order into Genera. 
Two classes, represented by the forms (a, b, c), (a', b', c!), belong to the same 
order, when the greatest common divisors of a, b,c and a, 2b, ¢ are respec- 
tively equal to those of a!, b!, c', and of a’, 2b',c!. Thus the properly primi- 
tive classes form an order by themselves; and the improperly primitive 
classes form another order. To obtain the subdivision of orders into genera, 
it is only necessary to consider the primitive classes ; because we can deduce 
the subdivision of a derived order of classes from the subdivision of the 


- fll rn 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 321 


primitive order from which it is derived. The subdivision into genera of 
the order of properly primitive classes depends on the principles contained in 
the following equations, in which g is an uneven prime dividing D, mand m! 
uneven numbers prime to g, and capable of representation by the same 
properly primitive form of determinant D. 


0 OG) 


(i) IED=, mod 4, (—1) ? =(—1) 
(iii.) If D=2, mod 8, (Lyf Qe. 
(iv.) If D=6, mod 8, (Qive ' See 
(v.) If D=4, mod 8, (ip 7eOiy = 
(vi.) If D=0, mod 8, gay Sy, and 
m2—1 m'2—1 


(—1) * =(—1) ®. 

The interpretation of these symbolic formule is very simple. Thus, the 
formula (i.) expresses that— 

“The numbers prime to any prime divisor g of D which can be represented 
by f the same properly primitive form of det. D are either all quadratic resi- 
dues of g, or else all quadratic non-residues.” 

Again, the formula (iv.) expresses that “if D be of the form 8n+6, the 
uneven numbers that can be represented by f are either all included in one 
of the two forms 8z+1, 82+, or else in one of the two 82—1, 82—3.” 

All the formule are deducible by the most elementary considerations from 
the three equations 


=ax*+2bry+cy*, m!=azx'+2ba'y! + cy", 
(ax* + 2bary + hart + 2bx'y'+ cy") = (ava! + b[ay!+aly] +eyy')? 


—D(ay'—2"'y). 
Thus we find immediately mam! =1, or (™\=(™). And again, if D=6, 
q q q : 


mod 8, the last equation shows us that axa! +b[ay!+2'y]+cyy! is uneven ; 
and consequently mm! = 1—6(xy'—2'y)’, mod 8, i. e. mm! =+3, or =+1, 
mod 8, according as zy'!—z'y is uneven or even; whence m and m/ are either 
both of the forms 8x+1, 82+, or else both of the forms 8n—1, 8n—3. 


The form f is said to have the particular character he =F], or 


f 


1) —1, according as the numbers (prime to g) which are represented by 


it satisfy the equation (=)=1, or EG =—1; and we are to understand in 
q q pal 

the same way the expressions that f has the particular character(—1) ® =-+1, 
or =—1, &c. Every particular character of a form belongs equally to all 
forms of the same class, and is therefore termed a particular character of the 
class. The complex of the particular characters of a form or class constitutes 
its complete or generic character ; and those classes which have the same com- 
plete character are considered to belong to the same genus: so that the 
complete character of a form is possessed not only by every form of the same 
class, but by every form of any class belonging to the same genus. 

1861. % 


322 REPORT—1861. 


To enable the reader to form with facility the complete character of any 
given properly primitive class, we add the following Table, taken from 
Dirichlet (Crelle, vol. xix. p. 338), in which S? denotes the greatest square 


dividing D; P or 2P is the quotient = according as that quotient is uneven 


or even; p,p'... are the prime divisors of P; and 7,7! the uneven primes 
dividing S, but ‘not P. 


I. D=PS*, P=1, mod 4. 
(a) S=1, mod 2. 


GG 1G) & 


(B) S=2, mod 4. 
Z 


(O44 (-1)?, (4). (4) 


(y) ) so, mod 4. a i 
@) &- | av ae © O- 


II. D=PS’, P=3, mod 4. 
(a) S=1, mod 2. . 


HO O-1O ©: 


(8) S=2, mod 4. 


je 
Oe © Lm | Oem 


(y) ees dre ¥ fina 
3 © Oem oO Oe 


Il. D=2PS*, P=1, mod 4. 
(a) S=1, gaol 2. eas: 


FOO 10: O- 
(GC) S=0, mod 2. 


IO Oe Lo O O-- 


IV. D=2PS, P=, mod 4. 
(a) S=1, mod 2. 


EO Col © 8 


(8) S=0, pan 2. 


IO DQ | O Oro 


It appears from this Table, that if be the number of uneven primes which 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 323 


divide D, the total number of generic characters that can be formed by com- 
bining the particular characters in every possible way is 2” when D=1or 5, 
mod 8; 2"*? when D=0, mod8; and 27" in every other case. But it 
follows from the law of quadratic reciprocity, that one-half of these complete 
characters are impossible ; 7. e. that no quadratic form characterized by them 
can exist. To see this, we observe that if m be a positive and uneven num- 
ber prime to D, and capable of primitive representation by f, the congruence 


0O?—D =0, mod m, is resoluble ; and consequently D =+1. Therefore 
m 


E 2P 
also Gr =1, or (= =1, according as D is of the form PS* or 2PS’. 


P 


m mm 


m 
In the first case we have (3) (1 oF 


P)\p) = (+1 M-VE-D; 
INR a 
in the other case (=) (=) =1,¢6 (5) = (—1)m-9e-0+ tg 


m?—1 
(=) (5) daa Lyra aaee a 


A comparison of these equations with the preceding Table will show that the 
product of the particular characters which stand before the line of division 
in the Table is equal to +1 in the case of any really existing genus; 7.e. that 
precisely one-half of the whole number of complete generic characters are 
impossible. We shall hereafter see that the remaining half of the generic 
characters correspond to actually existing genera, and that each genus con- 
tains an equal number of classes. That genus, every particular character of 
which is a positive unit, is called the principal genus; it evidently contains 
the principal class, and is therefore, in every case, an actually existing 
genus. 

Since the extreme coefficients of a form are numbers represented by it, 
and since, further, if the form be properly primitive, one or other of them is 
prime to 2 and to any prime divisor of the determinant, we see that the 
generic character of a form can always be ascertained by considering the 
values of its first and last coefficients. Thus the complete character of the 
form (11, 2, 15), of which the det. is —161=—7 x23 (case II. (a) in the 


f-1 
Table), is (f)=1, (f =+1, (—1)? ==1; that of (5, 2, 98) is 
f-1 


(a=. Ganon 


Two forms, which have different generic charactet's, cannot be equivalent ; 
nor can a number be represented by a form if its character is incompatible 
with the generic character of the form. It is therefore convenient, in any 
problem of equivalence or representation, to begin by comparing the generic 
characters of the given forms with one another, or with the characters of the 
given numbers. 

The uneven numbers prime to the determinant, which are represented by 
forms of the same genus, are contained in one or other of a certain number 
of linear forms. If R denote the product of the primes 7, 7’, .. already de- 
fined, and if @ be any term of a system of residues prime to 2*PR, where k 
is 1, when D =1 or 5, mod 8, 3 when D= 2, 6, or 0, and 2 in every other 
case, the numbers contained in the formula 2*PR+6 can be represented only 

x¥2 


324 REPORT—186]. 


by forms belonging to that genus the character of which coincides with the 
character of the number 0. It is clear that one half of the linear forms, in- 
cluded in the formula 2*PR +6, do not satisfy the condition of possibility in- 
dicated in the Table, and are therefore incompatible with any quadratic form 
of determinant D ; while the remaining half of those linear forms will be 
equally distributed among the actually existing genera; so that there will be 
either [13(p—1)3(r—1) or 211}(p—1)3(r—1) linear forms proper to each 
genus. But although no number contained in any one of the first-named 
linear forms ean be represented by a form of determinant D, yet it is not to 
be inferred that every number 2 contained in the other half of the linear 
forms is capable of such representation ; for from the linear form of m, we 
can indeed infer the equation j= ; but, if m be not a prime, or at least 
i} 
the product of a prime by a square, we cannot from this equation infer the 
resolubility of the congruence Q? = D, mod m, or of any congruence of the 


form Q? = D, mod a We may add. that if we assume the theorem that 


every arithmetic progression, the terms of which are prime to their common 
difference, contains prime numbers, the consideration of the case in which m 
is a prime establishes the actual existence of every genus the character of 
which satisfies the condition of possibility. (Crelle, vol. xviii. p. 269.) 

If m be an uneven number not divisible by g, a prime divisor of D, and if 
the double of m can be represented by an improperly primitive form f of 


det. D, we attribute to f the particular character (f)=+hor =—], 


according as * = +1, or =—1; and to form the complete character of f, 


we may use the Table 
D=PS?, P=l1,mod4, S=1, mod 2. 


G. OT Os. Oe 


99. In the preceding articles we have briefly recapitulated the definitions 
and principles which constitute the elements of the theory of quadratic forms. 
We have hitherto followed closely the 5th section of the Disq. Arith. (arts. 
153-222 and 223-233); but before we proceed to an examination of the re- 
mainder of that section, it will be convenient to place before the reader an 
account of the method employed by Lejeune Dirichlet in his great memoir, 
“ Recherches sur diverses applications de l’analyse infinitésimale a la théorie 
des nombres,” for the determination of the number of quadratic forms of a 
given positive or negative determinant. 


* A}l the results of this article are given in the Disq. Arith. arts. 223-232; but as Gauss 
does not employ the symbol of reciprocity, we have preferred to follow the notation of Di. 
richlet. It is also to be noticed that Gauss does not use the law of quadratic reciprocity to 
demonstrate the impossibility of one-half of the generic characters; for, as we shall here- 
after see, this impossibility is proved in the Disq. Arith. (art. 261) independently of the law 
of reciprocity, and is then employed to establish that law. (Gauss’s second demonstration, 
see Disq. Arith. art. 262.) There is also an unimportant difference between Dirichlet and 
Gauss with respect to the definition of the generic character of an improperly primitive form ; 
for Gauss obtains the generic character (see art. 232) by considering the numbers repre- 
sented by the form, and not the halves of those numbers. But he also observes (art. 227, 
and 256, VI.) that each improperly primitive class is connected in a particular manner (to 
which we shall again refer) with one or with three properly primitive classes; and that this 
consideration may be employed to divide the improperly primitive classes into genera. And 
it will be found that the complete character which Dirichlet’s definition attributes to an im- 
properly primitive form is, in fact, the complete character of the properly primitive class or 
classes with which it is connected. 


ON THE. THEORY OF NUMBERS. 325 


It appears from the Additamenta to art. 306, X. of the Disq. Arith., that 
Gauss, at the time of the publication of that work, had already succeeded in 
effecting this determination ; and the method by which he effected it will at 
length appear in the second volume of the complete edition of his works, 
the publication of which is now promised by the Society of Gottingen. 
Nevertheless the originality of Dirichlet in this celebrated investigation is 
unquestionable, as there is nothing whatever in the Disq. Arith. to suggest 
either the form of the result, or the method by which it is obtained *. 

We propose, in what follows, to give as full an analysis as our limits will 
permit of the contents of the memoir, Its first section contains certain prin- 
ciples relative to the theory of series. 

(i.) “If hk, =, =k, =k, ... be a series of continually increasing positive 
n 
Rn 
is to say, if, 0 denoting a given positive quantity, however small, we can 
always assign a finite value of »=N, such that for all values of x surpassing 
N, the inequalities 


quantities; and if the ratio — continually tend to a finite limit a (that 


a—s<*<ati 


na 
n= 
are satisfied), the limit of the expression p = Rite when the positive 
n=] n 
quantity p is diminished without limit, is .’T 
n=O n=N 1 n=0 1 
For p = >» ——_ +p ———, N denoting a finite 


Ricca ais 
n=] hy te m==1 fn't? n=N+14n'*t° 
number ; and by virtue of the inequalities written above 


r= ii = 
Bre Mie A cag fm) edt vate hs usishiaced NF 
n=N+1 "7 n=N-+1 4a m=N+1 ”™*° 


* The following is a list of the papers of Lejeune Dirichlet which relate to the theory of 
quadratic forms :— 

1. Sur l’usage des séries infinies dans la théorie des nombres.—Crelle, vol. xviii. p. 259. 

2. Recherches sur diverses applications de l’analyse infinitésimale 4 la théorie des nombres. 
—Crelle, vol. xix. p. 324, and xxi. pp. 1, 134. 

3. Auszug aus einer der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin am 5 Mirz 1840 vorge- 
lesenen Abhandlung. (Crelle, vol. xxi. p. 98, or the Monatsberichte for 1840, p. 49.) 

This paper is an abstract of an unpublished memoir containing the demonstration of the 
theorem that every properly primitive form represents an infinite number of primes. 

4. Untersuchungen iiber die Theorie der complexen Zahlen. (Crelle, vol. xxii. p. 375, or 
in the Monatsberichte for 1841, p. 190.) An abstract of the following memoir. 

5. Recherches sur les formes quadratiques a coéfficients et a indéterminés complexes.— 
Crelle, vol. xxiv. p. 291. 

6. Sur un théoréme relatif aux séries. (Liouville, New Series, vol. i. p. 80, or Crelle, 
vol. liii. p. 130.) 

7. Sur une propriété des formes quadratiques 4 déterminant positif. (Monatsberichte for 
July 16, 1855, or Liouville, New Series, vol. i. p. 76, or Crelle, vol. liii. p. 127.) 

8. Vereinfachung der Theorie der binaéren quadratischen Formen von positiver Determi- 
nante. (Memoirs of the Berlin Academy for 1854, p. 99, or, with additions by the author, 
in Liouville, New Series, vol. ii. p. 353.) 

9. Démonstration nouvelle d’une proposition relative 4 la théorie des formes quadratiques. 
—Liouville, New Series, vol. ii. p. 273. 

10. De formarum binarium secundi gradus compositione.—Crelle, vol. xlvii. p. 155. 

The three last papers contain important simplifications of theories which appear in a very 
complicated form in the Disq. Arith. To two of them we have already referred (arts, 93, 94). 

t This theorem is a generalization of that in the memoir (Crelle, vol. xix. p. 326). It is 
given by Dirichlet in No. 6 of the preceding list. 


326 REPORT—1861. 


n=0 
Observing that lim p = nx is intermediate between 
n=N+1”7° 


. neh LE : dl 
lime (as and lim p fhrsace. 
and is consequently unity, we infer from the last inequalities that 
n= 
lim p = 
m=N-+1 
and therefore also =O; 


1 
Bite’ 


which is identical with it, because 
n=N 
lim p ep : =a 
n=n 
differs from « by a quantity comminuent with 4; 7, e. limp = a” 
n=l] “™ 
since by hypothesis 6 is a quantity as small as we please. 

(ii.) A convergent infinite series may be convergent in two very different 
ways. It may be convergent, and always have the same sum irrespective of the 
arrangement of its terms; or it may be convergent for certain arrangements 
of its terms, giving the same or different sums for these different arrangements, 


and divergent for other arrangements. We suppose, however, that we con- 


sider only such different arrangements of the terms of a series as are compa- 
tible with the condition that any term which occupies a finitesimal place in 
any one arrangement should occupy a finitesimal place in every other arrange- 
ment*. Thus the series 


1 1 1 
poet gitet sitet a ses-pDs 


is convergent, and has the same sum in whatever order we sum its terms; 
but of the two series 


1 1 1 1 J 
[hSS SS SS eS te. 
gigi 4h gt oft 

1 1 1 1 1 

1 a a | ah sy 7 Sen iy ade 

rs aa aa ae a 

* This condition is necessary, because without it the sum of no series whatever would be 
independent of the arrangement of its terms, if by the sum of a series we understand the 
limit te which we approximate by the continual addition of its terms in the order in which 
they are given. For example, the series cited in the text, ‘ 

1 1 1 
pret ytet gist +P > % 


is convergent, and its sum is irrespective of the arrangement of its terms, provided that 
arrangement satisfy the condition enunciated in the text. But if we were to arrange the 
terms of the series in an order regulated (say) by the number of primes dividing their deno- 
minators, the limit to which we should continually approach by adding together the terms 


. . 1 ema 
taken in their new order, would be = seo in which p denotes any prime, and not = pte? 
p 


in which n denotes any integer. 


i ee 


ie 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 327 


only the first is convergent; while the two series 


bissk SP elo 
1 a ay un a a 
“Bog we age Hered | 
I43—gt3tq—gt 


are both convergent, but have two very different sums *. 
These observations will show the importance of the following prpoosition t. 
““If c, be a periodic function of 7, satisfying the equations 


Cn+k=Cn) 
eC, +e,+¢,+.. +e,=0, 
m= co Cn 
the series = a in which the terms are taken in their natural order, is con- 
uw 


vergent for all values of s superior to zero, and its sum is a continuous func- 
tion of s.” 
- For if we add together the & consecutive terms 
c, c, Ck 
(in Fly" (im fay! ade 

we obtain a fraction of which the denominator is of the order és in respect 
of m, while the numerator is only of the order (k—1)s—1, because the co- 
efficient of ms is zero. We may therefore replace the given series by a 

M= 
series of the form 

m=1 
in respect of m. This series is always convergent for positive values of s ; its 
convergence is irrespective of the arrangement of its terms, and its sum is a 
continuous function of s, because ¢(m) is a continuous function of s. The 
given series is therefore also convergent, and its sum is a continuous function 
of s. 

100. The second section of the memoir refers to the symbols of recipro- 
city of Jacobi and Legendre (arts. 15, 16, and 17 of this Report). 

The third and fourth sections contain the principal theorems relating to the 
generic characters of quadratic forms, and to the representation of numbers. 
There is only one of these theorems to which we need direct our attention 
here, as the others have already come before us in the preceding articles. 

Let (a, 6, ¢) be a primitive form of the positive determinant D ; (a, 6, c) 
(2, ¥.) =M a positive number represented by (a, b, c); m the greatest com- 
mon divisor of a, 2b, c; [T, U] the least positive solution of T?—DU2=m:?; 


so that if a= [Trx,—Un (b2,+cey,)], Yo=L[Tayyt Un (axz,+by)], 


the two formulz [2, Yn] and [—2n, —Yyn] will together express every repre- 
sentation of M, which belongs to the same set as [z,, y,]. Similarly, let 
[2'ny yn], [—2'n, —y'n] denote a complete set of representations of the posi- 
tive number M’ by (a, 3, c). 

If we trace the hyperbola represented by the equation ax®-+ 2bry+cy?=1 


J y in which ¢(m) is a function of the order 1+<s 
™m 


referred to rectangular axes, the diameters included in the formula y= X, 
vk 


in which 2 is to receive all values from —o to +, will form a pencil of 


* These illustrations are taken from the Memoir on the Arithmetical Progression in the 
Berlin Memoirs for 1837, pp. 48 and 49. 
_ t The demonstration in the text is a little simpler than that given by Dirichlet, who uses 
the function I to express the sum of the series. ; 


328 REPORT—1861. 


lines, which all meet the curve, and which, commencing with the asymptote 


= z inuall i i 
TTD EG #, continually recede from it, and approximate to the asym- 
a . . 
ptote y= pa zx The sectorial area contained between any two conse- 


cutive lines of this pencil and either branch of the hyperbola is constant and 
equal tol. 1 to Ve), as may be ascertained b loyi 1 
q 3° Wp 1S a ; y be ascertained by employing polar 


coordinates. Since the same observations apply to the pencil y= x, we 
Ln 


infer that the lines of these two pencils lie alternately, unless the two pencils 
coincide. Let us now suppose that in the form (a, 6, ¢), a is positive and c 
negative; so that the axis of 2 does, and the axis of y does not cut the curve. 


On this supposition the values of Zn and of fen continually increase from 
a a : are he 
——__. to —__—_ as n increases from —©@ to - Theal = 
TDL Det + 2 e alternate po 
sition of the lines of the two pencils gives, in this case, the theorem,— 
“ The inequalities 


in which & represents any given number, are satisfied for one value of z, and 
one only.” If, taking a for M! and [1, 0] for [’,, y',], we put k=0, we 
obtain the conclusion,— 

“Each set of representations of the positive number M by the form 
(a, b, c), in which a is positive and ¢ negative, contains one and only one 
representation which satisfies the inequalities 


wn>0, yn>0, Yn —— Tne, 


It is in this form that the theorem appears in Dirichlet’s memoir. We 
may add that any values of x and y which satisfy these inequalities will give 
a positive value to (a, b, c); for such a pair of values will correspond to a 
point situated in the internal angle between the asymptotes of the hyperbola. 

The fifth section contains the demonstration of the theorem, that if A de- 
note the absolute value of D, and (2A) be the number of numbers less than 
2A and prime to it, a properly primitive form of determinant D will acquire 
a value prime to 2D, if its indeterminates 2 and y satisfy any one of a certain 
set of 2AYy(2A) congruential conditions included among the 4° conditions 
represented by the formule 

x=a,mod2A; y=, mod 2A, 
in which both « and # represent any term of a complete system of residues, 
mod 2A; but will acquire a value not prime to 2D, if x and y satisfy any of 
the other congruential conditions. 

If the form be improperly primitive, the number of congruential conditions 
that will render its value unevenly even and prime to A will be Ay(A), or 
3AU(A), according as D = 1, or = 5, mod 8. 

These theorems are easily demonstrated by considering separately the 
prime divisors of A. For example, if the form (a, b,¢) be improperly 
primitive, and p be a prime divisor of D, since either a@ or ¢ is prime to p, 
let a@ be prime to p; then (ar+by)’—Dy? will be prime to p, when 


ax+by is so; t.e. it will be prime to p, for p(p—1) combinations of the . 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 329 


residues (mod p) of x and ¥; or, if p” be the highest power of p dividing D, 
for p*"-! (p—1) combinations of the residues of z and y, mod p”. Again, 
the 4 combinations of residues for the modulus 2 will give 3 (a, 6,c) the va- 
lues 0, 3 a,, 3.c,,4 a+6+ Zc, of which it is easily seen that one or three will be 
uneven, according as ac == 0, or 4, mod 8; 7. e. according as D = 1, or 5, mod 8, 
The combination of these results will give Dirichlet’s theorem. 

101. Series expressing the number of Primitive Classes.—The sixth 
section of the memoir contains the demonstration of the formule which 
express in the form of an infinite series the number of classes of properly 
and improperly primitive quadratic forms of a given determinant. We shall 
abbreviate the demonstration of these formule by using the theorem of 
art. 87. 

Let hf be the number of properly primitive classes of determinant D; we shall 
first suppose D to be negative, and =—A;; let also (a,,,,¢,), (@,, b,,¢), +++ 
(an, bp, cn) be a system of forms representing the properly primitive classes 
of that determinant; and let us consider the sum 


1 1 
eee ee ee 
"(4,0 + 2b,cy+e,y°)§ sa (ae +2bay toy y 


+h 


ane? + QWyay + ony)” 
the sign of summation %, extending to all values of w and y from —o to 
+, which give the form (a,, 5,, ¢,), a value prime to A. By the theorem 


of art. 87, any uneven number 2 prime to A is capable of 23(7) repre- 


sentations by the properly primitive forms of determinant D (for there are 


(7) sets of representations, and each set contains two*). We have there- — 


s=22[2(7)"] ee Er Sher, hay 


(the inner sign of summation referring to every divisor d of n; and the 
outer sign extending to every positive value of x prime to 2A). If we write 
n for d, and mn! for n, so that 2 and z! each represent any positive number 
prime to 2A, this equation assumes the simpler form 


8=22 (2) Gane AY 7. 9 Neagle tt ln 


the sign = indicating two independent summations with respect to m and n’; 
or, if we perform the two summations separately, and omit the accent, 


saan in(e)e ee ee ee © 


fore the equation 


To deduce an expression for f from this equation, we write 1+) for s, and 
multiplying each side by p, we suppose p to be positive and to diminish 
without limit. In order to find the limit of pS on this supposition, we con- 


, of which it 


sider separately the partial sums, such as p= Gaara bere 
is composed. 


. * If A=1, each set contains four representations. To obtain a correct result in this case, 
we must therefore double the right-hand members of the equations (a), (4), (c), and (A). 


330 REPORT—1861. 


If aS be the mth term of the series 5 be ceca a ve lebepreaesta in which we 
cP (ax + Qbay+cy")'*? 


n 
suppose that the terms are so arranged that no term surpasses any that precedes 
it, it can be shown that lim c= mye. For if 245+£,,.2An+n, represent 
generally any one of the 2Ay(2A) systems of values that can be attributed 
to x and y consistently with the condition that (a, b,c) assumes a value 
prime to 2A, the number of terms up to /, inclusive (7. e. the number 7) is 
evidently equal to the number of points having coordinates of any one of the 
forms [24£+£,, 24n+7,] that lie within the ellipse aa°+2bay+cey’=k,, 
together with one, or all, or some of the similar points lying on the contour 


of the ellipse, according as ame is the first or the last, or neither the first nor 
k Pp 


nu 
the last of the terms equal to it in the series. The area of the ellipse is 
kn 


Va 


; whence, if 2 be very great, the number of the points we have defined 


is spritositantely ee the error being of the same order as Vk, ; 
3. es ie Ha a we. 

Hence by Dirichlet’s first Lemma (art. 99) lim pS= a Again, by 
the same Lemma, the expression p= a has —_ for its limit, when p 


sfonde : ee te : DY Fr: 
diminishes without limit. And, lastly, the limit of the series 3 (pas is 
: D\ 1 : 
the series = (2) , in which the terms are taken in their natural order. To 


: D 
establish this, we observe that the symbol (2) is a periodic function of x, 


and that the sum of the terms of which one of its periods is composed is zero. 
Using the notation of art. 94, and attributing the value +1 or —1 to the 
symbol 6 according as P==1 or =8, mod 4, and to the symbol e according 
as D=PS? or =2PS’, we have, by Jacobi’s law of reciprocity, 


D) ser (” 
Cab, 


Hence G)=@) if n =n’, mod 2*PR*; or i is a periodic function of x. 


Again, if a and b denote the general terms of a system of residues prime to 
2* and p respectively, we find 
n—1 n?—1 a—1 a—1 


eat =) eet b 
B38 er 8 (5)=23 4a xm.2(5)x0(r—1), 


where in the left-hand member the summation extends to every value of x 
prime to 2*PQ and less than it, while in the right-hand member the signs of 
summation refer to a and 6, and the signs of multiplication to p and r respec- 


* The index & is not the same as in art. 98; it is 1 when 0=1, e=1; 2 when 0=—1, 
e=1; and.3 when e=—1. 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. que 


tively. This equation is easily verified ; for if ma, mod 2*, =6, modp, 
= 6’, mod p’, ... we have 
m—1 n?—1 a—1 a2—1 


IFT 5) =32 «* (2) (=) eA 


so that each member of the equation consists of the same units. But one at 
least of the factors of which the right-hand member is composed is zero ; 
unless we have simultaneously 5=1, e=1, P=1, a supposition which is inad- 
missible, because it implies that D is a perfect square. We infer there- 


fore that =(3)=0 t. e. that the sum of the terms of a period of the symbol 


. e . . D 1 
() is equal to zero. If, then, we suppose the terms of the series = (>) aes 
to be taken in their natural order, it will follow from Dirichlet’s second 
Lemma (art. 99) that its sum represents a finite and continuous function of 


p for all values of p superior to —1; i.e. the limit of the series 5 (>) 
n /nire 


for p=0 is the series = (2 Ve in which the terms are taken in their natural 


order. We thus obtain the equation 


peg NE ces vie cen 


T n/n 


Secondly, let the determinant D be positive; and let us retain the same 

notation as in the former case. If in the series 

1 43 1 
‘ (a,2° ¥ 2b,xy+c,y") *(a,x" + 2b,2y+¢,y")* 

1 
(apa? +2bpay + ery’)? 
(in which it is convenient to suppose that the forms (a, 6,, ¢,), representing 
the properly primitive classes of determinant D, have their first coefficients 
positive, and their last coefficients negative) we suppose the sign of double 
summation %, to extend only to those integral values of x and y which 
render the value of the form (a,,,,¢,) prime to 2D, and which further 
satisfy the inequalities 


=> 


a eevee +2, 


. z>0, y>0, yx ee 
we obtain, by a comparison of arts. 87 and 100, the equation 
1 DY oF 
— _ > — j-— ; . e ° e ° ° . e ° q 
es ns G ne () 


in which m denotes any positive number prime to 2D, and which corresponds 
to equation (c). 


1 . ji ; 
If ae be the mth term of the series aps Peta nm is equal to 


the number of points having coordinates of any one of the forms 
[2A5+£, 2An+n]; ; 


332 REPORT—1861. 


which lie in the interior of the sectorial area, bounded by the positive axis of «, 
the arc of the hyperbola aa’?+2bay+cey’=k,,, and the straight line 


aU 
aS wv; 
FT 60 
together with one, all, or some of the similar points on the contour of the 
sector. The area of the sector is 


ken i 
zit log (T+U WD); 


whence, reasoning as before, we find 


27D D\1 
SS > —_— i— . . « . e . 
. log [T+UVD] G a (B) 
for the number of properly primitive forms of a positive determinant D. 


The corresponding formula for improperly primitive forms are obtained by 
a precisely equivalent process. The results are, if D=—A, 


D?~1 
oe OT rca Fe ee D\1 
[2 (-1) 3 Jasevas(Z) i ae eS 
and if D=+4, 


D?—1 
ey a eee 27D D\I 

CGM Were cecaurintacy meme 
[T’, U'] denoting the least solution of the equation T?—DU’=4. 

102. Proof that each Genus contains the same number of Classes.— 
The sixth section of the memoir also contains a demonstration of the pro- 
position to which we have already referred (art. 98), that all the possible genera 
actually exist, and contain an equal number of classes. This demonstration 
is not deduced from the expression for the number of properly primitive 
forms, but depends on an equation between two infinite series similar to the 
equation (a) of the last article. Let y denote any one of the particular 
characters proper to the determinant, and let ¢ be any term in the product 
Il(1+ x), with the exception of the first term, which is unity, and also of 
that particular combination of the values of x, the value of which, by the 
condition of possibility, is also a positive unit. If A be the number of parti- 
cular characters, 2\—2 will be the number of expressions symbolized by 9. 
Let H and H! be the numbers of classes satisfying the conditions ¢=1 and 
g¢=—1 respectively. It can be shown, as follows, that H=H’. Confining 
ourselves, for perspicuity, to the case of forms of a negative determinant, we 
have, by the principle of art. 87, 


px 


$2 


= SS + z. TS are 7) ae Te econ 
(ae t+zbay+ey)y *(a,x FO,xy+e,y)* 

+ Nia Quay Fen)? = d 2 aP oe etre ee ( ) 
where in the right-hand member é is +1 or —1, according as the num- 
ber 2 satisfies the condition ¢=1 or ¢=—1; and similarly, in the left-hand 
member ¢,=—1 or = +], according as the generic character cf the form 


(as 5,5 ¢,) satisfies the condition ¢=1 or ¢=—1. In this equation the 


* If A=3, we must triple the right-hand member of this equation; as each set of repre- 
sentations of a number by a form of determinant —3 contains six representations, instead of 
two. 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 333 


signs of summation have the same signification as in the similar equation (a) 
of the last article ; and, as in that equation, the right-hand member may be 
expressed in the simpler form 


2) 


If we now write 1+ for s, and, multiplying by p, allow p to converge to 


zero, the limit of the left-hand number is (H—H’) ea) The series 
»(>) ({\o5 converges to a finite limit; for (>) and 2) are each of them 
n]}\nJnite n n 


m—1l n?—1 
. rat -Anie hae . 4° * ; 
expressions of the form 6 ? e ® (—), 6 and e denoting positive or negative 


units, and Q an uneven number composed of unequal primes dividing D ; 
their product is therefore another expression of the same form, in which 6, e 
and Q are not simultaneously equal to 1, because we have expressly excluded 


that combination of the particular characters which causes (£) to coincide 
n 


with ah It can therefore be shown, by reasoning as in the last article, 
n 


that the second Lemma of art. 99 is applicable to the series, and that it con- 


verges to the finite limit 2(?)(¢):. Similarly, it may be shown that 


=(2 - converges to a finite limit. The limit of the right-hand member 
n}n 

of the equation (d) is consequently zero on account of the evanescent factor 
p; from which it follows that H=H!. Let G,, G,,..be the different possible 


genera; h,, h,,.. the number of classes they severally contain ; (&) thevalue 


of ¢ for the genus G. The equation H—H’=0 comprises 2\—2 equations 


of the type 
oN, ?\;, i 6 
(e) : (&) ae ; 


corresponding to the Z\—2 different expressions symbolized by ¢. If we mul- 
tiply each of these equations by the coefficient of A, in it, and add the pro- 
ducts to the equation 

2h, +2h,+2h,+...=2h, 


we arrive at the conclusion 2\4,=2h. For the coefficient of h, in the re- 
sulting equation is the product II [ +(&\E)] ; and this product is 2, 

r k. ‘ 
if G, and G, are identical, but is zero in every other case, as one at least of 
the factors will be zero. 

103. The seventh section (Crelle, vol. xxi. p. 1) commences with the proof 
of the theorem that the number of sets of representations of any number M 
prime to 2D by quadratic forms of determinant D, is equal to the excess of 
the number of those divisors d of M which satisfy the equation 


pee gro 
STE (5)=1 ) 
above the number of those divisors which satisfy the equation 
Goh Balid 
Py 2 € 2 (5)--1 


334 REPORT—1861. 


the symbols 6 and e having the same signification as in art. 101. Of this 
theorem, which coincides with that of art. 87, since 


D\) #1 @1/¢4 
(7)=8* «= (0) 


two demonstrations are given, one purely arithmetical, the other derived from 
the equation (4) of art. 101, the proof of which in Dirichlet’s memoir does 
not involve the theorem of art. 87, but is deduced from the arithmetical 
principles on which that theorem itself depends. We have already referred 
(art. 95) to some of the particular results which can be deduced from the 
general theorem. 

It is evident from the mode of formation of the equation (4), or of the cor- 
‘responding equation for a positive determinant, that it may be generalized 
by taking instead of the power (aa*+2bry+cy)-%, any function of 
ax? + 2bxy + cy? which renders the two members of the equation convergent ; 
z.e. we may write, in the case of a negative determinant, 


2, - o(a,7* 2 5 2b,2y i cy?) si 2, 2d o(a,x* ss 2b,.2y T cy”) ai be tad 
=25 ¢) o(nn’). 


Dirichlet illustrates this observation by giving to ¢ the exponential form 9*, 
which satisfies the condition of convergence, if the analytical modulus of g 
be inferior to unity. Each double sum, such as 3q7*+2zy+ey* in the left- 
hand member of the equation 


2 2 
Dg + ety toy =e Bgae t dbaty + cay +., 


D\ ees 
— 2 (> )e" wv, 


ean then be replaced by 2aAy(2A) (or sometimes by fewer) products of 
the form 


V=0 Leapvtnt Y=O Aaavtyys 
Ns | ited. ee - 
vw=-—-D v=—@ 
in which each simple series such as 
2 zi (2aAv+ 9)? 


v=—o 
can be expressed by means of the elliptic function ©; the right-hand mem- 
ber can also be expressed by means of elliptic series. If, for example, 
D=-—3, we have the equation 
v= e=+0 v=+0 v=0 
SH gG&t BF gi Corp By gOt27*~ B G34) 
C=— 0 v= — © vw=—@ v= -— © 


5? egg _*S gk +5 4 g5(6R+5) 
keg IPODS peg 1—-ghttt 


It does not appear that this remarkable transformation, which is only 
very briefly noticed by Dirichlet, has been further examined. (See a note by 
Mr. Cayley in the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal, vol. ix. 
p- 163.) 

In the eighth section Dirichlet assigns the relation between the numbers 
of properly and improperly primitive classes. Wheri the determinant is ne- 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 335 


gative we find, by a comparison of the formule (A) and (C), A=’, or. 
h=Sh', according as D==1, or = 5, mod 8; observing only that if D=—3 
we have, exceptionally, A=’. When the determinant is positive, we infer 
from the formule (B) and (D), 
nals $(T’'+U'VD) i, 
log (T+U¥VD) 
3 log 3(T’'+U' WD) I! 

log(L+UVD)  ”’ 
according as D==1 or = 5, mod 8. Comparing these expressions with the 
observations in art. 96 (vi.), we find, if D=1, mod 8, h=h’; and if D=5, 
mod 8, A=h’, or h=3h’, according as the least solution of the equation 
T2—DU?=4 is uneven or even. 

Dirichlet also deduces from the formule (A) and (B) the relation which 
subsists between the numbers of properly primitive classes for any two 
determinants which are to one another as two square numbers. It is suffi- 
cient to consider two determinants such as D and DS’, of which the former 
is not divisible by any square. If and H be the numbers of classes for these 
two determinants, we have evidently, when the determinants are negative, 


2(2)! 
ee fe n. 
cei 2(s)s 

2u/7n 


the two series in the numerator and denominator not being identical, because 
in the one x is any number prime to 2DS*, in the other any number prime 
to 2D. But, by a principle due to Euler, 


1 
D\!l_,, —.—, 
2(n)e= (DP 
de od 
Pp representing any prime, except those dividing 2DS? or 2D. Hence 


H=ASU (-(7)) 


if s denote any prime dividing S but not’ dividing D. For a ‘positive deter- 


minant we find D\\ log (TU VD) 
= og (I+ 
H=ASm(1—(2) eens Uy DY 


['T’, U'] denoting the least solution of the equation T?—DS’U?=1; i.e. the 
least solution [T;, Uz] of T’—DU’=1, which satisfies the condition U,=0, 
mod S; so that we may write 


n=afa(-@)) 


In a subsequent note (No. 7 in the list) Dirichlet infers from this ex- 
pression that, given any positive determinant D, we can always deduce 
from it an infinite number of determinants of the form DS? having all the 
same numbers of classes. For if we attribute to S a series of values of the 
form II.s*, all composed of the same prime numbers s, and having continually 
increasing numbers for the indices of those primes, it appears from a remark 


or h= 


to which we have already referred (see art. 96, v.), that the quotient ; will 


336 REPORT—1861. 


eventually be constant; 2. e. there will exist an infinite series of determinants, 
all composed of the same primes, and all having the same number of pro- 
perly primitive classes. As it is possible to find determinants contained in a 
series of this kind, and having only one class in each genus, it appears that 
the number of the positive determinants, which have only one class in each 
genus, is infinite. This result, which was anticipated by Gauss (Disq. Arith. 
art. 304), is remarkable, because it is probable, from the result of a very 
extensive induction, that there are but 65 negative determinants, of which 
the greatest is —1848, having the same property. 

104. Summation of the series expressing the number of Properly Primitive 
Classes.—It appears from the last article that, to obtain expressions in a finite 
form for the number of classes, we may confine our attention to the order 
of properly primitive forms, and may suppose that the determinant is not 


divisible by any square. To sum the series = Gs upon this supposition, 


Dirichlet employs the formule given by Gauss in his memoir, “ Summatio 
Serierum quarundam singularium,” to which we have already referred in this 
Report (art. 20). The ninth section is occupied with the demonstration of 
these formule ; in the tenth they are applied to the summation of the series 


x5 . Two different methods are given by Dirichlet, by either of which 


this summation can be effected. 
: : ee D D \i 75 
(i.) If & be the index of periodicity of () so that (=)=() and 
[k 


k 
D t 
>(7) =0, the summation indicated by the symbol = extending to all values 
1 


of z prime to 2D from 1 to k, we have, writing V for 2 (3) 


vf FO a 


0 x—1 dz, 


k 
where KOs (>) a",so that f(1)=0. Integrating by the ordinary method 


of decomposition into partial fractions, we find 


lee Zest - mr\ , Qm 
prfice He gis E ) [tog (2 aoe HF (1-3 |. 

To simplify this complicated expression, it is requisite to transform the 
symbol (>) by the law of reciprocity, and to consider separately the eight 


cases which arise from every possible combination of the hypotheses (a) D 
positive or negative, (8) D even or uneven, (y) D, or } D, =1, mod 4, 
or= 3,mod4. As an example of the process, we shall take the two cases 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 337 


n—1 
in which D = 3, mod 4, so that (2)=( —1)? (=) k=4A, Astill denoting 
2mr . 


the absolute value of D. The value of plea" is assigned by the formulze 


m—t1 
Eran . 2 mila . * * 
of Gauss; it is 23°” (—1) ? (va or zero, according as m is, or is 


not, prime to4A*. We thus find 


1 m—1 nm . mr Tv. m 
—4AV=9i'" +4” Ax(—1) 2 (5) [los (2sin FS )+ 51-5) ], 


the summation extending to all values of m prime to 4A and less than it. In 


* If p be any prime divisor of A, an uneven number admitting of no square divisor, and if, for 
brevity, Paes we have, by Gauss’s formula, 


2kmPr . 


k=p—1,,. ——i ies ane 
(5)¢ : = (3) GF? gees! he eee 
k=1 P P/ \P 


according as m is or is not prime to». If we multiply together the equations of this type, 
corresponding to every prime divisor of A, and observe (1) that 9==. /P? represents a system 


of residues prime to A, (2) that ()=(5) (2) a (=) (=) - ++, (3) that 
A Pi! \P2 Pi/ \P2 
II ) P= _ (1) 34 P11) jBAP— V2. ABP-VP AAV? we find 


9 20mm 4 as 
2 (5)¢ A (gear? VA, or =0, . Oe Se her Jee peo age (2) 


according as m is or is not primeto A. We have already met with this equation in art. 96, 
ix. If in the equations (1) we write 4P for P, and join to them the equation 


at a m—1 4Azl 
=(-]l “« 
in which / is either term of a system of residues prime to 4, we obtain after multipli- 
cation the equation which is employed in the text. And similarly may the function 
2mn. 
—i 
1h r k ) be evaluated, whatever be the form of D. 

The formulz (A) ana (A’) of art. 20 are only particular cases of the general result 
obtained by Gauss in the ‘ Summatio Serierum, &c.’ The general formula, including (A), is 
k=n—1 2 h 3(n—1)2 u 
= rh =(7)i : Nn, h denoting any number prime to n. When nis even, the 
k=0 
formula (A’) of art. 20 is similarly included in the following, 


h—-1\2 
Erhk? = 0, or =(}) i Hea (1+i) Vn, 


according as n is unevenly or evenly even. 
When 2 is uneven and not divisible by any square, the two sums 
k=n—1 
= or ana (7) 78 
k=0 sf 
are identical, as appears from a comparison of (2) with the generalization of (A), and as 
has been already observed in the case when 7 is a prime (art. 21). 


1861. Z 


=2i(—1) . 8 (m uneven), or =0 (m even), 


338 REPORT—1861. 


this expression the sum 2(—1) * (5) is zero, because the terms corre- 


sponding to m and 2A+m destroy one another ; so that 


—4av=20te” Vv AZ(— 1)? ine 7) [08 (sin at) ite 


Distinguishing the two cases D=A, and D=—A, and observing that the 
imaginary parts vanish identically, as they ought to do, because V is real, we 
have, finally, if D=A, 


m—1 
—4DV=2/7D—1) 2? (2 in(@™ 
¥ Dx —1) (5) !ssin(F5 ) 
D . mr 
=2/D>s{(=)1 et 
v G) a ee 


ie 
age 7 
=5553(2)m 


(ii.) The series = (=); can also be summed by substituting for (2) its 


and if D=—A, 


trigonometrical value deducible from the formule of Gauss. We will take 
as an example the case in which D=—A==3, mod 4. Writing m for m, and 
m for n, in the equation 


pla SL Filed Es, yr = (iva 


we find, observing that 3(1+ A) is uneven, 
n—1 
D)\ 7 inh, zee 
(>)=( 4) G)=a0x? = 
ai =(2)si n (A) 
ee 


the summation extending to every value of m prime to 4A and less than it. 


= i 


Substituting this expression for (?) in V, we have 


hy >» (>) = 1 sin (7), 
QVA my n 4A 


Since the expression which we lave substituted for (>) is zero, when 7 is 
n 


not prime to 4A, we may attribute to 7, in the series 


> i sin = ) 
n 4A 


either all uneven values, or all integral values. The sum of the series 


+... 


sing , sin 32, sin 5x 
1 t 3 + 5 


ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 339 


is, by a known theorem, 7 or > according as O<2#<7, or r<2<2r. 


Hence attributing to ” only uneven values, and denoting by m! and m"' the 
values of m inferior and ay to 2A, 


*=9932(@)-@) 
“i2() 
wane (8)--(2) 


If we attribute to ~ all integral values, the equation 


2 hoe ft 


sing , sin2e , sin 3x 
a Oraringae some tty 
which subsists for all positive values of «x less than 27, will give the value 
already obtained for V by the former method, viz., 


D 
— V= kl = e 
4A aVA G yn 


The mode of application of this method may be still further varied ; for, 
n—1 


n—1 
instead of substituting for (—1) ” (3) we may leave the factor (—1) ? 


unchanged, and substitute for G A} by means of the equation 


)-ss2()(°2) 


which, as well as the substitution which we have employed, is deducible from 
the formule of Gauss*. We should thus obtain a third expression for V, 
different in form from both of those which we have already found. 

The forms which the expression of h can assume are very numerous; we 
select the following as examples, D still denoting a determinant not divisible 
by any square. 

I. If D=1, mod 4. 

For a positive determinant, D=A, 


=(5) =(7) log tan s 
D/tog (T+UVD)~ \m 2D 
For,a negative determinant D=— 4, 
(20) 
A m 


the summations extending to every uneven value of m prime to A and less 
than A. 

II. If D be not =1, mod 4. 

For a positive determinant, 


enna >» () log sin (75) 


* See equation (2) of the preceding note. 


z2 


340 REPORT—1861. 


For a negative determinant, 


Oo Ae Sr PE ne oval 
i=—h2(2)n=4}2(2) 


the summations with respect to m and m/! extending to all values prime to 
2A, and inferior to 44 and 2A respectively. 
Dirichlet observes that when the determinant is positive, the coefficient of 


1 ‘ : 

SS o o = 

iog (T+ UV D) is a logarithm of the form log(Ta+UnWD); (Ta, Un) 
being one of those solutions of the equation T?7—DU’=1 which are deducible 
from the theory of the division of the circle. Thus / is in fact determined 
as the index of the place occupied in the series of solutions of T?—DU’?=1, 
by an assigned trigonometrical solution. (See a note by M. Arndt in Crelle, 
vol. lvi. p. 100.) 

In the particular case in which the determinant is a prime of the form 
4n-+3 taken negatively, an expression for the number of classes had already 
been given by Jacobi (Crelle, vol. ix. p. 189). It would seem, from his note 
on the division of the circle (Crelle, vol. xxx. p. 166), that the unpublished 
method, by which his result was obtained, formed a part of that theory. 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS 
OF 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. 


Bes Wika 
Or. torre, 
“ey . 
em 
‘ “pe ’ 
; 
i 
< 


aie 4" ‘a mee aS 


et ( = 4 Al ee 
i ate at oy ae Re Rae 
= 4, i ‘ _— a z y Pe 
is ‘ Sr | ee had 
* ’ 7 > " t PF. 7 * + P - 
) scum x 
. f Ls . .. se 
= i aut ‘ i 4 
* . * 
+ i . " 
"ke 
3 \ \ ; eet ahh + ree 
SS 
‘ int: Gee? ‘ . es ea 1a a@ { 
@ ‘ a 
, ? ule OF i ¥ ‘gee 
.~. 


ee -TOTORNTATA AYA caOTEO# 


: mw 


5 Aeroriias auth oF Morteorinntes 20g eee 


- of 
“ ! sad 


’ 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS 
OF 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. 


MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 


MatTHEMATICS. 


" Address by G. B. Arry, M.A., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal, President of the 
Section. 


Tue President said it was usual, in opening the ee of this Section, to 
commence with a few words, stating generally the object for which they were met, 
and the way in which they proposed to carry it out. That Section was one which 
dealt with Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, and under these heads they in- 
cluded everything which was not of a technical nature, and which was the subject 
of mathematical treatment. Everything which was reducible to measures or forces 
came properly under their consideration, if it were not expressly a subject belonging 
to some technical Section. Cosmology, or the changes which the world has under- 
gone, came properly before them ; and that Section might be considered as dealing 
with the germs of all the sciences which were subjects of measure or number, 
Its subjects might be compared with those which most of our Universities made the 
foundation for the important degree of Arts, and which are understood to be the 
best foundation of education possible to provide for the human mind. It was to 
those subjects that the early efforts of the Association were directed, and in a great 
measure it was those subjects that had enabled the Association to acquire its pre- 
sent importance. It was well known to members of that Association that its 
earliest efforts were directed to astronomy; almost the earliest expenditure of 
money by the Association was in reference to astronomy, and the works the Asso- 
ciation had published at its own expense had been amongst the most valuable con- 
tributions to that science. By the expenditure, of money in that way, the Associa- 
tion had acquired a command over the Government which had enabled it to call 
for assistance in very important matters. The reduction of the lunar observations 
at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich was undertaken in consequence of the 
urgency of the representations made by the British Association, and anybody who 
Imew the history of science would admit that that great work was one of the most ~ 
important services that had been rendered to astronomy. There were other sub- 
jects to which benefit had been derived from the representations of the Association, 
amongst which he might mention the great magnetic expeditions under the direc- 
tion of Major-General Sabine. These expeditions, which had been effected at 
the expense of the Government, had made us acquainted with magnetism all over 
the earth, and had given us information such as we could not have got in any other 
way. In speaking thus of the importance of these subjects, and of their proper 
connexion with that Section, he had only to say that they should be happy to 
receive any communication bearing upon similar subjects. = dealing with them, 
it was desirable in all cases that they should consider themselves as treating ques- 
tions strictly of science. In the next place, he hoped that those who made com- 
munications would bear in mind that their time was to be used, and not wasted. _ 
Tt was desirable that nothing should be brought before the Meeting that would not 
be understood, ipso facto, from the reading of the paper or oral communication, by 
the majority of the persons present. There was no use in gentlemen bringing com- 
1861. ere " 


2 REPORT—1861. 


plicated technical papers which could not be understood without a month’s study 
of a printed book. In the next place, recapitulations of what had been done before 
ought to be as brief as possible. And whilst he hoped that the papers would be 
well discussed, he trusted that personality of every kind would be strictly eschewed. 
It was known to those present that great ingenuity had been employed upon cer- 
tain abstract propositions of mathematics which had been rejected by the learned 
in all ages, such as finding the length of the circle, and perpetual motion. In the 
best academies of Europe, it was established as a rule that subjects of that kind 
should not be admitted, and it was desirable that such communications should not 
be made to that Section, as they were a mere loss of time. 

The President then stated that at the last meeting Professor Stokes was requested 
to make areport, at the instance of the Committee of that Section, on “The present 
state of Physical Optics.” He had written to say that he had been prevented by a 

eat quantity of public business from preparing a report in time for that meeting, 
(ou he engaged to prepare it in time for the next meeting of the Association, and 
the Committee ha requested him to doso. He had to make a similar explanation 
with reference to a report that had been promised by Mr. Cayley on the solution of 
specific problems of dynamics. The Committee had requested him to prepare his 
report in time for the next meeting of the Society. ¥ 


On Curves of the Third Order. By A. Caxtey, F.R.S. 


A curve of the third order, or cubic curve, is the section of a cubic cone, and 
such cone is intersected by a concentric sphere in a spherical cubic. It is an obvious 
consequence of a theorem of Sir Isaac Newton’s, that there are five principal kinds 
of cubic cones, or, what is the same thing, five principal kinds of spherical cubics; 
but the nature of these five kinds of spherical cubics was first distinctly explained 
by Mobius. They may be designated the simplex, the complex, the erunodal, the 
acnodal, and the cuspidal; where crunode, acnode denote respectively the two 
species of double points (nodes), viz. the double point with two real branches, and 
the conjugate or isolated point. The foregoing results are known; the special 
object of the paper was to establish a subdivision of the simplex kind of spherical 
curves. The simplex kind is a continuous re-entering curve cutting a great circle 
(to fix the ideas say the equator) in three pairs of opposite points, which are the 
three real inflexions of the curve. The three great circles, which are the tangents at 
the inflexions, and the equator, divide the entire surface of the sphere into fourteen 
regions, whereof eight are trilateral, and the remaining six quadrilateral. The curve 
may lie entirely in six out of the eight trilateral regions, and it is in this case said 
to be simplex trilateral; or it may lie entirely in the six quadrilateral regions, and it 
is in this case said to be simplex quadrilateral: and there is an intermediate form, 
the simplex neutral; viz. in this case the three great circles, tangents to the in- 
flexions, meet in a pair of opposite points, and there are in all only twelve regions, 
all trilateral; the curve lies entirely in six of these regions, 


On the General Forms of the Symmetrical Properties of Plane Triangles. 
By Tuomas Dosson, B.A. 

This paper establishes among the distances from an indefinite plane of the sym- 
metrical points connected with a plane triangle certain general relations, which yield 
several corresponding cognate plane properties when different definite i are 
assigned to the plane of reference. In the plane triangle A BC, let O be the centre 
of the inscribed circle, O, O, O, those of the escribed circles touching BC, CA, AB; 
and let OO, cut BC in D. Denote, as usual, the radii of these circles by 7 7, 7, 7, the 
sides opposite to A, B, C by a, b,c, and a+b+e by 2s, From A, B,C, O, 0,, O,, O,, 
and D let perpendiculars «, 8, y, 6, 8,, 6,, 5,, and m be drawn to any plane. 

Then, by similar triangles, 

m—-a# AD 25° . y-m_CD_b 6,-« AO, 5s 
SS = 4—~__ >—_ =-; and =——=izn = 
6—a« AO b+c’ .m—8 BD ce’ 8—« AO s—a’ 
eliminating m, &e., 
28 = ae+lB+ cy ; 2 (s—a) 8, = —aa+bB+cy; 
2 (s—b) d,=aa—bB8+cy; 2 (s—c) 6,=aa+bB—cy. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3 


If S be the area of the triangle ABO, and p, p, p, the perpendiculars from A, B, C, 

on a, 6, ¢, 
2S=ap,=bp,=cp,; and S=rs=r, (s—a)=r, (s—b)=r, (s—c). 

Hence, if the plane of reference be perpendicular to the plane of the triangle, and 
intersect that plane in a tangent to any of the circles r, r,, 7,, 7,, 80 that 6=r for 
instance, then 28S=ae+bB+cy; «, 8, y having the proper algebraical signs for each 
case. The above equations are now readily transformed into 
8_«# By 61 a By 


rv Py Ps Ps’ ne Pi Po Ps 
Bois 1 Bey ei Seid » Oty Be 
% Pi Po Ps’ 7s Pi P. Ps 
Whence are derived 
8 8,5), 20 8, 
be Ue) 7? Pi Bie 
26h, 2y_8 4% 


ody 8. Oa) 
=a rs? 
Po a r Py %) Us, 
If the plane of reference is parallel to the plane of the triangle, 
2—B—=y—0—0,—0,—0, F eRe Syme oe vgs) wisi 5 wise (A) 
and the above eight equations give corresponding plane theorems. When the ordi- 
nates are referred to the plane which is tangential to the three spheres of which the 
centres are O,, O,, O,, and radii 7, ,, 7, we have 
8,= ry O,= Py O5=7s 5 } 
“0 =37r, a =p,, B=p,, and y=p, J ** 
The plane (B) is therefore tangential to the seven spheres of which A, B, C, O,, O., O., 
and O are the centres, and p,, p,, P53, "yy Ts) 1°35 and 3r the radii. 

Let Q be the centre of the circle circumscribing the triangle A BC, R its radius, 
and A the distance of Q from the plane of reference. Then, proceeding as before, it 
is found that 

4sinA sin Bsin C. A=2sin2A+sin2B+ysin2C; 


A 
R= 58 A+ 3 cosB+2 cosO; 
Pr Pr Ps 
i (8 == 21 A B 2121p. Y cos2iC: 
3 3) = sin? 2448 sin? 2 B+ sin?1C. 
r R Pi Po Ps 


For the plane (B) the second equation gives A=R+7. 

The circumscribing circle bisects 0, O,, 0, 0,, 0, O, in A’, B’, C’; and if a’ B’ y' be 
for A’ B'C' what «By are for ABC, 2a’=8,+6,; also Z A’=Z O,=3 (w—A). 
Applying the first of the above theorems to the triangle A’ B’ C’, and reducing, we 

et 
. 4A=5+46,+6,+8,; 
and if this be referred to the plane (B), we have the well-lmown plane theorem, 
4R=—r4r,47,475: 

Applying the same general theorem to the triangle O, O,0,, we have A'+6=24, 

where A’ is for 0,0, O, what Ais for ABC. Also 


td OY cia 
if this be referred to the plane (B), for which A'=2R—r, we get the plane theorem 
2k Pole Tar ie 
pee) AN AE a 
= r Pi Po Ps : 
Let 8’ be the distance from the plane of reference of the point of intersection of 
1* 


4 REPORT—1861. 


Pyy Po Pz; and A" the distance of the centre of the circle through the feet of p,, p., p;; 
then by what precedes, : 
2A+8'=a+fh+y; 2A"=A+3'; 
4A"=S' +a+8+y ; and 


Let A,, A,, A,, A’), A’,, A';, be the distances from the plane of reference of the 
centres of the circles circumscribing the component triangles of the complete quadri- 
laterals of which O, O,, O,, O., are the vertical points; then 

2A,=6,4+6,, &., 2A,'=8+5,, &e. ; 
“Ay +A, +A, +A,'+4,'+A,'=6A, 
Equating two values of A’, we have 
814 8s, By _—84+3,48,438, 
ILS SL 2r 


Let O97, '03— Pos Og == Diteha mee totes ee eee (C) 
and this becomes 


Pi P  Ps_Pit PotPs, g_¢, 


a a ae r 
Again, let 

HT aml RN ment are RL Ee tdae Bice Son (D) 
and the same formula gives 

oe ae: a(2 Z £)=5 

itp. pst Wy tr te) 


An Inquiry into the Fundamental Principles of Algebra, chiefly with regard 
to Negative and Imaginary Quantities. By C. ¥. Exwan, 


On Definite Integrals. By Brerens DE Haan. 


On Geometrical Rests in Space. By Sir W. R. Hamirr0on, MR.LA. 


On the Roots of Substitutions. By the Rev. T. P. Krrxman, W.A., F.R.S., 
Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Societies of Manchester 
and Liverpool. 


The group given at page 6 of the “Transactions of the Sections of the British 
Association for 1860” is one of the equivalents of a grouped group, which is of 
the class described by M. Camille Jordan in the 4th chapter of his Thése “ Sur le 
Nombre des Valeurs des Fonctions” (Paris, Mallet-Bachelier, 1860, or Journal de 
l’Ecole Polytechnique, 1861). The first four substitutions of that group form one 
of the grouped groups described by Cauchy in his “ Mémoire sur les Arrangements,” 
&c. (Exercices d’Analyse et de Physique Mathématique, tome troisiéme). 

M. Jordan’s group is formed by writing in the auxiliary group 

1234 
2143 
3412 
4321, 


for 1, ip for 2, ree for 3, ae for 4, & 
This gives a grouped group G, from which is obtained the equivalent 
G' =54127856 G 34127856, 
in page 6 quoted above. 
he two groups of Mr, Cayley at page 5 of the same Report, are grouped groups 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5 


whose general theory has not, so far as I know, been given. In fact the auxiliary 
groups on which they are constructed are of a kind entirely new, of which-a brief 
account may be seen at the end of my memoir “On the Theory of Groups and 
many-valued Functions,” in the forthcoming volume of the ‘Memoirs of the 
Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester,’ 1861. 

These auxiliaries are, 


1234 1234 

2143? 271493, 
(2). 324219 se4ya2 () 

437212, 4°32], 


The peculiarity of these groups (h, h’) is that the four elements therein are 
affected with different exponents, which are essential to the groups, and cannot dis- 
appear from them or from their equivalents. 

hus (A) and (h') give the two groups 


12345678 12345678 
21436587 21436587 
43127865 43128756 
34218756 34217865 
65871234 65781245 
56782145 56872154 
78653421 87653412 
87564512 78564521 


which are equivalent to the two groups at page 5 above quoted. 

Thus we have, by a direct tactical process, found the 12 regular square roots of the 
substitution 21436587. 

What has just been done is a case of a more general theorem. 

If we define that 

Des 8 id pe 324-1 =3, 424-1 =4, 

and that the addition of the same number to all the exponents of the elements of a 
substitution makes no change in the substitution, we find that the two following 
are true groups, by the usual test, that the product of any two substitutions of the 
group is a substitution of the group 


H. H. 
1934 1234 
2°143, 2014%3 
374712 374197 
43°21" 493°21 


7 Pam ge: bh? al aaa a A a7 ae 
3747 12, 437217 =217 4° 374-1 = 91° 47 8 = 9% 1437, 


We may substitute in either H or H’ for each one v of the four elements a group 
wu of 2a—2 powers made with 2a—2 elements, and for v@ the result of a—1 cyclical 
permutations of the vertical rows of vu. The constructed is always a grouped group, 
which is no group of powers, nor equivalent to that built on the auxiliary with 
a=1, if we take @ such that it shall not be prime to 2a—2, that is, if we take for 
@ any even value. 

When a is odd, H and H’ are still groups, and proper auxiliaries; but I believe 
that the grouped group constructed will always be equivalent to the one formed by 
taking a=1, that is, the two groups will differ neither in the number nor in the 
orders of the circular factors of their substitutions. : 

There is but one square root of unity in the group given by H when a=4, of 
which the group contains twelve 6th roots of the 12th order, with all their powers. 

It is perfectly easy to write out by a direct tactical method the eighteen cube 
roots, and the eighteen 6th roots of the substitution @=251564897, all of the 9th 
order, considered in page 6 of last year’s Report, : 


6 REPORT—1861. 


For this purpose we employ the groups 


128 123 193 128 193 123 
231 231 9877 9312 = BBs 
3712, 3123, 89199, 889, B82, 831593, 


which are all easily proved to be groups. For example, in the second, 
2931 . 39123 = 132333 = 123. 
37123 , 2°31 =1°2°33 = 123, 
We readily formed the grouped groups, 


123456789 123456789 123456789 
231564897 231564897 231564897 
312645978 312645978 312645978 
564789123 645789123 456897 123 
645897251 456897231 564978231 
456978312 564978312 645789312 
897123456 978123645 897231456 
978231564 789231456 978312564 
789312645 897312564 789123645, &e. 


There are six groups, each containing three cube roots of 231564897 and three 
cube roots of 312645978, that is three 6th roots of 231564897. 

All these are mere groups of nine powers, and are therefore no addition to our 
knowledge of groups; but they are formed by the process of evolution, as grouped 
groups of roots, comprising of necessity all powers of those roots, whereas such 
groups are usually formed by the process of involution. 

Every group of powers of a substitution which has two or more cireular factors 
of the same order can be written out either by the process of involution, beginning 
with a principal substitution next to unity, or by the process of evolution, beginning 
next to unity with a substitution of a lower or of the lowest order, by means of an 
auxiliary group. 

For example, the eight cube roots of 214365 are written by the auxiliary groups 


123 123 128 123 
231 231 2371 2312 
312 39122 S712 31722, 


which are all that we can employ, as 1°=1, 2°=2, 3°=3, when the elementary 
groups represented by 1, 2, and 3 are of the 2nd order. 

When the circular factors of the auxiliary group are‘of an order prime to that of 
those of the elementary group represented f 123.. in the auxiliary, all the 
auxiliaries formed by different systems of exponents give grouped groups equivalent 
to that given when all the exponents are unities in the auxiliary. We ave just 
had proof of this, in the three groups last constructed. But when the circular 
factors of the auxiliary are not prime to those of the elementary groups, we obtain 
by certain systems of exponents grouped groups not equivalent to that given by 
the auxiliary whose exponents are all unity, 


If, for example, we mean Ee by 1 and oa by 2, the two auxiliaries a a give the 
groups 


1234 1234 
2143 2143 
3412 4312 
4321 3421, 


which are not equivalents, 


The Influence of the Rotation of the Earth on the Apparent Path of a Heavy 
Particle. By the Professor Pricr, M.A., F.RS., Oxford. 

The problem of the apparent path of a heavy particle as affected by the diurnal 

rotation of the earth, of course comes within the grasp of the general equations of 

relative motion, As these last will be found in treatises on mechanics, where such 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7 


subjects are considered, it is unnecessary to do more than insert the forms of them 
which express the circumstances of our problem, and explain the symbols em- 
ployed. A particle is supposed to be projected with a given velocity (which in 
the case of a falling particle may be zero) im a given direction. The place on the 
earth’s surface, whence the particle is projected, is taken as the origin; the axes of 
« and of y are taken in the Earabatal plane, and are respectively north and south, 
and east and west, the positive direction of x being taken towards the south, and 
- that of y towards the west; and the z-axis is the vertical line measured upwards 

from the earth towards the zenith of the place; and this line may be assumed with- 
out sensible error to pass through the earth’s centre. The latitude of the place is 
A; and o is the angular velocity of the earth; gis the force of gravity of the earth, 
and is considered to be constant for all points of the path of the particle (m). 
Then the equations of motion are 


oe 20 (sin X)*—z.0" sin cosh+2o sind Y=0, :} 
Py ye (si yz Ne l 
aR yo? —2o(sin ge tS) 

ez . mate - dy _ | 
=a win A cos A—2 @? (cos A) +2ecosh—= —g. 


Now ao is a very small quantity; to determine its value I will take a second to be 
the unit of time: then, as a mean sidereal day contains 86164:09 seconds, 


2 1 

©= 56164007 18713 OO 
Consequently ?, which enters into the preceding equations, is an extremely small 
fraction. Also in the present problem, notwithstanding the increase of range now 
obtained by the improved weapons of projection, z, y, z are all very small parts of 
the earth’s radius ; and therefore in the first approximate solution of the preceding 
equations, I will neglect those terms which contain products of these coordinates 
and of #*; so that the equations become 


&. 1 

at? sind a =U; ze 
ay ( daz dz I 
=! pues pzsz) |S 

Ti w {sind "i +cosr 5) 0, 
Pz dy ried 

ap t2ecosh a7 =-g | 


As these are linear equations of the first order, they are easily integrated ; and if 
u=the velocity of projection, and «, 8,y are the direction-angles of the line of 
projection, we have 

r=utcosz—uosindrcosP e, 
y=utcos 8+ @ (cos « sin A-+cos y Cos A) #— wg cosd o 
k=utcosy— (Z+wocosr cos 8) #5 


which three equations give the place of the projectile at the time 4 Now, without 
proceeding further at present in the process of approximation, let us consider two 
particular cases and results, which are of considerable interest. 

(1) Let the body fall, as e. g. down a mine, without any initial velocity ; then 
w=0; cos «=cos B=0; cos y=—1; 


» z=0, 
e 
Y= —@G COSA ay 
reteg 
z= a9 


The first equation shows that there is no deviation in the line of the meridian: 
from the second we infer a deviation towards the east; that is, in the direction 


8 REPORT—1861. 


towards which the earth is moving; which varies as the cube of the time of falling; 

and that this deviation is greatest at the equator, where A=0: and the last equa- 

tion shows that the earth’s rotation does not produce any alteration in the time of 

falling. ; 
If we eliminate ¢, and take z downwards to be positive, 


8 w (cosh)? 
ae wale 2 


which is the equation to a semicubical parabola, and shows that the square of the 
deviation towards the east varies as the cube of the space through which the par- 
ticle has fallen. 
(2) Let the particle be projected due southwards at an angle of elevation equal 
to 6; then 
cos 2=cos 6, cos 8B=0, cos y=sin 6; 


and x=ut cos 6, 
3 
y=uw sin (O6+d) #2 —wgcosr > 
~ut sin g—% | 
z=ut sin 6 os J 


From the first and the last of these equations we infer that neither the time nor the 
range on the meridian is altered by the rotation of the earth. -Also when z=0, 


2usin 6, . : 
=————; in which case 


that is, when the projectile strikes the ground, ¢= 
_ 44 @ (sin 6)? 
39° 
and therefore the point where the projectile strikes the ground is west of the meri- 
dian so long as 6 is less than 180°—tan~ (8 tan dA): and the deviation vanishes 
if 6=180°—38 tan~1 (3 tan A). The deviation is eastwards if @ is greater than 
186°—3 tan 1 (3 tan A). 

Now these results, which have herein been applied to the motion of a material 
particle, are also true of that of the centre of gravity of a body. Neglecting there- 
fore the resistance of the air, and the action due to the rotation of a ball or bolt, 
they are applicable to rifle and cannon practice, and we have the following results. 

When the shot is fired due north or south, the range in that direction is not 
altered, but there is always a deviation of the shot, the value of which at the point 
of impact on the ground is given in the last equation. : 

Also from the preceding equations the following results may be deduced :— 

When the shot is fired due east, the range eastwards is increased or diminished 
according as the angle of elevation of the gun is less than or greater than 60°; and 
the deviation is southwards for all places in the northern hemisphere, and north- 
wards for all places in the southern Peratet Hoes 

When the shot is fired due west, the range is increased or diminished according 
as the angle of elevation is greater than or less than 60°; and the deviation is 
northwards for all places in the northern hemisphere, and southwards for all places 
in the southern hemisphere. 

So that for firme from a place in a direction coincident with the parallel of lati- 
tude, and with an elevation less than 60°, the range is increased or diminished 
according as we fire eastwards or westwards; and the difference between the two 
ranges 


{sin 6 cos XA+3 cos Osind}; 


8 u? @ cosh ; 
Trem (cos 6)?— (sin 6)?}; 


and if the place is in the northern hemisphere, the deviation parallel to the meri- 
dian is north or south, according as we fire west or east. 

Now these effects have been inferred from the equations of motion, simplified by 
the assumption that products of w?, and one of the relative coordinates of m, are 
small quantities, and are to be neglected. Let us now retain these quantities, and 

‘assume that products of * and of a small variable are to be neglected; and that 
“small quantities of a lower order are to be retained. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9 


We shall suppose the values of 2, y, z given above to be approximate solutions 
of the first order of the equations; and if, according to the general method of 
solution adopted in such cases, we substitute these values in terms involving 
ez, wy, and oz, that is in the smallest terms which we intend to retain, and, 
omitting terms of higher orders, then integrate the simultaneous differential equa- 
tions thus formed, the results are 


z=utcosa—uo sind cosB # 
3 4 
—u w* sin d (cos # sin A+ cos y cos A) Stge sin A cosA 53 
y=ut cos B+uw (cos # sinX+cos y cos d) # 


8 8 
_ Og COSA ——Uw cos B 5; 
e=uteosy—59l—wecosr cos B ¢” 


3 4 
—u @ Cos (cos # sin A+Cos y Cos A) St9 @” (cos d)? z 


These equations, of course, give results corresponding to particular initial cireum- 
q ns, 18 5 
stances. I will take only two. 


(1) Let the body fall without any initial velocity; then w=0, cos z=cos B=0, 
cos y= — il 5 


# 


fi : 
waa" g sind cosr ©, | 
y=—o@gcosh —, S 


re siya! 2 2 ott 
s— 59% +7 g (cosh) 5 


The first equation shows that there is a deviation of the falling particle in the line 
of the meridian towards the south ; and the second shows that the deviation in the 
arallel of latitude is towards the east; so that the resulting deviation of the falling 
ody is towards the south-east. This result is in accordance with the case many 
years ago investigated by Hooke, the contemporary of Sir I. Newton. From the 
last equation it appears that the space due to a given time is less than it would be 
if there were no rotation. 
(2) Let the body be projected due southwards at an angle of elevation equal to 
6, so that cos 2=cos 6; cos8=0; cos y=sin 6; then 


a=utcosé—o sind sin (A+6) 5 +g o°sin d cosh © | 
y=uosin (A+6) ?—wg cosr E ( 
exutsind—L wat cosdsin ate) o + 9a" (cosh)? ©. ] 


When the projectile strikes the ground, z=0; and approximately t= 2usin 6 ; in 
g 


— 4 o (sin 6)? 


which case y a 


{sin 6 cosA+8 cos 8 sind}; 


which is the same expression as that just now interpreted. Consequently the aim 
of a long-range gun pointed due north or south must be in accordance with the 
preceding explanations. 


On the Calculus of Functions, with Remarks on the Theory of Electricity. 
By W.H.L. Russert, A.B. 


___ The object of this paper was to give some account of a method discovered by the 
author for the solution of functional equations with rational quantities, known 
‘functions of the independent variable, as the arguments of the unknown functions. 
‘The solutions were given by series, and also in terms of definite integrals, 


10 REPORT—1861. 


On Petzval’s Asymptotic Method of solving Differential Equations. 
By Wiu1am Srorriswoopr, M.A., F.RS. 


The researches of M. Petzval here brought under notice are directed to the solu- 
tion of those linear differential equations with variable coefficients which have 
reference to motions, themselves small, but propagated to great distances. In such 
equations y usually represents the disturbance, and z the distance from the origin. 
Tf then the solution y=f(z) be considered as the equation to a curve, the method 
proposed by the author will give the values of y corresponding to large values of x; 
in other words, the asymptotes to the curve in question. Hence the name “ Asym- 
ptotic Solution.” 

With a view to this object M. Petzval proposes the following question: Can any 
general laws be established, with respect to the coefficients of a differential equa- 
tion, capable of furnishing criteria for determining the nature of the particular in- 
tegrals which satisfy it? Having first made such a classification of functions as 
renders his conclusions capable of conversion, in the logical sense of the term, he pro- 
ceeds to form, from a given equation of the degree x, 

Xny™+Xn-1y-D +... Xoy=(X, y=, 
- the equation of the degree (n+r), (Z,z)™+7)=0, arising from the introduction of r 
particular integrals of a given form. 

Passing over the case of algebraic integrals, some of the criteria of which are com- 
mon to exponentials, the more important cases are as follow :— 

I. Particular integrals of the form e#*Q, where Q is an entire algebraic poly- 
nomial. 

(1) To a level (7. e. an equality of degrees among consecutive coefficients) in 
(X, y)™=0, there corresponds in general a level among those of 

(Z,z)@+HD=0, 

(2) Toa level among Xz47-1, X44r~2, .. Xx, followed by a continuous fall 
among Xz—1, Xz-2, .. Xo, of (X,¥)™=0, there Patbee ipee a level among 
Zi+r; Zr+r—1, «. Zp, followed by a similar fall among Zz—1, Zz—2, ... Zo, of 
(Z, z)@+)=0, 

II. Of the form e%*+¥(@) Q, or e£z Q, where (x) is defined to belong to the 
author’s first class. : 

(1) To a continuous rise among Xz, X*—-1,.. Xn—r41, of (X, y)™=0, there 
corresponds in general a similar rise among Zp, Zn—1, .. Zn—r, of (Z,z)@+D =0. 
(2) To a continuous fall among Xz—-1, Xz-2,.. Xo, of (X,y)™=0, there cor- 
responds in general a similar fall among Zz—1, Zx—2, .. Zo, of (Z,z)@+D=0. 

II. Of the form </¢(@)dzQ, where the degree of fp(x)dz is fractional, = ? and 

consequently that of ¢(z) is?—=7= — 3 ; 
q 
(1) Tf? be a proper positive fraction, to a level among Xz~1, Xz-2, .. Xo, 


of (X,y)=0, there correspondsafall among Z;—1,Zr—2,..Zo, of (Z,z) +”) =0, 


amounting in all to o 


(2) If 2 be an improper positive fraction, to a level among Xn, Xy-1,.. 


Xn—r+1, of (X,y)™=0, there corresponds a rise among Zn+r, Zntr—1, «+ 
Zn+1, of (Z, 2)@+=0, ‘ 
$@) 


IV. Of the forms e¥@) 2 and ed Gam? 
(aa) 
to a series of coefficients Xn, Xn-1,.. Xn—r41, of (X, y)™=0, free 
from the factor («—a), there corresponds a series (r—a)¢++-: Zn4y, 
(a@—a)o++-Zatr—1, .. (c—a)* Zn4i, of (Z,2)2+r=0. 
.__ The general result to which the author brings these conclusions, together with 
the excepicaues cases, not here specified, will a best exhibited by the following 
examples, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 11 


Example 1. Let the degrees of the coefficients be 
1, 3, 4, 4, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 


the equation being of course of the 8th degree. Then construct the following figure, 
in which the ordinates are proportional to the degrees of the coefficients: 


The differences between the degrees of the coefficients are 
2, 1, 0, 0, —1, —1, —1, —1; 
and consequently the degrees of y(x) in the particular integrals of the equation 
will be 


8, 2, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0; 
so that in the general solution there will be 


One integral of the form «#*+A«*+yxQ, 
One ” ” ear +prQ), 
Two ” ” eX), 
Four ,, ofa purely algebraic form. 
Example 2, Let the degrees of the coefficients be 
1, 3, 3, 4, 4, 0, 2, 8, 2, 0, 
the equation being of the 9th degree. Then form the figure 


where, after bridging over the re-entering angles, the differences of the degrees are 

sk 

2, 2 = 0, -} yy fa re 
and consequently the degrees of the exponentials y(x) will be 
oe oe 
3, Dae 1, BY 3? 3’ 0, —I, 

About the degree —1 there is a difficulty; but the author suggests that the nega- 
tive index arises from an accidental cancelling of the highest power of x in Zo, and 
that it may probably be replaced by zero. 


On the Reduction of the decadic Binary Quantic to its Canonical Form. 
By Wiix1am Sprorriswoonr, M.A., FLAS. 
Professor Sylvester has shown that the quantic 


(4%, Ayes dan { @, y)m 
may be reduced to the form 
i 284 6,204. — Un 2" 4 AV Uy tl, os Ung 

in which A is a constant, and V a covariant of the product 2, t,5.. ti, Satisfying a 
certain differential equation. In applying his method to the 10th degree, the greatest 


12 REPORT—1861. 


simplification of which the calculations are susceptible is effected by supposing that 
the product w, #,,.. «; has been reduced to its canonical form, viz.2°+y? + (Ar+py)*. 
Then the differential equation which V must satisfy takes the form 


05 05 re) ONS ‘ 
aa (nay-"ae) }v{ P+y + (Ac+py) } =6{« +y+Artpy)® ie 


where @ is a constant. 

Developing the differential equation and equating the coefficients of the powers 
and products of 2, y in the two sides, we have a series of linear equations for deter- 
mining the ratios of a:8:y...; from the solution of which it turns out that each 
of the coefficients of the covariant V is equal to the product of XP 24%, multiplied by a 
rational integral function of d°, p°, independent of all intermediate powers of d, pn 


On the Involution of Axes of Rotation. 
By Professor Sytvuster, V.A., F.R.S. 


After a brief statement as to the most general mode of representing the displace- 
ment of a rigid body in space by means of angular rotations about six distinct axes 
fixed in position, it was shown that under peculiar conditions the six axes would 
become insufficient, being, in fact, equivalent to a smaller number, in which case 
they would be said to form a system in involution. Various constructions for re- 
presenting such and similar systems were stated, and the remarkable conclusion 
pa that the necessary and sufficient condition for three, four, five, or six lines 

eing thus mutually, as it were, implicated and involved consists in their lying in 
ruled surfaces of the first, second, third, and fourth orders respectively. The theory 
of involution originated with Prof. Mobius, by whom, however, it had been left in 
an imperfect condition. The author referred for further information on the subject 
to some recent notes by himself in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ of the Academy of 
Sciences of Paris, and to certain masterly geometrical investigations of M. Chasles 
and Mr. Cayley, to which these had given rise. 


ASTRONOMY. 


On the Almanac. By M. N. Avrmr. 


In this paper the author gave easy methods for finding, by a direct mental process, 
the fundamental points requisite in forming the almanac for any year. 


Remarks on Dr. Hincks’s Paper on the Acceleration of the Moon’s Mean Mo- 
tion as indicated by the Records of Ancient Eclipses, By the AstRoNOMER 


Royat. 

The author stated his unaltered conviction that the Tables of Hansen gave the 
date of the great solar eclipse which terminated the Lydian war, as all the most 
reliable records of antiquity fixed it, in the year 585 B.c. He said he must first 
recall to their remembrance some geographical facts, and he sketched on the 
‘board a rough plan of Asia Minor, Upper Asia, the Black Sea, and the Mediter- 
yanean, An impassable mountain barrier, which the ancients called Mount Taurus, 
stretches across between Asia Minor and Upper Asia, leaving only two passes at all 

racticable for an army: one to the north, along the shore of the Black Sea, cele- 
Frat for the well-known retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks, as chronicled by 
Xenophon, but so extremely difficult that only one army besides had ever traversed 
it; the other to the south-east of Asia Minor, through which, all the circumstances 
rendered it highly probable, the invading Assyrian army entered Asia Minor, as it 
was certain the army of Alexander.the Great passed through it in the opposite 
direction when he invaded Syria, Egypt, and Upper Asia; and every other recorded 
march between Asia Minor and Upper Asia had been made through the same pass. 
Now, in the line between this pass and the capital of Lydia it was nearly certain 
the decisive battle was fought, and calculation from the Tables showed that at the 
date assigned to the eclipse, commonly called the Eclipse of Thales, because pre- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13 


dicted by him, the centre of a total eclipse of the sun actually swept over this di- 
strict. The Astronomer Royal then explained how Thales was able, by the aid of 
the Saros, or period of 18 years 15 days and 8 hours, to predict the eclipse; and 
then, if the previously-observed eclipse at the beginning of this cycle occurred in 
the momming (which agrees with calculation), the odd 8 hours would ensure that 
this one would occur in the afternoon (which also agrees with calculation), and the 
eclipse might really be predicted, as was recorded. He then pointed out how cal- 

culation from the same Tables led us to the time and circumstances of the eclipse 
of Agathocles, when the Grecian fleet escaped out of the harbour of Syracuse ; also 
to the darkness, which, no doubt, was an eclipse, which was stated to have taken 
place when the Persian army entered Larissa or Nimrud. 


On the Resistance of the Ether to the Comets and Planets, and on the Rotation 
of the latter. By J. 8. Sruarr Grennie, M.A. 


This paper was an application to the motions of the comets and planets of the 
following theorem, on the hypothesis, favoured or adopted by Encke and Ponté- 
coulant, of a medium whose resistance is inversely as the square of the distance from 
the sun. According as the resultant of the resistance to a revolving and rotating 
body passes or not through the centre of gravity, will it affect the revolution or the 
rotation of the body. 


Some Considerations on M. Haidinger’s Communication on the Origin and 
Fall of Aérolites. By R. P. Gree, F.GS. 


M. Haidinger and Dr. Laurence Smith differ in their opinion as to the cause and 
origin of the blackish-coloured crust observed in almost all meteoric stones; the latter 
conceives that they were thus coated previous to their entering the confines of the 
earth’s atmosphere ; the former much more reasonably alleges that it has been caused 
by simple superficial fusion after the meteorite has entered the atmosphere, either 
by resistance to the air causing heat, or by the superheated air surrounding the 
stony matter of the fireball itself. Dr. Smith seems to have been misled by 
circumstances presented on the fall of some very large stones in Ohio, May 1, 1860, 
which evidently at the time of their fall could not have been very hot. But he 
seems to have overlooked the fact stated by Haidinger, that in large stones (espe- 
cially) the internal parts must affect the temperature of interplanetary space, and 
tend almost instantaneously to efface the very superficial heat caused by the sudden 
fusing of their exterior. 

_ M. Haidinger and Dr. Smith both agree in thinking that meteorites enter our 
atmosphere more commonly in groups or “flocks” of small fragments, than as a 
single and larger mass. This seems tome opposed both to fact and probability. In 
the case of the celebrated fall of meteoric stones at L’Aigle in Normandy, in 1803, 
April 26, though it is quite true that nearly 3000 stones fell (the major number not 
larger than walnuts, and the largest only seventeen pounds), yet we must bear in 
mind that but one single fireball was seen previously to the bursting and fall of the 
meteorite. The stones presented irregular shapes, chiefly angular, with the edges 
slightly rounded, and all similarly covered with a crust. Surely it is more natural 
to conceive that one large fragment was by explosion and unequal heating broken 
a into many smaller ones. Moreover, were individual fireballs to contain within 
themselves numerous small stones, would it not rather militate against M. Haid- 
inger’s theory, since the opposing air would then pass between them like a sieve, 
and the whole notion of the head of the meteorite forcing up before it the film of air 
that is to curl up behind (to contain the vacuum which on the collapse of the fire- 
ball is to cause the noise), would have to be abandoned as untenable. 
_ M. Haidinger’s idea that the noise or report is caused by the collapse of the 
vacuum carried forward in the rear of the fireball deserves attentive consideration, 
and much might be said in favour of it as well as against it. Besides the possibility 
of the noise being due to the discharge of electricity, Dr. Smith likewise considers 
the noise is not caused by the bursting of a solid, but rather by concussion in the 
atmosphere arising from the rapid motion of the body through it*. Mr. Benjamin 


* But, then, why should we not hear the noise produced by the simple passage of any 


14 REPORT—1861. 


Marsh, in his able notice of the great daylight meteor in the United States, No- 
vember 15, 1859, affirms, however, that the sound following the bursting of that 
meteor “was explosive, and not caused by the falling in of the air after the meteor, 
as in the latter case it must have been continuous and interrupted ; but the testimony 
of Dr. Beesley and others shows that it ceased entirely and then began again. Sup- 
pose the meteor to have been a stony mass, we may perhaps consider the explosion 
to have consisted of a series of decrepitations caused by the sudden expansion and 
heating of the surface. At the forward end these explosions would take place under 
great pressure, Which may account for the loudness of the sound.” Again, “the 
explosions were very numerous, the whole occupying only half a second of time ; 
but the individual sounds were distinguishable because of the different distances 
they had to travel to reach the ear; the whole duration of the sound extending in 
reality over a minute.” 

Though I am inclined to agree to a great extent with Mr. Marsh respecting the 
cause and effects of the sound being caused by a series of decrepitations taking place, 
under pressure of the resisting atmosphere, yet that would hardly explain the sud- 
den disruption and disappearance of fireballs, actually occurring in the majority of 
cases; it would be too gradual a breaking up to accord altogether with facts, 

One obstacle in the way of a satisfactory solution arises from the difficulty of 
ascertaining the real size of an aérolitic fireball, which at the distance of 40 miles 
or more may appear as large as the moon; for it has been proved that a very small 
body, such as a small stone, when in a state of powerful incandescence, appears 
much larger than it really is; e. g., Dr. Smith has himself shown that a piece of 
lime less than half an inch in diameter, in the flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, 
has, in a clear evening, appeared at the distance of half a mile to present an appa- 
rent diameter equal to twice that ofthe moon! On the other hand, while this fact 
seems to afford us facilities for a simple solution, it may still be quite possible that 
the stony matter is but a nucleus inside a larger envelope of highly compressed and 
heated air, containing likewise, as Haidinger supposes and explains, the vacuum, 
which subsequently collapses with a loud report. 

It may be here mentioned, that occasionally large meteors (evidently aérolitic) 
have been seen to divide into two nearly equal portions (a loud detonation follow- 
ing some minutes afterwards), and that both have then passed off again into space 
without other apparent change*. 

It is also equally certain that no noise is heard unless a large fireball actually 
bursts into two or more considerable portions ; and that the principal noise is cer- 
tainly the direct result of this rupture. How such violent noises and atmospheric 
concussions as take place are produced and also heard and felt on the surface of 
the earth is strange, and as yet not fully understood: the height at which fireballs 
thus burst varies from 15 to 40 miles. ‘The cases where stones have fallen from fire- 
balls without noise are very rare indeed. 

Dr. Laurence Smith considers the ight emitted by fireballs does not arise from 
mere incandescence, but is caused by electricity and other causes. M. Haidinger 
speaks of air heated to whiteness. There must, however, be a certain amount of 
light arising from the incandescence of solid matter, judging from the fused crusts 
of all aérolites, and from the fact of some meteorites, especially won ones, being 
Imown to fall red-hot; but that at heights of from 20 to 40 or even 100 miles, 
where the supply of oxygen must be inconceivably small, part of the light may be 
owing to a development of electricity, seems highly probable. 


large meteor? No noise is ever heard unless the entire fireball is ruptured or flies to pieces. 
Besides, at elevations of 30 or 40 miles the air would be too rarefied to produce much noise 
from simply rushing into the space left in the wake of the meteorite. 

* As was the case with the celebrated meteors of August 18, 1783, in England, and that 
of July 20, 1860, in North America; which being the fact, goes against M. Haidinger’s 
theory of incandescent air enclosing a vacuum in the rear of the main fireball; for the 
bursting would, in the cases just cited, probably have destroyed, at least temporarily, their 
subsequent visible existence. In these two cases it seems most reasonable to suppose that 
a large stone (several feet in diameter), while in a state of high superficial incandescence, 
“broke” into two parts with a loud crack or report, the sound of which, under the very 
great poe caused by resistance to the atmosphere, would be greatly magnified or in- 
creased. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15 


In briefly alluding to the origin of meteorites, I consider it now almost univer- 
sally admitted by the highest authorities, that, mineralogically speaking, aérolites 
falling to the earth are merely fragments of larger rocks, some of which may be 
considered to be strictly volcanic: whether stone or iron, they enter our atmosphere 
as irregular-shaped fragments, which may again become broken into smaller frag- 
ments before reaching the surface of the earth. In explaining the original or 
“nascent” state of meteoric matter as he does, M. Haidinger is simply proposing 
a new theory to account for the original condition of planetary matter and its con- 
solidation; and whether that was fluid or gaseous, or pulverwlent, may perhaps be 
a step too remote for the present state of aérolitic investigation; though whether 
their present condition will throw additional light on the physical history of our 
own earth, or the reverse, I am not prepared at present to say. The idea that 
meteoric stones are fragments of a larger and broken-up mass of planetary matter, 
itself originally formed, as I understand it, by the external consolidation, by gravi- 
tation, of fine impalpable dust, in the form of an external crust (or series of con- 
centric crusts), internally contracting somewhat after the manner of septaria, and 
afterwards, from heat, chemical action, unequal expansion, bursting like a projectile 
filled with explosive material, is certainly a bold idea, and I only regret that M. 
Haidinger’s abstract of his original paper does not more fully give all his facts, 
comparisons, and arguments. To my own mind, however, the idea of an original 
state of fine planetary dust is not satisfactory ; for dust rather implies the notion of 
waste, or wear and tear of matter already previously consolidated. 

However originally formed, our meteoric planet may in the course of time be 
supposed from some cause or other to become broken up into fragments more or 
less dispersed, and occasionally, in the form of aérolites, to come into contact with 
our own earth. This may be all the more probable, when I add that I hear that 
M. Leverrier has quite recently come to the conclusion that there exists “a mass 
of matter equal to about ;};th of the mass of the earth revolving round the sun at 
very nearly the same mean distance as the earth, and which is probably split up 
into an immense number of small asteroids.” (See Monthly Register of Facts for 
August 1861.) 

The structure, composition, and specific gravity* of meteorites agree very closely 
with that of similar rocks on our own globe; and it may not be unreasonable to 
ee that the former are representatives of that mysterious planetary matter, of 
whose aggregate mass M. Leverrier has just informed us, and which in the course of 
ages, at the rate of several thousand tons annually, may eventually be all absorbed, 
as Reichenbach has suggested, by our own earth. 


An attempt to account for the Physical Condition and the Fall of Meteorites 
upon our Planet. By W. Harvrncrr, Hon. Mem. RS. L. § E., HF R.GS., 
F.F.GS., H.M. SS. of Cambridge, Manchester, Edinburgh, Truro, Sc. 


I beg leave to lay before the British Association for the Promotion of Science, 
the outline of some considerations which have been impressed on my mind during 
late studies in this most interesting department of physical science, and one which. 
is still involved in many difficulties and contradictions. 

In order to give a more general view of the present state of progress, I mention 
the names of some of the more active promoters of the science in our own days. 
The Imperial Collection at Vienna, which took the lead under y. Schreibers and 
Partsch, is still foremost under Dr. Hoérnes, but closely followed by Prof. Shepard 
in New Haven; Baron Reichenbach in Vienna; the British Museum under the en- 
lightened superintendence of Mr. Neyil Story Maskelyne; Prof. Gustavus Rose in 
Berlin; Prof. Wéhler in Gottingen; Mr. R. P. Greg in Manchester,—each pos- 
sessing from 100 to 163 meteorites with distinct dates of fall or discovery; to the 
labours of the above-named, add also those of Rammelsberg, Laurence Smith in 
Louisville, Kentucky, O. Buchner in Giessen. The recent remarkable falls of 
aérolites near New Concord, and in Guernsey County, Ohio, on the Ist of May, 
and near Dharamsala, Kangra, Punjab, on the 14th of July, both in 1860, the 


* The iron masses that occasionally fall are supposed by M. Haidinger very reasonably 
to have originally existed as veivs in the original meteoric planet. 


16 REPORT— 186]. 


large iron masses brought to light near Melbourne in Australia, and other facts 
full of interest, are keeping alive the attention of philosophers. 

Having joined my excellent friend Dr. Hérnes in the wish to enlarge our Impe- 
rial Collection of aérolites, I have from time to time had to give notice of several 
newly observed facts, and at each step to endeavour to account for some one or 
other peculiarity. As a result, it seemed to me that I had arrived at a pretty com- 
plete theory both of the circumstances attending the fall of meteorites, and the 
conditions of their consolidation before they entered our atmosphere. 

Explanations relative to the telluric fall of aérolites, though more known than 
formerly, are still not devoid of many difficulties; but these are far surpassed by 
the difficulties attending the cosmic question, which in fact amount to nothing less 
than a complete theory of the original formation of celestial bodies generally, at 
least of the two which come into contact with each other, the aérolite and our own 
planet. I beg leave to begin with some considerations on the first of these ques- 
tions. 

1. The Phenomena of the Fall of Aérolites.—There can be no doubt relatiye to the 
fact that the crust of aérolites, and their body or mass, are formed in two different 
ways, the one by superficial melting, the other by long-continued consolidation. 
The form of aérolites betrays them originally to have been fragments. This is 
most universally granted. In this direction Sir David Brewster and Humboldt 
gave their verdicts ; this also has been placed forward by Laurence Smith and Mr. 
Greg. ‘Viewed from most positions, the largest meteoric stone (that of 103 Ibs. 
weight, in Marietta College, Ohio, from the fall of May Ist, 1860) is angular, and 
appears to have been recently broken from a larger body.” Many other examples 
might be adduced. 

It_is well known that in some cases, as at Strakowitz, on November 28th, 1859, 
and Pegu, December 27th, 1827, the semblance of enlarging and approaching aéro- 
litic fireballs has been observed and Fie. 1 
described. In these cases the altitude Page 
and geographic orientation should be 
carefully inscribed in a diagram like 2: 
fig. 1, in order to be able, by comparison 
with the exact time of hour, day, and 
year, to find the region from whence ¢9° 
they travelled to meet our earth. AB 
(fig. 1) would be the track of a meteor 
arriving from an altitude of 75° in the 
N.N.E., and exploding or extinguished 
at an altitude of about 40°, while C D 
might denote a meteor that seemed to 
travel horizontally from 45° N.E. to 45° 4. 
S.E., its true course being from N. to §., 
but visible from the side. Observations from several distinct places, when combined 
together, will allow the real track to be ascertained with considerable accuracy. 
This was finely exemplified in the Ohio fall of May 1, and in the grand meteor of 
July 20th, 1860, of Elmira, Long Island, and other places in the United States. 

Viewed from a distance, there is an impression on the eye of a fireball, some- 
times more or less lengthened, or ending in a sharp pointed tail, and moving with 
amazing velocity. When viewed very near, aérolites have been seen to fall down 
like any other stone, and with no greater velocity. 

The velocity of meteors varies from 20 to upwards of 140 miles (4 to 233 Ger- 
man miles), according to joint observations of Julius Schmidt at Bonn (now at 
Athens), Heis at Aix la Chapelle, and Houzeau at Mons, as recorded in Humboldt’s 
‘Cosmos.’ This wonderful velocity may be compared with that of phenomena 
familiar to us upon our own planet. Commander M. F. Maury, U.S., quotes from 
Sir John Herschel’s article “ Meteorology” in the ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica,’ 1857, 
the velocity of 92 English miles in an hour for a “ Devastating Hurricane,” or only 
154-9 feet in one second of time, with a horizontal pressure of 37-9 Ibs. to a square 
foot. The following data are given in Rouse’s Anemometric Tables in the Report 
of the Tenth Meeting of the British Association, &c., at Southampton, in Septem- 
ber 1846, (London, 1847, p. 344) :— 


TRANSAOTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17 


Velocity of the wind. Broaniselin the 


"English miles in | English feet in foot in Ibs. | Character of wind 
English miles in English feet in | *2"2"°. ; : 
one hour. one second, avoirdupois. 


60 88-02 17-715 Great storm. 
80 117:36 31-490 Hurricane. 
100 146-70 4-000). Jeers: Teer 
ricane, 
913 to 916 1340-00 One atmosphere. 


But the pressure of the orp ae is equal to 32 feet of water, of the weight of 
49-71 lbs. avoirdupois; for 1 cubic foot is equal to 1590-7 Ibs., or 42 times the 
pressure on one square foot of a destructive hurricane. From other dataI inferred 
the pressure 55 times the pressure of a devastating hurricane, Evidently these 
numbers are all approximations. It may be observed here, that it is this pressure 
of the atmosphere which enables it to remain in its undisturbed state, while the 
rate of movement of a point in the equator, by rotation, is no less than 1340 feet 
in one second of time. 

When a fragment of rock enters the atmosphere with the great velocity above 
mentioned, the particles of air, though remote from each other at the height where 
the fragment moves, and at the low temperature of cosmic space (some 100° 
Centigr. below the freezing-point of water), will be carried along forcibly, without 
the possibility of giving way or flowing off laterally, the rapidity of motion being 
too excessive. The air will unavoidably be compressed, and both heat, electricity, 
and light must be developed. A centre of expansion must be generated exactly 
in front of and close to the moving fragment, and the compressed air, heated to 
whiteness, will be forced out on all sides perpendicularly to the direction of the 
track of the meteor. But as the latter still advances, the pressure of the opposing 
atmosphere upon the white-hot shining disc will round it off, so as to pe the 
oval fireball as it appears to our eye. 

I beg leave to refer to the diagram, fig. 2—the meteor moving from A to B, the 


Fig. 2. 


centre of expansion forming at C, the white-hot air being forced out perpendicularly 
in the direction of DD, and rounded off again in its course at EE to meet at A, 
enclosing of course a perfect vacuum. Now, on the earth’s surface one square foot 
of “destructive hurricane ” will produce a pressure of 37:9 lbs., while it travels at 
the rate of 134-9 feet in one second of time. One square foot of a meteor supposed 
to travel at the rate of 35 miles, or of 35 times 5280 feet, in the same second of time 
(a distance 1370 times greater than the former), may be considered to exert a 

ressure of 51,923 lbs., or of more than thirty-two atmospheres. These amazing, 

ough of course only approximate, numbers will certainly give sufficient cause for 
an increase in the temperature and development of light. This construction, I be- 
lieve, will not be considered inconsistent with observations, or contradictory to 
well-lnown piel facts. It accounts in particular for the fact that from fireballs 
of very considerable magnitude, stony or iron specimens are obtained of very dimi- 
nutive size and weight. The heat evolved by compression is sufficient to melt the 
“agen From some peculiarities visible on the surface of aérolites—the well- 


18 REPORT—1861,. 


known pits, roughness or smoothness, rounded and bulging-out edges—it may be 
inferred that some of the single stones connected with a fall of a swarm or 
shower, or the greater number of them, have not been detached from a larger 
body, but that they have entered the atmosphere unconnected with any other, and 
have always kept one position, the fore part and sides being uniformly rough, while 
the back part, t ough smoother, is covered with depressions, showing what has been 
called the “ pitted” surface of meteorites, 


Fig. 3. 


The compression of the air of the atmosphere, and the centre of expansion 
formed, will not only give the rise in temperature, produce light, and form a ball, 
but it must also impart a rotatory movement, and at last arrest the solid matter 
(stone or iron) in its course. The cosmic portion of its track, still continuing at A, 
fig. 3, when the meteorite M enters the atmosphere, is closed at C, and from thence 
it drops simply to the ground at D, in its ¢ellwric track, like any other heavy body, 
gravitating only towards our planet. Particles scaling off at a point B may ap- 
pear like sparks to us, while the surface may easily be covered again by a new but 
thinner crust, before the stone reaches the point C. Stones falling to the earth in 
this way appear black in the air, from the comparative slowness of movement, 
several of them together sometimes resembling “a flock of birds.” No fireball is 
seen where the aérolitic bodies themselves can be distinguished, as is stated, among 
other falls, in that of New Concord, Ohio, of May 1, 1860. 

During the time of the downfall and immediately after it, the temperature of 
the crust, which must have been sufficiently high to melt it, again meets the low 
temperature of the interior of the aérolite, which must have been the same in the 
larger aérolite as that of cosmic space. It is said that large masses when taken up 
aoe to the touch “no warmer than if they had lain on the ground exposed to 
the sun’s rays.” This is the expression used by Prof. Laurence Smith, when 
speaking of the fall of New Concord and of Guernsey County on the 1st of May, 
1860. The mass of iron which fell, January 1844, in the Caritas Paso, in Corrientes 
(R. P. Greg, Philosophical Magazine for July 1855), came down, however, most 
intensely heated, which prevented a near approach to it, even some hours after its 
fall. But this may also be accounted for by the greater conducting power of iron 
for heat. On the other hand, fragments of stone taken up, e. g., after the fall of 
Dhurmsala or Dharmsala, Kangra, Punjab, on July 14, 1860, were found so intensely 
cold, that the natives who took up some of them, “before they had held them in 
their hands half a minute, it is said, had to drop them, owing to the intensity of 
cold, which quite benumbed their fingers.” No description relative to the matter 
of which these Dharmsala stones consist has as yet been published. 

One very peculiar feature attending in most instances the fall of meteorites, is the 
phenomenon of “terrific bursting noise,” of “reports most terrible, filling the 
neighbourhood with awe,” frequently “several of them following each other ;” as 
also that characteristic “rumbling ” which follows the main reports, or a sequel of 
peals of musketry, and sometimes hissing sounds. I should venture to propose a 
solution dependent simply on the well-known physical fact, that sound more or 
less loud may be produced from the mere suddenly filling up of an empty space or 
yacuum with air. I am happy to say that I am supported in this supposition by 
Prof. Laurence Smith, who ee quite independently, came to the same result, 
These reports, or succession of several reports, are called “ explosions,” and, gene- 
rally speaking, the fireballs at the same time disappear. But certainly it is not 
such an explosion as we might expect from a projectile filled with gunpowder. On; 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19 


the contrary, when the meteor considered above is arrested by the atmosphere, 
then the air rushing in from all sides would fill up the vacuum, till then sur- 
rounded by the film of incandescent air emanating from the centre of expansion 
in front of the advancing fireballs. 

- [believe I am safe in assuming the following deductions as well explained :— 

1. The incandescent ball is produced by the compression of the atmospheric air. 

2. The sounds, reports, and rumblings are produced by the concussion of the air 
in the vacuum of the fireball when arrested. 

3. Showers of aérolites in the generality of cases are produced by groups of 
meteorites entering our atmosphere together. There may be in some cases larger 
masses flying to pieces by rotation. 

4. The crust is produced by the melting of the superficial portion of the frag- 
ments. The high temperature produced is lowered immediately after the begin- 
ning of the real fall by the intense cold of the interior. 

1 have enumerated these points to show the concordance in some, and the differ- 
ence of opinion in others, of those enumerated by Prof, Laurence Smith in Silli- 
man’s American Journal, vol. xxxi. January 1861, p. 98. 

II. Origin of the rocky substance of Aérolites—Having to account for a fragment 
of rock broken off from its original repository and traversing cosmic space by itself, 
the question is simply to give, as a first step, an outline of the possible consolidation 
of matter in its most attenuated condition into a solid body, and then to give a plau- 
sible cause why it may be shattered to pieces. The theories of the present day, 
that of La Place at the head of them, are familiar to philosophers. All of them 
must assume cosmic matter in the finest state of dust to begin with. But the as- 
sumption of a temperature so high as to contain only one thirteen-millionth part 
of a grain (0:000013) in a cube of space, the side of which is of the length of one 
German mile, is far too gratuitous, as well as inconsistent with our knowledge of 
the physical properties of matter. We know cosmic space to be intensely cold. 
For thousands of years there has been no change experienced relative to the tem- 
perature of the earth’s surface. 

It may be a question whether it may not be possible for heat to be generated 
even in the cold of cosmic space, by the simple action of gravitation upon the par- 
ticles of attenuated matter, in their most nascent state. This will lead to conse- 
quences closely agreeing with the views of De la Rive, Sir Charles Lyell and others, 
as to the production of the central heat of our planet, as quoted by Prof. Naumann 
in his treatise on Geology, page 63. Now we may arrange all sorts of meteoric 
yocks in an uninterrupted series, beginning with the most crystalline state that 
many meteorites and meteoric irons frequently exhibit, and following them up to 
seyeral of those marbled composite specimens, such as those of Parnallee, Breme- 
yorde and others, which bear the closest resemblance to our tufaceous deposits, but 
in which no water has been at work. I have ventured to propose for this charac- 
teristic structure the expression of “Meteoritic Tufa.”” And even beyond that, 
there are still more tender and fragile specimens, approaching to mere aggregations 
of parece or dust, like the one of the fall at Alais, March 15, 1806, or of Cold 
Bokkeyeld of October 13, 1838. It is certainly a fair induction to suppose the more 

solid and crystalline of these rocks to have been formed out of the consolidation of 
_ matter originally in a state of dust, or nascent. 

If we conceive the diagram, fig. 4 (taken from Dr. Kopp’s article, “ Physik und 

Meteorologie,” in the Badeker publication on Natural 
Science, Die gesammten Naturwissenschaften), to repre- 
sent a large globe of cosmic matter in the state of the 
_ finest impalpable dust in its most “nascent state,” every 

oint situated like A will be attracted with equal force 

_ by other points B and D similarly situated, so that its 

total direction will tend towards the centre C. Near the 

centre, the attraction towards it will not be nearly so 

owerful; in the centre itself gravitation will have no 

definite direction at all, the particles of matter being 

- Solicited by attraction in each of the diverging directions. 

- Consolidation then will depend upon the pressure coming 
- into play from the surface stratum only, 


Fig. 4. 


20 REPORT—1861. 


As a very nearly analogous case, I may turn to the well-known “Septaria ” con- 
eretions, consisting chiefly of carbonate of iron or clay iron ore, compressed from 
without and yielding to pressure, till the outward stratum has assumed so much of 
consistency that it will act like an arch or vault against further pressure, while the 
inside still remains in a softer state, which, however, is afterwards lost by contrac- 
tion of the main substance, while in the fissures carbonates of lime and magnesia, 
or even iron pyrites, are deposited. The diagram (fig. 5) is taken by stereotype from 
a specimen in the Imperial Mineralogical Museum of Vienna. 


Fig. 5. 


In the very same manner a solid crust or shell may be the result of pressure from 
without, on the stratum most distant from the centre, in a large globe of cosmic 
matter. Pressure will elicit electric action, chemical action will ensue, and heat 
and light be disengaged, sufficient to form all those combinations and compound 
rocks, as they come now within our reach in aérolites, or meteoric stones and irons; 
some of them in the shape of massive rocks of tufaceous structure, others becomin 

anular in composition, some traversed by veins, others (and particularly irons 

aving the character of being the products of veins containing fragments or im- 
bedded crystals, as of olivine or chromite. 

Pressure on the surface depends upon the magnitude of the globe itself: while a 
portion of matter weighing one pound upon our earth will press upon the surface 
of it with the effect appertaining to one pound, it will only press with the effect of 
2;,ths of one pound upon the surface of the moon, but with that of 283 pounds upon 
that of the sun. The same pressure which is produced in our planet by a crust of 
25 miles, upon the moon will only be produced by a crust of 1623 miles; upon the 
sun by a crust of only }§ths of a mile, or of only 4656 feet. Heat is then the result 
of pressure. I may be permitted to quote here a passage from the ‘ Abstracts of the 
Proceedings of the Geological Society of London,’ No. 24, January 5, 1859, in 
which Prof. Ramsay, communicating a paper by Mr. T. Sterry Hunt, states, “The 
author accepts the views of Babbage and’ Herschel as to the internal heat of the 
earth rising through the stratified deposits, on account of the superficial accumula 
tion of sediments, metamorphosing the rocks submitted to its action, causing earth- 
quakes and volcanic irruptions by the evolution of gases and vapours from chemical 
reactions, and giving rise to disturbances of equilibrium over wide areas of elevation 
and subsidence,” e then have great authorities for the increase of heat by means 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21 


of increase of thickness of deposits. The same must certainly be allowed also at 
the very first, and when cosmic matter is in its most attenuated dust-like state. 

Pressure will take place only so long as there is no consolidation of matter. 
Solid matter presses upon its support, but is steady within itself. The gradual 
evolution of heat is confided to the hearth of pressure. What we observe of rising 
temperature as we descend is conducted heat from that hearth, where it is generated, 
and from which streams of lava are forced up and volcanic action is developed. 

Suppose now a complete solid shell of a very large globe to have been formed, 
and to be perfectly balanced, and sufficiently steady to withstand any further ap- 
proach towards the centre. But this shell is still filled with the original cosmic 
matter, which itself may go on by a similar process to form a new shell concentric 
to the former one, and developing heat again exactly as in the first instance. A 
new hearth of volcanic action is thus produced, while the original one becomes ex- 
tinct. Then the possibility arises, that within this confined space, heat and the 
expansion of gases might be brought to so high a degree of tension as to break the 
shell with an actual explosion, as with hollow projectiles filled with gunpowder, 
launching fragments of every size in all possible directions, to travel on for time 
unmeasurable through cosmic space. 

What is the reason of the great discrepancy in the density of the celestial bodies 
of our solar system? Does this depend only on the elementary substances of which 
they consist, in a manner analogous to our own earth; or is that difference founded, 
Bally at least, in the progress of their formation? We have the densities of 

ercury=6'71, of the Earth =5-44, of Mars=5:15, of Venus=5:02, of the Moon 
=3-37, of the Sun=1:37, of Jupiter=1-29, of Neptune=1-21, of Uranus=0°98, of 
Satumn=0°75. 

It is well known that Olbers first conceived the possibility of Ceres and Pallas 
being fragments of a former larger body. When the asteroids Juno and Vesta had 
been discovered, Lagrange* gave the numeric conditions of an exploding force under 
which it might be possible that an exploding planet would yield fragments to be- 
come comets, or, more properly speaking, to move in orbits of comets, direct or retro- 
grade, elliptic, parabolic, or when more violent into hyperbolic orbits, to leave our 
solar system altogether after the first perihelion. Now he found that at the di- 
stance of a hundred times the distance of the earth from the sun, an exploding force 
would suffice, giving an impulse only from twelve to fifteen times greater than the 
velocity of a cannon-ball—about 1400 feet in one second, which is about the same 
as the velocity of a point in the equator in the diurnal revolution of our earth.t 

Although some of the considerations may appear too bold and extravagant, yet 
I think I have nowhere supposed anything to take place which would not enter 
within the compass of well-known physical occurrences upon our own earth. I 
believed it my duty to collect together in a short sketch the considerations which 
had occurred to me, while I have for some time past had an opportunity of ex- 
amining some facts, and of reporting on others, concerning meteorites. 

I beg leave to lay them before the public, wishing they might induce the friends 
of scientific progress to take a still more lively interest both in observing facts and 
in collecting materials (by publishing the former and preserving the latter in the 
leading Museums) relative to these curious celestial bodies, in order to advance our 
ideas in these as yet comparatively obscure branches of science. 

Finally, I may be permitted to recapitulate the entire series of steps in the pro- 
gress of the formation of meteorites. 


I. Original Formation. 


1. The creation of matter—atoms of elements as they are familiar to us, in their 
nascent state. 


* Sur l’Origine des Cométes.—Connaissance des Tems pour l’an 1814, p. 211. 

t If it were assumed as a plausible hypothesis that heavenly bodies in the manner above 
alluded to might fly into pieces, having their fragments transformed into planets, asteroids, 
or aérolites, then one step further might bring in connexion with the same explosions also 
the origin of comets. The solid crust of the shell would supply more solid bodies, while 
the aérial portion and the finest dust-like residue, being isolated in cosmic space, but still. 
acted upon by gravitation (in so far as it would not disperse altogether, having also received: 
an impetus or launch in one direction), would assume the shape and nature of a comet! 


Pape REPORT—1861. 


2. Large globes are formed by rotation, consisting of cold cosmic dust, similar in’ 
shape, but not in matter, to those supposed by La Place’s theory, which are red-hot 
liquids. 

a Consolidation begins from the outermost stratum near the surface. Pressure 
within elicits electric and chemical action: heat is disengaged : new compounds are 
formed, gaseous, liquid and solid. 

4, A hollow shell of solid matter is generated, containing within it matter still 
in progress of consolidation, as exhibited to some extent by septaria. 

5. The difference of tension within and without the shell causes a real explosion, 
by which fragments are dispersed in cosmic or interplanetary space to traverse it 
in all directions. 


Il. Zhe arrival of Meteorites upon our Earth. 


1. A fragment in its course comes into contact with our globe. 

2. The fragment is arrested by the resistance of the atmospheric air, It may in 
many cases pounce directly upon the earth. 

3. Pressure on its passage through the atmosphere elicits light and heat, rotation 
ensues, and a melted crust is formed. 

4, The white-hot compressed air is spread out in the form of a fireball, closed up 
behind, the fragment enclosing a vacuum space. 

5. The cosmic course is at an end when the fragment has been arrested by the 


air. 
6. Light and heat are no longer generated: the ball will collapse with a loud 
report, or several following each other. 


7. The cosmic cold within the aérolite assists in reducing the heat of the melted 
crust. 


8. The meteorite falls down upon the earth like any other ponderous body, the 
hotter the better conducting material it consists of. 


On the Quantity of the Acceleration of the Moon’s Mean Motion, as indicated by 
the Records of certain Ancient Eclipses. By the Rev. Evwarv Hrncxs, D.D. 


The question which the author proposed to discuss was whether the acceleration 
of the moon’s mean motion relatively to the sun and stars was 12 or 13 seconds, 
multiplied by the square of the number of centuries from 1800, or only about two- 
thirds of that magnitude. The quantity assumed by M. Hansen in his lunar tables 
is 12-18; and the Astronomer Royal has given his opinion that this is somewhat 
too small. The question is not to be decided by theory. Professor Adams has 
shown that the quantity which would be produced by gravity is far less than this, 
and less than is certainly indicated by observation; and that, consequently, some 
other cause than gravity must have been in operation. Theory cannot determine 
what is due to this unknown cause; and Piaetets the quantity of the acceleration 
can be determined by observation alone. 

The observations on which the Astronomer Royal relied were solar eclipses, of 
which he believed that there were four, of which there were such authentic records 
as to determine with tolerable accuracy the quantity of the acceleration. He 
rejected the records of lunar eclipses, on account of the want of precision which 
there must be in the observations. In the present paper the author endeavoured 
to show that the four alleged eclipses of the sun, on which the Astronomer Royal 
relied, furnished no sufficient data for determining the acceleration; and that, on 
the other hand, there were at least two of the lunar eclipses recorded by Ptolemy 
which afforded means of determining the quantity of the acceleration with tolerable 
accuracy, and which, if the author’s calculations were correct, proved that it did 
not much exceed 9". 

The four eclipses of the sun on which the Astronomer Royal relied were that of 
Agathocles (—809, Aug. 14), as to the date of which there is no question, nor as to 
its totality where the fleet was; the latitude in which the fleet was, is however, 
within certain limits, an indeterminate quantity, as is the hour when the eclipse 
began. While therefore this eclipse affords conclusive evidence of the fact that 
the moon’s motion formerly was {oss than it is now, it proves nothing as to the 
question now discussed, whether the acceleration was about 9” or between 12” and 
13". It is admitted that the former supposition would satisfy the requirements o 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23° 


the record; and it is admitted that even 12” would be too great for these require- 
ments, unless the motion of the node were altered also. This.eclipse ought\there- 
fore, the author maintained, to be put out of the account. Whatever weight it 
had was, he said, on his side of the balance. It was the same with the eclipse of 
Thales (—584, May 28). Of this there were two records, real or supposed. There 

is one preserved by Theon, which certainly applied to it; and this is consistent 
with, if it do not render necessary, the supposition that the acceleration is overrated 
by Hansen. The other is the statement of Herodotus, that the eclipse which 

terminated the Lydian war was that which was predicted by Thales; in which case 

the eclipse must have been total in the eastern part of Asia Minor; and this it could 

not be if the acceleration were only 9". The author objected to this second record, 

and charged the Astronomer Royal with arguing in a vicious circle in respect to 

it. He inferred that the acceleration was so great as he makes it, because this is 

necessary to make the eclipse satisfy the statements of Herodotus; while in defiance 

of authentic chronology he makes the Lydian war to have terminated in 585 B.c., 

because the lunar tables, assuming the acceleration to be thus great, give a track 

of the shadow which would satisfy the condition of the eclipse which terminated 
the war. Dr. Hincks, on the contrary, maintained that if the acceleration were only 

about 9", either the eclipse of 610 B.c. or that of 603 B.c. might be made to satisfy 

the requirements of the eclipse which terminated the Lydian war; the motion of 
the node being suitably altered to a very moderate extent. The record of Theon 

respecting the eclipse of 585 B.c. is that Thales predicted that an eclipse of the 

sun would take place, and that accordingly there was an eclipse at the Hellespont. 

The author inferred from this that the eclipse was not visible in Greece, or at 

Miletus or Sardis; but that the shadow entered the north-western parts of Asia 
Minor a little before sunset, and left the earth before if reached the middle of the 

peninsula. This would be in accordance with his views as to the quantity of the 

acceleration. The third of the Astronomer Royal’s eclipses is the so-called eclipse 

of Larissa (—556, May 19). He assumes that a alot which was said to have 

obscured the sun when this city was taken by the Persians, was in fact the moon 

eclipsing him. The date of the transaction is not mentioned, nor the name of the 

king of Persia who took the city. The Astronomer Royal has put together a 

number of arbitrary hypotheses, all of which are required to be true in order that 

his conclusion should stand. The only fact to which he popes is that if Hansen’s 

tables were perfectly correct, the centre of the moon’s shadow, which was very 
narrow, would in that eclipse pass over Larissa. If, however, the tables were 
coreg correct, as he admits himself, the eclipse of Agathocles would not have 

een total in any possible position of his fleet. He is therefore obliged to 

suppose that the tables required to be corrected both as to the acceleration, which 
must be increased 0'-8, and as to the motion of the node; and that in the eclipse 

of Larissa these two corrections exactly neutralized one another! The author of 
the ‘paper considered this to be almost infinitely improbable, the breadth of the 
shadow being so small as it was. The remaining eclipse of the Astronomer Royal 
was the so-called eclipse of Stiklastad. On the 31st of August, 1030, being Monday, 
there was a total eclipse of the sun in Norway; and Professor Hansteen pretends 
that this eclipse caused the darkness which is said to have been obseryed when 
the saint-king Olaf was killed in the battle of Stiklastad. But the chronicler 
expressly states that this battle took place on Wednesday, the 29th of July, a 
three ‘gt before the eclipse. The week-day is particularly noticed, as well as the 
month-date; and moreover it appears from the same chronicle that the eclipse 
in the Orkney Islands, which took place on the 5th of August, 1263, was after the 
day observed as St. Olaf’s day, which was the day of the battle in which he was 
killed. From this it is quite manifest that this eclipse is a figment of the Danish 
Professor, and that no weight whatever should be allowed to any evidence that it 
is supposed to furnish. 

Having disposed of these four solar eclipses, not one of which, as the author 
contended, offers any reliable evidence that the moon’s acceleration exceeded 9” 
he proceeded to consider some lunar eclipses, observed at Babylon, the records of 
which were preserved by Ptolemy. The Astronomer Royal had not taken these 
into account; but the author maintained that the true quantity of the acceleration 
could be computed from them with much greater accuracy than from the records 


24. REPORT—1861. 


of the solar eclipses. He relied on the two eclipses of the year —719. In that of 
March 8, it is recorded that the middle of the eclipse took place at Babylonian 
midnight. As we know from the astronomical tablets found by Mr. Layard that 
the Babylonians measured the time from ape noon by clepsydras, which ran 
out in two hours, the time of midnight, being at the end of the sixth kazb, or 
running out of the clepsydra, would be Imown with great precision, so that an 
error of above a few minutes in the time of the middle of the eclipse is inadmissible. 
An error of twelve minutes can scarcely be supposed possible. This, however, would 
represent an errorof about325" in the mean elongation, or about0"-57in the coefficient 
of the acceleration; while no error which we can suppose possible in the motion of 
the node would sensibly affect the result. It appears from this, that the record of 
this eclipse enables us to determine the quantity of the acceleration with far more 
accuracy than do any of the records of solar eclipses. Dr. Hincks has calculated 
the circumstances of this eclipse from Hansen’s tables; and without laying much 
stress on his calculations, which required to be verified, he would state that the 
middle of the eclipse took place about 11 p.m. Babylonian time, and that the 
moon must have been completely out of the shadow before midnight. The other 
eclipse was on the Ist of September; and it is recorded that it began after the moon 
had risen. This statement is one about which a mistake would be impossible. 
And yet, according to the author’s calculation from Hansen’s tables, the moon was 
more than two digits eclipsed when she rose at Babylon. But this is not all. He 
argued that Ptolemy’s reasoning respecting this eclipse implied that his records 
stated that the eclipse did not commence till some time, probably half an hour, 
after the moon had risen. The sun, he says, set at seven; consequently the eclipse 
began at half-past seven, Babylonian time. If then the author's calculation be 
correct, there is an error of more than an hour in the time when this eclipse 
commenced, which of course must be occasioned by Hansen’s having overrated the 
acceleration. The author concluded by saying that he did not expect or wish that 
his calculations should be held conclusive; but he wished that others should make 


the calculations, and that these important data should not be ignored, as they had 
hitherto been. 


Cases of Planetary Instability indicated by the appearance of Temporary 
Stars. By Dantet VaueuHan. 


In a paper which I sent to the British Association four years ago, I ascribed the 
perpetuity of the sun’s light to the combustion of ether collected from space by his 
attraction, and compressed at his surface to a density sufficiently great for the play 
of chemical forces. I showed that the brilliancy of luminous meteors is the neces- 
sary consequence of the great Hpi which rapidly moving bodies impart to the 
envelope of this luciferous fluid belonging to the earth, and that the dormant pho- 
tospheres which it forms for dark central bodies, when traversed by worlds in the 
last stage of existence, must give birth to a vast illumination, exhibiting to us the 
peculiar characters of the temporary stars. The main results of my subsequent re- 
searches on the subject have been published in the ‘ London, Edinburgh, and Dublin 
Philosophical Magazine ;’ and in two communications which appeared in the Num- 
bers a 1860, and April 1861, the more obvious cases of the instability of 
satellites from the reduced size of their orbits have been investigated, partly with 
a view of tracing the course of great meteoric displays in the heavens. In these 
I have supposed the central orb vastly superior to its attendant in mass and dimen- 
sions ; but on examining the consequences which must ensue when the dispropor- 
tion between both bodies is not so great, we render more satisfactory the explana- 
tion of temporary stars, without exceeding the limits of reasonable probability in 
estimating the number of dark systems in our universe. 

In these investigations the hypothesis of solidity, in the sense usually received, 
should be abandoned, In very close proximity to a great central sphere, a satellite 
as large as the earth could not be considered unyielding, though composed of the 
strongest materials known; nor could it deviate much from the form which it might 
assume if reduced to a state of fluidity. In a very small orbit also, the disturbing 
forces operating on the yielding mass would have the ultimate effect of bringing 
the same point of its surface into perpetual conjunction with the primary planet. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25 


In the absence of any arrangement for this purpose, the action of the primary on 
the protuberant solid or liquid matter which swells by its enormous tidal force on 
the satellite, must constantly accelerate or retard the rotation of the latter, until it 
is caused to keep exact trace with the orbital movement. Whilst the synchronism 
confines the great tide-wave to a limited range, the tendency of the shortest dia- 
meter to become the axis of rotation will gradually bring the equator into a coin- 
cidence with the plane of the orbit ; and both causes would have the ultimate effect 
of giving the body a permanent elongation at the same localities. If the eccentri- 
city of the orbit were then sufficiently great to occasion high tides on its seas or 
oscillation in its solid matter, the resulting deviation from a sphere will not reach 
its highest limit until some time after the central disturbance became most ener- 
getic, while a corresponding interval must elapse between the periods when the 
ellipticity and the disturbing power sink to the lowest degree. It will readily 
appear that such changes in the form of the satellite must cause it to feel a greater 
amount of attractive force while retiring from the primary than while approaching 
it; and a constant diminution of the eccentricity of the orbit is an inevitable con- 
sequence. Notwithstanding the small size of the four nearest moons of Saturn, it 
is not impossible that commotions on their surface may serve, in this way, to check 
the increase of eccentricity which might be expected to arise from the relation in 
their periods of revolution, 

As a yery large satellite, revolving within the range of a great central disturb- 
ance, must ultimately have its diurnal motion, the position of its axis, and the form 
of its orbit arranged in the peculiar manner necessary for keeping the same point of 
its surface always directed to the centre of the primary, the statical condition which 
the equilibrium of its parts assumes, presents a more easy subject for accurate scien- 
tific inquiry. In the April Number of the ‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ I have shown 
that a homogeneous fluid satellite, whose size is very small compared with that of 
its orbit, would find repose in a form varying little from an ellipsoid, and that the 
intensity of gravity on its surface wodlld Wel alincst exactly proportional to the nor- 
mal corresponding to each locality. It was also proved te the investigation, that 
the equilibrium is not possible when more than 2 of the attraction along the major 
axis is neutralized by the centrifugal force and the disturbance emanating from the 
primary. In a former article, the radius of the smallest circular orbit in which the 


3 
planetary form could be preserved was estimated as nearly equal to 2-48 R =, 


R being the radius of the primary, D its density, and d the density of the satellite. 

To cases of instability which may occur at any remote period in the systems of 
Jupiter and Saturn, these results would apply, with tolerable accuracy, even without 
corrections for the variable density of the bodies in their different parts. But were 
the central and the subordinate world in the same ratio as the earth and moon 
with respect to mass and volume, while their linear dimensions were ten times as 

eat, the range of dangerous proximity would be a little wider than my estimate 
indicates, and the consequences near the confines of this dangerous domain would 
be much modified. The form of the lesser body would deviate considerably from 
a true ellipsoid; the disturbing forces must be very unequal at both extremities of 
the longest diameter ; and the equilibrium cannot be equally secure at both locali- 
ties. If, therefore, so large a satellite were introduced into the region of instability 
by the resistance of a space-pervading medium, the dismemberment would be con- 
fined to the side turned to the primary, and it would commence before weight en- 
tirely disappeared at any part of the surface. If it were composed of a fluid of 
uniform density, a reduction of even less than sixty per cent. in the attraction at the 
point nearest to the central orb would give rise to a movement towards this point, 
and cause it to assume such a character that it must be accelerated instead of being 
checked by the resulting change of form. A body of small size, in such cireum- 
stances, must soon have its whole contents scattered into space, from its two pro- 
minent extremities. In the present case, where the matter is pressed out only at 
the place next the primary, the enlargement which necessarily occurs in the orbit 
of the remaining mass lessens the disturbance, and brings the dismembering action 
to aclose. The advantages for stability would also increase, as the large portion 
of the satellite launched into space retired far enough to make its attraction inap- 
preciable. Accordingly a very large member of a dark system must close its mun- 


26 REPORT—1861. 


dane career, not by a single dilapidation of its Aiea structure, but by a limited 
number of paroxysmal convulsions, each hurling forth an immense quantity of 
matter, with peculiarly favourable conditions for sweeping close to the central 
sphere, and forming a host of blazing meteors to encircle his surface. 

~ Investigations on the effect of the departing mass in causing instability by its 
attraction, and of the opposite tendency of the expansion of the orbit, have led me 
is 2 V denoting the 
volume of the satellite, A its longest semidiameter, and C a constant, which may 
be taken 8000 in case of a homogeneous fluid, but somewhat less when the body is 
solid. The influence of the opposing forces in limiting the range of the great rup- 
ture will diminish the loss which this expression would assign to a very large dis- 
membering body. From the relative magnitudes of the earth and the moon, and 
the relation observed between the members of physically double stars, it would not 
be unreasonable to expect that central spheres 200,000 or 300,000 miles in dia- 
meter may have worlds capable of exhibiting, during their last stage of existence, 
a few hundred of these terrific scenes, and sending forth on many of them more 
meteorites than could be formed from our entire globe. Of the periods intervening 
between each, no precise estimate can be given, but it must doubtless comprise 
many centuries. On the first of these awful events, the meteoric light must be 
confined to the vicinity of the plane in which the attendant moved, and from which 
the fragments can deviate little ; but these will soon form a ring around the primary, 
and make the luciferous action disappear. The mass launched forth on every sub- 
sequent paroxysm must move with terrific speed through the annular field of dis- 
connected matter, scattering it in every direction, and causing it to extend the me- 
teoric exhibitions over a much greater part of the surface of the central orb. 

The pressure imparted to a fluid by a moving body is proportional to the cube of 
the velocity, though the resistance to motion, ‘being equal to the difference of the 
pressure on two opposite sides, varies according to a different law. Now, if attrac- 
tion causes the space-pervading ether to become more dense in the vicinity of the 
earth’s surface, the excess of density must be increased almost a thousand-fold by 
the pressure of a meteorite passing through this ethereal atmosphere with the 
greatest velocity with which a body moving in an ellipse around is sun can ap- 
proach the earth. Regarding meteors as luminous in consequence of this compari- 
son, it is evident that they must display their light with the utmost splendour, and 
at the greatest elevations, on large spheres which exert the most powerful attrac- 
tion on their surfaces. From the imperfect accounts which I have seen of Mr. 
Harrington’s observations on September Ist, 1859, I have concluded that the meteors 
which he saw falling to the solar disc must have been self-luminous about one 
hundred thousand miles above the boundary of the great ocean of flame. When 
we consider the extraordinary brilliancy often attending the descent of these bodies 
to the earth, and reject the extravagant idea of gigantic meteorites supposed to 
escape into space after grazing or striking our atmosphere, we find additional proofs 
of the existence of dormant photospheres around obscure celestial orbs, and of the 
relation between objects so disproportionate in size es a shooting and a temporary 
star. 


to estimate the amount separated by each catastrophe at 


Puysics. 


On the Application of the Principle of the Conservation of Force to the mechanical 
explanation of the Correlation of Forces. By J. 8.Srvuanr Grenntie, M.A. 


The author’s chief object was to show that the principle of the conservation 
of force, with the facts of the correlation of forces, required a new or modified con= 
ception of matter. The principle of the conservation of force might be thus ex- 
pressed : every motion is resisted, and produces a new motion, determined by the 
conditions of such resistance. To this principle the conception of matter, as made 
up of hard inelastic particles in an elastic ether, seemed to be opposed. Matter was 
rather to be conceived as made up of molecules, exerting mechanical pressure on 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27 


each other through intervening molecules of the same kind, and the qualities of 
matter as depending on the motions of different orders of molecules. In pursuance 
of the same views, magnetic attractions and repulsions were to be referred to differ- 
ential conditions of pressure. 


Physical Considerations regarding the Possible Age of the Sun’s Heat. 
By Professor W. Tomson, F.2.S. 


The author prefaced his remarks by drawing attention to some principles previously 
established. It is a principle of irreversible action in nature, that, “although me- 
chanical energy is indestructible, there is a universal tendency to its dissipation, 
which produces gradual augmentation and diffusion of heat, cessation of motion, and 
exhaustion of potential energy, through the material universe.” The result of this 
would be a state of universal rest and death, if the universe were finite and left to 
obey existing laws. But as no limit is known to the extent of matter, science 
points rather to an endless progress through an endless space, of action involving 
the transformation of potential energy through palpable motion into heat, than to 
a single finite mechanism, running down like a clock and stopping for ever. It is 
also impossible to conceive either the beginning or the continuance of life without a 
creating and overruling power. The author's object was to lay before the Section 
an application of these general views to the discovery of probable limits to the 
periods of time, past and futwre, during which the sun can be reckoned on as a source 
of heat and light. The subject was divided under two heads: 1. On the secular 
cooling of the sun; 2. On the origin and total amount of the sun’s heat. 

In the first part it is shown that the sun is probably an incandescent liquid mass, 
radiating away heat without any appreciable compensation by the influx of meteoric 
matter. The rate at which heat is radiated from the sun has been measured by 
Herschel and Pouillet independently ; and, according to their results, the author 
estimates that if the mean specific heat of the sun were the same as that of liquid 
water, his temperature would be lowered by 1°-4 Centigrade annually. In con- 
sidering what the sun’s specific heat may actually be, the author first remarks that 
there are excellent reasons for believing that his substance is very much like the 
earth’s. For the last eight or nine years, Stokes’s Principles of Solar and Stellar 
Chemistry have been taught in the public lectures on natural philosophy in the 
University of Glasgow ; and it has been shown as a first result, that there certainly 
is sodium in the sun’s atmosphere. The recent application of these principles in the 
splendid researches of Bunsen and Kirchhoff Giho made an independent discovery 
of Stokes’s theory) has demonstrated with equal certainty that there are iron and 
manganese, and several of our other known metals, inthe sun. The specific heat of 
each of these substances is less than the specific heat of water, which indeed 
exceeds that of every other known tartestria solid or liquid. It might therefore 
at first sight seem probable that the mean specific heat of the sun’s whole substance 
is less, and very certain that it cannot be much greater, than that of water. But 
thermodynamic reasons, explained in the paper, lead to a very different conclusion, 
and make it probable that, on account of the enormous pressure which the sun’s 
interior bears, his specific heat is more than ten times, although not more than 
10,000 times, that of liquid water. Hence it is probable that the sun cools by as 
much as 14° C. in some time more than 100 years, but less than 100,000 years. 

As to the sun’s actual temperature at the present time, it is remarked that at his 
surface it cannot, as we have many reasons for believing, be incomparably higher 
than temperatures attainable artificially at the earth’s surface. Among other rea- 
sons, it may be mentioned that he radiates heat from every square foot of his sur- 
face at only about 7000 horse-power. Coal burning at the rate of a little less than 
a peor per two seconds would generate the same amount; and it is estimated 
(Rankine, ‘Prime Movers,’ p. 285, edit. 1859) that in the furnaces of locomotive 
engines, coal burns at from 1 Ib. in 30 seconds to 1 Ib. in 90 seconds per square foot 
of grate-bars. Hence heat is radiated from the sun at a rate not more than from 
fifteen to forty-five times as high as that at which heat is generated on the grate- 
bars of a locomotive furnace, per equal areas. 

The interior temperature of the sun is probably far higher,than that at the sur- 
face, because conduction can play no eras part in the transference of heat between 


28 REPORT—1861. 


the inner and outer portions of his mass, and there must be an approximate convec- 
tive equilibrium of heat throughout the whole ; that is to say, the temperatures at 
different distances from the centre must be approximately those which any portion 
of the substance, if carried from the centre to the surface, would acquire by expan- 
sion without loss or gain of heat. 


Part II. On the Origin and Total Amount of the Sun’s Heat. 


The sun being, for reasons referred to above, assumed to be an incandescent 
liquid now losing heat, the question naturally occurs, how did this heat originate ? 
It is certain that it cannot have existed in the sun through an infinity of past time, 
because as long as it has so existed it must have been suffering dissipation ; and the 
finiteness of the sun precludes the supposition of an infinite primitive store of heat 
in his body. The sun must therefore either have been created an active source of 
heat at some time of not immeasurable antiquity by an overruling decree ; or the 
heat which he has already radiated away, and that which he still possesses, must 
have been acquired by some natural process following permanently established 
laws. Without pronouncing the former supposition to be essentially incredible, 
the author assumes that it may be safely said to be in the highest degree improba-~ 
ble, if, as he believes to be the case, we can show the latter to be not contradictory 
to known physical laws. 

The author then reviews the meteoric theory of solar heat, and shows that, in the 
form in which it was advocated by Helmholz*, it is adequate, and it is the only 
theory consistent with natural laws which is adequate, to account for the present 
condition of the sun, and for radiation continued at a very slowly decreasing rate 
during many millions of years past and future. But neither this nor any other natu- 
ral theory can account for solar radiation continuing at anything like the present rate 
for many hundred millions of years. The paper concludes as follows :—“It seems 
therefore, on the whole, most probable that the sun has not illuminated the earth 
for 100,000,000 years, and almost certain that he has not done so for 500,000,000 
years. As for the future, we may say with equal certainty that inhabitants of the 
earth cannot continue to enjoy the light and heat essential to their life for many 
million years longer, unless new sources, now unknown to us, are prepared in the 
great storehouse of Creation.” 


Licut, Heat. 
On Photographic Micrometers. By Sir Davip Brewster, K.H., F.R.S. 


When examining, several years ago, some microscopic phot executed by 
Mr. Dancer, the celebrated optician of this city, the author was struck with the 
singular sharpness and opacity of some of the lines in such of them as were copied 
from engravings. The idea occurred to him of obtaining photographically, by means 
of the camera, micrometrical scales, or systems of delicate lines, opake or transpa- 
rent, and fitted both for astronomical and microscopical purposes. The suggestion 
was published in the article “Micrometer” in the ‘ Kncyclopzedia Britannica,’ Mr. 
Dancer had succeeded in making photographic portraits on collodion so small that 
they were wholly invisible to the naked eye, and 10,000 portraits might be intro- 
duced into a square inch. The film of collodion upon which these photographs 
were taken was so thin and transparent that it was invisible, and allowed objects to 
be seen through it as distinctly as if it were the thinnest glass. Ifa system of 
oneke or transparent lines, therefore, was impressed upon collodion or albumen 
photographically, when reduced to the minutest size from a system of large and 
qlacp ieee lines, we should have the most perfect micrometrical scale that could. 
be conceived. In the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for August 1861, Dr. Woods, of 
Parsonstown, had suggested the construction of photographic micrometers without 
being aware of what had been published on the subject. 


* Popular Lecture delivered at Konigsberg on the occasion of the Kant Commemoration, 
February 1854. 


Ld —_——— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29 


On the Compensation of Impressions moving over the Retina. 
By Sir Davin Brewster, K.H., FBS. 


The author stated that when, in railway travelling, they looked at the lines which 
the stones or gravel or other objects formed in consequence of the durations of their 
impressions on the retina, and quickly transferred the eye to the same lines further 
back, where the velocity was slower, the stones or gravel or other objects would, 
for an instant, be distinctly seen, just as rapidly revolving objects are seen in the 
dark when they are illuminated by an electric flash or the hight of an exploded 
copper cap. A similar, but not the same, phenomenon will be seen when we look 
at the moving lines through a slit and quickly look away from the slit, so that the 
lines may be seen by indirect vision on a part of the retina not previously im- 

ressed. This class of phenomena may be nee studied with a rapidly revolving 

isc, by quickly transferring the eye from the lines on the marginal part of the disc 
to those near the centre of rotation, where the velocity is less. When the mar- 
ginal velocity is greatest, the point of compensation is nearest the centre, as might 
have been expected from the experiment in a railway carriage; but what could 
not, he thought, have been anticipated, was that the point of compensation was not 
in the same radius as the point to which the eye was first directed. The author 
explained this statement by means of a diagram which was exhibited. He had not 
been able to see the point of compensation close to the centre of rotation, where it 
doubtless must be, with a certain velocity, so that its locus must be in a curve. 


On the Optical Study of the Retina. By Sir Davm Brewster, K.H., F.RS. 


There were two structures in the retina (hexangular and quadrangular) that could 
be exhibited by optical means, the one by the successive impulses of light, and the 
other by the action of faint light entermg the eye, or produced within it, either 
from the duration of a luminous impression, or from a local pressure upon the retina. 
The first of these structures was best seen by the light of a white cloud, through 
the slits or apertures of a revolving disc, placed midway between its circumference 
and its centre of rotation, in order to protect the eye from light which did not pass 
through the slits. When the disc revolved rapidly the field of view exhibited 
neither colour nor structure, but merely a diminution of light. When the velocity 
had reached a certain point, the field of vision became yellowish white, then yellow 
and bluish. Occasionally the yellow had the form of a rectangular cross, between 
the branches of which were four dark spaces. With a diminished velocity the whole 
field became uniformly blue, and was now covered with the hexagonal pattern 
formed by deep-black lines, the lines being darker at the place of the foramen cen- 
trale. As there are no fewer than eight different layers in the retina, it was of great 
importance to ascertain the functions which they individually performed in con- 
veying visual impressions to the brain, and it was only by optical means that this 
inquiry could be conducted. The anatomist had ably performed his part with the 
aid of the microscope, and it was probably from the improvement of this instrument 
chiefly that we could expect any further discoveries, unless the morbid anatomy of 
the retina should connect certain imperfections of vision with the condition of cer= 
tain layers of the membrane. When the eye was left in darkness, by the sudden 
extinction of a light, there were several points at the margin of the retina which 
retained the light longer than the rest. There could be no doubt that these effects 
were produced by structural differences. In the case of the foramen the ditference 
had been recognized by the anatomist, and was proved by the remarkable pheno- 
menon of Haidinger’s brushes, and by other optical facts, such as the instability and 
superior brightness of oblique impressions on the retina. We had, consequently, 
an optical principle which enabled us to explain the quadrangular structure he had 
referred to. It was not improbable, when we looked at the complete structure of 
the retina, and even of its individual layers, that the structure of each of them 
might be exhibited optically, 


On Binocular Lustre. By Sir Davi Brewster, K.H., F.R.S. 


The author commenced by stating that some years ago it was observed by Pro- 
fessor Dove that when the right and left eye figures of a pyramid, or other mathe- 


30 REPORT—1861. 


matical solid, the one drawn on a white, and the other on a dark ground, were in- 
serted in the stereoscope, the solid in relief appeared with a particular lustre. Prof. 
Dove described the lustre as metallic; and in another place, where he described the 
two diagrams as drawn, the one with white lines on a black ground, and the other 
with black lines on a white ground, he stated that the pyramid in relief “ appears 
lustrous, as made of graphite.” Other observers described the lustres differently, 
some as resembling ground glass, and others as like paper darkened with a black- 
lead pencil, while Professor Rood regarded it as “recalling the idea of highly 
polished glass.” In order to explain this phenomenon, Professor Dove remarked 
“that in every case where a surface appeared lustrous, there was always a transpa- 
rent, or transparent-reflecting stratum of much intensity, through which we see 
another body. It is therefore externally reflected light in combination with inter- 
nally reflected or dispersed light, whose combined action produced the idea of lustre. 
This effect,” he elsewhere added, “we see produced when many watch-glasses are 
laid in a heap, or when a plate of transparent mica or tale, when heated red-hot, is 
separated into multitudes of thin layers, each of which, of inconceivable thinness, 
is found to be highly transparent, while the entire plate assumes the lustre of a 
plate of silver.” To these examples of lustre, produced by thin plates not in optical 
contact, or if in actual contact, having different reflective powers, were to be added 
the following pearls, mother-of-pearl, pearl-spar, and composite crystals of calca- 
reous spar, and decomposed glass of all colours. The cause of these various kinds 
of lustre, and of that of metals, had always been well known, and when binocular 
lustre attracted the attention of philosophers, it was natural to ascribe it to the 
same cause. Professor Dove did this, and considered the dark surface in the one 
picture as the dispersed light, and the white surface as the regularly reflected light, 
the dark surface being seen through the white surface. This theory of binocular 
lustre, he had reason to believe, was not satisfactory. The phenomenon was first 
observed by himself in 1843, under conditions of different forms than those under 
which it was subsequently seen in the stereoscope. Having adverted to a paper 
“On the knowledge of Distance given by Binocular Vision,” published by himself 
in 1844 in the ‘Kdinburgh Transactions,’ he said that with his knowledge of the 
phenomena he could not adopt Professor Dove’s explanation of the lustre seen in 
the stereoscope by the union of figures on dark and white, or differently coloured 
surfaces. In order to test this explanation by other means, he combined surfaces 
that had no geometrical figures upon them, and he found that binocular lustre was 
not produced. This experiment seemed decisive of the question. He was led to 
infer from it that the lustre observed in the combination of right and left eye figures 
of solids was not due to the rays from a dark surface passing through a lighter one 
to the eye, but to the effect of the eyes in combining the two stereoscopic figures, 
and to the dazzle occasioned by the alternating intensities of the two combined 
tints, the impression of one of the tints sometimes disappearing and Wy sae 
He referred to an article published by Professor Rood, of Troy, on his (Sir David 
Brewster’s) “Theory of Lustre,” and which he disavowed, not having adopted any 
“theory of lustre.” He had merely started an objection to Professor Dove’s theory 
of binocular lustre, and given an opinion regarding its cause; and as the simple 
experiment on which he Coane that opinion had been made by others with a dif- 
ferent result, he thought it right to re-examine the subject with the assistance of 
other. eyes than his own, and had obtained results which might be of use to those 
who were disposed to study the subject more elaborately. 

Binocular lustre was a species of lustre sui generis. It was a physiological, not a 
physical phenomenon, and had no relation whatever to those varieties of lustre 
which arose from the combination of lights reflected from the outer and inner sur- 
faces of laminated, transparent, or translucent bodies. He assigned various causes 
for the physiological character of the phenomenon, and then added, “If binocular 
lustre arises from a physiological and not from a physical cause, we must look for 
this cause in the operations which take place in the eyes of the observer when 
binocular lustre is distinctly seen. These operations are of two kinds. First, in 
combining geometrical or other figures to represent solids whose parts are at dif- 
ferent distances from the eye, the optic axes are in constant play, not only in vary- 
ing the distance of their focus of convergence, to unite similar points at different 
distances in the two diagrams, but in maintaining the unity of the picture by 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31 


rapidly viewing every point of its surface. Secondly, when the two surfaces have 
different shades or colours, the retina of one eye is constantly ag ic recovering 
the vision of one of them. Each optic nerve is conveying to the brain the sensa- 
tions of a different tint or colour. ‘The brain is therefore agitated sometimes with 
one of these sensations and sometimes with the other, and sometimes with both of 
them combined, and it is therefore not an unreasonable conclusion that, in the dazzle 
produced by this struggle of flickering sensations, something like lustre may be 
produced. “In studying the subject of lustre there are some facts deserving of atten- 
tion. In a daguerreotype, for example, of two figures in black bronze with a high 
metallic lustre, it is impossible by looking at either of the pictures to tell the ma- 
terials of which they are made. No lustre is visible; but when the two equally 
shaded pictures are combined in the stereoscope, the lustre and true character of 
the material is instantly seen. Another instructive example is seen in the stereo- 
scopic representations of a boy blowing a soap-bubble. ‘The lustre of the watery 
a is not visible in either of the two pictures; but when they are combined, it is 

istinctly seen. In both these cases, and others of the same kind, tints of similar 
intensity are combined ; and there is no ground fora ssuming that the two surfaces 
combined appear at different distances, and that the one is seen through the other, 
as in Professor Dove’s theory. 


Observations wpon the Production of Colour by the Prism, the Passive Mental 
Effect or Instinct in comprehending the Enlargement of the Visual Angle, and 
other Optical Phenomena. By J. AunxanpER Davis. 


The communication was intended to show that the doctrine of the decomposition 
of light is not the only possible explanation of colour, but that two causes may, in 
the way of possibility, be assigned to its production, of which the other is, that the 
rays receive certain affections or dispositions by their transit through a prism or 
other media. It was not affirmed that the present doctrine, which of course im- 
plies previous combination or composition, is not the probable one, but only that 
the idea of its necessary exclusiveness, as the only one which can philosophically 
be maintained, is a philosophical error. The difficulty of imagining decomposition 
in some cases, as, for example, when the solar rays pass through a piece of smoke- 
blackened glass, was referred to as affording some presumption for supposing that 
the production of colour by the prism is not occasioned by decomposition, and this 
er when it is considered how difficult it is to conjecture how the prism 
effects the disintegration of the incident light. The equal difficulty appertaining 
to the hypothesis of disposition was also allowed; and it was shown that upon 
either explanation it must be granted that the incident rays pass to the second dyes 
of the prism, and back again to the first, before they are decomposed, or colours 
are otherwise produced, and that probably they arise from the backward transit of 
the rays, which is probably a species of retrogression. The phenomenon, that only 
the contours and internal lines and points of objects and pictures are coloured when 
seen through a prism, was accounted for by supposing that the rays proceeding 
from them are prevented from being recomposed by reason of the disturbance of the 
surrounding colour, which is not affected when seen through a prism, because the 
yarious rays are, by the law of chromatic aberration, united after being decomposed 
by it. The comprehension of the visual angle, or the determination of the prolon- 
gation of the angular space, in every case of reflexion and refraction, was set down 
either to passive mental action or instinct, and this on the ground of there not being 
any physical barrier, and from the fact that single vision alone is sufficient to pro- 
duce this effect. 

The light proceeding from luminous objects was stated to be accompanied with 
colour, and not colour per se: and as regards the intensity of colour, it was con- 
cluded that, as an example, a thin mixture of Indian ink is caused either by the 
very thin distribution of black particles, or white or almost white ones, more or less 
closely compacted ; supposing which to be the case, the mixture is darkened with 

_every increase in their compactness; of which explanations the former was con- 
sidered to be the correct one. 
The fact that black polished surfaces, however great the approximative perfec- 


32 REPORT—1861. 


tion of the polish, reflect very little light, was set down to some yet undiscovered 
disturbance. 

The last question noticed was the apparent increase in the size of the sun and 
moon when near and upon the horizon, which was illustrated by a description of 
an experiment, which consists in looking at a ball suspended by a fine silken thread, 
both when the external light does and does not fall upon the side next to the spec- 
tator, in the latter of which cases the ball appears larger than it would if looked 
upon in the hand; from which it was concluded that this supposition arises from 
its being supposed to be at a greater distance from the spectator than is really the 
case, and this consequent upon its dullness; and this explanation was applied to 
the sun and moon when in the positions mentioned, as being at any rate one cause 
of the phenomenon which may then be observed. 


Presentations of Colour produced under novel conditions ; with their assumed 
relation to the received Theory of Light and Colour. By Tuomas Rosz. 


The author succeeded some years ago in perfecting a mechanical contrivance for 
measuring off flashes of artificial light, in due relation to the velocity of an inde- 
pendent revolving disc. 

This apparatus was originally designed for no higher purpose than showing the 
ordinary, yet remarkable illusions of persistence of vision to a large company. Acci- 
dent led to its employment in the illustration of phenomena of greater interest. It 
was found that a dise charged with eight intensely black circular spaces, equi- 
distantly arranged around its circumference, presented some noticeable effects when 
subjected to the action of continuous daylight and intermittent artificial light. After 
repeated and careful experiment, it was ascertained that if, whilst the disc is in 
rapid revolution under a weak continuous daylight, flashes of artificial light are 
thrown upon it in rapid and regular succession, and at such intervals that the black 
circular spaces be held at apparent rest, several varieties of positive colour are seen. 
The black spaces show an intense blue in the central parts, melting towards the inner 
circumference into lighter blue, and towards the outer circumference into green; and 
they appear to lie upon a zone presenting intense orange in the centre, and lighter 
orange and yellow at the inner and outer circumferences. Other discs, in which the 
black circular spaces vary in diameter and occupy lesser portions of the zones con- 
taining them, were observed to give modified analogous effects. There was an 
evident law in the action. The colours were obviously dependent on the relative 
amounts of black space and white surface in the zones. As the black spaces were 
reduced, the colours ranged from dark blue to light green, and the separating inter- 
vals of whiteness, of greater or lesser width, took all tints, from intense orange to 
the faintest yellow. 

The author deemed it worthy of especial remark, that all these presentations of 
colour were produced at pleasure under uniform conditions of action, and that they 
were so strongly and unequivocally expressed as to affect all eyes alike. This he 
thought made separation between them and other colour-effects that are merely 
physiological phenomena. 

He was thus led to assume that his experiments touched the question—Js light 
simple or compound? and after much thought, it did appear to him that the result- 
ing phenomena found consistent explanation in the assumed homogeneity of light, 
but presented difficulties when brought into relation with the received doctrine. 

By a variety of experiments, carried on over a period of more than six years, Mr. 
Rose had been brought to favour the idea that what we name colour, is only the 
various affections of the optic nerve by a greater or a lesser quantity of light radiating 
from a focal point in an imperfect reflector. It is obviously impossible on this oc- 
casion to trace the steps by which he was led to form this conclusion. All that can 
be permitted, is to state briefly, and in general, the application of his views to the 
phenomena under consideration. When the disc is in rapid revolution, the weak 
continuous daylight keeps it constantly before the eye, but the intermittent light 
presents the black spaces continually in the same areas. Now the black spaces are 
assumed to have no part in the phenomena, except as absolute negations of light, 
and all the effects are referred to the distribution over an entire zone of the light of 
those portions of the zone not occupied by the black spaces. The nebulous ring 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 33 


produced by rotation is assumed to be light so distributed in relation to space as 
to produce blueness; and when the intermittent light brings the black spaces to 
Sag rest, they give back to the eye no part of the flash, but simply present this 
diffused light of the zone. On the other Vail the white intervals between the 
black spaces receive the flash and give it back, so that they reflect light in such re- 
lation to area as is necessary for the presentation of orange. The black spaces being 
circular, the white intervals between them are wider at the outer and inner circum- 
ference of the zone than in the centre; and hence the diffused light varies in cha- 
racter, and manifests itself in the negations as blue, light blue, and green; and in 
the intervals as dark orange, light orange, and yellow. 


Method of interpreting some of the Phenomena of Light. 
By Wii11am Tomas Suaw. 


The Chromascope, and what it reveals. 
By Joun Suitu, M.A., Perth Academy, 


The author said that he had described at the Meeting at Oxford certain experi- 
ments exhibiting phenomena of colour, in order to elicit the opinion of philosophers 
as to the cause of the colours; that the opinions then given, and those which he 
has since met with have completely failed, in his opinion, to meet the difficulties of 
the question. 

The experiments he considered demonstrated the true physical conditions of the 
two colours red and blue. If we take the expression “pressure in time,” from 
Newton, to mean the time of action of a vibration of light, then the interval will 
mean the time of reaction. If two forces impinge on the eye at the same time, and 
if the one be at its maximum and the other at its minimum phase, these two forces 
will represent the two physical conditions of the red and the blue rays; for during 
a peetion the one will be always keeping up its velocity, while the velocity of the 
other will be constantly diminishing. This the author illustrated by many exam- 
ples, which were explained by appropriate diagrams and drawings, showing how 
the two forces were generated. He was also of opinion that the exhibition of colour 
was the only evidence by which we could deduce that two such forces were in exist- 
ence, but when once deduced could be verified by reversing the experiment. 


The Prism and Chromascope. By Joun Surrn, M.A., Perth Academy. 


Tn this paper the author said, that having, as he considered, demonstrated in his 
former paper, by experiments from the chromascope, the physical conditions of the 
two extreme rays of the prism, he felt himself authorized to extend the discoveries 
made by the chromascope to the illustration of the prism. That, by a legitimate 
process of reasoning, he thought he was justified in concluding that the same law 
was in operation in the chromascope and prism, although the processes were dif- 
ferent. That this law explained, in the most simple manner possible, the cause of 
the colour of thin plates of soap-bubbles and such other phenomena, That these 
a all followed as logical inferences from the same law, without any 
additional supposition or amendment. But that, in whatever light this theory 
might be viewed, he considered that the experiments which he had described could 
not be solved by any other theory, while they enabled him to give a very rational 
explanation of the prism, 


On the Panoramic Lens. 
By Tuomas Surton, B.A., Leeturer on Photography at King’s College, London. 


The lenses commonly used by photographers for taking views have this grave 
defect, viz. they include too narrow a field of view for a large and important class 
of subjects. The author has invented a lens which remedies this defect, and pro- 
duces an optical image which includes an angular field of 100° and upwards in 
perfect focus to the extreme ends of the picture. This lens, which is an entirely 
new optical instrument, unlike anything else, he has called a “ Panoramic lens,” 
and will now describe. 

1861. 3 


i 
34 ; REPORT—186l, | 


Imagine, in the first place, a thick spherical shell of glass, having its internal 
spherical cavity filled with water ; and then, since the entire sphere is not required, 
imagine. a central zone of the glass shell removed, and its place supplied by the 
brass mounting of the lens. 

When the above arrangement is fitted with a central diaphragm haying a small 
central aperture, it is evident that the pencils of light which pass through it must 
be incident perpendicularly upon each of the four surfaces; therefore there is 
no such thing in this lens as an oblique pencil, the errors due to oblique in- 
cidence are completely avoided, and the image formed in every part by direct 

encils. © 
3 The glass shell, being a lens with concentric surfaces, acts as a concaye or 
diminishing lens, and has positive focal length; while the eentral sphere of water 
acts as a convex lens, and has negative focal length, The medium having the 
highest refractive and dispersive power is therefore made into a concave lens, while 
the medium having the Jowest refraetive-and dispersive power, is made into a 
convex lens. It is possible therefore te render this compound,achromatic by giving 
a suitable radius to the inner.surface of the shell. The investigation is extremely 
simple, and the practical result very neat and convenient. It turns out that when 
light flint-glass is used, the lens is achromatic when the inner radius of the shell is 
about one-half the length of the outer radius. The combination may properly be 
called a symmetrically achromatized sphere. It is a valuable property of a sphere 
achromatized in this way, that its focal length is greatly increased, so that a large 
picture can be taken with a tolerably small lens. ; 
* The central diaphragm is another curious part of this instrument. It is evident 
that if it were merely furnished with a central circular hole, the sides of the picture 
would be less illuminated than the centre. To meet this inconvenience the cen- 
tral hole is made elliptical, and in front of it are placed two upright thin partitions, 
radiating from the centre, and looking like the open wings of a butterfly. These 
stop some of the light of the central pencil and make it cylindrical, and at the same 
time they make the side pencils cylindrical also, and of the same diameter as 
the central one. . This simple contrivance answers perfectly in equalizing the illu- 
mination. 

The image of distant objects, formed by a panoramic lens, lies upon the surface 
of a sphere which js concentric with the lens. But the objects of an ordinary view 
are not-all distant ones, for the objects upon the ground are generally much nearer 
to tlie lens than those upon the horizontal line. It is found, therefore, that the best 
form of focusing-screen to. meet the majority of cases which. eccur in practice, is 
a. part of a cylinder having the same centre as the lens, and including about 30° 
below and 20° above the horizontal line. The panoramic picture therefore includes 
about 100° in width and 50° in height. The upright lines are straight, and 
the perspective strictly correct in all parts of the picture. 

Collodion pictures are taken upon curved glasses, and the negatives printed in a 
curved printing-frame. The author has not found greater practical difficulty in 
working upon curved than upon flat glasses. 

A complete set of Panoramic Apparatus, manufactured by Mr. Thos. Ross, and 
also a negative upon a curved glass, including about 100°, and a print from the same, 
were sent for inspection. 


Microscopie Observations on the Structure of Metals. By WH. H, Vrvray, 


It is well known that silver and malleable iron, when newly broken, give a very 
considerable reflexion of light from’the fracture, and: it has generally been under- 
stood that. the structure was granular, or composed of ‘crystals, and that the rez 
flexion of light was from their angles. On examining specimens of the above-named, 
metals with a microscope, however, the structure was discovered to be perfectly 
porous or cellular, and the reflexion of light seen was from the inner surfaces of 
the cells, which, though minute, were most brilliantly reflecting, especially when 
newly broken; and when the metal was bent a little in one direction before break- 
ing, thereby presenting the sides of the cells to the proper angle, the reflexion was 
more fully seen than when the cells remained in.their natural position, There is a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35. 


slight difference in the size and number of the cells in different specimens of the 
same metal, but the general resemblance is remarkably constant. 

__In silver the form of the cell is somewhat oblong ; but the cell is larger than that 
of copper or iron, and the system is more perfectly developed, that is, the internal 
communication from cell to cell appears to be more regular, The form of the cell 
in copper is spherical ; but in some instances the cells seem to have pressed into the 
pean of each other, and their forms are therefore to some extent modified 
thereby. 

_ Copper from different works may differ a little in the diameter of the cells, and 
consequently in the number contained, but the general range seems to be from 500 
to 1000 in the linear inch. It should be remarked that a specimen of the “ best 
select” copper is not any more dense and solid than a less pure metal, but, on the 
contrary, the partitions between the cells are exceedingly thin—so thin that there 
appear to be minute openings from each one to its surrounding cells; so that, as in 
the silver, there is an internal communication through the entire mass. 

. The cells in malleable iron are less regular in form and size, their inner surfaces 
being jagged and uneyen, and less brilliant than those of silver and copper; but 
the best fibrous iron seems to be equally free from angular crystals, and, like them, 
shows a high degree of porosity. 

. This cell-system is only developed internally in the metals; the outer surfaces, 
whether they have been in contact with the mould, or exposed to the atmosphere, 
seem to be entirely destitute of them. 

. In conclusion, the author regards it as highly probable that the malleability, as 
well as the superiority of the above-named metals for conducting heat and electri- 
city, may be owing to the perfection of their cellular arrangement. 


Observations on an Iris seen in Water, near Sunset. By J. J. Warxer, M.A, 


In this communication, which might be considered a sequel to and illustration of 

a paper read by the author at the Meeting of the British Association at Aberdeen 

in 1859, a description was given of the observation of this Iris—both of the primary 

and, more partially, of the secondary hyperbolic bow—in the calm sheet of water 

resented a a widening of the Royal Canal near Dublin, about 5.30 p.m, on the 

9th of September. The sun being then near the horizon, the form approximated to 
that of the rectangular hyperbola. 


There was an Exhibition of Photographs in connexion with the meeting at 
Manchester, under the direction of a Local Committee. 


Evecrriciry, MAGNETISM. 


On Spontaneous Terrestrial Galvanic Currents. 
By G. B. Army, M.A., D.C.L., F.RS., Astronomer Royal. 


It being now a well-ascertained fact that spontaneous galvanic currents have in 
several instances prevented the working of the telegraphic wires, the matter had 
become one of so much importance that he had felt the necessity of steps being 
taken to ascertain the exact cause of these disturbing influences. With this view 
he had placed himself in communication with the telegraph companies, but had not 
been able to obtain much accurate information from them, probably in consequence 
of their officers not having the leisure to note down observations on the effects pro- 
duced on the telegraphic wires. His wish was to have a constant registration of 
the effect of these galvanic currents, at the Royal Observatory, and he believed that 
all that was required to ascertain the causes of these spontaneous disturbances 
was the laying down of an insulated wire. The Government had acceded to his 
proposal, and he thought it his duty to state that on the part of the Board of Visi- 
tors there was the most anxious wish expressed that the object he had in view 
should be carried out. In all these instances the Government had acted towards 
him with the greatest liberality. He (the President) had been in communication: 
3% 


36 re REPORT—1861. 


with Dr. Lamont, of Munich, and had received the following communications from 
him on the subject, which he had thought it desirable to have printed for the mem- 
bers of the Association, but not necessarily for circulation amongst the public gene- 
rally. In one of his communications Dr. Lamont said, “ Since the beginning of last 

ear I have been occupied with the investigation of the electric currents observed 
in telegraph wires, and have obtained various results ; the most remarkable of which 
is this, that electric currents, or, as they may be more properly termed, electric 
waves, varying in direction and intensity, are constantly passing at the surface of 
the earth, and that these waves correspond perfectly with the variations of terres- 
trial magnetism; a wave directed from north to south producing an increase of 
westerly declination, and a wave directed from east to west producing an increase 
of horizontal force. I have employed wires of different lengths, and metallic discs 
of different sizes and at different depths underground : in all cases the currents are 
the same; but their intensity depends on the size of the discs and the length of the 
wires, or rather, the distance at which the discs are placed from each other. A 
distance of 400 feet is sufficient if the discs are large enough. To show the effects 
satisfactorily, the instruments must be of a peculiar construction ; ordinary galvano- 
meters and magnetometers will not answer; besides, various other conditions are 
to be observed.” And in another communication he stated that “The currents 
observed in telegraph lines are due partly to the agency of chemical causes (oxida- 
tion of the discs and other parts of circuits), partly to thermal causes (thermo-elec- 
tricity, expansion, &c.), partly to terrestrial electricity. The variations of terrestrial 
electricity can only be obtained while the chemical and thermal causes remain con- 
stant. The effect of the chemical causes changes very slowly; the effect of the 
thermal causes can be considered as constant only in calm weather, and for very 
short intervals of time (say two or three minutes) when the wires are of moderate 
length and suspended in the air, for longer intervals if underground. I believe that 
lines above 1000 feet in length, if not underground, are of no use for the investiga- 
tion of terrestrial electricity, because under all atmospheric circumstances the 
disturbances produced by thermo-electric currents will be too great.” It appeared 
to him, with very great submission to Dr. Lamont, that they need not necessarily 
be bound or restricted to the limits which he suggested. As the disturbances 
affected long lines of telegraphic wires, it appeared to him that their attention ought 
more particularly to be directed to these long lines. He had brought the matter 
before the Section with the view of inviting discussion upon it. He should be 
happy to hear from the Section whether they were prepared to adopt the views of 
Dr. Lamont or his own, which, he might say, he had now power from Government 
to carry out. He should be glad if any gentleman would throw out suggestions upon 
the subject. He would not bind himself to act upon them, but at the same time 
they should have his best attention. 


On the Laws of the Principal Inequalities, Solar and Lunar, of Terrestrial 
Magnetic Force in the Horizontal Plane, from observations at the Royal Ob- 
servatory, Greenwich, extending from 1848 to 1857. By the AstronoMER 
Royat. 


The author described shortly the apparatus (being, in fact, that which was 
introduced by Mr. Brooke) by which the continued registers of magnetic direction 
and magnetic force are maintained. or the direction, a freely suspended magnetic 
bar carries a concave mirror that receives the light radiating from a fixed lamp, 
and causes it to converge upon a revolving barrel covered with photographic paper ; 
the oscillations of the magnet cause the spot of light to oscillate lengthwise along 
the barrel; and as it is easy to compute, from the dimensions of the apparatus, the 
proportion that exists between a given swing of the magnet and the corresponding 
motion of the spot of light, the oscillations of the magnet at all times of the day 
may be measured accurately from the photographic record. These oscillations may 
be conceived as being produced by perturbing magnetic forces in the E. and W. 
direction, and the magnitudes of those perturbing forces may be inferred from the 
magnitudes of angular oscillation, by remarking that an oscillation of 1’ corresponds 
to a perturbing force equal to ,;;, of the whole directive horizontal force. For 
the perturbing maguetic forces in the N, and §, direction, which exhibit themselves 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37 


as changes in the magnitude of the horizontal directive force, the “bifilar 
apparatus” is used: a magnetic bar is strained into a position at right angles to 
the magnetic meridian, by suspension by means of two wires, which (their direc- 
tions not being parallel) exert a torsion-force in opposition to the terrestrial mag- 
netic force: when the terrestrial force increases or diminishes, it overcomes in a 
greater degree or yields to the torsion-force ; and thus the changes of the magni- 
tude of terrestrial directive force in the horizontal plane exhibit themselves by 
oscillations of the bifilar magnet, which are photographically registered in the same 
manner as those of the free magnet. 

Having for every hour (or for any other intervals of time) the measures of the 
perturbing force in the E. and W. direction, and of that in the N. and S. direction, 
Wwe can compound these two forces by the mechanical law of “ composition of forces,” 
and can assign the magnitude and the direction of the entire perturbing force (in the 
horizontal plane) which acts upon the magnet. 

Upon discussing these perturbing forces, the following conclusions were obtained : 

1. The mean annual diminution of western magnetic declination is about 7'9; 
and the mean annual increase of horizontal directive force is about ;1,th part of 
the whole horizontal force. 

2. The diurnal inequalities diminish gradually through the period 1848-1857 ; 
the proportion of their magnitude at the end of the period to that at the beginning 
being about 3:5. This seems to show a general diminution of the power of the 
sun. 

3. The diurnal inequalities are greater in summer than in winter, in the propor- 
tion of 5:3 nearly. 

4, When the means for the 24 hours of the day are taken, the westerly declina- 
tion is increased in summer, and the horizontal force is diminished, in a greater 
of than corresponds to uniform change according to the law of conclusion 

o. 1. 

5. When we form a curve by means of polar coordinates, drawing, from a zero 
point, lines in the direction of the perturbing force acting upon the north end of the 
magnet at every hour of the day, and with length proportional to the magnitude of 
that force at every hour (as derived from the mean of all the observations at each 
hour), an elliptical curve is produced, greatly extended in the direction of S.W. 
(which point corresponds to the disturbing force at 1 P.m.), and much less extended 
in other directions. 

6. The great disturbance of the magnet occurs therefore when the sun is nearly 
vertical on the North Atlantic Ocean, and is directed towards the pomt to which 
he is nearly vertical. 

7. Combining this conclusion with conclusions Nos. 3 and 4, the Astronomer 
Royal expressed himself as fully persuaded that the diurnal changes at Greenwich 
are produced by the attraction of the North Atlantic Ocean, when the sun radiates 
strongly upon it, for the north end of the needle; the attraction of the continent 
of Africa, when the sun shines upon it, being in comparison very small. 

8. The curve mentioned in No. 5 has some distortions of singular character cor- 
responding to the hours of night, which are not fully explained. 

9. The Astronomer Royal then explained that the observations had also been 
discussed for discovery of the perturbations following the law of the lunar positions 
with respect to the meridian. The general result appeared to be that, twice in 
every lunar day, there is a force directed towards Hudson’s Bay. There are some 
anomalies in the partial results; and the Astronomer Royal expressed himself as 
not very confident on the accuracy of the law, and not very distinct in his views of 
the explanation. The form of the general result bears a strong analogy with that 
of Tides of the Sea. 


On the Formation of Standards of Electrical Quantity and Resistance. 
By Latimer Ciarx and Sir Cuaries Brien. 


The object of this paper was to point out the desirability of the establ'shment of 
a set of standards of electrical measurement, and to ask the aid and authority of the 
British Association in introducing such standards into practical use. Four stand- 
ards or units were considered necessary. 


38 A REPORT—1861. 


1. The unit of electromotive force, or tension, or potential. 

2. The unit of absolute electrical quantity, or of static electricity. 

3. The unit of electrical current, which should be formed by the combination of 
the unit of quantity with time. Such, for example, as the flow of a unit of elec- 
tricity per second. 

4, The unit of electrical resistance, which should be the same unit as that of 
current, viz. a wire which would conduct a unit of electricity in a second of time. 

The necessity of the adoption of some nomenclature was also pointed out, in 
order to adapt the system to the wants of practical telegraphists. ; 


On the Deposit of Metals from the Negative Terminal of an Induction Coil 
during the Electrical Discharge in Vacuo. By J. P. Gasstor, F.R.S. 


When the electric discharges by an induction coil are made from platinum wires 
hermetically sealed in a vacuum tube as usually constructed, the wire which is 
attached to the negative terminal of the coil shortly assumes the appearance of 
being corroded: this arises from very minute particles of the metal having been 
disintegrated and separated from the wire, which particles are deposited or the 
sides of the tube in a lateral direction. If the wires are protected within the va- 
cuum by being covered with glass tubing open at the end, but extending about one- 
eighth of an inch beyond the wire, it is the inside of this tubing that becomes coated, 
with metal : but, exclusive of this lateral action, a portion of the negative discharge 
will be observed to obtrude from the glass tubing im the form of a luminous brush; 
this Iuminosity is very sensibly affected by a magnet, and can in this manner be 
made to impinge on different parts of the vacuum tube, and wherever it is ‘thus 
impinged heat is always evolved. The aboye phenomenon of the deflection of the 
negative discharge was described in a paper communicated by me to the Royal 
Society; and as I was subsequently desirous to examine with greater accuracy the 
nature of the deposit thus obtained from the negative terminal, and particularly if it 
could be obtained in the same manner from other metals than platinum, I had an ap- 
paratus constructed in which the discharge could be directed on slips of glass: the 
apparatus was also so constructed that wires of different metals could be inserted, 
and in this manner I succeeded in obtaining deposits of the following metals, gold, 
silver, copper, platinum, zinc, iron, tin, lead (brass), magnesium, tellurium, bis- 
muth, cadmium, and antimony: for many of these I was indebted to Mr. Matthiessen, 
who furnished them to me in a pure state. With gold, silver, platinum, tin, and 
bismuth, the deposit would take place in the state as now exhibited in about twenty- 
four hours’ action; if the discharges were continued, the deposit became denser ; 
and, as will be observed, in one or two instances the centre is crystalline. With 
reflected light a large surface exhibits the lustre of the metal; with transmitted 
light the outer portion is transparent, showing the peculiar colour of the metals—as 
gold, green; silver, bluish Purp e; platinum and tin, blackish grey. Tellurium, with, 
the exception of antimony, I found disintegrated more freely than the other metals, 
while iron and magnesium were the most difficult; the deposit of the latter is. 
scarcely perceptible. With aluminium wires I could not obtain any deposit after 
forty-eight hours’ constant action; on one occasion I observed a faint trace on the 
glass, but in repeating the experiment with another wire no sign of any deposit could. 
be obtained. Under the microscope the thin layer or deposit of metal is not resolved 
into any form, but appears asa mere’film on the surface of the glass. From a brass 
wire terminal there was not any separation of the original metals. I had a tube 
constructed with two wires, both protected by glass tubing ; a long slip of glass was 
inserted, so that the discharges from the + and the — terminals of the coil could, 
be made with protected wires under the same conditions. The wires were of gold. 
The usual deposit took place at the negative ; but after twenty-four hours’ constant 
action not the slightest indication of any deposit from the + wire could be observed. 
With antimony a very peculiar effect was obtained: instead of the metal being 
deposited in a circular form, it spread nearly all over the glass and on the sides of 
the vacuum tube. I repeated the experiment by inserting slips of glass of sufficient 
length to reach beyond the terminals. Two of these glasses are on the table, and,’ 
if examined, it will be seen that the + discharge has apparently repelled the deposit 
as it formed from the negative wire, leaving the space somewhat analogous to the’ 


& TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39 


dark band which appears in the luminous stratified discharge. Whatever may be 
the cause Of the difference in the action of the electrical discharge between the posi- 
tive and the negative, the disruption of the metal in the latter is merely mechanical ; 
the minute particles are disrupted by the force of the discharge, which at the nega- 
tive meets with resistance, and which resistance, under certain conditions,is attended 
with considerable heating effects ; for if the wires are thin, the negative invariably 
fuses, whether the discharges are made in air or in vacuo. 


On a Probable Cause of the Diurnal Variation of Magnetic Dip and Dechna- 
tion. By Professor Hennussy, F.R.S. 


The author called attention to the researches of Mr. Faraday relative to atmo- 
spheric magnetism, whereby it appears that variations in the density and tempe- 
rature of oxygen are always accompanied by corresponding variations in its mag- 
netic properties. Variations in temperature of our atmosphere may occur not 
only horizontally, but vertically, and they may occur not only between columns 
of great extent, but even among extremely small portions of air. This ques- 
tion had been already submitted to the consideration of the Section in 1858 by 
Professor Hennessy, and an account of his experiments is contained in the volume 
published for that year. He had shown that certain abnormal serrations in the 
thermometrical curve which occur in May and June, and generally during the 
months of greatest sunshine, as exhibited by the- photographical register kept at 
the Radcliffe Observatory, are explicable by the convection of minute currents of 
air. Thus the summer months of greatest sunshine correspond with the period of 
greatest inequality of temperature between small atmospheric masses. But the 
same months are also those during which diurnal magnetic variation is greatest, 
The hours of maximum magnetic deviation correspond with the hours of greatest 
thermometrical serration. This result appears not only from the facts disclosed by 
Sabine and Hansteen, but also from the facts disclosed in the paper just communi- 
cated by the Astronomer Royal. 


On Permanent Thermo-Electric Currents in Cirewmts of one Metal, 
By Furemine JENKIN. 


In the course of some thermo-electrical experiments, I was led to examine the 
effect of various distributions of heat in circuits formed by one metal. I verified 
the conclusion arrived at by Professor Magnus, that no distribution or movement 
of heat in a continuous and homogeneous piece of metal will produce a current of 
electricity. I also.repeated, with some variations, the experiments of Seebeck and 
Magnus, which show that if one end of a wire be heated, the other remaining cold, 
a momentary or transient current of electricity will be developed when contact is 
suddenly made between the hot and cold ends; the direction of the current de- 
pending on the metal employed. I found that I could obtain permanent currents 
in the same direction from each metal, if I simply looped the two ends of the wire 
together and heated one of the two loops; and, moreover, that the current was 
usually much greater when there was a loose contact between the two wires, than 
when the two loops were tightly drawn together, It is to these currents, due to 
loose contact between a hot and cold wire of the same metal, that I wish to direct 
the attention of the Section. 

I ‘will first shortly describe the apparatus used, and the experiments which 
showed the existence and importance of these currents, and I will then endeavour 
to repeat some of the experiments before you. I used a reflecting galvanometer of 
the fit constructed by Professor W. Thomson of Glasgow. A very light mirror, 
attached to a very smal! magnet hung inside the galvanometer coil, reflects the 
light of a lamp upon a scale about two feet off. Very small deflections of the mag- 
net are distinctly shown by the movement of the reflected spot of light, while the 
slight inertia of the moving parts has great advantages when rapidly varying cur- 
. rents are to be observed. A common spirit-lamp was used to heat the wires, which 
were from 0-02 in. to 0:05 in. in diameter. 

_ When two pieces of similar copper wire are connected with a galvanometer, and 
the end of one wire is heated, a momentary current flows from the hot wire across 
the joint to the cold one whenever they are suddenly brought in contact, While 


40 REPORT—1S86l1. * 


repeating this experiment, due to Seebeck and Magnus, I found thatiif the two ends 
of two such copper wires (being equally oxidized and annealed) were léoped toge- 
ther and held tightly in contact, little or no current could be observed when one of 
the loops was heated in the flame ; but when the hot and cold loops were separated, 
I observed a momentary current in the same direction as that produced when the 
hot and cold wire were suddenly joined—. e. from heat to cold across the joint. 

This fact, accidentally discovered, excited my attention, and led me to consider 
what the acts of making and breaking contact could possibly have in common. I re- 
flected that when two wires are approaching or receding, they equally pass through 
points at every possible distance (within limits) one from the other. Thus I thought 
that the relative distance between the two wires might be the peculiarity which, 
being common to the two acts, might produce similar effects in each case. I there- 
fore tried the effect of a loose contact between the two wires, resting the one wire 
very lightly on the other, instead of pressing or pulling the two together; a per- 
manent current was at once produced, so strong as to hold the deflecting magnet of 
the galvanometer against its limiting steps. I then introduced resistance coils into the 
circuit for the purpose of reducing the deflection, but to my surprise it was not until 
I had added a resistance equal to that of 2000 miles of the Red Sea cable, or about 
1000 miles of the common No. 16 copper, that I reduced the deflections within the 
range of my galvanometer. 

The current could be maintained through this resistance for twenty minutes at 
a time—not perfectly constant indeed, but not wavering more than was inevitable 
from the varying pressure given by the hand to the two wires. The current was 
strongest when one end of the wires was white-hot, the other being dark red. 

I varied the experiment in many ways, using different galvanometers and differ- 
ent copper wires, but always with one result. A tight contact gave a barely sen- 
sible current; a loose contact gave a current which could be maintained permanent] 
equal to that which would be produced through a similar resistance by the aighth 
or tenth part of a Daniell’s coil,—a strength sufficient to signal through a cable to 
America, if ever one be laid. 

I next tried the same experiment with iron wires. Analogous results were ob- 
tained, but with one remarkable difference, namely, that the direction of the cur- 
rent was from cold to hot across the joint, instead of from hot to cold as in copper: 
moreover, a very sensible current was always observed in iron even when the two 
loops were firmly held together; it seems possible that this effect is only a residue 
of the effect caused by a loose contact, the hard oxide of iron precluding a perfect 
metallic contact between the loops. The effect is increased at least fivefold when 
a loose contact is made. 

The maximum electromotive force to be obtained from iron is about one-twen- 
tieth that given by copper, and acts in the opposite direction. 

Platinum gives no current with tight contacts; with loose contacts a weak cur- 
rent flows in the same direction as that given by copper. I must here warn any 
one disposed to repeat these experiments, that the resistance of the loose contact is 
itself considerable; and if the whole circuit, including the galvanometer, be of small 
resistance, the strongest deflection will be obtained with comparatively tight con- 
tacts; for although the electromotive force is increased by loosening the contact, 
the total resistance of the current may be increased in a still higher proportion, 
and the strength of the current will then diminish. This effect is exactly analogous 
to the well-known fact in voltaic electricity ; for by the addition of small cells in 
series to a battery with large surface, the strength of the current may be reduced if 
the total resistance of the circuit be small, but will be increased if the total resist- 
ance be large. ThuS the effects of loose contacts are best seen on a sensitive gal- 
vanometer with a large resistance in circuit. 

These phenomena may apparently be due to a thermo-electric absorption of heat 
at the joint, or to a chemical effect in one of the wires, the air or oxide acting as 
an electrolyte. The opposite direction of the current in iron and copper, however, 
gives a reason for believing that chemical action is not the cause of the current. 
The decided effect obtained with platinum is another argument for this belief. It 
is moreover well established that any variation in the molecular structure of a 
metal causes one part to become thermo-electrically positive or negative with respect 
to the other; thus thermo-electric couples can be made of hard and soft wire of one 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Al 


metal, or of crystals arranged analy and equatorially, the current being then is 
ported by the Peltier aia ag and evolution of heat. Now discontinuity is the 

reatest possible change which can occur in the molecular structure, and it there- 
re appears not improbable that the currents due to loose contacts, or in other 
words to discontinuity, may be referred to the same cause,as the currents due to 
varying temper or to crystalline structure,—that is to say, to absorption of heat 
where the change of structure occurs, heat being evolved in other parts of the cir- 
cuit at a lower temperature. I hope soon to decide this question and others by 
further experiments in various media, with definite pressures at definite tempe- 
ratures. 

When various metals are combined, striking effects are produced, the strength 
of the common thermo-electric current from the joint being often increased fifty or 
a hundred fold when loose contacts are substituted for tight contacts. The direc- 
tion of the current is also frequently reversed. 

The results of these combinations are necessarily complicated, and require further 
experiment and analysis before publication. In the ordinary thermo-electric battery 
made from pairs of dissimilar metals, a very small proportion of the heat commu- 
nicated to the joint is converted into electricity, which is therefore obtained from 
them at a great disadvantage. But considering the comparatively great intensity 
of the currents produced when loose contacts are eat it seems possible that by 
their means a considerable part of the heat used may be absorbed in the production 
of electricity, which would in that case be more cheaply obtained from heat, than 
directly from chemical action. 

It is needless to allude to the consequences which would ensue should a cheap 
source of electricity be discovered ; but without anticipating such important con- 
sequences from the discovery of the loose contact currents, they certainly seem a 
fit subject for further investigation. Meanwhile it is interesting to consider how, 
when two wires are tightly joined, the heat given them by the flame travels but a 
few inches slowly along them, producing all its sensible effects on objects in the 
immediate neighbourhood; whereas when those wires are moved asunder to an 
almost imperceptible distance, that same heat may in an instant be flashed as elec- 
tricity through thousands of miles, reappearing distributed once more in the form 
of heat almost simultaneously in every part of the whole circuit. 


On the Secular Changes of Terrestrial Magnetism, and their Connexion with 
Disturbances. By the Rev. H. Luoyp, D.D., D.C.L., F.RS., MRLA. 


Of the various changes to which the direction and intensity of the earth’s mag- 
netic force are subject, unquestionably the most mysterious are those which, from 
their analogy to the slower changes of the solar system, have been denominated 
secular. No one has, as yet, offered even a plausible conjecture in explanation of 
these phenomena; while, on the other hand, it has been felt by all who have 
aeatiod them, that their causes lie so deep, and are so closely connected with the 
hidden nature of the force itself, that the knowledge of them would, in all proba- 
bility, unlock most of the secrets of terrestrial magnetism. For these reasons, any 
attempt, however imperfect, to add to our knowledge of the laws which govern 
them will probably be received with indulgence by magneticians. 

It has long been known that, in addition to the changes which pass through their 
whole cycle of values in a day, or in a year, and which are thence called periodic, 
the magnetic elements at a given pee are subject to changes of another kind, 
which continue for a long time in the same direction. It has been generally sup- 
posed that, for a limited number of years, the rate of these changes at any given 
place was either uniform, or else uniformly accelerated or retarded; so that they 
could be mathematically represented by a formula consisting at most of two terms, 
one of which was proportional to the time (measured from some certain epoch), 
and another to its square. In other words, it has been supposed that the mean 
yearly values of the magnetic elements were subject to no fluctuations of minor 

eriod. 
? This view, so far at least as concerns the secular changes of the inclination, has 
been completely disproved by Professor Hansteen. From the long and accurate 
series of observations of this element made by himself at Christiania for more than 


42 a REPORT—1861. 


thirty years, Professor Hansteen has inferred that its progressive change from year 
to year sometimes increases, and at other times diminishes, returning to its former 
value in a limited time; and that, to represént it algebraically, it was necessary 
to add to its expression a term proportional to sin m#, ¢ being the time reckoned 
from a particular epoch. In other words, the mean yearly value of the inclination 
is subject, according to Professor Hansteen, to a periodical fluctuation, whose length 
is 11} years, and which accordingly resembles the periods which have been ascer- 
tained to exist in the magnetical changes. Correcting for the progressive change, 
the inclination was found to be a maximum in 1828, 1840, and 1851, and a minz= 
mum in 1823, 1834, 1845, and 1856. 

From a comparison of the Makerstoun observations with those made at other 
places, Mr. Broun has arrived at a similar conclusion with respect to all the mag+ 
netic elements; and he has pointed out the fact that the periodical changes of theit 
mean yearly values are connected with the decennial period in the magnetic dis- 
turbances. 

These important conclusions are fully confirmed by the Dublin observations: 
Assuming that the inclination decreases proportionally to the time, and comparing 
the results calculated according to this hypothesis with those actually observed, I 
have found that the differences clearly indicate a cyclical or periodic change. 
opp rying the method of least squares to the observed results, the inclination at 
Dublin will be given, on the former supposition, by the formula 


6=70° 21'-95—2""76 xX n, 5 
n being the number of the year reckoned from 1850. The values of the inclination 
calculated by this formula,'as well as the differences between them and the observed 
results, are given in the following Table :— 


Year. | @ (observed). | @ (calculated). | Differences. 


1838. | 76 57-57 70 55-09 49-48 


1842. 44-07 44-05 +0:02 

1845, 40-95 41:28 —0:53 } 
1844. 35:96 38°52 —2°56 

1845. 32°25 35°76 +351 } 
1846. 82°65 33°00 —0°35 

1847. — 30°23 —, 

1848. 28°49 27°47 +1:02 

1849. 27:00 24:71 +2:29 

1850. 24°10 21:95 +2:15 


- There is therefore a residual phenomenon, plainly indicating a cycle or period, 
the minimum occurring in the beginning of the year 1845, as observed by Professor 
Hansteen at Christiania. I may add that the amount of the change at this epoch 
is such as to mask altogether the regular yearly decrease ; in fact it led me at first 
to the supposition that the progression had been reversed, and changed from a 
decreasing to an increasing one. , ’ : ; 

~ The horizontal component of the magnetic force is a function of the force itself 
and of the inclination. It was therefore to be expected that it should manifest a 
corresponding fluctuation, This anticipation is fully proved upon an examination 
of the observations made with the bifilar magnetometer of the Dublin Observatory, 
The indications of this instrument at Dublin have been confirmed, in a remarkable 
manner, by the observations of intensity in absolute measure; and they are such as 
to afford most satisfactory conclusions with regard to the secular changes of that 
‘element. The mean yearly increase of the horizontal intensity at Dublin is 1522 
millionths of the whole. It is, however, very far from uniform; on,the contrary, 
it varies in magnitude from 641 to 1748 millionths, or nearly in the ratio of 1 to 3, 
. The annexed Table gives the absolute values of the horizontal intensity at Dublin, 
as deduced from the bifilar magnetometer and from the absolute observations. The 
first column contains the results of observation ; the second the results calculated 
‘according to the hypothesis of a uniform progressive change; and the third the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43 


differences of the two. These latter show, very clearly, the existence of a cycle. 
The macimum occurs in the year 1844, and the minimum in the year 1848, 


Intensity } Intensity 


Year. observed. |} calculated. Difference. 
1841, 3'4635 34651 —‘0016. 
1842. ‘A694. “A695 — ‘0001 
1843. ‘A7AT- ‘4738 +:0009 
1844. ‘A793 A782 +0011 
1845. ‘4840 A825 +:0015 
1846. ‘4876 ‘A868 + 0008 
1847. ‘A897 ‘A912 — ‘0015 
1848. ‘4936 ‘4955 — ‘0019 
1849. “A997 ‘4999 — ‘0002 
1850. +5052 5042 +0010 


In the Supplement to the Makerstoun observations, published last year, Mr. 
Balfour Stewart remarks that the mean yearly values of the magnetic declination 
“ exhibit some indications of a period in their value.” The observations appear to 
show that the change of the jodiinstion from year to year, at Makerstoun, has 
increased from 1841 to 1855. When this change, and its-variation (supposed to 
increase proportionally to the time) are computed and deducted from the observed 
results, the residual quantities clearly indicate the existence of a period, the maai- 
mum occurring in the year 1846, and the minimum in 1851. 

- The Dublin results éxhibit evidences of a similar cycle. The probable value of 
the magnetic declination at Dublin, in any year, is given by the formula { 


p=26° 29'25—5'94Xn, A; 


n denoting the number of the’ year reckoned from 1850. And when the probable 
values for the several years of observation, computed by this formula, are deducted 
from those actually observed, the differences furnish, like the Makerstoun results, 
unmistakeable evidences of a period. But it is remarkable that the epochs of the 
maximum and minimum occur about a year earlier than at Makerstoun, the maxi~ 
mum taking place at Dublin in the year 1847, and the minimum at the end of 
1842, or beginning of 1843. The total range of this periodical change at Dublin 
=2':24. 

It is impossible to avoid connecting these variations with the periods of mag~ 
netic disturbance. The difference of the observed results for any magnetic element, 
and the monthly mean corresponding to the same hour, being regarded as the effect: 
of the disturbing cause, the mean of these differences, for any period, will serve as‘ 
a measure of the mean disturbance. The*following Table contams the mean yearly? 
yalues of these quantities at Dublin, in the case of the magnetic declination, for 
the years 1840 to 1850 inclusive. The second column contains the differences’ 
between these yearly means and the means of all; they show very plainly the: 
existence of the period whose laws have been so fully traced by General Sabine. 
The disturbance is greatly less than the mean in the years 1845, 1844, 1845, and» 
greatly in excess in 1847, 1848. 


’ 


Year. Mean disturbance. Diff. 
[S40 Bee Oe ee ee aks et On: 
Ne4Tae 2. bat OOS) eh ko ean, 
Ae eo OSs ee) ey z 
TREne Se OL sh OO 
WSEAS awe toe ok see a ORS 
SRR Ss ek elo we wey ee OOF 
GaGa, taste Oleh ces 0:00 
SAE ae OS os ache gee 
18480 Soa, 290 eens 


: qaagt Se ggge et re gap ; 
; aS wml 1SGOS, uke cygegle Lilt OF Ringe ay evo os t 


44 REPORT—1861. 


There can therefore be no doubt of the existence of a connexion between the 
cycles in the mean yearly values of the magnetic elements, and the disturbance 
cycle. It is worthy of remark, however, that the epochs of greatest and least 
declination precede those of greatest and least disturbance, while the corresponding 
epochs for the horizontal intensity follow them. 


On an Electric Resistance Thermometer for observing Temperatures at inacces- 
sible situations. By C. W. Stemens. 


The Philosophical Magazine for January 1861 describes a method which I had 
had occasion to resort to for ascertaining the temperature of the interior of a mass 
of electric telegraph cable suspected of spontaneous generation of heat. Coils of 
copper of platinum wire, of known resistances, were placed between the layers of 
Gaels while coiling it, and leading wires conducted to an observatory. The tem- 
perature of the cable could at any time be ascertained by measuring the actual 
resistances of these coils by means of a Wheatstone’s bridge arrangement, and 
comparing the results with the resistances of the same coils at a standard tempe- 
rature, The electric resistance of a copper or well-annealed platinum wire, increasing 
in a very uniform ratio with increase of temperature, enabled me to determine the 
latter with a remarkable degree of accuracy. 

In endeavouring to simplify the arrangement, I have succeeded in dispensing 
entirely with the Wheatstone’s bridge, and, in fact, in reducing the observation to 
the mere reading of an ordinary mercury thermometer. 

The apparatus consists of a differential galvanometer, and of a bath of water or 
oil, the temperature of which can be changed at will by opening one or other of 
two cocks, one supplying cold and the other hot liquid, an overflow pipe being 
provided to prevent accumulation. A battery of from four to eight cells is pro- 
vided, besides a number of coils, each consisting of a certain length of thin insulated 
platinum wire enclosed in a sealed metal tube. These coils having been carefully 
adjusted, in the first instance, to offer an equal resistance at a fixed temperature, 
are connected with insulated copper leading wires, of comparatively large sectional 
arcs, the ends of which are brought to the binding screws of the apparatus, to be 
inserted, when required, in a circuit including the battery and one side of the differ 
ential galyanometer. 

These “thermometer coils” are deposited at the places whose temperatures have 
to be observed, excepting one which is reserved for comparison with the others. 
This last-mentioned coil, connected by means of its leading wires so as to form an 
electric circuit with the battery and the other side of the differential galvanometer, 
is immersed in the bath before mentioned. This latter coil is enclosed in a sealed 
auricular chamber formed by an internal and external tube of copper or brass, which 
on being immersed immediately communicates the temperature of the bath to the 
coil. . 

It is evident that if the temperature of the bath be the same as that of the place 
where the thermometer coil under examination is deposited, the divided battery 
currents will meet, on each side, an equal resistance, and passing through the two 
helices of the differential galyanometer in opposite directions, will produce no visible 
effect upon the needle. 

If, however, the temperatures of these coils should be unequal, the needle will be 
deflected by the preponderance of current in the cooler half of the divided circuit, 
showing by the direction of its deflection whether cold or hot liquid should be 
added to the bath to establish equilibrium of currents. 

When this equilibrium is obtained, the temperature of the bath is observed b 
means of an ordinary mercury thermometer, and must necessarily be identical wit 
the ne at the distant stations where the coil under examination is de- 

osited. 
R By dividing the thermometer coils into two portions, the apparatus is rendered 
applicable for observing wider ranges of temperature than can . attained directly 
by the mercury thermometer, and in this sified form it may be used for pyrome- 
trical purposes. 

The employment of equal and undivided coils in measuring ordinary tempe- 
ratures is, however, not only the more simple arrangement but it has the advan- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45 


tage in its favour that the accuracy of the observation does not depend upon a 
uniform rate of variation of the resistance. The heat generated in the coils by the 
passage of the electric currents employed, affecting the two coils equally, is also 
completely compensated in using equal coils. 

The late extensive conflagrations of hemp and other warehouses have suggested 
to me the idea of applying this method for detecting in such stores any spontaneous 
generation of heat. It also appears to me applicable in meteorological and other 
scientific observations where maximum and minimum thermometers are at present 
used, 


On the Effect produced. on the Deviation of the Compass by the Length and 
Arrangement of the Compass Needles; and on a New Mode of Correcting 
the Quadrantal Deviation. By Ancurpatp Surru, M.A., RS. ; and F. J. 
Evans, 2.N., Superintendent of the Compass Department of Her Majesty’s 
Navy. 


This was the substance of a paper lately read to the Royal Society, and about to 
appear in the forthcoming volume of the Philosophical Transactions. The follow- 
ing is a summary of the results obtained. 

Tn correcting the deviations of a ship’s compass in the usual way by magnets 
and soft iron, if it is necessary to bring the correctors so near the compass, and if 
the needle is of such a length that its length bears a considerable proportion to 
the distance of the correctors, an error is introduced which cannot be corrected in 
the usual way. When caused by magnets, this error is sextantal; when by soft 
iron, it is octantal. My. Evans, however, observed that this error did not arise 
when, instead of a single needle compass, an Admiralty standard compass was used. 
In this compass, instead of one needle there are four, arranged two and two at 
angles of 15° and 45° on each side of the central line—an arrangement adopted 
long ago in order to prevent the wabbling motion which a single needle card has 
when disturbed. And on submitting the matter to calculation, it appeared that the 
error in question was wholly corrected when, instead of one needle in the central 
line, there were two needles each at angles of 30° on each side of the central line, 
and four needles placed as in the Admiralty compass ; the term involving the error 
haying as a factor cos 3a in the first case, and cos B in the second, where a 
and B are the distances of the needles from the central line. It is therefore re- 
ones strongly that all corrected compass cards should be constructed in 
this way. 

The Eccl part of the communication was a new mode of correcting the qua 
drantal deviation. In all ships, with a very few exceptional cases, this error is posi- 
tive. It may be corrected by cylinders of soft iron placed on each side of the com- 
pass; but when it is large, there are great practical difficulties in making the 
correction. It had been iong ago observed by the late Capt. Johnson, R.N., that 
when two compasses are arranged as in the double binacle compass, they produce 
on each other a considerable deviation, being in fact a negative quadrantal deviation ; 
and et this arrangement had been prohibited in the Navy. It, however, 
occurred to Mr. Evans to apply this arrangement to correct the usual positive 
quadrantal deviation, and one pair of the compasses of H.M.S. Warrior are cor- 
rected in this manner. In this case likewise the needles should be arranged in the 
way above described. 


Remarks on H.M.S. Warrior's Compasses. By F. J. Evans, RN. 


It may be considered interesting to the Meeting, as supplementary to the paper 
read by Mr. Archibald Smith, to receive a brief notice on the magnetism of the 
first of the great iron war-ships of the day, the ‘ Warrior,’ and of the disposition 
of her compasses. 

There is but little novelty in the arrangement of those on the upper deck, 
' excepting that it has been deemed desirable to furnish two standard compasses, 
from the unayoidable proximity of the after one to a new feature which from the 


46. r REPORT—186l, 


special character of the ship has been introduced, namely an iron-cased tower of 
rather considerable dimensions for holding riflemen, and of sufficient thickness to 
withstand the fire of heayy ordnance, This tower is placed on the quarter-deck, in 
the neighbourhood of the steermg-wheel.  ~ 
» The magnetic character of the ship, as developed by the two compasses—hefore 
the rifle-tower was fixed—is quite in accordance with the received principles as 
due to the direction of the ship’s head in building with reference to the magnetic 
meridian. The foremost compass, which is about ird of the ship’s length from the 
bow, had on the 10th of August last a maximum deviation of 16°, and the after 
compass, which is about ird of the ship’s length from the stern, a maximum deviation 
of 31°, the ship being built within 3° of the magnetic meridian (head N, 3° E.), and 
the points of no deviation consequently at north and south. The deviation of the 
after-compass had lessened 6° on the 24th of August; at which date the casing of 
the iron rifle-tower had commenced. 

« But it is, not to these points I would now chiefly direct your. attention, but. to 
certain necessities arising from the novel structure of the ship, demanding, in so 
far as the compasses are concerned, serious attention. . 

“ In the fighting ships of what now may be termed a past generation, we did not seek 
for or expect invulnerability. In 1861 we demand nothing less, and “ more iron” is 
the ery. It is clear from these new conditions that one compass at least, on whiclr 
the ultimate safety of the ship may depend, should be equally protected from the 
fire of the enemy, in the event, which would most likely happen, of everything 
standing on the upper deck being swept away by the fire of the enemy. 

For the management of the ‘ Warrior’ under this probable contingency, an addi- 
tional steering-wheel has been fitted within the great armour-protected space on 
the main deck: this space I need scarcely inform you is cut off from the ends of 
the vessel by massive iron bulk-heads. We are thus obliged, without reference 
to choice of position, to place a compass near this steering-wheel on the main deck, 
and surrounded by iron of massive character on every side, and above as well as 
below. 
~ Under these circumstances we could not but expect deviations of an exaggerated 
amount, and particularly, from the large amount of horizontally placed iron from 
the two iron decks and their beams, a large quadrantal deviation. 

* From the few observations I have been enabled to make, owing to the constant 
progress of the fittings, this quadrantal deviation on the main deck is about 12°, 
nearly trebling in value quantities I have had to deal with in the other iron ships 
of the Royal Navy. 

* It-must be familiar to those who have practically dealt with the subject of cor- 
recting ship’s compasses by the antagonistic influences of magnets and soft iron, 
that 12° of quadrantal deviation is an enormous amount to deal with; and that 
the employment of soft iron correctors which might be usefully employed in the 
smaller values, becomes open to grave objections for the larger ones, : 

Ihave adopted for the ‘ Warrior’s’ main-deck on the plan therefore alluded 
to by Mr. A. Smith, namely the compass cards on Mr. Smith’s plan, and two com- 
passes so placed close together as to destroy by their mutual action this 12° of 
quadrantal deviation, and correcting the polar magnet or semicircular deviation 
by one system of magnets placed in a vertical plane below, and in a central line 
between the two compasses, so that both are equally corrected at the same time.’ 
At the time of my observations this semicircular deviation was 33 points, or nearly 
40° at the maximum. 

I venture to hope that we have by this method overcome the more serious diffi- 
culties of disembarrassing the unfortunate compass, which is now so tortured in its 
action’ by the never-ending introduction of iron of all shapes, sizes, and quality 
around it; butI feel that unceasing vigilance is more than ever required in watching 
the compass under these conditions, and that the subtle agencies of the forces we. 
employ will elude the control of unskilled hands. ; 

The greatest difficulties I have experienced in making certain preliminary expe- 
riments, and what must happen practically in dealing with large compass devia- 
tions, are those due to delicacy of manipulation and workmanship: for example, the 
lubber lines of the compasses must be placed exactly parallel, and exactly in the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47 


fore-and-aft line of the ship; the centres of the compasses must be exactly in a 
line at right angles to the head of the ship; the adjusting magnets must follow the 
Same accuracy of arrangement; and we are thus day by day approaching to the 
necessity of being forced. to expend on an instrument, so common, but so valuable, 
and which unfortunately seamen in general, and I may venture to add, iron ship- 
builders in particular, often treat so lightly, the same rigid accuracy of fittings and 
attention that are required in the more delicate instruments of the observatory. I 
may add that within the last few days I have been informed that the’ steering 
compasses of ‘ La Gloire’ (the ‘ Warrior’ of France) are placed ewthin a similar rifle- 
tower on the upper deck. I am further informed by M. Darondeau, who holds 
with respect to the French Imperial Navy a somewhat analogous position to my 
own in the Royal Navy of this country, that this is an unadvisable arrangement. _ 
« In concluding these brief remarks, I cannot but convey to the Meeting the deep 
debt that the seamen of all nations owe to the President for his long and patient 
investigation on their behalf, of the management of the mariners compass under 
difficulties; to him‘we are indebted for the first practical rules on the subject; and 
however opinions may have varied -as to. the uses of correcting magnets under the 
old condition of things, there can be no.doubt thatin.the case of the ‘Warrior's’ 
main-deck compass, this system‘in its main features becomes an absolute necessity. 


On the Photographic Records given at the Kew Observatory of the great Mag- 
netic Storm of the end of August and beginning of September 1859, By 
B. Stewart, A.M. 3 


The author remarked that the tendency of this great magnetic storm was to 
decrease the horizontal and vertical components of the earth’s force, and that the 
disturbing force came in a wave, the period of which was seven hours. He con- 
trasted this lengthened period with that of earth-currents, which is only a few 
minutes, and supposed that the change in the earth’s magnetism is due to the abso- 
lute amount of a disturbing force, which is of a fluctuating character, and of which 
the fluctuations produce the earth-currents and Aurora Borealis, which are thus 
regarded as secondary discharges, 


‘On the Amount of the direct Magnetic Effect of the Sun or Moon on Instruments 
at the Earth’s Surface. By G. Jounstonn Stoney, M.A., FBS. 


__In the Philosophical Magazine for March 1858, Dr. Lloyd showed that the 
observed disturbances of the magnetic needle, depending on the hours of lunar and 
solar time, follow laws inconsistent with their being due to the direct magnetic attrac- 
tion of the moon or sun, Hence it might be too hastily concluded, from the absence 
of observed effects following the proper laws, that these luminaries are not magnetic, 
The design of Mr. Stoney’s communication was to show that, though as highly mag- 
netized as the earth, their direct effects would be almost inappreciable. i 
The maximum moment which the moon could impress on the needle was first 


ascertained to be 2 aS where M and M’ are the magnetic moments of the moon 


and needle, and D the interyal between their centres, It follows from this that we 
may substitute for the moon a globe a metre in diameter of equally magnetized 
materials, and placed at such a distance as to subtend at the needle an angle equal 
to the greatest apparent diameter of the moon as seen from the earth’s surface. By 
applying to the problem in this form the wonderful numerical data elicited from 
the observations by the genius of Gauss in his memoir on the magnetism of the 
earth, the greatest direct disturbance which the moon could produce, on the hypo- 
thesis of its being of materials as magnetic bulk for bulk as the earth, proves to be 
less than a tenth of a second of space on the declination-needle, and less than a 
twenty-seventh on the dipping-needle. sy ie 

The observations with which these should be compared have been made at 
several stations. The principal part of the observed lunar-diurnal variation con- 
sists of a term depending on twice the lunar hour-angle, but there is also a small term 
containing the simple hour-angle. This latter is the one which, as Dr. Lloyd hag 


48 REPORT—1861. 


shown, the direct action of the moon would affect, and General Sabine has deter- 
mined its values at several stations scattered over the earth, in calculating the for- 
mulz which best represent the observations. These values range (see the Introduc- 
tion to the second volume of the ‘St. Helena Observations’) from 0'-48 up to 2’"04. 
There is therefore no ground for presuming, from the minuteness of the coefficient, 
that the moon is not of as magnetic, or even much more magnetic materials than 
the earth. 

If the comparison with the earth be made mass for mass instead of bulk for bulk, 
the above disturbances must be reduced in the ratio of the moon’s density to that of 
the earth, that is, to about two-thirds of the values already given, 

The same method of course applies equally to the sun; and whether his magnetic 
moment be conceived to be greater than that of the earth in proportion to his mass, 
or in proportion to his bulk, his maximum influence will be even less than that 
assigned above to the moon; for he never attains an apparent size as great as the 
maximum of the moon, and his density is only about half that of the moon, 


On Lightning Figures, chiefly with reference to those Tree-like or Ramified 
Figures sometimes found on the Bodies of Men and Animals that have been 
struck by Lightning. By Cuartes Tomirnson, King’s College, London. 


Professor Poey has collected a number of such cases into a memoir, entitled 
‘The Photographic Effects of Lightning,’ a second edition of which has been pub- 
lished at Paris during the present year. One of these cases is the following :—A 
boy climbed a tree to steal a bird’s-nest ; the tree was struck by lightning, and the 
boy thrown to the ground; on his breast the image of the tree, with the bird and 
nest on one of its branches, appeared very plainly. Mr. Tomlinson explains such 
cases by referring to breath-figures, and showed that when the aischares of a 
Leyden jar is received on a pane of glass, it burns away a portion of the organic 
film which covers all matter exposed to the air, so that when breathed upon, the 
moisture condenses in unbroken streams along the lines where the electricity has 
passed; while on the other parts of the surface the moisture condenses in minute 
globules, so that on holding the glass up to the light the figure is distinctly seen, 
so long as the breath remains on the plate. This figure resembles a tree, bare of 
leaves, and might (as the President of the Section afterwards remarked with 
reference to the diagrams exhibited) be taken for any tree in the world. In this 
figure we have a broad and somewhat rippled line of least resistance or path of the 
principal discharge, branching off from which are numerous ramifications, from 
each of which proceed large twigs, and from these smaller ones of great delicacy 
and beauty. It can be proved that when the discharge of a Leyden jar is thus 
received on glass, the jar sends out feelers in all directions to prepare the way for 
the line of least resistance, and this being accurately inaiteel out, the principal 
discharge takes place. In some cases the discharge bifurcates and even trifurcates. 
If the glass presents too much resistance, the breath-figure consists of these feelers 
only ; and these are the lines which produce the sensation of cobwebs being drawn 
over the face, which seamen sometimes describe as the forerunners of the ship 
being struck. The main trunk is hollow, and resembles in its structure the siliceous 
tubes known as Fulgurites. Mr. Tomlinson took this figure to be typical of the 
lightning discharge which strikes terrestrial objects, and objected to the stereotyped 
zigzag by which a stroke of lightning is generally represented. His theory is, that 
when a tree-like impression is found on the body of a man or animal struck by 
lightning, a portion of the fiery hand of the lightning itself has passed over the 
victim and left its mark. Several cases of this kind were described and discussed ; 
but allowance must be made for the imagination of bystanders, which leads them 
to see in these ramified impressions “an exact portrait of the tree;” the blotches 
are taken for leaves, for a bird or bird’s-nest, &c., as the case may be. Cases were 
also examined in which these tree-like impressions were referred by medical men 
to ecchymosis ; other cases, in which the impressions of a horseshoe, of a nail, of 
2 metal comb, of coins, &c., were found on the persons of the victims, were 
explained on the principle of the transfer of metallic particles from one conductor 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49 


to another, as illustrated by the well-known experiment of M. Fusinieri. Mr. 
Tomlinson rejected the photd-electric theory, by which M. Poey attempted to 
account for the production of all these figures. 


METEOROLOGY. 


On the Causes of the Phenomena of Cyclones. By I. Asue. 


On the supposed Conneaion between Meteorological Phenomena and the Varia- 
tions of the Earth’s Magnetic Force. By Joun Attan Brown, F.R.S., Di- 
rector of the Trevandrum Observatory. 


In the ‘Comptes Rendus’ of the French Academy of Sciences for May 6, 1861, 
a note appeared by Father Secchi, Director of the Observatory of the Roman Col- 
lege, on the connexion between meteorological phenomena and the variation of 
the earth’s magnetic force, as shown by the bifilar magnetometer at Rome. The 
results of Father Secchi’s discussions appeared to me extraordinary ;. for though 
no careful examination of the subject bes been published, yet the question had 
been examined by myself during the years that I directed the Makerstoun Observa- 
tory, both while observing, when during two years, on an average of eight hours 
daily, my eye was upon all the magnetical and meteorological variations, and after- 
wards while discussing the observations. In the latter case the simple method of 
a the simultaneous magnetical and meteorological observations employed 

y Father Secchi was also used, and had any slightly marked relation existed it 
would have been perceived at once. A particular discussion was made to de- 
termine if the variations of the external temperature had any effect on the bifilar 
observations, and the conclusion was that they had none *. 

It would appear, however, from Father Secchi’s discussion of the Roman obser- 
vations, that the horizontal force of the earth’s magnetism increases when the 
north wind blows and the barometer rises at, Rome, while it diminishes when the 
south wind blows and the barometer falls; the two latter phenomena, it is well 
known, are connected with each other and with a rising temperature, while the 
two former are connected with a falling temperature. Had the variations of in- 
tensity to be explained been small, this last relation would have been taken by 
me as an explanation of the whole discussion, especially as the temperature-co- 
efficient indicated for the Roman bifilar (;,,°555 of the whole horizontal force +) 
is less than half the average coefficient for bifilar magnets. Observations uncorrected, 
or insufficiently corrected for temperature would give just such results as those 
obtained from the Roman bifilar. The variations of force it seems, however, are 
too large to be explained by any such error {; and my own unpublished negative 
conclusions, however satisfactory to myself, cannot be accepted by others in oppo- 
sition to results so positive as those contained in the paper under consideration. 
I have in consequence undertaken a special discussion of the observations of the 
bifilar magnetometer and of the anemometer made at Makerstoun in Scotland in the 
year 1844 §. 

Before entering upon this discussion I should allude to an objection to Father 
Secchi’s results, which exists in the conclusions of a paper by me on the horizontal 
force of the earth’s magnetism, lately printed in the ‘Transactions of the Royal 
Society of Edinburgh’ ||. From this paper it appears that generally, when the 
daily mean horizontal force diminishes at one point on the earth’s surface; it 
diminishes simultaneously, and by nearly the same amount, at all other places (the 
discussion includes stations between 55° north and 42° south latitude) ; the same 


* Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. vol. xviii. Introduction. 

t+ Comptes Rendus, lii. p. 907. { Ibid. p,907. 
§ Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. vol. xviii. 

| Ibid. vol. xxii. p. 511. 


1861. 4, 


50 REPORT—1861. 


holds for an increase of force. The earth therefore appears to act as a whole, as a 
great magnet, the increase or diminution being in proportion to the intensity at the 
given point. This fact is wholly opposed to an explanation which would attribute 
an increase or diminution of force to a purely local phenomenon, such as the direc- 
tion of the wind, as may easily be shown; for if, while relating the direction of 
the wind at Makerstoun to the horizontal force at the same place, we also relate it 
to the horizontal force at some other place where the direction of the wind is 
known to be very different, and if the same, or nearly the same, result is obtained 
for the horizontal force at both places, we may be satisfied that the result, whatever 
it may be, is unconnected with the direction of the wind. For this end I have 
chosen as a second station Singapore, nearly on the equator (1° 19’ N. lat., 6 45™ 
long. east of Greenwich). 

In adiscussion of this kind, where the results obtained by others are disputed, itis 
necessary to state distinctly the methods employed: this I shall now do. The hourly 
observations of the bifilar magnetometers at Makerstoun and Singapore for 1844 
having been corrected for temperature *, the monthly mean corresponding to each 
day in the year (that is, having that day for its middle point) was ditained for each 
place: this monthly mean includes the annual and secular change corresponding 
to the given day; and when it has been compared with the corresponding daily 
mean, the difference (+ if the daily mean were the greater, — if the lesser) will 
depend upon other causes. These differences were obtained for each day of 1844 
on which observations were made. The approximate mean direction and mean 

_ pressure of the wind (in pounds on the square foot of surface) at Makerstoun were 
also obtained for each day of the year. In order to render the results comparable 
with those obtained by Father Secchi, the winds were included in the four heads, 
South, East, North, and West; the days of intermediate directions (as N.W.) 
being entered under the two principal heads (as north and west) with half weights 
only. For purposes of comparison the winds were separated into two classes—that of 
weak winds (Aaily mean pressure less than } of a pound), and that of strong winds 
(daily mean pressure } ofa pound and upwards). 

The following are the results of this discussion; and that a comparison may be 
made at once with those of the Roman Observatory, I shall first give the number 
of days for which the horizontal force was greater or less than the mean for each 
of the four winds. ieee 


Direction meagre bifilar, Singapore bifilar, 1844. Direction Rome bifilar, 1860. 
of Wind, of Wind, 
Makerstoun, Above Below Above Below Rome, High or Low or 
1844. mean mean mean mean 1860. rising . falling 
am days. days. days. days. days. days. 
South .... 39 39 34k 432 South ....- 20 81 
Higah cjespieis 30 163 28 172 Hast... ..:. 9 22 
North .... 273 293 29 29 Nowth.... JT9 17 
West.o.set te 612 51 West .... 42 21 


Father Secchi’s numbers are placed alongside for comparison. 

It will be seen, first, that at Makerstoun, for a south wind the number of days 
for a high bifilar was just equal to the number of days for a low bifilar, and 
that nearly the same conclusion holds for the north wind; second, that both 
east and west winds show an excess of days with a high bifilar. The results for 
north and south winds, then, are quite’ opposed to those from the Roman Obser- 
vatory, and the only case in which a similarity exists is that of the west winds ; 
but that this coincidence is wholly accidental is evident from the corresponding 
result for Singapore. Indeed the numbers for Singapore agree generally very nearly 
with those of Makerstoun, the differences being explicable in most cases by days 
for which the daily mean bifilar was but slightly plus or minus of the monthly 
mean. pe 

‘ If we now consider the numbers under the two heads of weak and strong winds, 
we shall obtain other grounds for concluding that the results, such as they are, are 
independent of the direction of the wind. 


* See Trans. Roy. Soe. Edinb. vol. xxii. pp. 484, 550. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51 


Direction of Makerstoun bifilar. Singapore’bifilar. 
eet, Weak winds. Strong winds, Strong winds. Weak winds. 
1844. Aboye Below Above Below Above Below Above Below 
mean mean mean mean mean mean mean mean 
days. days. days. days. days. days. days. days. 
South.... 15 24 24 15 15 24 1e08 2 agu 
Fast .... 142 6 153 10: | 103 9 173 L 
North... 8 4 19 152 | 10 12: 20 13} 
West .... 183 16 45 33 173 17 44 34 


If we examine first the numbers for Makerstoun, we perceive that for weak south 
winds there is an excess of days when the horizontal intensity was below the mean, 
while for strong south winds just the reverse was the case ; a similar opposition is 
shown for weak and strong north winds. The east and west winds give more 
consistent results; but that the opposition in the former cases and the agreement 
in the latter are independent of the force or direction of the wind, will be evident 
on examining the corresponding numbers for Singapore. 

As in this discussion many of the days noted may refer to differences of hori- 
zontal force very little above or below the mean, and as these days of slight dif- 
ference have the same weight in the above tables as days of great difference, we 
shall avoid what is objectionable in this method by considering the mean of the 

ositive and negative differences of intensity at both places for each wind at 
akerstoun ; these are included in the following scheme, where the quantities are 
in ten-thousandths of the whole horizontal force at the respective places. 


Direction of 
wind at Mean differences of bifilar, Makerstoun. Mean differences of bifilar, Singapore. 
Fetona, Weak winds. Strong winds. All forces. Weak winds. Strong winds. All forces. 
South .... —193 +0-20 — 0:87 —0°75 +0:10 —0°33 
East .... +0°87 +088 +0°88 +0:13 +0°66 +0°42 
North .... —1:02 —0:06 —0:43 — 0:43 +041 +0-08 
West .... —0°55 +0°64 +028 —0:25 +0:16 +004 


From this it appears that the horizontal force was, on the average, less than the 
mean for north and south winds at Makerstoun, and greater than the mean for east 
and west winds. The results for weak and strong winds are also generally contra- 
dictory, that for east winds being the only decided exception. 

When we compare the quantities for Makerstoun and Singapore, we find the 
signs, with one exception, the same, but the amounts less at the latter than at the 
former station. This difference is due to the greater effect of magnetic disturbances 
on the means in the higher latitude. That this is the case may be easily shown in 
the present instance by omitting in the discussion the three days in 1844 having 
the greatest difference of daily mean from the corresponding monthly mean (namely 
March 29, April 17, and November 22). This may he done the more readily, since 
none of the three days is connected with any change in the direction of the wind, 
which was blowing between south and west. For these two directions, then, the 
following are the results, omitting the three days noted of greatest disturbance. 


Direction of 


wind at Weak winds. Strong winds. All forces of wind. 
(nor ye Makerstoun. Singapore. Makerstoun. Singapore. Makerstoun. Singapore. 

South .... —0:79 —0:63 — 0:02 —0-01 — 0-40 —0°32 

West .... —0-46 —0:26 +0:34 +0:23 +0:10 +0:07 


_ Here the agreement for the two places is so much more marked as to confirm the 

' explanation given as to the cause of the difference between the quantities for the 
two places. It may be necessary to repeat that the winds with which the Singa- 
pore bifilar is compared are not the winds blowing at Singapore, but those blowing 
at Makerstoun in Scotland. 

The results, then, are not only opposed to those obtained from the Roman Ob- 
servatory, but they are such as to prove that the direction of the wind is unconnected 
with these variations, It is scarcely necessary to remark that the final quantities 

4* 


52 REPORT— 1861. 


obtained in the above discussions are very small, the greatest being less than 4ths 
of one scale division of the Roman bifilar; in a discussion of a sufficiently large 
series they would probably entirely vanish. Should, however, further proof be re- 
quired that the local meteorological phenomena are unconnected with the varia- 
tions of horizontal intensity, it will be found in plate 28 of the paper previously 
cited on the horizontal intensity of the earth’s magnetism, where it will be seen 
that the simultaneous variations of daily mean horizontal force from hour to hour 
at six places (Makerstoun in Scotland, the Cape of Good Hope, Trevandrum, South 
India, Singapore, Hobarton, Van Diemen Island, and Toronto in Canada) resemble 
each other, excepting in minute points and in cases of marked disturbance. 

I should not terminate the examination of this question without noticing that 
Father Secchi has concluded that magnetic disturbances are predictors of change 
of weather at Rome ; he has indeed given numbers which seem to show that there are 
most disturbances when the wind blows from the south at Rome. When it is re- 
membered that magnetic disturbances are experienced simultaneously on all parts 
of the earth’s surface, any connexion between them and the weather at Rome must 
appear extraordinary. For the strict examination, however, of this question, there 
are, however, several points to be taken into consideration, some of which it seems 
to me have been omitted by Father Secchi. First, we should decide on the defi- 
nition of a day of disturbance; second, we should determine how many of these 
days occur in a fixed number (say a hundred) during which each wind blew; third, 
it should be remembered that the greatest mean magnetic disturbance occurs near 
the epochs of the equinoxes, and that the amount for perihelion is greater than for 
aphelion. As for these periods of the year, each place has a prevailing wind; the 
discussion for each place would give the greatest number of disturbances for these 
winds: thus at Makerstoun the prevailing winds were south-westerly, and the 
greatest number of disturbances occurred in 1844 with south and west winds; at 
Rome the prevailing wind at these epochs is perhaps southerly, and at Singapore it 
is probably westerly. 

As I am unacquainted with the observations made in the observatory of the 
Roman College, I shall not yenture to offer any suggestion as to the remarkable 
results which have been deduced from them. 


On the Law of Universal Storms. By Wrtu1am Danson, of Liverpool. 


In the course of his ee the author insisted on the soundness of the general 
views now prevalent regarding the theory of storms, and the regularity of their occur- 
rence. He endeavoured to show that it was something like infatuation on the 
part of seafaring men ignoring these puis ae and commanders, as well as 
ordinary seamen, included. It was a point of the greatest importance, at the pre- 
sent time, to consider whether it was not desirable to adopt improved means to 
secure the safety of traffic, leaving the rapidity of ships’ passages as a secondary con- 
sideration; and supposing this view of the subject to be recognized, it was worthy 
of being taken into account whether the theory of what was now nautically known 
as the “great circle sailing” was not the best to be adopted by our mercantile ma- 
rine captains generally. He knew that, in insisting upon the practical utility of 
recognizing this theory, he was in antagonism with the views of many experienced 
seamen, whose opinions were entitled to profound respect; but he nevertheless 
ventured to suggest, as worthy of the notice of the nautical public generally, that, 
in a great number of cases, ships whose captains had followed the “great circle 
sailing” theory had arrived safely at their respective destinations; whilst other 
vessels, under the same thermometrical and barometrical circumstances, but whose 
commanders had adhered to the hitherto received ideas of practical nautical navi- 
gation, had met with a fate which it would only be painful to dilate upon. Re- 
ferring to the length and duration of storms, he said that the results of several of 
the most complete calculations indicated that, in the instances of storms, several of 
them had extended as far as 8600 miles, and travelled at the rate of 50 miles an 
hour, and that this is a moderate calculation. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ‘53 


Remarks on the Temperature of the Earth’s Crust, as exhibited by Thermome- 
trical Returns obtained during the sinking of the Deep Mine at Dukinfield. 
By Wn. Farsarrn, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S. 


It is now more than ten years since a series of experiments were commenced to 
determine the temperature at which certain substances became fluid under pressure. 
These experiments had reference to the density, point of fusion, and conducting 
power of the materials of which the earth’s crust is composed, and were prosecuted 
with a view to the solution of some questions regarding the probable thickness of 
the earth’s crust. Contemporaneously with these, we were fortunate in being able 
to ascertain by a series of direct experiments, under very favourable circumstances, 
the increase of temperature to a limited depth in the earth’s crust itself. These 
observations were obtained by means of thermometers placed in bore-holes at various 
depths, during the sinking of one of the deepest mines in England, namely, the coal- 
mine belonging to F. D. Astley, Esq., at Dukinfield. The bore-holes were driven 
to such a depth as to be unaffected by the temperature of the air in the shaft, 
and the thermometers were left in them for periods varying from half an hour to two 
hours. It is very difficult to arrive at accurate data on the subject of the increase 
of temperature as we descend from the surface to depths within our reach. On the 
contrary, the experiments hitherto made, give unfortunately somewhat conflicting 
results, and even in the same mine the rate of increase of temperature is by no means 
uniform. This is shown very clearly in the results obtained by Mr. Astley. It is 
scarcely probable, however, that the temperature in the mine shaft influenced the 
results, and we must therefore seek the cause of this irregularity in the varying con- 
ducting power of the rocks, arising from different density, and different degrees of 
moisture in the strata. 

The following Table gives the general results obtained during the sinking of the 
Be which extended over a period of nearly ten years, from June 1849 to March 

59. 


TaBLE I.—Thermometric Observations in the Dukinfield Deep Mine. 


Depth |'Fempe-|Timein} Quality of M. State of bore-hole, and oth 
Date, | ofthe | rature |hole, im} "Gr Strata*. ——eas, 
1848. | yds. es m. 
July 28.) 52] 51 1440 |Red rock .......0+...sse0es No variation. 
|} 1849. 

June 1.} 231 573 | 30 |Blue metals............... Wet hole, water from sides. 
», 12.| 2342 | 58 J10 {Blue metals............... Dry hole, water from sides. 
» 16.) 237 58 60 |Blue metals............... Dry hole, water from sides. 

July 14.) 239 574 | 120 |Blue metals............006 Dry hole, water from sides. 
» 16.|} 240 58 | 120 (Blue metals....,.......... Dry hole, water from sides. 
yn 2g2|) 242 572 | 120 |Blue metals.........0004.. Dry hole, water from sides. 


Aug. 9.| 244 58 | 120 |Blue metals.... 
» 20.| 248 58 120 {Blue metals.... 


Dry hole, water from sides. 
Dry hole, water out of tubbing. 


» 27.) 248 574 | 130 (Blue metals............... Dry hole. 
» ol.| 250 571 | 150 {Blue metals............00. Dry hole, in dust. 

Nov. 14.} 252 58 90 |Blue metals........,...00. Dry hole, 5 men sinking. 

Dec. 6.| 2563 | 58 | 120 |Blue metals.......... .....|Dry hole, 5 men sinking. 
» 15.| 2623 | 58%} 90 (Blue shale................. Dry hole, 5 men sinking. 
pee.) 240 58 | 140 {Bituminous shale........ Dry hole, 5 men sinking. 
1850. ‘ 

Jan. 9.| 2793 | 58} 180{ lipeere bicnagt Dry hole, 7 men sinking. 
» 26.) 2862 | 592] 110 {Rock bands.............../Dry hole, 5 men sinking. 


Feb. 11.| 293 594 | 60 |Hard mine roof.......... Dry hole, 5 men sinking. 
» 19.| 300 59Z | 180 {Warrant earth............ Dry hole, 5 men sinking. 
Mar. 5.| 309 59Z | 70 |Purple mottled shale ...|Dry hole, 5 sinking. 


* The terms in the column of remarks are those in common use amongst the miners. 


54 REPORT—1861L. 


TaBLE [.—continued. 


Depth | Tempe- Time in 


Date . Quality of Measure, State of bore-hole, and other 
FY ee ea aes remarks 
1851. | yds. ‘ m. 
June 9.} 358 623 | 300 {Warrant earth....... -.---|Dry hole, in dust, 5 men sinking. 
Aug. 14.) 373 64 61 |Tender blue shale........ Dry hole, in dust, 6 men sinking. 
Nov. 7.| 403 65 | 360 |Top shuttle mine roof.../Dry hole, in dust, 6 men sinking. 
y 19.} 419 653 | 120 Rock bands............++« Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
1852 
Feb. 6.) 433 664 | 120 Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
May 28.) 446 67 120 ..|Dry hole, in dust, 6 men sinking. 
1857. 
Feb. 28.) 4833 | 674 75 Dry hole, in dust, 6 men sinking. 
Mar. 7.| 487 672 | 75 Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
April 11.} 501 683 | 60 Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
May 6.| 5114 | 683 | 120 Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
» 19.] 5213} 692 | 135 {Strong grit shale ........ Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
June 9.} 533 69% | 130 |Warrant earth............ Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
yy 22. 539 692 | 150 |Blue shale.............+-.. Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
yy 27.) 846 713 | 150 |Coal and earth............ Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
July 18.) 555 714 | 130 |Grey rock........0...000... |Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
Aug. 1.| 563 722 | 120 [Red rock ..........s0000++-| Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
9 D5] 569 Jiaeq) 120). [Red roek 2. cc0..cu8 Jaceeee Wet hole, 7 men sinking. 
Sept. 2.} 578 (22.| 180) |Red rock <u». .coeveve sees >< Wet hole, 7 men sinking. 
» 19.| 589 71% SOvi| Redtrocktscc-ts:steccerens Wet hole, 7 men sinking. 
Oct. 3.| 597 721 | 120 |Grey red rock............ Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
» 17.| 608 724 | 150 |Rusty mine roof ......... Wet hole, a little gas escaping. 
» 27.) 6134 723 | 180 |Rusty mine floor......... Wet hole, 7 men sinking. 
1858. 
Mar. 22.) 621 72 90 |Strong grit shale......... Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
ae PA amy | 713 | 90 |Dark blue shale ......... Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
April 23.) 6453 | 721 | 140 |Gritty shale............... Dry hole, in dust, 6 men sinking. 
May 1.} 651 72% | 150 |Gritty shale............... Dry hole,in dust, 7 men sinking. 
» 19.} 658 724 | 120 |Dark blue shale ......... Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
June 9.| 669 731 | 150 |Bituminous shale ........ Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
» 19.| 673 74% | T85 |Grey rock..........-ccseee Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
July 17.| 683 754 | 180 |Dark blue shale...... ....|Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. 
» 21.} 685 75% | 180 |Dark blue shale.......... Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. |. 
1859. 
Mar. 5.| 717 75 | 1200 |Black mine roof......... 120 yards down Engine Brow 
Works. Standing. 


The increase of temperature with the depth, as exhibited in the preceding Table, 
is shown graphically in Plate I. The irregularly curved line takes a course which 
is approximately a mean of the results ; the straight line is that which shows the in- 
crease of tenrperature on the assumption that it varies directly as the depth. 

On examining the Table or the diagram, it will be seen that the experiments in- 
dicate some considerable irregularities ; nor is this greatly to be wondered at, if we 
consider the difficulties of the inquiry, and the liability to error in assuming the 
temperature of a single bore-hole as the mean temperature of the stratum. At the 
same time it is not probable that the temperature in the mine shaft has in any 
degree affected the results, and we must therefore accept the observations as a whole, 
and attempt to ascertain their general bearing. 

As to the rate of increase, they appear to confirm previous experiments, in which 
it has been shown that the temperature increases directly as the depth. The rate 
is at first rather less than this, pean somewhat greater, and at last again less ; 
but, on the whole, as will be seen in the Plate, the straight line, on which the 
temperature increases as the depth, nearly expresses the mean of the experiments. 
The amount of increase indicated in these experiments. is from 51° to 572°, as the 
depth increases from 52 yards to 231 yards, or an increase of 1° in 99 feet. But if 
we take the results which are more reliable, namely, those’ between the depths of 


4 See. 
wit aa “ap a 
Pe vs Pe ek 


ng the Deep Min 


sinha 


nda LYNE 


ISHTON tt 


Wi AWA ARAN OR 


VA AY A 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55 


231 and 685 yards, we have an increase of temperature from 577° to 753°, or 173° 
Fahrenheit. That is a mean increase of 1°in 76°8 feet. This rate of increase is not 
widely different from that observed by other authorities. Walferdin and Arago 
found an increase of 1° in 59 feet in the artesian well at Grenelle. At the salt- 
works at Rehme, where an artesian well penetrates to a depth of 760 yards, or 
yather more than the Dukinfield mine, the increase is 1° in 54°7 feet. MAL pe la 
Rive and Marcet found an increase of 1° in 51 feet at Geneva. Other experiments 
have given an increase of 1° in 71 feet. In one respect the observations in the 
Dukinfield mine are peculiarly interesting, as they give the temperature in various 
descriptions of rock, which appear to prove what has hitherto been partially sus- 
pected, that the conducting powers of the rocks exercise a considerable influence 
on the temperature of the strata. If we add to this the influence of the percolation 
of water, we shall probably have a sufficient explanation of the irregularities observed 
in the experiments. 

In Plate I. I have attempted to show graphically the results obtained between 
the depths of 231 and 717 yards. The dots show the actual experimental relation 
of depth and temperature, arranged on a Table in which the ordinates are depths 
and the abscisse temperatures. Between these I have drawn a line of variable cur- 
vature, which expresses approximately the rate of increase in descending through 
the strata. Between the extreme indications which are most reliable I have drawn 
a straight line which expresses the theoretical rate, or a uniform increase of 1° in 
76°8 feet of vertical descent. Beside the Table of curves is placed a section of the 
strata of the mine. 

Since the above was written I have received from Dukinfield some further expe- 
riments obtained in the same manner in a new shaft which is being sunk at no 
great distance from the former. The following Table gives the results of these 
experiments :— 


Taste I.—Observations of the Increase of Temperature in the Dukinfield 
No. 2' Pit. 


Tempe- | No. of 
Date. Depth, | rature |minutes Strata. Remarks. 
Fahr. |in hole. 


Oe | 


1858. | yds. *s 


June 22.| 167% | 58 180 |Blue shale................. In this Table the thermometer 
» 29.| 174 578 | 200 |Blue shale................. was always placed in a dry 
July 21.) 1853 | 584 } 200 /Blue shale................. sump hole, except on April 
1859. ‘ 12, 1860, when the hole was 
Jan. 7.| 239% | 59 | 150 |Blue shale.................| wet. Up to April 30, 1859, 
» 29.} 254 582 | 140 {Strong grey shale........ five men were at work in the 
Feb. 17.| 267 59% } 150 |Strong grey shale........ pit at the time of making the 
Mar. 5.| 277 60 180 |Strong grey shale ...... observations, and after that 
April 2.) 295 60 | 120 |Huncliffe red rock....... time six men. 
sy 30.| 308 60 130 |Huneliffe red rock....... 
May 26.) 315 614 | 155 |Huncliffe red rock....... 
June 16,| 329 613 | 150 |Grey shale.............00+ 
Oct. 10.) 358 62 150 |Grey shale under T. 
Nov. 7.| 3823 | 6323 | 150 Lane Mine......... aches 
ay 29s) O98 634 | 150 |Grey shale under T. 
Lane Mine.............. 
Dec. 11.| 419 632 | 180 | Bituminous shale ........ 
1860. 
Feb. 6.| 4363 | 654 | 120 /Bituminous shale........ 
» 29.| 4552 | 66 120 |Bituminous shale ........ 
April 12.| 467 664 | 120 |Grey rock ..............-.- 


. This Table shows an increase of temperature of 1° Fahrenheit for every 106 feet 
descent. 

From the above and similar observations we have evidence of the existence in 
the earth of internal heat, the baits so far as can be ascertained, increasing 
in the simple ratio of the depth. I do not, however, presume to offer an opinion 


56 REPORT—1861. 


as to whether this increase continues to much greater depths than we have yet 

enetrated, as observations upon this point are still imperfect. But, assuming as an 
Pe othess that the law which prevails to a depth of 700 yards continues to operate 
at still greater depths, we arrive at the conclusion that at a depth of less than two 
and a half miles the temperature of boiling water would be reached, and at a depth 
of 40 miles a temperature of 3000°Fahrenheit, which we may assume to be sufficient 
to melt the most refractory rocks of which the earth’s crust is composed. If, 
therefore, no other circumstance modified the conditions of liquefaction, all within 
a thin crust of this thickness would be in a fluid state. This, however, is not the 
case. At these depths the fusing-point is modified by the pressure and conductivity 
of the rocks. 

We know that in volcanic districts, where the great subterranean laboratory of 
nature is partially opened for our inspection, the molten mass, relieved from pres- 
sure, pours forth from volcanic craters currents of lava which form a peculiar class 
of rocks. 

Besides this, it has been ascertained by experiment on soft substances, such as 
spermaceti, wax, and sulphur, that the temperature of fusion increases about 1°35 
i ahrenheit for every 500 lbs. pressure per square inch,—that is, in other words, that 
the temperature of fusion under pressure is increased in that ratio. If we assume 
this to be the law for the materials of the earth’s crust, and correct our previous 
calculations in accordance with it, we find that we shall have to go to a depth of 
65 miles, instead of merely 40 miles, before the point of fusion of the rocks is 
reached. 

It must, however, be observed that Mr. Hopkins’s later experiments with tin and 
barytes do not show such an increase of the point of fusion in consequence of pres- 
sure, and he is led to the belief that it is only in the more compressible substances 
that the law holds true. 

Independently of this, however, Mr. Hopkins points out to me that in the above 
calculation it is assumed that the conductivity of the rocks is the same at great 
depths as at the surface. In opposition to this he has shown experimentally that 
the conducting power for heat is at least twice as great for the dense igneous 
rocks. as for the more superficial sedimentary formations of clay, sand, chalk, &c. 
And these close-grained igneous rocks are those which we believe must most 
resemble the rocks at great depths below the surface. Now Mr. Hopkins shows 
that if the conductive power were doubled, the increase of depth, corresponding to 
a given increase of temperature, would be doubled, and we should probably have to 
descend 80 or 100 miles to reach a temperature of 3000°, besides the further increase 
which investigation may show to be due to the influence of pressure on the tempe- 
rature of fusion. 

Mr. Hopkins therefore concludes that the extreme thinness of the crast assumed 
by some geologists to account for volcanic phenomena is untenable. Calculations 
on entirely independent data led him to conclude that the thickness did not fall 
short of 800, instead of 30 or 40 miles. If it be so much, he is further led to be- 
lieve that the superficial temperature of the crust is due to some other cause than 
an internal fluid nucleus. It remains a problem, therefore, which my friend Mr. 
Hopkins is endeavouring to solve, as to what is the actual condition of the earth 
at great depths, and the relation of terrestrial heat to volcanic phenomena. 


Tidal Observations. By Rear-Admiral FrrzRoy, F.R.S. 


Since the publication of Dr. Whewell’s invaluable essays on Tides, much addi- 
tional information has been collected by the Admiralty, through various surveying 
expeditions in many parts of the world, respecting tides. 

he accompanying volume of tide-tables shows to what extent our acquaintance 
with the facts of the subject goes at present. 

However extended a knowledge of tidal facts may be now, compared with that of 
the earlier of those past years (some thirty), in which all maritime nations have 
benefited from light thrown on the subject by that “Essay towards an approxima- 
tion,” which enabled seamen to discriminate between features until then viewed 
in only a confused manner, and taught them clearly how and what to observe, 
there is still very much to be learned. 

The useful, indeed now indispensable, yearly volume published by the Hydro- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57 


aie on the tides of the world, which, like the Nautical Almanac, is a text-book 
or the seamen of all nations, owes the truth of its principles, .and great increase of 
its detailed facts, chiefly to Dr. Whewell, and, no doubt, ie will cordially add sug- 
gestions, if he concurs in the belief that more still should be done. 

In the central parts of the Pacific Ocean, and at numerous isolated points seldom 
visited for expressly tidal objects, exact details about the tides are wanting; but 
they are unlikely to be ascertained, except by a vessel employed specially for that 


uurpose. 
4 i osuces natural if not artificial, at such selected places, away from continents 
and near the deepest seas, should be watched adequately during a sufficient time, 
in order that their results, and a-few comparative observations at known places, 
might enable Dr. Whewell to put the finishing hand to his comprehensive works 
on Tides, and to leave them completed for the general benefit of posterity. 


On the Distribution of Fog around the British Isles. 
By J. H. Guapstonz, Ph.D., F.RS. 


Among the returns asked for Ly the Royal Commissioners on Lights, Buoys, and 
Beacons, and embodied in the Appendix of their Report laid before Parliament 
last session, was “The number of days in 1858 on which fogs were noted in the 
meteorological register.”. This question was asked in respect to each lighthouse 
or floating light in the United Kingdom. The author had gathered together the 
information thus obtained, and had constructed tables of 200 different sites, geogra- 
phically arranged, with the frequency of fog at them in the year mentioned. 100 
of these sites are in England and Wales, 48 in Scotland, and 52 in Ireland. 

The following conclusions were drawn from the tabulated numbers :— 

Ist. The average number of days in 1858 on which fogs were noted in the dif- 


ferent parts of the United Kingdom is :— 
On ms Maca a is 


BnglandiandWw ales)... 5.22 46 s+ afeeasorere 

PICOtL aN epee ste) «ores «\=jo/=! eh oxckatepoi aegis 22 17 
Ireland aioe py. aicietnia's; cious Sdtanacraereee 19 16 
General average ........... csc rneneees 24 20 


2nd. The distribution of fog over different parts of a sea varies little, even though 
it varies greatly on different parts of the adjoining coast. Between the River 
Humber and the Straits of Dover there are 23 stations at sea which returned num- 
bers ranging between 15 and 32, and nearly all included between 18 and 24; while 
the stations on the coast returned numbers irregularly distributed between 7 and 
45, and in one instance 81. There are indications that fogs are about equally fre- 
quent in other parts of the sea surrounding England and Scotland, but only half 
as numerous on the west of St. George’s Channel. 

3rd. The frequency of fogs on the coast is in many places far less than on the 
neighbouring sea. ‘Thus, on the southern and eastern coasts of England there are 
14 stations where less than 15 days were noted. Every one of these is a station 
near the sea-level; and among them are the sandbanks at the mouth of the 
es and the breakwaters. Promontories of low land are not very often visited 

ogs. 

Vath Two stations very near one another, but differing in their elevation above 
the sea, often differ widely in the frequency of fog, the lower site having generally 
the smaller number. Thus the station on the beach at Lowestoft gives 7 days, 
while that on the cliff gives 27. At North Shields, however, it is the reverse. 

5th. When the land rises to a considerable height, and is so situated that it 
meets the south-westerly winds directly after they have traversed the ocean, a 
frequent deposition of moisture is the result—either “fog” or “cloud.” The high 
points along the south and south-west coasts of England and Wales all give large 
numbers, especially the Start, 79 days; Needles, 75; St. Catherine’s Point, 76; 
and Lundy Island (the highest station in England), 76. The lighthouse at the 
Needles has on this account been recently removed from the cliff to a low rock. 
Tn Ireland, the greatest frequency of fog noted in 1858 was at Ballycotton, 55 days, 
a high station on the southern coast, The west of Ireland appears not to be visited 
by fog so often as the west of England. The greatest eles in the whole list is 


58 REPORT—1861. ~ 


126, at Barvahead, in the Hebrides; and this appears the more remarkable, & the 
neighbouring lighthouse at Skerryvore returns the very low number of 6 days; but 
the Skerryvore is a low rock many miles from land, while the station at Barrahead 
is the highest in the United Kingdom, on the southernmost po‘nt of a range of 
large islands, and near the Gulf-stream. The eastern side of the Hebrides is not 
foggy. The southernmost point of the Shetland Islands likewise returns a high 
number. The smallest number noted is at Troon in Ayrshire, viz. 4. 

6th. Where a large area of sea is surrounded on most s‘des by land, fogs are 
infrequent—at least this seems to hold good on the coasts of the Moray Firth, the 
Minch, the Firth of Clyde and neighbouring sea, the Solway Firth, and Donegal 
and Sligo Bays. It is otherwise in the Bristol Channel. The Irish shore of St. 
George’s Channel returns also small numbers, except at Dublin Bay. 


On a Deep-Sea Thermometer invented by Henry Johnson, Esy., 39 Crutched 
Friars. By James Guatsuer, F.R.S. 


The deep-sea thermometer is intended to be used in experiments made with the 
deep-sea pressure-gauge, to ascertain how much of the variation in volume indicated 
by the gauge is caused by variation of temperature. 

In several experiments made by Mr. Glaisher in the year 1844 upon the tempe- 
rature of the Thames water, at different seasons of the year, it was found that the 
indications of temperature were very materially affected by the pressure of water 
upon the bulbs of the thermometers used, even at the depth of 25 feet. 

This circumstance demonstrated the importance of a thermometer for deep sound- 
ings without liability to derangement of indication from pressure of water, and led 


A. The cylinder. B. Stem with graduated scale. C. Flat elastic ring or index. 
D. Elastic stopper. E. Metal frame lined with caoutchoue. 

F. Caoutchoue rings protecting glass gauge from concussion. 

G. Caoutchouc rings, in the’case, securing gauge in position. 

H. Metal hook in the door of case securing the top. 

I. Clasp to door, let in to avoid projection. 

K. Vent, or grooved needle inserted with stopper. 

L. Brass hook to draw up needles. 


TRANSACFIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59 


to the construction of the instrument now described, the indications of which are 
regulated by the lateral motion of compensation bars, composed of thin bars of two 
metals riveted together that expand and contract in different ratios with change of 
temperature. Upon one end of a narrow plate of metal about a foot in length (a) are 
fixed three scales of temperature (2) ranging from 25° to 100° Fahrenheit. 

Upon one of these scales, as shown in the drawing on an enlarged scale, the pre- 
sent temperature is indicated by the point of a needle (E), which turns upon a 
pivot in its centre, and on the other scales register indices (g, f) are pushed by a 
pin on the needle (e) to the maximum and minimum temperatures, where they are 
retained by stiff friction. ; 

To the needle are attached at equal distances from the centre, by connecting 
wel (d d), the free ends of two compensation bars (66), the other ends of the bars 

eing attached by the plate (c) to the above-mentioned plate (a). 

The motion of the needle is regulated by the lateral motion of these bars with 
change of temperature. In order to avoid disturbance of indication by lateral con- 
cussion, two bars are used in lieu of one bar only. 

The compensation bars are composed of brass and steel, in the proportion of two- 
thirds of brass (which is the more dilatable metal) and one-third of steel, and have 
sufficient lateral motion to admit of legible scales of temperature, and also sufficient 
power to overcome the stiff friction of the indices. 

The specific gravity of brass being 8:39, and that of steel 7:81, it is obvious that 
no pressure of water can have any effect upon the motive power of the bars, or 
upon the indications of temperature, as under hydraulic pressure equal to that of a 
depth of 6000 fathoms of water it acquires a density of 1-06 only. 

he compensation bars are strongly tinned as a protection against sea-water, and 
the pivots on which the needle and indices move are strongly gilt. 

In surveying expeditions this instrument may be serviceable in giving notice of 
a variation of depth of water, and of the necessity for taking soundings. 

A diminution of temperature of water has been observed by scientific voyagers to 
accompany a diminution of depth, as on approaching hidden rocks or shoals, or 
nearing land, and also on approaching icebergs. 

The instrument has been suspended by Mr. Glaisher on a thermometer-stand 
for a period of six months, and read daily in connexion with standard meteorolo- 
gical instruments, and during this time its readings were approximate to those of 
the best instruments. 

The case of the instrument has been improved at the suggestion of Admiral 
FitzRoy, and now presents to the water a smooth cylindrical surface with rounded 
ends, and without any projecting fastenings. 


On a Deep-Sea Pressure-Gauge invented by Henry Johnson, Esq. 
By James Guatsuer, F.2.S. 
In deep soundings the pressure of water is too great to admit of measurement by 
a highly elastic fluid in a small portable instrument. A slight degree of elasticity 
has been discovered in water itself, and which admits of a vessel of water being 
used as a measure of the amount of pressure at great depths. 

Mr. Canton, whose experiments were communicated to the Royal Society on 
Dee. 16, 1762, found, in water subjected to the pressure of an additional atmosphere, 
a diminution in volume of one part in 21,740; and in water placed under a receiver 
he found an increase of one part in 21,740 when the air was exhausted. 

Mr. Perkins found a diminution of ;&>th parts in the volume of water subjected 
to o pressure equal to 1120 atmospheres, or about one part in 19,000 for one atmo- 
sphere. 

oA ressure-gauge of metal was exhibited at the Meeting of the British Associa- 

tion in 1860, and is described at page 203, consisting of a cylinder filled with water, 
with a solid piston or ram, with a graduated scale, and an index to mark the length 
of piston forced into the cylinder, compressing the water in it by the greater den- 
sity of the surrounding water. 

As, however, it is found that air-bubbles adhere to the inner surface of the metal 
cylinder, and the exclusion of air is important, a pressure-gauge is now exhibited 
composed entirely of glass, which is not liable to this disadvantage. 

Tt consists of a cylindrical glass vessel with a finely graduated long stem or 


60 REPORT—1861. 


neck, within which are placed a flat elastic rig and an elastic stopper. When the 
water in the gauge is compressed, the stopper and ring are pressed down the stem 
towards the cylinder; and when it expands, the elastic stopper is pressed back, the 
elastic rg remaining as an index of compression. 

Some few precautions are necessary before use, viz. the gauge should be well 
rinsed with boiled water for the purpose of preventing the adhesion of air to its 
inner surface. It should then be filled, to the top of the stem, with sea-water 
boiled to free it from air. 

The elastic ring should now be inserted, and then the stopper, with a vent or 
small grooved needle at the side, to allow superfluous water to escape, and it should 
be pressed down the stem until its lower edge and the point or zero-line marked 
2000 are coincident. The grooved needle should then be withdrawn, and the 
stopper will tightly fit the stem. The stopper should be slightly lubricated to pre- 
vent excessive friction. 

On descending into water of greater density the water in the gauge is compressed 
until equally dense, and the elastic stopper and elastic ring are pressed down the 
stem towards the cylinder. On ascending to water of less density the water in the 
gauge expands, and the stopper is pressed upwards, leaving the elastic ring behind. 

Upon regaining the surface after the experiment, the water in the gauge should 
press the stopper nearly back to its former position on the zero-line, a small dif- 
ference being caused by friction. 

The elastic ring marks the extreme compression at the greatest depth attained. 
This depth should be determined by the sounding line, to which the instrument 
should in these experiments be for some time attached. 

The volume of the water in the cylinder and stem is considered to be divided 
into 2000 parts, of which the stem contains one-tenth or 200 parts; these are num- 
bered from 1800 to 2000. 

Each part on the stem may be easily read to a tenth, or a 20,000th part of the 
whole quantity. 

A compression of sea-water of one part in 20,000 is caused by a pressure of 
158 lbs. avoirdupois per square inch, or a depth of 35,456 feet, or nearly six fathoms. 

The experiments of Mr. Canton and Mr. Johnson confirm this estimate of pres- 
sure, so that it appears to afford a basis for the compilation of tables for the com- 
parison of pressure and depth. 


Table of Variation in the Volume of Sea- Water, boiled to free it from Air, 
with Change of Temperature. 


Degrees.| No. of Parts. |/Degrees.| No. of Parts. ||Degrees.| No. of Parts. ||Degrees.| No. of Parts. 


Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. 
86° | 20000: 69° | 19942°5 538° | 19905:0 198830 
85 | 19996: 68 19940:0 52 199030 19882°5 
84 | 19992°5 67 | 19937°5 51 19901:0 19882-0 
83 | 19989-0 66 | 199350 50 19899:0- 198815 
82 | 19985°5 65 | 199325 49 19897:0 19881:0 
81 19982:0 64 | 19930:0 48 19895:0 19880°5 
80 | 199785 63 | 19927°5 47 19894:0 19880:0 
' 79 | 19975-0 62 19925:0 46 19892°5 19880:0 
78 | 19971:5 61 19922°5 45 19891:0 19880:0 
77 | 19968-0 60 | 19920:0 44 19890-0 19880:0 
76 | 19964:7 59 | 199175 43 19889:0 19880:0 
75 | 199615 |} 58 | 199150 42 198880 19880:0 
74 | 19958°25 57 | 19913-0 41 19886:7 19880:0 
73 | 199550 56, | 19911-0 40 19885°5 19880:0 
72 | 19951°5 55 | 19909:0 39 198845 19880:0 
71 | 19948:0 54 | 19907:0 38 19883°5 19880:0 


* A gentle motion kept up to equalize the temperature of the sea-~water has prevented 
its freezing at 28°. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. . 61 


It is, however, very desirable that depths thus estimated should be tested by 
attaching the instrument to sounding lines, and that any necessary corrections 
should be made in the tables. 

Such a comparison and correction would render the indications of the gauge 
valuable when strong currents make the use of the lead uncertain. 

A correction is required for friction, yet to be determined, and a correction for 
the variation of volume with change of temperature, as shown in the preceding 
Table, which is based upon very numerous and accurate experiments. 


On a Daily Weather Map ; on Admiral FitzRoy’s Paper presented to Section A. 
relative to the Royal Charter Storm; and on some Meteorological Documents 
relating to Mr. Green’s Balloon Ascents. By J. Guatsuer, F.R.S. 


On the Cloud Mirror and Sunshine Recorder. By J.T. Gopparp. 


The Cloud Mirror was simply a mirror of a circular -form with the points of 
the compass marked on its frame; this being presented face upwards to the sky, 
and haying its centre correctly marked and placed horizontal with the north point 
of instrument towards the south meridian, enabled a person to observe the direction 
from which the clouds were moving. The Sunshine Recorder was a piece of pho- 
tographic paper placed in the bottom of a box blackened inside, the top of which 
had in the centre a small circular hole, through which a slender beam of sunlight 
could be admitted to pass on to the photographic paper. When the sun did not 
shine, no mark was left on the paper; when it did, its varying diurnal course left a 
corresponding line on the paper, its position marking the hours of sunshine, and 
its breadth and depth of shade indicating the greater or less radiating power of the 
sun. By inserting a thick glass disc or plano-convex lens in the box, the number 
of hours’ registry would be made equal to a summer day’s sunshine. 


On the Connexion between Storms and Vertical Disturbances of the Atmosphere. 
By Professor Huynessy, 7.R.S. 


As storms are usually preceded by the contact of masses of air of different den- 
sities and different degrees of elasticity, it follows that anterior to such storms a 
process of connexion may exist between the heterogeneous columns of the atmo- 
sphere. Under such circumstances, the sudden indraught of smoke in chimneys 
and the whirling about of light objects near the ground had frequently been noticed. 
The author endeavoured to make more precise observations ie the aid of a vane, 
which shows the presence of upward and downward currents in the atmosphere, 
while also indicating the horizontal direction of the wind. During the winter of 
1860-61, he found that most of the storms were preceded by more or less violent 
vertical movements of the atmosphere. Such movements were especially obser- 
vable before the great gale of February 9*. The analogy between some of the 
vertical motions observed in the vane and those of the water-barometer formerly 
erected by Professor Daniell in the apartments of the Royal Society was pointed 
out, and fresh results were anticipated from the renewed erection of this kind of 
instrument by Mr. Glaisher. The general conclusion to which Professor Hennessy 
has been led, is, that during the comparative absence of horizontal motion in the 
air, energetic vertical currents may be grouped among the most certain symptoms 
of approaching disturbances on a grander scale. 


On the Theories of Glacial Motion. By Wit114M Horxis, M.A., LL.D., F-R.S. 


The author first gave distinct definitions of terms designating those properties of 
bodies with which we are necessarily concerned in investigations connected with 
glacial phenomena, such as solidity, viscosity, extensibility, elasticity, and the like. 
According to those views, which rested on Dr. Tyndall’s experiment of regelation, 
ice must necessarily be considered as solid. Proceeding on this hypothesis, Mr. Hop- 
kins stated the pressures and tensions to which a glacial mass must be subjected at 
any internal point. He showed how the internal tensions would exactly account for 
the formation of open fissures or crevasses, according to the law which they were 


* Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. vii. p. 494. 


62 REPORT—186]1. 


observed to follow ; and also that the internal pressures were exactly such as were 
consistent with Dr. Tyndall’s views of the cause of the laminar structure of glacial 
ice, so far as it was a necessary condition, according to those views, that the struc- 
tural lamina should be perpendicular to the direction of maximum pressure. 
Moreover he showed that the internal action was inconsistent with Principal 
Forbes’s theory, which attributed the laminar structure to a differential motion of 
the contiguous lamina. He also explained the importance of the sliding of glaciers 
over the beds of their containing valleys, not only as the cause of a large portion of 
the whole observed motion, but also as increasing in a large degree the efficiency 
of the internal tension and pressure in producing the dislocation and crushing 
which were necessary for the general motion of the glacier. 


On the Deficiency of Rain in an Elevated Rain-gauge, as caused by Wind. 
By W.S8. Jevons, B.A. 


When wind meets any obstacle, those strata of air which are near to the obstacle 
must be compressed, and must move with greater rapidity, just as a river moves 
most quickly in the narrowest parts of its channel. Thus, wind blowing against a 
house or tower has a greater velocity just above the summit of the building, than 
where there is no disturbance. Now a rain-drop, when falling through the wind, 
describes the diagonal of the rectangle of which the sides represent the velocities 
due to gravity and the impulsion of the wind. The path of a rain-drop then is in- 
clined at an angle from the vertical direction of which the tangent varies nearly as 
the velocity of the wind. Two equal rain-drops, therefore, falling into a current of 
air at points where the velocity is not the same, will not pursue parallel paths. The 
one drop will either approach to or recede from the other, and the effect will be to 
increase or diminish the quantity of rain falling in the intermediate space. A dia- 
gram or a slight calculation will show this effect to be considerable, so that when 
a shower of rain falls through wind upon any obstacle, such as a house, a large 3k 
of the rain-drops will be blown beyond the obstacle by the increased velocity of the 
wind, and less rain will fall on the windward part of the top of the obstacle than 
elsewhere. 

An ordinary rain-gauge, even when suspended in mid-air, will likewise act as an 
obstacle in the same manner, but in a less degree. Until, then, this effect of the 
wind upon the amount of rain collected in a gauge, either suspended in the air or 
placed upon a building, be properly allowed for, no conclusion can be drawn from 
any rain-gauge observations as to a real variation of the rainfall according to elevation. 

Observations by Luke Howard, by Boase of Penzance, and by others clearly exhibit 
this influence of the wind. Other published observations, even those at the Green- 
wich Observatory, exhibit such great and irregular individual discrepancies, that no 
valid conclusion can be drawn from them. To take an average under such circum- 
stances, it is argued, gives a purely fallacious appearance of uniformity and law. 

The possibility of a real variation of rain with elevation is then treated on a priori 
grounds, and it 1s concluded that the condensation theory, first sp once by Benja- 
min Franklin, and the only one of the least validity ever offered to account for the 
apparent variation of rain, will never, under the real circumstances of the atmo- 
sphere, account for more than an almost infinitesimal increase of the rain-drops in 
the last few hundred feet of descent. 

Observations on the coldness of rain when it reaches the surface oppose, instead 
of supporting, the theory of condensation, since the coldness of the rain-drop proves 
that it has condensed little or no vapour throughout its descent. 

Arago’s argument in favour of the increase of rain-drops near the surface, founded 
on the disappearance of the supernumerary rainbows near the ground, is also quite 
inconclusive, since the rain-drops probably become irregular in size by coalition, and 
would not become irregular by condensation of vapour. 

All observations by rain-gauges much elevated or exposed to wind are to be 
rejected as fallacious, and in accurate rain-observations it is reeommended to place 
a very flat collecting vessel of considerable area in the centre of a flat surface upon 
the ground, in an open place, so that no appreciable obstacle may be opposed to 
the wind, and the splashing of the rain-drops within and without the collecting 
vessel may compensate one another. (See Lond. & Edinb. Phil. Mag. Dec. 1861.) 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63 


On a Solar Halo observed at Sydney,Cape Breton, Nova Scotia; August 13,1861. 
By H. W. Crawzey. 

This day I witnessed, as well as all our household, a remarkable phenomenon. The 
sun appeared as if in mourning. At twelve o’clock I first observed it. An immense 
dark flo surrounded the sun, as dark as a thunder-cloud; the outer edge of it was 
iridescent, appearing like a circular rainbow. A ring of bright white light, of greater 
diameter than the halo, intersected it, passing through the sun; and two other rings 
of the same sort, but fainter, of still larger diameter, intersected the first ring and 
each other, in the manner I have attempted to show in the accompanying sketch, 
in which I have preserved, as nearly as I could judge, the relative proportions of the 
halo and rings to each other and to the sun. It was a bright day, the sun bla zing 
directly overhead, out of a clear blue sky, but there were hard, electric-looking cl ouds 
in other parts of the sky; and from these were drawn out long, attenuated, fleecy, 
ribbon-like appendages, which all took a circular form, having the sun appar ently 
for a centre. The halo and rings first appeared about an hour before noon, and con- 
tinued as long after noon. Throughout the remainder of the day the clouds were 
in circular tiers or ranges about the sun, which became obscured. The weather for 
several days previously had been uncommonly cold and unsettled for the season, and 
the clouds rushed confusedly in all directions against each other; before which time 
there had been a protracted term of very hot and dry weather, thermometer ranging 
’ from 80° to 90° in the shade. 

August 17.—The bad weather prevented my sending this letter over the water to 
the post-office last post-day (15th), there having been two days of a cold easterly 
storm of wind and rain following upon the before-described phenomenon, but to-day 
and yesterday all bright and warm again. (Signed) H. W. Craw ey. 


Appearance of the Sun with Halo and Rings at Noon, August 13, 1861. 


The sun appeared as dazzling as usual, and could not be gazed at steadily ; but the sun- 
shine on the ground and surrounding objects was fainter, or in some way differing from 
its ordinary appearance. 

a. Iridescent margin of the dark halo round the sun. b. Ring of white light passing 
through the centre of the sun. c,d. Two fainter rings of light, of which the interrupted 
or broken parts nearest to the sun (f and g) appeared to converge toward the sun and fade 
away. 4. A node of light at the intersection of the three rings. &. This end terminated 
here. m. This end broken off, or faded away. 

(I had no instruments, and am not certain as to the magnitude of the halo and rings, nor 
as to the centres of the rings c and d.) 


64 REPORT—1861. 


Description of a Mercurial Barometer, recently invented by Mr. Richard Howson, 
Engineer of Middlesborough-on-Tees. By Peter J. Livsey. 


This barometer consists of a straight tube, called in this paper “the tube,” similar 
to that used for the common straight barometer, but somewhat longer, and a 
hollow stalk nearly the same length as the tube, but of such smaller diameter that 
it will pass 1 the bore of the tube and leave an annular space of about ~5th or 3th 
of aninch. ‘The lower end of the stalk is surrounded and united with a short tube 
called “the cistern,” sufficiently large in diameter to allow the tube to pass into it 
and leave an annular space. When the barometer is in working order, “the tube ” 
is suspended freely in a vertical position with its open end downwards, the stalk 
passing up the bore of the tube till the lower end of the tube enters the cistern; and 
the annular spaces between the stalk and interior of tube, and the stalk and cistern, 
are filled with mercury, the cistern containing sufficient mercury for the immersion 
of the lower end of the tube when the stalk and cistern are at their lowest position. 
The tube and cistern are filled with mercury to form a vacuum at the upper end of 
the tube, so that the pressure of the atmosphere alone will sustain the weight 
of the stalk, cistern, | mercury. 

The stalk has a buoyant power sufficient to carry its own weight, the cistern, 
and the mercury in the cistern, at the lowest pressure of the atmosphere. The 
pressure of the atmosphere will be shown by this barometer, by the difference be- 
tween the level of the mercury in the cistern and that in the tube, by the position 
of the top of the column in the tube, and by the position of the stalk and cistern. 

Barometers may be made upon this principle, haying a long range or moyement 
for a small change of pressure, by which such changes may be measured with great 
delicacy; and this advantage, without the inconvenience of a very long scale, may 
be obtained by using weights which can be added or removed as required for, say, 
the whole inches, reading the fractions of the inch from the scale. 

One advantage of this barometer is the comparatively small quantity of mereury 
required. Tubes of large diameter may therefore be employed, and thus instruments 
having great power and accuracy may be obtained, as a small change of pressure 
will be multiplied by the large area, and the ae or change of pressure acting to 
produce a movement in the barometer will thus be great in proportion to the fric- 
tion resisting the movement. 

The formula for calculating the rise of the top of the column of mercury in the 


tube for any given increase of pressure is R=G +P. 


The formula for the movement of the cistern for any given rise, when the mer- 
cury extends above the stalk and fills the entire bore of the tube at the lowest 


sit A 
pressure, is R=G ; but when the stalk extends above the column of mercury and 
into the vacuum space, it is R= ee 
is obtained by the formula R=D-—R; when the top of the stalk is always below 


the mercury and it fills the entire bore of the tube, the depth of the cistern is uni- 
form for all pressures. In the above formula R is the total rise of the top of the 


The increase in the depth of the cistern 


column in the tube for any given increase of pressure, R rise of cistern, R rise of 
level of cistern, T area of the bore of the tube, G area of the glass or material pro- 
ducing displacement in the tube, P pressure in inches of mercury, C area of cistern, 


C area of cistern minus G, T area of annular space between interior bore of the 
tube and the stalk, Dae In these formule it is supposed that the tube, stall, 
and cistern are perfect tubes or cylinders uniform in area throughout their entire 
lengths. 


On the Great Cold of Christmas 1860, and its destructive Effects. 
By E. J. Lowe. ‘ 


The author said that the excessive cold of Christmas 1860, near Nottingham, being 


TRANSACTIONS OF THB SECTIONS. 65 


perhaps as great, if not greater than had ever occurred in England since the inven- 
tion of the thermometer, it sp see desirable to record so unusual a degree of cold, 
together with its destructive effects in the midland counties. Some idea of the fear- 
ful ravages amongst trees and plants might be gathered from the fact that not only 
had numerous branches of the oak been damaged, but in some instances large 
trees themselves had been killed. The summits of hills had escaped much of the 
ravages of the frosts that had been so seriously felt in the valleys. He gave a long 
list of the destruction of trees and plants as recorded in the report at the Highfield. 
House Observatory, and stated that the destruction of birds and insects was also 
very great. One circumstance with regard to this excessive cold, which he recorded 
at the time, he wished to repeat. He alluded to large icicles which he had seen 
formed at the nose of a horse. Turning to the temperature, there were frosts every 
night from the 12th of December to the 19th of January, the temperature on the 
ass on the coldest nights being from 21° 5' on the 18th ef December, down as 
ow as 17° 5’ on the 10th of January. At four feet above the ground the greatest 
cold was on the 24th of December, 0° 5’, and on the 25th—8-0. ‘The mean tempe- 
ratures of the coldest days were 13° 3’ on the 24th, 4° 0' on the 25th, 22° 6’ on the 
26th, 23° 6’ on the 28th, and 21°7' on the 29th. The greatest heat only reached 
12° on the 25th, and only 16° in full sunshine. During this excessive cold wea- 
ther he had delicate thermometers placed at various heights above the ground, up 
to 27 feet. These instruments were used constantly. ‘The thermometers were all 
compared with the standard presented to him by the British Association. He 
named this, as he was aware that some meteorologists conceived that the records 
iven were impossible for the climate of England. Nevertheless he had the con- 
irmation of 27 instruments placed on and above the ground, and also on his 
observatory, and giving a temperature of from 7° to 14° below zero, according to 
the circumstances under which they were placed. He could vouch for the accuracy 
of the readings of his instruments; and as he had an equal number of mercurial 
and spirit thermometers, it could scarcely be possible for the temperature given to 
be far from the truth. Whatever might be the opinion as regarded the actual 
temperature, there could be no doubt as regarded the destruction, which exceeded 
anything remembered by the oldest person. In 1854 temperature of 4° below zero 
destroyed many trees, but the destruction in 1860 was very much greater. 


Letter from Captain Maury. (Communicated by the Lords Commissioners 
of the Admiralty). 
Admiralty, September, 1861. 
Srr,—I am commanded by My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to transmit 
to you herewith copy of a letter, dated April, 1861, from Commander Maury, of 
the United States, which has been referred to their Lordships by Her Majesty’s 
Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, urging the importance of an Expedi- 
tion to the Antarctic Regions, for meteorological and other scientific purposes ; and 
I am to request that you will lay the same before the proper Section of the British 
Association, at its Annual Meeting at Manchester. 
I am, Sir, your obedient Servant, 
W. G. Romane, 
The General Secretary of the British Association. 


Observatory, &c., Washington, April, 1861. 

My prar Lorp Lyons,—You are no doubt aware that all, or nearly all the 
States of Christendom that use the sea, have practically agreed to unite in carrying 
on, through their Navies at sea; a series of observations for the improvement of 
navigation and the benefit of commerce, and that men learned in the physics of the 
sea and air have been appointed in Norway and Sweden, in Russia, Denmark, 
Holland, France, England, Spain, Italy, and Portugal, to take charve of these ob- 
servations, and either to discuss them themselves, or so to dispose of them that 
they may be treated by experts and the results made known to all concerned ; and 
that from the Bureaus established for this purpose in Holland, London, and Paris, 
highly important results have been already obtained and given to the world as the 
aa property of all, These results, by rendering navigation less dangerous and 


66. REPORT—1861, 


spendin, have conferred numerous benefits upon all those of every nation who follow 
the sea, 

Thus a sort of maritime and scientific confederation of the principal commercial 
nations has been practically formed, for the purpose of carrying on certain inyesti- 
gations concerning the physics of the sea, in which all the world has a stake. 

During these investigations, it has fallen to my lot to be led, by the paths of in- 
duction thus opened, to certain conclusions that are of general concern—not indeed 
to the pesnle of any one nation alone, but to all who own ships,—and. which I beg 
to lay before you, with the hope that you will deem them of sufficient consequence 
to be brought to the notice of the Government you so worthily represent, to the 
end that such further steps may be taken in the premises as the increase of our 
knowledge concerning the planet we inhabit and the good of mankind may seem 
to require. : 

I may be permitted to remark, that though this system of research upon which 
we are engaged presents the most extensive combination that has ever been formed 
among navies, and though it giyes employment to the largest corps of observers 
that has ever been known to unite in any one plan of physical research, yet it is 
almost literally without cost; at least the expenses are so divided between the 
observers and the public exchequers of the States concerned, that the chief expense 
consists in discussing and publishing the observations after they are made, In fact, 
the obseryers are quite willing to render their services upon the simple condition 
that they may have the free use of the results obtained. Thus all the great na- 
tions have been brought to unite and cooperate in a uniform system of physical 
research at sea, 

In the course of these investigations, facts and circumstances have been brought 
to light which afford grounds for the belief that the Antarctic winter is by no means 
as severe as that of the Arctic. This belief, connected with the fact that there is 
about the South Pole an unexplored area that in extent can compass Europe more 
than twice, induces me to lay the matter before yourself and others at this time, 
trusting that by bringing the subject to such notice, as well as to that of my own 
Government and others equally interested and concerned, measures looking to fur- 
ther examination and exploration of those unknown regions in the South may be 
set on foot. 

Reasons for believing the Antarctic to be much less severe than the Arctic winter, 
have been stated at some length in a work on the ‘ Physical Geography of the Sea 
and its Meteorology,’ recently published in London ; but as that work may not have 
fallen under your notice, I beg leave to call your attention to the Tables, Diagrams, 
and Plates in the accompanying Nautical Monograph, No. 2, on ‘ THE BAROMETER 
AT Sx,’ still more recently issued by this office. Our observations on the barometer 
at sea are numerous and abundant. They reach from the parallel of 60° S. to the 
ice-hound seas of the North ; they are for all seasons, months and days of the year. 
They have been made oyer and over again; some by German, some by Russian, 
some by English, Dutch, French, Spanish, Danish, Swedish, Portuguese, Italian, 
Austrian, Chilian, Siamese, Sandwich Islands, Brazilian and American navigators, 
They have been repeated and multiplied by so many, by such factors, and so often, 
that they leave but little room for doubt as to the approximate mean pressure of the 
atmosphere on every square foot of ocean surface within the range of modern nayi- 
gation, They enable us for the first time literally to gauge and weigh the atmo- 
sphere that rests upon the sea; they also afford us data for computing its pressure 
upon every square foot of sea surface from pole to pole. A patient discussion of 
these observations has reyealed a wonderful degree of atmospherical attenuation 
within the Antarctic Circle. They indicate that the average quantity of air super- 
incumbent upon a square foot of the earth’s surface there, does not weigh as much, 
by about 180 Ibs., as that which is superincumbent upon a square foot here. 

The unexplored regions environing the South Pole embrace in round numbers 
an area of eight millions of square miles, The quantity of atmosphere that rests 
upon these eight millions lacks then, according to these observations and this 
computation, no less than 12,945,500,000,000 tons in weight, of being as much as 
usually rests upon an area of like extent in these northern latitudes, 

This is an inconceiyably great mass, whether we attempt to comprehend it by its 
weight or its yolume, ° 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SE@TIONS. 67 


The force of gravity, if left free to act, would distribute the air in equal quanti- 
ties and alike about both poles, and make the barometric pressure nearly the same 
for all latitudes, There must, therefore, be some force exerted upon the air, or in 
the air of these unknown Austral regions, which counteracts gravity to that enor- 
mous extent, and prevents such equal distribution. 

What the nature of this force may be is matter of conjecture, but we think it 
may surely be traced to heat. “ What!” I almost hear you say, “heat enough in 
perpetual development about the South Pole to exert a ceaseless lifting force of 
130 lbs. upon every square foot of surface within an area of 8,000,000 square miles ?” 

Be not startled ; but freeing your mind from all bias, give me, I pray you, your 
attention while I endeavour to show that in this theory of a constant play of heat 
about the South Pole there is nothing either very startling or paradoxical. 

Under the equatorial cloud ring, the mean barometric pressure is 20 Ibs. less to 
the square foot than it is in the calm belt of Cancer. This fact is familiar to sea- 
men, and well Inown to meteorologists. To this diminished pressure we owe the 
trade-winds, as Captain Sir James ‘Ross and others have alrea y remarked. More 
than this: in the centre of the cyclone the atmosphere is so attenuated, that its 
pressure is sometimes diminished below the mean pressure of the place by more 
than 200 Ibs. to the square foot. 

To what, if not chiefly to heat, shall we attribute this? But whence comes the 
heat at such times and places? Clearly, it is not direct heat impressed upon the air 
then and there by the rays of the sun. 

The equatorial cloud ring overhangs a region of constant precipitation, and the 
low barometer in the vortex of a tornado is always attended by deluges of rain. 
Here then we have a condition that accompanies the place of low barometer, both 
in the calm belt and the vortex. During this heavy i 2 pela that takes place 
in the centre of the storm, immense volumes of heat, that is always latent in aqueous 
vapour, are set free among the clouds; it warms and expands and drives off the 
upper air. Thus, that below is made to rush in at the surface, either, as the case 
may be, with the constancy of the gentle trades, or the violence of the hurricane, 
according to the extent and manner of the rarefaction. Moreover, the vapour before 
it is formed into rain, being lighter than the air, also assists to drive it away, so 
that the barometer would stand higher under air that is dry, than under air that is 
damp, even were there no vapour condensed. Now then survey, if you please, on 
. achart or globe, the Austral regions on the solar side of 40° 8., and tell me what 
do you see? Why, all the way around, between that parallel and the Antarctic 
Circle, you see an almost uninterrupted expanse of water. Indeed, with the ex- 
ception of Patagonia, and a few comparatively small islands here and there and far 
between, we have nothing but one continuous evaporating surface. Throughout this 
entire expanse the prevailing winds are from the northward and westward. These 
are the “ brave west winds” of the southern hemisphere. They are strong winds ; 
they suck up from the sea moisture as they go ; ae pees immense clouds of it over 
into the unexplored regions that encircle the pole. This vapour is to the winds what 
fuel is to the steamer; the latent heat contained in it being developed, is at once 
the source of power in the air, and the means of locomotion for the blast, Thus 
loaded, these winds impinge, with their vapour and its latent heat, upon the icy 
barrier or upon the mountains there, where it is condensed, and its heat set free to 
become sensible heat. Thus the severity of the Antarctic winter is mitigated by 
heat that is rendered latent by the processes of evaporation in warm latitudes, and 
conveyed to the south by invisible couriers through the air. This heat being thus 
conveyed and liberated, warms and expands, and causes the polar air to ascend, as 
the same kind of heat causes the air in the céntre of the cyclone to ascend and flow 
off, creating, like a huge stack to some immense furnace, a draught and inrush of air 
on the surface, from the distance of miles around. This draught into the Antarctic 
unknown, extends from the South Pole all around to the distance of 3000 miles 
towards the Equator. 

About the North Pole we have no such expanse of water, no such wafting of 
vapour, no such low barometer, no such inrush of “ brave west winds,” and conse- 
quently no such mildness of climate, 

Behold all the rivers of Arctic America, Europe, and Asia! The rains that feed 
them are but occasional and gentle showers in comparison with those for which 

5 


68 REPORT—1861. 


the great expanse of southern waters affords the vapours; and yet, in the conden- 
sation of the vapour for the rains to feed these rivers, heat enough is set free in the 
clouds to raise from the freezing- to the boiling-point, and as fast as it flows, more 
than five times the volume of water that the said rivers discharge into the sea. 

But how the latent heat of vapour when set free in the clouds may reach down 
and warm the earth, may perhaps be understood by referring to a meteorological 
necessity, which requires, when the windward side of the mountain ts rainy, the lee 
side to be warm. 

To illustrate this, let us suppose a gossamer sack, capable of being hermetically 
sealed; that it is impervious to heat, and elastic as the air itself; that with the 
barometer at 30 in., the temperature at 60°, and the dew-point the same, this sack 
be filled with air; that then it be attached to a balloon and sent up in the sky, to 
a height where the barometric pressure is only 15 in., and where the temperature of 
the air in the sack, by reason ot this diminished pressure, and by virtue of the ex- 
pansion of the air within and its consequent cooling, is reduced to zero. By this 
process, the vapour with which the air was loaded when it was admitted into the 
sack has, let it be assumed, been condensed, and consequently its latent heat set 
free in the sack, 

Suppose now the sack be hauled down to the surface again, where the barometric 
pressure is 30 in., as before, and what have we? The sack is reduced to its former 
dimensions you will perceive, but instead of damp air we now have it filled with 
dry ; moreover, there is at the bottom a measure of water—the condensed vapour. 
This dry air, instead of being at the temperature of 60°, has a temperature of 60° plus 
the quantity of heat that it would require to raise 53 such measures of water from 
the freezing- to the boiling-point. In other words, we have but illustrated a natural 
process that is continually going on and well-understood, by which heat is bottled 
away in vapours, wafted by the winds from clime to clime, liberated, and finally, 
in the processes of vertical circulation, drawn down from the crystal reservoirs of 
the sky to temper and warm the surface of the earth. 

When the vapour-laden west winds of the South Pacific strike against the wind- 
ward side of the Patagonian Andes, are they not by nature herself subjected to a 

rocess precisely analogous to that of vapour-laden air in the hypothetical sack ? 
Striking against the western ‘slopes of the mountain, they are forced up to the top 
of the snow-capped range. Here condensation .of vapour and the liberation of its 
latent heat take place; and though the cold be extreme at the top, in consequence 
of the state of aérial rarefaction there, yet the winds haying received the heat libe- 
yated from their vapours, are, before it canbe dispersed by radiation, forced over 
from the eastern slopes. Here descending into the valleys, and being again com- 
ee by the full weight of the barometric column, the heat they have received is 
ully developed, and they are felt as warm winds, just as the air brought down in 
the sack was warm. The mild climate of Eastern Patagonia and the Falkland 
Islands is due to caloric thus conveyed, developed and dispersed. 

To appreciate the amount of heat thus conveyed and distributed, let us compare 
the climate of Eastern Patagonia, between the parallels of 50° and 52° south, with 
the climate of Labrador, between the corresponding parallels north. Those who 
would judge of climate, as philosophers formerly did, viz. according to latitude, 
would say these two climates are duplicates of each other, for the two places are 
equidistant from the Equator, and in both countries west winds are the prevailing 
winds; they both also lave a continent to windward, an ocean to leeward ; flowing 
in from each and along their eastern shores, there is likewise an ice-bearing current. 
But what do modern researches show? They show that the winter climate of 
Labrador is ice-bound, bitter in the extreme, and incapable of affording vegetable 
subsistence for man and beast; that that of Patagonia in the corresponding latitude 
south is, on the other hand, quite open and mild, affording grasses for cattle all the 
winter through. 

How is this? The two places, though on opposite sides of the Equator, are, let it 
be repeated, equidistant from it. They are on the same side of the continent, and the 
same shore of the ocean ; then why should there be such a difference in their winter 
climate? Investigation answers, simply because of the difference in the quantity of 
moisture which the prevailing winds, which also are the same, bring near the two 
places for condensation, The west winds of Labrador, as they cross the Rocky 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69 


Mountains, are robbed of their moisture which they sucked up from the Pacific, and 
the heat sct free in the process is dispersed by condensation and radiation long he- 
fore the winds can convey it to Labrador. Butin East Patagonia and the Falkland 
Islands, the air, charged with heat received from the heavy precipitation on the top 
of the Andes, is brought directly thence to the plains below, and before it has had 
time to grow cold. 

The influences to which is due this great difference between the winter climate of 
Labrador and of Patagonia are even more marked in their effect upon the Arctic as 
contrasted with the Antarctic winter. 

The Patagonian-like climate of the south is repeated in the north along the 
eastern base of the Rocky Mountains. On their western slopes, the vapours from 
the Pacific are condensed into rains for the Columbia and Frazer and other rivers. 
The heat that is there liberated in this process is sufficient to raise from the freezing- 
to the boiling-point all the water that could be supplied by a quintuple set of such 
rivers. This heat makes green pastures on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, where the buffalo, in herds of countless numbers, finds winter pasturage. Now, 
along the same parallels in Labrador it is simply impossible, on account of the ex- 
treme cold, for a buffalo or any other graminivorous animal to find other winter 
subsistence than mosses and lichens. 

A still more striking instance of the climatological influence of continental, in 
comparison with oceanic winds upon countries in high latitudes, is afforded by 
Ireland and Labrador, between the parallels of 51° and 53° N. In both countries 
the prevailing winds are also from the west. But those in Ireland come laden 
from open sea with vapours, which, being condensed upon the hill-sides, liberate 
their heat and dispense warmth, which gives to that “Gem of the Ocean” its name 
of Emeratp. The same difference of climate, owing to wet winds from the sea and 

winds from the land prevailing at places having the same latitude, is repeated 
upon the N.W. coast of America and the N.E. coast of Asia. 

The unexplored regions of the South Pole are surrounded by open water; those 
of the North for the most part by land. The winds that blow into the Frozen Ocean 
of the North are continental winds; the climate there, like that of Labrador and 
Siberia, is proportionably severe. 

The winds that blow in upon the unknown South being therefore oceanic winds, 
there is probably as much difference of winter climate between the two polar regions 
as there is between the winters of Labrador and of Ireland, or the Falkland Islands. 

Now then, with these facts and suggestions impressed upon our mind, let us once 
more turn to the unknown regions of the Antarctic. They are fringed with icy barriers 
abutting, as far as exploration has reached, up against lofty peaks and mountain 
ranges. The air that strikes upon their northern face is heavily laden with vapour. 
Traversing that immense waste of waters, it impinges upon those slopes completely 
saturated with moisture. Here all that moisture is wrung out of it. The heat that 
is liberated by the process is sufficient to attenuate the air in the remarkable manner 
indicated by the barometer, exhibited by observations, and repeated in the Tables and 
Plates of this Monograph. If we would know how heavy this precipitation is, how 
high the mountains, steep the declivities, and great the development of latent heat 
there, let us consult the icebergs—they afford unmistakeable indications upon the 
subject. The Antarctic icebergs are of fresh, not of salt water. Towering 200 or 300 
feet above the sea and reaching 600 or 800 feet below*, as many of them do, they 
literally dot with their huge masses an extent of ocean that embraces no less than 
17,000,000 square miles in its superficial area. As much heat as it takes to melt and 
convert into vapour again all these immense masses of ice, is set free on those un- 
known hill-sides, when the water to form them of was wrung out of the clouds. 

Doubtless this vapour with its heat impresses characteristic features upon the 
winter climate of the South Pole; and thus we are EAE: by the winds, persuaded 
by the barometer, nay, urged by the longings of the human heart, and encouraged 
by the great laws of Nature herself to venture and explore. 

To sum up, the physical features of the northern hemisphere indicate that the 
climate of the Arctic regions is continental, for they are surrounded by land ; explo- 
ration confirms it. On the contrary, those of the southern hemisphere indicate that 


* Sir James Ross estimated an ice-barrier that he saw to be a thousand feet thick. 


70 REPORT—1861. 


the climate of the Antarctic is marine, for those regions are surrounded by water. 
No explorer has spent a winter there to prove it, but all the known facts and cir- 
cumstances seem to confirm it. An example or two will make it plain that if must 
be so. Labrador is the type of a continental climate; Ireland of a marine in the 
same latitude. As the summer of Ireland is cooler than that of Labrador, so may 
the Antarctic summer climate be cooler than the Arctic. 

The average mid-winter temperature of Iceland is but 15° colder than its average 
July temperature; whereas the difference between the mean winter and summer 
temperature of Fort Simpson is 70°. But this Fort, great as is this contrast of 
climate, is situated within the sweep of the S.W. winds from the N. Pacific, and 
therefore its climate is only semi-continental. Nevertheless its summer tempera- 
ture is 15° higher than that of Iceland. Now these two places are in about the 
same latitude north, but with this striking difference—one is surrounded by water 
as the Antarctic is, the other by land, as the Arctic. 

The islands of the sea, and the interior of continents throughout the world in 
high latitudes, abound in such climatic contrasts. 

The difference between the mean winter and summer temperature of the marine 
climates of the south is probably, and for obvious reasons, not so great as it is in 
corresponding latitudes north. The lowest point reached by a self-registering ther- 
mometer, not for a season or a month, but in the coldest day during a period of 
several years at the South Shetland Islands, in 63° S., was 5° Fahr. At Yakoutsk, 
on the other hand, which in Asia is about as far from the North as the South Shet- 
lands are from the South Pole, and in a truly continental climate, the thermometer 
i down in winter to 70° Fahr.*, while for July its mean temperature is 60°F. 

hus, though 10° of lat. further to the north, it receives the same amount of heat 
in summer that is felt at Dublint; one place being near to and surrounded by sea, 
the other far removed from open water and the influences of the copious discharge 
of latent heat which attends the heavy condensation of aqueous vapour. 

In winter, however, and owing to the same influences, the thermometer at 
Yakoutsk, annually for about two weeks, sinks full 100° below the mean winter 
temperature in Iceland. The difference between continental and marine climates 
becomes more marked, not only as we approach the Pole, but as the places are more 
or less contiguous to the open sea, and exposed to west winds from the ocean or 
dry winds from the land. Indeed, the summers of Yakoutsk are warm enough to 
grow vegetables, ripen fruits, and afford grass for cattle. 

The climates of all the lands which have been visited in high southern latitudes 
are eminently marine. In marine climates the summer is cool, the winters warm ; 
take for types the British Isles and Canada. There is not, during the Antarctic 
summer, warmth enough in the solar ray to call into play any vegetable forces be- 
yond the feeble energies of mosses and lichens. There, as in Iceland and all other 
marine places, there is comparatively but little difference between the summer and 
winter climates. The mean difference between the average winter and average 
summer temperature in the Antarctic, as indicated by the South Shetland observa- 
tions, is less than the change often experienced with us here between the tempera- 
ture of the evening and the morning of the same day. 

Cool summers, warm winters, and evenness of temperature the year round being 
the characteristics of marine climates, we should look for great uniformity in those 
of high southern latitudes. It is their extraordinarily cool summers, as reported by 
navigators, which have created the impression in nautical circles that the cold of 
the Antarctic winter is far more extreme than that of the Arctic. This was the im- 
pression made upon the mind of Cook, the bravest of the brave. He was a close 
observer, and there is no authority which to this day has more weight in seafaring 
circles, and none which requires more stubborn facts to set aside. 

On the 14th of January, eighty odd years ago, that accomplished navigator dis- 
covered (it being then midsummer of the southern hemisphere) an island in lat. 54° 
and 55°8., which corresponds in lat. with Ireland. On the 17th he landed to 
take possession of it. He called it Georgia, but did not think “any one would ever 
be benefited by this discovery,” for its “ valleys lay covered with everlasting snow,” 


* Erman. t Dove. The mean temperature for January is 40°. 
¢ Colonel Sir Henry James, Ordnance Survey. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71 


and & not a tree was to be seen, not a shrub even big enough to make a tooth- 
ick. 

: Contemplating this, to him, strange climate, he remarks, “whowould have thought 

that an island of no greater extent than this, situated between the latitude of 54° 

and 55°, should, in the very height of summer, be in a manner wholly covered many 

fathoms deep with frozen snow ?” 

But pushing on still further, with that prowess and intrepidity which makes his 
history so romantic and himself the picturesque man of the sea, he discovered Sand 
wich Land, in lat. 59°-60°, when he made “bold enough to say that no man would. 
ever venture further; that the lands to the south would never be explored, for they 
were doomed by nature to perpetual frigidness, never to feel the warmth of the sun's 
rays ; whose horrible and savage aspect” he had not words to describe. 

In all these speculations, however, he was mistaken, for other explorers have gone 
further south ; and the very islands that in his opinion were never to benefit any one, 
have afforded to commerce seal-skins and oil to the value of many millions of dol- 
lars, and, with the island that he named Desolation, from its aspect, still give em- 
ployment annually, or did a few years ago (Weddell), to 2000 tons of shipping and 
200 or 300 seamen. 

No explorer has yet tried the Antarctic winter. There is, my investigations lead 
me to believe, no great difference between it and the Antarctic summer; and the 
erroneous impression that has fastened itself on the public mind as to the extreme 
severity of winter about the South Pole, has no doubt its root in the low summer 
temperatures that prevail there. 

it in pleading the cause of Antarctic exploration, I be required to answer first 
the question of ew bono? which is so apt to be put, I reply, it is enough for me, 
when contemplating the vast extent of that unknown region, to know that it is a 
part of the surface of our planet, and to remember that the earth was made for man 5 
that all knowledge is profitable ; that no discoveries have conferred more honour 
and glory upon the age in which they were made, or been more beneficial to the 
world, than geographical discoveries; and that never were nations so well prepared 
to undertake Antarctic exploration as are those that I now solicit. The last who 
essayed it reached furthest; they were Billinghausen of Russia, forty years ago, 
Admiral d’Urville of France, Ross of England, and Wilkes of America,—all about 
the same time, and nearly a quarter of a century ago. But since that time the 
world has grown in knowledge, and man has gained wonderfully in his power for 
conquest in this field of research. We have now the sea-steamer, which former 
Arctic explorers had not; the experience acquired since their day, in polar explora- 
tion about the Arctic regions, enables us to overcome many an obstacle that loomed 
up before them in truly formidable proportions. The gold of Australia has built 
up among the antipodes of Europe one of the most extensive shipping ports in the 
world. By steam, it is within less than a week’s sailing distance of the Antarctic 
Cirele; and thus those unknown regions of the south, instead of being far remote, 
as in the time of all previous explorers they were, have, since exploration was last 
attempted there, been actually brought within a few days’ sail of a great commercial 
mart, with its stores, its supplies, and resources of all kinds. The advantages and 
facilities for Antarctic exploration are inconceivably greater now than in the days 
of Cook and others. They are greatly enhanced by the joint system of national 
cooperation for the purpose of searching out the mysteries of the sea, now recognized 
and practised by all maritime nations. In this beautiful and beneficial cooperation, 
officers of the different nations have learned to pull and work together for a common 
good and acommon glory. This habit would be carried to the South Pole by co- 
peeeon among the different nations concerned in sending out vessels for explora- 
tion there. 

Nay, that great unexplored area lies at the very doors of one of the powers that 
is most renowned in this field of discovery. She too has taken a prominent part in 
this joint system of philosophical research, which has converted our ships of war 
into temples of science as well, and literally studded the sea with floating observa- 
tories. France, also renowned for the achievements won by her navy in peace as 
well as in war, is also, with her colonies, but a little further off; and the hardy Dutch 
are hard by. They, too, as well as the Portuguese, Spaniards, Russians, and Italians, 
have won renown in the field of maritime exploration. Their traditions now help 


72 REPORT—1861. 


me to plead the cause of Antarctic exploration. For them, with all the facilities with 
which we are now surrounded, with their accomplished officers and daring seamen 
who have given lustre to their flags, both in peace and in war, it would be an easy 
task now to wnbar the Gates of the South. But in this, men and officers in other 
navies will also claim the privilege to join; and since all flags are alike interested 
and concerned in developing the physics of the sea, and in bringing to light its 
hidden things, it is but fair that all who are cooperating in this system of research 
should have “chance and opportunity” for the laurels that are to be gathered there. 

Therefore, instead of confining my appeals upon this subject to my own or any one 
government, I venture respectfully to bring it to the attention of all. 

The first step, I submit, should be to send a steamer down from Australia to search 
for one or more ports or places where the exploring vessels that are to follow may 
find shelter, and whence they might despatch boat- or land- or ice-parties, accord- 
ing to circumstances. This reconnaissance alone would occupy one season. 

The next season, vessels suitably equipped for two or three years might bo sent 
to take up their position, where at the return of summer they might be visited from 
Melbourne again, and arrangements made for the next season. 

For many seasons this exploration should be a jot one among the nations that 
are most concerned in maritime pursuits. The advantages are manifold: each one of 
the cooperating powers, instead of equipping a squadron at its own expense, would 
only furnish one or two steamers; and these should not be large, nor should their 
cost be extravagant. Thus the expenses of a thorough Antarctic exploration, like 
those for carrying on the ‘ Wind and Current Charts,” may be so subdivided among 
the nations concerned as literally to be “almost nothing.” It would also be at- 
tended by this further and great advantage—such an expedition could have several 
centres of exploration. The officers and men under each flag would naturally be 
incited by the most zealous and active emulation. They would strive so much the 
more earnestly not to be outdone in pushing on the glorious conquest. 

Now the question is, what mode of procedure is best calculated successfully to 
bring this subject to the notice of the proper authorities in your apes, iF 

I leave that to you and other friends, trusting to them to invoke such means and 
to take such steps as, to them, the importance of the subject and the interests of the 
joint system of research, in which we and our flags are enlisted for the increase of 

nowledge among men, may seem to require. 
Very truly, yours, &c., 

His Excellency the Lord Lyons, M. F. Maury. 

Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of 
Great Britain, Washington. 


On an Anemometer for Registering the Maximum Force and extreme Variation 
of the Wind. By Joun EK. Morean, M.A., MLB. Oxon., MRCP. 


The author described the instrument as consisting of an iron stand supporting a 
spindle. On the top of the spindle revolves a boss, on which rests a frame 13 inches 
in length by %° in width. This frame is maintained in the direction of the wind 
by means of two vanes, facing each other at an angle, the more open end of the 
angle being directed towards the spindle. A small car with flanged wheels traverses 
the frame. ‘To the face of the car is attached a thin metal plate 6 inches square, 
and to the back a catch playing freely over some rack-work. This catch permits 
the car to move towards the vanes, but checks its return to the spindle. ‘The face 
of the car is connected with a balance contrived on a somewhat novel principle by 
means of a loaded wheel, and a lever with a weight at its lower end. By means of 
this balance the resistance to the progress of the car increases with its advance. The 
ratio of this increase is expressed in ounces and pounds engraved on one side of the 
frame. A hand projecting from the car moves over the scale on the dating index. 
The scale rises from } of an ounce to 7 lbs. As the surface presented to the wind 
is 6 inches square, the pressure on the square foot will be exactly four times that 
indicated on the frame. The amount of variation in the direction of the wind, in a 
given space of time, is shown by means of two hands, which project from the spindle, 
and are capable of being directed to any part of a dial plate, on which the points of 
the compass are engraved by means of a rod, which is attached to, and revolves with 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73 


the boss. To set this part of the instrument, it is merely required to bring one 
hand in contact with either side of the rod; the distance to which they are parted 
denoting the amount of variation in the wind. 

This wind-gauge may prove useful in rifle practice and on numerous other occa- 
sions when it is important to be acquainted with the actual pressure of the wind. 


Meteorological Observations at Huggate, Yorkshire. By the Rev. T. Rankin. 


This was a continuation of meteorological tables and notes of weather and all 
remarkable meteorological occurrences during the year 1860+61, which the author 
has annually presented to the Association for upwards of twenty years. 


On a Bathometer, or Instrument to indicate the Depth of the Sea on Board 
Ship without submerging a Line. By C. W. Stemens. 


Those who are acquainted with the difficulties and expense attending the taking 
of deep-sea soundings by means of a weighted line, will readily perceive that an 
instrument capable of indicating depths upon a graduated scale without submerging 
any apparatus would be of great advantage as a means of extending our knowledge 
of ocean geography. In laying submarine telegraph cables through deep seas such 
an instrument would certainly be invaluable. 

It occurred to Mr. Siemens that the total attractive force of the earth must be 
sensibly influenced by the interposition of a comparatively light substance, such as 
sea-water, between the vessel and the solid portion of the earth below. This he 
demonstrated geometrically as follows :— 

Assuming the earth to be a perfect sphere of uniform density, two lines are drawn 
from a point on the surface, so as to intersect the circumference at the semicircles. 
A line 1s then drawn through the two points of intersection, which passes through 
the earth’s centre, and a second line parallel to it, touching the circle at its lowest 
point. It was next demonstrated that in dividing the solid cone represented by 
these lines into a number of slices of equal thickness, in a direction perpendicular 
to its axis, each slice would exercise the same amount of attractive force upon a 
body at the apex of the cone, the reason being that the mass of each slice increases 
in the proportion of the square of its distance from the apex, and the attractive force 
diminishes in the same ratio. It was thus demonstrated that the true centre of 
gravity of the earth, in reference to an attracted body on its surface, does not reside 
in its geometrical centre, but in a variable point between the centre and the attracted 
body. In dividing the sphere itself into slices of equal thickness, a mathematical 
expression was obtained representing the attractive force of any of these slices; and 
in integrating this expression for a series of slices commencing from the point of 
attraction, a formula was arrived at, showing that for moderate depths the attrac- 
tion of the earth may be represented by a very obtuse cone with two-thirds of the 
earth’s radius for its height If sea-water were of no weight, the total attraction of 
the earth would be diminished upon its surface in the proportion of the depth to 
two-thirds of the earth’s radius; but considering that sea-water has about one-third 
the weight (bulk for bulk) of the generality of rock, the actual diminution of gra- 
aa was shown to take place in the proportion of the depth to the radius of the 
earth. 

Accordingly 1000 fathoms of depth would produce a diminution by ;,'5;th part 
of the total gravitation—a difference so small that it appears at first sight impossible 
to construct an instrument capable of indicating it with sufficient accuracy. 

The second part of the paper described the instrument designed for this purpose, 
which consists of a tube containing mercury, diluted spirits of wine, and coloured 
juniper oil. The mercury column, about 30 inches high, ascends in a tube from the 
bottom of a large bulb containing imprisoned air, and terminates in the middle of a 
second bulb, The remainder of the second bulb is filled with the diluted spirits, 
which reach upward into a narrow tube provided with a scale. Upon this rests a 
column of the coloured oil, which terminates in a third bulb,—the remaining space 
being vacuous, or nearly so. This gauge is enclosed in a glass tube filled with 
distilled water, which in its turn is surrounded with ice contained in an outer 
casing. The latter is suspended by a universal joint. The air in the lower bulb 


74. REPORT—1861 


being maintained in this way at a perfectly uniform temperature, will oppose a 
uniform elastic force against the column of mercury, which latter, being removed 
from all atmospheric influences, fairly represents the gravitation of the earth. 

In moving this instrument from shallow water upon a sea of 1000 fathoms depth, 
the mercury column would rise z;,;th part of its length in the second bulb; but 
before any sensible alteration has taken place in the mercury level, the upper surface 
of the spirits of wine terminating in the narrow tube will have risen sufficiently to 
restore the balance of pressure, and the spirits being twenty times lighter than 
mercury, the scale of observation will be increased twentyfold. But the spirit 
column, in rising, displaces oil of very nearly the same specific gravity, which 
causes another increase of scale at least twentyfold. By these means a scale of 
3 inches per 1000 fathoms of depth is obtained. 

An instrument of this description was tried, by permission of the Admiralty, and 
although it was still imperfect in some respects, its indications agreed generally 
within 10 per cent. with the results of actual soundings. In the course of the in- 
teresting discussion which ensued, Professor Tyndall suggested that the instrument 
would be equally applicable for measuring heights, and he proposed to try it with 
Mr. Siemens on the Cumberland Hills at some future time. 


On a New Minimum Mercurial Thermometer proposed by Mr. Casella. 
By Barrour Srewart, A.M. 


Branching off from the side of the stem of this instrument and connected with 
the capillary bore, we have a chamber the diameter of which is much wider than 
the capillary bore. This chamber is abruptly attached at its extremity to another 
chamber of smaller bore than itself, but still wider than the capillary tube. 

To set this instrument, incline it slightly until the mercury in the side chamber 
comes to the abrupt termination between the two chambers. The mercury in the 
capillary tube will now denote the true temperature. Let this be 60°. If the 
temperature rise above 60°, the rise will take place in the side tube, and if it then 
begin to fall, the fall will also take place in the side tube until it reaches 60°; but 
below that the fall will take place in the capillary tube, as there is a disinclination 
of the mercury to recede from the abrupt termination between the two chambers 
towards the capillary tube. The instrument thus acts as a minimum thermometer. 


On British Rain-fall. By G. J. Symons. 


The author directed attention to the very contrary statements current on the ques- 
tion—Is there any secular variation in the amount of British rain-fallP After 
quoting several of the most important opinions, he stated that, in the hope of 
finally settling the question, he had commenced collecting all known rain-registers, 
and had already tabulated more than 6000 years’ observations. He proceeded to 
invite criticism on the mode of discussion which he intended to adopt, and also on 
a proposed method of delineation,—the rain-fall in 1860, at 241 stations in Great 
Britain, being laid down on a large map as a specimen. 


On some Signs of Changes of the Weather. 
By the Rey. W. Warton, IA., FBS, Se. 


The author combated nearly all the commonly known rules by which changes of 
the weather have been anticipated, and gave a few rules which he believed might 
be depended upon, chiefly derived from the barometer—especially if the exceptions 
to the general rules, which he clearly explained, were understood and attended to 
as they ought to be. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45 


CHEMISTRY. 


Address by W. A. Miter, MD., FBS. &c., Professor of Chemistry, 
King’s College, London. 


In opening the proceedings, the President said that in the home of Dalton, in 
the focus of applied chemistry, very few words would be necessary. They could 
not but remember that, on the last occasion when the Meeting of the British Asso- 
ciation was held in Manchester, that illustrious philosopher was still amongst them ; 
and he trusted that the same spirit which actuated Dalton still remained in Man- 
chester to enlighten his native county. Without saying more by way of intro- 
duction, he would call their attention to one or two points of progress during the 
ae year. In calling attention to these subjects, he must necessarily refer to de- 
batable ground in science,—but it was in debatable land that progress was neces- 
sarily made. He would only touch upon two or three practical applications of 
chemistry, and two or three theoretical ideas which had been propounded since 
they last met. The Professor then alluded to the new methods of preparing 
oxygen and hydrogen, proposed by Deville, which admit of application on such 
a scale as to allow of the generation of oxygen for manutacturing purposes, 
and the employment of the oxyhydrogen blast as a source of heat in metal- 
lurgical operations. The novelty in the preparation of oxygen consists in decom~ 
posing the vapour of sulphuric acid, and, by a further process, storing up the oxy- 
gen in gas-holders. The preparation of hydrogen required more care. The metal- 
lurgy of platinum had already experienced a remarkable modification, owing to the 
application of the intense but manageable source of heat obtained by the combus- 
tion of these gases. In connexion with oxygen might be mentioned a singular 
circumstance regarding ozone, which, according to the observation of Schrotter, 
had been found in a peculiar species of fluor spar, from Wolsendorf, which, when 
rubbed or broken, emitted a peculiar odour of ozone. The active chemist Deville, 
in following his researches, had discovered a variety of means of obtaining artifi- 
cially, crystallized minerals of great regularity and beauty. The methods adopted 
were chiefly by heating the amorphous substances in a slow current of some gas, 
such as hydrochloric acid, which was not an unfrequent natural product in volcanic 
districts. No discovery, however, had made a greater impression upon the popular 
mind than that of the remarkable alkaline metals czesium and rubidium by Kirch- 
hoff and Bunsen. These eminent men, in investigating the appearances presented 
by flames coloured by various metallic salts when analysed by the prism, were led, 
from the appearance of certain bright lines in the spectra, produced whilst they 
were examining a saline residuum from the waters of the Diirkheim spring, to 
infer the existence of a substance hitherto unknown. It was found that caesium 
was present in such minute quantity, that a ton of that water, which was the most 
abundant source of cesium yet known, contained only 3 grains of its chloride. 
Taking into account the minuteness of the quantity, and its striking resemblance 
to potassium, it was not too much to say that the discovery of cesium would have 
been impossible by any other known method than that which was actually em- 
ployed. The other metal, rubidium, was somewhat more plentiful; but rubidium 
also so closely resembled potash that it would not have been discovered but for 
the peculiarity of its spectrum. Referring to the revision of the atomic weights of 
sulphur, silver, ‘nitrogen, potassium, sodium, and lead, by Stas, Professor Miller 
said that chemist had come to the conclusion that it was not proved that the ele~ 
mentary bodies were multiples of the unit of hydrogen, and, in opposition to the 
opinion of Dumas, he had pronounced the law of Prout as imaginary. Every 
dkemist would read with interest the paper by Graham upon the application of 
liquid diffusion to analysis. The remarkable conclusion to which the author arrived 
was, that the process of diffusion separated all substances into one or other of two 
classes, which he distinguished as crystalloids and colloids. The rapid improve- 
ment in the method of analysis, though not admitting on that occasion of detailed 
mention, must not be overlooked. A variety of bodies, formerly supposed to be of 
Tare occurrence, were now found in minute quantities, ‘idetpoulttls , but widely 
diffused. The discovery of these small quantities was by no means unimportant, 
for they might aid in solving problems of great interest. Glancing only for a. 


76 REPORT—1861. 


moment at the important practical subject of the formation of steel, Professor 
Miller referred to the activity employed in the pursuit of the organic department 
of chemical science ; remarking upon two lines of research as important from their 
theoretical bearings, namely the investigation of polyatomic compounds, and the 
process of oxidation and of reduction, applied by various chemists, and by Kolbe 
in particular, to the investigation of the organic acids, The labours of Hofmann 
upon the polyatomic bases showed completely the principle upon which these 
bodies might be formed, and he had been enabled to group an unlimited number 
of atoms of ammonia into one compound molecule. Great progress had also been 
made in our knowledge of the relations of the organic acids. 


On the Constitution of Paranaphthaline or Anthracene, and some of its Decom- 
position Products. By Professor AnvEnson, F.R.S.L. 

The author, after referring to the previous investigations of Laurent and Dumas, 
which indicated the isomerism of naphthaline and anthracene, detailed the results 
of his own researches, which have established for the latter substance the formula 
C,, H,,.. Anthracene, when treated with nitric acid, undergoes a decomposition 
entirely different from that of naphthaline under similar circumstances, and yields 
an oxidized compound, oxanthracene, C,, H, O,, which is volatile without decom- 
position, and crystallizes in fine needles of a pale buff colour. Bromine gives 
C,, H,, Br, in small hard crystals apparently rhombohedral, which when digested 
with alcoholic potash give’ C,, H, Br, in fine sulphur-yellow crystals. Chlorine 
gives C,, H,, Cl,, and this with alkalies yields C,, H, Cl. 

These and other details contained in the paper show that anthracene is not 
isomeric with naphthaline, but they connect it with the benzoyl series, and more 
especially with stilbene, from which it differs by H, ; while oxanthracene and benzil 
are similarly related to one another, as shown by the following comparison of their 
formule :— 


Oxanthracene ...... OB: 2 1B LES OA Phen) epty eee oie (OA 5 La Os 
The author proposes to prosecute the investigation of these relations. 


On the Effect of Great Pressures combined with Cold on the Six Non- 

condensable Gases. By Professor AnpREws, M.D., F.R.S. 
- In this communication the author gave an account of some results already 
obtained in a research with which he is still occupied on the changes of physical 
state which occur when the non-condensable gases are exposed to the combined 
action of great pressures and low temperatures. The gases when compressed were 
always obiathed in the capillary end of thick glass tubes, so that any change they 
might undergo could be observed. In his earlier experiments the author employed 
the elastic force of the gases evolved in the electrolysis of water as the compressing 
agent, and in this way he actually succeeded in reducing oxygen gas to ;1,th of 
its volume at the ordinary pressure of the atmospkere. He afterwards succeeded 
in effecting the same object by mechanical means, and exhibited to the Section an 
apparatus by means of which he had been able to apply pressures, which were only 
limited by the capability of the capillary glass tubes to resist them; and while thus 
compressed the gases were exposed to the cold attained by the carbonic acid and 
ether bath. Atmospheric air was compressed by pressure alone to =, of its original 
volume, and by the united action of pressure and a cold of — 106° F. to =4,th, in 
which state its density was little inferior to that of water. Oxygen gas was reduced 
by pressure to ;3;th of its volume, and by pressure and cold to =3;th; hydregen 
by the united action of cold and pressure to ;},th; carbonic oxide by pressure to 
si,th, by pressure and cold to s+,th; nitric oxide by pressure to ;4,;th, by pres- 
sure and a cold of—160° F. to ;3,th. None of the gases exhibited any appearance 
of liquefaction even in these high states of condensation. The amount of contrac- 
tion was nearly proportional to the force employed, till the gases were reduced 
to from about 34,th to ;1,th of their volume ; but, beyond that point, they under- 
went little further diminution of volume from increase of pressure. Hydrogen 
and carbonic oxide appear to resist the action of pressure better than oxygen or 
nitric oxide. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77 


. 


On the Chemical Composition of some Woods employed in the Navy. 
By Dr. Cracr Canverr, FIRS. 


The author thought that it might prove interesting to ship-builders if he were to 
investigate the chemical composition of the various woods employed in the Navy; 
especially when this important adjunct of England’s wealth is undergoing such 
extensive modifications, and when it is of such paramount importance to know 
which is the best wood to be used in the construction of the new iron-plated 
frigates. He had examined ten different woods, and the superiority of some foreign 
woods over English oak could not be too strongly expressed. If English oak has 
hitherto stood so high, it must have been owing to our ignorance of the valuable 
properties of some of the woods grown in tropical climates, in which the soluble 
and hiehly decomposable tannin of oak is replaced in some instances by resins, and 
in others by substances similar to caoutchouc. This is the case with Moulmein 
teak, Santa Maria, Moira wood, and Honduras mahogany, which gives to them a 
great advantage over oak for iron ship-building. Thus he has found that in the 
same time, and under similar circumstances, oak will attack iron twice and three 
times as rapidly as the woods above-mentioned. He has also remarked that if cubes 
of the same dimensions of the various kinds of wood remain in contact with water 
for five months, they lose respectively the following per-centages of their sub- 
stance :—Unseasoned oak, 24; seasoned oak, 12; African teak, 33; Moira wood, 4; 
Honduras, 83; Santa Maria, 1:6; Gyreenheart, 5-6; Moulmein teak, 1:7. The 
facility of mildewing or decaying is as follows :—Unseasoned oak, rapid ; seasoned 
oak, much less; African teak and Honduras mahogany, limited; Moira-wood, Santa 
Maria, and Moulmein teak, none. For further details Mr. Crace Calvert would 
avail himself of an early opportunity of publishing a complete paper; but there 
was one point which he deemed it his duty to mention at once. During his 
researches he had found a great difference between oak felled in summer and that 
felled in winter, viz. that the oak felled in winter was rich in tannin, while the 
oak felled in summer contained little or no tannin, but a large quantity of gallic 
acid; and on examining some specimens of wood from unsound gun-boats furnished 
to him by some of Her Majesty’s Officials, he found that the chemical composition 
of the wood of the sound eun-boat was identical with that of well-seasoned oak, 
while the composition of the wood of the unsound gun-boat was identical with that 
of unseasoned summer-felled oak. 


On the Chemical Composition of Steel. By Dr. Cracn Carver, 7. B.S. 


The author entered into some detail respecting the interesting discussion 
which has lately taken place before the French Academy of Science, between 
MM. Fremy and Caron, on the chemical composition of steel, the former contend- 
ing that nitrogen is essential to the conversion of iron into steel, the latter that 
carbon alone is sufficient to effect that object. But an observation that Mr. Crace 
Calvert has made, tends to show that the molecular condition of steel has a great 
deal to do with}the nature of its chemical composition ; for if a piece of soft steel be 
divided into two portions, and one of these is hardened or highly tempered, the 
slow action of acetic acid proves to be quite different ; and whilst soft steel is scarcely 
acted upon by weak acetic acid, hard steel is rapidly dissolved. Further, the soft 
steel leaves a homogeneous grey carburet of iron, similar in its texture to the pra- 
phitoid compound lately described by him (Mz. Calvert), whilst that.of tempered 
steel is black, possesses no cohesion, and has the appearance of pure carbon. 


On the Evolution of Ammonia from Volcanos. 
By Professor Dausuny, M.D., FBS. 


This phenomenon had been ascribed by Bischof to the decomposition of bitu- 
minous matters by volcanic heat; by Bunsen to the lava flowing over herbage, and 
disengaging its nitrogen, which exhibited itself in the form of ammonia; and on 
former occasions, by the author of this paper, to the direct union of hydrogen and 
nitrogen in the interior of the earth under an enormous pressure. Now, however, 
that Wohler has shown the affinity which subsists between nitrogen and certain of 
the metals and simple combustibles, some of which, as titanium or boron, combine 
with it directly with such avidity that the union is attended with combustion; 


78 REPORT—1861. 


and that he has also proved the nitrides formed to be decomposed by the hydrated 
alkalies, ammonia being thereby generated,—it has occurred to the author that a 
more probable explanation of the occurrence of ammonia in volcanos might be 
afforded by supposing such combinations to take place in the interior of the earth, 
and there to be subsequently decomposed by the alkalies which are usually present 
wherever volcanic action is taking place. In confirmation of this view, he appealed 
to alate observation made by Signor Guiscardi, a distinguished naturalist at Nanles, 
namely, that metallic titanium was found to be evolved from the crater of Vesuyius 
during a late eruption. 


On a particular Decomposition of Ancient Glass. By H. Duanz, 


The author’s object was to show, first, that an incrustation observed within a glass 
ampulla from the ancient Christian catacombs of Rome was not organic matter, as 
had been supposed ; and secondly, that it was the result of a decomposition of the 
glass itself, probably originally coloured with peroxide of iron. This in the course 
of time had separated, like the other ingredients of the glass, and found its way to 
the surface in a spheroidal and arborescent form, similar to what may be observed 
in moss agates. ‘That it was not a mere extraneous deposit was obvious from the 
fact of its being chiefly in the substance of the glass itself, and nearly equally 
distributed on both inner and outer surfaces. He had observed precisely the same 
condition in some ancient glass from Nineveh. 


On Morin, and the non-ewistence of Morotannic acid, By Dr. Drtrrs. 


M. Wagner published in the year 1850 an investigation on the wood of Morus 
tinctoria, and stated that this wood contains two peculiar and isomeric matters, 
morin and morotannic acid, the latter of which differs from all other tannic sub- 
stances by being able to crystallize, Since that time no other chemist has discussed 
the same subject. The author thought, therefore, a repeated investigation on morin 
and morotannic acid would not be superfluous, and dnd that morotannic acid is 
only morin in an impure state, and that an often-iterated crystallization suffices to 
convert it into a white substance possessing all the properties of pure morin, The 
composition of morin corresponds to the formula CH’ O°+2HO. M. Wagner 
gives the formula C'* HO", Morin most resembles catechin: it giyes, when 
heated above its melting-point, pyrocatechic acid ; the colour produced in the solu- 
tion of catechin by chloride of iron is nearly identical with that which is caused 
by the same test in the solution of impure morin; and a comparison of the com- 
position of catechin, which Dy. Delffs found seventeen years ago (Jahrbuch fiir 
praktische Pharmacie, vol. xii. p. 162), and that of morin will show that the differ- 
ence between both is not very great. The author tried, therefore, to convert 
catechin by repeated crystallization into morin, but without result, and he is quite 
convinced that these two substances are not identical. 


On Piperic and Hydropiperic Acids. By G. C. Foster, B.A., F.CS. 

The analysis of piperic acid and of the piperates of potassium and barium led 
to the formula C1” H?° O!* for the acid, and to the formula C!* H® MO? for the 
salts; thus confirming Strecker’s formulz +. A warm aqueous solution of piperate 
of potassium is converted, by treatment with sodium-amalgam, into hydropiperate 
of potassium. Hydropiperic acid melts to a transparent oil under hot water, and 
dissolves in all proportions in alcohol: it contains C H'? O04, The following hy- 
dropiperates were analysed :— 


Hydropiperate of ammonium ...... OFF (8 H*): 0% 

i t . C2 FH Ot 
Acid hydropiperate of potassium, . C2 H™ Ko! f' 
Hydropiperate of calcium......... C!? H™ CaO? (at 100°). 
Hydropiperate of barium.......... CY H® BaOt 
Hydropiperate of silver.......... CH" AgOt 


* O=12, H=1, O=16, + Ann, Chem, Pharm. cy, 517. 


eee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79 


On the Composition and Valuation of Superphosphates. 
By Professor GaLtoway, 


On an Aluminous Mineral from the Upper Chalk near Brighton, 
By Dr. J. H. Guapstone and Mr. G. GuapsTone. 


In an old chalk-pit at Hove there are many faults, and some of these are filled 
up with a white soft mineral that runs along the broken layers of flint and imbeds 
the fragments. It appears in agglomerated masses, which easily fall to powder, 
and are porous. Sp. gr. 1-99. One piece that was analysed proved to be the hydrated 
disilicate of alumina, that has received the name of Collyrite, with no other im- 
purity than one per cent, of carbonate of lime. Another piece contained 13 per 
cent, of carbonate of lime, and 5 per cent. additional of carbonic acid, which was 
supposed to be combined with alumina. As the silicic acid was proportionally 
smaller in quantity, this piece was viewed as collyrite in which about half the silicic 
acid had been replaced by carbonic acid, 


On the Emission and Absorption of Rays of Light by certain Gases. 
‘By Dr. J. H. Guansrone, F.R.S, 


This communication arose out of an attempt to determine what constituents of 
the air give rise to the ‘atmospheric lines” of the solar spectrum, of which a ma 
had been exhibited by the author at the Leeds Meeting of the Association, an 
which had been since published in a more complete form by Sir David Brewster and. 
himself. A comparison of the bright rays emitted by nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, 
carbonic acid, and water, when strongly heated, had shown that they do not coin- 
cide with the absorption-bands of the atmosphere. It is possible that the three 
bright lines of the hydrogen spectrum, as given by Angstrom and Pliicker, may be 
in the same position as Cl, F’, and p of the atmospheric spectrum. Yet the author 
inclined to the belief that these absorption-bands are due to two or more different 
constituents in varying proportions, more abundant in some places than in others, 
and probably in very minute quantities, 

The following facts were mentioned among others :—The flame of carbonic oxide 
burning in air gave a continuous spectrum from about C to about /, where it ceased 
rather abruptly: it was without either bright or dark lines, The alcohol flame 
shows four fC decie first faint in the yellow, nearly midway between D and E; 
the second brighter, green, just beyond 4, with the refractive index 1:6254 for glass, 
which gives as the refractive index of 6 16249; the third faint and blue, about 
half-way between F and G; the fourth a more luminous double line, violet, with 
the refractive index 1:6415, that of the line G being 16404, The oxyhydrogen 
flame gave a continuous spectrum principally green and blue, extending to about 
G 33, with no lines corresponding to the hydrogen lines of Angstrém and Pliicker, 
The lightning flash gave a continuous spectrum, showing all the colours from red 
to violet, with doubtful indications of more luminous bands. -That there is no 
necessary eerorpondance between the lines of absorption of a gas at the ordinary 
temperature, and the rays emitted by it at a high temperature, is strikingly proved 
by iodine, where the absorption-bands delineated by Professor Miller, the groups 
of green and blue bands produced when the vapour is introduced into a Bunsen’s 
flame, and the lines of the rarefied gas as observed by Pliicker, are perfectly dif- 
ferent. By the prismatic analysis of solar light, the absence of the coloured gases 
from the air can be proved, even in very minute quantity. Thus the author 
_ observed that about ;4,th of an inch of bromine vapour interposed between the 
eye and the object-glass of the refraction goniometer was sufficient to exhibit the 
absorption-bands; and from this he had reckoned that if free bromine constituted 
one thousand millionth part of the atmosphere, it would betray its presence in the 
solar spectrum when the sun was on the horizon; but there is no such indication, 
This, ceyer, rests on the unproved assumption that a gas almost infinitely 
diffused along a given line will produce the same absorbent effect as if its particles 
were all close together at some point along that line, 


ae 


80 REPORT—1861,. 


On the History of the Alkali Manufacture. By W. Gossacr. 


The author believed that the manufacture of soda in Great Britain, by the special 
decomposition of common salt, had its commencement in Lancashire ; at any rate, 
its largest development had taken place in this county. Previously to the esta- 
blishment of the French republic, in 1793, soda was obtained almost entirely from the 
ashes of marine plants growing at Alicante in Spain, Sicily, Teneriffe, and on the 
coast of Great Britain. Large quantities of potash were also imported from Russia 
and America, but now soda was exported to those countries which formerly sent 
us potash, The importation of alkali into France being stopped by the French re- 
volution, a committee was appointed by the French conyention to discover means 
of supplying the article from France itself. The process suggested by Le Blanc 
was approved of; but it was erroneous to suppose that his process was not invented 
before the committee was appointed. Having given an account of Le Blanc’s 
invention, Mr. Gossage said that it was very complete, and was the same as now 
used in both England and France. This invention had done more to promote 
civilization than any other chemical manufacture. The poor inventor, however, 
met with the too common reward of talent, and after great privations died in an 
asylum for paupers. Sundry alkali works were erected in France ; but the process 
was not introduced into England until some years afterwards. - In 1787 Messrs. 
Gordon, Barron, and Co., of Aberdeen, applied chlorine, then recently discovered, 
to the process of bleaching. A large establishment was in the following year 
established at Bolton. At first chlorine was used in the state of solution in water, 
but the inconvenience of using it in that manner was overcome by the addition of 
potash to the water. The next step was to substitute lime for potash, producing 
solution of chloride of lime. This was the invention of Mr. Charles Tennant, of 
St. Rollox, who afterwards manufactured chloride of lime in the state of powder. 
This manufacture was carried out to a great extent. A great obstruction to the 
manufacture, however, was the high excise-duty on salt, which operated most in- 
juriously. When Mr. Tennant’s patent for manufacturing bleaching powder expired, 
other parties began the same manufacture. Attention was directed to the utiliza- 
tion of the mixed sulphate of soda and sulphate of manganese resulting from this 
manufacture, and carbonate of soda, in crystals, was gradually introduced into the 
market. During the same period Mr. Losh was making crystals of soda, and might 
be considered the father of the soda trade in this country. Mr. Losh finished his 
education on the continent, where he learnt Le Blanc’s processes. After his return, 
he obtained permission of Government to work a spring of weak brine discovered 
at Walker, on the Tyne, for the manufacture of soda, He there manufactured soda 
crystals ; but notwithstanding these essays, 1823 might be considered the natal 
year of the soda trade as a special manufacture in Great Britain. In that year 
common salt being relieved from fiscal impost, Mr. James Muspratt commenced 
the manufacture of sulphate of soda at Liverpool, to be used for the manufacture 
of carbonate of soda. Mr. Muspratt adopted Le Blanc’s processes in their entirety. 
He had to contend with many difficulties, but he overcame them all, and reaped a 
satisfactory reward. Other manufacturers also commenced to make sulphate of 
soda, by the special decomposition of common salt for the purpose of making soda ; 
and it had since been found advantageous to adapt this method of working to 
the production of bleaching powder, by using the hydrochloric acid so obtained 
to generate chlorine by its action on manganese.- In the early days of the soda 
trade no attempt was made to condense the liberated hydrochloric acid gas. The 
old apparatus of cylinders and Woulfe’s bottles was totally inadequate for the 
condensing. Many plans were suggested, and amongst others he (Mr. Gossage) 
obtained a patent in 1836. Having demonstrated the practicability of effecting a 
complete condensation of hydrochloric acid, by the erection and working of a set 
of apparatus at the soda works with which he was then connected, he introduced the 
plan to the trade, and it had been subsequently adopted by every manufacturer. 
‘The principle of the invention consists in causing the acid gas to percolate through 
a deep bed of coke, in small lumps, contained in a high tower, at the same time. 
that a supply of water flowed very slowly over the surface of the pieces of coke. 
By this means an almost unlimited extent of moistened surface was presented 
to the gas for effecting its absorption, and as the same fluid descended through the 
tower, it met with more gas and gradually became charged to saturation; whilst, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 81 


at the upper portion of the tower, any gas which might otherwise escape was ex- 
posed to the absorbing power of unacidulated water. In 1838, a French house, 
Messrs. Taix and Co., of Marseilles, obtained a monopoly from the King of Sicily 
for the export of sulphur. This caused an advance in price to £14 per ton, from 
the previous rate of £5 per ton. It was found that in our Cornish mines and in 
those of Wicklow in Ireland, we possessed an inexhaustible supply of sulphur in 
the form of pyrites; and our practical chemists soon availed themselves of this 
source for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. In working with pyrites it was found 
that this mineral contained sulphide of copper as well as sulphide of iron, and at 
an early period he commenced to extract the copper from the burnt residuum by 
smelting. At the present time, the products obtained by the soda manufacturers 
were soda ash, worth £8 per ton; soda crystals, about £4 10s. per ton; bleaching 
powder, £9 per ton; bicarbonate of soda, £10 per ton; whilst the cost of raw 
materials, now used in Lancashire, is—sulphur, £8 per ton, for which was substi- 
tuted pyrites at a cost equivalent to £5 per ton; common salt, 8s.; limestone, 6s. 8d.; 
fuel, 6s. per ton. Thus, with a reduction in the cost of raw materials not more 
than equal to 10 per cent. the public was supplied with the products of the soda 
manufacturer at a reduction of at least 60 per cent. As nearly as he could obtain 
information, there were 50 establishments in Great Britain in which soda was 
manufactured by Le Blanc’s process, producing about 8000 tons of soda ash, 2000 
tons of soda crystals, 250 tons of bicarbonate of soda, and 400 tons of bleaching 
powder per week. The total amount of these products might be estimated as 
exceeding two millions sterling, which was so much entirely added to the annual 
income of the country, excepting about £100,000 paid for materials obtained from 
other countries. He must not omit to notice the prospect of a new market for 
British-made soda which had been opened by the successful labours of Mr. Cobden, 
in negotiating the commercial treaty with the French government. 

Many attempts had been made to supersede Le Blane’s process, by some more 
direct means of operating on salt, so as to eliminate its soda at once. Up to the 
“aya time, the result of all these attempts had been the wasteful expenditure of 

arge sums of money. Two-fifths of the total cost for raw materials was incurred 
for pyrites from which to procure a supply of sulphur; and it was a well-lnown 
fact that more than nine-tenths of this sulphur was retained in the material called 
“ alkali waste,” which was thrown away by the manufacturer. Thus was presented 
a problem which, if it could be solved, would effect a large reduction in the cost of 
soda. Many chemists, both scientific and practical, had given a great amount of 
attention to the subject. He had been so unfortunate as to be amongst the number, 
as he had devoted a great proportion of his time, during a quarter of acentury, and 
a large amount of both money and labour to this hitherto delusive subject. He 
commenced by demonstrating, in 1888, that one equivalent of carbonic acid would 
decompose one equivalent of sulphide of calcium, producing monocarbonate of lime 
and sulphide of hydrogen. This decomposition was contrary to the received views 
of scientific chemists of that day, as it was held that an excess of carbonic acid was 
needful to effect the perfect decomposition of sulphides. He was convinced that 
whenever the utilization of the sulphur in alkali waste should be effected, it would 
be by means of this action of carbonic acid. He demonstrated also, at the same 
time, that one equivalent of carbonic acid would decompose one equivalent of sul- 
phide of sodium, producing monocarbonate of soda and sulphide of hydrogen. His 
present impression was that Le Blanc’s processes would be modified by the omis- 
sion of lime when decomposing sulphide of soda, thus producing sulphide of 
sodium; and that the carbonic acid evolved by this decomposition would be applied 
to decompose the sulphide of sodium, producing carbonate of soda, and eliminating 
sulphide of hydrogen, which would be absorbed by peroxide of iron, and the pro- 
duct used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. He had proved the correctness of 
all those decompositions and actions ; but the ideas had still to be worked into a 
practical operation. 


On the Construction of Gas-Burners for Chemical Use. 
By J. J. Guirvin, FCS. 
The authorexhibited aseriesof gas-burners adapted to pee the different degrees 
of heat that are required for the usual operations of the experimental chemist. 
1861. 6 


82 ‘ REPORT—1861.- 


They were all formed for burning a mixture of coal-gas and atmospheric air, so 
regulated as to produce great heat and no light. The construction of the burners 
was explained, and the methods of securing the proper results. The same burner 
could be made to give a single large flame for the ignition of a crucible, or a great 
number of small flames proper to warm a current of air to effect evaporations, &c. 
Jackets or furnaces were used for applying the heat produced by the burmers so as 
to combine the greatest effect with economy in the use of gas. With one of these 
burners (the third in the series) five gallons of water could be readily boiled; a 
5-inch clay crucible could be raised to a full red heat in less than half an hour; or 
30 Ibs. of lead or 20 Ibs. of zinc could be kept in constant fusion. For very high 
temperatures a blast gas furnace is required. The burner belonging to this appa- 
ratus contains sixteen or twenty-six blowpipes which are acted on by a bellows. 
With this furnace, a quarter of a hundredweight of cast iron, and smaller quantities 
(two or three pounds) of such metals as malleable iron and nickel, can be com- 
pletely fused in about an hour. 


Note on the Sulphur Compound formed by the Action of Sulphuretted Hydro- 
gen on Formiate of Lead at a High Temperature. By W.J. Horst, Student 
of Owens College, Manchester. 


In 1856, Limpricht* assigned to the above body, as the result of his sulphur 


determinations only, the formula C, E oi S,, and the name thioformic acid, from 


a supposed analogy to the thiacetic acid of Kekulét, CH, 0, S,. I lately un- 


dertook, at Professor Roscoe’s suggestion, the following further examination of its 
properties and mode of formation. 

(1.) When anhydrous formic acid is acted on by pentasulphide of phosphorus, 
as in Kekulé’s experiment, sulphuretted hydrogen is continually evolved, and the 
distillate contains no sulphur in combination. 

(I.) When the mixture is heated in closed tubes to 106° C., or (IIL) to the same 
temperature under a pressure of three atmospheres, carbonic oxide and sulphuretted 
hydrogen are evolved, with similar negative results. 

So (IV. and V.) when formiate of lead and pentasulphide of phosphorus are 
distilled together both in the dry and moist state. These facts seem to point to a 
decomposition of the thioformic acid, if formed, at the temperature of the experi- 
ments, Thus, 

C, HO, 
H 


8,=C,0,+77{ S.. 
I obtained Limpricht’s body by his method, but in much smaller quantities than 


he mentions. After purification by repeated crystallizations from hot formic acid, 
and drying in vacuo over sulphuric acid, analyses yielded the following results :— 


Found. Calculated for 
the formula C, HO,] g 
(1.) (IL.) III.) (IV.) H } a 
C 27:93 29:25 8:21 a 19:3 
-H 470 483 65:25 i 32 
S 58-11 ake 56:7 55:15 516 
LO yaae ic oF os 25'9 
Limpricht’s numbers were— 
L, ug oan 
C 26-1 25:7 23°4 
A 56 4:7 63 
5 51:2 52°5 ar 


T estimated the sulphur by oxidation with warm nitric acid, observing the neces- 
sary precautions; the carbon and hydrogen after Carius’{ method; and after the 


* Ann. Chem. Pharm. xcyii. 361. 


t Ann. Chem. Pharm. xe, 309; and Phil. Mag. [4] vii. 518. 
} Ann, Pharm. exvi. 1. , ose 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 


combustion the water of the chloride-of-calcium tube was found to be quite free 
from sulphurous acid. Although these analyses, in the absence of a vapour-density 
or atomic weight determination, which the small quantity of the substance did not 
permit, yield no definite formula, yet they and the previous experiments show 
clearly that the body is not thioformic acid. It crystallizes readily in white shining 
needles from hot alcohol, ether, acetic or formic acids, the alcoholic solution being 
neutral to test-papers. The crystals melt at about 120° C., and sublime unchanged 
at higher temperatures, depositing in long silky needles,—are unacted on by hot 
or cold hydrochloric acid, solutions of carbonate or hydrate of potassium and 
sulphide of ammonium,—are decomposed by nitric and sulphuric acids, yielding 
a heavy white precipitate with nitrate of silver, but none with chloride of barium, 
when dry have little odour, but in solution in formic acid a strong penetrating 
sulphur smell. 


On the Thermal Effects of Elastic Fluids. 
By Dr. Journ, F.R.S., and Professor W. Tuomson, FBS. 

In the year 1844, Mr. Joule showed that the thermal effects of compressing an 
elastic fluid and of allowing a compressed elastic fluid to expand, were to be explained 
on mechanical principles. He demonstrated by experiment that the heat evolved 
by the compression of an elastic fluid was proportional and equivalent to the force 
employed ; and 2nd, that the cold occasioned by the dilatation of a gas was in con= 
sequence of heat turned into work. He also showed that if the dilatation of a gas is 
managed so as to give out no external work, no sensible thermal effect is produced: 
Professor Thomson showed that these results were probably only approximate to 
the truth, and would differ from it in proportion as the gas did not observe the so- 
called gaseous laws, and he devised the plan of experimenting, which the authors 
have since carried on in concert, in order to show the small but certain thermal effect 
of expanding elastic fluids without giving out work. The method the authors 
employed is to allow an elastic fluid confined at high pressure to escape through a 
_ porous plug. It is obvious that if the gas obeyed the gaseous laws accurately, no 
change of temperature would be occasioned by this process, for the cold of dilatation 
would be exactly balanced by the heat arising from the friction of the air in the 
plug. This is evident from the circumstance that the product of the pressure 
through the space would be the same on both sides of the plug. Their first expe 
riments, on a very small scale and with a very imperfect apparatus, decisively ex- 
hibited a lowering of temperature of air on passing through the plug, thus showing 
a non-observance of exact gaseous law, which was with difficulty detected by Reg 
nault by the use of a very elaborate and costly method, only applicable to certain 
gases under peculiar conditions. 

The method they employed, though so extremely simple, required several pre= 
cautions. In particular it was requisite to employ a porous plug of considerable 
thickness ; forif a thin one was employed there was arapid conduction of heat from 
the high- to the low-pressure side, and also an irregular effect arising from the 
action of numerous jets of air instead of a tranquil flow on the low-pressure side. 
Hence they found a too large cooling effect when a diaphragm of leather was used, 
in which case even hydrogen showed a slight cooling effect. 

The phenomena of a jet of air are highly interesting. Issuing at a high velocity 
from a vessel in which it is confined at high pressure, its actual temperature may 
readily be made 200° below the zero of Fahr. But this very low temperature 
cannot be easily exhibited, because if a thermometer is immersed in the jet the 
friction of the air gives rise to heat which nearly neutralizes the cold. The tem- 
perature of one Ital of a jet may thus be hundreds of degrees different from that of 
another part. The authors have, in fact, shown that a thermometer may be so 
placed in a jet as to experience either cold or extreme heat. Hence the absolute 
necessity in their experiments of a porous plug, which will allow the air to issue in 
a tranquil flow without jets or rapids. 

A general result they have arrived at on transmitting elastic fluids through a 
porous plug, is, that the thermal effect is proportional to the difference of pressures 
on the opposite sides. 

A diminution of temperature takes place in all the gases tried except hydrogen ; 
and this diminution or cooling effect is decreased when the temperature by raised, 

ak 


84 REPORT—1861l. 


in such sort as to make it certain that at 800° or 400° it would vanish altogether 
and be followed by a heating eflect, as is observed in hydrogen at low temperatures. 

In different gases the cooling effect is very various. It is 5 times as great in 
carbonic acid as in atmospheric air at low temperatures, and 4 times as great at 
the boiling temperature. 

A very remarkable fact which has been elicited by these experiments, is that a 
gas mixed with another does not exhibit the same thermal effects as it does when 
undiluted. In general a mixture of gases gives a smaller cooling effect than would 
be deduced from the cooling eftects of the constituents. This has been verified in 
the dilutions of carbonic acid and hydrogen and in atmospheric air, of which each 
of the component gases has a larger cooling effect than itself. 

The authors regret that they have not been able as yet to extend the experiments 
so as to show the point at which the cooling effect ceases and is followed by a 
heating effect in the different gases. 


On some points in connexion with the Exhaustion of Soils. 
By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S8., and Dr. J. WH. Guperr, .B.S., FCS. 


The question of the exhaustion of soils was one of peculiar interest at the present 
time, not only on account of the great attention now paid to the waste of manuring 
matters by the discharge of the sewage of towns into our rivers, but also from the 
fact that Baron Liebig has recently urged that our soils are suffering progressive 
exhaustion from this cause, and predicted certain, though it may be distant, ruin to 
the nation, if our present modes of procedure be persevered in. 

The question was one of chemical facts; and the authors had intended to treat it 
much more comprehensively than they were able to do on the present occasion. 
They proposed, by way of illustration, to bring forward one special case of pro- 
gressive exhaustion, occurring in the course of their own investigations; and then 
to contrast the conditions of that result with those of ordinary agriculture. 

They had grown wheat for eighteen years consecutively on the same land, respect- 
ively without manure, with farm-yard manure, and with different constituents of 
manure, and they had determined the amounts of the different mineral constituents 
taken off in the crop from the respective plots. Numerous Tables of the results were 
exhibited. The variations in the composition of the ash of both grain and straw, 
dependent on variations of season and consequent character of development and 
maturity, were first pointed out. The general result was, that, with an unfayour- 
able season, there was a slight though appreciable decrease in the percentage of lime 
and potass, and increase in that of magnesia; and again, an increase in the percentage 
of phosphoric acid and of silica; and, especially in the case of the straw-ash, a decrease 
in that of sulphuric acid. Turning to the bearing of the results on the main subject 
of inquiry, it appeared that when ammonia-salts were used alone, year after year, 
on the same land, the composition of the ash, both of grain and of straw, showed an 
appreciable decline in the amount of phosphoric acid, and that of the straw a con- 
siderable reduction in the percentage of silica. j 

When ammonia-salts alone were used, the amount of mineral constituents in the 
crop of a given area of land was very much increased—much more so than when a 
liberal supply of mineral constituents alone was used. But in neither of these 
cases was there anything like the amount of mineral constituents obtained in the 
crop, that there was when the ammonia-salts and mineral manures were used to- 
gether, or when farm-yard manure was employed. The greatest deficiency indi- 
cated was in the silica and the phosphoric acid, and next in order came potass and 
magnesia. The exhaustion here apparent was, however, not to be wondered at, 
when it is considered that, in these experiments in which both corn and straw were 
annually removed without the usual periodical return of farm-yard manure, there 
had been on the average annually taken from the land by the use of ammonia-salts, 
about twice as much phosphoric acid, about five times as much potass, and about 
twenty-five times as much silica, as would be removed under a system of ordinary 
rotation with home manuring, and selling only‘corm and meat; in fact, in sixteen 
years there had been taken from the land as much phosphoric acid as would require 
thirty-two years, as much potass as would require eighty-two years, and as much 
silica as would require 400 years of such ordinary practice to remoye, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 


Again, the authors estimated that in the experiments of the Rey. Mr. Smith of 
Lois Weedon, on the growth of wheat year after year on the same land, without 
manure, there had been an annual extraction from each acre of land of about three 
and a half times as much phosphoric acid, about seyen times as much potass, and 
about thirty-seven times as much silica, as there would be iti the ordinary course 
of practice; yet, after some fifteen years the crops at Lois Weedon were said not 
to be at all failing. 
The authors did not recommend such exhaustive practice as that quoted from 
their own, or the Rey. Mr. Smith’s experiments. But the instances given showed 
the capabilities of certain soils; and in one case the conditions under which the 
point of comparative exhaustion had been reached. It was, of course, impossible to 
state the limits of the capability of soils generally, so infinitely varied was their 
composition ; but it would be useful to give an illustration on this point. Reckon- 
ing the soil to be one foot deep, it was estimated that it would require, of ordi- 
nary rotation with home manuring and selling only corn and meat, about 1000 
years to exhaust as much phosphoric acid, about 2000 years to exhaust as much 
potass, and about 6000 years to exhaust as much silica, as, according to the average 
results of forty-two analyses* relating to fourteen soils of very various descriptions, 
had been found to be soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. Many soils had, doubt- 
less, a composition inferior to that here supposed. In a large proportion, however, 
the amounts of the above constituents assumed to be soluble in dilute hydrochloric 
acid would probably be available for plants long before the expiration of the periods 
mentioned ; whilst, in a large proportion, there would still be further stores even= 
tually available within a greater or a less depth from the surface. 
But the exhaustion of mineral constituents by the sale of corn and meat alone 
was in reality not so great, in the ordinary practice of this country, as has been 
assumed for the purpose of the above illustrations. Where there was no purchase 
of cattle-food, or of artificial or town manures, the sales of corn and meat would on 
the average be much less than were taken in the authors’ estimates ; and where such 
materials were purchased with any degree of judgment in the selection, there would 
always be much more phosphoric acid (otherwise the most easily exhausted con- 
stituent) so brought upon the land, than would be obtained from it in the increase 
_ of produce yielded; in fact, under such conditions, in many soils potass was more 
likely to become deficient. Again, by no means the whole of the mineral consti- 
tuents sent from the farm in the form of corn and meat will reach the sewers of 
our towns, and thence our rivers; a not inconsiderable portion finding its way back 
to the land in some form; in addition to which, imported corn, meat, and other 
materials will contribute something to the restoration of our own cultivated land. 
It is at the same time certain that so much of the refuse matters of our towns as 
becomes diluted with water in the degree recognized under the present sewerage 
system will be applicable as manure, on the large scale, only to succulent crops, and 
especially to grass-land; and, so far as this is the case, they will of course not 

_ directly contribute to the restoration to the land under tillage, of the mineral con- 
stituents sent from it in its produce of corn and meat. When other descriptions of 
produce than corn and meat, such as roots, hay, or straw, are largely sold, compen- 
sation is generally made by the return to the land of stable- or town-manures of 
some kind. If this be not done, the loss of mineral constituents may indeed be 
very considerable. 

In conclusion, whilst the authors insisted upon the importance of applying to 
agricultural purposes as much as possible of the valuable manuring matters of our 
towns, they at the same time believed that modern practices, taken as a whole, did 
not tend to exhaustion in anything like the degree that had been supposed by some. 


On Purifying Towns from Sewage by means of Dry Cloace. 
By Dr. J. H. Lioyn. 


On the Proportion of Tin present in Tea-Lead. By Dr. 8S. Macapam, 


* The accuracy of some of these analyses, however, is admitted as open to question: 
see Report by Magnus, Ann. d. Landwirthschaft, xiv. 2. 


86 REPORT—1861. 


On the Proportion of Arsenic present in Paper-Hangings. 
By Dr. 8. Macapam, 


The author had been led to the investigation of this subject by hearing of cases 
of arsenical poisonings through remaining in rooms with green paperhangings. 
In all these cases of which he had heard, the patients soon recovered on being 
removed from one room to another. The question whether the arsenic in green 
paperhangings was injurious to health very much resembled the question regarding 
lead, in which it had been stated that a small quantity, though not atiecting 
one person, might act very injuriously upon another. In most of the green paper- 
hangings the arsenic was present in the condition of a rough powder. In some 
cases the paper was glazed, which had the effect of protecting the arsenic. He 
had examined several green flock papers, and asa general rule he believed they did 
not contain arsenic; but all the common descriptions of green paperhangings did, 
He purchased two packets of envelopes, the bands around which were coloured 
green. In these two bands he found 3:3 grains of arsenic. The common green 
paperhangings contained an amount of arsenic varying from 1 to 40 grains per 
square foot. Taking the mean quantity at 20 grains, a large-sized room would per- 
haps contain 20,000 grains of arsenic in the paper; a small room 10,000 grains—a 
quantity capable of producing very serious symptoms. With regard to the mode 
in which this arsenic could be introduced into the system, it was a question whe- 
ther arsenic volatilized at ordinary temperatures ; but he thought it was not carrying 
the point too far to suppose that during the damp condition of the paper when 
being hung, a certain proportion of the arsenic was carried off with the water in 
the shape of vapour. It was likely to occur also during the night, when the exha- 
lation of the animal system would produce a moisture on the walls as well as the 
windows, and when a draught was created by the opening of the door in the morning 
a certain portion of the arsenic might be volatilized. Itwas possibly more liable to be 
disturbed by mechanical action, such as dusting, or the rubbing of dresses against 
the wall, or the grazing of bedhangings against the paper. In such cases the 
arsenic fell in fine dust upon the carpets, and whenever the carpets were brushed the 
small particles would fly about and be inhaled. He had not met with any case of 
death through arsenical poisonings from paperhangings, but he believed it was a 
medical fact that arsenic taken into the system, even in very small quantities, would 
soon undermine the health. : } 


On an Economical Mode of boiling Rags, Se. with Alkaline Ley. 
By Dr. 8. Macapam. 


On the Separation of Ammonia from Coal-gas. By W. Marrtorr. 
In the manufacture of coal-gas a large quantity of ammonia is generated along 


with the permanent gases, The ereater portion of the ammonia is separated by. 


cooling or scrubbing, but still a considerable portion passes through the lime or 
oxide purifier, and so passes along with the gas as caustic ammonia. 

Gas-managers are fully aware of the desirability of removing the ammonia, and 
many processes have been devised for this purpose, some of which are in operation 
in different gas-works. 


Of all the substances which have been used for this purpose sulphuric acid is” 


perhaps the simplest in its application, and, space and economy considered, the 


quickest in its removal of the ammonia. But there is one great objection in the — 
use of strong sulphuric acid, namely, that it diminishes the illuminating power of © 


the gas by absorbing the rich hydrocarbons. 

If gas is allowed for a length of time to pass through sulphuric acid, a point is 
reached when no more of the hydrocarbons are absorbed, after which the gas may 
be passed through the acid without injury to its illuminating power. 

Acid so prepared is saturated with carbonaceous matter, and if filtered and 
evaporated to (aed a mass of carbon is left in the dish. 

ow, sulphuric acid so prepared, though it has lost its injurious action on the 
gas, retains its affinity for the ammonia. 

It is the above principle of saturating the sulphuric acid with carbonaceous 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87 


matter which is applied in the material we now use extensively for oa the 
ammonia from coal-gas, with this improvement, that the acid instead of being in the 
liquid state is solid, and is at once in the purifier converted into crystallized sul- 
phate of ammonia. 

In saturating sulphuric acid with carbon it is not necessary to use the gaseous 
hydrocarbons, as almost any vegetable matter will do; sawdust is used. The 
material is prepared by heating together, at a temperature of about 280° Fahr., 
equal weights of sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1700, and sawdust. 

At that temperature the organic matter of the sawdust is broken up, and the 
carbon eliminated solidifies the acid ; at the same time the acid dissolyes as much 
carbonaceous matter as it will take up. 

The author cannot say what is the organic compound dissolved by the acid, only 
that in this form of saturation the acid does not in the least injure the illuminating 
power of the gases passed through it. 

_~ On account of the immense surface of acid exposed to the gas when so prepared, 
we are not surprised to find that the ammonia is separated from the gas instantly 
it comes in contact with it; in fact, where we are passing from 1 to 3 millions 
feet of gas in 24 hours, we cannot detect any ammonia until the material is satu- 
rated to within 1 or 2 inches of the surface. 

The material being very porous, offers very little obstruction to the passage of 
the gas, and so scarcely increases the pressure. 

All those who are engaged in the manufacture of sulphate of ammonia from the 
ammoniacal liquor obtained from gas-works, well know the great loss of this salt 
carried away by the steam, either in evaporating a solution to the crystallizing 
point, or in passing the ammoniacal vapours through the acid. On the large scale 
the loss is from 10 to 20 per cent. ’ 

In the acid prepared as already stated, and converted into sulphate of ammonia, 
at the temperature of the gas as it passes through the purifier there is no loss ; for 
every equivalent of sulphuric acid used, an equivalent of sulphate of ammonia is 
received. In an economical point of view this is a great saving; but there is still 
further economy in the labour, because the very process of removing the ammonia 
from the gas converts it into sulphate of ammonia ready for the market. 

The material as discharged from the purifier contains from 50 to 60 per cent. of 
2 aed of ammonia applicable for manure purposes. 

' The author claimed no novelty, either in the use of sulphuric acid alone or mixed 
with sawdust, but thought its application as a free acid, when saturated with car- 
honaceous matter, might be of interest to the Section, 


On Madder Photographs, By Joun Mexcer, F.R.S, 


On Photographic Spectra of the Electric Light. 
By Professor W. A. Muitmr, M.D., F.R.S. 


The appueins by which the spectra may be photographed consists of an ordinary 
camera obscura attached to the end of a long wooden tube, which opens into a 
cylindrical box, within which is a prism glass, or a hollow prism filled with bisul- 
P ide of carbon. If the prism be so adjusted as to throw the solar rays, reflected 

rom a heliostat, upon the screen of a camera, and the wires which transmit the 
sparks from Ruhmkorff’s coil are placed in front of the uncovered portion of the 
slit, the two spectra are simultaneously impressed. The solar beam is easily inter- 
cepted at the proper time by means of a small screen, and the electric spectrum is al- 
lowed to continue its action for two or three, or six minutes, as may be necessary. 
The author did not find that anything was gained in distinctness by interposing a 
lens of short focus between the slit and the wire which supplied the ae with 
the view of rendering the rays of the electric light parallel like those of the sun, 
owing to the absorbent action of the glass weakening the photographic effect ; and 
the flickering motion of the sparks being magnified ie the lens, rendered the lines 
less distinct than when the lens was not used. Although with each of the metals 
(including platinum, gold, silver, copper, zinc, aluminum, magnesium, iron), when 
the spark was taken in air, he obtained decided photographs, it appeared that in 
each case the impressed spectrum was very nearly the same, proving that few of 


88 REPORT— 1861. 


the lines produced were those which were characteristic of the metal. The pecu- 
liar lines of the metal scemed chiefly to be confined to the visible portion of the 
spectrum, and these had little or no photographic power. This was singularly 
exemplified by repeating the a aa upon the same metal in air, in a continu- 
ous current of pure hydrogen. _ [ron, for example, gave, in hydrogen, a spectrum in 
which a bright orange and a strong green band were yisible, besides a few faint 
lines in the blue part of the spectrum. - Although the light produced by the action 
of the coil was alved to fall for ten minutes upon a sensitive collodion surface, 
scarcely a trace of any action was procured; whilst, in five minutes, in the air, a 
owerful impression of numerous bands was obtained. It was remarked by Mr. 
albot that, in the spectra of coloured flames, the nature of the acid did not influ- 
ence the position of the bright lines of the spectrum, which he found was dependent 
upon the metal employed; and this remark has been confirmed by all subsequent 
observers. But the case is very different in the absorption-bands produced by 
the vapours of coloured bodies,—there the nature of both constituents of the com- 
pound is essentially connected with the production of absorptive bands. Chlorine, 
combined with hydrogen, gave no bands by absorption in any moderate thickness. 
Chlorous acid and peroxide of chlorine both produced the same set of bands, while 
hypochlorous acid, although a strongly coloured vapour and containing the same 
elements, oxygen and chlorine, produced no absorption-bands. Again, the brown- 
ish-red vapour of perchloride of iron produced no absorption-bands ; but when con- 
verted into vapour in a flame, the iron showed bands independent of the form in 
which it occurred combined. These anomalies appear to admit of an easy expla- 
nation on the supposition that, in any case, the compound employed is decomposed 
in the flame, either simply by the high temperature, just as water is, as shown by 
Grove, or in other cases by the reducing action of the burning bodies, which supply 
the flame, upon the metallic salt introduced into the flame. In the voltaic pile the 
decomposition must of necessity take place by electric action. The compound gases, 
rotoxide and binoxide of nitrogen, give, when electrified, the same series of bright 
tauts (as Pliicker has shown) which their constituents when combined furnish. 
Aqueous vapour always gives the bright lines due to hydrogen; and hydrochloric 
acid the mixed system of lines which would be produced by hydrogen and chlorine. 
The reducing influence of the hydrogen and other combustible constituents of the 
burning body would decompose the sait, liberating the metal, which would imme- 
diately become oxidized or carried off in the ascending current. There was obvi- 
ously a marked difference between the effect of intense ignition upon most of the 
metallic and the non-metallic bodies. The observations of Pliicker upon the spectra 
of iodine, bromine, and chlorine show that they give, when ignited, a very ditferent 
series of bands from those which they furnished by absorption, as Dr. Gladstone has 
already pointed out; but it is interesting to remark that in the case of hydrogen, 
which, chemically, is so similar to a metal, we have a comparatively simple spec- 
trum, in which the three principal bright lines correspond to Fraunhofer’s dark 
lines C, F, and G. It was, however, to be specially noted that the hydrogen occa- 
sioned no perceptible absorption-bands at ordinary temperatures in such thickness 
as we could command in our experiments, and the vapour of boiling mercury was 
also destitute of any absorptive action, although, when ignited by the electric spark, 
it gave a characteristic and brilliant series of dark bands. The following experi- 
ment suggested itself as a direct test of Kirchhoff’s theory. Two gas-burners, into 
which were introduced chloride of sodium on the wick of the spirit-lamp, were 
placed so as to illuminate equally the opposite sides of a sheet of paper partially 
greased. The rays of the electric light screened from the photometric surface, suit- 
ably protected, were made to traverse one of the flames. If the yellow rays of the 
light were absorbed by the sodium flame, the light emitted laterally by the flame 
should be sensibly increased. The experiment, however, failed to indicate an 
such increase in the brilliancy of the flame, possibly because the eye was not ae 
ficiently sensitive to detect the slight difference which was to be expected. 


On Atmospheric Ozone. By Dr. Morrar. 


The results given were from the observations of ten years, taken at Hawarden at 
a height of 260 feet above the level of the sea. The quantity of ozone is greater with 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89 


decreasing readings of the barometer and when the readings are below the mean, than 
with increasing readings and when they are above the mean, and greater when the 
range of the barometer and the number of its oscillations are above the mean. It is 
greater when the mean daily temperature and dew-point temperature are above the 
mean. Ozone is at a minimum with the wind from points north of 8.E. and N.W., 
and at a maximum with the wind from points south of these ; it isalso at a maximum 
when the wind is above its mean force. When rain is above the mean quantity 
ozone is also above the mean, and also with hail; but it is below the mean with 
snow and sleet. With fog it is below the mean, above it with cirri, halos, aurorz, 
and the zodiacal light, but below it with thunder. It is in greater quantity with 
negative than with positive electricity. Ozone periods so frequently commence 
with the wind from 8.E. points of the compass, and so often terminate with the 
wind in N.W. points, that these may be called their points of commencement and 
termination. ‘They may also be said to commence with decreasing readings of the 
barometer and increase of temperature, and to terminate with increasing readings 
and decrease of temperature. The quantity of ozone is also greater in the night 
than in the day. It is greater with new and full moon than during the first and 
last quarters ; and it also varies with the seasons, being greater in the winter and 
spring months than in summer and autumn. The quantity of ozone varies 
with the locality ; it is greater on the sea-shore than at inland places, and it also 
increases in quantity with increase of elevation. It is greater in the open country 
than in towns and villages; and it is at 0 in drains and cesspools and their vicinity, 
and, in short, at every place where the products of putrefaction or combustion are in 
sufficient quantity to decompose it. Although these results are from Hawarden obser= 
vations only, they are supported by observations taken at other places. Differences 
at individual stations may be attributed to purely local causes. Ozone is a highly 
oxidized body, and it is easily decomposed by oxidable substances. If test-paper 
prepared with iodide of potassium be exposed in a locality where these substances 
are at a minimum, it will in time become brown, and vzone will be at its maximum. 
If a similar paper be placed in a locality where the quantity of oxidable substances 
is at its maximum, it will remain white, and ozone will be at a minimum; and if 
a brown paper be put in the latter place, it will lose its colour, sulphuretted hydro- 
gen being the decolorizing agent. On the sea and the sea-shore ozone is at its 
maximum, because the products of putrefaction are there small in quantity, and 
the wind which blows over the ocean is the ozoniferous current. On the land the 
products of decomposition are at their maximum, hence the current of air that 
passes over it is non-ozoniferous. Indeed all the conditions of an ozone period are 
those of the equatorial or ocean current of the atmosphere, and the conditions of a 
no-ozone period are those of the polar or land current. 

Medico-meteorological results give the maximum of diseases with the ozoniferous 
current, and the maximum of deaths with the no-ozone current, but the diseases 
may be attributed rather to the vicissitudes of weather than to ozone. As the land 
or polar current of the air is the lower strata in motion, and the ocean or equatorial 
current the motion of the higher strata, there ought to be an analogy in a medico- 
meteorological sense between them, and sowe find that the maximum of deaths takes 
place in the lower strata with minimnm of ozone, and the minimum of deaths in 
the higher strata with maximum of ozone. The calm is also a no-ozone period. 
During continued calms the products of putrefaction accumulate in the lower strata 
of the atmosphere and produce diseases of an epidemic nature. A cholera period 
is a calm and a no-ozone period ; and cholera periods terminate with the setting 
in of the ozoniferous current. In conducting ozone observations, it must be borne 
in mind that light causes coloration of the test-papers, and that moisture, sul- 
phuretted hydrogen and ammonia cause loss of colour. 


On Sulphuretied Hydrogen as « Product of Putrefaction. 
By Dr. Morrat. 


The author had enclosed portions of animal and vegetable matter in tin boxes, 
and through slits in the lids, test-papers prepared with carbonate of lead and with 
iodine were introduced to half their length. The action of sulphuretted hydrogen 
was decisively shown, both in the case of the animal and the vegetable matters. 


90 REPORT—1861. 


Dr. Moffat had found the iodine test-paper the most sensitive, and by means of it 
he had often detected the gas in sick rooms and fever rooms. 


On the Solvent Power of Strong and Weak Solutions of the Alkaline Carbonates 
on Uric Acid Calcul. By Wrt11am Rozerts, B.A., M.D, Lond., Physician 
to the Manchester Royal Infirmary. 


The design of the author was to show the fallacy of certain experiments that 
had been made on the solubility of uric acid calculi in solutions of the alkaline car- 
bonates, and to furnish some exact data on which to estimate the rate at which it 
is possible to effect dissolution of these calculi by alkaline carbonates. 

About twenty years ago the French Academy appointed a Commission, composed 
of MM, Gay-Lussac and Pelouze, to inquire and report on a number of conflicting 
communications that had been made to it by the advocates of solvents for urinary 
calculi and their opponents. 

This Commission reported in 1842 to this effect :—They exposed numerous urinary 

ealculi for a whole year to the contact of solutions of the alkaline carbonates con- 
taining from 273 to 546 grains to the pint. None of these were dissolyed; and 
sone: eno not diminished in bulk. Their loss of weight varied from a quarter to 
one-half, 
__ In another experiment they passed 110 gallons of a solution containing a twen- 
tieth of its weight of carbonate of soda, in the course of three months, over a num- 
ber of fragments placed at the bottom of a glass funnel. The bulk of most of these 
was not diminished, and their loss of weight varied from 10 to 60 per cent, 

They then tried experiments on the living body, by passing currents of the sol- 
vent through the bladder at blood-heat by the double catheter. Here is a sample 
of their results, A patient who had been subjected to lithotrity, and whose stone 
was known to be uric acid, had at different times 55 gallons of a solution of carbo- 
nate of soda containing 132 grains to the pint, passed over a large remaining fragment 
which had been carefully measured. ‘This enormous mass of liquid produced no 
diminution in the bulk of the fragment ; its only effect was to soften the surface*. 

The conclusions of this report were wholly adverse to the advocates of solution ; 
and they were formally adopted by the Academy. 

The experiments, however, haye a defect—the solutions used were too concen- 
trated, and this circumstance vitiates the whole inquiry. The author found that 
very weak solutions of the alkaline carbonates dissolved uric acid calculi with con- 
siderable rapidity, while stronger ones altogether failed. In order to decide what 
strength of solution had most solvent power, fragments of uric acid, weighing from 
40 to 112 grains, were placed in 10-oz, phials, and solutions of carbonate of soda 
and potash of various strengths were passed over them at blood-heat. The expe- 
riments were continued day and night; and the daily flow of solyent varied from 
six to fifteen pints, 

Operating in this way, it was found that aboye a strength of 120 erains to the 
pint there was no dissolution ; and even with 80 grains to the pint there was only 
a little; but solutions of 50 and 60 grains to the pint dissolved the fragments 
freely. The cause of this difference was found to lie in a coat or crust of white 
matter which encased the stone in the stronger solutions. At and above 120 
grains to the pint, this coat was dense and tough, and could not be wholly detached 
from the subjacent surface. With 80 grains to the pint it was brittle, and easily 
detached like a layer of whitewash, With 60 grains to the pint and under, either 
no crust formed at all, and the stone was dissolved clean with a water-worn appear- 
ance, or it was only represented by a few loose flakes scattered here and there 
over the surface, and jieting no impediment to dissolution. This coating or crust 
was found essentially to consist of biurate of potash or soda, and its formation 
depended on the fact that the alkaline biurates are almost insoluble in any but 
very weak solutions of the alkaline carbonates. In the strong solution, the biurate 
remains undissolved and encases the stone in an insoluble investment, while in 
weaker ones it is dissolved as fast as it is formed, the surface of the stone remains 
clean, and dissolution proceeds without impediment. 


* Comptes Rendus, 1842, p. 429. 


Seas 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91 


The following Tables exhibit the results of forty-eight day experiments :— 
TasieE I.—Uric Acid and Carbonate of Soda (Sod. Carb, Exsiccat, of the shops), 


Strength of Flow per | No. of | Daily average loss of 
ae 24. Ae Obs. aan a cent. seamarke: 
240 grains per| 6 pints 2 0 Covered with a dense 
pint, coating of biurate. 

120 ” 6 » 2 0 Coyered with a dense 
white coat. 

60 ” 14 , 2 14:8 per cent.|Covered with a loose 
white crust, which 
was remoyed before 
weighing, 

30 + ipsee 4 | 10-9 | 

30 ” By 2 |102$103. ,,  |Dissolved clean. 

30 ”? 5 ” 2 9°8 


TABLE I,—Uric Acid and Carbonate of Potash. 


Strength of the | Flow per | No. of | Daily average loss of 


solution. 24 hours. | Obs. weight per cent. Remarks. 
240 grains per | 6 pints 1 0 Covered with a tena- 
pint. cious white coat as if 
, of paint. 
120 ” 6 , 3 0 Covered with a less 


dense coating. After 
detaching this and 
wiping, there was a 
loss of weight of 7:1 


per cent. 
80 7 Gy, 2 98 Covered with a loose de- 
tachable white crust. 
60 ” 14s Ma il Sv Cr aa Surface clean. 
20:2 
60 x cf Ce 2 lane AAO Loose flakes in spots. 
40 i 6 55 3 156 Sometimes a few loose 
flakes where the frag- 
ment rested, 
= zy ae 2 = a Dissolved clean: o¢ca- 
30 + Set, 2 | 15:0 4 : 
wr lho sionally a few loose 
30 ra END 2 95 flak 
30 33 ey, 4 | 10-2 Sasibip 
20 oS 65 3 11:0 Dissolved clean. 
10 ne Gitivs 3 65 Dissolved clean, 


On Perchloric Acid and its Hydrates. By Professor Roscon, 


All the*knowledge we possess of the quantitive relations of perchloric acid is the 
determination of the composition of the potassium salt, first analysed by Stadion, 
1816, and afterwards by many other chemists. The perchloric anhydride has not 
been isolated, and no analysis of the aqueous acid has ever been made, We can 
only account for the neglect with which chemists have treated the highest and yet 
the most stable of the oxides of chlorine by the fact that the preparation of the 
acid in larger quantities has been attended with great difficulties. The best method 
for preparing aqueous perchloric acid is to decompose chlorate of potassium with 
-hydrofiuosilicic acid, and to boil down the chloric acid thus obtained ; this splits up 
into lower oxides of chlorine, which escape in the gaseous state, impure perchloric 


92 REPORT—1861. 


acid being left behind, which is purified by distillation. The acid thus obtained is 
in appearance not to be distinguished from oil of vitriol, being a colourless, heavy, 
thick, oily, corrosive liquid, giving off on heating dense white fumes. By heating 
the aqueous perchloric acid with four times its volume of concentrated sulphuric 
acid, the latter takes water from the first, dense white fumes are evolved, a yellow 
mobile liquid distils over, and afterwards thick oily drops appear, which, when 
coming in contact with the yellow liquid, form the white crystals, previously obtained 
by Serullas, but in such small quantities that he was unable to analyse the substance, 
which prepared in this way always contains sulphuric acid, and is therefore not 
fit for analysis and requires redistillation. Heated, however, to 110°C., the cry- 
stals decompose and split up again into the yellow liquid, which distils over at a low 
temperature, and the thick oily liquid, which remains in the retort. The yellow 
liquid thus obtained is pure perchloric acid, Cl O, H, a body not known before, which 
can be obtained also by distilling one atom of perchlorate of potassium with four 
atoms of sulphuric acid. In the pure state it is perfectly colourless, but as com- 
monly prepared it is slightly yellow, owing to the presence of lower oxides of 
chlorine. fetichlenid acid is one of the most powerful oxidizing agents Inown: a 
single drop brought into contact with charcoal, paper, wood, alcohol, &e., imme- 
diately causes explosive combustion, in violence not falling short of the decomposi- 
tion of chloride of nitrogen; and brought on the skin wounds are produced, which 
do not heal for weeks. Like nitric acid it cannot be distilled without decompo- 
sition, but it darkens, and ultimately decomposes with explosion. It cannot be kept 
for any length of time; for even when sealed up in glass bulbs which are placed at 
the ordinary temperature in the dark, it decomposes suddenly after some time, 
breaking the vessel containing it. It mixes with water with a hissing noise and 
evolution of heat, forming the same crystals which were mentioned before, and were 
used for preparing the pure acid. These crystals are the monohydrated perchloric 
acid, Cl 0, H+H, O,. They melt at 50° C., and heated to 110° C. split up in pure 
perchloric acid, which distils over, and an oily liquid boiling at 200°, which is 
also obtained by boiling aqueous perchloric acid till dense white fumes are given off. 
This oily acid has a constant composition, containing 72°3 per cent. of pure per- 
chloric acid and 27°7 per cent. of water. This per-centage corresponds, however, 
to no definite hydrate of simple atomic composition; and therefore this acid fol- 
lows the same general relations respecting composition and boiling-point which, 
as I have shown previously, hold good for so many other aqueous acids, namely, 
that the phenomenon of constant boiling-point and constant composition depends 
chiefly upon physical and not upon chemical attractions. 


On Vesicular Structure in Copper. By Drs. Russert and Marruressen. 


The authors proved by numerous experiments that the vesicular structure is 
caused by the action of carbon or sulphur on the suboxide dissolved in melted 


copper. 


On certain Difficulties in the way of separating Gold from Quartz. 
By Dr. Sauarm of Sydney. 


In Australia the usual plan is to reduce the quartz to powder by Cornish stampers, 
a stream of water being allowed to flow through the stamp box during the opera- 
tion. The pounded quartz is carried by the stream through fine gratings, and then 
along an inclined plane supplied with various contrivances, such as blanket stuff 
and plates of copper rubbed over with mercury, for detaining the gold. The stream 
is next candela into the basin of a Chilian mill, where the “pulp” is ground up 
with mercury. These operations are for the most part so successful as to leave not 
more than half an ounce of gold in a ton of “ tailings.” But this successful result 
is only attained when the quartz is free from pyrites. When pyrites is present, 
particularly a black ee variety (found by Dr. Leibius to contain disulphide 
of copper and sesquisulphide of iron), there is a notable loss both of gold and 
mercury in the process of amalgamation. In the basin of the Chilian mill a greyish- 
black scum might then be seen, which contains mercury and gold in fine division, 
together with various components of the pyritous quartz, buoyed up by the en- 
tanglement of air. The action upon the mercury appeared to be chiefly mechanical, 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93 


but also in some degree chemical, a small portion of sulphide of mercury being 
found in the scum, while the gold extracted contained a much larger proportion 
of copper than is usual with Australian gold. The Australian miners appeared to 
have hit on no economical mode of separating the gold from pyritous quartz, so as 
to avoid this loss, 


On a Specimen of Meteoric Iron from Mexico. By Professor Tennant. 


On the Cohesion-Figures of Liquids. By Cuartes Tomurson. 


Regarding solution as a case of adhesion, the author showed that when a drop of 
an independent liquid (7. e. not a solution) is placed on the surface of another in- 
dependent liquid, such as water, a struggle takes place between them. The par- 
ticles of the drop endeavour to maintain their cohesion, the adhesion of the surface 
tends to overcome it; hence a well-defined figure, named by the author a cohesion- 
Jgure, and regarded as the resultant of the cohesion of the liquid, its density, and 
the adhesion of the surface. For example, if a drop of oil of lavender be gently 
delivered to the surface of water in a chemically clean glass, about 3} inches in 
diameter, it is spread out by the adhesion of the surface into a well-defined film ; 
cohesion then endeavours to reassert itself, and a struggle takes place between the 
two forces, the result being a beautiful complicated pattern resembling Carrigeen 
moss. ‘The cohesion-figures of other oils, fixed and volatile, of creosote, ether, 
alcohol, naphtha, &c. were shown experimentally, or in the form of large diagrams. 
In order to produce these figures, the glass vessels and the water must be chemically 
clean. The figures present a variety of novel and beautiful effects, both as to form 
and colour, and are likely to prove highly suggestive to the pattern-designer. 
Moreover, the forms being typical of the substances, a ready means is thus afforded 
of detecting adulteration, a 

On the Composition of Crystallized Moroxite, from Jumillo, near Alicante. 

By Dr. Vortcxer, F.C.S, 
Beautifully crystallized moroxite occurs in large quantities at Jumillo in Spain. 


Selected crystals of this mineral, analysed by the author, give the following re- 
sults :— 


Water oF combination 0175/0 tesa dete sop emenee 298 
Pihasphorie acid’ 4 Fo eo rT, Oe eR CS 37-024 
Wine, Sipe as we Sat geen emane erties oe ee 52-954 
NESE Sac via es A eiaabetmaate rn Totes sh Eeldate’ « 269 
Ee oP are a i a 1:170 
CREME Seana fis 2 SR Rope Cre CM ee Sola aoc Bercy 943 
Oxides of cerium (impure oxides). ..........000008 1-790 
Fluorides of sodium and potassium .............6.5 1033 
PAIS ah acs Cae ee cama et tens alae wath oere trace 
PEMGHI Ses i's bce ae oie s Paieperelee ale & giccorate 4 score atiere ‘340 
Fluorine and loss ......., DEO ticut cu mieucrt 4179 
100-000 
These constituents, combined with each other, give— 

Wester, OF COMMMALION, 5 ix. ssleirannsdiaee asad Sees ben 298 

Tribasic phosphate of lime............ oe Hae 
80-218 
BUS PRE RIA cs midis s ature Wevaate Vacs etleten ieee ed 269 
Clee OM aes wc eaceiaeteti ane coe oes 1:170 
SULTING, nines <n male tee ainicie sin dinle Hap iatecsreaiere 943 
Cries On Corian }.y ve ayisei re een olor eee 1-790 
Fluoride of sodium and potassium. .............005 1-033 
ET iy) a'e 0.6 «Mae neta cae eee nk oe Cate 340 


Fluoride of calcium .,...,.csccaccsecccceceeeseee  13'489 


94 REPORT—1861. 


The oxide of cerium is not present in the form of Kryptolite, since the analysis 
was made with perfectly transparent light-green-coloured crystals. 

The matrix in which the moroxite crystals are imbedded consists almost entirely 
of cale-spar. 


On the Composition and Properties of the Water of Loch Katrine, as supplied 
in Glasgow. By Dr. Waruace, F.C.S8. ‘ 


The water of Loch Katrine is well known to be remarkably pure, and to have 
the property of acting upon lead more extensively than any other natural water 
known, if we except rain-water. This latter circumstance induced several of our 
most eminent chemists to express the opinion that danger to the health of the 
people of Glasgow might arise from the introduction of the water. 

The distance of the lake from the city is about 35 miles, and the author shows 
that the water becomes altered very considerably in composition during its transit. 
A minute and careful analysis of the water was made in February last; and for 
comparison an analysis of the true Loch Katrine water, made in the spring of 
1854, is also given, the numbers representing grains per gallon. 


Loch Katrine. Glasgow. 

LimG wc a sicces strode digas aH Lc. curate ot. tiae ceerccss “EE 
Magnesia .:..e.0cse004 eee WG ds nage h BAe ans eae . 
Sulphuric acid.......ssecers SED rele aloes Sonu eet soe 36 
Oi lfoi chil Rape cit U COSC lO sais seh olor Ow tte A 30 
Alkalies and carbonic acid.... ‘12 ....... Laeeass e763 ‘61 
Alumina and phosphates..... 1 eR Fiaaclecses 16 
Oxide Gi ION: sins send side's 30 IMC SOOO, Oe « trace 
SHOR APRS arRL Cn oboe be E 4 (1 gaara Fniimicerien ers: 06 
Organic matter ........+% LAA TOL . 184 

1:98 2:82 


In the Loch Katrine water no carbonate of lime was found, while a direct deter- 
mination of this compound in the Glasgow water gave ‘68 grain Le gallon, This 
carbonate of lime is supposed to be derived from sandstone and other rocks through 
which the water flows. 

Loch Katrine water gave 7:5, and Glasgow water 8:5 cubic inches of gas per 
gallon, which contained in 100 parts— 


Loch Katrine. Glasgow. 
Cationic aed istic se eee UM Ree ume eerie §- 45 
Op. 72201 Brion amcmioein en meer BOA eo adahe sd isa saaeee 29'9 
INGEEO ROMs iy eratel lage sale etaio lene e008 GOO ciecicts ol Mntae he haa tae 65°6 
100 100 


The difference in the total quantity of gases may be owing to variation of tem- 
perature. The increase in the carbonic acid, accompanied by a corresponding 
decrease in the oxygen, appears to be owing to the oxidation of organic matter, a 
similar change occurring when the Loch Katrine water is kept in a closed vessel 
for a week or two. 

Experiments on the action of the Glasgow water on lead show it to be much less 
active in this respect than the original water.of Loch Katrine, the quantity dissolved 
during the first twenty-four hours being about one-third, and the ultimate result 
after several weeks, the water being renewed every twenty-four hours, rather more 
than half of the quantity dissolved by the original water under similar circumstances. 
At the end of a month the proportion of lead dissolved by the Glasgow water 
appears to remain steady at {th of a grain of lead per gallon, a quantity that is 
just upon the verge of danger. 

On the large scale, with pipes and cisterns in actual use, the proportions of lead 
dissolved were smaller. Three sets of experiments were made; with an old 3-inch 
pipe previously employed for two. years fot thie conveyaucc of Clyde water, a new 
3-inch pipe, and a new cistern exposing 2} square feet of surface to each cubic foot 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95 


of water. Observations were commenced after the new pipe and cistern had been 
in use for several weeks, and were continued for about a month, the water being 
changed every twenty-four hours. The average quantity of lead dissolved in 
twenty-four hours was 

In the old pipe 1; grain per gallon. 

In the new pipe +; grain per gallon, 

In the cistern ;/; grain per gallon. 


The greater amount dissolved in the new pipe than in the cistern depends upon 
the larger extent of surface exposed, in the one case 31, in the other only 2} square 
feet to each cubic foot of water. 

The quantities of lead dissolved, although considerably below the proportions 
considered actually dangerous, are, nevertheless, somewhat alarming ; but it must 
be borne in mind that the water seldom remains in the pipes more than ten hours, 
and that during the night when the temperature is lowest; and that in Glasgow 
the water is usually supplied direct from the street mains, without passing through 
cisterns. 

_ The results obtained by Dr. Wallace may be reduced to the following summaiy:— 
Ist, the water-supply of Glasgow is very sensibly harder, and acts with considerably 
less energy on lead than the water of Loch Katrine; and 2nd, the amount of lead 
taken up from pipes and cisterns at the present time is not such as to give rise to 
serious apprehensions. 


On an Apparatus for the rapid Separation and Measurement of Gases. 
By Drs. Wizitaamson and RussExt. 


GEOLOGY. 


Address by Sir Roprrick Lwery Murcntson, D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS., Diree- 


tor-General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, President of the 
Section. 


AxTHouGH I have had the honour of presiding over the geologists of the British 
Association at several previous Meetings since our first gathering at York, now 
thirty years ago, I have never been called upon to open the business of this Section 
with an address; this custom having been introduced since I last occupied the 
geological chair at Glasgow, in 1855. 

The addresses of my immediate predecessors, and the last anniversary discourse 
of the President of the Geological Society of London, have embraced so much of 
the recent progress of our science in many branthes, that it would be superfluous 
on my part to go over many topics again which have been already well treated. 

Thus, it is needless that I should occupy your time by alluding to the engrossing . 
subject of the most recent natural operations with which the geologist has to deal, and” 
which connect his labours with those of the ethnologist. On this head I will only 
say that, having carefully examined the detrital accumulations forming the ancient 
banks of the river Somme in France, I am as complete a believer in the commix- 
ture in that ancient alluvium of the works of man with the reliquiee of extinct ani- 
mals, as their meritorious discoverer, M. Boucher de Perthes, or as their expounders 
Prestwich, Lyell, and others. I may, however, express my gratification in learn- 
ing that our own country is now aflording proofs of similar intermixture both in 
Bedfordshire, Lincolnshire, and other counties; and, possibly, at this Meeting we 
may have to record additional evidences on this highly interesting topie. 

But I pe at once from any consideration of these recent accumulations, and, 
indeed, of all tertiary rocks; and, as a brief space of time only is at my disposal, I 
will now merely lay before you a concise retrospect of the progress which has latterly 
been made in the development of one great branch of our science. I confine myself 
then to the consideration of those primeval rocks with which my own researches 
have for many years been most connected, with a few allusiong only to metamor- 
‘phism, and certain metalliferous productions, &e, , 


‘ 


96 REPORT—1861. 


There is, indeed, a peculiar fitness in now dwelling more especially on the ancient 
rocks, inasmuch as Manchester is surrounded by some of them, whilst, with the 
exception of certain groups of erratic blocks and drifts, no deposits occur within the 
reach of short excursions from hence, which are either of secondary or tertiary age. 

Let us, then, take a retrospective view of the progress which has been made in 
the classification and delineation of the older rocks since the Association first as- 
sembled at York in 1831. At that time, as every old geologist knows, no attempt 
had been made to unravel the order or characters of the formations which rise from 
beneath the Old Red Sandstone. In that year Sedgwick was only beginning to 
make his first inroads into those mountains of North Wales, the intricacies of which 
he finally so well elaborated, whilst I only brought to that, our earliest assembly, 
the first fruits of observations in Herefordshire, Brecon, Radnor, and Shropshire, 
which led me to work out an order which has since been generally adopted. 

At that time the terms ‘ Cambrian,’ ‘ Silurian,’ ‘ Devonian,’ and ‘ Permian,’ were 
not dreamt of; but, acting on the true Baconian principle, their founders and their 
coadjutors have, after years of toil and comparison, set up such plain landmarks on 
geological horizons that they have been recognized over many a distant land. Com- 
pare the best map of England of the year 1831, or that of Greenough, which had 
advanced somewhat upon the admirable original classification of our father, Wil- 
liam Smith, and see the striking difference between the then existing knowledge 
and our present acquirements. It is not too much to say that when the British 
Association first met, all the region on both sides of the Welsh border, and extend- 
ing to the Irish Channel on the west, was in a state of dire confusion; whilst in 
Devonshire and Cornwall many of these rocks, which from their crystalline nature 
were classed and mapped as among the most ancient in the kingdom, have since 
been shown to be of no higher antiquity than the Old Red Sandstone of Here- 
fordshire. 

As to Scotland, where the ancient rocks abound, though their mineral structure, 
particularly in those of igneous origin, had necessarily been much developed in the 
country of Hutton, Playfair, Hall, Jameson, and McCulloch, yet the true age of most 
of its sedimentary rocks and their relations were unknown, Still less had Ireland, 
another region mainly palsozoic, received any striking portion of that illustration 
which has since appeared in the excellent general map of Griffith, and which is now 
being carried to perfection through the labours of the Geological Survey under my 
colleague Jukes. If such was our benighted state as regarded the order and cha- 
racters of the older formations at our first Meeting, great was the advance we had 
made when at our twelfth Meeting we first assembled at Manchester in 1842. 
Presiding then as I do now over the Geological Section, I showed in an evening 
lecture how the paleozoic rocks of Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous age, as 
well as those rocks to which I had assigned the name of Permian, were spread over 
the vast region of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains. What, then, are 
some of the main additions which have been made to our acquaintance with the 
older rocks in the British Isles since we last visited Manchester ? 

Commencing with the oldest strata, I may now assume, from the examination of 
several associates on whose powers of observation as well as my own I rely, that 
what I asserted at the Aberdeen Meeting in 1859, as the result of several surveys, 
and what I first put forth at the Glasgow Meeting of 1855, is substantially true. 
The stratified gneiss of the north-west coast of the Highlands, and of the large 
island of Lewis and the outer Hebrides, is the fundamental rock of the British Isles, 
and the precise equivalent of the Laurentian system of Canada, as described by Sir 
W. Logan. The establishment of this order, which is so clearly exhibited in great 
natural sections on the west coast of Sutherland and Ross, is of great importance in 
giving to the science we cultivate a lower datum-line than we previously possessed, | 
as first propounded by myself before the British Association in 1855*. 


* See Report of British Association for 1855 (Glasgow Meeting). At that time I was 
not aware that the same order was developed on a grand scale in Canada, nor do I now 
know when that order was there first observed by Sir W. Logan. I then (1855) simply put 
forward the facts as exhibited on the north-west coast of Scotland ; viz. the existence of what 
I termed a lower or “fundamental gneiss,” lying far beneath other gneissose and crystal- 
line strata, containing remains which I even then suggested were of Lower Silurian age. 
Subsequently, in 1859, when accompanied by Professor Ramsay, I adopted, at his sugges- 


ae 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 97 


For hitherto the order of the geological succession, even as seen in the Geologi- 
eal Map of England and Wales or Ireland, as approved by Sir Henry De la Beche 
and his able coadjutors, Phillips, Ramsay, Jukes, and others, admits no older sedi- 
ment than the Cambrian of North Wales, whether in its slaty condition in Merio- 
neth and Caernarvon, or in its more altered condition in Anglesea, 

The researches in the Highlands have, however, shown that in our own islands, 
the older palzeozoic rocks, properly so called, or those in which the first traces of life 
have been discovered, do repose, as in the broad regions of the Laurentian Moun- 
tains of Canada, upon a grand stratified crystalline foundation, in which both lime- 
stones and iron-ores occur subordinate to gneiss. In Scotland, therefore, these 
earliest gneissic accumulations are now to be marked on our maps by the Greek 
letter alpha, as preceding the Roman a, which had been previously applied to the 
lowest known deposits of England, Wales, and Ireland. Though we must not dog= 
matise and affirm that these fundamental deposits were in their pristine state abso- 
lutely unfurnished with any living things (for Logan and Sterry Hunt, in Canada, 
have suggested that there they indicate traces of the former life), we may conclude, 
that in the highly metamorphosed condition in which they are now presented to us 
in North-western Britain, and associated as they are with much granitic and horn~ 
blendic matter, they are, for all purposes of the practical geologist, “azoic rocks.” 
The Cambrian rocks, or second stage in the ascending order as seen reposing on the 
fundamental gneiss of the north-west of Scotland, are purple and red sandstones 
and conglomerates forming lofty mountains. These resemble to a great extent 
portions of the rocks of the same age which are so well known in the Longmynd 
range of Shropshire, and at Harlech in North Wales, and Bray Head in Ireland. 

At Bray Head they have afforded the Oldhamia, possibly an Alga, whilst at the 
Longmynd, in Shropshire, they have yielded to the researches of Mr. Salter some 
worm-tracks, and the trace of an obscure crustacean. 

The Highland rocks of this age, as well as their equivalents, the Huronian rocks 
of North America, have as yet afforded no trace whatever of former life. And yet 
such Cambrian rocks are in parts of the Longmynd, and specially in the lofty moun- 
tains of the north-western Highlands, much less metamorphosed than many of the 
crystalline rocks which lie upon them. Rising in the scale of successive deposits, 
we find a corresponding rise in the signs of former life on reaching that stage in 
the earlier slaty and schistose rocks in which animal remains begin clearly to show 
themselves. Thus, the Primordial Zone of M. Barrande is, according to that eminent 
man, the oldest fauna of the Silurian Basin in Bohemia*, 

In the classification adopted by Sir Henry De la Beche and his associates, the 
Lingula Flags (the equivalent of the Zone Primordiale of Barrande) are similarly 

laced at the base of the Silurian system, This Primordial Zone is also classed as the 
Paks Silurian by De Verneuil, in Spain; by James Hall, Dale Owen and others, in 
the United States; and by Sir W. Logan, Sterry Hunt, and Billings, in Canadat. 

In the last year, M. Barrande has most ably compared the North American Taco- 


tion, the word ‘Laurentian,’ in compliment to my friend Sir William Logan, who had 
then worked out the order in Canada, and mapped it on a stupendous scale. I stated, 
however, at the same time, that if a British synonym was to have been taken, I should 
have proposed the word ‘Lewisian,’ from the large island of the Lewis, almost wholly 
composed of this gneiss. ; 

* T learn, however, that in Bohemia Dr. Fritsch has recently discovered stratalying beneath 
the mass of the Primordial Zone of Barrande, and in rocks hitherto considered azoic the 
fossil burrows of annelide animals similar to those of our own Longmynd. 

t In completing at his own cost a geological survey of Spain, in which he has been occu- 
pied for several years, and in the carrying out of which he has determined the width of the 
sedimentary rocks of the Peninsula (including the Primordial Silurian Zone, discovered by 
that zealous explorer, M. Casiano de Prado), M. de Verneuil has in the last few months 
chiefly examined the eastern part of the kingdom where few of the older paleozoic rocks 
exist. Iam, however, informed by him, that Upper Silurian rocks with Cardiola interrupta, 
identical with those of France and Bohemia, occur along the southern flanks of the Pyre- 
nees, and also re-occur in the Sierra Morena, in strata that overlie the great mass of Lower 
Silurian rocks as formerly described by M. Casiano de Prado and himself. The southern 
face of the Pyrenees, he further informs me, is specially marked by the display of mural 
masses of Carboniferous strata, which, succeeding the Devonian rocks, are not arranged in 
basin-shape, but stand out in vertical or highly inclined positions, and are followed by 

1861. 7 


98. REFORT—1861. 


ni¢ group of Emmons* with his own primordial Silurian fauna of Bohemia and 
other parts of Europe; and although that sound paleontologist, Mr. James Hall, 
has not hitherto quite coincided with M. Barrande in some detailsT, it is evident 
that the primordial fauna occurs in many parts of North America. And as the true 
order of succession has been ascertained, we now know that the Taconic group is 
of the same age as the lower Wisconsin beds described by Dale Owen, with their 
Paradoxides, Dikelocephalus, &c., as well as of the lower portion of the Quebec rocks, 
with their Conocephalus, Axionellus, &c., described by Logan and Billings. Of the 
crystalline schists of Massachusetts, containing the noble specimen of Paradoxides 
described by W. Rogers, and of the Vermont beds, with their Olen, it follows that 
the Primordial Silurian Zone of Barrande (the lower Lingula-flags of Britain) is 
largely represented in North America, however it may occupy an inverted position 
in some cases, and in others be altered into crystalline rocks, 

In determining this question due regard has been had to the great convulsions, 
inversions, and breaks to which these ancient rocks of North America haye been 
subjected, as described by Professors Henry and W. Rogers. 

In an able review of this subject, Mr. Sterry Hunt thus expresses himself :— 
“We regard the whole Quebec group, with its underlying primordial shales, as the 
greatly developed representatives of the Potsdam and Calciferous groups (with part 
of that of Chazy), and the true base of the Silurian system. ....The Quebec group, 
with its underlying shales,” this author adds (and he expresses the opinion of Sit 
W. Logan), “is no other than the Taconic system of Emmons;” which is thus, by 
these authors, as well as Mr. James Hall, shown to be the natural base of the Silu- 
rian rocks in America, as Barrande and De Verneuil have proved it to be on the con- 
tinent of Europe. 

In our own country a valuable enlargement of our acquaintance with the relations 
of the primordial zone to the overlying members of the Silurian rocks has been 
made through the personal examination of Mr. Salter, aided by the independent 
discoveries of organic remains by MM. Homfray and Ashe, of Tremadoe, 


It has thus been ascertained that the lower member only of the deposit, which has, 


been hitherto merged under the name of Lingula-flags, can be considered the equi- 
yalent of the primordial zone of Bohemia. In North Wales that zone has hitherto 
been mainly characterized by Lingua and the crustaceous Olenus and Paradoxides. 
Certain additions having been made to these fossils, Mr, Salter finds that of the 
whole there are five genera peculiar to the lower zone, and seven which pass up= 
wards from it into the next overlying band or the Tremadoc slate. But the over- 
lying Tremadoc slate, hitherto also grouped with the Lingula-flags, is, through its 
numerous fossils (many of them of recent discovery), demonstrated to constitute a 
true lower member of the Llandeilo formation. For, among the trilobites, the well- 
lmown Llandeilo forms of Asaphus and Ogygia range upwards from the very base 
of these slates. Again, seven or eight other genera of trilobites, which appear 
here for the first time, are associated with genera of mollusks and encrinites 
which have lived through the whole Silurian series. Such, for example, are the 
genera Calymene, Illenus, among crustaceans; the Lingula, Orthis, Bellerophon, 
and Conwaria among mollusks, together with encrinites, corals, and that telling 
Silurian zoophyte, the Graptolite. By this proof of the community of fossil types, 
as well as by a clear lithological passage of the beds, these Tremadoc slates are thus 
shown to be indissolubly connected with the Llandeilo and other Silurian forma- 
tions above them; whilst, although they also pass down conformably into the zone 
primordiale, the latter is characterized by the linguloid shells (Lingzlella, Salter) 
and by the genera Olenus, Paradoxides, and Dikelocephalus, which most charac- 
terize it in Britain as in other regions}. 


extensive conglomerates and marls of triassic age, and these by deposits charged with fos- 
sils of the Lias. 

* The Silurian classification was proposed by me in 1835, and in the following year (1836) 
Dr. Emmons suggested that his black shale rocks, which he called Taconic, were older than 
any I described. 

+ Nor are the writings of the Professors W. B. and H. D. Rogers in unison with the 
opinions of the authors here cited. 

{ In the last edition of ‘Siluria’ the distinction was drawn between the lower and upper 
Lingula-flags, but the fauna of the latter is now much enlarged. ~ - 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 99 


- I take this opportunity, however, of reiterating the opinion I have expressed in 
my work ‘Siluria,’ that to whatever extent the primordial zone of Barrande be 
distinguished by peculiar fossils in any given tract from the prevalent Lower Silu- 
rian types, there exists no valid ground for differing from Barrande, De Verneuil, 
Logan, James Hall, and others, by ee ae this rudimentary fauna from that of 
the great Silurian series of life of which stratigraphically it constitutes the conform- 
able base. And if in Europe but few genera be yet found which are common 
to this lower zone and the Llandeilo formation (though the Agnostus and Orthis 
are common to it and all the Silurian strata), we may not unreasonably attribute 
the circumstance to the fact that the primordial zone of no one country contains 
more than a very limited number of distinct forms, May we not, therefore, infer 
that in the sequel other fossil links, similar to those which are now known to con- 
nect the Lower and Upper Silurian series—which I myself at one time supposed to 
be sharply separated by their organic remains—will be brought to light, and will 
then zoologically connect the primordial zone with the overlying strata into which 
it graduates? Let us recollect that a few years only have elapsed since M. de 
Verneuil was criticised for inserting, in his Table of the Paleozoic Fauna of North 
America, a number of species as being common to the Lower and Upper Silurian, 
But now the view of the eminent French Academician has been completely sus- 
tained by the discovery in the strata of Anticosti, as worked out by Mz. Billings 
under the direction of Sir W. Logan, of a group of fossils intermediate in character 
between those of the Hudson River and Clinton formations, or, in other words, be« 
tween Lower and Upper Silurian rocks. In like manner, a similar interlacing seems 
already to have been found in North America between the Quebec group, with its 

oe fossils, and the Trenton deposits, which are, as is well known, of the 

andeilo age. 

Lhaye thus spoken out upon the fitness of adhering to the classifications decided 
upon by Sir Henry De la Beche and his associates long before I had any relation to 
the Geological Survey, and which places the whole of the Lingula-flags of Wales 
as the natural base of the Silurian rocks. For English geologists should remember 
that this arrangement is not merely the issue of the view I have long maintained, 
but is also the matured opinion of those geologists in foreign countries and in our 
colonies who have not. only zealously elaborated the necessary details, but who 
have also had the opportunities of making the widest comparisons. 

On the continent of Europe an interesting addition has been made to our ace 
quaintance with the fauna of one of the older beds of the Lower Silurian 
or the Obolus ereensand of St. Petersburg*, by our eminent associate, Ehrenberg, 
He has described and figured} four genera and ten species of microscopic Ptero- 
pods, one of which he names Panderella Silurica; the generic name being in honour 
of the 2 Seger Russian paleontologist, Pander, who collected them. If is 
well to remark, that as the very grains of this Lower Silurian greensand seem to 
be in great part made up of these minute organisms, so we recognize, in one of the 
oldest strata in which animal life has been detected, organisms of the same nature, 
and not less abundant than those which constitute the deep sea-bottoms of the 
existing Mediterranean and other seas. 

-_ Before I quit the consideration of the older paleeozoic rocks, I must remind you 
that it is through the discovery, by Mr. C. Peach, of certain fossils of Lower Silu- 
rian age in the limestones of Sutherland, combined with the order of the strata, 
observed in the year 1827 by Professor Sedgwick and myself, that the true age of 
the largest and overlying masses of the crystalline rocks of the Highlands has 

fixed. The fossils of the Sutherland limestone are not indeed strictly those of the 
Lower Silurian of England and Wales, but are analogous to those of the calcife- 
vous sand-rock of North America. The Maclwrea is indeed Inown in the Silurian 
limestone of the south of Scotland; but the Ophzieta and other forms are not found 
until we reach the horizon of North America. Now, these fossils refer the zone of 
the Highland limestone and associated quartz-rocks to that portion of the Lower 
Silurian which forms the natural base of the Trenton series of North America, or 
the lower part of the Llandeilo formation of Britain, The intermediate formation 


* See ‘Russia and the Ural Mountains.’ 
t Monats-Bericht d, Konig. Akad, der Wiss, Berlin, 18 April, 1861. 
uF) * 


100 REPORT—1861, 


—the Lingula “ flags’ or “zone primordiale” of Bohemia—having no representa- 
tive in the north-western Highlands, there is necessarily a complete unconformity 
between the fossil-bearing crystalline limestones and quartz-rocks with the Maclurea, 
Murchisonia, Ophileta, Orthis, Orthoceratites, &c., and those Cambrian rocks on 
which they rest. 

A great revolution in the ideas of many an old geologist, including myself, has 
thus been effected, Strengthened and confirmed as my view has been by the con- 
cordant testimony of Ramsay, Harkness, Geikie, James, and others, I have had no 
hesitation in considering a very large portion of the crystalline strata of the High- 
lands to be of the same age as some of the older fossiliferous Silurian rocks, whether 
in the form of slates in Wales, of greywacke-schist in the southern counties of 
Scotland, or in the conditions of mud and sand at St. Petersburg. The conclu- 
sion as respects the correlation of all the older rocks of Scotland has now indeed 
been summed up by Mr. Geikie and myself in the ‘Geological Sketch-Map of 
Scotland,’ which we have just published, and a copy of which is now exhibited*. 
Not the least interesting part of that production is that which explains the age 
of all the igneous or trappean rocks of the south of Scotland, as well as all the 
divisions of the Carboniferous formation, and is exclusively the work of my able 
colleague. 

Butif, through the labours of hard-working geologists, we have arrived at a clear 
idea of the first recognizable traces of life and their sequences, we are yet far from 
haying satisfied our minds as to the modus operandi by which whole regions of such 
deposits have, as in the Highlands, been transmuted into a crystalline slate. het 
us therefore hope that, ere this Meeting closes, we may receive instruction from 
some one of the band of foreign or British geologists who have by their experi- 
mental researches been endeavouring to explain the processes by which such won- 
derful changes in the former condition of sedimentary deposits have been brought 
to light; such as that by which strata once resembling the incoherent Silurian clay 
which we see in Russia have been hardened into such rocks as the slaty grauwacke 
of other regions, and how hard schists of the south of Scotland haye been meta- 
morphosed into the crystalline rocks of the Highlands. But why are British geo- 
logists to see any difficulty in admitting what I have proposed, that vast breadths 
of these crystalline stratified rocks of the Highlands are of Lower Silurian age? 
Many years ago I suggested, after examination, that some of the crystalline rocks 
near Christiania in Norway were but altered extensions of the Silurian deposits of 
that region ; and, since then, Mr. David Forbes and M. Kjerulf have demonstrated the 
truth of the suggestion. Again, and on a vastly larger scale, we know that in North 
America all the noted geologists, however they may differ on certain details, agree 
in recognizing the fact that the vast eastern seaboard range of gneissic and micaceous 
schists is made up of metamorphosed strata, superior even to the lowest of the 
Silurian rocks, Logan, Rogers, Hall, and Sterry Hunt are decidedly of this opinion ; 
and the point has been most ably and clearly set before the public by the last-men- 
tioned of. these geologists +, who, being himself an accomplished chemist, has given 
us some good illustrations of the probable modus operandi in the bringing about 
of these changes. 

The importance of the inquiries to be made by chemical geologists into this 
branch of our science was not lost upon the earlier members of the British Asso- 
ciation. Even in the year 1833, a committee was appointed to endeavour to illus- 
trate the phenomena of the metamorphism of rocks by experiments carried on in 
iron-furnaces. After a series of trials on various mineral substances, the Rey. W. 
Vernon Harcourt, to whom we owed so much at our foundation, has, as the reporter 
of that committee, been enabled to present to the Association that lucid Report on 
the actual effect of long-continued heat which is published in our last volume. In 
referring you to that document, I must, as an old_-practical field-geologist, express the 
gratification I feel in seeing that my eminent friend has, in the spirit of true induc- 
tive philosophy, arrived, after much experiment and thought, at the same conclusion 
at which, in common with Sedgwick, Buckland, De la Beche, Phillips, and others 
in my own country, and with L. von Buch, Elie de Beaumont, and alee of geolo- 


* This map is al'eady on sale in Manchester. 
+ American Journal of Science, May, 1861. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101 


gists abroad, I had long ago arrived in the field. I, therefore, re-echo their voices 
in repeating the words of Mr. W. Harcourt, “that we are not entitled to presume 
that the forces which have operated on the earth’s crust have always been the same.” 
Looking to the only rational theory which has ever been propounded to account for 
the great changes in the crust which have taken place in former periods—the exist- 
ence of an intense central heat which has been secularly more and more repressed 
by the accumulation of sediment until the surface of the planet was brought into 
its present comparatively quiescent condition—our first General Secretary has indi- 
cated the train of causes, chemical and physical, which resolve some of the diffi 
culties of the problem. He has brought letes us, in a compendious digest, the 
history of the progress which has been made in this branch of our science, by the 
writings of La Place, Fourier, Von Buch, Fournet, and others, as well as by the 
experimental researches of Mitscherlich, Berthier, Senarmont, Daubrée, Deville, 
Delesse, and Durocher. Illustrating his views by reference to chemical changes in 
the rocks and minerals of our own country, and fortifying his induction by an appeal 
to his experiments, he arrives at the conclusion, that there existed in former periods 
a much greater intensity of causation than that which now prevails. His theory 
is, that whereas now, in the formation of beds, the aqueous action predominates, 
and the igneous is only represented by a few solfataras, in the most ancient times 
the action was much more igneous, and that in the intermediate times fire and 
water divided the empire between them. In a word, he concludes with the ex- 
pression of the opinion, which my long-continued observation of facts had led me 
to adopt, “that the nature, force, and progress of the past condition of the earth 
cannot be measured by its existing bondiied? : 

In addition to these observations on metamorphism, let me remind you that, on 
the recommendation of the British Association, other important researches have 
been carried on by Mr. William Hopkins; our new General Secretary, and in the 
furnaces of our President, Mr. Fairbairn, on the conductive powers for heat in 
various mineral substances. Although these experiments have been retarded by a 
serious accident which befell Mr. Hopkins, they are still in progress, and I leam 
from him that, without entering into any general discussion as to the probable 
thickness of the crust of our planet, we may even now affirm, on experimental 
evidence, that, assuming the Bent terrestrial temperature to be due to central 
heat, the thickness of this crust must be two or three times as great as that which 
has been usually considered to be indicated by the observed increase of temperature 
at accessible depths beneath the earth’s surface. 

Of the Devonian rocks or Old Red Sandstone much might be said, if I were to 
advert to the details which have been recently worked out in Scotland by Page, 
Anderson, Mitchell, Powrie, and others; and in England, by the researches of the 
Rey. W. Symonds, and other members of the Woolhope and Malvern Clubs. But 
confining myself to general observations, it may be stated that a triple subdivision 
of that group, which I have shown to hold good over the Continent of Europe as 
in our own country, seems now to be generally admitted, whilst the history of its 
southern fauna in Devonshire has recently been graphically and ably elaborated by 
Mr, Pengelly, in a paper printed in our last volume. 

In Herefordshire and Shropshire the passage of the upper members of the Silu- 
rian rocks into the inferior strata of the Old Red group has been well shown by 
Mr. Lightbody, and the fossils of its lower members have been vigorously collected ; 
whilst in Scotland Mr. Geikie and others have shown the upward passage of ats 
superior strata into the base of the Carboniferous rocks; and Dr. Anderson an- 
nounces the finding of shells with crustacea in the lower or grey beds south of the 
Tay. I may here note, that the point which I have been for some years endea- 
youring to establish as to the true position of the Caithness flags with their nume- 
rous ichthyolites seems to be admitted by my contemporaries. The lamented Hugh 
Miller considered these ichthyolites as belonging to the lower member of the group, 
and had good grounds for his views, since at his native place, Cromarty, these fish- 
beds appear very near the base. But, by following them into Caithness and the 
Orkneys, I have shown that they occupy a middle position, whilst the true base of 
the group is the equivalent of the zone with Cephalaspis, Pteraspis, and Ptery- 

otus. 


And here it is right to state that the Upper Silurian rocks, which are clearly re- 


‘102 : REPORT—1861. 


resented in Edinburghshire, and which in Lanarkshire seem to graduate upwards 
into the Lower Old Red or Cephalaspis sandstone, are wanting in the Highlands ; 
thus accounting for the great break which there occurs between the crystallized 
rocks of Lower Silurian age and the bottom beds of the Old Red Sandstone. 

Of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland and Herefordshire I may be permitted 
further to observe, that its downward passage into the uppermost Silurian rock, 
and the upward passage of its higher strata into the Carboniferous strata, have been 
well developed,—the one near Ludlow, chiefly through the labours of Mr. Light- 

-body ; the other in Scotland, through the researches of the Government Geologists, 
Howell and Geikie, as well as by those of Mr. D. Page and other observers. On 
this head I may, however, note, what my contemporaries seem now to admit, that 
the removal of the Caithness flags and their numerous included ichthyolites from 
the bottom of this group, and their translation to the central part of the system, as 
first proposed by myself, is correct. In truth, the lower member of this system is 
now unequivocally proved to be the band with Cephalaspis, Pteraspis, &c., as seen 
in Scotland, England, and Russia. The great break which has been traced in the 
south of Scotland by Mr. Geikie between the lower and upper Old Red is thus in 
perfect harmony with the zoological fact that the central or Caithness fauna is 
entirely wanting in that region, as in England—as it is indeed in Ireland, where a 
similar break occurs. 

It gratifies me to add, that many new forms of those fossil fishes which so pecu- 
liarly characterize the Old Red Sandstone, have been admirably described by Sir 
Philip de Grey Egerton in the ‘Memoirs of the Geological Survey ;’ and I must 
remark that it is most fortufiate that the eminent Agassiz is here so well repre- 
sented by my distinguished friend, who stands unquestionably at the head of the 
fossil ichthyologists of our country. 

Very considerable advances have been made in the development of our acquaint- 
ance;with that system—the Carboniferous—which in the North of England (York- 
shite) has been so well described by Professor Phillips, and with which all practi- 
cal geologists in and around Manchester are necessarily most interested, The close 
researches of Mr. Binney, who has from time to time thrown new light on the 
origin and relations of coal and the component parts of its matrix, established 
proofs, so long ago as 1840, that great part of our coal-fields was accumulated under 
marine conditions; the fossils associated with the coal-beds being, not, as had been 
too generally supposed of fluviatile or lacustrine character, but the spoils of marine 
life. Professor Henry Rogers came to the same conclusion with regard to the 
Appalachian coal-fields in America in 1842. Mr. Binney believes that the plant 
Sigillaria grew in salt water; and it is to be remarked that even in the so-called 
“freshwater limestones” of Ardwick and Le Botwood, the Spirorbis and other 
marine shells are frequent, whilst many of the shells termed Cypris may prove to 
be species of Cythere. Again, in the illustrations of the fossils which occur in the 
bands of iton-ore in the South Welsh coal-field, Mr. Salter, entering particularly 
into this question, has shown that in the so-called “ Unio-beds” there constantly 
occurs a shell related to the Mya of our coasts, which he terms Anthracomya; 
whilst, as he has stated in the ‘ Memoirs of the Geological Survey,’ just issued, the 
very Unios of these beds have a peculiar aspect, differing much from that of true 
freshwater forms. They have, he says, a strongly wrinkled epidermis, which is a 
mark of the Myade, or such burrowing bivalve shells, and not of true Unionide ; 
they also differ in the interior, as shown by Professor W. King. Seeing that in 
these cases quietly deposited limestones with marine shells (some of them indeed 
of estuary character) rest upon beds of coal, and that in many other cases purely 
marine limestones alternate frequently with layers of vegetable matter and coal, 
may we not be led to modify the theory, founded on the sound observation of Sir 


a, 


W. Logan, by which the formation of coal has been rather too exclusively referred 


to terrestrial and freshwater conditions? May we not rather revert to that more 
expansive doctrine, which I have long supported, that different operations of nature 
have brought about the consolidation and alteration of vegetable matter into coal P 
In other words, that in one tract the coal has been formed by the subsidence w situ 
of vast breadths of former jungles and forests; in another, by the transport of 
vegetable materials into marine estuaries; in a third case, as in Russia and Scot- 
land (where purely marine limestones alternate with coal), by a succession of oscil- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103 


lations between jungles and the sea; and lastly, by the extensive growth of large 
plants in shallow seas. 

The Geological Map of Edinburghshire, prepared by MM. Howell and Geikie, and 
recently published, with its lucid explanations, affords indeed the clearest proofs 
of the frequent alternations of beds of purely marine limestone charged with Pro- 
ducti and bands of coal, and is in direct analogy with the coal-fields of the Donetz 
in Southern Russia*. 

In sinking through the extensive coal-tracts around Manchester (at Dukinfield), 
where one of the shafts already exceeds in depth the deepest of the Durham mines, 
rigorous attention will, I hope, be paid to the discovery of the fossils which cha- 
racterize each bed passed through,—not merely to bring about a correctly matured 
view of the whole history of these interesting accumulations, formed when the 
surface of our planet was first furnished with abundant vegetation, but also for the 
practical advantage of the proprietor and miner, who, in certain limited areas, may 
thus learn where iron-ores and beds of coal are most likely to be persistent. In 
earrying out his survey-work through the north-western coal-tracts of Lancashire, 
to which the large or six-inch Ordnance Map has been applied, one of the Secreta- 
ries of this Section, Mr. Hull, has done good service in accurately defining the 
tracts wherein the elevated coal-deposits are covered by drift only, in contradi- 
stinction to those which are still surmounted by red rocks of Permian and Triassic 
age. In seeing that these are eagerly bought by the public, and in reco izing the 
great use which the six-inch survey has proved in the hands of the geological sur- 
yeyors in Scotland, our friends in and around Manchester may be led to insist on 
having that large scale of survey extended to their own important district, By 
referring to the detailed delineations of the outcrops of all the Carboniferous strata 
in the counties of Edinburgh, Haddington, Fife, and Linlithgow, as noted b 
Professor Ramsay and MM, Howell and Geikie, the coal-proprictors of England 
will doubtless recognize the great value of such determinations. 

Conceming the Permian rocks, which were formed towards the close of the 
long palwozoic era, and constitute a natural sequel to the old Carboniferous depo- 
sits, it is to be hoped that we shall here receive apposite illustrations from some of 
our associates. 

When Professor Sedgwick, thirty-four years ago, gave to geologists his excellent 
Memoir on the Magnesian Limestone of our country, as it ranges from Durham, 
through Yorkshire, into Nottinghamshire, he not only described the numerous 
yarieties of mineral structure which that rock exhibits, noting at the same time its 
characteristic fossils, but he also correlated it, and its underlying beds, with the 
Zechstein, Kupferschiefer, and Rothe-todte-liegende of Germany. But whilst this 
is the true order in both countries, there is this considerable diiteeces in England, 
that along the zone where the Magnesian Limestone exists as a mass, and where 
S ick described it, the inferior member of the group is a thin band of sandstone, 
usually of a yellow colour (the Pontefract rock of William Smith), which in its 
southern extremity, near Nottingham, is almost evanescent. In many parts of 
Germany, on the contrary, and notably in Thuringia and Silesia, the same lower 
band, with a few intercalated courses of limestone, swells out into enormous thick- 
nesses and even constitutes lofty ridges, 

In Russia the series of this age puts on a very different mineral arrangement, 
There the calcareous bands, containing the very same species of shells as the mag- 
nesian limestone of Germany and Britain, are intercalated with pebble-beds, sand- 
stones, marls, pediengrst ores, so that, although the same lithological order does 
not prevail as in the Saxon or typical Permian country of the elder German geolo- 
gists, the group is, through its fossil types, unquestionably the same, It was from 
the observation of this fact, and from seeing that these deposits, so mixed up, yet 
so clearly correlated by their animal and vegetable relics, and all superposed to the 
Carboniferous system, occupied a region twice as large as the British Isles, in 
which the varieties of structure are best seen in the government of Perm, that I 
proposed in 1841 that the whole group should have the name of ‘ Permian.’ 

f late years various British authors, including King, Howse, and others, have 
ably described the fossil shells of this deposit as it exists on the eastern side of 


* See ‘Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains,’ vol, i. 


104 REPORT—1861. 


the Penine chain; and recently Mr. Kirkby has produced a carefully written and 
well-considered memoir, showing the relations of the whole group, by comparing 
its structure and paleontological contents in Durham with those in South York- 

_ shire. Whilst, in addition, my associates of the Geological Survey, particularly 
Mr. Aveline, have been carefully delineating the area of these beds in their northern 
range from Nottingham through Yorkshire, much ‘yet remains to be done in cor- 
relating the Permian rocks lying to the west of the Penine ridge, or where we are 
now assembled, with their eastern equivalents, 

Already, however, great strides haye been made towards this desirable end. 
Thus, Mr. Binney has indicated the succession in the neighbourhood of Manchester, 
and has shown us that there some of the characteristic fossils of the eastern magne- 
sian limestone exist in red marl and limestones subordinate thereto, and that these 
are clearly underlain by other red sandstones, shales, and limestones, which he terms 
Lower Permian. He has further followed these Lower Permian beds to the west 
and north-west, and finds them expanding into considerable thicknesses at Astley, 
Scarisbrick, and other places where they overlie the coal-measures, and he has also 
traced them into Westmoreland, Cumberland, and Dumfriesshire. In the last case 
he went far to prove that which I suggested many years ago, that the red sand- 
stones of Dumfriesshire, containing the large footprints of chelonians, as described 
by Sir W. Jardine, are of Lower Permian age. 

This view of the relations of the Permian rocks of the north-west has been also 
taken by Professor Harlmess, and this summer he has successfully worked it out, 
and has definitely applied the Permian classification to large tracts in Cumberland, 
as explained in a letter to myself. He finds that the breccias and sandstones of 
Kirkby-Stephen and Appleby, which at the latter place have a thickness of three 
thousand feet, extend northward on the west side of the Eden (the breccia being 
replaced by false-bedded sandstones with footprints), and attain near Carlisle the 
enormous thickness of about five thousand feet. These beds he classes unhesi- 
tatingly as Lower Permian, because he finds them to be overlain (near Ormsby) by 
a group of clays, sandstones, and magnesian limestones, containing peculiar plant- 
remains and shells of the genus Schizodus, representing in his opinion the marl- 
slate and magnesian limestone of Durham. These, again, support beds equivalent 
to the Zechstein, and the last are covered by the Triassic sandstone of the Solway. 

A very striking fact, noticed by Professor Harkness, and corroborative of earlier 
researches made by Mr. Binney, is the existence of footprints in the Lower Permian 
of Cumberland, similar to those of Corncockle Moor in Dumfriesshire, where, from 
my own observations, including those of last year, these Lower Permian sandstones 
have, I am convinced, a greater thickness even than that which is assigned to them 
in Cumberland. 

Notwithstanding these discoveries, we have still to show the continuous exist- 
ence of the Gower Red Sandstone of Shropshire, Worcestershire, and Staffordshire, 
which I have classed as the lower member of the Permian rocks, and to decide 
whether it be really such lower member only, or is to be regarded as the equivalent 
of the whole Permian group, under differing mineral conditions. With the exten- 
sion of the Geological Survey this point will, doubtless, be satisfactorily adjusted, 
and we shall then know to what part of the series we are to attach the plant-bear- 
ing red beds of Coventry and Warwick, described as Permian by Ramsay and his 
associates. We have also to show that, in its northern course, the lower red 
sandstone of the central counties, with its calcareous conglomerates, graduates into 
the succession exhibited at Manchester, thence expanding northwards. Already, 
however, we have learned that in our own little England, which contains excellent 
normal as well as variable types of all the paleeozoic deposits, there exists proof 
that the Permian rocks, according to the original definition of the same, present to 
the observer who examines them to the west as well as to the east of the Penine 
chain, nearly as great diversities of lithological structure, in this short distance, as 
those which distinguish the strata of the same age in Eastern Russia in Europe from 
the original types of the group in Saxony and other parts of Germany. 

Geological Survey and Government School of Mines, Mineral Statistics, and Colonial 
Surveys.—As I preside for the first time over this Section since I was placed at the 
head of the Geological Survey of Britain, I may be excused for making an allusion 
to that national establishment, by stating that the public now take a lively interest 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 105 


in it, as proved by a largely increased demand for our maps and their illustrations, 
—a demand which will, I doubt not, be much augmented by the translation at an 
early day of many of our field-surveyors from the south-eastern and central parts of 
England, where they are now chiefly employed, to those northern districts where 
they will be instrumental in developing the superior mineral wealth of the region. 

he Government School of Mines, an offshoot of the Geological Survey, is prima- 
rily intended to furnish miners, metallurgists, and geological surveyors with the 
scientific training necessary for the successful pursuit and progressive advancement 
of the calling which they respectively pursue; but, at the same time, the lectures 
and the laboratories are open to all those who seek instruction in physical science 
for its own sake, by reason of its important application to manufactures and the 
arts. The experience of ten years has led the Professors to introduce various modi- 
fications into their original programme, with the view of adapting the school ag 
clearly as possible to the wants of those two classes of students; and at present, 
while a definite curriculum, with special rewards for excellence, is provided for those 
who desire to become mining, metallurgical, and geological associates of the school, 
every student who attends a single course of lectures may by the new rules compete, 
in the final examination, for the prizes which attach to it only. 

Throughout the whole period of the existence of the aban, the Professors have 
given annual courses of evening lectures to working men, which are always fully 
attended, as a part of their regular duty ; and during the past year, several of them 
have Barat voluntary courses of evening lectures, at a fee so small as to put 
them within the reach of working men, pupil-teachers, and schoolmasters of primary 
schools. The Professors thus hope to support to the utmost the great impulse to- 
wards the diffusion of a knowledge of physical science through all classes of the 
community, which has been given through the Depp of Science and Art by 
the Minute of the Committee of Privy Council of the 2nd of June, 1859, 

A body like the British Association for the Advancement of Science should, I 
conceive, not be unaware of a step of such vast importance, and tending so entirely 
towards the same goal as that to which its own efforts have been and still ara 
constantly directed. 

Now, inasmuch as I can trace no record of the teachings of the Government 
School of Mines in the volumes of the British Association, and as I am convinced that 
the establishment only requires to be more widely known, in order to extend sound 
physical Inowledge, not merely to miners and geologists, but also to chemists, me- 
tallurgists, and naturalists, I have only to remind my audience that this School of 
Mines, which, owing its origin to Sir Henry De la Beche, has furnished our colonies 
with some of the most accomplished geological and mining surveyors, and many a 
manufacturer at home with good chemists and metallurgists, has now for its lec- 
turers men of such eminence, that the names of Hofmann, Percy, Warington Smyth, 
Willis, Ramsay, Huxley, and Tyndall are alone an earnest of our future success. 

In terminating these few allusions to the Geological Survey, and its applications, 
I gladly seize the opportunity of recording, that in the days of our founder, Sir Henry 
De la Beche, our institution was greatly benefited in possessing for some years, as 
one of its leading surveyors, such an accomplished naturalist and skilful geologist 
as the beloved Assistant General Secretary of the British Association, Professor 
Phillips, who by his labours threw much new light on the paleontology of Devon-~ 
shire, who, in the Memoirs of the Survey, has contributed an admirable Monograph 
on the Silurian and other rocks around the Malvern Hills, and who, by his lectures 
and writings, is now constantly advancing geological science in the oldest of our 
British universities. 

There is yet one subject connected with the Geological Survey to which I must 
also call your attention, viz. the mineral statistics of the United Kingdom, as com~ 

iled with great care and ability by Mr. Robert Hunt, the Keeper of the Mining 
Fesords, and published annually in the Memoirs of our establishment. 

These returns made a deep impression on the statists of foreign countries who 
were assembled last year in London at the International Congress. The Govern— 
ment and members of the legislature are now regularly furnished with reliable in- 
formation as to our mineral produce, which, until very recently, was not obtain- 
able. By the labours of Mr. Robert Hunt, in sedulously collecting data from all 
quarters, we now become aware of the fact that we are consuming and exporting 


106 REPORT—1861. 


about 80 millions of tons of coals annually (a prodigious recent increase, and daily 
augmenting). Of iron-ore we raise and smelt upwards of 8 millions of tons, pro- 
ducing 3,826,000 tons of pig iron. Of co per-ore we raise from our own mines 
236,696 tons, which yield 15,968 tons of metallic copper; and from our native 
metallic minerals we obtain—of tin, 6695 tons; of lead, 63,525 tons; and of zine, 
4357 tons. The total annual value of our minerals and coals is estimated at 
£26,993,573, and of that of the metals (the produce of the above minerals) and 
coals at £37,121,318, 

When we turn from the consideration of the home-survey to that of the geolo- 
gical surveys in the numerous colonies of Great Britain, I may well reflect with 
pleasure on the fact that nearly all the leaders of the latter haye been connected 
with, or have gone out from, our home Geclogical Survey and the Government 
School of Mines. 

Such were the relations to us of Sir William Logan in Canada, of Professor 
Oldham in India, with several of his assistants, of Selwyn in Victoria, of my young 
friend Gould in Tasmania, as well as of Wallin Trinidad; whilst Barrett in Jamaica 
is a worthy pupil of Professor Sedgwick. Passing over the many interesting 
results which have arisen out of the examination of these distant lands, we cannot 
but be struck with the fact, that whilst Hindostan (with the exception of the 
higher Himalayan mountains) differs so materially in its structure and fossil 
contents from Europe, Australia (particularly Victoria) presents, in its palsozoic 
rocks at least, a close analogy to Britain. Thanks to the ability and zeal of 
Mr. Selwyn, a large portion of this great auriferous colony has been already surveyed 
and mapped out in the clearest manner. In doing this he has demonstrated that 
the productive quartzose veinstones, which are the chief matrix of gold, are mainly 
subordinate to the Lower Silurian slaty rocks, charged with Trilobites and Grapto- 
lites, and penetrated by granite, syenite, and volcanic rocks, occupying vast regions, 
Mr. Selwyn, aided in the paleontology of his large subject by Prof. M‘Coy, has 
also shown how these original auriferous rocks have been worn down at succes- 
sive periods, one of which abrasions is of pliocene age, another of post-pliocene, and 
a third the result of existing causes. All these distinctions, as well as the demar- 
cation of the Carboniferous, Oolitic, and other rocks, are clearly set forth. Looking 
with admiration at the execution of these geological maps, it was with exceeding 
pain I learnt that some members of the Legislature of Victoria had threatened to 
curtail their cost, if not to stop their production. As such ill-timed economy would 
occasion serious regret among all men of science, and would, I know, be also deeply 
lamented by the enlightened Governor, Sir Henry Barkly, and would at the same 
time be of lasting disseryice to the material advancement of knowledge among the 
mining classes of the State, let us earnestly hope that the young House of Parlia- 
ment at Melbourne may not be led to enact such a measure. 

Whilst upon the great subject of Australian geology, I cannot avoid touching on 
a questio verata which has arisen in respect to the age of the coal-fields of that vast 
mass of land. Judging by the fossil plants from some of the Carboniferous deposits 
of Victoria, Prof. M‘Coy has considered these coaly deposits to be of the Oolitic or 
Jurassic age, whilst the experienced geologist of New South Wales, the Rev. W. 
B. Clarke, seeing that, where he has examined these deposits, some of their plants 
are like those of the old coal, and that the beds repose conformably upon and pass 
down into strata with true Mountain-limestone fossils, holds the opinion that the 
coal is of paleeozoic age. As Mr. Clarke, after citing a case where the coal-seams 
and plants were reached below Mountain-limestone fossils, expresses a hope that 
Mr. Gould may detect in Tasmania some data to aid in determining this question, 
I take this opportunity of stating that I will lay before this Meeting a communica- 
tion I have just receiyed from Mr. Gould, in which he says that in coal-fields of the 
rivers Mersey and Don (some of the very few which are worked in Tasmania), he 
has convinced himself that the coal underlies beds containing specimens of true 
old Carboniferous fossils. Remarking that these relations are so far unlike those 
which he observed on the eastern coast of the island, where the coal overlies, yet 
is conformable to, the Carboniferous limestone, he adds that in Tasmania, at least, 
the coal most worked is unquestionably of paleozoic age. 

Now, as Australia is so vast a region, may not much of the coal within it be of 
the age assigned to it by Mr, Clarke; and yet, may not Prof, M‘Coy he also right 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107 


in assigning some of this mineral to the same oolitic age as the coal of Brora and 
the eastern moorlands of Yorkshire? In his survey of Tasmania, Mr. Gould has 
also made the important discovery of a resinous shale, termed Dysodile, and which, 
like the Torbane mineral of Scotland, promises to be turned to great account in the 
production of paraftine. 

There are, indeed, other grounds for believing that coal, both of the Mesozoic as 
well as of the old Carboniferous age, may exist in Australia. Thus, putting aside 
the fossil evidences collected in Victoria by M‘Coy and Selwyn, we learn, from the 
researches of Mr. Frank Gregory in Western Australia, that Mesozoic fossils 
(probably Cretaceous and Oolitic) occur in that region; whilst the Rey. W. B. 
Clarke informs me, in a letter just received, that he is in possession of a group 
of fossils transmitted from Queensland, 700 or 800 miles north of Sydney, which 
he is disposed to refer to the age of the Chalk, there being among the fossils Belem- 
nites, Pentacrinites, Pecten, Mytilus, Modiola, &c, Again, the same persevering 
geologist has procured from New Zealand the remains of a fossil saurian, which, he 
thinks, is allied to the Plesiosaurus*. 

It would therefore appear that in the southern hemisphere there is not merely a 
close analogy between the rocks of paleeozoic age and our own, but further, that, as 
far as the Mesozoic formations have been developed, they also seem to be the equi- 
valents of our typical secondary deposits. 

This existence of groups of animals during the Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, 
and even in Mesozoic periods in Australia and New Zealand, similar to those which 
characterize these formations in Europe, is strongly in contrast with the state of nature 
which began to prevail there in the younger Tertiary period. We know from the 
writings of Owen that at that time the great continent at our antipodes was already 
characterized by the presence of those marsupial forms which still distinguish its 
Fauna from that of any other part of the world. 

In relation to our Australian colonies, I must also announce that I have recently 
been gratified in receiving from Messrs. Chambers and Finke, of Adelaide, a collec- 
tion of the specimens collected by M‘Douall Stuart in his celebrated traverse (the 
first one ever made) from South Australia to the watershed of North Australia, 
Having had occasion to address the Royal Geographical Society on this point, and 
to award its Gold Medal to that most adventurous and successful explorer, with 
observations on the main geographical results of his labours, including the discovery 
of trees and plants unknown in other parts of that continent, I may here say, in 
addressing myself to geologists, that a collection of rocks has. been submitted to me 
which may tend to illustrate the structure of the interior of that great continent, 

These specimens are soft, white, chalky rocks, with flints, agates, saline and 
ferruginous incrustations, tufas, breccias, and white quartz-rocks, and a few speci- 
mens of quasi-volcanic rock, but with scarce a fragment that can be referred to the 
older stages of Lower Silurian age like those of Victoria}. Again, the only 
fossil shells collected by Mr. Stuart (though the precise latitude and longitude are 
unlmown to me) are Mytiloid and Mya-like forms, seemingly indicating a Tertiary 
age, and thus we may be disposed provisionally to infer that large tracts of the low 
interior between East and West Australia have in very recent geological periods 
heen occupied by the sea. ; 

Conelusion.—In concluding this Address, I may assure the Section that, as one of 
the original members of the Association, it gives me infinite satisfaction to retum 
to my old friends in this great and thriving centre of our national industry. In 
common with many of my associates who come from a distance, well do I re- 
member how cordially we were received here in the year 1842; and never can I 
forget how admirably we were presided over by a nobleman} as distinguished 
by his ability and learning as he was beloved for his philanthropy and publie 
spirit, and who had upon his right hand the illustrious Dalton, Looking to the cha- 
racter and influence of that philosopher, I may truly say that, as he was one of our 


* Whilst this is passing through the press, Professor Owen has described this interest~ 
ing fossil, before this Section, as Plesiosawrus Australis, 

t It must, however, be noted that the collection sent to me consists of small specimens 
of rock forming an imperfect series. 
- { Lord Francis Egerton, afterwards the Harl of Ellesmere. 


108 REPORT—1861. 


founders when we first met together at York, we owe through him a deep debt of 

atitude to Manchester; for Dalton was one of the few eminent men who at our 

irth stood sponsor for our future career, and who supported us at many a subse- 
quent Meeting. ae : 

In our present visit we are most happy to see placed at our head one of the 
scientific men of Manchester, who exhibits in his own Jaa the cheering example 
of the great success which can be attained by the steady and judicious application 
of science to the improvement of our manufactures. And if England is to hold her 
own lofty position in great measure through the superior strength of the metal 
derived from inexhaustible masses of iron-ore which occur in many of her geological 
formations, we cannot but regard William Fairbairn as the individual, who, united 
' at first with the lamented Eaton Hodgkinson, through a long series of ingenious 
experiments, as detailed in the volumes of this Association, not only laid the basis 
for the erection of the Menai Bridge and such tubular constructions, but who is 
now directing the manufacture of those iron plates which may best resist the most 
powerful artillery, whether in casing our ships or in strengthening our fortresses. 

T need not re-affirm that all the men of science who have flocked hither from 
distant places rejoice with his townsmen in serving under such a man. 

Lastly let me say, that we of the Geological Section, who are gathered together 
from remote parts, have solid grounds for satisfaction in being greeted here by so 
many good and active brother workmen of the Geological Society of Manchester, 
who have done such honour to their town, not only by the establishment of a rich 
and instructive Museum, in which many of the subjects we are met to discuss are 
thoroughly illustrated, but who have also, by their publications, contributed much to 
advance our science. 


Paleontological Remarks upon the Silurian Rocks of Ireland. 
By W. H. Bary, FGS. 


In this paper the author noticed the occurrence of Llandeilo flags in the county of 
Meath, containing the characteristic Graptolite, Didymograpsus Murchisonii, and 
then proceeded to give a general review of the localities in Treland from which fos- 
sils were obtained, as affording satisfactory evidence of the various subdivisions of 
the Silurian rocks at present ascertained in that country. 


Remarks on the Bone-caves of Craven. By T. W. Barrow. 


The author said that the specimens before the Meeting were found mainly in 
Victoria and Doukerbottom Caves, near Settle, Yorkshire. These caverns are but 
two of a great number which occur in the mountain limestone, and more especially 
in the Lower Scar limestone of Phillips. They are of various kinds—dry, wet, from 
a few yards in length to a mile, merely passages, or scooped out into great cham- 
bers. Doukerbottom consists of two chambers with very long passages between 
them. Victoria Caye, which was discovered by Mx. Jackson of Settle, has in it 
four large chambers close to each other, and before the flooring of clay was washed 
in, hoe forming one gigantic apartment. 

he general section of the caves is:—First, from a foot to 18 inches of soil, in which 
are the bones of recent and historic animals. Second, about 6 inches of the ancient 
flooring of the caye when it was inhabited by man: in this were found all the 
antiquities which were discovered, and the bones of animals similar to those last 
mentioned. Third, dense stiff clay of very great thickness, in which no antiquities 
and scarcely any bones were found. ‘Fourth, the original rocky floor of the cave, 
resting on which were bones differing in colour, lightness, &c. from the others. 
The antiquities found in the second stratum were flint-implements, adze-head of 
stone, sling stones; of hone—arrowheads, combs and pins; shells and wolf’s tecth 
pierced for a necklace. These were evidences that an uncivilized race had occupied 
the cave; but besides these were fibulee, armlets and rings of bronze and iron, and 
coins of Roman emperors, from Nero to Constantine. The bones fourd were of 
recent and historic animals, such as the wild boar and the wolf; but with these 
were others of prehistoric animals, the cave-tiger and the caye-hyzena, found side 
by side with the antiquities; and it has been argued that they are therefore con-~ 


—- - 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109 


temporaneous with man. The author, however, showed that their presence in such 
a position was accidental, and proved too much; for if these bones were contem- 
ied with the antiquities, they were also contemporary with the coins, which come 

own to 400 a.p.—a time at which we are certain, from history, that there were no 
such animals in England. The present evidence from these caverns of man’s con- 
temporaneousness with such animals was not to be trusted. 


A succinct account of the Geological Features of the neighbourhood of Man- 
chester, By E. W. Bryney, F.RS., F.GS. 


The author described the several beds of gravel, sand, and clay forming the super- 
ficial covering of the district in the following (descending) order :—1st, The valley 
gravel, with its successive terraces, reaching to a thiekeiege of 36 feet; 2nd, the 
widely-distributed upper sand and Brave 135 feet ; 3rd, the till, boulder- or brick- 
clay, 90 feet; 4th, the lower gravel and sand, 40 feet. The underlying rocks or 
skeleton of the country, known chiefly by boring operations, were then noticed :— 
Ast, the pebble-bed of the Trias, about 600 feet thick. 2nd, The Permian series, con- 
sisting of marls containing beds of limestone and gypsum, about 300 feet in thick- 
ness; conglomerate, 25; and soft red sandstone, about 600 feet. These may be 
considered as the upper part of the Permian beds of Lancashire, but the equivalents 
of the lower series in Yorkshire. Below them come in soft red sandstones and 
beds of pebbly grit containing coal-plants, seen at Astley and Bedford, but not met 
with in the immediate vicinity of Manchester. The beds of conglomerate and soft 
red sandstone are found to thicken out northward in Lancashire, Westmoreland, 
Cumberland, and Scotland to several thousand feet in thickness. 8rd. The coal- 
measures of the Manchester coal-field, 1650 feet thick, as proved by sinkings and 
borings, and the few natural sections at Ardwick and elsewhere. All these 
strata are much dislocated, one fault being certainly a downthrow of 3150 feet at 
one point, and only 150 at another not many miles off. Some faults show evidence 
of great lateral motion, He regarded these faults as having been made for the most 

art immediately after the close of the Carboniferous era; they were further shifted 
<a the deposition of the Trias, and no doubt had been frequently moved after- 
wards. The author illustrated his remarks by a geological map of the district, 
showing the distribution of the superficial clays, gravels, and sands; another map 
showing the arrangement of the lower rocks as far as yet determined; and by three 
sections of the district—one from Trinity Church, Hulme, to Waterhouses, another 
from the Exchange to Smedley, and the third from Hecles to Kersal Moor. 


On the Extinct Volcanos of Australia. By J. Bonwicx. 


Having lately visited the extinct volcanos of Italy and France, as well as having 
observed the active cone of Vesuvius, the author did not think he was wrong in 
calling the south-western part of Victoria and the adjacent portion of South Aus- 
tralia the burnt fields of Australia, The country referred to lies chiefly between 
the slate and granite dividing range of the diggings and the tertiary limestone of 
the sea-coast, having an area of neavly half the size of England. It extends from 
the Bay of Port Phillip, near Melbourne, and Geelong, to beyond the western border 
of Victoria, by the Glenelg. The great basaltic plain of the west has few interrup- 
tions from the bay to the border and from the shore to the central range. The 
basalt is of all varieties, and furnishes in its decomposition the finest soil to the 

iculturist. He had seen an island of basalt in a sea of slate, so to speak, which 
abounded with farms, though surrounded by heartless woods and shingle soil. 
Many dome-shaped lava hills are found on the plateau of the dividing range. Ca- 
verns, nearly 500 feet in length, exist in the basaltic floor of the plains. On the 
south-west side of the great salt lake Corangamite, there are basaltic rises, These 
are huge barriers from 10 to 60 feet in height, forming a vast labyrinth of rocks, 
15 miles long by 12 broad. The natives in olden times retreated to these inacces- 
sible retreats with the sheep they stole from the flocks in the neighbourhood. The 
ash or tufa has the same appearances as those the author observed at Lake Albano, 
near Rome, and at Pompeii. It is occasionally sufficiently solidified to become 
building-stone, Carvings are very commonly made of it in the district, The 


110 : REPORT—1861. » 


ash and cinder conglomerate exists but in one place—on the Island of Law- 
rence, in Portland Bay. Cliffs of this singular compound rise there 150 feet. The 
author’s impression is that the source was a submarine volcano to the south-west, 
—the course of the prevailing wind and current; and that the ashes and volcanic 
dust were received in some sheltered bay, since raised with the coast. The extinct 
volcanos are in the form of lakes and mountains, The lakes are depressions usually 
on slight eminences. Terang, Elingamite, Purrumbete, Wangoon, and Lower Hill 
are fresh, while Keilambete and Bulleenmerri are salt. The shallow saline lakes 
of the plains were not former craters. The depths of some of these lakes are 50, 
100, 150, 200, and 300 feet. The Devil’s Inkstand of Mount Gambier is 260 feet. 
The banks vary from a few feet to 300 feet in height above the water. The cir- 
cwmference varies from 100 yards to 7 miles. The thickness of the ash in- 
creases with the distance from the crater, but is always thickest on the eastern side. 
At Lower Hill, at a quarter of a mile from the bank, on the northern quarter, it is 
80 feet deep, while at a mile off, on the eastern side, it is 150 feet. The volcanic hills 
vary from a few yards to above 2000 feet above the sea-level. The depth of the 
dry craters runs from 50 feet to 500 feet. Gambier and Schanck are within the 
South Australian border. The former has three fine lakes. The latter is a dry 
basin, Jnown as the Devil’s Punchbowl. Porndon is a cone of very light cinder, 
elevated amidst the remarkable rises. Leura is a broken crater on the edge of the 
rises; while Purrumbete is a beautiful sheet of water, a few miles distant, which 
once, as a crater, discharged vast quantities of ash. The other principal volcanos 
of Western Victoria are Buninyong, Blowhard, Noorat, Gellibrand, Napier, Franklin, 
Cavern, Shadwell, Lower Hill, Clay, Hlephant, Eckersley. No adequate impression 
can be received as to the age of the activity of these cones and craters, There is 
a freshness in most of them indicative of a comparatively modern date. The 
natives have traditions of the eruptions of several of them. As loam oyerspreads 
the recently scattered auriferous drift of several of the diggings, it would not appear 
to have been of great date. It occurs on tertiary limestone to the west, and under- 
lies it as well. 


~ Mx, Anronro Brapy exhibited some flint instruments, together with bones of 
has primigenius and Echini, obtained by him only a few days since from the 
drift at St. Acheul, near Amiens. He stated that although found only a few feet 
above the chalk, in the drift, in true association with the bones and shells of extinct 
ecies, still, from the composition of the drift, there was in his judgment no proof 
that the animals and the makers of the instruments lived at one and the same time. 
From the heterogeneous and rolled state of the materials, there was great reason to 
believe that they had been disinterred from their original resting-places by some 
sudden torrent or convulsion, and been reinterred in their present association.. The 
drift had clearly never been lifted by the hand of man, but is doubtless in the state 
in which it was deposited, whenever that may have been. 


: On the Aqueous Origin of Granite. 
By Avexanver Bryson, /.R.S.E., P_RSSA. 


In this paper the author referred to the labours of Dr. William Smith, who pub- 
lished his ‘Tabular View of the British Strata’ in 1790, and remarked that since 
that period geology had been studied mainly in the direction of paleontology. 
Physical, chemical, and dynamic geology were left almost unregarded by the great 
masters of the science, who generally accepted the speculations of Hutton and the 
experiments of Hall as demonstrating the igneous origin of the primary rocks. 

‘The author stated that the Huttonian theory was most ably attacked, and, in his 
opinion, overthrown, by Dr. Murray in his ‘Comparative View of the Huttonian 
and Neptunian Systems of Geology,’ a work most unaccountably overlooked. Since 
that time it had suggested itself to the sagacious mind of Davy, that the occurrence 
of fluids in the cavities of crystals seemed to point to an aqueous origin. He also 
alluded to the writings of Brewster, Sivewright, and Nicol in the same field; also 
to Becquerel, Fuchs, Bischoff, and Delesse, who have taken up the subject of the 
aqueous origin of rocks from a chemical point of view. The author then laid before 
the Society the result of ten years’ experimental investigation into the structure of 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Tl) 


rocks relative to their formation, more particularly granite. While examining 
microscopically the various pitchstone veins abounding in Arran, he was much 
struck with the similarity of their structure, and the marked difference they exhi- 
bited when compared with sections of granite and its various mineral constituents. 
On extending his observations to obsidian, marekanite (a volcanic glass from Lake 
Marekan in Kamtschatka), and also to the well-known glassy obsidian of Bohemia, 
he found they all exhibited a structure analogous to the pitchstones of Arran, He 
further found that sections of glass slags, where the heat had been long continued, 
combined with slow cooling, all presented the same appearances as the sections of 
pitchstone, 

This structure, peculiar to igneously formed substances, he found usually to radiate 


. in a stellate form; and though many slags showed large stars visible to the naked 


eye, the stellate structure is more easily observed by the aid of the microscope. 
The character is so marked, that no one whose eye is tutored to microscopic obser= 
vation can fail to recognize at once a mineral substance of igneous origin, 

In granite, on the other hand, the structure, as seen by the microscope, is as pers 
sistent as in pitchstone, glass, and obsidian, but totally different. 

In the many experiments which the author had tried with granites from various 
localities, he had never succeeded in obtaining one instance of stellate structure, 
while the constant occurrence of cavities containing fluids convincedjhim that, if 
pitchstone and glass are types of igneous-formed substances, granite must be of 
aqueous origin. In the fluid cavities so abundant in topaz, Cairngorum, beryl, 
tourmaline, and felspar, all constituents of granite, he found the same appearance 
prevailed. These cayities are seldom entirely filled with fluid, an air-bubble usu- 
ally occupying more or less of the cavity. After many hundred experiments on 
such cavities, the author found that when exposed to a temperature of 94° Fahr., 
the bubble disappeared, the fluid entirely filling the cavity, and at the temperature 
of 84° the bubble reappeared with a singular ebullition, showing that the air had 
formed an atmosphere round the fluid. He was thus led to infer that these cavities 
could not have been filled at a temperature above 84°, and certainly not above 94° 
of Fahrenheit. 

As another proof that these cavities could not have been filled when the tempe= 
rature of the surrounding rock was higher than the temperature above indicated, 
the author drew attention to the fact that the bubble of air occupied always a much 
smaller portion of the cavity than the fluid, a condition which could not obtain, if, 
as other writers hold, the fluids were enclosed under intense heat and pressure. 

For the purpose of accurately determining the temperatures at which the bubble 
vanished and_ reappeared, the avithor constructed an apparatus which he exhibited 
and described. It consists of a ei 29 with a hollow iron stage, having a tube 
in the.centre to admit light from the reflector. At one side, and inserted into the 
stage, is a small tin retort with a stopper; at the other side, a tube is inserted and 
attached to a reservoir of water, from which the hollow stage and retort are filled. 
On applying heat to the retort by means of a spirit-lamp, any required temperature 
under the boiling-point of the water may be obtained in the stage and retort. 

Above the stage is placed an iron saucer, in the centre of which an iron tube is 
riveted, through which the light is admitted ; this vessel is filled with mercury, and 
in it is placed an upright thermometer, with the bulb shielded with cork or any other 
good non-conductor; by this means it indicates the actual temperature of the mer- 
cury bath. The cavity to be observed is cemented with Canada balsam to a plate 
of glass 3X1 inch, and is floated on the surface of the mercury, so that the class 
and mercury are in absolute contact. When the temperature is raised until the 
bubble nearly disappears (which is seen by its contraction), the spirit-lamp is with- 
drawn, and the vanishing point carefully watched and the temperature noted. The 
stopper of the retort is then withdrawn, and the stopcock of the reservoir of water 
opened, so that the temperature of the stage and mercury bath is soon reduced, and 

e ebullition or reappearance of the bubble takes place, when the temperature is 
again recorded. By this method the author felt confident that his results were 
correct, as they always were consistent when observing the same cavity. By means 
of this instrument the author had found fluid cavities in the tra of Arthur’s 
Seat, the greenstone of the Crags, and the basalt of Samson’s Ribs. He had also 
found that the porphyry of Dun Dhu in Arran, which most geologists assumed as 


112 REPORT—1861. 


of igneous origin, was full of fluid cavities contained in the doubly acuminated 
crystals of quartz for which this remarkable porphyry is distinguished. He also 
showed doubly acuminated crystals of quartz in the saliferous gypsums of India, 
both of which were full of fluid cavities, and the quartz impressed with the gypsum ; 
and as no geologist would hold that this formation was of igneous onal that 
the quartz, if not contemporaneous with the gypsum, must have been subsequent, 
and as the same phenomena were presented by the porphyry of Dun Dhu, he was 
forced to the conclusion that it was as much aqueous in its origin as the saliferous 
gypsum of India. The author exhibited a specimen of quartz which contained a 
crystal of iron pyrites, to which was attached a crystal of galena and also a small 
massy zinc blende, while over these three metals was laid a covering of gold. From 
this specimen he argued, that as all these metals were fusible at a much lower 
temperature than quartz, they must have ageregated during a gelatinous condition 
of the quartz; and further, that as the sulphides of the three metals were in chemi- 
cally combining proportions, any heat which would have fused the quartz would 
have made an alloy or a slag in which chemical combining proportions could not 
occur, 

He also exhibited specimens of schorl which he had obtained in the granite of 
Aberdeen, and drew the inference that schorl, which crackles and splits with a very 
small increment of temperature, could not have been present during a molten con- 
dition of the quartz; and that it was crystallized prior to the solidifying of the 
latter, as proved by the schorl impressing the quartz. The author, from a careful 
examination of the schorls in the quartzite of Aberdeen, was led to believe that the 
quartz, while in the process of crystallization, expanded one twenty-fourth of its 
bulk, a force which appeared to him to be sufficient to cause all the upheavals and 
disruptions which had led geologists to account for such phenomena by a molten 
condition of the primary rocks. If this view is correct, and if the highest peak is 
granite, as the lowest is known to be granite, the author calculated that as the 
highest mountain is only ;4, part of the radius of the earth, a thickness of the crust 
of 168 miles is quite sufficient to yield expansive force to raise the highest peak of 
the Himalayan range. He further stated that the cause of the temperature at which 
the fluids were confined being higher than the normal one, depended on the rise of 
eee which takes place during solidification. 

The author, in conclusion, trusted he would soon be in a position to confirm 
these views when he had finished the investigation of the trap-rocks with which he 
is now engaged, 


On the Laws discoverable as to the Formation of Land on the Globe. 
By the Rey, C. R. Gorvon,. 


Results of the Geological Survey of Tasmania. By C. Govrn, B.A., F.GS. 


The formations treated of were the upper paleeozoic marine deposits and the coal- 
measures. The apparent conformability of the two sections was shown, together 
with their intimate connexion, serving to render their consideration inseparable. The 
coal-measures exist to a greater or less extent throughout the country referred to, 
the depth being about 900 feet. The coal-measures of the district might be regarded 
as constituting two distinct fields, the maximum one of which might be termed the 
Mount Nicholas Coal-field, comprehending the various portions developed upon 
either side of the Break o’ Day Valley, while to the other the term Douglas River 
Coal-field might be applied, as indicating the area occupied by the carhniteaend 
formation between Long Point and Bicheno. In the first the position of the prin- 
cipal seams of coal, although highly advantageous to their bemg worked, is at an 
elevation of from 1200 to 1500 feet above the sea. There were at least six distinct 
seams in the Mount Nicholas coal-field, one of which was of superior quality, and 
12 feet in thickness. yer since the discovery of the seam experiments have been 
made, which, though amply sufficient to prove the value of the coal for domestic 
purposes and fey application to the usual Beancltos of manufacture, have been upon 
too limited a scale to permit of the determination of its value as a steam fuel. A 
temarkable shale exists in the north of the island, available as a source of paraffine 


———— 


a onlin bie ell 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 113 


and paraffine oil. The Mersey coal-field was one of the very fewin Tasmania which 
are actually worked; for although the extent of coal throughout the island is 
almost unlimited, there are very few points at which any operations are con- 
ducted. 


On the Faults of a portion of the Lancashire Coal-field. 
By A. H. Green, M.A., of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. 


In this paper a law was enunciated which appeared to govern the directions of 
the principal lines of fault in the portion of the Lancashire coal-field lying between 
the meridians of Wigan on the west and Rochdale on the east. 

On the western side of this tract the average direction of the faults is about 20° 
W. of N.; as we go eastwards the lines of fracture tend more and more towards an 
K. and W. direction, till in the neighbourhood of Rochdale they are found to run” 
from 45° to 50° W. of N. 

An attempt was made to show, on the principles laid down by Mr. Hopkins in 
the sixth volume of the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, that this law was a 
ay consequence of the elevating forces which produced the upheaval of the 
coal-field. 

The upheaying forces seem to have exerted their greatest force along the north- 
ern and eastern boundaries, increasing in each case towards the north-east corner ; 
the western boundary seems to have been a line of upheaval of smaller and more 
uniform intensity; and on the south, where the coal-measures pass below the new’ 
red sandstone, the force of upheaval has decreased to a minimum. + 

Hence it was inferred that the southern and western boundaries of the coal-field 
might be considered as remaining undisturbed during the upheaval, while its north- 
eastern corner had been elevated. The extension of the strata produced by this 
upheaval, as soon as it exceeded their power of cohesion, would cause fissures; and 
the directions of these fissures, indicated by theory, coincide very nearly with the 
observed lines of the principal faults. 


Comparison of Fossil Insects of England and Bavaria. By Dr. Hacen. 
(Communicated by H. T. Stainton, F.Z.S.) 


The author remarked that formerly the fossiliferous strata of Solenhofen and 
Hichstadt in Bavaria had been considered analogous to the Mnglish secondary strata, 
but that later investigations had established that the latter were considerably older. 
“T must especially call attention to the fact, that the species described by Germar 
in the ‘ Acta Academize Leopold,’ to which hitherto reference has always been made, 
are described from specimens the outline of which has been artistically painted and 
completed, I have often examined the types carefully, and can maintain with cer- 
tainty that this account of them is correct. The Royal Collection in the Academy 
of Munich, and the collection of Dr. Crantz in Bonn, contain together about 1000 
stones with insects, and, even deducting the double stones, thus represent at least 
600 specimens. 

“ Having an opportunity afew weeks back of studying very carefully the Munich 
collection, I was much surprised at the splendid preservation of many of the speci- 
mens. The insects of the Solenhofen strata are almost universally preserved entire ; 
wings, legs, head, and antennz are in their proper places; most of the Zibellule have 
their wings expanded. He who, on the sandy shores of the Baltic, has noticed 
how depositions of insects are now taking place, will admit that these Solenhofen 
insects must have been dead when deposited. They would be driven by the winds 
into the sea, thrown on the shore dead or dying, and then gradually covered with 
sand by the rippling waves. This process took place on the Solenhofen strata 
extremely gradually and slowly, as is evident from another circumstance; for we 
frequently find the cavities of insects (the head, thorax, and body) filled up with 
regular crystals of calcareous spar. Hence the pressure of the stratum overlying 
the insect must have been very slight, when such delicate parts as the abdominal 
segments of a dragon-fly could oppose resistance for a sufficient length of time to 
admit of the formation of crystals. 

1861. 8 


114 REPORT—1861. 


“The English strata, on the other hand, rarely contain entire insects; generally 
there are only some part of the wings, abdomen, and thorax, and these besides are 
usually imperfect. Hence it appears worthy of consideration whether the insects 
of the English strata do not convey the inference that, through the agency of storms 
and other commotions, the fragments were tossed about a long time before they 
found a resting-place. 

“There is the less to be said against this conjecture, as the wings of insects 
(which form by far the larger part of the English entomological fossils) are almost 
indestructible in water. I have kept the wings of dragon-flies in water for years 
without observing the slightest change in their texture. 

“From a careful study of the fossils of Solenhofen, and a comparison with the 
published figures of the fossil insects of England, I have deduced two conclusions :— 

“First, that the two faunz are very closely allied, and possibly some species in 
both formations are identical. 

“Secondly, that the faunze of Solenhofen and of the English strata are not only 
quite distinct from the existing fauna, but also from those of Aix, of the Rhenish 
peat-deposit of Giningen and Radoboj, and from that of amber, differing not only 
in species but in genera. 

“Almost all the Solenhofen insects will necessitate the construction of new 
genera, which, however, will often furnish connecting links between some of our 
existing genera, 

“Tn reference to the Odonata (dragon-flies), which form so large a portion of the 
insect fauna of the Solenhofen strata, and pieces of the wings of which seem not 
uncommon in the English strata, we find a remarkable contrast between the fauna 
of the English secondary strata and the fauna of Giningen and Radoboj. Whereas 
here, as also in the Rhenish peat, larves and pups of Libellile are found in great 
numbers, many often lying together, the perfect insects being proportionally scarce ; 
in the Solenhofen and Hichstadt deposits Libellule are precisely the most plentiful 
specimens (forming jrd of all the insects), and on the other hand, up to the present 
time not a single larva or pupa has been found. 

“The absence of larve in the Solenhefen strata may be accounted for by the 
supposition that the waters on whose shores these strata were deposited were salt ; 
just as at the present day numerous Odonata are buried in the sands on the shores 
of the Baltic, although their larvze do not live in that sea. The deposits of éningen 
and Radoboj, on the other hand, we must conclude were made in fresh water,” 


On the Old Red Sandstone of South Perthshire. 
By Professor Harxyess, /.2.S., GS. 


At the Bridge of Allan, which is situated immediately on the north side of the 
fault separating the coal-field of Stirlingshire from the Old Red Sandstones on the 
north thereof, there are seen, on the side of the hill near the well, conglomerates 
which are principally made up.of fragments of trap, and these, in their higher 
beds, have grey sandstones intercalated with them. These grey sandstones, on 
ascending the series, occur exclusively; and they are well seen at Wolf's Hole 
quarry, dipping at 20°N.W., being capped by trap. Here, in the grey sandstones, 
the remains of Pteraspis rostratus have feet found, and in the same strata portions 
of a Cephalaspis also occur. 

A section showing the arrangement of the deposits which succeed these grey 
sandstones may be seen in the course of the Allan to beyond Dumblane. A con- 
tinuation of this section may be obtained in the course of the Teith; and the river 
Keltie, which flows into the Teith about 3 miles below Callander, furnishes the 
series of deposits which join those of the Teith, Collectively a section may be had 
showing the nature and ‘the arrangement of the deposits which occupy the area 
between the fault alluded to as occurring on the south, and the metamorphic rocks 
of the southern flanks of the Grampians. 

This section exhibits a trough on the margins of which conglomerates occur, 
these forming the lowest strata. 

To these conglomerates succeed deposits which contain Pteraspis and Cepha- 
laspis, consisting of grey sandstones. Purple strata occur above these, to which 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115 


succeed reddish shaly beds; and, on the S.E. side of the section, brown sandstones 
are found upon the shales, while on the N.W. side these brown sandstones contain 
also quartz conglomerates. Upon this portion of the series grey flaggy sandstones 
are seen, and these form the highest members of the rocky strata observable in this 
portion of Scotland. 

The total thickness of the deposits which this section exhibits exceeds 7000 feet, 
and it is interesting not only as showing the position of the Pteraspis beds, but 
also as indicating an area south of the Grampians where, underneath the Forfar- 
shire flags, a thick mass of conglomerate forms the lowest members of the Old Red 
Sandstone formation. 

*On the Sandstones and their associated Deposits of the Valley of the Eden and 
the Cumberland Plain. By Professor Harkness, F.R.S., F.G.S. 


. In the valley of the Eden, from a short distance south of Kirkby Stephen north-+ 
ward, there occur extensive developments of sandstone, which, in many localities 
south of Appleby, have beds of breccia associated with them. These sandstones, 
having usually a nearly eastern dip, are spread over the western portion of the Vale 
of the Eden in Cumberland, and have as their western boundaries the Carboniferous 
series. In Cumberland they attain a great thickness, probably nearly 5000 feet. 
They possess the same mineral nature as the sandstones which in Dumfriesshire 
afford footprints ; and Ichnolites of a like character to those of the south of Scotland 
have been found in some localities in these Cumberland deposits. They are usually 
succeeded conformably by clays of a red colour. In some areas these clays contain 
gypsum ; and at one spot, near the village of Hilton in Westmoreland, there is seen, 
between the sandstones and breccias below and the clay-beds above, a thin series 
of deposits which vary much in their lithology. The lower portion of these has 
a character approaching that of the marl-slate of Durham, and from this fossils are 
obtained, principally in the form of coniferous leaves, Casts of small crinoid 
stems are also seen, and likewise casts of Brachiopods and Lamellibranchiates. The 
faces which these fossils present, induces the conclusion that the strata which 
contain them represent here the marl-slate. Under these circumstances the suc- 
ceeding marls and gypsum must be looked upon as appertaining to the Zechstein 

ortion of the Permians, while the underlying red sandstones and breccias must 

e regarded as the equivalent of the German Rothliegende, which in this portion of 
England have a very great development, and which, as they contain the footprints 
before alluded to, place the Permians of Dumfriesshire that afford Ichnolites among 
the lowest group of this formation. 

The clay-beds which represent the Zechstein are conformably succeeded by fine- 
grained red sandstones with clay layers. These abound in ripple-marks, desiccation- 
cracks, rain-pittings, and pseudomorphs, features which are never found in con- 
nexion with the inferior sandstones, These “— sandstones seem rather to 
belong to the Trias than the Permians. They trough under the Solway Firth, being 
well developed in the 8.E. of Dumfriesshire; and they appear to support the lias, 
as this has been described as occurring in the north of Deraeclinil by Mr, Binney, 


Notice of Elongated Ridges of Drift, common in the South of Scotland, called 
‘ Kaims. By D, Mine Home, 7.R.8.Z. 


The author described a number of examples of them in Berwickshire, Roxburgh- 
shire, and other places. He stated that they were so regular as to have the appear- 
ance of railway embankments or fortifications, and that they had often been mistaken 
for the latter. They were from 40 feet to 60 feet in height, and sometimes could 
be traced for three or four miles. They were found at various heights above the 
sea up to 750 feet, In examining their internal structure, they were seen to con- 
sist generally of sand, Able and boulders; the latter generally rounded, but also 
occasionally angular. He adverted to the fact that they are sometimes intersected 
by rivulets and even rivers, but that notwithstanding this, they had all the appear- 
ance of having, when originally formed, been continuous, The author offered some 
remarks on the agency supposed to have been concerned in the production of the 

8* 


116 REPORT—1861. 


kaims. He repudiated the notion of their formation by glaciers. He considered 
they were due to the action of water, as indicated by their internal structure ; and 
supposed that they must have been formed by the waters of the ocean, when they 
stood at least 800 feet above its present level. The only question, as he thought, 
was, whether they had been thrown up as submarine spits or banks, or whether they 
had been formed by a process of scooping-out, when the land emerged from the 
ocean. His opinion wavered between these two views; but he was inclined to the 
former. In the east of Scotland, these aims had mostly one direction, viz. east 
and west; and as they were in various positions, sometimes on level land and 
sometimes on sloping hills, he thought that a sudden lift of the country out of 
the ocean would better produce that uniformity of direction than any other view, 
and also occasion the scooping-out and removal of materials, leaving continuous » 
ridges. 


On Isomeric Lines, and the relative Distribution of the Calcareous and Sedimen- 
tary Strata of the Carboniferous Group of Britain. By Evwarp Hut, 
B.A., F.GS., of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, 


The author referred to the observations of Prof. Phillips in Yorkshire in reference 
to the carboniferous rocks, from which it appeared that the calcareous portions 
attained their greatest vertical development towards the south-east, while the 
sedimentary strata of the Yoredale series and millstone grit increased in thickness 
towards the north-west; and the author went on to show that what was true in 
Yorkshire on a smaller scale, was also true on a larger scale for the whole of the 
carboniferous rocks north of the old barrier of land which stretched across Central 
England during the Carboniferous epoch. 

It was shown that the carboniferous limestone was most fully developed in 
Derbyshire, attaining a thickness of about 5000 feet, and from this as a centre it 
thinned away westward and northward, so that in Scotland the thickness was only 
about 250 feet, in some places even less than this. 

On the other hand, it was shown that the sedimentary strata (sandstones, shales, 
&c.) were of greatest thickness in Lancashire, and from this thinned away east- 
ward, southward, and partially westward. The thickness of these strata in Lanca- 
shire (12,500 feet) had probably once been exceeded in Scotland, where, reasoning 
from analogy, Mr. Hull concluded the whole carboniferous group, excluding the 
limestones, had once reached 14,000 feet, previous to the denudation which has 
swept away the uppermost members of the coal-measures*, 

These variations in thickness of the sedimentary strata were indicated by the 
isometric lines on the maps exhibited to the Section, and are accounted for on the 
ground that, throughout the Carboniferous period, a large tract of land had existed 
in the North Atlantic, from which the sediment had been derived and spread over 
the bed of the sea by a current coming from the north-west. In consequence of 
this, the sands and clays would gradually lessen in quantity the further they were 
carried, and thus they would be deposited in greatest force towards the north-west, 
and in least towards the south-east, where there would be a clear sea. 

On the other hand, the limestones, being due to the labours of marine animals 
which required an ocean free from mud for their full development, were formed in 
greatest force in Derbyshire, and from this as a centre diminish in thickness west- 
ward and northward. Thus in Scotland they are on the point of disappearing, 
being replaced by a vast thickness of sedimentary strata altogether wanting in 
Central England. These variations were indicated by a second system of isometric 
lines, indicating the propagation of the calcareous rocks from Derbyshire as a centre 
in a series of waves of constantly diminishing force. It would thus be seen that 
the two sets of isometric lines above referred to would intersect each other from 
nearly opposite directions. 

To account for these opposite developments, the author showed that they arose 
from the necessity of things ; that the marine animals (as the corals and crinoids), 


* These results were borne out by admeasurements of the beds in several counties, which 
are published at length in the Journal of the Geological Society of London, vol. xviii. p. 127. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117 


of whose labours mainly the limestones are the result, required a pure ocean 
uncontaminated by sediment. This was the case with the ocean in Derbyshire ; 
but in the north it was charged with sand and mud, which interfered with, and 
ultimately overpowered the organic agents. Hence the essential distinction be- 
tween limestones and all other kinds of sedimentary strata was strongly insisted 
upon, the one being directly antagonistic to the other. 

The author next showed that we could trace at intervals the north and south 
coasts of a barrier of land which stretched from Wales to the German Ocean during 
the Carboniferous period. (See Map, Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xviii.) 

South of this barrier there exists another carboniferous tract, represented by the 
coal-fields of South Wales, Somersetshire, Gloucestershire, and possibly of one under- 
. lying the cretaceous rocks and stretching into Belgium. This tract was separated 
by the barrier from that of Central England, and the sediment had been carried from 
a different direction. The isometric lines, drawn in accordance with the variations 
of thickness as described by Sir H. De la Beche, showed that the sediment had 
been carried by a current coming from the W.S.W., while the calcareous group 
had been propagated in greatest abundance from the east; so that on the south 
side of the barrier there was as great a contrast in the distribution of the calcareous 
and sedimentary strata as on the north side. ; 

The author next proceeded to remark that America exhibited phenomena of a 
kind similar to those here described in Britain. As had been shown by Sir C. Lyell 
and Prof. Rogers, the sedimentary strata augmented towards the N.E. in Nova 
Scotia, and became attenuated in the basin of the Mississippi (in which direction 
the limestones increase in vertical dimensions), proving that the sediment had been 
drifted from the north-east. The author contended that the same great continent 
of the North Atlantic had been the progenitor of the carboniferous strata of both 
America and Britain, and that its shores were swept by a north-east current in the 
western hemisphere, and by a north-west current in the eastern, 


On the Progress of the Survey in Ireland. 
By Professor Juxus, F.G.S., Local Superintendent of the Irish Survey. 


On the Relation of the Eskdale Granite at Bootle to the Schistose Rocks, with 
Remarks on the General Metamorphic Origin of Granite. By J. G. Mar- 
sHALL, F.GLS. : 


In a paper read by me at the Meeting of the British Association at Leeds in 
1858, on the Geology of the Lake District, I endeavoured to establish the following 
Propositions — 

. That the older slate rocks of Cumberland and Westmoreland, the Skiddaw clay- 
slate, and the greenstone slate series, have been generally subject to the metamor- 
phic action of heat, pressure, and moisture. 

2. That some of the slaty beds being more fusible than others above or below 
them in the series, haye been more acted on than the less fusible beds, and changed 
into porphyries, whilst the others have only been hardened; and hence an alterna- 
tion of stratified and unstratified beds has resulted, though the whole series were 
originally soft stratified deposits. 

3. That the granites and syenites of this district are as truly metamorphic rocks 
as the porphyries—the change to the crystalline structure being merely the last 
term, the extreme result of the metamorphic action of combined heat, pressure, and 
moisture, followed by very slow cooling ; and that these rocks, when found in mass, 
are not eruptive or intrusive, but altered beds of slate rock zm situ in their natural 
position as regards other beds in the series. 

4, That the forces which have elevated, contorted, and fractured tho strata of 
this district have not been the eruptive energies of the granites and syenites, but 
haye been produced by the expansion or contraction of the earth’s crust, by heating 
or cooling on a large scale, and chiefly shown in great lateral thrusts, producing 
flexures and fractures in the weaker portions of the crust of the earth, 


118 : REPORT—1861. - 


The metamorphic rocks in the vicinity of Bootle, under Black Comb, have been 
noticed by Sedgwick, and also by Phillips, as offering many remarkable phenomena ; 
and as the granite was not considered by either of these observers as a metamorphic 
rock, I have been induced to pay another short visit to the locality in order to 
examine especially the evidence for or against that supposition. 

The first point which I examined was the appearance of granitic rock in the 
course of a branch of the stream which runs through Bootle from Black Comb, and 
called Hole Gill. This rock first appears in a quarry near the entrance of the ravine 
through which the stream descends Black Comb. It is seen in three places—two on 
the southern side and one on the northern side, and all near the bottom of the 
ravine and within a distance of 300 or 400 yards. This rock (specimens Nos. 1 & 2), 
though of a felspathic and granitic character, is far from bemg a perfectly formed 
granite, and sees to me to be quite analogous to the transition beds so constantly 
observed in the slaty rocks when the metamorphic change is just commencing. 
Moreover, in the spot where this rock appears on the northern side of the ravine, 
it is seen distinctly dipping conformably under the soft clay-slate, at an angle of 
about 25° or 30° to N. W. 

I am of course familiar with the syenitic dykes which so frequently occur in this 
district, and have followed several of them for miles ; but I could see no appearance of 
vertical or unconformable position in these granitic rocks in Hole Gill to indicate 
that they were dykes or elvans. They had rather the appearance of beds of the clay- 
slate in which the metamorphic action was commencing ; and they appear at the 
very base of Black Comb, and nearly on a level with the adjacent metamorphic rocks 
of the greenstone slate formation. 

The next appearance of metamorphic action is at a distance of about half a mile 
northward from the ravine just mentioned, in a range of slate rock which in the 
distance of 300 or 400 yards is gradually and completely changed from a perfectly 
fissile and unaltered slate at the southern end to a compact massive greenstone and 
porphyry at the other or northern end (Nos. 3-8 specimens), where it is intersected 

y another branch of the Bootle stream. It would be impossible to find a more 
perfect example than this ridge of rock affords of gradual metamorphic change along 
“the line of strike. Between this second branch of the stream and a third branch, 
about half a mile further north, there is a broken hillocky ridge of metamorphic slate 
changed into hard greenstone and porphyry, and the beds much tossed about and 
dislocated (specimens 9-11), 

The third branch of the stream intersects the border of the granitic range of 
rocks, which from this point extend continuously to the Esk and up Eskdale. 

When first seen in situ the granite is very soft, incoherent, and disintegrating so 
as to be little more than granitic sand, and yet in the faces of the escarpment 
formed by the stream in this soft mass all the marks of stratification and jointing 
of the original slate rocks, of which it appears to have been formed, are distinctly 
visible. This granite is hornblendic, and shows the nodular and concretionary 
structure. A little further north, in a plateau or moderately elevated ridge, the 
granitic rock appears in a hard and solid state; the forms of the blocks, however, 
when in mass wm s?tu, still preserving the angular and prismatic forms of the adja- 
cent greenstone and porphyry beds, and with the same dislocated and broken ap- 
pearance. 

I could not anywhere see any distinct junction of the granite with the greenstone 
and porphyry rocks ; nor did I observe veins or dykes proceeding from the granite, 
though possibly a longer search might have been more successful. 

The general result of the series of phenomena appeared to me to be the indication 
of a gradually increasing intensity of metamorphic action in proceeding north or 
north-westward in the direction of the peraat dip of the strata. The granitic 
rocks appeared in the position in which the lower beds of the greenstone slate 
would naturally be found, and there was no disturbance of a nature that would 
indicate the intrusion of the granite amongst beds previously formed. 

It is quite true that there is dislocation and fracture of the beds, both of the 
granitic and porphyritic rocks. But a dislocation exactly similar oceurs in the 
same beds of greenstone slate on the other or eastern flank of Black Comb, where 
there is no granite. In both cases this dislocation of the beds seems to be produced 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119 


by the wrapping of hard and rigid strata round the central mass of Black Comb. 
This formation alone would necessarily dislocate and fracture the beds of rock as 
we now see them. 

It appears therefore that the phenomena observed in the metamorphic and 
granitic rocks near Bootle may be accounted for without supposing the granitic 
rocks to have been intrusive, or attributing the metamorphic action in the slate 
rocks to the agency of the granite. 

We may consider Eskdale and Miterdale, taken together, to be a broad synclinal 
valley formed of the beds of the greenstone slate formation; that the beds now 
forming the lower or central portion of that valley were the lowest beds of the series, 
and were once covered up by a great thickness of the higher beds of this forma- 
tion, such as now form Sca Fell and other neighbouring mountains, and were con- 
sequently exposed to metamorphic action and converted into granite. The super- 
incumbent strata being afterwards denuded, the granite beds appeared on the sur- 
face as we now see them. On this explanation we must, of course, suppose the anti- 
clinal ridge of Black Comb, as well as the synclinal valley of Eskdale and Miterdale, 
to have been formed before the metamorphic action took place, and that hence the 
beds of rock in that ridge, and in the other boundaries of Eskdale above the level 
of the granite, were not buried sufliciently deep below the former surface to be 
strongly acted upon by the central heat. 

I may now perhaps venture to offer a few remarks and reasons in support of the 
opinion that there exist no sufficient grounds for separating granites, syenites, and 
other crystalline unstratified rocks generally, from the class of metamorphic rocks. 
I by no means wish to assert that there may not exist in certain localities true 
primeval eranite—portions of the original and first-formed crust of the earth, or 
that granite is not in innumerable instances an intrusive or eruptive rock im a cer- 
tain sense, and within certain limits. It may be impossible to prove the negative of 
the first supposition ; the second isundoubtedly true. But I am not called upon to 
dispute ane of these suppositions—both are compatible with the opinion I am 
supporting. For I think it is evident that we cannot suppose granite to exist in a 
fluid state underneath solid strata full of cracks, fissures, and fractures, and not 
perceive that, as a necessary consequence of its fluidity merely, the granite must 
penetrate and fill these cracks and fissures, and must have broken fragments or 
masses imbedded in its substance. 

In this penetration of solid strata by fluid granite, the granite may be perfectly 
passive. If true and constantly acting causes can be shown to exist, which must 
throw the solid crust of the earth into flexures and contortions, and produce frac- 
tures, cracks, and fissures, we have an explanation of the whole of the phenomena 
without supposing the granite to be in any way an active agent, 

It may be objected that we see fluid lava forced up to high levels and poured out 
from the sides of volcanos; and why may not granite at former periods have been 
subject to similar volcanic forces? Let us consider what are the necessary con- 
ditions of a volcanic eruption of lava. One invariable condition is the presence and 
violent liberation of yast volumes of highly compressed vapours or gases, which 
are evidently the active forces which drive up the lava and eject stones and ashes. 
Volcanos are situated on deep fissures in the earth’s crust, which admit air and 
water occasionally to great depths, where, being enclosed by accumulations from 
above and gradually and highly heated, their elastic tension at last is sufficient 
to force up fluid lava with which they may be in contact, or to blow out the 
ae materials which confine them in the shape of an eruption of stones and 
ashes. 
But all these phenomena are local, and limited in extent; the elastic vapours 
cannot act explosively unless they are entirely enclosed within the walls of solid 
strata, which afford the necessary resistance, and act indeed in the same manner as 
the sides of a closed vessel would do, There is no evidence accordingly that vol- 
canic vents pierce so deep as the seas of fluid granite which lie entirely under the 
solid crust of the earth. And if elastic vapours do exist in these subterranean oceans 
of fluid rock, as no confining walls can there exist, their pressure will be distributed 
equally in all directions and over large spaces, and there will be no tendency to 
force up fluid rock in one place rather than another. There is then, I think, aclear 


120 REPORT—1861. 


distinction between the intrusion of granite veins into surrounding rocks, produced 
merely by the weight of the superincumbent solid rocks forcing the granite into 
whatever cracks and fissures exist in them, and the forcible ejection of lava from 
volcanos. 

If it should be conceded that there is no evidence that granites are eruptive rocks, 
except passively as I have described—that there is no reason to attribute to them 
any active energy or force in elevating strata or raising mountain-chains, for the 
production of which effects we see other quite distinct and sufficient causes at work, 
it only remains to inquire whether there is any reason to doubt the sufficiency of 
the metamorphic action of heat, pressure, and moisture, followed by slow cooling, 
to produce granites and syenites, as well as gneiss, quartz, and mica-schist, out of 
sedimentary rocks ;—whether granites, speaking generally and on a broad scale, are 
not true metamorphic rocks zn situ in their natural position as regards other strata. 

For a reply to this inquiry, I would confidently appeal to the great strides lately 
made in the geology of primitive districts, such as the whole of the north of Scot- 
land, in proving that the strata until lately of unknown origin, in vast districts, are, 
as proved by Sir R. Murchison, our old acquaintance, the sedimentary rocks of the 
Silurian system in a metamorphic state. And when we see these metamorphic 
rocks running by insensible gradation in a thousand ways into granites, and inex- 
tricably mixed up with them, the positive evidence is strong indeed that the 
origin of all these rocks is similar ; and I think there is no negative evidence against 
this supposition. On the contrary, I think the remarkable progress making in the 
study of the formation of minerals and rocks under the joint influence of heat, pres- 
sure, and moisture, followed by slow cooling, the true metamorphic condition, is all 
fayourable to the position that granites and all similar crystalline rocks are 
generally to be classed as the last term of metamorphism. 

I am fully sensible that the slight amount of subject-matter of observation, or 
details of evidence contained in such a paper as this, make it of little more value 
than as a sort of pioneer in the field of inquiry—the suggestion of conclusions 
which can only be verified or disproved by evidence of varied character, and by 
much more extensive observations than I have been able to adduce. I shall be 
satisfied if it may in any way contribute to more valuable and conclusive investi- 


gation. 


On the Pleistocene Deposits of the District around Liverpool. 
By Grorce H. Morton, F.G.S, 


The author divides all the superficial accumulations of the district into the fol- 
lowing subdivisions :— 
Drift sand. 
Bluish silt. 
Submarine forests, 


| Post- Glacial. 
Upper drift sand. 


Average thickness 10 feet. 


Glacial. 


Ayerage thickness 100 feet. Boulder clay. 


Lower drift sand. 


The Lower drift sand is generally beneath the boulder clay where the latter is 
of any considerable thickness. It is seen to advantage in the cliffs on the shores 
of the Mersey, exhibiting nests or sperenes of gravel. There are shells: Turritella 
communis is common ; Nassa reticulata, Nucula oblonga ; fragments of Natica, Patella, 
and Tellina also occur. 

The Boulder clay is the dark-red clay extensively used for brick-making. It con- 
tains numerous pebbles and boulders, which vary in size from that of a pea to im- 
mense blocks six feet in diameter, many of them being striated and grooved by ice- 
action. They consist of quartz, granite, syenite, porphyry, greenstone, basalt, slate, 
limestone, and, rarely, of newred sandstone. The shell Zwrritella communis is com- 
mon, as in the underlying sands, JMactra truncata also occurs, with fragments of 
undetermined species. 

The Upper drift sand is of limited extent, but is well developed at the south-east 

the town. No trace of shells nor any pebbles have been found. 


Pleistocene deposits. 


eo 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121 


« Post-glacial deposits.—These are evidently of later age than those inland deposits 
such as at Leeds and Oxford, for no trace of the Elephant has been found. The 
only mammalian remains discovered, in addition to those now living in the neigh- 
bourhood, belong to Bos primigenius, Bos longifrons, and Cervus elaphus. Skulls, 
horns, and bones of these animals have been found in silt, associated with several 
submarine forest beds, which occur at various depths in different places in the neigh- 
bourhood. A section at the North Docks shows a submarine forest bed resting on 
the rock, at the depth of 35 feet below the high-water level of a 20-feet spring tide. 
A section beneath the Custom-house shows a similar bed with the trunks of trees 
29 feet, and another 40 feet, below a tide of the same height. A section across 
Wallasey Pool exhibits an old forest bed with remains of trees 39 feet below a 
similar tide. The sections were all seen during the construction of the docks. The 
Cheshire coast at Leasowe presents phenomena of the same kind, but with less ap- 
parent subsidence, being 3 feet at Leasowe Castle, and 8 feet at Dove Point. At 
the latter place there are two higher land surfaces divided by beds of silt. 

From these sections the author concluded that a subsidence of the land of nearly 
50 feet was indicated, and that it was uniform over its whole extent, a conclusion 
confirmed by observations in other places on the same coast. The differences in the 
amount of the depression shown by the several sections merely indicate the vary- 
ing elevation of the original surface. The subsidence of the lowest submarine 
forests probably caused a considerable extension of the river Mersey about the time. 
of the occupation of Great Britain by the Romans. The sinking of the old forest beds 
of Leasowe, Dove Point, and Formby is known to be within the historical period. 


Notes on two Ichthyosauri to be exhibited to the Meeting. 
By C. Moors, F.G.S, 


The vertebre, paddles, and other parts of the skeleton, —also the eye, the skin, the 
contents of the stomach, and even the ink-bag of the undigested cuttle-fish,—having 
been carefully exposed, by the careful manipulation of one of the nodules, the spe- 
cimens were exhibited by Mr. Moore in a developed state,—they having been exhi- 
bited at a previous Meeting at Cheltenham in an undeveloped state, on which occa- 
sion Mr. Moore promised to produce them at a future Meeting properly developed. 

- Another specimen commented upon was a nodule untouched, and represented a 
stone “mummy” of another Ichthyosaurus, upwards of five feet long, which Mr. 
Moore expected to find in a most perfect state of preservation when he could work 
it out. This, he believed he a also show, fed upon the cuttle-fish millions and 
millions of years ago. 


Information from Professor Harpincer respecting the Present State of the Im- 
perial Geological Institution of Vienna, (Communicated by Sir R. I. Mur- 
CHISON. ) 


Sir R. I. Murchison said, that important Institution was one of many which were 
very likely to have been abolished in the course of the changes which were going 
on in the empire of Austria. That excellent Institution was faa ded by his distin- 
guished friend Haidinger, one of the first mineralogists in Europe, who now wrote 
that the authorities having been changed, and public opinion having been expressed 
so strongly in favour of his Institution, the Government had conceded all the terms 
in favour of geological science which had been formerly granted, and the Imperial 
Pie Geological Institution of Vienna was reinstated upon its old foundation 
to) c 


_ Maps and Sections recently published by the Geological Survey, exhibited by 
Sir R. I. Murcutsoy. 


On a Dinosaurian Reptile (Scelidosaurus Harrisoni) from the Lower Lias of 
Charmouth. By Professor Owen, W.D., F.RS., GS. , 


The author said that the reptile of which he was about to speak belonged to the 
remarkable order exhibiting modifications of the reptilian structure as we now 


122 REPORT—1861. 


lmow it in crocodiles and lizards, as adapted for life on land. The evidences as to 


the order Dinosauria were first made known by the discoveries of Mantell and: 


Buckland, from examples found in this country. The remains had been found in 
the upper greensand deposits of our cretaceous system, h the Wealden, 
and (as regarded the Megalosaurus) as far down as the great oolitic system ; but 
until very recently that was the oldest formation from which any evidence of a 
Dinosaurian reptile had been the -property of science. Mr. Harrison, a retired 
medical gentleman residing at Charmouth on the Dorset coast, near the magni- 
ficent liassic cliffs that had afforded such rich evidences of marine reptilia, had 
devoted his leisure to the collection of fossil remains from those cliffs About 
three years ago, Mr. Harrison obtained, from a part of the cliff which was an upper 
member, if not the uppermost, of the Lower Lias, some fragments of limb-bones of 
so novel a character that he sent them to him (Professor Owen) for his opinion. 
He was surprised to receive such specimens from that locality and formation, seeing 
that the fragments presented unequivocal evidence of the Dinosaurian order, and of a 
species which, judging from the femur, was closely allied to the Iguanodon. Mr. 

airison was quickened in his researches by receiving a reply to this effect; he 
offered rewards to the quarrymen, and at length he became possessed of the most 
complete skeleton of a Dinosaurian reptile ever obtained from any formation or 
locality. Fortunately it was almost complete as-regarded the skull and dentition 
—a part of the osteology of the order which it was most desirous to know. Pre- 
ceding inquiries had only made us acquainted with the lower jaw of the Iguanodon, 
part of the lower jaw of the Megalosaurus and Hyleosaurus, together with some 
small obscure fragments of the upper jaw of the Iguanodon. Ass to the cranium, 
our knowledge was a blank until this happy discovery. The skull was entire, with 
the exception of the end of the snout; in fact, it was entire for all the purposes of 
the comparative anatomist. So were the neck and trunk vertebre, the sacrum, the 
ar and a great portion of the vertebre of the tail. The author described in 

etail the various portions of the skeleton, pointing out where they nearly re- 
semble those of the Iguanodon and the Megalosaurus. These descriptions, with 
ae would appear in the forthcoming volume of the Palzontographical 

lety. 


On the Remains of a Plesiosaurian Reptile (Plesiosaurus Australis) from the 
Oolitic Formation in the Middle Island of New Zealand. By Professor 
Owen, M.D. F.RS., F.GS. 


The author, premising a quotation from his ‘ Paleontology,’ that “the further 
we penetrate into time for the recovery of extinct animals, the further we must 
into space to find their existing analogues,” and that “in passing from the more 
tecent to the older strata, we soon obtain indications of extensive changes in the 
relative position of land and sea,” cited some striking examples in proof of these 
propositions from the reptilian class, The Mosasaurus of the cretaceous series 
occurs in that series in England, Germany, and the United States. The Polypty- 
chodon occurs in the same series at Maidstone and at Moscow. Toothless Lacertian 
reptiles have left their remains in triassic deposits at Elgin, in Shropshire, and at 
the Cape of Good Hope. Dicynodont reptiles occur in the same formation at the 
Cape and in Bengal. The Plesiosaurus, with a more extensive geological range 
through the Jurassic or oolitic series, has left representatives of its genus in those 
mesozoic strata in England and at her antipodes. Evidence of this extreme of 
geographical range had been submitted to Professor Owen by Mr. J. H. Hood, of 
Sydney, New South Wales, obtained by him from the Middle Island of New Zea- 
land. This evidence consisted of two vertebral bodies or centrums, ribs, and 
Eaeee of the two coracoids of the same individual, all in the usual petrified con- 

ition of oolitic fossils. Their matrix was a bluish-grey clay-stone, effervescing 
with acid; the largest mass contained impressions of parts of the arch and of the 
transverse processes of nine dorsal vertebre, and of ten ribs of the right side. 
Portions of five of the right diapophyses and of six of the ribs remained in this 
matrix. The bones had a ferruginous tint, contrasting with the matrix, as is 
commonly the case with specimens imbedded in the Oxfordian or liassie clays. 
The impression of the first diapophysis and of its rib show the latter to have been 


i 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123 


articulated By a simple head to its extremity, as in the Plesiosaurus; but the 
succeeding rib-had been pushed a little behind the end of its diapophysis, and the 
same kind of dislocation had placed the five following ribs with their articular ends 
opposite the interspaces of their diapophyses. The ninth rib had nearly resumed 
its proper position a the end of the diapophysis, but at some distance from 
it; the impression of the tenth rib shows the normal relative position of the pleur- 
and diapophyses. The ribs are solid, of compact texture, cylindrical, slightly 
curved, the fragments looking more like coprolites than bone; they are about an 
inch in diameter, with but small intervals of, say, one-third of an inch, slightly ex- 
ae as they recede from the transverse process, and slightly contracting to the 
ower end. The first, terminating in an obtuse end of 3 an inch diameter, is 7 inches 
long; the second is 8 inches long; the third is 8} inches; the fourth rib is 9 inches 
long. The extremities of the others are broken off with the matrix. The sepa- 
rated fossils sent from New Zealand included the mesial coadjusted ends of a pair 
of long and broad bones, thickest where they were united, and becoming thinner 
as they extended outwards, and also towards the fore and hind parts of the bone, 
both of which ends were broken away. On one side the surface of the bone is 
convex lengthwise, and slightly concave transversely. On the opposite side the 
contour undulates lengthwise, the surface being concave, then rising to a convexity, 
where a protuberance has been formed by part of the coadjusted mesial margins of 
the bone; transversely:this surface is slightly concave. A similar but less deve- 
loped median prominence is seen at the middle of the medially united margins of 
the coracoids in the Plesiosaurus Hawkinsii, and the author regards the above- 
described parts of the New Zealand fossils as being homologous bones. But a more 
decided evidence of the Plesiosaurian nature of this antipodeal fossil is afforded by 
the vertebral centrums. They have flat articular ends, with two large and two 
small venous foramina beneath. The neurapophysial surfaces, showing the per- 
sistent independence of the neural arch, are separated from the costal surfaces by 
about half the diameter of the latter. These are of a full oval figure, 1 inch 3 lines 
in vertical, and 1 inch in fore-and-aft diameter. On one side of one of the centrums 
the rib has coalesced with the costal surface. The following are the dimensions of 
this centrum :—Length linch 9 lines, depth 2 inches 2 lines, breadth of articular 
end 8 inches 6 lines. The non-articular part of the centrum offers a fine silky 
character. The shape and mode of articulation of the cervical and dorsal ribs, the 
shape and proportions of the coracoids concur with the more decisive evidence of 
the vertebre in attesting the Plesiosauroid character of these New Zealand fossils, 
and, pending the discovery of the teeth, the author provisionally referred them to 
a en for which he proposed the name of Plesiosaurus Australis. The specimens 
had been presented by Mr. Hood to the British Museum. 


On certain Markings in Sandstones. By W. Parrerson. 


On a new Bone-cave at Brixham. By W. Pencetxy, F.G.S. 


This cayern (a second new one) was discovered in March last ; it is rich in fossil 
bones; and the district in which it exists has become famous in connexion with 
these caverns. The town of Brixham occupies a valley running nearly east and 
west, which is separated from Torbay on the north by a limestone hill, known as 
Furzeham Common, 150 feet above the sea, while the southern boundary consists 
of four hills forming a chain parallel to that on the north, but extending a mile 
further eastward, where it terminates in Berry Head, the southern horn of Torbay. 
In Windmill Hill, the second (from the west) of the four, the celebrated cavern 
was discovered in 1858; and in the third is the well-known Ash Hole, Aftera ces- 
sation of upwards of twenty years, quarrying operations had been partially resumed 
at Bench, on the Torbay slope of Furzeham Hill ; and these led to the discovery of the 
new cave. The quarry is being worked at right angles to the coast-line. Near 
the top of the west or back wall, and near the angle formed by the junction with 
the south wall, there is a dyke of breccia, made up of bones, reddish clayey earth, 
and angular pieces of limestone, evidently from the adjoining rock. The earth is 
precisely aie to that in which the bones are found imbedded in the other Torbay 


124 REPORT—186]1. 


caverns. The base of the breccia is on the same level as the bone-bed in the Wind- 
mill Hill Cavern; and there can be no doubt it filled, either wholly or partly, a 
north and south fissure. Nearly the whole of the dyke was revealed during the old 
quarrying operations. In the exposed face there were visible several fine bones; 
but even a remarkably fine left ramus of a lower jaw bristling with teeth, of the Cave 
Hyzna, not only did not attract the attention of the workmen at the time, but it 
remained unobserved for twenty-two years. Soon after quarrying was resumed, in 
March last, the removal of the remnant of the outer wall caused a portion of the dyke 
to fall. Numerous bones were now so conspicuous amongst the earth and stones, 
that the principal workmen soon collected several hundreds, consisting of teeth, jaws, 
skulls, vertebre, and portions of horns, with a large quantity of unidentifiable bone- 
débris. There is no probability that the so-called dyke formed originally portion of 
a mass filling a cavern, great part of which was destroyed by the workmen twenty 
years ago, for in the neighbourhood it was known that cave bones would fetch good 
prices. In fact, the handwriting of the departed limestone was visible on the breccia 
sheet that had been so long exposed. Near the southern foot of the dyke is the 
mouth of a small tunnel, with a stalagmitic floor; its extentis not known. In the 
southern wall of the quarry are two large chambers, filled with the reddish earth 
and limestone débris; they are known to be connected, but it is not known whe- 
ther they communicate with the tunnel; it is exceedingly probable, however, that 
they are all parts of one considerable cavern. All the materials of the dyke un- 
doubtedly fell, or were washed in from above ; giving a good example of what pro- 
bably occurred at Orestone, near Plymouth, where observed phenomena compel the 
belief that the fossil bones must in this way have found ingress to the cavern, 
though lines of fissure are not always very distinct there. The owner had now 
decided to explore the chambers and tunnel himself; but although he had declined 
to sell the right so to do, he had always given the author access, had promised to 
enable him to note every fact discovered, and he had also lent the exhibited speci- 
mens. There is a great field for exploration at Brixham. It is to be hoped that 
quarrymen may not in future be oibead to their own interests as to lay open a 
dyke of osseous breccia without discovering that they have done so; and that a 
proprietor will not, as in a case within the author’s Inowledge, admit that he had 
filled up a cavern, which he called “a large hole in the rock,” by “throwing 
twenty cartloads of rubbish into it.” 


On the Recent Encroachments of the Sea on the Shores of Torbay. 
By W. Prncetty, F.G.S. 


Hard Devonian limestones, fissile and jointed, formed, the author said, the two 
sail horns of Torbay. Sandstones and conglomerates form the hollow of the 
ay, and have been much worn away within the memory of man, especially at 
Livermead, which is only preserved by continual engineering labour. The process 
of erosion by the sea was explained by the author as something like a succession of 
honeycombing, sometimes by insulation of portions of the cliffs. On the slates and 
limestones the sea more slowly produced excavations, which storms enlarge. The 
effects of the severe storm of October 1859 on the clifis, beach, roads, &c. of Torbay 
were described in detail, and the importance of such storms as modern agents of 
change was dwelt upon. 


On the Relative Age of the Petherwin and Barnstaple Beds. 
By W. Prnecetty, F.G.S. 

In a papet on the Chronological and Geographical Distribution of the Devonian 
Fossils of Devon and Cornwall*, read before this Section last year at Oxford, I 
expressed the provisional opinion that there was not sufficient evidence to war- 
rant the chronological separation of the Petherwin and Barnstaple beds. More 
recently I have reconsidered the question, and have found reasons for changing my 
opinion, 


* See ‘Report’ for 1860, p. 91. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125 


The fossils recorded as occurring in the two areas are as shown in the following 
Table. 


Taste I, 


Petherwin. 


Genera. | Species. 


EM esc ROUISS o08's cose» 3 3 
BRIGPHTLGMETINALA’ eh Cele asl’ lel els bus oe cs iL a| 
POPIRPHCOD Ta. cai ceca biel ciw Welscg's 0s aS 2 2 
by (ey 0): S000 0 HS ol ero ae sleds 2 2 
Brachiopoda..... Meenas Sr lgreitieS delete’ 7 20 
Lamellibranchiata ........secccceees ie 14 
Gasteropoda .........cece0e SoIpuEO GbE 6 9 
PEMPEMEED ewes ac ccecsscectecess 5 21 

ROUEN OMe cee st earls ete 33 72 


Assuming the higher antiquity of the South Devon and contemporary beds, it 
follows that the fossils common to it and Petherwin, or Barnstaple, or both, were 
contributions from it to them, Regarded thus, the populations of the two areas 
were made up as below. 


TaBLE II, 
Petherwin. Barnstaple. 
Species. Species. 
BM BTIAD So oc cice chia « ne oc eae 1 1 
Lower Devonian ............ 15 13 
Wew. (peenliar)... 040/05... Sale 44 50 
New (common)......... tei 12 12 
Carboniferous......... SBEWeE 3 16 


By “peculiar” is meant such species as, in England, are found in Petherwin or 
Barnstaple only; “Common” marks those found in both, but not elsewhere in 
British Devoman rocks; and “Carboniferous” is used to designate the species 
common to deposits of that age and Petherwin, or Barnstaple, or both, exclusive 
of six found also in Lower Devonian deposits. The “Carboniferous” figures in 
Table Il. are not in addition to the previous numbers; the totals (72 and 76) are, 
of course, complete without them. 

In order to show the relative value of the figures just given, the following Table 
has been calculated on the method of putting each total (72 and 76) equal to 
1000, and equating the figures in Table IL. to it, 


TasLe III, 


Petherwin. Barnstaple. 


Species, Species. 
Silurian...... aieeitacccueene ae 14. 18 
Lower Devonian ............ 208 171 
New (peculiar)...... shetsLalep sale 611 658 
New (common). ..... ne biGiege 167 158 
Carboniferous. .......0e0e00 181 211 


A glance at the Table shows that, of the two, Petherwin is the nearest to the 
Lower Devonian horizon, and the most remote from the Carboniferous. 

The fossils of the two areas belong to forty-six genera, of which thirty-three are 
represented by the Petherwin, and thirty-four by the Barnstaple series ; twenty- 


126 ‘ REPORT—1861. 


one are common to both: hence twelve are peculiar to the first, and thirteen to the 
last area. 

The forty-six genera may be divided into two groups: namely, Ist, those charac- 
terized by a considerable maximum specific variety or development before or after 
Petherwin and Barnstaple times; and 2nd, those that are not thus distinguished. 

The first of these groups (which alone we have to consider here) contains thirty- 
one genera, of which six may be said to belong to the past, and twenty-five to the 
future; the age of Petherwin and Barnstaple being the chronological stand-point. 

The “future” division (the only one. sufficiently numerous to be of service in 
this inquiry) consists of two series: namely, Ist, those. genera which are equally 
represented in the two sets of beds; and. 2nd, those that.are not. Evidently the 
latter series alone can supply information.on the. present. question... It is made u 
of the fifteen genera named in the following Table, in which the columns heade 
P. B. C. exhibit the number of species belonging to each genus which occur in 
the Petherwin, Barnstaple, and British Carboniferous beds respectively. 


TaBLE IV, 

Genera. ip B. 

AOMORI Se sev iray cele ofise > at i sic 
CyatDOCMOHS are teins sinh oat 1 3 
i Eg ciirigs) ach) Rane el wt 1 
Gilaweconome ss. ee...) eteye o, 50s ; 1 
Meéenéstella’. 3 eng. Sek coke bee 1 %, 
(GHONGtOS sate soa lestre dee 2 
TOUUCUUIS Seb at's & sv cis oats oe 1 3 
Modtola nec fe cade gals ee dees i ite 
AKIN Hee eek bah coh ee eens 1 s, 
@ypricardia: ten. pect ao 1 
Nagle? oS Be tin oe oe he 4 
Sanguinolites. . 2.0.5... see 4 2 
TiGROMETIG ay ye ER wee «ote 3 a 
Maerocheilusi, iii). wets ale o's os 1 
INGEUEUELUES 1% ashe Peete oc nememarclitets 1 . 
Motala ow. Gs. eeev MeN 10 19 


From the Table we learn that nine of these genera are found in Barnstaple and 
not in Petherwin, or are more largely represented in the former than in the latter ; 
and that nineteen species represent the ten genera found in the former area, whilst 
no more than ten the eight genera of the latter. Hence the genera, like the 
species, suggest that the Barnstaple beds are somewhat more modern than those 
of Petherwin, 

We are prepared, by even a slight acquaintance with the geographical distribu- 
tion of existing organisms, to find that deposits strictly contemporary, lithologically 
similar, and closely connected geographically, have certain fossils peculiar to each. 
But unless we recognize time as a factor, it will be difficult to explain the facts that 
Petherwin and Barnstaple have together yielded as many as 151 species of fossils, 
yet have no more than seventeen in common; that the fossils belong to forty-six 
genera, of which twenty-five are restricted to one or other of the two areas, having 
amongst them the rich genus Clymenia with its eleven species, all closely con- 
fined, in Britain, to Petherwin, yet occurring in Continental Europe; that the 
remaining twenty-one genera are represented, in the two areas, by eighty-six 
species ; ‘hut the representatives are rarely identical in the two sets of beds, the 
peculiar being to the common as 69 to 17, that is about 4to 1, Contend that these 
beds are strictly contemporary, and the facts remain to puzzle; grant but the 
lapse of time, and, at least, part of the difficulty disappears, and thereby furnishes 
an argument in favour of the opinion now advocated, 

Returning for a moment to Tables I. and III, it will be seen that the Barn- 
staple beds have a smaller number of species in common with the Lower Devonian 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127 


and even the Petherwin beds, than with the Carboniferous; hence they may be 
considered as belonging rather to the last than to the Devonian series, or possibly 
they may have to be regarded as “‘ Passage beds’’ between them. 


On the Age of the Granites of Dartmoor. By W. Prnextty, F.GS. 


It has long been well known that the Dartmoor granites haye sent veins into 
the culmiferous rocks of North and Central Devon, and that the latter are much 
bent and contorted, probably by the intrusion of the former*; consequently the 
granites are more aa than the rocks they have thus invaded and disturbed. 

Geologists, however, are by no means agreed respecting the age of the granites 
telatively to that of the deposits of the county more modern than the culmiferous 
beds, Sir H. De la Beche regards them as more ancient than the red conglomerates 
and sandstones of South Devon, but says, “The evidence is not always so clear as 
could be desired ; for among all the pebbles of the red conglomerate extending from 
Torbay to Exeter, we have not been able to detect any portion of it, though the 
granite ranges so near that part of the red conglomerate. In the tongue of red 
sandstone and conglomerate which runs from Crediton by North Tawton and Samp- 
ford Courtney to Jacobstow, we have, however, detected pebbles like some varieties 
of Dartmoor granite}.”’ This is certainly not a very pronennegt opinion in favour 
of this evidence; in another place, however, he speaks somewhat more decidedly 
in favour of the pebbles{; but he appears to base his chronological opinion mainly 
on the fact that the red sandstone series are found resting quietly on the basset 
edges of the upturned culmiferous beds§. 

Mr. Godwin-Austen, however, is of a different opinion, “ Asno granite pebbles,” 
he says, “have been found among the various materials of which the new red con- 
glomerate is composed, we may conclude that at the period of its accumulation the 
granite of Dartmoor could not have been exposed, particularly when we bear in mind 
that the two formations are at present separated only by the valley of the Teign. 

“The beds of the Greensand of the Haldons and the Bovey Valley, in the thin 
mica, sharp quartzose crystals and seams of felspar, suggest that they may have re- 
sulted from a decomposed granite district; but here, again, although fragments of 
all the older rocks occur in the conglomerate beds at the base of the Greensand, 
granitic pebbles are altogether wanting; nor do we meet with them until we arrive, 
in ascending order, at those superficial accumulations which cap the Haldons. Pos- 
sibly, then, the rise of the granite of Dartmoor in its present form may belong to a 
period comparatively modern ||”. : 

Happening a few years ago to be at North Tawton, I mentioned the subject to 
Mr. Winn. Vicary, then resident there, who at once took me to the conglomerate, 
and in a very few minutes extracted two or three pebbles, which we both regarded 
as of Dartmoor derivation. Whether they were strictly granite in the technical 
sense of the word may possibly be questioned; and it is certain that much of the 
gianitic mass of Dartmoor will not pass muster as true graniteG ; but that the pebbles 
ound at North Tawton were of Dartmoor extraction, and can be matched by thousands 
in the rivulets and torrent-courses of the Moor, I haye no manner of doubt, 

In August 1861 I met Mr, Vicary at Exeter, where he now resides, and again 
spoke of the Tawton pebbles. He informed me that he had found unmistakeable gra- 
nite pebbles in the red conglomerate at the base of Haldon, a well-known hill about 
five miles south of Exeter. He also informed me that since his discovery his 
attention had been called to the fact that Mr. Brice, in his ‘History of Exeter,’ 
mentions the occurrence of pebbles of granite in the red conglomerate at Haldon**, 

We at once started for the spot, and passing through Alphington and Kennford, 


* Sir H. De la Beche’s “ Report,” p. 165; Professor Sedgwick and Sir R. I. Murchison 
in Geol. Trans. vol. v. pt. 38. p. 686-7; Mr. Godwin-Austen, Geol. Trans. vol, yi. pt. 2. 
p. 477; and Mr. Ormerod in Quart. Journ, Geol. Soe. vol. xy. p. 492. 

+ Report, p. 166. 

t Mem. Geol. Survey, vol. i. p. 228. 

§ Report, p. 166; see also ‘Geol. Observer,’ p. 648. 

|| Geol. Trans. vol. vi. pt. 2. p. 478. 

{| See Sir H. De la Beche’s “ Report,” p. 158. 

** History of Exeter, by Thomas Brice, 1802, p. 114. 


128 REPORT—1861. 


and leaving the great road from Exeter to Plymouth, on the right, for that which 


passes over Haldon, in a more easterly direction, to Newton Bushel, reached our: 

round about five miles and a half from Exeter. Mr. Vicary at once pointed out 
in the red conglomerate one or two well-marked fragments of the true Dartmoor 
series of rocks, but so far disintegrated that it was impossible to extract them in 
their integrity; a further search was soon rewarded with several less perishable 
specimens, and amongst them representatives of each of the three kinds of granite 
described by Mr. Godwin-Austen as ocewring on Dartmoor: there were samples of 
schorlaceous granite, porphyritic granite, and elvan*. On our way back to Exeter 
we detected several well-marked specimens near Peamore, about two miles and a 
half from the city. 

Though granite pebbles may not have been met with in the conglomerates and 
sandstones of Torbay, it by no means follows that these rocks are destitute of Dart- 
moor detritus. Every one who has paid attention to these sandstones must be well 
aware that in many cases they are eminently micaceous—doubtless a result of the 
destruction of a large amount of pre-existing rock, such as granite, of which mica 
was aconstituent. Nor is it difficult to understand that whilst boulders and pebbles 
might be unable to force a passage to what is now the South Devon seaboard, com- 
ey small thin flakes of mica might succeed in accomplishing the journey. 

e may have here an indication that the direction of the prevailing and powerful 
currents was not eastward, but north-east and northerly—not from Dartmoor to the 
coast of South Devon, but towards Haldon and North Tawton. 

The granites of Dartmoor, then, are limited in age, on the side of antiquity by the 
culmiferous beds of Devon, and on the modern side by the red conglomerates: 
what is the place of these in the chronological scheme of the geologist ? "The answer 
has long been given respecting the first: “The upper division of the culmiferous 
beds contains fossils identical with those in the upper division of the coal-measures}.” 
But the age of the conglomerates is less easily determined. That they belong to the 
New Red Sandstone there can be no doubt, since they are above the Upper Coal- 
measures and underlie the Lias ; but whether Upper or Lower New Red, that is, Tri- 
assic or Permian, is not so certain as could be wished. They are entirely destitute of 
fossils, excepting such only as occur in the pebbles. The sandstones are evidently 
of littoral origin ; their surfaces frequently display fossil sea-ripples, sun-cracks, and 
impressions of rain-drops ; but no footprints or organic traces have ever been detected 
on them; there are no paleontological indications of their age. 

More than one eminent geologist has been struck by the aneular character of 
the fragments composing the conglomerates (more correctly breccias), and has 
remarked that, in its physical character and general appearance, the formation is 
rather Permian than Triassic. It is, as is well known, coloured in our geological 
maps as on the horizon of the Lower Trias. The granite pebbles of Haldon may 
perhaps go far to confirm this decision. 

Whatever may be our opinions respecting the origin of granite, whether we hold 
it to be a strictly igneous or a thermo-aqueous product, an original or a superim- 
sto phase of rock existence, there is probably no doubt that it was formed in 

lutonic depths, a hypogene formation requiring enormous pressure for its elabo- 
ration, 

Mx. Sorby estimates the pressure under which the St. Austel granite was formed 
as equivalent to that of 32,400 feet of rock{. He gives no estimate for Dartmoor, 
but we shall probably not exceed the truth in taking this, his lowest Cornish estimate, 
which gives us a pressure equivalent to that of a pile of rock six miles in thickness ; 
but as the pressure was probably due to the expanding power of some agency acting 
beneath or within the granitized mass, requiring resistance and not pressure, 
strength and not weight in the overlying crust, we may content ourselves with a 
small fraction of this. Still there must have been a crust of very great thickness at 
and after the close of the Carboniferous period, or the granitic form could not have 
been assumed by the mass beneath ; and this crust must have been stripped off and 
the granite laid bare before the era of the accumulation of the red conglomerates, or 


* Geol. Trans. vol. vi. pt. 2. p. 477. 
t Prof. Sedgwick and Sir R. I. Murchison in Geol. Trans. vol. v. pt. 3. p. 687, 
t Quart, Journ, Geol, Soc. vol, xiy. p. 494. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 129 


no pebble could have found its way to Haldon. Evenif some paroxysm be supposed 
to have uplifted the granite in a solid state, so as to shiver the overlying crust and 
thereby to facilitate the work of denudation, still the time required, even thus, appears 
to be so very great, so completely overwhelming, so entirely incapable of compres- 
sion, that it is impossible to regard the red conglomerate as belonging to the Per- 
mian formation, the representative of the period next succeeding the Carboniferous. 
Indeed if we conceive of the Dartmoor granite being called into existence, as such, 
at or subsequent to the close of the Carboniferous period, and laid bare prior to the 
era of the Se Trias, and that, during the interim, a pile of rocks of considerable 
thiclmess, covering an area of 200 square miles, had been stripped off, we get a rough 
yet overwhelming measure of the chronological interval, the Permian period, 

The facts of the case appear to require the helief— ; 

1st. That the Dartmoor granite is not older, at most, than the close of the Car- 
boniferous period. 

2nd. That it was exposed at the earth’s swface when the materials of the red 
conglomerate were being accumulated. 

3rd. That the conglomerates are not of higher antiquity than the Lower Trias. 

4th. That the Permian period was one of great duration. 


Notice of the Post-glacial Gravels of the Valley of the Thames. 
By Professor Purxirs. 


On the Gold of North Wales. By 'T, A. Reapwin, F.G.S. 


The author confined his observations in this paper to an area of about twenty square 
miles, situated north of the turnpike road leading from Dolgelly to Barmouth, 
Professor Ramsay has ably described the geology of this district in a communica- 
tion to the Geological Society of London in 1854, entitled “The Geology of the 
Gold-bearing Districts of Merionethshire.” The Dolgelly district is bounded by 
the river Mawddach, the great Merioneth anticlinal range, and the little river 
Camlan. In this district are found the Cambrians, overlaid by the Lower Silurian 
Lingulas. The Cambrian rocks are coarse greenish-grey grits, and the Lingula-flags 
are arenaceous slaty beds, interstratified with courses of sandstone. Caleareous 
and greenstone dykes frequently penetrate both the Cambrian and the Silurian rocks, 
The metalliferous products are chiefly argentiferous galena, copper pyrites, blende, 
manganese, and mundic, associated frequently with gold. According to Sir Rk, 
Murchison, “the most usual position of gold is in quartzose veinstones that traverse 
altered palzeozoic slates, frequently near their junction with eruptive rocks, whether 
of igneous or of aqueous origin, The stratified rocks of the highest antiquity, such 
as the oldest gneiss or quartz rocks, have seldom borne gold; but the sedimentary 
accumulations which followed, or the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous (parti- 
cularly the first of these three), have been the deposits which, in the tracts where 
they haye undergone a metamorphosis or change of structure, by the influence of 
igneous agency or other causes, have been the chief sources whence gold has been 
derived.” After referring to the opinion of Professor Ramsay that gold in the Ural 
Mountains, Australia, &c. occurred in rocks of a similar age and character, the 
author stated that Sir R. Murchison’s statement is singularly corroborated by the 
position of the quartzose vein in the Clogau Mine, distinguished as the “Gold Lode,” 
which traverses altered paleozoic slates near the junction of an eruptive bar of 
porphyritic greenstone ; and the same law appears to obtain also with respect to all 

old-bearing quartzose veins of the Dolgelly district, upon the ores of which he 

ad made a very large number of experiments during the past eight years. There 
are in this district about twenty localities in which gold has been discovered visible 
in quartz, or associated more or less with galena, blende, copper-pyrites, telluric 
bismuth, carbonate of lime, schist, baryta, iron-pyrites, &c. By far the richest dis- 
coveries of gold have been made at the Dol-y-frwynog, Prince of Wales, Cambrian, 
and the Clogau mines. Gold has also been found in the “ Marine drift” by the 
Hon. F, Walpole, Sir Augustus Webster, the author, and others, a piece of which was 
exhibited. Mr. Arthur Dean, in a paper read before the British Association in 1844, 
stated that a complete system of auriferous veins exists throughout the whole of 
the Snowdonian or Lower Silurian formations of North Wales. Upon the faith of 

ros re. “9 ; 


1861. 


130 REPORT—1861. 


this, much money was spent at the Cwmheisian mines, and very little gold obtained 
by smelting operations, for reasons which are now not very difficult to understand. 
Much money was also spent about ten years afterwards at the same place, after 
setting the most eminent assayers to work, to prove the truth of Mr, Dean’s state- 
ment, in erecting machinery, which produced even less gold by amalgamation than 
the former method. Although it was then held as an axiom that gold always 
exists in a metallic state, that mercury has always an affinity for gold, and therefore, 
wherever gold is present in minerals, mercury will necessarily dissolve it, in this 
instance, however, it did not prove the case, and the result of operations upon 150 
tons came at length to be considered as an enigmatical failure, as the following 
extracts from the experiments made at the time will show. Here followed a 
detailed account of experiment No.7, made on 43 tons of metalliferous minerals 
which were triturated in 42 lbs. of mercury. Ten ree of this on distillation gave 
70 grains residual metal, containing 18-4 grains of gold. A qualitative analysis of 
this residual metal gave gold, silver, lead, bismuth, zine, arsenic, and also traces of 
copper and iron, The distilled mercury contained traces only of zinc and arsenic, 
It had been proved before the experiment, and also since, that the 43 tons of mine- 
ral contained several ounces of the “ Royal metal,” but the quicksilver neglected it 
for associates of less dignity, though intrinsically of more real utility. This, how- 
ever, was not the result expected. At the Dol-y-frwynog mine, about two years 
afterwards, Sir Charles Price operated similarly upon several tons of material, but 
with the same provoking failure as before. At present the Clogau mine is the 
most interesting and profitable. It stands at an elevation of 1000 feet above the 
level of the sea. The “Saint David’s” or “Gold Lode” is the most remarkable 
feature. After giving some descriptions of this mine, he desired to notice espe- 
cially that this lode is at the junction of the Cambrian sandstones and the Lingula 
flags of the Lower Silurian rocks. A quantity of what was called “poor copper 
ore ” was raised from this lode and sold many years since; but in 1854 the refuse 
of this “ poor copper ore ” was examined, and indications of native gold in con- 
siderable quantities were found. Some of this refuse ore was put to the test, and 
in one instance, to his knowledge, 100 Ibs. weight yielded 143 ounces of gold. Many 
other experiments have been made by various persons with equal success; but 
owing to the uncertainty of the operation of amalgamation on the one hand, and 
the mines themselves being subject to two Chancery suits on the other, the general 
value of the lode, in bulk, has not until recently been determined. After some 
observations on the processes of assay—which he did not think would give the 
approximate value of auriferous minerals, notwithstanding that the contrary had been 
asserted by many eminent men—he referred to a series of thirteen experiments made 
by himself last autumn upon 112 pounds of auriferous quartz from the Clogau mine, 
duly prepared and aeaaden by Johnson and Son, of London. The whole quantity gave 
25 02. 16 dwts. 7 grains of amalgam, and of fine gold, 8 oz. 5 dwts. 19 grains. An 
authority in such matters had declared the value of the gold by assay to be £9 per 
ewt., while he declared it to be £30; in the latter case samples of 7 Ibs. each, instead. 
of the usual 400 grains, had been operated on. He would now state the result of 
actual working operations for gold at the Clogau mine since the beginning of the 
year. This statement showed that 207 tons 8 cwt. of quartz gave 1314 oz. of fine 
gold; 3 tons of the best of this quartz gave no less than 976°6 oz. of gold. If 
they added 56 ounces obtained from 5 tons in 1860, it showed a total quantity of 
1370 ounces of gold from 212 tons of auriferous mineral, being at the rate of 63 
ounces per ton. This, he believed, was the first instance of a hundredweight of 
gold having been obtained from the crown lands of this country, the value of which 
was £5300. This “Royal Mine” paid a royalty of =; to the crown. The cost of 
extraction had been very inconsiderable, and there was a probability of an equal 
yield of gold for some time to come. 

a The total amount raised from this lode to 19th May, 1862, is three hundred- 
weight. 


On the Details of the Carboniferous Limestone, as laid open by the Railway 
Cutting and Tunnel near Almondsbury, north of Bristol. By — Ricwarp- 
son, C.E. (Communicated by Sir R, Murcutson.) : 
Geologists obtained a great deal of yery available and useful knowledge from the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 131 


examination of the cuttings and tunnels in railroads; and they had not of late years 
derived more information from a single cutting than that to which he would point 
their attention. There was a branch railway making from Bristol, from the Great 
Western line, and which was to traverse the Severn. In making this traverse, it 
was necessary to cross a ridge of limestone near Almondsbury, the railroad cutting 
through the carboniferous limestone. In one part strata were subject to very great 
contortions. In some parts there were broken bands of coal, thrown about in an 
extraordinary way. The whole of the highly inclined strata were surmounted by 
new red sandstone. It was remarkable that there was in this cutting an enormous 
amount of calcareous and other grits which seemed to form a regular part of the 
mountain limestone, There were also large red masses, evidently formed by con- 
cretion. 
Sir R. Murchison exhibited a detailed diagram prepared by Mr. Richardson, 
and, haying visited the‘locality, explained the chief phenomena to the Section, 
romising that the tract should be examined carefully by one of the Geological 
uryeyors. 


On the Nature of Sigillarie, and on the Bivalve Shells of the Coal. 
By J. W. Satrer, A.LS., F.GS. 


The object of the communication was to describe some specimens of Sigillaria 
which have the appearance of having grown in water, inasmuch as they have the 
stem swelled at short intervals, and show scars like those of the rootlets of Stig- 
maria at these swollen varices. The scars in question appear between the ridges on 
which the rows of leaf-scars are arranged, and terminate where the swelling ceases. 
Such swellings are seen in several fine specimens, in the Manchester Museum, of 
Sig. (Favularia) tessellata, S. nodosa, and S. hexagona. 

That the Sigillarie grew in water has long been the opinion of Mr. Binney (1840), 
and (independently) also of Professor H. Rogers (1842). The tracks of large 
worms in the sediment, the spiral annelides (Spirorbis), and the very frequent in- 
termixture of undoubted sea-shells, have led the former author to speculate freely 
on their growth in sea-water. And the presence of very salt water in coal-mines, 
and of ae in all coal, as Dr. Percy affirms, is a confirmation of this belief. 

The freshwater character of the coal-growths has been assumed chiefly from the 
occurrence of shells like Unio in it (Anthracosia of King), These, however, differ 
in some important particulars from true Unio, and they are found associated with 
shells (Anthracomya) which appear, from their wrinkled epidermis, to be-related 
to the Myade. They occur, too, though much less frequently, with true marine 
forms, Productus, Spirifer, &c., in the ironstones; and one, the common Anthra- 
cosia acuta, is even found in the mountain limestone shale, where the fossils are all 
marine. 


On the Granitic Rocks of Donegal, and the Minerals associated therewith, 
By R. H. Scorr, M.A. 


The author gave a short account of a mineralogical tour made by him, in com- 
pany with Professor Haughton, in the course of the summer, the results of which 
seemed to throw some light on the possible origin of granite. The district visited 
was Donegal, which county consists mainly of gneiss and mica-slate, and is traversed 
in aN.E. direction by an axis of granite. This granite is of a peculiar composition, 
containing two felspars, one orthose, and the other, not albite, as in the granite of 
the Mourne mountains, but oligoclase—a mineral whose occurrence in the British 
Islands had only been noticed within the last twelve months. Professor Haughton, 
to whom this discovery is due, was unfortunately unable to attend the Meeting. 
The facts were briefly these:—The granite contains oligoclase and quartz, which 
combination appears to be a proof that the rock never was in a melted condition, 
as in that case these two minerals would have acted on each other and formed com- 
mon felspar. It lies in beds corresponding to the general lie of the strata of the 
country, and in its character is essentially gneissose ; and, lastly, at points inside 
the area of the granite, metamorphic rocks (limestones and slates) are found with 


Q* 


132 REPORT—1861. 


their bedding, which is nearly vertical, unchanged. The condition of these rocks is 
very similar to that of the same rocks outside the granite area; and it is a point of 
great interest to determine how they got there. The solution of this offered by the 
author of the paper was that the whoie of the rocks had been originally stratified, 
and had been subjected to some actions which are termed metamorphic. The result 
of such action was to conyert some into granite, some into gneiss, and some into cry- 
stalline limestone and mica-schist,withoutvery much altering their relative positions. 
The possibility of granite being produced by other means than simple heat seemed to 
them to be proved by the occurrence of felspar in quartz veins, which are usuall 
admitted to have been filled by means of infiltration. The author stated that there 
were several points in connexion with these granites which showed a close relation 
between them and the granites of Norway. The whole question required a careful 
chemical and mineralogical examination, which could not be concluded for some 
time. Among the types of rock found in Donegal is a syenite, the felspar of which 
is oligoclase. The origin of this rock the authors are disposed to attribute to the 
addition of limestone to the granite. A similar syenite occurs at Carlingford, but 
contains anorthite, a felspar which would result from the admixture of a larger 
quantity of limestone than is necessary to produce oligoclase, and has been proved 
by eats Haughton to have such an origin. The anorthite syenite never occurs 
unless limestone is present in large excess, which is not the case in Donegal. In 
conclusion, Mr. Scott mentioned that the district described by him was very rich in 
minerals, some of which were extremely rare, and that he entertained no doubt that 
a more careful examination would largely increase their number. 


On the Elsworth Rock, and the Clay above it. By Harry Surrey, 


The Elsworth rock is a limestone somewhat oolitic and pyritous, divided by a 
dark clay into upper and lower beds characterized by different fossils. At the vil- 
lage of Elsworth the entire thickness is not more than 14 feet, a thickness which a 
well-sinking three miles 8.8.W. showed it still to retain. The dip being in this 
direction, and of about 1 foot in 200, it followed that another stone band found at 
St. Ives, 43 miles north, would be 130 feet lower down. This rock, at a point 
midway between St. Ives and Elsworth, was found in a well to be some 6 feet thick ; 
at St. Ives what remains of it is rather thicker. It is more earthy than the Els- 
worth beds, has similar fossils, and is often divided by a thin parting of clay. At 
Bluntisham, two miles N.N.E. of St. Ives, the Elsworth rock is again met with, 
the St. Ives rock therefore coming up in a saddle. Another rock is found at St, 
Neots. As the St. Ives rock occurs at Papworth, little more than two miles west 
of Elsworth, and St. Neots is six miles west of Papworth, this stone band is re- 
garded as greatly below the other beds. A similar conclusion would be drawn 
from the fossils of the adjacent clay. At Tetworth, seven miles 8.W. of Elsworth, 
and therefore above the Elsworth rock, a thin limestone of a foot and a half was 
found. 

These rocks mark zones in the clay all distinguished by differing groups of fossils : 
the St. Neots zone has Ammonites Duncani, A. spinosus, A. athletus, A. coronatus, &e. ; 
the St. Ives zone A. Eugenti, A. Maria, A. cordatus, A. Goliathus, &c.; in the next 
zone are A. Babeanus and A. alternans; and in the Tetworth zone A. Achilles, Be- 
lemnites excentricus, Lima pectiniformis, Gryphea dilatata, Ostrea deltoidea, &e. 
Above this latter zone no stone bands are known, there being a great thickness of 
clay which appears to pass gradually into the Kimmeridge clay, the coral rag being 
wanting. But as there is not the usual break in life, but a blending of the fossils 
of two clays hitherto distinct, and with them some forms of the coral rag, the 
coral rag was still present as a period, though under a new form. Proyisionally 
this stratum is called the Tetworth clay*. The Elsworth rock is at its base; its 
upper limit is unknown; in it are very few new and peculiar forms. 

he Elsworth rock abounds in fossils, a careful examination of which showed it 
to be rather the uppermost part of the Oxford clay than a representative of the 
calcareous grit at the base of the Tetworth clay. A few of the species are—Am- 


* At the Meeting it was called Bluntisham clay, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133 


monites vertebralis, A. biplex, A. perarmatus, A. Henrici, A. canaliculatus, A. Go- 
liathus, Belemnites tornatilis, B. hastatus; the only described gasteropod, Plewroto- 
maria reticulata. Bivalves: Pecten fibrosus, P. lens, P. vimineus, Gryphea dilatata, 
Lima pectiniformis, Avicula expansa, A. ovalis, A. elliptica, Trigonia costata, T. cla- 
vellata, Astarte ovata, A. lurida, &c. Many new species were noticed ; among others, 
a elongata, Avicula pterosphena, Pleurotomaria amphicelia, Littorina peror- 
nata, &e. 


On some Phenomena connected with the Drifts of the Severn, Avon, Wye, and 
Usk. By the Rev. W. 8. Symonns, GS. 


Alluvial Deposits.—-The first point we remark is the great difference which at 
present occurs in the deposition of silt and alluvium by such rivers as the Severn 
and Avon, compared with swift-flowing streams like the Wye and Usk, which have 
a fall of as much as 23 feet in a mile along their general course. In some localities 
the Wye has shifted its course, filled up its former channel, and cut out a new bed, 
within the memory of man, as proved by an old map, which gives the position of 
the celebrated Ross Oak, now known as the “ Burnt Oak,” and the river as it 
flowed a century and a half ago. A broad surface of meadow-land now sweeps 
where the Wye then flowed, and the river now runs some 70 or 80 yards from the 
former bank on which that old oak stood. This is not the case with respect to the 
smoothly flowing Severn and sluggish Avon to anything like the same extent. 

The point, however, to which the author would direct attention is, that all these 
rivers may and do alter their courses, and destroy and re-form their alluvia over and 
over again, for age after age, without in the slightest degree changing their courses, 
save as regards the level alluvial land. 

The Lake Period.—It is well known that there was a time, antecedent to the 
present configuration of land and river surface, when the Severn, Avon, and Wye 
flowed, as the river Shannon does now, through a chain of lakes of various sizes, 
and which lakes are now silted up and form the celebrated “holmes” or river- 
meadows. The author formerly inferred that the relics of the great quadrupeds 
found so abundantly on the banks of the Avon, at Bricklehampton and Cropthorne, 
at Kempsey and other localities on the Severn, were disinterred from banks of mud, 
silt, and gravel, which were formed on the shores of the ancient lakes. It is here 
that he would correct the inferences that might be drawn from any correlation of 
these drifts, which contain the remains of the hippopotamus, rhinoceros, elephant, 
cave-hyzena, and extinct oxen and deer, with the deposits of the Lake-epoch. They 
belong to a distinct epoch, and offer a distinct history. 

Low-level Drift—My. Prestwich has shown that certain drifts and gravel 
beds above the Avon, Severn, and other rivers, which he designates as “low-level 
drifts,” are altogether antecedent to, and independent of, the detritus which fills 
up the beds of the former lakes. They belong to a distinct epoch, and represent an 
entirely different water surface. Instead of dipping under or into the lacustrine 
deposits, in many localities they dip away from the old lake silts, and are slightly 
upheaved. They are, in fact, the relics of broad and, probably, rapid rivers, of which 
bos former channel must have been 30 or 40 feet above the level of the silted-up 
akes. 

The period of the “low-level drift” was, then, anterior to that of the Lake epoch 
in this part of England; and it is in these beds, and not in the lacustrine drifts of 
Worcestershire, that the explorer finds such numerous relics of the extinct mam~ 

a. 

These beds are well developed near the Avon at Bricklehampton and Cropthorne, 
and near the Severn at Upton-on-Severn, and near the Ox-eye Gate, about a mile 
from Tewkesbury, on the Ledbury high road. Near Worcester they may be seen 
in various localities ranging above the margins of the former lakes. These drifts 
are also well developed on the banks of the Wye, near Hereford, as at Broomy 
Hill and the Infirmary. At Brecon, Mr. Symonds found a most interesting old 
river-margin of well-stratified sand with rolled pebbles, on the slope of a hill, and 
at a height of 50 or 60 feet above the river Usk. 

High-level Drift—Certain gravels and drifts are found at a much higher level 
above the river-courses than the drifts just alluded to, These gravel-beds cap the 


134. REPORT—1861. 


summits of very considerable hills in the vale of Worcester. They occur on Tunnel 
Hill at Upton-on-Severn, on the summit of Corsewood Hill, on Ryal Hill, Twining 
near Tewkesbury, and at Elmore near Gloucester. They are found along the flanks 
of the Malverns, where they have yielded the remains of Elephas antiquus and 
Rhinoceros tichorhinus, animals that lived during the glacial period, and are there- 
fore properly associated with the northern drift. A fine molar tooth of Elephas 
antiquus has lately been found by Henry Brooks among the gravel which overlies 
the great masses of angular blocks heaped against the side of a hill, known as 
Clincher’s Mill Wood, near Ledbury. ' 

The author also observed the high-level drift at several points in Herefordshire, 
the principal of which is an excellent section, near the Kite’s Nest, on the Hay 
road, about four miles west of Hereford, and a still better one at Wilcroft near Lug- 
wardine, Another fine molar of E. primigenius has been brought to the author of 
the paper since it was read at Manchester. This fossil is from the high-level drift, 
75 feet above the Severn, and is from Twining gravel-pits between Tewkesbury 
and Brockeridge Common on the Worcester road. 


On Subterranean Movements. By Professor Vavewan, of Cincinnati. 


The author stated that the definite relations recently discovered between calorific 
and mechanical action seemed to haye an important bearing on questions relating 
to the secular refrigeration of the earth and the high temperature of its inten 
regions, even at the present time. The vast amount of heat supposed to have 
escaped from our planet during past ages might be reasonably expected to call into 
existence forces of much greater efficiency than those indicated by the upheaval of 
lands, or by the violence of earthquakes and mechanical eruptions. Our terrestrial 
fabric had a strength too limited for the full development of such great calorific 
powers by the unequal contractions of its different parts; and in a cooling globe com- 

ound gases could not be expected to produce any decided mechanical effect, at 
toast without materially altering the composition of the atmosphere. But, apart 
from these causes, the transition of the igneous rocks from a fluid to a solid state 
would be attended with occasional paroxysmal movement and change. Being de- 
pendent on hydrostatic conditions for stability, the different parts of the earth’s 
crust must extend into the great reservoir of lava to a depth in some measure pro- 
portionate to the elevation above its surface, Continents must rest on solid foun- 
dations far deeper than those which supported the body of the ocean; and the 
violence which subterranean forces ae a in seyeral islands might be ascribed 
in part to the weakness of the barriers which restrained them. Inequalities in the 
solid envelope of our globe were indicated with some certainty by local forces of 
gravity. The anomalous character of the vibrations of the pendulum, when applied 
im some ye justified the conclusion that the invisible side of the earth’s crust 
contained the greatest irregularities, and that our continental tracts of land rest on 
the bases of gigantic subterranean mountains, whose tops might be depressed even 
three or four hundred miles below the mean level of the vitrified matter. The 
accumulations of solid matter on the internal mountains must ultimately be crushed 
by the strain which their augmented size occasioned; a mighty avalanche of rock 
would then tumble to the thinner part of the earth’scrust. Regarding these masses 
as the cause of earthquakes, they might account for the instantaneous manner in 
which the shocks of earthquakes occurred, their extreme violence and destructive 
character near the coasts of continents and on adjacent islands, while they were 
almost imperceptible in the interior of continents. It was probable that the ascend- 
ing movements of silica, and perhaps of other isolated matter, might serve to bring 
the heavy metallic deposits from the central to the superficial regions of our planet, 
and the general occurrence of gold in auriferous quartz rock might thus it of 
plausible explanation. 


On the Red Crag Deposits of the County of Suffolk, considered in relation to 
the finding of Celts, in France and England, in the Drift of the Post-Pliocene 
Period. By W.Wuuvcorr. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135 


On the Burnley Coal-field and its Fossil Contents. 
By J. T. Witxrnson and J, WuiraKer. 


Although of limited area, the Burnley coal-field is uncommonly rich, not only in 
fossil fuel, but also in organic remains. ‘It comprises within itself a complete series 
of the middle and lower coal-measures. It is surrounded by ranges of hills; the 
principal of them being Pendle on the north, Boulsworth on the east, Gorple to- 
wards the south, and Hambleton on the west, several of them being nearly 2000 ft. 
above the sea-level. Geographically, the field occupies the lowest portion of the 

_yalley; but, geologically, it is the highest, when considered with reference to the 
stratification of the district. The most productive part of the field underlies the 
town of Burnley, where it assumes the form of a long trough, bounded on the east 
and west by two faults, running nearly parallel. The greatest depth to which the 
strata has been pierced occurs on the Fuledge estate, near the centre of the basin, 
where a depth of nearly 300 yards has been obtained. There have been found the 
following seams:—The Dog Hole Mine, or top bed, 6 ft. thick ; Kershaw Mine, 
3 ft.; Burnley Old Five-feet Mine (the main coal of the field), 5 ft.; Higher Yard 
Bed, 3ft.; Lower Yard Bed, 3ft.; Low Bottom Mine, 4ft.; Cannel Bed, 2} ft. ; 
Thin Coal Mine, 23 ft.; Great Mine, or King Bed, 4ft. These are locally called 
“The top beds,” and they include about 40 ft. of coal, imbedded in strata about 
600ft. deep. For a depth of 240 ft. below these no coal occurs. Then come the 
Arley series, or Habergham Mines, consisting of the following working seams :— 
China, about 2 ft. thick; Dandy Bed, 3 ft.; Arley, or Habergham Mines, 4 ft. : 
giving a total of 9 ft. of coal to about 445 ft. of intermediate strata. Strata not 
containing coal here again form another awkward division of the measures. The 
Gannister Mines follow next, comprising the Foot Mine, with a hard Gannister bed; 
the Spa Clough Top Bed, 24 ft.; Spa Clough Bottom Bed, 4 ft.; or a total of 8 ft. 
of coal, with 684 ft. of intervening strata. From these measures to the Rough 
Rock, the highest part of the Millstone-grit formation, the distance is something 
more than 300 ft. Omitting many seams less than 1 ft. thick, there is, from the 
highest mine in the Burnley measures, to the highest member of the Millstone-grit 
formation, a total of 50 ft. of coal, for a depth of 2026 ft. of strata. None of the thin 
seams in the Millstone-grit have been worked in the Burnley district. The 
authors describe in detail the various seams mentioned, and the fossil remains 
found in each. In conclusion, they state that seven large specimens of Sigillarie 
were found in the limited space occupied by a small cotton-mill recently erected 
in Church Street, Burnley ; and others have been found in Mill Lane during the 
construction of a common sewer. The whole of these were in an upright position, 
and several had Stigmarian roots adhering, giving the best possible evidence that 
they had grown and flourished on the spot. The whole of the overlying rock may 
be described as an immense fossil forest, occupying the central part of the Burnley 
coal-field ; and that town itself is situated on what was one of its richest lagune 
jungles, replete with the flora of a former geological age. 


On the Geology of Knockshigowna in Tipperary, Ireland. 
By A. B. Wynne, F.G.S. 


In this paper the position of Knockshigowna, a conspicuous object in the Lower 
Ormond part of Tipperary, was first alluded to ; and the author proceeded to describe 
it as a somewhat ridge-shaped elevation, rising to 701 feet above the level of the 
sea, and 400 feet above that of the surrounding limestone plain, with a gentle slope 
on the south-east and a steep declivity to the north-west. Its structure was then 
explained, and it was stated to be formed of Silurian rocks overlaid by the Old Red 
Sandstone, which is unconformable tothe Silurian, and is denuded at the top of the hill 
so as to expose these underlying rocks. The Old Red is entirely absent along the 
greatest part of the north-western base of the ridge, in consequence of the occur- 
rence of a fault, by which it is buried beneath the outcrop of the Silurian rocks. The 
position of this fault is marked out and its existence proved by the near approach 
of the Carboniferous limestone and Silurian formations at two points along the 
line of fracture, space not being left between them for the thickness of the Old Red 
Sandstone as exposed upon the opposite flank of the hill. 


136 r REPORT—1861. 


The Silurian rocks consist of grey grits, slates, shales, flagstones, and coarse con- 
glomerates, the latter occurring as a wide interstratified band, and taking a peculiar 
red colour as they approach their junction with the overlying, unconformable Old 
Red Sandstone. Fossils were stated to have been found by the author and W. H. 
Baily, Esq., F.G.S., in these Silurian rocks, and a list of them (by the latter gentle- 
man) was given, including two corals, six kinds of trilobites, two sorts of grapto- 
lites, and twenty-five shells, belonging to the orders called Brachiopoda, Conchifera, 
Gasteropoda, and Cephalopoda. : 

From the paleontological evidence afforded by these, the rocks which contained 
them were supposed by Mr. Baily to belong to the lower Llandovery subdivision. 

After stating the general similarity of all the rocks of Knockshigowna beneath 
the Old Red Sandstone as one group, and their resemblance to other Lower Silurian 
rocks in the south of Ireland, the discovery of the characteristic Cambrian fossil, 
Oldhamia radiata, by J. Darby, Esq., which is believed to have been found in situ 
in these rocks, was incidentally mentioned. And in conclusion, the Old Red Sand- 
stone, carboniferous shale and limestone of the locality were each described; and 
the absence of the drift, except in a few places in the neighbourhood, was pointed 
out, 


On the Excess of Water in the Region of the Earth about New Zealand : 
its Causes and Effects. By J. Yates, MA., F.RS., F.GS. 


The author of this memoir endeavours first to ascertain, from the best authorities, 
the proportion of land and water on the surface of the globe. He finds that the 
estimates vary between 100 land to 256 water, which is Berghaus’s last estimate, 
and 100 land to 289 water, which is the computation of Professor Link. It is 
remarkable that these numbers are the squares of 10, 16, and 17, and of this cireum~ 
stance the author avails himself in his subsequent arithmetical calculations. 

Such being the proportion of land to water, the next question is, where to fix 
the centre of the water so far as it is now collected on the surface of the globe. 
On the authority of Berghaus, who laboured with the concurrence and advice of 
Humboldt and Ritter, the author assumes this centre to be 40°S. of the Equator, 
and on a meridian which touches upon the islands of New Zealand, although his 
conclusions would not be materially affected, if, following Ansted and some others, 
he were to fix the point 5° nearer to the south pole. 

For the sake of simplicity and clearness in computation, he supposes all the water 
to be collected around its centre in a uniform mass, instead of being distributed and 
ramified into oceans, seas, bays, and straits. ‘Thus a small circle divides the entire 
mass of land from the entire mass of water. This circle is delineated on the globe 
by taking the centre of the land and drawing a circle round it with 62° 30! as radius, 
this radius being assumed on the supposition that it is safest to take a mean between 
the two extreme proportions of land and water. 

In addition to these data respecting the proportions and the centres of the land 
and water, the author shows that the mountains in the so-called Land Hemisphere 
greatly surpass in elevation those of the Water Hemisphere ; and presuming that 
the mountains in the Water Hemisphere are the highest points of submerged con- 
tinents, he uses the mountains of the Land Hemisphere as gauges for measuring the 
general depth of the water, which he finds to be nearly two kilometres. - By a 
subsequent investigation he finds the general elevation of the continents above the 
level of the water to be about one-third of this quantity. 

To explain his theory the author employs a diagram, which is a section of the 
earth through the meridian of New Zealand. A diameter is drawn from the centre 
of the ocean and is intersected by a perpendicular, which is the chord of the before- 
mentioned are of 125°, and which divides the collected land from the collected 
water. By the use of this diagram, and proceeding from one step of mathematical 
reasoning to another, haying likewise assumed that the hemisphere of the solid 
earth contiguous to the great mass of water is heavier than the other hemisphere, 
and that the solid earth has consequently a centre of gravity lying to the south- 
eastward of its centre of magnitude, the author computes the distance between these 
two centres to be about 1260 metres. From this apparent fact, coupled with the 
general permanency of the surface of the terraqueous globe, he infers that the interior 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 137 


of the globe must be in the main solid, and of this he further avails himself to explain 
the phenomena of earthquakes and the so-called “magnetic storms.” 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 


Tue CuarrMaNn (Professor Babington), in opening the Meeting, made some re- 
marks on the advantages of meetings like those of this Association. The great 
object of science was the unfolding the laws by which the universe was governed, 
and one of the greatest encouragements to this study was the assembling together 
of men of kindred minds and similar pursuits. Sometimes difference of opinion 
engendered feelings of an unpleasant kind, which personal intercourse served to re- 
move; and thus these meetings, on account of their scientific and social value, had 
become increasingly appreciated. 


On some Points in the Anatomy of Cyprea. By T. Axcocr, M.D. 


Examinations of numerous specimens of Cyprea, received from the Smithsonian 
Institution, have led me to the conclusion that the oral organ in this genus is a 
rostrum, capable, however, of complete retraction. The food found in the stomach 
of the animals consists almost entirely of sponge. The teeth differ considerably 
from one another in different species, but all have the essential characters of those 
of the Rostrifera. 

The gills are two in number: one large, semicircular, and pectinate; the other 
trefoil-shaped and plume-like. The whole roof of the branchial chamber behind 
the gills is occupied by a very large mucus-gland. 


On the Cosmopolitan Operations of the Smithsonian Institution. 
By Purr P. Carrenter, B.A., Ph.D. 


An account is given of this Institution at page 109 of the last volume of ‘Trans- 
actions.’ At a time when political convulsions are throwing such great impedi- 
ments in the way of Transatlantic science, it is satisfactory to know that it is only 
in pecuniary resources that its operations have received a check. The U.S. Govern- 
ment are simply the trustees of the fund, not its owners; and the stores of scientific 
material are equally available for students in all parts of the world. The policy 
has been inaugurated of always depositing the first duplicate of type specimens on 
the other side of the Atlantic. The accumulation of a large museum at Washing- 
ton is not the object of the Directors, but rather the distribution of the duplicate 
materials, wherever it can be shown that they will promote the “increase and dif- 
fusion of knowledge among men.” 


On the Variations of Tecturella grandis. 
By Puiu P. Carpenter, B.A., Ph.D. 


Of the score of so-called species of Acmezeidz described from the Californian coast, 
there are seven which are tolerably well established. ‘The species of Acmea, how- 
ever, run into each other by so many intermediate forms that their determination 
is very difficult. The amount of variation of which one species is susceptible is 
well shown in Zecturella grandis, which presents well-marked characters to separate 
it from all other species of limpets; and yet, in about thirty specimens examined, 
the ratio of the anterior portion in front of the apex to the entire length (generally 
a constant quantity in each species) was found to vary from 1:7 to 1:20, In this, 
as in similar cases, the facts should be tested both by the Darwinian theory and by 
the theory of specific permanence. It is not to be expected, in the present state of 
our knowledge, that either theory alone will afford a satisfactory explanation of all 
the facts as they arise. 


\ 


138 ; REPORT—1861. 


On the Anatomy of Orthagoriscus Mola, the short Sunfish. 
By Joun Cretanp, M.D 


The integument of this fish is a dense substance of great thickness, consisting of 
felted fibres, whose meshes are filled with a copious jelly-like matter containing cells. 
There are imbedded in it, on the front of the head and in common with the caudal 
fin rays, hard plates presenting a peculiar structure, composed of intercommunicating 
tubes, which contain masses of crystalline matter, and lie in a hyaline matrix. 

The skeleton can only be studied in the recent state, on account of important 
masses of cartilage entering into its structure. There are no ribs. The interspinous 
bones of the long and pointed dorsal and anal fins are of great size; those of the 
caudal fin are crowded between the last osseous vertebra and the superior and infe- 
rior spines of the vertebra preceding. Every fin-ray is composed of a pair of osseous 
slips, arising one on each side of a cartilaginous basis. Those of the dorsal as well 
as those of the anal fin are crowded together into a compact mass, which moves 
in a groove on a large block of cartilage into which the interspinous bones are in- 
serted. The caudal fin rays are isolated from one another, each imbedded sepa- 
rately in the integument; their cartilaginous bases are short and thick; and ina 
line with them is a similar cartilage without any fin-ray attached, which is appa- 
rently vertebral in its nature, but which is placed, not in direct continuation with 
the last osseous vertebra, but on a slightly higher level, reminding one of the 
upward tendency exhibited by the last vertebra of most osseous fishes. 

The muscular masses on each side of the body consist entirely, as was pointed out 
by Mr. Goodsix, of immensely developed fin-muscles. 

The abdominal cavity lies in immediate contact with the integument, there being 
only two very small vestiges of abdominal muscles. The vertebral column, there- 
fore, is not used as an instrument of motion, but only supports the dorsal and anal 
fins, which, together with the short tail, are the organs of progression. 

As was pointed out by Arsaly, the spinal cord of the Sunfish is extremely short, 
and terminates within the cranial cavity. The spinal canal is occupied by a large 
cauda equina. The nerves, after emerging from the spinal canal, are joined together 
by a communicating cord and ganglia. 

As if to compensate for the want of muscular parietes to the abdomen, the intes- 
tines have very thick muscular coats. They are coiled closely together into a mass, 
which is tightly invested by a single fold of peritoneum, and the spaces between the 
coils are entirely occupied by large lymphatic sinuses. 

There is a marked circular fold of the mucous membrane a few inches above the 
rectum, which may be considered as a rudimentary cecum. 

The heart presents eleven semilunar valves: three protect the entrances of veins 
into the auricle; four guard the auriculo-ventricular opening ; and other four, two 
of them very small, the bulbus arteriosus. 

The ear has no otoliths, and only two semicircular canals. The nostrils are ex- 
tremely small. The eye is very large. 

A number of other peculiarities, relating to the bones of the head and to the 
viscera, were pointed out. ’ 

This paper is published in full in the Nat. Hist. Review, April 1862. 


A Scheme to induce the Mercantile Marine to assist in the Advancement of 
Science by the intelligent Collection of Objects of Natural History from all 
parts of the Globe. By Curnpert Cottinewoon, M.B., M.A., F.L.S., Liver- 


pool, 


The British Association at Manchester had appointed a committee to report upon 
the subject, and requested him to take the direction of it. It consisted of the fol- 
lowing gentlemen :—Dr. Collingwood, Liverpool ; John Lubbock, F.R.S., London ; 
R. Patterson, F.R.S., Belfast; J. Aspinall Turner, M.P., Manchester; Rey. P. P. 
Carpenter, Ph.D., Warrington ; and the Rey. H. H. Higgins, M.A., Liverpool. 

The mercantile marine of Liverpool, engaged in foreign and colonial trade, amount- 
ing to 4500 sail, measuring 23 millions of tons, and employing many thousands of 
men, exhibits an amount of enterprise such as probably no other age and no other 
place has ever before shown. The whole globe is scoured by these men and ships, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139. 


in search of whatever may conduce to civilization and to the wealth of the country 
which is the centre of this yast and important combination. Nor is the port of 
Liverpool, although the largest (representing one-third of the commerce of Eng- 
land), the only one to which a similar remark is applicable ; and it therefore becomes 
a question worthy of consideration—How is it that such a vast staff of enterprising 
men, constantly sailing to all parts of the globe, do so little to add to our know- 
ledge of the natural productions, which they, of all men, are in the best position to 
explore and to provide for the investigations of scientific naturalists at home ? 
y do these men, confining their attention to the immediately useful results of 
the trade in which they are engaged, altogether pass by natural objects, the collec- 
tion of which could not fail to be a source of interest, and which, to men with a 
moderate degree of education, would, it might be imagined, afford the stimulus of 
arzational pride? One thing is certain, namely, that no accessions of importance 
are derived to our museums and collections from the labours of seafaring men. 
piece of coral, a shell or two, or something which has received attention from its 
oddity, is occasionally brought by the sailor from the rich and interesting regions 
which he has visited; but, as a general rule, anything of value or importance is not 
even to be looked for. There are, however, a few, a very few, honourable excep- 
tions, in men whose intelligence leads them to see the value of the opportunities 
they enjoy, and to make use of them, as far as in them lies, for the improvement 
and advancement of knowledge. But the willingness of these gentlemen to render 
their assistance in any direction in which their scientific friends ashore point out 
that they can be useful, only serves to place in the strongest possible light the 
immense value which would accrue to science were a large body of such men, instead 
of one or two, constantly employing themselves in a similar manner. We cannot 
expect all captains of vessels, or, indeed, perhaps any, to use in this direction the 
intelligence of a Darwin or a Huxley; but it is not, perhaps, too much to look for 
that they should exercise a moderate degree of interest in the acquisition of rudi- 
mentary information, and a certain amount of capacity in the selection and collec- 
tion of the multifarious objects which daily come under their notice. The difficul- 
ties which are wriformly brought forward against the idea of seamen turning their 
attention to natural history are chiefly on the score of want of time to attend to 
anything except their own business. But those who are best competent. to judge 
give a different account. They tell us, indeed, that the seaman, during his passage 
through subordinate grades, has his hands full, and his attention fully occupied by 
his ship duties. But when he is entrusted with a command, the case is different. 
He is no longer a servant on board his vessel, but a master. His life of active 
employment is changed for one of comparative idleness, and it is well if the time thus 
left on his hands is not put to an evil use. Sailors have not the advantages which 
the mechanic enjoys upon shore. None of the ordinary rational modes of spending 
his hours of leisure are open to him. He is dependent upon himself for amuse 
ment, and this is more particularly the case with the captain. How often, unfor- 
tunately, do we hear of captains of vessels being charged with intemperance, cruelty, 
and the long train of evils resulting from an unoccupied mind, and an absence of 
sufficient employment for the energies of mind and body. The ship is not ahcays 
in a gale—she does not always require the close supervision which is doubtless often 
necessary. There are abundant seasons of repose, and ample time which might be 
employed in the pursuit of those rational amusements or studies which would be of 
so vast a benefit to science. Again, a captain naturally feels that, should he devote 
any attention to natural history, he may lay himself open to the charge of neglect-= 
ing his ship’s duties. His owner may possibly be narrow-minded enough to con- 
demn him for allowing anything to occupy his mind besides the routine of his ship 
work; or he may even be shortsighted enough to imagine that a man with an object 
in his moments of leisure is less fitted to occupy a place of trust than a mere ma- 
chine who has no idea beyond the mechanical duties of his profession. And not 
without reason has the seaman this fear—a fear which, I know, weighs considerably 
with conscientious captains, who would, if they received the sanction of their owners, 
do great service to science, without abating one jot of their vigilance and activity 
in their primary duties. "The main point, then, to be considered is—how shipowners 
soiled can be induced to sanction in their masters the cultivation of those tastes 
which they often possess, and which cannot but have a beneficial effect upon their 


140 REPORT—1861,. 


character, and the improvement of those opportunities which they so abundantly 
enjoy. This is the great desideratum, and until this is done, no great good can be 
effected. The ship-captain of intelligence must know that his attention to natural 
history, or any other branch of science not immediately connected with ship duties, 
is not only not looked upon with suspicion by his owner, but is encowraged by him. 
He must feel that his master regards his scientific studies and attainments, not as 
unfitting him for command and full confidence in the management of the import- 
ant interests entrusted to him, but as absolutely rendering him more trustworthy, 
on the principle enunciated by a well-known member of the mercantile marine 
service, that “a man with a hobby is always safer both at sea and on shore than a 
thoroughly idle man.” The advantages which might be expected to accrue from 
such a plan are manifold. Museums such as those of Liverpool and Manchester 
should not lack specimens in any department, with such a staff of industrious and 
intelligent collectors constantly bringing contributions. But by no means the least 
important result would be the elevation of the mercantile marine service as a body, 
and their emancipation from the evils too often looked upon as inseparable from 
their habits of Tif, by giving them a rational object upon which they may expend 
their energies, when not called upon by pressing duties on board ship. They have 
no resources such as those possess whose life is passed on shore, and it cannot be 
otherwise than that, herding together, as they do, for months at a time, with scarce 
any of the amenities of life, their minds should degenerate to a dull blank, or even 
to a worse condition; and it too often happens that in this respect the captain is in 
no degree superior to his crew. Regarded, therefore, from a philanthropic point of 
view, it is a subject worth inquiring into, whether or not some scheme may be 
rendered feasible by which this opprobrium may be removed. No shipowner will 
deny that such an amelioration of the seaman’s character would be ultimately fol- 
lowed with advantage to his own personal interest ; but that advantage is not “to 
be reaped suddenly, and it is too distant in its prospect to offer much inducement 
to take much trouble to accomplish it. The direction which I have here supposed 
the ship-captain’s energies to take is, however, by no means the only one which 
may be followed with usefulness and advantage. I have made it prominent be- 
cause I believe it would, in a vast number of instances, be adopted with most useful 
results. But men’s tastes, doubtless, differ considerably, and the study of natural 
history would not commend itself to all. Various subjects of study might be fol- 
lowed out advantageously, and the sciences of navigation, meteorology, &c. would 
receive important accession from the intelligence which a higher standard of edu- 
cation would develope among our mercantile marine. Some stimulus, however, 
would undoubtedly be needed to carry on this work; and the nature of the rewards 
which might be offered to induce the cooperation of seamen should occupy our 
careful attention and consideration. Among the commanders of the mercantile 
marine there are many intelligent men, who would gladly embrace the opportunity, 
if it were offered to them, of distinguishing themselves in the walks of science, and 
raising themselves above the level to which they are at present doomed. Whether 
this stimulus should be in the way of honorary certificates, pecuniary or honorary 
rewards, association with scientific bodies already in existence, or of any other kind, 
would be an important matter for after consideration. I have said, however, enough 
to bring the matter fairly before you, and in your hands I now leave it, hoping it 
may not be permitted to fall to the ground, but may be taken up by the influential 
members of the Association connected either with science or with commerce, my 
own humble cooperation being always at their service. 


On the Culture of the Vine in the Open Air, By J. Covsurn, 


On Barragudo Cotton from the Plains of the Amazon, and on the Flax-fibre 
Cotton of North America. By W. Danson, of Liverpool. 

The writer states that he has known the vegetable substance called Barragudo 
cotton for more than twenty years, a small import having been received from Peru 
vid Cape Horn about that time. It was represented as the produce of a very large 
tree, 30 feet to 40 feet high, and the cotton, when ripe, hangs down to the ground 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 141 


by its own fibres connected. Yet the consumers state it will not spin—a customary 
objection to anything new. More recently a similar import (about half a dozen 
bags of 70 lbs. each) came from the River Plate xd Pernambuco. Any quantity 
can be had from the east side of the Andes and the plains of the Amazon. As to 
the staple of the cotton, it is very silky and short; but -by grafting, or superior 
technical cultivation known to naturalists, it might no doubt be improved. Large 
quantities must be brought to market, and then machinery will be altered to suit 
its working, as was the case with alpaca, which has a silky fibre. He sold one bag 
of the Barrugudo cotton at 3d. per lb.; but, as the Yorkshire buyer did not accept 
delivery, the whole of the last lot was taken by the importer for stuffing sofa 
cushions and mixing in feather beds, instead of purchasing swandown at 1¥s. 6d. 
per lb. Here is a large field for the use of such fibres; and if brought to this 
country in large quantities, it must be mixed with cotton, like Mingo or deyil’s 
dust, or be spun up with sheep’s wool. Through the kindness of Mr. M. J. Whitty, 
of the ‘ Liverpool Daily Post,’ the writer was authorized to exhibit a sample of new 
fibre from the wild flax of North America. Millions of bales, he states, can be 
obtained at a cost of less than 4d. per lb., so profusely does the wild flax exist. 
These new fields ought to command attention when there is so much anxiety to 
increase the supply of cotton. The author contends that six million acres of land 
in Ireland can be had at a nominal rent, on which good cotton can be grown, the 
land never having been grazed, scratched, or nibbled by cattle. 


On the Functions discharged by the Roots of Plants ; and on a Violet peculiar 
to the Calamine Rocks in the neighbourhood of Aix-la-Chapelle. By 
Professor Daupeny, LL.D., M.D., F.R.S. 


This violet, although its petals are of a uniformly yellow colour so long as the 
roots are in contact with the zinc, seems to be a mere variety of the common Viola 
lutea, which has purple petals when it grows on ordinary soil; and accordingly, on 
the confines of the two strata, the petals of the plant are partly yellow and partly 

urple. The author made some further remarks upon the absorption of mineral 
atites by the roots of plants, and in conclusion gave it as his opinion, that the 
selective power possessed by them indicated a force independent of any physical 
cause, and which he therefore regarded as of vital origin. 


On the Influence exerted by Light on the Function of Plants. 
By Professor Davsrny, LL.D., M.D., F.R.S. 


The author referred to certain principles established by him in a paper published 
in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ for the year 1836, in which it was laid down, 
first, that the decomposition of carbonic acid and the consequent disengagement 
of oxygen was influenced by the luminous rays of the spectrum, and not by the 
calorific or actinic ones; secondly, that under particular circumstances nitrogen is 
emitted during sunlight from the leaves of plants; and thirdly, that other functions 
of plants, such as the greenness which the leaves assume, the peculiar property 
which belongs to certain ones, as to the sensitive plant, of collapsing on the appli- 
cation of stimuli, the exhalation of water from the leaves and its absorption by the 
roots, are probably dependent upon the same influence. 


On the Method of Mr. Darwin in his Treatise on the Origin of Species. 
By H. Fawcerr, MA. 


He said that, as he could not conform to what he believed was the rule, that 
communications should be read (Mr. Fawcett being blind), he would promise to 
keep as close to his subject as though he had written his paper. The title which 
he originally fixed upon was, “That the method of investigation pursued by Mr, 
Darwin, in his Treatise on the Origin of Species, is in strict accordance with the 
principles of logic.” He feared that he might be charged with presumption in 
attempting to say anything on Mr. Darwin’s great work, which had already en- 
gaged the attention of the most accomplished naturalists of the day. He had been 


142 ‘ REPORT—1861. 


assured that the discussion on the subject at the last Meeting of the Association 
had never been surpassed in the interest it excited or in the talent which it called 
forth. Indeed, the work had divided the scientific world into two great sections; 
Darwinite and anti-Darwinite were almost the badges of opposite parties. Professor 
Owen, Professor Sedgwick, and Mr. Hopkins had given to the new theory a decided 
opposition ; Sir Charles Lyell, Professor Huxley, and Dr. Hooker had given to it a 
support more or less decided. All who took an interest in the subject had a right to 
inquire whether the theory—whatever might be thought of its details—had been 
logically brought forward. The province of logic was not to discover new facts, 
but to decide whether facts were legitimately used to establish that which it was 
pretended they proved. It was constantly alleged that Mr. Darwin was illogical ; 
that he had not followed the Baconian method. The ‘ Quarterly Review’ assured 
us that Mr. Darwin had not followed in the steps of Newton and of Kepler; but 
nothing was more easy than to make such charges, which often only concealed pre- 
tentious assumptions of scientific knowledge. It was more pertinent to inquire— 
What is the method of solution of which such a problem admits? He insisted that 
if ever solved it could only be by a method analogous to that attempted by Mr. 
Darwin. It could only be solved in this way :—An hypothesis, resting: upon more 
or less perfect induction, must be started; from that hypothesis certain deductions 
must be drawn; these deductions must be tried, by seeing whether they would 
explain the phenomena of nature, and they must be verified by seeing whether they 
agreed with what can be observed in nature. If this explanation and verification 
was complete, the hypothesis was advanced from an unproved to the position of a 
proved and established theory. The Bishop of Oxford last year said that the theory 
was so absurd that no scientific man could for a moment think that it was in any 
degree worth considering. But Dr. Hooker, than whom a more eminent authority 
could not be quoted, at once disposed of the Bishop by saying, that as he believed 
the theory worth considering, he ought to “apologise for addressing the meeting as 
a man of no scientific authority.” Dr. Hooker added that he knew of the theory 
five years before; that, at first, no one more opposed it; but five years’ devotion to 
natural history had convinced him that the theory was worthy of the most careful 
consideration and examination. Myr. Darwin, with the most perfect candour, ex- 
plained in his work that his theory did not yet explain all the facts of nature; but 
it must not be supposed that his twenty years’ labour had done nothing to advance the 
ends of science. Me Darwin had strictly followed the rules of the deductive method. 
as laid down by John Stewart Mill. When Kepler inferred his law of the connexion 
between the major axis of the planets and the times of their revolution, he so in- 
ferred from observation, which We could strictly verify by mathematical calculation. 
The origin of species does not admit of such a verification. In chemistry there was 
much more power of proof or verification by experiment than was possible in phy- 
siology ; so with other sciences. When laws of nature cannot be ieened by 
experiment, we are obliged to go to deductive reasoning. Newton had only an 
hypothesis, and not a theory, as to the law of gravitation; the law he first tried 
was an incorrect one. He tried again; and then, as Professor Whewell said, by a 
tentative pavcens he discovered the correct law. Mx. Darwin had told him (the 
speaker) that his hypothesis was not at once suggested to him. He found in his 
studies that there was something wanted to explain many of the observed pheno- 
mena; years passed, and at length his hypothesis was very indirectly suggested— 
for he said that it came from reading Malthus’s ‘Essay on Population.’ Twenty 
years of unremitting labour he had devoted to the endeavour to verify the conclu- 
sions which might be deduced from this hypothesis by the facts observable in nature. 
He believed that Mr. Darwin’s second rae for which the author had accumulated 
a great mass of knowledge, would prove beyond doubt that no one could haye been 
a more conscientious or laborious observer than he had been. Newton could verify 
his hypothesis by the simplest experiment—he had but to drop a stone from a tower 
and to note the time occupied in its descent. But the problem of the origin of spe- 
cies is concerned with an epoch of time associated with geological epochs ; there- 
fore experiment could only be made during so short a time, that nothing more could 
be obtained than an argument resting on a, comparatively speaking, unsatisfactory 
analogy. Darwin had heen able to show that by a system of artificial natural selec- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143 


tion two organisms, originally descending from the same form, could bé made to 
differ so much, that if they were found as fossils they would undoubtedly be classed 
as distinct species; and, therefore, how a morphological species could be produced, 
But his experiments had failed to show how a physiological species could be 
produced; for no one could show that two varieties from the same form could be 
made to differ so much that they would possess the quality of infertility. This 
was too often forgotten by objectors. The Egyptian sculptures were pointed to to 
prove that during 3000 years the causes looked to by Darwin had done nothing to 
alter the form of animals. But what would he said to him who, by discoverin 
that 3000 years ago Mont Blanc was of the same altitude as now, should think 
that he had thus disposed of the theories of modern geology, that the stupendous 
peaks of ear were lifted from their ocean bed, and that every change on 
the surface of the earth had been produced by an indefinite continuation of physi- 
cal causes which are in ceaseless operation? Mr, Darwin admitted that eology 
did not show that in animal life there had been those transitional links that 
ought to exist according to his theory, and according to any other of gradual 
transmutation. He (the author) could not see that this theory detracted one iota 
from any of the attributes of the Creator. If we suppose that the introduction 
of every new species required a distinctive act of creative will, then, of course, 
the Creator must have interposed every time a new species was introduced. But, 
if we supposed that every living organism has eee from those forms in which 
life was first placed upon this planet, it does not in the slightest degree dispense 
with the necessity of supposing that life could only first be so placed by the act of 
Omnipotent Creative Will. It was a favourite illustration in religious works, the 
discovery of Newton which explains how planetary motions are produced ; and 
he (Mr. Fawcett) believed that if ever the day came when the origin of species 
should be explained in fulness and simplicity, he who so explained it would be 
considered not only to have advanced science, but to have conferred a benefit upon 
religion. The attackers of Darwin forget that he has not attempted to displace a 
theory received as right, but merely to throw some light where all before was dark, 
We “earn therefore, be all the more ready to welcome the conscientious labours 
of one who like Mr. Darwin had unremittingly devoted himself to explain to some 
extent what had been aptly termed the “mystery of mysteries.” 


On the Arrest of Puparial Metamorphosis of Vanessa Antiopa or Camberwell 
Beauty. By Groner D. Gren, W.D., MA., F.GS. 


After making a few remarks upon deforniities and arrést of development amongst 
the insect tribe, the author proceeded to describe some examples occurring in the 
Vanessa Antiopa, which were exhibited to the Section. Of twenty-eight specimens 
which he had obtained in the month of July, all underwent complete metamor- 
phosis, with three exceptions. These to some extent illustrated the progress of 
the process of emersion of the imago from the pupa-case. 

Tn the first specimen, the first stage of emersion was accomplished, ¢. e. a part 
of the wings had protruded from each lateral fissure throughout its whole length 
to the extent of =8,ths of an inch, permitting a view of the anterior part of the 
thorax. Metamorphosis then became arrested, and existence feichtnnjedl 

In the second example emersion was more advanced ; the left wings had emerged 
a ; of an inch only, whilst the right almost wholly protruded, but remained in 
contact with one another. The puparial case is on the point of freedom, and the 
lower part of its abdominal segment is empty. Here further metamorphosis 
became arrested, and life ceased. 

Tn the third, emersion was complete; metamorphosis, however, was not so, and 
it was associated with malformation. The right anterior wing was fully expanded, 
whilst the posterior was crumpled i The left anterior wing was almost wholly 
wanting ; a mere rudimentary appendage existed two lines long. The left posterior 
‘wing was only partly expanded posteriorly, the remainder being crumpled up. 

The author entered into the probable causes of these arrests of change and deve= 
lopment, and believed that they did not depend upon injury, from the care taken 
ition the chrysalides were first collected. 


144 , REPORT—1861. 
On the Height of the Gorilla: a Letter from Dr. J. E. Gray, F.RS. 


Much difference occurs in the statements of travellers and others with reference 
to the height of the great African ape. Bowdich, the first traveller by whom it 
was mentioned, under the name of the Zngefa, states it, on the authority of the 
natives of the Gaboon, to be generally 5 feet high; but in some recent notices it 
has been asserted to reach the height of 6 feet 2 inches; and the specimen exhibited 
at the meeting of German naturalists at Vienna is said, on good authority, to have 
measured more than 6 feet in height. The measurement of a stuffed skin without 
bones is necessarily delusive, depending as it does, first, on the mode in which the 
skin has been originally prepared, and, secondly, on the extent to which the artist 
may be disposed to stretch it. Such measurements are not to be relied on unless 
they are in accordance with those of the bony skeleton; and it therefore occurred 
to me that it would be desirable to measure the long bones of the limbs of the dif- 
ferent skeletons existing in the British Museum, the osseous structure giving the 
only certain dimensions on which reliance can be placed. The skeletons in the 
British Museum are six in number, viz.—l. A skeleton, obtained from Paris by 
Prof. Owen, and mounted in the best French manner. 2, 3, 4. Skeletons of male, 
female and young, purchased from M. Du Chaillu. 5. A skeleton of a male,purchased 
at Bristol, of hide we have also the stuffed skin. 6. An imperfect skeleton, pur- 
chased from M. Parzudaki, of Paris. The measurements of the several bones of 
each of these skeletons are given in the following Table :— 


Humerus 
na 
Radius 
Femur, 
Tibia. 
Fibula. 


Articulated specimen from Paris ........ 17 | 14 | 13 | 142 | 112 | 102 
Skeleton from Du Chaillu’s stuffed speci- 

men (called the “ King of the Gorillas”)) 16} | 14 | 131 | 133 | 11 92 
Skeleton of young male, from the specimen 

purchased/at -Dristole, 1. cee. seh. eee 142]... ee ali Pe 92 
Imperfect skeleton, purchased of M. Par- 

PEGA SS So: Goch A sews stu Ras 12> (PLE S| 0 Sse 93 
Skeleton of female, purchased of M. Du 

OEE LT ERCP REE ROM Sa AE A 13 {11 | 102 | 11 9 7 
Skeleton of young male, purchased of M. 

Du Chaillu ..... Sacagsnagan, ACIS RY 12 | 113] 923] 10 83] 7 


They were taken by Mr. Gerrard with a tape measuring inches and quarters of inches 
only, but ave quite sufficient for a comparison between the specimens themselves, 
and as affording materials for determining the actual height of the animal. As the 
largest of these (viz. the Paris specimen, photographed for the Trustees of the 
British Museum by Mr. Fenton) stands 5 fect 2 inches in height, we are justified 
in concluding that to be in all probability the extreme natural height of the full- 
grown animal. 


A letter was read from Dr. Gray, of the British Museum (dated Sept. 6, 1861), to 
Professor Babington, in reference to Professor Owen’s paper on the Gorilla, in which 
it was stated that the skin of the great Gorilla, now in the British Museum, exhibits 
two opposite wounds, the smaller in front of the left side of the chest, the larger 
close to the lower part of the right blade bone. ‘Two of the ribs in the skeleton of 
this animal are broken on the right side, near where the charge has passed through 
the skin in its course outwards. Dr. Gray and other naturalists having examined the 
specimen, found two holes in the nape of the neck (now filled with putty) 3, there are 
also two large holes in the thin portion of the hinder part of the skull belonging to 
the same skin which pass through the bone, and are quite sufficient to have caused 
death. In neither skin nor skeleton is there any evidence of a gun-shot entering on 
the left side of the chest; and the fracture of three (not of two) ribs on the right 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145 


side, and the supposed corresponding rent in the skin, are so utterly unlike the 
effects of a gun-shot, that no sportsman could possibly so consider them, 


On the Flora of Manchester. By L. H. Gutiyvon. 


After some observations on the climate and soil of Manchester, the author re- 
marked :—“The positive character of the Manchester Flora consists in the presence 
or 370 or 380 British plants, which are indifferent to the soil they grow upon, and 
which clay and sandstone suit as well as any other. These are, of course, the com- 
mon plants of the country in general ; and were it not that the peat-bogs furnish 
many species peculiar to such habitats, and that the low level of the country and 
the abundance of moisture combine to the production of innumerable marshy hol- 
lows, in which plants are found plentifully that the limestone districts afford penu- 
riously or not at all—were it not for these, the Manchester Flora would be no more 
than a list of cosmopolites. The ponds of the district, locally called ‘ pits,’ are in- 
numerable. In Cheshire they often become enlarged into beautiful sheets of water, 
called ‘meres,’ which greatly enhance the picturesque character of the northern 
oS of that county. South-east Lancashire contributes also a peculiar class of 

abitats in its innumerable and very pretty little winding ravines, locally called 
‘cloughs,’ the sides clothed with trees, and a stream running along the bottom. 
These, like the marshy hollows, supply many plants in great abundance that 
districts more favoured in soil and climate fail to offer, and, along with the peat- 
mosses, supply the principal part of what is locally interesting. Of rare and extra- 
ordinary plants we do not possess a single instance, except when they appear, as in 
other places, adventitiously. We have no permanent treasures or rarities, such as 
give celebrity to St. Vincent’s Rocks, the Great Ormshead, and the Scotch moun- 
tains. If a claim to such a character can be asserted by any of our plants, that 
claim must come from Carex elongata.” In conclusion, he noticed some of the 
more remarkable and conspicuous plants of the district. He added that, on a 
review of the whole subject, it appears that the Manchester district, although 
exposed to some great disadvantages, is quite as productive of interesting plants as 
any other. They are fewer in number and they are less brilliant in appearance ; 
nevertheless the botanist who would wish to enjoy himself, and to find everything 
necessary to intimate acquaintance with the types of the British Fiora, needs not to 
distress himself at the seeming dearth of Manchester. If he will seek he will find, 
his reward augmenting in the ratio of his philosophy. 


On the Arrangement of Hardy Herbaceous Plants adopted in the Botanic 
Gardens, Liverpool. By the Rey. H. H. Hiaers. 


On the Development of the Hydroid Polyps, Clavatella and Stauridia, with 
Remarks on the Relation between the Polyp and its Medusoid, and between 
the Polyp and the Medusa. By the Rev. 'l. Hrncxs, B.A. 


The author, after describing the characters of the Medusoid of Clavatella, and 
comparing it with Stawridia, went into the question of whether the polyp, or 
stock which bore the medusoids, or the medusoid itself, which bore the eggs, should 
be regarded as the perfect animal. Quatrefages and others regarded the medusoid 
as the perfect form ; but the author-was inclined to recognize the medusoid-hearing 
individual (the stock) as the perfect animal. 


On the Ovicells of the Polyzoa, with reference to the Views of Prof. Huxley. 
By the Rey. T. Hinexs, B.A, 


In this paper the author gave the results of his study of the Polyzoan oyicells, and 
showed, in opposition to the view of Professor Huxley, that these organs are not 
“marsupial pouches” into which the ova pase to complete their development. 
Repeated observations had convinced him that the ovum, which was ultimately 
developed into the ciliated embryo, was produced within the ovicell, in an ovarian sac, 
which ode from the endocyst at the upper extremity of the capsule, This sac, from 

1861. 10 


146 REPORT—1861. 


its first differentiation, might be detected without difficulty. There were also ova 
which were produced within the cells. These were never ciliated, and only escaped 
after the death of the polypide. Their history required further investigation. 


The Rey. A. Ruxy Hogan, M.A., exhibited living specimens of Mphargus 
fontanus taken by himself at Puddletown, near Dorchester, from the water of a. 

ump. A mene on the subject of this and allied species had been read by Mr. 
legen at the Meeting of the British Association held at Oxford, but these Crus- 
tacea were not before exhibited alive. 


On Daphnia Scheefferi, with a Diagram. By the Rev. A. R. Hogan, M.A. 


So few observers have paid any attention to the family to which this little ani- 
mal belongs that any fresh notes on its habits or economy are acceptable. In com- 
mon with several other allied Entomostraca, Daphnia Schefferi bears the English 
name of “ Water-flea,” and German of “ Wasserfloh ;” but I have not been able to 
discover any peculiar suitability in the appellation, there being nothing in common 
between it and its terrestrial namesake, except restlessness, 

Professor Ehrenberg’s celebrated discovery of the corneous integuments of Ento- 
mostraca, which occur in millions in some of the rocks of Germany, well illustrates 
the important part assigned to these creatures on our globe. My first acquaint- 
an¢e with the species of which this paper is the subject was made at Shaftesbury 
in Dorsetshire, where they are found abundantly in the water artificially supplied 
to the town for drinking purposes. On the 15th of February, 1861, I received six 
apparently full-grown specimens; these I placed in a vessel which admitted of 
my observing their reproduction and subsequent development. Within a day or 
two afterwards, the water in which the D. Schefferi were placed appeared to 
swarm with young, exceedingly minute, yet visible not only in the water, but 
also within the parents’ shelly integuments, where, through the semitransparent 
valves, they might easily be seen moving about, and seemingly trying to effect an 
exit. Those which had already escaped were all performing the same curious 
gyrations which distinguish the mature individuals. It is the habit of these crea- 
tures to keep unceasingly swimming round and round in a vertical circle, and no 
one who has ever seen it can avoid being struck with its gracefulness. When- 
ever they wish to change the locality of their revolutions, they swim by sudden 
and rapid jerks, but in a direct line, to another place, and then recommence 
wheeling up and down. Sometimes, however, they rest from motion entirely. 

ight weeks after the birth of their young, all the original Daphniz were dead, 
but the former had not yet attained more than half their size, nor shown any signs 
of reproduction. At this time I had about thirty-five specimens. But another 
six weeks sufficed to bring about the complete transformation; and after seeing 
them for the last time cast their exuyiz, I had the satisfaction of observing that 
the full size of the original specimens was in some instances attained, and some 
young again produced. They were, however, not at all so prolific as those which 
had been captured full-grown; and as the whole life of the Daphniz had passed 
under review, I did not care to retain them longer alive, but placed the bred 
specimens, which had already reached maturity, in alcohol for exhibition to the 
Association. 

Further observation will no doubt reveal many more details of interest regarding 
these animals. , 


Extracts from a letter from Professor Huxley to Dr. Rolleston, in reference to the 
brains of the Quadrumana, were read by Dr. Rolleston. 


On an Abnormal Form of Cyathina Smithii. 
By J. Gwyn Jerrneys, F.R.S., F.GS. 
Mr. Jeffreys exhibited specimens of Cyathina Smithii, which he had dredged at 
a depth of nearly 90 fathoms in sandy ground, about 25 miles N.E. of the Unst 
lighthouse in Zetland. The peculiarity of the specimens consisted in their being 
inversely conical, instead of their having the usual form of that coral, which is 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147 


cylindrical, and this appeared to be owing to their having been attached to cases 
of the Pomatocerus arietinus (sometimes called Ditrupa subulata), a Dentalium- 
like Annelid. One specimen was attached to a perfect case, others adhered to 
fragments of cases, while the rest bore no trace of attachment and were quite free. 
In the last-mentioned state they appeared to oe with a drawing and description 
given by Dr. Johnston, in his admirable work on British Zoophytes, of a spe- 
cimen received by him from Professor Edward Forbes, who considered it to be the 
Turbinolia borealis of Dr. Fleming. The specimens now exhibited had much the 
aspect of Turbinolie or Sphenotrochi. Cyathina Smith is not uncommon in the same 
seas where these specimens were obtained, but at a less depth than is above stated, 
and its usual habitat is on rocks and stones, to which it is permanently attached by 
its entire base. The explanation offered by Mr. Jetfreys for the abnormal form of 
his specimens is, that they had attached themselves to empty cases of the Poma- 
tocerus, being the only hard and stationary substances they could find in their 
unusual habitat (sand), and that when these cases were broken off, the base of the 
corals became rounded by attrition against the sand, and they thus assumed their 
present shape. The first-formed layers, which constitute the base of the coral, are 
soon deserted by the animal; and there appear to be no means of repairing any 
injury to that part, much less of the coral reaffixing itself to another prop. Speci- 
mens of Cyathina sometimes have also a very narrow base when they are attached 
to other corals. Mr. Jeffreys observed, that the peculiarity in question appeared to 
be the result of a well-known law, or inherent principle of organization, by which 
a change of external conditions influences to a certain extent the form of animals 
and plants, and that such modification of form is not due to what has been called 
“natural selection.” 


Absorbing Power of the Roots of Plants. By Dr. Jussun. 


Dr. Daubeny had established that different species. of plants, growing in the same 
soil, take up therefrom different foods, and contain minerals in different proportions. 
This selection, it will be said, is made through “ vital force ”—a conyenient phrase 
for hiding anything that you cannot or have not inquired into. If we went down 
to the elementary composition of the living body, the term might be defined as 
meaning the formation and.combination of cells. In this sense it corresponds with, 
and has comparatively the same range as, the term “crystallizing force” as regards 
minerals. The force that puts together crystals and that which puts together cells 
and forms them into living bodies, is equally an unknown force; we use for each 
the term mentioned. Taking “vital force” to mean the formation and combina- 
tion of cells, the secretive power of plants was thence to be explained. Some 
ancient philosophers held that plants desired and selected food nearly in the same 
way as animals. That opinion was long ago given up; but where is the difference 
between animals and plants? Men and animals move to food that they want; 
plants grow for it. This was a point too often overlooked. But animals can moye 
away or cease to take food when satisfied; plants advance their roots amongst 
their food, and they cannot use the same parts of the same root for obtaining that 
food a second time. They have, so to speak, to throw out new fibres every time. 
they want food. A sound rootlet took up fluid, whether nutritive or not, in a man- 
ner different from an injured one; and many physiologists and nearly all chemists 
have experimented on wounded plants, without knowing it, owing to the delicate 
handling which rootlets require. The absorption goes on by endosmosis through 
the bark-cells. Dr. Graham says that by every such process the membrane of these 
cells is thinned and dissolved; that the endosmosis is different for every different. 
membrane; and that the force of endosmosis is altered not only by the different 
nature of the substances going into the cell, but also by the nature of the sap in 
the cell itself. The author considers these facts, as made out by Mr. Graham, to 
be the starting-point of a new era in the physiology of nutrition. No one has yet 
taken up the matter and pointed out the value of these discoveries; and it was 
sufficient at present to point out that Dr. Graham shows that any slight difference 
in the composition of the membrane, or of the contents of a cell, will be a sufficient 
cause for a decided difference in the nature of the food introduced into it. The 
point of a rootlet is of a very different structure from its upper part. It serves only 

10* 


148 REPORT—1861. 


for the rowing out of the rootlet, whose cells are ormed in the upper patt. Many 
of the ce!ls run into short hollow hairs, which, like the cells, have a very thin mem- 
brane. The fluid taken in by the rootlet after a time destroys the outer layer of cells, 
and the second layer comes into play; but the constant production of new cells in the 
interior causes the rootlet to increase in size. Passing from cell to cell, the fluid 
becomes changed into sap; but the sap differs in every cell, and each ceil, around 
one well filled, gets out of it a different kind of food. The author contends that it 
is not possible to get into a plant anything that is a poison to it. The result will 
be, if poisonous matter is present, that the outer layer of cells will be destroyed, 
succeeding layers presenting themselves, and also being destroyed, so long as the 
poison exists around. If the poison gets into the outer cells before they are wholly 
destroyed, it will not be taken up so readily as nutritious liquid; and in any case, 
after traversing a few rows of cells, all poison will be retained, while other portions 
of the plant will remain uninjured. 


On the Relation between Pinnate and Palmate Leaves. By Maxwett T. Mas- 
ters, F.L.S., Lecturer on Botany, St. George's Hospital, London. 


It is now generally admitted that the different forms of leaves, in spite of their 
immense number, may be reduced to one or two primary forms, the deviations from 
which are to be accounted for by such circumstances as increased growth in one 
direction as contrasted with that in another, arrest of development at particular 
places, and the like. The ensuing remarks merely tend to confirm this opinion and 
to add additional illustrations of it. 

There are many circumstances leading to the inference that trae palmate leaves, 
as well as those that are palmately divided, are but modifications of true pinnate 
leaves, or of pinnately divided ones; that in the palmate leaf growth takes place 
more in a lateral direction than in a vertical one, whereas growth in length at the 
expense of growth in breadth is the guiding principle in pinnate leaves; the one, 
so to speak, is a broad leaf, the other a long leaf. Again, in the palmate leaf there 
is an arrest of development in the portions of the leaf intermediate between the lobes 
or leaflets according as the leaf is simple or compound, and thus the palmate leaf 
may be regarded as a contracted pinnate leaf. In support of these assertions the 
writer may refer to the fact, that pinnate and palmate leaves exist in the same 
genera; compare the leaves of Acer pseudo-platanus, for instance, with those of Acer 
Negundo, the leaves of Rubus micranthus with those of Rubus fruticosus; indeed the 
circumstance is of such common occurrence that it is unnecessary to give further 
illustrations of it. Of ereater value for our present purpose are those instances where 
we have both kinds of leaf on the same plant; tale, for instance, Pyrus trilobata; 
trace the transition of the leayes from pinnate to palmate in Anthyllis vulneraria or 
the various species of Lotus, wherein the lower leaves are pinnate, the upper palmate. 
The common raspberry, Fwbus ideus, will furnish another example ; the lower leaves 
have several pairs of pinnz, the upper have but three leaflets ; in such cases as this 
(and they are numerous), the two conditions merge one into the other, so that it is 
difficult, without taking analogy as our guide, to determine whether a ternate or a 
temmately divided leaf belongs to the pinnate or to the palmate series. 

The writer has frequently observed in the oriental plane, Platanus orientalis, leaves 
of almost every variety of shape and marginal inc’sion, from obiong or lance-shaped 
and entire to palmatisect, the latter being the usual form of the leaves of this tree. 
In the entire long leaves there is but a single large rib, the lateral ones being much 
less in size, whereas in the fully developed condition there are three to five main ribs 
diverging one from the other at an acute angle, a short distance above the base of 
the leaf (tripli- or quintupli-costate). In the ‘ Linnea,’ vol. xi. 1829, is mentioned 
the case of some horse-chestnut leayes which had assumed more or less of a pinnate 
character ; and this season the writer has been fortunate enough to find several pre- 
senting similar changes from their ordinary condition, and manifesting almost every 
intermediate stage between pinnate and palmate leaves; similar instances not unfre- 
quently occur in the leaves of the common white clover, Trifolium repens. Were 
it necessary to do so, many additional instances might be cited leading to the same 
conclusions, that pinnate and palmate leaves are merely modifications of the same 
type; that the ternate leaf isan impari-pinnate leaf; the binate leaf is the simplest 


——— 


Yo 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149 


form of a pari-pinnate leaf; that a palmate leaf is a contracted pinnate leaf, hearing 
the same relation to the pinnate leaf that opposite leaves do to alternate ones, &c. 


On the Migration of the Herring. 
By J. M. Mrrcnett, F.R.S.S.A., PAS., Fe. 


In a former paper read at the Economical and Statistical Section last year at 
Oxford, the wealeee pointed out the great pational importance and growing pros- 
perity of the British herring-fishery ; in tlte present paper he restricted himself to 
that important part of the natural history of the herring connected with its migra- 
tion, with the view of proving that the herrings visiting the various coasts are 
undoubtedly natives of the said coasts and the adjacent seas, and that they do not 
come from any distant part of the ocean. The fact once satisfactorily established, | 
that the herrings belong to the adjacent seas or coasts may direct public attention 
more closely to the importance of thoroughly investigating their natural history. The 
“coanant of controverting the statements as to the migration of the herring must 

e obvious when we find Pennant’s account of its progress from the arctic regions 
continued in each new edition of several works of high authority. Such works 
state that “the herring comes from the arctic circle, in large shoals of some leagues 
extent, dividing into lesser shoals on coming towards the north of Scotland, one 
body proceeding to the west coast of Scotland and to Ireland, and another to the 
east coast, each directing its course southward.” Others state that, although 
herrings do not come from the arctic circle, they at least come from a considerable 
distance northward of Scotland. He, however, considered that as the herrings 
spawn upon our coasts, or in the rivers and hays, they are consequently natives, 
and that, after spawning, the full-sized herrings proceed to sea in the neighbour- 
hood of the coasts, where they continue, and where they feed until the spawning- 
season again approaches; while the young on being vivified continue near the 
spawning-ground until they become of mature size.. This is the most natural con- 
clusion ; and after several other remarks he said— 

1. We find every year, at a certain period of the year, a particular size of her- 
ring generally resorting to the same place: for example, the size of the herrings 
caught off the projecting coast of Stadtland, in Norway, is much larger than the 
size of those caught on the west coast of Shetland; which kind, again, is nearly 
twice as large as the first-caught Thurso herrings; and these are smaller than the 
Isle of Man, Minch, and Loch Fyne herrings, smaller than the Caithness and Banff 
herrings, and much smaller than the herrings caught off Aberdeenshire, Fifeshire, 
and Berwickshire. Again, the Yarmouth herrings are smaller than those of Aber- 
deenshire and Berwickshire ; andin the West Highland lochs the size of the her- 
rings is distinctly seen and known; for instance, in some of the Highland lochs for 
years large quantities have been caught, uniformly of the 10th class, which are of 
a very superior quality. A size of herrings similar to those of Yarmouth till 
lately visited Liimfiord in Denmark, and still visits the coasts of that country ; 
while on the Mecklenburg coast, in the Baltic, the size of the herrings is larger 
than those of Denmark; and proceeding up the Baltic coast above Mecklenburg, 
namely on the Pomeranian and part of the Prussian coasts, the herrings are fully 
one-third smaller, and again still further up they are larger, and about the size of 
the Moray Firth herrings. Thus, those who argue that the herrings come from the 
north must furnish two kinds of herrings, namely, one kind which in its progress 
ood smaller on its journey, and another which grows larger. Even in the English 

hannel the varieties may be easily distinguished in the neighbouring localities; 
for instance, Professor Valenciennes, in his edition of Cuvier’s ‘Natural History 
of Fishes,’ vol. xx. p. 47, says, “It is not difficult, with a little practice, to dis- 
cover the difference which exists between the herrings fished near Calais and 
those fished near Dieppe; those fished near Calais have the body longer and more 
flat and compressed on the sides than those of Dieppe, which are rounder and 
shorter. 

2. As to quality, nothing so much proclaims the error of the tale of their all 
coming from the north as the general state of the herring. For instance, as already 
mentioned, those caught off Shetland are not nearly so fat as those caught about 
the same time on the coast from Thurso to Loch Broom, In the first of the season, 


150 REPORT—1861. 


those caught in Loch Fyne are not so extremely fat or oily as the early Thurso 
herrings, and the herrings of Loch Fyne are superior in quality to those of the east 
coast. Again, there is a marked difference in appearance and quality (and this is 
easily distinguished by those accustomed to see them) between those caught near 
Caithness and Morayshire, and those caught off Aberdeenshire and Berwickshire. 
The quality of the Danish and Baltic herrings is inferior to the Moray Firth and 
West Highland herrings; and those caught. on the coast of Holland are so inferior 
as not to be pickled at all by the Dutch. The Yarmouth herrings are inferior in 
some respects to those of the north of Scotland; and the herrings got on the French 
coasts are also of inferior quality. 

3. As to the time of appearance, we find much to prove that the herrings are 
natives of the seas adjoining the coasts on which they spawn. As a few instances, 
it may be stated as well known that herrings are caught in Loch Fyne before any 
are caught near Cape Wrath, and off Berwickshire and Aberdeenshire by the 
Dutch before any are caught off Caithness ; and even off Yarmouth herrings have 
been caught in May. We find they are not generally caught on the Atlantic side 
so early as on the east coast of Scotland; and the various times of their approaching 
the coasts of the Baltic, as already stated, prove the fixity of their places of resort. 

4. No well-authenticated instance has been given of the herrings having been 
seen approaching the south in a high northern latitude. Indeed, although we have 
conversed with intelligent masters of the Dutch herring-busses, we could not find 
any one who ever saw any considerable shoal in the northern part of their fishing- 
grounds ; none of the seamen of our Greenland whale-ships ever saw any of those 
shoals of the magnitude so fabulously described proceeding southwards; and 
Scoresby, who is of high authority on such a question, made the same statement 
to ourselves, namely, that he had not, in his many voyages, ever seen any shoals 
of herrings proceeding southwards. 

5. No shoals of herrings have ever been ascertained to exist in the Greenland 
seas, and no herrings have ever been found in the stomachs of the whales caught 
there. The food of the Balena mysticetus, or common whale, consists of Actiniz, 
Sepize, Medusee, Cancri, and Helices. The Narwhal inhabits the seas near Spitz- 
bergen ; but only remains of Sepize were found in the stomachs of several examined 
by Scoresby. The Zrichecus rosmarus (walrus or sea-horse) inhabits the icy seas 
adjacent to Spitzbergen; in the stomachs of those examined, only shrimps, craw- 
fish, and young seals were found. Of other marine animals examined by him, 
Scoresby says the Alca arctica (auk or puffin) feeds principally upon shrimps and a 
small species of Helix; of the Alea alca (little auk), that it also feeds on shrimps ; 
of the Colymbus Gylde (Guillemot), it feeds on shrimps and small fishes; of the 
Squalus borealis (Greenland shark) he says, “ A fish resembling a whiting was found 
in the stomach of one that I killed.” Captain Phipps only caught the Cyclopteris 
viperus (sucker) and the Gadus carbonarius (coal-fish), and no herrings, when 
fishing near Spitzbergen. Moreover, Scoresby, in his list of “ Fishes found in the 
Arctic Regions,” does not include herrings (Arctic Regions, vol. i. p. 540). Egede, 
who resided fifteen years in Greenland, after enumeratiug various kinds of fish 
caught there, says, “ No herrings are to be seen” (Natural History of Greenland). 

6. We find that those species of whales that feed principally on herrings frequent 
our own shores and those of Norway. Scoresby says of the Balena musculus, 
“This species of whale frequents the coasts of Scotland, Ireland, Norway, &c., and 
is said principally to feed on herrings” (Voyages, vol. i. p. 482); and the Balena 
rostrata inhabits principally the Norwegian seas. 

7. Bloch, the celebrated naturalist (with whom Lacépéde in this particular state- 
ment coincides), has established that fishes of a similar size, even in fresh water, 
could not make, from spring till autumn, the long voyage attributed to the herring. 

8. The same naturalist further states that “herrings may be found in certain 
localities all the year through,” and this coincides with the opinion of the expe- 
rienced fishermen at Loch Fyne and other places; and it is well ascertained that 
herrings, either young or old, may be caught in the Forth any month in the year, 

9. The herrings mentioned as coming from the north are never known to return, 
or even to proceed southward, but when proceeding to some coast for the purpose 
of spawning. 

10. And we may ask why, in some cases, the smallest herrings proceed ‘to the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151 


Baltic, and the larger to the North Sea; and as it is asserted that the whales are 
the cause of their flying south, why do we not see the whale on every coast every 
year? Myr. Yarrell, in his valuable work on Fishes (vol. ii. p. 112), truly says, 
“There can be no doubt that the herring inhabits the deep water all round our 
coast, and only approaches the shore for the purpose of depositing its spawn within 
the immediate influence of the two principal agents in vivification—increased tem- 
perature and oxygen; and as soon as that essential operation is effected, the shoals 
that haunt our coast disappear, but individuals are to be found, and many are 
caught throughout the year.” 

11. Various other fishes have similar habits in spawning. The salmon ascends 
the rivers from the sea at particular periods for the purpose of spawning: for 
. this fish no distant seas have, however, been assigned. The sprat appears in 
shoals in various localities of the coasts of the British Islands from November to 
March. The shad or Alosa is found in shoals in some of our rivers from May to 
July—in the Severn generally in May, and it continues there about two months; 
in the Mediterranean, near Smyrna and Rosetta; and it ascends the Nile as high as 
Cairo in December and January. The pilchard appears in shoals on the coast of 
Cornwall from June to the end of the year; and tite tunny comes in-shore on the 
coasts of the Mediterranean in summer. Al] these fishes appear to haye the same 
habit of gregariously visiting various coasts and rivers at particular seasons for a 
similar purpose; but no one would on this account pronounce them natives or 
inhabitants of a distant quarter of the globe. In short, from all the circumstances 
known of the natural history of the herring, in regard to its visits on our own 
coasts and the coasts of other countries, it is reasonable to conclude that it inhabits 
‘the seas in the neighbourhood of the coasts on which it spawns, and that it 
arrives at particular seasons near the coasts for the purpose of spawning, the shoals 
leaving the coasts immediately thereafter; and the early or late, and distant or 
near approach to the coasts in different years perhaps depends, as before remarked, 
on the clear and warm or dark and cold weather of the season, as well as upon 
the depth of water at the feeding- and spawning-grounds. 


On the Crustacea, Echinodermata, and Zoophytes obtained in Deep-sea 
Dredging off the Shetland Isles in 1861. By the Rev. Atrrep Mente 
Norman, 1/.A. 


This paper was supplementary to that of Mr. Jeffreys, and contained an account 
of the Crustacea, Echinodermata, and Zoophytes obtained during the same dredging- 
expedition. Mr. Norman mentioned that about 140 species of Crustacea were met 
with. Eighteen of these, viz. 7 Podophthalmia and 11 Edriophthalmia, were new 
to Britain. The Podophthalmia consisted of Portunus pustulatus (Norman, n. sp.), 
distinguished by its pustular carapace, by the latero-anterior teeth, which in form 
resemble those of longipes, and by having the swimming-blade of the last pair of 
feet sculptured with a raised longitudinal and a marginal line; Pagurus ferrugineus 
(Norman, n. sp.); Crangon serratus (Norman, n. sp.), allied to spinosus, but fur- 
nished with seven rows of teeth on the carapace, haying an acutely pointed simple 
rostrum (without the lateral denticular processes which are present in spinosus), 
and a central keel on the fifth segment of the abdomen (instead of diverging lines) ; 
Sabinea septemearinata (Sabine) ; Hippolyte polaris (Sabine); Hippolyte securifrons 
(Norman, n.sp.), nearest akin to the Californian H. affinis (Owen), having the 
rostrum in the form of a broad flat plate armed with eleven teeth above, four or five 
of which are on the carapace and four below, three pairs of spines on the carapace, 
the first on each side of the base of the rostrum, the second on the anterior margin 
just below the eye, the third, very minute, at the junction of the anterior and lateral 
margins, and three snes of spines on the telson; Ctenomysts alata (Norman), a new 
genus of Mysidz allied to Noctiluca, Ctenomysis has six pairs of thoracic feet, fur- 
nished on their inner base with large scales, which serve to protect the external 
branchiz situated beneath them; the subabdéminal legs are bifurcate and multi- 
articulate ; and the species is easily distinguished by the remarkable form Of the 
antennal scales, which are broad and triangular, and instead of being porrected, are 
spread at right angles to the body. The front margin of the carapace terminates in 
five spine-like processes, three frontal, and one on each side below the eyes. 


152 : REPORT—1861. 


The Edriophthalmia new to Britain which were discovered consist of diceros 
parvimanus (Spence Bate, n.sp.), the genus also new to Britain; Dexamine tenui- 
cornis (Rathke) ; Lijeborgia Shetlandica (Spence Bate, n.sp.); Aréyera altamarina 
(Spence Bate, n. sp.); Calliope Fingalli (Spence Bate, n. sp.); Amphithoé alboma- 
cula (Kroyer) ; Stphoneccetus typicus (Kroyer) ; Dexamine Vedlomensis (Spence Bate, 
n.sp.); Megamera ; Heisclados longicauda (Spence Bate, n.sp.), a new genus 
differing from Amphithcé in haying only one branch to the last pair of pleopoda; 
and Bopyrus Galathee (Spence Bate, n. sp.). 

The author also gave an account of the other rare Crustacea—Podophthalmia, 
Edriophthalmia, and Entomostraca (including fish-parasites)—which were met 
with. 

Mr. Norman next proceeded to notice the Echinodermata, and stated that forty- 
seven species were found. ‘The rarer of these were—Comatula rosacea (Link) and 
Sarsti (Lovén) ; Ophiura ,n.sp.; Ophiocoma Goodsiri (Forbes) and jiliformis 
(Miller) ; Ophiopeltis securigera (Von Diiben and Koren) ; Asterias , perhaps 
distinct from aurantiaca, having shorter arms, less flattened spines on the under 
surface, and fewer tubercles on the margin than in the ordinary form; it was 
dredged in great abundance sixty miles from land in 70-90 fathoms; Echinus virens 
(Von Dib. and Kor.), Flemingit (Ball), neglectus (Lamarck), and Norvegicus (Von 
Diib. and Kor.), the last very abundant on the Outer Haaf; Cidaris papillata(Leske), 
spines only; Amphidotus ovatus (Leske); Brissus lyrifer (Forbes); Cucumaria 

frositess (Gunner) and fucicola (Forbes and Goodsir)?; Psolus phantopus (L.); 
Ocnus brunneus (Forbes) and lacteus (Forbes and Goodsir) ; Thyone raphanus (Von 
Diib. and Kor.) ; Synapta digitata (Montagu), a vinous purple variety from 70fathoms; 
Phascolosoma radiata (Alder), and two or three species of Sipencedlus. 

The Zoophytes were next passed in review. The author stated that fifty-nine 
Polyzoa and fifty-three Hydrozoa and Actinozoa were observed. Among the former 
were—Onchopora borealis (Busk) ; Cellularia Peachii (Busk) ; Membranipora 
Flemingii (Busk), Rosselii (Audouin), and rhynchota (Busk), and an undescribed 
species; Lepralia concinna (Busk), violacea var. cruenta, punctata (Hassall), grani- 
Jera (Johnst.), wnicornis (Flem.) var., and monodon (Busk) ; Alysidota Alderi (Busk); 
Tubulipora truncata (Jameson) ; Jdmonea Atlantica (Forbes); together with a Celle- 
pora, a Hornera, and an Alecto not yet determined. Of Tiydrozoa there were— Clava 
multicornis (Johnst.) and cornea (Wright); an undescribed Hydractinia, which My. 
Alder has also taken at Cullercoats ;-an undetermined Atractylis; Coryne implexa 
(Alder) ; Eudendrium ——,n.sp.; Tubularia gracilis Tarvey), variety ; Sertdaria 
tenella (Alder), Gayt (Lamx.), gracilis (Hassall), alata (Hincks), pinaster (Ell. and 
Sol.), and tamarisca (L.); Plumalaria myriophyllum (L.) and frutescens (Ell. and 
‘Sol.) ; Laomedea flexuosa (Hincks) and Lovént (Aman); Campanularia Johnstoni 
(Alder); Calicella gracillima @Alder); Reticularia serpens (Hassall); and Gram- 
maria ramosa (Alder). Among the Actinczoa were—Tealia digitata (Miill.), which 
was abundant on shells of Fast (antiquus, gracilis, propinquus, and Norvegicus), 
and on Buccinum Dalci on the Outer Haaf, in from 70-80 fathoms water; Zoanthus 
Couchit (Johnst.), the simple attached and also the free branching state; the splendid 
Ulocyathus arcticus (Sars) in 65 fathoms sand, Outer Haaf; Caryophyllea Smithit 
(Tlem.) var. [the Zrubinolia borealis (Flem.)];.Pennatula phosphorea (L.); Virgu- 
laria mirabilis (L.), and Sarcodictyon catenata (Forbes). 

With reference to the Sponges, the author remarked that a considerable number 
had been collected, especial attention having been paid to the small encrusting 
forms, and that they had been placed in Dr. Bowerbank’s hands for examination 
and description. 


On the Cervical and Lumbar Vertebree of the Mole (Talpa Europea, Z.). 
By Professor Owen, M:D., LL.D., F.RS. 


Few of our native quadrupeds have had their osteology more frequently described 
and studied than the common mole, by reason of the singular and extreme modi- 
fications of certain parts of the skeleton, and their readily recognizable adaptation 
to the peculiar sphere and habits of life of the animal. The author had not anti- 
cipated, therefore, in making a recent scrutiny of the skeleton, finding anything 
worth special notice that had not been noticed before, and could scarcely persuade 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153 


himself that the fact he was about to commmnicate had escaped all previous obser- 
vers. Had it heen mentioned, however, in any special monograph on the Talpa 
Luropea, which might have escaped his research, he thought it would have been 
considered worthy of a reference by the comprehensive and industrious Stannius, 
and might have led the sharp-sighted De Blainville to a more rigorous scrutiny of 
the vertebral column than he had bestowed upon it in his Monograph on the Oste- 
ology of the Mole—the last on that subject with which comparative anatomy has 
been enriched. Jacobs, in his generally minute and accurate monograph, when 
treating of the cervical vertebré, notices only their spinous processes, and, after 
describing the large one of the Epistropheus, proceeds,—“ Vertebree colli ceterze 
processum spinosum habent nullum, et magis annulis similes sunt, quorum inter- 
Stitia asperee arteriz interstitiis similes sunt” (p. 14), and this description has been 
geneally repeated. Cuvier writes,—“ Dans les Taupes, elles (les cing autres cervi- 
cales) ne forment également que des simples anneaux entre lesquels il y a beaucoup 
de jeu.” So likewise Professor Robert K. Grant writes,—“ The remaining cervical 
vertebra are behind, like so many loose rings, shorn of their spinous and transverse 

rocesses, to allow of the freest motion with safety to the spinal chord.” Professor 

ell more accurately states, “that in the Talpide and the Soricide the cervical 
vertebrae have strong transyerse processes, and, excepting the second, do not pos 
Sess any spinous processes.” Professor De Blainyille, in a more detailed account 
of the skeleton, having express reference to the species under consideration (Zalpa 
Europea), says, “ Les quatre derniéres (vertébres cervicales) se ressemblent en ce 
que leur are, fort étroit, ne présente aucune trace d’apophyse épineuse; les trans- 
verses sont également peu marquées, sauf le lobe inférieur de celle de la sixiéme, 
assez dilaté, du moins transyersalement.”’ 

Tf the cultivators of other, and more particularly of the exact, sciences were to 
judge of zootomy by the discrepancy of the testimonies adduced by some of the 
hishest names in this science, as to a simple fact, easily determinable by observa- 
tion, of one of our commonest native quadrupeds, they might conclude that the 
foundation of our generalizations in comparative anatomy reposed upon an insecure 
basis, and that the method of obtaining the materials for such basis by the first 

rocess of induction—the simple exercise of the eyes—stood in need of much 
Improvement. For while one anatomist implies the absence of transverse pro- 
cesses in the cervical vertebrae of the mole by his silence, and another directly 
aflirms their non-existence, a third describes them as being “ strong,” and a fourth 
as being “little marked.” 

The fact is, that these so-called “transverse processes” are not only present in 
all the cervical vertebrae, but are variously and peculiarly developed, so as to give 
the mole the same advantage in strengthening and stiffening its neck, and imped- 
* ing its lateral inflexions, which the crocodile derives from a similar modification of 
what might, with equal propriety, be termed in it the “ transverse processes of the 
cervical yertebree,” viz. by their intricate or reciprocally overlapping arrangement, 
due to the shape and size of the costal elements of such transverse processes. But 
the mole has so far the advantage over the crocodile in this arrangement as that, 
whereas the costal part of the transverse process retains its foetal separation in the 
cold-blooded Reptilia, it becomes firmly anchylosed to the other parts of the trans- 
verse process in the small warm-blooded mammal. In a former memoir, “On the 
Processes of Vertebrxe,” Professor Owen had given the results of an analysis of the 
“cervical transverse process,” showing it to consist of the autogenous “ pleurapo- 
physis,” combined with the exogenous “ parapophysis” and “ diapophysis.” In 
the mole the pleurapophysis joins the diapophysis, circumscribing the vertebrarte- 
rial foramen, and developing a short process from the point of junction. In the 
third vertebra the pleurapophysis, or costal part of the “transverse process,” is 
compressed and produced backwards and a little outwards and downwards, over- 
lapping the anteriorly produced part of the pleurapophysis of the fourth cervical. 
This portion of the “ transverse process” much resembles the corresponding but 
separate element in the same vertebra of the crocodile, except that it is “ sessile,” 
instead of being supported on a short peduncle; it is, for example, broad, com- 
pressed, and produced downwards, forwards, and backwards—its larger and longer 
posterior portion overlapping the anterior end of the pleurapophysis of the fifth 
vertebra, as the same part of itself is overlapped by the pleurapophysis of the third 


154 REPORT—1861. 


vertebra. The posterior part of the pleurapophysis of the fourth cervical of the mole 
is further interlocked between the einige of the fifth cervical below, and 
the anterior zygapophysis of the same vertebra above. The pleurapophysis of the 
fifth cervical resembles that of the fourth. In the sixth cervical it is much more 
developed, both forwards, backwards, and downwards, the pair forming the sides 
of a deep and wide channel on the under part of that vertebra. In the seventh 
cervical the pleurapophysis is not developed; the diapophysis forms a small obtuse 
prominence below the anterior zygapophysis, and, in the ordinary language of 
anatomy, its “transverse process’? would be said to be “imperforate.” With re- 
gard to the common description of the cervical vertebrae of the mole as mere rings 
of bone, the term is applicable only to the neural arches of the five last vertebrae, 
none of which have a spine, except the third and seventh, and in these it appears 
as a mere tubercular beginning. The bodies of the vertebre are subdepressed, but 
otherwise are well-developed quadrate bones, closely united, so as to concur with 
the peculiar size, shape, and arrangement of the “transverse processes” above de- 
scribed, to give strength to the neck and impede any lateral inflexions. It is easy 
to show on a recent mole, when the cervical vertebra are exposed by removal of 
the enormous masses of muscles with which they are surrounded, that the lateral 
inflexions of the neck are confined to movements between the atlas and dentata, the 
dentata and the third vertebra, and between the sixth and seventh vertebrie, but 
are as effectually impeded in the intervening vertebree as in the crocodile itself. 
Nor is the movement upwards and downwards between the same vertebra of more 
than a limited extent. The osseous style developed in the ligamentum nuche, co- 
extensive with the cervical series, and running’ parallel with the course of their 
undeveloped spines, stiffens the neck in respect of its vertical inflexions beyond the 
atlas, as well as augments the lever power of the muscles which raise the head. If 
the service to the mole of a stiff neck in the fossorial applications of the snout and 
head had been called to mind, the analogy of the more efficient modification to 
that end in the burrowing armadillos, might have led to an examination of the 
actual structure of this part of the skeleton of the mole, which would have ren- 
dered unnecessary the present communication on the subject. 

One of the objects Professor Owen had in view in troubling the Section with 
what some might deem too trifling a matter, was to encourage younger compara- 
tive anatomists to exercise their skill on indigenous subjects which may any day be 
brought within their reach. Their organization is far from being exhausted by 
direct and original scrutiny, and the highest generalizations in comparative anatomy 
might be tested and illustrated by the anatomy of our commonest fishes, reptiles, 
birds, and mammals, independently of rarities from foreign shores. 

In conclusion, he might further state respecting the mole, that its loins were 
strengthened by superadditions to their vertebrw, precisely like those discovered 
by Sir Philip Egerton in the cervical vertebrae of the Ichthyosaurus, viz. by a series 
of “subvertebral wedge-bones” inserted into the inferior interspace between each 
of the six lumbar vertebree, as well as between the first lumbar and last dorsal, and 
between the last lumbar and the first sacral. These, which Professor Owen had 
determined to be “autogenous hypapophyses,” have their broad, rhomboidal, smooth 
and slightly convex base downwards, and their narrower end wedged upwards into 
the lower part of the intervertebral substance. It is obvious that the lumbar re- 
gion, cooperating with the pelvis, as the fulcrum during the vigorous actions of the 
hind feet by which the loose earth is kicked out of the burrow, must derive an 
advantage from this superaddition to their fixation, analogous to that which the 
Ichthyosaurus derived from the wedge-bones of its cervical vertebrae. The lumbar 
hypapophyses of the mole had not escaped the notice of the sharp-sighted Jacobs, 
who speaks of them as “ ossicula sesamoidea” (Joc. cit. p. 17); but he deduces no 
physiological consequence from the fact ; and his passing notice of the structure 
had not been recognized by any subsequent writer on the osteology of the Insec- 
tivora. From no systematic work or monograph on comparative anatomy, indeed, 
could the student acquire any hint of so curious a fact that the vertebral column 
of the mole combined two peculiarities which are separately given in the reptilian 
class, viz. to the Crocodilia and the Enaliosauria respectively. This paper was 
illustrated by diagrams of the structures described. 


i 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 155 


On some Objects of Natural History from the Collection of M. Du Chaillu. 
By Professor Owen, M.D., LL.D., FBS. 


The author’s first knowledge of this zoological collection was derived from a letter 
sent by M. Du Chaillu, dated Gaboon, June 13, 1859, and received in the British 
Museum in August 1859, in which M. Du Chaillu specified the skins and skele- 
tons of the gorilla or n’gena, kooloo-kamba, nschiego, and nschiego-mbovie which 
he had collected, offering them for sale, with other varieties, to the British Museum. 
Professor Owen replied, recommending the transmission of the collection to London 
for inspection, with which recommendation M. Du Chaillu complied, bringing with 
him, in 1861, all the varieties he had named, with other objects of natural history, 
from which he permitted selections to be made. The skins of the adult male and 
female of the young of the Troglodytes gorilla afforded ample evidence of the true 
coloration of the species. In the male, the rufo-griseous hair extends over the 
scalp and nape, terminating in a point upon the back. The prevalent grey colour, 
produced by alternate fuscous and light-grey tracts of each hair, extends over 
the back, the hair becoming longer upon the nates and upon the thighs. The dark 
fuscous colour gradually prevails as the hair extends down the leg to the ankle. 
The long hair of the arm and forearm presents the dark fuscous colour; the same 
tint extends from below the axilla downwards and forwards upon the abdomen, 
where the darker tint contrasts with the lighter grey upon the back, The scanty 
hair of the cheeks and chin is dark; the pigment of the naked skin of the face is 
black. The breast is almost naked ; and the hair is worn short or partially rubbed 
otf across the back, over the upper border of the iliac bones, in eonsequence, as it 
appears, of the habit ascribed by M. Du Chaillu to the great male gorilla of sleeping 
at the foot of a tree, resting its back against the trunk. Professor Owen proceeded 
to describe the colour of the female gorilla, which, it appears, was generally darker 
and of a more rufous tint than the male. In one female the rufous colour so pre- 
vailed as to induce M. Du Chaillu to note it as a ‘red-rumped variety.’ In the 
young male gorilla, 2 ft. 6 in. in height, 1 ft. 7 in. in the length of the head and 
trunk, and 11 inches across the shoulder, the calvarium is covered with a well-de- 
fined “skull-cap” of reddish-coloured hair. The back part of the head, behind 
the ears, the temples, and chin are clothed with that mixture of fuscous brown and 
grey hair which covers with a varying depth of tint the trunk, arms, and thighs. 
The naked part of the skin of the face appears to haye been black, or of a very 
dark leaden-colour; a few scattered straight hairs, mostly black, represent the 
eyebrows. A narrow moustache borders the upper lip ; the whole of the lower lip 
and sides of the head are covered with hair of the prevailing grey fuscous colour. 
The rich series of skulls and skeletons brought home by M. Du Chaillu illustrate 
some important phases of dentition. These phases were specified by Professor 
Owen at length. The deciduous or milk dentition, it was remarked, was, in 
the youngest specimen of the gorilla, something similar to that of the human 
child, but an interspace equal to half the breadth of the outer incisor divides that 
tooth from the canine, and the crown of the canine descends nearly two lines 
below that of the contiguous milk molar. The deciduous. molars differed from 
those of the human child in the more pointed shape of the first, and much larger 
size of the second. The dentition of the young gorilla corresponds best with that 
exemplified in the human child between the eighth and tenth years; the difference, 
however, is shown in the complete placing of the true molar, whilst the premolar 
series is incomplete. It was worthy of remark, also, that in both specimens ex- 
amined the premolars of the upper jaw had_ preceded those of the lower jaw, and 
that the hind premolar had come into place before the front one. In the later de- 
velopment of the canines and the earlier development of the second molars of the 
second dentition the gorilla differs, like the chimpanzee and the orangs, from the 
human order of dental development and succession. An opportunity of observing 
this order in the lower races of mankind is rare. Professor Owen availed himself 
of the opportunity in the case of the male and female so-called. dwarf Earthmen 
from South Africa, exhibited in London in 1855. He found their dentition re. 
spectively at the phase indicative of the age of from seven to nine in the English 
child; other indications agreed with this evidence of immaturity.. The children 
were of the dwarf Boschisman race, and were dressed. and. exhibited as adults, 


156 REPORT—1861. 


Both showed the same precedency in development of canines and premolars which 
obtains in the higher races of man. Referring next to the variety of the chim- 

anzee brought by M. Du Chaillu from the Camma Country and from near Cape 

opez, Professor Owen remarked that this species accords specifically in its osteo- 
logical and hirsute development with the Zroglodytes niger. It is stated by M. Du 
Chaillu to be distinguished by the natives of Camma as the nschiego-mbovie, from 
the common chimpanzee ( Troglodytes niger), called by them the nschiego. From 
the character of the skins of the male and female specimens of this species brought 
by M. Du Chaillu to London, Professor Owen would have deduced evidence of a 
distinct and well-defined variety of Troglodytes, 


Statistics of the Herring Fishing. Communicated by C. W. Pracu. 
[Compiled by Mr. Peter Reid, and published in his paper the “John o’Groat Journal.”’] 


Quantity Branded in Wick District during the past Six Years, to 30th September 
in each year. 


Year. Barrels. Year. Barrels. 
ESS wahvatsstenis eas 19,713 1858 weg eiabrewe ... 54,348 
IBD GS yagieeete aie 60,017 1859) ise dee . 50,256 
LBSY oige saw serie, 48j612 1SGOM ica 60,559 
Number of Boats, Yearly Average, and Total Quantity caught annually at Wick 
since 1836. 
Year. Boats. Average. Total. 
1837454 sme, 2600. 100 60,000 
SSS Kee .». 550 135 74,250 
1889. ...5...0., 620 110 68,200 
SHOW pate ae 720 91 65,520 
LEA eee 750 126 94,500 
NSADs er Alot 800 125 100,000 
icy Bee 820 107 87,740 
1844... 0.005 900 100 90,000 
1845 ........ 960 96 92,160 
1846......... 900 103 92,700 
TBAT). se'ese .. 765 110 84,150 
1848 ..... 813 114 92,682 
1849 ....0.0. 800 140 112,000 
1850 ....,.... 804 100 80,400 
ite oy Pe a 1000 100 100,000 
LBD vee es BE 1000 75 75,000 
1853.... 960 120 115,200 
1854..... 920 104. 95,680 
T85B.. estii.4 . 952 141 134,232 
1856 ........ 1050 86 90,300 
LSS Tesh sibs .. 1100 73 80,300 
TSB igi ltebee 1061 80 84,880 
1859 ........ 1094 79 86,426 
1860 ........ 1080 92 99,254. 
LEG cae Sieh 1100 87 95,700 
Number of Boats Fishing at each Station during the past Five Years. 
District. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1858. 1860. 
Wickashigenienine < sees 1050 1100 1061 1094. 1080 
Lybster ...... fl otohiIuees 265 259 228 200 
Horse). veisgadiiets st Sifecous 36 B85 36 35 36 
Latheronwheel ...... se ree 28 28 80 28 
Dunbeath............. 80 83 96 97 95 
Helmsdale ........ Homer ai beta) 210 240 218 185 
Brora .15 sweeteners . 385 28 21 30 21 


Cromarty piasisgiielsts iss s 148 170 154 150 156 
Findhem|psecsh¥p ney my 16 18 24 24 19 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157 


District. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860 
Burghead. .jc¢v.ci.0s 0. . 65 68 66 46 60 
Hopeman...........+. 38 45 52 41 51 
Lossiemouth. .......... 107 90 106 104 116 
Buckie district......... 201 250 264 208 214 
Whitehills ............ 24 22 30 28 27 
ISU TO tio Ono Gooner 21 19 22 13 18 
Li levets Holt ocr). 4 AO OES 67 62 64 58 58 
Gardenstown .......065 44 48 54 54 48 
Fraserburgh. .......... 243° 331 334 378 328 
Peterhead. «........0.. 239 245 268 271 294 
Anstruther ........+04. 290 300 300 400 360 
MOET Soe owicnevcees 220 183 174 190 150 
Eyemouth....... Saent . 140 120 130 154 158 
North Sunderland ...... 74 78 86 70 78 
IERMOV as apc) ¢ «1p 0,050) 60's stale 360 380 370 330 347 
Lewis (early fishing).... 260 300 420 460 475 
Average in each District from Orkney to Northumberland for the past Five Years, 
WICK ieee stein nc ems ~ 86 73 80 79 92 
Lybster 0 ccc cceeeeeces 91 75 623 432 94 
BOER lated fale; sus. <tats, nycreisl® 100 60 61 353 88 
Latheronwheel......... 84 70 70 23 84 
10 hin] (2 aaa eee 84 67 68 18 80 
Helmsdale .......... ements.) 91 57 40 952 
ILORH so 1s fale\se-elaselvicusteve 65 78 69 41 120 
RETIOMIAN LY ets) s/e sietelays cers s 45 46 20 473 81 
Findhorn..........+.+. 40 593 24 50 54 
Burehead so... eacces 3 es 80 85 56 106 100 
Piopeman. .. sevice ees 110 85 92 1203 150 
Lossiemouth.,......... 100 722 103 90 112 
NETS bod bo coo pO CG 130 823 722 if 106 
Wihtiebils es. 6... wea. 952 125 22 31 491 
SUT Gun eho Gia nora 3 803 25 35 434 
Iwigigilivite Re enpo oe aeouee 37 103 383 46 634 
Gardenstown ........++ 163 142 108 68 1002 
Fraserburgh ........ Hae, 028 862 1433 Tal 682 
Peterheadx.. oc.ccee deeiee 1464 79 96 563 74. 
Anstruther ............ 64 80 235 70 2302 
ID ping heey oD DOSnE cE -— 613 176 58 1603 
Hyemouth..........0++ — 127 115 103 107 
North Sunderland...... 134 763 50 109 842 
OVA NTS Aue Bio OOO AL 40 303 36 35 3 
Lewis (early fishing).... 50 45 17 393 77 


Total Catch at each Station from Orkney to Northumberland for the past 
Four Years. 


District. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 
Vite areata seaaicrstees street 80,300 84,880 86,426 99,254 
iMtay SHEERS =: re felsieseisnai=vatere 24,525 16,187 9,918 18,800 
IBOYSEATe erate eyelaisTelalece Ge 2,100 2,196 1,242 3,168 
Latheronwheel........ 1,960 1,960 690 2,352 
Dunbedth ......60006 5,561 6,528 1,746 7,600 
Helmsdale........... 19,110 13,680 8,720 17,667 
HALOLaE avareretele feleictererarst ate 2,184. 1,449 1,230 2,520 
@romiariiy fs oiisiertete-tere 7,820 3,080 7,191 12,636 
inate. Hoauoonanoo c 1,071 576 1,200 1,026 
Burghead ..........0- 5,780 3,696 4,876 6,000 
(EVO POMIRT «see's erm ots 3,825 4,784 4,940 7,650 


Lossiemouth,......6+. 6,547 10,918 9,360 12,992 


158 REPORT—1861.— 


District. L.¢ 185%% 1858. 1859. 1860. 
Buckie district........ 20,625 19,140 14,560 22,676 
Whitehills: .....365.. 2,750 660 868 1,332 
Bante... Rosy so SOM 1,529 550 455 778 
Maeduff. A288 <5 .stat .. 6,386 2,464 2,668 3,687 
Gardenstown......... 6,816 5,832 3,672 4,836 
Fraserburgh .......... 28,714 47,929 26,838 22,475 
Peterheads), 2... 234. 19,355 25,728 15,311 21,850 
Anstruther: .....23%.> 24,000 70,544 28,000 83,000 
Dumabar,..ciev.,./)s tens. 11,254 30,624. 11,020 23,304. 
Eyemouth............ 15,240 14,950 15,862 16,906 
North Sunderland..... 5,709 4,300 7,630 6,591 
Onkney .. i. . oos Bads. 11,590 13,320 11,550 11,798 
Lewis (early fishing) .. 15,500 7,140 18,170 28,875 


Total Catch of Herrings for the past Hight Years, from Northumberland to the 
Lewis, excluding Zetland and the Ayrshire and Argyleshire Coasts. 


Year. Barrels. Year. Barrels. 
SESE FF etsetcutecnte 348,881 [ bolatS ees BSE 393,035 
WOOD she ete te 461,549 HS ia eda ensenass 294,143 
1856.52 S202 Be 337,443 TEGO sks Laan 439,879 
S57 cE Bb sc...oben 329,251 HBG Se cece 467,966, 


Remarks on the late Increase of our Knowledge of the Struthious Birds. 
By P. L. Scuater, M.A., Ph.D., FRS. 


After pointing out the general characters of the birds of the order Struthiones, and 
the peculiarities displayed in the structure of the two families, the Struthionide 
and Apterygide, of which alone recent representatives were known, Dr. Sclater 
called the attention of the Meeting to the large increase in our knowledge of the 
species of this group of birds which had recently taken place. Until lately, each of 
the types, Struthio, Rhea, Casuarius, Dromeus, and Apteryx, had been supposed to 
be represented by a single species. There now appeared to be indications, more or 
less precise, of the existence of twelve species of Siruthionide, and (as the author 
has already shown in his joint Report with Dr. Hochstetter on the genus Apterya*) 
four species of the family Apterygide. 

The following Table was exhibited, giving the names of these species and their 
localities, as far as they were known. 


TABULA AVIUM STRUTHIONUM. 


Fam. I, StruTHIoNID®. 
a. Struthionine. 
a. Struthio. 
1. camelus, ex Afr. et As. Oce. 
B. Rhea. 
2. americana, ex rep. Argent. 
8. macrorhyncha, ex rep. Argent. (?). 
4, darwini, ex Patagonia. 


b. Casuariine. 


y. Casuarius. 
5. galeatus, ex ins. Ceram. 
G6. bicarunculatus, ex patr. ign. 
7. kaupi, ex ins. Salawatty. 
8. uni-appendiculatus, ex patr. ign. 
9. bennettii, ex Noy. Britann. 
10. australis, ex Noy. Holl. Bor. 


6. Dromzus. 
11. nove: hollandix, ex Austr. Or. 
12. irroratus, ex Austr. Occ. 


* See. anted, p. 176. . . 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159 


Fam. I. Arpreryama”. 
Apteryx. 
1. australis, ex Noy. Zeland. ins. bor. 
2. mantelli, ex Nov. Zeland. ins. media. 
3. owenli, ex Nov. Zeland. ins. med. 
4, maxima, ex Nov. Zeland. ins. med. 


Dr. Sclater illustrated his remarks by exhibiting a series of drawings taken from 
examples in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London, which, he stated, 
contained living specimens of no less than ten out of these sixteen species, 


On a New Mining Larva, recently discovered. By H. T. Sratnton, F.L.S. 


The author remarked that it had long been notorious that larve of several orders 
of insects lived between the two surfaces of leaves of plants, forming tracks in the 
fleshy substance of the leaf, and hence termed leaf-miners; that from the time 
of Reaumur, nearly 150 years ago, observers had often paid considerable attention 
to this class of insects, and that latterly a continued attempt had been made, both 
here and in Germany, to discover all the species of leaf-mining larve which be- 
longed to the order Lepidoptera, 

Amongst the leaf-mining larvee were representatives of the four orders, Coleo- 
ptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera; but at present few entomologists 
attempt to study more than one order, and hence a collector of Coleoptera would 
naturally neglect all Lepidopterous larvee and those he suspected to be Lepido- 
pterous; in like manner a collector of Lepidoptera would reject all Coleopterous 
larvee and those he suspected;to belong to that order. Hence the same larva might 
be suspected by both parties and peglected accordingly. A larva which had lately 
attracted considerable attention had in this way been noticed long ago, both here 
and abroad, by Lepidopterists, but, being reputed by them a Coleopterous larva, 
had been neglected accordingly. 

Herr Kaltenbach of Aix-la-Chapelle, who had been devoting his attention to 
mining-larve of all orders, had met with this larva, and reared from it aMcropterya; 
and last spring Dr. Hofmann, of Ratisbon, had also reared a larva of the same genus. 

The genus Micropteryx is a genus of small moths of the group Tineina; but the 
structure of the palpi is so singular, the neuration of the wings so peculiar, and the 
wings so slightly clothed with scales, that some authors were disposed to question 
their right to be considered Lepidoptera. Westwood, in 1840, had expressed his 
regret that the transformations of so anomalous a genus had not been detected. 

The larvee of Micropteryx had now been found very plentifully, and had clearly 
established that the genus was truly Lepdopterous, as the only group of insects to- 
which they could otherwise have been referred, the Trichoptera, have larve of a 
yery different structure. 

The most striking peculiarity of these Micropteryx-larvee is a slight lateral protu-. 
berance on the fifth segment, which has been noticed in several species. These 
larvee are totally devoid of legs, and the hinder segments are much attenuated, 


On Varieties of Blechnum Spicant collected in 1860 and 1861. 
By A, SransFre.p. 


The Blechnum Spicant of Linnzeus, Lomaria Spicant of Hooker, is one of the 
commonest of all known ferns. Its range of elevation extends from the sea-level 
to the summits of the highest mountains, though it flourishes most in the subalpine 
regions. It is found in greater or less abundance in most of the geological formations, 
most frequently of all in the siliceous formations of the Silurian, Old Red Sandstone, 
and the Coal-measures, and is least plentiful on the mountain limestone and the 
chalk. From its extensive diffusion we might be led to expect that varieties 
would be numerous, but till within a very late period these seem not to have been 
recognized by the British botanists. 

Bentham, in his recent work on British plants, says it is one of the most constant 
of all known ferns. Sir W. J. Hooker, in his ‘Species Filicum,’ notices but one 
variety, found near Warrington, Lancashire, hy Mr. Hobson of Manchester, about 


160 REPORT—1861. 


forty years ago. It is to Mr. Moore, of the Botanic Garden, Chelsea, in the 
“ Nature-printed Ferns,” that we are indebted for the bringing of the varieties of 
this fern most prominently before the British pteridologist. ™ 

During the last three years I and a few friends haye examined some millions of 

lants of the Blechnum Spicant in yarious parts of the United Kingdom, collecting 
all the abnormal forms we could meet with, afterwards carefully growing them, 
watching sedulously their development, and noting their peculiarities. This, speak- 
ing for myself, whilst it has afforded me a fund of innocent enjoyment, has enabled 
me to report on the permanency of some forms and the fugacity of others, and 
on the general characters of the whole. I purpose here noticing only the more 
striking among the permanent forms that have stood the test of cultivation, some 
of them for two and others for three years. 

These have perfectly distinct and fixed characters, like species; and in those that 
have been raised from spores, the complete identity of the parents has been main- 
tained. For instance, out of ninety plants raised from the spores of Blechnum Spi- 
cant subserratum, no difference from the parent plant could be detected, whilst the 
minutest peculiarities were faithfully repeated. Thus a few of the lobes, both 
of the fertile and barren fronds of the parent plants, were twins, or bilobate: the 
young plants have all the same peculiarity. Out of seventy plants raised from 
spores of Blechnum S. imbricatum, every plant seemed perfectly identical with the 
parent. Out of 100 plants raised from spores of Blechnum S. ramosum, all had the 
same ramosely cristate termination of the parent. 

Our ideas of species are exceedingly vague and indefinite, and indeed it may be 
questioned whether they have any real foundation in nature. Doubtless great 
numbers of plants now regarded as species are merely variations of other forms. Be 
this as it may, we know that, the forms of Blechnwm Spicant, to which I am about 
to refer, are variations from a primary type, though they possess specitic differences 
which in other genera would, [ apprehend, be sufficient to constitute them species. 
But in whatever light we regard them, it is quite essential that we should give 
distinct names to obviously distinct and permanent forms. 

The form of Blechnum Spicant which first arrested my attention was the B. S. 
concinnum of Moore. It was so essentially distinct from the common type, and so 
beautiful an object, that it determined me at once to give the Blechna a thorough 
investigation. It was gathered in the valley of the Conway in North Wales early 
in 1859. I subsequently gathered it near the foot of Twelve Pins, Connemara, 
Ireland, and in Thieveley Scouts, near Burnley, Lancashire. Fronds linear, from 6 
to 12 inches in length, and from ; to 3 inch in breadth ; lobes very short, subrotund, 
and beautifully crenated on the margins. Fertile frond: lobes little more than 
nodes bearing sori. In cultivation the linear outline of the frond is maintained, but 
when liberally supplied with water the lobes become enlarged, so as to make a slight 
approach to B, S. strictum, from which, however, it remains quite distinct. 

Blechnum Spicant strictum (Moore). Fronds ovate-lanceolate, from 6 to 12 inches 
in length, and from 3 to 1 inch in breadth; lobes mostly recurved, and distinctly 
serrated on the margins. Fertile frond longer than the barren, lobes short and ser- 
rated on the margin. I have gathered this beautiful form in the valley of the 
Conway, and near the Pass of Nant Francon in Wales, in Connemara, Ireland, 
Vale of Todmorden, Lancashire, and some other localities. It is perfectly constant 
under cultivation, and a most interesting object. 

Blechnum S. lancifolium (Moore). Somewhat less than the normal type ; fronds 
acutely lanciform, entire from the apex to jrd their length; fertile fronds still more 
acutely lanciform, lobes much abbreyiated above and below. ‘This has been 
gathered near Todmorden, Lancashire, Trefriw, North Wales, and in Connemara, 

Blechnum S. subserratum (Moore). Size of the normal type; fronds rather nar- 
rower; lobes ascending, serrated on the inferior, and frequently auricled on the 
superior margin ; fertile fronds longer than the barren, lobes deeply serrated on the 
inferior limb, frequently all but bipinnatifid. Gathered near Todmorden, and near 
Castle Howard, Yorkshire. 

Blechnum 8S. imbricatum (Moore). Fronds from 4 to 6 inches long, and from 
1 to 2 inches broad, nearly ovate in outline, thick and leathery in texture; lobes 
closely imbricated, recurved, the apical lobe twisted; fertile fronds very little 
longer than the barren. Gathered in the Vale of Todmorden, in Rossendale, Lane. ; 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161 


near Barnstaple, Devon, and some other places. It is quite constant under cul- 
tivation; of seventy plants raised from spores, all inherited the characteristics of 
the parent. ¥ 

Blechnum S. imbricato-subcrenatum. Fronds ovate-lanceolate in outline, 6 to 
9 inches long, from 1 to 2 inches broad; lobes closely imbricated and recurved, sub- 
crenate on the lower limb. Gathered in Connemara, Ireland, in 1860. 

Blechnum S. anomalum (Moore). Fronds from 6 inches to a foot in length, and 
1 inch or a little more in breadth; lobes very narrow, distant, attenuated ; all the 
fronds fertile halfway down, barren below. This is certainly a very strikin 
anomaly, and one that could not have been anticipated by those best canilen 
with the normal type. I at first attributed the change to the situation of its 
growth, the ground on which it was first found growing being very wet; but I have 
since found it on dry hedge-banks and near dry walls, where the condition before 
mentioned was altogether absent. Whatever may have been the cause, the change 
is very wonderful, and two plants can scarcely be more unlike than the Blechnun 
S. imbricatum and the B. S. anomalum. About three-fourths of the plants hitherto 
gathered have been constant. It has been found near Todmorden, in Connemara, 
Ireland, in North Wales, and some other places. ; 

Blechnum S. projectum (Moore). This is a most heterodox variety, not at all 
conforming to any law of regular development. Fronds from 4 to 10 inches long, 
some of them almost entire, being little more than a winged rachis, others with here 
and there a projecting lobe beyond the rachidal membrane, and others again with 
large projections in lieu of lobes starting from the middle of the frond, others, still, 
bearing projections or branches near the terminations in the most irregular manner, 
Fertile fronds much longer than the barren, little more than a branched rachis 
bearing sori without the intervention of the usual side lobes. This bears very little 
resemblance to the typical form, and is altogether a most singular and grotesque 
plant. It was gathered near the foot of Ben Lawers, Scotland, and, as described 
above, is permanently irregular in its development. 

Blechnum 8, variabile. “Fronds the length of the normal type, variously furcate, 
and ramose terminally ; lobes below very much depauperated for more than half the 
leneth of the frond. Gathered in the Clova Mountains, Scotland. 

Blechnum S. caudatum (Moore). Fronds 4 or 6 inches long, and 1 to 13 inch 
broad, contracted below, and terminating in a cauda more than one-third the length 
of the frond. Gathered in North Wales. 

Blechnum 8. diversifrons (Moore). Fronds less than the common type, very 
much abbreviated below ; lobes suddenly starting to the full length in the middle 
of the fronds, distant. Some of the fronds perfectly linear, being little more than 
% inch in breadth, whilst others, again, have projecting lobes variously distributed ; 
fertile frond being little more than a winged rachis bearing the sori. Found in the 
Vale of Todmorden. 

Blechnum 8. latifrons (Moore). Fronds 6 to 9 inches long, and 2 to 8 inches 
broad, distinctly caudate at the end, very coriaceous in texture. Gathered in two 
or three places within the Vale of Todmorden. 

Blechnum S. brevilobum (Moore). Fronds from 3 to 6 inches long, and from 
} to $ inch broad; lobes rather distant, very short, like blunt triangular teeth on 
each side the rachis. Found in the Vale of Rossendale. 

Blechnum S, ramosum (Moore). Fronds from 6 to 9 inches long, and from 3 to 
1 inch broad, every frond terminating in large crests or ramose. cristations, these 
crests 7s producing other crests. Gathered near Todmorden, also in Connemara, 
Treland. 

Blechnum 8. heterophyllum (Moore). Fronds exceedingly varied, some nearly 
normal, others depauperated throughout, others, again, having lobes projecting be- 
a the margin intermixed with abbreviated and normal ones. Gathered in the 

ale of Todmorden. 

Blechnum S. erosum. Less than the normal type; fronds very narrow; lobes 
scarcely developed at all, very much eroded, Gathered near ‘Todmorden. 

Blechnum 8. polydactylum (Moore), ‘Less than the normal type, all the fronds 
ending in fingered terminations. Gathered in Connemara, and also near ‘Todmorden, 

Blechnum 8. crispum (Moore), Rather less than the species; lobes very much 
1861. 11 


162 - REPORT—1861.: 


crisped and twisted ; fronds sometimes terminating in crispy furcations, Gathered 
in North Wales. 

Blechnum 8. trinervium (Moore). Nearly the size of the species, characterized 
by the lowest pair of lobes being developed into miniature fronds. Found in Ive- 
land. 

Blechnum S&. multifurcatum (Moore). Distinguished by the fronds, both barren 
and fertile, being variously branched and furcate at the ends, Gathered near Tod- 
morden, in Rossendale, and other places. 

The forms previously mentioned are all distinct from one another, and are beau- 
tiful and interesting objects, either for pot culture or fern houses, for Wardian 
cases or rockwork in the hardy fernery. 

The following varieties (many of them gathered during the past season) I have 
submitted to Mr. Moore, who considers them quite distinct and permanent forms, 
and has named them accordingly. Most of them are Sscaeedinghy interesting, but 
my acquaintance with them is not sufficiently extended to enable me to youch for 
their permanency. ‘ 


Blechnum §. serratum. Blechnum §. variegatum. 

—— repandum. — cristatum. 

— mundulum. deficiens. 

ne eo detealy — fureatum. 

—— aberrans. subcrenatum, 

— porrectum. —- tridactylum. 
auperculum. —— premorsum. 

—— Imparatum. — dentigerum. 

— mininum. —— abruptum. 


Observations on the Development of Synapta inheerens. 
By Professor Wrvirtz Toomson, LL.D. 


On some Points of Interest in the Structure and Habits of Spiders. 
By Turren Wust, F.L.S8. 


The object of this paper was stated to be, rather to dissipate erroneous opinions 
commonly held, by the mention of facts, than to set forth novelties; and by 
adverting to some of the many points of interest in the structure and habits of 
spiders, to lead to their being regarded with better feelings, and perhaps more 
attended to by students of Natural History. A more favourable opportunity could 
not present itself than such an occasion, when those who professedly study science 
are met and listened to by the intellectual and the highly cultivated, with whom rests 
the privilege of giving to the age its prevailing tone of thought. The colouring of 
spiders is seldom other than rich in its tones; in making figures of them great dif- 
ficulty is experienced in getting colours of sufficient brightness. That there is an 
adaptation of the general tone of colouring to the places inhabited by different 
spiders is certain ; ‘how far individuals that. have arrived at maturity may be able 
on changing their abode to modify their colours is not known, though it is probable, 
from the great variety readily observable in this respect, that during growth at any 
rate there may be some such adaptive power. The alterations in colour of the 
anterior pair of eyes in some spiders, from ruby-red or emerald-green to golden- 
yellow, by a perpap ale internal motion, are very remarkable, and the means by 
which such change is effected deserve careful study. In the instincts of spiders 
there is much to interest. The intimate structure of the web of the Diadem- 
spiders is known to most as a favourite microscopic object; the radii in this web 
are cords serving Petnaipally for the support of the highly elastic spiral line, with 
its drops of viscid material. In the Ciniflonide none of the lines forming the 
snare are viscid, but insects are quite as effectually entangled by a pair of fine 
double lines, so disposed. an a framework as to form very numerous double loops. 
The apparatus employed in the construction of these loops is composed of a double 
row of spines on the metatarsus of each hind-leg. Some of the tent-forming 
spiders in fine weather make their covering of a very slight texture, but in wet 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163 


gusty weather this is strengthened by additional layers of silk, to which are added 
legs, wings, &c., the refuse of their prey. Many spiders manifest proofs of great 
action for their offspring : the female Lycos@ carry their cocoons constantly about 
with them, attached to their spmners; and when the young are hatched, they affix 
themselves to the hairs on the legs, abdomen, &e. of their parent. Pholeus phalan- 
gioides carries its cocoon in its mouth: Dolomedes mirabilis also, attaching a few 
lines from the spinners as well; it is only left to take food. The young of many 
species of Zheridion live with their parent for some time in a tent constructed by 
her, and are, till able to shift for themselves, supplied by her with food. 

The structure of many spiders presents numerous points of interest. In typus 
Sulzeri, our only British yepresentative of the great Bird-catching Spiders of the 
tropics, the jaws are so enormously developed as to render necessary an unusual 
elevation of the front of the cephalothorax, at the highest part of which, on a short 
column, the eyes are seated. This spider constructs a long tube of silk in a burrow 
formed in sloping banks, like its relative the “Trap-door spider;” the entrance, how- 
ever, is protected in a different way—the end of the tube, hanging outin a collapsed 
state, lies concealed amongst grass, &c, Several remarkable yarieties in the form 
of the cephalothorax in species belonging to the genera Walckenaéra, Neriene, &c., 
were mentioned, details respecting which will be found at length in the second 
part of Mr. Blackwall’s ar on our native species, shortly to appear under the 
auspices of the Ray Society, The extraordinary difference in size between the 
males and females of many spiders was alluded to: in some, as the Diadem-spider 
of our gardens, the female is three or four times as large as the male, and powerful 
in proportion; wayward and capricious, she is apt to seek to enjoy by making a 
meal of him, hence the disproportionate length of the limbs. Some spiders, how- 
ever, especially amongst the smaller species, are gregarious and social, 

Many other interesting circumstances respecting spiders might have been men- 
tioned but for the fear of taking up too much time; as the habits of Argyroneta 
aquatica, which, though an air-breathing spider, lives habitually in water, carrying 
an extempore diving-bell about with it, and forming a habitation by imprisoning 
air at the bottom of the water by fine silken lines. The power of restoring ampu- 
tated limbs, of sustaining entire abstinence from food for very lengthened periods, 
the probable duration of life, the graceful form of the cocoons, were pointed out as 
well worthy of attention, _ 

Some interesting facts respecting the spiders found in coal-mines were then 
alluded to, Some months ago it was publicly stated that7spiders’ webs occurred in 
the abandoned workings of the Pelton Colliery, near Chester-le-Street, county of 
Durham; specimens of the architects of these webs, on being submitted to careful 
examination, proved to be Wervene errans, a small spider met with occasionally 
about the time of the hay-harvest. It appears probable that some individuals 
were carried down into the pit with the provender for the horses, of which about 
seventy are constantly employed in the workings, There they have bred freely. 
Mr. West found their cocoons in great quantity on the roof of the working, and 
obtained some little insight into the nature of their food by finding entangled in a 
portion of web, a specimen of the brown plume-moth, one of the midges, and a 
number of serrate hairs from a hairy caterpillar. The special point of interest, 
however, is that with altered circumstances 4 modification appears to have taken 
place in the instincts of these spiders, In their natural state they are only known 
as solitary wanderers, making no web of any kind, further than a few scattered lines. 
Have their instincts so changed by scantiness of and difficulty in securing prey that 
in the coal-mine they become gregarious, and live in large colonies? from being 
neither spinners nor weayers, they take to constructing sheets of web of compara- 
tively vast size. Myr. West saw one 30 feet long by 4 feet 6 wide, hanging from 
about the middle of the roof; and Mr. David P. Morrison, who lives at Pelton, and 
was the first to carefully observe them, has recorded the occurrence of many nearly 
as large. Is any alteration in the structure of the spiders taking place? Are the 
optic nerves becoming atrophied, the number of the spinnerets increasing, and the 

lands secreting the silk increasing in size? Here is a fine opportunity afforded 

or practically testing Mr. Darwin’s theory of the origin of species, since we know, 

from the time the pit has been worked, that it cannot be long since the first indivi- 

duals were taken underground, Will the naturalists who may follow us have the 
ed 


164 REPORT—1861, 


opportunity of observing the formation of a blind variety, differing in so many 
respects from its original, that, had it not been certainly known whence it sprung, it 
would have ranked without hesitation as a distinct species, analogous to the Cave 
Crastaceans, &c.? The fact that all the examples brought from the pit die very 
shortly after their removal thence, may have a close connexion with the altered 
barometric pressure, and is not without interest. 


PuysIoLoey. 


On the Structure and Growth of the Elementary Purts (Cells) of Living Beings. 
By Professor Lionen 8. Beate, M.B., F.R.S. 


The object of the author was to prove, amongst other points, that all tissues 
consist of elementary parts, and that each elementary part (cell) is composed of 
matter in two states—germinal matter within, and formed material externally. The 
only part of the matter of which living structures are composed which possesses 
the power of selecting pabulum, and of transforming this into various substances— 
of growing, multiplying, and forming tissue—is that which he terms germinal mat- 
ter. The powers of growth of this matter are infinite; but for the manifestation of 
the powers, even in a limited degree, certain conditions must be present. Growth 
always occurs under certain restrictions. Germinal matter is composed of spherical 

articles, and each of these of smaller spherules. New centres of growth originate 
an the spherical masses. Nuclei therefore are not formed first, and other structures 
built up around them; but nuclei are new centres, originating in pre-existing cen- 
tres. All tissue (cell-wall, intercellular substance, &c.) was once in the state of 
germinal matter, and resulted from changes occurring in the oldest particles of the 
masses of germinal matter. What is termed the “intercellular substance” corre- 
sponds with the cell-wall of a single cell; and there is no more reason for believing 
that this structure results from any inherent power to form matrix, or that the in- 
tercellular substance is simply deposited from the nutrient fluid, than for believing 
that the capsule of mildew can grow independently of the matter it encloses, or 
be formed by being precipitated from the medium which surrounds it. There is a 
period in the existence of cartilage and allied structures in which there is no true 
“ intercellular substance.” In nutrition, the inanimate matter permeates the formed 
material, and passes into the germinal matter, where it undergoes conversion into 
this substance. The old particles of germinal matter become converted into formed 
material. Growth, therefore, always takes place from centre to circumference. The 
relative proportion of germinal matter and formed material varies greatly in different 
elementary parts, in the same elementary part at different periods of its growth, and 
in the same tissue under different circumstances. The more rapidly growth pro- 
ceeds, the larger the amount of germinal matter produced in proportion to the 
formed material. In all living beings, the matter upon which existence depends is 
the germinal matter; and in all living structures the germinal matter possesses the 
a general characters, although its powers and the results of its life are so very 
different. 


On a Method of Craniometry, with Observations on the Varieties of Form of 
the Human Skull. By Joun Crrtanp, M.D. 


The author remarked that, notwithstanding the great interest which attached to 
the changes of form which the human skull undergoes in the passage from infancy 
to old age, and the varieties of its appearance in different nations, little had been 
done as yet to determine what the various superficial appearances indicated as to 
the exact form of the skull. It wasasif artistic views had been taken of the brain’s 
habitation from various points, but as yet no ground-plan attempted. And this 
apparently resulted from the skull being shaded eather as an object of physiogno- 
mical interest than as an anatomical structure. He then pointed out the method 
which he had invented for making accurate measurements of the relations of any 
series of points on the circumference of the cranium. The instrument consisted of 
a framework and bars, by which the vertical and horizontal distance of any spot 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 165 


from a fixed point could be determined. By means of a short series of figures it 
was thus possible to convey to persons at a distance materials for making perfectly 
accurate measurements of skulls which they had not even seen a drawing of. The 
reader of the paper then went on to show that, although there was great difference 
between savage and cultivated nations in the relative breadth of the cranium and 
of the face, yet that, as regarded the proportions in the mesial plane of the front, 
middle, and back parts of the head, there was no characteristic difference of size or 
shape even between the European and the African. The peculiar appearance of 
the skuils of Negroes, Australians, Caribs, &c., compared with civilized nations, 
depended on the way in which the teeth were set, on the development of the fron- 
tal ridge to the extent of giving the appearance of a retreating forehead, and on 
the manner in which the whole head was balanced on the vertebral column, but not 
on diminished size of the anterior lobes of the brain. Dr. Cleland pointed out that 
one of the most characteristic differences between man and all other mammals con- 
sisted in the fact that the human head was balanced in the erect posture, and only 
required muscular action to steady it; while in the chimpanzee and all lower mam- 
mals the head was constantly suspended by the action of muscles and elastic 
structure. To preserve the balance of the human head, it was necessary that a 
change in the joint which articulated it to the neck should accompany the growth 
of the individual in such a manner as to tilt the skull further and further backwards 
on the vertebral column from infancy to adult age, that the back of the head might 
be balanced against the increasing weight of the forehead and face ; and he demon- 
strated that such a change really took place. Hence also the feminine head, there 
being a smaller development of the face-hones, had a characteristic position in rela- 
tion to the neck, distinguishing it from the masculinely developed head. He showed 
that in the discussions which had lately taken place to such an extent among anato- 
mists as to the degree in which the cerebellum was covered by the brain proper, in 
man and in monkeys, everything depended upon the level on which the skulls 
were placed, for that in all mammals the anatomically superior aspect of the cere- 
bellum was separated from the cerebrum by the tentorium only, and the real 
difference lay, not in any disproportionate addition to the posterior part of the 
human cerebrum, but in this, that the human skull, together with the contained 
cerebrum, was much more curved upon itself in man than in any other animal. 
Thus, if the back of a sheep’s skull were placed in the same position as the back of 
a human skull situated as in the erect posture, the nose of the former would be di- 
rected upwards. 


On the Action of Lime on Animal and Vegetable Substances. 
By Joun Davy, ID., F.BS. Se. 


In this paper the author shows by a number of experiments that quicklime ex- 
ercises on most animal and vegetable substances a preservative, and not a destruc- 
tive power according to popular belief; and, consequently, that it may be used with 
propriety, not for the purpose of consuming dead bodies, but for that of arresting 
their putrefaction and the disengagement of offensive gases. 

When the lime becomes converted by the absorption of carbonic acid into car- 
bonate of lime, it no longer possesses the same antiseptic quality : hence, if moist- 
ure with atmospheric air be present, the bodies buried in lime will undergo change 
and decomposition, but this slowly and gradually, as the lime itself becomes neutra- 
lized and inert. 


On the Blood of the Common Earthworm. By Jonn Davy, M.D., FBS. &e. 


The fluid in question was collected from the cardiac organs, and was carefully 
freed from the perivisceral fluid. It was found to have an alkaline reaction,—to 
be coagulable by heat and by nitric acid, very much in the same manner as the 
serum of the blood of the mammalia,—to contain red corpuscles (these, taking the 
average, about ;;1,,th of an inch in diameter), and to yield, when chemically ex- 
amined, traces of iron. 

Possessing these qualities, the author has come to the conclusion that this red 
fluid is blood, and, as such, that it performs a double function, one of nourishing, 
the other of aiding, by absorbing oxygen, in aérating the body. Its relation to the 


166 REPORT—1861, 


erivisceral fluid—that also probably a nutritive fluid—he has not attempted to 
etermine, 


On the Question whether the Hair is subject or not to a sudden Change of Colour. 
By Joun Davy, M.D., FLBRS. Se. 


The conclusion arrived at by the author respecting this question is negative, partly 
founded on defective historical evidence, none of the instances adduced of sudden 
change, according to him, being of a satisfactory kind, and partly on physiological 
data, the human hair, after it has sprung from the bulb, the gland which secretes it, 
being “ anorganic,” destitute of any circulating fluid, and remarkable for its power 
of resisting change when exposed to the action of chemical agents. 

The attempts made to support the popular notion that hair may suddenly, even 
in a night or in a shorter space of time, become grey, by reference to change of 
colour of the coats of certain of the mammalia, and of the plumage of certain birds on 
the approach of winter and of summer, are objected to on the ground that in all these 
instances the change of colour is, as far as he has been able to ascertain, associated 
with a change of hair and feathers, that is, with a new growth, the old being shed. 


Observations on the Encephalon of Mammalia. By R,. Garner, F.L.S. 


In this ca the author adverted to the extreme doubt still dwelling in the 
minds of physicians and physiologists with respect to the functions of the different 
parts of the brain. He took up the theory that the cerebellum is not the organ of 
amativeness, as maintained by Gall, but the distributor of the motive impulse de- 
scending from the cerebrum. His proofs were derived from comparative anatomy, 
and from the development of the cerebellum at different ages, as well as from a re- 
markable case of disease. He also endeavoured to localise the sources of its different 
kinds of influences, whether they are exerted upon the head, trunk, or limbs, or 
in flexion and extension. The cerebellum seems to be as often a separator as a 
combiner of cerebral impulse ; for instance, the motores oculorum are given off above 
the cerebellar connexion, and we have no power of separate action in these nerves, 
whilst it is the reverse in both respects with the abducentes. With respect to 
phrenology, he observed that its list of faculties and feelings is very complete, whilst 
one-half of the convolutions, their supposed seats, do not appear on the upper sur- 
face of the brain at all; or influence the form of the skull. He next endeavoured 
to prove the functions of the component aoe of the brain, and traced the develop- 
ment of the convolutions from the smooth brain of the rodentia to that of the ape 
and man. The distinction and description of these folds is not without the pale of 
anatomy, and their consideration forms the transcendental plan of arranging the 
Mammalia. He made a few observations on the general form of the cranium. 
Females, he thinks, have by no means, comparatively speaking, low foreheads, but 
the reverse, at least centrally; their skull is also more lozenge-shaped, a little pro- 
minent at the sides. He thinks men of low or moderate stature have commonly 
an advantage in cerebral development; but the convolutions in a small brain are 
oftener richer or more numerous and tortuous in their divisions than in the other 
case ; and some eminent men have had very small heads. With regard to the boat- 
shaped or long-head skull, from before to behind, and the rounder and broader 
form, the differences, sometimes perhaps national, may be in others only individual; 
the author thinks that the former variety has in some respects (the exact studies 
for instance) very frequently the advantage. Twins have been noticed by the 
author, one having the elongated head, the other the broad. In the case above 
alluded to of cerebellar disease, it was a cyst without any other lesion of the 
encephalon, and locomotion was greatly interfered with, unless the cerebrum was 
brought into action; the abducentes were paralysed, the motores not. The paper 
was illustrated with life-size photographs of brains of healthy persons of different 
ages, of a woman of a hundred, of a deaf mute, and of idiots and epileptics. 


On certain points in the Anatomy and Physiology of the Dibranchiate Cepha- 
lopoda. By Atpany Hancock, 
The author confines his observations in this paper almost entirely to the so-called 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167 


water-system, and to the blood-system ; and, after entering at some length into the 
anatomy of the parts, concludes his remarks with the following summary, giving 
the results at ih he had arrived, though in some respects they are not to be 
considered final. 

First, That the so-called abdominal or visceral chamber, in the Dibranchiate 
see ered, is a veritable venous sinus, formed by the expansion of venous trunks ; 
and that it is provided with proper walls. 

Second, That, apparently, capillary vessels exist, uniting the arterial and venous 
branchlets; and that the blood-system is composed of vessels and sinuses with 
proper walls, therefore constituting a closed system. 

hird, That the so-called water-system, for the ingress of water from the exte- 
rior, does not exist; but that the chambers to which this function has heen attri- 
buted compose a diffused. kidney—the glandular appendages in the renal chamber 
being for the purpose of eliminating peculiarly urinary matters, while the fluids 
pass off throug ‘i agency of the capillaries of the various organs that lie in the 
several chambers. 

Fourth, That a rudimentary absorbent system exists in these animals, the in- 
testinal veins assuming, in addition to their own, the function of lacteals, and the 
so-called fleshy appendages of the branchial hearts acting, probably, in the capacity 
of a general lymphatic system. 

Fifth, That there is no pericardium properly so called, 

Sixth, That the muscular fibre of the systemic heart is of the striated variety, 
as is also, apparently, that of the branchial hearts. 

Seventh, That the cephalic arteries and those supplying the fins are provided 
with bulbous muscular enlargements, probably for the purpose of regulating the 
flow of the blood. . 

Eighth, That the surface of the brain of Octopus vulgaris exhibits inequalities 
resembling rudimentary convolutions, and that the pedal nerves arise by double 
roots; both conditions approximating to the higher standard of the Vertebrata. 

Ninth, That the results of analysis of the nervous system corroborate the de- 
ductions derived from embryology as to the homological import of the parts. 


On Nerves without End. By Professor Hyrtt. 
On the Pneumatic Processes of the Occipital Bone. By Professor Hyxtt. 


On Portions of Lungs without Blood-vessels, By Professor Hyntt. 


On Chloroform Accidents, and some new Physiological Facts as to thetr 
Explanation and Removal, By Cuartes Kinp, M.D. 


The author held that “there is every reason to hope that, in consequence of more 
correct opinions now entertained in hospital practice on the administration of 
chloroform, the deaths from that agent will disappear altogether, as they have 
been manifestly diminishing in proportionate frequency during the last twelve 
months, now that these accidents are better understood.” His conclusions were— 
“ All which the author submits goes to prove that in place of attending solely to 
the pulse, as hitherto, those who administer chloroform should for the future pay 
equal attention to the respiration of the patient, and in case of accident direct hee 
first attention to it. The corroborative facts as bearing on his former views, as ex~ 

lained at Oxford, which the author wished to submit, were the following :—Ist. 

hat from a large number of experiments since published on animals, there is now 
no reason to doubt that cardiac syncope is a mere accident, The death arises, as 
carefully observed in such animals, by a form of tetanic fixture of the respiratory 
muscles in the early stages of the chloroform administration ; and the best means 
of saving the life of such a patient is founded on that view of such accidents, 
namely, by the immediate adoption of such means for resuscitation as artificial 
respiration, tracheotomy, with the intermittent ‘F' aradisation’ electric current, to 
imitate or assist respiration. 2ndly. Respiration has its earliest point of departure, 
not from the phrenic nerve and diaphragm directly, but from certain fibres in the 


168 REPORT—1861. 


superior laryngeal nerve, which are distributed to the laryngeal mucous mem- 
brane, which seem to act in a reflex manner on the diaphragm—stopping its action 
if the action be too great, as from impure or pungent chloroform acting on the 
membrane, or possibly from idiosyncrasy; as it has been a long time observed, in 
France especially, that it is dangerous to administer chloroform where irritable 
larynx exists, or emphysema or other extensive lung-disease. That such irritation, 
under other circumstances, of other branches of the eighth pair produces permanent 
closure of the glottis till relieved by tracheotomy—a very formidable remedy no 
doubt, but one never to be lost sight of in accidents from chloroform.” 


On the Physical and Physiological Processes involved in Sensation. 
By J. D. Morrtzt, MA., DLD. 


When an appropriate stimulus is applied to any of the organs of sense, a feeling 
is produced in the mind which is termed, in the language of mental science, a sen- 
sation. A pin driven into any of the nerves which extend themselves immediately 
under the surface of the skin produces pain,—a ray of light falling on the retina 
ee vision,—a sapid substance put into the mouth produces taste, and so forth. 

ow it has always been a puzzle amongst mental philosophers to understand how 
it is that we can come to a consciousness of external objects at all. Theories without 
number have been formed, from the time of Plato downwards, to bridge over the 
gulf which lies between matter and consciousness, between objects of sense around 
us and the fact of sensation within us. This chasm in our knowledge we do not 
a te wholly to fill. At the same time, so many facts bearing on the question 

ave been brought to light by the progress of physical science on the one side and 
by physiology on the other, and so much has been added by the mental analyst, 
likewise from his peculiar point of view, that the distance between the outer world 
and our own inner consciousness has been vastly diminished, and the mystery driven 
back to that one point of connexion between the brain and the human soul which 
no analysis appears likely fully to solve. Let us attempt then to strip away all 
that is mixed up with sensation naturally, and all that is added to it by our sub- 
sequent mental activity, so as to analyse the bare fact itself and reduce it to its 
simplest elements. Looking to the physical and external parts of the process, we 
must consider, first of all, what it is that the nerves convey from the world without to 
the mind within. Let us take as an example the sense of hearing, as presenting the 
greatest degree of simplicity. We know, from the investigation of physical science, 
that the sole medium of sound is the atmosphere. Where there is no atmosphere, 
there can be no sound; and where the atmosphere is perfectly still, perfect silence 
is the necessary result. The real cause of sound, therefore, externally considered, 
is found in the motion of the atmosphere ; and the variations in the acuteness or gra~ 
vity of sound, we know by experiment, arise from the greater or less rapidity of the 
oscillations. The deepest note which the human car appears capable of perceiving as a 
continuous sound is that produced by sixteen oscillations in a second; the acutest, 
that which is produced by about 48,000 oscillations in the same time. The differences 
in the quality of sounds arise, in like manner, from the peculiarway inwhich the atmo- 
sphere is affected by the object that sets it in motion, and the corresponding pecu- 
harity of the atmospheric waves that reach the ear. What we really sensize, there- 
fore, through the car is simply the motion of the atmosphere, and nothing more. 
The human ear is an apparatus beautifully formed for receiving the vibrations on 
which all sound depends, and the auditory nerve conveys them, in some manner, 
to the sensorium. With regard to the way in which this latter effect is brought 
about we have as yet very little insight. The soft texture of the nerves, and the 
manner in which they are imbedded in the surrounding materials, would naturally 
suggest a total inaptitude for propagating vibrations in the ordinary sense of that 
term. It seems more probable that the flow of life through the body is accom- 
panied with a constant thrill and movement in every part of the nervous system, 
forming what is technically termed the canesthesis, or common sensibility; so that 
the outward oscillations do not so much originate wholly new vibrations as enter 
into conflict with the nervous action already going on, and give it that peculiar de- 
termination which is necessary to create any given sensation in the mind. This is, 
perhaps, as far as it is possible to go in our analysis of the physical process. How 


—_— —_ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169 


the vibration of the air comes into conflict with the living thrill of the nerve, and 
how the result of this conflict reaches the mind, we are at present unable to com- 
prehend. It is one of those hidden secrets of nature which science has not yet been 
able to unfold. Turning from the sense of hearing to that of sight, a precisely simi- 
lar analysis holds good. Here the vibrating medium is not the atmosphere, but a 
universally diffused ether which is set in motion by what are called luminous bodies. 
Just as atmospheric oscillations form the external cause, and sound the internal 
result, in the case of hearing, so in sight the oscillations of the light-bearing ether 
form the outward condition, and colour, in all its various shades, the inward result. 
Here, accordingly, as before, it is simply motion in nature giving rise to motion in 
the nerve-world with which we have immediately to do in vision; while, to kee 

up the analogy, it is the difference in the rapidity of the oscillations that creates a. 

the infinite variations of hue. The red rays, it is calculated, require 458 billions 
of oscillations in a second, the violet rays 727 billions, and all the other colours and 
shades of the spectrum some intermediate number. That the phenomena of sound 
and sight spring physiologically out of particular states of the corresponding nerves 
is clear from the fact that pressure on the eye, or any artificial irritation, produces 
the perception of light as strongly as the normal impulses derived from the vibrating 
ether, and that any artificial excitement of the auditory nerve will produce noise in 
the head. Ghost-seeing often arises in the same way—that is, when the conditions 
of sight are brought about by the nerves being affected through some other than 
the ordinary and legitimate stimuli. Whatever, in a word, can affect the regular 
vital movements of the nerves, and put them into a condition at all similar to that 
produced by the proper external stimuli of sensation, will, of necessity, bring about 
similar phenomena of consciousness. We come next to the sense of feeling. This 
sense comprehends two apparently distinct series of sensations, namely, those of 
touch, oe ted so called, and those of heat. With regard to the latter, it has been 
pretty well established that the phenomena of heat originate in the oscillations of 
a subtle fluid similar to that of light. The sensation of heat may, therefore, be 
brought under the law of motion just as much as that of light or hearing, and may 
be regarded in every respect as analogous. The phenomena of touch, we know, are 
produced by impact in various ways; and it is just in accordance with the nature 
of that impact, whether harder or softer—more rapid or more slow—that the result- 
ing sensations are determined. A blow is a sudden affection produced by the rapid 
motion of some object against a considerable surface of the body. Pressure is a 
more continuous affection of the same kind. A prick is the motion of some object 
against one minute point of the skin. If the act of pricking be repeated rapidly, it 
produces a feeling of burning, and, if it be very soft, at the same time of itching. 
An extremely light and gentle motion over the body produces tickling. In every 
instance the peculiar kind of sensation is determined by the nature of the motion 
and the consequent impact. The only two senses left, accordingly, are those of taste 
and smell. In both these cases the process by which the nerves are affected is of 
a chemical nature. The substances received upon the surface of the tongue or the 
internal membrane of the nostril are subjected to the action of saliva or mucus, and, 
being thus dissolved, produce a chemical action on the nerves, which gives rise to 
the phenomena of taste and smell. All chemical action, however, arises, as far as 
it can yet be ascertained, from certain relative movements in the ultimate atoms of 
bodies, and it is these movements which, in the case of taste and smell, really give 
rise to the peculiar sensations so designated. One striking proof of this is, that'a 
similar atomic action can be produced by magnetism, and that various tastes, par- 
ticularly that of phosphorus, can be produced by the introduction of magnetic plates 
into the mouth; thus most obviously proving that the phenomena of taste are really 
produced, like those of heat, by the motion of certain minute particles, whether of 
some magnetic fluid or of anything else, when subjected to chemical action. By 
these atomic movements the nerves are affected, Just as they are affected by the 
infinitesimal oscillations of light and heat, so that the same law holds good through- 
out, and thus enables us to connect the phenomena of sensation universally with 
motion as its immediate external antecedent and exciting cause. Looking now 
from the physical side of sensation to the mental, we shall find that the view we 
have just taken solves or dissipates many of the difficulties in which the question 
has always seemed to be involved. First of all, it makes the external cause and 


170 REPORT—1861. 


the effect upon the nervous system quite homogeneous. Outward motion is the 
cause, inward motion is the effect. Instead of having the solid forms of the out- 
ward world standing as it were face to face with the nervous energy, and being 
obliged to consider how it is possible for two things so entirely heterogeneous to 
come into so close a state of mental action and reaction, we have now the whole 
problem reduced to two developments of motion: first, motion in the fluids around 
us; and secondly, a certain determination given, by their means, to the atomic 
movements or vibrations of the nerves. How the movements of the nerve-force 
are converted into those of mind-force we cannot say, any more than we can explain 
how it is that mechanical motion is converted into heat, or vice versdé; but the out- 
ward phenomena are traced, in the way we have now indicated, as far back to the 
inward consciousness as seems possible, without breaking through the last film of 
separation that divides the conscious from the unconscious world. Secondly, the 
theory we have adopted enables us to draw a clear line of separation between sen- 
sation (properly so called) and all the subsequent mental phenomena which attach 
themselves to it. Thus, taking the sense of hearing, we can now easily strip away 
every possible association which connects itself with what we hear, and understand 
that the sensation of hearing itself simply implies the nervous effect of certain atmo- 
spheric vibrations, and nothing more. Taking the sense of sight, we can at once 
negative the possibility of sensizing size, shape, thickness, distance, or any other of 
the ele ee of bodies: all we see sensationally is colour, as being the direct result 
in the consciousness of the luminous vibrations which affect the optic nerve. And 
so in like manner does every sense confine itself to one single and peculiar series of 
phenomena, which are not by any means to be confounded with the mental acts 
and associations afterwards connected with them. Thirdly, the same theory in- 
troduces unity into the entire sphere of sensational phenomena. The whole of 
these phenomena are reduced to the single principle of motion, as the invariable 
antecedent; this motion, as it exists in external nature, exciting a corresponding 
action in the nerves, and then, through the nerve-force, affecting the mind. Thus, 
then, we find, by the combined aid of physics and physiology, (1) that man pos- 
sesses a nervous system pervaded by a force which can pass freely from every point 
in the human system to the centre, and from the centre to every point in the cir- 
cumference; (2) that he is placed in a universe palpitating with countless millions 
of vibrations, of which vibrations the nerves of the different sense-organs are directly 
susceptible; (8) that the whole connexion which the mind has, or can possibly 
have, with the external world is formed by the motion of the fluids around us, or 
the motion of the particles of bodies that come into chemical contact with the 
nerves; (4) that the material universe, therefore, makes itself known to us entirely 
through the medium of motion; (5) that this motion expresses itself in the nervous 
system by modifying the regular vital action which is always going on there; and 
(lastly) that this modification of the nerve-force manifests itself to our conscious- 
ness in the varied phenomena of what we term sensation. Thus the world com- 
municates with the consciousness wholly through motion as a link of connexion, 
and out of the experiences thus formed our whole intelligence is subsequently built 
up by the laws of mental development. 


On Prison Dietary in India. By Dr. Movarr. 


The author commenced by giving a brief history of the successive dietaries in 
use in Bengal, and then proceeded to detail the results of an inquiry which had 
been made into the sanitary influences of the existing dietary. He stated subse- 
quently the principles that should guide the formation of a prison dietary, applied 
those principles to the dietary in use, and concluded by suggesting the remedies 
necessary to correct the errors of that scale of food, without losing sight of the pri- 
mary objects it is intended to fulfil, namely, to maintain the health of prisoners at 
the lowest possible cost to the State, so as, on the one hand, to avoid improper in- 
dulgences, and, on the other, to secure a sufficiency of food to preserve health and 
eta disease. Facts and figures were produced to show connexion between the 

iet-scales and the mortality Bosh diseases most nearly associated with the func- 
tions of digestion—dysentery, diarrhcea, scurvy, phthisis, and cholera, of which the 
connexion was helieyed to be very doubtful, The dietetic value of the chief arti- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177 


cles used as food in the prisons of Bengal was given on the authority of the analysis 
propounded by Dr. Forbes Watson, and four different scales of diet were recom- 
mended: 1, for Bengalese and Assamese; 2, for natives of Behar, the North-west 
Provinces, and the Punjab; 3, for Coles, Sontals, Garrows, and Hillmen generally ; 
and 4, for Mughs and Chinamen. The last-named were fond of cats, dogs, rats, or 
any animal food, and mere vegetable diet never satisfied them. The scales referred 
to were all for long-term convicts, and were stated to be the minimum to maintain 
health and strength. 


On the Existence and Arrangement of the Fovea Centralis Retine in the Eyes 
of Animals, By Prof. H. Mixunr, 


The fovea centralis and macula lutea have generally been regarded as a peculiarity 
of man and quadrumana, The physiological dignity of the spot, and the power to 
see an object at the same time with the two foves, seemed to secure to the organ 
of vision of these beings an exceptionally high position. But this is not true. I can 
say, for the moment, that the chameleon and at least many birds which possess the 
oe. for optic accommodation so highly developed are also endowed with the 
delicate nervous apparatus represented by the fovea and the thicker parts surround- 
ing it. The extent of surface which presents this peculiar organization is found 
sometimes so great, that a very considerable part of the retina may be compared to 
the macula lutea of the human eye. There is in this part of the retina of these 
animals the peculiar arrangement of the bundles of nerves, which are curved round, 
so that many fibres come into, but none pass over it. There is the accumulation 
of ganglion-cells, which form several layers in the circumference of the fovea. 
There is the peculiar conformation of the external layer of the retina, in which the 
elements sensible to light are thinner and longer than elsewhere; so that in the 
fovea this layer, necessary for the first reception of light, alone is thicker, while 
the other layers are attenuated. There is, finally, the oblique course of the fibres 
in the granular layer, which put in communication the enormous quantity of sen- 
sible elements in and next the fovea with the ganglion-cells in the neighbourhood. 
It is at the same time very interesting, that the two species of radial fibres in the 
retina of which I treated (‘On the Retina,’ 1856, p. 72), namely, of nervous and 
connective tissue, have in those animals a different course—in the granular layer 
the one sort running obliquely, the others running perpendicularly to the external 
surface of the granular layer. The fovea centralis is ordinarily to be found in the 
eyes of birds next to the posterior pole of the sclerotica, but sometimes excentri- 
cally therefrom towards the temporal part of the eyeball. In owls the excentricity 
is so great, that a common act of vision in the two fovex is very reconcileable with 
the position of the eyes in these animals. In some mammalia, besides quadrumana, 
there exists at least an area centralis which approaches the arrangement of the 

ellow spot; the course of the vasa centralia, wanting in birds, at the same time 
Comes more like the human eye.” 


On the Influence of the Sympathetic Nerve on Voluntary Muscles, as witnessed 
in the Treatment of Progressive Muscular Atrophy by Secondary Electric 
Currents. By Professor Remax. 


Physiological Researches on the Artificial Production of Cataract. 
By B. W. Ricwarpson, M.D., M.A. 

Tn the course of his remarks the author said that syrup of sugar injected into the 
circulation of a frog would produce cataract, and he exhibited a number of living 
frogs in which he had graders the disease by this means, The same injection 
produced the same result on both guinea-pigs and rabbits. An injection of com- 
mon salt also acted like sugar, the only difference being that it produced harder 
cataract. If any of the soluble salts of the blood were present in excess, they 
would produce this condition. In 1838, at a meeting of that Society, Sir David 
Brewster had said that cataract was caused by the disarrangement of the fibres of 
the lens of the eye, and his theoretical notion had now turned out to be quite cor- 
rect. In reply to a number of questions put to him, Dr, Richardson said that the. 


172 REPORT—186l. 


lens might be cataractous without the patient being quite blind. Where a patient 
laboured under diabetes he had never seen a perfect lens. Von Greefe had demon- 
strated that one case out of every four of diabetes was accompanied with visible 
cataract. He (Dr. Richardson) had never failed in producing cataract in an animal 
by the means he had described. If they would give him an animal and the mate- 
rials, he would tell them when the total eclipse of the eye of the animal would 
take place almost to a second. Occasionally, when sugar was present in the blood, 
the retina became aflected. Frogs fed on sugar would become cataractic, but in 
animals that had active digestive organs the condition was not so easily produced. 
He had fed an animal on sugar for six weeks without producing any marked effect. 
After he had produced cataract in an animal, he sondd cure it. The cataract he 
produced in the frog and the cataract in the human subject were the same, with 
this exception, that in the human subject the exciting cause, the production of 
sugar, was constantly going on, whereas in the frog experimented on the effect was 
temporary. 


Physiological Researches on Resuscitation. By B. W. Ricnarpson, M.D., M.A. 


The modes of death to which alone the author’s remarks applied were such as 
involved no organic lesion, and had not extended to putrefaction or coagulation of 
the blood; and by death he meant cessation, not of respiration only, but also of the 
heart’s action. As to coagulation of the blood, 700 observations had convinced him 
that it did not usually take place for pens minutes after death. The modes of 
resuscitation he dwelt upon were—1, artificial respiration ; 2, galvanism; 3, injection 
into blood-vessels; and 4, artificial circulation. Amongst the conclusions, stated as 
the results of many experiments, were these :—that artificial respiration is useless if 
the heart’s action has ceased; that the heart’s action may be prolonged by artificial re- 
spiration in a temperature of 130 degrees, where it would cease at once in an ordinary 
temperature ; that when the heart has ceased to act in these cases, the right side of 
the organ is full of blood, and the left nearly empty ; that then the column of blood 
which should pass from the right side to the left is broken, the hydrostatic law is 
violated, the two sides of the heart are in opposition, and the right side has not 
only to get over the weight of the column of blood, but also the contractile power 
of the left side—a thing it cannot do; that galvanism applied in any way to stimu- 
late the heart hastens thecessation of the heart’s motion, and that galvanism cannot be 
applied in any known way to resuscitate without injury; that injection of water at 
130° Fahr. into the large blood-vessels of a dog will produce the muscular actions 
of life an hour after the muscles haye been rendered torpid by prolonged galvanism, 
and two hours and a half after death; that this result, however, is not useful for 
the real recovery of life; and that the great desideratum now is some simple me- 
chanical means of effecting artificial circulation. Dr. Richardson showed an appa- 
ratus of his own by which artificial circulation can be brought about, but not, 
unfortunately, without opening arteries too large to make the process useful. In 
cases of suspended animation, he recommended that if any respiration, however 
feeble, exists, no attempt should be made to interfere with it; that the patient 
should be placed in a de atmosphere, at 130° of heat; that artificial respiration 
should always be set up where no breathing exists, as it is possible there may still be 
some cardiac motion; that electricity and galvanism are worse than useless; and that 
injection of arterial blood into arteries might be useful in many cases, if such blood 
could be obtained. 


On the Cervical and Occipital Vertebree of Osseous Fishes. 
By Cuartzs Rosertson, Demonstrator of Anatomy in the University of Oxford. 


The author gave a description of the cervical vertebrae and their appendages in 
a few osseous fishes not before described, and important in considering the vertebral 
theory. He then proceeded to show that the same kind of modifications are met 
with in the grouping of the elements of the occipital segment of fishes and in the 
skull, as in the vertebral column the same elements are not invariably present, but 
are subject to variations. The conclusions arrived at were these :—1. The partition- 
wall of the cranial cavity protecting the cerebellum is not invariably formed by 
two pairs of neurapophyses, exoccipitals, and epiotic: when the exoccipitals take a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173 


large share in the formation of the cranial walls, the epiotic are excluded ; and 
when the epiotic are large and admitted into the cranial walls, the exoccipitals are 
excluded. 2. The neural spine is only present in the active species which have a 
large cerebellum to protect, aud it is never divided. 3. The detached petrosal of 
Professor Owen is found in all species having the pectoral fin attached to the occi- 
pital segment, and always receives the lower prong of the suprascapula. The 
paper was illustrated with photographs of the skulls and vertebrae alluded to. 


On the Connewion between the Functions of Respiration and Digestion. 
By Gzorae Rozrnson, M.D., Newcastle-on-Tyne. 


Tn a paper “ On the Nature and Source of the Contents of the Foetal Stomach,” 
communicated to the Royal Society of London in 1847, and published in the 
‘Edinburgh Monthly Journal of Medical Science’ in the same year, I described 
certain observations on the contents of the stomach in fcetal and newly born rab- 
bits, which seemed to me to prove the existence of a direct connexion between the 
function of respiration and the secretion of the gastric juice. I am not aware that 
the vital law thus indicated has yet received much attention either from physiolo- 
gists or medical practitioners ; and as I believe it to be one of some importance in 
the animal economy, I hope to be excused for now desiring to submit it to the con- 
sideration of this Association. The facts which, in my opinion, establish this prin- 
ciple are very simple, and can readily be examined by any one. 

Immediately before birth, the stomach of the fcetal rabbit contains a dark-ereen, 
viscid, highly albuminous liquid, which scarcely affects litmus-paper; but after 
respiration has been established a few hours, the same substance is found firml 
coagulated, and the whole contents of the stomach are strongly acid. This for- 
mation of acid gastric juice does not take place immediately after birth ; for I have 
then observed the lungs inflated, and the contents of the stomach nevertheless 
unchanged. ‘The process of respiration must continue for a certain time—a few 
hours—hefore the coagulation of the albuminous matter by an acid gastric secretion 
is accomplished. 

The chemical changes therefore which occur in the stomach of the rabbit conse- 
quent on the performance of respiration, and the very circumstance of a certain in- 
terval elapsing between the commencement of the oxygenation of the blood and 
the appearance of the proper gastric juice, seem to me conclusive as to the connexion 
between the latter function and the former. 

Now assuming for the present the correctness of this principle, some interesting 
questions arise. If the secretion of the acids of the gastric juice be thus dependent 
on the oxygenation of the blood, to what extent is the formation of the other ani- 
mal acids also influenced by the action of respiration? And if a certain degree of 
oxygenation of the blood be requisite for the natural secretion of gastric juice, will 
not defective oxygenation impair the quality of the latter liquid, and so tend to 
connect some forms of indigestion with the imperfect performance of respiration ? 
Tn this way, the improved appetite and digestion which we often observe to follow 
change of residence may really be a direct effect of the more complete purification 
and oxygenation of the blood by increased exercise and the inhalation of a purer 
air. 
I can only hope that these and similar questions will be studied by competent 
chemical physiologists, and that the result of their researches will be still further 
to establish the mutual relation and dependence of the great functions of life ; for 
at the present time, when physiological and pathological inquiries are so intensely 
localized, it becomes peculiarly important to recall to mind the essentially compound 
unity of the living animal. 


On the Anatomy of Pteropus. By Professor Rottxston, M.D.,°F.R.S. 


On some Points in the Anatomy of Insectivora. 
By Professor Rotteston, M.D., F.R.S. 


The author confined his attention chiefly to the mole, the shrew, and the hedge- 
hog—the three species found in this kingdom, The subject, he said, enabled us to 


174 : REPORT—1861. 


illustrate principles of first-rate importance. He gave a number of details as to 
the osteological, digestive, circulatory, generative, and nervous systems of the In- 
sectivora, dwelling eapediely upon the instances of variability of organs not sub- 
seryient to special habits which this family furnished, and upon the variations to 
be found in individuals belonging to the same species. Referring to Gratiolet’s 
classing the Lemurs amongst the Insectivora, Dr. Rolleston said that this arrange- 
ment might seem to be justified by the fact that the Lemurs differed from other 
Quadrumana by their non-possession of the hippocampus minor and of an oyer- 
lapped cerebellurh, and by their possession of a large olfactorylobe. In these points, 
also, the higher apes resembled the human species, whilst differing from the lower 
members of their own family. 


On the Homologies of the Lobes of the Liver in Mammalia. 
By Professor Rottestoy, M.D., F.R.S. 


In descriptions of the internal anatomy of rare animals, it is usually easy, even 
without the aid of figures, to compare the accounts given of the arrangement of 
their organs with the arrangement of similar structures in animals more familiar 
to us. To this statement the descriptions given of the lobes and lobules of a 
multifid liver form an exception; and the purport of this paper is to furnish the 
zoologist with a convenient and readily applicable system of nomenclature for 
the several divisions which the liver may be found to present in the mammalian 
series. 

The umbilical view of the foetus, preserved for us in the adult in the so-called 
“suspensory ligament,” furnishes us with our first landmark. The lobe to which 
it is attached we may call the “suspensory lobe ;” it is very commonly, though 
not in the human anja trifid_—the suspensory ligament having one lobule to 
its left subequal with a second to its right, which is bounded in that direction 
by the cystic fossa where the gall-bladder exists, and this second lobule, the 
“suspensory central,” haying the third lobule lying upon its right, between the 
indentation (when it exists) for the gall-bladder and the free right edge of the 
entire lobe. 

The “ suspensory lobe” overhangs the two other lebes into which the mamma- 
lian liver is divisible. To the left it overhangs a lobe which is very rarely if at all 
deeply incised or indented; this lobe we would call the “left lobe.” The lobe 
which it overhangs to the right is very frequently lobulated somewhat complexly. 
This “right lobe” is divisible into three secondary lobules, the “superior right 
lobule,” the “right kidney lobule,” and the “lobulus Spigelii.” The “superior 
right lobule” is frequently in relation with the pylorus, and in some animals, as 
the rabbit, is deeply excavated for the lodgment of that portion of the stomach: 
immediately overhung itself by the Sp subdivision of the suspensory lobe, it 
again overlies the “right kidney lobule,” which is very commonly either deeply 
fissured or greatly excavated for the reception of the organ after which it is named. 
The “superior right lobule” and the “right kidney lobule” are often found to 
be fused into one mass in animals such as the hedgehog, Erinaceus europeus, and 
the long-eared bat, Plecotus auritus, in which they are usually distinct. Lastly, 
we have the “lobulus Spigelii,” which (with two exceptions in the Marsupial 
series, viz. the Phalangista vulpina and the Macropus giganteus) we have found to 
be more directly in connexion with, and sessile upon, the “right kidney lobule” than 
upon any other portion of the liver. The bile-duct and the afferent blood-vessels 
of the liver pass in front of the origin of this lobule. It may effloresce into two 

rocesses distally and to the left, one of which may pass before and the other 
fohind the cardiac end of the stomach, as in Mus decumanus; or it may give off a 
process near its origin and towards the right, which may interpose itself between 
the “right kidney lobule” and the “superior right lobule,” as in the shrew, 
Sorex vulgaris. 

In the nomenclature suggested by M. Duvernoy (Ann. des Sciences Naturelles, 
sér, ll. tom. iy.), the left division of the suspensory lobe is named “lobe principal 
gauche ;” but its diminished proportions, as compared with those of the “left lobe” 
in some of the Insectivora and lower Quadrumana, incline us to consider it as 
wholly lost in such livers as those of man and the ruminants, and to assign it, when 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175 


it does exist, to the “suspensory lobe.” Without, however, positively pronouncing 
oc ays convenience of description induces us to name it “ left suspen- 
sory lobule.” 

It is proposed, then, to speak of the liver as divisible into three principal lobes, 
two of which frequently admit of further subdivision—at the most, however, into 
not more than three lobules each, 

The “ left lobe.” 
a left suspensory lobule, 
The “suspensory lobe,” which may be divided into {a central ,, Fe 
a right ” ” 
a superior right lobule, 
The “right lobe,” which may be divided into....,, {ari tht kidney lobule, 
a lobulus Spigelii. 


On the Influence of the Season of the Year on the Human System. 
By Evwarp Suita, I.D., FBS. 


The author said that he only proposed to give a brief outline of a series of observa- 
tions he had made upon himself, and to mention one or two deductions he had 
drawn from these observations, The observations he had made were to show the 
variations of the vital actions in the human system, and his two rincipal inquiries 
referred—the one to the respiratory functions, and the other to the elimination of 
nitrogen. In reference to respiration, the amount of carbonic acid evolved varied 
from day to day with the cycle of the seasons. He had found that there was a 
definite variation in the amount of vital action proceeding within the body at 
the different periods of the year, and that this followed a well-marked course. 
Thus, at the beginning of June a fall commenced, and this continued and pro- 
peovaly increased through June, July, and August, until the commencement of 

eptember, when the lowest point was attained. After this period, in October an 
upward tendency was manifested, and it continued through October, November, 
and December, until January, when a point was attained from which there was 
little change in January, February, and March, In April and May the amount 
of carbonic acid evolved was yet further increased, until the point was reached 
whence he started. The extreme amount of change observed was a loss of three 
grains of carbonic acid per hour from the commencement of June to September; 
and the extreme quantities recorded were in May 10-26 grains, and at the lowest 
period between 6 and 7 grains. The rate of respiration, the mee | of air inspired, 
and the quantity of carbonic acid exhaled, followed the rule he had explained. It 
had been proved by several series of experiments that the rate of pulsation was in- 
creased by heat, whilst the rapidity of pulsation was the reverse of the rate of respi« 
ration. With reference to the evolution of nitrogen, the conditions were the opposite 
of those of the elimination of carbonic acid. The general results he had arrived at 
were, that there was a greater amount of fluid evolved in the summer months than 
in the winter. The carbonic acid evolved decreased with the increase of tempera- 
ture. On a sudden increase of temperature there was a large decrease of vital 
action, and on a fall of temperature there was an increase of vital action. The 
greatest growth of animals would occur at that period of the year when there was 
the largest amount of vital action; and in this respect they were connected with the 
yegetable kingdom. He believed that it was a fact with regard to the growth of 
children, that they grew at a greater rate in spring than in winter. From facilities 
which the Registrar-General had afforded him, he had ascertained that a much 
larger number of those children born at the latter part of the summer died within 
a year of birth than took place amongst those born at other periods of the year, 
The children born in the winter and spring periods were less subject to disease, 
and in all probability had stronger constitutions than those born in the summer 
season. These variations in the increase and decrease of the vital power of the 
system seemed to him to be the origin and the cure of diseases, especially those 
that were chronic. All epidemics to a large extent, in whatever part of the world 
they occurred, took place at the period when the human system was decreasing in 
vital action. This rule applied to cholera especially, which generally attained its 


176 REPORT—1861. 


greatest height in July and August, in October diminished, and in November dis- 
appeared, 


On the Action of the Eustachian Tube in Man, as demonstrated by Dr. Politzer’s 
Otoscope. By J. Tornsrr, F.R.S. 

From the time that the celebrated anatomist, Eustachius, in the 16th century, 
discovered the tube leading from the cavity of the fauces to that of the tympanum, 
this Eustachian tube has been usually described as constantly open, and the air in 
the two cavities has consequently been looked upon as constantly continuous. 
Although Mr. Wharton Jones in 1841, and M. Hyrtl in 1845, spoke of the faucial 
orifice of the Eustachian tube as having “the property of a weak valve opening 
either way,” their opinion did not alter the views entertained by physiologists re- 
specting the functions of the Eustachian tube, and its constantly open condition was 
considered essential to the due performance of the function of hearing. 

In the year 1853 I laid before the Royal Society a paper, the object of which was 
to demonstrate, firstly, that the faucial orifice of the Mustachian tube is always closed, 
except momentarily during the act of deglutition or when air is forcibly blown 
through it; secondly, that the Eustachian tube is opened by the muscles of the 
palate, the tensor and levator palati; thirdly, that, contrary to the preconceived 
opinion of physiologists that “if the Eustachian tube is closed the hearing is lost 
at once,” in order that the function of hearing may be duly performed, it is abso- 
lutely requisite for the Eustachian tube to be closed, otherwise the sonorous undu- 
lations, which ought to be confined to the tympanic cavity in order that they may 
be concentrated upon the membrana fenestre rotunde, are lost in the fauces, and the 
sounds from the fauces also enter the tympanum and produce the most distressing 
discord. 

In proof that the faucial orifice of the Eustachian tube remains closed after the 
act of swallowing, the experimenter has but to swallow some saliva while the 
nostrils are closed by the finger and thumb: a sensation of pressure is produced 
in each ear, which disappears only when the act of swallowing is again performed 
without the pressure of the nose. It is also well Imown that unless the act of de- 
glutition be frequently practised during the descent in a diving-bell, so that the Eu- 
stachian tube may be opened and air allowed to enter the tympanum, great deafness 
and a feelino of pressure in the ears are produced. Further, in cases where the 
membrana tympani is lax, it is seen to move outwards when air is blown into the 
tympanic cavity, and it returns to its natural position only on the act of swallowing 
being performed. 

In order to demonstrate this function of the Eustachian tube, and also to dia- 
gnose its condition in disease, I suggested the use of an otoscope, consisting of an 
elastic tube about eighteen inches long and a quarter of an inch in diameter, each 
end being tipped. with an ebony tube. Upon the introduction of one end of this tube 
into the ear of the experimenter, while ‘the other is placed in that of the person 
experimented upon, if the latter distends the tympanum by a forcible attempt at an 
expiration while the nose and mouth are closed, the air is heard to enter and to distend 
the tympanum, and the cavity remains distended until the act of swallowing is 
performed, when the drum is heard to recede as the air makes its egress. 

The views on the physiology of the Eustachian tube advanced by me before the 
Royal Society having attracted the attention of Dr. Politzer of Vienna, that gen- 
tleman performed a series of experiments with the object of testing their accuracy. 
The result is that Dr. Politzer came to the same conclusion as I had done, and he 
invented a simple and ingenious instrument, by means of which the action of the 
Eustachian tube can be seen. This instrument, which I have called Dr. Politzer’s 
otoscope, consists of a rounded portion of cork or india rubber, about an inch and a 
half long, and about half an inch in diameter; in the centre of this is a glass tube 
about two lines in diameter, which externally is disposed in the form of an elbow. 
When used, the rounded and free portion of the cork or india rubber is moistened, 
and introduced into the external meatus, care being taken that it fits, so as to pre- 
vent the outer air from passing between the instrument and the walls of the meatus. 
‘When this has been accomplished, a drop of water is allowed to enter the tube so 
as to fill half the elbow, and to be on the same plane jn each portion of it, The 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Avy 


person experimented upon is now to close the nose with his finger and thumb, and 
(the mouth being shut) to force air into the tympanum. Immediately this takes 

lace, the water is seen to descend in the inner portion of the elbow and to ascend 
in the outer portion. The finger and thumb are now to be removed from the nose, 
when no movement of the water is observed to take place in either elbow; but as 
soon as the act of swallowing is performed, the water is observed to return to its 


original position, the drum having receded on the opening of the Eustachian tube. 


On the Physiological and Medicinal Properties of Sulphate of Aniline, and its 
Use in the Treatment of Chorea. By Dr. J. Turnsuxt, Liverpool. 


The author observed that medical men had not acquired a knowledge of new re= 
medies commensurate with the improvements which had been made in other branches 
of medical science. The progress of organic chemistry had brought to light many 
new bodies worthy of investigation, and there could be little doubt that many of 
them would, if their properties were examined, be found to prove remedies of utility. 
The artificial alkaloids were a numerous class, and from their resemblance in che- 
mical constitution to the vegetable alkaloids, it might reasonably be expected that 
some of them should have powerful and useful properties. He had been led to 
make trial of the sulphate of the artificial alkaloid, aniline, in cases of nervous dis- 
order, and had treated with it successfully six cases of chorea, or St. Vitus’s dance. 
In regard to its physiological action, he stated that aniline appeared to act directly 
on the nervous system as a sedative. The most remarkable effect, however, which 
it produced was a transient alteration in the colour of the skin and lips, which be- 
came of a bluish hue; and this he attributed to oxidation of the aniline and the 
formation of a colouring-matter in the blood. As a therapeutic agent, he expressed 
the opinion that it would be found by the profession to be a valuable new remedy. 


GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. 


On the Connewion between Ethnology and Physical Geography. 
By Joun Crawrurp, F.R.S., President of the Section. 


Ir has been the practice of my predecessors to open the meetings of this Section 
by a short address, and I gladly follow their example, choosing for my subject one 
which I hope you will consider suited to the occasion—the connexion between eth- 
nology and physical geography. Man will be found savage, barbarous, or civilized, 
in proportion to the quality of the race to which he belongs, and to the physical 
character of the country in which his lot has been cast. Beginning with the con- 
ditions least favourable to his progress, and rising to those which are most auspi- 
cious, I proceed at once to illustrate this principle by a few examples: such a step 
may perhaps be useful in showing the scope of our science—the knowledge of the 
earth considered as the habitation of man. Mere intemperance of climate, inde- 
pendent of any other obstacle, is sufficient to prevent man from making any advance 
towards civilization, and to hold him permanently in the savage state. “The con- 
dition of the inhabitants of the Arctic, sub-Arctic, Antarctic, and sub-Antarctic 
regions are examples. The Esquimaux is the most striking: dwelling where the 
year consists but of one day and one night, where snow and glaciers are substituted 
for the green earth, where no plant yielding food for man will grow, and, save the 
dog, no domestic animal live, advancement is impossible. The Esquimaux alone 
can live in such a region, and this only as hunters and fishermen, leading a nomadic 
life over its vast surface. Under such adverse circumstances, we only wonder at 
the progress they have made in the arts, with stones, bones, sinews, skins, and 
drift-wood their sole appliances, 
There are lands, indeed, which, from mere inclemency, seem incapable of sup- 
orting human life at all, and which seem never to have been inhabited. The 
islands of Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla within the Arctic, and New Shetland within 
the Antarctic Circle, are examples, Eyen more temperate Iceland had no abori- 
1861. 12 


178 REPORT—1861. 


ginal inhabitants, and was unpeopled until colonized about 1000 years ago, and this 
by one of the most highly-gifted races of man—the same which twice conquered 
France and England. 

I take my next illustration from a country of a very different character, Austra- 
lia. The great mass of this continent lies in a temperate region, with well-marked 
seasons, and the rest in a tropical one. The climate of that portion of it which has 
been tested is one of the finest in the world, and the land is not encumbered with 
forest, always so formidable an obstacle to the early advancement of civilization. 
‘With these exceptions it possesses no peculiar advantages: it has no great range of 
high mountains, and hence no great navigable rivers, while, from the same cause, 
a vast extent of its surface is an arid desert of sand. Compared to its area, it has 
uta small extent of coast-line, because little indented by gulfs, bays, or inlets, and 
hence it is wanting in facility of intercommunication. It contained no native plant 
available to cultivation for human food, and no native animal amenable to domes- 
tication, the dog excepted, of small value in such a climate. Under such dis- 
couragements, and without communication with strangers, any advancement in 
civilization would have been impossible, even had its native inhabitants been of 
the most highly-gifted races of man. Mentally and physically they are, on the 
contrary, among the feeblest, consisting of hordes of black, ill-formed, unseemly 
naked savages, possessed of no arts, except those which enabled them to maintain 
a bare existence from the spontaneous productions of the earth or the water. 

Equal in extent to China, the whole population of Australia did not, probably, 
exceed in number that of a single town in that empire. Little more than seventy 
years ago this distant and unpromising land was selected as a place of punishment 
for English felons; in due time it was found excellently well adapted for the sheep, 
although no native animal of the family it belongs to existed in it, and chiefly by 
its help the population of the strangers rose to half a million. Ten years ago it 
was found to be rich in gold, a fact which the natives had not discovered; and if 
they had, the precious metal would have been of no more value to them than the 
quartz rock which contains it. The gold has doubled the civilized population, and, 
with the wool of the sheep, is exported, to the enrichment of the colonists and the 
world at large, to the yearly value of fifteen millions. At evenlessthan its recent 
rate of increase, Australia will, in a century’s time, contain a population equal to 
that of the United Kingdom,—a wealthy, proud, and formidable nation of Anglo- 
Saxons—mighty conquerors and troublesome neighbours. 

The tropical Andaman Islands, in the Gulf of Bengal, are an example of a land 
éyen more inauspicious than Australia itself. With the exception of external form 
and of climate, not, however, specially favourable, every other condition indispen- 
sable to human progress seems here wanting. It produces no plants fit for human 
food, and not one animal amenable to domestieation—except, perhaps, the hog; 
indeed, with the exception of these and of apes and reptiles, hardly any large 
animals at all. The aborigines are a small, feeble race of black negroes, in phy- 
sical form much below even the unpromising Australians. In the same Southern 
Hemisphere with Australia lies a land of less extent, but of far higher attributes 
than Australia, New Zealand. The two islands which mainly compose it lie within 
the similar latitudes with Italy, Greece, and the Archipelago. The soil is fertile, 
and high mountains secure a perennial supply of water, With these natural advan- 
tages, however, they possessed when discovered no native plant amenable to eulti- 
vation, or animal capable of domestication; for the yam, the batata, and the taro 
were imported exotics; and the dog—for want of suitable food, small and few— 
also an imported stranger. The inhabitants themselves were emigrants from the 
intertropical isles of the Pacific, as attested by the identity of their physical form 
and language with those of these islands, For lack of animal food—for they had 
destroyed the gigantic struthious birds of their country before they were known to 
Europeans—the ‘New Zealanders betook themselves to eating one another, and were 
the most open and avowed cannibals on record. They would have been even more 
abject savages than they were, had they not brought with them the above-named 
cultivated plants. Notwithstanding this, our experience of the New Zealanders 
has shown them to possess more couxage and capacity than Europeans have ever 
found in any other wild race. In these qualities they are a contrast to the feeble 
and effeminate people of the tropics from whom they sprang—a difference of chas 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179 


racter which can hardly have arisen from any other cause than that of a compara- 
tively rigorous climate, necessitating exertion. 
- The vast continent of America, temperate, tropical, and equatorial, naturally 
ream many of the essential properties requisite for the promotion of a high civi- 
ization—deeply indented coasts, high mountain-chains, and the greatest rivers of 
the world, with lakes equivalent to inland seas. It was for the most part covered 
with deep forests, unconquerable by the feeble efforts of savages, clear mountain’ 
lateaux and prairies being the exceptions. Instead of the many cereals of the 
1d World, had but a single corn. It had no domestic beast of draught, and 
virtually but a single beast of burden, of about one-sixth part of the power of the 
camel, and even this one confined to a mountain region, for which alone it was fit. 
But the greatest defect of America consisted in the race of man—below the negro 
of Africa in physical strength, and below the Malay in intelligence. The same 
race, with inconsiderable varieties, pervaded the whole continent from Terra del 
Fuego to the confines of the Esquimaux. The highest civilization reached by the 
American race was that which existed on the high plateau of the Andes but even 
that was far below the degree which had been attained by second- and third-rate 
nations of Asia—the sufficient proof of which is, that the Mexicans and Peruvians 
had not invented letters, nor discovered the art of making iron malleable, as had: 
all of these. In that portion of America extending from the great chain of lakes 
to the Gulf of Mexico, where about two centuries and a half ago savage hunters 
alone wandered, there now exists, planted within that comparatively brief period, 
an Anglo-Saxon population as numerous as that of the country which colonized it,- 
and of the same rank of civilization,—a fact which attests beyond all question the’ 
natural capacity of this region for developing the highest powers of man, This’ 
great and prosperous people imitates the country from whence it sprang in all things, 
virtues, vices, and follies. In obedience to this example it is at the present moment: 
shedding its blood and wasting its wealth to no rational purpose. 

The huge mass of land which we call Africa, extending over seventy degrees of: 
latitude, although almost an island, has a coast less indented than any other of the 
great quarters of the globe. It has no high chain of mountains comparable to those 
of Europe, Asia, and America, and hence no great navigable rivers like theirs, It 
wants also their inland seas and great lakes. Much of its area consists of wild” 
sandy deserts, and much of primeval and perennial tropical forest, more difficult, 
of transit than the sandy desert itself. These natural obstacles are hindrances to 
intercommunication, and therefore to social progress. The races of man which 
inhabit Africa correspond with the disadvantages of its physical geography. Taking 
the capacity to invent written letters, to construct durable architectural monuments, 
and to form powerful states as tests of capacity for civilization, Africa may be briefly 
sketched. to the north of the chain of the Atlas and bordered by the Mediterra- 
nean, we have a narrow slip of land in climate and production far more European 
than African. The aboriginal people of this region, the Numidians and Maurita-' 
nians, the ancestors of the present Kabyles and Berbers, were in physical form and: 
mental endowment more European, or perhaps Asiatic, than African. The coun-: 
trymen of Jugurtha had invented letters, built durable monuments, and acquired- 
such military skill and power as to enable them to defeat Roman armies. Their 
territorial limits, however, were too narrow, and their political skill too small,- 
to enable them to construct an empire, and for 2000 years they have been subju-- 
gated by a succession of invaders. Egypt, like Barbary, has the advantage of a 
temperate climate, and of the peculiar and perennial fertility conferred by the Nile, 
without which its narrow valley would, like the country on both sides of it, bea’ 
mere desert of sand. The race which inhabited it was less European or African 
than Asiatic, and in capacity bore a considerable resemblance to Chinese. In so 
favoured a locality, and with such a people, an early social advancement was 
inevitable ; but the Egyptian civilization was not a vigorous or an enterprising one. 
The Egyptians were a home-keeping people, who never left their own country, and 
who, unable to defend it, have been subdued by a succession of invaders for now thirty” 
ages. Had the Jews, a people far more highly endowed, been sufficiently nume- 
rous and powerful, which their poor and limited territory forbade, I am of opinion’ 
that instead of the bondsmen they would have been the masters of the Egyptians, 
After referring to the Nubian and Abyssinian races, he continued :— ; , 

12* 


= 


180 y REPORT—1861. 


From the southern limits of the Sahara to the extremity of the continent, Abys- 
sinia excepted, but the great island of Madagascar included, no race of man exists 
that has invented letters, built durable architectural monuments, or founded power- 
ful commonwealths. Of the races inhabiting this territory, extending over twenty 
degrees of latitude, by far the most numerous and to us the most interesting is the 
Negro, too well known to need any description. Possessed of great bodily strength 
and power of supporting toil, the history of the Negroes would seem to show that 
their understandings are not quite in proportion to their physical qualities. No 
systematic and consistent form of religious belief has ever originated with a Negro 

eople, and the object of their belief is merely a mischievous magic. This in- 
feriority of the Negro can only be satisfactorily attributed to lack of mental power. 
It is this inferiority, combined with eminent capacity for mechanic labour, that has 
induced the powerful among themselves to make a trade in the weaker, just as other 
races do in cattle, and which has seduced foreign nations in all ages to engage in 
the hateful traflic, to abstain from which demands an amount of moral restraint 
not yet attained by all the nations of Europe, and reached by none of those of Asia. 
10,000,000 of these negroes are now in the New World and its islands, 7,000,000 
of whom are slaves, to the great detriment of civilization, whether as regards the 
slave or his owner. 

The great Malayan and Philippine Archipelagos afford many striking illustra- 
tions of the connexion between physical geography and ethnology, and I shall 
adduce a few examples. The Island of Java, of volcanic formation, has a range of 
high mountains extending from one end to the other. These supply rich plains 
and valleys with an abundant perennial irrigation, making this island one of the 
most fertile spots on the globe. In form, Java is a long narrow island; and although 
of half the size of Britain, no part of it is above fifty miles distant from the sea, 
Its peaceful and docile inhabitants, at present about 12,000,000 in number, have 
immemorially been in possession of letters of their own invention, and their coun 
contains beautiful architectural monuments, while the political institutions of the 
Javanese prove by their results that they gave no inconsiderable amount of pro- 
tection to life and property. After referring to the contrast shown by Borneo, 
another of the eae of the Archipelago, owing to its physical inferiority, he con- 
tinued :— 

The Malay peninsula, fully double the size of Java, with some advantage over it 
in shape, is generally of the same geological formation with Borneo; and as to 
minerals, it is rich in tin, iron, and gold. Like Borneo, it is covered by a dense 
tropical forest, always, as already stated, a serious and almost insuperable obstacle 
to the early progress of civilization. The native inhabitants are of the same race 
as the Borneans, but eyeu lower in the order of civilization. Immediately east of 
Java are two small islands, Bali and Lombok, of the same geographical formation 
with that island, and, like it, having high ranges of mountains, the source of an 
abundant irrigation. Of the same race with the Javanese and Borneans, they have 
letters and monuments, and are virtually in the same state of advancement as the 
Javanese. Their population, computed at 1,000,000, is probably equal to that of all 
Borneo, The Malayan peninsula and some of the Philippine Islands exhibit a 
phenomenon unknown in any other part of the world—that of two distinct races of 
men, dwelling, but not intermixing, in one and the same land. These are the 
Malayan and a diminutive Negro, the latter leading an erratic life in the mountains, 
in as wild a state as that of any tribe of Americans, and the first with more or less 
civilization—even possessing a knowledge of letters. The islands of the Pacific, 
from New Guinea to the Feejee group, are peopled by negroes, always in a lower 
condition than the brown race which panies the neighbouring islands, and the 
greater number of their inhabitants are certainly cannibals. Voyagers have noticed 
one favourable distinction between these negroes and the brown and more civilized 
race—they were always found honest, while the fairer people were invariably 
incorrigible thieves. The brown race in question, proved, by identity of physical 
form and language, to be the same from the Sandwich to the New Zealand Islands, 
were found on their discovery (the last-named islands excepted) in a higher state 
of civilization than any native people of America, except those inhabiting the 
plateau of the Andes: This advancement they owed to the possession of such 
cultivated plants as the yam, the batata, the bread-fruit, the taro or caladium, the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181 


¢ocoa-nut, and the sugar-cane, with such domestic animals as the dog, the hog, and 
common fowl. But, like the rudest Americans, they had no domestic animals for 
labour, and were ignorant of iron and every other metal. Notwithstanding, there~ 
fore, a fertile soil and mild climate, cut off, as they were, from all intercourse with 
more civilized strangers, they could not be expected to have gone beyond the point 
of civilization which they were found to have attained when Europeans first saw 
them. Such of them as had no domestic animals, or not an adequate supply of them, 
were undoubtedly cannibals. The people of the Sandwich Islands—now Christians 
—certainly were so but eighty years ago. 

Advancing to higher civilizations, I may begin with the Persian. Persia is a 
plateau generally rising about 3000 feet above the level of the sea. The greater part 
of it is within the temperate region, but a considerable portion subtropical. It 
has many deserts and salt lakes. In these deserts the fertile spots, that is, those 
that are supplied with water, are few in comparison. To this general character, 
however, the lands bordering on the Caspian, copiously irrigated from a range of 
high mountains, are an exception, for they are eminently fertile. The Persian race 
is a peculiar one, and among Asiatics a highly endowed one, personally and intel- 
lectually. For five-and-twenty centuries, and probably even a longer time, it has 
been in possession of letters and the skill to erect durable monuments. But the 
ea geography of the country is certainly a serious impediment to a stable and 
asting civilization, for it not only encourages the invasion, but the permanent set~ 
tlement within its borders of pastoral tribes, still retaining their nomadic habits. 
These wandering tribes, differing in language and manners from the Persians, are 
estimated to amount to a fourth part of the population. This is as if one-fourth 
part of the population of England were to consist of armed gipsies. My next 
example is the country of the Hindus, a land which nourishes twohundred millions of 
men, but which, like much of Africa and of Australia; would assuredly have been but 
an arid desert, with pastoral tribes wandering over it, had it not been for the Hi- 
malayas and the Ghauts, the sources of those great rivers which have given it soil, 
irrigation, and means of intercommunication. Hindustan is almost as unbroken a 
mass of land as Africa itself, and more so than Australia; and the amount of this 
disadvantage may be estimated by the fact that its coast-line is less than that of 
Britain, of one-fifteenth part its extent. Throughout Hindustan the race of man 
is probably, in all essentials, the same, with such varieties only as prevafl among 
Europeans, Negroes, and the red man of America. The Hindus are a black people, 
of a deeper tint than any other race of man, the African and Oriental Negro and 
Australian excepted. The form of the head and features is European—even of the 
highest type, the Grecian; but experience teaches us that there must be an essen~ 
tial difference in the quality of the two brains, although too subtle for anatomy to 
detect. There is, in fact, no rational foundation for the extravagant theory which 
would make Hindus and Europeans to be of one and the same race, under the absurd 
and hypothetical designation of Caucasian: twenty centuries of history belie the 
assertion. Above two thousand years ago the Hindus were, according to the mea- 
sure of Asiatic civilization, a highly advanced people, and possessing the evidences 
of it in indigenous written language, architectural monuments, and institutions of 
some skill and great persistency. 

We come next to the highest civilization of Asia, that of China, the joint result. 
of superiority of race and favourable physical geography. The high mountain- 
chains of China, often rising to the snow-level, and chiefly lying to the west, are the 
sources of the great rivers which fertilize spacious alluvial plains, and nourish mil= 
lions of men. It was no doubt in these plains that first sprang up the peculiar 
civilization which has spread over a region twenty times the extent of Britain, and 
numbering fully sixteen times its population. With respect to the quality of the 
race itself, it far exceeds all other Asiatic ones in bodily strength, in capacity for 
labour, in ingenuity, and in power of supporting vicissitudes of climate, for we find 
it thriving alike under the heat of the equator and the cold of the fiftieth degree of 
latitude. It is almost superfluous to add that their eri A of letters, peculiarly 
their own, is of immemorial antiquity. For ages, too, they have had the capacity 
to erect great and enduring structures. Their foolish wall, to keep out the shepherds 
of Tartary, and compared to which, in magnitude at least, the Pyramids of ‘ane 
are but mole-hills, was constructed two hundred years before the birth of Christ. 


oe 


182 REPORT—1861. 


The superiority of their political institutions is proved by its fruits—a progress in 
the useful arts and an accumulation of wealth which have never existed in any 
other Asiatic nation. In China, as in India and asin the region which lies between 
both, we find rude, unlettered tribes, who, although of the same race as the Chinese, 
have not participated in their civilization. These mountaineers—for such they ne- 
cessarily are—chiefly abound in the less favoured provinces of the west, where the 
great rivers have not yet attained the magnitude which confers fertility and means 
of internal communication. From the Sea of Japan to the Caspian there exists a 
vast region, for the most part steppes and sands. This is the native country of the 
Tartars and Turcomans—of men who, for the most part, dwell in tents, and whose 
normal condition is as migratory as that of birds of passage. Immemorially in 
possession of the horse, the camel, and the sheep, the very ae character of 
their country would seem to condemn them in perpetuity to the pastoral condition. 
The huge peninsula of Arabia, although a tropical or subtropical country, much 
resembles Fartary, in the frequency of its deserts and the fewness of its fertile or 
watered spots. The habits of its inhabitants, therefore, were generally pastoral, 
like those of the Turks and Tartars. The highest civilization which the Turks ever 
attained was in Eastern Europe and in Northern India; the highest which the Tar- 
tars reached was in China, and of the Arabs in Spain. 

Europe is the quarter of the globe which, through the great advantages of supe- 
rior physical geography and superior quality of race, has attained the highest mea- 
sure of civilization. Its extensive seaboard, caused by deep gulfs and inland seas; 
its numerous lakes and rivers; its many islands, with a temperate climate, afford it 
means of industry, commerce, and intercommunication possessed by no other part 
of the world. The superiority of its races of man is attested by an experience of 
three thousand years. iin the quality of these races among themselves there is, pro- 
bably, no material difference; sufficiently proved by the fact that no deterioration 
follows their intermixture, as shown in the instances of the very bastard people whom 
we call French and English. The term Europe, however, is but a conventional 
and not a very well-defined one, and the advantages of physical geography and race 
which I have ascribed to it belong especially to the southern portion, always its only 
seats of high civilization. The sterile and oft ice-bound far North has never pro- 
duced,and seems incapable of producing, a pes and powerful civilization. Yet from 
the rigorous North has emanated one of the most highly-endowed races of man— 
that which overthrew the huge structure of the Roman Empire, which in later times 
conquered a large portion of France and the whole of Britain, and to which, above 
all other causes, is owing the vigorous civilization of modern Europe and Northen 
America. The vast superiority of the European over the other races of man, and 
especially over the precocious but soon stagnant races of Asia, need not be insisted 
on at length, and I shall confine myself to a few modern instances. Thus, but for 
the European race, the old and new world would have been unknown to each other: 
that race has conquered the whole new world and largely Lew it with men more 
civilized, more powerful, and far more numerous than its aboriginal inhabitants. 
But for the European race, China would have been known to the rest of the world 
only by report, and Japan and the great Indian Archipelago as unknown as Ame- 
rica. While the European nations have virtually subdued all America, discovered: 
and conquered a fifth quarter of the globe, Australia, and conquered and occupied 
a considerable part of Asia, no foreign race can be said to have invaded and perma- 
nently settled in Europe. The Turks conquered the weakest and most degenerate 
portion of Europe, and beyond this they have never succeeded in penetrating, not- 
withstanding many attempts. They have been in Eastern Europe about half the 
time that the Saracens had been in Spain, but, in the true character of an Oriental 
race, they either refuse or are unable to keep pace with the European races, and, 
ae existing only by their sufferance, absorption or expulsion is their inevitable 

ate. : 

The races of Asia (and it affords incontestable evidence of incapacity and inapti- 
tude) have borrowed little from Europe. Ican quote but two notable exceptions— 
fire-arms and tobacco, both of which they promptly adopted on the first opportunity. 
They reject the printing-press, obstinately persevering in the slow and expensive 
manuscript teva in Europe impeded the progress of knowledge 500 years ago. 
They. very rarely use the mariner’s compass, but steer along the shore, or. trust te 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183 


the stars and the monsoons. The European races have, on the contrary, borrowed 
freely from every country that had anything good to give. From Asia the list of 
our adoptions is large, for from it we have derived cotton and the cotton manufac- 
ture, silk and the silk manufacture, paper, without which the printing-press would 
be worthless, the sugar-cane and its extracts, tea, coffee, spices, and opium. Nor 
must the domestic fowl be omitted, for that valuable acquisition is of Asiatic 
origin. To America we owe the potato, maize, the cinchona, the tobacco, and the 
turkey, and to Asia and America jointly all our most valuable dyes. To Africa our 
obligations are smaller; but palm oil, the galline, and the ass may be named with 
respect. As to the invention of written language and to monuments of a high order, 
the only parts of Europe which boast of having possessed them are Greece and Italy, 
which in the march of civilization had so long preceded all the rest. The nations 
of Europe, now the foremost in letters, were (the Runic characters excepted, which 
probably never extended beyond the priesthood) as ignorant of them 2000 years ago 
as were the Mexicans when first seen by Europeans. In this respect, as indeed in 
architecture, they have been but dextrous imitators. This is a striking contrast to- 
the precocious races of Asia, many rude tribes of whom, less civilized than ancient 
Gauls, Germans, and Britons, haye been in possession of alphabets of their own in- 
vention from time immemorial. 

The most favoured parts of Europe, even those which are now the seats of the 
highest civilization, afford, like India and China, examples of civilization retarded 
through disadvantage of physical geography, without any proved inferiority of race. 
Our own island yields two signal instances, Wales and the Highlands of Scotland. 
Had the whole area of Britain been no better than they, it is quite certain that we 
could not have been what we are—powerful, opulent, populous, and great. Their 
inhabitants, compared with those of the fruitful parts of the island, were as the 
Gonds and Garrows of India to the Hindus, or the Myo-tse of China to the Chinese. 
From their courage and locality they were difficult to subdue, and their unavoidable 
poverty offered no temptation. It is only by slow degrees, and the influence and 
example of a more advanced nation, that a people so circumstanced is brought within 
the pale of civilization. The process is, at present, in rapid advancement in the 
mountains of Wales and Scotland, even to the extinction of their barbarous although. 
masculine and forcible tongues; but it has taken eighteen centuries to bring the 
Welsh and Highlanders to their present state from that which they were in when 
Gibbon describes one of them (and the other was probably little better) as consist- 
ing of “troops of naked barbarians,” who “ chased the deer of the forest over cold 
and lonely heaths, amid gloomy hills and lakes covered with a blue mist.” 


Journey in the Interior of Japan, with the Ascent of Fusiyama, By R. Aucocks 


The paper commenced with a description of the difficulties which the writer 
encountered in Yeddo, in the early part of his journey in Japan. A large retinue 
accompanied him. The journey was begun in September 1860. On their way 
they had to cross the river Saki on the shoulders of porters, who were made re- 
aoe for the safety of the passengers ; if any accident occurred to the travellers, 
the men had nothing to do but to drown themselves, as no excuse was taken. At 
first their way up the mountain lay through waving fields of corn, succeeded by a 
belt of high rank grass. Soon, however, they entered the margin of the wood 
which surrounded the base, and which crept high up the side of the mountain. 
At first they found trees of large growth—goodly timber of the oak, the pine, and _ 
the beech. At Hachimondo they left their horses and the last trace of permanent 
habitations and the haunts of men. Soon after the wood became thinner and more 
stunted in growth, while the cork and birch took the place of the oak and the pine. 
Just before they entered the forest-ground a lark rose on the wing—the first the 
author had ever seen or heard in Japan. As a general rule, the birds had no song, 
the flowers no fragrance, and fruit and vegetables no savour or delicacy. In the 
wood-belt were deer, wild boars, and horses. They soon afterwards lost all traces 
of life, vegetable or animal. On their journey they rested a little in huts or caves, 
partly dug out of the side and roofed. There were eleven of these resting-places, 
which were one or two miles apart, between Hachimondo and the summit of the 
mountain. The latter half of the journey was the most arduous, Qn the top of 


184 “REPORT—1861. 


the mountain was a yawning crater—a great oval opening with jagged lips, estimated 
at about 1100 yards in length, with a mean width of 600, and about 350 in depth. 
Looking from the mountain, the country below was hid by a canopy of cloud. The 
estimated height of the edge of the crater above the level of the sea was 13,977 feet, 
and the highest peak 14,177 feet. The Japanese who performed the pilgrimage 
were generally dressed in white vestments, which on the summit were stamped 
with various seals and images by the priests located there during the season. As 
far as the writer could learn, a very holy man, the founder of the Sintoo religion, 
took up his residence on the mountain, and his spirit was still held to have influence 
to bestow health and other blessings on those who made the pilgrimage. The 
volcano had long been extinct. The latest eruption recorded was in 1707; and 
the tradition was that the mountain itself rose in a single night from the bowels of 
the earth, a lake of equal dimensions appearing the same hour at Miaco. The time 
occupied by the ascent of the mountain was eight hours, and the descent was ac- 
complished in little more than three hours. The party slept two mghts on the 
mountain, and had greatly to congratulate themselves on the weather. 


On Australia, including the Recent Explorations of Mr. Macdonald Stuart. 
By the Hon. J. Baxrr, P.R.GS. 


Mr. Baker gave a rapid sketch of the rise of the colonies of Australia and the 
habits of the aboriginal inhabitants. During the last year or two, the amount of 
gold discovered had rather diminished than increased; and a considerable number 
of hands were now employed in cuitivating the soil who were previously engaged 
in the diggings. All other exports were gradually increasing, and only population 
was required to enlarge them to an almost unlimited extent. There were numerous 
vich mineral deposits, and many places in which cotton might be grown with ad- 
vantage. There was not a more loyal people under the sun than the Australian 
colonists. Mr, Baker then gave a few extracts from Mr. Stuart’s journal of his last 
expedition into the interior. After noticing the starting of the expedition, on the 

-2nd March, 1860, and the successive visits to Mount Hamilton, and Beresford, 
Williams, Milne’s, Keckwick, and other springs, the character of the country at the 
West Neale, Frero, the Stevenson, Mount Humphries, the High Gum Creek, &c., 
the arrival of the traveller at a small eum-creek under Mount Stuart on the 22nd 
of April was referred to—that being found, from observation of the sun, to be the 
centre of Australia. A tree was there marked, and the British flag planted. It was 
a mistake to suppose that the flowers in that country had no smell, a rose being 
found with a ‘sweet, strong perfume. Subsequent interesting adventures were 
sketched, and the third unsuccessful attempt of the traveller to make the Victoria 
River was alluded to, the journal concluding with the arrival of the party at Cham- 
bers Creek. 


On the Mountains forming the Eastern Side of the Basin of the Nile, and the 
Origin of the Designation ‘ Mountains of the Moon,’ as applied to them*. 
By Cuartes T. Bexz, Ph.D., PS.A., F.R.GS. Se. 


This paper was in continuation of the author’s communications to the British 
Association in the years 1846, 1848 and 1851+. 

It commenced by stating that the great additions made to our geographical 
knowledge since the date of the author’s previous communications have all tended 
to establish the substantial truth of the opinions therein expressed. 

In 1846 Dr. Beke described the Abessinian table-land as having its summit-line 
towards the sea-coast, and thence falling gradually towards the Nile ; which river 
skirts the western flank of the high land, and is the sik into which all the rivers 
flowing over the table-land are received. The fall of the Nile is so small, that Dr. 
Beke then estimated its absolute elevation, in the fifth parallel of north latitude, 


* Printed in extenso in the ‘ Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal’ for October, 1861, 
new series, vol. xiv. pp. 240-254. 

+ See ‘Report of the British Association ’ for 1846, Transactions of the Sections, pp. 70- 
72; Report or 1848, Transactions of the Sections, pp. 63, 64; Report for 1851, Trans- 
actions of the Sections, p. 84. ‘ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185 


at not more than 2000 feet. It is now found that at Gondékoro, in 4° 44’ N. lat., 
the elevation of the bed of the Nile is only 1911 feet. On the other hand, the 
mountain-range of Eastern Africa, forming the anticlinal axis between the ocean 
and the basin of the Nile, which in 1846 could only be traced as far as 9° 80' N. 
lat., may now be regarded as extending beyond the sixth parallel of sowth latitude, 
in a line running from N.N.E. to 8.8.W. between the 40th and 35th meridians. 

Tt was next stated that the snowy mountains, Kilimandjaro, Kenia, and Doengo- 
Engai, which in 1846 were unknown, are portions of this mountain-range of East- 
ern Africa, to which Dr. Beke attributes the name of the “ Mountains of the Moon,” 
the snows of which are described by Ptolemy as flowing into the two lakes of the 
Nile—the lakes intended being Tanganyika and Nyanza, recently discovered by 
Captains Burton and Speke. 

With reference to the derivation of the designation “ Mountains of the Moon” 
from the name of the country, U-Nyamwezi, in the vicinity of those lakes, the 
author showed in the first place how the Indian name of the island of Java—Jara- 
dvipa—was translated into Greek Kp:@js vicos or Barley Island, just as the Latin 
name of the Etruscan city and port of Luna was translated SeAjnvy; though there 
is reason for believing that such significations did not belong to the words Java 
and Luna in their respective aboriginal languages, but were merely mistransla- 
tions, or rather misapprehensions, by the Indian conquerors of Java in the one. 
case, and by the Romans in the other. In the same way, the native African name 
U-Nyamwezi, having become known to the Greeks through the Sawihilis, or people 
of the coast, in whose language mwezt means moon, may have heen supposed to 
have some connexion with the name of that planet. 

Dr. Beke argued, however, that Mwezi, as a component part of the name U-Nya- 
mwezi, does not necessarily mean moon in the aboriginal language of the country. 
All the Kafir tongues have certain prefixes, distinguishing singulars from plurals, 
adjectives from substantives, and one kind of substantive from another. Thus Ki- 
Nyamwezi is the language spoken by the Wa-Nyamwezi, which people dwell in the 
country called U-Nyamwezi, one of them being a M’Nyamwezi or Mu-Nyamwezi 
(whence our “ Monomoezi”). 

It appears then that the root is not Mwezi, but Nyamwezi; and though it may 
be that the natives themselves never use the root without some prefix, strangers 
might not unreasonably do so, and eyen contract Nyamwezi into Mwezi, as the 
Sawahilis and Arabs, according to Captain Burton, actually do; and from this con- 
traction, the translation into the Greek Selene would have followed as a matter of 
course. 

What the theoretical root may mean in the Nyamwezi language has yet to be 
ascertained. Meanwhile the rendering of U-Nyamwezi into “ Possession of the 
Moon,” or “ Land of the Moon,” may well be questioned. Should it prove to be 
erroneous, the designation “ Mountains of the Moon,” as applied to the great moun 
tain-range of Eastern Africa in which are the sources of the Nile, will have origi- 
nated in a mistranslation or misconception. Still, this well-known name has been 
in use during so many ages, that it could hardly be practicable, and certainly would 
not be judicious, to supersede it now. 

The paper concluded thus :—“ The entire eastern side of the basin of the Nile 
appears to be auriferous, the gold collected in various parts of it since the earliest 
ages being brought down by the tributaries of that river; so that there is reason 
to consider the Mountains of the Moon as a meridional metalliferous cordillera, 
similar in its general characters to the Ural and the corresponding mountain-ranges 
of America and Australia... .. Whenever the discovery shall be made in Eastern 
Africa of some of the chief deposits of that precious metal, the influx from all parts 
of the civilized world to the ‘diggings’ in the Mountains of the Moon will be such 
as to occasion a more rapid and complete revolution in the social condition of those 
hitherto neglected regions, than could be caused by commerce, by missionary labours, 
by colonization, or by conquest; as we have witnessed in other quarters of the globe, 
where the auri sacra fames has collected together masses of the most daring 
and energetic of human beings. We shall then, too, doubtless see in Eastern 
Africa, as in California and in Australia, the formation of another new race of 
mankind.” 


186 REPORT—1861. 


Notice of a Voleanie Eruption on the Coast of Abessinia. 
By Cuanres T. Bexz, Ph.D., PSA., F.R.GS. &e. 


During the ge of the 7th or morning of the 8th of May, 1861, a volcanic erup- 
tion took place from Djebel Dubbeh, in about 13° 57' N. lat., and 41° 20' E. long., 
accompanied by loud shocks resembling the discharge of artillery and immense 
clouds of dust. The noises were distinctly heard both at Massowah and at Perim, 
places nearly 400 miles apart, and the dust fell for several days over a vast extent 
of the Red Sea, and on the coast of Arabia as far as the mountain-range of Yemen. 
At Edd, on the Abessinian coast, a day’s journey from Djebel Dubbeh, the dust 
was knee-deep, and its fall during the first day caused total darkness. The erup- 
tion continued at intervals for three or four days. There is no remembrance of any 
previous eruption. Djebel Dubbeh is distant about 230 miles, in a direction almost 
due north, from the great extinct volcano Aiyalu or Azalo, mentioned in Dr. Beke’s 

aper “ On the Mountains forming the Eastern Side of the Basin of the Nile ;” and, 
Fike Aiyalu and also Kilimandjaro, it forms a portion of the mountain-system to 
which he attributes the designation of the Mountains of the Moon*, 


Remarks on the Glacial Movements noticed in the Vicinity of Mount St. Elias, 
on the North-west Coast of America. By Admiral Sir E. Betcuer, O.B., 
F.RAS. 


Early in September 1837, Sir Edward's expedition ran down the coast of North 
America, between ports Etches and Mulgrave, in order to fix the position and de-~ 
termine the height of Mount St. Elias. 

The icebergs which hung about the coast were much larger than those which 
he had seen in Behring’s Strait and northerly, or off the mouths of the fiords in 
the vicinity of Port Etches. The icebergs presented a beautiful appearance. 

He (Sir Edward) believed that in the upper valley of Icy Bay the lower bodies 
of the ice were subject to slide, and that the entire substratum, as frequently found 
within the Arctic Circle, was composed of slippery mud. In Icy Bay the appa- 
rently descending ice, from the mountains to the base, was in irregular broken 
masses, which tumbled in confusion. The motion was clearly continuous. 

As to the causes which operated in producing the constant displacements of the 
glacier, and the protrusion of the bergs to seaward, many theories had been pro- 
posed. His (Sir Edward’s) impression was that, whatever was the intensity of 
cold under which congelation had taken place, the actual temperature due to the 
ice was merely that of 32° Fahrenheit, and that self-registering thermometers, 
properly buried in ice or snow, subject even to the very low temperature of 62° 5’ 

elow zero on the external skin of snow, only indicated the proper temperature of 
freezing water. Salt-water ice has a temperature or 28°. 

In the very high latitudes of 66° to 76° north, the snow on the surface of the 
snow-clad elevations furnished sufficient water to undermine the lower beds of snow- 
ice, and bore a passage to the sea. However firm the crust might be in certain 
positions, a furious torrent had been at work beneath. 

They were thus driven to the conclusion that the temperature of the earth must 
in some degree aid in keeping up a temperature sufficiently high to prevent the 
congelation of the water hidden from light or the sun’s rays. The advance of vege- 
tation was another proof, the ground-willow, saxifrages, and mayflower, and many 
other plants, producing their shoots before light caused the immediate expansion 
and colouring of the leaf. 

The earth’s temperature, acting on the lower portions next to the soil, aided in 
facilitating the travel of the slip of the snow-ice of which these glaciers were com- 

osed to lower levels. In all ice-formations might be noticed, at the season which 
ollowed the period of day frost or preceded the spring, a peculiar dryness, the re- 
sult of evaporation of the superfluous water, attended by dense fogs. An ominous 
cracking was then experienced, which had been misrepresented by some of the 
first Arctic explorers as the breaking of the bolts of their vessels; no bolt was ever 
traced to have been so broken! He imagined that the soil on which masses of eter- 


* Various particulars respecting this eruption are given by Dr. Beke in The Times of- 
the 20th and 21st June, 24th September; and 16th October, 1861. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 187 


nal or eternally-shifting ice reposed must be, from never being exposed to the sun’s 
rays, of a loose, boggy, or muddy nature, which facilitated slipping. The under- 
mining facilitated cracking; and the very action of alternate freezing and thawing 
between the exposed surfaces, serving as aqueducts along the upper portions into 
which water would flow, must produce compact ice; and its power in that very 
action was quite adequate, by comparison, not only to remove ice, but even moun- 
tains of earth, provided the point d’appui be afforded. - 
It was evident with respect to the lower portions supporting Mount St. Elias, 
and which were subject to a summer heat which ripened strawberries, and was 
even more oppressive than we experienced in England, with the rapid thaws of the 
inferior levels, that repeated fracture and avalanches occurred. They must calcu- 
‘late on sudden tremendous concussive force, by the breaking away of whole ranges 
and their precipitation on the lower strata. His opinion was that the shocks of 
the avalanches communicated laterally had produced such fractures as had been 
noticed in those peculiar pyramidal forms near Mount St. Elias. These fractures, 
epened, were filled by water, which probably froze at night or when the sun was 
pent and expansion drove the exterior masses, which were termed bergs, into 
the sea. 
- Such was his theory, founded on severe thought over a period of thirty-five years, 
under frequent contact with nature in actual operation, 


The Great Earthquake at Mendoza, 20th March, 1861. Extracts from a 
Letter written by R. Bripex to W. Bottarrr, F.GS. 


This catastrophe, the writer said, was treated by all as an earthquake ; and, in the 
simple sense of the word, it might be classified as such, as the writer found in Mr. 
Bollaert’s work on Earthquakes ; but he distinguished between an earthquake and 
an internal irruption. The latter had evidently been the case at Mendoza, since its 
effects had been felt north, south, east, and west of the city, at Valparaiso, Coquimbo, 
in Chili, San Juan (north of Mendoza), and El Rosario (east of Mendoza), more 
or less equidistant. It was deficient in many of the characteristics of the earth- 
quakes experienced in Chili, not having followed a line, no rain having fallen, and 
differences of time not having been observable. In fact, it appeared to have been. 
simultaneous at all places; to have been an upheaving exclusively at Mendoza, and 
between that and the Andes. No volcano had, however, been found. The walls of 
the buildings had fallen, indicative of having been rent in every direction, none in- 
dicating any horizontal motion ; indeed, had there been any such, the loss of life, 
estimated at 10,500 out of 15,000, would not have been so great, as the means of 
escape would have been facilitated by different fallings. 


Cromleachs and Rocking-stones considered Ethnologically. By P. O’Catta- 
eHAN, B.A., Honorary Secretary to the Philosophical and Literary Society 
of Leeds. 


The author observed that no stone object of human veneration or superstition 
was so universally distributed over the face of the globe as the Cromleach. He 
then gave the Celtic derivation of the word, implying “crooked” or “inclining 
stone.” He stated that, in consequence of its cumbrous obstruction, it has been for 
the most part removed or broken up in the cultivated parts of Europe, and was con- 
sequently now seldom seen but in desolate and secluded places, except where it had 
some peculiar local protection. From this circumstance, and tapers from its 
rude and massive proportions, its construction was vulgarly ascribed to supernatural 
agency. After noticing the researches of Mr. Lukis and Sir R. Colt Hore, he said 
that it was now conceded on all hands that the Cromieach was originally a tomb or 
grave. He then described the manner in which he saw the Caribs dispose of their 
dead—doubling up the body into the smallest possible compass, and depositing it in 
a narrow excavation under one or more large stones, to conceal and protect it from 
the carnivorous animals of the surrounding forests. He thought that this was in all 

robability the most primitive, as it was the most natural, way of disposing of the. 
juman dead body, in man’s savage state, all over the world. He inferred from this 
that. the original Cromléach was of natural. or accidental formation, and- showed’ 


188 REPORT—1861. 


drawings of several which he said must have been thus formed. Two especially, 
of vast size, he thought were boulders dropped from ice-floes, which in falling upon 
others broke them, and remained ever since securely supported upon these rude 
props. They would then become ready-made and secure tombs, and would be con- 
tinually used for such a purpose from the remotest ages. 

On this supposition he thought that the relics of various and successive races, 
which are occasionally found in such Cromleachs, could be easily accounted for. 
He observed that it was not surprising that these large blocks of stone, so mysteri- 
ously disposed, should have produced a feeling of awe and veneration, and that they 
should even come to be regarded as objects of superstitious fear or ultimately of 
religious worship, such as that practised by the Druids. He said that he did not 
mean to assert that all Cromleachs were so formed; on the contrary, he thought 
that the greater number, especially of the smaller ones, were evidently artificial. 
All he meant to contend for was, that the original Cromleach was of natural or 
accidental formation, and used as a grave for countless ages before its artificial imi- 
tation, which ultimately assumed the form of arudetomb. He considered that the 
universal distribution of the Cromleach should not be looked upon as a conclusive 
proof of an identity of origin of the various races of man, but rather as an indica- 
tion of an identity of the instinctive resources of the human intellect under similar 
circumstances. He instanced the curious similarity, almost amounting to identity, 
of two stone hatchets in the Museum at Leeds, one of which was brought from 
Otaheite, and the other found, with ancient British relics, in a cave near Settle. 
He thought that when the materials of a Cromleach were light and easily dis- 
placed, the instinctive resource under such circumstances would be to conceal it 
under a mound of earth or stones, as the locality could afford. This he believed 
to be the true history of the original tumulus or cairn, which were the probable 
pains of those stupendous pyramidal structures of the more civilized 

gyptians. He considered this a more natural explanation of those universal 
structures than the dreamy visions of certain ethnologists, who will only see in 
them the vestiges or landmarks of improbable human migrations, of which they 
offer us no more satisfactory evidence than the ingenious speculations of philolo- 
gists, who find in language such a plastic material that they can mould it into any 
orm to suit their own preconceived theories. 

Amongst the other megalithic wonders, the erection of which has been popularly 
ascribed to supernatural agency, he remarked that none was more striking than the 
“ Rocking-stone.” He quoted a passage from Wilson’s ‘ Prehistoric Annals of 
Scotland,’ in which the writer graphically describes the engineering science and 
mechanical skill evinced in their erection. He thought that the theory advanced 
by him for the formation of the primitive Cromleach would easily remove all these 
mechanical difficulties. He observed that if the glacial flood, of which we have 
everywhere such manifest indications, had borne away upon its enormous ice-rafts 
vast blocks of stone, torn from the abraded sides of the valleys as they drifted 
through them, these masses of rock must have been all deposited on the bottom of 
this icy sea, on its increase of temperature and subsidence. Now, many of these 
floating boulders must, he thought, have fallen upon others, and rested upon the 
broken fragments, as in the instance of the Cromleach. He considered that it was 
not unreasonable to suppose that occasionally others may have been deposited 
quietly upon the very pivot of their centres of gravity, where they would remain 
curiously balanced, on the retreat of the waters. They would there naturally be- 
come objects of wonder and awe to the savage human creatures who first beheld 
them, and to all succeeding generations. He stated that the Pheenicians and Greeks 
assigned to the Rocking-stone divine power, and that the priests everywhere 
availed themselves of this superstitious fear. The author exhibited a sketch of the 
famous Logan Stone of Cornwall, to show how impossible it was to look upon it as 
the work of human hands. He described another sort of Rocking-stone, which he 
thought to have been formed by the gradual wearing of the narrow base of the 
overlying stone. In illustration of this latter idea, he exhibited a sketch of an 
“ erratic block ” near Settle, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, which is figured in 
Professor Phillips’s interesting work on that county. He thought that it was not 
difficult to foresee that, in the lapse of time not very remote, the small base upon 
which this rock now rests securely may be scaled off by rain and frost, until 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 189 


the huge mass becomes detached, or poised upon a pivot so small as to allow it to 
oscillate as a Rocking-stone. 


Notices on the Ethnology, Geography, and Commerce of the Caucasus. 
By Caprain Cameron, 


The locality referred to was the Caucasian Isthmus. Hercules, Castor and 
Pollux, Ulysses, and other Greek worthies were all said to have done something 
towards opening the Caucasus to the enterprise of their countrymen, It grew to 
be pre-eminently a land of marvels. After reference to the ancient traditions of 
the Amazons, it was stated that the Caucasus had played its part in history, and 
especially made itself felt in the movements of the two important continents which 
it both separated and linked together. The Caucasus was a laboratory in which 
nature Bal been working on the largest scale, and magnificent results were given 
in its varied geological formation, &c. The beginning of the establishment of the 
Cossacks in the Caucasus dated some centuries back, and their numbers were 
systematically augmented by Peter the Great and his successors. After a reference 
to the various Tartar tribes, and to the Tcherkissis, whose habits were graphically 
described, other portions of the inhabitants of the Caucasus were similarly noticed. 
So far from Shamil being the chief of the Circassians, they looked upon his “ level- 
. ling” system of government with suspicion and dislike; and it was only amon 
the Tchetchess and Lesghins that Shamil had any power. The Caucasus possesse 
every diversity of soil; it was capable of producing indigo and cotton. The silk 
trade had received a stimulus by the failure of the supply in other quarters. During 
the Irish famine, 125,000 bushels of Indian corn were exported to this country. In 
the Caucasus, as elsewhere in the East, Swiss manufactures were gaining rapidly 
on those of England, a fact which Mr. Herries ascribed to the circumstance that 
hand-loom patterns and colours could be constantly jvaried without difficulty or 
expense, which, he said, was not the case with power-loom weaving. In the bazaars 
in Mingrelia, however, the average of British goods-as against Swiss was generally 
as three to two. Steam had been introduced both on the Black and Caspian Seas 
and elsewhere, 


On the Geography and Natural History of Western Equatorial Africa. 
By P. B. Du Cuamtv, 


This singular region, explored by the author during the years 1856-7-8-9, lay 
within two degrees on either side of the equator, and extended for 400 miles into 
the interior. Having described its peace! features, its partly swampy, partly 
mountainous character, and its dense forests, which ascend to the very tops of the 
mountains ; its rivers, the Muni, the Moondah, and the Gaboon, all rising in the 
range of mountains known as Sierra del Crystal, 60 or 80 miles from the west ; also 
the Nazareth, the Mexias, and the Fernand-vaz, the latter chiefly fed by the Ogobai, 
and this last fed by the Rembo Ngouyai and the Rembo Okanda ; the traveller, re- 
verting to the mountains, said, ‘ 5 udging from my own examination, and from the 
most careful inquiries among the people of the far interior, I think there is good 
reason to believe that an important mountain-range divides the continent of Africa 
nearly along the line of the equator, starting from the west from the range which 
runs along the coast north and south, and ending in the east, probably in the coun- 

south of the mountains of Abyssinia, or perhaps terminating abruptly to the 
north of the lake Tanganyika of Captains Burton and Speke.” To the existence of 
this range, and of the flat, wooded, damp country at its foot, he attributed the fact 
that Mahometanism had never in Africa spread south of the equator. The natural 
history of the country was next referred to at some length, With regard to the gorilla, 
he considered it probable that its range was coextensive with the dense jungle of 
the interior. He had no doubt that with the advance of civilization in that region 
this monster would disappear ; and it was a great satisfaction to the scientific world 
and to himself to know that, whatever might happen, the world would have, from 
the pen of one of its most illustrious zootomists, Professor Owen, an imperishable 
record of the most wonderful anthropoid animal yet described. 


——S eee 


190 f ~REPORT—1861. 


‘On the People of Western Equatorial Africa. By P.B. Dv Cuarty. 


His travels extended from two degrees north to two degrees south of the equator. 
He doubted whether there is another district of the same size as that which he 
explored in Western Equatorial Africa, holding so many varieties of tribes, 
all thinking themselves separate nations and possessing different names, though 
many speak the same language or dialect. One of the great peculiarities of most. 
of these tribes is that their villages are intermingled with each other. There are 
no landmarks assigned to each tribe; every village squats and settles where the 
people choose, and every now and then the traveller will be astonished to see @ 
village belonging to a certain tribe far removed from it. This habit of selecting 
land wherever the people of a village like is owing to the vast extent of unoceupied 
territory. He found that the cannibals are the tallest and handsomest of these 
tribes; many were of athletic forms—in fact, magnificent savages; but he had 
found Fans near the equator, at the head-waters of the Gaboon River, who had not 
the fine appearance of these mountaineers. They even eat the dead. With the 
exception of these cannibals, the other tribes seem to be intermediate in stature, 
between the tall and slim. Yolof and other tribes of North Africa, and the small- 
sized men of the Congo and of the more southern tribes of that continent, accord- 
ing to the specimens he had seen, are small and ugly, but the Kaffirs are tall and 
handsome negroes. These equatorial people are well-proportioned, not stout, but 
built as if capable of enduring great fatigue. They may, as a whole, be called 
middle-sized men. Among the cannibals the females appeared in many instances 
smaller in proportion to the males. According to the commonly received notion, 
the negroes dwelling under the line, or near to it, ought to be darker than those 
removed from the line. This is a mistake. The countries he had visited do not 
possess what we should call black negroes, with the exception of the Ashira tribe, 
who are in contrast with the tribes surrounding them. He had come to the con- 
clusion, from his observations, that the negroes who inhabit a damp and moist 
country, and especially mountainous countries, are less black, though they possess 
all the negro features, than those belonging to an open country, where a dry 
atmosphere is prevalent. In fact, the equatorial negroes are far from-being as dark 
as the negroes he had seen living near the great desert in the Senegal country. 
Among the cannibals, but more especially among the Apingi, he had found persons 
looking almost like mulattoes. Albinos are rather common in the tribes he had 
visited. In this part of equatorial Africa the negroes inhabiting the sea-shore are 
a shade darker than those of the interior. The negroes of this part of equatorial. 
Africa do not belong to the lowest type of the Western coast ; they are superior to 
those of the Congo or more Southern-African tribes. The cannibals may be con- 
sidered as among the best blacksmiths in Africa. They work iron in a most 
beautiful manner. They make knives, spears, axes, and hammers, many of which 
are good and beautifully shaped. The cannibal tribes are the only ones he had 
seen using the poisoned arrows. The tribes he visited south of the equator possess 
a loom, and weave the fibres of a species of palm into cloth of considerable fineness_ 
and tenacity. Among the people of the same tribe intelligence varies considerably. 
These negroes possess an imaginative mind, are astute speakers, sharp traders, ereat. 
liars, possessing great power of dissimulation, and are far from being in many re- 
plist the stupid people they are believed to be. In making bargains they are as 
shrewd as any European. In everything that does not require mental labour and 
forethought they seemed to learn as fast as any among the intellectual races, 
to a certain point. When he had to rely on them for anything that required 
the exercise of memory or forethought, anything on which the power of reflection 
was required, then they failed; partly, perhaps, through laziness. Though often 
treacherous, they have noble qualities, are given to hospitality: food is never 
bought; the rich and the poor have food enough to satisfy their hunger. The 
women show great tenderness of heart, especially when one takes into account how 
harshly they are treated. Many times he had been under great obligations to them 
when sick for their kind care. They built houses either with the bark of trees or a 
species of wild bamboo : the houses are small, and there is no other opening than a 
door; sometimes, however, they possess two doors. With reference to the law of 
intermarriage, the author read a long extract from his published work on that sub- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 191 


ject. A universal belief existed m good and evil spirits, and in the een of charms, 
called Monda, made with a variety of objects. ey also believed in the power of 
witchcraft and the significance of dreams. He had come to the determined con- 
viction that, though these people lay offerings upon the graves of their friends, 
though they even sometimes shed the blood of slaves on the grave of a chief or 
that of a father of a family, though they fear the spirit of the recent dead, they 
have no definite idea as to the state of the soul after death, It is true they fear 
the spirit or ghost of the recently departed, and place furniture, dress, and food on 
their graves, and return from time to time with fresh supplies of food. The spirits 
of the victims slain at the graves, whether women or men, it is believed join that 
of him who has departed, During the season appointed for mourning, the deceased 
is remembered and feared; but when once his memory grows dim, fear gradually 
lessens, presents of food over the grave become more and more scarce, and the gene 
ration that comes afterwards, and who never saw the man, abstain from giving any 
present whatever, and take no concern about such spirit. The burial-ground exists 
only among a very few tribes ; but among many, as soon as a person has died, the 
corpse is left under a tree, and the village is removed to a far distance. Ask the 
negro where is the spirit of his great grandfather: he says he does not know; it is 

one. Ask him about the spirit of his father or brother, who died yesterday ; then 

e is full of fear and terror; he believes it to be generally near the place where the 
body has been buried. There is, as he had mentioned above, a total lack of gene- 
ralization. Thus some will believe that a certain man’s soul, after he died, went 
into the body of a bird, beast, or gorilla; but ask them concerning the transmigra- 
tion of souls in general, they will say they know nothing. They fear the spirit of 
the recently departed; they think of it asa vindictive thing which must be con- 
ciliated. All the tribes he had visited had faith in the power of existing spirits, 
generally called Obambou, or Oconcou, and the other Mbuiri; they have other names 
in various tribes which come near to these names; both appear to have power to 
do good or evil. They are not represented by idols, but in many villages have 
houses built for their occupation when tired of wandering, and food is offered to 
them. In some tribes they are believed to be married to two female spirits; they 
are said sometimes to walk in the street of the village and to speak to those they 
meet. They believe in idols, and each clan and head of a family possesses one, 
These idols are believed to have the power to keep the clan out of evil, and to be 
able to foretell events. The people, the author continued, are totally ignorant of God 
or a Supreme Being. Witchcraft was believed in; polygamy was very prevalent ; 
and slavery an institution of the land. Slaves were the money of the country, the 
standard of valuation. Many of these African tribes are fast disappearing; their 
languages or dialects will disappear with them, 


On the Antiquity of Man, from the Evidence of Language. 
By Joun Crawrvrn, F.B.S, 


The periods usually assigned for man’s first appearance on earth necessarily 
dates only from the time when he had already attained such an amount of civili- 
zation as to enable him to frame some kind of record of his own career, and take 
no account of the many ages which must have passed away before he could 
have attained that power. Among the many facts which attested the high anti- 
quity of man was the formation of language. Language was not innate, but 
adventitious—a mere acquirement, having its origin in the superiority of the 
human understanding. The prodigious number of languages which existed was 
one proof that language was not innate,—some with a very narrow range of articu- 
late sounds, others with a very wide one; some confined to single syllables, while 
others had many; some being very simple and others of a very complex structure, 
thus implying that each tongue was a separate and distinct creation, or that each 
horde formed its own independent tongue. A whole nation might lose its original 
tongue, and in its stead adopt any foreign one. The language which was the ver- 
nacular one of the Jews 3000 years ago had ceased to be so above 2000 years ago, 
and the descendants of those who spoke it were now speaking an infinity of foreign 
tongues—sometimes European and sometimes Asiatic. Languages derived from 
a single tongue of Italy had superseded the many native languages which were 


192 REPORT—1861. 


once spoken in Spain, in France, and in Italy itself. A language of German origin 
had nearly displaced not only all the native languages of Britain and Ireland, but 
the numerous ones of a large portion of America. Some eight millions of negroes 
were planted in the New World, whose forefathers spoke many African tongues, 
which tongues had nearly disappeared, having been supplanted by idioms derived 
from the German and Latin languages. It necessarily followed that man, when 
he first appeared upon earth, was destitute of language. Each separate tribe formed 
its own language; and there could be no doubt that in each case the framers were 
arrant savages, which was proved by the fact that the rudest tribes ever discovered 
had already completed the task of forming a perfect language. The first rudiments 
of language must have consisted of a few articulate sounds, in the attempts made 
by the speechless but social savages to make their wants and wishes known to each 
other; and from those first efforts to the time in which language had attained the 
completeness which it was found to have reached among the rudest tribes ever 
kmown to us, countless ages must be presumed to have elapsed. The Egyptians 
must have attained a large measure of civilization before they had invented 
symbolic or phonetic printing, and yet these were found in the most ancient of 
their monuments. Dr. Adam Smith divided all languages into two classes, com- 
plex and simple; the complex being considered the primary form of all languages, 
and the simple but derivations, the products of the intermixture of nations speaking 
different tongues, and striving to make themselves intelligible to each other. In 
this case, one tongue would be adopted ; and, to make it easy of mutual use, it would 
be stripped of its inflections, easy prepositions, &c., being substituted for them. It 
was certain, however, that the principle could not be of universal or even general 
application, and that there were many languages of simple structure just as primi- 
tive as those of complex formation. One language might receive even a consider-= 
able infusion of another without undergoing any change of structure. There were 
cases in which, from several causes, even the conquest of one people by another, 
and the long possession of the conquered territory, might produce no change in the 
structure of language. In some cases the invaders might be so overwhelming as to 
be able to supplant the language of the conquered by their own, without the latter 
undergoing any change. In this way the Saxons substituted their own language 
for the native idioms of Britain, that language not losing its inflections until it after- 
wards came to be intermixed with the speech of a new set of conquerors. The sub- 
stitution of the languages of Europe for those of the New World was a case of the 
same description—eyen a stronger one. It was quite certain, however, that many 
languages existed which never could have been formed by inflections. It appeared 
that the structural character which languages originally assumed would in a great 
measure depend on the whim or fancy of the first rude founders. No doubt there 
were facts in reference both to pronunciation and structure very difficult to account 
for, and which might possibly have some relation to physical differences of races. 
No monosyllabic language, whether in the Old or New World, seemed eyer to have 
existed west of the nations whom we called Hindu-Chinese. Consonants, and 
especially eutturals and other rough sounds, abounded in the languages of North 
Europe. The structure of the ancient languages of Europe, and erhaps of Central 
Asia, appeared to have been formed by inflections, while the Malayan and Poly- 
nesian tongues were inyariably of yery simple structure. The American tongues, 
even the language of the Esquimaux, were formed by agglutination—the combining 
in one word an aggregation of several words—often to the formation of a word 
comprising the meaning of an entire sentence. Adam Smith supposed (and he, 
Mr. Crawfurd, thought justly), that the first attempts to form language would con- 
sist in giving names to familiar objects; that was, in forming nouns substantive. 
Words expressing quality would naturally be of later invention. Verbs, or words 
expressing affirmation, must (according to the writer he had quoted) have been 
nearly coeval with nouns themselves, since without them nothing could be affirmed; 
and pronouns were not likely to have existed at all in the earlier period of language. 
The same author said that number, considered in general, without relation to any 
particular set of objects numbered, was one of the most abstract and metaphysical 
ideas which the mind of man was capable of forming, and consequently was not an 
idea which “would readily occur to rude mortals who were just beginning to form 
alanguage,” The truth of this view was corroborated by our observation of rude 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193 


languages, in which the process seemed to be going on. Among the Australian 
tribes “ two,” or a pair, made the extent of their numerals. Some other tribes had 
advanced to count as far as “five” and “ten.” The Malayan nation had native 
numerals extending to a thousand, above which they borrowed from the Sanscrit. 
The rude and imperfect numerals of some tribes would seem to have been superseded 
by the more comprehensive ones of more advanced nations, a remarkable example of 
which was the general prevalence of the Malayan numerals among all the nations 
of the Malayan and Philippine Archipelagos, among the tribes, whether fair or 
negro, of the islands of the Pacific, and even among the negroes of Madagascar. 
The Roman numerals had been adopted, to the supercession of their own, by the 
Celtic nations. The two hands and the ten fingers seemed to have been the main 
aids to the formation of the abstractions which Adam Smith considered so subtle. 
This would account for the numeral scale being sometimes found binary, some- 
times quinary, but generally decimal. However great the difficulties of construct- 
ing languages, there was no doubt they were conquered by mere savages. Language 
was even brought to perfection as to structure, and for the expression of ordinary 
ideas, by men who were but barbarians. The poems of Homer, composed before 
the invention of letters, were as perfect Greek as any that were ever after written. 
The Sanscrit language, in all its complexity and perfection of structure, was spoken 
and written at least three thousand years ago by men who, compared with their 
posterity, were completely barbarian. The Esquimaux had a language of great 
complexity and structure. Languages, then, were formed everywhere by rude 
savages, and time alone seemed to have been sufficient to enable them to elaborate 
a system perfect for its purpose with every race of man. The vocabulary of the 
rudest tongue probably embraced not fewer than 10,000 wards, every one of which 
had to be invented. These words, in order to form a coherent system, had often to 
undergo modifications of form, and some of them, besides their literal meaning, 
had to receive metaphorical ones. What ages, then, must not have elapsed from 
the first attempts to assign names to a few familiar objects, to that in which 
language had attained the completion at which it had arrived, as we find it even 
among cannibals! Between the completion in question and the discovery of the 
art of writing, made only here and there, under very favourable conditions as to race 
and locality, how many additional ages must not have transpired! That discovery 
implied an advanced civilization, the fruit of very long time. If we considered 
the introduction of the art of writing among the Jews, for example, to have been 
coeval with the Pentateuch, this alone would carry us back in the history of language 
for near 3500 years, according to the usual computation. But at the time at which 
the Pentateuch was written, the contemporary Hgyptians were a far more civilized 

eople than the Jews, and had been long in possession of the art of writing. He 
thought the conclusion was inevitable that the birth of man was of vast antiquity. 
He came into the world without language, and in every case had to achieve the 
arduous and tedious task of constructing speech, which, in the rudest form in which 
it was now found, it must have taken many thousands of years to accomplish. 


On the Antiquity of the Aryan Languages. By R. Curt, 


On the Ethnology of Finnmark, in Norway. By L. Daa, of Christiania. 


The district of Finnmark was situated at the extreme north of Norway and 
Sweden, Its population was very scanty, but was also very diversified; there were 
three great divisions :—the aboriginal Laps; the Norwegians, being immigrants 
from Norway; and the Fins, from Finland in Russia. The former were chiefly 
nomade, and the others were almost exclusively fishermen, living on the coast and 
banks of the rivers. In 1855 the population of Finnmark proper was 15,385 
souls, and consisted of 5300 Norwegians, 1425 Nomades, 5786 settled Laps, and 
2305 Finlanders. ach of the three nationalities spoke a different tongue. Mr. 
Freiss, of Norway, had lectured upon the Laps and Fins, and from inquiries con- 
ducted under his superintendence a map was constructed, and from this and some 
statistics which had been given, the author drew conclusions to the eftect that the 
Norwegians and Fins were the more civilized, and that while the Laps were learn- 


1861. 13 


194 REPORT—1861. 


ing their languages, the Norwegians and Fins Inew nothing of the language of the 
Laps, and that the connexion between the Laps and the Fins was more intimate 
than between the Norwegians and the Laps. 


New Commercial Route to China. 
By Henry Ducxwortu, .L.S., F.GS., PRGS. 


The object of this communication was to give a summary of a project recently 
placed before the Government and commercial community of this country by Cap- 
tain Richard Sprye and the writer of this paper. 

In his prefatory remarks the author observed that our most recent acquisitions of 
territory in Burmah had brought us within 250 miles of the Chinese frontier. 

There being no direct communication between the two countries, it became a 
most important question whether it would be possible and profitable to establish 
one. 

The seven most western and inland provinces of China proper are situated between 
about 22° and 42° north latitude, and lie far west of the extreme point to which 
Lord Elgin proseaion up the Yang-tze-kiang. 

The chief natural productions of Yun-nan (area, 107,969 square miles; 
population, 8 millions) are rice, silk, musk, various kinds of drugs, and tea. Gold, 
copper, lead, cinnabar, and orpiment are abundant ; indeed, Yun-nan excels all the 
other provinces in its mineral wealth. 

Kwangsee (area, 78,250 square miles ; population, 10} millions) produces abun- 
dance of rice, cassia, ang, valuable furniture-woods. Gold, silver, and quicksilver 
are the principal metals. 

Kweichoo (area, 64,554 square miles; population, 73 millions) yields wheat, 
rice, musk, tobacco, cassia, and precious timber. Lead, copper, iron, and quicksilver 
are found in its mountains. 

Hoonan (area, 73,000 square miles; population, 33 millions), one of the richest 
rovinces in the empire, produces immense quantities of grain, principally rice. 
ts teas are said to be remarkably fine. Iron, lead, and coal are abundant; and the 

mountains produce pine, cassia, and various other kinds of timber. __ 

Sze-chuen (area, 166,800 square miles; population, 304 millions) is the largest 
and, according to Abbé Hue, the finest province in China. Its fertility is such 
that, it is said, the produce of a single harvest cannot be consumed in it in ten years. 
Its principal productions, besides grain, are indigo and various tinctorial plants, fine 
teas, silk, sugar, grass-cloth fibre (Bahmeria nivea), and many kinds of valuable 
drugs. 

Shensee (population, 143 millions) is too cold for rice and silk; wheat and 
millet supply their place. Rhubarb, musk, wax, red-lead, coal, and nephrite are the 
principal articles of exportation. 

Kansu (area, with the last, 154,000 square miles; population, 22 millions) pro- 
duces wheat, barley, millet, and tobacco of very superior quality. A large 
traffic is carried on between this province and Tartary in hides and coarse woollen 
cloths. 

The means of reaching these seven rich and densely-populated provinces from the 
Bay of Bengal is very simple. 

Paling Rangoon as the starting-point, it is proposed to connect that port with 
an emporium in the north-east corner of Pegu, i.e. under the magnificent Karen 
Hills. From this emporium, which would be almost equidistant from Rangoon 
and the Chinese frontier, the line of communication would pass through Burman- 
shan territory to Esmok (or Sze-maou), a border-town of Yun-nan, and a point at 
which several caravan-roads converge directly from various parts of the province, 
and indirectly from the whole of the western half of the empire. 

In order to take-in chief towns and our military stations, the line would proceed 
thus :—Ist stage, Rangoon to the ancient city of Pegu, the intervening country 
being almost level; 2nd stage, from Pegu, over flat land across the Sittang to Shoe- 
eyen; 3rd, Shoe-gyen, up the left bank of the Sittang and Kyoukkee rivers to 
Baukatah, a distance of 35 miles; 4th, from Baukatah up the left bank of that river 
and its tributary, the Peemabhu, to Thayet-peen-keentat, also 35 miles; 5th, across 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 195 


the watershed between the Sittang and Youngsalen to the Kweestookee branch of 
the Thaiboot river, and down their right or left banks to the Youngsalen, down 
and across which to Tzeekameedac ; 6th, thence over the watershed between the 
Youngsalen and the Salween to our frontier-line under the Karen Hills, where we 
are within reach of all the Chinese and Shan caravans which traverse the country 
north-west of that point. 

Another most important feature in the project is the establishment of an electro- 
telegraphic communication along the whole route. The line, once brought to 
Esmok, could be easily carried across country to the Pearl river, and down the 
lower valley of that stream to Canton and Hongkong, and thence, taking in 
Eepencipal towns along the coast (Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai), to 

ekain. 


In like manner, by extending the communication to Niew-chiang, and down 
the Corea, the open ports of Japan might be brought to the very door of Rangoon, 
which already possesses telegraphic connexion with Calcutta, 


On the Capabilities for Settlement of the Central Parts of British North America, 
By James Huctor, M.D., F.GS., F.R.GS. 


The region noticed by the author extended from Lake Superior to the Pacific 
Ocean, lying immediately north of the boundary-line of the United States, and was 
drained principally by the river Saskatchawan. A considerable amount of agita- 
tion had been employed in Canada and at home, in order to have this country thrown 
open for settlement ; the whole, with the exception of that portion which fell within 

ritish Columbia, being under the direct control of the Hudson’s Bay Company for 
the purposes of a ftir-trading monopoly. It had been placed beyond doubt, princi- 
pally through the labours of several government expeditions, to one of which he 
was attached, that there existed within these territories extensive areas, with good 
and yaried soil, adapted for agricultural colonization, but which, from their geogra- 
phical position, were necessarily subject to all the advantages and defects of a tem- 
perate continental climate. The winter was long and severe, the spring short and 
uncertain, and the summer tended to scorch the vegetation. The winter, however, 
was not more severe than that which was experienced in Canada and elsewhere, 
Many crops which were readily raised in Canada would not meet with equal suc- 
cess in the Saskatchawan ; but all common cereals and green crops had been grown 
successfully. The depth of the snow was never excessive, while in the richest 
tracts the natural pasture was so abundant that horses and cattle might be left to 
obtain their own food during the greater part of the winter; and there was no 
doubt that sheep might be reared, were it not for the immense packs of wolves 
which infésted the country. These remarks applied more especially to the 
“Fertile Belt.” The Saskatchawan country offered a most desirable field to 
the settler who was deficient in capital, and who had no desires beyond the easy 
life and moderate gains of simple agricultural occupations. It was only the diffi- 
culty of access to it that prevented its immediate occupation. One route from 
Hudson’s Bay, by a broken land and water carriage, was now almost abandoned. A 
second route was from Lake Superior to Lake Winnipeg, which had the same disad- 
vantages. The third line of ingress, undoubtedly the natural one, passed through 
American territory, up the valley of the Mississippi river to the Red River settle~ 
ment, by way of St. Paul’s, Crow Wing, and across the low watershed which 
there divided the waters of the Mississippi from those flowing to Hudson’s Bay. 
The progress of the adjoining American settlements was then noticed. In therug- 
ged country which lay between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific coast, no 

oubt all the valleys were filled with rich auriferous deposits; diggings were con- 
stantly being discovered in fresh localities. The formation of a line of railway 
through British Columbia would involve great difficulties. Throughout the Sasq 
katchawan country there were deposits of coal of considerable value, though not to 
be compared with that which was common in England. Coal of somewhat better 
quality also occurred at Vancouver's Island ; and that colony was a valuable link in 
a chain of communication with China and the East Indies, by way of a line of route 
across the North American continent, : 


13* 


196 REPORT—1861. 


On the Relations of the Population in Ireland, as shown by the Statistics of 
Religious Belief. By the Rev. A. Hume, LL.D., D.O.L. 


This paper was in continuation of an analysis which the writer had made of part 
of the Ecclesiastical Census of Ireland for 1834. It referred to the two counties of 
Down and Antrim ; and the results were published, with curious ethnological maps 
in illustration of them, Of 155 benefices, some one class of the people rose to more 
than 50 per cent. in 117 instances; viz., Presbyterians in 70, Roman Catholics in 
36, and Established Church in 11. 

Looking only to the geographical counties (except in the cases of Dublin, Bel- 
fast, and Carrickfergus), and omitting decimals, every 100 people are divided as 
follows :—Roman Catholics (or Celts) 78, Churchmen (or Nonnaes and English 
Saxons) 12, Presbyterians (or Scottish Saxons) 9, minor sects of Protestants 

mixed) 1. 

¢ The Liedbytavia are most coneentrated, 94 per cent. of their number being in 
Ulster, 3 in Leinster; 2 in Munster, and 1 in Connaught; indeed, 60 per cent. 
are situated in Down and Antrim, including Belfast; and if we add London- 
derry and Tyrone, 81 per cent., or more than four-fifths, are in those four 
shires. The Established Church has 58 per cent. of its members in Ulster, 
25 in Leinster, 11 in Munster, and 6 in Connaught. It is therefore better 
distributed. The Roman Catholics are best distributed; viz., Munster, 31; 
Leinster, 28; Ulster, 22; and Connaught, 19. The great towns, being recruited 
from the rural population round them, will in time become more Celtic or Roman 
Catholic, just.as Belfast, which was originally English, has become Scotticised by 
the influx of neighbouring Presbyterians. 

The three classes of population attain their highest and lowest relative pr or- 
tions at different points of the country ; and in general the explanation of the facts 
is simple. The Roman Catholics reach 97-71 in Clare, and shade off in Mayo, 
Kerry, Roscommon, Galway, &c., not falling below 90 per cent. in sixteen counties. 
The Established Church is highest in Fermanazh, where it rises to 39 per cent. of 
the gross population; then in Armagh, 31; softening down in Belfast, Tyrone, 
Dublin city, and Down county, in none of which do its numbers fall below 20 per 
cent. Presbyterianism reaches its maximum at Carrickfergus, 59 ; descending by 
Antrim, 53; Down, 45; Belfast, 36; and Londonderry, 85; but in twenty-two 
counties, embracing nearly the whole of three provinces, it does not reach 1 per cent. 
of the gross population. 

In general the numbers representing Churchmen (or English Saxons) and Roman 
Catholics (or Celts) are the complements of each other, the descending figures in 
the one case nearly corresponding with the ascending ones in the other. But five 
or six of the lowest Roman Catholic numbers are baanced, not by Churchmen, but 
by Presbyterians, as given in the previous paragraph ; all the examples lying in 
the three shires of Down, Antrim, and Londonderry, where the Scottish element is 
strongest. 

Since 1834 the Presbyterian element has diffused itself, though still greatly con- 
centrated. In general it is represented at the new points in the south and west by 
a preponderance of males ; while the instances in which Roman Catholic males ex- 
ceed the females are remarkably few. Persons of the former class find new homes 
by the demands of trade and agriculture ; persons of the latter class serve to swell 
the tide of emigration which flows westward, the males being usually the pioneers. 
These are only a few of the inferences suggested by the figures already given to 
the public as anticipatory of the general census, 


A Letter from Sir Hercules Robinson, Governor of Hongkong, relating to the 
Journey of Major Sarel, Capt. Blakiston, Dr. Barton, and another, who are 
endeavouring to pass from China to the North of India. By Sir R. 1. 
Morcuison, D.C.L., F.RS. 

These travellers ascended the Yang-tse-kiang to 800 miles above Hang-kow, 
found much coal with limestones and conglomerates in the cliffs forming the banks 
of that mighty stream, had travelled in their European dresses, and had encountered 
no great difficulty until they were near the capital of the great province of Sze- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 197 


chuen (population 15 millions), and in which French Jesuit missionaries have long 
been settled. The country towards the frontier of Tartary was in such a disturbed 
state, and for the most part overrun by multitudes of rebels (not the Tae-pings), 
that the travellers, being unsupported, were obliged to return by the river to Hang- 
kow and thence to Shanghai. 


A Letter from the Colonial Office, on the Exploration of N.W. Australia, 
under Mr. Grucory. 


Sir R. I. Murchison communicated the substance of a letter he had received from 
his Grace the Duke of Newcastle (Colonial Office), assenting to the recommenda- 
tions of the Royal Geographical Society, that a sum of money exceeding that which 
was originally contemplated would be guaranteed te Mr. Frank Gregory to complete 
his explorations of North-Western Australia. That traveller was to go northwards, 
turn the north-west corner of the continent, and proceed as far as possible east- 
wards towards Cambridge Gulf. The colonists of Western Australia who first re- 
commended this exploration had a more limited object in view, wishing merely to 
extend their feeding-grounds. The proposed exploration was one of the utmost 
national importance at the present moment; for the land thus explored was where 
cotton grew as a native plant, and in abundance. It was partly with a view to 
ascertain some of the cotton-growing capabilities of this neighbourhood that the 
exploration was about to be undertaken. The feat of M‘Douall Stuart in crossing 
the continent from South Australia to the northern watershed was one which the 
Royal Geographical Society had recompensed by awarding to him their gold medal. 


Remarks on the Proposal to form a Ship Canal between East and West Loch 
Tarbert, Argyllshire. By Joun Ramsay. 


The length of the proposed canal from high-water mark on the one side to high- 
water mark on the other would be 1600 yards. On the voyage between the Clyde 
and West Highlands the distance saved would be fully sixty miles. Eighty years 
ago the difficulties and dangers of the navigation had led to the consideration 
of this proposal, and it was again brought forward in 1846, when the probable 
expense was estimated at £101,267 18s. 9d. 


On the Direct Overland Telegraph from Constantinople to Kurrachee. 
By Colonel Sir Henry C. Rawirnson, K.C.B., D.C.L., FRSA. 


In 1858 the Turkish Government undertook to execute, at its own expense, a 
line of telegraph from Constantinople to Bussorah, which would form an integral 
ortion of the great line connecting India with Europe. It was foreseen that the 
ine would be convenient both for the requirements of the Turkish trade and the 
purposes of the Turkish Government, and would thus benefit the empire; but the 
money return for the outlay was to be sought in the tariff established for British 
messages transmitted along the line towards India. The British Government en- 
gaged, as soon as there was a fair prospect of the completion of the Turkish under- 
taking, to carry on the communication from Bussorah to India at its own expense. 
Some of the officers originally engaged in the undertaking had retired; but three of 
Lieut. Holdsworth’s employés, Mr. Carthew and the brothers M‘Cullum, remained 
in the country, and, mainly owing to their zeal and skill, the line was now in a 
working and efficient state the whole way from Constantinople to Bagdad. The 
Porte had declined to accede to a proposition that Her Majesty’s Government 
should incur half the expenses of the improvements, but had formally engaged to 
carry out all Col. Kemball’s recommendations for giving greater efficiency to the 
line at his own expense. A submarine cable from Pera across the Bosphorus 
haying been frequently damaged by the anchors of vessels, it was proposed to 
suspend a wire from the European to the Asiatic side at the narrowest part of the 
strait—a distance of not more than 1000 yards. Precautions had been taken as 
security against interruption from the Arabs, Kurds, &c., by the line of telegraph 
being taken from Marden along the chain of the Masius, where there are located a 
great body of Jacobite Christians. Col. Kemball reported favourably of the pro- 


198 REPORT—1861. 


gress of efforts to conciliate the Arab chiefs living near the outer ranges of the 
Kurdish mountains. The telegraph consisted of two distinct wires, one of which 
was reserved for the exclusive use of the British Government; and a convention 
was about to be signed with the Turkish Government for the regulation of the 
respective shares of the expense to be incurred in keeping the line in working order, 
for fixing the tariff for the transmission of messages, &c. With reference to the 
Persian section of the line, attention was being more immediately directed to a 
continuation of the land-line from Bagdad, through Persia, towards India. Political 
and physical arguments showed the desirability of taking a northward line, and the 
author believed that it had been decided to continue the line, in the first instance, 
directly from Bagdad to Teheran, thence to Khanikeen and Kermanshah. From 
the latter place it would continue to follow the great high road from Babylon east- 
ward. At Teheran the line would join another system of telegraphs which had 
been organized in Persia itself. From Bagdad it was proposed to continue the line 
to Bunder Abbas; and it was almost certain that the Shah would enter cordially 
into the scheme. The Commissioner in Scinde, the agent for the Government of 
India, and the Imaum of Muscat had reported as favourably as could be wished. 
They were working in what he believed, in the present state of oceanic telegraphy, 
to be the only practicable direction, 


On the Spitzbergen Current, and Active and Ettinct Glaciers in South Grreen- 
land. By Colonel Suarrner. 


In June 1777, ten whaling vessels were beset in the ice about lat. 76° north, 
between Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen. They endeavoured in vain to escape, were 
carried by the ice in a south-western direction between Iceland and Greenland, 
and by degrees the vessels were all lost; only 116 of the 450 men who composed 
the crews escaping, they having reached the South-Greenland coast. Little was 
known of the loss of these vessels; but it might be supposed that the floe ice was 
not compact, and that they were chafed until their hulls were worn, so as to permit 
the water to enter them. On the 22nd of June, 1827, Captain Parry started on 
a boat expedition from Spitzbergen towards the North Pole—one of the most 
hazardous efforts known in Arctic annals; but he was obliged to put back on the 
24th of the following month, and return to his ship at Spitzbergen, the drift or 
current haying carried him 14 miles to the southward in the last two days of the 
journey. South of Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen the ice sometimes spread and came 
south upon North Iceland, the gales north of Iceland and south of Spitzbergen 
spreading the ice in detached pieces or small bergs eastward, from 100 to 200 miles 
from the current track, which runs southward along the Greenland coast. Directly 
west of Iceland, the floe ice had seldom been seen from the highest mountains. 
South of Iceland, the ice-floe was in the direction of Cape Farewell. Timber was 
often found drifting near the east and west coasts of Greenland. The width of the 
Greenland cwrent did not, in his (Col. Shaftner’s) opinion, exceed 50 miles; it 
carried with it floe ice and berg ice. It was not known that much of the floe ice 
came from the icy seas north of Russia. The year 1860 was remarkable for the 
great quantity of ice brought by the Greenland current, and, added to that brought 
south by the Baffin’s Bay and other currents of Dayis’s Strait, produced the unusual 
dangers experienced in navigation from America to Europe in 1861. More ice had 
been seen in the usual track of the steamers during this year than at any previous 
period. This was to be expected after the reports from the ‘Bulldog’ and ‘Fox’ 
expeditions of 1860. Captains of vessels from Greenland reported that there had 
been but little ice in the Greenland current this year; and it might be expected 
that navigation between America and Europe would be but little hindered by the 
ice in 1862. When north-east winds blew, the coast was free from ice; a west 
wind drove the ice upon the coast. It might be safe to estimate the velocity of 
the Greenland current at 10 nautical miles per hour from north of Spitzbergen and 
Cape Farewell, and then northward to about latitude 64° north, where it began to 
spread and joi with the northern or Baflin’s Bay current. The length of this 
current beg about 1600 nautical miles, and supposing its width to be 50 miles 
during four months of the year, they might estimate the decay of ice from 75,000 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 199 


to 80,000 square miles, within the track of the Greenland current. On the subject 
of glaciers, the Colonel expressed his opinion that the “ Igalikko” was once an ice- 
fiord,—that the glacier extended where water was now seen, the water reaching 
even more into the interior than the edge of the present glacier—the moving of 
the ice having ground up the rocks, and the earth and the small particles gradually 
filling up the fiord. The supposed ice-area of Greenland bemg about 400,000 
square miles, such an area ought, if all of it were ice, to give off more upon the 
known coast than was seen. It was reasonable to doubt the existence of such an 
extent of ice. 


The English Gipsies and their Dialect. By Baru C. Smarr. 


The author of this paper was careful to explain in the outset that he did not 
aay to deal with comprehensive questions relating to the Gipsy race as a whole, 
ut that his observations were limited to his own personal experience among the 
English Gipsies. He began with a short description of the chief physical and 
psychological characteristics of the Romany people as they are now to be met with 
in England. In addition to their swarthy skin and black hair and eyes, he re- 
marked the prevalence among them of a well-marked aquiline nose, and the 
obliquity of the orbital arches, which slant upwards to the elabella or root of the 
nose, combining together into one common arch, instead of appearing to be seg- 
ments of two separate circles, these several features forming a tout ensemble having 
an oriental cast strikingly different from the Anglo-Saxon physiognomy, or that of 
any other British race. The latter and by far the larger portion of the paper was 
devoted to the linguistic peculiarities of the English Gipsies. His remarks under 
this head were based on a vocabulary, which accompanied the paper, of upwards of 
800 words collected by himself during actual intercourse with members of various 
Gipsy families. These words had all been minutely compared with Grellmann’s 
and eigiews German and Spanish Gipsy Dialects, and their homologies traced 
wherever it was possible. The following is a brief sketch of the remarks made on 
the composition of words and of the various parts of speech and their inflections :— 
A peculiarity of the Gipsy language wherever spor is the number of words 
terminating in engro or mengro, escro or mescro, but the English dialect seems 
especially rich in these compounds; e. 7., 


Bockoromengro .......... A shepherd. From Bolkoro (sheep). 


Boshomengro ........ .... A fiddle. | From Bosh (to fiddle). 
Cooromengro ......... ... A-soldier. From Coor (to fight), 

NIG PSSOFOT iets ois, hone tie: seiar's A butcher. From Mass (meat). 
Sastermescro ............ A blacksmith, Fyrom Saster (iron). 
Poggeromesty........ .... A hammer, From Pogger (to break). 


But perhaps the most characteristic termination of all is ben, or pen, added to ad- 
jectives and verbs to form substantives. This affix is also of frequent occurrence 
in Hindustani :— 

HRC EP OTA) wishin’ o/a'si<\ale/sange Truth. From Tatcho (right). 

Hobben (for Holben)...... Victuals. Fxom Hol (to eat). 

Naffilopen .............. Sickness. From Naffilo (ill). 


The Gipsies have manufactured and adopted a class of words, generally appella- 
tives, which are essentially of the nature of puns. They consist of words in which 
a fancied resemblance of sound has suggested their translation into Romanes; e. 7., 


Lalopeero (red foot) ...... iaTehaselsieragayefeaehe pe. 2. Redford. 
Milesto-gay (donkey-town) ....cssceeeseeeees Doncaster. 


Interchanges of certain letters frequently occur in Gipsy words, but always accord- 
ing to rules; and this must be borne in mind in tracing their derivations. Inter- 
changes take place between the following letters—K and H, K and T, G and D, 
F and §, &c., and the liquids are very often confounded, 


GRAMMAR. 
Masculine nouns generally end in a consonant or o. 


200 REPORT—1 861. 


Feminine nouns nearly always end in 7 or y; e. %., 


Gaixroy otee snen aw Man. Grainy: jvfarecvhersis xfs Woman. 

Kralllis.s.cyo sisigs- stalebents King. Krallissy’ ......4. Queen. 
The genitive case singular is formed by adding esto or esko; e. 9., 

Genitive. 

aha (tons) MRS SER Peto em ose no = Givesto or Givesko. 

Veer (Gyamiter,) jcereiasaieneye) cio imfeile sipieiel stay» ale xe Venesko or Venesto, 
The plural is formed by adding yor or or to the singular :— 

Skamimin (CHAT). sh. . va etebls vie ptafele dis Skamminyor, 

hack (cabbage) ss sped wide te eiers's ote Cielo ie wie enol Shockyor. 

a STG LNG) ocetoga pet atele re peteel stslatelyseieh tian Palor. 
The Gipsies as often use the English plural in s:— 

Joovvel (woman)-...... meeceletets ci tuo Joovvels. 

Pert (SISHCE) so ejek a eis ne te > ol wine nv eelme ns Pens. 


Adjectives end in o or y, agreeing in this respect with masculine or feminine 
NOUNS: 6. J5 


Mas. Fem. 
Rinkenno (pretty) .......0005. TLADASUC Rinkenny. 
Wlircllor Gishey,) Wire valapaledec.\ators aiavleeoid ete Chickly. 


The comparative degree is formed by adding dair or dairo; but no peculiar form 
is met with for the superlative :— 


1D oyehe CEN Racine Cate intra Gree Doordair (further). 
The comparative degree is sometimes formed irregularly :— 
Cooshkan(eoad)\s ai aeetle scene ele cree Fetterdairo (better). 


The English Gipsies still use a great many of their peculiar pronouns; e. g. 
Mandy (I), too (thou), yov (he), yoi (she), yaun (they), adoovvo (that), acoovoo 


(this), &c. The second and third personal pronouns in the English dialect are thus 
declined, viz.— 


Thou. He. She. 
Nishida ste dite eat TE Too, Yoy, Yoi. 
TAD ghde Kellar ad « Tooty, Lesty, Latty. 
INGA. els aittels) -iehe alee Tooty or Toot, Les, 
Aiiizns ia foleieiaih aa ie Tooty, Lesty, Latty. 


According to Grellmann, the German and Hungarian Gipsies have a peculiar 
conjugation of their own. The Gitanos of Spain assimilate their verbs to the 
Spanish conjugation. In this country the Gipsy dialect still exhibits remnants of . 
its ancient mode of conjugating the verb, although it generally conforms to the 
English method in preference. ‘Thus, the termination ed/a often appears in the third 
person singular of the present tense, and the past participle ends in 0 or do:— 


Nasher (to lose) .. Nasherella (he loses) .. Nasherdo (lost). 
Impersonal verbs always en@in ella in the present tense; ¢. 7., 
riginmella (Te TAMIS) <n e.5 oo cuslesstdaeiste eee Yivyella (it snows). 
A special form for the perfect is met with in some verbs; ¢. ¢., 
Jal (to go).... Jas (he or she went). Lel (to take).... Las (took). 


Parts of the verb ¢o be have been retained in common phrases, such as “ Choom 
sce aprey ’=the moon zs up, “Sar shan?” =how are you? 
The Gipsies have a number of prepesitions in common use; e. g. 


Engl. Gipsy prepositions, Hind. prepositions, 


sisi bh acees de SES TOO TA sive. vies Age 
UNGER Pee Stes Sy EPA 3 . Andar, 
ER DEGY storey ecu ‘0 Pi ccroae OSE Upar. 
ERAN 5; <1600,0;8 26 oid Jo orayuye atlas mibiarsinke 4 e. 
TARECOI:. « a1-peupis ave og Nota ph aboingsones amy pare 


On the syntax of the English Gipsy language very little was said; with but 


_ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 201 


few exceptions, the sentences are arranged strictly in accordance with the English 
idiom. ; 


On the Geographical Science of Arctic Explorations, and the advantage of con- 
tinuing it. By Captain W. P. Snow. 


Remarks on a Proposed Railway across the Malay Peninsula. By H. Wise. 


It appeared that this railway would save a distance of about 700 miles, by con- 
necting the Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean with the Gulf of Siam and China and 
Japan Seas, and precluding the necessity of pursuing the circuitous and precarious 
navigation of the Straits of Malacca. The government of Siam had sanctioned the 
construction of the railway, for the praiseworthy reason that it was connected with 
the advancement of civilization. The length of the railway would not exceed forty- 
five miles, and the transit of mails and passengers overland from the Bay of Bengal 
to the Gulf of Siam, or vice versd, would be accomplished in two hours. The 
present passage was made by steam-vessels in four or five days, but was seldom 

erformed by sailing vessels in less than three weeks. The experience of Major 

remenheere, with respect to the proposed undertaking, showed that no great 

hysical difficulties would have to be overcome in the construction of this line. 

he line would greatly facilitate the extension of the telegraph to China, by afford- 
ing protection to the stations on the line. The cable from Rangoon, along Cochin 
China, to Hongkong would be liable to far less casualties than that by the Straits 
route. The district through which the line would pass contained coal, tin-ore, and 
valuable natural productions. In the neighbourhood was an abundance of natural 
woods. The entire area of the Malay Peninsula was about 83,000 square miles. 
The importance of this railway to British policy and progress in the East was in- 
calculable. 


Some Account of the Romans in Britain. By Di. R. Wottasron. 


STATISTICAL SCIENCE. 


Address of Wit11aM Newmancu, F.R.S., President of the Section. 


He said there was some danger at this time that undue importance should be 
attached to what had been achieved in physical discovery. Enormous as had been 
our achievements—beholding, as they did, the prominent effects produced by rail- 
ways, tubular bridges, ocean steamers, telegraphs, and rifled cannon,—there was 
some danger—and it was not a small one—lest we should attach excessive and 
undue importance to the obligations which society owed to these achievements 
and those discoveries, great as they were. A glance at the history of the last 
thirty years would show that there had been in operation economical forces, the 
effects of which were hardly of less importance. Sound doctrines had been ap- 
plied to foreign and inland trade, taxation, education, sanitary science, prevention 
of crime, and the poor-laws. Economical science had ceased to be hypothetical, 
and had become experimental. This, the prominent fact in the history of the last 
thirty years, was due to the spirit of close scrutiny which had been carried into 
everything, including history, archeology, literature, and politics. It had been 
mentioned as a reproach to economical science, that it was not purely a science, 
but partook largely of the nature of an art. He must confess that this was scarcely 
a reproach; and the remark arose from a hasty view of the real difference be- 
tween science and art. Science was really a collection of general rinciples ; 
but all sciences were more or less arts. “Astronomy, for example, led to the 
production of nautical almanacs; and physiology to hospitals, sanitary laws, 
and precautions against fire. Economic science must be essentially an art, inas- 
much as its smallest problems involved human interests, affections, and passions ; 
and the advances which had been made of late years arose from regarding it both 
as a science and an art. There was a great want of an accurate and*conyenient 


202 REPORT—1861. 


term for social science, which would include morality and religion, education, juris- 
prudence, municipal law, sanitary science, political economy, the fine arts, and the 
art of government. The Social Science Association had six sections; namely, juris- 
Puudence and amendment of the law, education, punishment and reformation, public 

ealth, social economy, and international laws. It was probable that social science 
would soon imply, technically, political economy, jurisprudence, sanitary science, 
education, and statistics. He had mentioned statistics; but statistics was not pro- 
perly a science, like dynamics and chemistry. Statistics had no body of doctrine, 
or of general laws, of its own. Its generalizations were of the second order. There 
were five main divisions, namely, vital statistics, criminal statistics, economical 
statistics, trade statistics, and taxation statistics. In all these, ultimate units were 
being gradually established. The annual death-rate was almost as important as 
Dalton’s law of definite proportions. It had been established that the death-rate 
in a community of human beings inhabiting a country like our own ought not to 
exceed 17 in 1000, and taking their stand upon this, they were able to say that 
where the annual death-rate greatly exceeded that figure, there was something wrong. 
The rate of infant mortality was almost the best test of civilization. From the plan 
suggested by the Statistical Congress of last year, they should gradually be able to 
ascertain what was the real condition, and what was the effect, of the social relations 
pervading different parts of the world. The application of the experimental method 
pursued during the last thirty years had led to a large modification of the early and 
economic science in reference to free colonization, legal interference with labour, 
currency prices, the nature and operation of rent, and the effects of a large increase 
of metallic money. As to legal interference with labour, there was no part of poli- 
tical economy apparently so clear as that which taught that capitalists and labourers 
should be left to make their own bargain. Prior to Adam Smith and Ricardo, 
nearly all such interference by law and custom had been mischievous; and, there- 
fore, experience seemed to be on the side of laissez-faire, and against guilds, syndics, 
and government officers. This was true so long as the labourers were of the adult 
class, working singly or in small numbers or in families. But it ceased to be true 
when manufacturers congregated workpeople in large masses, and largely employed 
women and children, who were only partially free agents. Capitalists said that the 
limiting the hours of labour would mischievously and fatally discourage capital ; 
and so it would, in the abstract. But there were these qualifying conditions—that 
capital, depending for its retwn upon the order and energy of large masses of per- 
sons, must take especial care of the physical and moral condition of such persons ; 
and that the efficiency of exertion, even with machinery, did not mean unlimited 
hours of labour, but skilled efforts during the best-selected parts of the day. The 
experiment had fully answered ; and the orderly, educated, and contented labourers 
of Lancashire were security against foreign competition, and a guarantee of peace. 
Economic science dealt with six principal classes of questions, namely, the nature 
of wealth, the exchange of commodities, taxation and finance, gure | and banks, 
wages and division of employment, and interference by,the State. The last three 
only were still in dispute. Formerly with regard to these the /aissez-faire principle 
seemed to be the general rule; but as society became more complex, it seemed to 
be clear that the State must in many cases protect individuals. It could not be 
denied that at present the tendency of civilization was to deal with rights in masses. 
The conclusion of the whole matter seemed to be, that as the result of the last thirty 
years, full as that period had been of scientific achievements, they might justly claim 
for the services rendered by economic science and statistical inquiry a place in the 
front rank; that they had now arrived at a kind of intermediate point, at which, 
after long debate, many controversies were finally settled, and from which they 
might see their way to a higher summit; and that the least doubtful result of their 
experience had been the discovery that the most solid progress was made by guiding 
themselves in the main by close observation of facts, and by employing speculative 
and hypothetical reasoning under the most cautious conditions. But there was a 
larger moral beyond these results. The last thirty years had been an age of re- 
naissance, because they had found out that human life had higher ends than em- 
ployment in incessant labour or devotion to excessive gain; that to accomplish 
these higher ends they must free themselves bodily and wholly of artificial and false 
supports, and contest with no mimic earnestness for the honour of the first place 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 203 


among modern civilized States. He did not believe in the New Zealander looking 
upon the ruins of St. Paul’s; but rather looked forward to Windsor Castle becoming 
a West-End mansion, and the villas of the metropolis flourishing on the hills of 
the White Horse, No community ever decayed in which the poorer classes could 
earn a reasonable independence in free competition with all the world, 


On Capital Punishments and their Influence on Crime. 
By Henry Asuworte. 


From time to time, under the ever-varying condition of our people, an adjustment 
of punishment for offences has been determined in some way or other by human 
judgment, and, for the most part, the punishment inflicted has been greatly in 
excess of the magnitude of the offences committed. The extremity of this policy 
would appear to have been reached in the time of Henry VIII., durmg whose reign 
it has been stated that the incredible number of 72,000 persons were executed for the ° 
crime of theft alone, besides those who suffered death for treason and other grave 
offences. So fearful an amount of legalized slaughter, committed on a population so 
small, was calculated to have had a most impressive effect. And yet what do we find ? 
Sir Thomas More, writing at that period, says, “ Although so many were trussed 
up, aman could not travel from his own home without fear of being either murdered 
or robbed.” It has been represented that Queen Elizabeth expressed her surprise 
that men would be committing crimes at the foot of the scaffold; and by way of 
corrective of this gross sinfulness of her people, she gave orders that upon discovery 
of the offenders they should be hanged without benefit of clergy. 

During the reign of the Stuarts and some of the Brunswick family, the number 
of capital offences was gradually increased to the extent of 220, and the pecuniary 
amount for the stealing of which death was inflicted descended to as low a sum as 
five shillings. Coming nearer to our own day, the prevailing sentiment in relation 
to almost all offences continued to rest upon the theory of the Legislature, that it 
was needful to hang men by way of example, in order to prevent others committing 
crimes. In the year 1786, James Holland, of Kirkham, was condemned at the 
Lancaster Assizes as a “ croft breaker,” having stolen 30 yards of cotton cloth, of 
the value of £3, from the bleach grounds of Mr. Thweat, of Burnden, near Bolton. 
He was conveyed in a cart from the Castle of Lancaster to the town of Bolton, 
and was executed there on the 18th September, 1786. Such was the avowed pur- 
pose and determination that the most should be made of the impressive effect, that 
the employers of the neighbourhood had their servants and work-people assembled 
on the spot to witness the spectacle ; and upon the following Sunday the Rey. E. 
Whitehead, vicar of the parish church, improved the occasion by a sermon upon 
the recent execution. Taking a retrospective review of the foregoing exposition 
of one of the 220 cases in which the extreme penalty of the law might be inflicted, 
the tariff of liability reduced to five shillings, and a theory of punishments calculated 
to inspire a terror of crime, how humiliating is the commentary of the reverend 
vicar, that “criminals daily increase, and rapine and villany are at their utmost 
summit!” Indeed, it could no longer be atbterl that there had been existing a 
grieyous misapprehension of what were the most judicious and enlightened means 
to secure the end designed. Following a disclosure of the notoriously ill success of 
extreme punishments, a committee was formed in London about the year 1808, to 
afford assistance to Sir Samuel Romilly, M.P., in obtaining the amelioration of our 
criminal code; and their exertions were gradually successful. One offence after 
another ceased to be capital, and a change in our penal code was more and more 
urgently demanded. Public discussion of the subject brought about the acknow- 
ledgment, with all the array of a new discovery, that it was not so much the 
severity as the certainty of punishment which deters men from the commission of 
offences. The difficulty of procuring the repeal or even some mitigation of our 
antiquated pene statutes lay with the Legislature, and the character of the ob- 
struction offered will be estimated by reference to a few only of the accounts of the 

roceedings. In the session of 1810, Romilly succeeded in carrying through the 
Fae of Commons the repeal of the law which made it a capital offence to steal 
the value of 5s. in a shop. The House of Lords threw out the bill by a majority 
of 31 to 11, and in this majority there were six bishops and one archbishop. From 
a beginning so inauspicious to look upon, the progress of any salutary change could 


204 REPORT—1861. 


not be very rapid, and it was in 1833 that Lord Suffield appealed to their Lordships 
on the following astounding statement :—“T hold inmy hand a list of 555 perjured 
verdicts delivered at the Old Bailey in 15 years, for the single offence of stealing 
from dwelling-houses; the value stolen in these cases being sworn above 40s., but 
the verdict returned being reduced by the jury to the value of 39s. only.” What 
was the result of this appeal? A change in the law was effected ; and Mr. Charles 
Phillips, in a remarkable pamphlet on capital punishments, published in 1858, 
somewhat facetiously informs us,—“It did not amount to a repeal, but to an ac- 
imowledgment that man, made in the image of his Maker, had risen in the money 
market; and thereupon human life was advanced by statute from £2, the sum at 
which it then stood, to £5, being a rise of 60s. per head.” The effect of this change 
in the law, as might reasonably be expected, was, that in like manner juries had 
recourse to an exceptional verdict of £4 19s. Sir Fitzroy Kelly stated in Parliament 
_in 1840, “That a few years before there were nearly 200 capital offences on the 
statute-book; now there were only 14, and that there had been no increase of crime 
since the repeal.” Mr. Hume also remarked, “ That in no instance had offences 
increased in consequence of the mitigation of the punishment; on the contrary, 
there had been a decrease ; so that, in future, capital punishments would be but an 
unnecessary sacrifice of human life.” It will hardly be necessary to offer the remark 
that the security of property and the good order and general welfare of the com- 
munity are the great objects of government ;—how gratifying is the acknowledg- 
ment that these are now being upheld with greater safety and without involving 
any sacrifice of human life, even of the meanest of our fellow-subjects! The people ~ 
of Lancashire do not feel indifference, but, on the contrary, they rejoice with the 
rest of our countrymen in the mitigation of our penal enactments; and, upon an 
occasion such as the present, it may be allowable, and not inappropriate, if we close 
this review of the subject by some brief reference to the effects, as they have heen 
disclosed by the criminal records of our own county. From a Parliamentary paper, 
it appears that in the course of 22 years, from 1798 to 1818, both inclusive, there 
were in Lancashire 153 executions, more than 50 of which were for offences con- 
nected with forgery; and let it be borne in mind that the population of the county, 
in 1801, was only 672,565. In the last 22 years, the population of 1861 being 
2,428,744, or nearly fourfold, the number of executions has been reduced to 16, 
and these for murder only. It may be insisted that any such comparison as that 
of the number of executions does not afford conclusive evidence of the diminution 
of crime ; and that, if possible, some other data, affording more minute ene 
ought to be adduced in support of this assumption. It is well known that in the 
early part of the present century there were not in existence the means of collecting 
the needful information in the same careful manner as is now annually prepared by 
the county constabulary. In endeayouring to account for the presence or the absence 
of crime, it will be admitted that the employment of the executioner as a moral 
teacher has utterly failed, and that the enactment of stringent laws has not pre- 
vented the onward course of crime. When we come to consider the conditions 
tending to crime, it is well known that the harassing effects of poverty have been 
but too frequently the originating cause. Under a pressure so severe, how hopeless 
would be the attempt to enforce the conviction that “honesty is the best policy ;” 
whilst, on the contrary, every one would admit that the meliorating influence of 
well-paid employment, cheap food, and command of enjoyment, tends to diminish 
crime and to exalt the character of a people. 


The Progress of Science and Art as developed in the Bleaching of Cotton at 
Bolton. By Heyny Asnworru. 


Having traced the art of bleaching from its commencement to the present time, 
and described the present process, Mr. Ashworth continued to say that, by an art 
which half a century ago was almost unknown, and by the agency of our coal as 
fuel, we have succeeded in converting certain products which we dig from under 
our feet, such as salt, pyrites, and lime, into one ofthe most important branches of 
manufacturing chemistry. These discoveries in chemistry may appear extraordinary, 
although they are not more important in the economy of bleaching than are the 
mechanical arrangements which have superseded the exposure of labourers, in all 
states of the weather, to the accustomed drudgery of the “crofters” of old. The 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 205 


* crofters,” of whom we have spoken, bore the appearance of remarkably strong 
men; their working dress was of thick white flannel, called “ gladding;” the cut 
of the coat was peculiar, having a loose, open appearance, and a low, flat collar, on 
which the shirt-collar usually rested. They had their necks uncovered ; and, their 
employment being so much exposed to moisture, they seldom wore stockings, 
Altogether, they assumed a bearing of unconcern about the state of the weather, 
and were quite regardless of the splashing of water. Their employment consisted 
mainly in the handling of wet cloth, and in removing it, either by hand or by 
wheelbarrows, from one operation to another. Perhaps the most distressing part 
of their labour was that of carrying upon their shoulders a pile of wet cloth, rising 
to some height above the head, which they conveyed to some considerable distance 
in the fields, and spread upon the grass. In the severity of the winter season there 
would be drippings from the cloth, forming icicles, which would be adhering to the 
skirts of their clothing. It has been through a succession of mechanical inventions 
that these laborious operations have been dispensed with, and one after another 
they have been handed over to the power of the steam-engine. The result has 
been that the time required for the operation of bleaching is now about as many 
days as formerly it required weeks to accomplish. Honour to British genius that 
these advantages have been derived to our country ! 

The general public will, no doubt, feel curious to ascertain whether any and what 
proportion of the money-saving thus effected has reached the consumer ; some other 
portion of the public will inquire in what extent the advantages thus achieved by 
science and art have been shared by the operative class employed,—it is not ex- 
pected that much concern will be manifested about the interests of the proprietor; 
and it is not unreasonable to suppose that a still more minute inquiry will be raised 
about the “human machine,” more especially whether, during the progress of these 
advances in manufacturing art, the material, moral, and intellectual condition of the 
working class has been made to keep pace with all these improved manipulations, 
which, amidst the struggle of changes, have destroyed the character of many 
employments, but have greatly increased the whole number of persons employed ? 

The advantages shared by the consumer will easily be reckoned. We have before 
us a printed card, or list of prices for bleaching, issued by a leading firm in the year 
1803. At that time the charge for bleaching a well-known description of cloth 
was 7s. 6d. for a piece of 28 yards, and it is now 6d. The case of the labourers 
employed in bleaching 60 or 70 years ago was, as before stated, a very harassing 
one; they suffered severely from exposure to wet and cold, and, as a consequence, 
from rheumatism and asthma. The earnings of a “crofter” would be from 10s. to 
15s. per week. Upon wages so scanty, and with some uncertainty of employment, 
their mode of living was necessarily expensive. Oatmeal was the staple com- 
modity of their food. They used it as porridge ; their bread was of oatmeal, either 
in leavened oat-cakes or baked in the form of a loaf called -jannock, which is said 
to have been introduced by the refugee Flemings; and animal food, with the excep- 
tion of bacon, was seldom found at the working-man’s table. Now-a-days, the 
workmen in bleach-works perform all their work indoors, and are therefore no 
longer exposed to the coldness and moisture of the former period. The wages are 
increased in a proportion which cannot easily be estimated, and their employment 
is one of great regularity. They have nearly ceased to consume oatmeal; jannock 
is unheard of; oat-cakes are seldom seen; and their tables are now daily spread 
with wheaten bread, animal food from the shambles, and all the other articles which 
usually enter into the consumption of families in the other grades of life. 

The social condition of the operative bleacher of early times cannot easily be 
separated from the rest of the working alariives of that day, neither could they 
now be described in any other manner than that which would apply to the opera- 
tives around them in other pursuits. We may refer to their modes of pleasure- 
taking as affording in itself a very appreciable indication of the past and present. 
The amusements which formerly prevailed were rude and boisterous; now they are 
more refined and intellectual. Bull-baiting, bear-baiting, and cock-fighting were 
amongst the common amusements of the day, especially at the wakes and fairs. 
The game of foot-ball was a very favourite one, so much so that the people of one 
place would make selection of their combatants and have them pitched against those 
of some other place, and these would contend in very ardent strife for the renown 


206 REPORT—1861. 


of mastery. Indeed, so very popular was this game, that a match at foot-ball was 
upon one day in the year tolerated by the inhabitants in the streets of Bolton. The 
whole of this is now given up. The game of cricket is becoming a popular one, and 
others equally harmless in their character are being introduced. Seventy years ago, 
Sunday-schools had made but slight progress. There were but few persons who 
could read, still fewer who could write; and when any one received a letter, he had 
to carry it away, perhaps a good many miles, to find a scholar who could read it. 
At the present time, Sunday-schools abound, day-schools are numerous, and the 
affair of carrying away a letter in search of a scholar may now with much compla- 
cency be put down as among the reminiscences of seventy years ago. 


On the Influence of Density of Population on the Fecundity of Marriages in 
England. By R. H. Baxewett. 


A Glance at the Cotton Trade. By Taomas Baztny, MP. 


A century ago the population of Manchester was below 30,000, whilst now 
350,000 persons reside mm and occupy it. Population and wealth have wonderfully 
arene and ramified to other places; but now, in the zenith of prosperity, a 
mysterious hand has written upon our walls the words of caution and of admonition. 
During the last fifty years upwards of 20,000,000,000 pounds weight of cotton from 
all sources have been consumed in Great Britain, and the value would be probably 
not less than £750,000,000 sterling, or might equal a sum of the amount of our 
National Debt, the chief supply having been obtained from the United States of 
America, Upon a fair computation, the import of that material, which has so 
largely employed the capital and labour of this country, has yielded a profit of not 
less than £1,000,000,000 sterling to the people of the United Kingdom within that 
period. The wonder is, that so large a supply of cotton could be procured from 
that one source, the United States; and when we reflect that this country possesses a 
monopoly of the vast extent of territory found in the whole world capable of producing 
this raw material, the inference is most palpable, that there has been developed the 
most successful agricultural industry in the States of America which has been 
ever either contemplated or realized; whilst in British colonies and dependencies 
apathy and neglect have a If the legislature had little sympathy with the 
great industry of Lancashire, the interests of our foreign possessions might have 
induced our rulers to stimulate productions in them which would have found com- 
pensating markets at home. The advocates of large and of independent supplies of 
raw cotton, from all possible sources, have never desired Governmental favours, their 
object having been to promote the removal of repressing obstacles, and to procure, 
by the aid of a sound colonial policy, at least a fair share, in proportion to the ex- 
tent of our foreign possessions, not only of cotton, but of every other product which 
they might more abundantly have yielded. During the last year the consumption 
of cotton in Great Britain was 85 per cent. from the United States, 8 per cent. from 
other foreign sources, and 7 per cent. from British territory. The present position 
of the trade is most precarious and dangerous. Existing stocks and Petals 
supplies of cotton may enable the mills to be worked into the spring of next year, 
at moderately full time; but afterwards, unless supplies be received from the 
United States, independent sources can only furnish the means of keeping the mills 
at work little more than one day in the week. With the growth of this industry 
5,000,000 of our population have become, directly and indirectly, dependent upon 
it for their subsistence ; and the productiveness of their capital and labour, inclu- 
ding the raw material, was for the last year nearly eighty million pounds sterling. 
Of this large value twenty-five millions of cotton manufactures were absorbed in 
the consumption of the people of the United Kingdom, and there remained for 
exportation fifty-five millions. The estimated capital engaged in its fixed and 
floating investments is two hundred million pounds. Now, when we contemplate 
the vast interests involved in this surprising trade, seeing that the people employed 
and connected with it exceed the population of the kingdom of Belgium, of Holland, 
and of Portugal,—that the national treasury receives from it an amazing sum in aid 
of the expenses of the State,—that a commercial marine of unparalleled magnitude 
derives support from it,—that the comfort and happiness of the labourers employed 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 207 


in it are imperilled by any indications which threaten to disturb its existence and 
prosperity,—and that its suspension or serious curtailment would even endanger 
the general weal,—we may well inquire what efforts have been made to sustain the 
usefulness, prosperity, and permanency of this source of national riches. That the 
cotton trade should have rested chiefly upon the one supply of the States of America 
for its very means of existence, every good and every wise man has deplored ; but 
that to produce that supply the portion of the human family which is most defence- 
less should be held in the degradation of slavery is abhorrent to the feelings of the 
righteous, of the humane, and of the benevolent. Most effectually to Bea toe 
slavery will be to supersede the necessity for the labour of the slave; and if the 
chiefs of Africa could be induced to cultivate sugar, cotton, and tobacco upon their 
own soil, they need not expel and degrade their labourers. 

The author added remarks on the effects of the commercial policy of the United 
States, and affirmed that this country has been paying a tribute of five million 
pounds sterling per annum to those States in excess of the price at which cot= 
ton could be remuneratively produced and sold. With the convulsion which 
exists in America, with the adverse commercial policy dominant there, and with 
the inhuman system of slavery which prevails in the cotton-producing districts, 
what are the duties which devolve upon our governing and mercantile classes? If 
by the convulsion of the States we are taught our national as well as commercial 
duties, the lesson will be ultimately beneficial. Whether it has been wise for our 
Government to see continually increasing the dependence of this great trade upon 
the one chief supply of its raw material, and that source adverse in interest and 
oppressive to its own labour, we can only answer in the negative. With the East and 

est Indies, with tracts in South, East, and West Africa, and with land in Australia 
as extensive as Europe, capable of growing cotton from the lowest to the highest 
qualities, it is a national reproach to us that we have permitted our own fields to 
be uncultivated, and that our spinners and manufacturers haye been driven by 
necessity to consume the produce of slavery.’ Lacking the means of communication 
and of irrigation, the resources of the Kast Indies remain in much the same dormant 
condition in which they have been for two thousand years ; but brighter prospects 
are opening in that great dependency,—railways are being obnstpeidtal, canals 
formed, river navigation improved, and works of irrigation promoted. One great 
defect, however, is retained with perverse tenacity. The tenure of land is obstruct- 
ive alike to the rights of individual ownership and to its effective cultivation. 
Without doing the slightest wrong to the holders of any land, its equitable transfer 
might be sanctioned, and a landed proprietary as influential as in our own country 
might be established. Protection to life and the rights of property, with eve 
other just adjunct of good government, will inevitably lead to prosperity. Small 
supplies of cotton, as good as that obtained from New Orleans, are now received 
from India, and the cotton of this vast dependency is certainly improving; but 
whilst, from a combination of circumstances and causes, the ryot of India is only 
paid 12s. per acre for his crop of cotton, and the American cultivator can obtain 
£12, the energy and capability of the former cannot be developed. Supposing 
efforts to be made commensurate with indicated difficulties, all the common cottons, 
or 75 per cent. of the consumption of Great Britain, might be obtained from India 
in a couple of years, From Kgypt the supply of cotton may increase, but there the 
withering influence of the despot retards its extended cultivation, though the 
spirited, energetic, and successful enterprise of Mehemet Ali is an example deserving 
ibs imitation of better men. He introduced that agricultural industry into his 
viceroyalty, and founded a fountain of wealth whence flow millions of annual 
income to the advantage of Egypt. For all the finer, higher, and better classes of 
cotton, from New Orleans, Brazil, and Egyptian, to the most beautiful Sea Island, 
Queensland, in Australia, might quickly afford all requisite supplies. That territory 
alone, besides sustaining the population of Europe, could easily be made to produce 
all the cotton nowconsumed in the world; but so sweeping a change and enlarged pro- 
duction need not be deliberated upon, the facts being only referred to as illustrating 
the powers of that colony. In seeking from the Government the development of 
the resources of the colonies, the twofold advantage would arise by which that power 
would financially be greatly benefited, alike at home and in the colonies. Govern- 
ment must set its colonial house in order. Land grants for beneficial purposes 


208 : REPORT—1861. 


should be free, facilities afforded for emigration, public works promoted, and pros- 
perity will follow in the train. Capitalists, merchants, and manufacturers, whose 
investments are largely embarked in the cotton trade, have duties devolving upon 
them. These bodies are known to have large investments in foreign railways, in 
the cultivation of sugar and other products, and in many dubious securities ; but in 
the cultivation of the staple raw material of their own pursuits they have not ven- 
tured to embark. Last year the cotton trade contributed to capital and labour fifty 
million pounds sterling, and in the last fifty years the aggregate reward has been one 
thousand millions. Surely from these treasures might be spared some pittance of 
capital to free the negro, and to ensure still greater prosperity to industry. Supposing 
the Government of our country to be willing to make all the preliminary arrange- 
ments which will contribute to the security and profit of capital invested in cotton- 
growing, the clear duty of the class referred to will be to enter upon investments with 
no niggard hand; and, for their encouragement, it may be mentioned that very 
recently an extensive Louisiana cotton-planter has asserted that he could grow 
cotton at 8d. per lb. which is now worth 9d. per lb. in Liverpool, and of course he 
has had to buy his labourers, and afterwards to sustain them. The confessed profit 
is 200 per cent.; but, in all sobriety of judgment, cotton-growing would afford 100 
per cent. of recompense. Here, then, the governing, the capitalist, the mercantile, 
and the manufacturing classes have duties in common to perform, and from which 
none of them should withhold their willing help. Upon this subject the warning 
voice has been long and often heard, and the present embarrassment in cotton sup- 
plies has been anticipated. Having, therefore, been forewarned, may this great 
and world-benefiting industry be fore-armed ! 


On Ten Years’ Statistics of the Mortality amongst the Orphan Children taken 
under the Care of the Dublin Protestant Orphan Societies. By the Rey. 
W. Carne, M.A. 

There are two of these societies in Dublin, one for the children of parents both 
of whom were Protestants, the other for the children of mixed marriages. 

Their distinguishing peculiarity is, that the children taken under their care are 
not congregated together in one large building, but are placed with poor Protestant 
families in Wicklow and other counties in Ireland. 

A great saving is effected by this plan. Each child costs only between £5 and 
£6 per annum. In the workhouse each child would cost about £9. j 

ery great care is used in the selection of the families in which the children are 
placed. The minister of the parish reports to the Committee in Dublin at stated 
times whether they are properly attended to, and members of the Committee visit 
them every year. This supervision tends to promote cleanliness and sobriety in the 
families with which the orphans live, as they would be at once removed if there were 
any deficiency in these particulars. 

The happy result is seen in the exceedingly small amount of mortality amongst 
the children. Their ages range from 6 months to 14 or 15 years. 

In the Protestant Orphan Society the mortality during the last ten years has 
been as follows :— 


1851 ., 375 children .. 1 died. 1856 .. 420 children .. 5 died. 
1852... 400 ,, .. Sdied. 1857... 420 ,, .. 2died. 
1853 .. 400 ,, .. 3 died. 1858 .. 420 FA .. & died. 
1854... 400 4,  .. 3died. 1859 .. 420 4, .. Qdied. 
1855... 400 4, .. 8died. 1860... 482 ,,  .« 1 died. 


The average number of children during the ten years has been 409; the average 
number of deaths only 23 each year—not 1 per cent. per annum. 

In the other society, called the Protestant Orphan Union, the mortality has been 
as follows :— 


1851 .. 86 children ,. ; 1856 .. 109 children .. 1 died. 
1852 5. 47 fated 1857 .. 120 1 died. 
185K § GL aabponiya Habre hy 1eue) 1 182 cniog ake ane 
1854 no Stilos gilt sist Lhe ai 1859. «0. {150 ,-onesseil-pfieesatereel. 


1865 [6305.4 gk whcsersy died. 1860 .. 165 4, .. 2died. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 209 


The average number of children during the last 10 years has been 101. The 
average number of deaths has not been 1 per cent., as there have been only 8 
deaths in the ten years. 

Contrast this mortality with that of the children in English and Scotch cities. 
In Manchester 50 per cent. die before they are 5 years old; in Glasgow, 54; in 
Edinburgh, 383; and in Aberdeen, 32 percent. And throughout the kingdom half 
the children die before they reach the age of 14 years. 

The exceedingly small mortality amongst the orphan children under the care of 
the Dublin Protestant Orphan Societies shows what attention to sobriety and clean- 
liness, on the part of parents and nurses, and a proper supply of pure air would effect 
in thiscountry. It also shows to what a fearful extent murder prevails—the murder 
of innocent children—and the injury which accrues to our own country and the world 
from the loss of the services and the labours of those thus cut off in childhood, and 
thereby prevented from benefiting their country and the world, which they in most 
instances would have done, if they had not met with untimely deaths at the hands 
of their intemperate and uncleanly parents, and through the neglect of the com- 


munity at large. 


On the Progress of Manchester from 1840 to 1860. 
By Davm Cuapwicr, F.S.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Secretary of Section F. 


Mr. David Chadwick stated that, having been requested by the Committee of 
Economic Science, at the last meeting of the British Association at Oxford, to pre- 
pare a paper on the progress of Manchester and Salford during the twenty years 
1840-60, he would consider seriatim the increase of nee ean and that of the prin- 
cipal manufacturing towns in the country ; the annual value of property ; the pro- 

ortion of parliamentary representation to persons and ad ee the trade of the 
Jiatrict, with particulars of cotton imports and exports of manufactured goods; 
improvements in cotton-machinery; wages of the operatives, with a comparative 
statement of the cost of food and clothing, and facilities for their social, physical, 

' and intellectual advancement; the municipal and local governments of Manchester 
and Salford, noticing the taxation and local improvements effected within the 
period indicated. 

Mr. Chadwick stated the population of the principal towns in Lancashire at each 
decennial period from 1801 to 1861, showing an increase in Manchester and Sal- 
ford, from 94,876 in 1801 to 311,269 in 1841, and to 460,018 in 1861, the rate of 
oe being 47-79 per cent. in the last twenty years, and 384:86 per cent. in the 

ast sixty years. Taking the twelve a towns of the county during the same 

eriod, the increase was from 291,281 in 1801 to 929,405 in 1841, and to 1,417,662 
in 1861. Comparing this progress with that of the entire county, and of England 
and Wales, the rate of increase has been, in the twelve town districts, from 1841 
to 1861, 52°53 per cent.; and 1801 to 1861, 386-7 per cent.; in the county, in 
mae 4 years, 45:09 per cent. ; and in sixty years, 260°71 per cent.; and in England 
and Wales, in twenty years, 26-06 per cent.; and in sixty years 125°6 per cent. 
In 1801 the population of Lancashire was 7°68 per cent. of the total population of 
England aad Wales, or nearly 1-18th part thereof. In 1861, the per-centage had 
increased to 12-29, or nearly 1-8th part thereof. 

The population in each township of the parish of Manchester, and in the parlia- 
mentary boroughs of Manchester and Salford, in 1851 and 1861, was then detailed, 
with the per-centage of increase in the ten years. It appeared that, owing to the 
extension of warehouses, &c., used only in the daytime, and abandoned at night, 

‘the population of the township of Manchester had decreased 1-04 per cent. during 
the last ten years, whilst that of all the remaining townships had increased, Chorl- 
ton-on-Medlock being the lowest (25°99 per cent.) and Bradford the highest 
(124-11 per cent.), the total increase in the parliamentary borough being 13-09 
per cent. The population of the city proper (not including Bradford, Newton, 
and Harpurhey) had increased 1152 per cent. In Salford (parliamentary and 
municipal) the total increase in population was 20°33 per cent., detailed thus: 
—Salford township, 11:95; Broughton, 38:72; Pendleton, 46-93; part Pendle- 
bury, 87°46. ; 

1861. 14 


210 “ REPORT—1861. 


This rapid increase could only be accounted for on the supposition that the occu- 
ations of the people in the manufacturing districts are more congenial, and afford 
fetter remuneration, than agricultural pursuits, _ : 

Mr. Chadwick then referred to a paper read at the last meeting of the British 
Association in Manchester, in 1842, by Mr. Henry Ashworth of Bolton, showing that 
the total value of property in Lancashire, in 1692, was £95,242; and in 1841, 
£6,192,067, being an increase of 6300 per cent. in a century and a half,—the pro- 
portions of the increase being, in the three agricultural portions of the country, 
3500 per cent.; and in the three manufacturing hundreds (Blackburn, Salford, and 
West Derby), 7000 per cent. The total assessable annual value of property in the 
county was (as shown by a parliamentary return), in 1860, £10,458,243, being an 
increase of £4,266,176 in twenty years, or 69:35 per cent. The total assessable 
annual value of property in England and Wales was, in 1860, £103,462,535,—that 
of Lancashire being therefore equal to 10:14 per cent. thereof. 

Referring to the question of representation, it was shown that prior to 1832, 
Manchester, Salford, and many other of the great towns of Lancashire were unre- 
presented in Parliament, but that the Reform Bill gave them 26 members (now 
increased to 27). England and Wales returned 500 members, being one member 
for £206,925 annual value of property, and 40,123 of population ; whilst Lancashire, 
with its 27 members, had only one member for £387,342 value and 91,281 popula- 
tion. Thus, although Lancashire constitutes 12-29 per cent. of the population, and 
10-14 per cent. of the annual value of property in England and Wales, the number 
of its parliamentary representatives is only 5:4 per cent. of the number returned for 
England and the Principality. 

he great staple trade of the district was next considered. The tables under this 
head showed cotton imported into the United Kingdom from 1842 to 1845 inclusive 
(four years):—From the United States, 2,064,128,400 Ib.; all other countries, 
608,476,800 lb. : total imports, 2,672,605,200 lb. (estimated at 400 Ib. per bale). In 
1846 to 1848 (three years): United States, 1,366,796,172 Ib.; other countries, 
288,787,878 lb. ; total, 1,655,584,050 lb. Whilst in the three years ending 1860, 
the figures were as follows :—United States, 2,910,835,648 lb. ; all other countries, 
740,434,352 Ib.; total, 3,651,270,0001b. The imports were, in 1846, 467,856,274 lb. ; 
and in 1860, 1,390,958,752 lb., being an increase in fourteen years of 197 per cent. 
Of cotton imported in 1846, the United States supplied 86 per cent., and all other 
countries 14 per cent. ; in 1860, the United States, 804, and other countries 19% per 
cent. Next followed a statement of cotton consumed, and manufactured goods pro- 
duced in Great Britain, in 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1860; which showed, 247,600,000 Ib. 
of raw cotton consumed in 1830, against 1,083,600,000 Ib. in 1860; the manufactured 
goods produced being 182,954,658 lb. in 1830, as against 886,256,3451b.in 1860. Total 
manufactured goods, in 1830, 914,773,563 yards; in 1860, 4,431,281,728 yards, or 
2,517,774 miles—a quantity which would wrap 100 times round the globe! Total 
value of cotton goods produced, upwards of £77,000,000, a sum exceeding the-total 
revenue of the United Kingdom. The difference between the value of cotton manu- 
factured and yarns exported, and the total cotton imports, leaves 16} millions as the 
value of labour, &c., left in the country from exports of cotton manufacture alone— 
exceeding our total exports of woollen goods and yarns, and more than double our 
exports of silk and linen manufactures. As a companion to the foregoing state~ 
ment, Mr. Chadwick also gave the imports of cotton, wool, silk, hemp, and flax, in 
various years, from 1790 to the present time, annexing a table showing the num- 
ber of factories existing in the United Kingdom in 1856, with other particulars 
therewith connected. Number. of textile factories, 5117; spindles, 33,503,580; 
power looms, 370,195; total persons employed, 682,497. The motive power em- 
ployed in 1856 appears to have been:—steam= 137,711 horses; water, 23,724; 
total horse-power, 161,435 (no later connected returns had been issued). Number 
of spindles at work in cotton factories in 1860, 33,862,500, turning off 32 Ib. of yarn 
per spindle per annum. Deducting the exports in yarn, 27,695,511 spindles, or 
869,273 looms, remain. Total estimated value of spindles and looms employed in 
the manufacture of cotton in Great Britain in 1860, £41,247,960. Spindles, 84,656 
horse-power; looms, 24,685. Total, 109,341; consuming 639,586 tons of coals in 
. the year. Increase in spindles and looms in the four years, 20 per cent. Calcu- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 211 


lated in the same ratio, the number of operatives would be 455,055, which, at 
9s, 6d. weekly average wages, would give the amount paid in 1860 as £11,239,857. 
Our imports of merchandize and bullion amounted in the same year to £233,626,839; 
exports, £191,205,421; or a total representing considerably more than one-half of 
the national debt. A table was then produced showing the exports from the United 
Kingdom of ten of the principal articles of British and Irish produce for each year 
from 1846 to 1860. From this it appeared that the export of cotton goods from 
1846 to 1860 increased from 1062 million yards to 2765 million yards, or 160 per 
cent., whilst the value of cotton manufactured goods exported was, in 1846, 
£17,717,778; and in 1860, £42,141,505, or an increase of 138 per cent. The in- 
crease per cent. on the other articles referred to was as follows :— 


Quantity. Value. 


CODES GUGURG A Baader dn ceentn Oot arcias USO easrines: 241 
Cotton twist and yarn................0nes YOR AEE . 25 
Tron (cast and wrought)..............0005 ZIBU RE secbele'e 190 
ANON MANUIACHUTESY .)byefe 2% 0 01s 6's sien cio cis viele Ga ieaxekets 70 
ATeRM stor SOWINE..oieieic «ojos fe c+ so icide ese 84 106 
LTE FEO. aad bbe od un So CO aS eB eIge rR Oraec GOieet: 

Mia sCHIC OURS metteericis «(c's < «<= -js.00 obs sa ET coiicisae 87 
Mixed stuffs, flannels, &..........00ce eens AGT aor 152 
Total woollen manufactures............... mal aistainiks 92 
Woollen and worsted yarn...........0.00. YA ESS) 5 Oe 323 
Mitoliineryrpk AUK Oe yo oracciarais «tye aisin/ays ¢ ee ci 243 


The estimated number of spindles used in cotton factories, in 1840, was seventeen 
millions; in 1856, twenty-eight millions; in 1860, thirty-three millions. Esti- 
mated consumption of cotton in 1840, 9,400,000 lb.; 1856, 17,466,400 Ib. ; 1860, 
18,400,000 lb. Spindles made weekly in 1860, 60,000, or (say) three millions in the 
year; of these, one and a half millions would be for home, half a million for re- 
placement, and a million for foreign orders. Increase in the number of spindles in 
the year, one and a half millions, equivalent to the production of 1,124,000 lb. of 
23’s yarn. The annual increase in the cotton-supply required to meet the increase 
of machinery in use in the United Kingdom, at this rate, would be 3100 bales, or 
1,240,000 1b. ; to meet the increase of machinery made in the United Kingdom for 


_ home and foreign use (deducting replacement item), 4687 bales, or 1,874,800 lb. 


The improvement effected in the various classes of cotton and other textile ma- 
chinery during the last twenty years was then noticed. Since the invention by 
Mz. Richard Roberts of the self-acting mule (known as “Sharp’s Self-acting Mule”), 
it was stated that there had been no single improvement of equal importance made 
in the economy of the cotton-manufacture ; but many very important and valuable 
minor improvements in working, in economizing labour, in increasing speed, and 
thereby increasing the production, both in spinning and weaving, had been effected. 
In willow- and blowing-machinery, and carding-engines, the increase in production 
had been 20 to 25 per cent.; saving of labour, 20 per cent.: drawing-frames, in- 
crease the same; saving of labour, 100 per cent.: slubbing- and roving-frames, in- 
crease the same; saying of labour, 40 to 45 per cent.: spinning- and doubling-ma- 
chinery, increase in‘length of machines, 100 per cent.—average length of machines 
in 1840 being 480 spindles, and in 1860, 960 spindles ; saving of labour, 50 per cent. : 
weaving-machinery, increase in production (in sizing-machinery, 150 per cent.), 
looms, 25 per cent. ; saving of labour, 40 per cent. Improvements of great import- 
ance had also been effected in other branches, such as the introduction into general 
use of chlorine, in bleaching; the new dyes (magenta, &c., and from gas tar); the 
sewing-machine, for making clothes, shoes, saddlery, and numerous other articles. 
From a comparative statement of the actual increase of work done by cotton- &c. 
machinery in 1841 and 1861, it appeared that the estimated number of 33,000,000 
spindles in 1860 would do as much work as 37,263,600 in 1840; but as there were 
only about 17,000,000 spindles in 1840, it followed that the increase of the producing- 
power was 119-2 per cent. in twenty years. 

The following statement of the proportion of adults and children in a cotton-mill: 
of 500 workers, and their average weekly wages, was submitted :— 

. 14* 


‘ 


912 REPORT—1861. 


Proportion of each class of Adults and Children in a Lancashire Cotton-Mill of 500 
Workers, and their average Weekly Wages in 1860, 


Class of Work. | Men. Women. Boys. Girls. Total. 
1. Stokers, engineers, No. No. No. No. No. 
lodge-keepers, ware- 
housemen, mecha- 20 2 5 “s 27 
nics, and porters...) | 
2. Cotton-mixing and ! - l 8 
blowane aces ve 7 
3. aS EE enter ny 36 4 15 72 
4, Self-acting mule spin- 
cits OO 24 3 10 1 35 
5. Throstle spinning, ' 
winding, and warp- 7 389 12 11 69 
ites ‘ Sanan bo tains 
6. Power-loom weavers ../ 10 173 A 92 275 
7, Beaming, twisting. 
and Bees ome 10 1 1 2 14 
95 251 33 121 500 


Heveraee of Matal wien |e Be En So Ae Elwes dace GRO eoaeres aan 


of workers in all de- 
partments taken to- 87.17 


fer) 


127 11 10 j11 11 030 5 0257 5 4 
| 


Galnoneeenes seaeseLs 
Average wages 0 each! | 918 6 010 2/0 7 010 5 0| 010 8 
peisom's & LAS oY 


Mr. Chadwick then referred to his recent investigations and report on the rate of 
wages in England in 200 trades and branches of labour (see ‘ Journal of the Statis- 
tical Society of London,’ March 1860), and stated that the advance of wages in the 
various branches of the cotton trade, during the last 20 years, had been from 10 to 
25 per cent. ; in the silk trade, about 10 per cent. ; in the building-trades, from 11 
to $9 per cent. ; in the mechanical trades, from 10 to 45 per cent. Reductions had 
been made in many branches of trade where the skill of the workmen was no longer 
required by the improvements in machinery. 

In 1840 the labour in the cotton-mills was 69 hours per week, and in 1860 it was 
only 60 hours per week. 

Whilst the wages of the operatives have materially increased, the cost of food and 
clothing has been greatly reduced, as shown by the following Table (p. 213) :— 

Mr. Chadwick here contended for the prosperity of Liverpool and other places 
having been largely dependent upon and promoted by the extraordinary extension 
of the cotton trade of the manufacturing portions of cme, ae and then sum- 
marized his paper thus far, asking, first, whether the increase of population in 
manufacturing towns was a healthy sign and likely to continue; second, whether 
the trade was not unduly stimulated, or was generally sound and healthy; third, 
could we expect a continuance of the present demand for cotton goods, &c., so as 
to justify the anticipation that the increase would continue in the same proportion 
as fee and fourth, whether a sufficient supply of the raw material, cotton, 
could be found to meet the yearly increasing demand. 

The local government of Manchester and Salford, their corporations, police, 
sanitary, charitable, provident, educational, and other institutions were then re- 
ferred to. The progress of Manchester was traced from 1301, and the neighbouring 
borough from 1280; each being municipally governed by 16 aldermen and 48 
councillors. In Manchester, in 1859, the assessable value of property was £669,934, 
and the total borough-rate £33,515 ; whilst in 1860 the amounts were £1,203,505 
and £68,147 respectively. In Salford, the assessable value of property, in 1844, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 213 


was £161,734, and the borough-rate £4877 ; whilst in 1860, £346,601 and £10,583 
were the respective amounts. An exccedingly interesting table was produced, 
prepared by Mr. T. Lings, exhibiting the assessments, amount of poor-rate, and the 
several ways in which the latter had been expended during the last forty years. 


Statement of the Average Weekly Expenditure in 1859-60, of a Family consisting 
of Husband, Wife, and Three Children, whose Total Wages averaged 30s. per 


Week :—as compared with the Cost of the same Articles in 1849-50 and 
1839-40. 


ARTICLES. Expenditure in 1859-60. Cost of same neni in |/ Cost of Pi eee in 
(I.) Breap, Fiovur, ann 
Maat, Sunde s. d. s. d. 
8 4]b. loaves (32 1b.).../53d. per41b. | 3 8 |/6d. per 41b. 4 0 |/83 per 41b. 5 8 
4a peck of meal......... 1s. 8d. per pk.| 0 10 |/1s. 6d. per peck.| 0 9 |/1s. 4d. per pk.) O 8 
4a doz. (61b.) flour .../1s.8d. per doz.| 0 10 |/1s, 10d. per doz.) 0 11 |/2s.4d. perdoz.| 1 2 
5 4 5 8 Uo xe) 
(II.) Burcurr’s Mzar pee ee 
AnD Bacon. 
5 Ib. of butcher’s meat. .|63d. per lb. 2 g1ll7a 1] 211 162 2 83 
21b. of bacon ............ Bass 1 2 Oa He a a viesliees aii es ty 
4 02 4 5 4 O02 
(IIL) Porarors, Minx, ma, 
AND VEGETABLES. 
2 score of potatoes ...... Is. per score | 2 0 ||1s. per score 2 0 |/ls. per score | 2 0 
7 quarts of milk......... 3d. per quart | 1 9 |3d. per quart | 1 9 |\3d. per quart | 1 9 
Vegetables ............... a 0 6 Seg 0 6 hi 0 6 
4 3 4.3 4 3 
(IV.) Grocerrizs, roa 
Coats, &e. 
Pele OL COMCE ............ 1s. 4d. perlb.| 0 8 |/1s.4d. per lb. | 0 8 ||2s. per Ib 1 0 
mibvoftes ............... 4s, : LO As ae a 1 1 {6s ,, 1 6 
3 lb. of sugar ............ 5d. Mi 1 3 |5d. " a ie, 1 9 
Ib. of rice ............... 3d. » |0 6 [8d » |9 6 jad ,, 0 8 
ietbrom butter’ 0.0.1... Is. 1d. ,, 1 1 }ls. es 1 0 }jls.1d.,, el 
2 Ib. of treacle........... 22d, 5 0 5 |/8d. x 0 6 |4d. 0 8 
| tAlb. of soap ............ 4d. r, 0 6 |/5d. 53 0 75d. ,, 0 7% 
Coals, 1s., candles, 6d. ay 1 6 1 6 1 6 
6 11 7 i 8 9 
Total cost of food 
and fuel ......... Er 20 63 As 21 54 24 9 
Rent, taxes, and water 4 0 40 4 0 
OlGtbin ge... 663..500%055-5% 3.0 3 0 3.0 
PABNIOLICH) ©... 5 <0sa00c34-°e52 2 5k 2 52 Pie Te 
30 0 30 11 34 23 


This return showed that the annual value of property assessed to the poor-rate had 
increased from £307,510 in 1820 to £597,921 in 1840, and to £789,203 in 1860, 
—the increase in the value of property being, in the first twenty years (1820-40), 
94-44 per cent. ; and in 1840-60, 31:99 per cent. The annual amount in the pound 
of the poor-rate on the annual value of the property during such 40 years had 


214 REPORT—1861. 


ranged from 1s, 4d. to 6s, 8d., the average amount in the pound of the poor-rate on 
the assessable value of property during the whole 40 years being 3s. 52d. 

Mr. Chadwick stated that he had been unable to obtain from the Manchester 
Gasworks the necessary figures to enable him to institute a comparison between 
the years 1840 and 1860, as to the quantity of gas produced, the gas-rentals, profits, 
&e. He could therefore only furnish a few figures, which might be found of 
interest :— 

The Gas-Rentals were in 1843 ............... 0000 £52,800 
i ss prin LOO rere recs Sins oe ters Nae 85,800 
+ + pM ALSO ake uaraiers Sinevere Ceara 154,600 

In 1860, the price of gas per 1000 cubic feet was 3s. 8d. to 4s. within the city, 
and 6d. to 8d. extra outside the city; the gross amount of the gas-profits was 
£64,779; the total number of gas-meters in use in the city was 30,328; and the 
number of street-lamps, 7116. 

In 1840, the quantity of water supplied by the Manchester and Salford Water- 
works Company was 13 million gallons per day. In 1860, the quantity of water 
supplied by the Corporation was 112 million gallons per day. In 1840, the amount 
received for water supplied was £22,400 ; in 1860, £72,000. The amount paid for 
the Old Waterworks fy the Corporation was £558,000; and the amount expended 
in New Waterworks, £827,000. Total cost of Waterworks, £1,365,000. 

The Manchester Markets were purchased by the Corporation from Sir Oswald 
Mosley, in 1846, for £200,000,—the value of property since purchased, and im- 
provements effected, being £63,000, The balance owing to Sir Oswald Mosley and 
other parties on mortgage, in 1860, was £161,000. The annual income from the 
markets when purchased in 1846 was about £10,000; in 1860 the annual income 
exceeded £20,000. 

A table showing the work done by the Paving, Sewering, and Highways Com- 
mittee of the Manchester Corporation for the last thirty years was then produced :— 
Number of streets and courts paved, flagged, drained, &c., 1502; length of streets, 
60 miles; area flagged and paved, about 205 acres. Main sewers constructed, 88 
miles; cross sewers and eyes, 49 miles; total about 187 miles. The number of 
siphon-traps which had been laid in streets, passages, yards, courts, and houses 
were 12,299. [Mr. Chadwick stated, as an addeckient to these tables, that the 
cost of paving and sewering an area of 960,400 yards of streets in Manchester, from 
1830 to 1860, had been £311,623 9s.; whilst in Salford, from 1844 to 1860, 232 
streets had cost £61,546. ] 

The criminal statistics of Manchester showed the number of persons appre- 
hended, and how disposed of, for each year from 1841 to 1860. It appeared that, 
whilst in 1841, with only 317 police officers, there were 2962 convictions out of 
13,345 arrests ; in twelve months, 1859-60, with 617 as a police force, 4900 were 
convicted out of 7387 arrested. From a return prepared by Captain Lane, the 
governor, it appeared that in 1851 there were 303 prisoners in the city gaol. The 
cost per head per day was 193d. ; the net earnings of the prisoners, £162 in the year, 
leaving the net cost per head per day, after deducting earnings, 193d. In the year 
ending March, 1861, the average number of prisoners was 508 ; the cost per head per 
day, 123d.; the net earnings of the prisoners, £2776 for the year, leaving the cost per 
head per day, after deducting earnings, 91d. Two tables related to the local Courts 
of Record, showing the actions instituted and their results (in Manchester, 1858-60 : 
total writs issued 10,475, for £136,188 ; in Salford, 5792, for £71,834). Mr. Chad- 
wick then referred to a brief and curious statement of the history, objects, and 
powers of the Court Leet for the Hundred of Salford (now nearly obsolete in func- 
tions), with its publie stocks and other chastisements and penalties against “ eaves- 
droppings, waifs, and irregularities on public commons ;” “rogues, vagabonds, and 
sturdy beggars,” “ card- and-dice-playing, and suchlike unlawful games.” 

The charitable and benevolent institutions of Manchester and Salford were then 
noticed. Booth’s and the other Salford Charities. Manchester Royal Infirmary 
and Dispensary : in 1840, 19,231 patients, income £8415; in 1860, 25,437 patients, 
income £13,779. Lunatic Hospital: in 1840, 74 patients, income £2629 ; in 1860, 
109 patients, income £6073. Chorlton-on-Medlock Dispensary: in 1840, 2095 
patients, income £487 ; in 1860, 2242 patients, income £366. St: Mary’s Hospital : 
in 1840, 3455 patients, and £1019 income ; in 1860, 4667 patients, and £1212 in 


| 


| 
' 
| 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 215 


come. Eye Hospital: in 1840, 1510 patients, and £408 income; in 1860, 2417 
patients, £641 income. Clinical Hospital: total patients, 1856 to 1860, 4528 ; 
total income, 1858-60, £662. Manchester Institution for Diseases of the Ear: in 
1855, 254 patients, and £93 income ; in 1860, 1195 patients, and income £83 ; or 
£10 less income and 941 more patients. Dispensary for Sick Children: in 1860, 
4872 patients, and £2190 income. Salford Royal Dispensary: in 1840, 5149 pa- 
tients, and £534 income ; in 1860, 5762 patients, and £1011 income. 

Of the Salford County Court a tabulated return was presented showing the num- 
ber of plaints entered to have been as follows :—1847, 1754 plaints; 1853, 5019 
1860, 10,163 ; amount sued for in 1860, £16,358, The court sat 17 days in 1847, 
and 47 days in 1860. 

The statistics of services rendered by the Manchester Fire-Brigade, in the thir- 
teen years 1848-60, were also noticed, showing property saved to the extent of 
£5,900,364, and destroyed, £854,375. There fad been no augmentation of the 
strength of the brigade, which numbered 51 men. 

Passing to the consideration of the figures appertaining to the Manchester and 
Salford Savings’ Bank, it was remarked that habits of forethought and pru- 
dence had taken a deep hold on the Lancashire mind, in Manchester especially. 
The number of depositors in 1840 was 13,453; in 1860, 49,227. Total amount 
deposited : from 1818 to 1840, £1,376,460; from 1840 to 1860, £4,493,065 ; in 
1860 alone, £379,403. Average amount of deposits per annum: 1818-40, £59,846 ; 
1840-60, £224,653. The classification of depositors (as shown in the Association’s 
last report) revealed some highly interesting facts. 

The educational was the last branch alluded to by Mr. Chadwick. Manchester 
(he said) was decidedly great in its Sabbath-school organization. The gathering in 
Peel Park, on the occasion of Her Majesty’s visit, of nearly 80,000 teachers and. 
children, would not soon be forgotten. The eighteenth annual report of the Salford 
Sunday-School Union (March 1860) gives the number of teachers as 674, and 
scholars 7766 ; number of Sunday Schools (exclusive of Roman Catholics, of which 
no complete record had been received) in Manchester and Salford, 201, comprising 
about 90,000 scholars—the afternoon attendance averaging about two-thirds, or 
60,000. There werein the Sunday- Rageged-School Union 17 schools, with 402 teachers, 
and 8678 scholars ; 35 night-schools, with 1483 scholars; 15 ragged schools had 
penny savings’ banks, in which 1316 children had deposited £278; one of these 
ragged-schools had also been made a night-asylum for destitute children, besides 
which there was one school not in the union, with about 300 scholars. 

The present average attendance at day-schools in Manchester was stated as 
81,923 ; in Salford, 9925; total, 41,848. And in Sunday-schools, in Manchester, 
42,687 ; in Salford, 16,354; total, 59,041, as particularized in the following tables, 
prepared for this paper by Captain Palin and Mr. Taylor :— 


Return showing the number of Schools of all Denominations within the City of 
Manchester, and the number of Scholars attending them, in 1861. 


ga be If under Government In- Day Scholars. 
ae z ° ez spection, and if Church of Sunday 
eo \|es ° England, Roman Catholic, or Scholars. 
sy eae Ee Dissenting. Under | Under} Over Total 
As 7 years. | 14 yrs. | 14 yrs. Ott 
8| 2} 10 | Church of England ......... 463} 700 12) 1,175 } 14.904 
84 |... | 84 | Ditto, under Inspection ...| 6,040) 6,845 45 | 12,930 2 
Bal sc 5 |Roman Catholic ............ 570| 384 15 969 \ 5.150 
waite - 7 | Ditto, under Inspection ...| 1,226| 1,516; 12) 2,754 d 
18 | 44) 62 | Dissenting.................... 1,157 | 1,544 21 | 2,722 } 20.8038 
Gale... 6 | Ditto, under Inspection ... 772| 1,470! 45 | 2,287 |f~” 
L Private Schools, Academies, 
and all Establishments = 
191 | ... | 191 not directly connected! 2,678) 5,943] 465 | 9,086 1,830 
with a Place of Worship 
269 | 46 | 315 12,906 |18,402| 615 | 31,923 | 42,687 


216 REPORT—186l. 


Return showing the number of Schools in the Borough of Salford, and the number ° 
of Scholars attending them, in 1861. 


Pee = sas Day Scholars. 
t ‘tion, i 
aScoch| chuat st Bagot Ronan Caio, of | ————] 7 — fey 
Dissenting. Under |Under | Over Total. 
T yrs. | 14 yrs.| 14 yrs. 
1 Church of England ve thiriueulded Slelstslee cave sce 10 43 1 54 6 VBYS 
18 | Ditto, under Inspection ...................0. 2499 | 2634 13 | 5146 ? 
ail onmansOatholie : th s65.7 eee eee 318 | 456 2| 776) 1,040 
4 Dissenting oid Vee tinlalao min's sisicie bineicies\viee wee euuislaicieie 160 232 10 402 8 557 
5 | Ditto, under Inspection ...............002... 642 | 764 66 | 1472 ¢ 
Private Schools, Academies, and Establish- 
48 ments not directly connected with any| '489 | 1402 | 184 | 2075 
ACO. Of WOtSbIpis, .2002s nce cdccssnauecxctl 
78 4118 | 5531 | 276 | 9925 | 16,354 


SUMMARY. 

1861. Day Scholars. Sunday Scholars. 
Manchester.............0.00. 31,923 42.687 
Salford ie -taasctcccs-duse- se 9,925 16,354 

41,848 59,041 


In a return prepared by the Rey. Dr. Turner and the Rey. Canon Toole, it was 
stated that accommodation was provided, in Roman Catholic Day-schools, in Man- 
chester and Salford, for 6310 scholars, and in Sunday-schools for 8600 scholars. 

Manchester Newspapers.—The average number printed weekly in 1840 was 
22,000 ; in 1860, 438,700. The average weekly number of advertisements in 1840 
was 970; in 1860, 8060. 

In summarizing, Mr. Chadwick asked, Have our municipal regulations for pre- 
serving order, our sanitary regulations for preserving health, our social regulations 
for providing healthful means of physical and intellectual enjoyment, our educa- 
tional regulations for providing instruction and the means of pursuing scientific in- 
quiry, been such as could reasonably have been expected from a people so earnestly 
engaged in trade as the inhabitants of Manchester, and the manufacturing districts 
of Lancashire generally ? And he concluded by expressing an opinion that, whether 
viewed in regard to material comforts, the means for obtaining education and 
intellectual advancement, the making provision against the occurrence of sickness, 
accident, or distress,—or in any way in which the general welfare of the great 
mass of the people can be estimated,—there has been a large and gratifying increase 


in the means placed at their disposal for improving their physical, moral, and 
intellectual well-being. 


On a Revision of National Taxation. By Dr. W. Crarxe. 
Taking the income of the country, from all sources, at 642 millions sterling, 
which he divided into two schedules, in one of which he classed incomes from 
realized property, and in another profits from trades, professions, pensions, sala- 


ries, &c., he advocated a graduated scale of per-centage on these incomes, and the 
retention of the duties on articles of luxury. 


On the Growth of the Human Body in Height and Weight in Males from 17 
to 30 Years of Age. By J.T. Danson. 

The author having observed that, at the Walton Jail, near Liverpool, a record 

was kept of the height and weight of the persons entering and leaying, and that 

within two years nearly five thousand persons (males) had been thus measured and 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. S17 


weighed with much uniformity and accuracy, had the figures extracted from the 
books of the jail in order to a ly the results to an examination of the data sup- 
plied on the above subject by M. Quetelet, in his work ‘Sur Homme.’ 

The result is given in aseries of tables. It leads to the inference that the number 
of persons measured and weighed by M. Quetelet was, in almost every instance, too 
small to afford trustworthy indications. It also affords some reason for supposing 
that, on the whole population of this country, a general scarcity of food has a per- 
manent effect on the average height of the generation born in the same year. The 
paper is printed at length in the ‘ Journal of the Statistical Society of London.’ 


Observations on the Manufacture of the Human Hair, as an Article of Con- 
sumption and General Use. By Wrtt1am Danson. 


The author submitted for inspection specimens of articles manufactured from the 
human hair—two shawls, cotton warp, and which appeared to be of a very massive 
and heavy texture, and showed that was capable of bemg made into the finest fabrics 
for ladies, like the alpaca. In consequence of the above, the author received a com- 
munication from Leipsic stating that one firm is regularly consuming 12,000 lbs. 
annually of human hair in manufactured goods. It would appear fabulous to say that 
100,000 or.200,000 bales might be obtained ; perhaps 500,000 or a million could be 
obtained even within twenty-one years, that is, annually, and of all sorts, both 
long and short, and all of which is at present wasted and not enumerated in the 
articles of commerce or of general consumption. 


The Aid now granted by the State towards the instruction of the Industrial 
Classes in Elementary Science—its Nature and Results. By Capt. DonNELty, 
R.E., Inspector for Science of the Science and Art Department. 


The Science Division of the Science and Art Department is constituted to encourage 
the teaching of science throughout the United Kingdom. 

The branches of science thus aided are divided into seven heads or subjects, and 
each of these into two subdivisions, except the first, which is divided into three 
subdivisions. 

I. Practical Plane and Descriptive Geometry, with Mechanical and Machine- 

Drawing and Building-Construction, or Naval Architecture. 
Mechanical Physics. 
. Experimental Physics. 
Chemistry. 
. Geology and Mineralogy. 
. Animal Physiology and Zoology. 
. Vegetable Physiology, Economic and Systematic Botany. 
_Assistance towards instruction in these sciences is afforded in four different forms, 
viz. :-— 

A. Allowances to teachers on their certificates. 

B. Public examinations, in which Queen’s medals and prizes are awarded to all 
successful candidates, whether taught by a certificated teacher or not, held at all 
places complying with certain conditions. On the results of these examinations 
certificate allowances and payment on results are made to the teachers. 

C. Payments on prizes to certificated teachers. 

D. Grants towards the purchase of apparatus, &c. 

1. Certificate allowances to certificated teachers. 

In November of each year the Department of Science and Art holds an examina- 
tion at South Kensington in all the above-mentioned subjects. Any one may attend 
this examination without payment of fees by sending in his name to the Secretary, 
Science and Art Department, in September, and may take up any one or more of the 
subjects or subdivisions at one time. 

Certificates of three grades are given for success in these examinations, entitling 
the holder to the following scale of payments :— 


For a first-grade certificate in any subject . . . . . . £20 
Saaaarl © pip noe yerg eect Dbe Bates eth woidee bil hRenabeule es 
DDD's & Bapes ots dy yihte eH Vier ease Asda lite nae 


SEPEl=|= 


218 REPORT—1861. 


At the first examination for teachers in November 1859, shortly after the publi- 
cation of the first minute, 57 candidates came up, of whom 43 were successful, 
taking 65 subdivisional certificates. The next year, 1860, 89 candidates came up ; 
75 were successful, and 121 subdivisional certificates taken. 

If the successful candidate holds an Education-Department certificate, he is paid 
on that also in addition to the certificate of the Science and Art Department. ‘The 
teacher obtains the certificate payments in the following manner :—The classes are 
examined once a year (see below, Public Examinations); and then for every pupil 
of the artisan class who passes such an examination as will qualify the examiner in 
reporting that his instruction has been sound, and that he has benefited by it, the 
teacher receives £4 of his certificate allowance. The artisan class is broadly defined 
as including all who are in the receipt of weekly wages, and their children. A 

upil on account of whom payment is claimed must have received forty lessons at 
east from the teacher since the last examination at which payments were claimed 
on his account. 

A committee must be formed of at least five well-known persons in the neigh- 
bourhood, who have to give the necessary vouchers that certain conditions have 
been strictly complied with. Thus, then, for a teacher to obtain the full benefit of 
his certificates, including those from the Education Department, at least a quarter 
as many students of the industrial classes must pass at the May examination (see 
fourth head of inquiry), in one or more subdivisions, as his certificate allowances 
amount to pounds; if more pass, he receives no more payment under this head, but 
if less, then for every one under, £4 less. 

2. Public examinations. 

In order to test the efficiency of the instruction, on the proof of which alone the 
payments are made to the teacher, an annual examination is held in May simul- 
taneously all over the kingdom, an evening being fixed for the examination in each 
subdivision of the seven subjects. 

It is conducted by the committee previously mentioned, to whom the examination- 
Papers for the pupils in each particular subdivision are sent. 

he results of these examinations are classified by the professional examiners of 
the department under three heads, in lists which are published. 

1, All those who have passed in each subdivision of a subject,—the standard of 
attainment required being low, and only such as will justify the examiner in re- 
oe that the instruction has been sound, and that the students have benefited 

y it. 
2. From among those who passed, those who attained a degree of proficiency 
qualifying them for the Ist, 2nd, or 3rd-class Queen’s prize. 

3. The six most successful candidates in each subject throughout the United 
Kingdom, if the degree of proficiency attained be sufficiently high to warrant their 
being recommended for Queen’s medals. 

The Queen’s prizes consist of books to be chosen by the candidates from lists 
furnished for that purpose, and are unlimited in number. 

The Queen’s medals are—one gold, two silver, and three bronze, in each subject 
for competition, throughout the United Kingdom. 

At the last examination in May there were just 1000 papers, and of these 725 
were passed, and would qualify the teacher for payment if they were of the indus- 
trial classes and had received forty lessons ; 310 of these received Queen’s prizes, 
59 Ist-class, 100 2nd-class, and 151 3rd-class, while 4 gold, 21 silver, and 16 bronze 
medals were awarded. 

Although payments to the teacher are made only on pupils of the industrial 
classes, others are not excluded from examination. Any person may present him- 
self or herself, but the local committee is permitted to charge a fee not exceeding 
2s. Gd. to cover the expense of gas, &c. Such candidates are eligible to receive 
Queen’s prizes. 

3. Payments on prizes to certificated teachers. 

Besides the above payment on certificates to the teachers, there are other pay- 
ments which are not limited in amount, as in the case of the certificate allowances. 

For every pupil of the industrial classes‘who obtains a Queen’s prize, the teacher, 
if he is certificated and has given the pupil 40 lessons, receives a payment—£3 it 
the pupil obtain a first-grade Queen’s prize, £2 if a second, and £1 if a third, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 219 


This amount is not limited; and at the last May examination many teachers ob- 
tained £30 and £40, from this source, in addition to their certificate allowance. 

4. Grants towards the purchase of apparatus. 

A grant of 50 per cent. on the cost of apparatus, diagrams, &e. necessary for the 
instruction of the class is made. These grants are limited to £10 to schools taught 
by a master who is not certificated. 

The above payments on account of science-teaching are made by the Science and 
Art Department, and, I. are only made when the holder is employed in teach- 
ing a school or class not under inspection by the Education Department, but in 
connexion with the Science and Art Department; and the lessons must be given in 
Mechanics’ Institutes and other places not receiving grants from the Education 
Department. 

. The teacher must give instruction in a day or evening school or class for the 
industrial classes, adults or boys, approved by the Science and Art Department, and 
open at any time to the visit and inspection of its officers. Any teacher employed 
in a day school under inspection of the Education Department must first have ob- 
tained the permission of that department to teach in such school or class. 

Ill. The certificated master of an elementary school who has pupil teachers ap-~ 
prenticed to him cannot receive the science-certificate allowance even if holding a 
science certificate. 

Certificated teachers of elementary schools who have not pupil teachers ap- 
prenticed,to them have their time out of school-hours at their own disposal, so far 
as official regulations are concerned, and may, if further certificated in science, give 
scientific instruction under the Science and Art Department. 


On the Recent Improvements in the Health of the British Army. 
By Dr. W. Farr. 


The defects of the health of the Army, which had been before manifest in the 
figures of returns, struck every heart when they appeared in the thinned ranks be- 
fore Sebastopol, in the sick-freighted ships on the Black Sea, and in the hospitals 
of Scutari. Mr. Sidney Herbert, from his position, felt the defects perhaps more 
acutely than any, and since that time, neglecting the ease and enjoyment which a 
splendid fortune placed at-his command, he devoted himself to the sanitary reform 
of the Army, first in a Royal Commission, then in commissions for carrying out its 
recommendations, and lastly as Secretary of State for War in Lord Palmerston’s 
Administration. Notwithstanding the heavy duties of that office, he continued 
to act on a Royal Commission, of which Lord Stanley is the chairman; and some 
of his last recorded words were inquiries into the means of saving the numbers 
of soldiers who are destroyed in hundreds every year by the bad sanitary arrange- 
ments rather than by the climate of India. His frank and winning manner, 
his Imowledge of his subject, and his eloquence enabled him to overcome many 
obstacles ; and he had some courageous colleagues, among whom he (Dr. Farr) must 
name as the foremost Florence Nightingale. Happily, before his death Lord Herbert 
witnessed some of the results of his measures: he saw the marvellous success of 
the China expedition; and he received the first annual report of the Director Ge- 
_neral of the medical department of the army, showing “a remarkable reduction in 
the mortality of all classes of troops.” Lord Herbert was not satisfied with point- 
ing out evilsin a report. He got Commissions of practical men nominated by Lord 
Panmure, placing himself at their head, to remedy those evils. The labours of one 
of these (een were described in a recent Report by Dr. Sutherland, Dr. 
Burnett, and Captain Galton ; and its measures for improving the sanitary condition 
of barracks and hospitals were so well conceived that they deserved to be studied 
by all who took an interest in the health of armies. The Sanitary Report of Dr. 
Logan and the Medical Report of Dr. Mapleton, with the accompanying papers, 

roved that sanitary and medical science had much to expect from medical officers, 
he Commission for carrying out improvements in the vital statistics of the Army 
laid down an elaborate and yet simple plan for the observation, record, and analysis 
of sickness, diseases, and casualties of the Army under various circumstances at 
home and abroad, in peace and in war. That plan was now in operation. He 
trusted the remarkable weekly reports would soon be promulgated, showing, as 


220 REPORT—1861. 


they did, very marked contrasts in different regiments. Having quoted returns to 
show that a manifest diminution had taken place in the mortality and sickness of 
the army, Dr. Farr continued by saying that, upon examination, it had been found 
that the great causes of the excess of deaths in the army were completely under 
control in all ordinary circumstances; and as they varied, their effects varied. If 
the measures that had been begun were completed, there was no doubt of the result ; 
and if the causes of disease were studied under the new system of observation esta- 
blished by Lord Herbert, improved means of guarding the mechanism of the human 
frame would be discovered, and would accumulate year by year. As instances of 
the remarkable improvement in the health of the army in the United Kingdom, it 
may be mentioned that, while the annual number of deaths to 1000 of strength 
during the years 1857-46 was, in Infantry regiments, 17-9, in the Foot Guards 
20:4, in the Royal Artillery 13-9, and in Dragoon regiments 13-6, the mortality fell 
in the year 1859 to 7°6 in Infantry regiments, to 9:1 in the Foot Guards, to 8-0 in 
the Royal Artillery, and to 8-0 in Dragoon regiments. 


On Sanitary Improvements. By Mrs. Fison. 


On the General Results of the Census of the United Kingdom in 1861*. By 
James T. Hasnnicr, F.S.S., Assistant Commissioner of the Census in England. 


The author commenced by describing the machinery which had been used for 
collecting the census in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and the Channel Islands. 
In England, 30,862 enumerators were employed; in Scotland, 8075; in Ireland, 
5096 men of the constabulary force, 15 of the Coast Guard, and 173 of the 
Dublin constabulary ; and in the Channel Islands, 50 superintendents were 
employed, and under them 260 enumerators. In the United Kingdom, including 
the superintending officers, there were altogether 48,730 local agents. In this num- 
ber was not included the Custom-House officers and others employed to enume- 
rate persons in vessels. The proportion of enumerators to the population was 
much larger in Scotland than in the rest of the country. In England the average 
number of persons to each enumerator was 655; in Ireland, 1091 ; while in Scot- 
land it was 379. To this army of local officers, minute printed instructions and 
and blank schedules for distribution at every house were furnished from the central 
office. From the London office alone the printed papers forwarded before the cen- 
sus-day, by post and railway, weighed about 45 tons, which was equal to 4200 
reams of ordinary foolscap paper. In Ireland, besides the usual information as to 
the number of houses and persons, the heads of inquiry included the educational 
status of the people, their religious profession, the number and causes of death, 
and other details connected with vital statistics. These last items would have been 
a needless addition to the census, were not Ireland still the only part of civilized 
Europe not possessing—and, judging from the proceedings of last session, not 
soon likely to possess—a system of registration of births, deaths, and marriages. 
Fortunately the tranquil state of the country allowed the men of the constabulary 
to be spared to carry out these large investigations; and they undoubtedly pos- 
sessed peculiar qualifications for the task entrusted to them. The want of uni- 
formity between the returns made from Ireland and other parts of the United 
Kingdom was a drawback to the general utility of the census in some respects; 
but all classes had readily joined in affording the fullest information. In this 
country no motive existed for concealment or falsification of the numbers of the 
people. There was no suspicion of the returns being used against the public in 
reference to taxation or military service, as was the case in several of the con- 
tinental states. The number of persons residing in the British islands on the 8th 
of April last was 29,058,888. The men in the army, navy, and merchant service 
out of the country, either abroad or afloat, amounted to 275,900. The total popu- 


* The figures cited in this paper, with respect to the population of the United Kingdom 
in 1861, were derived from the preliminary abstracts presented to Parliament, but stated 
to be only approximately correct, and still subject to final check and revision. Since the 
Meeting at Manchester, the revised numbers for England and Scotland have been published ; 
those for Ireland, however, have not yet been declared. The population of England and 
Wales, according to the Census returns of 1861, is 20,066,224; of Scotland, 3,062,294. 


i. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 921 


lation, therefore, of the United Kingdom, including the Channel Islands and the Isle 
of Man, might be set down at 29,334,788. The male population of the United 
Kingdom, including the absent soldiers and ssilors, was 14,380,634; the female 
opulation was 14,954,154; the females, therefore, exceeded the males by 573,520. 
he every 100 males there were 104 females. The disproportion of the sexes in this 
country, no doubt, existed long before it was made apparent by the census of 1801, 
and of late years it had evidently been increasing. It was well known that, in 
England, of children born alive 105 boys were born to 100 girls ; and the proportion 
was nearly the same in Scotland and France. The males continued in excess of 
the females until the seventeenth year, when the number of the two sexes was 
nearly equal ; at subsequent ages the females were always in excess of the males,— 
the change in the proportion being doubtless mainly due to a difference in degree 
of the dangers to which the sexes were exposed, to emigratior, and to a lower rate 
of mortality amongst females. The gross population of the United Kingdom in 
1801—taking an estimate for Ireland and the islands in the British seas, not then 
enumerated—might be set down at 16,095,000, In sixty years, an addition of more 
than 13} millions had been made to the inhabitants of the country, besides the vast 
numbers who had left to found and people new colonies in Australia, or crossed 
the Atlantic to settle in the United States or the colonies of America. For the 
whole period of sixty years, the numbers showed a rate of increase amounting to 
82 per cent., or on an average 1:01 per cent. annually. During the first half of the 
ae (1801-31) the rate of increase was more than twice as rapid as in the second 
alf (1831-61). There was little emigration in the first thirty years ; whilst the 
returns of the Emigration Commissioners furnished an account of nearly five mil- 
lions of emigrants who’ sailed in the second period. The great seats of manufac- 
turing and mining industry had maintained their rate of increase. This had espe- 
cially been the case in the group of districts having Manchester for a centre, which 
had increased. to the extent of 274,000 persons since 1851. A vast increase had 
also taken place in the localities having their centres in Birmingham (187,000); 
Newcastle (158,000); and Liverpool (106,000). London had increased 440,000, 
and now contained a population which would soon reach 3,000,000. On the other 
hand, a decreasing population had generally been shown by the returns from the 
agricultural districts ; but how far this might be traced to special circumstances, 
such as the diminution of employment consequent upon improved methods of cul- 
tivation, and the substitution of the breeding of stock for tillage, and how far to 
other causes inducing the unskilled labourer to migrate from the country to towns, 
might form a profitable subject of investigation. An increase of population usually 
implied increased happiness ; but the converse was not equally true ; for the inha- 
bitants might decrease without necessarily suffering privation and misery. Great 
anxiety had been felt on the subject of the result of the inquiry into the religious 
denominations, which, for the first time, formed part of the decennial census in 
Treland. In obtaining these returns the enumerators met with every facility from 
the clergy and people ; and, as only 15 complaints had been made about them, the 
Commissioners inferred that they were nearly correct. The following were the 
results in round numbers :—Roman Catholics, 4,512,000, or 78 per cent. of the 
whole ; members of the Established Church, 682,000, or 12 per cent.; Presbyterians, 
588,400, or 10 per cent. ; all other persuasions, 8740: the Jews were only 322. The 
religious persuasions of the army and navy not having been distinguished, they 
were here distributed in proportionate numbers under the several denominations. 
The total number of Protestants in Ireland was 1,280,000, giving the Roman 
Catholics a majority of 3,252,C00, or about 3-5 Roman Catholics to one Protestant. 
Even in “ Protestant Ulster” there was a Roman Catholic majority of 17,000. 
A comparison of these numbers with the results of a special census of religious 
professions taken in 1834 showed that during tne generation that had passed since 
that inquiry, while the population of Ireland had diminished by 2,190,000, the 
Roman Catholics had diminished by 1,945,000, the numbers of the Established 
Church (with the Methodists) by 150,000, the Presbyterians and other Pro- 
testants by 115,000. A new era had happily dawned for Ireland, although clouds 
still obscured her horizon. Evidences of the increasing material prosperity of the 
country were not wanting; and it might confidently be anticipated that the census 
of 1871 would show by figures the effects of social changes now in progress. The 


229 REPORT—1861. 


islands in the British seas and the Isle of Man had a population of 143,447, or 321 
more than in 1851. These islands, having been resorted to from motives of economy 
by persons possessing small independent incomes, increased in population at the 
rate of 18 per cent. between 1831 and 841, and 15 per cent. in the following decade; 
but free-trade measures having deprived them of their special advantages, the num- 
bers had remained stationary since 1851. According to the latest returns and 
official estimates, the papules of the North American colonies was not less than 
3,795,000, and that of the Australian group was 1,272,090. For the West Indies 
might be set down 990,000 on the authority of the well-known blue books. The 
Cape and other African Colonies contained 870,000 inhabitants ; Ceylon, 1,754,000 ; 
Mauritius, Hong Kong, &c., 280,000. In Europe, Malta, Gibraltar, and Heligoland 
contained about 304,000. To these an enormous addition must be made for British 
India, stated by Mr. Hornidge, of the India Office, to contain (exclusive of the na- 
tive and foreign states) not less than 135,442,000 souls. Add the population of 
the United Kingdom, and the result was what might truly be called a “ orand 
total” of 274,000,000 of subjects of Queen Victoria. With regard to the mother 
country, increased intelligence, combined with the new discoveries of science, and 
the powerful inventions in aid of industry which had sprung up on every side, and, 
far above all other causes, the benefits conferred by the steam-engine, the railway, 
and free-trade, left no doubt that the material prosperity of Great Britain, and 
consequently the number of her people, would continue to increase, 


On the Inspection of Endowed Educational Institutions. 
By J. Heywoop, F.2.S. 


The author stated that the Royal Commissioners, in their recent Report on Popu- 
lar Education, had laid down the following important principle with reference to 
endowed educational institutions :—“That the power to create permanent institu- 
tions is granted, and can be granted, only on the condition implied, if not declared, 
that they be subject to such modification as every succeeding generation of men 
shall find requisite.” This principle has been acted on ever since the Reformation, 
but it has never been distinctly expressed. Acting on this principle, and adopting 
as a basis the suggestions of Mr. Cumin, an assistant commissioner under the Royal 
Commission, the following recommendations had been prepared :—“ That one of the 
Charity Commissioners should bean Education Commissioner, appointed specifically 
for that subject. That the Charity Commission should be brought into connexion 
with the system of the Committee of Privy Council on Education. That inquiries 
into endowed educational institutions, under the Charity Commission, should be 
conducted, as they are at present, by Government Inspectors. That no new educa- 
tion scheme should be passed by the Charity Commissioners until it had obtained 
the sanction of the Vice-president of the Committee of Council of Education, who 
is always a member of the House of Commons. That ordinances of the Charity 
Commission for the improvement of educational charities and for the conversion to 
the purposes of education, wholly or in part, of charities which are mischievous or 
useless as at present applied, be laid before parliament in the schedule of a bill, 
similar in form to inclosure bills.” The author then instanced several examples 
of the want of local power to carry out desirable changes in the case of charities 
and endowed schools, including the Manchester Free Grammar School (income 
£3000), the Leeds Grammar School, the “ Blanket” Charities of Manchester, &c. 
He said, it would be better that some small payment should in general be made by 
the parents for their children’s education. According to the authority of Mr. Cumin 
the assistant commissioner, demoralizing results had accrued from the distribution 
of such charities as Clarke and Marshall’s Charity in Manchester. Fictitious 
names had been used; relations had recommended other relations; some of the 
recipients were drunkards and bad characters, whilst others were receiving con- 
siderable wages. He fully agreed with the commissioner, that no one having 
children should be able to share in such doles, unless they sent their children to 
school. Passing from Manchester, he showed that the malversation of sums left 
in endowments was pretty general throughout the country, instancing (on the au- 
thority of Mr. Fearon) the case of an important school in the Eastern Counties, in 
which, there being no demand for Latin or Greek, and the master selected being 
determined to teach nothing else, he continued to receive his salary, though no 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 223 


scholars came, and the building fell into ruins. Masters of endowed grammar 
schools were commonly not prepared to teach anything beyond the classics and 
mathematics. , Persons intimately connected with general educational pursuits 
should be enrolled amongst the Charity Commissioners. In the Leeds Grammar 
School, the Rev. Dr. Hook had the influence to obtain an enlargement of the 
plan so as to modify the erroneous legal decisions with respect to the limitation of 
grammar school instruction to Latin and Greek. The Royal Commissioners had re- 
commended that the Charity Commissicners should merge into the Committee of 
Council on Education. At present the Charity Commissioners had not sufficient 
independent power to act. It had been found that a proposed change for the better 
in Coventry had provoked an opposition; and it was relinquished because it indi- 
rectly influenced the.return of members of parliament. The general principle laid 
down by Mr. Cumin was, to do the best they could for their own day, instead of 
strictly following the will of the founders. The Charity Commissioners resided in 
London, and had accounts presented before them comprising fully two millions of 
money. They received an enormous amount of documents, which required arrange- 
ment and classification. 


On the Condition of National Schools in Liverpool as compared with the 
Population, 1861. By the Rey. A. Humn, LL.D. 


In 1853 a paper was read at Hull, before this Section of the Association, on the 
same general subject, and by the same writer. The present one brings down the 
facts and principles to the present time. The records which have been preserved at 
the Blue-Coat ‘osnital enable us to compare the progress of schools and of educa- 
tion with that of the population. The following are all Church schools :— 


Decennial Population of Children in 
census. Borough. - public schools. 
Se se ts UDOT. bss 2 aya On\ o Pee ee pemeemte 
Wee ea fs POO; LA «ee. o00y! . Ldl 
SANE nes SEO 4OL pe oye nel, SOOO nite mero S 
Pes AO, 000 soo aero) LOsI (thin ce mmemr eee AO mae 
eG ets) SAD, OIA on ss 2 ZOODOM ae ewes cou) ts 


The order and rapidity of their foundation may be seen from the following table, 
which includes the Blue-Coat Hospital and the Industrial and Workhouse schools :— 
1821, in existence 9 schools. 

1831, ” ” 
1841, os Sa a 
1851, » 4 4, 
1861, an 56 Se 
In the earlier years of this period, schools were erected for the use of an entire 
neighbourhood or section of the town; afterwards national feelings, as distinguished 
from imperial ones, preponderated; so that separate schools were erected for the 
Scotch, Irish, and Welsh.- In our own days, however, the population is so large 
that it is classified not only by religious denominations, but by congregations ; so 
that every church and many chapels are regarded as incomplete without the pos- 
session of means of education. 
During the summer and autumn of 1861, the state of 45 Church schools within 
the borough was as follows :— 
Accommodation Boys .. . . 8355 
(Cid Big hie ge ol Als 
Infants . . . 6853 


” 
” 


—— 22,923, 
On the books . Boys . .. . 7100 
Girls? oe. ong Obe 
Infants . . . 7638 

21,421, 


Attendance. . Boys... . 5673 
CHC op oel Omen E28u! 
Infants . . . 5976 

—— 16,883. 


224 REPORT—1861. 


If we add 30 per cent. for those who are not regularly at school nor retained on 
the books, but who still come and go, and thus get an irregular education, we have 
21,947 who may be said to be under education in these schools. Jf we increase, 
at the same time, the numbers which were reached in 1853 for schools of all other 
kinds (non-sectarian schools, and those patronized by Roman Catholics and Pro- 
testant Dissenters), we have 18,359 additional pupils. This gives us a total under 
education of 40,306. 

In the Church schools there are 419 teachers of all kinds, or one for every 52 
pupils. Only 83 are certificated, and many of the others are pupil teachers in their 
earliest years. : t 

The gross number requiring education in the national schools of Liverpool has 
been computed at 73,979, of whom it appears that only 54 per cent. are formally 
(though sometimes imperfectly) educated. The remaining 46 ee cent. comprise 
several classes, e.g. those who attend ragged- and Sunday-schools only, those who 
receive knowledge like food, irregularly and insufficiently, and those who receive 
the practical education of vice and immorality. 

The sites of the schools are particularly deserving of consideration ; and we are 
fortunately enabled to examine the facts minutely, in connexion with the recent 
census of the borough, returned in ecclesiastical districts. 

: Accommodation, Per-centage 
nt Church schools. of pois 


(a.) Western or poor portion’ | s.5. 195,400 20) 2 SOS8Guee mauae7s 
(6.),,Maddle portion’) <. 7.0.5.0 162,361) 3) 7830005.) 4-82 
(c.) Selected parts, richest . . . 75,896 . . 5470 . . 7:27 


These figures do not show the full extent of the unequal distribution of educa- 
tion, because in the first portion nearly all the children should attend schools of 
this class; while in the third, where the rich reside mainly, education should be 
almost entirely self-supporting. In four of the best ecclesiastical districts the po- 

ulation is 22,486, yet there are 2421 children educated, or 10-77 percent. In one 
Aiatrict, St. Saviour’s, the per-centage rises to 17:25. In six poor districts there 
is a joint population of 99,361, and the Church educates in like manner 1822, or 
1:83 per cent. In four other districts, the population of which amount to 33,208, 
there are no national schools. 

The cost of educating these 21,947 is to the town about £10,956 per annum; and 
the distribution of the amount is as follows:—donations and subscriptions 28 per 
cent., church collections 10, children’s pence 44, and all other sources 18. This, 
of course, is independent of the interest of money expended in land and buildings, 
and includes none of the Government annual payments, except capitation fees. 
The average is nearly 10s. per head; but the largest portion is paid to the rich 
districts, where it is least required, and the smallest portion to the poor districts, 
which most need it. The children’s payments are usually 14d. and 2d.; but in 
two or three schools they rise to 6d., in six others to 4d., and in four or five more 
to 3d. In some of the schools in the lower parts of the town the children can 
pay nothing whatever; and at one district-school it is found necessary to educate 
about 50 per cent. free. 

Hence it follows thatthe district or parochjal system is good, but is badly applied. 
Men subscribe to the rich community in ch they live, and withhold aid from 
the poor one in which they work and accumulate property. If the necessities of one 
be five times as great as those of another, while at the same time pecuniary aid is 
obtained with only one-fifth the facility, the task of educating the people at one 

art will be twenty-five times as great as at another. The Committee of Council 
interpret the word “parish” as meaning in towns a circle of five miles’ radius; but 
practically it refers to a much narrower limit. 

The Liverpool Church of England School Society supports three sets of schools 
entirely, and votes small sums as a rate in aid to others. 

3 schools, with 1100 pupils, receive £500 a year. 
+ LO Ehes Seay Ae) Te » £145 (£10 to £25 each). 

If the number of schools assisted were extended and the amount of aid increased, 
the evils arising from the coexistence of riches and poverty in the same town would 
be greatly modified. 


i 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 225 


The Committee of Council in London know nothing of the grades of population at 
articular points, but are continually misled by the ambiguous term “poor.” A 
ocal committee, administering funds raised by local subscriptions or local rates, can 
alone remedy some of these evils; and it is a great misfortune that either the 
apathy of some men or the disagreement of others has hitherto, in a great degree, 
prevented us from arriving at a degree of perfection within easy means of attainment. 


On the True Principles of Taxation. By C. E. Macaurrn. 


The paper consisted of a comparison of the divei se character of direct and indi- 
rect taxation; and its object was to show that the action of the latter was always 
injurious, and that direct taxation was the only on« consistent with sound financial 

rinciples. Of various schemes of direct taxation, three were mentioned as most 
icra of attention, although the Financial Reform Association did not commit 
itself to their advocacy. The first of these plans was the Land Tax of William III. 
according to its original intent, with a small capitation tax in addition, as suggested 
by the author of the ‘People’s Blue Book;’ the second the American system, 
taxing only real property and personal estate above the value of £50; and the third, 
the plan recommended in the draft report of the late Joseph Hume to the Income 
Tax Commissioners of 1852, based on capitalizing all incomes,—a scheme supported 
by Dr. Farr and others. 


On the Progress of Cooperation at Rochdale. 
By the Rey. W. N. Morxswortu, WA. 


The rapid progress and diffusion of cooperation is effecting a great change in the 
condition of the working class, and in its relations with every other class. It has 
therefore naturally excited much interest and attention. What has been done in 
Rochdale may be done elsewhere ; the experience which has been gained there may 
serve to guide and encourage societies which are in an earlier stage of their progress, 
and may enable us to form some sort of rough estimate of the proportions that co- 
operation may be expected to assume hereafter. A careful examination of a single 
case will be the best preparation for forming a sound judgment respecting the whole 
movement. : 

The first thing that seems to be requisite is to give some sort of definition of the 
principle which is embodied in these societies; and I cannot do this better than by 
copying their own statement of their objects. 

“The objects of this society are the social and intellectual advancement of its 
members ; it provides them with groceries, butcher’s meat, drapery goods, clothing, 
shoes, clogs, kc. There are competent workmen on the premises, to do the wor. 
of the members, and execute all repairs. The capital is raised in £1 shares,—each 
member being allowed to take not less than five, and not more than one hundred, 
fee at once or by instalments of three shillings and threepence per quarter. 

he profits are divided quarterly as follows :—Ist. Interest at 5 per cent. per annum, 
on all paid-up shares ; 2nd. 25 per cent. off net profits for educational purposes, the 
remainder divided amongst the members in proportion to money expended. For 
the intellectual improvement of the members, there is a library consisting of more 
than 3000 volumes. The librarian is in attendance every Wednesday and Satur- 
day evening, from seven to half-past eight o’clock. The news-room is well supplied 
with newspapers and periodicals, fitted up in a neat and careful manner, and fur- 
nished with maps, globes, microscope, telescope, &c. The news-room and libr 
are free to all members. A branch reading-room has been opened at Oldham-road, 
the readers of which meet every second Monday in January, April, July, and Octo- 
ber, to choose and sell the papers.” 

This statement is given at full length : though there are some portions of it which 
may seem not quite relevant to our purpose, yet it contains nothing which does 
not throw some light on the spirit in which the society has been conceived and 
carried on. In sciences which have been carried to a high pitch of perfection, 
such as astronomy and the physical sciences, accuracy of definition is indispensable ; 
but in the less advatead and more complex questions of social science we cannot 
define with the same degree of strictness, and it is much better to make our boun-= 
daries include too much than to render them too narrow. 

It ay provoke a smile to find, in the above-cited statement of objects, “social 
and intellectual advancement ” placed side by side with “ groceries, butcher’s meat, 

1861. 


2296 REPORT—1861. 


drapery goods, clothing, shoes, and clogs.” Yet this juxtaposition indicates a cori- 
fused sense of a very important truth, and one that gives to cooperation a far 
higher value than seems at first sight to belong to it, namely, that the material or 
financial progress is the basis and the measure of the intellectual and moral pro- 

ess: for increased wealth implies an increased command over the necessaries of 
life; it therefore implies more leisure; and though this leisure may sometimes be 
abused, it will, as a general rule, be rightly used, and especially by men who have 
purchased it by industry and self-control, There haye, no doubt, been cases in 
which increased wealth has been attended with the most frightful moral dissolu- 
tion and intellectual decay ; but this has arisen not from the wealth, but from the 
excessive inequality of its distribution. But when the wealth of a society is equi- 
tably distributed through the various classes that compose it—when it is allowed, 
in fret, to take its natural and normal course, then the material progress be- 
comes the instrument and the condition of every other kind of progress. When, 
therefore, we trace, as I shall now proceed to do, the financial history of the Roch- 
dale Co-operative Society, we are roughly indicating, be it remembered, the gene~ 
ral intellectual and moral progress of its members, of which, as I said before, the 
material development is the measure. , 

In the year 1843, when the “ Rochdale Equitable Pioneers’ Co-operative Store ” 
commenced, the New Poor Law had prevented the operatives of Rochdale from re~ 
garding parochial relief as a source on which they might always rely in case of loss 
of work, and of those periodical crises to which our manufacturing system has 
always been liable. The recent failure of the Rochdale Savings’ Bank, which had 
been plundered to a fearful extent by its accountant, had destroyed all faith in that 
popular institution ; and the Rochdale operatives, who looked beyond the present 
moment, seemed to have no alternative but that of hiding their little sayings in an 
old stocking, to be brought out of its place of concealment when the day of distress 
arrived. It was under these circumstances that twenty-eight Rochdale operatives 
contributed a sovereign each, for the purpose of establishing a shop, at which they 
might purchase genuine groceries om other articles of ordinary consumption at a 
moderate rate. It was an experiment which had often been tried before on a 
larger scale, and apparently under more favourable auspices ; but, from the causes 
we have mentioned, the condition of the Rochdale operatives was desperate, and, 
like brave men, they determined not to succumb, but to make another effort and 
hope for better days. 

The following Table, taken from their Almanack for the year 1861, gives a very 
good view of the operations of the Rochdale Society from its commencement to the 
close of last year :— 


Operations of the Rochdale Equitable Pioneers’ Co-operative Society, 
from 1844 to 1860. 


No. of Amount of Business 
Memb. Funds. done. Profits made. 
£ & d. £ s. a £ 8 d. 
1844 28 28', 04.0 


1845 74 181.12 5 710 6 5 382 17 6 
1,146 17 1 80 16 6 
1,924 13 10 72 210 
2,276 6 53} 117 16 10 


0 
1849 390 | 1,193 19 1}; 6,611 18 0 561 3 9 
1850 600. | 2,299 10 5} 15,179 17 0 889 12 5 
1851 630 | 2,785 O 13) 17,638 4 0 990 19 83 
1852 680 |. 3,471 0 6| 16,852 5 0O| 1,206 15 23 
1853 720 | 5,848 311] 22,760 0 0O| 1,674 18 112 
1854 900 | 7,172 15 7) 33,364 0 0} 1,763 11 23 
1855 | 1400 | 11,032 12 103) 44,902 12 0| 3,106 8 4 
1856 | 1600 |12,920 13 12] 63,197 10 0| 3,921 138 13 
1857 | 1850 |15,142 1 2) 79,788 0 0} 5470 6 8} 
1858 | 1950 |18,160 5 4] 71,689 0 0} 6,284 17 43 
1859 | 2703 \27,060 14 2 |104,012 0 0 /10,739 16 63 
1860 | 38450 37,710 9 0 |152,083 0 01|15,906 9 11 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. oF 


~ After the society had been carried on for seven years, it was found that more 
capital was offered to be invested than could be profitably employed in the store. 
At the same time there were great complaints of the quality of the flour sold in the 
shops, which was supposed in many cases to be greatly adulterated. In fact, there 
was at the time a very strong feeling on the subject of adulteration everywhere; 
and this feeling very naturally applied to flour, as a chief constituent of food, more 
than to any other article. The consequence was that in the year 1850 a Co-opera- 
tive Corn-Mill Society was established, for which a substantial mill was built in 
ala Rochdale, the financial progress of which is exhibited in the following 
able :— 


Financial Statistics of the Rochdale District Corn-Mill Society, from 1850 to 1860, 


Date. | Amount of Funds. | Business done. Profits made. 
ge od, £ Gir Se) Ge 
1850 None. 
1851 2,163 16 4 * + None. 
1852 2,898 0 4 7,036 836 16 8 
1253 4,143 19 4 16,679 208 15 112 
1854 3,671 17 0 22,047 557 12 10 
1855 4,626 2 9 28,085 1376 9 4 
1856 8,784 4 9} 38,070 773 10 92 
1857 10,601 14 23 54,326 2,007 1 §& 
1858 14,181 9 10 59,188 8,153 14 OL 
1859 18,286 0 0 85,845 6,115 0 9 


1860 | 26618 14 6 133,125 10,164 12 5 


The success which attended the operations of these two societies produced great 
confidence, and was followed by a desire on the part of the operative class to invest 
their savings in them, and this soon produced the necessity of finding another in- 
vestment for their capital. Accordingly, in the year 1854, a Manufacturing Society 
was formed on the same general principles as the Store and the Corn-Mill Society, 
and has been attended with similar success. At first they hired buildings in which 
the manufactures were carried on; but on the 22nd April, in the year 1859, they 
laid the first stone of a factory of their own, which was completed, I believe, with- 
out a penny being borrowed during the progress of the work (in fact, they always 
had a very large balance at the bank), and it is universally admitted to be one of 
the best and largest factories in the borough of Rochdale. Scarcely was this gi- 
gente work finished, than they found themselves in a position to commence another 
actory alongside of it, which is now rapidly rising, and for the completion of which 
there is reason to believe that ample funds will be forthcoming. 

But these great works, such has been the rapidity with which capital has been 
developed by the success of their operations, have not exhausted their resources. 
In the year 1860, while the great factory was still rising, a Sick and Burial Society 
and a Turkish Bath were established by some of the more active and energetic 
members of the Co-operative Society. And lastly, in the present year, a Land and 
Building Society has heen established, and is already actively engaged in erecting 
commodious dwellings for the working class. 

The capital of these various institutions at the present time is thus estimated :— 


Co-operative Store ............ -RRECEee a £39,335 
ATIVE oe: ov cy seyotayay ou fae! cudioy sie svatiyefEt- seoe 29,962 
Manufacturing’ Society ............4.. we.» 71,695 
Land and Building Society .............. 1,000 
Eta BB as Foc accpagade ictaonid al cnay tal oi ofai te 350 


Total .... 142,342 
Deduct loans from Store to other Societies .. 16,613 


Leaving a net capital of..,....... Pein ag allay ier, 
* Account mislaid, t 1851, Loss £421 7s, 9d. 


15* 


928 REPORT—1861. 


This capital consists of actual money, or stock purchased by money, and which 
might very fairly be estimated at a value considerably above its cost price. 
ow let us pause for a moment to consider the progress that has been made. 


In the year 1844 the capital was ............... : £28 
A 1850, commencement of Corn-Mill ... 2,299 
- 1854, commencement of Manuf. Soc..... 11,144 : 
a 1S OLDE Te Eee At rtd oat ros. 2 125,729. 


But this does not by any means represent the whole of the financial co-operative 
progress in Rochdale. Several other societies have come into existence, which, 
though independent of this Society, and not recognizing so clearly as this Pore 
the principles of cooperation as laid down by it, are nevertheless societies whic 
recelve and develope the resources of the working-classes, which tend to raise them 
morally, socially, and intellectually, as well as materially, and which must not, 
therefore, be wholly left out of our account in estimating the progress which 
cooperation has made in Rochdale. It would be foreign to my present purpose 
to enter into an enumeration of their operations. I only refer to them in order that 
the Section may understand that the progress described in this paper is very far 
from representing the whole of the results of the principle of cooperation in the 
town of Rochdale. 

There is one thing to which I would advert before I leave the subject, which is 
greatly to the credit of the principal promoters of this movement, and is all the 
more necessary to be mentioned, because the contrary is sometimes asserted. I 
cannot, of course, speak for all of them ; but, as far as 1 have had an opportunity of 
observing them, I have been struck with the absence of that levelling spirit and of 
that desire of self-aggrandizement which has characterised some of the working- 
class attempts to elevate themselves. The chief ambition of the principal promoters 
of the movement in Rochdale appears to me to be to raise themselves by raising 
the class to which they belong, without desiring to leave it, and without the slight- 
est wish to depress or injure any other class. Their object and their ambition 
appears to be that the working-class should be well fed, well clothed, well housed, 
well washed, well educated—in a word, that they should be respectable and re- 
spected. If any taint of the socialist and communist theories in which the society 
originated still cleayes to them, it is being rapidly worked off, and will, I am per- 
suaded, shortly disappear. And, to their aot be it spoken, so far are they from 
trying to monopolize the advantages they have acquired, that they are animated by 
a generous spirit of proselytism, and put themselves to considerable trouble and ex- 
pense in communicating to inquirers from all parts of the kingdom the results of 
their experience, and aiding them in the formation of new societies. The follow- 
ing extract from a paper they have printed for the use of persons wishing to form 
new societies will serve to illustrate this remark, and aie I am sure, be listened 
to with interest by the Section :-— 

“st. Procure the authority and protection of the law by enrolment. 

“‘Ond. Let integrity, intelligence, and ability be indispensable qualifications in 
the choice of officers and managers, and not wealth or distinction. 

“ 3rd. Let each member have only one vote, and make no distinction as regards 
the amount of wealth any member may contribute. 

“Ath, Let majorities rule in all matters of government. 

“ 5th. Look well after the money matters. Punish fraud, when duly established, 
by the immediate expulsion of the defrauder. 

“6th. Buy your goods as much as possible in the first markets ; or, if you have 
the produce of your industry to sell, contrive, if possible, to sell in the last. 

“7th. Never depart from the principle of buying and selling for READY MONEY. 

“ 8th. Beware of long reckonings. Quarterly accounts are the best, and should 
be adopted when practicable. 

“9th. For the sake of security, always have the accounted value of the ‘ Fixed 
Stock’ at least one-fourth less than its marketable value. 

“ 10th. Let members take care that the accounts are properly audited by men 
of their own choosing. 

“11th. Let Committees of Management always have the authority of the mem- 
bers before taking any important or expensive step. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 229 


“ 12th. Do-not court opposition or publicity, nor fear it when it comes. 

“13th. Choose those only for your leaders whom you can trust, and then give 
them your confidence.” 

The principles by which the society whose progress has been described is distin- 
poet from the numerous joint-stock societies established under the Limited 

iability Act appear to me to be these :— 

1. To make the material improvement of the working-class subservient to their 
social and intellectual advancement. 

2. Neither to give nor take credit. 

3. To keep the governing body under the constant and vigilant superintendence 
of a proprietary resident on the spot, and the greater part of whom are acquainted 
with the nature of the operations carried on with their capital. This is a cause of 
their success to which, I believe, attention has not yet been directed, but which is 
very important. 

On these principles two questions arise— 

1. Are they sound ? 

2. Are they applicable to manufacturing operations, as well as to stores for the 
sale of goods? 

On these questions I do not profess to dogmatize. I see this institution esta- 
blished and carried on for sixteen years under my own eyes. I am naturally desi- - 
rous to investigate its character ; it is an inquiry of no small importance, and one 
which I think ought to receive the careful attention of this section. 


On the Price of Printing Cloth and Upland Cotton from 1812 to 1860. 
By Alderman Netxp. 


By two tables (which are printed in detail) he showed the price of a description 
of cloth known as 3-72-reed printers, in each year, from 1812 to 1860, by which is 
meant 72 threads of warp in the inch, and the best class of this description of cloth 
has 88 threads of weft in the same space. This description of cloth is now in part 
superseded by a 2 cloth, which, assuming it to be of the same quality, will measure 
in the grey 25 yards long and 36 inches wide. Although the { are giving place to 
*, the comparison in Z was continued throughout. The present difference in value 
between an 80-and a 72-reed will be about 9d. per piece. He mentioned a remark- 
able circumstance, showing the astonishing superiority of power-loom cloth over 
hand-loom. As buyers of cloth, they applied a very close scrutiny to every lot of 
cloth purchased, as to the warp, weft, length, breadth, and weight. The accuracy 
with which one piece compares with another in all these particulars, in the produc- 
tions of first-class makers, was surprising—the item of weight, however, being the 
one in which the greatest difference is to be apprehended. But even in this, the 
difference the first makes in large quantities of cloth would not be more than 
about five ounces in cloth weighing 51b. 2 oz. (that is, taking a number of pieces, 
and weighing each piece singly); but taking the average of a number of lots of 20 
— each, thus extending over thousands of pieces, they will not vary more than 

om 1 to 20z.; whilst, taking the case of the 80-reed cloth named in the first six 
years of this table, a variation was found in cloth purporting to be the same of from 
5lb. 1 oz. to61b.40z. The two most remarkable years were 1814 and 1825. The 
first (1814) was soon after the Continent had been closed to our manufactures for 
probably 20 years, and when it was believed (to quote a saying of the time) “there 
would not be a piece for every village.” The excitement became intense, and 80- 
reed grey printing-cloth rose from 25s. per piece to 49s., and one style of prints rose 
from 44s. 4d. to 63s., or from 19d. per yard to 2s. 3d. A much superior article of 
the same class is now sold for 11s., or about 43d. per yard, so much better, both in 
design and execution, and brilliancy of colour, that, if the production of 1814 were 
placed side by side with the production of 1860 at two-thirds of the price, the price 
of 1860 would be taken, and the one of 1814 lett. The year 1825 was one of extra-~ 
ordinary speculation and excitement, principally, if I remember rightly, in raw cot- 
ton. The manufacturer endeavoured to keep pace by advancing his cloth, and -72- 
reed printing-cloth rose, in that year, from about 13s. 6d. to 19s. This, however, 
had the effect of almost putting a stop to the demand; and sales, except to a very 
limited extent, were out of the question. The result was, a great accumulation of 


230 REPORT—1861. 


stocks. The usury laws were then in force, and, in consequence of the very high 
rate of money, manufacturers were driven to most terrible sacrifices upon their stocks. 
At length, ee began to give way; and the cloth in question fell from 19s. to 
13s, 6d., and then to 10s., or nearly 50 per cent. from the highest point. This fall 
occurred in a period of about nine months. In 1848, this same cloth touched the 
very low point of 4s. 6d., its present value being 6s. 10d. In 1816 the price of 80- 
reed cloth was 29s,—a period of depression rather than excitement; whilst it fell 
in 1848 to 4s. 6d. Then, again, as another instance of the change in value, and 
looking at the column of average prices, 


COTTON. 
Highest. Lowest 
8 8d, & d. 
In 1818 it was.... 21 9 LO SSBB eas ORE 1 43 
LEP swe ne len AU tks les A aie O 5} 
ANSE YO) Wy Mouee aCen ee: O LOS i stones shepekcleiagp 0 6 
1846 ays ine 1 De® Oo Ge ean eta QO 4} 
TRAST yeaissis ae cos OO la Ravana O 32 


After this, prices began to advance, until, in 1860, they touched 7s. The causes 
which have operated to produce these changes are a reduction in the price of the 
raw material, improved machinery, improved training of the hands employed, and 
the enormous increase of demand, which have enabled the manufacturer to diminish 
the cost per piece on his fixed expenses by turning off a greater number of pieces 
from the same machinery. Lowness of price, again, has been continually stimu- 
lating the demand. He had thus shown the history of the fluctuations in the price 
of one article for a period of about half a century, forty-three years of which had 
been merely the record of his own purchases, 


On the Extent to which Sound Principles of Taxation are embodied in the 
Legislation of the United Kingdom. By W.Newmancu, 


H. J. Ker Porter presented Engravings of Farm Labourers’ Cottages, with a 
Specification, and made a few remarks, in continuation of a Paper read at Oxford 
in 1860, 


On Cooperation and its Tendencies. By Epaunn Porrerr, F.R.S. 


He pointed out, at starting, the danger of trying to elevate a simple and useful 
means of thrift into a presumed new mode for the scientific application of labour 
and capital. After fully discussing the subject, the conclusions he arrived at were 
thus stated :—1. The conclusion I should arrive at, drawn from the opinions I have 
expressed, would be, that cooperation is sound only when limited to simple and 
almost unspeculative trading, such as the division of stores, for supplying a provided 
demand from shareholders, or for institutions and establishments for limited pur- 
poses, such as would safely admit the democratic principle of management. 2. That 
it is inefficient for competitive and therefore speculative commercial undertakin 
because it could not, through agents democratically elected and intrusted only with 
limited responsibility, compete with individual responsibility of greater power. 3. 
That it would prove weakest during periods of depression, and could not find power 
of sustentation from a multitude of diaceholdees of the weaker capitalist class: that 
it would not supply the power of purchase or expansion during those periods, when 
the private capitalist invests and expands most profitably. 4. That the more sub- 
stantial capitalist would be debarred by socialistic rule, which limits the amount 
of shares to be held, from finding financial and moral support; therefore the pres- 
sure of adversity would come with infinitely greater weight on cooperative asso- 
ciations than on joint-stock or individual trades. 5. That cooperative experiments, 
though costly to their supporters, may be valuable to society by affording practical 
lessons in political economy, and testing the value of, and necessity for, forethought 
and experience ; that the greater diffusion of education will not lead to cooperation 
for trading purposes, but to greater self-reliance and competition. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 231 


On the Relative Pauperism of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1851-1860. 
By Frevericx Purpy, F.S.S., Principal of the Statistical Department, Poor 
Law Board. 


This paper treated of the relative pauperism of England, Scotland, and Iveland 
during the ten years ended in 1860. It pointed out that each country had its own 
Poor Laws, and its separate administrative machinery. Poor Laws had existed in 
England for nearly three centuries; but in Scotland there was nothing worthy of 
the name before 1845; and in Ireland they were introduced in 1838. In England 
the average number of paupers was 892,671; in Scotland, 120,724; in Ireland, 
95,880; or 4:7, 4-0, and 1°5 per cent. on the population, respectively. It was stated 
. that those who had devoted themselves to study the working of the English Poor 

Laws were opposed to the system of “out-door relief,” from the difficulty of test- 
ing the applicant’s claim, and from the fear that it may be perverted, in the hands 
of the employers of labour, who constitute the majority of the immediate admini- 
strators of relief, to the depression of wages. It appeared that for 1 in-door pauper 
in England there were 6 out-door; in Scotland, 13; but in Ireland -03 only. 
Though pauperism is lowest in Ireland, it was shown that in Scotland, where 
nearly all the relief is out-door, the resident Irish were greatly pauperized, for 1 in 
13 was there a pauper; but in Ireland only 1 in 274. According to the most re- 
cent statistics, there were 43,810 pauper lunatics in the United Kingdom,—England 
having 33,068, Scotland 5103, and Ireland 5639 of this unfortunate class. On each 
10,000 of the population, England has 17, Scotland the same, and Ireland 9 only. 
The Commissioners, who in 1858 reported upon the Irish lunatic asylums, stated 
that there were 3350 “insane poor at large and unprovided for.” This would, if 
they were to be included hereafter as paupers, raise the Irish ratio considerably. In 
the ten years £92,285,965 had been raised by poor-rates. In England, £77,960,190 ; 
Scotland, £6,182,526; and Ireland, £8,143,249, But of the English portion, 
£18,000,000 were for purposes quite unconnected with relief to the poor. The 
sums actually spent in relief to the poor were, for England, £54,767,542; Scotland, 
£5,917,634; and Ireland, £6,656,745, respectively equal to a rate per head on the 
population of 5s. 93d., 3s. 11gd., and 2s. 13d. annually. The proportion was nearly 
triple in England, and double in Scotland, that which sufficed for Ireland. Compa- 
ring the amount expended in 1860 with that of 1851, it appeared that in England 
it was now 10 per cent., and in Scotland 25 per cent. higher. In Ireland, on the 
other hand, it was now 60 per cent. lower. The yearly cost per. pauper was, for 
England, £6 2s. 8d.; Scotland, £4 18s.; and Ireland, £6 18s. 10d. Tala stands 
highest here, because relief in the workhouse is dearest individually, though in its 
ultimate effects the most economical and the least demoralizing. ‘The comparison 
of the rate in the pound, on the property-tax assessment, was then made in respect 
_of the seven years ending in 1860, there being no return for Ireland previous to 1854. 
The relief to the poor during that period was equal to an annual tax, on the Sche- 
dule A assessment, of 1s. 1d. inEngland, 113d. in Scotland, and 103d. in Ireland. 
It was considered remarkable that, however diverse the pauperism of the three 
kingdoms had otherwise been, yet, in this relation, there was a considerable ap- 

roach to uniformity—England only exceeding Scotland by 13d. and Ireland by 

id. in the pound. The rate per head of the assessments under Schedules A, B, 
and D, on the average population of the seven years, was computed to show the 
relative wealth of the three countries: this in England was £11 17s.; in Scotland, 
£9 13s.; and in Ireland, £3 5s. Taking these in conjunction with previous ratios, 
it would appear that the pauperism has been inversely as the poverty of the three 
countries—England, the wealthiest and most pena Ireland, the poorest and 
least pauperized ; Scotland coming between, but much nearer to England, both in 
wealth and in pauperism. It was asked, in conclusion, If Ireland, under the judi- 
cious administration of her Poor Laws, has reduced her pauperism to a quantity 
which, at the present day, is less than one per cent. of the population, under what 
conditions can we hope that similar results may be achieved for England and Scot- 
Jand? But it was observed that something beyond statistical information is re- 
quired for the satisfactory solution of this important question. 
~~ Some of the more important data discussed in this paper are briefly exhibited in 
the subjoined Tables :— 


232 : REPORT—1861. 


A.—Yearly Average of the Pauper Census, 1851-1860. 


Number of Paupers. 


In-door. Out-door. Total. 
England and Wales........ 117,395 775,276 892,671 
Scotlandtin i keane sear —* —* 120,724 
Ireland. Saioike pea. deetemionicl 93,281 2,599 95,880 
United Kingdom .......... = — 1,109,275 


B.—Yearly Average of Poor Rates raised, 1851-1860. 


Amounts raised 


by Poor Rates.) by other receipts. Total. 
£ £ 
England and Wales........ 7,504,439 291,571 7,796,010T 
Scotland ean se Geechee. 556,127 62,126 618,253 
Irelan duet aastegeeneiekts 778,617 35,708 814,325 
United Kingdom .......... 8,839,183 389,405 | 9,228,588 


C.—Yearly Average Expenditure for Relief, 1851-1860. 


Rate Variations in 


Population | Relief to the Pi the rate 
(average). Poor. fos 7 per head 
. in 10 years. 
highest. lowest. 
£ ss 4d, | 5: si ad, 
England and Wales...... 18,902,000 | 5,476,754 |5 91/6 8 5 42 
Scatlarid pom. sekelses oie 3,009,000 591,763 |3 11} 2 hh 
Trelandiacebts sates sitet tiers 6,193,000 665,675 |}2 12 5 6 
United Kingdom........ 28,104,000 | 6,784,192 |4 92 1 5 


Norsz.—Mr. Purdy’s paper, with all the Tables, is printed zz extenso in the 25th volume 
of the Journal of the Statistical Society. 


The Iron-cased Ships of the British Navy. 
By E. J. Rezp, Member and Secretary of the Institution of Naval Architecture. 


The construction of iron-cased ships of war is engrossing so much of the attention 
of scientitic men at the present moment, and is manifestly fraught with such im- 
portant consequences in financial respects, that this Association could not well be 
Sarit to assemble, even in Manchester, without taking the subject into consi- 

eration. 

With the view of best fulfilling the intentions with which the gentlemen of the 
Mechanical Section made this the chief topic of today’s deliberations, I propose— 

1st. To glance briefly at the circumstances under which the British Admiralty 
resorted to the construction of iron-cased sea-going ships of war. 


* The numbers of indoor and outdoor paupers in Scotland appear only to have been 
separately stated once; that was in 1859, when they amounted to 8,678 and 113,335 re- 
spectively. 

t+ In England and Wales large sums are paid yearly for local purposes, unconnected 
with relief to the poor; on the average, these payments have been £1,823,950. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 233 


2nd. To state as compactly as possible the principal features of the ships which 
the Admiralty are building and propose to build. 

And 3rdly. To bring to the notice of this Association the great increase of dock 
accommodation which iron-cased ships have rendered necessary. 

Early in 1859 the Secretary to the Admiralty, the Accountant-General of the 
Navy, and the Secretary and Chief Clerk to the Treasury, together reported to the 
Government of the day (Lord Derby’s) that France was building “four iron-sided 
ships, of which two were more than half completed,” and that these ships were to 
take the place of line-of-battle ships for the future. “So convinced do naval men 
seem to be in France of the irresistible qualities of these ships,” said these gentle- 
men, “that they are of opinion that no more ships of the line will be laid down.” 
In another part of their Report they said, “ The present seems a state of transition, 
as regards naval architecture, inducing the French Government to suspend the lay- 
ing down of new ships of the line altogether.” At the instance of Sir John Pakington, 
then First Lord of the Admiralty, this Report was immediately presented to Par- 
lament, and thus obtained universal publicity. 

From that time forward, then, we have all known perfectly well what the plans 
of the French Government in this matter were, and have known equally well that 
the only mode of keeping pace even with France in the production of iron-cased 
ships was to lay down four of them to match the four which she at that time pos- 
sessed, and to build as many more annually as she saw fit to add to her navy. 
In pursuance of this very simple policy, Sir John Pakington at once had designs of 
a formidable class of iron-cased ships prepared, and ordered the construction of one 
of these vessels, the ‘ Warrior.’ 

The present Board of Admiralty shortly afterwards succeeded to power, and or- 
dered a second of these vessels, the ‘Black Prince,’ and after some delay also issued 
contracts for the ‘ Defence’ and ‘Resistance.’ No othervessel of the kind was actually 
commenced until the present year; so that in the beginning of 1861 we had only 
just attained the position which France held in the beginning of 1859, having “ fous 
iron-sided ships, of which two were more than half completed.” Meantime France 
had been devoting the bulk of her naval expenditure for two whole years to the 
production of similar vessels, and is consequently now in possession of an iron- 
cased fleet far more considerable and more forward than ours. 

At length, however, our slugyishness has been overcome, and we have set our- 
selves earnestly to work to repair our past deficiencies. The ‘ Hector’ and ‘ Valiant’ 
have been laid down, and are being urged rapidly forward ; the ‘ Achilles,’ after a 
year’s preparation, has been fairly commenced; the ‘ Royal Alfred,’ the ‘ Royal Oak,’ 
the ‘Caledonia,’ the ‘Ocean,’ andthe ‘Triumph’ are in progress; and contracts havejust 
been issued for the construction of three out of six other iron-cased ships, the 
building of which has for some time been decided upon. The peculiar features and 
proportions of these vessels I shall presently describe ; but I will first state some of 
the causes which have led to delay in this matter, and set forth the circumstances 
under which we have at last been compelled to advance. 

We have heard much in various quarters about the znvention of iron-cased ae 
the credit of which is usually accorded to his Imperial Majesty Napoleon UI., 
although there are scores of persons, both here and in America, who claim it for 
themselves. But the truth is, very little invention has been displayed in the French 
iron-cased ships. Their designers have almost exclusively confined themselves to 
the very aeale process of reducing a wooden line-of-battle ship to the height of a 
frigate, and replacing the weight thus removed by an iron casing 43 inches thick 
placed upon the dwarfed vessel. It was not possible to produce a very efficient 
ship by these means; so they have contented themselves, in most cases, with 
vessels like ‘La Gloire,’ which carry their ports very near to the water when 
fully equipped for sea, and are characterized by other imperfections that it would 
be easy to point out. The reports of her efficiency Teen have appeared in the 
French newspapers prove nothing in opposition to what I here state. The writers 
in those papers have systematically exaggerated the qualities of the French ships 
for years past, representing that they could steam at impossible speeds, and carry 
as much fuel as any two of our ships. But these are statements which can be dis- 
posed of by scientitic calculations of the most elementary kind ; and the untruth of 
the French accounts has been so demonstrated over and over again. With the 


234  REPORT—1861. 


drawings and otherparticulars of ‘La Gloire’ before us we could tell with the greatest 
precision what fuel she can stow, how fast she can steam, and at what height her 
ports are above the water. We have not, it is true, all the details of the ship be- 
fore us yet; but we have enough to demonstrate her real qualities with sufficient 
accuracy for my present purpose ; and I confidently assert that she is seriously de- 
fective as a war-ship in many respects. 

Now, from the very first our Admiralty has been averse to the construction of 
such vessels as ‘La Gloire,’ and to the rough and ready solution of the iron-cased- 
ship problem which she embodies. Whether their aversion was wise or not, under 
the peculiar circumstances of the case, I shall not presume to say; but that they 
could speedily have produced a fleet of ships in every way equal to ‘La Gloire,’ had 
they pleased, there is not the slightest doubt. Instead of doing this, however, they 
have asked, “How dowe know whether a plated wooden ship, or a plated iron ship is 
the better? How do we know whether the plating should extend from stem to stern, 
or not? How do we know whether the side should be upright or inclined ? or 
whether the plating should be backed with wood or not ? or whether it should form 
part of the hull or not ? or whether it should be made of rolled iron or of hammered? 
or what its thickness should be? or how it should be fastened ?” and so forth. And 
while all these questions have been asked, we have pretty nearly stood still. 

It is only fair to Sir John Pakington’s Board of Admiralty to say, however, 
that, without waiting for answers to them, he ordered, as we have seen, the ‘ Warrior,’ 
which is now afloat on the Thames. Those of you who, like myself, proceeded 
to Greenhithe in this vessel on the 8th of August, or who have visited her there 
since, will doubtless concur in the praise almost universally accorded to her. In 
all the yacht squadrons of the country there is not a handsomer vessel than the 
“Warrior ;’ yet there are few iron-cased ships in the French Navy that will bear 
comparison with her as a vessel of war. She has been so often described in the 
public journals, and particularly in the ‘Cornhill Magazine’ for February last, 
that I need not stay to describe her here. 

It is also to the credit of the present Board of Admiralty, that on their accession 
to office, they hastened to order the ‘Warrior's’ sister ship, the ‘Black Prince,’ which 
I doubt not is in every respect her equal. But why they soon afterwards built the 
‘Defence’ and ‘Resistance,’ ships of 280 feet in length, 54 feet broad, and 3700 tons 
‘burthen, of only 600 horse~power, and plated over less than half their length, I 
cannot conceive. I am aware that these vessels are primarily designed for coast 
defence, and that their draught of water is more favourable than ‘La Gloire’s’ for 
this purpose—theirs being 25 feet, and hers 27 feet 6 inches. But with engines 
of only 600 horse-power their speed must necessarily be low, and with so small a 
portion of their sides coated with thick plates they will be unfitted to stand that 
continued “pounding” to which a low-speed coast-defence vessel would be more 
exposed than a fast sea-going ship. The same objections hold to a certain extent 
against the ‘Hector’ and ‘Valiant’ class, which are of the same length and very 
nearly the same draught of water as the ‘Defence’ and ‘Resistance ;’ but their 
increased engine-power of 800 horses (which has led to an increased breadth of 
2 feet 3 inches, and an increased tonnage of 360 tons) will secure for them a 
higher speed, and their thick plating has been continued entirely round the main 
deck, so as to protect the gunners throughout the length of the ship; and these, 
therefore, though defective, are certainly better vessels than the others. 

It is important to observe that, notwithstanding the long delay of the 
Admiralty, and despite all we have heard respecting experimental targets, the 
irresistible determination of Parliament to have a large iron-cased fleet has over- 
taken the Admiralty before they have obtained answers to any one even of the 
questions which we have before mentioned, and upon which they have been so 
long deliberating. The cause of this is undoubtedly to be found in the indisposi- 
tion of the Admiralty to perform experiments upon a sufficiently large scale. 
Small targets, a few feet square, have been constructed and tested in abundance; 
but the results thus obtained correspond to nothing that would take place in 
practice against a full-size ship afloat. Nota single target of sufficient size, and 
of good manufacture, has yet been tested. The Admiralty are at length, however, 
having suitable structures prepared ; and before long some of our principal doubts 
upon this subject will be resolved. Perhaps the slackness of the Board in under- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 935° 


taking these colossal experiments will be understood when I say that a committee 
of eminent private shipbuilders, including Mr. Scott Russell, Mr. Laird, Mr. 
Samuda, and Mr. R. Napier, have estimated that a target large enough to try 
half-a-dozen modes of construction would cost no less a sum than £45,000, and 
that another £45,000 would have to be expended upon an iron hull capable of 
floating this target, if the use of such a hull were considered indispensable. 

But, however unprepared the Admiralty may still be, they have been compelled 
by the public sentiment, and by the power of Parliament, to make large additions 
to our iron-cased fleet during the last few months. When the House of Commons 
devotes immense sums of money to a national object with acclamations, and the 
single opponent of the measure acknowledges himself in error, the time for ques- 
tioning and parleying upon points of detail is passed. And this is what has 
happened in this iron-cased ship business. The Government has declared a 
number of new ships necessary; Parliament has voted the requisite funds with 
unanimity and cheers; Mr. Lindsay has confessed himself in error; and the Board 
of Admiralty have been instructed to build the ships with all possible despatch. Let 
us now see what kind of ships they are to be. 

The first of them, the ‘Achilles,’ which has recently been begun in Chatham 
Dockyard, so nearly resembles the ‘Warrior’ and ‘Black Prince’ that a very few 
words will suffice for her. The chief difference between her and those vessels lies, 
I believe, in the fact that her beam is slightly broader, and her floor somewhat 
flatter, than her predecessors, whereby her tonnage is increased from 6039 to 
6089 tons, and her displacement from 8625 to 9030 tons. All her other dimensions, 
and all her essential features of construction, are exactly like those of the ‘Warrior,’ 
—from which it may be inferred that the method of plating the central part only of 
the ship, which was introduced by your distinguished Vice-President, Mr. Scott 
Russell, is still viewed with favour by the Admiralty designers. Mr. Scott Russell 
did not patent this invention, I believe ; perhaps he will kindly tell us whether he 
has found his rejection of the Patent Law to pay him well in this instance. 

In the class of ships which come next, however, the Admiralty have consented 
to forego the plan of plating amidships only, and purpose plating the ship from 
end to end with thick iron. But in order to do this it has been necessary to resort 
to larger dimensions than the ‘Warrior's ;’ and hence these six new ships, three of 
which have just been contracted for, are to be 20 feet longer than her, 15 inches 
broader, of 582 tons additional burden, and 1245 tons additional displacement. As 
the displacement is the true measure of the ship’s actual size below the water, or of 
her weight, it is evident that the new ships are to be considerably more than 1000 
tons larger than the ‘Warrior’ class. As their engines are to be only of the same 
power, their speed will probably be less*. This diminished speed is one of the 
penalties which have to be paid for protecting the extremities of the ship with 
thick plates. Another will probably Be a great tendency to plunge and chop in a 
sea-way. The construction of such vessels is a series of compromises ; and no one 
can fairly blame the Admiralty for building vessels on various plans, so that their 
relative merits may be practically tested. 

The cost of this new class of ships will exceed that of the ‘Warrior’ class by 
many thousands of pounds, owing to the increased size. But it will certainly be a 
noble specimen of a war-ship. A vessel built throughout of iron, 400 feet long 
and nearly 60 broad, invulnerable from end to end to all shell and to nearly all 
shot, armed with au abundance of the most powerful ordnance, with ports 9 feet 
6 inches above the water, and steaming at a speed of, say, 13 knots per hour, will 
indeed be a formidable engine of war. And, if the present intentions of the 
Admiralty are carried out, we shall add six such vessels to our Navy during the 
next year or two. We must be prepared, however, to dispense with all beautifying 
devices in these ships. Their stems are to be upright, or very nearly so, and 
without the forward-reaching “mee of the head” which adds so much to the 
beauty of our present vessels. Their sterns will also be upright, and left as devoid 
of adornment as the bows. It should also be stated, as a characteristic feature of 


* Since this paper was read at Manchester, I have learnt that the Controller of the Navy 
always intended these vessels to have a speed of 14 knots, and will give them sufficiently 
powerful engines to secure that, if possible.-—H. J. R. 


236 REPORT—1861. 


these six new ships, that their thick plating will not extend quite to the head at 
the upper part, but will stop at its junction with a transverse plated bulk bow 
some little distance from the stem; and this bulkhead will rise to a sufficient 
height to protect the spar deck from being raked by shot. 

It has not yet been decided whether these new iron ships are to have their 
plating backed up with teak timber, as in the previous ships; or whether plating 
61 inches in thickness, without a wood backing, is to be applied to them. The de- 
termination of this point is to be dependent, [ believe, upon the results of the 
forthcoming experiments with the large targets to which I have previously 
adverted, and partly upon the recommendations of the Iron Plate Committee to 
which our President belongs, and which is presided over by the distinguished 
officer now present, Captain Sir John Dalrymple Hay, R.N. All that has been 
decided is, that whether the armour be of iron alone or of iron and wood combined, 
its weight is to be equivalent to that of iron 6} inches thick. The designs of the 
ship have been prepared subject to this arrangement, and provision has been made 
in the contracts for the adoption of whichever form of armour may be deemed best 
when the time comes for applying it. 

All the iron-cased ships which I have thus far described are built, or to be built, 
of iron throughout, except in so far as the timber backing of the plates, the planking 
of the decks, and certain internal fittings may be concerned. Inow come to notice 
a very different class of vessel, in which the hull is to be formed mainly of timber, 
the armour plating being brought upon the ordinary outside planking. The ‘Royal 
Alfred,’ ‘Royal Oak,’ ‘Caledonia,’ ‘Ocean’ and ‘Triumph’ aretobe of thisclass. Their 
dimensions are to be—length 273 feet, breadth 58 feet 5 inches, depth in hold 19 
feet 10 inches, mean draught of water 25 feet 9 inches, and height of port 7 feet. 
They are to be of 4045 tons burthen, and to have a displacement of 6839 tons. They 
are to be fitted with engines of 1000 horse-power. They are being framed with 
timbers originally designed for wooden line-of-battle ships, but are to be 18 feet 
longer than those ships were to be. They will form a class of vessels intermediate 
between the ‘Hector’ and the ‘Warrior’ classes, but, unlike both of them, will be 
plated with armour from end to end. They will be without knees of the head, 
and with upright sterns, and will therefore look very nearly as ugly as ‘La Gloire,’ 
although in other respects much superior vessels, being 21 feet 6 inches longer, 
3 feet 5 inches broader, and of less draught of water. They will also be quite equal 
to her in speed. 

It will occur to some now present, that in adopting this classof ship we have, after 
three years’ delay, approximated somewhat to the ‘Gloire’ model at last. And un- 
doubtedly we have done so in the present emergency, in order to compete with the 
movements which France is now making. At the same time we have not gone to 
work quite so clumsily as our neighbours. Instead of retaining the old line-of-battle 
ship proportions, we have gone somewhat beyond them; and have lifted all the 
decks, in order to raise our guns higher above the water. We have consequently 
secured a height of port or battery nearly 18 inches greater than ‘La Gloire’s’—an 
advantage which will prove valuable under all ordinary circumstances, and incalcul- 
ably beneficial in rough weather. 

The whole of the new iron-cased ships, including the five plated timber ships. 
and the six 400-feet iron ships, will, there is every reason to believe, match ‘La 
Gloire’ in speed, supposing the engines put in them to be of the respective powers 
already mentioned—a condition which it is necessary to state, since there is, I 
regret to say, a probability of smaller engines being placed in some of them. But 
not one of all these new ships, the ‘Achilles’ only excepted, will have a speed equal 
to the ‘Warrior’s.’ Perhaps we ought not to complain if our fleets are as fast as the 
French ; but I, for one, certainly do regret that there should be any falling off in 
this prime quality of our iron-cased vessels. Iron and coal will give us fast vessels ; 
and we have these in abundance. The truly admirable engines which Messrs. 
Penn have placed in the ‘Warrior’ show that we can command any amount of 
engine-power that we require, without incurring risk of any kind; and it would 
indeed be a blind policy to deprive ourselves of that speed which is pronounced 
invaluable by every naval officer and man of science who writes or speaks upon 
this subject. 

T have thus far said nothing concerning the armaments of the new classes of 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. IST. 
vessels which I have been describing, because nothing has yet been finally decided 
respecting them. Nor would it be wise to decide this matter in the present state 
of our artillery, until to do so becomes absolutely necessary. We are, it is said, 
producing 100-pounder, and even larger, Armstrong guns with great success now, 
and may therefore hope for supplies of ordnance of at least that class for these 
vessels; but the modifications and improvements which even Sir William Arm- 
strong himself has introduced, since te became our engineer-in-chief for rifled 
ordnance, have been so great that we have lost all confidence in the continuance of 
existing systems, and hold ourselves prepared daily for further changes. Before 
these new ships are fit to receive their armaments, or even before they have so far 
progressed as to make it necessary to fix the positions and dimensions of their 
ports, we may be put in possession of a far more effective naval gun than we can 
yet manufacture ; and the best gun, wherever it may come from, must unquestion- 
ably be adopted for them. Whoever may produce it, we shall have, let us hope, 
the great benefit of Sir William Armstrong’s splendid mechanical genius, and large 
experience, in manufacturing it in quantity at Woolwich. This is an advantage 
which should not be thought lightly of; for, whatever other views some may en- 
tertain, either through jealousy, or rivalry, or conscientious conviction, we must 
all agree in believing it a great a of good fortune to have one of our very ablest 
mechanicians placed at the head of this great mechanical department. 

I am able, however, to afford some information respecting the number of guns 
which the various classes of our new ships will be able to carry, and probably will 
carry. Of the‘Defence,’‘Resistance,’Hector,’ and ‘Valiant’ Ishallsay nothing, because 
they cannot be considered fit for the line-of-battle, or suitable for any other service 
than coast-defence. Nor need I say more of the ‘Achilles’ than that she will in all 
probability be armed with such ordnance as may be found to answer best in the 
‘Warrior’ and ‘Black Prince.’ We come, then, to the plated timber ships; and these 
I may usefully compare with the model French vessel. We know that ‘La 
Gloire,’ which is 252 feet 6 inches long, has an armament of 34 guns upon her main 
deck, and two heavy shell-guns besides—36 guns in all. Now our ships are to be 
more than 20 feet longer than her, and will therefore take two additional guns on 
either side ; so that they will carry not less than 40 guns, if the ports are placed as 
close together as in ‘La Gloire.’ I need claim no greater advantage for them in 
respect of their armaments ; but they are manifestly entitled to this. As a matter 
of fact, however, they will probably have a much more powerful armament. It is 
proposed, I believe, to arm them with about as many guns as ‘La Gloire’ on the 
main deck, all 100-pounder Armstrongs, and 16 or 18 other guns, principally 
Armstrongs, on the upper deck, making about 50 guns in all. If this intention be 
carried out, they will manifestly be much more powerful vessels than the original 
French ship. The newest and largest vessels, those of 400 feet in length, will 
each carry at least 40 Armstrong 100-pounders on the main deck, which will be 
cased with armour, as I before stated, from end to end. In addition to these they 
will doubtless have powerful ordnance on their upper decks, for use under favour- 
able circumstances. But all these arrangements are, I repeat, liable to change*. 

Unfortunately, I am unable to compare the power of these vessels with that of 
the largest of the French iron-cased ships, owing to the absence of all detailed in- 
formation concerning them. I trust, however, that the Admiralty are in possession 
of the necessary particulars, so that the delay which has taken place may be turned 
to the best possible account by securing superiority for our fleet. If this be so, 
then we shall, after all, profit by the apparent sluggishness of our naval authorities. 
In fact, if England had France only to consider, and if the Government of England 
were embodied in a single sagacious ruler as absolutelyas is that of France, so that we 
could ensure prompt action in an emergency, the very best course for us to pursue 
in this great naval competition would be to leave the lead in the hands of the 
French Emperor, taking care to add a ship to our Navy for every one added to his, 
and to make ours much more powerful than his. In the event of a war, our manu- 
facturing resources would be abundantly sufficient to secure for us a further and 
almost instant preponderance. The game which we should thus play would be 


of oor this paper was read, the issue of 100-pounder Armstrongs has been suspended. 
—HK. J. R. 


238 REPORT—1861. 


both politic and economical. But with other naval nations to compete with, and 
with the inertia which inevitably, and often happily, attends a constitutional and 
parliamentary system of government, we cannot afford to play games of skill with 
omnipotent emperors, but are bound to be ever ready to assert our preeminence. 

I have a little information concerning the ‘Solferino’ and her sister French ships 
which it may be useful to give you. Her length is 282 feet, breadth 54 feet, mean 
draught of water 26 feet, displacement 6820 tons, thickness of armour plating 43 
inches, nominal horse-power of engines 1000. Her plating extends from stem to 
stern over the lower gun-deck, and rises up amidships sufficiently high to cover 
two decks. She is furnished with an angular projection or prow below the water, 
for forcing in the side of an enemy when employed as a ram. I regret my ina- 
bility to add materially to these details of the largest French ships. 

Let me now consider briefly the pecuniary phase of this iron-cased ship question. 
We may fairly assume that the average cost of such vessels will not be less than 
£50 per ton, and that their engines will cost at least £60 per horse-power. Sup- 
ee these figures to be correct, then the hulls of the eighteen ships which we 

ave been considering will cost us £4,681,600, and their engines £1,145,000—toge- 
ther nearly siz millions pounds sterling. When masted, rigged, armed, and fully 
equipped for sea, they will of course represent a much larger sum—probably nearly 
eight millions. These estimates will afford some faint conception of the nature of 
that “reconstruction” of the Navy upon which we may now be said to have fairly 
entered, in so far as the ships themselves are considered. 

But I must not conceal the fact that the introduction of these enormous iron- 
cased ships has entailed upon us the construction of other colossal and most costly 
works. We have now to provide immense docks for their reception; for we at 
present possess none suitable to receive them. Nor must these docks be of large 
proportions only; for in order to sustain ships burdened with thousands of tons of 
armour, they must be furnished with more substantial foundations and walls than 
any hitherto constructed, and be built of the best materials and with the soundest 
and firmest workmanship. 

Many considerations combine to exalt the importance of this part of my subject. 
Tn the first place, the tendency which iron ships have to get foul below water will 
render it necessary to dock our new ships frequently, under ordinary circumstances, 
and whether we go to war or not. In the second place, for aught we yet mow, 
these ships may be found to give signs of local weakness as soon as they are taken 
on an ocean cruise, and to require such repairs and strengthenings as can only be 
performed in dock. Again, being steamships, they will be continually liable to 
accidents in connection with the engines or the propelling apparatus; and with 
many such accidents docking will become indispensable. And so I might proceed 
to multiply examples of this kind. But there is one consideration which is para- 
mount, and which may therefore be stated at once: we dare not send these ships 
against a French fleet unless we have docks for them to run to in the event of a 
disaster. We know not what may happen to these altogether novel structures 
until they have been exposed to successive broadsides from a heavy naval battery ; 
and it would be madness to send them out to encounter a powerful fleet of vessels 
as strong as themselves unless we are prepared to open docks to receive them in 
case of necessity. 

I have said that we are at present without dock accommodation for these ships ; 
and it may be desirable to illustrate the correctness of this statement in detail. 
What we require for them in each case is, first, deep water up to the entrance of 
the dock; secondly, a depth of not less than 27 or 28 feet of water over the sill of 
the dock; and thirdly, a length on the floor of the dock of 400 feet. Now, these 
three conditions are not combined, I believe, in any dock in Great Britain—cer- 
tainly not in any of Her Majesty’s Dockyards. At Portsmouth we have just com- 
ake a pair of docks which can be thrown into one, 612 feet long. But over the 

ar of Portsmouth harbour there is a depth of 17 feet only at low water, 27 feet at 
high water neaps, and 30 at high water springs. Consequently, these large iron- 
cased ships, if they went to Portsmouth in a dangerous state, or in hot haste to get 
to sea again, would nevertheless have to wait for the very top of the tide before 
they could get either in or out. But even if there were no bar, the Portsmouth dock 
would still be unavailable in such an emergency; for the depth of water over the. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 239 


sill of one portion of it is but 25 feet at high-water springs. It is into this dock 
that the ‘Warrior’ is shortly to be taken for the purpose of haying her launching 
cleats removed, and her bottom cleaned. As she can at present afford to wait upon 
the tide without inconvenience, there will be no difficulty in this case. But in 
war time it would never do to keep such an important member of your squadron 
fretting for the tide at Spithead, or to have to lighten her before she could cross 
the dock’s sill. At Devonport, again, the longest dock is only 299 feet long over 
all; but I am happy to state that one is in progress of construction 437 feet long, 
73 broad, and 32 deep at the sill. At Keyham, the longest dock (the South), which 
is 356 feet in length, has but 23 feet depth at the sill, while the North, which has 
27 feet, is but 808 feet long. At Pembroke, there is a dock of 404 feet, but it 
has a sill of 24 feet 6G inches only. The longest dock at Sheerness is 280 feet ; at 
Woolwich, 290; and at Chatham, 387, but the last has but 23 feet 6 inches at the 
sill. At Deptford there are but two docks, opening into one, and they are very 
shallow. There are a few large private docks in the country which come very near 
to our requirements. There is the Canada Dock at Liverpool, for example, 501 feet 
long, 100 broad, and with 25 feet 9 inches over the sill. There are also No. 1 Dock 
at Southampton, and the Millbay Dock near Plymouth, of which the former is 400 
feet long with 25 feet over the sill, and the latter 367 with 27 feet 6 inches over 
sill. But none of these answer all our requirements, nor could we avail ourselves 
of more than one or two of them in time of war if they did. 

If we turn to the French coast, we shall find that in this matter also we are far 
behind our neighbours. At Cherbourg there are two docks 490 feet long and 80 
broad; two 380 feet by 70; two 350 feet by 65; and two smaller ones besides. At 
Brest, again, there is building a double dock 720 feet by 90; and there are also 
two 492 feet by 60, and two smaller. At L’Orient there is one 350 feet long, and 
another (building) 500 feet. At Toulon there are two in progress, one 406 feet 
long, and the other 588, beside several smaller docks which have existed for some 
time. I cannot. give the depth of the sills of any of these French docks ; for I have 
been unable to obtain that element in any single case even, and I am assured that 
no account of it is anywhere recorded in this country. But there is no good reason 
to doubt that a proper depth has been given in most instances. 

-You will now be able to comprehend the advantage which France has secured 
in this matter of dock accommodation for her iron-cased fleets, and will readily dis- 
cern the danger to which we should be exposed in the event of an early war with 
that country. A single action might so seriously cripple both fleets as to render 
large repairs necessary; but France alone would be A he of renewing her strength. 
It would be our lot to lie crippled in our harbours, while she captured our commer- 
cial vessels and menaced our coasts. 

I am perfectly well aware that a large increase of dock accommodation is to be 
supplied at Chatham forthwith. But our Channel and Mediterranean fleets must 
not depend upon docks at Chatham, which cannot be reached from the south until 
a long passage has been made, the Nore sands threaded, and an intricate and shal- 
low river navigated. We must give to our ships the advantage which Cherbourg 
secures for the French, and which they propose to augment by establishing at 
Lezardrieux * an immense steam arsenal, protected by an impregnable series of 
defences. 

It will now be seen that, in order to place ourselves upon an equality with the 
French navy, no less than to meet the certain emergencies which must arise with 
ourreconstructed fleets, we ought without delay to founda colossal dock establishment 
on some favourable point of our southern shores, furnished with the means of carry- 

_ing on extensive repairs in time of war. The most suitable of all positions is pro- 
patie that of the Southampton Water, the shore of which, at the entrance to the 
river Hamble, presents conditions and circumstances which finely qualify it for the 
purpose. If we are wise enough to build a set of suitable docks there before the 
time of war arrives, we shall have the satisfaction of knowing that the largest iron- 

‘eased ships now in contemplation will be able to run in and be docked with all 
their stores on board, and everything standing. And nothing less than this should 
satisfy us. 


* See an admirable article in Capt. Becher’s ‘Nautical Magazine’ for July, 1861.—E.J.R. 


’ 


240 REPORT—186l. 


The Income-Tax. By the Rey. Canon Ricuson. 


The author quoted the report of the late Committee of the House of Commons, 
in which they declined to interfere with the present mode of levying the tax, 
and described the case of a clergyman deriving £150 from a living in a large 
parish in Manchester, the extent of which necessitated the employment of 
two curates. The clergyman gave up the whole of his income towards the pay- 
ment of his assistants, but both he and they were compelled to pay income-tax, 
though he did not receive a farthing in the way of personal emolument. Taking 
therefore into consideration the refusal of the report to reeommend any modification 
of the present Acts for levying and collecting the income-tax; that the number of 
persons who suffer unjustly from the operation of the present Acts is very large; 
that there are sufficiently definite objections to their operation in which persons 
concur, without involving those subjects of discussion wherein there is little im- 
mediate prospect of agreement ; that the operation of the present Act leads to habi- 
tual frauds, injurious to commercial integrity ; and, finally, that the efforts of indi- 
viduals are unequal to the necessary conflict with the prejudices and interests 
arrayed against such a revision of the Acts as their very terms appear to justify,—he 
considered that, after so unsatisfactory a result of two committees of the House of 
Commons as was indicated by the present report, it was useless to expect equitable 
improvement, unless they who are dissatisfied with the existing anomalies are pre- 
pared, for the present, to sink their differences of opinion in respect to an entire 
modification of the bases of the tax, and to form an extensive association, with the 
restricted and clearly defined object of promoting the application of the Income- 
Tax Acts in harmony with their declared objects. 


Can Patents be defended on Economical Grounds? 
By Professor J. E. T. Rogers, M.A. 


The author contended that patent laws did not stimulate invention; they did 
not come within the definition of protection to property and the acknowledged 
duty of the state to maintain intact the labour of individuals; they acted as a 
hindrance to improvement by being a check on the freedom of beneficial discovery ; 
they were an illogical acknowledgment that the accidental property of discovery 
was the ground for allowing a sole property. All reasonable advantages were 
secured by secresy, and were constantly superseded by secresy; and they were a 
tax in the fullest sense on the consumer. 


On the Definition and Incidence of Taxation. 
By Professor J. E. T. Rocrrs, M.A. 

The author gave the following definition of a tax :—‘ A tax is a contribution 
imposed by an acknowledged authority on a community, for the purpose of public 
utility, whether this utility be the discharge of obligations imiree for past ser- 
vices or for the maintenance of present capacities of production, the tax being 
levied on the ground that the utility procured, service rendered, or functions per- 
formed by the administration of this contribution, cannot possibly be procured, 
rendered, or performed by individuals, or by inferior cooperative agencies, and can- 
not be so economically discharged by them.” The incidence of a tax he indicated 
to be as follows :—“ If a tax be levied on sources of income which are of an elastic 
character—that is, on the services of productive labour,—it must be paid by the 
consumer ; and though such an incidence may be inexpedient to the community, it 
is not unjust to the person who is the channel of the tax. But if it be levied on 
income which is not elastic, it may be unjust to the person who pays it, as well as 
inexpedient to the person or persons who represent the consumer.” 


On some Account of the Manchester Gasworks. By Joun SHurtLEWwoRTH. 


Manchester was the first place in which the regular and complete application of 
gas for economical purposes was successfully tested. This was effected under the 
direction of Mr. William Murdoch, in 1805, at the cotton-mill of Messrs. Phillips 


and Lee, and had made Manchester a sort of starting-point in all historical notices 


of the subject. Their townsman, Dr. Henry, was the first to direct attention to the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 241 


purification of gas; and, further, the Act 5 George 4, c. 133, which passed in 1824, 
under which the Commissioners of Police for Manchester were authorized to esta- 
blish gasworks for lighting the town, was, he believed, the first Act ever granted by 
Parliament that empowered a municipal body to apply public funds to the carrying on 
of a manufacturing business for the benefit of the public. Until that Act was obtained, 
it was an established principle in the legislation of this country not to permit public 
bodies to become traders. It appeared, then, that in connexion with gas Manchester 
enjoyed the distinction of being the locality where its practical use on a large scale 
was first shown, of ranking among its citizens the eminent chemist by whose re- 
searches its purification was effected, and of removing the Parliamentary restric- 
tions that prevented municipal bodies from deriving profits for public use from its 
manufacture. The Commissioners of Police, who managed the affairs of the town 
under an old Police Act, the 32nd George III., which passed in 1792, began the 
ee use of gas by fixing a single lamp over the door of the then police office in 

olice-street, at the bottom of King-street. He well remembered the crowds that 
night after night gathered in front to gaze at it. As the use of gas spread, its supe= 
riority to all other light made the public anxious to obtain it for private consump- 
tion ; and several public meetings were held for the purpose of urging the Commis- 
sioners of Police to extend the works so as to supply the general demand. The 
Commissioners made an appeal to the leypayers at large; and at a meeting held on 
the 30th of April, 1817, it was resolved :— That it will be expedient to adopt the 
proposed mode of lighting the central parts of the town with gas, and, for the pur- 
at of effecting this object, to raise the police rate from 15d. to 18d. in the pound.” 

he gasworks were enlarged, a “Gas Committee” was established; but as the 
right of the commissioners to sell gas to private consumers was uncertain, it was 
thought desirable to obtain a special Act of Parliament to legalize what had been 
done and to give power to continue the works, prescribing the application of the 
funds derived from them. While the commissioners were preparing their measure, 
a notice appeared on the 20th September, 1823, from persons entirely unknown in 
Manchester, and without any previous intimation of their intention, to apply to 
Parliament for a bill to authorize the establishment of a “ Manchester Imperial 
Joint-stock Oil Gas Company, to light with oil or other gas the town and parish of 
Manchester.” On this notice appearing, measures were taken to oppose the pro- 
ject, and at the same time to promote the previously intended purpose of obtaining 
a Gas Act for the town. In furtherance of these objects meetings were held in 
Manchester, Salford, Ardwick, and other townships of the parish. Though the 
opposition to the Oil Gas Bill was thus formidable, the promoters continued their 
efforts, and might have succeeded ; but in getting up petitions in favour of the bill 
they had resorted to the grossest fraud in attaching forged and fictitious signatures, 
and, on these frauds being proved to the committee by the clearest evidence, the com- 
mittee to which both bills had been referred at once indignantly rejected the Oil 
Gas Bill and adjourned without making any report, alleging that they dispensed 
with this customary formality from a motive of mercy to the parties, inasmuch 
as they could not make a report without bringing the authors of the fraud and 
contempt to justice. So strong and general was the indignation excited in the 
House, that on an attempt being made a few days after to revive the committee, 
the motion was negatived, not in the usual way by a quiet orderly vote, but, as 
it is stated in the newspaper reports of the time, “by a thunder of Noes.” The 
resentment thus provoked by one party had, perhaps, a reactionary influence in 
favour of the other; for the defeat of the Oil Gas Bill was speedily followed by 
the passing of the Manchester Act, thereby practically recognizing the principle 
that such establishments might be created by public funds and conduc ted by 
public bodies for the public benefit, and, further, that the object to which gas- 
works especially are subservient are more likely to be secured by a general 
establishment conducted under effective public control by a public body than 
by any private association founded solely for private gain—in short, ‘that such esta- 
blishments are not only legitimate in principle, but are even the best (because the 
most certain and convenient) means of effecting those most import ant public im- 
provements which progress and circumstances make necessary in towns, which 
might not be otherwise effected. The Act unfortunately left the constitution of the 
boty which, under the Act of 1792, governed the town, and from which the gas 


1861. 3 16 


242 REPORT—186l. 


directors had to be chosen, unaltered. The governing body was not composed of a 
limited number of persons chosen as representatives, ‘but was constituted of all the 
inhabitants who paid a rent of £20 a year. Under such a system it was clear that 
whenever there was a strong collision of opinion on public questions, persons on 
both sides would qualify in such numbers as utterly to destroy the deliberative 
character of the public meetings that might be held. In the proceedings, both with 
respect to gas and other public affairs, that took pre for years after the passing of 
this Act, so great was the excitement that prevailed, that crowds of qualitied inha-~ 
bitants became Commissioners of Police; and for a long period the meetings that 
were held were characterized by the most disgraceful turbulence and disorder. At 
one meeting alone, in 1827, no less than 665 persons qualified as commissioners. 
At these meetings the most extravagant propositions were brought forward, such 
as, for instance, that gas should be supplied to consumers at cost price. The par- 
ties most prominent and offensive in this violent agitation were chiefly the lowest 
class of shopkeepers and publicans. Then followed an agitation for the sale of the 

asworks; but this was eventually suspended by the appointment of the late 

fr, Thomas Wroe to the comptrollership of the works. This was quite an epoch 
in the history of the works. In the first year, Mr. Wroe reduced the price 5 per 
cent., and raised the production from 88 millions of cubic feet to 96 millions, or 
9 per cent., and increased the profits from £10,200 to £13,500, or 34 per cent. In 
the ten years that Mr. Wroe was connected with the works he reduced the price 
from. 10s. 6d. to 5s. 9d., and raised the annual profit from £10,200 to £31,700. The 
benefit derived by the town from Mr. Wroe’s services amounted to an annual sum 
of £45,416. This was stated in a report of the Finance Committee, bearing date 
August 22, 1842, which he thought ought to be published for general circulation, 
as it contained particulars of the services of one who had not yet had justice done 
to his unparalleled work as a public servant. 

For the introduction of the Municipal Corporations Act to Manchester they were 
indebted to Mr. Alderman Neild, who originated the movement, and was untiring 
in his exertions until it was accomplished. The Municipal Act, among its many 
other advantages, gave a security and permanence to the gas establishment which 
it could not be considered to possess previously. The consequences had been highly 
important. To the inhabitants it fad supplied the best and cheapest light that 
exists. To the public at large it had contributed regularly funds for widening old 
and forming new streets to an extent that had afforded needful accommodation for 
the vast increase of traffic, of population, and merchandize that had grown up among 
them, and which, without such aid, would probably have been actually prevented 
by the want of space in the streets and thoroughfares, which was essential to its 
existence. In both social and political economy, facility of communication and 
transit was one of the most important elements of national prosperity, and demanded 
unceasing attention to every available means for securing it. In this respect the 
Manchester gasworks had been especially useful. Before their establishment it 
was the standing and universal reproach of Manchester that it was the worst and 
most inconveniently built town in Europe. It possessed no fund for general im- 
provements, and was so rapidly increasing as to make from day to day the neces- 
sity of such a fund more alarmingly apparent. Without the funds derived from the 
gasworks, the physical necessity of ate and shorter streets would either haye put 
a stop to the growth of the traffic, or have rendered absolutely imperative a resort 
to large improvement rates, thus not only most injuriously affecting the value of 

POLST throughout the town, but also checking and depressing all other interests. 

uch were the exigencies of the town in this respect, that at a meeting of the Com- 
missioners of Police in 1827, a scheme of necessary improvements to meet the 
rapidly advancing wants of the community was brought forward, which involved an 
estimated cost of from one to one and a half million sterling. He thought it was a 
happy circumstance for Manchester in a threatened necessity of such vital import- 
ance to its prosperity, that a fund existed in the profits of the gasworks of sufficient 
magnitude to equal the demand, That these estimates were not overrated was clear 
from the fact that, in addition to improvements still in progress and still wanted, 
the payments from the gas profits for the purposes then contemplated have amounted 
to more than £700,000, besides debts incurred that were yet owing. In the first 
year of the establishment of the gasworks the profits amounted to £263 10s. 5d, In 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 243 


the following seven years they amounted to £20,000, and of this £15,000 to £17,000 
was paid towards the erection of the Town Hall. From 1825 to 1839 inclusive 
(from the date of the first Gas Act to the grant of the charter, a period of 15 years) 
the profit was nearly £172,000, or an average of £11,500 a year; and from 1840, 
when he became a member of the Gas Committee, to 1859, when that connexion 
ceased, a term of 19 years, they amounted to £660,000, or an average of nearly 
£35,000 a year, or treble that of the preceding 15 years. The price to the con- 
sumer during the same period had been reduced from about 16s. to 4s. 6d. (in 1859) 
pe 1000 feet; and but for a resolution of the Town Council in 1851, by which one- 
alf of the profits was diverted from improvements to relieve the water rate, would 
certainly have been reduced ten years ago to a medium of 4s. per 1000 feet. Ac- 
cording to the last published report of the Gas Committee, to June 24, 1860, the 
amount of capital in the gasworks was £501,326 ; gas produced in the year ending 
June 1860, 779,150,000 cubic feet ; rental, £154,658, which was equal to an average 
charge of about 3s. 103d. per 1000 feet. The price of gas within the city is from 
3s. 8d. to 4s., or a medium of 3s. 10d. The cost of cannel, £56,177, equal to 1s. 34d. 
per 1000 feet; cannel consumed, 76,039 tons, which showed a production of 10,240 
per ton. By the Gas Committee continuing to attend to the quality of the gas so 
as to secure the highest purity and illuminating power, and by the council so regu- 
lating the price by fixing it at as low as was commensurate with the capital em- 
ployed and the business done, they might expect not only a continuance, but an 
augmentation of the benefits of which it had been a certain and important source. 


On the Altered Condition of the Embroidery Manufacture of Scotland and Ire- 
land since 1857. By Joun Srrane, LL.D. 


The author enlarged upon the advantages of this particular occupation in encou- 
raging artistic skill and taste, and in affording occupation for females at their own 
homes.. He deplored the capricious fickleness of female fashion, which had led to 
a great decline, and said it was to be hoped that so long as the tasteful designer 
continued to dream after some new shape or pattern, so long as the unwearied 
energy of the manufacturer was exerted to create new articles of utility, and the 
restless activity of the merchant was spent on discovering some new market for 
their disposal, the future of the muslin embroidery manufacture would ere long be- 
come, as heretofore, a pleasing and profitable occupation during the intervals of 
field labour and domestic duties to at least as great a number as it formerly did of 
the industrious females of Scotland and Tela 


On the Comparative Progress of the English and Scottish Population as shown 
by the Census of 1861. By Joun Srrane, LL.D. 


If some distant and untutored foreigner happened to cast his eye over the map 
of the world, and were told by some cultehieaad bystander that within the compa- 
ratively small islands of Great Britain and Ireland there resided the elements of a 
first-rate political power, he would no doubt feel some little surprise at the intel- 
ligence, particularly were he, at the same time, informed that within the boun- 
daries of Great Britain itself there was only a surface area of about 57 millions of 
statute acres. But the foreigner’s surprise would be perhaps still greater were he 
further told that, while the southern portion of the island, called England and Wales, 
with a surface of little more than 37 millions of acres, had a population (as ascertained 
by the late census, exclusive of the army and navy, and merchant service abroad) of 
20,061,725, the northern portion, called Scotland, with a territorial surface of up- 
wards of 20 millions of acres, contained only 3,061,329 inhabitants. Such, how- 
ever, are the real facts of the case; and those, like ourselves, who are acquainted 
with the distinctive physical peculiarities of the two portions of Great Britain will 
feel little wonder about it. There is, however, a subject connected with this ter- 
vritorial division of England and Scotland, and their d'stinctive populations, which 
is not so easily understood; we mean the fact, as shown by the census returns of 
the present century, that there has existed for some considerable time, and parti- 
cularly of late years, a marked difference in the ratio of the progress of the popu- 
lation within the limits assigned to the northern and southern portions of Great 
16* 


244 REPORT—186l. 


Britain respectively. By a table before me, it appears that the population of 
England and Wales has, in the course of sixty years, increased to the extent 
of 10,905,554, whereas that of Scotland has advanced to the extent of only 
1,452,909, exhibiting an increase on the part of England and Wales of 119:1 per 
cent., and on that of Scotland of only 90°3 per cent.; and if we merely compare 
the progress of the population of the two divisions of the island respectively during 
the last ten years, we find that, while England and Wales show an increase of 12 
per cent., Scotland oniy exhibits an advance of 5-9 (or about 6) per cent. The 
question then naturally arises, how can this great and important discrepancy be- 
tween the rates of progress in England and Scotland, particularly as existing between 
the years 1851 and 1861, be explained? Has it been occasioned by a different birth 
and death rate ruling in the respective portions of the island? or is it to be found 
in a larger proportional rate of emigration on the part of the North to that of the 
South? And if the latter be the case, what may be the probable causes which 
have led to that higher emigration spirit? 

Let us then attempt to discover what has been the actual natural increase of the 
population in Scotland, as deduced from the excess of births over deaths, since 1851. 
And here a difficulty meets us on the threshold—the fact that before the 1st of 
January, 1855, there was no public register of births, deaths, and marriages kept 
in Scotland; and it is therefore only from the latter period that we can obtain any 
authentic figures wherewith to deal. During the last six years and a half, the actual 
increase of the population from the excess of births over deaths amounted to 260,392 ; 
and, assuming that the average annual birth and death rates then existing differed but 
little from those existing during the three and a half years that preceded the passing 
of the Registration Act for Scotland—which rates were, say, birth-rate 3°41 per 
cent., death-rate 2-08 per cent.—then it would follow that during that period of 
three and a half years preceding 1st January, 1855, the births must have amounted 
to 346,115, and the deaths to 211,120, showing an excess of. births over deaths of 
134,995, which, when added to the excess of births over deaths during the last 
six and a half years, makes a total natural increase of the population in ten years, 
within the boundaries of Scotland, of 395,387, or at the rate of about 13°6 per cent. 
It is therefore quite evident that, had Scotland not been subject to the effects of a 
serious emigration, her population of last census would have amounted to 3,284,129, 
instead of 3,061,251. if such, therefore, may be taken as a proximate picture of 
the real natural progress of the population of Scotland, it necessarily follows, con- 
sidering the immigration from Ireland into the west of Scotland, that the tide of 
emigrating Scotch to other countries must have been very great, especially during 
the Sst ten years, seeing that, in addition to all the Irish immigration (which, how- 
ever, has not been so large for these four or five years past), there must have gone 
out from Scotland no fewer than 222,878 persons, being the difference between the 
natural increase from the excess of births over deaths and the increase as shown 
by the late census. According to the returns made to the Registrar General by the 
Government Emigration Board, we find that during the last two years the estimated 
number of Scotch who have emigrated with the knowledge of the same board has 
amounted to 183,627, leaving 39,251 which must have left otherwise, either to re- 
cruit the army and navy abroad, to push their fortunes in various parts of the globe, 
unaccounted for by the Emigration Commissioners, or, what is more likely, have 
gone to swell the population of England. 

That the population of England has been greatly increased from immigration 
will at once appear evident when it is stated that in the ten past years the English- 
born emigrants. have amounted to 640,210, the natural increase of her population 
only exhibits 136,460 more than her ascertained porcenee by the census, showing 
an unaccounted-for deficiency of 503,740, for which she must have been mainly 
indebted to Scotland and Ireland. That an emigrating spirit has manifested itself 
_on the part of the Scotch more than the English is certain from the fact that, taking 
the mean population for the last ten years of each country, we shall find that, had 
Scotland only emigrated proportionally to England, the Scotch ep ought 
only to have amounted to about 100,000, whereas the numbers stated by the Com- 
missioners are 183,627. If the emigration from Scotland has thus been so dispropor- 
tionally great, it may be asked from what particular quarter of the country has this 
spirit chiefly manifested itself? or, in other words, in what division of the country 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 245 


has the population absolutely shown a decline? It appears, from a table, that in 
twelve out of the thirty-three counties of Scotland there has been, since the census 
of 1851, irrespective altogether of the natural progress of the population by excess 
of births over deaths, a diminution of the inhabitants to the extent of 31,825; and 
as those counties are almost entirely agricultural and pastoral, the fact would seem 
to indicate that either manual labour was less wanted in these particular districts, 
or that a better remuneration for labour and industry was offered elsewhere. For 
a striking contrast to this state of things in the agricultural and pastoral parts of 
Scotland, we have only to look to the census figures of the commercial, mining, and 
manufacturing county of Lanark, where we find, in the course of the last ten years, 
an increase to the population of no less than 101,390! The fact is, the increase of 
the population is almost entirely limited in Scotland to towns, and to these of the 
largest kind—the increase in towns being 10:9 per cent., whereas the rural districts 
only show an advance of 0-9, or not 1 per cent.; or, if Scotland be divided into 
three great divisions, viz. insular, mainland-rural, and towns, the insular will show 
a decrease of 3:6 per cent., the mainland-rural an increase of 3-9 per cent., and the 
towns an increase of 12-9. But, to show still more forcibly the decline that has 
taken place among those residing in the rural portions of Scotland, it may be men- 
tioned that the small increase stated as occurring in the mainland-rural district of 
3-9 per cent. is owing almost entirely to the increased population of the ‘smaller 
towns situated within the limits of that great division of the country. The leading 
deduction, then, to be drawn from these dry statistical details is simply this, that 
there has existed for some time a manifest tendency on the part of the inhabitants 
of the country districts, and particularly of those dwelling amid the highlands and 
islands, to quit a land where rural labour was but little wanted, and pastoral care 
was poorly paid, for other countries, where both were in good demand and highly 
compensated, or for towns and cities, where the hardy and unskilled labourer is 
almost always sure to find employment. That this emigrating spirit in search of 
future prosperity has proved as yet as advantageous to Scotland as it has certainly 
been to Ireland, will scarcely be denied, seeing that it increases not only the value 
of the labour, and raises the condition of those who remain behind, but elevates the 
position and increases the comforts of those who go away. And although there 
must ever be felt a pang on the part of a pilgrim family when abandoning for ever 
the cherished scenes of childhood, even when those are associated with nothin 
better than the comfortless home of the Highland cottar, still the mutual persona 
benefit that results from this separation has been generally found to be, to those 
gone and to those left, well worthy of the temporary pang. 

Among the immediate causes which have led to the late depopulation of the 
Highlands and islands, and the partial diminution of the inhabitants of the other 
rural districts of Scotland} we shall only allude, first, to the great enlargement which 
has lately taken place in the sheep-walks and agricultural farms, particularly in the 
northern parts of the country, thereby diminishing a host of small master graziers, 
and even smaller agricultural tenants, each and all of them without energy and 
without capital; secondly, to the discouragement given to the continuance of unne- 
cessary cottars idly occupying the country; and thirdly, to the effects and results 
of the late Highland famines, which have, alas! too sadly taught the poor and perish- 
ing denizens of a country that cannot maintain them to flee for refuge to one more 
kind and hospitable.- If, however, from the returns of the present census we have 
been told that the rural portions of Scotland have, with respect to population, re- 
mained either stationary or have shown a tendency to decline, it is, at the same 
time, certain that, in the great centre of trade, mining, and manufactures (we mean 
in Glasgow) there has been a most marvellous increase in the numbers of its inha- 
bitants; for, while at the commencement of the present century that city and its 
suburbs only contained 83,769 persons, the last census revealed the fact that its 
population, with that of its new-world increasing suburbs, amounted to 446,395, 
which, when compared with the population residing on the same territory in 
1851, showed an increase of no less than 86,257 during the last ten years, or a rate 
of 23:95 (or nearly 24) per cent. That this increase has mainly arisen from a con- 
stant immigration from all parts of Scotland, and also from Ireland, is no doubt 
certain ; for if we assume that the last year’s birth-and-death rates (which were, 
births 3:87 per cent., deaths 3 per cent.) have been the average rates for the last 


246 REPORT—186l1. 


ten years, which we believe is not far from the truth, and that the mean population 
during the same period may be fairly assumed to have been 403,000, it will then 
follow that the natural increase, arising from the excess of births over deaths, could 
not have amounted to more than about 35,000, which, being deducted from the 
ascertained increase as shown by the late census, proves that the increase of the 
city and suburbs must have been supplemented by an immigration of upwards of 
50,000. 

That Glasgow, indeed, has been chiefly indebted during the last half century to 
the immigration which an increase of capital and an active and multifarious in- 
dustry have induced, cannot better be illustrated than from the facts which our 
own lately printed analysis of the enumeration returns of the Glasgow census then 
exhibited. From these the fact may be gathered that, independent of the many 
thousand individuals that have been attracted to that centre of Scottish industry 
from all quarters of Scotland, there were found within the limits of its municipality 
alone, on the 9th of April last, no less than 10,809 native English, 63,574 native 
hish, 827 foreigners, and 1440 colonists, being about 20 per cent. of the whole of 
that population. While Scotland, from its improved and still improving system 
of agriculture and cattle-rearing, may feel well content to part with her supernu- 
merary and unemployed peasantry, either to add to the prosperity of her urban seats 


of industry, or to continue to fulfil the old adage, that, in every nook of the world _ 


where any good is to be got, there is to be found a Scot, a rat, and a Newcastle 
grindstone, she at the same time cannot but feel assured, so long as her soil is daily 
becoming more productive, and her manufactures, mining, and commerce are ad- 
vancing, and her cities, harbours, and railroads are extending as they are at present 
found to be, that she is still on the pathway of prosperity, even although the census 
has truly proclaimed that the progress of her population has only exhibited an in- 
crease of scarcely six per cent. during the last ten years of her history. 


Notes on the Progress and ‘Prospects of the Trade of England with China sine 
1833. By Colonel Syxxes, M.P., FBS. 


Our et and prospective relations with China, both commercial and political, 
are so highly important, and involve such serious consequences, that a few obser- 
vations on those subjects may neither be inopportune nor uninteresting. Whether 
our past policy towards China has been justifiable or not, the extension of our com- 
mercial relationns with the Chinese is sufficiently remarkable. In the year 1814 
the total amount of imports and exports on British account was about 52 millions 
sterling. In 1826 the value exceeded seven millions; and for the last five years 
of the East India Company’s monopoly the average value of the Company’s and 
the private trade in which they are their servants to engage approached 
to ten millions sterling. Since the Act of 1833, which deprived the Kast India 
Company of their monopoly, as might be expected, a rush of competing interests 
has increased the trade since 1834 fully fourfold. In 1856, according to statements 
which appeared in different numbers of the Hong Kong Government Gazette, the 
value, independently of the opium trade with India, amounted to £17,526,198. In 
1857, the imports were £4,783,843 ; but the exports were £12,742,355. So far as 
the legal trade was concerned, the exports trebled the imports; but there was an- 
other article of commerce of which there was no official record kept. He referred to 
opium, which in 1857 amounted to four millions. Still the exports exceeded the 
imports by nearly four millions, which must have been paid to China in silver; but 
as the balance of trade between India and China had always been in favour of 
India, most of the silver from Europe found its way to India fiecagk China in pay- 
ment for opium, and this fact assisted to account for the silver which poured into 
India annually, and did not leave the country again. From the years 1834-35 to 
1858-59, India received £123,143,696, in bullion, of which only £19,752,653 left 
the country again. A remarkable progress had taken place in the export trade of 
Shanghai—a fact which presented some anomalous and conflicting considerations. 
Since the year 1853 the rebels or Taepings had been in possession of Nankin, the 
ancient capital of China, and of several great tea- and silk-producing provinces in 
the Yantsze Kiang; and Shanghai had to be supplied either from these provinces 
or from rnuieiesth yond the rebel territories ie still under the Tartar authorities, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 247 


but whose products would mostly have to pass through the rebel territory to reach 
Shanghai. A portion of the Europeans in China had exhausted damnifying epithets 
in reference to the rebel character and proceedings. They were “bloodthirsty 
brigands,” &c. He was not an apologist of the rebels; but he could not refrain 
from asking himself how it was that the trade of Shanghai could have flourished 
in the way it had done if the accusation that they were desolators and extermina- 
tors were literally true. Annually increasing quantities of tea and silk could not be 

roduced from “ howling wastes ;” and those products, if for the most part coming 

om provinces under Tartar rule, must have passed unmolested through Taeping 
territories, though as brigands they ought to have plundered them. The Taepings 
professed to have a divine mission to extirpate the Tartars, their foreign rulers, and 
to destroy idolatry ; and in prosecuting these objects great atrocities no doubt had 
been perpetrated; but, in respect to the rural population as contra-distinguished 
from the Tartars, the fact was patent, that when unexpectedly repulsed in their 
attack upon Shanghai, in August 1860, by French and English troops, although 
exasperated by a sense of betrayal, in their retreat they left uninjured the standing 
erops around Shanghai, and they did not molest Europeans. he nature of this 
paper will not admit of the discussion of the conflicting opinions promulgated re- 
specting the character and conduct equally of the rebels and of the Tartars. There 
could be no doubt that they practised towards each other the most revolting atroci- 
ties, such as were the usual accompaniments of civil war exasperated by religious 
fanaticism. He could only consider the question in relation to the prospects of the 
British trade with China. The expenditure of British blood and British treasure 
in three successful wars had extorted from the Tartars all the facilities that the 
British trader desired to have, leaving, however, in Tartar breasts a burning resent= 
ment at the degradation of the Imperial government, and in Tartar officials a mani- 
fest disposition to obstructive subterfuges in carrying out the treaty of Tien-tsin. 
The Taepings or rebels on their part issued proclamations professing amity for 
foreigners, calling them “Christian brethren,” and inviting them to enter into 
commercial relations, but with one exception. The traffic in opium they denounce 
as a religious ordinance, and threaten the penalty of death to those who engage in 
it. The tax-payers of England, therefore, would have to determine whether we 
were to tread in our former steps, and, for one article of commerce, waste life and 
money to force upon a reluctant people, for selfish gain, a deleterious product ; 
while, at the same time, we crushed a national movement to throw off a foreign 
oppression, which under analogous circumstances in Europe had had our warmest 
sympathy, and at the success of which all freemen rejoiced. 


’ 
On some Exceptional Articles of Commerce and Undesirable Sources of Revenue. 
By Cuartes THompson. 


The object of the paper was to show that the malting of barley and distillation of 
grain are the means of a great and serious waste of food, enhancing the scarcity 
which is so injurious to the welfare of the people ; that the liquor traffic and the 
drinking usages it promotes are barriers between our wants and an abundant supply 
of food, and that, by passing “the admirable suggestion of the United Kingdom 
Alliance, endorsed by Lord Brougham, and hailed by popular acclamation 
everywhere,” a Permissive Bill to enable alarge majority in any district to suppress 
the common sale of intoxicating liquors, parliament would legislate on principles 
of social justice, sound political economy, and sagacious statesmanship. The writer, 
in conclusion, remarked as follows:—“ That the food of a people is their life—the 
means of their existence; and that whatever tends to render human food scarce in 
quantity, or to deteriorate its nutritious quality, or converts it into an element of 
mischief and disease, must be anti-social, immoral, irrational, and highly criminal. 
Reason, morals, political economy, and social science, all concur in condemnation of 
any system that ineyitably destroys that which is essential to the life, the health, 
and the happiness of the people. To destroy food is, in effect, to destroy that life 
and health and settee that food sustains. Hence, it becomes one of the first 
duties of statesmanship to provide and to h usband the means of subsistence. It is 
said in a revered book, ‘‘ He that withhgl@eth corn, the people shall curse him ;” 
and the instincts of humanity respond to that saying. Aut if it is wicked and 


248 REPORT— 1861. 


accursed to “withhold” corn in times of scarcity, how much more infamous and 
criminal it must be to cause that scarcity, by artificial means, by the deliberate 
destruction of human food, and by the conversion of it into that which is not food, 
but which tends to promote disease, and to degrade the people, in the same pro- 

ortion that it dissipates the resources of the nation, and perverts and frustrates the 
bountiful and beneficent intentions of Providence!” 


Cooperative Stores ; their Bearing on Atheneums, &e. 
By the Rev. W. R. Toorsurn, M.A. 


After some remarks on the principle of cooperation—the advantages of the 
scheme, the salutary influence it exerts—the subject was illustrated by a reference 
to the Bury Provision Society. In March 1858, there were 280 members, capital 
£1346, and a dividend of £157. In March 1861, there were 1550 members, capital 
£9420, and a dividend of £1451. 

The phase of the subject now submitted is educational or literary—an appendage 
of news-room, reading-room, and library, to these cooperative stores. ‘This is a 
new and influential element. The Society referred to opened a news- and reading- 
room in October 1859, The source of income to this department is not subscrip- 
tion, but 25 per cent. on the net profits, yielding an average quarterly sum of £27. 
This sum is disposed of in these proportions :—£10 for the news-room and £17 for 
the library. 

The influence which this educational element is fitted to exert on athenzeums and 
mechanics institutions is great. They are dependent entirely on personal sub- 
scriptions. The Bury Atheneum had, in 1859, 628 members; now, in 1861, 431,— 
the decrease chiefly to be referred to this cause. ‘The tendency of this phase of 
cooperation is to weaken or annihilate athenzeums, and to bring about one of two 
issues, either to throw this department of education into the hands of working men, 
or to prompt the middle class to espouse cooperative institutions, 


The Rev. W. Tuorpurn also read a paper, in which he deplored the effects of 
cooperative societies on Athenzeums and other literary institutions. 


On the Employment of Women in Workhouses. By Miss Twrxtne. 


The author commenced by saying that in 646 unions and workhouses in England 
and Wales there were on the Ist of January 113,507 inmates, of whom 80,654 were 
children in pauper schools. The whole number of indoor and outdoor poor was 
850,896 ; and of those who were called able-bodied 40,000 were males, while above 
110,000 were females. Thus a large proportion of our destitute pauper population 
was composed of women and children; in many workhouses they were two-thirds 
of the inmates. The returns of the Poor Law Board gave but scanty information ; 
and with regard to particular workhouses, details were not published. The num- 
ber of deaths in the course of the year might be ascertained from the reports of the 
local inspectors of health, but they found no details as to the ages and causes of 
death. Thus those who paid the rates, and ought to be interested in the mode of 
their expenditure, as well as in the welfare of those who were supported by.them, 
knew nothing whatever about it. The one medical man who visited the workhouse, 
and the Guardians, were the only persons who knew anything about the state of 
things or the condition of the inmates. With a view of enlightening and interesting 
persons in these various large and important institutions, she would suggest that 
reports should be annually published, containing accounts of the numbers and classes 
of the inmates, the length of time they had been such,eand, what would be the 
most important of all, the causes of death. This would give the information which 
now they had not, about the mortality of infants and children in workhouses, about 
which much was surmised, but little was known, from the impossibility of obtain- 
ing facts. In short, what she was anxious to urge was the admission of more day- 
light generally into workhouses, which would soon result from a more general 
interest in them. Subscribers to hospitals and other institutions wished to now 
how their money was spent, and what the management was; and why should not 
ratepayers wish to know what was done with the money they contributed? It 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 249 


was not only desirable but a positive duty to do so; and it was to be hoped that 
the interest, now partly awakened, might soon become more active and beneficial. 
The tide of sympathy and benevolence, which had reached to the very lowest and 
apparently to the most hopeless depths of the social system, could not fail to pene- 
trate in time the recesses of our workhouses, where thousands of our poorest and 
most suffering fellow-creatures were maintained, but about whom so much ignorance 
and still more indifference prevailed. Here was one of the widest fields yet opened 
in our country for the exercise of woman’s sympathy and help. Hitherto both had 
been practically ignored in these institutions, the management being entirely in 
the hands of the guardians, and frequently the only responsible woman in authority 
being the paid matron, who was expected to control and manage the house and all 
the inmates, however numerous they might be. It was now six years since Mrs. 
Jameson directed attention to the claims of women to an influence over persons of 
their own sex in institutions. Whatever the faults of the inmates of workhouses, 
they stood in need of woman’s help and sympathy, probably all the more deeply 
because women only could be the reformers of their own sex; and if vice had 
directly or indirectly brought these women and children to the last refuge of the 
destitute, there was the more urgent call for those of their own sex to come forward 
to their rescue. This was the position taken by the Workhouse Visiting Society 
three years ago. During the Crimean war, hospital nurses were thought to be bad 
enough ; but the workhouse nurses were almost invariably many grades lower still, 
because no remuneration was permitted for them. The most helpless cases failed 
to receive attention except through giving bribes to the nurses, who hovered around 
visitors to the patients in the hope of procuring gifts. The condition of the young 
was fully as important as that of the sick; and Miss Twining advocated the desira- 
bility of separating the decent and respectable girls and women from the corrupted 
and depraved—a point which had never yet been attended to as it deserved. The 
experience of nearly six months in the Industrial Home for young women opened 
by the Workhouse Visiting Society in London proved that a respectable place was 
needed for girls in the intervals fs changing their situations. During that period 
30 had been received, and from eleven workhouses alone. Of these 20 had been 
in pauper schools of some kind, and not having lost their character were not fit in- 
mates of the wards in workhouses where women of all kinds congregated without 
distinction. One girl declared that she had never heard such language as greeted 
her ears in the ward of a London workhouse, to which she was transferred on 
leaving her place ; and another girl, of 16, who proclaimed her intention of leaving 
the ward for the worst of purposes, said she had gained her information from 
women in the ward ; and it was well known that the elder women, who were invari- 
ably the worst, took a pleasure in coriupting the minds of the younger ones. 
Guardians should have the power to pay for girls in institutions where there might 
be some hope of their remaining uncorrupted. At present there was no sufficient 

ency for doing this whilst they were in workhouses. The admission of a higher 
and better influence was the only hope of improvement that existed ; and why such 
an agency should be so frequently rejected was surprising ; for it was obvious that 
to improve the morality of the inmates was to enable them to lead a respectable 
life out of doors, and to get them off ourhands. Yet this seemed to be entirel 
overlooked by the jealousy of some officials as to “ interference,” so called. She 
did not urge an indiscriminate and unauthorized admission of visitors to workhouses. 
That had never been the proposal of the Society to which she belonged. That 
might have caused confusion and inconvenience, which their plans had never done 
when properly carried out; they had always ministered comfort to the inmates, 
and contributed to the peace of the house. 


On Strikes. By Dr. J. Warts. 


Strikes, he said, were amongst the most serious evils to be encountered in the 
operations of trade; and he noticed the importance of a very intimate connexion 
between an employer and his workpeople. The pertinacity and endurance of work- 
peenle on strike would do credit to a good cause, and was proof of their capacity 
or great improvement. He then passed in review some of the principal strikes that 
have recently taken place, most of which had arisen from dissatisfaction with the 


250 - REPORT—1861. 


amount of wages paid or proposed to be paid. But strikes very seldom achieved the 
object sought; and it became their duty to inquire if, in the few cases where suc- 
cess was possible, that success could be equally secured without resort to this terrible 
engine of strife and suffering. Examples were then given of eight unsuccessful strikes, 
which represented the amount of wages lost at £1,082,650, profit lost £210,602, sub- 
scriptions £270,617, making a total of £1,563,869. All these strikes have termi- 
nated unsuccessfully ; so that there has been no compensation for the loss. If these 
sacrifices were necessary, the endurance of the working-classes would command 
admiration ; but he could’not admit the justice or desirability of a restriction which 
prevents a parent and an employer from mutually arranging to bring up a youth to 
a good trade; he could not admit the wisdom of shutting out an efficient workman 
because he had not been ares nor could he see why any society should dic- 
tate the price of labour. With regard to the establishment of an arbitration court 
for the settlement of disputes, he suggested that it should be honorary, that the 
ee to the dispute should each name an equal number of jurymen, that the 

ounty Court judge for the district should be president or umpire, and that the 
business of the Court should be conducted without lawyers. A bill giving power 
to the Lords of the Treasury to arrange such courts on petition would restrict them 
within useful limits. Adverting to the establishment of cooperative societies and 
manufacturing companies with limited liability, he said the prospects they held out 
ought to stimulate prudential habits, and so improve the moral tone of working men. 
The operations of such societies would also supply a sort of wages barometer, show- 
ing what amount it is prudent to pay, because the conductors could have but small 
interest in paying too low a wage, since what is not paid in wages will be in profits, 
and the amount of profits declared would, in times of steady trade, also influence 
wages for the next half-year. If these societies prospered, we might see individual 
employers in self-defence constituting their workpeople partners in profits. But 
they had still to stand the test of “hard times,” and they could not be expected to 
pass scatheless through a crisis. He concluded that strikes to restrict the number 
of workmen in a trade ought not to succeed, and that strikes against improved 
machinery were attempts to prevent the development of human intellect and the 
progress of civilization; and generally he concluded that strikes were wholly in- 
jJurious, an entire waste of effort, to the extent of not less than a million of pounds 
sterling annually, or the bread of 38,460, with 4000 to 5000 additional who would 
be required by the profits lost through strikes. Improvements in the constitution 
of trade societies would, he thought, prevent many strikes, and would secure the 
support of employers for these societies; that cooperative societies, by teaching 
prudence, will be useful aids; and that an honorary and voluntary court of arbitra- 
tion would amicably settle such disputes as might remain. 


MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 
Address of J. F. Barmman, C.E., F.R.S., President of the Section. 


To those who favour us with their attendance for the first time, it may be sufficient 
to say that the object of the Section is the promotion of mechanical science in a 
wide sense; for to this Section also stands referred all questions of civil engineer- 
ing, which, although they may in themselves be only remotely connected with 
mechanics, yet depend for their successful issue upon the proper application of 
mechanical knowledge. Indeed, it would be difficult to say to what material pur- 
suit in life mechanical skill is not of primary importance. In Manchester: espe- 
cially this Section should be well supported; for in this district have been born 
or have resided some of the most distinguished projectors and inyentors of the 
age—men whose ingenuity and labours have conferred incalculable benefit upon 
the world—such men as the Duke of Bridgewater, Sir Richard Arkwright, and 
Samuel Crompton, in days not long gone by, and whose places have been well 
filled by the inventors and mechanics of our own time. Amongst the questions 
which have recently attracted popular attention, and which are specially deserving 
of the consideration of the mechanical men of the day, are the improvements 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ae | 


which are taking place in the construction of artillery, and in the antagonistic 
work of protecting the vessels of our navy from the terrible destruction to which 
they are exposed by the superior power and longer range of the guns which can 
now be brought to bear against them. It seems, at first sight, almost a matter of 
regret that our inventive faculties should be strained to the utmost to produce 
the most deadly weapon, and to ensure the most certain and extensive destruc- 
tion of human life; but there is no axiom more true than that of a late great com- 
mander, that “the best security for peace is to be well prepared for war.” On 
the subject of gunnery and ship-armour, we shall be fortunate in having the pre- 
sence of many of those who have taken leading parts in their construction or 
improvement, and in the experimental and scientific investigations of these im- 
portant questions; but I am sure that the Section will join me in the expression 
of deep regret that one amongst that number, second to none in mechanical skill, 
in successful results, and in) indomitable perseverance, no less a man than that 
distinguished Manchester citizen, Mr. Whitworth, is prevented being here by 
serious illness. I trust it is only temporary, and that he will yet live many years 
to enjoy the ee and honours of successful enterprise. In the model-room, 
however, will be found one of his powerful and beautiful pieces of ordnance, and 
an armour-plate, four inches in thickness, pierced by the ot discharged from his 
12-pounder cannon. We are also to be favoured with some of the plates and other 
illustrations of the recent highly-important experiments at Shoeburyness, which, 
I trust, will be accompanied by explanations by our President, or by other members 
of the Association who have taken part in conducting these experiments. The 
respective merits of the various inventions which are now exciting attention, and 
the various modes of constructing ordnance and ship-armour will thus, I hope, be 
brought fairly and fully before the Section. The anxious attention of those most 
interested in the management of railways was, during the late very severe winter, 
when the thermometer fell in some places 10° or 12° below zero, unexpectedly 
directed to the sudden and numerous fractures in the tires of the wheels ofthe car- 
riages and engines. The cause of these fractures, and the best mode of preventing 
similar occurrences in severe cold are matters of public importance, and fit sub- 
jects for notice and discussion in this Section. But serious as were the dangers 
resulting from the intense cold of last winter, they are as nothing to those which 
appear to attend the benefit of railway travelling by the excursion trains of the 
summer. Within the last few days we have been horrified by the accounts of two 
of the most disastrous accidents which have occurred in this country. As to the 
cause of one of these we have as yet but vague particulars. The other seems to 
have resulted from a failure in the working of the signals, and from a want of 
perfect understanding between two signalmen. Another subject which has recently 
attracted attention, through the terrible and disastrous conflagration in Tooley-street 
in London, is the extinction of fire. The powers which now exist for this purpose, 
with the methods which. are adopted, would form useful topics for consideration ; 
‘and such notices as will illustrate the most approved methods of prevention— 
whether by the adoption of plans of fireproof construction, or by the judicious 
ape ation of water—could not fail to be both interesting and instructive. Man- 
chester has fortunately been comparatively exempt from calamities of this nature ; 

and there are peculiarities in the means adopted for their prevention which are 

deserving of attention. In those parts of this city in which protection against fire 

was most important, the dimensions and arrangements of the pipes were deter- 
mined with special reference to these circumstances. In place of the old wood plug, 
“a simple fire-cock, by which almost. instantaneous communication could be made 
with the water in the pipe, and to which a hose and jet could be attached, was 
adopted, and the fire-engines were rather used as carriages or omnibuses for the 

conveyance of the firemen and their implements, than for actual use at a fire. 
Nearly every block of building in Manchester is commanded by at least a dozen 
fire-cocks within 100 yards. The question of the patent laws, and their bearing 
‘on the encouragement or discouragement of mechanical invention, will be promi- 
nently brought before the Section, and, I doubt not, very ably discussed by some of 

our most eminent men, who have specially considered the effect of protection. It 
is proposed to devote, if necessary, the whole of Friday to this important and in- 

teresting question. Many other matters of interest and importance will, I hope, be 


252 REPORT—1861. 


brought before the Section; and in the discussion that may arise on steam, on the 
best form of vessels, on the ventilation of coal mines, navigation, and the other 
subjects to which the papers before us promise to draw our attention, I trust we 
may all derive instruction and advantage, and find that the bringing together of 
people from all parts of the country for friendly discussion, and for the mutual in- 
terchange of knowledge, fully carries out the object of the Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science. 


On the Patent Laws. By Sir W. G. Armstrone, F.R.S. 


Several instances within the author’s experience were referred to of the ob- 
structive operation of the law which enables an individual, before he has put his 
invention into a practical form, to obtain a monopoly of the idea and then put a 
stop upon all others who are directing their attention to the same subject. The 
obstructive tendency of the Patent Laws is aggravated by the fact that, in addition 
to the patents which are legally valid, there is an enormous number incapable, if 
properly opposed, of being enforced at law, but to which people quietly submit in 
preference to troublesome and expensive litigation. This is a necessary consequence 
of the patents being indiscriminately granted to all applicants without investigation ; 
and it would be difficult to remedy this evil by any practical preliminary inquiry. 
The number of patents, valid and invalid, is perfectly frightful ; and it is impossible 
to make out with any certainty what one is at liberty to invent or use. The author 
pointed out the difference between copyright and patent-right: though both ought 
to protect the product of a man’s mind, copyright neither created impediment 
nor injustice, while patent-right did both. It could not be disputed that the Patent 
Laws, in restricting the free use of ideas, obstructed invention, if, on the other hand, 
they encouraged it by holding out rewards. Thus the most that could be said was 
that they pulled opposite ways; and this could be no warrant to justify arbitrary 
interference with liberty of action. Although the Patent Laws ought to be dis- 
cussed solely in reference to public policy, it would be harsh to exclude from con- 
sideration the interests of the inventor. He contended that as a rule an inventor 
would obtain sufficient reward without giving him exclusive rights. If the mono- 
poly were withheld, the inventor got the start of all others; and the presumption 
was, that, understanding his subject better than others, he would keep the lead. 
The public have great faith in a name; and a reputation duly earned is not easily 
lost. Under any state of the law, hardships of inadequate reward must: occur; 
and these cases he considered should be met by grants from the State. He in- 
stanced the inventor of the screw-propeller, who was unable to obtain any advan- 
tage from the law, whilst another person, who conceived the simple idea of enabling 
postage-stamps to be easily separated by punching a series of small holes between 
them, was placed in a position to obtain an exorbitant recompense from the Goyern- 
ment. 

The author, whilst he admitted that the law was capable of amelioration by havin 
special tribunals for the grant and trial of patent-rights, compulsory licences, an 
the abolition of the right to patent foreign inventions, yet he regarded the whole 
system as unnecessary and impolitic, and could see no other complete remedy for 
its evils than its entire abolition. 


Railway Accidents, from Trains running off the Rails. ByG. Arnorr, M.D. 


Inasmuch as the zertia of moving bodies causes them to continue in a rectili- 
near direction, and when revolving in a circle this zvertia produces what is termed 
centrifugal force, the flanges of the outer wheels of a locomotive, in rounding a 
curve, are by this force necessarily brought in contact with the outer elevated line 
of rail, the projections of the tires or flanges forming the chief resistance to their 
tendency to move off at atangent. When in this relative position, however, should 
any disturbing force exist or arise, particularly one which produces a “jumping” or 
rebound of the moving body, a as will elevate the flange to the level of the 
rail, a catastrophe, if the train is going at ordinary speed, becomes inevitable. 

Now, as the safety of the train so materially depends upon the flange, this should 
be considerably deepened, and the rails also, where necessary, in a corresponding 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 253 


degree. If a flange of ordinary depth is occasionally dangerous, one of double the 
depth, of proportionate strength, will prove in comparison more than doubly safe ; 
and in case even of a defective condition of a sleeper or rail, the more powerful 
gripe of an enlarged flange will most materially lessen the risk of diversion. 


On Elongated Projectiles for Rifled Fire-arms. By T. Aston. 


After alluding to the improvements that have been made in war projectiles, 
which have resulted in the elongated form, he proceeded to notice the adyantages 
which it possesses over the old spherical shape. The elongated projectile, present- 
ing to the resisting atmosphere a sectional area considerably less than the spherical 
of the same weight, is less retarded in its progress through the air. It follows, 
therefore, that, although the spherical projectile with a similar charge of gunpowder 
is more easily set in motion, and has a greater initial velocity than the elongated 
form, and to that extent has at the outset an advantage, the elongated form is much 
better able to overcome the resistance of the atmosphere, and, owing to its superiority 
of momentum, preseryes its progressive power for a much longer period; at the 
same time, it is less disturbed by the varying conditions of the elastic medium 
through which it is propelled. In short, it has a longer and truer flight. The 
essential condition to the efficiency of the long projectile is, that it shall, move 
onwards with its point foremost; if it turns over in its path, it presents a large 
surface to the action of the air, its flight at once becomes irregular, and is rapidly 
retarded. The action of the common spinning-top suggests at once the idea that 
the best mode of making the elongated projectile move steadily through the air 
with its point foremost is to give it rotation round its axis of progression. The 
rapid revolution of the body causes its inherent inequalities to Be rapidly carried. 
round a constant axis in regular order, and a kind of balance is thereby established, 
which gives the body a steady motion. Various plans have been from time to time 
tried with the object of imparting to long projectiles a steady flight; they have 
been made with spiral grooves cut externally on their periphery, or internally from 
front to rear, in the expectation that the resisting action of the atmosphere acting 
‘on the inclined surfaces would give the requisite spinning motion. Again, they 
have been made very long and furnished with fins or feathers, in order that they 
may be propelled on the principle of the arrow, but no practically successful results 
have as yet brought projectiles of this kind into use. The required object is, as is 
well known, readily and successfully effected by propelling the elongated projectile 
from a rifled barrel, that is, a tube having its interior made of such a spiral form 
that the projectile while it is propelled from the breech to the muzzle is turned 
round its axis of progression: a rotatory motion is thus imparted, which is retained 
by the advancing projectile and gives it the required steady motion. The elongated 
bullet was first used with rifled small-arms, either poly-grooved or fluted, or, like 
the Enfield, having three grooves. The length, however, was limited ; and various 
attempts were made to fire longer projectiles compounded of various metals and of 
various shapes, so that by changing the position of the centre of gravity they might 
be propelled point foremost. But, if made beyond a certain length, they were 
always found to turn over at moderately long ranges. Mr. Whitworth was the 
first to enunciate the principle that projectiles of any requisite length could be 
successfully fixed by giving them rapid velocity of rotation, which should be in- 
creased in proportion with their increased length. He, as is well known, uses rifles 
having a spiral polygonal bore, in which all the interior surfaces are made effective 
as rifling surfaces. The success of the elongated projectile having been established 
in the case of small-arms, their employment with ordnance followed as a natural 
consequence. Rifled ordnance were, therefore, called into existence to meet the 
requirements of the time. In fact, the rifled cannon may be considered as a rifled 
musket made with enlarged proportions. Directing our attention more particularly 
to the two systems of Armstrong and Whitworth, we see in the former the coiled 
barrel and fluted bore formerly used for the rifled small-arm, applied on an en- 
larged scale. In the Whitworth cannon the same system and form of rifling are 
used which are employed for the Whitworth musket. There is, however, a change 
required for the projectiles; they cannot, like the small-arms bullets, be made of 
lead, for obvious reasons, such as the cost of the metal, its liability to distortion of 


254 REPORT—1861, 


form, and unsuitableness for shells. Sir William Armstrong uses a compound 
rojectile, formed of an iron case surrounded with a leaden coating—the rifling 
ae effected by the force of the explosion in the barrel, which is thus partly ex- 
ended in forcing the lead through the grooves. Mr. Whitworth uses a simple 
add: cactal projectile, made of the requisite shape to fit the rifled bore by machine 
labour in the manufactory ; so that the whole force of the explosion is employed to 
propel the projectile. After giving a description of the two projectiles, and point- 
ing out that the Armstrong projectile necessarily required a breech-loading cannon, 
and that the Whitworth is used at pleasure for muzzle-loading or breech-loading 
cannon, Mr. Aston proceeded to notice the external shape of the projectiles. The 
importance of giving to ships intended for high speed the shape best suited to 
facilitate their progress though water is now universally acknowledged; and Mr. 
Whitworth considered that it was necessary to ascertain, by reasoning. upon similar 
grounds, and by experimental research, what was the proper shape to give to his 
projectile, so that it might be propelled through the air under conditions most 
favourable to precision and range. He, after numerous corroborating experiments, 
decided that the projectile of the form exhibited to the Meeting was the best. It 
has a taper front, having nearly the external section of what mathematicians term 
the ont of least resistance, the curve being somewhat rounded; the rear is made 
to taper in such proportion that the air displaced by the front is allowed readily 
to close in behind upon the inclined surfaces of the rear part. The middle part is 
left parallel to the required distance, to provide rifling surfaces and obviate windage. 
The results of long and repeated trials show that this form of projectile gives much 
greater precision and a superiority of range, varying from 15 to 25 and 80 per cent. 
(according to the elevation and consequent length of range), as compared with a 
projectile of the common rounded front and parallel rear end. At low elevations, 
where the range is comparatively short and the velocities great, the difference in 
the result of the taper and non-taper rear is not so marked as at the higher eleva- 
tions, where the mean velocities of the projectiles are reduced. But at all ranges 
the superiority exists both in precision and velocity, as the elongated projectile at 
no practical range has a mean velocity so great as to prevent the atmosphere 
closing in behind it. One of the most important advantages attending the use of 
the taper rear is, that it gives a lower trajectory, which renders errors ia judging 
distance of minor importance, as the projectile which skims along near to the 
ground is more likely to hit a mark, especially a moving one, than a projectile 
which, moving in a more curved path, has to drop, as it were, upon the object 
aimed at, whose distance therefore must be accurately guessed. The taper shape 
of the rear is peculiarly well adapted for the proper lubrication of the gun, which 
is most.essential for good shooting. With the Whitworth gun a wad made wholly 
of lubricating material was introduced ; it obviates the necessity of washing out 
the piece,—and the subsequent adoption of a similar wad for the Armstrong gun 
enabled that piece also to be used without washing out, which was at first necessary 
and found tithe a very inconvenient operation for a service gun. Various forms 
of elongated Whitworth projectiles suited for special purposes were described : 
tubular projectiles for cutting cores out of soft materials, as the sides of timber 
ships; flat-fronted hardened projectiles, first used by Whitworth and afterwards by 
Armstrong, for penetrating iron plates. It is found that these Pra} ectiles penetrate, 
when fired point blank, through iron plates inclined at an angle of 573° to the 
perpendicular. The edge of the flat front, though slightly rounded, takes a hold, 
as it were, as soon as it touches the plate, and the resistance met is merely that due 
to the thickness of plate measured diagonally. Official experimental trials made 
on board the ‘Hzcellent,’ at Portsmouth showed that these projectiles penetrate 
readily through water, and would go through a'ship’s side below water-mark. 
The new American floating battery, which is submerged to protect her sides during 
action, would find no defence in that plan against these projectiles. Shell an 
shrapnel having the elongated form and taper rear were also described; and to 
show the suitableness of that form for ricochet firing, tables were read, from which 
it appears that the mean results of a series of six shots, making many ricochets 
within a range of 2400 yards, gave the greatest mean deviation of about 75 yards 
from the straight line. In considering the probable result of the contest now going 
on between armour-plates and projectiles, it should be borne in mind that the limit 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 255 


of thickness of armour-plate that can be carried by ships will soon be reached, but 
that the power of destruction of projectiles may be without doubt increased far 
beyond what has hitherto been tried. It may therefore be reasonably anticipated 
that in this all-important contest the victory will ultimately rest on the side of the 
projectile, 


On Street-Pipe Arrangements for Extinguishing Fires. 
By J. F. Bateman, F.R.S., President of the Section. 


He had hoped that a paper would have been read on this subject by Mr. Rose, of 
the Manchester Fire Brigade; but as that gentleman had been called away by the 
illness of a relative, he thought it right that the proceedings of the Section should 
not terminate without some observations being made on the subject. Nothing 
could have been much worse than the arrangements made for the extinction of fires 
some fifteen years ago, nor than the state of things which existed at the present 
day in the City of London. In most large towns, as Manchester and Glasgow, for 
instance, where the supply of water had been taken into the hands of the Corpo- 
ration, the best preparations had been made for the extinction of fires. But in 
London the fire-engines and the fire brigade were maintained by contributions 
from the different insurance companies; and therefore it was evident that their 
interest only lay in preventing the destruction of property that was insured. It 
was clear this was a state of things which ought not to exist in this country. 
Some twelve or fifteen years ago he turned his attention to the subject of the ex- 
tinction of fires. The old wooden plug was then generally in use, and it still con- 
tinued in use in some parts of the country. Mr. Bateman described the construc- 
tion of the fire-cock and stand-pipe, with which he had replaced the old plugs in 
Manchester and other towns, and stated that, as a general rule, these fire-cocks had 
been found sutlicient without the use of fire-engines. He also explained the prin- 
ciple upon which the water-pipes were laid down in Manchester; so that within 
reach of nearly every block of valuable buildings in Manchester and the neighbour- 
hood, there were from two to three sources of water-supply from different water- 
mains, and ten or twelve fire-cocks within a hundred yards. Then came the ques- 
tion of pressure. About eighty or ninety feet was the greatest height water could 
be thrown by a fire-engine. The highest mills in Manchester were from forty feet 
to sixty feet; and experiments had been made which showed that water could be 
thrown without the aid of fire-engines from thirty-three to ninety feet in height, 
according to the pressure in the pipes, during the day, and when the service of the 
town was fully going on, 


On the Applications of the Hydraulic Press, By Evwarp T. Bettnovse. 

He traced its origin to Joseph Bramah, in 1785, and explained its present con- 
struction by means of diagrams, and then adverted to the various purposes to which 
it has been and is applied. These included the raising of the Britannia tubes, the 
launching of the ‘Great Eastern,’ the raising of ships on slips, the packing into 
bales of Manchester goods, cotton, wool, and hay, the extraction of oil from linseed, 
rapeseed, and hempseed, the manufacture of lead pipes, the testing the strength of 
materials, &c. The application of the steam-engine for working the pumps was 
alluded to, as now becoming general. He more particularly dwelt upon the various 
kinds of hydraulic presses used for packing cotton in India. He also described a 
stop and let-off cock, worked by a hand lever, which was very convenient of appli- 
cation. In the cotton-press, the pressure put upon the pumps was sometimes as 
great as six tons per square inch. He oped. some lighter and stronger metal would 
be found for the cylinders, rams, &c. than the cast iron at present used. 


On Artillery versus Armour. By Captain BraKety. 


The author said it was now four years since he first laid before the British Asso- 
ciation at Dublin his ideas with reference to the strength and extent of range which 
might be obtained with cannon built up of concentric tubes of metal, so adjusted 
that all should share in resisting the bursting effort of the charge of gunpowder. 
The size of cannon before the discovery of this method was limited by the certainty 


256 REPORT—1861. 


that any smooth-bored gun above the 68-pounder, and any rifled gun of even half 
that size must burst after very few rounds with full charge of powder. Now, Cap- 
tain Blakely maintained, there was no difficulty in making guns ten times more 
powerful. He believed that not only a 600-pounder, but even a 6000-pounder 
could be constructed, if great care were taken in selecting the best materials, and 
in putting on the outer layers with the exact degree of tension required to enable 
them to exert their strength. If the outer layers (he used them generally in the 
form of rings) were too tight, they burst before the central part; and if they were 
too loose, the central parts burst first, and perhaps left the rings whole. Exten- 
sive experiments had been made to determine the proper degree of tension for these 
rings, because on that point depended the efficiency of the gun. Not only had he 
(Captain Blakely) made such experiments, but also the Spanish andEnglish Goyern- 
ments,—the latter having made several hundred full-sized cannon, some of which 
were built up entirely of iron, the tension of the outer portion being varied—some 
being constructed partly of iron, partly of brass. It was well worth the trouble of 
any person desirous of studying the question to visit Woolwich Arsenal and see 
the broken fragments of these cannon. Captain Blakely believed the truth might 
have been arrived at with less expense; however, the result was the acknowledg- 
ment by the Select Ordnance Committee of the exactness of Captain Blakely’s 
views in reference to cannon, viz. that all large guns must be built up, that the 
outer parts must be in a state of initial tension, and that so definite, that the 
slightest excess or deficiency of tension detracts from the strength of the gun. 
All guns now made in the English Arsenals are constructed on those principles— 
though afterwards spoilt, in his opinion, by the weakening of the breech for the 

urpose of loading by that end. Spanish guns also are now built up. Captain 

lakely exhibited the drawing of the new Spanish naval gun, and explained its 
construction. The diameter of the bore was ance six and seven inches; more 
than half of the gun, he said, was of cast iron, the upper portion of the breech only 
being formed of rings of steel. 

Captain Blakely regretted that the English Government did not obtain all the 
advantages from the system which he thought it capable of affording. They re- 
fused to make any cannon larger than 120-pounders—perhaps because Sir William 
Armstrong’s breech-loading apparatus was not adapted for large guns ; and they also 
refused his (Captain Blakely’s) offer to make at his own expense a 600-pounder, 
and lend it to them for experiment against their model targets. He would not say 
anything of the policy of this conduct, but he believed he was in order in saying 
that it was not “philosophical” to refuse to try a larger gun, and at the same time 
to proclaim that the plates, constructed to resist little 100-pound pop-guns, were 
“impenetrable.” For his part he firmly believed that he could make cannon either 
to punch holes through not only 4-inch but 8-inch plates, or, what was better 
still, to crush them completely. 


On Recent Improvements in Cotton-Gins. 
By Davi Cuapwicr, F.S.S., of the Manchester Committee. 


A description was given of the old Indian churka, one of which was exhibited 
to the Meeting; and the invention of the American saw gin, by Eli Whitney, was 
also noticed and described. On the recent visit to England of Dr. Forbes, the 
superintendent of the cotton-gin factory of the late Kast India Company, to Darwhar, 
he introduced an improved cotton-gin, based upon the principle of the Indian churka, 
This churka gin had subsequently been improved by Mr. John Dunlop, of Man- 
chester, and Messrs. Platt Brothers, of Oldham ; and the improved machines were 
exhibited to the Meeting. The improvements in Messrs. Platt’s machines con- 
sisted in the application of spike rollers revolving at different speeds in connexion 
with vibrating machinery, which transmits the cotton to the ordinary churka rol- 
lers. The effect of this is to enable the machine to be supplied with cotton con- 
tinuously instead of at intervals with the fingers. The machine is intended to be 
worked by power, and requires the attendance only of a child thirteen years of age. 
Mr. Dunlop’s machine was less expensive, but more compact, and bearing a closer 
resemblance to the original churka, and was intended to be worked by hand. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 957 


A Proposal for a Class of Gunboats capable of engaging Armour-plated Ships 
at Sea, accompanied with Suggestions for fastening on Armour-Plates. By 
Dr. Enppy. 


The author thought that the monster iron-clad vessels which we and our neigh- 
bours were building might be successfully assailed by vessels of very inferior size 
specially designed for the purpose. The first essential condition for such vessels 
was superiority of speed, with such protection as to approach the enemy without 
being crippled. He believed that one such yessel with a couple of heavy guns 
might so harass a larger vessel as to paralyze her movements, and that two such 
vessels might even engage with advantage; and, if this was so, might not a flotilla 
of these small vessels advantageously engage a fleet of the large iron-plated ships P 
To obtain superior speed, we must either sacrifice weight of metal or increase the 
size. He preferred the former, and by reducing the armament to a very few guns 
(two or four), and those of the powerful kind now manufactured, he thought we 
might obtain the required speed within moderate dimensions; and he hoped to 
show that, by a peculiar adjustment of material, we might gain all the protection 
required, without immoderate weight. Much of this problem had fuilea been 
worked out by Capt, Coles, of whose cupola, the conical fort, with revolving 
shield, in the model produced, was a modification. A speed of sixteen knots 
an hour would, he believed, be sufficient for present purposes, and he took it that 
this speed might be secured without difficulty in a vessel of fine lines, and of cer- 
tain proportions, without tremendous size. Dr. Eddy proceeded to describe from 
a model the kind of gunboat he proposed to build. The dimensions, he said, were 
calculated from one datum, namely, the least elevation above water at which the 
guns could advantageously be laid, which he took to be 8 feet. In this position, 
then, he would place two of the heaviest Armstrong guns, with their muzzles 42 
feet apart, on an inclined slide, upon a turn-table placed within a fixed conical 
fort, armour-clad, the sides of which sloped at an angle of 45°. Above this, for a 
perpendicular height of 4 feet, he would protect the guns and gunners with a 
shield of iron plate, also at an angle of 45°. The shape of the fort would be a 
truncated cone on a cylinder, like an extinguisher upon a candlestick. A second 
cupola he believed might be added, and this would give an armament of four guns, 
which, if concentrated upon one point at short range, must have a crushing effect, 
But, to be of any use, the smaller vessel must be enabled to approach her large 
antagonist without risk of having a shot sent through her bottom from the enemy’s 
depressed guns. The manner in which he proposed to fortify the gunboat was by 
keeping all the vital parts well below the water-line, and covering them with a 
deck which would deflect upwards any shot that might reach it. As the boat was 
only intended to attack ships, not forts, he presumed there was no need to appre-= 
hend a shot striking her at a larger angle with the horizon than 7°, Still at this 
angle, to protect the sides of the vessel effectually, the armour must be carried at 
least 4 feet above water and 3 feet below, possibly more; but as this involved 
a weight of 300 tons in plating alone, some other method of protection must be 
sought. He hoped he had found this desideratum in a plan which aimed at 
carrying out thoroughly the principle of deflection. His plan consisted of an arched 
deck of inch iron resting upon two courses of timber, the extremities of the arch 
being tied, so as to neutralize the outward thrust. He proposed that this should 
spring at the sides from 3 feet below the water-line, and that the crown should rise 
amidships up to the water-line, the crown being kept tolerably flat—the object being 
to present so small an angle that even a flat-headed bolt should glance off. The 
space above the deck and between it and the water-line he proposed to pack with 
some tough and resilient but light fibre, and these qualities he found combined in 
the cocoa-nut fibre, which could be easily rendered incombustible by sal-ammoniac. 
This fibre would offer a considerable amount of resistance to the penetration of a 
shot, and in proportion to the resistance would tend to deflect the shot, The exact 
amount of resistance which this mode of packing would afford could not be ascer- 
tained without experiment, but the trial would not be expensive. He might be met 
with the objection, that steel or iron was the substance which offered the greatest 
amount of protection proportionate to its weight. Granting this, he maintained 
that there were circumstances under which iron alone could not be advantageously 

1861, 17 


258 REPORT—1861, 


used, and that this was one. Dr. Eddy alluded to the difficulty now felt in 
securing the iron plates on the sides of the vessels without weakening them by 
perforating holes; and he mentioned a plan of screwing the plates within a rail- 
shaped frame, which he said he had been encouraged by Mr. Fairbairn to lay before 
the Section, and which he thought would obviate the difficulty. 


On a Brick-making Machine. By Prrer Errertz, 


On a Perambulator and Street Railway. By Joun Haworrn. 


The author proposed a central rail, having in it a groove for a small guiding 
wheel, similar to that of a perambulator. By this simple contrivance, an omnibus 
could be kept upon the two outer and level rails without the necessity of flanges 
to the wheels. The plan was cheap beyond comparison, costing only £1000 per 
mile. A length of route had been laid down in Salford for some months, and had 
given great satisfaction; it had been ridden upon by many persons, engineers and 
others, who found it to be practicable and agreeable. It required 35 per cent. less 
power to draw an omnibus over metal rails than the ordinary roads, and it was esti- 
mated that there would be a saving in the wear and tear of vehicles of 75 per cent. 
He believed it would be to the interest of trustees of roads to lay down such a 
railway, as it would save the great destruction of the roads ; and coach proprietors 
would be glad of the opportunity to pay a mileage toll for the saving of horses and 
rolling stock which they would realize by the change. 


On the Rise and Progress of Clipper and Steam Navigation on the Coasts and 
Rivers of China and India.—Section 1, By Axprew Henverson, A.1.C.£., 
E.R.GS. 


1. The importance of this subject is too great to need any comment in bringing 
it before the British Association. It is owing to the superiority of her navigation 
that England is chiefly indebted for her supremacy amongst other nations; and it 
is by that means alone she can hope to maintain her dominion, Any subject, there- 
fore, that bears at all on the question of navigation is of too great moment to be 
passed over without the fullest consideration of its yalue and applicability. 

2. The author’s system of steam communication is more immediately connected 
with India and China, as it is in those countries that he has spent many years, the 
nayigation of which he is intimately connected with, and to its improvement he 
‘has devoted the best energies of his life. The navigation of the Hastern rivers, 
coasts, and archipelagos is perhaps the most difficult and dangerous nautical service 
in the world. Any plan, therefore, which will successfully overcome those diffi- 
culties must be considered as one of universal application. 

3. The vast interest at stake in those countries is too great for any plan to be 
neglected which would tend to preserve them to us, and the recent Indian mutiny 
shows the urgent necessity for maintaining a perfect communication throughout 
the coasts and rivers of British India, extending, as it does, from Kurrachee to 
Singapore. 

4, The river system, at present navigable from Peshawaur to Sudiya, on the 
Indus and Burhampootra, would, if navigated on its upper affluents by light-draught 
boats, bring European civilization and science in communication with 350,000,000 
of the population of India. 

5. The recent opening of the ports, rivers, canals, and lakes of China gives a 
larger field for enterprise in that country than was ever before anticipated. Haying 
visited China-since 1817, the author has always held the opinion that China 
has, for ages, established the best system of river navigation in the world, both in 
the construction of boats to meet the requirements of trade, and in her canal 
work, to which may be attributed her early civilization and the means of support- 
ing a dense population of 360 millions. 


6. He purposed, therefore, giving a brief review of the principal systems which 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 259 


have been established on the Bengal and Scinde rivers, with the results attained by 
each, together with his proposal for a better system than has yet been adopted, and 
its extension to India and China. His plans, modifications, and improvements are 
applicable to all the vessels in use, and consist of an embodiment of the best 
features of each type derived from thirty years’ practical experience and close 
observation of the navigation of the coasts and rivers of India and China, and 
other parts of the world. - ¢ 

7. The papers presented by the author on this occasion were the result of consider- 
able labour, and were in continuation of former reports made to the Association, viz, 
“ Report on the statistics of life-hoats and fishing-boats,” published in the Asso- 
ciation’s Report, vol. 1857 ; also as a member and contributor to the “ Report of a 
Committee, consisting of the Right Hon. Earl of Hardwicke, chairman, Mr. John 
Scott Russell, Mr. James Robert Napier, Mr. Charles Atherton, Rev. Dr. Woolley, 
Admiral Moorsom, Professor Bennett Woodcroft, and others, ‘ appointed to inquire 
into the defects of the present methods of measuring and registering the tonnage 
of shipping, as also of marine-engine power, and to frame more perfect rules in order 
that a correct and uniform principle may be adopted to estimate the actual carrying 
capabilities and working power of steam-ships.’”’ 

8, Early in 1858 the author brought before the Indian government a review of 
steam navigation in the Bengal rivers, together with a plan to construct a fleet of 
steam tug- and tow-boats, to meet the military requirements of government, and 
form the nucleus of a system of water-transport service on the Ganges, Burham- 
pores and Irrawaddy. Subsequently he submitted a plan of a Military Nautilus 

otilla of one tug- and three tow-boats, 100 feet long, with engines of 40 horse- 
power in tug, and auxiliary power in each tow, built at an estimate cost of £6000 
to £8000 ;—for the smaller boats, 75 feet long and 50 tons, with engines of 20-horse 
power, £5000 to £6500. At the close of the session of Parliament he proposed to 
an eminent engineer that, if he would provide the engine, he (the author) would 
build the hull and fittings of a military nautilus—a proposition which was declined. 

9. In 1858 the subject was brought before the British Association, and is printed 
in the Reports of 1858, entitled, “On river steamers, their form, construction, and 
fittings, with reference to the necessity for improving the present means of shallow- 
water navigation on the rivers of British India.” Copies of the report have been 
circulated among the members previous to the discussion of the several subjects 
contained in the two papers—that on the system of tug- and tow-boats comprising 
a record of the experiments I have made with the smallest Nautilus flotilla during 
the last two years, including the resistance as measured by dynamometer. 

10. At the Mechanics’ Institution, DayidStreet, the Nautitus FLoTmia System 
was exemplified by models, on half-inch scale, of the smallest class of Nautilus 
flotilla, of one tug- and two tow-boats, 85 feet long each, and 50 sailing and cargo 
boats, built for the East Indian Railway Company, on the author’s lines, and ‘Assam’ 
type, as iron oulacs and bhurs of the Bengal rivers; half, or twenty-five iron oulacs, 
being built on his specification, and mercantile system of contracting, with details of 
Chinese rig, fitting, and sculls, with his patent balanced rudders in bow and stern. 

11. Also, on a quarter-inch scale, the models of a first-class Nautilus flotilla, of 
one steam-tug and two auxiliary tow-vessels, each 200 feet long, on the author’s 
lines, of the ‘Assam’ type, but on the routine or lump-sum system of contracting, for 
the Hast Indian Railway Company ; their consulting engineer furnishing the spe- 
cification and construction—that of the contractors being deficient in strength and 

roportion. Six of these vessels and three steam-tugs of 170 horse-power have been 
puilt with his patent balanced rudder, bow and stern. 

12. These vessels are all built on the type of the ‘ Assam,’ with engines of 100 
horse-power by Fawcett and Co., of Liverpool, a model of which was exhibited to 
the Association, showing the bow and stern rudder as originally fitted, and used 
for one year on the Burhampootra, when she was transferred to the Ganges, and, 
from the prejudice of commanders, fitted with the Ganges rudder, where, without 
alteration in the engines, rovers, or vessel, after twenty years’ service, she is now 
(1861) being lengthened. ; 

13. The second portion of these papers is a continuation of the “Report of the 
Committee on Shipping Statistics, presented to the British Association, September 
1858 :—Report of the Committee appointed by the British Association os inquire 

1 


260 REPORT—1861, 


into the statistics of shipping, with a view to rendering statistical record more 
available as data conducive to the improvement of naval architecture as respects 
the adaptation of the form of ships to the requirements of sea-service.” 

14, Mr. Atherton has already made a report showing that, by a little variation in 
the shape of the ship, as great a difterence may be made in the freight of goods car- 
vied by her (that is, her actual mercantile value) as there is between 100 and 102. 

15. In continuation of the report on shipping statistics, the author has devoted 
his attention to reducing the amount of capital required, by the adoption of a mer- 
cantile system of contracting, and the establishment of a system of test-trials 
through tabular forms, and a register of particulars of all vessels. 

16. The author presented a tabular register for all the river steamers in the In- 
dian Government, and private, railway and guaranteed companies in India. The 
particulars for register are obtained from three tabular forms of record, return, and 


report of trials. There is an abstract of correspondence with the East Indian Go- . 


vernment, in reference to the establishing improved steam tug- and tow-boats of 
the ‘Assam’ type on the rivers of India and China, in the left column. 

y 17. In the right-hand column is an abstract of correspondence with Sir James 
Melville, K.C.B., official director of Indian railways (guaranteed), with a me- 
morandum on the test-trials of steamers, proposing to adopt a uniform mode of 
recording the dimensions, calculated quantities of displacement, and capability for 
cargo. ‘There are also rules for testing the strength and capability. 

18, An instance is given of the trial of barges that proved deficient in strength, 
and of a trial steamer and tow-barge of another contractor that averaged 114 miles 
an hour, carrying 600 tons of cargo, and a 4ft. draught, for a three hours’ run, half 
of which time was with a throttle-valve full open, to test the efficiency of the boiler 
to maintain the steam at the contract pressure. 

19. The tabular forms presented were as follows :—Record of steamers, form A: 
Construction ; form of tender or certificate of dimensions and calculated quantities 
of displacement; area of mid-section; weight of hull, engines, and stores; showing 
the draught of water, resistance, and capability for cargo; also the cost or capital 

er ton. 

20, Return, form B: The particulars of vessels and engines, with record of expe 
rimental trips and performances at sea, and consumption of coal. 

21. Report, form C; The same particulars on test-trials, with diagrams to indi- 
cate horse-power. 

22. These forms of return and report are similar to those used by the Admiralty, 
and, with the record of steamers for May, a register may be formed of the particu- 
lars of dimensions, calculated quantities of displacement, area, mid-section, weight 
of hull, engine, stores, and draught, such as will enable a register to be formed of 
all vessels, so that their coefficiency may be calculated. 


Section 2,—Reproposals for a General System of Tug- and Tow-Boats of the 
Native Type. 

The steamer ‘ Forbes,’ with engines of 120 horse-power, by Bolton and Watt, 
similar to the ‘Soho,’ was built and commanded by me, and after establishing her 
as a tug vessel at Calcutta in 1830, I proposed and carried out the project of towing 
a ship to China, 3000 miles, half of it against the monsoon, carrying a cargo of opium 
in advance of sailing vessels. This river-steamer was fitted for sea in one week after 
the arrival of the ‘Jemasina,’ a ship of 380 tons, which she towed; she was fitted 
with false sides, which increased her breadth three feet, and also with Chinese 
masts, and had an addition to her funnel. The photograph which accompanied the 

aper shows her as she arrived at Lintin, the outer anchorage of the port of Canton, 
n India, the first river-tug for sea-service was fitted with Chinese masts and sails, 
like a Chinese junk. 

The lithograph plan in red, Appendix B, which also accompanied the paper, 
comprised comparative plans and sections of all the river-steamers, tugs, and tow- 
barges, trains and flotillas that have been built, tried, and improved, so far as is 
known from the published accounts, since 1858. 


The first are those of the East Indian Railway Company, on the Bengal system 
of tug- and tow-boats of similar size, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 261 


2ndly. The Indus Flotilla Company’s steamer ‘Stanley,’ on the European system 
of spoon-ended bow and stern, Also the large steamer, 360 feet long, recommended 
by the Commission who visited the Rhone. 

3rdly. The Oriental Inland Company’s train of articulated barges (Bourne’s patent), 
consisting of one steamer and five barges, which may be called the theoretic system 
of river navigation on the punt type. 

4thly. The Nautilus Flotilla system of tug- and tow-boats, giving sheer and deck 

lans of one tug- and three tow-boats of the ‘ Assam type,’ as originally tried on the 
hames, and of a steamer and two tow-boats as adopted from experience, and now 
ready for further trials. 

There are shown also the East Indian Railway Company’s vessels, the ‘Ganges’ 
and ‘ Excelsior,’ two large vessels built in Calcutta, and provided with locomotive 
engines, with some particulars of their capability and fittings. Also the midship 
sections of four steamers built on my lines and fittings, the last of which, the ‘Sir 
James Melville,’ sailed out to India with a false bottom, as proposed by me. As 
to small boats, there are plans of the ‘Surprise,’ 85 feet long, towing two barges of 
similar dimensions alongside. She has been extremely useful, and affords also a 
fair contrast with the ‘Assam Nautilus,’ the one being 90 and the other 20 horse~ 
power. 

Reference to Appendix B gives particulars of the East Indian Railway Company’s 
fleet of ten steamers and barges; also the result of the trial of Messrs. Vernon and 
Sons’ barges as to strength, which necessitated an additional strength of girder 
equivalent to one-fifth, the vessel being reduced in length 25 feet, and the weight 
added to the girders; two of the spoon-ended barges being reduced to 200 feet, the 
bow of the fifth forming the stern of the sixth, with new bows of the ‘ Assam’ type 
fitted to each, on plans furnished by me. 

Of the test-trials of Messrs. Stevenson’s trial steamer and barge, the result is given 
in a tabular form, at a light draught of steamer, at medium, and load draught; of 
steamer and barge loaded to four feet, carrying 600 tons of cargo, with engines of 
596 1. H.P., at a speed of 114 miles per hour. 

The East Indian Railway Company’s fleet consists of ten large steamers and tow- 
barges, employing a capital of about £250,000, with a boat establishment of three 
small steamers, twelve large barges, 150 iron flats and cargo boats, averaging 90 feet, 
and 200 or 300 iron and timber boats and oulacs, built in Bengal, besides the 50 
sailing boats or iron oulacs, built on the Thames, on my plan of Nautilus Flotilla 
system and ‘ Assam’ type, at a cost of £29,925, or £600 each, completed in Calcutta. 

Thus £600,000, a capital guaranteed for railway purposes, has been invested by 
the East Indian Railway Company in a fleet of large steamers and barges and small 
steamers and boats, established for the conveyance of materials during the con- 
struction of the line. 

The Indus Flotilla Company.—The ‘Stanley’ experimental steamer (a sheer 
ye of which is shown in the Plate, ae B, No. 1 and 2) gives the results of 

er trials on the Thames in 1838, as shown in tabular form: she required nearly 
10 indicated horse-power to one square foot, mid section, to attain a speed of 
thirteen miles an hour, without cargo or tow-boat, while the East Indian aileriey 
Company’s trial steamer and barge, tried in June 1859, with only 3 horse-power, 
attained a speed of 114 miles an hour, carrying 600 tons of cargo—a practical test 
of relative efficiency as to speed and capability for cargo of the ‘Stanley.’ The 
difficulty of steering and towing on the Thames induced the addition of 123 feet to 

the stern as a fender to the rudder, with a stage for steering as shown in plan. 

The flotilla of steamers, barges, tugs, and cargo boats were contracted for in this 
country in 1858, besides the ‘Stanley,’ six other passenger steamers, seven accom- 
modation flats, also thirty-three cargo barges, and six tug steamers 100 feet long, with 
engines 30 horse-power, built of corrugated iron. I find by an extract from ‘ The 
Engineer’ of the 23rd of August, that the ‘Stanley,’ after a great many alterations 
in engines and paddles, is still inefficient, and is now (July 1861) laid up awaiting a 
new cylinder. Of the six passenger steamers it was stated that only one had been 
partially tried, when it was found that the tubular boilers were ineflicient, owing 
to priming; and of the small tug-boats only two were in use, and were unable to 
tow the number of barges built for them. The above facts prove the necessity 
for haying thorough test-trials and improvements in this country before sending 


262 REPORT—1861. 


vessels to India; and it may be fairly estimated that it would require 10 per cent. 
of the capital of £50,000 to place the seven large steamers and barges in an effi- 
cient state for service. If £10,000 had been spent in this country on trials, it would 
have saved this expense and delay. 

Wi-h respect to the six small tug and thirty-three corrugated tow-boats, some 
exp-riments Were made on the Mersey in 1859, when I expressed to Sir James 
Melville great doubt as to their power of tugging strength and durability, 
«nd which has been verified by the accounts received in 1861. On that occasion 
I strongly urged test-trials of the ‘Assam Nautilus,’ to test the capability of 
the small boats; and there can be no doubt that if 10 per cent. had been spent in 
trials in this country, they would have had efficient vessels as feeders to their line 
early in 1860. x 

The capital invested is £500,000, the interest guaranteed by the Government of 
India to the Indus Flotilla Company, which has constructed its vessels on the Euro~ 
pean system and spoon-ended type of build, contracted for on the railway or 
speculative system adverted to in my review and letters to the Council in 1859. 

From the experience of the last three years, it is a matter of consideration 
whether the revenues of India will not be burdened with the interest of the capital 
for many years to come. 

The Oriental Inland Steam Company, on Bourne’s Patent Train of Articulated 
Barges on the Punt Type—The plan, and page 1 of Appendix B, show the deck 
plan of the ‘ Train Indus’ steamer, 200 feet ee and 100 H. P., towing four barges 
300 feet long, built and tried at Kurrachee, realizing a speed of 5-23 miles with four 
barges, and 8°56 miles with one. Passing to the Indus, the steamer was sunk, by 
collision with the 40-feet barge; the experimental trials costing £15,000 in India. 
The steamer ‘ Sutlej’ and one barge were lengthened 30 feet, and provided with 
rudders, and gre now employed towing astern in the usual way. 

The ‘ Jumna’ (No. 4 plan) shows the alterations resulting from an expenditure 
of £54,000 on trials in India and England, which consist of the addition of two 
side rudders to the steamer, and four barges additional to the length of stern; for 
the adoption of balanced rudder, and finer lines to bow; with an engine and screw 
to act as bow rudder. 

At a preliminary trial of the barges made on the Clyde, 26th September, the 
speed varied from 63 knots, with five barges articulated together, to 92 knots with 
one barge, towed by the Clyde steamer ‘Ruby,’ of 100 N.H.P., working up to 
nearly 800 Ind. H. P. 

At the request of the Directors, I was present at that trial, and made some expe- 
riments with the dynamometer, of which a copy will be furnished. I then visited 
the ‘Jumna,’ at Liverpool, at their request. and there obtained much information 
from the engineer and late officers of the steamer ‘ Ganges,’ which had foundered 
on the yoyage to Calcutta, and will be referred to afterwards. 

[The author also presented other papers under the following heads:—‘‘ A 
Statistical Record and Return of Experimental Trials here, and Performance in 
India.” —“On Contracting for Building and Fitting River Steamers for India ; 
with Observations and Improvements.” —“ Observations on Steering and Towing, 
with Improvements resulting from Trials and Practical Experiments.” —“ On the 


He and Rigging of River Steamers for Sea Service, and of Vessels suitable for 
oth.” 


On a Sledge Railway Break. By Janus Hicer. 


The author referred to the imperfect action of the ordinary railway breaks for 
checking a train on the first warning of danger. His plan consisted not of merely 
stopping the revolution of the wheels, but of placing under the carriages, over the 
rails, a lattice framework of iron, whose under surface, for a foot in breadth, re- 
sembled asledge. This sledge plate (about 16 ft. long on each side) reached down 
to within about 4 inches of the rails, and by half a turn of an eccentric actuated by 
arod stretching under the carriages from the locomotive and worked by steam, the 
carriages were instantly lowered and began to slide. In the case of axles breaking, 
the “sledge” arrangement would also afford support. The main advantage claimed 
for the sledge break was, that the increased length of surface presented to the rails 


Tce 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 263 


obviates the jarring, dislocating and shaking which ensue when the wheels are sud- 
denly locked at a high rate of speed. Its application by steam power and complete 
control by the engineer also ensure its instant application when needed; and the 
wheels will last longer from being spared the friction of the breaks and rails. But 
the result of these advantages combined being to enable a train to be brought to a 
stop in a much shorter distance than is now effected, was the most striking benefit 
anticipated from its introduction. 


On Photozincography, by means of which Photographic Copies of the Ordnance 
Maps are chiefly multiplied, either on their original or on a reduced or 
enlarged scale. By Colonel Sir Henry Jauus, RE. PRS. 


The process is applicable to the reproduction of old manuscripts and old printed 
books, and any line engraving. A copy of Domesday Book (the part relating to 
Cornwall taken by this means) was exhibited to the Meeting. The process consists 
in taking a photographie collodion negative, which is intensified by means of bi- 
chloride of mercury and hydrosulphuret of ammonia. Paper, deprived of its size, 
is saturated with a solution of gelatine and bichromate of potash. The paper thus 
prepared is exposed to the light beneath the negative, the result of which is that 
the parts which have been exposed to the light become insoluble. The whole is 
then inked with a greasy ink and afterwards washed in water, which removes the 
ink from all the parts except those on which the light has acted. A transfer to 
stone or zinc is then taken in the ordinary way, and copies are printed. The author 
then described an improvement which had lately been made in the process, by 
means of which a reduced copy of a map or plan could be made, in which the 
minor details (which would be useless on a reduced scale) could be omitted, and the 
names of places and other features of the plan given in full-sized legible characters. 


On the Application of the Direct-Action Principle. By W. B. Jounson. 


The author said that whilst immense improvements had been made in almost 
every other class of machinery, the stationary beam-engine remained almost in the 
same state as when it left the hands of the earliest makers, and may consequently 
be regarded as one of the most imperfect pieces of mechanism of the present day. 
Comparing the beam with the direct-action engine, he said the latter are superior 
in the following points: viz., they are independent of the foundation and engine- 
room walls for strength and support; they are less liable to derangement and 
breakage, and such cases are attended with less serious results; offering also great 
advantages in the accessibility to the condensing apparatus and all other working 
parts of the engine. 


On Patents considered Internationally. By R, A. Macrrs, 


On the Resistance of Ships. By Professor W. J. Macauorn Ranxre, F.R.S. 


The author states that the investigation to which this pre relates was founded 
originally on experimental data supplied to him by Mr. James R. Napier in 1857, 
and that its results were successfully applied to practice in 1858 and subsequently, 
to calculate beforehand the engine-power required to drive at given speeds ships 
built by Mr. J. R. Napier. He refers to previous investigations of the effect of 
friction in resisting the motion of a ship through the water; but remarks that 
those investigations could not be expected to yield definite results, because in them 
the velocity of sliding of the particles of water over the ship’s bottom was treated 
as sensibly equal to the speed of the ship; whereas that velocity must vary at 
different points of the ship’s bottom, in a manner depending on the positions of 
those points and the figure of the ship, being on an average greater than the speed 
of the ship in a proportion increasing with the fulness of the ship’s lines. He then 
explains the general nature of the mathematical processes by which the friction can 


? 


964 REPORT—186l1. 


be determined. Their results, in the exact form, are very complex; but they can 
be expressed approximately, for practical purposes, by comparatively simple rules. 
Examples are given of the application of those rules to experiments by Mr. J. R. 
Napier, the author, and others, on steam-ships of very various sizes, forms, and 
speed. 

P The principal conclusions arrived at are:—that friction constitutes the most 
important part, if not the whole, of the resistance to the motion of ships that are 
well formed for speed; that its amount can be deduced with great precision from 
* the form of the ship, by proper mathematical processes; that the engine-power 
required to overcome it varies nearly as the cube of the speed, and as a quantity 
called the “ augmented surface,” which is the quantity to be considered in fixing 
the dimensions of propellers ; that the friction consists of two parts, one increasing 
and the other diminishing with the length of the vessel; that the least resistance 
for a given displacement and speed is given by a proportion of length to breadth 
which is somewhere about seven to one, and that excess of length is the best side to 
erron. The author states as limitations to his theory, that it does not give the entire 
resistance of vessels that are so bluff as to push before them or drag behind them 
masses of “dead water,” nor of vessels so small for their speed as to raise waves 
that bury a considerable part of their bows; and from the latter limitation he 
deduces precautions to be observed in making experiments on models, in order that 
the results may he applicable to large ships. 


Appendix to a Paper “ On the Resistance of Ships.” 
By Professor W. J. Macquorn Rayxre, F.R.S. 


This appendix contains a comparison between the sailing yachts ‘Themis’ 
(formerly ‘ Titania’) and ‘ America,’ founded on their published plans. The author 
shows, that although, from the greater size of the ‘ America,’ and especially from 
the greater area and breadth of her load water-line, her capacity for carrying sail 
must be greater than that of the ‘ Themis,’ the “ augmented surfaces” of those two 
vessels are almost exactly equal ; so that, according to the theory set forth in the 
paper, the ‘America’ ought to be the more speedy vessel—a result agreeing with 
that of the well-lnown trial of speed. The “augmented surface” of the ‘Themis’ 
is increased by the very hollow form of her cross-sections, so as to be greater than 
re might have been, if those sections had been nearly triangular, as they are in the 

merica. 


On the Application of Workshop Tools to the Construction of Steam-Engines 
and other Machinery. By J. Rosrnson. 


The author made some observations upon the planing machine, the slide-lathe, 
the screw-cutting lathe, giving any range of motion; the radial drill, the slot drill, 
the key grooving machine, the shaping machine, the bolt and nut cutting machine, 
&c. The steam-hammer, the punching machine, the riveting machine, were also 
dilated upon. The last-named was worked by hydraulic power, by Sir William 
Armstrong. The export of machinery, from 1856 to 1860, amounted to £17,000,000. 
No such quantity of machinery could have been made and exported, he submitted, 
had it not been for the important tools enumerated. 


On a System of Telegraphic Communication adopted in Berlin in case of Fires. 
By C. W. Sremens, /.2.S. 


By means of this arrangement, immediately after a fire occurred the police at every 
station in the town could be informed of the occurrence, and of the district in which 
the fire had occurred. THe said it was found by the adoption of this system that 
the fire-engine was generally on the ground five minutes after the alarm had been 
given. He also explained and exhibited a system of railway signalling extensively 
adopted on the Continent, which rendered collisions almost impossible. This 
system of fire-alarm telegraph was first established at Berlin in 1849, by the firm of 
Siemens and Halske, and has since been adopted at several other continental cities, 
including St. Petersburg. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 265 


On Iron Construction ; with Remarks on the Strength of Iron Columns and 
Arches. By ¥. W. Surinps, M.J.C.E. 


The author remarked, that in various constructions, such as bridges, ships, and 
roofs, the materials formerly used were being rapidly superseded by iron. Nor was 
this change confined to England and the seats of iron manufacture alone. In fact, 
it appeared almost anomalous that a bridge of this costly material, conveyed from 
England at great expense, should supersede with economy, in Australia, India, 
Russia, or Spain, the apparently cheaper materials found in abundance on the spot. 

The explanation of this apparent anomaly is found in the greater strength of 
iron, size for size, than of the other materials, and in its capacity for being manu- 
factured in such varied shapes and sizes, that just so much scantling may be 
given to each part of a structure as will meet the strain on that part, without any 
being wasted or lost to use. In a framing, an undue increase of scantling to some 
of its parts does not add strength to the whole structure, as its endurance is 
limited by the strength of its weakest part; and such increase but involves the 
addition of useless weight and expense, besides endangering the stability of the 
construction by the failure of its weaker portions. 

It is therefore requisite, on the grounds not only of economy but of safety, that 
practical men dealing with ironwork should be versed in calculating the strains 
upon such framings. The author would not attempt here to give an abstract of 
these principles, as he had briefly stated them in a recent publication on the strains 
on structures of ironwork; but in the more simple cases of the resistance to 
pressure of columns and arches, he would state the results of his experience. 
After allusion to the experiments of Messrs. Fairbairn and Eaton Hodgkinson, he 
stated that, from large experience in the construction of the Crystal Palace at 
Sydenham and other works, he had adopted the following rules for the safe load 
borne by cast-iron columns of good construction, with flat ends and with base-plates 
at their bearings. For hollow columns of 20 to 24 diameters in length,— 

J Columns may be loaded with 
If cast 3 inch thick or upwards.... 2 tons per square inch sectional 
area of iron in column. 


5 3 
” t ” ” - 3 ” ” ” 
” 2 ” ” $ 2 ” ” ” 
3 12 
+P 8 ” ” Ager ese 4 ” ” ” 
For columns of 25 to 30 diameters in length,— 
9» 2 inch thick or upwards.... 13 ,s a of 
” $ ” ” aE 2 ” ” ” 
4 2 
” a ” ” hae 4 ” ” ” 
” cy ” ” Ce 1 ” ” ” 


the cause of the diminution in loading being that thin and light columns are 
more liable to weakness from inequalities of casting. 

In the apportionment of iron to meet the strain or thrust of an arch, it is usual 
to allow about 23 tons of pressure to each sectional inch in cast, and 4 tons in 
wrought iron; also, in very flat arches, to consider the flat central portion as a 

irder, and to give to its top and bottom such flanges as a simple beam of its length 
and depth would require. 


On Patent Tribunals. By W. Sprrnce. 


The author argued against the practicability of any plan of preliminary investi- 
gation of the merits of inventions before granting patents in any form that had been 
suggested. He, however, thought that the difficulties in the way of preliminary 
inyestigation did not apply to the trial of cases after the filing of the complete 
specifications, and he fully concurred in the necessity of a special tribunal for 
trying patent cases. 


On the Deflection of Iron Girders, By B. B. Stoney, M.R.I.A. 
The author showed, by diagrams drawn to an exaggerated scale, that the deflec- 


266 ‘ REPORT—1861. 


tion of double-flanged girders is not affected by the mode of construction adopted 
in the web; in other words, if two girders of equal length and depth, one a lattice, 
the other a plate girder, have the same strains per sectional unit transmitted through 
their flanges, they will both deflect to the same extent. Also, when a girder is of 
uniform strength, that is, when all parts are equally proportioned to the transmitted 
strain, the deflection-curve will be a circle, and the central deflection may be simply 
expressed by the following equation— 


where D = the central deflection. 
1 = the length of the girder. 
d = the depth. 
X = the difference in length of the flanges after deflection. 


On Bailey’s Steam-pressure Gauge. By W. Tare. 


On Property in Invention and its Effects on the Arts and Manufactures. 
By T. Wesster, LS, 


The author pointed out that considerations of public policy had led to certain rules 
or laws respecting the use and enjoyment of all property, and that the same principles 
to which the origin of all property is to be referred had peculiar claims to recogni- 
tion with regard to the inventor. To say that an inventor may retain command 
over his invention by secrecy is to propose an impossibility in a majority of cases, 
and in a few cases in which it might be done the effect would be to convert his art 
into a mystery and to introduce practices long since condemned. The author pointed 
out the fallacy of stigmatizing patents as contrary to the principle of free trade, as 
was commonly done. He admitted the injury done by the indiscriminate grant of 
patents; and this, which might be remedied, ought not to be used as an argument 
against the system. He ee out that although for small inventiofis and such 
as could be quickly introduced a patent might not be needed, yet that where time 
and capital were required to introduce the inventions into use, such inventions would 
not be made and perfected useless the inventors were protected from piracy by 
letters patent. He thought the cases of obstruction, in practice, were more imagi- 
nary than real. The law admitted of successive patents for improvements, and 
practically it was rare that a prior inventor would not come to reasonable terms 
with a subsequent one. At all events, the case might be met by applying to this 
species of property that which the legislature had already applied to idiot ails of 
property, viz., the powers of the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act, where lands 
were taken compulsorily, and compel patentees to grant licenses upon equitable 
terms. 


APPENDIX. 
On the Causes of the Phenomena of Cyclones. By Isaac Asuz, A.B., MB. 


The author criticised Mr. Redfield’s view of the formation of cyclones, as given 
in Silliman’s Journal, vol. xxxiii. p. 56, namely, that they are formed by the meet- 
ing in the upper regions of the atmosphere of two currents, a hot and a cold, which, 
infolding ih other, generate a horizontal rotation in a body of air, and that, one 
extremity of this rotating body of air descending to the earth, the horizontal rota- 
tion is changed to a vertical one. Such a view would not account for the fact that 
the rotation is invariably from left to right in the southern hemisphere, and from 
right to left in the northern, as the direction of the vertical rotation would be altered 
according as it would be one or the other extremity of the vertically rotating body 
of air that chanced to descend to the earth. Mr. Ashe considered that the inva- 
riably observed phenomenon panied to a cause admitting of no variation, and sug- 
gested that, in consequence of the diurnal rotation of the earth being slower as we 
‘go polewards, a yolume of air, rushing towards a centre of rarefaction near the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 267° 


equator, would, if it came from polewards, proceed westward of the centre of rare- 

faction, and if it came from the equatorial side, would proceed to eastward of it, and 

that the two currents thus meeting would form a mechanical “couple” of forces, 
and generate a rotation which, it will be easily seen, must be invariably from left to 
ei the southern hemisphere, and from right to left in the northern, as is the 
act. 

He corroborated this view by the consideration that, according to it, cyclones 
should not be formed near the equator, since the “couple ” of forces would there be- 
come nearly opposite—a view exactly in accordance with observed facts ; whereas, 
on Mr. Reaficld’s hypothesis, they ought to be oftener found there, since at the 
equator the surface and upper currents of the atmosphere become interchanged, and 
so would have a tendency to produce horizontal rotation, as assumed by him. 

* The author suggested that rarefaction might be produced by the latent heat’ 
evolved by a copious precipitation of aqueous vapour in any particular region, as- 
senting to Col. Reid’s view that cyclones are not caused by islands. 

. With regard to the continued ascent of air in a cyclone, the author criticised Mr. 
Redfield’s views as expressed in the following extract from ‘Silliman’s Journal,’ 
vol. xxxiii. p. 59, ascribed in the Index to that writer, viz. :—“‘ The condition of force 
by which the propulsion is maintained is found in the pressure of the surrounding 
atmosphere upon all sides of the whirling and therefore mechanically rarefied co- 
lumn; and if the expansive whirling motion be sufficiently active to produce 
nearly a vacuum at the centre, the external propelling force will be nearly 15 Ibs. 
to the square inch.” The author observed that the pressure, as registered by the 
barometer, never exceeded about 11b. to the square inch; and contended that if 
even this pressure were to operate as a motive force at all, it would cause, not con- 
tinuance of the rotation, but total collapse of the cyclone from the bottom upwards, 
—a conclusion which he illustrated by the disappearance of a water-spout in this 
manner, and also by an experiment with a bottle containing some water in a state 
of rapid rotation, in which a similar result was shown to follow from the pressure 
of the column of water as the centrifugal force declined. He considered that the 
external pressure of the atmosphere was the effect, and not the cause, of the continu- 
ance of the cyclone, and suggested as a cause of this continuance the passage of a 
current of air over the top of the cyclone, in the upper regions of the atmosphere, 
analogous to the draught similarly caused in a chimney; since Maury has shown 
that such a current actually exists in the upper atmosphere, blowing in a direction 
the reverse of the trade-wind, the rotating column of air composing the cyclone 
being capable of being regarded asachimney. The author had observed that such 
a current, passing over the top of the funnel of a steamer, caused the smoke to rotate’ 
in two spiral columns, folding into each other below on the leeward side of the 
funnel; so that if a person stood facing the funnel with his back to the wind, the 
left-hand column would correspond, inside the funnel, with the cyclones of the 
southern hemisphere, and the right-hand column with those of the northern, Since 
such an pees current, as shown by Maury, would descend and become a surface- 
current at the tropics, we might es cyclones often to die out here; and the author 
referred to the opinion of Lieut. Fyers, R.E., Secretary to the Meteorological So- 
ciety of Mauritius, that such was sometimes the fact, as in the case of the Mauritius 
hurricane of November 1854, as evidenced by the log of the ship ‘ Sesostris’ (see 
‘Transactions of the Meteorological Society ob Mauritius,’ vol. iii. p. 18). Mr. Ashe 
also exhibited a chart of storms traced in the South Indian Ocean by the aboye- 
mentioned Society, in which, out of twelve storms, only one was traceable as far 
as 29°S. lat., while ten could not be traced beyond 25° 8. 

The shape of a cyclone the author considered to be, not really circular, but ellip- 
tical, the major axis running from west to east, and the vortex being on the east 
side of the minor axis, since this figure would result from the fact that a particle 
of air proceeding towards the vortex from polewards would go more to the west- 
ward than a particle coming from the same distance on the side of the equator 
would go to eastwards of the vortex, owing to the increasing ratio with which the 
circumferences diminish in the circles formed by the parallels of latitudes as the 
distance of these from the equator increases ; for the radii of these circles are equal 
to the cosines of angles increasing in arithmetical progression from 0° to 90°, 
Hence Mr. Ashe deduced that the westernmost portion of the cyclone would be the 


268 REPORT—186l. 


most slowly rotating, considering the cyclone merely with reference to its own in- 
ternal motion of rotation, and not with reference to the difference which would be 
perceived by a ship at sea, the latter being due to the fact that one side of a cyclone 
moved with the trade-wind, and the opposite against it, and resulting in a general 
translation of the entire cyclone, along with the trade-wind, to be considered sepa- 
rately ; but the most westerly quarter of the cyclone being the slowest moving as 
regards its own internal rotation, it follows that the cyclone will progress along a 
line at a tangent to this, that is to say, southwards or nearly so in the southern 
hemisphere, and northwards or nearly so in the northern hemisphere, the direction 
of rotation being here the reverse of what it is in the southern hemisphere. Com- 
bining this, the proper motion of the cyclone, with the motion derived from the 
trade-wind, both being represented by the dotted lines in the annexed figure of a 
cyclone in the southern hemisphere, we obtain the actual motion in a direction 8. W, 


Be! N AN 


1 
' 
' 
' 
1 
' 
' 
' 
' 
' 
' 
' 
' 
' 


ESw 


NY 


Rec eiee STi wren cel 


or thereabouts, as indicated by the continuous line in the figure,—a result corre- 
sponding exactly with what is observed to be in fact the case. Similarly in the 
northern hemisphere, combining the proper motion of the cyclone, which on this 
theory would be about north, with the S.W. motion derived from the trade-wind, 
we should have the actual motion of the cyclone in a north-west direction, which 
again corresponds exactly with the fact as observed within the tropics. Since the 
causes above inferred to produce the proper motion of the cyclone would act less 
powerfully near the equator, it follows, on this theory, that the actual motion of 
the cyclone would be slower there than at subsequent portions of its course, which 
is constantly observed to be the case; and a chart of a remarkable storm, which 
occurred near Mauritius in January 1855, was laid before the Section by the author 
(see vol. iii. p. 23, ‘Transactions of the Meteorological Society of Mauritius’), in 
which this was manifested in a striking degree, in consequence, as supposed by Mr. 
Ashe, of the influence of the trade-wind being at a minimum at that season—a view 
supported by the direction in which the storm travelled, which was 8.S.E., corre- 
sponding very nearly with the proper motion of cyclones in the southern hemi- 
sphere, as deduced above. 

Tn all cases in which the influence of the trade-wind is nl, whether owing to the 
season or the latitude, we would expect that a cyclone proceeding rapidly polewards 
would derive considerable easting from the circumstance of its having Test lower 
latitudes where the diurnal rotation is more rapid than in the places it is arriving at. 

Mr. Ashe regarded the recurving so constantly observed in cyclones in the South 
Indian Ocean as being due to this circumstance, and exhibited a chart containing 
the observed tracks of several cyclones (see chart i. vol. iii. of ‘Transactions of the 
Meteorological Society of Mauritius’), to show on the one hand that the recurving 
is not owing to the presence of the island of Mauritius, as commonly supposed, 
since several of the cyclones recurved in open sea far from land, and, on the other 
hand, that the recurving was to be connected with the latitude,—as it occurred, as 
shown in the chart, just where the component of motion due to the trade-wind was 
vanishing, and the cyclone was assuming its own proper motion in a southerly 
direction, with easting derived from the cause above mentioned. 

In the case of cyclones in the North Atlantic, the author referred the recurving 
observed about the peninsula of Florida to the same causes, it being in about the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 269 


same latitude north, aided, no doubt, by the continent of North America, which, 
extending for thousands of miles, is very different from the small island of Mauri- 
tius, only 30 miles across, and along the coast-edge of which the cyclone rolls like 
a wheel along a plane surface. The slight westward trending of the direction of 
the trade-wind, as we go further from the equator, would undoubtedly tend to pro- 
duce a slight southerly deflection of the cyclone from an early part of its course, 
which deflection would be aided by the increase of speed in the proper motion of 
the cyclone due to the causes above mentioned; and such deflection is exhibited 
in the charts produced by the author. 

In accordance with this theory also we would expect that, as the force of the 
trade-wind must increase from the summer to the winter solstice, we should have 
a northerly trending of the track of cyclones during that period, due to this increase 
of force in this component of their motion; and, to show that facts were in accord- 
ance with this theory, Mr. Ashe quoted the following passage from a paper read by 
Lieut. Fyers, R.E., reported in the ‘ Transactions of the Meteorological Society of 
Mauritius,’ 1855, p.58, viz.:—“ As far as my experience goes, the November and De- 
cember storms invariably take a southern course to the eastward of Rodriguez, and, 
as the season advances, in January, February, and March, they take a more west- 
erly direction, sometimes passing north of Mauritius and continuing to the coast 
of Madagascar, at others passing between Rodriguez and Mauritius,”—a statement 
which, on referring to the map, and recollecting that the writer took his point of 
view from Mauritius, we find exactly to correspond with a northerly trending of the 
track of cyclones during those months. 

The increase in diameter, and decrease in violence of a cyclone, as it progresses, 
Mr. Ashe attributed to the engagement of more air in the rotatory motion, owing to 
the friction exercised by the walls, as it were, of the cyclone against the surround- 
ing atmosphere, while, as the force did not increase in consequence, the velocity of 
the mass moyed would necessarily diminish. 


Prices in England 1582-1620, and the effect of the American discoveries upon 
them during that period. By Professor J, E, T, Rogers, MA. 


On the Rochdale Cooperative Sccieties. By Dantex Sronz, F.C.S, 


The Commerce and Manufactures of the Colony of Victoria, 
By Wi11am WEstGartH, 


The Commercial Relations between England and France, By Ricuard Vary, 


An Examination of the increase of density of Population in England and 
Wales, 1851-61. By T. A. Wetton, 


On the Economical Effects of the recent Gold Discoveries, 
By Henry Fawcert, M.A, 


On some Woods employed in the Navy. By Professor F, Cracz Catvert, 


On Telegraphic Wires, By Messrs. Strver. 


On a Locomotive for Common Roads, By Srrtimus Mason. 


On Economy in Fuel. By T. 8, PripEavx, 


On an improved Feed Water Heater for Locomotive and other Boilers. 
: By 8. Bateson, 


Vie taal ea, 


PLATE I. 

Mlustrative of William Fairbairn’s paper on the Temperature of the Earth’s 
Crust, as exhibited by thermometrical returns obtained during the sinking 
of the Deep Mine at Dukinfield. 

PLATES II., Ill. & IV. 


Illustrative of Robert Mallet’s report of the experiments made at Holyhead 
(North Wales) to ascertain the transit-velocity of Waves, analogous to 
_ Earthquake waves, through the local Rock Formations. 
PLATE YV. 
Illustrative of Thomas Dobson’s report on the Explosions in British Coal- 
mines during the year 1859. 
PLATES VI. & VII. 


Illustrative of Professor Owen’s report on the Psychical and Physical cha- 
racters of the Mincopies, or natives of the Andaman Islands, and on the 
relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind. 


PLATES VIIL, IX. & 


Iustrative of General Sabine’s report on = aN of the Magnetic 
pe of England. 


INDEX I. 


TO 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


OBJECTS and rules of the Association, 
xvii. 

Places and times of meeting, with names 
of officers from commencement, xx. 

Treasurer’s account, xxiv. 

Members of Council from commence- 
ment, XXv. 

Officers and Council for 1861-62, xxviii. 
Officers of Sectional Committees, xxix. 
Corresponding Members, xxx. 

Report of Council to General Committee 
at Manchester, xxxi. 

Report of the Kew Committee for 1860- 
1861, xxxiii. 

Report of the Parliamentary Committee, 
RRXIK: 

Recommendations adopted by the Ge- 
neral Committee at Manchester :—in- 
volving grants of money, xxxix ; appli- 
cations for reports and researches, xlii ; 
applications to Government or public 
institutions, xliii; communications to 
be printed entire among the Reports, 
xlin. 

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated 

“to scientific purposes, sli. 

‘General statement of sums paid on ac- 
count of grants for scientific purposes, 
xly. 

Extracts from resolutions of the General 
Committee, xlix. 

Arrangement of General Meetings, 1. 

Address by William Fairbairn, Esq., li. 


Acid, Drs. E. Schunck, R. A. Smith, 
and H. E. Roscoe on the manufacture 
of sulphuric, 109; of nitric, 120; ox- 
alic, 120; pyroligneous, 122. 

‘Agar (the Hon. Leopold), third report 
on steam-ship performance, 190. 


Alun, Drs. E. Schunck, R. A. Smith, and 
ie Roscoe on the manufacture of, 

ile 

Andaman Islands, Prof. Owen on the 
psychical and physical characters of the 
Mincopies, or natives of the, 241. 

Aniline colours, Drs. E. Schunck, R. A. 
Smith, and H. E. Roscoe on the 
manufacture of, 127. 

Apteryx, report on the present state of 
our knowledge of the birds of the 
genus, living in New Zealand, by Philip 
Lutley Sclater and Ferdinand yon 
Hochstetter, 176. 

Atherton (Charles), report on freight as 
affected by differences in the dynamic 
properties of steam-ships, 82. 


Balloon committee, Colonel Sykes’s re- 
port from the, 249. 

Birt (W. R.), contribution to a report on 
the physical aspect of the moon, 181, 

Bleaching-powder, Drs. E. Schunck, 
R. A. Smith, and H. E. Roscoe on the 
manufacture of, 109. 

Byerley (Mr.), preliminary report of the 
dredging committee for the Mersey 
and Dee, 188. 


Caithness (the Earl of), third report on 
steam-ship performance, 190. 

Celestial photography, report on the pro- 
gress of, by Warren De la Rue, 94. 

Chemistry, manufacturing, report on the 
progress of, in South Lancashire, by 

- Drs. E, Schunck, R. Angus Smith, and 

H. E. Roscoe, 108, 

Coal-mines, British, Thomas Dobson’s 
report on the explosions in, during the 
year 1859, 236, 


272 


Coldbath-fields prison, experiments at, 
on prison diet and discipline, 57. 

Collingwood (Dr.), preliminary report of 
the dredging committee for the Mersey 
and Dee, 188. 

Colouring ‘matters, organic, Drs. E. 
Schunck, R. A. Smith, and H. E. 
Roscoe on the manufacture of, 123. 

Copper ores, Drs. E. Schunck, R. A. 
Smith, and H. E. Roscoe on the ma- 
nufacture of, 119, 


Dee, Dr. Collingwood and Mr. Byerley’s 
report of the dredging committee for 
the, 188. 

De la Rue( Warren), report onthe progress 
of celestial photography since the Aber- 
deen Meeting, 94. 

Dickie (Dr. G.), brief summary of a re- 
port on the flora of the North of Ire- 
land, 240. 

Dietary of county prisons, on the inequa- 
lities in the, 67. 

Disinfectants, Drs. E. Schunck, R. A. 
Smith, and H. E. Roscoe on the manu- 
facture of, 127. 

Dobson (Thomas), report on the explo- 
sions in British coal-mines during the 
year 1859, 236. 

Dredging committee for the Mersey and 
Dee, preliminary report of the, 188. 
Dredging, report of the results of deep- 
sea, in Zetland, by J. Gwyn Jeffreys, 

178. 

, report of the committee for, on the 
north and east coasts of Scotland, 
280. 

Dufferin (the Lord), thirdreport on steam- 
ship performance, 190. 


Egerton (the Hon. Capt.), third report 
on steam-ship performance, 190 

Elder (John), third report on steam-ship 
performance, 190. 

England, General Sabine’s report on’ the 
repetition of the magnetic survey of, 
250. 

Ethno-climatology, report on, by Dr. 
James Hunt, 129. 

Evans (Frederick John) on the lines of 
equal magnetic declination, 273. 

Exchanges, report on the theory of, by 
Balfour Stewart, 97. 


Fairbairn (William), thirdreporton steam- 
ship performance, 160; on the resist- 
ance of iron plates to statical pressure 
and the force of impact by projectiles 
at high velocities, 280; report to de- 
termine the effect of vibratory action 


REPORT—1861. 


and long-continued changes of load 
upon wrought-iron girders, 286. 

Flora of the North of Ireland, Dr.Dickie’s 
report on the, 240. 

Froude (William), third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190. 


Gifford (the Earl of), third report on 
steam-ship performance, 190. 
Girders, wrought-iron, Wm. Fairbairn’s 
experiments upon, 286. 

Gladstone (J. H.), report on observations 
of luminous meteors, 1 

Glaisher (James), report on observations 
of luminous meteors, 1. 

Gray (J. M°Farlane), third report on 
steam-ship performance, 190. 

Greg (R. P.), report on observations of 
luminous meteors, 1. 


Hartington (the Marquis of), third report 
on steam-ship performance, 190 

Hay (Lord John), third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190. 

Hennessy (Prof. Henry), provisional re- 
port on the present state of our know- 
ledge ‘respecting the transmission of 
sound-signals during fogs at sea, 173. 

Heywood (James), report of committee 
on the law of patents, 289. 

Hill (Viscount), third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190. 

Hochstetter (Ferdinand von), report on 
the present state of our knowledge of 
the birds of the genus Apteryx living 
in New Zealand, 176. 

Hope (Capt.), third report on steam-ship 
performance, 190. 

Hull, James Oldham’s report on steam 
navigation at, 239. 

Hunt (Dr. James) on ethno-climatology, 
or the acclimatization of man, 129. 


Ireland, Dr. Dickie’s report on the flora 
of the North of, 240. 

Tron, protosulphate of, Drs. E. Schunck, 
R. A. Smith, and H. E. Roscoe on the 
manufacture of, 119. 

Iron plates, W. Fairbairn’s report on the 
resistance of, to statical pressure, 280. 

, Specific gravity of, 282. 

, tensile strength of, 282, 

, ductility of, 282. 

»>—, resistance to impact, 282. 

——, resistance to compression, 284. 

——,, statical resistance to punching, 284. 

» computation of a general formula 

for the resistance of, to projectiles, 285, 


Jeffreys (J, Gwyn), report of the results 


INDEX I. 


of deep-sea dredging in Zetland, 178; 
preliminary report on the best mode of 
preventing the ravages of Teredo and 
other animals in our ships and har- 
bours, 200. 

Lowe (E. J.), report on observations of 
luminous meteors, 1 


Magnetic declination, on the lines of 
equal, 273. 

dip, on the, 252. 

— force, on the intensity of the, 261. 
— survey of England, General Sabine’s 
report on the repetition of the, 250. 
Mallet (Robert) on the experiments 
made at Holyhead (North Wales) to 
ascertain the transit-velocity of waves, 
analogousto earthquake waves, through 
the local rock formations, by command 
of the Royal Society and of the British 
Association for the Advancement of 

Science, 201. 

Man, Dr. James Hunt on the acclima- 
tization of, 129. 

Mangles (Capt.), third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190 

Manures, report on field experiments on 
the constituents of, by Dr. A. Voelcker, 
158. 

M°‘Connell (J. E)., third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190. 

Mersey, Dr. Collingwood and Mr. Byer- 
ley’s report on the dredging com- 
mittee for the, 188. 

Meteor, remarkable, observations of a, 

0 


Meteors, luminous, report on observa- 
tions of, by J. Glaisher, Dr. Gladstone, 
R. P. Greg, and E. J. Lowe, 1. 

—, list of, 2; appendix, 28. 

Milner (W. R.), report on the action of 
prison diet and discipline on the bodily 
functions of prisoners, pt. 1, 44. 

Mincopies, or natives of the Andaman 
Islands, Prof. Owen’s report on the 
psychical and physical characters of 
the, 241. 

Moon, contributions to a report on the 
physical aspect of the, by Prof. Phil- 
lips, 180; by W. R. Birt, 181. 

Moorsom (Vice-Admiral), chairman of 
the committee on steam-ship perform- 
ance, third report, 190, 


Napier (J. R.), third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190 

New Zealand, report on the present state 
of our knowledge of the birds of the 
genus Apteryx living in, by P. L. 
Sclater and F’, von Hochstetter, 176. 

1861. 


273 


Numbers, Prof. H. J..S. Smith’s report 
on the theory of, 292; theory of ho- 
mogeneous forms, 292; problem of the 
representation of numbers, 292; of 
the transformation and equivalence of 
forms, 292; automorphic transforma- 
tions, 294; problem of the representa- 
tion of forms, 295; binary quadratic 
forms, 296; elementary definitions, 
297; reduction of the problem of re- 
presentation to that of equivalence, 
298; determination of the number of 
sets of representations, 300 ; reduction 
of the problem of transformation to 
that of equivalence, 30]; problem of 
equivalence, 301; expression for the 
automorphies of a quadratic form, 303; 
expression for the automorphics—me- 
thod of Lejeune Dirichlet, 304; pro- 
blem of equivalence—forms of a nega- 
tive determinant, 306; problem of 
equivalence for forms of a positive and 
not square determinant, 308; im- 
proper equivalence—ambiguous forms 
and classes, 310; positive or negative 
determinant, 312; the Pellian equa- 
tion, 313; solution of the general in- 
determinate equation of the second 
degree, 319; distribution of classes 
into orders and genera, 320; onthe 
determination of the number of qua- 
dratic forms of a given positive or 
negative determinant, 324; series ex- 
pressing the number of primitive 
classes, 329; proof that each genus 
contains the same number of classes, 
332; summation of the series ex- 
pressing the number of properly pri- 
mitive classes, 336. 


Ogilvie (George), interim report of the 
committee for dredging on the north 
and east coasts of Scotland, 281. 

Oldham (James), second report on steam 
navigation at Hull, 239, 

Owen (Prof.) on the psychical and phy- 
sical characters of the Mincopies, or 
natives of the Andaman Islands, and 
on the relations thereby indicated to 
other races of mankind, 241. 


Paget (Lord Alfred), third report on 
steam-ship performance, 190. 

Paget (Lord C.), third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190. 

Paris (Admiral), third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190. 

Patents, the law of, James Heywood’s 
report of the committee on, 289. 

Phillips (Prof, John), contributions to a 

18 


274 


report on the physical aspect of the 
moon, 180. 

Photography,. celestial, report on the 
progress of, by Warren De la Rue, 94. 

Prison diet and discipline, report on the 
action of, on the bodily functions of 
prisoners, part 1, by Dr. Edward Smith 
and W. R. Milner, 44 ; appendices, 67. 

Plato, synopsis of objects in, suitable for 
telescopic observation, 182, 


Rankine (Prof.), third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190. 

Resin, purification of, Drs. Schunck, R. 
A. Smith, and H. E. Roscoe on the, 
123. 

Roberts (H.), third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190. 

Roscoe (Dr. H. E.), report on the recent 
progress and present condition of 
manufacturing chemistry in the South 
Lancashire district, 108. 

Rowan (David), third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190. 

Russell (J. Scot), third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190. 

Ryder (Captain), third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190. 


Sabine (General), report on the repeti- 
cen of the magnetic survey of England, 
250. 

Schunck (Dr. E.), report on the recent 
progress and present condition of ma- 
nufacturing chemistry in the South 
Lancashire district, 108. 

Sclater (Philip Lutley), report on the 
present state of our knowledge of the 
birds of the genus Apteryx living in 
New Zealand, 176. 

Scotland, report of the committee for 
dredging on the north and east coasts 
of, 280. 

Ships, steam-, on freight as affeeted by 
differences in the dynamic properties 
of, by Charles Atherton, 82. 

Smith (Dr. Edward), report on the action 
of prison diet and discipline on the 
bodily functions of prisoners, part 1,44. 

Smith (Prof.H.J.S.), report on the theory 
of numbers, part 3, 292. 

Smith (Dr. R. Angus), report on the 
recent progress and present condition 
of manufacturing chemistry in the 
South Lancashire district, 108. 

Smith (William), third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190, 


REPORT—1861. 


Soda, Drs. E. Schunck, R.A. Smith, and 
H. E. Roscoe on the manufacture of, 
109; silicate of, 116; arseniate of, 
U7. 

Sound-signals, on the transmission of, 
during fogs at sea, provisional report 
by Prof. Hennessy, 173 

Steam-navigation at Hull, James Old- 
ham’s report on, 239. 

Steam-ships, on freight as affected by 
differences in the dynamic properties 
of, by Charles Atherton, 82. 

Steam-ship performance, third report of 
the committee on, 190. 

Stewart (Balfour), report on the theory 
of exchanges, and its recent extension, 
9 


Sutherland (Duke of), third report on 
steam-ship performance, 190. 

Sykes (Colonel), report from the balloon 
committee, 249. 


Teredo, preliminary report by J. G. Jef- 
freys on the best mode of preventing 
the ravages of, in our ships and har- 
bours, 200. 

Thomson (Prof. James), report on the 
gauging of water by triangular notches, 

51 


Tin, compounds of, Drs. E. Schunck, 
R. A. Smith, and H. E. Roscoe on the 
manufacture of, 119. 

Tufnell (T. R.), third report on steam- 
ship performance, 190. 


Voelcker(Dr. Aug.), report on field expe- 
riments and laboratory researches on 
the constituents of manures essential 
to cultivated crops, 158. 


Wakefield Prison, experiments at, on 
prison diet and discipline, 62. 

Water, experiments on the gauging of, 
by triangular notches, by Prof. James 
Thomson, 151. 

Waves, Robert Mallet’s report of the ex- 
periments made at Holyhead (North 
Wales) to ascertain the transit-velocity 
of, analogous to earthquake waves, 
201. 

Wright (Henry), Hon. Secretary of the 
committee of steam-ship performance, 
third report, 190. 


Zetland, J. G. Jeffreys’s report on deep- 
sea dredging in, 178. 


INDEX II. 


275 


INDEX I. 


TO 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE 
SECTIONS. 


ABESSINIA, Dr. Beke on a volcanic 
eruption on the coast of, 186. 

Adler (M. N.) on the almanac, 12. 

Aérolites, R. P. Greg on M. Haidinger’s 
communication on the origin and fall 
of, 13. 

Africa, Western Equatorial, P. B. Du 
Chaillu on the geography and natural 
history of, 189. 

, on the people of, 1990. 

Airy (G. B.), his address as President of 
Section A, 1; remarks on Dr. Hincks’s 
paper on the acceleration of the moon’s 
mean motion as indicated by the records 
of ancient eclipses, 12 ; on spontaneous 
terrestrial galvanic currents, 35; on 
the laws of the principal inequalities, 
solar and lunar, of terrestrial magnetic 
force in the horizontal plane, from ob- 
servations at the Royal Observatory, 
Greenwich, from 1848 to 1857, 36. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, Dr. Daubeny on a violet 
peculiar to the Calamine rocks in the 
neighbourhood of, 141. 

Alcock (Dr. T.) on some points in the 
anatomy of Cyprea, 137. 

Alcock (R.), journey in the interior of 
Japan, with the ascentof Fusiyama, 183. 

Alkali-manufacture, W. Gossage on the 
history of the, 80. 

Almanac, M.N. Adler on the, 12. 

Amazon, W. Danson on Barragudo cotton 
from the plains of the, 140. 

America, North, W. Danson on the flax- 
fibre cotton of, 140. 

» Admiral Sir E. Belcher on the gla- 

- cial movements in the vicinity of Mount 

St. Elias, on the N.W. coast of, 186. 

, British North, Dr. J. Hector on 
the capabilities for settlement of the 
central parts of, 195. 

Ammonia, Dr. Daubeny on the evolution 
of, from volcanos, 77. 

, W. Marriott on the separation of, 

fom coal-gas, 86. 
Anderson (Prof.) on the constitution of 


paranaphthaline or anthracene, and 
some of its decomposition products, 76. 

Andrews (Dr.) on the effect of great 
pressures combined with cold on the 
six non-condensable gases, 76. 

Anemometer for registering the maximum ~ 
force and extreme variation of the wind, 
John E. Morgan on an, 72. 

Aniline, sulphate of, Dr. J. Turnbull on. 
the physiological and medicinal pro- 
perties of, and its use in the treatment 
of chorea, 177. 

Antarctic regions, Capt. Maury on the 
importance of an expedition to the, 
for meteorological and other scientific 
purposes, 65. 

Anthracene, Prof. Anderson on the con- 
stitution of, 76. 

Arctic explorations, on the geographical 
science of, and the advantage of conti- 
nuing it, Capt. W. P. Snow on, 201. 

Armour-plates for ships, Dr, Eddy’s sug- 
gestions for fastening on, 257. 

Armstrong (Sir W. G.) on the patent 
laws, 252. 

Arnott (Dr. G.) on railway accidents 
from trains running off the rails, 252. 
Arsenic, Dr. S. Macadam on the propor- 
tion cf, present in paper hangings, 86. 
Artillery versus armour, Captain Blakely 

on, 255. 

Aryan languages, R. Cull on the anti- 
quity of the, 193, 

Ashe (Isaac) on the causes of the pheno- 
mena of cyclones, 266. 

Ashworth (Henry) on capital punish- 
ments and their influence on crime, - 
203; on the progress of science and 
art as developed in the bleaching of 
cotton at Bolton, 204. 

Aston (T.) on elongated projectiles for 
rifled fire-arms, 253. 

Asymptotic method of solving differential 
equations, on Petzval’s, by William 
Spottiswoode, 10. 

Atmosphere, Prof, Hennessy on the con- 

18* 


276 


nexion between storms and vertical 
disturbances of the, 61. 
Australia, J. Bonwick on the extinct vol- 
canos of, 109, 
, the Hon. J. Baker on, 184. 
—, N.W., letter from the Colonial 
Office on the exploration of, 197. 


Baily (W. H.), paleontological remarks 
upon the Silurian rocks of Ireland, 108, 

Baker (the Hon. J.) on Australia, inclu- 
ding the recent explorations of Mr. 
Macdonald Stuart, 184. 

Bakewell (R. H.) on the influence of 
density of population on the fecundity 
of marriages in England, 206. 

Barometer, mercurial, description of a, by 
P. J. Livsey, 64. 

Barrow (T. W.), remarks on the bone- 
caves of Craven, 108. 

Bateman (J. F.), his address as President 
of Section G, 250; on street-pipe ar- 
rangements for extinguishing fires, 255. 

Bateson (S.) on an improved feed water- 
heater for locomotive and other boilers, 
269. 

Bathometer, C. W. Siemens on a, 73. 

Bazley (Thomas), a glance at the cotton 
trade, 206. 

Beale (Prof. Lionel 8.) on the structure 
and growth of the elementary parts 
(cells) of living beings, 164. 

Beke (Dr. C. T.) on the mountains form- 
ing the eastern side of the basin of the 
Nile, and the origin of the designation 
“« Mountains of the Moon” as applied 
to them, 184; on a volcanic eruption 
on the coast of Abessinia, 186. 

Belcher (Admiral Sir E.) on the glacial 
movements noticed in the vicinity of 
Mount St. Elias, on the N.W. coast of 
America, 186. 

Belihouse (Edward T.) on the applica- 
tions of the hydraulic press, 255. 

Binney (E.W.) on the geological features 
of theneighbourhood of Manchester, 109. 

Binocularlustre, Sir David Brewster on,29. 

Birds, P. L.'Sclater’s remarks on the late 
increase of our knowledge of the stru- 
thious, 158. 

Blakely (Captain) on artillery versus ar- 
mour, 255. 

Blechnum Spicant, A. Stansfield on, col- 
lected in 1860 and 1861, 159. 

Bollaert (W.), extract from a letter to, by 
R. Bridge on the great earthquake at 
Mendoza, 187. 

Bolton, Henry Ashworth on the progress 
of science and art as developed in the 
bleaching of cotton at, 204. 


REPORT—1861. 


Bone-cave at Brixham, W, Pengelly on a 
new, 123. 

Bone-caves of Craven, T. W. Barrow’s 
remarks on the, 108, 

Bonwick (J.) on the extinct volcanos of 
Australia, 109. 

Brady (Mr. Antonio) on flint implements 
from St. Acheul, near Amiens, 110. 
Break, railway, James Higgin on a sledge, 

262. 

Brewster (Sir David) on photographic 
micrometers, 28; on the compensation 
of impressions moving over the retina, 
29; on the optical study of the retina, 
29; on binocular lustre, 29. 

Bridge (R.) on the great earthquake at 
Mendoza, March 20, 1861, 187. 

Bright (Sir Charles) on the formation of 
standards of electrical quantity and re- 
sistance, 37. 

Brighton, Dr. J. H. Gladstone and G. 
Gladstone on an aluminous mineral 
from the upper chalk near, 79. 

British army, Dr. W. Farr on the recent 
improvements in the health of the, 
219. 

British Isles, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on the 
distribution of fog around the, 57. 

British navy, E. J. Reed on the iron-cased 
ships of the, 232. 

Brixham, W. Pengelly on anew bone-cave 
at, 128. 

Broun (John Allan) on the supposed 
connexion between meteorological phe- 
nomena and the variations of the earth’s 
magnetic force, 49. 

Bryson (Alexander) on the aqueous ori- 
gin of granite, 110. 

Burnley coal-field and its fossil contents, 
J. TI. Wilkinson and J. Whitaker on 
the, 135. 


Caine (Rev. William) on ten years’ statis- 
tics of the mortality amongst the orphan 
children taken under the care of the 
Dublin Protestant orphan societies, 
208. 

Calculi, uric acid, Dr. Roberts on the sol- 
vent power of strong and weak solutions 
of the alkaline carbonates on, 90, 

Calvert (Dr. Crace) on the chemical com- 
position of some woods employed in the - 
navy, 77. 

Cameron (Captain) on the ethnology, 
geography, and commerce of the Cau- 
casus, 189. 

Carboniferous group of Britain, Edward 
Hull on the relative distribution of the 
calcareous andsedimentary strata of the, 
116, 


INDEX II, 


Carpenter (Philip P.) on the variations 
of Tecturella grandis, 137; on the 
cosmopolitan operations of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, 137. 

Casella (Mr.) on arew minimum mercu- 
rial thermometer proposed by, 74. 

Cataract, Dr. B. W. Richardson on the 
artificial production of, 171. 

Caucasus, Captain Cameron on the ethno- 
logy, geography, and commerce of the, 
189. 

Cayley (A.) on curves of the third order, 
2 


Cells of living beings, Prof. L. S. Beale 
on the structure and growth of the ele- 
mentary parts of, 164. 

Census of the United Kingdom in 1861, 
James T. Hammick on the general 
results of the, 220. 

Cephalopoda, dibranchiate, Albany Han- 
cock on certain points in the anatomy 
and physiology of the, 166. 

Chadwick (David) on the progress of 
Manchester from 1840 to 1860, 209; 
on recent improvements in cotton-gins, 
256. 

Charmouth, Prof. Owen on a dinosaurian 
reptile (Scelidosaurus Harrisoni) from 
the lower lias of, 121. 

China, Henry Duckworth on a new com- 
mercial route to, 194. 

to the North of India, letter from Sir 
II. Robinson, relating to. the journey 
of Major Sarel, Capt. Blakiston, Dr. 
Barton, and another, who are endea- 
vouring to pass from, 196. 

— and India, Andrew Henderson on 
the rise and progress of clipper and 
steam navigation on the coasts and 
rivers of, 258. 

Chloroform accidents, Dr. Charles Kidd 
on, 167. 

Chorea, Dr. J. Turnbull on the physiolo- 
gical and medicinal properties of sul- 
phate of aniline, and its use in the 
treatment of, 177. 

Chromascope, and what it reveals, by 
John Smith, 33; the prism and chro- 
mascope, 33. 

Clark (Latimer) on the formation of stand- 
ards of electrical quantity and resist- 
ance, 37. 

Clarke (Dr. W.) on a revision of national 
taxation, 216. 

Cleland (Dr. John) on the anatomy of 
Orthagoriscus mola, the short sunfish, 
138; on a method of craniometry, with 
observations on the varieties of form of 
the human skull, 164. 

Cloth, printing-, Alderman Neild on the 


277 


price of, and upland cotton from 1812 
to 1860, 229. 

Cloud-mirror, J. T. Goddard on the, 61. 

Coal, J. W. Salter on the bivalve shells of 
the, 131. 

Coal-field, Burnley, and its fossil contents, 
J.T. Wilkinson and J. Whitaker on the, 
135. = 

Coal-gas, W. Marriott on the separation 
of ammonia from, 86. 

Cold of Christmas 1860, and its destruct- 
ive effects, E. J. Lowe on the, 64. 

Collingwood (Cuthbert), a scheme to in- 
duce the mercantile marine to assist in 
the advancement of science by the in- 
telligent collection of objects of natural 
history from all parts of the globe, 138. 

Colour, observations upon the production 
of, by the prism, by J. A. Davies, 31. 

» presentations of, produced under 

novel conditions, 32. ; 

Comets and planets, on the resistance 
of the ether to the, and on the rotation 
of the latter, by J. S. S. Glennie, 13. 

Commerce, Charles Thompson on some 
exceptional articles of, 247. 

Compass, Archibald Smith and F.J. Evans 
on the effect produced on the deviation 
of the, by the length and arrangement 
of the compass needles, 45. 

Constantinople to Kurrachee, Col. Sir H. 
C. Rawlinson on the direct overland 
telegraph from, 197. 

Cooperation at Rochdale, the Rev. W. N. 
Molesworth on the progress of, 225. 
and its tendencies, Edmund Potter 

on, 230. 

Cooperative stores, their 
Athenzums, &c., 248. 
Cotton, W. Danson on Barragudo, from 
the plains of the Amazon, and on the 

flax-fibre, of North America, 140. 
, Henry Ashworth on the progress of 
science and art as developed in the 
bleaching of, at Bolton, 204. 
trade, Thomas Bazley on the, 206. 

, upland, Alderman Neild on the 
price of, from 1812 to 1860, 229. 

Cotton-gins, David Chadwick on recent 
improvements in, 256. 

Couburn (J.) on the culture of the vine in 
the open air, 140. 

Craniometry, Dr. John Cleland on a me- 
thod of, 164. 

Craven, ‘I’. W. Barrow’s remarks on the 
bone-caves of, 108. 

Crawfurd (John) on the connexion be- 
tween ethnology and physical geogra- 
phy, 177; on the antiquity of man from 
the evidence of languages, 191. 


bearing on 


278 


Crime, Henry Ashworth on capital punish- 
ments, and their influence on, 203. 

Cromleach and rocking-stones considered 
ethnologically, P. O'Callaghan on, 187. 

Cull (R.) on the antiquity of the Aryan 
languages, 193. 

Curves of the third order, A. Cayley on, 2. 

Cyathina Smithii, J. G. Jeffreys on an 

* abnormal form of, 146. 

Cyclones, Isaac Ashe on the causes of the 
phenomena of, 266, 

Cyprea, Dr. T. Alcock on some points in 
the anatomy of, 137, 


Daa (L.) on the ethnology of Finnmark, 
in Norway, 193, 

Danson (J. T.) on the growth of the 
human body in height and weight in 
males from 17 to 30 years of age, 216. 

(William) on the law of universal 
storms, 52; on Barragudo cotton from 
the plains of the Amazon, and on the 
flax-fibre cotton of North America, 140; 
on the manufacture of the human hair 
as an article of consumption and general 
use, 217. 

Daphnia Schefferi, Rev. A. R. Hogan on, 
146. 

Dartmoor, W. Pengelly on the age of the 
granites of, 127. 

Darwin (Mr.), H. Fawcett on the method 
of, in his treatise on the origin of spe- 
cies, 141. 


Daubeny (Dr.) on the evolution of am- | 


monia from volcanos, 77; on the func- 
tions discharged by the roots of plants; 
and on a violet peculiar to the calamine 
rocks in the neighbourhood of Aix-la- 
Chapelle, 141; on the influence exerted 
by light on the function of plants, 141. 

Davies (J. Alexander) on the production 
of colour by the prism, the passive 
mental effect or instinct in compre- 
hending the enlargement of the visual 
angles and other optical phenomena, 
31. 

Davy (Dr. John) on the action of lime on 
animal and vegetable substances, 165; 
on the blood of the common earth- 
worm, 165; on the question whether 
the hair is subject or not to a sudden 
change of colour, 166. 

Deane (H.) on a particular decomposition 
of ancient glass, 78. 

Delffs (Dr.) on morin, and the non-exist- 
ence of morotannic acid, 78. 

Digestion, Dr. G. Robinson on the con- 
nexion between the functions of respi- 
ration and, 173. 


Dobson (Thomas) on the general forms | 


REPORT—1861. 


of the symmetrical properties of plane 
triangles, 2. 

Donegal, R. H, Scott on the granitic rocks 
of, 31. 

Donnelly (Capt.) on the nature and results 
of the aid granted by the State towards 
the instruction of the industrial classes 
in elementary sciences, 217. 

Dredging, deep-sea, off the Shetland Isles, 
Rey. Alfred Merle Norman on the 
crustacea, echinodermata, and zoo- 
phytes obtained in, 151. 

Drifts of the Severn, Avon, Wye, and 
Usk, Rev. W. S. Symonds on some 
phenomena connected with the, 133. 

Dublin Protestant orphan societies, the 
Rev. W. Caine on ten years’ statistics 
of the mortality amongst the orphan 
children under the care of the, 208. 

Du Chaillu (P. B.), Prof. Owen on some 
objects of natural history from the col- 
lection of, 155; on the geography and 
natural history of Western Equatorial 
Africa, 189; on the people of Western 
Equatorial Africa, 190. 

Duckworth (Henry), new commercial 
route to China, 194. 

Dukinfield, William Fairbairn on the tem- 
perature of the earth’s crust, as exhi- 
bited by thermometrical returns ob- 
tained during the sinking of the deep 
mine at, 53. 


Earth, on the influence of the rotation of 
the, on the apparent path of a heavy 
particle, by Prof. Price, 6. 

Earth’s crust, William Fairbairn on the 
temperature of the, as exhibited by 
thermometrical returns obtained during 
the sinking of the deep mine at Dukin- 
field, 53. 

magnetic force, John Allan Broun 

on the supposed connexion between 
meteorological phenomena and the va- 
riations of the, 49. 

Earthworm, Dr. John Davy on the blood 
of the common, 165. 

Eddy (Dr.) on a class of gun-boats ca- 
pabie of engaging armour-plated ships 
at sea, with suggestions for fastening 
on armour-plates, 257. 

Educational institutions, J. Heywood on 
the inspection of endowed, 222. 

Effertz(Peter) ona brick-making machine, 
258. 

Ekman (C. F.) on the fundamental prin- 
ciples of algebra, chiefly with regard to 
negative and imaginary quantities, 4. 

| Electric light, Dr. Miller on photographic 

spectra of the, 87, 


INDEX II. 


Electrical discharge in vacuo, J, P. Gas- 
siot on the deposit of metals from the 
negative terminal of an induction coil 
during the, 38. 

Electrical quantity and resistance, Latimer 
Clarke and Sir Charles Bright on the 
formation of standards of, 37. 

coreg W.H.L. Russell on the theory 

-wrol, 9. 

Elsworth rock, and the clay above it, 
Harry Seeley on the, 132. 

Embroidery manufacture of Scotland and 
Treland since 1857, John Strang on the 
altered condition of the, 2438. 

Engine, direct action, W. B. Johnson on 
the, 263. 

Equations, differential, William Spottis- 
woode on Petzval’s asymptotic method 
of solving, 10. 

Ether, on the resistance of the, to the 
comets and planets, and on the rotation 
of the latter, by J. S. Stuart Glennie, 13. 

Ethnology and physical geography, John 
Crawfurd onthe connexion between, 177. 

of Finnmark, L. Daa onthe, 193. 

Eustachian tube in man, J. Toynbee on 
the action of the, 176. 

Evans (F. J.) on the effect produced on 
the deviation of the compass by the 
length and arrangement of the compass 
needles; and on a new mode of cor- 
recting the quadrantal deviation, 45; 
remarks on H.M.S. Warrior’s com- 
passes, 45. 

Eyes of animals, Prof. H. Miiller on the 
existence and arrangement of the fovea 
centralis retine in the, 171. 


Fairbairn (William) on the temperature 
of the earth’s crust, as exhibited by 
thermometrical returns obtained during 
the sinking of the deep mine at Du- 
kinfield, 53. 

Farr (Dr. W.) on the recent improvements 
in the health of the British army, 219. 

Fawcett (Henry) on the method of Mr. 
Darwin in his treatise on the origin of 
species, 141; on the economical effects 
of the recent gold discoveries, 269. 

Finnmark in Norway, ethnology of, L. 
Daa on the, 193. 

Fire-arms, elongated projectiles for rifled, 
T. Aston on, 253. 

Fires, C. W. Siemens, ona system of tele- 
graphic communication adopted in Ber- 
lin in case of, 264, 

, J. F. Bateman on street-pipe ar- 
rangements for extinguishing fires, 255. 

Fishes, Charles Robertson on the cervical 
and occipital vertebrz of osseous, 172. 


279 


Fison (Mrs.) on sanitary improvements, 
220. 

FitzRoy (Rear-Admiral) on tidal observa- 
tions, 56. 

Flora of Manchester, L. H. Grindon on 
the, 145. 
Fluids, Dr. Joule and Prof, W. Thomson 
on the thermal effects of elastic, 83. 
Fog, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on the distribu- 
tion of, around the British Isles, 57. 
Force, on the application of the principle 
of the conservation of, to the mechani- 
cal explanation of the correlation of 
forces, 26. 

Foster (G. C.) on piperic and hydropi- 
peric acids, 78. 

Functions, W. H. L. Russell on the cal- 
culus of, 19. 

Fusiyama, R. Alcock’s journey in the in- 
terior of Japan, with the ascent of, 183. 


| Galloway (Prof.) on the composition and 


valuation of superphosphates, 79. 

Galvanic currents, on spontaneous terres- 
trial, 35. 

Garner (K.) on the encephalon of mam- 
malia, 166. 

Gas-burners, J. J. Griffin on the con- 
struction of, for chemical use, 81. 

Gases, Dr. Andrews on the effect of great 
pressures combined with cold on the 
six non-condeusable, 76. 

, on the emission and absorption of 
rays of light by certain, Dr. J, H. Glad- 
stone on, 79. 

Gassiot (J. P.) on the deposit of metals 
from the negative terminal of an induc- 
tion coil during the electrical discharge 
in vacuo, 38. 

Gauge,deep-sea pressure-,James Glaisher 
on a, 59, 

Geography, physical, John Crawfurd on the 
connexion between ethnology and, 177. 

Gibb (Dr. George D.) on the arrest of 
puparial metamorphosis of Vanessa 
Antiopa or Camberwell beauty, 143. 

Gilbert (Dr. J. H.) on some points in 
connexion with the exhaustion of soils, 
84, 

Gipsies, B, C. Smart on the English, and 
their dialect, 199. 

Glacial motion, William Hopkins on the 
theories of, 61, 

Glaciers, active and extinct, in South 
Greenland, Colonel Shaffher on, 198. 
Gladstone (G.) on an aluminous mineral 

from the upper chalk near Brighton, 79. 

Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on the distribution 
of fog around the british Isles, 57; on 
the emission and absorption of rays of 


280 


light by certain gases, 79; on an alu- 
minous mineral from the upper chalk 
near Brighton, 79. 

Glaisher (James) on a deep-sea thermo- 
meter invented by Henry Johnson, 58 ; 
ona deep-sea pressure-gauge invented by 
Henry Johnson, 59; on a daily weather 
map, on Admiral FitzRoy’s paper on 
the Royal Charter storm, and on some 
meteorological documents relating to 
Mr. Green’s balloon ascents, 61. 

Glass, H. Deane on a particular decom- 
position of ancient, 78. 

Glennie (J. S. Stuart) on the resistance 
of the ether to the comets and planets, 
and on the rotation of the latter, 13; 
on the application of the principle of 
the conservation of force to the me- 
chanical explanation of the correlation 
of forces, 26. 

Goddard (J. T.) on the cloud-mirror and 
sunshine-recorder, 61. 

Gold, Dr. Smith on certain difficulties in 
the way of separating, from quartz, 92. 

of North Wales, T. A. Readwin on 
the, 129. 

Gordon (Rev. C. R.) on the laws dis- 
coverable as to the formation of land 
on the globe, 112. 

Gorilla, Dr. J. E. Gray on the height of 
the, 144, 

Gossage (W.) on the history of the alkali 
manufacture, 80. 

Gould (C.), results of the geological survey 
of Tasmania, 112. 

Granite, A. Bryson on the aqueous origin 
of, 110. 

, J. G. Marshall on the relation of the 
Eskdale granite at Bootle to the schis- 
tose rocks, with remarks on the general 
metamorphic origin of, 117. 

Granites of Dartmoor, W. Pengelly on the 
age of the, 127. 

Granitic rocks of Donegal, R. H. Scott 
on the, 1381. 

Gray (Dr. J. E.) on the height of the 
Gorilla, 144. 

Green (A. H.) on the faults of a portion 
of the Lancashire coal-field, 113. 

Greenland, South, on active and extinct 
glaciers in, by Colonel Shaffner, 198. 

Greg (R. P.), some considerations on 
M. Haidinger’s communication on the 
origin and fall of aérolites, 13. 

Gregory (Frank), exploration of N.W. 
Australia, 197. 

Griffin (J. J.) on the construction of gas- 
burners for chemical use, 81. 

Grindon (L. H.) on the flora of Man- 
chester, 145. 


REPORT—1861. 


Gun-boats, Dr. Eddy on a class of, capable 
of engaging armour-plated ships at 
sea, 257. 


Haan (Bierens de) on definite integrals, 4. 

Hagen (Dr.), comparison of fossil insects 
of England and Bavaria, 113. 

Haidinger, R. P. Greg on his communi- 
cation on the origin and fall of aéro- 
lites, 13. 

Haidinger (Professor W.), an attempt to 
account for the physical condition and 
the fall of meteorites upon our planet, 
15; on the present state of the Imperial 
Geological Institution of Vienna, 121. 

Hair, Dr, John Davy on the, being sub- 
ject or not to a sudden change of 
colour, 166. 

, human, W. Danson on the manu- 
facture of the, as an article of consump- 
tion and general use, 217. 

Hamilton (Sir W. R.) on geometrical 
rests in space, 4. 

Hammick (James T.) on the general 
results of the census of the United 
Kingdom in 1861, 220. 

Hancock (Albany) on certain points in 
the anatomy and physiology of the 
dibranchiate cephalopoda, 166. 

Harkness (Prof.) on the old red sandstone 
of South Perthshire, 114; on the sand- 
stones and their associated deposits of 
the valley of the Eden and the Cumber- 
land plain, 115. 

Haworth (John) on a perambulator and 
street railway, 258. 

Hector (Dr. James) on the capabilities for 
settlement of the central parts of British 
North America, 195, 

Henderson (Andrew) on the rise and 
progress of clipper and steam navigation 
on the coasts and rivers of China and 
India, 258. 

Hennessy (Professor) on a probable cause 
of the diurnal variation of magnetic 
dip and declination, 39; on the con- 
nexion between storms and _ vertical 
disturbances of the atmosphere, 61. 

Herring, J. M. Mitchell on the migration 
of the, 149. 

fishery, statistics of the, 156. 

Heywood (J.) on the inspection of endowed 
educational institutions, 222, 

Higgins (Rev. H. H.) on the arrangement 
of hardy herbaceous plants adopted in 
the Botanic Gardens, Liverpool, 145. 

Hincks (Rev. Edward) on the quantity of 
the acceleration of the moon’s mean 
motion, as indicated by the record of 
certain ancient eclipses, 22; remarks 


INDEX II. 


on his paper by the Astronomer Royal, 
12. 


Hincks (Rev. T.) on the development of 
the Hydroid Polyps Clavatella and 
Stauridia, with remarks on the relation 
between the polyp and its medusoid, 
and between the polyp and the medusa, 
145; on the ovicells of the Polyzoa, 
with reference to the views of Prof. 
Huxley, 145. 

Hogan (Rev. A. Riky) on Niphargus 
fontanus, 146; on Daphnia Scheefferi, 
146. 

Home (D. Milne), notice of elongated 
ridges of drift, common in the south of 
Scotland, called ‘ Kaims,’ 115. 

Hopkins (William) on the theories of 
glacial motion, 61. 

Howson (Richard), Peter Livsey on a 
mercurial barometer invented by, 64. 
Hull (Edward) on isomeric lines, and the 
relative distribution of the calcareous 
and sedimentary strata of the carboni- 

ferous group of Britain, 116. 

Human body, on the growth of the, in 
height and weight, in males from 17 to 
30 years of age, J. T. Danson on, 216. 

— system, Dr. Edward Smith on the 
influence of the season of the year on 
the, 175. 

Hume (Rev. A.) on the relations of the 
population in Ireland, as shown by the 
statistics of religious belief, 196 ; on the 
condition of national schools in Liver- 
pool as compared with the population, 
223. 

Hurst (W. J.) on the sulphur compound 
formed by the action of sulphuretted 
hydrogen on formiate of lead at a high 
temperature, 82. 

Huxley (Prof.), the Rev. T. Hincks on the 
ovicells of the Polyzoa, with reference 
to the views of, 145. 

Hydraulic press, Edward T. Bellhouse on 
the applications of the, 255. 

Hyrtl (Prof.) on nerves without end, 167; 
on the pneumatic processes of the occi- 
pital bone, 167; on portions of lungs 
without blood-vessels, 167. 


Ichthyosauri, C. Moore on two, 121. 

Income-tax, Rev. Canon Richson on the, 
240. 

India, Dr. Mouatt on prison dietary in, 
170. 

India and China, Andrew Henderson on 
the rise and progress of clipper and 
steam navigation on the coasts and 
rivers of, 258, 

Industrial classes, Capt. Donnelly on the 


281 


nature and results of the aid granted 
by the State towards the instruction of 
the, in elementary science, 217. 

Insectivora, Dr. Rolleston on some points 
in the anatomy of, 173. 

Insects, fossil, of England and Bavaria, 
comparison of, by Dr. Hagen, 113. 

Invention, T. Webster on property in, and 
its effect on the arts and manufactures, 
266. 

Ireland, W. H. Baily’s remarks upon the 
Silurian rocks of, 108. 

, on the relations of the population 
in, as shown by the statistics of religious 
belief, Rev. A. Hume on, 196. 

Iris, J. J. Walker on an, seen in water, 
near sunset, 35. 

Iron construction, and on the strength of 
iron columns and arches, F. W. Shields 
on, 265. 

Iron girders, B. B. Stoney on the deflec- 
tion of, 265. 

Isomeric lines, Edward Hull on, and the 
relative distribution of the calcareous 
and sedimentary strata of the carboni- 
ferous group of Britain, 116. 


James (Colonel Sir Henry) on photo- 
zincography, by means of which photo- 
graphic copies of the Ordnance maps 
are chiefly multiplied, either on their 
original, or on a reduced or enlarged 
scale, 262. 

Japan, journey in the interior of, with the 
ascent of Fusiyama, by R. Alcock, 183. 

Jeffreys (J. G.) on an abnormal form of 
Cyathina Smithii, 146. 

Jenkin (Fleeming) on permanent thermo- 
electric currents in circuits of one 
metal, 39. 

Jessen (Dr.) on the absorbing power of 
the roots of plants, 147. 

Johnson (Henry), James Glaisher on a 
deep-sea thermometer invented by, 58; 
on a deep-sea pressure-gauge invented 
by, 59. 

Johnson (W. B.) on the application of 
the direct-action principle, 263. 

Joule (Dr.) on the thermal effects of 
elastic fluids, 83. 

Jukes (Professor) on the progress of the 
survey in Ireland, 117, 


‘Kaims,’ D. Milne Home on elongated 
ridges of drift, common in the South of 
Scotland, called, 115. 

Kew observatory, B, Stewart on the pho- 
tographic records given at the, of the 
great magnetic storm of the end of 
Aug. and beginning of Sept, 1859, 47, 


282 


Kidd (Dr. Charles) on chloroform acci- 
dents, and some new physiological 
facts as to their explanation and re- 
moval, 167. 

Kirkman (Rev. T. P.) on the roots of sub- 
stitutions, 4. 

Knockshigowna in Tipperary, A. B. 
Wynne on the geology of, 135. 


Lancashire coal-field, A. H. Green on the 
faults of a portion of the, 113. 

Language, John Crawfurd on the anti- 
quity of man from the evidence of, 191. 

Larva, H: T. Stainton on a new mining, 
recently discovered, 159. 

Lawes (J. B.) on some points in connexion 
with the exhaustion of soils, 84. 

Lead, formiate of, W. J. Hurst on the 
sulphur compound formed by the action 
of sulphuretted hydrogen on, 82. 

Leaves, Maxwell T. Masters on the rela- 
tion between pinnate and palmate, 148. 

Lens, panoramic, Thomas Sutton on the, 
33. 

Light, on the emission and absorption of 
rays of, by certain gases, by Dr. J. H. 
Gladstone, 79. 

Lightning figures, Charles Tomlinson on, 
48 


Lime, Dr. John Davy on the action of, 
on animal and vegetable substances, 
165. 

Limestone, carboniferous, Mr. Richard- 
son on the details of the, as laid open 
by the railway cutting and tunnel near 
Almondsbury, 130. 

Liverpool, G. H. Morton on the pleisto- 
cene deposits of the district around, 120. 

, Rev. A. Hume on the condition 
of national schools in, as compared 
with the population, 1861, 223, 

Liquids, Charles Tomlinson on the cohe- 
sion-figures of, 93. 

Liver, Dr. Rolleston on the homologies 
of the lobes of the, in mammalia, 174. 

Livsey (Peter J.) on a mercurial baro- 
meter invented by R. Howson, 64. 

Lloyd (Dr. J, H.) on purifying towns from 
sewage by means of dry cloace, 85. 

Lloyd (Rev. H.) on the secular changes 
of terrestrial magnetism, and their con- 
nexion with disturbances, 41. 

Loch Katrine, Dr. Wallace on the com- 
position and properties of the water of, 
94. 


Tarbert, East and West, John Ram- 
say on the proposal to form a ship 
canal between, 197. 

Lowe (E. J.) on the great cold of Christ- 

_ mas 1860, and its destructive effects, 64. 


REPORT—1861. 


Lustre, binocular, Sir David Brewster on, 
29 


Lyons (Lord), letter from Capt. Maury to, 
on the importance of an expedition to 
the antarctic regions for meteorological 
and other scientific purposes, 65. 


Macadam (Dr. S.) on the proportion of 

. tin present in tea-lead, 85; on the pro- 
portion of arsenic present in paper- 
hangings, 86; on an economical mode 
of boiling rags, &c. with alkaline ley, 
86 


Macfie (R. A.) on patents considered in- 
ternationally, 263. 

Macqueen (C. E.) on the true principles 
of taxation, 225. 

Magnetic dip and declination, Prof. Hen- 
nessy on a probable cause of the diurnal 
variation of, 39. 

effect of the sun or moon on instru- 

ments at the earth’s surface, G. John- 

stone Stoney on the amount of the di- 

rect, 47. 

force, terrestrial, on the laws of the 

principal inequalities, solar and lunar, 

of, by the Astronomer Royal, 36. 

force, on the supposed connexion 

between meteorological phenomena and 
the variations of the earth’s, by John 

Allan Broun, 49. 

storm of the end of August and be- 
ginning of September 1859, B. Stewart 
on the photographic records given at 
the Kew observatory of the great, 47. 

Magnetism, terrestrial, Rev. H. Lloyd on 
the secular changes of, and their con- 
nexion with disturbances, 41, 

Malay peninsula. H. Wise on a proposed 
railway across the, 201. 

Mammalia, R, Garner on the encephalon 
of, 166. 

, Dr. Rolleston on the homologies of 
the lobes of the liver in, 174. 

Man, John Crawfurd on the antiquity of, 
from the evidence of language, 191. 
Manchester, E. W. Binney on the geolo- 
gical features of the neighbourhood of, 

109. 

——., L. H. Grindon on the flora of, 145. 

, on the progress of, from 1840-60, 

David Chadwick on, 209. 

gas-works, John Shuttleworth on the, 
240. 

Marriott (W.) on the separation of am- 
monia from coal-gas, 86. 

Marshall (J. G.) on the relation of the 
Eskdale granite at Bootle to the schis- 
tose rocks, with remarks on the general 
metamorphic origin of granite, 117. 


INDEX II. 


Mason (Septimus) on a locomotive for 
common roads, 269. 

Masters (Maxwell T.) on the relation 
between pinnate and palmate leaves, 
148. 

Matthiessen (Dr.) on vesicular structure 
in, 92. 

Maury (Captain) on the importance of an 
expedition to the Antarctic regions for 
meteorological and other scientific pur- 
poses, 65. 

Mendoza, R. Bridge on the great earth- 
quake at, March 20, 1861, 187. 

Mercer (John) on madder photographs, 87. 

Metal, Fleeming Jenkin on permanent 
thermo-electric currents in circuits of 
one, 39. 

Metals, H, H. Vivian’s microscopic obser- 
vations on the structure of, 34. 

, J. P, Gassiot on the deposit of, from 
the negative terminal of an induction 
coil during the electrical discharge in 
vacuo, 38. 

Meteorites, W. Haidinger’s attempt to 
account for the physical condition and 
the fall of, upon our planet, 15. 

, formation of, 21. 

Micrometers, Sir David Brewster on pho- 
tographic, 28. 

Miller (Dr.), his address as President of 
Section B, 75; on photographic spectra 
of the electric light, 87. 

Mineral, aluminous, from the upper chalk 
near Brighton, Dr. J. H. and G. Glad- 
stone on, 79. 

Mitchell (J. M.) on the migration of the 
herring, 149, 

Moffat (Dr.) on atmospheric ozone, 88; 
on sulphuretted hydrogen as a product 
of putrefaction, 89. 

Mole, Prof. Owen on the cervical and 
lumbar vertebre of the, 152. 

Molesworth (Rev. W. N.) on the progress 
of cooperation at Rochdale, 225. 

Moon, mountains of the, Dr. Beke on the 
origin of the designation, 184. 

Moon’s mean motion, Rev. E. Hincks on 
the quantity of the acceleration of the, 
as indicated by the records of certain 
ancient eclipses, 22; G. B. Airy’s re- 
marks on, 12. 

Moore (C.), notes on two ichthyesauri to 
be exhibited to the Meeting, 121. 

Morell (J. D.) on the physical and phy- 
siological processes involved in sensa- 
tion, 168. 

Morgan (John E.) on an anemometer for 
registering the maximum force and ex- 
treme variation of the wind, 72, 

Morin, Dr. Delffs on, 78, | 


283 


Morotanniec acid, Dr. Delffs on the non- 
existence of, 78. 

Moroxite, Dr. Voelcker on the composition 
of crystallized, 93. 

Morton (G. H.) on the pleistocene depo- 
sits of the district around Liverpool, 120. 

Mouatt (Dr.) on prison dietary in India, 
170. 

Miiller (Prof. H.) on the existence and 
arrangement of the fovea centralis re- 
tinze in the eyes of animals, 171. 

Murchison (Sir R. I.), his address as Pre- 
sident of Section C, 95; onthe maps and 
sections recently published by the Geo- 
logical Survey, 121; letter from Sir H. 
Robinson relating to the journey of 
Major Sarel, Capt. Blakiston, Dr. Bar- 
ton, and another, who are endeavouring 
to pass from China to the North of India, 
196. 


Navigation, Andrew Henderson on the 
rise and progress of clipper and steam, 
on the coasts and rivers of China and 
India, 258. 

Navy, Dr. Crace Calvert on the chemical 
composition of some woods employed 
in the, 77. 

Neild (Alderman) on the price of print- 
ing-cloth and upland cotton from 1812 
to 1860, 229. 

Newmarch (William), his address as Pre- 
sident of Section F, 201; on the extent 
to which sound principles of taxation 
are embodied in the legislation of the 
United Kingdom, 230. 

New Zealand, Prof. Owen on the remains 
of a Plesiosaurian reptile (Plesiosaurus 
Australis) from the oolitic formation in 
the middle island of, 122. 

, J. Yates on the excess of water in 
the region of the earth about, 136. 

Nile, Dr. Beke on the mountains forming 
the eastern side of the basiv of the, 184, 

Norman (Rey. Alfred Merle) on the 
crustacea, echinodermata, and zoo- 
phytes obtained in deep-sea dredging 
off the Shetland Isles in 1861, 151. 


O'Callaghan (P.) on cromleachs and 
rocking-stones considered ethnologi-. 
cally, 187. 

Old red sandstone of South Perthshire, 
Prof, Harkness on the, 114. 

Orphan children under the care of the. 
Dublin Protestant orphan societies, on 
ten years’ statistics of the mortality 
amongst the, by the Rev. W. Caine, 208. 

Orthagoriscus mola, Dr. John Cleland on 
the anatomy of, 138. 


284 


REPORT—1861. 


Otoscope, Dr. Politzer’s, J. Toynbee on | Plants, Dr. Daubeny on the functions 


the action of the eustachian tube in 
man, as demonstrated by, 176. : 

Owen (Prof.) on a dinosaurian reptile 
(Scelidosaurus Harrisoni) from the 
lower lias of Charmouth, 121; on the 
remains of a Plesiosaurian reptile (Ple- 
siosaurus Australis) from the oolitic 
formation in the middle island of New 
Zealand, 122; on the cervical and 
lumbar vertebrze of the mole (Talpa 
Europzea), 152; on some objects of 
natural history from the collection of 
M. Du Chaillu, 155. 

Ozone, Dr. Moffat on atmospheric, 88. 


Panoramic lens, Thomas Sutton onthe, 33. 

Paranaphthaline, Prof. Anderson on the 
constitution of, 76. 

Patents—can they be defended on econo- 
mical grounds? by Prof. J. E. T. 
Rogers, 240. 

Patent laws, Sir W. G. Armstrong on the, 
252. 

tribunals, W. Spence on, 265. 

Patterson (W.) on certain markings in 
sandstones, 123. 

Pauperism of England, Scotland, and 
Treland, 1851 to 1860, Frederick Purdy 
on the relative, 231. 

Pengelly (W.) on a new bone-cave at 
Brixham, 123; on the relative age of 
the Petherwin and Barnstaple beds, 
124; on the recent encroachments of 
the sea on the shores of Torbay, 124; 
on the age of the granites of Dartmoor, 
127. 

Perambulator and street railway, John 
Haworth on a, 258. 

Perchloric acid and its hydrates, Prof. 
Roscoe on, 91. 

Perthshire, South, Prof. Harkness on the 
old red sandstone of, 114. 

Petzval’s asymptotic method of solving 
differential equations, W. Spottiswoode 
on, 10. 

Phillips (Prof.) on the post-glacial gravels 
of the valley of the Thames, 129. 

Photographic micrometers, Sir David 
Brewster on, 28. 

records given at the Kew observa- 

tory of the great magnetic storm of the 

end of August and beginning of Sep- 

tember 1859, B. Stewart on the, 47. 

spectra of the electric light, Dr. 
Miller on, 87. 

Photozincography, Colonel Sir Henry 
James on, 2638. 

Piperic and hydropiperic acids, G. C. 
Foster on, 78, 


discharged by the roots of, 141. 

, Dr. Daubeny on the influence 

exerted by light on the function of, 141. 

, Dr. Jessen on the absorbing power 
of the roots of, 147. 

Pleistocene deposits of the district around 
Liverpool, G. H. Morton on the, 120. 

Plesiosaurus Australis, Prof. Owen on the 
remains of, from the oolitic formation 
inthe midde island of New Zealand, 122, 

Polyps, the Rev. T. Hincks on the deve- 
lopment of the hydroid, Clavatella and 
Stauridia, 145. 

Polyzoa, Rev. T. Hincks on the ovicells 
of the, with reference to the views of 
Prof. Huxley, 145. 

Population, John Strang on the compara- 
tive progress of the English and Scot- 
tish, as shown by the census of 1861, 
243. 

Porter (H. J. Ker) on farm labourers’ 
cottages, 230. 

Potter (Edmund) on cooperation and its 
tendencies, 230. 

Price (Prof.) on the influence of the rota- 
tion of the earth on the apparent path 
of a heavy particle, 6. 

Prideaux (‘I’. S.) on economy in fuel, 269. 
Prism, J. A. Davies’s observations upon 
the production of colour by the, 31. 
and chromascope, John Smith on 

the, 38. 

Prison dietary in India, Dr. Mouatt on, 
170. 

Punishments, capital, and their influence 
on crime, Henry Ashworth on, 203. 
Purdy (Frederick) on the relative pau- 
perism of England, Scotland, and Ire- 

land, 1851-1860, 231. 

Putrefaction, Dr. Moffat on sulphuretted 

hydrogen as a product of, 89. 


Quantic, W. Spottiswoode on the reduc- 
tion of the decadic binary to its cano- 
nical form, 11. 

Quartz, Dr, Smith oncertain difficulties in 
the way of separating gold from, 92. 


Railway, H. Wise on a proposed railway 
across the Malay peninsula, 201. 

, street, John Haworth on a, 258. 

accidents, Dr. G. Arnott on, from 

trains running off the rails, 252. 

break, sledge, James Higgin on a, 
262. 

Rainfail, British, G. J. Symons on, 74. 

Ramsay (John) on the proposal to form a 
ship canal between East and West Loch 
Tarbert, 197. 


INDEX II. 


Rankin (Rev. T.), meteorological obser- 
vations at Huggate, Yorkshire, 73. 

Rankine (Prof. W. J. M.) on the resist- 
ance of ships, 263, 264. 

Rawlinson (Col. Sir H. C.) on the direct 
overland telegraph from Constantinople 
to Kurrachee, 197. 

Readwin (IT. A.) on the gold of North 
Wales, 129. 

Reed (E. J.) on the iron-cased ships of 
the British Navy, 232. 

Reid (Peter), statistics of the herring 
fishery, 156. 

Remak (Prof.) on the influence of the 
sympathetic nerve on voluntary mus- 
cles, as witnessed in the treatment of 
progressive muscular atrophy by se- 
condary electric currents, 171. 

Respiration and digestion, Dr. G. Robin- 
son on the connexion between the 
functions of, 173. 


Resuscitation, Dr. B. W. Richardson’s 


physiological researches on, 172. 

Retina, Sir David Brewster on the com- 
pensation of impressions moving over 
the, 29; onthe optical study of the, 29. 

Revenue, Charles Thompson on some ex- 
ceptional articles of commerce, and un- 
desirable sources of, 247. 

Richardson (Dr. B. W.) on the artificial 
production of cataract, 171; researches 
on resuscitation, 172. 

Richardson (Mr.) on the details of the 
carboniferous limestone, as laid open 
by the railway cutting and tunnel near 
Almondsbury, North of Bristol, 130. 

Richson (Rey. Canon) on the income-tax, 
240. 

Roberts (William) on the solvent power 
of strong and weak solutions of the alka- 
line carbonates on uric acid calculi, 90. 

Robertson (Charles) on the cervical and 
occipital vertebrz of osseous fishes, 172. 

Robinson (Dr. George) on the connexion 
between the functions of respiration 
and digestion, 173. 

Robinson (Sir Hercules), letter from, rela- 
ting to the journey of Major Sarel, Capt. 
Blakiston, Dr. Barton, and another, who 
are endeavouring to pass from China to 
the North of India, 196. 

Robinson (J.) on the application of work- 
shop tools to the construction of steam- 
engines and other machinery, 264. 

Rochdale, the Rev. W. N. Molesworth on 
the progress of cooperation at, 225, 

Rogers (Prof. J. E. T.), can patents be 
defended on economical grounds? 240; 
on the definition and incidence of taxa- 
tion, 240; on prices in England, 1582- 


285 


1620, and the effect of the American 
discoveries upon them during that pe- 
riod, 269. 

Rolleston (Dr.) on the anatomy of Ptero- 
pus, 178; on some points in the ana- 
tomy of Insectivora, 173; on the homo- 
logies of the lobes of the liver in Mam- 
malia, 174. 

Roscoe (Professor) on perchloric acid and 
its hydrates, 91. 

Rose (Thomas) on presentations of colour 
produced under novel conditions, with 
their assumed relation to the received 
theory of light and colour, 32. 

Russell (Dr.) on vesicular structure in 
copper, 92; on an apparatus for the 
rapid separation and measurement of 
gases, 95. 

Russell (W. H. L.) on the calculus of 
functions, with remarks on the theory 
of electricity, 9. 

Rotation, Professor Sylvester on the in- 
volution of axes of, 12. 


Salter (J. W.) on the nature of Sigillariz, 
and on the bivalve shells of the coal, 
131, 

Sandstones, Prof. Harkness on the, and 
their associated deposits of the Valley 
of the Eden and the Cumberland plain, 
115. 

Scelidosaurus Harrisoni, Prof. Owen on, 
from the lower lias of Charmouth, 
121. 

Schools, national, in Liverpool, Rev, A. 
Hume on the condition of, as compared 
with the population, 1861, 223. 

Science, elementary, Captain Donnelly 
on the nature and results of the aid 
now granted by the State towards the 
instruction of the industrial classes in, 
217. 

Sclater (P. L.) on the late increase of our 
knowledge of the struthious birds, 
158. 

Scott (R. H.) on the granitic rocks of 
Donegal, and the minerals associated 
therewith, 131, 

Sea thermometer, on a deep-, 58; pres- 
sure-gauge, 59. 

, C. W. Siemens on a bathometer, 
or instrument to indicate the depth of 
the, on board ship without suhmerging 
a line, 73. 

Seeley (Harry) on the Elsworth rock, 
and the clay above it, 132. 

Sensation, J. D. Morell on the physical 
and physiological processes involved in, 
168. 

Shaffner (Colonel) on the Spitzbergen 


286 


~ eurrent, and active and extinct glaciers 
in South Greenland, 198. 

Shaw (William Thomas) on the method 
of interpreting some of the phenomena 
of light, 33. 

Shetland Isles, Rev. Alfred Merle Nor- 
man on the crustacea, echinodermata, 
and zoophytes obtained in deep-sea 
dredging off the, in 1861, 151. 

Shields (F. W.) on iron construction, 
with remarks on the strength of iron 
columns and arches, 265. 

Ship canal, John Ramsay on the proposal 
to form a, between East and West Loch 
Tarbert, 197. 

Ships, armour-plated, Dr. Eddy on a 
class of gun-boats capable of engaging, 
257. 

, iron-cased, of the British navy, 

E, J. Reed on the, 232. 

, W. J. M. Rankine on the resist- 
ance of, 263; appendix, 264. 

Shuttleworth (John), some account of the 
Manchester gas-works, 240. 

Siemens (C. W.) on an electric resistance 
thermometer for observing tempera- 
tures at inaccessible situations, 44; on 
a bathometer, or instrument to indicate 
the depth of the sea on board ship 
without submerging a line, 73; on a 
system of telegraphic communication 
adopted in Berlin in case of fires, 264. 

Sigillarie, J. W. Salter on the nature of, 
131. 

Silver (Messrs.) on telegraphic wires,269. 

Skull, human, Dr. John Cleland on the 
varieties of form of the, 164. 

Smart (Bath C.) on the English gipsies 
and their dialect, 199. 

Smith (Archibald) on the effect produced 
on the deviation of the compass by the 
length and arrangement of the com- 
pass needles, and on a new mode of 
correcting the quadrantal deviation, 
45 


Smith (Dr.) on certain difficulties in the’ 


way of separating gold from quartz, 
92. 

Smith (Dr. Edward) on the influence of 
the season of the year on the human 
system, 175. 

Smith (John) on the chromascope, and 
what it reveals, 33; on the prism and 
the chromascope, 33. 

Smithsonian Institution, Philip P. Car- 
penter on the cosmopolitan operations 
of the, 137. 

Snow (Capt. W. P.) on the geographical 
science of arctic explorations, and the 
advantage of continuing it, 20]. 


REPORT—1861. 


Soils, J. B. Lawes and Dr. J. H. Gilbert 
on some points in connexion with the 
exhaustion of, 84. 

Species, H. Fawcett on the method of 
Mr. Darwin in his treatise of the origin 
of, 141. 

Spence (W.) on patent tribunals, 265. 

Spiders, Tuffen West on some points of 
interest in the structure and habits of, 
162. 

Spitzbergen current, Colonel Shaffner on 
the, 198. 

Spottiswoode (William) on Petzval’s 
asymptotic method of solving differen- 
tial equations, 10; on the reduction of 
the decadic binary quantic to its cano- 
nical form, 11. 

Stainton (H. T.) on a new mining larva 
recently discovered, 159. 

Stansfield (A.) on varieties of Blechnum 
Spicant collected in 1860 and 1861, 
159. 

Stars, Daniel Vaughan on cases of pla- 
netary instability indicated by the ap- 
pearance of temporary, 24. 

Steam-engines and other machinery, J. 
Robinson on the application of work- 
shop tools to the construction of, 264. 

St. Elias, on the glacial movements in the 
vicinity of, on the N.W. coast of 
America, by Admiral Sir E. Belcher, 
186. 


Steel-pipe arrangements for extinguish- 
ing fires, J. F. Bateman on, 255. 

Stewart (Balfour) on the photographic 
records given at the Kew observarory 
of the great magnetic storm of the end 
of August and beginning of September 
1859, 47; on a new minimum mer- 
curial thermometer proposed by Mr. 
Casella, 74. 

Stone (Daniel) on the Rochdale co- 
operative societies, 269. 

Stoney (B. B.) on the deflection of iron 
girders, 265. 

Stoney (G. Johnstone) on the amount of 
the direct magnetic effect of the sun or 
moon on instruments at the earth’s 
surface, 47. 

Storms, Professor Hennessy on the con- 
nexion between, and vertical disturb- 
ances of the atmosphere, 61. 

, universal, William Danson on the 
law of, 52. 

Strang (John) on the comparative pro- 
gress of the English and Scottish popu- 
lation as shown by the census of 1861, 
248; on the altered condition of the em- 
broidery manufacture of Scotland and 
Ireland since 1857, 243. 


INDEX II. 


Strikes, Dr. J. Watts on, 249. 

Stuart (Mr. Macdonald) on recent ex- 
plorations in Australia, 184. 

Substitutions, Rev. T, P. Kirkman on the 
roots of, 4, 

Subterranean movements, Prof, Vaughan 
on, 134. 

Sulphur compound, W. J. Hurst on the, 
formed by the action of sulphuretted 
hydrogen on formiate of lead at a high 
temperature, 82. 

Sun or moon, G. Johnstone Stoney on 

- the amount of the direct magnetic 
effect of the, on instruments at the 
earth’s surface, 47. 

Sunfish, the short, Dr. John Cleland on the 
anatomy of Orthagoriscus mola, 138. 
Sun’s heat, Prof. W. Thomson on the 
physical considerations regarding the 
possible age of the, 27; on the origin 

and total amount of the, 28. 

Sunshine recorder, J.T. Goddard on the, 
61. 

Sutton (Thomas) on the panoramic lens, 
33 


Sykes (Colonel) on the progress and pro- 
spects of the trade of England with 
China since 1833, 246. 

Sylvester (Prof.) on the involution of axes 
of rotation, 12. 

Symonds (Rev. W. 8.) on some pheno- 
mena connected with the drifts of the 
Severn, Avon, Wye, and Usk, 133. 

Symons (G. J.) on British rainfall, 74. 


Talpa Europea, Prof. Owen on the cer- 
vical and lumbar vertebre of the, 152. 

Tasmania, results of the geological survey 
of, by C. Gould, 112. 

Tate (W.) on Bailey’s steam-pressure 
gauge, 266. 

Taxation, national, Dr. W. Clarke on a 
revision of, 216. 

——, C. E. Macqueen on the true prin- 
ciples of, 225. 

, on the definition and incidence of, 
by Prof. J. E. T. Rogers, 240. 

Tecturella grandis, Philip P. Carpenter 
on the variations of, 137. 

Telegraph, overland, Col. Sir H. C. Raw- 
linson on the direct, from Constanti- 
nople to Kurrachee, 197. 

Temperatures, C. W. Siemens on an elec- 
tric resistance thermometer for observ- 
ing, at inaccessible situations, 44. 

Tennant (Prof.) on a specimen of mete- 
oric iron from Mexico, 93. 

Terrestrial galvanic currents, G. B. Airy 
on spontaneous, 35. 

—— magnetic force, on the laws of the 


287 


principal inequalities, solar and lunar, 
of, by the Astronomer Royal, 36. 

Thermo-electric currents in circuits of 
one metal, Fleeming Jenkin on _per- 
manent, 39. 

Thermometer, C. W. Siemens on an elec- 
tric resistance, for observing tempera- 
tures at inaccessible situations, 44. 

-—, deep-sea, James Glaisher on a, 
invented by Henry Johnson, 58. 

,» On a new minimum mercurial, 
proposed by Mr. Casella, by Balfour 
Stewart, 74. 

Thompson (Charles) on some exceptional 
articles of commerce and undesirable 
sources of revenue, 247. 

Thomson (Professor W.), physical con- 
siderations regarding the possible age 
of the sun’s heat, 27; on the thermal 
effects of elastic fluids, 83; on the de- 
velopment of Synapta inherens, 162. 

Thorburn (Rev. W. R.), cooperative 
stores, their bearing on Athenzums, 
&c., 248. 

Tidal observations, Rear-Admiral Fitz- 
Roy on, 56. 

Tomlinson (Charles) on lightning figures, 
chiefly with reference to those tree-like 
or ramified figures sometimes found on 
the bodies of men and animals that 
have been struck by lightning, 48; 
on the cohesion-figures of liquids, 


93. 

Torbay, W. Pengelly on the recent en- 
croachments of the sea on the shores 
of, 124, 

Toynbee (J.) on the action of the Eu- 
stachian tube in man, as demonstrated 
by Dr. Politzer’s otoscope, 176. 

Trade of England with China since 1833, 
Colonel Sykes on the progress and pro- 
spects of the, 246. 


. Triangles, plane, Thomas Dobson on the 


general forms of the symmetrical pro- 
perties of, 2, 
Turnbull (Dr. J.) on the physiological 
. and medicinal properties of sulphate of 
aniline, and its use in the treatment of 
chorea, 177. 
Twining (Miss) on the employment of 
women in workhouses, 248. 


United Kingdom, James T. Hammick on 
the general results of the census of the, 
in 1861, 220. 


Valpy (Richard) on the commercial re- 
lations between England and France, 
269. 

Vanessa antiopa, on the arrest of pupa- 


288 


rialmetamorphosis of, by Dr. George D. 
Gibb, 143. 

Vaughan (Daniel), cases of planetary 
instability indicated by the appearance 
of temporary stars, 24. 

Vaughan (Professor) on subterranean 
movements, 134. 

Vienna, Prof. Haidinger on the present 
state of the Imperial Geological Insti- 
tution of, 121. 

Violet, Dr. Daubeny on a, peculiar to the 
calamine rocks in the neighbourhood 
of Aix-la-Chapelle, 141. 

Vivian (H. H.), microscopic observations 
on the structure of, 34, 

. Voelcker (Dr.) on the composition of 
crystallized moroxite, from Jumillo, 
near Alicante, 93. 

Volcanos, Dr. Daubeny on the evolution 
of ammonia from, 77. 

of Australia, J. Bonwick on the 

extinct, 109. 


Wales, North, T. A. Readwin on the 
gold of, 129. 

Walker (J. J.), observations on an iris 
seen in water, near sunset, 35. 

Wallace (Dr.) on the composition and 
properties of the water of Loch Katrine 
as supplied in Glasgow, 94. 

Walton (Rev. W.) on some signs of 
changes of the weather, 74. 

Warrior’s compasses, F. J. Evans’s re- 
marks on H.M.S., 45. 

Water, J. Yates on the excess of, in the 
region of the earth about New Zealand, 
136. 

Watts (Dr. J.) on strikes, 249. 

Weather, Rey. W. Walton on some signs 
of changes of the, 74. 

Webster (T.) on property in invention, 
and its effects on the arts and manu- 
factures, 266, 


REPORT—1861. 


Welton (J. A.) on the increase of density 
of population in England and Wales, 
1851-1861, 269. 

West (Tuffen) on some points of interest 
in the structure and habits of spiders, 
162. 

Westgarth (William) on the commerce 
and manufactures of the colony of Vic- 
toria, 269. 

Whincopp (W.) on the red crag deposits 
of the county of Suffolk, considered in 
relation to the finding of celts, in France 
and England, in the drift of the post- 
pliocene period, 134. 

Whitaker (J.) on the Burnley coal-field 
and its fossil contents, 135. 

Wilkinson (F. T.) on the Burnley coal- 
field and its fossil contents, 135. 

Williamson (Dr.) on an apparatus for the 
rapid separation and measurement of 
gases, 95, 

Wind (John E. Morgan) on an anemo- 
meter for registering the maximum 
force and extreme variation of the, 72. 

Wise (H.) on a proposed railway across 
the Malay peninsula, 201. 

Wollaston (Dr. R.), some account of the 
Romans in Britain, 201. 

Women, Miss Twining on the employ- 
ment of, in workhouses, 248. 

Woods, Dr. Crace Calvert on the che- 
mical composition of some woods em- 
ployed in the navy, 77. 

Workhouses, Miss Twining on the em- 
ployment of women in, 248. 

Wynne (A. B.) on the geology of Knock- 
shigowna in Tipperary, Ireland, 135. 


Yates (J.) on the excess of water in the 
region of the earth about New Zea- 
land, its causes and effects, 136. 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT 
OF SCIENCE. 


The Published Reports of Proceedings at the Meetings of the Association 
may be obtained by Members on application to the under-mentioned Local 
Treasurers, or Agents appointed by them, at the following prices, viz.—Reports 
for 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, 1857, 1858, 1859, at two- 
thirds of the Publication Price; and for the purpose of completing their sets, 
any of the first seventeen volumes, of which more than 100 copies remain, at 
one-third of the Publication Price. 


TREASURER. DEPOT FOR THE REPORTS. 


LONDON ...........John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S. Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Printing 
6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street. Office, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. 
LOCAL TREASURERS. DEPOTS. 


YorK...........2.-. William Gray, Esq., F.G.S. ..,........ Yorkshire Museum. 

CAMBRIDGE ,,....C.C, Babington, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. ... House of the Philosophical Society. 
EDINBURGH...... William Brand, Esq. .......seeesee+eeeee Union Bank of Scotland. 
DuBLIN............John H. Orpen, LL.D. ......+0....008e13 South Frederick Street. 

BRISTOL .......... William Sanders, Esq., F.G.S. ........Philosophical Institution, Park Street. 
LIVERPOOL ..,,...Robert M¢Andrew, Esq., F.R.S. .....7 North John Street. 


BirMINGHAM ...W. R. Wills, Esq. .....s.sseeeeeeeeesss Birmingham. 
GLASGOW.........Professor Ramsay, M.A. .....0.00+ «eee The College. 
MANCHESTER....R. P. Greg, Esq., F.G.S........000008 .-Chancery Lane. 


SWANSEA .........John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., F.R.S. ...Swansea. 
IPSWICH.. «.......0. B. Alexander, Esq. ....++...e+se00s+» North Gate House. 
BELFAST .........RoObert Patterson, Esq., M.R.I.A.....High Street. 
HULL ...000..c0eeeeeAmund Smith, Esq. cecscccccceeseeee ull, 
CHELTENHAM .,.Richard Beamish, Esq., F.R.S. ......Cheltenham. 


Associates for the Meeting in 1858 may obtain the Volume for the Year at the same price 
as Members. 


PROCEEDINGS of tut FIRST anp SECOND MEETINGS, at York 
and Oxford, 1831 and 1832, Published at 13s. 6d. 


ConTENTS :—Prof. Airy, on the Progress of Astronomy ;—J. W. Lubbock, on the Tides 
—Prof. Forbes, on the Present State of Meteorology ;—Prof. Powell, on the Present State 
of the Science of Radiant Heat ;—Prof. Cumming, on Thermo-Electricity ;—Sir D. Brewster, 
on the Progress of Optics;—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Present State of Mineralogy ;—Rev. 
W. D. Conybeare, on the Recent Progress and Present State of Geology ;—Dr, Prichard’s 
Review of Philological and Physical Researches. 

Together with Papers on Mathematics, Optics, Acoustics, Magnetism, Electricity, Chemistry, 
Meteorology, Geography, Geology, Zoology, Anatomy, Physiology, Botany, and the Arts; 
and an Exposition of the Objects and Plan of the Association, &c. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRD MEETING, at Cambridge, 1833, 
Published at 12s. 


ConTENTs :—Proceedings of the Meeting ;—John ‘I'aylor, on Mineral Veins ;—Dr. 
Lindley, on the Philosophy of Botany ;—Dr. Henry, on the Physiology of the Nervous Sy- 
stem ;—P. Barlow, on the Strength of Materials ;—S. H. Christie, on the Magnetism of the 
Earth ;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Analytical Theory of Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics ;— 
G. Rennie, on Hydraulics asa Branch of Engineering, Part I. ;—Rev. G. Peacock, on certain 
Branches of Analysis. 

Together with papers on Mathematics and Physics, Philosophical Instruments and Mecha- 
‘nical Arts, Natural History, Anatomy, Physiology, and History of Science, 

1861. 19 


290 4 


PROCEEDINGS or tHE FOURTH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 1834, 
Published at 15s. 


Conrrents:—H. G. Rogers, on the Geology of North America ;—Dr. C. Henry, on the 
Laws of Contagion ;—Prof, Clark, on Animal Physiology ;—Rev. L. Jenyns, on Zoology ;— 
Rev. J. Challis, on Capillary Attraction ;—Prof. Lloyd, on Physical Optics ;—G. Rennie, on 
Hydraulics, Part II. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Association 
and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tut FIFTH MEETING, at Dublin, 1835, Pub- 
lished at 13s. 6d. 


ConTENTSs :—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of the 
Mathematical Theories of Electricity, Magnetism, and Heat; — A. Quetelet, Apergu de 
Etat actuel des Sciences Mathématiques chez les Belges;—Capt. E. Sabine, on the Phe- 
nomena of Terrestrial Magnetism. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe SIXTH MEETING, at Bristol, 1836, Pub- 
lished at 12s. 


ConTENTS:—Prof. Daubeny, on the Present State of our Knowledge with respect to Mine- 
yal and Thermal Waters ;—Major E. Sabine, on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial 
Magnetic Force in Scotland ;—J. Richardson, on North American Zoology ;—Rev. J. Challis, 
on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids ;—J. T. Mackay, a Comparative View of the more 
remarkable Plants which characterize the neighbourhood of Dublin and Edinburgh, and the 
South-west of Scotland, &c.;—J. T. Mackay, Comparative Geographical Notices of the 
more remarkable Plants which characterize Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of the London Sub- 
Committee of the Medical Section on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Second Report 
of the Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Report of the Dublin 
Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous System ;—J. W. Lubbock, Account 
of the Recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;—Rev. B. Powell, on determining the 
Refractive Indices for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in various media;—Dr. Hodgkin, 
on the Communication between the Arteries and Absorbents;—Prof. Phillips, Report of Experi- 
ments on Subterranean Temperature ;—Prof. Hamilton, on the Validity of a Method recently 
proposed by G. B. Jerrard, for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Daubeny’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. ~ 


PROCEEDINGS or rot SEVENTH MEETING, at Liverpool, 1837 
Published at 16s. 6d. 


ConTENTS :—Major E. Sabine, on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at dif- 
ferent points of the Earth’s Surface ;—Rev. W. Taylor, on the various modes of Printing for 
the Use of the Blind;—J. W. Lubbock, on the Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;— 
Prof. T. Thomson, on the Difference between the Composition of Cast Iron produced by the 
Cold and Hot Blast ;—Rev. T. R. Robinson, on the Determination of the Constant of Nutation 
by the Greenwich Observations ;—R. W. Fox, Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic 
Veins, and the Temperature of Mines ;—Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical 
Section of the British Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and 
the Organs producing them ;—Dr. G. O. Rees, Report from the Committee for inquiring into 
the Analysis of the Glands, &c. of the Human Body ;—Second Report of the London Sub-Com- 
mittee of the British Association Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;— 
Prof. Johnston, on the Present State of our Knowledge in regard to Dimorphous Bodies ;— 
Lt.-Col. Sykes, on the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under the British Go- 
vernment ;—E. Hodgkinson, on the relative Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Iron 
obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Strength and other Properties 
of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—Sir J. Robison, and J. 8. Russell, Report of 
the Committee on Waves ;—Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the 
Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth’s Surface ;— 
J. Yates, on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communication with the 
outward Air, on the Plan of Mr. N. J. Ward, of London. f 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Traill’s Address and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. ; 


291 


- PROCEEDINGS or tur EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838, 
Published at 15s. 


CoNnTENTS :—Rev. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Chan- 
nel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt ;—Report on the Discussions of Tides, prepared 
under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—W. S. Harris, Account of the Progress and 
State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Major E. Sabine, on the Magnetic 
Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British Islands ;—D. Lardner, LL.D., on the Determi- 
nation of the Mean Numerical Values of Railway Constants ;—R. Mallet, First Report upon 
Experiments upon the Action of Sea and River Water upon Cast and Wrought Iron ;—R. 
Mallet, on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic and Organic 
Substances. 

_ Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839, 
Published at 13s. 6d. 


ConTEnTs :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Refractive 
Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media ;—Report on the Ap- 
plication of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculations to Rev. W. Whewell, in a Letter from T. G. 
Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, on some Galvanic Experiments to determine the Existence or 
Non-Existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Moun- 
tain Limestone formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alton Moor ;—Sir D. Brewster, 
Reports respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland ;— 
Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British Association at their 
Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;—E. 
Forbes, Report on the Distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles;—W. S. 
Harris, Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at Plymouth 
Dockyard. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840, 
Published at 15s. 


ConTENTs :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the recent Progress of discovery relative to Radiant 
Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first volume of the 
Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ;—J. D. Forbes, Supple- 
mentary Report on Meteorology ;—W. S. Harris, Report on Prof. Whewell’s Anemometer, 
now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on ‘‘ The Motion and Sounds of the Heart,” by the 
London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40 ;—Prof. Schonbein, an Account of 
Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and 
Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, 
‘Wrought Iron and Steel ;—R. W. Fox, Report on some Observations on Subterranean Tem- 
perature ;—A. F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839 
_and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institution, Bir- 
mingham ;—Sir D. Brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Ob- 
servations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist, 1838 to Nov. Ist, 1839 ;—W. 
Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata ;—C. J. B. Williams, M.D., 
Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-Tubes ;—Kev. J.S. Henslow 
Report of the Committee on the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances, 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major E. Sabine’s 
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tote ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth, 
1841, Published at 13s. 6d. 


ConTrents :—Rev. P. Kelland, on the Present state of our Theoretical and Experimental 
Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M. D., Report on Poisons ;— 
T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell; 
—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith Tide Observations, under the direction of the 
Rev. W. Whewell;—W. S. Harris, upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth 
during the past year ;—Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintend- 
ing the scientific co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Obser- 
vations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro- 

- vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M, Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of a Com~ 


19* 


292 


mittee to superintend the reduction of Meteorological Observations;—Report of a Com- 
mittee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee for obtaining In- 
struments and Registers to record Shocks and Earthquakes in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of 
a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries 
into the Races of Man ;—Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata 
in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by 
means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experi- 
ments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—R. Owen, Report 
on British Fossil Reptiles ;—Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway 
Constants ;--D. Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the 
Mean Value of Railway Constants;—-E. Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a 
Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tur TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester, 
1842, Published at 10s. 6d. 


CoNnTENTS :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British 
Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;— 
J. Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;— 
W.S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Second 
Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds; 
—C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee 
for the Preservation cf Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D., Abstract 
of Prof. Licbig’s Report on Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;— 
R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;—R. Hunt, Researches on the 
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—L. Agassiz, Report 
on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Ap- 
pendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot 
and Cold Biast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earthquakes 
in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant Indicator for 
Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting En- 
gine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the Form of 
Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed “to consider of the Rules by which the Nomencla- 
ture of Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis ;”"—Report of a Com- 
mittee on the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices 
of Progress in special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals, 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork, 
1843, Published at 12s. 


ConTENTS:—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether 
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and 
Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British As- 
sociation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Sir 
J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteoro- 
logical Observations ;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam- 
Engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality 
of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of 
Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee 
on the Form of Ships;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines; —Report 
of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering 
the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to 
them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons; 
—Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report ;—Report of the Committee for the Translation 
and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach on the Habits of the Marine 
Testacea ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aigean Sea, and on their 
distribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;--L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British 
Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the 
British Fossil Mammalia, Part II.;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the 
junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W. 


293 


Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and 
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committces. 


PROCEEDINGS or tut FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844, 
Published at £1. 


ConTENTS :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder and A. 
Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca;—R. Hunt, Researches on the 
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—Report.of a 
Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the 
Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report 
on some recent researches into the Structure, Functions, and Giconomy of the Araneidea, 
made in Great Britain ;—Earl of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ; 
—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other 
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering 
Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines; 
—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race ;—Fourth Report 
of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds;—W. Fair- 
bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention of Smoke ;—F’. Ronalds, Report con- 
cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee 
appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simulta- 
neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Pror. Forchhammer on the influence 
of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par- 
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland, Report on 
the recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee 
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, 
Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative 
of the former existence in that continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order 
Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers 
at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1845 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves; 
—L. Agassiz, Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de 1’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J. 
S. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progressin Special Re- 
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tiens of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge, 
1845, Published at 12s. 


ContTENTs :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the 
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa- 
tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report 
on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843; 
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schonbein, on Ozone ;—Prof, Erman, on 
the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self- 
Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;— 
W. R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre- 
sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair, 
Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting 
of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;— 
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Pheenomena of Animals and Vege- 
tables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tue SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton, 
1846, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTS:—G, G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth 
Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck on the Colouring Matters of 
Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac- 
tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L. 
Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof. Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical 


294 


Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for’ 
1829;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the 
Iron Manufacture in Great Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;— 
Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—. 
J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D., Report on the Crystalline Flags;—Addenda 
to Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. : 


PROCEEDINGS or toe SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford, 
1847, Published at 18s. 


ConTENTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de- 
grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the 
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt, 
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on 
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan- 
dinavia ;—W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes; 
—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and 
Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of 
completing our knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re- 
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal 
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R, G. Latham, on the present state and recent 
progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research 
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to 
other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian 
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ; 
—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the 
Modern Celtic Dialects still extant;—Dr. Max Miller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the 
Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric 
Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col. 
E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con- 
stants for 1829. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or toe EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea, 
1848, Published at 9s. 


ConTrents:—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;— 
J. Glynn on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth 
Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At- 
mospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use 
made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt, 
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of 
Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem- 
perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof. 
Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on 
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them; with an in- 
troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation 
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. Phillips, Notice of further 
progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre- 
tary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee 
relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and 
Meteorological Observatory until December 1850. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. ; 


PROCEEDINGS or tut NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 
1849, Published at 10s. ‘ 


ConTENTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Earl 
of Rosse, Notice of Nebule lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the 
Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied to the Fossil 
Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ; 
=—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants. and- 


295 


Animals ;—Ninth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ; 
—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from 
Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway 
Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew, 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHE TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 
1850, Published at 15s. 


Contents :—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Rev. Prof. 
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. T. Williams, on the Structure and 
History of the British Annelida ;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken 
at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840, to the 3lst of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on 
the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;--Tenth 
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen, 
Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob- 
servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British 
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and 
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por- 
tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of 
our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of 
Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse 
of the Sun on July 28, 1851. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or true TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich, 
1851, Published at 16s. 6d. 


ConTENTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Eleventh Re- 
port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on 
the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of 
Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider 
the probable Effects in an GEconomical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro- 
pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs 
in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com- 
pounds ;—Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;— 
Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on the Facts of 
Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col, Sabine, on the System of Meteoro- 
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States ;—Col. Sabine, Report 
on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto- 
graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory ;—F'. Ronalds, Report concern- 
ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850, to July 31, 
1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom-~- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHzE TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast, 
1852, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTS :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Twelfth 
Beport of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof, 
Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the In- 
fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants ;—A Manual of Ethnological 
Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Sta- 
tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the 
Conduction of Heat;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges, 
on the Composition and CEconomy of the Flax Plant;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater 
Fishes of Ulster;—W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland;—W. Wills, 
onthe Meteorology of Birmingham;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water- Wheel ;—J. B. Lawes 
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of 
Animals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


296 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull, 
1853, Published at 10s. 6d. 


Contents :—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53 ; 
—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Oldham, on the Rise, 
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—William Fairbairn, Experi- 
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which 
lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;— 
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition 
and CEconomy of the Flax Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the 
Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations; 
—John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the 
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur- 
face, as compared with that of the Earth ;—R. Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake 
Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical 
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of 
strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earth- 
quake Phenomena (continued), 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or rut TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver- 
pool, 1854, Published at 18s. 


ConTENTs:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ; 
—Major-Gencral Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats;—Rev. 
Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel 
Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;— 
Colonel Portlock, Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting 
Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers 
of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54 ; 
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G. 
Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, 
on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the 
Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on 
the Growth and Vitality of Seeds. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or true TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 
1855, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTS:—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-Mines and 
Revolving Storms;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers 
of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions, Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the 
British Edriophthalma ;—J. F. Bateman, on the present state of our knowledge on the Supply 
of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and 
Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report en Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ; 
—Report of Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those pro~ 
perties of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to the 
durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical Objects in 
Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain- 
Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel- 
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s. 


Contents ;—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report upon the 
effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the last 
fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on progress in Re- 
searches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde, 
1856 ;—Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;—Prof. 
Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigo- 


7. 


297 


nometry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of Logarithms ;——R. MacAndrew, Report 
on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and Neighbouring Seas, and 
the physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the present 
state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;— 
T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British Shores ; 
—Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical Expla- 
nations of these Phenomena: Part I. ;--Dr. T. Wright on the Stratigraphical Distribution of 
the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W., Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various 
Temperatures ;—C. Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J.S. Bowerbank, on 
the Vital Powers of the Spongiadz;——Report of a Committee upon the Experiments conducted 
at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Provisional Report on 
the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals 
for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Progress in Researches on the Measure- 
ment of Water by Weir Boards;-—-R. Mallet, on Observations with the Seismometer ;—A. 
Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to con~ 
sider the formation of a Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tur TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at Dub- 
lin, 1857, Published at 15s. 


Contents :—A. Cayley, Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Six- 
teenth and final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ; 
—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull;—Report of a 
Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measuring ard Registering the Tonnage 
of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and to frame more perfect rules, in order that 
a correct and uniform principle may be adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities 
and Working-Power of Steam Ships;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of 
some Deep Mines in Cornwall ;—Dr. G. Plarr, De quelques Transformations de la Somme 

= A%qtlt+1 Be+19¢/+1 
eo 

0 yél+iytl+tetl+! 
est exprimable par une combinasion de factorielles, la notation ati+1 désignant le produit des 
t facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c....(a-+-¢—1);—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine Zoology 
of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish Channel ;—Charles 
Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the extent to which Mercantile Steam Trans- 
port Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of Shipping, as respects the Proportions of 
Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. S. Bowerbank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spon- 
giade ;—John P. Hodges, M.D., on Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee 
on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of 
Luminous Meteors, 1856-57;—C. Vignoles, C.E., on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to 
sustain the passage of Railway Trains ;—Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., on Electro-Chemistry ; 
—John Simpson, R.N., Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the ‘ Plover’s’ 
Wintering-place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852~54 ;—Charles 
James Hargrave, LL.D., on the Algebraic Couple ; and on the Equivalents of Indeterminate 
Expressions ;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and Equatorial 
Mountings ;—Professor James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical 
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William Fairbairn on the Resistance 
of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging 
Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspen- 
sion Chains, and a Comparison of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders, 
to produce equal deflections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, M.A., Evidences of Lunar 
Influence on Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into 
Liverpool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta~ 
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds, 
September 1858, Published at 20s. 
ContTENTS:—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake Phe= 


nomena ;— Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857-58 ;—R. H. 
Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea, or true Spiders especially on the 


a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme 


298 


internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report of the Committee on the 
Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the J.ead Mining Districts of Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the 
Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene, 
Report on the Marine Fauna of the South and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on 
Experiments on the Measurement of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major- 
General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain; —Michael 
Connal and William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported 
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock, and Port 
Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ;—Report of the Committee on Ship- 
ping Statistics;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments employed in the Mag- 
netic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin 
Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dub- 
lin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings, 
with reference to the necessity for improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation 
on the Rivers of British India;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Com- 
mittee ;—Appendix to Mr. Vignoles’ paper ‘‘ On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sus- 
tain the passage of Railway Trains;’’—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and 
the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and Meteorological Ob- 
servatories ;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Anemometer. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or rue TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen, 
September 1859, Published at 15s. 


ConTENTs :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and Present 
State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of Plants in the 
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field © 
Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated 
Crops ;—A. Thomson, Esq. of Banchory, Report on the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools ; 
—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahago, Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Re- 
sults obtained by the Mechanico-Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William 
Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for 
Railway Trains ;—Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for 
1858-59 ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59 ; 
—Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting 
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq., late Re- 
sident in Nepal, &c, &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn, Report on 
the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—G. C, Hyndman, 
Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James Oldham, Continuation of Report 
of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull;—Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Trans- 
port Economy as affected by the Consumption of Coals;—Warren de la Rue, Report on the 
present state of Celestial Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil 
and Recent Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the 
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request of the 
British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The Patent Laws; 
Report of Committee on the Patent Laws;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar Influence on the Tem. 
perature of the Air ;—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Construction of the Self-recording 
Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew Observatory of the British Association ;— 
Prof. H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers: Part I. ;—Report of the 
Committee on Steam-ship performance ;—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee 
of the British Association appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan, 
Preliminary Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the 
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTIETH MEETING, ar Oxford, 
June and July 1860, Published at 15s. 


' CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1859-60 ;— 
J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J. Anderson, Report on 


299 


the Excavations in Dura Den ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the 
Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Rev. R. Walker, Report of 
the Committee on Balloon Ascents;—Prof. W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to 
prepare a Self-recording Atmospheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for ob- 
serving Atmospheric Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of 
Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders ;—R. P. 
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from A.D. 2 to a.p. 1860 ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith, 
- Report on the Theory of Numbers: Part II. ;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the Performance of 
Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the 
Form of the Vessel ;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the Effects of long-continued Heat, 
illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second Report of the Committee on Steam-ship Per- 
formance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the 
British Marine Invertebrate Fauna. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


: 
a 


ptr ua ier a 
Jt Si acerca rot Bs ail See, 99th a derecine ser t 
ce. , L:GRplip thoy >: 9 Mind ‘sey pe eh Vt gait 


aia: to arent dla 
Morey itil sls Dare rhs sanaat ae chat ' 
Pr Farge ite rh NAG bagi 


nt lg peo PAIN i aha Hi, ihe ema | 
“wt) #3 Rea Fok ——) 

= i wt wih ile-Ss Inte ony bai Se syed me 4’: th: SEW we eth , 

i! bSiAD net-aniaF ae tlh f 3G 1 Fteih .Y2i 

Ge .meS ac er raid M 

vib ae Seb Ss penlowl wap Ryes rt 


ool 


ici " +f 


aaa { Asteignaanay oe ws? eehaecA ond dt bses deh mat 9 es hatin & . ne 
2288 APRESS Sith OAD praia alt Rie 5 pa a aa 
. : ae Tere &rybistadDist ae yoluthoné % 6 iat alee 
u +e J . , bd 
Mics 6 te Be yb amines Rod uy were 
Gt iat heh Nac A-edn eke inten We «Oh Shi, Ege el ee ee 
, bate Ned! eS Ye Fogeas rae, flelisens 
\ tip} bu 1a a ’ Ad 
, z= rr 4 +t) -A a) ai re Pt $i 
inte tig ti-pe roe Uxtinys lame Sri apy y caged aye 
; t 4 ‘ r 7 
Pd PIG ‘ < ~% ort! Jus 
ae tet et Adattiee ie’ acess || wabgalh 
* . phen pileec nS sama rs oe 
Yt) SRT, TOR Ee ORR s) a nee sc ete ay! aad 3 
Bad Se atm & rh A a i kin? Es higk er ae a oe aera 
» PIA {nobaidedy Ata’ Le dowre't : 
2. OS ight yo igdat pf sot 4) cosnte it 
AY (ort) ree tT Ad odd be ier ttt ; 
3 “iyi t wef re capes! ‘ ete FP oy f a 
VERE ITA nated wr tetrar reece ae 
, . . en) nied a ie + Pike aes 2 
Acai Pee (salto 
BT ad be ks BA 
Ps Ans us ‘ “a f : ais hile ada 
a ohe bayn Bh ae ite ebhioeree Nadal ~ 
7 Tedarpudiads Riljas (eteti mw : “ Uuletis co idialll a 
vt Bd, rhea ide fie tyedian 2» iy aa onal 
teres eee dirt hn ariangibs of Lonmin d+ beste j 
‘ot an: asi tantd aWeotecer~a hpi Gengtey . 


8 tet ihe a hee Wo candle eee 
= $9 4 ae aie? % pat tt A] pel Aj a anh? P wy 4, ay Bt 
is ogy" Nout “> “hey ‘ “§ 7) Riel inl? ; sult sien 2 al 7 


is Wives f a7 Tf. er r 
a” 4 bia ra pe ta aa Ph i? be, bin hns ee BS 
put gece bg! oe tS ah heet pies! a Peet cx ave te 
ae’ Ad A 


as oi lat, saptt "Y en Pralahlse: wea haed) 4 tne i wh, i ‘sed 


5 i Avie cr a ihhed nade yep oh © bac he msl AR 
Z bid icheang 1 Pabiplly pt thid cpne 1 , Reepestutrs Lage |: 
; Pade co ae Areas iho) euro? a nae eat 
vrverr Seat nee: titan int ee Ee apnat 
1S See ae “2 ‘wei (Mogny rk i 
| wiky vata 


plies 


List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement 
of Science, to whom Copies of this Volume [for 1861] are supplied 
gratuitously, in conformity with the Regulations adopted by the General 


Committee. 


[See pp. xvii & xviii. ] 


[It is requested that any inaccuracy in the Names and Residences of the Members may be communicated to 
Messrs. Taylor and Francis, Printers, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London, ] 


LIFE MEMBERS. 


Adair, Colonel Robert A. Shafto, F.R.S., 
7 Audley Square, London, W. 

Adams, John Couch, M.A., D.C.L., 
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Lowndean Professor 
of Astronomy and Geometry in the 
University of Cambridge; Pembroke 
College, Cambridge. 

Adie, Patrick, 16 Sussex Place, South 
Kensington, London, W. 

Ainsworth, Thomas,The Flosh, Egremont, 
Cumberland. 

Alcock, Ralph, 47 Nelson Street, Oxford 
Street, Manchester. 

Aldam, William, Frickley Hall near Don- 
caster. 

Allen, William J. C., Secretary to the 
Royal Belfast Academical Institution ; 
Ulster Bank, Belfast. 

Allis, Thomas, F,.L.S., Osbaldwick Hall 
near York. 

Ambler, Henry, Watkinson Hall, Oven- 
den near Halifax. 

Amery, John, F.S.A., Park House, 
Stourbridge. 

Anderson, William (Yr.), Glentarkie, 
Strathmiglo, Fife. 

Andrews, Thos., M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., 
Vice-President of, and Professor of 
Chemistry in, Queen’s College, Bel- 
fast. 

Ansted, David Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., Impington Hall, Cambridge. 
Appold, John George, F.R.S., 23 Wilson 

Street, Finsbury Square, London, E.C. 

Archer, T. C., Professor of Botany in 
Queen’s College, Liverpool; New 
Museum, Edinburgh. 

Armstrong, Sir William George, C.B., 
LL.D., F.R.S., Elswick Engine Works, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 

Arthur, Rev. William, M.A., 26 Campden 
Grove, Kensington, London, W. 

Ashburton, William Bingham Baring, 


Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Bath 
House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and 
The Grange, Alresford, Hants. 

Ashton, Thomas, M.D. 

Ashworth, Edmund, Egerton Hall, Turton 
near Bolton. 

Atkinson, John Hastings, 14 East Parade, 
Leeds. 

Atkinson, Joseph B., Cotham, Bristol. 

Atkinson, J. R. W., 38 Acacia Road, 
Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 

Auldjo, John, F.R.S. 

Austin, Rev. William E. Craufurd, M.A., 
New’College, Oxford. 

Ayrton, W. S., F.S,A., Allerton Hill, 
Leeds. : 


Babbage, Charles,'M.A., F.R.S., 1 Dorset 
Street, Manchester Square, London, W. 

Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A., F.R.S., 
Professor of Botany in the University 
of Cambridge; St. John’s College, 
Cambridge, (Local Treasurer). 

Baddeley, Captain Frederick H., R.E., 
Ceylon. 

Bain, Richard, Gwennap near Truro. 

Bainbridge, Robert Walton, Middleton 
House near Barnard Castle, Durham. 

Baines, Edward, Headingley Lodge, 
Leeds. 

Baines, Samuel, Victoria Mills, Brig- 
house, Yorkshire. 

Baker, Henry Granville, Bellevue, Hors- 
forth near Leeds. 

Baker, John, Dodge Hill, Stockport. 

Baker, John (care of R. Brooks and Co., 
St. Peter’s Chambers, Cornhill, Lon- 
don, E.C.). 

Baker, William, 63 Gloucester Place, 
Hyde Park, London, W. 

Baldwin, The Hon. Robert, H.M. Attor- 
ney-General, Spadina, Co. York, Upper 
Canada, 


302 


Balfour, John Hutton, M.D., Professor of 
Botany in the University of Edinburgh, 
F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S.; Edinburgh. 

Ball, John, M.R.I.A., F.L.S., 18 Park 
Street, Westminster, S.W. 

Ball, William, Rydall, Ambleside, West- 
moreland. 

Barbour, George, Bolesworth Castle, 
Tattenhall, Chester. 

Barbour, Robert, Portland Street, Man- 
chester. 

Barclay, J.Gurney, Walthamstow, Essex. 

Barclay, Robert, Leyton, Essex. 

Barker, Rev. Arthur Alcock, B.D., Rec- 
tor of East Bridgeford, Nottingham- 
shire. : 

Barnard, Major R. Cary, Cambridge 

’ House, Bays Hill, Cheltenham. 

Barnes, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S.E., Carlisle. 

Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S., Cumberland 
House, Worcester. 

Barr, W. R., Norris Bank, Heaton Nor- 
ris, Stockport. 

Bartholomew, Charles, Rotherham. 

Bartholomew, William Hamond, 5 Grove 
Terrace, Leeds. 

Barton, John, Bank of Ireland, Dublin. 

Barwick, John Marshall, Albion Street, 
Leeds. 

Bashforth, Rev. Francis, B.D., Minting 
near Horncastle, Lincolnshire. 

Bateman, Joseph, LL.D., F.R.A.S., J.P., 
Walthamstow, N.E. 

Bateman, J. F., C.E., 16 Great George 
Street, Westminster, S.W. 

Bayldon, John, Horbury near Wakefield. 

Bayley, George, 2 Cowper’s Court, Corn- 
hill, London, E.C. 

Beale, Lionel S., M.B., F.R.S., Professor 
of Physiology and of General and Mor- 
bid Anatomy in King’s College, Lon- 
don; 61 Grosvenor Street, London, W. 

Beamish, Richard, F.R.S., 2 Suffolk 
Square, Cheltenham. 

Beatson, William, Rotherham. 

Beaufort, William Morris, India. _ 

Beaumont, Rev. Thomas George, But- 
terleigh Rectory near Collumpton. 

Beck, Joseph, 6 Coleman Street, London, 

~~ HC, 

Beckett, William, Kirkstall Grange, Leeds. 

Belcher, Rear-Admiral Sir Edward, R.N., 
F.R.A.S., Union Club, Trafalgar Sq., 
London. 

Bell, Matthew P., 245 St. Vincent Street, 
Glasgow. : ; 
Bennoch, Francis, The Knoll, Blackheath, 

Kent, S.E. 

Bergin, Thomas Francis, M.R.1.A., Upper 

Pembroke Street, Dublin. 


MEMBERS TO WHOM 


Berryman, William Richard, 6 Tamar 
Terrace, Stoke, Devonport. 

Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A., Leeds. 

Binyon, Thomas, Henwick Grove, Wor- 
cester. 

Bird, William, 9 South Castle Street, Li- 
verpool. 


. Birks, Rev. Thomas Rawson, Kelshall 


Rectory, Royston. 

Birley, Richard, Seedley, 
Manchester. 

Birt, W. Radcliff, F.R.A.S., lla Wel- 
lington St., Victoria Pk., London, N.E. 

Blackie, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S., 10 Kew 
Terrace, Glasgow. 

Blackwall, John, F.L.S., Hendre House 
near Llanrwst, Denbighshire. 

Blackwell, Thomas Evans, F.G.S., Mon- 
treal. 

Blake, Henry Wollaston, F.R.S., 8 Devon- 
shire Place, Portland Place, London, W. 

Blake, Wm., South Petherton, Ilminster. 

Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S., St. 
Leonard’s-on-Sea. 

Bland, Rev. Miles, D.D., F.R.S., 5 Royal 
Crescent, Ramsgate. 

Blythe, William, Holland Bank, Church 
near Accrington. 

Bohn, Henry G., F.R.G.S., York Street, 
Covent Garden, London, W.C. 

Boileau, Sir John Peter, Bart., F.R.S., 
20 Upper Brook Street, London, W.; 
and Ketteringham Hall, Norfolk. 

Booth, John, Monton near Manchester. 

Booth, Councillor William, Dawson St., 
Manchester. 

Bond, Walter M., The Argory, Moy, 
Ireland. 

Borchardt, Dr. Louis, Bloomsbury, Ox- 
ford Road, Manchester. 

Bossey, Francis, M.D., 4 Broadwater 
Road, Worthing. 

Bowerbank, James Scott, LL.D., F.R.S., 
3 Highbury Grove, London, N. 

Bowlby, Miss F. E., 27 Lansdown Cres- 
cent, Cheltenham. 

Bradshaw, William, Mosley Street, Man- 
chester. 

Brady, Antonio, Maryland Point, Essex. 

Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A., 54 Upper 
Leeson Street, Dublin. 

Brakenridge, John, Wakefield. 

Brandreth, Henry, Trinity College, Cam- 
bridge. 

Brebner, James, 20 Albyn Place,Aberdeen. 

Brett, John Watkins, 2 Hanover Square, 
London, W. 

Briggs, General John, F.R.S., 2 Tenter- 
den Street, London, W. 

Brodie, Sir Benjamin Collins, Bart., 


Pendleton, 


BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 


D:C.L.; -V.P.R.S., Park, 
Betchworth, Surrey. 

Brooke, Charles, B.A., F.R.S., 16 Fitzroy 
Square, London, W. 

Brooks, Samuel, King Street, Manchester. 

Brooks, Thomas, (Messrs. Butterworth 
and Brooks,) Manchester. 

Broun, John Allan, F.R.S., Astronomer 
to His Highness the Rajah of Travan- 
core; Observatory, Trevandrum, India. 

Brown, Samuel, F.S.S., The Elms, Lark- 
hall Rise, Clapham, London, S. 

Brown, Thomas, Hardwick House, Chep- 
stow. 

Brown, William, 3 Maitland Park Villas, 
Haverstock Hill, London, N.W 

Bruce, Alexander John, Kilmarnock. 

Buck, George Watson, Ramsay, Isle of 
Man. 

Buckman, James, F.L.S., F.G.S., Profes- 
sor of Natural History in the Royal 
Agricultural College, Cirencester. 

Buckton, G. Bowdler, F.R.S., 55 Queen’s 
Gardens, Hyde Park, London, W. 

Budd, James Palmer, Ystalyfera Iron 
Works, Swansea. 

Buller, Sir Antony, Pound near Tavistock, 
Devon. 

Burd, John, jun., Mount Sion, Radcliffe, 
Manchester. 

Busk, George, F.R.S., Sec. L.S., Exami- 
ner in Comparative Anatomy in the 
University of London, 15 Harley St., 
Cavendish Square, London, W. 

Butlery, Alexander W., Monkland Iron 
and Steel Company, Cardarroch near 
Airdrie. 

Butterworth, John,58 Mosley Street, Man- 
chester. 


Brootme 


Caine, Rev. William, M.A., Greenheys, 
Manchester. 

Caird, James Key, Finnart on Loch Long, 
by Gare Loch Head, Dumbartonshire. 

‘Caird, James T., Greenock. ; 

Campbell, Dugald, F.C.S., 7 Quality Court, 
Chancery Lane, London, W.C, 

Campbell, Sir James, Glasgow. 


Campbell, William, 34 Candlerigg Street, 


Glasgow. 

Carew, William Henry Pole, Antony 
House near Devonport. 

Carpenter, Philip Pearsall, B.A., Ph.D., 
Cairo Street, Warrington. 

Carr, William, Blackheath. 

Carrick, Thomas, 37 Princess Street, 
Manchester. 

Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., Fellow of 
Trinity College, Dublin, M.R,I.A., 18 
Fitzwilliam Place, Dublin. 


303 


Cartmell, Rev. James, B.D., F.G.S., 
Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge. 

Cassels, Rev. Andrew, M.A., Batley Vi- 
carage near Leeds. 

Chadwick, Charles, M.D., 35 Park Square, 
Leeds. 

Challis, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.S., Plu- 
mian Professor of Astronomy in the 
University of Cambridge; 13 Trumping- 
ton Street, Cambridge. 

Chambers, Robert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., 
3 Hall Place, St. John’s Wood, Lon- 
don, N.W. 

Champney, Henry Nelson, St. Paul’s 
Square, York. 

Chanter, John, 2 Arnold Terrace, Bow 
Road, Bromley. 

Chapman, Edward, Hill End, Mottram, 
Manchester. 

Chapman, John, Hill End, Mottram, 
Manchester. 

Cheetham, David, Staleybridge, Man- 
chester. 

Chesney, Major-General Francis Rawdon, 
R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Ballyardle, Kil- 
keel, Co, Down, Ireland. 

Chevallier, Rev, Temple, B.D., F.R.A.S., 
Professor of Mathematics and Astro- 
nomy in the University of Durham. 

Chichester, Ashhurst Turner Gilbert,D.D., 
Lord Bishop of, 31 Queen Anne Street, 
Cavendish Square, London, W.; and 
The Palace, Chichester. 

Chiswell, Thomas. 

Christie, Samuel Hunter, M.A., F.R.S., 
Ailsa Villas, St, Margaret’s, ‘Twick- 
enham, S.W. 

Clark, Rev. Charles, M.A., Queen’s Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 

Clark, Henry, M.D., 74 Marland Place, 
Southampton. 

Clarke, J. H., Earnscliffe, Alderley Edge. 

Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S., Rastrick, 
Yorkshire, 

Clay, A ee 4 Park Hill Road, Liver- 

ool. 

Cihpbdiy David Shaw, Norbury, Stock- 
port, Cheshire, 

Clifton, Professor R, B., B.A., Owens 
College, Manchester. 

Clouston, Peter, Glasgow. 

Coats, George, 6 Park Terrace, Glas- 
gow. 

Coats, Peter, Woodside, Paisley. 

Coats, Thomas, Fergeslie House, Paisley. 

Cobbold, John Chevallier, M.P., Tower 
Street, Ipswich. 

Cocker, Jonathan, Higher Broughton, 
Manchester, 

Coe, Rev, Charles C., Leicester. 


304 


Cole, Henry Warwick, 3 New Square, 
Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. 

Colfox, William, B.A., Bridport, Dorset- 
shire. 

Collie, Alexander, 23 Sussex Square, 
Hyde Park, London, W. 
Collingwood, J. Frederick, 54 Gloucester 
Street, Belgrave Road, London, S.W. 
Compton, Lord Alwyne, Castle Ashby, 
Northamptonshire. 

Compton, Lord William, 145 Piccadilly, 
London, W. 

Conway, Charles, Pontnwydd Works, 
Newport, Monmouthshire. 

Cook, Henry, Overstone Terrace, Cheet- 
ham Hill, Manchester. 

Cooke, Arthur B., 6 Berkeley Place, Con- 
naught Square, London, W. 

Cooke, William Fothergill, Telegraph 
Office, Lothbury, London, E.C, 

Cooke, William Henry, Elin Court, Tem- 
ple, London, E.C. 

Corbet, Richard, Adderley, Market Dray- 
ton, Shropshire. 

Cotton, Rev, William Charles, M.A., New 
Zealand, 

Courtney, Henry, M.R.I.A., 34 Fitz- 
william Place, Dublin. 

Cox, Joseph, F.G.S., Wisbeach, Cam- 
bridgeshire. 

Crampton, The HonourableJustice, LL.D., 
M.R.1.A.,St. Valarie, Bray, Co. Dublin. 

Crewdson, Thomas D,, Dacca Mills, Man- 
chester, 

Crichton, William, 1 West India Street, 
Glasgow. 

Crompton, Rev. Joseph, Norwich. 

Cropper, Rev. John, Stand near Man- 
chester, 

Cunliffe, Edward Thomas, Handforth. 

Cunliffe, Peter Gibson, Handforth. 

Curtis, John Wright, Alton, Hants. 

” Cuthbert, J. R., 40 Chapel Street, Liver- 

pool. 


Dalby, Rev. William, M.A., Rector of 
Compton Basset near Calne, Wilts. 

Dalton, Rev. James Edward, B.D., Seas 
grave, Loughborough. 

Dalzell, Allen, The University, Edinburgh. 

Danson, Joseph, F.C.S., 6 Shaw Street, 
Liverpool. 

Darbishire, Robert Dukinfield, B.A., 
¥.G.S., 21 Brown Street, Manchester. 

Darbishire, Samuel D., Pendyffryn near 
Conway. 

Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, M.D., 
LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in 
the University of Oxford; Oxford. 

Davis, Sir John Francis, Bart,, K,C,B., 


MEMBERS TO WHOM 


F.R.S.,* Hollywood, Compton Green- 
field near Bristol. 

Davis, Richard, F.L.S., 9 St. Helen’s 
Place, London, E.C. 

Dawbarn, William, Wisbeach. 

Dawes, John S., jun., Smethwick House 
near Birmingham. 

Dawes, Rev. William Rutter, F.R.A.S., 
Haddenham near Thame, Oxon. 

Dawson, Christopher H., Low Moor, 
Bradford, Yorkshire. 

Dawson, Henry, 14 St. James’s Road, 
Liverpool. 

Dawson, William G,, Plumstead Common, 
Kent, S.E. 

Deane, Sir ‘Thos., Kingstown, Co. Dublin. 

De Grey and Ripon, George Frederick, 
Earl, 1 Carlton Gardens, London, S.W. 

De la Rue, Warren, Ph.D., F.R.S., Cran- 
ford, Middlesex ; and 110 Bunhill Row, 
London, E.C, 

pane es Ribston Hall, Wetherby, 

ork, 


Devonshire, William, Duke of, K.G., 
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Chancellor of 
the University of Cambridge; Devon- 
shire House, Piccadilly, London, W.; 
and Chatsworth, Derbyshire. 

Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F.R.S., Great 
George Street, Liverpool. 

Dickinson, W. L., 1 St. James’s Street, 
Manchester, 

Dikes, William Hey, F.G.S., Wakefield. 

Dilke, Sir C. Wentworth, Bart., F.G.S., 76 
Sloane Street, London, S.W. 

Dilke, Charles W.,76 Sloane Street, Lon- 
don, S.W. 

Dingle, Rev. J., Lanchester, Durham. 

Dobbin, Leonard, jun., M.R.1.A., 27 Gar- 
diner’s Place, Dublin. 

Dodsworth, Benjamin, St. Leonard’s Place; 
York, 

Dodsworth, George, Clifton Grove near 
York. 

Donaldson, John, Professor of the Theory 
of Music in the University of Edin- 
burgh; Edinburgh. 

Donisthorpe, George Edmund, Holly 
Bank, Moortown, Leeds. 

Donnelly, William, C.B., Auburn, Mala- 
hide, Ireland. 

Downie, Alexander, 

Ducie, Henry, John Reynolds Moreton, 
Earl of, F.R.S., 30 Princes Gate, Lon- 
don, 8.W.; and Tortworth Court, Wot« 
ton-under-Edge. 

Duncan, Alexander, Rhode Island, United 
States, 

Duncan, James, M.D., Farnham House, 
Finglass, Co, Dublin. 


BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 


Dunlop, William Henry, Annan Hill, 
Kilmarnock. 

Dunraven, Edwin, Earl of, F.R.S., Adare 
Manor, Co. Limerick; and Dunraven 
Castle, Glamorganshire. 


Earnshaw, Rev. Samuel, M.A., Sheffield. 
Eddison, Edwin, Headingley Hill, Leeds. 
Eddison, Francis, Headingley Hill, Leeds. 

Eddy, James R., Carleton Grange, Skip- 
ton. 

Edmondston, Rev. John, Ashkirk by 
Hawick. 

Edwards, J. Baker, Ph.D., Royal Insti- 
tution Laboratory, Liverpool. 

Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart., 
M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., Oulton Park, 
Tarporley, Cheshire. 

Eisdale, David A., M.A., 38 Dublin St., 
Ediaburgh. 

Ellesmere, George Granville Francis 
Egerton, Earl of, F.R.S., Bridgewater 
House, Cleveland Sq., London, S.W.; 
and Worsley Hall, Lancashire. 

Elliot, Walter, Wolflee, Hawick. 

Ellis, Rey. Robert, A.M., Grimstone 
House near Malton, Yorkshire. 

Enys, John S., F.G.S., Enys, Cornwall. 
Erle, Rev. Christopher, M.A., F.G.S., 
Hardwick Rectory near Aylesbury. 
Evans, George Fabian, M.D., Waterloo 

Street, Birmingham. 

Evans, John, F.S.A., F.G.S., Nash Mills, 
Hemel Hempstead. 

Ewing, Archibald Orr, Clermont House, 
Glasgow. 

Ewing, William, 209 Brandon Place, 
West George Street, Glasgow. 

Eyre, George Edward, F.G.S., Warren’s 

. Stoney Cross, near Lyndhurst, Hants. 


Fairbairn, William, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S., 
Manchester. 

Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., F.R.S., Ful- 
lerian Professor of Chemistry in the 
Royal Institution of Great Britain; 21 
Albemarle Street, London, W. 

Farren, Edwin James, Hanover Cham- 
bers, Buckingham Street, Strand, Lon- 
don, W.C. 

Faulkner, Charles, F.S.A., F.G.S., Ded- 
dington, Oxon. 

Fawcett, Henry, Trinity Hall, Cambridge. 

Fischer, William L. F., M.A., F.R.S., 
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the 
University of St. Andrew’s, Scotland. 

Fleming, William, M.D., Rowton Grange 
near Preston. 

Fletcher, Samuel, Ardwick Place, Man- 
chester, 


1861. 


305 


Forbes, David, F.R.S., F.G.S., A.I.C.E., 
7 Calthorpe Street, Birmingham. 

Forbes, James David, LL.D., Principal 
of the University of St. Andrews, 
Sec.R.S.E., F.R.S., St. Andrews, 

Forrest, William Hutton, Stirling. 

Forster, Thomas Emerson, 7 Ellison Place, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Forster, William, Ballynure, Clones, Ire- 
land. 

Fort, Richard, Read Hall, Whalley, Lan- 
cashire. 

Foster, Charles Finch, Mill Lane, Cam- 
bridge. 

Foster, George C., Sabden near Whalley, 
Lancashire. 

Foster, H. S., Cambridge. 

Foster, John, M.A., The Oaks Parsonage, 
Loughborough, Leicestershire. 

Foster, Michael, .R.C.S., Huntingdon, 

Foster, S. Lloyd, Five Ways, Walsall, 
Staffordshire. 

Fowler, Robert, Rathmolion, Co. Meath, 
Treland. 

Fox, Charles, Trebah, Falmouth. 

Fox, Rev. Edward, M.A., New College, 
Oxford. 

Fox, Joseph Hayland, Wellington, So- 
merset. 

Fox, Robert Barclay, Falmouth. 

Fox, Samuel Lindoe, ‘Tottenham. 

Frankland, Rev. Marmaduke Charles, 
Chowbent near Manchester, 

Frazer, Daniel, 4 La Belle Place, Glasgow. 

Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S., 
The Athenzum Club, Pall Mall, Lon- 
don, S.W. 

Frerichs, John Andrew, 1 Keynsham 
Bank, Cheltenham. 

Frith, Richard Hastings, C.E., 51 Lein- 
ster Road, Rathmines, Dublin. 

Froude, William, Elmsleigh Paignton, 
Torquay. 

Fullarton, Allan, 19 Woodside Place, 
Glasgow. 

Fulton, Alexander, 7 Woodside Crescent, 
Glasgow. 


Gadesdev, Augustus William, F.S.A., 
Leigh House, Lower looting, Surrey, S. 

Galton, Douglas, Captain R.E., F.i.S., 
F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor 
Place, London, S.W. 

Galton, Francis, F.R.S., F.G.S., 42 Rut- 
land Gate, Knightsbridge, London, W. 

Gaskell, Samuel, 19 Whitehall Place, 
London, S.W. 

Gething, George Barkley, Springfield, 
Newport, Monmouthshire, 

Gibson, George Stacey, Saffron Walden. 


306 


Gilbart, James William, F.R.S., London 
and Westminster Bank, Lothbury, Lon- 
don, E.C. 

Gilbert, James Montgomery, Bowdon, 
Cheshire. 

Gilroy, George, Hindley House, Wigan. 

Gladstone, George, F.C.S., Clapham 
Common, London, S. 

Gladstone, John Hall, Ph.D., F.R.S., 28 
Leinster Gardens, Hyde Park, Lon- 
don, W. 

Gladstone, Murray, Broughton, Manches- 
ter. 

Glaisher, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 1 
Dartmouth Place, Blackheath, S.E. 
Goodrnan, John, M.D., The Promenade, 

Southport. 

Goodsir, John, F.R.S. L. & E., Professor 
of Anatomy in the University of Edin- 
burgh ; Edinburgh. 

Gordon, James, Bristol College, Nairn, 
Scotland. 

Gordon, Rev. James Crawford, M.A., De- 
lamont, Downpatrick, Downshire. 

Gotch, Rev. Frederick William, LL.D., 
7 Brunswick Square, Bristol. 

Gotch, Thomas Henry, [Iford, E. 

Graham, Thomas, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., 
Master of the Mint, London. 

Grainger, John, Rose Villa, Belfast. 

Gratton, Joseph, 32 Gower Street, Bed- 
ford Square, London, W.C. 

Graves, Very Rev. Charles., D.D., 
M.R.I.A., Dublin Castle, Dublin. 

Graves, Rev. Richard Hastings, D.D., 
Brigown Glebe, Michelstown, Co. Cork. 

Gray, John, Greenock. 

Gray, John Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., Keep- 
er of the Zoological Collections of the 
British Museum; British Museum, W.C. 

Gray, William, F.G.S. (Local Treasurer), 
Minster Yard, York. 

Grazebrook, Henry, jun., 37 Falkner 
Square, Liverpool. 

Greenaway, Edward, 40 Kensington Park 
Gardens, Notting Hill; London, W. 
Greenhalgh, Thomas, Astley House near 

Bolton-le-Moors. 

Greg, Robert Philips, F.G.S., Outwood 
Lodge near Manchester, (Local Trea- 
surer). 

Gregson, Samuel, M.P., 32 Upper Harley 
Street, London, W. 

Greswell, Rev. Richard, B.D., F.R.S., 
Beaumont Street, Oxford. 

Griffin, John Joseph, F.C.S., 119 Bunhill 
Row, London, E.C. 

Griffith, Sir Richard, Bart., LL.D., 
M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Fitzwilliam Place, 
Dublin, 


MEMBERS TO WHOM 


Griffiths, S. Y., Oxford. 

Guinness, Rev. William Smyth, M.A., 
Beaumont, Drumcondra, Co. Dublin. 
Gurney, Samuel, M.P., F.G.S., 25 Princes 

Gate, London, S.W. 
Gutch, John James, 88 Micklegate, York. 


Hailstone, Edward, Horton Hall, Brad- 
ford, Yorkshire. 

Hall, T. B., Coggeshall, Essex. 

Hambly, C. H.B., 6 Taptonville, Sheffield. 

Hamilton, Mathie, M.D., Warwick Street, 
Glasgow. 

Hamilton, William John, F.R.S., For. 
Sec.G.S., 5 Lyall Place, Belgrave Sq., 
London, S.W. 

Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, LL.D., 
Astronomer Royal of Ireland, and 
Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in 
the University of Dublin, M.R.I.A., 
F.R.A.S.; Observatory near Dublin. 

Hamlin, Captain Thomas, Greenock. 

Harcourt, Rev. William V. Vernon, M.A., 
F.R.S., Bolton Percy, Tadcaster. 

Hardy, Charles, Odsall House, Brad- 
ford, Yorkshire. 

Hare, Charles John, M.D., 41 Brook 
Street, Grosvenor Square, London, W. 

Harley, John, Ross Hall near Shrewsbury. 

Harris, Alfred, Ryshworth Hall near 
Bingley, Yorkshire. 

Harris, Alfred, jun., Bradford, Yorkshire. 

Harris, George William. 

Harris, Henry, Heaton Hall near Bradford. 

Harrison, James Park, M.A., Garlands, 
Ewhurst, Surrey. 

Harrison, William, F.S.A., F.G.S., Gal- 
ligreaves Hall near Blackburn, Lanca- 
shire. 

Hart, Charles, 54 Wych Street, Strand, 
London, W.C. 

Harter, J. Collier, Chapel Walks, Man- 
chester. 

Harter, William, Hope Hall, Manchester. 

Hartley, Jesse, Trentham St., Liverpool. 

Harvey, Joseph Charles, Cork, 

Harwood, John, jun., Mayfield, Bolton. 

Hatton, James, Richmond House, Higher 
Broughton, Manchester. 

Haughton, William, 28 City Quay, Dublin. 

Hawkins, Thomas, F.G.S., Down Court, 
Isle of Wight. 

Hawkshaw, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., 43 
Eaton Place, London, 8.W. 

Hawthorn, Robert, C.E., Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne. 

Hay, Sir John D., United Service Club, 
London, S.W. 

Hayward, Robert Baldwin, M.A., Har- 
row-on-the- Hill, 


BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 


Heald, James, Parr’s Wood, Didsbury 
near Manchester. 

Heape, Benjamin, Northwood near Man- 
chester. 

Hemans, Geo. William, C.E., M.R.I.A., 
32 Leinster Gardens, Hyde Park, Lon- 
don, W. 

Henry, Alexander, Portland Street, Man- 
chester. 

Henry, William Charles, M.D., F.R.S., 
Haffield near Ledbury, Herefordshire. 

Hepburn, J. Gotch, Clapham Common, 
Surrey, S. 

Herbert, Thomas, Nottingham. 

Heywood, Arthur-Henry, Sedgley Park, 
Manchester. 

Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S., 
9 Hyde Park Gardens, London, W. ; 
and Claremont, Manchester. 

Heywood, James, F.R.S., 26 Palace Gar- 
dens, Kensington, London, W. 

Heywood, Oliver, Acresfield, Manchester. 

Heywood, Robert, Bolton. 

Higgin, Edward, Liverpool. 

Higgin, James, Hopwood Avenue, Man- 
chester. 

Higgins, James, Stocks House, Cheetham, 
Manchester. 

Higson, Peter, Irwill Terrace, 
Broughton, Manchester. 

Hill, Rev. Edward,M.A.,F.G.S.,Sheering 
Rectory, Harlow. 

Hill, Sir Rowland, K.C.B., F.R.S., 
F.R.A.S., Secretary to the Post Office, 
General Post Office, London. 

Hindmarsh, Frederick, F.G.S., 17 Buck- 
lersbury, London, E.C. 

Hindmarsh, Luke, Alnwick. 

Hinmers, William, Farnworth, Bolton. 

Hirst, Thomas Archer, Ph.D., F.R.S., 14 
Waverley Place, St. John’s Wood, N.W. 

Hoare, Rev. George Tooker, Tandridge, 
Godstone. 

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D., F.R.G.S., 35 
Bedford Square, London, W.C. 

Hodgson, Adam, Everton, Liverpool. 

Holden, Moses, 13 Jordan Street, Preston. 

Holditech, Rev. Hamnet, M.A., Caius 
College, Cambridge. 

Holland, P. H. 

Hollingsworth, John, 
Greenwich, S.E. 

Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.I.A., Doloughs 
Park, Co. Dublin. 

Hopkins, William, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., 
Cambridge. (General Secretary.) 

Horner, Leonard, F.R.S., Pres. G.S., 
17 Queen’s Road West, Regent’s Park, 
London, N.W. 

Horsfall, Abraham, Leeds, 


Lower 


Londen Street, 


307 


Houldsworth, Henry, Newton Street, 
Manchester. 

Hoyle, John, Brown Street, Manchester. 

Hudson, Henry, M.D., M.R.I.A., Glen- 
ville, Fermoy, Co. Cork. 

Hull, William Darley, F.G.S. 

Hulse, Sir Edward, D.C.L., 4 New Bur- 
lington Street, London, W.; and Brea- 
more House, Salisbury. 

Hunter, Thomas C., Greenock. 

Hurst, William John, 2a Victoria Street, 
Manchester. 

Hutton, Robert, M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Put- 
ney Park, Surrey, S.W. 


Ibbetson, Captain L. L. Boscawen, Cheva- 
lier Red Kagle of Prussia with Swords, 
Chevalier de MHohenzollen, F.R.S., 
F.G.S. 

Ingram, Hugo Francis Meynell, Temple 
Newsam, Leeds. 

Inman, Thomas, M.D., Rodney Street, 
Liverpool. 


Jackson, James Eyre, Tullydory, Black- 
water Town, Ireland. 

Jacob, John, M.D., Maryborough. 

Jamieson, Thomas F., Ellon, Aberdeen- 
shire. 

Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E., 
Jardine Hall, Applegarth by Lockerby, 

. Duntfriesshire. 

Jarratt, Rev. John, M.A., North Cave 
near Brough, Yorkshire. 

Jee, Alfred S., 2 Oxford Square, Hyde 
Park, London, W. 

Jeffray, John, 8 Elmbank Crescent, 
Glasgow. 

Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, F.R.S., F.G.S., 25 
Devonshire Place, Portland Place, Lon- 
don, W. 

Jenkyns, Rev. Henry, D.D., Professor of 
Divinity and Ecclesiastical History in 
the University of Durham; Durham. 

Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, M.A., F.L.S., 
1 Darlington Place, Bathwick, Bath. 

Jerram, Rev. 8. John, M.A., Chobham 
Vicarage, Bagshot, Surrey. 

Jerrard, George Birch, B.A., Long Strat- 
ton, Norfolk. 

Johnson, Thomas, The Hermitage, Frod- 
sham, Cheshire. 

Johnstone, James, Alva near Alloa, Stir- 
lingshire. 

Johnstone, Sir John Vanden Bempde, 
Bart., M.P., M.A., F.G.S., 27 Gros- 
venor Square, London, W.; and Hack- 
ness. 

Jones, Christopher Hird, 2 Castle Street, 
Liverpool, 

20* 


308 


Jones, Major Edward. 

Jones, Josiah, 2 Castle Street, Liverpool. 

Jones, Robert, 2 Castle Street, Liverpool. 

Jones, R. L., Princes Park, Liverpool. 

Joule, Benjamin St. John B., Thorncliffe, 
Old Trafford, Manchester. 

Joule, James Prescott, LL.D., F.R.S., 
Thorncliffe, Old ‘l'rafford, Manchester. 

Joy, Rev. Charles Ashfield, Grove Parson- 
age near Wantage, Berkshire. 

Jubb, Abraham, Halifax. 


Kay, John Robinson, Boss Lane House, 
Bury, Lancashire. 

Kay, Rev. William, D.D., Lincoln Col- 
lege, Oxford, 

Kelsall, Henry, Rochdale, Lancashire. 

Ker, Robert, Auchinraith, Glasgow. 

Keymer, John, Parker Street, Manches- 


er. 

King, Mervyn Kersteman, 1 Rodney Place, 
Clifton, Bristol. 

Knowles, Edward R. J., 23 George Street, 
Ryde, Isle of Wight. 

Knowles, William, Newport, Monmouth- 
shire. 

Knox, G. James, 2 Finchley New Road, 
St. John’s Wood, London, N.W. 

Kyllmann, Max, 28 Brazennose Street, 
Manchester. 


Laming, Richard, 10 Clifton Villas, Maida 
Hill West, Loudon, W. 

Langton, William, Manchester. 

Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, K.G., 
D.C.L., F.R.S., Trust. Brit. Mus., 54 
Berkeley Square, London, W.; and Bo- 
wood Park, Wiltshire. 

Larecom, Colonel Thomas A., R.F., 
LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Phoenix 
Park, Dublin. 

Latham, A. G., Cross Street, Manchester. 

La Touche, David Charles, M.R.I.A., 
Castle Street, Dublin. 

Leatham, Charles Albert, Wakefield. 

Leatham, Edward Aldam, Wakefield. 

Leather, John Towlerton, Leventhorpe 
Hall near Leeds. 

Le Cappelain, John, Highgate, London, N. 

Lee, John, LL.D., F.R.S., 5 College, 
Doctor's Commons, London, E.C.; and 
Hartwell House near Aylesbury. | ¢ . 

Lee, John Edward, F.G.S., The Priory, 
Caerleon, Monmouthshire. ee. 

Leese, Joseph, jun., Glenfield, Altrin- 
cham. 

Leeson, Henry B., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., 
The Maples, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight. 

Lefroy, Colonel John Henry, R.A., F.R.S., 
War Office. 


MEMBERS TO WHOM 
| Legh, George Cornwall, M.P., High 


~ Legh, Cheshire. 

Leigh, Henry, The Poplars, Patricroft 
near Manchester. 

Leinster, Augustus Frederick, Duke of, 
M.R.I.A., 6 Carlton House ‘T'errace, 
London, S.W. 

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S., Car- 
clew near Falmouth. 

Lindsay, Charles. 

Lindsay, John H., 317 Bath Street, Glas- 
gow. 

Lingard, John R., F.G.S., Stockport, 
Cheshire. 

Lister, John, F.G.S., Shibden Hall near 
Halifax. 

Lister, Joseph Jackson, F.R.S., Upton, 
Essex, I. 

Liveing, G. D., M.A., F.C.S., Professor 
of Chemistry in the University of Cam- 
bridge ; 12 Hill’s Road, Cambridge. 

Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S., Stank Hill 
near Warwick. 

Lloyd, Rev. Humphrey, D.D., LL.D., 
F.R.S. L. & E., M.R.I.A., Trinity Col- 
lege, Dublin. 

Lloyd, John Buck, Liverpool. 

Lobley, James Logan. 

Locke, John, Royal Dublin Society, Kil- 
dare Street, Dublin. 

Lockey, Rey. Francis, Swainswick near 
Bath. 

Loftus, William Kennett, F.G.S., Cal- 
cutta. 

Logan, Rev. Thomas, M.A., The Manse 
of Haggs, Stirlingshire. 

Logan, Sir William Edmond, F.R.S., 
F.G.S., Director of the Geological Sur- 
vey of Canada; Montreal, Canada. 

Lord, Edward, York Street, Todmorden. 

Lubbock, John, F.R.S., Lamas, Chisel- 
hurst, Kent, S.E. 

Lubbock, Sir John William, Bart., M.A., 

'F.R.S., High Elms, Farnborough, 
Kent, S.E. 

Luckcock, Howard, Oak Hill, Edgbaston, 

- Birmingham, 

Lundie, Cornelius, Perey Main, Newcas- 
tle-upon-Tyne. 

Lupton, Arthur, Newton Hall, Leeds. 

Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., 
F.R.S., F.G.S., 53 Harley Street, 
Cavendish Square, London, W. 


Macadam, Stevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S E., 
Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh. 

McAll, Rev. Edward, Rector of Brigh- 
stone, Newport, Isle of Wight. 

M‘Andrew, Robert, F.R.S., Isleworth 
House, Isleworth, Middlesex, W. 


BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 


MacBrayne, Robert, Messrs. Black and 
Wingate, 9 Exchange Square, Glasgow. 

McConnel, James, Bent Hill, Prestwich 
near Manchester. 

M‘Connell, David C., F.G.S., 12 Claren- 
don Crescent, Edinburgh. 

McCulloch, George, M.D., Cincinnati, 
United States. 

MacDonnell, Rev. Richard, D.D., Provost 
of Trinity College, Dublin, M.R.I.A.; 
Dublin. 

M‘Ewan, John, Glasgow. 

Macfie, R. A., 72 Upper Parliament 
Street, Liverpool. 

M°Gee, William, M.D., 10 Donegall 
Square East, Belfast. 

Maclver, Charles, Abercromby Square, 
Liverpool. 

Mackenzie, James, Glentore, Scotland. 

Mackinlay, David, Pollokshields, Glas- 


gow. 

Maclure, John William, 2 Bond Street, 
Manchester. 

Macrory, Adam John, Duncairn, Bel- 
fast. 

Macrory, Edmund, 7 Fig Tree Cowt, 
Temple, London, E.C. 

Malahide, Talbot de, Lord, F.R.S., Mala- 
hide Castle, Malahide, Ireland. 

Malcolm, Frederick, Stoke-on-Trent, 
Staffordshire. 

Mallet, Robert, F.R.S., M.R.LA., 11 
Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.; and 
the Grove, Clapham Road, S. 

Manchester, James Prince Lee, D.D., 
Lord Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S., Maul- 
dreth Hall, Manchester. 

Marling, Samuel S., Stanley Park, Stroud, 
Gloucesterhire. 

Marshall, James Garth, M.A., F.G.S., 
Headingley near Leeds. 

Martin, Francis P. Brouncker, 14 Bruten 
Street, Berkeley Square, London, W. 
Martindale, Nicholas, Peter Lane, Ha- 

nover Street, Liverpool. 
Martineau, Rev. James, 10 Gordon Street, 
Gordon Square, London, W.C. 
Mason, Hugh, Ashton-under- Lyne. 
Mason, Thomas, York. 
Mather, Daniel, 58 Mount Pleasant, Liver- 


ool. 

Mather, John, 58 Mount Pleasant, Liver- 
ool. 

Mathews, Henry, 30 Gower Street, Lon- 
don, W.C. 

Matthews, William, jun., F.G.S., Edg- 
baston House, Birmingham. 

Maxwell, James Clerk, M.A., F.RS., 
Professor of Natural Philosophy and 
Astronomy in King’s College, London ; 


309 


8 Palace Garden Terrace, Kensington, 
London, W. 

Maxwell, Sir John, Bart., F.R.S., Pollok 
House, Renfrewshire. 

Maxwell, Robert Percival, Finnebrogue, 
Downpatrick, Ireland. 

Mayne, Rev. Charles, M.R.I.A.,22 Upper 
Merrion Street, Dublin. 

Meadows, James, York Place, Rusholme 
near Manchester. 

Meynell, Thomas, The Fryerage near 
Yarm, Yorkshire. 

Michell, Rev. Richard, B.D., Praelector 
of Logic, Lincoln College, Oxford; St. 
Giles’ Street, Oxford. 

Miller, Patrick, M.D., Exeter. 

Miller, Robert, 30 King Street, and Whal- 
ley Range, Manchester. 

Miller, William Allen, M.D., Treas. 
and V.P.R.S., Professor of Chemistry 
in King’s College, London. - 

Mills, John Robert, Bootham, York. 

Milne-Home, David, M.A., F.R.S.E., 
Wedderburn, Coldstream, N.B. 

Milner, W. Ralph, Wakefield, Yorkshire. 

Milner, William, Liverpool. 

Moffat, John, C.E., Ardrossan. 

Moore, John Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., Corswall, Wigtonshire. 

Moore, Rev. William Prior, The College, 
Cavan, Ireland. 

Morris, David, 1 Market Place, Man- 
chester. 

Morris, Rey. Francis Orpen, B.A., Nune 
buruholme Rectory, Hayton, York. 
Morton, Francis, Hermitage, Oxton, 
Cheshire; and James Street, Liver 

pool. 

Morton, Henry Joseph, Garforth House, 
West Garforth near Leeds. 

Moss, W. H., Kingston Terrace, Hull. 

Mouat, Frederick John, M.D., Inspector- 
General of Prisons, Bengal. 

Mountcastle, William Robert, 22 Dorking 
‘Terrace, Cecil Street, Manchester. 

Murchison, J. H., F.G.S., Surbiton Hill, 
Kingston, S.W. 

Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey,G.C.St.S., 
M.A., D.C.L., Oxon., LL.D., Camb., 
F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Director- 
General of the Geological Survey of 
the United Kingdom; 16 Belgrave 
Square, London, S.W. 

Murray, John, C.E., 11 Great Queen 
Street, Westminster, London, S.W. 
Murton, James, Silverdale near Lancaster. 
Muspratt, James Sheridan, Ph.D., F.C.S., 

College of Chemistry, Liverpool. 


Napier, Captain Johnstone. 


310 MEMBERS 

Napier, Right Honourable Joseph, 4 
Merrion Square, Dublin. 

Nasmyth, James, Patricroft near Man- 
chester. 

Nelson, William, Rosin-hal-les, Cheetham 
Hill, Manchester. 

Newall, Robert Stirling, Gateshead-upon- 
Tyue. 

Newlands, James, 2 Clare Terrace, Liver- 

ool. 

mera! Francis William, Professor of 
Latin in University College, London ; 
10 Circus Road, St. John’s Wood, Lon- 
don, N.W. 

Newman, William, Darley Hall, near 
Barnsley, Yorkshire. 

Nicholson, Cornelius, F.G.S., Wellfield, 
Muswell Hill, London. 

Nicholson, Edward, 28 Princess Street, 

. Manchester. 

Nicholson, John A., A.M., M.B., Lic. 
Med., M.R.1.A., Balrath, Kells, Co. 
Meath. 

Nicholson, William Nicholson, Roundhay 
Park, Leeds. 

Nolloth, M. S., Captain R.N., F.R.G.S., 
St. Mary’s Cottage, Peckham, S.E., and 
United Service Ciub, London. 


O'Callaghan, Patrick, B.A., Cookridge 
Hall, Leeds. 

Odling, William, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., 
Sidenham Road, Croydon, S. 

Ogilvie, George, M.D., Lecturer on the 
Institutes of Medicine in Marischal 
College, Aberdeen. 

Ogle, William, M.D., M.A., Derby. 

Oldham, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., 
M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Superintendent of 
the Geological Survey of India; Cal- 
cutta, 

Ommanney, Erasmus, Captain R.N., 
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 40 Charing Cross, 
S.W., and United Service Club, Pall 
Mall, London. 

O’Reardon, John, M.D., 24 Upper Glou- 
cester Street, Dublin. 

Osler, A. Follett, F.R.S., Hazelwood, 
Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord 
Bishop of, F.R.S., 26 Pall Mall, Lon- 
don, S.W.; and Cuddesdon Palace, 
Wheatley, Oxon. 


Palmer, William, 12 North Parade, Bath. 

Parker, Alexander, M.R.I.A., William 
Street, Dublin. 

Parker, Charles Stewart, Liverpool. 

Patterson, Robert, M.R.1.A. (Local Trea- 
surer), 6 College Sq., North, Belfast. 


TO WHOM 


Pearsall, Thomas John, F.C.S.,Mechanics’ 
Institution, Southampton Buildings, 
London, W.C. 

Pease, Thomas, F.G.S., Henbury near 
Bristol. 

Peckover, Alexander, F.R.G.S., Wis- 
beach, Cambridgeshire. 

Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S., Wisbeach, 
Cambridgeshire. 

Peckover, Daniel, Woodhall Calverley, 
Leeds, 

Peckover, William, F.S.A., Wisbeach, 
Cambridgeshire. 

Pedler, Lieut.-Colonel Philip Warren, 
Mutley House near Plymoutb. 

Peel, George, Soho Lron Works, Ancoats, 
Manchester. 

Peile, George, jun., Shotley Bridge near 
Gateshead-on-Tyne. 

Peiser, John, St. Peter’s Square, Man- 
chester. 

Perigal, Frederick, 28 Hereford Square, 
Brompton, London, S.W. 

Peters, Edward, temple Row, Birmingham. 

Petit, Rev. John Louis, 9 New Square, 
Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. 

Pender, John, Mount Street, Manchester. 

Perry, S. G. F., M.A., Tottington Par- 
sonage near Bury. 

Petrie, John, Rochdale. 

Philips, Edward, 35 Church Street, Man- 
chester. 

Philips, Herbert, 35 Church Street, Man- 
chester. 

Philips, Mark, The Park near Manchester. 

Phillipps, Sir Thomas, Bart., M.A.,F.R.S., 
Middle Hill near Broadway, Worces- 
tershire. 

Phillips, John, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the 
University of Oxtord ( Assistant General 
Secretary) ; Museum House, Oxford. 

Phillips, Major-General Sir Frowell, United 
Service Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W. 

Philpott, Rev. Henry, D.D., Master of 
St. Catharine’s Hall, Cambridge. 

Pike, Ebenezer, Besborough, Cork. 

Pitt, George, 11 Pembridge Villas, Bays- 
water, London, W. 

Pochin, Henry Davis, F.C.S., Oakfield 
House, Salford. 

Pollexten, Rev. John Hutton, M.A., Rec- 
tor of St. Runwald’s, Colchester. 

Pontey, Alexander, Plymouth. 


Poppelwell, Matthew, Rosella Place, 
Tynemouth. 

Porter, Henry John Ker, Brampton Park, 
Huntingdon. 


Portlock, Major-General Joseph Ellison, 
R.E., LL.D., F.RS., VoPGS, 1 


, 


BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 311 


Whitehall Yard, and 58 Queen’s Gar- 
dens, Hyde Park, London, $.W. 

Potter, Edmund, F.R.S., 10 Charlotte 
Street, Manchester. 

Pounden, Captain Landsdale, Junior 
United Service Club, London; and 
Kildare Street Club, Dublin. 

Poynter, John E., Clyde Neuck, Udding- 
ston. 

Pratt, Samuel Peace, F.R.S., F.G.S. 

Prestwich, Joseph, F.R.S., Treas. G.S., 
2 Suffolk Lane, City, E.C.; and 10 Kent 
Terrace, Regent’s Park Road, London, 

W 


Pretious, Thomas, H.M. Dockyard, De- 
vonport, 

Price, Rev. Bartholomew, M.A., F-R.S., 
F.R.A.S., Sedleian Professor of Natural 
Philosophy in the University of Oxford; 
Pembroke College, Oxford. 

Pritchard, Andrew, 2 St. Mary’s Place, 
Canonbury, London,N. © 

Prower, Rev. J. M., M.A., Swindon, 
Wiltshire. 

Pumphrey, Chas., Stroud, Gloucestershire. 

Pusey, J, E. Bouverie. 

Pyne, Joseph John, 63 Piccadilly, Man- 
chester. 


Radford, William, 
Sidmouth. 

Ramsay, William, M.A., F.S.S., Professor 
of Humanity in the University of Glas- 
gow, (Local Treasurer) ; The College, 
Glasgow. 

Ramsbotham, John Hodgson, M.D., 16 
Park Place, Leeds. 

Rance, Henry, Cambridge. 

Randolph, Rev. Herbert, M.A., Marcham 
near Abingdon. 

Ransome, Robert, Iron Foundry, Ipswich. 

Ratcliff, Charles, F.L.S.,F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 
Downing College, Cambridge. 

Rawlins, John, Birmingham. 

Rawlinson, Colonel Sir Henry C.,K.C.B., 
LL.D.,F.R.S., 39 Hill Street, Berkeley 
Square, London, S.W. 

Rawson, Thomas William, Halifax. 

Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.S., 
Hayton near Pocklington, Yorkshire. 


M.D., Sidmount, 


Reade, Rev. Joseph Bancroft, M.A., 


F.R.S., Ellesborough Rectory, Tring. 

Redfern, Professor Peter, M.D., 4 Lower 
Crescent, Belfast. 

Rée, H. P., 27 Faulkner Stt., Manchester. 

Renny, Lieut. H. L., R.E. 

Rhodes, John, Leeds. 

Richardson, SirJohn, C.B.,M.D., LL.D., 
F.R.S., Lancrigg, Grasmere, West- 
moreland. ; 


Riddell, Colonel Charles J. B., R.A., 
F.R.S., India. 

Riddell, H. B., The Palace, Maidstone. 

Rideout, William J., Farnworth near 
Manchester. 

Rinder, Miss, Gledhow Grove, Leeds. 

Roberts, Richard, C,E., 10 Adam Street, 
Adelphi, London, W.C. 

Roberts, William P., 50 Ardwick Green, 
Manchester. 

Robinson, H. Oliver, 16 Park Street, 
Westminster, S.W. 

Robson, Rev. John, D.D., Glasgow. 

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.K.S., 18 
Upper Bedford Place, Russell Square, 
London, W.C. 

Roscoe, Professor Henry Enfield, B.A., 
Owens College, Manchester. 

Ross, James Coulman, The Lodge, Louth. 

Ross, Thomas, Featherstone Buildings, 
High Holborn, London, W.C. 

Roundell, Rev. Danson Richardson, 
Gledstone, Skipton. 

Rowland, John,30 Terminus Road, Brigh- 
ton. 

Rowney, Thomas H., Ph.D., F.C.S., Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, 
Galway. 

Rowntree, Joseph, Leeds. 

Royle, Peter, L.R.€.P., M.R.C,S., 27 
Lever Street, Manchester. 

Rumney, Robert, Ardwick, Manchester. 

Rushout, Capt. the Hon. George, F'.G.S., 
10 Bolton St., Piccadilly, London, 


W. 

Russell, Norman Scott, 37 Great George 
Street, Westminster, S.W. 

Russell, William J., Ph.D., 22 Morning- 
ton Crescent, Hampstead Road, Lon- 
don, N.W. 

Ryland, Arthur, Birmingham, 

Rylands, Thomas, Glazebrook, War- 
rington. 


Sabine, Major-General Edward, R.A., 
D.C.L., President of the Royal Society, 
13 Ashley Place, Westminster, S.W. 

Salt, Charles F., 24 Grove Street, Liver- 
pool. 

Salt, Titus, Crow Nest, Lightcliffe, Halifax. 

Salt, William, 20 Lombard Street, Lon- 
don, E.C. 

Sandeman, A., M.A., Owens College, 
Manchester. 

Sanders, William, F.G.S., (Local Trea- 
surer), 21 Richmond Terrace, Clifton, 
Bristol: 

Satterthwaite, Michael, M.D., Lindow 
arr Alderley near Wilmslow, Che- 
shire. 


312 


Saunders, William, Manor House, Iffley 
near Oxford. 

Schemman, J. C., Hamburgh. 

Schlick, Commandeur de, 15 Rue Belle- 
chasse, Faubourg St. Germain, Paris. 

Schofield, Robert, Vicar’s Walk, Rochdale. 

Scholes, T. Seddon, 16 Dale Street, Lea- 
mington. 

Scholey, William Stephenson, M.A., Clap- 
ham, London, S. 

Scholfield, Edward, M.D., Doncaster. 

Schwabe, Edmund Salis, Rhodes House 
near Manchester. 

Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A., LL.D., 
F.R.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geo- 
logy in the University of Cambridge, and 
Canon of Norwich; Trinity College, 
Cambridge. 

Seeley, Harry, Woodwardian Museum, 
Cambridge. 

Senior, George, Barnsley. 

Seymour, Henry D., M.P., 389 Upper 
Grosvenor Street, London, W. 

Shaen, William, 8 Bedford Row, London, 
W.C. 

Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., Rugby. 

Shaw, Bentley, J.P., Woodfield House, 
Huddersfield. 

Shaw, C. Wright, 3 North View, Mount 
Vernon, Liverpool. 

Shaw, John, City Road, Hulme, Man- 
chester, 

Sherrard, David Henry, 88 Upper Dorset 
Street, Dublin. 

Shortrede, Colonel Robert, F.R.A.S., 6 
Medina Villas, Brighton. 

Sidebotham, Joseph, 19 George Sireet, 
Manchester. 

Sidebottom, James, Portland Street, Man- 
chester. 

Sidebottom, James, jun., Spring Bank 
Mills, Stockport. 

Sillar, Zechariah, M.D., Rainford near 
Liverpool. 

Simpson, Rev. Samuel, Douglas, Isle of 


Man. 

Simpson, T., M.D., Minster Yard, York. 

Sirr, Rev. Joseph D’Arcy,D.D.,M.R.1.A., 
Castle Hill, Winchester. 

Slater, William, Princess St., Manchester. 

Smith, Charles Edward, F.R.A.S., Fir 
Vale near Sheffield. 

Smith, Rev.Geo. Sidney, D.D., M.R.I.A., 
Professor of Biblical Greek in the Uni- 
versity of Dublin; Aughalurcher, Five- 
mile-Town, Co. Tyrone. 

Smith, Henry J. Stephen, M.A., F.R.S., 
Savilian Professor of Geometry in the 
University of Oxford; Balliol College, 
Oxford. 


MEMBERS TO WHOM 


Smith, Heywood, 25 Park Street, Gros- 
venor Square, London, W. 

Smith, James, Berkeley House, Seaforth 
near Liverpool. 

Smith, John, Shelbrook House, Ashby- 
de-la-Zouch. 

Smith, John Metcalfe, (Bank), Leeds, 
(Local Treasurer). 

Smith, Rev. J. D., Kingstown near Dublin. 

Smith, Rev. Philip, B.A., St. James’s 
Lodge, St. James’s Road, Croydon, 
Surrey, S. 

Smith, Protheroe, M.D., 25 Park Street, 
Grosvenor Square, London, W. 

Smith, Robert Mackay, Bellevue Cres- 
cent, Edinburgh. 

Smyth, C. Piazzi, F.R.S., Astronomer 
Royal for Scotland, Professor of Prac- 
tical Astronomy in the University of 
Edinburgh; 1 Hill Side Crescent, 
Edinburgh. 

Smyth, John, jun., M.A,, C.E., Milltown, 
Banbridge, Ireland. 

Solly, Edward, F.R.S., Holme Court, Isle- 
worth, near London, W. 

Solly, Samuel Reynolds, M.A., F.R.S., 
10 Manchester Square, London, W. 
Sopwith, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., 43 Cleve- 

land Square, London, W. 

Sorby, H. Clifton, F.R.S., Broomfield, 
Sheffield. 

Spence, Joseph, Pavement, York. 

Spencer, Joseph, 27 Brown Street, Man-- 
chester. 

Spiers, Richard James, 14 St. Giles’s 
Street, Oxford. 

Spottiswoode, William, M.A., F.R.S., 
(General Treasurer), 19 Chester Street, 
Belgrave Square, London, S.W. 

Sprague, Thomas Bond, M.A., 40 Bles- 
sington Road, Lee, S.E. 

Squire, Lovell, Falmouth, 

Stainton, Henry Tibbats, I'.1..S., Mounts- 
field, Lewisham, Kent, S.E. 

Stainton, James Joseph, F.L.S., F.C.S., 
Horsell near Ripley, Surrey. 

Stanley, Lord, M.P., LL.D., F.R.S., St. 
James’s Square, London, S.W. 

Stern, S. J., 833 George Street, Manches- 
ter. 

Stevens, Henry, F.S.A., F.R.G.S., 2 
Byng Place, Gordon Sq., London, W.C. 

Stewart, Henry Hutchinson, M.D., 
M.R.I.A., 71 Eccles Street, Dublin. 

Stirling, Andrew, Lower Mosley Street, 
Manchester. 

Stokes, George Gabriel, M.A., D.C.L., 
Sec.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Ma- 
thematics in the University of Cam- 
bridge ; Pembroke College, Cambridge. 


BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 


Stoney, George Johnstone, M.A., F.R.S., 
M.R.I.A., Secretary to the Queen’s 
University, Ireland; Dublin Castle, 
Dublin. 

Strickland, Arthur, Bridlington Quay, 
Yorkshire. 

Strickland, Charles, Loughglyn, Ballagh- 
adereen, Ireland. 

Sutherland, Duke of, Stafford House, 
London, S.W. 

Swan, Patrick D. S., Kirkaldy. 

Sykes, Colonel William H., M.P., F.R.S., 
47 Albion St., Hyde Park, London, W. 

Symonds, Frederick, F.R.C.S., Beaumont 
Street, Oxford. ‘ 

Symons, William, 17 St. Mark’s Crescent, 
Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 


Tarratt, Henry W., Bushbury Lodge, 
Leamington. 

Tate, Alexander, 41 Upper Sackville St., 
Dublin. 

Tatham, George, Leeds. 

Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A., Principal 
and Professor of Ecclesiastical History 
in Manchester New College, London ; 
22 Woburn Square, London, W.C. 

Taylor, James, Culverlands near Read- 


ing. 

Taylor, John, F.R.S., 6 Queen Street 
Place, Upper Thames Street, E.C.; 
and Chester Terrace, Regent’s Park, 
London, S.W. 

Taylor, John, jun., F.G.S., 6 Queen 
Street Place, Upper Thames Street, 
London, E.C,. 

Taylor, John, jun., 6 Queen Street Place, 
Upper Thames Street, London, E.C. 
Taylor, Richard, F.G.S., 6 Queen Street 

Place, Upper Thames Street, London, 


Taylor, Vice-Admiral J. N., C.B. 

Taylor, William Edward, Millfield House, 
Enfield near Accrington. 

Tennant, James, F.G.S., Professor of 
Mineralogy and Geology in King’s 
College, London; 149 Strand, London, 
W.C. 


Thompson, Frederick, South Parade, 
Wakefield. 

Thompson, Joseph, Southbank, Downs, 
Bowdon near Manchester. 

Thomson, Corden, M.D., Sheffield. 

Thomson, Professor James, M.A., C.E., 
2 Donegall Square West, Belfast. 

Thomson, James Gibson, Edinburgh, 

Thomson, William, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S., 
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the 
University of Glasgow ; The College, 
Glasgow. 


313 


Thornton, Samuel, The Elms, Highgate, 
Birmingham. 

Thorp, The Venerable Thomas, B.D., 
F.G.S., Archdeacon of Bristol; Ke- 
merton near Tewkesbury. 

Tidswell, Benjamin K., 243 Lord Street, 
Southport. 

Tinné, John A., F.R.G.S., Briarly Aig- 
burth, Liverpool. 

Topham, John, A.I.C.E., 2 Paget Villas, 
Shrubland Grove East, Dalston, Lon- 
don, N.E. 

Trevelyan, Arthur, Wallington, Newcas- 
tle-upon-Tyne. 

Tuckett, Francis Fox, Frenchay, Bristol. 
Tulloch, James, F.R.S., 16 Montagu 
Place, Russell Square, London, W.C. 
Turnbull, Rev. Thomas Smith, M.A., 

F.R.S., Blofield, Norfolk. 

Turner, James Aspinall, M.P., Pendle- 
bury near Manchester. 

Tyndall, John, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor 
of Natural Philosophy in the Royal In- 
stitution of Great Britain, Albemarle 
Street, London, W. 

Tysoe, John, Sedgley Road, Pendleton, 
near Manchester. 


Vallack, Rev. Benj. W. S., St. Budeaux 
near Plymouth. 

Vance, Rev. Robert, 16 Montpelier Hill, 
Dublin. 

Vaux, Frederick, Central Telegraph Office, 
Adelaide, South Australia, 

Vernon, G. V., F.R.A.S., Piccadilly 
Mills; and Old Trafford, Manches- 
ter. 


Vernon, John, High Lee, Woolton, Liver- 


ool. 
Vignoles,Charles,C.E,,F.R.S.,M.R.LA., 
21 Duke Street, Westminster, S.W. 
Vivian, H. Hussey, M.P., F.G.S., 5 Up- 
per Belgrave Street, London,S.W.; and 

Singleton House, Swansea, 


Waldegrave, The Hon. Granville, 26 Port- 
land Place, London, W. 

Walker, Joseph N., F.L.S., Caldeston 
near Liverpool. 

Walker, Rev. Robt.,M.A., F.R.S., Reader 
in Experimental Philosophy in the Uni- 
versity of Oxford, Wadham College, 
Oxford ; and Culham Vicarage, Abing- 
don. 

Walker, Thoinas, 10 York Street, Man- 
chester. 

Ward, William Sykes, F.C.S., Claypit 
House, Leeds. 

Waterhouse, John, F.R.S., Wellhead, 
Halifax, Yorkshire. 


314 MEMBERS TO WHOM BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 


Watson, Henry Hough, F.C.S., The Folds, 
Bolton-le-Moors. 

Way, J. Thomas, F.C.S., Professor of 
Chemistry, Roya! Agriculturai Society 
of England ; 15 Welbeck Street, Caven- 
dish Square, London, W. 

Webb, Rev. Thomas William, M.A., 
Hardwick Parsonage, Hay, South 
Wales. 

Western, T. B., Felix Hall, Kelvedon, 
Essex. 

Westhead, Joshua Proctor, York House, 
Manchester. 

Westley, William, 24 Regent Street, 
London, W. 

Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S., 
Master of Trinity College, Cambridge ; 
Lodge, Cambridge. 

Whitaker, William, B.A., F.G.S., Geolo- 
gical Survey Office, 28 Jermyn Street, 
London, S.W. 

Whitehead, J. B., Oakley Terrace, Raw- 
tenstall, Manchester. 

Whitehead, Peter Ormerod, Holly House, 
Rawtenstall, Manchester. 

Whitehouse, Wildman, 8 Bexley Place, 
Greenwich, S.E. 

Whiteside, James, M.A., Q.C., M.P., 2 
Mountjoy Square, Dublin. 

Whitty, John Irwine, D.C.L., LL.D., 
M.A., Civil Engineer, Ricketstown 
Hall, Carlow, 

Whitworth, Joseph, F.R.S., The Firs, 
Manchester, and Stancliffe Hall, Derby- 
shire. 

Wilkinson, Eason, M.D., Greenhays, 
Manchester. 

Willert, Paul Ferdinand, Manchester. 

Williams, Caleb, M.D., Micklegate, 
York, 

Williams, CharlesTheodore, B.A., 40 Up- 
per Brook Street, London, W. 

Williams, Harry S.,49 Upper Brook St., 
Grosvenor Square, London, W. 

Williams, William, Crosby Hall, Bishops- 
gate Street, London, E.C. 

Williamson, Alex. W., Ph.D., F.R.S., 
Professor of Practical Chemistry in 
University College, London; 16 Pro- 
vost Road, Haverstock Hill, London, 
N.W 


Williamson, Rev. William, B.D., Datch- 
worth, Welwyn, Hertfordshire. 

Wills, Alfred, 4 Harcourt Buildings, Inner 
Temple, London, E.C. 

Wiison, Alexander, F.R.S., 34 Bryan- 
ston Square, London, W. 


Wilson, F., Dallam Tower, Milnthorpe, 
Westmoreland. 

Wilson, John, Bootham, York. 

Wilson, John, jun., West Hurlet near 
Glasgow. 

Wilson, John, Seacroft near Leeds. 

Wilson, Rev. Sumner, Horton Heath, 
Bishopstoke. 

Wilson, Thomas, M.A., Crimbles House, 
Leeds. 

Wilson, William Parkinson, M.A., Pro- 
fessor of Pure and Applied Mathematics 
in the University of Melbourne. 

Winsor, F. A., 57 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 
London, W.C. 

Wollaston, Thomas Vernon, M.A., F.L.S., 
Southernhay House, Kingskerswell, 
Newton Abbot, Devon. 

Wood, Rt. Hon. Sir Charles, Bart., M.P., 
10 Belgrave Square, S.W., and Hickles- 
ton Hall, Doncaster. 

Wood, Edward T., Brinscall Hall, Chorley. 

Wood, George B., M.D., Philadelphia, 
United States. 

Wood, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S., Holwell 
Rectory, Sherborne, Dorset. 

Wood, John, St. Saviourgate, York. 

Wood, Rev. William Spicer, M.A., Oak- 
ham, Rutlandshire. 

Wood, William, Monkhill House, Ponte- 
fract. 

Woodd, Charles H. L., F.G.S., Roslyn, 
Hampstead, London, N.W. 

Woodhead, G., Mottram near Manches- 
ter. 

Woods, Edward, 5 Gloucester Crescent, 
Hyde Park, London, W. 

Worcester, Henry Pepys, D.D., Lord 
Bishop of, 24 Grosvenor Place, Lon- 
don, S.W. 

Wormald, Richard, 10 Priory Road, Kil- 
burn, London, N.W. 

Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A., 
Mansfield. 

Worthington, Robert, Cheetham Hill near 
Manchester. 

Wright, E. Abbot, Castle Park, Frodsham, 
Cheshire. 

Wright, Robert Francis, Hinton Blewett, 
Somersetshire. 

Yarborough, George Cooke, 
Mount, Doncaster. 

Yorke, Colonel Philip, F.R.S., 89 Eaton 
Place, Belgrave Square, London, S.W. 

Younge, Robert, M.D., Greystones near 
Sheffield. 


Camp’s 


i 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


315 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS, 


Abernethy, Robert, Ferry Hill, Aberdeen. 

Agnew, Thomas, Fair Hope, Eccles near 
Manchester. 

Airston, Dr. William Baird, 29 South 
Street, St. Andrews, Fifeshire. 

Alcock, Thomas, M.D., Upper Brook 
Street, Manchester. 

Allen, Richard, Didsbury near Manches- 
ter. 

Allman, George James, M.D., F.R.S., 
M.R.I.A., Professor of Natural History 
in the University of Edinburgh; 21 
Manor Place, Edinburgh. 

Anderson, Patrick, Dundee. 

Andrew, Jonah, 31 Market Street, Man- 
chester. 

Andrews, William, M.R.I.A., Ashton on 
the Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin. 

Argyll, George Douglas, Duke of, LL.D., 
F.R.S., Campden Hill, Kensington, 
London, W., and Inverary Castle, In- 
verary, Scotland. 

Armitage, William, Meal Street, Man- 
chester. 

Aspland, Alfred, Dukinfield, Cheshire. 

Asquith, J. R., Infirmary Street, Leeds. 

Aston, Theo., 4 Elm Court, Temple, 
London, E.C. 

Atherton, Charles, H. M. Dockyard, 
Woolwich, S.E. 

Atkin, Eli, Newton Heath, Manchester. 

Atkinson, Rev. J. A., Longsight Rectory, 
Manchester. 

Atkinson, James, Bayswater, London, W. 


Baily, William H., F.G.S., Acting Pa- 
leontologist to the Geological Survey 
of Ireland, 51 Stephen’s Green, Dub- 
lin. 

Balding, James, M.R.C.S., Barkway, 
Hertfordshire. 

Bannerman, James Alexander, Limefield 
House, Higher Broughton, Manches- 


ter. 

Barrett, T. B. (Surgeon), Welshpool. 

Barrington, Edward, Fassaroe, Bray, [re- 
land. 

Barrington, Richard, 8 Trafalgar Terrace, 
Monkstown, Co. Dublin. 

Bass, J. H., F.G.S., 2 Picton Villas, 
Camden Road, London, N.W. 

Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S., 108 Stocks 
Street, Manchester. 

Bean, William, Alfreton, Derbyshire. 

Becker, Ernest, Ph.D., Buckingham Pa- 
lace, London, S.W. 


Beckles, Samuel Husbands, F.R.S., 
F.G.S., 9 Grand Parade, St, Leonard’s- 
on-Sea. 

Beke,CharlesT., Ph.D., F.S.A.,F.R.G.S., 
Bekesbourne House near Canterbury. 

Bell, George, Windsor Buildings, Dum- 
barton. 

Billings. Robert William, (Architect,) 4 
St. Mary’s Road, Canonbury, Lon- 
don, N. 

Bird, James, M.D., F.R.G.S., 27 Hyde 
Park Square, London, W. 

Birley, Thomas Thornely, Highfield, 
Heaton Mersey. 

Blakeley, Captain A. T., 34 Montpelier 
Square, London, S.W. 

Blakiston, Matthew, 8 Waterloo Road, 
Dublin. 

Blunt, Captain Richard J., Bretlands, 
Chertsey, Surrey. < 

Booth, James, Rochdale. 

Botterill, John, Burley near Leeds. 

Brazier, James S., F.C.S., Lecturer in 
Agriculture, Marischal College, Aber- 
deen. 

Brett, George, Whalley View, Whalley 
Range, Manchester. 

Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., 
F.R.S., V.P.R.S. Ed., Principal of the 
University of Edinburgh; Allerly by 
Melrose, N.B. 

Bright, Sir Charles, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 
12 Upper Hyde Park Gardens, W. ; 
and 1 Victoria St., Westminster, S.W. 

Bright, Edward B., 2 Exchange Build- 
ings, Liverpool. 

Brodhurst, Bernard E., 20 Grosvenor 
Street, Grosvenor Square, London, W, 

Brooke, Edward, Marsden House, Stock- 
port, Cheshire. 

Brooke, Peter William, Marsden House, 
Stockport, Cheshire. 

Brown, Alderman Henry, Bradford. 

Brownlee, James, 173 St. George’s Road, 
Glasgow. 

Bryce, James, 76 Oldham Street, Man- 
chester. 


Cail, John, Stokesley, Yorkshire. 

Calvert, Professor F.Crace, Ph.D., F.R.S., 
F.C.S., Royal Institution, Manchester. 

Carlton, James, Mosley St., Manchester. 

Carte, Alexander, A.M., M.B., F.L.S., 
Director of the Natural History Mu- 
seum of the Royal Dublin Society, 
Dublin. 


316 


Carter, Richard, C.E., Long Carr, Barns- 
ley, Yorkshire. 

Cayley, Arthur, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 2 
Stone Buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, Lon- 
don, W.C. 

Chadwick, David, 75 King Street, Man- 
chester. 

Chadwick, Thomas, Wilmslow Grange, 
Cheshire. 

Christie, Professor R. C., M.A., 7 St. 
James’s Square, Manchester. 

Church, William Selby, B.A., Christ 
Church, Oxford. ; 

Clapham, Samuel, 17 Park Place, Leeds. 

Clark, Latimer, 1 Victoria Street, West- 
minster, S.W. 

Claudet, A., F.R.S., 107 Regent Street, 
W.., and 11 Gloucester Road, Regent’s 
Park, London, N.W. 

Clay, Charles, M.D., 101 Piccadilly, 
Manchester. 

Cleland, John, M.D., 181 Pitt Street, 
Elgin Place, Glasgow. 

Coleman, J. J., F.C.S., 24 Johnson St., 
Queen’s Road, Manchester. 

Collinge, John, Saddleworth. 

Corbett, Joseph Henry, M.D., Professor 
of Anatomy and Physiology in Queen’s 
College, Cork. 

Corner, C. Tinsley, Arlington Terrace, 
Broughton near Manchester. 

Cranage, Edward, Ph.D., The Old Hall, 
Wellington, Shropshire. 

Cross, Rev. John Edward, M.A., Appleby 
Vicarage near Brigg. 

Crowley, Henry, Cheetham Hill Road, 
Manchester. 

Crum, Walter, F.R.S., Thornliebank 
near Glasgow. 

Cull, Richard, 13 Tavistock Street, Bed- 
ford Square, London, W.C. 

Cunningham, James, F.R.S.E., Queen 
Street, Edinburgh. 

Cunningham, William: A., Manchester 
and Salford Bank, Manchester. 


Dancer, J. B., F.R.A.S., Old Manor 
House, Ardwick, Manchester. 

Darbishire, Charles James, Rivington 
near Chorley. 

Dashwood, Charles, Thornage near Thet- 
ford, Norfolk. 
Da Silva, Johnson, Burntwood, Wands- 
worth Common near London, S.W. 
Davis, J. Barnard, F.S.A., Shelton, Staf- 
fordshire. 

Davy, John, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., 
Lesketh How, Ambleside. 

Deacon, Henry, Runcorn Gap. 

Dean, Henry, Colne, Lancashire. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS, 


Deane, Henry, Clapham, London, S. 

Dennis, J. C., F.R.A.S., 122 Bishopsgate 
Street, London, E.C. 

Dibb, Thos. T., Little Woodhouse, Leeds. 

Dicker, J. R., 29 Exchange Alley North, 
Liverpool. 

Dickson, Peter, 28 Upper Brook Street, 
London, W. 

Dixon, W. Hepworth, F.S.A., F.R.G.S., 
Essex Villa, St. John’s Wood, Lon- 
don, N.W. 

Domvile, William C., Thorn Hill, Bray, 
Dublin. 

Donnelly, Capt. R. E., South Kensington 
Museum, London, W. 

Dove, Hector, 71 Hope Street, Glasgow. 

Drummond, James, Greenock. 

Dufferin, Viscount, F.G.S., Dufferin 
Lodge, Highgate, London, N.; and 
Clandeboye Down, Ireland. 

Duncan, James, Greenock. 

Duncan, John W., Grove End Road, 
Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 

Duns, Rev. John, F.R.S.E., Torphichen, 
Bathgate, Scotland. 


Eadson, Richard, 13 Hyde Road, Man- 
chester. 

Ecroyd, William Farrer, Spring Cottage, 
near Burnley. 

Edge, John William, Percy Street, Hulme, 
Manchester. 

Edgeworth, M. P., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., 
Anerly near London, 8. 

Ekman, Charles F., 36 George Street, 
Manchester. 

Elder, John, 12 Centre Street, Glasgow. 

Elliot, Robert, Wolflee, Hawick. 

Evans, Griffith F. D., M.D., St. Mary’s, 
Bedford. 

Everest, Colonel Sir George, Bengal Artil- 
lery, F.R.S., 10 Westbourne Street, 
Hyde Park, London, W. 


Farr, William, M.D., Southlands, Brom- 
ley, Kent. 

Ferguson, James, Auchinheath and Craig- 
nethan Gas Coal Works, Lesmahago, 
Glasgow. 

Fielding, James, Mearclough Mills, Sow- 
erby Bridge. 

Findlay, A. G.,F.R.G.S., 53 Fleet Street, 
London, E.C. 

Fishwick, Captain Henry, Carr Hill, 
Rochdale. 

FitzRoy, Rear-Admiral Robert, F.R.S., 38 
Onslow Sq., Brompton, London, S.W. 

Foster, Peter Le Neve, M.A., Society of 
Arts, Adelphi, London, W.C. 

Fowler, Richard, M.D., F.R.S., Salisbury. 


— 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Fraser, James P., 2 Laurence Place, 
Dowanhill, Partick by Glasgow. 

Furness, William, Monmouth Street, 
Rusholme, Manchester. 


Gages, Alphonse, Museum of Irish In- 
dustry, Dublin. 

Galbraith, Andrew, Glasgow. 

Galloway, Charles J., Knott Mill Iron 
Works, Manchester. 

Galloway, John, jun., Knott Mill Iron 
Works, Manchester. 

Gassiot, John P., F.R.S., Clapham Com- 
mon, London, S. 

Gerard, Henry, 13 Rumford Place, Liver- 


pool. 

Gibb, George D., M.D., M.A., F.G.S., 
Portman Street, Portman Square, Lon- 
don, W. 

Gibson, Thomas F., 124 Westbourne 
Terrace, Hyde Park, London, W. 

Gibson, William Sydney, M.A., F.S.A., 
F.G.S., Tynemouth, Northumberland. 

Gifford, The Lord. 

Glennie, J. S. Stuart, F.R.G.S., 6 Stone 
Buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. 

Grafton, Frederick W,, Park Road, Whal- 
ley Range, Manchester. 

Grant, Robert, M.A., F.R.A.S., Professor 
of Astronomy in the University of 
Glasgow; Observatory, Glasgow. 

Greene, Professor J. Reay, M.R.I.A., 
Queen’s College, Cork. 

Greenwood, William, Stones, Todmorden, 
Lancashire. 

Gregson, Samuel Leigh, Aigburth near 
Liverpool. 

Griffith, George, M.A., F.C.S., Jesus 
College, Oxford. 


Hall, Hugh F., 17 Dale Street, Liverpool. 

Hall, John Frederick, Ellerker House, 
Richmond, Surrey, S.W. 

Hall, Walter, 10 Pier Road, Erith, S.E. 

Halliday, James, Whalley Cottage, 
Whalley Range, Manchester. 

Hancock, John, Lurgan, Co. Armagh. 

Hancock, Walter, 10 Upper Chadwell 
Street, London, E.C. 

Harcourt, A. Vernon, New College Street, 
Oxford. 

Harkness, Robert, F.R.S., F.G.S., Profes- 
sor of Geology in Queen’s College, 
Cork. 

Harman, H. W., C.E., 16 Booth Street, 
Manchester. 

Hartnup, John, F.R.A.S., Observatory, 
Liverpool. 

Hay, Sir Andrew Leith, Bart., Rannes, 
Aberdeenshire. 


317 


Heathfield, W. E., 20 King Street, St. 
James’s, London, S.W. 

Hector, James, M.D., 13 Gate Street, 
Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. 

Hennessy, Henry, F.R.S., M.R.I1.A., 
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the 
Catholic University of Ireland, Dublin; 
Wynnefield, Rathgar, Co. Dublin. 

Hepburn, Robert, 8 Davies Street, Berke- 
ley Square, London, W. 

Hertz, James, Sedgley Park, Prestwich 
near Manchester. 

Hervey, The Rev. Lord Arthur, Ickworth, 
Suffolk. 

Heywood, Councillor John, Deansgate, 
Manchester. 

Higgins, George, Mount House, Higher 
Broughton, Manchester. 

Higgins, Rev. Henry H., M.A., Rainhill, 
Liverpool. 

Hill, Laurence, Port Glasgow. 

Ilincks, Rev. Edward, D.D., Killyleagh, 
Ireland. 

Hirst, John, jun., Dobcross, Saddle- 
worth. 

Hitchman, John, Leamington. 

Hogan, Rev. A. R., M.A., Puddletown, 
Dorchester. 

Holcroft, George, C.E., Red Lion Street, 
St. Ann’s Square, Manchester. 

Hollond, Loton, 41 Kensington Park 
Gardens, Notting Hill, Londen, W. 

Hooper, William, 7 Pall Mall East, 
London. 

Hopkinson, Joseph, Britannia Works, 
Huddersfield. 

Hough, Joseph, Wrottesley Hall near 
Wolverhampton. 

Hudson, Robert, F.R.S., Clapham Com- 
mon, London, S. 

Huggon, William, 30 Park Row, Leeds. 

Hume, Rev. A., D.C.L., F.S.A., Liver- 


pool. 

Hunt, James, Ph.D., F.S.A., Hon, Sec. 
Ethnol. Soc.; Ore House, Hastings. 
Hunt, Robert, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining 

Records, Museum of Practical Geology, 
Jermyn Street, London, S.W. 
Hutton, T. Maxwell, Dublin. 


Iles, Rev. J. H., Rectory, Wolverhampton. 

Jack, John, Belhelvie, Aberdeen. 

Jacobs, Bethel, Hull. 

James, Edward, 9 Gascoyne Terrace, 
Plymouth. 

James, Edward H., 9 Gascoyne Terrace, 
Plymouth. 

James, William C., 9 Gascoyne Terrace, 
Plymouth. 

Jennings, Thomas, Cork. 


318 


Johnson, Richard, 27 Dale Street, Man- 
chester, ° 

Johnson, William Beckett, Woodlands 
Bank near Altrincham. 

Johnston, A. Keith, 4 St. Andrew Square, 
Edinburgh. 

Jones, John, 28 Chapel Street, Liverpool. 

Jones, T. Rupert, F.G.S., Professor of 
the Natural Sciences in the Royal 
Military College, Sandhurst, near 
Farnborough. 


Kay, Alexander, Atherton Grange, Wim- 
bledon Park, Surrey, S.W. 

Kaye, Robert, Mill Brae, Moodiesburn 
by Glasgow. 

Ker, A.A. Murray, D.L., Newbliss House, 
Newbliss, Co. Monaghan, Ireland. 

Kinahan, John R.,M.D., St.Kilda, Sandy- 
cove, Dalkey, Kingstown, Ireland. 

Kingsley, John, 30 St. Ann’s Street, 
Manchester. 

Kirkman, Rev. T. P., M.A., F.R.S., 
Croft Rectory, near Warrington. 

Kirkwood, Anderson, 246 Sauchiechall 
Street, Glasgow. 


Lace, Francis John, Stone Gappe, Cross 
Hills, Leeds. 

Ladd, William, 11 & 12 Beak Street, 
Regent Street, London. 

Lalor, John Joseph, 2 Longford Terrace, 
Monkstown, Co. Dublin. 

Lankester, Edwin, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., 
8 Savile Row, London. 

Lassell, William, jun., The Brook near 
Liverpool. 

Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S., Greenford, 
Middlesex. 

Lee, Henry, Irwell House, 
Broughton, Manchester. 

Lees, Samuel, Portland Place, Ashton- 
under-Lyne. 

Lennox, A. C, W., 21 Ovington Square, 
London, S.W. 

Leppoc, Henry Julius, Kersal Crag near 
Manchester. 

Lister, Rey. William, Bushbury, Wolver- 
hampton. 

Lowe, Edward Joseph, F.R.A.S., High- 
field House Observatory, Nottingham. 


Lower 


M‘Connell, J. E., Wolverton Park, Buck- 
inghamshire, 

Maclaren, Charles, Moreland, Grange 
Loan, Edinburgh. 

Marriott, William, Leeds Road, Hud- 
dersfield. 

Matthews, Rev. Richard Brown, Shal- 
ford Vicarage near Guildford. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Medcalf, William, 58 Brown Street, | 
Manchester, ’ 
Melly, Charles Pierre, Riversley, Liver- 


pool. 

Miles, Rev. C. P., M.D., Principal of the 
Malta Protestant College, St. Julian’s, 
Malta. 

Mirrlees, James Buchanan, 128 West Stor. 
Tradeston, Glasgow. 

Mitchell, John Mitchell, Mayville, Edin- 
burgh. 

Moffat, T., M.D., F.R.A.S., Hawarden, 
Chester. 

Moir, James, 174 Gallowgate, Glasgow. 

Molesworth, Rev. W. N -, Spotlands, 
Rochdale. 

Moore, Arthur, Bristol and Exeter Rail- 
way, Bristol. 

Moore, Charles, F.G.S., Cambridge Place, 
Bath. 

Morewood, Edmund, Stratford, Essex, E. 

Morris, William, The Grange, Salford. 

Morton, George H., F.G.S., 9 London 
Road, Liverpool. 

Muir, William, Britannia Works, Man- 
chester. 

Musgrove, John, jun., Bolton. 

Mylne, Robert W., F.R.S., F.G.S., 21 
Whitehall Place, London, S.W. 


Neild, Alfred, Dingle Bank, Bowden, 
Manchester. 

Neild, Alderman William, 
Manchester. 

Neville, Thomas Henry, 17 George St., 
Manchester. 

Newmarch, William, Globe Insurance, 
Corrhill, London, E.C. 

Newton, Alfred, M.A., F.L.S., Elvedon 
Hall, Thetford, Norfolk. 

Norfolk, Richard, Messrs. W. Ruther- 
ford and Co., 14 Canada Dock, Liver- 

ool. 

Niethcute. A. Beauchamp, F.C.S., Rose 
Hill Terrace, Worcester. 

Noton, Thomas, Priory House, Oldham. 

Nunneley, Thomas, Leeds. 


Mayfield, 


Oldham, James, C.E., Austrian Cham- 
bers, Hull. 

O’Leary, Purcell, M.A., Sydney Place, 
Cork. 

Ormerod, Henry Mere, Clarence Street, 
Manchester. 

Ormerod, T. T., Brighouse near Halifax. 

Outram, Thomas, Greetland near Ha- 
lifax. 


Parkes, Alexander, 8 Bath Row, Bir- 
mingham. 


i} 


- 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


319 


: Patterson, Andrew, Deaf and Dumb | Rogers, James E. Thorold, Professor of 


. School, Old Trafford, Manchester. 
Peach, Charles W., Custom House, Wick. 


_ Pengelly, William, F.G.S., Lamorna, 


Torquay. 

Percy, John, M.D., F.R.S., Museum of 
Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, 
London, S.W. 

Perkins, Rev. George, St. James’s View, 
Dickenson Rd.,Rusholme, Manchester. 

Perring, John Shae, M.I.C.E., 104 King 
Street, Manchester. 

Pickstone, William, Radcliffe Bridge near 
Manchester. 

Pincoffs, Simon, Crumpsall Lodge, Cheet- 
ham Hill, Manchester. 

Procter, William, 24 Petergate, York. 

Purdy, Frederick, F.S.S., Principal of the 
Statistical Department of the Poor 
Law Board, London; Victoria Road, 
Kensington, London, W. 


Rafferty, Thomas, 13 Monmouth Terrace, 
Rusholme, Manchester. 

Ramsay, John, Kildalton, Argyleshire. 

Randall, Thomas (Mayor of Oxford), 
Grandpont House, Oxford. 

Rankin, Rev. Thomas, Huggate, York- 
shire. 

Rankine, W. J. Macquorn, C.E., LL.D., 
Professor of Engineering, F.R.S.L.&E., 
59 St. Vincent Street, Glasgow. 

Ransome, Arthur, M.A., St. Peter’s Sq., 
Manchester. 

Reed, Edward James, 7 Adelphi Terrace, 
Strand, London, W.C. 

Reynolds, Richard, F.C.S., 13 Briggate, 
Leeds. 

Ricardo, David, 29 Piccadilly, London, W. 

Richardson, Charles, Almondsbury, Bris- 
tol. 3 

Richardson, William, Greenacres Road, 
Oldham. 

Richson, Rev. Canon, M.A., Shakespeare 
Street, Ardwick, Manchester. 

Ridley, John, Stagshaw, Hexham. 
Ritchie, George Robert, 24 Stockwell 
Park Road, Stockwell, London, S. 
Roberton, James, Gorbals Foundry, 

Glasgow. 

Roberts, John, 101 Upper Parliament 
Street, Liverpool. 

Robinson, Enoch, Dukinfield, Cheshire. 

Robinson, John, Atlas Works, Man- 
chester. 

Robinson, Samuel, Wilmslow, Cheshire. 

Rofe, John, F.G.S., 15 Abbey Place, St. 
John’s Wood, London, N.W. 

Rogers, Professor H. D., The University, 
Glasgow. 


Economic Science and Statistics in 
King’s College, London. 

Rolleston, George, M.D., F.R.S., Lee’s 
Reader in Anatomy in the University 
of Oxford ; New Inn Hall St., Oxford. 

Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S. 

Rose, C. B., F.G.S., Great Yarmouth, 
Norfolk. 

Round, Daniel George, Hange Colliery 
near Tipton, Staffordshire. 

Routh, Edward J., M.A., St. Peter’s Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 

Rowan, David, St. Vincent Crescent,’ 
Glasgow. 


Saul, Charles J., Smedley Lane, Cheet- 
ham Hill, Manchester. 

Scott, Robert H., Trinity College, Dublin; 
18 Ranelagh Road, Dublin. 

Scott, Rev. Robert S., M.A., 7 Beaufort 
Terrace, Cecil Street, Manchester. 
Sharp, Samuel, Dallington Hall, North- 

ampton. 

Shaw, Norton, M.D., Secretary to the 
Royal Geographical Society, London, 
15 Whitehall Place, London, S.W. 

Shewell, John T., Rushmere, Ipswich. 

Siemens, C. William, F.R.S., 3 Great 
George Street, Westminster, S.W. 

Sleddon, Francis, 2 Kingston Terrace, 
Hull. 

Slesser, G. M., Queen’s College, Bel- 
fast. 

Sloper, George Elgar, jun., Devizes. 

Sloper, S. Elgar, Winterton near South- 
ampton. 

Smeeton, G. H., Commercial Street, 
Leeds. 

Smith, Brooke, Birmingham. 

Smith, Edward, M.D., F.R.S., 6 Queen 
Anne Street, London. 

Smith, Professor J., M.D., The Univer- 
sity, Sydney. 

Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D., F.R.S., 20 
Grosvenor Square, Manchester. 

Smith, William, C.E., F.C.S., 10 Salis- 
bury Street, Adelphi, London, W.C. 

Sorensen, Le Chevalier B., Norway. 

Spence, Peter, Pendleton Alum Works, 
Newton ‘Heath, Manchester. 

Spencer, John Frederick, Newcastle- 
upon- Tyne. 

Steinthal, H. M., Hollywood, Fallowfield 
near Manchester. 

Stevelly, John, LL.D., Professor of Na- 
tural Philosophy in Queen’s College, 
Belfast. 

Stewart, Balfour, F.R.S., Kew Observa- 
tory, Richmond, Surrey, S.W, 


320 


Stoney, Bindon B., M.R.I.A., 89 Wa- 
terloo Road, Dublin. 

Story, Jas.,17 Bryanston Sq., London, W. 

Stuart, William, 1 Rumford Place, Liver- 
pool. 

Stuart, W. D., Philadelphia. 

Symonds, Rey. W. S., F.G.S., Pendock 
Rectory, near Tewkesbury. 

Symons, G. J., 129 Camden Road Villas, 
London, N.W. 


Talbot, William Hawkshead, Southport, 
Lancashire. 

Teschemacher, E. F., 1 Highbury Park 
North, London, N. 

Thompson, George, jun., Pitmedden, 
Aberdeen. 

Thorburn, Rev. William Reid, M.A., 
Starkees, Bury, Lancashire. 

Townsend, William, Attleborough Hall 
near Nuneaton. 

Toynbee, Joseph, F.R.S., 18 Savile Row, 
Burlington Gardens, London, W. 

Tristram, Rev. H. B., M.A., F.L.S., 
Greatham Hospital, Stockton-on-Tees. 

Turnbull, John,. 276 George Street, 
Glasgow. 


Tuton, Edward S., Lime Street, Liverpool. 


Varley, Cornelius, 7 York Place, High 
Road, Kentish Town, London, N.W. 

Voelcker, J. Ch. Augustus, Ph.D., F.C.S., 
Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, 
Royal Agricultural College, Ciren- 
cester. 


Waddingham, John, Guiting Grange, 
Winchcomb, Gloucestershire. 

Walker, Charles V., F.R.S., Fernside 
Villa, Red Hill near Reigate. 

Wallace, William, Ph.D., F.C.S., Che- 
mical Laboratory, 38 Bath Street, 
Glasgow. 

Walton, Rev. W., M.A., F.R.S., Great 
Moulton, Norfolk. 

Wardle, Thomas, Leek Brook, Leek, 
Staffordshire. 

Warington, Robert, F.C.S., Apothe- 
caries’ Hall, London, E,C. 

Watts, Sir James, Abney Hall, Cheadle 
near Manchester. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Watts, John King, F.R.G.S., St. Ives, 
Huntingdonshire. 

Webster, John, 42 King Street, Aber- 
deen. 

Webster, John, Broomhall Park, Shef- 
field. 

Weston, James Woods (Mayor of Sal- 
ford), Seedley House, Pendleton, Man- 
chester. 

Whitehead, James, M.D., 87 Mosley St., 
Manchester. 

Whitford,J.,Grecian Terrace, Harrington, 

* Cumberland. 

Wight, Robert, M.D., F.L.S., Grazeley 
Lodge, Reading. 

Wilde, Henry (Engineer), Manchester. 

Wilkinson, Robert, Totteridge Park, 
Herts. 

Williams, R. Price, 22 Ardwick Green, 
Manchester. 

Wilson, Alex. Stephen, Mains of Dyce, 
Dyce, Scotland. 

Wilson, George Daniel, 24 Ardwick 
Green, Manchester. 

Wilson, Thomas Bright, 24 Ardwick 
Green, Manchester. 

Wiltshire, Rev. Thomas, M.A., F.G.S., 
F.R.A.S., Rectory; Bread Street Hill, 
London, E.C. 

Wood, Samuel, F.S.A., The Abbey, 
Shrewsbury. 

Wood, William Rayner, Singleton Lodge 
near Manchester. 

Woodall, Captain John Woodall, F.G.S., 
St. Nicholas House, Scarborough. 

Woolley, Thomas Smith, South Colling- 
ham, Newark. 


. Worthy, George S., 32 Park Street, 


Bristol. 

Wright, E. Percival, M.A., M.B., ° 
M.R.I.A.,F.L.S., Lecturer on Zoology, 
University of Dublin; Museum, Tri- 
nity College, Dublin. 

Wright, Henry, Stafford House, Lon- 
don, S.W. 

Wright, Thomas, F.S.A., 14 Sydney St., 
Brompton, London, S.W. 


Yates, Edward, 30 Compton Terrace, 
Islington, London, N. 


Printed by Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. 


ie 


Js 
ts