pseeigis ts
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starr eeeSe
“
REPORT
OF THE
Pt
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;
HELD AT CAMBRIDGE IN OCTOBER 1862.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1863.
PRINTED BY
TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.
CONTENTS.
Ossects and Rules of the Association..................020e00es a
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement .............. x
DUSTEMAPACCOUN Gs Soeln ke. Tel h es Re ee eee ae. ee Xxiv
Members of Council from commencement ................000005 XXV
Officerstand’ Council; 1861=62 acre. Hes e i. ek oe Ps XXVili
Seeeeee ar Secisonal Committees... .... esa k eens tues uj ce eee Xxix
BER MRITITIE MGHIUOES o.oo o5. 6 5 vc oo sient eiadiniale Mincgin biased obo aleneel XXX
Report of the Council to the General Committee ................ Xxxi
Report of the Kew Committee, 1861-62 ..........cccc ce seeeee Xxxii
Report of the Parliamentary Committee........ 0... cc ce cee sees XXX1x
Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports
MEREEPGHEONER: UIE SCICTIOS 5 o.5's ac ja vorycls e's cece uacis cece ce a XXx1x
MILT TIES NOHO GEATICS + 6 ors.ac ci 5(255 «ive or :03K «Tas einreieipiytle + 69,0 040% xii
General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific
DLE AE SETS go eee Coa any nn esc ee ee xly
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee ............ xlix
Arrangement of the General Meetings .................. 000005 1
Address of the President, the Rev. R. Wrxuis, M.A., F.R.S., &. .... li
REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.
Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861-62. By a Com-
mittee, consisting of James GuaisHer, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Secretary to
the British Meteorological Society, &c.; R. P. Gree, F.G.8., &c.;
E. W. Brayzey, F.R.S., &c.; and A. HerRscHeL ..........000+:- 1
On the Strains in the Interior of Beams. By Gzorex Bippetn Arry,
Bro Pe eurrionier Oval) o'r. cris 5 sting ase sfan' oh Goo al in ak are ene 82
P
Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee and sy
other recent Publications on the same subject. By ArcHispaLp SmitTH,
M.A., F.R.S., and Frepertck Joun Evans, R.N., F.R.S........... 87
vi CONTENTS.
Report on Tidal Observations on the Humber. Presented by Jamss
OxtpHam, C.E.; Jonn Scorr Russert, C.E., F.R.S.; J. F. Bareman,
en arith si ele OMAR T BOMEPSON 5 osc evs so. . 2 2 Pease 101
On Rifled Guns and Projectiles adapted for Attacking Armour-plate
Defences, By T. Asron, M.A., Barrister-at-Law.............--- 103
Extracts, relating to the Observatory at Kew, from a Report presented
to the Portuguese Government by Dr. JactyrHo Anronto DE Sovza,
Professor of the Faculty of Philosophy in the University of Coimbra.
(Communicated by J. P. Gasstor, F.R.S.) .......6.0 22 ee eee ees 109
Report on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast and Dogger Bank.
Drawn up by Henry T. Menyett, on behalf of the Natural History
Society of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-on-Tyne, and
of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club .............-.-+2+-005- 116
Report of the Committee appointed at Manchester to consider and report
upon the best means of advancing Science through the agency of the
Mercantile Marine. By Curnserr Contrnewoop, M.B., F.L.S....... 122
Provisional Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. Win-
tiamson, Professor C. Wurarstone, Professor W. THomson, Professor
W. H. Mirtrr, Dr. A. Marraressen, and Mr. Freemre Jenkin, on
Standards of ‘Blectriegl Resistance ;:.:: 355522: .. 250") 2 SS soe 125
Preliminary Report of the Committee for Investigating the Chemical and
Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Donegal, and the Mine-
Falstassociated with them: «icc. < ste ae eh ee tees. Oe BO es 163
On the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in connexion
with Storms and Changes of Weather. By Henry Hennessy, F.R.S.,
M.R.LA., &c., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Catholic Uni-
Versity of Treland .2.) s16..%). ols ie aieisinie sles» lee eivisis's ole) -ielsidinialayale eleva 165
Report of a Committee, consisting of the Rev. Dr. Luoyp, General Sazryg,
Mr. A. Ssxarn, Mr. G. Jounstonzr Sronry, Mr. G. B. Arry, Professor
Donxiy, Professor Wu. Toomson, Mr. Carrey, and the Rev. Professor
Price, appointed to inquire into the adequacy of existing data for
carrying into effect the suggestion of Gauss, to apply his General
Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic Variations........ 170
On Thermo-electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal. By Frremine
Umewen. (Ulibe Wye. 21 Soleil. ak ee ee See 173
On the Mechanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities. By
DW oAUAGEB AGING DEI E: REV IPT Vals ajeyaye:'+: anche) -ounye a Bo Shhads feet 178
Report on the Progress of the Solution of certain Special Problems of
Dynamics. By A. Cayzey, F.R.S., Correspondent of the Institute.. 184
Report on Double Refraction. By G. G. Sroxes, M.A., D.C.L., Sec. B.S., ‘
Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge .. 253
CONTENTS. vii
Page
Fourth Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance. (Plate IIT.) 282
On the Fall of Rain in the British Isles during the Years 1860 and 1861.
Sy G. J. Symons, MIBIMS! 4(BlatesH A) Sof. cicero ne 293
On Thermometric Observations in the Alps. By J. Barz, M.R.I.A.,
RRB Qin, | FREE nents Seem erene ecw ae 363
Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East Coasts of
Scotland, By J. Gwyn Jerrrrys, FRG.) oi ea ce eee eee 371
Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt,
Right Hon. Joseph Napier, Mr. Tire, M.P., Professor Curisrison,
Mr. J. Heywoop, Mr. J. F. Bareman, and Mr. T. Wesster, on Tech-
pre
nical and Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law ..-..........02e00% 373
An Account of Meteorological and Physical Observations in Eight Bal-
loon Ascents, made, under the Auspices of the Committee of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science at Manchester, by Jamxs
GuatsHER, F.R.S., at the request of the Committee, consisting of
Colonel Syxes, Mr. G B. Arry, Lord Wrorrrstey, Sir D. Brewster,
Sir J. Herscuet, Dr. Luoyp, Admiral FirzRoy, Dr. Lrr, Dr. Rosryson,
Mr. Gassror, Mr. Guatsuer, Dr. Tynpatx, Mr. Farrparrn, and Dr. W.
MEER eR SS Pee Ped te Sort toe dees alah wae ls wits RS 376
Report on the Theory of Numbers.—Part IV. By H. J. Srepnen Smiru,
M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the University of
IE ho. oe ats Bhat Cy re wha 9 SS ered ea eile BL aya IK Aneene yney 503
APPENDIX I.
Errata in Report of Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861-62 .... 5
bo
“I
Vill CONTENTS.
NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
MATHEMATICS ann PHYSICS.
MATHEMATICS.
Address by G. G. Stoxss, M.A., F.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathematics
in the University of Cambridge, President of the Section. ..............
Rey. F. Basnrortu on Capillary Attraction ...............0ssesseccrece
Professor BoouE on the Differential Equations of Dynamics...............
Rey. Dr. Boor on an Instrument for describing Geometrical Curves; invented
Litied 8 lor!) (cs eran Hermon occ oC Apo ann o sco Oe
Professor A. CAYLEY on a certain Curve of the Fourth Order..............
—_—_———- on the Representation of a Curve in Space by means of
eq epnerand Monoid Surtice ©. \.. .t)ci.'s ss « vials ru a 5 wana elu tale ciate) talaeeneene
Mr. W. Esson on the Curvature of the Margins of Leaves with reference to
BRPEMESERTOWAMN soc ccs aidin'e' 010 ee o's vawbrd bbe Hucaleewie ety «alee eee ene
Sir Wit11am Rowan Hamixton, Quaternion Proof of a Theorem of Reci-
PROCHLZOL Curves in Space: ....... xfs cidsleldcacch doe So oCiet ote ta) /alete teeta teteteamenent
Rey. Ropert Har ey on a certain Class of Linear Differential Equations . .
Mr. T. A. Hirst on the Volumes of Pedal Surfaces ...........00eeee eee
Professor WILLIAM JOHN Macquorn RaAnxKINE on the Exact Form and Mo-
tion of Waves at and near the Surface of Deep Water .............20055
Mr. W. H. L. Russet on Recent Discoveries made in the Calculus of
VATED OLS isi ovasarevecaye}s cieljoleis aic'a/a's « /s) iusiay. oie eichepegenNieeel Reine ote) Siete
Mr. C. M. Witticu on some Models of Sections of Cubes .............005
ASTRONOMY.
Mr. Isaac AsHe’s Cosmogonical Speculations .........0- eee eeeeeeeeees
Mr. W. R. Brrr on a Group of Lunar Craters imperfectly represented in Lunar
IU EETIS fens ose rate tel aeictercimpevale areleisi sys eisis nie + oie avs\a"a alleles ste ete chee eet
Rey. Professor CHaLiis on the Augmentation of the Apparent Diameter of
a Body by its Atmospheric Refraction. ............02+2ccresscececeves
on the Zodiacal Light, and on Shooting-Stars ..........
Professor HENNESSY on some of the Characteristic Differences between the
Configuration of the Surfaces of the Earth and Moon ............++++:-
Mr. Witri1am Lassext on a Brilliant Elliptic Ring in the Planetary Nebula,
Pee SGN DOT GS! osc s cee eee occa Ss eee
Page
sill
CONTENTS. ix
; Page
\ Rey. R. Marn, Observed R.A. and N.P.D. of Comet I. 1862 ............ 15
on the Dimensions and Ellipticity of Mars.................. 15
Mr. J: NasMyrH on some Peculiar Features in the Structure of the Sun’s Sur-
BERNE 5S FAY, TANG: YATRA BDO ~ Bales Jere tabtasel RIGA GEER aeRG oabTOg eaters te 16
Mr. Norman Pocson’s Observations on Three of the Minor Planets in 1860.
(Communicated: by {Dr} Wisi.) | jo<:5 decease epeyetotalers, Were) ofa faite ofele wren co o's 16
Mr. W. Oeripy on the Excentricity of the Earth, and the Method of finding
the Coordinates of its Centre of Gravity ......... ...0005. ange oil mabye 17
M. J. Scxvanrcz on the probable Origin of the Heliocentric Theory ........ 17
Rey. Professor Setwyn on Autographs of the Sun. ......... 0. .e cece eee 17
Mr. W. Sporriswoope on the Hindé Method of Calculating Eclipses ...... 18
M. C. J. Viti on some Improved Celestial Planispheres ................ 18
Lieut ann Hear.
Mr. A. CLavupeErT on the Means of following the Small Divisions of the Scale
regulating the Distances and Enlargement in the Solar Camera.......... 18
M. A. Des CriorzEAvx sur la Relation entre les Phénoménes de la Polarisation
Rotatoire, et les Formes Hémiédres ou Hémimorphes des Cristaux & un ou
REAP OS) CONAGTOS 5 ieteyshele Porsxayelojae pays dopeheiauelaseabealerald Coin 1 ayeqeie: BS oust ibe 19
Mr. James Croix on the Cohesion of Gases, and its relations to Carnot’s
Function and to recent Experiments on the Thermal effects of Elastic Fluids
ERNE SAE TESIN hades cs n0 ctor Notes thai Arar eMeke as eed ence tay le rahavafac a. eettoycnsca avd eke cvela le 21
Rey. J. Din@ie on the Supernumerary Bows in the Rainbow.............. 22
Dr. EssELBAcH on the Duration of Fluorescence .........c0cececeececees 22
Mr. J. M. Menzies on an Optical Instrument which indicates the Relative
Change of Position of Two Objects (such as Ships at Sea during Night)
which are maintaining Independent Courses ............... 0c eee eens 22
Rey. J. B. ReaprE’s Experiments on Photography with Colour............ 22
Mr. J. SmirH on the Complementary Spectrum. ............ ccc eeeeeeees 23
Mr. Cuarites ToMLinson on the Motion of Camphor, &c. towards the Light 28
Execrricity, MaGnertism.
Mr. James Croxt on the Mechanical Power of Electro-Magnetism, with spe-
cial reference to the Theory of Dr. Joule and Dr. Scoresby ............4. 24
Dr. EssEtBAcH on Electric Cables, with reference to Observations on the
Minlta- Alexandr, LelopTApli 2 (is toaMs. saa dele File: hs avers slatel ald nde ort 26
———_———— on an Experimental Determination of the Absolute Quantity
of Electric Charge on Condensers... 0.0. cei ee ei dee dnce eens cubeuee 27
Mr. G. M. Guy on an Electromotive Engine ............... 0c sees ee eeaes 27
METEOROLOGY.
Mr. Isaac AsHe on Balloon Navigation ........0.: cc cecceseceseeeeeeeees 27
on some Improvements in the Barometer .............+.. 28
Mr. Joun Bax on the Determination of Heights by means of the Barometer 28
Rey. Professor CHALLIS on the Extent of the Harth’s Atmosphere ........ 29
x CONTENTS.
Mr. F. Gatton on the “ Boussole Burnier,” a new French Pocket Instrument
for measuring Vertical and Horizontal Angles. .....--+seeseee seen eens
——- on European Weather-Charts for December 1861..........
Dr. GrapsToNE on the Distribution of Fog round the Coasts of the British
AUS Renae ded orrspns state wie teis bee Stl Shi s= ‘aay Dla" ae are ape ju arbre wysieye Sow wi ayer aye (lofeh> Seekomnaegal
Mr. J. GuatsHEeR on a New Barometer used in the last Balloon Ascents ....
Mr. J. Park Harrison on the Additional Evidence of the Indirect Influence
of the Moon over the Temperature of the Air, resulting from the Tabulation
of Observations taken at Greenwich in 1861-62. .......... 0 eee eeeeneees
Professor Hennessy on the Relative Amount of Sunshine falling on the
MMorrid) Aone Of Ghee HATED versie a)sseha) o/6\0 ») 'eis'se-aiayope/aiaia ¢(ors\e 0\0.0) > a ole eleteimil aes
Mr. E. J. Lowe on the Hurricane near Newark of May 7th, 1862, showing
the force of the Hailstones and the violence of the Gale .........++00005
Mr. Ropert Mauuet’s Proposed Measurement of the Temperatures of Active
Volcanic Foci to the greatest attainable Depth, and of the Temperature,
state of Saturation, and Velocity of Issue of the Steam and Vapours evolved
Mr. T. L. Puant on Meteorology, with a Description of Meteorological Instru-
TITIES se) oleh ays) ofetetolleeivln/alishateie sy2- 6, dlays oi) slgiaiel ets (e/e’a «la: 6i5, aiulwleim sletolp iets otaleteeneys
Rey. T. Ranx1n’s Meteorological Observations registered at Huggate, York-
RRR WEP Pore tWolesa inca avarslaevasetesisiele sere) colons) ove 6tain\a\ nin fo ue (elsYahslr Wiel aint opahateteeite
Mr. S. A. Rows11’s Objections to the Cyclone Theory of Storms..........
Mr. G. J. Symons on the Performance, under trying circumstances, of a very
small Anefoid Barometer... .......s ccc ccs s esters setsreeecevemecee
Professor James THOMSON on the Disintegration of Stones exposed in Build-
ings and otherwise to Atmospheric Influence ...........seee ener eeeeees
CHEMISTRY.
Address by Professor wW. H. Miter, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Section
Mr. Groner BowvieR BucxrTon on the Formation of Organo-Metallic Ra-
dicals by Substitution 6.2... cee wee elec dvee esc ce veins soialawilns
Mr. DuGaLp CAMPBELL on the Action of Nitric Acid upon Pyrophosphate of
IER OSIBIM aye: nlels winie «elscals efe\s 5,0 + 51s afer) + c)o\e Woln)s\e ele folalais ojetsi~'al+ otetet= eieemmy oie
M. A. Drs CLorzEAvx sur les modifications temporaires et permanentes que la
Chaleur apporte 4 quelques propriétés optiques de certains, corps cristallisés
Mr. J. P. Gasstor on the Mode of preparing Carbonic Acid Vacua in large
(IRR HESE Gl EIS Ay RIOR ASL SO CHER CROMER ao SITE meno or yaae ab o/k ¢ tees
Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE on the Essential Oil of Bay, and other Aromatic Oils. .
on the Means of observing the Lines of the Solar Spec-
trum due to the Terrestrial Atmosphere ...........cessseeevccerereces
Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt on a particular Case of induced Chemical Action
DreGHantEy on Schonbein’s'Antozone 25. ./ci.% sacs odie) oie ole oe Cer
Mr. W. H. Harris on the Adulteration of Linseed Cake with Nut-cake ...
Mr. CHartes Herscu on a Simple Method of taking Stereomicro-photographs
Ni By. 0 Low on-his'OzonesBOxe *s\ 51.70% «seule oc o' cea tee crore ete A a teats
Observataons’on Ozone. of. Se es wee oes sere eee
Dr. Morrar on the Luminosity of Phosphorus ..............00000: 436%:
WV. OpriIng on Herrous AGid 2758. ob se ek ao Bale a tata oils Ge
Page
30
30
31
31
31
31
32
33
34
35
35
35
36
-
CONTENTS.
Dr. “ trnG@ on the Synthesis of some Hydrocarbons ...........00e000:
on the Nomenclature of Organic Compounds..............
Mr. J. W. Osporne on the Essential Oils and Resins from the Indigenous
Pe PraHUOMO LN CLON Mar men Selves ereie's.c cre treceasiettecre iss Aaya ci ePers a so 6
———_—_—__——_ Details of a Photolithographic Process, as adopted by the
Government of Victoria, for the publication of Maps................0005
Dr. B. H. Pav on the Manufacture of Hydrocarbon Oils, Paraffin, &c., from
LEETT o 6 Sod Oho peop GBIBAC EE ected Hep Oem e bre OS Hain Deer Ctib Okara arin ©
Dr. T. L. Pxtpson on the Artificial Formation of Populine, and on a new
PEE MPPCRIEC ONO coos cas r,s ce Se eaten Seah sy cohen ee Righe
——____————— on the Existence of Aniline in certain Fungi which be-
Lome blie in contact withithe: Air, &is%. says. 3% 5016 0) ofe ole werd f ola eleverers
———_—— Analysis of the Diluvial Soil of Brabant, &c., known as
giematrnon sd la ELCSOAy On -2 cash gicbayerchsae chy oletere'e lore de Aapensiea vas he oe oe
Professor H. E. Roscoz on Hypobromous Acid......... eee eeeeee eee ee :
Mr. T. Surron’s Description of a rapid Dry-Collodion Process ............
GEOLOGY.
Address by J. Brrte Jukes, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Section........
Professor ALLMAN on an Karly Stage in the Development of Comatula, and its
RSP EeENUEG OO TCAl FUOLAMONG) sc. esha cae vie sive cele neyd cred aiencis ve baw ee veiree
Professor ANSTED on Bituminous Schists and their Relation to Coal........
—————- on a Tertiary Bituminous Coal in Transylvania, with some
remarks on the Brown Coals of the Danube. .............:cceeeeeeeees
Captain Gopw1n-AvsTEN on the Glacier Phenomena of the Valley of the
REPROD So oa Scio gtd 0.y Dee Pa. AAG oe ea ss oS oes Ook ee ee ee
Dr. A. Carre and Mr. W. H. Barry on a New Species of Plesiosaurus from the
ReeeenCmE TVANCDY, Y OMMBNIEA. fewsis Ws aitis splame dds fee Cae ee cre cen een
Mr. W. T. Branrorp on an Extinct Volcano in Upper Burmah ..........
Rey. T. G. Bonney on some Flint Implements from Amiens............-.
Rey. J. CRompron on Deep or Artesian Wells at Norwich...............+
Dr. DavBeEny on Flint Implements from Abbeville and Amiens............
on the last Eruption of Vesuvius. .....6.s.eceessescceseess
Mr. W. Boyp Dawxrns on the Wokey Hole Hyena-den.................
Rey. J. DrnexeE on Specimens of Flint Instruments from North Devon......
Mr. Doveury on Flint Instruments from Hoxne ..............00e cece eee
Mr. F. J. Foor on the Geology of Burren, co. Clare ............cce ee eeeee
Dr. Frirscw on some Models of Foraminifera. ........... 00. cee e cece eee
Professor Harkness on the Skiddaw Slate Series........... 0.0000 cues
My. J. Gwyn JEFFREYS on an Ancient Sea-bed and Beach near Fort William,
MeeteceNTOSS=S NING es ere musheieter sear ele rae A wae LI ED LER TT Tr cree
Dr. W. Lauper Linpsay on the Geology of the Gold-fields of Otago, New
NEEL, 5 oy a2) ssa elias a's aS - ASEMGSE aysiae uae Sly curd dovnacessninsoun
xii CONTENTS.
Page
Dr. W. Lauper Linpsay on the Geology of the Gold-fields of Auckland, New
ASIEIIG I5i3 3.6.4 dibio gd. O00 OG Ub DOSED AD ODO COD OODE ID AOR ONOnE TO. a0 05 80
Mr. Cuartes Moore on the Paleeontology of Mineral Veins; and on the
Secondary Age of some Mineral Veins in the Carboniferous Limestone.... 82
————_—_—_—, Contributions to Australian Geology and Paleontology 83
Mr. C. W. Pracu on the Fossils of the Boulder-clay in Caithness.......... 83
——_—_ on Fossil Fishes from the Old Red Sandstone of Caithness 85
Mr. W. PenGeEtty on the Correlation of the Slates and Limestones of Devon
and Cornwall with the Old Red Sandstones of Scotland, &c. ............ 85
Mr. T, A. Reapwin on the Gold-bearing Strata of Merionethshire.......... 87
Mr. C. B. Rosr on some Mammalian Remains from the Bed of the German
LD CEATI Pr ey let iasis yo FRG AEE Sidhe ods 5 « ayecs del diel elete lover eo he Cetera 91
Mr. J. W. Satter on the Identity of the Upper Old Red Sandstone with the
Uppermost Devonian (the Marwood Beds of Murchison and Sedgwick), and
of the Middle and Lower Old Red with the Middle and Lower Devonian.. 92
Mr. 8. P. Savitxe on a Skull of the Rhinoceros tichorhinus... 0.60.40 ev eves 94
My. H. Sretry on a Whittled Bone from the Barnwell Gravel ............ 94
Rey. Gizpert N. SmirH on a Successful Search for Flint Implements in a
Cave called “The Oyle,” near Tenby, South Wales ............+eeeees 95
Mr. H. C. Sorsy on the Cause of the Difference in the State of Preservation
Oiacuicrenuy mds OL H Ossi SHES f. <0 sls s.010+ ore core # otehe sim «sree oaleyninlaiepy ste 95
———_——_——— on the Comparative Structure of Artificial and Natural
lieneae JG Wee enpa oan aoor oad ton oooh oHOmranOMO GOB Or ats. 6 oc oae 96
Rey. W. 8. Symonps on Scutes of the Labyrinthodon, from the Keuper Bone-
Breccia of Pendock, Worcestershire ....... 0c cs eee eee ee ec eeeeenes ANOS
Mr. A. B. Wynne on the Geology of a Part of Sligo... 1... cece eens eenes 96
ZOOLOGY anv BOTANY, tncitupine PHYSIOLOGY.
Borany.
Mr. James Buckman on the Ennobling of Roots, with particular reference to
PERERTSIID cscs is so ausitals v0 + agen Tey) weds eine eee ee ea satiate 97
, Experiments with Seed of Malformed Roots ........ 97
Dr. DauBEny’s Reply to the Remarks of M. F. Marcet on the Power of Selec-
fionvascribed tothe Roots-of Plante’. t).taa. ree hs ble ss feo eltetenmea at 98
My. F. J. Foor on a Botanical Chart of the Barony of Burren, co. Clare.... 98
Mr. Joun Gress on the Inflorescence of Plants......... 00. cece eee eee eee 98
Dr. W. Lauper Linpsay on the Toot-poison of New Zealand ............ 98
Rey. W. S. Symonps on the Occurrence of Aspleniwm viride on an Isolated
Travertine Rock among the Black Mountains of Monmouthshire.......... 100
ZooLoey.
Professor ALLMAN on the Generative Zooid of Clavatella........ceceeeeeee 100
on an Early Stage in the Development of Comatula...... 101
on the Structure of Corymorpha nutans 2.2.2... e ees 101
on some new British Tubularid@ ... 0. cece ccc cee seieislOl
i re
CONTENTS. xii
Page
Mr. A. D, Bartiett on the Habits of the Aye-aye living in the Gardens of
the Zoological Society, Regent’s Park, London ................00. 000s 103
Dr. Grrpert W. Cuixp on Marriages of Consanguinity .................. 104
Dr, CLELAND on Ribs and Transverse Processes, with special relation to the
Peery artitie Vertebrate Skeleton.) 1020.0. Ui te sO. yeas nese eee ee 105
Dr. CoLLinGwoop on Geoffroy St.-Hilaire’s Distinction between Catarrhine
BHCe bal apel ING! QUAGTOMANRS fe). iste vil ols tale diene «ei a.ct ties se velar vajew es 106
Dr. J. E. Gray on the Change of Form of the Head of Crocodiles; and on
pucrerenadiles Of India and Afiica ss. 0. ef ee RIE ores OES 106
Rey. T. Hrycxs on the Production of similar Medusoids by certain Hydroid
Polypes belonging to different Genera ....... ete c tee wencveesewasavers 107
Mr. J. Gwyn JEFFREYS on a Species of Limopsis, now living in the British
Seas; with Remarks onthe Genus ..........c.csecererestcevesccsces 108
——_——_____——— 0n a Specimen of Astarte compressa having its Hinge-
MEMENOUF heist iale Pasta he odd Oa ead neds neces ddde ddien ae dae weun 108
Professor W. Kine on some Objects of Natural History lately obtained from the
Maem the AtANHC .) ooo cece rca hecddededeccdasdessucesetauen 108
Mr. Joun Luspock on Spherularia Bombt.... ccc eee eens 109
on two Aquatic Hymenoptera.............-.:eseeeees 110
Rey. W. N. Moresworrn on the Influence of Changes in the Conditions of
Existence in Modifying Species and Varieties........0... 6.00 c cece eee 111
Professor R. Owrn on the Characters of the Aye-aye, as a test of the
Lamarckian and Darwinian Hypothesis of the Transmutation and Origin of
MMT RTP ts! o' veterans ban cy ten cha oh alalahsrabelalarshatshatalatelalshabrgi eh alpten shot a! ater chase dt DME 114
———_————— on the Zoological Significance of the Cerebral and Pedial
PME UIMERID) .ic.cld discs oaicturts 2 cbtve Tees ayaa eoee eas a fable oh aie qoaiees 116
——_—————_—— on the Homologies of the Bones of the Head of the Poly-
EMEEICCRE re eee loi SRR Se ok 8ae 5 MMA he ee aree NASA Hea paIeas « 118
Sir J. Ricnarpson on Zoological Provinces ...........0..ccceeeeeeueeas 118
Professor RoLLEsTON on certain Modifications in the Structures of Diving
RMR ITE Ses oes cer ne ORAS SHEE SAL gS Sic PENA R RT Meares « 118
Mr, James SaMUELSon’s recent Experiments on Heterogenesis, or Spontaneous
(LL are il or te ie I nl a ai hin) diner sty oie h Ms, Oh 119
PHYSIOLOGY.
Mr. Isaac AsHE on the Function of the Auricular Appendix of the Heart .. 120
on the Function of the Oblique Muscles of the Eye........ 120
Mr. Tuomas AsHworrTH on the Scientific Cultivation of Salmon Fisheries .. 121
Professor Bear, an Attempt to show that every living Structure consists of
Matter which is the Seat of Vital Actions, and Matter in which Physical
and Chemical Changes alone take place .............ccccceceecceveees 122
Dr. Joun Davy on the Coloured Fluid or Blood of the Common Earthworm
PLA SEPT esria)) s\sfer dais cinhotirvayslss edlds a aasadeediand sald Metal dL «labs 124
on the Vitality of Fishes, as tested by Increase of Tem-
EMRE 009 2he Shale VS se A GMa BAT ao eae HM eeHwAsl cme LPT OM aE AE 125
: — on the Question whether the Oxide of Arsenic, taken in very
minute quantities for a long period, is Injurious to Man ................ 125
on the Coagulation of the Blood in relation to its Cause.... 125
XIV CONTENTS.
Page
Mr. James Dow on the Loss of Muscular Power arising from the ordi-
nary Foot-clothing now worn, and on the Means required to obviate this
GOSS Bes veretclcteyclay ete oye. nee) aiehavefaliabaleleleie. oi e\c)a_e je Inia) sls, s¥are » vlclslginie @ie. NOR oRaieMalaaes 125
Mr. Ropert GARNER on Pearls; their Parasitic Origin ......+++++esseees 126
——_—_____—— on an Albino Variety of Crab; with some Observations
on Crustaceans, and on the Effect of Light... ......s:sseeeeeeeeeeeeens 126
—__—________——- on the Skull-sutures in connexion with the Superficies
of the Brain ..........% ise GEE OOOO NE PODOOINS opie CATE Eno on eae . 126
Dr. Grorce D. Gres on the Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammo-
WEIDER ities cise A eieicls ticis siolr oe eds Od. + she. oyna miakeahie a lolae) ete nee 128
—_____—_—__——_ on the Normal Position of the Epiglottis as determined
by the Laryngoscope .......0 eee ee cence erence nent en eteenerannacs 128
Dr. Groner Harvey on Secret Poisoning ..........2ceececseenserececes 129
Mr. James Hinron’s Suggestions towards a Physiological Classification of
PAGETUTT ASO cee s a ci esele.c10:0)sre.= oi+/, «,000:0, 0, 0.0.6, o)eyesel by iavoreioneesta,© oso(e =e anmaneT aR 130
Dr. Cartes Kipp on Simple Syncope as a Coincident in Chloroform Acci-
artis A BOD nD nee doc DEC DU OU ODORAUTS DOLD OL H3uch. yao 2c0 Fos or 130
Mr. J. W. Osporne’s Observations made at Sea on the Motion of the Vessel
withereterence tO Sea-SiCkNess scsi). 2/e He + os «010 ble leisiele) viel vi ejelelotenelel eile) ake 183
Mr. T. Reynoxps on Tobacco in relation to Physiology ........+.s+e00008 134
Dr. Grorcre Rosrnson on the Study of the Circulation of the Blood. ...... 134
Professor RoLLESTON on the Difference of Behaviour exhibited by Inuline and
ordinary Starch when treated with Salivary Diastase and other converting
PEE ois ow. 0 s.0,0,0,0,070 08 0 0,0,026,018,0,9 910, See ee Pe Ree er 135
Dr. Epwarp Situ on Tobacco-Smoking: its effects upon Pulsation ...... 135
GEOGRAPHY anp ETHNOLOGY.
Sir,R. Atcock on the Civilization of Japan ....... 0055 ce-sn-ceruneee ns 136
Professor ANSTED on the Climate of the Channel Islands.................. 138
Dr. Cuantes T. Bexr’s Journey to Harran in Padan-Aram, and thence over
Mount Gilead into the Promised Land. ............s.cceeccccccvcesers 141
Rev. T. G. Bonney on the Geography of Mont Pelvoux, in Dauphiné ...... 145
Mr. J. CRawFurp on Colour as a Test of the Races of Man............... 143
—_—_—__——-——-. on Language as a Test of the Races of Man ............ 144
Mr. Ropert Dunn on the Psychological Differences which exist among the
typical Races of Mam... .....i:sici crereyielel- isis) tien egeln(eh iil dle loyal 4) ipl > nlecee a enoreae 144
M. Jutes Gérarp’s Exploration dans l'Afrique centrale, de Serre-Leone 4
LARS Barred bin Sita ne GRR A GeO aS HU O DO do Some OADO No np ould Ss - o-o0- 146
Dr. Livinestone, a Letter from, communicated by Sir Roderick Murchison . 146
Mr. W. Matuews, jun., on Serious Inaccuracies in the Great Survey of the
Alps, south of Mont Blanc, as issued by the Government of Sardinia...... 147
Rey. Dr. Mixx’s Decipherment of the Pheenician Inscription on the Newton
bone, A Derdeenshire oaks Peis tae!- supe lalearals (Oe. 'e's «\s}t muster eenel a> Gekeemenr ieee 147
Signor Prrrorri on Recent Notices of the Rechabites............000eeees 147
Chevalier Ignazio Vita on Terrestrial Planispheres
Mr. AtFrrep R. WALLACE on the Trade of the Eastern Archipelago with New
Guinevnnd rte lslantsstys.$. Sed OL Ay 148
CONTENTS. XV
Page
Mr, Tuomas WriGut on the Human Remains found in the course of the Ex-
FeV EATSt Ly NW LOR OLEY:. Lystacexhal ete e Sesele Sars lekayale ol AMM vo loveharare Sata lohduars lava ‘s 149
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
Mr. J. C. Buckmaster on the Progress of Instruction in Elementary Science
among the Industrial Classes under the Science Minutes of the Department
PE NTE PATI Lae Crop tastes wich sie cetera ein chee ele. eters cece 150
Mr. Davin Cuapwick on the Cotton Famine, and the Substitutes for Cotton 150
Rey. G. FisHer on the Numerical Mode of estimating Educational Qualifica-
tions, as pursued at the Greenwich Hospital School .................... 153
Mr. James Heywoop on Endowed Education and Oxford and Cambridge Fel-
IN etal ctor at eater aisin a hoo Lacy RSS Roan eee re ame eT 153
Mr, Epwin Hix on the Prevention of Crime............. cece cece ceeenes 154
Mr. W. 8. Jevons on the Study of Periodic Commercial Fluctuations ...... 157
, Notice of a General Mathematical Theory of Political Eco-
LOLLY - sags Soglirao once peae dn So roon Comoe Mion 0.0 6 © ese Onan nie eens 158
Mr. Henry DunninG Macteop on the Definition and Nature of the Science
SemePa ere HI CERUPE CCITIEIEEY. our xc Vv Malek nh dic! ois eiein, « iaes eiainlchaleyaysamedcie @miciarwieke aged. 3 ee 159
Mr. Herman Menrtvate on the Utility of Colonization .................. 161
Rey. W. N. Motesworrtu on the Training and Instruction of the Unemployed
in the Manufacturing Districts during the present Crisis ................ 162
Mr. Freperick Purpy on Local Taxation and Real Property ............ 162
—— on the Pauperism and Mortality of Lancashire .... 165
Mr. Henry Roserts, Statistics showing the Increased Circulation of a Pure
and Instructive Literature adapted to the Capacities and the Means of the
emnamsOaeE ONT ARON 2s 24a sos wshiee dass Sipdvd Nese dder sap da aes eues 172
Dy. Epwarp Smiru, Statistical Inquiry into the Prevalence of numerous
Conditions affecting the Constitution in 1000 Consumptive Persons ...... 174
fee. §. 1HouNTON on the Income Tax ....... 0... sc cers ccsecascuees 175
Mr. Cuartes M. Wiixicu on Expectation of Life ................0000 0: 178
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Address of WiLi1AM Farrparrn, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., President of the Section 178
Mr. E. E, Aten on the Importance of Economizing Fuel in Iron-plated
sR ee oN ais sales tt ole ee cin Sie ss enn. eldip. yA tes dita’ 182
Professor D. T. ANsTED on Artificial Stones ...........0c:ccecescaecnces 183
Mr. CuarLEes ATHERTON on Unsinkable Ships .............ccceceeeeeees 183
Mr. Joun Coryron on Vertical-Wave-Line Ships, Self-Reefing Sails, and
RES IRE ED ora a3 5s. Par os Sees oe alin aie atts ite oh hens v.50 68 184
Dr. F. Grimapr on a New Marine Boiler for generating Steam of High Pres-
LLUR. sbrcovcton se cOronBoapomnennide ice cMbe rie Sort oes Bee ar ren 186
Mr. J. SEwELL on the Prevention of Railway Accidents ................ 186
Mr. W. THoroxp on the Failure of the Sluice in Fens, and on the Means of
securing such Sluices against a similar Contingency ..................4- 186
Mr. L. WriiraMson on the Merits of Wooden and Iron Ships, with regard to
Eosniot repairs and security for Wife i... css eeie ee esis sme veigsieee seed ces 187
XV1 CONTENTS.
Mr. R. W. Woortcomss on Oblate Projectiles with Cycloidal Rotation, con-
trasted with Cylindro-ogival Projectiles having Helical or Rifle Rotation. .
APPENDIX II.
Professor SYLVESTER on the Solution of the Linear Equation of Finite Dif-
ferences IMits most General HOLM. oo... sc o.e ec ciee outs ove epviels gto auasaiel olen
Messrs. J. B. Lawes and J. H. Girserrt on the Effects of different Manures
pune Mixed Herbage of Grass And 5.0 )o. 6. cs. es oe os ie oe eee eee
Rey. W. Emery on the Past and Present Expenses and Social Condition of
Aran erat tay MENG UIEHUIOIE oye ict cysts tet aeal e7 0s a0 "0. Side o: eve shero tlie ce as o-otaket] eRe
List of Papers of which the Abstracts were not received ..........00eee008
188
191
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCIATION.
——__~>——_
OBJECTS.
Tue Assocratron contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by
other institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an-
other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which impede its progress.
RULES.
ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES.
All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be-
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con-
form to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So-
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in
like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.
All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council
or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General
Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual
Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General
Meeting.
COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES.
Lire Memeers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub-
lished after the date of such Pane They are eligible to all the offices
_ of the Association.
Awnvat Susscripers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
_ Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu-
lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all
future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis :
but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub-
sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of
One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.
Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
1862, b
XVlll RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
The Association consists of the following classes :—
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.
2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad-
mission Ten Pounds as a composition.
3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the
payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in-
termission of Annual Payment. |
4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the pay-
ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following
year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay-
ment. |
5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound,
6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price,
according to the following specification, viz. :—
1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a
further sum of Five Pounds.
New Life Members who haye paid Ten Pounds as a compo-
sition,
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.
2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication
Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a
composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a
Book Subscription.
Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscrip-
tion.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. ]
3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the first seventeen yolumes of Transactions of the Associa-
tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of
the Publication Price, Application to be made (by letter) to
Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet St., London.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
MEETINGS.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre-
vious Meeting ; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers
of the Association,
GENERAL COMMITTEE.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—
1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with
authors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association. ;
2. Members who haye communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society,
which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association,.
ail
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xix
3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceed-
ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions.
4, Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three,
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any
place where the Association has formerly met,
5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who
are specially nominated in writing for the Meeting of the year by the Presi-
dent and General Secretaries. .
6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are
ex-officio members of the General Committee for the time being.
SECTIONAL COMMITTEES,
The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con-
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof.
The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would
particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and
brought under consideration at the next Meeting.
The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of
particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons,
for the information of the Annual Meetings.
COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS,
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com-
mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General
Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom-
mendations.
LOCAL COMMITTEES,
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
OFFICERS.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
COUNCIL,
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the
Meeting.
PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS,
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve
his right of property therein.
ACCOUNTS,
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the Meeting. B28
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“AONGIOS AO LNUNYONVACGV FHL YOOX NOILVIOOSSV HSILIYVE
MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
XXV
II, Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who
have served on the Council in former years.
Aberdeen, Earl of, LL.D., K.G., K.T.,
F.R.S. (deceased).
Acland, Sir Thomas D., Bart., M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S
Acland, Professor H. W., M.D., F.R.S.
Adams, Prof. J. Couch, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Adamson, John, Esq., F.L.S.
Ainslie, Rev. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem-
broke Hall, Cambridge.
Airy,G.B.,M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Astronomer
Royal.
Alison, ProfessorW. P.,M.D.,F.R.S.E.(dec‘),
Allen, W. J. C., Esq.
Anderson, Prof. Thomas, M.D.
Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.R.S.
Argyll, George Douglas, Duke of, F.R.S, |
L. & E.
Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S.
Ashburton, William Bingham, Lord, D.C.L,
Atkinson, Rt. Hon. R.,Lord Mayor of Dublin.
Babbage, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
Babington, Professor C. C., M.A., F.R.S.
Baily, Francis, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).
Baines, Rt. Hon. M. T., M.A., M.P. (dec4),
Baker, Thomas Barwick Lloyd, Esq.
Balfour, Professor John H., M.D., F.R.S.
Barker, George, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).
Beamish, Richard, Esq., F.R.S.
Beechey, Rear-Admiral, F.R.S. (deceased).
Bell, Professor Thomas, V.P.L.S., F.R.S.
Bengough, George, Esq.
Bentham, George, Esq., Pres.L.S.
Biddell, George Arthur, Esq.
Bigge, Charles, Esq.
Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S.
Boileau, Sir John P., Bart., F.R.S.
Boyle, Right Hon. D., Lord Justice-General
(deceased).
Brady,The Rt. Hon. Maziere, M.R.1.A., Lord
Chancellor of Ireland.
Brand, William, Esq.
Breadalbane, John, Marquis of, K.T., F.R.S.
(deceased).
Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S. L. & E., Principal of the Uni-
yersity of Edinburgh.
Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M., Bart.,
K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S. (dec*).
Brodie, Sir B. C., Bart., D.C.L., V.P.R.S.
(deceased).
Brooke, Charles, B.A., F.R.S.
Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased).
Brunel, Sir M. I., F.R.S. (deceased).
Buckland, Very Rey. William, D.D., F.R.S.,
Dean of Westminster (deceased).
Bute, John, Marquis of, K.T. (deceased).
Carlisle, George Will. Fred., Earl of, F.R.S.
Carson, Rey. Joseph, F.T.C.D.
Cathcart, Lt.-Gen., Earl of, K.C.B., F.R.S.E.
(deceased).
Challis, Rev. J., M.A., F.R.S.
Chalmers, Rev. T., D.D. (deceased).
Chance, James, Esq.
Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Christie, Professor S. H., M.A., F.R.S.
Clare, Peter, Esq., F.R.A.S. (deceased).
Clark, Rev. Prof., M.D., F.R.S. (Cambridge.)
Clark, Henry, M.D.
Clark, G. T., Esq.
Clear, William, Esq. (deceased).
Clerke, Major S., K.H., R.E., F.R.S. (dec*).
Clift, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).
Close, Very Rev. F., M.A., Dean of Carlisle,
Cobbold, John Chevalier, Esq., M.P.
Colquhoun, J. C., Esq., M.P. (deceased).
Conybeare, Very Rey. W. D., Dean of Llan-
daff (deceased).
Cooper, Sir Henry, M.D.
Corrie, John, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased)
Crum, Walter, Esq., F.R.S.
Currie, William Wallace, Esq. (deceased).
Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased).
Daniell, Professor J. F., F.R.S. (deceased).
Darbishire, R. D., B.A., F.G.S.
Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Darwin, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
Daubeny, Prof. C. G. B.;M.D.,LL.D., F.R.S.
DelaBeche, Sir H. T., C.B., F.R.S., Director-
Gen. Geol. Surv. United Kingdom (dec*).
De la Rue, Warren, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Derby, Earl of, D.C.L., Chancellor of the
University of Oxford.
Devonshire, William, Duke of, M.A., D.C.L.,
FE.RS.
Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F.RB.S.
Dillwyn, Lewis W., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).
Donkin, Professor W. F., M.A., F.R.S.
Drinkwater, J. E., Esq. (deceased).
Ducie, The Ear] of, F.R.S.
Dunraven, The Earl of, F.R.S.
Egerton, Sir P. de M. Grey, Bart., M.P.,
E.R.S
Eliot, Lord, M.P.
Ellesmere, Francis, Earl of, F.G.S. ( dec").
Enniskillen, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Estcourt, T. G. B., D.C.L. (deceased).
Fairbairn, William, LL.D., C.E., F-R.S.
Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Ferrers, Rev. N. M., M.A.
FitzRoy, Rear-Admiral, F.R.S.
Fitzwilliam, The Earl, D.C.L., F.R.8. (dec*),
Fleming, W., M.D.
Fletcher, Bell, M.D.
Foote, Lundy E., Esq.
Forbes, Charles, Esq. (deceased).
Forbes, Prof. Edward, F.R.S. (deceased),
Forbes, Prof. J. D., LL.D., F.R.S.,Sec. RS.E.,
Principal of the University of St. An-
drews.
Fox, Robert Were, Esq., F.R.S.
| Frost, Charles, F.S.A.
Fuller, Professor, M.A.
Galton, Francis, F.R.S., F.GS.
Gassiot, John P., Esq., F.R.S.
Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased),
Gladstone, J. H., Ph.D., F.B.S.
XXV1
Googe The Very Rey. H., D.D., Dean of
ly
Gourlie, William, Esq. (deceased).
Graham, T., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Master of
the Mint.
Gray, John E., Hsq., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Gray, J onathan, Esq. (deceased).
Gray, William, Esq., F.G.S.
Green, Prof. J oseph Henry, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Greenough, G. B., Esq., F.R. 5. (deceased).
Griffith, George, M.A, E.C.8
Griffith, Sir R. Griffith, Bt., ELD, M.R.LA.
Grove, W. R., Esq., MA, E.R.S
Hallam, Henry, Esq., M. A, FRS. (dec).
Hamilton, W. J., Esq., FRS., Sec. G.S.
Hamilton, Sir Wn. R., UL. D., Astronomer
Royal of Ireland, MRE.LA., E.R.AS.
Hancock, W. Neilson, LL.D.
Harcourt, Rev. Wm. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S.
Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Earl of, F.R.8.
Harford, J. S., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Harris, Sir W. Snow, F.R.S.
Harrowby, The Earl of, F.R.S.
Hatfeild, William, ete F.G.S. (deceased).
Henry, W. C., M.D., F.R.S.
Henry, Rev. P. S., D.D., President of Queen’s
College, Belfast.
Henslow, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.L.8. (dec?).
Herbert, Hon. and Very Rev. ‘Wm., LL.D.,
F.L.S., Dean of Manchester (dec?),
Herschel, Sir John F. W., Bart., M.A., D.C.L.,
E.R.S.
Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S.
Heywood, James, Hsq., F.R.S.
Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S8.
Hincks, Rey. Edward, D. iy M.R.1.A.
Hincks, Rev. Thomas, B.A.
Hinds, 8., D.D., late Lord Bishop of Norwich
(deceased).
Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D.
Hodgkinson, Professor Eaton, F.R.S. (dec*).
Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S.
Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S8.
Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A., F.RS.
Hopkins, William, "Esq., M. A., LL.D., F.R.S.
Horner, Leonard, Esq., F.R. S., Pres.G.S.
Hovenden, V. F., Esq., M.A
Hugall, J. W., Esq.
Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G:S.
Hutton, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased),
Ibbetson ,Capt.L. ie Boscawen, K.R.E.,F.G.S8.
Inglis, Sir R. H., Bart., D.C. Ly MP. (dec).
Inman, Thomas, M.D.
Jacobs, Bethel, Esq.
Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S. (deveased)
Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E
Jeffreys, John Gwyn, Hsq., ERS.
Jellett, Rev. Professor.
Jenyns, Rey. Leonard, F.LS.
Jerrard, H. B., Esq.
Jeune, Rey. F., D.C.L., Master of Pembroke
College, Osford.
Johnston, Right Hon. William, late Lord
Provost of Edinburgh.
Johnston, Prof. J. F. W., M.A, EBS.
(deceased).
REPORT—1862.
Keleher, William, Esq. (deceased),
Kelland, Rey. Prof. P., M.A., F.R.S. L. & E.
Kildare, The Marquis ‘of.
Lankester, Edwin, ML D., E.B.S.
Lansdowne, Hen., "Marquisof, D.C.L. Ba B.S.
Larcom, Major, RE., LL.D., F.R.S
Lardner, Rey. Dr. (deceased).
Lassell, William, Hsq., F.R.S. L. & E.
Latham, R. G., M.D., ERS.
Lee, Very Rev. John, D.D., E.R.S.E., Prin-
cipal of the University of Edinburgh
(deceased).
Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.S.
Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, late
Speaker of the House of Commons.
Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S.
Liddell, Andrew, Esq. (deceased).
Liddell, Very Rev. H. G., D.D., Dean of
Christ Church, Oxford.
Lindley, Professor John, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Listowel, The Earl of.
Liveing, Prof. G. D., M.A., F.C.8.
Lloyd, Rey. B., D.D., Provost of Trin. Coll.,
Dublin (deceased).
Lloyd. oe H., D.D., D.C.L., F.B.S. L.&E.,
LA.
Tendebocae Lord, F.R.S. (deceased).
Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart., M.A., F.R.S.
Luby, Rev. Thomas.
Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.,
E.R.S.
MacCullagh, Prof., D.C.L., M.R.I.A. (dec*).
MacDonnell, Rev. R., D.D., M.R.1.A., Pro-
vost of Trinity College, Dublin.
Macfarlane, The Very Rey. Principal. (dec*).
MacGee, William, M.D.
MacLeay, William Sharp, Hsq., F.L.S.
MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S.
Malahide, The Lord Talbot de.
Malcolm, Vice-Ad. Sir Charles, K.C.B. (dec*).
Maltby, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord
Bishop of Durham ’(deceased).
Manchester, J. P. Lee, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Marlborough, Duke of, D.C.L
Marshall, J. G., Esq., M.A., F.G.S.
May, Charles, Esq., FRAS. (deceased).
Meynell, Thomas, Esq., F.LS.
Middleton, Sir William F. F., Bart.
Miller, Professor W. A., M.D., Treas. and
V.P.R.S.
Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., For. Sec.R.8.
Milnes, R. Monckton, Esq., D.C.L., M.P.
Moggridge, Matthew, Esq.
Moillet, J. D., Esq. (deceased).
Monteagle, Lord, F.R.S.
Moody, J. Sadleir, Esq.
Moody, T. H. C., Esq.
Moody, T. F., Esq.
Morley, The Earl of.
Moseley, Rey. Henry, M.A., F-.R.S.
Mount-Edgecumbe, Ernest Augustus, Earl of.
Murchison, Sir Roderick L.,G@.C.St.8.,D.C.L.,
TLD, E.R.S.
Neild, Alfred, Esq.
Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E.
Nicol, D., M.D.
MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
Nicol, Professor J., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.
Nicol, Rev. J. P., LL.D.
Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar-
quis of, V.P.R.S. (deceased).
Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G.,M.A.,
F-.R.S. (deceased).
Ormerod, G. W., Esq., M.A., F.G.S.
Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D. (deceased).
Orpen, John H., LL.D.
Osler, Follett, Essq., E.RBS.
Owen, ieee Richd.,M.D.,D.C.L.,UL.D.,
F
Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord
Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Palmerston, Viscount, K.G., G.C.B., M.P.,
F.RS.
Peacock, Very Rev. G., D.D., Dean of Ely,
ERS. (deceased).
Peel, Rt.Hon.Sir R., Bart.,M.P.,D.C.L.(dec*).
Pendarves, E. W., "Esq., ERS. (deceased).
Phillips, Professor J ohn, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S.
Phillips, Rev. G., B.D., President of Queen’ 8
College, Cambridge.
Pigott, The Rt. Hon. D. R., M.R.1.A., Lord
Chief Baron of the Exchequeri in Ireland.
Porter, G. R., Esq. (deceased).
Portlock, Major- -General,R.E.,LL.D., F.B.S.
Powell, Rev. Professor, M.A., FRS. (dec*).
Price, Rey. Professor, M.A., FERS.
Prichard, J. C., M.D., F.R.S. (deceased).
Ramsay, Professor William, M.A.
Ransome, George, Esq., F.L.8.
Reid, Maj.-Gen. Sir W., K.C.B., R.E., F.R.S.
deceased).
Rendlesham, Rt. Hon. Lord, M.P.
Rennie, George, Esq., F.R.S.
Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S.
Richardson, Sir John, C.B., M.D., LL.D.,
E.R.S.
Richmond, Duke of, es G., F.R.S. (dec*).
Ripon, Earl of, F. RG
Ritchie, Rev. Prof., LL. D, F.R.S. (dec*).
Robinson, Capt., RA
Robinson, Rev. J., D.D.
Robinson, Rey. T. R., D.D., F.R.S., F.R.AS.
Robison, Sir John, Sec.R.S.Edin. (deceased).
Roche, James, Esq.
Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S.
Rolleston, Professor, M.D., F.LS.
Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S.
Roscoe, Professor H. E., B.A., F.R.S.
Rosebery, The Earl of, KT, D. C.L., E.B.S.
Ross, Rear-Admiral Sir J. C, R.N., DCL,
ERS. (deceased).
Rosse, Wm., Earl of, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.1.A.
Royle, Prof. John F, M. D., FRS. (dec*).
Russell, James, Esq. (deceased).
Russell, J. Scott, Esq., F.R.S.
pee, Major. Generlttdwara R.A.,D.C.L.,
L.D., President of the Royal Society.
Sandon William, E sq., F.G.S8.
Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F.R.S. (deceased).
eee: Rev. Prof. Adam, M.A., D.C.L.,
XXV1i
Selby, Prideaux John, Esq., F.R.S.E.
Sharpey, ae M.D., Sec.R.S.
Sims, Dillwyn, E
Smith, Lieut. “Oologel C, Hamilton, F.R.S.
(deceased).
Smith, Prof. H. J. 8., M.A., F.RB.S.
Smith, James, F.R.S. L. & E.
Spence, William, Esq., F.R. S oes:
Spottiswoode, W., M.A
Stanley, Edward, D. Ds F. - os late Lord
Bishop of Norwich (deceased).
Staunton, Sir G. T., Bt., M.P., D.C.L., F.B.S.
St. David’s, C. Thirlwall, D. He “Lord Bishop of.
Stevelly, Professor John, L
Stokes, Professor G.G., M.A. ar 0. L.,Sec. B.S.
Strang, John, Esq., EAD
Strickland, Hugh E., Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased).
Sykes, Colonel W. H., M.P., F.R.S.
Symonds, B. P., D.D. ; Warden of Wadham
College, Oxford.
Talbot, W. H. Fox, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
Tayler, Rey. John James, B.A.
Taylor, John, Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased).
Taylor, Richard, Esq., F.G.S.
Thompson, William, Esq., F'..S.(deceased).
Thomson, A., Esq.
Thomson, Professor William, M.A., F.R.S.
Tindal, Captain, R.N. (deceased).
Tite, William, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.
Tod, James, Esq., F.R.S.E.
Tooke, Thomas, F.R.S. (deceased).
Traill, J. S., M.D. (deceased).
Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S. (deceased).
Turner, Samuel, Hsq., F.R.S., F.G.S. (dect).
Turner, Rey. W.
Tyndall, Professor John, F.R.S.
Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.8. (deceased).
Vivian, J. H., M.P., F.R.S. (deceased).
Walker, James, Hsq., F'.R.S.
Walker, Joseph N., Esq., F.G.S8.
Walker, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S.
Warburton, Henry, Esq.,M.A., P.R. S. (dec*).
Ward, W. Sykes, Esq., F.C. s.
Washington, Captain, R.N., F.R.S.
Webster, Thomas, M.A., FRS.
West, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).
Western, Thomas Burch, Esq.
Wharncliffe, John Stuart, Soak E.R.S.(dec*).
Wheatstone, Professor Charles, F 8.
Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S., Master
of Trinity College, Cambridge.
White, John F., Esq.
Williams, Prof. Charles J. B., M.D., F.R.S.
Willis, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S.
Wills, William, Hsq., F.G.S. (deceased).
Wilson, Thomas, Esq., M.A.
Wilson, Prof. W. P.
Winchester, John, Marquis of.
Woollcombe, Henry, Esq., F.8.A. (deceased ).
Wrottesley, John, Lord, M.A.,D.C.L., F.R.S.
Yarborough, The ‘Earl of, D. CL.
Yarrell, William, Hsq., F..S. (deceased).
Yates, James, Esq., M.A, FE-.R.S.
Yates, J. B. , Esq., FSA. ‘FRGS. (dee).
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1862-63.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
Sir RopERIcK I. MurcuHison, K.C.B., G.C.St.S., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Major-General EDWARD SABINE, R.A., D.C.L., Pres. B.S.
Sir PHILIP DE M. GREY EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
PRESIDENT.
' THE REV. ROBERT WILLIS, M.A., F.R.S., Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental
Philosophy in the University of Cambridge,
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The Rey. the VICE-CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.
The Very Rey. the DEAN or ELy, D.D.
The Rey. W. WHEWELL, D.D., F.R.S., Master of Trinity College, Cambridge.
ake dey. =} SEDGWick, M.A., F.R.S., Woodwardian Profossor of Geology in the University of
ambridge.
The Rey. J. CHALLIS, M.A., F.R.S., Plumian Professor of Astronomy in the University of Cambridge.
G. B. Atry, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal.
G. G. STOKES, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge.
J.C. ADAMS, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Lowndesian Professor of Astronomy and Geometry in the University of
Cambridge, and President of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
Sir WILLIAM G. ARMSTRONG, F.R.8.
. VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
Sir WALTER C. TREVELYAN, Bart., M.A. NicHoLas Woop, Esq.
Sir CHARLES LYELL, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S. Rev. TEMPLE CHEVALLIER, B.D., F.R.A.S.
HvuGH TAYLor, Esq. WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S.
Isaac LOWTHIAN BELL, Esq.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE.
A. NOBLE, Esq.
Aueustus H. Hunt, Esq.
R. C. CLAPHAM, Esq.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE.
THOMAS HopGKIN, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
DE LA RUE,WARREN, Esq., F.R.S. | Hurron, ROBERT, Esq., F.G.8. | SyKES, Colonel, M.P., F.R.S.
FitzRoy, Admiral, F.R.S8. Hoae, JOHN, Esq., M.A., F.L.S, | Tire, WILLIAM, Esq.,M.P.,F.R.S.
GALTON, FRANCIS, Esq., F.R.S. LYELL, Sir CHARLES, F.R.S. WHEATSTONE, Professor, F.R.S.
Gassiot, J. P., Esq., F.R.S. LANKESTER, Dr. E., F.R.S8. WEBSTER, THOMAS, Esq., F.R.S.
GLADSTONE, Dr., F.R.S. MILLER, Prof. W.A., M.D.,F.R.S. | WiLLiamson, Prof. A.W., F.R.S.
Grove, W. R., Esq., F.R.S. PRICE,Rey.Professor,M.A.,F.R.S,
HEYWOOD, JAMES, Esq., F.R.S. | SHARPEY, Professor, Sec.R.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and
Assistant-General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the T'rustees, and the Presidents of former years,
viz.—Rey. Professor Sedgwick. The Duke of Devonshire. Rev. W. V. Harcourt. Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.
The Earl of Rosse. Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. Sir Roderick I. Murchison, K.C.B. The Rey.
T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir David Brewster. G. B. Airy, Esq., the Astronomer Royal. General Sabine,
D.C.L, William Hopkins, Esq., LL.D. The Earl of Harrowby. The Duke of Argyll. Professor Dau-
beny, M.D. The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L, The Lord Wrottesley. William
Fairbairn, Esq., LL.D.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
WILLIAM HopkKIns, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.
JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford.
Museum House, Oxford.
ASSISTANT-GENERAL SECRETARY.
GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Deputy Panter of Experimental Philosophy in the University of
ord.
GENERAL TREASURER.
WILLIAM SPoTTISWOODE, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., 19 Chester Street,
Belgraye Square, London, 8.W.
LOCAL TREASURERS.
William Gray, Esq., F.G.8., York. | Robert P. Greg, Esq., F.G.S., Manchester.
Prof. C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S., Cambridge. John Gwyn Jetireys, Esq., F.R.8., Swansea.
William Brand, Esq., Edinburgh. Robert Patterson, Esq., M.R.L.A., Belfust.
John H. Orpen, LL.D., Dublin. | Edmund Smith, Esq., Hull.
William Sanders, Esq., F.G.S., Bristol. | Richard Beamish, Esq., F.R.S., Cheltenham.
Robert M‘Andrew, Esq., F.R.S., Liverpool. | John Metcalfe Smith, Esq., Leeds.
W. R. Wills, Esq., Birmingham. John Forbes White, Esq., Aberdeen.
Professor Ramsay, M.A., Glasgow. | Rey. John Griffiths, M.A., Oxford.
AUDITORS.
J. P. Gassiot, Esq. Robert Hutton, Esq. Dr. Norton Shaw.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XX1X
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
CAMBRIDGE MEETING.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
President.—G. G. Stokes, M.A., F.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathematics.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor Adams, F.R.S.; Rev. Professor Challis, F.R.S.; Rey.
Dr. Lloyd, F.R.S. ; Rey. Professor Price, F.R.S. ; General Sabine, President R.S. ;
Rey. Dr. Whewell, F.R.S.; Lord Wrottesley, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Professor Stevelly, LL.D., Professor H. J. S, Smith, F.R.S., and Pro-
fessor R. B. Clifton, F.R.A.S.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS
TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS.
President.—W. H. Miller, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mineralogy in the University
of Cambridge.
Vice-Presidents.—C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S.; J. P. Gassiot, I'.R.S.; J. H.
Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S.; Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S.; Dr. Joule, F.R.S.
Secretaries—W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S.; Professor H, E. Roscoe, Ph.D., B.A. ;
H. W. Elphinstone, M.A., F.L.S.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
President.—J. B. Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Rev. Professor Sedgwick, F.R.S.; Sir Charles Bunbury, F.R.S. ;
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S.; Professor Ansted, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Professor T. Rupert Jones; Lucas Barrett, F.LS., F.G.S8.; H. C.
Sorby, F.R.S.
SECTION D.— ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.
President.—Professor Huxley, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor Balfour, F.R.S.; Rev. Dr. Cookson, Master of St.
Peter’s College; J. Gwyn Jeftreys, F.R.S.; Rev. Leonard Jenyns, M.A., F.LS,;
Edwin Lankester, M.D., F.R.S.
Secretaries,—Alfred Newton, M.A., F.L.S,; E. Perceval Wright, M.D., F.R.C.S.1.
SUB-SECTION D.—PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCE,
President.—G. E. Paget, M.D.
Vice-Presidents.—John Davy, M.D., F.R.S.; G. M. Humphry, M.D., F.R.S. ; Pro-
fessor Owen, LL.D., F.R.S.; Professor Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.
Secretaries—Edward Smith, M.D., F.R.S.; G. F. Helm.
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
President.—Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Rey. J. W. Blakesley, M.A.; J. Crawfurd, F.R.S.; William
Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S., General Treasurer of the British Association 3 Rey.
George Williams, B.D.
Secretaries.—Dr. Norton Shaw ; Thomas Wright, M.A.; Dr. Hunt; Rey. J. Glover,
M.A. ; and J. W. Clarke, M.A,
SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President.—Edwin Chadwick, C.B.
Vice-Presidents—Colonel Sykes, M.P., F.R.S.; William Tite, M.P., F.R.S.;
Thomas Webster, F.R.S.; James Heywood, F.R.S.
Secretaries—Edmund Macrory, M.A.; H. D. Macleod, B.A.
Xxx
REPORT—1862.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE,
President.—W. Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents—James Nasmyth, F.R.A.S.; Professor J. M. Rankine; Dr. Ro-
binson, F.R.S.; Jobn Scott Russell, F-R.S. ; Professor James Thomson, M.A. ;
Charles Vignoles, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—P. Le Neve Foster, M.A.; William M. Fawcett, M.A,
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Professor Agassiz, Cambridge, Massa- | Professor De Koninck, Liége.
chusetts.
M. Babinet, Paris.
Dr. A. D. Bache, Washington.
Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Amsterdam.
Professor Bolzani, Kasan.
Dr. Barth.
Dr. Bergsma, Utrecht,
Mr. P. G. Bond, Cambridge, U.S.
M. Boutigny (d’ Evreux).
Professor Braschmann, Moscow.
Dr. Carus, Leipzig.
Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, Breslau.
M. Antoine d’Abbadie.
M. De la Rive, Geneva.
Professor Wilhelm Delfts, Hezdelberg.
Professor Dove, Berlin.
Professor Dumas, Paris.
Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Pars.
Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin,
Dr. Eisenlohr, Carlsruhe.
Professor Encke, Berlin.
Dr. A. Erman, Berlin.
Professor A. Escher yon der Linth,
Zurich, Switzerland.
Professor Esmark, Christiania.
Professor A. Favre, Geneva.
Professor G. Forchhammer, Copenhagen.
M. Léon Foucault, Paris.
Professor HE, Fremy, Paris.
M. Frisiani, Ilan.
Dr. Geinitz, Dresden.
Professor Asa Gray, Cambridge, U.S.
Professor Henry, Washington, U.S.
Dr. Hochstetter, Vienna.
M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg.
Prof. Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr., Griess-
wald, Prussia.
Professor oe Kekulé, Ghent, Belgium.
M. Khanikoff, St. Petersburg.
Prof, A, Kolliker, Wurzburg.
Professor Kreil, Vienna.
Dr. A. Kupffer, St. Petersburg.
Dr. Lamont, Mamnich.
Prof, F, Lanza.
M. Le Verrier, Paris.
Baron yon Liebig, Munich.
Professor Loomis, New York.
Professor Gustay Magnus, Berlin.
Professor Matteucci, Pisa.
Professor P. Merian, Bdle, Switzerland.
Professor von Middendorff, St, Petersburg.
M. VAbbé Moigno, Paris,
Professor Nilsson, Siveden.
Dr. N. Nordenskiold, Finland.
M. E. Peligot, Paris.
Prof. B. Pierce, Cambridge, U.S.
Viscenza Pisani, Florence,
Gustav Plaar, Strasburg.
Chevalier Plana, Twin.
Professor Pliicker, Bonn.
M. Constant Prévost, Paris,
M. Quetelet, Brussels,
Prof. Retzius, Stockholm.
Professor W. B. Rogers, Boston, U.S.
Professor H. Rose, Berlin.
Herman Schlagintweit, Berlin.
Robert Schlagintweit, Berlin.
M. Werner Siemens, Vienna.
Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm.
Professor J, A. de Souza, University of
Coimbra.
M. Struvé, Pulkowa.
Dr. Syanberg, Stockholm.
M. Pierre Tchihatchef.
Dr. Van der Hoeven, Leyden,
Professor E. Verdet, Paris,
M. de Verneuil, Paris.
Baron Sartorius yon Waltershausen,
Gottingen.
Professor Wartmann, Geneva.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XXX1
Report of the Council of the British Association, presented to the
General Committee, Wednesday, October 1, 1862.
1. The Council were directed by the General Committee at Manchester to
maintain the Establishment of the’ Kew Observatory, and a grant of £500
was placed at their disposal for the purpose. They have received at each of
their Meetings regular accounts of the proceedings of the Committee of the
Observatory, and they now lay before the General Committee a General
Report of these proceedings during the year 1861-62. (See Report of Kew
Committee for 1861-62.)
2. A sum of £40 was placed at the disposal of the Kew Committee for the
employment of the Photoheliometer ; and a further sum of £150 for the pur-
pose of obtaining a series of photographic pictures of the Solar surface, with
the cooperation of the Royal Society. The Report of the Kew Committee
will make known the results of these recommendations.
3. The Report of the Parliamentary Committee has been received by the
Council for presentation to the General Committee today, and is printed for
the information of the Members. (See Report of Parliamentary Committee.)
4. The Council have to regret the absence from this Meeting of the General
Secretary, Mr. Hopkins, through indisposition, which they sincerely hope will
soon be removed.
5. The ‘Classified Index’ to the Transactions of the Association, which
was authorized to be prepared under the direction of Professor Phillips, is
completed in one of the main divisions ; the remainder will be printed with-
out delay, and will be delivered to the Members who have subscribed for it
before the end of the present year,
6. At that date it is the request of Professor Phillips to be allowed to
withdraw from the office of Assistant General Secretary to which he has been
appointed, by Annual Election in the General Committee, for nearly thirty-
two years. Having for two years received the useful aid of Mr. G. Griffith,
M.A., of Jesus College, Oxford, he has expressed to the Council his conviction
of the fitness of that gentleman to undertake the duties which have been so
long entrusted to himself.
7. The Council having considered the subject, and having ascertained from
Professor Phillips that he would be happy to cooperate with Mr. Hopkins as
Junior General Secretary in the next year, recommend that the arrangement
here suggested be carried out by the General Committee.
8. The Council received in April, 1862, a communication from Mr. John
Taylor, Jun., and Mr, Richard Taylor, requesting that, on account of his
great age, their father, Mr. Taylor, might be relieved of all further duties as
General Treasurer and Co-Trustee of the Association. .
The warmest thanks of the Council were given to Mr. Taylor for his kind
attention and most valuable services rendered to the Association in two im-
portant offices, as one of the Trustees and sole General Treasurer, and their
regret that any cause should render it necessary for him to desire to be re-
lieved from the duties which he has so efficiently performed for the great
advantage of the Association, almost from its foundation.
. 9, Sir Philip de Grey Egerton, Bart., was then requested to accept the
office of Trustee of the British Association; and Mr. W. Spottiswoode to
undertake the duty of General Treasurer to the Association.
+ These Gentlemen haye kindly consented to act, and have entered on their
uties,
10. The Council have been informed that Invitations will be presented to
XXXii REPORT—1862.
the General Committee at its Meeting on Monday, October 6, from Neweastle-
on-Tyne, Birmingham, Bath, Nottingham, and Dundee.
11. That the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge and the Rev.
Professor Challis be elected Vice-Presidents for the next year.
October 1, 1862.
WILLIAM Farrparrn,
President.
Report of the Kew Committee of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science for 1861-1862.
The Committee of the Kew Observatory submit to the Association the
following Report of their proceedings during the past year.
Deeming it desirable that the instrumental arrangements and scientific
processes at use in the Observatory should be represented at the International
Exhibition, application was made to the Commissioners for space.
This was granted in the nave of the building, where the following instru-
ments are at present exhibited :—
1. A set of Self-recording Magnetographs.
2. An instrument for tabulating from the traces furnished by the Mag-
netographs.
3. A Unifilar.
4. A Dip Circle.
5. A Self-recording Anemometer.
6. Barometers.
7. An instrument for testing Thermometers, also a Kew Standard Ther-
mometer.
8. Sun Pictures, taken by the Kew Heliograph.
The Committee have the pleasure to inform the Association that a Medal
has been awarded to the Kew Observatory for excellence and accuracy of
construction of instruments for observing terrestrial magnetism; and that
two Medals have likewise been awarded to Mr. R. Beckley, Mechanical
Assistant at Kew, for his Registering Anemometer, and for his Photographs
of the Sun.
It is proposed that application be made to the Government Grant Com-
mittee of the Royal Society for the expenses incurred through this exhibition.
At the time when the last Report was made to the Association, the Staff
at Kew were occupied with the verification of a set of magnetic instruments
belonging to Prof. De Souza, of the University of Coimbra, a gentleman who
was present at the Mecting at Manchester. The examination of these was
shortly after completed, and the instruments, consisting of a set of Self-
recording Magnetographs, a tabulating instrument, a Dip Circle,and a Unifilar,
have since been safely received at Coimbra.
The following letter was addressed to the Chairman by Prof. De Souza
shortly before his departure :—
* London, 26th October, 1861.
«* My pear Srr,—I cannot leave England, where I have been exceedingly
favoured by the Committee of the Kew Observatory of the British Associa-
tion, without expressing to you my hearty thanks for the help I have expe-
rienced from the Committee in the construction and verification of the
Magnetic and Meteorologic instruments for the University of Coimbra, as
well as for the valuable instruction which I have received, guided by the
Director of the Kew Observatory, and the kindness which the British Asso-
REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXill
ciation has shown me in their magnificent Meeting. I shall never forget the
help afforded to me in so many different ways, and I desire earnestly to put
it in immediate contribution towards the advancement of science.
“The Observatory of Coimbra must have in its library, as a memorial, the
valuable collection of Transactions of the British Association, and I hope that
you may be so kind as to put me in the way of obtaining these volumes.
«‘T remain, dear Sir,
«« Sincerely yours,
“J. P. Gassiot, Esq.” ‘«« JactntHo A. DE Souza.”
The request of this letter has been complied with by the Council of the
Association, and a complete set of the Transactions has been dispatched to
Coimbra.
The Director of the Lisbon Observatory has since requested the Committee
to superintend the construction of a set of self-recording Magnetographs.
The Committee, in complying with his request, have made arrangements for
the instruments at present exhibited in the International Exhibition, and
these will afterwards be mounted at the Kew Observatory for inspection and
verification.
A Differential Declinometer for the Government Observatory at Mauritius
has been verified and forwarded to Prof. Meldrum, who has received it in
safety.
Gini, Rokeby, of the Royal Marines, already favourably known by a me-
teorological register very carefully kept at Canton during its occupation by the
British troops, has received instruction at Kew in the use of magnetical in-
struments, and has been furnished with a Dip Circle, a Unifilar, a Bifilar,
and a Differential Declinometer, of which the constants have been deter-
mined at the Observatory. Lieut. Rokeby proposes to employ these instru-
ments at the Island of Ascension during his term of service at that station.
He has also been furnished by Admiral FitzRoy with a complete equipment
of the meteorological instruments supplied by the Board of Trade. The
importance of Ascension as a magnetical station has long been recognized.
Situated very nearly on the line of no magnetic dip, the determination
of the periodical variations and of the secular changes of the three mag-
netic elements cannot fail to possess a high value; and as a meteorological
station, a rock in the mid-ocean, within 6° of the Equator, presents an almost
unrivalled locality for an exact measure of the amount of the lunar atmo-
spheric tide, and of the variations in direction and force of the trade-wind.
The Admiralty, apprised of Lieut. Rokeby’s meritorious purposes, have sane-
tioned the appropriation of the officers’ quarter at the summit of the Green
Mountain, known as the “ Mountain House,” as an observatory; and the
department of the Board of Trade, under Admiral FitzRoy’s superintendence,
has authorized the expenditure of £50 in providing the additional accommo-
dation required for the instruments. Lieut. Rokeby has arrived at Ascension.
with the instruments uninjured, and writes in strong terms of the support
he receives from Captain Barnard, the commander of the troops on the island.
On June 19th the Chairman received a letter from the Astronomer Royal,
in which he stated that he was very desirous of comparing the Greenwich
records of the vertical-force magnet with those at Kew; and that, if agree-
able to the Committee, he would request Mr. Glaisher to endeavour to arrange
a meeting with Mr. Stewart for that purpose.
The Chairman immediately replied, offering every facility, and Mr. Glaisher
has since visited the Observatory, where the comparison has been made.
1862. ¢
XXxiv REPORT—1862.
The usual monthly absolute determinations of the magnetic elements con-
tinue to be made, and the self-recording magnetographs are in constant
operation under the zealous superintendence of Mr. Chambers, the Mag-
netical Assistant.
- Major-General Sabine, Pres. R.S., has laid before the Royal Society a paper
entitled ‘ Notice of some conclusions derived from the Photographic Records
of the Kew Declinometer in the years 1858, 1859, 1860, and 1861.”
The exceedingly good definition which the labours of the late Mr. Welsh
procured for the magnetic curves, has also enabled the Superintendent,
Mr. Stewart, to discuss the disturbance-curyes by a peculiar method, depend-
ing on such definition; and he has presented a paper to the Royal Society
“On the forces which are concerned in producing the larger magnetic dis-
turbances.”
The Committee are at present engaged in investigating the best means of
multiplying copies of these curves, and exhibit to the Association two prints
from such—one kindly taken by Sir Henry James by his process, and the
other taken by that of Mr. Paul Pretsch.
The expense incurred by Mr. Pretsch has been defrayed by £25 obtained
from the Government Grant through the Royal Society.
The Chairman of the Balloon Committee haying applied to the Super-
intendent for the instruments used by the late Mr. Welsh in his ascents,
these were delivered over to Mr. Criswick on the 12th of March last, haying
been previously verified at the Observatory.
The Meteorological work of the Observatory continues to be performed in
a satisfactory manner by Mr. George Whipple, and each Member of the Staff
of the Observatory seems much interested in the duties he is called upon to
discharge.
During the past year 184 Barometers and 282 Thermometers have been
verified; and, to give an idea of the amount of this kind of work which has
been accomplished since first the subject was commenced in the year 1854, it
may be stated that no fewer than 1185 Barometers and 6429 Thermometers
have been verified up to this date.
Rear-Admiral FitzRoy having been informed of the existence at the Ob-
servatory of a Barograph invented and used by Mr. Ronalds, the following
letter was addressed by him to the Chairman :—
(Copy.)
“Board of Trade (and Admiralty) Meteorological Department,
2 Parliament Street, London, 8.W., 7th April, 1862.
*‘ Srr,—I have the honour to address you as Chairman of the Kew Com-
mittee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, on behalf
of this branch department of the Board of Trade and the Admiralty.
“T am authorized to request that you will allow us to endeavour to
benefit by your regular photographic self-registration of the Barometer at the
Kew Meteorological and Magnetical Observatory during at least one com-
plete year of continuous record, by causing this office to be furnished with
copies of photographic tracings, or their results, in full detail.
«The objects specially in view here, are :—
“Such accurate and indisputable continuous delineation of atmospheric
pressure, or (rather) tension, as can only be obtained by perfectly reliable
means; and
“Such details of occasional oscillations, or pulsations (so to speak), as can
best be obtained photographically.
——
Z_
REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXV
«For practical daily purposes, a self-registering Barometer, on the Milne
principle, may be sufficient ; but for elaborate analysis of atmospherical con-
ditions and changes, in connexion with the numerous influences operating,
some occasionally, some frequently, others always, in the air and its ever-
restless currents, such an apparatus as that now available at Kew would
appear to be indispensable.
« Besides ordinary meteorological peculiarities, the direction of magnetic
earth-currents, the occurrence of magnetic storms, the differing electrical
conditions of various currents of air, the phenomena of earthquakes, and
their ‘lightnings’*, seem to be more or less in certain relations to atmo-
spheric tension, and therefore to require a close and unbroken barometrical
registration. Towards some additional expense incurred by the Kew Ob-
servatory in complying with this request, I am authorized to say that this
department will contribute, on principle similar to that of verification of
instruments.
‘«‘T have the honour to be,
“c Sir,
** Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) “ Ropert FrrzRoy, BR. Adm,”
«P.S. Probably two scales of tracing, analogous to ‘Sailing Charts’ and
‘Particular Plans,’ would be convenient.”
“ John Peter Gassiot, Esq., F.R.S.,
Chairman of the Kew Committee of the
British Association.”
To which the Chairman shortly afterwards replied in the following
terms :—
(Copy-)
“Kew Observatory, 23rd April, 1862.
“Srr,—I have the honour to acknowledge receipt of your letter of 7th
inst., addressed to me as Chairman of the Kew Committee of the British
Association.
On behalf of this Committee, I may state in reply that it will afford us
much satisfaction to furnish your department with Photographic Self-
registrations of the state of the Barometer at Kew Observatory.
“Tam informed by Mr. Stewart, our Superintendent, that we have in our
_ possession an instrument well calculated, with some slight alterations, to
_ produce the results you desire.
_ “It possesses a compensation for temperature ; -besides which, it will be
_ placed, when finally in action, in a room where the daily range of tempera-
i ture is not more than half a degree Fahrenheit.
«This instrument is not yet, however, in working order, and two months
may perhaps elapse before it is quite ready. As you seem to think it de-
sirable to obtain occasionally curves on an enlarged scale, it will be matter for
_ our consideration whether this can be managed, and how. You will be duly
informed of our resolution; but, in the mean time, I may state that it
would be somewhat more than two months before such additional curves
could be ready. In conclusion, without binding ourselves to any specified
time (which, indeed, would not be desirable in a matter of this nature), I beg
_ to assure you that we shall do all in our power to hasten the desired result ;
and, as we hope to have things ready in the course of two or three months,
7 * Secchi and Palmieri, 1862. 3
¢
:
XXXVI REPORT—1862.
we shall then also be prepared to reply to you with respect to remuneration
for the additional work which the Observatory would thus undertake.
«JT have the honour to be,
“e Sir,
“ Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) “J. P. Gassror.”
“ Rear-Admiral FitzRoy, F.R.S., §¢.”
The Mechanical Assistant being engaged at the Exhibition, it was found
impossible to complete the alterations alluded to quite so soon as anticipated ;
but a curve was procured about the middle of August, which was sent to
Admiral FitzRoy, and approved of by him.
The Barograph has since received some further alterations, with a view to
increase its stability and general efficiency. These are now completed, and
the instrument will be henceforth kept in constant operation. One of the
curves from this instrument is presented to the Association.
Arrangements were made for recording photographically, by means of the
Heliograph, the transit of Mercury which took place on the 12th of Novem-
ber last, but the weather proved unfavourable. This instrument was also
in readiness for the partial eclipse of the sun which took place on the 31st
of December last; but, owing to the unfavourable state of the sky, only two
imperfect pictures were obtained. A very good series of sun-pictures was
~ obtained by Mr. Beckley during the months of November and December.
The Heliograph was sent from Kew at the beginning of January to Mr. De
la Rue’s Observatory, and Mr. Beckley attended at Cranford to assist in
erecting and adjusting it to focus; but the weather was so unfavourable
during the remainder of that month that no pictures of the sun could be
obtained. It had somewhat improved about the 7th of February, when the
first photograph was taken, and since then others have been obtained by
Mr. Reynolds (Mr. De la Rue’s assistant) on every day on which this has
been possible. Altogether, up to the 12th of September inclusive, 177 pho-
tographs have been taken on 124 days, namely :—
Number of Number of pho-
In the Month of working days. tographs procured.
Bebra Ary? or. h akais ' 40 ee 13
IMPAT CHE ae 5 ccsles-nehs\os),- | ee anes Se a yi
PARE ae Sactttes stone 5, 0 6 AT eteatdx: scars 31
Utes sib scsca? Neus e126 it <1 Mie otcoass crete 26
RIEEO s Ftai'dca rh ab giss)'si nt eet | rere ae 28
ERT er ieee, sche Oy oi als haul 27
AMI EUS res ner kis Se OS at ae nae 26
Up to September 12 . es ae ie 9
124 177
from February 7th to September 12th inclusive there are 218 days ; so that
on the average one photograph was procured for 1-77 day. Nearly half of
the pictures have been obtained by taking advantage of breaks in the clouds,
and many have been taken through haze. In several of the photographs,
owing to the unpropitious state of the atmosphere, there is a want of that
beauty and perfection which the Heliograph is capable of affording; but all
the pictures are sufficiently perfect for measurement by means of Mr. De la
Rue’s Micrometer. Many of these are extremely perfect, and all would have
been so had the state of the atmosphere permitted.
—
REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXVil
During the month of August Dr. Sabler, Director of the Observatory of
Wilna in Russia, resided at Cranford, and received instruction in Astrono-
mical Photography. A Photoheliograph is being constructed for him under
Mr. De la Rue’s superintendence by Mr. Dallmeyer, and a Micrometer by the
Messrs. Simms. This Heliograph will embody all the optical and mechanical
improvements suggested by the experiments with the Kew instrument ; and
it is expected that the Wilna apparatus will be in operation in the spring
of 1863. In the event of the Kew Heliograph being worked continuously,
Sir John Herschel’s suggestion that daily records of the sun should be taken
by means of photography will therefore be carried out both in England and
Russia; if this were done in one or two other localities, a considerable
amount of information would be obtained respecting physical changes con-
tinually occurring on the sun’s surface.
The experience obtained during the past year has been such as to lead
Mr. De la Rue to recommend that photographic records should be continued
for a series of years at some public Observatory. The Committee have had
in consideration whether this could be done at Kew without interfering with
the other work, and have come to the conclusion that the Heliograph might
be worked at an annual expense of £200, which sum would cover the cost of
an additional Assistant, who might at the same time do the other photogra-
phic work of the Observatory.
The old dome formerly used for the Heliograph is so inconyeniently situ-
ated as to be quite unfit for such work, and it will be necessary to make
some addition to one of the present out-buildings in order to contain the in-
strument. The cost of this structure is estimated at £100.
The Committee strongly recommend that the General Committee of the
Association take such steps as they may consider advisable for carrying this
desirable object into practical effect.
The self-recording Electrometer of Prof. W. Thomson continues in con-
- stant operation.
Mr. Francis Galton having made arrangements in the Observatory Park for
testing sextants, the Observatory is now prepared to receive such instruments
for examination, and to issue certificates to such as may fulfil the conditions
of any of the following classes :—
A. Sextants of the highest order of workmanship for lunar observations
and general service, on shore as well as at sea.
B. Sextants for naval surveys and for the determination of altitudes with
as much precision as is available at sea.
C. Quadrants or sextants to be used without telescopes, for the determina-
tion of altitudes with an exactness equal to the requirements of general
navigation.
The charges for examination under classes A and B will be 5s., under class
C, 1ls.; and the minute constant errors of instruments under class A will be
determined, when desired, at an additional charge of 5s.
Fight sextants have been verified at Kew since the last Meeting of the
British Association.
The Observatory has been honoured with a visit from the following distin-
guished men of science, who had visited this country in consequence of the
International Exhibition :—
Professors Dove, Magnus, and Quincke, of Berlin ; Professor Férchhammer,
of Copenhagen; Professors Bunsen, Kirchhoff, and Eisenlohr, of Heidelberg ;
Professors Kraft and Pisko, of Vienna; Professor Govi, of Turin; Professor
Donati, of Florence ; Professor Bolzani, of Kasan; Professor Lapschine, of
1862.
REPORT
XXxXVlil
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RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. XXXix
Kharkof ; Professors Clausius and Wartmann, of Geneva; Captain Belavenetz,
Russian Navy ; and Captain Skariatine, Russian Marines.
A reference to the annexed financial statement will show that, aithough
the expenditure has exceeded the income, the Observatory has been conducted
with the utmost regard to economy.; and the Committee recommend that for
the ensuing year a sum of £600 should be granted, which, with other
amounts to be received, will, it is expected, meet the necessary requirements.
Joun P. Gasstor,
Kew Observatory, Chairman.
Sept. 29th, 1862.
Report of the Parliamentary Committee to the Meeting of the British
Association at Cambridge, October 1862.
The Parliamentary Committee have the honour to report as follows :—
The Bishop of Oxford, in furtherance of the resolution adopted at Liverpool
in 1854, must be deemed to have vacated his seat in this Committee, but we
recommend that he should be re-elected.
Your Committee have also to report that Mr. James Heywood has not
found it necessary to call upon them to interfere in the matter referred to
them at Manchester by the General Committee.
Wrorrestry, Chairman.
Sept. 14, 1862.
RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
CamBrivce Mrerine 1n Octoser 1862.
{When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary
of the Committee, except there be a specific nomination. |
Involving Grants of Money.
That the sum of £600 be placed at the disposal of the Council, for main-
taining the Establishment of Kew Observatory.
That the sum of £100 be placed at the disposal of the Council, for the pur-
pose of making an addition to the out-buildings at Kew Observatory, to receive
the Photoheliograph, now in the hands of Mr. De la Rue.
That the cooperation of the Royal Society be requested for the purpose of
completing and proving the instruments devised for obtaining Photographic
registration of the physical aspect of the Sun.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor Williamson, Professor Wheat-
stone, Professor W. Thomson, Professor W. H. Miller, Dr. A. Matthiessen,
and Mr. Fleeming Jenkin, appointed at the Manchester Meeting, be requested
to continue their Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance, and to extend
it to other Electrical Standards; and that Dr. Esselbach, Sir C. Bright, Pro-
fessor Maxwell, Mr. C. W. Siemens, and Mr. Balfour Stewart be added to the
Committee; and that the sumof £100 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That the Committee to report upon Standards of Electrical Resistance, be
xl REPORT—1862.
authorized to distribute gratuitously provisional Standards of Electrical Re-
sistance, should it appear to them advantageous to do so; and that the sum
of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That as all the Balloon Observations hitherto made under the authority of
the British Association (owing to unavoidable circumstances) have been con-
fined to the autumnal period of the year, these operations should be repeated
at other periods of the year, especially during the east winds of spring, with
a view to test the normal character of the observations already made ;
That Colonel Sykes, Professor Airy, Lord Wrottesley, Sir D. Brewster, Sir
J. Herschel, Dr. Lloyd, Admiral FitzRoy, Dr. Lee, Dr. Robinson, Mr. Gassiot,
Mr. Glaisher, Dr. Tyndall, Mr. Fairbairn, and Dr. W. A. Miller be a Balloon
Committee; and that the sum of £200 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That the sum of £70 be placed at the disposal of the Balloon Committee,
to meet the deficiency in the Grant of £200 made at Manchester.
That a sum not exceeding £25, the amount of expenses necessarily in-
curred by Mr. Glaisher in the prosecution of the Balloon experiments, be
repaid to him.
That the Committee on Luminous Meteors and Aérolites, consisting of
Mr. Glaisher, Mr. R. P. Greg, Mr. E. W. Brayley, and Mr. Alexander Her-
schel, be reappointed ; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for
the purpose.
That Mr. Fleeming Jenkin be requested to continue his Report on Thermo-
Electrical Experiments ; and that the sum of £15 (being the balance of the
Grant made to him last year) be placed at his disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor Hennessy, Admiral FitzRoy,
and Mr. Glaisher, be requested to continue their inquiries relative to the con-
nexion of Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere with Storms ; and that the
sum of £20 be placed at their disposal forthe purpose.
That Dr. Matthiessen be requested to continue his Experiments on Alloys ;
and that the sum of £20 be placed at his disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. A. Dupré be requested to continue his Experiments upon the
action of Reagents on Carbon under Pressure; and that the sum of £10 be
placed at his disposal for the purpose.
That the Balance of Grant of £8 made at the Manchester Meeting to Mr.
Alphonse Gages, of Dublin, be placed at the disposal of that gentleman.
That the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. H. Scott, Sir Richard Griffith,
and the Rev. Prof. Haughton, be requested to complete their Report on the
Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Donegal and the
associated Rocks; and that the sum of £5 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Mr. H. C. Sorby and Mr. C. H. B. Hambly be a Committee to make
Experiments on the Fusion and Slow Cooling of various Igneous Rocks ; and
that the sum of £30 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Huxley and Sir Philip de Grey Egerton be a Committee to
aid Mr. Molyneux in his Researches into the Characters and Distribution of
the Organic Remains of the North Staffordshire Coal-field ; and that the sum
of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. Mallet be requested to conduct Experiments to ascertain the
Temperatures of the Volcanic Craters of Vesuvius and of the Temperature
and Issuing Velocity of the Steam evolved at the Mouths,—the Experiments,
if possible, to be extended to other Volcanic Vents in the Mediterranean
Basin ; and that the sum of £100 be placed at his disposal for the purpose.
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xli
That a Committee, consisting of Dr. Cobbold and Mr. J. Lubbock, be re-
= quested to prosecute their Investigations respecting the Reproduction,
» Development, and Migration of the Entozoa; and that the sum of £25 be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Huxley and the Rey. Mr. Macbride be a Committee to con-
duct Experiments on the Artificial Fecundation of the Herring ; and that the
sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Joshua Alder, the Rev. A. M. Norman,
and Mr. H. T. Mennell be a Committee for exploring the Doggerbank and
other portions of the Sea-coast of Durham and Northumberland by means of
the Dredge ; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the
urpose.
4 That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Professor Allman, Mr. John Leckenby, Pro-
fessor Wyville Thomson, and the Rev. Thomas Hincks be a Committee for
exploring the Coasts of Shetland by means of the Dredge; and that the sum
of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Professor Allman, Professor Dickie, the Rev.
Dr. Gordon, and Mr. Robert Dawson be a Committee for exploring the
North-east Coast of Scotland by means of the Dredge ; and that the sum of
£25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Robert M‘Andrew, Mr. G. C. Hyndman,
Professor Allman, Dr. Kinahan, Dr. Collingwood, Dr. Edwards, Professor
Greene, Rey. Thomas Hincks, Mr. R. D. Darbishire, and Dr. E. Perceval
Wright be a Committee to superintend all the Dredging Committees of the
Association ; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the pur-
ose.
E That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Edward Smith and Mr. Milner, be
requested to continue their inquiries on the Influence of Prison Punishment
and Dietary upon the Bodily Functions of Prisoners; and that the sum of
£20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. Gibb be requested to inquire into the Physiological Effects of
Bromide of Ammonium ; and that the sum of £8 be placed at his disposal
for the purpose.
That Dr. Carpenter, Professor Huxley, and Mr. Rupert Jones, assisted by
Mr. Parker, be a Committee to aid in the Construction of a Series of Models
showing the External and Internal Structure of the Foraminifera; and that
the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Allman and Dr. E. P. Wright be a Committee to complete
a Report on the Reproductive System of the Hydroida; and that the sum of
£10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. Thomas Webster, the Right Honourable Joseph Napier, Sir W. G.
Armstrong, Mr. W. Fairbairn, Mr. W. R. Grove, Mr. James Heywood, and
General Sabine be reappointed, for the purpose of taking such steps as may
appear expedient for rendering the Patent Law more efficient for the reward
of the meritorious inventor and the advancement of practical science ; and
that the sum of £30 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee on Steamship Performance be reappointed, consisting
of the Duke of Sutherland, The Earl of Gifford, M.P., The Earl of Caith-
ness, Lord Dufferin, Mr. W. Fairbairn, Mr. J. Scott Russell, Admiral
Paris, The Hon. Gaptain Egerton, R.N., The Hon. L. A. Ellis, M.P., Mr.
J. E. McConnell, Mr. W. Smith, Professor J. Macquorn Rankine, Mr. James
R. Napier, Mr. Richard Roberts; Mr. Henry Wright to be Honorary Se-
cretary ; and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal.
xlii REPORT—1862.
That a Committee, consisting of Messrs. W. Fairbairn, Joseph Whitworth,
James Nasmyth, J. Scott Russell, John Anderson, and Sir W. G. Armstrong,
be requested to cooperate with a Committee appointed by Section B, viz.
Dr. Gladstone, Professor W. A. Miller, and Dr. Frankland, for the purpose of
investigating the application of Gun Cotton to warlike purposes; and that
the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee for Tidal Observations in the Humber, consisting of
Mr. J. Oldham, Mr. J. F. Bateman, Mr. J. Scott Russell, and Mr. T. Thomp-
son, be reappointed, to extend their observations to the Trent and the York-
shire Ouse; and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the
urpose.
4 That Sir John Rennie, Mr. John Scott Russell, and Mr. C. Vignoles (with
power to add to their number), Mr. G. P. Bidder, Jun., as Secretary, be a
Committee to inquire and report as to the effect upon the Tides in the Nene
and the Ouse by the opening of the Outfalls below Wisbeach and Lynn to
the Wash; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the
ose.
That the Committee for investigating the causes of Railway Accidents,
consisting of Mr. W. Fairbairn, Mr. J. E. M*Connell, and Mr. W. Smith, be
reappointed; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
Applications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants
of Money.
That Mr. Johnstone Stoney be requested to continue his Report on Molecu-
lar Physics.
That Mr. James Cockle be requested to prepare a Report on the History of
the Theory of Equations.
That a Committee be appointed for the purpose of carrying into effect the
objects of the Report on Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law.
That Dr. Gray, Dr. Sclater, Mr. Alfred Newton, and Mr. Wallace be a
Committee to report on the Acclimatization of Domestic Quadrupeds and
Birds, and how they are affected by migration.
That Dr. Gray, Professor Babington, and Mr. Newbold be a Committee to
report on the Plants of Ray’s ‘ Synopsis Stirpium,’ for the examination of the
original Herbaria of Ray, Richardson, Buddle, Plukenet, and others.
That Dr. Collingwood, Mr.J.A.Turner, M.P., Mr. James Heywood, Mr. John
Lubbock, Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. R. Patterson, Mr. P. P. Carpenter, and
the Rey. H. H. Higgins be a Committee to inquire into the best mode of pro-
moting the advancement of Science by means of the Mercantile Marine.
That Mr. Consul Swinhoe and Dr. Sclater be a Committee to report on
the Zoology of the Island of Formosa.
That Dr. Edward Smith be requested to prepare for the next Meeting of
the British Association a Report on the present state of our knowledge upon
Nutrition, and especially its relation to Urea.
That the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, Right Hon. Joseph Napier, Mr. Tite,
M.P., Professor Christison, Mr. J. Heywood, Mr. J. F. Bateman, Mr. T. Web-
ster (with power to add to their number) be a Committee for the purpose of
giving effect to the Report of the Committee on Technical and Scientific
Evidence in Courts of Law.
o- iprchstrincementth, -, erin: nh tent mena
ile. ek te
_ Sykes, Col.—Other expenses of Balloon Ascents
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xh
- Involving Applications to Government or Public Institutions.
That a Deputation, consisting of Mr. E. Chadwick, C.B., Mr. J. Heywood,
Mr. Marsh, M.P., Dr. Farr, Mr. Tite, M-P., Mr. 8. Gregson, M.P., and Col.
Sykes, M.P., be requested to wait upon the Secretary of State for the Home
Department and the Registrar-General, and represent to them the import-
ance of haying prepared Mortuary Statistics in respect to Classes and Occupa-
tions, in such forms as were recommended by the International Statistical
Congress, or in such other form as will distinguish the Occupations or the
Classes of those who die.
That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Robinson, Professor Wheatstone, Dr.
Gladstone, and Professor Hennessy, which was appointed at Manchester to
confer as to Experiments on Fog Signals, and to act as a Deputation to the
Board of Trade, be requested to impress upon the Board the importance of
_ inquiries on the subject.
Communications to be printed entire among the Reports.
That the Extract of Professor De Souza’s Report to the Portuguese
Government, regarding the Instruments used at Kew Observatory, be printed
entire in the Reports.
That Mr. Symons’s Papers on Rainfall be printed entire among the Reports.
That the Paper by the Astronomer Royal, on the Strains in the interior of
Beams and Tubular Bridges, be printed entire among the Reports.
That Mr. Aston’s Paper on Projectiles, with reference to their Penetration,
be printed entire among the Reports.
That Mr. W. Fairbairn’s Paper on the Results of some Experiments on
the Mechanical Properties of Projectiles be printed entire among the Reports.
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by
the General Committee at the Cambridge Meeting in October 1862,
with the name of the Member who alone, or as the First of a Com-
mittee, is entitled to draw the Money.
Kew Observatory.
Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory
House for the Photoheliograph at Kew.................... 100
lop)
—
S
Sow
oon
Mathematics and Physics.
Williamson, Prof.—Electrical Standards .................. 100
Williamson, Prof.—For constructing and distributing ditto.... 50
@eeeykes, Col.—Balloon Ascents ...............0.0000.- eee 200
Sykes, Col.—Balloon Committee (deficiency) .............. 70
Beamer Mri MOLCOESE 2. ccs citi Peo Ow eRle dar Dendes 20
Jenkin, Mr.—Thermo- Electricity
Carriediforwarde 2: ns ee Cee Ae £1180
bo
Or
SISOS SOS
SNeoe SSS)
xliv REPORT—1862.
Brought forward......
Hennessy, Prof—Vertical Atmospheric Movements.........
Chemistry.
Matthiessen, cDr-—ANOyS (ci. eel ee lve Oa REE
Dupré, M.—Carbon under pressure ............ 0200 ee eeue
Gages, Mr.—Chemistry of Rocks 2.0.06... ..cceeeteee sees
Geology.
Pepe y te GEA eS , ieee wie 6 ine .\6-6.005°8 Zapa'e vo veel 8 sad whe
Porny, air. —Fustor of Rocks sfc sse6¥ sso s es vised ow toa we
gdicy, Erot.——Coal Hossilg oo... 2. sos ones a oO ae Oe
Mallet, Mr.—Volcanic Temperature...........0..eeeceuees
Zoology and Botany.
CIDA aga Dap 970/77 0 a al a i
etreiy rol ——ACITMOS «2. St cs ca es ce ve Pa cet eens
Jeffreys, Mr.—Dredging (Doggerbank)................2:
Jeffreys, Mr.—Dredging (Shetland) ..................000-
Jeffreys, Mr.—Dredging (N.E. coast of Scotland) ..........
Jeffreys, Mr.—Committee for Dredging ................05:
min, Or. H.-—Prison Discipline’. .........:.02ss heen
Gibb, Dr.—Bromide of Ammonium ..................0e0.
Warpenter, Dr.——Morammitera .. 2... 6. sss on ss he eee ast thes
peli, Erol —-MyGroids: <0). fsa ve cc hc aces oe ee ewes
Bviepsuer, Wx Parems Meine ait. fe. « oic0 iss ses os 9.0 vo sens we
Sutherland, Duke of—Steamships ..................0.0.
Gladstone, Dr. “GunCotton seeks. oh. oe Pe
Oldham, Mr.—Tidal Observations...................0.00-
Rennie, Mr.—<Action of Tides below Wisbeach to the Wash ..
Fairbairn, Mr.—Railway Accidents ............0..0c0000e
20 0 0
10° Os
8 0 0
5 Oro
30 0 0
20 0 0
100 0 0
bo
or
ooocoocoscoo
eceoooocoooocsoo
30 0 0
160? 46-20
50 0 0
50 0 0
25 0 0
25.0 0
0 0
1891 0 0
GENERAL STATEMENT.
xlv
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants
for Scientific Purposes.
£ s. d.
1834.
Tide Discussions ........e0s0008 20 0 0
1835.
Tide Discussions .......00....00008 62 0 O
British Fossil Ichthyology “asooe 105 0 0
£167 0 0
1836.
Tide Discussions ..........0+. sees 163 0" "0
British Fossil Ichthyology ...... 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 0
Experiments on long-continued
Heat. 25.0.6 pease Beate deaeercete BFE Te 20
MPRMI SAUCES 6s cies cecscsceciiceeseee 913 0
Refraction Experiments .......++ 15 0 0
Lunar Nutation,.............00 ff COO 0
Thermometers .........066 Seinscrie-te 15 6 0
£434 14 0
1837.
Tide Discussions Sac aeiaselaiteuse - 284 1 =O
Chemical Constants .........s0+00+ 2413 6
Lunar Nutation................0006 Arne 500 %0
Observations on Waves..... Rovaear 100 12 0
Tides at Bristol.......... Sac bamaee 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subterranean
PREIOPEKACHTE ...-cnccnanssasecrs + 89. “50
Vitrification Experiments....... + 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ..........00++ a 84 6
Barometric Observations ......... 30 0 0
HTBRERICLETS Scsccccosccsecnssns ses ew. 1118 6
£918 14 6
1838.
Tide Discussions ...... cscceseeneee 29 0 0
British Fossil Fishes ...... posse 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations and
Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ......... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Substances
(Preservation of) ...........060 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............. - 41 12 10
Bristol Tides’. ........ccecsasece meesa 0 OP 0
Growth of Plants ....... eueites esse 75 0 0
Mud in Rivers ........ ROCCE ODSE 2 36. 6: 16
Education Committee ..... csoceee 50 0 0
Heart Experiments ............... 5 3 0
Land and Sea Level........ “Beces oy 20 Be
Subterranean Temperature ...... 8 6 0
Steam-vessels..........cceeeeeees +. 100 0 O
Meteorological Committee ..... « oh 9 5
POMEFMOMELCTS” ...ctccesesnccocgecse, 16 -4 0
£956 12 2
1839.
Possil Ichthyologv........... casesmn LQ) 10) (0,
Meteorological Observations at
ARIAT, “exudes. coceesaeeess ¢.t0 63 10 0
Mechanism of Waves .........008 144 2 0
Heristol, Tides’..,...rcccsesacrecteeses 3 18. 6
Ey RRA
Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature ......+00.006 fheedde 21 11 0
Vitrification Experiments........ Ce ee a |
Cast Iron Experiments............ 100 0 0
Railway Constants ....scccc.0.. 28 7 2
Land and Sea Level.........++206. 274 1 4
Steam-vessels’ E:ngines...... seeenay lOO) 200 0
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... .. dol 18 6
Stars in Lacaille ............000¢ ores lt, OL. 0
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue........ bmp Oree ©
Animal Secretions.......0+....++. - 1010 0
Steam-engines in Cornwall .,.... 50 0 0
Atmospheric Air ...secssceeseeeeee 16 1 0
Cast and Wrought Iron.......+.... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ....... atrh LO) ae
Gases on Solar Spectrum ........- 22) 0) 10
Hourly Meteorological Observa-
tions, Inverness and Kingussie 49 7 8&
Fossil Reptiles ........sssceeeeeees a, A L8) Ue
Mining Statistics ....,... romana ee 50 0 0
£1595 11 0
1840.
Bristol ides) Jc5scscses<c00008 isceeey il OO. Ose
Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments ........s.ss00e 18 19 0
Lungs Experiments ......e0..00. 8 13 0
Tide Discussions .......sseereee 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level ...........+4. eee ve |) (ae |
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ........ . 242 10 0
Stars (Lacaille) ....es.sseeeeseeeee 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) ......... soot queepe Dee Oe O
Atmospheric Air ........ sesvany glo? LdrO
Water on Iron .........+ Seeecnsece tei LOy “Os 10
Heat on Organic Bodies ........ 44000
Meteorological Observations...... 52 17 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs ...... 112 1 6
Working Population......... eeeeee 100 0 0
School Statistics......csscseseeseeee - 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels ...:cs<cvsccscees . 184 7 O
Chemical and Electrical Pheno-
MCHA Gapuccnsesccesssescerecenysuce 40 0 0
Meteorological Obsexvatians at
Plymouth ee sseaseee essevepccassqe | 50.40) 0
Magnetical Observations . aaeeed Poe dst hea is emne)
£1546 16 4
1841.
Observations on Waves...... vorsee 30 0 0
Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature ....:.....0se0« tena, Sess 0
Actinometers.......0+.e00. dosccspeceie LO, 0. .0
Earthquake Shocks ....... saeaaeaetel Liimiily 0
Acrid Poisons.............0 seeker 6 0 0
Veins and Absorbents .ssssseeeeee 3.0 0
Mudiin: Rivers. ccose.cdescsudseeoue 5 0 0
Marine Zoology......scceesseceeveee 15 12 8
Skeleton Maps ........0..++ sguensta =o ZO Ory O
| Mountain Barometers ....06....- = 7 6)18 16
Stars (Histoire Céleste)........0+ 185 0 0
xlvi REPORT—1862.
=f aust. ds Sa de
Stars (Lacaille) ........0.00++ seeeee 79 5 0 | Meteorological Observations, Os-
Stars (Nomenclature of) ......... TeAro" *6 ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 920 0 0
Stars (Catalogue of) ..........00008 40 0 0 | Reduction of Meteorological Ob-
WiatercOMLrOn, 2. ..cseccance-suesece 50) 10.0 SEQNVALIONS .c-aensevep edaatane cae 00 OOO
Meteorological Observations at Meteorological Tnstraments and
MRVERNESS= Wacess ste scsvecsecvesses 20 0 0 Gratuities Sicscssersseessten wes on -6 70
Meteorological Observations (re- Construction of Anemometer at
Guctionrof )aesrabscssdcerasceses- 25 00 TNWErNESS! \jcacentsceuecnsccestOee 5612 2
Fossil Reptiles .......0c.sscceseeee - 50 0 0 | Magnetic Cooperation ............ 10 8 10
Foreign Memoirs ......000..ssee0ee 62 0 0 | Meteorological Recorder for Kew
Railway Sections ......... seeeceees 38 1 6 (bRervatOnYS 2.2. 0hcusneccxsonseer 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels ......+ Seevev state 198 12 0} Action of Gases on Light......... 18 16 1
Meteorological Observations at Establishment at Kew Observa-
Plymouth 1.....esecsceosscesceess 55 0 0 tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni-
Magnetical Observations ......... 6118 8 ture and Sundries ...........0.0 133 4 7
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0 | Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0
Mdesiat Werth) <.veccesevessessseeoe 50 0 0 Oxidation ofthe Rails of Railways 20 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh ...... 69 1 10] Publication of Report on Fossil
Tabulating Observations ......... 9 6 3 Reptiles ....... sceeeetbsectevcseas > 40 0 0
Races of Men .......... snecccceece 5 0 0} Coloured Drawings of Railway
Radiate Animals ............ eters ee OO SGCUONs orenedce aeion caansapesen ai 147 18 3
£1235 10 11] Registration of Earthquake
rs Shocks ...... wuvobeceenedernstievun 30 0 0
1842, Report on Zoological Nomencla-
Dynamometric Instruments ...... 113 11.2 LUTE seesseseeeeteeeeeeennees odvase 20 10 OF
Anoplura Britanniz ....... AOE . 5212 0] Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
Tides at Bristol............0« se... 59 8 OQ] _ Stone near Manchester ...... ow 4 4 6
Gases on Light ........e0ee0e0+ sees 30 14 7 | Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 5 3 8
Chronometers ........ AES a a 26 17. 6| Marine Testacea (Habits of ) 10 0 0
Marine Zoology..........+++ icerate ke 50)! Marine Zoology-c.sysvetver.caseee a0 Or ORG
British Fossil Mammalia ......... 100 0 0 | Marine Zoology.........seseeeeeeeee 21411
Statistics of Education ............ 20 0 0 | Preparation of Report on British
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... BR “greg Fossil Mammalia counocedevervcce 100 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste)............ 59 0 0 | Physiological Operations of Me-
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ...... 110 0 0] dicinal Agents ......... coesveres SAO MIOMEG
Railway Sections .........++ PERG 1040")! Vital Statisties 035: ci.cnsccescenese 36 5 8
British Belemnites....... Tt eceees 50 0 0 | Additional Experiments on the
Fossil Reptiles (publication of Forms of Vessels ..sseessesseee 70 0 0
TUE TOT) jigesenmeene ee Pda aaa rog 6 210 0 0 | Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels ..s..s.seeceseesee 180 0 0 Forms of Vessels .....6....+.00- 100 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6 | Reduction of Experiments on the
Meteorological Experiments at Forms of Vessels ..........000+ 100 0 0
ym outhe esse eevuewes carers 68 0 0 | Morin’s Instrument and Constant
Constant Indicator and Dynamo- Indicator. we2suetetier Slee 69 14 10
metric Instruments .........+66 90 0 0 | Experiments on the Strength of
Force of Wind ............+ arseeest; BLO Oe 0 Materials .,... Se spewe evsotedeese 60 0 0
Light on Growth of Seeds ...... 8 0 0 £1565 10 2
Wxtall statistics sss-ccssshesance sos. - 50 0 0 ==
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... mea EU 1844.
Questions on Human Race ...... 49530 Meteorological Observations at
£1449 17 8 Kingussie and Inverness .,.... 12 0 0
Completing Observations at Ply-
1843, MNQUEH cc .- surwegesveaeeeeerenee 35 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature of Magnetic and Meteorological oe
SERES Saacavtewcsccccetecsececkooe oe Zaew” 0 operation wt. .sosdse. across Peace re
Reduction of Resta British Asso- Publication of the British Asso-
ciation Catalogue ............006 256 0 ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 35 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0 Observations on Tides on the
Hourly Meteorological Observa- East coast of Scotland ......... 100 0 O-
tionsat KingussieandInverness 77 12 8 | Revision of the Nomenclature of
Meteorological Observations at SLE anee cosvespaicneesenns 1842 2 9 6
RIV MIGUtN ee oerecvescenreene sess 55 0 0 | Maintaining the Establishmentin
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- Kew Observatory ...... consrevee Aili Ady ales
mometer at Plymouth ,........ 10 0 0 | Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 3
———
ee ar Cr Seer
GENERAL STATEMENT.
eS Soe:
Influence of Light on Plants...... 10) 0) 0
Subterraneous Temperature in
MPOTATIG) oacgecs.cs.scccese S foconre a: MOR 0
Coloured Drawings of Railway
SIEQHIOMS sonhs-sscssecenccarqcss sac 15 17 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes of
the Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of Earth-
RIAEH Re esecns sacs <sscesse 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells......... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the
igean and Red Seas.....1842 100 0 0
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology...........- 1842 010 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and
Cornwall ...... gee <Sennnss scene 10. .0. .0
Marine Zoology of Corfu......... 10 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality of
DECOS ses ccacncssccceeeascaseenes 9 3
Experiments on the Vitality of
SeGdS 00.......secererecnece 1842 8 7 3
Exotic Anoplura .......... pang daa eg ULC O
Strength of Materials ......,..... 100 0 0
Completing Experiments on the
Forms of Ships .......- Reeaacoaas 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ......... 10 0
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals ......... 50 0 0
Constant Indicator and Morin’s
Instrument, 1842 .,.......... Se a
£981 12 8
1845.
Publication of the British Associa-
tion Catalogue of Stars ...... wen oe 1G
Meteorological Observations at
BUSEXMIESS We. setcciscsvecsccesccee 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
@PETALION << 5c eceeeesecceces eee 1616 8
Meteorological Instruments ‘at
PR NGTE Ds ssesecoivcstessvicecs. 18 11 9
Reduction of Anemometrical Ob-
servations at Plymouth .,....... 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at Kew
OBservatory cs. ceesee. disses ses a 48 1fyad
Maintaining the Establishment in
Kew Observatory ........... ane 14915 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph...... 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces ..... a a
The Actinograph .........ssesecves 15 0 0
Microscopic Structure of Shells. 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ,........ 1.11843 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds...... Rcteses LOROt coe Un
Vitality of Seeds..............- 1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0
Physiological Actionof Medicines 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and Mor-
PabuvgIN YORK | scsesavesecasnasy. 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ....... 1.1843 15 14 8
£830 9 9
1846.
British Association Catalogue of
BIIES Ge... scnencesecanecveatnl 844, 211 15. 0
xvii
& sx da.
Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1839........ caress Goaeen 0
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ....... spesenas 146 16 7
Strength of Materials....... “AES 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia......... seen? 30-16)" 2
Examination of Fossil Shells...... TO. O..0
Vitality of Seeds '......:2.... 1844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds .......00... 1845 712 3
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain ..... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ....4....+05 1844 25 0 0
Expensesattending Anemometers 11 7 6
Anemometers’ Repairs ..........+. BPS ee
Atmospheric Waves ......+- ceesece 3.3 =3
Captive Balloons ............ 1844 819 3
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7 6 38
Statistics of Sickness and Mor-
taliyginn OTK Piensa -sanh vucsunschey ton uae O
£685 16 0
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1839 .........006 50 0 0
Habits of Marine Animals ..... Pre eee |e
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall ... 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves ...... wescevones Ol: Ol vas
Vitality of Seeds ...scacdececseeese yy (aay |
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .....seeeeeeeee 107 8 6
£208 5 4
1848.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ........ seneces 1s Giese
Atmospheric Waves ............. Seiya
Vitality of Seeds ............- cose oe to 0
Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0
On Colouring Matters ............ 5 0 0
On Growth of Plants....... sacsevauio 10)-i0
$275 | 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at Kew
Observatory) 3205 2.55 00 soseereee 50 0 0
Maintaining Establishment at
Gitte resccess nomtePerccanersaae nt een ea.
Vitality of Seeds ........... espessige Oa Ht. 1 t
On Growth of Plants.......... cans 5.0 0
Registration of Periodical Phe-
WOWDIENA te. .ccasseksases sees LOD GS-0
Bill on account of Anemometrical
Observations anaesc.4% saosnce cane 13). 2.18
£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ......... Peete. Loe G
Transit of Earthquake Waves... 50 0 0
1856.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory :-—
xviii REPORT—1862.
a5
Periodical Phenomena ..........++ 15
Meteorological Instrument,
AZOFeS) cose Pavacsnses Wecticsmckise 25
£345
1851.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (inciudes part
of grantin 1849) .......cseeeee 309
Theory of Heat .........sscccseesees 20
Periodical Phenomena of Animals
ISAM ATITS! os wicis enlaiels aisicmeiaiass 5
Vitality of Seeds ...cc0.....0--s00e 5
Influence of Solar Radiation...... 30
Ethnological Inquiries .....-....+. 12
Researches on Annelida ........- 10
£391
1852.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (including
balance of grant for 1850) ... 233
Experiments on the Conduction
tah Gat te scen secur aaccaunes sss 5
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20
5
Geological Map of Ireland ...... 1
Researches on the British Anne-
Itt Gian OR osgnsaeapenpacecee= eneces 10
Vitality of Seeds ........64. = neering 10
Strength of Boiler Plates ......... 10
£30
1853.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ..........+0006 165
Experiments on the Influence of
Solar Radiation ..........secesses 15
Researches on the British Anne-
IU diner newe coisas gacnteinnaepaeassssles|s 10
Dredging on the East Coast of
Scotland......0 CRESS ARBAB AAAAEASS 10
Ethnological Queries ........4+++ 5
£205
1854.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (including
balance of former grant) ,..... 830 15
mb
oococoac
ajoocoro
oo
oo
1854...... & 75
Heiser No oF ata ae
Strickland’s Ornithological Syno-
NYS ......esccccceccccvevessces eee 100
Dredging and Dredging Forms... 9
Chemical Action of Light ..... eoee OU
Strength of Iron Plates...... sence, LO
Registration of Periodical Pheno-
INENA wos cencemsascnpsueacess ouaene Hora)
Propagation of Salmon ...see.++..- 10
£734
1857.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ccocccsssscteene 350
Earthquake Wave Experiments... 40
Dredging near Belfast ....... saree P10
Dredging on the West Coast of
Ncotlan dic wccsuevewtecweedeewenues 10
Investigations into the Mollusca
of California ......... ooncussnneee 10
Experiments on Flax ...sesceeees 5
Natural History of Madagascar.. 20
Researches on British Annelida 25
Report on Natural Products im-
ported into Liverpool ......... 10
Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10
Temperature of Mines ..........+. 7
Thermometers for Subterranean
ODSETVALIONS coc c<esessqscncouncsumee
Life-Boats ......seesecene ARoero
1858.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ses.ssseeeereee 500
Earthquake Wave Experiments.. 25
Dredging on the West Coast of
Scotland cascsesersesseeeess Poo
Dredging near Dublin seieiSelexens 5
Vitality of Seeds .........000- rete tt
Dredging near Belfast .........+ aia 18
Report on the British Annelida... 25
Experiments on the production
of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20
aie il
o
Loe ooo ooco
onooo oo
o
Investigations eeycesc ee
i i ees ta wae as Report on the Natural Products
WYTOUGHENTON “Sescsec.acssceac . 10 imported into;Sealannd i cae an eae
Registration of Periodical Phe- eas a
NOMENA «sssseceeeeeereeeseesneree 10° 50550 1859.
British PATINEMLAR) lecesceatcuaseasaas 10 0 0} Maintaining the Establishment at
Vitality of Seeds ....ssseseeesseees fife ies] Kew Observatory .....:e00.000. 500 0 0
Conduction of Heat sesseeeseceeses 4 2 0] Dredging near Dublin ........ vases wh. Oat ue
£380 19 7 | Osteology of Birds.........- socoteee, 0 OTe
1855 Trish Tunicata ........ccccsssssne 8 0 0
Maintaining the Establishment at ene a roiee) ae “4 ! 7
- Kew Observatory eenobonbacecuee Boa 0) teedeine Coniities ne 5 0 0
arthquake Movements ......... 10 900.1] aie Janeet a! pentocianne eae yal ea
Physical Aspect of the Moon...... 11 8 5 Marine Fauna of South and) West
Magy) of Sarde cadianeanutin eee neo we Olea, ee crt tana ; 10 0 0
ye 2 Je Hons 3 Pan sere pte a. © Photographic Chemistry ...... woo eLO Oa
thnological Queries .....,...44 Sr Oh Ol Th eeicehive ences 200 01
Dredging near Belfast .,........-+ PO ON aca Neca Sag aay
Tide oF settee on
GENERAL STATEMENT.
1860. SS. 8 a.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory.......0.. 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast............. 16 6 0
Dredging in Dublin Bay....... seoaecae> OO
Inquiry into the Performance of
Steam-vessels......+ .. 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow Sand-
stone of Dura Den..........++++ 20 0 0
Chemico-mechanical Analysis of
Rocks and Minerals............ 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of
BMMUMirihccisessscscssvessocssecsss, 10° 0 0
Researches on the Solubility of
SeMtntttestcissssserccescesterensss, 00 Or O
Researches on the Constituents
Of Manure o0.....s.s.ecccacseeseee 25. 0 O
Balance of Captive Balloon Ac-
COUNES, : ceccccccccccersccccoeccsees 113 6
HL241 570
ee et
1861.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory ............ 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments,........ 25 0 0
Dredging North and East Coasts
OF Scotland......ccccccsscsssocree 23 O O
Dredging Committee :—
1860...... £50 0 0
1861 ...... £22 0 at tae Se
Excavations at Dura Den......... 20 0 0
Solubility of Salts......... eet 20 OU
Steam-vessel Performance ...... 150 0 0
Fossils of Lesmahago ......0... 15 0 0
Explorations at Uriconium ,,.... 20 0 0
Chemical Alloys ........0... 20 0 0
Classified Index to the Transac-
FIONS cyeerersserrecccesesceseveeene 100 0 0
xlix
G 8d
Dredging in the Mersey and Dee 5 0 0
Dip Circlesesuses..scsccsscccstgenese 30 0) 0
Photoheliographic Observations 50 0 0
Prison’ Diet “sc.ccccccvccscresscoeese' 20 0 O
Gauging Of. Water, isle Wecadtheas 10 0 O
Alpine Ascents ....sccccccsssresssee 6 5 1
Constituents of Manures ....,.... 25 0 O
£1111 5 10
——_——
1862.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory sse.ee.000.. 500 0 0
Patent Laws ......... etaiadsensae’ cite) On
Mollusca of N.-W. America.... 10 0 0
Natural History by Mercantile
Marine? ...0-sesseerses weeccccoees 5 0 0
Tidal Observations .....sse000048 25 0 0
Photoheliometer at Kew ......... 40 0 0
Photographic Pictures of the Sun 150 0 0
Rocks of Donegal............0.08. 25 0 0
Dredging Durham and North-
umberland o...,...+008 cosceeees 25 0 0
Connexion of Storms......... eaten a 20) 0170
Dredging North-East Coast of
Scotland. ..:cvcbsscvecsensesseusses (6. 9) 6
Ravages of Teredo .........0-.. 311 O
Standards of Electrical Resistance 50 0 O
Railway Accidents ..........++++. 10 0 0
Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 O
Dredging Dublin Bay ............ 10 0 0
Dredging the Mersey ............ 5 0 0
PYISGH DICE oncccsnccseacapenaenseais 20 0 O
Gaping of Water.....0...0.2c.095- 1210 0
Steamships’ Performance.,....... 150 0 0
Thermo-Electric Currents ...... 5 0 0
£1293 16 6
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur-
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re-
mains disposable on each grant.
Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso-
ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be
ordered by the General Committee.
In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call
on the Treasurer, William Spottiswoode, Esq., 19 Chester Street, Belgrave
Square, London, 8.W., for such portion of the sum granted as may from time
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the members.
In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua-
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may
remain unpaid on ‘the former grant for the same object. |
to time be required.
|
| 1862,
d
1 REPORT—1862.
General Meetings.
On Wednesday Evening, October 1, at 8 p.m, in the New Assembly Room,
Guildhall, William Fairbairn, Esq., F.R.S., resigned the office of President
to the Rey. R. Willis, M.A., F.R.S., who took the Chair, and delivered an
Address, for which see page li.
On Thursday Evening, October 2, at 8 p.m., in the New Assembly Room,
Guildhall, Professor Tyndall, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on the Forms and
Action of Water.
On Friday Evening, October 3, at 8 p.u., a Soirée, with Experiments, took
place in the New Assembly Rooms.
On Monday Evening, October 5, at 8 p.m., Dr. Odling, F.R.S., delivered a
Discourse on Organic Chemistry.
On Tuesday Evening, October 6, at 8 p.m., a Soirée, with Microscopes,
took place in the New Assembly Rooms.
On Wednesday, October 7, at 3 p.m., the concluding General Meeting took
place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the Grants of
Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the Members.
The Meeting was then adjourned to Newcastle-on-Tyne*.
* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, August 26, 1863.
ADDRESS
BY
THE REV. R. WILLIS, M.A., F.R.S.,
Jacksonian Professor, &c,
GENTLEMEN OF THE British Assocration,—I have the honour to announce to
you that we are now opening the Thirty-second Meeting of the British Asso-
ciation, and are for the third time assembled in this University.
At its first coming hither in 1833 its organization was scarce completed, its
first Meeting having been devoted to explanations, discussions, and allotment
of work to willing labourers ; its second Meeting, to the reception of the first
instalment of those admirable preliminary Reports which served as the founda-
tion of its future labours, and to the division of scientific communications to
the Sectional Committees.
But it was at Cambridge that the original plan of the Association bore fruit,
by the receipt of the first paper which contained the results of experiments
instituted expressly at the request of the Association. The success of the
Association was now confirmed by the number of compositions and annual
subscriptions paid in, and by the help of these funds a most important measure
was introduced, namely, the practice of granting, in aid of philosophical
researches to be undertaken by individuals or committees at the request of
the Association, sums of money to meet the outlay required for apparatus or
other expenses, which could not be asked from persons who were otherwise
willing to devote their time to the advancement of science. It was at Cam-
bridge that the importance and authority of the Association had become so
manifest, that the first of its applications for Government assistance towards
scientific objects was immediately complied with by a grant of £500 to reduce
the Greenwich Observations of Bradley and Maskelyne. At the third Meeting
improvements were made in the distribution of the Sciences to the Sections,
and a Section of Statistics added. The only change in this respect that was
subsequently found necessary was the establishment of a separate Section for
Mechanical Science applied to the Arts, in 1837. The employment of alpha~
betical letters to distinguish the Sections had been introduced in 1835.
I have said enough to claim for the Cambridge Meeting the honour of com-
“ha the development of the Association; and I may be permitted to quote
m our fourth Report the gratifying assurance, that so obvious was the
utility of the proposed undertaking, that, in its very infancy, there were found
several distinguished individuals, chiefly from the University of Cambridge,
who volunteered to undertake some of the most valuable of those Reports
which appeared in the first volume of the Proceedings.
» With a mixture of regret and shame I confess, that although my name is
enrolled in the honourable list of those who undertook Reports, it will be
d2
hii REPORT—1862.
sought in vain amongst those who promptly performed their promises. Yet
I may be permitted to say that I still hope to be enabled at some future time
to complete the Report on Acoustics, of which I delivered merely an oral
sketch at the second Meeting of the Association, in 1832.
The Association quitted Cambridge to pursue, with its matured organization,
and with continually increasing stability and influence, the career of brilhant
and useful labours in every branch of Science that it has never ceased to run
during the two-and-thirty years that have elapsed since its foundation. It
revisited Cambridge after an interval of twelve years, in 1845; and now, after
a lapse of seventeen years, we have the high gratification of welcoming once
more the Association to this scene of its early meetings.
This appears a fitting occasion for a concise review of the leading principles
and prominent labours of the body.
Scientific Societies, as usually constituted, receive and publish papers which
are offered to them by individuals, but do not profess to suggest subjects for
them, or to direct modes of investigation, except in some cases by offering
prizes for the best Essay in some given branch.
This Association, on the contrary, is not intended to receive and record
individual originality. Its motto is, suéGESTION AND COOPERATION, and its
purpose is thus to advance science by cooperation, in determinate lines of
direction laid down by suggestion.
To give form and authority to this principle, the admirable conception of
suggestive Reports was in the first place developed; a collection that should
constitute a general survey of the Sciences as they stood at the foundation of
the Association, each branch reported by some member who had already shown
his devotion to the cultivation of it by his own contribution to its advance-
ment, and each Report passing in review its appointed subject, not for the
purpose of teaching it, but of drawing forth the obscure and weak places of
our knowledge of it, and thus to lay down the determinate lines of direction
for new experimental or mathematical researches, which it was the object of
the Association to obtain.
The requests for these Reports were zealously responded to, and so rapidly
that at the second Meeting ten were received, and at the third eight others.
In this manner in fiye or six years the cycle of the Sciences was well nigh
exhausted ; but the series of such Reports has been maintained in succeeding
years, even to the present time, by the necessity of supplemental Reports, to
point out not merely the advances of each science already treated, but the
new lines of direction for inquiry that develope themselves at every step in
advance.
The Reports thus described were entitled “On the progress and desiderata
of the respective branch of Science,” or “ On the state of our knowledge re-
specting such Science,” and must be considered as merely preparations for
the great work for which the Association was formed. They constitute the
suggestive part of the scheme: the cooperative mechanism by which each
new line of research recommended in the Reports was to be explored, was
energetically set in motion by the annual appointment of Committees or indi-
viduals to whom these especial investigations were respectively assigned, with
adequate sums at their disposal.
These Committees were requested to report their labours from year to year,
and thus a second set of documents have been produced, entitled “‘ Reports of
Researches undertaken at the request of the Association,” which are entirely
distinct from the “suggestive Reports,’ but immediately derived from them,
and complementary to them,
ADDRESS. lit
Such is a concise view of the system at first laid down by the wisdom of
our founders, and which, with some modifications, has produced the inestimable
contents of our printed volumes. In practice the ‘‘suggestive Report” is
often a paper contributed by some able investigator to some meeting of the
Association, which produces a request from the body that he will pursue his
researches with their sanction and assistance, and write a Report comple-
mentary to his own suggestions.
Again, although we did not profess to receive and publish individual re-
searches, the number of these received at each meeting is very great; the
merit of some of them so eminent, that they are authorized to be printed
entire amongst the Reports; and the Notices and Abstracts of the remainder,
which at first occupied a small proportional part of each volume, now occupy
nearly half of it.
I will now direct your attention to the principal objects to which our funds
have been directed.
To appreciate the value of an investigation by the money it costs, may ap-
pear at first sight a most unworthy test, although it be a thoroughly British
view of the subject.
But there are undoubtedly a great number of most important inquiries in
science that are arrested, not for want of men of zeal and ability to carry them
out, but because from their nature they require an outlay of money beyond
the reach of the labourers who ardently desire to give their time and thoughts
to them, and because the necessity and value of the proposed investigation are
wholly unappreciable by that portion of society who hold the purse-strings.
But it is in the cases above alluded to of expensive investigation that the
direct use and service of our body has been made the most manifest. The
British Association holds its own purse-strings, and can also perfectly under-
_ stand when they should be relaxed. Nay, more, by its influence and cha-
racter, established by the disinterested labours and successful exertions of
more than thirty years, it may be said to command the national funds; for
the objects in aid of which Government assistance has been requested, have
been so judiciously chosen, that such applications have very rarely been un-
successful, but have been, on the contrary, most cordially acceded to.
Indeed it may be observed, that from the period of the foundation of the
Association the Government of this country has been extending its patronage
of Science and the Arts. We may agree with the assertion of our founder,
Sir David Brewster, in supposing that this change was mainly effected by the
interference of this Association and by the writings and personal exertions of
its members.
For the above reasons it appears to me that by a concise review of the
principal objects to which the funds of our body have been applied, and of
_ those which its influence with the Government has forwarded, we obtain a
measure of the most important services of the British Association.
But in considering the investigations carried out by committees or indi-
vidual members by the help of the funds of the Association, it must always
be remembered that their labours, their time and thoughts, are all given
gratuitously.
One of the most valuable gifts to Science that has proceeded from our
Association is the series of its printed Reports, now extended to thirty volumes.
Yet these must not be supposed to contain the complete record even of the
labours undertaken at the request and at the expense of the body. Many of
these have been printed in the volumes of other societies, or in a separate
form, Several, unhappily, remain in manuscript, excluded from the public
by the great expense of publication,
liv REPORT—1862.
Tam the more induced to direct attention to this’great work at present because
I hold in my hand the first printed sheets of a general Index to the series
from 1831 to 1860, by which the titles and authors of the innumerable
Memoirs upon eyery possible scientific subject, which are so profusely but
promiscuously scattered through its eighteen thousand pages, are reduced to
order, and reference to them rendered easy. This assistance is the more
necessary because so many inyestigations have been continued with inter-
missions through many years, and the labour of tracing any given one of them
from its origin to its termination through the series of volumes is extremely
perplexing.
For this invaluable key to the recorded labours of the Association we are
indebted to Professor Phillips, and the prospect of its speedy publication may
be hailed as a great subject of congratulation to every member of our body.
In eyery annual yolume there is a table of the sums which have been paid
from the beginning on account of grants for scientific purposes. The amount
of these sums has now reached £20,000; and an analysis of the objects to
which this expenditure is directed will show that if we divide this into eighteen
parts, it will appear, speaking roughly, that the Section of Mathematics and
Physics has received twelve of these parts, namely two-thirds of the whole
sum, the Sections of Geology and Mechanical Science two parts each, while
one part has been given to the Section of Botany and Zoology, and one divided
among the Sections of Chemistry, Geography, and Statistics.
The greater share assigned to the first Section is sufficiently accounted for
by the number and nature of the subjects included in it, which require innu-
merable and expensive instruments of research, observatories, and expeditions
to all parts of the globe.
If we examine the principal subjects of expenditure, we find, in the first
place, that more than £1800 was expended upon the three Catalogues of Stars,
namely, the noble Star Catalogue, which bears the name of the British Asso-
ciation, commenced in 1837, and completed in eight years, and the Star
Catalogues from the observations of Lalande and Lacaille, commenced in 1835
and 1838, and reduced at the expense of the British Association, but printed
at the expense of Her Majesty’s Government. £150 was applied principally
to the determination of the Constant of Lunar Nutation, under the direction
of Dr. Robinson, in 1857, and to several other minor Astronomical objects.
At the very first Meeting at York, the perfection of Tide Tables, Hourly
Meteorological Observations, the Temperature of the atmosphere at increasing
heights, of Springs at different depths, and observations on the Intensity of
Terrestrial Magnetism, were suggested as objects to which the nascent organi-
zation of the Association might be directed.
Its steady perseverance, increasing power and influence as successive years
rolled on, is marked by the gradual carrying out of these observations, so as
to embrace nearly the whole surface of the globe.
Thus, under the direction of Dr. Whewell, a laborious system of observations,
obtained by the influence and reduced at the expense of the Association, who
aided this work with a sum of about £1300, has determined the course of the
Tide-wave in regard to the coasts of Europe, of the Atlantic coast of the
United States, of New Zealand, and of the east coast of Australia, Much
additional information has been since collected by the Admiralty through
various surveying expeditions; but it appears that much is still wanting to
complete our knowledge of the subject, which can only be obtained by a vessel
specially employed for the purpose.
More than £2000 haye been allotted to Meteorology and Magnetism, for
the construction of instruments, and the carrying out of series of observations
ADDRESS. ly
and surveys in connexion with them. To this must be added a sum of between
£5000 and £6000 for the maintenance of Kew Observatory, of which more
anon, The advance made in these important sciences, through the labours
of the Committees of the British Association, may be counted among the
principal benefits it has conferred.
To the British Association is due, and to the suggestion of General Sabine,
the first survey ever made for the express purpose of determining the positions
and values of the three Isomagnetic Lines corresponding to a particular epoch
over the whole face of a country or state.
This was the Magnetic Survey of the British Islands, executed from 1834
to 1838, by a Committee of its members, General Sabine, Prof. Phillips, Sir
J. Ross, Mr. Fox, and Mr. Lloyd, acting upon a suggestion brought before
the Cambridge Meeting in 1833. It was published partly in the volume for
1838, and partly in the Philosophical Transactions for 1849. This was
followed by a recommendation from the Association to Her Majesty’s Govern-
ment, for the equipment of a naval expedition to make a magnetic survey in
the southern portions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. This recom-
mendation, concurred in by the Royal Society, gave rise to the voyage of Sir
James Clark Ross in the years 1839 to 1843. In a similar manner was sug-
gested and promoted the magnetic survey of the British possessions in North
America, authorized by the Treasury in 1841; the completion of the magnetic
survey of Sir James Ross, by Lieutenant Moore and Lieutenant Clark in 1845,
in a vessel hired by the Admiralty; the magnetic survey of the Indian Seas,
by Captain Elliot, in 1849, at the expense of the Directors of the East India
Company ; and the magnetic survey of British India, commenced by Captain
Elliot in 1852, and completed between 1855 and 1858 by Messrs. Schlagint-
weit. Finally, in 1857 the British Association requested the same gentlemen
who had made the survey of the British Islands in 1837, to repeat it, with a
view to the investigation of the secular changes of the magnetic lines. This
has been accomplished, and its results are printed in the new volume for 1861*.
The Association also, aided by the Royal Society, effected the organization
in 1840 of the system of simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Obser-
yatories, established as well by our own Government as by the principal foreign
Governments at different points of the earth’s surface, which have proved so
eminently successful, and have produced results fully equalling in importance
and value, as real accessions to our knowledge, any anticipations that could
have been formed at the commencement of the inquiry?.
- General Sabine, whose labours have so largely contributed to these inves-
tigations, has given to the University an admirable exposition of the results
during the present year, in the capacity of Sir Robert Rede’s Lecturer.
In 1854, in consequence of representations originating with the British.
Association, our Government created a special department, in connexion with
the Board of Trade, under Admiral FitzRoy, for obtaining Hydrographical and.
Meteorological observations at sea, after the manner of those which had been
for some years before collected by the American Government at the instance
and under the direction of Lieut. Maury.
Observations on the wind have been carried on by means of the various
self-registering Anemometers of Dr. Whewell, Mr. Osler, Dr. Robinson, and
Mr. Beckley, which instruments have been improved, tested, and thoroughly
brought into practice by the fostering care of our body; and by the aid of
its funds, experiments have been made on the subterranean temperature of
deep mines; and on the temperature and other properties of the Atmosphere
* Vide volume for 1859, p. xxxvii. + Report, 1858, p. 298.
lvi REPORT—1862.
at great heights by means of Balloon Ascents. Four of these were made in
1852, in which heights between nineteen and twenty thousand feet were
reached. But in the present year Mr. Glaisher has attained an altitude of
nearly thirty thousand feet. We may hope that some account of this daring
achievement, and its results to science, may be laid before the Association at
its present Meeting.
Earthquake shocks were registered in Scotland by a Committee of the
Association, from 1841 to 1844; and Mr. Mallet commenced, in 1847, a most
valuable series of Reports on the Facts and Theory of Earthquake Phenomena
from the earliest records to our own time, which have graced our volumes
even to the one last published.
One of the most remarkable and fruitful events in our history, in relation
to Physical observations, is the grant by Her Majesty, in 1842, of the Obser-
vatory erected at Kew by King George the Third, which had been long standing
useless. It gave to the Society a fixed position, a depository for instruments,
papers, and other property, when not employed in scientific inquiry, and a
place where Members of the Association might prosecute various researches,
This establishment has been, during the twenty years of its existence, gradually
moulded into its present condition of a most valuable and unique establishment
for the advancement of the Physical Sciences.
After the first few years its existence was seriously perilled, for in 1845
the expediency of discontinuing this Observatory began to be entertained ;
but upon examination, it then appeared that the services to science already
rendered by this establishment, and the facilities it afforded to Members of
the Association for their inquiries, were so great as to make it most desirable
to maintain it. Again, in 1848, the burthen of continuing this Observatory
in a creditable state of efficiency pressed so heavily upon the funds of the Asso-
ciation, then in a declining state, that the Council actually recommended its
discontinuance from the earliest practical period. This resolution was hap-
pily arrested.
In 1850 the Kew Committee reported that the Observatory had given to
science self-recording instruments for electrical, magnetical, and meteorolo-
gical phenomena, already of great value, and certainly capable of great further
improvement; and that if merely maintained as an Ewperimental Observatory,
devoted to open out new physical inquiries and to make trial of new modes
of research, but only in a few selected cases to preserve continuous records of
passing phenomena, a moderate annual grant from the funds of the Associa-
tion would be sufficient for this most valuable establishment for the adyance-
ment of the Physical Sciences.
In this year it fortunately happened that Lord J. Russell granted to the
Royal Society the annual sum of £1000 for promoting scientific objects, out
of which the Society allotted £100 for new instruments to be tried at Kew,
—the first of a series of liberal grants which have not only very greatly con-
tributed to the increasing efficiency of the establishment, but haye ensured
its continuance. It now contains a workshop fitted with complete tools, and
a lathe and planing machine, &c. by which apparatus can be constructed and
repaired, and a dividing engine for graduating standard thermometers, all
presented by the Royal Society. The work done, besides the maintenance
of a complete set of self-recording magnetographs, established in 1857, at
the expense of £250, by the Royal Society, consists in the construction and
verification of new apparatus and in the verification of magnetic, meteorolo-
gical and other instruments, sent for that purpose by the makers. For ex-
ample, all the barometers, thermometers, and hydrometers required by the
ADDRESS. lvii
Board of Trade and Admiralty are tested, standard thermometers are gra-
duated, magnetic instruments are constructed, and their constants determined
for foreign and colonial observatories, and sextants are also verified.
An example of its peculiar functions is given in the very last Report (1861),
where it appears that an instrument contrived by Professor William Thom-
son, of Glasgow, for the photographic registration of the electric state of the
atmosphere, has been constructed by Mr. Beckley in the workshop of this
Observatory, with mechanical arrangements devised by himself, and that it
has been in constant and successful operation for some time. Those who
have experienced the difficulty of procuring the actual construction of appa-
ratus of this kind devised by themselves, and the still greater difficulty of
conveniently carrying out the improvements and alterations required to per-
fect it when brought into use, will agree that the scientific importance and
utility of an establishment cannot be overrated, in which under one roof are
assembled highly skilled persons not only capable of making and setting to
’ work all kinds of instruments for philosophical research, but also of gradually
altering and improving them, as experience may dictate.
The creation of this peculiar Observatory must be regarded as one of the
triumphs of the British Association.
As far as the Association is concerned, its maintenance has absorbed be-
tween five and six thousand pounds, the annual sum allotted to it from our
funds having for each of the last six years reached the amount of £500.
The construction of the Photoheliograph may be also quoted as an ex-
ample of the facilities given by this establishment for the developing and
perfecting of new instruments of observation.
A suggestion of Sir John Herschel in 1854, that daily photographs of the
sun should be made, has given birth to this remarkable instrument, which at
first bore the name of the Solar Photographic Telescope, but is now known
as the Kew Photoheliograph. It was first constructed under the direction
of Mr. De la Rue by Mr. Ross. The British Association aided in carrying
out this work by assigning the dome of the Kew Observatory to the instrument,
and by its completion in 1857 in their workshops by Mr. Beckley the as-
sistant; but the expense of its construction was supplied by Mr. Oliveira,
amounting to £180. This instrument was conveyed to Spain under the care
of Mr. De la Rue on occasion of the eclipse in 1860, who most successfully
accomplished the proposed object by its means, and it was replaced at Kew
on his return. But to carry on the daily observations for which it was con-
structed requires the maintenance of an assistant, for which the funds of the
Association are inadequate, although it has already supplied more than £200
for that purpose. Mr. De la Rue, in consequence of the presence of the
Heliograph at Kew being found to interfere with the ordinary work of the
establishment, has kindly and generously consented to take charge for the
present of the instrument ‘and of the observations, at his own Observatory,
where celestial photography is carried on. But it is obvious that the
continuation of these observations for a series of years, which is neces-
sary for obtaining the desired results, cannot be hoped for unless funds are
provided.
I cannot conclude ‘this sketch of the objects in the Physical Section to
which the funds of the Association have been principally devoted, without
alluding to Mr. Scott Russell’s valuable experimental investigations on the
motion and nature of waves, aided by £274.
If we now turn to Geology we find £2600 expended, of which £1500 were
employed in the completion of the Fossil Ichthyology of Agassiz, and upon
lyili REPORT—1862.
Owen’s Reports on Fossil Mammalia and Reptiles, with some other researches
on Fossils.
The remainder was principally devoted to the surveys and measurement,
in 1838, of a level line for the purpose of determining the permanence of the
relative level of sea and land, and the mean level of the Ocean; and to the
procuring of drawings of the geological sections exposed in railroad operations
before they are covered up—a work which was carried on from 1840 to 1844,
when the drawings were deposited in the Museum of Practical Geology, and
the further continuance of it handed over to the geological surveyors of that
establishment.
£2300 have been devoted to the carrying out of various important experi-
mental investigations in relation to the Section of Mechanical Science.
Of this sum £900 were paid between 1840 and 1844, in aid of a most
important and valuable series of experiments on the Forms of Vessels, prin-
cipally conducted by Mr. Scott Russell, in connexion with the experiments
on Waves. ‘This investigation was ready for press in 1844, but it is greatly
to be regretted that the great expense of printing and engraving it has
hitherto prevented its publication.
Nearly the same sum has given to us various interesting and instructive
experiments and facts relating to steam-engines and steam-vessels, carried
on by different Committees from 1838 to the present time; amongst which
may be especially noted the application of the Dynamometric instruments of
Morin, Poncelet, and Moseley, to ascertain the Duty of Steam-engines, from
1841 to 1844.
Experiments on the Strength of Materials, the relative strength of Hot and
Cold Blast Iron, the effect of Temperature on their tensile strength, and on the
effect of Concussion and Vibration on their internal constitution, carried on
principally by our late President and by the late Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson, at
different intervals from 1838 to 1856, have been aided by grants amounting
to £400.
The remainder of the sum above mentioned was principally devoted to the
experimental determination of the value of Railway Constants, by Dr. Lardner
and a Committee in 1838 and 1841.
The Section of Botany, Zoology, and Physiology has absorbed about £1400,
of which nearly £900 have been applied to Zoology, partly for the expense
of Dredging Committees for obtaining specimens of Marine Zoology on our
own coasts and in the Mediterranean and other localities—whose useful labours
have been regularly reported from 1840 to 1861—but principally for zoolo-
gical researches in different districts and countries. ’
In Botany may be remarked the labours of a Committee, consisting of
Professors Daubeny and Henslow and others, formed in 1840, to make expe-
riments on the preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds; who continued
their work for sixteen successive years, reporting annually, and assisted by a
sum of £100. The greatest age at which the seeds experimented upon was
found to vegetate was about forty years.
Another Committee, with Mr. Hunt, was engaged during seven years, from
1841, in investigating the influence of coloured light on the germination of
seeds and growth of plants.
These are specimens of the admirable effect of the organization of our Asso~
ciation in stimulating and assisting with the funds the labours of investi-
gators in new branches of experimental inquiry.
It would occupy too much time to particularize a variety of interesting
researches in the remaining sections of Chemistry and in the sections of
ADDRESS. - lix
Statistics, Geography, and Ethnology, to which small sums have been as-
signed.
The newly issued Report of our Manchester Meeting is admirably calcu-
lated to maintain the reputation of the Association. Besides a number of
excellent Reports which are the continuation of researches already published
in our yolumes, it contains elaborate and important Reports by Mr. Stewart
on the Theory of Exchanges in Heat; by Dr. Smith and Mr. Milner on
Prison Diet and Discipline ; by Drs. Schunck, Angus Smith, and Roscoe on
the progress of Manufacturing Chemistry in South Lancashire ; Mr. Hunt on
the Acclimatization of Man; Dr. Sclater and M. Hochstetter on the Apteryx
of New Zealand ; Professor Phillips and Mr. Birt on the Physical Aspect of
the Moon. Professor Owen contributes a most interesting paper on the
Natives of the Andaman Islands. The President of the Royal Society re-
ports the Repetition Magnetic Survey of England ; and Mr. Fairbairn, our late
President, reports on the Resistance of Iron-Plate Pressure and Impact.
_ The Transactions of the Sections occupy nearly as much space as the
Reports, and are replete with valuable and original matter, which it would
be impossible to particularize.
Many of my predecessors in their Addresses have alluded to the most
striking advances that have been made in the various sciences since the last
Meeting; I will mention a few of these in Astronomy, Chemistry, and
Mechanics. :
In Astroyomy, M. Delaunay has communicated to the Academy of Sciences
of Paris the results of his long series of calculations in the Lunar Theory,
destined to fill two volumes of the Memoirs of the Academy, The first volume
was published in 1861; the printing of the other is not yet begun. This
theory gives the expressions for the three coordinates of the moon under an
analytic form, and carries those for longitude and latitude to terms of the
seventh order inclusive, that of Plana extending generally only to terms of
the fifth order. The addition of two orders has required the calculation of
1259 new terms for the longitude, and 1086 new terms for the latitude. It
was by having recourse to a new process of calculation, by which the work was
broken up into parts, that M. Delaunay has been able to advance the calcu-
lation of the lunar inequalities far beyond the limits previously reached.
The Earl of Rosse has given to the Royal Society (in a paper read June 20,
1861) some further account of researches in Sidereal Astronomy carried
on with a Newtonian telescope of six-feet clear aperture. These researches
are prefaced by an account of the process by which the six-feet specula were
made, a description of the mounting of the instrument, and some considera-
tions relative to the optical power it is capable of. A selection from the
observations of nebulz is given in detail, illustrated by drawings, which con-
vey an exact idea of the bizarrerie and astonishing variety of form exhibited
by this class of cosmical bodies,
Argelander, the eminent director of the Observatory at Bonn, is carrying
on with great vigour the publication of his Atlas of the Stars of the Northern
‘Heavens within 92° of Polar Distance. A large portion of this enormous
work is completed, and two volumes, containing the data from observation
for the construction of the Charts, were recently published. These volumes
contain the approximate places of 216,000 stars situated between the parallels
of 2° south declination and 41° north declination.
Simultaneously with the construction of Star-charts, among which those
of M. Chacornac of the Paris Observatory deserve particular mention, addi-
tions have been made to the number of the remarkable group of small planets
lx REPORT—1862.
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, their discovery being facilitated by
the use of charts. The last announced, which is No. 74 of the Series, was
discovered on the morning of Sept. 1 of this year, by M. Luther of Bilk, near
Diisseldorf, whose diligence has been rewarded by the discovery of a large
number of others of the same group.
The present year has been signalized by the unexpected appearance of a
comet of unusual brightness, which, although its tail was far from being as
conspicuous as those of the comets of 1858 and 1861, exhibited about its
nucleus phenomena of a distinct and remarkable character, the records of
which may possibly at some future time aid in the discovery of the nature of
that mysterious action by which the gaseous portion of these erratic bodies
is so strangely affected.
On an application made by the Council of the Royal Astronomical Society,
Government has granted £1000 for the establishment, during a limited period,
under the superintendence of Captain Jacob, of an Observatory at a consi-
derable altitude above the level of the sea, in the neighbourhood of Bombay.
The interesting results of the ascent by Professor Piazzi Smyth a few years
since of the Peak of Teneriffe, for the purpose of making astronomical and
physical observations, suggested to the President and Council of the Society
the desirableness of taking this step.
In Cuemisrry, the greatest advance which has been made during the past
year is probably the formation of compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen by the
direct union of those elements. M. Berthelot has succeeded in producing
some of the simpler compounds of carbon and hydrogen by the action of carbon
intensely heated by electricity or hydrogen gas; and from the simpler com-
pounds thus formed he is able to produce, by a succession of steps, compounds
more and more complex, until he bids fair to produce from inorganic sources
all the compounds of carbon and hydrogen which have hitherto been only
known as products of organic origin. Mr. Maxwell Simpson has also added
to his former researches a step in the same direction, producing some organic
products by a synthetical process. But these important researches will be
fully laid before you in the lecture on Organic Chemistry which Dr. Odling
has kindly promised for Monday evening next.
Dr. Hofmann has continued his indefatigable researches on Poly-ammo-
nias, as well as on the colouring matters produced from coal-tar. M. Schle-
sing proposes a mode of preparing chlorine by a continuous process, which
may perhaps become important in a manufacturing point of view. In this
process nitric acid is made to play the same kind of part that it does in the
manufacture of sulphuric acid, the oxides of nitrogen acting together with
oxides of manganese as carriers of oxygen from the atmosphere to the hydro-
chloric acid.
The methods of dialysis announced last year by the Master of the Mint,
and of spectrum analysis are now in everybody’s hands, and haye already pro-
duced many interesting results.
In Crvit or Mucuantcat Enetnerrtne there is nothing very new.
The remarkable series of experiments carried on at Shoeburyness and else-
where have developed many most interesting facts and laws in relation to
the properties of iron, and its resistance to projectiles at high velocities,
which will doubtless be fully laid before you at some future period; but in
the present imperfect state of the investigation, and in consideration of the
purpose of that investigation, prudential reasons forbid the complete publi-
cation of the facts. My able predecessor in this Chair, who has taken so pro-
minent a part in these experiments, has given an account of some of the
ADDRESS. Ixi
results in a communication to the Royal Institution in May last, and also in
the new volume for 1861; and is, as he informs me, engaged with a long
series of experiments on this subject, which, with his experience and ability,
cannot fail to develope new facts, and will, in all probability, ultimately de-
termine the law of penetration.
In London we may direct attention to the commencement of the Thames
Embankment and to the various works in progress for the concentration of
the Metropolitan Railways; especially to the proximate completion of the
Underground Railway. The lamentable disaster in the Fens of last summer
has been most ably subdued, but the remedial measures adopted are not fully
completed, and the interests involved are of so great a magnitude and com-
plexity, that it is scarcely possible for this event to be discussed on the pre-
sent occasion with due impartiality.
The magnificent collection of machinery in the Great Exhibition shows a
great advance in construction; but this is not the proper occasion to enter in
detail into the various contrivances and processes which it displays.
Before I conclude I have the painful duty of reminding you that since our
last meeting we have had to deplore the loss of that most illustrious patron
of science and art, His Royal Highness the Prince Consort, the President of
our Association at Aberdeen and the Chancellor of this University. In the
latter capacity he afforded us many opportunities of observing his scientific
attainments and genuine zeal and love for all branches of knowledge: his
gracious kindness and respect to men of science and literature have left an
impression upon us that can never be effaced.
I must also ask a tribute to the memory of our late Professors of Chemistry
and Botany, both of whom have done in their lifetime excellent good service
to science, and especially to the British Association ; Professor Cumming by
contributing one of the invaluable primary Reports upon which our proceedings
were based, as well as other communications; Professor Henslow by various
Reports, some of which I have already alluded to. We have had also to
lament the loss of that able scientific navigator, Sir J. Clark Ross.
It remains for me to express my sense of the high and undeserved honour
conferred upon me by the position in which you have placed me, and in the
name of the University to welcome you hither, and wish you a prosperous
and fruitful meeting, alike conducive to the progress of science and impulsive
to its cultivation in the place of your reception,
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REPORTS
ON
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REPORTS
ON
THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861-62. By a
Committee, consisting of James GuatsHer, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Secretary to the British Meteorological Society, &c.; R. P. Gree,
F.G.S. &c.; E. W. Brayuey, F.R.S. &c.; and A. HerscHE..
Tae Committee are indebted to Members of the Association and to other
° observers for a larger number of observations bearing upon individual
meteors than has fallen to their lot to assemble during previous years. They
may be counted as follows:—(A) Meteor 1, July 16th, eight accounts; (B)
meteor 2, July 16th, thirteen accounts; (C) meteor, August 6th, three ac-
counts; (D) meteor, November 12th, eight accounts ; (E) meteor, November
19th, eleven accounts; (F) meteor, December 8th, twenty-eight accounts ;
(G) meteor, February 2nd, 1862, eleven accounts; (H) meteor, February
23rd, 1862, five accounts. Of the small shooting-stars, double observations
only are found. The discussion of these observations follow the Catalogue
in Appendix I.
Eight accounts of one and thirteen of the second of the meteors visible on
the evening of July 16th, 1861, show those of the Duke of Argyll and Mr.
Frost to have been distinct meteors, succeeding each other with an interval
of more than an hour. The accounts are embodied in the present Catalogue,
and the results discussed in Appendix I.
Of the meteor August 6th, a further account from excellent observers in
London, has afforded a good determination ; the accounts and their interpre-
tation are presented in the Catalogue and Appendix I.
Numerous accurate observations of shooting-stars of the 10th August, period
_ 1861, too voluminous for separate insertion in the Catalogue, haye been col-
lected and examined for accordances, and the accordant observations only
entered in the Catalogue, together with individual observations which ap-
_ peared of particular interest from among the entire number; the resalts of
the accordant observations are tabulated in Appendix I,
1862, onan
~
x,
2 REPORT— 1862.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS
| . aE: |
Place of J Position, or
Date. Hour. bservation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. pee bm
1861.|h m
July 16| 9 30 p.m.)/Weston - super -|Large as Venus at Duller than 3or 4 seconds; Exploded when W
Mare. (Also) max. Venus at; moving altitude 45°.
seen in Dor- max. bril-) slowly.
setshire.) liancy.
16| 9 58 p.m. Whitehall, Lon-/Very large ball, but Very brilliant. Slower than Began almost E
don. not quite full. meteors and disappeare/
= usually behind the ©
move ; houses on th
‘“leisurely.”| west side
Whitehall.
16\Exactly 10/Gainford, Darl-|Like Jupiter, seen’.,.......+++....-/Motion not/From 10° below
p-m. ington, York-| in a good tele- rapid. Aquile, throug
shire. scope, but not! the E. to N.E,
exactly spherical. from altitude 30)
to about altitue
20°,
VGheas23 seseeeese|Greenwich and |Kensington. Alrea\dy inserted, |p. 10 ofReport) for 1861 .......++4
16\Soon after |Derby ...........-/ Like a rocket ...... ? ssesceceveeeeee{ndured very|Went N. ........
10 p.m. long, about
16}10 p.m., or
15m. after
10 p.m.
16\Between 10
p-m. and
half-past.
16/About10 40
p-m.
16) ?
Southborough,
Tunbridge- of the ob-| Came from o
wells. server walk-| a wing of #
ing (at call)} house; isa
13 orl4yds.| pearedsome lit
from another} distance aboy
room, saw} the horizon.
the spark
which was
cast off at
the close.
Whitburn, near|Like ball of quick-| ? ....pcsseeeeee, 2 ceeeeceeseeeees|DUC Euseeyeseee sens
Sunderland, silver, or an i
Durhan. enormous star. 4
Furness Abbey,/Threw a strong) ?.,.......+...../Moved very|/From behind ah
Lancashire. light. slowly ; south of
: ; “gracefully”| Abbey; Nort
ward through I
lost behind tree
Penmaen-Mawr, |Very large ......... Ear rcree, es s+... Very slow in/Over the hills |
Conway, N. | its motion,! and S. of Pel
Wales. “quiet and} maen-Vach ; di
?
TORR EEO Ree etter eneee
? ccsesecseeeeeee/A COmpanion|From §.B. to
15 seconds.
deliberate.’’} appeared behit
Penmaen-Va
“ :
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 3
OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
Direction; noting also
Length of | whether Horizontal,
Path. Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
ppearance; Train, if any,
and its Viale. Remarks. Observer.
—
—_—_
|
ite train 8° in length] ? .....,seee../Appeared im the N.We..|,;ccoresssersssceccessceceeses ‘Personal _ac-
attended the nucleus. counts to W.
Burst into sparks which Ii. Wood.
continued 3. seconds,
advancing 10° before
they disappeared.
x a blunted or spread|.
tail 14 or 20 times longer
than the head.
|
ssseseneeeereee/DOWnwards at an angle/Point of observation Charles Reed.
of 25° to the horizon.| was facing the Na-,
tional Gallery, near
the top of Parliament
Street.
hortly before disappear-|About 90°../First horizontal, then!....... Pate Fase roisk veevaees Mrs. E. Addison.
ing threw off a part of declining slightly.
its substance, which
followed it closely like a
lesser luminary till both
were suddenly extin-
guished in a sudden and
peculiar manner in clear
sky. A track of light
endured for some se-
[of Argyll.
TERE LCE akhabeqenanlea cigceande OUNCEERC Ares enddetclegecencccccctuccedegdades alte Howe ; Duke
ppeared in "mid-air, 60° coprecceo{HOFiZONtAl, OF VELY|.qeeeyecesececeagedecpueoneces John Borough.
like a Roman candle slightly "declining at
ball ; but the train which last.
pursued it did not look
exactly like sparks.
ajestic,” Left a track
of light behind it, but
2 seseseseeeee/Came over from the|Open bayrwindow faced|Mrs. Davies.
right of the house,| N.N.E
no sparks till just before descending as a rocket
‘it disappeared, when one in the form of an
arch.
: was cast off from
re
? sesseyeoees. Quite horizontal; from|.:....sssececscesseeseraeeseee{Me Me
left to right.
He) eecsbeswais Horizontal, Or —Very|c.<sagyeveectev dds. seeeesseees |G. H. Chambers.
slightly inclined to-
wards the earth.
Bidens cbeaess: ‘Slightly declining; per-/Point of observation|H. H. Bemyrose.
haps curved down-| upon the sands mid.
wards. way between Pen-
maen-Mawr and Pen-
maen-Vach.
Tea.
4 REPORT—1862.
Date Hour. Place of Apparent Size Colour
: ; Observation. PP ° .
1861.;h m
July 1611 0 p.m.|Bristol .........../Much > than any Clear bluish...|About 14 sec.
planet.
16)114 p.m....|Sittingbourne, |Threw a brilliant/As it neared) ?
Kent. light when high) the horizon
in the heavens,| it assumed
expanding and) a_ beautiful
increasing in| blue colour.
brightness as it
neared the ho-
rizon.
16)114 p.m. ...|Banburv .,.......|Like a toy balloon../Bright —clear| ?
blue
white.
and
1G}11 30 p.m.|Frome .,,eccveeres| 2 sevesesserereneseeers
16|113 p.m, ...|EastIsleyDowns,|Large as a full) ? ...seccevcseeee
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
Duration.
seseesereeeeees/EVODably burst in
view in the
zenith. First
seen high in the
heavens, going
S.W. Lost in
haze of the
horizon.
sessssseesseees(O” above 6 Pegasi;
3° above 8 Aqui-
le; 2° above
Serpentis. Here
houses inter-
vened. Deve
loped the ta
in the last 30°
of the visible
track.
seesseeereseess(Disappeared a few
degrees above
the horizon. {
Appeared near the
Newbury, moon, and more meridian ; disap-
Berks. light. peared behind
cloud.
VGLIZ p.m. ...|BrentwoOd seseee|i2 cchcnsscoccecsscocace| 2 debeeceosrssese] © susovcuuveunten|t. aurecusen sah dvartem
1G\114 p.m, |Cheltenham.,....|? vcscsccesessceesseeee! ? secesesseeeeees{Half aminute;From about 45°
or soon steady and altitude to about
after. | equable. 30° altitude. |
16/11 32 p.m.|Flimwell, Hurst|Like Capella in the,White in (3seconds from Passed in zenith
Green, Sussex.| zenith. Lit up} zenith and] zenithtoex-| between # y Dra-
the clouds like) upon the} plosion. conis ; burst
crescent moon) clouds. about 7 Ophiuchi.
at 45°.
16/11 33 p.m.'Sandown, Isle of|Large signal-rocket) ? ......sesseee0
Wight.
16/11 33 p.m./TavistockSquare,/A sudden lumino-! ? ......
Euston Road,| sity overhead.
London.
seetee
From the zenith,
near a Lyre, td
a few degrees
from the S.W.
horizon. ’
4 seconds from/|First seen 15° south
zenith to| ofzenith; passed
disappear- downwards di-
ance. rect through
Scorpio, and dis-
appeared _ near
the horizon.
tate
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 5
Appearance ; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
No sparks or train. Left
a long clear white streak
for some little time.
Disappeared in haze of the
horizon. At the point;
of disappearance the
stream of light was
visible for 5 minutes
Track very bright, endured, :
3 minutes; like a half
circular mark of phos-
phorus upon a wall.
Track of luminous matter ;
lasted 4 or 5 minutes;
curiously contorted by
degrees, as if by currents
of air. Large body of
sparks thrown off at
_ disappearance.
first emitted sparks; after-
wards a bright train
which endured some
minutes.
? PERTH POP eee reer reeeeeseees
Burst with few sparks./90°
Track at the last visible
some minutes.
Length of | whether Horizontal,
Direction ; noting also
Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer.
Inclined.
15° to 20°\Course from N. to S..../By letter to W. HJ. Ellis.
a
>
>
high. Wood, Weston-super-
Mare.
covsecsevece|WEFtiCAl eseeeseene sostecs|ae Ceegvevcasscesse sssveeseeee/ E's R. Cooper,
SOPe Oeste Passed over from E.to|The curved tail was|John Griffin,
S.W. clearly seen byacom-| M.D.
panion called out of a
house by the observer.
Brightest in the
Milky Way.
>
Cenemplgasvewdll 2. wasidacstasBaccwies Pern Heer esevcccesccsccescsoveoeeee| William Dunn.
seeseseseseeees/LOOK a SOuth-westerly|Saw at least 4 meteors, L. Lousley.
course. of more or less bril-
liancy, from 10310 12
p-m.
Rebevagersccel Watescsacuetee Bans skecsens ta The time distinguishes|J. L. P.
this meteor from that
of 10 p.m.
Sageeeees From tlie Sis t0'S. Wis: |secccscccedareceseresescscose (Jamies Philps.
Inly momentary; sparks|90° sseceeees Nearly vertical to S.W./Overcast W. and S.W.,|F. Howlett and
seen in the zenith;
white, and extending
half D’s diameter to
either side of the
nucleus; not in front
or behind. No track
seen to remain.
Most brilliant track ; visi-
ble for 5 minutes,
Bright train visible several
“Minutes. The lower
_ portion took a crescent
form, the horns drifting
15° or 20° S. into the
Milky Way in 5 minutes
before disappearance.
by W. or S.W. exceptnear the zenith,| A.S. Herschel.
where the meteor was
lost at altitude 70°,
? seseeeeeeeee Nearly vertically down-'The track at first|/W. M. Frost.
wu
wards. straight ; soon curved
opposite to the rising
wind. Portions drifted
fading into the Milky
Way.
serseseeeees Vertically, S.W. «+++... Probably originated in'T, Crumplen and
Andromeda. J. Townsend
(Assistants to
Mr. Slater’s
Observatory,
Euston Road).
sa a
1861.
July 16
16
16
16
Hour.
hm
11 34 p.m.
11 38 p.m.
11 40 p.m.
About } to
12 p.m.
Aug. 4
rs
a
*
=x)
8
8
8
810 11 p.m.
About 10
p-m.
11 37 p.m.
Midnight ...
10 10 p.m.
11 21 p.m.
11 22 p.m.|
10 21 pm.
10 31} p.m.
10 313 p.m.
REPORT—1862.
Place of
West End,Hamp-|Ist maget..cccssssese| 2 seceverdesvenes
stead,
Manchester, Considerably _ex-|Vivid__bluish-
Lat. 53° 29"5,| ceeding 2 in| white.
Long.2°15’W,| _ brilliancy.
>
© C8C Feet ee eTeee
Estimated not
to have ex-
ceeded 2
seconds,
Trafalgar Square,|Equalled in size the| ? ....+.+.sdeeeess
London. great meteor,
11.33 p.m., July
16.
Deal . cscocsseceeeJONd MAG+ ...20000. U, eseccvendsvvesc
Greenwich Ob-|2nd mag.x ......... Blue ....sccoceee
servatory.
Thid-..2<otesassatae Very small ......... Eeeeaes dee hédeses
Wyte Se aessacana: PNOQUNAGN “oosccssoalhh wececocabheesuss
Occupied
seconds
passage.
10
in
Fast motion...
1 to 2 seconds
1 second ......
Very rapid;
2 seconds.
Position, or
Observativh. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Ss A
\Between St. 2 cdicceccdvancssvicoes| 2 cocncscadsadsss|sesstasditavetess-\Otiginated | unde
Albans and the Milky Wa
~ Barnet. below Cassiopei
and __ explode
about the sam
height near th
opposite horizon
Seacombe, Birk-|Much brighter than|Brilliantbluish 10 to 13 secs. From altitude 40
enhead, Che-| Ist mag.x tint. S.E. by E. t
shire. S. by W.
Bristol ......40+«.|Very large ..... Goad sy exendeve Paawees 2 sccvocseceoetss[Altibude 70° . ses.am
Brading Downs,/A ball of fire, in-|Blue.....é..00- 5 or 6 seconds Originated some
Isle of Wight.| tensely brilliant. what nearer td
the horizon,N.E.y
than it attained
before explosion;
5.W.
Bristol ,.....+.....|Very brilliant ....../Deep blue ...\Quick .+esce....From a directior
nearly due N.; if
shot in a westerl
direction toward
the horizon.
Flimwell, Hurst/Like Pleiades, but| ? ss:ecssecccsees| 2 seceeteeveees-| Neat 30 Aquarii ..4)
Green, Sussex.| three times as |
bright. q
Tid. esecsdescoasaes Jtpiter ..cssccssees Draavens éséeeeeee/Moved slowly |Centre 30° E. from
S.; altitude 47°.
From 8° E. of S.¥#
altitude 22° to
10° W. of S.¥
altitude 10°.
Disappeared abo
2° west of the)
star s+ Capri+
corni.
From about « Co
rone to x Ursa
Majoris ; near th
horizon.
From y Draconis...
Through Cassiopeia}
p Cygni to Sagittad
a Cygni to Del-|
phinus.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
\ppéarance ; Train, if any,
va ahd its Duration.
-—
spanned the heavens like
rainbow-arch ; prismatic
momentary sparks were)
first emitted, but beyond)
_the zenith a tail like that
of a falling star was left,
and continued visible
_5 minutes. eC
iike a brilliant blue light.
ery luminous tail visi-
le 8 or 10 seconds ;
barst into fragments ;
luminous for 3 seconds
_ after explosion.
;
F Bebb bseebeeteersbereesereoures
« luminous track became
visible seyeral degrees
before reaching the
nith. Devoid of train
Fore this point. Broad
phosphorescent wake ;
endured 5 minutes.
ht track of silvery! >,,,
ight.
.ppeared to burst .........
‘ SEPT R Ramee eet eeesereeersee
eft a bright track, cigar-
shaped.
jourse bent up rather
suddenly in the middle,
with two maxima of
brightness.
he meteor in its course
appeared to be extin-
uished, and then sud-
enly rekindled. Left a
rain of about 20°, which
sted a few seconds.
[o train or sparks .
eft a small track :........
eft MO MACK ..22..0iceceees.
eft a small track i.....00.
Direction ; noting also
Length of | whether Horizontal
Path. Perpendicular, or ‘ Remarks.
Inclined.
About 140°/About B. to W., almost|The sparks in the first
half of the course did
overhead.
not pass away imme-
diately.
was intlined 18° to
the horizon.
magnificent splendour
through the sky.
? bode ectane oe E. to W. beateeeree POP Oe rel secre beeereereses tel eaeereres
Ses Msecad Passed directly over-|A edmplete view from
head. first to last.
:
ve
BGG, Won dsceenasiea seeeeee(One or two smaller
meteors during the
night in same direc-
tion.
ssaerte selseees|seeecereceeedscvcesevseeeseses/NiX ShOOting-stars ré-
corded from 11.15 to
12.15 p.m.
About 20°..;Towards the left; 15°|....c.ccsssees
from horizontal ;
down.
20° .setse.../L0 right ; 50° from Ver-|.....-éseveseesees
tical ; down.
See seeeeneserens
Se eereeeesee
Only about/To left; 30° from hori-|Gave the impression of
3° or 4°.| zontal; up. a path of considerable
length, nearly in the
line of sight.
Bea sEta-ss\ecscuence? Ostia y cossacigenas The same _ gentlemen
observed the meteor
July 16th, 11.33 pani.
10° .22......|S. preceding ..,........./Six meteors recorded,
10.11 p.m. No trains.
BOccnsaatcucss Shot UPWAtGSns <2: tes sesu)-cassaPaudessscees Sadeawaceaee
US ascticces To right; 15° from hori-|...... Sadedys lekcesccssvaster-
wa _ zontal; down. :
30° ........./To right, 10° from ver-|At Greenwich, two ob-
tical ; down. servers recorded 14
shooting-stars from10
7
Observer.
—
William Taylor ;
Miss J. W.
Taylor.
60° to 70°../At its centre the path|Presented a sweep 0 David Walker,
M.D.
Communicated
by W. H.
Wood.
John A. James.
Bristol News-
paper.
Rev. F. Howlett.
Id.
T. Potter.
Joseph Baxen-
dell, Observa-| "
tory,Stock St.,| -
Manchester. | .
T. Crumplen and
J. Townsend.
Herbert M‘Leod.
W.C. Nash.
Id.
W. C. Nash and
J. Howe.
to 11 p.m.
REPORT—1862.
Position, or
Place of ! E = :
Date.| Hour. Obie Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. oe ae
1861.;h m s »
Aug. 810 32 5 (Cambridge Ob-2nd mag.x ......... 2 seccsvesecseee(RAPIA soveee..-(Centre 11° E. from
p.m. servatory. S.; altitude 40°.
BILO 4 VS) MWbidicccccccsccccses A bright star, Ist} ? ...... secseeees| RIEL “aveeecees 17° S. from E.;
p.m. mag. altitude 61°.
810 35 p.m.|[pswich ....,..../Much brighter than) ? sesccssecssssee| 2 seseeeseseeseee EXactly N., half-
any star. way between the
Pole star and
horizon. (The
place may be
relied on.)
8110 35 p.m.|Aylesbury (Hart-|A flame of light ...]? sseccssseseeees|Only for alIn the head or
well Observya- moment. sword of Perseus.
tory).
8/10 40 p.m.|Birkenhead(Sea-| ? ...s.scsecscssecsscee| 2 cesceeeeeeeeeee| 2 sesssseeeeeeeee/DUe H.; altitude
combe). 1723
8/10 45 p.m./Aylesbury (Hart-\A fine shooting-star|Prismatic 4 seconds...... |Near Polaris ......}
well Observa- colours seen.
tory).
8/10 49 34 |Cambridge Ob-|Ist mag.x .sseseces| 2 ceeeeeceseereee| 2 eeeeeenveeerees Contre 67° W. from
p.m. servatory. | S.5 altitude 55°.
8/10 50 p.m.|Birkenhead (Sea-|Ist mag....sessseees| ? sersereee seeee-{L second ......, Centre 30° E. from
combe). S.; altitude 13°.
810 50 25 |Trafalgar Square,|Ist mag.x........06+- ‘Fine blue light|Rather slow.../From 3° N. o
p-m. London. Mizar to 13°
below x Bootis.
810 51 p.m.Greenwich Ob-|A splendid meteor..| ? ...... sesseeese(2 tO 3 Seconds Appeared near B
servatory. Draconis, and
passed to Arc-
turus.
910 11 26 (Cambridge Ob-|lst mag.x .........| ?» 2 cccosecsceseoes/ centre 3° Ni. from
p.m. servatory. E. ; altitude 39°.
9/10 14 p.m.|Birkenhead (Sea-'Ist mag.x ses..sse.| 2 eeseerseseeeeee Nearly 2 secs.|Centre 45° E. from
combe). S.; altitude 6°.
910 27 45 |Ibid. .eeseuseess.(I8t mage seccreeeel 2. .eos..{L second .,....\Centre due S. ; alti-
p.m. tude 37°.
9/10 45 p.m.|Deal ............ Ist MAg.% seeeseees| 2 - eseees| 2 vesscocscepecas/ DEDWEEML! ANG
Ophiuchi.
9|10 47 p.m.Greenwich Ob-|Very bright 2 .ecseeeoeeee.../Momentary ...|Near Polaris .....
servatory.
910 47 p.m./Birkenhead (Sea-|Ist mag.*............| ? sassseeeeee--/2 Seconds ...\Centre due N.E.;
combe). altitude 20°.
910 52 45 |[did. «...sseoeees[1St MAH. .ceeecccnee] ? seseeeeeeeseees/ Nearly 1 sec. [Centre 5° E. from
p-m. S.; altitude 7°.
9/10 57 45 [Tbid. ........006-/St Magee. ..ccceeeees| 2 eceeeseeeeeeees 24 Seconds .../Centre 55° E. from
p-m.
10) 0 25 am.
Ibid.
Shooting-stars..,...
>
Bec tthans sevens] 2
S.; altitude 21°.
coieenccvecnss.|Leee altitude
40°.
<a
|
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 9
Direction ; noting also
Appearance; Train, ifany,) Length of | whether Horizontal,
| att its Duration. as Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer.
Inclined.
Left GI LACK fesedaicceccves ? sseeeeeeeeee/LO right, 30° from hori-/At Canrbridge, three|Rey. J.L. Challis.
flashed out and was im-|No path dis-
mediately extinguished.| cernible.
A flash
eeeees COT ree n ee herons | SOeHeeObereerer
Like a gaslight suddenly
lighted and then put
out.
Fell about 2° and seemed
to burst,
Luminous track 30° to 35°
Luminous track of inter-| ? ......008.
mediate length, and
broken up.
fail endured 1 second ...|25° .........
The brilliant train of 10°).......
remained luminous
several seconds after
the nucleus had disap-
d.
Luminous track, 20° bril-|50°
liant.
eeeesees
MONE ads scassees| 2 ccccsecneces
endured 1 second
endured 1$ second ...
imous track, remained
‘15 seconds at least.
zoutal; down, observers recorded 15
.-|As if from Polaris
shooting - stars from
10 to 11 p.m.
se evceccevesesecvos|sccesses soosseeeeeeeeess/Arthur Bowden.
Stationary ...reeseeAt Ipswich, one ob-|Wilfred Airy.
server recorded 2
shooting-stars from
10 to 11 p.m.
seo sabisuesbesVegeeuceueues see At Aylesbury, several/Samuel Horton.
observers recorded
32 shooting-stars from
10 to 11 p.m.
Vertical; down .........,At Birkenhead, one/D. Walker, M.D.
observer recorded 7
shooting-stars.
Ie COO Wis! oecansnassnssseceleteoteseaaiervanes vusatecees Samuel Horton.
Verhienls Own ..csersealvocseccsavetessvanaecctosandce Rev. J. L. Challis.
To right, 45° from hori-|A.g.scoteeseusyercveresseeess|D)! Walker, M.D.
zontal; down.
seasceserecsteseneceseeeeeees+/ Ts Crumplen and
J. Townsend.
Vertical; down .,.......,At Greenwich, two ob-
servers recorded 6
shooting-stars; very
cloudy.
To right ; horizontal ...,At Cambridge, three
observers recorded 6
shooting-stars; cloudy.
Birkenhead, one
observer recorded 32
shooting-stars (quite
clear) ; 8 of these left
tracks of light.
At Deal, one observer re-
corded 5shooting-stars
J. Howe.
Arthur Bowden.
To left ; 10° from verti-/At D. Walker, M.D.
cal; down.
To right ; 38° from ver-
tical ; down.
Id.
Herbert McLeod.
eteee
O track left ............. ve| 2 seseeeeeee/Shot out from the| (cloudy); 3 of these|W.C. Nash.
clouds. left tracks of light.
ail endured 4 seconds |20° ......... To-right';} 15° from: ver=|\s vecsecestes oteecesessenseeec D. Walker, M.D.
pearly. tical; down.
‘ail endured 1 second MOR eecheaces To left; 15° from verti-|.......0..... Weel. Id.
; cal; down.
ail endured 14 second ...|55° ........./To right; 45° from Ver-|..ecsseceeess Siyedets rate veo (Ed.
bd tical; down.
or 7 shooting-stars in|10° or 12°..|Almost vertical ....0..../...s0eses ACPECOLCLOCREEC OCICS Id.
Succession; fell 10° or
12° and burst.
10 REPORT—1862.
Pl f Position, or
Date:| Hour. Ob ace. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
servation. Azimuth.
1861.| h m ;
Aug.10} 9 53 p.m.\Cranford Ob- [5th magex sisicesse) 2 cisseddeceeeeee ? .seesseeeeeeee(COntre Bs3 altitude
servatory. 10°.
10]...ecsccsscabss[L Did. .sessedsesdas|/OEC MAG ...csesee] P .scccseodicsees| > cosvstbsecoees(oentre S.S.E.5 altiam
tude 10°.
10)10 8 p.m.|[bid. ......06.00 Brilliant meteor; | ?...... barbegded| 2 sectetNaee ...../Between Aquila
Ist mag.* \ and Capricornus,
10)10 18 pimiTbids aéasiiessiis| 186 mag.*;.as bright) ? ......ccciseees) 2 csossssdisdecss|Under Aquila sssiss
as Venus.
10/10 21 p.m.|[bid. ssssseassee 6th mage oo... BAS sisscins thasiai > sseasabeaes w«+.(Centre E.S.E. ; al
, titude 3°.
QOIO23 pam.|Tbids .s.scécssscsfOR@ MGA oisesedeel 2 \eacaszcceboacns| Pi cacdebetecenes Centre S.W.; 3°
below « Lyre. |
10/10 233 p.m./Greenwich Ob-|Small ...seccssceceee| 2 cesceseceiecees Rapid; 1 se-Passed from Her-
servatory. cond. culis towards the)
bulbs 8.W. horizon,
10/10 24 p.m./Cranford Ob- 3rd Magee .scsciss:| 2 saeaadsccieess.| 2 sccsecioes «..../Same track as
| : servatory. 10:23 p.m.
10,10 24 p.m. Greenwich Ob-Small ............... P piseraiaiieens Rapid; 1 se-\Passed from a
servatory. cond, Cygni to « Her-
culis.
10,10 25 p.m.\Cranford Ob- (2 brilliant meteors.| > .........:.....{ 2 sesecetsseeesee| Near Cygntis sss.
servatory. }
10|10 26 pan. Ebid. ssgésaiaaesclOth MAg.% sisessee. 2) geriacdded.cocd| 2 ccncdedeccesscsHGentEe E.S.E.,; ned
horizon.
10 10 27 p-m. Ibid. Sbaedeeceins Ist mag.* Bar edeeee ? ee ctbedevtesvee ? Prerrreriri tii it Centre E.8.E.,
Pegasus.
1010 27 p.m. Greenwich Ob-|2nd mag.* ........./Bluish ...... ../2 seconds,...;.|Passed from a few
servatory. degrees above @
Andromede _ to}
between a and 6
Pegasi.
10/10 28 p.m.|Cranford Ob- |5th mag.* ......... P desdeacschtaees oiavescedbnoswers Centre E.N.E. ; al-
servatory. titude 15°.
1010 29 p.m.|[bid. .....sseeeee Ist mag. ; brilliant D dadssadssccoeo|,2,anedtadeasdoatef PORE BO 1186 15°
as Venus. altitude; centre
S:S.E. |
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. ll
rm ; Direction ; noting also
ppearance ; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal ;
and its Duration. | Path. Perpendicular, or . ea Observer
Inclined.
© track left s.ssis....... fali@eeetedi cccess PITTI ete «|W. De la Rue.
_—_—_—
TO HACK besicdcccscscsa| P casiccciccss ; sdsedseeedecaareaiassaseddess|Ed.
—
a bright track......... Bd? seeceeeee . At Greenwich, two ob-|Id.
: : = servers recorded 33
shooting-stars from
-~ 10 to 1) p.m:
At Cambridge; three
observers recorded 30
e shooting-stars ffom
efta track is..cc.c0.0s. a ~ | 10 toll pm. Id.
3 At Cranford, one ob-
° sefver recorded 29
shooting-stars from
10 to1l p.m.
‘ : At Birkenhead, one ob-
t no track «.. ? > setver recorded 16d.
shooting-stars from
10 to 11 p.m.
HO AFACKE sisasdicecccccs| 2 saadddececac(TO right ; 6° from verti« At Deal, one observer [d.
cal; down. recorded 9 shooting-
EN Rececaideel 2 ccsdedecsods| 2 veenesss | es veseeee.| Stars from 10.20 to/W. C. Nash.
ll pm
At Trafalgar Square,
ft no track ..........226..| ? seessesseees/ LO right ; 6° from verti-| London, two observ-|W. De la Rue.
cal; down. ers recorded 12 shoot-
MOPACK. .5.0040...0000. 40° ..es00s4./TO right 325° from yer-| ing-stars from 10 to|W. C, Nash.
I tical ; down. 11 p.m.
PEAQKG do. cktsiccacceas| 2 saxtbdcccess \ saacdccaaeeacesccessicaassses.|W. DE la Rue.
HO track sés..iceceeeess De ealadiacitdles. « > dalea .” Wesdda deccedecesccseccvedssabes Id.
—“—.
f UMMM locdocdacecucess| 2) scccedsccese ‘Snail Beced deatinddsedesaccaceden i.s{Id.
Pee
s
a track 5° im length....15° s.sjceee/To rights mearly hori-)...+.ssesesssesercesteersees|We 6, Nashi
a zontal.
BPMPSEACK .00ccdescas0000| ? ccceedsonees — se eRe S adweseahes W. De la Rue.
. es .
bright track marked its 15° ......00. saeidsvacccacsdcsacceciaacecca\ hd.
course throughout (15°).
12 REPORT—1862.
Place at ; . Position, or
Date.| Hour. Observation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. eee
1861.|; h m s : ;
Aug.1010 323 p.m./Greenwich Ob-2nd mag.* ....06...| ? seseoeessseeeeefl Second ....../From y Urse Maj
servatory. joris to the N.
horizon.
10,10 32 32 |Cambridge Ob-|3rd mag. seeeee| 2 caseeeeeceeseee/ SLOW MOtion...|Centre 13° S. fron}
p-m. servatory. W. ; altitude 20°
1010 32 47 |[bid. ......+..++-/1st mag.x P cesvcecscecceee| > cosvaccevecsseeiOentre same as the
p-m. last.
10:10 39 p.m.|Cranford Ob- (6th mag.* ......... 2 cseececaereee| > coeecccssersve (Centre B.S.H.3 al
seryatory. titude 4°.
1010 40 p.m.'Trafalgar Square, Very luminous [Blue light ...| ? ...eceee.sed° below x Ursay
London. meteor. Majoris.
1010 42 p.m./Cranford Ob- /4th mag.* .......+. o apesseccencvets D raeoce stat enevees Centre S.E.; alti
servatory. tude 9°.
1010 503 p.m.|Greenwich Ob-j3rd mag.* ......... CE DRED reeks 1 second ......|From « Cygni to @
servatory. Lyre. 4
1010 51 p.m.|[bid. .ee.cseeeeee Sree E aaraocecann Daaevarneeqescene 1 second ......|From « Cygni to ff
Delphini.
10,10 51 1 (Cambridge Ob-|3rd mag. .........| 2 ceeceeeeseaeee Rapid ....s00. Centre 26° W. fro
p-m. seryatory. S.; altitude 46°
10)10 56 p.m.|Trafalgar Square,|2nd mag.% .......44| 2 cescsceeneseee| 2 seseee erty e 1° E. of « Herculis
London.
10/10 57 20 [Deal .....cce00e UGG AG Hose ads Beans eehc cdavesbali2 iasssuecneeeren B to & Bootis ...+04
p-m.
1010 57 30 Ibid. ...... weet. UGE MAGN © sdk Made eescecsene PWR ee icc eoeee « to y Urse Ma
p-m. joris.
1010 57 30 |Trafalgar Square,|Very brilliant Blue light ...|Fast motion.../2° above Bene
p-m. London. meteor. nasch to 2°
above Arcturus,
1010 58 p.m.Greenwich Ob-|Very bright......... P aeecnsddaerns 2 seconds...... From a Pegasi.
servatory. Passed Delphi
nus to a Aquila.
10/10 59 p.m.|Birkenhead(Sea-|Ist mag.% ......... ? sscsseeseeeeeee Moved 1 sec,../Centre 26° E. from!
combe). S.; altitude 30°)
10|/From 10 to/Haverhill ....../Shooting-stars......!......4. Peadsnaspo|ccesvsuuanesseste In all quarters.....
11 p.m.
10/From 11 toIbid............. ves| SNOOUIMNE=BUATS. cus eal veces sce sasoraes|savesvesevcontshie In all quarters of
113 p.m. the sky.
10/11 45 p.m.|Birkenhead (Sea-| ? .........cecseeeeeeee Davehs Sbueitives aie idewtaewete wee Ther cee ceed sede crn
combe).
11} 1 3 a.m./Weston - super -|Mars ......csseseeee Like the elec-| ? .....s.sse.s00s Centre 40° W. fron
Mare. tric light. N. ; altitude 18°
11/8 40 p.m.|Hawkhurst, Kent/Ist mag.x ......... Ee peels ee | Rapid ......... Centre 22° W.from
S.; altitude 39°
11) 8 45 p.m.|Trafalgar Square,/Grand and lumi-|? ...........00.. Rather slow.../15° below Merak..
London. nous, even in
strong twilight.
11| 8 53 p.m.!Hawkhurst ...... UUPILER e-ere ox cess De eorpeet occur Slow motion.../Centre 22° W. fron
S.; altitude 37°
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
13
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
pearance; Train, if any,| Length of
and its Duration. Path. Remarks.
AT RAM ches dawa li fons sa sirewiecsin|; 2x'v vende vomoveedewocssoseceee ibe Wate e aes wet eee
ROMO TEACK vedsnevccorducsl ? ce 0ccccoener| VETtICAL Ss GOWN) veevesvedlesvessewsees
Bene eeeeresereeree
SPMIEMEM et ecsesocceeses| 2 evcvscccscoe| LO lefts 45° from Verti-|.ssccucecseccsvecovsasesccess
cal; down.
eft no track eee eereereeeees as caeeewanaeits tte et itee POee ee eee eeeeeeeee!
arked track’8° in length] ? ...,,.ss0e0.] 2 seeeeceereeeceereveeeseeeeelesesesssesennes eaacsvasventess
OfE MO ELACK ...cccccssccece| 2
+ cee Poosene HOOP O Mee eeesererereeeeseneeee®
ee
Observer.
W. C. Nash.
Rev. J. L. Challis.
Td.
W. De la Rue.
T. Crumplen and
J. Townsend.
W. De la Rue.
EME MO TACK ve..cecseceeces|(20°) vooee.(LO Tights; 30° from.........0..00+ exgaps coadaess|Weice, NBR
vertical; down.
ft MO trACk ....,,ceevereee|(3O°) seeee.| Vertical ; GOWN «....0ce0].cceee pease Vesenoncesneuseecs|la RLOWE,
eft no track ..... Basnvesces| ! sscaenscects| LOGIE GO” ION VENEHI),, vcssecccccncessossesess ..|Rey. J.L. Challis.
cal; down.
it no track eee terneseteees ie weet eteeeees Stationary PTTL OP seem eer rece set eters etaetees ie Crumplen and
’ J. Townsend.
en a track See eeeeedareres 20° eRe e Ree TREO eee POR e eet Eee tee eeeeete® venneee Pee eebeeeeeeeseeeseenes Herbert M‘Leod.
SMEs ct recdsesse| LO: cov cccess|s=+es0esssennere Pcl eee eaewesapees ane dc Id.
eft a track 20° long ......|..sssecesceesseleees Sen oe cee isvas|-seaeves akeapedeey seveveeeeees/ 1» Crumplen and
- J. Townsend.
eautiful track; 30° in |(45°) ....../To right; horizontal ...!.......... Sueeroiedie ..|J. Howe.
length.
yy
ack endured 1 second...!20° ,,,......|To left; 37° from hori-|.......ssseeceesesssseseseeeee/Ds Walker, M.D.
¥ zontal ; down.
MIN GTEIu A Cees eetvcevtsestel.ccvetceoveveve Mostly divergent from|Two observersdelineated|W. W. Boreham
Cassiopeia. the courses of 70| and J. Hobler.
meteors in the hour.
BEMBSHGyW ees hee Coverebinsavs[secdsdscaveseas Diverging from Cassio-/Two observersdelineated Id.
peia. 45 meteors.
MECMCMEVEH COVSICEL-| 2... c5:cvese] 2 avccsscnbececacsesscesccasslossecye sito Naat tacs sss D. Walker, M.D.
‘ably in its path before it
durst.
of 3° 15’ broad;|10° ......,.,,/Inclined westward 30°|From 1.25 a.m. to 1.40)W. H. Wood.
lasted 4 seconds. to the vertical. a.m., meteors fell too
fast to be registered.
0 train or sparks ......... 10° ...,...../To right; 30° -from|Strong twilight ......... A. S. Herschel.
: vertical ; down.
TRssevnnseetssecenectenessenes 2 sesssdccoerelasse seeeeceeevonsecesconscenes Too cloudy for hetter/T. Crumplen and
; observation. J. Townsend.
ght enduring track......'20° ..,.....,{To left; 30° from verti-|.....s.cecsscscssseeseeeseeees A. S. Herschel.
cal; down.
14 REPORT—~1862.
eee ==
Position, or
Date. }- Tour. Place of Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
Observation. PP Astin,
1861./ h m gs
Aug.11) 9 27 p.m.|Flimwell, Hurst|Jupiter,.....:e:sssros| 2 seseerseesereee| 2 eeeeees sauieane Centre 30° :
Green, Sussex. Sars E.; altitud
Py OO Ragan: [hids....cscasscsace Jupiter....,.. RTA g eee Very slow .. leon. near + Cygi
; to » Pegasi.
11, 9 30 p.m. Hawkhurst, Kent|Jupiter............... Diensaead Lasacacl 2 sccvctsgacesuae Centre 30° §
F omit ; altitud
1110 0 p.m.|/Flimwell, Hurst/4th mag.* ......... weusbasnaccegel faeces becseteeee Sibth 3 (y Equ
Green, Sussex. and y Delphin
to Equilat. wit!
(9 and « Del
' phini). f
13/30 15 p.m./Ibid................ DOPIKER. 0 ss ouceeccdes|'S eeevenrs FR Moderate Down; W. margi!
speed. of E. branch ¢
Milky Way.
From 3 (6 X
Aquile to ¢ Sa
‘ a gittarii, |
11/10 17 4 |Hawkhurst,Kent/Venus, or some-|Bright bluish|2 seconds; |Down the Milk
p-m. what larger in) in first two-| slow motion.| Way from Aqu
first two-thirds} thirds, then to Sagittarius.
of course. dull red, '
11/10 20} p.m. Ipswich ......... |Vivid meteor .,,.,./It was a palish Moved very |In a line throug
meteor, not| slowly; 23) 6 Urs Majori
a brilliant; seconds, just above
white one. Urs Majoris.
11/10 22 p.m.'Hawkhurst,Kent/Brighter than /Pure white ,,./14 or 1} sec, Gentre 83° N.
Venus. It cast! ; altitude 16°
a shadow,
1110 27 p.m.Ipswich ......... Very bright ...... WHIRIGE “Jigs scecs|coveveas Pavaveeus Ceased at y Pegas a!
1110 28 p.m. Flimwell, Hurst/Jupiter............... Dv acexehne dydiese Rapid |....s<ceali-snetarsosss0c00en *
F Green, Sussex.
1110 37 p.m./Weston - super - 2nd mag.# sesesseee| 2? cgeeegereeees . Rapid .,,.,..../Centre 72° E. fi
Mare. N.; altitude 19°
1110 37 pm.Tbid. 0.0... SUPORTE ot cnecde\iivensaeves pisaxes Rapid ......... Centre 29° W. fror
N.; altitude 108
OTTOCS7 panEbid. ...,....00:, \2nd Mag.X seereease| 2 eaeegeceyeeeee-|SLOW motion.. {Centre Aa Es
; altitude
1110 47 59 (Hawkhurst, Kent 2nd magix ycccceese| 2 eceeceeersaneeeWery slow Psi 15° S. fro
p-m, motion. E.; altitude 35
1110 11 p.m./Haverhill ....., Shootine ctamivesdcuctyaceti\bscaseeslssassassgananens vi 2 parts of t
1111 0 p.m.'Weston - super -'3rd mag.* ......... cpreerereet ree | fore 3 ..(Centre 3° S. fr
Mare. W.; altitude 26
V1) 2 pm |Ibid, .........5-./4th mage cece Digusosadysacaasld <Pitnesd ..\Centre 3° S, feo
os W.; altitude 2
1111 8 p.m.Hawkhurst,Kent/Ist mag.x ......... P ayacues are Very fast...... Centre in inde
} | H
1111 20 p.m. Flimwell, Hurst 3rd mag.* ,...,.. 4:{od Geet cagencee:| BEPIG" \apescece|tapaecuaenentacaam a
Green, Sussex. j
“AULT 20. pam.|Tbid. y.cs.esyees/BPd Mag.* ......... eererer of Rapid ...ceccce[ecomereae scene a
11/11 203 p.m.|[bid. ............ 2nd mag-* ......... | F asseaeuaty cso] NMDA (uaceaerge : natsue ate one
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 15
; Direction ; noting also
\ppearance ; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal, crs
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks, Observer
Inclined.
=: =| = eee eee ee eee
ads sedis eve tiel sassecese: OOo a To right ; 45° from hO-|...,,:.:essseeereeeeeeereeyee|EW. F. Howlett.
rizontal ; down.
EGO TrACHiye)h.oop e+e se0e, (SOP Reese ce lulegtadae telccsecseusocoec Pavel ocrs diss navade rlntccat ss ALG
ee ee eas To right; 45° from ho-|..........sscccscesesseess ,.-.|Ae 8, Herschel.
tizontal ; down. .
MUGEN aNdl oh idarccseesseres oR ae ae To right ; horizontal ,,.|Path was arched conyex Rey. F. Howlett.
to Delphinus,
MTeeTSEREIyAgtsscpesescssec|20° seveeeeee VEVGICRLS AQWI: sc scecaivdlssosigrdaureertegnseopiiiy yd.
ight track left in 1st/25° ......... To right ; 15° from Ver-|.....,..2seccceseesesecees v+-|A. §, Herschel.
two-thirds (the rest tical; down.
mn); remained 4
seconds,
ME Marae Peae-shaped|10° .,,,...,.|.eccceeresepessessveosescceses|eacsageressseosecesccesseeggee| We Aikyo
meteor.
a white byight track\Not more/To right ; 15° from ver- Brightest seen this/A. S. Herschel.
hroughout, lasting 7) than 7°| tical; down. night.
Seconds i in the middle. or 8°.
eft a good tail, which)A short run|To Wight y 40° Grote WO: ses syescaqeqsacsgssesysengys> W. Airy.
lasted 5 or 6 seconds. rizontal ; down.
Tiltiant white track ....,.|,.ccccsssoccseclecscesees Sepasevsewewe ddneewasltndere tree tetera Rey. F. Howlett.
© train or sparks ........./5°........+.../To right; 30° from yer-|’) ...... wintienn1ediivasth te be Weed.
tical ; down.
be a : 2 Three meteors fell
n or sparks ......... MATA so caaacl io: nedgerkspeneimeann aaa simultaneously. Id.
train or sparks ptrteeaee 15° ttteeeeee Vertical ; down sareeee THERE One eenneeeenenenenees Id.
ower and redder at last ;'5°............ To right ; 30° from Ver-|.....sssssseseeeseeeseeeeeeees(Ae S. Herschel.
turning to left, and tail tical; down.
ceasing.
eee BET a i czanenaals auyalicah states From Cassiopeia .,.......|Two observers counted|W. W: Boreham
8 46 meteors in one| and J. Hobler.
hed : P hour ; clear sky.
» 39° :
ac Leen eneeneeneongns 5 en6° ,,. beeen pene hori- Two meteors pursyed| H. Wood.
ee 5° or 6° ...'To left ; 30° from hori-| f ‘He same apparent jq.
zontal; down. path.
a long track visible/20° ......... Vertical; towards 45°)........... Rees stut de ere Ee A. 8. Herschel.
9 seconds. W. from S.
MINTS WG8SG CG) 0050 000ecbesltasevsenyeceece From 8 Cassiopeiz to 16).....,.......ceeossecsesseceee Rey. F. Howlett.
9 Cap. Meduse.
Pete ee eeeenee stetdas ‘ ? Deve eereeees ? Po es eee eens Td.
i DCCC CO OOO oo one Monon nnn rene From 3 (a 7) AMGTO= |i ie caves eves Wee eeeecesenneeee Id.
med to 3 (6, 7) Ce-
}
phei.
16
REPORT—1862.
Date.| Hour. one. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration.
1861., h ms |
Aug.11)11 23 p.m./Hawkhurst, Kent 2nd mag.* ., 4] 2 Reed evew eens] SLOWesaswvannew
11/11 23 10 Ibid. ..... Sonenes( SIR QNAE cesta vy Dw spevens Suoveon| | ssenbuurnaiene
p.m.
PATI S 20) UGS) svessenesvee 2nd MA.” \sccvceva| Savvvesasbserees| f. ccescvescuaunnn
p.m.
‘ab 38 p.m. Weston - super -)Ist mag.*
Mare.
1111 41 10 |Hawkhurst, Kent/2nd mag.*
seovsees| 2 sevcecsencseeee| exceedingly
swift.
csssseves| White .....++..|Momentary ...
p.m.
12} 0 1 20 (Ibid. ..... sereees(2nd mag.* .,...++.,|Brilliant white|Very slow
a.m. motion.
12) 0 31 20 Ibid. ............/1st mag.* .,,,.....|Brilliant white/Slow motion...
a.m.
EZRA TS: (Thid. sscswsitescs 3rd mag* ..seeee 2 WNielevssscenve| o oes
a.m.
PAiete ol NGI. aasseseontes Ist MAg.*, ..ccsessee| 2 sevccesevenesee{RAPIG vreesvese
a.m.
Le Ge | ts Ee Sxd MAG .corcceve| 2 severees fone P swiniebaeave need
a.m.
U2) 1 SUy am Phid. — ...c.c0sas 4th mag.* .,....... Sere EY Moderate
speed.
12) 1 3ldam[bid. we 4th mag.*. dis.i..s. PAM vskvsnees Moderate
speed.
12) 1 3lyam.lIbid. .....see 2nd mag* ......... Pt A isnened ‘Moderate
speed.
12) 1 314} a.m.|Ibid. .....5...... 2nd mag.* ......... Perstsecdeteseees ‘Moderate
|_ speed.
12} 2 6 a.m.|[bid. | ......0008 Ist mag.*....scceeeee SPRUE Joastvnes \Fast motion ...
Me G 8 Wide a reccexvares 4th mag* ..sscesee] 2 saeeeeee becvsl’? sacsvbh-cseaae
a.m.
12) 2 14:30 |Ibid. v.50... and mae <.2ccueee Peer ort, Rapid .........
a.m. :
12/2 14.40 |Ibid. ............ Twice the width of White ......... Rapid ......
a.m. the moon; _ir-
regular circle.
Sept. 6 8 0 p.m./Blackheath ...... =2nd mag* ....., \Bluish white.. 1 to 2 secs.
(approxi-
mate
time).
26/10 O p.m.Greenwich ...... Srd Mag. ...cevcereee Bee ee 2 secveuestee ‘
.|Centre 30° N. fror
..|Centre 23° E. fro
..|Centre
...|From a point I
...|Appeared 4 (¢ at
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
(
E. ; altitude 33°
Good observa
tion. j
Centre due E. ;
titude 40°.
Centre 23° S. fror
E.; altitude 30°
Centre 29° S. fro
E.; altitude 26°F
From % to 3 (6 ,
Lyre.
Centre 40° W. fron
S.; altitude 36°
Centre 7° E. fron
N. 3 altitude 45°
N.; altitude 57°
Near 8 Cephei
Centre 27°
y Cygni to¢ Cygni
Centre 40° §
from W.;
tude 653°.
altitude 80°.
E. from 8. 117
altitude 52°. |
E. from 8S. 45!
altitude 44°. |
Out of y Peg
Centre due
altitude 56°.
Just below the
Centre 8° E. fre
S.; altitude 27
3°? for
below the last. |
4
joris. fi
¢) Ursee Majori
=
2
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. VW
| . . .
| Direction ; noting also
ppearance ; Train, if any, Length of | whether Horizontal,
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer.
Inclined.
a bright track visible/8°..,..... .../To right; 20° to 25°/A slow meteor with en-/A, S. Herschel.
some seconds. from vertical; down.| during track.
0 track or sparks; {25° ......... To left; 38° from hori-/Remarkable for direc-|Id.
straight course. zontal; up. tion, length, and
smallness.
0 track or sparks ........./10° ...... ...|Lo right ; 30° from ver-|Ordinary appearance ...\Id.
tical ; down. ‘
might track throughout,|15° or 16°..|To right; 15° from ver-!.........606 Vertoase cose ..-|W. H. Wood.
15’ broad; enduring 2 tical ; down.
seconds.
tismmawnite? track [7°,...........{eccseees ddudenasowayeuseusanea|ieasedcestessceree ers seseeees/A. S. Herschel.
throughout; endured
3 seconds.
io sparks ; no track”...... Nt anes See Ronletie 5° from iVeralivecsdesticcderssucevssdeavce (Id.
tical; down. Curved|
to left at last.
vight track; endured)............... Osletiys:do>. AOMy Wer-Wieeeu. sh dee pcdeeadl cee adece ck Id.
3 seconds at centre. tical; down.
‘Oo track; the light ap-|?............ Cpa ate on deh Staats steed ae Mie Wc rovierecIevads MPN est Id.
peared to sparkle.
ck brightened up when/10° .,....... Molett* horizontal, ;,chasscchessssccess pisenaaveatee Id.
nucleus had vanished;
Visible 3 seconds,
od observation of track, 15° ....,.... To right ; 35° from ver-'...... ReanceCaamenannceaverds Id.
which brightened up tical ; down.
after meteor was flown.
Pee eee eee eee cee eee eee 15° eee eeeee SOOPER EERE OED HERE ERED HHH HEHEHE HHT EH eee ween eee ee Id.
Aros Seana vaes Arad | eae Ore '30° from horizontal .,.|Three meteors to left ;\Id.
downwards ; appeared
together.
8 oS ote 2 60° from horizontal ...!..... pate rsaaaey canessncmebepe ld.
PPP eee ene eeesereeeeeeseeeeeees 10° weet eeeee 30° from horizontal SEO COP Oee neem ener eet eenreees eee Id.
ft a HACK ss eeseesseeevees, TAT ss To right s\ Va? from ho=).<sc¢a.s cece cacserenvesenll ls
is rizontal ; down.
BMPR esestawertstevcscstscscelLOo beccerces Parallelitoilast,. iilalsstctcoaccussoncovescetdasbouthds
Bie TIO CFACK se ..6...s.00+. MS estas nee To right ; 35° from Ver-|.....0csoeeese abacvesssbeacsas (kG
he! tical; down.
ulous ; left no track.../12° .....,...|Parallel to the last ......A singular brush. Flew'Id.
crooked, 10 seconds
after the last, and like
its ghost (cloudless
i sky, calm air),
ne Pee rerreereeveneceseones 25° eepepensoles CNPP OOo rere nee ener er tee seeeneeee oeereceeccetecscecces W. C. Nash.
.
a
.
ttrain ..... RoR cisvanest DOL seseseveees|[Sey Se following ....00.. Cloudy night .....+0ses00+/Je MacDonald.
18
Date.
1861.|h m
Sept.26)10 0 p.m.|Blackheath ...... = Ist mag.*......... White
Hour.
Place of
Observation.
29| 8 40 pm.|Ibid.
29) 8 52 p.m. Ibid.
Oct.
4,9 30 p.m. Greenwich ..,.../=twice the size of Pale green ....3 seconds......
“ 9 48
410 29
410 36
|
410 40 p.m.
p.m. Ibid.
p-m. Ibid.
p.m.|[bid.
Ibid.
.|[bid.
.|[bid.
. Ibid.
setae ee eenee
scaesapeennn =2nd mag.* ....../Blue
REPORT—1862.
Apparent Size. Colour.
weeeereee
eeweee DIU acaweenee
2} 8 40 p.m. Greenwich Park |Faint ......sss0.++00)- teneeecseeenttons
a Ist mag.*
sanecscesess =3Srdmag.x ......|. asgedeuessbnacrn
ssoseseeeee| = 18t MAQ.%....00+++| BUC
soccccceeeee| = 200 Mag.
eeeseceeeees/ = 2nd Mag.*
Jédak veeebat =3rd mag.+
.|Harrogate ......
.|Greenwich ...... =2nd mag.x ......|Blue
. Ibid.
. Ibid.
Paaatonsace =8rd mag.x
pashigaelacs =2nd mag.x
eeeeeeeee
teeeee seeneetne
Small faint meteor).....:scesceseeees
«s....|Bluish white..,
sseees| White
ee eeeeeee
? >
PERO e mm e ett teeee| © Oe bebe wereree) © tee
sage. | WVIICG, os veteeces
..scss|Bluish white...
cosseseeel Second .,....[From 8 Cygni
Abeta rewelewnneceeatee
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
Duration.
Appeared a fey
degrees aboy
Ursa Major,
passing between
the stars « and
8, disappearing
behind a cloud
at about 10° o
15° from t
constellation. —
1 second ,.....\From 6 Delphin
across @ Aqui
tod Aquile.
1 to 2 seconds|Moved in a south.
erly direction
few degrees
below __ the
Pleiades.
Momentary.../From « Persei
Z Aurige.
From about
centre of Came:
lopardus ; passe
diagonally across
Ursa Major from
a to y, and dis:
appeared a few
degrees _ below
the latter star.
1 second ....../From » across 9 |
Draconis. F
From the Pleiade:
to y Tauri.
1 to 2 seconds|Across Capella;
about 20° in a
northerly diree-
tion. ‘
From y Pegasi,
halfway to @
Pegasi.
Passed rapidly fron
s Persei to
Arietis. f
1 second ..,...\From y Andro-
medz to K ~
..|.. Perseis
1 second ....../From jp Andro-
mede to 0 Cas-:
siopeiz.
1 second
1 second
1 second
é Aquile.
RACY VEEETIC® 30° from zenith t
wis
seoseeee[Fell from zen
towards the S. |
From y to B C
phei.
1 second .,....|Across _Cassiopeii
to y Cephei.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 19
Direction ; noting also
Length of |} whether Horizontal
Path. Perpendicular, or ‘ Remarks. Observer:
Inclined.
Appearance ; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
—————. —
EINES 55 0 Lif 0EM LjereessfernceRllayes t46eeeeeeeeseees|Rather cloudy .........++./J. MacDonald.
cae een wesseaGbavebevenscenecccescess|cceudgnanaectcscsvncccascechec| We Cs N&Bh.
I ir Beene Honecer Co sereasesusoecac seesslececedeveeceseccsce eossseeese/ 1G.
BORE) Va ee cadevesihuassudeccsvestvccclens ata dwadessess eavensesccapae Id.
About 45°
A very brilliant meteor../Id.
TOPO RM eee ee eee et ee ereeeesene
sepeett Svto N, ghiorizontally:.i|\\icitecssteccenectuceeeseopel Ld:
seer eeeeeeeeraaseee Pore ee ee tane Id.
°
PERO O Rete shh b eee etbetseene 15 SOP Pee a eT ROb Ebb et tee e re nenee AER Rew ereleneee Hoenn eeee iaesasegeeeaker LG
any TS asses! 8 xrcctuiind. WP aibivengh cade ccsndtsassestfoes F PeCnnenee seeteceseseeys-(J~ Coupland,
Ws aslsivaeissouveces BEER Favs weeetes AOD be aeeerenee Sobre beneceee 3 MacDonald.
o
Pec eee Seer seers erie 12 sbbibece.
mech@ibwarudcersssaaeanest=. W. C. Nash.
nall train TUR Tredersibiveoee Bbaseacclessces 's 3 i..{Id.
20 : REPORT—1862. T4,
Position, or
Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
Azimuth.
Place of
Date. Hour. Observation.
186].! h m |
Oct. 10|10 16 p.m./Greenwich .,,...,=2nd mag.* «+... Blue .....+0..{1 second ......;Across « Lyre
towards N.W.
horizon.
=2nd mag.* ...+6 White ........./1 to 2 seconds|From Z to 6 Cygni..
=2nd mag.% see IWUBREG Secscccsalccenvenckessnyaen Fell from a fe
degrees aboy
the Pleiades, |
passing through
them; disap-
pearing about
15° below.
Seeeee fr eeeeeeeeneeees 1 second ......|Passed rapidly fron
s Aurige to
é | Ceti.
Small .......s0+esees| Bluish White...)..cccceeeeere «Shot up from the)
| southern ho- |
1010 20 pm. Ibid. ..... qieenas
11} 9 25 p.m.|Blackheath ......
11| 9 30 p.m.|Greenwich ......|=Ist mag.*
11) 9 30 p.m.|Blackheath ......
rizon. y
Small avs cacatevosertlice sesssssseeeeeesl Second ,,....|Passing from E. t
W. a few di
grees above the
Pleiades. |
=2nd mag.* ......|Blue «ee.,.+06/1 second ...+0.| Passed from ne
+ Herculis aero!
w Draconis.
=Ist mag.x..+... .. Bluish white...|L to 2 seconds From ¢ Arietis
y Trianguli.
oo] = 1st MAg.%.sosessee|eovsesssseereessee(2 0 3 Seconds|Across @ Gemino
rum.
23) 7 28 pam.|Ibid. .....ese00e/-—=2nd magex ...e,/Blue ......404/1 second .....-|From Equuleus 6
‘ wards the
horizon.
PEO TAZ “PAN LDids “svssoccanceh
14| 8 20 p.m.'Greenwich ......
14/10 26 p.m. Ibid...
22/10 21 p.m. Ibid. sees.
23) 7 28 p.m. Ibid. ........s00/=2nd mag. ....../Bluish white....1 second ....../From « Equulei
B Aquilie.
B88 959 Spi Ebid.-.veccssevecwes =3rd mag.*. ......|White ....... 1 second ......|Passed rapidly fre
3 Cygni to
Lyre.
Very bright .......00|sseseessssersseeee 8 or 9 seconds|From centre —
Pleiades to I
of Aldebaran.
Nov. 2,10 47 p.m.|/Birkenhead ....,.
6 7 O p.m.|Greenwich ...... = gt map Mrccccccas|-oocseucener socenelssrcoescvcsoees see) HOM ArOM the ZEx
towards the
for about 12°
= 20d MAES coscselscsseescwnns veeeeel2 Seconds...,..|From the neig
bourhood of C€
pella, and pass
to y Urse }
joris.
Small cisccscossseceslecseesssesereeseeel2 SeCondS,..,,.|From the. nei
bourhood of ¢
|
|
7, § 45 p.m.|Blackheath ......
7| 8 49 pam.|Ibid. csssecceoese
pella, in the
rection of Alde
baran for abi
bo. ;
if Ng
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 21
0 eee eee ee _—_—o
Direction; noting also
: pearance; Train, if any,|) Length of | whether Horizontal, ‘ r
and its Duration. ‘ Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks Observer.
- Inclined.
None ..... ROPER tre a at ates siraviteseoana te mectoacc re teste a ett | W9oeyvavauckthhavertoeees ak W.C. Nash.
WORDED AUIIOVs Gece uc cecsceese j15° aesinasteve{ivapet unanseavebivstacerecdats | dondua dat ehantelysehees saake es Id.
EUPLUs chit eancesscceoss |e Uicaiat Aare a Rae mianesaieamencustoarese rae at Bes bee pee sose(J. MacDonald,
Small train eee dente neeresses 40° stveeseesleacces Oe ee eee revere errr rrr rrr rr rer rrr W. C. Nash.
}
LG EE Breve eaten Aetcceet ae Gavanduosncedex arte srasdaet crates pausaveyeneeat J. MacDonald.
MEIER OT Gree scene secesegn Mosscaaveae VELQEIZONEAL can ssavesccadilstastetealessoecdercondwaeulae
MPU MEEUTO SES os cscovesess: PUR Core Rent cere a sare ere ing | aceaeeanedsencs odiwentcodapae W. C. Nash.
ME sanade “ud eee eucde| LOnm aboaveth|- nu vexosteabcatenavetrsss2xtty Moon shining brightly..|Id.
BUGIREAMI oe. +0...0ss00- SO ruslekncias os GO NSE i esse evecctenane|Soddcevccs danas Veciha Vee sndn a Id
UPPER SS fe ccscevsseces EOP etie ra setsl taanzcneseet sannseanareceet ne The next meteor fol-i[d.
lowed this one at an
interval of a few
seconds, _ springing
from nearly the same
place.
AU esssves. Seeneaseceeness AD ira Aauesrs Lass cag sanatesartny voccsadeohs Cloudy after this timed.
; for the remainder of
the evening.
GAIN 442....... peeeci enix a lxangksinve castes sesaacc ts stalarcterre unis rrr oes LUGE
E yg RR Ae ee ssitahwenpad +» |D. Walker.
about 3 seconds and
burst, leaving the frag-
ments luminous for a
short period.
[ SSAC ess tes cneaecnsee. Woe ccauetees|seaceves cau tecwacosteens nual acaiie eceanepeseniascavesencet J. MacDonald.
Toss veces clecocseosecsense Inclined upwards oes NEL a scccsocscetnctt tts sect lld:
eg
Renae (th eeeesecccececeeccares Ox Se eeeeeerleerereeneeee Peewee eeneee PERO le eee eee eee ener eee eee ene eeons Id.
‘
22
Place of
Date. Hour. Observation.
.1861.| h m
Wov. 8} 8 5 p.m. Exeter ...........-
a
|
|
10) 9 22 p.m. Greenwich
1010 34
1010 38
1011 1
EBD) 0
10 36
11
1110 52
12,5 45
p-m.
p-m.
p-m.
p.m.
p-m.
p.m.
p-m.)
p-m.
‘Ibid.
. [bid.
‘Hay, S. Wales...
. Weston - super -
Ibid.
eeeereeeneee
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Mare.
Southern Hay,
Exeter.
Barlaston, Stone
REPORT— 1862.
Apparent Size. Colour.
Larger than & Ro-|.....ssssseeeeeees
man candle-ball.
eens
seereeeneseeeee DIUC — eeneesees
= 2nd mag.*
Pear-shaped; 30’ |A fine blue
by 15’ at first,
but 20’ by 10’
at middle of its
course.
|
Nearly the size of] ? ....cc..sessse
the moon.
Larger than any
Roman candle-
ball.
Elongated as long Greenish
as the moon’s| white.
diameter.
Deep blue
Saleoeeee 1 to 2 seconds From the
... About 5 secs... From near the body)
Sel Pees ans aetestes From the tail of th
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
Duration.
—_—_—
a seeseeseeees|9.5.E., over Torbay
or mouth of the
Exe. From alti-
tude 30° or 40°
Momentary ...
and a Draconis. })
From ce Tauri
a point a littl
above 2” Gemi-}
norum,
From between
Tauri and 1 Ge-||
minorum to
Aurige.
Passed from y Ge-||
minorum in
westerly direc.
tion, across th
upper part of
Orion.
Fell from a fey
degrees W.
Ursa Major |
about 10° fron
Aldebaran. .
1 second ......
1 second
2 seconds......
Lyn
constellation ;
disappeared a
few degrees beloy
Polaris.
From « Eridani to-}
wards the S. ho
rizon.
of Cygnus. Alti
tude 60° or 70°
horizon, W.
3 seconds...... From 3° above
Great Bear.
From 20° W.
S. altitude 40°.
to 40° W. of S._
altitude 8° or ||
Fell slower
than a
shooting -
star.
9°. |
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 23
Direction ; noting also
ippearance ; Train, ifany,) Length of | whether Horizontal,
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer.
Inclined.
rst into a bright light|............... Fell vertical ............ Another light was seen|G. A. Lance.
when first seen; left in the W. an hour
here a transitory track ; later.
dropped to objects on
the horizon fading away;
skittle-shaped.
I train ...... + Seer NOD eS vcr aca]e4scancsnadearsssonses abasdénd]eBseshes grok cone marta debe W.C. Nash.
dasevsene GaaeMeAiaanen cof hf mich vedvec|«aaudcuvoouissetsesvocccsescus|scoss§evesacencsaceassuciveshos|LGe
eee eet eteee POPPER eee eee eee ee 15° eee eee wel eeee PRR e mee Tee SERPH EEE He eee eee Id.
RUMEN Ua xankE aan asaase 25° ..ss.ecefFLOrIZONtAlly, HE. tO. Wass)eccscheassssescssecccscsccsbaol LQ.
SESSUMNI Es y sb sersevvor]occxsncnposassolvecccossecehoscscssssessecsasle eo cobeeseecveres Gaaaveena +se+\J. MacDonald.
PemBMabes Sescdsobusinses| ZO) sesbssdss|iveadieoe sons, eseneepvnnsundksyenala’ PTT TTT W.C. Nash.
weeks Epbseseoseeeeees--./L0° to 15° |Almost perpendicular...|....cssscccccse.cscsecssovepeol LG
iddy sparks emitted be-
hind. Pursued by a
long pale streak of light.
(60° to 65°)|To right; from 20° to|Flashed overhead like Rev. T. W.Webb.
8° or 10° from verti-| sudden moonlight,
cal; at last down. but did not continue
so bright as it ad-
vanced. Moon ten
days old.
ew strong moving50° ......... Eel 6 §25, scegue vedo: Probably started from) W. H. Wood.
hadows. Left a bright the head of Draco.
rack 50°, which lasted
) seconds
eared to burst :........ Denese xenans Longitudinally west- |.........sseeeeees sanhuneudee= A. J. Cumming.
ward.
rgest and brightest at|A short Inclined downwards inCloudy ...............++ G. Wedgwood.
the head, tapering to a] course. a Slightly curved line,
eddish tail. not straight.
Date.
1861.
Noy.12) 5 49 p.m.|Manchester (12 ab=60' ; bd=13'; Nucleus yel-\34seconds .../From S.S.E. alti
24
Place of
Hour. Observation.
—_———
h m
miles 8.E.). ce’ =10'. lowish flame, tude 35°; to
conical part nearly S. altic
brilliant tude 8°.
blue.
12) 5 50 p.m.[Bristol............/Brighter than the)Vivid blue ...]? ..ssesee-/Very nearly overs
moon. head.
12) 5 50 p.m.|Stone, near |Oval shape, nearly|Pale brilliant/About 6 secs. |First seen a lit
Aylesbury. = tothe moon.| blue. N. of Pole-st
(y Cephei), to
15° above hor
zon, W.S.W. J
12) 6 3 p.m.\Oxwich, South|As large as a |Steel-blue ...|? cccsssseseeeee/From 6° or 7°
Local time.| Wales.
15|10 14 p.m.'Greenwich ......!=Venus ....s0.../A greenish tint 4 or 5 seconds From the zenith
15:10 15 p.m.|Shooter’s Hill,
Woolwich.
p-m. chester.
N.W.ofExeter.
REPORT—1862.
Apparent Size.
cricket-ball.
Aldebaran or Mars|Mars for half
forhalf its course,
then flaming;
diameter 5’ ; last
3°= Mars.
19 5 30 p.m. Sherwood,7miles|Much larger than
any of the fixed
stars,
Colour.
predominated.
5 About 10 15 Styall, near Man- Oval nucleus 8’ long’ Bluish .,,.«...-
|
its course,|
dull; then
steel - blue,
brilliant.
Last. 3°=
Mars, and
faded away.
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
Duration.
——
and W. of Pleias
des to same)
height at th
opposite side of
the heavens. |
Started 3° S. of
Pennard Castl
from Oxwich
Rectory.
a northerly
rection. Owi
to the dense ha
the path of
meteor amol
the stars cou
not be traced.
34 seconds by'From 1 Hey. €
chronometer.| meleopardi
B Urs Minor
Began to fla
at the Pole-s
Blue, bursting
like a Ro-
man candle.
3seconds......\From S.E. by
altitude 42°;
S.E. by S.
tude 18°: burs
with sparks (?).
7 Or 10 SeCONS|...+eeasevereeeeres
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
25
ppearance ; Train, if any,| Length of
and its Duration. Path.
eee ee
sharply defined ;/25°
sparks or)
breaks; no permanent
tail left; no disruption
at disappearance.
enon eee
|
a track of golden) ?..,
light.
o sparks or tail; burst(90°) ......
into large fragments;
much scattered; no
noise heard.
eee een
an candle-ball, with\(130° to
red sparks and fire ; tail} 140°.)
8° or 10°, tapering into
detached sparks.
Tilliant train throughout|50° .........
the whole of its course.
About 1 second before
the meteor disappeared,
it threw off a small
luminous fragment ap-
parently 4th the size of
the whole body, which
suddenly disappeared
after travelling 1° cr 2°.
No noise was heard.
o track left; when nu-/40° ...,
cleus flamed blue, red
sparks were emitted all
round = % diameter of
moon,
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal
Perpendicular, or ; Remarks.
Inclined.
To right ; from: 43° t0j.coce....cccccsecssccdevsesoeel
61° to the horizontal;
down. > )
aNc”
iar? A
Figure of the meteor
compared with the
moon,
As nearly as possible!.........ssscssceseesees rece
S.S.W.
(Inclined! .csisesessevcssens Very foggy. Flashed
an intense light, as
if it broke out from
behind a cloud before
it was seen; loose
clouds.
Mounted as it approach-|Appeared level with the
ed, moving apparently| eye, and stationary at
level with the sea. first; very bright.
N.
Observer.
—
R. P. Greg.
Rev. W. M.
Burch.
William Penn,
S. G. L.
srecscesescesereee(All exceedingly hazy/W. C. Nash,
night. Moon and one!
or two principal stars
seen. Afinelunarhalc.
Almost vertical ; down../The flaming nucleus ir-
regular in figure, but
not elongated; hazy
sky; full moon;
halo. (No other
the heavens from 93
to 11 p.m.)
To right; 35° fromThe position carefully
vertical; down. taken from memory.
.|From y Ursz Majoris.../The meteor appeared to
drop between us and
the opposite hill; we
felt certain it dropped
meteor was visible in,
\A. S. Herschel.
\R. P. Greg.
ArthurCumming.
in the valley.
26
Date. Hour.
1861.| h ms
Nov.19} 9 15 to
9 35 p.m.
19\/Between 9
&10 p.m.
19/9 35 pm.
REPORT—1862.
Place of
Observation. Apparent Size.
Ipswich .........,Large as the moon,|A _ bright
stream of
but very much
brighter.
Norwich .........,A bright body as) ?...
large as the
moon.
Whitstable ...... A splendid meteor..
Colour. Duration.
. fire,
19 9 35 pm.
9 38 23
p-m.
Guestling Hill...|Half diameter of
the moon.
servatory. meter of the
moon,
19] 9 40 p.m./Woodford ...... At first stationary ;/Pale
whenunder-| seconds.
neath the
moon, then
=Venus. When
under the moon
= of moon’s
diameter.
blue.
Tee eereeeres
a Roman
candle-ball.
2 ..sseseeeeeeess(Durst into 3 pai
Position, or
Altitude and ©
Azimuth.
It did not move|Approached on
very fast, but
like a spent
rocket ; like
the S.E., burst
ing into 3 pie
when = almost
overhead. -
nearly overhea
|
|
secessese| 2 ccseeassesvesee/The grand exploy
sion took plac
close underneat!
|
the Great Bear. |
Rose from a banl
of clouds 30°
from S.; disap
peared a_ littl
left of Witte:
ham, 20° £E
from N. Passe
)
|
|
|
|
4° or 5° undei
the moon, whicl
had altitude |
about 40°.
19|Disappeared|Greenwich Ob-|One-half the dia-|?....... is cex Nearly 10secs.|Appeared between
y Orionis and
Aldebaran (from
behind great
dome of equat
real). Passed 6
or 8° below
Pollux, and dis-
appeared 15°
further N. 4
green |At least 10)At first stational
for 2 seconds
at a point i
Cetus. Ad
vanced _nort
ward under the
moon at half its
altitude, | and
finally disap-
peared without
noise.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
27
pearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
ew
shadows. Broke into
3 pieces or streams of
ire, which soon disap-
peared; as large as a
nan’s fist.
st into 3 parts; one or} ? ,,,
wo appeared to fall,
nd the other seemed
ploded with an appear-|,,,
nce of 6 to 8 balls of
ire,
SRP R EO eRe meee were renee seeeees
train of prismatic
olours;. fragments
addy brown. Threw
ut fragments, and
arted into two before
2aching and in passing
ander the moon. When
i three
ee the last things
Gificent meteor ; car-
ed a splendid coloured
ain with sparks, and
‘last broke into 3 or 4
d vanished.
d forth suddenly near
e moon like oxyhydro-
nm lime-light; then
veloped a fiery tail,
cleus becoming blue.
‘Oke into 3 or 4, like
aS on a string, just
e disappearance.
strong moving,
Length of
Path.
secrete tees
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
S.E. towards the N......
Remarks.
Observer.
About 80 or 90 seconds Mr. Felgate; G.
after the explosion,
three distinct reports
like heavy ordnance
or distant thunder
were audible,
Webb; G.
Pulham; Ro-
bert Bixby ;
Frank May-
hew; John
Steel; Charles
Lawrence
(communi-
cated by
Biddell).
G.
From S. Baby W. towards/A full minute afterwards|Rev. G. Gilbert.
zontally across
sky.
Horizontal ..,
Pe eteke ...../Lnclined downwards 15°
from hori-
or 20°
zontal.
heard a loud report.
A eeceeseeree Bese membres esesees
Be ad egae Horizontalivstyeecceesckks|Seoeck wek see eeaea eee
Messrs.
James Pearce.
James
Rock and
C. Savery,
M.R.C.S.
—_—S Oe
1861.
19) 9 40 p.m./Tunbridge .,....\One-third the size!White with a'/From 10 to 15/First seen as oy
Place of
Observation. Apparent Size.
h m
of full moon,
REPORT—1862.
Colour.
bluish shade.
Duration.
seconds.
19| 9 45 p.m.|Heavitree,Exeter/Light very bright|Bright white.../Moving by no
19
19
19
and steady; oc-
means quick-
casionally thicker ly aa
in some parts straight line.
than others;
like an unusually
large star.
9 45 p.m.|North Foreland |A body _ nearly|..............005. Moved slowly,
equalling the continuing
moon, but far in sight 10
brighter. to 12 secs.
Evecsbeucesb ne Dover .......40004|Much larger and|Ball of yellow) ? ceccccesecesees
brighter than | fire, pure
Roman candle-| and pale.
ball.
2 edocs eee-/Wrotham — Hill,/Threw a great light] ? ...... vaueedson| te eves cuatnenened
Kent. on the opposite
side from the
moon, >
‘From the
Position, or |
Altitude and |
Azimuth. —
te ray 7
First seen S. of
some distam
before it came}
the moon. #
ploded plain,
Langley Poi
Pevensea é
bour. Passed a
more than {|
below the moo
Came out from 1
sky, and disa
peared with
noise; unife
altitude of 1
to 29°. q
From 60° altit
S.E. ; passed
E. of the zeni
towards true }
burst N. by
altitude 12°
15°, by
At the Tan
Stembreok,
Dover, th
meteor d
peared _ behi
the Castle
part of the hi
vens; travell
many miles }
fore it came
the moon. |
Passed under t
moon and ¥
lost to
hehind
hills.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 29
; Direction ; noting also
earance; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal,
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer.
Inclined.
ods CSoe ene OC eee 2 ssscveveeeee| 2 eavccesestetevsseererseess-/Companion of observer|W. Blackstone.
thought that his coat
was on fire. Observer
thought it lightened.
ly the top of the moon
was visible, the lower
part being outshone by
he meteor. When the
explosion took place,
7 balls of fire about the
size of an orange formed
themselves info a sort
tail.
rew shadows half as|..,..........+.|Nearly due S. to N.;|Brightness did not vary.|W. Mitchell;
deep as those of the| horizontal ; altitude A hissing noise was| John Harmer
moon; rocket-like tail 30°, heard as it passed. (communicated
8 or 10 feet long. Di- byC.V. Walker).
vided into two parts on
passing the moon;
burst into 10 or 12
fragments, which were
ed.
€ appearance was that/About 2th|Direction from S.W. to/Appeared to drop some-|R, T, Abraham.
of a light running along| of the N.E. ; ‘horizontal. thing as it went along.
outstretched line,| circle of
the light ofarocket.) the ho-
rizon
(=60°).
@
ried a tail 3° long; Full70° ...\Curving towards the About two minutes after|James Chapman.
violet at the head; earth. extinction, a short
apering to a flickering dull but loud report
point ; flame coloured; was heard ; distinctly
} or 3 seconds before but closely double.
dursting a globular body
eparated from the head
halfway along the
ail, and there con-
ainued. Exploded into
nany fragments, which
ell some distance.
adows in the streets) ....4......../The meteor was Ob-|ssscsssseeesessseeseseeeeeees] Edmund Brown.
noyed rapidly. - Served to explode near
Maldon, in Essex.
eee the Fro eae¥ sees seeonile caseese ssssesseseveeeeeees/ Lhe air smelt of sulphur| James Douse.
gan to vomit fire o
he most brilliant hues.
30 REPORT—1862.
Place of Anpftepe’s Col Durati Poston, or
Date.| Hour. : pparent Size. olour. uration. titude and —
Observation. Azimuth.
1861.| h m a
Nov.19| ? ......eeee..,Wrotham Hill,|Four times the size|Brilliant white) ? ..........+-04 Appeared. S.S.E
Kent. of one of the passed 43 widt
planets; threw underneath
shadows on the moon. Burst wif}
fields. bright —colou
near the N. |
24) 7 40 p.m.|Broxbourne ...\Somewhat larger White with |13 second .../Appeared 5° W.
24) 8 10
24/10 2
26) 5 42
27| 9 32
3011 11
Dec. 1; 1 50
1} 8 263p.m.|London .........,=a@ Lyr®.........4.. j@ Lyre i... ‘Moderate Appeared nea’
1) 8 37
than Sirius. bluish tinge. B Cygni; dis
peared 4° E.
a Aquile on t
equator.
p.m.|Weston - super -/=Sirius ......+0.... Brilliant blue..|2 seconds .../Appeared in Ple
Mare. des ; disappeare
near « Ceti. |
p-m.|Greenwich ......|=2nd mag.* ...... Bluish white..|1 second ....../Started near
Orionis; pa
towards the hi
rizon through
Orion, and dij
appeared a litt
to the left of)
Orionis.
Pisrn EDIDas is tatocevas re Small ......+e+.+...-/Bluish white ..|1 second ....../ Passed through
Pleiades in
direction of
debaran. ;
p-m.|Greenwich Ob-/=2nd mag.* ,..... White },(...,.. 1 second ......|From y Geminor
servatory. to a point
tween « ané
Orionis.
Pa EIA.” os... -0 ee =2nd mag.* ...... 1) UY Bago 1 to 2 seconds|Shot between «
| 6 Geminorun
= Ist mag.x......... Bluish white ..|.......ssecsecees Moved below
| Major tow
N. horizon. —
Airis LIC ay cavweeesst =5th mage sseoe(Blue ........- 0:7 second ... Nearly in the p
of the meridi
and about |
from the horiz
p-m.|Greenwich ....../Small but bright.../Blue ......... About half aa Orionis to +
second. onis.
p.m.|Wakefield ......| Very brilliant ...... Bluish white ..|......s020008 ...../From overhe
eastward ; di!
peared behin
railway emb
ment.
| speed. Draconis.
p-m. Greenwich ......)=2nd mag.* ....../Blue ..,.......2 seconds......|From 4 Lyre
within 10° of
W. horizon, ©
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 31
Direction ; noting also
per ance ; Train, if any, Length of | whether Horizontal
~ and its Duration. : Path. Perpendicular, or ’ Remarks. Observer,
| Inclined.
od-red ; tail like a} ?.......0.00 Horizontal when under-|Clear sky; no smell of|\James Douse,
aon sword. neath the moon. sulphur. -
Oo
.
es
in about 9° in length...) ? ...... paaevdlacdetseees sae Bacceiees svestous cedecesscenererssceees seeeeeee/H. S. Eaton.
a Risiveeneunvs-|MBCMNO |} ccigesscescenene ..|Many came from this|W. H. Wood.
: locality fer several
evenings. This was
the largest and
brightest.
Prerererrrrirrrreryy tener 15? one ete errno eee e eran eee tees tarseas THF eFeE ETE eeeeeaeeneeessee peer WY C. Nash,
Eta aan coh =pe0080s 8° potsar|sccccssccestseescencesecaesso=|MtAthler CLOUGY o6....cseda.[0a MacDonald.
wee eeeetereereraenensnene 18° OOo prance COC eeerersssserenenece pecveces A fine bright night oneeee W.C. Nash.
MET sBWNSG¥6s .<) 005s. 5° to 7°.../Inclined path, S.to N...|A fine bright night ...,../[d.
trresesnesersereeressnes|seeeeceeeesseee/Lnclined towards N. .../A fine bright night...... Id,
train; disappeared|4°_ ..,......| Towards the W., at anjIt was very small and/H. C. Criswick.
ddenly. angle of 45° to the! rapid.
horizon.
Mihaess ss densacsverseces ROS vcegscsclacaeeaans msaenashewienss senor Rapid motion ....... sreee|W. C. Nash.
long train behind)...............|Nearly vertical ....,.. ../The sun shining at the
no explosion was time.
a short tail ............/20° ...,...../Directly from Polaris...|Remainder of flight in-|Herbert M*Leod.
tercepted by houses.
PRD meal EH EHP Hee Ores eee ee tee bere neta h CORPSES OTT E EEE TESTES TSH ED . C. Nash.
‘of some length .,,..,/20°
52
REPORT—1862.
Position, or —
Place of i ; ;
Date.|. Hour. Observation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. ent
1861.) h m
Dec. 1) 8 50 p.m.|Greenwich .,,.,.,= 2nd Magex «..+++eeveevees Seuetie ..(1 second jFell perpendi
about. larly from
point a_ litt
aboye and to
W.) Lot + Um
Major.
1|9 8 p.m.|Blackheath Hill, Size of Sirius.......The colour ofj1-5 second .,.|From between
Greenwich. the un- Pleiades and
clouded Algol; neare
moon. the latter.
1} 9 14 p.m.|Walthamstow ...,\Somewhat smaller Pale yellow...!3 seconds .,,.|From 4 (Aldebar
than Polaris. and « Orion
fos he We
Castor.
1| 9 15 p.m. Weston - super -|/Diameter 2’.,,...... saaaneraseel ses..-/Very slow; /Appeared bet
Mare. 5 seconds;) y Orionis
speed slack-| « Orionis, a
ening stead-) burst 4° abe
ily, until « Orionis,
almost sta-
tionary.
2) 9 45 p.m.\Barlaston, near Larger than Venus,Greener than Rapid motion..\From altitude
Stone, Salop. | butnotso bright.) the greenest due E,
rays of stars.
3) 5 20 p.m.|Blackheath ...,,.;=Ist mage ...... Bilge tices sees ‘Less than From direction
1 second. Cassiopeia to
Pegasi.
4,2 5 a.m.|Birkenhead (Sea-|Bright meteor ......| ? sesr+..ss.+-.9 Seconds...... From centre
combe). quadrate sta
7\At night .,.
8} 8 15 p.m.
8} 8 15 pm.
exactly.
8 About 83
p.m.
Preston .isseeees
Lancaster......+.-
St. Bees, 14 mile
inland,
DiNSi a etiiet actos
Large meteor «.....
Almost as large BENE caine tanh
the moon.
Ball of fire 5 inches) ? .esssseoserens
Bridlington
Quay.
3 seconds in
in diameter, ? perfect |
state; 6 |
seconds in
all.
Asillarge. «.08...ShE)sscssesseecdoeesat 2 es tvieecam
moon.
Ursa Major
within 10° of
horizon.
? scdievncesnce HIDES iS LRN
or 30° a littl
of N.W.
| SF eeeeees eee ee eee
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS GF LUMINOUS METEORS. 33
.ppearance ; Train, if any,! Length of
and its Duration. Path.
after having travelled
about 3° or 4°, it broke
into five portions, three
of the portions being
as large and bright as
the meteor when first
seen.
ing, and then diminish-
ing.
shaped in falling ; train
10°; half disap-
ared in the flight;
ragments _ proceeded
streamers after
ursting; 5°, diverg-
ight disappearing
uddenly at maxi.
um, with a red
gently ACen eeeeeeetrerer scseeeeeesenend
ilar to that of the] ? score
ight following.
SN OOEe Cee eee tere reeereteseees ee & steer
v
the last half of its) ? ......00..
lurse shot out a
usand most bril-
t stars; diminished
size, and vanished at)
PUHCETEEE EERE TROT He ER OO OTTO ES senses oneretee i+
ew to size of Venus;20° ,,,...... Fell vertical ..,...00 oa
TL pr cceeeneeeteveseeevesesleaeeeeeeensases ¢
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
the path, which was
short, appeared to be
a horizontal line.
TUTTO OTe eee Fear er eeeeeeFeHieueeters
Remarks.
ae ee eee
not very large, was
exceedingly bright ;
after breaking up, it
was visible for about
0-S5sec.; no noise was
heard.
See POe ee eee ener eeereeeererees
SEO EEEOP ORTHO TSE ETOP eee eee ee eeee ene eet eeDEDeeuteneeenes
‘Perpendicular PROTO OTe ee eee eae tear ee ees eeereseseter
? SEROTEH OH eee POT OHTA E EES e ee Hees eeheeterereeeerreeereneeder
From the Pole - star/Hissing sound _ like
downwards to due W.
From overhead down-
wards, N.W.
into the Irish Chan-
nel, between St. Bees
-pegBad fee
and the Isle of Man.
quenching iron during
the passage of the
meteor ; two minutes
later, a sound like the
discharge of a heavy
gun.
,|Appeared to descend): ,, :,:..ccscccesvessscuseccpes
PRO ee ene reer essere Oeeerere
Observer.
sasecescecscessesseese(de MacDonald.
ere was no train; but7° ....,,.../[t took a course due S.;/This meteor, although/H. C. Criswick.
ght unsteady, brighten- aivonucecedueuns A serpentine COULSON G cel eta ccnancientguvsnstecccsadebs| Ete Ss. Eaton.
ew brighter and pear- PPTTTITETITITITILLL LILI reir ii ii 2 W. H. Wood.
W. C. Nash.
D. Walker, M.D,
Communicated
by R. P. Greg.
Correspondent,
* Lancaster
Guardian.’
‘Isaac Sparks.
S., Correspond-
ent,‘ Manchester
Guardian.’
D
34 REPORT—1862. :
Position, or
Place of ~ * F
Date. Hour. ‘ Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
Observation. PP ‘Agimuth.
1861.;h m
Dec. 8} 8 15 p.m.|Hull..........0.+../9ize varied; light/White, then |2 seconds....../From 10° to 1
exceeded that of} blue. above the moo
the moon. whence move
to 20° above
horizon.
8) 8 15 p.m./York (Holgate)...|Half the size Of a|....ccccssessseees|erereees seeeeeeaee lean eeesereneessonstes
cricket-ball.
3
8| 8 15 p.m.|Southport ......|Almost as large as\Blue light; |?...... seeeseeee(Erom about t
the moon; bright} colour pale ; Pole-star to
as noon-day. blue. tude 25° or 305
a little W. o
N.W. 4 |
5 i
8} 8 15 p.m.|Manchester.,....|Longest diameter|Pale blue,..,..| ? sccovseeseee-{HrOM a point ned
equal that of the the Pole-star t
moon. the horizon, |
westerly.
8| 8 15 p.m.|Liverpool....... ..([Like the moon as}......e.s00 sateen Rapid flight:s|..csesccccsvsescooeelll
seen at the time. 3 seconds. ax)
BiaS 15 . HI. |THid... rrsaresovenslyacrshonadescavenvascnns|APMME Auatalibce|clascassieesdecaeclmeali reece
lightning. :
SiS elO im.|Prestwich, Man-| 2 Siseseccasenesteushuli Peabeweercnecnsclinisesnctraeeeree: 2 ngneess te ceuheeenee
chester,
8 8 18 p.m.|Dundee ....,....|One-third diameter|Bright white,|10 or 15 secs. |About the altituc
of the moon, like molten of Sirius or
metal. Orionis; abo
the horizon —
the time.
8) 8 20 p.m.|St.Bees,Cumber-|Brilliant meteor Or| ? ......cscceess-| 2 eesssesvseeeees{From altitude 4
land; 3 miles} shooting-star. due S. dow
inland. wards.
8, 8 20 p.m.|Castletown, Isle|Considerable fire-| ? .....sceeeeeee-(SeVeral _ secs.|Horizontally
of Man. ball; lighted up remained S.W.
the scene in a stationary. | N.E. ¥
very remarkable e
manner,
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
35
\ppearance ; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
irst a bright light of ?
large size, then faded
with a few sparks as if
going out, immediately
enlarged, _ elongated,
brilliant blue, leaving’
red sparks behind
shading into the blue.
‘lowing red envelope;
tail ending in green;
very even and somewhat
permanent.
farted into 7 or 8 frag-|
ments, like red - hot,
cinders.
al shape followed by|}......sscseses
long broad train; the!
flame repeated itself
three or four times. It
we three distinct
ashes of light upon the
ground and sky.
mg tail showing all the
prismatic colours.
OER E PEDO eee e onto en eneereetenes aes
lare._ visible
closed shutters as if it
lightened.
spearhead-like crescent
moon ‘five days old,
with a short shaft ;
was followed by red
star-like balls clustered
behind.
reddish bolt issued from
behind filmy clouds like
a flash. The bolt or
meteor afterwards sepa-
- into a number
small and_ brilliant
—
fireball was snditenty
arrested in its progress,
remained stationary for
several seconds, and
burst without noise,
through) ?
Doane
Peeneereenee
eer teres
seeeee
Direction ; noting also
Length of | whether Horizontal,
Path. Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
?
Bete ieantosne Motion westerly ......++-
Remarks. Observer.
.|Moon bright in a cloud-|Baker Edwards,
less sky. Ph.D.
Cast shadows in the
moonlight ; moon six
days old.
HOt oeeeee
Hissing noise like |L., Correspond-
quenching iron ac-| entto‘Manches-
companied the ap-| ter Guardian.’
pearance. Two mi-
nutes later, a sound
was heard like the
discharge of a heavy
gun
? FO CPO eee eee ee eee eee eee er len nny Thee eeeeeeeneeeenteeeeene J. st Slugg.
Ran rather low and FOEOER Hae Tee Seer eee THOS OSES ES see eee ones ebenrenene®
horizontally.
MOvedN GE: 0'SoW.i9:|scageresvessevsereserssanuneue Correspondent to
‘ Liverpool
Mercury.’
Rises causnsawopeansvoeveneslisscopiesveabincerccnceeemeas R. P. Greg
Sailed slowly from E. t0]...,......s0ssssecaccssssnsere ‘Scotus,’ Corre-
W., with a little dip spondent to
towards the horizon. ‘ Manchester
Guardian.’
Downwards at 45° to\No sound could be'John Jenkins.
the horizon. heard.
.--/Moved horizontally till
it stopped and burst.
Moon clouded at the|Correspondent to
moment. ‘Mona Herald.’
36 REPORT—1862.
D Place of Col D Eitan, nd
ate.| Hour. : Apparent Size. olour. uration. Ititude an
Observation. eet
|
|
1861.; h m |
Dec. 8) 8 20 p.m. Liverpool seccerlccrseceeceeececesececeee/DIWISH + BTCCR| seseeeseeeeseseee LHe Spark sprang}
light. from a little
a
proceeded with
scintillations to}
the er then
came suddenly
extinguished.
8 23 p.m.|Birkenhead (Sea-|...seecssssssseeeesereas|eseenseneeeenes ../Darted down-|Appeared 8° or 9°
combe). wards; not, E. of Cassiopeia
4 seconds. burst 35° to 40°
above the ho«
rizon, some-
where about
N.N.W. by W.
8 25 p.m.|Stone,nearAyles-|Double of Venus ;/Red flush, then 5 seconds,,....|From & Cephei to
bury. § of a minute of| a purple a Cygni (the
are. flush, and) stars doubtful).
then a blue,
flush of
light. |
8 25 p.m.|Silloth, Cumber-|Nearly size of full Palish blue .. . 5 or 6 seconds,|From altitude 50°
land. moon. rapid. in the S.; dis:
appeared a little
to the N. by W.
co
ies)
ao
oo
8 30 p.m.|Dungannon, Ire-Strong glare in| ? sessssereeeees Lasted a few From altitude 30°
land. moonlight. seconds. due E.
8) 8 30 p.m.|Ulverston......c04] ? seseeessessrereeeeeee| 2 eeeeeeeeteeenes) 2 ceesereeererene o ctesssccses<csetene
8 About8 30 Liverpool.es.seree CERO POOP Ree EER EERE TORE CREO RET EE EEE r arses PORE EEE OD eee eee eee Teme eee eee et aee ese e tees
p.m.
8 8 30 p.m. Wakefield.........,As large 8S @ MAN’S ssseescsseeneerers seccesestesovecees (Quite overhead
head. down the wes
ern sky. Seem
to burst 50 yard
off, 10 feet fron
the ground.
8 8 30 p.m. Coatbridge, La-/Brilliant ..s..ssss00+| 2 sseeesessseveee/Several secs. «In the S.W. sky 44}
narkshire. 4
8) 8 40 p.m.|Lancaster......... Large as the moon Red .....++0++4 « oncccowab tes ctetclegiestcasavatesnecsma
8] 8 45 p.m.|Wakefield......... Light great enough Purplish ...... > sceseeseeseveee(Descended from
to render distant altitude 50°N. W
objects visible. to altitude 10)
N.W. by W.
8] ? .sseeeceeeee| Manchester ...... Large as } Of the] ? ...csccccseores ? .ccdeesbgevers (Onl turmings ae
moon. the meteor fall
ing perpendicu
larly N.N.W,
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
37
Length of
Appearance; Train, if any,
Path.
and its Duration.
irst a reddish spark; in...
combustion at the meri-
dian ; increased in in-
tensity to apparently a
large sheet of flame;
extinguished suddenly.
ight slackened at burst-| ? ssesssseeee
ing, but explosion the
most briiliant; frag-
ments violet.
tar-like, and very bril-| ?
liant for two seconds,
then burst, and con-
tinued like a rocket,
followed by coloured
fragments.
blazing track followed
it, and immediately
following were many
smaller globes or bulbs
of fire; several bright
rene eae e ee enee
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
er | a
Romero eeeneiee FeO ede e cere eeeee sere etresens
Inclined 22° towards
the horizon.
Inclined at a great angle
to the horizon.
‘Descended slightly ......
Observer.
a
Several
and meteors
night.
shooting-stars|J.BakerEdwards,
this}; Ph.D.
Sky hazy; small halo|/D. Walker, M.D.
about the moon.
Cloudy night, moon con-|W. Penn.
cealed; attention
caught by crimson
flush like lurid light-
ning.
Seen in clear sky Rey. F. Redford.
Light clouds ; moon and|-+-
stars more or less
visible,
red.
ge ball of fire withl.............../Fell down towards the'
coloured sparks and earth.
long train.
MATE yecsis cass essassseses Di eecsavetars|lus-tO! Watvsckecesse eececies
ave out like a stream Of}............04 Fell from near the
crimson fire, expand- zenith straight down
ing like a trumpet, and in the northern sky.
then bursting without
noise.
BLe LBmInChes LONG|ss.ssucmwe-0.00)ereceravessoovoeevasberssaces
issued above, then!
ceased, and issued at
the side, till bursting
with sparks.
red balls left behind)? ....... sepvel Er oadavacsy fas Peeeeneueseness
tail followed, and stars)......s0sse+e+
about the latter portions|
fell from it.
light scemed uniform) ? ........+0.-
and ceased suddenly. straight line, but the
movement was irre-
gular.
Soe Ralaaard 2 ivssesesssvesLell Vertical. ..... eeeceaqes
Appeared to moye in a'No noise or explosion...
FOP POO reer eee eee eaereeeesenniee Cees reateseneeerens
weer eeereee
S.E. to N.W. «.........-.,After walking 200 yards|Communicated
a loud noise was| byAlbertGreg.
heard like a gun.
W. R. Milner.
Arthur Neild.
38 REPORT—1862.
D Place of a :
ate.| Hour. Observation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration.
1861.|h m
Dec. 8| ? «e..eseeeee,Bowdon, Man-|Nearly as large asLight blue ...\3 seconds ......|From a little N.W.8
chester. the moon;
brighter than
the sun.
Bie fenceneseaber Liverpool........-|Very brilliant, |..ssesseeeeeeeeeee
giving out con-
siderable glare.
8] 2 ...+0eee00+-(Llandudno ...... Light exceeded that|Many coloured 2 or 3 SecOnds)...+++.sssseeeeeseeeee
of the moon,
more like that of
the sun.
8] ? eves..s0s../Settle, Yorkshire|At the flash, Ob-| ? w..ccsceccesene
server turned
to examine the
moon.
8] ? ..eceeeeeee-| Newcastle - on -/Very _ brilliant Picaavdacedeceres 5 OFG SCCONAS..| ? ..occecsevese ssooue
Tyne. meteor.
8 Inthe even-\Cartmel, Lan- |?.. Hatwovst| Pils siaveccccecce| © covecgncstdiene
ing. caster.
8] ? ..sseeeeese-/Douglas, Isle of|Like full moon let/Startlingly [Visible 10
Man. loose in the sky.| palecolour.| seconds
before it
burst.
Beles. psevies Langdale .cseeesse] ? ccssessseeseenssveoee! 2 ossal 2 seceverneaWetne
Slav aaanescsnas Holcombe « Eillilitieeumecsyscscesseus peel tccrenaxcsds 2 suegauddebeenn
Bury.
IIe oxvvease rape Islington, Lon-|Larger and brighter|..,..6..s000+++04+ esccveesdasvddtsee
don. than the largest
star.
“| Possancceenere Twickenham .,.|Most brilliant | ? ...ecccosssceee| 2 seeceseeeevenee
meteor; eclipsed
the light of the
moon.
, 24 p.m.Greenwich ......,;=3rd mag ....../Blue .........|Halfa second..
810 45 p.m. /Birkenhead(Sea-|Meteors and ShOOt-)..........ssssseeeleeerernees evevecee
to combe). ing-stars.
ll 5 pm
4 5 15 p.m./Glasgow .......+- Fine meteor......... 2 osbaee medevers 9 seconds......
9, 5 30 p.m./Hawkhurst, Kent/Brighter than Ist! ? .....scceceseee 2% or 3 secs. ;
mag.*; large and
bright meteor.
9 9 35 p.m./Greenwich
? seesceeseesevee(Lt appeared to come
slow motion.
Nedewe Small. -ccscecsicccccsdlscticcvcwes soetdss{ABECONG seve
Position, or |
Altitude and
Azimuth.
of the zenitl
described an a
towards the W.
cesesecsevevssees- (At the altitude of
rocket.
out of the moor
? seereeccceeeceseseass
SHO OeR eee teerereneeeneas
4
|
Disappeared behind
woods N.W.
.| Disappeared behiné
a cloud near tk
horizon.
From altitude 50'
or 45° W. q
“
From the Pole-sta
Across y Aurigz
the direction o
the Pleiades. —
Between Ursa Maj
and Orion, S.E. |
In the S.W. sky 4
Across 6 Ursa»
| Minoris; extin o]
halfway betweer,
6B Urse Minor
and Z Urs Mi
joris.
Appeared from |
behind a clout |
moving _ parallel
| to the horizon.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 39
; - Direction ; noting also
ppearance ; Train, if any,] Length of | whether Horizontal :
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or” Remarks. Observer.
Inclined.
ee |
AS | SRN RN SE oy
a long broad train} ? .....secccee| 2 ceccesseeesessseeeeerseeeee/A FuSHing sound heard] ?
behind. during the passage.
arried a luminous train,|.,..............Moved S.E. to N.W. .../sssccescensssesseeeeesesseeees{ Correspondent to
s Liverpool
Mercury.’
utline very irregular,|...........006+[s sevsccccsescoscescorssevssene/(OlCar NIGH srsesessssseeee|1» So G., Corre-
oval shaped ; tail formed spondent to
of consecutive bulbs of * Manchester
fire. Guardian.’
Dall Of fre .csccccsecoesee| 2 socsssssseee] 2 eeteceesscevoeeseeseseesees Sky free from clouds ...|W.H. Cockshott.
? ssssersesserssessscssesessess| 2 seseeeseses| © ceeseeeeeretesesseeseeseeee/Many shooting-stars |Correspondent
seen this evening at} to ‘ Northern
Newcastle. Advertiser,’ R.
Hawthorn,
> ssssesesssvecnsesssceuenceeess| 2 coseseseaeee] © seeeterersevseeeeteevsesees Report very. loud; {Communicated
alarmed the inhabit-| by Albert Greg.
ants.
urst in sparks ike a). ..ssecescuesss|teereeteerseceerenseeenss +++++/People greatly alarmed ;|Samuel Simpson.
rocket. no noise heard,
> >
censsnsensessssssecceesessasee| 2 cessesavaee] 2 eneeeeseeeeeeceseseeeeeeees sesssesesessssessereesseeveees/ JON Richardson.
€ six or seven falling] ? .......5....|Lhey fell vertically ......|cccccscserecsscsscssseesccevelde We Wraith.
stars.
eable in colour, |40° ..,......|+ tocveseeeese tevesseseeeesees/BY memory, at same|James Foote.
8 7
pursued by a vari- spot following day.
coloured tail several
degrees in length; no
explosion, no sparks.
inated the whole)....... seveeeee{LOOK & nOrth-Westerly|......ssseerscscsessseeesseeee/H. G. P., Corre-
country. direction. spondent to
* Manchester
Guardian.’
Mitheassist..55% CEPA het cx Oe beviees BNA ehoncpdldeee Sette sees Pe iat vecssvesccescercessesesnstes| Was Nash
BeabSetscdese+ccacessuacvs|ssecssoccevesss|tesessess.coosecteseeveosegeve(More fell here at) this|D; Walker, M.D.
time than at the
highest time of last
August or November.
ee Besse tenccores| F seccseeeecee| © casesetsesseneeeseesererenslicscesener eee ceeeeeeereeeeenee Communicated
by R. P. Greg.
isappeared without ex-|...,.....,.....{A8 if from Cassiopeia ...|.... sadeccccccsccscnessiveeeelJul's We Herschel.
plosion.
teteseesrrneeveneeesesensseeees LO” seseeeens Parallel to the horizon....Rather cloudy _ ........|J. MacDonald.
40
| Date.| Hour.
Place of
REPORT—1862. °
| Oblervatiod. Apparent Size. Colour.
| 1861.|h ms
Dec. 9 9 40 p.m. Greenwich .,.,..,=2nd mag.# «..++./Blue — sessysere
910 50 p.m. Ibid. ssscseeeeeee] = 2nd Mage weeee/BlUC seeeeseee
10 9 45 p.m. Weston - super -|=2nd mag.x, @ |Dull or smoky
Mare. Urse Majoris. blue.
10/10 30 p.m.? Ibid. seecaseseee =Capella............/Bright blue...
11} 9 12 p.m. Royal Observa-|/=Ist mag.k.seeeee/BlUC sreeeeers
tory, Green-
wich.
L111 11 p.m.|Dbid. ..ssseeeaee =2nd mag.* ......{Blue wees
ILI1 23 p.m.|Ibid. sesssceseee =2nd mag.* ......|Bluish white...
I1J11 28 p.m.l[bid. ....sceveee =3rd mag.F .1.... White cackssuss
1310 0 p.m.| Weston - super -|=§ Aurigz......... Smoky blue...
Mare.
1811 37 p.m.|Birkenhead (Sea-|=1st mag.* ..,.../Bluish .....++.
combe).
23! 7 O p.m.jRoyal Observa-|=2nd mag.* ...... White .........
tory, Green-
wich.
24) 7 0 p.m.|London ........./Mostly 2nd and/White and
to4 a.m. 3rd mag. None! yellow;
so large asVenus.| steady
lights.
24,9 O p.m./Woodford ..... Shooting-starser..,,| ? csseeee secceess
2410 to 11 /Hitchen ........./Small stars .....0...] ? esses Seatensis
p.m.
24/11 38 34 |Deal .......... ..|=@ Andromede .,.|White .......,
p.m.
2519 O p.m./Royal Observa-|=2nd mag.x ......Jceceeseee eee
tory, Green-
wich.
2511 45 46 [Deal ...s00....|Between @ and Blue...
p-m.
Cygni.
Duration.
2seconds ...,
1 second
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
Fell from the}
neighbourhood }
of Orion toward
over 20°
space.
Across @
Majoris.
Less than
1 second.
Nearly 2 secs.
1 to 2 seconds
1 second ......
1 second ......
1 second ......
Less than
1 second.
3 seconds ...
1 second
More _ swift
after mid-
night than
before; mo-
derate.
..|L to 2 seconds
1 second ...+.
(Un the S. seccascencill
Appeared near
Urs Minoris
disappeared neat
” Draconis.
Appeared azimuth
40°, altitude 20°
N. of W.
From ¢ Aurigze to
point a few de~
grees below the
moon. |
From a point a few)
degrees above a
Orionis to y Ori-)
onis.
Fell perpendicu-
larly from 6 Ge
minorum towards
horizon.
‘From @ Tauri to-
Appeared by Cae
pella.
Centre immediately
below 6 Persei.
From the direction
of Cassiopeia to
a Urse Ma-
joris.
Chiefly near the
radiant — before
midnight, after-
wards in 4a
quarters.
From near o to
below « Andro-
mede.
Shot in a northerly
direction —_ ee
tween # and B
Geminorum.
Between « Cygni
and y Draconis,
below « Cygni. —
L
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF
LUMINOUS METEORS. 41
RN
Direction ; noting also |
arance ; Train, if any, Length of | whether Horizontal ; é
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or ; Remarks. Observer.
Inclined.
etestinndswdges'es doses pairs ZO ei csecenays|ITCLINEAT «5.755. dddpasweved| -oceosouspqasscapeopstaeversee( (Oe MacDonald:
MeNSRNSARGecvradacesecesiD ovens eeenecs iN. to S., inclined POeeEVICOOUUTIVIOS Peery erry TT Terre W. Cc. Nash.
Hess; light alternated)......,........ sssseeeessssenssesseseeesseees/AS if a rapidly revolving W. H. Wood.
en times a second. light.
BPR Eds best coseaces se Se eee Slightly inclined N. of/The only two meteors|Id.
W. seen ; night fair.
MAST: Bik ies reseed AOS. Ei coger HS sEO WG sas owns pe capaupee A fine meteor ...,........ W. C. Nash.
. |e reese BO secseeeee E. to W., inclined ....../Generally cloudy.,.......[d.
MME Re sas scnesnc0ces[D°.sccccessecs Perpendicular ...... oaeees| VELY CLOUDY, sairssaveneees. (ECs
SR ass duasss06s-|eccsses Sactes od E. to W., horizontally...| Very cloudy..........s.05. Id.
ess ; decreased (8°............ WartOnBee Ge deccvecevece Night unfavourable...... W. H. Wood.
pidly until lost to
ical OO .--/16° to 18° Horizontal from E.to W.|No other visible for 30D. Walker, M.D.
minutes.
Be ss0%s Mibeendsceescesss-|20° seesessee fSaaswvennc om susecuetesatores. teneeesssescaeeteesssssseseees| We O. Nash,
é left trains; coursesi3° to 40°,)...... pbheN s sata stances +29 to 30 per hour atjA. S. Herschel.
ight. very va- 10 p.m.; fewer after-
rious. wards,
“ae ranenvesseseererees) 2 ceesesseeces| 2 sesseeessssssseeseeeseeesas(SeVeral shooting-stars|John Hill.
within a short
period.
il small shooting-|....,.......... General direction from)....sssesceccsessseuess seseeee|W. Penn,
S without tails. Bellatrix to « Ori-
onis.
: AMIDE 53, ssor0nesnubcrdlauts vs4orvasvascd sccsdesloteentessd tees, Herbert M°Leod.
nd.
ee poses » hi Almost horizontally, S.|.......ccecccccceeseees seeeee| We C. Nash.
to N.
> NEE About 2°.,./Straight down........ce00/.. peswimuexsts ppeneosctdeeduade i\Herbert M°Leod.
42 REPORT—1862.
Hinge ae ; Position, or
Date.}| Hour. Obsersat Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
servation. | Azimuth al
1861.| h ms
Dec.26)11 27 23 (Deal....s0.00.008.-/=y Draconis ..,,...|White .,......:/1 second ......|Appeared _bety
p.m. : % and Z Dracon
disappeared
tween y and |
Draconis.
27| 7 55 p.m. Belfast Lough...) =Ist mag.x..+....../ Yellow .,..../2 seconds...,..18° above the
: -rizon, near
Aurigz.
27| 8 57 p.m. Ibid. ......+++-..|Twice size of Venus|Yellow ....../64 seconds .../\Centre at 8 D
conis.
27/10 34 p.m. Weston - super -|=Rigel ..........-.|Bright blue...|Near 2seconds|At appearance
Mare. tween 6 and
Draconis.
2710 34 p.m.|[bid. .......00ses/=SiTiUS ....++,.0+e-| Bright blue...|2 seconds...... Near d Leonis.
27\11 8 p.m. Ibid. ............8 Urs Majoris |Very dark ...\Less than (Between 6 ané ;
(foot). 1 second. Draconis.
31| 7 37 p.m.|Ibid. ............,Larger than Sirius)Very bright |Nearly 3 secs. |Near ¢ Cygni .«
1862.
Jan. 2/12 43
311 48
311 49
ll] 7 5
11|About7p.m.|Edgware Road,\Considerably larger|Similar to |SlOW...seseeeeee|eeseeneceeeeeeres
and less than} blue.
Venus.
a.m.|Birkenhead (Sea-]= Venus .....+++... Yellow ......|3 seconds ... rode ree
combe). Aldebaran.
P-M.|Ibid. seeeceeeesee] —=PFOCYON eevee .. Bluish ........./1¢ second .,./Centre at ha
(y Orionis
Aldebaran).
Pm.TbIds sesss6...060 = Ist mag.x.........|Bluish ...,,,.../4 second ......|Centre almost
way (a Ori
andyGeminor
p-m.|Euston Square, |BrighterthanVenus More yellowSlow move-|Appeared belo
London. than Venus,| ment, moon; di
in strong peared 3°
contrast. Procyon.
Kilburn. than Venus. Venus.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
43
| eR a
p earance; Train, if any,
ahd its Duration.
lless
FETE Oe Osos eeeeeseee
ite tail 16° long ; dis-
ppeared nearly simul-
aneously with meteor.
“Sparks; short evan-
cent tail of flame-
€ character or ap-
rance.
lar sparks behin
lin its descent, which
$ particularly slow.
Length of
Path.
eeeeenee
Pee eeeeeereeres
see eerees
oteeeeee
.....{[nclined (most) west
eeeeee
..|Vertical ; down ......
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal
Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer,
Inclined.
isverbebeseveucttevovocncdedcleseiusssdeleddesscecsvisereees| Herbert McLeod,
Almost horizontal: jiveih bers ssvevesevseveeccteveiaes D. Walker, M.D.
To left ; 52° from hori-|..... hesecavererien ssesyeeet as Id.
zontal; down.
A little inclined west Position at disappear-|W. H. Wood.
ance near the two
stars 80 Herculis.
of perpendicular to
horizon.
Inclined north side of
perpendicular.
side of perpendicular,
let fall from its ap-
pearance.
Path parallel to 3 and y
Cygni, from the
former towards the
latter.
Over % Cygni.
was an interval of
three seconds of time
between this and
another meteor. They
merged from the
head of Draco.
This meteor in its
transit passed exactly
midway between a
and y Cygni; de-
creased before dis-
appearance; the sky
became overcast for
the night; such was
the case on the 28th,
29th, and 30th.
To right; 45° from ho-|...... SUERSE OUTED 008 eebabad
rizontal ; down.
To right; 30° from ver-|...... Mo rks eect
tical ; down.
PP ee ee eee eee Pee eee CeCe eee eee ee ey)
The latter half of the|\Observing Venus and
path appeared curved.| the moon; clear
evening.
An) inclined) direction|.:...0dss.ccsee0+.<0eetetes st.
from beneath the
moon.
Near y Leonis............ Id.
Near 61 Cygni............ Id.
There|[d.
D. Walker, M.D.
Id.
Id.
W. R. Birt.
C. Herb. Bright.
Position, or |
Altitude.and _
Azimuth,
peared 4° abor}
peared near
Bootis.
44. REPORT— 1862.
Date Hour eee Apparent Size Colour Duration.
, : Observation. PP ps ;
1862.;/h m :
Jan. 11] 9 43 p.m.|Weston - super -;=Sirius ...... souees Mivid blue... |i2iseevccne
Mare.
11/11 48 p.m.|Ibid, ......e+++;=Jupiter .,..+....|Bright yellow |3 seconds,
slow notion.
12/0 1 am.|Ibid. ..... seseeee=& (foot) of UrsalA very dark/Less than
Major. colour. I second.
25159 O pim:|Ibid, csscasseser- =—Capellassecse-stves Rigel vognersars 2 rips aeane
23\09 “0: p.m.|Ubids” Sianscesss se = Capella. siscssives Reddishyellow 14 second......
Pal9 14. p-m-|[bid. <svessesseee = 3rd mag.x ...... Smoky blue.../Rapid; 4 sal
23 9 21 p.mi|ibids. assscasaneas =8rd mag.* ....... Smoky blue...|Slow ; 1 sec.
23/11 14 p.m.|Islington, Lon-|=3rdmag.* ...... Yellow ....../2 S€CONA oveeee!
don.
QSL 29” p.m. [bids ieee. aeeees A Sh MAGE wens ease White ...... voe/F SECON oosees
24) 8 20 p.m.|Weston - super -|=3rd mag.* ...... Smoky blue.../Fast; 4 sec....
Mate.
24) 9 28 p.m.|Ibid, .e,,.see0e2) = ord mag.* ...... Smoky blue...|Fast ; 4 sec....
24) 9 28 p.m.|[bid, ..,....0650.|= ord Mag.x ...... Smoky blue.,.|Fast; 4sec..
25/12 15 a.m.|[bid. ............,=2nd mag.x ....../Bright blue .,,|Moderate ;
4 second.
25/11 22 p.m. Birkenhead (Sea--=Regulus ......... Bluish ....0+.../ SCCONd wees
combe).
25/11 223 p.m.Islington, Lon- =3°5 mag.k ...... Yellow ....0- § SECON ssseee
don. |
oll 2o pimitbid. s,s... c0ceers =Ist mag.*......... White .........,0°6 second .
25,11 47 p.m.) Weston - super --=3rd mag.* ...... Dull blue.,....'4 second ......
Mare.
conis.
Appeared very ne
Rigel; disappeare)
near y Eridani. |
Appeared very mi
Rigel. a
Appeared near P
cyon.
Appeared near
Cassiopeia.
«From a= star
following w Dr
conis to ¢
conis.
From 3 (8, y) 1
anguli tow
+ Piscium.
Draconis.
Same _ track
last.
Fe eRe mene eneeeeeneeee:
the feet.
ed near 6 Boo
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
45
eee
ance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
SUPP Heme renee eeteeersttee
FEET ORO etree res eeeeeseetens
ess
FERPA PORTE eD eo ereeres
REROIMELG icvsseeesees =
Direction; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Length of
Path.
lar to the horizon.
‘e meteor.
tail; intermittent
ht; two alterna-
Kk left ; no sparks...
rack left ;
hemisphere,
@ semi-corona.
|
t tail 3° long followed)...
SOP w Ree eee e ee eeeeeeeeetens 8
Kk left ; no tes obaneese
ck left; no sparks.../7°
‘ack left ; no sparks...|,
ack left SOT HTHe eee e ae 7 hes
left ; some sparks/5°
left; no sparks...!6°....ceceeee.
surprising, .
SOOO eet eeet et ieae SOOT e eee eee e eee eee teeta ee
SOOO OTC e eee eel sete eeeeeeneeeeeeteeeeeeeeaeee
Tete eee e eee eeeeeeeee eee eeeeee
LORY Sccestes Inclined 50° southward
°
Along the Via lactea,
| northwards.
eeetesenslsseeees eee eeeeneneeee Oeeeeeerlses
CNORCEEC CRECE SI ECOL OTs swtanadendsts pave
Ks no sparks ...,../12° ,,,.,,,../Parallel to horizon, E.
to W.
FORO b ed dees Cee nooo seen en eteeereneeeeetons
tical; down.
|
? seseseeeeees Path nearly perpendicu-...
? sesesssseeae Serpentine path; very!
Remarks.
He eR OMe eee eee ee ee eeee rt eteae
TOCOTEHO OE DE HEE Oe eee tree eeeee
Auroral glare; N.W. by
N.
Rapid lightning from
N.W. by N.
teens POO e retort teaeterreneee
‘Thunder and lightning
at 3 a.m., Jan. 24th.
a Draconis.
Id.
Id.
FOO e ener ener eeettettneeres Id.
PPP PREP ESOP REESE ESE Id.
CRCCCP SPOR eer ee tees taearateres Id.
Observer.
—_— ir
SVadwaktckcaccththeetsntave W. H,. Wood.
essecevesee(Ae Se Herschel,
Radiant between « and|W. H. Wood.
«TO rights 35° from Ver-!.....,.ccceesssssecevsseeeeeee{D» Walker, M.D.
oiea selsersekeasuediedsveet|As S. Aerschel,
Seovehscssscssdsarseneddveevas|Ma 90 TRCISCHEls
ee ee en ae ee a Sees Ls atid ...{W. HL. Wood.
Date. Hour.
1862.| h m
Jan. 25/11 49 p.m.|Islington, Lon-|=2°5 mag.*.........|Faint yellow...
don.
46 REPORT—1862.
Position, or
Duration. Altitude and
Azimuth.
Place of
Observation. Apparent Size. Colour.
——_ we
0-9 second ...\From 1° N.
6 to A Cag
peiz.
2511 55 p.m. Weston - super -|=3rd mag.* .,.,,.|/Dull blue......|3 second ..,... Disappeared neat :
Mare. Bootis.
|
P|
=0-4 mag.* ,,,,,., White, — bril- 1:7 second .../From a star 23°
liant, then of w Dracoi
red. 2° beyond o I
25/11 564p.m.|Islington, Lon-
don.
conis.
Moll S74 p.m.|bid.. ...<0.-0. .|=8rd mag.* ,,,,,.{Colourless .../0°7 second ...|From y to { G
siopeiz. .
25)12 0 p.m.\Birkenhead (Sea-|=6 Leonis .........|Bluish ......... % second ..,,..., Disappeared
combe). below a
joining » and
Virginis. i
26| 0 24 a.m./Weston - super -|=2nd mag.* ...... Blue — ..eesee0e| SLOW J SCCONG]..000000eeensereenail
Mare, {
]
26) 0 30 am. |Ibid, .......se--.;=4th mag.* ....../Very dark |} second ......|Appeared at
blue. foot of
: Major. 4
PEO SH Am |LDIds « secscesences =2nd Mag ....+ Blue ......«»+|$ second ...... From 2 Urse
joris to « Draco}
26 6 10 p.m.,|Birkenhead (Sea-|=Capella............|Bluish «........ 3 second ,,....\Centre 2° 1
combe), and 8° E. @
Persei.
2611 443 p.m,|Islington, Lon-|=0°8 mag.*......... Yellowish....../0°8 second -...,1° S. of « BD
don. conis to 1°
@ Draconis, i}
two-thirds
again. .
27/11 24 p.m. Ibid. ......0082--|=4th mag.* ......Orange colour|0°5 second ...|/From 4 (k, )
d siopele. |
27\11 253p.m.|Ibid. ......... won) == A Ni. veeees Yellow ....../0°5 second ...|\Centre 1° pre
ing o Persei. |
28/11 3 p.m./Stone, near |Tolerably large; |White light .,.\25 seconds .../From 2° p
Aylesbury. =3rd mag.* ing w Cept
& (e, x)
peiz ; 1° né@&
to the latter
28/11 4ip.m.|[slington, Lon-|=0'8 mag.*.,.....,.|Yellowish..,...|1°3 second .../From 1° beb
don. 3 (6, rv) C
peiz to 1°
ceding w Cas
peiz. Y|
=I1st mag*........./Whitish ,,,...|$ second ...,../From 3 (« a
Ursze Majorit
.|Very slow mo-|From beneatl
29| 7 22 p.m.|Birkenhead (Sea-
combe).
?|}7 O p.m.)Kilburn,London.|=Venus at maxi-|White ...,...-
mum. tion. moon. |
Feb. 2) 8 15 p.m./Burslem .........|Large blue light ...;Blue — «++...s.-|Travelling hades anes pe eae
slowly; |
minute.
2) 8 20 p.m.|Birkenhead(Sea-|=Rigel ........000 Blue sser++ee-/22 seconds .../From 2° aboyel
combe), belt of O
about 15°
Sirius.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
pearance ; Train, if any,| Length of
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
47
~ and its Duration. Path, Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer.
; Inclined.
Memes leftis:Appeared)10° ..ccscei.|.cccevescseseeasoccssbanconsselens eee ee eee A. 8. Herschel.
0 give out sparks.
Sonn i i Sen Le Pisihotsccssacercossaelbss.s ascohs RPaaeciewevs »..|W. H. Wood.
Lyre in motion 10°;/15° ........./.00. ator Gs Fy pret ire ean lpePaNR Ree A aka A. S. Herschel.
faded to dull red in
2°, and disappeared
gradually. No track
eft ; no sparks.
track left; sparkled ...|8°.....s.s00eshecccsssees Freee | ee nee Sate eee a Id.
track left POP evereetetene 18° or 20° To left ; (he or 8° from POOR TM eee eer nese eee eer netee D. Walker, M.D.
vertical ; down.
rht or (or? side Ollscedevis weereee LU acauadccebcovewsNeawatsences Soe Pere eeeceseseeeeeeeeesseens W. H. Wood.
ircumference ; hazy.
track left; no sparks.../3°........66+. IW: to-H. horizontal iu, cspcss.sscccessssaevs sssaen/ LG
track left ; no sparks... B eunaahe anaes OO eeeeEUEITIOCOOeTO Cire rr Trier) POO ener ee eeereetesesesees Id.
rack left ...csyscsessees(12° sesseeses
track left ; sparkled ....9°.....ss0005
To left ; horizontal......
PAusapsabsaecceasseconsvecspeatt>= Vealker, M.D).
saceenecesccsscescesveveveeses(As S- Herschel.
track left; no sparks.../8°....... ++ee/Parallel to y, « Cassio-|Clear night ............ peel kae
peiz.
kled ; no track left ...|7°.....,......|Directed from ¢ Persei...|Only two shooting-stars|Id.
from 10 to 11 p.m.
ee eee 20° fapebiicerteubscsesacapeiae ahewbaweee wablinesis Coeevocrccnevcesegccsesns W. Penn.
track left; sparkled ;11° .,
ent downwards, and
ower at last.
rseree/LO left ; 20° from hori-|Fine passing clouds...
zontal; down,
...|A. S. Herschel.
BEEP ras yarasce-10°;.aopshecs.|LOvlett-s horizontal: <sslis.cd.cc.scesscccce crannies D. Walker, M.D.
fain of golden sparks|....... seoeeess(Lnclined Gownwards t0}.......sssssceeeees Secostteo C. H. Bright.
ursued the nucleus. left.
meee llc Stars keptl.csisaissscsno.| Se tOiNe aacdshavisdaoeeoa:| cvs deseaegescex patents oss Correspondent to
ling from it in a track ‘ Manchester
e fire. Guardian.’
Wl train and SPALKS|<,.esscesseees-|L0 lefts 3O° from Nori-l.....c..ccssescescecsecess .....D. Walker, M.D.
2companied the head,
zontal; down.
Date. Hour.
— ere
1862.) h m
Feb. 2) 8 20 p.m. Tarporley, Che-\Lighted sky and White ; after 6 seconds.,,....From nearly
48 REPORT—1862.
)
a
i
‘a
Position, or —
Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
be: Azimuth. ~
Place of
Observation.
a | ee
shire. landscape like a} bursting a little E. @
flash of light-) purplewrap- Pleiades to ni
ning. pedin white, | Gemini. }
then red.
2} 8 20 p.m.|Liverpool ...,..| =Ist mag.x, then a The globe was ...+essseesseres First appeared
large globe. of a bluish) a first magnitt
colour. star in the reg
of Orion.
2| 8 21 p.m. Observatory, _|Not as large as the Changed _to Visible 3secs. ; From W.S.W.,
Beeston. moon, but ap-| blue and) slowmotion.| above Venus
proaching to it;) pink and then burst |
much brighter. green. hind a cloud
quickly
eared
2} 8 30 p.m.|Manchester ......|[n size it looked to) ? «++-e+.s+e4++++ 6 seconds; mo- From altitude
astar asa billiard derate speed. E.S.E.; dis
ball does to a peared 20° abo’
pea. horizon.
QZ} scavcsccecerece|NEWAIK sense .++s|About as big as the| Whitish colour2 seconds ...|Directly — towar
moon, light as the moon; b
brilliant —_light- in a cloud ten
ning. twelve diamett
off the moon. |
Exploded S.Wy
altitude 32° 3.
altitude 30°.
2 weeeteneeeeenee Sheffield SOOO OOOe eee rete e erent enter eeeeee POP eee CIOS eee eee
Qi veccccseseeeeelIDId. ceseeseeeeee(LO or 11 inches |Bright amber.. 6 SCcONdS......|ssssereseeeeeeseee
diameter.
Q\....esseseesees{Mold, Flintshire |It looked to a star|s+sssssssee+ses+ee| Moving slowly /E. + =i altitud
as a football to a
marble. :
Q\, .cesesescseeee(NEWLOWN ses,,s| =One-fourth of the, ? sercsseeeseeees{Not more than|Probably kindlj
moon. 2or3secs.| due E.; fi
seen N.E.;
tude 45°;
came __ ext
N.E. by N.
Dl apeaisse eteee Worlow eteeeseee ? eeteeenene eereeeetees 2 weet tteereeeeee ? eeeeeteeteeeree a Probably :
to N.N.W.”
(H. C. S.)
2). seeseeeseeees Bastbourne ......,=half size of full Colour Of — |-ecesessseees Halfway _ bet
moon. moon, pale the Pole-sta
yellow. the horizon,”
2} 9 153 p.m. Birkenhead (Sea-/Twice a3 bright as White ......... 2 seconds..,...|From # to ”
combe). Venus. conis.
2/10 23 p.m.|[bid. .......+..4+! VOILE: ccs evacuees BUG. cahoeesnt li second .,.|From 3° N.
Virginis.
Gapella, sc..vces tics APRONS ass 2 second .,,...,Centre 4 (Ce
roli and 4 UI
Majoris).
|
210 25 pm. Ibid. secs
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 49
ypearance ; Train, if any,
~ and its Duration.
rst white, then bursting
like a rocket; it took’
with
iu which state it disap-|
peared.
No luminous
seen.
track
ft many stars and sparks|30°
in its track of various
colours,
ad with a_ tolerably
defined edge; circular ;
ong white track ; visible
20 to 25 seconds.
fectly round; very| ?
i i vanished
cular ; luminous track 3|.,,,.,..e.00c0s
-asted half a minute.
fectly round; burst
itted stars, and left al............
arge track of sparks.
ad =pear-shaped, en-
ircled by red fiery
é. Comet-like tail
POPP e eee er seer eeeesierepenes ?
er shooting across the
‘y and disappearing,
urst forth again and
Xploded like a rocket.
mge-red train with
parks ; one second.
MACK left ..........00.0. Borer 25
$
track left
Fete tereeeees
Hewett ee eetens
4 moved 40° N.W,
<.|LOnIZontall 5, eopsseseacees
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
sesesecseeseees( Nearly horizontal. .......
4
see etenin 'S.W. to N.E., obliquely
towards the earth.
the horizon,
Fell almost vertically .,.
At 45° downward ......
S.E. to N.W.; E. to W.
From altitude 40° E.;
zontal; down.
.., Vertical ; down ...,.....1,
oy i canes, See To left; 45° from hori-|...... ’
zontal; down.
FOR e erect eeeeteeeneneeeaeaees
FOr tree eee eeeeeetereearaeeee
To left ; 45° from hori-'Slight curve in the di-
Remarks.
Observer.
|
An uninterrupted view..|W. Vicars.
eens PPPOE e eee eee eee ee
so as to see quite
small objects,
Thin strata of fleecy
clouds,
Moved along among
belts of clouds.
FEET T Teter er ee eeee teen esene tee
rection.
Downward, at 45° to Illuminated the ground) W. Brown; P.
Parr.
A. H. Allcock,
Communicated
by H. C. Sorby,
Messrs. Roberts,
Mappin, and
Watson.
W. P. W. Bux-
ton; Mr.
Furniss.
Correspondent
to Carnarvon
Paper.
.. In an oblique direction],.,,......,csosssssseerreseee Re OWen.
towards the north
horizon.
From S. to N., or a little!..,..ccsescocsosssssescerecess C. H. B. Hambly.
W. of N.
.|N. to N.W., downwards)...... sesscovevevercoeereeeges(JOhN Hall, jun.
D. Walker, M.D.
trees PRO eeeeeeeeeteeeestens Id.
weeidqsnessues@esdescace Id.
50 REPORT—1862.
Position, or |
Date. Hour. once n. | Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
1862., h m
Feb. 210 54 p.m.|/Birkenhead(Sea-=Castor ........++++ White: Ji sryenes second ...00
combe).
211 11 p.m.Ibid. ....... seess| = Cor Catol tec White <.ji5e000 3 seconds......
roli and
turus), 2° highe |
2)11 30 p.m.|Ibid. ....0.000... =Cor Caroli ...... WIRE V5 os0ss- 4 second ...... eet } (6 Leo
and a
Berenicis).
3} 9 O p.m.|Kilmarnock, Quarter diameter 0 White ......-.-|More than halfAppeared close
Glasgow. moon, or 3 times a minute. Pollux; dis
Venus at maxi- peared close t
mum. Aldebaran. .
411 46 p.m.|Weston - super -|=Capella............/Bright blue .,. 14 second ...|Appeared near i
Mare. Cassiopeiz.
911 41 p.m. Birkenhead (Sea-|=Jupiter............ BING: © .cqssee-s + second ,
combe).
it 32 a akevaabaers = Arcturus ......... White ........./4 SCCONd «+00.
18 8 37 p.m./Greenwich ...... =3rd mag.x ...... Blue ..se0c0s- 1 second ...... From direction
Capella; dis
peared near |
Arietis. :
28912 spam\Ibid. s...00:0000 =3rd mag.x ..... Blue: ‘nageasess Nearly 1 sec. |From Z Tauri aert
a Orionis.
1811 12 p.m.Islington, Lon--=y Cassiopeie ...|White seseseeee(0°6 second .../4 « Cassiopei
on, A Camelopz
to 5 (x,
Persei.
19| 0 23 a.m.|Birkenhead(Sea- Twice diameter of Yellow ......{f second ......|From 14° to ri
combe). Jupiter. of » Draconis.
1911 32 p.m.lIslington, Lon--=4th mag.* ......|Yellow ......{0°2 second ...|Centre $ (y Ce
don. and B Ca Ss]
peiz).
: 50 pm.Ibid. ...... seeces|==SITIUS .seceseeeeee| White o.00+0...[L°3 second ,
al
912 10 pm.Ibid. ....... oace| == CUA QUIMG <i eccness WGA! cochoosss 4 second see...
f 8 zs Rim lige - super -|=2nd and 3rd mag.| ? esesssseeeesees| 2 ceceeceererenesleeesnneeeeeseeues
| Mare. shooting-stars.
9 30. p-m.
2011 p.m. . WES eeaccescuaces =3rd mag. ShOOt-| ? sssccsecseseeee| 2 ceceeeaneeses
12 p.m. ing-stars.
20/11 323 pipe iinet: Lon-|=s Cassiopeie .../Yellow ....../0°25 second
aon.
21/10 57 lei ae = 2nd mag.x ...... White ......... About 2 secB...}..ceeeees sndveotan
21/11 5 p.m.|Islington, Lon-|=e Persei ......... Yellow .....- el
don.
PRON Ree ete ee eee
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
ppearance ; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
dylight, very brilliant,| ? ....0......
like the electric light,
or a fine ball; no train.
oky appearance ; semi-
corona.
track remained .........
BORGSIEIW ssi copy evcceess
MIS ageccseceegoecencccscees|®
ghtest at middle.
tre of its flight.
ntine flight ;
ulations 4° wide.
track; no sparks ......
PAK LEPC is....cceccess
msiderable display ...
illess save one.
track left ; no sparks..,
SPER eee ew eter ee eens
ee eeeeeee
teeeeelee
track left; no sparks ;|10° ,
? sevssceveeee/ Radiant
Length of
Path,
ee enenees
POP e eee ewaeelenee Serer eteneee .
?
S eeeeeeeesees
‘track left ; no sparks...|8°
weeeee
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
«e«+-/To left; 30° from hori-|.
zontal; down.
To right; 30° from hori-
zontal ; down.
cal; down.
Parallel to y Orionis and
a Orionis.
E. to W., inclined 10°
W
To left; 30° from hori-
zontal; down.
Vertical ; down .,
etree
Almost N, to S.
in Perseus ;
N. P.) Di 33° > AOR:
29°.
Radiant Polaris .,
From Polaris ............
———_—
OUT Se lemme es
Remarks,
51
Observer.
FOTO eee renee ee eeere
OURO e ee eee eter eee ere Hees
seeeee .
One meteor in an hour..
eneeee
Radiant Polaris .........
SOOO U eRe e eee ee eeeeeeeenes ene
Tailed star; Ist mag-
nitude; blue; 10° in
3 seconds; tail as-
cended and dissipated
like steam.
eee eeneee eee eeeeeesesees oe
eikd,
D. Walker, M.D.
Id.
Id.
Robert
jun.
Craig,
W. H. Wood.
D. Walker, M.D.
Id.
W.C. Nash.
Id.
A. S. Herschel.
D. Walker, M.D.
A. 8S. Herschel.
Id.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
APE eee eee ee ewereraee
Fell from zenith to-|,
wards the western
horizon.
FromyPolaris: ..<css<sceet
SOOO O meee eneenasetaberesenecer
J. MacDonald.
A. S. Herschel.
52 REPORT— 1862.
Position, or
Place of ; 5 3
Date. Hour. é Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
Observation. PP’ Reinintlie
|
1862.;/h m |
Feb. 21/11 15 p.m.Islington, Lon-/=y Cassiopeia ...JYellow ss. 1 second ......\y Cephei to
don. Cephei; 3° foley
lowing. é
2111 15 p.m./Greenwich ....../A8 bright as Ju-|Blue — ssssse0 ADOUL 2 SCCS. «1|...0ecsereersrseerenneall
piter.
23) 9 25 p.m.|Liverpool ......| Magnificent meteOr).secsrssrrerseeene/serersessrseeseces|ersnessnssssssssesecs
|
|
|
23, 9 25 p.m.|Weston - super -|=half diameter of Vivid red light)14 second .../From N.N.E. half
Mare. moon. E. altitude 20°%}
to N. altitude;
182°,
23) .sseeseesesees-(Liverpool, Wal-\Bright light filled A cold light,|Leisurely ......|Moved as if fro
lisby, Cheshire.| the streets. not _ flame- over Manchester)
coloured. into Wales,
Great Bear to
Orion, horizont-
ally.
23 eee ee eeeeeeems Bramboro, Ches- A bright light TETTTETTTTTET TEETER Origin near Jupite
ter. thrown from the
sky.
23|..escceeseeeeee(Cross Houses, |Exceedingly bril-| ? ..sssseeesses+-|Flashes 2 secs.,|From S.W. by
Salop. liant, then ran along the h
across the | rizon at a gre
sky. altitude; pro-}
bably 40° or 50
between Jupiter}
and Ursa Majo
OE eee cccucsceves| SRLOD: ceencerevseo|-saccofssuataesesausnaar| cueesasseestros ar ncedacatarcenton ..|Froma great heigh
nearly to
ground.
23) 9 30 p.m. Weston = super -|=2nd mag.k ...... Bl neuiiyatiseroes|itcevns Senne »+++--(From Cassiopeia .
are.
Mar. 3} 9 8 p.m./Ibid. ........000. =2nd mag.# .00...|BIUG sseeeeeee 2 second...... Appeared close
Sirius,
a9 29 p.m, |Lbidss> .. «sserseus =one-eighth of |Pale red ,.....'2} secs., SloWasslieapnscdsesesseeeSeean
moon.
Apr. 3/11 25 p.m.[slington, Lon-|=4th magx......0./White ....5+.0°7 second .,./Centre 1° S.
don. pq Camelopa
dali.
4,8 10 p.m. mechan - super -|=Ist mag.* .,..../Blue sseeeee../ SECON ese From Sirius...
Mare,
Al OS pPm|Lbid, ....ssesces-| = 1SH MAL.¥.ss0r000-(DIUC. sesanenee 4 second ,.....\From Jupiter ..
bar of light remained
about 20 seconds after
the first appearance of
the meteor.
rlike meteor; became
suddenly extinct, leav-
ing a bar of red
light 25° in length,
fluctuating between
red and orange, and
lasting 8 seconds until
disappearance.
0 explosion; long di-
stinct train of light,
disappearing slowly like
smouldering twine.
1 turning round, two
bars of white light
were seen, which en-
dured fifteen seconds.
aded sooner than the
north.
vo flashes like lightning,
then ran along the ho-
izon in one long broad
ine, which
wrens POPC ewer oeserees
track left ........00.
Dl eeee
Overcast with haze ...!.,
covered with thick
aze,
tee eeereeeees
eee tere tenes
Sere eeeeeens
Sebo reese ens
Perpendicular to ho-
rizon.
...{Perpendicular to ho-
Direction ; noting also
ppearance ; Train, ifany,) Length of | whether Horizontal, 18
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks
Inclined.
O track left; no sparks...J15° .....06../EYOm Polaris .sssecessssseccessescssvvescnsneeresees ne
Light train ..,.00.4,..seeeeeeleceeseeeeeeeees An the N., fell from thel..... svaiiebgn@utienlen tes essai
behind the houses.
horizon.
pressed 2° or 3°.
..(From E. to W. by S.
....,/Slightly inclined to the|Jupiter
horizon.
position,
especially to the S.
? sesseseeeees/A little inclined ...,...../Sky obscured at 10 p.m.
cal; down.
Perpendicular
horizon.
Directed from .o Urse
Majoris.
rizon.
zenith, disappearing
E. to W,, at an angle of|The tail faded gradually,
about 80° with the
E. to W., nearly hori-lcsccecsscccoosscnsesscovarves
zontal; west end de-
To left; 30° from verti-|,
to the}..
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
no change.
streeeeecevesererssussereesess Studley Martin.
appeared
shine brighter when
the bars disappeared
than he did before.
Parallel to the horizon,|/The stars seemed to go| James
yet in a descending
inclining
out on that side of
the hemisphere, and
did not recover their
brightness for half an
hour,
One star in an hour;/A
N.W.; cloudless.
Fell one per hour
-|A. S. Herschel.
to/T. Juman.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
Id.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
53
Observer.
J. MacDonald.
Correspondent to
‘ Liverpool
Mercury.’
W. H. Wood.
Caswell
and Son.
Sebo merece eeeeaenes
. S. Herschel.
54
Date. Hour,
1862.| h m
Apr.14| 7 42 p.m.
17/10 10 p.m.
20) 8 30 p.m.
23) 8 56 p.m.
23] 9 50 pm.
23/10 35 p.m.
10 26 p.m.
25
2510 30}p.m.
2610 52 p.m.
26/10 524 p.m.
27| 8 42 pm
REPORT—1862.
Place of ‘
| Observation. Apparent Size. Colour.
Clerkenwell, 8 to 10 times as|White ....... --
London. bright as Jupiter.
Hitchen .....0...|FiN€ MetCOL...cervesleccsecsesebererers
Greenwich Hill..|Larger than Jupiter) ? ....,.se000...
Weston - super - Larger than Ist |White .,,......
Mare. mag.*
Thid. ssessseeeeee|Nearly as large as|Deep yellow...
Jupiter.
St. John’s Wood,|Brilliant body of mri colour-
London. light.
11 33} p.m.
10 30 p.m.
Position, or
Duration. Altitude and
Azimuth.
3 seconds...... From 10° or 12
over Jupiter
altitude 32°,
by W.
3 seconds,.....|From4}(a Ursa Ma
joris and Pola
to centre of C¢
rona Borealis. |
...|Between p and _
Camelopardali.
16 Draconis
y Draconis, —
close and para
to « and y Dr
conis. f
»|From Arcturus
18/ Bootis.
2 seconds
Slow ; 14 sec.
Slow ; 2 secs.
Between N. and ;
altitude 45°. |
|
7 seconds......
Weston - super - =Ist mag.*......... Brilliant blue..|4 second ...... At appearance ni
Mare. 41 and 42
melopardali.
Islington, Lon-|=Pollux .......660.. Pollux ..........0°4 second ...|From 1° S.
don. Camelopardus.
Weston - super -|=Spica Virginis ...|Spica Virginis |} second ......,At appearance
Mare. 66 Virginis.
Ibid.) > dieswieins = Spica Virginis ...|Spica Virginis |? second ......|66 Virginis ....
MIO sessezeders VENUS ....-c0cses| VENUS 400-400. 1 second ......|From #1 Cy
passing bety
the head sta
Lacerta. |
Birkenhead (Sea-\-=Jupiter .........,Blue .........,24 seconds ...\Close to jp He
combe). culis. |
Greenwich ......,=2nd mag.* ...... Reddish ......! 1 to 2 seconds From the direeti
| of Urse M
| towards _ the
» horizon =p
Arcturus.
pearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
$$. ——
Year-shaped; no track
visible through clouds;
faded gradually, and
disappeared quietly;
very slight train.
rocket.
tationary; varied little
in brightness.
ursued by faint phospho-
rescent train.
0 track; disappeared
and reappeared three
or four times.
ket-like, but kite -|
shaped; left a few
Sparks for half a second
on dying out.
OTE seceesceccevcceressecees
0 track;. no sparks;
a train like & sky-|..ccccssssccss
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal
Perpendicular, or . Remarks.
Inclined.
fe ator ar | _
Lowmight:;.. 20° frommhoe|Nivcscacosescoeeeeevane.ves
rizontal ; down.
Seen ee eee eernarees eee eeetenee
SOHO OR eee ee eter ete teesees
SOOO O ROTO ee EF Cease Eee HOSE TUTE E EE OH ee eeae
9°
~
brightest in the middle.
tin visible three seconds;
urst at last with strong
light; pink, and bright
as Venus.
MBSE DSS c ce ccicctcccccccesccees
s
5°
came suddenly ex-
tinguished.
15° ........./To left; 30° from verti-|..........00 Pet Re Tree G
15
eeetrsaeeees
or 3° 4...
see eeeeeeeee
seen eeeeenes
°
Horizontal, W. to E.,
inclining downwards
at last.
Inclined west of +......
Toleft ; 35° to 40° from
vertical ; down.
Ditto, west side of
vertical, at an angle
of 75°,
Inclined 65° west of +
Inclined
Bate ee eee erewenee
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
Strong twilight; quite
overcast ; rain falling.
PORROO eee mete rene ener eteaetee
POPE OO eee eee eee e terete ees
HERO OP Hee et orerereseeeeees
FERRET CORO e ee ee ee et eeeesaees
|
[TSE PPR ene eneees Pee eeeneneeens
Increased in brilliancy...
Only one other star in
the hour; very faint ;
cloudless.
TOPCO eee e rere eeeeenseneee eae
FARR E ee Oe eee e esses eteeeees
Appeared first as a
cal ; down.
second magnitude
star, and _ gradually
increased until equal
Venus, when it be-
Observer.
T. Crumplen ;
A. S. Herschel.
Communicated
by W. Penn.
W. Airy.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
Id.
A. S. Herschel.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
Id.
.|\D. Walker, M.D.
W. C. Nash.
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
|
Dropped from 4
near Polaris iff
a N. by E. die
rection toward§
the horizon. |
5° beneath 3 (6 and!
y Herculis). 4%
Centre 3 (y Ser
pentis and
Herculis).
Centre 2° below 7
Serpentis.
From Z (Crateris
to y (Corvis).
From Ursa Major.
to 14° S.
@ Cassiopeiz.
From 4 (4g p)
L Camelopa
dali.
Ky
56 REPORT—1862.
Date.| Hour. ms tne oe Apparent Size. Colour. Duration.
1862. h m | |
Apr.27, 8 51 p.m.,Greenwich ...... =2nd mag.* ...... Yellow seeesseee second ,.....
2710 10 p.m. Birkenhead (Sea- = Venus ....... wove [Blue — ..seeeeee/4 SECON cesses
combe). |
27/10 50 p.m.|Ibid. ............ = Jupiter.......0....) Whitish ....../4 second ......
27:11 25 p.m.|Ibid. .. Sy Wipe ebereceece- [Bluish ...000... % second ...+..
2810 46 p.m. Weston - super -|=2nd mag.* ....... Blue «.-sss0e ld second «.,
Mare.
oa 9 53 pan(Ubid, cesvecsoens| lat Mapes... White .....000- 1 second, fast..
2911 6 p.m.Islington, Lon-|=Capella............ ;Capella......... \0°9 second ...
don.
ZOW 33. p.m. Ebi... s.csearcene =o Urs Majoris..!o Urs Majoris 0-1 second ...
2911 37Ep.m.|[bid. .s.sseseeoee =o Ursx Majoris../oUrsz Majoris|0'2 second ...
29/11 55 p.m.Ibid. .....- .eeeee/Half as bright as)White, then)4°5 seconds;
Jupiter. red. exceedingly
slow.
May 21/10 27 p.m.| Weston - super -|=2nd mag.* ......;Blue ......4 1} second ...
Mare.
24/10 10 p.m.iIbid. .......0000 =Ist mag.x «..... Yellow ........./2 seconds......
25/10 40 p.m. Ibid. .....es.e00.,= Ist mag.# 4.0... Blue ..|14 second ...
25/10 55 p.m.|[bid. ......eeeee- Nab ig | <cosce/BNOR. sxihasvans eomnsaunterca eee
orll p.m. :
No meteors’ seen throughout |the month of Suuiel yaueee ed oe wevesecaviees
July 1210 41 p.m. Weston - super -|=Sirius ............ IWIN Ee: eer. ceaes 'Ssecond ......
Mare. | b
1610 45 p.m. Ibid. ....seeeeeee = 2nd mag.x ...... (Blue iysanctvexs \(Fast) 4.sec. ..
TSE TPM IDIG. secsesscesax =r oes ee Yellow: tases. 4 seconds ......
From f Lyncis «
From 4 Cephei
within 43° of
Pegasi.
From « Cephei to
wards £ Cassi
peiz.
From Right Asce!
sion 1°, Declina’
tion 51° N.
Right Ascensic
13°, Declinatio
N. 48°,
’
From y Sagitte
« Delphini.
S.W. ; altitude
a
From y Cassiopeié
to 2.Persei.
|Head of Cepheus.
From stars 4, 5, am
6 Camelopards
to 14 and 15
Minor.
|
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 57
Direction ; noting also
arance; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal,
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or
} Inclined.
Remarks. Observer.
—_——o————_- |
|
SEMMRMIM Nae eecdesaseSbc|2OS decscsveclccese dsdedcccesvavadedendnodenteceecd. sae te cowk weave denase W.C. Nash.
t with a very bright/18° ..........To right; 45° from ho-|..c.csecseesees mee soedeal Fara D. Walker, M.D.
ash; track remained rizontal; down.
alf a second.
¢ asmall track ......... Be isiddeesteace Vertical ; GOWN ...cccceeleses detre arse pebeanects vee (Ud.
a slight track ...+.+.../10° ........./To left; horizontal ......|...cecsesees Sdeteseteeats veos(Id.
~ ESEEE Bisedcevarcesss|toee Te eOeree lor aerstaa deesececeeveisvcecees|saccdnavsnatucdsececasesscbeat) Wie Ele VWVOOG,
SaatMivederdeviscsctss|ecesesedee saceclease eaewie -ReOE daesesdvesuace seecdeneaeine tides Bacccscckecu| POs
no track ....<.. dviiaces eauasadecerase|iccsenevcrds ddeudeoseenebeveds Fos feecn fen podanete sssseeejA. S. Herschel.
rack; no sparks ......{1°....eeceee-- Horizontal ......secsecses ie habs Or erapentn | .» (Id.
ck ; no sparks ...... DO eds dvcene »(Directed from Urse}....cccessssssossseeceseeseee 1d
Majoris.
; no track. Brilliance|22° .........;Course straight, but as|Brilliance in first half of|[d.
ished suddenly at if wrinkled in the last} flight uniform ; com-
Lacertez, remaining half. « Cephei to »| mencement not seen;
; light red (Mars Pegasi. diameter of dull disc
maximum robbed of 1’,
rays); very inter-
ent or vacillating ;
3 seconds; died out.
e PPTeH RG ESO oreeerereres 10° eteeeeeer Inclined Seteeseereeeserees OCCT eNO OOO e ree neeeeeeeeeioes W. HL Wood,
Neer: 210% AccevecclIiClinéd sccccsostedsaveestA, remarkable object,|[d.
resembling in shape
an elongated spindle,
gradually increased
and decreased in
size; the magnitude
given . refers to its
centre,
faint tail Tee eeereeseslseesereeneerens Inclined Pere OPO eeeeeeees seseeeeeee eee eeeeteteesesaes Id,
SEMEN vs dtesep soca. seeleseeeeveeeseees(INCHNED seeseeseeeeeseeees/Lhe data not accurate,,.|(Communicated
toW.H.Wood.)
esc Bob ih occ arenas sol ons nants sauiay.|idscdh vans ates ees W. H. Wood.
ae 10?! dace. {CRRA IE CS Wet Pe RG Be 'Id.
MEANS? Tong sessseleseceeees peescsJENCIINEM Is <3s4 st casceiaee Burst with sparks; tailjId.
Y not durable.
58 REPORT—1862.
Piigte ne , Position, or
Date.| Hour. Observation. | Pparent Size. Colour. Duration. set |
1862.| h m »
July 1911 30 p.m.|Weston - super -/=2nd mag.x ....../Blue «ss. ../+ second ......|From 6 Cassiop
Mare.
Z2U1Y 7 opim.| hid. ~..3.:.<056.- =3rd mag.x ...... Blue — .es.00.. 4 second ...... From Polaris ..
PAIS sem. |Ubid= \ .ss200sss0s¢ =3rd mag.¥ ...... Blue ........./3 second ...... Head of Cepheus
21/11 10 p.m.|Ibid. ............,=Jupiter (plane-|Ruddy .........|3 seconds..,...|From « Draconis)
tary). stars H 30 and)
Ursz Majoris.)
27| 9 50 p.m.|[bid. .........+¢e/ = 1st mag.x........| Yellow .....,/1 second .,....|From y Bootis.
27|\10 22 p.m./Greenwich ...... =3rd mag.x ...... Yellowish About 2 or 3/From a few deg
white. seconds. to the east
Ursa Minor
passing throu)
that const
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
horizon.
28)\11 1 p.m./Weston - super -/= 2nd mag.* ...... Blue «ss.s+++.|1 second ......|From H 30 an
Mare. Urs Major
passed be
a and 6
: Majoris.
28/11 8 p.m.|Ibid. ............)=3rd mag.¥ ....../Blue ........./4 Second ......|From @ Dracon
|
|
|
|
u
28/11 12 p.m.J[bid. ..ccceseeeee =3rd mag.x ......\Blue ........./4 second ......|Head of Cephe
28/11 17 p.m.|Ibid. ........4...;= 2nd mag.x ...... Blue ...ss0+e./$ Second «..+../y Andromedasay
}
28/11 43 p.m./Ibid. ...+00......)= 1st mag.x ......|Blue ........./4 second ....../6 Pegasi .....
28/11 48 p.m.|[bid. seses.-s0.0e/= 2nd Mag.x ...00 Blue .s.s+...;4 Second .,....,9° below @ Pe
2
oo
Midnight...|[bid. ......000.0. =Ist mag.x ....../Blue ws... % second ,.....)From H 30 ar
Urse Maj
passed bet
a and B
Majoris.
29) 010 am.|Ibid. ............,=1st mag.* ......|Blue ........./4 Second ..,...|From p to @
Majoris.
29| 0 32 am.|Ibid. ............,=2nd mag.x ...... Blue ..ss0+00/% SECONG «0.00. From « Ca
peiz.
31|10 18 p.m.|Greenwich ......,=2nd mag.x ......|Bluish white..|1 to 2 seconds|Shot from
Aquarii to’
the zenith
disappeared |
short _distat)
from « Cygnl.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 59
Direction ; noting also
pearance ; Train, ifany,) Length of | whether Horizontal,
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or
; Inclined.
nl ey
Remarks. Observer.
APly StAbIONATY ..,00000+|.scccesccsscenslecseneversveesecsens ateaeeelagl Like a gas-light sud-/W.H. Wood.
denly lit and put out.
FURR csSEABEE Ts beet ucessccces. NSO Beciceck Inclined Ny s.secscccccs use | These meteors were|Id.
within one second
Be net BENOGENs scbovescces<-(10° cteeccves(IMClined Ne .sccvecsscccves of each other. Id.
d tail 8° long .,...«..s00+]... Face vduveiews|vvotiaden cavers oiVogyittt -|A beautiful meteor, Id.
like a fiery comet,
slowly wending its
| way ; tail very thick
and bright came from
the nucleus in curls
like steam, until the
nucleus was wholly
diffused into the tail,
which remained one
second after.
SEM Tabdccctnecs{L2° abicasdas owwardd the) We sevccscusl.:ccbaceusscvedoseeesss-saveas(NOs
ee CELE CLL CEE| CELEOELT EP eeee tl CELL Peers ivitdedss Very fine; cloudless ...|J. MacDonald.
SEO eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeaees 2 eeeeeseen|teeeeeenes decevcccccese Seveccclecs OOerees Peeeeeevens tevveces W. H. Wood.
BE eaiscedisecscsece(L0° siceccecs LOWALTUS Neve enctecescescss|icoddeatverdeasaneseee navihens|Lle
ME cccdiccccscens(LO° cgcsescuc| LOWATOS Na cccccencccesccslescccsesesde Nicennce tenses ee (Ud.
MCU codecs dscsces|2 ccecevevcees| LOWALUS Ne ccsceccesscsecs sae Cdedauvedvana avsseaseds sees(d,
COL LLL CEEEEEEEEEE NOP gaccevs..| LowardS N.. ...ccsesasen allies disaceitcdcersscelt elbvewa Id.
PUNVTESEWEGWEdedaessvewetss}LO? jeccceres Towards N.E. ..........0.}0005 rcerire wilevcve ererers Id.
IPOS ERE OSE SES ESTEE ESE E SE 15° Seeeveses te eeeerene eeaeeeee Sete eeeereericoeee PEO OS EHH e eee eee eOaseses Id.
Cae cer PDE: deevacee Towards N. ......ccceeeeee devddeccsctuedewcs sueleepaswsild.
throughout ....44+4-/50° c.sssecsslereresseecesseerseeereseeseeelA Very fine meteor ....../W. C. Nash.
Position, o .
Altitude and)
Azimuth. |
Duration.
|
1 second .,,...,From a point ¥
tween « and
Pegasi towar
horizon across
« Aquarii.
l second ......|From « And |
mede to &
gasi.
From the directi
of « Persei {
wards north
rizon, passing}
few degrees |
low Capella.
1 to 2 seconds|From the dire
of Cassiop
disappeared n
Delphinus.
1 to 2 seconds|Crossed « Dracoi
and disappeai
in the centre
Ursa Major.
I second .,....|Started between
and « Pegas
disappeared neé
« Andromede,
3 seconds...,,.|From y Serpen)
to Arcturus.
1 second
1 second
60 REPORT—1862.
Dat Hour Place of Apparent Size Colour.
oe i Observation. PP : :
1862.| h m : ‘
July 31/10 34 p.m./Greenwich ......,= 2nd magx. ..... Bluish white...
31/10 53 pam.Ibid. ve. eeeee, =3rd mage see Blue ..... dost
Aug. 1/10 10 p.m.|Ibid. .......0e6e./= 2nd mag.x ...0|Blue sees.
110 48 p.m.|Ibid. sesssseeeeef=2nd mag.x oe.../BlUe ieee,
1/10 57 p.m. Tbid. ssssseeeeeeef= 2nd Mag.x soeee./Blue - sesseeee
111 18 p.m.|[bid. .........066[= 2nd mag.x ..4.../BlUe sreeeeess
2/10 39 p.m.|Weston - super -|=Mars «...s.+0e+4.|Greenish ......
Mare.
2|10 42 p.m. Tbid. ......06. oo[ = Ist mag.x seeeee|BlUC ceesseeee
2/11 45 p.m.|LDid. seorsseeees, =Ist mag.x ...... Yellow ..
2/11 50 p.m.|[bid. ses..e.e00./=I8t Mag.x seoeee/BlUG sreeeeees
211 54 prm|[bid. seccsseseese =2nd mag.x .+6../Blue ss...
211 55 p.m.|[bid. wsscseceeee =2nd mag.x ..../Blue v.esseeee
2)11 58 p.m.|[bid. . .....eeeeee- =Ist mag.x ....... BIC T Ocwcesen
3} 0 55 a.m.|[bid. cessssseese =Ist mag.x ......! BlUG veseasssed
3} 0 59 am. |IDid. .......seee =2nd mag.* ...... Blue’ ......008
Syd. cb ACMMEDIGe ssensenecces =Mars cesesessseee| RUGGY «4.0456 c
3} 115 a.m.|Ibid. soeeees| =O MAG. seeeee Blue > vwacesss
mle aem.|EDIds © sp eccescsases =Ist mag. sess. Yellow ......
Dl 22) terns |EDids. cecesveneaes = 2nd mag.* ...... BUC... .wcsverees
mL 24> arm IEDId. cs ccswenes =2nd mag ...... Blue .eesseoee
3) LT 35 fam, |[ DIG... ccsasesesees =Capella.........0.. Blue ..e.sseee
3) 1 44 am. |[bid. ....00.0...,=2nd mag.x ..e../Blue © seececeee
210 15 p.m.|Greenwich .,,...;=3rd mag.x ......, Blue ...seeee
310 47 p.m.|Weston - super -|=2nd mags. ...... Blue: ~sssapsees
Mare.
..../L second ,,..../From y Serpent
./24 seconds .../R. A. 20 minu
.-/x Second ....../8 Pegasi ..
From % Pegasi.s
1 second .,....|From 0 Pegasi. |
4 second ......;Head of Capi
cornus.
% second ,,....|¢ Pegasi ..
4 Second .,..../y Serpentis .
% second ......)y Aquarii ss..6u
% Second ...... 19 Aquarii ...
D.S. 3° to B
23 hours 207)
nutes, D. S. 3
% second ...... Markab .......
SECOUG.. .vess|accocsstewes cae
4 second ...... Markab ....008
Ll second ...... a Andromede ¢
Scheat.
.|(36) Ursee Maj
to horizon.
From « Pegas
a Aquarii.
a Pegasi «eevee
$ second ....
1 second ,.....
} second
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 61
Direction ; noting also
jearance; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal,
and its Duration. | Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks, Observer.
| Inclined.
1 ee oda MEeoutGs 208 | ete vane aren beheaded qiteaeapunbene: ..../W. C. Nash.
POTEET H REPRE eee ete eeee 27° eeteeee Pee eee OPO POOR UOC OCU COCCOOCCO OO OCOCOCO CE TT eee eee eben eeeeee eeeereee Id,
PMN nraetdadaederentietel LO! des ceca. Sarees emun eased Tree Sbeveaveveved suns wecviveveatiIG.
|
See PEME docvcvaceds| 2D gveeseacl,« vied Woah cavercendt vat eaere seuss TR ES (Id.
MMA on gRiatidgh sve ry0s00e+|20.cesseccelecneccscccsecsescccooccesess ail ve dees coteeter ects ob vceceses Id.
SR Tetasiraclte)” CO20° fo... cn cceaccocessscaseeuvs|oncseeteertovcseeienscteseaten {Ads
Puen eeeencrenens teeeeles PORE PO Ree e eee ceeeeee Peeeereeeere seeecceers JA red thick tail curled iW. H. Wood.
off from nucleus and|
disappeared within
the latter.
en peCdece}scceseeclLO° .cessvees Horizontal ...... dessuseeereross eccaascashiccsses vases Id.
TERE vccpcrcesoee/LO” ,.csevees MOWATOSSic cesecesseseee> Great numbers left un-|Id,
recorded between 105
42" and 115 45™,
RUM eisvbysonsosse( LB dvvieede. Horizontal, westward...|Tail endured 23 seconds Id,
SEM ccshecccsses|LO°” cienveces ELOTIZONEAL, Siicasaddeieacchvesspescangameadessseenetees Id.
OS Se eee MOP es capeenss Horizontal, S............. /Tail endured 2 seconds..\Id.
SPR eee eee eee ee etee be) STEPH eee eee eee eee ee ee Peeeeeeretene
Sah does EREUR sc cbesecsees MOS a éhecas. Near at! <o, ccs cacecwaces
senserseeuneeseeen es : ‘Horizontal, southwards,
Mec dedidstvevessess /Horizontal, southwards.
et dal:...;........18°
PERRO RNR e eee erent tena eel seer eeserteeees
‘tail; “2a seconds .. oe any lee Ben veecuuab asa azase sacwasewe Tail brightest in centre, Id.
fading at ends.
Pia ata eress-|scessaseepoasee|E CLPEMCICUIAL ss0sescones|odecesecccsecsbocsacessoc ved Id.
ease. Bescnse Pit ompasbenatalpoaceeycnesataccsonacenuacsesc{LaZ¥l cuascccdsavsssssease | Wo. Cn NASH
Ms,..\........ lh Oley Ae eee FOES svaeteiaved PW: Ee Wood,
62
Date.
1862.;h m
Aug. 3/10 52
3,10 56
10 57
1 0
311 11
5| 9 43
5| 9 54
5)10 37
511 0
10 32
i=)
9 55
10 45
10 54
10 54
o 6 6 6
1 8
Hour.
p.m.
p.m.
p.m.
p-m.
p.m.
p.m.
p.m.
p-m.
p.m.
pm.
p.m.
p.m.
p-m.
p.m.
p.m.
p-m.
p.m.
REPORT—1862.
Place of
Observation. Apparent Hine,
Weston - super -/=2nd mag.* ......
Mare.
Greenwich ..,.... =2nd Mag.x ...060-
Weston - super -|=3rd mag.x
Mare.
Greenwich ......,=Ist mag.
Weston - super -|-=3rd mag.* ...
Mare.
DIS eveauanas. 2: Nearly = Venus ...
Ibid.
eeeeeereeees| —
Greenwich .,....|=
Weston - super -/=Sirius ..........0.
Mare.
Greenwich ...... =2nd mag.x
Weston - super -|=Sirius ............/ Vivid blue
Mare,
Greenwich ,...../=2nd mag.* Blue
Weston - super -|/-=2nd mag. ......|Blue
Mare.
TDId, sesoereenes|==SITIUS osseeeeereee| White
Ibid. ......eee.../A little less than|Bright
Mars.
oe eaeneeene «o«|—Capella.....seccrse White
WES: Se veapaseees =6 Urse Majoris..|Blue
Colour.
...(Blue .
Deep yellow...
«++..|Bluish white....14 second ...
Position, or
Altitude and 7
Azimuth. |
Duration.
sevees(% SeCONA ...++-/From (12) (13)
1 second ......
4 second ....
..(L to 2 seconds
4 second
seceeeee @ SCOUMU oereee
q ’
rae |
From «
ree aes of i}
distance to |
Pegasi.
SWeeooe (12) (13)
melopardali. |
Moved from a p
midway betwi
B and « Peg,
towards horiz¢
disappearing ©
near 6 Piscium
From (12) (13
melopardali. |
+» |From ¢ Cassio
to R. A. 501
nutes, Dec,
83°.
1} second
4 second ......|From & Cassiop
to y Androm
1 second ..,.../Shot rapidly
front of
clouds from
rection of Cass
peia, across [
conis, pas
above Urs:
Minor.
From 3 Aurig
66 Auriga. —
Fell from a f
situated near
centre of
Major to a p
about 12°}
.».(1$ second ...|From mouth
Ursa Major
Urs Majori
1 second .,,...|From a point @
@ Androme
y Pegasi.
teeeeeeee
} second ...,..,H 24 Camelop
dali to B
Majoris.
ssseseeee(L second ,,,00.\¢ Cassiopeiz
Polaris.
yellow ¢ second ,..... H 5 Camelop
to head of I
dntgod eee 4 second ,.....|8 Cassiopeiz
ssesesees/ SeCONA ..,.«./From Polarii
between B 1
Urs Mino
-
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
arance ; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
SARA Re eee ee eee n ee eenees
Pee ee eee rere eres)
Pee ee eee ee eee eres
SA ee eee eee eeeees seeeneee
tail; length 12°; du-
jon half a second.
PEPER TREE OOOO Eee eee tenes
f
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or Remarks.
Inclined.
Nearly horizontal, east-|...........05 based fete oe Ta sh
ward.
Wie Oe eaten eel tee eeeeee Peer eeeee, Pee etter eeelteenee SOOO eee renee eeeereeeees
LORS BN, ae Bae SCRE SS OE ee
ee taseses ages Sanashitssarncesons Saccene|sccesenvescenrseesmersseescees
LO NaWetiaccacessactseeydetane ienaas cetcankrautk sibs
../Serpentine; made two/Increased from a yellow
deflections. 2nd mag.x; tail curled
off thickly till all
consumed.
tilssvettersessteeeeessssesseeeee/A Very stormy night ;
observations between
clouds ; lightning.
Me £0) Wear es eunsseotcas. Clouds in all directions.
FOP e meee erereesaseoeeveneenisereereee OOo rer eeenees Pereeeee
Fine clear night; moon
very bright.
teen eeeee
weeees | PAIR MY MMUULLUIE LY oeeeee
Moon very bright.
August 8th to 13th
were cloudy nights at
Greenwich.
August 8th overcast and)
wet at Weston-super-
Mare.
Bright moonlight night.
POO Ore rere eeeeenens
Suddenly blotted out!
when most brilliant.
OPP nent eee ee eee
63
Observer.
en ee
W. H. Wood.
W. C. Nash.
W. H. Wood.
W.C. Nash.
W. H. Wood.
Id.
W. C. Nash.
W. H. Wood.
J. MacDonald.
W. H. Wood.
W. C. Nash.
W. H. Wood.
64
Date.} Hour.
1862.| h m
Aug. 9
1] 17
015
0 25
0 28
‘10 49
10 50
1211 9
18 9 17
18) 9 55
1810 7
1810 31
18,10 42
p.m.
a.m.
a.m.
a.m.
p-m.
p.m.
p-m.
p-m.,
p-m.
p.m.
p-m.
p-m.
Place of
Observation.
11 11 p.m,.|/Weston - super -
Mare.
Ibid.
Pot eeeeeeres
Ibid.
Trafalgar Square,
London.
Hawkhurst, Kent
Ibid.
Pee eeeereres
Greenwich ,,,...
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid,
eeeeeeereres
Ibid.
REPORT—1862.
Apparent Size.
== Capella. iss.ssecoee
= Urs Majoris..|Blue
Colour. | Duration.
‘Bright blue .../1 second ......
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth,
Star-cluster, head
of Auriga to
horizon.
4 second ......;2 Draconis to body
of Ursa Minor.
—S3rd Magee ss. Blue seseee SECON 4.4... Head of Lynx to N,
horizon.
=e Lyrtt.ccsseeeeee(@ Lyra...s++-/L second ....../8 Urs Majoris
to x Urs Ma-
joris.
=Sirius ......- fasees| WILE! yeavaaany # second ...... n Aurige to J Au
i |
= Ist Mage....e000e/ White seco
=a Urs Majoris..|White ....+....
First « Lyre, then! White,
Capella, then | red,
disc=Jupiter, dull.
then
=1st mag.*...+0+../ Yellowish
white.
Sinall Vacsscsasecsscas|sexecocasseesencse|2 SCCONOS.ty
= 2nd MAGE seeves|-coversccosssersee 2 seconds
=2nd mag.* ,.....|Bright blue .../3 seconds...
Very small ..s.scsss{eoes ébdecisireeers I second ......|From the ne
then 5 seconds
rige.
‘Not more than|From 85 to 62 H
2 or 3 secs.| culis.
15 second .../From 4 (% U
Majoris and
Bootis) to
Bootis.
+/On a line fre
B Bootis to—
Urse Majo
Began 2° fi
the first s
vanished at ¢@
distance fre
second star
y Urse Majo
short of
second.
From a Lyre
wards the 8.
horizon. |
«From @ Cygni
wards the W. it
nearly a hon
zontal directi
From Corona
realis towards
the Great Bear,
.../From the nei
bourhood of La
certa, disappeat
ing about twi
degrees belo
1 second
bourhood of
laris towards #
northern horizo
for about 5°.
Pa
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
65
EEA asf sa. eee ee
Observer,
|W. H. Wood.
Direction ; noting also
Appearance ; Train, if any,) Length of | whether Horizontal, ers
and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or engenes
Inclined.
SMM day duvousiysusssensesseolscvascpcersovey|eovandeesspousspessertsovesaes(Ae Temarkable display
of Aurora Borealis ;
commenced at 11"
10™; I therefore
omitted several me-
teors of 2nd and 3rd
magnitude, from « and
n Draconis and 6 and
y Urs Minoris, be-
tween 115 10™ and
115 45™ whilst taking
notes.
MGs Sd evasiieceress re pcelece Seay ecw smalstese<suatit cto op aa sgluuaacelspeeaeawecenevea canes we nae @
MAIS sdiSduseuvetsctsaoss¢005|thtcsvececsones|90¢+s0eascdSececneseesresevees(ClQuay at O® 45™ a.m...
BOSE track 's...cccsa[lecesses Be eolecs os seen eee eeseeteveereresses
To left; slightly down-
parkled in appearance ...|...ceseesseeeee
ward.
Tew to=# Lyrex; thenl.,,.,...
left red sparks in a ball,
Which moved less
quickly, and expired 4°
in the rear; nucleus
then became dull with
visible disc,
../To righ
t ; slightly down-
ward.
ht train CAPO e eee eae e eee sete stant enn es | HOOEee ea en eee see Seed eEDageD
SEER ER Peete meen TRO PE OPE et Poa re eee erseretese
BME trAIN ...crccceercccesss
.
THe e we eeereeretteeeeers CORPO Re tee ee Pere ese reseer areas,
PERO e eee eeeedestareeneres
-
Cloudy and conjectural..
Clean sky iveccsrscvesaades
Began to give off sparks
between Cor. Caroli
and s Ursz Majoris ;
disc travelledin barren
T. Crumplen and
J. Townsend.
A. 8S. Herschel.
Id.
state 5° to extinction.
FPeetereeeeereoereeriteerenetes
Fine nicht: sisscissesssaee
SOR e eR bere rr areca Beet eneeene
J, MacDonald.
‘Id.
‘Id.
Id.
id.
66 - -REPORT—1862.
; Position, or
Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
Azimuth.
Place of
Date.| Hour. Observation.
1862.| h m
Aug.18|11 17 p.m.|Greenwich ......
=Ist mag:* «..... | Bright green...
19} 9 44 p.m.JIbid. .........00 =8rd mag.x ...... Bluish white../1 second ...... Fell from the zenith)
for a distance of 3
Loe: ;
1 second ...... From a point near
Capella to 6 Au-}
rige.
About 0°5 sec. Started near « An}
: . dromedz,
passed across
Pegasi.
19/10 32 p.m.Ibid. ...........5 =2nd mag.¥ ...... Blue™’ s...0000.
19/10 46 p.m.|Ibid. ............ =Ist mag... Blue sessereee
22) 0 30 a.m./Weston - super -|=1st mag.* ...... White ‘ssc
Mare.
22/9 15 p.m./Greenwich ......
2i.seconds .,.\From Polaris to-
wards the N.
~ after moving over]
a space of 12°,
it disappeared}
behind a range
=Ist mage* 0.1... White ‘iss0.s00
22/9 47 pamlIbid. s.ccccescee.[Small ...secsesesee-.|White .........( second ....4.
ceeeeenereevees| VERUIUO cereneees
towards the
for 5°.
ZAILO +O) parts |PbId. "ve ceveceonc|seraswiseavcovssnates cs[uveussveeveatyccde|sveeeynavet rant From the neigh
bourhood of a
Cygni towards),
the W. for 17°.
./2 seconds....../From the mouth 0
Ursa Major to}
the fore-foot. |)
.|2-seconds......,Appeared in th
S. at an eleva-)
tion of 50°, dis-
appearing: in the
S.W. at an el
vation of abot
30°. g
l second ,.....\From « Lyre t
wards the 8.
a few degrees. ||
2210 43 p.m.|/Weston ~ super -|=Sirius -..:..5.....:/White .:......./14 second ...|From the mouth of
Mare. Ursa Major to
the fore-foot.
22:10 45 p.m./Greenwich ...... SMA 2s scccecewevtes Mecaveredere eee 1 second ...... Appeared in # 1
N. about 10°
22:10 7 p.m.) Weston - super -|=2nd mag.* ...... ‘Bright blue...
Mare.
“2210 22 p-m./Greenwich ...... =2nd mag.® sees. Bright blue ..
22/10 36 p.m.|Ibid. -.......8... =Ist mag. ..1066| White s.eeccee
... Major,
through thate c
stellation, disap
pearing aboutlo
to the E.
2
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 67
Appearance ; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
A train of brilliant red
sparks, remaining nearly
one second after the
meteor hai disappeared.
Pere eee newer ee et eeeeees
eee eee eee cere ee eee
Pee eee reece ee errr rere
Light train of red sparks,
which lingered for half
‘a second or more after
_ the body of the meteor
| had disappeared.
Penne eee eee eee reaee
Direction ; noting also
Length of | whether Horizontal
Path. Perpendicular, or ‘ Remarks.
Inclined.
iveimde steel Neatly horiaontal ava Weise c. MI
MOD Raewshscles bgt oee fest cssscesu ac teot «lan PMR pen roan ek ah EN
ge
SewePeaFeUraladsecee Vee Pavds cece dh ese bounces wecah ems 6 oNlavied Siuveda'ecsiaSls sii
Oe wee c ee eee een ececeeeeennstos
TPE O Hemme eee eee e meee rasan sereseeees CObeOeeetes
COOP eS ee rere elsvceroecocbeverserccrssreseesrie®
PTO eee e eH loam seen nee e eS OR Oe Here ners ree ee|ee OS erasers eeeseeessressdsons
heen PPP eee eee ee eee ees ee eee ere ere rere reer ree Ty
PTET Ee eee eee ere mee ere ee rere re ee es HEE PE METER Ea eHH EE eee eEreeEEES
FOOTE ee cece meee reser reese eres seaeeees |e StF H EO Essen eetteeeeeseeens
++ /W. H. Wood.
Observer.
eae re sp ere
J. MacDonald.
Id.
W. C. Nash.
Td.
J. MacDonald.
Id.
Id.
W. H. Wood.
J. MacDonald.
Id.
W. H. Wood.
J. MacDonald.
68 REPORT—1862,
Pl Position, or
Date.| Hour. Cis. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and
Azimuth.
——— eee decenaet
1862.|; h m
Aug.22\11 30 p.m.|Weston - super -/=Jupiter........++4 Very _ bright,24 seconds .,.'(4, 2, 6) Lyncis
Mare. blue. me “_
22/11 32 p.m. [bid. os oo} =SHKIDS «...saveesee White ....4...-/1 second ...|9 t0 # Bootis s+...
2310 2 am.lbid. ........... =2nd mag.* ...... Blne :.cctecsares + second ...... ¢ Urs Majoris ...)
23/10 43 p.m. PUIGS . Gossceseunnes =Istmag.* ...... Bright blue ...|1 second ...... Halfway between
d Draconis and @
Ursz Majoris.
23/11 30 p.m. Ibid. «...100++-- =2nd mag.* ...... Blue oreo 1 second ...... « Draconis .......
23/11 35 pam. [bid. ss. =Istmag.t .... White ........-| 34 second ,...76 Ursa Majoris,|”
passing over
Urse Majoris.
Q3/11 49 p.m.|Ibid. ...sesseeee =Ist mage ......|White .........) 4 second ...... 3 to B Cephei ....
24| 0 55 am.[bid. ......4 ....|Venus + globular,,.|Orange.,....... 2 or 3 seconds From 35° to 40°)
altitude; azimuth] |
S.S.W.
24,9 17 p.m.|Greenwich eanhe Simall! sisvespeses ....(Bluish white..!1 second ...... From the zenith,
towards the
for a distance of
| es
2419 45 p.m,|Ibid. ..... wane =2nd Mager ssesselerseeeoee vecseeael3 Seconds,,,,../From Polaris to-
wards Ursa Ma-
jor for about hal;
the distance.
25| 9 23 p.m. Ibid. use =Ist maget ....../Blue ss. 1 to 2 seconds|Started near s Ans
dromede, af
disappeared
little to the righ
of y Arietis.
27| 9 11 p.m.|Greenwich Park |=2nd mag.* ....+-/Blue s..s00- 1 second ..,,,,|From the directio
of « Coron
Borealis, passe
to the left
Arcturus toward
the horizon.
271 9 58 p.m.\Greenwich ...... = [st tage ane Abn er ares 1 second .,.... From Polaris t0-)
: & wards the W. |
2710 19 pam. |[bid. ........00.. BS YRENL c.5 avn spevontonlesacovnspereens: 1 second ...... From the zenith)
A | towards the E.
BFL UY pam. |MDId. s.sccsesov0, EAN DICE! psn taresees|coneeres ianetins 53 seconds ...\From the zenith
towards the
2 for 17°
28) 918 pm.jIbid. ....... Spee 20d MAL sordslee sesoseeesessceeeiL SECON ....-.[FrOM & Lyre |
wards the S. ho-
rizon.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
69
ee —CC—n eee
Appearance; Train, if any,
and its Duration.
An adhering short white
tail
Length of
20°+ ....../Nearly +
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Path.
fA
Peet ee ee eeenen
Remarks, Observer.
beautiful meteor il-|W. H. Wood.
luminated the ele-
ments; finished its
course behind a piece
of detached cumulus
cloud. A detonation
was heard similar to
the explosion of
sky-rocket in mid-air,
but strange to say,
before its disappear-
ance; a detonation was
also heard by J. H.
Smyth Pigott, Esq.,
Lord of the Manor.
(ae CG NES PIRES: (OR ATCO: he! PTE PORE 1 =
TBWa dedsteliceses Devessecdeveseves BOSON ndtaenlet aces sedaate Weadseeeddacdvelswadace walvot'dvevenstneesteens Id.
|
None ......... Ritadiicls cists DARGLD .s r| [patte aweaus Sslenetcaers asuedsecleonaten Sioweaees|s aetverehaeel ds
Pete psinens Se eeerecsererccccccnes He hed es (ae PEER eat iced Red Oe oe WA Geeks atspsetereotilas.
PEGS accnsscesseceeace sisianta deme aaihine | Yen sthine adietrar@e ethic an Mam coi al sates ceed Cccece daneponua atlas
ong yellowish tail,4 secs.
HOTLE aceceescsccvcesessceces
ight train of blue sparks,
1
TAIN vessesseseesssessseeees /ADOut 15°
see
secesseeeeee{Path horizontal from
S.S.W. to W.
Uluminated the heavens;
termination not seen ;
threw off red sparks
in its course like a
rocket,
tt eeseeseeeeserereeeessceeeid« MacDonald,
POC ee eee eeeeeee PPP eee POOH ede ee tenet esate eeeeeeees Id.
20° siesseessleceserseesesseesserseeeeeeeees| Hidden for ashort period| W, C. Nash,
behind clouds.
POOP O HOHE HOR Oe EOE eee nent eeene eee eee? oT) Id.
J. MacDonald.
DIEM oo. 5; ....0000.0 bol beieaeee oaniaeal| sisal teedisnalidannderaaenaasniel tetas secceeesvcercscesessereel Ie
oo cca 5 Se ere el ae Aer ae ivss|taseeMaedvibeccetseetc es and
Resse cee vo ceen once esses |scencevorsdsecs|oasterccbevescecavevecesecsore secevecsoscenencsesscscecesons Oe
70 ; oy _ -REPORT—1862.
Place of Position, or
Date.| Hour. 4 Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and |
Observation. ; ‘Aaah,
1862.) h m \
Aug.28)10 47 p.m./Greenwich ...,..;=2nd mag.* ...... Blue ........./L second .,....|From the neigh-| |
bourhood of a} |
Lyre towards
the W.
29/11 29 p.m.|[Did. .....seeeeee]Very Small cecseceeeleccsscceseveeseees(L SeCOnd .,....|From the neigh-|
bourhood of Ursa} |
Major towards}
the N,, i
appearing
hind a row of i
houses.
Sept.19,About 5 40|Dorking .........,/Sawa most brilliant] ? .......c00 For about + of|The meteor appear-| |
p.m. light. a minute. ed to be about] |
50° from the ho-| |
rizon, and nearlag
W. or S. of W.
19 5 45 pm. Delmonden, Like a cricket-ball..|Bright white...|23 to 3 seconds|From altitude 36°
| Hawkhurst. 54° S. of W., to
altitude 63°, 379 |
S. of W.
19| 6 5 p.m./Worting, Basing--A wonderful light,|...,..:::ssececcse[eccrseeneseeereceelssensesenns danesannces F
stoke, Hants, | of the size and 7
form of an egg. t
ri
19| 9 45 p.m./Hawkhurst, Kent A large and bright/Red ............ 2 or 3 seconds|From 10° W. of
head. : S., altitude 28°,
to 50° W. of S.J)
altitude 18°) |
where the |
meteor. disape| |)
peared _ behind} |)
obstacles. {4
19} 9 45 p.m./Worcester ...... Sudden bright |...scccescecseoee. Rapid Foscncysns In the S.E. .....c.saitt
; light;._ brilliant; H
ball of light.
19 About 1013,Gedling, _ near Exceedingly bright; Colour bright ‘Slow in move-|From S.E. by S.
p.m. Nottingham so bright as to| blue,purple,| ment; du-| S.by E. Whe
(33 miles E. of} obliterate allthe) and crim-| rationabout| first seen, th
Nottingham). | stars and Mars) son, the) orundertwo} meteor was pass
(which was very! train being) seconds,and|. ingneary Pega
near to it); it} of the same| the middle) it ended near 0
| | gave as much colours. of the train} Adquarii. Vi
| | light as the lasting two )
| | brightest flashes secs. more a
of lightning. after the j if :
’ meteor _it- at
self had |
; vanished,
19/10 13 p.m./Beeston, near |Not above half the|Exceedingly |Slow.........- . From 40° ab
Nottingham. ; sizeofthemoon.| bright; as S.E...by S.
light as rizon to about
day ; colour 20° to 25° above
vivid blue S. by E. horizon;
and reddish. the same meteor
as above. |
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 71
f | Direction ; noting also
Appearance; Train, if any,) Length of | whether Horizontal, 2
| and its: Duration. Path, - Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer,
Inclined.
None ..-..+ Peeples cao <p yes weds So kaa cdangelt- sa duaedasiaaas Bongd ca vdase ns) eiepasnuatneiaes seeveeeeeeeeee(d« MacDonald.
-tagde Weddvadsadesnsdsecsccs-|chorisecdtnestsiraceesahtnadans | ECs
Fee e eee eee eaaeenee BOO eee eeernn|seeanesestseses
Somewhat the appearance).............../[¢ proceeded in a north- The sun, though nearly|W. S. Tomlin ;
of a rocket; it ap- erly direction [?]. setting, was shining} ‘ Evening
peared to explode, brightly;-not acloud.| Standard,’
leaving a train of Sept. 23rd.
sparks behind it for °
some seconds. ;
Left no tail; burst intol............./N.E.to S.W.; consider-|In clear blue sky ; before/FrederickReeves.
several pieces. ably inclined down-| ‘sunset.
wards,
Left..a luminous. train)...... sesssoeee(Proceeded in a south-\Cloudless Sky .sscssssssss|esssserenresevereeees
of blended colours like westerly direction,
the rainbow, orange and
blue.
track of sparks pursucd].........:006- In the S.W., from E, tojte+s+++rssssesetercsseeesseeee| Communicated
the head but did not W. by A. S. Her-
-endure. . schel,
ed to burst, and)........ +++e/Fell rapidly towards the Wind E. or N.E.; clear/Correspondent to
left a trail of sparks earth. sky, not a cloud, the ‘ Standard.’
which gradually dis-
appeared in about a
minute.
© definition of shape; al......ssecesceelsesscescaces Ba ba one Bet > A cloudless night ...... The Rev, S. K.
train left in its track ; Swann, M.A,,
the meteor itself sepa- F.R.A.S,
rated into balls, but
close together.
in in track ; burst into)...... Naevenevalicutneces SaaPALUSERAIND se ndlite sodscseosnceevons ree Bre S. Watson.
separate balls,
t
+
72
Date. Hour.
1862.; h m
Sept.19,10 13 p.m,/Euston
1910 13 p.m.
1910 15 p.m.
19
19
19
19)
10 15 p.m.
sentence eeeene
10 15 p.m.
10 15 p.m.
Place of
Observation.
London.
Brentford.........
Edinburgh
(Greenlaw
Barracks).
Dullingham Hill,
near Dulling-
ham House.
Hay (S. Wales)..| Diffused light ; su-|Diffused light,|2 or 3 seconds\(Appeared to
Bristol, Glouces-
tershire,
Weston - super -
Square,
REPORT—1862.
Apparent Size.
Amazing meteor;
head=full moon;
light = noonday.
Gave more light)-cocsscssesesrsers|eres
than the bright-
est lightning.
Completely lighted/The extremity
A brilliant meteor|Bright light of/20 secs. from/Slanting
bluish! first flash to
up the road.
in the atmo-
sphere.
Mare.
Hav khurst, Kent}
perior to full
moon; subsided
gradually. (Head
like the moon,
but much bright-
er; second ob-
server.)
Meteor of unusual/Bodyrich blue;)..
size and bril-
liance ; shed
much light.
As large as thel.........
moon, but much
brighter; noticed
by candle-light
with closed
blinds.
Colour. Duration.
Head ruddy ;/20 seconds ...
the other
extremity
and the dif-
fused light
blue.
stetecerer
seen ee ee teeerenes
decided blue.
a
cast. explosion.
duration o
had a yel-
brightness.
lowish cast.
HOE e rere eet eteen
at explosion
showed red
and _ blue
colour.
sevseveee(d SECONGS,.....
L due dens onsanccee 2 to 3 seconds| Would have metthe
From due E. alti
Position, or
Altitude and
Azimuth.
Formed an endursiy
ing cloud off,
sparks ovecheall |
R. A, 225 30”,
The strea i
passed 0, «, J Ce
phei to R. A. 174) |
50™. Both ai
declination 48
20’ N.; main} |
head proceeded]
N.W. by Nj]
fragment S.E. | |
Traversed a direc-| |
tion slightly S.W,| |
Nearly S.E........06.fm
down-|
wards from E. to
scend, turn ove
to the right}
under « and #3
Arietis, and de-
scend almost} §
vertically ;
second ob- |)
server.) Streak)
passed at |
brightest —_ part} |
between « and
Ceti. I
In the north-east
ern sky it ex
ploded a_ fey {
degrees above}
the horizon. |
tude 28°; to N.E
altitude 20°.
]
horizon 15° fur-|
ther on its path,
at 66° W. from N..
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
pearance ; Train, if any,| Length of
and its Duration.
reular; appeared to
separate overhead ; the
northern head red,
emitting prismatic
sparks, and leaving a
streak of 45° visible
eleven minutes at place
of bursting. Other ex-
remity, or fragment,
dlue; disappeared gra-
dually.
ybular, then rapidly
gg-shaped; then elon-
zating itself and gradu-
lly disappearing from
view. Track ribbon-
ike, yellow overhead,
he rest blue; endured
ome minutes.
eedingly
neteor,
udden
ight.
endid meteor, rushing
hrough the air, and
{ last bursting verti-
y downwards into
hany pieces the size
f two-shilling pieces.
bright streak seen on
urning round ; glowing
ntensely at the lowest
; fading quickly ; a
mall cloud of sparks
emained at last, near
Ceti.
beautiful
presenting a
and bright
~w
ied in its track a line
-ruby-coloured fire;
‘exploded.
nerous prismatic)
darks and a yellow
il accompanied the
teteor; the latter re-
jained visible two
jinutes.
stream of fire moving
)rward; no explosion ;
. Sappeared gradually.
]
ee eeeeeerees
Fete tereresennls
Fee rome eeeeee
nee eee eee e sees
Direction ; noting also
whether Horizontal,
Perpendicular, or
Inclined.
Path.
Vertical from overhead.
Peed eee nent eee eens
Remarks.
zigzag. Patch over-
| head circular ; 1° dia-
meter ; visible 11
minutes ; not resolved
by power 120 with an
aperture of 10in., 20ft.
focal length refractor,
which resolves the
cluster of Hercules
freely.
head.
yards high when it
burst.
tical ; downwards to-
wards the right.
TPO Ree ee eee eeeeenees
rizon; downwards to
left.
FOTO Oe een e eee ee enreesereeel® HOOP O eee re etereserseseees
A little inclined to Ver-|++++++esesssssesssseeeveres ++.|Rey. T, W. Webb.
ddwececunile esosvatsuccesnces sacabeueds es Communicated
Inclined 70° to the ho-|Path appeared recti-\Communicated
linear.
\Tail broken at intervals,/T. Slater;
First seen directly over-/S, Richards, Jun.
SPAS CEE sesecsesseeeees| We Lz. B.Coulson.
It appeared one hundred Writer
..|Paragraph in the
Observer.
Te:
Crumplen; J.
Townsend.
in the
‘ Cambridge
Chronicle.’
‘Bristol Mer-
cury.’ PS.
Hamlyn.
by W. H.Wood.
%,
74 We REPORT—1862, : '
ask He Position, or
Date.| Hour. Observation. | APparent Size. Colour. ‘rl weet,
1862./h m
Sept.19)10 15 p.m.|Wellington, So-/=4 times 2/, or 10 Body and train Lasted several From ¢ Persei t
merset. times Sirius. blue. seconds. Aurige.
-19\About 10 20/Ipswich ......... Illuminated every)........ Age ceoess| <cnrcneeiaaaed odlenicesssstheapianaul
p-m. object. 3
5110. 30 pim.|Norwich ...ide-s[ecs-srvaceecesseses moves Mlliiey sup dutta w.(From S. | tow
19) Abont 10 30 Thetford ......... Lighted up the|Most brilliant|..+......ccocssccolepsressssessooscosaiil
p.m. town like the) colours.
noonday sun.
Oa ty ccasdvee London Wall,/Entirely lighted up) > ,.,,., See is eRe oa Rectilinear in
London, the road. - rection; mo
GIS; casavnesedess West End, Lon-|Diffused _ light; |Diffused light,/Disappeared |A few degree
don. brighter than | a fine blue.!| in a few| of the zenith
full moon. seconds,
leaving all
as dark as
before. ,
UO lrsssscasssbdee-|LOrQuay ((tHe)tsevabetsasxccsstie.ave sscoscsseveseceeso(Elash 1 sec.5\From 9°. Ne@
Pier). seen in mo-| altitude 23°
tion 1 sec. | 27°. Novag
altitude 20°
Do rescosna2ved oo |Nottingham.,.,..|.ccocseesscsceerse eesenal se Situs depenccseinescceieaenen seoees Streak emai
-parallel to
Ecliptic, fro!
Aquarii to 7
cium. ‘
een Sip apsuds ce Oudon s,s cicseeancantene Spanedanee’ =e Jaddeaneeew its 09c]cavawexonims seeeelscseeeeecenceese .
ON ea ctee oc sete Enfield Highway, |Diffusedlight, equal Diffused light!...... seeeeeeeeeee(In a line, but
London. to noonday. of a pale few degree
violet co- of the
lour. An explo
must
taken
. ; but sligh
moved m ti
zenith. |
'
7
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 75
¥ ; Sea ERE Direction ; noting also
gearance ; Train, if any,| Lengtho whether Horizontal, :
and its Duration. Path Perpendicular, or ie pisos,
Inclined. |
ST tasth dévssscosvslisaustesesecess Descended towards|No report heard ......... W. A. Sanford.
N.W. or N.E.
e a sudden dischargel...... Pooeencealieucsecescsecersoecccgadaegana|soectescscccessenacsceosces ...|/Paragraph in the
f fireworks. The ‘Ipswich Ex-
ame burst suddenly, press.’
hrowing out brilliant
parks like a rocket;
he long tail of white
ight endured two or
hree seconds and then
radually faded away.
Ma IYI LIE A bi seicy daca eankas|tee teseacsaseeesancssagecen «...An explosion was heard Correspondent to
ocket’s; its light a at Norwich like that} the ‘ Norwich
right yellow, and of a rocket in the air.| Mercury.’
shen it burst, a mul-
tude of sparks ap-
eared to fall from the
ody.
meteor presented an|....... deessces|secsercens Ne ccccdeoetarevedees| ruavdrraeakasenasSeaVacnetess Writer in the
xtraordinary blaze of ‘ Norwich
ght, likened to a long Mercury.’
be of fireworks
ghted at both ends,
ach of which in turn
roke into smaller
arks.
liant stream of fire (25°) ....,.'Flight longer than the 7/No such meteor seen in Correspondent to
ke rocket-tail; left a Northern stars. London for ten years) the ‘ Times,’
minous track visible before.
ny seconds.
k of fire remained like)............... Mean direction from N.|-«+:ssssecesescsssesosecneeser Writer in the
ail of a rocket, show- to S, ‘Times,’
g that a meteor had
assed overhead,
PURI ares secrecy carac|sesceee +, Sacre Kosddcceecnx Peeper oon. Foe nBlec cee BEBOC MOOS: BUcCORAee ie Dr. E. Burder.
PUPERIGINIC? concccccccs.[eeecones Pema tiesis DasPRGRd Reckenencdetenaee
n sailing an iHlami-
ting power for nearly
r Bitte, and then faded
adually away.
ense streak appeared
the sky. Bright
violet at. west end,
wi changing through
to vermilion and
mine in the rest of
W. to E.; perfectly ho-
rizontal from Milky
Way to the planet
Mars.
An observer considered'James Edmunds.
it to be an unusual
flash of lightning,
as bricks could
be counted on a wall
sixty yards distant.
Ellis Hall.
Date.
1862.
Sept.24
25
25
25
25
REPORT—1862.
Position, or
Place of - é :
Hour. Observation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. ane
hm c
8 15 p.m./Broadstairs, Kent] Venus at its bright-\Blue ......... '2 seconds...... Entered the Milk
est, or somewhat! Way from th
brighter. left, and disap
peared a_ littl
below « Aquilzs
6 15 p.m.|Weston - super -|Much larger than Red .........+./5 to 8 seconds|Appeared due E.
Mare. Venus ; very| altitude 26°
splendid meteor. disappeared S.E
altitude 18°,
6 15 p.m.|Ticehurst, Sussex|As large as aGreen nucleus'2 or 3 seconds|From altitude 45!
cricket-ball. within a red to altitude 15°
envelope. a little S.
the point
sunset.
6 15 p.m./Lamberhurst, {Large and bright...|.......... Sevowces|oecere octet seen Appeared 60°
Sussex. from S., i
tude 40; disa
peared due W
altitude 20°.
6 30 p.m.) Weston - super -|Larger than Venus/White, with/3 seconds...... From 15° E
Mare. blue tint. of the zenith
S.W.
6 30 p.m.|Stonyhurst ...... —=SITIUS) .sscus0 eseerjansee Cn squpesccoet|denncauabe cures .../Inclined — at
disappeared at {
height of 10° 0.
11° above
horizon.
6 35 p-m.JOxford. ....5..0c]-see8 A sccachcacenecdoe xt
I. Meteor, 1861, July 16th, 10" 15™ p.w, G.M.T.
By Mrs. E, Addison, of Gainsford, Durham, this meteor was first seen 29°
from the horizon, in the direction of the towns Dunkirk or Ostend, upon the
Greenwich latitude. Mr. J. Howe, of Greenwich, observed the meteor to pass
within 8° or 9° of his zenith, as may be inferred from the position of a Lyre
at the time of the meteor’s appearance; but this is at variance with the ac-
counts of Mr. Charles Reed at Westminster, and Mrs. Davies at South-
borough, who describe the meteor in the E. as far from vertical. If we
assume the meteor to have passed over Dunkirk at an altitude of 30°, as seen
from Gainsford, its height was here 172 miles above the French coast. The
obstruction of houses on the west side of Whitehall in Mr. Charles Reed’s
account, shows the meteor to have disappeared nearly due N. from London,
at an altitude of 10°, pointed out by Mr. Howe at Greeny ich, At Gainsford,
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
77
. ' Direction ; noting also
arance ; Train, if any,| Length of | whether Horizontal d z
Rand its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. earch:
Inclined.
light tail of red sparks!20° ......... At right angles to thel....... tates cites beetedins Zamna» K. E. Rufenacht.
ursued the head. Milky Way.
Magnificent MetCOT 5|,..,.seceereeelscsscseceesveeeeseceeseeseesee{LHe sun had not quite/Communicated
ucleus surrounded by gone down at the} by W.H. Wood.
halo, and attended appearance of this
y a short train of meteor. :
parks ; disappeared
ithout sparks.
appeared in the openl..,...see.e++.| Vertically down ......+. a Lyre appeared 30°\Rev., F. Howlett.
ky; globular; no from its point of
parks ; enveloped in a commencement.
aint light.
tail or sparks.......0+00+|..0ec0e0eeee0e+(Inclined Cownwards|.seresserree ad qasdeasanane coe H. Moreland.
from left to right.
appeared gradually PPPS PESTO P PO e Teer r rrr eerreririrerrr ir ee Communicated
thout sparks, by W. H. Wood.
Hiant, although the/7° or 8° .,.|E. to W. v.ssseeeeeeceeeeee(L Was prevented from/J. Moore.
wilight was sufficient observing the be-
read by. ginning of its path
by a __ projecting
building near the
window at which 1
was sitting.
BSE PATE Of — its).as.ssaressenne|NoNoE- to S.S.W.5 felll-ccossscepsoareesereesepaoeeeo(H. S. C., Corre-
escent the tail length- downwards. spondent to
ned, but just before the ‘ Stand-
ts disappearance, col- ard.’
and gathered
elf into the nucleus,
endering that much
arger and brighter.
the same point of the path had altitude 20° in due N.E. The latter lines of
sight approach within eleven miles of each other, eighty-eight miles due E.
of Newcastle, and forty-four miles above the sea. It is probable, from the
account of Mrs. Davies, that the meteor first appeared somewhat S. of the
latitude of Dunkirk, and that the entire path of 395 or 400 miles was per-
formed in not less than ten to twelve seconds of time.
II. Meteor, 1861, July 16th, 11" 32™ p.m. G.M.T.
_ Avsimilar comparison of the catalogued accounts of this meteor assigns its
path with somewhat greater certainty at 300 miles of length, from 195 miles
_ over North Foreland to sixty-five miles above the sea, sixty miles S. of Ply-
mouth. The meteor passed the Isle of Wight at a height of 150 miles; and
here a durable tail first began to be developed from the nucleus. The dura-
tion of the flight was five to six seconds, at the largest estimation.
78
REPORT—1862.
Meteor, 1861, August 6th, 11" 21™ p.x. G.M.T.
The accounts of Mr. Joseph Baxendell at Manchester, and Messrs. T.
Crumplen and J. Townsend at London, determine the centre of this meteor
at eighty miles above a point halfway between Leicester and Birmingham ;
and, assuming its course to have been direct upon Manchester, a path of 176
miles in five seconds is inferred, from 126 miles above Winchester to twenty-
one miles above the northern point of Staffordshire.
Shooting-stars, August 8th, 10th, and 11th.
Time. Appearance.
h m :
A. 1861. Aug. 8, 10 313 p.m.G.M.T.| A second-magnitude star.
B. ” » 8, 4 5, ” A flash ; first-magnitude.
C. . 3) LO, Obed ey F Fine tailed shooting-star; first-magni-
tude star.
D. 19 ap UU aOR Fe 5, Third-magnitude star.
ts Es rf J dy O20 Fs, 3 Bright white-tailed shooting-star, and
; equal to Venus.
| Place of Centre. Direction of Flight.
A. 67 miles over Sandhurst (Kent). From alt. 46°, 3° N. of E.
B. 50 miles over Bury St. Edmunds. | Nearly vertical ; down.
Cc. 20 miles E. of N. Foreland; 47 miles over the sea.) From alt. 38°, 48° N. of E.
D. 70 miles over Leatherhead. From alt. 54°, 20° N. of E.
E. 70 miles E. of Ipswich ; 32 miles above the sea. | From alt. 42°, 70° N. of LE. §
Length of Flight. Velocity of Flight.
A. 20 miles (approx.). 30 miles a second (approx.). ;
B. 6 miles. |
C. 35 miles (approx.). | 30 miles a second (approx.).
D. 20 miles (approx.). 30 miles a second (approx.). :
| E. 36 miles. 27 miles a second. H
hf
F |
Bi
—
Brilliance. |
A. At 352 yards would have shown like full moon.
B. At 398 yards iy y rr
Cc. At 692 yards 5 as 9
D. At 274 yards ~ ” +
i. At 1484 yards 7 % 7
Meteor, 1861, November 12th, 5" 49™ p.m,
. The accounts of Mr. TL. and Mr. W. Penn at Oxwich and Stone, place
the earliest appearance of this meteor at 90 to 100 miles over Peter-
borough or Cambridge. Its approach to the zenith, both at Hay and at
Bristol, indicates a passage between the latter stations; and the remaining
accounts will be found to be satisfied with considerable accuracy by a course of
" sixty miles above Lundy island, terminated with a slight dip towards the sea,
iy”
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 79
‘and explosion twenty miles above it, upon the meridian of Land’s End. The
flight of 360 miles appears to have occupied seven or eight seconds of time.
Meteor, 1861, November 15th, 10" 14™ p.m.
The meteor described by Mr. Nash at Greenwich, and Mr. Herschel at
Shooter’s Hill, although identical, do not admit of useful comparison with one
another, nor with that observed by Mr. Greg at Styall, near Manchester,—the
base-line in the former case being too small for such a purpose, and the third
meteor being apparently distinct from the former two.
Meteor, 1861, November 19th, 9 38™ 30s p.m.
_ The Ipswich and Norwich accounts place the audible explosion of this bril-
liant meteor at no great height between the two towns ; thirty miles of height
must be allowed to it for the altitude as seen from Exeter, although such a
height is at variance with the view obtained from Greenwich and North Fore-
land. It is not impossible that explosion, audible at Norwich and Ipswich,
and perhaps also at North Foreland, may have depressed the last portion of
the flight, for this was hidden from view at Exeter. The near verticality
at North Foreland, the passage over the moon (whose altitude was 38° E. by
8.) in the eastern parts of Kent, and the low southern position of the nucleus
as first perceived by Messrs. Hill at Woodford, Mitchell and Harmer at Tun-
bridge, and James Rock, jun. at Guestling, show this meteor to have taken a
nearly meridian and nearly horizontal course. A flight of 260 miles in 10
or 12 seconds, from fifty-five miles above Paris to thirty miles above Beccles
(between Suffolk and Norfolk), is found to satisfy the whole of the accounts
with considerable accuracy.
Meteors, 1861, November 24th, 8 0™ p.m,
The resemblance of these meteors is casual,—the lines of sight of com-
mencement lying widely upon opposite sides of the base-line between the
stations, while those of termination approach no nearer than twenty-six miles
upon the southern side of the base-line.
Meteors, 1861, December Ist, 9" 15" p.x.
The resemblance of these meteors is not borne out by the uranographical
positions assigned to them at the two distant stations,—the point of com-
mencement having little or no parallax with considerable deviation of the
lines of sight, while the lines of sight of termination lie upon opposite sides
of the base-line.
Meteor, 1861, December 8th, 8" 16™ p.m.
At Dungannon in Ireland this meteor appeared to fall vertically, while at
Wakefield (Yorkshire) it passed overhead. The observation of Dr. Walker at
Birkenhead (Seacombe), assigns Strangford, on the Irish coast, as the spot
between these two towns where the body would have struck the earth. By
Mr. Redford’s account, from Silloth near Carlisle, the height at disappearance
is found to be fifty miles above the sea, halfway from Lancaster to the Isle of
Man; the height above Wakefield eighty-five miles, and at Hull 110 to 115
miles. Modified by the remaining accounts, a course of 160 miles from 110
miles above Hull to forty-five miles above the Irish Sea, twenty miles E. of
| Douglas Town, performed in six or eight seconds of time, appears to be a near
approximation to the truth. It is possible that an explosion loudly heard at
Lancaster and Southport, but not heard at Douglas, may have caused the
deflection by which the meteor in the latter portion of its flight appeared sta-
80 REPORT—1862.
tionary at Castletown some seconds. On the 3rd of the same month, a similar
detonating meteor appeared in Germany, bursting sixty miles over Dessan,
and directed almost from the Pole (see the Calculation of Professor Heis).
Mr. Greg at this time observed the radiant point of shooting-stars to lie
between Gemini and Auriga. On the 24th of December it was in Taurus.
Meteors, 1861, December 9th, 55 30™ p.m.
The resemblance is casual. The uranographical position at Hawkhurst
places this meteor at a great height towards Edinburgh, upon the latitude
of Glasgow.
Shooting-star (F), 1862, January 28th, 11" 4™ p.at,
The base-line of forty miles between the stations of London and Stone
affords a good determination of this shooting-star. The lines of sight for the
commencement are only three miles apart at their nearest approach, namely,
at 443 miles above Melton Mowbray in Leicestershire, while those of termi-
nation are only 23 miles asunder at 473 miles above Macclesfield in Cheshire. -
The horizontal fight of sixty miles was performed in 1} to 13 second, by
careful estimation at the time of the observation. Direction from 32°S, of E.
At 880 yards it would have equalled the full moon.
Meteor, 1862, February 2nd, 8" 20™ p.m.
The astronomical accounts of Mr, E. J. Lowe and Mr. Alcock at Beeston
Observatory and Newark, together with similar details from Tarporley in
Cheshire, appear to fix the disappearance of this meteor with precision at
fourteen or fifteen miles above Cheadle, on the borders of Derbyshire, where
the meteor arrived after a flight in the air of 236 miles from 190 miles above
Lyme Regis, occupying six seconds of time and directed to earth in the valley
of the Dove, or at the foot of the Peak of Derbyshire. The point of first ap-
pearance in Orion or the Pleiades, as seen at Liverpool and Tarporley, places
this meteor among the few whose true courses are observed to lie from W, to
E. of the meridian.
Meteor, 1862, February 23rd, 9" 25™ p.w.
This meteor, which passed nearly over Liverpool towards S.W., appeared to
Mr. W. H. Wood, at Weston-super-Mare, to move 30° horizontally in the N.
at 20° from the horizon. It appears to have sought the earth at Pembroke,
and had its flight from forty miles above Stockport, near Manchester, to twenty
miles above Aberystwith, in Wales.
The following comparison of the brightness of these meteors is offered as
leading to an estimation of their probable dimensions.
The photometric tables of the light of certain stars compared with that of
the full moon, published by Sir John Herschel, enable us to compare the light
of ordinary shooting-stars with a standard generally familiar; and the same
may be done when fireballs are compared in their illuminating power to dif-
ferent phases of the moon; but the class of meteors intermediate between
these in the scale of brilliancy are usually compared with the planets of whose
light at different phases no tables are prepared. Among the preceding known
meteors, one only of the latter class (shooting-star e) is found. The follow-
ing deductions aim at no greater accuracy than is commensurate to the cha-
racter of the observations themselves.
(A) I. Meteor, 1861, July 16th, 10" 15™ p.a.: shone apparently as half of
a moon two days old, at Furness, 150 miles from the meteor’s termination,
At 25} miles it would have equalled the full moon,
ee
—
PORN:
—————S
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 81
(B) II. Meteor, 1861, July 16th: shone as ongsfourth. of moon two days old,
at Flimwell, distant 930 miles from bursting. At 374 miles it would have
equalled full moon.
(C) Meteor, 1861, August 6th, 11" 21™ p.m. : shone one-tenth of moon two
days old, at London, 150 miles from brightest point. At eight miles it would
have equalled full moon.
Shooting-stars, August 8th, 10th, 11th, would have equalled full moon at
distance of 352, 398, 692, 274, 1484 yards.
(D) Meteor, ‘1861, November 12th, 5° 49™ p.m.: lighted the turnpike-road
at Hay fully as much as the moon. itself shining upon it, and ten days old.
Meteor overhead, seventy-five miles from Hay. Ai sixty- three miles it would
have equalled full moon.
(E) Meteor, 1861, November 19th, 9" 38™P.m.: threw shadows half as deep
as the moon, then full, at Tunbridge, seventy-seven miles from the first burst
of light. At fift y-four miles it would have equglled full moon.
(F) Meteor, 1861, December 8th, 8° 16" p.m.: exceeded the light of the
moon then shining clear and six days old, at Hull, 130 miles from the flash
over Walney Isle. At eighty-eight miles it would have equalled full moon.
(G) Meteor, 1862, February 2nd, 8" 20™ p.m.: shone as brightly as the
moon unclouded and ten days old, at Beeston, fig miles from the explosion.
At thirty miles it would have equalled full moon.
(H) Meteor, 1862, February 23rd, 9" 25" p.m.: threw a bright light from
the sky which filled the streets at Liverpool and Bromborough, distance forty
miles; perhaps equal to a moon four days old, At 161 miles at would have
equalled full moon.
Assuming an ordinary flame of street gas to measure a cubic inch of in-
candescent matter, and at 15 yards to throw a light equal to the direct light
of full moon, we have 13,690 gas flames at a mile equivalent to full moon ;
and the following are the globes of burning coal-gas which would shed the
light produced by. the separate meteors and shooting-stars of the foregoing
list.
I. II. ;
Meteors. July 16. |Julyl6. Aug. 6. | Noy. 12.| Nov. 19.| Dec. 8. |Feb. 2.| Feb. 23,
Diameters } f¢; fins its tte fiiUline Oivits) ins! fteimn: ft. ft. in.
of burning +/ 21 8 28 10 39 6 | 35 9 | 49 5 24 | 14 3
globes.
Shooting-stars. A. B. C. D. E, F.
Diameters of in, in. in. in. in. in.
incandescent 10-2 111 1671 87 26°7 14:0
globes.
It is possible that these results afford a juster idea of the real sizes of the
luminous bodies than those derived from angular measurements of their ap-
parent discs.
[For Errata of the Catalogue, &c., see Appendix I. at the end of the
Reports in this volume. |
1862. &
82 REPORT—1862.
On the Strains in the Interior of Beams.
By Grorce Bropett Arry, F.R.S., Astronomer Royal.
[A communication ordered to be printed among the Reports.]
Tux author states that he had long desired to possess a theory which should
enable him to compute numerically the strains on every point in the interior
of a beam or girder, but that no memoir or treatises had given him the least
assistance*. He had therefore constructed a theory which solved completely
the problems for which he wanted it, and which appears to admit of applica-
tion at least to aJl ordinary cases.
The theory contemplates forees acting in one plane. A beam therefore is
considered as a lamina in a vertical plane, the same considerations applying
to every vertical lamina of which a beam may be conceived to be composed.
The author remarks that it is unnecessary to recognize every possible strain
inabeam. Metallic masses are usually in a state of strain, from circum-
stances occurring in their formation ; but such strains are not the subject of
the present investigation, which is intended to ascertain only those strains
which are created by the weight of the beam and its loads. The algebraical
interpretation of this remark is, that it is not necessary to retain general
solutions of the equations which will result from the investigation, but only
such solutions as will satisfy the equations.
After defining the unit of force as the weight of a square unit of the lamina,
and the measure of compression-thrust or extension-pull as the length of
the ribbon of lamina, whose breadth is the length of the line which is subject
to the transverse action of the compression or tension, and whose weight is
equal to that compression or tension, the author eonsiders the effect of tension,
&e. estimated in a direction inclined to the real direction of the tension, and
shows that it is proportional to the square of the cosine of inclination. He
then considers the effect of compounding any number of strains of compression
or tension which may act simultaneously on the same part-of a lamina, and
shows that their compound effect may in every case be replaced by the com-
pound effect of two forces at right angles to each other, the two forces being
both compressions or both tensions, or one compression and one tension.
Succeeding investigations are therefore limited to two such forees.
Proceeding then to the general theory of beams, it is remarked that if a
curve be imagined, dividing a beam into any two parts, the further part of
the beam (as estimated from the origin of coordinates) may be considered to
be sustained by the forces which act in various directions across that curve,
taken in combination with the weight of the further part of the beam, the
load upon that part, the reaction of supports, &ce. Expressing the forces in
conformity with the principles already explained, and supposing that there is
one compression-force B making an angle 6 with y (in the direction of y
diminishing for increase of x), and another compression-force C making an
angle 90°+ 3 with y, it is easily seen that the element ds of the curve, sup-
posed to make the angle @ with y, sustains the forces
Inw, B.désx sin(8+60)x smn B+C.ésx sin(8+90°+6)x sin (8+90°).
In y, —B.ésx sin(§+6)x cosB—C.¢sx sin (B+90°+6) x cos (8+90°).
The weight of lamina bounded by y and y+éy, and estimated as acting
* Subsequently to the communication of this Report, the author learned that one in-
stance (the second) of those given here had been treated by Professor Rankine, by methods
peculiar to that instance.
ON THE STRAINS IN THE INTERIOR OF BEAMS. 83
upwards, is —yéx. And the reaction R of a support may act upwards at
distance h.
Expanding the sines and cosines, putting éw for sin 6 . ds, and dy for cos 0 « és ;
putting also
L=B.sin? 6+C. cos? 6, .
M=(B—C) .sin (. cos B,
Q=—B. cos? B—C. sin’ },
O=y—Q,
ma]
=
rns the equations of equilibrium in the usual way, they will be found
to be—
Equation for forces in 2, [de .(Ip+M)=0.
Equation for forces in y, [dep +0)—R=0.
Equation of momenta, fdxCyp +My+ Mep +0xv)—RA=D.
Now these equations, applying to any curve, will apply to any two curves
very close together; and therefore their variation, taken by the rules of the
Calculus of Variations, will be 0. The proper equation (in the usual nota-
tion) is y—“D)=0. Applying this, the results are
dM dL _o
dy da’
dO dM _
dy da ‘
_ From this it follows that (omitting some arbitrary functions which represent
original strains in the formation of the beam) L, M, O, are partial differential
coefficients of the same function of w and y, which we may call F; so that
ra yn @! ont
dy” dxdy’ da?
Substituting these, the equations become
f': “(s, a S.Az Rao! f.d(yF+2-F)—M= 0.
Considerations, of a somewhat detailed character, depending partly on the
relation assumed to exist between tension-force and material extension, are
necessary to show the form which must be assumed for F in the various cases
to be examined. The conditions to be secured are—that the horizontal part
of the thrust, &c. shall be the same as that given by ordinary theories, on the
relation just mentioned ; and that the equations above shall be satisfied. After
due application of these in the following five cases, these forms are found
for F.
Case 1. A beam of CoM r and depth s projeuns from a wall;
Case 2. A beam of aoe _ and depth s aia at both ends ;
FHS. (0*—2re). (es —).
G
84 ; REPORT—1862.
Case 3. A beam like the last, carrying a weight W at the distance a from
one end.
In this case the function is discontinuous; its forms are—
"ea (VW).
je—a*} .(f -
From «=a to «=2r, F=S : {-N2+(2—w2)o—a* } , (4) :
From «=0 tow=a, F= o {(4+W=S
s Ts
s
(Of this case, two instances are given in the curves below.)
Case 4. A beam like that in Case 2, with a straining momentum applied at
each end, as in the middle tubes of the Britannia Bridge ;
poe (ee r)
ee _ 6 .
s?
Case 5. A beam like that in Case 2, with a straining momentum applied at
one end only, as in the exterior tubes of the Britannia Bridge ;
re
ns pein |e
s 4 6
By forming the differential coefficients of F symbolically, L, M, and Q
(=y—O) are obtained in a form which admits of numerical calculation for
every value of « and y. And from these, B,C, and 6 are computed without
difficulty.
In this way the values of B, C, and 6 have been found for every combi-
nation of the values v=r x01, e=rx 0:2, v=rx 0-3, &e., with the values
y=sxO01, y=sx0:2, y=sx0°3, &e. In Case 1, 121 points were thus
treated: in each of the other cases the computations were made for 231 points.
Tn the following diagrams are given the curves representing the directions
of pressure and tension through the beam, together with a few numerical
values at the most critical points, for each of the cases to which allusion has
been made.
CURVES REPRESENTING THE STRAINS IN BEAMS, UNDER DIFFERENT CIRCUMSTANCES,
The continuous curves indicate the direction of thrust or compression; the
interrupted curves or chain lines indicate the direction of pull or tension.
The figures denote the measure of the strain; the sign + meaning compres-
sion, and — meaning tension. The unit of strain is the weight of ma-
terial lamina whose length = depth of beam.
y No. 1. Beam projecting from a wall.
ed
ON THE STRAINS IN THE INTERIOR OF BEAMS.
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86
ON THE THREE REPORTS OF THE LIVERPOOL COMPASS COMMITTEE. 87
Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee and
other recent Publications on the same subject. By ARCHIBALD
Smiru, M.A., F.R.S., and Freperick Joun Evans, R.N., F.R.S.
Tne task which we have undertaken, at the request of the British Asso-
ciation, is in some degree lightened by the publication, since the last
meeting, of the ‘ Admiralty Manual for ascertaining and applying the De-
viations of the Compass,’ a work which has been compiled under our joint
editorship, and published by the direction of the Lords Commissioners of the
Admiralty. The publication of this work allows us to treat as known,
various methods and formule which had not previously been published, and
to which it will be necessary to refer in the sequel. It, however, makes it
necessary that we should give some account of our own work, and this we
think it will be most convenient that we should do at the outset.
The ‘Manual’ is divided into four parts. Part I. contains the well-
known “ Practical Rules ” published by the Admiralty, drawn up originally,
in 1842, by a committee consisting of the late Admirals Sir F. Beaufort and
Sir J. C. Ross, Captain Johnson, R.N., Mr. Christie, and General Sabine.
These rules were, and still are, purely practical,—the object being to enable
the seaman, by the process of swinging his ship, to obtain a table of the
deviations of his compass on each point, and then to apply the tabular
corrections to the courses steered.
Part II. is a description of the valuable graphic method known as
*Napier’s method,” in which the deviations of the compass are represented
by the ordinates of a curve, of which the “courses ”’ or azimuths of the ship’s
head which correspond to the deviations are the abscisse. These azimuths
may be measured either from the “correct magnetic north,” in which case
they are called the “correct magnetic courses,” or from the direction of the
disturbed needle, in which case they are called “ compass courses ;”’ and we
should in general obtain one curve if the abscisse represent one set of courses,
and a different curve if the abscisse represent the other set. It was, we
believe, first observed by Mr. J. R. Napier that, by drawing the two sets of
ordinates in proper directions, each may be made to give the same identical
curve, and, conversely, that the same curve may be made to give the devi-
ations as well on the correct magnetic courses as on the compass courses,
with the additional advantage that the one set of courses may be at once
derived from the other by going from the axis of abscisse to the curve, in a
direction parallel to one of the sets of ordinates, and returning to the axis
of abscissee in a direction parallel to the other. The original direction of
each set of ordinates is arbitrary, the scale, however, depending on those
directions. By drawing the ordinates at angles of 60° and 120° from the axis
of abscissee, we have the advantage that the scale along each axis of ordinates
and also along the axis of abscisse is the same; and these directions are in
general the most convenient, although in particular cases, as when the
deviations are very small, it is convenient to take a larger scale for the ordi-
nates than for the abseisse. The practical advantages of the method are
very great. It enables the navigator, from observations of deviations made
on any number of courses, whether equidistant or not, to construct a curve
in which the errors of observation are, as far as possible, mutually compen-
sated, and which gives him the deviation as well on the compass courses as
on the correct magnetic courses. Various modifications of this method have
been proposed, of which one by Capt. A. P. Ryder, R.N., deserves particular
mention from the facility with which it may be used by those to whom the
88 REPORT—1862.
method is unfamiliar ; but for general use there seems to be no form supe-
rior-to the usual form of Napier’s diagram.
Part III. contains the practical application to this subject of mathematical
formule derived from the fundamental equations deduced by Poisson from
Coulomb’s theory of magnetism. This part was published separately in the
year 1851, and afterwards as a Supplement to the “ Practical Rules ” in 1855.
At that time it was considered sufficient to use approximate formule, going
as far only as terms involving the first powers of the coefficients of deviation.
The very large deviations found in iron-plated ships of war rendering it
desirable to use in certain cases the exact instead of the approximate formule,
this part has been re-written.
It may be desirable to give here some account of these formule.
Poisson’s equations are derived from the hypothesis that the magnetism
of the ship, except so far as it is permanent, is transient induced magnetism,
the intensity of which is proportional to the intensity of the inducing force,
and that the length of the compass-needle is infinitesimal compared to the
distance of the nearest iron.
On this hypothesis the deviation of the compass is represented ewactly by
one or other of the following formule :—
sin 5=@ cos +B sin 2/+€ cos 2/4 B sin (22'+6)+€ cos (22'+6) .. (1)
t sat sin £+€ cos €4+B sin 2 + € cos 22 (2)
aO=7 +38 cos —C ain 24D cos PTE an BE Se
in which 8 represents the deviation, Z the ‘ correct magnetic course,” 2! the
“ compass course ;” Q, 3B, & are coefficients depending solely on the soft iron
of the ship ; 34 and € coefficients each consisting of two parts, one part a co-
efficient depending on the soft iron and multiplied by the tangent of the dip,
the other part a coefficient depending on the hard iron and multiplied by the
reciprocal of the earth’s horizontal force at the place, and by a factor, Y?
generally a little greater than unity, and depending on the softiron. In
these equations the sign+ indicates an easterly, —a westerly deviation of the
north point of the compass.
If the coefficients are so small that their squares and products may be
neglected, the first equation may be put under the form
S=A+B sin 2'+C cos Z'+-D sin 22'4+E cos 22!.... 6. eee eee (3)
in which it will be observed that the coefficients are now expressed in are, the
Roman letters being nearly the arcs of which the German letters are the sines.
When the deviations do not exceed 20°, this equation is sufficiently exact.
As the subject with which we are now dealing cannot be understood or
followed without distinctly apprehending the meaning of the several parts of
this expression, we do not apologise for pausing to explain them.
The term A is what is called the “ constant part of the deviation.” <A real
value of A can only be caused by soft iron unsymmetrically arranged with
reference to the compass.
It will easily be seen that such an arrangement of horizontal soft iron rods,
such as that in figure 1,
eS
Fig. 1.
©
would give a positive value of A, and no other term in the deviation.
ON THE THREE REPORTS OF THE LIVERPOOL COMPASS COMMITTEE. 89
A soft iron rod, such as that in figure 2,
© ©
Fig. 2.
would give+A to the starboard compass, combined, however, with+E; and
—A, combined with —E, to the port compass. The last arrangement is one
sometimes found in the relative positions of the horizontal iron spindle of
the wheel and the binnacle compasses placed near it. In compasses placed in
the midship line of the ship, such unsymmetrical arrangements of soft iron can
seldom have any sensible operation. In such cases A is always small; and
when it has a sensible value, it seems more likely to arise from index error of
the compass, or from error of observation, and may probably be best dealt
with as such, and disregarded in the table of deviations.
The terms B sin Z'+C cos Z! make up together what is called the “ semi-
circular deviation.” This is the part of the deviation which it is most
difficult to deal with, as well from each coefficient being made up of the two
parts which we have described, which cannot be distinguished by observa-
tions made in one latitude, as from that part of the ship’s magnetism, which
we have treated as permanent, being in fact only subpermanent. To this we
shali have occasion to revert in the sequel. At present we will only point
out that +B indicates an attraction of the north point of the compass to the
ship’s head, —B to the stern, +C an attraction of the north point to the star-
board side, —C to the port side.
The terms D sin 2¢'+ E cos 2Z! make up what is called the “quadrantal”
deviation. This can only be caused by horizontal induction in soft iron. E
can only be caused by horizontal induction in soft iron wnsymmetrically
distributed, and is therefore, except in such cases as those represented in
fig. 2, very small. + D may be caused by the following arrangements of sym-
metrically arranged soft iron, in which the ship’s head is supposed to be
directed towards the top or bottom of the page. —D may be caused by the
same arrangements, the ship’s head being now supposed to be directed to the
right or left of the page.
Fig. 3
Nt N22, N¢3. Ni4, N35.
° —_-—- _-———- —_—_ 09 —
Between these various arrangements there is this most important dif-
ference, that in No. 1 and No. 4 the directive force of the needle would be
Increased, while in No. 2 and No. 5 it would be diminished. In No. 3 it
90 REPORT—1862.
might be either increased, or diminished, or left unaltered, according as the
effect of the longitudinal and the transverse iron preponderated. We may,
therefore, by observing the effect on the directive force, as well as on the
quadrantal deviation, ascertain how much of the latter is caused by fore-and-
aft iron, how much by transverse iron.
This explanation of the coefficients will probably be sufficient for the
purposes of this Report, and we now revert to Part III. of the ‘ Manual.’
The principal object of this part is to find the means of computing A, B,
C, D, E, from the deviations observed or derived by Napier’s curve for a
certain number (8, 16, or 32) equidistant points. This is easily done by
formule founded on the method of least squares ; and the method is made of
ready application by tabular forms and tables given in this part.
The direct computation of the exact coefficients A, 3, €, B, € by the
method of least squares would be a matter of very great labour; but they
are easily derived to terms of the 3rd order inclusive from the approximate
coefficients A, B, C, D, E by formule which are given for the first time in
this part.
There are two other coefficients, the knowledge of which is of great
importance, but which can only be derived from observations of force, viz. d,
or the ratio of the mean force to north at the place of the compass to the
earth’s horizontal force, and p, the ratio of the mean vertical force at the
same place to the earth’s vertical force.
One of the most important errors in the modern iron-built and iron-
plated vessels is the heeling error, The deviations obtained by the usual pro-
cess of swinging are for a vessel on an even keel. It is found by experience
that as the vessel heels to one or other side, the north point of the compass
is drawn either to the weather or lee side, generally the former; and the
deviation so produced, when the ship’s course is near north or south, often
exceeds the angle of heel. This not only produces a deviation which may
cause a serious error in the ship’s course, but if the ship is rolling, and par-
ticularly if the period of each roll approximates to the period of oscillation of
the compass, produces a swinging of the compass-needle, which may amount
to many times the angle of heel, and make the compass for the time useless
for steering.
This is a part of the deviation which has been involved in some obscurity.
Mr. Airy, in a paper in the ‘ Transactions of the Institution of Naval
Architects, vol. i. p. 107 (1860), says that the disturbance produced by
heeling has not been well observed, and its correction has not yet been
reduced to easy laws; and that the effect of heeling is the only part of the
magnetic disturbance in regard to which the practical correction of the com-
pass is really at fault ; and the Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee
refer to it as one of the most perplexing parts of the subject. It therefore
appeared to us desirable to deduce from Poisson’s formule, expressions for the
alteration of the coefficients introduced by the inclination of the ship. This
has been done in the ‘Manual,’ and the result is, we think, to remove entirely
the obscurity which rested on the subject. The effect of the heeling error is,
as might have been anticipated, to leave unaltered the coefficients which
depend on fore-and-aft action, viz. B and D, to alter C, and to give a value
to A and EK. The latter appear to be, except when the compass is near
either extremity of the vessel, of small amount. The alteration of C is the
only one which is important. The formule show that it consists of two
parts, which are caused by arrangements of iron, such as that in the follow-
‘ing figure, in which the vertical line represents iron permanently magnetized,
ON THE THREE REPORTS OF THE LIVERPOOL COMPASS COMMITTEE. 91
or vertical iron magnetized by induction, drawing the north end of the needle
downwards in the northern hemisphere ; the horizontal line a rod, such as that
in fig, 3, No. 2, which would give +D, and which, when the ship’s head is
Fig. 4.
Fgh atten: ‘oleae mont
north or south, will have no effect till the ship heels, when its upper (weather)
end will attract the north point of the compass. Lach rod in the figure will
therefore cause a deviation of the north point of the needle to the weather
side. In order to correct this, the vertical magnetism must either act
upwards, or the transverse magnetism must be such as would be caused by
a horizontal transverse rod on each side of the compass, the formula indi-
eating the relation which must exist between the vertical and the transverse
horizontal magnetism in order that the heeling error may be zero,
The 4th Part of the ‘Manual’ contains charts of the lines of equal
variation, equal dip, and equal horizontal force over the globe; the first for
the purpose of enabling the navigator at sea to determine the deviation by
astronomical observations; the two latter to throw light on the changes which
the deviations undergo on a lengthened voyage, and to enable the navigator
to anticipate the changes which will take place on a change of geographical
position.
Of the Appendices, one (No. 2) contains a short account of the method
proposed by Mr. Airy for the mechanical correction of the semicircular and
quadrantal deviation, and a notice of a method lately proposed by Mr. Evans
for the correction of the quadrantal deviation when excessive. No. 3 is on
the mathematical theory of the deviations of the compass, being the deduction
from Poisson’s equations of such formule as may be most conveniently ap-
plied to the analysis of the tables of deviations derived from actual obser-
vation.
There is a graphical method of representing the magnetic state of a ship
as regards deviation, described in pp. 106 and 107, which we may shortly
describe. :
If from the centre of a compass, in any part of the ship, we draw a
horizontal line, representing in amount and direction the ship’s disturbing
force on the north end of the needle of that compass, the ends of ali the
lines so drawn will, as is shown in this appendix, trace out an ellipse. If
the soft iron of the ship be symmetrically distributed, so that @ and & are
| Zero, the construction of this ellipse is simplified, as its axes are then parallel
| and perpendicular to the fore-and-aft lines of the ship. The position of the
_ centre of the ellipse gives the amount of the force to head, and force to side,
| which cause the semicircular deviation. The fore-and-aft and transverse
|
92 REPORT—1862.
axes of the ellipse give the amount of the fore-and-aft transverse inductive
forces which give rise to the quadrantal deviation. An ellipse so drawn,
therefore, gives to the eye, at a glance, the whole magnetic character of the
ship as regards deviation on an even keel.
If the mean directive force of the needle is not altered, the ellipse be-
comes a circle, the coordinates of the centre of which are 3% and €, and the
radius 39, on the scale in which the mean force to north represents unity.
If we haye no observations of horizontal force, the circle is all we can draw ;
it gives all the information to be derived from the ellipse, except the diminu-
tion of the directive force. For the complete representation of the deviation
and force, it is convenient to have both the circle and the ellipse drawn.
In the diagrams the direction and force of the earth’s magnetism as the
ship is on different azimuths are represented by the radius of a circle, of
which the compass is centre, and which is divided in thé reverse order of
the compass-card. A line drawn from a point in the circle to the correspond-
ing point in the ellipse or small circle represents, on the common principle of
the parallelogram of forces, the direction and amount of the force on the
needle*. A modification of this diagram is described at p. 96 of the ‘Manual’
under the name of ‘ dygogram ” (dynamo-gonio-gram), applied to it from its
showing the force as well as the angle of deviation of the needle.
The principle of its construction is the following. If we draw a vertical
line representing the magnetic meridian, and from a given point in it draw
lines representing in length and direction the directive force and direction of
the needle for each azimuth of the ship’s head, the extremities of such lines
will trace out an epicycloid which is very easily constructed by points when the
coefficients G, 33, €, 3B, E are determined. The method is applied in plate 2
to the deviations of the standard compass of the ‘ Warrior,’ and has been
applied by us to many other ships, and has been found a most efficient aid in
discussing the observed deviations.
We now come to what we consider the proper subject of this Report,
viz., the practical results as to the deviations of the compass which have
been deduced from actual observation on board ship; and the works to which
we shall principally confine our attention are the following :—
« Account of Experiments on Iron-built Ships, instituted for the purpose of
* A practical application of the diagram to the correction of the compass was suggested
by its being accidentally held to the light and looked at from behind. When this is done,
it will be seen that the large circle is divided in the same way as the compass-card. Tf,
then, the radius of the large circle represent the direction of the disturbed compass-needle,
the line joining the corresponding points in the large circle and on the ellipse or small
circle will represent the direction of the magnetic meridian.
By therefore drawing on an ordinary compass-card a circle of which the coordinates of
the centre are —33 and +, and the additional coordinates of the north point —3B, and
dividing the small circle in the reverse order, we get the following rule for the correction of
the compass :—
‘Take the given course on the card, and also on the small circle, and suppose a straight
line drawn through these. Then keep the ship’s head in the direction of the line, disre-
garding, of course, the lubber-line.”
+ If X be the force to north in terms of the mean force to north, Y the force to east,
then X and Y representing rectangular coordinates,
X=1+% cos 7—€ sin €+ 3B cos 2 7—G sin 2%,
Y=4+3 sin + € cos 7+3B sin 2 + & cos 2 Z,
which is the equation to an epicycloid traced out by a point 4/3524 @ from the centre ot
a circle whose radius is 4/3324 @?, and which rolls on a circle of equal size, and the co-
ordinates of the centre of which are X=1, Y=@.
ON THE THREE REPORTS OF THE LIVERPOOL COMPASS COMMITTEE. 93
discovering a Correction for the Deviation of the Compass produced by the
Tron of the Ship, by G. B. Airy, Esq., Astronomer Royal” (Phil. Trans.
1839, p. 167).
“ Discussion of the Observed Deviations of the Compass in several Ships, wood-
built and iron-built, by G. B. Airy, Esq.” (Phil. Trans. 1856, p. 53).
“ Practical Illustrations of the Necessity for Ascertaining the Deviations of the
Compass, &c., by Capt. Edward J. Johnson, R.N., F.R.S., Superintendent
of the Compass Department of the Royal Navy.” 1st edition, 1848; 2nd
edition, 1852.
‘« Magnetical Investigations by the Rev. W. Scoresby, D.D.” 2 vols. 1844-1852,
Journal of a Voyage to Australia and round the World, for Magnetical Re-
search, by the Rev. W. Scoresby, D.D.” Lond. 1859.
*‘ First and Second Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee to the Board
of Trade, 1857.”
“Third do., 1861.”
* Reduction and Discussion of the Deviation of the Compass observed on board
of all the Iron-built Ships, and a Selection of the Wood-built Steam-ships
in Her Majesty’s Navy, and the Iron Steam-ship ‘ Great Eastern,’ by F. J.
Evans, Master R.N., Superintendent of the Compass Department of H. M.
Navy” (Phil. Trans. 1860, p. 337).
The first and most important general result which is derived from all the
observations recorded in these works, and from many more which have not
been published, is, that the observed deviations are represented by the formulz
derived from Poisson’s theory with a correctness which is within the limits of
error of observation.
In saying this, we are in some degree differing from a conclusion which the
Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee draw from observed deviations,
viz. that there is a difference in the amount of the quadrantal deviation in
different quadrants, depending either on some quality of the iron as regards
its capacity for induction in different directions, or on the greater or less
time occupied in moving the ship’s head over one or other of the quadrants.
That some difference may, under certain circumstances, be caused by the latter
cause we do not dispute, but we are not satisfied that it is appreciable in the
ordinary process of swinging. On the contrary, we believe that, within very
small limits of error, Poisson’s theory may be considered as exact for the
ordinary process of swinging a ship. As regards more lengthened periods,
particularly when the ship has been exposed to mechanical violence, the
hypothesis no doubt ceases to be exact; but even then the most convenient
mode of treating the subject is analogous to that which is familiar in physical
astronomy and other mixed sciences, viz. to consider the theory as exact, but
the coefficients derived from that theory as being themselves subject to
changes to be derived from observations, and reduced or not, as the case may
be, to law.
Mr. Airy, in the first paper to which we have referred, describes very
eareful observations made by him on board of two iron ships, the ‘ Rainbow’
‘iron-built steamer, and the ‘ Ironsides’ iron-built sailing-ship. In the first,
observations were made at four stations: station 1, near the binnacle,
13 feet 2 in. from the stern ; station 2, at a part in which a standard compass
would probably be placed, being 31 feet 9 in. from the stern; station 3,
48 feet 3 in. from the stern; station 4, 47 feet from the knight-heads, or
1513 feet from the stern. Each compass was raised 4 feet from the deck,
Tn the <Tronsides’ the compass was placed in the position of the binnacle
compass.
94, .REPORT—1862.
From Mr. Airy’s observations we derive the following values for the
coefficients :—
Bers) ogBe ce | D. E. i
ie) 1 ° ly fe} U 7 oe Oo TF
‘Rainbow,’ station 1 | + 0 40] — 50 36/— 11 4/+123|+0 38] -984
Ff 5 +'0 385|— 18 45 | — 12 57| + 230) +02) -9735
5 . 3/+ 0 42| — 15 46| — 10 39} +3 07/—0 2/1-003
: ap 4\4.0 5|—.8..5|/— 933) +3 261 +0) 2)" “939
‘Tronsides’ ......| +0 9]— 2416] + 20 59] 4+ 2 06/4016; -908
The most remarkable features in the deviations of these ships are the very
small amount of the quadrantal deviation, and also in the ‘ Rainbow’ the
small diminution of the horizontal force.
These features led Mr. Airy to the conclusion that the amount of in-
duced magnetism was small, and that nearly the whole of the semicircular
deviation was caused by permanent magnetism. That this was the case as
regards the coefficient C there can be no doubt ; but as regards the coefficient B
the case is different, as any part of it may have arisen from the induction in
vertical masses of iron before or abaft the compass.
These results, and the conclusions which Mr. Airy drew as to the amount
of permanent magnetism, were the foundation of his well-known method of
correcting the deviations by means of magnets and soft iron, which has
been so extensively practised in the mercantile marine.
Another remark may be made on the results. One of the most import-
ant conclusions which have been drawn from the numerous observations
which have been made on the deviation of iron-built vessels is, that, in
a well-selected place for the standard compass, the semicircular devi-
ation depends on the position of the ship in building, the magnetism which
would be assumed if the iron were soft being then, by the process of
hammering, fixed in the vessel, and a character then impressed which the
ship never afterwards loses,—the general result being that the north point
of the compass is attracted to that part of the ship which was south m
building, so that +B indicates a ship built head south, —B a ship built head
north of the (magnetic) east and west line, +C a ship built head east, and
—C a ship built head west of the magnetic meridian, With our present
knowledge, we should have little hesitation in drawing the conclusion from
Mr. Airy’s observations, that the ‘Rainbow’ was built with her head not
far from N.W., and the ‘Ironsides’ with her head not far from N.E. At
that time, however, the connexion between the direction of building and the
semicircular deviation was unsuspected*, and the direction in which those ships
* To this there is one exception, which deserves to be recorded. In the year 1835,
Captain Johnson made elaborate experiments on the magnetism of the iron steam-vessel
‘Garry Owen,’ the results of which are contained in a paper in the Phil. Trans. for 1836,
. 267, Captain Johnson ascertained, from observations made on a needle on shore, that
the ‘Garry Owen’ acted as a permanent magnet, her head repelling, and her stern
attracting, the north end of the needle; and he says, p. 285 :—“‘ As, in the construction of
iron vessels, hammering the numerous rivets might elicit magnetic influences, it would be
well to note, by compass, the direction of their heads and sterns when building, with a
view of ascertaining whether (in combination with the former circumstances) any distinct
magnetic properties indicated by those parts are due to the line of direction of the vessel
with respect to the magnetic meridian.”
«The head of the ‘ Garry Owen,’ when building, was W.N.W.”
It may seem singular that Captain Johnson did not observe how nearly this direction
ON THE THREE REPORTS OF THE LIVERPOOL COMPASS COMMITTEE. 95
were built was probably unknown to Mr. Airy. He suggested that the
particular character of the semicircular deviation in these vessels might be
due to the direction of rolling of the plates of which the ship was composed.
Subsequent experiments, made by the same eminent philosopher, on iron
rolled in different directions, lately communicated to the Royal Society, but
not yet published, show, as we understand, that the effect of direction in
rolling, though appreciable in each separate plate, is not great, and probably
has little, if any, appreciable effect in a ship. In concluding our observations
on the paper, we must not omit to say that one of the most valuable parts of
Mr. Airy’s paper, viz. the mechanical correction of the deviation, does not, as
we consider, come within the scope of this Report, and that, in passing it over,
we must not be considered as underrating its importance.
Mr. Airy’s second paper has not that value which is given to the first by
careful observations made by himself on selected ships. It contains a dis-
cussion equivalent to the determination of 33, €, and BD of the magnetism of
various wood-built and iron-built ships from observations made in various
latitudes, and an endeavour to deduce from such observations the two parts
of which 33 is composed; but Mr. Airy had the disadvantage which is still
met with by those who attempt the discussion, viz. the want of sufficient
determinations of the deviations of the same iron vessel in different magnetic
latitudes, and he was consequently unable to obtain any very precise evidence
of the amount of the subpermanent magnetism in iron ships, or its change on
a change of Jatitude.
The work of Captain Johnson, to which we have referred, is a great store-
house of the results of observations of deviation made on board ships of war.
There are, however, several reasons why it does not require very detailed
mention here. The deviations are chiefly those of wood-built ships. They are,
therefore, generally small and regular. They are not compared with theory,
and do not in all cases furnish sufficient data for the comparison. Such
comparison as can be made will, as regards iron-built vessels, be found in
My. Evans’s paper in the Phil. Trans. of 1860, referred to above.
It is to Dr. Scoresby that we are indebted for the observation that the
semicircular deviation of iron ships is chiefly due to their position when
building.
In considering this subject, there are one or two points which must be
borne in mind. Supposing, as we may no doubt do, that the iron is, as
regards position and quality, symmetrically placed on each side of the midship
line, we may consider separately the permanent or subpermanent magnetism
caused by fixing, first, the magnetism induced by the horizontal force, and
secondly, that induced by the vertical force. As regards €, the same reasoning
which shows that it cannot arise from transient induced magnetism also shows
that it cannot be caused by the fixing any vertically induced magnetism, but
must arise either from independent permanent magnetism in the iron, or
from fixing the horizontally induced magnetism.
On the other hand, as regards %§ the case is different. It may be
caused not only by the subpermanent magnetism originally induced by the
horizontal force, and fixed in building, but by transient vertically induced
magnetism, and also by the subpermanent magnetism arising from fixing, in
the process of building, the transient vertically induced magnetism. Between
approximated to that of the line of no deviation in the ‘Garry Owen,’ which was about
N.W. by W. 3 W., and that in his subsequent works he did not revert to the subject ; and
that the hint here given was not pursued by subsequent investigators.
96 REPORT—1862.
these there is the great difference that the force which gives rise to @ and to
the first part of 33 ceases to operate, or at least ceases to operate in the same
direction, the moment the ship has been launched, and has her head directed
to different points of the compass, while the force causing the other part of 33
continues to act in its original direction as long as the ship remains in and
near its original geographical position.
€, whatever its magnitude, may therefore be expected to diminish rapidly
after launching, and until the originally impressed magnetism reaches (as
it appears ultimately, and in fact after no long period, to do) the limit
beyond which sensible change does not proceed, and on a change of latitude
it will vary inversely as the horizontal force. 38, on the other hand, although
it may change considerably after launching, if the ship has been built north
or south, will, if the ship has been built east and west, remain unchanged.
On the other hand, on a change of magnetic latitude, while the effect of the
subpermanent magnetism induced by the horizontal force will vary inversely
as the horizontal force, that part which has been caused by the original ver-
tical magnetism may change more rapidly from the change in the inducing
cause, and the remaining part, or the transient vertically induced magnetism,
will in its effect vary as the tangent of the dip.
The combination of these several causes renders the discovery of the true
source of the 3 a matter of great difficulty, even when observations have
been made in several different latitudes.
That the distribution of the permanent magnetism of iron ships is
principally owing to their position in building appears to have been first
strongly insisted on by Dr. Scoresby in the 4th Part of his magnetical
investigations published in 1852. The great importance of the service thus
rendered by Dr. Scoresby cannot be over-estimated. Dr. Scoresby also en-
deavoured to investigate the changes which the subpermanent magnetism of
a ship undergoes on a change of magnetic latitude. He did so, however, with
very insufficient materials, and it appears to us (as one of us has endeavoured
to point out with greater detail in the introduction to the ‘Journal of a
Voyage of Magnetic Research’), without having sufficient regard to the amount
of transient vertically induced magnetism which acts or may act as a cause
of semicircular deviation.
At the meeting of the British Association. at Liverpool in 1854, Dr.
Scoresby brought the subject of the change of a ship’s magnetism promi-
nently before the Association, in a paper on the loss of the ship ‘Tayleur’
and the changes of the compasses of iron ships. The discussion so occa-
sioned gave rise to the formation of the Liverpool Compass Committee, whose
valuable Reports are one of the special subjects on which we are commis-
sioned to report, and also to Dr. Scoresby’s voyage in the ‘ Royal Charter’
for the purpose of observing the changes which take place in the magnetism
of an iron ship on a change of magnetic latitude. To these we now address
ourselves.
The Liverpool Compass Committee have had the assistance throughout of a
most able Secretary, Mr. W. W. Rundell, who has brought to the subject an
amount of practical and scientific knowledge, combined with industry and
zeal, which have given to the three Reports which have been published the
highest possible value.
The first Report bears date the 5th of February, 1856, shortly before
Dr. Scoresby sailed in the ‘ Royal Charter.’ The second Report bears date
February, 1857, and embodies the principal results of the observations in the
‘Royal Charter.’ The third Report bears date the 13th of February, 1861.
ON THE THREE REPORTS OF THE LIVERPOOL COMPASS COMMITTEE. 97
The first Report was merely preliminary, and stated the steps which the
Committee were taking to obtain information. One of the few points on
which the Committee had made observations, the details of which they give,
was the direction of the neutral lines, or of those lines in the iron structure
of the ship which separate the parts in which the iron attracts the north end
of the compass-needle from those in which it attracts the south end. Theso
observations, we may observe, though to a certain extent useful as enabling us
to see generally the nature of the action of the body of the ship on the com-
pass, do not give any very definite results, from the transient induced mag-
netism being even more mixed up with the permanent or subpermanent
magnetism than in the case of ships “‘ swung.”
The Committee, in the first Report, draw the following inference from these
observations, viz. that “the diverse direction of the magnetic lines appears
to countenance Dr. Scoresby’s supposition that they depend on the position of
the ship when building.”
The second Report contains the results of much more extended observa-
tions and matured views. On the point of most marked importance—the
connexion of the magnetism of an iron ship with her position when building —
the Committee had now arrived at a definite opinion. They say :—“ The
records of the Committee no longer allow a doubt as to the connexion
which exists between the direction of a ship’s original magnetism and her
position when upon the building-slip. In all the ships which haye been
examined, the north end of the compass-needle invariably deviated towards
that part of the ship which was furthest from the north when she was build-
ing, if the compass was placed in a central position and free from the influence
of individual masses of iron.” *
The attention of the Committee was also directed to the changes which
the deviations undergo shortly after an iron ship has been launched, and they
came to the conclusion that the subpermanent magnetism undergoes consider-
able changes at and immediately after launching, and during the first voyage ;
but that after this early reduction of a ship’s magnetism has taken place, the
remaining portion appears to be comparatively permanent. This, however,
is subject to the qualification mentioned in the Report, and which may be
stated as follows :—that when a ship has been for a considerable time in one
position or on one course, the induced magnetic state acquires a certain degree
of permanence which modifies the previous subpermanent magnetism. The
general effect of this, it will be easily seen, is upon a change of course to
cause the vessel to deviate from her course, by dead reckoning, in the direction
of her previous course.
In this Report attention is called to the very important subject of the
variation of the directive force in iron ships on different points of the com-
pass. With reference to this, it may be observed, that we think it is'a result
of the observations generally, that the degree of correctness of observations of
force is much inferior to that of observations of deviation. The observations
of deviation give, by theory, the proportions of the directive forces on the
* We have distinguished by italics the last part of this sentence in order to draw atten-
tion to one circumstance which continually forces itself into notice in the perusal-of the
Reports, viz. the very little attention which is paid in the mercantile marine to the selec-
tion of a place for the compass. In these ships the compass is constantly placed so near
iron sternposts, spindles of capstans, bulkheads, roundhouses, spindles of wheel, &c.,
that the effect produced on the compass is not only extravagantly large, and the rapidity
of variation of the force in the field very great, but the effect produced is in truth not so
much that caused by the ship considered as a whole, as that caused by the particular
masses of iron in the vicinity of the compass,
1862, i
98 REPORT—1862,
different courses. Each observation of force, therefore, when compared with
the proportionate force derived from the deviations, gives a value of the factor
(A) by which the forces derived from the deviation ought to be multiplied.
« The second Report of the Liverpool Compass Committee also mentions
the interesting fact, which has been completely verified in the ships of the
Royal Navy, that the quadrantal deviation of all ships is, with very rare and
special exceptions, positive, or such as to cause a deviation of the north end
of the compass ¢o the north end of the ship and from the north side of the
ship, Such a deviation might be caused by an attraction to the north end or
a repulsion from the north side. We may distinguish between the two
causes by observing that the former would increase, and the latter diminish,
the mean directive force of the needle, Observations of the directive force,
therefore, show from which cause this deviation arises, and indicate that m
general in iron-built ships the quadrantal deviation is principally caused by
the repulsion of the north side of the ship, the north end of some ships attract-
ing the north point of the needle, of others repelling it, but in almost all
such ships with a force inferior to that of the repulsion of the north side.
In wood-built ships the case is different: there is no transverse horizontal
iron to cause repulsion from the sides; and the positive quadrantal deviation
is caused by the attraction of the masses of iron before and abaft the compass.
The exceptions are generally in the case of wooden screw-streamers, when the
screw-shaft, passing through the place of the compass, causes a repulsion
from the north end, or in the case of elevated compasses, in which the original
+D has depended on an excess of repulsion of the sides over the repulsion of
the ends. As the compass is elevated, the direction of the former force, be-
coming more oblique, loses its effect much more rapidly than the latter, and
the D consequently changes its sign.
The Committee also observed on the heeling error, and on the general
tendency being to draw the north end to the weather side, but stated that the
evidence which they had obtained did not enable them to draw any definite
conclusions on this subject.
The third Report embodies the results of very extended and varied obser-
vations, leading to very definite conclusions, which may nearly to the full
extent be accepted as being now established.
As we have already observed, the present state of the mathematical theory
is such, and the mathematical results coincide so exactly with observations,
that the details of observation lose much of their interest, and the results
involved in the coefficients extracted by rule from the observations are suf-
ficient for all practical as well as theoretical purposes.
The Report commences with a summary of the points which the Committee
consider as established; they are—
1. That the magnetism of iron ships is distributed according to precise
and well-determined laws.
2. That a definite magnetic character is impressed on eyery iron ship
while on the building-slip, which is never afterwards entirely lost.
3. That a considerable reduction takes place in the magnetism of an
iron ship on first changing her position after launching, but afterwards
that any permanent change in its direction or amount is a slow and
gradual process.
4. That the original magnetism of an iron ship is constantly subject
jamal fluctuations from change of position arising from new magnetic
inductions,
EO —e—
ON THE THREE REPORTS OF THE LIVERPOOL COMPASS COMMITTEE. 99
'-5.-That the compass-errors occasioned by the more permanent part
of a ship’s magnetism may be successfully compensated, and that this
compensation equalizes the directive power of the compass-needle on the
- several courses on which a ship may be placed.
The first two points we have already adverted to, and we fully agree
with the Committee in coasidering that they may now be accepted as well
established.
_ The third point is one of the most important of the results to which the
making, registering, and discussing the observations of deviation in iron
ships is at present leading us.
It is clear that when an iron ship is first launched, her magnetic cha-
racter depends almost entirely on her position in building, but that this
magnetic state is extremely unstable; that very great changes take place
within a few days, or even hours, after launching; but that, after no long
time (the length of time depending no doubt, to a great extent, on the ser-
vice in which the vessel has been employed), what may be called the tem-
porary magnetism gets “shaken out” of her, and the magnetism of the ship
acquires an extremely stable character. This is a matter on which exact and
varied observations are much wanted; but we think it may be taken af
present as the most probable result, that after about twelve months there is
very little change in the magnetism of a ship which has made some voyages
_ in the interval. In some ships the stability is most striking. It must, how-
ever, be remembered that it does not follow from this that the whole of the
magnetism which remains, and which affects the compass, is the permanent
magnetism of hard iron. There is in all iron ships, as shown by the amount
of the quadrantal deviation, a large quantity of soft iron, and consequently a
large quantity of magnetism developed instantaneously (or nearly so) by
induction; and the magnetism developed in the soft iron by vertical induc-
tion is not, in any given geographical position, distinguishable from the per-
manent magnetism of hard iron. The test of the kind of permanence which
is acquired by the magnetism of an iron ship after the lapse of the period we
had referred to is, that her table of deviation shall always be the same when
swung at the same geographical position. If, in addition to this, her semi-
circular deviation in different parts of the globe is inversely proportional to
the horizontal force of magnetism at the place, we infer that the vertically
induced magnetism is so distributed as to produce a compensation of effects;
and that the only cause which operates is the permanent magnetism of the
hard iron. In some ships this appears to be the case. In H. M.S. ‘ Trident,’
which has been particularly discussed by Mr. Airy, the magnetism is not only
extremely stable, but nearly the whole of the semicircular deviation appears,
from observations made in various latitudes, to be due to hard iron. The
same is the case with H. M.S. ‘Adventure’ and with many other iron ships.
The practical conclusion which, it appears to us, may be drawn from
these facts, is the importance in all iron'ships of having their magnetic history
carefully recorded, and the observations discussed. We need hardly say that,
to give any value to such a record, observations should be made with the
compass in a fixed position in the ship, and not corrected in any way by
magnets or soft iron.
On the fourth point we have, in fact, already expressed our opinion. We
are not satisfied that the effects here referred to are in general of appreciable
amount in so short a space of time. as that occupied by the process of swinging
aship. There seems, however, no doubt that the cause operates sensibly in
H2
100 REPORT—1862.
many cases when a ship has been long sailing in one direction ; and this re-
mark might be taken as a qualification of what we have remarked as to the
permanence of the magnetism of a ship.
On the fifth point we quite agree with the Liverpool Compass Com-
mittee, subject, however, to the qualification that this correction cannot be
depended on in the case of a newly-built ship, and that when the correction
is applied to compasses having large deviations, and placed near large vertical
masses of iron, as a stern-post, there must always be great uncertainty as to
the correction on a change of magnetic latitude. It is also right that we
should not pass over this remark without protesting against the application
of such correction to the standard compass (properly placed) of a ship which
may be called on to make a yoyage during which there is any great change in
the dip or horizontal force.
The Committee notice as the principal points left for further discussion
and inquiry, the effect of heeling on the compasses of iron ships, and the
changes which occur on a change of magnetic latitude ; and to these the
Report is chiefly directed.
On the effect of heeling a considerable body of evidence is collected,
but with the disadvantage that at that time the mathematical theory of the
heeling error, and the formule which express it, had not been fully investi-
gated, and that consequently the comparison of theory with observation could
not be precisely made; nor do the observations in all cases furnish sufficient
data for the comparison.
We think, however, that it may be said, with confidence, that the results
of observations agree with theory as to the connexion between the amount
and direction of the heeling error and the coefficients of quadrantal deviation
and of horizontal and vertical force; and that we may therefore feel assured
that the heeling error may be predicted with sufficient accuracy from obser-
vations made on an even keel.
The most important practical results as to the amount of the heeling
error, are the very great amount to which it reaches in certain ships, and in
gertain positions in the ship. This heeling error is conveniently measured
by the fraction of a degree or the number of degrees of error produced by
every degree of heel when the ship’s head is North or South. Estimating it
in this way, it will be seen that the error may have serious effects if it exceed
‘5 or -6, when an inclination of 10° may produce half a point of error.
Among the examples given we have—
Coefficients of
Tron §. 8. City of Baltimore (built head North). heeling error,
Compass placed above the aft end of iron round-house.. + 6°70
Port steering-compass compensated ......-+ee ee eres — 30
Starboard steering-compass compensated ........--.- — 50
Diandard: Comsat is. oh Peed emis ip os ]e ied peter sans oben tury 4 +220
Azimuth CONPPASS «'s: shale Birla ole. dic'iijeistind 6 $6 cle wine +2:
Dipping-needle compass ........ 4. seve sees eereenes +2:
Fore compasscompensated ....... ccc ceereeecnceeee + °80
Compass over fore hatch ......6c.ccer es onvinne caine + °85
Aphrodite (built head East),
Compass under companion ........ eee eeeee Sree. +2:
Compass near COMPANION. ....... cs eevee este eens +285
Admiralty standard compass .........4. SPIE LRG +1-20
Dipping-needle compass vss sseevscreueeenreeeree +1:15
ON TIDAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE HUMBER, 101
Coefficients of
Simla (built head West). heeling error,
Bee COMMNARG Go Dectecie: ithe nab ai one. sa¢ nla’) 0, os bie mouene +2:06
DOM NREA OVER COMPATION 6 b)ac) oan 4 mms. pieibid 9,0 eumay o.e10 +1:65
PRPS TCO COTATI a wai os» vyoynp yey ote in fe ayn nin 0 0's + 80
BPEL (COMIDAEE Shs ctor e chal nnc%r,¢ measiasl anintisinia tin oles + 7
WOE CORDARE, wale nurs ipl a vb sce oes ba th cheba asm + :70
Slieve Donard (built head 8.E. to E.).
Aftermost steering-compass compensated ...+........ + 40
Second steering-compass compensated .............. + 12
Skylight-compass compensated .................... + 33
Poatedaniganay s!. Stow. cay alt. «oko ceed OL + +23
Portiskylighticompass. 26s lal cca LO + °26
In other compasses of the ‘Slieve Donard’ the heeling error was almost
imperceptible. In the case of the ‘ City of Baltimore,’ the large heeling error
is evidently due to the vertical foree downwards near the stern, erising from
the ship having been built head north. In the ‘Slieve Donard,’ the small
heeling error is evidently due to the ship having been built with her head to
the southward.
Before leaving the subject of the third Report, we must beg leave to
mention one point which has made the duty of reviewing the Report more
difficult than it would otherwise have been, and which we fear will detract
from its general utility, viz. that the mathematical formule made use of in
reducing the observations are nowhere given, and that we have been unable,
im some cases, to verify or use them. We hope that the Admiralty Manual
may be of some use to future investigators, as providing a uniform notation
and mode of reduction, which will make the results derived by one investi-
gator intelligible to all.
In concluding this notice, we think we may say that the principal deside-
rata at present are—
1. That in the construction of iron vessels, regard should be had to the
providing a proper place for the compass. It is not difficult for any one who
has’ studied the question to point out arrangements which would greatly
mitigate the injurious effects of the iron of the ship ; the difficulty is to recon-
cile them with the requirements of construction and of working the vessel.
2. That for throwing light on the points which are still obscure, what is
chiefly required is, that the complete magnetic history of some iron vessels in
various latitudes should be known. This, we think, might easily be accom-
plished by observations of deviations and horizontal and vertical force made
at various fixed positions in an iron vessel in an extended voyage in both
hemispheres. We need hardly add, that this should be a vessel of war of
moderate size, and in which the magnetical observations would be made an
object of importance.
Report on Tidal Observations on the Humber. Presented by James Oup-
HAM, C.E.; Joun Scorr Russet, C.E., F.R.S.; J. F. Bareman,
C.E., F.R.S.; and Tuomas Tuomrson.
Ar the Meeting of the British Association held at Manchester last year
a paper was read in Section G, on the Port of Hull, in which occurred the
102 : cork -REPORT—1862.
following remark, referring to the tides of the Humber: “I would notice here
a singular tidal phenomenon which exists at the Port of Hull; I refer to the
fact, that whenever the tide reaches the 16-feet mark ” (over the dock-sill),
‘it is then three hours to high water, whether they be spring tides or neap
tides. Iam not:aware that the same thing occurs at any other port ; but such
is the fact at Hull, that three hours after the tide has attained to the 16-feet
mark, there is no more rise.’
These remarks gave rise to an animated discussion on the alleged pheno-
menon, and resulted in the appointment of the following members of the
Association as a Committee to conduct a series of tidal observations on the
Humber, and report on the same to the next Meeting to be holden at Cam-
bridge, viz. Mr, James Oldham, C.E., Mr. John Scott Russell, C.E., F.R.S.,
Mr. J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S,, and Mr. Thomas Thompson, with £25 at their
disposal.
In commencing the ee for carrying out the wishes of the Asso-
ciation, application was made to the directors of the Manchester, Sheffield,
and Lincolnshire Railway Company for a month’s observations to be taken at
their self-acting tide-gauge at the Great Grimsby Docks, but it was not con-
venient to the directors to grant the request; they, however, permitted a
gauge-pole to be fixed at their landing-pier at New Holland, on the Lincoln-
shire coast of the Humber, a little above Hull, and gave every facility in the
progress of the operation of observing the tides.
The Hull Dock Company, through their secretary, Mr. W. H. Huffam, have
eomplied with a request to have a month’s observations from their self-
acting gauge of the Victoria Docks; and the resident engineer of the com-
pany, Mr. R. A. Marrillier, has furnished the month’s valuable tidal obser~
vations.
.. Mr. Thomas Wilson, of Leeds, an active member of the British Associa-
tion, kindly offered a month’s observations from the self-acting tide-gauge of
the docks of the Air and Calder Works, at the Port of Goole, on the river
Ouse, which have also been furnished by Mr. W. H. Bartholomew, the resident
engineer,
Those on the Humber were commenced at or about 11 a.m., July 9th,
and terminated at 3 p.m., August 6th; but those at Goole, which were begun
at 11 a.m. on the 9th July, were continued until twelve o’clock at noon on the
10th of August.
_ The gauge at New Holland is so fixed as to correspond with, and is on
the same level as, the Victoria Dock gauge at Hull, i.¢. the zeros are made
to coincide.
The observations were taken every five minutes at New Holland, but every
fifteen minutes at the Hull Dock gauge; the observations at Goole were taken
at intervals of five minutes.
As a result of these tidal investigations it was seen, by the series of abser=
Pa iots at both the stations on the | Humber, how accurately the statement is
borne out as to rise of tides for three hours after attaining the 16-feet mark,
and also that the time which the tide is falling from the period of high water
to the same level again of 16 feet is also found to average about three hours.
The observations are also important and valuable, as showing the general
rate of the rising and falling of the tides at the various periods and places
reported on.
Although little or no light may have been thrown on the phenomenon in
question, yet the various tidal observations obtained on the Humber and the
river Ouse will no doubt prove valuable records on the question of tides. _
ON RIFLED GUNS FOR ATTACKING ARMOUR-PLATE DEFENCES. 103
From the various observations the following are the results :—The obser-=
vations made on the Humber comprised 55 tides: the greatest variation at
spring tides was 22 feet 3 inches flow; and the least variation at neap tides
a rise only of 10 feet 7 inches. The lowest level of low water at spring tides
was 3 feet 8 inches, and the highest rise 27 feet 11 inches; the highest at
low water of neap tides 11 feet 2inches. The mean rise of the 55 tides above
low water was found to be 16:95 feet. The average time of rising tide is
about 54 hours, and the falling tide about 63 hours.
At the season of the year when the observations were taken it is generally
calm, and there is no undue influence exerted on the rise and fall of the tides
on the Humber ; but at the time of the equinox, and in stormy winter seasons,
particularly during north-westerly gales, there is a much greater rise and fall
during spring tides than would otherwise occur.
The observations made at Goole (which port is about 30 miles above Hull)
show on the 63 tides a mean rise of 11-67 feet,—the greatest rise above low
water being 15 feet 4 inches, and the least rise from low-water line 7 feet
7 inches.
The tides at Goole average about 3 hours in rising, and a little over 9 hours
in falling.
The mean rate of the tidal wave on the Humber is from 24 to 3 miles at
neap tides, and 4 to 5 miles per hour at spring tides.
On Rifled Guns and Projectiles adapted for Attacking Armour-plate
Defences. By T. Aston, M.A., Barrister at Law.
[A communication ordered to be printed among the Reports. ]
As it is now an admitted fact that naval warfare will be carried on by iron-
clad navies, it has become an imperative necessity that the navy of England
shall henceforth be armed with artillery adapted for attacking the new
armour-plate defences which all nations are hastening to adopt. The supe-
riority which defence so suddenly acquired over attack, by simply putting
on a coat of armour, threatened to upset not only the theoretical but the
practical tactics of modern warfare. The necessity of improving the means
of attack so as to restore, as far as possible, the disturbed equilibrium was
obvious to every one; and the contest which has been carried on in this
country for the last two or three years between the attack of improved artil-
lery and the defence of improved armour-plates has been watched by all of
us with the greatest interest. From a scientific point of view, with which
we are on this occasion more immediately concerned, the subject was one
which engaged the attention of some of the keenest and most experienced
intellects of the country,—these, on the one hand, giving practical aid on the
side of defence, those, on the other, devoting their best energies to restore
attack to what must be considered its normal position of superiority. For a
long time—for too long a time—the defence-people had much the best of it.
Under the energetic superintendence of the Plate Committee (who in this
matter de repuvlica bene meriti sunt), armour-plate targets were erected by
our able engineers which at fighting-ranges laughed to scorn the utmost
efforts of the artillery attack brought against them. Some of the targets
combined the resistance of iron with wood ; others, constructed-with far-seeing
104 REPORT—1862.
ingenuity, depended upon iron alone. The Ordnance Select Committee were
challenged to bring forward the best gun their artillery science, aided by all
the resources of the Royal arsenals and the public purse, was able to provide.
The science brought to bear by the Ordnance Select Committee, after exhausting
itself in repeated efforts to cover its repeated defeats (efforts that were fruit-
less for reasons that will be explained), was at length compelled to confess
itself vanquished. But Ordnance had other resources which it hoped to have
dispensed with, and upon which in its disappointment it was glad to fall back:
it said to the Committee of Defence, “If you will obligingly set up your
armour-targets within a shortened range (say, for instance, a Robin Hood
bowshot of 200 yards), you shall see what the brute force of the old smooth-
bore will do. True it is that cast iron will be brought to attack wrought
iron—that a rounded missile will have to punch its way through a flat and
possibly at times inclined armour-plate—science, which proved but a broken
reed in our hands, must be abandoned; but with a gun big enough, a shot
heavy enough, a charge of powder large enough, and a range short enough,
the smooth-bore shall smash your target.’ Of course it would; and so would
a battering-ram like those Titus used to break the gates of Jerusalem. If
therefore the old smooth-bore had failed the Ordnance Committee, like the
service rifled gun, they might have fallen back on the older battering-ram.
Looking at it from a scientific point of view, this retrogression was very
humiliating, and it caused the country serious anxiety to hear Her Majesty’s
Ministers state in Parliament, as they did in the last session, on the authority,
of course, of their official scientific advisers, that the Navy of England, after
all the vast expenditure that had been lavished upon it, was at last obliged to
be armed with the old smooth-bores to meet the iron-clad navies of her pos-
sible enemies. This was indeed proclaiming England’s weakness to other
nations who were more scientifically informed and better armed than she.
In further explanation of what was the actual condition in which this all-
important question stood no later than May last, I will quote the statement
of Sir William Armstrong, who, at a meeting of the United Service Institu-
tion, May 20, 1862, expressed himself in these words :—“ It certainly may be
said that shells are of no avail against iron-plated ships; but, on the ocher
hand, I may say that neither 68-pounders nor 110-pounder guns with solid
round shot are effective against such iron vessels. The fact is, what we want
is a gun, in addition to our 110-pounder rifled gun, especially adapced for
breaking through iron plates. That is what we are in want of now.” This
statement made in 1862 was very startling to all of us, who knew that long ago
France armed her ‘Gloires’ and ‘ Normandies’ with rifled 90-pounders said
to be efficient against iron plates. Such being the state of the question a few
months back, we may proceed to consider, first, the reason why the artillery
hitherto employed in the service, including rifled guns and smooth-bores, has
always failed to make any impression on the plated defences at ordinary
fighting-range; and secondly, by what means artillery scie: ce has lately re-
conquered its lost ground. Sir William Armstrong put the case very plainly
when he said that shells were in fact of no avail against plated ships, and that
the solid shot of the 110-pounder rifled gun was not effective against srch
iron vessels, But late experiments at Shoeburyness, in which the ‘ Warrior’
target was pierced and shattered at 600 yards, have proved that the case as
put by Sir William Armstrong was based on his experience of shells that
were not made of the proper form, nor of the proper material, and on his ex-
perience of rifled guns that were unable to propel their projectiles with the
requisite velocity.
ON RIFLED GUNS FOR ATTACKING ARMOUR-PLATE DEFENCES. 105
Three conditions may be laid down as necessary to enable artillery to
attack successfully armour-plate defences: 1st, the projectile must be of the
proper form; 2nd, of the proper material; and 3rd, be propelled from a gun
able to give it the necessary velocity. The artillery of the Ordnance Select
Committee failed because they utterly neglected the first two conditions, and
had recourse to the brute force of the smooth-bore for the third. The ex-
pression accepted as representing the penetrating power of shot was “ velo-
city squared, multiplied by weight;” but the form of the shot and the mate-
rial were conditions altogether omitted from the expression ; and the import-
ance of the omission will be obvious at once if we take an analogous case, say
that of a punching-machine employed to perforate wrought-iron plates. What
would be the result if the punch itself, which is made of suitable shape and
material, were removed, and a round-headed poker, of brittle cast iron or soft
wrought iron, were substituted in its place? The great importance of suf-
ficient velocity is conceded—it is a sine-qud-non condition ; but has there not
been great misconception in supposing that the old smooth-bore gives a
greater initial velocity than the rifled gun? The results obtained will show
how thisis. The average initial velocity of the 68-pounder is, in round num-
bers, 1600 feet per second with a charge of powder one-fourth the weight of
the shot, the length of the shot being of course one calibre. Sir William
Armstrong stated that with a charge of powder one-fourth the weight of the
shot, he obtained with his rifled gun an initial velocity of 1740 feet per second:
he did not state the length of his projectile. Mr. Whitworth, with a projec-
tile one and a half calibre long, obtains an initial velocity of 1900 feet per
second ; and with a projectile one calibre long, like that of the smooth-bore, an
initial velocity of 2200 feet per second, being greater than that of the smooth-
bore in the proportion of 22 to 16. The reason why, under nearly similar con-
ditions as to charge and length of projectile, the rifled gun had an initial velocity
so greatly superior to that of the smooth must be ascribed to the action of the
first condition I ventured to lay down as necessary. The rifled projectile, as
compared with the spherical, has a form which is better adapted for flight,
and fits more accurately the bore of the gun, so that the gases of explosion
exert a greater pressure upon it while propelling it through the barrel. In
practice the initial velocity of the rifled projectile is lower than that of the
smooth-bore, because with the rifled gun the charge of powder used is much
less, while the projectile is much longer and heavier, and has a greater vis
imertie to be overcome at starting than that of the smooth-bore. If very
large charges be used with the rifled guns, and long projectiles, with the view
of obtaining increased velocity, the strain becomes too great for the guns
to bear; but if rifled guns are fired with charges so low that they are not
made to perform half the work they ought to do, then, though the defects of
weak construction may not be made patent by the gun being destroyed, they
are very plainly manifested by the weak results of their projectiles fired
against armour-plates. It is proved by well-known results that the con-
structors of the 110-pounder rifled gun, now adopted in the service, do not
dare to make the gun perform its full work ; but, on the contrary, they find
_ themselves forced gradually to reduce their charges, until they are well beaten
_ by the old smooth-bore they undertook to supersede. The only conclusion
that can be drawn from this fact is, that the gun is weak in construction,
and the projectile used with it is defective in principle.
_ The power of the smooth-bore, with its large windage, to fire large charges,
and thereby obtain great velocities, has procured it mary advocates ; but Mr.
Whitworth’s experiments have shown that if length of projectile be given up,
106. REPORT—1862.
which may be looked upon as the price to be paid for increased velocity,
he can get an initial velocity much greater than that of the smooth-bore.
But is the result worth the price paid? Not if a more efficient compromise
can be obtained. I use the word “ compromise” advisedly, because I think
that every one who has had experience in artillery practice will agree with
me that the best results are only to be obtained by means of the best com-
promise. You cannot have long projectiles and very high velocities without
burning too much powder and taking too much out of your gun, or else
making it an unwieldy monster.
The problem we have placed before us now is, How can artillery be best
adapted for attacking armour-defences ? The advocates of the smooth-bore are
satisfied with one condition—high velocity. Mr. Whitworth objects, and says,
“If velocity were all that is needed, I can get more than you do in the pro-
portion of 22 to 16; but to sacrifice all to velocity is a bad compromise to
effect a solution of the penetration-problem. You set down velocity as greatest
possible, form of projectile of no account, material of no account, and after
all can do nothing at an ordinary fighting-range while you wrongly take it as
proved that ‘shells are of no avail’ against iron-plated ships. It would be
a far better compromise to be satisfied with a lower velocity, getting however
all you can at a fair price, and combining therewith conditions one and two—
-proper form and proper material for the projectile.” Let us now compare
the actual results obtained in the way of penetration by the Armstrong 110-
pounder (the proposed naval gun), the old 68-pounder smooth-bore, and the
two naval Whitworth guns lately fired at Shoeburyness.
Powder-| Penetration into Armours
Gun. Range. | Projectile. charge. plate.
armaons pS Rece 200 | 110 Ib. solid. | 14 Ibs. | 13 to 2 inches.
ols aa smooth-|' 999 | 68 Ib. solid. | 16 Ibs. | 2} to 3 inches.
{7othanas
et ine Spender: and shell, [| 22 1b8- | Through plate and backing.
Whitworth 120-pounder, | | go
7-inch bore.........+++008
5c en SNES TS eee U EEE!
130 Ib. shell. | 25 Ibs. | Through plate and backing.
The first two results* will lead every one to the same conclusion that it is
to be presumed they led the Ordnance Committee, viz. that the Armstrong
rifled gun is a worse compromise than the old gun it was intended to super-
sede. The reason may be inferred from the facts to be, that besides neglect-
ing conditions one and two, form and material of projectile, it is very much
behind in respect of condition three, velocity ; this is to be attributed to the
weak construction of the gun, which cannot fire with safety efficient charges
of powder, and to the use of the lead-coated projectiles. Taking all the
results, they show themselves to be indisputably in favour of the Whitworth,—
the old 68-pounder coming second, and the Armstrong last. Let us next
examine how they stand in regard to velocity, as shown in the following
Table, which, like the one given above, is compiled from official sources.
* These results were subsequently much surpassed. The Whitworth 70-pounder pene-
trated 44-inch plate and backing with shell at 600 yards range, and the Whitworth 120-
pounder fired its shot and shell through 5-inch plate and 18 inches of teak-backing and
$-inch iron-plate skin at 800 yards’ range. ,
PD
ON RIFLED GUNS FOR ATTACKING ARMOUR-PLATE DEFENCES. 107
Gun. Charge, Velocity.
ABeputiler: 2. 13s. ess et ee 16 lbs. | Initial, 1600 feet per second.
Whitworth 70-pounder............sse08 12 lbs. | Initial, 1350 feet per second.
Whitworth 120-pounder ..,............ 25 Ibs. | Terminal at 600 yards, 1260 feet per
second.
Armstrong 110-pounder ............s00+ 14 lbs. | Initial, 1210 feet per second.
With regard to initial velocity, therefore, the order of the guns may be taken
to be, with the charges used—1st, 68-pounder ; 2nd, Whitworth; 3rd, Arm-
strong. It is worthy of notice, however, that the velocity of the Whitworth
120-pounder after traversing 600 yards (a good fighting-range) was found
actually to be 1260 feet, whereas the initial velocity of the Armstrong is only
1210 feet.
The total results in respect of penetration proving themselves to be so
decidedly in favour of Whitworth, who combines with condition three, viz.
sufficient velocity, conditions one and two, proper form and material of pro-
jectile, it follows that his must be the best compromise. The slight inferiority
in initial velocity of his rifled gun, as compared with the smooth-bore, is
more than compensated for by employing a projectile of proper form and
material, as is shown by the penetration being through-and-through both
5-inch plate and backing in the case of the Whitworth, while it is barely
half-through the armour-plate in the case of the smooth-bore, and not half-
through in the case of the Armstrong gun.
- The form of projectile employed by Mr. Whitworth for penetrating armour-
plates is like the one now before the Section. It has a flattened front, the centre
being slightly rounded ; the middle part of the projectile is rifled hexagonally,
like the bore of the gun; the front and rear of the projectile are made of the
requisite taper to allow the air displaced in front to close in readily behind—
a form which gives a great increase of velocity as compared with the form
parallel throughout, as I endeavoured to explain to this Section in a paper I
had the honour of reading at its meeting last year.
The material of which the projectile is composed is what is termed homo-
geneous metal, combining the toughness of copper with the hardness of steel :
it is made hard enough to penetrate the wrought-iron plate, but not so hard
as to be brittle and break up when the projectile strikes against its sur-
face. The advantage of the flat front as compared with a pointed front is
apparent, when it is considered that when the flat front strikes a plate,
the whole resistance it meets with is that offered by the area of the plate
covered by the flat front in a direction in line with the axis of the impinging
projectile : it consequently punches out a clean hole, with a sudden impact.
In the case of a pointed shot, as soon as the point begins to penetrate, the
inclined sides begin to push aside the particles of the plate in a lateral direc-
tion, and an accumulating lateral resistance is offered by every part of the
plate whose particles are disturbed; the passage of the shot is thereby gra-
dually retarded, if not altogether arrested. It has been thought that the
flat-fronted projectile will glance from the surface of an inclined plate like a
round projectile: this is not found to be the case, as is proved by the plate
now shown to the Section, which was completely penetrated by a flat-fronted
_ projectile when inclined at an angle of 37° to the perpendicular.
' The Whitworth penetration-shell, whose destructive power was shown by
its penetrating and shattering the ‘ Warrior’ target at Shoeburyness, has the
same form outwardly, and is made of the same material (homogeneous metal)
as the flat-fronted solid projectile which has already been described. A
108 REPORT—1862.
cavity is formed in the projectile of the size required to contain the bursting
charge of ordinary powder. The rear is closed entirely by a screwed plate
or cap. The uncertain complications of percussion-fuses, and also the sim-
pler time-fuses, are wholly dispensed with. No fuse or detonating substance
of any kind is used. On firing his shell through iron plates, Mr. Whitworth
found that by the force of impact and friction sufficient heat was generated
to fire the bursting charge without any fuse at all. In practice the action
upon the powder was found to be even too rapid. To retard its action for
the time necessary to enable the shell to effect a complete penetration and
then to burst, Mr. Whitworth interposes between the metal of his shell and
his bursting powder-charge a substance that is a non-conductor of heat: by
preference he encloses the powder in a flannel case, and finds that by simply
diminishing or increasing the thickness of his flannel he can burst his shell
in the armour-plate or in the timber-backing, or after it has passed through
both. The fragments of the shell now before the Section are those of one
which was fired through this armour-plate, and which burst and shattered
this backing of timber, 9 inches thick, placed behind the plate. There is one
point in connexion with the Shoeburyness trials which should be specially
noticed, and itis this, that all the previous experiments against the ‘ Warrior’
target had been confined to the short range of 200 yards; at longer distances
the smashing, monster smooth-bores cannot be made to hit the mark ; whereas
Mr. Whitworth has proved that at a good fighting-range of 600 yards he can
hit his mark to a few inches, and can at that distance—and there is good reason
to believe at twice that distance—send his shells through the ‘ Warrior’s’ sides.
That 600 yards may be fairly called a good fighting-range will be admitted
when we remember that the ‘Agamemnon,’ at Sebastopol, fought all the guns
of Fort Constantine at a range of 500 yards; and the ‘ Albion’ signalled,
“‘ Well done, Agamemnon!—where you lead, we will follow.” ‘With respect
to the 120-pounder gun itself, it should be explained that it was made at
Woolwich, under the able superintendence of Mr. Anderson, at Mr. Whit-
worth’s own request, and according to drawings originally supplied by him. It
has the same bore as the Armstrong 110-pounder, stated by Sir William not
to be effective against iron-plated ships. It is a built-up gun, and its hoops
are made of coiled iron, welded ; but that method of manufacture was adopted
by Mr. Whitworth in the first built-up gun that he made, and was well
known in this country many years before rifled guns were introduced into
the service.
Mr. Whitworth has himself employed by preference the homogeneous
metal, which he has found to answer perfectly for small arms and field guns,
as well as for the penctration-shells which have been described. Practical
improvements have been made in the process of forging and annealing the
metal, which now enable it to be worked in masses of any required size,
whose quality may be henceforth depended upon with certainty.
Whitworth heavy guns are now being made with both interior tubes and
outer of homogeneous metal of the improved manufacture, so that the guns
will be constructed throughout of one uniform metal without any welding at
all. Experience justifies the expectation that they will be free from the
objections which it is well known are inherent in all welded guns, and be
fully able to resist the severe and searching strain which is sure, sooner or
later, to disable a gun built up of forged coiled tubes, if it be called upon to
do its full work by discharging heavy rifled projectiles at the most efficient
velocities,
ON THE OBSERVATORY AT KEW. 109
Extracts, relating to the Observatory at Kew, from a Report presented
to the Portuguese Government by Dr. JactntHo ANTONIO DE Sovza,
Professor of the Faculty of Philosophy in the University of Coimbra.
Communicated by J. P. Gassiot, F:R.S.
[Ordered to be printed among the Reports. ]
Dr. Jactnruo Antonto pE Souza has published an account of a visit in 1860
to the Scientific Establishments of Madrid, Paris, Brussels, Greenwich, and
Kew, and of a second visit in 1861 to the Observatory of Kew, both visits
having been made by the desire of his Government, and having for their
principal object to obtain information preparatory to the establishment of a
Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory at the University of Coimbra.
His first visit was to Madrid, where he states that he found nothing doing
in magnetism; and that in meteorology the only instrument presenting any
novelty was the ingenious and comprehensive meteorograph of Padre Secchi,
intended to register atmospheric pressure, the amount of rain, and the direc-
tion and velocity of the wind. Prof. de Souza commends this instrument for
the small space which it occupies, but adds that some of its indications,
particularly those of temperature, appeared to him to be subject to much
uncertainty. He was disposed to attribute the absence of any magnetical
investigations at Madrid rather to the indifference of the Government than
to any want of zeal on the part of the distinguished Director, Don Antonio
Aguilar, of whose kind reception he also speaks gratefully.
He next proceeded to Paris, where he arrived on the 15th of August, “the
birthday of the first Napoleon,” and was dazzled with the splendour of all
that met his eyes in the general aspect of that brilliant capital. He had
looked forward to finding in “the Imperial Observatory directed by Le Verrier,”
besides a “ typical Astronomical Observatory,” one of the best in “‘ magnetism
and meteorology, where there would be much to see and to study ;” but after
obtaining access to that fine establishment, “not without difficulty and loss
of precious time,” he derived, as he states, “little interest and profit from
the hasty view which M. Le Verrier afforded him of the Astronomical Ob-
servatory (which is indeed excellent),” whilst, in regard to the special objects
of his journey, though MM. Desains and Charault courteously showed him
whatever could be said to appertain to magnetism or meteorology, he states
that he “‘ came away disappointed.”
At Brussels he refers gratefully to the frank and delicate kindness with
which, on presenting himself at the Observatory, he was received by M.
Quetelet, and expresses his admiration of what that philosopher had accom-
plished with means from which very few others could have educed similar
results, and of the impulse imparted by him to the advancement of the
‘* physique du globe,” saying at the same time that, without this knowledge,
the inspection of the magnetical and meteorological portion of the Observatory
would lead a visitor to regard it as not being at the present time in a state
of prosperity.
Approaching London by the Thames, and entering “the vast cupola of
smoke which covers that great capital,” he seems to have been powerfully
impressed by the dissimilarity to what he had previously seen in France and
Belgium; and by the grandeur as well as the sombre character of the
spectacle presented to his view.
On arriving at Greenwich he was courteously received at the Royal Obser-
vatory, admired the general arrangements of that great establishment, and
inspected minutely the magnetical and meteorological portion, with the
110 ae REPORT—1862.
“advantage of verbal explanations by the Rey. Robert Main, who was there
at the moment, besides the written explanations kindly given to him by
Mr. Airy.” He thus became well acquainted with the localities, arrange-
ments, and instruments, of which he gives a detailed description; but as he
ultimately preferred ordering for his own Observatory instruments on the
pattern of those employed at Kew, we may pass at once to his account of that
establishment, which will be given nearly in his own words :— T
« The Observatory at Kew, besides occupying itself with meteorological
and magnetical phenomena, and the photographic registry of the spots of the
sun, verifies meteorological and magnetical instruments, compares them with
the excellent patterns which it possesses, determines their constants, and
improves the methods of observation. The Director (Mr. Balfour Stewart) was
absent ; but Mr. Chambers, assistant observer, and Mr. Beckley, mechanical
engineer of the Observatory, attended me so obligingly, and with such sincere
desire to satisfy all my importunate inquiries, that I derived great profit from
the visit.
“The self-registering magnetic instruments at Kew were constructed in
1857, about ten years after the registering apparatus at Greenwich was
adapted to the previously existing instruments at that Observatory. Based
on the same general principles, they differ in size, and in certain happy
innovations introduced by Mr. Welsh and executed by Adie (a skilful artist
in London). They have been in action since 1858, and give results which
leave nothing to be desired.
«« The locality in which the self-registering magnetic instruments are placed
at Kew is in the basement-story of the building, which was formerly an
astronomical observatory: the choice was determined by a condition which
should never be lost sight of, viz. the greatest attainable constancy of tem-
perature.”
[Having already described the magnetographs at Greenwich, Prof. de Sotad,
whilst giving a very elaborate description of the Kew instruments, dwells at
length principally on the points in which they difier from those at Greenwich ;
but the deseription is here omitted, as the Kew instruments have been care-
fully and well described by Mr. Balfour Stewart in the volume of Reports of
the Aberdeen Meeting of the British Association, p. 200-228. Prof. de Souza
proceeds as follows :—
** A short time before my visit to the Observatory Dr. Bergsma had been
there, sent by the Dutch Government to examine the magnetographs
destined for an observatory in Java, and constructed on the Kew pattern.
I may say in passing that this examination consists in receiving practical
instruction on the mode of manipulating with the instruments, in assisting
in their collocation in the verification-house, and in the determination of
constants. Some modifications were introduced in Dr. Bergsma’s magneto-
graphs which I will now notice, and which constitute their last state of
improvement.
«The great bell-glasses which rest on the marble disks were replaced by
eylinders of gun- -metal surmounted by smaller glass cylinders. Each has an
aperture to which is adapted a plate of glass with parallel faces, taking the
place which in the great bell-glasses was occupied by the openings of the
glass plate and of the achromatic lens; by this new arrangement the aechro-
matic lens is independent of the cylinder, and can be brought near to, or
removed further from, the mirror according to convenience. In this manner
any disarrangement of the cylindrical glasses, or the taking of them away,
does not alter the position of the lens, or interrupt the march of the magneto+
ON THE OBSERVATORY AT KEW. lll
graphs. These different pieces fit so as to enclose the’ magnet hermetically,
and thus the air can be rarefied or withdrawn by means of an air-pump in
communication with a tube which passes through the marble disk and opens
into the enclosure. This exhaustion of the air prevents the influence upon
the magnets of currents of air.
_ “Three telescopes, directed to the mirrors of the magnetographs, are
established on two stone pillars, and have each an ivory scale the divisions of
which are reflected, by the moveable and by the fixed mirror, into the interior
of the telescope, offering in the field of view two very distinct images of the
scale, one of which moves with the mirror of the magnet, so that at different
times different divisions of this scale will appear to coincide with the vertical
wire of the telescope. By the comparison of these divisions with that of the
image which is fixed, the position of the magnet at any moment may be
known ; so that, besides the continuous photographic record going on out of
sight, and only taken account of every other day, there may be obtained, on
any occasion, direct observations, which is a consideration of great importance.
For example, if there is a magnetic disturbance, not only ean it be observed
at the instant of its occurrence, but also direct observations may be obtained
of oscillations which by their amplitude exceed the limits of the photographie
aper.
‘ ‘ In describing the magnetographs at Greenwich two scales were mentioned,
one elastic, the other of paper, with which the times corresponding to the
different points of the base-line were obtained, and the values of the ordinates
of the curves calculated. These scales at Kew are metallic, and make part
of an apparatus very simple and ingenious, which, being subject to a graduated
moyement, is both easy and exact in operation. It is, however, not easily
described without the assistance of a figure.
‘For absolute determinations and secular changes there is a detached
building of wood (copper-fastened) at a distance from the Observatory, where
there are three wooden pillars solidly fixed in the ground, one for the instru-
ments with which the coefficients of temperature and of induction of the
magnetic bars are determined, and two for the inclinometer of Barrow and
the unifilar of Gibson. These two instruments and a good chronometer
constitute the necessary furniture of this building.”
After a very careful and detailed description of the inclinometer and
unifilar, Prof. de Souza proceeds, in his account of his first visit to Kew, as
follows :—
“In the verification-house, sixty yards from the observatory, Mr. Beckley
was setting up for trial for the first time the registering electrometer of Pro-
fessor Thomson of Glasgow. This new invention, which seems destined to
supply a great desideratum in meteorology, would have been one of the objects
of the greatest interest to me, if I could have seen it in action and have
appreciated some of its results. Dispersed as were its different parts, I could
not well make to myself a clear idea of the whole. The following is what I
gathered from the explanations of Mr. Beckley.
“Professor Thomson’s electrometer has for its object the photographic
registration, by the system of Brooke, of variations in the difference
between the electric tension of the atmosphere and of the earth. A
semicircle of brass communicates with the earth; another semicircle of
the same metal is insulated from the earth, and is in conmunication with
the external air by means of the water of a reservoir, which is thrown into
the air in a constant jet. From the top of the discontinuous circle formed
by these semicircles, and in the direction of the space which they leave
112 REPORT—1862.
between them, there is suspended a metallic needle insulated from the whole
of the apparatus, but in communication with a Leyden jar, to which is given
a constant charge measured by the angle of torsion made by another needle
suspended to the thread of another apparatus, With the first needle there
moves a small mirror, on which falls the light of a lamp reflecting upon the
registering cylinder where the electric curve is produced upon sensitive paper.
Another fascicle of light which comes from the fixed mirror gives the base-
line. One of the semicircles being in the state of the earth’s, and the other
in that of the atmosphere’s electric tension, and the needle which moves at
the top of the space which separates them having a known and constant
electricity, it is clear that the slightest alteration in the difference between
the tensions, or in the quality of the electricity by which they are produced,
will be directly indicated by the movement of the needle which impresses
itself immediately on the photographic paper. If this instrument receives at
Kew the attention of which inventions conducing to the advancement of
science are there thought worthy, and if any imperfections which may be
discovered in it in practice are successfully removed, Professor Thomson will
have the honour of haying discovered the most sensitive and instantaneous
electrometer in existence, which will doubtless smooth the great difficulties
which impede the advance of the science of atmospheric electricity. In the
presence of this electrometer the electric apparatus employed at Greenwich
will fall into disuse, as it has already done at Kew, where it is dismantled.
Of the other meteorological instruments in the Kew Observatory, I will only
mention the great standard barometer, or rather the process by means of
which its large tube is filled. The barometer and a cathetometer, with
which are observed the differences of level of the indices of the mercury in
the cistern and in the column, are fixed to a wall which formerly supported
the mural gradient of the Astronomical Observatory. It is essentially the
barometer of Regnault ; but it can turn around its axis, which is adjusted in
the vertical position by means of screws of pressure: the indices move until
they touch the surface of the mercury of the cistern; one terminates in an
edge, the other in a cone: the diameter of the tube is 1*1 inch.”
Prof. de Souza here describes in considerable detail the process of making
and filling such a barometer-tube. [For this process the English reader is
referred to Mr. Welsh’s original paper in the Philosophical Transactions for
1856, Art. XXTIT.]
Before returning to London, Prof. de Souza visited the Gardens at Kew,
and takes occasion to express his very great admiration of the gardens, the
palm-house, and especially of the museum. He then proceeds as follows :—
“In London I addressed myself to Major-General Sabine. I haye great
satisfaction in declaring thus publicly, that the relations acquired with this
courteous gentleman so long engaged in magnetical science, constitute one of
the most valuable acquisitions which I made in England. It is known that
General Sabine has. devoted himself for almost half a century, with an ardour
and activity never interrupted, to the study of terrestrial magnetism. From
1818 to 1822 he made four successive long scientific voyages ; in 1837 he
published the first general map of the isodynamic lines of the globe; after-
wards he brought about the establishment of four observatories very differ-
ently circumstanced in regard to the intensity of the terrestrial magnetic
force, and in opposite positions in regard to the magnetical and geographical
poles and equators—. e. the observatories of Toronto, Hobarton, Cape of
Good Hope, and St. Helena. He has also superintended these establishments,
and reduced and analysed their observations, from whence have resulted
ON THE OBSERVATORY AT KEW. 113
numerous and important publications. He continues himself to observe
during a portion of the year, and has almost completed a map of the different
magnetic elements over England.
“As was to be hoped, General Sabine heard with lively interest that the
establishment of a magnetical and meteorological observatory at Coimbra was
in contemplation, and readily offered to help forward the realization of this
good idea by directing the construction of the magnetic and other instruments
required, and also undertook that they should be verified and their constants
obtained at the Kew Observatory, where I should be enabled to make
practical studies, and receive suitable instruction for their establishment and
manipulation,
«General Sabine, speaking of the University of Coimbra in terms very
agreeable to a Portuguese auditor, expressed satisfaction at so good an oppor-
tunity of sending to this respectable Academy eleven large volumes of obser-
vations analysed by him and published, under his superintendence, by the
English Government. Besides the observations of the four observatories
above mentioned, there are also contained in these volumes observations from
Lake Athabasca, Fort Simpson, Fort Carlton, Fort Confidence, the Falkland
Islands, and Pekin.
“I informed the Faculty at their first meeting after my arrival at Coimbra
of the courtesies received from this savant, and I presented to your Excellency
at the proper time the books of which I was the bearer.”
Prof. deSouza then proceeds toconsider the results of his journey, and its bear-
ing on the establishment of his own hoped-for observatory. Having obtained
permission to employ the funds available in the current year in the purchase
of magnetic instruments, he wrote to General Sabine, asking him to bespeak
for him both the self-registering instruments, and those for absolute deter-
minations (as will be specified in the sequel), with any further improvements
that he might deem desirable. He had previously consulted General Sabine
on an important question, that of the choice between the different dimensions
of the magnets in use at Greenwich and at Kew, and says that “the
instructive reflections so obtained” had left him ‘completely satisfied in
determining for the Kew dimensions.”
In regard to the locality, it appears that the University of Coimbra does not
possess any building suitable and available for the purpose; but the Rector
pointed out a site which appeared to M. de Souza highly suitable, if he could
assure himself that the ferruginous particles contained in the new red sandstone
rock would not be objectionable. He sent specimens of the rock (a well-
known one in England) through the Portuguese Ambassador to London, and
experiments made with them discovered no sensible magnetic action. But
although this doubt was thus satisfactorily removed, unfortunately the site in
question is private property, and means are wanting both for its purchase
and for the building. He presses on the authorities the urgency of this
provision being made without further delay, and states that the plan proposed,
after full consultations, and for which Mr. Beckley has offered to make the
drawings, combines the greatest economy with all that can be desired
scientifically. Finally, he discusses the question of meteorological instru-
ments, and concludes for obtaining them also from England, proposing to
devote to this purpose the means at his disposal up to the termination of the
University year in 1862.
Second Visit to the Kew Observatory.
oie on the 5th of July (1861) from General Sabine that the magnetic
. I
114 nvponn=1862,
instruments were nearly ready for trial and verification, he proposed to devote
his approaching holidays to profit by the opportunity of gaining practical
instruction and experience in their use; proposing at the same time to study
Professor Thomson’s electrometer—the only apparatus, he says, which holds
out the hope of satisfying the present exigences of science, which require
continuous registration—and to obtain the other meteorological instruments
and compare them with the Kew standards.
The first part of the report is dated July 25, 1861; the second part
November 16, 1861, and gives an account of his second visit to the Kew
Observatory. It is prefaced by acknowledgements of the kindness and help
he received from Messrs. Stewart and Chambers at the Observatory, from
General Sabine, Mr. Gassiot, and the whole of the “ directing Committee,”
from the British Association, and from the Royal Society.
He arrived in London on the 24th of August, and finding General Sabine
absent in Wales, proceeded at once to the artists, Adie, Barrow, and Gibson,
who informed him that his instruments were at Kew, whither he lost no time
in repairing, and where the Director arranged that the work should begin at
once. Prof. de Souza took up his abode at Richmond, and went daily to the
Observatory, remaining there from 9.30 a.m. to 5.30 p.m. He speaks of the
great kindness, instruction, and constant assistance which he received from
the Director and the whole personal staff of the Observatory, in their different
degrees and functions, in the practical study of the instruments. This study
consists, he says, in setting them up in the trial house precisely as they are
to be set up at Coimbra, in determining their constants, in repeatedly
observing the magnetic elements with them and comparing the results with
those of the Observatory, and in reducing these observations. In the course
of the observations some little faults, which would otherwise have escaped
notice, were discovered in the instruments; to correct these the artists were
repeatedly called to Kew, or the Director conferred with them in London.
The collection of magnetic instruments consists, firstly, of the magneto-
graphs which register continuously the horizontal force, the vertical force,
and the declination ; and, secondly, of the portable instruments, viz. Barrow’s
circle for the absolute determination of the inclination, with the apparatus
for determining the total foree by Dr. Lloyd’s method; and the unifilar, by
Gibson, with its apparatus for the absolute determinations of the declination,
and of the horizontal force by the method of vibrations and deflections.
The magnetographs are accompanied by three telescopes, for the direct
observation of the magnetic elements when requisite, and by all things
necessary for beginning work as soon as they are established—utensils
for photographic manipulation, a year’s supply of chemical ingredients,
waxed paper, spare bell-glasses, chimneys and mirrors, coloured glasses for
the photographic house, &c. The portable instruments, which are indispen-
sable in an observatory, being also proper for the observations of a magnetic
‘survey, are conveniently packed in portable boxes, and accompanied by a
tripod stand.
The existence of the Astronomical Observatory at Coimbra makes it possible
to dispense with a transit-instrument and clocks, but a good chronometer is
essential ; and by the kind aid of the Hydrographer, Admiral Washington, to
whom General Sabine wrote on the subject, Prof. de Souza received permission
to purchase one of those examined at Greenwich, and guaranteed by the
Astronomer Royal, at the price which would be paid for the same by the
British Admiralty.
«Besides the barometer required for the ordinary direct observations,”
ON THE OBSERVATORY AT KEW. 115
Prof. de Souza desired an absolute standard such as is at Kew. Solargeatube
could neither be filled by the ordinary method, nor, of course, transported
full, The course taken was therefore to learn at Kew how to perform the
filling process by Mr. .Welsh’s method, so as to put it in practice at Coimbra.
The experiment was made with two glass tubes of ordinary size, of which
Prof. de Souza filled and closed one in the proposed manner, and Mr. Casella
the other, with equal success.
Prof. de Souza then ordered from Mr. Casella two tubes of large dimension,
very clean and the air exhausted, with the cistern and all the appurtenances of
the barometer to be made with one of them. If he succeeds, according to his
hopes, as he did at Kew, Coimbra, he says, will possess an absolute standard,
which will be the standard for Portugal as that of Kew is for England. But
he proposes not to order the cathetometer until the tube is actually filled and
raised into its proper position, He then gives the list of the other meteoro-
logical instruments, all verified at Kew.
“A standard thermometer graduated in divisions of 0-2 Centigrade. It
was one of the best old tubes in the possession of the Observatory, only
wanting the graduation, which was skilfully performed under my sight by the
young George Whipple, assistant at the Observatory.
** Two psychrometers with divisions of 0-5 Centigrade.
‘A maximum registering thermometer on Professor Phillips’s principle.
* A minimum registering spirit thermometer.
‘A minimum registering mercurial thermometer; a recent invention of
Mr, Casella, which was tried at Kew with a good result, and may be advan-
tageously substituted for the spirit thermometer, of which the defects have
long been recognized by meteorologists.
** A Herschel’s actinometer.
‘* A spirit thermometer for registering terrestrial radiation, with a suitable
parabolic mirror,
«Two rain-gauges.
‘‘ A vaporimeter with the corresponding pluviometer.”
With the above, and a pluviometer and hygrometer of Regnault, and an
anemograph by Salleron belonging to the Cabinet de Physique at Coimbra
(which requires to receive some modifications), Prof. de Souza considers
that an equipment is provided for immediate work, contemplating eventually
the addition of “apparatus for the continuous registry of barometric and
thermometric variations, the cost of which will be under £120.”
The continuous registry of atmospheric electricity by the photographic
process must be given up for the present: Professor Thomson’s electrometer,
excellent in principle, leayes, however, somewhat to be desired in practice.
Prof. de Souza examined the one at Kew with great attention, watching its
march carefully, and afterwards haying it taken to pieces ; and he is of opinion,
as is also Mr. Stewart, that slight modifications would obviate some of the
defects to which it is liable.
Mr, Beckley has drawn a plan and elevation for the Observatory at
Coimbra, which is submitted to the Council of the University: it provides
both for the instruments which have been ordered, and for such as may, it is
hoped, be subsequently acquired, these being a barograph and thermograph ;
and possibly hereafter a photo-heliograph for obtaining images of the solar
_ Spots, especially with a view to their supposed relations to magnetic pheno-
mena. The cost of a photo-heliograph would now be about £80. In afew
years many improvements will probably be made in it, and meantime what
is wanted for this particular object may be supplied by observations of the
12
116 REPORT—1862.
solar spots with an ordinary telescope, or by data obtained by the Astrono-
mical Observatory as part of its own work.
Besides the excellent collection of magnetic instruments (one of the finest
and most complete in existence, with scrupulously determined constants)
which is thus placed in the possession of the University of Coimbra, Prof. de
Souza has blank forms for the record of all the observations, and the formule
for their reduction, collected both from the instruction given to him at Kew,
and from his own careful examination of the manuscript books of the Ob-
‘servatory.
The magnetic instruments have arrived safely at Coimbra, and measures
have been taken for the similar conveyance of the meteorological instruments.
Mr. Beckley’s drawings furnish all the data for the construction of the
building, which will be simple and of small cost. An estimate, M. de
Souza says, is appended; but it does not appear in the printed report.
M. de Souza further alludes to his having reported, both to the University
and to the Government, his attendance at the Meeting of the British Associa-
tion at Manchester, as a member of its Committee of Mathematics and Physics,
where he was enabled to enter into relations with the distinguished men
assembled there from all parts, some of whom were Directors of Observatories,
who promised the accounts of their results, and would doubtless expect his.
The British Association has granted a complete copy of their annual Reports
from the commencement, and with these and the works previously received,
the Coimbra establishment would find itself at once in possession of a good
library of the best writings on the subjects of its investigations. He once
more recalls all the kindness and assistance he received in England, adding
that the Royal Society granted £30 from their ‘Donation-fund” for the
expenses of the verification of the magnetic instruments prepared for the
Coimbra Observatory, and concludes by urging the completion of the arrange-
ments for an establishment which he trusts will prove alike honourable to
his University and to his country.
Report on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast and Dogger Bank,
drawn up by Henry T. Mennett, on behalf of the Natural History
Society of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-on-Tyne, and
of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club.
Tue Committee to whom the grant of the Association for « Dredging on the
Dogger Bank and the coasts of Northumberland and Durham” was entrusted
having, at the request of the Natural History Society of Northumberland,
Durham, and Newcastle-on-Tyne, and of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field
Club, courteously committed the practical carrying out of the proposed inves-
tigations to these bodies, their members contributed the large sum required
in addition to the Association grant, and I have now to report the result of
our labours.
The dredging took place at the end of August; hence the time which has
since elapsed has been too limited to do full justice to the specimens obtained
in many departments.
It was confined to the following localities: Ist, on a line due east of
Tynemouth, extending to the Dogger Bank, a distance of about 100 miles.
The dredging commenced about twenty miles from land, was resumed at
ON THE DREDGING OF THE NORTHUMBERLAND COAST. 117
about fifty miles from land, and continued at intervals of about five miles
for the remainder of the distance.
The depth of water never exceeded 40 fathoms, and ranged chiefly from
25 to 35 fathoms, the bottom being mainly composed of fine sand and ooze.
On the second cruise, the coast twenty miles off Coquet Island, and twenty
to thirty miles off Berwick, was thoroughly dredged; in the latter locality the
water attained a depth of 55 fathoms, being the deepest we possess off the
Northumberland coast. The bottom consisted of coarse sand and gravel.
The vessel employed was a steamer.
The following gentlemen have, at the request of the two Societies, prepared
lists of the specimens obtained, and are responsible for the determination of
the species, viz. :—
Mollusca (except Tunicata), Mr. H. T. Mennell.
Mollusca Tunicata, Mr. Joshua Alder.
Crustacea, Rey. Alfred Merle Norman.
Pycnogonoidea, Mr. George Hodge.
Echinodermata, Mr. George 8. Brady,
Polyzoa,
Hydrozoa, | Mr. Joshua Alder.
Actinozoa, |
Foraminifera, Mr. Henry B. Brady, F.L.S.
The results, as arrived at by these gentlemen, are summarized below.
Of Mollusca 136 species were obtained, viz. :
Cephalopoda.......... il Proso- Opistho- Nudi-branchiata.
Gasteropoda .......... 64 = 514+ 74 6
Lamellibranchiata..... . 60
Brachiopoda}.......... 0
Panicata Se 11
136
No species new to science was obtained, and but one previously unrecorded
as British. This is the Cynthia glacialis of Sars, two specimens of which had
been previously obtained by Mr. John Stanger on the Northumberland coast,
and noticed in the Tyneside Club Transactions under the provisional name of
Cynthia vestita (Alder). It has since been ascertained, however, that Professor
Sars had taken the species on the Norwegian coast, and published it in 1858
under the name we now adopt.
Four other species were added to those recorded in Mr. Alder’s excellent
“Catalogue of the Mollusca of Northumberland and Durham,” published in the
‘Tyneside Club Transactions,’ viz. Rissoa sculpta (Forbes and Hanley), new
to the east coast of Britain, Hulima nitida (Lamarck), Hulima gracilis (Alder,
MS.), and Syndosmya intermedia.
Several species hitherto considered to be of great rarity on our coast were
obtained in some plenty, e.g. Trophon Barvicensis, Mangelia Trevelyana,
Chemnitzia fulvocincta, Sealaria Trevelyana, Trochus millegranus, Puncturella
Noachina, and Lucina flecuosa. Of the rarer species previously recorded,
there were found, but not abundantly, Mangelia teres, Natica Grenlandica,
Philine quadrata, Cylichna strigella, Crenella decussata, and Newra cuspidata.
Of the special varieties of the Dogger Bank which have hitherto only been
taken on the fishing-lines, the only trace obtained was a single capsule of
Fusus Turton, Further efforts are therefore required to ascertain the exact
habitat. on our coast of the rare larger Fusi, of Buccinum (?) Dalet and Pano-
118 , REPORT—1862.
pea Norvegica. When this is discovered we may expect to find associated
with them many interesting Boreal species, perhaps too small to have attracted
the attention of the fishermen.
Some interest attaches to the subfossil or upper tertiary shells which were
dredged in very deep water twenty to thirty miles east of Berwick. Amongst
these were Astarte elliptica and Mya truncata, var. Uddevallensis, neither of
which have been found living on our coast, and Margarita cinerea, an extinct
species, which has been recently dredged under similar conditions in other
localities.
The whole of the Crustacea which were obtained have not as yet been
examined; but among those already determined are many of great interest.
In all about 90 species were dredged. Among the Podophthalmia, mention
may be made of Jnachus Dorsettensis as new to the N.E. coast of England, and
of Crangon spinosus, bispinosus, and Allmanni. The last of these, a recently
distinguished species, was abundant both off the Durham and Northumberland
coasts. From several specimens of Hippolyte securifrons which were obtained,
Mr. Norman is enabled to correct an error in the specific character which he
gave at the last meeting of the Association, from the Shetland type specimen.
He finds that there are four instead of three pairs of spines on the front
margin of the carapace, two spines being placed together over each orbit.
Both sexes of Mysis spiritus (Norman), only previously known from three
or four females taken near Hartlepool, were dredged in considerable numbers ;
and also an undescribed species of the same genus, which Mr. Norman thus
describes :—
“ Mysis didelphys (Norman, n. sp.).
«« Antennal scale lanceolate, twice as long as the eye, two-jointed, ciliated
all round; the second joint very short, with a rounded apex terminating in
five cilia. Telson entire, not more than two-thirds the length of the in-
termediate, and half the length of the external lamine of the tail; lateral mar-
gins of telson armed with ten spines, some of which are situated quite at the
base; apex with a large spine at each corner, but no central intermediate
spines.
“This is a much stouter species than Mysis vulgaris, to which it is nearly
allied. The antennal scale is less produced; and the second joint is much
shorter, and terminates in five cilia instead of in an acutely pointed spine.
The telson is likewise shorter, with fewer lateral spines, and without the two
intermediate apical spines which are present in M. vulgaris. Mysis didelphys
was dredged in deep water, forty miles off the coast, while the habitat of M.
vulgaris appears to be invariably the brackish waters of estuaries and salt-
marshes.” .
The curious and abnormal family of the Diastylide was well represented
by Diastylis Rathkii, Eudora truncatula, Vaunthomsonia cristata, and three
undescribed species. These are thus named and described by Mr. Norman :—
“ Quma rosea (Norman, n. sp.).
« Last five segments of the thorax uncovered by the carapace. No abdominal
legs. Carapace unarmed above and below, rounded in front. Telson well
developed, as long as the basal portion of the caudal appendages, furnished
with two spines on each side, and having the rounded apex closely surrounded
by seven subequal spines. Colour white, mottled with rosy spots. Dredged
50-60 miles east of Tynemouth.
“ Cyrianassa elegans (Norman, n. sp.).
“Only three pairs of abdominal legs, which are the appendages of the first
three segments, Telson produced, as long as the basal joints of the caudal
ON THE DREDGING OF THE NORTHUMBERLAND COAST. 119
appendages, armed with a spine on each side and eight spines around the
extremity. Deep water off Tynemouth.
“ Cyrianassa ciliata (Norman, Nn. sp.).
“ Carapace hispid, truncate in front, and furnished with a toothed process on
the antero-lateral margin. Lower antenne longer than the body. Five seg-
ments of the thorax uncovered by the carapace. Abdominal legs, two pairs,
attached to the first two segments. Telson short, one-third the length of
the basal joint of the lateral appendages, with a rounded unarmed extremity.
Caudal appendages furnished with plumose cilia, which are remarkably long
on the outer branch. Deep water off Tynemouth.”
Among the more interesting Amphipoda obtained were Montagua Alderii
and pollexiana, Callisoma crenata, Anonyx denticulatus, Anvpelisca Gaimardi
and Belliana, Phoxus plumosus, Iphimedia obesa, Acanthonotus testudo, Atylus
bispinosus, Microdeutopus anomalus, Caprella lobata, Dewamine Vedlomensis,
Kroyera altamarina, and Melita prowvma. Of the last three species only the
type specimens were previously known.
Two Entomostraca were dredged which are new to the British fauna,
Cypridina globosa (Liljeborg) and Ichthyophorba hamata (Liljeborg), and a
third, new to science, thus described by Mr. Norman :—
*« Oythere limicola (Norman, 0. sp.).
* Carapace-valves slightly quadrilateral, front margins oblique, greatest
height at the anterior third. Sculptured with two elevated, longitudinal, slightly
curved parallel lines on the lower half of the valves, from the anterior
extremity of which a transverse elevated line passes to the hinge-margin,
where it terminates in a large tubercle. Two similar tubercles close together
near the hinder extremity of the hinge-margin.”
Among the other Entomostraca were Nebalia bipes, Cythere quadridentata
and acuta, and what is perhaps a variety of flavida, Cythereis fimbriata,
Evadne Nordmanni, and Anomalocera Patersonit.
Of Pycnogonoidea (which we only separate from the Crustacea because
they have been on this occasion examined by different gentlemen, and not
as expressing an opinion that they should be so separated) ten species were
obtained, belonging to four genera, Pycnogonum, Phowichilidium, Pallene, and
Nymphon. Of these, two are new to Britain and two are new to science ;
the latter are thus described by Mr. George Hodge :—
“ Pallene attenuata, n. sp., Hodge.
“Rostrum thick, constricted at the base, swollen near the middle, and
rounded at the apex. Legs long, sparingly hispid; first, second, and third
joints short, the second the longer; fourth rather stout, and as long as the
second and third united; fifth and sixth slender, and about the length of the
fourth ; seventh very short ; eighth convex on the outer margin, straight on
the inner, with a few short hairs scattered along both margins. A single
claw at the extremity, which, when pressed against the limb, reaches to the
junction of the seventh joint. Foot-jaws long and slender, projecting con-
siderably beyond the end of the rostrum. Anterior portion of thorax
attenuated, and advanced nearly in a line with the tip of the rostrum, where
it slightly bulges and gives origin to foot-jaws, immediately behind which
is seated the oculiferous tubercle, which is long and narrow. Abdomen long,
rounded at apex, slightly tapering to base. At the origin of each leg on the
dorsal aspect is a large wart-like protuberance.
*« Nymphon brevirostris, n. sp., Hodge.
“Rostrum short and stout ; foot-jaws thick, divergent, second joint or hand
nearly as long as the first; palpi five-jointed, brush-like, first and second
120 REPORT—1862.
joints long and nearly of the same length, either of them equal to the three
terminal joints, the last of which is the shortest. Thorax robust. Abdomen
stout and conical. Oculiferous tubercle midway between the first pair of
legs. Legs stout, sparingly furnished with stout spine-like hairs; first and
third joints short ; second slender at its origin, swelling upwards; fourth and
fifth joints each as long as the first three; sixth much longer, and slender ;
seventh short; cighth long, slightly bent, furnished along its inner margin
with a few short spines, and terminating in one moderately large and two
small claws.”
Two species of Nymphon new to Britain were also taken, viz. Nymphon
hirtum, O. Fabr., and NV. brevitarse, Kroyer,
The rarity of male Nymphons is singular; none were obtained during the
expedition, although the number of females was considerable : on the contrary,
the males of Pycnogonum were abundant, and the females rarely seen. This
seems to be the usual experience of collectors.
The researches of Mr. Hodge into the development and structure of the
Pycnogonide have led him to place them with the Entomostraca, as an order
of that subclass, Arachnopoda or Pycnogonoidea.
A great number of Annelids were dredged, but these have not yet been
catalogued ; we trust, however, next year to present a satisfactory list of these
animals. Sipunculus Bernhardus was one of the most abundant species, occu-
pying every dead Dentalium which was brought up. It may be remarked also
that in the deepest water dredged, that is, off Berwick, the dredge showed the
bottom to consist almost entirely of fragments of the deserted tubes of these
creatures. Few opportunities existed of obtaining Entozoa; those that did
occur were not neglected, but the number was so meagre that no list has been
attempted.
Of Echinodermata we dredged twenty-seven species; amongst these is one
species of Ophiura hitherto undescribed, of which Mr. G. Hodge, who had
a short time before taken it on the Durham coast, gives the following
description :—
“ Ophiura Normani (n. sp., George Hodge).
“Disk either pentangular or round, the former pertaining to well-grown,
the latter to young specimens. Upper surface of disk rotulated, under
surface corresponding with that of the other members of the genus. Two
clasping scales at the origin of each ray, each bearing about ten short spines.
A crescent of eight or ten short blunt spines on the upper surface of the rays,
close to the disk. Lateral ray-plates bearing five moderately long spines.
Upper ray-scales nearly square, slightly tapering towards the disk. [ays
about four times as long as the diameter of the disk, which in well-grown
individuals measures about 3 of an inch. Colour reddish yellow, occasionally
of a pale sandy tint.”
The Rey. A. M. Norman has also taken a single specimen of this species in
the Clyde, and three or four in the Shetlands.
Bryssus lyrifer, a species previously considered to be of much rarity on the
coast, was met with in great plenty and of unusual size; still more abundant
were Spatangus purpureus and Amphidotus roseus.
All the species of Ophiuroidea, Asteroidea, and Echinoidea were much
more plentiful on the muddy ground which lies immediately within the
Dogger Bank than elsewhere.
Uraster rosea, a fine species not before met with on the east coast, was
added to the local fauna.
Among the Holothuride, several specimens of a small Thyonidium were
ON THE DREDGING OF THE NORTHUMBERLAND COAST. 121
dredged in Berwick Bay, which appear to be the Holothuria pellucida of
Miiller, and not the Cucumaria hyalina of Forbes, the latter of which appears
to belong to the genus Zhyone. Should a further examination confirm this
view, the species is new to Britain.
Thyonidium commune was also added to our local fauna.
No Zoophytes were obtained previously unrecorded in Mr. Joshua Alder’s
“Catalogue of the Zoophytes of Northumberland and Durham,”’ published in
the ‘ Transactions of the Tyneside Club ;’ nevertheless the list is a good one,
containing as it does 77 species, viz.—
Polyzoa . 225.2. 27
Hydrozoa....... 40
Actinozoa....... 10
Among the Polyzoa, Menipea ternata and Cellularia Peachii, two northern
deep-water species rare on other parts of the English coast, were procured in
considerable abundance. Of Bugula Murrayana and B. fastigiata, also
northern forms, only two or three specimens were obtained.
Among the Hydrozoa the most noteworthy is Sertularia fusca, a species
peculiar to the north-eastern coasts of England and to Scotland. Sertularia
‘pinaster was also met with, and S. tamarisca with female capsules.
The Medusidee are not included in Mr. Alder’s Catalogue just referred to,
and of these very few species were identified.
A very fine and strikingly beautiful Medusa was, however, taken some
seventy or eighty miles from the coast, {which appears not to have been
hitherto met with in our seas; nor, indeed, have we seen the description of
any genus to which it would seem to be assignable.
The Rey. A. M. Norman describes it as follows :—
“The hydrosoma is inverted cup-shaped, moderately convex, about 41
inches in diameter, tinged with deeper and paler shades of indigo-blue.
«The margin is divided into eight major lobes, each of which is subdivided
into four minor lobes, making thirty-two lobes in all. The disk of the hydro-
soma is elevated into sixteen radiating ridges, alternating with as many
intermediate furrows. A radiating canal, of an intenser blue than the rest
of the hydrosoma, passes down each of the ridges; and these radiating canals
terminate in the deeper sinuses of the margin and in the central sinuses of
the major lobes, while each furrow is traversed by a white vessel whose
distal extremity is situated at one of the intermediate sinuses of the major
lobes. Numerous transverse branches proceed from the blue and elevated
canals, and pass down the slopes of the ridges to the base of the furrows.
These transverse vessels are recognized by the deeper tint of blue which
marks their course.
“There are no tentacles on the margin of the disk; but, situated a short
distance within the margin, opposite each of the greater sinuses, there is
seen a semicircle of about forty pale-yellow simple tentacles, which are so
short that they scarcely hang below the margin of the disk. The horns of
the semicircle of tentacles point outwards.
«There are eight eyes, which are placed at the centre of the major lobes,
on the blue canal, at a short distance from the margin.
“The oral appendages are greatly developed in the form of four (?) large,
many-folded, ochreous-yellow curtains, exquisitely margined with a short,
finely-cut fringe. The length of the curtains, as they hang suspended in the
hydrosoma, is somewhat greater than their united breadth, Q
122 REPORT—1862.
“‘ The ovaries.—I take it that the brownish-pink masses which were seen
suspended just outside the curtains in the living animal were the ovaries,
but, not having had the opportunity of examining these bodies, I hesitate to
state that they actually are the reproductive organs.”
The specimen described has been well preserved in a mixture of diluted
spirit and creosote.
In Actinozoa our list is not rich ; Stomphia Churchice (Gosse), and a Phellia
not yet ascertained, but probably the Phellia gausipata of Gosse (a species
hitherto only taken at Wick), are among the rarer species obtained.
The list of Foraminifera is a very rich one, considering the short time
and the limited area over which the dredging extended.
Of the 101 species and varieties enumerated in Prof. Williamson’s mono-
graph, our list contains 55 ; and besides these, several are reserved for further
examination.
Fully twenty of these had not previously been found on our coast by
Mr. Joshua Alder or Mr. H. B. Brady, the only observers.
The most noticeable facts respecting the Foraminifera obtained are, first,
the extraordinary prevalence of the various forms of Dentalina in the Berwick
Bay dredgings, occurring as they do in every gradation from the extreme
form of Dentalina subarcuata to the extreme of D. legumen. No line of
demarcation can be drawn between the hyaline shell constricted at the septa
(the septal lines being oblique) and the more robust, much-curved form of
D.legumen. On the same ground Polymorphina frequently assumes the more
luxuriant form known as variety jfistulosa. And secondly, the number and
beauty of the Lagenw, of which every British variety was taken, most of them
abundantly.
Of the Sponges no list has been attempted, the very few species obtained
waiting further examination.
Altogether, the results are, I trust, such as to justify further efforts on the
same coast; and they are, at any rate, most interesting to our local natu-
ralists, who are, through the medium of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field
Club, working out the fauna of the district with a completeness which few
districts can equal.
Report of the Committee appointed at Manchester to consider and
report upon the best means of advancing Science through the agency
of the Mercantile Marine. By Curuspert Cottinewoon, M.B.,
F.L.S.
Tur Committee appointed at the Manchester Meeting of the British Asso-
ciation consisted of the following gentlemen :—
Dr. Collingwood, Liverpool. J. Aspinall Turner, M.P., Manchester.
R. Patterson, F.R.S., Belfast. P. P. Carpenter, Ph.D., Warrington.
John Lubbock, F.R.S., London. Rey. H. H. Higgins, M.A., Liverpool.
Since that time much has been done in promoting the scheme suggested in
the paper then read before Section D. That paper has been printed in the
‘Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool,’ and
copies of it have been struck off, and very largely circulated among ship-
owners, merchants, and all the large and influential list of correspondents
to whom the documents of the Mercantile Marine Association of Liverpool are
ON THE MERCANTILE MARINE. 123
usually forwarded. I have also forwarded copies to all whom I know to be
interested in the subject, and, in the volume of Proceedings, it has passed to all
the scientific societies in correspondence with the Liverpool Literary and
Philosophical: Society. Mr. Robert Patterson, of Belfast, has brought the
subject under the notice of the shipping interest and the Natural History
Society of that town; and many copies have been circulated in America
through Captain Anderson (of the R.M.S.S8. ‘ China’), Professor Agassiz, and
Mr. Wm. Stimpson of the Smithsonian Institution. Among those to whom
I forwarded copies of the paper was Mr. E. Newman, who reprinted it in
the ‘Zoologist’ for July and August 1862. The subject has thus been
brought fairly before the mercantile and scientific public, and the attention
of a large number of persons has been directed towards it—the general
opinion being decidedly in its favour, on the score of advantages to be derived
at once by science and by philanthropy.
In the autumn of 1861, in conversation with Earl Granville, Lord Pre-
sident of the Committee of Council on Education, I had an opportunity of
bringing the subject under his Lordship’s notice, and of explaining to him
the advantages which we proposed to ourselves: from this scheme, well know-=
ing the important assistance which his Lordship might afford in case of its
meeting with his approval. He expressed an interest in the matter, and
desired to be further informed upon it. On the publication of the paper,
therefore, at his Lordship’s request, I sent him a copy, and shortly after
received the following communication :--
** Science and Art Department of the Committee of
Council on Education,
South Kensington, London, W., Jan. 30, 1862.
« Srr,—I am directed by the Lords of the Committee of Council on Educa-
tion to request that you will be good enough to furnish me with twenty
copies of your pamphlet ‘ On the Opportunities of Advancing Science enjoyed
by the Mercantile Marine,’ to send to all the Navigation Schools under this
department. “T am, Sir,
‘* Your obedient Servant,
“ Norman M‘Leop,
* Dr. Collingwood, “* Assistant Secretary.
15 Oxford Street, Liverpool.”
The next important advance was as follows:—It being considered of the
last importance that the sanction and cooperation of shipowners should
be obtained, a meeting was convened in the mayor’s parlour, Town-hall,
Liverpool, at which some of the most influential shipowners of that port, as
well as the chairman and secretary of the Mercantile Marine Association,
were present; Mr. T. M. Mackay (a gentleman ever ready to cooperate in
every scheme for the good of seamen) occupying the chair. The meeting
having been informed of the nature and progress of the movement, and the
subject having been discussed, the gentlemen present promised their support,
both nominal, and pecuniary if it were required.
Believing that much might be effected by associating merchant-officers
with existing scientific societies, in an honorary manner, the reporter, as
Secretary to the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, brought the
matter before the council and members. This Society, established in 1812,
has just celebrated its fiftieth anniversary, and is the oldest scientific society
in Liverpool. An addition to the laws was duly passed and confirmed, to the
effect that the Society « be empowered to elect as Associates masters of vessels or
124 REPORT—1862.
others engaged in marine pursuits, who may have peculiar facilities for adding
to the scientific interest of the Society’s proceedings ; such Associates to be in
every case recommended by the council, and to have the same privileges as
honorary members—their number to be limited to twenty-five.” This plan,
there is little doubt, may be productive of much good, and it is hoped will be
adopted by some other societies. It offers a stimulus to the intelligent ship-
master, and tends to increase his self-respect, by showing that he is held in
respect by those who appreciate his efforts to advance science and his own
mental culture.
Although it is hoped that in the course of time some tangible results
may be obtained in several branches of science, the writer, being chiefly
interested in the science of zoology, determined to make a beginning by
causing to be prepared plain directions for the study and preservation of
animals in all parts of the world. It being evident that, if we are to expect
anything from the mercantile marine, its members should be definitely in-
formed as to what we wish them to do, a committee of the Literary and Phi-
losophical Society was appointed, at the writer’s suggestion, to draw up such
plain directions as should not fail to be sufficient for the end in view.
The preparation of such a paper was entrusted to Mr. T. J. Moore, curator
of the Liverpool Free Public Museum, a gentleman well qualified for the
task; and having received the sanction of the Committee, the paper was
published as an Appendix to the ‘ Proceedings of the Literary and Philoso-
phical Society’ for 1861-62. It is entitled, ‘‘ Suggestions offered on the part
of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool to Members of the
Mercantile Marine who may be desirous of using the advantages they enjoy
for the promotion of Science, in furtherance of Zoology,” pp. 51. This
pamphlet, containing full directions for the preparation of all kinds of animals,
methods of study, and lists of text-books and useful apparatus, has been
separately published by the Society, for distribution in quarters where it is
likely to prove useful. It is desirable that such manuals for other sciences
should be also carefully compiled, in order that every intelligent seaman may
have scope to exercise his talents in whatever direction his own tastes may
conduct him; and thus, there can be no doubt that a useful and valuable
body of scientific information would be collected to aid the researches of men
of science at home.
It is much to be regretted that a united body of members of the mercan-
tile marine, such as the Mercantile Marine Service Association of Liverpool,
should not enter cordially into a scheme which they have themselves acknow-
ledged to be one fraught with usefulness. Had the executive council of this
Association shown an ordinary interest in its progress, still greater advances
would already have to be recorded; but the writer is sorry to have to report
that he has not met with that assistance and cooperation from that body
which he felt entitled to look for. Although from the first invited to coope-
rate in the plans proposed, no steps have been taken by them, beyond the
tardy publication of some valuable suggestions urged upon them by one
member of the council (since resigned) and one of the most intelligent mem-
bers of the service. This lukewarmness of a body of men who, by their
example, might be of the most material assistance is likely to retard, although
not to destroy, the prospects of the scheme; and could the services of a small
and active committee of influential gentlemen be secured, success must
ultimately crown their efforts.
There can be no doubt whatever that it is to the rising generation of.
seamen that we must chiefly look for the fruits of any scheme of improved
|
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ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 125
education which may be adopted in the present day, and such establish-
ments as the ‘ Conway’ training-frigate in the Mersey are powerfully useful
to that end ; still, in order to collect together the elements of scientific in-
dustry and laudable ambition, which doubtless exist, scattered among the
present body of merchant-seamen, it is desirable, as a beginning, to offer a
certificate of merit to such commanders and other officers as hold the extra
certificate of the Marine Board, or who keep the meteorological log-book
supplied by the Observatory, or who show in various other ways a desire to
improve their minds and to encourage industry in those under their charge.
It must strictly be borne in mind, however, that the sea is the only place
where the sailor’s mind can be properly influenced. Churches, schools, and
sailors’ homes on shore are only attended by those whom better influences at
sea have inclined for good. Masters of vessels, therefore, who encourage
their apprentices to continue their studies at sea, and who open schools for
the purpose of teaching those who have had no benefits of education on shore,
are in the first place well deserving of some reward, such as a certificate of
merit, which should be so constructed and signed as to carry some weight.
The nature, therefore, of this certificate, and by whom it should be signed,
are questions of great importance to the success of the movement, and would
require mature consideration. If the Committee of Council on Education or
the Board of Trade, or both, could be induced to take an active and official
interest in the matter, the difficulty would be at once solved.
It should be mentioned, as a practical encouragement of some value, that
the Colonial and Continental Church Society (9 Serjeants’ Inn, Fleet Street)
has, through Captain Anderson, offered to grant libraries for sailors afloat,
on the following conditions:—1. The Council of the Mercantile Marine
Service Association are to recommend to them four captains each year, to
each of whom the above Society will grant a library, value £5. 2. It will
be understood that it is desirable to select such captains as haye communi-
cation with our colonial possessions,
Enough has now been said and done to prove that there is a current at
work, setting in the right direction ; and we can only now leave the matter
to time, feeling fully assured that it will go on, and bear ultimate fruit, both
in the advancement of science and in the elevation of the character of the
merchant-seaman.
Provisional Report of the Committee appointed by the British
Association on Standards of Electrical Resistance.
Memorrs of the Committee :—Professor A. Williamson, F.R.S.; Professor C.
Wheatstone, F.R.S.; Professor W. Thomson, F.R.S.; Professor W. H.
Miller, F.R.S.; Dr. A. Matthiessen, F.R.S.; Mr. F. Jenkin.
Taz Committee regret that they are unable this year to submit a final Report
to the Association, but they hope that the inherent difficulty and importance
of the subject they have to deal with will sufficiently account for the delay.
The Committee considered that two distinct questions were before them,
admitting of entirely independent solutions. They had first to determine
what would be the most convenient ynit of resistance; and secondly, what
would be the best form and material for the standard representing that unit.
The meaning of this distinction will be apparent when it is observed that, if
126 REPORT—1862.
the first point were decided by a resolution in favour of a unit based on
Professor Weber’s or Sir Charles Bright and Mr. Latimer Clark’s system, this
decision would not affect the question of construction; while, on the other
hand, if the second question were decided in favour of any particular arrange-
ment of mercury or gold wire as the best form of standard, this choice would
not affect the question of what the absolute magnitude of the unit was to be.
The Committee have arrived at a provisional conclusion as to the first
question ; and the arguments by which they have been guided in coming to
this decision will form the chief subject of the present Report. :
They have formed no opinion as to the second question, or the best form
and material for the standard.
In determining what would be the most convenient unit for all purposes,
both practical and purely scientific, the Committee were of opinion that the
unit chosen should combine, as far as was possible, the five following qualities.
1, The magnitude of the unit should be such as would lend itself to the
more usual electrical measurements, without requiring the use of extravagantly
high numbers of ciphers or of long series of decimals.
2. The unit should bear a definite relation to units which may be adopted
for the measurement of electrical quantity, currents, and electromotive force ;
or, in other words, it should form part of a complete system for electrical
measurements,
3. The unit of resistance, in common with the other units of the system,
should, so far as is possible, bear a definite relation to the unit of work, the
great connecting link between all physical measurements.
4, The unit should be perfectly definite, and should not be liable to require
correction or alteration from time to time.
5. The unit should be reproducible with exactitude, in order that, if the
original standard were injured, it might be replaced, and also in order that
obseryers who may be unable to obtain copies of the standard may be able to
manufacture one for themselves without serious error.
The Committee were also of opinion that the unit should be based on the
French metrical system, rather than on that now used in this country.
Fortunately no very long use can be pleaded in fayour of any of the units
of electrical resistance hitherto proposed, and the Committee were therefore
at liberty to judge of each proposal by its inherent merits only; and they
believe that, by the plan which they propose for adoption, a unit will be
obtained combining to a great extent the five qualities enumerated as desi-
rable, although they cannot yet say with certainty how far the fourth quality,
of absolute permanency, can be ensured.
The question of the most convenient magnitude was decided by reference
to those units which have already found some acceptance, These, omitting
metre
onds
copper wire weighing one hundred grains (a unit proposed by Professor
Wheatstone in 1843) and one mile of copper wire of j;th in. in diameter,
and weighing consequently about 844 grains per foot. The smaller units
had generally been used by purely scientific observers, and the larger by
engineers or practical electricians.
Intermediate between the two lay Dr. Werner Siemens’s mercury unit, and
the unit adopted by Professor W. Thomson as approximately equal to one
hundred millions of absolute foot
seconds
for the moment Weber’s , were found to range between one foot of
. The former is approximately equal to
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 127
371 feet, and the latter to 1217 feet, of pure copper wire ;/;th in, in diameter
at 15°C. Both of these units have been adopted in scientific experiments
and in practical tests; and it was thought that the absolute magnitude of
the unit to be adopted should not differ widely from these resistances.
The importance of the second quality required in the unit, that of forming
part of a coherent system of electrical measurements, is felt not only by
purely scientific investigators, but also by practical electricians, and was
indeed ably pointed out in a paper read before this Association in Manchester
by Sir Charles Bright and Mr. Latimer Clark,
The Committee has thus found itself in the position of determining not
only the unit of resistance, but also the units of current, quantity, and electro-
motive force. The natural relations between these units are, clearly, that a
unit electromotive force maintained between two points of a conductor
separated by the unit of resistance shall produce the unit current, and that
this current shall in the unit of time convey the unit quantity of electricity.
The first relation is a direct consequence of Ohm’s law ; and the second was
independently chosen by Weber and by the two electricians above named.
Two only of the above units can be arbitrarily chosen; when these are
fixed, the others follow from the relations just stated,
Sir Charles Bright and Mr. Latimer Clark propose the electromotive force
of a Daniell’s cell as one unit, and choose a unit of quantity depending on
this electromotive force. Their resistance-unit, although possessing what we
have called the second requisite quality, and superior consequently to many
that have been proposed, does not in any way possess the third quality of
bearing with its co-units a definite relation to the unit of work, and has
therefore been considered inferior to the equally eoherent system proposed
by Weber many years since, but until lately comparatively little known in
this country,
Professor Weber chose arbitrarily the unit of current and the unit of
electromotive force, each depending solely on the units of mass, time, and
length, and consequently independent of the physical properties of any arbi-
trary material.
Professor W. Thomson has subsequently pointed out that this system
possesses what we have called the third necessary quality, since, when defined
in this measure, the unit current of electricity, in passing through a conductor
of unit resistance, does.a unit of work or its equivalent in a unit of time*,
The entire connexion between the various units of measurement in this
system may be summed up as follows,
A battery or rheomotor of unit electromotive force will generate a current
of unit strength in a cireuit of unit resistance, and in the unit of time will
conyey a unit quantity of electricity through this circuit, and do a unit of
work or its equivalent,
An infinite number of systems might fulfil the above conditions, which
leave the absolute magnitude of the units undetermined,
Weber has proposed to fix the series in various ways, of which two only
need be mentioned here—first by reference to the force exerted by the current
on the pole of a magnet, and secondly by the attraction which equal quantities
of electricities exert on one another when placed at the unit distance,
In the first or electro-magnetic system, the unit current is that of which the
unit length at a unit distance exerts a unit of force on the unit magnetic
pole, the definition of which is dependent on the units of mass, time, and
* Vide * Application of Electrical Effect to the Measurement of Electromotive Force,”
Phil. Mag. 1851.
128 REPORT—1862.
length alone. In the second or electro-static system, the series of units is
fixed by the unit of quantity, which Weber defines as that quantity which
attracts another equal quantity at the unit distance with the unit force.
Starting from these two distinct definitions, Weber, by the relations
defined above, has framed two distinct systems of electrical measurement,
and has determined the ratio between the units of the two systems—a matter
of great importance in many researches; but the electro-magnetic system is
more convenient than the other for dynamic measurements, in which currents,
resistances, &c., are chiefly determined from observations conducted with the
aid of magnets.
As an illustration of this convenience, we may mention that the common
tangent galvanometer affords a ready means of determining the value in
electro-magnetic units of any current y in function of the horizontal com-
ponent of the earth’s magnetism H, the radius of the coil R, its length L,
and the deflexion 6.
RH
y=tang. 6 a re
In this Report, wherever Professor Weber’s, or Thomson’s, or the absolute
system is spoken of, the electro-magnetic system only is to be understood as
referred to. The immense value of a coherent system, such as is here described,
can only be appreciated by those who seek after quantitative as distinguished
from merely qualitative results. The following elementary examples will
illustrate the practical application of the system.
It is well known that the passage of a current through a metal conductor
heats that conductor; and if we wish to know how much a given conductor
will be heated by a given current in a given time, we have only to multiply
the time into the resistance and the square of the current, and divide the
product by the mechanical equivalent of the thermal unit. The quotient
will express the quantity of heat developed, from which the rise of tempera-
ture can be determined with a knowledge of the mass and specific heat of the
conductor.
Again, let it be required to find how much zine must necessarily be con-
sumed in a Daniell’s cell or battery to maintain a given current through a
given resistance. The heat developed by the consumption of a unit of zine
in a Daniell’s battery has been determined by Dr. Joule, as also the mechanical
equivalent of that heat; and we have only to multiply the square of the
current into the resistance, and divide by the mechanical equivalent of that
heat, to obtain the quantity of zinc consumed per unit of time.
Again, do we wish to calculate the power which must necessarily be used
to generate by a magneto-electric machine a given current of (say) the strength
known to be required for a given electric light.
Let the resistance of the circuit be determined, and the power required will
be simply obtained by multiplying the resistance into the square of the current.
Again, the formula for deducing the quantity of electricity contained in the
charge of a Leyden jar or submarine cable from the throw of a galyanometer
needle depends on the relation between the unit expressing the strength of
current, the unit of force, and the unit magnet-pole. When these are expressed
in the above system, the quantity in electro-magnetic measure is immediately
obtained from the ballistic formula. In estimating the value of the various
insulators proposed for submarine cables, this measure is of at least equal
importance with the measure of the resistance of the conductor and of the
insulating sheath; and the unit in which it is to be expressed ge be at
once settled by the adoption of the general system described.
ON STANDARDS. OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 129
‘These four very simple examples of the use of Weber’s and Thomson’s
system might be multiplied without end, but it is hoped that they will suffice
to give some idea of the range and importance of the relations on which it
depends to those who may hitherto not have had their attention directed to
the dynamical theory.
No doubt, if every unit were arbitrarily chosen, the relations would still
exist in nature, and, by a liberal use of coefficients experimentally determined,
the answer to all the problems depending on these relations might still be
calculated; but the number of these coefficients and the complication re-
sulting from their use would render such an arbitrary choice inexcusable.
A large number of units of resistance have from time to time been proposed,
founded simply on some arbitrary length and section or weight of some given
material more or less suited for the purpose ; but none of these units in any
way possessed what we have called the second and third requisite qualities,
and could only have been accepted if the unit of resistance had been entirely
isolated from all other measurements. We have already shown how far this
is from being the case; and the Committee consider that, however suitable
mercury or any other material may be for the construction or reproduction of
a standard, this furnishes no reason for adopting a foot or a metre length of
some arbitrary section or weight of that material.
Nevertheless it was apparent that, although a foot of copper or a metre of
mercury might not be very scientific standards, they produced a perfectly
definite idea in the minds of even ignorant men, and might possibly, with
certain precautions, be both permanent and reproducible, whereas Weber’s
unit has no material existence, but is rather an abstraction than an entity.
In other words, a metre of mercury or some other arbitrary material might
possess what we have called the first, fourth, and fifth requisite qualities, to a
high degree, although entirely wanting in the second and third. Weber’s
system, on the contrary, is found to fulfil the second and third conditions, but
is defective in the fourth and fifth; for if the absolute or Weber’s unit were
adopted without qualification, the material standard by which a decimal
multiple of convenient magnitude might be practically represented would
require continual correction as successive determinations made with more and
more skill determined the real value of the absolute unit with greater and
greater accuracy. Tew defects could be more prejudicial than this continual
shifting of the standard. This objection would not be avoided even by a
determination made with greater accuracy than is expected at present, and
was considered fatal to the unqualified adoption of the absolute unit as the
standard of resistance.
- It then became matter for consideration whether the adyantages of the
arbitrary material standard and those of the absolute system could not be
combined, and the following proposal was made and adopted as the most
likely to meet every requirement. It was proposed that a material standard
should be prepared in such form and materials as should ensure the most
absolute permanency; that this standard should approximate as nearly
as possible in the present state of science to ten millions of aneine , but
seconds
that, instead of being called by that name, it should be known simply as the
unit of 1862, or should receive some other simpler name, such as that proposed
by Sir Charles Bright and Mr. Latimer Clark in the paper above referred
to; that from time to time, as the advance of science renders this possible,
xa 7 Sahaad between this unit of 1862 and the true ten millions of
é K
130 REPORT—1862.
metre
seconds
error resulting from the use of the 1862 unit in dynamical calculations instead
of the true absolute unit may be corrected by those who require these correc-
tions, but that the material standard itself shall under no circumstances be
altered in substance or definition.
By this plan the first condition is fulfilled; for the absolute magnitude of
this standard will differ by only 2 or 3 per cent. from Dr. Siemens’s mercury
standard.
The second and third conditions will be fulfilled with such accuracy as
science at any time will allow.
The fourth condition, of permanency, will be ensured so far as our know-
ledge of the electrical qualities of matter will permit; and even the fifth
condition, referring to the reproduction, is rendered comparatively easy of
accomplishment.
There are two reasons for desiring that a standard should be reproducible:
first, in order that if the original be lost or destroyed it may be replaced ;
secondly, in order that men unable to obtain copies of the true standard may
approximately produce standards of their own. It is indeed hoped that accurate
copies of the proposed material standard will soon be everywhere obtainable,
and that a man will no more think of producing his own standard than of
deducing his foot rule from a pendulum, or his metre from an are of the
meridian ; and it wil! be one of the duties of the Committee to facilitate the
obtaining of such copies, which can be made with a thousandfold greater
accuracy than could be ensured by any of the methods of reproduction
hitherto proposed.
It is also hoped that no reproduction of the original standard may ever be
necessary. Nevertheless great stress has been lately laid upon this quality,
and two methods of reproduction have been described by Dr. Werner Siemens
and Dr. Matthiessen respectively ; the former uses mercury, and the latter an
alloy of gold and silver, for the purpose. Both methods seem susceptible of
considerable accuracy. The Committee have not yet decided which of the two
is preferable ; but their merits have been discussed from a chemical point of
view in the appended Report C, by Prof. Williamson and Dr. Matthiessen.
An interesting letter from Dr. Siemens on the same point will also be found
in the Appendix E. This gentleman there advocates the use of a metre of
mercury of one square millimetre section at 0° C. as the resistance unit ; but his
arguments seem really to bear only on the use of mercury in constructing
and reproducing the standard, and would apply as well to any length and
section as to those which he has chosen.
When the material 1862 standard has once been made, whether of platinum,
gold and alloy, or mercury, or otherwise, the exact dimensions of a column of
mercury, or of a wire of gold-silver alloy, corresponding to that standard can
be ascertained, published, and used where absolutely necessary for the pur-
pose of reproduction.
It should at the same time be well understood that, whether this reproduc-
tion does or does not agree with the original standard, the unit is to be that
one original material permanent standard, and no other whatever, and also
that a certified copy will always be infinitely preferable to any reproduction.
The reproduction by means of a fresh determination of the absolute unit
would never be attempted, inasmuch as it would be costly, difficult, and
uncertain; but, as already mentioned, the difference between new absolute
should be ascertained with increased accuracy, in order that the
ON STANDARDS’ OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE, 131
determinations and the material standard should from time to time be ob-
served and published.
The question, whether the material standard should aim at an approxima-
tion to the Me? oy oh , was much debated. In favour of the latter it
second second
was argued that, so long as in England feet and grains were in general use,
metre
the
second
would be anomalous, and would entail complicated reductions in
dynamical calculations. In favour of the —
second
new standards were to be established, those should be chosen which might be
generally adopted, and that the metre is gaining universal acceptance.
Moreover the close accordance between Dr. Siemens’s unit and the decimal
multiple of the cee weighed in favour of this unit; so that the question
secon
was decided in favour of the metrical system.
Tn order to carry out the above views, two points of essential importance
had to be determined. First, the degree of accuracy with which the material
standard could at present be made to correspond with the mote 2
second
secondly, the degree of permanency which could be ensured in the material
standard when made,
The Committee are, unfortunately, not able yet to form any definite opinion
upon either of these points.
Resistance-coils, prepared by Professor W. Thomson, haye been sent to
Professor Weber; and he has, with great kindness, determined their resistance
in electro-magnetic units as accurately as he could, It is probable that his
determinations are very accurate; nevertheless the Committee did not feel
that they would be justified in issuing standards based on these determina-
tions alone. In a matter of this importance, the results of no one man could
be accepted without a check. Professor Weber had made some similar deter-
minations with less care some years since, but, unfortunately, he has not pub-
lished the difference, if any, between the results of the two determinations,
Indirect comparisons between the two determinations show a great discre-
pancy, amounting perhaps to 7 per cent.; but it is only fair to say that this
error may have been due to some error in other steps of the comparison, and
not to Professor Weber’s determination. Meanwhile, it was hoped that a
check on Weber’s last result would by this time have been obtained by an
independent method due to Professor Thomson. Unfortunately, that gentle-
man and Mr. Fleeming Jenkin, who was requested to assist him, have hitherto
been unable to complete their experiments, owing chiefly to their occupation
as jurors at the International Exhibition. The apparatus is, however, now
nearly complete, and it is hoped will before Christmas give the required deter-
minations.
_ If Professor Weber’s results accord within one per cent. with these new
determinations, it is proposed that provisional standards shall be made of
German-silver wire in the usual way, and that they should be at once issued
to all interested in the subject, without waiting for the construction of the
final material standard.
_ The construction of this standard may possibly be delayed for some con-
siderable time by the laborious experiments which remain to be made on the
absolute” permanency of various forms and materials, An opinion is very
asad K2
it was argued that, when
and
162 : REPORT—1862.
prevalent that the electrical resistances of wires of some, if not all, metals are
far from permanent; and since these resistances are well known to vary as
the wires are more or less annealed, it is quite conceivable that even the
ordinary changes of temperature, or the passage of the electric current, may
cause such alterations in the molecular condition of the wire as would alter
its resistance. This point is treated at some length in the two Reports,
B and C, appended, by Professor Williamson and Dr. Matthiessen. The ex-
periments hitherto made have not extended over a sufficient time to establish
any very positive results ; but, so far as can be judged at present, some, though
not all, wires do appear to vary in conducting power.
Mercury would be free from the objection that its molecular condition
might change; but, on the other hand, it appears from Report C that the
mercury itself would require to be continually changed, and that consequently,
even if the tube containing it remained unaltered (a condition which could
not be absolutely ensured), the standards measured at various times would not
really be the same standard, A possibility at least of error would thus occur
at each determination, and certainly no two successive determinations would
absolutely agree. If, therefore, wires can be found which are permanent,
they would be preferred to mercury, although, as already said, no conclusion
has been come to on this point.
Some further explanation will now be given of the resolutions passed from
time to time by the Committee, and appended to this Report.
Dr. Matthiessen was requested to make experiments with the view of
determining an alloy with a minimum variation of resistance due to change
of temperature. The object of this research was to find an alloy of which
resistance-coils could be made requiring little or no correction for tempera-
ture during a series of observations. A preliminary Report on this subject
is appended (A), in which the curious results of Dr. Matthiessen’s experiments
on alloys are alluded to, and, in particular, the following fact connected
with the resistance of alloys of two metals is pointed out.
Let us conceive two wires of the two pure metals of equal length, and
containing respectively the relative weights of those two metals to be used in
the alloy. Let us further conceive these two wires connected side by side,
or, as we might say, in multiple arc. Then let the difference be observed
in the resistance of this multiple are when at zero and 100° Cent. This
difference will be found almost exactly equal in all cases to the difference
which will be observed in the resistance of a wire drawn from the alloy
formed of those two metal wires at zero and 100°, although the actual resist-
ance at both temperatures will in most cases be very much greater than that
of the hypothetical multiple arc.
In order to obtain a minimum percentage of variation with a change of
temperature, it was consequently only necessary to make experiments on
those alloys which offer a very high resistance as compared with the mean
resistance of their components. The results of a few experiments are given
in the Report, but these are only the first of a long series to be undertaken.
Hitherto an alloy of platinum and silver is the only one of which the conduct-
ing power and variation with temperature are less than that of German silver.
Professor W. Thomson and Dr. Matthiessen were requested to examine the
electrical permanency of metals and alloys. A preliminary Report on the
subject by Dr. Matthiessen is appended (B), in which he shows that, after
four months, one copper and two silyer hard-drawn wires have altered,
becoming more like annealed wires, but that no decided change has yet been
detected 1 in the great majority of the wires.
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 133
Several eminent practical electricians were requested to advise the Com-
mittee as to the form of coil they considered most suitable for a material
standard, and also to furnish a sample coil such as they could recommend.
Sir Charles Bright informed the Committee that he was ready to comply with
the request. The point is one of considerable importance, respecting which
it was thought that practical men might give much valuable information. Coils
of wire may be injured by damp, acids, oxidation, stretching and other
mechanical alterations. They may be defective from imperfect or uncertain
insulation ; and they may be inconveniently arranged, so that they do not
readily take the temperature of the surrounding medium, or cannot be safely
immersed in water- or oil-baths, as 1s frequently desirable. No definite con-
clusion as to the form of coil to be recommended, even for copies, has been
arrived at.
It was resolved “ That the following gentlemen should be informed of the
appointment of the present Committee, and should be requested to furnish
suggestions in furtherance of its object :—
Professor Edlund (Upsala). Professor Neumann (Konigsberg).
Professor T, Fechner (Leipsic). Professor J. C. Poggendorff (Berlin),
Dr. Henry (Washington). M. Pouwillet (Paris).
Professor Jacobi (St. Petersburg). | Werner Siemens, Ph.D. (Berlin).
Professor G. Kirchhoff (Heidelberg).| Professor W. E. Weber (Géttingen).”
Professor C. Matteucci (Turin).
A letter, appended to this Report, was consequently addressed to each of
these gentlemen. Answers haye been received from Professor Kirchhoff and
Dr. Siemens, which will be found in the Appendix. The resolution arrived
at by the Committee to construct a material standard will entirely meet
Professor Kirchhoft’s views. The Committee have been unable entirely to
adopt Dr. Siemens’s suggestions; but his statements as to the accuracy with
which a standard can be reproduced and preserved by mercury will form the
subject of further special investigation, and the Committee will be most happy
to take advantage of his kind offers of assistance.
A letter was also received from Sir Charles Bright, containing an ingenious
method of maintaining a constant tension or difference of potentials. This
point will probably come before the Committee at a later period, when Sir
Charles Bright’s suggestion will not be lost sight of.
The Committee also received on the 29th of Sept., after the present Report
had been drawn up, a letter from Dr. Esselbach, a well-known electrician,
who had charge of the electrical tests of the Malta and Alexandria Cable
during its submergence. In this letter Dr. Esselbach arrives at substantially
the same conclusions as those recommended by the Committee. Thus, his
first conclusion is “ to adopt Weber’s absolute unit substantially, and to derive
from it, by the multiple 10", the practical unit.” This practical unit is
precisely that recommended by your Committee. Dr. Esselbach uses the
millimetre
: 10 ino’ ==
multiple 10”, starting from the second ?
where your Committee recommend
the multiple 10’, starting from the mete : the result is the same.
second
Dr. Esselbach’s next conclusion is also of great practical value. He points
out that the electro-magnetic unit of electromotive force, also multiplied by
10”, differs extremely little from the common Daniell’s cell, and that, without
doubt, by proper care such a cell could be constructed as would form a
practical unit of electromotive force. This suggestion has the approval of
134 ‘ REPORT—1862.
the Committee. Dr. Esselbach next points out that the unit of resistance
which he proposes differs very little from Dr. Siemens’s mercury unit, which
he, like your Committee, considers a great advantage; and the difference is,
indeed, less than he supposes. He also proposes to use Weber’s absolute unit
for the unit of current—a suggestion entirely in accordance with the fore-
going Report; and he further points out that this current will be of con-
venient magnitude for practical purposes. He next approves of the sugges-
tions of Sir Charles Bright and Mr. Latimer Clark with reference to nomen-
clature and terminology. In the body of his letter he gives some valuable
data with reference to the unit of quantity, which he defines in the same
manner as your Committee. This result will be analysed in the Report which
Professor W. Thomson and Mr. Fleeming Jenkin will make on the fresh de-
termination of the absolute unit of resistance.
The Committee attach high importance to this communication, showing
as it does that a practical electrician had arrived at many of the very same
conclusions as the Committee, quite independently and without consultation
with any of the members. Dr. Esselbach has omitted to point out, what he
no doubt was well aware of, that, if, as he suggests, two equal multiples of
the absolute units of resistance and electromotive force are adopted, the
practical unit of electromotive force, or Daniell’s cell, will, in a circuit of
the practical unit of resistance, produce the unit current.
Mr. Fleeming Jenkin was requested to furnish an historical summary of
the various standards of resistance, but he has been unable to complete his
Report in time for the present meeting.
Professor Williamson and Dr. Matthiessen were requested to put together
the facts regarding the composition of the various materials hitherto used for
standards of resistance, and the physical changes they were likely to undergo.
Wires of pure solid metals, columns of mercury, and wires of alloys have
been used for the purpose. The Report of the above gentlemen is appended
(C). Init they arrive at the following conclusions:— _
First, with reference to pure metals in a solid state, they consider that the
preparation of those metals ina state of sufficient purity to ensure a constant
specific resistance is exceedingly difficult, as is proved by the great discre-
pancy in the relative conducting powers obtained by different observers.
Electrotype copper is excepted from this remark. They also point out that
the influence of annealing on the conducting powers of pure solid metals is
very great, and would render their use for the purpose of reproducing a stand-
ard very objectionable, inasmuch as it is impossible to ensure that any two
wires shall be equally hard or soft. They observe that errors of the same
kind might be caused by unseen cayities in the wires, and give examples of
the actual occurrence of these cavities. They point out another objection to
the use of pure solid metals as standards, in the fact that their resistance
varies rapidly with a change of temperature, so that slight errors in a ther-
mometer or its reading would materially affect the results of an experiment.
Secondly, with reference to mercury, they show that it is comparatively
easily purified, varies little in resistance with a change of temperature, and
can undergo no change analogous to that caused by annealing; but that, on
the other hand, measurements of its conducting power by different observers
vary much, that the tube used cannot be kept full of mercury for any length
of time, as it would become impure by partial amalgamation with the ter-
minals, and that consequently each time a mercury standard is used it has,
practically, to be remade. The accuracy with which different observers can
reproduce mereury standards has not been determined,
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 135
Thirdly, with reference to alloys, they say that there is better evidence of
the independent and accurate reproduction of a standard by a gold-silver
alloy of certain proportions than by a pure solid metal or by mercury. They
point out that annealing and changes of temperature have far less effect on
alloys than on pure metals, and that consequently any want of homogeneity
or any error in observing the temperature during an experiment is, with
alloys, of little consequence, but that, on the other hand, the existence of
cavities must be admitted as possible in all solid wires. They are of opinion
that the permanence of jewellery affords strong ground: for believing that a
gold-silver alloy will be quite as permanent as any solid pure metal; and in
the course of the Report they point out some curious facts showing that a
great change in the molecular condition of some pure metals and alloys may °
oceur without any proportional change in their conducting powers.
Finally, they recommend that practical experiments should be made inde-
pendently by several gentlemen to determine whether mercury or the gold-
silver alloy be really the better means of reproducing a standard.
The main resolution arrived at by the Committee, viz. that a material
standard shall be adopted which at the temperature of 17° Cent. shall approxi-
7 metre
mate to 10
seconds
explained. It was not arrived at until after several meetings had been held
and the merits of the various proposals fully discussed.
This resolution was passed (unanimously) at a meeting when five out of
the six members of the Committee were present.
It was at the same time resolved that provisional copies should be distri-
buted at the present Meeting; but the circumstances have been already
explained which have prevented this resolution from being carriedjnto effect.
~ It was thought desirable that an apparatus should be designed which could
be recommended by the Committee for use in copying and multiplying the
units to be issued, since it is certain that some of the glaring discrepancies
in coils intended to agree must have been due to defective modes of adjust-
ment. Mr. Fleeming Jenkin has consequently designed an apparatus for the
purpose, of which a description is appended. Messrs. Elliott Brothers have
kindly constructed a couple of these instruments, which were seen in action,
at the Meeting of the Association, by members interested in this subject.
The present Report was drawn up by Mr. Jenkin, and adopted at a
meeting of the Committee on the 30th of September.
, as far as present data allow, has been already fully
Appendix to Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance.
A. On the variation of the electrical resistance of alloys due to change of
temperature, by Dr. Matthiessen, F.R.S.
ie oo the electrical permanency of metals and alloys, by Dr. Matthiessen,
C. On the reproduction of electrical standards by chemical means, by
Professor Williamson, F.R.S., and Dr. Matthiessen, F.R.S.
D. Professor Kirchhoff’s letter.
_E. Dr. Siemens’s letter.
F. Dr. Esselbach’s letter.
G. Circular addressed to foreign men of science.
es Description of apparatus for copying and multiplying the units of re-
sistance.
136 : REPORT—1862.
Arrenpix A.—On the Variation of the Electrical Resistance of Alloys due to
Change of Temperature. By Dr. Marruressen, PRS,
It has been shown* that the influence of temperature on the electric conduct-
ing power of the metals amounts to 29-3 per cent. on their conducting power
between 0° and 100° C.: an exception to this law has been found in iron, the
conducting power of which decreases between those limits 38:2 per cent. It
was, therefore, useless to try any of the other pure metals, as they would, in all
probability, have decreased by the same amount, as well as from the fact that
the metals which would have suited the purpose had already been tried. I
therefore turned my attention to the alloys, and, in conjunction with Dr. C.
Vogt, have made a long series of experiments respecting the influence of
temperature on their electric conducting power. After having determined
the conducting power of a few of them at different temperatures, together
with the help of the few experiments which have already been made by
different observers, it became obvious that the percentage decrement in
their conducting power stands in some relation to the fact that, when a solid
metal is alloyed with another (with the exception of lead, tin, zine, and
cadmium amongst each other), a lower conducting power is observed than the
mean of that of the components+. The law which we found to regulate
this property was with most alloys the following, viz. :—
“* The percentage decrement between 0° and 100° in the conducting power of
an alloy in a solid state stands in the same ratio to the mean percentage
decrement of the components between 0° and 100° as the conducting power of
the alloy at 100° does to the mean conducting power of the components at 100° ;”
or, in other words, “ the absolute difference in the observed resistance hetween 0°
and 100° of an alloy is equal to the absolute difference between the means of
the resistance of the component metals between 0° and 100°.”
For example, the conducting power of the hard-drawn gold-silver alloy
was found equal to 15:03 at 0° (taking silver equal 100° at 0°), and de-
creases 6-49 per cent. between 0° and 100°. The mean decrement of the
components between 0° and 100° being 29-3 per cent., the conducting power
of the alloy is 14:05 at 100°, and that of the mean of the components is 62:58
at 100°. If we now calculate the percentage decrement in the conducting
power of the alloy between 0° and 100° from the above data, we find it equal
to 6°58 per cent., and by experiments it was found equal to 6:49 per cent.
Or, taking the resistance of silver at 0°=100, and that of gold at 0°=128-3,
we find the resistance of the alloy at 0°=665-3, and at 100°=711:-7, and
that calculated from a mean of the volumes of its components at 0°=113-2,
and at 100°=159-°8 ; therefore the absolute difference between the observed
resistance at 0° and 100° is 46-4, and that between the calculated at 0° and
100°=46°8.
Knowing already, from my experiments on the electric conducting power
of alloys§, that when two metals are alloyed together in any proportion, if the
alloy is merely a solution of the two metals in one another, its conducting
power may be approximatively foretold, and that, from the above law, it is
necessary that if the conducting power of an alloy should vary between the
limits of 0° and 100° to a minimum extent, the alloy itself must have a
minimum conducting power as compared with that calculated from. its
* Phil. Trans. 1862, pt. 1.
+ Matthiessen and Vogt, unpublished researches.
t{ Assuming that the conducting-power or resistance of an alloy is equal to that of
parallel wires of the components forming it.
§ Phil. Trans. 1860, p. 161.
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE, 137
components,—I at once foresaw that it would be useless, as was afterwards
proved by the research made in conjunction with Dr. Vogt, to make any
experiments with the two metal-alloys, which may be. looked upon as a
solution of one metal in the other, as no practical alloy would be found
which would vary in its conducting power between 0° and 100° to a small
extent. It must also be borne in mind that the alloy sought for must be a
ductile one, capable of being drawn into wire, not too soft, as would
easily be damaged by covering and winding, easily produced, and cheap in
price. Bearing this in mind, we turned our attention to some three metal-
alloys, thinking that we had some chance there of obtaining a good result ;
for it is well known that the conducting power of German-silyer wire varies
in such a slight extent between 0° and 100°.
It also appeared worth while to experiment with some of those alloys
which may perhaps be considered chemical combinations, or to contain such,
as, for instance, platinum and silver ; and, on account of their other physical
properties, the platinum-iridium alloys were also experimented with.
In the following Table I give the results obtained in conjunction with Dr,
Vogt. The unit here taken for comparison is that of a hard-drawn silver
wire at 0°. The normal wires were made of German silver, and in order
to obtain their values in terms of hard-drawn silver, they were compared
with the gold-silver alloy. In these experiments it was thought better
first to use those pure metals which are easily obtained, so as to learn some-
thing regarding the manner in which the three metal-alloys behave, and
then try some alloys made of the cheaper commercial metals. As will be seen
by the Table, only the first part has been as yet carried out.
TABLE.
(With each series, the formula deduced from the observations for the corree-
tion of the conducting power of the alloy for temperature is given, when ) is
equal to the conducting power at the temperature ¢ C.)
Composition of alloy. | Weight. Length 532 mm. ; diameter 0°625 mm.
(1) olde, Aes): 58°3 Conducting power.
Copper .... 26:5 Ts Found.
Silver .... 15:2 9:0 11-956
Made from pure metals. 53°5 11-674
Hard-drawn. 100: 11-438
A=12:017—0:0069033¢+ 0-00001112.
This alloy was taken as Karmarsch states it is the hardest and most elastic
of all the gold-silyer-copper alloys.
Length 341-5 mm, ; diameter 0-618 mm.
(2) Golds io 28 66-5 Conducting power.
SU Gs a 18-1 TD. Found.
Copper .... 15-4 10:95 10:5637
Made of pure metals, 33°52 10-4341
Hard-drawn. 55:15 10-3130
78:35 10-1846
97°52 10-0852
A =10-6220 —0-0056248¢+ 0-00000098632.
This alloy was tried as it corresponded to equal volumes of gold-copper
and gold-silver, and these again correspond to an alloy possessing the lowest
conducting power of any of those made of gold-copper or gold-silver.
138 REPORT—1862.
Composition of alloy. Weight. Length 764 mm. ; diameter 0:553 mm.
te agienoicel tee Conasetng Homer
Galdvxs godt 7-4 7. Found.
Made from pure metals. 11:0 45-591
Hard-drawn. 55°5 40-333
100: 37-560
A= 44-472 —0:081525¢ + 0-00032408.
This alloy was taken to see the effect such a combination would have.
Length 244 mm. ; diameter 0°682 mm.
(4) Platinum .. 66°6 Conducting power.
Iridium .... 33-4 ip Found.
Commercial alloy. 12-0 4-506
Hard-drawn. 56-0 4-384
100-0 4:271
A=4-541 —0-0029307¢+ 0:000002724¢,
This alloy was tried as it possesses very great elasticity and does not become
softer on annealing. On account of these properties, as well as its permanency
in air (not oxidizing on its surface), it would serve exceedingly well for
making springs and contacts for electric and telegraphic apparatus.
Length 381°5 mm. ; diameter 0-451 mm,
(5) RUPEE sw aie so cn0 95:0 Conducting power.
Figen 5... 56 5:0 T. Found.
Made from pure silver and 12:0 31:173
commercially pure platinum. 56:0 29-550
Hard-drawn. 100:0 28-068
A=31-640 —0:039363t+ 0:00003642¢.
This and the following two alloys were taken as they probably contain
chemical combinations.
Length 708 mm. ; diameter 0:26 mm.
(6) DILVEr . a.» stat 90-2 Conducting power.
Platinum -2)-e2e 9:8 T. Found.
The metals employed were the 9:0 17:920
same as in No. 5. 54:5 17319
-Hard-drawn, 100-0 16°767
A=18-045—0-013960¢ + 0-00001183#.
Length 169 mm. ; diameter 0-408 mm.
(7) rol Cr are ere 66:6 Conducting power,
Platinum ~..... 33°4 T. Found.
Commercial alloy. 8-270 6°6850
Hard-drawn. 54:00 65826
99-90 64987
A=6-7032—0-0022167¢+ 0-000001394¢,
a
In the following Table I have given the results insuch a manner that
they may be easily compared.
ON STANDARDS. OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 139
TABLE.
Conducting power | Percentage variation in
at 0°. conducting power be-
tween 0° and 100°.
reer I ee are 38-2
Other pure metals in a solid state eae 29°3
DRIMOREP EN oe clases see 44:5 15:5
REET Ris alii Pate tele ee s cots 31:6 11:3
PR aE. ete On 18-0 Fat
ae iGold=silver® 2260 22. 2s 15-0 6-5
PM ce cfate oie eh sys! «5 irdaysiage sf < 4:5 a9
oo 2h MORRIE SRR IGrrip ry Sires 10°6 o:2
, lo Hie cae See ae 12:0 4:8
» German silver}.......... 7:8 4-4
ere tn ic aur asld > wen 6-7 31
The method and apparatus employed for the above determinations, together
with the precautions taken to ensure correct results, have already been
describedt. We have made only three observations between 0° and 100°,
for it was found that they gave almost exactly the same formule for the
correction of the conducting power for temperature as if we had taken seven
or more observations between 0° and 100°. Each of the above values for the
conducting power, at those temperatures, is the mean of three or more
observations. It was easy to obtain the desired temperatures as a mean of
several observations, after very little practice. I have no doubt that, in the
course of our experiments, we shall be able to find-an alloy, the conducting
power of which will decrease between 0° and 100° even less than that of silver-
platinum. The experiments are being continued, and I hope, before the next
meeting of the Association, to be able to lay before you results which will
throw more light on the subject, as well as to propose an alloy with a
minimum variation in its conducting power due to change of temperature,
which may be made commercially in a cheap manner of the common com-
mercial metals, and possessing those properties which are essential that it
should have.
Apprnpix B.—On the Electrical Permanency of Metals and Alloys,
By Dr. Marrmessen, F.2.S,
Having, in conjunction with Prof. Thomson, been requested by your Com-
mittee to make some experiments on this subject, we thought it advisable for
one of us to undertake some preliminary experiments in which all possible
disturbing causes were isolated. The chief of these are, oxidation by the
oxygen of the air, as well as by acids produced by the oxidation of the oil
or grease with which a wire is almost always covered when drawn, as the
holes in the draw-plates are generally oiled or greased; stretching during the
process of covering and winding ; and after being wound on the bobbin, elon-
gation by expansion or contraction, owing to variations of temperature, &c.
These, I think, have been obviated in the following manner :—The wires were
carefully wound round a glass tube in order to bring them into a smaller
compass, and after taking them off, they were placed inside wide glass tubes,
and soldered to two thick copper wires, these having been previously passed
through corks which fitted into the ends of the glass tube ;. through each of
the corks a small glass tube passed, drawn out in the middle to enable it to be
* Phil: Mag. Feb. 1861. + Phil. Trans. 1862, pt. 1. t Ibid.
140 , REPORT—1862.
drawn off easily, and sealed hermetically bya lamp. The wire being soldered
to the thick copper connectors, and the corks fitted into the tube, dry carbonic-
acid gas was led through it for the space of about six hours, for the purpose
of drying it perfectly, as well as of displacing the air contained in it; after
which the small glass tubes were melted off at the points, when they have
been previously drawn out. Tin caps, filled with melted marine glue, were
then fitted over the corks and the ends of the tube, to prevent diffusion of the
carbonic acid and air through the corks. The whole of the tin caps outside, as
well as those parts of the copper-wire connectors which dipped in water of
the bath in which they were placed whilst being tested, were covered with a
thick coating of marine glue.
The wires experimented with were as follows :—
2, Silver: annealed -........, f Cut from the some piece; pure
3. Silver: hard-drawn ....:... ees from the same piece, but different
4, Silver: annealed ,...../... {from 1 and 2; pure.
. Copper: hard-drawn ...... :
é io annealed . grccitier syn orgie mag baka bat 1
7. Copper: hard-drawn ...... Cut from the same piece, but different
8. Copper: annealed.......... from 5 and 6; pure.
9. Gold: hard-drawn ........ C ‘
10. Gold: annealed.....:....:. mi from the Same pices _ pure.
11..Gold: hard-drawn.......... Cut from the same piece, but different
12., Gold :,annealed.... .«.¢.2.-+s+ from 9 and 10; pure.
13. Platinum: hard-drawn
14. Platinum: hard-drawn F
15. Gold-silver alloy : hard-drawn | Cut from same piece. Made by Messrs.
16. Gold-silver alloy; hard-drawn { Johnson and Matthews.
17. German silver: annealed .... Cut Homie, same, misee "giles 1am
18. German silver: annealed.... Tapped ims sdomper connectors, and
19°C danaey wil var AGE aIad used as normal wire with which the
f ; rae rest were compared.
‘*** | Cut from the same piece ; commercial.
The reason why duplicates were made in each case was that, in case any of
them should by any cause get damaged, the experiments might be continued
with the duplicate. When being tested, they were placed in a large bath
containing from 40 to 50 litres of water. By testing the wires at 20° it was
found easy to keep that temperature in the bath, during the experiments, to
0-1° or 0:2°.
Up to the present time, that is to say, four months since they were first
tested, the conducting power of the wires 1, 3, and 5 has altered, owing to
becoming, in all probability, partially annealed. Wire 8 has also altered mate-
rially, having decreased in conducting power 3:5 per cent.: this decrement may
be possibly due to bad soldering. The differences found with the other wires
are so very small, that it is impossible to say whether they have altered or not;
for 0:1° or 0-2° will account for them. It was, therefore, thought better to wait
for another two or four months before giving an opinion as to whether they alter
or not; for as the wires are in tubes and only surrounded by carbonic acid, we
can never be absolutely sure that the wire has exactly the same temperature
as the bath, more especially when it is considered that each time the con-
nexion with the battery is made the wire becomes somewhat heated.
If, two or four months hence, they still show no difference in their con-
ducting powers, it is proposed to expose the one set to variations of tempera-
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 141
ture such as may occur (for instance, from 0° to 40°), and then, should no
change occur in their conducting powers, to lead a weak current through
them, say, for a month; for it has been asserted that a current passing
through wire causes a permanent change in its conducting power.
If after these experiments the conducting power of the wires remains un-
altered, the different forms of resistance-coils, made from those wires, which
have shown themselves permanent will then be tested in order to prove
which is the best form of coil for the British Association unit.
Apprnnix C.—On the Reproduction of Electrical Standards by Chemical Means.
By Professor Wiitrauson, F.2.S., and Dr. Marrutessen, F.R.S.
In the following Report we have discussed, more especially from a chemical
point of view, the relative merits of the different propositions which have
been made to reproduce standards of electric resistance, and haye treated them
under three heads :—
I. Those reproduced by a given length and section or weight, at a given
temperature, of a pure metal in a solid state.
Il. Those reproduced by a given length and section or weight, at a given
temperature, of a pure metal in a liquid state.
Ill. Those reproduced by a given length and section or weight, at a given
temperature, of an alloy.
The points on which we shall speak will be—
1. On their preparation in a state of purity.
2. On their homogeneity and their molecular condition.
3. On the effect of annealing on their conducting power.
4. On the influence of temperature on their conducting power.
I. Those reproduced by a given length and section or weight, at a given
temperature, of a pure metal in a solid state.
As type of this class we have chosen copper, for it has been more exten-
Sively used as unit of electric resistance, both by scientific as well as by
practical men, than any other metal or alloy ; but what we are about to say
regarding copper will hold good in almost every case for all pure metals in a
solid state.
1. On its preparation in a state of purity.—As traces of foreign metals
materially affect the conducting power of most pure metals, it is of the utmost
importance that those used for the reproduction of units of electric resistance
Should be absolutely chemically pure. The difficulty in obtaining absolutely
pure metals even by chemists is very great. Thus, for instance, Becquerel*
found the conducting power of pure gold at 0° equal to 68-9, compared with
that of pure silver at 0° equal to 100; whereas, under the same circumstance,
- Matthiessen and von Bose found it equal to 77:9,—showing a difference of
about 12 per cent. in the values observed for the conducting power of gold,
prepared pure by different chemists. This difference may be due to the silver
not being pure, or to all of them being more or less pure. Now when we
consider that these standards are required by electricians and other physicists
who have little or no acquaintance with chemical manipulation, and that
the cost of the preparation of absolutely pure metals by scientific chemists
would be very expensive on account of the time and trouble they require,
we think that this fact alone constitutes a very serious drawback to their use
* Ann, de Chim. et de Phys, (1846) t. xvii. p. 242, + Phil. Trans. 1862, pt. 1.
142 REPORT—1862.
as a means for the reproduction of standards of electric resistance. From
the experience which one of us has had on this subject, it is more than pro-
bable that if pure metals be-prepared by different chemists in the ordinary
way of business, variations in their conducting power would be found equal
to several per cent. Thus, copper supplied as pure by a well-known assayer
had a conducting power equal to 92, whereas pure copper conducts at the
same temperature 100*, Again, the pure gold of the assayer conducts only
65-5, whereas pure gold at the same temperature would have a conducting
power equal to 737. In order to show that the conducting power of com-
mercial metals varies to a great extent, we give in the following Table (X.)
the values found for that of the different coppers of commerce ; and it will be
evident from it,.that to take a given length and weight or section of a com-
mercial metal as unit, as has often been done, is very wrong, and can only
lead to great discrepancies between the results of different observers.
Taste X.t
(All the wires were annealed.)
Conducting power.
BUTE COP POLY Pela: -hssras Sig oi0.a8~ so8. aye ois 100-0 at 15:5
Lake Superior native, not fused ........ 98°8 at 15°5
Ditto, fused, as it comes in commerce.... 92°6 at 15-0
MVOC ES LUA < evens ite iss aoekec ste Riagals ob, 20muate 88-7 at 14-0
IBesiselected ss Seth Br acca aes tinea 81-3 at 14:2
Bright copper wire. lw jwene iledle 72-2 at 15°7
Toush Coppers: . «cepa eo beware Hey 71:0 at 17°3
Dem 5 FAS 5. a nicne ali ated dutin tae 59-3 at 12:7
iO WN 5 a sa derahaats, a2 NS his Dame me 14-2 at 14:8
Similar variations will be found with most other metals, and we shall give
examples of these further on.
2. On its homogeneity and its molecular condition.—It is well known that
the wires of some metals require much more care in drawing than in others:
thus, copper and silver, if not annealed often enough during the process of
drawing, will often become quite brittle, and break off short when bent.
Now, if the fracture be closely observed, it will be seen that the wire is hol-
low; in fact, wherever it is broken, cavities will be found, and sometimes of
a millimetre or two in length; so that such a wire may almost be regarded
as a tube with a very fine bore. The reason of this is simply that in not an-
nealing the wire often enough, the internal part of it becomes hard and brit-
tle, whilst the outside remains annealed, from the heat evolved by its passage
through the holes of the draw-plates ; after a time, however, the inside, being
very brittle, will give way, whilst the outside is still strong enough to bear
the force used in drawing it through the draw-plates. These places in the
wires are easily discovered on drawing the wire finer; for then at these points
the wire slightly collapses, owing to the quicker elongation of the weak points
by the force used in drawing. Silver and copper are the only metals which
have been experimented with in this manner ; we are therefore unable to say
whether it may occur with the other metals. However, although no such wires
could be used for experiments, yet what has been shown possible to occur to
such a marked extent when purposely trying to obtain such results, may occur
* Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xi. p. 126.
+ Phil. Trans. 1860, p. 176.
t Report of the Government Submarine Cable Committee, p. 335.
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 143
to some slight extent, especially when great care is not used, and when the
wires are drawn by different persons. This may explain why, with some metals
and alloys of the same preparation, conducting powers are often obtained
which vary several per cent. For instance, W. Thomson* found the conduct-
ing power of several alloys of copper which he had had made and tested to
alter considerably on being drawn finer; some of them were faulty from the
cause we have just mentioned, and, on their being drawn finer, these places
showed themselves, and were then cut away.
It has also been showny that when copper wire is heated to 100° for seve-
ral days, a permanent alteration takes place in its conducting power: thus,
with the first wire experimented on, it increased almost to the same extent
as if it had been annealed. With the second wire the increment was not
nearly so large as with the first, and with the third it hardly altered at all.
That this is not due to one or the other of the wires being faulty in the just-
mentioned manner is proved,
1st, By the close agreement in the conducting powers.
2nd, By the close agreement between the differences in the values found
for the conducting powers of the hard-drawn and annealed wires. They
were—
1st wire 2nd wire 3rd wire
at 0°. at 0°. at 0°.
Hard-drawn ........ 99-5 100-0 100°3
mmealed ss... voy. 101°8 102-1 102:2
The values given for the hard-drawn wires are those which were observed
before the wire was heated at all.
3rd, That the same occurs with pressed wires: thus, with bismuth it was
found that the pieces of the same wire behaved differently ; wire 1 showing,
after 1 day’s heating to-100°, an increment in the conducting power of 16
per cent., whereas wire 2 increased, although a piece from the same length of
wire, 9 per cent.
Again, take the case of tellurium, and taking the conducting power of each
bar at first equal to 100, we find that the conducting power of bar 1 had
decreased after 13 days’ heating to 4, where it then remained constant, that
of bar 2 after 32 days became constant at 19, and that of bar 3 after 33 days
at 6.
The cause of these marked changes in the conducting power must therefore
be looked for in the molecular arrangement of the wires or bars employed. In
the case of copper, they may be, and probably are, due to the partial annealing
of the wires ; for we find that wire 1, although the conducting power increased
after having been kept at 100° for several days almost to the same extent as
if it had been annealed, yet, on annealing it, it only gained as follows (the
results obtained with wires 2 and 3 are added) :—
1st wire 2nd wire 3rd wire
at 0°. at 0°. at 0°.
Hard-drawn ............ 99°5 100-0 100°3
After being kept several j - ‘
days at 100° re RM RW Tsk sy cl ene pe
After annealing.......... 101'8 102-1 102-2
The above shows that, in all probability, the annealing plays here a part,
but not the whole, in the change ; for otherwise why do the wires behave dif-
* Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xi. p. 126. t Phil. Trans. 1862, pt. 1,
144 ; REPORT—1862.
ferently? This point will be fully discussed in another Report which will be
laid before your Committee, and in which it will be shown where the hard-
drawn wires become partially annealed, and annealed wires partially hard-
drawn, by age.
It is a curious fact that a change in the molecular arrangement of the
particles of wire of some metals which may be considered homogeneous has
very little effect on its clectric conducting power. Thus pure cadmium*,
which when cold is exceedingly ductile, becomes quite brittle and crystal-
line at about 80°, and returns again to its ductile condition on cooling, shows
no marked change in its conducting power at that temperature ; in fact, it
behaves asif no such change had taken place. Again, when iron wire is heated
in a current of ammonia it becomes perfectly brittle and crystalline, without
altering its conducting power to any marked extent.
That a wire which changes its molecular condition in becoming crystalline
does not necessarily materially alter in its conducting power, is an important
as well as a very interesting point, and has also been proved in the case
of German silver.
3. On the effect of annealing on the conducting power.—When hard-drawn
wires of silver, copper, gold, &e., are heated to redness and cooled slowly,
they become much softer, and on testing their conducting powers they will
be found to have increased thus :—
Silver. Copper. Gold. According to
Taking the hard-drawn
WATE) 2). Sidr Her! 100-0 100-0 100-0
The annealed will be.. 107-0 102-6 101-6 Beequerely.
iid cee itr aot 1090 1023 1020 | a
von Boset.
Ditto wed saaidatsliia. « 110-0 106-0 — fS&emens$§.
Now there is a certain difficulty in drawing a wire which is hard-drawn ;
and if annealed wires be used for the reproduction of standards, the molecular
condition, or perhaps the process of annealing, has an influence on the incre-
ment of the conducting power. Thus, according to Siemens|', the difference
in the conducting power between hard-drawn and annealed silver varies be-
tween 12:6 and 8 per cent., and that of copper between 6 and —0°5 per cent. ;
according to Matthiessen and von Bose@, that of silver varies between 10
and 6 per cent., and that of copper between 2-6 and 2 per cent.
Again, the annealed wires of pure metals are so soft that they would easily
get damaged in covering them with silk or winding them on the bobbins, so
that in using them the utmost care would have to be employed in order to
prevent their getting injured.
4. On the influence of temperature on the electric conducting power.—It has
been shown that the conducting power of most pure metals decreases,
between 0° and 100°, 29-3 per cent.: pure iron has been found to form an
exception to this law, its conducting power decreasing between those tempera-
tures 38:2 per cent. If pure metals be therefore used as standards, very
accurate thermometers are necessary, as an error of 0-1° in comparing
two standards would cause an error in the resistance of about 0-04 per cent.
Now there is great difficulty in obtaining normal thermometers; and we must
* Phil. Trans. 1862, pt. 1.
t Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 1846, t. xvii. p. 242, {+ Phil. Trans. 1862, pt. 1.
§ Phil. Mag. Jan. 1861. || Phil. Mag. Jan, 1861.
*| Matthiessen and Vogt’s unpublished researches.
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 145
bear in mind that supposing the zero-point of the thermometer is correct to-
day, we are not at all justified in assuming that it will be so in six months
time ; so that we ought to redetermine the zero-point of the thermometer be-
fore using it for the above purpose. Again, it has been proved that the in-
fluence of temperature on the conducting power of wires of the same metal is
not always the same*. Thus, for the conducting power of annealed copper
wires the following values were found :—
d, No. 1. No. 3.
0 100-0 100-0
20 92°8 92-4
40 86°3 85-6
60 80:4 79-6
80 751 74:4
100 70:5 70-0
showing therefore that if standards of pure metals be used, the influence of
temperature on the conducting power of each would have to be ascertained.
It must also be borne in mind that it is not at all easy to maintain a stand-
ard, even in a bath of oil or water at a given temperature, for any length of
time.
II. Those reproduced by a given length and section or weight of a pure metal
in a liquid state.
The only metal which has been proposed to be used in a liquid state for
the reproduction of units of resistance is mercury. We shall only have to
speak of its preparation in a state of purity, and on the influence of tempe-
rature on its conducting power. For a tube, carefully filled with mercury,
will certainly form a homogeneous column, and its molecular condition will
always be the same at ordinary temperatures.
On its preparation in a pure state—Although this metal is one of the
most easily purified, yet the use of it as a standard is open to the same objec-
tions, although in a less degree, as have been advanced against the use of
pure metals in a solid state when speaking of their preparation. We there
stated that metals prepared by different chemists conducted differently. Now
although the same manipulator may obtain concordant results in purifying
metals from different sources, yet that by no means proves that the results of
different observers purifying the same metal would show the same concor-
dance. Thus we find that the values obtained by one experimenter} for the
resistance of mercury, determined in six different tubes, varied 1:6 per cent.
This difference, he says, is not greater than was to be expected. The resist-
ances found were as follows :—
Tubes. ie II. ITI. IV. aVic VI.
Experiment... 101652 427-28 555-38 217-73 194:70 11423
Calculated .... 1025°54 427-28 555-87 216-01 193-56 1148-9
Again, the values found for the conducting power of different preparations
of pure hard-drawn gold, by the same observer ¢, were found equal to
* Phil. Trans. 1862, part 1.
+ Phil. Mag. Jan. 1861. The same experimenter (Dr. Siemens) states, however, in a
later paper (Pogg. Ann. cxiii. p. 95), that he is able to reproduce standards of resistance by
means of mercury with an accuracy equal to 0:05 per cent., but does not indicate what
other precautions he takes (see remarks on the above, Phil. Mag. Sept. 1861).
{ Phil. Trans. 1862, p. 12.
1862. L
146 REPORT—1862.
78:0 at 0° 78-2 at 0° 76:8 at 0°
79-5 at 0° 78:3 at 0° 76:7 at 0°
77:0 at 0° 78:0 at 0° 77:3 at 0°
These values agree together as well as might be expected, considering that
0-01 per cent. impurity would cause these differences. Now the values
obtained by different observers vary between the numbers 59 and 78.
If we now take the case of copper, the values found by the same experi-
menters* for different preparations of the pure hard-drawn metal were—
99-9 at 0° 99-4 at 0° 99-8 at 0°
101-0 at 0° 99:4 at 0° 100-3 at 0°
99-8 at 0° 99-9 at 0° 100-0 at 0°
99-9 at 0°
They were drawn by themselves, and all, with one exception, electrotype
copper.
It is well known how differently the so-called pure copper conducts when
prepared by different experimenters. In the following Table, in order to
show these facts more clearly, we have given the conducting powers of the
metals, taking that of silver equal 100 at 0°. Silver, copper, gold, and pla-
tinum were hard-drawn. All values given, except where the contrary is
mentioned, have been reduced to 0°,
Siemens. Lenz. Becquerel. | Matthiessen.
Silver Peele. 2 100 100 100 100
Copper ..vessecseess 96-9 73-4 95:3 999
iy A keae. dsereeck a fhistores 585 66°9 780
PERT eee Ae ae Ce eee 26°3 23°7
WANG ecetversereceseW ta Leeeseee © Ln peesies 25°77 29°0
EDEN cecauerogssrsgessf) le pestes 22°6 15:0 12°3
WTO feycseseses|) cesses 13°0 131 14°4 at 20°4
HCC RIES, <b dees eb ented 10°7 88 83
Platinum .,........ 14°2 10°4 86 10% at 20°7
Mercury ........... 1-72 3°42 at 18°9 1°86 1°65
If now mercury be taken as unit, we find the following values :—
Siemens. Lenz. Becquerel. Matthiessen.
Silyer 4 ies Sencar 58:20 29°24 53°76 60°60
GOppetrere.ss52-5- 56°40 21:46 51:23 60°55
EEG EE oe incite Sena ad) 17:10 37°04 47°27
Gadlntinrntaccrc ls cok cccc eels Gorse 1414 14°42
ANG) scoectnansescnit Ss kavpete, fe al pe. saeco 13°82 17-70
EPs cee tacseatitee 6°59 8:10 TA5
Tronh.-. be kideshe.s | "Roe 3°80 7°04 8°72 at 20°4
Bpad 2 BES, BHR 3°12 4-73 503
Platinum .......... 8:25 3°04 4°62 6°36 at 20°7
Mercury ........... 1:00 1:00 at 18:7 1:00 1:00
A glance at the foregoing Tables will suffice to show how badly Lenz’s
series agrees with the rest when mercury is taken as unit; and, in fact, we
obtain more concordant results if, in the above series, we take any other metal
* Phil. Trans. 1862, p. 9.
+ This and the following Table have been copied from a paper published in the Phil.
Mag. for Sept. 1861.
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 147
as unit. These facts therefore seem to indicate that mercury is not yet
proved to be a safe means of reproducing standards of electric resistance.
The influence of temperature on the conducting power of mercury, between
0° and 100°, is, comparatively speaking, small, being only 8-3 per cent.,
whereas that of the metals in a solid state decreases between those limits
29-3 percent. This property would, of course, render the use of very accurate
thermometers unnecessary ; for 1° would only cause a difference in the con-
ducting power of about 0-08 per cent., and therefore 0-1 only 0-008 per cent.,
so that an error of 1 or 2 tenths of a degree might almost be overlooked.
A fact has just come to our knowledge through Mr. Jenkin. He informs
us that, having to make a report on the electric apparatus in the International
Exhibition, he tested, amongst other things, several resistance-coils. Nowhe
found two sets of coils made by the same firm, the one exhibited in the Prus-
sian, the other in the English department. Both were said to be multiples
of the mercury unit proposed by Siemens*, and their resistances determined
by comparing a coil in each set with that of a tube filled with mercury.
Taking each set by itself and comparing the coils in it with one another in
the proper combination, they were found to be perfect; in fact, the adjust- ~
ment ef them was perfectly accurate. When, however, Mr. Jenkin compared
coils of the two sets with each other, instead of being equal, they were found
to show a difference of 1-2 per cent.T
III. On those reproduced by a given length and section or weight, at a given
temperature, of an alloy.
The alloy on which we have to speak is that composed of two parts by
weight of gold and one of silver. The reason why this alloy was proposed
is that the use of (say) 1 per cent. more or less gold does not materially alter
_ its conducting power.
1. On its preparation.—It has been shown that the alloy may be made of
commercially pure metals and have the same conducting power as that made
from chemically pure ones; for the maximum differences in the conducting
power between those made in different parts of the world are not greater
than those of a pure metal, either in a solid or liquid state, prepared by
the same experimenter. But it may be urged that part of the differences
obtained by different observers is due to the different methods employed in
determining their conducting powers, and therefore had the conducting
power of these alloys being determined by different persons, much greater
differences would have been found. In answer to this, we give, in the fol-
lowing Table, the determination of the conducting power of several alloys by
Thomson and Matthiessen ¢, independently of one another. The alloys were
made by Messrs. Johnson and Matthey,
Alloy. Thoimson. Matthiessen.
1 100-0 100°05
2 95°8 95:0
3 102°9 102-7
4 100°8 99:1
5 98-1 97-7
6 89:9 92:7
7 80°6 80:06
* Phil. Mag, Feb. 1861.
+ This discrepancy may perhaps be attributed to some inaccuracy in the reproduction
of the mercury standard. ‘
} Proceedings of the Royal Society, Feb. 1861.
L2
148 REPORT—1862.
Pure copper. Thomson. Matthiessen.
107-0 107-2
2 107:5 105:9
3 108-7 106°9
+ 107-7 108-1
The differences here, with the exception of alloy 6 and copper 2, may be
due to the temperature at which the observations were made not being in
both cases the same; for 2 or 3 degrees’ difference will account for them.
The Table, however, shows that different observers do obtain the same values
for the conducting power of the same wires.
The yalues obtained for the conducting power of the gold-silver alloy,
rade by different persons, of different gold and silver, are given in the fol-
lowing Table—
Alloy. Hard-drawn. Annealed.
i 100°3 100:6
2 100-2 100-7
3 98°8 99-2
4 soot 100°2
5 100-4 100°7
6. 99-7 99-8
7 1003 100°8
8 100-1 100-4
which shows, therefore, that the alloy may be prepared in a commercial
way, and still have a conducting power which varies less than that of a pure
metal prepared at different times by the same experimenter. If we look at
the hard-drawn series, we find five out of the seven wires tested agree toge-
ther exceedingly well, the greatest difference being only 0-3 per cent. These ~
five alloys were made, three in London, by scientific chemists, one in Frank-
fort-on-the-Maine, and one in Brussels. Those which agree least with the
others were made in New York (No. 3) and by a well-known assayer in Lon-
don (No. 6).
2. On its homogeneity and its molecular condition—If the wires of the
alloy made and drawn by different persons were not homogeneous, the values
obtained for the conducting power could not have agreed so well together.
It has been already mentioned that some of the alloys determined by Thom-
son, when redrawn, were found to have a different conducting power *.
Conducting power of wire Conducting power
Alloy. as received from the wire- after being re-
drawer. drawn.
1 100-0 100°0
2 100-7 95:8
3 103°9 102-9
4 94-6 100°8
5 96:0 98-1
6 92-0 89-9
7 74:7 86:0
Pure copper. 100-0 98°6
Of course, here again, some of these differences are due to the temperature
in each case not being the same; but the differences found with the alloys
2, 4, and 6 were undoubtedly due to faulty wires. It was for this reason
* Proceedings of the Royal Society, Feb. 1861.
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 149
that care was taken to have the alloy drawn by different persons, in order to
see if this would influence the results obtained with them, as well as to ascer-
tain whether the wires would show the same faults as silver and copper does
when not carefully drawn. It has been argued that the molecular condition
of all alloys is liable to undergo a change by age, and that, therefore, alloys
are not fit to be used as standards. Thus, it is well known that brass and
German silver become brittle and crystalline by age, and that the same may
eccur with the gold-silver alloy; but on looking at the composition of the
alloy, it will be found to have nearly the same as that of the gold chains of
commerce. Now, we do not know of a single instance where such a
chain, even after years of use, becomes brittle or crystalline; so that we
think it more than possible that the alloy will not change its molecular
condition by age. It must also be remembered that even when German sil-
ver becomes brittle, it does not materially alter in its conducting power. The
same has already been proved, and mentioned in this Report, to be the case
with iron and cadmium.
3. On the effect of annealing on the conducting power of the alloy—When
the alloy is heated to redness and cooled slowly, its conducting power was
found to have increased only 0-3 per cent.—this value being the mean of
eight wires annealed in different ways,—proving, therefore, that if the wires
may be only partially hard-drawn, it will make but little difference in the
conducting power.
4. On the influence of temperature on the conducting power of the alloy —
When wires of this alloy are heated from 0° to 100°, a decrement in the con-
ducting power, amounting to 6-5 per cent., will be found. The same argu-
ments may, therefore, be put forward in favour of the use of the alloy asa
standard, as were done in the case of mercury when speaking of this pro-
perty.
To sum up, therefore, the arguments in favour of and against the use of
the three propositions made to reproduce standards of electric resistance, we
find in favour of a pure metal in a solid state :—
1. That it appears that all descriptions of electrotype copper, when carefully
drawn, have the same conducting power.
Against it :—
1. That their preparation, with the exception of the electrotype copper in
a state of purity, is exceedingly difficult ; so that independent persons pre-
paring the same metal find, on comparing the conducting powers obtained
for them, that they vary several per cent.
2. That the influence of annealing on their conducting powers is so great
that differences may occur simply because the wires are partially hard-drawn.
3. That the influence of temperature on their conducting power is very
great; so that slight errors in thermometers, or in the reading of them off,
would materially affect the result.
In favour of using mercury as a means of reproducing standards the fol-
lowing may be said :—
1. That no molecular change can take place in the metal, nor can any
alteration occur in its conducting power, on account of annealing ; for its tem-
per is always the same.
2. That the influence of temperature has only a small effect upon its con-
ducting power.
And against it :—
1, That there is a difficulty in obtaining absolutely pure mercury ; 80 that
the results obtained by different observers show great variations.
150 REPORT—1862.
2. That the standard tube cannot be kept full of mercury for any length
of time, owing to the diffusion of impure metal, arising from the amalgamated
terminals into the narrow tube; so that each time the standard has to be
used, it must practically be remade.
3. If the tube be broken during the process of cleaning or otherwise, it is
not yet certain with what exactitude the standard could be reproduced.
4. It is doubtful whether the resistance of a tube filled with mercury
today will have the same resistance if filled a year hence; for we have no
proof if the dimensions of the tube will not alter by being kept. It is well
known that the bulbs of thermometers are liable to change, and are conti-
nually changing, im capacity.
In favour of the gold-silver alloy may be said :—
1. That this material, when prepared and drawn by different persons, was
found not to vary in its conducting power more than 1-6 per cent. ; whereas
the variations found with the metals in a solid state, prepared and drawn by
different persons, amounts to several per cent., and those found for mercury by
different observers amount also in all cases to several per cent.
2. That the homogeneity and molecular corfdition of this alloy are always
the same.
3. That the effect of annealing on the conducting power is very small,
being only 0-3 per cent.; so that if a wire be partially hard-drawn, its con-
ducting power will not suffer to any appreciable extent.
4. That the influence of temperature on its conducting power between
0° and 100°, viz. a reduction of 6-5 per cent., is smaller than either that of
the metals in a solid state, viz. 29-3 per cent., or that of mereury, viz. 8:3
per cent.
And against it :—
That the conducting power may alter by age, as the physical properties of
alloys are more likely to change than those of metals.
From the foregoing statements, based on facts at present known, it would
appear that the best method of reproducing standards, for those who are un-
able to procure copies of the British Association unit of electrical resistance,
is that they should make, or have made, a certain amount of the gold-silver
alloy (as described in the Phil. Mag., Feb. 1861), by two or three different
persons, in order to ensure a correct result, and take a given length and sec-
tion or weight of it, at a given temperature, which has been found equal in
resistance to the British Association unit. We would recommend, in order
further to test what we have stated in the foregoing Report, that three or more
scientific men and electricians be requested to compare the resistances of pure
mercury, obtained by them from the best sources they are able, and of the
gold-silver alloy (made in the manner described in the Phil. Mag.) with a
German-silver standard supplied to them by your Committee. If this be
done, results would be obtained which would put an end to many disputes
on the subject, as well as decide which of the above means is practically the
best for reproducing standards of electrical resistance where no copies of the
British Association unit can be obtained.
Apprnpix D.—Professor Krrcnnorr’s Letier.
- To Fleeming Jenkin, Esq.
Heidelberg, June 8, 1862.
Dear Srr,—I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of
the 31st of May, in which you inform me of the labours of the Committee
appointed by the British Association, to try and bring about the general
3
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 151
introduction of one unit of electrical resistance. I gladly respond to the
invitation to express my view on the manner in which the desired object
might be best attained.
To define the unit of resistance by the resistance of a wire of given
dimensions of a pure metal appears to me impossible, for the reasons which
have been urged by the Committee; hence, of the three proposals discussed
by the Committee, there only remain two for our consideration.
1. To adopt the unit proposed by Weber; or, 2. To establish, as unit of
resistance, the resistance of a column of pure mercury of given dimensions
and at a given temperature.
I do not think that to these a third of equal value can be added; for te
define the unit of resistance by the thermal action of an electrical current
would certainly never answer the purpose, because this thermal action
cannot be measured with the necessary accuracy, and the resistance of any
wire which is to be permanently kept cannot be fixed as unit; for the
resistance of any wire for a given temperature certainly undergoes changes if
electrical currents are transmitted through it, and it is exposed to fluctuations
of temperature.
Of the above two units, the first recommends itself by coming up more
satisfactorily to the demands of science; the second, as I think, by being
capable for the present of being practically carried out with greater accuracy.
But is it really necessary to decide for one and against the other of these two
units? I think not. If the ratio between them is established with the accu-
racy which is now attainable, there can, I think, arise no more confusion from
their simultaneous use, than from the practice of expressing lengths sometimes
in metres and sometimes in millimetres. You say, “It is proposed that the
unit adopted shall be represented by one particular standard, constructed of
very permanent materials, laid up in a national repository ;” and further,
“The Committee will probably endeavour to devise some plan by which
copies of the actual material standard adopted may be easily procured at a
reasonable cost.” This plan, the execution of which I consider highly
desirable, might evidently be realized in all its essential points without its
being necessary to give the preference to one of these units over the other:
it would only be necessary to measure the resistance of the normal standard
in both units, and to add to each copy its resistance expressed in both units,
In choosing the metal or the alloy of which the normal standard and the
copies are to be made, care must undoubtedly first be taken that the
resistance is as unalterable as possible for one temperature. It is undoubtedly
desirable that the resistance shall not vary rapidly with the temperature.
This is, however, not very important, provided that the temperature of the
wire can be accurately observed at any moment. To satisfy this condition,
the wires must not be coiled upon cylinders, but fastened so that, for the
greater part of their extent, they lie clear, and hence rapidly assume the
temperature of the surrounding air or of the non-conducting liquid in which
they may have been immersed.
You request me to point out to you any researches of mine which refer to
a unit of electrical resistance. Ihave to mention a short treatise only, which
appeared in vol. lxxvi. of Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen,’ under the title “ Deter-
mination of the Constants on which the Intensity of Induced Electrical Currents
depends,” and which formed the answer to an academical prize-question which
Professor Neumann, in Kénigsberg, had proposed in the year 1846. In this
treatise a unit of electrical resistauce has not been suggested; but in it the
resistance of a wire has been measured by the unit (or rather by double the
152 REPORT—1862.
unit), which was afterwards proposed by Weber in his “ Electrodynamie
Measurements.” Professor Weber has subsequently had the kindness to
compare the copper wire whose resistance I measured, with those whose
resistances he himself had determined (Pogg. Ann. vol. Ixxxii. p. 360); he
thereby found the resistance of my wire about one-seventh greater than I had
found it. The reason of this want of agreement consists partly in the im-
perfection of the instruments which I had used, and partly in the fact that
in my experiments the temperature was little above 0° R., while in Weber’s
experiments it was about 20° R.
Allow me, my dear Sir, to record the very great respect with which I have
the honour to be,
Yours very truly,
G. KircHnorr.
Appenpix E.—Dr. Sremens’s Letter.—Suggestions for the adoption of a
Common Unit in measurement of Electrical Resistance.
To the Committee appointed by the British Association to report on Standards
of Electrical Resistance.
GrntLEMEN,—I beg to acknowledge, with thanks, the honour you have done
me, in requesting me to furnish you with suggestions in furtherance of your
endeavours to procure the adoption of a common unit of electrical resistance.
I proposed in Poggendorff’s Annalen (vol. cx. p. 1) to supply this want by
the adoption of the conducting power of mercury as unit, and of the resist-
ance which a prism of that metal a metre long, and a square millimetre
section, at 0° C., opposes to the passage of a current, as unit of resistance.
The method by which I constructed standards in this unit was as follows :
From the ordinary glass tubes of commerce, pieces were selected whose
calibre was found to vary most regularly. After the selected tubes had
been ground to the length of a metre, they were carefully cleaned and filled
with pure mercury—the temperature being measured. The contents were
then weighed, and the values reduced to 0° C. for expansion of glass and
metal. The resistances of the tubes were calculated by the formula
a
wale 14+ vat va,
g 3
which represents the resistance to a current in the longer axis of a prismatic
conductor either in the above unit or in 0-001 unit, according as / is ex-
pressed in metres and g in grammes, or /in millimetres and g in milligrammes
respectively. o=13-557, the specific gravity of mercury, at 0°C.
1
1+ fa+ Va
3
is the coefficient for conicalness, which in good tubes equals 1, very nearly.
a is the ratio of the greatest to the least transverse section of the tube.
All the data therefore necessary for the value of W are exact measures of
length and weight. Measurements of the same tube, at different times, gave
results corresponding within 0-01 per cent. with each other.
The first objection which is raised against the adoption of mercury as unit,
“that the tubes cannot be made of uniform or similar wires, and that the
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 153
standard once broken is lost for ever,” is clearly untenable, since the tubes
are not required to be uniform, and the breakage of the standard involves
only the necessity of anew tube, and the determinations of length and weight
anew, to put the operator in possession of a new standard, whose agreement
with the broken one will depend solely on his own handiness in manipulating.
Every standard, of whatever material, is liable to injury ; but the breakage of
a glass is infinitely to be preferred to the treacherous results of a bruised
wire.
Mercury is, of all metals, that which is best suited to supply a reproducible
standard.
In the first place, it is procurable pure in sufficient quantities. I heated
for some hours samples of commercial mercury under sulphuric acid con-
taining a few drops of nitric acid, and found their conducting powers after-
wards to be precisely the same as that of a quantity of chemically pure mer-
cury reduced from the oxide.
Secondly, mercury has always the same molecular structure, and has there-
fore, at the same temperature, always the same resistance.
From these two grounds it is possible to couple with this unit a geome-
trical conception which is indispensable in practice.
Thirdly, of all metals capable of being used for resistances, mercury has the
lowest conducting power ; and of all pure metals capable of the same applica-
tion, its resistance varies least with variations of temperature.
Having formed such original standards, it only remained to copy them in
a convenient form for employment in practice. This I have done,—
1. In mercury contained in glass spirals, and
2. In German-silver wire.
The resistance-bridge which I made use of in these measurements, with a
reflecting galvanometer in its circuit, enabled me to attain a precision of
within 0-01 per cent.
The mercury spirals, as may be seen by the accompanying drawing*, are
provided with cups at their ends. for convenience of filling and for receiving
the contacts of the measuring apparatus. They are either of known resist-
ances, approximating only to a multiple of the unit, or may be adjusted to
an exact multiple by boring out one of the ends of the tube, which, in this
case, must stand up half an inch inside the cup. The resistances of the bridge
must then be arranged so that no current passes through the instrument only
when the desired resistance in the fourth side is reached. When the spiral
is filled, a vulcanized india-rubber ring is put round the cups, and the spiral
is suspended in a vessel of ice-water or water kept in circulation by passing
a current of air through it, and the temperature measured by a delicate
thermometer.
The electrical value of each spiral which I have made has been determined
by comparing it with at least two of the straight normal tubes, both being
kept during the measurement in ice-water. The greatest differences which
I have found between such determinations do not exceed 0-05 per cent., to
which limit the copies may be trusted.
In answer to the objection that an admixture takes place between the
mercury and the solid metal used for the terminals, I must remark that I
have found this occasion really less inconvenience than is generally believed.
I kept the copper connexions immersed in the mercury a whole week, but
could not perceive the slightest decrease in its resistance. Platinum elec-
* The drawings have been omitted, the descriptions being intelligible without them.
154 REPORT—1862.
trodes of considerable surface might be employed; but I believe that the
removal of the copper connexions after each test, and the removal of the old
mercury from their surfaces before using them again, are a sufficient safeguard
against error arising from this source. Besides, it is easy to fill the spiral
with fresh mercury whenever it is suspected to have dissolved any quantity
of copper, or even on every occasion when a measurement with it is to be
made. Nor .does mercury change its resistance in the least by standing in
the air. This I have proved by keeping a spiral six months filled without
changing the mercury, and found its resistance to be constant.
The material which I have extensively employed in copying this measure,
viz. German silver, may be classed under the same head as the expensive
gold-silver alloy of Dr. A. Matthiessen, over which it has, however, the con-
siderable advantages of a greater specific resistance, and that its resistance
varies less with temperature variations.
As a preventive against alteration of resistance by the influence of the air,
I have usually had the resistances made of this metal covered with a coating
of silk and lac.
Intermediate between the resistances to be measured and the measure
itself, I have introduced resistance-scales. These contain each a series of
resistances (multiples of the unit), and are so arranged that each resistance is
exact when it stands stopped alone in the circuit. When carefully made, these
scales may be depended on to 0-1 per cent.
Being convinced of the sufficiency of the method I have described of repro-
ducing a standard of electrical resistance, I have the honour to suggest to you,
1st. To recommend the universal adoption of the conducting power of
mercury as unit, and of the resistance which a prism of that metal, a metre
long, and square millimetre section, at 0°C., opposes to a current of electri-
city as common unit of resistance.
2nd. To have the value of this measure ascertained, with the greatest pos-
sible exactness, in absolute units.
3rd. To have copies of this unit constructed in mercury contained in glass
spirals for preservation in scientific repositories.
In the event of my suggestions being adopted, the mercury unit should be
determined again with the greatest possible care, and with all the help which
pure and applied science offers, and copies of it made with equal exactness.
According to a late determination by Weber, the mercury unit is only about
23 per cent. greater than 10" absolute units, or one mercury unit at—26° C,
would equal 10,000,000,000 absolute units.
Since those cases in which the expression of resistances in absolute measure
is of advantage in facilitating calculations occur only very seldom, and only
in purely scientific exercises, a single determination of the relation of the two
measures would be amply sufficient. Should the absolute unit or any mul-
tiple of it be adopted as common unit of resistance, there would still be
wanted a unit for expressing the conducting powers of bodies; and mercury
is indisputably the best calculated for this purpose. And for practical pur-
poses, which in adopting a universal unit should be principally taken into
consideration, it is indispensable to define the resistance-measure as a geo-
metrical body of that material which is selected as unit of conducting power.
Every other definition would not only burden unnecessarily the calenlations
which occur in common life, but also confuse our conception of the measure.
The reason why the arbitrary unit proposed by Jacobi (a length of copper
only approaimately defined) found no admittance into general use is to be
sought in the fact that it failed to fulfil this condition, and because the con-
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 155
ducting power of all solid bodies is too dependent on their molecular struc-
ture.
The same objection renders the adoption of the gold-silver alloy proposed
by Dr. A. Matthiessen equally incapable.
Another disadvantage in the way of a solid metal unit is the impossibility
to solder thick connexions into the ends of a defined length of any wire
without altering its resistance.
Should the adoption of the mercury unit be deemed advisable, I would
place at the service of the British Association any further information or assist-
ance in my power.
I have the honour to be, Gentlemen,
Your most obedient Servant,
W. Sremens.
Apprnvix F.—Extracts from a Letter addressed to Professor W1Lttamson by
Dr, EssELpacu.
The two objections against the practical applications of Weber’s absolute
unit haye been sufficiently pointed out as being—
1. Its minuteness; and
2. That the electromotive force of galvanic elements does not allow of vari-
ation (as strength of current, tension, and resistance do), but that we have
to accept certain constants as nature has fixed them.
I take it for granted that the standard of absolute unit would not lose in
authority if a plain multiple of it were adopted. I need not point out that
the French metre itself is only a submultiple, iamomth of a natural unit—the
earth’s quadrant. The multiple of the natural electro-magnetic unit I am
about to suggest for practical use is 10”°, therefore very simple (which is of
no little importance); and it is a multiple which leads us to those standards
which are practically used.
M. Bosscha gives the electromotive force of his Daniell’s cells in absolute
measure as
1025-80 . 10°,
and calculates the one used by Mr. Joule to be
1045-1 . 10°.
It will therefore be practicable to determine such concentration of sulphuric
acid as to make the electromotive force equal to
10. 10";
and I believe the concentration required would be very near what is actually
used in telegraphy.
Resistance—The different copies of Jacobi’s étalons are well known to
differ as much between each other as Daniell’s cells ; and if Siemens had done
nothing else for galvanometry than to give us copies which agree among
themselves within a quarter per cent., the progress is obvious,
Weber’s copy of Jacobi’s étalon is”
598 . 10’;
and that of M. Bosscha was
607 . 107
in absolute measure.
Other statements (of Kirchhoff and others) give a much smaller value.
Tn comparing Mr. Siemens’s mercury standard with three copies of Jacobi’s
étalon in his possession, I found two of them agreeing tolerably well with
156 REPORT—1862.
each other, and with a third one copied by my friend Dr. Teddersen, at
Leipzig, from the original of M. Leyser, which I took therefore to be the
more correct ones. I found the absolute value of Siemens’s unit to be
603 ow
660° 10°
or 1:1 Siemens’s unit=10"°.
We should therefore only have to multiply all observations expressed in
10
Siemens’s units by a to reduce them to absolute measure, and the suggested
multiple for the future standard would not be far from 1:1 of Siemens’s units,
which every one admits to be for metallic conductors a practical unit.
For the resistance of insulating materials the figures become impracticably
high; but it would be a matter of professional telegraphy to adopt, in con-
formity with the system, the ‘resistance’ 10’° and, besides, another ‘ great
resistance’ containing 10’° ‘ resistances.’
While the resistance of a mile of copper in an ordinary cable would be (say)
4 R. (four resistances), the insulation-resistance of a mile of cable would be
about 0:04 G. R. (great or gutta-percha resistances),
My suggestion would therefore be—
1. To adopt Weber’s absolute unit, and to derive from it, by the multiple
10” (or 10,000,000,000), the practical unit.
2. To adopt 10° of Weber’s electro-magnetic units as the ‘ say abso-
lute unit’ for electromotive force and resistance.
(10 of these units would be exactly 1 Daniell’s cell.)
3. 1 of these units would be 1-1 of Siemens’s units.
4. To allow, besides, a ‘ practical great unit,’ viz. 10'° of the ‘practical
units,’ for resistances in order to express the insulation-resistance of cables
in convenient figures.
1
5. To allow also a ‘ practical small unit’ of io” absolute units to express
insulation-currents and charge-quantities of cables in convenient figures.
6. To adopt, in order to avoid confusion, for such ‘practical units’ a
terminology as proposed by Messrs. Bright and Clark.
London, September 18, 1862.
Arvpenpix G.—Circular addressed to Foreign Men of Science.
Srr,—I am requested to inform you that a Committee was appointed by the
British Association, which met last year at Manchester, to report on Electrical
Standards of Resistance.
The Committee consists of the following gentlemen :—
Professor A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. | Professor W. H. Miller, F.R.S. ne
(University College, London). bridge).
Professor Charles Wheatstone, F.R.S. | A. Matthiessen, Ph.D., F.R.S. (Lon-
(London). don).
Professor William Thomson, F.R.S. | Fleeming Jenkin, Esq. (London).
(Glasgow).
The Committee met on December 6th, 1861, and on April 3rd, 1862. On
the latter occasion the following Resolution was passed :—
* Resolved,—That the following gentlemen be informed of the appoint-
ment of the present Committee, and be requested to furnish suggestions
in furtherance of its object.
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 157
Professor Edlund (Upsala). Professor Neumann (Kénigsberg).
Professor Th. Fechner (Leipzig). Professor J. C. Poggendorff (Berlin).
Dr. Henry (Washington). M. Pouillet (Paris).
Professor Jacobi (St. Petersburg). Werner Siemens, Ph.D. (Berlin).
Professor G. Kirchhoff (Heidelberg). | Professor W. G. Weber (Gottingen).”
Professor C. Matteucci (Turin),
I have, in consequence, the honour of addressing you the present letter.
The Resolutions passed at the two meetings are enclosed, and from them
you will gather the general scope of the Committee’s inquiry. I add some
further explanation as to the object and intentions of the Committee.
Great inconvenience has been felt from the absence of any generally adopted
unit for the measurement of electrical resistance, and it was thought that the
influence of the British Association might be successfully exerted to procure
the adoption of acommon standard. The present time was thought especially
favourable, since, although the methods of observation have been brought to
great perfection, no local units have as yet taken very deep root.
The units which up to the present time have been considered by the
Committee may be classed under three heads :—
Ist. A given length and weight or section of wire made of some pure
metal, and observed at a given temperature, as originally proposed by
Professors Wheatstone, Jacobi, and others.
2nd. Units based on Weber’s and Gauss’s system of absolute measure-
ment.
3rd. A given length and section of pure mercury at a given temperature.
Whatever basis is adopted for the unit, it is proposed that the unit adopted
shall be represented by one particular standard, constructed of very permanent
materials, laid up in a national repository ; and it has been proposed to use
Dr. A. Matthiessen’s gold-and-silver alloy for this purpose. The arguments
which have been used for and against these systems are as follows :—
In favour of the use of a wire of some pure metal it is said—
That the plan is the simplest possible, and admits of independent observers
forming their own standard.
Against the plan it is said—
1st. That even when pure, two apparently similar wires do not resist
equally unless their temper or molecular condition be the same—a condition
which cannot practically be ensured.
2nd. That there is reason to believe that the resistance of a given wire is
not constant even at a constant temperature.
3rd. That the resistance of all pure metals varies very rapidly with the
temperature.
4th. That great difficulty is found in obtaining any metal pure, and that
the attempt of most persons to reproduce the unit for their own use would be
attended with incorrect results. This is evidenced by the different relative
results as to the resistance of pure metals published by different observers.
In favour of Weber’s units it is urged—
Ist. That their use will ensure the adoption of a complete system of corre-
sponding standards for electrical currents, quantities, and tension or difference
of potential.
2nd. That their use is essential in the dynamic treatment of any problem
connected with electricity ; for instance, in determining the heat generated,
the force exerted, the work done, and the chemical action required or pro-
duced under any given circumstances.
158 REPORT—1862.
3rd. That their use would be a simple extension of the system already
universally adopted in magnetic measurements.
4th. That the unit is independent of the physical properties of any material.
Against the system it is urged that the unit cannot be determined with
sufficient accuracy, and that even its approximate reproduction, where copies
cannot be obtained, is difficult and expensive.
In favour of the mercury standard the following arguments are used :—
1st. No change can occur in the molecular structure or temper of the
material, and therefore the same tube filled with pure mercury will certainly
always conduct alike.
2nd. Change of temperature causes only a slight difference in resistance.
Against this plan it is said—
1st. That tubes cannot be made of uniform or similar wires, and that,
therefore, the standard once broken is lost for ever.
2nd. That the standard tube cannot be kept full of pure mercury, owing to
the admixture which would take place of the solid metal used for the terminals,
so that each time the standard has to be used it has practically to be remade.
3rd. That the attempt, by most observers, to reproduce the unit for their
own use would be attended with incorrect results, as is shown by the different
results obtained by different observers.
In favour of Dr. Matthiessen’s alloy, as compared with wires of pure metal,
or with mercury, as a material for the standard, it is said—
Ist. That the variations of resistance, corresponding with variations of
temperature or temper, are small.
2nd. That a unit expressed in this material can be more readily and
certainly reproduced than one expressed by a pure metal, because the
presence of slight impurities in the component metals, or a slight change
in their proportion, does not sensibly affect the result.
Against this plan it is said that the physical properties of an alloy are
more likely to change than those of a pure metal.
Against all the plans for standards, based on an arbitrary length and
section of an arbitrary material, the supporters of the absolute units state
that the adoption of such an arbitrary standard would lead to great con-
fusion and complication in the measurement of all other electrical properties,
and in the expression of the relation of such measurements to those of force,
work, heat, &e.
This objection does not, of course, apply to the expression of the absolute
unit by means of a wire of pure metal, of an alloy, or by mercury: but it is
urged that no observer should ever attempt the reproduction of a standard
when a copy of the proposed universal standard can possibly be obtained ;
and the Committee will probably endeavour to devise some plan by which
such copies of the actual material standard adopted may be easily procured at
a reasonable cost.
It will be seen from the resolutions passed, that the Committee are now
engaged in investigating the degree of accuracy with which Weber’s units can
be obtained, and the degree of permanency which may be expected from the
use of the metal or alloy forming the material standard expressing these or
other units.
The Committee will feel greatly indebted to you if you will afford them the
benefit of your valuable advice and experience on the above points, and on any
others which may occur to you. They also venture to Hope that such a standard
may be selected as will give very general satisfaction ; and, if approved by you,
that you will kindly take an interest in procuring its general adoption.
ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 159
Personally being charged with the duty of preparing an historical summary
of the various units proposed, I shall be grateful if you will favour me with
any remarks as to your own labours in this field, or if you could oblige me
with references to any papers or works in which the subject is treated.
I am, Sir,
Your obedient Servant,
Fieemine JENKIN.
Aprennix H.—Description of the Electrical Apparatus arranged by Mr. Flee-
ming Jenkin for the production of exact copies of the Standard of Resistance.
This apparatus is a simple modification of that generally known as “Wheat-
stone’s bridge.” It contains, however, some special arrangements, in virtue
of which various practical difficulties are avoided, so that very great accuracy
can be ensured with comparative ease. The usual bridge-arrangement is
shown in Plate I. fig. 9, where the irregular scrolls, A, C, R, 8, represent the
four conductors of which the resistance is to be compared; the thick black lines
show those portions of the circuit which join the coils with the four corners,
U, V, Z, Y, and are supposed to have no sensible resistance in comparison
with the coils; finally, the thin lines show connexions, the resistance of
which in no way affects the accuracy of the comparison between the four
coils. By this arrangement the four conductors, A, C, R, 8, are so connected
with the galvanometer, G, and the battery, B, that no current passes through
the galyanometer when the conductors bear such a relation to one another that
the equation a =5 holds good; whereas a current in one or other direction
A ge 8
passes so soon as G is greater or less than RR: Thus the direction and
strength of the current observed serve as guides by which the resistance of
any one of the conductors may be gradually adjusted by shortening or
lengthening the wire, until on the completion of the circuit no deflection
whatever can be observed on the galvanometer, however delicate it may be,
or however powerful the battery used. When this has been done, we may
be sure that the above relation exists between the four conductors. In
practice, it is seldom desirable to use powerful batteries; the test is made
delicate by the use of an extremely sensitive astatic galyanometer.
In speaking of the four conductors, A, C, R, 8S, which are generally all
coils of wire of similar construction, although each fulfilling a distinct
function, some difficulty often occurs in explaining readily which coil or
conductor is referred to. They can of course be distinguished by letters, but
this requires reference to a diagram on every occasion, and the writer has
therefore been in the habit of distinguishing the four coils by names drawn
from a very obvious analogy existing between this electrical arrangement
and the common balance in which one weight is compared with another.
The equality between the two weights on either side of a balance, when the
index is at zero, depends on the equality of the arms of the balance; and if
the arms are unequal, the weights required to bring the index to zero are
proportional to the arms (inversely), Let A and C be called the arms of the
electrical balance, while S and R are looked on as analogous to the standard
weight and mass to be weighed respectively, and let the galvanometer needle
* This statement holds good also if the battery and galyanometer wires, as shown
in diagram, are interchanged.
160 REPORT—1862.
stand for the index of the balance. Then all the above statements, with
respect to the weights and arms, hold good for the electrical arrangement
(except that the proportion between the electrical arms and weights is direct
instead of inverse). The writer therefore calls this arrangement an electric
balance—aA and C the arms, § the standard, and R the resistance measured*.
In the adjustments of resistance-coils or copies of a standard, the object is to
produce a second coil, R, exactly equal to the first or standard, 8; andthe
arms, A, C, must therefore be absolutely equal before, by this arrangement,
an exact copy can be made. Hitherto it has often been the practice to use
for the arms, A, C, two coils made as equal as possible, and placed so close as
to remain at sensibly equal temperatures; so that the equality between
R and S is dependent on the equality between A and C, and cannot be deter-
mined with greater accuracy than that between these coils. This limit to the
accuracy is a defect for our present purpose, and the writer has moreover
found it undesirable to depend on the permanent equality of two coils. It is
by no means certain that, without very extraordinary precautions, the two
arms will remain unaltered in their original equality. A slight molecular
change, or a slight chemical action on the surface of the wires, disturbs this
equality permanently; and even if the coils are so constructed as to remain
really equal at equal temperatures, the accidental passage of a current through
one arm, and not through the other, for a very short time, will disturb their
accuracy very sensibly for a considerable time. There are various devices by
which the equality to be established between R and S may be rendered
independent of the absolute equality between A and C, and the writer has
adopted a plan, now to be explained with the aid of the diagrams (figs. 7, 8).
This plan allows the approximation to equality between R and § to be almost
indefinitely increased.
It will be seen that fig. 7 does not differ from fig. 9, except by the addition
of a wire, WX, of sensible resistance, between the two coils A and C. The
point U is no longer fixed, but can be moved along WX. The arms of the
balance are therefore no longer A and C, but A+ XU and C+WU. Thus
the moveable point U affords the means of slightly altering or adjusting the
ratio of the twoarms. A and C are made as equal as possible, independently
of WX, which is a very short wire.
The test is made as follows:—When the standard and coil to be measured
have been put in their places as in fig. 7, the point U is moved along the
wire WX until the galvanometer-index is not deflected when the circuit is
closed. The position of the point U is noted by a scale. R and § are then
reversed, so as to occupy the position relatively to A, C shown in fig. 8. The ©
point U is again moved until the galvanometer-needle remains undeflected on
the circuit’s being closed. The new position of U is again observed by a
scale. If the point U does not require to be moved at all, we may be quite
sure that R is exactly equal to S, and that A+ XU=C+ WU, since it would
be quite impossible that the ratio et au should be equal to both 2 and )
WU
unless this ratio were equal to 1. Moreover, if WX be made of the same
* The name of parallelogram, sometimes given to the arrangement, is objectionable,
inasmuch as the relation obtaining between the four conductors is not that which exists
between the four sides of any parallelogram, except in the one case of equality between all
four conductors. The connexions are, however, most easily followed in a drawing when
arranged as the four sides of a quadrilateral figure. Professor Wheatstone’s original name
of Differential Resistance Measurer does not, as it seems to the writer, sufficiently distin-
guish this arrangement from other differential methods.
; A fee
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iby ve) Par “¥
vie ee a r? wks 4
S Fe “ Sveey
" 4 .
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4
‘2 -
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: 4 Plate I.
Fig.7. Diagram of connextons when conunutator
is a position drawn (Fig.1/ d connected with d, & 1 with ¢,
ay
Fig.8. Diagram of conneccions with’ commutator D
Placed across board., d connected’ with ¢ & di, with f,
eer
|
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I Report Bruish Ae
ELECTRIC BALANCE.
fill stre Fig 2 Diagram of connecctons when: commutator
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Pig 8 Diasrroom of conne
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ill Salons ev Eine Ud
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ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 161
wire as the coils A and C, and if those coils are formed of about 100 inches
of wire, and if the observed positions of U differ by a given distance, x, this
length, w, measured in inches, will express very nearly the difference between
R and § in a percentage of the whole length of R. Thus, if w be one inch,
the standards S and R differ by about one per cent. If the point U, when
adjusted in each case, be found nearer R than §, then R is the smaller of the two,
and vice versé. The percentage of error in R, thus measured, is not of course
strictly accurate, inasmuch as the ratio between the two arms is not exactly
ap but if WX be not more than three or four inches long, the percentage
of error measured in this way is quite sufficiently accurate to allow the new
coil to be so exactly adjusted after very few trials, that no greater movement
of U than (say) ;4th of an inch is required to prevent any deflection on the
galvanometer when R and S are reversed. We may then be sure that no
greater error than (say) about 0-1 per cent. exists in the equality between
the new coil and the standard. Two fresh coils, A,, C,, are then taken,
containing each about 1000 inches of wire similar to WX, or an equivalent
resistance. It will then be found that, to maintain the index at zero when
R and S are reversed, U must be moved about ten times as much as before,
or (say) one inch. R can then be still further adjusted till U is not moved
more than />th of an inch, when a new degree of approximation to equality,
with an error of not more than 0-01 per cent., will have been reached. Then
the coils A,, C, are changed for a fresh pair, A,, C,, with a resistance equal
to about 10,000 inches of the wire WX: one-tenth of an inch on WX will
then represent an error of only 0-001 per cent. By a repetition of this
process, quite independently of any absolute equality between the pairs A, O,
A,, ©,, A,, ©,, &c., a gradual approximation to any required extent may be
ensured. The delicacy of the galvanometer used, and the nicety of the means
available for increasing or diminishing the resistance of R, form the only
limits to the approximation. A slight want of equality between any pair of
arms will simply bring the point U a little to one side or the other of the
centre of WX, as the final adjustment with that pair is made, but will not
affect the truth of the comparison between R and S. Each pair must, however,
be so nearly equal that the addition of part of the short wire, WX, to one side
will be sufficient to correct the other; otherwise the adjustible point U would
not bring the index to zero, even when at one end of the wire.
This arrangement, besides rendering us independent of the accuracy of
any two arms, has some incidental advantages of considerable practical
importance. At éach test it gives a measure of the amount by which the
new coil to be adjusted must be lengthened or shortened. The test is at first
comparatively rough, or adapted to errors of one or two per cent., and only
gradually increases in delicacy as the desired equality is more and more
nearly approached. It is not necessary that the resistance of WX should
remain absolutely constant, since it is only used (numerically) to give a
rough approximation to the percentage of error. It is desirable that the
battery should remain in circuit as short a time as possible; the circuit is
therefore broken between 1 and 2, figs. 7 and 8, by a key, K, with which
_ contact should be only momentarily made, when all the other connexions are
complete. The direction of the jerk of the galvanometer-needle to one side
or the other need alone be observed ; no permanent deflection is required with
this arrangement as a guide to the amount of error. This is a considerable
advantage, inasmuch as it avoids heating the wires, and saves time. The
om’ of the coils on themselves might lead to some false indications,
862, M
162 3 REPORT—1862.
unless special precaution were taken against it, as pointed out by Professor
W. Thomson*. To avoid this source of error, the galvanometer circuit is
broken between 3 and 4, figs. 7 and 8, at K,, and should only be closed after
the battery circuit has been completed at K and equilibrium established
throughout all the conductors.
Before passing to a detailed description of the apparatus as actually con-
structed, some remarks are required as to the means of making temporary
connexions. All connexions which require to be altered may be the means
of introducing errors, inasmuch as the points of contact are very apt to offer
a sensible but uncertain resistance. In measuring small resistances, the
resistance at the common binding-screws is found to create very considerable
errors. Binding-screws have therefore to be ayoided at all points where an
uncertain resistance could cause error. Mercury-cups, made as follows, have
been found in practice very suitable for temporary connexions, and have been
adopted in the apparatus. The bottom of each cup is a stout copper plate,
with its surface well amalgamated, forming one of the two terminals to be
joined. A stout copper wire, 1 inch in diameter, with a flat end well amal-
gamated, forms the other terminal. When the amalgamation is good, and
care is taken that the wire shall rest on the plate, this form of connexion
offers no sensible resistance. The amalgamated wire is easily kept bright
and clean by being dipped from time to time in a solution of chloride of
mercury and wiped. The copper plate should also be removed from the cup,
cleaned, and re-amalgamated occasionally, All permanent connexions should
be soldered.
The apparatus itself, as actually constructed, will now be described (figs. 1
to 6). It consists of a wooden board, about 12 in. x 7 in., containing the
mercury-cups, the adjusting wire, WX, the key, K, and the terminals to which
the battery and galvanometer are connected. The letters in the figures
1 to 6 correspond exactly to those used in the diagrams 7 and 8; and the
apparent complexity of the connexions can thus be easily disentangled.
cc,, aa, are two pairs of mercury-cups, into which the terminal wires on the
bobbin, C, A, dip. This bobbin contains the two coils, C and A, forming
the arms of the balance. rr, and ss, are mercury-cups, into which the
terminals of the standard and coil to be adjusted are placed. These mercury-
cups are so connected with the four cups, d,d,, f,f,, that when d is con-
nected with d,, and f with f,, by a couple of wires in a small square of wood,
D, then A, C, 8, and R are connected as in fig. ’7; but when D is turned round,
so as to connect d with f, and d, with f,, A, C, R, and S are connected as in
fig. 8. D is called the commutator. The same end might be effected without
a commutator by simply interchanging R and §; but it is frequently incon-
venient to do this. All these connexions are made by short stout copper bars,
dotted in fig. 2. The wire WX, the sliding brass piece H, carrying a spring
for the contact at U (fig. 4), and the scale E, by which the position of H is
observed, will be readily understood from the drawing. The sliding piece, H,
is connected with the proper points by the helix of copper wire, A, and the
serew, I. GG, and BB, are common binding-screws, to which the wires
from the galyanometer and battery are attached. K is the key, by depress-
ing which, first, the battery is thrown into circuit, and then the galvano-
meter. It consists of three brass springs, 1, 2, 3 (fig. 5), each insulated
one from the other, and connected by three screws, 1, 2, 3 (fig. 2), with the
necessary points of the arrangement. A fourth terminal, 4 (figs. 2 and 6),
* Vide Phil. Mag, August 1862.
ON TEE GRANITES OF DONEGAL. 163
is immediately under the free end of the springs, and is armed with a small
platinum knob or contact-piece. The three springs are also all armed with
platinum contact-pieces, all in a line one above the other (fig. 6). When
the finger-piece, T, is pressed down, 1 and 2 are first joined, and then 3
and 4; 3 is insulated from 2 by the vulcanite, Q. All the connexions per-
manently made, under the board, are shown in fig. 2. Those which have no
sensible resistance are stout copper bars, and form the bottoms of the mer-
cury-cups: those of which the resistance is immaterial are made of wire,
insulated by gutta percha, and are simply shown as dotted irregular lines in
fig. 2; they will be found, on comparison, to correspond with the thin lines
on fig. 7. It will also be found that all those parts shown by thick lines in
the diagram are made by thick bars or rods and merecury-cups. _
Three sets of arms, C A, C, A,, C,A,, are provided; the shortest pair is
first used, and U adjusted by the slide, H, till the galvanometer does not de-
flect when T is pressed down. The commutator, D, is then turned round,
and U adjusted afresh. The coil, R, is then altered according to the two
positions of U, and this process repeated, using the second and third pair of
arms as required, until the desired approximation between Rand § has been
obtained. An astatic galvanometer, with a very long coil, will, for most
purposes, give the best results; and one or two elements will be found a
sufficient battery. The construction of R and S$ recommended, and the pre-
cautions to ensure perfect equality of temperature, will form part of next
year’s Report.
The apparatus, although specially designed for the production of equal
coils, is applicable to ordinary measurements of resistances by comparison
with a set of resistance-coils; for this purpose the terminals of the resist-
ance-coils should be put in the place of the standard 8, and any conductor of
which the resistance is to be measured in the place of R. If a comparison
by equality is to be made, the wire WX can be used as already described ; it
is, however, frequently desirable to make a comparison with one arm ten-
fold or a hundredfold greater than the other, by which means measurements
of resistances can be made ten or a hundred times greater or smaller than
could be done if equality alone between R and 8 were measured ; for this pur-
pose the three pairs, A C, A, C,, A, C,, are made exactly decimal multiples one
of the other, and then, by taking A and C,, or A and C,, &c., in the cups aa,
and ¢¢,, the required decimal ratio is obtained. The resistance of the wire
WX would, however, falsify this ratio, and it is eliminated by a simple
copper rod, which is placed for the purpose between the two cups ¢e,, and
maintains the whole wire WX at sensibly one potential. The commutator
also is useless in measurements of this kind, and should be left untouched in
the position shown in fig. 1.
The apparatus exhibited was manufactured for the Committee by Messrs.
Elliott Brothers, of London, and gives excellent results,
Preliminary Report of the Committee for Investigating the Chemical
and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Donegal, and the
Minerals associated with them.
In accordance with the resolution of the General Committee at the Man-
chester Meeting, the Committee, consisting of Sir R. Griffith, the Rev. Prof.
Haughton, and Mr. Scott, proceeded to investigate “ the chemical and mine-
M 2
164, REPORT—1862.
ralogical composition of the granites of Donegal, and the minerals associated’
with them.” In furtherance of this object, Mr. Haughton and Mr. Scott re-
paired, last Easter, to the northern part of the county, as they had visited the
S.W. portion of the district in the summer of 1861. They were accompanied
on their tour by Mr. Jukes, Local Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland,
who gave them the valuable benefit of his experience and assistance throughout
the tour. The exploration commenced at Moville, on the E. shore of Innis-
howen, whence a section was carried along the N. coast of that peninsula
nearly as far as Malin Head. This section exhibited a great thickness of
“primary rocks, consisting of quartzite and mica-slate, accompanied by several
beds of limestone, and a number of beds of igneous rocks, which appeared to
de contemporaneous with the sedimentary rocks. These are best exhibited at a
place called the Mintiaghs or Bar of Inch, where there are several alternations
of quartz-rock and syenite exhibited in an escarpment of several hundred feet
in height. This locality is situated about five miles N. of Buncrana. From
Buncrana, the granite of Urrismenagh, near Dunaff Head, was visited.
From Milford an excursion was made to the extremity of the promontory
of Fanad, lying between Lough Swilly and Sheep Haven, in order to visit the
granite of this district. This patch of granite is not a continuation of that
which traverses the country in a N.E. and 8.W. direction, as it lies to the
N. of that axis and exhibits a slight difference in composition from the granite
of the central axis. From Milford the route lay to Dunfanaghy ; anda section
was made across the northern end of the granitic axis of the county at Glen,
in which its gneissose character was very strongly exhibited. This was
marked in a most decisive manner between Lackagh Bridge and Creeshlagh,
where the rock might be observed changing from gneiss, by almost insensible
gradations, on the one hand into granite, and on the other into hornblende slate
and crystalline syenite. The latter is most highly crystalline at Horn Head,
where it contains large quantities of titaniciron. On the return-journey from
Dunfanaghy to Letterkenny, it was determined to make two sections across
the granite ; so that Mr. Haughton and Mr. Scott took the road from Creesh-
lagh through the Gap of Barnesbeg, while Mr. Jukes took that by Owencarrow
Bridge, about four miles higher up the valley.
It having now been found necessary to compare the facts observed with
those which were to be observed in other countries, Sir R. Griffith repaired
to Scotland in the month of July. Mr. Haughton traversed the centre of
Scotland, and paid a visit to Sweden, Finland, and Russia. Both these gen-
tlemen discovered facts strongly confirming the views propounded at the
Manchester Meeting, of the similarity of the geological structure of Donegal
to that of the Scandinavian peninsula and of Scotland. For this latter fact
the Committee had been prepared by the examination of a series of specimens
of Scotch granites which had been furnished to them by Sir R. I. Murchison,
in accordance with his kind promise made at the last Meeting.
While these tours were in progress, Mr. Scott repaired, for the third time,
to Donegal, and spent the month of July in the re-examination of ‘several
points connected with the geology of the southern district. He visited the
granite of Barnesmore, near the town of Donegal, which is essentially non-
gneissose, and is penetrated by numerous pitchstone dykes, some of which
are amygdaloidal. Numerous minerals were discovered here, which were in
some cases new to the district. In the neighbourhood of Glenties, a consi-
derable quantity of andalusite was found in the mica-slate—a mineral which
is replaced near Barnesmore by kyanite, and in the Rosses, near Dungloe, by
a white variety of kyanite.
ON THE VERTICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 165
‘ From Dungloe, as head-quarters, the structure of Crohy Head was carefully
examined, and also the island of Arranmore, which differs materially in its
structure from the mainland of Ireland, from which it is only distant three
miles. The southern portion of this island is nearly entirely composed of
white granite, penetrated by numerous dykes of syenite and of felspathic
porphyry. The strike of these rocks is nearly E. and W., while that of the
flagey quartz-rocks on the northern shore of the island approaches N. and S.
During the course of this tour, two more sections were made across the
granite of the main axis, exhibiting the same facts which had been observed
before, viz. numerous beds of limestone and of altered slate lying in the
granite, stratified nearly conformably with it. These were observed in the
centre of Glenveagh, close to Ballaghgeeha Gap, on the pass through the
Poisoned Glen from Dunlewy. At Glenleheen, where the same occurrence
of non-granitic rocks had been observed in the previous year, four beds of
limestone and several beds of slate were discovered. Almost all these beds
of limestone contained garnet, idocrase, and epidote in quantity ; and at Glen-
leheen itself, scapolite, a mineral whose occurrence in the British Islands has
escaped the notice of modern English mineralogists, was discovered. Inas-
much as the specimens brought home by the members of the Committee
from their several tours are very numerous, it is not possible for them to
present their complete report at this Meeting. They hope to embody in it
some valuable information relating to the granitic rocks of Canada, which
Dr. T. Sterry Hunt has kindly offered to supply to them. They have to
express their thanks to him and to Mr. Harte, C.E., county surveyor of the
western district of the county, who, with the Rev. Frederick Corfield, has
afforded them most efficient assistance. They have succeeded in procuring
some of the granite of Rockall, through the kindness of the officers of H.M.S.
Porcupine, who furnished it to Mr. Harte, and wil] include its analysis in
their paper.
On the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in connexion
with Storms and Changes of Weather. By Hunry Hennessy,
F.RS., M.R1IA., &c., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
Catholic University of Ireland.
Tue labours of the Committee, consisting of Admiral FitzRoy, Mr. Glaisher,
and myself, who were appointed, at Manchester, for the purpose of studying
the vertical disturbances of the atmosphere with the aid of instruments,
have, for the present, been restricted to the work of a single observer. This
has arisen from the circumstance that the money-grant appropriated to the
Committee has sufficed only to defray the cost of erecting a single instrument.
As this instrument is likely to afford opportunities for observing the vertical
motions of the atmosphere more completely than has been hitherto possible,
it is to be hoped that similar apparatus will before long be in the hands of
the other members of the Committee. The fact that all the preliminary work
has thus necessarily devolved on the writer of the present Report will suffi-
ciently account also for its provisional nature.
Hitherto the only kind of atmospherical currents which have formed the
subjects of definite observation by instruments are those whose existence is
manifested by the movements of ordinary wind-vanes and anemometers.
But as these instruments indicate horizontal movements exclusively, ordinary
166 REPORT—1862.
winds as well as storms are almost always conceived as currents flowing in
perfect parallelism to the earth’s surface. It is true that no physical theory
of the motions of the atmosphere can be attempted without some considera-
tions which involve the necessity of vertical and oblique motions among the
masses of air, as well as horizontal motions; but while direct comparisons of
the latter among themselves have continued for many years to be made in
different parts of the world, we possess scarcely any such data relative to
non-horizontal movements as would enable us to make them subjects of exact
inquiry.
ihe only writer who, as far as I am aware, has hitherto endeavoured to
deduce any well-defined results from observation relative to the vertical
movements of the atmosphere is M. Fournet, and his studies were almost ex-
clusively directed to the elucidation of the phenomena of some remarkable
local winds that frequently prevail among the Alps and in the valley of the
Rhone*. A local phenomenon in Ireland + induced me to study the vertical
motions of the air in a more general way than was necessary for the explana-
tion of this phenomenon itself; and my first step was an attempt at devising
a vane capable of showing the existence and direction of non-horizontal
currents. This was a non-registering instrument, and the results obtained
were therefore somewhat unconnected; but they seemed to establish some
important relations between vertical currents and other atmospherical dis-
-turbancest. Among these, I may be permitted to notice the phenomena
which preceded the disastrous gale of February 9, 1861. For many days, at
the close of January and beginning of February, the weather was remarkably
fine, and no vertical currents were observed; but on the 7th very distinct
evidences of vertical disturbance came under my notice, while the air had as
yet no remarkable horizontal motion. On the 8th, at 2 p.w., my attention
was called to the vane by its shifting round through N. towards N.E., with
decided and frequent downward plunges of the disk exposed to the vertical
action of the air. It appeared as if showers of cold air were descending ; for
the thermometer showed at the same time a rapidly falling temperature.
While vertical convection had become already highly developed, the horizontal
motion of the air was not as yet greater than that of an ordinary brisk
breeze.
Next day, during the storm, although the disk of the vane was in constant
oscillation from the undulatory motion which my observations had already
shown to be a necessary accompaniment of all high winds passing over
terrestrial obstacles, no marked prevalence of upward or downward motions
could be observed corresponding to the plunges of the disk noticed on the
preceding day. The mercury in the barometer had been falling with great
regularity during four days before that on which I had noticed the first
decided indications of vertical disturbance. On that and the next day, as
well as on the very day of the storm, the barometric column was rising,
while the temperature was steadily falling. Here the rise in the barometer
was accompanied by north-easterly winds, and the air at the earth’s surface
was thus rapidly mingled with cooler masses descending from above, as shown
by the vane; so that the increased pressure was due to the increased density
of the entire aérial column above the barometer.
_ * See Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tome lxxiy. p. 337; and a réswmé of his results
in a note to M. Martin’s translation of Kaemtz’s Meteorologie, p. 35.
+ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. iv. p. 279.
} Atlantis, vol, iii,” p, 166; Phil. Mag. for May 1860; and Proceedings R. I. A. for
May 1861, p. 232,
ON THE VERTICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 167
Among the phenomena attending the more tranquil conditions of the air,
I had noticed in my earlier observations, during the summer of 1857, that
upward currents generally prevailed by day, while downward currents became
more prominent at night. This alternation was manifestly connected, as
shown by the horizontal vane, with the action of land and sea breezes ; for at
this time the observations were made at a point situated about two miles
from the sea-shore. By day, the convection due to the heating of the lower
stratum of air in contact with the ground could not take place by equal
upward and downward exchanges of masses of air, because the place of the
ascending warm air was partly supplied by the lateral influx of colder sea air,
which, in its turn, would become sufficiently heated to ascend and give place
to a fresh lateral influx. By night, the colder air from the land flowed
towards the sea, and its place was filled by descending currents from above.
At the same time the warmer air from the sea probably tended to occupy the
place of these currents, and thus to equalize the temperature of the upper
and lower strata of air so as to lessen the energy of the convective movement
over the land.
Before the termination of the Meeting of the Association at Manchester, I
had resolved, with the concurrence of Mr. Glaisher, the only other member of
the Committee then present, to cause a registering instrument to be con-
structed which would record the existence of non-horizontal atmospheric
motions. The following is a description of the anemoscope which I ultimately
decided upon as most suitable in its construction for the purposes we have in
view. Fig. 1 is a vertical section of the portion of the apparatus which is
exposed to the wind, and fig. 3 an elevation of the same portion. Aisa
cast-iron pillar which supports a cup, 2, containing frietion-balls made of gun-
metal; on these a disk, g, rests, and this is firmly attached to a box from
which an arm projects at one side, and is terminated by the cone, P, which
acts as a counterpoise for the opposite and working arm of the anemoscope.
A short arm, n, shown in fig. 3, supports a wheel, d, in one side of which teeth
are cut; the other side is firmly attached to a hollow light copper box, B,
which forms the tail. This box is a truncated pyramid, and while its vertical
sides are exposed to the horizontal action of the wind, its upper and lower
surfaces are exposed to its vertical action. This tail is balanced by a coun-
terpoise, 7, which is connected by a bent arm with the axle of the wheel, d.
The teeth of this wheel catch those of the pinion, e (fig. 1), and this catches in
the rack, f. The rack is attached to a shaft, c, which descends through the
hollow supporting pillar and communicates with the registering apparatus.
In fig. 2 the most essential part of the arrangements for registering the
indications of the upper part of the instrument are shown. The shaft, c,
passes through brass guides, and carries a small circular projecting piece, s,
which catches in a notch made in the bit, v, attached to the pencil-carrier, p.
This pencil-carrier is capable of upward and downward motions only, and
the rod to which it is attached passes through guides. The carrier is, more-
over, supported by an ivory friction-wheel, ¢, which turns when the piece, s,
revolves beneath it.
From this brief description, it is apparent that the cone, P, will always indi-
cate the direction of the wind in azimuth, like ordinary vanes. At the same
time the vertical component (if any) of the wind will raise or depress the tail,
B. In the former case it is manifest that the wheel, d, will cause e to turn, so
as to raise the rack, f, and in the latter case the effect will be to lower the
rack. It follows, therefore, that the shaft, c, and consequently the pencil-
carrier which it moyes, must rise or fall according as the vertical motion of
168 REPORT—1862.
the air is upward or downward. A spring within the pencil-carrier con-
stantly presses the pencil against a sheet of paper placed in front of it. This
paper is for the present carried on a flat board, which is moved by a clock.
The registering sheets are ruled with vertical hour lines and with horizontal
lines which assist in estimating the angle of inclination to the horizon made
by the disk during the action of an upward or downward impulse from the
air. This follows because the tail and the wheel, d, revolve on the same
centre, and each tooth in d describes an are similar to that described by the
axis of the tail. An equal number of teeth in ¢ are raised or lowered, and
thus the rack and the shaft, c, move through spaces proportional to ares de-
‘scribed by the teeth of the wheel, d, and the axis of the tail, B. The board
ON THE VERTICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 169
which carries the registering paper can be detached by loosening a clamping-
screw which fastens it to the support turned by the clock, so that the sheets
can be removed and replaced with speed and facility.
The entire apparatus was constructed by Mr. Spencer, of Aungier Street,
Dublin; and he has executed the portion connected with the indication of
horizontal moyement in such away, that the addition of a registering apparatus
for this part of the instrument will not only be easy, but will render the
entire combination a complete indicator of the absolute direction of the wind.
The results of the instrument in its present state are exhibited on the regis-
tering sheets as nearly vertical pencil lines, some above and some below the
neutral line, to which each sheet is carefully adjusted.
The anemoscope is at present so placed as not to be overtopped by any
building ; for it stands on the roof of one of the highest houses in Dublin, in a
quarter remarkably open, and close to the south suburbs.
Owing to a variety of delays and obstacles in finishing the apparatus, it was
not brought into action until the 31st of August, and thus I am able to report
only on the results furnished by little more than the records of a single month.
These records appear to indicate that vertical oscillations prevail more during
the mid-day hours than at other periods; for although ten sheets show no
definite predominance at any specific period of the day, and two predominance
of vertical movements towards midnight, twenty-one show that these move-
ments are most frequent at the hours about noon. From a journal of the
weather which was kept at the same time, it appeared that on bright days,
when the air had little horizontal motion, gentle upward movements pre-
vailed at mid-day. Such phenomena are distinctly manifested by the sheets
for September the 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th, and all of these were bright
sunny days. Before the 5th, the weather had been changeable and unsettled:
but on comparing the two sheets comprehending from noon of the 3rd to noon
of the 5th, I noticed that the amplitude of the oscillations of the anemoscope
progressively and regularly diminished; and it occurred to me that this
might indicate a tendency towards convective equilibrium of the atmosphere,
and more settled weather. The weather continued fine until the 13th, when
there was both high wind and rain, accompanied and preceded by energetic
oscillations of the anemoscope. If the general circulation of the atmosphere
takes place, as seems to be now completely established, by a twofold motion,
one of translation, whether cyclonic or lineal, and the other undulatory, it
follows that the pulsations of the latter movement may be influenced by aérial
disturbances. The frequency, regularity, intensity, prevalent direction, and
more or less intermittent character of these pulsations must depend on varia-
tions of pressure, density, moisture, and temperature, as well as on the
rippling motion of the air. It is natural, therefore, to expect, what our
limited number of observations seem already to indicate, namely, that the
sudden and abrupt commencement of such pulsations is usually a precursor
_of other disturbances, while their gradual and regular diminution in energy
would show a tendency in the air to approach a state of convective equili-
brium, and might, therefore, be safely relied upon as a forerunner of fine
weather. This point is illustrated by the remarks of the late Professor
Daniell relative to the rapid oscillations of the water-barometer during high
winds, and their gradual diminution preceding a return to a calmer state of
the air*, Although the atmospheric pulse is undoubtedly compounded of the
-undulatory movements resulting from the flow of an elastic fluid over the
* Phil. Trans. 1832, p. 573.
170 REPORT—1862.
irregularities of the earth’s surface, with the effects of convection, in such a
way as would render the separation of these effects extremely difficult, yet
the careful study of this pulse in connexion with other phenomena may he
reasonably expected to add to our power of forming correct conclusions
regarding the coming changes of the weather.
Report of a Committee, consisting of the Rev. Dr. Luoyn, General Sa-
ping, Mr. A. Suirx, Mr. G. Jonnstone Stoney, Mr. G. B. Arry,
Professor Donxin, Professor Wm. Tuomson, Mr. Cayizy, and the
Rey. Professor Pricr, appointed to inquire into the adequacy of
existing data for carrying into effect the suggestion of Gauss, to
apply his General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic
Variations.
Iw order to explain the views of the Committee upon the question submitted
to them, it is necessary to refer briefly to the leading points of Gauss’s
theory.
If du denote the quantity of free magnetism in any element of the earth’s
mass, and p the distance of that element from the point (2, y, 2), and if we
make
aes -\%4
pP
the partial differential coefficients of V with respect to the three coordinates,
x, y, z, respectively, are equal to the components of the earth’s magnetic
force in the direction of the axes of coordinates. V is a function of «, y, and
z, or of their equivalents wu, A, and r,—r being the distance of the point from
the centre of the earth, and u and ) the angles corresponding to the north
polar distance, and the longitude, on the sphere whose radius=r. This
quantity may be expanded in a series proceeding according to the inverse
powers of 7, whose coefficients, P,, P,, P,, &e., are functions of w and X»
alone; and it is readily seen that, at the surface of the earth, the three com-
ponents of the magnetic force are
x=-(7 Fi 4+Fs4 be. ),
dus dws du
EA a A og &
rr Crm eee ena
Z=2P,+3P,+4P,+ &e.,
and are therefore given when P,, P., P,, &c. are known.
The form of these functions is deduced from the well-known partial dif-
ferential equation
nm (n+1)P,+
Y=—
ad? hie yal al ed
du ne sin? u dd* :
n being the number indicating the order of the function. It is found that
the first, P,, contains three unknown coefficients ; the second, P.,, five; the
third, P,, seven, &c. Hence, if the approximation be extended so as to in-
clude terms of the fourth order, there will be 24 coefficients to be determined.
Each given value of X, Y, or Z, on the earth’s surface, furnishes an equation
=> >
Pn + cot u
du
ON GAUSS’S THEORY AND TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 171
among these unknown coefficients; and for each place at which the three
elements are known we have three such equations. Hence to obtain the
general expressions of X, Y, Z, to the fourth order inclusive, it is theoretically
sufficient to know the three elements at eight points on the earth’s surface.
But, owing to the errors of observation, and to the influence of the terms
neglected in the approximation, the number of determinations must, in prac-
tice, be much greater than the number of unknown coefficients.
The foregoing conclusions are based upon the hypotheses that magnetic
attraction and repulsion vary according to the inverse square of the distance,
and that the magnetic action of the globe is the resultant of the actions of all
its parts. It is likewise assumed that there are two magnetic fluids in every
magnetizable element, and that magnetization consists in their separation.
But for these hypotheses we may substitute that of Ampére, which supposes
the magnetic force to be due to electric currents circulating round the mole-
cules of bodies.
This theory may be applied to the changes of terrestrial magnetism, whe-
ther regular or irregular, provided only that the causes of these changes act
in the same manner as galvanic currents, or as separated magnetic fluids.
We have only to consider whether the data which we possess are sufficient
for such an application.
It has been already stated that, for the general determination of X, Y, and
Z, we must know their values at eight points (at least) on the earth’s sur-
face, these points being as widely distributed as possible. The same thing
holds with respect to the changes 6X, dY, 6Z; and to apply the formule so
determined, and to compare them with observation, corresponding values
must be known for (at least) one more point. In the case of the irregular
changes these observations must, of course, be simultaneous. The regular
changes must be inferred from observations extending over considerable
periods ; and there is reason to believe that these periods must be identical,
or nearly so, for all the stations, since the changes are known to vary from
month to month and from year to year.
The regular variations of the three elements X, Y, Z, or their theoretical
equivalents, have been obtained by observation, for nearly the same period,
at Greenwich, Dublin, and Makerstoun, in the British Islands; at Brussels
and Munich, on the Continent of Europe; at Toronto and Philadelphia, in
North America ; at Simla, Madras, and Singapore, in India ; and at St. Helena,
the Cape of Good Hope, and Hobarton, in the southern hemisphere. Of these
thirteen stations, however, the three British must be regarded, for the pre-
sent purpose, as equivalent to one only, on account of their proximity; and
the same thing may be said of the two North American stations and of the
two stations in Hindostan. This reduces the number of available stations to
nine, the minimum number required for the theoretical solution of the pro-
blem in the degree of approximation already referred to, and considered by
Gauss to be necessary. It is true that we may add to these the stations at
which two only of the three elements have been observed, viz. Prague and
St. Petersburg, the three Russian stations in Siberia, and Bombay. But even
with this addition, the number is probably insufficient for the satisfactory
determination of the unknown coefficients; for it is to be remembered that
the places, few as they are, are not distributed with any approach to uni-
formity, and that very large portions of the globe are wholly unrepresented
by observations.
For the reason already stated, this defect in the existing data cannot be
now repaired by supplemental observations at new stations, unless the series
172 REPORT—1862.
at all were so far extended as to embrace the whole period of the cyclical
changes.
The simultaneous observation of the irregular changes is limited nearly to
the same stations. In their case, too, there is the further imperfection, as
respects the present problem, that the changes observed on “ term-days”
are for the most part inconsiderable, while those on days of great magnetic
disturbance have seldom been observed continuously for any considerable
time at all the stations.
For the foregoing reasons the Committee are of opinion that the data which
we at present possess respecting the changes of terrestrial magnetism, whether
regular or irregular, are not sufficient for the application of Gauss’s theory,
if, as above assumed, the approximation is to be extended so as to include
terms of the fourth order (P, to P, inclusive). It is deserving of considera-
tion, however, whether an inferior degree of approximation may not afford
some valuable information. The affirmative side of this question has been so
earnestly advocated by one of the members of the Committee, that it has been
thought advisable to append his letter on the subject to this Report.
(Signed by order of the Committee) H. Lioyp.
Letter from Professor W. Tuomson to Rev. Dr. Lioyp.
“‘ Roshyen, Strontian, Sept. 24, 1862.
«‘ My prar Sr,—I am sorry to have been so long prevented from writing
to you on the subject of the Committee’s Report on the expression of the
Variations of the Terrestrial Magnetic elements in series of Laplace’s functions.
“T perfectly agree with the conclusions stated in the draft report of which
you sent me a proof, so far as they relate to a complete expression of any class
of variations of the elements, or of any individual variation, by means of
which its amount in other localities than those of observation could be de-
termined with any considerable approach to accuracy. But, on the other
hand, the amount of knowledge from observation, shown in the report to be
available, would, I believe, be sufficient to allow us to estimate, possibly with
considerable accuracy, and certainly with a sufficient approach to accuracy
for highly important application, the first terms in the harmonic (Laplace’s)
series. I would therefore advise that some such method as the following
should be adopted.
«‘ Choosing any particular variation, for instance the diurnal or the secular,
for which the data from observation are most abundant, find either by trial
and error, or any other proper algebraic method, an expression by terms of
the first order (three coefficients for each) for the three elements which most
nearly represent it. (The method of least squares would give a precise de-
finition of what would be the most near representation, on this principle ; but
ruder and quicker methods might suffice in first trials.) Then, judging by
the results, try similarly for expressions in series of two terms (3+ 5, or eight
coefficients in all, in each expression). After trials of this kind it would be
easy to judge within what limits may be the probable errors of the estimated
first terms from the true first terms, and possibly even to arrive at some
probable knowledge regarding the true second terms of the harmonic ex-
pressions.
«« A very moderate degree of success in such operations as these would
allow us to decide whether the origin (magnetic or electrodynamic) of the
variation is within the earth’s surface or outside.
igs
ON THERMO-ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN CIRCUITS OF ONE METAL. 173
-“T hope, then, a result of the Committee’s action may be to carry out an
attempt of this kind for every class of variations for which the data give even
the narrowest foundation. It might be applied, I believe, with success, as
regards the main conclusion, to every case in which each of the three compo-
nents has been well determined for even only THREE stations widely apart
from one another.
«Tt seems probable that an individual deflection of a magnetic storm cannot
be identified in localities at very great distances from one another. This must
certainly be the case if an individual deflection, and individual flash or flicker
of aurora, are simply related to one another, because the individual auroras
are certainly local in the sense of being only seen at once over a very limited
area of the earth, being in fact actually situated at some distance of not more
than 150 miles (which I believe is the highest estimate) from the surface.
Hence it is probable that it will be found whether the seat of the disturbing
action, producing an individual deflection in a magnetic storm, is above or
below the surface, by comparing observations made at stations within a few
hundred miles of one another, and endeavouring to identify a single disturb-
ance in the three components at all the localities. If the three components
could thus be determined at three localities so wide apart as to show con-
siderable differences in the amounts, but yet not so wide as to render the
identification of the disturbance difficult, the question whether the seat of the
disturbance is in the earth or the air would be answered with high proba-
bility.
“JT remain, yours very truly,
(Signed) ‘© WititAm THomson.”
On Thermo-electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal.
By Fuizrmine Jenxin, Esq.
Lasr year I had the honour of directing the attention of the Association to
the fact, that an electric current of considerable intensity may be obtained in
a circuit of one metal by the application of heat to one or the other side of an
interruption in the wire composing the circuit. The experiment is most
simply performed by looping together the two ends of two perfectly similar
wires connected to the terminals of a galvanometer, and heating one of the
loops to a white or red heat in a spirit-lamp, or Bunsen’s burner. If the one
loop rests very lightly on the other a current will be obtained, which in the
copper wires will flow from the hot to the cold loop across the joint with
sufficient intensity to deflect a moderately sensitive galyanometer, even with
a resistance in circuit equal to 1000 miles of No. 16 copper wire.
The electromotive force of the combination is about one-tenth that of a
Daniell’s cell. With two iron loops a permanent current in the opposite
direction is obtained, flowing from cold to hot across the joint, but the elec-
tromotive force in this case is very much smaller.
When the loops are drawn tightly together the current ceases, but reappears
as soon as the strain is slackened.
_ I was at the time unable to show the connexion between these singular
currents and other electrical phenomena, but I am now, in consequence of
further experiments undertaken for the Association, able to point out that
connexion.
174 REPORT—1862.
The currents were clearly not due to chemical action on the wires; for, in
the first place, currents of considerable strength were obtained from two per-
fectly homogeneous platinum wires, flowing from hot to cold across the loose
contact ; and in the second place, the direction of the current was different in
copper and iron, whereas the chemical action undergone by the wire was alike
in the two cases.
The researches of Becquerel, Pouillet, Buff, Hankel, and Grove were ex-
amined, to see whether the electricity produced during combustion, or the
properties of flame, would account for the currents, but it was found that all
the electrical effects produced by flame could be divided into two classes : first,
phenomena depending on the relative position of the two wires in the flame ;
and secondly, phenomena depending on the voltaic couple formed by the
metals used, and the hot vapour acting as an electrolyte between them. My
results were independent of the position of the wires in the flame, and could
not be accounted for by supposing these wires to form a voltaic couple, inas-
much as though in some cases, where wires of two metals were looped together
as described, the current flowed from the metal most attacked across the
imaginary electrolyte to the other wire, in other cases it flowed in the oppo-
site direction.
It remained to be seen whether the currents might not have a thermo-
electric origin. Last year I imagined that the effect observed might be di-
rectly due to discontinuity, but that idea was dispelled by some experiments
with loose contacts between wires of different metals, which have thrown
great light on the question.
Loops of iron, silver, platinum, gold, and copper wires were combined two
by two in all the possible arrangements, and the currents measured which
were obtained when one or the other or both loops were heated with loose
and tight contacts between them.
A Table was thus formed, which is appended to the present paper.
The resistance of the circuit was so large (2050 x 10°, Weber’s absolute
aoe that the inherent resistance of the joint and of the different short
wires used in each experiment could be neglected, and the deflections ob-
tained on a reflecting galvanometer could be taken as approximatively pro-
portional to the electromotive force of each combination. The common
thermo-electric currents produced by the metallic contact between dissimilar
wires almost vanish in comparison with those produced by the loose contacts.
T need not present a complete analysis of the Table, but will speak only of
the combination of iron and copper with which the most remarkable results
were obtained. When the usual tight metallic contact was made between
these two wires and the two loops equally heated, the current first flowed
from copper to iron across the joint, and then as the temperature rose ceased
altogether, and finally, at a red or white heat, flowed from iron to copper.
The maximum deflection obtained in either direction was three divisions.
These deflections showed the celebrated inversion discovered by Cumming.
If the pressure between the loops was relaxed, the current ceased alto-
gether ; but when the loops were moved, so that the copper became red-hot
while the iron was cool, a current flowed from the copper to the iron, or from
hot to cold across the joint, giving a deflection of 100 divisions; whereas if
the iron was heated red-hot and the copper cooled, a current giving 90 divi-
sions flowed in the opposite direction, or from iron to copper, but from hot
to cold as before. Thus in these two cases the loose-contact currents given
when one or the other loop was heated, flowed in the opposite direction be-
ON THERMO-ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN CIRCUITS OF ONE METAL. 175
tween the metals, but in both cases from hot to cold across the joint, and
were in each case about thirty times as great as the currents given by the
thermo-electric difference between the metals.
It was found on examining the Table, that wherever copper appeared in con-
junction with any other of the metals named, the direction of the loose-con-
tact current could invariably be determined by the following rule :—When
the copper was the hot wire, the current flowed from the copper to the other
metal across the joint; but when copper was the cold metal, the current flowed
from the other metal to the copper, or in both eases from hot to cold.
Exactly the contrary was found wherever iron appeared in conjunction
with any of the five metals but copper; the current then always flowed from
cold to hot. Two copper wires alone gave the largest deflection, of about 220
diyisions ; and two iron wires alone gave the next largest of those obtained
where single metals only were used, but of course in the opposite direction
to the deflection from copper.
It was then perceived that all these results would be explained if, the thin
coating of oxide on the copper wire might be regarded as a conductor with a
hot and cold junction, and endowed with thermo-electric properties far more
positive than the iron, while at the same time the coating of oxide on the
iron wire would have to be regarded as far more negative than the copper.
It was, however, difficult to suppose that two bodies so similar in some re-
spects as the oxides of copper and iron should be at opposite extremities of
the thermo-electric scale, but the following direct experiment left no doubt
on my mind.
A little spiral was made of platinum wire, and a small quantity of oxide of
copper laid upon it, and held in a flame till white-hot ; another platinum wire
was then dipped in the melted mass, when a strong current was at once ob-
served from the hot to the cold wire, as if a loose contact had been made
between two copper wires. When either of the oxides of iron was tested in
a similar manner, a strong current was obtained from the cold to the hot
platinum wire, as if a loose contact had been made between two iron wires.
I do not yet know positively what the substances are which, interposed
between silver and platinum and gold wires, give rise to the loose-contact
currents, but I feel no doubt that these are as much thermo-electric currents
as those given by the oxides of copper and iron, and are produced in a circuit
composed of the metal and a very thin hot film, of which the two surfaces are
unequally heated.
There are, however, some good reasons for doubting whether electrolytes
can be included in a true thermo-electric series, and I consulted many autho-
rities with reference to this point. Seebeck himself includes many electrolytes
in his thermo-electric scale, and places acids below bismuth, a result con-
firmed lately by Gore (in 1857); he also places certain salts above antimony,
a result subsequently confirmed by Andrews of Belfast in 1837. This
gentleman observed that the tension produced by the salts between the wires
was about equal to that between a platinum and silver plate in dilute sulphuric
acid, and that the metals used as electrodes did not influence the deflection.
He considered the current certainly due to a thermo-electric action.
Faraday in 1833 discovered what Becquerel subsequently called pyro-elec-
tric currents ; the currents were in different directions with different substances
used, and some, if not all, were of the same nature as those I have described.
Leroux and Buff obtained currents where glass acted as the electrolyte.
Leroux considered them thermo-electric, and Buff chemical effects. Buff
also attributes some of the electrical phenomena connected with flame to a
176 _ REPORT—1862. 4
thermo-electric action in which unequally heated air or gas forms part of
the circuit. The currents obtained when a hot and cold platinum wire are
dipped into dilute sulphuric acid and other liquids are well known; and
finally (in 1858), Mr. Wild published a laborious research, in which he seems
to prove the development of thermo-electric currents not only at the junction
between metals and various solutions, but also between two different solutions.
Thus, although none of the above observers seem to have tested the oxides,
there seems little reason to doubt that they may be classed with other elec-
trolytes, and may give rise to currents in the same manner. On the other
hand, I cannot yet consider it definitively proved that any of the currents
obtained from electrolytes are due to a true thermo-electrie action—that is
to say, to an absorption of heat only, especially as Mr. Wild could find no
trace of the Peltier heating and cooling effect at the junctions of his solutions.
Further research, showing the source of the power developed, is most de-
sirable.
While consulting the literature connected with this subject, I found that
Gaugain had to some extent preceded me in the discovery of the loose-con-
tact currents, in a paper published in the ‘ Comptes Rendus’ in 1853. He
comes to the same conclusion as I had done independently, that they were
due to the unequally heated film of foreign matter, and places oxide of iron
below platinum, and oxide of copper above gold and zinc, but below iron,
instead of very much above it as I find. He does not appear to have ob-
served the exceedingly high electromotive force to be obtained from these
bodies, no doubt owing to the use of a short galvanometer coil of thick wires,
such as is commonly used for thermo-electric researches. He introduces a
carburet of iron, of which I find no trace, with more positive properties than
oxide of copper, to explain some of his results. He gives very few data on
which to found his theory, but simply mentions his conclusions, and appears
to have made no direct experiment whatever with the oxides. Owing to
these circumstances his experiments seem to have attracted little attention.
I have endeavoured to contrive a convenient apparatus by which to study the
properties of the oxides, but have not hitherto met with much success, owing
to the great difficulty in maintaining a constant difference of temperature
between the surfaces of the very thin film, which can alone be used with
success. Next year I hope to obtain further results in elucidation of these
quasi thermo-electric currents from electrolytes.
I now wish to add a few remarks on the currents which occur when true
metallic contact is made between a hot and cold end of a wire of one metal.
The existence of these currents was placed beyond all doubt by Magnus’s
careful experiments, but their connexion with other thermo-electric phenomena
has hitherto remained entirely without explanation. Wild has suggested
that they might be due to a thermo-electric couple formed with hot air or gas
at the moment of junction; but experiments which I have made show this
explanation to be founded on a mistaken conception of the duration of the
current, which is by no means instantaneous, but lasts at least five minutes
with copper or with iron wires, very gradually decreasing in intensity from
a maximum to zero.
Another explanation, viz. that the deflection is due to a sort of discharge
of a statical effect produced by the unequal distribution of heat, is also nega-
tived by the same consideration, as well as by the fact that a tension of suffi-
cient magnitude to produce such a charge could not possibly have escaped
observation by direct measurement.
Professor W. Thomson has shown conclusively, in his ‘ Dynamic Theory of
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COLD METALS ON LEFT.
Tance showing the comparative thermo-electric effects obtained with loose and tight contacts between loops of one and two metals,
foot__ 897, Siemens's mercury units, The numbers entered are deviations observed on a reflecting galvanometer, and are very
‘Total resistance of circuit in every case about 2048 x 10° absolute da
nearly proportional to the strengths of currents,
Tron,
Tron.
seconds
Siver.
HOT METALS ON RIGHT (except when words “in middle” are used).
(10 face page 177.
PLATINUM.
Gop.
Copper,
Heated at right side,
Loose contact 2=»——>— 10
Tight contact s»——>-2
Heated in middle.
Maximum
Heated at right side,
Loose contact s=-——>— 12
Tight contact 21
Heated in middle,
Ist maximum —<——eme 2
2nd do. (hotter) »=»——>-5
Heated at right side,
Loose contact 2»——>10 or 15
Tight contact <——ewe 10
Heated in middle.
Maximum —<——_e« 10
land do.(hotter) ==> 4
Heated at right side,
Loose contact 2»——>- 15
Tight contact »=»——>2
Heated in middle.
Ist maximum —<——eme 4
Heated at right side,
Loose contact —<——eme 100
Tight contact 2==——s—weak
Heated in middle.
1st maximum ~<——eue 3
2nd do. (hotter) s»-——=- 3
SrLver.
2nd do.(hotter) —<——eme 5
Heated at right side.
Loose contact »»——>—8
Tight contact 2==——>weak
Heated in middle.
Ist maximum 2=»—>—2
Heated at right side.
Loose contact 2=»——>—weak
Tight contact 2=»——>weak
Heated in middle,
Maximum
Heated at right side.
Loose contact ~<——«me 100 to 150
Tight contact <——euac 10
Heated in middle,
Maximum es 12
Heated at right side.
Loose contact —<<——me 10
Tight contact ~——eme weak
Heated in middle.
Maximum —<——eme 1
Maximum
Heated at right side,
Loose contact —<——eme 190
Tight contact <——eme2
Heated in middle
2
<x!
PLATINUM.
Goxp.
Heated at right side,
Loose contact 3=——>-12
Tight contact 2=»——>10
Heated in middle,
Maximum == 10
Heated at right side,
Loose contact #==——>—-15
Tight contact 2-15
Heated in middle.
Maximum z= 12
Heated at right side,
Loose contact —<——eme 5
Tight contact .......... 0
Heated in middle.
Maximum oes eee 0
Heated at right side.
Loose contact 2=»——>~10
Tight contact s=»——>10
Heated in middle,
Maximum 210
Maximum
Heated at right side.
Loose contact 2=——> 15 to 20)
Tight contact 2»——>weak
Heated in middle.
lst maximum 2=— 3.
2nd do.(hotter) <——eme 4
Copper.
Heated at right side.
Loose contact —<<——eme 90
Tight contact 2» weak
Heated in middle,
Ist maxinum 2=»—>-3
2nd do. (hotter) <———eme 3
Heated at right side,
Loose contact 2=——>— 10
| Tight contact 2=»——s—weak
Heated in middle,
Maximum 2—>2
Heated at right side.
Loose contact —«——eme 5
Tight contact ~<——eme 10
Heated in middle,
Maximum —<—_—_e 10
Heated at right side.
Loose contact —<——me weak
Tight contact »=»——>weak
Heated in middle.
Maximum
Maximum
Heated at right side.
Loose contact —<——eme 170
Tight contact ———eme weak
Heated at right side.
Loose contact ~<——eme 80
Tight contact 2=»——> 10
Heated in middle.
a—=—15
Heated in middle.
weak
Heated at right side.
Loose contact <——eume 210
Tight contact 2=»-——>weak
Heated in middle,
Maximum 2=»——>-2
Heated at right side.
Loose contact —<——me 250
Tight contact ~<——me uncertain
Heated in middle,
Maximum —<—_ee 15
Heated at right side.
Loose contact ~<——me 280 to 300,
Tight contact me weak
Heated in middle,
Maximum —~<——eme weak
Maximum
Heated at right side,
Loose contact <——eume 220
Tight contact ~-——eee weak
Heated in middle,
saw ean tie 0
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ON THERMO-ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN CIRCUITS OF ONE METAL. 177
Heat,’ that if the condition of metal at a certain temperature depended ex-
clusively on that temperature, no distribution or movement of heat could
possibly give rise to a current of electricity in a circuit of one metal; never-
theless I find, as above stated, that in a circuit of one metal wire a current
is maintained for five minutes at a time, gradually vanishing to nothing when
the two ends of the homogeneous wire have been for some time in contact, but
recommencing if one wire is cooled for a minute and then again applied to
the hot one. One explanation of this might be that the condition of the
wires does not solely depend on their temperature, but is influenced to a con-
siderable extent by the time during which they have remained at that tem-
perature. Nor is this a gratuitous assumption: Dr. Matthiessen has proved
that wires of several metals do not attain a constant conducting power until
they have been kept for some time at a constant temperature; he finds that
the conducting power of bismuth increases, while that of tellurium decreases
when kept for a time at 100°. Quite similarly, some metals may rise and
some may fall in the thermo-electric scale after being heated for some time, a
supposition which is necessary to account for the metallic contact currents by
the theory I suggest.
Another possible explanation of the metallic contact currents may be found
in a partial hardening on the one side and annealing on the other, caused
by the sudden contact of the hot and cold metal. If this be so, the current
between annealed and unannealed wires of the same metal would correspond
with the contact current between two homogencous wires, in a way which it
does not seem to do.
1 am, however, now engaged in investigating this subject, and hope before
next year to be able to give facts which may decide whether either of these
theories is tenable. There is great difficulty in forming any conclusion from
experiments hitherto made, inasmuch as none of the observers, except
Dr. Matthiessen, have used chemically pure metal, and it is found that the
electrical properties of a metal are affected to an extraordinary degree by the
presence of impurities in very small quantities.
Explanation of the Table.
“The names of the metals of which the loops were made are entered at the
side and top of the Table. The experiments made with each combination are
entered in the subdivision at the intersection of the horizontal and vertical
columns corresponding to the two metals. The metals named at the top
formed the right-hand loop, those at the side the left-hand loop. The arrows
show the direction of the current across the joint. The first entry in each
subdivision shows the deflection observed when the right-hand metal was
heated and the wires held loosely together. The second entry shows the
ee when the same metal was heated but the wires drawn tightly
together.
The third entry gives the maximum deflection, and the direction of the
current, when the middle of the joint is gradually heated and the two wires
held tightly together.
The fourth entry (where given) shows the maximum deflection from a
current in the opposite direction when greater heat was applied. The two
entries show the common well-known metallic thermo-electric effects.
The first entry shows the new loose-contact effect. The second entry shows
an uncertain combined effect of metallic and imperfect contact effects.
a example will perhaps make this clearer, When copper and iron were
* N
2 REPORT—1862.
used and copper loop heated, a loose contact produced a current from copper
to iron across the joint, giving a deflection of 100 divisions. A tight contact
gave nothing decided. When the iron loop was heated (the copper cold) the
loose contact produced a current from iron to copper across the joint, giving
a deflection of 90 divisions. A tight contact in this case gave a weak current
in the opposite direction. When the joint was heated in the middle, as the
temperature gradually rose, a maximum deflection of 3 divisions was first
reached, showing a current from copper to iron across the joint; and as the
heat increased still further this current was reversed, and finally, at a white
heat, gave a maximum deflection of 3 divisions with a current from iron to
copper.
On the Mechanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities.
By W. Farrsarrn, F.R.S.
A VALUABLE series of experiments were made at Manchester upon portions of
plates fired at by the Iron Plate Committee at Shoeburyness. These experi-
ments comprised the determination of the resistance to punching, to a tensile
strain, to impact, and to pressure.
They show that the tenacity varied from 11 to 29 tons per square inch in
the iron plates, and from 26 to 333 tons in the homogeneous iron plates. The
average strength of the iron plates between 14 and 3 inches thick varied
from 234 to 243 tons per square inch, and this, or about 21 tons, may proba-
bly be insisted upon as a measure of strength in future contracts for iron
lates.
a The elongation of the plates under a tensile strain may be taken as a mea-
sure of the ductility of the material ; it varied in the thicker iron plates from
0-91 to 0-27 per unit of length, and averaged 0:27 inch in the homogeneous
metal plates. The maximum observed was 0:35.
The most important results in connexion with the question of the resist-
ance are, however, those obtained by combining the tensile breaking weight
with the ultimate elongation, as first indicated by Mr. Mallet in a paper read
before the Institution of Civil Engineers. By finding in this manner the
product of the tenacity and ductility, numbers are obtained which, though not
identical with those expressing the resistance of the plates in the experiments
with guns at Shoeburyness, are yet in close correspondence with them, The
average value for Mr. Mallet’s coefficient in the thicker iron plates was about
6500 lbs., and in the steel or homogeneous plates 8300 lbs. But the resist-
ance of the iron plates increases with the thickness, whilst that of the homo-
geneous metal diminishes. The correspondence of these numbers is indicated
in the Report addressed to the War Office and the Admiralty ; but a more
extended series of experiments are yet wanting to determine the true value
of the coefficient as a guide to be insisted upon in the manufacture of iron
plates. 9000 foot-pounds is the maximum for iron given by the *results
already obtained ; but an extended series of experiments might develope new
features of resistance and new improvements in the manufacture.
The experiments on punching afford an explanation of the greatly increased
perforating power of the flat-headed shot overthat of the round-headed
projectiles. They also lead to a formula for the ordinary cast-iron service
shot, which appears to give with approximate accuracy the law of the resist-
ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF IRON PROJECTILES. 179
ance of plates of different thicknesses to missiles of various weights and velo-
cities.
These investigations led to inquiries into the state of the manufacture of
plates calculated to resist heavy and powerful projectiles directed against the
sides of an iron-plated ship, and, moreover, to determine the exact thickness
of plates that a vessel was able to carry. Again, they had reference to the
quality of the plates and their powers of resistance to impact. There were
three conditions necessary to be observed in the manufacture: 1st, that the
material should be soft and ductile; 2nd, that it should be of great tenacity ;
and, lastly, that it should be fibrous and tough. All these conditions apply
to the manufacture of plates, and they also apply, with equal force, to the
projectiles in their resistance to pressure and impact.
In the experiments at Shoeburyness, it was found that the ordinary cast-
iron service shot were not adapted for penetration, as they invariably broke
into fragments when discharged against a sufficiently thick armour-plate. In
most cases when delivered at high velocities, they had the power of damaging
and breaking the plates ; but owing to their crystalline character and defective
tenacity, a considerable portion of the power was expended in their own
destruction. To some extent the same law was applicable to wrought-iron
shot, as part of the force, from its greater ductility, was employed in distorting
its form, and depriving it of its powers to penetrate the plate. Cast and
wrought iron are therefore inferior as a material for projectiles intended to
be employed against iron-plated ships and forts. With steel hardened at the
end the case is widely different, as its tenacity is not only much greater than
that of cast and wrought iron, but the process of hardening the head prevents
compression and its breaking up by the blow when the whole of its force is
delivered upon the plate. Steel, although much superior to cast or wrought
iron in its power of resistance in the shape of shot, is, nevertheless, suscep-
tible of distortion and compression, and in every instance when employed
against powerful resisting targets the compression, and consequently the dis-
tortion, was distinctly visible.
There is another consideration besides the material which enters largely
into the question of the resisting powers of shot, and that is form. It will
‘be recollected that, some years since, the late Professor Hodgkinson instituted
a series of experiments to determine the strength of iron pillars, and the
results obtained were in the following ratios ;—
Ibs.
Ist. That pillars of about 20 to 30 diameters in length, with 3000
two flat ends, broke with)... 06 5. 0000 S00. e 0.
2nd. Pillars with one end rounded and one flat broke with © 2000
And 3rd. Pillars with both ends rounded broke with...... 1000
being in the ratio of 1, 2,3. Now in order to ascertain the effects of form
on cylindrical shot, a series of experiments were instituted to determine the
force of impact and statical pressure produced upon shot of different shapes,
and from these experiments the following results were obtained.
The description of shot experimented upon was cast-iron of the cylindrical
form, with flat and round ends; and it is interesting to observe that the re-
sults correspond with those where both ends are rounded and one end only
rounded, as obtained by Mr. Hodgkinson on long columns; but in the short
Specimens with both ends rounded the results are widely different, as may
be seen by the following Table.
n2
180: REPORT—1862.
No. of | Crushing | Ultimate Pressure Pressure
Experi- | weight in | compression |per squareinch|persquareinch Remarks.
ments. lbs. in inches. in lbs. in tons.
1 73,428 122,115 54°51
2 68,062 125,787 Both ends flat.
WMEATOMIE ecw | | webene 123,951 Areas 5674 and *7088.
3 35,540 62,636
4 40,916 57,725 One end rounded.
ECR 1) sscece |) eimauwrece 60,180 Areas *7088 and ‘7088.
Lt 5. 38,260 53,978
6. 37.580 53,030 Both ends rounded.
Mean 37,920 Areas *7088 and °7088.
From the above experiments, it is evident that the round-ended shot loses
more than one-half its power of resistance to pressure in the direction of its
length ; and this may be accounted for by the hemispherical end concentrating
the force on a single point, which, acting through the axis of the cylinder,
splits off the sides by a given law of cleavage in every direction. On the other
hand, the flat-ended specimens have the support of the whole base in a vertical
direction ; and from these we derive the following comparative results :—
Taking the resistance of the flat-ended shot at 54°82 tons per square inch,
and that with hemispherical ends at 26:86, we have a reduction from the
mean of the flat-ended columns of 27:96 tons, being in the ratio of 100: 49;
or, in other words, a flat-ended shot will require more than double the force to
crush it than one with one of its ends rounded. Now, as the same results
were obtained at Shoeburyness, in the appearance of the fractured ends, when
similar shot was fired from a gun, we arrive at the conclusion that the same
law is in operation whether rupture is produced by impact or statical pressure.
In the experiments on cast-iron shot, the mean compression per unit of
length of the flat-ended specimen was ‘0665, and of the round-ended +1305.
The ratio of the compression of the round- to the flat-ended was therefore
as 1:96: 1, or nearly in the inverse ratio of the statical crushing pressure. It
has been correctly stated that it requires a considerable amount of force to
break up shot when delivered with great velocity against an unyielding
object, such as the side of an iron-cased ship, or a target representing a por-
tion of that structure; and it may be thence inferred that the force expended
in thus breaking up the shot must be deducted from that employed in doing
work on the plate. This is confirmed by experiment, which shows that though
the whole of the force contained in the ball, when discharged from a gun at a
given velocity, must be delivered upon the target, the amount of work done,
or damage done to the plate, will depend on the weight and the tenacity of
the material of which the shot is composed.
Tf, for example, we take two balls of the same weight, one of cast iron and
the other of wrought iron, and deliver each of them with the same velocity
upon the target, it is obvious that both balls carry with them the same pro-
jectile force as if they were composed of identically the same material. The
dynamic effect or work done is, however, widely different in the two cases,
the one being brittle and the other tough: the result will be, that the cast
iron is broken to pieces by the blow, whilst the other either penetrates the plate
or, what is more probable, flattens its surface into a greatly increased area, and
ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF IRON PROJECTILES, 181
inflicts greatly increased punishment upon it, In this instance the amount
of work done is in favour of the wrought iron: but this does not alter the
condition in which the force was first delivered upon the target; on the con-
trary, it is entirely due to the superior tenacity of wrought iron to that of
cast iron, which yields to the blow, and is broken to pieces in consequence of
its inferior powers of resistance. The same may be said of steel in a much
higher degree, which delivers nearly the whole of its vis viva upon the plate.
In the foregoing experiments it will be observed that the resistance of cast-
iron flat-ended shot to a crushing force is about 55 tons per square inch,
whilst in the two following we find that the round-ended specimens, of the
same material, gaye way and were crushed with a pressure of only 263 tons—
rather less than one-half the force required to crush the flat-ended ones, It
is a curious but interesting fact (provided the same law governs the force of
impact as dead pressure) that the round-ended projectile which strikes the
target should lose, from shape alone, one-half its powers of resistance. This
may be accounted for as under.
Take, for example, a cylinder of cast iron, a, with a rounded end forcibly
pressed against the steel plate A,-until it
is crushed by a fixed law of fracture ob-
servable in every description of crystalline
structure; that is, the rounded end or
part s forms itself into a cone, which,
acting as a wedge, splits off the sides cc
in every direction at the angle of least
resistance, and these, sliding along the
sides of the cone, are broken to pieces on
the surface of the plate.
At Shoeburyness the same results were
observable in all the experiments with
spherical and round-ended shot, each of
them following precisely the same law. In every case where the shot was
broken to pieces, the fractured parts took the same direction, forming a cone
or central core similar to that shown at s, as exhibited in my own experi-
ments on statical pressure with the round-ended cylindrical shot.
The law of fracture of cast iron has been carefully investigated by the late
Professor Hodgkinson in his paper on the strength of pillars, to which we
haye referred. It is there clearly shown that the resistance of columns
when broken by compression is in the ratio of 1, 2, and 3; the middle one,
with only one end rounded, being an arithmetical mean between the other
two. Now these important facts, according to all appearance, bear directly
upon the forms necessary to be observed in the manufacture of projectiles, as
we find cylindrical shot with round ends loses one-half its powers of resist-
ance to a pressure or a blow which tends to rupture or to break it in pieces.
My own experiments given above do not exactly agree with those of Pro-
fessor Hodgkinson—the ratio of resistance in a column with one end rounded,
and that of a column with both ends flat, being as 3: 1-5, instead of as 3: 2
as in his experiments,—a discovery probably explained by considering that
he employed cast-iron pillars from 20 to 30 diameters in length, whereas my
own were only two diameters long. Professor Hodgkinson has, indeed, ex-
pressed an opinion that the difference of the strengths of the three forms of
pillars becomes less according as the number of times the length of the pillar
exceeds the diameter decreases, which is the reverse of the results obtained in
the foregoing experiments. But on this I may observe, that the conclusion
182 : a REPORT—1862.
is founded on a very limited number of experiments on wrought-iron columns
of 15 to 30 diameters long as compared with others of 60 diameters, which,
in my opinion, has been prematurely assumed as a general law. With wrought
iron especially, the crushing-up of the rounded ends would soon bring pillars
of that form into the condition of flat-ended pillars when the breaking weight
approached the ultimate strength of the material—a conclusion confirmed by
observing that the experiments in question are exactly those in Mr. Hodg-
kinson’s table in which the breaking weights of the pillars are greatest.
However this may be, the experiments I have given show that short cylinders
with flat ends have twice the strength of similar cylinders with one end
rounded. From this it would appear that the law for short cylinders is not
the same, but altogether different from that obtained by Mr. Hodgkinson
for long cylinders.
The discrepancies which appeared to exist between my own experiments
and those of Professor Hodgkinson induced me still further to inquire into
the law which seems to govern short bolts of columns of two diameters
in length. To account for those discrepancies, the experiments were extended
to columns with both ends rounded; and what renders them interesting is,
that in short columns with both ends rounded the powers of resistance are
nearly the same as those with one end flat and one end rounded, and moreover
they appear to follow a different law from that of Professor Hodgkinson’s long
columns, which, in most cases, broke by flexure.
The difference in strength between short columns with both ends rounded
and those with one end flat and one end rounded is almost inappreciable, as
will be seen by comparing their values as under :—
Tons per square inch.
Columns of two diameters long with flat ends crushed with 54:82
Columns with one end rounded and one flat 4 3 26:86
Columns with both ends rounded........ S 3 23°88
So that the difference between them may be taken as the numbers 55, 27,
and 24, or, in other words, in the ratio of 1: ‘49 with one end rounded and
one end flat—that with both ends flat representing unity—and as 1 : :44 with
both ends rounded ; a comparatively slight difference between those with one
end flat and the others with both ends rounded.
With regard to the dynamic effect, or work done, by round-ended shot as
compared with flat-ended ones, it has already been shown that with dead pres-
sure the indentations produced on wrought-iron plates by a round-ended shot
are nearly 33 times greater than by those with the flat ends, and that the
work done is twice as great in the case of the round ends as compared with
that by the flat ends. This may be accounted for by rounded shot striking
the plate with its; pointed end, and the force of the blow being given by a
comparatively small area; the vs viva or
the whole force is thus concentrated and
driven into the target to a depth consider-
ably greater than if spread over the whole
area of the projectile. The flat-ended
cylindrical shot, which indicates such
powerful resistance to pressure, is gene-
rally fractured by one or more of its sides
being forced downwards in the direction
of the line a, and hence its superior resist-
ance when the whole area of the cylinder
forms the base as the means of support.
ON THE MECHANICAL: PROPERTIES OF IRON PROJECTILES, 183
The difference of form does not, however, lessen the quantity of mechanical
force (the weights being the same), as each ball has the same work stored in it
when delivered from the gun at the same velocity, and the blow upon the
target ought to be the same in effect but for the difference of shape in the case
of the round ends, which break to pieces with one-half the pressure.
It is difficult to estimate the difference of force or work done upon the target
by the two balls; it. is. certainly not in the ratio of their relative tenacities
(the metal being the same), but arising from form, as the one would strike
the target with its whole sectional area in the shape of a punch adapted for
perforation, whilst the other, although much easier fractured, would effect a
deeper indentation upon the plate.
The same law of defective resistance is observable in wrought iron and
steel as is indicated in cast iron, but not to the same extent. On com-
paring the mean of twenty-six experiments on wrought iron with those
on cast iron, it is evident that the difference between the two is considerable
in their respective powers of resistance to compression. In the experiments
on cast iron the specimens were invariably broken into fragments, and those
of wrought iron, although severely crushed, were not destroyed. The same
law, however, appears to be in operation in regard to the flat- and the round-
ended specimens, although less in that of wrought iron, as both forms were
squeezed so as to be no longer useful, the ratios being as 75 : 50 nearly, or
100: 67-4. The round-ended shot, as might be expected, supported con-
siderably more than one-half the pressure applied to the flat-ended one before
it was finally distorted, whilst the cast iron was broken with less than one-
half the pressure required to crush the flat-ended specimens. . From these
and the experiments on impact, there cannot exist a doubt as to the damaging
effects of wrought-iron projectiles.
The experiments on steel indicate similar results to those on cast and
wrought iron, as may be seen from the mean of nineteen experiments given
in the following summary of results :—
No. of Breaking Ultimate Pressure Pressure
Ad weight in {| compression | per square per square Remarks.
Experiments. Ibs. in inches. inch in lbs. | inch in tons.
L 145,756 04 269,419 120°27 Flat-ended.
10 114,980 “21 202,643 90°46 Round-ended.
Here the same law of defective resistance is present in the round-ended
cylinders as in those of cast iron, and doubtless the same ratio would have
been obtained, provided the apparatus had been sufficiently powerful to have
fractured the flat-ended specimens; we may therefore conclude that, instead
of the above ratio of 100 : 75, it would-have been 100 : 50 or thereabouts.
From these facts, and those on wrought iron, we are led to the conclusion
that the power of resistance to fracture of a cylindrical shot with both ends
flat is to that with its front end rounded as 2: 1 nearly.
_ The experiments of which the above is an abstract were extended to lead,
as well as cast and wrought iron, and steel; but those on lead were of little
value, as the compression was the same whether the ends were rounded or flat.
This is accounted for by the extreme ductility of the metal and the facility
with which it is compressed. As regards the wrought-iron specimens it may
be observed that no definite results were arrived at, excepting the enormous
statical pressure they sustained, equivalent to 78 tons per square inch of
184 . REPORT—1862.
sectional area, and the large permanent set which they exhibit. These com-
parative values are as follows :—-
Statical resistance in Dynamical resistance in
tons per square inch. foot-pounds per square inch.
Cast iron, flat ends........-+. = OD:D2. sbisscielategeleh Xe 7768
Cast iron, round ends ...... =26°8i7iqa.oasians lamar 821:9
Steel, round ends .......-+. ==O0°AG/latieinthia tak 2515:0
From the experiments on the wrought iron, the flat-ended steel specimens,
and the lead, no definite conclusion was arrived at, the material being more
or less compressed without the appearance of fracture. The mean resistance
of the cast iron is 800 foot-pounds per square inch, whilst that of steel is
2515 foot-pounds, or more than three times as much. The conditions which
appear to be derivable from these facts, in order that the greatest amount of
force may be expended on the iron plate, are therefore :—Very high statical
resistance to rupture by compression. In this respect wrought iron and steel
are both superior to cast iron; in fact, the statical resistance of steel is more
than three times that of cast iron, and more than two and a half times that
of wrought iron. Lead is inferior to all the other materials experimented
upon in this respect. Again, resistance to change of form under severe
pressure and impact is an important element in the material of shot. In this
respect hardened steel is infinitely superior to wrought iron. Cast iron is
inferior to both. In fact, the shot which would produce the greatest damage
on armour-plates would be one of adamant, incapable of change of form, and
perfect in its powers of resistance to impact. Such a shot would yield up the
whole of its vis viva on the plate struck, and, so far as experiment yet proves,
those projectiles which approach nearest to that condition are the most
effective.
Report on the Progress of the Solution of certain Special Problems of
Dynamics. By A. Cayuny, F.R.S., Correspondent of the Institute.
My “Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics” was pub-
lished in the Report of the British Association for the year 1857. The
present Report (which is in some measure supplemental thereto) relates to
the Special Problems of Dynamics: to give a general idea of the contents, I
will at once mention the heads under which these problems are considered ;
viz., relating to the motion of a particle or system of particles, we haye
Rectilinear Motion ;
Central Forces, and in particular
Elliptic Motion ;
The Problem of two Centres ;
The Spherical Pendulum ;
Motion as affected by the Rotation of the Earth, and Relative Motion in
general ;
Miscellaneous Problems :
The Problem of three bodies.
And relating to the motion of a solid body, we have
The Transformation of Coordinates ;
Principal Axes, and Moments of Inertia ;
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS, 185
Rotation of a Solid Body ;
Kinematics of a Solid Body ;
Miscellaneous Problems.
As regards the first division of the subject, I remark that the lunar and
planetary theories, as usually treated, do not (properly speaking) relate to the
problem of three bodies, but to that of disturbed elliptic motion—a problem
which is not considered in the present Report. The problem of the spherical
pendulum is that of a particle moving on a spherical surface ; but, with this
exception, I do not much consider the motion of a particle on a given curve
or surface, nor the motion in a resisting medium; what is said on these
subjects is included under the head Miscellaneous Problems. The first six
heads relate exclusively, and the head Miscellaneous Problems relates princi-
pally to the motion of a single particle. As regards the second division of
the subject, I will only remark that, from its intimate connexion with the
theory of the motion of a solid body, I have been induced to make a separate
head of the geometrical subject, “‘ Transformation of Coordinates,” and to treat
of it in considerable detail.
I have inserted at the end of the present Report a list of the memoirs and
works referred to, arranged (not, as in the former Report, in chronological order,
but) alphabetically according to the authors’ names: those referred to in the
former Report formed for the purpose thereof a single series, which is not
here the case. The dates specified are for the most part those on the title-
page of the volume, being intended to show approximately the date of the
researches to which they refer, but in some instances a moxe particular speci-
fication is made.
I take the opportunity of noticing a serious omission in my former Report,
yiz., I have not made mention of the elaborate memoir, Ostrogradsky,
“Mémoire sur les ¢quations différentielles rélatives au probléme des Isopéri-
métres,” Mem. de St. Pét. t. iv. (6 sér.) pp. 385-517, 1850, which among other
researches contains, and that in the most general form, the transformation of
the equations of motion from the Lagrangian to the Hamiltonian form, and
indeed the transformation of the general isoperimetric system (that is, the
system arising from any problem in the calculus of variations) to the Hamil-
tonian form. I remark also, as regards the memoir of Cauchy referred to in
the note p. 12 as an unpublished memoir of 1831, there is an “ Extrait du
Mémoire présenté 4 l’Académie de Turin le 11 Oct. 1831,” published in
_ lithograph under the date Turin, 1832, with an addition dated 6 Mar. 1833.
The Extract begins thus :—*« § I. Variation des Constantes Arbitraires. Soient
données entre la variable ¢,. . . m fonctions de ¢ désignées par 2, Ys 2 oija Ch
autres fonctions de ¢ désignées par u, v, w,. . 2n équations différentielles du
prémier ordre et de la forme
dat _ dQ dy dQ dz dQ
dt ai dl deo diss. ie
du dQ dvy_ dQ dw dQ &e.”
ay hes
dt da’ dt dy” “dé dz
without explanation as to the origin of these equations; and the formule are
then given for the variations of the constants in the integrals of the foregoing
system ; this seems sufficient to establish that Cauchy in the year 1831 was
familiar with the Hamiltonian form of the equations of motion.
Bour’s “‘ Mémoire sur l’intégration des équations différentielles de la Mé-
canique,” as published, Mém. prés, de Inst. t. xiv. pp. 792-821, is substan-
186 REPORT—1862.
tially the same as the extract thereof in ‘ Liouville’s Journal,’ referred to in
my former Report ; but since the date of that Report there have been published
in the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 1861 and 1862, several short papers by the same
author; also Jacobi’s great memoir, see list, Jacobi, Nova Methodus &c. 1862,
edited after his decease by Clebsch; some valuable memoirs by Natani and
Clebsch (Crelle, 1861 and 1862) relating to the Pfaffian system of equations
(which includes those of Dynamics), and Boole “ On Simultaneous Differential
Equations of the First Order, in which the number of the Variables exceeds by
more than one the number of the Equations,” Phil. Trans. t. clii. (1862)
pp. 437-454.
Rectilinear Motion, Article Nos. 1 to 5.
1. The determination of the motion of a falling body, which is the case of
a constant force, is due to Galileo.
2. A variable force, assumed to be a force depending only on the position
of the particle, may be considered as a function of the distance from any
point in the line, selected at pleasure as a centre of force; but if, as usual,
the force is given as a function of the distance from a certain point, it is
natural to take that point for the centre of force. The problem thus becomes
a particular case of that of central forces ; and it is so treated in the ‘ Principia,’
Book I. § 7; the method has the advantage of explaining the paradoxical
result which presents itself in the case Force O¢ (Dist.)—?, and in some other
cases where the force becomes infinite. According to theory, the velocity
becomes infinite at the centre, but the direction of the motion is there
abruptly reversed; so that the body in its motion does not pass through the
centre, but on arriving there, forthwith returns towards its original position ;
of course such a motion cannot occur in nature, where neither a force nora
velocity ever is actually infinite.
3. Analytically the problem may be treated separately by means of the
a
1ax\2
equation qea* which is at once integrable in the form (a) =049/3 Xdzx.
4. The following cases may be mentioned :—
Force o Dist. Thelaw of motion is well known, being in fact the same
as for the cycloidal pendulum.
Force ¢ (Dist.)-2, =, which is the case above alluded to.
‘ a
Assuming that the body falls from rest at a distance a, we have
x=a (1—cos ¢),
where, if n= ¢ is given in terms of the time by means of the equation
B
nt=p—sin ¢.
If the body had initially a small transverse velocity, the motion would be in a
very excentric ellipse, and the formule are in fact the limiting form of those
for elliptic motion.
5. There are various laws of force for which the motion may be determined.
Tn particular it can be determined by means of Elliptic Integrals, in the case
of a body attracted to two centres, force OC (dist.)-2: see Legendre, Exercices
de Cal. Intég. t. ii. pp. 502-512, and Théorie des Fonct. Ellip. t. i. pp. 531-
538. I :
‘ee escbhe fo ak ee
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 187
Central Forces, Article Nos. 6 to 26.
6. The theory of the motion of a body under the action of a given central’
force was first established in the ‘ Principia,’ Book I. §$ 2 & 3: viz. Prop. I.
the areas are proportional to the times, that is (using the ordinary analytical
1 hy
notation), °d@=hdt, and Prop. VI. Cor. 3, Pa Sy py ate apt") so
that : Mu P
a3 tu—a>5=0.
do hew
7. It,is to be noticed that, given the orbit, the law of force is at once
determined ; and § 2 contains several instances of such determination ; thus,
Prop. VII. If a body revolve in a circle, the law of force to a point § is
a
force Agp: py (P the body, PV the chord through §).
Prop. IX. If a body move in a logarithmic spiral, force q (dist.)-3.
Prop. X. Ifa body move in an ellipse, force to centre @ dist., and as a parti-
cular case, if the body move in a parabola under the action of a force
parallel to the axis, the forcé is constant. The particular case of motion in
a parabola had been obtained by Galileo.
And § 3. Props. XI. XII. XIII. Ifa body move in an ellipse, hyperbola, or
parabola under the action of a force tending to the focus, force q@ (dist.)—2.
8. But Newton had no direct method of solving the inverse problem
(which depends on the solution of the differential equation), ‘Given the
force to find the orbit.” Thus force q& (dist.)—2, after it has been shown that
an ellipse, a hyperbola, and a parabola may each of them be described under
the action of such a force. The remainder of the solution consists in showing
that, given the initial circumstances of the motion, a conic section (ellipse,
parabola, or hyperbola, as the case may be) can be constructed, passing through
the point of projection, having its tangent in the direction of the initial
motion, and such that the velocity of the body describing the conic section
under the action of the given central force is equal to the velocity of pro-
jection ; which being so, the orbit will be the conic section so constructed.
This is what is done, Prop. XVII. ; it may be observed that the latus rectum
is constructed not very elegantly by means of the latus rectum of an
auxiliary orbit.
_ 9. A more elegant construction was obtained by Cotes (see the ‘ Harmonia
Mensurarum,’ pp. 103-105, and demonstration from the author’s papers in
the Notes by R. Smith, pp. 124, 125); depending on the position of a point C,
such that the velocity acquired in falling under the action of the central
force from C directly or through infinity* to P the point of projection, is equal
to the given velocity of projection. as
10. But Newton’s original construction is now usually replaced by a con-
struction which employs the space due to the velocity of projection considered
as produced by a constant force equal to the central force at the point of pro-
jection. st
; Al. Section 9 of Book I. relates to revolving orbits, viz., it is shown that
a body may be made to move in an orbit revolving round the centre of force,
* Tn the second case C lies on the radius vector produced beyond the centre, and the
body is supposed to fall from rest at C (under the action of the central force considered as
repulsive) to infinity, and then from the opposite infinity (with an initial velocity equal
to the velocity so acquired) to P.
188 REPORT—1862.
by adding to the central force required to make the body move in the same
orbit at rest, a force q (dist.)-3. This appears very readily by means of the
differential equation (antée, No. 6), viz. writing therein P+-cu’ for P, and then
6', 2! in the place of o/1—S,
its original form, with 6!, h’, in the place of 6, 2 respectively.
12, It may be remarked that when the original central force vanishes, the
fixed orbit is a right line (not passing through the centre of force). It thus
appears by § 9 that the curve u=A cos (n6+B) may be described under the
action of a force q (dist.)-3. A proposition in § 2, already referred to, shows
that a logarithmic spiral may be described under the action of such a force.
13. But the case of a force & (dist.)—3 was first completely discussed by
Cotes in the ‘ Harmonia Mensurarum,’ pp. 31-35, 98-104, and Notes, pp. 117
-173. There are in all five cases, according as the
velocity of projection is
1. Less than that acquired in falling from infi-
nity, or say equal to that acquired in fall-
ing from a point C to P, the point of pro-
jection.
2, Equal to that acquired in falling from infi-
w/ 1— a respectively, the equation retains
nity.
3, 4, 5. eats than that acquired in falling
from infinity, or say equal to that acquired
in falling from a point C’, through infinity,
to P; viz. PQ being the direction of pro-
jection,and SQ, C'T perpendiculars thereon
from § and C' respectively,
3. SQ<TQ;
5. SQ>TQ;
the equations of the orbits being
1. w=Ae™+4+Be~™, A and B same sign, so that rad. vector is never infinite.
2. u=Ae” or Be~™, logarithmic spiral.
3. u=Ac™+Be7-™, A and B opposite signs, so that rad. ector becomes
infinite.
4. u=A0+B, m=0, reciprocal spiral.
5. u=A cos (n0+B), m=ny —1.
14, The before-mentioned equation,
Cu P
apt — ee
0,
is in effect given (but the equation is encumbered with a tangential force) in
Clairaut’s “ Théorie de la Lune,” 1765. Itis given in its actual form, and ex-
tensively used (in particular for obtaining the above-mentioned equations for
Cotes’s spirals) in Whewell’s ‘ Dynamics,’ 1823. The equation appears to be
but little known to continental writers, and (under the form wv" +u—a’r?>R=0)
it is given as new by Schellbach as late as 1853. The formule used in place
of it are those which give ¢ and @ each of them in terms of r; viz.
?
,
r
;
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 189
dt= il RT
{hr (C—2f Pdr)}*
ja hdr
r{—h-+7°(C—2f Par)}"
which, however, assume that P is a function of r only.
15. Force & (dist.)-2._ The law of motion in the conic sections is implicitly
given by Newton’s theorem for the equable description of the areas, For the
parabola, if « denote the pericentric distance, and f the angle from pericentre
or true anomaly, we have
pace Me (tan 2f+ 3 tan® if).
Nv
For the ellipse we have an angle g, the mean anomaly varying directly as
the time (g=nt if nave ; an auxiliary angle u, the excentric anomaly,
az
connected with g by the equation
g=u—esin u;
_and then the radius vector r and the true anomaly f are given in terms of w
by the equations r=a (1—e cos w), and
e086 gin pM Ie sin and «tan afm 1 tan de,
—e
co —— —— —— =
f l—ecosw 1l—e cos u
16. It is very convenient to have a notation for and f considered as func-
tions of ¢,g, and I have elsewhere proposed to write
r=a elqr(e, 9), f=elta (e, 9),
read elqr elliptic quotient radius, and elta elliptic true anomaly.
17. The formule for the hyperbola correspond to those for the ellipse, but
they contain exponential in the place of circular functions (see post, Elliptic
Motion).
18, Euler, in the memoir “Determinatio Orbitz Comete Anni 1742,”
(1743), p. 16 et seq., obtained an expression for the time of describing a para-
bolic are in terms of the radius vectors and the chord; viz. these being f, g,
and k, the expression is
Time arrAl (r+94%)'— (r+0-z)'T,
which, however, as remarked by Lagrange, ‘ Méc. Anal.’ t. xi. (3rd edit. p. 28),
is deducible from Lemma X, of the third book of the ‘Principia.’ But the
theorem in its actual form is due to Euler.
19. Lambert, in the ‘ Proprietates Insigniores, &e.’ (1761), Theorem VII,
Cor. 2, obtained the same theorem, and in section 4 he obtained the corre-
sponding theorem for elliptic motion ; viz. the expression for the time is
at —¢'—(sin ¢—sin »
Paige 9—o g $
190 REPORT—1862,
= sin 3@=3A pie, sin} g'=3q JU
The form of the formula is, it will be observed, similar to that for motion in
a straight line (anié, No. 4), and in fact the motion in the ellipse is, by an
ingenious geometrical transformation, made to depend upon that in the
straight line. The geometrical theorems upon which the transformation
depends are stated, Cayley “On Lambert’s Theorem &c.” (1861).
20. The theorem was also obtained by Lagrange in the memoir “ Re-
cherches &c.” (1767) as a corollary to his solution of the problem of two
centres; viz. upon making the attractive force of one of the centres equal to
zero, and assuming that such centre is situate on the curve, the expression for
the time presents ‘itself in the form given by Lambert’s theorem,
21. Two other demonstrations of the theorem are given by Lagrange in
the memoir “Sur une maniére particuliére d’exprimer Te temps &e.”’ (1778),
reproduced in Note V. of the second volume of the last edition (Bertrand’s) of
the ‘Mécanique Analytique.’ As M. Bertrand remarks, these demonstrations
are very complete, very elegant, and very natural, assuming that the theorem
is known beforehand.
Demonstrations were also given by Gauss, ‘‘ Theoria Motus ” (1809), p. 119
et seq.; Pagani, « Démonstration @un théoréme &e.” (1834); and (in con-
nexion with Hamilton’s principal function) by Sir W. R. Hamilton, “On a
General Method &c.” (1834), p. 282; Jacobi, “Zur Theorie &e.” (1837), .'
p- 122; Cayley, ‘ Note on the Theory of Elliptic Motion” (1856).
22: Connected with the problem of central forces, we have Sir W. R.
Hamilton’s ‘ Hodograph,’ which in the paper (Proc, R. Irish Acad, 1847) is
defined, and the fundamental properties stated; viz. if in an orbit round a
eentre of force there be taken on the perpendicular from the centre on the
tangent at each point, a length equal to the velocity at that point of the orbit,
the extremities of these lengths will trace out a curve which is the hodograph.
As the product of the velocity into the perpendicular on the tangent is equal
to twice the area swept out in a unit of time (vp=h), the hodograph is the
reciprocal polar of the orbit with respect to a circle described about the centre
of force, radius =/h. Whence also the tangent at any point of the hodo-
graph is perpendicular to the radius vector through the corresponding point
of the orbit, and the product of the perpendicular on the tangent into the
corresponding radius vector is =h. |
wn
If force q& (dist.)—2, the hodograph, qua reciprocal polar of a conic section
with respect to a circle described about the focus, is a circle. 4
23. The following theorem is also given without demonstration ; viz.if two —
circular hodographs, which have a common chord passing or tending through
a common centre of force, be both cut at right angles by a-third circle, the
times of hodographically describing the intercepted arcs (that is, the times of —
describing the corresponding elliptic ares) will be equal.
24, Droop, “‘On the Isochronism é&e.” (1856), shows geometrically that .
the last-mentioned property is equivalent to Lambert’s theorem; and an
analytical demonstration is also given, Cayley, ‘A demonstration of Sir W.
‘R. Hamilton’s Theorem &e.’’ (1857). See also Sir W. R. Hamilton’s ‘ Lee-
tures on Quaternions’ (1853), p. 614,
25. The laws of central force which have been thus far referred ~ are force
ar, os: Cie ; and it has been seen that the case of a force P+ depends
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 191
upon that of a force P, so that the motions for the forces Arts and B +5
y*
are deducible from those for the forces Ar and 5 respectively. Some other
laws of force, ¢. g. S+Br, Stat o+e, are considered by Legendre,
«Théorie des Fonctions Elliptiques” (1825), being such as lead to results
expressible by elliptic integrals, and also the law Ll for which the result in-
r
volves a peculiar logarithmic integral. But the most elaborate examination
of the different cases in which the solution can be worked out by elliptic
integrals or otherwise is given in Stader’s memoir “De Orbitis dc.” (1852),
- where the investigation is conducted by means of the formule which give
¢ and @ in terms of r (ante, No. 14).
26. In speaking of a central force, it is for the most part implied that the
force is a function of the distance: for some problems in which this is not
the case, see post, Miscellaneous Problems, Nos. 86 and 87.
It is to be noticed that, although the problem of central forces may be (as
it has so far been) considered as a problem in plano (viz. the plane of the
motion has been made the plane of reference), yet that it is also interesting to
consider it as a problem in space; in fact, in this case the integrals, though
of course involved in those which belong to the plane problem, present them-
selves under very distinct forms, and afford interesting applications of the
theory of canonical integrals, the derivation of the successive integrals by
Poisson’s method, and of other general dynamical theories. Moreover, in
the lunar and planetary theories, the problem must of necessity be so treated.
Without going into any details on this point, I will refer to Bertrand’s
memoir “Sur les équations différentielles de la Mécanique ” (1852), Donkin’s
memoir “On a Class of Differential Equations &c.” (1855), and Jacobi’s pos-
thumous memoir, “ Nova Methodus &c.” (1862).
Elliptic Motion, Article Nos. 27-40.
27, The question of the development of the true anomaly in terms of the
Mean anomaly (Kepler’s problem), and of the other developments which pre-
sent themselves in the theory of elliptic motion, is one that has very much
occupied the attention of geometers. The formule on which it depends are
mentioned anté, No. 15; they involve as an auxiliary quantity the excentric
anomaly wu.
28, Consider first the equation
g=u—esin u,
‘which connects the mean anomaly g with the excentric anomaly wu.
_ Any function of u, and in particular wu itself, and the functions ee nu may
be expanded in terms of g by means of Lagrange’s theorem (Lagrange, ‘ Mém.
de Berlin,’ 1768-1769, «Théorie des Fonctions,” c. 16, and “Traité de la
Résolution des équations Numériques,” Note LE):
29. Considering next the equation
tan af=/ tie tan 2 u,
which gives the true anomaly in terms of the excentric anomaly, then, by
/ replacing the circular functions by their exponential values (a process em-
192 REPORT—1862.
ployed by Lagrange, ‘Mém, de Berlin, 1776), f can be expressed in terms of
uw; viz. the result is
fH=ut2r sin u+2d. 3 sin 2u+2)°. 3sindu+&e.,
where rest a Awad (=). Hence if u, sin uv, sin 2u, &c. are
é 1+/1-é
expressed in terms of the mean anomaly, f will be obtained in the form
=g-+a series of multiple sines of g, the coefficients of the different terms
being given in the first instance as functions of ¢ and \; and to complete tho
development \ and its powers have to be developed in powers of e. The solu-
tion is carried thus far in the ‘Mécanique Analytique’ (1788), and im the
‘ Mécanique Céleste ’ (1799).
30. We have next Bessel’s investigations in the Berlin Memoirs for 1816,
1818, and 1824, and which are carried on mainly by means of the integral
h 2r
ont cos (hu—k sin u) du,
20
and various properties are there obtained and applications made of this im~
portant transcendant.
31. Relating to this integral we have Jacobi’s memoir, “ Formule trans-
formationis &c.” (1836), Liouville, ‘Sur l’intégrale “cos i (w—a sin uw) du”
0
(1841), and Hansen’s “ Ermittelung der absoluten Stérungen” (1843) ; the
researches of Poisson in the ‘ Connaissance des Temps’ for 1825 and 1836 are
closely connected with those of Bessel.
32. A very elegant formula, giving the actual expression of the coefficients
considered as functions of ¢ and X, is given by Greatheed in the paper “ Inyes-
tigation of the General Term &c.” (1838) ; viz. this is
fag teen {eer gn Teen sin "9
r
where, after developing in powers of A, the negative powers of must be
rejected, and the term independent of A divided by 2. This result is ex-
tended to other functions of f, Cayley “On certain Expansions &c.” (1842).
33. An expression for the coefficient of the general term as a function of ¢
only is obtained, Lefort, ‘‘ Expression Numérique &c.” (1846). The expres-
sion, which, from the nature of the case, is a very complicated one, is obtained
by means of Bessel’s integral. This is an indirect process which really comes
to the combination of the developments of f in terms of w, and w in terms of
g; and an equivalent result is obtained directly in this manner, Creedy,
‘General and Practical Solution &c.” (1855).
34, We have also on the subject of these developments the very valuable
and interesting researches of Hansen, contained in his ‘ Fundamenta Nova,
&ec.’ (1838), in the memoir “Ermittelung der absoluten Storungen &e.”
(1845), and in particular in the memoir “ Entwickelung des Products &e.”
(1853).
cos
35. But the expression for the coefficient of the general term .- 79 in any
of these expansions is so complicated that it was desirable to have for the
coefficients corresponding to the values r=0, 1, 2,3, ... the finally reduced
expressions in which the coefficient of each power of ¢ is given as a numerical
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 193
™ cos »
sin ¥. ?
a general symbol, the expansion being carried as far as e”, were given, Lever-
rier, ‘ Annales de l’Observatoire de Paris,’ t. i. (1855).
36. And starting from these I deduced the results given in my “Tables of
the Developments, &c.” (1861); viz. these tables give (e=2-1),
a
| Ae wv"),
Sete o 2
Cae 51 saa oi") nh j=l to j=7,
(Ce) (Je GY)
(Ci) Go) Go) tain saa wat
all carried to e”.
37. The true anomaly f has been repeatedly calculated to a much greater
extent, in particular by Schubert (Ast. Théorique, St. Pét. 1822), as far
fraction. Such formule for the development of (Z —1 where 7 is
. Yi . . :
ase, The expression for — as far as e” is given in the same work, and that
a
for log - as far as e*° was calculated by Oriani, see Introd. to Delambre’s
‘Tables du Soleil,’ Paris (1806).
38. It may be remarked that when the motion of a body is referred to a
plane which is not the plane of the elliptic orbit, then we have questions of
development similar in some measure to those which regard the motion in the
orbit ; if, for instance, z be the distance from node, ¢ the inclination, and a
the reduced distance from node, then cosz=cos @ cos x, from which we may
derive z=#-+ series of multiple sines of 2. And there are, moreover, the
questions connected with the development of the reciprocal distance of two
particles—say (a? + a'*—2aa! cos 0)~?—which present themselves in the pla-
netary theory; but this last is a wide subject, which I do not here enter
upon. I will, however, just refer to Hansen’s memoir, ‘‘ Ueber die Entwicke-
lung der negativen und ungeraden Potenzen &c.” (1854).
39. The question of the convergence of the series is treated in Laplace’s
memoir of 1823, where he shows that in the series which express r and f in
. . : . cos . oe
multiple cosines or sines of g, the coefficient of a term sin 7 where 7 is very
great, is at most equal in absolute value to a quantity of the form slg):
A and X being finite quantities independent of 7, whence he concludes that,
in order to the convergency of the series, the limiting value of the excentricity
is e=X, the numerical value being e=0°66195.
40. The following important theorem was established by Cauchy, as part
of a theory of the convergence of series in general; viz. so long as e is less
than 0:6627432, which is the least modulus of e for which the equations
T :
pues u, 1=ecos
can be satisfied, the development of the true anomaly and other developments
in the theory of elliptic motion will be convergent. This was first given in
1862, 0
194, REPORT—1862.
the “Mémoire sur la Mécanique Céleste,”’ read at Turin in 1831, but it is
reproduced in the memoir * Considérations nouvelles sur les suites &c.,” Mem.
d’Anal, et de Phys, Math. t. i. (1840); and see also the memoirs in ‘ Liou-
ville’s Journal’ by Puiseux, and his Note i. to vol. ii. of the 3rd ed. of the
‘Mécanique Analytique’ (1855), There are on this subject, and on subjects
connected with it, several papers by Cauchy in the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 1840
_et seq., which need not be particularly referred to.
The Problem of two Centres, Article Nos. 41 to 64,
41. The original problem is that of the motion of a body acted upon by
forces tending to two centres, and varying inversely as the squares of the
distances ; but, as will be noticed, the solutions apply with but little variation
to more general laws of force.
42, It may be convenient to notice that the coordinates made use of (in
the several solutions) for determining the position of the body, are either the
sum and difference of the two radius vectors, or else quantities which are
respectively functions of the sum and the difference of these radius vectors*.
If the plane of the motion is not given, then there is a third coordinate,
which is the inclination of the plane through the body and the two centres
to a fixed plane through the two centres, or say the azimuth of the axial
plane, or simply the azimuth.
43, Calling the first-mentioned two coordinates r and s, and the azimuth yp,
the solution of the problem leads ultimately to equations of the form
dr _ ds _ Adr, pds pdr | ods
VE WS “VRS “HVE WS
where R and § are rational and integral functions (of the third or fourth
degree, in the case of forces varying as (dist.)—®) of 7, s respectively (but
they are not in general the same functions of r,s respectively); \ and p are
simple rational functions of 7, and » and o simple rational functions of s; so
that the equations give by quadratures, the first of them the curve described
in the axial plane, the second the position of the body in this curve at a given
time, and the third of them the position of the axial plane. In the ordinary
case, where R and § are each of them of the third or the fourth order, the
quadratures depend on elliptic integralst ; but on account of the presence in
the formule of the two distinct radicals /R, /§, it would appear that the
solution is not susceptible of an ulterior development by means of elliptic and
Jacobian functionst similar to those obtained in the problems of Rotation and
the Spherical Pendulum.
44, It has just been noticed that when R, S are each of them of the fourth
order, the quadratures depend on elliptic integrals; in the particular cases
mdr __ nds
VR VS
* Tf v, wu are the distances of the body P from the centres A and B, @ the distance AB,
é, the angles at A and B respectively, and p=tan } % tan 4, gq=tan 3 +tan } y, then,
in which the relation between 7, s is of the form >» Rand § being
as may be shown without difficulty, v+u=a ioe o—uaazyt so that p and q are
a a ofv-+u and »—w respectively ; these quantities p and q are Euler’s original coordi-
nates.
+ The elliptic integrals are Legendre’s functions F, B, 1; the elliptic and Jacobian
functions are sinam., cosam., Aam., and the higher transcendants 0, H.
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 195
the same functions of +,s respectively, and m and n being integers (or more
generally for other relations between the forms of R, S given by the theory
of elliptic integrals), the equation admits of algebraical integration ; but as
the relations in question do not in general hold good, the theory of the
algebraical integration of the equations plays only a secondary part in the
solution of the problem, It is, however, proper td remark that Kuler, when
he wrote his first two memoirs “On the Problem of the two Centres” (post,
Nos. 45 and 46), had already discovered and was acquainted with the theory
ly nd
of the algebraic integration of the equation TR Wa (R, 8, m, 2, ut supra),
although his memoir, “ Integratio zequationis
da dy
VA+Bo+Co*+Da%+Ea* VA+By+Cy?+Dy'4 Ey”
N. Comm. Petrop. t. xii. 1766-1767 ?, bears in fact a somewhat later date.
45. Having made these preliminary remarks, I come to the history of the
problem.
It is I think clear that Euler’s earliest memoir is the one «De Motu Corporis
ce.” in the Petersburg Memoirs for 1764 (printed 1766). In this memoir
the forces vary as (dist.)-?, and the body moves in a given plane. The
equations of motion are taken to be
oe =2y (—+=),
u
ay 2u( Ay By
”
—¥ = 97 [| —_ 4
de vy wp
which, if ¢, » are the inclinations of the distances v, u to the axis respectively
~ (See foot-note to No. 42), lead to
dv? +d? 4gdt? ¢ te B be “="),
vou a
v'u* de dn=2gadt (A cos £+B cos n+D),
where D, E are constants of integration. Substituting for v, wtheir values in
terms of y, and eliminating dt, Kuler obtains .
dfsinn P+/P?—Q?
dy sin Z “4 Q
3
where
A cos n+ B cos +D cos ¢ cos n+Esin ¢ sin 7»=P,
A cos +B cosy+D =Q.
And he then enters into a very interesting discussion of the particular case
=0 or B=0 (viz, the case where one of the attracting masses vanishes,
which was of course known to be integrable); and after arriving at some
paradoxical conclusions which he does not completely explain, although he
remarks that the explanation depends on the circumstance that the integral
found is a simgular solution of a derivative equation, and as such does not
satisfy the original equations of motion,—he proceeds to notice that an
inquiry into the cause of the difficulty led him to a substitution by which
the variables were separated.
46. But in the memoir * Probléme, un Corps &e.” in the Berlin Memoirs
- for 1760 (printed 1767), after obtaining the last-mentioned formule, he gives
02
196 REPORT—1862.
at once, without explaining how he was led to it, the analytical investigation
of the substitution in question, viz. in each of the two memoirs he in fact
writes
dgsinn+dysin ¢ eee
dz sin n—dy sin f
tand¢=f, tandn=g, fy=p, he
that is
p=tanlZtand,; g=tan }f+tan }y;
and in terms of these quantities p, q, the equation becomes
dp _ dq
VP VQ
P=( A+B+4+D)p+2Ep*+(—A—B+D)p’,
Q=(—A+B—D)q+2E¢+( A—B—D)¢’,
so that P and Q are cubic functions (not the same functions) of p and q
respectively ; and the equation for the time is found to be
where
dtr 2g _ pdp gdq
aNa (—pyvP' (1+9)7VQ’
which are the formule for the solution of the problem, as obtained in Euler’s
first and second memoirs.
47. In his third memoir, viz. that “‘ De Motu Corporis &c.” in the Petersburg
Memoirs for 1765 (printed 1767), Euler considers the body as moving in
space, the forces being as before as (dist.)—2._ Assuming that the coordinates
4, z are in the plane = Ssateammed to the axis, there is in this case
Zz
1
the equation of areas y 77 —* “a =const.; and writing y=y’'sin yy, z=y’ cos yy,
that’ is, y'= /y?+z2, and y the azimuth, the integral equations for the
motion in the variable plane (coordinates #, y') are not materially different in
form from those which belong to the motion in a fixed plane, coordinates «, y
(see post, No. 56, Jacobi); and the last-mentioned equation, which reduces
l
itself to the form y” Ht =const., gives at once dy in a form such as that
above alluded to (anté, No. 43), and therefore ~ by quadratures. The
variables employed by Euler in the memoir in question are
u+u,v—u (say 7, s) and y,
v, u being, as above, the distances from the two centres, and y the azimuth
of the axial plane. The functions of v,s under the radical signs are
of the fourth order; this is so, with these variables, even if the motion
is in a fixed plane ; but this is no disadvantage, since, as is well known, the
ease of a quartic radical is not really more complicated than that of a cubic
radical, the two forms being immediately convertible the one into the other.
48. Lagrange’s first memoir (Turin Memoirs, 1766-1769) refers to Euler’s
three memoirs, but the author mentions that it was composed in 1767 with-
out the knowledge of Euler’s third memoir. The coordinates ultimately
made use of are v+u, v—u (say 7,s) and y, the same as in Euler’s third
memoir, and the results consequently present themselves in the like form,
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 197
49. If the attractive force of one of the centres is taken equal to zero,
then the position of such centre is arbitrary, and it may be assumed that the
centre lies on the curve, which is in this case an ellipse (conic section) ; the
expression of the time presents itself as a function of the focal radius vectors
and the chord of the arc described ; which, as remarked, anté, No. 20, leads to
Lambert’s theorem for elliptic motion.
50. The case presents itself of an ellipse or hyperbola described under the
: ; k dp arts ’
action of the two forces, viz. the equation VE WS will be satisfied
byr—a=0, if r—a@ be a double factor of R, or by s—f@=0, if s—B be a
double factor of S, a case which is also considered in the ‘ Mécanique Ana-
lytique ;’ and see in regard to the analytical theory, t. ii. 3rd ed. Note III. by
M. Serret, and “‘Thése,” Liouv. 1848. It is remarked by M. Bonnet, Note LV.
and Liouy. t. ix. p. 113, 1844, that the result is a mere corollary of a general
theorem, which is in. effect as follows, viz. if a particle under the separate
actions of the forces F, F’, . . . starting in each case from the same point in
the same direction but with the initial velocities v, v', &e. respectively,
describe the same curve, then such curve will also be described under the
conjoint action of all the forces, provided the body start from the same point
in the same direction, with the initial velocity V= /v?+v7+4..
51. Lagrange’s second memoir (same volume of the Turin Memoirs)
contains an exceedingly interesting discussion as to the laws of force for
which the problem can be solved. Writing U,V, u,v in the place of Lagrange’s
P, Q, p, g, the equations of motion are
x, (wx—a)U 4 (a— a)V_ 0,
dt? u v
Uy , (y—5)U | (y—6)V_
Ger Sagem et Te
dz, (z—c)U (z—y)V_
de Tiare) Babies wih Int
where
w= (x—a)’+(y—b)'+ (zc),
v= (w7—a)’+(y—B) + (e—y)’,
and putting also f (= /(a—a)’+ (6— 8)’ + (c—y)’) the distance of the centres,
and then w’=/x, v’=fy, eet (~,y are of course not to be con-
founded with the coordinates originally so represented), Lagrange obtains
the equations
Pax (w+y—D¥
poet ke SO +f (Xde+Ydy)=0,
& —1)x
Aces eee +f (Xdu+Ydy)=0,
which he represents by
Px
gp tM=0,
iy
3 de +N=0;
198 REPORT—1862.
and he then inquires as to the conditions of integrability of these equations,
for which purpose he assumes that the equations multiplied by mda+ndy
and pdx +vdy respectively and added, give an integrable equation.
52. A case satisfying the required conditions is found to be
B Y=2 PA
= =, Y=2a4+—=
x eae i Vf ve
or, what is the same thing,
U=2au+2, Vedat 2 ;
that is, besides the forces a os which vary as (dist.)—2, there are the forces
2au, 2av, varying directly as the distance, and of the same amount at equal
distances; or, what is the same thing, there is, besides the forces varying as
(dist.)—2, a force varying directly as the distance, tending to a third centre
midway between the other two, a case which is specially considered in the
memoir; it is found that the functions in r, s under the radicals (instead of
rising only to the order 4) rise in this case to the order 6.
53. Among other cases are found the following, viz. :—=
7. Veen t Sw tie,
5
5
Vau+2 a vw
2°, Vaan +h ut",
V=tu+5 v,
f
where B=e, or else ce=PSd=2(e.
In regard to the subject of this second memoir of Lagrange, see post, Mis-
cellaneous Problems, Liouville’s Memoirs, Nos. 100 to 105.
54. In the ‘Mécanique Analytique’ (1st ed. 1788, and 2nd ed. t. ii. 1813),
Lagrange in effect reproduces his solution for the above-mentioned law of
force (say U= Zt 2yu, Vas +2). There are even in the third edition
a few trifling errors of work to be corrected. The remarks above referred to,
as made by Lagrange in his first memoir, are also reproduced (see ante,
Nos. 49 and 50).
55. Legendre, “Exercices de Calcul Intégral,” t. ii.(1817), and “Théorie des
Fonctions Elliptiques,” t. i. (1825), uses p* and q’ in the place of Euler’s p, ¢;
the forces are assumed to vary as (dist.)—2, and in consequence of the change
Euler’s cubic radicals are replaced by quartic radicals involving only even
powers of p and q respectively ; that is, the radicals are in a form adapted for
the transformation to elliptic integrals; in certain cases, however, it becomes
necessary to attribute to Legendre’s variables p and q imaginary values.
The various cases of the motion are elaborately discussed by means of the
elliptic integrals; in particular Legendre notices certain cases in which the
* In the ‘ Mécanique Analytique,’ Lagrange’s letters are *, qg for the distances r-+-q=s,
*—q=w: the change in the present Report was occasioned by the retention of p, q or
Euler’s variables.
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 199
motion is oscillatory, and which, as he remarks, seem to furnish the first
instance of the description by a free particle of only a finite portion of the
curve which is analytically the orbit of the particle ; there is, however, nothing
surprising in this kind of motion, although its existence might easily not have
been anticipated.
56. § 26 of Jacobi’s memoir “ Theoria Novi Multiplicatoris &c.” (1845) is
entitled ‘Motus puncti versus duo centra secundum legem Neutonianum
attracti.” The equations for the motion in space are by a general theorem
given in the memoir “ De Motu puncti singularis ” (1842), reduced to the case
of motion in a plane: viz. if w, y are the coordinates, the centre point of the
axis being the origin, and y being at right angles to the axis, andif the distance
ay
dt?
2
there is added a term ra which arises from the rotation about the axis. Two
of the centres is 2a; then the only difference is that to the expression for
integrals are obtained, one the integral of Vis Viva, and the other of them an
integral similar to one of those of Euler’s or Lagrange’s. And then 2’, y’
being the differential coefficients of w, y with regard to the time, the remain-
ing equation may be taken to be y'dv—a‘dy=0, where wx’, y' are to be
expressed as functions of w, y by means of the two given integrals. This
being so, the principle of the Ultimate Multiplier * furnishes a multiplier of
this differential equation, and the integral is found to be
y'du—x'dy
ay (#@—y")+ (Ca +y)ay ©
the quantity under the integral sign being a complete differential. To verify
a@ posteriori that this is so, Jacobi introduces the auxiliary quantities X’, \"
defined as the roots of the equation \°+A(a*+y’?—a’*)—a’y’?=0, which in
fact, if as before u, v are the distances from the centres, leads to
u+-v=2V PN, u—v=2V aX",
so that \’,” are functions of w+v, w—v respectively ; and the formulz,
as ultimately expressed in terms of X’, X”, are substantially of the same form
with those of Euler and Lagrange.
57. The investigations contained in Liouville’s three memoirs “ Sur quel-
ques cas particuliers &c.” (1846), find their chief application in the problem
of two centres, and by leading in the most direct and natural manner to the
general law of force for which the integration is possible, they not only give
some important extension of the problem, but they in fact exhibit the pro-
blem itself and the preceding solutions of it in their true light. But as they
do not relate to this problem exclusively, it will be convenient to consider
them separately under the head Miscellaneous Problems.
58. In Serret’s ‘ Thése sur le Mouvement &c.’ (1848), the problem is very
elegantly worked out according to the principles of Liouville’s memoirs as
follows: viz. assuming that the expression of the distance between two con-
secutive positions of the body is
i ds? =(mdp? +ndy*)+Xr"dy’,
where m, n are functions of , v respectively, and if the forces can be repre-
sented by means of a force-function U, then the motion can be determined,
* Explained in Jacobi’s memoir “Theoria Novi Multiplicatoris &e.,” Crelle, tt. xxvii.
XXvill. xxix. 1844-465. : :
200 REPORT—1862,
provided only , AU, = are of the forms
A=gu—Oy,
AU=yp—Wy,
A =op— Ty,
where the functional symbols ¢, @, &c. denote any arbitrary functions what-
ever.
59. It is then assumed that p, vy are the parameters of the confocal ellipses
and hyperbolas situate in the moveable plane through the axis, viz. that we
have
“Stra: ammo
2 oe pe b? ?
2 2
wv
y b—pr
=i
(the origin is midway between the two centres, 2b being their distance ;
3u, 4v are in fact equal to the sum and difference u+v, u—v of the two
centres respectively) ; and that the position of the moveable plane is deter-
mined by means of y, the inclination to a fixed plane through the axis, or
say, as before, its azimuth. In fact, with these values of the coordinates, the
expression of ds* is
2 2 l 2 if 5 nae lin es 2
which is of the required form. And moreover if the forces to the two centres
yary as (dist.)—?, and there is besides a force to the middle point varying as
the distance, then
U= ee at Fe —b*),
p+y pov
whence (observing that A=,?—»*) AU is of the required form, The equa-
tions obtained by substituting for U the above value give the ordinary
solution of the problem.
60. Liouville’s note to the last-mentioned memoir (1848) contains the
demonstration of a theorem obtained by a different process in his second
memoir, but which is in the present note, starting from Serret’s formule,
demonstrated by the more simple method of the first memoir, viz., it is
shown that the motion can be obtained if the two centres, instead of
being fixed, revolve about the point midway between them in a circle in such
manner that the diameter through the two centres always passes through the
projection of the body on the plane of the circle. It will be observed that
the circular motion of the two centres is neither a uniform nor a given
motion, but that they are, as it were, carried along with the moving body.
61. In Desboves’s memoir “Sur le Mouvement d’un point matériel &e,”
(1848), the author developes the solution of the foregoing problem of moving
centres, chiefly by the aid of the method employed in Liouville’s second
memoir. And he shows also that the methods of Euler and Lagrange for
the case of two fixed centres apply with modification to the more complicated
problem of the moving centres.
62. The problem of two centres is considered in Bertrand’s “‘ Mémoire
sur les équations différentielles &c.” (1852), by means of Jacobi’s form of the
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 201
equations of motion, viz., the problem is reduced to a plane one by means of
the addition of a force as (ante, No. 56),
63. Cayley’s “ Note on Lagrange’s Solution &c.” (1857) is merely a repro-
duction of the investigation in the ‘ Mécanique Analytique ;’ the object was
partly to correct some slight errors of work, and partly to show what were
the combinations of the differential equations, which give at once the integrals
of the problem.
64, In § II. of Bertrand’s ‘“‘ Mémoire sur quelques unes des formes &c.”
(1857), the following question is considered, viz., assuming that the dynamical
equations
ie dU Wy dU
| df de’ dO dy’
have an integral of the form
a=Px?+Qe'y'+Ry?+8y'+Te' +K
(where « is the arbitrary constant, and P, Q...K are functions of w and
y), it is required to find the form of the force-function U. It is found that
U must satisfy a certain partial differential equation of the second order, the
general solution of which is not known; but taking U to be a function of
the distance from any fixed point (or rather the sum of any number of such
functions), it is shown that the only case in which the differential equations
for the motion of a point attracted to a fixed centre of forces have an inte-
gral of the form in question is the above-mentioned one of two centres, each
attracting according to the inverse square of the distance, and a third centre
midway between them, attracting as the distance.
The Spherical Pendulum, Article Nos. 65 to 73.
. 65. The problem is obviously the same as that of a heavy particle on the
surface of a sphere.
I have not ascertained whether the problem was considered by Euler.
Lagrange refers to a solution by Clairaut, Mém. de l’Acad. 1735.
The question was considered by Lagrange, Méc. Anal. Ist edit. p. 283.
The angles which determine the position are y the inclination of the string
to the horizon, ¢ the inclination of the vertical plane through the string to a
fixed vertical plane, or say the azimuth. And then forming the equations of
motion, two integrals are at once obtained; these are the integrals of Vis
Viva, and an integral of areas. And these give equations of the form
— dt=funct. (p) dp, dg=funct. (W)dy ; so that ¢, » are each of them given by a
quadrature in terms of , which is the point to which the solution is carried.
It is noticed that may have a constant value, which is the case of the
conical pendulum.
66. In the second edition, t. xi. p. 197 (1815), the solution is reproduced ;
only, what is obviously more convenient, the angles are taken to be
y, the inclination to the vertical,
@, the azimuth.
It is remarked that will always lie between a greatest value a and a least
value f, and the integrals are transformed by introducing therein instead of
y the angle o, which is such that
cos L=cos « sin?a+ cos f cosa,
202 REPORT—1862.
by which substitution they assume a more elegant form, involving only the
radical
V 1+ (cos /3— cos a) cos 2,
where & is a constant depending on cos a, cos 3; and the integration is effected
approximately in the case where cos }—cos @ is small.
M. Bravais has noticed, however, that by reason of some errors in the
working out, Lagrange has arrived at an incorrect value for the angle &,
which is the apsidal angle, or difference of the azimuths for the inclinations
a and: see the 3rd edition (1855), Note VII., where M. Brayais resumes the
calculation, and he arrives at the value @=7(1+ 3a), a and 3 being small.
Lagrange considers also the case where the motion takes place in a resist-
ing medium, the resistance varying as velocity squared.
67. A similar solution to Lagrange’s, not carried quite so far, is given in
Poisson’s ‘ Mécanique,’ t. i. pp. 385 et seq. (2nd ed. 1833).
A short paper by Puiseux, ‘‘ Note sur le Mouvement d’un point matériel
Tv
5
68, The ulterior development of the solution consists in the effectuation of
the integrations by the elliptic and Jacobian functions. It is proper to re-
mark that the dynamical problem the solution whereof by such functions
was first fairly worked out, is the more difficult one of the rotation of a
solid body, as solved by Jacobi (1839), in completion of Rueb’s solution (1834),
post, Nos. 186 and 197.
69. In relation to the present problem we have Gudermann’s memoir “ De
pendulis sphericis dc.” (1849), who, however, does not arrive at the actual
expressions of the coordinates in terms of the time; and the perusal of the
memoir is rendered difficult by the author’s peculiar notations for the elliptic
functions*. rk
70. It would appear that a solution involving the Jacobian functions was
obtained by Durége, in a memoir completed in 1849, but which is still un-
published ; see § XX. of his ‘Theorie der elliptischen Functionen’ (1861),
where the memoir is in part reproduced. It is referred to by Richelot in
the Note presently mentioned.
71. We have next Tissot’s ‘Thése de Mécanique,’ 1852, where the ex-
pressions for the variables in terms of the time are completely obtained by
means of the Jacobian functions H, ©, and which appears to be the earliest
published one containing a complete solution and discussion of the problem.
72. Richelot, in the Note ‘“‘ Bemerkungen zur Theorie des Raumpendels ”
(1853), gives also, but without demonstration, the final expressions for the
coordinates in terms of the time.
Donkin’s memoir “On a Class of Differential Equations &e.’”’ (1855) con-
tains (No. 59) an application to the case of the spherical pendulum.
73. The first part of the memoir by Dumas, “ Ueber die Bewegung deg
Raumpendels,” &. (1855), comprises a very elegant solution of the problem of
the spherical pendulum based upon Jacobi’s theorem of the Principal Func-
tion (1837), and which is completely developed by the elliptic and Jacobian
functions. The latter part of the memoir relates to the effect of the rotation
of the Earth ; and we thus arrive at the next division of the general subject.
sur une sphére ” (1842), shows merely that the angle ® is >
* The mere use of sn., cn., dn. as an abbreviation of the somewhat cumbrous sinam.,
cosam., Aam. of the ‘Fundamenta Noya’ is decidedly convenient.
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 203
Motion as affected by the Rotation of the Earth, and Relative Motion in general.
Article Nos. 74 to 85.
74, Laplace (Méc. Céleste, Book X.c. 5) investigates the equations for the
motion of a terrestrial body, taking account of the rotation of the Earth (and
also of the resistance of the air), and he applies them to the determination
of the deviations of falling bodies, &c. He does not, however, apply them to
the case of the pendulum.
75. We have also the memoir of Gauss, ‘‘ Fundamental-gleichungen, cc.”
(1804): the equations ultimately obtained are similar to those of Poisson. I
have not had the opportnnity of consulting this memoir.
76. Poisson, in the “‘Mémoire sur le mouvement des Projectiles &c.’’ (1838),
also obtains the general equations of motion, viz. (omitting terms involving
n*), these may be taken to be :
x dy . dz
> Fa X+2n op sin-+ 5,05 3)
ay dw .
GPa bs Ee
(see p. 20), where the axes of w, y,z are fixed on the Earth and moveable with
it: viz., z is in the direction of gravity; x,y in the directions perpendicular
to gravity, viz., y in the plane of the meridian northwards, w westwards; g
is the actual force of gravity as affected by the resolved part of the centrifugal
force ; 3 is the latitude. There are some niceties of definition which are
carefully given by Poisson, but which need not be noticed here.
77. Poisson applies his formule incidentally to the motion of a pendulum,
which he considers as vibrating in a plane; and after showing that the time
of oscillation is not sensibly affected, he remarks that upon calculating the
force perpendicular to the plane of oscillation, arising from the rotation of the
Earth, it is found to be too small sensibly to displace the plane of oscillation
or to have any appreciable influence on the motion—a conclusion which, as is
well known, is erroneous. He considers also the motion of falling bodies, but
the memoir relates principally to the theory of projectiles.
78. That the motion of the spherical pendulum is sensibly affected by the
rotation of the Earth is the well-known discovery of Foucault ; it appears by
his paper, ‘‘ Démonstration Physique &c.,”” Comptes Rendus, t. xxxii. 1851,
that he was led to it by considering the case of a pendulum oscillating at the
pole ; the plane of oscillation, if actually fixed in space, will by the rotation
of the Earth appear to rotate with the same velocity in the contrary direction ;
and he remarks that although the case of a different latitude is more compli-
cated, yet the result of an apparent rotation of the plane of oscillation, dimi-
nishing to zero at the equator, may be obtained either from analytical or from
mechanical and geometrical considerations. Some other Notes by Foucault
on the subject are given, ‘Comptes Rendus,’ t. xxxy. (1853).
79. An analytical demonstration of the theorem was given by Binct,
‘Comptes Rendus,’ t. xxii. (1851), and by Baehr (1853). Various short
papers on the subject will be found in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ and
elsewhere.
80. In regard to the above-mentioned problem of falling bodies, we have a
Note by W. 8., Camb. and Dub. M. Journ. t, iii. (1848), containing some errors
204 REPORT—1862.
which are rectified in a subsequent paper, ‘“‘ Remarks on the Deviation of
Falling Bodies,” &c. t. iv. (1849), by Dr. Hart and Professor W. Thomson.
81. The theory of relative motion is considered in a very general manner -
in M. Quet’s memoir, “ Des Mouvements relatifs en général &e.”’ (1853). Sup-
pose that w, y,z are the coordinates of a particle in relation to a set of move-
able axes; let é', n', Z’ be the coordinates of the moveable origin in reference
Pe’ dn CZ
to a fixed set of axes, and treating the accelerations “*, “7, “%
dt? dt?” dt’
were coordinates, let these, when resolved along the moveable axes, give
u', v', w': suppose, moreover, that p,q, 7 denote the angular velocities of the
system of the moveable axes (or axes of x, y,z) round the axes of x, y, and z
respectively ; w’, v', w', p, g, 7 are considered as given functions of the time,
and then, if
as if they
x dz ad di dr
pet Dot Oa eet Sn ee fo '
is det (05; rh) dt Yat a (Py le ae 4 a dal
_@Y , of dx dz Vig De yaa pothe siee
vee (F 2G) +7 zat (92 —Ty)—P (PYG) Tes
_&z dy _ dx dp __ dq a Se 7 F
wa at2 (0G in)tyd oR te pe) —9 (TY JE ws
it is shown that the equations of motion are to be obtained from the equation
Im[(u—X)ca+(v—Y)éy+(w—Z)éz|=0,
where éw, ¢y, éz are the virtual velocities of the particle m in the directions of
the moveable axes. This equation is in fact obtained as a transformation of
the equation
nl (té_x Py a | Le
onl (3 x) e+(oe Y)in+(3e )e =e
which belongs to a set of fixed axes of &, », Z.
82. The equations for the motion of a free particle are of course u=X,
v=Y,w=Z. In the case where the moveable axes are fixed on the Earth,
and moveable with it (the diurnal motion being alone attended to), these lead
to equations for the motion of a particle in reference to the Earth, similar to
those obtained by Gauss and Poisson. The formule are applied to the case
of the spherical pendulum, which is developed with some care; and Foucault’s
theorem of the rotation of the plane of oscillation very readily presents itself.
The general formule are applied to the relative motion of a solid body, and
in particular to the question of the gyroscope; the memoir contains other in-
teresting results.
83. The principal memoirs on the motion of the spherical pendulum, as
affected by the rotation of the Earth, are those of Hansen, “ Theorie der Pen-
delbewegung &c.”’ (1853), which contains an elaborate investigation of all the
physical circumstances (resistance of the air, torsion of the string, &c.) which can
affect the actual motion, and the before-mentioned memoir by Dumas, “ Ueber
der Bewegung des Raumpendels &c.” (1855), The investigation is conducted
by means of the variation of the constants; the integrals for the undisturbed
problem were, as already noticed, obtained by means of Jacobi’s Principal
Function, that is, in a form which leads at once to the expressions for the
variation of the constants; and the investigation appears to be carried out
in a most elaborate and complete manner.
84. In concluding this part of the subject I refer to Mr. Worms’s work, —
*The Rotation of the Earth’ (1862), where the last-mentioned questions —
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS, 205
(falling bodies, the pendulum, and the gyroscope) are, in reference to the
proofs they afford of the rotation of the Earth, considered as well in an experi-
mental as in a mathematical point of view. The second part of the volume
contains the theory (after Laplace and Gauss) of falling bodies, that of the
pendulum (after Hansen), and that of the gyroscope (after Yyon Villarceau) ;
and the whole appears to be a complete and satisfactory résumé of the experi-
mental and mathematical theories to which it relates.
85. We have also Cohen “ On the Differential Coefficients and Determinants
of Lines &c.” (1862), where the equations for relative motion are obtained in
a very elegant manner. The fundamental notion of the memoir may be con-
sidered to be the dealing directly with lines, velocities, &c., which are variable
in direction as well as in magnitude, instead of referring them, as in the ordi-
nary analytical method, to axes fixed in space. The memoir is a highly in-
teresting and valuable one, and the results are brought out with great facility ;
but I cannot but think that the great care required to apply the method cor-
rectly is an objection to it, if used otherwise than by way of interpretation of
previously obtained results, and that the ordinary method is preferable.
I may remark that the theory of relative motion connects itself with the
lunar and planetary theories as regards the reference of the plane of the orbit
to the variable ecliptic, and as regards the variations of the position of the
orbit; but this is a subject which I have abstained from entering upon.
Miscellaneous Problems. Article Nos. 86 to 111 (several subheadings),
Motion of a single particle,
86, Jacobi, in the memoir “ De Motu puncti singularis” (1842), notices
(§ 5) the case of a body acted on by a central force which is any homogeneous
function of the degree —2 of the coordinates ; or representing these by 7 cos ¢,
y sin g, then the force is caky where ® is any function of the angle ¢. In
i
fact, after integrating by a process different from the ordinary one the case of a
central force a he remarks that the method in fact applies to the more
general law of force just mentioned.
87. Jacobi, in the memoir “ Theoria Novi Multiplicatoris &c.” (1845), con-
siders (§ 25) the case of a body acted on by a central force P a function of the
distance, and besides by forces X and Y, which are homogeneous functions of
the degree —3 of the coordinates (#, y); viz. the equations of motion are in
this case
Ma Px
de Tp FM
Cpaoury
ge hy
and there is an integral
rat "aly 2 farteY —y? ps .
3(ay'’—a'y) —f (wY—yX) a const
(the function under the integral sign is obviously a function of the degree 0
in (a, y), that is, it is a function of Y) if X, Y are the derived functions of
xe
a force-function U of the degree —2 in (w, y), then there is, besides, the in-
tegral of Vis Viva, and thence a third integral is obtained by means of the
206 REPORT—1862.
theorem of the Ultimate Multiplier. It may be noticed that in the last-men-
tioned case the force-function is of the form =? so that if we represent also
the eentral force by means of a force-function R (=function of r), then the
entire foree-function is aot The case is a very interesting one; it in-
cludes that considered § iv. of Bertrand’s “ Mémoire sur les équations différen-
tielles de la Mécanique” (1852), where the force-function is of the form =5
Motion of three mutually attracting bodies in a right line.
88. The problem is considered by Euler in the memoir “De Motu rectilineo
&e,” (1765), the forces being as the inverse square of the distance; and a
solution is obtained for an interesting particular case. Let A, B,C be the
masses, and suppose that at the commencement of the motion the distances
CB, BA are in the ratio a: 1, and that the velocities (assumed to be in the
same sense) are proportional to the distances from a fixed point. Then, if
be the real root (there is only one) of the equation of the fifth order
C0 (14+8a+3a7)=Ad’ (a’4+38a+3)+B(a+1*y(a’—1),
the distances CB, BA will always continue in the ratio a:1. It may be
added that the distances CB, BA each of them vary as *—a*, where a is a
constant, and 7 is, according to the initial circumstances, a function of t de-
fined by one or the other of the two equations
r+ Nee
a BI
t=n'e¥ P—@—n'a? log
a) aoa til
t=n3eV 2—r?+n'a7sin— -.
a
89. The bodies are considered as restricted to move in a given line; but it
is clear that if the bodies, considered as free points in space, are initially in a
line, and the initial velocities are also in this line, then the bodies will always
continue in this line, which will be a fixed line in space. But if the distances
and velocities are as above, except only that the velocities, instead of being
along the line, are parallel to each other in any direction whatever, then the
bodies will always continue in a line, which is in this case a moveable line
in space (see post, No. 93).
90, Euler resumes the problem in the memoir of 1776 in the ‘ Nova Acta
Petrop” The distances AB, BC being p and gq, then
PP. pre Ny Be at Gus
dO pg? tng)”
CE SPU PAE) Gt 0
and in particular he considers the before-mentioned case of a solution of the
form p=nqg; and also the particular problem where one of the masses
vanishes, C=0; in this case, introducing (instead of p, q) the new variables
u, 8, Where g=up, dq=sdp (a transformation suggested by the homogeneity —
of the equations), and making, moreover, the particular supposition that the
integral of the first equation is (Zy—-—= (viz, making the constant
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 207
of integration to vanish), he obtains between s and w the equation of the first
order
ds A B
which, however, he is not able to integrate.
91. Jacobi has given in the memoir “ Theoria Noyi Multiplicatoris ” (1845)
($28, entitled “De Problemate trium corporum in eadem recta motorum. Sub-
stitutio Euleriana. Theoremata de viribus homogeneis’’) a very symmetrical
and elegant investigation of the same problem, The centre of gravity being
assumed to be at rest, the coordinates «, a,, x, of the three bodies are in the first
instance expressed as linear functions of the two variables u, v (being, as Jacobi
remarks, the transformation employed in his memoir “Sur I’élimination des
2, 2
Neeuds” (1843), post, No. 114), CY and - come out respectively equal to
a au
homogeneous functions of the degree —2 of these variables u and v, and the
integral of Vis Viva exists, The subsequent transformation consists in the
introduction of the variables 7, $, 8, n, Where w=r cos $, v=r sing, s= V7 ees 5
r
7= VP Se this gives a system of equations independent of x; viz.,
dg: ds; dn=n: 38°+n°?—®: —3sn+@',
where @ is a given function of ¢, and ©’ is the derived function. If these
equations were integrated, the equation of Vis Viva gives at once r=
; 2 (®—2(s*+n°)); and finally the time ¢ would be given by a quadrature,
1
; V o—3(s°+ 7°
if one integral were known the other would be at once furnished by the
general theory, There is a simplification in the form of the solution if h (the
constant of Vis Viva) =0. It is remarked that the method is equally appli-
cable when the force varies as any power of the distance; and moreover that
when the force varies as (dist.)~*, then the solution.depends upon one qua-
drature only.
92, The concluding part of the section relates to the very general problem
of a system of n particles acted on by any forces homogeneous functions of
the coordinates (this includes the case of n particles mutually attracting each
other according to a power of the distance), and this more general investiga-
tion illustrates the method employed in regard to the three bodies in a line.
Tt may be remarked that in the general theorem for the » particles “sint
vires &c.,” the constant of Vis Viva is supposed to vanish.
The system of three equations has the multiplier M= hehte
Particular cases of the motion of three bodies.
93. In the case of three bodies attracting each other according to the in-
verse square of the distance, the bodies may move in such manner as to be
constantly in a line (a moveable line in space); this appears by the memoir,
Euler, “Considérations générales, &c.” (17 64), in which memoir, however
(which it will be observed precedes the memoir De Motu rectilineo &c.”
(1765), referred to No. 88), Euler assumes that the mass of one of the bodies
is so small as not to affect the relative motion of the other two. Calling
the bodies the Sun, Earth, and Moon, and taking the masses to be 1, m, 0,
then a result obtained is, that in order that the Moon may be perpetually
; 208 REPORT—1862.
in conjunction, its distance must be to that of the Sun as @:1, where
m(1—a)’=3a’—3a'+a’, or a= 3/ im nearly. It appears, however (ante,
No. 88), that the foregoing restriction as to the masses is unnecessary, and, as
will be mentioned, the problem has since been treated without such restriction.
Euler investigates the motion in the case where the initial carcumstances are
nearly but not exactly as originally supposed; this assumes, however, that
the motion is stable—z.e. that the bodies will continue to moye nearly, but
not exactly as originally supposed, which is at variance with the conclusions
of Liouville’s memoir, post, No. 95. I have not examined the cause of this
discrepancy.
94, In the ‘Mécanique Céleste’ (1799), Book x. ¢. 6, Laplace considers
two cases where the motion can be exactly determined.
1°. Force varies as any function of the distance. It is shown that the
motion may be such that the bodies form always an equilateral triangle of
variable magnitude—the motion of each body about the centre of gravity
being the same as if that point were a centre of force attracting the body
according to a similar law.
2°. Force qx (dist.)". The motion may be such that the three bodies are
always in a right line (moveable in space), the relative distances being in
fixed ratios to each other. In particular, if force q (dist.)~?, then
m, m', m' being the masses, the quantity z which determines the ratio of the
distances mm’, m'm is given by
O=mz?[(1+2)?—1]—m' (142) (1—2)—m" [(1+2)°—27]=0,
which is, in fact, the formula in Euler’s memoir “ De Motu rectilineo &c.’’
95. Liouville’s memoir “Sur un cas particulier &c.” (1842) has for its
object to show that if the initial circumstances are not precisely as supposed
in the second of the two cases considered by Laplace, or, what is the same
thing, in Euler’s memoir ‘ Considérations générales &c.,” then the motion is
unstable ; the instability manifests itself in the usual manner, viz. the expres-
sions for the deviations from the normal positions are found to contain real
exponentials which increase indefinitely with the time.
96. It may be proper to refer here to Jacobi’s theorem, ‘ Comptes Rendus,’
t. iii. p. 61 (1836), quoted in the foot-note p. 15 of my Report of 1857,
which relates to the motion of a point without mass revolving round the Sun,
and disturbed by a planet moving in a circular orbit, and properly belongs (as
I have there remarked) to the problem of two centres, one of them moveable
and the other revolying round it in a circle with uniform velocity. The
theorem (given without demonstration by Jacobi) is proved by Liouville in
his last-mentioned memoir, and he remarks that the theorem follows very
simply as a corollary of the theorem by Coriolis, “On the Principle of Vis Viva
in Relative Motions,” Journ. de l’Ecole Polyt. t. xiii. p. 268 (1832). There
is, however, no difficulty in proving the theorem; another proof is given,
Cayley, “ Note on a Theorem of Jacobi’s &c.” (1862).
Motion in a resisting medium.
97. I do not consider the various integrable cases of the motion of a par-
ticle in a resisting medium, the resistance varying with the velocity according
to some assumed law, the particle being either not acted on by any force, or
acted upon by gravity only. Some interesting cases are considered in Jacobi’s
memoir “ De Motu puncti singularis” (1842), §§ 6 and 7 (see post, No. 108).
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 209
98. In the case of a central force varying as (dist.)—2, the effect of a resist-
ing medium (R O¢ v”) is considered in reference to the lunar theory, in the
‘Mécanique Céleste,’ Book VII. ¢. 6. Formule for the variations of the
elliptic elements are given in the ‘ Mécanique Analytique,’ t. ii. (2nd edition).
But the variations of the elliptic elements are fully worked out by means of
grec and Jacobian functions in Sohncke’s valuable memoir “Motus Corporum
ve.” (1833).
99. The effect of the resistance of the air on a pendulum has been elaborately
considered by Poisson, Bessel, Stokes, and others; as the dimensions of the
ball are attended to, the problem is in fact a hydrodynamical one.
The effect on the spherical pendulum is considered in Hansen’s memoir
Theorie der Pendelbewegung &c.” (1853).
The effect on the motion of a projectile is considered in Poisson’s memoirs
“Sur le Mouvement des Projectiles &c.” (1838).
Liouville’s memoirs “ Sur quelques Cas particuliers ou les équations du
mouvement dun point matériel peuvent s’intégrer” (1846-49).
100. In the first memoir (§ 1) the author considers a point moving in a
plane or on a given surface, where the principle of Vis Viva holds good (or say
where there is a force-function U). The coordinates of the point, and the
function U, may be expressed in terms of two variables a, 3, and it is assumed
that these are such that
ds*=)(da’ +d’),
where ) isa function of a and 6. That is, we have T=3)(a!+4") ; and the
equations of motion are
d.dal_ 1dd- 0, am , dU
di Oda” ae \t ay
Ne deeee ot re
ae Bap tO + ae
One integral of these is
A(a!?+B")=2U 40;
and by means of it the equations take the form
d.ral 1dr dU
dt Papeete
d.rp!_1 dro dU
a ax gp CUtO+ 5,
These equations, it is easy to show, may be integrated if
(2U+C)\=fa—F@£,
and they then in fact give
Na?=fa—A,
AN pP= A—FB,
where A is an arbitrary constant. And we then have
da dp
Vja—A VA—FP
which gives the path, and the expression for the time is easily obtained by
means of a quadrature.
It is not more general, but it is frequently convenient to employ instead of
a, B, two variables » and y, such that
a 2 2
as ds*=)(mdp?+ndy’), 2
210 REPORT—1862.
where m is a function of p only and n of y only, while \ contains p and y.
The geometrical signification of the equation ds*=)(da* +d"), or of the last-
mentioned equivalent form, is that the curves
a or \=const., B or p=const.,
intersect at right angles. ; xs ;
The foregoing differential equation of the path, writing fu, Fv in the place
of fa, F3 respectively, may be expressed in the form
Spoosi+Fysin=A,
where 7, 90°—7 are the inclinations of the path at the point (A, ») to the two
orthotomic curves through this point.
101. The before-mentioned equation
(2U+C)A=fa—FB
may be satisfied independently of C, or else only for a particular value of C.
In the former case the law of force is much more restricted, but on the other
hand there is no restriction as regards the initial circumstances of the motion;
it is the more important one, and is alone attended to in the sequel of the
memoir. * In the case in question (changing the functional symbols) we must
have
A=ga—aP, AU=fa—FG;
so that the functions denoted above by fa, FB now are 2fa+4+Cga, 2F3+CaB ;
the equation of the trajectory is
da r dp
V 2fa+Cpa—A VA—2F84+Cap
and for the time the formula is
he ga da ap dj3
V 2fa+Coa—A WV A—2FB+CapB
It is noticed also that taking B, e to denote two new arbitrary constants,
and writing
e= JdaW 2fa+Cpa—A+ fap Vv A—2FB+ Cap,
the equation of the trajectory and the expression for the time assume the
forms
dO _
° ante!
as is known @ priori by a theorem of Jacobi’s.
If the forces vanish, the path is a geodesic line; and denoting by a the ratio
of the constants A, C, we have
da dp
Vga—a Va—ap
wap
t= qet®
and moreover
ds=daNn ga—a+dpVa—¢p,
which are geometrical properties relating to the geodesic line.
102. Passing to the applications: in the first place, if a, 6 are rectangular
coordinates of a point in plano, then writing instead of them 2, y, we have
ds’ =da* +-dy*, which is of the required form; but the result obtained is the
self-evident one, that the equations may be integrated by quadratures when
U is of the form funct. a—funct. y.
But taking instead the elliptic coordinates p, v of a point in plano,—viz., as
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 211
employed by the author, these are the semiaxes of the confocal ellipse and
hyperbola represented by the equations
ae y?
Pa y
we we Gb? ? pal prays ?
—very interesting results are obtained. The equations give
Bx? =r, By? = (y2—2*) (P—»?),
and thence
dy? dy’?
which is of the proper form, and the corresponding expression of U is
eh, Fu—Fv :
ee Ens 5a
so that the foree-function having this value (fu, Fy being arbitrary functions
of » and » respectively), the equations of motion may be integrated by qua-
dratures.
103. In particular, if
Sfu=getg'p+k(e—o'p’),
Fry=qgv—q'y +k(v*—6b*r’),
then
Ven Feb +I 4 byt).
pty poy
But »+yv, w—y are the distances of the point from the two foci, and
pe+r?—b?(=2"+7’) is the square of the distance from the centre, so that
the expression for U is
Bie ‘site ao
el
and the case is that of forces to the foci varying inversely as the squares of
the distances, and a force to the centre varying directly as the distance—
the case considered by Lagrange in the problem of two centres. But this is
merely one particular case of those given by the general formula.
The cases g=0, g'=0, k=0 (no forces), and g=0, g!=0 (a force to the
centre) lead to some interesting results; it is noticed also that the expression
funct. Signa aia! cama 8 ote)
Tr
that it may be thereby ascertained (without transforming to elliptic coordi-
nates) whether a given value of the force-function is of the form considered
in the theory.
In § 3 the author considers the expression dz? +dy?=X(da? +d’), d being
in the first instance any function whatever of @ and (§; and he shows that the
expressions of xv, y are given by the equation
x+y —1=V(ae+BV —1),
w being any real function. If, however, it is besides assumed that d is of
the required form=fa—F{, then he shows that the system of elliptic coordi-
nates is the only one for which the conditions are satisfied. §§ 4,5, 6, and 7
relate to the motion of a point on a sphere, an ellipsoid, a surface of revolu-
tion, and the skew helicoid respectively ; and the concluding § 8 contains only
a brief reference to the author’s second memoir.
104. Liouyille’s second and third memoirs may be more briefly noticed.
In the second memoir the author starts from Jacobi’s theorem of the V
f P2
for the force-function may be written U=
212 REPORT—1862.
fanction, viz., assuming that there is a foree-function U independent of the
dé de’ de ~ dy’
aa ) all that is required is to find a function © of w, y, z containing three
arbitrary constants A, B, C (distinct from the constant attached to @ by mere
addition) satisfying the differential equation
2) +(8) (2) a0
for then the required integrals of the ais of motion are
dO_ 4, 40 ite !
TRA Spee GG=e+
A!, B!, ©! being new arbitrary constants. Liouville introduces in place of
x, y, z, the elliptic coordinates p, yw, v, which are such that
x y z
ele + i.
2 2 Fe 2
ay y i alin
2 2B e he pear d
eo 7 y° 2 1
YBa er
or, what is the same thing,
wall,
ia VERE VENT
Ve —B
Pers VP —e EV e— 0 ae
oN e—b?
and he then finds that the resulting partial differential equation in p, p,
may be integrated provided that U is of the form
pa) fe +(p°— v7) Fut (p* =v av
(e°—p*) (p?—v*) (u’—y*)
f, F,; w being any functional symbols whatever: viz., the expression for
Q is
2 +A+B 2+ 2Cp*
e=ld Wee Pp lv z ls
-\% Be)”
+4 area Fu + A+ Bu? + 2Cp
(WH P)(C— eh)”
+a is es Qa + A+B? +207
(6°—»’) (¢’—yv’)
In the case where U=0 we have a particle not acted on by any forces, and
the path is of course a straight line. The peculiar form in which these equa~
tions are obtained leads to very interesting results in regard to the theory of
Abelian integrals, and to that of the geodesic lines of an ellipsoid.
The formule require to be modified in certain cases, such as c=6 or 6=0.
The case 6=0 leads to the theory developed in the first memoir in relation to
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 213
the problem of two centres. The case is indicated where b=0, c=0, the
ratio 6: c remaining finite.
The case is briefly considered of a particle moving on a given surface.
105. The third memoir purports to relate to a system of particles, but the
formule are exhibited under a purely analytical point of view ; so much s0,
that the coordinates of the points (3 for each point) are considered as forming
a single system of variables «,, #,,...#;, The partial differential equation is
de do doe
—— ) =2(U
(se) +(e)" +() RU
which is transformed by introducing therein the new variables p,, p,... p;
analogous to the elliptic coordinates of the second memoir, The memoir
really belongs rather to the theory of the Abelian integrals (in regard to which
it appears te be a very valuable one) than to dynamics.
Memoirs by Jacobi, Bertrand, and Denkin, relating to various Special
Problems.
106. I have inserted this heading for the sake of showing at a single view
what are the special problems incidentally considered in the under-mentioned
memoirs which are referred to in several places in the present Report.
107. Jacobi, “ De Motu puncti singularis ” (1842).—I call to mind that
the memoir chiefly depends on the theorem of the Ultimate Multiplier (the
theory in its generality being developed in the later memoir “ Theoria Novi
Multiplicatoris &c.,” 1844-45). § 4 is entitled “‘ The motion of a point on the
surface of revolution,” which, the principle of the conservation of areas holding
good, is reduced to the problem of the motion on the meridian curve, and thus
depends upon quadratures only. §5 is entitled “On the motion of a point
about a fixed centre attracted according to a certain law more general than the
Newtonian one” (ant2, No.85). § 6. ‘On the motion of a point on a given curve
and in a resisting medium ” (resistance=a-+ be™, or=a-+ bv”); and § 7. “On
the Ballistic Curve,” viz., the forces are gravity and a resistance=a-+ bv”.
108. In Jacobi’s memoir “ Theoria Novi Multiplicatoris &e.” (1845), § 25
is entitled «« On the motion of a point attracted towards a fixed centre” (see
ante, No. 87); § 26. “On the motion of a point attracted towards two fixed
centres according to the Newtonian law” (ante, No. 56); § 27. ‘ On the rota-
tion of a solid body about a fixed point” (post, No.193); § 28. “On the problem
of three bodies moving in a right line; the Eulerian substitution; theorems
on homogeneous forces” (ante, No. 91); ‘and § 29, «The principle of the ultimate
multiplier applied to a free system of material. points moving in a resisting
medium ; on the motion of a comet in a resisting medium about the sun.”
109. And in Jacobi’s memoir “ Nova Methodus &c.” (1862), besides § 64
and § 65, which are applications of the method to general dynamical theorems,
we have § 66, containing a simultaneous solution of the problem of the motion
of a point attracted to a fixed centre and of that of the rotation of a solid body
(post, No. 206), and § 67, relating to the motion of a point attracted to a fixed
centre according to the Newtonian law.
110. Bertrand’s “ Mémoire sur les intégrales différentielles de la Mécanique”
(1852).—¢ III. relates to the motion of a point attracted to a fixed centre by
a force varying as a function of the distance; §IV. to the case where the
forces arise from a force-function U= aa “) (or, what is the same thing,
y .
214 " REPORT—1862.
= ) (ante, No. 87); § V. to the problem of two centres (ant2, No.62), and § VI.
to the problem of three bodies (post, No. 117).
111. Donkin’s memoir “ On a Class of Differential Equations &c.” (1855).
Part I. Nos. 27 to 30 relate to the problem of central forces (in space), No. 31
to the rotation of a solid body, and $ III. to the same subject, viz. Nos. 40
and 41 to the general case, Nos. 42 to 44 to the particular case A=B;
and Nos. 45 to 48 to the reduction thereto of the general case by treating
the forces which arise from the inequality of A and B as disturbing forces.
Part II. Nos. 59 and 60 relate to the spherical pendulum ; Nos. 72 and 73 to
“ Transformation from fixed to moving axes of coordinates,” say to Relative
Motion ; and Nos. 84 to 96 to the problem of three bodies ( post, No, 120).
The Problem of Three Bodies, Article Nos. 112 to 123.
112, A system of differential equations, such as
dx,_dv, dn 44
x, 2 Xn41
(n equations between n+1 variables), may be termed a system of the nth
order, or more simply a system of n equations. Let (u,, u,...-U,4,) be
any functions of the original variables (w,, v,,....w,4,), the system may be
transformed into the similar system
du,__du, du,
U, oes SP Th
and if it happens that we have e.g. U, identically equal to zero, then the
system becomes
0 (ee _M, du, +)
off.)
n+l
so that we have an integral u,=c, and then in the remaining equations
substituting this value, or treating wu, as constant, the system is reduced to
one of (m—1) equations. Or again, if it happen that we haye in the trans-
formed system m equations (m<n), say
‘ _ Mh +1,
Uy Be Vines
which are such that U,, U,...U,,,, are functions of only the m+1 variables
Uz, Uz+++Un4y» then the integration of the proposed system of n equations
depends on the integration in the first instance of a system of m equations.
It is to be observed that if the system of m equations can be integrated,
then the completion of the integration of the original system depends on the
integration of a system of »—m equations, and in this sense the original
system of n equations may be said to be broken up into two systems of m
equations and n—m equations respectively : but non constat that the system
of m equations admits of integration ; and it is therefore more correct to say
that, from the original system of the n equations, there has been separated off
a system of m equations.
113. The bearing of the foregoing remarks on the problem of three bodies
will presently appear. It will be seen that whereas the problem as it stood
before Jacobi depends on a system of seven equations, it has been shown by
him that there may be separated off from this a system of sia equations.
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 215
114. Jacobi’s memoir “Sur l’élimination des Neeuds &e.” (1843),—The
problem of the motion of three mutually attracting bodies is in the first
instance reduced to that of the motion of two fictitious bodies (which may be
considered as mutually attracting bodies, attracted by a fixed centre of force)*.
In fact, in the original problem the centre of gravity of the three bodies moves
uniformly in a right line, and it may without any real loss of generality be
taken to be at rest; that is, if the w-coordinates of the three bodies are é,,
E,, &,, then m,é, -+m,é,-++m,£,=0, or é,, é,,&, may be taken to be linear functions
of two quantities w, and x, And similarly for the y-coordinates and the
z-coordinates respectively. And (#,, ¥,, 2,), (@5 Yo» Z,) may be regarded as
the coordinates of two bodies revolving about a fixed centre of force. Hence
representing the differential coefficients in regard to the time by ~,', &c., and
treating these as new variables, the equations of motion will assume the form
dx, dy, _dz, _ dx, dy, _ dz,
7 ay 7
ao yy cot X, Y2 %,
i 1 2 2 2
where X,, Y,, Z,, X,, Y,, Z, are forces capable of representation by means of
aforce-function U. Thisis a system of twelve equations; but since X,, Y,, Z,,
X,, Y,, Z, are independent of the time, we may omit the equation (dt), and
treat the system as.one of eleven equations between the variables w,, y,, z,,
Woy Yor Za Ly’ Yy's Z'y Vay Yn Z 3 If this system were integrated, the deter-
mination of the time would then depend on a quadrature only. But for the
system of eleven equations we have four integrals, viz., the integral of Vis Viva
and the three integrals of areas, and the system is thus reducible to one of
(11—4=) seven equations. This preliminary transformation in Jacobi’s
memoir explains the remark that the problem, as it stood before him, depended
on a system of seven equations.
115. Jacobi remarks that in the transformed problem the three integrals
of areas show (1) that the intersection of the planes of the orbits of the two
bodies lie in-a fixed plane, the invariable plane of the system; (2) that the
inclinations of the planes of the two orbits to this fixed plane, and the para-
meters of the two orbits considered as variable ellipses, are four elements any
two of which rigorously determine the two others.
And then choosing for variables the inclinations of the two orbits to the
‘invariable plane, the two radius vectors, the angles which they form with the
intersection of the planes of the two orbits, and lastly the angle between this
intersection (being as already mentioned a line in the invariable plane) with
a fixed line in the invariable plane, he finds that the last-mentioned angle
entirely disappears from the system of differential equations, and is determined
after their integration by a quadrature. In this new form of the differential
equations there is no trace of the nodes. The differential equations which
determine the relative motion of the three bodies are reduced to five equations
of the first order and one of the second order. The equations in question are
the equations I. to VI. given at the end of the memoir. It is to be remarked
that the differential dt is not eliminated from these equations; the last of
2
them is SL (ur+ H,7,°) =2U —22 ; and if to reduce them to a system of equa-
* This is the effect of Jacobi’s reduction ; but the explicit statement of the theorem,
and actual replacement of the problem of the three bodies by that of the two bodies
attracted to a fixed centre, is due to Bertrand (post, No. 117).
216 REPORT—1862.
tions of the first order we write 4 (ur? + ,7,7)=86, and therefore _ =2U—2h,
the system may be presented in the form
du du, ely OE ei Ge
WY De snel holaiy Bain Ee Bee
which if we do, and then omit the equation (=dt), we have a system of six
equations between the seven quantities wu, u,, i,7,,7,7,,0; when this is
integrated, the equation (=dt) gives the time by a quadrature ; and finally,
Jacobi’s equation VII. (do=tan u =) gives by a quadrature the angle before
referred to as disappearing from the system of equations I. to VI.
116. But when Jacobi says, “ Par suite on a fait cinq intégrations. Les
intégrales connues n’étant qu’au nombre de quatre, on pourra done dire que
l’on a fait une intégration de plus dans le systéme du monde. Je dis dans
le systéme du monde puisque la méme méthode s’appliqué 4 un nombre
quelconque de corps,” the language used is not, I think, quite accurate. It,
in fact, appears from the memoir that it is only on the assumption of the
integration of the system of six equations that, besides the integral of Vis Viva
and the integrals of areas, the remaining two integrals are known ; in fact,
after, but not before the system of the order six has been integrated, the time ¢
and the angle © are each of them given by a quadrature. -
117. Bertrand’s “ Mémoire sur l’intégration des équations différentielles de
la Mécanique ”’ (1852).—I have spoken of this memoir in No. 56 of my former
Report. The course of investigation is the inquiry as to the integrals, which,
combined according to Poisson’s theorem with the integral of Vis Viva or any
other given integral, give rise to an illusory result. But as regards the appli-
cation made to the problem of three bodies, it will be more convenient to state
from a different point of view the conclusions arrived at: and I may mention
that when the author says ‘‘Je parviens . . 4 reduire la question 4 l’intégration
de six équations tout du premier ordre, c’est-a-dire que j’effectue une intégra-
tion de plus que ne l’avait fait Jacobi,” he seems to have overlooked that
Jacobi’s system of five equations of the first order and one of the second order
really is, as above noticed, a system of the six equations with another equation
which then gives the time by a quadrature, and that, at least as appears to
me, he has not advanced the solution beyond the point to which it had been
carried by Jacobi*. -
118. Presenting Bertrand’s results in the slightly different notation in
which they are reproduced in Bour’s memoir ( post, No. 122), then if (a, y, z),
(x, Y,, 2,) are the coordinates of the two bodies (the problem actually con-
sidered being, as by Jacobi, that of the motion of two bodies about a fixed
centre of force), and representing the functions 2*+y°+2*, #,°+y,°+z,7,
m*(ac'* oe +2"), m,” Cts a) Beep 3m (wa +yy' +22’), m, (ea +9.) +2,2,' ?
mx, +y,y' +2,2'),m, (vx, +yy,'+22,'), (we, + yy, +22,) mn, (a'e,'+y'y,'+2'2,)
by u, %,, U,V, W; W,, 7, 7,, 9, $ respectively, then the last-mentioned quanti-
ties are connected by a single geometrical relation, so that any one of them,
say s, may be considered as a given function of the remaining nine. And the
author in effect shows that the equations of motion give a system
* These remarks were communicated by me to M. Bertrand—see my letter “Sur
Vintégration des équations différentielles de la Mécanique,” Comptes Rendus (1863)—and,
in the answer he kindly sent me, he agrees that they are correct.
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. | 217
du_du,_dv_dv,_dw_dw,_dr_dr, |
UU,” V*~ Vi AeW.gb Wiyb Rowe,
where U, U,, &c. are functions of the quantities wu, u,, v, &c. Omitting from
the system the equation (dt), there are eight equations between nine quan-
tities; but there are two known integrals, viz., the integral of Vis Viva and
the integral of principal moment (or sum of the squares of the integrals of
areas); that is to say, the system is really a system of sta equations.
119. Painyin, “Recherche du dernier Multiplicateur &e.” (1854).—The
author investigates the ultimate multiplier for two systems of differential
equations :—
1°. The system of the equations I. to VI. in Jacobi’s memoir “Sur
Vélimination des Neuds &c.” (anté, No. 114). Writing in the equations
Ory
Mizy (8b.
in the form
r,', and treating 7", 7,’ as new variables, the system may be written
du_du,_ U_d,_dr_dr,__dr'
Te Ugo Mer B ar Ro
which, omitting the equation (=dt), is a system of seven equations be-
tween eight variables; and it is for this form of the system that the value
of M is determined, the result obtained being the simple and elegant one,
__ sin 7 sin 7,
eee an” 1
fact the equation V. of the system in Jacobi’s form, so that it is really a
system of sia equations (ante, No, 115).
2°, The system secondly discussed is Bertrand’s system of nine equations
(ante, No. 118). The multiplier M is obtained under four different forms,
| 1 1 1 ; F
M= en jae AZT Baa (1 do not stop to explain the notation),
the last of them being referred to as a result announced by M. Bertrand in
his course. But it is shown by M. Bour in the memoir next referred to (post,
No. 122), that the multiplier for the system in question can be obtained in a
very much more simple manner, almost without calculation.
120. In connexion with Jacobi’s theory of the elimination of the Nodes, I
may refer to the investigations ‘‘ Application to the Problem of three Bodies ”’
Nos. 84 to 96 of Donkin’s memoir ‘‘ On a Class of Differential Equations &e.”
Part II. The author remarks that his differential equations No. 93 afford an
example of the so-called elimination of the Nodes, quite different however (in
that they are merely transformations of the original differential equations of
the problem without any integrations) from that effected by Jacobi.
121. It may be right to refer again in this place to the concluding part of
§ 28 of Jacobi’s memoir “ Nova Theoria Multiplicatoris ”’ (anté, No. 92), as
bearing on the problem of three bodies.
122. Bour’s “ Mémoire sur le Probléme des Trois Corps” (1856).—The
author remarks that Bertrand’s system of equations have lost the remarkable
form and the properties which characterize the ordinary equations for the
solution of a dynamical problem. But by selecting eight new variables,
functions of Bertrand’s variables, the system may be brought back to the
standard Hamiltonian form
dr!
4 R,’( Ar dt),
The system of seven equations has an integral which is in
or to the form adopted by M. Bour, of a partial differential equation
218 REPORT—1 862.
dH dg dH dg
er dp, dp; 14;
and guiding himself by a theorem in relation to canonical integrals obtained
in his memoir of 1855 (see No. 66 of my former Report), he finds by a
somewhat intricate analysis the expressions of the eight new variables
Py Por Py» Py Us Ie a> We The results ultimately obtained are of a very
remarkable and interesting form, viz. H=funct. (p,, P,, Ps, Pys UG» Yo» Ya» Ya) 18
equal to the value it would have for motion in a plane, plus a term admitting
of a simple geometrical interpretation, and he thus arrives at the following
theorem as a résumé of the whole memoir, viz.,
‘In order to integrate in the general case the problem of three bodies, it
is sufficient to solve the case of motion in a plane, and then to take account of
a disturbing function equal to the product of a constant depending on the
areas by the sum of the moments of inertia of the bodies round a certain axis,
divided by the square of the triangle formed by the three bodies.”
123. It may be remarked that the only given integral of the system of
eight equations is the integral of Vis Viva, H=const., and that using this
equation to eliminate one of the variables, and omitting ‘the equation (=dt),
we have, as in the solutions of Jacobi and Bertrand, a system of six equations
between seven variables. As the equations are in the standard dynamical
form, no investigation is needed of the multiplier M, which is given by
Jacobi’s general theory, and consequently when any five integrals of the six
equations are given, the remaining integral can be obtained by a quadrature.
In the case of three bodies moving in a plane, the solution takes a very
simple form, which is given in the concluding paragraph of the memoir.
=0;
Transformation of Coordinates, Articles Nos. 124 to 141.
124. It may be convenient to remark at once that two sets of rectangular
coordinates may be related to each other properly or improperly, viz., the axes
to which they belong (considered as drawn from the origin in the positive
directions) may be either capable or else incapable of being brought into
coincidence. The latter relation, although of equal generality with the former
one, may for the most part be disregarded ; for by merely reversing the direc-
tions of the one set of axes, the improper is converted into the proper relation.
125. In the memoir “ Problema Algebraicum &c.” (1770) Euler proposes to
himself the question “ Invenire novem numeros ita in quadratum disponendos
, B,
D, E, F
GAEL E
ut satisfiat duodecem sequentibus conditionibus,” &c., viz., substituting for
A, B,C, &e. the ordinary letters
cm a
Faith note
fe a; B eS ae:
the twelve conditions are
a® +a? +a’?=1, ap+a'p' +a" Bl ’
Be +B" +6R=1, By+By'+B"y"=0,
yore ty =, yaty'al+y'a'=0,
a +P +7 =1, aa! +B6 +y
of
al? +” +y?=1, aia" § pip" +y vay "==(),
Zp PML, aa” +3" +y"y =0
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 219
And he remarks that this is in fact the problem of the transformation of coor-
dinates, viz., if we have
X=ax + By + 2;
Y=c'r +B'y +y'z,
7, =a"e+B"y+ yz;
then the first equations are such as to give identically
XP 4 Y?4 2247+ y?+427,
126. Assuming the first six equations, he shows by a direct analytical
process that a*=(B'y"—f"y')’, or z= +(6'y'—B"y'); or taking the positive
sign (for, as the numbers may be taken as well positively as negatively, there
is nothing lost by doing so) a='y'"—" y', which gives the system
Zz ey ey,» B =y & ya to =o) 0 8,
a =f Y me M4 2 py Ke pr: e 2 aes B xe B ,
a=By—By, B'=ye—yYa, y"=a B'—a' fp,
and from these he deduces the second system of six equations. The inverse
system of equations
X=ar+a'y+a"z,
Y=6er+ p'y+ B"z,
Z=yetyyty"2
is not explicitly referred to.
127. He then satisfies the equations by means of trigonometrical substitu-
tions, viz., assuming a=cosé, then @?+a@'*=sin?Z, which is satisfied by
a =sin { cosy, a =sin £ sin n, &c., and he thus obtains for the coefficients a
set of values involving the angles Z, n, 0, which are the same as those men-
tioned post, No. 130. And he shows how these formule may be obtained geo-
metrically by three successive transformations of two coordinates only. The
remainder of the memoir relates to the analogous problem of the transforma-
tion of four or more coordinates.
128. I have analysed so much of Euler’s memoir in order to show that it
contains nearly the whole of the ordinary theory of the transformation of
coordinates ; the only addition required is the equation
=+1,
where the sign + gives a=('y—"y’, &c. (ut supra), but the sign — would
give a=—(P'y"—f"y'), &e.
129. The distinction of the ambiguous sign is in fact the above-mentioned
one of the proper and improper transformations ; viz., for the sign + the two
sets of axes can, for the sign — they cannot, be brought into coincidence:
this very important remark was, I believe, first made by Jacobi in one of his
early memoirs in Crelle’s Journal, but I have lost the reference. As already
mentioned, it is allowable to attend only to the proper transformation, and
to consider the value of the determinant as being =+1; and this is in fact
almost always done.
130. Euler’s formule involving the three angles are those which are ordi--
narily made use of in the problem of rotation and the problems of physical
astronomy generally.
It is convenient to take them as in the figure, viz., 0, the longitude of node,
220 REPORT—1862.
@, the inclination, 7, the angular distance of X from node, and the formule
xe N 7
of transformation then are
coe TEE Ih in et
x uy’ Z
x | cos7 cos@—sinr sin@ cos@ |—sinz cosO—cosr sin@ cosg| sin @ sing
y | cosr sin@+sin r cos@ cos |—sinr sin@-+cosr cos cos ¢ | —cos 0 sin
z sin 7 sing cos T sin @ cos @
The foregoing very convenient algorithm, viz., the employment of
| Be | o-Y | Z
| esai\ discal
y | @ p' y’
aime AL 9? at
to denote the system of equations
vw=aX +BY +yZ,
y=aX +BY +72,
z= "X+pB"Y+ y'Z,
is due to M. Lamé. |
131. But previously to the foregoing investigations, viz.,in the memoir “ Du
Mouvement de Rotation &e.,’’? Mém. de Berlin for 1758 (pr. 1765), Euler had
obtained incidentally a very elegant solution of the problem of the transforma-
tion of coordinates; this is in fact identical with the next mentioned one, the
letters 1, m, 2; X, p, v being used in the place of Z, 2’, 6"; n, n,n".
132. In the memoir “Formule generales pro translatione &c.” (1775), Euler
gives the following formule for the transformation of coordinates, viz., if the
position of the set of axes XYZ in reference to the set wyz is determined by
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 221
aX, yX, zX=90°—Z, 90°—Z', 90°—2", x
Z° Y¥Xa, YXy, YXz=n, 7’, 7",
then the formul of transformation are
x ¥ Z
eee
w |sing |cos{ sinyn |cosf cos7n
y |sinZ’ |cosZ’ sinn’|cosZ' cos! Zi ¥
z | sin 2” | cos Z” sin n"| cos Z" cos n”
= O§
with the following equations connecting the six angles, viz., if
—A*= cos (9!—7") cos (n!'—n) cos (n—n!),
then
—A 7 —A ae
OT 1 a Re = tam ofa
= e05 (n'—n") + o08 (1"—n) : cos (7—7')
133. It is right to notice that these values of £, Z', £2” give the twelve
equations a*+2°+ y°=1, &c., but they do not give definitely a=p'y"'—B'y',
&e., but only c= +(B'y’—f"y’); that is, in the formule in question the two
sets of axes are not of necessity displacements the one of the other. In the
same memoir Euler considers two sets of rectangular axes, and assuming that
they are displacements the one of the other (this assumption is not made as
explicitly as it should have been), he remarks that the one set may be made
to coincide with the other set by means of a finite rotation about a certain
axis (which may conveniently be termed the Resultant Axis), This considera-
tion leads him to an equation which ought to be satisfied by the coefficients
of transformation, but which he is not able to verify by means of the fore-
going expressions in terms of @, Z', 2", n, n', n".
134. I remark that Euler’s equation in fact is
a—l, B »Y =0,
@ 6, p'—l,y'
al’ : " F y'—1
or, as it may be written,
4 i B 7 —(B'y"—B"y')—(y"a—ya")—(aB'—a'B)+a+B'+y"—1=0,
a ;
in which form it is an immediate consequence of the equations
a 5 B : Y, —ie a='y"'—Bp'y', &e.,
ats oe y"
which are true for the proper, but not for the improper transformation.
135. In the undated addition to the memoir, Euler states the theorem of
the resultant axis as follows :—Theorema. Quomodocunque sphera circa
centrum suum convertatur, semper assignari potest diameter cujus directio in
situ translato conyeniat cum situ originali;” and he again endeayours to ob-
tain a verification of the foregoing analytical theorem.
136. The theory of the Resultant Axis was further developed by Euler in
the memoir “ Nova Methodus Motum &c.” (1775), and by Lexell in the me-
222 REPORT—1862.
moir “ Nonnulla theoremata generalia &c.” (1775): the geometrical investi-
gations are given more completely and in greater detail in Lexell’s memoir.
The result is contained in the following system of formule for the transfor-
mation of coordinates, viz., if a, 3, y are the inclinations of the resultant
axis to the original set, and if ¢ is the rotation about the resultant axis, or
say the resultant rotation, then we have
x Y | Zz
ae ot SeeeT Wee
cos’«+sin?acosp cosacos3(1—cos¢)-+-cosysing cosacosy(1—cos¢) —cosBsing
cosycosa(1 —cos¢)-+-cosBsing|cosycos8(1 —cos¢) —cosesing \cos?y +sin?ycosp
I
Euler attempts, but not very successfully, to apply the formule to the
dynamical problem of the rotation of a solid body: he does not introduce
them into the differential equations, but only into the integral ones, and his
results are complicated and inelegant. The further simplification effected by
Rodrigues was in fact required.
137. Jacobi’s paper, “ Euleri formule &c.” (1827), merely cites the last-
mentioned result.
138. I find it stated in Lacroix’s ‘ Differential Calculus,’ t. i. p. 533, that
the following system for the transformation of coordinates was obtained by
Monge (no reference is given in Lacroix), viz., the system being as above,
%, ’ p ? ¥ ’
Fs B', Mh?
a, B", y's
and the quantities «, f’, y’ being arbitrary, then putting
l4+a+/'+ y'=M,
1+a—p'—y"=N,
so that
M+N+P+Q=4,
we have ;
23 =VNP+ ¥ MQ, 2y' =VPQ4+ VMN, 2a" = VYQN+ V MP,
2g’ VNP_V MQ, 26’=VPQ— VMN, 2y =VON— VME.
These are formule very closely connected with those of Rodrigues.
139. The theory was perfected by Rodrigues in the valuable memoir “ Des
lois géométriques &c.” (1840). Using for greater convenience X, p, v in the
place of his 3m, 4n, 4p, he in effect writes
tan 3 cosa=),
tan 3¢ cos B=p,
tan 36 cos y=,
and this being so, the coefficients of transformation are
14+N—W—r, 2(Au+r) » 2r\.—p) :
2(urA—v) > 1—’+pe—r*, 2A(uv+r) -
207A +p) >» 2ru—A » 1—-Nv—p’ +’,
x
y \cosBcosa( 1 —cos¢) —cosysing|cos?8+sin*Bcosp cosBcosy(1—cos¢) +cosesing
Zz
>
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 223
all divided by the common denominator 1+)?+ y?+¥ 7. Conversely, if the
coefficients of transformation are as usual represented by
2 B Bay? Me
s »B, Y's
hers ce y';
then d’, nu’, v”, A, w, v are respectively equal to
1+a—,'—y", 1l—a+p'—y", 1l—a—f'+y",
Fig aap eo) pi es
each of them divided by 1+a+f'+y’".
The memoir contains yery elegant formule for the composition of finite
rotations, and it will be again referred to in speaking of the kinematics of a
solid body.
140. Sir W. R. Hamilton’s first papers on the theory of quaternions were
published in the years 1843 and 1844: the fundamental idea consists in the
employment of the imaginaries 2, 7, k, which are such that
P=Pp=P=—1, jk=—kj=i, i=—tka=j, y= —p=k,
whence also
(w+iat+jy + kz) (w' +22! +7y' + kz')
= ww'—xu' —yy'—2z2'
fi(we'+w'e+yz2'—y'2)
4j(wy' +w'y + 20'—z2'2)
+kh(w2' +w'z+axy'—ay) ;
so that representing the right-hand side by
W+iX4+jY+kZ,
we have identically
W4XC4+ V4 2=(w?+a*+y?+2) (w?+u?+y?+2"),
It is hardly necessary to remark that Sir W. R. Hamilton in his various
publications on the subject, and in the ‘ Lectures on Quaternions,’ Dublin,
1853, has developed the theory in detail, and has made the most interesting
applications of it to geometrical and dynamical questions ; and although the
first explicit application of it to the present question may have been made in
my own paper next referred to, it seems clear that the whole theory was in
its original conception intimately connected with the notion of rotation.
141. Cayley, ‘‘ On certain Results relating to Quaternions” (1845). —It is
shown that Rodrigues’ transformation formula may be expressed in a very
simple manner by means of quaternions ; viz., we have
tx jy +ke=(1 ++ juthvy)-\iX4+7Y +kZ) (1+i4+jut+hy),
where developing the function on the right-hand side, and equating the coeffi-
cients of 7,7, k, we obtain the formule in question. A subsequent paper,
Cayley, ‘‘On the application of Quaternions to the Theory of Rotation’”’ (1848),
relates to the composition of rotations.
Principal Aes, and Moments of Inertia. Article Nos. 142-163.
142, The theorem of principal axes consists herein, that at any point of a
solid body there exists a system of axes Ox, Oy, Oz, such that
Syzdn=0, Jzxdm=0, JS xydm=0.
224. REPORT—1862.
But this, the original form of the theorem, is a mere deduction from a general
theory of the representation of the integrals
A xdm, ay ydm, fzdm, Syed, fzxdm, fp aydm
for any axes through the given origin by means of an ellipsoid depending on
the values of these integrals corresponding to a given set of rectangular axes
through the same origin.
143. If, for convenience, we write as follows, M= f dm the mass of the
body, and
A! = fxd, B’ =fy'dm, C=fzdm, EF’ =f yzdm, G’ =faxdm, H’ =f xydm,
and moreover
A=f(y’+#) dm, B=/{(@ +") dm, O=/(2*+y’) dm,
=—fyzdm, cc —fzxdm, H=—/f«ydm*,
so that
A=B'+C', B=C'+A', C=A'4+ BY, F=—F’, G=—G', H= 3)
then the ellipsoid which in the first instance presents itself for this purpose,
and which Prof. Price has termed the Ellipsoid of Principal Axes, but which
IT would rather term the “‘ Comomental Ellipsoid,” is the ellipsoid
(A’, BY, C, F’, G’, H (a, y, z=) =Mk,
where k is arbitrary, so that the absolute magnitude is not determined. But
it is more usual, and in some respects better to consider in place thereof the
« Momental Ellipsoid” (Cauchy, ‘Sur les Moments d’Inertie,” Exercices de
Mathématique, t. ii. pp. 93-103, 1827),
(A, B, C, F, G, HYa, y, 2) =Mht,
or as it may also be written,
(A'4+B40)aety+e)—(A4 B, C’, F, Gg, H'{«, Y; z) =MM,
which shows that the two ellipsoids have their axes, and also their circular
sections coincident in direction.
144. And there is besides this a third ellipsoid, the ‘ Ellipsoid of Gyra-
tion,” which is the reciprocal of the momental ellipsoid in regard to the con-
centric sphere, radius &. The last-mentioned ellipsoid is given in magnitude,
viz., if the body is referred to its principal axes, then putting A>=Ma’*, B= M0”,
C=Mc’, the equation of the ellipsoid of gyration is
2 2 2
wv y z
lee ee a ee) |
—+ats
The axes of any one of the foregoing ellipsoids coincide in direction with the
principal axes of the body, and the magnitudes of the axes lead very simply
to the values of the principal moments A, B, C.
145. The origin has so far been left arbitrary: in the dynamical applica-
tions, this origin is in the case of a solid body rotating about a fixed point,
the fixed point; and in the case of a free body, the centre of gravity. But
the values of the coefficients (A, B, C, F, G, H), or (A7 3’, OC 2 Ga
corresponding to any given origin whatever, are very easily expressed in
* | have ventured to make this change instead of writing as usual F= f' yzdm, &e.; asin —
most cases F=G=H=0, the formule affected by the alteration are not numerous.
P44 2
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 225
terms of the coordinates of this origin, and the values of the corresponding
coefficients for the centre of gravity as origin; or, what is the same thing,
any one of the ellipsoids for the given origin may be geometrically constructed
by means of the ellipsoid for the centre of gravity. The geometrical theory,
as regards the magnitudes of the axes, does not appear to have been any-
where explicitly enunciated; as regards their direction, it is comprised in the
theorem that the directions at any point are the three rectangular directions
at that point in regard to the ellipsoid of gyration for fhe centre of gravity*,
post, No. 159. The notion of the ellipsoids, and of the relation between the
ellipsoids at a given point and those at the centre of gravity, once established,
the theory of principal axes and moments of inertia becomes a purely geo-
metrical one.
146. The existence of principal axes was first established by Segner in the
work ‘Specimen Theorie Turbinum,’ Halle (1755), where, however, it is
remarked that Kuler had said something on the subject in the [Berlin] Me-
moirs for 1749 and 1750 (post, No. 167), and had constructed a new mecha-
nical principle, but without pursuing the question. Segner’s course of inves-
tigation is in principle the same as that now made use of, viz. a principal axis
is defined to be an axis, such that when a body revolves round it the forces
arising from the rotation have no tendency to alter the position of the axes.
It is first shown that there are systems of axes a, y, z such that of yzdm =0,
and then, in reference to such a set of axes, the position of a principal axis,
say the axis of X, is determined by the conditions oh: XYdnm=0, wh XLdm=0,
cos a cos
viz. the unknown quantities being taken to be t=——, -= (a, 3, y>
cos y cos y
being the inclinations of the principal axis to those of a, y, z), and then
putting A= =f x’dm, &c. (F=0 by hypothesis), Segner’s equations for the de-
termination of t¢, 7 are ;
G'?+(C'—A’) i—G'—H'r=0,
(C'—B') r—G'tr+Ht=0,
the second of which gives
scr URES
SS yang
and by means of it the first gives
G?—G'(A'’—B')?+ {(B’—C')(C'—A')—G?—H} + G' (B'—C') =0,
which being a cubic equation shows that there are three principal axes; and
it is afterwards proved that these are at right angles to each other.
147. To show the equivalence of Segner’s solution to the modern one, I
remark that if w= f° X?dm, we have
(Nowra oe
B.. t+@—wrtF =0,
Gig che cba an Ayes
whence
* The rectangular directions at a point in regard to an ellipsoid are the directions of
the axes of the circumscribed cone, or, what is the same thing, they are the directions of
the normals to the three quadric surfaces confocal with the given ellipsoid, which pass
through the given point. ‘The theory of confocal surfaces appears to haye been first given
by ay Note XXXTI. of the ‘ Apergu Historique’ (1837).
- Q
226 REPORT—1862,
P:Pi:lirit:tt= BC —F?— (B4C)u4+w,
: C'A'—G? — (C'+A')u4+wye
: A'B'—H?— (A'+ B)u4+wv’,
: GH'—A'F’ +F' u,
: H'F’—BG' +G' u,
: P'G'—C'H' +H'u,
or putting therein F’=0,
@i:F:lirrt:¢= BO —(B'+C')u+uv'
: CA'—G?—(C'+A')u+uv?
>: A'BI—H?—(A'+ But?
3) (GH!
; —B'G'+G'u
; —C’H'+H'u
by means of which Segner’s equations may be verified. I have given this
analysis, as the first solution of such a problem is a matter of interest.
148. There is little if anything added to Segner’s results by the memoir,
Euler, ‘‘ Recherches sur la Connaissance Mécanique des Corps” (1758), which
is introductory to the immediately following one on Rotation.
149. Relating to the theory of principal axes we have Binet’s “‘ Mémoire
sur les Axes Conjugués,” &c. (1813). The author proposes to make known
the new systems of axes which he calls conjugate awes, which, when they are
at right angles to each other, coincide with the principal axes; viz. consider-
ing the sum of the molecules each into its distance from a plane, such distance
-being measured in the direction of a line, then (the direction of the line being
given) of all the planes which pass through a given point, there is one for
which the sum in question is a minimum, and this plane is said to be con-
jugate to the given line, and from the notion of a line and conjugate plane
he passes to that of a system of conjugate axes. The investigation (which
is throughout an elegant one) is conducted analytically; the coordinates
made use of are oblique ones, and the formule are thus rendered more com-
plicated than they would otherwise haye been; in referring to them it will
be conyenient to make the axes rectangular.
150. One of the results is the well-known equation
(A’—0)(B'—e)(C —0)—F"(A’—0) —G"(B' 0) —H(C' —0) + 2F G'H'=0;
which, if @,, y,, 2, are the principal axes, has for its-roots fw,*dm, [y,’dm,
zdm.
And the equations (1), p. 49, taking therein the original axes as rect-
angular, are ,
K'
(s— 3) cosa+ ®' cosp+ 6’ cos y=0,
4B’. cosa+ (38'—5; Joos B+ FF cos y=0,
+6' cosa+ df’ cos p+ (€'—5) cos y=0,
where @', 15’, €’, df’, @', ®' denote the reciprocal coefficients @'=B'C’—F?
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 227
&e., and K’ is the discriminant =A'B'C’—A'F?—B'G?—C'H?+2FG'H :
this is a symmetrical system of equations for finding cos « : cos GB: cos y,
less simple however than the modern form (post, No. 154), the identity of
which with Binet’s may be shown without difficulty.
151. Another result (p. 57) is that if the original axes are principal axes,
and if Ow, Oy, Oz are the principal axes through a point the coordinates
whereof are f, g, h, and if ©,'= (say) ef x,*dm, then we have
Mie ae UY ee A
6,/—A''6,/—B 1 6/—0 Mf
(in which T have restored the mass M, which is put equal to unity), so that if
0,’ have a given constant value, the locus of the point is a quadric surface, the
nature whereof will depend on the value of 6,. The surfaces in question are con-
ig ze i!
focal with each other [and with the imaginary surface =a a
a
2 2
which is similar to the ellipsoid +h to=e which is the reciprocal of
the comomental ellipsoid A'a?+B'y?+C'z?=Mz#* in regard to a concentric
2 2 2
sphere, radius /]. The author mentions the ellipsoid vt+e + a =F (see p. 64),
and he remarks that his conjugate axes are in fact conjugate axes in respect
to this ellipsoid, and consequently that the principal axes are in direction the
principal axes of this ellipsoid: it is noticeable that the ellipsoid thus inci-
dentally considered is not the comomental ellipsoid itself, but, as just re-
marked, its reciprocal in regard to a concentric sphere.
152. Poisson, ‘ Mécanique’ (1st ed. 1811, and indeed 2nd ed. 1833), gives
the theory of principal axes in a less complete form than in Binet’s memoir;
for the directions of the principal axes are obtained in anything but an
elegant form.
153. Ampére’s Memoir (1823).—The expression permanent awis is used
in the place of principal axis, which is employed to designate a principal
axis through the centre of gravity. The memoir contains a variety of very
interesting geometrical theorems, which however, as no ellipsoid is made use of,
can hardly be considered as exhibited in their proper connexion. The author
arrives incidentally at certain conics, which are in fact the focal conics of
‘peo eek
pt oru) |
154, Cauchy, in the memoir “Sur les Momens d’Inertie ” (1827), considers
the momental ellipsoid (A, By eG: HY, y, z)=1, and employs it as
well to prove the existence of the principal axes as to determine their di-
rection, and also the magnitvdes of the principal moments; the results are
a in the simplest and best forms; viz. the direction cosines are given
7
the ellipsoid of gyration (G+ for the centre of gravity.
(A—@) cosa +H cos B+G cos y=0,
H cos a-+(B—6) cos B+F cos y=0,
G cosa+F cos 3-+(C—6) cos y=0,
where
(A—0)(B—0e)(C—0)—(A—6) F’—(B—@) G?—(C—6) H’4+ 2FGH=0,
© being one of the principal moments.
155. Poinsot, “Mémoire sur la Rotation” (1834), defines the “Central
a2
228 REPORT—1862.
Ellipsoid’’ as an ellipsoid having for its axes the principal axes through the
centre of gravity, the squares of the lengths being reciprocally proportional
to the principal moments; and he remarks in passing that the moment about
any diameter of the ellipsoid is inversely proportional to the square of this dia-
meter. It is to be noticed that Poinsot speaks only of the ellipsoid having
its centre at the centre of gravity, but that such ellipsoid may be constructed
about any point whatever as centre, so generalized, it is in fact the mo-
mental ellipsoid Aw*+By’+Cz=Mk*; and moreover that Poinsot defines
his ellipsoid by reference to the principal axes.
156. Pine, “On the Principal Axes, &c.” (1837), obtained analytically in
a very elegant manner equations for determining the positions of the prin-
cipal axes; viz. these are
(A'—0') cosa +H’ cos 3-+G’ cos y=0,
H’ cos a+(B'—60’') cos B+ FE" cos y=0,
Gs cosa+F" cos 8 +(C'—0’) cos y=0,
where
(A'—0')(B'—0')(C'— 9')—(A'— 0’) F?— (B'—0') G?—(C'— 0) F? ++ 2F'G'H'=0;
viz. these are similar to those of Cauchy, only they belong to the comomental
instead of the momental ellipsoid.
157. Maccullagh, in his Lectures of 1844 (see Haughton), considers the
momental ellipsoid
(A, B,C) Hh, G; HY2, Ys 2) = Mk
(A, B, C, F, G, H ut supra), which is such that the moment of inertia of the
body with respect to any axis passing through the origin is proportional to
the square of the radius vector of the ellipsoid; and from the geometrical
theorem of the ellipsoid having principal axes he obtained the mechanical
theorem of the existence of principal axes of the body; at least I infer that
he did so, although the conclusion is not explicitly stated in Haughton’s
account ; but in all this he had been anticipated by Cauchy. And after-
wards, referring the ellipsoid to its principal axes, so that the equation is
Aa’ + By’? +C2?=Mk", he writes A=Ma’*, B=Mé*, C=Me’, which reduces
the equation to a°w*+ b°y*+¢2°=k*, and he considers the reciprocal ellipsoid
2 2 w2 a2 2 aw
atts= 1, or, what is the same thing, <+% $o=5 which is the ellip-
soid of gyration.
158. Thomson, ‘On the Principal Axes of a Solid Body” (1846), shows
analytically that the principal axes coincide in direction with the axes of the
momental ellipsoid
(A, B, C, F, G, He, y, z) =Mi';
but the geometrical theorem might have been assumed: the investigation is
really an investigation of the axes of this ellipsoid. And he remarks that
the ellipsoid (A', Be Eas He, Ys z) =Mke (the comomental ellipsoid)
might equally well have been used for the purpose.
159. He obtains the before-mentioned theorem that the directions of the
principal axes at any point are the rectangular directions in regard to the
ene : fe ger aan |
ellipsoid of gyration (G+ 3 +9-3)
determining the moments of inertia at the given point (say its coordinates
are £, n, ¢) he obtains the equation
for the centre of gravity. And for
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS, 229
Ee ae ee
2 2 2 ASP 2 2 2 BSE 2 2) 72 C=P’
Str +o +e Ste tote On tO +
where the three roots of the cubic in P are the required moments. Analyti-
cally nothing can be more elegant, but, as already remarked, a geometrical
construction for the magnitudes of these moments appears to be required,
160. Some very interesting geometrical results are obtained by consider-
ing the “equimomental surface” the locus of the points, for which one of
the moments of inertia is equal to a given quantity IT; the equation is of
course
x 4 yy a 2 1
ie oA a See
ety topo" Pry tepoo™ ee
and which includes Fresnel’s wave-surface, In particular it is shown that
the equimomental surface cuts any surface
i a ee
A+6'B+0'C+o-M
confocal with the ellipsoid of gyration in a spherical conic and a curve of
curvature ; a theorem which is also demonstrated, Cayley, “ Note on a Geo-
metrical Theorem, &c.” (1846).
161. Townsend, “On Principal Axes, &c.’’ (1846).—This elaborate paper is
contemporaneous, or nearly so, with Thomson’s, and several of the conclusions
are common to the two. From the character of the paper, I find it difficult
to give an account of it; and I remark that, the theory of principal axes
once brought into connexion with that of confocal surfaces, all ulterior deye-
lopments belong more properly to the latter theory.
162. Haton de la Goupilliére’s two memoirs, “Sur la Théorie Nouvelle de
la Géométrie des Masses” (1858), relate in a great measure to the theory of
the integral of wydm, and its variations according to the different positions of
the two planes x=0 and y=0; the geometrical interpretations of the several
results appear to be given with much care and completeness, but I have not
examined them in detail. The author refers to the researches of Thomson
and Townsend.
163. I had intended to show (but the paper has not been completed for
publication) how the momental ellipsoid for any point of the body may be
obtained from that for the centre of gravity by a construction depending on
the “square potency ” of a point in regard to the last-mentioned ellipsoid.
The Rotation of a solid body. Article Nos. 164-207.
164. Itwill be recollected that the problem is the same for a body rotating
about a fixed point, and for the rotation of a free body about the centre of
gravity; the case considered is that of a body not acted on by any forces.
According to the ordinary analytical mode of treatment, the problem depends
upon Euler’s equations
Adp + (C—B) grdt=0,
Bdq+ (A—C) rpdt=0,
Cdr + (B—A) pqdt=0,
for the determination of p, g,7, the angular velocities about the principal
230 REPORT—1862.
axes; considering p, g, 7 as known, we obtain by merely geometrical consi-
derations a system of three differential equations of the first order for the
determination of the position in space of the principal axes.
165. The solution of these, which constitutes the chief difficulty of the
problem, is usually effected by referring the body to a set of axes fixed in
space, the position whereof is not arbitrary, but depends on the initial cireum-
stances of the motion; viz. the axis of z is taken to be perpendicular to the
so-called invariable plane. The solution is obtained without this assumption
both by Euler and Lagrange, although, as remarked by them, the formule
‘are greatly simplified by making it; it is, on the other hand, made in the
solution (which may be considered as the received one) by Poisson; and the
results depending on it are the starting-point of the ulterior analytical deve-
lopments of Rueb and Jacobi; the method of Poinsot is also based upon the
consideration of the invariable plane.
166. D’Alembert’s principle, which affords a direct and general method
for obtaining the equations of motion in any dynamical problem whatever,
was given in his “ Traité de Dynamique”’ (1743); and in his memoir of 1749
he applied it to the physical problem of the Precession of the Equinoxes, which
is a special case of the problem of Rotation, the motion of rotation about the
centre of gravity being in fact similar to that about a fixed point. But, as
might be expected in the first attempt at the analytical treatment of so
difficult a problem, the equations of motion are obtained in a cumbrous and
unmanageable form.
_ 167. They are obtained by Euler in the memoir “ Découverte d’un Nou-
veau Principe de Mécanique,” Berlin Memoirs for 1750 (1752) (written
before the establishment of the theory of principal axes), in a perfectly
elegant form, including the ordinary one already mentioned, and, in fact,
reducible to it by merely putting the quantities F, G, H (which denote the
integrals JI yzdm, &c.) equal to zero. But Euler does not in this memoir
enter into the question of the integration of the equations,
168. The notion of principal axes having been suggested by Euler, and
their existence demonstrated by Segner, we come to Euler’s investigations
contained in the memoirs “‘ Du Mouvement de Rotation &c.,” Berlin Me-
moirs for 1758 (printed 1765) and for 1760 (printed 1767), and the “ Theoria
Motus Corporum Solidorum &c.” (1765). In the memoir of 1760, and in
the “ Theoria Motus,” Euler employs s, the angular velocity round the in-
stantaneous axis, but not the resolved velocities & cos a, & cos 3,8 cos y
(=p, 4, 7): these quantities (there called w, y, z) are however employed in
the memoir, Berlin Memoirs (1758), which must, I apprehend, have been
written after the other, and in which at any rate the solution is developed.
with much greater completeness. It is in fact carried further than the
ordinary solutions, and after the angular velocities p, g, r have been found,
the remaining investigation for the position in space of the principal axes,
conducted, as above remarked, without the aid of the invariable plane, is one
of great elegance.
169. In the last-mentioned memoir Euler starts from the equations given
by d’Alembert’s principle ; viz. the impressed forces being put equal to zero,
these are
dm (ve ‘at)= 0, &e.,
or, what is the same thing, using u,v, w to denote the velocities of an element
in the directions of the axes fixed in space, these are
€
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 231
dw dv
dm{ y ——2z— }=0
z (y ae edt i
a du o)=°,
iy Fn at
dv dy\ _
Sdm (« aF —vf) =0.
It is assumed that at any moment the body revolves round an instantaneous
axis, inclinations a, 3, y, with an angular velocity s ; this gives
u=b(zcos B—ycos y) = gz —ry,
U=8(v COS y—Z COS a) = 1X —pz2,
w=s(y¥ cos a—w cosh) =px—qy,
if 8 cos a, 8 cos 3, 8 cos y are denoted by p, g, 7. The values of du, dv,
dw are obtained by differentiating these formule, treating p, 7, 7, %, y, 2 as
yariable, and replacing dx, dy, dz by udt, vdt, wdt respectively; in the
resulting formule for ydw—zdv, &c., w, y, ¢ are considered as denoting the
coordinates of the element in regard to axes fixed in the body and moveable
with it, but which at the moment under consideration coincide in position
with the axes fixed in space. The expressions for 3 (ydw—zdv) dm involve
the integrals A= ef" (y? +2") dm, &c., where the coordinates refer to axes fixed
in the body; and if these are taken to be principal axes, the expression for
3 (ydw—zdv) dm is =Adp+(C—B) qrdt, which gives the three equations
Adp+ (C—B) qrdit=0,
Bdq + (A—C) rpdt=0,
Cdr + (B—A) pqdt=0,
already referred to as Euler’s equations.
170. Next, as regards the determination of the position in space of the
principal axes: if about the fixed point we describe a sphere meeting the
principal axes in w,, y,, z,, and if P be an arbitrary point on the sphere and
PQ an arbitrary direction through P, the quantities used to determine the
positions of x,, y,, 2, are the distances w,P, y,P, z,P (=1, m, ”) and the incli-
nations «,PQ, 7,PQ, z,PQ (=A, p, v) of these ares to the fixed direction PQ
(it is to be observed that the sines and cosines of the differences of A, p, v are
given functions of the sines and cosines of /, m, n, and, moreover, that
cos*/-+ cos’m+cos*x=1, so that the number of independent parameters is
three). The above is Euler’s definition ; but if we consider a set of axes fixed
in space meeting the sphere in the points X, Y, Z, then if the point X be
taken for P, and the arc XY for PQ, it is at once seen that the angles used
for determining the relative positions of the two sets of axes are the same as
in Euler’s memoir “ Formule Generales, &c.,” 1775 (ante, No. 132), where
the formule for this transformation of coordinates are considered apart from
the dynamical theory.
Euler expresses the quantities p, g, 7 in terms of an auxiliary variable u,
which is such that du=pqrdt; p,q, r are at once obtained in terms of u,
and then ¢ is given in terms of w by a quadrature. Euler employs also an
auxiliary angle U, given in terms of u by a quadrature. And he obtains
finite algebraical expressions in u, cos U, sin U for the cosines or sines of
l,m,n; s(the angular distance IP, if I denote the point in which the instan-
taneous axis meets the sphere), ¢ (the angle IPQ) and A—9, p—9g, v—¢.
232 REPORT—1862.
The formule, although complicated, are extremely elegant, and they appear
to have been altogether overlooked by subsequent writers.
171. Euler remarks, however, that the complexity of his solution is owing
to the circumstance that the fixed point P is left arbitrary, and that they
may be simplified by taking this point so as that a certain relation G—3B°=0
may be satisfied between the constants of the solution; and he gives the far
more simple formule corresponding to this assumption. This amounts to
taking the point P in the normal of the invariable plane, and the resulting
formule are in fact identical with the ordinary formule for the solution of
the problem. The expression invariable plane is not used by Euler, and
seems to have been first employed in Lagrange’s memoir “ Essai sur le Pro-
bléme de Trois Corps,” Prix de l’Acad. de Berlin, t. ix. (1772): the theory
in reference to the solar system has been studied by Laplace, Poinsot, and
others.
172. Lagrange’s solution in the memoir of 1773 is substantially the same
with that in the ‘Mécanique Analytique.’ Only he starts from the integral
equations of areas and of Vis Viva, but in the last-mentioned work from the
equations of motion as expressed in the Lagrangian form by means of the
Vis Viva function T (=23(«?+y"+2")dm). The distinctive feature is that
he does not refer the body to the principal axes but to any rectangular
axes whatever fixed in the body: the expression for T consequently is
T=3(A,B,C,F,G, HY, q,7)*, instead of the more simple form
T=3(Ap’+ Bqg’+Cr’),
which it assumes when the body is referred to its principal axes. And
Lagrange effects the integration as well with this more general form of T, as
without the simplification afforded by the invariable plane; the employment,
however, of the more general form of T seems an unnecessary complication
of the problem, and the formule are not worked out nearly so completely as
in Euler’s memoir. It may be observed that p, ¢, 7 are expressed as functions
of the instantaneous velocity w(—= p?+q°+7"), and thence ¢ obtained by a
quadrature as a function of w.
173. Poisson’s Memoir of 1809.—The problem is only treated incidentally
for the sake of obtaining the expressions for the variations of the arbitrary
constants ; the results (depending, as already remarked, on the consideration
of the invariable plane) are obtained and exhibited in a very compact form,
and they have served as a basis for further developments ; it will be proper
to refer to them somewhat particularly. The Eulerian equations give, in the
first place, the integrals
Ap? + Bq? +Cr* =h,
Ap? + B+ Crs’ ;
and then by means of these, », g being expressed in terms of 7, we have ¢ in
terms of r by a quadrature.
174. The position in space of the principal axes is determined by referring
them, by means of the angles 6, ¢, c, to axes Ow, Oy, Oz fixed in space ; if, to
fix the ideas, we call the plane of wy the ecliptic (Ox being the origin of
longitudes), and the plane of the two principal axes «, y, the equator, then we
have
0, the longitude of node,
g, the inclination,
c, the hour-angle, or angular distance of Ox, from the node,
and a, 3, y the cosine inclinations of Ow,, a’, 6’, y' those of Oy,, and a”, 6", y”
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 233
those of Oz, to Ow, Oy, Oz respectively are given functions of 0, ¢, c (the values
of a’, 8", y' depending upon 6, ¢ only), we have
pdt=sin ¢ sin ¢ d#+cos t dd,
gdt=cos c sin ¢ d@—sin ¢ d¢,
rdt=dc-+cos dé.
175, A set of integrals is
Apa +Bqg6 +Cry =k cos X,
Apa’ + Bgh' +Cry' =k cos p,
Apa" + Bq6"'+Cry'"=k cos y,
equivalent to two independent equations, the values of \, p, v being such that
cos*A+cos*z+cos*y=1; but the position of the axis of z may be chosen so
that the values on the right-hand sides become 0, 0, &; the axis of z is then
perpendicular to the invariable plane, the condition in question serving as a
definition. And the three equations then give
Ap=ka"', Bo—-p", Cr=ky",
where the values of a”, 6”, y’ in fact are
a"=sinc sing, B’=coscsing, y’=cos¢;
we have thus c, ¢in terms of 7. And the equation rdt=dz + cos ¢@0 then leads
to the value of d@, or @ is determined as a function of r by a quadrature.
176. The constants of integration are h, &, 1 (the constant attached to 2),
g (the constant attached to 6); and two constants, say a the longitude of
the node, and y the inclination of the invariable plane in reference to an
arbitrary plane of wy and origin « of longitudes therein. I remark in passing
that Poisson obtains an elegant set of formule for the variations of the
constants h, k, g, 1, «, y, not actually in the canonical form, but which may
by a slight change be reduced to it.
177. Legendre considers the problem of Rotation in the ‘Exercices de
Calcul Intégral,’ t. ii. (1817), and the “Théorie des Fonctions Elliptiques,”
t. 1. pp. 366-410 (1826). He does not employ the quantities p, q, r, but
obtains de novo a set of differential equations of the second order involving
the angles which determine the position of the principal axes with regard to
the axes fixed in space: these angles are in fact (calling the plane of the
fixed axes x, y the ecliptic) the longitude and latitude of one of the principal
axes, and the azimuth from the meridian through such principal axis of an
arbitrary axis fixed in the body and moveable with it. The solution is
developed by means of the elliptic integrals. From the peculiar choice of
variables there would, it would seem, be considerable labour in comparing the
results with those of other writers, and there would be but little use in
doing so.
178. Poinsot’s ‘Théorie Nouvelle de la Rotation des Corps.””—The ‘Extrait?
of the memoir was published in 1834, but the memoir itself was not published
in extenso until the year 1851. The ‘ Extrait’ contains, however, not only the
fundamental theorem of the representation of the motion of a body about a
fixed point by means of the momental ellipsoid rolling on a fixed tangent
plane, but also the geometrical and mechanical reasonings by which this
theorem is demonstrated ; it establishes also the notions of the Poloid and
Serpoloid curves ; and it contains incidentally, and without any developments,
a very important remark as to the representation of the motion by means of
the rolling and sliding motion of an elliptic cone. The whole theory (includ-
ing that of the last-mentioned representation of the motion) is in the memoir
234 ; REPORT—1862.
itself also analytically developed, but without the introduction of the elliptic
and Jacobian functions: to form a complete theory, it would be necessary to
incorporate the memoir with that of Jacobi.
179. The following is an outline of the ‘ Extrait ’:—
The instantaneous motion of a body about a fixed point is a motion of
rotation about an axis (the instantaneous axis); and hence the finite motion
is as if there were a cone fixed in the body which rolls (without sliding) upon
another cone fixed in space.
The instantaneous motion of a body in space is a motion of rotation about
an axis combined with a translation in the direction of this axis: this remark
is hardly required for Poinsot’s purpose, and he does not further develope the
theory of the motion of a body in space. The effect of a couple in a plane
perpendicular to a principal axis is to turn the body about this axis with an
angular velocity proportional to the moment of the couple divided by the
moment of inertia about the axis.
' And hence by resolving any couple into couples perpendicular to the prin-
cipal axes, the effect of such couple may be calculated ; but more simply by
means of the central ellipsoid (momental ellipsoid a?a?+67/°+¢e2°=k", if
A, B, C=Ma?, MB?, Mc’), viz., if the body is acted on by a couple in a tangent
plane of the ellipsoid, the instantaneous axis passes through the point of con-
tact; and reciprocally given the instantaneous axis, the couple must act in the
tangent plane.
180. Considering now a body rotating about a fixed point, and taking as
the plane of the couple of impulsion a tangent plane of the ellipsoid, the
instantaneous axis is initially the diameter through the point of contact; the
centrifugal forces arising from the rotation produce however an accelerating
couple, the effect whereof is continually to impress on the body a rotation
which is compounded with that about the instantaneous axis, and thus to
cause a variation in the position of this axis and in the angular velocity round
it. The axis of the accelerating couple is always situate in the plane of the
couple of impulsion.
181. Hence also
1°. Throughout the motion the angular velocity is proportional to the length
of the instantaneous axis considered as a radius vector of the ellipsoid.
2°. The distance of the tangent plane from the centre is constant ; that is,
the tangent plane to the ellipsoid at the = of the instantaneous axis
is a fixed plane in space.
Or, what is the same thing, the motion is such that the ellipsoid remains
always in contact with a fixed plane, viz., the body revolves round the radius
vector through the point of contact, the angular velocity being always pro-
portional to the length of this radius vector.
It is right to remark that in Poinsot’s theory the distance of this plane
‘from the centre depends on the arbitrarily assumed magnitude of the central
ellipsoid; the parallel plane through the centre is the invariable plane of the
motion.
182. The motion is best understood by the consideration that it is implied
in the theorem that the pole of the instantaneous axis describes on the ellip-
soid a certain curve, ‘‘the Poloid,’ which is the locus of all the points for
which the perpendicular on the tangent plane has a given constant value (the
curve in question is easily seen to be the intersection of the ellipsoid by a
concentric cone of the second order) ; and that the instantaneous axis describes
on the fixed tangent plane a curve called the Serpoloid, which is the locus of
the points with which the several points of the poloid come successively in con-
=
oa | es
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 235
tact with the tangent plane, and is a species of undulating curve, viz., the radius
vector as it moves through the angles 6 to 0,+2II, 0,+ 20 to 6,+4I1, &c. as-
sumes continually the same series of values. This is in fact evident from the
mode of generation ; and it is moreoyer.clear that the serpoloid is an algebraical
or else a transcendental curve according as II is or is not commensurable with 7.
[Treating the poloid and serpoloid as cones instead of curves, the motion
of the body is the rolling motion of the former upon the latter cone, which
agrees with a previous remark. |
There is a very interesting special case where the perpendicular distance
from the tangent plane is equal to the mean axis of the ellipse.
183. Poinsot remarks that the motion is such that [considering the plane
of the couple of impulsion as drawn through the centre of the ellipsoid] the
section of the ellipsoid is an ellipse variable in form but of constant magni-
tude, and that this leads to a new representation of the motion, viz., that it
may be regarded as the motion of an elliptic cone which rolls on the plane of
the couple [the invariable plane] with a variable velocity, and which slides on
this plane with a uniform velocity.
184. The theory of the last-mentioned cone, say the “rolling and sliding
cone,” is developed in the memoir, Liouville, t. xvi. p. 303, in the chapter
entitled “ Nouvelle Image de la Rotation des Corps.” If a, 6, c signify as
before (viz., A, B, C=Ma’, Md’, Mc’), and if h be the distance of the centre
from Poinsot’s fixed tangent plane (h<a>c), then the invariable axis
describes in the body a cone the equation whereof is
(a? —h’) a +. (0? —h’) 7? +(C—h’?) 2=0 ;
the cone reciprocal to this, viz. the cone the equation whereof is
a? y 2
oe Bet eae
is the “rolling and sliding cone.” The generating line OT of this cone is
perpendicular to the plane of the instantaneous axis OI, and of the invariable
axis OG ; and the analytical expressions for the rolling and sliding velocities
follow from the geometrical consideration that the motion at any instant is a
rotation round the instantaneous axis OI: that for the sliding velocity is the
instantaneous angular velocity into the cosine of the angle LOG, which is in
fact constant ; that for the rolling velocity is given, but a further explanation
of the geometrical signification is perhaps desirable.
185. I may in this place again refer to Cohen’s memoir “On the Differential
Coefficients and Determinants of Lines &c.” (1862), the latter part of which
contains an application of the method to finding Euler’s equations for the
motion of a rotating body.
186. Rueb in his memoir (1834) first applied the elliptic and Jacobian func-
tions to the present problem. Starting from the equations
Ap* + Bq? +Cr*? =h,
A’p? + BP? +Cr’=P*,
and
— —Bdq
(A—C) rp"
it is easy to perceive that by assuming y=a proper multiple of sin £, the ex-
* 1 is Poisson’s &, the constant of the principal area ; it is the letter afterwards used by
Jacobi ; Rueb’s letter is gy. In quoting (infra) the expressions for p, g, 7, I have given
them with Rueb’s signs, but it would be too long to explain how the signs of the radicals
are determined. {
dt
236 REPORT—1862.
dé oS
eect Le ae elt Be | —
Vise ae ? o that writing —=am u,
the integral equation is nt—e=vw, or u is an angle varying directly as the
time (and corresponding to the mean longitude, or, if we please, to the mean
anomaly in the problem of elliptic motion). And then p, q, r are expressed
as elliptic functions of vu. The value of the modulus &, and that of
n (nt—e=u ut supra) are
pe Mee nS
c ABC ?
jas (A—B)(P—Ch)
ABC ;
p= digufetath, cos am w,
fh
o== —
Y BLB_C sll am wu,
—P+Ah
cC.A—C
187. Substituting for p, g, r their values in terms of u, we have dé, and
thence @ (the longitude of the node of the equator on the invariable plane) in
the form
pression for dt takes the form ndi=
and then
= Aam wu,
1 , : a |
0=—7z, u+ill(u, ia) (i= —1),
which by Jacobi’s formule for the transformation of the elliptic integral of
the third class becomes
lores -7 O(u—ar)
=] —— Zi i ee
. ( resp (ai) ut 3 log @(u-paiy
which Rueb reduces to the real fc_
6=—n'u+tan-! W,
W being given in the form of a fraction, the numerator and denominator
whereof are series in multiple sines and multiple cosines respectively of
mu
188. Rueb investigates also the values in terms of u of the cosine inclina-
tions of the instantaneous axis to the axes fixed in space; and he obtains a
very elegant expression for the angle ¢, which is the angular distance from «
of the projection on the plane of wy (the invariable plane) of the instantaneous
axis; viz., this is
g=tan( ABn A amu a :
~ (A—B)/ sin am w cos am wu
and there is throughout a careful discussion of the geometrical signification
of the results.
189. The advance made was enormous; the result is that we have in terms
of the time sinc sin ¢, cost sin ¢, cos ¢ (the cosine inclinations of the inva-
riable axis to the principal axes), and also 0, the longitude of the node. The
cosine inclinations of the axes of x and y to the principal axes could of course
be obtained from these, but they would be of a very complicated and un-
ti
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 237
manageable form; the reason of this is the presence in the expression for 0 of
the non-periodic term —n'u. It will presently be seen how this difficulty was
got over by Jacobi.
190. Briot’s paper of 1842 contains an analytical demonstration of some
of the theorems given in the ‘ Extrait’ of Poinsot’s memoir of 1834.
191. In Maccullagh’s Lectures of 1844 (see Haughton, 1849; Maccullagh,
1847) the problem of the rotation of a solid body is treated in a mode some=
what similar to that of Poinsot’s; only the ellipsoid of gyration ~ nt+S=1 7
if A, B, C=Ma’*, Mb’, Mc’) is used instead of the momental ellipsoid. Thus,
reciprocal to the poloid curve on the momental ellipsoid we have on the
ellipsoid of gyration a curve all the points whereof are equidistant from the
centre ; such curve is of course the intersection of the ellipsoid by a concen-
tric sphere, that is, it is a spherical conic; and the points of this spherical
conic come successively to coincide with a fixed point on the invariable axis.
This is a theorem stated in Art. VI. of Haughton’s memoir: it may be added
that the several tangent planes of the ellipsoid of gyration at the points of the
spherical conic as they come to coincide with the fixed point, form a cone
reciprocal to Poinsot’s serpoloid cone. It is clear that every theorem in the
one theory has its reciprocal in the other theory; I have not particularly
examined as to how far the reciprocal theorems haye been stated in the two
theories.
192. Cayley, “ On the Motion of Rotation of a Solid Body ” (1843).—The
object was to apply to the solution of the problem Rodrigues’ formule for the
resultant rotation ; viz., if the principal axes, considered as originally coin-
ciding with the axes of «, y, z, can be brought into their actual position at the
end of the time ¢ by a rotation 6 round an axis, inclined at angles f, g, h to
the axes of w, y, z, and if \=tan $0 cos f, »=tan 46 cos g, v=tan 36 cosh,
then the principal axes are referred to the axes fixed in space by means of
the quantities \, », v. And these are to be obtained from the equations
kpdt=2( dd+ vdu—pdy),
« gdt=2(—rvdi\+ du+ddr),
crdt=2( pdr—ddu+ dy),
where k=1+)°+ p°++ ’, and p, q, 7 are to be considered as given functions
of ¢, or of other the variable selected as the independent one. But for effecting
the integration it was found necessary to take the axes of z as the invariable
axes.
193. The solution by Jacobi, § 27 of the memoir “Theoria Novi Multi-
plicatoris” (1845), is given as an application of the general theory, the author
remarking that, as well in this question as in the problem of the two fixed
centres, he purposely employed a somewhat inartificial analysis, in order to
show that the principle (of the Ultimate Multiplier) would lead to the result
without any special artifices. The principal axes are referred to the axes
fixed in space by the ordinary three angles (here called q,, q,, q,), and the
solution is carried so far as to give the integral equations, without any reduc-
tion of the integrals cohtained in them to elliptic integrals. The solution is,
howeve¥, in so far remarkable that the integrations are effected without the
aid of the invariable plane.
194. Cayley, “On the Rotation of a Solid Body &c.” (1846).—It appeared
desirable to obtain the solution by means of the quantities A, HB, v, without the
assistance of the invariable plane, and Jacobi’s discovery of the theorem of the
238 REPORT—1862,
Ultimate Multiplier induced me to resume the problem, and at least attempt
to bring it so far as to obtain a differential equation of the first order between
two variables only, the multiplier of which could be obtained theoretically
by Jacobi’s discovery. The choice of two new variables to which the equa-
tions of the problem led me, enabled me to effect this in a simple manner ;
and the differential equation which I finally obtained turned out to be inte-
grable per se, so that the laborious process of finding the multiplier became
unnecessary.
195. The new variables Q, v have the following geometrical significations :
Q=1 tan 30 cos], where / is the principal moment (A*p*+ B*q’+C'r’=P),
6 (as before) the angle of resultant rotation, and I is the inclination of the
resultant axis to the invariable axis; and y=? cos? 3J, where if we imagine
a line AQ having the same position relatively to the axes fixed in space that
the invariable axis has to the principal axes of the body, then J is the incli-
nation of this line to the invariable axis. It is found that p, g, 7 are func-
tions of v only, whereas \, x, v contain besides the variable Q. In obtaining
these relations, there occurs a singular relation Q?=xv—l, which may also
be written 1+ tan’ 30 cos*, I=sec* 30 cos’ 3J, where the geometrical significa-
tions of the quantities I, J have just been explained. The final results are
that the time ¢, and the arc tan-1 are each of them expressible as the
integrals of certain algebraical functions of v. There might be some interest
in comparing the results with those of Euler’s memoir of 1758, where the
principal axes are also referred to an arbitrary system of axes fixed in space ;
but I was not then acquainted with Euler’s memoir.
The concluding part of the paper relates to the determination of the varia-
tions of the constants in the disturbed problem.
196. Cayley, “ Note on the Rotation of a Solid of Revolution ” (1849), shows
the simplification produced in the formule of the last-mentioned memoir in
the case where two of the moments of inertia are equal, say A=B.
197. Jacobi’s final solution of the problem of Rotation was given without
demonstration in the letter to the Academy of Sciences at Paris; the demon-
stration is added in the memoir, Crelle, t. xxxix. (1849). The fundamental
idea consists in taking in the invariable plane, instead of the fixed axes vy, a
set of axes xy revolving with uniform velocity, such that the angular distance
of the axis of « from its initial position is precisely = —n'w ; and consequently
if 6’ be the longitude of the node of the equator on the invariable plane, mea-
sured from the moveable axis of # as the origin of longitude, we have
PL lat log ee (i= v— =I);
lis
=5; into a loga-
rithmic function) in passing to the trigonometrical functions sin 6’, cos 6’ the
logarithm disappears altogether; and we have in a simple form the expres-
sions for the actual functions sin 6’, cos 6’, through which 6’ enters into the
formule, and thus, Jacobi remarks, the barrier is cleared which stands i in
the way when the expression of an angle is reduced to an elliptic ‘integral
of the third class.
198. For the better expression of the results, Jacobi joins to the functions
H, 0, considered in the “ Fundamenta Nova,” the functions 0,vw=0 (K—vw),
H (uw) =H(K—zw) ; so. that
and in consequence of this form of the expression for @’
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 239
-, Hu k He _ Ou
Vi sin amu= Ou? Jt cos amu, VE Aamu= On’
and then considering the cosine inclinations of the principal axes to the
invariable axis and the revolying axes in the inyariable plane, these are
all fractions which, neglecting constant factors, have the common deno-
minator Qu; a’, 8’, y' (as shown by Rueb’s formule) have the numerators
Hu, Hu, and ©,w respectively; and a, a have the numerators H (w+ia)
+H (u—ia), B, 3’ the numerators H, (wu—7ta) +H, (w+ia), y, y' the nume-
rators © (w+ia)+0 (w—ia) “respectively: there are also expressions of a
similar form for the angular velocities about the axes of a and y; that about
the axis of z (the invariable axis) haying, as was known, the constant value
. The memoir is also very valuable analytically, as completing the systems
of formuls given in the “ Fundamenta Nova” in reference to elliptic integrals
of the third class.
199. It is worth noticing how the results connect themselves with Poinsot’s
theorem of the rolling and sliding cone, the velocity of the rolling motion
depends only upon the position, on the cone, of the line of contact, so that
the same series of velocities recur after any number of complete revolutions
of the cone; that is, the total angle described by the line of contact in conse-
quence of the rolling motion, consists of a part varying directly with the
time (or say varying as w) and a periodic part; the former part combines
with the similar term arising from the sliding motion, and the two together
give Jacobi’s term nw. }
200. Somoff’s memoir (1851), written after Jacobi’s Note in the ‘ Comptes
Rendus,’ but before the appearance of the memoir in Crelle, gives the de-
monstration of the greater part of Jacobi’s results.
201. Booth’s “Theory of Elliptic Integrals &c.” (1851) (contemporaneous
with the publication of Poinsot’s memoir of 1834) contains various interest-
ing analytical developments, and, as an interpretation of them, the author:
obtains (p. 93) the theorem of the rolling and sliding cone. The investiga-
tions inyolye the elliptic integrals, but not the elliptic or Jacobian functions.
202. Richelot’s two Notes (Crelle, tt. xlii. & xliv.) relate to the solution
of the problem of rotation given in his memoir “Eine neue Losung &c.”
(1851). This is an application of Jacobi’s theorem for the integration of a
system of dynamical equations by means of the principal function S (see my
“Report” of 1857, art. 34). Retaining Richelot’s letters ¢, y, 0, which
signify
i, the longitude of the node,
0, the inclination,
, the hour-angle,
the question is to find a complete solution of the partial differential equation
_1f(av dV\' sing dV F
0-551 (% cos 0455) sin @ do cos of
»
1 { (dV dV\ cos¢ dV. ;
' ton (ap cos +57) seat ay 80 0
1 /dV\? dV
+26 (as) tat}
that is, a solution inyolying (besides the constant attached to V by a mere
240 REPORT—1862.
addition) three arbitrary constants; these are ¢,, Y,, p. Writing in the first
place V=W-+tt,+yy,, the resulting equation for W may be satisfied by
taking W, a function of ¢ and 0, without y or ¢; and it is sufficient to have
a solution inyolying only a single arbitrary constant. This leads to a solu-
tion which is as follows,—
= 6
V=tt een tan cee ad aah
it Wy, y, oe V 12-02
% ) $,0
+p) tan Sa tants |
| ev p—y,7—8,7 eve =o aes
6+) J J Ow an (Gy 140" e424)
where ¢, and 6, are certain given functions of ¢,, J, p, and of @ and ¢. The
solution of the dynamical problem is then obtained by putting the differential
ts » TB? a dV equal to arbitrary constants L, a, G respectively ;
the eagle are be ee more simple than might be expected from the very
complicated form of the function V. The foreg: going results (although not by
themselves very intelligible) will give an idea of the form in which the ana-
lytical solution in the first instance presents itself.
203. Richelot proceeds to remark that the solution in question, and the
resulting integral equations of the problem, may be simplified in a peculiar
manner by the method which he calls “‘ the integration by the spherical tri-
angle.” For this purpose he introduces a spherical triangle, the sides and
angles whereof are
coefficients —-
v,r\, ph; N, A, M,
and then assuming
N constant, M=x—9@
((-3) sin? (9+») sin’A+ (<-3) cos” (@+v) sin’A = eth ,
where p and ¢, are constant, the solution is
V=t,t—p(p—A) cos N—pM+p [cos Ad(¢+yr) ;
and that this expression leads to all the results almost without calculation.
204. I have quoted the foregoing results from the Note (Crelle, t. xlii.),
having seen, but without having studied, the Memoir itself: the results appear
very interesting and valuable ones; but they seem to require a more com-
plete geometrical development than they have received in the Memoir ; and I
am not able to bring them into connexion with the other researches on
the subject.
205. The solution, §3 of Donkin’s memoir “On a Class of Differential
Equations &c.” (part i. 1854), is given as an illustration of the general
theory to which the memoir relates; it contains, however, some interesting
geometrical developments in regard to the case (A=B) of two equal moments
of inertia. I have not compared the results with those in my Note of 1849. ;
206. The solution of the rotation problem, § 66 of Jacobi’s memoir “ Nova
Methodus &c.” (1862), has for its object to show the complete analogy
which exists between this problem and the problem of a body attracted to a
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS, 241
fixed centre. The section is in fact headed “Solutio simultanea “Gara
de motu puncti versus centrum attracti atque problematis de rotatione &c.”
and Jacobi, after noticing that Poisson, in his memoir of 1816 (Mém. de
l’Inst. t.i.), had shown that the expressions for the variations of the elements
in the two problems could be investigated by a common analysis, remarks,
«Sed ipsa problemata duo imperturbata hic primum, quantum credo, amplexus
sum.” The solution is in fact as follows:—Suppose that in the one problem
the position of the point in space, and in the other problem the position of
the body in regard to the fixed axes is determined in any manner by the
quantities 9,, 9,,9,- Let
di , dq, di
ly ag
and expressing the Vis Viva function T in terms of ¢,, 9,5 Ys 1's Jo's Yq» let
LT i BE rg AL
dy? dg?” dg,
and let H be the value of T expressed in terms of ¢,, 9,5 3s Py» Pos Py» 80 that
H=a is the integral of Vis Viva (this is merely the transformation to the
Hamiltonian form). And let H,=a,, ¢=«a,', p=a," be the three integrals
of areas (H, H,, ¢, are functions of the variables only, not containing the
arbitrary constants a, a,, a,',a,"). Then, expressing
H, H,, H, (=VH'+9'+¥)
in terms of p,, 75 Ps 91> Qo» Jo and by means of the equations
H=7, a H.=¢;
(where a,= Va,7+a,"+a,'") expressing p,, p,, p, in terms of 4, J.) %» We
haye p,dq,+p,dq¢,+p,dq, a complete differential ; and putting
§ (cae +p.dq, +p.ty,)=V,
then (a, a,, a,, b, b,, 6, being arbitrary constants) we have
H=a, H, =a, Hy =4,,
a dp, 4
Y((Ba TET G ries dq, + Pa aly, = t+,
dV d dp
ree ee Pea = Ps dy, + pe ay,)= it
Les a dp, 4, \—
r= ( (Pa da, + da, qg,+ da, a4,)=by
as the complete fal: of either problem, the last three of them being the
final integrals.
And it is added that if in either problem we have H+. instead of H, the
expressions for the variations of the elements assume the canonical forms
da_ dQadb_ da
dt db’ dt da’
The solution is not further developed as regards the rotation problem, but
it is so (§ 67) as regards the other problem.
ee It must, I think, be considered that a comprehensive memoir on the
R
=Ps)
242 REPORT—1 862.
Problem of Rotation, embracing and incorporating all that has been done on
the subject, is greatly needed.
Kinematics of a solid body. Article Nos. 208 to 215.
208. The general theorem in regard to the infinitesimal motions (rotations
and translations) of a solid body is that these are compounded and resolved in
the same way as if they were single forces and couples respectively. Thus
any infinitesimal rotations and translations are resolvible into a rotation and
a translation ; the rotation is given as to its magnitude and as to the direction
of its axis, but not as to the position of the axis (which may be any line in
the given direction): the magnitude and direction of the translation depend
on the assumed position of the axis of rotation; in particular this may be
taken so that the translation shall be in the direction of the axis of rotation ;
and the magnitude of the rotation is then a minimum. I remark that the
theorem as above stated presupposes the establishment of the theory of couples
(of forces) which was first accomplished by Poinsot in his ‘Elémens de
Statique,’ 1st edit. 1804; it must have been, the whole or nearly the whole of
it, familiar to Chasles at the date of his paper of 1830 next referred to (see
also Note XXXIV of the Apercu Historique, 1837) ; and it is nearly the whole
of it stated in the ‘ Extrait’ of Poinsot’s memoir on Rotation, 1834.
209. Chasles’ paper in the ‘ Bulletin Uniy. des Sciences’ for 1830.—The
corresponding theorem is here given for the finite motions (rotations and
translations) of a solid body as follows, viz. if any finite displacement be given
to a free solid body in space, there exists always in the body a certain inde-
finite line which after the displacement remains in its original situation. The
theorem is deduced from a more general one relating to two similar bodies. It
may be otherwise stated thus: viz., any motions may be represented by a
translation and a rotation (the order of the two being indifferent) ; the rotation
is given as regards its magnitude and the direction of its axis, but not as to
the position of the axis (which may be any line in the given direction); the
magnitude and direction of the translation depend on the assumed position of
the axis of rotation ; in particular this may be taken so that the translation
shall be in the direction of the axis of rotation; the magnitude of the trans-
lation is then a minimum. :
It may be noticed that a translation may be represented as a couple of
rotations; that is, two equal and opposite rotations about parallel axes.
210. It is part’of the general theorem that any number of rotations about
axes passing through one and the same point may be compounded into a
single rotation about an axis through that point ;. this is, in fact, the theory
of the “ Resultant Axis ” déyeloped in Euler’s and Lexell’s memoirs of 1775.
211. The following properties are also given, viz., considering two similar
solid bodies (or in particular any two positions of a solid body) and joining
the corresponding points, the lines which pass through one and the same
point form a cone of the second order; and the points of either body form
on this cone a curve of the third order (skew cubic). And, reciprocally, the
lines, intersections of corresponding planes, which lie in one and the same
plane envelope a conic, and such planes of either body envelope a developable
surface, which is such that any one of these planes meets it in a conic [or,
ee is the same thing, the planes envelope a developable surface of the fourth
order}.
And also, given in space two equal bodies situate in any manner in respect
to each other, then joining the points of the first body to the homologous
points of the second body, the middle points of these lines form a body capable
:
:
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS, 243
of an infinitesimal motion, each point of it along the line on which the same
is situate.
212. The entire theory, as well of the infinitesimal as of the finite motions
of a solid body, is carefully and successfully treated in Rodrigues’ memoir
“ Des lois géométriques &c.” (1840). It may be remarked that for the purpose
of compounding together any rotations and translations, each rotation may be
resolved into a rotation about a parallel axis and a couple of rotations, that
is, a translation; the rotations are thus converted into rotations about axes
through one and the same point, and these give rise to a single resultant
rotation given as to its magnitude and the direction of the axis, but not as to
the position of the axis (which is an arbitrary line in the given direction) ;
the translations are then compounded together into a single translation, and
finally the position of the axis of rotation is so determined that the translation
shall be in the direction of this axis; the entire system is thus compounded
(in accordance with Chasles’ theorem) into a rotation and a translation in the
direction of the axis of the rotation. The problem of the composition depends
therefore on the composition of rotations about axes through one and the
same point; that is, upon Euler’s and Lexell’s theory of the resultant axis.
But, as already noticed, the analytical theory of the resultant axis was per-
fected by Rodrigues in the present memoir (see ante, ‘ Transformation of Co-
ordinates,’ Nos. 139-141, as to this memoir and the quaternion representation
of the formulee contained in it).
213. It was remarked in Poinsot’s memoir of 1834 that every continuous
motion of a solid body about a fixed point is the motion of a cone fixed in
the body rolling upon another cone fixed in space. The corresponding theorem
for the motion of a solid body in space is given
Cayley, “On the Geometrical Representation &c.” (1846), viz. premising that
a skew surface is said to be “‘ deformed” if, considering the elements between
consecutive generating lines as rigid, these elements be made in any manner
to turn round and slide along the successive generating lines :—and that two
skew surfaces can be made to roll and slide one upon the other, only if the
one is a deformation of the other—and that then the rolling and sliding
motions are perfectly determined—and that such a motion may be said to be
a “gliding” motion: the theorem is that any motion whatever of a solid body
in space may be represented as the gliding motion of one skew surface upon
another skew surface of which it is the deformation.
214. The same paper contains the enunciation and analytical proof of the
following theorem supplementary to that of Poinsot just referred to, viz.
that when the motion of a solid body round a fixed point is represented as
the rolling motion of one cone on another, then “the angular velocity round
the line of contact (the instantaneous axis) is to the angular velocity of this
line as the difference of the curvatures of the two cones at any point in this
line is to the reciprocal of the distance of the. point from the vertex.”
215. There are a great number of theorems relating to the composition of
forces and force-couples, which consequently relate also to infinitesimal rota-
tions and translations. See, for instance, Chasles, “ Théorémes généraux ce.”
(1847), Mobius, “ Lehrbuch der Statik” (1837), Steichen’s Memoirs of 1853
and 1854, &c. Arising out of some theorems of Mobius in the “ Statik,” we
have Sylvester's theory of the involution of six lines: viz. six lines (given in
position) may be such that properly selected forces along them (or if we
please, properly selected infinitesimal rotations round them) will counter-
balance each other; or, what is the same thing, the six lines may be such
that a system of forces, although satisfying for each of the six lines the con-
R2
244, REPORT—1862.
dition moment=0, will not of necessity be in equilibrium ; such six lines are
said to be in involution, and the geometrical theory is a very extensive and
interesting one.
Miscellaneous Problems. Article Nos. 216 to 223.
216. As under the foregoing head, “‘ Rotation round a fixed point,” I have
considered only the case of a body not acted upon by any forces, the case
where the body is acted upon by any forces comes under the present head.
The forces, whatever they are, may be considered as disturbing forces, and
the problem be treated by the method of the variation of the elements ; this
is at any rate a separate part of the theory of rotation round a fixed point,
and I have found it convenient to include it under the present head; the
only case in which the forces have been treated as principal ones, seems to be
that of a heavy body (a solid of revolution) rotating about a point not its
centre of gravity. The case of a body suspended by a thread or resting on a
plane comes under the present head, as also would (in some at least of the
questions connected with it) the gyroscope. But none of these questions are
here considered in any detail.
Rotation round a fixed point—Variation of the elements.
217. The forces acting on the body are treated as disturbing forces.
Formule for the variations of the elements were first obtained by Poisson
in the memoir “ Sur la Variation des Constantes Arbitraires &c.” (1809). The
variations are expressed in terms of the differential coefficients of the disturb-
ing function in regard to the elements, and, as the author remarks, they are
very similar in their form to, and can be rendered identical with, those for
the variations of the elements in the theory of elliptic motion.
218. Cayley, “On the Rotation &c.” (1846).—The latter part of the paper
relates to the variations of the elements therein made use of, which are
different from the ordinary ones.
219. Richelot, “Eine neue Lésung &e.” (1851).—The form in which the
integrals are obtained by means of a function V, satisfying a partial differen-
tial equation, leads at once to a canonical system for the variations of the
elements; these formule are referred to in the introduction to the memoir,
but they are not afterwards considered.
220. Cayley, “ On the Rotation of a Solid Body” (1860).—The elements are
those ordinarily made use of, with only a slight variation occasioned by the
employment of the “ departure” of the node. The course of the investigation
consists in obtaining the variations in terms of the differential coefficients of
the disturbing function in regard to the coordinates (formule which were
thought interesting for their own sake), and in deducing therefrom those in
terms of the differential coefficients in terms of the elements.
Other cases of the motion of a solid body.
221. In regard to a heavy solid of revolution rotating about a fixed point
not its centre of gravity, we have
Poisson, “‘ Mémoire sur un cas particulier &c.” (1831), and the elaborate
memoir
Lottner, “ Reduction der Bewegung &c.”’ (1855), where the solution is
worked out by means of the Elliptic and Jacobian functions,
222. As regards a heavy solid suspended by a string,
Pagani, “‘ Mémoire sur l’équilibre Ke.” (1839).
223, As regards the motion of a body resting on a fixed plane,
ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 245
Cournot, “‘ Mémoire sur le Mouvement &c.” (1830 and 1832).
Puiseux, ‘‘ Du Mouvement &c.” (1848).
To which: several others might doubtless be added; but the problems are so
difficult, that the solutions cannot, it is probable, be obtained in any very
complete form.
In conclusion, I can only regret that, notwithstanding the time which has
elapsed since the present Report was undertaken, it is still—both as regards
the omission of memoirs and works which should have been noticed, and the
merely cursory examination of some of those which are mentioned—far from
being as complete as I should have wished to make it. To have reproduced,
to any much greater extent than has been done, the various mathematical
inyestigations, would not have been proper, nor indeed practicable; at the
same time, more especially as regards the subjects treated of in the second
part of this Report, or say the kinematics and dynamics of a solid body, such
a reproduction, incorporating and to some extent harmonizing the original
researches, but without ignoring the points of view and methods of investi-
gation of the several authors, would be a work which would well repay the
labour of its accomplishment, é
List of Memoirs and Works.
Ampére. Mémoire sur quelques propriétés nouvelles des axes permanens de
rotation des corps, et des plans directeurs de ces axes. 4to. Paris, 1823.
. Mémoire sur la Rotation. Mém. de l’Institut, t. v. 1834.
Mémoire sur les équations générales du mouvement. Liouv. t. i.
pp. 211-228 (1836). (Written 1826.)
Anon. Note on the problem of falling bodies as affected by the earth’s rota-
tion, C. & D. M. J. t. iii. pp. 206-208 (1848).
Remarks on the deviation of falling bodies to the east and south
of the perpendicular, and corrections of a previously published paper on the
same subject. C. & D. M. J. t. iv. pp. 96-105 (1849).
Baehr. Notice sur le mouvement du pendule ayant égard 4 la rotation de
la terre. 4to. Middelbourg, 1853.
Bertrand. Mémoire sur l’intégration des équations différentielles de la
Mécanique. Liouv. t. xvii. pp. 393-436 (1852),
Note sur le Gyroscope de M. Foucault. Liouy. t. i. 2 sér. (1856)
pp- 379-382.
Mémoire sur quelques unes des formes les plus simples que puis-
sent présenter les équations différentielles du mouvement d’un point
materiel. Liouv. t. ii. 2 sér. (1857) pp. 113-140.
Bessel. Analytische Auflésung der Keplerschen Aufgabe. Berl. Abh.
1816-17, pp. 49-55. (Read July 1818.)
Ueber die Entwickelung der Functionen zweier Winkeln u und w’
in Reihen welche nach der Cosinussen und Sinussen der Vielfachen von
uund w' fortgehen. Berl. Abh. 1820-21, pp. 56-60. (Read June 1821.)
Untersuchung des Theils der planetarischen Stérungen welche aus
der Bewegung der Sonne entsteht. Berl. Abh. 1824, pp. 1-52,
Binet. Mémoire sur la théorie des axes conjugués et des momens d’inertie
, Journ, Polyt. t. ix. (cah. 16) pp. 41-67 (1813). (Read May
——. Note sur le mouvement du pendule simple en ayant égard 4 ]’in-
246 A REPORT—1862.
fluence de la rotation diurne de la terre. Comptes Rendus, t. xxxii.
(1851) pp. 157-160 & 197-205.
Bonnet. Note sur un théoréme de Mécanique. Liouv. t. ix. p. 113 (1844),
and Note iv. of t. ii. of the last edition of the Méc. Anal. pp. 329-331
1855).
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ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 247
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ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 249
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, . Second Mémoire, ot l’on applique la méthode précédente
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250 : REPORT—1862.
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Sur quelques cas particuliers ot les équations du mouvement d’un
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ON THE SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICS. 251
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——-—. Théorie des cones circulaires roulants. Liouv. t. xviii. pp. 41-70
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mouvement elliptique des planétes. Liouv. t. xiv. pp. 33-39 (1849).
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tique. Liouv. t. xiv. pp. 247-248 (1849).
Solution de quelques questions relatives au mouvement d’un corps
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Vexcentricité qui se présentent dans la théorie du mouvement elliptique.
. Méc. Anal. 3 ed. t. ii. (Note I.) pp. 313-317 (1855).
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_ materiellen Puncten. Crelle, t. xl. pp. 178-182 (1850).
Auszug eines Schreibens am Herrn Prof. Jacobi. Crelle, t. xlii.
_ pp. 32-34 (1851),
. Bemerkungen zur Theorie des Raumpendels. Crelle, t. xlii. pp.
233-238 (1853).
Eine neue Lésung des Problems der Rotation eines festen Kérpers
um einen Punct. (Auszug einer zu Berlin, 1851, erschienenen Schrift.)
Crelle, t. xliv. pp. 60-65.
Rodrigues. Des lois géom¢triques qui régissent les déplacements d’un systéme
solide dans l’espace, et de la variation des coordonnés provenants de ces
252 REPORT—1862.
déplacements considérées indépendamment des causes qui peuvent les pro-
duire. Liouv. t. iii. pp. 880-440 (1840).
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pp. 255-266 (1853).
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raison inverse du carré des distances. Liouy. t. xiii. pp. 17-33 (1848).
Sur la solution particuliére que peut admettre le probleme du
mouvement d’un corps attiré vers deux centres fixes par des forces réci-
proquement proportionnelles aux carrés des_distances. Note iii. to t. li, of
the 3rd ed. of the Méc. Anal. pp. 8327-331 (1855).
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liaison avec le principe de la composition des mouvements de rotation
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pp. 24-42 (1853).
Mémoire sur la question réciproque du centre de percussion, Crelle,
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Mémoire de Mécanique relatif au mouvement de rotation et au
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Thomson. On the principal axes of a solid body. C, & D. M. J. t. i,
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Tissot. Thése de Mécanique. Liouv. t. xvii. pp. 88-116 (1852),
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ON DOUBLE REFRACTION. 2538
Report on Double Refraction. By G.G.Stoxss, M.A., D.C.L.,Sec.R.S.,
Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge.
I recrer to say that in consequence of other occupations the materials for a
complete report on Physical Optics, which the British Association have re-
quested me to prepare, are not yet collected and digested. Meanwhile, instead
of requesting longer time for preparation, I have thought it would be well to
take up a single branch of the subject, and offer a report on that alone. I
have accordingly taken the subject of double refraction, having mainly in
view a consideration of the various dynamical theories which have been
adyanced to account for the phenomenon on the principle of transversal vibra-
tions, and an indication of the experimental measurements which seem to me
most needed to advance this branch of optical science. As the greater part
of what has been done towards placing the theory of double refraction on a
rigorous dynamical basis is subsequent to the date of Dr. Lloyd’s admirable
report on ‘ Physical Optics,” I have thought it best to take a review of the
whole subject, though at the risk of repeating a little of what is already con-
tained in that report.
The celebrated theory of Fresnel was defective in rigour in two respects,
as Fresnel himself clearly perceived. The first is that the expression for the
force of restitution is obtained on the supposition of the absolute displacement
of a molecule, whereas in undulations of all kinds the forces of restitution
with which we are concerned are those due to relative displacements. Fresnel
endeayoured to show, by reasoning professedly only probable, that while the
magnitude of the force of restitution is altered in passing from absolute to rela-
tive displacements, the Jaw of the force as to its dependence on the direction of
vibration remains the same. The other point relates to the neglect of the com-
ponent of the force in a direction perpendicular to the front of a wave. In the
state of things supposed in the calculation of the forces of restitution called
into play by absolute displacements, there is no immediate recognition of a
wave at all, and a molecule is supposed to be as free to move in one direction
as in another. But a displacement in a direction perpendicular to the front
of a wave would callinto play new forces of restitution having a resultant not
in general in the direction of displacement; so that even the component of
the force of restitution in a direction parallel to the front of a wave would
haye an expression altogether different from that determined by the theory
of Fresnel. But the absolute displacements are only considered for the sake
of obtaining results to be afterwards applied to relative displacements; and
Fresnel distinctly makes the supposition that the ether is incompressible, or
at least is sensibly so under the action of forces comparable with those with
which we are concerned in the propagation of light. This supposition re-
moves the difficulty ; and though it increases the number of hypotheses as to
the existing state of things, it cannot be objected to in point of rigour, unless
it be that a demonstration might be required that incompressibility is not in-
consistent with the assumed constitution of the ether, according to which it
is regarded as consisting of distinct material points, symmetrically arranged,
and acting on one another with forces depending, for a given pair, only on
the distance. Hence the neglect of the force perpendicular to the fronts of
the waves is not so much a new defect of rigour, as the former defect appear-
ing under a new aspect.
Lhave mentioned these points because sometimes they are slurred over,
and Fresnel’s theory spoken of as if it had been rigorous throughout, to the
injury of students and the retardation of the real progress of science ; and
254 - -REPoRT—1]1862.
sometimes, on the other hand, the grand advance made by Fresnel is depre-
ciated on account of his theory not being everywhere perfectly rigorous. If
we reflect on the state of the subject as Fresnel found it, and as he left it, the
wonder is, not that he failed to give a rigorous dynamical theory, but that a
single mind was capable of effecting so much.
The first deduction of the laws of double refraction, or at least of an ap-
proximation to the true laws, from a rigorous theory is due to Cauchy*,
though Neumann? independently, and almost simultaneously, arrived at the
same results. In the theory of Cauchy and Neumann the ether is supposed
to consist of distinct particles, regarded as material points, acting on one
another by forces in the line joining them which vary as some function of
the distances, and the arrangement of these particles is supposed to be dif-
ferent in different directions. The medium is further supposed to possess
three rectangular planes of symmetry, the double refraction of crystals, so far
as has been observed, being symmetrical with respect to three such planes.
The equations of motion of the medium are deduced by a method similar to
that employed by Navier in the case of an isotropic medium. The equations
arrived at by Cauchy, the medium being referred to planes of symmetry,
contain nine arbitrary constants, three of which express the pressures in the
principal directions in the state of equilibrium. Those employed by Neumann
contain only six such constants, the medium in its natural state being sup-
posed free from pressure.
In the theory of double refraction, whatever be the particular dynamical
conditions assumed, everything is reduced to the determination of the velocity
of propagation of a plane wave propagated in any given direction, and the
mode of vibration of the particles in such a wave which must exist in order
that the wave may be propagated with a unique velocity. In the theory of
Cauchy now under consideration, the direction of vibration and the reciprocal
of the velocity of propagation are given in direction and magnitude respec-
tively by the principal axes of a certain ellipsoid, the equation of which con-
tains the nine arbitrary constants, and likewise the direction-cosines of the
wave-normal. Cauchy adduces reasons for supposing that the three constants
G, H, I, which express the pressures in the state of equilibrium, vanish,
which leaves only six constants. For waves perpendicular to the principal
axes, the squared velocities of propagation and the corresponding directions
of vibration are given by the following Table :—
Waveanormal 0. au ary. a we y Zz
we L R Q
Direction of vibra- y R M P
Zz Q P N
For waves in these directions, then, the vibrations are either wholly normal
or wholly transversal. The latter are those with which we have to deal in
the theory of light. Now, according to observation, in any one of the prin-
cipal planes of a doubly refracting crystal, that ray which is polarized in the
principal plane obeys the ordinary law of refraction. In order therefore that
the conclusions of this theory should at all agree with observation, we must
* Mémoires de I’ Académie, tom. x. p. 293-
+ Poggendorff’s Annalen, vol. xxv. p. 418 (1832).
ON DOUBLE REFRACTION. 255
suppose that in polarized light the vibrations are parallel, not perpendicular,
to the plane of polarization.
Let 1, m, n be the direction-cosines of the wave-normal. In the theory of
Cauchy and Neumann, the square v* of the velocity of propagation is given
by a cubic of the form
v+a,v+a,v°+a,=0,
where «,, a,, @, are homogeneous functions of the Ist order as regards
L, M, N, P,Q, R, and homogeneous functions of the orders 2, 4, 6 as regards
l,m, , involving even powers only of these quantities. For a wave perpen-
dicular to one of the principal planes, that of y z suppose, the cubic splits
into two rational factors, of which that which is of the first degree in v”,
namely,
v—m R—n? Q,
corresponds to vibrations perpendicular to the principal plane. This is the
same expression as results from Fresnel’s theory, and accordingly the section,
by the principal plane, of one sheet of the wave-surface, which in this theory
is a surface of three sheets, is an ellipse, and the law of refraction of that ray
which is polarized perpendicularly to the principal plane agrees exactly with
that given by the theory of Fresnel.
For the two remaining waves, the squared velocities of propagation are
given by the quadratic
(v?—m* M—n’* P) (v?—m? P—n? N)—4in? n? P?=0; «2... (1)
but according to observation the ray polarized in the principal plane obeys
the ordinary law of refraction. Hence (1) ought to be satisfied by v?—(m?
+n*) P=0, which requires that (M—P) (N—P)=4P?, on which supposition
the remaining factor must evidently be linear as regards m?, n?, and therefore
must be
v—n? M—n? N,
since it gives when equated to zero v?=M, or v?=N for m=1, orn=1. And
since the same must hold good for eack of the principal planes, we must have
the three following relations between the six constants,
(M—P) (N—P)=4P*; (N—Q) (L—Q)=4Q’; (L—R) (M—R)=4R?... (2)
_ The existence of six constants, of which only three are wanted to satisfy
the numerical values of the principal velocities of propagation in a biaxal
crystal, permits of satisfying these equations; so that the law that the ray
polarized in the plane of incidence, when that is a principal plane, obeys the
ordinary law of refraction is not inconsistent with Cauchy’s theory. This
simple law is, however, not in the slightest degree predicted by the theory,
nor even rendered probable, nor have any physical conditions been pointed
out which would lead to the relations (2); and, indeed, from the form of
these equations, it seems hard to conceive what physical relations they could
express. Hence an important desideratum would be left, even if the theory
were satisfactory in all other respects. :
- The equation for determining v* virtually contains the theoretical laws of
double refraction, which are embodied in the form of the wave-surface. The
wave-surface of Cauchy and Neumann does not agree with that of Fresnel,
except as the sections of two of its sheets by the principal planes, the third
sheet being that which relates to nearly normal vibrations. Nevertheless the
first two sheets, being forced to agree in their principal sections with Fres-
nel’s surface, differ from it elsewhere extremely lttle. In Arragonite, for
instance, in a direction equally inclined to the principal axes, assuming Rud-
256 REPORT—1862.
berg’s indices* for the line D, I find that the velocities of propagation of the
two polarized waves, according to the theory of Cauchy and Neumann, differ
from those resulting from the theory of Fresnel only in the tenth place of
decimals, the velocity in air being taken as unity. Such a difference as this
would of course be utterly insensible in experiment. In like manner the
directions of the planes of polarization according to the two theories, though
not rigorously, are extremely nearly the same, the plane of polarization of a
wave in which the vibrations are nearly transyersal being defined as that
containing the direction of propagation and the direction of vibration, in har-
mony with the previously established definition for the case of strictly trans-
versal vibrations.
Hence as far as regards the laws of double refraction of the two waves
which alone are supposed to relate to the visible phenomenon, and of the
accompanying polarization, this theory, by the aid of the forced relations (2),
is very successful. I am not now discussing the generality, or, on the con-
trary, the artificially restricted nature, of the fundamental suppositions as to
the state of things, but only the degree to which the results are in accordance
with observed facts. But as regards the third wave the case is very different.
That theory should point to the necessary existence of such a waye consisting
of strictly normal vibrations, and yet to which no known phenomenon can be
referred, is bad enough; but in the present theory the vibrations are not
even strictly normal, except for waves in a direction perpendicular to any one
of the principal axes. In Iceland spar, for instance, for waves propagated in
a direction inclined 45° to the axis, it follows from the numerical values of
the refractive indices for the fixed line D given by Rudberg that the two
vibrations in the principal plane which can be propagated independently of
each other are inclined at angles of 9° 50’ and 80° 10’, or say 10° and 80°, to
the wave-normal. We can hardly suppose that a mere change of inclination
in the direction of vibration of from 10° to 80° with the wave front makes all
the difference whether the wave belongs to a long-known and evident pheno-
menon, no other than the ordinary refraction in Iceland spar, or not to any
visible phenomenon at all.
It is true that before there can be any question of the third wave’s being
perceived it must be supposed excited, and the means of exciting it consist in
the incident vibrations in air, which by hypothesis are strictly transversal.
Hence we have to inquire whether the intensity of the third wave is such as
to lead us to expect a sensible phenomenon answering to it. This leads us to
the still more uncertain subject of the intensity of light reflected or refracted
at the surface of a crystal—more uncertain because it not only depends on
the laws of internal propagation, and inyolves all the hypotheses on which
these laws are theoretically deduced, but requires fresh hypotheses as to the
state of things at the confines of two media, introducing thereby fresh elements
of uncertainty. But for our present purpose no exact calculation of intensities
is required; a rough estimate of the intensity of the nearly normal vibrations
is quite sufficient.
In order to introduce as little as possible relating to the theory of the in-
tensity of reflected and refracted light, suppose the incident light to fall per-
pendicularly on the surface of a crystal, and let this be a surface of Iceland
spar cut at an inclination of 45° to the axis. For a cleavage plane the result
would be nearly the same. Let the incident light be polarized, and the
vibrations be in the principal plane, which therefore, according to the theory
* Annales de Chimie, tom. xlviii. p. 254 (1831).
ON DOUBLE REFRACTION. 257
now under consideration, must be the plane of polarization. The incident
vibrations are parallel to the surface, and accordingly inclined at angles of
9° 50’ and 80° 10’ to the directions of the nearly transversal and nearly nor-
mal vibrations, respectively, within the crystal. Hence it seems evident that
the amplitude of the latter must be of the order of magnitude of sin 9° 50’,
or about a5 the amplitude of vibration in the incident light being taken as
unity. The velocity of propagation of the nearly normal vibrations being to
that of the nearly transversal roughly as /3 to 1, as will immediately be
shown, it follows that the vis viva of the nearly normal would be to that
of the nearly transversal vibrations in a ratio comparable with that of
¥3xsin? 9° 50' to 1, or about 4, to 1. Hence the intensity of the nearly
normal vibrations is by no means insignificant, and therefore it is a very
serious objection to the theory that no corresponding phenomenon should
have been discovered. It has been suggested by some of the advocates of
this theory that the normal vibrations may correspond to heat. But the fact
of the polarization of heat at once negatives such a supposition, even without
insisting on the accumulation of evidence in favour of the identity of radiant
heat and light of the same refrangibility.
But the objections to the theory on the ground of the absence of some un-
known phenomenon corresponding with the third ray, to which the theory
necessarily conducts, are not the only ones which may be urged against it in
connexion with that ray. The existence of normal or nearly normal vibra-
tions entails consequences respecting the transversal which could hardly fail
to have been detected by observation. In the first place, the vis viva belong-
ing to the normal vibrations is so much abstracted from the transversal, which
alone by hypothesis constitute light, so that there is a loss of light inherent
in the very act of passage from air into the crystal, or conversely, from the
erystal into air. About th of the whole might thus be expected to be lost
at a single surface of Iceland spar, the surface being inclined 45° to the axis,
and the light being incident perpendicularly, and being polarized in the prin-
cipal plane; and the loss would amount to somewhere about ;/-th in passage
across a plate bounded by parallel surfaces, by which amount the sum of
the reflected and transmitted light ought to fall short of the incident. And
it is evident that something of the same kind must take place at other incli-
nations to the axis and at other incidences. The loss thus occasioned in mul-
tiplied reflexions could hardly have escaped observation, though it is not quite
so great as might at first sight appear, as the transversal vibrations produced
back again by the normal would presently become sensible.
But the most fatal objection of all is that urged by Green* against the
supposition that normal vibrations could be propagated with a velocity com-
parable with those of transversal. As transversal vibrations are capable
(according to the suppositions here combated) of giving rise at incidence on a
medium to normal or nearly normal vibrations within it, so conversely the
latter on arriving at the second surface are capable of giving rise to emergent
transversal vibrations; so that not only would normal vibrations entail a loss
of light in the quarter in which light is looked for, but would give rise to
light (of small intensity it is true, but by no means imperceptible) in a quar-
ter in which otherwise there would have been none at all. Thus in the case
supposed above, the intensity of the light produced by nearly normal vibra- *
tions giving rise on emergence to transversal vibrations would be somewhere
about the (.\,)* or the 51, of ,the incident light. In the case of light trans-
* Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, vol, vii. p. 2.
1862, _ 8
258 “ ~ REPORT—1862.
mitted through a plate, the rays thus produced would be parallel to the inci-
dent, or to the emergent rays of the kind usually considered; but if the plate
were wedge-shaped the two would come out in different directions, and with
sunlight the former could not fail to be perceived. The only way apparently
of getting over this difficulty, is by making the perfectly gratuitous assumption
that the medium, though perfectly transparent for the more nearly transversal
vibrations, is intensely opaque for those more nearly normal.
Lastly, Green’s argument respecting the necessity of supposing the velocity
of propagation of normal vibrations very great has here full force as an
objection against this theory. The constants P, Q, R are the squared reci-
procals of the three principal indices of refraction, which are given by obser-
vation, and L, M, N are determined in terms of P, Q, R by the equations (2),
by the solution of a quadratic equation. In the case of a uniaxal erystal
everything is symmetrical about one of the axes, suppose that of 2, which
requires, as Cauchy has shown, that L=>M=3R, and P=Q; and of the
equations (2) one is now satisfied identically, and the two others are identical
with each other, and give
4p?
AS? gyorg
For an isotropic medium we must have L=>M=N=3P=3Q=8SR, and the
three equations (2) are satisfied identically. The velocity of propagation of
normal must be to that of transversal vibrations as 73 to 1, and cannot
therefore be assumed to be what may be convenient for explaining the law of
intensity of reflected light.
The theory which has just been discussed is essentially bound up with the
supposition that in polarized light the yvibfations are parallel, not perpendicu-
lar, to the plane of polarization. In prosecuting the study of light, Cauchy
saw reason to change his views in this respect, and was induced to examine
whether his theory could not be modified so as to be in accordance with the
latter alternative. The result, constituting what may be called Cauchy’s
second theory, is contained in a memoir read before the Academy, May 20,
1839*. In this he refers to his memoir on dispersion, in which the funda-
mental equations are obtained in a manner somewhat different from that given
in his ‘ Exercices,’ but based on the same suppositions as to the constitution
‘of the ether, In the new theory Cauchy retains the three constants G, H, I,
expressing the pressures in equilibrium, which formerly he made vanish, the
medium being supposed as before to be symmetrical with respect to three
rectangular planes. The squares of the velocities of propagation, and the
corresponding directions of vibration for the three waves which can be pro-
pagated in the direction of each of the principal axes, are given by the fol-
lowing Table.
Waye-pormal., ii. isha acess x | y Zz
igh x L+G R+H | Q41
Direction..of. vibras. |, ee ee eee eee
ath. iz, -4s Zea tate ate | M+H | PI
| SF wand
le bue Q+6 | P+H | N+I
* “Sur la Polarisation rectiligne, et la double Réfraction,” Mém. de cy 8 tom.
xviii. p. 153.
ON DOUBLE REFRACTION. 259
- Aceording to observation, in each of the principal planes the ray polarized
in that plane obeys the ordinary law of refraction, and therefore if we suppose
that in polarized light the vibrations, at least when strictly transversal, are
perpendicular to the plane of polarization, we must assume that R+H=Q-+I,
P+I=R+G, Q4+G=P-+H, which are equivalent to only two distinct rela-
tions, namely
Pi 6=0— BS Rar et oaks UR Sens Seles (3)
For a wave parallel to one of the principal axes, as that of #, the direction
of that axis is one of the three rectangular directions of vibration of the waves
which are propagated independently. For such vibrations the velocity (v) of
propagation is given by the formula
v=m (R+H)+n°(Q+1),
which by (3) is reduced to
v=R+H=Q+4+1,
so that on the assumption that the velocity of propagation is the same for a
wave perpendicular to the axis of y as for one perpendicular to the axis of
z when the vibrations are parallel to the axis of «, the law of ordinary re-
fraction in the plane of yz follows from theory.
For the two remaining waves which can be propagated independently in a
given direction perpendicular to the axis of w, the vibrations are only approxi-
mately normal and transversal respectively. In fact, for the three waves
which can travel independently in any given direction, the directions of vibra-
tion are not affected by the introduction of the constants expressing equili-
brium-pressures, but only the velocities of propagation. The squares of the
yelocities of propagation of the two waves above mentioned are given as be-
fore by a quadratic; and in order that the velocity of propagation of the
nearly transversal vibrations may be expressed by the formula
PaO MOM criss yada a deeb da (4),
in conformity with the ellipsoidal form of the extraordinary wave surface in
a uniaxal crystal, and the assumed elliptic form of the section of one sheet of
the waye-surface in a biaxal crystal by a principal plane, the quadratic in
question must split into two rational factors, which leads to precisely the
same condition as before, namely that expressed by the first of equations (2) ;
and by equating to zero the corresponding factor, we get
v’=(P+H) m*+(P+4+]) x’,
which is in fact of the form (4). Applying the same to each of the other
principal axes, we find again the three relations (2).
Hence Cauchy’s second theory, in which it is supposed that in polarized
light the vibrations (in air or in an isotropic medium) are perpendicular to
the plane of polarization, leads like the first to laws of double refraction, and
of the accompanying polarization, differing from those of Fresnel only by
quantities which may be deemed insensible. This result is, however, in the
present case only attained by the aid of two sets of forced relations, namely
(2) and (3), that is, relations which there is nothing @ priori to indicate, and
which are not the expression of any simple physical idea, but are obtained by
forcing the theory, which in its original state is of a highly plastic nature
from the number of arbitrary constants which it contains, to agree with
observation in some particulars, which being done, theory by itself makes
kmown the rest. As regards the third ray by which this theory like its pre-
decessor is hampered, there is nearly as much to be urged against the present
theory as the former. There is, however, this difference, that, as there are
only five relations, (2) and (3), between nine arbitrary constants, there remains
82
260 REPORT—1862.
one arbitrary constant in the expressions for the velocities of propagation
after satisfying the numerical values of the three principal indices of refrac-
tion, by a proper disposal of which the objections which have been mentioned
may to a certain extent be lessened, but by no means wholly overcome.
I come now to Green’s theory, contained in a very remarkable memoir “ On
the Propagation of Light in Crystallized Media,” read before the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, May 20, 1839*, and accordingly, by a curious coinci-
dence, the very day that Cauchy’s second theory was presented to the French
Academy. Besides the great interest of the memoir in relation to the theory
of light, Green has in it, as I conceive, given for the first time the true
equations of equilibrium and motion of a homogeneous elastic solid slightly
disturbed from its position of equilibrium, which is one of constraint under a
uniform pressure different in different directions. In a former memoiry he
had given the equations for the case in which the undisturbed state is one
free from pressuret. When I speak of the true equations, I mean the equations
which belong to the problem when not restricted in generality by arbitrarily
assumed hypotheses, and yet not containing constants which are incompatible
with any well-ascertained physical principle. It is right to mention, however,
that on this point mathematicians are not agreed; M. de Saint-Venant, for
instance, maintains the justice of the more restricted equations given by
Cauchy §, though even he would not conceive the latter equations applicable
to such solids as caoutchoue or jelly.
In these papers Green introduced into the treatment of the subject, with
the greatest advantage, the method of Lagrange, in which the partial differ-
ential equations of motion are obtained from the variation of a single force-
function, on the discovery of the proper form of which everything turns,
Green’s principle is thus enunciated by him :— In whatever manner the
elements of any material system may act on each other, if all the internal
forces be multiplied by the elements of their respective directions, the total
sum for any assigned portion of the mass will always be the exact differential
of some function.” In accordance with this principle, the general equation
may be put under the form
; P ad a? ,
\\\ pdx dy dz Ge but oe subse é v)=({ feo dy dz bo . (8),
where w, y,z are the equilibrium coordinates of any particle, p the density
in equilibrium, u,v, w the displacements parallel to a, y, z, and » the
function in question. @ is in fact the function the variation of which in
passing from one state of the medium to another, when multiplied by da dy dz,
expresses the work given out by the portion of the medium occupying in
equilibrium the elementary parallelepiped da dy dz, in passing from the first
state to the second. The portion of the medium which in the state of equili-
brium occupied the elementary parallelepiped becomes in the changed state an
oblique-angled parallelepiped, whose edges may be represented by dx (1-+s,),
dy (1+s,), dz (1+s,), and the cosines of the angles between the second and
third, third and first, and first and second of these edges by a, 3, y, which in
ease the disturbance be small will be small quantities only. It is manifest
that the function @ must be independent of any linear or angular displacement
of the element dx dy dz, and depend only on the change of form of the element,
* Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, vol. vii. p. 120.
+ “On the Reflexion and Refraction of Light,” Cambr. Phil. Trans. vol. vii. p. 1.
Read Dec. 11, 1837.
{ They are virtually given, though not actually written down at length.
§ Comptes Rendus, tom. liii, p. 1105 (1861).
ON DOUBLE REFRACTION. 261
and therefore on the six quantities s,, s,,s,, a, 3, y, which may be expressed
by means of the nine differential coefficients of uv, v, w with respect to x, y, z,
of which therefore @ is a function, but not any function, since it involves not
nine, but only six independent variables. If the disturbance be small, the
six quantities s,, s,, 8,,a, 3, y will be small likewise, and ¢ may be expressed
in a convergent series of the form
$=Pot bi thot Gste: +s
where ¢,, ¢,, $,, ¢,, ce. are homogeneous functions of the six quantities, of
the orders 0, 1, 2, 3, &c.; and if the motion be regarded as indefinitely small,
the functions ¢,, , . . . will be insensible, the left-hand member of equation (5)
being of the second order as regards u,v, w. ,, being a constant, will not
appear in equation (5), and g, will be equal to zero in case the medium in its
undisturbed state be free from internal pressure, but not otherwise. The
function ¢,, being a homogeneous function of six independent variables of the
second order, contains in its most general shape twenty-one arbitrary con-
stants, and ¢, which is of the first order introduces six more, so that the most
general expression for g contains no less than twenty-seven arbitrary
constants, all which appear in the expressions for the internal pressures and
in the partial differential equations of motion*.
The general expressions for the internal tensions in an elastic medium and
the general equations of equilibrium or motion which were given by Cauchy,
and which are written at length in the 4th volume of the ‘ Exercices de Mathé-
matiques,’ contain twenty-one arbitrary constantswhen the undisturbed state of
the medium is one of uniform constraint, and fifteen when it is one of freedom
from pressure. In the latter case, Green’s twenty-one constants are reduced
to two, and Cauchy’s fifteen to only one, when the medium is isotropic.
Green’s equations comprise Cauchy’s as a particular case, as will be shown
more at length further on. It becomes an important question to inquire
whether Cauchy’s equations involve some restrictive hypothesis as to the
constitution of the medium, so as to be in fact of insufficient generality, or
whether, on the other hand, Green’s equations are reducible to Cauchy’s by
the introduction of some well-ascertained physical principle, and therefore
contain redundant constants.
Tn the formation of Cauchy’s equations, not only is the medium supposed
to consist of material points acting on one another by forces which depend on
the distance only (a supposition which, at least when coupled with the next,
excludes the idea of molecular polarity), but it is assumed that the displace-
ments of the individual molecules vary from molecule to molecule according
to the variation of some continuous function of the coordinates ; and accordingly
the displacements w’, v', w' of the molecule whose coordinates in equilibrium
are w+ Ax, y+Ay, z+ Az are expanded by Taylor’s theorem in powers of. '
: l : '
Aw, Ay, Sz, and the differential coefficients 7 &e. are put outs‘de the sign of
summation. The motion, varying from point to point, of the medium taken as
* The twenty-seven arbitrary constants enter the equations of motion in such a manner
as to be there equivalent to only twenty-six distinct constants, the physical interpretation
of which analytical result will be found to be that a uniform pressure alike in all directions,
in the undisturbed state of the medium, produces the same effect on the internal move-
ments when the medium is disturbed as a certain internal elasticity, alike in all directions,
and of a very simple kind, which is possible in a medium unconstrained in its natural state.
The twenty-one arbitrary constants belonging to a medium unconstrained in its natural
state are not reducible in the equations of motion, any more than in the expressions for the
internal tensions, to a smaller number.
262 _- REPORT—1862.
a whole, or in other words the mean motion, in any direction, of the molecules
in the neighbourhood of a given point, must not be confounded with the
motion of the molecules taken individually. The medium being continuous,
so far as anything relating to observation is concerned, the former will vary
gontinuously from point to point. But it by no means follows that the motion
of the molecules considered individually should vary from one to another
according to some function of the coordinates. The motion of the individual
molecules is only considered for the sake of deducing results from hypotheses
as to the molecular constitution and molecular forces of the medium, and in
it we are concerned only with the relative motion of molecules situated so
close as to act sensibly on each other. It would seem to be very prebable,
a priori, that a portion by no means negligible of the relative displacement
of a pair of neighbouring molecules should vary in an irregular manner from
pair to pair; and indeed if the medium tends to relieve itself from a state of
constrained distortion, this must necessarily be the case; and such a re-
arrangement must assuredly take place in fluids. The insufficient generality
of Cauchy’s equations is further shown by their being absolutely incompatible
with the idea of incompressibility. We may evidently conceive a solid which
resists compression of volume by a force incomparably greater than that by
which it resists distortion of figure, and such a conception is actually realized
in such a solid as caoutchouc or jelly.
I have not mentioned the hypothesis of what may be called, from the
analogy of surfaces of the second order, a central arrangement of the molecules,
that is, an arrangement such that each molecule is a centre with respect’ to
which the others are arranged in pairs at equal distances in opposite directions,
because the hypothesis was merely casually introduced as one mode of making
eertain terms vanish which are of a form that clearly ought not to appear in
the expressions relating to the mean motion, with which alone we are ulti-
mately concerned.
The arguments in favour of the existence of ultimate molecules in the case
of ponderable matter appear to rest chiefly on the chemical law of definite
proportions, and on the laws of crystallography, neither of which of course
can be assumed to apply to the mysterious ether, of the very existence of
which we have no direct evidence. If, for aught we know to the contrary,
the very supposition of the existence of ultimate molecules as applied to the
ether may entail consequences at variance with its real constitution, much
more must the accessory hypotheses be deemed precarious which Cauchy
found necessary in order to be able to deduce any results at all in proceeding
by his method. There appears, therefore, no sufficient reason @ priort for
preferring the more limited equations of Cauchy to the more general equations
of Green.
‘.. Green, on the other hand, takes his stand on the impossibility of perpetual
motion, or in other words, on the principle of the conservation of work, which
we have the strongest reasons for believing to be a general physical princi-
ple*. The number of arbitrary constants thus furnished in the case in which
the undisturbed state of the medium is one of freedom from pressure is, as
has been stated, twenty-one. Professor Thomson has recently put this
result in a form which indicates more clearly the signification of the con-
stantst, and at the end of his memoir promises to show how an elastic solid,
* Whether vital phenomena are subject to this law is a question which we are not
here called upon to discuss.
_+ “Elements of a Mathematical Theory of Elasticity,” Phil. Trans. for 1856, p. 481.
Read April 24, 1856, . Z
ON DOUBLE REFRACTION. 263
which as a whole should possess this number of arbitrary constants, could be
built up of isotropic matter.
Green supposes, in the first instance, that the medium is symmetrical with
respect to planes in three rectangular directions, which simplifies the investi-
gation and reduces the twenty-seven or twenty-one arbitrary constants to
twelve (entering the partial differential equations of motion in such a manner
as to be there equivalent to only eleven) or nine. It may be useful to give a
Table of the constants employed by Green, with their equivalents in the theo-
ries of Cauchy and Neumann, the density of the medium at rest being taken
equal to unity for the sake of simplicity. The Table is as follows :—
Green ABC GHI LMN PQR
Cauchy GHI LMN P QR PQR
Neumann 000 DCB AAA, AAA;
so that Green’s equations are reduced to Cauchy’s by making =
L=P, M=Q, Neko aogier «0 a
For a plane wave propagated in any given direction there are three velocities
ef propagation, and three corresponding directions of vibration, which are
determined by the directions of the principal axes of a certain ellipsoid U=1,
which he proposes to call the ellipsoid of elasticity, the semiaxes at the same
time representing in magnitude the squared reciprocals of the corresponding
velocities of propagation; and Green has shown that U may be at once
obtained from the function —2% by taking that part only which is of the
second order in u,v, w, and replacing u,v, w by 2, y, 2, and the symbols of
Lod ; é
differentiation > ala by the cosines of the angles which the wave-normal
makes with the axes. This applies whether the medium be symmetrical or
not with respect to the coordinate planes. Green then examines the conse-
quences of supposing that for two of the three waves the vibrations are strictly
in the front of the wave, as was supposed by Fresnel, and consequently that
the vibrations belonging to the third wave are strictly normal. This hypothesis
leads to five relations between the twelve constants, namely
G=H=I=yp suppose, P=p—2L, Q=p—2M, R=p-—2N; . (7)
and gives for the form of the fundamental function
du du dw
—2 @=2A—+2B —+2C —_
Sheu aa dy e dz
+41 (ce) +(@5) +(az) | + | Ga) +a) +) |
+l) Ge) +e) } ror)
+N{ (74g) 4% dt ee a ee eee)
from which the equations of motion, the expressions for the internal pressures,
and the equation of the ellipsoid of elasticity may be at once written down.
- The simpler case in which the medium in its natural state is supposed free
264 REPORT—1862.
from pressure is first considered*. Green shows that the ellipse which is the
section of the ellipsoid of elasticity by a diametral plane, parallel to the wave’s
front, if turned 90° in its own plane, belongs to a fixed ellipsoid, which gives
at once Fresnel’s elegant construction for the velocity of propagation and
direction of the plane of polarization; but it is necessary to suppese that in
polarized light the vibrations are parallel, not perpendicular, to the plane of
polarization.
The general case in which the medium is not assumed to be symmetrical with
respect to three rectangular planes, and in which therefore ¢ contains twenty-
one arbitrary constants, is afterwards considered; and it is shown that the
hypothesis of strict transversality leads to fourteen relations between them,
leaving only seven constants arbitrary. But the function obtained on the
assumption of planes of symmetry contains no fewer, for the four constants
relating to these planes would be increased by three when the medium was
referred to generalaxes. Hence therefore the existence of planes of symmetry
is not an independent assumption, as in Cauchy’s theory, but follows as a
result.
In this beautiful theory, therefore, we are presented with no forced rela-
tions like Cauchy’s equations; the result follows from the hypothesis of
strictly transversal vibrations, to which Fresnel was led by physical considera-
tions. The constant , remains arbitrary, and it is easy to see that this
constant expresses the square of the velocity of propagation of normal vibra-
tions. Were this velocity comparable with the velocity of propagation of
transversal vibrations, theory would lead us still to expect normal vibrations
to be produced by light incident obliquely, though not by light incident
perpendicularly, on the surface of a crystal, and the theory would still be
exposed to many of the objections which have been already brought forward.
But nothing hinders us from supposing, in accordance with the argument
contained in Green’s former paper, that p is very great or sensibly infinite,
which removes all the difficulty, since the motion corresponding to this term
in the expression for —2 % would not be sensible except at a distance from
the surface comparable with the length of a wave of light. Hence, although
it might be said, so long as x was supposed arbitrary, that the supposition of
rigorous transversality had still something in it of the nature of a forced
relation between constants, we sec that the single supposition of incompressi-
bility (under the action of forces at least comparable with those acting in the
propagation of light)—the original supposition of Fresnel—introduced into
the general equations, suffices to lead to the complete laws of double refrac-
tion as given by Fresnel. Were it not that other phenomena of light lead us
rather to the conclusion that the vibrations are perpendicular, than that they
are parallel to the plane of polarization, this theory would seem to leave us
nothing to desire, except to prove that we had a right to neglect the direct
action of the ponderable molecules, and to treat the ether within a crystal as
a single elastic medium, of which the elasticity was different in different
directions.
In his paper on Reflexion, Green had adopted the supposition of Fresnel,
that the vibrations are perpendicular to the plane of polarization. He was
naturally led to examine whether the laws of double refraction could be
explained on this hypothesis. When the medium in its undisturbed state is
exposed to pressure differing in different directions, six additional constants
are introduced into the function ¢, or three in case of the existence of planes
* The results obtained for this case remain the same if we suppose the medium in its
undisturbed state to be subject to a pressure alike in all directions,
ON DOUBLE REFRACTION. 265
of symmetry to which the medium is referred. For waves perpendicular to
the principal axes, the directions of vibration and squared velocities of
propagation are as follows :—
Green assumes, in accordance with Fresnel’s theory, and with observation
if the vibrations in polarized light are supposed perpendicular to the plane of
polarization, that for waves perpendicular to any two of the principal axes, and
propagated by vibrations in the direction of the third axis, the velocity of pro-
pagation is thesame. This gives three, equivalent to two, relations among the
constants, namely,
A—L=B—M=C—N=y suppose, (9)
which are equivalent to Cauchy’s equations (3). The conditions that the
vibrations are strictly transversal and normal respectively do not involve the
six constants expressing the pressures in equilibrium, and therefore remain the
same as before, namely (7). Adopting the relations (7) and (9), Green proves
that for the two transversal waves the velocities of propagation and the azimuths
of the planes of polarization are precisely those given by the theory of Fresnel,
the vibrations in polarized light being now supposed perpendicular to the plane
of polarization.
As to the wave propagated by normal vibrations, the square of its velocity
of propagation is easily shown to be equal to
; p+AP+ Bm? + Cn’ ;
and as the constant p does not enter into the expression for the velocity of pro-
pagation of transversal vibrations, the same supposition as before, namely that
the medium is rigorously or sensibly incompressible, removes all difficulty arising
from the absence of any observed phenomenon answering to this wave.
The existence of planes of symmetry is here in part assumed. I say in part,
because Green shows that the six constants, expressing the pressures in
equilibrium, enter the equation of the ellipsoid of elasticity under the form
K («*+y’+2*), where K is a homogeneous function of the six constants of the
first order, and involves likewise the cosines 7, m,n. Hence the directions of
vibration are the same as when the six constants vanish; the velocities of
propagation alone are changed; and as the existence of planes of symmetry
for the case in which the six constants vanish was demonstrated, it is only
requisite to make the very natural supposition that the planes of symmetry
which must exist as regards the directions of vibration, are also planes of
symmetry as regards the pressure in equilibrium.
We see then that this theory, which may be called Green’s second theory,
is in most respects as satisfactory (assuming for the present that Fresnel’s
construction does represent the laws of double refraction) as the former. I
say in most respects, because, although the theory is perfectly rigorous, like
the former, the equations (9) are of the nature of forced relations between
the constants, not expressing anything which could have been foreseen, or
266. REPORT—1862.
eyen conveying when pointed out the expression of any simple physical
relation.
The year 1839 was fertile in theories of double refraction, and on the 9th
of December Prof. MacCullagh presented his theory to the Royal Irish Academy.
It is contained in “ An Essay towards a Dynamical Theory of Crystalline
Reflexion and Refraction”*. As indicated by the title, the determination of
the intensities of the light reflected and refracted at the surface of a crystal is
what the author had chiefly in view, but his previous researches had led him
to observe that this determination was intimately connected with the laws of
double refraction, and to seek to link together these laws as parts of the same
system. He was led to apply to the problem the general equation of dynamics
under the form (5), to seek to determine the form of the function ¢ (V in his
notation), and then to form the partial differential equations of motion, and the
conditions to be satisfied at the boundaries of the medium, by the method of
Lagrange. He does not appear to have been aware at the time that this method
had previously been adopted by Green. Like his predecessors, he treats the
ether within a crystallized body as a single medium unequally elastic in dif-
ferent directions, thus ignoring any direct influence of the ponderable mole-
cules in the vibrations. He assumes that the density of the ether is a constant
quantity, that is, both unchanged during vibration, and the same within all
bodies as in free space. We are not concerned with the latter of these
suppositions in deducing the laws of internal vibrations, but only in inyesti-
gating those which regulate the intensity of reflected and refracted light.
He assumes further that the vibrations in plane waves, propagated within a
crystal, are rectilinear, and that while the plane of the wave moves parallel to
itself the vibrations continue parallel to a fixed right line, the direction of this
right line and the direction of a normal to the wave being functions of each
other,—a supposition which doubtless applies to all crystals except quartz, and
those which possess a similar property. ‘
’ In this method everything depends on the correct determination of the form
of the function V. From the assumption that the density of the ether is
unchanged by vibration, it is readily shown that the vibrations are entirely
transversal. Imagine a system of plane waves, in which the vibrations are
parallel to a fixed line in the plane of a wave, to be propagated im the crystal,
and refer the crystal for a moment to the rectangular axes of a", y', z', the
plane of ay’ being parallel to the planes of the waves, and the axis of y' to
the direction of vibration ; and let « be the angle whose tangent is 2, With
respect to the form of V, MacCullagh reasons thus :— The function V can only
depend upon the directions of the axes of a’, y', z' with respect to fixed lines
in the crystal, and upon the angle which measures the change of form produced
in the parallelepiped by vibration. This is the most general supposition which
can be made concerning it. Since, however, by our second supposition, any
one of these directions, suppose that of w', determines the other two, we may
regard V as depending on the angle « and the direction of the axis of a!
alone,” from whence he shows that V must be a function of the quantities
X, Y, Z, defined by the equations
dn dé dz dé di dn
Se dy nae ey
This reasoning, which is somewhat obscure, seems to me to involve a fallacy.
* Memoirs of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxi. p. 17.
ON DOUBLE REFRACTION. 267
If the form of V were known, the rectilinearity of vibration and the constancy
in the direction of vibration for a system of plane waves travelling in any given
direction would follow as a reswlt of the solution of the problem. But in using
équation (5) we are not at liberty to substitute for V (or g) an expression
which represents that function only on the condition that the motion be what it
actually is, for we have occasion to take the variation 6V of V, and this varia-
tion must be the most general that is geometrically possible though it be
dynamically impossible. That the form of V, arrived at by MacCullagh, is
inadmissible, is, I conceive, proved by its incompatibility with the form
deduced by Green from the very same supposition of the perfect transversality
of the transversal vibrations ; for Green’s reasoning is perfectly straightforward
and irreproachable. Besides, MacCullagh’s form leads to consequences abso-
lutely at variance with dynamical principles*,
But waiving for the present the objection to the conclusion that V is a
function of the quantities X, Y, Z, let us follow the consequences of the theory.
The disturbance being supposed small, the quantities X, Y, Z will also be small,
and VY may be expanded in a series according to powers of these quantities ;
and, as before, we need only proceed to the second order if we regard the
disturbance as indefinitely small. The first term, being merely a constant,
may be omitted. The terms of the first order MacCullagh concludes must
vanish. This, however, it must be observed, is only true on the supposition
that the medium in its undisturbed state is free from pressure. The terms of
the second order are six in number, involving squares and products of X, Y, Z.
The terms involving YZ, ZX, XY may be got rid of by a transformation of
coordinates, when VY will be reduced to the form
ny Sits: Ves e(O RP REO! vl oe V0)
the constant term being omitted, and the arbitrary constants being denoted by
— 2@, —3b°, —2¢°. Thus on this theory the existence of principal axes is
proved, not assumed. If MacCullagh’s expression for V (10) be compared with
Green’s expression for ¢ (8) for the case of no pressure in equilibrium, so that
A=0, B=0, C=0, it will be seen that the two will become identical, provided
f 2
first we omit the term p = ed = in Green’s expression, and secondly,
we treat the symbols of differentiation as literal coefficients, so as to confound,
; du dw dv dw : ‘ ,
= instance, du da a dake, The term involving p does not appear in the
du dv, dw
dosages ee
therefore does not affect the laws of the propagation of such vibrations, although
it would appear in the problem of calculating the intensity of reflected and
refracted light ; and be that as it may, it follows from Green’s rule for forming
the equation of the ellipsoid of elasticity, that the laws of the propagation of
transversal vibrations will be precisely the same whether we adopt his form of
g or V (for the case of no pressure in equilibrium) or MacCullagh’s. Indeed,
if we omit the term p ae +74E)> the partial differential equations of
expressions for transversal vibrations, since for these
da dz
motion, on which alone depend the laws of internal propagation, would be
Just the same as the two theoriest. Accordingly MacCullagh obtained, though
* See Appendix.
« + See Appendix. MacCullagh’s reasoning appears to be so far correct as to have led to
correct equations, although through a form of V which may, I conceive, be shown to be
inadmissible.
268 REPORT—1862.
independently of, and in a different manner from Green, precisely Fresnel’s
laws of double refraction and the accompanying polarization, on the condition,
however, that in polarized light the vibrations are parallel to the plane of
polarization.
It is remarkable that in the previous year MacCullagh, in a letter to
Sir David Brewster *, published expressions for the internal pressures identical
with those which result from Green’s first theory, provided that in the latter
the terms be omitted which arise from that term in ¢ which contains yp, a
term which vanishes in the case of transversal vibrations propagated within
a crystal. It does not appear how these expressions were obtained by
MacCullagh ; it was probably by a tentative process.
The various theories which have just been reviewed have this one feature
in common, that in all, the direct action of the ponderable molecules is
neglected, and the ether treated as a single vibrating medium. It was,
doubtless, the extreme difficulty of determining the motion of one of two
mutually penetrating media that led mathematicians to adopt this, at first
- sight, unnatural supposition ; but the conviction seems by some to have been
entertained from the first, and to have forced itself upon the minds of others,
that the ponderable molecules must be taken into account in a far more direct
manner. Some investigations were made in this direction by Dr. Lloyd as long
as twenty-five years ago}. Cauchy’s later papers show that he was dissatisfied
with the method, adopted in his earlier ones, of treating the ether within a
ponderable body as a single vibrating medium}; but he does not seem to
have advanced beyond a few barren generalities, towards a theory of double
refraction founded on a calculation of the vibrations of one of two mutually
penetrating media. In the theory of double refraction advanced by Professor
Challis$, the ether is assimilated to an ordinary elastic fluid, the vibrations of
which are modified by resisting masses; and his theory leads him at once to
Fresnel’s elegant construction of the wave surface by points. The theory,
however, rests upon principles which have not received the general assent of
mathematicians. In a work entitled “ Light explained on the Hypothesis of
the Ethereal Medium being a Viscous Fluid”||, Mr. Moon has put in a clear
form some of the more serious objections which may be raised against Fresnel’s
theory ; but that which he has substituted is itself open to formidable objec-
tions, some of which the author himself seems to have perceived.
In concluding this part of the subject, I may perhaps be permitted to
express my own belief that the true dynamical theory of double refraction
has yet to be found. ;
In the present state of the theory of double refraction, it appears to be of
especial importance to attend to a rigorous comparison of its laws with actual
observation. I have not now in view the two great laws giving the planes
of polarization, and the difference of the squared velocities of propagation, of
the two waves which can be propagated independently of each other in any
given direction within a crystul. These laws, or at least laws differing from
them only by quantities which may be deemed negligible in observation, had
previously been discovered by experiment; and the deduction of these laws
by Fresnel from his theory, combined with the verification of the law, which
his theory, correcting in this respect previous notions, first pointed out, that
* Philosophical Magazine for 1836, vol. viii. p. 103.
+ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. i. p. 10.
t See his optical memoirs published in the 22nd volume of the ‘Mémoires de l’ Académie.”
§ Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, vol, vill. p, 524.
|| Macmillan & Co., Cambridge, 1853.
ON DOUBLE REFRACTION. 269
in each principal plane of a biaxal crystal the ray polarized in that plane
obeys the ordinary law of refraction, leayes no reasonable doubt that Fresnel’s
construction contains the true laws of double refraction, at least in their broad
features. But regarding this point as established, I have rather in view a
verification of those laws which admit of being put to the test of experiment
with extreme precision ; for such verifications might often enable the mathe-
matician, in groping after the true theory, to discard at once, as not agreeing
with observation, theories which might present themselves to his mind, and
on which otherwise he might have spent much fruitless labour.
To make my meaning clearer, I will refer to Fresnel’s construction, in
which the laws of polarization and wave-yelocity are determined by the
sections, by a diametral plane parallel to the wave-front, of the ellipsoid *
Cv +b y+e27=1 : (11),
where a, b, c denote the principal wave-velocities. The principal semiaxes
of the section determine by their direction the normals to the two planes of
polarization, and by their magnitude the reciprocals of the corresponding
wave-velocities. Now a certain other physical theory which might be pro-
posed leads to a construction differing from Fresnel’s only in this, that the
planes of polarization and wave-velocities are determined by the section, by
a diametral plane parallel to the wave-front, of the ellipsoid
yf we
a Z
gtpteele ee ee et es (12),
the principal semiaxes of the section determining by their direction the
normals to: the two planes of polarization, and by their magnitudes the
corresponding wave-velocities. The law that the planes of polarization of
the two waves propagated in a given direction bisect respectively the two
supplemental dihedral angles made by planes passing through the wave-
normal and the two optic axes, remains the same as before, but the posi-
tions of the optic axes themselves, as determined by the principal indices
of refraction, are somewhat different; the difference, however, is but small
if the differences between a’, b,c? are a good deal smaller than the quantities
themselves, Each principal section of the wave surface, instead of being a
circle and an ellipse, is a circle and an oval, to which an ellipse is a near
approximation t. The difference between the inclinations of the optic axes,
and between the amounts of extraordinary refraction in the principal planes,
on the two theories, though small, are quite sensible in observation, but only
on condition that the observations are made with great precision. We see
from this example of what great advantage for the advancement of theory
obseryations of this character may be.
One law which admits of receiving, and which has received, this searching
comparison with observation, is that according to which, in each principal
plane of a biaxal erystal, the ray which is polarized in that plane obeys the
ordinary law of refraction, and accordingly in a uniaxal erystal, in which
every plane parallel to the axis is a principal plane, the so-called ordinary
ray follows rigorously the law of ordinary refraction. This law was carefully
verified by Fresnel himself in the case of topaz, by the method of cutting
plates parallel to the same principal axis, or axis of elasticity, carefully
* Tt would seem to be just as well to omit the surface of elasticity altogether, and refer
the construction directly to the ellipsoid (11).
+ The equation of the surface of wave-slowness in this and similar cases may be readily
obtained by the method given by Professor Haughton in a paper “ On the Equilibrium
op _o of Solid and Fluid Bodies,” Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxi.
p. 172.
s
270 -REPORT—1862.
working them to the same thickness, and then interposing them in the paths
of two streams of light proceeding to interfere, as well as by the method of
prismatic refraction ; and he states as the result of his observations that he
can affirm the law to be, at least in the case of topaz, mathematically exact.
The same result follows from the observations by which Rudberg so accu-
rately determined the principal indices of Arragonite and topaz*, for the
principal fixed lines of the spectrum. Professor MacCullagh having been led
by theoretical considerations to doubt whether, in Iceland spar for instance;
the so-called ordinary ray rigorously obeyed the ordinary law of refraction,
whether the refractive indices in the axial and equatorial directions were
strictly the same, Sir David Brewster was induced to put the question to the
test of a crucial experiment, by forming a compound prism consisting of two
pieces of spar cemented together in the direction of the length of the prism,
and so ent from the crystal that at a minimum deviation one piece was tra-
versed axially and the other equatorially?. The prism having been polished
after cementing, so as to ensure the perfect equality of angle of the two parts,
on viewing a slit through it the bright line D was seen unbroken in passing
from one half to the other. More recently Professor Swan has made a very
precise examination of the ordinary refraction in various directions in Iceland
spar by the method of prismatic refraction t, from whence it results that for
homogeneous light of any refrangibility the ordinary ray follows strictly the
ordinary law of refraction.
It is remarkable that this simple law, which ought, one would expect, to
lie on the very surface as it were of the true theovy of double refraction, is
not indicated @ priori by most of the rigorous theories which have been ad-
vanced to account for the phenomenon. Neither of the two theories of Cauchy,
nor the second theory of Green, lead us to expect such a result, though they
furnish arbitrary constants which may be so determined as to bring it about.
The curious and unexpected phenomenon of conical refraction has justly
been regarded as one of the most striking proofs of the general correctness of
the conclusions resulting from the theory of Fresnel. But I wish to point
out that the phenomenon is not competent to decide between several theories
leading to Fresnel’s construction as a near approximation. Let us take first
internal conical refraction. The existence of this phenomenon depends upon
the existence of a tangent plane touching the wave surface along a plane
curve. At first sight this might seem to be a speciality of the wave-surface
of Fresnel; but a little consideration will show that it must be a property of
the wave surface resulting from any reasonable theory. For, if possible, let
the nearest approach to a plane curve of contact be a curve of double curva-
ture. Leta plane be drawn touching the rim (as it may be called) of the
surface, that is, the part where the surface turns over, in two points, on
opposite sides of the rim; and then, after having been slightly tilted by
turning about one of the points of contact, let it move parallel to itself towards
the centre. The successive sections of the wave-surface by this plane will
evidently be of the general character represented in the annexed figures,
1 2
3 + 5 6
ti en )
° Ww eS
* Annales de Chimie, tom. xlviii. p. 225 (1831).
+ Report of the British Association for 1843, Trans. of Sect. p. 7.
{ Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xvi. p. 375.
ON DOUBLE REFRACTION. 271
and in four positions the plane will touch the surface in one point, as repre-
sented-in figs. 1, 2,4, 5. Should the contacts represented in figs. 4 & 5 take
place simultaneously, they may be rendered successive by slightly altering
the inclination of the plane. Hence in certain directions there would be four
possible wave-velocities. Now the general principle of the superposition of
small motions makes the laws of double refraction depend on those of the
propagation of plane waves. But all theories respecting the propagation of a
“series of plane waves haying a given direction, and in which the disturbance
of the particles is arbitrary, but the same all over the front of a wave, agree
in this, that they lead us to decompose the disturbance into three disturbances
in three particular directions, to each of which corresponds a series of plare
waves which are propagated with a determinate velocity. If the medium be
incompressible, one of the wave-velocities becomes infinite, and one sheet of
the wave surface moves off to infinity. The most general disturbance,
subject to the condition of incompressibility, which requires that there be no
‘displacements perpendicular to the fronts of the waves, may now be expressed
as the resultant of two disturbances, corresponding to displacements in parti-
cular directions lying in planes parallel to that of the waves, to each of
which corresponds a determinate velocity of propagation. We see, therefore,
that the limitation of the number of tangent planes to the wave-surface,
which can be drawn in a given direction on one side of the centre, to two, or
at the most three, is intimately bound up with the number of dimensions of
space; so that the existence of the phenomenon of internal conical refraction
is no proof of the truth of the particular form of wave-surface assigned by
Fresnel rather than that to which some other theory would conduct. Were
the law of wave-velocity expressed, for example, by the construction already
mentioned having reference to the ellipsoid (12), the wave-surface (in this
ease a surface of the 16th degree) would still have plane curves of contact
with the tangent plane, which in this case also, as in the wave-surface of
Fresnel, are, as I find, circles, though that they should be circles could not
have been foreseen.
_ The existence of external conical refraction depends upon the existence of
a conical point in the wave-surface, by which the interior sheet passes to the
exterior. The existence of a conical point is not, like that of a plane curve of
contact, a necessary property of a wave-surface. Still it will readily be con-
ceived that if Fresnel’s wave-surface be, as it undoubtedly is, at least a near
approximation to the true wave-surface, and if the latter have, moreover,
plane curves of contact with the tangent plane, the mode by which the
exterior sheet passes within one of these plane curves into the interior will
be very approximately by a conical point; so that in the impossibility of
operating experimentally on mere rays the phenomena will not be sensibly
different from what they would have been had the transition been made
rigorously by a conical point.
There is one direction within a biaxal crystal marked by a visible
phenomenon of such a nature as to permit of observing the direction with
precision, while it can also be calculated, on any particular theory of double
refraction, in terms of the principal indices of refraction; I refer to the
direction of either optic axis. Rudberg himself measured the inclination of
the optic axes of Arragonite, probably with a piece of the same crystal
from which his prisms were cut, and found it a little more than 32° as
observed in air, but he speaks of the difficulty of measuring the angle with
precision. The inclination within the crystal thence deduced is really a little
greater than that given by Fresnel’s theory ; but in making the comparison
D2 REPORT—1862.
Rudberg used the formula for the ray-axes instead of that for the wave-axes,
which made the theoretical inclination in air appear about 2° greater than
the observed*. A very exact measure of the angle between the optic axes of
Arragonite for homogeneous light corresponding to the principal fixed lines
of the spectrum has recently been executed by Professor Kirchhoff +, by a
method which has the advantage of not making any supposition as to the
direction in which the crystal is cut. The angle observed in air was reduced
by calculation to the angle within the crystal, by means of Rudberg’s indices
for the principal axis of mean elasticity ; and the result was compared with
the angle calculated from the formula of Fresnel, on substituting for the con-
stants therein contained the numerical values determined by Rudberg for all
the three principal axes. The angle reduced from that observed in air proved
to be from 13! to 20! greater than that calculated from Fresnel’s formula.
This small ditference seems to be fairly attributable to errors in the indices,
arising from errors in the direction of cutting of the prisms employed by
Rudberg. The angle measured by Kirchhoff would seem to have been trust-
worthy to within a minute or less,
It is doubtful, however, how far we may trust to the identity of the
principal refractive indices in different specimens of the mineral. Chemical
analysis shows that Arragonite is not pure carbonate of lime, but contains a
variable though small proportion of other ingredients. To these variations
doubtless correspond variations in the refractive indices; and De Senarmont
has shown how the inclination of the optic axes of minerals is lable to be
changed by the substitution one for another of isomorphous elements. More-
over, M. Des Cloizeaux has recently shown that in felspar and some other
minerals, which bear a high temperature without apparent change, the
inclination of the optic axes is changed in a permanent manner by heats$ ;
so that even perfect identity of chemical composition is not an absolute
guarantee of optical identity in two specimens of a mineral of a given kind.
The exactness of the spheroidal form assigned by Huygens to the sheet of
the wave-surface within Iceland spar corresponding to the extraordinary ray,
does not seem to have been tested to the same degree of rigour as the ordinary
refraction of the ordinary ray; for the methods employed by Wollaston || and
Malus 4 for observing the extraordinary refraction can hardly bear comparison
for exactness with the method of prismatic refraction which has been applied
to the ordinary ray ; and observations on the absolute velocities of propagation
in different directions within biaxal crystals are still almost wholly wanting.
This has long been recognized as a desideratum, and it has been suggested
to employ for the purpose the displacement of fringes of interference. It
seems to me that a slight modification of the ordinary method of prismatic
refraction would be more convenient and exact.
Let the crystal to be examined be cut, unless natural faces or cleavage
planes answer the purpose, so as to have two planes inclined at an angle
suitable for the measure of refractions; there being at least two natural
faces or cleavage-planes left undestroyed, so as to permit of an exact measure
of the directions of any artificial faces. The prism thus formed having been
mounted as usual, and placed in any azimuth, let the angle of incidence or
* Annales de Chimie, tome xlviii. p. 258 (1831).
+ Poggendorff’s Annalen, vol. cviii. p. 567 (1859).
{ Annales de Chimie, tome xxxiii. p. 391 (1851).
§ Annales des Mines, tome ii. p. 327 (1862).
|| On the Oblique Refraction of Iceland Spar, Phil. Trans. for 1802, p. 381.
‘| Mémoires de l'Institut; Say, Etrangers, tome ii, p, 308 (1811),
ON DOUBLE REFRACTION. 273
emergence (according as the prism remains fixed or turns round with the tele-
scope) be measured, by observing the light reflected from the surface, and like-
wise the deviation for several standard fixed lines in the spectrum of each
refracted pencil. Let the prism be now turned into a different azimuth, and the
deviations again observed, and so on. Each observation furnishes accurately
an angle of incidence and the corresponding angle of emergence; for if ¢ be
the angle of incidence, 7 the angle of the prism, D the deviation, and y the
angle of emergence, D=¢+y—i. But without making any supposition as
to the law of double refraction, or assuming anything beyond the truth of
Huygens’s principle, which, following directly from the general principle of
the superposition of small motions, lies at the very foundation of the whole
theory of undulations, we may at once deduce from the angles of incidence
and emergence the direction and velocity of propagation of the wave within
the prism. For if a plane wave be incident on a plane surface bounding a
medium of any kind, either ordinary or doubly refracting, it follows directly
from Huygens’s principle that the refracted wave or waves will be plane, and
that if g be the angle of incidence, g! the inclination of a refracted wave to
the surface, V the velocity of propagation in air, v the wave-velocity within
the medium,
sin ¢_ sin q!
4 boknienas ae
Hence if g', )! be the inclinations of the refracted wave to the faces of our
prism, we shall have the equations
0 Ba 6 = Voegeli eis ied wl, oe 218)
Pi Wee, Toe ee eee iy Ord (14)
Sher dane Get eee en
The equations (13) and (14) give, on taking account of (15),
: — ee ‘J
v sin SFY os PSY RV sin 5 cos HEY hii meray.
pn CO argh es Cone.
v cos 5+ aint =V cos 5 ain ao » « (17)
whence by division
da Oe a gM Gu
tan —z = tan 5 tan = cot as ig haa (18)
The equations (15) and (18) determine g’ and y', and then (16) gives v.
Hence we know accurately the velocity of propagation of a wave, the normal
to which lies in a plane perpendicular to the faces of the prism, and makes
known angles with the faces, and is therefore known in direction with
reference to the crystallographic axes. A single prism would enable the
observer to explore the crystal in a series of directions lying in a plane
perpendicular to its edge; but as these directions are practically confined
to limits making no very great angles with a normal to the plane bisecting
the dihedral angle of the prism, more than one prism would be required to
enable him to explore the crystal in the most important directions; and it
would be necessary for him to assure himself that the specimens of crystal,
of which the different prisms are made, were strictly comparable with each
hac It would be best, as far as practicable, to cut them from the same
ock.
The existence of principal planes, or planes of optical symmetry, for light
r
274 REPORT—1862.
of any given refrangibility, in those cases in which they are not determined
by being at the same time planes of crystallographic symmetry, is a matter
needing experimental verification. However, as no anomaly, so far as I am
aware, has been discovered in the systems of rings seen with homogeneous
light around the optic axes of crystals of the oblique or anorthic system,
there is no reason for supposing that such planes do not exist.
APPENDIX.
Further Comparison of the Theories of Green, MacCullagh, and Cauchy.
In a paper “On a Classification of Elastic Media and the Laws of Plane
Waves propagated through them,” read before the Royal Irish Academy on the
8th of January, 1849*, Professor Haughton has made a comparative examina-
tion of different theories which have been advanced for determining the motion
of elastic media, more especially those which have been applied to the expla-
nation of the phenomena of light. Some of the results contained in this
Appendix have already been given by Professor Haughton ; in other instances
I have arrived at different conclusions. In such cases I have been careful to
give my reasons in detail.
Consider a homogeneous elastic medium, the parts of which act on one
another only with forces which are insensible at sensible distances, and which
in its undisturbed state is either free from pressure, or else subject to a
pressure or tension which is the same at all points, though varying with
the direction of the plane surface with reference to which it is estimated,
Let w, y, z be the coordinates of any particle in the undisturbed state, «+,
y+v, z+w the coordinates in the disturbed state, and for simplicity take the
density in the undisturbed state as the unit of density. Then, according to
the method followed both by Green and MacCullagh, the motion of the
medium will be determined by the equation ge
du d*u dw
(Wc but ae uta iw) de dy dz= (\\e du dy dz, . (19)
where @ is the function due to the elastic forces, To this equation must be
added, in case the medium be not unlimited, the terms relative to its boundaries.
The function ¢ multiplied by dw dy dz expresses the work given out by the
element dx dy dz in passing from the initial to the actual state if we assume,
as we may, the initial state for that in which ¢=0. According to the sup-
position with which we started, that the internal forces are insensible at
sensible distances, the value of ¢ at any point must depend on the relative
displacements in the immediate neighbourhood of that point, as expressed by
the differential coefficients of uw, v, w with respect to #, y,z. For the present
let us make no other supposition concerning ¢ than this, that it is some
function (—f) of those nine differential coefficients; and let us apply the
equation (19) to a limited portion of the medium bounded initially by the
closed surface 8. We must previously add the terms due to the action of the
surrounding portion of the medium, which will evidently be of the form of a
double integral haying reference to the surface 8, an element of which we
may denote by dS. Hence we must add to the right-hand side of equa-
tion (19)
Ed§,
the expression for E having yet to be found.
* Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxii. p. 97.
ON DOUBLE REFRACTION. 275
Denoting for shortness the partial differential coefficients of —q with
respect to , ap ee by 7 7a) tq) &e., we have
du\ . du du 5 ae
rice Ta)? da tf (783 dy*
du dou Jas
aes (i) we +#(%) ay
whence
=| dee dy dz =|\\r(z FS du a de dy aer(\rG f' i) \ae a ti ee.
=({+( i) du dy dz + Wr (=) a ) au dz dx \r(z A ) bu dx dy
Wr aE bu dy dz+ &e.
(du du a:)+ fav
-\\\{ sa af (G+ 3, dys \a 7) +8" af (a)+ av af r(x)
+60} de dy dz.
We must now equate to zero separately the terms in our equation involving
triple and those involving double integrals. The result obtained from the
former further requires that the coefficient of each of the independent quan-
tities éu, dv, dw under the sign lie yanish separately, whence
Pu du du du\ )
dt =i z x) +5 tay f a) +z: Tez i )
du d du du, d (dv “
dé ~ dx t(a)+% t(G;,)+ Taz r(z) “ue rahe
Pw id ,f(dw\ d ,(dw\ d (dw ;
we ata 1 (da) + ay (ay) +a Fae)
equations which may be written in an abbreviated form as follows :—
Cu ” dg| uv oe do} Cw_ do
EA a At ele Eat nF Nd
where the expressions within crotchets denote differential coefficients taken in
a conventional sense, namely by treating in the differentiation the symbols
aq@dd
da’ dy? dz as if they were mere literal coefficients, and prefixing to the whole
term, and now regarding as a real symbol of differentiation, whichever of
these three symbols was attached to the w, v, or w that disappeared by differ-
entiation.
The equating of the double integrals gives
{feas—(['r( =) du dy dz ala a) du dz da+c&e,
=(j| [i “+m mf" i; +f =z ae) ut (oe. dv+[&e.] au | as
* These agree with Professor Haughton’s equations (5), :
T
276 REPORT—1862.
where J, m, » are the direction-cosines of the element dS of the surface which
bounded the portion of the medium under consideration when it was in its
undisturbed state. This expression leads us to contemplate the action of the
surrounding medium as a tension having a certain value referred to a unit of
surface in the undisturbed state. If P,Q, R be the components of this tension
parallel to the axes of w, y,z, they must be the coefficients of du, év, Sw under
the sign \ so that
[du (du du
rav(t) +n) (2)
(de (de [,
Q=/f (52) +mp() +nf(Z) es ad rae ae (22)
[dw (dw (dw
naif) +" (Gy) +9 (ze
These formule give, in terms of the function ¢, the components of the
tension on a small plane which in its original position had any arbitrary
direction. If we wish for the expressions for the components of the tensions
on planes originally perpendicular to the axes of «, y, z, we have only to put
in succession /=1, m=1, n=1, the other two cosines each time being equal
to zero. If then P.,, ie T_, denote the components in the direction of the
axis of w of the tension on planes originally perpendicular to the axes of x, y, z,
with similar notation in the other cases, we shall have
du __ pf dw cl afdy
AG) TMG) TF(z)|
(de _ pf{du __ pp {dw |
v,=f (7) T,=f =) T= (ae) > 7 (23)*
dw , (dv du
rz) Tafa) (G).
The formul hitherto employed are just the same whether we suppose the
disturbance small or not; and we might express in terms of P_, Te &e. (and
therefore in terms of ¢), and of the differential coefficients of u, v, w with
respect to a, y, and z, the components of the tension referred to a surface
given in the actual instead of the undisturbed state of the medium, without
supposing the disturbance small. As, however, the investigation is meant to
be applied only to small disturbances, it would only complicate the formule
to no purpose to treat the disturbance as of arbitrary magnitude, and I shall
therefore regard it henceforth as indefinitely small.
On this supposition we may expand ¢ according to powers of the small
quantities ~, &e., proceeding as far as the second order, the left-hand
member of (19) being of the second order as regards u, v, w. The formule
(22) or (23) show that ¢ will or will not contain terms of the first order
according as the undisturbed state of the medium is one of uniform constraint,
or of freedom from pressure.
In Green’s first theory, and in the theory of MacCullagh, ¢ is supposed not
to contain terms of the first order. Accordingly in considering the poimt
with respect to which these two theories are at issue, I shall suppose the
* These agree with Professor Haughton’s equations at p.100, but are obtained in a
different manner,
ON DOUBLE REFRACTION. 277
medium in its undisturbed state to be free from pressure. The tensions
P, Q, R, P,, &c. will now be small quantities of the first order, so that in the
formule (22) and (23) we may suppose the tensions referred to a unit of
surface in the actual or the undisturbed state of the medium indifferently,
and may moreover in these formule, and in the expression for ¢, take a, y, z
for the actual or the original coordinates of a particle.
Green assumes as self-evident that the value of g for any element, suppose
that which originally occupied the rectangular parallelepiped dw dy dz, must
depend only on the change of form of the element, and not on any mere
change of position in space. Any displacement which varies continuously
from point to point must change an elementary rectangular parallelepiped
into one which is oblique-angled, and the change of form is expressed by the
ratios of the lengths of the edges to the original lengths, and by the angles
which the edges make with one another or by their cosines. If the medium
were originally in a state of constraint, @ would contain terms of the first
order, and the expressions for the extensions of the edges and the cosines of
the angles would be wanted to the second order, but when ¢ is wholly of the
second order, those quantities need only be found to the first order. It is easy
to see that to this order the extensions are expressed by
du dv dw
da dy’ qat e Beet ail NESS (24)
and the cosines of the inclinations of the edges two and two by
dv , dw dw , du du , dv
dat dy’ ag ae ype 7402 ay 3 (25)
and @ being a function of these six quantities, we have from (23)
T,-=2.,, Tee=T;-5 T y= Ty. ei <i Re eta CED
These are the relations pointed out by Caucky between the nine components
of the three tensions in three rectangular directions, whereby they are reduced
to six. The necessity of these relations is admitted by most mathematicians.
Conversely, if we start with Cauchy’s three relations (26), we have from (23)
(dw [dv (le _ »fdw [QW _ {du rs
Ma-(z) ee) tG)=FG@). ©
The integration of the first of these partial differential equations gives
f=a function of we and of the seven other differential coefficients.
Substituting in the second of equations (27) and integrating, and substituting
the result in the third and integrating again, we readily find
f=a function of the six quantities (24) and (25).
We see then that Green’s axiom that the function » depends only on the
change of form of the element, and Cauchy’s relations (26), are but different
ways of expressing the same condition ; so that either follows if the truth of
the other be admitted.
Cauchy’s equations were proved by applying the statical equations of
moments of a rigid body to an elementary parallelepiped of the medium, and
taking the limit when the dimensions of the element vanish. The demonstra-
tion is just the same whether the medium be at rest or in motion, since in
the latter case we have merely to apply d’Alembert’s principle. It need
hardly be remarked that the employment of equations of equilibrium of
a rigid body in the demonstration by no means limits the truth of the
theorem to rigid bodies; for the equations of equilibrium of a rigid body are
278 REPORT—1862.
true of any matérial system. In the latter case they are not sufficient for
the equilibrium, but all that we are concerned with in the demonstration of
equations (26) is that they should be true.
On the other hand, the form of V or ¢ to which MacCullagh was led is that
of a homogeneous fanction, of the second order, of the three quantities
dw dv du dw dv du
dy dz dz dx dx dy’ *)
which, as is well known, are linear functions of the similarly expressed
quantities referring to any other system of rectangular axes. On substituting
in (23), we see that the normal tensions on planes parallel to the coordinate
planes, and therefore on any plane since the axes are arbitrary, vanish, while
the tangential tensions satisfy the three relations
—— ae T,.=—T,, Loy eg ie Se (29)
so that the equations of moments of an element are violated. The relative
motion in the neighbourhood of a given point may be resolved, as is known,
into three extensions (positive or negative) in three rectangular directions and
three rotations. The directions of the axes of extension, and the magnitudes
of the extensions, are determined by the six quantities (24) and (25), while
the rotations or angular displacements are expressed by the halves of the three
quantities (28). In this theory, then, the work stored up in an element of the
medium would depend, not upon the change of form of the element, but upon
its angular displacement in space.
It may be shown without difficulty that, according to the form of ¢ assumed
by MacCullagh, the equations of moments are violated for a finite portion of the
mass, and not merely for an element. Supposing for simplicity that the
medium in its undisturbed state is free from pressure or tension, let us leave
the form of ¢ open for the present, except that it is supposed to be a function
of the differential coefficients of the first order of u,v, w with respect to
#, y, z, and let us form the equation of moments round one of the axes, as
that of w, for the portion of the medium comprised within the closed surface 8.
This equation is
\\V{-3 we van? f dry de (Ry Q:)dS=0,
the double integrals bevy to the surface. Since all the terms in this
equation are small, we may take w, y, 2 for the actual or the equilibrium
coordinates indifferently. Substituting from equations (20), and integrating
by parts, we en
Vr@ as Bey} ayae(U{ (2) (ten) aa
WG iv i Je (zy } ae dy he Qz) dS
WG I ay wat (Zz) | ate dy ae=0.
The double ee in a equation destroy each other by virtue of (22), so
that there remains
{7G {7 iy) Ap (z) } deay demo. s+ + + (80)
But this equation cannot be satisfied, since the surface § within which the
ON DOUBLE REFRACTION. 279
integration is to be performed is perfectly arbitrary, unless / (=) =i (=)
at all points. Weare thus led back to the equations (27), which are violated
in the theory of MacCullagh.
The form of the equations such as (30) is instructive, as pointing out the
mode in which, the condition of moments is violated. It is not that the
resultant of the forces acting on an element of the medium does not produce
its proper momentum in changing the motion of translation of the element;
that is secured by the equations (20); but that a couple is supposed to act
on each element to which there is no corresponding reacting couple.
The only way of escaping from these conclusions is by denying that the
mutual action of two adjacent portions of the medium separated by a small
ideal surface is capable of being represented by a pressure or tension, and
saying that we must also take into account a couple ; not, itis to be observed, a
couple depending on variations of the tension (for that would be of a higher
order and would vanish in the limit), but a couple ultimately proportional to
the element of surface. But it would require a function ¢ of a totally different
form to take into account the work of such couples; and indeed the method
by which the expressions for the components of the tension have been here
deduced seems to show that in the case of a function » which depends only on
the differential coefficients of the first order of u, v, w with respect to x,y,z,
the mutual action of two contiguous portions of a medium is fully repre-
sented by a tension or pressure.
Indeed MacCullagh himself expressly disclaimed having given a mechanical
theory of double refraction*. His methods have been characterized as a sort
of mathematical induction, and led him to the discovery of the mathematical
laws of certain highly important optical phenomena. The discovery of such
laws can hardly fail to be a great assistance towards the future establishment
of a complete mechanical theory.
I proceed now to form the function ¢ for Cauchy’s most general equations.
2, 2 2,
If we have given the expressions for “a a =e in terms of the differential
coefficients of u, v, w with respect to a, y, z, they do not suffice for the com-
plete determination of the function ¢, as appears from the equations (20) or
(21); but if we have given the expressions for the tensions P,, Ty.» &e., @ is
completely determinate, as appears from equations (23). In using these
equations, it must be remembered that the tensions are measured with
reference to surfaces in the undisturbed state of the medium; and therefore,
should the expressions be given with reference to surfaces in the actual state,
they must undergo a preliminary transformation to make them refer to
surfaces in the undisturbed state.
Supposing then the tensions expressed as required, in order to find we
have only to integrate the total differential
du
+Ty do
dw du
du dv dw
f pee tat tid atte d as tl ye d dyt Tend dz
dy dw du
Hg” gt Tet ot let a) MasB ai iar Dali Ga QSL
the nine differential coefficients, of which ¢ is a function, being regarded as
_ * Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxi. p. 50. It would seem, however,
that he rather felt the want of a mechanical theory from which to deduce his form of the
function ¢ or V, than doubted the correctness of that form itself.
280 REPORT—1862.
independent variables. Should the three equations (27) be satisfied, the
expression (31) will be simplified, becoming
lu dv dw dw dv du. dw
ges Po ge aw sca Ne?" (lea ase {eee
eae ages igh @ dz * te a(ateyth q ata)
dv, du
+1. (G45) eco ke ee
where T, denotes T,. or T_,, and similarly for T,, T..
The general expressions for the tensions resulting from Cauchy’s method
are written at length in the equations numbered 17 and 18, pp. 133, 134 of
the 4th volume of his ‘ Exercices de Mathématiques,’ where the normal and
tangential tensions, referred to surfaces in the actual state of the medium,
are denoted by A, B, C, D, E, F. These expressions contain 21 arbitrary
constants, of which six, A, 33, €, B, €, Jf, denote the tensions in the state of
equilibrium. If these be for the present omitted, the remaining terms will
be wholly small quantities of the first order, and therefore the tensions may
be supposed to be referred to a unit of surface in the actual, or in the
undisturbed state of the medium indifferently. On substituting now for
1 ge Pp; i he A T,, T, in (82) the remaining parts of A, B, C, D, E, F (observing
that the £, n, in Cauchy’s notation are the same as u, v, w), it will be seen
that the right-hand member of the equation is a perfect differential, integrable
at once by inspection, and giving
du\? dv\? dw\? dv, dw\? , g dv dw
— 21 (FE) +0(T) tN (e) +P (EtG) aga
dw , du, 5 dw du | | du dv\? , odu ot
+01 (G+5 +20o | +R (Gta 1a
du (dv . dw dw , du\ {du . dv
4201 eet ay) tet ae) (ay tae) |
,{ dvfdw . du du. dv\ (dv . dw
ro \z (ate) H(ata) (ets) | )
dw (du. dv dv .dw\ f/dw_. dw
D) Wee sikh ae Ha
ae { dz (+a) +(at 7) dx ii =) }
du fdw . du dv {du . du dw {dv . dw
NV on es Wie ee SE Oa ey
Ea dx Get %) een dy (Gta)t e dz \dz* dy
du (du , dv\ , op du (dv , Wwy , on dw (dw , du
ae (ay tida) elt gg a ee
the arbitrary constant being omitted as unnecessary. We see that this is a
homogeneous function of the second degree of the six quantities (24) and (25),
but not the most general function of that nature, containing only 15 instead
of 21 arbitrary constants.
Let us now form the part of the expression for ¢ involving the constants
which express the pressures in the state of equilibrium. It will be convenient
to effect the requisite transformation in the expressions for the tensions by two
steps, first referring them to surfaces of the actual extent, but in the original
position, and then to surfaces in the original state altogether.
Let P’,, T',., &c. denote the tensions estimated with reference to the actual
extent but original direction of a surface, so that P’, dS, for instance, denotes
the component, in a direction parallel to the axis of w, of the tension on an
ON DOUBLE REFRACTION, 281
elementary plane passing through the point («, y, z) in such a direction that
in the undisturbed state of the medium the same plane of particles was
perpendicular to the axis of wv, dS denoting the actual area of the element.
Consider the equilibrium of an elementary tetrahedron of the medium, the
sides of which are perpendicular to the axes of w, y, z, and the base in the
direction of a plane which was perpendicular to the axis of w; and let
1, m, n be the direction-cosines of the base; then
P'i.=lA+mF+n£, T= F+mB+nD, T’,,=/E+mD+nC; (34)
but to the first order of small quantities
= r= — ay P
dy’ dz’
substituting in (34), and writing down the other corresponding equations,
we have
P =A . =n) 7 po? ig See et)
l=1, m=—
dz dz dx dx dy
Pp’ =B-DW_r dv T Las Ae _ pw T_=-E- pm C du |
dz da — dx dy dy dz (35)
dw dw du du dv dv
sta BW ca Foal ae pe) ee eae a le QE) ee ey) Ves
dx dy T, cay dz ye ow aS
Lastly, since an ca aya area dS originally perpendicular to the axis of x
becomes by extension ( 1 Ae ta) dS, and similarly with regard to y and z,
P.=C—E
we have
dw
P.:P = hie! Raine — UN Dab 2
x sey se Dy Th. Ta. 1404
ee an eae ae es ee ee
ie i em + « « (86)
lu
i aE ey age =T,,: T= aul
z z P24 ze zy 1 ty dx +
Expressing P_, T,,, &c. in terms of P’,, T",» &c. by (36), then P’, ii &e.
in terms of A, B, C, D, E, F by (85), and lastly substituting for i. Ls Cree
the expressions given by Cauchy, we find
)
P= a (1 +9,) +o + eS
P= (145 gees
dx
P=€(14+7)+e7 BS
T,=B(1+2 +P Ete Sl e=B(1+5 ates “+E o
dz
(37)
T ik 4B mre Gt =e(1 +E) ee 4q q Ww
dz
+e S4a % jg Te (1+ + a
a
‘a y
282 REPORT—1862.
Substituting now these expressions in (31) and integrating, we have
du (du? . (dv\’ . (dw?
~29=81 {255 +(cz) +(z) +(zz) |
fi. dvu. (du\* (dv\? . (dw\?
De pees pi et
ae { aut (a) +(3) (Gi) }
lw. (du? (dv\?_ (dw?
96
ti { Zatz) +(q) +(z) } (38
4938 { rey eee du dvdv . dwdw jaar )
dz dy dy dz dy dz dy dz }
dw. du dudu.dvdv. dwdw
+26 | de Ge eda dzdx' dz =}
lu dv .dudu. dvdv. dwdw
og + 4 We
a S| + atte ay dudy dx a} ’
which is exactly Green’s expression*, Green’s constants A, B... F answer-
ing to Cauchy’s A, 34... Jf. The sum of the right-hand members of equa-
tions (33) and (38) gives the complete expression for —2@ which belongs to
Cauchy’s formule. It contains, as we see, 21 arbitrary constants, and is a
particular case of the general form used by Green, which latter contains
27 arbitrary constants.
Thave been thus particular in deducing the form of Green’s function which
belongs to Cauchy’s expressions, partly because it has been erroneously asserted
that Green’s function does not apply to a system of attracting and repelling
molecules, partly because, when once the function @ is formed, the short and
elegant methods of Green may be applied to obtain the results of Cauchy’s
theory, and a comparison of the different theories of Green and Cauchy is
greatly facilitated.
-* Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, vol. vii. p. 127.
Fourth Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance.
Report CONTENTS.
Sheet of indicator diagrams of H.M.S. ‘ Colossus,’ ‘ Arrogant,’ and ‘ Hansa,’ and scale of
displacement of the ‘McGregor Laird.’
Appendix, Table 1—Form of Engineers’ Pocket Log, issued by the Commiitee.
Table 2.—Return of the particulars of the dimensions of 20 vessels in H.M. Navy,
with the results of their trials upon completion for service.
Table 3.—Table showing the results of the performances at sea, and when on trial,
of H.M.S. ‘ Arrogant,’ ‘ Colossus,’ and ‘ St. George.’
Tables 4, 5, and 6.—Results of trials of H.M, screwships, officially tabulated by the
Admiralty, in 1850, 1856, and 1861.
Steam Transport Service.—Tables Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16 (the
last 5 tables being summaries of the Tables 7 to 11) show the results obtained
from vessels employed in transport service during the latter part of the Russian
War, showing the respective values of the several steamships, classified according
to the nature of the employment, or the special character of the duties required to
be performed ; and giving, in addition, the cost of moving each ship 1000 miles, &e.
Table 17.—Table showing performances of the Royal West India Mail Company’s
Steamers from June 1861 to July 1862.
Table mC imi of the indicator diagrams taken on all the voyages included
in Table 17.
ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE. 283
Table 18 A.—Table showing the manner in which the summaries in preceding table
are obtained.
Table 19.—Return of the particulars of the dimensions of the Peninsular and Orien-
tal Steam Navigation Company’s steamship ‘ Mooltan,’ with tabulated statement
showing the results of her performance as compared with six other vessels in the
same service.
Table 20.—Table of the results of the performances of 68 vessels of the Austrian
Lloyds’ Steamship Company.
Table 21.—Return of experiments with H.M.S. ‘Stork,’ ‘Shannon,’ and ‘ Psyche,’
with different kinds of screw propellers.
Table 22.—Seven logs of voyages of the ‘ Great Hastern’ for 1861-62.
Table 23.—Statement showing the summary of the performances of the Pacific Steam
Navigation Company’s new vessels ‘ Peru’ and ‘ Talca.’
Table 24.—Abstract log of, and notes upon, the performance of the African Royal
Mail Company’s steamship ‘ McGregor Laird.’
Table 25.—Notes on the performance of the North German Lloyds’ Company’s
steamship ‘ Hansa.’
Table 26.—Log of the Earl of Durham’s sailing-yacht ‘ Beatrix,’ on her recent Medi-
terranean voyage.
Report.
[‘The object of the Committee is to make public such recorded facts through the
medium of the Association, and being accessible to the public in that manner, to bring
the greatest amount of science to the solution of the difficulties now existing to the scien-
tific improvement of the forms of vessels and the qualities of marine engines. They will
especially endeavour to guard against information so furnished to them being used in an
other way, and they trust they may look for the cooperation of members of Yacht Clubs
having steam-yachts, of shipowners, as well as of steamship-builders and engineers.”—
Third Report, 1861, p. 16.]
Ar the meeting of the British Association held at Manchester in September
1861, the Committee were reappointed in the following terms :—
«That the Committee on Steamship Performance be reappointed.
“That the attention of the Committee be also directed to the obtaining
of information regarding the performance of vessels under sail, with a view
to comparing the result of the two powers of wind and steam, in order to
their more effectual and economical combination ; with £150 at their disposal.”
The following noblemen and gentlemen were nominated to serve on the
Committee :—
The Duke of Sutherland. The Hon. Capt. Egerton, R.N.
The Earl of Gifford, M.P. The Hon. Leopold AgarEllis,M.P.
The Earl of Caithness. J. E. McConnell, Esq., C.E.
The Lord Dufferin. Wm. Smith, Esq., O.E.
W. Fairbairn, Esq., LL.D.,F.R.S. Prof. J. M. Rankine, LL.D.
J. Scott Russell, Esq., F.R.S. J. R. Napier, Esq.
Admiral E. Paris, C.B. (Imperial R. Roberts, Esq., C.E.
French Navy). Henry Wright, Esq., Secretary.
With power to add to their number.
The following noblemen and gentlemen, haying consented to assist your
Committee, were, during the present year, elected as corresponding members:—
Lord C. Paget, M.P., C.B. Captain Robertson, R.N.
The Earl of Durham. Captain Sulivan, R.N., 0.B.
The Marquis of Hartington, M.P. Captain Mangles.
Viscount Hill. T. R. Tufnell, Esq.
Lord John Hay. Wm. Froude, Esq.
Admiral Elliott. W. Just, Esq.
Captain Hope, R.N. John Elder, Esq.
Captain Ryder, R.N. David Rowan, Esq.
Robert Dalglish, Esq., M.P. J. Mc F. Gray, Esq.
284 REPORT—1862.
Your Committee have the pleasure of stating that, at the unanimous
request of the members of the Committee, his Grace the Duke of Sutherland
undertook the office of Chairman. The Committee have, since February last,
held monthly meetings, and intermediate meetings of a sub-Committee.
Your Committee have pleasure in reporting very satisfactory progress, and
that they have had an increasing amount of useful information placed at
their disposal. Much greater interest is now taken in the objects of the
inquiry, and a still increasing number of observers have adopted the forms of
the Committee, for recording the performances of vessels.
The importance of the information collected by your Committee is attracting
the attention of steamship-owners, as well as scientific investigators ; and it
is hoped the result of greater efficiency and economy in the application of
steam, as well as improvements in the construction of steam-yessels, will be
the result of these Reports ; and your’ Committee have reason to believe that
considerable advantages have already been derived from their labours by
steamship-owners.
The Royal Navy.—Your Committee, in their Third Annual Report, stated
the results of their communications with the Admiralty, and have now to
report that the objects of your Committee continue to meet with the approval
of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, and of the intelligent scientific
officers in that branch of Her Majesty’s service ; that your Committee have
been furnished from time to time with accurate returns of the performances
of the more important steamships in Her Majesty’s service which have been
tried at the measured mile during the last twelve months, and also some
similar returns, received too late for insertion in the Report of last year. In
the Appendix will be found a selection from these returns, preference having
been given to the returns of vessels of which the future steam performances
at sea have been promised.
Your Committee have received several returns of performances of Her
Majesty’s ships at sea, the publication of which, owing to their being incom-
plete in some important particulars, and to the lateness of the time at which
they were received, is necessarily postponed.
Your Committee call attention to the selection they have made, which will
be found in the Appendix.
As numerous inquiries have, from time to time, been made of your Com-
mittee as to the particulars of certain of Her Majesty’s steamships, the per-
formances of which were noticed in previous Reports, your Committee, with
a view to avoid unnecessary correspondence, and to give the required infor-
mation more fully than can be done by written communications, determined
to include in the present Report three sets of tables of trials of H.M.’s ships,
which were officially tabulated by the Admiralty, but not issued by them to
’ the public.
The reprinting of those tables, and the textual information accompanying
them, in the Appendix to the present Report will now supply those who
possess the previous Reports of your Committee with the means of comparing
the results obtained upon the trials of nearly the entire of the steamships of
war composing the British Navy, and will also enable them to compare with
the results of such trials the performances whilst at sea of very many of the
vessels included in the complete and extensive lists to be found in the three
Reports previously published, and in the present Report of your Committee,
without the necessity, which before existed, of searching elsewhere for the
information.
The publication of the three Admiralty Tables will also render it un-
ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE. 285
necessary hereafter to repeat many particulars as to the dimensions, &c., of
the ships, and the power and other details of the engines of such of H.M.’s
ships of which your Committee may, from time to time, receive returns of
performances at sea.
In the previous Reports, the records of special trials with propellers of
various kinds, in the steamships ‘ Flying Fish,’ ‘ Bullfinch,’ ‘ Doris,’ &c.,
were given; and the Committee are now enabled to furnish another series
of experiments with Her Majesty’s gunboat ‘ Stork,’ which are very interest-
ing, and to which is added a short abstract of the trials of the ‘Shannon’
and ‘ Psyche.’
The Steam Transport Service—A series of tables, prepared by Mr. G.
Murdoch, Superintending Engineer at Constantinople during the Crimean
War, and now Inspecting Engineer of Her Majesty’s Steam Reserve at Ports- .
mouth, haying been carefully calculated for the purpose of showing the
respective values of the several steamships, classified according to the nature
of the employment or the special character of the duties required to be per-
formed, have been placed at the disposal of your Committee. These tables,
besides giving the expense of moving each ship 1000 miles, and the cost of
conveying sick and wounded officers and troops, cavalry, cattle, and cargo,
over the same distance, give the daily coal-consumption and the distance
run for each ton of coal consumed. They have also the additional value
arising from contrasting the different results obtained, and costs incurred,
when propelling the same vessels at different speeds.
Royal Mail Service—Your Committee have been favoured with a copy of
the Engine Register kept by the West India Royal Mail Steam Packet Company,
showing the exact performances of some of their largest steamships. The
tabulated statement, which will be found appended to this Report, is for the
twelve months ending June last, and has reference only to the steamers em-
ployed on the West India Transatlantic route between Southampton and St.
Thomas.
To this Form of Return your Committee would invite special attention,
as they are not aware that such is kept by any of the other large Steam
Packet Companies or steamship-owners; and the great value of the informa-
tion it affords, as also the very complete form in which that information is
rendered, will, it is thought, be admitted by every one who is conversant
with such matters. The importance of such a record to a corporation like
the Royal Mail Company can hardly be over-estimated, when it is considered
that they have no less than nine distinct routes of steamers in the West
Indies and the Brazils, and that exactly the same system is adopted in regard
to all these ; so that the performance of every vessel engaged on these lines
is, on the completion of each succeeding voyage, thus carefully analysed and
brought under the immediate notice of the managers.
In addition to the above, indicator diagrams are taken from the engines
on every yoyage, and sent home for inspection; the particulars of these are
further entered in a register kept for that purpose. The Royal Mail Company
have kindly furnished your Committee with a copy of their register of the
diagrams taken on all the voyages comprised in the first-mentioned table,
thus affording a complete synopsis of the working both of their ships and
engines on the West India Transatlantic route, during the twelve months
referred to.
Your Committee have included also the dimensions and other particulars
286 REPORT—1862.
of the ‘ Mooltan,’ a new vessel belonging to the Peninsular and Oriental Steam
Navigation Company, with returns of a voyage from Southampton to Alex-
andria and back, showing the results of the performance of this vessel, as
compared with some other vessels in the same service. It is to be regretted
that the Peninsular and Oriental Company found they were unable to give a
continuance of the reports of the performances of the vessels composing their
fleet of ships this year in time for the publication of this Report. The Com-
mittee have reason to believe that next year full reports of the performances
of these vessels for this and next year will be forthcoming.
The Pacific Royal Mail Company have furnished your Committee with the
dimensions and abstract of the performances of their last additions to their
fleet (see Appendix). The particulars of the other vessels have been given
in previous Reports.
It is worthy of remark that the vessels belonging to this Company fitted
with double-cylinder expansion engines, specially noticed by your Committee
in previous Reports as remarkable for their economy, have continued to per-
form in the same economical manner; and, under the circumstances, it has
not been considered necessary to furnish a continuation of the logs previously
yen.
2 The City of Dublin Company’s Returns for the past year are omitted ;
and your Committee regret that the log of the ‘Munster,’ and the results
attained by working out her performances,—although the calculations have
involved considerable trouble to the Committee in their preparation,—have
also to be omitted.
Your Committee have received from the Royal African Mail Company an
abstract of the log of the screw steamship ‘McGregor Laird’ on her first
voyage from Liverpool to Madeira, and the particulars of the vessel and
her machinery. To the performances of this ship your Committee call
especial attention, on account of the great economy exhibited in the con-
sumption of fuel.
Foreign Mail Service —Your Committee would call attention to the returns
supplied of the performances of the steamships belonging to the Austrian
Lloyds’ Steamship Company; and although they are to some extent incom-
plete (which arises from no systematic recording having previously been
adopted), this, it is promised, will be remedied in future by the adoption of
the forms supplied by your Committee.
The Mercantile Marine Service —Your Committee have been occupied prin-
cipally in effecting arrangements by which a more thorough and extended
organization of the means of obtaining returns of the performances of mer-
cantile steamships employed in ocean navigation can be secured, and also in
making personal application to many of the largest steamship-owners at the
principal ports of Great Britain. They have succeeded in enlisting the active
cooperation of many proprietors of steamships. In some cases the owners
of mercantile marine ships, upon being called on by members of this Com-
mittee, at once requested their superintending engineers to adopt the “‘ forms
of returns ”’ prepared by this Committee, and in other cases the result of such
personal communication has been the suggestions of modifications in the
“ forms ;” but, in all instances, or nearly so, the engineers haye undertaken
that, in future, a more perfect and systematic recording of the performance
at sea shall be adopted, and that the results shall be regularly placed at the
disposal of your Committee.
ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE. 287
With a view of obtaining, with greater facility than heretofore, returns of
performances, as well as the dimensions and particulars, of ships, engines, and
machinery, your Committee have adopted a form of pocket-book, or “ En-
gineers’ Pocket Log,” which contains a greater number of details than were
included in their previous “forms of returns.” This log is so arranged that
the returns can be removed from the case when filled up, and the blank form
inserted. Each book is furnished with a pocket to receive and preserve the
indicator diagrams or “ cards.”
Although these books have only recently been issued, considerable numbers
of them are in course of being filled up by the engineers of ocean-going steam-
ships; and arrangements have been made for the regular transmission of
these returns from each ship during the next twelve months. Since the
issuing of these Pocket Logs, your Committee have received particulars of
between 30 and 40 first-class ocean-going screw steamships, which were,
however, received too late to be properly tabulated so as to accompany the
present Report. These returns are being examined and arranged for pub-
lication. The Engineers’ Pocket Logs have been freely circulated and well
received, and they promise to yield a large amount of valuable information
to the Association.
A list of the particulars asked for will be found in the Appendix.
The particulars of the ‘Great Eastern’ having been already published, the
logs of her performances on her Transatlantic voyages have been regularly
supplied to your Committee since she’ has been refitted and placed upon the
North American service.
These logs have been collected, and are given in the Appendix to the
present Report.
Performances of Vessels under Sail.—In compliance with the recommenda-
tion of the Council of the Association, your Committee have succeeded in
obtaining promises of copies of the logs or returns of the performances of several
of thelargestsailing-ships belonging tothe Australian, India, and China Packet
Services, and to this end special observations are being made; and it is
hoped that the results of the labours of those who have undertaken the duty
of supplying your Committee with these returns may be included in the next
Report in such a form as will render them available for comparison with the
performances of full-powered and auxiliary steamships performing similar
voyages.
Your Committee have received from the Earl of Durham the logs of the
sailing schooner-yacht ‘ Beatrix,’ on her Mediterranean voyages. The dimen-
sions and particulars of this vessel, together with scale of displacement, have
also been received, but not in time to be included in the Report.
Your Committee have been promised the particulars of some auxiliary-
powered ocean steamships.
The Committee purpose to act upon a suggestion made to them, of forming
a list of the Engineers of the several classes employed in the mercantile steam
service, who have, with the sanction of the owners, supplied your Committee
with returns of the performances of ships under their charge, to which re-
ference may be had by such members of your Association as are interested
in the subject, and with a view to afford opportunities for the advancement
of such Engineers as have shown the greatest amount of scientific ability in
connexion with their calling.
Your Committee have determined to act upon a suggestion by which the
288 REPORT—1862.
performances of some steamships, which are at present withheld, may in
future be supplied for the use of the Committee, viz., that such returns shall
be published under a distinguishing number, instead of publishing the name of
the vessel, her builders, and the constructors of her machinery, and that the
latter particulars shall only be disclosed with the consent of the owners.
Your Committee continue to receive from steamship-owners and engineers
invitations to be present at the trials of steamships.
The sum of £150, voted by the Council of the Association to defray the
expenses of your Committee, has been expended and slightly exceeded.
Your Committee have thought it desirable to add the following particulars
of items to be included in a form of return to be printed, and circulated with
the logs and forms of returns issued by the Committee.
Position of centre of gravity of vessel.
Position of centre of buoyancy.
Position of metacentre for rolling.
Position of metacentre for pitching. ;
Wedges of immersion and emersion at an angle of 73, or 15, or any other
number of degrees.
Approximate radius of gyration of vessel about longitudinal axis,
Approximate radius of gyration of vessel about transverse axis,
Number of rolling oscillations per minute.
Number of pitch oscillations in a minute.
Under given circumstances, those an-
Angles through which vessel rolls. gles to be measured not by a pen-
Angles through which vessel dulum, plummet, or spirit-level, but
pitches. | either by observing the horizon or
the stars, or by a gyroscope.
Length, height, period and direction of waves at time of experiment, sail
carried, indicated power at time of experiment, direction and force of wind.
A lithographed sheet has been added to the Appendix, containing nine
indicator diagrams and a scale of displacements, as your Committee considered
those elements to be necessary for the proper consideration of the returns and
particulars furnished to them. :
The other indicator diagrams, which have been received by your Committee
too late to be embodied in the present Report, may be seen by any one inter-
ested therein on application at the Offices of the Committee.
The thanks of the Association are due to Colonel Paradis, the Technical
Director of the Austrian Lloyds’ Company, who, at the request of the Com-
mittee, caused the information in the Appendix relating to the vessels of
this Company to be compiled expressly for insertion in the present Report.
The thanks of the Committee are also due to—
The Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, the Secretary of the Admiralty,
the Comptroller of the Navy, and the Engineer-in-Chief of the Admiralty,
for such information as they have furnished, or permitted to be supplied
to your Committee, relating to the trials and sea performances of vessels
in Her Majesty’s service.
To the heads of the various Departments of the Service, and to the officers
under them, for the facilities afforded to your Committee in obtaining
such information as the rules of the Service allow, or which have been
specially permitted to your Committee.
To the Officers of Her Majesty’s Navy, by whom returns haye been fur-
pM A Ce CS ee GPR bE a A:
Sewle of Capwovty
ee
6.4 below Low Water Line. z
Wat Low Water Line 13.1 Tons.
at Sea(fine weather ) 1492 Toms with 595 To
Board. i
wer on that Trial 714.
ra
Di aI
* S f
1 aS)
J :
5
ae
Hy av enSe 1G OL tO) Sesmon Ss. : aMUABG IG RUE GON NAS a mS
Scale of Capwoerty
Indicator Diagrams taker: during cn expaimental: Trial’ on te a Oct? 1061.
Bromt of Otinder. Front: of Cylinder
: - Centre of displacement 16 abath centre
of Low Water Line
= Steam Gauge i
s-~ Rov! $6 | Centre of Imoyaney 6.4 below Low Water line ~
ee 6 Dignlacement por Inch at Low Water Tine 13.1 Tone “
: " H Displacement on Trial at Sea (fine weather | 1492 Tons with 595 Tons
of Cylinder o f es
Dia" or Gy 5 ¥ } of Dead: Weight on Board,
De Trunk 2 1 Indicated: Horse Bower on that Trial 74.
Speed UL 33 Knote
i Consumption of Gaal on Trial, =2 Ube per Horse Power per Hour
Revolutions of Engines: 36 per Minute
Revolutions of Screw: 90 per Minute
Length of Low Water line 240 Feet
Grose Register 966 j55
Mean Pressure
Indicated: HP. BSS
Consumption: por Indicated
Horse Power per Hour 3.5 Ue.
Consumption par NH P.par
Hour U7.
Connumption per Hour 4.704
Pounds (Welsle/
Yoo 1400 i700 HOD SDD ODDO zoo too
a =n: ——
Back of Cytender
Back of Oylinder
Fore Enaine
art Engine,
H. M.S .“ARROGANT™
Taken Rurrina the Measured Mile in Stokes Bay I™day of October 1959. Ey Me Sie AU RONG AUN Tht Diagram from: Forward: Engine of
Forward Cylinder. 5s. S.“HANS A"
Full Power.
Total Indicxted Horse Power = 910.79
Moan: cffeetive Pressure Ub 168
Steaming with three Boilers, Le ‘
Engines on 18 Grade of Bapansion: IE Novenbear 1661.
Taken at 8-10 PM 28% tig “861
Indicated: Worse [ower =215 165 X2-180,330=
=Total Indicated: Horse Power.
Mean Effective Procure +10.062,
Steam 29 Tbs
Vice’ 28 Inches
Revolutions $0
Steam cut off ab D2 Inches
Mean Preseure 19.6 Lbs
Horse Powor
Loaded onValve — 12tha.
Preancre of Steam |
Steam Gauge Zi i
Baromae Vaca Winches
Revolutions por Minyte 8
I EEIDIDEIEE eh
BRITISH ASSOCIATION —COMMITITR ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE,
RETURN OF THR PANTICULARS OF THE DIMENSIONS OF TWENTY VESSEUS IN TAL’s NAVY, WITH THE RESULTS OF THRIR TRIALS UPON COMPLETION FOR SERVICE,
TABLE & :
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Degen Lewin of gtala | 2 Py " 2 2 x a 2 = a 7 112 trun, AY = $04) 3einckes
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| Sind ot Pre. 80, A, Gin, ns ae an, 4. 2in an, 1M. fi, | of Sin, an. | 4 foe ‘o,
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ond Gti el oh uns B01. Sa +20 inna ¥e = a dona Lhewte Tq 10\TUe| 109 tons (ew
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Ved of eapere pager = eT Tne ar ie os Tis tozs 130 tone ia tou | tone | | 3 tone 00 f00. | Won FL une Let Yar 16tbng 09 fens
P| Pree of erat base : Tare Itt oan 6 wo oasanyyss-ove | 5 tame Them Lge LAT . ,
Wee candies Sa = bisa 32 long Sew ar, Fille Kons 6 ent. 1 fons tow. ind, year = | Towne Tew arm ila. | 3 os Ber. dar Hh | 15 tome sews, 2.11
l= 10 tone é |Ltona Det, gt, Tibe Stone teewt. | Snwliies, 1 tens oumatienes | 10 tone Sew Tar. tb
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—] BS tous VAL tone feet 10th. fen VOcwt Sgr 2\Nbs.| 68 tow Sqr. LOlba | FHI tor Sem Yap BANK ; A fi ae he or Li. | 206 tong age | 78 tone eh Sas TTB | 12 Hans est ar et :
be Dias ctor aie ney “August 9; 1800 Masa f° gaty 31, 1900 Ra ee Pree er ‘Pecember Riss ‘Sevewber 53, Tet ‘Detater 17, Vest ‘March 55, 1000
, ¥ on ae te Lag 14M; Ad, tle De Der
Triel Light,’ Re 7 p16. Jt, VL, Tigbh, FM 10ku 1 p Nations prod oto Ya revoletions) qnotber| Light, 60°4 revelations tl eneletle 4 Dat,
Wie (Ed apna een Light, 758 rev, iene iy Essiy: i heat EE eee | ERT. he ie Jn Dep, 00) revolations | Light, OD revolutions | Light, 101 reve #2 freaatonegutbey Leh AL verelatioos bs rersbullons
Whes tried Tight a oad a here
Moe rm tay atte f ie November 2 1600 Velrwary 1h 861, 31, 1800. Decetsher 13,1. Soveend 160) ‘Oeteter 17, 160 |
ya Light 81 valle, oly Yn. aia - 20i0ibe 140i Wirat trial ei Stews ber alee soa rete
i epee paige | TEE | a, oe age "nc a natn, | trate bial tet sii bet
Dewey of Mer a0
“ = - _ ‘Tubalar Tolar ue i) BOLI f ae Tabalar eee Twlabr Twat Teahe Tabular | Tubular Tutatar
Ire eopper tes 5 Tater | " | : :
Py hem was Series om Tron Trea fren ne Tied Tro | nn 5a Ties | =
' | Ween see See pt Muodelay, Soma, & Field | Taseahill aod Cn Nagler Mulia, Honn,A Fisk | Summer ty Cu | Momphiersaad Gy | Sealy, Say 4 Yell] Nepierant Sa | Napier ant Cos Hlavenbill oot Co. Howpbrey eat Coy Monday, Soo Wield | 3
- — 1800, o 800. 60 a 601 ry 160
Lichetaansrsn pape ane i 2 thoy |e fa oa : ite eee ilcdaete c :
Namba of para parts a 2 | 5 ae 1 | ar = spa ‘ 1 | i v 2 | “0
Height of tep of beter above ve Lehre =. a INAin. tele | 1. ts: ayer 1. | | 1% ia
mectaind ters 2 a 12, below 18.3, | Z
: co 1010 | 1000 na | r t = | :
Teds beg | ova i 700 10% ie 1) 400
= a -- 50. ia, | m en. sia tnedin Nb an. in, sn, iw 00, in 6.7m en. Wi.
ee ee | mei hae oe ee
> ‘ie ‘Sh eternal 2h external Bla n. 4 un * a 2hio. |
Saiuatin’ ts Secaa! 3 : 7 i ‘ ' ' 11 diel 13 gonge ' + ' | 1 aot 14 eanae
‘Tebow, whether with ferralles ae wt Ni Abad Tews Vesa Tins Tem race Tiras Brom Haws } Tune |
‘Tabs Halen noes = eae 7. | ~ He xa gone io terrain arin ol fers Nafta | Sattomiat | Xattmbd |
‘eho plain, Satan Between ti | | ie ne i tin . 8 : | @eribe Vie
a = = = - Ire = Jen Tre Tro Tew Tron Tron Tro af Tron Trem. Tea
pacer aaa z n | - : a : 1 | = 1 @ | 0 >”
| SS “ 0. am die. 70. fin. | tin 6. cin, 7. Of dia, ) 4n. din, | £0, 01m Gk Fin | ' a Ht. io. |
ae ae — 20 Sin ad 9M, Gin af. 10in, wn, 0, Bn. 1650 30 Bio. 20 Ack. | Ain in ah te 4 a A Ni}in.
Senutehontiond ee | ibe | ‘in site hte | ona, ithe ‘sola | Pe ene alt, be
‘Samer of stoke bade 3 2 7 1 * i { 1 Py 1 1 an 1 4
es | Oyen to derek | Matebew Thatohew Matebew | | Hatches | Matchen Matebos Thatebes Matcher Thatehes | Thtehew
Semler of foamed 1 1 : A | | 1 2 1 1 1 t : 1
Panmetee of fasta —— - = 70. xin an. } VTA. in.) A. eM m FA ton: A. 1. | 70. ts. Me tin Min an 70. an. tin | Ini ant
ae — frome bop of lather eee | 41, im 70. Ga. Ween) ATM. thu, | 29M. tromtepel ede | anf. aio. | un, | 10" in, | 2M N06 Hil, Kn 140. 106.
fade babe i wat emer Tidasople Hinge Teaco | i Trecopie Ta Mm r Tener TH
merge has escape olin ings | Nhoertie Wiges | "teenie Tolencoe 5 emsople
Newier df caste 2 . Py a Fy 3 ey 2 3 | ry at . 2 a
| Resim wf ain oun with relat to fete (abet) a xa 620. is. an Gn, oe | er ee ee af. Ma, a0. Gin. 1a. fi P Jai |
Cubic omits of bears in ne fret) 7 aire rer) sa00 ms | | 25 1 1185 vo im | ws | | aol
Qeamtity af cole that com be stewed is henen, ed of what dencriptiee 6 ~™ “ oe | o 108 4 150 lone 2) BS lene | ~ if =U
Qaseiny of ele that con be stiwed in ether parts ) Nowe | New Newe | Neue | New 701008 Nuee None | | | Moos 00 Leen
| Cobie ents of wher parte = Nee Nowe | Xoo | Nene | aia | Nooo \ | a0
Wit sea of les ws ial a esa ba cst apie ‘ rr a | Fs peabagtes F les Nar ‘ is . | | i | Fa | it |
Deengtina of acre perzeiles a Critithe | Mamsatay’ shifting Mado Grifhtho | Grifitha [emg wih Meola { Oridithe Uf nim odnehel Gitte | Grifithe Geiss Grifhithe Grilhche | Gritinds Lea ce
Thar of screw yempetior — ten. 14h hin. on. wit on sft thin ate un. Ten. om. EN. in | 18h. sia, | 24. Gin. Ton. Un. |
Laugh oth Kno of ba e 3 on wn | 30. din se | snide Mi tin, im f an, Af. sin 2n.tin. | aioe. | eee ‘nk si iL %.
Fab. = ———— 14M wed 270 17M. 97a. S0M.211 sn. Si. 27h. 60 Sin., 27 Hin, A SON. ian. 2011, 10M. 6 iM in a Ga, Ca: Ain. an, = “aS | as yim.
Brees oe : of ease : | | | Tir in
Mesa fer Eacomsomiting the propeller - = J | (Cloteli om shaft and T heal\cloteh SST lltth om el Te ttc ah wT a hath oo ‘at The Cae on Sa ted FB on cal aM and T besd\ntech un halt aod Tele
| = ~ - - F ‘on propeller poplar ‘on prope or lice er oa proper
Mews for brining the proper =} | | | isch cn che Wakao ble we ttre piel nelle et'ond wate } Tudile ucek unl eke ean hte
Iedcal Lengo = Sa | epee mda gg St sin ih mnt aha ete Sel risTa vara Bren aur rs) moa env urs
‘What i the rate of peed bt whan ot Fight deve Normater 29,1800 (Feb 18 1861, Light Motlsaly 31,3660, Lich Avewst 7.1601. | duly 1s Joly 16,1651 [Aug. 7180 abt, 11701) Jety a1; 1008 Jas 7, 1608 March, 1502 Fearany ayasan |) Peezaler 18 190) <1 steremiter'a 1861 W354 kote 1e074 koote
tacoed by meaecrl Eataney, aed wher? 2 cts Sor 7 Tah Ui itrio bec i Ta vase tam may | HEAR He, re fee ph a ay an " porn irda arote Laan ith koots | Hebhuoioknes Yehrazuew ante | Hart Eas hte eae kocte outer 17,1801 Mankss 180)
i | i |
VESSELS FITTED YOR CARRYING CANGO—TAULE 1h
ale eed. Arwecumalsion fr
§ ils
ive ar ter, a} j i ke
i ijilt i des
be Jana
i ? Xl 41s,
3 i2i2 5 =< 13 f2nes : Frey wo] woe is
z ete 3 4 : = 1 i i SI 4 Finty ao | 404 os
z 2 Feee ; i iy je 5 TF | zt pias jit r Rinfy eee cin | 0] AO ua
= 5 We : ea: = js pn tes | j ies : ,. ae 4434) 4 35 vit | SrJchu Eathore | 490] 498 oo
: 2 > “ : ¥, | 4 ES H <
a ae A all ae oe i t3eg4 24rt fie ¢ aeseht eeeel ah ; al srahan mations Saf a | a ma
ot a |zag = o4 iz ae} Se. Sak a 8,73" ose EEL ifsa = 12 | Mecehaote os | 40 a7
z egig 3. i H £2 2 wah 4 j Ba a | seehl2 tf 7 18) teeduate 2... 33 | son or
= \ae8 z a = = oH 35 Hae eae | is = | tnperatrice 3 | 403 2
= 2 3 i jas can | 73 erie si | . 28 | Toacer = ™s “7 a o
a ‘ - Fa ! 22 | Cuantea of Durhas uo oy E 0
= - , 1 a | | Lady Mice Lambton 1 oe om w
é z i | i + i: | Wu Teeket 09 ra = 5
2. fea i i ion ae ai di | Wa Aldbun ins es au D
3 eis < = =, ! t 2 Wan, Aldbate .., 198 7 | L
2 fee avy = Elz F as dgut itsag jp ieeaete eles | mr} as 104 00 1
Ee Fee 233 me es 1 hae to a} FeeEy e| as ts “
S 2 iG RON
Be Zz : a3 ii fret 3 H wo} os E, fe:
22 2 t | H 2 won| 10 40 7
= a}: = = . hi bt i 7 35 : o
™ a0
er a on
4g aes, 5, |
a Pare eS | | 0,
2 Lo
22252
ed
Sab. Tad0R ssi
ERESERRSEEE
Baie El
Meroe |
“
Salers Neveu
Net tee WITN. Vay ALTON GLE) PASH. A. 28n 1660,
bm) A TAN cin P20 ALE in,
mer, Som, & The | Mucataay, Sons, A Hed
Nit complete fir wa
J. Teun sol Son,
ve a 1500
New New | New
Nowe | Nowe
0 “> aay
Woromsatal Hemet Tiorsmatal Direct | Horivintal trout
2 2 | 4
| 2 hacer #0} trank, 30 = ba in,
| aft, Sn an
Metall Metallic
et ten Vert 17Ibs
0 tan Beet. 10)
| feren 5 toes few. Sur Bh
| | 12 toea fewh, Sar. Hh,
11 tame hows, B¢. 10fUla
23 tous Sew Sy 16m
10 tens Newt. SL tees Sees Mew ar 31h
WO tems Beek, 38 tom. 31 teas BO YO}.
184 some Mew] ATO Mann Ah wh gn 14
met 5 =| Oetidee a1, 18009
Mahle
Femmes ks ce) STA rvulutions
Df revalat
Deeg
asia
Teele Tetaker
Ire In
dtitey, Sone & Tookl | Mumtay, Stan, A Pict
ve ve
J See Nose |
6
«
1. below draaght, F, 16m
Cat lin,
mu
67. Hin.
2} itera
tn.
Truss
Net fered
i ta.
Min.
Tra
ae
ten. Gin
"Reet ca proper
more
ise kee |
‘teber 3), 1800.
erred
Th cena of eomaney ton of coal Lang averngn
FE Some vers) quarters, sued woerely Knnertad Lo abaw
© © spprvniiity, the No, of days nl the ship sarviee
aa tne | cy | inet be many rama inte with the nymat of
aie! | es rN Dr Ue ae ive
a8
Theis 13 6 ‘GRASP we the rear pp eum tthe her
Sebel koee=
RESULTS ODTAINRD NY AM. G. MURDOCH,
Gilstar
frunon
Dita
| Prince Anbu
Sewn
| Severs,
Thames
| Taro
Jars
Tysmsoeth
Tyee
Tyorwonth
Copatra
Avista
Tushlane
Mithoarve
Methecrne
Prinoe of Wolo.
Same of Fy
1a
3 | om | 360
vss |
| ons
| 701 |
7
oo
0
1
ou
on
1
eb
Duly
ely
a ar
Ela
1s
10
lar
ro
»
r
4s | a3
6 | 307
| oro
| 13
iw | ino
nw
sr |
|
| |
| | tety
re
J
—
70 | 8
wl |
oan | Tons. | Tone | Kata | Kaets|
SERVICE DURING TG RUSSIAN WAR, 1855-4,
UNDER ‘Tire prRRCTIONS OF ADMIRAT SIR FREDERICK W. GREY, KCN, rhow ve
Vingyts VITRRD KOH CAIRYING SICK AND WOUNDED—Ne, 7
NEPORT
SELS EMPLOYED IN TE
32 | Arcmmotatia or |
4 seta ae aa
48 a | |
plilel fy Abele
Brel a) pe | A i
2}2 AG i i
pales
sto Wade 8
wae ‘
s4i89 |
eat a2 ¢
| Je ao
| | nro
| \\so7" 30
si¢0 Weern
VeSSEIS PITTED FOR CARNYING OFPICRTS
panne of
i
0
i
a
u
| H
H i
ial aire « «|
eer |
fom ay
+| ou
1| stardiasri00 [a 0 0
a| Jonas is }a 0 0
4) Ost 161885 | 210
a | By an ius | 210
Dee si,186 |2 0
| oe 315
| Mfareb a1, 18:0
D | March 31,1858 | 2 0.
©) Apritt,1us0 |9 0
0) May 0.1060
Renter
Rover emer, cariar deigiyn a0 bottom foal
Sere —Tele Tae enolate oped that #4 C0
VESSPIS PITTED FOR CARRYING ¢
=r | ae
laly Moving
bials] ; So
z ;2 tik i
gaa eae
| hs
heal 1 | au Jada
o 3 | 100 | a100 16
x |im | os 6
se fea
(| ane 5
oo | mm | |
ra] rom [a]
6s | op | oa
7 \ wa | amo | 33
oe | icon >
aa] soc =
33 | soma x
ra] won *
ta] tee Pi
ts | cos o
0 | ssi 6
to | ow o
0 | ass ry
ro | osm %
‘a | one ®
pay mn
os | Two H
om) oes on
ti | cine 2
4
wo
sts os auch ws Cw
AVALIY No. 0,
Expense of
| ism 10 ofa
mon “|
‘
lust oo) 5
6
fis 0 0} 6
jiu oo) 6
6
6
wo 0} 7
6
4
4 |
we &o] 6
12 8 0 6
VsRELs PITTED FOI CAIRYING CATTLR—No to.
AND TROOPS—No. R i :
te | | Ag | Armonmataiea or ec ee 4 | |
: j Sareea | oe mal
5 il or Marine Shp 1 Mii i
4} | £ Rewie
pl dle se £ |
Pla) 7] t Vay py e L
els) i i c
a|2| 3) Esl} pas |) a" a | |
| ale f Pm ern |
|e |u| so | ra) redecte } £8 4) £8 S| septtantags [505 1) 70 vet riniatsempbred tie quarter toni. |
a @ |100| i010 0 Orin | Merch tae 12 0 0!
62 4 | 100) oe 4 0 0.18 2 | Jove 3, 1856 6} |
| av | o aunts 0} #1 0; Sept an ins [2 0, 0 Teloonl prwre |
La . oh | V0 4) Nev 2h 8 [118 ON ecm carry 1600 troope arter privsipally |
on ™ lim 40 110 0 | Stes 1239 0 ere Mt eR eS
| oa} ™ 140 40 i ess, 185 | 210 0}
$3 | oma » H ° Deea,1s |2 0.0 | Paid
os |” mwa o a 160) Sosa [210 2 |
» | corso | 0 120 Oxta,1hes |2 0G Show ot hicshiprnforel e sezount of foul Litem. |
ix sisr0 o} 41010 | Doe 31, 1h TT 6) Paid oft,
os | mov0 | eis 0) 916 0| Deeain 6 | edaced porer |
ws =e A118 Rews17, IE 2A ala Be Vou por sassy Mrmerly 5 redanal Jia
0 10010 | Oren Sys oy tas fois 0} ese
By yam 19 0 ow 6) 1 Lis 0
wr x | eo] ot. 0 o avin ee
rs a | mo a} 1310 210 0
o7 | oo 6 dia 5-0 | Movy adopind fee this sree than any other
o * i ie aa al
n Au 0 1k 0) Ap liis.6
rr | a2 iio 0/374) Ape 1 | Maloond power
0 ‘« tied mal 8 7 0| Apeioyan 0 | Ktuced power |
0 3 | oo m2 0 13.5) Ap 0
10s a | 120) as 0 ou) ay “ |
© 0 | mo) 1 0 111 fi
w @ | Go| 100110 0 ras Arapert mat 3] knots
be head to. Mareb, 1 ,
is 1 6 6) eoton1ate | 210 0
‘ 100 18 110) vehon ine |910 0 ing 1600 ean $0 asta
Bo ) ou 0 °
70 4 °
oa | m0 0} ots Ja oo
vi 10 ut 20 tou j2 60 J for earring carga. Iteary water
© on | anes a | «0 u67 0 0 180 jn 60
or a4 ote | os lira a 6 iis a} Aptsyiee |e 5 0
a ee) ae uo! oot 1s 0 aver} guys, aia
|
Trae of Co Kata
re ee
Nor 4 18s °
Oot 14, 1855
March 13, 1858
46 | Oona, 188s
Oct, W184 | 7
0 0} twa, Tlie
311 | Oet.ai 1 Poll power.
1 s| omni Teatro
40} Joly 20,1005 Fall over
26) Drm, 1s Nalucnl powsr
3} Apt, 3908 Ratoend pe.
O) Ve dT, Lees
6 | Sephet3, 1600 Alteration of rls yor foo eunatoced Feb 3, 1824,
0 6 | St ty ins | 2
15 2) Septe99, 1880 | 220 0 | Relostion iv rate per tou epnuenced Mareh 1, 1850.)
17 7} Ovt 17, te ? Pull power.
Oct 11,1688 2 7 | Poll owt
Fall omer
0
6
Dee 10,18 |2°7 0
4
6
Alieraion of role per to exminencing 11th Joo.
Teed
Very expentive
Cause ot sate
Tedical spent
Telucel set
Hployel thie quarter preepally (a tring,
Haden errr.
Pall power,
|
Sets | pe
Tatieted Powe, | SOC Mam: | “Dp
PROC ELLER. RATIO OF
VESSEL z
| we to | Indicated | Inaicated
Data of Tria. | Where tried. ; ~ - 4 e elle ° opm 3 El Neco nso ¢
Tower | | Howe
Wind No. 7. to No, &, with = beary ewell.
Wiod No. &
Wiod No, 4 ta No. 3.
Light wind and smooth water.
Upper edge of acrew 2 ft. Lia. oat
‘Light wind and smooth water. Vewel
Wind So, 5. ave
Wind So a ware
Wied No, 2 to No. Smooth
Wolo ge 7
Wind No, 2 w No
lobert Napler and Sons
jobert Napler and Sons
iff
¥
Ere
ttt iit
PERE ie
A lg
! ji
No
ii it F
Has
gee
ded FFzZFF
i
4
a
ka
:
ii Fit
y
i
if
on
F
z
§;
i fH
ie
g
-
ren, ant Sal
Aiusphrye, Tenwamt, and Dykes
‘Trial not at roearured hoot, bat between Pymonth and KAldysose.
ied Neh, Baoodwale
forizontal, Trunk ..-ns:ssinee | Wind No, 9.to Na. 4, Saif boiler power.
vontal, Bingle Tran! a fe
a Wind No 2. toa x
: Wind So 2 Half taller power.
‘Trunk. ‘Wind No 4,
Horizontal, Trunk.
Wind No. 4.
Half boiler power.
i browne with
Wied Na. 4 with « moderate swell.
1
mean of two rane aly.
love pritoat exrsua¥
to No 3, Waders prin
Wind No.2. The priming ofthe boiler i now under command
2 to Na's
Light breeze. Smooth wate.
‘Thal not ata measured knot, bat between Plymoath and Eddy ateoe.
| Very light breese. Smooth water
Wind No. 4.
Cais.
Very light breete and «msooth water.
ZtoNo.4, Vewel viggnt Stores ea Board.
4. Moderate swell.
ae jad Ne 4. Moderate swell. Half boiler power.
Horizontal —ocnvnesnru Steam evald only with diffealty be maintained to 20 Tia.
| Vertical, Oscillating, Geared...
Wiod No 3.
Wied Na 3 to So. &
Calm. Sea wmeots. Tiali boiler power:
Calin. Sea emooth.
Wisd So 3 Na.
Wind Na 2. to No &
Wind Sa 4. Iisit beiker power.
&
A "Hligh baters remored freca the abl
| Preah Qewwna, ith a tttteawell,
Do da. Hail Sollee power.
io. 4. te Na &
ng from Na 4 toa 2 The ape is the cea of tw ees a
Totten foal
Soa "Vewel sot mast, THA wot enmerl salam
Tiler did rot evperae a very oo py
Sot SI Ve eS
ad So 2 SS 2 Ser een ‘coo
No & Sea umocth Peanbleded bum Siew
VESSEL
TABLE 4.—RESULTS OF THD TRIALS OF H.M,s SCREW SHIPS, OFFICIALLY TABULATED BY THE ADMIRALTY IN 1850,
PROPELLE!
RAIIO OL
by the spurew heels is 0
padidlenw
dt boarding an enewy's
her clear of obetrs
par (0 stale, that the operati
ily as tbe common paddle. wheel
Wee have the boaour Us ba, BU, 9
this view the Malller was ordered
Letween twa vessels could take It. 60. 4)
Tengthened fur the insertion 0 1
previonly (ried in paddie-w het
Ther i Use Baler U
jtireeal mancer
aod filed with engines of the a
1 wus Goad enim, and the 6
the Areliimades and lar engine as nat a
nln iNew
at of propolslon Is
ded, Ib
Land's dad,
a eA vensels wet the whole of their valle tb
has the The rus was as ‘before, from Dover 1) Calsla,19 Fallen
7 to 2%, and ler vperd Live 9 Uo $f kot “Arebimedes ran tbe Gistanee 1a
salle set, Arvhimaties en
2, and speed 10 knots, abe tnd sea fa heavy
io this respect han yet boca afforded for in
- bly taferioe Lo that of the Whigeum In light aire winds, by oaly eceasion on which te sy
Tor sore the rain ey Per bi a My oan
at 18 Clene vesaris the propelling perwer of Ue screw le rou) oat riortty, sllete Spe wrathes the oa
Gan wetcanry pater fa the vewpect, Coe
It bn xiao plain, (roms te secomh trish that Ji U
ot Son Witz © ber ae atvanlane over
$0 Be ‘The iattier was wext tried agalnet the Vervrius tn
secu. « decided superiority over the paddle-wherl
ad sDeg her competitor. liefore joining the #quadran un
1d althoragh the : i Mefore Joining th Aron un
failed What ta strony.
61. wlhono pOWUr, Ke compared
tras empoyed a tow the Sree abd Terror to he Orkcer nang aa
[aiistueliog of hie Sohn Prank. thfore this time hemwezer fle state
{or the instrveta of the ofbears of the tioyal Nava) Colege, U
Archimedes, a #he hour having tern reallacd, and the Vairy built fur the use of ‘Nine
to Calais io 2 boure 1 wuinate, pean a eomparaisvely Rign role of pent ornid be obtaibed, yet they could scarcely be re
Fes Be pei et enacting tn el tr wes sh St pin Se ha hep sesh oan Ba el Hi hn
ed ov ig toe ccenanmy Rory Ae po
for discon pected wilh
(ibe Toelluation of the sup does not di
a of the screw facilitates the
It ls obvious that in the Widgeon and Archimedes, whieh differed material
parison could not be made between the p OF the serew abd that of th
arly sluwed, eapectally when the pecallr Gtness of the screw tor wor purp
nd, that the experiment mig
ructed oo the sare in
October, 162, to the beginning of 14
els {0 Cilils Sosihd, Se'm perfoet ealin, wiib the sca atthe serew tig lt be adiyaatageoualy redured from lwo half Karns to about one-Lllrd
strokes Yar ilnute, and Ler speed was from tov huts per hour, The the weight, farlitated the yperation of shipping ‘
: iinvwcen, aad the whole tne oceupled by the tuiter un Mer part of the veaacl. Tetfore this I
men aliowe
th
Mh ber
der the eattrpand of test: Admiral 1
a iivinte ti
to their lordahips
his slleraton, we abstain from giving aay
(hal the valoe of 3, Bmith'« tnvention will
cent, even it it
common paddie-mbeel. A
teasel oF as bot, Ir
‘and io aby we
lah the prupeling, power of th
the sbips lying elose
neat obedient Rervant
The Secrelary of We Admirstly Pit, ist SarrER
both ia site and form, an exact com
le
that thes
y be experienced. Tn
bot be orereom
ipaddte-
sve} would 4
jecring, and accompliaber the
was taken Loto evoaideration, th
be eooclusive, ao far an a trial
fue the Aleelo, the after-part. belbg
power, and oo & plan which had been
nd from them it
itwas
I thferior ta the
Vietoria aod
ie and showed In respect of
eater than that ot
af the experi
y shows
1. LLOYD.
ait of the trials
clearly
heady ind,
he
1a mile
fat
“data om whieh
fan taatp wection havin
6 bee
Inarive cojiovers {nthe Country were therefore ealed on to propose that coustruetion and arrangement of engine which Se that of auy of the vessels then ip pro
they mgt wverally think the bert adapted the dimensions of the propeller, and thesumter ofrevolutions (t wauld b ty this alteration, unequivocally show
ojuired to make, bring furaisbed for tele uldanee, and the ueceaaity of keeping the whole of the machlaery below tbe Eyoutruction, excopt those reader 0
water line being’ Insiat Beyond these necessary conditions the manufarturecs were left unfettered, hd they, as roved in the form of thelr
Tigh be expected, seluig new and wide feld open for thelr exertions, submatted a (reat variety of dealguy the reault The great lmportanes, or rather tho nocesalty, of futroduri
Of thireveal expefienee and meeanleal abllty atloned in tho mn whieh a high speed in regarded
These Veakgua difered widely from one abot lier xome wero with and some without gearing, and many of them appeared alsa (udlspensabla, fr without it the objet of bi
to pmacns real merit. OF these, selections were made, giviog to Wearly alt the m d,s aultable form, although nok, as in the farm
fearrying Inlo effeet une at le
{wo rimines of the same deserip
‘experience Nad
the tuggestoa of the Harbour fomunlaslon, eight pairs for w tatuming double the quantity of feck and to
belugse-of- battleships and foar frigates. The good performance o fvealtored thelr originnt tnd coals’ and reductog by oe-balf the apace whieh they cceupy a
destloation from mero Goating batterios to seagoing ships, calculated {0 serve. Wi «la conjunction with ulated 10 produce seriou inconyen)
fleet. Of the frigate bicek ships, ono only out of the four has been. ordered to be fitted, and wilh «mallcr engines than number of days. Probably sueh cai
thom originally lotended for her. Shu bs
iu order stilt further
fewas lille differeuce ef speed
taal experline
‘The expenditure
anid 0
by mont of the manufactorers
alBelent experience hax
ould bo adopted, but
stron
‘Ore screw vou
Ainuer the varying Yeloeiy of
Dower. if for exaimp
out by the eu
mee the
of appleatioo, thero tring a What Aime no kind of engine wih would effectually answer the purrowe All th emacot
‘the plans whieh they severally: props
A acquired {a this novel application
Tithe year to tenilere werw accepted fue fftexn. pairs of wcrvw engincs for
tu opportunity of tying the Yen's head fo wiad ia heavy Weather,
| was much greater in the Niger th
I the bollérs and engines, and
been made or the
Of all certainly, bono of them can be regarded i failures ; Hl tbe pecuniary lo
bability thal gearing
Increasing: ‘balk and weight. of tbe m
Aan iii
however, whlel
hy fruntarounly
some private ve Fvantageous!
el cecanloned the malls rateot ia coafunetion with stearic pointing oat
riya vuole gl with aca
Voy byes have already bev exten
requirements,
‘out by attaching ina tem
‘ve of greater mportas
than ts perb
pa com
from 0 Kt
ary any alterat
before the aerew apertun
forms calculated to
Totely nceesasry for obtaining the required ypeed, 1
3, by 2 cansiderst
Yo render her after-tody aa full
eto teas (hag 4 knots caused
dnd all ‘the vessels then in course of
B, were (0 a greater oF less exicat
1 the actlon of the serew, eanpot U
‘evident Ubat Io nuch cases a proper
(Teren when a moderate spe! ou
fhe great wante of power
2 deetaion which secme (o Hava been judicious, whea It fe borao tn talnd tbat Wie evils oceauloued by the advollon of the coat UF forgunmple akin, witch If of the proper
{applsatoa oftizaa-powen zane aN foro, would be propelled at 7} Kool ls propelled ak 6 Kuots aly, akout one-half Of tho engioe power le thrown awa
thue wasting half the original cost of
aratlve value of the screw,
er, nod to be fitted with engines of the sare power, Th
Way bo ahorily stated. In flue weather, whe equal engine power W
wheo vantake was in favour of (he a
uunportant point whieh hitherto remain
Ale-wheel vearel, the B
{Heae of the views thus carried out
"The following table contains some parvealars
of the alterations which from tine to twe have b
will be aren that the serew engines ordered frou
ing lustrameale relat
oe gresicr or leas degree may wopelie, as adapted teach of them
Pact eae Prhre formule by whieh the ealealations aro
ae the square of ter ve
trom the dilfer
as, Kinda of servw engi
inxloty folt by all, ex be full
fh neautted for the
eof & Ko
ng alr pumps, &¢., Dears = const
ot fan auxiliary.
scarcely necensari
Somernd Hove, Mop 1830,
ing. the ailvantace of dls
Throwing away” the capability of eareyiok
jrations "ax these’ induced the Boant fo one
pleted. Neueis torte improved, with « view of Insuring advantages which were Heltbrr doubtful nor of auall m
Sppeared to outweigh the expense of maklog the neeeasary alteraloas
of all tie nerow cogincs
matte ta thel
is
Tito tn ets fo Sor Puanaees of Toveaigator tad Keaarehy Tt
di ruallioy bot this: dlsdradilaga irdee trax the ithe numbers lo tho last column cf (he table, and Iu the column next Dut one preceding
{a che Daailak, vat thie Glenda redo excellence {8 respect of speed, of the forus of the yarlogs sbips, conjolntly with the'relaive efile
‘sad bollers Wearing
at experieuce clearly f
ich have been ond
Pot the reault thereby p
10 that the realaLance of
carcent expense of
weight of
including Erebus a5}
ri, show approximately the
"S vy of the
the cube t
pe in, orerrOMINE
cement None of tees
‘are ot ao far from the
Tetmeen the performances
wEtaen cf double Ube power, a
usaf ber afterbedy
— —=—s
Ayenbe soggy"
ecuiry any s0xop¥ qyyA OyAEIOD pare
ssi)
sour Loan youspuo Zoye3 yoems yo pIOOIZE wo wT
io nme veo wen ys wrOruDoRDD
acreom e
kanpepenes pasrwwon ya reas.
1)
tz pazopinu you poole
Aye oapedon ound enn,
CaojaMpetes pauapEwO9 YOK TO
szayen. am 30 300 "0 Fy -w 1 medoud Jo wpa
“5°08 ON
Proxy PULA “22erd uy Yuyoy feo epeMUL aa.
6 ron SUK@OMET “Be] nomi £4 pong
uranyp goytuw (ema
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“spoqeainge
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TADLE 17.
‘ VRSSRIS PITTAD FOR CARRYING CATTLR—No. 15
KOYAT, (\VEST INDIA) MAIL PACKET COMPANY
JUTHAMPTON TO ST. THOMAS, DISTANCE 3002 MITE
c j 1 134 : 1 1 { sa | 17 | as
; ‘ 1 60 This quarter att ih Jieayy wind andl weet Fung 17th 7 wo | a s 7 ‘ \ so | 1009} 4.5
, 2 | zo 1 1 : ; 1a} |
‘ so u d A 1 10H 7 1 4107 4555 | C v d ‘ rt 4 D. Brow |
1 Joly 171 i mallee (y 7 ; ‘ rm 92! 3. wit
0 z A : 4 F Y - 61 2 | a0) 6
: August 2 Pale ‘ ‘i 125}
1 ‘ {, A 103}
%0 , : ‘ ‘ yr Good 4 {ie |. 1605] 7
r iy | 4 C 4 § 18 | 1109] yy
‘ | 2 f { i” ;
& i c F ‘3 a | hel
c I ‘ ; : 7 ( #232) A. Meatipla
Arry ANGO<TAD ‘ 7 : ; ; ‘ ub x
< {it | 2
1 ‘ Js ‘ zo | 1 5. Wilk
= : (3) 1 5. Gribt
= E 2\4 5 4 - ;
| = J A jam | a 17 : ans | 400 | o, L ne i (1 2 D. Brow:
= 1 a}. y 6 4218 any s an ea 2 A. Wyli
‘ 2 10) 5, Gribble
si 2 ; rh | AL Mentipla
Uo 1 7 se J, Wilki
rt 1 7 4 . 189 J. Gri
ills ; ts | se | Astent
402 7 ot] DT
‘ ileerae
2 10} | 4087 ‘ 2509]
voles ( m0) 4. ¥
| 12 1s | at | on
r t TA ank p a xaminal ded top a reduced presmure of tea y c :
TABLE 17—(Cosrrsorn)
ROYAL (WEST INDIA) MATL PACKET COMPANY
z ST, THOMAS TO SOUTITAMPTON, DISTANCE 9022
+ * : os s$2 32
x Ky : Jana’ s Ale wt | cose | oor { Vers good E tee u J ci
} ‘ Saly 15th r a w | i0 rte : - \\=- : oe ww \ oa $1 w \ 6 ‘
J ‘ ara | Mixed, good im | 4 ase | x0 ts 2
Angust 14 1 1 3 au E: Sly,
a] ic ma | : : aay ||sis {us Wie
4“ 7 1 7 | 2 AM
. ‘ 7 iT
en he u R >| a8 { YH ps
I y ‘ ’ F ai 29 dis im | Hy) TW
(3 | as | 1
P : ° \ » 108 1 as | '3 | tee | tc
: lal we | wo} ao | 2 ‘ ‘ \ c Mixed 1 | 1 » t ne |. A. Mentiplay
: ‘ 2
j A ‘ 1 7 107 o , Mo 10h 1 5 Dhue
TANLE 2)—DIME AND ARSTRACT OF PRRFORMANOPS OF THE PACIPIC STEAM NAVIGATION COMPANY'S NEW :
TA ODLE WHEEL SPESMBHIPS “TEU” AND “TRtOA — ata ; all o ale eur] | aa es f ip | aa | a oy
; »
‘ ut | Iudeated March Sl ; 10 | 0 | ea |oan | aot | 6703 | yout suing. as | 73 a3 ? J.0r
: : at =r ‘ ; ew: | tare March 70h oon] TT wa | | ms | zoe | ua | sos Se ansj seas cre antl a 0 2o))| asa, | Alston
» | | | S : vo | 182) |
March Atrat nt | aa | ges | aera | ret | an | von | ats Goal ne 1a} |;10 io | 1254] D. Brow,
ary | Fa ire tell aateal | rt ae
malluas’ 9 c : | Z | ue | am)
= H to Valp yo | 2 | oe | 1400 my v0 v i ey 410 | ao | 1400 ALOR artes aioa ila ah gst lca wm | x ws | goat | clean Welch, good oo | 100 8 1905 | J. Wilkie |
7 : 100} a0} ay o | sw |icier | 6 0 t| 4s | 3077 | 300.) 105 ae) | ¢ 1 |. #00)
: ee ‘ lle : | ere a =) naa | ath | ang | 040 | eo Jctan....] Quek toming inter a1. | gon all |i {ul Tot}| J. crite
e : Pe , {Callan to Vatparion | ayy as | 140 re + 000! of uo) | 18 0 8 | | | | |
: — | aaynan | 3a ean. | au | vos | | | tt na | an | a | ur | A.atenit
© Ti wil) be pereslved that the above resulla yive sometbing under albe per (odlcated Ju r. ‘The Derm auil Tteu bave surface condeaaers,_ ani | | , 72 | 40 | 180 }
oe att ea nad from bese toro steamships somewhal surpass ite perforiuatoms of olliers in the sere ‘Company with) the same daseription of | amyaon | Airsto Jas | air | ator | 754 | ana | dos | 4947 | Crean Mise 194 | 19 : Pete fea) feed farsi ret
Mand, Kier, eC dine eine Tae } May gon | | | | goo | 10 St is eee .
, tala Loge of Site yotig slow at Hight trvugh he Btrats of Magellan, cup] a] 8 | ase ;
3 ed. erie Tait miannaxss|\‘8000 |)-20\}) aes] anon roy | set } 4010 | Ordinary — | sthnitin J) opt heal eee {roo | as | a] ars) a. Wit
Pera om te ra fon lagi Ao Viveryool was lly 14 kota have seated rom tho Clch Ligh, on the Cy, to he ak aff Dive i 1 | | | ) Teal
S F of 170 nautical molles, in 12 hours 16 wninotey, the Aleplacement being about 100 tons. ‘Tho rea of the rnidahip section. being OKO aquare eae | (| 4 wh | ae | ar |
6 ait ieee, Indicated horsepow fawning a fel awa be oa or hs yay varying font 0 ne | | ie ca | mw] 10 | 9}
‘ reste of seat nthe bellers a pereatl by the uptakes tn plters at the Perv, two In oumber, are of the ordinary tabular eon albany ||(rani|| saul "oon {ou hang ||) -momo. {ony | ten Goal, tnt tiny tty | us A ae RT| gc
, . Mrarte with Elder's Vatent Moperbeatiog uptakes, ‘The fre arate surfa unre forty the total heating surface about OOOO feat, Who eyituders, July 1h | Yesmantan “ a | as 1 1 | a] t A. Wyil
= gore | 0 Lae wher, are stench jackeltd, and the stent te cut off ath stroke In the arwall cylinder, ‘Ihe large cylinders aro 0B inches, and the sinall ches 44 ¢ r=} = =e
“ on Bercle ad Tn eee len om et ran roms Creencok to Liverpool wa 19 knots per hoor s the ioilatel lors-power about 800; dlgplaceent of hall about 700 + Ty he ease othe Toate padi enn eer gars 4 Ne dca olla of taka which the lem a; and pug am wwe
e” © re Ube A whats 4, Mpg thon mquare fee ranght forward 70 aft B fee he roidahip section an average froy verpool to Valpa Poon oe nT Ones ae ee ok «consumption of stares” shor ie expenditure: yt oe
os ‘ i) square feet, the draoght Aft. Git a Hast the pressure of the efeac io boiler m6 (0 dolls, ‘There is one round tubular boller, The Pee i obtalaing thle oo Rianne that propomal bp air, Charion Atherton, and recommended fy thin Goranifice Ieper Ree ee oa ws Gal worked on ead 1 ibe nyeare o€ UNA eaDE ye mean Wieplacement
wd (he ; Seite rata aurfuce Le 0 aqonre'fes, Ue Lotal Weallg surtnce SHA) fee, Meloding the uperbeating uptabes, The cylinders (atenun Jacke\tel) are e* Th Perwolh slope in obtaoing th nla Tet repos 7 Mividlug the prodoct bythe connurpaig at Rel tae ea tae, mpage Oe em US no
ee S 2 Ha ot Merectmd of OF, and'two of Bulan. diameter, and OM. Gins, stroke, The description of coals Wed wo Fach Yopage ie Bete pureory alte
————————
RIAL AND ROYAL, AUSTRIAN LLOYDS’ STEAMSIIIP COMPANY
TABLE 18 09 YRSSELS OP THE IMP
ROYAL (WEST INDIA) MAIL PACKET COMPANY
ING TO THE VARIOUS SITIPS INCLUDED IN THE RETURN FURNISHED
NO TADLE
S BELON
OF THE BNC
WEEN JUN
P DIAGRAMS PROM INDICATOR,
ES FROM SOUTHAMPTON T
Max. 2 7a Ve a | ise 72 | eat] 177 | 16 | 196 | o71 | ato | asa | axa | 176 | T
° : 26 7 316} veo} x11 | eos | 1176 | 273. | Fair wind, sll at (St. Thomas to Sonthan
=/ ’ Arcessa Carolin = 9 ‘ 4 4 4 | ov om 2h) irr | 180 ov} 30 Tubal
F = wés)| = = 10 ac | Trot tt] o£) | oe | Stl Ss | \ i ieee |
5 me. tng sdf Fakes} Healy De ovser estore 4s a =) oe Aa | | Pe | eh | te) Seek) AS | os) a syrious a1vaa | ata | ioe | ic or | ssa}
= 10 | 200 7 : | Head wind and ; ee al - Jinn —_ = el |
TABLE Q6—ANSTRACT LOG OF THR APRICAN ROYAL MATL STEAMER “MACGREGOR LAIRD” A. J. Mf. CROFT, COMDIANDEE
Finer Vorior #xou Ltyanroot ro Manerns
| = " D : g qT T | ee =i] = = = =
Les WITH FM's GUN DOAT “TORK | matt v Crea ieee || ces eal tan '
pe 2 Xoo tous pat Stoke¥oom, ail 5 es
; ee ‘ | rag Des m x
: 7 ; | | Aprit 26 y | aw so 60 76 7 256 + # Fresh beed wind throaghout. ‘There are 5 tons of cost’ | heed
E | i | tfesarare Alloyed here for coming into the river =
: F ; | 7 SW $ aos a 2 0 Modorate head winds nt tiwes carrying fore and aft sails sot
j 7 : A | |» SAW.and variable, | 8 | 001 17 7 9 0 Da do, do lve pl
“ 5 z £3 é ’ { 3 ag 3 | Remarhe, | | « 38 Easterly 8 130 60. 101 7 24 Pore and Af. |) Strong gale from the exstirard, with very heavy « | belied
a > | : EE € | | 14 Square 5 Fy steady, cuss the state i " AL OW
: g ! i 4 am a | | ~ | ui 8 paso | soo 1 0 r 7 13 ore ant Aft = :
4 ; § : 3 ES a || | | » 2 | 8 26) W208 3 : et. : J nu) at OSquare. | ¥ Moderate and variable, and at times bead wind
ie ie Le ; ee ane | ; 5 rie al nine ws | ws | 60] oso ‘ 8 7 i :
" 2 2Z ; £ 3 | @ | ss | } a 1 Hae ee ares 20 all Preah breere: sails sot the greater part of the day
: : = bs | } al | 3 ay \ 3 | | | AULs.x, ow the Lat, auchored in Funchal Roals, Madeirs, |
_ ~-aine] or p nat ra “a2
is : : i 7. “ : sires esse arise | | are | | Pie twa Bade laa one screw, the ss ot Afrca and beck, a datance of aboui 930 miley, wna performed on 640 tone of OIA. hla veel could, herefure, steam to Australia and bach, er rownd ihe won . Without goaling, at the rate = - anv
Sis f ano “| {ont ars cpl sl tae aml |j nie AS pepe any Dooensions, c. oF THE SOHAW Staaxen “Maconsoon Laren : bit aid «
ey _|f 30 eerie bow ramming} © | ‘The forward Viade set at 90" In advance of wath 245 Fest Total fre grate surface
oy tan won 5 iaep | 70s | a7e96| o70e | rane | 10 | 16%, | 28M [Rear crnmc naa aebiar # in Aganes) ot zane 0 Diplasentok ou Veone Bd Batts
Fdwuary 4 ps deeds j n le after blade set at 46° \n advance of fore sera ‘008 = Lehi S085 Ton ireaye
H : ms | ara | s7000| emo | scase)| secu | 198. | so | Mie after ade wek at 48" In advance of Deh 0; Miship Section —Area ee =
Pa ward blade a ‘900 LP. Nowiod =| Draught or W at ie:
- 7 im | sr ose | fehatllt aan east tice exo |{ The afler blade vet at 21° in Kigines 20 ht of Water Amida 17 Foot 2 Ineb
uss | osm | ary | 20% aio |{ Te afer a SN A ates camel Ba ada Weiebt - 17 Pot 2 Toe =
- “ } 1 7 | 17406) ores | pos | wos | 17%) | Of 8006 | Maced parallel, similar to French serew, geared Sf, Sin. strokes two eylinders C2inn diameter, Averago Speed during the Passage 06 Km V0
tl aad Sacto hac tee le is | x foil to a ter Burtace C tubes fin Do. Consumption of C nea’ Account ‘Onman a
al 7" to) | sess | sore | wom | asso | reir | tty | tbh | 260) | 0196 | Varad parallel, similar to French screw, Aizitler hee Gee Day Rarolaions pec Misia eine tae ns, 10 Che aia:
| | Madea placed to form « 600 Nerew j coarse A y 660 Do. Preemnre of St are BL, bei
| | 119 | 93 | reoce| wore | eco | 2010 | 14 | 48m | aay | wren |f ptten ie trance Inioator Horse-power om voy bout | Do. Presrare of Steasa ‘SAlbe, om
| 124 | sera Forward: blade at 46° I advance of afer Hollers, tubular, two in number; total beating surface, | Do, Vac nt. y : alle, nearly, :
= ee se] | 1H | ear | 10060) war | rene | 7942 | 104, | om | wim Tilade. Including anperbeater s,...s000 ie "4200 feet, 1 Distance run per One Ton of Coale sc... 26 Mite,
ADSTRACT OF ENGINEER'S L0G OF THE
PADDLE ENGINES, SCREW RNOINES.
GREAT EASTERN.” SECOND YOYAGE TO NEW YORK, MAY, 1602
coding at
| Gaseeat eines
ean Day
{fc liebe > —
| 1 | Ibe
an aria | & T | wu | — akom i) At 0 ra, pllok lft sat 0.16 full epee.
aay er Y n I {ght windsy wea smooth,
May 4 in wei0| shag | iP | eam wind)
my ‘ io t ‘ in | Strong beam windy aip rolliog heavily
aay a | a | ion an th Birong SW. gale; tallepesd Al hour
Mar 8 ' ‘ uv Teme fog slandlog by engines 10 boary,
May 1 1 iis i Ay i Eneines Hopped to lake soundings; nlanilog by «
aay i i a | is rer ql : AVLL30 wa arivod Bt Liebe SMp
Tota ‘ mn uw foam | a
Dewslty of water int racuaw In paddle enptnes, 25) ditto in sevew, $8. The ifertors wark{ox w Gull, Bifective diameter of whcel, lft. = 147222, each
rerolation, Screw, Ht, plteb 5 furward, ZN. Ofla.; aN, aif tine No perveplsd
AMSTRACT OF ENGINEER'S LOG OF TIE “GREAT RASTERN.” PINST VOYAGE PROM LIVERPOOL TO QUENEC, JUNE TO JULY, 1601
= a ae ites sg bis aan vee re ge
«| PAnpLe eXonves SCREW ENOINES.
Gasenae Newser,
| I ita tives tan ee
170 A120) 900 | 10h] Sie pra W.| & a7 Ww Thiek f fan rom 10 rae Ul # ae
ABSTRACT OF ENGINEER'S LOG OF THE “GREAT BA
STERN.” VOYAGE PROM QUEBEC TO LIVERPOOL.
PADDLE ENGINES, CREW ENGINES
Gasexse Rewsnee
AL A45 Ase came lo anchor at 7.45 dat off Ube Quarantine Ground.
|
ssa | 3352 | atos | 509 Actual Lime steaming fom Quebee 8 days £2 hours
copings GSA horsepower) tolal, &
Fire, 18 vacua Uh paihe exglaen, 28) dit
‘power wlcam guazes dafeetive s ccale
GML) elfontive diaineler, Asth, = 1a070M,
ery bad) vo pereepllbie wear
ath revotaticny screw, sin pit
ANSTRACT OF ENGINEER'S LOG OF THE “GREAT EASTERN." TIURD VOYAGE TO NEW YORK, 1602.
‘extreme Glauneter wa vffevtive, via, Gift. = 151M. each revolution) from the Ath May (o the 17th May lnk were a7,
ations SH Hata bas tte of term tatoos 48) Guay at saer To ere ip rocune tn pate Sogn, 38 racaum Ineces
es hasty of pala ehean SoA eet. sama Hoh sh Seg Mchisructer canes heeded Tatiog SLT ON. tn formed, ancy feeeson ort
tule hes 180 va euty lp ar corer aoa seems Gters aly Gna of coal hy yale eugney i0 iann ive uy env eigtey 15 tansy Wt aly
einen, 35; 0
KE New York, 1M. Gio. forward, 230) alt
Conumptlon, #71 Was.
2 | rapove exoues, | 5 Bairratiae on j
= |a ng of Buin
ae 4 is a
4. | 47 33|? * s\%
ee bela ael>s| 4 3 s/2)R/2
3 =2 | i H “4|23) 3 3 # & | Gayeeie Rewaaes,
2 24 Felas E| Bs Hy M Ema
i MW 433 E 3/4 8 4 rile
i 2/8 yale lalile
2 5" Fale /2 |a a13/¢
iA | la a la 2/2 \4
| Ibe | eg. | deg.
‘ f sax 9°98] | ataas pa alcharge plots full peed at 399 na
H Sou | 1/1] 2 | dion heed nt
0 3 | 3] 8 | Stone bead wiod
i i)2| 5 heal wind deo fogs standing by engines
HH i a/i]o heal win
1b | dors | i 212 2 | sre 4 beary head sea enz\oes raving
16] naan ara | a7] 1] 1] 3 | Denset bergs| standing by eoginok
1h | dnt 0 | taf | Jaa | aus | aon aia 1 | tal ts Het) ral bere
10 "| agra | 117 | sob} 148 | Burro | ara | Ar} | ass | a74 | 370| son | a2 | weeds, | axoaWe,| WebpAdS, | 3 [2°] 9°] Dawe for: stonpol engines twice to take sown
May 17 5.] Aivoae | a0 | Za | toy | agoo | 977 | Anh | ts | Ex | a | 310 | 300 0 | 0 | 0 | Atay rr took pilot on board) at 7.30 03 areived off Sandy Mook,
tal ars | us| ah tis ego | anor] es rs sn [nfo | “AMidl (ims staring, diye 18 Koay 45 laste
ATSTRACT OF ENG
ERR'S LOG OP THE "GREAT EASTERN,” SECOND VOYAGE PROM NEW YODE To Livenroon, SAY AND JUNE, 1802
SCREW EX
Prerrancevtrs
ore RR J fee aed ten ee
FROM LIVE
PADDLE ENGINES. | scKe
Cert
|
|
|
vas | 10 | 3 | iss | | staawe) a
yaoi | 113 410 | ao 3» W s sr Bat
10.685 | 113 Aio | ass | 335 3 | 1239 rae be
1748 | Uw 70 | 330 47 | 351 | o> | a | Dense fog
us)» bla | 360 B50 | Sos | ALON. oe ALS) ae tack Point,
‘ieaumed easy
extreme diameter of paid
York 2h
FIFTH VOYAGE FROM NEW YORK TO LIVERPOOL, JULY AND AUGUST, 1
Grete Buses,
At & pt, started paddle and sere engines s-head Mall speed
Joly 25 | | | Attuba stopped euctocs to Gichareed pile of Momtaik Point,
July ar) avin sia | wiiw| AL1LAO Fw. eartod engines wheal ful spend.
July =| tao | a ia Satw Light head wind soa coche
Joly <| 390 | os |srow Tight bead wind foals roaming rery mall for acvew boilers
Jaya 5) 12400] oo onw Atg SF iow, stopped rostars odf Cape Kase, “ALAS fall peed.
Sui at 2"] 1a0ut | 00. fs Sak Light teats studs fore aod af sale wt
Ang. 4.) 1g. fatten | 35 Tit | sm | aun | 3 | 30 | wan Gieht beam winds fore and af ell we
Aug. 2 01] taaue | 10 tora | asm | 17} | woa | aun | aga | Sot | 0 | 8 210
Aug. 3 °°} ine | 109 ‘siamo | 343 | 104 | Yon | 2a | Sar | sur | a0 | sro N:| arazW
Aug. €:) bik | 0a |S |e ik) ish | B/S] 38] ini
Wig 3 Sc] Aube | wae Sia | a3 toh | 1m :
Rag 8) Jets | | St | Sho] a | ‘or \t 54 Link stopped tain to tle pict oa Bean AL10 nas. stopped
Faddlseagtoes, walling for tlde. Screw engines working eauy all nigel
few York to Liverpool.
Actual time steaming fro 3
Total ft | 07 | 30h fino fuss
eu ent
ensity of water {a bollers 1
is ran per Box, 1704; fi
jer ceot,; averare dally coasciaplis
wa Ja padile engines, 24; vacuum. tn
> locrme New York 300. Sin. forward, 297. Kn, all: america oo arrival ak
coal Vy paddle engine, 130 toa; Uilte by acrew engines, 165 tods, Uotal dally
Indleated horve-power of paddle enziner, —: indicated horve power of screw
of paddle wéels S01; eifvtive dlameter 4sit. = JE0S0(. earth pevoluilon= plleh of enews ALL.
Liverpool, 24 Gln. forward, 23/, Gin. ait; lp Of paddle whieele 11-2 per cook j lp of Ferew, 17
eonrutaption, 305 tans,
‘AGE FROM LIVENPOOL TO NEW YORK, AUGUST, 1882.
ABSTRACT OF ENGINEER’
SIXTH YO
PADDLE F SCKEW &NOLY |
2 jeel2 3 lid
fi S]gilz lee 2 /¢ Germus Rn,
5: 2) 25)2 5129 2 ?
Br S5|=3|33|32 4/8
BR SElgs/S |=
E E /Es/2 |
< < Ble jé |
= =f! = aS i eee Eid she = ———
|
te. [Tena ton] x. | x. |. | Inchon dog.|dee.| [fA 28% rat. Startod engines scat slow. AL 320 x. full ypomh.
| Auzat soi] gos | 18h | es | Sao | 27a | sa | 2d ara} | 6 ‘AL TLAL roe: stopped comines to Giarhange julot olf Dell Muay AL
| Aurwt ts] lass | oso) 340 | 174 | te0 | 20 | 39 | aa | a esiw, sr] 0 U Sore tll spat War kina
Augort 10| tyesn | 4 3a | 17h | x | Soe | 3a | Son | tk 217 Ww oa] 5 | oppo Plier erew egos 48min to replace 3 brs bolts
} Auguat 20| 1x2 | 0 30 | 15 | tos | aon | gag | | a Saw | oat | Strung 51: lea say Head om
‘August 31) 13980 | oo. aa [74 | 71 | aux | az | 0 | 25 TW, are | | Wo by W. ale az heary bead wea coals goed,
Augunt 33) 1h0s0 | aio | taf | tr | aun | Say | sere Saw a3 | 3 ‘7s snd Beaty head sea rong
Aigust 33| insas | 10s 330 | 1} | ea | om | 3 | | Se jaa wi) wk zal 7 Serong NW. ple and berg an auksseeten
August 34) 14453 | 100 sotoon | 340 | 164 | Ys | 313 | a0 = | sea. we 2 Rh aL TO raf Cape soe 7m full poo
Ahizust 35) stra | ana | 3 tase | 348 | 124 | tom | a1 | Bry | | as Saw swinwiw) sa | 4 | Stns fr wind wal heey bead tne
Aogust 26) Its | 1191) 350 | ar | tex | ona | ser | ap | ew. SW. tyW, | 030) A > | Strong Deed wind,
Auguit 27) Woo | 113 aby | inp | ts | ant) 240 | tie lreing byjthe land. AUZIS Ae; Hopped engines off Moatank to Lae pilot on tesard ak
‘3150 allot ll partir of wines taken apo th tne
Total juss | 190 | st /tase Janis | 963 | ar iron (ss bron je a7 - anchee at 12 wenn Aine cy Sr ear as ped
3 boars
‘Arial we seaming froma Liverpool to New York 10 dap
LDeul(y of walee fo balers, If 5 veewusn tn pall enstoen vane heres engin 2°5; exlnrme diameter of pad wheel, 4; ellevtivs Ulammeter 40, = 1AYTAN. cock vevetstlen leh of
ota rn per oar TE10 y e Laeatae usin a Toe STTy ed padlie whevty IF yer eeu) ap oCeerew, 18 peroeal average Gaty onrumpUio of oala hy Pade engines 169 Neon ante
2 Veavins
Dy serew evigine 10) (uss otal Vally coKsUsopll0n of eoala 90} tien
ee
nishe
form:
Engit
and
To the
Man
The Me
Tous, th
heen fully
2 The t
5, his valua
A E Committ
E In conc
4G OF THE SAILING YACHT "DRATRIX, LYS THE RUN FROM SOUTHAMPTON TO CIVITA VECCIIIA, ¥ pproductiv
—— = - —--—______ Inppointec
pamela peed J Xcote, | DA if the machi
Is Under what Sw Area of Sa : near will bo p!
land they
: Dire eight] Diretion.| 7 n t y tog. {Por torwd| An pe a co
Dayorstoath. | Hor. | § a hy | 2 4
a c NNW : Whole wal 0 ‘ ‘ ! starboard NE. 12 mil
March 4 oI ich Fy NW 4 . Reefer mien, forcaail, ataywal * 146 | 6} 10 paca Ushant 1 Hn from which I tak slisbu
Mareh 01 STL W r nl | ar aih
? sais NW SW 8 29 | anid reefe stays 36 6) 1 | “Laying to, with strong gale and heary sea ew
March 7 1 |o «Hansa,
: uv He aawil aeaW SW. to NW 3 5 3 s 6 0] 1 la hier:
aunt : Seer EW, to NAW a 250 1 » | 0| 10 aati quall ‘Dimen
sa ere |e - Ww evs | so00 | 7 reefed foresail, jib, apd st my 1 1 6 0 s ip3 ft. G ix
ae & Scare cutee Ite } 780 fe i ( 8 AGiadship
=P les ses W. | lare Wat 8 on 85 | Whole fore and aft ’ it 6.6] 10 Atta Eng
ts If W y 77 | Whole «ail and square aai o| 4 At |
Mareb 1 ta be aan ‘ 3 16 | Wholo fore and d square an 7 7a |o 6| 10 10. 12 mies. noting ho
M os = . - 7 A malnaail, f ti Aan F § ar; Bam. abreast Bucrease’
ess in S| S78E ‘ 3 : : {x Rwater, ci
de 5 = W F 1 | 13 1 Cape de Ga re
a : P \ o| w 2 ) wo | 100 |6 6| 10 Frew Rites
a 4 i 2 109 om jo a rT ¥r tubes in
= . Bs = vs ws » os |o o| 1 At dinia ENE. 10 the tube
= paaelliciiee Va 4 | vou owas | 2925 | o@ \6 0) 10 | o| x At 3 Civita V Boile
arch 2
= = id Weigel mem So te surface ¢
l THE SATLING YACHT ®DEATRIX,” LYS, ON THE
5 War Daromet | te. J
3 ‘ g — lb caret} Under wha nal Area of Ball et. | stiNe |
Mouth | s 3 ' D i T Oyealcn! 5 r Ai
I? : Yards feet. |
234 js ex.| S250¥ Rous a sro | 3 6| 10 | 1
2 1 0 1 201 1200 0! w |o6| 0] and fino pleasant weather.
a 4 8 >70 | 29 . a /6 o| 10! t and variable, with a cloudy sky
an 8 2 oe | Whole sail to double rrefe | 2 I ? with mall of wind and rain.
7 Ww 2735 | 2080 | Whole sail without gallantopsail | Tait 6| 10 | Fresh breeze and fine weath
1 2760 | 29°00 Whole sail to three reefed roainsails . | 1000 t 43 | 60 | 6 0| 10 | Strong breeze and heavy ea; pitched away jibboom.
4 ¢ 0+ f w | o|6 0) 10 | Fresh and equally weather,
" soos | 297 Whole fore and afte x | w |o o| 10 t d fine weather.
| 1 | calm } 070 | gordo | 19 miles F, | Whole sail and gallant topaxi 26 | a1 |6 0) 10 | Tightnirsw with an easterly current of 12 miles.
ses'| saa’ |l Us pla’ ne ; ri 5 |6 0) 10 | Light aire and calms, with an easterly current.
Rex aly exo | zoos | 10 moles E. | Whole sail & sail,squaretopsail| 140 03 | 78 | 6 G| 10 | Light airs and calms, with foe pleasant weather.
3 2ACG pam. brought up in Gibraltar Bay, At 11 ao
| $7 weigh at noon off Cabreta Point,
; = | Preah breeze East o| NE Fore, aft, and square aail 1050 6 0! 10
x} oe siw, [{Frab bres? | spon : : 5 ok and i shes oe Virat part, freab breezes latter, ight airs a
5 vs w. |{ Fresh brews? | Round ‘ F e P 1 1 10 | 1 p es Later, ight
9 |a719N,| N.62W. | Strong breeno’ | Norther o v. | s076 Whole fore avd aft to clone reefed 1060 to 508 6 6| 10 | Firvt part, light airs; Iatter part, stroog b
10 3 [33 ON,| N.48W. | Fresh breezes | o | NW , 2070 Single reefed fore and aft 600 to 800 » | 100 | 0 6| 10 | Fresh breesew nnd strong breetes, with fine weather
i Pease Fresh be West “4 ove Whole fore and ~ 18s | 186 | 0 6] 10 | Frosh breezes, with » heary swell from the
re \n Stravg breese “| 05 | o04 Whole wail to clone reefed 0 220 | 235 | 6] 10 | stroug br th Bear
47 v2.8. | | 1 Ww. | 00 | 2007 Cline wooo | 22s | 6} 10 | Strong broenes with beary rqualls
; ail balan NW i w. | svar | os7 Doob 000 0.850} 188 | 208 | a] 10 | Strong breedcs ant squalls weather,
‘ \ 4 F VAL O pan, caine. through tbe Needles Pasa
| sx | y vir | 2 8501 J “brought up in Lymington Creek
poe a —
Norm —The dlisensions of the Hhealsls™ are ae follows —Length, M4. 30.5 dry Keel for founaze, FN. Sin.; breadth, 18. 1840.5 dept, YOM) | ut
ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE. 289
_ nished; also to those who are at present engaged in recording the per-
_ formance of Her Majesty’s ships at sea, especially to the Royal Naval
_ Engineers,—than whom a more thoroughly practical, highly intelligent,
_ and yaluable body of scientific officers does not exist in this or any other
country,—for the assistance they have so readily afforded.
To the yarious Steamship Companies and Steamship Owners, and their
Managers and Engineers, who have supplied returns.
The Meetings of your Committee during the year have been held at Stafford
ouse, through the kindness of his Grace the Duke of Sutherland, and have
fully attended.
thanks of the Association are again due to Mr. W. Smith, C.E., for
uable aid. His offices have also been freely at the service of the
tee.
conclusion, your Committee believe that their labours have already been
ductive of considerable advantage, that the objects with which they were
jointed are being rapidly attained, and that, by continuing their labours,
machinery they have succeeded, after considerable trouble, in organizing
e productive of the utmost benefit to those engaged in steam navigation,
i they have reason to believe that the future collection of the returns will
& comparatively easy task.
(Signed) SUTHERLAND,
Chairman,
_ _ Offices of the Committee,
bury Street, Strand, London, W.C.
ABLE 25.—WNotes on thé North German Lloyd Company’s Steamship
> and her Performances on Trial, November 1st and 2nd, 1861*,
ed by Messrs. Caird and Oo., of Greenock.
sions, fc.—Length on load water-line, 330 ft.; beam, 42 ft.; depth,
in. (four decks). Displacement at 202 ft. draught of water, 4400 tons,
section at 204 do, =692 sq. ft.
s.—The cylinders are 80 in. diameter; stroke, 42 in.
Condenser—Has brass tubes 1 in. external diameter, with a
surface of 6568 square feet.
ater Pumps for supplying Condenser with Sea Water.—Two double-
izontal pumps, 21 in. diameter, and a stroke of 18 in., which can be
dto24in. It being found that this capacity of pump supplied too much
ight holes, 13 diameter, were bored through each pump-piston. On
trial, there was still sufficient water, and the pumps worked much
without any noise. The sea-water was forced through the brass
m condenser, and the steam was condensed on the external surface of
ers.—There are sixteen furnaces in the four main boilers, with a grate
face of 350 square feet, and a total heating surface of 9400 square feet.
duxihary Boiler.—There are two furnaces, with a grate surface of 25
feet, and a heating surface of 460 square feet (not in use on trial-
uperheater has a heating surface of 2000 square feet.
resswre.—Safety-valveswere loaded to a pressure of 30 lbs. per square inch.
he Propeller is three-bladed, 17 ft. diameter, with an increasing pitch
ying from 29 to 32 ft.
Lrip—On the 1st November, 1861, the ‘Hansa’ was tried be-
862 * The indicator diagrams of this vessel will be found in the Appendix.
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ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE.
991
_ tween the Cloch and Cumbrae lights, a measured distance of 13-66 knots,
which she accomplished in 61 minutes 50 seconds, equal to a speed of 13-25
knots per hour; revolutions from 47 to 50 per minute, with a steam-pres-
sure in boilers varying from 26 to 29 Ibs. per square inch, Draught of water
being 201 ft.
Consumption of Coal, §c.—On November 2nd the ‘ Hansa’ was taken out
again, and the steam kept at a pressure varying from 26 to 29 lbs. per
Square inch, the revolutions of the engines ranging from 48 to 50 per
minute; and it was found that 8616 Ibs. of coals, which were weighed
on deck and lowered to the stoke-hole, kept the steam up at the pressure
above named for 136 minutes.
This is equal to a consumption of 3801 lbs.
of coal per hour, or about 2lbs. per horse-power. The coals used were
from the best Welsh pits (Aberdare).
Lhe Temperature of the Steam in the boilers was 272°;
on leaving super-
heater, 340°; on entering cylinder, 280°. There being the facility for
mixing the steam in this case, the steam from three boilers was supplied
superheated; and the steam from the fourth passed direct to the cylinder.
This was found to be necessary from the superheated steam being too dry for
the packing and faces.
the Appendix.
The result of this will be seen from the diagrams in
Feed-water —The temperature of feed-water about 80°, and the water to:
make good the waste that occurred by blowing off steam, d&c., was supplied
to the large boilers direct from the sea.
ENGINEER’s Pocket Loa.
The following are the particulars asked for in the “ Engineet’s Pocket
Log” issued by the Committee on Steamship Performance,
Engines by
Running between and
Length of yoyage—knots or statute miles.
The steamer,
Built by
In the year
Greatest speed under steam alone, in knots
or statute miles.
Average duration of voyage, deducting
stoppages.
Shortest time in which the voyage has been
made,
Longest time taken to perform the voyage.
Kind of cargo carried.
Tons of cargo by weight.
Tons of cargo by measurement.
Supply of coals taken.
Is this for the double run?
Consumption of coals on one voyage.
Quality of coals used.
Oil—gallons per 24 hours.
Tallow—pounds per 24 hours.
Number of engineers,
Number of firemen.
Number of trimmers.
TABLE OF DISPLACEMENTS AND IMMERSED
SECTIONS, FROM 1 FT. TO 28 FT,
Tonnage, builder’s measurement.
Tonnage, register.
Weight of engines,
Weight of boilers without water.
Weight of water in boilers.
Weight of screw.
Weight of screw-shafts,
Vessel—length over all.
Beam.
Depth.
Length at load-line, .
Breadth at ditto.
Draught at ditto. tA
The mean girth under water, as found by
taking the mean of the girths, as measured
on the “ body-plan” of the vessel, of the
immersed parts of a series of equidistant
frames or cross sections.
Length of bows from “ dead flat.”
Length of stern from “ dead flat.’
Numnber.of masts.
How rigged.
From top of bulwarks to load water-line,
Length of engine-room.
Length of boiler space.
Length of vessel taken up as coal-holes in
addition to above. :
Distance from engine to screw propeller.
Diameter of screw propellers.
Average pitch.
Pitch at circumference.
Pitch at boss, i
: u2
292
Length fore and aft at boss,
Length fore and aft at point of blades.
_ Greatest width of blade.
Width of blade at boss.
Number of blades.
Screw is covered at aforesaid draught.
Is it a common screw ?
Is it a Griffith’s screw ?
Are the blades curved ?
State if there is anything peculiar in the
configuration of the screw.
Paddle-wheels—Diameter over floats.
Length of floats.
Breadth of floats.
Thickness of floats.
Number of floats.
Centre of shaft above water-line.
Dip of floats.
Tf feathering floats.
Diameter between centre of floats.
Length of crank-arm on float.
Centre of feathering excentric to centre of
shaft.
Ditto inches higher than centre of shaft, or
inches lower than centre of shaft,
Description of engines.
Description of valves.
If geared, what is the multiple of gearing ?
Or number of teeth in wheel and ditto in
pinion.
Number of cylinders.
Diameter of piston.
Diameter of trunk.
Length of stroke.
Does trunk extend through both ends of
cylinder ?
Valves set to cut-off at
Number of steam-ports at each end.
Length of each.
Breadth of each.
Slide-valve travel.
Steam-covyer at top.
Steam-coyer at bottom.
If a V on end of valve, its breadth.
Ifa V on end of yalve, its depth.
Steam lead at top.
Steam lead at bottom.
Exhaust-lap at top.
Exhaust-lap at bottom.
Exhaust-clearance at top.
Exhaust-clearance at bottom.
Is there link-motion ?
Is there a separate expansion-valyve ?
Grades of cut-off measured from beginning
of stroke.
Cut-off generally in use. (NorE.—If the
engines are on the high- and low-pressure
principle, fill up as much of the preceding
as is applicable, stating which cylinder is
referred to, and also fill up the following.)
Description of compound engines.
Number of high-pressure cylinders.
Diameter of piston,
REPORT—1862.
Diameter of trunk,
Length of stroke.
Does trunk extend through ?
Steam is cut off at from beginning.
Exhaust opens at
Exhaust shuts at
Area of steam-ports.
Number of low-pressure cylinders.
Diameter of piston.
Diameter of trunk.
Length of stroke.
Does trunk extend through ?
Steam is admitted at
Steam is cut off at
Exhaust opens at
Exhaust shuts at
Area of steam-ports. (Notr.—As some of
these quantities may be unknown, it will
suffice to give particulars of valves, cover,
lead, and travel, so that the cut-off can
be found from them.)
Valves of compound engines.
Condensers —contents of each, including
tubes, if any.
Number of condensers
Number of air-pumps,
Diameter of air-pump.
Diameter of its trunk, if any.
Does trunk extend through ?
Stroke of air-pump.
Have the air-pumps foot-valves ?
Are they double-acting ?
Description of condenser.
If surface condenser, can it be also used as
a jet condenser ?
Total number of tubes,
Material.
Thickness.
Length of each between tube-plates.
Inside diameter of tubes.
Through what length of tubes does the
water circulate ?
Circulating-pumps, how many ?
Are they double-acting ?
Diameter of each.
Diameter of trunk, if any.
Length of stroke.
Diameter of suction-pipe to each pump.
Diameter of discharge-pipe from each pump.
Diameter of suction-valye on ship’s side.
How much is it opened ?
Boilers—number of pieces.
Total number of furnaces.
Total length of firebars over ends.
Width of each furnace.
Thickness of bars at top.
Width between bars at top.
Total air-space through bars in one furnace.
Area over bridges.
Bottom of ash-pit to top of dead plate.
Top of dead plate to crown of furnace at front.
eee height of crown of furnace above
ars.
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
From back tube-plate to back of fire-box.
From crown of furnace to top of fire-box.
Number of air-holes in furnace fronts and
door.
Diameter of each.
Is there a slide on these ?
From top of fire-box to crown of boiler.
From top of fire-box to top of steam-chest.
Size of steam-chest.
Steam room in each boiler in cubic fect,
With water-level, inches above fire-box
crown.
Are the boilers dry-bottomed ?
Number of tubes for each furnace, in height.
Ditto in width.
Ditto, left out for stays.
Length of tubes.
Inside diameter of tubes.
Material.
Chimney—diameter at uptake.
Number of chimneys.
Height from fire-bars to top of chimney.
Superheater. Is there a superheater ?
At what temperature is the steam used ?
Temperature of smoke in chimney.
Saltness of water in boilers.
Is there a feed-heater ?
Temperature of the feed water.
Temperature of the hot-well.
Vacuum maintained.
What is the difference between the inches
in the vacuum-gauge and the inches on the
ship’s barometer taken at the same time ?
Pressure of steam in boilers.
When at full speed, what is the difference
between the steam-gauges at the boilers
and near the cylinders ?
Is there a good command of steam ?
Is there flame in the smoke-box ?
Reyolutions of engines per minute.
Please enclose indicator diagrams, and mark
each one thus, or in some other intelligible
way :—
AT/G|S|V|R/K|D Cc Ship’s
Rushby | Name
Park and
14/23 45/12/13) 74 Date
298
which reads thus:—Aft engine top of
piston; Grade of expansion 3; Steam-
gauge 14; Vacuum-gauge 23; Revolu-
tions of engine 45; Speed of vessel, in
knots, per hour 12; Mean draught 18 ft.;
Rushby Park Coals, per hour, 73 ewts.
If the speed of vessel be given in statute
miles, write M instead of K.
Instead of AT write AB, FT, FB, as the
case may be. If convenient, after V in-
sert a which reads, Barometer 29 in.
You are also requested to fill up as many
lines of the following Tables as you have
an opportunity of doing.
TABLE OF PERFORMANCE UNDER TRIAL,
UNDER STEAM ALONE,UNDER SAILALONE,
AND UNDER STEAM AND SAIL COMBINED,
Number of Trial.
Date.
Place.
Ship’s course
Direction of wind.
Force of wind.
State of sea.
Duration of trials.
Area of sail set.
Description of sail set.
Average speed per hour.
Consumption of coal per hour.
Quality of coal.
Indicated horse-power.
Diagrams enclosed, No.
Draught of water.
Pitch of screw.
Screw covered.
Grade of expansion.
Steam-gauge.
Vacuum-gauge.
Barometer.
Revolutions per minute.
Number of furnaces at work.
Nore.—Trials Nos. are under steam
only, and Nos. under steam and sail
combined,
On the Fall of Rain in the British Isles during the Years 1860 and
1861.
By G. J. Symons, M.B.M.S.
Brrore entering on the consideration of the rainfall during the last two
_ years, it will be well to offer a very few preliminary remarks on the various
causes which affect the amount of rain collected, and also briefly to state
in what manner the information given in the following Tables has been
verified.
_ The first requirement is obviously that the gauge should be rigorously
accurate, and placed in a suitable position ; but it is equally obvious that the
satisfactory fulfilment of these conditions can only be determined when every
294 REPORT—1862.
gauge has been visited and tested by some person well acquainted with the
subject, and provided with the necessary apparatus. This examination,
involving as it does the testing of more than 500 instruments, scattered far
and wide over the British Isles, from Galway on the west to Norwich on
the east, from the Shetland Isles to Guernsey, cannot be completed for
several years, and is, moreover, not indispensable; for adjacent stations will
generally enable us to determine if any large error attaches to either the
instrument or its position. For the present, then, it is a matter, not of
choice, but necessity to take the readings as recorded by the observers ; and
as the majority of the gauges already tested have borne the examination
satisfactorily, it is presumed that this may be safely done.
In the next place, it is almost needless to say, that unless the height of
the rain-gauge above the ground and above sea-level be known, the records
are not comparable with other stations; for every foot of elevation above the
round is believed materially to diminish the amount collected, and every
increase in the height above the sea-level to increase it. These particulars
are therefore given wherever they are known; but the values must be re-
ceived, subject to revision when the stations have been visited and the
elevations accurately determined.
It is, of course, almost impossible to secure perfect accuracy in such an
extended series of returns as are combined in the following Tables, but I
- believe they are very nearly perfect. The information was sent to me by the
observers in reply to circulars issued at the close of each year; the returns,
as received from them, were classified into counties and districts, examined,
all errors being sent back for explanation, and copied into the following
Tables, which have finally been checked against the observers’ MS. returns.
The excessiye rainfall in the Lake District of England haying caused
considerable interest, not to say incredulity, it may be well to add a few
words in entire confirmation of the perfect veracity of the returns,
The gauges were mostly erected in 1844 or 1845, by Dr. Miller of White-
haven, whose known accuracy might alone be a sufficient guarantee; but,
besides this, there is the personal experience of those who, like myself, have
studied the rainfall of that district, as alone it can be properly studied, dwelling
amid the mountains and watching the effect of each summit on the drifting
clouds, whether driven by a heavy gale or merely floating on a gentle breeze.
To make certain that the gauges were as accurate as when originally
erected, I recently lent my friend Mr. G. H. Simmonds the necessary ap-
paratus; he has carefully tested several of the gauges, and, so far as the
calculations are concluded, we find them strictly accurate.
The stations have been arranged on the plan employed in the Reports of
the Registrars-General of England and Scotland, except that the ordinary
county boundaries are maintained, and that the stations in each county are
arranged in the order of latitude from south to north. In Ireland, the
arrangement is merely according to latitude. :
The counties comprised in each district are enumerated in the following
List, so that the fall at any station may be referred to in the general Tables
with the greatest facility.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division I. Middlesex.—Middlesex.
» I. South-eastern Counties.—Surrey, Kent, Sussex, Hants, Berks.
», III. South Midland Counties.—Hertford, Bucks, Oxford, North-
ampton, Bedford, Cambridge. ;
» IY. Eastern Counties.—Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk.
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 295
: Division y,
|
| - VI.
¥/ ” yil
sae Hi ELD
fs IX
» x
Division XII.
wri qa
2 ARTY.
: XV.
P| eee
it. VEL
Ec RVI
oat, ST
‘Division XX.
South-western Counties.—Wilts, Dorset, Devon, Corn-
wall, Somerset.
West Midland Counties,—Gloucester, Hereford, Shrop-
shire, Stafford, Worcester, Warwick.
. North Midland Counties.—Leicester, Rutland, Lincoln,
Notts, Derby.
. North-western Counties.—Cheshire, Lancashire.
. Yorkshire.—Yorkshire.
. Northern Counties.—Durham, Northumberland, Cum-
berland, Westmoreland.
. Monmouthshire, Wales, and the Isles.—Monmouth, Gla-
morgan, Pembroke, Cardigan, Anglesey, Carnarvon,
Flint, Guernsey, Scilly, Man.
ScorLanp.
Southern Counties.—Wigtown, Kirkcudbright, Dumfries.
South-eastern Counties.—Selkirk, Peebles, Berwick,
Haddington, Edinburgh.
South-western Counties.—Lanark, Ayr, Renfrew.
West Midland Counties.—Stirling, Bute, Argyll.
East Midland Counties.—-Kinross, Fife, Perth, Forfar.
. North-eastern Counties.—Kincardine, Aberdeen, Elgin.
. North-western Counties.—Ross, Inverness.
. Northern Counties.—Sutherland, Orkney, Shetland.
IRELAND,
Treland.—All the Counties whence returns have been
received. i
The fall at a few of the stations has been laid down on the accompanying
Map, with the double object of illustrating the relative fall in different parts
of the British Isles, and the relation, in each locality, between the fall in 1860
and 1861. This has been done in the following manner :—Darkly shaded
dises uniformly represent the fall in 1861; lightly shaded, that in 1860.
The radii of the circles are half the scale given on the Map; the diameters
therefore increase as the fall; and hence the increased diameter of the circles
immediately points out the places of heaviest fall. The relative frequency
_ and extent to which either the darkly or lightly shaded circles extend beyond
the others shows which year had the heavier fall; and the breadth of the
_ annulus shows by how much it exceeded the other.
_ Inselecting the stations for insertion in the Map, preference was given to
those less than 200 feet above mean sea-level, and at which the gauge was
_ within a few feet of the surface of the ground. It was not found consistent
with good geographical distribution to adhere rigidly to these requirements
the general Tables.
The fact, however, that the mean height of the selected
gauges above the ground is, in England, 1 ft. 4 in.; in Scotland, 1 ft. 11 in. ;
i in every case, but the exact height may be readily ascertained by reference to
~ and in Ireland (omitting Cork), 7 ft. 7 in.; and above the sea, 131,177, and
ment of these conditions. The paucity of stations in Ireland necessitated the
{ 108 ft. respectively, shows that a near approach has been made to the fulfil-
-
+
use of rather elevated gauges; in the case of Cork, the Map shows the fall
_ at the ground computed from the fall observed 50 ft. above it, as otherwise
it would not have been comparable.
It is remarkable, and perhaps suggestive, that in 1860 the excess in
- South Britain was counterbalanced by a deficiency in Scotland; and that in
296 REPORT—1862.
1861 the equipoise was maintained, but in the reverse order, England being
comparatively dry, and Scotland (especially the western coast) subject to
almost unprecedented rains. It is also most noteworthy that, if the returns
from all the stations in England, Scotland, and Ireland are combined, the
fall is nearly identical in the two years. In 1860, the average fall at 390
stations was 39-784 inches; and in 1861, 38-466 inches.
The singularity of this result is fully shown by Table I., which gives the
average fall in each district for each year, and the excess or defect in each
district of 1861 over 1860.
Tasxe I.—Average fall of Rain in 1860 and 1861, and difference between
the two years.
Number
Division. of 1860. 1861. |1861-1860.
Stations.
in. in. in.
England:— I. Middlesex ................00005 7 32°553 | 20°763 | —11°790
> II. South-eastern Counties ...| 46 36°710 | 25°913 | —10°797
i III. South Midland Counties ...| 20 go'22r | 21°505 | — 8°716
+ IV. Eastern Counties ............ 16 31912 | 20411 | —II'Sor
c V. South-western Counties ...| 48 46:040 | 34°403 | —11°637
53 VI. West Midland Counties ...|. 22 34°259 | 25°838 | — 8-421
x, VII. North Midland Counties...) 32 32°059 | 23°598 | — 8'461
” VIII. North-western Counties ... 31 43°081 | 39448 | — 3°633
YY TX; Yorkshire sive. .e...c8ss 32 38°895 | 30°680 | — 8215
r X. Northern Counties ......... 24 50°941 | 52°357 | + 1°416
= XI. Monmouthshire, Wales, &c. 6 48550 | 41110 | — 7°440
Scotland :—XII. Southern Counties............ 4 49°075 | 55087 | + G6:o12
Fe XIII. South-eastern Counties...... 12 30°332 | 30°862 | + 0530
Sp XIV. South-western Counties ... 16 40°573 | 52°701 | +12°128
< XV. West Midland Counties ... 12 52°278 | 63°377 | -+-11'099
is XVI. East Midland Counties ...} 30 42°980 | 50°535 | + 7°555
+) XVII. North-eastern Counties...... 8 37°799 | 35°880 | — I'g10
»5 XVIII. North-western Counties ... 7 44°623 | 67°306 | +22°683
¥ XIX. Northern Counties ......... 5 34°128 | 38°746 | + 4°618
Treland : — XX. Ireland ...........c0ceceeeeeee- 12 38°692 | 38°813 | + otr2z
General average ............... 390 39°784 | 38466 | — 1°318
Hmnpland. pase -seestasns ook 284 38°656 | 307548 | — 8108
PCOUANG sacar steve sarees sees 94 41°472 | 49°312 | + 7°840
relanidh ies. Chasen seeceo. 12 38°692 | 38°813 | + otr21
The next point for consideration is the relation which subsists between
the fall in the two years, 1860 and 1861, and the average of a long series of
years. A large number of the gauges having only been in use for ten or
Tasxe II.—Difference between mean Rainfall, as obtained from long series of
years, and from the ten years, 1850 to 1859.
. Total | Mean of | Mean of p
Division.| Name of Station, 2 prige Pt number | the whole | ten years, ii
baie cra koi years.| period. | 1850-59, | Per cen
inches. inches.
II. | Greenwich............... 1815-61 47 25°42 23°16 9
V. | Exeter, St. Thomas’s...) 1814-61 48 32°80 3115 5
Vile | Orletong- Avie. ..22. 02 1831-61 31 29°18 28°82 I
VIII. | Bolton-le-Moors ...... 1831-61 31 46°92 44°10 6
TX al elallitax vt osesenceee yore 1829-61 33 32°38 30°71 5
XV. | Rothesay ............... 1800-61 62 48°31 45°97 5
MoT ML AQ paavib uy
NOT
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:
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 297
fifteen years, it was found necessary to adopt, as a standard of comparison,
| be eel
the fall during the ten years, 1850 to 1859.
The fall during this period appears from Table II. to be very suitable for
the purpose, as the amount during it was generally within 5 per cent. of
the average fall during the last fifty years.
Tables III. and IV. give the results obtained by comparing the fall in
1860 and 1861 with this standard, and show (1) that at almost every
station the fall in the two years was greater than the average, (2) that the
excess was slight in Mid-England, larger in the South-west of England, the
South-west of Scotland, the West of Ireland, and largest of all in the
English Lake District.
Tarte I11.—Excess of the Mean Rainfall for 1860 and 1861, above the
average of the ten years, 1850-1859.
Division. Station. Excess. || Division. Station. Excess.
Chiswick VIII. | Stonyhurst
Enfield Coniston
IX. | Redmires
Standedge
Well Head
Southampton
Abbott’s Ann
Patrington
Wheldrake
Middleton
fork
Bishopwearmouth
Seathwaite
Baverstock ..........0.. weak
GOodamMoor .....cccecceeee
Tavistock
Exeter, St. Thomas’s
Exeter Institution
Castle Toward
Kilmory
Pittenweem ...
Deanston
Castle Newe
Sandwick
Bressay
IEEDY .c0-.ss=0ace Caccvccsan:
Liverpool
Bolton-le-Moors
Preston (Howick)
Preston(House of Correc-
TION )) Seessecscss sescsencee
O BNOWH HAP RNIN DHAUN
Tanre TV.—Average Excess in each Division.
Division. | Excess. || Division. | Excess. || Division. | Excess. || Division. | Excess.
inches. inches. inches. inches.
I. +3'00 Vas + 3°67 > Ra arene XVI. +2733
Il. +2°40 VII. + roo 3.2 1 ee ae XVII. +7°00
Ii. +1°50 || VIII. + 7oo|} XIII. ooo || XVIII. |...
Vis +300 IX, + 3°67 XIV. +2°50 XIX. +3°co
Vy. +4'88 Xx. -++18°00 XV. +6°00 XX, +825
298 REPORT—1862.
TABLES OF MONTHLY RAI .
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division I.—Minpresex,
Mippissex, !
I
1860. Chiswick. | Whitehall. | Gnildhall. | Guildhall. | ®%0hn’s | Camden
Wet oP Se ee ae =.
sage | Ground..|. di: 6 ft. 0 in, |7 ft. 0in. | ft. 0 im. | Of. 4 in, |
ewe. (Sea-ievel.| oo... 51 ft. 123 ft. | 161 ft. | 100 ft.
above
in. in in. in.
ARUARY 5) 0033s scenersseas 2°18 1°74. 1°61 4°34 I ve |
HODrary .....<c0ssn0os- 1°20 95 "93 I'7 1°25 |
MRICS corse cvcvcsevece: 1°63 1°34 1°31 1°62 1°82
PATICIE ostcgs ve vsevscsrece: "95 1°46 1°36 1°58 1°50
VLAN a sre sctectaces ce oc 3°04, 2°58 2°43 2°88 ater,
PUTED Ss. sore snnas cae casee es 5°15 5°84. 5°38 6°21 5°47 f
PWG ete veusessesseeterece 2°72 1°67 1°48 2752 2°26
FAMIPUBU! log sssccecsscrccers 4°16 4°56 4°16 4°66 4°48 |
September ............... 2°82 2°86 2°65 2°70 2°92 |
Oh re] Oe 1°60 1°53 1°40 1°68 1°97
iNoyembert ....,.......05. 2°60 2°24. 2°08 2°65 2°72
Depember ..... .,.gerre: 2°03 ar SR! (8 AAR 2°40 2°51
Wotglg”.....2..0s0- 30°08 PEGI Nivecseteys 34°60 32°24. é
Division II.—Sourn-Easrern Counties (continued),
Te ne
Surrey (continued).
-| Deepdene, | Brockham,
1860. Dorking. Betchworth.
Cobham.
Pa AM Wandsworth.| Battersea.
SSS el nee ee Se eee Se
Height of Ground..} 2 ft. 9 in. | 0 ft. 6 in. | 0 ft. 6 in. | 0 ft. Oin. | 5 f.0in. | Oft. Oin,
Bain-gang Sea-level.| ......... 130 ft. 110 ft. ? 18 ft.
PAWUARY . scsveverssescere, 3°80 3 “3 5
Wobnnary | Fi iscescconeeae 1°47 Fahd
Piamcll ~. Acoonerssceeest
: ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 299
ALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
¥
Z
t ‘
t Division I— Munprsex (continued). Div. 11. —S.-Easrern Covntiss,
; MippiEsex (continued). SURREY.
Finchley Finchley Tottenh: Enfield Ham, Wonersh, Kitlands,
Hackney. Road. Road. ottenham. | Vicarage. | Red Hill. | Bramley. Dorking.
) ft. 6 in. | 0 ft. 4 in. | 36 ft. 4 in.| 0 ft. 3 in. | 30 ft. Oin.| 0 ft. 4 in. | O ft. Oin. | 4 ft. Bin.
40 ft. 270 ft. 306 ft. 60 ft. 140 fh.~ 1 -er | 580 ft.
in in in. in. in in. in. in,
BE ceiscss- | sespszeq: 2°48 3°44 3°46 2°40 3°56
BR vcrscecee |) seep pees 1°49 1°58 95 2°30 1°29
BEEEAEDD cssccaue> | @*senpies 2°07 2°34 2°64, 75 1°96
boy Xo nn ere eee 1°47 1°27 2°49 1°56 24
BGO | eweseeeee | teers sees 3°88 4°01 3:11 3°14 37a
BR | cwecreese | oeep sees 5°85 5°43 Bar 7'02 719
BM cen. | ssep'senes 2°05 1°82 2°49 2°40 3°42
4°40 4°86 3°87 5°28 \ 7:34 { 4°31 4°47 5°26
3°10 2°90 2°25 2°66 b foe) 3°45 4°02
160 163 LI 1°68 2°03 2°62 2°40 2°75
2°60 2°80 2°36 2°76 2°78 3°01 3°54. 2°39
2°40 2°35 1°86 2°70 2°53 2°40 tp 2°69
ATO | wweeeeeee | cee eenees 34°37 34°57 34°75 38°14 40°O7
Division I1.—Sourn-Easrern Counties (continued).
Kent. Sussmx.
Hunton Linton : ; Welling, Greenwich Aldwick,
Park, Tunbridge. | Maidstone. |RexleyHeath.| Observatory.|| Bognor.
Stapleberst. Staplehurst.
0 ft. 8 in. | 0 ft.6 in. | O ft. Oin. | 4 ft. Oin. | 6 ft. 0 in. 0 ft. 5 in. || 0 ft. 0 in,
Peed 200 ft. ? 125 ft. 60 ft. 150 ft.? 155 ft. sens
in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
3°37 2°87 2°04 2°97 1°60 180 . 2°23
1°16 1°40 37 1°60 105 I"Io 764
1°93 2°61 2°55 2°71 1°89 1°90 102
2°52 2°34. 2°75 3°04. I'24 1°00 2°20
*03 3raz 2°79 3582 by ange 3°13
453 5°09 5°06 5°36 5°63 580 =| 5"60
r7i 2°07 2°49 1°58 2°53 2°80 2°65
2°80 3°54 3°52 3°69 3°25 3°70 3°23
259 | 3°36 2°48 2°89 2°48 3°10 2°30
1°60 qi 175 1°63 1'50 1°60 1°96
2°64 2°67 2°44 2°59 2°36 2°50 2°24.
2°40 2°38 2°39 2°27 2°10 2°80 2°20
30°38 33°66 31°43 33°65 28°72 32°00 29°40
300 REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division IT.—Sovrn-Easrern Covuntizs (continued).
Sussex (continued).
Thorney Chichester | Shopwyke, Glynde, | Bleak Hou
1860. Worthing. ome Museum. | Chichester. Lewes. Hastings
Feeieht OF | Ground... 0 ft. Oin. | Oft. 6 in. | Of. Gin. | 1f.3in. | a. 4 ft. 0 ir
boro. { Sea-level.| 10 ft. 10 ft. 20 ft. (ee me ee 80 ft.
above :
in. in. in in. in in
RIAUUALY: socepcscassssscess 4°66 2°25 3°71 3°58 5°08 4°36
Hebruary 62. csescereeee "65 °78 95 gt 1°29 76
IM Eate li veisscn ts aesen sete e= 1°70 1°74 2°16 2°01 2°08 2°23
PADIM piccecrevresednsen ses 1°82 1°70 big i rns 1°98 I'95
ERY mee sastesses cater s= 3°41 2°81 3°55 3°85 3°65 3°46
SIMIC cc coneseeasenecuec=te 4°98 611 5°07 5°00 4°78 3°15
STUY yeaa cebvecec borates pa 1°84, 3°18 3°43 2°90 3°50 2°72
PAUIBUBE ..<50ccccecnsdaces 3°70 3°10 3°87 4°21 541 3°49
Heplember ......sccs-<0.- 3°02 3°30 4°17 3°75 4°53 4°92
MOCEGHEP. wscpcsccdue<tecss 2°45 1°41 Zain 2°40 2°38 2-72
November ............... 2°76 2°72 3°19 3°54 3°18 2°68
December \......0--2.26. 3°33 4°04 3°68 4°21 2°44 1°80
lotaldic.r.2 fous 34°32 33°14 37°44 37°51 40°30 34°25
Division II.—Sovrn-Easrern Countries (continued).
Sussex (continued).
; St.John’sCol- Forest
1860. Ghilgrove, | ieee, Hurst-| Uckfield. |Buxted Park| yP°CO%7, | Lodge,
“| pierpoint. Maresfield
pacight of | Ground... 0 ft. 6 in. | 0 ft. O in. | 64. 0in. | oo 1 ft. Oin. | 1 ft. O in
above | Sea-level| 284 ft.2 | 120ft. | 200ft. |... 250ft. | 300 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in.
GJATIUATY Seacevee Oeeets ss: Ene ON Ae 4°75 4°70 4°55 4°16
February ESKOR |p wechece- 1°50 1°34 1°28 I'00
Marchi; ssaccosscodmaetenne Bie il) Wosdeceks 3°00 3°35 2°38 2°15
PA DEN enneade nc esedentee-s 1 ey 3 Ae ec 2°53 3°07 2°52 2°51
May’ Gssccaeoseacodect.o< 3°85 2°96 4°20 4°36 3°41 3°45
JUTE” We-voseserasteeeee ys 6°72 Wee Semans 4°80 5°20 Saaz 5°41
July Bicivcdescsceeecteus. Zee || Yawwsese ae 3°00 3°10 2°61 2°55
SAMPLE % <desceanFeeeaw es 5°05 4°60 5°84 5°53 5°56 5°84.
September 3°86 3°22 2075 4°76 _ #05 4°04
October .........: Se hay Cet 22% 2°97 3°31 2°70 2°46
November .... cafe) 3g700 2°56 2°95 3°68 3°11 2°51
December Se \rssessvene 3°17 3°15 3°36 2194
Totals ...0222.. BOG eR A! fk ceeeee 42°46 45°55 40°70 39°02
real
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 301
ENGLAND AND WALES.
)
;
Division II.—Sourn-Easrern Countins (continued).
Sussex (continued).
4
High 39 Tower, Marina, sie Funtington, 4 Dale Park, | Westdean,
[ostines’ | Hastings. | St. Leonards.| Fairlight. | Chichester. | Slindon. Arundel. | Chichester.
iz
meOin, | Oft.0im. | Oft.Oin. | Oft.9in.| ......... 1 ft. Oin. | 4 ft. Oin. | O ft. 6 in.
212 ft, O ft. 10 ft. ADB |) -s0teeeas 190 ft. 316 ft. 250 ft.
in, in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
382 3°95 3°45 3°07 3°00 41l 4°59 4°52
97 95 1°03 93 *80 122 *80 1°37
r6r1 2°10 1°33 1°68 1°50 2°80 2°90 3°03
217 2°25 225 1°99 1°48 I'50 71 2°04.
3°20 3°16 3°08 3°16 3°47 3°97 4°52 4°53
3°62 3°72, 3°60 3°49 6°14 6°14 6°65 7°06
2°39 2°69 2°50 2°21 bar xe) 3°00 3°73 2°98
3°42 2°98 2°67 2°28 4°74 5°00 6°46 5°68
429 4°00 3°96 4°25 3°19 4°73 5°99 5°15
#00 2°90 217 1'92 3°39 2°84 3°32 3°35
2°79 2°05 2°31 2°32 3°34 3°30 3°89 4°07
2°38 2°70 192 2°24 2°95 5°45 1°93 5°16
32°66 33°45 30°77 29°54 35°50 44°06 45°09 48°94
Division II.—Sovurn-Easrern Counties (continued),
Sussex (continued). Hampsnie.
. an Le Re ee eee
ir Oak, Ventnor, Ryde, Osborne, Ordnance
Rogate. Crawley. Isle of Isle of Isle of Fareham. Lyndhurst. |Survey Office,
Wight. Wight. Wight. Southampton.
|—_—$ . $$ | at
—————— SS ——E——SaaT
t. 6 in, | 5 ft. O in. || 3 ft. Oin. | O ft. O in. |0 ft. 10 in, | 0 ft. 0 in.
spesenaee 0 ft. 0 in
Sere sees 300 ft. 150 ft. 110 ft. 172 ft. 26) ftsy |. tesserae 75 ft
4 in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
5°08 3°66 3°90 4°10 3°70 4°16 5°08
1°48 *90 1°07 83 "70 *90 I'l5
2°92 3°08 3°56 2°19 3°70 2°46 2°33
2°48 I'94 I'I4 160 "90 I°I5 1°37
3°49 3°54 3°09 3°30 2°90 3°51 375°
7°76 4:77 5°63 5°38 7°60 6:90 8°07
3°97 2°10 2°80 2°39 2"50 2°53 3°33
5°89 3°06 3°16 4°41 4°00 3°35 4°53
4°01 4°01 4°22 4°08 5°00 ‘08 3°91
3°30 2°42 3°07 2°30 3°60 3° 2°09
3°45 3°05 3°34 3°46 2°20 2°48 3°16
3°80 3°65 13c 3°20 5°20 2°34. 5°03
47°63
302 REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division II.—Sovrn-Eastern Counties (continued).
Hampsuire (continued).
Ordnance | Gas-Works
1860. Survey Office, South- "| Petersfield. | Petersfield. | [PEP | serporne
Southampton.) ampton.
TT — _ ee
Heightof | Ground .| 18 ft. 6 in.| 10 ft. O.in.| sccscss 0 ft. Oin. | 3 #.0in. | 49, 03
when | Sea-level.| 94 ft. 20-fb.. | ssstsstes 200 fiz |. scssis. 400 ft.
above
in. in in. in in
JANUALY «22... .cscteseeee 3‘60 3°23 4°84 4°60 3°84
February ......4:3i..... 87 38 I’or 1°84 1°25
Marehis....:5.:..c4%34s..- 168 2°09 3°20 2°53 2°45
APG, 6552550558 ac ee 1°47 "79 1°36 1°86 48
Mays ts. 0265500 0c8bbtbees 2°84 2°64 3°93 3°54 3°54
Sct ie eePeey Sere 6 rc are 6°71 5°54 9°75 890 6°43
OUP b...0cke.c0 HiRes 2°74 2°43 2°80 2°75 3°56
Augaat. ...53...:d010%.5. 3°67 3°56 5°85 533 4°85
September ........:.:.... 3°42 2°75 5°15 5°18 3°67
October ...3....34204.00: 1°61 1'23 5°72 3°38 2°35
November .......::.:.... 2°67 2°47 4°53 3°63 3°78
December .......ii.:..4. 4°43 245 | 4°93 5°33 3°10
Potals s....<88s8ss.. 35°71 29°56 53°07 48°64. 39°30 42°05
Division IL1.—Sovra Miptann Covntres (continued).
Hertrorp (continued). Bucks. OXFORDSHIRE,
| Hartwell Hartwell ; Radcliffe
Royston. House, Rectory, Fees Bal ” | Observate
860 Berkhamp-
1 5 stead.
Aylesbury. | Aylesbury. Oxford.
sieges | 1 ft. 6 in. | O ft. 7 in. || 1. Oin. | 4 ft. Oin.
Rain-gauge / Sealevel.| 370 ft. | 267 ft. || 250. | 290 ft
above
in. in. in. in.
JONUATY ...5.....c8dssde0. 3°60 2°59 2°93 2°64
Febrtig#y 9 <.....d2i:...-- 1°50 1°I3 82 “31
Maréli.is..ccs.csecd8tcues 2°12 2°18 1°86 1°31
April shics.csssccatheks.. 1‘12 1°38 1°24 ‘97
May: Skocccsbsscosbbiiess 4°68 3°41 4°12 3°14.
TUNG Fhe0ccsscoecbdetes: 6*04. 4°45 4°86 5°07
July’ 28s .csteee.cdaacbas. 1°50 1°42 1°23 87
AugaSi, :...60..:0td00s.. 4°54 3°85 4°69 3°92
September ............4.. 3°39 3°03 3°84. 3°93
OcCtGbeF ...2i5i..052000008 1°94. 121 1’92 "75
November ....... ELEEE 2°81 2°43 2°54 2°05
December .......5:..5... 3°00 2°48 1°40 2°25
Potals ......05.s6c66.| 36°24 29°56 31°45 28°21
as
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BBITISH ISLES.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
303
Div. [1.—Sovrn-Eastern Countiss (continued).
MPSHIRE (continued).
-
bbott’s
a Aldershott.
ereer.
ft. 4 in. | 3 ft. O in,
77 ft. 325 ft.
R. M. Coll.,
Sandhurst.
246 ft.
BERKSHIRE.
White
Waltham,
Maidenhead.
5 ft. O in. |1 ft. 0 in.?| 1 ft. O in.
17
Diy. I11.—S. Mav. Counties.
a oN Watford.
5 ft. 6 in.
HERTFORD.
Hemel-
Gorhambury. Hempstead.
2 ft. 9 in. | 3 ft. 0 in.
Division III.—Sovrm Miptanp Countries (continued).
OxrorpDsHirE (continued).
ier -v to ry, Banbury.
mz
Banbury.
fe Oin.| 7 ft. 4 in. | 4 ft. 9 in.
350 ft,
340 ft.
in.
3°53
1'29
2°08
“70
3°37
4°33
1°52
3°91
3°47
"gz
2°82
2°62
31°56
NortTHAMPTON.
Althorpe byl
House. boroug
3 ft.Oin.? | O ft. 2 in.
in, in.
2°48 2°74
1'00 112
2°02 2°02
"59 "81
3°08 2°94
4°60 5°35
1°22 1°60
3°64 3°68
2°80 3°11
1'22 1°76
1°43 2°32
1°12 1°96
25°20 29°41
Marholm,
Peter-
borough.
O ft. 6 in.
teeeeeeee
33°09
BEDFORDSHIRE.
aa dey, Cardington.
O ft: Gis | 00255882
460 ft: | z...32.--
in. in.
3°25 2°44
1°31 'l7
2°09 1°46
1°06 aie
3°89 3°17
5°07 4°28
vil 1°31
3°51 2°71
3°96 2°88
1°47 1°33
2°52 1°97
1°99 1°64.
31°23 25°08
304:
REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Diy. I1I.—S. Mm. Covnrtzs (cont.).
Beprorpsuire (continued).
1860. Bedford.
Risisht of "| Ground..| 3 ft. 6 in.
ab = é, 8° | Sea-level.| 104 ft.
in.
PIANUEIYE osc¢snccebedoas 2°50
IRODEGANY:. « jo.<.detdvnne 21
IVES Z01 0 Sane ae En 1°51
PAT IPRESE So huncacsspasaecas “76
IM SVGO- Eos dsdsa0s RES oe: bees
BIIMOR ei ass decac WAR. 4°33
UG1 Sonne PeeP etn tee "92
PAUCTSED s.c0decs ethos 3°10
September .......02..5... 2°50
October ......:0.« Bates 1'26
November! .J.....0s0%s+. 1'99
December .......0:..:.5. 1°65
Motals ....Bis$%. 24°95
CAMBRIDGE.
North
Brink,
Wisbech.
0 ft. 8 in.
1l ft.
Division IV.—Easrern Countins (continued),
Division [TVY.—Easrern Covnttes.
Essex.
‘ Dorward’s Frating,
Epping. wes Conese:
Luft:'6iins 4) eRe
20) Ft: |) \eeeeee
in, in.
I'I2 2°21
1°60 I‘05
1°85 1°73
1°39 145
3°74 3°58
3°83 4°55
2°69 3°43
2°61 3°90
2722, rss
1°46 1°38
2°41 2°72
1°16 85
26°08 29°70
nt
Neo)
oo
.
Diy. V.—S.-Western Cos,
Norrouk (continued). WItrsHire. :
Alderbur: Baverstock, | Longbrid ”
1860. Burnham. | Holkham. | Holkham. Sabet 4 Salisbury. Deverill, |
Warminster
ent of || Ground..| 4 ft. 6 in. | Of. Oin. | 4ft. Oin. | Of Gin. | 3.0m | seesseeee
“GaNs’ ¢ Sea-level.| 102 ft. 39 ft. Tee eee ees aoe scoelll
above
in. in. in. in. in,
DANUALY «5.04.00 0ckeeceone 3°36 3°60 4°24 3°35 595
ebeaary .j.s0sdeerteecs 1'94. 2°00 1°07 Lks 1°60
WTSI, 22-4000 tease 2°86 2°55 2°35 2°70 1°94 ©
APTS. Loackquoeseereost "99 100 ‘00 1°75 bare
May. t45...ccgecerMtves 0. 4°14 3°75 3°38 3°30 212
JUNG Sri cossdecceeeep ass 4°40 4°30 5°88 6°75 4°66
BV an sooner: Bee == 5 See 1°63 2°00 1°50 1°50 2°79
Asist@.. codecs. Race 3°51 3°53 3°56 4°90 5°33
September ............... 3°54 3°13 2°58 3105 2°83
October... £2..8ikse 2°77 2°55 1°76 2°00 3°08
November ..........0.++- 3°16 3°00 2°43 2°70 3°68
December vt... eee. 2°35 3°28 4°37 4°30 4°33
Motals) ....8.0c%e.- 34°65 34°69 31°58 34°12 37°45 40°32
| ee ne eee eee
—?
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Bury
St. Edmunds.
2 ft. O in.
SUFFOLK.
Westley ; The | Nether
Thwaite. Li y Hall,
et weet | eae | area
1 ft.6 in. | 3 ft. 6 in. | 2 ft. Oin. | 2 ft.6in
aaoneee 150 ft. escent aseeenees
in. in. in. in.
2°34 3°95 2°87 3°23
1°22 rae “38 r'21
2°81 3°56 2°06 2°84.
1'ol 1°03 "99 1°13
3710 4°27 3°13 3°46
4°40 5°60 4°36 4°34
247 2°14 1°67 2°00
4°42 4°44 4°63 2°50
2°59 2°99, 2°14 1
1°55 1'99 2°33 1°78
2°16 3°40 2°74 2°50
2-29 2°57 1°63 2°29
30°36 36°60 29°43 29°45
Division [V.—Easrern Countries (continued).
Division V.—Sovurn- Western Covuntizs (continued).
VILTSHIRE (continued).
Shapmans- Castle
lade, House,
2ar Corsely. Calne.
ft. 7 in. | 0 ft. 11 in.
Ss 3 321 ft.
in. in.
Seo
Bt | locas sic
AS eee
2°15 179
2°72 3°32
6°64. 6°26
2°44 1°32
6°01 5°18
B60 2°57
3°03 1°70
3°01 2°56
3°70 4°68
Portland.
2 ft. O in.
52 ft.
DorseErsuire.
Little
Purbeck. Bridy.
1 ft. Oin. | O ft. 4 in.
150 ft. 348 ft.
in. in.
4°50 5°42
} 25 { 1°61
4 ae
2°00 3°04
4°20 4°36
6°48 747
1°82 2°57
4°95 5°27
4°43 3°64
2°60 2°01
245 3°94
4°97 6°38
42°65 49°03
Encombe, Bridport. | Netherbury.
0 ft. 11 in. | O ft. O in.
95 ft. ?
305
| NorFouk.
|
Warwick eae |
| Oft. Oin. | 4 ft. Oin.
30 ft. 150 ft.?
| i
in. in.
2°53 2°81
2°50 1°96
2°97 2°50
1°39 riz
3°53 3°04
4°45 3°34
2°43 2°33
3°42 3°41
3°42 3°17
1°75 2°16
3°34 3°08
2°74. 2°46
|. 34°47 31°38
Drvonsu.
The Knowle,
Kingsbridge.
0 ft. 6 in.
50 ft. ? 143 ft.
in. in.
568 2°99
1°37 1°59
2°88 3°30
2°20 1°55
3°84 3°90
6°50 8°09
1°76 1°62
4°49 5°22
2°65 3°07
2°35 2°08
3°69 4Il
4°96 4°92
42°37 42°44
306 REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division V.—Sours- Western Counties (continued).
DrvonsuirE (continued).
Ham, The Ridgeway, Torrhill, | Goodamoor, | Crapstone,
1860. Plymouth. | Gardens, | Plympton. | Ivybridge. | Plympton. Ge |
pacisht of || Ground. $ ft. 0in. | 0 ft.3in. | Of, Gin. | Of din, | Of. Qin. | veces - |
nbore ©. | Searlevel.| 94 ft. 96 ft. 116 ft. | 260f.? | 580f. | 500f. J
in, in. in. in. in. in. |
DADHANY....:..6.-oyecpiee 7°51 7413 7°69 749 8:02 8°45 }
IHEDITIATY, 2. 030s mnscene oe 1°86 211 2°17 1°96 2°56 2°38
March 4°75 4°84 4°54 5°56 470 |
Serve ceenass dunaeas, . 2°95 1°66 1°60 2°30 77.
Pearse se cece tees 5°61 5°87 5°02 6°68 620 |
icisancies Ceara noe - 9°28 9°81 6°82 1I"42 g8o |
Roincpteerss depts. 2°70 4°22 2°70 4°16 3°60
naelgscinn som : 7°37 7°68 719 9°16 8°31 f
Sooo. wears) : 3°00 3°31 2°54. 4°02 430 |
Sicindiota.c deh Oates 2°93 3°19 3°92 4°20 381.
o Annes ce eee 4°00 4°23 5°57 5°28 5:23 0
Hiceche ees 5°75 792, 4°95 8°66 7°30 |
Seams acics : 57°58 62°39 54°31 72°O2 65°85 |
7
:
i |
Division V.—Sourn-Wesrern Counties (continued). |
Devonsuirn (continued). _
Albert | High Street,| Institution, |st. L ‘St. Thomas’
i femerm | "ccc >| “Hara” (O* ereris 9 thas) me
Exeter. y
ih =e ,
A aie Ground ..| 0 ft. 0 in. | 40 ft. Oin.| 13 ft. 7 in. | 20 ft. 0 in.| 3ft. Oin. | 0 #t. 6 in.
above | Sea-level.| 160 ft. 170 ft. 155 ft. 160 ft. 50 ft. 200 ft. 27
in. in. in. in. in. in
January, ..Uoc..- ara-<:|h om eass 3°98 AD Ole =. bSp. 5711 424
Hebroaiy *f.. <- sates iio eee 87 190) BIE eaten te: 1°36 124
March) \-.csoo-ssqueaeeerl icee mee 2°70 R700 WMP scree: 3°48 315
April sc; fectieccensesuceee atin orem 1°74 LR he os aoenth 1°25 2°14
ILS depp asecrrs-eel|\ yee 2°88 Cy te | nee Se 4°57 3°38
June 5. nc-teveeeseoeee ss haa 6°92 6°48 7°09 8°04. 614
DULY ccseecueeee eeeaee elt eee 1°63 "72 1°65 1°90 1°84.
ANT ETE SS orton nas 3°86 3°55 3°32 3°33 2°26 467
September ......... a 1°95 1°65 1°56 1°75 1°78 3260
a Me sesoseree aise ae 122 rab 1B 76u Tee
“ber: oh 3°33 3°60 3°96 3°53 4°68 3°07
December. j2s.-.seae --| 7°40 5°52 5°26 4°58 6°13 6"10
SERIA 5 ssicccinmagn | aes eee 36°26 | 36°08 | Beare 42°17 | 453 @
POPS TT Ve
Torquay.
1 ft. O in.
150 ft.
in.
4°56
I°0o
2°11
I'03
Hoar
6°67
e °59
3°21
2°48
1°48
4°06
45°96
36°36
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES,
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division V.—Sourn-Westurn Counties (continued).
Drvonsuire (continued).
Highwick,
Newton Dartmoor.
Bushel.
1 ft. 6 in. | 40 ft. O in,
300 ft.? 1580 ft.
in. in.
6"10 773
1°42 1°94
3°78 4°58
1°63 1°16
4°27 759
8°87 10°36
1°53 3:12
4°40 6°89
2°37 5°23
2°29 3°93
4°74 5°55
6°62 5°80
48°02 63°88
Teignmouth.
1 ft. 1 in.
60 ft.
Tiverton.
3°79
8°92
2°38
6°32
3°49
3°38
2°46
9°79?
. 55°41?
Huntsham
Court.
584 ft.
in.
7°08
2°87
4°13
3712
5°21
10°52
3°24.
8°17
3°ia
3°99
3°45
7°42
62°32
1 ft. lin. | 3 ft. O in.
DevonsuireE (continued).
Castle Hill,
South
Molton.
160 ft.
57°46
Division V.—Sourn- Western Countixs (continued).
* Observations discontinued, position being unfayourable,
307
Teignmouth. ieee Dawlish. ria
0 ft. 3 in. | 45 ft. Oin.| O ft, 8 in. | O ft. 6 in,
25 ft. 298 ft. 62 ft. 100 ft.
in. in. in. in.
3°85 6°44 3°74 692
12 1°49 1°24 1°63
3°27 2°75 3°88 4°72
1°26 1°57 2:22 1°34.
2°05 4°48 2°78 3°96
8°27 $10 9°35 9°09
198 2°84 1°33 1°94
3°69 6-40 2°80 5°06
2°50 2°41 3°67 1'99
2°04, 2°38 1°66 2°53
2°50 3°42 2°00 5°62
7°62 5°71 6°21 4°52
40°35 47°99 40°88 49°82
| CoRNWALL.
Tehidy
Barnstaple. |, Helston, Penzance. Park,
| Redruth.
0 ft. 6 in. || 5 ft. Oin. | 3 ft. 0 in. | O ft. O in.
31 ft. 110 ft. 94 ft. 100 ft.
in. in. in. in,
5°29 6°04. 7°83 7°25
1°50 1°74. 1°89 1°80
4°01 2°46 3°02 2°40
2°76 Ii7 VI4 1700
3°42 3°69 3°63 4°20
7°00 4°87 5700 5°75
3°64. 1°86 1°68 1°80
7°89 4°43 5°29 4°68
3°54 2°78 3°52 3710
4°01 2°71 3°86 3°40
2°64 4°24 3°99 5°25
4°44, 6°97 8°40 8°00
50°14 42°96 49°25 48°63
x2
308
REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division V.—Sourn-Wesrern Counties (continued).
Cornwat (continued).
1860.
Height of
Rain-gauge Ground..
as Sea-level.
tenn een ween weeeeee
seat eee nereseneres
teen e teen ewes eeeeses
PAUIGRISES 5. dd. ~00- cote os
September
October
Truro.
40 ft. O in.
56 ft.
Sipe |fome "sk" ae
Div. V.—S.-W. Co. (cont.).
Somerset (continued).
1860.
Aten eee een reee
Height of
Rain-gauge
above
Ground..
Sea-level.
January
ee eee ere
Senter eeteeeae
Bath.
50 ft. O in.
150 ft.
GLOUCESTER.
Tngstne es Clifton Clifton. Cirencester. Pie iiee
56 ft. 0 in.| O ft. 6 in. | 50 ft. Oin. | 1 ft. Oin. | 3 ft. 6 in.
98 ft. 192 ft 242 ft. 446 ft. 50 ft.? —
in. | in. in. in. in. i
6"10 4°94 4°27 4°52 302
1°41 “99 “74 1°20 “49
3°05 2°92 2°34 0 227 "99 @
2°46 1°69 1°32 I'00 *g90
3°17 3°54 3°21 3°85 2°69
7°22 7°10 6°44 5792 499
2°34. 1°87 1°63 1°75 oi 3 |
6°04 5°68 5°15 5°03 3°74
2°30 2°43 2°22 G46 2°66
3°39 3°03 2°68 2°00 1°33
2°56 2°83 2°33 3700 2°3r
2°92 3°78 3°19 3°05 2°22
42°96 40°80 35°52 36°94 =| © 27°99
Bodmin. | “pngaga™
3 ft. 0 in. | 3 ft. O in.
300 ft. 800 ft.
in. in.
776 7°68
1°73 2°13
4°17 520
1°55 2°09
3°47 5°14.
8°49 10°70
2°22 2°98
7°58 917
3°60 4°23
3°51 5°08
3°94 4°40
3°31 8°25
56°33 67°05
|
Pencarrow,
Bodmin.
4 ft. O in.
230 ft.
in.
6°68
2°48
3°91
1°57
3°02
7°43
2°58
6°98
4°74
3°44
4°93
3°85
51°61
Treharrock
House,
Wadebridge.
3 ft. O in.
200 ft. ?
in.
5°57
149
3°04.
1°38
2°90
6°03
2°86
6°26
3°91
3°38
3°39
598
46°14
St. Petroc
Minor,
Padstow.
0 ft. 2 in. |
96 ft. |
in.
5°22
1°47
3°59
108
3°24
5°89
3°04,
5°52
3°18
3°89
4°52
6°86
47°40
Division VI.—Westr Mripranp Covntizs.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Gloucester.
Taunton.
1 ft. 3 in.
50 ft.
Long
Sutton.
O ft. O in.
170 ft.?
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES,
Frome
(North Hill).
0 ft. 3 in.
Division V.—Sovrn-Western Counties (continued).
309
Mells,
Frome.
8 ft. 0 in.
300 ft.
in.
4°89
1°50
2°34.
2°93
3°24
8°65
2°42
SoMERSET.
Bridgewater. Street.
6 ft. 6 in. | 5 ft. 0 in
45 ft. 70 ft. ?
in. in.
1°25 4°67
1°32 793
1°32 2°55
2°09 1°80
3°22 3°50
5°65 5°38
2°60 3°11
33 4oo
1°30 2°05
145 2°42
3°00 2°46
2°78 3°28
29°53 36°15
Twigworth,
Gloucester.
3 ft. 6 in.
50 ft.
SHROPSHIRE.
Haught itti
Rocklands. peg ‘Hall, Shrewsbury. iipeae er,
| : Shifnall. ’
son birt 0 ft.6in. | 4ft.6in. | 4ft.4in. | 5 ft. 0 in.
Seeicenesn 1000 ft. ? 450 ft. 192 ft. Sscdeo ic
in. ‘in. in. in. in.
4°75 3°94 2°61 1°00 4°90
66 1°82 °38 2°20 1'02
3°02 1°46 2°12 2°80 a7
1°37 2°00 *78 *60 1°45
3°27 2:31 2°87 1°00 4°04.
712 7°04 5°45 1°10 6°51
1°70 1°97 2°59 rs 1°88
4°95 5°86 5°78 3°15 4°59
2°35 2°82 1°74 4°10 1°37
27 1°63 1°59 1°40 2°35
3°52 157 1°63 1°50 2°43
5°39 5°45 3°69 "80? 4°13
40°77 37°87 31°23 20°80? | 37°90
Hengoed,
Oswestry.
4 ft. 8 in.
eoaweeeee
45°51 |
310 REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division VI.—West.Miptanp Countiss (continued).
STAFFORD. WonrcEstTEr. Warwick.
| Orleton, Stoneleigh at )
1860. Leek. Worcester. | Tenbury. poms Rugby. Biswinehs :
pacieht of | Ground... 25 ft. Oin.|| sss. O ft. 9in. | Off. Sin. | 2 ft. 4in. | 4 ft 6 in.
Pecer tp bertevel,| cesses |] Sate oe 200nn. : |] Geatea 315 ft. | 340 ft.
above
in in. in. in in in.
OMNUAMY, -'3.30>e ne qversw =. 4°50 2°79 3°45 2°25 2°56 3°78
IH DYUATY (in... tee -See-- | 2°30 57 "4 |) « Io2 84 81
Marehe ..5t2.2..0sreees ih 4583 I'92 og | Il aang 1°89 2°01
AULA sec tens os tkteeeres ae 87 1°20 E232 58 121 1°08
INTAES: fu. acaenee'c dieemenes | 4°I4. 3°94 2°17 3°60 2°96 2°40
pUNOC Se ...- bc. Poe | 636 || 9g*go0 mos 5°70 5°36 6:26
Afri hy oie aoe Pee 2°62 aT Lory, |, seiko 1°40 1°45
VAUBUBE ...ssc.ccaesseoucs 4°88 4°70 S77 ill varae 3716 6°39
September ........1.02+5. 3°02 2°81 2°53 | 2°58 2°51 2°44
CLONER 5s cts<<ssdeboderes 5718 1°83 2°36 1°88 2°29 1°93
WWovermber 52.0.5 é.585.-.. 3°10 2°36 2°98 2°68 2°01 2°86
December ...........,++. 3°80 4°94. Ses: le aeag 1°35 3°75
Motals...£204«¢ 46°60 39°07 36°89 | 31°24 27°54 35°16
Division VII.—Norra Mipianp Countres (continued).
LINCOLNSHIRE (continued). i
1860. Grantham. Boston. Pal a = aoa Lincoln. st
picisht of || Ground..| 0 f6. O in. |... Oiide hia oa 3 ft. Gin. | 3 ft. Gin, |
A EAUE? (Sea lovel.| 199s | dsckauds Te ae Laon Me 100 ft. |
above {
in.
teen eeeeeseeeseees ci 3°74
cacoe desde ces “gi
REE heehee: ; 2°30
i; iscaeeoce eae 4 "49
boc setbes es eee ee ‘ 2°51
Ccacesk os oie Rees ic ; 4°30
Se cssse dos eee eas 7 1°93
nécn she a sete seen 5°35 4°09 4°25 4°49
NeptemPEr .:...cFeseesnes 2°88 2°96 3°79 3°14. 2°60
Ostoher. 5... 206 Seeeaes 1°78
beaters eeeeeees
ENGLAND AND WALES.
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
Division VII.—Norra Mintanp Covntiss.
311
—————
LEICHSTERSHIRE, Ruruann.
Leicester. Thornton. peer Bolnie Empingham.
borough
Ge aks 2 ft. 8in. | 0 ft. 4 in. | 0 ft. 8in. |] 4 ft. Oin
coeapee a BE 210 ft. ? 237 ft. Senectoe
in. in. in. in. in.
2°95 a eee 2°92 2°35
"78 Tayees ||) fesse cages 1'08 95
2°75 DAE |) sas secarss 1°67 1°80
“9 So || anos oa $7 "30
2°39 Si ZMeR |) voc vexews 2°76 3°00
3°72 ABGMe ||| Missa vo<ep 3°54. 3°20
{ Teas |. Vhs. esc s 1°54. 1°15
6°54 A5OR ees |: bese sdetee’ 5:60 2°81
| 2°42, 2°90 3°54 2°06
2°67 1°64. 1°76 2°06 1'70
1°37 2°69 T'g0 1°94 2°45
“98 2°36 1°63 2°01 1°75
24°99 29°66 ” 29°23 23°52
Lincoun-
SHIRE.
Wytham-
on-the-Hill.
wesey
w
N
°
iS
Division VII—Norrn Mipranp Counttus (continued).
Gainsboro’.
8 ft. O in.
38 ft.
Linconnsuire (continued).
Stockwith.
Brigg.
3 ft. 6 in.
16 ft.
in.
3°55
Ir
2°60
‘79
3°37
4°40
1°72
3°96
2°14
I'Io
2°52
2°01
29°27
Grimsby.
15 ft. O in.
42 ft.
Barnetby.
New
Holland,
3 ft. 6 in.
18 ft.
Norrine-
HAMSHIRE,
Highfield
ouse.
O ft..0 in.
162 ft.
312 REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division VII.—Norre Moranp Covntiss (continued).
NorrincHAMsHire (continwed).
| | ]
1860. Highfield | wetbeck. | Worksop. | Retford. | Boe
Height of || Ground..|25 ft. 0in.| 4 ft. 0in. | 34%. 6 in. | 3 ft. 6 in. | 3 ft. 0 in.
gans fSeaclevel| 187 ft. | -.....-.. 197 ft. | 52f. | 5Oft.
above
in. in. in. in in.
JANUATY ..........0020e0-- 2°58 3°62 3°29 3°44 S27
February .........+--+.- "81 "69 1°54 53 *60
Mare 2-5: s.scesme-=- 1°99 1°94 1°go | 2107 rapt
PAD ce. cccee son eaeteeees “5a "84 5° | 54 54
IM ny 2 nn. sas vs -eieeses 3°32 3°21 2°78 2°50 2°34.
dumb t: 4: --o csete se = - 3°25 3°11 3°93°) | 2xoyl | 238
Julbyige8 saxse-esceeee 1°27 1°89 2°55 2°07 | 2°09
August®....2.....cs-0-+-- 5°56 5°78 5°53 4°75 4°86
September .........+...+- 2°80 2°98 2°38 | 3°86 3°84
Octdbemn.-.t--<-s2:0----- 2°15 1°86 1°97 | 164 | 1°58
November .........---..- 2°53 2°53 2°48 27297 2°16
D)eCRAAMER co-.<-.-0+-+-- | 2°34 2°49 1°67 2°46 2°44
|
Potals .....5:...3. | 28°71 30°54. 30°61 | 28°13 28°13
Division VIII.—Nortn-WestEern CovnrTiEs.
CHESHIRE.
) Sponds
1860. Boies Boley, ) ee Sees Till, Whaley.
| Bollington.
j aap Ns aca 6 Ra #| es Pr roe
Height of | Ground... 3 ft. 6 in. | $f. 6 in. | 3 ft 6 in. | 3 ft. 6 in. | 3 f% 6 in.
“GAUZE fF Sea-level. 1210 ft. | S90ft. | 539 ft. | 1279 ft. | 602 ft.
above )
} in in. | in. in. in.
SANUALY <.:5005..ceeees=- 1 2g Brags |.) 3°47 4°20 3°97
February ........-+-+++- *50 “5's | 81 "49 "39
March « <2 3::..cceeeeee- 2°30 3°24 4°50 7°92 7°31
Aprils... cisencea-no--s "95 og |. 1°41 2°08 1°34
May. t <p. 220s -scormeten==- | 3°34 2°80 3°06 4°56 4°30
JUUGp sn-+ = -0e-.seneenee- 5°47 BIS oh | Ve See 6°57 6°98
UL Yip .--oseee oe seeeeee- 2°27 2°15 | p25 3°88 3°58
Aupugh) ...i....caseee- 693. | 6°66 6°53 6°07 5°62
September .............-- | 2°98 2°50 2°38 2°86 2°65
Ochaber’.... << 5. <seeebeos 3°37 2°63 hh) Sg 5°44 515
November .........:----| 2°60 2°03 > efgx |< 264. 2°56
December «......J:<-5--- | 2°35 | 2°13 2°84 1°90 1°99
Ratals ‘-..<2-.285< | 36°21 | 34°03 38°64. 48°61 46°84.
7 ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 313
4 ENGLAND AND WALES,
Division VII.—Norra Mipranp Countizs (continued).
‘ DERBYSHIRE.
E Darby. Chatsworth Combs Combs Chapel-en-
Gardens. || Chesterfield. | Norwood. Moss. Reservoir. le-Frith, | Woodhead.
5 ft. O in. | 6 ft. Oin. | 3 ft. Gin. | 3 ft. 6 in. | 3 ft. 6 in. | 3 ft. Gin. | 3 ft. Bin. | 3 ft. 6 in.
179 ft. 404 ft. 248 ft. 238 ft. 1669 ft. 710 ft. 965 ft. 939 ft.
in. in, in. in. in. in. in. in.
BOT | cvteesaee 4°16 3°59 4°39 5°28 4°34 5°46
te), .2u823.. "64 "63 "93 a7 1°16 2°89
ol ae 2°36 1°97 3°96 7°24. 5°62 8:28
*76 1'27 "69 “31 1°46 1°87 1°50 Zr
3°70 1°78 3°35 WOg 410 4°29 3°70 5°32
5721 4°69 4°26 3°48 9°23 7°00 6:02 1122
1°89 "87 1°20 1°85 3°60 3°93 3°39 3°38
6-23 5°68 4°45 3°94 8-88 714 6°34 6°72
254, 2°60 2°05 2°02 3°52 3°27 2°68 3°81
2°52 3°13 1'72 2°05 6°15 6°02 4°93 7°30
51 3°05 2°30 2°70 4°01 3°51 2°91 Gor
2°52. 2°60 2°36 2°63 77 3°45 2°40 2°85
SE Pe cere 29°54 27°66 53°00 54°17 44°99 66°35
Division VIII.—Norta- Western Covuntiss (continued).
4 Cusine (continued). LANCASHIRE.
s
ack H use,| Hill End, | Matley’s | Observatory,| Sandfleld Old Sale,
fai ale Top. Mottram. woes Newton. Eweriook ae eh Peet tor Manchester.
3 ft. 6 in, | 3 ft. 6 in. | 3 ft. 6 in. || 30 ft. Oin.| 2 ft. Qin. | 3 ft. Oin. | 2 ft. 3 in.
680 ft. 399 ft, 396 ft. patie |) tae. 106 ft. 134 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
SB S000: 2°97 2°35 1'70 3°26 3°58 3°38
Racer 48 *60 *50 Itt 87 "90
4°52 4°57 3°50 1°86 2°98 3°47 3°09
153 1°34 1°29 77 “71 31 m05
3°99 3°99 2°41 1°88 2°78 2°69 2°53
761 6°47 6°79 3°13 5°38 6:04 6-46
2°99 2°78 2°16 1°54. 1°80 1°66 2°02
5°29 5712 4°48 6°03 6°50 5°17 5°45
271 2°76 2°18 a7 2°17 2°38 2°42
4°50 4°26 4°07 2°44 3°82 3°43 3°34
2°67 2°39 2°51 118 1°95 211 2°38
1°69 1°80 1°60 174 2°94 2°93 3°22
seteenee 38°93 33°94 24°53 35°40 3614 36°24
B14 oe: REPORT—1862, ~~
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division VIII.—Norra-Westenn Counties (continued).
Lancasuire (continued).
Market-st., | Piccadilly, e Waterhouses, The Folds, Belmont,
1860. Mancha Masse letes: Fairfield. Oldham. Rokaurle- Bolton.
rr | er a | ET
Height of | qround..| 3 ft. 0 in. | 46 ft. Oin.| 6 ft. O in, | 3 ft. 6 in. | 2 ft. Oin. | 0 ft. 0 in.
ave Pne. { Sea-level.| 1... . | 194ft | 312%. | 345 ft. | 200f. | 800ft.
JAWUARY oa pscesedebederces
sbeery
Marely ~ ..cs.cccdedsdeces»
AYU sc. 050 scostedderen:
WT Oe enter ecce
OUBE Klee decor eeeeerss
DORNER. vv goin ne Gee ees:
PRU BUA, 5 tno0evaugetesse=
September
WGEABEN a decses Gpideiess
November ....
December
Totals
Division VIII.—NorrH-Western Counrttizs (continued).
LAncasHireE (continued).
| 1860. 4 Bleasdale, Caton, Holker, | Wra Castle,| Coniston
: Garstang. Lancaster. Cartmel. | Windermere. Park. Sheffield.
qicisht of | Ground. 4 ft. 6 im. | 2 ft. 4 in, | 4 ft. 8 in, | 4 ft. 9 in, |4 ft, 11 im. 8 ft 6 i
above. { Seaclevel.| 600 ft. 120 ft. | 155 ft. 250 ft. 154 ft. 188
in.
DANUALY <atssce. haspeoss- 3°43
Pebraary .....capieeee- *62
Margh: ..ths.siteetaeeens 1'60
Ara y s3is hostess: *69
May, -yi.csdis ive eaprke<se 2°17
JUNQ-Giissteccendeetdesnes 4712
Db yy 5355 - bescecteeesess 1'97
AUPURE ..)..sc0kanaderess 3°77
September ............... 2°09
October ..\.. ccesipecees 2°39
November .....;...<..... 2°40
December ............0:. 2°33
Motals sssda ce
27°58
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES,
ENGLAND AND WALES,
Division VIII.—Norrn-Wesrern Counrms (continued).
LANCASHIRE (continued).
315
Standish, | Howick, | Fishwick, | Houseof | House of /gouth shore, Cinerratntl
Wigan. Preston. Preston. Correction, | Correction, Blackpool. | Stonyhurst.
Preston. Preston.
O ft. O in. | O ft. 6 in. | 24 ft.0in.| 1 ft. 1 in. 153 ft. 6 in.| 1 ft.8 in. | 0 ft. Oin,
285 ft. 72 ft 154 ft, 140 ft. 187 ft. 29 ft, 381 ft.
in. in. in, in, in, in. ie
4°14 4°53 3°52 4°04 3°50 3°85 4°70
1°33 1°05 "96 I'00 78 1°40 1°80
4°78 3°61 3°32 3°58 2°91 2°90 6*10
1°09 1°37" 1°04 1'I4 "93 r'00 1'70
4°42 3°00 3°16 3°43 3°10 1°50 4°20
6°78 5°06 4°32 5°09 4°46 3°65 6°40
2°49 1°33 1'92 1°49 1°42 125 180
7°10 5°67 5°48 5°69 5°48 5°30 640
2°90 2°24 3°20 2°19 1°94, 2°10 3°50
4°96 4°86 5°20 5°30 4°33 4°20 7°79
3°29 3°19 2°32 2°39 2°10 1°70 2°80
2°76 3°85 1°60 2°52 2°33 2°85 3°50
46°04 39°76 36°04 37°86 33°28 Ze | 32°70 50°60
Division IX.—Yorxsurrz (continued),
Yorksome—West Rivina (continued),
Broomhall
sean 3 Hedman, ee Penistone. | Carlcotes. | Standedge.
0 ft.4in. | 3 ft.Oin. | 0 ft. Lin. | 3 ft.6 in. | 3.6 in. | 3 ft. 6 in, 2 ft. O in.
337 ft. 1100 ft. 61 954 ft. 717 ft. 1075 ft. 1150 ft.
in. in. in. in. in.
4°85 4°51 FOR | canceenee 5°50
1°31 1°69 TRO lh: weedresve 1'50
2°53 4°88 3°908 | r-eeseee rae 6°50
1°25 1°57 1°39 2°09 2°50
2°91 3°25 2°83 3°59 3°50
4°49 5°49 4°05 7°88 9°50
Bib ap 2°04. 162 2°69 2°50
4°91 6°13 3°75 6°05 6°75
2°50 3°11 1°27 2°78 4°75
3°07 4°52 2°15 6°12 8'00
3°39 3°66 1°84 3°40 3°75
4°47 3°44 1°84 2°48 2°00
37°19 44°28 ZOtEE PE ll sschepeee 56°75
316: REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division [X.—YorxsuireE (continued).
Yorxsuire—West Rivina (continued).
Ackworth | L od, Rastrick,
1860. Saddleworth. “Vita. |Hudderstiela,| Wakeffeld. | pryaderefield.
pleisht of | Ground... 5 ft.0 in. | 0 ft. Lin, |24 ft. 0 in,| 4 ft. O in. | 2 ft. 0 in.
Love” | Sea-level. 640 ft. | 135 ft. | sesso 115 ft. | 410 ft.
above |
in. in. in. in. in.
DPANUALY 5 .00iscocrdovodeos 4°46 3°86 gan 3°50 3°92
MWebeUaRY | *250.-226ehtt... 1°04 93 Io *g0 1'28
Mar Ol O53: 0 .scseRiebes.. 4°61 220 3°37 2°06 2°83
PAPIULT Aces. dsecaetetedy ss 1°76 *69 1°65 ye} rig
MAYOR isis: sesscathno bens 3°16 4°60 2°38 2°98 2°48
PUNO Pec'sces as dewctetetnce] 8°28 4°06 5°82 4°81 4°94
SULLY A ties atcs de caemelro' ae 289 1°86 1°69 3°54 1°50
AUGUSE ...sc00008 renvaee| 5°77 4°00 3°84 4°09 3°98
September .......2...00.6| 3°45 2°96 3°18 2°26 2°22
OatODER 55 556000 de es 5°44 1°92 3°98 1°65 3°27
Novenibor .......0.0.5... 3°98 2°55 3°25 3°28 3°25
December .........s.0008 2°17 3°42 1°34 3°69 2°51
Totals ....0.00 seve] 46°59 33°06 34°74 33°48 | 33°37
Division [X.—Yorksuire (continued).
Yorxsaire—West Ruining (continued).
1860. eee eet Eecy Bang Settle. Clapham.
Recight of || Ground... 5 ft. 0 in. | ft. O in. | 24. 6 in. | 40 ft. Oin.| 5 ft, O in.
nbave © [| Sea-level., 455 ft. | 340 ft. | 500ft. | 498 ft. | 550 ft.
in. in. in. in. in.
DARUSNY «ash erenneesiers 3°84 3°28 3°70 6°96 4°79
Hebyaary .o--neearesoes 1'07 1°35 *70 1°98 1°61
Maney .-.be-reecepeere 1°88 1°98 3°00 3°70 4°46
Isl "96 1°30 1°22 2°06
2°97 2°75 3°50 3°37 2°59
5°22 4°45 5°90 4°30 5°32
3°49 3°15 2°40 1°16 1°53
4°90 3°90 1°90 5°33 611
3°10 1°81 2°00 1°95 2°20
bee 1°93 3°20 4°98 cin
November; .0...5-2:5--- 2°99 2°79 3°30 3°58 2°97
Decemier .5-..5-¥.n22000 3°45 2°65 3°40 3°25 3°10
Motels’ .cc) sesvees 35°85 31°00 34°30 41°78 41°64
Well Head,
Halifax.
1 ft. 0 in.
487 ft.
in.
3°97
1°60
3°26
1°22
3°16
4°98
1°47
3°77
1°98
3°63
3°35
1°94
34°33
Arncliffe,
2 ft. 6 in.
750 ft.
in.
6°29
2°54
494
3°95
3°28
6°66.
189
3°73
2°46
7°67
4°33
Beg
54°93
}
-} Hunter's
} a
| Halifax.
oa
1 ft. O in.
1250 ft.
7
in.
4°00
2°50
h 3°80
3°10
4°60
6°30
| 1°80
| 4°80
2°00
me 9°
| 2:90
a 1'60
L
| 42°30
q
Patrington.
.
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES,
Warley Moor,
Halifax.
1 ft. 0 in.
1425 ft.
in.
4°60
3°10
4°30
4°00
5710
7°20
2°40
5°90
2°40
57°
45°
2°00
| 51°20
one
paiding-
Moor.
32 ft.
-ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division IX.—Yorxsurrx (continued),
317
YorxsurreE—West Ripe (continued).
Midgeley
Mos
Halifax.
Hull,
M4 ft.8in. | 7 #.6in. | 4 ft. Oin,
| 32 ft,
12 ft.
in.
3°09
1'07
2°01
95
2°63
4°32
1°66
4°98
3°16
1°64.
3°08
315
Ovenden | Horton Hall,} Holbeck, Holbeck, [Philosophical
pert Bradford. Leeds. Leeds. Hall, Leeds,
alifax.
1 ft. 0 in. | 0 ft. 8 in. | 40 ft. Oin.| O ft. 0 in, | 40 ft. O in.
1875 ft. 496 ft. 135 ft. 95 ft. 137 f6.
in. in. in. in. in.
4°79 2°68 3°10 3°06 2°98
3°10 83 150 ‘97 “50
4°70 2°63 2°20 1°70 1°39
3°90 1°44 *50 105 whe
5°00 3°22 2°40 2°33 2'81
7°20 6°85 4°70 4°96 4°43
2°90 2°79 2°15 2°11 2°59
6:00 4°71 3°75 3°39 3°95
2°60 2°53 2°00 2°02 2°27
5°80 3°20 1°20 1°48 1°48
4°10 4°05 2°60 2°48 3°25
1°90 3°54 2°50 1°64. I'gt
51°90 38°47 28°60 27°19 28°31
Division IX.—Yorxsuire (continued).
YorxksuirE—Hast Ripine.
Hull. | Wheldrake. | Biyeieg” | York. Podlinee
27 ft. Oin.| 1 ft.4 in. | 1 ft. Oin. | O ft. 5 in. | O ft. 6 in.
30 ft. 40 ft. 150 ft. 50 ft. 500 ft.
in. in. in. in. {
3°44 3°09 2°90 2007" +t ee es
"93 49 1°90 1'99 ake A
2°31 2732 2°85 2°23 hig Bas
“68 125 112 rox 2,9 =|
2°03 3°00 4°05 3°27 SSe5
4°46 3°67 4°18 3°32 Ogg
1'29 2°48 2°70 2°37 Ped 2
5°68 3°94 4°00 373 3586
3°05 2°80 2°79 2°88 ‘S giao
1°33 1°90 2°50 1°46 te oS
2°69 2°49 3°69 2°07 BSBE
2°84 2°87 4°10 3°21 oes
3°°73 30°30 36°78 30°37
30°74
318 -- - -REPoRT—-1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division [X.—YorxksH1RE (continued). Div. X.—NortHern Counties.
YorxsHirE—Norta Rivina. Dourwam.
Stubb House, |
1860. Malton. |Scarborough.| Redcar. Darlington. |" “Winston, | Washington. |
Height of | round..| 1 ft. 0 in. | 9 ft. 0% 4 ft.Oin. | 0 ft. 9 in, |20 ft.Oin.|
Rainer | Srna 80 ft. Ql ft. 140%. | 4608. | 120%. | ©
in. in, in. hy
2°55 174 3/34. .
1°99 *86 1°26 ,
2°39 2°59 1'02 4
"77 1°16 85 |
4°25 81 wo; Gi
2°82 5°78 3°86
3°76 2°07 2°94
3°61 3°78 2°33
I'lg 1°35 1°87
2°00 2°07 1°80
2°08 2°87 2°70
4°50 420 Jor
sb iteteseb : r 31°91 30°28 27°61
Division X.—Norruern Counttts (continued).
CuMBER-
NorTHUMBERLAND (continued). cw
Stamford- | High House, The Flosh, | —
ham. Alnwick.
1860. Wylam. | N. Shields. Cleator.
Height of ) Ground..| Of. 4 in. | 14%. Oin. | 1ft.1 in, | Of Gin.
Sealevel.| 96f. | 124 ft. | 380ft. | 400ft.
1 ft..6 in. |
240 ft.
in. in. in. in.
4°10 4°28 4°50 7°67
1°77 2°08 1°80 2°65
2°19 f
"97 1°24 1'20
Ree teen eee eteeeees
see e wee weeee
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
319.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division X.—NortHern Counties (continued).
Durwam (continued).
Durham. | |, PishoP. | Sunderland. || Shotley Hall.| Allenheads.
1 ft. 0 in. | 30 ft. Oin.| 1 ft. 6 in. || 0 ft. 8 in. | O ft. 5 in.
338 ft. 140 ft. 130 ft. 309 ft. 1360 ft.
in. in. in. in. in.
3°31 2°81 3°66 2°36 9°91
1°46 1°12 1°29 2°51 5°19
1°66 1°35 1°13 2°94 4°99
"62 "87 "94 Vly 3:11
2°33 1°97 2°37 1°24 3°17
3°97 2°55 2°87 4°92 6°26
3°17 2°94 3°05 3°94 3°20
2°73 2°24 2°05 3°19 4°93
1°61 2°44 2°26 1°37 1°87
1'92 1°50 2°12 2°42 6°24
2°79 2°44 3°05 4°21 4°76
4°76 2°48 4°60 5°08 5°52
39°33 24°71 29°39 35°35 59°35
CuMBERLAND (continued).
i : Mirehouse,
| peeihwaite, Keswick. be rot Silloth. OE eee
1 thwaite. ‘
270 ft. 300 ft. 16 ft. 105 ft.
422 ft.
in. in. in. in. in.
23°79 1I°l4 © 8°25 5°79 5°55
9°23 3°22 2°51 1°90 1°46
vies) 6°51 6°47 3°64 2°93
‘5°04 75 2°23 mgt 1°54
9°80 3°57 2°84. 2°40 1°82
15°87 4°33 4°92 3°78 3°09
3°21 2°28 1°86 2°29 2°49
13°91 5°68 5°82 4°37 3°29
«668 1°32 1°65 1°29 1°44.
Mago 8°52 8°57 6°85 4°89
«4°76 2°11 1°99 1°84 riz
906 3°74. 2°68 2°15 2°00
“t4e20 | 54°17 49°79 37°81 31°62
NorTHUMBERLAND.
Division X.—Norruern Countrss (continued).
a ene ea
“1 ft. Oin. | 6 ft. 3in. | Oft. 5in. | 6 ft. Oin. | 47 ft. 0 in.) 4 ft. Gin, | 3 ft. 0 in.
i | | |
Allenheads. | Newcastle. Bywell.
6 ft. 9 in. | 42 ft. Oin.} O ft. 6 in.
1367 ft. 187 ft. 87 ft.
in. in. in.
3°43 3°59 4°55
5°25 1°04 Zz 15
5°34 1°25 2°88
3°33 "98 162
2°92 2°30 2°44.
6°62 3°10 4°59
3700 2°67 3°54
5°06 2°39 3°93
1°65 1°09 1°54
7°55 2°31 3°52
4°91 2°88 3°27
5°85 3°68 5°00
59°91 27°28 38°13
WESTMORELAND.
Lesketh How,
The How,
Kendal. Ambleside: :
Troutbeck.
149 ft, 200 ft.
in. in.
8°71
14°34
2°60 5°55
5°80 8°56
2°09 3°14
2°72 5°33
7°79 778
247 2°00
6°20 6°47
3°71 3°01
8°06 15°46
3°10 3°27
3°75 5706
57709 79°97. .
320 REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division X.—NorrHern Counties (continued). Deane eee pn
1860.
Rain-gauge
above
Height of |
One e eee n et eens
ore cere eee eee creer ey
Oe eee eee e eet etee
eee eee eee eee
eee) Serre ee ees
serene te eeaneee
eer ee eee eee eres
Sa eeeeteeene
1860,
Rain-gauge Ground..
Height of
ahore Sea-level.
eee e eee eteeeee
eee eee eee et
ee es
WEsTMORELAND (continued).
Lancregg,
Grasmere.
Ground..| 4 ft. 6 in.
Sea-level.
300 ft. ?
Dumfries.
0 ft. 5 in.
63 ft.
Lowther
Castle.
4 ft. 6 in.
Dumrries.
Drumlanrig.
186 ft. ?
fete eeeee
ee eeesees
SCOTLAND.
Brougham
Hall.
Division XII.—Sovrnern Counties (continued).
Wanlock-
head.
O ft. 6 in.
1400 ft.
4 ft. Gin. ?] 4 ft. 0 in.
|
GLAMORGAN) EA CARDIGAN. ||
| :
Ygualytem, | Haveord | tamper
2 ft. Oin. || 5 ft. Oin.
300 ft. 60 ft. 425 fi.
in. in. in.
8-12 8°27 6°60
2°99 3°66. . 2°cO
5°24 477 5°30
2°09 ae fe 2°50
5°52 3°32 270
11°23 6-70 7°50
3°63 2°36 4c
TBE 8°76 8°60
5°89 3'aixs ||) weep
6°93 530 |] = 4°60
479 3°Otry | || see
4°47 650} 480
5699 55°30
Div. XIII.—Sovtn-
Eastern Countries.
SELEIRK. || PEEBLES,
Wanlock-
head.
Bowhill. | Stobo Castle.
0 ft. 4 in.
1330 ft.
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 821
ENGLAND AND WALES. SCOTLAND.
ey Division XII.
Division XI.—Mowmovrusuiee, WALEs, AND THE IsLEs (cont.). SG AEE Coe wnras:
Anouesey. | Carnarvon Fuint IsLanps WictTown | Kiexcup-
vine x “anal | hn op ‘|| BRIGHT,
‘ai Fahd eae |
a el Llandudno. || Hawarden. / Guernsey. esse Beso 2M geese Cargen,
|
2 ft. Oin. || 0 ft. 4 in. | 0 ft. Oin. | 12 ft-0in.| 1 ft.Oin. | 0 ft. 2in. | Oft.4in. | 0 ft.3 in,
92 ft. 20ft.2 || 260 ft. 200 ft. 30 ft. 100 ft. 210 ft. || 80 ft.
in. in. in. i; ans in. in. in. in.
pesaetsos 2°10 2°45 6°60 4°10 619 7°05 6°93
Brat ves ° *50 "50 Heats 1°80 1°88 2°45 1°33
Bovedaees 160 2°45 2°20 2°36 3°03 3°85 3°67
secceeeee “go “90 2°50 87 2°43 tens 115
prcig- "= 2°00 1°95 4°CO 1°68 2°15 3°25 | 2°02
415 3°50 4°16 5°C0 3°28 4°97 560 || 5°43
1°38 1°50 1°38 1°70 81 I'0g I'lo | 2A
6°34. 6°70 4°95 6:co 3°53 4°31 4°25 4°99
3°42 2°70 140 3°80 Lz I'I4 1°30 1'26
599 4°30 2°00 3930 |. 2°54 5°95 4°65 6°59
2°39 1°80 1'96 4°20 3°99 2°04. 2°90 2°45
3710 2°40 3°70 6°60 6°47 1°99 3°65 5°58
Baeededs 30°00 27°80 48°00 33°20 37087 42°30 | 44°27
SCOTLAND.
Division XIII.—Sourn-Eastern Counties (continued).
Berwick. Happinaron. Epinzurcu.
Milne Mungo’s g East Thurston, Harlaw, North Esk
Graden, Dunne Yester. meaton. Linton. Dunbar. Edinburgh. | Reservoir.
a 0 ft.4 in. |] 0 ft. 6 in. | 13 ft.6 in.| 0 ft.3 in. | 3 ft.Oin. | 0 ft.6in. | 0 ft.6 in,
300 ft.? 267 ft. 420 ft.? 100 ft, 90 ft. 320 ft. 770 ft. 1150 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
4°70 5730 4°20 3°02 3°71 5710 6°30 4°90
220 “80 1°65 "71 “79 "10 2°30° 6:40
210 1°39 2°20 1°16 Is 3°30 3700 4°95
i *90 64. 1°60 68 83 "20 "80 78
| 1go 1°33 "85 "69 "73 1°70 1"40 1°51
5°60 4°01 4°27 3°34 3°44 4°30 4°50 3°95
| 4°50 2°13 2°80 *50 "70 "40 2'CO 2°39
2°00 1°69 2°60 1°50 2°OI 2°20 4°00 3°09
_ 160 85 3°56 "92 1°16 1°40 1°10 "95
(2°40 2°57 2°90 2°31 2°43 5°20 4°50 4°98
2°80 3°60 2°99 2°50 3°10 630 3°70 1°51
ine 5°56 4°78 4°12 6°20 3°90 4°50 3°65
| 4r80 | 29°87 | 34°40 | 21°45 26°61 34°10 38°10 39°06
322 REPORT—1862.
SCOTLAND.
Division XIII.—Sovrn-Eastern Countiss (continued). a ere
Eprnpurcu (continued). Lanark,
1860. | Glencorse. | Fernielaw. Muneiborth. Edinburgh. | Edinburgh. | Auchinraith.
Height of | Ground... 0 ft. 6 in. | 0 ft. Gin. | $f. 0in. | 7 0 in, |78.£,0 in.) 4 fe 9 in.
ore w 8° f Sea-level.| 680 ft. | 500 ft 60 ft. 200 ft. | 363 f%. | 150 ft.
in. ma. ab, | Shain. in. in. in.
WHNUAL Visa ievessctees co. 0: 4°80 5°50 4°21 3°63 1'77 4°00?
Hebruary s.....0000e0... 2°85 2°30 2RUS | Cecaccthce "79 2°94
Mare itt ede iis... 3°50 2°70 26% || ei ewaeken "66 2°75
Acptil Uieiiecesstetice.s. 85 60 78 "40 *40 "98? —
May ivi. ccdeoesferebeae. 1°05 1°25 1°85 2°16 109 1°73
SUH Syivvanucsscetestes + 3°90 4°05 4°37 3°53 2°45 3°51
SEY Sicctaskeosestenesss- 125 1°45 1°30 1°13 °97 2°70
AUPURDY <2ckse..sebutes.. "90 2°60 2°67 2°27 1°65 3°10
September ............++- 1°05 1°00 “98 -76 "34 er)
OCHIDER 9. 023. fes the 3°45 3°80 3°17 2°65 1°49 4°15
November ............... 2°10 3°20 2°18 2°68 1°53 1°45
December ..........005-+ 3°00 4°30 5°52 1°90 25 2°25?
Wotals: 06.20. - | 29°70 | 32°75 31°97 | cones ated 14°39 30°58?
Division XIV.—Sovurn-WestErn Counties (continued).
1860.
Height of | Ground.
Rain-gauge Sea-level.
above
wee eet eeneeeee
weet eee ee eee banee
Beet ee teen wees
RENFREW.
< Tr;
NitherF'sce,| Kilbarchan. “hea.
Paisley.
1 ft. 2 in. | 1 ft. O in.
350 ft. 350 ft. 85
in. in. in.
8-90 810 712
5°40 7°10 6°10
4°50 6"90 4°61
1°00 1°90 1°30
25° 3°45 199
4°00 5°85 3°55
2°36 2°45 1°35
3°25 5°35 4°20
1°50 2°52 1°75
5°50 8-10 6"10
2°25 3°10 1°50
2°30 3°75 3122
43°40 58°57 42°48
Greenock.
0 ft. ae O ft. 6 in.
64 ft.
Div. XV.—WEstr
Mipranp Countik&s.
Srreiine.
Stirling. | Gardens,
ee oe ft. 2 in
233 ft.? 8 ft.
in. in.
4°55 3°60
2°13 6°00
3°26 4°20
rio roo
1°42 r'0o
4°56 4°40
164 4°50
4'60 6°50
rig 1°20
5°14 4°20
1°54 3700
3°49 3°00
34°57 42°60
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 823
SCOTLAND.
" Division XTV.—Souru- Western Contes (continued).
Lanarx (continued). Ayr.
Hillend
Meaais, | Beileston.| “House, | UEaors| 0.6. Often |Avchendrane | y,.., | Brisheno
18 ft. 0 in.| 0 ft. 3 in. | 7 ft. O in. | 0 ft. O in. | 56 ft. O in. || 2 ft. 3 in. | Of. Gin. | Of. Oin. |
250 ft. 230 ft. 620 ft. 200 ft. 160 ft. 94 ft. 30 ft.? 125 ft
in. in. in. in. in. | in. in. in.
3°67 419 3°38 3°60 3°42 | 6°43 4°90 6°70
2°14 2°53 2°10 2°18 2°50 / 3°80 4710 4A'T5
2°44 2°84. 2°80 4°33 2°84 4°30 4°60 4°75
"90 1°36 1°06 1°18 *80 1°62 1°90 2°00
1°72 2°27 2°31 2°37 1557 3°08 2°90 3°00
3°00 4°23 4702 5°73 3°85 4°58 4°10 4°45
2°24. 1°64 1°28 1°83 1°49 1°72 2°30 2°20
2°12 3°60 3°27 4°47 3°34 3°95 4°40 5°35
+56 1°22 I'l7 I'lg IOI 1°75 2°50 2°75
3°80 4°81 517 4°59 3°38 6°74 5°50 ‘5°80
141 1°83 1°96 2°20 1°23 1°64. 4°50 3°50
2°02 2°48 1°97 2°29 3°44 2°32 2°90 3°80
———————
26°02 33°00 30°49 35°76 28°87 41°93 44°60 48°45
Division XV.—Wesr Mipranp Covntres (continued).
Burr. Areyut.
[7 La La . . S eeeeee
_Isle of Castle Hafton Kilmory, The Castle,
Cumbrae. Rothesay. Toward Dunoon, | Otter House. ee Callton Mor. Inyerary.
ead.
£ft.6 in. | 10 ft. Oin.|| 4ft.Oin. | 4 ft. Oin. | Oft.6 in. | 4f. Gin. | 4 0 ft. 0 in
«50 ft. 40 ft. 80 ft.? 40 ft 130 ft. 100 ft.? 30 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in.
5°70 5°68 6°61 5°75 7°96 6:20
460 3°83 6°99 3°49 4°35 6°00
5°60 5°21 $18 4°20 6°87 7°10
2°00 1°74. 2°50 2°35 2°56 5°20
3°50 3°66 4°17 4°28 4°09 6°00
4°70 4°61 5718 4°10 3°94 2°20
2°20 1°68 2°96 1-21 2°83 6-30
5°30 5°62 5°94 6°50 6°94 3°10
2°50 2°83 4°04, 2°26 1°81 7°00
5°70 6°65 10°56 710 7°71 12°20
3°20 2°98 2°23 2°63 2°54. 2°10
3°20 2°69 2°47 398 2°12 3°00
48°20 47°18 61°83 47°76 53°72 45°35 66*40
824 ; REPORT—1862.
SCOTLAND.
‘Division XV.—West Miptanp Covntrzs (continued).
Division XVI.—East ssccmimesic
CovuntTIEs.
Aneyuu (continued). Kinross. Fire.
1860. goed, Oban. sae Loch Leyen. Balfour. Machen, :
ae ee Se toe | awit A
picight of || Ground..| Ot. 6in. | Oft.Oin. | 1f.Oin. |... Oft.4in. | Oft. 6in
Bas? f Sea-level.| 25 ft. LOstc;| peOdeue | score 127 ft. 80 ft.
above |
in. in. in in. in
ATA ccs aeons aadeghays: 4:90 | 4°90 3°70 2°20 4°14
IREDEUSEY | oc.c=:-ysqnanes FIG... | 480 T° 5Oie | 1°30 b Op fo)
March...........-00esee0es : | |) 6:20 | 2°60
Pore reer eee errr res
eee eee eee ee
seen eeeenee
Division XVI.—Easz Miptanp Covntizs (continued),
Pertu (continued).
Between Glen Stronvar, .
1860. Finlas and | Glengyle. peabberaeter Loch Barn Colquhalzie | nyinity Gask.
Height of Ground..| 0 ft. 6 in. | 0 ft. 6in. | Oft.Oin, | Oft. 3in. | Oft. 5in. | Oft. Lin.
Rain-gauge /Sea-level.| 1800ft. | S80ft. | 150ft. | 460ft. | 604%? | 135ft,
in. in. in. in. in. in.
SANUALY, ...0000cererseenee 6:20 10°50 4°74 8:05 4°00 4:70
February ........-+000-- 2°40 14°50 65 6°45 3°20 "go
IMATION i 5 occ t-sosenegee b be fe) II‘20 2°19 10°35 3°75 2'70
JAS p Yl 5. <.<a-ssncmpgamen> 3°10 2°80 39 2°65 oar "20
May ocn.s.0..0sssponsneee 3°20 6°20 1°43 5°45 1°60 1°30
GIRL Og isle. ce ono saat 8°50 9°40 3°69 9°55 5710 4°50
DULY. ocp.-.cseseeceseneees 5°70 2°10 2°49 2°80 2°85 2°70
IAUIPUBE... «..00<0.senepansar 6:20 7°50 2°74. 6°70 3°50 3°20
September ..........-.0.- 2°30 5°80 3°33 3°95 1°09 *90
RO CLOBER) on a.e-00>sanpseeire 5°70 | 14°10 2°98 11°06 4°30 3°30
NOVEMBER 25.0.0 onsngs ss 2°70 4°30 2°39 4°38 4°30 415
December ............-.- 6°70 | 5°80 3°18 4°25 3°90 4°00
Matale .s.ccascngs 53°80 | 95°20 | 28°70 75°64 37°85 33°55
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES,
SCOTLAND.
Division XVI,—Easr Mrpranp Countizs (continued),
Firs
continued). Perri.
Pittenweem. Aberfoyle. Ledard. eepanrcee, Deanston. |Ben Lomond. Britas of re
Sft.Oin. | Oft.6in. | Oft.Gin. | Oft. 4in. | Oft. Oin. | 0 ft. Gin. | Oft. Gin. | Oft. Oin.
75 ft. 60 ft. 1500 ft. 100 ft. 120 ft. ? 1800 ft. 270 ft. 150 ft. ?
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
3°93 5°20 3°40 3°60 3°70 9°50 8°50 4°00
108 180 2°10 |} tad 2°95 0700 4°10 5710
2°48 4°40 1°50 3°00 3°90 12°70 6'20 4°80
87 "20 2°00 *60 65 2°00 1°90 "70
95 3°40 5°50 1°55 3°15 8-00 3°79 3°30
3°35 6°80 14°00 435 3°55 II'0o 8*10 5°50
roo “40 400 2°40 2°85 440 3°20 2°55
2°04 3°80 9°40 4°10 5°40 10°40 5°20 5710
“48 3°20 6°40 1°30 | “70 5°60 3°30 2°00
2°55 6°20 10°50 4°30 4°99 14°70 8:00 5°60
3°30 2°10 640 320 06©6| «= 280 3°60 2°90 3°20
4°33 2°90 8-30 3°70 2°75 160 479° 3°25
|
27°36 40°40 73°50 34°10 37°30 83°50 59°80 4510
Division XVI.—Easr Mipranp Covnrtzs (continued).
Perri (continued). Forrar.
: ~ ame Reonk' Palace. Teen Stanley. Aree Dundee. Barry. Craigton.
ft. 3in. | 2 ft. Gin. | Oft. 3in. | 1ft.Oin. | Oft. Gin. || Oft.Oin. | Oft. 3in. | Oft. Oin.
66 ft. 80 ft.? 792 ft. 200 ft. 300 ft. 60 ft. 35 ft. 440 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
3°55 2°90 8'20 2°30 2°90 3°75 3°03 3°50
2°17 1°00 7°90 2°20 *g0 1°28 “94 1'73
2°74 2°88 8°30 2°50 2°10 1°93 2°23 2°55
"56 22 1'20 *38 *30 S64 "41 "80
152 “98 4°90 1°35 1°70 1"'IO "13 1°05
711 5°50 6-40 6°37 5°40 5°65 4°38 5°30
3°59 2°67 2°70 3°13 3°10 3°10 2°62 3°80
3°45 1°32 6°60 2°50 3°10 3°00 2°65 - 3700
1°16 “80 4°70 66 1°80 85 1°50 1°co
3°14 2°00 15°80 1°50 1°50 2°00 2°43 2°67
m5 | 3°23 3°59 3°40 4°90 5°20 4°63 6°37
} 4°64 5°25 2°50 482 | 4°80 6°52 3°85 5°80
|— | eee = al
37°88 28°75 | 72°70 Zit 32°50 34°71 28°85 37°57
826 +. 7 > REPORT—1862, > - a
SCOTLAND.
Division XVI.—Easz Mipianp Countizs (continued),
Forrar (continued). KINCARDINE
1860. Kettins, | Hillhead: | Seichen, | Arbroath, | 2useum,
Montrose. Brechin.
picight of | Ground... 1 ft. in. | 0 ft. 0 in, | Ot. 0 in, | 2 ft. 0 in, 0 ft. 6 in,
bee | Sealevel.| 218 ft. | 500f%. | 550ft. | 65 ft. 210 ft.
above
in. in in. in in.
JADUALY ...002+-wageene 0. 3°41 3°48 3°51 3°41 3°60
Bebyuary |,..>-<sarayss+- 1°54 1°76 1°77 1°05 2°70
MEINE ses ns yey apec>= 2°31 2°50 2°65 1°96 2°70
PATINEL. Soo duce ss xa. #2 "45 84 93 78 1°20
IN ai o's a ss'v i ahitegn ss < I'21 1°17 1°61 1°18 2°30
UNO yea tates ve Bay nae se 6°77 5°68 6:00 4°75 610
PONS Js «ose wus ettdeapeas > 3°12 3°00 3°00 1°87 3°10
PURO. «sles ca's adap vans 3°48 3°07 3725 2°96 4°10
September ......csecess-. 35 95 gt 1°04 “50
Oaiabar . is... genes 2°16 2°85 2°80 2°51 2°80
November .......¢..2.++ 512 6°45 6°70 4°33 580
December .........+.-++: 6:07 5°68 5°77 4°64 6°60?
Motals dase: 36°39 37°43 38°80 30°48 41°50? |
Division XVIII.—Norra-Wesrern Counties,
Ross. | INVERNESS. |
1860 Stornoway, Beaufort Culloden Portree, Raasay
Isle of Lewes. Tale of] a. | Castle. House. Isle of Skye. House.
Reiners | Gromdy 0 ft. 3in; | Of. Gin, | 44. 6 in, | 34. Oin, | Of. 1m, | 4f, Om
shows Sea-level.| 70 ft. 15 ft. 40 ft. 104 ft, 60 ft, 80 ft,
in in in. in. in in
2°79 1°90 2°03 1°30 9°95 3°90
2°15 180 2°25 122 II'05 4°40
5°80 4°00 4°64 3°14. I1'75 6"g0
2°60 68 1'24 1°50 5°20 2°40
4°10 7o "92 1'00 5°56 4°15
2°44 1°88 3°19 2718 3°96 3°25
1°46 3°90 1°85 181 2°77 2°65
5°03 3°28 3°08 2°93 4°15 4°40
3°98 4°80 1°20 1°23 8:20 6°50
3°44. 3°40 4°67 2°46 17°86 13°70
2°30 3°90 1°41 1°53 2°86 2°40
December )....3.02<.-<3- 171 2°13 "96 121 5°58 2°95
in
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLEs. 327
SCOTLAND.
Division XVII,—Norra-Easrern Counties (continued).
Kincarpine (continued). ABERDEEN, Exer.
rien | Feces, | pegbat: | Banchory: || peocmas, | Aberdeen. |Castle News:|| ° Elgin.
ft. 3in, | O ft. Sin, | 1 ft. 6 in. | 0 ft. 4 in. || 4 ft. Oin. | 0 ft. 4in. | 1 ft. Oin. | O ft. Oin,
450 ft. 200 ft. 200 ft, 95 ft, 1110 ft. 100 ft, 915 ft, 125 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
412 3°40 3°50 4°20 2°78 4°75 2°67 1°67
2°44 2°80 2°20 2°50 2°40 2°10 3°92 1°35
2°95 2°60 2°88 2°30 3°04, 2°45 ale 2°65
165 I'Io 1°56 1°50 1'22 1°30 2°01 1°38
1°35 1°00 1°57 I‘IO 1°85 1°30 2°43 1°57
6°38 5°30 4°34 3°40 5°70 3°60 5°69 2°36
2°75 3°00 2°66 “79 1°67 125 3°06 2°66
4°83 3°80 5°93 2°90 4°94 3°40 474 3°22
73 "40 "96 1*00 1-09 1°55 1°06 2°24,
3°20 2°30 1°85 2°60 2°80 2°50 2°53 2°67
6°35 5°20 5°76 5°50 118 4°90 3°42 1°81
6:06 650 5°85 6:20 4°69 5°60 6°39 | 2°13
42°81 37°40 38°16 33°90 33°36 34°70 40°49 25°71
Division XIX,.—Norruern Covnrizs. Div. XX.
cont.) TRELAND
Se SurHeR.anp. ORKNEY. SHETLAND.
nued)
. Balf Royal
h Maddy. Duneghin Scourie, ae ast, Sandwick. Bressay. Institution,
ft. O in. | O ft. 4 in. | 0 ft. 2in, | 0 ft. 2in. | 0 ft. 6 in, | 2 ft. Oin. || 0 ft. 9 in, 150 ft, Oin.
20 ft, ? 6 ft. 20 ft. 30 ft, ? 50 ft, 78 ft. 20 ft. 80 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
410 I'90 2°50 2°60 2°20 3°00 4°70 5°39
2°35 2°70 3°80 2°50 1°30 1°81 2°30 1°36
6°00 3°00 5°10 3°80 2°60 3°40 4°70 2°54,
150 1°30 180 1-00 2°40 1'23 1'I5 105
3°40 I"90 2°70 3°40 1'90 2°28 2°55 3°32
100 3°50 2°80 2°80 I-40 1°69 1°50 445
3°20 190 2°10 I"40 “18 1°00 *90 1°06
405 3°80 3°20 5°30 4°00 4°88 3°50 2°37
4°60 1°30 4°10 4°30 1°99 4°65 3°70 1°66
870 4°00 690 6°70 4°99 5°49 5°60 1'29
| I'g0 2°30 1°40 2°50 3°00 3°53 3°40 2°83
1°35 1°80 I'g90 5°80 2°40 5°02 2°80 4°09
in = — ——_ — _——_—_ | |S | —_ _. _———.
i “65 29°40 38°30 | 42°10 | 28°18 37°96 36°80 3I°91
828 REPORT—1862.
IRELAND.
Division XX. (continued).
QuUEEN’s
WATERFORD. Care. gtr!
rei Spc | Sn ees tne a a ss feat me
1860. Waterford. | Portlaw. Boe Killaloe. Bortesiinis:
Height of | Ground.| 4 ft.0 in. |20 ft, 0in.| 1 ft. 6 in. | 5 ft.0 in. |) 9 ft in
aln-gauge ¢ Sea-level., 60 ft. 50 ft.? | 185 ft. 128 ft. 245 ft.
above
in. in. in. in. in.
JANUALY ......50ccneeeeree 6°05 7°50 5°22 7°07 4°37
February ......+-..00+++ 1°34 1'92 1°33 3°01 1°30
Marelr ...is.500sdsveese 1°31 2°84 1°97 4°85 2°76
Arora Sachs oscasesevoe = 2°19 1°44 1°45 2°12 2°38
May. ..0..csecssevascceses S045 3°92 2°38 4°52 3°09
ANT O Me ct cwesecs eum sees 9 6°54 5°68 5°72 5°84. 4°73
Duly- 2....2psccsseeesvere- 2°44 1°97 2°02 2°24. 2°78
Aupust ......00ceeneree-- 5°39 712 5°85 7°38 5°30
September ...........++++ 2°29 2°09 2°62 2°62 1"40
October: .. sh. 0s0Varcsces- 2°77 2°99 2°78 4°58 2°24
November ........--+++++ 3°54 5°40 3°28 2°64. 2°52
December ......+0++++++ 3°65 3°34. 2°94 1°89 197
Totals ...:-...4:-- 40°86 46°71 37°56 48°76 34°84
ENGLAND AND WALES, 1861.
Division I.—M1pp.EsEx.
ee a
MippteEsex.
1861 Chiswi A 2 Chiswell St. John’s
. swick. Guildhall. Guildhall. Street. Wood.
Bsewv eh | ewig) She 5 ft. O in. |7 ft. O in. 50 ft. O in.) O ft. 0 in.
SAUCE / Sea-level.| ......-+- 51 ft 12S) | aN 161 ft.
above
in. in. in. in. in.
JANUALY «...e2seereeeeeees 82 "45 "40 1°41 55
February .......0.-..++- 1°41 1°58 1°53 1°58 180
Mayol >< sderssnenanesene 1°89 2'07 1°94 2°17 2°22
April <..cchcctearpneons.- 1°44 1°30 Ton 1°30 1°26
Mayes: ssauceseaneeaer =F 1°31 1°26 1°13 1°30 1°36
GUNG Ses sedscnccemeeotess 2°35 2°49 2°32 3°04 163
DULVe. sicccseececuseee wees 1'90 2°47 2°20 2°71 2°87
(AUISUBL %s.eoc-coscmeaerere *50 *69 “60 "92 "39
September ..........-.--- 1°78 1°63 1°44 1°57 2°06
\Octanern .4--.sseseqne= =o 1'04 “86 “68 "92 97
; i 4°84 4°55
WIckLow.))
Fassaroe, |)
Bray.
$f 0 inl
250 ft. ?
Lal
°
xi
ee)
575%
Camden
Town, 9)
on. 4a
100 ft. |
«
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES,
IRELAND.
Division XX. (continued).
329
Sa
- Dusty. Mayo. Sui¢o. BE.rast.
SS
_ || Queen’s Ti
Galway. |) Dubie” | Glasnevin. | Monkstown. Lough Corrib, Marknce™” College, "Belfast ”
| — | ——
i. ea ia al a I|
Oft.Oin. || 28 ft. O in. | 6 ft. 0 in. | O ft. 6 in. |) 20 ft. O in. || 16 ft. 3 in. || 9 ft. Oin. | 4 ft. Oin.
40 ft. 96 ft. 65 ft. 90 ft. | GO ft.? 145 ft. 58 ft. 12 ft.
— —-— —— a | Lh Oh C™—_
in. in. in. in. tise in. in. in,
6°85 3°05 3°54 463. || = 7°92 5701 6°46 5°47
3°98 "29 “69 “50 3°66 2°83 2°52 2°48
117 1°64 1°95 1°94 3°99 4°13 3°14 3°79
3°10 1°52 2°23 2°08 | 1°76 1°94 2°07 2°21
3°68 I'g0 3°67 215 | 4°55 5°20 2°66 3°69
3°45 429 3°38 5B. | sae 6:20 5°79 6:07
205) 1°70 2°67 2°04 1°67 2°48 2°31 2°64.
5°00 4°53 4°18 5°10 440 || 687 4°61 4°78
1°72 1°68 1'99 1°99 1°92 1°38 121 1'29
3°84 180 1°87 204 | 47 3°76 2°78 2°57
2°04 1°88 2°31 2°28 It | 2°37 1°71 1°57
2°48 2°42 2°60 3°33 2°58 1°57 2°97 3°37
9°36 26°70 3108 33°26 43°44 43°74 38°23 39°84
ENGLAND AND WALES, 1861.
aie ; Division II.
Division I.—Mrpprxsex (continued). ken! Comme
Monviesex (continued). Surrey.
Hackney. | “Hoed” | "Hond” | Tottenham. | pucernge, | Wises, | Ham, | Kittens,
ft. 6 in. | 0 ft. 4 in. | 36 ft. 4 in.| 0 ft. 3 in. | 0 ft. 0 in. | 30 ft. 0 in.} 0 ft. 4 in. | 4 ft. 8 in.
40 ft. 270 ft. 306 ft. GOGH |i «..8t aa 140 F631 |) fosehoa 580 ft.
in. in. in. in. in, in. in. in.
“44 "45 28 48 "64 "62 "95
186 1°87 1°17 1'77 4°96 1°84. 2°80 2°05
2°30 2°33 1°48 2°14 2°26 2°41 3°20
772 1'26 98 "84 69 93 ‘91 °97
I'7o 1°24 83 1°25 118 I'07 32 1°62
. 178 1°82 1'26 1'75 1°83 I'l4 2°93 3°53
2°42 2°72 2°02 2°48 2°23 3°07 3:11 4°84
| *58 1'02 "44. 76 "74 rir *66 "99
| 166 '77 1'29 I'g0 1°86 1°54 2°41 2°94
| 84 104 "4. I'o0o "86 1°59 1°62 1°59
(5°30 3°46 2°35 4°44 5°23 3°58 5°27 6-09
(142 1°65 112 1°37 1°83 125 1'09 1°74
T’o2 | 20°63 13°96 20°18 | 21°41 | 20°02 2415 30st}
|
862, Z
_ ee
330 a! REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division II.—Soura-Easrern Counties (continued).
Surrey (continued).
cs ET
Deepdene. Denbies Brockham, | The Holmes Weybridge
1861. Dorking. Dorking. Betchworth. | Betchworth. | Cobham. eath.
—————————— aan saan EL
Ground..| 2 ft. 0 in. | 25 ft. 0 in.| 0 ft. 6 in. | 0 ft. 6 in. | 0 ft. 6 in, | 0 ft. 6 in.
Sea-level.) ..:...... 600 ft. 300 ft. 300 ft. 110 ft. 120 ft.
Rain-gauge
Height of
above
DANUBYY oh jsecencehetses: 83 “08 42 1'47 31 4.5
February 4....0scc.e+0s: 2°92 62 2°40 2°37 2°03 1°98
Maroht <..iecccctetsesess 3°43 3°24. 2°63 2°60 2°04. 2°25
SANDE! fy. cc hons csganetes ss 7 2°17 83 87 82 80
MaQ™ G.cu.pesenceeret os’ 1°30 "42 1°31 1°36 I'l4 1°38
June ...... fais Seyeee ta 2°68 3°60 2°38 2°22 3°89 2°41
SULE Hi: cegteecestueeee 3°35 2°10 3°64 3°42 1°92 2°65
AUBUB ras ctvadesrtests ses 1:05 1'00 “or 54 53 50
September .,..........0: 2°77 2°19 2°63 2°75 1°54. 1°65
OCCODER vectsadectsesss..- 1°38 2°14 1°33 1°63 "89 85
November ,...........+6- 5°45 5°33 4°92 5°24 4°47 4°73
December ...........65+
i | a | | |
Division II.—Sovrn-Eastern Counties (continued),
Kent (continued).
Welling, Greenwich | Greenwich | Greenwich Aldwick, :
1861. BexleyHeath. Observatory. | Observatory. | Observatory. || near Bognor. Worthing.
Rain-gauge ¢ goa tevel.| 150%. | 155%. | 177 ft. | 206 ft. 20 ft.
above
Haight of | roms 6 ft. Oin, | Of. 5 in, |22 ft, 4 in, | 50 ft, 8 in. || 0 ft. 6 in,
in. in in. in in in
DANWALY sa sencoreseOrtens: ‘47 60 "30 20 ip fe)
February ......css.c000. Ig! 1°80 1°40 1'00 1'I7
Maro « ..5s..ce0niediens 2°14 2°20 1°60 I°Io 1°71 |
ADU? cccvihscesseeeeene 83 "80 "80 80 58 |
Ma Re yin. ccsheaa dtenenes 2°00 1°60 1°50 1'20 1°61
SUNG? QE icccyicserd “aoe AEE 1°90 1°80 1'70 1°30 2'O4.
JUL a rhe saaygeevsenepens 2°24 210 I'90 1°70 2:82
AUGUBL coc spscoseeVeceses "7 ‘60 "40 "30 48 T'04
September ,......; fas: 1'25 1°50 bb Ce) *90 2°77 3°98
October .........5 Weis c . : ‘60 "29 ° 1°85
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLEs.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
331
Surrey (continued).
cr. Wandsworth.| Battersea.
) 0 f. Oin. | 5 f. Oin. | 0 ft, Oin.
| 18 ft. 58 ft, 13 ft.
in. in, in,
fee ee wees
* Dover.
Kent.
Hunton
Court, Linton Park.
Staplehurst.
Division II,—Sovrn-Easrern Counties (continued).
Tunbridge.
0 ft. 0 in,
125 ft.
Maidstone.
4 ft. 0 in,
60 ft.
in.
"48
1°87
Division IT,—Sovrn-Easrern Oounrres (continued).
Sussex (continued),
tington,
High ak Fun
Wickham, St. Leonards.| Fairlight | Chichester.
Hastings.
Yn | LR
Thorney | Qhichester | Shopwyke, [Bleak House,
Tandy near | Cehester | Ghonmyke, ler rout
| Oft. Gin. | O-ft. Gin. | 1 ft. 3in. | 4 ft. Oin.
10 ft. 20 ft. ? ft? 80 ft.
0 ft. 0 in,
212 ft. 10 ft.
0 ft. O in. | 0 ft. 9 in.
498 ft.
1 ft. 0 in,
10 ft.
J | |
eeeteneee
eeneeeeee
seen eaeee
——— | |S |
332 REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division II.—Sours-Easrern Counties (continued).
Sussex (continued).
1861. stindon. | Pca’ | Gnichester. | Ghickoster | “parms' | Ucklle
seen | Ground..| 1ft. Oin. | 4 ft. Oin. | Oft. Gin. | Oft. Gin. | Oft. Oin. | 6ft. Oin.
ete 7 8° (Sea-level.| 190 ft. 316 ft. 250 ft. 284 ft.? | 120ft. 200 ft.
in in. in in
75 78 34 23
2°56 2°08 1°25 1°78
3°25 2°96 2°15 2°51
79 “76 35 *69
1'79 1°55 1°24 1°56
2°45 2°34. } ; { 2°88
4°45 4°81 7 2°85
118 73 *84 1°16
3°94 3°94 3°65 377°
2°45 181 1°51 1°85
512 4°99 799 7°50
2°06 1'92 1°75 1°64,
3°°79 28°67 | 27°74 28°35
Division II.—Sovurn-Easrern Countres (continued).
Hampsuire (continued).
Ordnance 8. | OrdnanceS. | Gas Works,
1861. Fareham. |Office, South-|Office, South- Southampton. Petersfield. | Petersfield.
ampton. ampton.
picight of | Ground..| 1 ft. 0 in. | 18 ft. 6in.| Oft. in. | 10ft. 05m. | seessson 0 ft. Oin.
above © { Sea-level.| 8 ft. 94 ft. 75 ft. DO fie 4 wegen 200 ft.
in in. in. in.
81 000 77 96
2°37 1°52 3°2 2°90
3°00 1°83 4°51 4°18
41 "27 "40 61
1°63 1°39 77 1°64.
3°97 3°29 2°85 280
4°07 3°19 5°17 5°31
87 *60 1°33 I'09
3°07 2°90 4°50 428
1'09 7a 1°33 1°64.
6°47 4°61 742 688
2°09 1°16 *53 1°42
lh ie ee
.
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 333.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division I1.—Sourn-Eastern Counties (continued).
Sussex (continued), - | Hampsuire.
| Phe i |
Buxted Park. es, i hg None Crawley. | Ventnor. Osborne. Fareham.
Ses 1 ft. Oin. | 1ft.Oin. | Oft.6in. | 5ft.Oin. | 3ft. Oin. | Oft. 10in. | Oft. Oin.
peste. 2% 250 ft. 300 ft. ey Sens 300ft. | 150ft. 172 ft. 26 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
61 "47 “61 } a "83 38 59 I'g0
1°82 2°OI 1°77. = { 2°70 2°01 2°10 2°00
3°09 2°60 2°39 } e { Zone Il \ 295n 2°40 2°90
70 61 49 573 $3 |) “a5 45 30
1'76 1°87 1°27 2°13 2°38 | 2°05 1°56 1°80
2°65 2°55 2°16 117 3°49 2°90 2°54. 4°10
3°63 3°09 3°93 4°54 Sere || 25E 3°10 3°70
106 1°05 "94. 36" || “66 66 1"40
4°76 4°38 4°26 } 6°63 | 419 - || 3°27 3°65 3°60
2°28 1°96 1°79 1°97 1°89 "70 140
_ 840 7°76 6°72 2°59 648 | 710 5°74 5°70
181 1"g0 2°13 4°12 2°59 1°36 1"40 1°80
| | mr | ps | rf
32°57 30°25 27°56 28°57 34°25 27°29 25°89 30°60
Division I1.—Sourn-Easrern Counties (continued).
Hampsuire (continued). BsrksuIRE.
2 Royal Mili- Lon
aay Hichen Selborne. eee ee a, Aldershott. | | ary College, Wallinetond. Witten am,
Sandhur: Abingdon.
|
een 3 ft. Oin. | 4ft. Oin. | 1ft.4in. | 3ft.Oin. | 5 ft. Oin. | 7ft. Oin. | 1£t. Oin
a i eS 400 ft. ? 177 ft. 325 ft....|| 246 ft. 200 ft, 170 ft
in. in in in. in in in in.
"35 il 22 62 56 57 69 "87
2°23 2°12 1°94 Ig 2AGe Ss || | s.2a58 1°73 1°76
3°20 3°24 3°60 2°78 2°36 1°89 2°06 1°97
“48 "36 1°65 "28 “55 68 81 104
| 1°38 1°32 2°64 2°57 Thy 1°69 1-07 iz
| 2°28 1°78 3°15 2°05 1°62 2°06 2°47 2°76
| 4°97 3°72 3°21 Zur 3°22 2°96 Sia ae
| ‘To2 95 2°35 "47 75 "45 ‘78: "99
2°52 2°90 1°57 2°35 2°68 2°15 1°73 - 1°55
194° 1°37 1°g2 - *96 roo | 1°18 I'l4.- 1‘20
541 3°75 5°16 3°82 461 || 3°60 3°95 3°20
273 | 1°95 2°09 ° 1°58 L°17e 2 | 1°20 1°70 169
: 7°01 25°07 30°40 22°50 22° 5amrem| | 2.0806 20°76
334 ‘ REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division II1I.—Sovrm Mipranp Counties.
HERTFORDSHIRE.
Field’s Weir, | Gorhambury, Hemelhiem -| Berkhamp-
1861. Watford. | Hoddesdon. | St. Alban’s. stead, si stead. Royston.
Raingne | min 5 ft. 6 in, | 2f.0in, | 2.9 in. | 8 ft. Oin. | 1 ft. 6 in. | Of. 7 in.
above Sea-level.| 250 ft. SARUM, | Bites. 250 ft. 370 ft. 267 ft.
in in. in. in in in
DANUALY, 2...i.0..echtrae 38 85 "4.6 50 84. 1°30
Bebruary .i....<0séee.s 1°89 2°35 2°32 2°00 24 2°06
Marla | hs sscdso05sQuaettes 2°20 3°10 2°38 2°31 2°64 I'gt
(ADE ri -.25.d:02018ealnes: 65 1°28 “98 80 go 83
IMBYj[ovinesdscaecQbstdvss 76 1°40 105 g1 88 97
PUTO, ising esecdeos-o gus cr 2°73 1°95 2.75 2°45 2°07 I'g0
Wal yeievanescronteee (EIeve. 3°37 2°00 3°16 3°92 4°13 3°29
AMIZUSE co. .0d0000:Ghdta se *60 55 *go 55 1'02 66
September ...........6.. 2°04 1°80 1°86 1°75 2°28 1°03
October. ..-.c.... UVitse. "75 “go 1'25 1°25 4 1°08
November .........6..... 3°34. 4°60 3°77 3°36 3°94. 3°42
December’ ....... sii. 1°48 1°20 1°25 1°40 1'73 1°36
ane eS Eee Sea eeaeee ee ee eteneem ee ef ee
Totals .... ssi ae 20°19 21°98 22°13 21°20 24°10 19°81
Division I1I.—Sovra Mrpranp Countis (continued).
NoRTHAMPTONSHIRE. BEDFORDSHIRE. |
: Marholm,
1861. ply Leloes 5 Oundle, Peter- Aspley. | Cardington.
‘ borough.
puiieht of || Ground..|$ ft. 10 in.| Of. 2 in. |20 ft. Oin.| Of. Gin. | Of. Gin. |... |
abaTe” PROMOML) commas | Sade 4608.) htnacam
|
in. in in.
Panuary ....)....caiveo< 1°36 93 95
February ..\.....s06s-- 2°52 | 216 1°99
March ......\.....des2 te: 2°06 2°31 1°76
ASTI oye. <-.b.atetgieeses 1°58 1°32 87
MAY ig irivessshon-temenete, 127 1°36 rr ¢
June ........ beac sewaetee: 2°33 3°05 2-14
TULY wecegssccdascts sceva.. 4°13 4°52 3°95
AUPUBE. .....ke0cackenvec- 74 “44 “35
September 1°60 1°53 r'oz
October .<.:..4....camver: . 1°33 1'07 "84.
November Ee 3°01 2°99 2°65
December 1°33 161 1°38: 29
Totals '..;.< cases 23°75 23°29: 19°02
i" ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 335
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division III.—Sovrn Miptanp CounttEs (continued).
_ BuckIncHAMsHIre. OXFORDSHIRE.
Rose Hill, | Observatory, | Observatory,
< Oxfo i
Oxford. Oxford: Banbury. Banbury. Banbury.
a, Aylesbury.
1 ft. 0 in. 4 ft. Oin. || 7 ft. 9 in. | 0 ft. Oin. tae oa 7. 43n. | 4 iO | iia
250 ft. 290 ft. 208 ft. 350 ft. 840 fe | Sassi aan,
in. in. in. in in, in
46 "20 "66 53 "50 "54
1°64. I*50 I'90 2°68 2°71 2°75
2°22 1°70 1°68 2°27 2°34. 1°94.
74 86 “69 1°21 1°30 1°37
73 "64 1°36 1°62 1°62 I"40
2°02 Ign 3°12 2°15 2°03 2°00
374 3°31 5°15 3°36 3°26 3°25
‘78 "46 ‘60 43 37 57
180 1°51 1°94. 2°51 2°43 2°48
1'16 1°03 1°58 1°32 1°28 "99
2'60 2°67 3°07 298 2°74. 2°83
1°54 1°52 1°65 1°53 1°51 1°22
19°43 17K 23°40 22°34 22°09 21°34
Diy. I.—S. Mann Counrms (cont.). Division [V.—Eastern Counties,
pron CAMBRIDGESHIRE, Essex.
Mid-
een “Yeah | Now Beak) Oto | -maytens)’ | angio | Withame! | lashaon,
Wisbech.
5 ft. 6 in. sp 6in: | Oft.8in. | ......4.3 0 ft.4 in. | 6 ft. Oin. | 1 ft.6 in. | 1 ft. Oin.
104 ft... 8 ft. AD -fti.- |) ssatieedt 93 ft. 360 ft. 20 ft. 300 ft.
in in. in in. in. in in in
98 91 86 "59 *69 103 526 1°72
pe 1°80 1°55 1°77 1°68 1°76 1°50 61 2°32
1°93 1°63 1°55 1°44 2°IO 2°04, 2°48 r81
mm. 92 95 99 ‘60 88 1°35 *52 45
1°06 1°25 1°34. 1°31 I'Ig 1°55 90 129
196 3°22 3°18 2431 1°94 2°20 2°22 "79
3°34 3°62 3°80 4°67 2°57 1°85 3°62 2°40
"28 55 69 "5° 97 "75 63 53
etl? 1°65 1°73 1°37 1°95 1°65 bap b 1'23
| °86 "71 78 “80 99 bi Co) 48 *98
| 2°84 3°65 3°85 3°33 4°09 4°35 4°01 3°06
| 130 re7 1°65 1°38 1°33 1°05 83 “96
336
REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Essex (continued).
Division [V.—Easrern Counties (continued).
1861. Paice ad Dunmow,
Height of Gedund
Raranse | Grd hae 100 ft. ?
in. in.
JANDALY 0201,.. 002930500. 277 *60
Febraary® s.....5icc... 1°52 2°08
Marching ib...) 6/2... 1°80 1°81
Aprilistesccdhe scouts. "66 “92
Mayagsh.. sd se+ccnass . "95 1°08
JUNC egece eres -kaeh. 1°73 1°87
VULYs Beh.2.s-bsercctuee ? 2°10
ATO. eb eRe... | 3°14 { 38
September ...........;... 1°44 1°45
October’. 4.6 5..cnaik. "58 *46
November ............... 3°47 3°20
December ............... 1'03 1°22
Matals \...ic<'cee. 16°59 17°17
Division IV.—Eastery Counrres (continued),
‘eeeasiMenmnempdemieeiosmeceeeee re See neeEe 2
Norroux (continued).
Se ee eee eee
1861. Burnham. | Holkham.
x et Ground..| 4 ft. 6 in. | O ft. 0 in.
abore © { Sea-level.| 102 ft. | 39 ft.
in. in.
January ...c....seceeeeee- "99 1°00
February i.....ssie000e. 2°39 2°35
March t...descccaeesurene 2°73 2°25
ADEM ..cccckan ss hemes 1°35 1°65
Mays sisi: soa 1'97 1°70
Uarie aigss:.ct ses eee 1°54 1°30
Dilly piace: sceecs cee 2°78 I'90
AUIS URE sic .pcccnie eee *60 55
September ............... 2°24, 1'g0
October ....1....heewsce, 54. "43
November ............ .. 6°14. 5°50
December” ::.....pacccs: I'S 1°27
{> ., —————
Totals ....¢ss.t<.. 24°78 21°80
SUFFOLK.
Bocking, Grundis- Bury St. Westley,
rine: butets Ramah, Bay.
3 ft. Oin. || 4 ft. Lin. | 2 ft. Oin. | 1 ft. 6 in
200 ff/2 || +8 e8 eoscscees Sdtaddeve
in. in. in. in.
1°36 I"lo 1°31 1°03
2°55 |) ley: 2°69 2°36
259 1°33 195 2°04.
WE “40 "82 "74
85 1°26 1°14 I'lo
2°08 Ilr 22 1°57
2°34 2°02 2°20 2°12
"65 "94 “61 "49
1°77 1°53 1°27 the
“66 55 “80 °53
3°33 408 3°37 3°64 |
“90 1°40 1°22 bis de |
19°81 17°46 19°50 17°71
Division Y.
Sovrn-Western Covntres.
WIxTsuire.
Alderbury,
Holkham. Salisbury.
Bavyerstock. |Marlborough.
4 ft. O in. | 0 ft. 6 in.
3 ft. O in.
4 ft. 0 in.
weeeee
1S
Barton Hall,
Bury.
1 ft. 0 in,
in. .
20°70
VILTSHIRE
ontinued).
e acme
* Cain
348 ft.
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES,
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division IV.—Eastern Countres (continued).
Surrouk (continued).
Thwaite.
3 ft. 6 in.
150 ft.
in.
1l4
2°79
2°36
1°26
1'25
I'12
4°50
36
1°73
‘74
4°34
1°53
23°62
Thurston
Lodge, Bury.
=
Nether Hall,
Thurston.
eee eeeree
Division V.—Sourn-WestErn Covunrtiss (continued).
a ta re |
Little Bridy.
Portland.
. 2 ft. 0 in.
52 ft.
Encombe,
Wareham.
1 ft. O in.
150 ft.
DorseEr.
0 ft. 4 in.
348 ft.
Bridport.
O ft. 11 in.
95 ft. ?
in.
*60
3°92
3°44
“51
337
(ee eee ee ere
Norrouk.
Diss. Norwich. Egmere.
. | 0%. 6 in. | Of. Oin. | 4% 0in
115 ft. 30 ft. 150 ft.
in. in. in.
‘60 1°28 I'00
2°40 2°75 2°69
1'70 2°60 2°21
85 “go 1°86
I‘0o 1°34 2'O7
1°20 1°32, 1°45
4°70 4°93 2°82
"80 “48 "66
1°28 2°31 2°99
“45 “49 “72
3°40 Sor 4°97
1°37 1°39 138
19°75 24°80 24°82
Devon-
SHIRE.
Netherbury. | Forde Abbey. Kingsbridge.
O ft. 0 in. | 0 ft. Gin. || O ft. 6 in.
50 ft. ? seated 7 143 ft.
in. in. in.
89 1°03 1°90
5°15 4°72 2°20
3°97 3°84 3°94
55 “58 94
1°03 1°36 2°05
5°00 4°26 3°38
4°34 = A <a
“16 i, "4!
fae {| ey gee
2°29 3°01 2°63
612 5°57 5°61
2°54. 212 2°12
36°04 32°91 34°30
338 ; REPORT—1862,
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division V.—SovurH-WEsTERN CountIEs (continued).
DEVONSHIRE (continued).
Ham, Saltram Ridgeway, Torrhill, | Goodamoor,
1861. Plymouth. Gardens. BU abe Ivy Bridge. a aoe Torquay.
Height of | Ground..| $f. Oin. | Oft. Bin. | Oft.6in. | Oft.4in, | Of. 2in. | 1 ft Oin.
abate © { Sea-level.| 94 ft. 96 ft. 116ft. | 260f. | 580f. | 1504.
in. in. ci |) Gu. in. in.
2°75 2°53 2°74 2°76 "94
4°05 3°71 3°63 3°96 2°52
3°90 5°60 5°74 6°96 2°03
80 62 “5q 58 19
I‘or 33 "68 97 143
3°80 3°14 3°98 4°60 2°67
6°84 5°45 6°79 8°20 2°93
174 ied 2°01 3°45 47
3°81 4°51 3°83 5°92 1°95
2°34. 3°29 2°44. 3°81 1°20
7°5° 755 6°76 8:21 4°14
3°15 3°61 3°12 4°24 2°27
41°69 42°98 =| 42°25 53°66 22°74.
Division V.—Sovrn- Western Countiss (continued).
DEvonsuirE (continued).
Albert High Street, Tneslintiolty | \St. Thomas’s, |Clyst Hyda H
Terrace, xeter. Exeter. Exeter. Collumpto:
Exeter.
pea 6 SE |
3ft. Oin. | Of. 6 in, |
50 ft. 200 ft,
F ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 339.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division V.—Sovrn- Western Countts (continued).
DEvonsuireE (continued).
Highwick ituti Edgecumbe L
ime Teignmouth. Reiguancatt. pee rye | Dawlish: BoveyTracey. au Recuanis,
Oft. din. | 45 ft. Oin.| Oft. 8in. | Oft. Sin. | Oft. Gin. | Oft. Oin.
20 ft. 298 ft. : 62 ft. 100 ft. 160 ft.
in.
184.
s
sS
238
Sia!
2a
28
n
a0
ee
ee
3§
m.
2s
o8
=
Division V.—Sourn-Wesrern Countizs (continued).
DEVONSHIRE (continued). Cornwatt.
Huntsham | Castle Hill,
_ |Tehidy Park,
ieee eee Barnstaple. Helston. Penzance. Modcath,
Oft.2in. | 1 ft. lin. | 3ft. Oin. | Oft. Gin. || 5ft.Oin. | 3ft. Oin. | Off. Oin.
400 ft. ? 584 ft. 160 ft. 31 ft. 110 ft. 94 ft. 100 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
1°25 1°34 1°59 27 2°24 1°51 "150
3°15 3°16 2°63 2°64 4°71 6°62 6°30
4°94 5°89 4°76 3°33 3°32 ‘2°93 2°96
55 65 78 "66 1°65 1°39 Irs
"52 r'i7 83 1"40 1°60 129 2°00
4°06 3°98 3°95 2°54 1°74 2°17 2°85
4°57 6°55 5°63 5°80 502 6°81 4°73
E97 2°22 3°45 2°76 1°49 2°02 I'75
2°92 417 5°04. 4°00 3°06 ge a Evhes
1°62 2°20 3°04 2°94 2°63 1°92 3°40
5°37 5°84 719 760 7°39 723°) “a
2°33 2°79 2°30 2°21 2°77 3°58 a 745)
37°62 40°98
340 REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
, Division V.—SourH-Western Countiss (continued).
Cornwatu (continued).
‘ Warl ibis , Treharrock | St. Petroc
aN Troro, | Bodmin, | “Boda” | Bodmin” |p Hamme | alin
picight of |] Ground..| 40 ft. Oin.| 3ft.0in | 3ft.Oin, | 4ft. Oin, | 34. Oin. | Off. Qin,
abore © { Sea-level.| 56 ft. 300 ft. | 800ft. 230ft. | 200.2 | 964.
in. in. in. in. ia, | Phin,
JADUALY »..05-00sescbones: 1'l2 2°29 2°65 2°29 1°37 1°39
|eBebruary .......<rcs... 5°84 4°87 4°78 4°65 3°92 4°93
March «0.25. .ssckerage.. 2°74, |) 3°45 4°58 4°05 3°37 3°79
ADMiILivs cso. scnsacsendtense: "36 1°39 1°77 2°12 1°05 1°16
MiaYeki..s05055-0 pela wi" 2°07 1°68 1°20 1°26 1°83
TLIO Xt 55 oo soe nication 3°19 2°33 3°77 2°80 2°68 3712
DULY a niicssscavesccarnness 6°71 6°88 7°64. 6°89 4°57 6°46
FATIDUBGE. 5. :scinas soteeeoas's 1°46 1°96 3°12 2'OI 1°76 2°16
September ............... 3°31 4°26 4°35 4°85 3°33 4°56
Octoberk.5.<5..4.saasbss 2°70 3°26 2°62 3°30 3°41 3°64
November ............... 6°39 6°79 7°42 6-90 6°58 7°91
December .:.....s..:.. 3°94 4°51 4°58 4°26 2°85 3°74
Totals ............ 39°98 44°56 48°96 45°32 36°65 44°69
Div. V.—S.-W. Cos. (cont.). Division VI.— West Mrpranp Countries,
Somerset (continued). GLOUCESTER.
1861. Bath. ae, Clifton. Clifton. Cirencester. Gps
Height of pa 50 ft. Oin. | 56 ft. Oin. | Oft. Gin. | 50 ft. Oin.| 1 ft. Oin. | 3ft. Gin.
Rete Sea-level.| 150 ft. 98 ft. 192 ft. 242 ft. 446 ft. 50 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in.
JANUALY »..35.0.ccsteonece "89 r'i4 1°03 “79 1°45 87
Hebruary ......0scsases- 3°57 2°59 2°75 2°30 2°95 1'97
i ERS ee 2°86 3°05 2°94. 2°36 2°90 1°90
ADT oes. 525s -sccceaeaere "49 "25 *30 ‘22 "65 *54
May” cctesicstes.cce I'41 I'09 1°39 106 is 1'20
JUNE sicss.053e0.acrebencee 514 3°44 3°34 2°93 2°65 2°38
SU ye oss sccen.«.ccameeeeee 3°92 4°03 4°53 4°22 3°94 4°14
(AUBUSE © c:..22-. caeeeeee. 118 2°28 2°57, 2°32 go 70
September ............... 4°86 3°65 3°86 3°55 3°16 1°95
October:....:.......te%-.- 2°23 1°99 2°28 2°06 "74 1°46
November ............... 5°66 4°74 4°86 4°30 4°10 2°60
December ............... r81 1°34. 1°46 1°30 1°80 1°59
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES,
341
ENGLAND AND WALES,
ee eee
Division V.—Soura-Western Counrrss (continued).
ce ee ek
ORNWALL sg
nued), OMERSET.
? — Taunton. |LongSutton.| Street, Street Neel, ae aeteaee
ft. Oin. || 1ft.3in. | Oft. Oin. | 1ft.6in. | 54. O0in. | Oft.3in. | 8 ft. Oin. | 4 ft. 7in.
80 ft. 50 ft.? 170 ft.? 100 ft. LOO ft. |} yeeagese 300 ft. 250 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
1°89 "95 "52 "52 °57 *70 "83 "88
3°38 2°46 3°01 2°74 2°39 3°10 3°62 2°93
3°30 2°53 2°87 2°92 2°76 3°00 4°52 2°68
"92 "36 “36 "34 "gt 65 "72 49
Ilo 1°31 1°34 127) kz 1°65 1°35 1°53
2°97 3°60 3°69 2°79 2°77 2°88 2°99 4°09
5°47 4°35 314 3°95 3°58 3°32 3°81 4°29
2°07 or "52 125 1709 "95 1°43 1°92
3°56 1°58 1°92 2°93 1°96 3°16 3°88 3°31
3°52 2°53 2°97, 2°04 1°85 1°70 1°88 2°75
678 4°95 4°43 3°70 3°31 4°36 4°92 4°87
3°67 1°44. 1°64. 1°51 1°30 1°70 2°03 1°39
38°63 26°77 25°81 25°96 23°66 27°17 31°98 31°13
Division VI.—West Mrptanp Counties (continued).
OUCESTER (continued). SHROPSHIRE.
sylum, | Twigworth, || Leysters, | Cleob Knowbury, | Haughton Whittington,
aucester, | Gloucester: || Leominster. | Mostimer. | Ludlow.” | Hall, | Shrewsbury. |"Qawestty.
ft. Oin. | 3ft.6in.? |! Oft.6in. | 1ft.Oin, | Oft. Gin. | 4ft.6in. | 4ft. 4in. | 5 ft. Oin.
00 ft. SUE tie ne sadan ty 700 ft. 1000 ft. ? 450 ft. LOD Ete | ieee
n in. in. in. in. in, in. in.
rir 77 “37 *54 1°25 74 *30 “54
"03 2'23 3°08 2°63 2°55 1'73 2°00 3°04.
"06 1°75 2°73 3°20 2°69 3°19 2°90 3°30
56 *62 “5 87 *85 83 "70 1°40
1°16 Ils 1'05 riz 1°46 °”75 *60 "86
38 1°89 3°16 2°94. 3°51 4°28 2°80 2°18
4°15 3°80 5°45 5°83 5°68 4°97 2°70 4°51
*59 "43 I'I2 I'09 1°31 I'Io "70 170
1°68 1'76 247 2°78 2°70 2°49 1°60 3°00
1°50 1°51 1°82 1°44 1°59 1'02 "80 2°01
2°88 2°64 2°76 2°26 2°48 1°69 1"00 2°98
173 1°61 1°97 1°58 1°85 I"or *50 1°73
183 20°16 26°53 26:28 27°92 23°80 16°60 27°25
342 ‘ REPORT—1862. «g
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division VI.— West Miptanp Covnmres (continued).
SHROPSHIRE (continued). _ Worczster. Warwick, |
1861. ee ed Leek. Worcester. Tenor. Btgneige Rugby.
picisht of |] Ground..| 4 ft. 8 in. |25 ft, Oin.|| 14.0 in. | oft. 9in, | Of: Bin. | 28.43
pew Saatewel.| acssssics | auestcs 160 ft. | 200%. Wii 315 ft
above
in, in. in, in. in, in.
JANUALY 3:8 5./0<feieae.. "65 1°25 58 1°03 48 xg7
February ,.........5-...| 3°78 I"90 3°08 3°06 1°63 1°52
Marchi=: .;.i,....de0ohs.- 4°25 7°20 2°64 3°55 3°23 2°07
PADI 5. sccbres,<Osebs: 1°48 3°t5 1°38 1'07 "Bo 55
IMAGE'S 250 58,0508 REO "75 1°60 1'l3 1°32 1°06 1°03
DUNGY fs .00-50-3-5eees >. 2°61 3°00 2°13 3°02 3°01 1°88
DULY? "Ss. sas cccdeeeeess. 4°47 4°05 4°67 6°69 4°30 4°62
AUBUBE: ...9...5-40008 0s. 1'95 2*10 *39 1'05 63 85
September ............... 3°36 4°60 2°53 2°59 1°97 1°97
OCHRE is... foetes 1°96 1°55 1°40 1'72 2°16 1°23
November ,.....5.,.3:... 3°49 3°95 1'98 2°75 2°22 aE
December ......,cc15000. 2°18 2'05 I's 1°96 I'rs 1'22
Motala ...%2.¢4.. 30°90 36'40 23°42 29°81 22°64. 20°82
Division VII.—Norra Miptanp Counrrss (continued),
Licoty.
1861. | Sythe | Grantham. | Boston, |SanthAKymo] Celeb, | cial
paneht of | Ground..| 4 ft, 3in. | Off. Oin. | 14. 0in, | Of. Oin.| ......... 3 ft. 6 in,
abe © { Sea-level.| ......... WO aa Dif: *| emer 26 ft.
above !
in in. in in. in in
JANUBLY 0.0 40ss00deeeecess "20 "67 "93 1°09 °35 30 |
February. ......0e. ds: I"70 1'79 2°12 1°70 1°53 145
Marche... tous ste mes 2°10 1°83 1°65 I'50 1°37 1:02
Aprile .t. Sodecsattemerct ne 74, 1°26 1°23 1°57 78 rg ]
Maye. ..sccu seen "20 1°23 1°55 1°62 63 80
JUNG" 2. 5,. dct teees 2°83 2°29 2°49 3°55 3°49 3°20
JSulye S.. 5.43; cates 3°70 4°35 3°74 4°33 4'02 2°96
AMIBUBE «sh sccc Meee: a3 “48 "15 39 ‘09 35m
September ,.............. 1°70 1°40 1°38 1°08 117 113 @
October ...5,..0.Recvanee 92 I‘Or go 76 66 82
November ............... 2°90 2°92 2°84 2°64 2°11 2°61 -
December j.../.90...... 1°30 1°28 1"40 1°42 I'l3 Ig
Metals)... 294... 19°81 20°51 20°38 21°65 17°33 16°97
oe “4
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 343
ENGLAND AND WALES.
iy. VIL—W. Mr- ae
xp Counrres(cont.) Division VII.—Norra Mipranp Covnrtizs.
LEICESTERSHIRE. Rurann.
Rothley, -
ya Leicester. phere Bouse para Empingham.
borough.
1 ft. 3in. | 2 ft. 8in. | 0 ft. 4in. | Oft. 8in. || 4 ft. Oin
oiedecte | |. avstners 210 ft. 237 ft. cearerts
in. in. in, in. in.
"29 "54 1°19 "58 *30
1°70 2°31 1'79 1°68 1°75
2°94 3°11 2°43 2°15 1°87
reir 98 1°31 1'25 "80
116 1°89 1°55 1°56 1°30
2°46 1°99 2°38 2°77 I"lo
2°90 6°25 4702 4°75 2°40
°57 “51 “84 “46 o°05
53 2°39 2°14 1°68 1740
*90 1°60 1°97 1°38 "70
1°51 2°35 2°20 2°62 2°60
1°55 161 1°24. 124 ris
17°62 25°53 22°46 22°12 15°42
Division VII.—Noxrra Miptanp Counties (continued),
Linco (continued).
. Spri
teBurton,| ‘Warket | Gains, | Gardens, | Stockwith. | Brigg. | Grimsby. | Barnetby
Gainsboro’.
3 ft.6in, | 3 ft.6in, | 3 ft.6in, | 8 ft.Oin. | 3 ft.6in, | 3 ft. 6in, | 15 ft. O in. 3 ft. 6 in,
96 ft 100 ft. 76 ft. 38 ft. 21 ft. 16 ft. 42 ft. 51 ft.
in. in, in in. in. in. in. in,
"94 0°00 "19 28 0°00 ‘60 rol "85
2°53 3°50 2"42 2°33 1°88 2°49 1°44 2°61
1°96 1°67 1°40 1°75 1°52 1°44 1°24, 1°47
I'07 1°34 r'02 1°00 82 "gt 1°22, ror
+56 2°22 "70 66 "74, 106 83 "82
3°54 2°77 3°07 2°72 2°50 2°NE 2°80 2°64.
3°74 3°22 4°26 4°53 3°83 4°34 3°50 3°38
+ 33 °37 *38 53 "49 "46 "23 "42
1°64 2°74. 1°39 1°46 1°62 2°68 1°13 2°11
"94 "74. 108 I'0§ 1°36 1°29 *66 118
2°50 3°97 2°44 2°36 2°48 3°25 3°22 3°36
129 1°50 1°20 1°04, ror 145 "98 1°30
21°24 24°04 19°55 19°81 18°25 22°48 18°26 21°15
344, REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
—————
Division VII.—Norru Mipianp Countizs (continued).
Lincoun (continued). Norrincuam. |
1861. New Holland. Wigbield Ee ate Welbeck. Worksop. Retford. /
picight of | Ground..| 3 ft. 6 in. | Oft. 0 in. |25 ft. 0 in.| 4 ft. 0in. | 3.6 in, | 3ft% 6 in, |
above” [ Sea-level.| 18 ft. TE2H, | 1674 |) ager 127 t. 52 ft. {
ove
in, in. in. in. in, :
85 *69 "4.6 000 °30
2°72 2°48 2°11 3°08 2°27,
3°43 2°84 3°03 2°61 2°17
1°69 1°19 1°56 1°35 I'1g
1°20 93 1°08 1°39 “79
1°70 1°49 4°81 2°22 2°69
3°46 3°34 4°54 3°19 3°45
56 54 "86 23 "29
1°93 I'gt 1°86 1°69 1°47
1°35 1°26 1°16 1°45 1°42
2°03 1°94 2°26 2°06 2°43
1°41 1°40 "43 1'l4 1'26
22°33 20°01 24°16 20°41 19°73 ¢
ve
Division VILI.—Norru-WestEern j
CounTIES.
Division VII.—Norra Minranp
Counts (continued).
Denrsysuire (continued). CHESHIRE,
Bosley Bosley
1861. Chapelen- | Woodhead. | p27 | ph. | Macclesfield. | Macclesfield.
le-
—
3 ft. 6 in. | 2 ft. 9 in. | 3 ft. 6 in.
pugieht of 1 Ground..| 3 ft. 6 in. | 3 ft. 6 in, | 3 ft. 6 in. i
ae a 8° F Sea-level.| 965 ft. 939 ft. | 1210 ft. | 590 ft. 500 ft. 539 ft. |
|
in. in. in. in. in. in. :
SANUAIY i ve ctsssapeeerees *29 1'20 *B0 *16 "40 *14 |
Hebruaryulctvassconeeees 3°09 6°22 2°14 1°94. 1°97 1°86
Marl: <.sspsseounmmpeest) Jem 9°33 3°90 3°15 5°72 5°13
2: \}0) 911 See Seeceny eanpess|) 1°20 2°50 1'18 1°35 1°41 1°24 i
May ....... Sovecceainene: "99 2°13 1'09 1°18 1°22 1°25 '
June . ‘ peal 3 tOm; 4°13 3°12 3°61 3°18 2°84. 4
July ...... oes], Z0 4°60 4°63 4°20 4°33 4°34
AUIZUSt Os sscbuasesnee Sees] | 2Az 3°33 171 2°15 2°47 2°43
September ..,.,...4. egese] | 5°22 4°36 3°03 3°52 4/22 4°28
October: =~. shaca.tabeones 1°70 1'72 1°76 1°36 1°24 1°22
November .,.....s000.-41 4°53 6°13 2°67 3°07 3°35 3°97
December .,.....j00cees 3°10 2°99 2°62 2°07 2°02 1°99
Totals ........ see] 37°19 49°64 28°65 27°76 32°03 30°59
; ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 345
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division VII.—Norrx Mintanp Counties (continued).
Norrineuam (cont.). DERBYSHIRE.
|
Bast Retford. West Retford.| Derby. Chatsworth. | Chesterfield.| Norwood. | Combs Moss. etsebe |
2 ft. Oin. | Oft. Gin. || 5 ft. O in. | 6 ft. Oin. | 3 ft. Gin. | 3 ft. 6 in. | 3 ft. 6 in, 3 ft. 6 in. |
50 ft. 50 ft. 179 ft. 404 ft. 248 ft. 238 ft. 1669 ft. 710 ft. |
in. in. in. in in. in. in, in.
“18 "23 "66 "47 1°06 “48 1°14 "50
2°17 2°17 2°17 485 4°20 3°79 3°57 425
2°12 2°11 3°86 4°90 q7k 3°47 6°27 8°56
1°16 114 1'20 1'29 1°92 1'29 *50 1°57
"719 83 63 1°04. 83 1°06 1-40 1°45
2°76 3°05 124 3°46 2°29 2°89 3°24 3°34
3°57 3°16 4°30 4°45 3°72 3°38 4°55 4°60
aa we "92 ii 33 "56 3°10 3°50
1°52 167° | 2°16 2°81 2°Or 2°26 4°32 6°22 |
1°34 1°33 | saiee 1°39 1°65 1°23 1°66 2°02
2°35 2°OI |’ «ear 3°51 2°09 2°34. 4/08 6°22
128 1'29 1746 ZOA | - 5:67 1°40 4°50 3°41
19°56 - 19°31 2201 31°32 25°48 24°15 33°33 45°64
a
Division VIII.—Norru-WestEern Covuntiss (continued).
eee
CHESHIRE (continued).
Kingsley, | Sponds Hill, Thelwall, Aqueduct, | Top Lock, Hill End,
Foti piingkon: Whaley. Quarry Bank.| Northwich. Marple. a Mages
Oft. Oin. | 3 ft. Gin. | 3 ft. 6 in. | O ft. 8in. | 1 ft. 6 in. | 3 ft. 6in. | 3 ft. 6 in. | 3 ft. 6 in.
208 ft. 1279 ft. 602 ft. 295 ft. 96 ft. 321 ft, 543 ft. 680 ft.
in, in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
2.4. "98 "72 ‘22 “26 *31 "20 63
(2°57 2°79 2°67 1°56 2°72, 1°99 1°48 1°83
3°57 6°99 6°72 4°36 4°29 6°39 4°00 6°13
1173 I'S 1°40 1°56 I'71 1°48 1°56 1'27
‘ror 1°42 1°49 1°03 *70 IIo 85 1°29
2°68 2°04. 2°00 1'79 2°67 3°01 3°66 1°94
425 4°55 4°46 2°89 3°59 4°22 3°84 5°66
2°84 2°93 2°35 212 2°44. 2°45 2°38 2°92
3°84 6°55 6°48 3°26 3°43 4°62 4°91 4°65
aa 1'40 1°40 I'lg 147 1°40 1:26 1°16
2°98 4°19 4°17 3°13 3°66 4°33 4°66 4°82
1°87 2°64. 2°64 2°13 1°99 2°25 2'60 2°10
= | .
ALE 37°99 37509 25 The | 28°93 33°55 32/40 34°49 |
346 REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES. ©
Division VIII,—Noxrru-Western Counties (continued).
CHESHIRE (continued). LANCASHIRE.
Matley’s Observatory,| The Brook, | Old Trafford,| Sale,
1861. wee Newton. aiversead | Liverpool. | Manchester. | Mancheste
ee
i. |S 3 ft. 6 in. | 3 ft. 6 in, | 30 ft. Oin.| 2 ft. Oin. | 3 ft. 0 in, 2 ft 8 if
Rain-gauge (Seq-level.| 399 ft. | 306%. || 52f% | aac. 106 ft. | 134 ft.
in. in. in. in. in in.
JANUALY .ssseescssseseese.] O'OO "42 27 "39 "39 “48
HebFuary ...cc3s0s..00:| 2°78 1°61 1°88 1°56 2°52 2°12
March © .s6s-0088 Waves’ 5°47 4°98 3°08 3°07 4°14 4°40
Apel eesestsce Satheessess : 1'l7 1°16 1°40 1°41 2°43 1°58
Mayet sc cctecssct OU UCEEEE 1'20 "97 "92 1°20 74 86
OUND fasccstecc. bees ares2| 1° SOS 3°77 2°17 2°87 2°41 2°23
JULY foscabesssstietteos 528 4°30 2°95 4°65 3°65 4°02
AUBTBE 221005. 08isees.... 2°67 2°86 1°96 3°41 2°23 2°44
September .....:...064... 3°96 3°99 2°76 4°42 4°05 4°07
October .2:....:282sb..008 98 1°23 1°53 2°42 1'23 rg
November ... | 95 4°53 2°75 3°82 3°88 3°49
December .........+ wered| ? >. BOS 1°98 1°48 2°06 ‘eT 1°75
Totals ..i..s0600..] 33°16 31°80 23°15 31°28 29°74 28°58
Division VIII.—Norra-Wesrern Covuntiss (continued).
LANCASHIRE (continued).
Howick Fishwick, | House of | House of |Holme Sia -
1861. Bury Preston. | Preston.’ | CoPrection, | Correction; |” "Preston.
Eats || 0 ft, 6 in, | 24 ft. O in,| 1 ft. Lin, | 58 ft. 6 in. | 1 ft, 6 im
Rain-gauge (Sea-level| 400ft.? | 72f. | 154. | 140f | 187 | 143.
in. in. in. in. in. in.
Tathwlry. i.scc..c8Fssss.:: *20 “72 “52 *67 "62 “63
Pia Be tere 2°65 3°97 2°64 gir 2°96 3°72
= ee cetk 3°50 4°39 4°32 4°30 3°35 GL ry
DED fora sves ccc Maeteect 1°75 1°35 112 1°23 1°03 Ee be
May's... sseseeeeseoes: "75 1°24 1°16 1°22 1°00 1°13
JUNG $e ccszee.c0eeedeccse 1°35 2°39 1°52 1°73 i ( ies
July Oe ee xs eee 4°67 3°82 2'96 3°76 3°35 5
a ee re 3°10 3°38 3°76 3°99 3°33 aah 2h
eptember ....... P1Baves 3°15 410 4°40 4°41 3°79 ie!
Coeoe villece beeen 2'Io 3°50 3°96 4°12 ed 4°28
aoa Per the 2°55 4°95 4°56 4°94 3°79 LR
December ......sssss.e0. 3°90 2°28 240 2°42 1°95 2°63
‘Totals valeiweres< 29°67 36°59 33°32 35°90 39°75 38°48
o ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 847
ENGLAND AND WALES,
Division VITI.—Norra-Wesrern Counties (continued).
LANCASHIRE (continued).
Market Piccadill Ww. Belmont, Heaton, :
A terhouses,| Bolton-le- » ? Standish,
Street, ac Ys Fairfield. ? “ Bolton-le- | Bolton-le- :
Machekker. Manchester. Oldham. Moors. Moors: ahoaek: Wigan.
‘fb. 0 in. | 46 ft, Oin.| 6 ft. O in: | 3 ft. 6 in. | 2 ft. Oin. | 0 ft. O in, | 0 ft. Oin, | 0 ft. O in.
5 a 194 ft. 312 ft. 345 ft. 290 ft. 800 ft. 500 ft. 285 ft.
—$—— | —___.,
in. | in. in. in, in. in, in. in.
"26 *40 "41 “17 “78 1°20 "70 2'04
2°66 2°77 2°70 2°74 3°85 3°60 2°90 4°09
5°26 5°96 6°16 6°06 692 7°20 5°20 6°17
1°29 1°65 1°45 1°18 1°72 2°10 2°70 2°11
"65 "95 reir I'rs 1°45 1°70 1°40 1°66
2°12 1'97 2°37 2'08 1°56 3°10 2°60 4°45
3°89 4°25 441 4°52 4°99 6°30 4°70 5°72
1°87 2°66 3°38 3°16 4°47 6°50 3°50 3°94
3°95 4°85 4°95 4°38 7°28 9°20 6°40 7°08
1°43 1°70 1°57 88 2°43 2°40 I'90 2°80
3°91 5°14 5°05 4°62 612 8°30 5°20 5°08
2°04. 2°13 2°20 1°85 3°34 4°10 2°70 2°50
29°33 34°43 35°76 32°79 44°91 55°70 39°90 47°63
Division VIII.—Norra-Wesrern Counztiss (continued).
LANCASHIRE (continued).
Shore, | Observatory,| Bleasdale. Caton Hest Bank. Holker, P
apes” Stonyhurst. | Garstang. | Lancaster: | Lancaster. | Cartmel. Cartmel. | Coniston.
Sin. | 0 ft. O in. | 4 ft. 6 in. | 2 ft. 4 in. | 2 ft. Qin. | 4 ft. Sin. | 6 ft. Lin. |4 ft. 11 in,
29 ft. 381 ft. 600 ft. 120 ft. 82 ft. 155 ft. 171 ft. 154 ft,
3 in. in}. in. in. in. in. in,
1°60 I'lo 68 1°44. 1°49 2°81 3°53 13°50
3°80 4°00 5°92 4°24 3°83 5°29 3°44 | 9°20
3°75 6°80 5°99 5°76 5°03 5°65 6°26 11°50
Iso 1°40 I'l4 °74. "62 *86 "76 *30
*90 1'40 1°58 I'21 1°05 1'29 *9gI 2°70
"90 2°30 2°63 2°73 2°36 2°78 3°49 4°00
3°20 5°30 7°06 4°36 3°48 5°50 4°63 I1"50
3°75 6°30 7°53 6°50 5°68 TAI 6°87 12°00
380 5°80 641 4°70 4°31 5°35 3°34 10°00
2°00 3°00 4°13 2°52 4°06 3°33 3°36 5,00
5°20 8°60 8°38 7°63 6°77 701 7°62 17'00
2°30 3°00 3°69 2°71 2°63 2°83 3°02 55°
49°00 55°05 44°54 4r3r | sotra 47°23 10220
348 REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Div. VIII.—N.-W. Co. (cont.) Division [X.—YorxsHire.
LANCASHIRE (continued). YornsHirE—West Ripixe.
Wray Castle,| Station, | The Edge, | Broomball | Redmir oe
1861. Windermere:| Sheffield. | Sheffield.’ | Parke | Sheffield” | ‘Tickhill
effield.
pidisht of | Ground..| 4 ft. 9 in. | 3 ft. 6 in. | 3 ft. 6 in. | Oft. 4 in. | 3 ft. On, | 0 ft. 1 i
abere ” { Sea-level.| 250 ft. 188 ft. | 336 ft. | 337 ft. | 1100ft. | 61 ft.
in. in. in. in. in.
DANUATY: ssecstecetese0s. 67 “98 “76 27 “SEQ
IRebEmairy -\; 2. eres 22%. 4°20 5°39 5°39 5°46 2°86
March ......ssssseesseee 4°44 5°15 5°20 6°65 3°19
PADETS eesiseh escort seeys 2°21 2°48 2°29 3°23 1°66
May ies. hese sap areeter *90 "86 88 I'lo 83
PRAT CPs sop avsc ents coos | 1°60 2°75 2°51 3°89 2°85
MUP As Savcaespascvense Pees 2°89 4°23 3°69 4°40 3°75
A pear cewaereeateams'cs 68 1°07 95 2°06 "41
September ............... 2°32 2°93 2°19 3°02 2°14
OGhGperissetssscacreeeres« 1712 1°42 1°25 1°46 1°03
November .,.......c00+0- 2°87 3°08 2°87 4°04. 2°62
IDeUEM DEL #2 s2ci.Se cess 1°65 1°82 1°70 2°36 1°21
Totals <..,0805.. 25°55 32°16 29°68 37°94. 23°14
Division [IX.—Yorksuree (continued).
Yorxsnmee—West Rivine (continued).
» Warl Midgel Ovend
1861. Wakeneia, | Well Heed | Hunter's | Wyte’ | “uMeon” | Moor,
Halifax. Halifax. Halifax.
Height o eee 4%. Oin. | 1 ft. Oin. | 1 ft. Oin. | 1. Oin. | 1 ft. Oim. | 1 ft. Oin
a Sea-level.| 115 ft. | 487 ft. | 1250ft. | 1425f. | 1850f. | 1375 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in.
JANUASNY, o).0sceeeteaeee=- 23 "19 1'80 1°40 1‘go 1°50
ebYUary \,....catesess= 3°90 3°97 4°60 5°30 5°40 5°30
Warclt "<0, .cccsesmereters 3°56 5°24. 5°10 6°10 7°40 6°60
PAIN tan ya¢ sxsoneuneteas 1°63 1°30 “go 1°20 1°30 1'20
LES) bAreesee conctc osc "70 *78 0°00 “IO 0700 "10
STING, oo sees actos 2°02 1°74 1’00 I'g90 2°30 2°00
UL ecg eee gen saeeememee™ 2°51 5°07 4°30 6°60 6°60 6°50
FANIOUBL 5. c4gscavedensasts "78 1°52 1°80 4°40 4°70 4°10
September ...........5++ 2°53 3°39 4°70 5°30 5°90 5°10
(OCEODE.. «c+ .-s<s cence *37 *69 “50 100 1°20 "go
INOVeMBEr <)-.-csecestre= anh 5°08 6°10 8°50 9°20 9°60
December ............++: 1°04. 1°82 1"g0 2°20 2°80 "80
Motels... .f:s.se- 22°30 30°79 32°70 44°00 48°70 43°70
f ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 349
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division [X.—Yorxsu1re (continued).
Yor«suirE—West Rivne (continued).
doce Penistone. | Carleotes. | Standedge. | Saddleworth. Pe Ackworth. Pa seer iF
. |
3 ft. 6in. | 3 ft.6in. | 3ft.6in. | 2 ft. Oin. | 5 ft.Oin. | Oft.lin. | oc... 24 ft. O in.
954 ft. 717 ft. 1075 ft. 1150 ft. 640 ft. 18b £9 |) Sess 1 See
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
“40 61 64 1700 "34 53 “18 28
5°86 4°17 4°05 3°00 2°20 3°17 2°49 3°20
10°67 5°28 9°56 9°00 3°35 2°54. 2°12 5°88
2°01 117 1°59 1°50 I'gI 117 125 1°32
1°66 61 1°12 1°25 I"Iz 87 93 83
2°00 2°30 2°33 3°50 1°95 1°87 1°74 2°08
502 3°46 5°15 5°75 4°63 3°25 2°57 3°98
3°03 "53 2°84 5°25 3°20 "73 "63 1°95
4°77 2°16 4°63 7°00 4°92 1°96 1°89 3°77
2°16 1°37 roe I*50 1°46 1°24. 1'07 78
VOL 3°70 6°90 7°50 5°26 2°38 2°23 4°52
3°29 1°66 3°09 3°50 2°04 1°18 1°16 1°83
47°38 27°02 43°62 49°75 32°38 20°89 18°26 30°42
Division IX.—Yorxsure (continued),
Yorxsuire— West Ripine (continued).
Torton Hall,| Holbeck, Holbeck, Philosophicall Eccup, Red Hall, Top of | The Valley,
Bradford. Leeds. eeds, Hall, Leeds. Leeds. Whin Moor. iit Otley.
|
0 ft. 8 in. | 0 ft. 0 in, | 40 ft. 0 in. | 40 ft. Oin.| 0 ft. Oin. | 5 ft. Oin. | 4 ft. 7 in. | Of. Zin.
496 ft. 95 ft. 135 ft. 137 ft. 340 ft. 455 ft. 764 ft, 206 ft.
4
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
108 15 1°60? "02 "28 2738 Irs 1°72
5708 2°89 3°25 1°56 3°46 2°36 3°38 4°57
6°50 3°60 3°25 3°42 3°76 3°32 3°78 4°59
141 17 Irs 1°48 1704 1°18 1°23 112
84 63 35 76 74 54 *69 63
I'g0 1°47 I‘Io 1'79 2°46 2°27 "75 1°51
2353 4°92 5°05 3°94 3°42 4°04, 3°38 2°67
eicT3 93 21 Sa | Pac Be 125 1°35 1°80 1°26
443 3°05 27O_ =| weevevene 3°17 3°64 3°26 3°42
"99 93 718) | RE re 1°04. I'Ig 1°17 I'l3
4°67 2°20 po A aa ee p= 2°24 2°34. 2°69 2°93
| 2°39 1°39 Tpfier ||| sack tenes 1°39 1°49 1°73 1°74
| 34°05 23°33 23°30 pasdap 24°25 24°45 26°01 27°29
350 am REPORT—1862.
ENGLAND AND WALES,
Division [X.—Yorxsuree (continued).
- YorkEsHIRE
Yorxsuire—West Rinine (continued). E Rowa
1861. Rhyalling. | HarrSeate.| Settle. | Clapham. | Amoliffe. || Patrington.
picight of || Ground.,| 2 ft. 6 in. | 0 ft. 6 in. | 40 ft. Oin,| 5 ft. O in. | 2 ft. Gin. || 4 f.8 in
nbece ~ { Sea-level.| 500 ft. | 420f. | 498%. | 550f. | 750 ft. 32 ft.
in in in. in. in in.
69 go 2°10 1°62 2°16 2°00
1°52 3°60 5°40 4°29 5°28 1°70
3°90 4°80 5712 4°95 8°93 1°22
I'05 1°20 "47 "64 “79 76
Sx *70 "39 "73 +83 “60
2°09 2°43 2°20 2°61 2°60 1°64
3°62 3°18 4°02 4°49 6°02 3°30
1°48 1°70 4°05 4°37 6°63 "34
4°30 3°60 5°48 5°73 7°38 1°30
I°IO 1°38 2°06 3°06 2°78 66
"67 3°43 7°52 6°37 11°39 3°80
1°22 1°59 2°98 3°17 4°60 1°30
Totals ....90..55--] 22°45 28°51 41°79 42°03 59°94 18°62
af
Division [X.—YorxsHirx (continued). Division X,—Norrnern Covntirs,
Yorxsnme—Norrtu Rivine (continued). DvrwaM.
1861. Bearborough.| Redcar. | Darlington, |"Wranct| Durham. |. Bahoo a
20 ft. 140 ft. 460 ft. 338 ft.
in. in. in.
"60 1°39 78
"45 6°28 2°01
°85 3°94 2°19
°37 1°43 151
15 *65 "34
118 4°12 1°93
2°22 2°68 3730
80 2°24 1°66
1°54 2°91 2°83
‘40 1°28 125
2°97 3°66 Sur
89 2°25 1°63
13°42 32°83 24°54
2 ft. 3in. | 4 ft. Oin. | O ft. 9in. | 1 ft. Oin. | 30 ft.
i
i
0
140 ft. i
1°53 |
|
| ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
“4 351
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Division [IX,—Yorxsure (continued),
YorkKsHIRE—Hast Ruina (continued). Be aes
N. Rivive.
; Holme-on- :
Hull. Hull | Spalding- | Wheldrake. | G0" | york, | pasbeetch, || Malton.
oor.
4 ft. O in. | 27 ft. Oin.| 7 ft. Gin. | 1 ft.4in. | 1 ft. Oin. | Of. 5 in. | O ft. Gin. || 1 ft. Oin.
— :12 ft. 30 ft. 32 ft. 40 ft. 150 ft. 50 ft. 550 ft. 80 ft.
in. in. in. in. in.
"70 "54 “96 "65 SE aa "90
2°15 2°29 2°50 2°42 S235 3°25
1°82 Ig 2°16 2°20 24 Tt ee 2°22
"93 116 “88 *24. 2g 7 *80
104 "80 "77 “60 £28 a "94.
2°28 1°68 2°30 2°27 Ogss3 2°58
4°79 3°39 5700 3°93 S284 2°90
"5g "29 103 "86 B86 1°16
2°63 3°44 4°60 361 | Eee 3°6x
1°32 68 1°00 a 2 = og "gt
2°77 2°69 3°93 2°60 BSBE 3°76
"ro I'lg 1°29 1°07 o2X®gs 1°44
22°01 20°54. 26°42 ZOO fee tates rai 24°47
Division X.—Nortuern Counties (continued).
NortTHUMBERLAND.
hotley Hall.| Allenheads. | Allenheads. | Nowgestle | ROMER | Bywell. | Wylam. | N. Shields
0 ft. 8 in. | 0 ft. 5in. | 6 ft. 9 in. | 42 ft. Om. 0 ft. 3in. | Oft. 6 in, 0 ft. 4in. | 1 ft. Oin.
309 ft. 1360 ft. 1367 ft. 187 ft. 300 ft. 87 ft. 96 ft. 124 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
54 1°26 1°62 *60 2°64 142 "89 r"00
3°98 7°28 6°03 2°08 2°39 3°22 2°97 1°97
2°32 5°15 5°61 I'55 3°61 2°35 1°84. 222
1°55 2°00 2°16 1°05 "94 1°51 es he, 125
11g 1°44. 1°58 *60 53 63 "71 1°42
3°64 2°31 2°50 2°55 1°89 3°84 2°17 3°76
4°65 4°84 5°27 2°88 2°79 3°73 3°37 2°37
it 4°07 4°61 1°50 3°03 1°65 1°76 1°67
2°57 5°22 5°67 1°79 3°86 2°82 2°63 2°72
126 2°05 2°10 73 1°05 1°42 1°23 rio
4°32 10°69 12°10 2°90 6°67 4°42 3°76 4°36
Vly 3°04. 3°64. 55 1°67 1°43 1'04 "89
pas 8a 49°35 52°89 18°78 31°07 28°44. 23°54 24°74.
352
REPORT—1862.
Division X.—NorrHern Counties (continued),
NorTHUMBERLAND (continued).
1861.
Height of Grduntl
ee eee } Sea-level.
Heenan e ete enee
ree e newer eens
Pere enenee
Division X,—NorrHEeRrN
CountrEs (continued).
Roddam
Stamford- Alnwick. Hall,
ham. Alnwick.
1 ft. lin. | Oft.6in. | 0 ft. 6 in.
380 ft. 400 ft. 400 ft. ?
in. in. in.
‘62 4°50 73
1°94 2°02 2°53
1°58 2°09 2°77
1°75 2°02 2°14
67 1°34 vir
2°51 2°60 1°24
4°50 2°20 1°49
2°13 2°20 3°34
3°51 4°40 ed,
1°44 1°03 1°98
4°51 4°27 3°66
1°06 1st |) 2597
26°22
ENGLAND AND WALES.
1861. reaps Chepstow. || Ystalyfera.
pacisht of || Ground..| 4 ft. 6 in. 4 ft. O in,
above { Searlevel. 300 ft. ? 300 ft.
in. in.
JANUALY: -6cceceesseartvees : 2°63
February, ©. :i222)29p09 4°78
Marcha: so fe0 deen 6°51
Aprilees. .. seceeneeee 26
May seee. cos, eaeccunneeee 140
JUNE veces 22s) Vee fo te 3i7z
| DULY. pace aovs.thit coe 10°89
AUG URGi.<: 0242 eee 8°11
September ............... 9°04,
Qciobertre<.2 sce 3°22
November: .2:...::ectee 10°41
December e1:,<3.--.ss002 5°82
Totaly: jisesecuses 66°78
WEsTMORELAND (continued).
} |
Monmourn. |GLAmorcay|
Division XI.—Monmovrusuire, WALES,
AND THE IsLEs.
PEMBROKE.
Pembroke
Dock.
CUMBERLAND.
|
= The Flosh, | Seathwaite,
Als Cleator. | Borrowdale.
6 ft. Oin. || 1ft.6in. | 1 ft. Oin.
250 ft. 2 240 ft. 422 ft.
in. in. in.
I°r4 311 9°88
2°12 4°44 18°27
1°70 6°49 26°08
2°36 “a7 "82
122 1°34 461
1°16 4°41 7°70
1°81 5°26 14°50
2°39 «||, Ss -7°38 25°20
421 | 4°83 17°42
"75 3°05 9°07 | |
5°35 3°78 35°41
181 4°52 13°62
Haverford-
west.
|
Oft. Oin. | 2ft. Oin. | 5ft. Oin
30 ft. 60 ft. 425 ft. ||—
| in. in. in.
3°35 3°05 177 ;
5°45 5°27 490 ‘
2°00 2°55 2°77
"70 viz 58
1°06 95 1°36 |
3°10 3°41 3°02 if
601 8°13 4°68 |
4°16 5°86 3°53 |
3°78 5°05 6:00
3°81 2°41 3°20
7°49 9°32 6°62
3°86 4°68 5°55
44°77 51°80 | 43°98
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
353
Division X.—Norruern Counrizs (continued).
CuMBERLAND (continued). | WESTMORELAND.
Whinfell | Mirehouse, : ! Lesketh The How
Keswick. (Hall, Vale of} Bassen- Silloth. Carlisle. Kendal. How, Mroutbeck:
Lorton. thwaite. Ambleside.
— -— | ( -
6 ft.3in. | 2 ft.Oin. | Oft.5in. | 6 ft. Oin. | 47 ft. Oin. || 4ft. Gin. | 3ft. Oin. | 1 ft. 8 in.
270 ft. 250 ft.? 300 ft. 16 ft. 105 ft. 149 ft. 200 ft. 403 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
4°21 3°29 2°29 2°51 1°37 3°74. 6°69 9°08
9°30 729 7°06 3°14 1°68 5°74 12°08 13°62
6°68 7°66 7°51 4°98 3°48 7°95 11°67 15°60
gt “92 "96 pe "60 © 55 ‘99 125
“55 Tee) 1°41 87 *89 71 I'lo "79
315 2°87 2°08 2°65 2°06 3°01 4°62 2°56
$28 5°53 4°91 4°29 4°80 6°88 9°56 8°64
7°58 8°66 7°02 5°48 4°14 8°31 10°96 15°91
gir 621 7°40 Z:13 515 5°85 9°52 12°46
3°54 4°53 3°24 1°96 1°62 3°53 5°76 517
13°84 14/22 1149 10°34. 6°56 1I"40 17°88 21°41
727 6°24 4°98 2°62 220% 3°03 7°20 9°77
_———. —_—_—_—_ os
74°42 68°94 60°35 42°47 34°46 60°70 98°03 116°26
ENGLAND AND WALES.
IsLEs (continued).
Aneuessy. ||Carnarvon.| Fury.
Llandudno. || Hawarden. Guernsey.
0 ft. 4in.
20 ft. ?
12 ft..0 in.
0 ft. O in.
| 200 ft.
260 ft.
Diyision XI.—Monmovrusume, WALES, AND THE
TsLANpbs.
St. Mary’s.
sails, @
1 ft. 0 in.
30 ft.
SCOTLAND.
CountIEs.
Wicrtown, &c.
South Cairn,
Stranraer. Cargen.
O ft. 3 in.
80 ft.
O ft. 4 in.
210 ft.
Division XII.—Sournern
Dumfries.
0 ft. 5 in,
63 ft.
354
REPORT—1862.
SCOTLAND.
Diy. XII.—SournErw Covntras (cont.).
Wictown, &c. (continued).
——, _}j__
1861. Drumlanrig.
Height of
: an: bi
Rain-gauge Mee se| | stata
sore Sea-level.| 186 ft.?
in.
5°60
5°20
6:00
*60
1"00
3°00
4°50
8:00
7°59
Ogtober:. .35..<.cgerqe50s- 5700
Nayember | .....:..0:4... 7°50
December ...........-.-- 5°50
Potals ...5.252,:.- 59°40
Division XIT.—Sovrn-Easrzrn CountrEs (cont.).
Epiysurcu (contin
Wanlock-
head.
0 ft. 4 in.
1330 ft.
6'98
8:42
“39
"86
3°54
7354
10709
8:08
8°54
10°36
g'I2
81°19
Div. XITI,—Souru-EHastern Counttiss.
SELEIRE. || PEEBLES.
i Stob:
Bowhill. Castle.
11 ft. 0 in. |] 0 ft. 2 in.
537 ft. 600 ft.
in. in.
2°38 I*00
2°81 2°00
3°45 2°30
1°23 "40
oT ‘60 "50
3706 2°70
5°67 5°30
3°53 3°30
3°37 3°00
4°14 1°40
2°51 4°60
3°46 1°40
36°21 27°90
ued).
Auchinraith.
_ Brrwicr.
ents. Thirlestane.
100 ft.? | 558 ft.?
in. in.
"40 1°70
2°00 2°10
3°00 2°85
1°50 1°50
*80 *80
3°I0 125
4°10 4°65
2°60 3°25
410 4°25
‘60 1°20
4°90 6"10
2°30 1°70
29140 31°35
Division XTV.—SovrH-
Western Counties.
Bothwell
Castle.
Inveresk, . .
1861. Mey. Bainburgh. | Edinburgh. | Oougiae
Rare onage | Ground..| 3 ft. 0in, | 7 f.0in. |78 ft. Oin,| 0f%.0in. | 4 fe. 9 in. |18 fe O in.
abate Sea-level.| 60 ft. 200 ft. 363 ft, 780 ft.
in. in. in. in.
JARUSRY oa: <eaageareses 286 231 °31 1°97
Rebrnaty o...5:asagdeanes 1°76 325 "79 4°89
March wageesasauseueaae 2:08 2°10 102 7°94
ADIEU. o.5<sicons ageeeeeee 2°11 1°65 "92 1116
Mayon icossessncauemeeees 68 55 +02 1°68
eM ooces st vee oa 2°98 2°73 160 3°20
B JL ae er eS 3523 3109 2°51 6:42
August Saal ca saquaaibies'se 2°98 3°42 3°07 713
September ...........-.-- 4°59 4:30 4°26 7°32
Ociaber 5. << cseacauecen 1154. 1°54. 1°27 4:23
November .....cjccs-+-- 4:75 431 2°38 10°25
December ............04. "95 67 67 4°90
Totals .....0.,.00 28°51 24°88 18°82 61°09
150 ft. 147 ft.
in. in.
2°48 1°53
2°90 2°52
4°63 417
“36 °55
"62 *60
1'77 2°49
4°62 3°81
5°10 2°11
4°00 1°25
3°12 °86
3°24 3°65
2°10 1'g90
34°94 25°44
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 855
SCOTLAND.
Division XT11.—Sourn-Eastern Counties (continued).
Sahn) Happincron. Epinsurcu.
=
° Harlay, ir,
" ae ps Yester. Smeaton. Ban Thsetion, Edinburgh. = orth J Esk. Glencorse.
0 ft. 4 in, || 0 ft. Gin. | 13 ft. 6 in.| Oft. 3in. | 3 ft. Oin. | 0 ft. 6 in. | 0 ft. 6 in, | O ft. 6 in.
«267 ft. 420 ft. 100 ft. 90 ft. 320 ft. 770 ft. 1150 ft. 680 ft.
— . : ern ee 7 a apie] ne ae.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
1°56 1.15 1°23 168 "50 1°50 2°28 2°30
2'02 1°80 °S7 RT I'60 2°90 2°50 2°75
2°48 I'Io 1°88 1'94. 1°40 4°10 3°51 . 3°50
1°92 4°00 1°49 2°20 2°40 2°50 1°55 2°25
95 80 "87 1°18 "90 1700 "70 85
2°62 2"60 1°78 2104, 2°80 3710 2°35 2°65
3°08 3°95 3°51 4°23 3°70 4°50 4°43 4°20
2°40 3°00 3708 2°93 2°10 4°50 5°35 4°00
3160, 5°95 3709 3°21 3°20 5°50 5°50 4°50
ig 1°80 1°55 Irr4 "50 2°20 2°20 1°80
5°86 5°80 4°22 5:21 5°70 6:60 8-30 8:00
1°57 2°35 "79 66 I'00 I‘90 2°00 1°30
—_—_—— SL SE || ee ES
28°37 | 33°40 23°97 27°19 25°80 40°30 40°27 38°10
Division XTV.—Sovrn-Westerw Counties (continued).
4 *
LANARK (continued). Avr. RENFREW.
Hillend | Obseryato 3 Auchendrane Brisbane /||Nither Plac
_ Baillieston. — Glasgow? Glasgow. || House, Ayr. Largs. Glen. Mearns. *
in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
3°24 2°74 6°71 2°05 4°87 4°30 560 3°50
3°36 2°74 2°67 2°27 3°13 3710 3°50 4°50
4°95 3°79 5°56 3°90 6°36 6:60 6°85 3°70
84 105 763 "39 *61 "50 60 0°00
r'06 78 1°49 768 1°37 160 1'90 “50
4°22 2°67 3°16 2:02 3°34 3°30 3°60 2°60
7°30 3°75 571 3766 2°73 3°50 3°90 3°50
7°55 7°05 8°33 5°43 6"40 11°20 12°70 580
5°07 5722 5°23 389 4°98 575° 6:00 5750
4°18 3°63 3°42 3°04 3°80 4°99 515 4:10
6°31 4°80 5°96 3°84 772 720 3-10 g'00
2°96 1°75 2°24 2°03 3°40 410 4°10 4°00
_- ee | ota SS
50°04
39°95 5um1 33°20 49°21 55°80 6200 46°70
356
REPORT—1862.
SCOTLAND.
*
Division XITVY.—Sovrn-Wesrern Counts (continued).
RENFREW
1861. Kilbarchan.
Height of .
Rai Ground..) 1 ft. 0 in.
aee | Soma 350 ft.
in.
JAMUALY: 3ec0scse Sas esses 10°00
GBRNBYY: {...<saceeespesce 5°70
Marth: . ..cc:scnech erence 9°27
aly tra leap erence ae sear "80
NESa" (ewan peeiveeepieee ses I'00
PUNO? §. cade cecs peace 4°87
SU TELY Gun ewep rons ieee: 5°35
JADED estesssonpeeeee 13°38
| September ....0.5<.45--.. 6°30
OEEGDED eaten essai en =. 5°90
November <......07-2-..- 11°25
December ..... ... = AE 5°00
Botals .....ss223.-. 78°82
Isle of
1861. Baedale.
Be eed Ground..| 0 ft. 6 in
nT a Sea-level.| 25 ft.
in.
DANUALY 00s nenkseawanse 5°90
Reprnary (..<..<sasaesors 3°40
Margh...<....05.cpaedeac: 8°30
AMI coin scstetareeeee *50
MEY... ..< ccs cs -sapeeeeeces 2°90
| DUNG. < 5c. deccesoeeeeeenes 3°30
DULY, pw oveesaies cage eee 1°30
|AUPORE. ..2..cossasdeeses 8-90
| September’... ..2---s0 5°80
October <-2..<.cgeerseon 4°80
November. .:....ss0ps00 7°90
December ......02ss0++0: 2°50
Totals .. css 3--: 55°50
(continued).
Locherfield,
Paisley.
3 ft. 6 in.
Oban.
O ft. 0 in,
10 ft.
in.
7°00
6°73
10°55
“50
3°05
2°90
3°65
11°35
6°85
5°79
8°50
5°20
71'98
Ferguslie
House,
Paisley.
Division XV.—West Mipranp Counties (continued).
ARGYLL (continued).
Torosay,
Isle of Mull.
Greenock.
‘Division X VI.—Easr Mipranp
Div. XV.—WEst
Minrannp Counties.
STIRLING.
Polmaise
Gardens.
CounTIEs,
Kinross, Fire.
i}
Loch Leven. | Balfour. Nookton.
Subdvesus | O ft. din. | 0 ft. 6 in.
cadeedete || 127 ft 80 ft.
i]
in, |) in in,
2°60 I"ro 1°29
goo. || axx6 181
2280, | 93 2°12
1'00 "29 88
1°50 75 1°49
2°00 "gt 1°55
3°10 1°46 2°41
6°00 5°31 5°46
560 5°77 4°73
2°20 2°14 2°05
5°79 5°39 5°03
1°80 1°55 1°60
37°30 26°76 30°42
]
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
SCOTLAND.
857
Division XV.—West Mrpianp Counttss (continued),
Castle
Toward.
4 ft. 0 in.
80 ft. ?
pee Otter House.
4 ft. Oin. | O ft. 6 in.
40 ft. 130 ft.
in. in.
9°67 6°05
6°43 3°42
11°96 7°66
“39 po
1'79 1199
3°87 4°23
3°32 3°61
15°06 9°50
6°93 8°61
7°65 6°74.
8°93 6°50
6'14 5°02
82°14 63°84.
ARGYLL.
Kilmory, |
Lochgilp- | Callton Mor. | Kilmartin.
head.
4ft.6in. | 4 ft.6in. | 4 ft. 4in.
100 ft. ? 65 ft. 64 ft.
in. in. in.
3°82 3°02 5°20
3°97 2°79 3°00
7°19 729 7°60
36 *56 "10
2°24 3°08 4°00
2°40 2°71 3°40
4°58 3°63 3°70
10°87 10°25 12°70
S11 7°08 7°60
5725 5°37 5°80
6°62 6°37 6°00
3°88 3°68 4°40
59°29 55°83 63°50
Inverary
Castle.
O ft. O in.
30 ft.
Division XVI.—Easr Mipranp Countizs (continued).
Fire
(continued).
Pittenweem.
28°45
Aberfoyle.
0 ft. 6 in.
60 ft.
or
Kippenross,
Ledard. Dunblane.
0 ft. 6 in. | 0 ft. 4 in.
1500 ft. 100 ft.
in. in.
8°50 2°55
9°90 2°40
5°70 +40
$58 ‘75
*60 *60
7°80 2'20
6°70 5°70
20°20 710
13°40 4°45
12°50 3°15
7°99 5°40
9°40 3°20
103°IO 41°80
PERTH.
Deanston.
0 ft. O in.
120 ft. ?
in.
3°'IO
2°80
4°80
“40
“70
2°60
5°10
8700
5°10
4°00
5°80
2°65
Loch Dhu. |Ben Lomond.
0 ft. 6 in. | O ft. 6 in.
325 ft. 1800 ft.
in. in.
7°80 8°50
9°7° 8°70
12°79 8°50
*60 *30
*90 1°60
5°20 6°70
54° 8°50
14°70 18*10
9°20 12°20
8*90 12°30
II'Io 12°20
7°00 2°30
93°20 99°99
45°05
7U7o
a eESFSSSSeFSSSSSSSFSesseSeSSSSsSF
358
REPORT—1862.
SCOTLAND.
Division XVI.—East Miprand Covnttzs (continued).
Prrti (continued). |
Rinah Bri f Rarsiake Hoek Leny, | Between Glen|
1861 Wenhachar mee Castle. Katriiiéh Callantee, — and
en Ledi. |
egueht of | Ground... 0 ft. 6 in. | 0 ft. 6 in. | Of. Oin. | Ot. Bin. | 0 ft. 4in. | Of. 6 in.
aoe, = Sea-level.| 275 ft. 270 ft. 150 ft. 830 ft. 335 ft. 1800 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in.
January .........588sie0e. 7°60 7°00 4°90 8°00 7°50 5°00
February «.. ..ititis... 6°70 6°80 4°00 8°50 7°30 5°80
Marchi; ;...1.....fis... 8°80 850 660 9°50 5°80 5°70
April By...d8 002 hccend “10 1°30 “95 "40 0°00 "80
Mayr dt....t.c00t ities "70 *50 *60 *90 ‘60 "70
FUNG. %....5..0.088ti bose. 4°60 4°20 2°85 5°10 3°20 3°80
Sh ce, One een 5 Ae 5°20 4°20 5°20 6'20 8°30 5°40
August: ...3.....04b0ihe. 12°30 12°50 g‘0o 14°50 10°50 1500
September :.....:...:... 710 7°70 5°50 IOI 8*00 840
Octobe® ...:.....882s8s00. 6°30 6°20 4°90 8°70 6°30 7°90
November ..........4.... 8*40 10°00 6°60 9°40 9°40 7°60
Decothiber i.....:3%... 4°90 5°50 2°80 7°90 5°50 4°30
Totals ....::.:.4.. 72°70 74°40 53°30 89°20 72°40 70°40
Division XVI.—Easr Miptand Covnrtzs (continued).
|
Pertu (continued). Forrar.
1861. Stanley. Melale : Taymouth. Dundee. Barry. Craigton.
Racisht of || Ground. 1 ft. 0in. | Of. Bit. | sss. Of Oin. | Of Bin. | Of O in
abeso’. { Sealevel.| 200ft. | 300ft. | 372ft.? 0 ft. 35 fi =| 440 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in.
JANUBLY ...0be.c0dtdbebes. 2°15 2°40 3°80 1°51 I°HO 3°43
Februiaty .:....0sds08... 2°60 2°50 4°50 1°60 1°83 3°37
Marcli:y:....4....cd%ebe0: 2°97 2°30 5°00 1'80 2°40 3°00
VADYERES, 225 <cba0s Meer *20 "ho *5O “60 1'07 “Bo
May? 92t.00.cbeccsctthbss- 2°20 *90 *20 1°60 1'I0 I'10
JUNG is.anchs0ondFtncees- 1°70 2°20 3°40 180 1°69 2°33
DULY)? sth.c0cs.ce ess 4°48 3°50 2°50 2°90 2°52 2°30
August ........ 5°42 4°70 5°20 4°90 4°49 4°53
September 4°50 5°30 4°00 4°85 3°51 510
October: ....5....0#%84.. 2°61 2°10 3°20 215 1°97 2°87
November ........:.. #%:.| |: 4246 3°60 5°20 3°40 3°87 4°25
December ...........20.. 1°65 2°20 3°20 1°60 2°02 2°05
Totals .........45. 34°58 32°10 40°70 28°71 27°87 34°93
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
SCOTLAND.
Pert (continued).
Division XVI.—Easr Mmnanp Counrizs (continued).
359
Stronyar, ;
Glengyle, | Ancpterarder Loch Hara Colgubalaic | meinity Gast.| “827 Bam ldocne Palace! “yacme™
O ft. 6 in, | 2 ft. Oin. | Oft. Bin. | Off. 5in. | Oft. Lin. | Of. Bin. | 2 ft. 6 if. | O ft. 3 in.
380 ft. 150 ft. 460 ft. 60 ft. ? 135 ft. 66 ft 80 ft. ? 792 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in,
11rio 1°25 6°15 4°20 5°20 I'g0 2°00 15°40
11°80 2°27 11°20 4°48 2°85 1°72 2°32 16°90
15°20 2°37 II'g0 4°28 2°80 3°29 2°63 26°60
1°30 1'29 *70 65 "90 “86 "36 0*00
2°10 *95 1°20 I'Io *90 1°69 1°60 2°20
5°00 2°33 4°20 2°28 2°20 2°37 211 3°20
5°60 4°19 4°65 4°50 3°40 3°96 3°56 7°10
17°20 5°89 12°85 6°47 5°80 5°47 4°90 17°10
12°00 4°49 8°50 4°40 4°80 5°24. 4°48 9°50
10°30 2°15 8°40 3°28 2°60 2°34 2°12 II‘4o
13°10 3°55 11°20 6°40 4°85 510 3°50 13°90
7°80 225 7°70 2°30 1°90 2°14 1°55 9°90
12°50 32°98 88°65 44°34. 38°20 36°08 31°13 133°20 |
Div. X VII.—NortH-
Division XV1I.—East Mipranp Countizs (continued). Hatrtee Cédwrms
Forrar (continued). KINCARDINE.
ee? | sitiinesa” || centen/ | acheodim || mantrose, | 2onteose, | The Burm, | Palnakettle,
1 ft. O in: | 0 ft: O in. | 0 ft. Oin. | 2 ft. Oin. | 2 ft. 6in. | O ft. Sin, | O ft. Gin. | O ft. 3 in.
218 ft 500 ft 550 ft 65 ft. 21 ft: 8 ft. 210 ft. 450 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
1°23 3°23 3°30 1°75 I'ro 2°70 2°31
2°80 3°19 3°25 1°72 73 3°00 2°76
2°70 3°16 3°40 1°93 1°35 2°60 2°58
“74 87 1°00 1°35 "80 *50 "80
161 1°03 1'07 125 1°25 2°20 3°55
2°28 2°09 298 2°53 1°87 3°00 2°50
4°00 2°76 2°85 2°56 2°48 3°00 3°77
4°76 4°67 4°70 4°74 4°55 6"90 6°59
4°73 5:20 5°33 4°23 3°79 49° 5°14
2°01 3°00 3°05 1°98 95 4°00 4°15
3°74 4°30 4°50 3°51 3°35 480 7°33
169 2°05 2°10 2°EE 1'g0 3°20 3°10
| 32°29 35°55 36°88 29°66 24°03 40°80 44°58
360 REPORT—1862.
SCOTLAND.
Division X VII.—Norrn-Easrern Countiss (continued).
KincarDINE (continued). ABERDEEN,
1861. Egcrei ag Birach “ed Baslnys Braemar. Aberdeen. |Castle Newe.
—
pagishtof | Ground .| 0 ft. 3 in. | 1 ft. Gin. | O ft. din. | 4 ft.0in. | 0 ft.4 in. | 1 ft: 0 in,
al i a 8° | Sea-level.| 200 ft. 200 ft. 95 ft. 1110 ft. 100 ft. 915 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in.
DANUALY foscicescasdeereaoos 2°40 I'12 1°50 1'07 1°50 moe.
MebeMAary, 5).ss0cpeueeeee 2°20 2°47 1°30 2°45 1'90 2°19
March: 2.5 <5 nev oe chica << 2°30 2°65 3°50 2°80 2°75 2°48
MA DIM as.. 5se oe vathtete ate ‘60 1°42 "80 1°36 112 1°87
Mia yainsaysceslaecascaibebase 2°00 2°93 "70 “90 1°80 3°05
JUNC Y 25.00 sapoocsaxee eters 2°60 25K 3°20 4°36 1) aaias 2°93
SULVa tata 0casrecossbgeeeose 2°70 2°24. 2°70 | 3°82 2°35 2°66
PAUIPHSbE E0355. cosas eer? 6°50 5°03 3°60 4°53 4°50 5"10
September .......s.0e0+0 3°80 4°10 4°30 3°84. 4°00 5°54
October j. 205.00 .eceseRees 2°80 2°20 1'60 2°17 1°70 2°83
November .,.....0sea5e3. 4°70 2°00 4°30 4°54 4°85 8:04.
December ..,.....5<.:5... | 3700 2°76 2°30 | 2°96 2°25 1'20
Motals ....0.afeess ge 35°60 31°43 29°80 34°80 30°97 39°06
SCOTLAND. IRELAND.
snkd : Division XX.
Division XIX.—Norrnern Countiss (continued). Feit Ya
SurHEeRLAnn (continued). ORKNEY. Suzrnanp.| Cork. Kerry.
Royal
1861. Scourie. ears Sandwick. Bressay. Tastitution, Valentia.
Ork.
picight of || Ground .| 0 ft. 2 in, |) 0 ft. 6 in. | 2 ft. 0 in. |] 0 ft. 9 in. [50 ft. 0 in. | 1 ft. 0 in,
aun-Bauge ( Sea-level.| 20 ft. 50 ft. ? 78 ft. 80 ft. 50 ft.
above
in. in. in. in. in.
DANUWHLY?.ssstsesoedeucaess 3°55 1°30 2°12 2°80 3°65 7°52
Febraary .d.ccschaeaes- 2°80 *50 1°43 3°20 5°13 5°84
Mares? ci. soecteSets 6°50 3°40 4°71 he fo) 1°99 4°73
April: ...cadcoeglitees “70 “50 1'02 "60 178 1°64
MAY 225. .psdocceveererres 3°40 2°20 2°02 2'00 "oz | 1°35
JUNO? Sassedy sweaters 1°50 "50 “78 35 3°51 BEn7.
JULY ThE ccnveywevoupeegens 3°40 2°60 3°40 3°10 3°77 6°80
JAUIBTISE'Y..vcusccnsdeeed ba 7°50 8:10 6°75 5°50 3°82 10°88
September .............- 4°40 3°00 2°97 4°70 4°45 11°79
OGtODEt pet... .cetterees: 2°60 4°00 6:01 2°50 4°94 625
November ..........0.0-- 10°70 5°40 7°29 4°50 2°84 6"70
December .........0.000: 3°80 1°60 2°68 3°80 2°38 5°13
pn | | ait as
Totals: .4:.:20R29. 50°85 33°10 418 . 4l'rs 72°40
ON THE RAINFALL IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 361
SCOTLAND.
ae Div. XIX
Diyision X VIII.—Norra-Western Coun rizs. N Cds
; Ross. InVERNEss. Surner-
; LAND.
Stornoway, | Bernera, Beaufort Culloden Portree, Raasay {Loch Maddy,! Dunrobin,
= of Isle of Castle. House. |Isle of Skye.} House. North Uist. Castle.
ewes. Lewes.
0 ft. 3 in. | Oft.6 in. |) 4 ft. 6in. | 3 ft.Oin. | Oft. lin. | 4 ft. Oin. | 3 ft. Oin. | 0 ft. 4 in.
70 ft. 15 ft. 40 ft. 104 ft. 60 ft. 80 ft. 20 ft. ? 6 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in.
2°85 2°60 1°63 1°42 13°15 6"40
5°39 2°74. 1°48 *80 15°43 g'00
761 4°96 5°15 2°53 20°35 1105
“91 "9° ‘79 I'19 78 "55
or, 1°53 39 108 5°04, 3°20
2°08 2°18 3°92 2°77 3°14 3°45
4°56 5°80 2°82 4°35 9°97 6°05
8°14. 9°80 3°54. 2°99 15°21 10*40
6°33 7°99 4°14. 5°89 12°85 10°05
3°92 5'60 IOI 1°24 8°51 6°35
7°61 6:20 7°87 5°64. 22°16 10°20
5°95 10°70 2°17 1°51 12°45 9°20
58°07 6o'g1 34°91 31°41 139°04. 86*40
IRELAND.
Division XX. (continued).
|
WATERFORD, LIMERICK. Crane. QuzEn’s Co.|| WickLow.
w Rath- patho’ r ; < Fassaroe,
aterford. Portlaw. Pilighaer Limerick. Killaloe. Killaloe. Roraeling: Bray.
on.
4 ft. Oin. | 20 ft. Oin.| 1 ft.6in. |] ......... 0 ft. 5in. | 5ft. Oin. | 9 ft. Oin. || 3 ft. O in.
60 ft. 50 ft. LOD Sts |\Weeones overs 123 ft. 128 ft. 245 ft. 250 ft.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
3°62 4°36 3°76 1°75 2°15 2°11 1°70 4°37
3°02 4°37 2°94 2°40 3°51 3°36 1°90 10°42
3°15 3°85 2°13 4°94 7°22 6°65 3°52 5°54
244 2°31 1°80 65 1°16 112 °79 2°37
"39 48 “28 "42 *50 “51 "29 cay,
3°82 5°03 3°51 3°76 4°23 4°21 3°38 2'80
744 6°85 6°55 7-90 6°85 6°51 7°56 5°77
| 4°44 4°52 3°45 6°85 8°83 8°55 4°64 3°53
55 6°10 5°16 745 7°60 7°57 4°70 4°97
mea 58 4°08 3°44 2°97 3°45 3°41 3°38 31t
a8 aes 1°85 3°03 ws 5°25 3°97 4°76
oe 5 4 5 : : -
: 7 4 3°92 2°20 2 My Di 2°59 Ev,7. Hy 3°19
43°83 49°31 33°79 wee Mba 328 | 5184 36°70 | 51°co |
1862, 23
362
REPORT—1862.
IRELAND.
Division XX. (continued).
|
Gatway. Dvsuin.
1861. rane a Dublin. pe ’ | Monkstown.
Galway.
picisht of | Ground. 6 ft.0 in. || 28%. Oin.| 6ft. Gin. | 6f.Oin. | OF 6 in
abere ” { Sealevel-| 26 ft. 96 ft. 166 ft. | 65 ft. 90 ft
ive
in. in. in. in. in.
WEMUATY veces bacesessosees 3°24 1°31 1°70 2°15 2°15
February 4°58 3°23 2°60 2°99 3°77
nb tga IBeey see 6°89 3°05 3°11 3°05 ce 4
sj 0 lh tea ct eee 1°22 1°23 1°39 1°50 1°46
ls aatide sa Beles ae 1°09 “50 “58 “15 °33
MUNG 805 .2-0.5.00c.cce. 2°79 2'60 2°73 2°99 3°13
WY: Brace stot eases... 6°41 3°10 4°92 4°96 4°99
BMUDTIBEL .:.0305 sh .nc2ss00 8°49 1°24 3°16 2°85 2°82
September .:............. 10°38 3°27 2°96 3°62 3°96
OltobeP. ... 34225... 3°91 1°65 1°74 2°06 1'97
November .:.:.:......... 5°85 2°40 1°58 2°92 2°50
Deeember .:.:.%.....:... whi 109 1'02 “92 1°64
ROtAIBIS Sa. . 5 ity us 58°62 24°67 27°49 30°16 31°89
Division XX. (continued).
Dusuiw (continued). Suiao. ARMAGH. Down.
1861. Monkstown. || Observatory, | Observatory, Galiege, vpeast ”
cient of") Ground ..| 90 ft. O in. || 16 ft, 3in. || 36ft. Oin. | 9 ft. 9in, | 4 ft, 0 in,
bore © [ Sea-level.| 190 ft. 145 ft. 247 ft 58 ft. 12 ft.
above
in. in. in. in. in,
WANUALY wicsxtess.sthe.2- 1°26 2°56 2°71 2°45 3°14
February ...0.:i....00: j) 3°82 1°88 2°21 1°88 2°16
Miircla. .:.cheeev. sty .2t | t92 5°87 5°74 4°26 4°99
April © yoccrterassscattcan | 116 "44. 1°07 "82 ‘97
MAY face cancanGese Stesecs "26 1°62 36 "28 °38
PaUne en ees 2°88 4°39 4°73 1°74 2°95
ity Rice scenes | 3-22 5°29 4°88 4°56 4°48
ANIBUSE-\..spenen-csetbes es | 2°23 6°88 6°29 519 5°05
September ...............] 3°00 6°42 4°50 4°38 4°48
October "Seer sete cs 1°33 2°97 2°71 2°71 2°85
November .............8. I'41 / 6°16 5°39 3°66 3°83
December ............... "82 2°63 2°61 2°09 2°18
Wotaley 0s. ccteseas 21°01 47°16 43°20 34°02 37°41
Note.—In the preseding Tables the height of the gauges is occasionally
differently stated in 1860 and 1861; this must not be supposed to indicate
change of position ; the apparent discrepancy arises from the observers having
reconsidered their estimates when filling up the returns for ne second year.
(See also p. 294.)
. ON THERMOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS IN THE ALPS, ‘363
On Thermometric Observations in the Alps.
By J. Bau, M.RIA., FL.S., &c.
At the Meeting of the British Association at Oxford in 1860, the writer
laid before the Section of Mathematics and Physics a plan for the systematic
observation of temperature in the chain of the Alps, and other mountain
countries, in which several members of the Alpine Club had been induced to
oin.
Thermometers of uniform construction had been prepared for the purpose
by one of our best makers, Mr. Casella, and forms were printed with the ob-
ject of securing as far as possible a uniform and complete record of such
observations as should be procured. -
The conditions under which these observations were to be made, and the
fact that most of the observers were not professed men of science, made it
indispensable to limit the plan so as to include only such objects as might be
accomplished without much expenditure of time and labour, and by means
of very light and portable instruments.
Four objects were suggested for inquiry :—
1st. The determination of the minimum temperature on or near to the
higher peaks of the Alps, and other mountains, by means of self-registering
instruments fixed in suitable positions.
2nd. To obtain comparative observations of the effects of the radiant heat
of the sun upon black-bulb thermometers,
3rd. To trace the propagation of disturbances of temperature throughout a
mountain district by the multiplication of observations at a number of differ-
ent points.
4th. Observations on the temperature of the surface, and the upper layers
of the soil, at great elevations,
Unexpected circumstances have prevented the writer from visiting the
Alps during the last two years, and have very much restricted his opportu-
nities for carrying out his own share of the work ; and however moderate the
expectations were which he had formed, the difficulties in the way of obtain-
ing definite results have proved to be even greater than he anticipated; so
that the plan has proved to be in some respects a complete failure, while in
others a limited degree of success has attended it.
1. In regard to the observations obtained by placing minimum thermo-
meters at great heights, the principal share of merit in whatever has been
accomplished is due to Mr. F. F. Tuckett, of Bristol, who is well known as a
very active and successful mountaineer, and a careful observer. He has
placed a considerable number of instruments at heights ranging from 7000
to 14,000 feet, and has collected and arranged the observations made by
various travellers upon the instruments so deposited by himself or by others.
The following is a summary of the work done, and the results obtained,
with which the writer has been favoured by Mr. Tuckett :—
« Having been requested by the Committee of the Alpine Club to under-
take the registration of such data as might result from the exposure of regis-
- tering-thermometers on the loftiest summits of the Alps, I am able to supply
the following brief account of what has been effected.
“The conditions of success were (1) the cooperation of as large a number
as possible of our mountaineers; (2) correctness and uniformity in the instru-
ments employed ; (3) a judicious exposure which should secure them alike
from the influence of radiation and the protective effect of heavy falls of
snow, especially in winter; and (4) some mode of firm attachment which
282
364 REPORT—1862.
would prevent their either being carried away bodily, or the index from being
disturbed by unavoidable wind or still more provoking curiosity. As to the
first point, I have gratefully to acknowledge the assistance of a large number
of our best mountaineers, who have either deposited instruments themselves,
or sent reports of the readings of those already placed. Thanks to their
united efforts, about thirty minimum thermometers have been exposed at
altitudes of from 7150 to 15,784 feet over a wide tract of country, extending
from the summits of the Yiso, Grand Pelvoux, to the Marmolata in the South-
ern Tyrol. :
*(2) The correctness of the instruments was, as far as possible, secured by
entrusting their construction to Mr. L. P. Casella, one of our best makers, and
their uniformity by the adoption of a definite pattern. At first, in the
absence of a good mercurial minimum capable of acting in a horizontal position,
and in the uncertainty as to the sufficiency of the range of mercury, the
ordinary spirit- or Rutherford’s thermometer was adopted ; but experience has
in the great majority of cases demonstrated its inefficiency, and in consequence
all the instruments deposited during the past summer and autumn, four in
number, have been mercurial, of Casella’s last patent construction.
“*(3) The question of exposure has not been solved as satisfactorily as
could be desired, and this failure has I fear destroyed much of the value of
the results obtained. In the first place, the process of attaching a thermo-
meter to a bare rock at great elevations, often in a keen frost and chilling
wind, is by no means so easy as the enthusiastic meteorologist may suppose ;
and without discussing here the various precautions which ought to be, and
perhaps might be, adopted in some exceptional cases, I would venture to
express an opinion that a well-constructed cairn of sufficient elevation, so
placed as to prevent its being buried by winter snows, is the simplest and
most efficient means of protecting the thermometer from the most serious
causes of disturbance. When, at least, this plan has been adopted, the
readings of the instruments have appeared trustworthy, and in almost all
other cases sadly the reverse. By this means also they are more screened
from inquisitive observation, and may better escape the pilfering propensities
of an inferior order of guides, whom we probably have to thank for the dis-
appearance of one at least fixed very securely by the writer on the Aiguille
du Goité.
“A large proportion of the Rutherford minimums haye become perfectly
useless from the division of the column, and itis this fact, coupled with a belief
that the lowest temperature of winter on the loftiest summits rarely exceeds
—40° Cent. (the freezing-point of mercury), which has led to their abandon-
ment and the substitution of the mercurial construction. From some recent
experiments, consisting in the alternate exposure of spirit-minimums to vary-
ing temperatures, I am disposed to attribute the separation of the column to
this cause, which, if due precautions are not observed in placing the instru-
ment, must be especially energetic at great altitudes.
** Unless the thermometer can be protected from the influence of radiation
at night, or the respectively cooling and warming effects of a thin or thick
layer of snow, variations from the true temperature of the air, amounting (as
shown by M. Martins) to 10° or 12° Cent. (18° to 22° Fahr.), may be pro-
duced, and the reading utterly vitiated for purposes of comparison. Besides,
if imperfectly shielded from radiation, it will probably be more or less sub-
jected to the direct action of the solar rays, and thus be exposed to tempera-
tures varying within twenty-four hours by as much as 55° CG. (100° Fahr.).
My experiments show that a much more limited range than this suffices to
ON THERMOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS IN THE ALPS. 365
produce a ‘solution of continuity’ in the column of spirit, which has
acquired amongst our mountaineers the expressive name of the ‘ bubble com-
laint.’
x In one instance an observer, whose accuracy I have no reason to doubt,
informs me that he could detect no trace whatever of spirit, nor any indication
of fracture in the glass by which it could have escaped. The index lay
‘high and dry’ at the bottom of the bulb. This extraordinary result he
attributes to ‘a sort of volatilization of the contained spirit ;’ and though it
seems difficult to understand how it could have taken place to the extent
mentioned, there is little doubt that vaporization of the contained spirit to
an extraordinary extent will occur, as pointed out by Dr. Hooker some years
ago in the Appendix to his ‘ Himalayan Journal.’ If my informant’s state-
ment appear exaggerated, I hope the probable truth which underlies it may
draw attention to the question.
«The causes just alluded to, and the comparatively short time which has
elapsed since these observations were commenced, must be accepted as some
justification of the meagreness of the results.
‘«« The readings of the minimum temperature of the autumn and summer
months at elevations of 9000 to 15,000 feet (Table III.) appear rarely to fall
below —10° Cent., or if they do, the condition of the thermometer is generally
stated by observers to be suspicious. The lowest winter reading registered is
—41°C., in the case of a thermometer placed on the Col d’Argentiére at a
height of upwards of 12,000 feet; but as when observed the spirit had separated,
we have no right to assume that it had not done so before the index
attained its actual position. We have, however, four observations which
seem entitled to entire- confidence as far as the instrument is concerned,
though one at least certainly does not represent the lowest temperature of
the air. The minimum on the Becca di Nona, near Aosta, carefully deposited
in a cairn at a height of 10,382 feet, has been found in perfect working
order after the lapse of two years. My excellent friend M. Carrel informs me
that the minimum temperature of the winter of 1860-61 and 1861-62
was respectively — 27° and — 23°C. (— 17° and — 10° Fahr.). Again,
a similar instrument on the Col d’Erin, at a height of 11,408 feet, was
found in perfect preservation by Mr. Whately last autumn after exposure
during one winter, that of 1860-61. Its minimum reading was — 21°C.
(— 6°Fahr.); but as earlier in the season I was unable to find it, though
it had been deposited by myself in 1860, there is no doubt that it must have
been buried in the snow during either the spring or winter, and thus its indi-
cations are probably considerably too low, since for the same period the tem-
perature on the Becca di Nona (1000 feet lower) fell to — 27°. Lastly, a
thermometer placed last year in a cairn on Scaw-Fell Pike appeared to be in
good order this spring, and registered — 10°C, (+ 14° Fahr.) as the greatest
winter cold.
«To the above observations it may not be amiss to add one by M. Lizat on
the Pic de Nethou, the highest point of the Pyrenees (11,168 English feet).
This instrument, placed at the summit, registered — 24°:2 C, in the winter
of 1857. If we compare the preceding observations with the registers kept
at Geneva and the Great St. Bernard, we have during the winter 1859-60
at Geneva the minimum readings of — 23° on 21st Dec. 1859, and — 11°1
on 16th February 1860. Corresponding to these, the lowest temperatures
recorded at the Great St. Bernard were — 27°:2 on 16th December 1859,
and — 25°-3 on 10th March 1860. Even allowing that we are not certain
that the instruments at levels higher than the Great St, Bernard were clear
REPORT—1862.
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368 BEPORT—2862.
Height in|SPi"t| No. of
‘Tastz IIJ.—Observations made with
Station. English | pfer.|instru-| Position. | By whom placed. | Date of deposit.
feet. |cury.| ment. :
Mont Blane ,.:....s00ee0e8. | 15,784 | S «| Pennine Alps | Prof. Tyndall. 1859. Aug. 21.
Monte Rosa (HoéchsteSp.)| 15,217 | S | 316 a », | Col. Robertson. 1860. July 16.
» 99 (Nordend)... | 15,132 | S = a » | Sir T. F. Buxton, | 1861. Aug.
Finsteraarhorn ...........- 14,046 | S | 313? | Bernese ,, | Rev. L. Stephen. | 1861. Aug. 5.
dae oaeeee ‘5 S | 318? = » | F. F. Tuckett. 1860. July 27.
Corridor (Mt. aioe 14,000?| S ... {Pennine ,, | Prof. Tyndall. 1859. Aug 21.
Castariicesctrdsceaveses crass 2a;879 |S | 376 5 », | W. Mathews, Jun. | 1861. Aug. 23.
Grand Paradis ....-....... 13,300 | S | 367 |Graian ,, | F. F. Tuckett. 1861. July 3.
Griyolavacscecsestess<choae 13,005 | M “ ny oo” ” ” 1862. June 27.
Gd. Pelvoux (Signal) ....| 12,919 | M «| Dauphiné. +5 4 1862. July 10.
Gd. Plateau (Mt. Blanc) | 12,900?| S ... | Pennine Alps.| Prof. Tyndall. 1859. Aug. 21.
Col d’Argentiére .........{ 12,600?| S | 314 ” » | £..F. Tuckett, 1860. Aug. 2.
Monte VisO ..ssseeeeeeeee | 12,586 | S | 301 |Collian ,, | W. Mathews, Jun.| 1861. Aug. 30.
i ig Peeceateosacerhe 9 M ne “: » | FE. F. Tuckett. 1862. July 4.
Aiguille du Gouté......... | 12,530 | S | 372 | Pennine ,, ” 7 1861. July 17.
La Sassi€re secccovecsocees 12,400 | S | 302 |Graian ,, | W. Mathews, Jun.| 1860. Aug. 5.
Oberaarhorn.........00e00- 11,923 |S ee |Bernese ,, | Rev. L. Stephen. | 1860. Aug.
Mont Emilius ........... 11,788 |M .. |Graian ,, | W. Mathews, Jun.| 1862. Aug. 12.
Trift Joch ....seseeeeee sees | 11,601 | S | 333 | Pennine ,, | Rev. T. G. Bonney.| 1860. Sept.
Mont Gelé ..rsccccccsseee 11,539 | S | 384 * » | ¥F. W. Jacomb. 1861. Aug. 11
Coll Erinvccc.s:.screcscs. 11,408 | S | 318 = » _| F. F. Tuckett. 1860. July 18
Marmolata ........000e00 11,300?) S «.. |S. Tyrol. J. Ball. 1860. Sept. 1.
Mittelhorn .....cccscseses 11,190 | 8 +. | Pennine Alps.| Rey. L. Stephen. | 1860.
Grauhaupt........sseseeeeee| 11,030 | S | 335 “ y | A. T. Malkin. 1860. Aug. 23
Beuea di Nona ....:....0. | 10,382 |S | 306 |Graian j,4%, ~,, 1860. Aug. {
Col de Chermontane .... | 10,349?] S . |Pennine ,, | Sir T. F. Buxton. | 1861. Aug.
Aeggischhorn Peak ...... 9,649 | S | 312 |Bernese ,, | F. F. Tuckett. 1860. July 24
Faulberg ....cecovcvssee we | 9,150?) S | 315 F D x 5 1860. July 26
Glacier des Bossons...... 2 ) + |Pennine ,, | Prof. Tyndall. 1859. Aug. 21
FatslhOrnin ccerectssieevdccess 8,804 |S -s» |Bernese ,, | E. Anderson. 1860. Sept.
Aeggischhorn Inn......... 7,150 | S | 310 ” » |F.F. Tuckett. 1860. July 24
Scaw-Fell Pike .........06. | 3,160 | S | 339? | England. R. B. Hayward. | 1861. Aug.
of winter snow, there is at least reason to suspect that the proportionate fall
of the thermometer with increase of height is much less considerable in
winter than at other seasons.” —F, F. Tucxerr.
2. The objections to attempting a measure of the radiant heat of the sun
by exposing black-bulb thermometers, are obvious and well known; never-
theless it was thought that by using instruments as nearly as possible
identical in construction, exposed in the same manner, and rejecting all
observations in which the result could be affected by wind, results compar-
able inter se might be obtained. It is believed that if the first condition
could be secured this inference would be found correct, but in point of fact it
is a matter of extreme difficulty to obtain the requisite identity of construc-
d
ee
ON THERMOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS IN THE ALPS.
nine Minimum Thermometers.
369
Lowest
Temp. (By whom observed. Date ir Bias Remarks.
recorded. as
C.
—14°-8 | W. Mathews, Jun.) 1859. Aug. 29. | 1861, July 19, F. F. Tuckett, “Spirit separated.”
Sept., F. W. Jacomb, ditto.
_ -17° T. Blandford. 1860. Aug. 30. | 1861, Aug. 10, Dr. Kolbs, ‘Spirit disappeared, no
No obs. flow visible; index on bottom of bulb.”
—25° H. Lawrence. 1861. Aug. 25. | Touched, and possibly disturbed by guide.
—10° T. Blandford. 1861. Aug. 7. | Reset on 5th by Rev. L. Stephen. Aug. 23, 1861,
No obs. H. Lawrence, “ No index visible.”
, ”
”
”
”
7° W. Mathews, Jun.) 1859. Aug. 29.
—35°? |S. Winkworth. 1861. June 22. | ‘ Minimum —41°. Spirit separated from +21°°5 to
+32°°5.” Result doubtful.
No obs eee see wee =| 1862, July 4, F. F. Tuckett, “Cairn partly buried in
snow ; could not find therm.”
y tee tee eee 1862, July 4, F. F. Tuckett, “Securely deposited in
upper part of cairn.”’
” oo eos 1861, Sept., F. W. Jacomb, “ Not to be found; pro-
bably stolen.”
” .
wy J. K. Stone. 1860. Aug. ‘“ Spirit separated.”
”
} —9° Rey. C. H. Pilking- | 1861. Aug. 17 | ‘Spirit separated from 10°°5 to 11°-5, and from 36°°5
ton. to 39°.” 1860, Sept. 14, R, B. Shaw, —8°5,
No obs.
—21° A. P. Whately. 1861. Aug. 19. | “In good order, and agreed with Mr. W.’s thermo-
No obs. meter.’”’—1861, June 25, F. F. Tuckett, “ Not to
7 be found ; probably covered with snow.”
—1"7 F. J. A. Hort. 1860. Sept. 5. | “ Stood 0°°5 C. lower than a mercurial thermometer
by Mr. Casella.”
|—27°, 1861) M. Carrel 1861. June 27. | 1860, Aug. 8, G. H. Strutt, —7°. 1861, Aug. 9,
|—23°, 1862 i * 1862. June. F. W. Jacomb, —7°.
No. obs
—9° T. Webster. 1860. Sept. 9. | 1861, July 4, W. G. Fry, “Could not find thermo-
meter, and believed it had been broken.”
—12°5 | T. Blandford. 1861. Aug. 6. | 1860, Aug. 18, Rev. L. Stephen, —3°.
pels W. Mathews, Jun.| 1859. Aug. 29. | ‘‘ Index close to bulb, and evidently not properly set
No obs when deposited by Balmat.”
—2° F. J. A. Hort. 1860. Sept. 27.| 1861, July 5, 31° (?) De la Fontaine.
re Messrs. Green and| 1862. May 28.
5-10 5{ Smallpiece. | 1862. Sept. 24, } In good order.
Among the instruments provided for the purpose by Mr. Casella, the
|
| tion.
|
|
writer has found that a slight difference in the size of the bulb has a very
marked difference in the indications of the instrument, amounting in some
cases to 2°°5 C.
It was also found that the interval of three minutes allowed for the ex-
posure of the black-bulb thermometer to the sun was too great. At con-
siderable heights the air does not often remain perfectly calm, nor the sky
completely clear of passing films of cloud, for many minutes together. It is
necessary to allow an interval long enough to make an error of, say, one
second in the moment of reading the instrument not very sensible in the
observation ; but one minute is certainly preferable to three ; and after experi-
370 REPORT—1862,
ence had disclosed the mistake, the writer always recorded three readings,
corresponding to one, two, and three minutes of exposure.
The season of 1860 was unusually inclement, and the sky rarely in fayour-
able condition, so that in the course of about eight weeks the writer obtained
but thirty-nine observations, of which the large majority were taken under
unfavourable circumstances, and must therefore be rejected.
In 1861 fifteen observations were made in the Western Pyrenees under
more favourable conditions.
In addition to the above, seyeral observations made in 1860 by the Rey.
T. G. Bonney, Mr. R. B. Hayward, Rey. F. J. A. Hort, Mr. A. T, Malkin, and
the Rey. Leslie Stephen have been communicated by those gentlemen to the
writer. Excluding those fairly open to suspicion, the results are registered in
the annexed Table (I.). An accurate comparison of these results would involve
as one element the altitude of the sun at the moment of each observation,
but the sources of error are too many and considerable to make this worth
the requisite trouble. All that can fairly be inferred from the Table is that
the sun’s rays produce a greater effect on the black-bulb thermometer at
higher than at lower levels, the difference, though quite perceptible, being not
considerable in amount. It is true that the highest reading out of twenty-
four observations by the writer recorded in the Table was at Eaux Bonnes,
only 2458 feet above the sea; but without considering the probability that
that reading was exaggerated by the radiation of heated bodies (walls, &c.)
near the thermometer, it will be observed that it was made at 20 min. before
noon on July 25, and does not therefore indicate as great an effect of solar
radiation as the observations made on the Schleeren (8399 ft.) at 1.10 p.m.
on August 25, or on the Bréche de Roland (9200 ft.) at one hour and a quarter
before noon on August 16.
3. As might, perhaps, have been anticipated, the attempt to trace the
propagation of disturbances in temperature by means of a network of obser-
vations covering a considerable tract of mountain country resulted in complete
failure. Even if the observers had been more numerous and more diligent
than they were, the disturbing effects of local causes are far more serious
than was apprehended. The effects of vicinity of the soil in raising the
indications of the thermometer by day and lowering them by night, are not
yet as fully measured or appreciated as they ought to be, and it is question-
able whether the observations made at fixed observatories are as nearly com-
parable as they are commonly supposed to be. Among other authorities on
this point, a recent memoir by Mr. Charles Martins might be referred to as
showing how important is the effect of slight differences of level on the
nocturnal indications of the thermometer,
The welcome intelligence that the Swiss men of science are about to esta-
blish fixed stations for systematic observations of the thermometer and other
meteorological instruments throughout the territory of the Confederation
makes the disappointment on this head less important, as it is probable that,
with requisite skill and caution in observing and reducing the results, the
plan now believed to be definitively adopted will much enlarge our knowledge
of Alpine meteorology.
4, Observations on the temperature of the soil at and near to the surface
in mountain countries are of considerable interest from their bearing on the
distribution of animals and plants. It is not too much to say that if such
obseryations had been available, M. Alphonse DeCandolle would have been
led to modify seyeral of the conclusions stated in his standard work on
: DREDGING ON THE NORTH AND EAST COASTS OF SCOTLAND, 371
Geographical Botany, respecting the conditions of life to which high alpine
plants are subjected.
Regarded only as an object of physical inquiry, it is clear that the only
observations which can be considered in any degree comparable are those
made in dry soil, and this condition is so seldom fulfilled, that comparatively
few observations have been obtained. Some made by the writer, and several
others communicated by Mr. A. T, Malkin, but apparently not made in quite
dry soil, agree in showing that in the higher regions of the Alps, approaching
to and above what is commonly called the limit of perpetual snow. the
plants and animals that dwell on the surface of the soil must, during the
short period of their active vitality, receive an amount of heat much larger
than has commonly been supposed. The annexed Table (II.), although too
limited to furnish general results, may be worth preserving as evidence upon
this point.
Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East Coasts of
Scotland. By J. Gwyn Jurrreys, F.R.S.
Tue Marine Invertebrata enumerated in the following list were found by
Mr. Robert Dawson on that part of the coast of Aberdeenshire which extends
from the mouth of the Ythan to the mouth of the Ugie. The distance in a
straight line is about 15 miles, The whole of this coast, with the exception
of the sands of Forvie and the little bays of Peterhead and Cruden, consists
of precipitous granite and gneiss rocks.
The sea-bed appears to slope gently and regularly from the shore for 10
or 12 miles, the only exception to this uniformity being a ravine (or Hole as
it is called by the fishermen) opposite to Slains Castle. This ravine com-
mences about half a mile from the shore, and stretches out at right angles to
the land, the depth varying from 25 fathoms to 35 fathoms.
The Laminarian zone, which, except about Peterhead, is very narrow,
is succeeded by a belt of pure white sand, extending in breadth to the
30-fathom line from 3 to 4 miles from the shore. This sand has in general
been very unproductive, but in the ravine just mentioned many of the rarest
species have been got. ;
Dredging may be said to have begun at 30 fathoms, and extended over the
Coralline zone till it attains a depth of 90 fathoms. On one occasion the dredge
was used in 60 fathoms, at a distance of 15 or 16 miles from shore. Two of
the species enumerated in the list were brought up by a fisherman’s line 30
miles from land (viz. Trophon scalariformis and Pinna pectinata).
The following abstract shows the number of Mollusca identified :—
Gasteropoda Prosobranchiata .,,..,...... 110
—— Opisthobranchiata ...,............... 11
Nudibranchiata, ...........c--.00.s02 8
IPHeRO pO a: 3's =: <ecmndecesv<aeehvetishectes 1
Conchifera Lamellibranchiata ............ 92
=== Brachlopoga,..ac-:rpecossrzensersecees 1
223
Of this number the following are Avctic and probably fossil, viz. Tiophon
_ sedlariformis, T. Gunneri, Astyris Holbéllii, Scalaria Eschrichti, Natica clausa
and helicoides, Margarita cinerea, Skenea? costulata, Adeorbis subcarinata,
Lepeta coca, Astarte-arctica and elliptica, Tellina proxima, Serobicularia
372 REPORT—1862.
piperata, Mya truncata, Saxicava rugosa, and Hypothyris psittacea, besides the
Pecten islandicus, which is not unfrequently dredged.
Some of these fossil shells have been found in almost every haul of the
dredge, as Astarte elliptica, Tellina proaima, Pecten islandicus, and Saxicava
rUgost.
“All the others, with the exception of Scrobicularia piperata, have been
found in three different spots, viz. the Hole, before mentioned, opposite the
mouth of the Ythan, 6 miles from land, in 40 fathoms, and opposite the
mouth of the Ugie, 6 miles from land, in 35 fathoms,—that is, exactly at each
extremity, and in the middle of the space which has been dredged over by
Mr. Dawson.
But although the fossil species found appear to be principally confined to
the three spots indicated, yet the presence of some of them wherever the
dredge has been used tends to prove that a tertiary bed extends along the
whole coast and to a great distance seaward, some of these fossils having
been brought up 30 miles from land by the fishermen’s lines. Of the 17
apparently fossil species enumerated, 10 have been found in a decidedly
fossil state in the drift clay in different parts of the county *. These are—
Trophon scalariformis...... at Belhelvie, near the sea.
Natica clausa............s.0866 at King Edward, several miles from sea,
helicoides.............+ at King Edward, ditto.
Astarte arctica ...........065 various places.
CLIN HIGA) «sevens venecdne es ditto.
Tellina proxima ditto.
Serobicularia piperata ...... raised beach at Ythan Mouth.
Mya truncata ..........s0006 Kang Edward.
Saxicava rugosa ...s.sseseee Belhelvie, &c.
Pecten islandicus ............ ditto.
Of species usually accounted rare, the following are rather common in this
district, viz.:—
Lepton nitidum. Aclis ascaris.
convexum. supranitida.
Lima subauriculata. Eulimella Scille.
Skenea divisa. acicula.
—— costulata.
There are a few species enumerated by Dr. Gordon in his ‘ List of the Mol-
lusea of the Moray Firth’ which do not appear to have been found by Mr.
Dawson ; the late Prof. Macgillivray also, in his ‘ Mollusca of Aberdeenshire,’
records some which Mr. Dawson has not met with.
Note on BoLocera EQUES.
Dredged off Peterhead in 35 fathoms on June 20, 1862, and still alive.
Base.—As described by Mr. Gosse in his ‘ Actinologia Britannica,’
Column.—Upper half covered with longitudinal rows of close-set warts, in
ordinary circumstances not minute, but very variable in size at the pleasure
of the animal.
Disk.—As described in ‘ Act. Brit.’
Tentacles.—Arranged as described in ‘ Act. Brit.,’ but several of them hay-
ing double points, and thus causing their number to appear to be 150 or up-
wards, They are extremely variable in shape, being sometimes contracted
to a mere thread, and at other times distended till they are almost globular.
* Mr. Jamieson of Ellon supplied Mr. Dawson with this list of fossils. He has speci-
mens of many other Arctic shells from the same beds, but these are either still alive in the
district, or have not been found with the dredge.
: TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE IN COURTS OF LAW. 373
The apex appears to be more truncate than that described and figured by
Mr. Gosse.
Mouth.—As described in ‘ Act. Brit.’
Colour.
Oolwmn.--Straw-colour ; strie nearly white ; warts, when fully expanded,
white, with a pellucid spot in the centre.
Disk.—General colour similar to that of the column, radiated with white
strie, with conspicuous radiating deep-red bands arising from a point within
each inner tentacle, and passing in pairs round the tentacles, exactly as in
Tealia crassicornis.
Tentacles.—Pellucid white ; a broad magenta ring near the apex, gradually
shading into pellucid white above the middle, and succeeded by an opake
white band.
Size,
Height of column, 2 inches.
Length of tentacles, when fully expanded, 5 inches.
This specimen is still (Sept. 17, 1862) in full health and beauty; it has
lost, however, a little of the brilliancy of the magenta or purplish colour on
the tentacles. On some occasions it has slightly shifted its base on the stone
to which it adheres, and after a few days moved back to its former site.
In presenting this Report, Mr. Jeffreys observed that its most peculiar and
interesting feature was the discovery of so many Arctic species of shells in a
fossil state, mixed with recent shells of other species. He accounted for this
assemblage of fossil and recent shells in the same spot by supposing that
towards the close of the glacial epoch the sea-bed containing these arctic
shells was gradually upheaved and became dry land, so as to exterminate the
breed, and that subsequently the bed was submerged and inhabited by other
species, which had either migrated from the south, or were diffused in course
of time over the present area of the German Ocean. Such a state of things
would imply very long periods of elevation and subsidence,
Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt,
Right Hon. Josrru Napier, Mr. Tirz, M.P., Professor Curistison,
Mr. J. Heywoop, Mr. J. F. Bareman, Mr. T. Wesstmr, on Tech-
nical and Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law.
Wrrrens on legal evidence have frequently animadverted on the testimony of
professional witnesses in a Court of Justice as being contradictory and un-
reliable, in a degree which materially diminishes its value; nor is it denied
among the candid members of more than one profession that greater con-
trarieties of opinion on technical and scientific subjects appear in the witness
bow than can be satisfactorily accounted for, or than would be likely to arise
anywhere else.
The effect of such contradictions is not only to leave doubts on many
important issues which art and science might well have decided, but to lower
the authority and credit of all that class of evidence to such a point, that it
has even been proposed very recently to dispense with it altogether in some
cases which seem most to require the light that it might afford.
The principal cause which has thus shaken the credit of professional
374 REPORT—1862.
testimony is to be found, not in those differences of judgment which we
might reasonably expect when we view it as a species of evidence embracing
inferences as well as facts, but rather in the anomalous practice of engaging
technical and scientific witnesses ea parte, to prove a case on either side.
In vindication of such a practice, it may be said that there is no other
method by which the truth can be so well elicited, and justice therefore so
well administered. As the arguments of counsel ea parte for their respective
clients bring out before the judge and jury all that can be alleged on either
side in point of reasoning, so may the facts adduced in the same manner by
professional witnesses be considered as giving a more complete view of the
data for determining a question than if they were sought by an indifferent
inquirer.
This statement might be accepted as satisfactory, if professional witnesses
were engaged to investigate facts only; but they are engaged also to deliver
opinions ; and opinion, even in conscientious minds, is prone to follow the side
which it is employed to support ; whilst less scrupulous witnesses are induced
by the position in which they are placed to utter opinions different from those
which they have been known to deliver on the same points under other
circumstances.
The evil of such a state of things is undeniably great, not only as regards
the credit of honourable professions, but the public administration of the law ;
for questions of importance are thus tried under the double disadvantage of
testimony which can be only partially trusted, and juries who are incompetent
to sift it, because relating to subjects with which they are little acquainted.
Nor are these questions of rare occurrence; technical evidence has of late
been greatly extended, in proportion to the rapid progress of the arts; and it
must be remembered that it comprehends trades as well as professions,
including all cases in which experts are called in to speak to facts or infer-
ences of which persons inexperienced in the trade or profession are incapable
of judging. So numerous and important have these cases become, that the
evidence which affects them cannot but be considered as having gained such
a place in our jurisprudence as to demand a careful revision of its very serious
defects.
For some years past, various schemes of alteration in the existing practice
of the courts have been suggested. In a lecture delivered by Dr. Christison
before the Edinburgh College of Physicians in 1851, and in papers read by
Dr. Angus Smith in 1857 and subsequent years before various societies, the
whole subject has been ably discussed; the attention of several legal and
judicial authorities has also been drawn to it by Mr. Harcourt; and the
Committee consider themselves as having gained sufficient information to
perform the duty entrusted to them by the Association of “ suggesting im-
provements in the present practice respecting scientific evidence as taken in
Courts of Law.” :
Any attempt to supersede the existing system, as respects the liberty of
each party in a suit to obtain evidence for its own case on technical questions,
whether of fact or opinion, the Committee would regard as impracticable.
But they are of opinion that such checks on ex parte evidence might be intro-
duced with advantage as would counteract some of its injurious tendencies,
and would lead, in a conflict of opinions, to a better judgment on the merits
of the case.
In days less scientific than the present there were questions of great im-
portance in a maritime country, the just decision of which required more
technical knowledge than any ordinary jury could be supposed to possess.
TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE IN COURTS OF LAW. 875
Tt has long been allowed therefore to transfer cases which would have been
blindly determined by persons possessing no nautical skill, from the ordinary
tribunals to a judge assisted by a certain number of Masters of the Trinity
House, before whom the evidence is given.
The result of all the inquiries which the Committee have been enabled to
make is, that there will be found no method of correcting the present practice
in the trial of intricate scientific questions, so little open to exception as one
that should be founded on the principle thus already adopted in questions of
navigation.
There is reason to believe that opinions in evidence stated before a Court
capable of appreciating them would be given with a greater measure of care
and a more prudent reserve, and that a judge assisted by assessors who
(being themselves experts) fully understood the technical value of the evi-
dence, would deliver a judgment more founded in reason and accordant with
justice than can ever be obtained from the present tribunals.
The Committee would therefore propose that, by a legislative act, judges
should be empowered, on application from a suitor, in causes of a technical
character, to convene skilled assessors, the number of whom should not
exceed three, and who should give their opinions truly on the statements of
the witnesses, in such manner as they shall be required by the judge, pre-
yious to his adjudication of the cause.
A Court constituted as is here proposed might see a necessity in some
cases for independent evidence of the facts on which either party relied. The
allowing the judge to call in witnesses independent of the parties in such
_¢ases, as is done on various occasions by Courts of Chancery and by Parlia-
mentary Committees, is a measure which has been suggested by a high
judicial authority, and would, in the opinion of the Committee, be a valuable
supplement to the preceding provision.
In recommending these changes, the Committee have had in view the
evidence given in civil causes: in criminal cases the opinions of witnesses are
ar less affected by partisan feelings. There may be a few instances, however,
in which it might serve the interests of public justice that the judge should
‘have power to direct an issue to be tried by a Court constituted on the
principles here proposed. But the defect of the scientific evidence in criminal
causes chiefly consists in want of competence on the part of the witnesses :
questions, for instance, of secret poisoning sometimes hang on the judgment
of a practitioner or analyst of insufficient experience. The remedy for this
deficiency is indeed understood to be virtually in the hands of the magis-
tracy, since the Government authorities never refuse to select proper persons
for the investigation of cases in which the Crown is concerned; but the
Committee are of opinion that it would be an important improvement on the
present practice, if the magistrates were advised that application should be
made by them for the appointment of such competent persons by the Crown
in every case requiring accurate scientific investigation.
If the recommendations contained in this Report should be approved by
the Association, the Committee would advise that they should be laid before
the Secretary of State for the Home Department, with an application for his
concurrence in carrying them into effect, and that the Parliamentary Com-
mittee of the Association should be requested to support the application, and
to promote any Bill in Parliament which may be founded on the foregoing
principles.
376 REPORT—1862.
An Account of Meteorological and Physical Observations in Eight
Balloon Ascents, made, under the Auspices of the Committee of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science at Manchester,
by James GuaisHer, F.R.S., at the request of the Committee, con-
sisting of Colonel Sykes, Professor Airy, Lord Wrottesley, Sir D.
Brewster, Sir J. Herschel, Dr. Lloyd, Admiral FitzRoy, Dr. Lee,
Dr. Robinson, Mr. Gassiot, Mr. Glaisher, Dr. Tyndall, Mr. Fair-
bairn, and Dr. W, A. Miller.
Tue objects to which the Committee resolved to devote their principal atten-
tion were the determination of the temperature and hygrometric condition
of the air at different elevations above the earth’s surface. In addition to
which, several other secondary objects were to be carried out if possible, as
follows :—
§ 1. Oxssecrs or tHE EXPERIMENTS,
The primary objects were—
The determination of the temperature of the air, and its hygrometrical
states, at different elevations, as high as possible.
The secondary objects were
To determine the temperature of the dew-point by Daniell’s dew-point
hygrometer, by Regnault’s condensing hygrometer, and by dry- and wet-bulb
thermometers as ordinarily used, as well as when under the influence of the
aspirator; so that considerable volumes of air were made to pass over both
their bulbs, at different elevations, as high as possible, but particularly up
to those heights where man may be resident, or where troops may be
located, as in the high lands and plains in India, with the view of ascer-
taining what confidence may be placed in the use of the dry- and wet-bulb
thermometers at those elevations, by comparison with the results as found
from them, and with those found directly by Daniell’s and Regnault’s hygro-
meters, and to compare the results as found from the two hygrometers
together.
To compare the readings of an aneroid barometer with those of a mercurial
barometer up to 5 miles.
To determine the electrical state of the air.
To determine the oxygenic condition of the atmosphere by means of ozone
apers.
; To determine the time of vibration of a magnet on the earth, and at
different distances from it.
To collect air at different elevations.
To note the height and kind of clouds, their density and thickness.
To determine the rate and direction of different currents in the atmosphere,
if possible.
To make observations on sound,
To note atmospherical phenomena in general, and to make general obser-
vations,
Instruments and Apparatus.
The instruments used were mercurial and aneroid barometers; dry- and
wet-bulb thermometers; Daniell’s dew-point hygrometer; Regnault’s con-
densing hygrometer; maximum and minimum thermometers; a magnet for
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 377
horizontal vibration; hermetically sealed glass tubes from which air had
been exhausted ; ozone papers ; and an electrometer lent by Prof. W. Thomson
of Glasgow.
Barometers.—The mercurial barometer employed in all the ascents was
a Gay-Lussac’s siphon barometer by Mr. P. Adie, and is one of those
used by Mr. Welsh in the year 1852 in his experiments. The inner
diameter of its tube is 0:25 inch. ‘The graduations were made on a brass
scale, from its middle point upwards and downwards ; each division was about
0:05 inch in length, representing twice that value, so that an observation
of either the lower or upper surface of the mercury would give the approxi-
mate length of the column of mercury.
The readings of the upper end were alone taken, and the corrections appli-
cable to this end have been applied to all observations.
The barometer was furnished with its own thermometer, whose bulb was
_ immersed in a tube of mercury of the same diameter as that of the barometer.
This instrument sometimes read more than 20° in excess of that of the
sensitive air-thermometer.
The aneroid barometers were made by Messrs. Negretti and Zambra; one
was graduated to 13 inches, and the other to 5 inches—the latter instrument
having been used in the ascents on August 18 and September 5, and the
former on July 17. In consequence of a difference of reading between the
aneroid and mercurial barometers on July 17 (and as both instruments were
broken, it was impossible to say which was in error), and as the correctness
of the siphon barometer at low readings is dependent upon the evenness of
the tube, another barometer was used in addition on September 5, made by
and at the suggestion of Messrs. Negretti and Zambra, as follows :—
A tube 6 feet in length was filled with mercury and boiled throughout
its whole length; a glass cistern was blown on the bottom of the tube, and
bent upwards in the form of a siphon; a stopcock was placed between the
tube and cistern, and whilst the mercury filled the entire tube, a mark was
made on the cistern, at the level of the mercury in it, for zero; the stop-
cock was then gradually opened, and the mercury allowed to descend one or
more inches. The rise which consequently took place in the cistern was
carefully marked on the same side as “0” (zero); the stopcock was again
opened and the same operation was repeated until 30 inches of mercury had
left the upper part of the tube, and the successive levels of the mercury in the
cistern had been accurately marked.
In finally making the barometer, the upper portion only of the tube was
used; the cistern which had been at the end of the lower portion was
removed and joined on the upper; and in graduating the scale of the
barometer, the rise which took place in the cistern at every. inch was
deducted, and the scale reduced in its entire length, by the exact amount
of the rise of the mercury in the cistern. This instrument was therefore
probably as accurate at low readings as at high.
Dry- and Wet-Bulb Thermometers—Two pairs of dry- and wet-bulb
thermometers were employed; one pair as ordinarily used, their bulbs being
protected from the direct rays of the sun by a double highly polished silver
shade, in the form of a frustum of a cone, open at top and bottom. A
cistern was fixed near to them, from which water was conveyed to the wet-
bulb thermometer.
The bulbs of the second pair of dry- and wet-bulb thermometers were
enclosed in two silver tubes placed side by side, and connected together by
a cross tube joining their upper ends, and over both were placed double
1862, Zc
378 REPORT—1862,
shades as in the other pair of thermometers. In the left-hand tube was
placed the dry-bulb, and in the right-hand tube the wet-bulb thermometer.
Towards the lower end of the left-hand tube there was an opening ; by means
of the aspirator a current of air was drawn in at this aperture, then passed
the dry-bulb in its upward passage into the small horizontal tube, and from
thence into the right-hand tube, passing downwards over the wet-bulb, and
away by a flexible tube into the aspirator, These instruments were made
by Messrs. Negretti and Zambra.
Regnault’s Condensing Hygrometer.—This instrument was made with two
thermometers, as described by Regnault in the ‘ Annuaire Météorologique de
la France’ for 1849, page 221, excepting that it was furnished with silver-gilt
cups. The scale was of ivory, and the two thermometers were fixed in their
cups by means of cork, for ready packing up. The instrument was made by
Messrs. Negretti and Zambra.
Daniell’s Hygrometer was of the usual construction, by Messrs. Negretti and
Zambra,
Exhausted Tubes for collecting Air—These tubes were partly constructed
by Messrs. Negretti and Zambra, and partly by Mr, Casella.
The thermometers employed in the observations were exceedingly sensitive ;
the bulbs were long and cylindrical, being about #ths of an inch in length,
and ;4,th of an inch in diameter. The graduations, extended to minus 40°,
were all on ivory scales. These thermometers, on being removed from a room
heated 20° above that of an adjoining apartment, acquired the temperature
within half a degree in about 10 or 12 seconds; but in passing from a heated
apartment to one of a lower temperature, it took more than double the time
to approximate to within half a degree of the latter, They were so sensitive
that scarcely any correction is required to be applied to them on account of
sluggishness ; and this was found to be the case by the very near agreement
in the temperatures at the same height in the ascending and descending
curves, in those cases where there was reason to believe that there had been
no change of temperature at the same height, within the interval between
the two series of observations.
§ 2. OpsERvING ARRANGEMENTS.
One end of the car was occupied by Mr. Coxwell; near the other, in front
of myself, was placed a board or table, the extremities of which rested on the
sides of the car; upon this board were placed suitable framework to carry the
several thermometers, hygrometers, magnet, aneroid barometer, &c.; a per-
foration through it admitted the lower branch of the mercurial barometer to
descend below, leaving the upper branch at a convenient height for observing.
A watch was set to Greenwich time, and placed directly opposite to myself.
The central space of the table was occupied by my note-book. The aspirator
was fixed underneath the centre of the board, so as to be conveniently work-
able by either my feet or hands. Holes were cut in the board to admit the
passage of the flexible tubes, one of which passed to Regnault’s hygrometer,
and the other to the place of the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers previously
referred to, both the tubes being furnished with stopcocks.
Circumstances of the Ascents, and General Observations.
The ascents were all made by Mr. Coxwell’s large balloon,—three from
Wolverhampton, four from the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, and one from
a
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 379
Mill Hill, near Hendon, where the balloon had fallen the evening previous,
and had been anchored during the night.
Ascent from Wolverhampton, July 17.—The balloon was inflated at the
Stafford Road Gas-works, Wolverhampton, with carburetted gas, most care-
fully prepared by the Engineer, Mr. Thomas Proud, and frequently kept a
long time for our use, the Directors of the Gas Company having most liberally,
to their great inconvenience, placed a gasometer at our disposal for as long
a time as we needed it. To the Directors of the Company and to Mr. Proud
our best thanks are due ; for on’all occasions they showed the utmost anxiety
to contribute to the success of the experiments, in which Mr, Joseph Walker,
Mr. Joseph Cooper, and Mr. Proud took great interest.
The weather previously had been bad for a long time, and the ascent had
been delayed some days in consequence ; the wind was still blowing strongly
from the West ; and considerable difficulty was experienced in the preliminary
arrangements, and no instrument was placed in its position before starting.
The ascent took place at 9° 43™ a.m.; at once the balloon was quiescent. A
height of 3800 feet was reached before an observation could be taken ; at 4000
feet clouds were entered, which were left at 8000 feet. The temperature of
the air fell to 33°, and a height exceeding 10,000 feet had been passed before
all the instruments were in working order. The sky was then noticed to be
of a deep-blue colour, without a cloud of any kind upon its surface.
- At starting, the temperature of the air was 59°, and dew-point 55°; at
4000 feet it was 45°, dew-point 33°, and descended to 26° at 10,000 feet, dew~
point 19°, and then there was no variation of temperature between this height
and 13,000 feet. During the time of passing through this space, both Mr.
Coxwell and myself put on additional clothing, feeling certain that we should
experience a temperature below zero before we reached 5 miles high; but to
my surprise, at the height of 15,500 feet, the temperature, as shown by all
the sensitive instruments, was 31°, dew-point 25°; and at each successive
reading, up to 19,500 feet, the temperature increased, and was here 42°,
dew-point 24°. We had both thrown off all extra clothing. Within two
minutes after this time, when we had fallen somewhat, the temperature
again began to decrease, with extraordinary rapidity, and was 16°, or 27°
less than it was 26 minutes before: at this time a height of 5 miles had been
reached, at about 11 a.m.
When the balloon had attained a height of 4 miles, I wished to descend
for one or two miles and then to re-ascend; but Mr. Coxwell, who had been
watching its progress with reference to the clouds below, felt certain that
we were too near the Wash; prudence therefore caused us to abandon the
attempt.
Our descent began a little after 11 a.w., Mr. Coxwell experiencing con-
siderable uneasiness at our too close vicinity to the Wash; we came down
quick'y, passing from a height of 16,300 feet to one of 12,400 feet between
11" 38" and 11" 39"; dipping into a dense cloud at this elevation, which
proved to be no less than 8000 feet in thickness, and whilst passing
through this the balloon was invisible from the car. Mr. Coxwell had re-
served a large amount of ballast, which he discharged as quickly as possible
to check the ‘rapidity of the descent ; but notwithstanding all his exertions, as
we collected weight by the condensation of that immense amount of vapour
through which we were passing, the descent was necessarily very rapid, and we
_ came to the earth with a very considerable shock, which broke nearly all the
instruments. All the sand was discharged when we were at a considerable
elevation ; the amount we had at our disposal at the height of 5 miles was
2¢2
380 REPORT—1862.
fully 500 lbs.; this seemed to be more than ample, and, when compared with
that retained by Gay-Lussae, viz. 33 lbs., and by Rush and Green, when the
barometer reading was 11 inches, viz. 70 =D seemed indeed to be more than
we could possibly need, yet it proved to be insufficient,
The descent took place at Langham, near Oakham in Rutlandshire, in a
meadow near the residence of Mr. E. G. Baker, from whom we received the
utmost attention.
Ascent from the Crystal Palace, July 30.—A table was fixed to the
side of the car, partly within and partly without. The instruments were
placed on a framework, fixed to the part of the table outside, so as to be
beyond the influence of the occupants of the car; my note-book, watch, and
aneroid barometer rested on the inner part of the table. The air was in
gentle motion from the south-west, enabling the instruments to be made
ready for observation before starting, and at 4" 40" p.m. the balloon left the
earth.
The temperature declined instantly. Observations were taken every minute
or half-minute from the time of ascent, to as near as possible the time of
descent.
The readings of one barometer were kindly made by Mr. W. F. Ingelow,
and he also assisted me in observing the first appearance of dew on the
hygrometer.
A height of 7000 feet was reached at about 6 o’clock, and the descent began
about a quarter past 6; it was rather rapid, but quite under control, and we
reached the earth at the village of Singlewell, near Gravesend, at 6" 30™.
Ascent from Wolverhampton, August 18.—The weather on this day was
favourable ; there was but little wind, and that blowing from the N.E. By noon
the balloon was nearly inflated, and as it merely swayed in a light wind, all the
instruments were fixed before starting, and at 1" 2" 388 p.w. Mr. Coxwell
pulled the spring-catch ; for a moment the balloon remained motionless, and
then rose steadily almost perpendicularly: this ascent was all that could be
desired. In about 10 minutes we passed through a fine cumulus cloud, and
then emerged into a clear space with a beautiful blue sky dotted over with
cirrus clouds above. When at the height of nearly 12,000 feet, with the
temperature of 38°, or 30° less than on the ground, and dew-point 26°,
Mr. Coxwell dischar zed gas, and we descended to a little above 3000 feet at
1" 48™; a very eradual ascent then took place till 2" 30, when a height of
about 24,000 feet was obtained; and here a consultation took place as to the
prudence of discharging more ballast or retaining it, so as to ensure a safe
descent ; ultimately it was determined not to go higher, as some clouds, whose
thickness we could not tell, had to be passed through. The descent began
soon after, and we reached the earth a little after 3 o’clock at Solihull, about
7 miles from Birmingham.
Ascent from the Crystal Palace, August 20.—The air was almost calm, the
instruments were all fixed before starting, and the balloon left the Crystal
Palace at 6" 26" p.u., the temperature at the time being 66°, dew-point 54°.
By 6" 35™ we were half a mile high, the temperature being 56°, At 6" 37™
the height of three-quarters, of a mile was attained, and the air was so tran-
quil that we were still over the Palace. At 6" 43", when at the height of
nearly a mile, a thick mist or thin cloud was entered, the earth being just
visible. The temperature at this time was 50°, dew-point 46°; this elevation
and temperature were maintained for about five minutes, and we ‘then descended
200 or 300 feet. Kennington Oval was in sight. At 7° 9™ St. Mark’s
Church, Kennington, was exactly underneath us. We were now about a
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 381
mile in height, with a temperature of 48°, and dew-point 46°; the hum of
London was heard, and there was scarcely a breath of air stirring.
A descent was gradually made to 1200 feet by 7° 20™; the lamps were being
lighted over London, the hum of London greatly increasing in depth. At this
time shouting was heard of people below who saw the balloon; a height of be-
tween 1500 and 2500 feet was maintained till 7" 40™, the temperature varying
from 57° to 54° and dew-point about 47°. The river appeared dull, but the
bridges that spanned it, as well as street after street as lighted up, and the
miles of lights, sometimes in straight lines, sometimes winding like a serpent,
or in some places forming a constellation at some place of amusement,
constituted a truly remarkable scene, associated as this appearance was with
the deep sound, or rather roar of the traffic of the metropolis.
For a considerable time Kennington Oval and Milbank Penitentiary were
in sight, and it seemed as though we could not get away from them. At
7» 40™ Mr. Coxwell determined to ascend above the clouds. We were then
about 2500 feet high, and the temperature was 53°, dew-point 46°. At
72 42™ a height of 3500 feet was attained, the temperature being 51°. At 7" 47™
a height of one mile had been reached, and the temperature was 45°, dew-
point 42°. It was very dark below, but there was a clear sky above,
and a beautiful gleam of light appeared. We still ascended till the clouds
were below us, tinged and coloured with a rich red: the temperature had
now fallen to 43°; we were soon enveloped in a fog again. At 7" 52™ the
striking of a clock and the tolling of a bell were heard. It was quite dark
below, but the sun tinged the tops of the clouds. At 8" 5” we were quite
above the clouds, and it became light again; the hum of London gradually
died away. By this time the temperature had increased to 55°, the barometer
reading 23 inches, corresponding to a height of 7400. feet. After this we
descended, and it became too dark to read the instruments. London again
was seen, very different indeed in its appearance from when we could pick out
eyery square, street, bridge, dc. by its lights; now, as seen through the mist,
it had the appearance of a large conflagration of enormous extent, and the
sky was lit up for miles around. After a time the lowing of cattle was heard,
and we seemed to have left London, so Mr. Coxwell determined to pass through
the clouds and examine the country beneath. We passed from the compara-
tive light above to the darkness beneath, momentarily becoming darker, and
found ourselves some little distance from London, and shortly afterwards
touched the ground, so gently that we were scarcely aware of the contact, in
the centre of a field at Mill Hill, about one mile and a half from Hendon, and
it was resolved to anchor the balloon for the night, with the view of making
an early morning ascent.
Ascent from Mill Hill near Hendon, August 21.—By half-past 4 a.m. the
instruments were replaced, and the earth was again left. It was a dull,
warm, cloudy morning, still rather dusk, the sky overcast with cirrostratus
cloud. The temperature was nearly as high as 61°, and dew-point 59°.
There were in the car, besides Mr. Coxwell and myself, Captain Percival, of
the Connaught Rangers, Mr. Ingelow, and my son.
We at first rose very slowly; at 4" 38" we were 1000 feet high, and
the temperature was 58°, dew-point 56°. At 4" 41™ there was a break
in the clouds to the east, and a beautiful line of light with gold and
silver tints. Here and there, the morning mist was sweeping. At 4” 51™
the temperature was 50°, and dew-point 42°; scud was below us, and the
cloud of night was in a transition state into cumulus, or the cloud of day, at
the same leyel as we were, viz. about 3500 feet; black clouds were above,
382 REPORT—1862.
and mist was creeping along the ground. At 4" 55™ we were above a mile
high ; the temperature was 43°, dew-point 42°; we were just entering cloud.
At 4° 57™ we were in cloud, surrounded by white mist; the temperatures of
the air and the dew-point were alike, viz. 393°. The light rapidly increased,
and gradually we emerged from the dense cloud into a basin surrounded by
immense black mountains of cloud rising far above us; shortly afterwards we
were looking into deep ravines of grand proportion, bounded with beautiful
curved lines. The sky immediately overhead was blue, dotted with cirrus
clouds.
As we ascended, the tops of the mountain-like clouds became silvery and
golden. At 5" 1™ we were level with them, and the sun appeared, flooding
with golden light all the space we could see for many degrees both right and
left, tinting with orange and silver all the remaining space around us. It
was a glorious sight. At 5" 10" a height of 8000 feet had been attained,
and the temperature had increased from 384° in the cloud to 41°. We still
ascended, rather more quickly as the sun’s rays fell upon the balloon, each
instant opening to us rayines of wonderful extent, and presenting to our view
a mighty sea of clouds. Here arose shining masses of cloud in mountain
chains, some rising perpendicularly from the plain, dark on one side, and
silvery and bright on the other, with summits of dazzling whiteness ; some
were of a pyramidal form, and a large portion undulatory or wavy, in
some places subsiding into hollows, and in one place having the appearance
of a huge lake; on the extremity of the horizon snowy peaks bounded the
view, resembling Alpine ranges. Nor was the scene wanting in light and
shade: each large mass of cloud cast a shadow, and this circumstance, added
to the very many tints, formed a beautiful scene. At 5" 16™ we were nearly two
miles high, the temperature was 32°, and dew-point 13°; the air was there-
fore dry. At 5" 18™ we were above two miles in height; the temperature
was 31°, and dew-point 10°. By 5"31™ we were something less than three miles
high ; the temperature was 23°, and dew-point —15°, and it decreased to 19° by
5° 34™. This elevation was maintained for half an hour, during which time
the temperature increased 5° or 6° as the sun’s altitude increased. Shortly
after 6 o’clock it was determined to descend; the temperature, which
had been as high as 27°, had fallen to 23°. At 6" 13™, at the height of
23 miles, we heard a train. At 6" 20" we were two miles high, and the
temperature had increased to 39°, and dew-point to 19°: at this time
I noticed the loud ticking of a watch; Captain Percival said he could not
hear it; he was seated, and I was standing; and some experiments were
made, when it was found that when the ear was at the same level as the
watch, no sound was heard, but it was remarkably distinct on the ear being
situated above it. ;
At the height of two miles the barking of a dog was heard; the tempera-
ture at this time (6" 24") was 43°, and dew-point 10° lower. The shadow of
the balloon, with an encircling oval of prismatic colours, was here very
remarkable, and it increased in dimensions and vividness of colour till we
entered a cloud at 6" 29"; the increase of temperature, which had been in
progress during the descent, was immediately checked, and on emerging from
the cloud at 6" 33™ the temperature was 43°, dew-point 38°. The earth was
now in sight, without a ray of sunlight falling upon it. The temperature
gradually increased to 56°, and dew-point to 50° at 1000 feet in height, and
62° on reaching the grouad, as gently as on the preceding evening, at Dunton
Lodge near Biggleswade, on the estate of Lord Brownlow, where we received
every attention and assistance from his agent, Mr. Paulger.
+ Lien be
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 383
' Ascent from the Crystal Palace, September 1.—The wind on this day blew
from the E.N.E., the sky was almost covered with cirrostratus cloud, but
the horizon was moderately clear. The ascent took place at 4"40™ p.m. ; the
temperature was 64° ; the balloon rose to the height of half a mile in 4 minutes,
the temperature decreasing to 51°, and dew-point to 43°; at this time the whole
of the River Thames, from its mouth to beyond Richmond, was in sight. At
5" 31™, when we were about 4000 feet high, clouds were observed forming
and following the whole course of the Thames, from the Nore up to the
higher parts, and extending but little beyond its sides; the clouds were
parallel to the river, following all its windings and bendings. The Astro-
nomer Royal has often seen this phenomenon over the part of the river
commanded by the Royal Observatory, but it was scarcely expected that
clouds throughout its whole course would have formed so simultaneously and
uniformly. On referring to the state of the tide, it was found to be just high
water at London Bridge about this time, connecting the formation with the
warm water from the sea. After 5" 40™ we were higher than all clouds near
us, excepting the uniform stratus cloud above us, which we never approached ;
and it was noted that the upper surface of the lower clouds was bluish white,
the middle portion the pure white of the cumulus, and the lowest a blackish
white, and from which rain was falling, and, as we afterwards learned, had
been falling all the afternoon. We descended to 1300 feet nearly, but were
still above the clouds; we then rose to 3000 feet, and rain fell upon the
balloon from the upper stratum of cloud, and no difference of temperature
from 54° was observed in the stratum between 1300 feet and 3000 feet,
although a short time before, in passing downwards through this distance,
the temperature had increased from 48° to 54°. The falling rain equalized
the temperature. The balloon began to descend after this, and fell at 6" 15™
near Woking in Surrey. The evening looked so unpromising, and rain was
still falling, that it was thought unadvisable to fasten the balloon for the
night, and attempt a high morning ascent, as was contemplated. In this
ascent the observations of the barometers and Daniell’s hygrometer were
made by Mr. J. MacDonald, Assistant Secretary to the British Meteorological
Society.
Ascent from Wolverhampton, September 5.—This ascent had been delayed,
owing to the unfavourable state of the weather. It commenced at 1°3™ p.m. ;
the temperature of the air was 59°, and the dew-point 50°; at the height of one
mile it was 41°, dew-point 38°; and shortly afterwards we entered a cloud of
about 1100 feet in thickness, in which the temperature of the air fell to 363°,
the dew-point being the same, thus indicating that the air was here saturated
with moisture. On emerging from the cloud at 1" 17", we came upon a flood
of strong sunlight, with a beautiful blue sky, without a cloud above us, and
a magnificent sea of cloud below, its surface being varied with endless hills,
hillocks, mountain chains, and many snow-white masses rising from it. I
here tried to take a view with the camera, but we were rising with too great
rapidity, and going round and round too quickly to enable me to do so; the
flood of light, however, was so great, that all I should have needed would
have been a momentary exposure, as Dr. Hill Norris had kindly furnished me
with extremely sensitive dry plates for the purpose. We reached two miles
in height at 1" 21"; the temperature had fallen to the freezing-point, and
the dew-point to 26°. We were three miles high at 1" 28™, with a tempera-
ture of 18°, and dew-point 13°; at 1" 39™ we had reached four miles, and the
temperature was 8°, and dew-point —15°; in ten minutes more we had reached
the fifth mile, and the temperature had passed below zero, and then read
884: REPORT—1 862.
— 2°, and at this point no dew was observed on Regnault’s hygrometer
when cooled down to — 30°; but a dew-point obtained from the readings
of dry and wet gave —36°. Up to this time I had taken observations with
comfort, I had experienced no difficulty in breathing, whilst Mr. Coxwell,
in consequence of the necessary exertions he had to make, had breathed with
difficulty for some time. At 1"51™ the barometer reading was 11-05 inches,
but which requires a subtractive correction of 0-25 inch, as found by com-
parison with Lord Wrottesley’s standard barometer just before starting. I
afterwards read the dry thermometer as —5°; this must have been about
1" 52™ or later; I could not see the column of mereury in the wet-bulb
thermometer ; nor afterwards the hands of the watch, nor the fine divisions
on any instrument. I asked Mr. Coxwell to help me to read the instruments,
as I experienced a difficulty in seeing. In consequence, however, of the
rotatory motion of the balloon, which had continued without ceasing since
the earth had been left, the valve-line had become twisted, and he had to
leave the car and mount into the ring above to adjust it. At this time I
looked at the barometer, and found it. to be 10 inches, still decreasing fast ;
its true reading therefore was 9? inches, implying a height of 29,000 feet,
Shortly afterwards I laid my « arm. upon the table, possessed of its full vigour,
and on being desirous of using it, [ found it powerless—it must have lost its
power momentarily. I tried to move the other arm, and found it powerless
also. I then tried to shake myself, and succeeded in shaking my body. I
seemed to have no limbs. I then looked at the barometer, and whilst
doing so my head fell on my left shoulder. I struggled and shook my
body again, but could not move my arms. I got my head upright, but
for an instant only, when it fell on my right shoulder, and then I fell
backwards, my back resting against the side of the car, and my head on
its edge; in this position my eyes were directed towards Mr. Coxwell in
the ring. When I shook my body I seemed to have full power over the
muscles of the back, and considerable power over those of the neck, but none
over either my arms or my legs; in fact I seemed to haye none. As in the
case of the arms, all muscular power was lost in an instant from my back and
neck. I dimly saw Mr. Coxwell in the ring, and endeavoured to speak, but
could not; when in an instant intense black darkness came, the optic nerve
finally lost power suddenly. I was still conscious, with as active a brain as at
the present moment whilst writing this. [ thought I had been seized with
asphyxia, and that I should experience no more, as death would come, unless
we speedily descended: other thoughts were actively entering my mind,
when I suddenly became unconscious as on going tosleep. I cannot tell any-
thing of the sense of hearing; the perfect stillness and silence of the regions
6 miles from the earth (and at this time we were between 6 and 7 miles high)
is such that no sound reaches the ear,
My last observation was made at 1" 54™ at 29,000 feet. I suppose two
or three minutes fully were occupied between my eyes becoming insensible
to seeing fine divisions and 1" 54”, and then that two or three minutes more
passed till I was insensible, therefore I think this took place at about 1" 56™
or 1" 57™, Whilst powerless I heard the words “‘ Temperature ” and “ Ob-
servation,” and I knew Mr. Coxwell was in the car speaking to me, and
endeavouring to arouse me, therefore consciousness and hearing had returred.
I then heard him speak more emphatically, but I could not see, speak, or
move. I heard him again say, ‘Do rry—now po.” Then I saw the
instruments dimly, then Mr. Coxwell, and very shortly saw clearly. I rose
in my seat and looked round, as though waking from sleep, though not refreshed
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 385
by sleep, and said to Mr. Coxwell, “I have been insensible;” he said,
“You have; and I, too, very nearly.” I then drew up my legs, which had
been extended before me, and took a pencil in my hand to begin observations,
Mr. Coxwell told me that he had lost the use of his hands, which were black,
and I poured brandy over them.
I resumed my observations at 2" 7", recording the barometer reading at
11-53 inches and temperature — 2°. I suppose that three or four minutes
were occupied from the time of my hearing the words “ temperature” and
* observation ”’ till I began to observe; if so, then returning consciousness
came at 2" 4™, and this gives seven minutes for total insensibility. I found
the water in the vessel supplying the wet-bulb thermometer, which I had by
frequent disturbances kept from freezing, was one solid mass of ice; and it
did not all melt until after we had been on the ground some time.
Mr. Coxwell told me that whilst in the ring he felt it piercingly cold ; that
hoar-frost was all round the neck of the balloon; on attempting to leave
the ring, he found his hands frozen, and he had to place his arms on the ring
and drop down; that he thought for a moment I had laid back to rest myself ;
that he spoke to me without eliciting a reply; that he then noticed my legs
projected and my arms hung down by my side; that my countenance was
serene and placid, without the earnestness and anxiety he had noticed before
going into the ring, and then it struck him I was insensible. He wished
to approach me, but could not, and he felt insensibility coming over him-
self; that he became anxious to open the valve, but in consequence of having
lost the use of his hands he could not, and ultimately did so by seizing the
cord with his teeth and dipping his head two or three times until the balloon
took a decided turn downwards. This act is quite characteristic of Mr. Cox-
well. I have never yet seen him without a ready means of meeting every
difficulty as it has arisen, with a cool self-possession that has always left my
mind perfectly easy, and given me eyery confidence in his judgment in the
management of so large a balloon.
No inconvenience followed this insensibility, and when we dropped it was
in a country where no conveyance of any kind could be obtained, so that I
had to walk between seven and eight miles.
The descent was at first veryrapid; we passed downwards three miles in nine
minutes ; the balloon’s career was then checked, and finally descended in the
centre of a large grass field belonging to Mr. Kersall, at Cold Weston, seven
and a half miles from Ludlow.
I have already said that my last observation was made at a height of
29,000 feet; at this time (1" 54™) we were ascending at the rate of 1000 feet
per minute, and when I resumed observations we were descending at the rate
of 2000 feet per minute; these two positions must be connected, taking into
account the interval of time between, viz. 13 minutes, and on these con-
siderations the balloon must have attained the altitude of 36,000 or 37,000
feet. Again, a very delicate minimum thermometer read —12°, and this
would give a height of 37,000 feet; Mr. Coxwell on coming from the ring
noticed that the centre of the aneroid barometer, its blue hand, and a rope
attached to the car, were all in the same straight line, and this gave a reading
of 7 inches, and leads to the same result. Therefore these independent means
all lead to about the same elevation, viz. fully 7 miles.
In this ascent six pigeons were taken up. One was thrown out at the
height of three miles, when it extended its wings and dropped as a piece of
paper ; a second, at four miles, flew vigorously round and round, apparently
taking a dip each time ; a third was thrown out between four and five miles,
386 : REPORT—1862,
and it fell downwards as a stone. A fourth was thrown out at four miles on
descending ; it flew in a circle, and shortly alighted on the top of the balloon.
The two remaining pigeons were brought down to the ground. One was found
to be dead; and the other, a “ carrier,’’ was still living, but would not leave
the hand when I attempted to throw it off, till after a quarter of an hour it
began to peck a piece of ribbon which encircled its neck, and was then jerked
off the finger, and flew with some vigour towards Wolverhampton. One of
the pigeons returned to Wolverhampton on Sunday the 7th, and is the only
one that has been heard of.
Ascent from the Crystal Palace, September 8.—The sky was for the most
part obscured by clouds; the ascent took place at 4" 47™ 285 p.m, the tempe-
rature on the ground being 67°; at 4" 52™ we were half a mile high, with a
temperature of 59°, and dew-point 54°; at 4" 55™ we reached the clouds, with
a temperature of 514°, dew-point 49°, at the height of 4300 feet ; we rose to
4800 feet, were still in the cloud, and then fell, passing out of the cloud
downwards at 5° 1™, with a temperature of 49°, and dew-point 46°; we de-
scended to 3300 feet by 5" 7", where the temperature was 52°, dew-point
50°; we then ascended and again reached the cloud at a little over.4200 feet,
and with the same temperature as before, viz. 514°; we passed out of the
cloud at a little over 4500 feet, into a basin, with blue sky above, and the
sun shone beautifully ; the balloon rose quickly, and the temperature in-
creased from 51° on leaving the cloud to 57° at a mile in height, and to 59°
and dew-point 40° at 5400 feet; we then descended, met with the cloud
again at 5" 25™, at the height of 5000 feet nearly, and experienced a tempe-
rature of 51°, dew-point 45°, whilst passing through it; we left the cloud at
4400 feet high, and the temperature rose from 51° to 61°, dew-point to 59°,
at the height of 800 feet, and to 62° at the height of 700 feet, where we were
at 5" 55™; at this time we were crossing the River Thames near to Graves-
end, and we passed from bank to bank in 121 seeonds ; we then rose to nearly
half a mile, and passed Tilbury Fort at the distance of 2 miles, and with a tele-
scope I examined the fort, and could have drawn its plan and counted any
guns within it. We fell at about 4 miles from the Fort, at 6" 10™ p.m.
In this ascent Mr. W. C. Nash, of the Magnetical and Meteorological De-
partment of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, took the observations of the
barometer and Daniell’s hygrometer.
§ 3. Description oF THE TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS.
All the meteorological observations taken during the ascents are contained
in Table I,
Column 1 contains the times at which the observations were made.
Column 2 contains observations of the siphon barometer corrected for tempe-
rature and index error. Column 3 contains the readings of the thermometer
attached to the barometer. Column 4 contains the readings of an aneroid
barometer. Column 5 contains the height above the level of the sea, as de-
duced from the barometric observations in column 2, by the formula of Baily,
checked at intervals by that of Laplace, which is as follows :—
a ef t+¢—64 n9 2452251
Z= tos(F) x 60159(1 nd 4.0:002837 cos L\(1 eRe a3)
where Z is the height required, and h, h’, ¢ and?’ the height of the barometer
corrected for temperature, and the temperature of the air at the lower and
‘upper stations respectively, L the latitude. The temperature of the air for the
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 387
position of the balloon has been derived from the readings in column 10.
Columns 6 to 9 contain the observations with the dry- and wet-bulb ther-
mometers free, and the deduced dew-point. Column 10 contains the readings
of Negretti and Zambra’s gridiron thermometer. Columns 11 to 14 contain
the observations with the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers aspirated, and the
deduced dew-point. Columns 15 and 16 contain the direct dew-point obser-
vations with Daniell’s and Regnault’s hygrometers. When numbers are
entered in columns 15 and 16 with “no dew” affixed to them, it is meant
that the temperature of the hygrometer has been lowered to the degree stated,
but that no dew has been deposited.
Many observers in different parts of the country made observations at short
intervals for several hours together, on several days of which notice had been
given them that the ascent would take place, but, in consequence of the fre-
quent delays owing to bad weather, their observations were not available,
and it was found impossible to give notice with any certainty of the days of
ascents.
A good many observers did, however, take a few observations in different
parts of the country on the days of the several ascents. The Astronomer
Royal at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, had observations taken every 10
minutes on all the days of ascent, and Lord Wrottesley always arranged to
have observations made at Wrottesley by Mr. Hough, on those days when the
ascent took place from Wolverhampton. In calculating the height of the
balloon, the observations of Wrottesley have been employed for July 17,
August 18, and September 5; and those of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,
haye been used for July 30, August 20, August 21, Sept. 1, and Sept. 8.
The height of Greenwich above the mean sea-level =159 feet.
The height of Wrottesley above the mean sea-level=531 feet.
Kt a REPORT—1862.
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
2 Siphon Ecrer eter. Dry and Wet Ther-
ES . : Aneroid | Height ab
52 apt Baveete | Att, [Barometer,| “seaclevel. |p | ret
cen) and reduced | Therm. No. 2. 4 :
to 32°Fahr.
(1) hm 5s in, ° in. ures 3 nes rae
9 42 oam 29°193 BOrO.s 5 | Wketess : 490 59°0 5570
947 © » 26°014 AAIOW S| Minnense 3,835 45°0 40°5
(2) | 949 o » 25215 | 440 | 25°32 4,467 | 430 | 380
(3) 951 Oy 24°38 | 43°5 | 24°30 5802 | 35°8 34°2
(4) Teo ole oh 22°421 43°0 22°65 pete SOR TOU. See
9 54 9° » 22°023 42°0 22°20 065 32°5 32°0
(5) Gis sunOhes 21575 410 21°80 8,809 30°2 27°7
9,56 © 5, 20°927 40°5 21°10 9,598 28°2 26°1
Dison Ons 19°629 40°0 20°09 11,312 Secerai dl Siner se .
(6) TOM =-10" Ge 19°281 39°5 19°60 11,792 28°2 27°1
4 FORGE: 5; 18°633 39°2 1890 3257009 )/) || vigguceatl |() coader ;
TOMA ACHG PRM Mees c0, re !| | (eseaise spscbe lll PaWeaans ° 27°2 25°1
(9) TOU 5 Ons 18°136 37°0 18-40 13,467 29°0 28'1
(10) TO! j8 Onn, 17°235 382 17°52 14,544 33°70 30°0
‘12 To Dro! 5; 16°735 a hs 154704 33'0 30°2
TOMER Ol; 16°03 38"0 16°25 16,914 33°0 30°1
(13) | 1025 0 » 14°937 380 | 515 | 18,844 | 35°0 31°5
(14) | 1027 0 5 14°637 380 15°30 19,374 342 311
(15) TO.Z0" 0" 5, 14°637 380 15730 19,415 37°5 30°0
(16) TO '40C8O *,; 14°637 38°0 15°30 19,415 38°1 312
(17) TO), 415-00" 5, 14°637 40° 15"co 19,435 43'0 310
(18) TO) 498408 ;, 14°6 34. ACO wil) waders 19,380 37°0 315
(19) TO) Aah oles, 14°633 40°0 I5"10 19,336 36°2 30°5
(20) 10 47 Cans 14°134 40°0 14°70 20,238 32°0 26°5
1O°AG GO! 55 9 oo eevees! | seceee | “yerese’ ||| deste |) eons enn Enes :
(21) Io 50 0 3 13°637 39°0 14°20 21,059 24°5 17°2
(22) TORFA ION 13°137 39°70 13°60 21,792 19°2 112
(23) | 1057 © 12°139 38°0 1260 | 23,949 6°5 9°5
(24) Tie 10) wus, 1I°741 BT Ga | Wes enis ZA AOL lke cccnsmana manasa
(25) Dine sy Mee a II'l43 36:0. 5) eines ZOT77 LW aseese Bioees
(26) TAT Owes 11°642 3570 12°10 25,022 5) |\ieariee aenens
UT MPs) Dias, 11°644 BACON Slt Sas scss 25,028
A WE 75101455 11645 33°0 12°10 25,077 19'0 g'0
(27) Semele: 11°945 33°0 12°40 ZAGAT vl, sto ceeeee| pana :
(28) Tip20 WoL, 12°645 33°0 13°20 23,868 2671 19°2
1 2. 3. 4. 5 6 7.
Notes AND GENERAL
(1) 9" 42™, turned tap for water to run; 9 43", balloon left the earth; 9" 44™, dropped
gutta-percha tubes below the car. (2) Clouds reached.
(3) Clouds at a lower elevation all round. (4) In a cloud, cumulostratus; dry; fog.
(5) Sun shining on the balloon; valve opened; beautiful view.
(6) Clouds beautiful ; balloon full. (7) Band of music heard.
(8) Earth visible. (9) Electrometer, balloon reading 59°; air reading 64°.
(10) Electrometer, balloon reading 59°; air reading 63°.
(11) Electrometer, balloon reading 59°; air reading 63°.
(12) Gas cleared in balloon from appearance of smoke to transparency; intense prussian
blue sky ; cumuli clouds far below; strati same height ; no clouds above.
(13) Eighteen vibrations of horizontal magnet occupied 265°8. Mr. Coxwell’s pulse 84;
Mr. Glaisher’s 1co; Mr. Coxwell’s 86. (14) Wind S.W.; moving N.E.
(15) Palpitation of heart perceptible in both of us; clock beat very loud; breathing
affected. (16) Ozone o. Tried to take vibrations.
a)
x
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 389
iarghal
Balloon Ascents. Wolverhampton, July 17, 1862.
mometers (free). Mente Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
oo an Ee
Snag Daniell’s. | Regnault’s.
Diff. |Dew-point. owed Dry. Wet. Diff. | Dew-point. 7
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
40 514
4°5 333
570 32°0 43°0
1°6 33°8 34°83 Saastee | | eedeee, |" aneset saves 30°5
coe | ao 32°5
O°5 27°38
2°5 19°7 29°38 Wesepet §|| J acsave: ” |! ledencet, |Uamanaae a, Wh fasdere 24°0
2°I 17°6 26'2
eeenee Saeet 26°90 sae TOBE wesseee, [h keeseem 24°5
I'l 23°9 26°0 Bante ||! ‘wnewes )i | Janeose . [musweb aa’ jleMmemowers 25°0
eevee waters 26°0 aor Wd eee wal Pole.) ale Cece 19°5 210
2° 169 26°2 aaseiesill ot esecne «tp aenceeperl Mmteans ss 210 22°0
0"9 ZAOT il 7a nae ° Mosse || | cncves, || biecaaet Mineaptea.| IM lr awanta 22°5
3°0 24°0 310 32°0 30°4. 16 26°7 20°5 24°0
2°8 24°6 31°6 32°0 29°2 o°8 22°9 22°0 21°5
2"9 24°3 32°0 31°0 23'0 3°0 19°8 23°0 20°8
3°5 24°9 37°2 35°0 312 38 24°4 25°! 24°2
31 25°6 3671 36°5 a1 5°3 23°2 22°6 21°0
75 19°5 38°2 37°0 30°5 6°5 ZAR A Shanes 22°2
6"9 218 381 a705 29°5 8-0 13°3 2.175 22°2
12°0 16°6 ALA! CSSA Pxcesea* || cassteae be tscess 4 19'0 20°
5°5 238 36°5 CO late wal el POC ama emer ad eee ery: 20°0 21!
5°7 22% 340 36°2 30°5 5°7 22° 20°5 20°5
: 5°5 13°8 31°5 30°8 26°0 4°38 132 16°0 15°5
Recanel || seveee 1'o
73° |—26°6 irl 23'0 170 60 ©=|—20°6 —12'0 | —13'0
80 = |—47°5 <S.cc, ile SergGce Soll ace node ladle OE: idl MEE SC — $2
TO |—44'1 175 18°5 80 to's = |—69°9 Risdete — g'0
Bendel iO Seeva. 16°90 vecntor | UP aaded . sraabenentey ledices. he Vokes — 80
Memes i |" o:cen EO'Oe: |i econ © ee Peacecooc wall rec amg RO — 9g'0
Seveee Bee TGOR lh Pasar f anende wesht mC) Mall te ae - — 85
mero: |—6774 | he. = 182 12"0 G:203>|—4A'r
mae. |* Ve.ce 2007
69 «= |—25°8 27°90
8. 9. 10. 11. 12, 13. 14, 15. 16.
REMARKS.
(17) Electrometer, balloon reading 58°; air reading 61°. Palpitation of heart very
perceptible.
MI (18) Deep blue sky; dark bluish hands and lips, not face.
(19) Sand out. Electrometer, balloon reading 58° ; air reading 60°2. Heart less af-
fected ; moving northwards.
(20) Twenty-eight vibrations of horizontal magnet occupied 433.
(21) Electrometer, balloon reading 59°; air reading 58°. Breathing affected.
(22) Nodewat —8°-2. Electrometer, balloon reading 58°; air reading 59°. Very deep blue
sky; clouds far below ; cold, but not intense. (23) Nodew. All the feelings of sea-sickness.
(24) Ozone o. Feeling of illness. Mr. Coxwell says a disagreeable sensation came over
him ; cannot tell how. (25) No dew at this temperature.
(26) No dew. Through a feeling of illness, I was unable to keep to the instruments long
enough to lower the temperature to get a deposit of dew.
(27) Electrometer, balloon reading 58° ; air reading 58°. (28) Ozone o; theair is very dry.
tn ap in i alc a
390
55 Time
a4
ee
hm s
(1) TI 25 oam
(2) | 2u3F 0.
(3) | 11 38 oO,
a 1139) 0.5,
D)) |} “ar 40.-0"},
(6) LMS 0: |;
(7) Ir 44 ° ”
(8) T0145. .0) bs
(9) 436 opm
(10) 449 90 »
(11) 4 40 30 »
44945 »
441 Oy
(12) | 44115 »
441 30 5
442 0,
4 42 30 y
Aika ©. \y
443.39 »
4 44 30 5,
(13) 445 3° »
4 47 3° »
4 48 30 ,,
449 0
4509 90,
4 50 3° »,
452 Oy
4 52 30 ,,
2793))39) 53
454 0 »
4 54 30 »,
(14) 456 0,,
4 5645 ,,
4 57 30 »,
43.59) 0% wy
4 59 30 »
me Tere <,
ac €. ee
(15) Bor Os
i.
REPORT—1862.
Siphon Barometer.
Reading
corrected
and reduced
to 32° Fahr.
in.
13°I44
16°359
18°944
20°042
20°542
23°442
24°242
Att.
Therm.
serene
aeeee
eeneee
eeeeee
Aneroid
Barometer,
No. 2.
eeeee
Height above
sea-level.
Crystal Palace, July 30, 1862.
eteee
seeeee
teeeee
teeeee
ween
featee
eeeeee
teeeee
totes
deeeee
tenner
eeeeee
seeeee
seeeee
weeeee
aeeeee
setees
weeeee
a eneee
eeeece
seagate 29°96 250
wseaee 29°96 250
eccves 29°87 330
eeasd 29°82 370
seeeee 29°80 390
Seauee 29°65 480
eeeeee 29°55 57°
<P 29°50 615
Sessan 29°20 890
28°85 1,189
ceeeee 23°65 1,389
28°20 1,829
“pore a 27°65 2,379
27°10 254.52
Jeu 26°87 3,161
Pisa 26°50 | 3,540
eperee 26°40 3,640
26°35 3,690
seeece 26°27 35770
26°25 3,790
Saaeas 26°18 3,860
cree 26°12 31920
Src 26°08 3,960
eer’ 25°91 4,169
sence 25°80 4;279
eoccee 25°73 45358
Seosse 25°78 4,308
eerane 25°85 45234.
Gomes 25°90 4,184
Sancex 26°9 4,084.
serve | (4,094
3. 4, 5.
(1) Could not get the magnet to vibrate; ozoneo.
(2) Tried for some time to get vibrations; arcs of 20°; settled immediately; ozone o
(3) Image of balloon and car on cloud very large and distinct.
(5) Passing through cloud; could not see the balloon.
(ill again).
(4) Sand out.
(6) Fog; dry.
(7) Sand out; balloon forming a parachute.
(8) Clouds of a dense character were rising apparently with great rapidity.
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
Dry and Wet Ther-
vi
The
-halloon was descending very quickly ; I hurriedly put up as many instruments as I could.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862.
Wolverhampton, July 17, 1862.
391
_ mometers (free). re Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers,
2 an
f Zambra’s .
ail. + di Daniell’s. | Regnault’s,
| Diff. |Dew-point. oa Dry. Wet. Diff, | Dew-point. i
y meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point,
27°2 eet 16°2 $ ¢ a
ween 37°8 30°r 7 hey | 19°7
Crystal Palace, July 30, 1862,
EMEC ceEME <guccan. /]!>- cadana cit aaeees 50°
ie een eat anecg oh - gases) Wr Sennen 44'0
EAD escaeetNh fecoaan JN gacnau 1) cooace f onades 8:
62 pe
55
58
49
RL TABOR F ssace: | acenes RaRvanMMe Cecmace: sill, aacaeg 36°3
> Eo oy Re RO occ ae ee ee rc es eee er 40°5
MCA L scuevah |S ovcka ih ivaue) fie Seasea eokdis 41'5
5°4
6-2
6°5
RACED ast S.ccseer fb yesann | ff gesace. UP. eeades 41'S
MPUSOVM | iecaseg | wecdsg TR Secese | devece congas 41°
pie
e5
a5
58
5°8
cy
_ Mr. Coxwell discharged quickly several bags of ballast; let go the grapnel, and called
_ out to me to take hold, when the car struck the earth with great violence, which broke
_ Several instruments; then bounded and descended again, and finally the balloon-netting
caught in a large tree at 115 50™, at Langham, near Oakham.
(9) Thirteenincar. Raised a little for photograph. (10) Left at 45 40™ 10%,
(11) Sand out. (12) Wind S.W. (13) Gas cloudy.
j (14) Thin fog; horizon hidden ; hazy. (15) Sand out.
od
892 ‘ REPORT—1862.
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Hight
2. Siphon Barometer. | Dry and Wet Ther-
2g — :
E2 | time | ening, | a, azul) MEM Ser
Ze andredused | Therma. | N° 2:
to 32° Fahr.
hm 5 in. ° in. feet. es 3
(1) 5 I 30p-m. senses teense .25°98 4,104 521 46:2
ESPNS Pins ececce || - cones . 25°76 45324. 51°5 46-2
(2) Cire” he: (hey paene peace 25°68 454.03 52-1 46°0
5 7 30 ee oN a eaesve” |) } Scans . 25°47 4,613 49°72 43°71
SEO T ge atti we wcooe apa ceases 25°30 4,783 49°0 43°1
(3) 5) 9939) 33 Ee assemel| isos sds 25°40 4,683 48°5 43°5
OBLONG y | y viedaes a Ue eae 25°35 4,733 48°9 43°5
(4) iit yor Sl eA ee eee 25°20 4,923 48-2 431
5120, eveess paesce 25°20 4,923 48°5 4371
Ser foe | eee S 25°26 4,863 48-2 43°70
Boalt) Ce el re tecere | 25°25 4,873 48-2 43°3
(5) RMOMSO st ii. | scses i ill seowes . 25°20 4,923 47°9 43°70
(6) 5 17 3° 5, eit ope aie 25°00 5,155 49°5 43°1
RRO accwee |) <seeeee 24°93 5,220 49°3 43°5
B 2s) or SS) ene eer eee 24°78 5,370 48-2 43°0
5 2 iO, sues aoe oke 24°79 5,360 48°5 43I
5 220° ,, capeda, Usi| Menoes . 24°95 5,200 49°8 44°5
Begs o gy | eceese || | eevee 24°95 5,200 48°5 43°1
524 0 ,, nepees rate 24°82 53330 50°0 44°5
(7) BezaesOm st pel eas — | Arasens 24°70 5,450 47°5 42°0
(8) Suite «ORNS ie el eiccocecmnee fc coe 24°62 5,830 47°38 42°71
R28 gO sg) TN Weieee b| Messe 24°32 54530 48-0 42°0
(9) Ema nO 33" bal oe. wi 24°47 5,380 48°5 42°6
(10) Flac site: Cy A eee eee 24°57 5,280 48-2 43°5
(11) 5 38 3° » ¥ pee a gcc 24°30 5,903 43°5 40°0
(12) Geciwlckee lyn Ss eae acces 24°22 5,983 43°5 40°0
(13) 5 40 30 55 FM hl igre . | 24702 6,183 43°5 40°0
SR es ET a peel rT el fae Co i WT . (6,220) 44°1 39°5
4g Of ate Been [Mee aee 23°33 6,370 44°2 38-9
(14) 54 ° » 5 iy Tacs 2 2400 6,252 45°2 40°5
5 45 39 5» | seven . Dace 24°42 5,785 46°5 41°5
(15) SAT Oss tal Weer: eer 24.60 5,577 46-0 415
BAST 5g Tals greibooe sien | 24°53 5,649: | 4572 40°5
BGO MO ss cept Cepanshl “Sh reese es 24°35 5,946 44-2 39°8
(16) SOO yy PAPAS S scent rT esse 24°12 6,102 43°0 38°5
(17) ie ee ee oe ah oe .| Pages 6,466 | 460 | 40°5
555 OM ss sees aeatee 23°69 6,642 46 5 40°5
557 OF 55 “¢ Aeeses 23°58 6,752 47°2 41°5
5 57 3° » ones WOES 23°50 6,326 43°5 380
Foe ee me Coca eine dae eece 23°47 6,356 43°1 37°9
Be OrZOtse Fetes ||| ects 23°43 6,396 43°5 38-0
9, Oss ceeee Beeves A-|0 caees ss (6,910) 43°0 37°0
COO e ee iliabertte., : £2 |kzg 40 6,937 42°5 37°0
6°10), wd be...) .ana7 6,867 41-0 37°0
(18) 6205 wie oe 23°79 6,547 | 45°5 37°0
(19) 6° 6 Ors ae wee yee (6,603) | 45°6 39°1
(1) Balloon spirating.
(2) Between these two intervals tried to get magnet to vibrate, but could not do so.
(3) Misty and thick to leeward; fine to windward.
(4) Twenty vibrations of horizontal magnet in 3255. Needle kept in same relative posi-
tion to the car. (5) Sand out. (6) Wind W.N.W.
(7) Gun heard with a sharp sound; drum beating; band heard.
(8) Cumuli all round at lower elevation. (9) Gas partially clear.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 393
Balloon Ascents. Crystal Palace, July 30, 1862.
mometers (free). Pregnetts Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
an
Zambra’s c
EE Daniell’s. | Regnault’s.
Diff. |Dew-point. iain Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point. i
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
5°9 40°2 PRAM | | accion: || Visoweemun| Nescreeguyliy eepnee 431
53 40°7 =| awn eee Areetraleminerr ne ule focace eeeeee 43°71
61 39°38 dtp ateie’ ZTE EL | cacwocleslll P cecscounyl Mccatss 41°0
6-2 Ges i| | Suate Reet) cacotaey || Aeeveccumylen cosecs 40°5
‘ 59 36°7
; 50 emia Segue? || bsecvect | | veeees TT mie fecaces 39°5
( a 377
51 37°5
54 3772
52 37°3 Perce |b vcdudehe| | csseasry | | ones awa {bronsss . 39°5
49 OTOMEP He retstt ||| cccnwctee| contacss| | sosseenec] exese F 39°0
49 GrRcme Eee, SESBEH | sowcen-- ||} soosmahall tones ua 39°5
64 362
58 BMA tapered | | soncteP S|. ccoeser | | caenmoresil! seonee 39°0
52 37°3
54 Byers ||| fesewe’ | se Saeat hl] © coseechs || | sveceonnl| Llexpeas 40°5
53 BARONE Pdstaee. |b osecsal* | | seesecr~ | | eescsonud) eaeses 40°0
54 ae BA | ceddeee | | cecswer! || P<cocwasieyil) Wivevame 42°0
5°5 Rospmee i rimches, || occthe =| | eosecena |b aees aspeell Peano nes 40°2
5°5 BORED | teeecen. | o cecctet =| escnvers || | seanee-s a ceees ° 38:0
57 Ree re || ccevtcts |) voenaete |b eoenmn puilimiedoess 38-2
60 35°4 eeesee | secee . eovwe | seccee- | ‘Serene 362
59 362
47 38°4 Acacia il ere rccherl oomere eit eres a 36°5
3°5 35°8
3°5 35°8 vsoe | ceeee Filia datbeehis aaanie one 38°0
3°5 35°8
46 BrOery eset @1|" yececca mn eeauveres||) savas’ at 36°0
63 GAP Ne vanesns -|'* “aanas 5 Bec ill Mepesoe en te doecrer 34°0
47 3571
: Bry 35°9
45 Bite | esecade sey aaentan OR recets' 36°0
47 351
44 34°7 apaepeal | ii seaes ° sapavs | oeenen [ieconse A 35°5
4°5 SeRt Dl aeowcee il eersne, ll) .cvees . seeeee | teense 36°0
5°5 34°3
6°0 338
Si7 35°2
55 314
52 32°6
5:5 314
6:0 29°8
55 30°3 eee eeeaee oe eveese ee 32°90
40 BIDE | Gecrese | ase Se 4) Seceeea renses coe 31°5
: 45 31°4 esee BEPC | ecOSReCeend| mapdococme | motoos” 32°70
| 6°5 31°6
is Eee | | I “ree eee | AS
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
(10) Deep blue sky, dotted with cumuli; sun shining brightly.
- (11) Misty; cloudy particles moving ; gun heard.
__ (12) Balloon spirating. (18) Wind N.
tr 33 Sun shining on cases of Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometers ; readings not affected thereby.
(15) Cloudy particles seen moving. (16) Sunshining on Daniell’s Hygrometer. (17) Great mist.
(18) Deep blue sky, dotted with cirrocumuli, cumuli, and cumulostratus below.
(19) Ozone 0; steamboat seen near Dartford.
1862,
2d
894. REPORT—1862.
TastE I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
Siphon Barometer.
gS . - Aneroid | Height above
& Z Time. Resi Att. Bannuetey, a Saar
ms andreduced | Therm. ia
to 32° Fahr.
hm i s in. ° in. feet,
(1) Bee P fi zssse, - | issemng | Medea: (6,617)
(2) CS OMTEC GOMES) exh 4h Se Sosa. P| MPo seen tail Pbaceeels (6,625)
(Te) ie) Sn reer en Bie cee 23°70 6,637
GURGRB ON, <> Ire Setseutrge || Seene 23°59 6,747
Gmermsoms |) i ill fastest; |i peeetes 23°40 6,937
(3) (Boo Les ere ei en i oe 23°42 6,917
GUAT Oss el) eieesce |S \L) Peeecons [Mpatdens) JI) pemeeectes
615 OM, : aoa ea We tect 23°63 6,720
GeUgeeon imma eric. | Peete. [Wbesesen Ndr emacs
GSS OUR Mee Boosye | loess * 23°95 6,400
6ag250./;, SSP A! oe 24°35 6,000
AG ee Tee 24°55 5,800
“raaey ster 75) | Sa are 24°60 5,750
(4) DRAM eer i sscses. s. |' steers 24°95 5,400
GEZIOM TN fcsseve ) || Resenee 25°40 495°
MOU GA Vict osccccums | Posbpes 25°90 4,450
00, Qh A eee ee ee apo itbvehecesna that ene
(5) O27) ele SRE We eres al lescaert 26°48 3,870
Gizan a’, ext Sct te || Coe te 26°60 3,750
6250 ,, Sanco Ml e532 27°65 2,700
6 25 30 ,, Ssagsene NP eaecenun [too sea tee, Win ences
(6) GRRE CO. bes wt ep ueaccegy, , ta P sedans 29°96 |ontheground| 68:0
ee i omme)
eeneee
seneee
eeeeee
weeeee
seeeee
eaeeee
weeeee
eeeeee
(1) Cumulostratus and cumulus same height ; strati above.
seeee | weeeee
eeeeee | tte eee
weeere | weeeee
ee
ee er
rr ee
weeeee
seneee
(2) Ozone o, by Moffat and Schénbein. (3) Going down Long Reach. (4) Gravesend.
(5) Removed instruments; hop-garden under us; came down in potato-field.
(6) In this ascent the instruments were carried by a board fixed to the side of the car of
the balloon, I standing all the time and looking over the side of the car; Mr. Ingelow was
seated on my left hand and read the Aneroid Barometer and Daniell’s Hygrometer; my son
was on my right hand.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862.
Crystal Palace, July 30, 1862.
395
esr Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
an ee
= Daniell’s. | Regnault’s,
Diff. |Dew-point. pace Dry. Wet Diff. |DewW-point. h ;
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point,
° ° Foe ° ° ° ° ° °
57 32°9
58 32°4
6-4 313
a8 29'0
5s 31°8 Heed dee sodas RASC. | asses 32°0
57 Bee eopives: (i, | codstar- | | cosets | | seceee Sannea 32°0
63 oe Vy eo Besa | | caver | | coches Ayo | i ae : 31°8
56 324
6°5 32°5
6°3 B27 =| Bases P| b sakteuey’ || ( essccens| 4 oschaee MM caeces 31'0
6°4. 32°8 aieaes wuytdess, | becadtar+ |) acasaeteey “eases. 32°0
oe) 34°3
4°7 36-2
5°5 354
50 Baa Wl) <eeeetd fil | csdsist:,| | sedevas- | coanswie || — daseon 39°70
4°3 PE NMeE eee TM Eescsses | | oosesc. | Panes aes 40°0
50 38°6
4°7 39°5
41 417
78 Bie 4) Sis eben’ ageaare'|| Traesear eoeee 42°5
9°8 417
115 474
Wolverhampton, August 18, 1862.
~ oo Ee ane 65°0 Ib OI 75 514.
68-0 60°5 75 54°6 55°0 53°9
i Pa den 56'0 53°2 2°4. 50°6 sadaps 48°5
sere Stews 48:0 44°1 3°9 39°8 37°0 362
i. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
P a In car of balloon before starting.
_ (9) Wind N.N.E. ; left the earth at 15 2™ 385.
(10) In cumulus cloud.
(11) Lost sight of earth.
(12) Sun glorious and beautiful indeed; deep blue sky.
Pla} Over railway ; exceedingly beautiful.
14) Going towards Birmingham ; over Black Country.
(8) In car of balloon.
202
396 REPORT—1862,
Taxte I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
2 Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther-
23 Aneroid :
£2 ; ; Height ab
bz Bee | — | ee | | ace Semele eee
eo) andreduced | Therm.
to 32° Fahr.
hm s in ° in. feet. ~ S
(1) II5 op.m 22°687 59°0 22°68 75700 *|- geeewe) 4| aera.
(2) ron Gee toe 21°694 B77O.\ Il Nessws : 8,935 44°0 38°5
(3) 118 45 ,, 20°895 570s ll eves 9,954 43°5 3770
(4) TREMME Ih -Seccca || deunee 20°89) | eee 41'0 35°5
5) 1.20, © 5, TOPSO7 Ml bessens 20°05 ¥1;267 |) Sencee H) eeeece
EWZOE SI oryale <eseee ” avmcue). [a | spaces 37°2 321
T0535) |; 19°797 wesese.. if) b eveces 11,399 36'0 gT-5
(6) I 2k 10 ,, TO;740 th Seecese il) Heeetec 11,470 39°5 32°0
(7) TAZZ =O“, ZO207 lll evvees sieuve 10,840 42°0 36-0
(8) I(24> 0 4, BOrBo7.. i edvese. |b osees : 9,884 45°0 38-0
I 24 5 WNL 8 asecse. .. i] esaeae,. || © wuweeeue I) | etemmns eee eee
Py es a He ZOSOF oi vases » | 21°28 9,884.
Te 2AnGOmee ZE37T © || Weeutes |) | wenevel alle cose 462 39°5
(9) ns © <5 1) i irene ZI°SO, ji | céccce™ Pi cgeeaee a Geese
By in) te) 1s a rr iduasely [ke jeaeee ete 472 40°5
E260
E2630 *. 22232, ht Possess lh betwee 8442 | ee. VE daseee
(10) IeZ7TaO! ,, 22°622 5270 22°90 7,836 510 46°5
De32) 0) |,, 22802 “lL aspers 22°85 7,650 51-2 46-0
cr : + o |, 22:BOZ A Weecsess. |) | svese> 7,650 53°8 47°8
EE ay) if) We eswenste Tl Wowevee || Pestens). (I patcnnems Sodebe Hill. eeteoe
(U3) gel ie ae Soares | Boescser i Mgtvcoce™ . [UMeteaceae Proc Pu | Wie
14) 137° 30 |, 24°248 bio Kae mal | tacos: 5,919 56°83 50°5
(15) Lagenrors 24°460 59°70 24°60 5,820 57°70 50°5
ESTO ros
Life toy Ce ieee aie AS Pacers sil wieseess eanees 580 51°5
TAT Oy 257083 62°0 25°30 5,028 58°9 52°0
(16) I 41-30-,, 257564. 65"0 — AS53O" AC eesas tease
. 142 0, Sal coon 25°60
(17) peat if 25-5 SA al" wextusl eins decent 4,480 ore 53°5
scene ieee a cours Fox Sacuas o°9 54-5
(18) TAM Oe 2Br562 || lescses ditesses - 3,438 61°0 53°5
(19) TpABssO. 1, 26°756 6770 | wsseee 3,219 59°0 54°0
152 0 ,, 25°795 | wees 25°82 45233 53°5 49°2
(20) I 52 30 ,, 25°594. O50 ot Bees .cp 4448
TESOL) | Sicideacee 4] |b sebee ° saree + Ateepas 52°2 48°5
(21) I 3 oO) 25°079 65*0 25°25 5,019 510 47°8
Rs SR (me ee see eg ge tarry
(22) I 57 40 # Savdeerh || it exper waves’ ||) coseseate th). oSeauee wmresee
I 5 oy 24°394. C255. tees 5,780
OTL TE {oon Seon b Aaa erereyee 0 Weer oD Ape| | eS : wapee *
(23) BSS AG TIS ioscan, eedebon es eae | ae ee seeeee
2h DGB. 1 237928 62°0 24°10 6,313
2) iO.) 23°778 62°0 ane 6,491
(1) Birmingham in view ? (2) Wind N.W.; moving S.E.; gorgeous view.
(3) Light and shade magnificent. (4) Balloon full; gas cloudy.
(5) Turned to descend. (6) Opened valve.
(7) Most glorious view possible; cumuli far below, detached. Wolverhampton under us,
as a fine model.
(8) Plains of clouds in the distance. (9) Opened valve.
(10) Rippling of edges of canal beautiful ; calm; Black Country remarkable ; alpine and
dome-like clouds; bright on one side, dull on the other; detached cumuli; horizon ap-
parently same height as the eye.
¥
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862, 397
se
Balloon Ascents. Wolverhampton, August 18, 1862.
mometers (free). pe Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
an eee SSeS
Zambra’s Daniell’s. | Regnault’s,
Diff. | Dew-point. cei Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point.
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
° ° ° ° ° ° °o ° °
Meee sft) asthe . 45°7
5°5 32°0
6°5 29°2 AGRO sssecet st oscscst ili cusccseed|beleelene 30°
55 | 286 | gors
seseee | eeeees 38°5
51 24°9
4°5 24°8
7 22°2
6:0 28°6 ADUSEOA ccavesd =! -cochon -$}: | ebnecnboribulsaeane 22° 25°0
7-0 PE MET |) wsoadeP Mh csesee: <I) cbenee Bale veanees 240
seeees eaves 45'0
67 32°0
eceee . eons 45°8
6°7 33°
eG cree wasnca et sessce-+ |) secesth@l) Dtendeo foe Cesc 30°5
5°5 41°8 EUCOMO) ciedets Cf) asene) 2 fl seseckOl Milanese «Kt. fsesoee 340
52 40°6 AGRZEST YS wener Ul censec iif = saeeb) A hl Cromesien 35°5 35°0
6:0 PMH Saisie Eh cecost SL aleesctP el henrane fa Sakecse 36°6
eenee Waemet EE isceseee tt, aacata *") secoue Gf seven lw tesecsa [BE ‘encene 36°0
meeee é Post aeptee desegé acai diasisk Seta A caste 39°70
6-3 44°8
6°5 44°6 BT OP lcendest WN], deseverc| aersedt | N'evoues UE) Sebeabe 37°5
6°5 45°7
69 | 459 | 53°5
SUE eatraer | cancer” i) weveds MPC ePRAMIHT despeereu fuk vorese | te - Sebeek 43°5
6°5 Ae UE caer tll dacedathAth aeueaeerMt: ldverce OA-- evesee 46°0
74 47°1
75 AOR NE cate?’ | | ‘cess WPAN) Gaccrss Pehl devescitedtr ceanes 47°8 47°2
570 49°6 560
43 45°0 55°0
3°7 ASEAN “cotden> ||) ‘sawabech"| . Soestewenph ccerevavndie sccdeons WW) Matecte 40°0
3°72 ey ll octecek’ Il) -concse’ 7) seas WM deescole o[C recenan 42°0
ME cewere’ | seccve™” | coctue ©] evened of) coveect= ibs ovceee fle “ejvnses 39°5
Gewese ih) erste! | cesves 50°0 46°5 3°5 4258) Ne Beredon 39°0
teeeee Seteee 54°38
-oacocueel | MRSS | ne 5272 46°3 54 413 Consee 39°0
OO
z 8. ae 10. ie 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
(11) The sun shining on shades of Dry and Wet Bulb; valve opened; beautiful resonant sound.
(12) Aspirator difficult to work. (13) Clouds very beautiful. (14) Warm to sense.
(15) About midway between Wolverhampton and large town,? Walsall.
(16) Balloon collapsed. (17) Shouting below, thinking we are de-
_ scending ; a reservoir in sight. (18) Shaded the instruments.
(19) Protected the Dry Bulb from influence of sun; sand out ; shouting.
(20) Beautiful prismatic colours round the balloon’s shadow; passing along high road to
Birmingham. (21) Bell heard in Birmingham very distinctly.
(22) Sand out. (23) Cumuli same height as car.
398
2 Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther-
238 Aneroid .
£5 Time. Reading Barometer,| Height above
Sa iy Att. >. | sea-level.
Ze _nompcted Therm. No. 2. Dry. Wet.
to 32° Fahr.
m s in a in. feet, a a
(1) PESO piles <i” Wess.ck Wl odes 23°90 | Ee iwee |) See eee
(2) 9 O85 22°584. 61-0 22°71 7,886 535 46°0
(3) PEA Sh... scdece |, -Seewea.o],o saeeceas |, Oleeebeee 11 Seen ee
IO 30 4, 22°182 G2:5 Sass 8,571 510 45°5
EERO ge 9) oedyes |. | spose 22°32 | ssccas 510 44°38
II 40 5,5 21°882 Gro. "a S771 _ | eras ur | | eae
BE CSOV aye Mp shccdecs, |Posteese | seevee Razer.” > ee
TVAy Cin 6 8) lon Cooma (eo cee Mle Tee Meco seen) ee hk
Cn 2 org | ee en ey ee Mee ees eth
IX GD: 55 21°882 G27n- ae 8,771
TE SOMSSMEEEI laefess [iv .Sbotee ZI"Q5 | . tesonmeye It wena, Nees
SOMME, | vcoStvs-- fl <aaecen |, (ewescer uly bee sone 53°2 44°5
14, © 455 20°89 \- ||) @ysiei | fee 9,902 “]\) .ceeae IO kee
EG 10..55 21°139 60°0 Shoes 9,695 50°5 42°5
15 30 ) | CY es ee) Ms DC em (cry em
17 "0 955 20°239 61°5 20°50 10,864. 45°5 3771
20 O 59 E9599... |p sevceerylh carves 11,748 45°5 34°2
20 TO 95 19 "10g 52°0 19°30 | (12,364) 44'0 34°0
22 O 35) IQ'3IO | cesses EQ'2E ||, -fecmeme 44°0 33°38
22 30 59 18°859 §2°5 anes 12,708 |
23.0 5 18°708 B3°Q |, Vaeseus 12,942 44°0 32°0
24 0 xy 18*109 BAO.) (eesess 13,852 39°0 205
25 0
PP PRYPNYHYPKYNRPNHNHHNHRPHNDKRHHNPNHYHNNANHNHANMNHNHHRPNYNPNNNNYPNNYPNHYPNDHNNN HE
REPORT—1862.
Taste I.— Meteorological Observations made in Eight
webeee
seeeee
seeeee
seneee
seneee
seeeee
enone
aeeeee
seeeee
Ie
eeeeee
seeeee
weeeee
weeeee
seeeee
seeee
tenses
weneee
feeeee
seeeee
teeeee
daeeee
decease
teeeee
aeeeee
teens
aeeeee
eeeeee
we teee
seteee
se eeee
se eeee
(1) Ozone 8; sand out.
(3) Near Lichfield.
(5) Sand out.
(2) Rippling of water on edges of canal very distinct.
(4) Ozone: Moffat 2=1; Sch. =1; Moffat 1=8.
(7) Very extended vie e Tales land alas life
€ We alioon full and clear.
(9) Great mass of cloud to the E. (10) Large town to the right.
(11) Sea of clouds, very deep blue sky; snow-white appearances; balloon transparent;
2 ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862.
: 399
Balloon Ascents. Wolverhampton, August 18, 1862.
mometers (free). Ni Senet Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
an
¥ Zambra’s :
+a: Daniell’s. | Regnault’s.
Diff. |Dew-point. poe Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point.
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
Recs Mil, mencses 54:0 550 48°2 6°8 41°7
75 38°6 50°5
at) | ERR | eee 48°5 44/0 4°5 39°1 ipeten 360
5°5 39°8
62 38°4
-cnts || Sedeetswme ier 51-0 44/0 70 36°7 toners 38°5
Es Miura. 8 | abacacfieel Assess, | issosanally gacvbee 39°0
PPE ese acess ||| Besvecm || Sesses | Esecea ule eeahess ei) (yietenee 39°90
Serces UM scRea ul) acess °'| beseos || “Soecteatelaeedcctes 39°5
Basacs i) cesses 50°5
87 34°9
ees if oseseas 50°0
8:0 34°1
CORE | ieeeces 48°1
8-4. QA. |) aches 42°1 B77 570 BIO! 7] yp seuges 29°5
113 212
10°0 22°2 39°2 39°5 32°0 75 P37 |e MAEPEE 29°0
1o°2 21°8 338°5
12°0 17°9 38°0
75 16 341
lee, 1 See eee 39°5 32°5 TO 23°4
obeds : aeons ae pene Breaol sane waa ae eee 23:2
10°3 12°9 27°83
-- aye] el ee 36°5 21°56 150 |— o'7 Sesaas 6:0
8:0 eH a |
ME eee wateccey |! tsdests. ||, fecanee’ | | fedecce i endive’ | 2 deomes 50
oo A) RSEBe 28°58
76 TS'S) il seeaes 35°0 21'0 140) |— 14 [no dew
cee Tit ens. 30°5 sso =s0det Bence aciaves 570
4°5 DAG) Tit secon || gas MepyBAl- Bie Sec. el) fetceam ides seqece-) [ti alee emer 3°5
4h | SOUS RAR IRae eee 31°5 21°0 Io§ |— 54 sence 30
6-0 23°2
co ee 2725 30°0 20°0 1070) |—11'5 Seces oo
-o 5 MiBepeee 28°0
toon! 2 ae 24°8 wena zeten Seer Bo Gor <omtas —2'0
a Se 255
4°6 24°6
es f ateeee | dacece | cosach (| ‘eeoace | sesage .} » evtece acetee —5'0
Sa ieee 28°5
7°83 2I'o
Seeree vosee 26°1
8. a) 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
a few clouds below; cirrus still higher; gas getting foggy; cirrus still above ‘at great
height. (12) Sun shining on cases of Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometers.
(13) Ozone 1=10,
(14) Ozone 2=6
(16) Clap of thunder; no cloud in sight.
(18) Sun shining on cases of Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometers ; could not screen it; tried
- umbrella; failed,
(15)
Ozone 3=7.
(17) Aspirator troublesome to work.
400 REPORT—1862.
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
= Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther-
o
£8 5 A Aneroid Height above
25 Time. Reading Barometer, | ~~“ eas
& vA eerneteal f No. 2. sea-level, Dry.
oS
qa? and reduced °
to 32° Fahr.
ih om? is
2 39 30pm.
242 0 »
2 AZ TO) 555
(1) 245 O »
(2) 249 0 55
2 49 5° »
(3) 54 2 »
59 2 »%
59 19 35
59 20 35)
59 4° »
”
2 0 3)
2 20 3)
i, BO nbd
(4)
(5)
WOW WWWWNHHHNDKND
°
°
(6)
(7)
(8)
WWWWWWWWWW
“
oO
vy
S
(9)
(10)
LS ty P (sun shining.
19 3° » 340
19 40 35 8 sooo
(11)
(12)
WWI WWWWW WW WW WW
rs)
n
°
S
(1) Thunder heard below. (2) A large town directly under us.
(3) Mr. Coxwell’s pulse 90; Mr. Glaisher’s 100, 107, and IIo.
(4) Looked round; brandy necessary. (5) Difficult to get dew; Mr. Coxwell helped me.
(6) Difficult to get dew. (7) Hands and face blue.
(8) Aspirator difficult to work. (9) Thunder loud. a
(10) Mr. Coxwell looked over ballast, said we had better be content today and not go
higher ; I wished to go up. (11) Unwell. Vs
(12) Remarkable view; cirri far above; beautiful deep bluesky with cumuli far below.
The earth and its fields very beautiful under us; here the earth not visible, a blue mist
filling up the interstices between the cumuli; there the earth is perfectly clouded over by
_
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 401
Balloon Ascents. Wolverhampton, August 18, 1862.
mometers (free). Dear Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers,
an ee Sa ee ee Se ee eee
ae Daniell’s. | Regnault’s.
Diff. |Dew-point.) ppermo- Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point.
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
° ° °o ° ° ° ° ° °
paeitel || Oetee ; 2575
Bees = : asm Aint Sacne= oaeae sbecine erence vaso — 85
feneee
Cue,
enone
weneee
8. 9. 10. 11. 12, 13. 14, 15. 16.
large plains or seas of cumulostratus, causing all below to be cloudy for many hundreds of
Square miles, then many square miles without a cloud to obscure the sun’s rays; other places
with detached cumuli, whose upper surfaces were connected in vast plains of a hillocky ap-
pearance ; earth obscured in places by a blue haze or mist; then again cumuli with blue
mist between them ; the earth cannot be seen owing to the blue mist filling up the spaces
between the cumuli. In another place, beautiful shining cumuli, and then a sea of detached
clouds which I cannot describe. Open to the N., S.E., and S.W., obscured to N.E.; saw 50°
of horizon same height as the eye on looking over the top of the car. A beautiful cloud due
_N., the same we passed through on leaving Wolverhampton, and has followed us all the way ;
King of clouds.
402 REPORT—1862. 4
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Hight
2 Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther-
z3 Aneroi 3
ES | Time | eating | gy, Barometer) Helghtahore
=e - acd radaced Therm. ses ii me
to 32° Fahr.
h m.s in 5 in. feet . 3
3 39 oOp.m. 20°020 45°0 20°05 10,624 44°2 30°5
3 39 ee US ae ete eters (ee rere 20°55
BuAO. TO vay 20°717 7.4 sree | eer 10,224 45°5 310
uh ibe 0S RR Ry CoP eee eer 21°50
3 41 30 5, ZEOET OB caisccs el eepeces 8,764.
(1) BAZ) TO) 94 22°767 AS‘o -|-. dc.0 8,144
REATARD yA. wih de e¥ess... of - aeseed eG h- eh tosh 50°5 44°0
3 43 39 » ZEHS7 Ah dessac. ||) > desace 71438 :
(2) Raters Fe AN ie. | «asccacya| <dssese. ul, CSE oe ee eee
346 0 5,
3 AGNTO~ 55 BGO OO) LLes aessea hal Meestaas 6,050
(3) 3 46 30 455 235930) a wesgar al eshte 5,979
(4) eryemOmeer Gl! Foszz.c. f| dewtecs |||) dscwss 1) gages al Nomen eee
(5) 3 48 0 5; 2280 Gli adssees || Bkerees 5,922 53°5 43°5
3 Ag. 0-53 24°280 53°0 24°42 5 Gade Sle Coccceees |? cage vee
(6) HegOmmOmen |) eiiets. || deeeke), Sdacecs 0] eames 53°5 47°0
(7) Z.bauko 54 DASSTO. BV) Veaese Al, betes 5,021
(8) 3 50 20- 55 DROSS, ON Messes.. |) Sdosere 4,821 52°1 48-0
(9) beGtO 53 PRISGA. MWe Bases Set heeers 4,521 51°5 49°2
IES, SS 8 Me eee ae ce eres | en CePA Ve Veer ece 51-0 50°0
(10) B95 (Ons3
(11) 358 © 5,
(12) 3 59 0 »
(13) 4 4 O54,
(14) BMS RHO wah. TM Raeeeesa, | Sbdcees * | c beoncy | | eieeaees C1, pee Reeeine neers
Crystal Palace, August 20, 1862.
BG ol os CSDM ee erie al (ee Bere / 29°86 250 67°8 61°6
OPZORNO' AS LP Ci cwesss ON ebscase 29°36 250 66-2 60°5
(15) DET MOU il sete: IE! Besese 29°85 250 66-0 60°5 j
BEZSeAOCR Tl aw wl Pexecs 29°66 430 65°2 59°5 3
DEZOMO Ns: Ui wapedess 11] a teuees 29°62 450 64°6 59°0 j
BYZOWBO UGE Pl codecs bl teases 29°48 530 64°2 58°5 .
BIZ ACen: Bl) sates (hl massa 29°40 602 64°1 53:2 ¥
BZONEG i581 @ keseeacs | ts] etewees 29°33 662 63°5 575
BEFOMO Nehoredes: | Sebece 29°28 707 6372 ef
IRR et a ee ee ee Pe 28°95 1,037 63°0 Pye
(16) ee AO Le cess, Dl Baws ee 28°55 1,397 61°5 56-2 i
(17) SGU Ol sg Ae yeseacs. Oi age snes 28°45 1,497 61°5 56°0
CREO 5 erercass i iierasess 28-00 1,912 58°5 54°2 ~
(18) ee ok Mill ner recemt | uccere 27°75 2,160 57°5 53° *
(19) 63540 Nested eu Ged coe |ineesoac 27°65 25257 562 53°70 x
6 46550 dee sesece Wa eecbe 27°40 2,408 56-0 52°5 4
O87) Orage ble caeeeres in Me wiser [st va scan Saadae 55:2 52°
ie 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. a
(1) The image of balloon and car on cloud very distinct. (2) Entering cloud, lost sight of sun.
8} In a cloud; fog; can see nothing. (4) Balloon image on cloud magnificent.
5) In cloud again ; again lost sun. (6) Still in cloud.
(7) Saw the earth. (8) Packed up some instruments. (9) Misty. (10) Out of mist,
(11) Descending slowly ; one or two men breaking through hedges, j
oe
ne
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 403
‘Balloon Ascents. Wolverhampton, August 18, 1862.
_ mometers (free). Negrtl Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
———— an
Zambra’s .
aa Daniell’s, | Regnault’s.
Diff. | Dew-point. sat aie Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point. : oe i
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
13°7 14°4 40°7
45 | 144
6°5 36°7
Sper |e sccsse |i ., Pie Goons Seaute SEADOC sess seated 33°6
Mere caetem a docks |. doaccc tv ideases” Po needee foe)
10°0 33°6
See a errr 50°0
65 | 405
41 43°9
2°3 44°8 51°5
I'o 48°9
Reams fl isecud 67°0
Crystal Palace, August 20, 1862.
6:2 Bere Pe cate |! dacese decreas} deccet he cactie 55°5
5°7 55°9
5°5 56'0
LW 54°8
56 | 543
AT, Wi
Ae 33.3
6'0 52°5
5°7 52°7 a
58 52°3
53 517
55 RM Mestad assseo | euitescen 2 | asssesh, Vy, coemes 52°1
43 50°5
44 49°I
32 isha 4) Ssjochs ial peveceeacme a Ne certo Wmmercrer | et 51°5
a5 49°2 ,
a 49°71
ee eee
8. a 10. 11. 12. 13. 14, 15. 16.
(12) People approaching in different directions.
(13) Grapnel touched the earth. (14) Car touched the earth.
(15) Cheering from below. (16) Misty. (17) Over Palace Gardens.
18) Counted ten carriages in train on Brighton Railway.
19) Train on Beckenham line, twelve carriages, tank engine.
404,
References
to Notes
Time.
3 m s
37 Iop.m
(1) 6 37 3° 5
(2) 638 oy,
(3) 639 © 5
(4) 641 0 »
(5) 6 41 30 5,
(6) | 6420;
(7) 6 43 0 »
(8) 6 43 3° »
(9) 6 47 © 5
(10) 6:48. © 45
(11) 6 49 © »
6 49 3° »
(12) 6 50 0 »
6 51 30 5»
(13) GinzarO) 5.
(14) | 655 © »
(15) 656 oy,
(16) 6 57 30 »
(17) 6 58 © »
(18) 75O O 55
(19) 7 120%
(20) 7 2 0»
(21) 7 40° »
(22) + A ee |
(23) Ln ON
(24) 7 8 oy
(25) LOD a3
710 0 55
Cm 712 0 5;
27) 713 © 5»
(28 715 © »
(29 710 © 5
7 16 30 4
(30) 7 UT VO. 95
(31) 718 0 5
(32) 719 © 5
(33) 7 19 10 5
(34) 7 19 3° 35
7 20 O 35)
(1) Over Crystal Palace.
REPORT—1862.
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther-
A id S
Hesslings Att. Pacmctess Heightehew
aormeet | mierm. | N02 i ila
to 32° Fahr.
in. ° in. feet. iS + si
Sire \ctoce 27°20 25709 551 52°0
coccee | ee eee 26°95 25959 54:2 51°5
ccscen | a eaeee 26°75 3,159 53°12 51-0
foo |b ecaaee 26°55 35359 52°8 50°5
Senos S| ‘Leben 26°12 3,816 Sil 48°9
esvese | aaeeee 25°95 3,986 50°5 48°5
cenass | see sse 25°82 4,116 510 48°5
eccs) of] canees . 25°68 4,256 50°0 47°8
eee one 25°60 4,316 5170 48-2
Se lien Ocoee 25°55 4,366 50°5 47°2
carves wall gebentee 25°60 4,316 50°0 47°0
Ae ee | eer A 25°75 4,116 49°2 47°5
Geatear ANP Lexcans 25°80 4,055 50°5 48°5
setae) at] Puseawens 26°05 3,893 51°5 48-2
capess\- Gel) aageas 26°25 3,693 51° 48-2
oss) Al) eaceee 26°35 33593 51°5 48-2
woe al) leckans 26°28 3,663 Bren 48-2
eekee! |) aascens 26°25 3,693 50°9 48:2
dic Wexseneee 26°20 39743 50°3 47°8
sdesse, aalertes ss : 26°15 39793 49°38 47-2
ps cesses 2611 3,833 502 47°5
Gkeee: Ll Mecccss 26°08 3,863 49°8 47°2
ue eens 26°05 39893 49°5 472
“ha | te eee 25°85 4,052 48°2 46°5
saeeus! jf) ancces 2§°70 4,250 48°0 46°0
ants Seaeke 25°58 45384 47°0 45°1
eT | rcssess 25°60 45354 47°2 45°5
See tt ease 25°68 4,278 48°1 46-2
Asay eeiectte 26°50 32405 48°2 46°5
SGN ete 26°20 3,621 49°8 46°5
oe SS | eae 26°45 3,468 51° 43°2
eee . ages 27°50 25398 53°5 510
Baesee tle iecenes 27°70 2,198 54°2 515
cipene Ae 28°03 1,871 54°8 520
testy eeseee | 28°25 1,655 55°5 52°5
aes coosse | 28°50 | 1,417 56°5 532
ns 3 basis 28°53 1,387 570 53°5
peace savoag (| 28S} OSE 57°0 53°5
eens pen 28°63 1,287 57°2 5471
Be ee 28°64 | 15277 57°5 542
2. 3. 4, 5. 6. de
(2) Misty all round; detached scud beneath.
(3) Gas in balloon cloudy; saw people as specks; clouds beneath as scud.
(4) Over a wood near the Palace.
(5) Gas very cloudy, could see it coming out as smoke. :
(6) Misty ; still over wood. (7) Clouds far below, but not under us.
(8) In cloud ; earth just visible.
(9) Could not see people, but could see car-
riages ; lost sight of earth at 6" 47™ 105; just see roads.
(10) Earth visible at 6" 48™ 40°; earth seen plainly, except where obscured by scud.
(11) 28 vibrations of magnet=40*'s, not good. (12) Could see the river; London obscured.
(13) Sand out.
(14) Misty ; Crystal Palace seen.
(15) Couldseerailwayjunction; heardengine.(16) Crystal Palace scarcely visible.
(17) Clouds below ; saw a light on the river. (18) Tolling of bells distinct.
(19) Mist more on one side than the other; great buzzing below; shouting.
woes
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 405
Balloon Ascents. Crystal Palace, August 20, 1862.
mometers (free). eee Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
an $$$
Zara 4 Daniell’s. | Regnault’s.
Diff. |Dew-point.| Thermo- Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point.
Dew-point. | Dew-point.
°
48°5
48°0
4%
44°2
1'7
20
33
3°3
373
370
27
oats
2°6
10. ll. 12. 13. 14, 15
(20) Kennington Oval in sight; getting over London.
(21) Heard noise of people ; gas cloudy and issuing from neck like smoke.
(22) Misty still; 7 6™ 15°, cold to sense; 7" 6™ 45°, earth invisible.
(23) Over London; great noise; 7° 7™ 30°, listened and heard the hum of London plainly.
__(24) Great hum of London ; exactly over Kennington Oval; saw lights; 7% 8™ 42°, St.
Mark’s church under us. (25) Railway whistle heard.
(26) Lamps lighted along the roads. (27) Bell tolling ; two clumps of light visible.
(28) Milbank Penitentiary and Vauxhall Bridge in sight.
_ (29) Shouting heard. (30) Lights on end of Vauxhall Bridge visible.
=) Gas clear; see netting plainly.
32) The upper and lower currents moving in different directions.
(33) Two gasometers under us near Kennington.
(34) Becalmed ; visible from the earth.
406 REPORT—1862.
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
Siphon Barometer,
n Dry and Wet Ther-
28 Aneroid |, .
2° Time. Reading Barometer, Height above
OA Porrected Att. 2. sea-level. Dry. Wet
Pe) andreduced | Therm.
to 32° Fahr.
him 8 in. 2B in. feet. & 6
TRCORGOPRD TN secs, | Lewonee 28°62 1,297 57°5 54°2
(1) REPRO Magy oie |-s pcgseds-4s | Pacecte 23°33 1,587 57°8 54°2
PAIRS Bast teal decease '| lecenes 28°25 1,667 572 54°2
(2) RZAMMO rey 2.» caeceve || fateee's 28°01 1,907 56°8 B3°5
(3) Tam ins tintin ogooced+<-+|. eevee 27°85 2,067 56°83 53°5
VES |) idewccs. 7 | deseees 27°75 2,167 562 5371
CEO iss len devez os) dencvee 27°70 25217 56°5 53°2
(4) VEZ COME TE | at, cccs +) “ipesses 27°70 25217 5675 53°5
(5) TS MOMGS LE vdssase | | Seooves 27°78 25297 56°38 533
(6) Wf 23) Se) ee A ee eres 27°70 2,217 ESE, 52°
(7) VRE aS) Sil: doccas--+| seaeee 27°58 2,417 55'5 52°8
(8) VOM SARIN. 23,550--57|. Sgcavee-* | baeeees | ees 5572 52°2
(9) 7h Oe. SR eee 27°18 25723 54°2 51'S
EMEC SIs Cis sascaeve«s | wecese 27°18 25723 54°8 52°0
(10) Tm tee igs 4h. gosess |) veneeve 27°22 2,683 55°2 52°
MEH Bs Was. deneee 02) becetes 27°30 2,603 54:8 51°6
(11) FMM gs) HA ee dxcdns-< | igeocers st Peaceee | EGE 54°2 51°
(12) TAO ogy a |r daesvivet | Poeeens 27°03 2,873 53°5 49°8
(13) TEETMRO DS | 41) \aessex > || gaeste 26°80 3,003 53°0 49°
CELA Ny PE BIO vos ip dss decsen ed vecere 26°10 39703 512 480
(15) Fe MO cen. F| raddabec 4P || oevess 24°82 5,194 4570 43°5
748 0 » fees a Pewtang 24°90 5,106 45°0 43'5
(16) 749 20 » r OT tad ee 24°18 5,900 4370
(17) ABO GOSS): ll ec sas's ae ZASS vhe| Pirdevass 430
7 BRO cy. wetlye deoec tae: |" gecveve 24°88 5,200 43°3
(18) TBM 20a Win © [downsge) | dearest 24°88 5,200 44°2
(19) 7 BOO cas tehdhe dees ceeeed |) haces 24°92 5,160 44°2
TEST BO se5 tas eercwes yak | eceass 25°00 5,080
(20) ee Le ae cue aeererea Le oer ee eR 5570
a. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. ts
(1) One-half of Kennington Oval is lighted ; gas coming out from neck clear.
(2) Getting too dark to see the dew on the black bulb of the Hygrometer.
(3) Gas clear; great noise below; no wind; see earth; foggy below.
(4) Moving slowly near water. (5) Heard Victoria bell.
(6) Over Vauxhall Bridge ; sand out.
(7) Saw Regent Street and Serpentine.
(8) Loud noise below; see the river for miles.
(9) Railway whistle ; could distinguish the squares below; looked well lighted up.
(10) Going over Westminster ; over Wellington Barracks.
(11) Gas cloudy; saw two bridges together over the river.
(12) Saw the Strand and Crescent lighted up brilliantly.
(13) London looks beautiful ; Houses of Parliament, Charing Cross, and Piccadilly distinct ;
dark below.
(14) Heard chureh clock strike.
(15) In cloud ; London out of sight. :
(16) Blue sky ; clouds below a rich red; packed up Wet Bulb.
(17) In cloud; too dark to read instruments ; 7" 51”, counted ballast bags, we have four;
t
3 ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 407
Balloon Ascents. Crystal Palace, August 20, 1862.
mometers (free), ge Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
an
Zambra’s
a : Gridi <
Diff. |Dew-point. There Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point.
meter.
Daniell’s. Regnault’s.
Dew-point. | Dew-point,
— — |__| EE |
° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
WWwo
CYNON OW HWY O DW
wn
lo}
_
50°5 “a ey muetll|) bseuseos Milfuerenne ecoeee 49'0
mm us og G2 BLO G2 BRU DA U9 48 19 49 42
Mm NMNINI WP NY CONT
p
oO
Lal
7* 52™, gas cloudy; above clouds, beautiful view; London out of sight; 7" 54”, gas cloudy ;
can scarcely see to write.
(18) The setting sun tinged the clouds with red.
(19) In cloud; just see above; earth pitchy dark.
(20) Agitated dry-bulb thermometer over side of the car. The hum of London was
distinct, and then gradually died away. The balloon, after a time, was allowed to descend
below the clouds; the appearance of London, as now viewed through mist, was that of an
immense conflagration ; the lights were not, as before, innumerable and distinct points, but
large in volume, united, and of wonderful extent; this appearance continued till we again
ascended above the clouds, where it was much lighter, but not sufficiently so to enable the
instruments to be read; and thus we journeyed till again descending below the clouds, we
heard the lowing of cattle, indicating that we were some distance from London ; the balioon
was allowed to descend very slowly, for it was quite dark. Mr. Coxwell had sand ready to
discharge on the instant, which he did on nearing trees, hedges, &c., and thus we passed over
them and dropped gently to the ground, in the centre of a field near Hendon, a little before
10 o’clock. The grapnel was not used, as Mr. Coxwell was fearful of hurting some one, or
otherwise doing injury.
408
References
to Notes
(22)
(23)
AMAANAAUAANAUNAAAAAAAAPHLPDHDAADDADADRDRAADPEDRRERDREREE
Time.
wo
eceoo0o0o0o0o0o0ce 0c 0000000000 00000
wo wh
nv
eoo00000000 00000
REPORT—1862.
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
Siphon Barometer.
Reading
corrected
and reduced
to 32° Fahr.
seenee
Boeeee
serene
seeeee
seeeee
senses
sense
eeeeee
ences
eeeeee
weneee
weeeee
seeeee
eeeeee
seeeee
seeeee
seneee
feeere
feeene
(1) Line of light to the east. :
(3) Clouds broken in the east; beautiful lines of light ; gold and silver tints.
(4) Balloon spirating; heard voices calling from below.
(5) Clouds beautiful; could see the earth in the distance.
(6) Very misty ; blocks of clouds above ; cold to sense; voices calling from below: Daniell’s
Att.
Therm.
wesene
eeeeee
weeeee
seetee
seeeee
teneee
weneee
eeeeee
Aneroid
Barometer,
No. 2.
Height above
sea-level,
seeeee
(2) Thick mist.
Dry and Wet Ther-
Dry. Wet
60°8 59°5
60°0 58°5
58°9 58°0
59° 597°
59°9 597°
53-2 56°5
578 548
BW ae) 5472
572 53°8
56°83 53°8
55°5 53°5
55° EE jae)
52°2 49°8
49°8 47°2
470 44-2
46°5 43°8
43°38 42°38
43°2 42°2
42°0 412
40°2 40°0
397 a9 7
38°5 37°5
40°7 3770
415 3772
40°5 377°
40°5 36°5
41'0 35°8
37°5 32°5
37°72 32°0
35°0 30°5
35°2 29°8
34:8 29°2
33°0 28°2
32°8 26°0
31°9 26'0
310 26°5
29°8 (31)
Hygrometer was broken the night before; 1 had attempted to mend it, but it would not work.
(7) Scud below creeping over the earth ; cumuli on same level in the distance; black
clouds above ; over Mr. Wolley’s farm.
(9) A great many ponds of water in sight; entered the clouds a few seconds afterwards.
(10) Lost sight of earth.
(8) Heard railway train.
(11) Great masses of alpine cloud; beautiful cumulus cloud.
’ ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTs IN 1862. 409
Balloon Ascents. Hendon, August 21, 1862.
mometers (free). Negretti Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers,
and (ee
Zambra’s :
aes Daniell’s, |Regnault’s.
Diff. | Dew-point. bale Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point.
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
13 58-4 ° ° ° ° ° ° °
m5) | 572
"9 57°72
o2 58°9
o'o 59°0
17 | 5570
370 52-2)
oa) | 5x2
34 | 506
370 51'0
2°0 512
2°0 Sil
24 | 47°4
26 | 444
28 410
27 40°7
I'o 41°5
I‘0 410
08 40°2
oz 39°8
Pm | 397
I'o 360
37 32°3
43 318
35 32°5
4°0 30°9
52 29°2
50 | 25°5
52 24°7
45 | 23°3
54 212
5°6 20°2
4:8 18:6
6°8 12°4
59 IO'r
4°5 14°3
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14, 15. 16.
(12) In cloud, surrounded by white mist. (13) Sensibly lighter; a light wind.
(14) Valley of cloud; in a basin; on reaching its limit saw the sun rising.
(15) Like a lake under the sun; immense ocean of cloud ; magnificent view.
ti Under the sun a lake; mountains of cloud to the left ; fine cloudscape.
(17) Lost sight of sun; earth visible underneath; misty.
(18) Deep ravines and shaded parts in clouds; sun again rising in the same magnificent
way ; silver and golden tints.
(19) Lake and mountain scenery ; clouds near us sweeping boldly away.
3) Moon seen. (21) Cold to the sense; gas clear.
(22) Applied water to Wet Bulb.
(23) Mr. Glaisher’s pulse 88.
1862, 2k
410 REPORT—1862.
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Hight
g Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther-
Be . i Paernd Height above
3 z =a Beene Att. aa ae sencleval, Dry Wet
28 and reduced | Therm.
to 32° Fahr.
hm 5s in ° in. feet ° °
(1) eC eOaais wil denser |! eons ke 19°45 11,616 27°8
(2) 5 22 ° a | Reece, |} Wueese 19°09 12,254. 25°5 (31)
(3) 5 23/colag obese. |i soe8ec 18-90 12,421 23°2
(4) 5 24 0 5 scoaccnee) ||! 4.9855 18-90 12,421 23°3 (31)
DS zATSOMANL | edie await Mercecs 18°80 12,571 23°0
525 Tors dhess teces 18°70 12,691 23°3
5 26 0 SULT ateleecs Ut Wevece 18°60 12,831 23°5 (29 5)
DTEROMMTC | Tcteors Uh Iewones 18°42 13,080 240 (29°)
SEZO COURT. \sivece if) losecee 18:20 13,381 24°0 19°5
SeZO SOM lsdeces = ||) fessnee 18°15 1354.56 23°5 18°5
SOONER! (ecascs —!|| Geass 18-00 13,665 25°0 20'°2
Se LOMGMEMON| —isctess 1], wees 17°90 13,680 22'2 162
BESZMIOMPMEEER|: {sds005° ||) we aap 17°38 13,685 21°5 16'0
BBZETOUNG |] ls dseee Brera. (Me scncceae | ie ais 21°0 14°5
SAGO ate al! letecce fi} dinewacs 17°82 13,799 19°5 13°38
5 340 yy sueene fl fess ° 17°78 13,375 19°5 13°2
(5) 5 34 39 5 PL || ber Sonos 17°78 13,875 19°3 12°2
SGA SNOitsy || | teNeesn 1) faueae 17°70 14,027 19°5 12'2
(6) 536 0, doses. Ifieeeses 17°72 13,989 19°9 13'0
5 36 30 5 ‘ype. eects 17°71 14,008 20°0 13°5
eS kO Fos cull) lteeones, 72|Pabesses 17°70 14,027 20°5 14°0
538 o y Se AN Soba 17°65 14,121 21°5 14°9
BSP 430s SUL ee hasss All beaves 17°62 14,178 22.°5 16°5
4 O Oe a tedsree | Rideirecse 17°68 14,064 24°0 180
{Am VOM ELT eis@ssws| onl teesnee 17°68 14,068 24'8 20°O
(7) 5 43 9 » | OS AD Sean 17°62 14,178 24°8 20°5
AA OMS Tet eakewe Uit Teseees 17°62 14,178 25°2 20°5
5 44 3° 5 “ ; 17°62 14,178 26°5 19°5
AOL LO Se Me hisses UN aescess 17°58 14,254. 2.6°5 19°7
SAS AS aes Ah pasans: 8? Sone : 17°58 14,254 263 19°9
5/40 Oa Ml Piessc cca aren 17°58 14,254 27°2 20°0
54615 » A en. |" eos 17°58 14,254 27°2 20°
547 © » 4 oe |e sedec 17°56 145355 27'6 20°0
Pca Milne es Se Sespe. 17°57 14,273 26°0 20°5
9 5 48 30 4 Baten OA Beas a 17°58 14,254. 25°5
BESO RO Tap) ol | caeteweet lt Wecenes 17°57 14,273 25°5 19°
5 59 45 9 Peas alld teevees 17°58 14,254 25°2 18°9
(10) Ln sso Coc) MARES aS eR IB Hoe 8 17°56 | 14,318 25°2 18°r
Sig SZ MOLE. Min “btotees © Ald Revoc. 17°60 | 14,258 24% 18'8
(11) Big: Olds <1) etesce 1141 besteen 17°62 | 14,228 238 17°5
556 oy Efvise, aad done os 17°62 14,228 23°8 17°38
Bas 0 a0. Seta eg, Adit Pooes “| 17°62 14,228 23°0 17°5
(12) cy Piers Beeews attr 17°62 14,228 23°1 171
5. $7 30 5) = Berassk, | Seaton 17°61 14,243 22°5 17‘I
558 oy Metal sees 1760 | 14,258 2370 16°5
(13) 5 58 30 » dyeitcoa! .4&iv Je 8720m 14,228 234 16°5
5 59 32 55 viniad init 17°62 | 14,228 23°4 16°4
(14) 60 Oy onste seers 17°63 145213 23°5 16°5
(1) Master Glaisher’s pulse 89. (2) Captain Percival’s pulse 88.
‘33 Mr. Coxwell’s pulse go. (4) Mr. Ingelow’s pulse roo.
5) Magnificent peaks of cloud in distance, rising from a base like seas of cotton; gas
transparent. (6) Network looks beautiful, perfect symmetry
of form. Feet very cold; our boots covered with ice.
i
j ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862, 411
Balloon Ascents. Hendon, August 21, 1862.
mometers (free). Neerestt Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
an ee
Zambra’s
‘di Daniell’s. |Regnault’s.
Diff. /|Dew-point. Loa Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point. _
meter. Dew-point, | Dew-point.
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
45 |- 71
50 98
48 63
6:0 23°4
A 20°0
65 30°2
57, 274
6-3 32°4
71 39°2
73 4°
69 36°2
6°5 22°6
6°5 21°5
6°6 29°5
6:0 22°71
6:0 17°5
48 6°5
43 3°72
47 44
2 14°4
6°83 132
64 12°4,
7% 12'4
72 12°4
76 131
5°5 74
6°5 15°4
6-2 15°3
y hp 8 21°3
5°3 12°5
6-3 19°7
6:0 17°7
55 17-0
6:0 20°5
54 17°6
65 24°3
6-9 25°6
7° 27°5
7° |—27°4
8. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14, 15, 16.
(7) Ice on Wet Bulb and connecting-thread. (8) Sea of clouds below.
(9) Fine echo from balloon. (10) Sun obscured by thin strati.
(11) Sea of clouds all round. (12) Stratus sameheight ; cirrus above. (13) Valye twice opened.
(14) Beautiful sea of cloud everywhere ; dropped paper, visible two sg ‘
: Eo -
412 REPORT—1862.
Tasie I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
2 Siphon Barometer. | Dry and Wet Ther-
zs ioe asses Glimaee nf! .
ER) . P Height above
SA Time. Heading Att. Barometer, sea-level.
Ze be pat These: No. 2. Dry. Wet.
to 32° Fahr.
hm is in 4 in. feet = a
6 1: oam. aoe’ bol aaeaaie 17°70 14,108 24°2 16°5
2 3g iS): al EAI oman oe eee 17°90 13,802 24°5 16°5
Be De ocr: I sae | lie ee 17°95 13,715 24°2 16°8
a Gy st - Saad Ge rea ee Ce 1810 135484 23°38 16°5
(1) Oa eyo a a See) ier ee 18°11 13,479 24°2 16°5
(2) GeeA One| kee ON Bsees 18°15 135419 24°2 16°7
DMRS Ot hots | sens 18°23 13,299 25°2 18-2
PRBO EOS e |. secse |, decane 18°30 13,194 25°2 19°2
: 24s “0 ©) i eae Bee Seer 18°35 13,119 25°2 _
Mw OeT adecss . s | Casenee ||) Aeteentecs Il imeddere 24°5 13°
(3) GUZEEOMEAN | cdesce | gaeaee 19°07 12,174 30°0 24°0
OMTOEZOM tee) tess | deces I9'I1 12,123 29°8 23°0
ay SO op 1) Re (ie Bee 19'S 12,070 278 22°0
(4) Curdqecomemes| °.h...0) |) Senere 19°28 11,901 27°5 202
GMYAMEDMESS | <:cgccee || viBxsesv 19°30 11,875 27°38 213
ons con aS i Sa ee: See 19°30 | 11,875 27°5 21°5
RISMMO ssf]. \stches “E> beeen 19°30 11,875 27°38 21°5
BIO RO Wg, lr cece, ta aes 19°65 | 11,420 31°5 23°83
617 oy eeeees fi ereeee 19°80 11,225 3270 25°0
Te tae A Ee SE. as: 20:05 | 10,871 33°8 260
OBIS oIG Gyyr a e- theese, | Pui csce 20°20 10,688 34°5 27'1
AP" TOSS YoY gall eee Cera | es Se 20°30 | 10,566 36°5 23-2
619 © 5, saben” El) tesa gee 20°80 95936 37:0 29°2
(5) Hi20 40 ee ey eed 21°00 9,650 37°0 29°5
G22 gO Saye al ees Bll cescese 21°70 8,310 415 310
(6) 6 23 30 5, ee I Ni 22°20 8,196 43°5 32-2
(7) PO aS ee ila, ete Sea | ae Bee 22°33 8,040 43°0 33°0
(8) Gp25 ato El Takes BRS ie 22°65 75655 42°8 32°5
Bias gos. fret. os 22°72 | 75573 | 43°5 | 33°0
(9) Po ee Sate | Nae A, a Se? | 22°95 | 75293 | 445 33°0
(10) G79 Bl oeae, Bie 23°08 7,141 44-2 340
Seon, i) Shs Be: 23°12 71°94 43°0 35°2
(11) Fo et a ee x SR 23°11 7,106 42°8 36-0
(12) GEE OREM |e a Sitar | be. aie 23°20 7,001 43°0
(13) eo ae a Sets Se ee 23°30 6,834 43°0 38°5
(14) SSE SE ae Sian i Se 6,907 42°0
(15) 6 31 30 5, ee ee es 23°40 6,767 42°5
See. . medicce Haars 23°50 6,650 42°0
(OS RS eae | meee Sera y Ge 23°60 6,533 42°0
(16) ae ee eee ee aes SA 24°00 6,058 415
Le ES ae ee OA Se 24°22 5,819 418
Oa ee 5 yuk. es an Se 24°50 59515 41°5
6 34 9 5 = OSS oh we 24°70 5,298 42°2
(17) a ee Ao Be t aS 24°80 | 5,189 43°5
G 8 Pe a 24°90 5,080 44°2
© 26-32 - - h ate, +e te oe 24°92 5,058 438
ae we eas Cane ey es Sa 25°10 4851 452
|
tle 25 F = - F rf
(1) Valve opened. (2) Valve opened.
(3) Dropped large piece of paper with our names written on it. (4) Train heard.
(5) Could hear the watch tick when the ear was above it, but not when below.
(6) Gun heard.
(7) Balloon reflecfion on cloud, surrounded by prismatic colours.
(8) Dog barking; railway train heard.
a
Balloon Ascents.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862.
Hendon, August 21, 1862.
mometers (free).
Diff.
° °
77 |—29"0
8:0 29°4.
74 1770
73 26°7
77 19"0
75 27°7
7° 17°3
6:0 139
63 159
57 |—138
60 |+ 51
68 |+ 16
58 |+ 18
63 |— 68
by |— 54
60 |— 54
63 |— 44
vue i 55
7O) «|-+ 88
78 17°3
74 14°7
8°3 16°0
78 18-1
75 18°7
10°5 18°0
113 18°7
10° 2I'0
10°3 20°1
10°5 20°5
1r'5 19°6
10°2 22°0
78 25°8
68 27°8
58 30°2
45 3371
1'5 38°7
15 39°72
1'5 38°7
1°5 38°7
17 EVA
20 37°3
x7, S77
7. 379
2°5 38-0
31 We)
2°6 39°72
37 |+372
8. 9.
Dew-point.| Thermo-
Negretti
and
Zambra’s
Gridiron
meter.
10.
(9) Clouds approached.
(11) In mist.
(13) Top of cloud.
(15) Fog; mist.
Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated).
Dry.
11.
Wet.
12.
413
Hygrometers.
Daniell’s. | Regnault’s.
Diff. |Dew-point.
Dew-point.| Dewe-point.
° ° ° °
13. 14. 15. 16.
(10) Lost sight of sun.
(12) Just entering the clouds.
(14) Valve opened.
(16) Earth visible.
(17) Passed through cloud about 2000 feet in thickness, and found the country without a
Tay of sun, misty and dark,
414, REPORT—1862.
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
2 Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther-
gs Bnereud Height above
Bz Time. peeing. CO sea-level,
as and reduced exis st
to 32° Fahr.
hm 5 in ° in feet. a is
Bee yeqgomem. | Sstevcs. |) etedsces 25°20 45745 45°70 42°2
ODysaGety: |b aposes, | dees. 25°30 4,639 45°0 42°2
Gia ecw | seteca tl ecces 25°60 45320 6:0 43'2
(1) oe Siok Sie (Eee een | Me nee 25°92 3,980 46°83 43°38
CRA ORs eet Gestsees (| teaedes 26°15 3,751 47°38 44°83
GsAOMO iss’. | yeteves Fl esvess 26-40 3,502 48-2 45°I
(2) OPT MEO hy FE! isdcess | a isveus 5 26-60 3,300 49°5 47°2
GWAZ MO Mase FUN trcdacee: 2'| Mssuces 26°80 3,186 50°0 47°8
GRAZ RES ER Coin |) a ctssss: 11 Ceeoete 27°00 2,872 5170 48°2
GEAGIMOM IIE jesse i! Wesere 27°20 2,673 51°5 482
STAR EOm ET eissss |! Seabee 27°70 2,177 53°5 5o°1
GUAGRBO ME | vives | feeeeee 27°98 1,898 54°5 512
OPAROMERET \rdewix’. |) dvoscws 28°20 1,684 55°5 52'0
GRACO Masti” lictewee | | eocons 28°40 9489 56°0 52°5
(3) PANOMNOM@aS LE |'< sects: (4) fucevee 29°42 513 61°8 56°0
Crystal Palace, September 1, 1862
(4) Ame GeO PM rel amerterscen f\lkSecacors Wilh mesces itl ieeavst 630 59°9
8} | ar4o 0% 5, >A felis 4 fb sceee 29°78 250 63°38 59°8
6) AG UO tera e- re | eiccnc ss 29°78 250 65:0 59°8
| 4 52 0 » | COR, ie cepa he SS Ee 270 64°0 59°8
(7) | 453 O » 29°45 | esas - | 29°65 320 63°0 570
4 53 20 5) GE well, Setwae's 29°20 720 611 56°5
4 53 4° 5, Ze BO El) haces. 28°90 996 59°72 54°5
454 S » 28°52 | sseawe 28°55 1,332 572 541
| 14 54: 30g Za DO) "Si. detects 28-00 1,868 552 §2°5
oO 4 55 Char § 2EO' Tl Lseces 27°65 2,214 54°2 51'0
4.59 4°»
(10) 457 SO» 2730 | sevens 27°21 25654 52°2 49°5
4 58 3° » 26°99 | weeeee 2692 25940 51°5 47°8
(11) AEQ) TOs 2G'00 | pests. 26°91 2,950 50°5 47°2
(12) Geeks 10 wes 2EISO Tee cesss 26°78 3,080 50°0 46°5
(13) 5 1 30 » ane ee Sr 26°69 39170 50°0 46°5
Le PD ar : j
5) gh aF%, 26°65) y 12) pecaes 26°61 35257 49°5 46°5
(14) Ras Ofte 26°Go =. $2.55 26°60 3,268 49°2 46'0
(15) 55°. eS EAE: Melee cscs 26°46 3,408 49°2
(16) 5 5 40 » Sh ee be cee 26°46 3,40 49°2 448
a7) 5 6 30 » i MW Bae oon 26°41 3458 49°5 448
Sr Oo ae
(18) | 5 8 Oy» 26°40 | seesee 26°41 3458 | 495 | 442
3. 4. 5. 6.
(1) Biggleswade under us. (2) Shouting heard; people not visible.
(3) On the ground, four miles from Biggleswade. In this ascent the Aneroid Barometer
was read by Mr. Ingelow.
(4) Clouds, stratus, about a mile high.
(5) He fee near horizon, which was moderately clear.
(6) Wind E.N.E. (7) 4 53™ 40°, over south tower of the Palace,
(8) The ie course of the Thames to Richmond i is in sight ; gas cloudy.
(9) Mouth of the Thames and its course up to and beyond Richmond in Tight,
: ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 415
Balloon Ascents. Hendon, August 21, 1862.
mometers (free). Negrete Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
an ———
Zambra’s fs
di Daniell’s. | Regnault’s.
Diff. | Dew-point. i acai Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point. si
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
5 8 38°9 ° ° ° ° °o ° °
2°8 38°9
2°8 40°0
30 40°8
30 41°6
31 42°6
2°3 44°7
22, 45°5
2°8 45°3
3°3 44°8
34 46°7
3°3 48-0
3°5 48°6
3°5 47°8
5°83 511
Crystal Palace, September 1, 1862.
eB eS EE ee
|
31 evil
4°0 56°5 Seapets} siasseds OO} wpessac [erpocses [Dv eseps . 52'0
52 Bata
42 | 56°3
6°0 BEG UH}. ceesna |), Meese Beal) pidawes STi anges “bel Pobrrsy 23 52°0
4°6 52°5
47 50°3
Sa! 512
27 47°8
3°2 ys i i os a pester) inseam |\™ ‘icepes 45'1
27 | 467
3°7 AAO! |. ceceas voeene seeeee pteneb seses 47°38
30 43°7
| 3°5 AGN || ctecve | ceavee | csctse * eeeeee 4370
: 3°5 42°8
10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
_ (10) Palace like a mist ; heard railway whistle, and close over Norwood.
(11) Railway whistle heard ; two trains together.
(12) Rays of sun lighting up Gravesend.
(13) Gas very cloudy; rays of sun perpendicularly downwards; over Mitcham Common.
(14) Over Mitcham Common ; people not visible. ;
(15) Carriages visible; wind E.N.E.
(16) Cumulus in horizon ; apparently at a lower elevation.
(17) Palace beautiful. : (18) Over water.
416 REPORT—1862.
TasrE I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
2 Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther-
23 fuscia Snail Daa ean i c
EE | time, | Reading, | ggg, Barometer, Hcghtabore
a actrees | Them. | NO sali (hain
to 32° Fahr.
| ae a ea
hm i =s in. = in. feet. 5 3
(1) 5 9 opm. 26°50 | eeneee 26°50 35368 49°8 44°2
GIO siOu ag |. 226550. 10). eee ses | 26°55 35318 50°0 44°8
GatorgOlns || . 20:48 ||, dewwes 26°51 33358 50°0 44°8
(2) GMOs | || 26530 |} Reece 26°31 3,560 50°0 44/8
(3) 5 iO) 155 2670. Th dessa s 26°19 3,680 48°38 43°5
(4) 5 13 20 5,
(5) G5) 10. 43 26°20 {ocee 26°19 3,680 49°2 441
(6) 5 15 40 5,
(7) GD AKO. 23 26°25 Tasaae 26°25 3,620 49°2 44/0
te BET O55 26°29 fecuse 26°29 3,580 49°2 44'1
9) 5 17 40 5;
(10) 5 19 © 5) 26°28 =| boaeee 26°28 3,590 48°83 | 4371
(11) | § 20,0 4 26°29 | seveee | 26-29 | 3,583 | 478 | 42-8
(12) 523 0 » 25°95 teens | 25°95 32937 472 43°0
5 23 30 5 25°94 posses 25°91 39977 47-2 42°1
BS 2A Os 25°90. | beveee 25°90 3,987 47°0 42°1
(13) 525° 0 5, 25°90 | taveee 25°90 3,987 47°2 42°5
(14) Sze O: 55 26°09 | wees 26°05 3,837 43°1 42°5
Brz6 30. 3, 2G bo see sce 26°15 3,737 48°2 43°5
Bey, FO. 55 26°20 ~ | cevees 26-20 3,687 48°5 43°5
(15) 52a e055 CATES (oT ow bein Sars 26°10 3,787 478 42°5
B29 10.5h | BOG il! ohesens 26'00 3,887 47°2 42°1
(16) E2065" 55) 1 25°88. |! kecess 25°88 4,000 47°2 42°5
(17) 531 0 » 25°75 | teeeee 25°79 4,090 47-2 4271
(18) ee Eade | 25°65 | eeses 25°70 4,180 46-2 41°5
5 33.O 9 | 25769 | evens 25°69 4,190 46-2 415
535 0 4 25°69 SEED 25°69 4,190 46°1 41°5
(19) | 5 36 oy,
(20) 5 37 0 » 25°96 | sense . 25°98 39900 4772 42°8
(21) 5 37 30 % ZO2ZO || Neves 26°19 3,690 47°2 42°5
5 42 0 » 26°55 | ween 26°50 3,362 47°5 432
(22) Ly
5 42 © 5 20°82" — Nobis. as 26°82 3,040 48°5 44:2
5 ABZe O's ASR pe eA scorer 26°95 2,910 | 49°2 45°5
5 44 0 » 20°95. il) Eveces 26°95 2,910 49°8 46°1
(23) 5 45 O 5 ZO 2 tl eataees 26°88 25970 49°2 461
(24) 546 0,
(25) 5.47 2! 39
1. 2: 3. 4, 5.
(1) Wind changed to E. (2) Wind E.S.E.
(3) Over corn-fields. (4) Three trains in sight; gas cloudy.
(5) Gun heard. (6) Gas escaping from balloon at safety-valve very fast.
(7) Apparently on a level with cumuli in distance; train; sun shining in distance.
(8) Train seen; old Battersea Bridge near; South-Western Railway under us; near to
Maldon; moving in the direction of Richmond Park ; newly made reservoir (of red bricks)
under us; dog barking; wind E.N.E.
(9) Over embankment of South-Western Railway ; Thames very clear.
(10) Crystal Palace visible from the ring. :
(11) Seemed to have changed direction ; could see the four black lines of railway.
(12) The islands in the Thames near Mortlake very clear.
(13) Supposed nearly over Hampton Court.
(14) Gas very cloudy. (15) Shouting below.
(16) Gas coming out of valve fast like smoke; higher than all clouds near us; could see
the mouth of the Thames very plainly ; some said they could see the sea.
.
Balloon Ascents.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862,
Crystal Palace, September 1, 1862.
mometers (free).
Diff.
Lal
ANIA IHW ON DANO HYP ON
SHeh AAA AAANAAUAAUAAARA OH
BHNNG BS
Dew-point.
38-2
39°3
39°3
39°3
37°8
38°6
38°4
38°6
37°0
37°3
33°3
36°4
36°6
37°2
36°4
38'4
38-0
36°6
36°4
36°3
36°4
36°1
361
36°0
37°9
37°2
384
39°6
41°6
42°2
42°8
Negretti
and
Zambra’s
Gridiron
Thermo-
meter.
Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated).
417
Hygrometers.
Dry.
eeeeee
Sete ee
teens
Wet.
eeeeee
seeeee
serene
Diff.
eeeeee
senete
weeeee
seeeee
seeeee
Dew-point.
oeeree
seeaee
seeeee
Daniell’s. | Regnault’s.
Dew-point. | Dew-point.
33°1
41°5
8.
us
10.
11.
12.
13.
14,
15. 16.
(17) Clouds follow the course of the Thames from its mouth up to the higher parts of the
river, seemingly following the whole course of the river, and confined to it throughout; quite
clear where we are; clouds far below, moving apparently at right angles to us.
fs} Thames Ditton under us.
19) Fast train on South-Western Railway ; upper current W. ?; clouds meeting us, moving
at right angles to our motion; clouds very low.
(20) Clouds passing quickly below us; can scarcely see the earth on one side ; clouds still
follow the course of the river.
(21) Can see the earth at intervals through the clouds.
(22) Clouds meeting us of three different degrees of white—the top bluish white, the
middle the pure white of the cumulus, the lower blackish white, and from which rain was
falling upon the earth.
(23) Train with 29 carriages seen; gas beautifully clear; netting seen through it, and
balloon apparently empty.
(24) Can see carts ; hear people shouting. (25) Saw a black dog, and heard him bark.
418
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
REPORT—1862.
2 Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther-
zs ° : Aneroid | Height above
é Zz Time. Regting Att, Barowieich, eg tony
22 and reduced | Therm. a
to 32° Fahr.
hm =s ° ° in. feet. c
5 48 op.m 2G:08) | 1 eeacas 26°68 3,170 48°2 44°5
5 SO" iON, 26°99 | eevee 26°90 2,950 49°2 44°5
5 VE2T Ola, ieee eeeeee 27°49 25356 50°0 46°5
RP GGMEOM as CF licdcene || opevens 27°40 254.46 50°5 47°2
ORD) cfebn cn ah beer nore tal Reece S 27°40 254.46 50°5 47°38
Ly ery Age i ashed 27°44 254.06 50°0 48°0
(1) B55 POs
5 56 oO » 27°60 beveee 27°55 2,290 51°0 49°2
(2) § 87° los, oo LT ail eo 27°65 23190 512 49'2
PRR URSOMEE |" cscs. | “eaters |) benesp hdl Miecwaes 52°0 50°5
(3) ERS SOMMEC |< <sess |) || Gessne 27°95 1,890 52°0 50°S
EP GHMECIMCrO |" wgeacs | ] penses 28°05 1,790 52°5 50°0
5 §8 go , ot lal Cal Pee oil scree 53°2 50°5
BRGOMOM sgt) | apeces ||. soveee 28°22 1,620 53°2 50°5
BESO EAOMST | cgecss | || | Nebeses 28°30 1,540 53°8 510
(4) Fpecmeias 8] "| cgsens <7" |] eeetss 28°45 15417 54°0 51'0
(5) Oe) Bey a4
OURO gy ageceos | [lide s 28°52 1,347 54°2 512
(Gy MDE 0" reves | neeeee 28°50 1,367
(7) Gii2 0) 5, decal. |) asses 28°30 1,567 54°0 51's
6 “sito 4, beta te {hs nares 28°19 1,677 54°0 B15
Or giso 3 apeacsl al etaseeees 28°05 1,817 54°0 515
640% OA lel Se 27°81 25057 54°2 51°5
(8) 6 So y A ARr pe ol | corto 27°75 3,117 53°5 515
6° 5 40\ 5, emeke st lt deeeace 27°75 3,117 Bate 51'S
(9) G's ORL Ol ios ENIOOE ser cee ane Yeseaee 27°75 3,117 54°2 515
(10) 6 615 » means gsit” denpaee 27°79 3,077 54°2 51°5
OP TGrsOlray | ter tease doll Reestce 27°80 3,067 53°5 51°5
Gt 8! ols -Heree. | oie sasnee 27°90 2,967 53°5 51°5
Ye i A ea tones Acta eal lie Creare 28°00 2,867 53°5 51°
(11) 6 “o"<o" 5, “pawl le! sea 28°20 2,667 54°5 518
(12) 610 0 y
(13) BEE a Ol kay
(14) Grr) Oy 5,
Wolverhampton, September 5, 1862.
(15) © © oOp.m. 29°40 60'0 29°40 490 59°5 542
(16) | x 3204 | 2977
afin 6 we port deal ier “yell Miao 720 59°0 54°5
(17) 1. #6 wore BOO | assce ; 29°10 909
17) S2ol ns “conte MiatcnteS 29°05 909 57'2 53°5
1, 2. 3 4, 5, 6. (E
aa
ons owe
oN ee
Began to get graprel out.
A vertical rainbow visible.
Over Basingstoke Canal.
Over plantation.
Over corn-fields.
tt 1) Packed up instruments.
13) Over canal, and getting over clover-field.
(2) Rain on balloon ; a rainbow seen.
(4) Over the Hermitage Plantation ; shouting.
(6) Took down Mercurial Barometer.
(8) Over Woking Common ; sheep seen.
(10) Over farmhouse.
(12) Over meadows; gas out.
| a
b,
é ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862, 419
Balloon Ascents. Crystal Palace, September 1, 1862.
mometers (free). Negsetts Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
an
?
yal Daniell’s. | Regnault’s.
Diff. |Dew-point.! Thermo- Dry. Wet. Diff, |Dew-point.
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
Wolverhampton, September 5, 1862.
53 49°5 59°5 59°2 54°3 49 49°9 49°0 45°5
4°5 50°5 59’0
a7. 50x
8. 9. 10. 11. 12, 13. 14, 15. 16.
(14) Reached the earth—two bumps; near the Hermitage Plantation, the property of
— Lindsay, Esq. Rain had been falling nearly all the afternoon; during the whole time no
ray of sun fell upon us; the sky was covered with clouds; the earth was very dark.
In this ascent the Barometers were read by Mr. MacDonald, who also took charge of
Daniell’s Hygrometer.
(15) Out of doors in shade, near Meter House. (16) Left the earth.
(17) Balloon spirating.
420 REPORT—1862,
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
Z Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet 'Ther-
28 : = Aneroid Heicht ab |
ania correcta | Att. [PAE senclevel.
ge andreduced | Therm.
to 32° Fahr.
hm is in % in feet a $
I 5 30p.m. 28°57 58°0 28°60 1,290
(1) SERS US Nae tlacs!. | | eeeeee, || uitgeeose ity eaeres 56°5 52°5
i. 1G cor. 28°38 57°0 28°35 1,480 55°5 Sil
t Io: ”,, 26°19 55°0 26°20 3,660 45°5 43°5
Ate cco a es RS ee ees 25°82 4,116 44°2 42°5
Tere so) 5, 25°491 54°0 25°62 4,388 teeeee weeres
112 0, 2.4°994 53°0 veeeee 4920 42°0 40°5
T1230. 5, 24°894 Gsoxue. |v exeene 5,011 41'0 39°38
113 0 ,, 24°30 teeees 24°45 5,675 39°5 38'2
i 33. 40."5; 24°25 BAO 1\ sescee 5,722 38°0 3772
3 140° y
(4) i Aa 25970 Vil se shan 23°90 6,330 365 36°5
(5) 1°16! “0-33 23°35 50°0 23°40 6,729
(6) at get, 1, | A a eee Resisive) tly)! Pebaene 36°3 36°3
a rar7- fo) 23°20 50°0 Enos 6,914 “at He
RAZOR Fail snes, if Serenity Meuron i'l Bvetens 382 36°1
(33 x 17 4° ,, 22°658 49°0 22°71 73575 39°0 352
(9) i235. 0 5; 20°717 46°0 20°60 9,926 33°5 311
(10) Deo tO) 20°070 45°0 20°17 10,770 311 30°5
eA O | 18°727 E270 8 Agecss 12,568 covces .
25-90 |: T7990 ||) baee-<> 18-10 13,715 25°5 25°0
ReZzOmlOee tr alll teasss mw deweee, |]? Seoese (}) Qieamace 23°2 25°0
T2750 |, 167936 38°0 16°90 15,184
yn PE TE OOD | es i ace . Snes e 17°2 23
x28 0, 16°686 36-0 16°65 ¥5,510°° |) Gaeen 5 Curae
(11) BL 2RUAO ert Uh Secpaes buf) saceaa’t il) anagen toeeee 16°5 19"0
X29 oO 3 16°046 B20 || Neaase 16,520 16°5 170
ii 29720)! Seratt Mii teesns . 15°82 ccsase * | sear we
Ms 30.2 OOM HY eueeh. 0 al eeneve o PAS aacacn ce ||'> lieouee oo oe weaen
(12) 2 9005 ee mt See a. A) aesae vA Serge | Basen 16°0 13°I
230) ZO oh U) seewee if Senne i] Ceenpe 4]. Uswmee . seneee teens
3 x32) 7098 15°38 Z0°0 || Beeuse 17,590 15'0 121
GY ANTS ies Mis aes 55 a NE Seewes’) deren i" teesten evsver f weceee
i Ze 0 a 14°651 28°0 14°90 13,890
2.200) T4°553 | eeneee 14°80 19,068
Oy kame aa 14°553 2:7°O)) |) -wanene 19,068 seeeee eeeee
Pigg aiO, Laas ceases eeeeee Sesash 15'0 Ir’!
I 37 20 9 eum bce Reseda seeeee eeeese | seeee . Boece Seteee
I 37 30 i T45AG9. I) esas ° 14°80 19,222
I 37 40 pupae wenesa 14°40
(15) I 37 50 2 Shane Ti Nases 3 Beeset seseee 14°5 10°2
I 38 0 Seseoes O} Su5C EY) dees CH. laesteee— |i, cae ean be Sc
I 38 10 < dices. ble. Seabee Rescsc, |) pencsse 13°2 10°
I 38 20 ,, 14°947 30°5 sone 19,960
E3825) 35) lo eee, eevee 14°28 20,126
(16) . = a ‘ 33°947
1 38 40 a euase OP waenee 14°00
(1) Misty. (2) In cloud, wholly obscured.
(3) Lighter. (4) Much lighter, still in cloud.
(5) Gun heard. (6) Dense cloud. (7) Out of cloud.
(8) Tried Camera upon beautiful clouds—failed ; the balloon was spirating and ascending
too quickly.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 421
Balloon Ascents, Wolverhampton, September 5, 1862.
mometers (free). ip Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers,
an
Zambra’s c
mas Daniell’s. | Regnault’s.
Diff. | Dew-point. be Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point.
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
ee ee ae =
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
40 479
44 469
20 Pla, Wi sean 46°0 43°8 22 Ales te Niessen s 42'0
5 Oy) 40°4 44°2
Peer cseces, |! seses 43°3 4r'5 18 39°3 Ria 38°5
15 38°7
12 38°3 40°7
13 ML ale iS cece |) weedese ttle dea 38°0
o's 36°1
sevee | ceeees 360 36°0 foo) 46108 | Gkawcase 35°5
06 28°9 PICO oecekey ||. osecapiee| fccosuillewcsdess (|) passage’ 25°0
ceeeee | ceeeee 26°5 24°5 23°0 1°5 14°5 ee aaee 25°0
o°5 22°3
sence eeeeee 18'0
“al eee 17'9 17'0 24°0
Rens caaces 17'8 arpcre Beers ere sedeoe coeeas 10°5
8. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14, 15. 16,
(9) Deep blue sky. (10) The ice not properly formed on Wet-bulb Thermometer.
(11) Earth visible in patches. (12) The Wet-bulb reads correctly.
(13) Ozone: Moffat 2; Moffat 2; Schénbein o. (14) Mr. Coxwell pants for breath.
(15) Mercury of Daniell’s Hygrometer invisible.
(16) Ozone: Moffat 3; Moffat second paper 3; Schonbein 1.
422 REPORT—1862.
Taste I,—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
” Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther-
E 8 e B Aneroid Height above
SA Time. needing, Att. a ris sea-level.
as and reduced | Therm.
to 32° Fahr,
hm in 4 in, feet © a
TASSUROP AO. [ON Riss. | |e eeees) | Chsvece, |] U pierce cub soeceec eel eee
(1) ESO MAOUG, 13°76 eee tne cee 20,393 8-0 4°5
TOMOM SPS RRS Ai peeaag) erase pl peeen =~ U8 Reece | foemees
THROM 55 ie Avesta eo bees He Cheeeeee 10'2 81
(2) DRACEZORSS | hucticss Keseos, |) Ohecrvr) |) Gbeeerte = (mMmoINOne Rakes
I 41 20 5, 13°35 26° | weeaee BI,TSe* | va. teens
TRATRSO S\N Seees Uo Tevews | obseess) Lo inteens | eeeemere aise
@ I 4I 40 ,,
(4 141°So 4 eRe Weodae N Oe easneee W OR eee | eee Daas aa aee
(5) TAA 0 » T2754.) | Meercee || (es eoee 2.25380 8-1 42
(6) TEACHMOMME 1 cd. =] “Fevecer: | bsexeel Ul: Lbscost cape aR eeeeemna aCe
(7) IAS! O) 5 11°954 Bra) |) pecans 23,976 fosre) —40
TO" Olen 11'254, ees he Beceee S5S282 oct Uecwercer ll by ees
(8) 1sr 0) 5 10°803 <4 Bade 26,350 —5'0 mere
abe os 9753 |) ecsee, Yl Besse 29,000
ZOE «| stsscs seers 11°53 25,318 ZO | wee eee
2° SOs TORQ A! Weeeccsch iy peenes 23,021
2 8 30 » merce, | phe. 12°80 | 22,654 4 =
2 845 » 13°154 BOOT Mbctsy 21,650 seBies) IP Seeeens
Zi OMOnny TACOSH.§ ||) bewece. ©]. Saavde 20,018 170 110
2 9 3° » T0974, | Ovesse 16°45 MG;O05 SIH Sleeren el eeerees
ZGh4O. 5 EROTA) ebscose [i Bebese 14,938
BELOW OOS tole ees) ie esccck Wit Reseset Ne amieemscs 2am 15°8
21I O yy 17°71 wae )rebeecns 14,012
eta ea ae (lee eee. © Ui beetce on petece UNS citsgaeee ore | lett eee
214 O 5 TOS Wee iesescer tbat ses Ck 1 a | Ri Tae (ie
DITA {Oy OPS have oe Becenn| Ub Perens: 1 Peteaes, on dieteceant ree eat ere
(9) Pater ol 1s 18455 ei (iat cod 12,900
BAG Os) Mates 1 Fete se Ig't0 | 12,250 26°5 18-2
(10) 216 10 ,, 1O75a_ lsbossas 19°90 | 11,150
2 16 20 4 DOORS ale esha eg 20°25 10,780
(11) 2 16 50 yy 20°653 27°0 20°65 10,070 31t 23°1
2 17 3° »y QISIEL Vokes 21°55 92379
Bato Og. | ia. ae Bicwesr). [he mtepercs 33,0 25°0
ee LOW OF Tl wens Botvas peeeee | ee eeee 342 25°9
2 19 30 5 21°845 31°0 21°90 8,530
PZ ae fol Semel Pee WetBeeewe: 1) (PS epe 35°2 27°O
2 2020 » 22"041 eile S07 8,310
(12) 2 20 30 5 v hg Per Biase: |) peeetee Beal eeaene
(13) 2 20 40 yy 22°241 3370 22°20 8,090 40°1 29°2
2 23°50
(14) 222 0 » a Lecce AP eipeecs es tee rs 42°2 31°0
222 10 » é Rus: Seco sereee, yin eaeske
(15) 2 22020 22°637 35°70 22°76 7,625 AZIO™ il oases
2 23 3° » ss COR te te cree te CT Pee iscscn- 0) geass
223 50 » 22°932 37°0 23°20 7,260 oencen ih (ese
224 0 yw 23°028 39°70 23°00 7,150
2 25° O » 23°326 40°0 sevens 6,810 42°0
(1) Sand out. (2) Aspirator difficult to work.
(3) Ozone: Moffat 4. (4) See with difficulty.
(5) Experienced a difficulty in reading the instruments. (6) Aspirator troublesome.
(7) Sand out. (8) Lost myself; could not see to read the instruments.
(9) Ozone: Moffat 5; Moffat second paper 5; Schinbein 2.
: ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 423
Balloon Ascents. Wolverhampton, September 5, 1862.
mometers (free). nee Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
an | —$—$— —$— $ $ $ $
pn ay Daniell’s. |Regnault’s.
Diff. |Dew-point.| Thermo- Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point.
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
Saeerh Tl odeese 8-0
35. | 227 8°5
nor ae | ee 92 desaee Toten ee oeedes - g0
PRM BGTeEO ME cececa || ccceas |. ceoees | dowves Rese tt \nep tue —I15'0
RRSEAEDID. esas IIo 9°5 73 7 |— 5%3
MI terery W sckeue |||) dvcose | facscz |” scseege [i apecten |) owapeas —I5'0
MMe 4h ccwsee Ja) Wéssce | desess |. stoves eee seniepe —20°0
5. OR | AEB ERS 4°5
3°99 |—26'0
eeweee | eeeeee ft eseee . 2 8 ry 1 ;
Revises | a | : 2 ee te es ee ie ye
a A eae — 270 cane
Soeers || wesate - 50
eeuete — 20
aD sien » |+ 2°0
Babee) |) eapes . 11‘0
66 |—34°7
aie oiaee 18'0
677 |—27°0
Sey TT texcese 23°2
Sees ST, anseee 24°5
ooo pl REE Meee 24.8 180 63 |—19°6
83 | —22°4
8-0 9°3
3°3 11°3
82 | 139 | 3572
eee oeeeed yee eS ’ teecee | weeves . I4°0
II‘9 15°2
aro 173
soe bee eebens 490°0
seneee eevsee | covrrs aeeeee rr soeeee aveeee 20°0
seen teens 40°°0
ssh eee eevee 40°0
- 8 9, 10. 11. 12. 13. 14, 15 16.
(10) Wind East. (11) Gun heard. (12) Sand out.
(13) Wet-bulb seems to be free from ice.
(14) After this observation I pressed the bulb of Wet Thermometer between my thumb and
finger, for the purpose of melting any ice remaining on it, or on the connecting-thread.
- (15) Ozone: Moffat’s test 6.
424 REPORT—1862.
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight —
2 Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther-
#3 < : Aneroid | eicht abo
Eg Time. Reading | gee, [Barometer ae evel.
3 bok
22 and reduced | Therm.
to 32° Fahr,
hm? s in. ° in. feet. S
226 opm. 23°473 BTR |" pracewes 6,640
BEZG TO bag | fl peeeers. | |uebaecnes | ||| Sitewsnn ai! Merce GO iiaeenes
(1) BEZOTIS ass, Vi Tlwibeee 1. | bdesacs .| -devene Mel ( Tenses 45°2 34°2
Dea AMO uss
PiEAO AO deed sh He estmes bon| utoasss. S| ietveseve mln esmcee | 0 eeeataame | ecmeers
2 29 30 5 24°512 AGO" ON scans 5,500 49°2 360
(2) is) eee pal mk eeu entered Beecreerees ME escrarweast) sce (|p onctal
PEAT AMO MeAR ET Weieic. (|, caceces” yi) caseene 6 [0 Aiaabans Hehe 4) Saqeco
2 TE Ch I eros | MeecreRP ena fe eooocogh || fsorccso 49°2 35°70
REG2 Oise, 25°401 50°0 25°55 AS52008, Oh eee f ceetene
BAGz SOE > vwcesee | vwedase | eevee oll mares 50°5 36-0
ZESs COs: 25°800 EOC (|) etesaes 4,110
BUGAMAOMEe ||| Co Ssesss | S@ensce }| Sgevoes) 1\t Ie begemee 51I 37°0
DEAOUMO Meg! | Cossescc. 6)|| cicvwmee al | ~ceweee Fi] Mienepest” 0 | Beet Ml Secenas
238 0 5, 26°399 50.0 | 26°35 3,484 53°0 45°0
Sasi rOwas || besccn °] agemsien oh Wigeeces. ||) Romane. ob | uememnrnena neta
(3) 2 3820 95,
2 3940) bs 277598 BOO |} Ravene 2,260
SBE) Cpr taal ME Sodcceee 4|f -coopecime \| (et. cccsc atiete 54°0 48°0
2°30 AO ves WR ieeeees |) Gesaene 28-10
3 Ook. | Wetec. Bi) aedenee ZGiO2) | ce Ranies A 5772 52°8
Crystal Palace, September 8, 1862,
(4) 447 oOp.m. 29°90 | deeeee 29°92 250 67°2 63°0
(5) AicAS AO) 55 29°40 | éeeee ° 29°47 813 66's 63°1
(6) 449 O45, BEBO | || desene 28°80 1,232 63°2 60°5
(7) BehOO) ag ZRF Oil) Wasssee 28°50 1,530 6371 60'2
(8) 4 50 30 4, DEER. Till descns 28°30 1,730 62°8 59°8
(9) BvGT e055 S77: 1 |i asses 27°59 25432 602 57°2
Bn? 30 35 Z7ERe Ui itesenes 27°40 25520 58°38 56°5
(10) AW5230; '59 27°20 aoa 27°10 2,923 56°5 54°2
(11) WA PON) MEE AS Tey) Ie Seen 26°70 35320 55°2 52°5
454 0 5 26°52 | seens » | 26°30 39720 54°0 52
(12) 4 54 3° 55 26°05 cesses | 25°90 4,169 52°0 50°5
(13) 455 ° » 25°86 | eevee . 25°68 4380 51°5 5°°5
(14) 4 55 30 955
4.56 0 5 25°56 covses 25°50 4,560 51°0 49°8
(15) 4 56 I0 5,
(16) 4 56 30 5, 25°46 vessee | 25°41 4,650 50°5 49°8
457 © » 25°45 | wwaeee 25°38 A727 50°5 50°0
4 57 3° 55 25°43 seeeee 25°38 45727 50°8 49°8
(17) 4 58 20 55 25°44 sense 25°36 45750 511 49°8
2. 3. 4, 5. 6. 7.
(1) Wet-bulb seems to be correct; it has decreased from the reading I drove it to by the
action of the heat of my thumb and finger.
(2) I do not think Aspirated Wet-bulb is correct. (3) Ozone: Moffat’s paper 7-
(4) At 45 47™ 15* eased up; at 45 47™ 28° let go catch.
(5) At 4® 48™ 15° over the lake.
(6) Gas clear; at 45 49™ 55° scud at lower elevation, not under us.
(7) Thames seen clearly; ships seen. (8) Sand out.
%
b wd
=
Balloon Ascents. Wolverhampton, September 5, 1862.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 425
mometers (free). Meesettt Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers,
an ae
oe Daniell’s. | Regnault’s.
Diff. |Dew-point.) Thermo- Dry. Wet. Diff. | Dew-point.
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
wovene i} totes 41°5
mxe3 21'S
B35 ese 45°5 av eaes ARAL sro: eaaeee tenets 27°0
13°2 21°38
oy | eee 471 44°1 3°0 40°7 29°5
Ruse | oWeines 47°0
142 19°7
Seavert Hf wrbses 48°0
14°5 20°8
I4°l 224
SN cree | akeOE | serch S| weccee- sl jeonee . ebcads veonee B75
80 | «3770 51°5
eee) W | wtesee 5 53°5
60 42°1 54°0
44 48°8 57°5
Crystal Palace, September 8, 1862.
42 612
34 60"4
27 58:2
2"9 578
Bi, 572
30 54°6
2°3 54°4
2°3 S23
2°7 49°9
2°8 43°5
X55 49°0
79 49°5
r2 48°6
} (O'7 49°1
SS) 49°5
H 60 48°8
153 48°6
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
(9) Gas getting cloudy; just see netting ; smell of gas.
(10) Gas cloudy. (11) Heard shouting below.
(12) Mist; dense fog; gas cloudy ; netting invisible.
(13) In a dense white cluud; can just see the earth.
(14) Earth not visible.
(15) In cloud, thick and white ; dropped a piece of paper, visible 23 seconds.
(16) Gas still cloudy. (17) Half out of cloud; blue sky above.
1862, 2F
426 REPORT—1862.
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
2 Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther-
23 pematy OP AOD (el Cds .
o q ‘ 4 Height above
Be <anin Bending, “| ate, Barometer)" scastetdl.
28 and reduced | Therm. ay : ¥
to 32° Fahr.
hm is in. + in. feet. S Bi
4 58 40p.m. SEaa || Gece. 25°36 49750 50°5 49°38
3 459 O » 25°50 | eeeees 25°42 | 4,690 50°3 49°2
2) 4 59 10 5
BWEDURO tea) f' itteses 4i|) OU beceee 25°50 4,610 49°5 43°7
4 59 45 » 25°80 | ceeese 25°55 | 4,560 49°3 43°5
(3) SMOMONS Buea 9 | Aiese 25°60 4,510 49°5 48°2
(4) 5 962 »
Bi ALO ids ZBLOA, Ft iene 25°73 4,480 50°0 480
(5) DP) 1739.19
(6) Gt 49 50%
(7) ie tT S59 5
Ree zOMd Ee bec |] Kiceee 25°95 4,160 49°8 49°0
So) CP 655 = SS eee fee Gece 26°10 3946 50°5 49°38
iy vate: Ag 0 ee a Ae 26°20 3,850 50°38 49°9
(8) Ge aeOmey | ecoztsecc | || Steves. 26°28 39770 5ac2 50°0
Bt 5 Ok as DOUEe Nilisessse 26°38 3,670 515 50°8
5 5 RZOU 5 210-710) feocsos 26°70 35350 52°2 Sil
Op ieee s 2681 |: ewer. 26°74 3,310 52°5 51°5
5) 6590 55 26°86: oA ses. 26°78 3,270 530 5rS
(9) ae Fae Ontsy,” |) a teedee ee tetecceise 26°68 33370 53°5 51°5
Cee keen ZGI630 4 \atlsasees 26°25 3,808 53°5 51°5
(10) See 9 19 =5>
Beta O Ussce ae crease ols taee 26°10 33958 52°5 51°5
(11) BEORZO | Grea eemvaccrs: Mil lanes as) 25°95 4,108 52°2 515
(12) § TO. 40 55
hh G0 a 25752 AO REE SE 25°74 45220 51°5 50°0
(13) 5.11. 1§
(14) Silt Zor,
(15) 5 11 25 55
5 II 30 26°66 Gaon 25°52 45440 510 49°8
(16) 5 11 55 55
(17) 5Berz™ ong; 25°40 25°40 4,540 51'0 461
BAIZSEG by. | 1) Drdecsta ipl | etedteees 25°22 4,895 51°0 44°1
(18) BeI2ZGgOpes || fl WH Rasch | tasecee 25°20 4920 5a 44'2
5 13> Or hoy 25°10 teens 25°20 4,920 521 438
BEL Oks Ue teases etl tiireacas 25°20 4,920 53°2 44'I
(19) 5 14 40 5, |
BPG ELOt by” | Me Revece. bares 25°19 45930 54°2 44'1
5°15 30 55 BASOG © ihebcese. 25°11 5,026 55% 44/1
(20) 5 15 35 » |
BUr6d Opi b RM Ete eee 25°00 59175 56°5 4571
(21) 5 16%30)(,,
(22) 5 16 45 »
(23) CLIT Os, BSG |") |Wiostnss 24°92 5,263 57°2 46°1
(1) Still partly in cloud. (2) Cloud more dense; descending.
(3) See the roads on the earth. (4) Can see the earth as through a fine mist.
(5) A misty view; horizon obscured all round.
(6) Can see Blackheath, the Royal Observatory, Woolwich, and the Crystal Palace.
(7) Very black clouds over London. (8) Mouth of the Thames visible.
(9) Shouting below; dropped a piece of paper, visible for 2” 458. A beautiful break in
the clonds in the west. (10) Over woods.
(11) Shooters Hill visible. (12) In slight mist.
(13) Just see the earth. (14) Earth invisible.
, ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 427
Balloon Ascents. Crystal Palace, September 8, 1862.
mometers (free). eet Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
an —
fombes Daniell’s. | Regnault’s.
Diff, |Dew-point.) ppermo- Dry. Wet. Diff. | Dew-point.
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
° ° ° ° ° °
|
|
|
}
|
i
9 10. uM Ie uz 13. 14. 15. 16.
(15) Blue sky in zenith, clouds below ; came out of cloud in a hollow or basin.
(16) Image of balloon with beautiful prismatic colours on the clouds.
~ (17) Sun shining; clear blue sky.
(18) Deep blue sky ; beautiful reflexion of the balloon, with primary and secondary pris-
matic rings.
(19) Sun warm ; clouds heaped upon others ; we are not much higher than level of top of
(20) Gas rather cloudy; see netting pretty well. (clouds.
(21) Earth seen through the clouds. (22) Fluffy clouds.
(23) Ring cut the spectral balloon about one-third from top. re
F
428 REPORT—1862.
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Hight
Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther-
as ; a oh eee Ae?
Ee | mime, | Beading, | ate, /Beometer) eer |
Pee} andreduced | Therm. oe sale
to 32° Fahr.
hm i =°5s in ° in. feet.
(1) SEL 7 20M.) i|| Madaces | ||| Moscone 24°95 5,230 57°2
(2) 517 55 »
(3) RO ma Ousey sy Aol wishwceets F i|) | Bivaisies 24°78 5,428 58°5
5 190 5, ZETO | seoore 24°82 55338 60'0
(4) SOUR (ailihebiee. Wl|. geoceas 25°05 5,112 58:2
(5) | 52055 »
§ 21 0 » seen eee 25°05 5,109 ha)
§ 21 Io ,, 25°36 | cenene 25°02 55145 57°5
(6) BOO Os mba 1rc8 oS il: Foavens 25°00 5,169 EG
(7) 5 21 50 »
(8) Reobs Sophy 25:03' | || sane 25°08 5,057 56-2
5 22 4o ,, 25°30 | ownene 25°09 5,043 5472
(9) 5 2245 »
(10) B2RMEOMM | | cesses |) fesvnes 25°10 5,029 51°8
SiCAMMOMPt || <sac08 || esses 25°11 5,019 51°5
(11) 5 24 10 »,
(12) 5 24 30 5 25°32 | saves 25°09 53039 51°5
SZC ays © || i devees! 0 | Sevaintn 25°30 4,829 512
(13) iS 2h2O ose
5 25 30 y, 2570. || wweaee 25°50 4,629 512
re 525 55 »
15) 10 Seep ecto Fe) Pe Sooore 25°92 4,137 512
Cr pexs Ae Il eee 26°69 39328 52°0
(16) 5 26 25 4,
(17) B27 80. 4 pease wile. Goosen 26°80 3,218 Bo
a2 AOuns ASN WE poet 26-40 3,618 52°5
(18) 5 27 55 5
5 2800. 26765 «| vsceoe 26°58 354.38 53°5
(19) 528 8 ,,
5 29 30 » 27°34 | seeeee 27°06 25954 54°5
(20) 5 29 55 5»
(21) 5 3915 5,
(22) 5 3925 »
5SO830..,, 27°50 | seers 27°25 2,783 55°0
Shae Ch MES scocesaue | Cadees 27°52 25540 5585
BOIL SO unseen || ehnenses 27°60 25432 55°5
CP Ie Si Mere alle onda 27°68 2,360 56°0
B32) Oe. 28007 || howe 27°82 2,207 56:2
(23) 5 32 5 5»
532430..55 Fasee pl Rossier 27°95 2,090 56:2
BAS! Oates WO le eecca sO Okl| | Weems 28°05 3990 56°8
Ey eh ee QR AA Nl eessees 8°17 1,870 57°2
SRI Oi as). Vall) aieeecs 28°30 9720 57°72
5 $540 O hs f | eeneness 28°40 1,620 572
1 2 ae 4 5 6
(1) Clouds rising, were whiter than those below; a slight amount of blue in all clouds.
(2) Balloon approaching clouds. ;
(3) Rings encircling the whole spectral balloon; there were three distinct rings round the
balloon and car.
(4) Clouds near us like smoke.
(5) Rings just encircled the spectral car. (6) Cold to senses.
(7) Rings just cut off top of the spectral balloon ; beautiful chasm in the clouds.
(8) Entering cloud. (9) Just entering cloud, blue sky above.
(10) Gas ee ee out of balloon ; sun visible; train heard; dog barking.
: ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 429
Balloon Ascents. Crystal Palace, September 8, 1862.
mometers (free). Mesrets Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
an puted Pek ele
Zambra’s
‘di Daniell’s. |Regnault’s.
Diff. |Dew-point. oo Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point. pa ce
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° —
I0'o 38°0 wecsed escwae eeeee cevaeere HY atieos “ 42°0
9:5 40°5
10°5 40°3
113 35°9
113 35°9
me | 35°9
92 38°4
64. 41°6
38 442
3°3 44°9
3°3 449
a7) 45:7
coe | 477
14 48°4
5 | 47°
aor | 46°38
370 46°5
20 | 4975
275 | 45:5
2°5 50°!
233 512
i | 53°0
12 53°7
ct 54°71
I'l 54°1
13 54°3
13 54°7
1-2 54°9
me | §5°3
8. ye 10. Vijie 12. 13. 14, 15. 16.
(11) Just in cloud again.
(12) In cloud, sky bluish above ; hear sounds below ; white mist.
(13) In cloud; gas very clear. (14) Fields visible on the earth.
(15) Shouting. (16) Cumulus scud below us.
(17) Saw embankment of London and Chatham Railway.
(18) A fine white cloud seemed to be resting on the Thames ; Crystal Palace visible.
(19) Over Jorden’s Wood, near Bexley. (20) Over ploughed fields.
(21) Gun and shouting heard. (22) Gravesend and the Nore in sight.
(23) Near Dartford.
430
References
to Notes
=
_
wa
-
>
—
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(1) North Kent train, eight carriages.
Time.
REPORT—1862,
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight
Reading
corrected
and reduced
to 32° Fahr.
a eeeee
eeeeee
seeeee
(3) Nearly over Small Wood.
(4) Could plainly see people waving handkerchiefs.
(5) Over very large wood.
(7) Crystal Palace still in sight.
Siphon Barometer,
(2) Flock of sheep, like large specks.
Aneroid
Barometer,
No. 2.
in.
28°49
28°60
28°65
28°80
28°95
29°10
29°20
29°25
29°30
29°28
Height above
sea-level,
Dry and Wet Ther-
(6) Still over same wood.
(8) See dog, and hear him barking and people shouting.
a ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862, 431
-
Balloon Ascents. Crystal Palace, September 8, 1862,
_mometers (free). Ramet Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
= an eee
Zambra’s 4
idi Daniell’s. | Regnault’s.
saan Dry. Wet. Diff. | Dew-point. ,
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
° ° ° ° ° ° °
55°8 :
MME 09S A sceweiscd kasaedt ome 5570
56°6
58°0
56°5
59°6
595
53°6
59:2
60'1
60°6
61°0
59°9
ESMR eaenste! CC Rs MGOE!|E lovspese,J|) teadens,..1) cheers 58°5
59°9
392
1°5 58°7
"7 58°5
2°0 583
1°5 58°7
I°5 53°7
14 58°6
12 58-9
14 53°6
rr 59°
13 58°6
rg 586
my 5 58°7
f
m ts | 587
* 5 59°2
7 a5 59°2
— 59°0
Ri I vi 59°0
1°3 58°5
'7 582
t ae 57°0
St
8. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14, 15. 16.
(9) Over North Kent Railway. (10) Near large limeworks.
3} Gas clear; over Swanscomb Marsh. (12) Bank of river*Thames.
13) People on steamboats energetic.
(14) Crossed the river in 2™ 1° from hank to bank to the W. of Gravesend.
(15) Over London and Southend Railway.
432 REPORT—1862,
Taste I.—Meteorological Observations made in Eight —
2 Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther-
23 Aneroid .
ae Time. Reading Barometer, #cight above
BZ Att. ? -level.
Zs ited | Teena! | Nome) Toe ee
to 32° Fahr.
hm i s in ° in, feet. ° a
(1) 5 56 55p.m
GUSTER Migs \ elie thease a epee 28°40 1,628 60°8 58-2
557 dO. | lh vatesease: , | ||) Pence 28°38 1,639 60°5 58-0
2) 5 58 Cin, 28°40 28°22 1,798 60'0 580
5 5° 15
5 58 40 4 ceases Bll peses Sauipe. ili Wareces 60° 58:2
HEEQMO Ly | | eeevee | te esee 28°11 1,907
3) ; ‘O10 55, 28°37 || eesoee 28°05 1,967 60°5 58:1
° 4
6 o10 is are. ls Sco 27°98 2,034. 60°0 58°5
: O20 us, 28-55 Ol) kscsae ahs 25034. us 57°8
T ko So, ie anes 27°9 2,034 59° 57:2
6.51030 4 Asc, {ls Sox80 27°90 2,114 59°8 57°5
Gasca cits, A as (ler eee 27°90 2,114 59°8 5772
(4) H ZEMOmes ai) cassee || Geeeete 27°78 25235 59°5 571
3 4 »
(5) 6 325 »
(6) 6 415 »
(7) 4 5 Oust) . il AGawdacs,) Mal) Uhepetnes 27°89 2,122 59°2 5770
°
(8) 6 10 o is ierasned 30°07
1 2 3 4, 5 6. 7
(1) Over meadows opposite Rosherville Gardens ; gas clear.
(2) Tilbury Fort examined with a telescope. (3) Over Mucking Flats.
(4) Let gas out. (5) Over meadows.
Balloon Ascents.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTs IN 1862.
433
mometers (free).
Diff. | Dew-point.
ae
(6) Descending.
Tilbury Fort.
1862.
Crystal Palace, September 8, 1862.
Rees Dry and Wet Thermometers (aspirated). Hygrometers.
an
pet a Daniell’s. | Regnault’s,
Thermo- Dry. Wet. Diff. |Dew-point.
meter. Dew-point. | Dew-point.
esese | seeeee | eeese | eoeoee
(7) Packed the instruments up.
(8) Down in Mucking Flats, about 23 miles from Stanford le Hope, and 4 miles from
4.3.4: REPORT—1862,
§ 4, Avoprep TEMPERATURES OF THE ATR AND DEw-Pornt, with HercHt, IN
THE EIGHT Battoon AscENTs.
From all the observations of the temperature of the air and of the dew-
point in the preceding Tables, a determination was made of both elements
with the corresponding readings of the barometer and heights. Some of the
numbers in the column for heights have been interpolated when either of
these elements have been observed without a corresponding observation of
the barometer. The numbers thus found are within brackets. The results
are contained in the following Tables.
Tasre I1.—Showing the adopted Reading of the Barometer, calculated Height
aboye the Sea, Temperature of the Air, and Temperature of the Dew-
point in eight Balloon Ascents.
Frsr Ascent.—July 17.
Time of |Reading of| Height Temp. || Time of |Reading of| Height em
obserya- |the ae Sane the ee of the observa- |the Seems shinee the f the of the
tion. |reducedto| levelof | %* ew- tion. |reducedto| level of Gad ew-
A.M. 32°F. the sea. i | point. A.M. 32°F. the sea. T | point.
hm in. feet. o ° hm in. feet. > °
95% oy 49° | 59°0 | 514 ||10 39 14°63 | 19380 | 36°5 21°6
47 26°01 3835 | 45°° | 35°3 44 14°63 | 19336 | 34°0 | 21°3
49 2522 4467 | 43°0 | 32°0 47 14°13, | 20238 | 31°5 14°6
51 24°14 5802 | 34°8 | 32°% 48 see | (20512) | gr°0
53 22°42 7980 | 32°5 | --- 50 13°64 | 21059 | 23°38 |—12°5
54 20°02 8065 | 31°8 | 27°38 54 13°34 | 21792 | 19°70 |— 82
55 21°58 | 8809 | 29°8 | 21°8 57 12°14 | 23949 | 37°5 |— 4°5
56 20°93 9598 | 2672 | 17°6 |izx o 11°74. | 24746 | 16°0 |— 8'o
58 19°63 11giz | 26°0 | 24°5 it | rrmq | 26177 1670 |— g'o
10 2 19°28 11792 | 26°0 | 244 3 11°64 | 25022 1670 |— 8'5
3 18°63 | 12709 | 26°0 | 20°38 5 11°64. | 25028 | 17°5
4 -eee 1(13088) | 26:2 | 19°9 7 11°64 | 25077 13"0
5 18°14 | 13467 | 280 | 23°7 12 II'95 | 24547 | 23°7
8 17°24 | 14544 | 310 | 23°8 20 12°65 | 23868 | 27°0
II 16°74. | 15704 | 31°6 | 22°7 25 03°IA | 223997 5 aoa
15 16°04. | 16914 | 32°0 | 22°7 37 16°36 16282 | 29°7 9°4
25 14°94 | 18844 | 37°2 | 24°6 38 18°94 | 12376 | 34°2 74
27 14°64 | 19374 | 361 | 23°2 39 20°04 | 10539 | 37°0
29 14°64 | 19415 | 38°2 | 21°8 40 20°54 9882 | 37°8 19°8
30 14°64 | 19415 | 38° | 20°2 44 23°44 6330
35 14°64 | 19485 | 42°2 | 19°5 45 24°24. 5432
Between 10" 50™ and 11" 25™ in the last column, the numbers entered with
the sign — before them imply that the temperature of either Daniell’s or Reg-
nault’s hygrometer had been lowered to the degree stated, but that no dew
was deposited, and therefore that the temperature of the dew-point was at a
still lower degree.
At 10" 50™ the readings of the Dry and Wet (free) were 24°-5 and 17°-2,
giving a dew-point temperature of —26°-6.
At 10" 50™ the readings of the Dry and Wet (aspirated) were 23°-0 and
17°-0, giving a dew-point temperature of —20°6.
At 10" 54™ the readings of the Dry and Wet (free) were 19°:2 and 11°2,
giving a dew-point temperature of —47°5.
At 10" 57™ the readings of the Dry and Wet (free) were 16°5 and 9°-5,
giving a dew-point temperature of —44°-1; and the readings of the Dry and
Wet(aspirated) were 18°5 and 8°-0, giving a dew-point temperature of —69°'9,
,
a
2
< Ny
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862.
435
At 11" 7™ the readings of the Dry and Wet (free) were 19°-0 and 9%0,
giving a dew-point temperature of —67°4; and the readings of the Dry and
Wet(aspirated) were 18°-2and12°-0, giving a dew- -point temperature of —34°-5
At 11" 25” the readings of the Dry and Wet (free) were 28°-1 and 17°: 5,
giving a dew-point temperature of —26%1.
From the general agreement of the results observed by Daniell’s Hygrometer
to —10°, by Regnault’s Hygrometer to this and lower temperatures, and those
of the dew-point as found by the Dry- and Wet-bulb thermometers, there can
be no doubt that the temperature of the dew-point at heights exceeding 25,000
feet must have been at least as low as —50°.
Reading of
the Barom.
reduced to
32°F.
hm_ sj in.
29°96
29°96
29°87
29°82
. 29°80
29°65
29°55
29°50
29°20
28°85
28°65
28°20
27°65
27°10
. 26°87
26°50
26°40
26°35
26°27
26°25
26°18
26°12
26°08
25°91
25°80
25°73
25°78
25°85
25°90
_ 26°00
25°98
25°76
25°68
SE Yi
25°30
25°40
25°35
25°20
25°20
25°26
25°25
25°20
25°00
Seconp Ascent.—July 30.
Height
above the
level of
the sea.
feet.
250
250
330
370
390
480
57°
615
890
1189
1389
1829
2379
2452
3161
3543
3640
3690 .
377°
3790
3860
3920
3960
4169
4279
4358
4308
4234
4184.
4084
(4094)
4104
4324
4403
4613 |
4783
4682
4733
4925
4920
4863 ©
4873
4920 |
5155.
Temp.
of the
Air.
68-2
68-0
67°2
66°5
66°5
66°0
65°5
65°2
63°38
62°0
62°0
59°8
58°5
54°2
52°5
51°0
50°4.
49°8
50°0
50°6
51'0
52°2
52°5
515
50°0
50°5
50°5
515
51°8
51°8
51°5
52°1
515
52°1
492
49°90
48°5
48°9
‘43°2
43°5
43°2
48°2
479
.49°3
Temp.
of the
Dew-
point.
50°0
49°7
48°0
479
479
479
473
4571
449
43:2
43°0
43°5
42°6
41°9
40-4
39°8
40°4
41°0
39°7
49°7
40°0
39°7
39°4
40°3
39°7
39°2
39°2
40°3
40°1
40°1
39°9
40°2
40°7
39°8
36°5
36°7
38°1
377
375
3772
373
38°0
376
36°2
Time of /Reading of} Height
the Barom.| above the
observa-
tion.
P.M.
hm.
5 18
20
21
22
23
24.
30
30
30
reduced to
32° F,
—
in.
24°93
24°78
24°79
24°95
24-99
24°32
24°78
24°62
24°32
24°47
24°57
24°30
24°22
24°02
23°83
24.00
24°42
24°60
24°53
24°35
24°12
23°82
23°69
23°58
23°50
23°47
= As
23 “40
23°47
23°79
level of
the sea.
feet.
5220
5379
5360
5200
5200
533°
545°
5830
553°
5380
5280
5903
5983
6183
(6220)
6370
6252
6785
5577
5649
5846
6102
64.66
6642
6752
6826
6856
6896
(6910)
6937
6867
6547
(6603)
(6617)
(6625)
6637
6747
6937
Temp.
of the
Dew-
point,
ce
ans
37°3
37-2
38°9
37°2
38°7
35°9
35°8
354
36°2
38°4
35°8
35°8
35°8
34°0
32°7
351
35°9
364.
3571
34°7
33°71
34°3
33°8
35°2
314
32°6
314
29°83
30°3
32°0
31°4
31°6
32°9
32°74.
313
29°0
31°8
31°8
30°8
32°4
32°5
32°7
32°8
Height
above the
level of
the sea,
feet.
3870
375°
2700
(2400)
on the
ground
4448
(4562)
5019
(5273)
(5695)
5780
(5913)
(5958)
6313
6491
(6580)
7886
(8342)
8571
(8660)
8771
(8771)
(8771)
(8771)
8771
(9327)
(9715)
9902
9695
(9987)
10864.
11748
12364.
(12595)
12708
12942
13852
(14290)
14434
16339
(16885)
17157
(17240)
17321
(17380)
(17770)
(17860)
(18039)
(18445)
436 REPORT—1862.
Seconp Ascent.—July 30 (continued).
Time of |Reading of| Height Temp. || Time of |Reading of
observa- |the Barom.) above the af the of the || observa- |the Barom.
tion. reduced to level of Ase Dew- tion. reduced to
P.M. 32°F. the sea. * | point. P.M. 32° F.
hm _ s| in. feet. a 5 [hm s| in.
Gig Oh 2acKs 5800 | 460 | 34°3 || 6 23 26°48
Ig 30} 24°60 5750 | 46-2 | 3672 24 26°60
20 24°95 5400 | 47°0 | 354 25 27°65
ae 254° 4950 | 4775 | <3 75° 25 Sole pei
22, 25°90 4450 | 47°38 | 38°8 30 29°96
22 30] sees (4160) | 49:0 | 38°6
Tuirp Ascent.—August 18.
P.M. | P.M.
© 53 0} 29°34 490° E52 39 25°59
56 oO 29°34 490 | 67°8 54°6 53 0] eee
I 5 © 28°84 1130 | 62°5 52°5 55 0} 25°08
6 o| 28°55 1419 | 60°0 | 9256". oltamahs sre
6 20! 28°25 1713 | 58-2 53°71 57 40] cece
6 30) «--- | (1795) | 57°2 58 0} 24°39
7 \ Oo) 27-00 2042 55°5 50°5 58 30] sae
8 of 26°67 3347 58 go] wees
§ 20)... (3466) | 52°5 20 O]''23°93
9 oO} 26°27 3705 50°0 49°6 Io} 23°78
Io o| 25°86 4138 | 49°9 T 30)" (55
TO 25} eee (4440) | 49°8 44°2 9 oO] 22°58
II oO] 25°30 4767 | 48°8 42°2 TO +0|" Astor
EX gol *e..5'. (5140) | 48-6 IO 30] 22°18
12 0} 24°60 5509 | 48-2 i} “oP Arat
I2 30| 24°60 5510 | 47°8 38°83 II 40] 21°88
13, 20), 2... (6155) | 48-0 35-7 II 50 Fic
14 o} 23°64 6585 | 46°5 Iz 0 0
15 o| 22°69 7706 | 45°7 IZ 20} 1s. 2%
17 oO} 21°69 8935 | 44°0 32°0 13 oO} 21°88
18 45) 20°90 9954 | 43°0 29°6 || 13 40 es
58 55) Ye.s2 |\(torz9)"| Ao°s 286) - SXF GOW Odeste
20 oO} I9790 | 11267 | 38°5 14 0} 20°99
Bo | sl seb Oars) B72 24°9|]} 15 Of 21°14
20 35| 19°80 | 11399 | 36:0 24°8 || 15 30 eee
21 of 19°75 | 11470 | 39°5 | 22°2|| 17 of 20°24
22 0} 20°30 10840 | 41°8 25°2 20 ©} 19°60
24 0} 20°90 9884 | 45°0 26°9 21 oO} 1911
aie 36 (9884) | 45:0 QZ Ole CFeisie
24 15} 20°90 9884. oe 22 30| 18°86
24 50| 21°38 giz0 | 46-2 32°0 23. «0] 18-71
25 Foy tes re (g040) | 45°8 24 Of 1811
25 IO] cove (8960) | 47°2 33°71 BRON Tis Se
26 0] seve (8575) ee 28:2 25 20) 17°61
26 30] 22°21 8342 . 30°5 29 ©} 16:41
27 of 22°62 7836 | 51:0 379 Bu LO Valen
32 o| 22°80 7650 | 49°2 37°0 32 Oo} 15°93
33 Oo} 22°80 7650 | 53°8 36°6 42, Ole Wate oe
34.) Ol Basis Wl (7265) 2 heise 36°0|| 32 20] 15°84
37 30) 24°25 5919 Be ly 232 SON ats oe
38 of 24-46 5820 | 53°8 37°8 |
AI Oo} 25°08 5028 | 53°5 a SOR teres
41 30) 25°56 4530 43°5
43 0] 25°58 4480 is feel SY 20k Gee ss
46 O| 26°56 3438 oie 47°5 35 O| eee
48 0} 26°76 3219 | 56:0 36 10] See
52 Oo} 25°79 4233 | 55°0 36 20] “Been
(18505)
Temp.
area of the }
ase Dew-
r point.
° °
492 | 395 | |
Sol | 41°7
55°5 | 42°2
58-3 | 41-7
68'0 | 47°4
: 3975
50°0 | 40°9
54°8
we 40°!
540 | 41°7
50's | 386
ee 37°5
510 | 39°8
51°0 38°4.
510 | 37°6
pis 39°0
ne 39°0
as 39°5
5°°5
°° 34°9
50°0
50°5 341
43°1
a6 29°3
ie 21°2
39°2 25°6
38°5
38-0
341
ae 23°4
ee 2gsr
27°38 6-0
be iE 50
28°1
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862.
Turrp Ascent.—August 18 (continued).
437
Time of |Reading of} Heigh . || Ti Reading of| Height Temp.
observa- |the Basch. eters the Tee. obi | pee the ence, Arey the Teme: of the
tion. |reducedto| level of oe ©! Dew- | tion. | reducedto| level of 7 ©! Dew-
P.M. 32°F, the sea. T+ | point. | PaMe 32°F. the sea. T+ | point.
hm _ =°s| in. feet. G of | Bu mae) sie ans feet. is SS
2 36 30) 15°03 18560 | 3 12 30] 12°93 | 22705 | 24°0
36 40] wee. ea 24°8 |— 2°0/| 13 of «-.- |(22160)| +. |— gro
36 50] see. 18650) | 2575 | 13 13} 13°63 | 21977 | 24-0
37 S55} .ce-- | (18935) | © 23 20) 3... >] (22000), | += »|—10'O
38 10} 14°87 | Ig9000 | © £3) goliath K22004)i 2450
38 30/ «+». |(19200) | -. |— 5°0 13 40) 13°58 | 22008 | 24:0
38 40} «... |(19290) | 28°5 18 30] 13°45 | 22107 | 24°0
39 oO} 14°62 | 19461 FQ 2 PSsp es METS) «. |—I0'0
39 Io} .+-- | (19604) 19 30 (21685) | 24°0
39 20] «+++ | (19800) | 261 | I9 40 (21615) | 25°0
39 30} «+e+ | (20000) | 2575 | 19 40 (21610) | 24°8
42 O] «eee | (20350) ++ |— 85]| 32 of} «.-- | (16405) ar foKe)
42 10} 1412 | 20359 | 25°1 33 0} 16°78 15984
45 ©] e+e. | (20665) «- |— 5°0 34. of 17°53 | 13320 | 32°8 II'l
35 esee | (20888) | 23°5 36 o} 18°63 | 12453 | 380 13°3
49 oO} 13°62 | 21111 39 0} 20°02 10624 | 40°7 14°4.
49 50] «+++ |(21200) | 254 |—10°0|; 40 0} 20°72 | Io224 | 45°5 14°4
59 Of 12°83 | 23164 -. |—I2'o 41 30] 21°62 8764.
59 Io] 12°71 | 23215 | 24:2 43a Ol 220907 8144.
59 20] 12°61 | 23377 : — 80 43 10] seats (7910) | 50°5 360-7
59 49) 12°93. | 22705 | 24° |—Io'o 43 30) 22°74 7438
3 0 Of 13°13 | 22295 AG Oly amore (6943) sis 38°6
3 20) 13°13 | 22295 | 24°5 |— 9°0 47 0] wees (6282) 40°0
eeee «see |(22295) | 24°8 |—1I0°0|| 49 0] 24°28 5621 | 50°0
4 30) 13°13 | 22295 24°0 |— 9g'0 50 20] 25°08 4821 52°1 43°9
BP) Ol 2293 | 22705 |. 24-5 51 oO} 25°36 4.521 51°5 448
5 30] -..- | (22705) } .~- |—ro'o CC ke) eo (3900) | 5170 | 48-9
6 Io} .«... | (22705) | 24°0 4 5 Of] wees on the | 67:0
7 | 12°93 | 22705 | 24°70 |— 8:0 ground
Fovurrn Ascent.—August 20.
P.M. P.M.
6 5 oO} 29°86 250 | 67°38 | 567 || 6 43 oO} 25°68 4256 | 50°0 45°5
26 o}| 29°86 250 | 66:2 | 55:9 43 30| 25°60 4316 | 51-0 45°3
27 0} 29°85 250 | 660 | 56:0 47 ©} 25°55 | 4366 | 505 | 43°7
28 30) 29°66 430 | 65:2 | 54°38 48 0] 25°60 4316 | 50:0 43°8
29 0} 29°62 450 | 64°6 | 54°3 49 | 25°75 | 4116 | 49-2 | 45:7
29 30] 29°48 530 | 64:2 | 53°7 49 30] 25°80 | 4055 | 50°5 | 464
29 40] 29°40 602 | 64:1 | 5373 50 oO} 26°05 3803 51-5 44°9
29 50) 29°33 662 | 63°5 | 52°5 51 30] 26:25 | 3693 | 515 | 44:9
30 oO] 29:28 FOF ei O8°2e| 52°7 52 oO} 26°35 3593 | 51°5 449
31 0} 28°95 1037 || 63:0. | 52°3 55 O| 2628 3663 | 512 45°71
32 30] 28°55 1397 | 61°5 | 51°7 56 of 26:25 | 3693 | 50°9 | 45°4
33 9} 28°45 1497 | 61°5 | 5173 57 30) 26:20 3743 | 503 4572
34. 0] 28:00 giz | 58°5 | 50°5 58 of 2615 3793 | 49°3 44°4
35. 9 27°75 2160 | 57°5 | 491 || 7 © Of 2611 3833 | 50°2 447
35 30] 27°65 2257 | 5672 | 50°0 I 20} 26°08 3863 | 49°8 4474
36 o| 27°40- 2408 | 56:0 | 49°2 2 o| 26°05 3893 | 49°5 44:7
37 OO] wee (2665) | 55:2 | 4971 | 4 Oo} 25°85 4052 | 48:2 44:7
37 10] 27°20 | 2709 | 5571 | 49°0 | 5 9} 25°70 | 4250 | 480 | 438
37 39) 26°95 | 2959 | 54:2 | 48°83 7 0} 25°58 | 4384 | 47°0 | 43°0
38 0} 26°75 | 3159 | 5371 | 489 8 of 2560 | 4354 | 472 | 43°7
39 9} 26°55 | 3359 | 52°8 | 48-2 9 0} 25°68 | 4278 | 481 | 43°9
4I oO} 26°12 3816 | sxx | 46°6 IO 0} 25°50 3405 | 48:2 44°7
41 30) 25°95 3986 50°5 | 464 IZ 0} 26°20 621 | 49°38 43°70
42 oO} 25°82 4116 | 51°0 | 45°9 13 0] 26°45 3468 | sro 45°3
438 REPORT—1862.
Fourtu Ascent.—August 20 (continued).
Time of |Reading of} Height Temp. || Time of (Reading of| Height Temp.
observa- j|the a above the ae of the observa- the Bion. ere the ofa: of the
tion. reduced to| level of ‘Air Dew- tion. reduced to| Jevel of ‘Ais Dew-
P.M. 32° F. the sea. 5 point. P.M. 32°F. the sea. point.
Hig it 9 V5) ake feet. A 6 h.m ss} in. feet. é °
7 15, . 01? 27:50 2398 53°5 | 48°5 7 29 30| 27°70 2217 559 501
16 0} 27°70 2198 | 54°2 | 48-9 30 0 27°58 2417 . | .55°5 50°2
16 30| 28°03 1871 | 54°8 | 493 92, joanne (2620). | 55°2 51°73
17 0} 28:25 1655 | 55°5 | 49°6 33 0) 27°18 2723 | 542 | 488
18 0} 28-50 EAV7] - 1556'S 0) §a1 34 0} 27°18 2723 | 54°8 49°3
19 0} 28°53 1387 | 57°0 | 50°3 35° 0} «27°22 2683 | 55°2 579
Ig 10} 28°55 1367 | 57°0 | 50°3 36 o| 27°30 2603 | 54°8 43°5
Tg 30] 28°63 B2O7 6 bab Qh ses 37 0] -be (2670) | 54°2 48°38
20 o| 28°64 1277 AUS 7 Stree 40 0| 27°03 23739410535 4671
20 30} 28-62 2397 57°50 SEZ 41 0} 26°80 3003 | 53°0 46:0
22 0] 28°33 1587 57°38 | 510 42 0| 26°10 3723 51-2 44°7
23 0} 28:25 1667 | 572 51°4 47 0 24°82 | 5194 | 45°0 | 41°8
24. 0| 28-01 1907 | 56°8 | 50°5 48 0} 24°90 5106 | 45°0 41°38
25 0} 27°85 | 2067 | 568 | 50°5 49 0, 24°18 5900 | 43°0
25 20) 27°75 2167 | 56:2 | 50°2 52 o| 24°88 5200 . | 43°3
26 o} 27°70 2217 | 56°5 | 5071 55 o| 24°88 5200 | 44°2
26 30} 27°70 2217 | 56°5 | 50°7 56 0] 24°92 5160 - | 44°2
28 o| 27°78 2297 | 56°8 501
Frrrn Ascent.—August 21.
A.M. A.M.
Ana0) (Olmmest 320 | 60°83 | 58-4 || 5 20 of 19°70 | 11222 | 29°8
3I 0} 29°59 358 | 60:0 | 57°2 21 0} 19°45 | 11616 | 27°8
33. 0} 29°58 367 hi 58'9 .| §7:2 22 0} 19°09 12254 | 25°5
35 oO] 29°45 499 | 5972 | 58-9 23. 0} 1890 | 12421 23°2
36 0] 29°20 728 | 59°0 | 59°0 24 | 18°90 | 12421 | 23°3
39 0} 28°78 1130 «|| 57°38 | 5272 26. Onna bs 12851 23°5
4° o| 28°70 T210. | 59-9. | §1-2 27 o| 18:42 | 13080 | 24'0
41 o} 28°62 1286 | 57°72 | 50°6 29 Of 18:20 | 13381 ZaLO) |= fon
42 o| 28°58 1326 | 56°83 | 51°0 29 30} 18°15 | 13456 | 23°5 |— 9°8
44 o} 28°18 1706 | 55°5 | 512 30 30| 18:00 | 13665 | 25:0 |— 63
45 0] 27°90 2000 | 55°0 | 51°I 31 of 17°90 | 13680 | 22:2 |—23-4
49 0} 26°95 2930 | 52°2 | 47°4 32 30] 17°82 | 13799 | 19°5 |—29°4
51 o| 26-40 3510 | 49°38 | 4474 34 of 17°78 | 13875 | 19°5 |—23°4
52 0} 25°95 3951 | 47°0 | 41°0 34 30] 17°78 | 13875 | 19°3 |—39°4
53 oO} 25°78 4138 | 46°5 | 40°7 35 oO} 17°70 | 14027 19°75 |—30°6
55 0} 25°05 | 4927 | 43°38 | 41°5 36 of 17°72 | 13989 | 19°99 |—36'2
55 30} 24°72 5260 | 43°72 | 41°0 36 30] 17°71 14008 | 20°0 |—22°6
56 of «++. | (5357) | 42°0 | 4o2 37. | 17°70 | 14027 | 20°5 |—a21°5
57 O| 24°45 | 5557 | 402 | 39°8 38 of 17°65 | 14121 | 215 |—19°5
57 30] 24°05 | 5989 | 39°7 | 39°7 38 30] 17°62 | 14178 | 22°5 |—221
5 (0 ofag 58 6510 | 38°5 | 36:0 40 of 17°68 | 14064 | 24:0 |—17°5
3. Of 23°75 6336 | 40°7 | 32°73 42 of 17°68 14068 | 24°38 |—17°5
4 of 23°68 6413 | 41°5 | 31°8 43 0} 17°62 | 14178 | 24°38 |— 3:2
5 ©] 23°20 6967 | 40°5 | 32°5 44 o} 17°62 | 14178 | 25-2 |— 474
7 O} 23°15 7027 | 40°5 | 30°9 44 30] 17°62 | 14178 | 26°5 |—14-4
8 0} 23°10 7087 | 410 | 29:2 45 o} 17°58 14254 | 2675 |—13°2
Io 0} 22°48 7810 | 37°5 | 25°5 45 45] 17°58 | 14254° | 26-3 |—12-4
II oO] 22°Io $281 872° | 24-7 46 of 17°58 | 14254 | 27°72 |—12-4
12 0} 22°00 8406 | 35:0 | 2373 46 15] 17°58 | 14254 | 27°2 |—12-4
14 oO} 21°65 8841 35°2 | 21°2 47 0] 17°56 14335 27°76 |—13°71
15 0} 21740 9150 | 34°8 | 2072 48 of 17°57 | 14273 | 260 |— 7-4
15 30] 217Io 9525 | 33°70 | 18°6 48 30) 17°58 | 14254 | 2575
16 0} 20°65 1oo8s5 | 32°38 | 12°4 5° Of 17°57 | 14273 | 25°5 |—15°4
Bie LOPS 4S UB LOs gS) et. 92,90), 20° 5° 45| 17°58 | 14254 | 251 |—15°3
18 0} 20°30 10472 310 | 143 51 of} 17°56 14318 | 25:2 |—21°8
Time of |Reading of
observa- |the Barom.
tion.
A.M.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862, 439
Firrrn Ascent.—August 21 (continued).
Height Temp. || Time of [Reading of| Height Temp.
aliove the pane of the observa- |the atota, pete the oe ae Ge the
reduced to} level of | % "2° | Dew- || tion. reduced to} level of "ia ©) Dew-
32°F, the sea. ae point. A.M. 32° F, the sea. a point
in. feet. é * hm _ si! in feet. ° °
17°60 14258 | 24°r |—12°5|| 6 24 | 22°23 8040 | 43°0 21'0
17°62 | 14228 | 23°38 |—19°'7]| 25 0 22°65 7655 | 42:8 | 2071
17°62 14228 23°38 |—17°7 25 30) 22°72 7573 43°5 20°5
17°62 14228 | 23°0 |—17°0 27 0! 22°95 7293 | 44°5 19°6
17°62 | 14228 | 23:1 |—20°5 27 30, 23°08 7141 | 44°2 22°0
17°61 | 14243 | 22°5 |—17°6 28 0 23712 7094. | 43°0 25°8
17°60 14258 | 23°0 |—24°3]/ 28 30) 23°11 7106 | 42°38 27°38
17°62 | 14228 | 234 |—25°6|| 29 0| 23:20 7Oo1 | 43°0 30°2
17°62 *| 14228 | 23:4 |—27°5|| 30 0 23°30 6884 | 43°0 ee a
17°63 | 14213 | 23°5 |—27°4 31 0] 23°28 6907 | 42°70 38°7
17°70 | 14108 | 24°2 |—29°0 3¥ 30}. 23°40 6767 | 42°5 39°2
17990 | 13802 | 24°5 |—29°4 32 0] 23°50 6650 | 42-0 33°7
17°95 | 13715 | 242 |—17°0|| 32 15) 23°60 6533. | 42°0 | 38°7
810 | 13484 | 23°8 |—26°7|/ 33 0] 2400 | 6058 | 4r'5 | 3777
18-11 13479 | 24°2 |—I9g°0 33 3°) 24°22 5819 | 41°8 37°3
1815 | 13419 | 24°2 |—17°7 33 39) 24°50 5515 | 41°5 Sed
18-23 | 13299 | 252 |—-173 34 0} 24°70 5298 | 422 | 37°9
18°30 | 13194 | 252 |—11-2|| 35 0} 24°80 5189 | 43°5 | 38'0
18°35 | 13119 | 25°2 |—13°1]] 36 0} 24°90 | 5080 | 44:2 | 37°5
voy (12815) | 24°5 |—13°8 36 30] 24-92 5058 | 43°83 39°2
19°07 | 12174 | 30°0 er 37 Ol 25226 4851 | 45-2 47-2
Ig'll 12122 | 29°8 1°6 37 3°] 25°20 4745 | 45°0 38°9
9°15 | 12070 | 27°8 18} 37.45) 25°30 | 4639 | 45°0 | 38:9
19°28 Imgor | 27°5 |—12°6 38 0] 25-60 4320 | 46°0 40°0
19°30 | 11875 | 27°38 |— 54]! 38 30) 25-92 3980 | 468 | 408
19°30 | 11875 | 27°5 |—107]| 39 of 2615 | 3751 | 47°8 | 41°6
19°30 | 11875 | 27°38 |— 44) 40 o| 26-40 3502 | 48-2 42°6
19°65 11420 | 31°5 4°5 41 0} 26-60 3300 | 49°5 44°7
19°80 | 11225 | 32°0 3-8 42 0} 26°80 3186 | 50° 45°5
20°05 10871 | 33°38 173 42 15} 27°00 2872 51°0 453
zo'20 | 10688 | 34°5 14°7 43 0| 27°20 2673 | 51°5 44°38
20°30 | 10566 | 36-5 160 44 0} 27°70 2177 | 15375 46°7
20°80 9936 | 37°0 18-1 45 9] 27°98 1898 | 54°5 48°0
21°00 9650 | 37°0 18-7 45 30] 28:20 1684. | 5575 48°6
21°70 8810 | 41°5 18'0 46 0} 28:40 1489 | 56°0 47°38
22°20 8196 | 43°5 18°7 || 7 10 oO} 29°42 513 | 61°8 51'r
Srxra Ascent.—September 1.
p {| P.M.
29°78 250 | 63°0 | 57°3 | 5 5 30] 26°46 3408 | 49°2 40°1
29°78 250 | 63°38 | 565 | 6 30) 26-41 3458 | 49°5 | 39°8
29°78 250 650 | 55°5 8 0} 26-41 3458 | 49°5 | 385
Jobe 270 | 64°0 | 5673 9 oO] 26°50 3368 | 49°8 33°2
29°65 320 | 63°0 | 51°9 Io of 26°55 3318 | 50°0 39°3
29°20 720) ') 61°E) | 6275 IO 30} 26°51 3358 | 50°0 39°3
28°90 996 | 5972 | 503 II 30} 26°31 | 3560 | 50°0 39°33
28°55 TS9Z0 (0572 Aegis 13 0} 26°19 3680 |} 48:8 37°8
28°00 1868 | 55:72 | 47°8 15 0} 26°19 3680 | 492 38°6
27°65 2214 | 542 | 481 || 16 0 26°25 3620 | 49°2 38°4
27°21 2654 | 52°2 | 46°7 17 0} 26°29 3580 | 49°2 38°6
26°92 | 2940 | 51°5 | 44-0 1g 0} 26°28 3599 | 488 | 37-0
26°91 POS ON S59 5 | 4357 20 a} 26°29 3583 | 47°8 37°3
26°78 | 3080 | 50°0 | 42°8 23 0} 25°95 | 3937 | 472 | 38:3
26°69 | 3170 | 50°0 | 42°8 23 30) 25°91 3977 | 472 | 364
26°61 3257 | 49°5 | 43°3 24 0 25°90 | 3987. | 47:0 | 366
26°60 3268 | 49°2 | 42°6 25 OO} 25°90 3987 | 47°72 37'2
440 REPORT—1862.
Srxru Ascenr.—September 1 (continued).
Time of |Reading of| Heigh Temp. || Time of |Reading of} Height
observa- |tke arid ative the ea of the | obserya- |the arcane sles the
tion, reducedto| levelof | “4:. . Dew- tion. reduced to| level of
P.M. 32°F, the sea. * | point. P.M. 32°F: the sea,
hm =~s in. feet. > = |; hm_ gs in. feet.
5 26 o}| 26°05 3837 | 48:1 | 364 || 5 56 oO} 27°55 2290
26 30] 26°15 3737. | 48:2 | 38:4 57 o| 27°65 2190
27 0] 26:20 3687 | 48-5 | 38-0 57+ eee (2040)
28 0] 26-10 3787 | 47°38 | 36°6 58 Oo} 27°95 1890
29 0} 26:00 3887 | 47°72 | 364 58 10} 28°05 1790
30 Oo} 25°88 4000 | 47°2 | 363 58 30] 28-12 abe
Sr) Oo]. 2h75 4090 | 47°72 | 3674 59 0} 28:22 1620
32 0} 25°70 4180 | 462 | 361 59 30] 28°30 1540
33. 0] 25°69 4190 | 462 | 3671 || 6 © o} 28°45 1417
35 Oo] 25°69 4190 | 461 | 360 © 30} 28°52 1347
37 9} 25°98 3900 | 47°2 | 37°9 2 0} 2830 | 1567
37 30) 26°19 3690 | 47°2 | 37°72 3 0} 2819 1677
40 0} 26°50 3362 | 47°5 | 384 3 30) 28°05 1817
42 0} 26°82 3040 | 48°5 | 39°6 4 oO} 27°81 2057
43 0} «26°95 2910 | 49°2 | 41°6 On 27875 3117
44 0) 26°95 2910 | 49°8 | 422 5 30" 27°75 3117
45 0} 26°38 2970 | 49°2 | 42°8 6 oO} 27°75 3117
48 0} 26°68 3170 | 48-2 | 404 6 15| 27°79 3077
50 0} 26:90 2950 | 49°72 | 39°5 6 30] 27°80 3067
52 oO] 27°49 2356 | 50°0 | 42°8 8 0} 27°90 2967
53. | 27°40 2446 | 50°5 | 43°7 8 30} 28-00 2867
53 30) 27°40 2446 50°5 | 45°0 9 oO] 28°20 2667
54 9 27°44 2406 | 50°0 | 45°9
Srventa Ascent.—September 5.
| P.M. | P.M.
D'MIG $GlP fees 490 | 59°5 | 484 |] I 30 15} eee |(16965) | 16:0
0+ i5 Of 25°77 720 | 59°0 | 50°5 30 30] «+e 1(17055) | 16:0
5 20) 28°97 QOD sal 57 e || 5SSE 32 .O} 2540 ai 59° ESS
BGO tase (1340) | 56°5 | 47°9 34. O} s+ .0pe|(r8x80) vee |[— 5°5
6 o} 28°38 1480 | 55°5 | 46-9 37 Of 14°55 | 19068 15°6|—2171
Io o| 2619 3660 | 45°5 | 41°5 37 20] «+e. |(19290) | 15°3/— 8-0
DL + OP 5. % 4116 | 44:2 | 404 38 Oo} «sees. | (19735) 14°2
11 30] 25°49 | 4388 | 43°3 | 38-9 38 10] .--. | (19847) | 12°9
IZ 0} 24°99 4920 | 42°0 | 38°7 38 20) 14°05 19960
12 30) 24°89 5011 | 40°9 | 3873 | 38 25) 13°95 | 20126
13 0} 24°30 | 5675 | 39°5 | 36°5 || 38 50] «.-- | (20315) | 8:0/— 5:0
13 30) 24°25 | 5722 | 38:0 | 36-1 39 0} 13°76 | 20393 8°5
14 30) 23°70 | 6330 | 36°5 | 365 || 40 0} «.-- |(20733) | 9'2|— go
16 0} 23°36 6729 40 I5| «++ | (20818) | «2. |—1570
16)-3o)" ee. (6821) | 36-1 | 36-1 40 30] «++ |(20903) | 1-0
17 0} “2g 6914 | 36:0 | 35°7 || 41 20) 13°35 | 21182 sees |—I5'0
17°20) Werle « (7245) exit | 4373 41 50| -.-- | (21407) 4°5
17 40| 22°66 7575 39°5 | 3072 44 oO] 12°75 22380
21" of fap 72 9926 | 32°71 | 26°6 48 o| 11°95 | 23976 070 |—30°0
22 of 20°07 | 10770 | 312 | 26°99 || 50 of 11°25 | 25382 |— 2°0|no dew
24 o| 18°73 12568 | 26°5 | 19°7 51 o}| rt0'80 | 26350
| 25 30) 17°93 |(13875) | 25°5 | 22°3 532 | 9°75 | 29000 50
26 of we-- |(14312) | 2372 ZEIT OND whole's 25318 |— 2°0
27 O| 16°94 | 15184 8 30) 12°55 | 22654 2°0
27 30) =---> 1(15347) | 18°7 8 45) 13°15 | 21650 II‘o
28 of 16°69 | 15510 | 18-0 9 9} 14°05 |} 20018 170
28 30] -... |(16015) | 17°9 9 30] 16°37 | 16015 18-0
29 0} 16°05 16520 | 17°9 9 40} 17°07 | 14938
29 20} «+. |(16640) | 17°8 | 10°5 LO” Of Ow els's DH(14706) 9} Siaaeg
oe (16875) | 16-2 II 17°71 14012
<
a
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. AAT,
Srvenrn Ascent.—September 5 (continued).
|
Time of |Reading of} Height T 5 | ee 8 f |Readi f| Height T .
observa- |the ey tage the nd of the dieerta: shafBaron, above the M5 aa of ‘the
tion. reduced to} level of wes Dew- tion. reduced to} level of "4 © | Dew-
P.M. 32°F, the sea. * | point, P.M. 32°F, the sea. a point.
hm_s s| in. feet. a = hm_s s!/ in feet. zs : va
214 o| 18:06 | 13520 | 24°5 PP GS Hi} 5 Ge (6590)
TA. 30|. x... (13210) | 24:8 ZG) UG sate 'ate (6560) | 45:2 | 21°5
15 0} 18-46 | 12900 os (oe) ZO" (Geol ate (5655) | 45°5 | 27:0
16 oO} .... 12250 | 26°5 29 30) 24°51 5500 | 47:0 | 21°38
16 50) 20°65 | 10070 | 31°! Z030|ie serene (5110) | 47°r | 35°1
Ty AONE jess 5< (8800) | 34°2 31 30| | ieerere (4720) | 49:2 | 19°7
1g 30} 21°85 8530 32 o| 25°40 4521 | 48-0
BY IG) va,» <0 (8400) | 3572 92) F0|eeee ade (4315) | 50°5 | 20°8
20 20] 22°04 8310 33 0] 25°80 4110
20 40] 22°24 8090 | 401 | 15°2 SAG el ie eae (4050) | 51-1 | 22°3
on OW tests + (7860) | 42:2 | 17°3 | 3G) lola terras (3795) abo es telegas
23 20) 22°64 7625 | 40°0 | 20°0 38 o| 26-40 3484 | 52°2 | 37°70
23 50] 22°93 7260 | 40°0 39 0o| 27°60 2260
24. | 23°03 7150 39) 2Cle vente Shoe 54°0 | 4271
25.0} (23°95 6810 | 42°0 3. (6), Noles on the | 57°2 | 48°8
26 0} 23°47 6640 ground
The reading of Regnault’s hygrometer at 1" 45™ was reduced to —30°,
without any deposition of moisture; the temperature of the dew-point was
therefore at a lower degree. At 1" 48™ the temperature of the dew-point,
as determined by the Dry- and Wet-bulb thermometers, was — 35°, as shown
below.
At 1" 37™ the readings of the Dry and Wet thermometers (aspirated) were
15°-5 and 11°-3, giving a dew-point temperature of —21°-1.
At 1" 37™ 10° the readings of the Dry and Wet thermometers (free) were
15°-0 and 11°1, giving a dew-point temperature of —18°1.
At 1" 37™ 50° the readings of the Dry and Wet thermometers (free) were
14°-5 and 10°2, giving a dew-point temperature of —13°-0.
At 1" 38™ the readings of the Dry and Wet thermometers (aspirated) were
14°-2 and 10°-5, giving a dew-point temperature of —18°1,
At 1" 38" 10° the readings of the Dry and Wet thermometers (free) were
13°-2 and 10°-0, giving a dew-point temperature of —14°-8.
At 1° 39™ the readings of the Dry and Wet thermometers (free) were
8°-0 and 4°°5, giving a dew-point temperature of —22°-7,
At 1" 40™ 15% the readings of the Dry and Wet thermometers (free) were
10°-2 and 8°1, giving a dew-point temperature of —8°2,
At 1° 40™ 30° the readings of the Dry and Wet thermometers (aspirated)
were 9°°5 and 7°8, giving a dew-point temperature of —5°3.
At 1 44” the readings of the Dry and Wet thermometers (free) were 8°-1
and 4°2, giving a dew-point temperature of —26°-0.
At 1" 45™ the readings of the Dry and Wet thermometers (aspirated) were
7°°3 and 4°-5, giving a dew-point temperature of —17°3.
At 1" 48™ the readings of the Dry and Wet thermometers (free) were 0°-0
and —4°:0, giving a dew-point temperature of —35%2.
At 2" 9" the readings of the Dry and Wet thermometers (free) were 17°-0
and 11°-0, giving a dew-point temperature of —34°-7,
At 2" 10™ the readings of the Dry and Wet thermometers (free) were 225
and 15°-8, giving a dew-point temperature of —27°-0.
From the general agreement of the results as observed by Regnault’s hy-
grometer and those of the dew-point as found by the Dry- and Wet-bulb
thermometers, there can be no doubt that the temperature of the dew-point
at heights exceeding 30,000 feet must have been as low as —50°.
wn wn Annu
a as Yb O
w w w w
P90C0O0000000000 O48
nw
Oo. O0
Reading of
the Barom.
reduced to
32° F,
in.
29°92
29°47
28°90
28°70
28°50
27°75
27°55
27°20
26°70
26°30
25°90
25°68
25°50
25°41
25°38
25°38
25°36
25°36
25°42
25°50
25°55
25°60
25°73
25°95
26°10
26°20
26°28
26°38
26°70
26°74
26°78
26°68
26°25
26°10
25°95
*25°74
25°52
25°40
25°22
25°20
25°20
25°20
25°19
25°11
25°00
24°92
24°95
24°78
24°82
25°05
25°05
25°02
25°00
25°08
25°09
25°10
25°11
REPORT—1862.
Ereuta Ascent.—September 8.
Height
above the
level of
the sea.
feet.
250
813
1232
1530
1730
2432
2520
2923
3320
3720
4169
4380
4560
4650
4727
4727
475°
4750
4690
4610
4560
4510
4480
4160
3946
3850
377°
3670
3350
3310
3270
3370
3808
3958
4108
4220
4440
4540
4895
4920
4920
4920
4930
4926
5175
5263
5230
5428
5388
5112
5109
5145
5169
5057
5043
5029
5019
T
ate | | Sa
Air. ch i
point. P.M.
‘s > hi fs
67-2 | 61°2 5 24 30
66°5 | 6074 25 0
G22 711582 25 30
6371 | 57°38 26 0
G2-8u a2 26 20
60°2 |} 54°6 27410
583 | 54-4 27 30
5625) pega s 28 o
552 | 49°9 29 30
54°0 | 48°5 30 30
52°0 | 49°0 an 20
SES | 495 31 30
sro | 48-6 || . 31 45
595 | 4971 32 0
SOs! | 4915 32 30
50°38 | 48:8 33, jo
51°r | 48°6 33 15
5°°5 | 49°F 33 30
50°3 | 48:0 34 0
49°5 | 479 35/9
49°3. |. 47°7 35 3°
49°5 | 46°8 36 ©
50°0 | 45°9 36 20
49°8 | 48-2 37 0
595 | 49°71 37 30
50°83 | 48-9 38 30
512 | 48°8 39 0
SES | 50% 39 35
S72 | 599 39 30
52°35 | 5055 O40
53°79 | 50°0 49 30
535 } 49°5 ORS:
53°5 | 49°6 42 0
52 o ) 58.5 43 0
5272 | 50°8 44.0
55 | 48°5 || - 44 30
510 | 48°78 45 0
51°0 | 40°8 45 30
510 | 36-9 46 o
SEW 87. 47 0
51t | 35°4 48 0
53°2 | 34°9 48 30
542 | 34°2 aD 9
55°2 | 33°5 noes
56°5 | 34°5 50 0
57% |} 35°9 §° 39
572 | 38-0 51 o
58°5 | 40°5 52 0
60'0 | 4073 54 0
58-2 54 30
57°51| 359 54 45
57°5 | 35°9 55 ©
ae 5, | 3579 55 10
562 | 38-4 56 0
542 | 41°6 56 io
518 | 4q2 56 40
515 | 44°9 oF KS
Time of |Reading of
the Barom.| above the
reduced to
329 F,
in.
25°09
25°30
25°50
25°92
26°69
26°80
27°06
27°25
‘27°52
27°60
27°68
27°82
27°95
28°05
28°17
28°30
28°40
28°49
28°60
28°65
28°80
28°95
29°10
29°20
29°25
29°30
29°28
29°20
29°18
255
29 *5
29°15
29°20
29°21
29°18
29°15
2915
29°14
29°18
29°18
29°21
29°28
20-48
29°50
20°54
29°46
29°12
29°00
28°90
28°50
28°40
Height
level of
the sea.
feet.
5939
4829
4629
4197
3328
3218
3618
3438
2954
27383
2540
2432
2360
2207
2090
1990
1870
1720
1620
1530
1420
1370
1220
1077
932
842
805
768
782
842
856
887
887
887
842
827
805
842
856
887
887
896
$56
856
826
772
672
553
517
589
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 443
Eien Ascent.—September 8 (continued).
Time of |Reading of} Height Temp, || Ti i Hei :
observa- |the Bardi. above the ee of the aoe rep een eye oar Bre
tion. reduced to| Jevelof | %..'° ew- tion. reduced to| level of of the Dew-
P.M. 32°F, thesea. ; point. P.M. 32° F. the sea. a point.
hm s|-in. feet. a a hm s| in feet. a S
5 57 30} 23°38 1639 | 60°5 | 55°83 || 6 x 30) 27°98 | 2034 | 59°8 | 54°
58 of 28-22 1798 | 600 | 56:2 I 45| 27°90 2114 | 59°8 | 54°8
58 40] 28:11 | (1870) | 60°0 | 56°6 2 ©} 27°90 2114 | 59°8 | 54°9
6 © oO} 28:05 1967 | 60°5 | 56:0 3 40) 27°78 2235 59°5 | 50°0
© 20] 27°98 2034 | 60°0 | 57°1 5 oO] 27°89 2122, | §9'2.1 §57°0
I of 27°98 2034 | Goo | 55°8 IO 0} 30°07 on the
ground
§ 5. Varration or TEMPERATURE OF THE ATR witH Heteur.
In order to arrive at an approximate value of the normal variation of tem-
perature on each day, it is necessary to make some estimate of the amount of
the disturbing causes.
For this purpose I placed every reading of temperature in the preceding
Tables in the high ascents, or the means of small groups of observations in the
low ascents, on diagrams, and joined all the points, and caused a curve to pass
through or near them, so that every change of temperature was thus made
evident to the eye.
In all these projected curves there were parts of evidently the same curve
showing a gradual decrease of temperature with increase of elevation, and a
gradual increase with decrease of elevation. These parts were connected and
assumed to be a close approximation to the truth, and capable of giving approxi-
mate values of the normal variation of temperature with height. The departure
in the projected curve of observed temperatures from the assumed curve of
normal temperatures in these diagrams indicated the places and the amounts of
disturbance. The next step was the reading from these curves the tempe-
rature at every thousand feet, and in this way the next Tables were formed.
The numbers in the first column show the height in feet, beginning at 0 feet
and increasing upwards ; the numbers in the second column show the interval
of time in ascending to the highest point; the notes in the third column show
the circumstances of the observations; the numbers in the fourth and fifth
columns the observations and the approximate normal temperature of the air ;
and those in the next column the difference between the two preceding
columns, or the most probable effect of the presencé of cloud or mist on the
temperature, or of other disturbing causes in operation.
The next group of columns are arranged similarly for the descent, and the
other groups for succeeding ascents and descents.
444A rEePort—1862.
Taste I1I.—Showing the Temperature of the Air, as read off the curve
drawn through the observed temperatures, and as read off the curve of
most probable normal temperature, called adopted temperature, and the
calculated amount of disturbance from the assumed law of decrease of
temperature.
Temperature of the Air.
Ascending. Descending.
Height, in feet, |
Sovelod the oat ck ob Gated [pet Ob ‘ated
° etween Circum- = Adopted ate | between Cirew ad Adopted ate
° seryed Pree effect of cum P
dimes. |*N€2S-| temp, | *™P- |‘Gsturb«| times. | *B0°5-| fempe | teMP- (Steeurb
ance. ance.
July 17. 9 9 ° : 9 °
26000 16:0 | 16°0 00 | 16"0-| 16°90 oo
25000 1670 | 160 o'0 | 180 | 17°72 |+ 08
24000 16°3 | 16:0 |+ o8 26°0 | 18°5 75
23000 17a9 - | Od 1°8 27°99 | 19°8 8-1
22000 19°5 | 16°2 2°3il = | 28-1 | 21-0 ar
21000 2 24°1 | 16°8 7°3\| + 28°5 | 2275 6:0
20000 r=] a= A271 | 1750 151 3 “3 286 | 23°9 47
19000 a a) eke pian Wie Gre} 22°2 B =e 28°38 | 25°0 3°8
18000 a = 35°2. | 17:8 17°4 3 = 29°0 | 26:2 2°8
17000 « 2 32°7 | 1870 14°7 » ; 292 | 27°38 14
16000 =| 31°9 | 18°5 134 5 29°5 | 2970 1+ 0o°5
15000 S 21-2 1G 5 12°7 | 5 30°5 | 30°5 o'o
14000 3 29°5 | 20°71 9°4.| a ars" | 140s oo
13000 a 26°76) 20°75 52) 8 33°70: | 33°O O70
12000 5 25°9 | 22°3 gO) 8 34°5 | 34°5 oro
I1000 = 26:0 | 24°0 20 a iy 360 | 36°0 o"o
10000 aL 26:2 | 26°0 o2|| 6 Gy NBG a aiEs (oho)
gooo g 29°70 | 290 [oKe) 4g 2
8000 © 32-0 =| 3270 fone) 5 =
7000 Fa rs | 36°75 | 36°5 ool] *
6000 a & 34°38 | 41°0 6-2
5000 Sa(93953).| 452 59
4000 4355/6 | Sao 6°5
3000 “ 479 | 54°8 gt
2000 oie) | 25h Hees 73
1000 5 = 569 | 6471 Be
° 61°5 | 7o.o |+ 8°5]|
July 17.—The departure in this ascent from a regular progression is very
remarkable. Below the cloud the decrease of temperature was pretty well
uniform ; on passing out of it there was an increase of 6°, and then the decrease
was resumed. At 10,000 feet the temperature was 26°, and there was no
change in the next 3000 feet; then a very remarkable increase took place,
till at 19,500 feet with a temperature of 42° the rise was checked, and then
declined rapidly to 16° at 5 miles high. In the descent a disturbance from
the regular increase of temperature was met with at the height of 24,000
feet, and continued to 17,000 feet; at 13,000 feet clouds were reached, and
no observations were taken below 10,000 feet.
The dense clouds which covered the earth caused an apparent loss of
temperature of about 81°; and the effect of a warm current of air, which
was first met with at the height of 11,000 feet, amounted, at 19,500 feet,
to fully 25° warmer than would have been had this intermediate current of
warm air not existed. The excess of warmth is shown at the different
elevations of 1000 feet in the 6th column of the Table for this day.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 445
Tasce IIT. (continued.)
Temperature of the Air.
Ascending. Descending.
Siac macon ; | cal
u- | aicu-
level of the sea. |Between|q: 4] Ob- | abated tae ‘Between! oircum-| 2%-, | adopted! lated
giiat |stances| S204 Meu, fet ol gst Stance] eed (temp. (ie
ance. ance.
July Shh ° ° ° ° ° °
7000 ° 50 42-8 | 33 =e 44°0} 44:0 o"o
6000 = d 43°5| 45°5|— 2°0 = z oe 46°0|} 46:0 oo
5000 2s, | Misty.| 48-2] 48:2 oo eS => 47°4| 47°4 oo
4000 4,2, 520] 508 )/4+ 12] Ou | «- 4972| 492] oo
3000 a< 52°7| 53°2|— OS] ga | -* | 541] 54°F) 0
2000 9 tn 59°5| 57°\+ 2°5|| & - Ar 59:21) | 5972 o°o
1000 2 62°9} 62°9 oro} * a 63°72) 63°2 role)
° 707 |) \JO"7 oo = 68:0] 68-0 oo
August 18.
12000 | rs ee vs ‘ i) : ee oe .
11000 E S38 | 392| 380l+-r2]| ¢ rc 4r2| 38-0|+ 3:2
10000 x So | 418] 39°5 ZEB” Rin 44°5| 40°0 45
gooo a #2 | 440] 408 3:2|| = = 46°5| 46°3| 47
8000 4% ego) | 45:2:|1 4200 F°0, S ‘ 50°0| 44°0 6:0
7000 Ss z= 46°1| 438 pes) 8 5 54°0| 46:0 4:0
6000 g 29 4772| 45°0 Zp S we 53°5| 48:0 5°5
5000 s | 82] 485] 465) 20] 4% 52°7| 51°0| 1-7
4000 ~ |2e| 499) 492)/+ 97] + . 541] 53°5|+ 06
3000 g I ° 52°8| 52°8 oo|| 7A oe 56°0| 5670 oo
Bose 3) See SHES. 5745 oro}| .*
1000 22 | 62:9] 62°9| ool| 8 oe
° mo 79°9| 70°9 foyfe) .
On descending, a warm current of air was entered at the height of 24,000
feet, and extended downwards to 16,000 or 17,000 feet, and the calculated
effect of this is shown in the 11th or last column on July 17, on the opposite
page.
July 30.—There were alternately warm and cold currents at different
elevations, as the balloon passed down the valley of the Thames; the depar-
ture from the curved line which was made to pass through the observed
readings when laid on a large diagram, at times was from 1° to 3° in excess,
and at other times nearly as much in defect; but in the descent, which was
rather rapid, there were no disturbing causes in operation. The amounts of
disturbance in the ascent will be seen at each 1000 feet in the preceding
Table.
On August 18 the temperature of the air decreased as usual on leaving the
earth, until at the height of 4000 feet the rapidity of the decrease was arrested,
and a warm current of air met with, which continued till the height of 11,500
feet was reached, when the balloon turned to descend, when the same warm
current was passed, extending to the same limits ; and was met with again on
the re-ascension, at about the same distance from the earth, and found to extend
to the height of 14,000 feet, when the regular diminution was resumed, and
afterwards continued to the highest point reached: on the second descent,
the same warm current of air was again met with, and continued till clouds
were reached at the height of 6500 feet, which caused another interruption
in the regular increase of temperature, as is usual in entering cloud from
above, The temperatures of the air at every 1000 feet, as observed, were
4.46
REPORT——1862.
Tasie III. (continued.)
Height, in feet,
above the mean
level of the sea. |Between
August 18.
23000
22000
21009
20000
19000
18000
17000
16000
15000
14000
13000
12000
11000
10000
gooo
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
°
_—_—- le
August 20.
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
°
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
°
what
times.
From 1" 48™ to 24 59™ p.m.
From 65 26™
to 65 47™ p.m.
From 75 21™
to 85 5™ p.m.
Temperature of the Air.
Ascending.
: Ob-
Cc - Adopted
stances Soe | tem
° °
v. 24°0| 24:0
a9 24°2| 24°2
. 24°4) 24°4
a 24°6| 24°6
oe 25°7| 25:0
oe 3r0| 260
oe 27°2| 2972
oe 28°83 28°8
ae 30°8| 30°8
. 33°5| 328
on 37°5| 349
a 40°5| 37:0
oe 45°0| 389
a 49°5| 410
ate 50°7| 43°2
a 510] 4572
os 52°38 | 47°8
' 54°7| 49°8
“5 52:0] 5270
aD 541) 541
<n 56:0} 56:0
In
cloud.| .. He
49°8| 498
|Under} 53°83] 53:8
cloud.| 58:0} 58-0
° 62°5| 62°5
a 67°4| 67°4
¢ 45°6| 45°6
2 49°2) 49°2
532} 53°2
= 56:3| 56:8
576| 57°6
Calcu-
lated
effect of
disturb-
ance.
|Between
what
times.
turd 4.9 yh 04 yO yf Mog
Descending.
Ob ea
|\Circum- y ate
stances. served — peed
ance,
° °
24°0 oo
24°4 o'0
25°2 oo
26°0 o'o
cs 27°0 00
a 28°0 o'o
= 29°0 o°o
°, 30°0 o'0
= 3I°0 oo
= 32'2 oo
34°0 [oho
36-5 |+ 2:0
39°2 o8
42°0 4°0
448) 34
47°2 28
50°5 | 0°5
=| 53°38 oo
In 56-0 oo
cloud. 62°0|— 8:8
S rebbor te
= 7 53
25 76°5| 11°7
| 83:0 |—14°0
In
cloud
48°38 o'o
Under 51°6 [oxe)
cloud 54°6 loKe)
we 57°6
laid down on a diagram, from which the values of the temperature at every
1000 feet, as shown in the preceding Table, with the approximate amount
of the disturbance caused by the warm currents of air, were read.
August 20.—The clouds were not passed; at heights above 3500 feet the
balloon ascended and descended repeatedly. In this ascent there was no
marked interruption to the regular decrease of temperature with increase of
height. |
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 44.7
Tas rE III. (continued.)
Temperature of the Air.
Ascending, Descending.
Height, in feet, sa ee
= ated |B ob eel
sea. |Between| ,. - ate etween|,- = ate
what |Citcum-| ...7oq |Adopted |Circum-| , Adopted
times, | Stnces. temp, pnd Guehe due. RpSneeRs rig penis isturb.
ance, ance.
August 21. é a fs = = Rn
14000 D7 ale [olze) 23°F) 2359 role)
13000 5 S 24°0| 24°0 oo r= a 26:0} 26:0 oo
12000 2 5 26:2} 26-2 role) 3 g 29°2| 29°2 o'o
IIcoo a = 29°0| 29°0 oo 5 Fa 925%) 3acr oo
10000 cre eo 3r8| 31-8] ool] aoe = 35°6| 35%6| oro
go0o 4 2 34°3) 34°3| ool] & & | 391) 394] oo
8000 2 | 374) 3741 coll 2 (=|) azo) ag] Mee
7000 + 412] 412 oxo) S In 46°5| 46:5 o°0
6000 ie In 40°0| 45°0;— 50]| ~$ |cloud.| 40°5| 5o0°0|/— 9°5
5000 SS |cloud.| 4375} 49:0 Bis s = 43°5| 54:0] 10°5
4000 + 47°72] 53:0 5°8 || 3 2, 47°09! 58:0| I1'0
3000 z §ro| 5771 63|| 2 g 50:1} 62°6| 12°5
2000 gz |Below| 545] 61-7; 72] 8 ps 54:0] 67°6| 13°6
1900 cloud.| 58:0} 66:0 8-0 || oS 58'0| 73°6| 15°6
° 61°8| Joo|— 8-2 | 5 62°0| 79'°0|—17°0
September 1r.| , g a
4000 oe 47°5| 47°5| ool 2F 46°5| 46:
g ae ar 5 robre)
3000 2.8, | << 50°7| 50°7 Qo} 78 : 48°5| 48-5 oo
2000 PP es o 54°5| 54°5 O70 || “Bu oe 515] 51°5 fhe)
1000 ew o 5972} 59°72 O0}) Sw
° = S “ 65°7| 65°7 oo! BS
. bo,
sooo | a8 | 228 zie
gooo | fg |Esze| 535] 53°5| 0 g=&| 53°5| 535] . oo
2000 g© 23/5 é 54°0| 54°0 [ohe) a: s
1000 ° % |3 er Ess
° FS |ése : 5 EE
2 1 oe
August 21.—The sky was cloudy, and the decrease of temperature was
nearly uniform till the clouds were reached; on passing through them the
usual increase of temperature took place to the amount of about 5°; then
there was no particular interruption till the height of nearly 3 miles was
passed; at this elevation the balloon continued for half an hour, during
which time the temperature increased 3 or 4 degrees. In the descent no
marked interruption was experienced from a regular increase of temperature till,
the clouds were entered; on passing through them a decrease of temperature
of 10° was experienced, and after this the regular increase was resumed—the
same temperatures being met with at the same elevations as in the ascent.
The increase of temperature therefore experienced above the clouds, as the
sun rose, had not penetrated in the least degree below the clouds; therefore
the effect of the presence of cloud in the descent was much larger than in the
ascent, as will be seen in the Table.
September 1.—The sky was covered with cirrostratus clouds which were
never reached; there was no marked interruption in the regular decrease of
temperature either in the ascent or descent; at the time of the second ascent
the balloon was situated between two layers of clouds, and rain was falling
upon it, which had the effect of equalizing the temperature, as no change of
temperature took place in ascending from 1000 feet to 3000 feet. The curves
448 REPORT—1862.
Taste ITT. (continued.)
Temperature of the Air.
Ascending. Descending.
Height, in feet,
Tevel of the sea. [pet ob “ated. |B ob “ated.
+ |Between!,- - ate: etween|,.- - ate
what |CHCUM-| oped Adopted | roct of h Circum-| ... Adopted
dimes. |t8nees.) femmn, | fEMP- |iseurb-|/ dunes. (SEDCES-! ern, | EMP. | Teta.
ance. ance.
September 5. FA - 5 k 2 3S
29000 — 53/— 573 oo
28000 — 45/— 45 foo)
27000 — 36/— 36 oo
26000 — 2°6|— 2°6 o'0 |
25000 — 16\— 16 foe) ee [— 2°0/— 2°0 foe)
24000 : o70}— o°5 |+ 0'5 — o79/— o'9 o"o
23000 + 2:2/+ ro|+ 12) oe [12/4 12 oo
22000 4°6 2°5 21 | ae 8-0 3°3\+ 47
21000 3 7-2, 4°5 OF os 14'0 els 8-5
20000 = i toro} 675] ~ 975 | “4 16:8) A727" cxo7x
19000 a = 15"0 g'0 6:0 f os 17°5| 10'o 75
18000 a cs) T5r§ | Ess 4/0 3 ° 1728) F276 58
17000 a © 16°38] 14:0 2°8|| 6B oe 17°38] 14°8 3°0
16000 “4 = 17°5| 165/+ ro} & Sc 180] 17°5|-+ o5
15000 = <= 19°5| 19°5 ool] oe 20°0|. 20°0 oo
14000 a 22°0| 22°0 oo 3 a 22r eae ak oo
13000 « 24°5| 24°5| ool & 46 25°0| 25:0} ovo
12000 = 27:0] 2770; ool] & ‘ 27°38| 278] oo
11000 S 29°38) 29°8 o'0 | S oe 30°5] 30°5 "0
10000 & gztz,|\/ °9272, oo} oe 33°70] 33°0 oo
gooo 35°0| 3570 oo} § oe 361} 3671 oo
8000 38°5) 38°5 oye | (aa oe 38°7| 38°7 oo
7000 33°9| 42°0|— 81 ee 414] 41°4 oo
6000 ——| 370| 46:0 g'0 | oe 44°5] 44°5 070
5000 a 40°8| 50°0 92 ee 4772) 4772 oo
4000 2 44°38) 54°5 9°7 oe 50°0| 50°0 foe)
3000 cs) 48:9] 6070] 11°1| ee 53°0| 53°0 o'o
2000 = 53°70] 65:0] 12°0 os 56°0| 56°0 oo
1000 ne, yee) | 70°0)|. Tas ae 59'2| 5972 oo
° a 62:0} 77°2|—15°2 -% 62°6| 62°6|* oo
of observed and adopted temperatures were laid down on a diagram, and the
temperatures at each 1000 feet as taken from the diagram are inserted in the
preceding Tables.
September 5.—In this ascent on passing out of the clouds there was an
increase of 9°, and then there was no interruption in the decrease of tempe-
rature till the height of 15,500 feet was reached, when a warm current of
air was entered and continued to 24,000 feet, after which the regular decrease
of temperature continued to the highest point reached. On descending, the
same warm current was again met with between 22,000 and 23,000 feet, and
a similar interruption, but to a greater amount, was experienced till the
balloon had descended to about the same height as it was reached on
ascending ; after this there was no further interruption in the regular increase
of temperature, the sky being clear till the descent was completed. An
inspection of the Table will show the locality and extent of the warm current
of air and the temperature at every 1000 feet both in the ascent and descent,
with the probable amount of the increase of temperature caused by the warm
stratum of air, and also the probable amount of loss of heat under the clouds
caused by their presence,
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 44.9
Taste III. (continued).
Temperature of the Air.
Ascending. Descending.
Height, in feet, j j
itd the mean | Caleu- Calcu-
evel of the sea. |Between|_. Ob- lated _||Between| ,,- Ob- lated
what ae served ee a effect of || what pees served Adopted effect of
times *| temp. P+ | disturb-|| times, | St7¢es- temp. | *°™P> | disturb-
| ance. | ance.
September 8. : 5 # a “ 3 4 é
5000 # g | Above 50°O} S50°0 OO || oO = Above oa 511
4.000 Fa — 52°7 52°7 oo || “3 cloud. ote 50°3
3000 el spond S6"4 56°4. | ooll es In cloud
2000 = 61°0| 61°0 oro |] fur
a a
1000 ot |Below} 65:1} 6571 oo] 9,
° Fo |cloud.| 69:0} 690 oro|| *
5000 5 g ic ale 55 °Sche~ wie SF se Ad 51°4
4000 o ee oe . 52°5 | oe 33 oe oe 512
3000 = &, . os oe 34 oe ve 53°9
2000 On an an . a aS ee a 56°5
1000 £4, p ats as oe PB) oe “t 60°2
° ge oe ele ts - 5 ve oe 64:8
September 8.—The sky was cloudy, and the decrease of temperature was
nearly uniform, and there was no marked interruption in the regular decrease
of temperature on descending.
The next Table has been formed by taking the difference between conse-
cutive numbers in the preceding Tables, in each of the several ascents. The
disturbances on July 17 were so great and the results so different from
those on the other days of experiments, that no use has been made of the
results, other than inserting them in the Table.
1862, 25
450 ae REPORT—1862.
Taste 1Y.—Showing the Decrease of Temperature
July 17. | July 30. | August 18. | August 20.
Pac nore State of the Sky.
sea.
Cloudy. Clear. | Cloudy. Clear. Cloudy.
ae Be ae 6S Gels ie Pes 2
sla e)/2¢)2|2¢)e8]4] 421%
From To <4 a 2 a 3 a < A < a
ft. ft. ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
28000 | 29000 : a wae ac age cee Ses eee
27000|28000] .., aoe eee aaa aR ae ae aan ees eae
26000|27000} ... =O. 7a: on aaa aE ea ogy & eee == eee
|25000|26000| oo 12 ods on are sce tae age na «aa
24000 |25000} 0o°o 1°3 sae oat Ke nee oo fa ive eee
23000|24000] ov! 00 | Wee ae ae og sae age ese ase
22000 |23000} o*l 12 re ons nas on o2 o"4 tee one
21000 |22000| 0°6 I5 oe ee eee eee O72 08 eee see
20000|21000] 02 14 aa ave ase eee oz o°8 nas eee
19000 | 20000] 073 Il sla oes wie eee o4 I'0 ane oe
18000| 19000] 05 12 BSc ase - oe Io I'o ae on
17000] 18000] o2 1°6 Hr ae Sen ene r2 170 eee ove
16000} 17000] 05 12 oe ane = eee 16 I'o wee eee
15000 | 16000 I°o i5 A Fe sae ae 2'0 I°o eee we eee
| 14000/15000| 0°6 1'0 ae 54 sep tee 2°0 12 eee eee
13000|I4000} 1°4 ita a a ane eve eh 1°8 ee ese
12000] 13000] 0°8 ton eae eae nee “or 2:1 2°5 aee oe
II000|1I2000|] 1°7 15 nas — op ae I'9 27 ane
10000] I1000| 2°0 Tool akere cae 1'°5 2°0 IS 28 : ene
9000|Ioo00] 3:0 | ... |] ... cer 1°3 1:8 |) “2:2, |" 28 sue oe
8000] gooo} 3:0 are ee Ar 1'2 2°2 20 24 eee oe
7000} 8000} 4°5 = “on ces 1°8 2"0 2°6 a4 ae eve
6000} 7000} 4°5 27 | 2°6 Ia | 2:6) | 26 3°3 eee tee
5000| 6000} 42 2°7 14 I'5 30 2°2 4°0 ods eae
4000] 5000] 4:8 2°6 18 27 2°5 a1 4:0 ea ae 3°
3000 4000 48 2°4. 49 3°6 2°5 I'9 45 40 2°83 4
2000} 3000/ 5°0 3°83 Sr 47 eee vee gr 50 30 ct
1000] 2000] 43 59 4°0 54 oes -o 49 4°5 ove
©} 000} 5°9 7°38 4:8 8-0 eee a 6°5 49 eee
A glance at this Table shows that, without exception, the numbers at the
lower elevations are very much larger, in all states of the sky, than those at
the higher, and therefore that the changes of temperature are much larger
near the earth, for equal increment of elevation, than far from it.
Also by comparing the numbers at low elevations with cloudy and clear
skies, those with the former are much smaller than those with the latter,
and therefore the decrease of temperature with increase of elevation is larger
with a clear than with a cloudy sky.
By taking the mean of the results at every stratum of 1000 feet, omitting
those belonging to July 17, we haye—
Ascending.
‘ in every 1000 fect of elevation up to 29,000 feet.
|
August 21. |
Cloudy.
|
Ascending.
Descending.
reel
.
ae
2°2 32
2°8 2°9
28) 3°5
Se 3°
31 | 38
3°38 | 36
38 | 3°5
4° | 40
4° | 40
41 | 46
46 | 50
43 | 54
4°0 6'0
Up to
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862.
September 1.
September 5.
September 8, |
State of the Sky.
|
Partially Cloudy. iain Cloudy. Cloudy.
a al oS | 2 a ea
B= | A: s ae Es}
oes 3. | ge | a eg
z g 3 3 g 3
< A < a < A
° ° ce) ° ° ie)
08 ace a
0'9 ss ts
I‘o aoe ss
I‘o aed vee
I'l I'l : :
R Ee 2° a
ee rs 2°I Be
“Fe oe 2°0 22 *s
dae ae 2°0 2°2 “
see a 2°5 2°3 are
onc ee 25 2°0 eee
eee Ze 2°8 . see
«os 2:3 2, | ieeae mee
ae Het |p eon | eee nee
one 2°5 2°5 || te
* 2°5 2oB I ees ice
: Zine | ace” posts sp
see 2°8 > Jes dnd | Valuer 5 .
ee 24 2°5 * oes
- 2°83 3°1 eee rn
Sse ar 26 sas F
| a5 2°7 eae Gee
Bre} Sass 4/0 Boia (lier 3
co Fi eee 4/0 27% Wl Ws0 *
aes is ace 3°5 2°8 Me Ae
32 | 2°0 a55 370 37. 27
«lal oie go nme Kan Wl cD | ic: din Gi
47 see oh 3°2 41 = fifi
6'5 72 | 34 |} 39 | 46 |
Cloudy.
Clear.
At heights less
than 5000 feet.
a Pe Peis ss i. <gis eee Suto mae
WMmdb wants * * 1 ay es 2 @ °
SU ss
NE aro! *
Tae Mran Decrease oF TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR
When the Sky was Cloudy,
1000 feet was 4°-5 from 7 experiments, or 1° in
From 1000 to 2000
?
From 2000 to 3000 __,,
From 3000 to 4000
From 4000 to 5000
These results do not differ very grea
3?
2)
4°-2
3° 1
9 7 3) 9 32
”? 10 9 33 3)
re. 10 2? 29 9)
”? 6 39 ” 33
tly from the law of de
451
Mean (omitting July 17),
Clear.
Number
of ex-
At heights periments.
exceeding
5000 feet.
eS |
* 6
ee!
-
NN OOD
Berke RRO pcm cK OOMNAAAARARADR AAR DY NH HH
Anam nn
2292 feet.
239 feet.
244 feet.
271 feet.
323 feet.
crement of tem-
| perature, as found from observations on mountain-sides, viz. 1° in 300 feet.
Up to
From 1000 to 2000
| From 2000 to 3000
From 3000 to 4000
From 4000 to 5000
When the Sky was partially Clear,
1000 feet was 7°-2 from 5 experiments, or 1° in 139 feet.
5°38
4°°6
3B°4
2-9
39
2
9
??
S> ST OF On
3?
189 feet.
254 feet,
295 feet.
345 feet,
2H2
452 REPORT—1862.
These results differ considerably from those found in a cloudy sky, and
doubtless the difference between experiments carried on under a cloudless
sky at these elevations would differ still more. They do not at all confirm
the law of gradation of temperature of 1° in 300 feet.
Tur DECREASE OF THE TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR
At heights exceeding 5000 feet.
feet. feet. i e
From 5,000 to 6,000 was 2-8 from 10 experiments, or 1 in 357 feet.
33 6,000 33 7,000 39 2:8 33 33 32> 33 357 3?
39 7,000 9° 8,000 99 2-7 ” 33 3? 99 370 3?
bP) 8,000 39 9,000 39 26 33 ” bP) 3”? 384 ?
> 9,000 ” 10,000 9 26 ”? 3”) ” 33 384 3”?
3? 10,000 > 11,000 oF 26 3? ”? >> 99 384 >?
3) 11,000 3? 12,000 9 2°6 99 bP. 3? 33 384 ””
», 12,000 ,, 13,000 ,, 25 ,, ” » » 400.--,,
9 13,000 ” 14,000 3) 2:2 2) 33 Lh | 33 455 3
” 14,000 ” 15,000 ” 21 ” ” ” ” 477 ”
3) 15,000 3”) 16,000 9 21 3) ” bP) 39 477 33
39 16,000 ” 17,000 39 33 Ped 33 527 39
»> 17,000 ,, 18,000 _,, 556 ,,
», 18,000 ;, 19,000 ,, 3 93! 370 ile a OE
99 19,000 bes 20,000 9 39 9? 9 39 667 ”
» 20,000 ,, 21,000 ,, z 39° day “29 Biple EC
3? 21,000 2? 22,000 9? 2) 39 3) 771 3”
55 22,000 ,, 23,000 ,,
»» 23,000 ,, 24,000 ,,
» 24,000 ,, 25,000 ,,
», 25,000 ,, 26,000. ,,
», 26,000 ,, 27,000. ,,
»» 27,000 ,, 28,000 ,, ae tee ee
” 28,000 ,, 29,000 _,, 08 ,, ” ” » 1250 ,,
These results follow almost in sequence with those found with the partially
clear sky, and together show that a change of temperature of 1° takes place in
139 feet near the earth, and that it requires fully 1000 feet, for a change of 1°,
at the height of 30,000 feet ; the intermediate heights require a gradually
increasing space between these limits to its elevation, and plainly indicate
that the theory of a decline of temperature of 1° for every 300 feet of ascent
must be abandoned.
By adding successively together the decrease due to each 1000 feet, we
have the whole decrease of temperature from the earth to the different ele-
vations ;—
” ” 6 ADR) 95
” ” ” 771 ”
” ” ap «OOD ovigy
” ” 9» 1000" ,,
” ” »> 20005 :,,
Paracas eical sewers
SOF WOWWODOSO
S
i)
io}
PH HENNA ERE RARBRARRDHODM DO
ft. feet. a feet.
From 0 to 1,000 the decrease was 7:2, or 1° on the average of 139
2 2,000 # 12:5 me 160
x 3,000 a alot i. 176
os 4,000 iv 20:5 ss 195
“ 5,000 ds 23-2 4 211
ss 6,000 5 26-0 fe 230
zn 7,000 sf 28-8 P: 243
$5 8,000 s 31:5 af 254
js 9,000 5 34-1 Ft 263
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 453
ft. feet. z feet.
From 0 to 10,000 the decrease was 36:7, or 1° on the average of 272
id 11,000 u 39°3 es 279
i; 12,000 % 41:9 i. 286
<3 13,000 ifs 44-4 a 293
i 14,000 ¢ 46-6 ia 300
. 15,000 a 48-7 Bs 308
3 16,000 “ 50°8 m8 314
Re 17,000 a 52-7 z 322
As 18,000 ao 54:5 nf 330
Fy: 19,000 - 56:3 Ee 337
4 20,000 i 57°8 = 346
% 21,000 4 59-1 ee 355
2 22,000 on 61:4 i 358
a 23,000 is 62-4 sf 368
as 24,000 ae 63:7 5s 377
M 25,000 <3 64:8 s 386
* 26,000 + 65:°8 i 396
- 27,000 * 66:8 = 404
= 28,000 fe 67-7 3 413
_ 29,000 + 68°5 23 423
3 30,000 70-0 he 428
These results, showing the whole decrease of temperature with different
elevations, differ considerably from those which would be found on the sup-
position of a decline of 1° of temperature for every 300 feet. The observed
decrease in the first 1000 feet, viz. 7°-2, is more than double of that given on
this supposition, viz. 3°°3, and the observed values are all greater at the
lower elevation ; but the difference between the two becomes less and less, till
at the height of 14,000 feet they agree. At greater elevations they again
differ, but in the contrary way, the observed values being now the smaller,—
the differences between the two increasing with increased elevation, till at
30,000 feet the difference amounts to no less than 30°—the observed values
showing a decline of 70°, and theory a decline of 100°.
The numbers in the last column show the average increment of height for
a decline of 1°, as found by using the temperatures of the extremities of the
column alone; and they do not differ much from those found by Gay-Lussae,
Rush and Green, and Welsh, at the same elevations.
At 14,000 feet the average is the same as that of theory, viz. 1° in 300
feet; and certain it is, in any balloon ascent exceeding 8000 feet, where the
average decrement is 1° in 254 feet of ascent, and up to 20,000 feet, where
the average is 355 feet, that such results would have been looked upon as
generally confirming the above theory, and hence the necessity of including
observations before leaving and near to the earth, and extending them to the
highest point possible.
Respecting the rate of the decrease of temperature with height, it is
abundantly evident that much uncertainty would always prevail, how great
soever the accumulation of observations of mountain temperature might be, and
the only means of determining this important element is by balloon ascents.
In the preceding Table it will be seen that the decrease of temperature in
the first 5000 feet exceeds 23°, and that even in cloudy states of the sky it
amounts to 20°. So large a decrease of temperature taking place, whether
the sky be clear or cloudy, within the first 5000 feet of the earth, it became
very desirable, and indeed necessary, to ascertain how this change of tempe-
454. REPORT—1862.
rature is distributed: for this purpose all the observations of the temperature of
the air taken within this distance of the earth were laid down upon large dia-
grams; a curved line was made to pass through or near them, and the reading
at every 100 feet was taken from these curves, and those at every even hundred
were inserted in the following Tables, as well as those from the projected
curves as found by joining the observations themselves, and in this way the
following Tables were formed :—
Taste V.—Showing the Mean Temperature of the Air at every 200 feet up
to 5000 feet.
Temperature of the Air.
Ascending.
Height, in feet, j
Jovel OF the ncn. [Betw ob-_| ‘ated
Hee * }Petween! circum- =, |Adopted| |<
what rved t
tuniea! stances. com | temp. Meets
ance.
July 17. @ Jie °
5000 = 39)3)| 95 ee
4800 2 40°4| 40°4 oro
4600 a) 414) 41°4 o’o
4400 mo 42°4,) 42°4 oo
42.08 AS 4 43 4 o"o
4000 ———— | 445| 4a5 oo
3800 z 45°2| 45°2 o"o
3600 a 46°0| 46°0 o"o
3400 cy 46'9| 469) oro
3200 » 47°38! 47°38 foe)
3000 ax 48°6| 48°6 o"o
2800 ° 494) 494) oro
2600 - 50°3| 50°3| oto
2400 = ro 51°0| 5§1°0 oo
2200 a & Pe GO A Os 7 oo
2000 Ss S 52°5| 52°5 o°o
1800 = 3 53°4| 53°4 o*o
1600 8 iS 54°3| 54°3| oo
1400 ° 55°2| 55°2 o*o
1200 ee 56°0| 56:0 o"o
roco 56°9| 56°9 oo
800 a7 7 | Sf? | see
600 58°6| 58° o"o
400 59°51" 59°5 on
200 60°5| 60°5 o"0
° 61°5| 61°5 o"o
July 17.—The results are dependent upon the observations before leaving the
earth, joined to those taken at and above 3800 feet; but they accord with
others under the same state of the sky, indicating an almost uniformly de-
creasing temperature until the thick cloud was reached.
July 30.—The fluctuations on this day are better shown here than in the
preceding section ; there seem to have been no fewer than four or five dif-
ferent strata, on this day, within 7000 feet of the earth, experienced during
the ascent and passage of the balloon till the time of descent, which
was rapid, and during which the increase of temperature was gradual
throughout.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862, 455
Taste V. (continued.)
Temperature of the Air.
Ascending. Descending.
Height, in feet,
es Between Ob- | ioe | Betwe Ob ve
Bye etween) Cireum- Adopted Bie etween! Circum- ~, |Adoptea| ate
ra stances. — temp. paint ee stances. pat te : : ean
ance. ance,
July 30- ° ° ° ° o °o
5000 Misty | 48°2| 482 oo Se ArT) Aven oo
4800 “js 482] 48°3|/— 06 EA 47°6| 47°6 oo
4600 . 49°7| 493 |+ 04 . 47°9| 47°99] oro
4400 Ac 50°9| 49°38 or te 48°2| 482 oo
4200 ile hr isi) Coe 1°4 oF 48°6| 48°6 oo
4.000 A ee 52°70} 50°38 | 12 ar 49°2| 492 o*o
3800 A 50°6| 51°2|— 06 2 Ss 49°9| 49°9 o"o
3600 an xe 50°F |S 17 1°O = : 50°99} 50°9 o"0
34.00 A es BIG hz" o'7 a ® 52°0| 52°0 o’o
3200 = a Gara tes 258 o6 || ss 53°0| 53°0 o"0
3000 =n es B27 3.2 o°5 a oe 54°1| 54°1 oo
2800 2 of 53°72] 53°38 06 || 3 ¢. 55°2:| 55:2) OG
2600 Fy : 53°7| 54°6|/— og|| B oo 56°3| 5673 fore)
2400 ey 57°) 553|+ 17) a 57 3) ‘5758 9°o
2200 | “¢ 59°0| 56°0 3°0 Ss ee 58°2| 582 fohge)
2000 ™ =e 59°5| 57°0 ro Ne uk se 59°2| 59°2 o"0
1800 ae te 6o'o| = 58°1 I'9 °, Ss 60°0| 60'o oo
1600 g - 6o'9| 59° 1°7 |} eg = 60'9| 60°9 o'o
1400 ¢ : 61'°9| 60'2 r7\| B Se 615) 61°5 o'o
1200 a © 62°70} 61°6/+ o4/]] ~ at) 62°2| 62°2 oo
1000 5 62°9| 62°9] oro se 63°2| 63:2 foXe)
800 oe 64°0| 64'0 o"o ia 64°2| 6472 oo
600 SL 65'2| 65°2 foyve) ve 65°1| 6571 (oe)
400 << 66°3| 66°38 o"o ee 66:0| 66°0 o'o
200 ce 68°6| 68°6 oo pe 67°0| 67°0 o"o
° ae 70°7| 70°7 o°o on 68°0| 68°0 o'o
August 18. 2
5000 3 48°5| 485} oo s | 495] 49°55} oro
4800 3 48°83] 48°83 oo Ss 50°2| 5o0'2 oo
4600 Ps 49°70] 49°0 oo 2 51°0| 51’0 oo
4400 & | 492} 492] ovo & | 518) 518] oro
4200 < 49°5} 49°5 ee 5275) 52°55 oo
4000 : 49°9} 49°9 Sole, |= S32) ae oo
3800 BN on 50°4| 504) oo] @ 540} 5470] v0
3600 a |29 335] 509] 50°9 90 5 54°9| 54°9 oo
3400 BA cg geal SL Spor wls5 |. PO ae 557| 55°7| 00
3200 eta SO! 522] 522 ool] w 5675] 56°5 oo
3000 mM 53°0| 53°0| ool] %& 572] 57°72] o0
2800 & 53°7| 53°7| ool] 3 579| 57°9| oo
2600 F 54°6| 54°6 oo|| B = 58°7| 58:7 oo
2400 = 556) 556) ool F 2 | 594] 594] 90
2200 Py 56°6| 56°6 o7o|| op g 60°2| 60-2 oo
2000 Ga 57°5| 57°5 G:0)|||8 ea = 61-0] 61-0 foe)
1800 4, a 584) 584 oo 8 So 61°7| 61-7 [oWe}
1600 4 is 59°5| 59°5| ool] PB 5 62°4| 624] oo
14.00 ° E 60°4| 604 oo B 63°1| 6371 [oXe)
1200 = a 61:7} 63-7 oho) 64°0| 64:0 oo
1000 Q 6279] 62°9 Coho) 64°3| 64:8 (oho)
800 | 6474) 644} oro 65°7| 65°7| 00
600 66:0} 66°0 o°o 66°5| 6675 o"o
400 67°6| 67°6 o"o 67°3| 6773 oo
200 69'2| 69°2 oo 68:1| 68-x oo
° 7o°'9| 709} oo 69°0| 69°0] oo
456
REPORT—1862.
TaBieE V. (continued.)
| Height, in feet,
| above the mean
Temperature of the Air.
level of the sea. | Between
|
August 20.
4200
4000
3800
| 3600
| 3400
3200
| 3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
°
5000
4800
4600
4400
4200
4000
3800
3600
3400
3200
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
| 1800
1600
1400
what
times.
From 6" 5™ p.m. to 6" 47™ p.m.
From 7" 20™ p.m. to 745 47™ p.m.
Pp 47 Pp
Ascending.
Circum-
stances.
Below cloud.
In
cloud.
Below cloud.
Caleu-
lated
oo |
Descending.
Caleu-
Between Circum-| .OP-, | Adopted lated ;
whal serve t
times. |St@C&S-| t¢ Pp ve ieee
ance,
° ° °
48°4| 484] oro
48°83) 48-8 oo
4971) 49°71 o"o
49°6| 49°6| oo
z 50"2) - 50% oo
g 50°9| 50°9| ovo
> Sx6) 5a°h oo
rq wo 2-2 | 5222 oo
2 52°9| 52°9 fohre)
Ley 4 53:3} -.5373 oro
5 eo | 540] 5470] oo
% = 54°6| 54°6| oo
= = 552} 552 oo
“
2
nv
fe)
3
4
B
————— |
Height, in feet,
above the mean
level of the sea. |Between
August 21.
5000
4800
4600
4400
4200
4000
3800
3600
3400
3200
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
°
September 1.
42.00
4000
3800
3600
3400
3200
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
°
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. -
Taste V. (continued.)
Temperature of the Air.
what
times.
From 4" 30™ a.m. to 4" 55™ a.m.
From 4" 40™ p.m. to 55 32™ p.m.
64 6™ p.m.
From 62 1™ p.m. to
Ascending.
\Cireum- Ob- Adopted)
stances.) S274 "temp,
|
° °
43°5| 43°5
442) 442
45°0| 45°0
45°8| 45'8
46°5| 46°5
472) 47°2
47°9| 47°9
48°6| 48°6
49°4| 49°4
50°22 5o°2
ra Slo] 5170
5 Buy, angie)
3 52°4| 52°4
E GSieal| abciees
cs 533) 53°8
A 54°5| 54°
552) 552
55°9| 559
56°6| 56°6
523), 57:3
58°0| 58°0
58°7| 58°7
59°4| 59°4
60°2| 60'2
611} 611
61°8| 618
ee 469) 46°9
oo 47°5| 47°5
oe 48°0| 48-0
oe 48°6| 48:6
. 49°3| 49°3
- 49°9| 49°9
on 50°5| 50°5
oe 512 512
oe 52°0 52°09
oe 52°9 §2°9
oe 53°9| 53°9
. 54°7| 547
7 BG Seb
. 564) 564
a Sail S7k3
oe 58-3 58°3
oS 592) 592
oe 60°5| 60°5
oe 61°7| 61°7
oe 63:0] 63:0
an 64:2] 64°2
+ 65°7| 65°7
Bes] 53°5| 53°
gen | 53°6| 53°6
sna 53°38) 53°83
#54| 53°9| 53°9
gig | 540] 540
Bie2| 540) 54:0
a=} 540) 540
BBS | 542) 542
ome} $5°0| 55°0
457
Calcu-
lated”
effect of
* | disturb-
ance.
oO
oo
o"o
o'o
Descending.
Calcu-
dated | ae Cireum- OBE Adopted
|sisturbs ons stances. caidas temp
| ance. ||
ee = =
° 9 ©
oo 43°5| 43°5
00 4473) 44°3
o'0 | 45°09) 45°0
o'0 || 45°7| 45°7
o'0 46°4| 46°4
oo 2 47°} 47°0
oo|| g 47°7| 47°7
oO | a 48:2 48-2
o°O | A 48°8 48°8
oro |] 49°4| 49°4
oo = wo 50°r| 50°71
ool B | & | 507] 507
oo =F 4 514| 514
oo || © e, 52°3| 52°3
o0|)/ 2 | 532) 53°
oo}, : 5470} 54°0
| oO
oo 3 549} 549
o'0 2 55°3| 558
ool) B 56°7| 56:7
0°0 | 57°4| 574
oe 58'0| 58:0
o'o | 58°7| 58-7
o'0 | 594] 59°4
eal 60'2| 60°2
00 | 610 61'0
oo | 62°0 62°0
a a
oe ste 46°2| 46-2
ool] "+ | 465) 46°5
00 S as 46'9| 469
070 | B . 474| 474
o'o wy o. 47°7| 47°7
ool] us ah 481) 48-1
a Ss aa 48°5| 48:5
ped (item i es gS Moe
o°0 = oD 49°7| 49°7
o°o || ie ad 50°2 50°2
ooll # 50 50°8| 50°8
eolt e [hc pee ees
00 5 oe 52°72] 52°2
oo . 53°90} 5370
oo oe CEA Ds) 7h
070
00
(oho)
oo
oo
oo
oo
oo
oo = Bal 53°5| 53°5
: se iges .
oro] 95 aie 5470} 54°0
loko} TO o a 54 5 54°5
ool a2 | eFE| sro] see
OO}| 3 8 Sines
oo] BD | SEs
oo | . B a a
o'0 |
458 REPORT—1862.
TaBz Y. (continued.)
Temperature of the Air.
|
Ascending. Descending.
ie
ere Bet meen Cireum-| -| |Adopted “ated Between| Circum-| Ob-_ |Adopted “ated
— stances. Tehp fat, pod he stances. ee rad pits
ance. ance.
September 5. a 5 5 = 5
5000 49°7| 40°7 oro sr 4772| 47°72 oo
4800 414| 414 oro * 477| 477 oro
4600 422) 42°2 o"0 ee 481} 481 oo
4400 431] 4371 oo oe 48°7| 43°7 oo
4200 44°0} 44°0 oo - 493} 493 oo
4.000 ‘ 44°38] 44°8 oo oe 50°0} 5070 oo
3800 | 45°6| 456] ool & sie 50°6| 50°6 o'o
3600 es 464) 4674 oo 5 = SE2) 5172 oo
34.00 a A7'2|* AT2 roxte) » “6 518) 518 oo
3200 ny 480} 480 9:0)|| «35 oe 5274] 5274 oro
3000 5, dg 48°3| 43°83 oo 7 oe 53°0| 53°0 oo
2800 = & | 495) 495] |] og ++ | 536) 536] oro
2600 F ic) 50°2] 502 oo|| 8 “4 542| 54°2 o°0
2400 & E 5170} 51°0 oo Ss a 54°8| 54°8 oo
2200 a i} 59) 519 oo m4 = 554] 554 oo
2000 a Fa §2°99| 5279] oro °° 560} 56°0| oro
1800 x 53°38] 53°38 ool| & 2° 56°6| 566 oo
1600 z 54°38) 54°38 oro|] +s oe 57°2|- 57m oo
1400 & 558| 558| oo] B | -. | 5781 578] o'
1200 56°7 |, .56°7 oo > se 584} 584 o'o
1000 57°5| 57°5 roxe) a 59°2| 59°2 foe)
800 584] 584 oo wa 59°7| 59°7 oo
600 59°3| 593 oo ee 60°2| 602 oo
400 60°2|} Go°2 oo e 612} 61-2 oo
200 611} 611 o'o os 62°70} 62°0 oo
° 62°0| 62°0 oo +e 62°8| 62°8 oo
On August 18, 20, 21, September 1, 5, and 8, there were no disturbing
causes to any amount in operation within 5000 feet of the earth, and therefore
the projected and adopted curves are identical.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862.
TaBLE V. (continued.)
459
Temperature of the Air.
Ascending. Descending.
acl ag feet,
above the mean Galens Galeu-
a Between) Gircum-|_Ob- Adopted lated || Between Circum-| Ob-_ |Adopted Rati
what | stances.| Served. |"temp. |°Hect of | what stances. | Served | temp, |“ ae ‘
times. temp. P+ |disturb-|| times. temp. disturb
ance. ance.
September 8. ° ° ° 5) ° °
5000 oe 50°0 5 se 5
4800 oe . 504 . oe on 50°3
4600 oe 509] «se o. +. 49°9
44.00 oe BES nas oe oe 49°38
4200 «o F 519 os Bi 50°70
4000 A ae ie 52°7 4 oe 50°3
3800 =| é 53°6 = 5d se 510
3600 me F 54°4 3 oe oe 518
3400 & “és : ize B bie ne 52°3
3200 = a. : 55°7 +. ay: Se 531
3000 So se : 564 ua
2800 £ ae Se 57°4 3
2600 A ae ; 58°7 tS
2400 a oe oe 59°7 B
2200 a oe os 60°4 $
2000 = t. is 610 n
1800 4. Se ee 61°8 a
1600 Eg op Se 62°5 8
1400 ° ve oe 63°6 i
1200 ad ee es 64°4 F
1000 oe a 65"1
800 oe ee 65°8
600 .. ee 66°5
400 e +e 67°3
200 +e oe 682
° . ee 69'0
5000 os oe oe . 7s oe oe 514
4800 ee ee oe oe . oe oe 512
4600 ee *. ee ae ac ic «. 512
4400 se ° ee oe s¢ Bi ee 512
4200 e ee ee ee ee os ee 512
4.000 zs se ee os ve ee ee 512
3800 se Re Se ae re a Be “ic 513
3600 ee a ne oe § oe a 514
34.00 “ ee ee ee ee wn se ee 517
3200 ee vs ee os ° S a ee 52°3
3000 oe oe o 2 oe ar PC oe 539
2800 oe oe .- oe ee re ate Br 54°4.
2600 oe -° oe oe oe 8 Sc es 5570
2400 ee ee se ee oe A se ee 55°7
2200 oe ze ee Slo oe = oe os 56-2
2000 ae vs 3 ot ae > ae Ae 565
1800 co | ee o- +e ° 3S oe +. 57°0
1600 0 se oe os “10 8 bee oy 67°75
1400 Ac e ie ve ae = Be te 53:2
1200 er Se as ae we 5 oi ee 59°0
1000 “36 ar ee ee . are ae 60°2
800 a Bis An ° a re ae 610
600 ie : ee i xe ae : 61°6
400 aye : . : oe aye d 62°5
200 we ec . we oe Be AG 63°2
° erie se ve ae ic ae os 64°8
_ The next Table has been formed by taking the difference between the
temperatures at eve
5000 feet.
ry consecutive 100 feet, in every ascent and descent, up to
460
REPORT—1862.
Taste VI.—Showing the Decrease of Temperature with every
Height above
the level of
the sea.
From To
feet. | feet,
August 18. |
July 17.\| | July 30. |
| }
Cloudy. |} Clear. | Cloudy. |} Clear. | Cloudy.
2 : t =
Boa a poe z
212] Ei 3
S 3 2 8
Q n o n
< < A <
° ° ° fo}
o°6 03 ol o2
O°5 03 oz o'r
o°5 1) York | 407%
Descending.
oO
w
State of the Sky.
Ascending.
August 20.
Cloudy.
to .
& =
3 =
A <
August 21.
Cloudy.
Ascending.
Descending.
-a0
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTs IN 1862. 461
Increase of Height of 100 feet up to 5000 feet.
September 1. September 5. September 8. Mean.
State of the Sky.
Partially clear. eral Cloudy. | Cloudy. |
E q c Z cae rie ee
o | 2 | & os | f | s | B | B || Cloudy.) ereae|| Cleat | chser-
2 = a = 3 a 2 = eros bene
8 3 5 5 g 5 3 3
2 3 2 z Ss || & 3 3
< A 4 < A || < =) A
° ° fe} ° ° ° o ° ° °
oe os O43 OK |, ‘oc o"4 o'r o°%3 10 o°3
se Ss c 073 o'r o'2 o'74 orl 073 10 03
. ae O74 o'2 o'2 o'2 ve on 9 O73
+ oe * o'4 o'2 03 o'2 os 0°3 9 03
. oe o'5 o'3 o'2 orl o'r 0% 10 03
. Bia o'4 03 o'2 ol o'r O73 10 o3
. - o°5 Q:3. || 078, |. ox o'o O73 10 03
oe ae o'4 04 || 03 o'r fore) 0°%3 12 03
o%3 o'2 ° o'4 o3 || o4 0% foe) o3 12 0°3
O73 o'2 o'74 0°%3 o'4 O74 oo 03 12 03
03 o'2 o'4 0°%3 o°5 o4 ol o3 12 O73
3 o2 o'4 o°%3 o'4 O'% ov! 0°3 12 03
O73 03 o'4 03 || o4 o'4 o'r 03 12 0°3
O'3 o2 P o'4 0°%3 o'4 o'4 or O34 12 O73
03 o2 | 0'4 03 o°%3 o'4 ov! 03 12 0°%3
o°%3 o'2 || oO} o'3 o°3 O74 o2 o3 12 03
O73 oz o4 0°3 o%3 o'4 o3 O74 12 03
O73 o'2 o4 o3 o'4 o'4 0°%3 o'4 12 03
03 o'2 : o4 o°3 03 é O73 o'4 II 03
O73 o2 o'4 0°%3 o4 0% O74 11 0%
o4 o3 o°3 03 oS or 04 iI 03
0'4. 03 o4 o°3 0°5 or2 04 11 o4
o4 O73 0'%3 o3 O'S o'4 o%4 1 O74
o%4 03 : o4 0°3 o°5 - o4 o"4 11 o"4.
0'4 o°3 o4 o3 o°5 04 o'4 II o4
O'4 o°3 04 £3 o°5 03 04 iI 04
o'4, o3 o'4 03 o'4 O73 O74 II o'4
o%4 o3 . 05 03 03 ‘ o"2 o'4 11 o'%4
o's 03 03 o'2 II
275 | 03 | 04
05 3h Ae
foe ae
wWwwwowwowwnwwnwnwnownwwrs
PHRAAHRAHAADAADADA A DOQUUNUNUNWNUNNWHUNH HUW HUWWKHUHWH BW WWWWWWW
462. REPORT—1862.
An inspection of this Table shows that the largest numbers are those
situated at the bottom, and the smallest at the top of each column in all states
of the sky, and therefore that the decline of temperature in equal spaces was
largest in that space next the earth, and gradually less with increase of ele-
vation.
The numbers in the last column of the Table show the average value at
each 100 feet, the one in cloudy states of the sky, and the other in partially
clear states, with the number of experiments upon which each result is based.
FRoM THESE RESULTS THE DECLINE OF TEMPERATURE
When the Sky was Cloudy
For the first 300 feet was ...... 0°-5 for every 100 feet.
From 300 feet to 3400 feet was 0°-4
a et00 4, * S000 &,,; 20S
2? 9
39 3)
Therefore in cloudy states of the sky the temperature of the air decreases
nearly uniformly with the height above the surface of the earth nearly up to
the cloud.
When the Sky was partially Cloudy.
in the*first S: 2. 100 feet there was a decline of 0°-9
From 100 feet to 300 % Pe Pe 0°-8 for each 100 feet.
” 300 ” 500 ” ”? ” 0°7 ”
» 200 5, 900 ” 3 ” 0°-6
» 900 ,, 1800 9 3 » 0°-5
” 1800 ” 2900 ” ” ” 0°°4 ”
” 2900 ” 5000 ” ” ” 0°3 ”
The decline of temperature near the earth with a partially clear sky is
nearly double of that with a cloudy sky; at elevations above 4000 feet, the
changes for 100 feet seem to be the same in both states of the sky.
In some cases, as on July 30, the decline of temperature in the first 100
feet was as large as 1°1.
From these results we may conclude that in a cloudy state of the sky the
decline of temperature is nearly uniform up to the clouds; that with a clear
sky the greatest change is near the earth, being a decline of 1° in less than
100 feet, gradually decreasing, as in the general law indicated in the preceding
Section, till it requires a space of 300 feet at the height of 5000 feet for a
change of 1° of temperature. These results lead to the same conclusion as
before, viz. that the theory of gradation of 1° of temperature for every
300 feet of elevation must be abandoned. As regards the law indicated by
all these experiments, it is far more natural and consistent, than that a uni-
form rate of decrease could be received as a physical law up even to moderate
elevations.
§ 6. Vartarron or tHE HyGRoMErRIC CONDITION OF THE ATR WITH ELEyATION.
All the adopted readings of the temperature of the dew-point in Section 4
were laid down on diagrams of a large scale, and their points were joined; and
as it was evident that there were strata of moist air, and that the changes do
not follow any regular decrease as in the case of the temperature of the air,
it was therefore not considered prudent to adopt any curve with the view of
obtaining normal results, but to use the projected curve as simply found by
joining the points as stated above. ‘From the readings at every 1000 feet of
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 463
elevation the next Table was formed ; other readings were taken at angular
intermediate points, and these are included in the remarks following the
Table. The numbers under the heading of “Tension of Vapour” are formed
by using “ Regnault’s Tables,” and the degree of humidity in the next column
has been calculated by using the observed temperature of the air correspond-
ing to the observed temperature of the dew-point.
Taste VII.—Showing the Variation of the Hygrometric condition of the
Air at every 1000 feet of Height.
Humidity of the Air.
Ascending,
Height, in feet,
above the mean Tempe- - | Degree
level of the sea. Between arauine tee ae Fiatie =
wha orce 0: a
times. | *#nces- wer "| vapour. cm
La Sa ga
Yabo SER esas
25000 Ea | aa bas
24.000 BSesle'ssi\a's>
23000 25s 4a5=l4%
22.000 pers jp°
21000 ° in.
dened , Er, 1670| ‘o89| 48
19000 g 3 24°1| “130) 54
aed a it 23'8 128| 62
17000 iF 3 ee a
16000 A 3 22°8 ig
15000 "4 < 235) 1426) 7
14000 £ 23°9| "128| 78
13000 | 24-0). AS) oe
12000 a 23°8| 128) 92
11000 a 23°3; "125| 89
10000 + ae al Sioned
gooo a aot) AES ine ZS
8000 g 27°9| "152| 84
7000 g mj | 30°0| ‘167} 78
6000 ae a5 32°0] 181} 90
5000 ws) 32°0 "181 76
ae 340] "196| 65
3000 a“ 39°6| °243) 73
2000 23 44°7| ‘296) 75
cpa SS | 497| °357| 77
% 55°°| °433] 79
July 17.—At the earth’s surface the dew-point was 55°, which seemed to
decrease gradually to the height of about 4000 feet, the ‘relative humidity
decreasing from 79 to 65 within the same space; on entering a cloud the
rate of the decrease of the dew-point was checked, and for a space of 3000 feet
was almost constant, differing but little from 32°, whilst the relative humi-
dity increased to 91 at 5800 feet. On leaving the cloud at 8000 feet high,
and between that and 9600 feet, both the dew-point and the relative humidity
decreased quickly, the former to 17°-9 and the latter to 65. From 9600 feet
to 11,500 feet, whilst the temperature of the air remained at 26°, the dew-
point increased to 24° 8, and the relative humidity to 95, closely approaching
to saturation. From the height of 12,000 feet to 19,000 feet, the amount of
water in the air was almost constant, the dew-point undergoing scarcely any
464 — REPORT—1862.
variation, but during which time there was a great increase of temperature,
and consequently the relative humidity decreased with rapidity from 95 to 39.
The balloon then fell from 19,500 feet to 19,200 feet, the temperature of the
air decreased to 38°, and the dew-point increased from 193° to 21°, and the
humidity increased to 49. After 19,200 feet the dew-point decreased with
rapidity to 16° at 20,000 feet, with a humidity of 48; and afterwards with
great rapidity to a dew-point of less than —12° at 21,000 feet; and at
heights exceeding this the dew-point is unknown, but was certainly lower
than —20°, and probably as low as —30° up to 24,000 feet ; from the ob-
servations of the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers it seems to have been as
low as —50° at 25,000 feet ; therefore the tension of vapour above 20,000 feet
must have varied from about 0-015 in. to less than 0-01 in., and the degree
of humidity to have decreased to 2, or even less. In this series we can
distinctly trace a stratum of moist air in the cloud above 4000 feet, and
again between the heights of 9500 feet and 11,500 feet. From 11,500 feet
to 19,000 feet the tension of vapour differed but very little from 0°13 inch ;
then the amount of water present in the same mass of air was nearly constant
for 8000 feet in vertical height; immediately after this there were some
irregularities, and above 20,000 feet the air was dry, being almost free from
vapour.
Tare VII. (continued.)
Humidity of the Air.
Ascending. Descending.
Height, in feet,
wpe ire sam Tempe Degree Tempe Degree
level of the sea. |Between Circum-jrature of Elastic of [Between Cireum-|rature of Elastic of
what stances. |the dew- force of | numi- || bat | stances.|the dew-| ree Of humi-
times. point. vapour. dity. times. point. vapour, dity.
July 30. g 3 in. 7 FA in.
6000 4.8 33°8| ‘194] 68 || So ose 33°0| 188] 61
5000 go = B72 | 222). 166. |] ae 36°7.| ‘218}. 67
4000 2a 1. a 39°5) 242) 63 || w eer eee 38°5| °233] 66
3000 ee 41-4| °261| 65 a eke 42°3| °270} 65
2000 gu 43°2| °279| 54 || = BP see 41°8| °265| 53
1000 ee 44'2| *290] 51 B B | oo 45°8| °308] 52
° Fe 530] *403| 54 || § oe 474} °328) 48
July 30.—The temperature of the dew-point in this ascent was constantly
varying: on the ground it was 53°, at 1000 feet it was 441°, but at interme-
diate points it was sometimes on one side and sometimes on the other, to the
amount of 1° or 2° from the curve-line joining these points ; then up to 2400
feet there was a stratum of moist air, and above 3600 feet there were strata of
moist and dry air alternately for 2000 feet ; higher than this there was a
stratum of dry air from 5600 to 6400 feet, and higher still one of moist from
6500 feet to the highest point reached: these terms, moist and dry, have
reference to a curve-line, which was made to pass near every point as laid
down from observation ; and the same phenomena generally prevailed during
the ure The relative humidity generally increased to the highest point
reached,
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862, 465
Taste VII. (continued.)
Hygrometrical results.
Ascending. Descending.
=e in feet,
above the mean
Tempe- .
level of the sea. a beatae: iene GH a one aainis Girona ore arene a panes
times, | S*nces. ae “| vapour, ero times. | t#nces. perce vapour. noe
August 18, ps in. PRP site
11000 eve 26°0| “I41] 59 ret | one 24°5| °132| 51
10000 ae 28'0| °153| 58 as) eee 27°0| °347| 51
goo0o s Ay 31°8| *179| 63 45 28°8| *158] 49
8000 S- ne 33°9| “195| 65 poe | oe 37°0| *220| 61
7000 a4 35°9| °211| 68 wt tee 37°0| *220] 53
6000 a, a 4 38°0| °229] 7I so 8] oe 475) caeei gat
5000 an 4r'o| °257| 75 BS coe 41°5| °265| 66
4.000 Shel | Ree eee *329| 91 : — 46°6| °318| 76
3000 g ™ | cloud 5070} *361| go
2000 ce ee 510] °374) 79
1000 ome 52°5| °396| 72
° F 57°0| °465] 62
23000 eee |— 8'0}| °029
22000 «. |—I0'0| 026
21000 ee |—ITo| *025
20000 see? i sO] LO2g)|" 22
Ig000 been [= 270 O40) 22
18000 F 1°8| °047] 30 sh vee To} 046] 31
17000 zs 8:0] *062| 27 ie 370] 050] 32
16000 5 1470| ‘082| 42 g = Gol “osaiieag
15000 a) 1g'2| *104] 52 ai g 7'0| *060| 34
14.000 AR 23°8| *128| 61 a g2| *065| 36
13000 S 24°7| °133| 67 % So II°5| °072| 36
12000 E 24'0| *129| 59 as) 5. 14'0| *082] 36
11000 E 28'0| *153| 52 5 i 14°0| *082] 34
10000 ‘y 33°0| 188] 52 Es " 15'2| *086| 28
g000 a B6>x |OC2Ese 53 5 : 22°0| *118] 35
8000 A 39°0| °238) 57 a 34°5| ‘199| 55
7000 R 39°'2| °239| 64 3 37°2| °222| 6%
6000 g 40°8| °255| 59 = Fiawnath’ Ao hin BRS 61
5000 ey A. 42'2| °269| 59 B finclouds) 43:2] *279| 62
4000 act 45°8| °308| 70 46°2!|) sg Egi) 77
3000 see eee peg vie see 49°0| °348] 74
2000 ais opr ee es 4 515] °385] 71
i) * .
1000 S@ | 54°0) 418) 69
° = Eg 57°0| 465] 66
August 18.—The temperature of the dew-point dohreasba from 57° on the
ground to 521° at 1000 feet, increased from 523° at 1000 feet to 534° at
1700 feet whilst passing through mist, decreased to 50° at 2000 feet, and varied
but little till 3800 feet was passed; the degree of humidity varying from
62 on the ground to 96 at 3800 feet when in a cumulus cloud. The dew-
point decreased rather quickly to 41° at 5000 feet, and with less rapidity to
26° at 11,000 feet, the humidity varying from 96 at 3800 feet to 59 at
11,000 feet. Whilst almost stationary in elevation for some time, at the
highest point the temperature of the air increased, whilst that of the dew-
point decreased, so that the degree of humidity changed from 59 to51. The
balloon then descended: the temperature of the dew-point increased gradually
to 31° at 8200 feet, and to 38° at 7800 feet: the humidity was 61 at the
lower elevation; the dew-point remained nearly at the temperature of 37°
from 7800 feet to 6000 feet, and rose to 48° at 3500 feet—its lowest
1862, 21
4.66 REPORT—1862.
Taste VII. (continued.)
Hygrometrical results.
Ascending. Descending.
poe in feet, =
above the mean
level of the sea. |Between| ,. Tempe-! plastic | Degree || Between| Tempe-| pastie | Dearee
what | teu ature OF force of | auChi. || BBE | Stance Ite dew-| {2% Of] tuum.
times, A point. vapour, dity. times. point. vapour. dity.
August 20, spe c=
5000 x A as fia S Be lesti:
4.000 a 7 46°2| °313| 88 Se 44'2| *290| 84
3000 at 48'9| °346| 84 pb F 46°6| °318| 83
2000 a goo| 361) 75 3S 4g'o| °349| 82
1000 Ere 52 3 "393 e : oy 5r7| °384| 81
° =| Zo}; ° B
Zz” 55 3 =
5000 ||Incloud| 42°3| *270/ 88
4000 ga) -: 44°2| ‘290| 83
gooo (kam ... 46°0| °311| 77
zooo ea &) .. 50°5| °367| 80
. 1000 PS ioe 517} °384| 81
° La
point: the humidity increased from 53 at 7000 feet to 77 at 3500 feet,
The balloon then ascended, and the dew-point fell to 37° at 8000 feet, and
the humidity from 76 to 61.
The dew-point then increased somewhat to 393° at 8500 feet, with a humi-
dity of 65: from this elevation the dew-point decreased to 21° at 11,600 feet,
with a degree of humidity of 51. The dew-point then turned to increase, and
was 252° at 12,400 feet, giving a humidity of 57 at this elevation; it thende-
creased gradually to 23° at 14,500 feet, and then rapidly to —83° at 20,100feet:
the relative humidity was 59 at 12,400 feet, and 22 at 20,100 feet. Above
20,000 feet a dry stratum of air was entered and no dew was deposited on either
of the hygrometers, their bulbs being reduced to a temperature of —10°.
In descending, the dew-point increased steadily to 14° at 12,000 feet,
remained at this reading till nearly 10,000 feet, then increased rapidly to 343°
at 8000 feet, and then gradually and almost uniformly to 57° on the ground:
the degree of humidity increased from 31 at 18,000 feet to 36 at 14,000 feet,
remained at this value to 12,000 feet, decreased to 28 at 10,000 feet and then
increased to 77 at 4000 feet, and was 66:on reaching the ground. In this
series a narrow stratum of nioist air was passed through between 1000 and
2000 feet from the earth, and then another on passing through a cumulus
cloud at the height of 3800 feet ; above this to 11,000 feet there was a con-
stant decrease in the amount of water; the balloon then descended and the
vapour increased steadily to 8000 feet, then a stratum of moist air was met
with from 1000 to 2000 feet in thickness; from 6000 feet to 3500 feet on
descending, and again from 3500 to 7000 feet on ascending, there was an
increase and decrease respectively ; between 8000 and 9000 feet and be-
tween 11,000 and 12,000 feet dry strata were passed; then for 2000 feet
there was but little variation in the humidity of the air, above 15,000 feet
there was a rapid decrease in the amount of vapour, till the air became very
dry above 20,000 feet. In the descent one stratum only of moist air was
passed through, viz. between 13,000 feet and 9000 feet from the earth.
August 20.—Between 400 and 600 feet a dry stratum of air was pana
then there was but little variation in the temperature of the dew-point, and
the air was for the most part humid during the ascent,
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862, 467
Tazre VII. (continued.)
Hygrometrical results.
. Ascending, Descending.
eight, in feet, |~
ne Betw x Tempe- . | Degree Tempe- . , | Degree
= een! Circum -|rature o Lage of Beaween Circum. |T2ture of plastic - of
N ‘ -| force o: i- = i-
times, | Stances go vapour, ‘ath Piss stances, rong vapour, ee
August 21. ef | ne Sie
14.000 . |—14'0] ‘o22] 318 =7270} ‘OIR| I
13000 =| re Im EoW | 786) 628 2 = —13'0| ‘023]. 17
12000 3 B. |+ 3°70] ‘ogo| 36 B q. oo} 7044] 28
11000 if es) 1o'°0| 068] 43 wn 5. l#13°r| °078]. 43
10000 ee? 2 14°1| *082| 46 os S 1g'0| *103| 51
gooo ra) 3S 20°38} -r12] 56 “3 a 18:0] *o98| 42
8000 2 < Dez ©1361) Ox ~ 19'°0| *103} 38
7000 g 32°0| ‘x81| 71 B In 2'0| ‘18r]. 58
6000 a In 39°0| *238| 97 g |Cloud.| 37-5) +225] 89
5000 a, cloud.| 41°6| °263] 93 4 B 380} *229] 81
4000 of - | 4o'8} ‘ass! 78 o 4o5| ‘252! 78
3000 4 = 46°8 *321| 86 9, = AB'7 | 307 less
2000 f | Os | 5°°9| °373} 88 » S 47°0| °323] 77
1000 £ | Ss | 568) 462) 96 5 & | 49°7| °357| 74
° ee Goro} 518) 94 |f A | 2. | 56°] *449)] 82
August 21.—The temperature of the dew-point decreased from 60° on the
ground to 57° at 400 feet, then increased to 59° from 500 to 700 feet whilst
passing through a thick mist, and to 60° at 1000 feet; a decline then took
place to 50°8 at 1300 feet, and 50°9 at 2000 feet; from 2000 feet to 3200
feet there was at first a gradual, then more rapid decline to 40°8 at 4000 feet ;
on entering cloud the dew-point increased to 41°-6, and on leaving it at about
6000 feet there was a sudden fall of 2°. The relative humidity was 94 on the
ground ; the air was saturated for 200 feet from 500 to 700 feet; the humi-
dity was 74 at 1000 feet, 79 at 1300 feet, and 97 in the cloud. Above the
cloud the dew-point decreased quickly and with but slight irregularities till
the height of 10,400 feet, where it was 144°, with a humidity of 48; at
14,000 feet the dew-point was —14°, and the air was dry, the relative
humidity being 18. Above 14,000 feet the temperature of the dew-point
declined to —20°, with a humidity of 12 only. During the half-hour this
height was maintained the temperature of the air increased, whilst that of
the dew-point diminished, so that the air became drier. On descending the
air continued dry, the dew-point increased from —22° at 14,000 feet to
+19° at 10,000 feet, the humidity increasing to 51; there was but little
variation in the dew-point in the next 2000 feet, but during this space the
temperature of the air increased 7°, so that the relative humidity was irre-
gular. At 7500 feet the dew-point was 20°, at 6900 feet it was 42°; on
approaching the clouds at the former height the relative humidity was 38,
and at the latter it was 88. Whilst passing through the cloud both the
temperatures of the air and dew-point declined, the latter to 383°, and the
humidity was 89. On descending below the cloud the dew-point increased
gradually from 382° at 4000 feet high, then quickly to 45°7 at’ 3000 feet,
then fell to 44°-7 at 2500 feet, then increased to 56° on reaching the ground.
At 5800 feet the relative humidity was 83, between 2500 feet and 1500 feet
it was 76 or 77, and it was 71 on the earth.
In this series, till the clouds were passed, there were two or three layers
of moist air; but from the time of passing above the clouds, the air was
constantly increasing in dryness till the greatest height was attained, and
‘ poss 212 ;
468 REPORT—1862.
Taste VII. (continued.)
eee ese eR moms Anca piano CS Mi) NS Se
Hygrometrical results.
Ascending. Descending.
Hesn, in feet,
above the mean
Tempe- Rh) Tempe- «| Degre
level of the sea. eee ”) Circum- cane: of aoe “ ra eren Circum- eee of a of : ,
times. |Stances. poy yapour. ae times. | Stances. pence vapour. =
September 1.| © . + in. a . in.
4.000 - 8 37°6| +225] 69 || Su alo 37°0| °220| 70
3ooo «(|E a & 43°2| °279| 76 ||\;Gexl ... 38°7| °235| 69
2000 | Eg Mn 479| °334| 78 |ip'D 8 47°3| °327| 86
1000 Gig 50°3| °365| 72 ||BB
° ead BS
re ney he
ga¢
4.000 $:/en¢
3000 |g g a S22 | 45°38} °308) 75
2ooo |S ae ja | 460) “311] 74
roo. [ESO BE a
o | S/o3s
September 5.
2.4000 —36°0} ... 16
23000 —28:0| awe 21
22000 —20°5 | ase 32
21000 —I5'0| «. 33
20000 — 5°2| eso 50 aa coe 1[—37°O| eee 8
19000 , [20°] ane 20 ose doe: 7 1—= 351) | Peas 8
18000 BS |-— £9] o- 41 awe ove |= 33°2)|" lowe 9
17000 g g |t 80} *062| 76 Sa eos) f= ZIT eee 9
16000 a * 13°2| °078| 84 mae ose pil 43010) eases 9
15000 a. 3 16°7| *093} 89 os ry |—28°5 . 10
14000 » a 19'2| ‘r04| 88 me o | |=26°51\ reve Io
13000 m 22°5| °120} or ave E 2455 | * ove 10
12000 g£ 22°0| "118| 81 “ee = |—21°O| ... II
11000 5 26°0| ‘I4I| 85 Pe ~ |= S'0] oe. 17
10000 a 26°5| °144| 81 cas s + 3°0/ *050] 27
g000 _ 27°5| °152] 75 ae a 7°5| *061] 29
8000 | 29°5| °163) 71 A i] 12°7| *077| 33
7000 = 35°0| ‘204| 77 “ 3 20°5| *110| 43
6000 36°2| 214] 98 aE s 21:01) PEs Eeag
5000 = 38°5| °233] 91 — 5B 21°5| *115| 36
4000 = 40°8| °255| 86 on mas 22°5| °120) 33
3000 S 43°2| °279| 81 see aes 38°7| *235] 58
2000 45°5| °305| 76 eos ene 42°8| °275] 62
1000 3 49°9| °360| 76 AM s 46:2] +313] 63
° =a) 56 “eo aa “ie x0 5o'o| °*361| 64
increasing in dampness in the descent to 10,000 feet ; then a dry stratum of
air was met with, till on approaching the clouds and passing through them a
moist stratum was passed; below the clouds there were but slight variations
till the descent was completed.
September 1.—The changes of the dew-point in this ascent were more
frequent and more abrupt than on August 20; there seemed to be different
layers of moist air, varying in thickness from 200 to 300 and 400 feet up to
3000 feet, and above this the variations were smaller in amount and less in
number. In the descent a moist stratum of air was met with between the
heights of 2000 and 1300 feet.
September 5.—The temperature of the dew-point increased from 483° on
leaving the eayth to 503° at 700 feet; it then began to decrease, and was
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 469
Taste VII. (continued.)
Hygrometrical results.
Ascending. Descending.
Height, in feet,
above the mean Tempe Degree Tempe De
- . _ * e
level of the sea. |B ap Circum-|rature of rake of gaits Circum- abe of] Eustace 2
times, | St@nces.|the dew- vapour humi Pi ities stances, |the dew- ce es humi-
point. dity. ? point. Pours dity.
September 8.| 2 | o | in. Y o | in
4000 q Hliactoua} 48°6| -343| 86 |S 5 [aona! 49:1| +349] 96
3000 Bae . 5r8| °385) 85 oF
zooo fA) SB | 559| 447| 83 SEs
1000 te, a 2 595] 509] 82 |h ae
° + 615) °546| 77 S
5000 7 : 33°5} 192] 44 || Ae 45°O| 299] 53
qocoo | dg. SE STE | OF Ne 482) °338) 89
3000 5B Se Bar ee 0, 38 46°0| -311] 75
2000 re on eee Sy 3 540] 418
1000 on wee 5° 58°90 “482
° Y - a) _ >
wn 3
38°-9 between 4300 and 4700 feet, and declined to 362° from 5600 feet to
6800 feet. The relative humidity increased with slight variations from 67
on leaving the earth to 100 at 6800 feet in a cumulus cloud; on passing out
of the cloud, the dew-point declined quickly to 303° at 7600 feet, then uni-
formly to 263° at 9800 feet: the relative humidity decreased to 69 at 7600
feet, and increased to 81 at 10,000 feet; in the dew-point a slight increase
then took place to 27° at 10,800 feet, and then a decrease to 192° at 12,600
feet. The dew-point increased to 223° at 13,000 feet, and the humidity to
91 at this elevation. The dew-point was 103° at 16,800 feet, and the hu-
midity was 77. A rapid decrease of the dew-point then took place to —21°
at 19,200 feet, and then as rapid an increase to —7° at 19,500 feet and to —3°
at 20,100 feet: the humidity declined to 18 at 19,200 feet, and increased to
36 at 19,500 feet, and to 50 at 20,100 feet.
Above this point the temperature of the dew-point rapidly declined: at
24,000 feet no dew was deposited on Regnault’s Hygrometer, and at higher
points still it must have been less than —50°.
In the descent there were no marked irregularities till the balloon was
within 8000 feet of the earth, when the dew-point increased and decreased
two or three times in the next 4000 feet, after which it declined gradually to
the earth.
The variations in the amount of moisture in the air on this occasion were
few and to small amounts after passing out of the cloud in which the air was
saturated. About 1800 feet a dry stratum of air was passed, and after 2000
feet the amount of vapour became smaller, and was exceedingly small in
amount at the higher elevations.
September 8.—The humidity in this ascent increased from the earth to the
clouds with very little variation, but on passing above them the decrease was
very great; the two latter results are not used in the formation of the next
Table.
470 ; REPORT—1862.
Taste VIII.—Showing the Degree of Humidity
July 17. | July 30. August 18. | _ August 20.
State of the sky. State of
Height | é
above the Cloudy. a oe y Cloudy. Clear. Clear. Cloudy. Cloudy.
level of | «
the sea.
. | ° . . .
to 2 to . th : to 2 to 4
gizgiglfigiz¢ielad [eels
bs FI | F=| a cs | i q | a cs
5 zB | 8 ome Mee ern ie ae eee
3 aa 8 3 3 3 8 : 3 2
< aA | 4 A < a 4 a <4 A 4
On August 21 the observations were taken very early in the morning, in
fact directly after sunrise, and it will be seen that the degree of humidity at
the elevations exceeding 10,000 feet are very much smaller than in any other
ascent at the same elevations ; from this it would seem that a diurnal range
takes place in this element at this elevation, as in the temperature of the air ;
so that in comparing the laws of moisture indicated by one ascent with those
of another, the times of the day at which the experiment was made must be
taken into account. It is possible, indeed almost certain, that at the height
of 14,000 feet and above, the air would become more humid as the day
advanced, the vapour rising from the upper surface of the clouds and ascending
into the higher regions by the action of the sun. b
An inspection of the numbers in this Table shows that the moisture in the
air is very different at different times, both in its amount and distribution.
The degree of humidity in cloudy states of the sky in the lower strata of
i ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862,
471
at every 1000 feet up to 29,000 feet.
¥ August 21, | September 1, September 5. | September 8. | Mean,
the sky. State of the sky.
: 5 | s -| Height
Cloudy. a y Cloudy. | Cloudy, ass y Cloudy. |) Cloudy. | Cloudy. B z sha the
a S| level of
; : 7 é S sea,
=} = o 2 ° o n ° n ° a 5|| 2| 6
gia fa|a/2]2 |) 4 | 44/2] alseise
feet.
= 29000
28000
| 27000
3 26000
S 25000
oe oe oe a 2 16 ee oe | oe] ee flee}eoi/76/ 1} 24000
sre ar ee AD ate 21 : sie: . ++|--|/211 1] 23000
=e ae ae se se 32 ° ce live | co] oe |Jee{+ +1132] 1] 22000
oe ar “fe or ve 33 Pd ore mor ++/++{/33] 1} 21000
ts oe ae a a 5° cap laces ae ++|++|/36)2] 20000
ois a oe an ah 20 ° Sahl) crenlie rej*+|/21/2] Igooo
ae ee oe oe a 41 : ee | oo] oe | oe flee]e +1133] 3] 18000
.. .° . o° 76 ee eoles ee |]- +/+ 1145/3] 17000
oe . . a ae 84 e's oe | oe + |le+]--1153| 3] 16000
ole oo oe an ee 89 oo| v0 ve fies}e*|/58) 3 15000
18 12 . oe 88 : ae. |s~ +e |{Z5] 21143/3] 14000
28 17 . ar AG gr a oe | oo} ee | ve [123] 2114813] 13000
36 28 . sé os 81 oe tet feats ++ 132] 21/48] 3] 12000
43 43 os . oe 85 on ee lice] ee} oe 1143] 21/5215] 1000
46 51 os ee 8x . wes | ete ++ {148} 21/52] 5] tooco
56 42 c an 75 a ielbsts ++ 1149] 21/54] 5 gooo
61 38 . 4c AR 71 ne 5 + 1149] 21/5817 8000
71 58 o° ee 77 . + |63] 2//64) 7 7000
97 89 Se 98 - ++ ||82! 3/68) 6 6000
93 81 pie AP, gt ar ++ 1183] 5/|69] 6 5000
78 78 69 70 we 86 * 86 | 96 | 94.| 89 ||80|10}/76} 7 4.000
86 85 76 69 75 81 85 75 ||80/12//76| 5 3000
88 17 78 86 74 76 ° 83 77\E1\|71) 5 2000
96 74. 72 ee 3 76 oe 82] «| -- | e+ 1177] 81168) 5 1000
94 81x aD : > 76 15.2 4\ (Gi) «+ 1177) 61163] 4 °
the air, as might be expected, is very much greater than in clear states; and
above the clouds, at the same height, there are very different degrees in the
different experiments.
The laws of moisture are indicated by these experiments, as found by
taking the means of the numbers under the same state of the sky, and are as
?
follows :—
With an overcast sky, the degree of .
humidity on the earth was ....... ; \ 17 from. 6 experiments.
MEADOOMoS ION Ss... Solx aes. deoeR Peg bo
2000Reoaiasnt wiinaes piadawt: youd wenke bibl.
SOOO re aecart as seve tele oe ie o brotess 80°; 12
NO Brn! Ray cia sto steers A apne chile SON, VLG
EMD iene tats ontats ietn rs cea Sa A
SG sorar ev cre yrs ra ate teatcparg aay nator ete ne OI re
4.72 ‘ REPORT—1862.
The laws of moisture here indicated are—an almost uniform state of humi-
dity of the air to the height of 3000 feet, viz. 77; then a sudden increase
to 80 in the next 1000 feet, and to 83 by 5000 feet, which slightly decreased
to 82 by 6000 feet.
When the sky was partially clear, the degree of humidity
On the ground was ........ 63 from 4 experiments.
ty ROOD EOCG | Wie sic scralle winnie bon 68°, *¥
BOTs Kogeteerti ss oo «bs ddl «os eS Ss
UA Be Se = Se 16 4 5 e
SOOO Sa Leoke db etek < Wo ey se
BIMOO a toe bayahelt ab cite sb a 68 36 *
GOOD sp ret orenn eoatenswpee o> et >
Above the clouds the degree of humidity
At {000 feet was...'.....4. 64 from 7 experiments.
2). a a ee ee 58, Ses
SE. she aia ass wb Ba 35 OF :
HELI C ot Os aN ee oe a 52.33 7 is
CRUISU os Sadia Iai Pian AE Shea 5 48 , 5 -
TLC ed a eo a AS. 3s »
OU nn 4 win ores cs AS eg DB 33
CAMOORE St | a chne ocean t et oe pe te &
UH (I Cas i easy Ros ee 53s 3; 8 ty
TET, Ole 0 Os eae, A ae 45 Ss 3
A FRCUM 1pca< Ales tesaisle aie 3-5. 33 3, 2 Pe
Thott) (CRS ie oes ae ae Pi ae i
RUE LOS lal aR RC oe 36. 3 2 =
1 0) Le ig RS I a gl Seo oy. ee ee
PLDI: oo cl Sate or Bs ote Ba. as 2 i
DOO iar {SER sips see Bl s5~ ak 55
POU ce GS b ule oa ba be fs ok -
24,000
25,000
er oN unknown.
28,000
29,000
The laws of moisture here indicate a humidity on the ground, with a par-
tially clear sky, less by 15 than in cloudy skies, increasing to 77 by 3000
feet, then nearly constant to 5000 feet, when the humidity abruptly de-
creased to 69, and then nearly evenly at the rate of 5 in 1000 feet, till at 9000
and 10,000 feet it is 52; the degree then constantly decreases, till at heights
exceeding 25,000 feet the degree of humidity is reduced to less than 10; and
it would seem that at the higher elevations there is an almost entire absence
of water.
These seem to be the general laws; but this regular diminution is evidently
often interrupted, and strata of moist air exist at different elevations even
up to 20,000 feet, and these may be of considerable thickness.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 473
§ 7. Comparison oF THE TEMPERATURE OF THE DEW-POINT, AS DETERMINED BY
DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS.
Every simultaneous or nearly simultaneous determination of the dew-
point by the different instruments or methods was copied out, and then all
those determinations between every 1000 feet of elevation were collected
together, and in this way the first five columns of the following Table were
formed. The numbers in the last six columns were formed by taking the
differences between the temperatures of the respective dew-points in the same
horizontal line, or those taken at about the same height and elevation.
Taste [X.—Showing the Temperature of the Dew-point, as determined at
about the same height by different instruments and methods, and compa
rison of the results together.
Under 1000 feet.
Dew-point Temperature of the Dew-point as deter-
Temperatures mined by
Dry and Wet] 5
Calculated Observed D d Wet (fi by =
ae by |) "above that by > | Campirated) | a.
Date. 12 Ct i | as [ST eee) So
s SA 5 5 || SA a|is K 5 | Eos
Be | Ee) we | Se | Fe] -t | S2| 3 | Se [eee
BE | 22/26) 28 || 22) 36/26) 32 | 28 |3e°
p | ba | eB) Bel pe) eh) S| gE) Bele
a =) AS) em) ar~|at | aa / am | ratia
d h m feet. ° ° ° ° °o ° ie) ° °
July 30 4 36 | 250 | 50°0 50°0 | o'o
4 423| 890 | 44°9 44°0 Tee
Aug. 18 0 56 | 490 | 55°0 | 54°6| 55°0 53°9 +04) oo|+1'1|—0'4|40'7)4+11
zo 6 5] 250 | 56'7 55°5 +12
Sept. 1 440 | 250 | 56'5 52°0 +4°5
453 | 320) 519 52°0 en
5 © 9} 490 | 49°5 | 49°9| 49°°) 45°5 —0'4)+0°5 /+4°0|+0'9 |4+4°4 |+3'5
8 5 43 | 887 | 59°9 58°5 +14
Between 1000 and 2000 feet.
513 52°71
49°3| ++ | 4970
50°3 50°5
50°5| «+ | 4g'0
478 50°
49'0 47°5
566 5570
474 REPORT—1862.
Taste IX. (continued.)
Between 2000 and 3000 feet.
Dew-point Temperature of the Dew-point as deter-
Temperatures mined by
Dry and Wet | 5
Calculated Ob: d D d Wet (fi A
from | by || abovethat by | CREED |
Date. Height. 22 =
3 oS : Pa Pal | lip tp g Po 2 | BSS
PalES| 2 /5e FS) 2) S| 8 |e [Eee
BE) UE) 92) GR) ELISE 22/2614 @
SA g/ 5 bo a | 5 & "Bb ‘S
a |8°|4ée| ee | Ae) Ae | ae | ae| ee A
dhm feet. ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
July go 4 453 2379 | 42°6] +. | 38'S] 9 oe [+42
251 2900)! 42°21 22 | A2°S |. o- ++ |-03
Aug. 18 1 7 | 2042 | 52°5| 50°6| -- | 48°5|it1°9] -- |+4'0}] -- |4orx
2.20 6 364\iz2R7 | so'o| -. | 51°5|, ow [ae ERG
6 372| 2959 | 48°8| -- | 485] -- || +. |+0°3)
Sept. 1 4 §5 | 2214. | 48°3| -- | 45°F) -¢ «+ |+3°0|
4 583] 2940 | 440] «- | 47°8] .. -» |—3°8
5 44 | 2910 | 422} os | 415} es ss |+0°7
5 53 | 2446 | 43°7| e+ | 43°5| -- s+ |-+0°2 |
5 57 | 2190 | 47°1| -- | 46°0| oy ee [Prd
6 4] 2057 | 48:9] -- | 480] .. «+ \-o'9
8 6 of 2034 | 571] ++ | 56°5| eo ee |-0'6 | :
PR Re 5 a A ele eee Der | Ea fee Et 8 a bE
Between 3000 and 4000 feet.
July 30 4 50} 3690
Aug. 18
20
Sept. 1
6 41
emMMAAnAnAnAnnAAnXn II ADDAAADH
Leal
377°
379°
3438
3159
3816
3893
3693
3593
3663
3693
3793
3893
3405
3468
3080
3257
3458
3680
3620
3590
3583
3987
3787
3690
3362
3660
363
40'5
41°5
47°8
48°0
ee
472
ON EIGHT RALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862, 475
Tasre IX, (continued.)
Between 4000 and 5000 feet.
Dew-point Temperature of the Dew-point as deter-
Temperatures mined by
fe Dry and Wet | 5
Calculated Ob d Dry and Wet (free) oe Te s
oan 5s . ryan that by site tat ky a2.
Date. Height. Peaubbaameipes } (Ee
ge ag eee Ee ee ee ea
P.|PS) 2/5822) (58) 8 | 28 [Eee
2 @ 8 B a & a
E | éa\ge| 8 | de | en| ae a |A
re d h mj} feet, ° ° ° ° ° ° ° © ° °
July 30 4 56 | 4169 | 403] +. | 4I°5| « oo |—1'2
4 563) 4279 | 39°7| «+ | 412) os o |= 25
5 15] 4104 | 40°2| -« | 43°L) oe « |—2°9
5 3.| 4324 | 40°7) ++. | 432) + * [724
5 43) 4403 | 39°38] -«.| 4I°0| .- . |-12
5 73) 4613 | 36°5| -e.| 40°5.| o- +s |—4'0
5 9%| 4683 | 382] -«.| 39°75] oe oe | 14
5 14 | 4863 | 37°3} -+-| 39°5| + + |—22
5 16 | 4873 | 380] «. | 39°0| «- «| +30
5 163) 4923 | 37°6| ++.| 39°5| ++ » |-¥9
6 21 | 4950 | 37°0] +«.| 39°70] «» ee .|—2'0
6 22.| 4450. | 38°8| «..} goo] . es [12
Aug.20 6 42 | 4116 | 45°9| «2 | 44°2| oe oe |41°7
6 48 | 4316 | 43°8| -- | 44°5| «- ee |\—O'7
6 49 4116 | 45°7| «+ | 44°5| «© me +2
7
di
7
5
5
I
5
476 REPORT—1862.
Taste IX. (continued.)
Between 6000 and 7000 feet.
Dew-point Temperature of the Dew-point as deter-
Temperatures mined by
Calculated Observed || Dry and Wet (free) Dry and 3
from by above that by (aspirated) | 3
- above that by | E >
Date leigh 6} & eH
» ents P E »,. . “ ~ ° ss
, s.|8¢| 2/22/82] 2] 28] 2] 28 /EEE
3s@l/us|2i¢e|38 ll ue |2ie!|]32!238/] 38 [232
asi | ae] 22) 22 || #3) 22| #2) 88] 28 Bam
ba Ew) to 2 I me | 's xe |S
& |&\de) de | &2| ae) ge| de| de 4
dhm feet. o ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
July 30 5 41 | 6370 | 34°0 36°0 —2°0
5 43 | 6370 | 32°7| «- 34°0| oe - |—13
5 52 | S102 | 33°1|] «> 36°70} «. ee |—2°9
6 © | 6937 | 30°3| -- 32°70 | o- ~ |—917
6 1 | 6867 | 32°0| -- | 31°5] -- os |+-0'5
6 2 | 6547 | 31°4| -- 32°0| os -. |—0'6
6 114) 6937 | 30°0| -- 32°0| -- - |—2°0
6 13 | 6917 | 30°0| «+ | 32°70] oe es |—2°0
6 14 ae 30°8| .. 31s] .. oe tae
6 18 | 6400 | 32°7| -- 31'O| «. oo [917
6 183] 6000 | 32°8| «+ | 32°O| «es +» |+0°8
Sept. 5 117] 6914 | «+ | 36:0] ++ | 35°5|| eo ae on ++ [+05
Between 7000 and 8000 feet.
Aug. 18 1 27 | 7836 | 41°8| e. Bia | eeuifiae = -» |+7°8
x 32 | 7650 | 40°) -- | 35°5| 35°0 +5°1/+56| «- | -. [ors
I 33 | 7650 | 42°0 oe | 36°6 || -- oe [+574
ne EE ESD sts ndtnS Sn gE Snag EERE!
Between 8000 and 9000 feet.
July 17 9 55
I
8809] 19°7| -- ee | 24°0]] oe sa [-—4°9
Aug. 18 2 11% ar 42
ci ea he Al a ba Sd |
Between 9000 and 10,000 feet.
July 17 11 40 | 9882 | 19°9/ 19°7| «- ee {l-+o'2
Aug. 18 1 183| 9954 | 29°2/ -- | 30-4] -- «- |—o'8
I 24 | 9884 | -- | 29°9| 24°0/ «- oe ee «+ I+5°9
Aug. 18 1 22 | 10840] 28°6| .. | 22°0] 25:0} -- |+6°6/+3°6| «2. | -- |—3'0
2 17 | 10864] 27°4| 31°0| ++ | 29°5 || —3°6| «. J|—2r] o« |+1°5
Sept. 5 1 22 | 10774] 28°9| «. oe | 25O]] oe «- {+39
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862.
477
Tasre IX. (continued.)
Between 11,000 and 12,000 feet.
Dew-point Temperature of the Dew-point as deter-
Temperatures mined by
} Dry and Wet | 5
Calculated | Observed || Dry and Wet (free) |~77 ® 3
(aspirated) |
: from by above that by Lees that by g is «
Date. Height. fit 2 Ee Res
Rey ». : 5 sags * . = a3
o on we he om 7 i oI = BS 3
B|ES) 2/23 | FE) | 2e| oe | Se eek
~~ m > 2 = a
92) B2)58| 32 | 28 |58 | 22/58 | 28 See
aut ss, ) 2H =] aa, | q > an |e
p | pe | eB BE] pe) ee) SE) eB! BE |e
A A~ |An | ee | a~ | an | ea | Am] ae lA
d h m feet. ° ° ° ° ie} ° ° ° ° °
July 17 10 2 11792) 23°9 2570|| . apy) | er
Between 12,000 and 13,000 feet.
July 17 10 3 12709| .. 19°5| 21°0 | . i ° oe [15
Aug. 18 2 21 | 12364) 22°2| 22°2 - | 29°0]} o°0 “ oo |— 68
3 36 | 12453] 12°6| .- ee | 14°0 . —14
Sept. 5 1 24 | 12568] .. | 14°5 (250) 4A « |—10%
July 17 10 4] 13000] 169] .. | 210] 22°0|| .. |—4'r|--5'1 —10
IO 5 |13467| 24°9] .. 22°5 || os - (+24
Aug. 18 3 34 | 13320| .. 9°8 12°5 || o- ie oe as, (27
Between 14,000 and 15,000 feet.
| July 17 10 8 | -4544
24°0| 267 | 20'5| 24°0
|-27 +3'5 00 +62 +27 |-3's |
Between 15,000 and 16,000 feet.
July 17 10 11
15704. 24°6 | 22°7| 22'0| 21°5 +19 |+26|+3°3 to7 +14|-+0-7|
Between 16,000 and 17,000 feet.
July 17 10 15
16914
Aug. 18 2 31
24°3| 19°8
23°0
—o'7| «
20°8
6°0
+4°5 |+1°3 |+3°5
oe oe
—3'2|—1'0 |+2°2
«- |—-6
7
Between 17,000 and 18,000 feet.
&
Between 18,000 and 19,000 feet.
Aug. 18 2 32}
2 345
18°83
24°0
tet +20'2
ae
—i-
eee oe 3°5
+205
July 17 10 25 | 18844] 24:9] 24°4| 25°1| 24°2 ||--0°5 |—o°2 |-+-0°7 |—0'7 | +-0'2|-+0'9
Aug. 18 2 35 | 18039 — 574) -- Z°O|| oe se =- oe | 84)
ZO leew cee | 0 In5l tore (oye) os an
—11'5
478 . REPORT—1862,
Taste IX. (continued.)
Between 19,000 and 20,000 feet.
Dew-point Temperature of the Dew-point as deter-
Temperatures mined by
Dry and Wet | 5
Calculated Observed Dry and Wet (free) (aspirated) 2
4 from by above that by i that by g ee
Date. Height. ae ea 6 ae
=./8¢| Bled ee| & 28| §| 28 Hoe
ge] 38/281 38 | ge |42| 22 |S8 | 3a [S82
sé | Fa | 6) 26] 22 | 26| Be | 28] sale
¥ a| 3 Ba | 8 >| & g
& | S| ae] se) &| ae) en | ae | 2 lé
d h m feet. ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
July 17 10 27 |19374 25°6| 23°2| 22°6| 21°0 ||+2'4/+3:0|4+4'6 |4+0°6 |42°2 |4+ 16
IO 29 |19415 19°5| 214 22°2 ||—I'g| +». |—2°7] -» |—o'8
IO 30 |19415 21°8) 18°3| 2175) 22°2 ||-4+-3°5 |+0°3 |—0'4 |—3°2 |—3'9 |—0'7
IO 35 |19548 16°6| .. 190} 20°0 || «. |—24)—3°4| .. es |—1'0
IO 39 |19380 23°83] .. 20°O| 21'r || -- |4+3°8)/42°7| .. oo |—I'E
IO 44 119336 22°1| 22°1| 20°] 20°5 || o'0|+1°6|4+1°6|4+16)/41'6| oo
Sept: 5 1 37$)19000+/—13'0| .. ~ 10° an +» |—3°0
wan” : Between 20,000 and 21,000 feet. aie Ee
Sept. § 1 goapocco+|—e2] .. |. [as] | [een] | |_|
By taking the mean of each column of differences in each 1000 feet of
elevation, the next Table is formed.
Taste X.—Showing the mean differences between the Temperatures of the
_ Dew-point as found by the use of the Dry- and Wet-bulb Thermometers
and by Daniell’s and Regnault’s Hygrometers, and comparison of the results
as found from the two Hygrometers.
Excess of Temperature of the Dew-point as found by
Dry and Wet Thermometers (free) || Dry and Wet (aspirated)||
above that found by above that found by
Heights between ae a
Sols} 8 lal 28 [el 3 Vs] 28 lel 28
42 |2| 22 |2| 22 |] $2 |2] Ze [Sil SE
S38 lw as is BS | as |e] 325 oe aS
an | 6} & iS) ih S ° =
p 3is| 2 |s| SE is] EE] s) BE | 5) BE
A Zz) am |4] ea j2t Am 12) mist we
feet. feet. < iM shat
+41 | 8) -+2°6 |2/|/+0'2 |2) +2°6 |2
--| 4-0°2 | 7
+05
+11
.| —0°6
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 479
The numbers in every one of these columns are affected with a change of
sign, and, therefore, no certain difference is shown over the determination of
the dew-point as found by any method or instrument over that found by
any other.
By taking the means of all in each group of 5000 feet, giving weight
according to the number of experiments upon which each result is based, we
have :—
From the ground to 5000 feet high the temperature of the dew-point as
determined by—
Dry and Wet bulb (free)
Experiments,
Was 0°-4 higher than as found by Dry and Wet (aspirated) ..from 4
», thé samé as found by Daniell’s Hygrometer .......... wine
», 22 higher than as found by Regnault’s Hygrometer .. ,, 3
Dry and Wet bulb (aspirated)
Was 0°-1 higher than as found by Daniell’s Hygrometer .... ,, 2
Tape es . 3 59 Regnault’s 9 sH¥S 5S ae
Daniell’s Hygrometer
Was 1°-0 higher than as found by Regnault’s Hygrometer .. ,, 3
From 5000 feet to 10,000 feet the temperature of the dew-point as de-
termined by
Dry and Wet (free)
Was 0°2 higher than as found by Dry and Wet (aspirated) ..from 1
oa Neal a * is Daniell’s Hygrometer .... ,, 29.
a. 1°83 a a ps Regnault’s 3 , ee Ae ee
Dry and Wet (aspirated)
Was 5°-9 higher than as found by Daniell’s Hygrometer .... 5, 2
“4, 0%7-lower 3 35 Regnault’s 5 (FET ee Ue
From 10,000 to 15,000 feet the temperature of the dew-point as deter-
mined by i
Dry and Wet (free)
Was 2°-1 lower than as found by Dry and Wet Saag from 3
-5, 2°-0 higher 53 4». _ Daniell’s Hygrometer . . “oe
», 07 lower pa is Regnault’s po T atAee% hat i eu
Dry and Wet (aspirated)
Was 6°-2 higher than as found by Daniell’s Hygrometer .... ,,
,, 14 lower 4 Regnault’s - RAGE
“
“
Or
Daniell’s Hygrometer
Was 2°2 lower than as found by Regnault’s Hygrometer.... ,, 4
A480 REPORT—1862.
From 15,000 to 20,000 feet the temperature of the dew-point as deter-
mined by
Dry and Wet (free) Experiments,
Was 1°1 higher than as found by Dry and Wet (aspirated) ..from 7
gy O85 > a a Daniell’s Hygrometer .... ,, 9
9
Sot D 53 = 39 Regnault’s 95 Seer Aas
Dry and Wet (aspirated)
Was 0°-6 lower than as found by Daniell’s Hygrometer...... g378 AG
ae Repnault’s) ~y35.- tte sana api le
2 0 9 3) 9 2)
Daniell’s Hygrometer
Was 0-4 higher than as found by Regnault’s Hygrometer.... ,, 8
By taking the mean of all, according to the number of experiments, we
haye :—
From the ground to 20,000 feet the mean temperature of the dew-point
as found by
Dry and Wet (free)
Was 0°-2 higher than as found by Dry and Wet (aspirated) ..from 15
5, 90° by ms - Daniell’s Hygrometer .... ,, 114
tae, ae 5 iy ss Regnault’s =5 vcakebyne ced
Dry and Wet (aspirated)
Was 0° 9 higher than as found by Daniell’s Hygrometer .... ,, 10
3, 0°6 lower 4 ee Regnault’s si its Sib an, cae
Daniell’s Hygrometer
Was 0°1 lower than as found by Regnault’s Hygrometer .. ,, 16
From all the results it would seem that the temperature of the dew-point
as deduced from the Dry- and Wet-bulb thermometers as ordinarily used has
a tendency to give a result a little too high, but to an amount that is less than
the probable error of observations, and that, therefore, it is a perfectly trust-
worthy instrument to use, even to great altitudes; also, the results by
Daniell’s Hygrometer seem to be of equal value with those found by Reg-
nault’s Hygrometer, at all elevations.
§ 8. Comparison oF THE READINGS OF THE MERCURIAL AND ANEROID
BaROMETERS AT DIFFERENT HEIcuts,
All the simultaneous readings of the Siphon and Aneroid Barometers were
extracted from Table I. and inserted in the following Table.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCEN'TS IN 1862, 481
TasLe XI.—Comparison of the Readings of Mercurial and Aneroid Barometers,
in the ascents on July 17 and August 18.
, Excess of
i : E f |
| eatings of | ending o Readings of |esiiny a |
Month, day, hour Barometers. Aneroid Month, day, hour Barometers. ‘Anactidine
| Siphon ini ge |... | Siphon
|
|
and minute. f above and minute. above
Siphon. |Aneroid.| Barometer. Siphon. |Aneroid.| Barometer.
in. in, | in. in, | in.
m= s} in.
July 17, 9 49 0 25°22] 25°32 toro | Aug. 18, 0 56 0} 29°34| 29°51] torr7 |
9 51 24°14] 24°30] +0°16 || 6 0, 28°55) 28°78} +023 |
9 53 22°42 | 22°65! +0°23 8 9 26°67 | 26°90} +0°23
9 54 22°02 | 22°20} +o18 Io o| 25°86) 26°08) +022
9 55 09} 21°58) 21°80] -or22 || 14 0} 23°64] 23°82] +0-18
9 56 20°93| 21°10) +o'17 || 15 22°69 | 22°68| —oro1 |
9 58 19°63 | 20°09| 40°46 | 20 19°90| 20°05 | +ors5 |
Io 2 19°28 | 19°60} +0732 | 24. 15) 20°90| 21°28 | +038
s h
fo) °
Co) I
QO} I
) I °
° I °
° I °
° I oO}
° | I 5
Io 3. o| 18°63| 18°90) +0'27 \ 127 0} 22°62! 22°90] +0°28
Io § oj 1814} 18:40) +026 | I 32 0} 22°80| 22°85] +o'o5 |
to 8 of 17°24] 17°52| +0'28 || I 38 0} 24°46] 24°60) +o14 |
IO Ir 0} 16°74! 17°10} 40°36 || I 41 0} 25°08! 25°30! +o'22
TO 15 oj 16°04] 16:25] +ora1 || I 52 0! 25°80} 25°82) +o'02
To 25 0} 14°94| 15715) +o'21 || 155 0} 25°08 | 25°25) +017
Io 27 oj 14°64) 15°30) +0°66 || 2 © O} 23°93} 24°10] +017
Io 29 oj 14°64] 15°30| +0°66 2 g Of 22°58| 22°71} +013
IO 30 o} 14°64} 15°30} +0°66 2 17 0} 20°24] 20°50] +0:26
IO 35 | 14°64] 15°00} +0°36 | 2 21 0} 19°11} 19°30| +orrg
IO 44 0} 14°63) 15°10] +-0'47 || 2 25 20) 17°61| 17°85} +024
10 47 0) 14°13) 14°70) +0°57 || 2 29 0} 16-41 16°50! + 0°09
IO 50 o} 13°64] 14°20] +0°56 2 32 20] 15°84.) 16:00! +016
IO 54 0} 13°14] 13°60| +046 2 49 50| 13°70} 13°60} —o'ro
IO §7 | 12°14| 12°60) +0'46 3 5 | 12°93} 13°20) 40°27
II 3. of 11°64 12°10] + 0°46 3 18 30) 13°45] 13°55) +-o"lo
II 7 of 11°65] 12°10} +045 3.25 0} 13°65| 13°72] +0°07
II 12 ©} 11°95| 12°40] +0°45 3.34 +) 17°53] 17°42] —o'11
II 20. o} 12°65} 13°20} + 0°55 3 36 o| 18°63] 18°65] +0'02
II 25 0} 13°14| 13°60} +046 3 39 0} 20°02| 20°05} 40°03
II 38 0} 18°94| 19°00| -++0°06 3.49 0} 24°28) 24°42] +014
II 39 0} 20°04} 20°40] +0°36
II 40 0} 20°54 20°80; +0°26
July 17.—The differences between the readings are shown in the last
column, and exhibit an increasing difference, increasing in amount with
decreasing readings, till at the highest point the discordance between the
readings amounted to half an inch. It is presumed that the aneroid baro-
meter was in error to these amounts; but both instruments were broken in
the descent, and no more information can be given.
August 18.—The differences between the readings of the mercurial and
aneroid barometers in this ascent were as constant as could be expected, as
the readings could seldom be strictly simultaneous. Upon the whole, the
readings of the aneroid are as good as those of the siphon.
1862, Ox
482 REPORT—1862.
Taste XI. (continued)—Comparison of the Readings of Mercurial and
Aneroid Barometers and Negretti’s new Barometer, in the Ascent on
September 5.
. Excess of Reading above
Readings of Barometers, | Excess of | | NOcteuti"a new Bavometer
Month, day, hour Aneroid
and minute. : above
Negretti’s Siphon of of
Siphon. | Aneroid. new Barometer. Siphon Aneroid
Barometer. Barometer. | Barometer.
hm |g] ‘in, in. in. in. in.
Sept. 5, 0 © 0] 2940 29°40 pecans 0°00
25) To) 23°97; 29°10 teseee +0'13
g's gol "2857 28°60 28°72 +0'03 —O'rs
rT 6 . ‘o) (28748 | 28°35 28°55 —0'03 —oO'17
IIo o| 26°19 26°20 26°35 +oro1 —o'16
I Ir 30] 25°49 W5*G2 al sees +013
I 13 oO} 24°30 24°45 24°60 -+or1s —0°30
I 14 30] 23°70 23°90 23°99 +0'20 —0'20
© 16 0) ©23736 De Plo) | one +0'04,
I 17 40| 22°66 22°71 22°75 +or05 —o'09
TF 2x; of © 20°72 20°60 20°65 —o'l2 0°07
122 0} 20°07 20°17 eoeeee -+o'1o
I 25 30] 17°93 18°10 17°90 +017 +0'03
127 oO} 16°94 16°90 16"90 0704 +0'04.
I 28 o| 16°69 16°65 teeeee —0'04.
135 oO} 14°65 14°90 sevece +0'25
£20, oO} “F4°k5 T4780 | seeee . +o0'25
I 37 30] 14°47 14°80 teeeee +0°33
2 8 30] 12°55 12°80 speeae +0°25
2 9 30| 16°37 16°45 16°50 +0'08 —0'13
2 9 40! 17°07 seeeee 17°20 sectereee | —=O'TZ
2.2% Gl & Wye MS Fess a aa lie eens toss | —O'L4
2 16 10) 19°75 19°90 Tg"90 +or'1s —O'15
2 16 20| 20°05 20°25 20°25 -+o'20 —0°20
2 16 50} 20°65 20°65 20°70 o'00 —0'05
@ 17 -gq|,) 21°15 21°55 21°30 -+o'40 —oO'ls
2 19 30) 21°85 21°90 21°90 +0105 | —0'05
2 ZO 1:20! 22°04. Sl. Hewes < ZOO 4 eae wwe | 40°04
2 20 40] 22°24. 22°20 22°45 —o0'04, —o'21
2 23 20) 22°64 22°76 22°70 +o12 —o0'06
2 23 50) 22°93 | 23°20 23°00 +0'27 — 0°07
224 O} 23°03 23°00 22°95 —0'03 +0'08
2022 Ol) 25 Ao 25°55 25°30 tors -+o'1o
2 38 of 26°40 26°35 26°35 —0'05 +0'05
3 6 ° RPE 29°02 220! ws |) csneoaeset (| Senn dg etetr
The numbers in the last column but two show the differences between the
readings of the siphon and aneroid barometers, those in the last column
but one the differences between the readings of the siphon barometer and -
Negretti and Zambra’s new barometer, and those in the last column the
differences between the readings of the aneroid barometer and Negretti and
Zambra’s new barometer; these several differences are all small, and are
within the probable error of observation, as it is not possible that the read-
ings can be made at the same instant. They prove that all the observations
made in the seyeral ascents may safely be depended upon, and also that an
aneroid barometer can be made to read correctly to pressures below 12 inches.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 483
§ 9, Exzcrricat Srare or THE ATMOSPHERE.
In the ascent on July 17, an electrometer, kindly lent by Professor W.
Thomson, of Glasgow, was used. Care (according to the instructions from
Professor Thomson) was taken to discharge the electricity from the balloon
on leaving the earth, and a charge of negative electricity was given to the
instrument, and it read 59°, which we may call the balloon-reading. The
instrument leaked a little, and it was necessary at every experiment to re-
determine the balloon-reading. The following are the results of the ob-
servations :—
Map doo | Ra Tee a ge
as 1ss00 te. {Bien a
At 15,700 fect. . | Groctrcity of the air. 68
At 19,500 feet... rectrivity of the ait 1. 61
118300 i 4
Balloon-reading ¥..... 58
#4,23,000 fret, . Electricity of the air .. 58+
Now as these observations were made under the balloon, and the readings for
the air were large negative readings always, it implies that the air was
charged with positive electricity, but becoming less and less in amount with
increasing elevation, till at the height of 23,000 feet the amount was too
small to measure but was of the same kind. It is impossible therefore to
say whether at higher elevations there would have been no electricity, or
whether it would haye changed to negative. I wish, however, to speak
guardedly on this subject, and would regard these observations as indications
only. I pledge myself no further than that all the directions given to me by
Professor Thomson were followed, and that the readings are correct.
On tHe Oxycentc Conpition oF THE ATMOSPHERE.
On July 17th the test papers, both by Moffat and Schonbein, continued
untinged by colour throughout the whole flight of the balloon, and the same
result was found during the ascent on July 30.
After these ascents I received the following letter from Dr. Moffat :—
“ Hawarden, August 4th, 1862.
Dear Mr. GuaisHEr,
“Tn the Times of Saturday last I observed, in your report of meteorological
observations taken during a balloon ascent from the Crystal Palace on July 30th,
that ‘test ozone papers were not coloured, and no ozone was noticed in the
ascent from Wolverhampton.’ This is remarkable, seeing that ozone increases
in quantity directly with increase of elevation on the earth’s surface. The
degree of coloration of test papers varies with the humidity of the atmosphere.
Dry air retards the decomposition of the iodine of potassium, and very moist
air removes the iodine when decomposition has taken place. It does not
‘appear, however, in the observations, that the degree of humidity on the day
of ascent was in any way unfavourable to the decomposition of the iodine, or
the development of the brown colour on the test papers.
2x2
A484. REPORT—1862.
«The time the balloon was up was short (two hours), and ozone must be
in very considerable quantity to produce coloration of the test paper in so
short a period of time. Still, according to our present notions of increase of
the quantity of ozone with increase of elevation, papers of ordinary sensitive-
ness ought to have been coloured during the ascents. The sensitiveness of
the papers used in the investigation is of course of the utmost importance.
“Today the quantity of ozone indicated by test papers prepared by
myself is 4; and two papers from a packet prepared by Messrs. Negretti
and Zambra, exposed for two hours in sunshine, did not show the slightest
tinge, while a slip prepared by myself, exposed under similar circumstances,
gave a degree of coloration equal to the mean of the day. From these
results it would appear that the test papers used by you were in fault, This
is a question of some moment, and one of great scientific interest; and if
future balloon ascents give results similar to those you have reported, then
the ground of the development of ozone must be looked for in the atmosphere
near the surface of the earth.
“T am, yours very truly,
“ Jas. Glaisher, Esq.” (Signed) «'T, Morrar.”
In consequence of the receipt of this letter I went to Hawarden to Dr. Moffat,
and induced him to: make some test papers himself for the balloon experiments.
He did so, and they were used on August 18th. I took some of the papers
prepared by him, and some of the papers out of the same packets which I had
used during the two preceding ascents, as well as some prepared by a formula
of Schénbein. When I had reached 10,000 feet the new papers were decidedly
tinged; at 17,000 feet they were coloured to the amount of 2, on a scale
whose deepest colour is represented by 10; at 20,000 feet to 3. At 22,000
feet the coloration had increased to 4; and here Schénbein’s paper was
coloured to 1, and Moffat’s old papers were still uncoloured. Moffat’s
new papers gradually increased in intensity, and when 3000 feet from the
earth at 2"38™ were deepened to 7. It would therefore appear that in all
probability the test papers were in fault in the first ascents; and I may here
remark that, in consequence, the preparation of the ozone test papers has been
stopped, and that it is my intention, as Dr. Moffat himself cannot undertake
the task, to superintend the preparation of the papers myself in future.
Time or VrsRAtion oF A Magner.
On July 17, at Wolverhampton, there were
Ss. Ss.
30 vibrations of a magnet in 42-1; that is, one vibration in 1-403
30 ” ” 42:5; ” ” ATT
30 ¥ 9 42-4; ‘3 3 1-413
Therefore one vibration =1:411 second.
At the height of 18,844 feet one vibration = 15-489.
At the height of 20,244 feet one vibration = 15-536.
Therefore the time of vibration seemed to be somewhat longer.
On July 30, at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, the time of the vibration
of the magnet =1:573 second.
On July 30, the mean of four sets of observations at the mean height of
5300 feet gave
One vibration =1*-572,
:
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 485
being sensibly the same as the result on the same day as determined at the
Observatory.
On August 18, at Wolverhampton,
38 vibrations —60-0 .*. one vibration —1-580
32 ” 50:3 ” ” 1-572
34s, 54:2 os » | 16595
30 of 47:9 f oY 1:597
4)6-344
Therefore one vibration=1°586 second, 1-586
At 11,000 feet 26 vibrations =41°5 second.
Therefore one vibration= 1-590 second.
A result differing but little from that on the ground,
August 20, at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, the time of one vibration
was 1-580 second.
August 20, at the height of 3800 feet one vibration =1:583 second.
On September 5, I did not succeed in getting the time of vibration of the
magnet at all in the balloon. During this ascent we were almost constantly
going round and round—a motion fatal to observations of this nature, and
failure at all times was the rule in these experiments. I commenced many
series of experiments with the axis of the car in one position relative to the
cardinal points of the compass, which I found to be different before the observa-
tions were completed, and consequently the observations were of no value.
The general result of these experiments is that the magnet vibrates in
a somewhat longer interval of time at high elevations than on the earth.
The number of experiments, however, is too few to speak decidedly on this
point.
Heienrs AnD APPEARANCE o¥ THE Croups.
July 17.
The sky was covered with cumulostratus clouds before starting.
At 9" 47™ a.m,, at 4467 feet. Clouds were reached.
At 9° 51™ a.m., at 5802 feet. Many clouds all round at a lower elevation.
At 9" 53™ a.m., at 7980 feet. Entered a dense cumulostratus cloud.
At 9" 55™ a.m., at 9000 feet. Passed out of cloud into bright sunshine
and blue sky
At 10" 2" a.m., at 11,792 feet. Examined the clouds below, which were
noted as being very beautiful in form and arrangement.
At 10" 15™ a.m., at 16,914 feet. Cumuli were underneath and far below ;
strati in the distance, apparently the same height as the eye. No clouds
above: blue sky.
At 11" 38" a.m., at 12,376 feet. On descending the shadow of the balloon
and car on the cloud below was very large and distinct; entered the cloud
directly afterwards.
At 11" 40™ a.m, at 9882 feet. In so dense a cloud that the balloon could
not be seen.
At 11" 45" a.m., at 5432 feet. Came out of cloud, but passed through
others which appeared to be rising with great rapidity.
486 . REPORT—1862.
July 30.
Partially clear before starting, there being cirrocumulus, cumulostratus,
cirrostratus, and a little cirrus nearly covering the sky, but very thin in the
zenith.
At 5® 26™ p.m., at 5830 feet. Cumuli all round at lower elevations ; zenith
clear.
At 5" 54™ p.m., at 6466 feet. A great mist, surrounding the balloon.
At 6° 2" p.m., at 6547 feet. Cumuli and cumulostratus were below.
At 6" 7™ p.m., at 6600 feet. Cumuli and cumulostratus appeared at the
same level with the car, and strati above.
August 18.
At 1"p.m. Zenith clear, wind W.N.W. but light, clouds moving N. by W.
At 1° 8™ p.m., at 3347 feet. “A cumulus cloud was entered.
At 1° 24” p. m, ., at 9884 feet. Detached cumuli far below; plains of clouds
in the distance.
At 1" 27™ p.m., at 7836 feet. Alpine and dome-like clouds, bright and
even on one side, in shade and lumpy on the other; detached cumuli at a
lower elevation.
At 1" 34™ p.m., at 6000 feet. Clouds have a very beautiful appearance.
At 1" 58™ 40° p.m., at 5800 feet. Cumuli apparently same height as the
car in the distance.
At 2" 22™ 308 p.m., at 12,700 feet. Great mass of clouds to the east.
At 2" 25™ 20° p.m., at 14,300 feet. A sea of clouds ; snow-white appear-
ance; a few clouds below; cirri still much higher. A deep-blue sky.
For note on the appearance of the clouds at 3° 33™ p.m., see Section of
Observations, &c., p. 400.
At 3" 43™ p.m., at 8144 feet. The shadow of the balloon and car on the
cloud below very large and distinct.
At 3" 43™ 308 p.m., at 7438 feet. Entered clouds.
At 3" 46™ 10° p.m., at 6050 feet. In cloud, can see nothing; passed out
of cloud at 6000 feet; a lower stratum of cloud.
At 3" 46™ 30° p.m., at 5979 feet. Image of balloon on lower clouds mag-
nificent.
At 3" 48™ p.m., at 5922 feet. Entered a second stratum of cloud.
At 3" 49™ p.m., at 5621 feet. Still in cloud.
At 3" 50™ p.m., at 5300 feet. Emerged from the clouds.
At 3" 51™ p.m., at 4520 feet. In thick mist.
At 3° 55™ p.m., at 3000+ feet. Passed out of mist.
August 20.
At 6" 30" p.m. Very hazy; cirri prevalent in zenith; cloudy elsewhere.
At 6" 32™ 30° p.m., at 1397 feet. In a mist.
At 6" 38™ p.m., at 3159 feet. Misty all round, detached seud beneath.
At 6" 39” p.m., at 3359 feet. Clouds below as scud.
At 6" 43™ p.m., at 4256 feet. Clouds far below, but not under us.
At 6" 43” 308 p.m., at 4316 feet. Entered a cloud.
At 6" 58™ p.m., at 3793 feet. Clouds were all below.
At 7" 5™ p.m., at 4250 feet. In mist; earth invisible.
At 7" 25" p.m., at 2067 feet. Fog below.
At 7° 47" p.m., at 5194 feet. In cloud; London out of sight.
At 7° 49™ p.m., at 5900 feet. Having passed above the clouds, their upper
surfaces were of a rich red.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 487
At 7° 50™ p.m., at 5500 feet. In cloud.
At 7" 52™ p.m., at 5200 feet. Above the clouds again.
At 7" 55™ p.m., at 5500 feet. Setting sun tinged the clouds with red; 4
beautiful appearance.
At 7" 56™ p.m., at 5160 feet. In cloud again.
At 8" 5™ p.m., at 7000 feet. Above the clouds.
August 21.
The sky was overcast, being covered with dense cirrostratus clouds before
starting.
‘ At 4° 40™ a.m., at 1210 feet. In a thick mist.
At 4° 41™ a.m., at 1286 feet. Clouds broken; in the east there were
beautiful lines of light, with gold and silver tints.
At 4° 44" a.m., at 1706 feet. Earth visible in the distance.
At 4" 45™ a.m., at 2000 feet. Very misty; blocks of clouds above.
At 4° 49™ a.m., at 2930 feet. Scud below, creeping along the earth; cu-
muli apparently on same level in the distance ; black clouds above.
At 4" 55™ a.m., at 4927 feet. Entered the clouds.
At 4" 56™ a.m., at 5300 feet. Lost sight of earth.
At 4° 57" 30° a.m., at 5989 feet. Great masses of alpine cloud; entered
a beautiful cumulus cloud.
At 4" 58™ a.m., at 6000+4feet. In cloud, surrounded by white mist.
At 5" a.m., at 6510 feet. Emerged in a valley between two clouds.
_ At 5" 1™ am., at 6400+feet. Immense ocean of cloud; magnificent view.
At 5" 1™ 20° a.m., at 6350+feet. Under the sun the appearance of a
lake ; mountains of clouds to the left; fine cloud-land generally.
At 5" 3" a.m., at 6336 feet. Lost sight of sun; misty.
At 5" 4™ a.m., at 6413 feet. Deep ravines and shaded parts visible in the
clouds ; sun again rising in same magnificent way ; clouds sweeping boldly
away.
At 5" 34™ 30° a.m., at 13,875 feet. Magnificent peaks of cloud in the
distance; like a sea of cotton.
At 5° 48™ a.m., at 14,273 feet. Sea of clouds below.
At 5" 51™ a.m., at 14,318 feet. Thin strati obscure the sun.
At 5" 57™ a.m., at 14,228 feet. Strati apparently same height as ourselves;
cirri above.
At 6" a.m., at 14,213 feet. Beautiful sea of clouds everywhere.
- At 6" 24™ a.m., at 8040 feet. The shadow of the balloon on the clouds
below was distinct, and surrounded by prismatic colours.
At 6" 27™ a.m., at 7293 feet. Clouds approached on descending.
At 6" 28™ 30° a.m., at 7106 feet. In a mist.
At 6" 29" a.m., at 7001 feet. Just entering clouds.
; At 6" 35™ a.m., at 5189 feet. Stratum of cloud beneath.
- At 6" 36™ 30° a.m., at 5058 feet. | Entered the clouds, and passed below
At 6" 38"™+ a.m., at 4000 + feet. } them.
September 1.
_ The sky was uniformly covered with cirrostratus clouds.
At 5" 5™ 30° p.m., at 3408 feet.. Cumuli in horizon apparently at a low
elevation.
At 5" 16™ p.m., at 3620 feet. Apparently on a level with cumuli in the
distance.
488 REPORT—] 862.
At 5" 30™ p.m., at 4000 feet. Higher than all clouds near us.
At 5" 31™ p.m., at 4090 feet. Clouds have formed over the river from the
Nore up to beyond Richmond, following the river in all its windings and
bendings, and almost confined to its banks throughout.
At 5" 32™ p.m., at 4180 feet. Clouds far below, and moving apparently at
right angles to our motion.
At 5° 36™ p.m., at 4000 feet. Clouds meeting us, moving at right angles
to our motion ; clouds very low.
At 5" 37™ p.m., at 3900 feet. Clouds passing quickly below us.
At 5° 37™ 30° p.m., at 3690 feet. Clouds still follow the course of the river,
being limited to its breadth, and parallel to it throughout its course.
At 5" 40™ p.m., at 3362 feet. Clouds meeting us of three different degrees
of white: the top bluish white, the middle the pure white of the cumulus,
and the lower blackish white; and from these, we afterwards learned, rain had
been falling on the earth all the afternoon.
September 5.
The sky was covered with clouds before starting.
At 1" 13™ 305 p.m., at 5722 feet. In cloud, wholly obscured.
At. 1" 16™ p.m., at 6729 feet. Still in cloud, very dense.
At 1° 17™ 20° p.m., at 6914 feet. Out of cloud.
September 8.
At 4° 48™ p.m. The sky was overcast, with cirrostratus clouds.
At 4" 49™ p.m., at 1232 feet. Scud at lower elevation, but not under us.
At 4° 54™ 308 p.m., at 4169 feet. In mist, then in dense fog.
At 4" 55™ p.m., at 4380 feet. In a dense white cloud.
At 4" 56™ 308 p.m., at 4650-feet. Still in cloud, thick and white.
At 4" 58™ 20° p.m., at 4750 feet. Half out of cloud; the crown of the
balloon was out of cloud, and the car still within.
At 4" 59™ 108 p.m., at 4650 feet. Cloud more dense; balloon descending.
At 5" 1™ 30% p.m., at 4400 feet. Misty view ; horizon obscured all round.
At 5® 1™ 508 p.m., at 4200 feet. Very black clouds over London.
At 5" 7™ p.m., at 3370 feet. Beautiful break in the clouds to the west.
At 5" 10™ 308 p.m., at 4108 feet. In slight mist.
At 5" 11™ 25° p.m., at 4400 feet. Clouds below.
At 5" 12™ 30° p.m., at 4920 feet. The shadow of the balloon and car sur-
rounded by primary and secondary prismatic rings.
At 5" 14™ 40° p.m., at 4920 feet. Clouds heaped upon each other, appa-
rently on a level with the car.
At 5° 16™ 45% p.m., at 5260 feet. Fluffy clouds below.
At 5° 17™ 308 p.m., at 5230 feet. Clouds rising were whiter than those
below ; a slight amount of blue in all clouds.
At 5" 17™ 55% p.m., at 5428 feet. Balloon approaching clouds.
At 5" 18™ 30° p.m., at 5428 feet. The shadow of the balloon and car on
clouds, encircled by three distinct prismatic rings.
At 5" 20™ 30% p.m., at 5112 feet. Clouds near us like smoke.
At 5" 22™ p.m., at 5060 feet. Beautiful chasm in the clouds.
At 5" 22™ p.m., at 5057 feet. Entering clouds.
At 5° 22™ 45% p.m., at 5040 feet. Just entering clouds.
At 5" 24™ 10° p.m., at 5020 feet. Entering clouds again.
At 5" 24™ 305 p.m., at 5039 feet. In cloud.
At 5" 25™ 20 p.m., at 4700 feet. Still in cloud.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 489
At 5° 26™ 255 p.m., at 3220 feet. Cumuli below as scud.
At 5" 27™ 30° p.m., at 3600 feet. A fine white cloud apparently resting
on the Thames, like a huge swan.
APPEARANCE OF THE SKY.
July 17.
At 10" 15" a.m., at 16,914 feet. Intense prussian blue.
At 10° 39" a.m., at 19,380 feet. Deep blue.
July 30.
At 5" 31™ 30° p.m., at 5280 feet. Deep blue, dotted with small cumuli;
sun shining brightly.
At 6" 2™ p.m., at 6547 feet. Deep blue, dotted with cirrocumuli.
August 18.
At 1° 9" p.m., at 3705 feet. Deep blue.
At 2" 25™ 208 p.m., at 14,434 feet. Very deep blue.
At 3" 33™ p.m., at 15,984 feet. Very deep blue, dotted with cirrus clouds,
August 20,
At 7" 49™ p.m., at 5900 feet. Blue.
September 1.
At 4" 45™ p.m., at 270 feet. Blue sky near the horizon.
September 5.
At 1 21™ p.m., at 9926 feet. Deep blue.
September 8.
At 4" 58™ 20° p.m., at 4750 feet. Blue sky above.
At 5° 11™ 25° p.m., at 4440 feet. Blue.
At 5° 12™ 30° p.m., at 4920 feet. Deep blue.
Direction oF THE WIND,
July 17.
The direction of the wind before starting was S.W.
At 10° 27" a.m., at 19,374 feet, we determined, by means of the compass
and the inclination of the grapnel hanging below, that we were moving in
the direction of N.E., and therefore the wind was from the S.W.
At 10" 44™ a.m., at 19,336 feet, we seemed to be moving towards the
north; if so, the wind was S.
July 30.
The direction of the wind before starting was N.W.
At 4" 41™ 15° p.m., at 480 feet, the direction of the wind was 8.W.
At 5° 17™ 305 p.m., at 5155 feet, the direction of the wind was N.N.W.
At 5" 40™ 30° p.m., at 6183 feet, the direction of the wind was N,
August 18,
The direction of the wind before starting was N.W.
At 1° 5™ p.m., at 1130 feet, the direction of the wind was N.N.E.
At 1" 17™ p.m., at 8935 feet, the direction of the wind was N.W.
August 20.
The direction of the wind before starting was 8.W., with very gentle mo-
490 REPORT—1 862.
tion. No observations of the direction of the wind were made during this
ascent, as the air was almost calm.
August 21.
The direction of the wind before starting was-S.W. No observations of
the direction of the wind were made during this ascent.
September 1.
The direction of the wind before starting was E.N.E., verging to E.
At 5° 4™ p.m., at 3268 feet, the direction of the wind was E.N.E.
At 5" 10™ p.m., at 3318 feet, the direction of the wind was E.
- At 5" 11™ 308 p.m., at 3560 feet, the direction of the wind was E.S.E.
At 5° 17™ p.m., at 3580 feet, the direction of the wind was E.N.E.
At 5" 36™ p.m., at 4190 feet, upper current W.
September 5.
The direction of the wind before starting was N.
At 2" 16™ 108 p.m., at 11,150 feet, the direction of the wind was E.
September 8.
The direction of the wind before starting was S.W. No observations of
the direction of the wind could be taken during this ascent.
On THE PrRopacation or Sounp.
On July 17, when at the height of 11,800 feet above the earth a band was
heard playing.
On July 30, at 5450 feet a gun was heard with a sharp sound, then a
drum beating, and then a band was heard.
On August 18, at 4500 feet the shouting of people was heard.
- at 18,000 feet a clap of thunder was heard.
es at 20,000 feet thunder again heard, below us.
* at 20,000 feet a loud clap of thunder was heard.
On August 20, at 4000 feet heard the shouts of people.
3 at 4300 feet railway whistle heard.
x at 3500 feet heard bell tolling.
5 at 2200 feet heard people shouting.
3 at 3700 feet heard a clock strike.
On August 21, at 4900 feet a railway-train was heard.
39 at 8200 feet a gun was heard.
x at 3500 feet heard people shouting.
On September 5, at 6730 feet, ascending, the report of a gun was heard.
9 at 10,070 feet, descending, the report of a gun was heard.
On September 8, at 3300 feet heard the shouts of people.
From these results we learn that different notes and sounds pass more
readily through the air than others. A dog barking has been heard at the
height of two miles ; a multitude of people shouting, not more than 4500 feet.
On August 18 we heard at three different times what, in my Notes to the
Observations, I have called claps of thunder; but I also remarked at these
times that a careful examination of the clouds below us failed to discover any
thunder-cloud. On inquiry afterwards as to the fact of thunder being heard
on the earth, we found none had been, and it was suggested that the sounds ©
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 491
we heard might have proceeded from Birmingham, where guns were being
proved on that day. It-is possible this suggestion may be correct.
PHYSIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.
On July 17, before starting from Wolverhampton, at my request Mr.
Coxwell took the number of his pulsations, and found 74 in one minute; my
pulsations were 76 in one minute. At the height of 17,000 feet mine had
increased to 100, and Mr. Coxwell’s to 84. On regaining the ground the
number of both our pulsations was 76.
On August 18, the number of our pulsations were both 76 before starting.
At the height of 22,000 feet mine had increased to 100, and Mr. Coxwell’s
to 98; and afterwards, at a higher elevation, Mr. Coxwell’s number was 110,
and mine 107.
On August 21, in the morning ascent no observations were taken of our
pulsations before leaving. At the height of 1000 feet the following results
were obtained:—Mr. Coxwell’s, 95 in a minute; Mr. Ingelow’s, 80 in a
minute; Capt. Percival’s, 90 in a minute. At 11,000 feet :—Mr. Coxwell’s,
90 in a minute; Mr. Ingelow’s, 100 in a minute; Capt. Percival’s, 88 in a.
minute; mine, 88 in a minute; my son’s (a boy in his 14th year), 89 in
a minute. At 14,000 feet the following were the results:—Mr. Coxwell’s,
94 in a minute; mine, 98 in a minute; Mr. Ingelow’s, 112 in a minute;
Capt. Percival’s, 78 in a minute; my son’s, 89 ina minute. The pulsations
of Capt. Percival were so weak that he could scarcely count them, whilst
those of Mr. Coxwell, he considered, had increased in strength.
These results show that the effect of diminished pressure exercises a very
different influence upon different individuals, depending probably upon tem-
perament and organization.
In the ascent on July 17, at the height of 19,000 feet the hands and lips
were noted as dark bluish, but not the face. At the height of four miles the
palpitations of the heart were audible and the breathing was affected, and
at higher elevations considerable difficulty was experienced in respiration.
- On August 18, the hands and face were blue at the height of 23,000 feet.
On September 5, at the height of about 29,000 feet I became unconscious,
and at the height of about 35,000 feet Mr. Coxwell lost the use of his hands.
At the height of about 29,000 feet I began to recover, and resumed observing
at the height of 25,000 feet.
_- From these results it would seem that the effect of high elevations is dif-
ferent upon the same individual at different times.
On THE DrrrerEent APPEARANCE OF THE GAS IN THE Baxxoon.
July 17.
Before starting the gas was thick and opaque.
At 9° 54™ a.m., at 8065 feet. Valve opened, gas opaque.
At 10" 2™ a.m., at 11,792 feet. Balloon full, gas opaque.
At 10" 15™ a.m., at 16,914 feet. Gas cleared in balloon from appéarance
of smoke to transparency.
July 30.
Before starting the gas was thick and opaque.
At 4" 40™ 308 p.m., at 330 feet. Gas clear and transparent.
492 REPORT—1862.
At 4" 45" 308 p.m., at 2379 feet. Gas getting thick again.
At 5" 31™ p.m., at 5380 feet. Gas partially clear.
August 18,
Before starting the gas was cloudy and opaque. -
At 1" 18™ 55% p.m., at 9978 feet. Balloon full, gas cloudy.
At 1" 21™ p.m., at 11,470 feet. Valve opened.
At 1" 25™ p.m., at 9740 feet. Valve opened.
At 1" 32™ p.m., at 7650 feet. Valve opened.
At 2" 22™ p.m., at 12,364 feet. Balloon full, gas clear,
At 2" 25™ 20%4p.m., at 14,434 feet. Gas getting opaque.
August 20.
Before starting the gas was thick and opaque.
At 6" 39" p.m., at 3359 feet. Gas still opaque.
At 6" 41™ 305 p.m., at 3986 feet. Gas very opaque, issuing from the neck
as smoke.
At 7" 4" p.m., at 4052 feet. Gas opaque, issuing from the neck as smoke.
At 7 18™ p.m., at 1417 feet. Gas clear; can see netting plainly through
the balloon.
At 7" 22™ p.m., at 1587 feet. Gas issuing from the neck of the balloon ;
still clear.
At 7" 25™ p.m., at 2067 feet. Gas clear.
At 7" 37™ p.m., at 2603 feet. Gas opaque.
At 7" 52™ p.m., at 5200 feet. Gas opaque.
August 21.
Before starting the gas was thick and opaque.
At 5" 35™ a.m., at 14,027 feet. Gas clear; netting plainly visible through
the balloon,
September 1.
Before starting the gas was thick and opaque.
At 4" 55™ p.m., at 2214 feet. Gas still opaque.
At 5" 1™ 30° p.m., at 3170 feet. Gas very opaque.
At 5° 15™ p.m., at 3680 feet. Gas very opaque, issuing from the neck
very fast, like smoke.
At 5" 26™ p.m., at 3837 feet. Gas very opaque.
At 5" 30™ p.m., at 4000 feet. Gas opaque, issuing from the neck like smoke.
September 5.
Before einai the gas was very opaque. During this ascent no observa-
tions of the state of the gas were made.
September 8.
Before starting the gas was opaque.
At 4" 49™ p.m., at 1232 feet. Gas was clear.
At 4" 51™ p.m., at 2482 feet. Gas getting opaque ; netting scarcely visible
through the balloon.
At 4% 52™ 308 p.m., at 2923 feet. Gas opaque.
At 5" 15™ 35% p.m., at 5026 feet. Gas partially clear.
At 5¢ 23™ 50% p.m., at 5029 feet. Gas opaque, issuing from the neck of
the balloon.
At 5" 28™ p.m., at 4829 feet. Gas very clear.
At 5° 52™ 14° p.m., at 600 feet. Gas clear,
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 493
GENERAL REMARKS.
These eight ascents have led me to conclude, firstly, that it was necessary
to employ a balloon containing nearly 90,000 cubic feet of gas; and that it
was impossible to get so high as six miles, even with a balloon of this mag-
nitude, unless carburetted hydrogen, varying in specific gravity from 370 to
330, had been supplied for the purpose.
It is true that these statements are rather conflicting when compared with
the statements made by one or two early travellers, who professed to have
reached some miles in height with small balloons. But if we recollect that
at 32 miles high a volume of gas will double its bulk, we have at once a
ready means of determining how high a balloon can go; and in order to reach
an elevation of six or seven miles it is obyious that one-third of the capacity
of the balloon should be able to support the entire weight of the balloon, in-
clusive of sufficient ballast for the descent.
The amount of ballast taken up affords another clue as to the power of
reaching great heights. Gay-Lussac’s ballast, as before mentioned, was re-
duced to 33 lbs. Rush and Green, when their barometers, as stated by them,
stood at 11 inches, had only 70 lbs. left, and this was considered a sufficient
playing-power. We found that it was desirable to reserve five or six hun-
dred pounds; and although we could have gone higher by saving less, still
on every occasion it was evident that a large amount of ballast was indis-
pensable to regulate the descent and select a favourable spot for landing.
Secondly, it was manifest throughout our various journeys that excessive
altitude and extended range as to distance are quite incompatible. The
reading of the instruments establishes this ; and it has been pointed out what
a short time the balloon held its highest place, and how reluctantly it ap-
peared to linger even at a somewhat less elevation. This was not owing to
any leakage or imperfection in the balloon itself, for its efficiency has been
well tested, and it remained intact a whole night without the least percep-
tible loss of gas.
It has been stated by an aéronaut of experience that strong opposing upper
currents have been heard to produce an audible contention, and to sound like
the “roaring of a hurricane.” Now, the only deviation we experienced from
the most perfect stillness was a slight whirring noise in the netting, and this
only when the balloon was rising with great rapidity, and a slight flapping
on descending, when the balloon is in a collapsed state.
I may also state that the too readily accepted theory as to the prevalence
of a settled west or north-west wind was not confirmed in our trips. Nor
was the appearance of the upper surface of the clouds such as to establish
the theory that the clouds assume a counterpart of the earth’s surface below,
and rise or fall like hills or dales.
The formation of vapour along the course and sinuosities of the river
during an ascent from the Crystal Palace has been already alluded to; this
was a very remarkable demonstration.
GENERAL ConcLusions.
Perhaps the most important conclusions which can be drawn from the
experiments at present are :—
1, That the temperature of the air does not decrease uniformly with
increase of elevation above the earth’s surface, and consequently
the theory of a decline of temperature of 1° in every 300 feet must
A9A. REPORT—1862,
be abandoned. In some eases, with a clear sky, the decline of 1°
has taken place within 100 feet of the earth, and for a like decrease
of temperature it is necessary to pass through more than 1000 feet
at heights exceeding 5 miles.
The determination of the decrease of temperature with elevation,
and its law, is most important, and the balloon is the only means
by which this element can be determined ; very many more experi-
ments are, however, necessary.
2. That the humidity of the air decreases with height in a wonder-
fully decreasing ratio, till at heights exceeding five miles the amount
of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere is very small indeed.
. That an aneroid barometer read correctly to the first place, and
probably to the second place of decimals, to a pressure as low as
7 inches.
. That dry- and wet-bulb thermometers can be used effectively up to
any heights on the earth’s surface where man can be located.
. That the balloon affords a means of solving with advantage many
delicate questions in physics; and,
6. That the observations can be made with tolerable safety to the
observer ; and therefore that the balloon may be used as a philoso-
phical agent in many investigations.
SX)
oO
List of Stations where Meteorological Observations were made on the days
of the several Balloon Ascents.
Height
Names of Stations. Latitude. Longitude. above Observer.
Sea-level.
ah ioe feet.
Greenwichiviisy*uusvide ae 51 28N. | 0 0 158 | The Astronomer Royal.
pWrottesley ss 5a-casst > 52 37 218 531 | Lord Wrottesley.
Wolverhampton .........| 52 37 2 13 | 490
Belvoir Castle ............ | 52 54 © 39 Ww. | 260 | W. Ingram, Esq.
Grantham .................. | §2 54 © 39 | x81 J. W. Jeans, Esq.
Nottingham ...,,.......... Ralcgyt. Lets, ot 174. | E. J. Lewe.
EPAWENOEN 4m ce < 005s c0 seeps SLE 3: 2 260 | Dr. Moffat.
DISBEBO GLY «a ge cca open devs 53 25 2150 37. ‘| J. Hartnup, Esq.
Wakefeld 22:7. 005.0. fv. | 53 40 I 30 115_ | W.R. Milner, Esq.
ee a ee
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 495
Meteorological Observations made at different Stations in connexion with
the Balloon Ascent on
July 17.
- Roya OsservaTory, GREENWICH.
Reading of Temp.| Ten- |Degree| ,,- 3 s S
eB Timeof |=; —_ ______| of the |sion of a dg eéle. Raines
Obseryation.| Barom,| Thermom. | Dew-| Va- | Humi- Win d Ac | 32 .
reduced || point. | pour. | dity. q g8/28
to 32°F.) Dry. | Wet. <0/<490
|
|
m in. a 5 ° in.
0a.M./ 29°73 | 62°0 | 57°2 | 5371 | "404 | 73 Ww.
IO 5, | 29°73 | 62°0 | 57°0 | 52°7 |°399 | 72 | -.
20 5, | 29°73 | 62°0 | 57°0 | 52°7 |°399 | 72 | ++
29°73 62°0 | 56°4 | 516 "382 69 w.
49 5 | 29°73 | 63°7 | 57°8 | 52°9 | “401 68 see
Cirrocumulus, cirrostratus,
and cirrus.
Cirrocumulus, cirrostratus.
CODDDWUUONO
w
°
s
fo]
5
6 Pega
Pa Pe {19
ae
5° 5, | 29°73 | 63°3 | 57°5 | 52°6 |-397 | 68 “+ 6 | --- |Cirrus, cirrocumulus, cumulus,
TO © 4, | 29°74 | 63°9 | 57°8 | 52°8 |"400 | 67 | w. | 7] >: [stratus.
Io 10 5, | 29°74 63°9 575 522 139% ‘- ed z cee
IO 20 , |2090° * 5 50°0 | "361 5 one tee . p
I10 30 , aang coe 58°0 | 54°6 |-427 | 71 | s.w.| 7 | = Light cloud, fine and bright.
To 40 5, | 29°74 64°6 58°2 | 54°7 |°428 yi rae 6 | «-
20 50 » | 29°73 63°9 57°3 pay 386 6s oe | 5 lee
jII Oo » | 29° . 7 I°O | °382 S.w. 5S | ee 7
Br 0 ;, Ba 64'2 368 51°5 | -38x eeitae, The hak | Cixrus, Valk g = a
Bt 20 4, | 29°73| 65°3 | 58°0 | 52°1 |-389 | 62 ay oi tog Dp? Tatus, and cirrostra-
II 30 » | 29°73 | 67°7 | 59°9 | 53°7 |°413 | 61 | s.w.] 8 ; | nS.
II 40 ,, | 29°73 | 63°7 | 56°8 | 52°1 |-375 | 63 sr Io | :+- |Overcast entirely.
I 50a.M.| 29°73 | 6374 | 58°0 |53°5 |*410 | 71 +++ | 10 | ++ |Cirrus, cirrostratus, and cumu-
Noon. | 29°73 | 66'5 | 59°5 |53°9 |"416 | 64 | s.w.| 9 | © lostratus.
© Iop.M.| 29°73 | 64°6 | 57°7 | 52°0 |°388 | 63 mo 7 |
© 20 5, |29°72 | 66'1 | 59°7 | 54°4 |°424 | 66 ae 5 Cirrus, cirrocumulus, cirro-
© 30 5, | 29°72 | 66°7 | 59°5 |53°7 | "413 | 64 | S.w. 5 stratus, and cumulostra-
© 40 ,, | 29°72 | 68°8 | 61°2 | 55°3 | -437 | 62 oes 9 tus. y
© 50 4 | 29°72 | 65°5 | 58°5 | 52°8 |-4o0 | 64 | ... | 7
TO 5, | 29°72 | 64°7 | §8°3 | 53°0 |°403 | 68 | s.w. 7
I to ,, | 29°72 |65"9 | 59°70 | 53°7 |°413 | 64 Ses 6
I-20 4, | 29°72 | 68:2 | 60°5 | 54°5 | "425 | 61 as G |
I 30 5, | 29°72 | 66:4 | 59°5 |53°9 |"416 | 65 | S.w. 8 : | { Light clouds; a splendid
140 ,, | 29°72 | 66:2 | 59°5 |54°1 |"419 | 65 | ... ies day.
5° » | 29°72 | 66°7 | 59°8 | 54°3 |-422 | 64 | ... 5 :
2 © 5 | 29°72 | 63°4 | 57°2 | 52°0 |°388 | 67 | S.w. z a
2 Ic ,, | 29°73 | 63°2 | 57°3 | 52°3 |°3 67 Fah : 2 :
Bao, la973 634 | 578 |5ara {agit | 67 |. [9 | hae a and
2 30 4, | 29°73 | 63°7 | 58°0 | 53°3 |-407 | 69 | S.w. | g | o» : .
240 ,, |29°73 | 63°0 | 57°8 | 53°4 |-409 | 71 .-. | 10 | +++ |Dull-looking, clouds in S.W.
2 50 ,, | 29°73 | 62°3 | 57°2 | 52°8 |-400 | 72 +--+ | 10 | +++ |Generally overcast; rain has
os 0 >, | 29°72 | 62°4 | 57°8 | 53°9 |"416 | 74 | S.w. | 10 | © [just commenced falling.
53 To 4, | 29°72 | 63°1 | 57°9 |53°5 |"410 | 71 nee IO | «+
3 20 4, | 29°72 | 62°8 | 57°6 | 53°2 |°406 | 71 ede Io | «--
3 30 5, |29°72 | 62°4 | 57°2 | 52°7 1°399 | 71 | S.We | IO | ess
3 40 5, | 29°73 oe 564 51°38 |°385 | 72 vee | TO | ove
™ 50°,, | 29° I°7 | 56°7 | 52°4 | °39 72 0 IQ | ee P w
4 Oy 25°73 63°2 | 57°2 | 5271 HE 67 | s.w. | 10 | + tps overcast; rain
410 ,, | 29°73 | 60°5 | 56:0 | 52°1 |°389 | 74 ae IO | + :
4 20 ,, |29°73 | 604 | 57°0 | 54°1 |"419 | 80 ges IO | ++
"4 30 ,, |29°73 | 6071 | $5°r | 50°7 |-370 | 71 | S.W. | 10 | ee
14 40 ,, | 29°72 | 60°0 | 54°9 | 5074 |°366 | 71 ae oO; |=
145
5
© 5 | 29°73 | 60°0 | §5°2 | 510 |°374 | 72 oo TO! [Pere
Op.m.| 29°72 | 60°r | §5°3 | 49°r |*349 | 72 | S.W. | TO | «
496 REPORT—1862.
Meteorological Observations made at different Stations in connexion with
the Balloon Ascent on
July 17 (continued).
Wrorrestey Hatt.
| : Reading of | | Temp. Ten- Degree Direc | seis
| Time o | of the sion of led le.
| Observation. Barom.| Thermom. | Dew-| Va- |Humi- wnat aa\e = Remarks.
reduced | ian point. pour.| dity. 268 £8
to 32°F.| Dry. | Wet <5 /<9
=|
hm . in. ° = = in. |
9 40 a.m.) 29°33 | 58°0 | 52°8 | 481 | °336 | 70 | S.w.
9 5° » | 29°33 | 59°2 | 53°9 | 49°2 |°351 | 70 |S.S.W.| ... | . |Fine.
10 © ,, | 29°33 | 604 | 55°0 | 50°3 |°365 | 69 | S.s.w.
|10 IO 4, | 29°33 | 59°7 | 53°O | 47°2 | °325 | 63 | S.S.w.
|10 20 4, | 29°33 | 59°0 | 53°1 |47°9 |°334.| 67 | S.s.w. Fine
10 30 | 29°32 | 59°8 | 54°3 | 49°5 |°355 | 71 S.S.w. eet)
10 4O 4, | 29°32 | 59°O | 53°9 | 4973 | °352 | 70 S.S.W. |
[10 §0 ,, | 29°32 | 6074 | 5570 | 50°3 |°365 | 6g | S.S.W. | ooo \Fine.
Ir © ,, | 29°32 | 59°0 | 5372 | 48'1 |°336 | 67 | S.w. }
II IO 5, | 29°32 | 58°4 | 53°9 |49°9 |°360 | 71 | S.S.w.
[Ir 20 ,, | 29°32 | 62°7 | 56-9 | 52°0 | 388 | 69 | S.s.w. Fine
|1I 30 ,, | 29°32 | 59°0 | 53°2 | 48-1 |°336 | 67 | S.s.w.
iII 40 ,, | 29°32 | 62°0 | 56-0 | 50°8 |°371 | 67 | S.s.w.
|II_ 50 a.m.| 29°32 | 6o'o | s0°0 | 41°2 |*259 | 50 |S.S.w.| ... | ... |Fine.
Noon. | 29°31 | 62°2 | 55°8 | 50°3 |°365 | 65 | S.S.W. | |
| © 1Op.m.| 29°31 | 6o"r | 53°9 | 48°4 *340
© 20 ,, | 29°31 ; 610 | 54°9 | 49°6 | °356 Fs || bes
O 30p.m. 29°31 | 62°2 55°8 | 50°3 365 | 65 | S. | .. | .. )Dull.
a
ron
Ky
4 .
o
fe
=
WoLvERHAMPTON.
] ] |
9g 20. a.m.| 29°44 | 59°0 | 5570 | sr "4 379 76 S.W- «a7 . Great masses of cumulostratus
9 52 », |29°42 | 59°0 548 510 |°370 | 75 | s.w. | 8 [clouds. }
9 55 » |29°44 | 59° | 54°8 | 520 *370 | 75 | s.w. | 7 | ... Balloon stationary. I
TO © 4, | sees | 59°5 | 54°38 | 50°8 (371 | 72 S.wW. | g | ... |Balloon invisible ; passed be-]
TO [ZGiey, ea) eee Goro | 55°0 | 50°6 2369 | 72) |BoOW..beS) base] [hind the clouds. |
LOetgs see ie. Sede 59°° | 55°O | 51°4 |°379 | 76 | s.w. | 8 es |
10 20 5, |29°41 | 59°3 | 55°3 |51°7 |°384 | 76 | s.w. | 8 we
Io 30 4, {29°41 | 6x°0 | §5°8 | 51°3 |°378 | 71 | S.w. | 7 és
Io 40 ,, ei 6x93) \|57:0 1 §3°3: |°407 |. 76-1. S.Weol od) [ens ae masses of cumulostra-|
10. 55? pel Meseneae ORS a6 97°C" S3°T. ("404 | Abe G. Ws lea) Shands i}
11 © 4, |29°41 | 61'4 | 56°8 | 52°8 |-400 | 74 | SW. | 7 | o
ee COM ie 62°2 | 56°9 | 52°3 1°393 | 71 | s.w. | 6 |
IL 15 ,, 29°44 | 62°5 | §7°0 | 52°3 393 | 69 | sw. | 6 |... |)
If 25 a.m. 29°42 |
Betvorr Castie.
9 0Oa.m,| 29°54. 69's 563. | 518 |°385 | 71 | s.w. |... | 4 |Fine.
3 Op.m.| 29°53 | 64°0 | 56°5 | 50°3 | °365 | 61 | S.w. |... | 3 |Fair, but cloudy.
NotrrmveHam.
9 ©a.m.}29°70 | 58°6 | 54°3 | 50°4 |°366 | 75 w. |6°5 | 2 |Fine.
3 Op.m.| 29°66 | 66'9 | 61-2 | 56°6 |-459 | 70 w. 7 | «. |Fine.
to oOp.m,)29°6r | §2°0 | 49°7 | 47°5 |°329 | 85 | s.w. | 7 | ... |Fine.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 497
Meteorological Observations made at different Stations in connexion with
the Balloon Ascent on
July 17 (continued).
HAWARDEN.
a 3 Reading of | temp. Ten- |Degree Direc 3 Ss
Time o' of the sion of | of 5 7|2
servation.| Barom.| Thermom. | Dew- Va. Humi-) #00 “ Be Bs Bremsxka.
reduced | ———— -| point. | pour. | dity. Wind, £8/28
to 32°F.) Dry. | Wet. <0 /<0
|
hm in. a - o in,
fo ~oa.m.| 29°51 | 58°5 | 54°0 | 50°o |°361 | 73 |W-S.W.| 3
“4 opm.) 29°47 | 56°5 | 54°0 | 51°7 |°384 | 84 | S| we | 4
LIvERPOOL.
J 45 a.m.| 29°81 | 59°8 | 54°8 | 5074 | °366 |
About three-fourths of the |
71 eee aa cree
g Oa.m,.| 29°81 | 61°2 | 55°0 | 49°7 |°357 | 66 oak cok hoa sky were covered with |
I op.m.|29°80 | 64°8 | 62°r | 59°8 |*514 | 88 cee sen) ||bees cloud till noon; overcast |
3 op.m|29'8o | 59°5 | 65°6 | 52° |°389 | 77 = vce pes afterwards. Rain fell from |
9 Op.m.| 29°69 | 5670 | 53°7 | 515 | °38E | 87 | wee | wee | ore | 3 to 85 p.m. |
WAKEFIELD.
51°7 | 384 .
: 51°0 |°374 | 65 | S.We
oO p.m,| 29°66 *5157°5 |51°7 |°384 | 63 | S.w.
. *, 52°1 *389 i fi
29°93 |67°6 | sg-o | 522 |*391 | 58 | N-E. | 9 | «. |Cirrocumulus, cumulostratus,
and cirrostratus.
410 ,, |29°93 |67°5 | 57°0 | 48°6 |°343 | 50 fee WO hax | cirrostratus in E.;
420 ,, |29°93 | 67°4 | 57°4 |49°4 |°353 | 53 act) ae) bright cirrocumulus and
cumulostratus in S.W.
4 3° 5, |29°93 | 6771 157-7 | 50°71 | °362 | 54 n. | 10]... {A little clear sky in N.; else-
where cirrocumulus and cu-
i mulostratus.
440 » |29°93 | 66-9 | 5775 | 50°0 | "361 | 56 eee EO! | vee :
4 50 » |29°93 |66°5 | 57-4. | 50°12 |°362 | 56 ... | 10 |... | | Cirrocumulus, cumulostra-
5 © ,, | 29°93 | 66'9 | 57°0 | 4971 |°349 | 54 | NeW. | 10 | « tus, cirrostratus, and a
8 a » | 29°93 66's 57°5 503 385 56 a eee es little cirrus. [s. by E
29°93 | 67°71 *g | 50°6 | °3 55 2a =n 7 =
+ ad ee a Balloon last seen about 5% 25™
5 32 » |29°93 | 66°5 | 57°0 | 49°3 |°352 | 55 | NeWe 8 | ... {Clear sky, principally in W. and
: zenith; elsewhere cirrus,
u cirrocumulus, and cumulo-
stratus.
§ 40 ,, | 29°93 | 66°5 | 58-0 | 51°r |°375 | 59 eae 8 |... |Clear in S.S.E.; principally
cirrus, cirrocumulus, and
r cumulostratus.
5 5° » | 29°93 | 67:2 |57°3 |49°4 |°353 | 53 | oe 5 |... |Clear sky in W.S.W. and N.;
dense cumulostratus in E.
and S.E., cirrus, and cirro-
Q cumulus.
6 0 ,, | 29°93 | 66-9 | 57°7 | 50°3 |"365 | 56 |N.N-w.| 5 | © [Half the sky covered with cir-
$
rus, cirrocumulus, cirro-
stratus, and cumulostratus.
°
D>, | 29195 | 608 |... oon ods eee |W.S.We
© » | 29°96 | 58-9 | 54:0 |49°6 |°356 | 72 |w.s.w.| 3] © Light cirrus, cirrocumulus,
and cirrostratus.
498 3 REPORT—1862.
Meteorological Observations made at different Stations in connexion with
the Balloon Ascent on
August 18.
Royat OBseRvATORY, GREENWICH.
_ Reading of Pepe
Time of aaa ae ETT | Temp. Ten- Degree Direc- S a) &
Observation. Barom.| Thermom. | ¢f the ee ee {on “3 Bo /8¢ Remarks.
priced Dry. | Wet. point. | pour. | dity. rd Es Es
h m- in = ° ° in.
Noon | 29°79 | 59°7 | 56°5 | 53°7 |"413 | 82 | NW. | 10] 1
© Iop.m.| 29°80 | 60°o | 57°0 | 5474 | 424. | 82 wee 10
© 20 5, | 29°80 | 59°7 | 56°7 | 54°1 | 419 | 82 oes 10
© 30 5, | 29°80 | 60°3 | 56°8 | 5470 |-418 | 79 | N-W. | Io
© 40 ,, | 29°81 | Gog | 56°8 | 53°3 | "407 | 76 eae 10
© 50 5, | 29°82 | 60°7 | 56°9 | 53°7 | "413 |. 77 set TO | os
I © 5 \|29°81 | 60°4 | 57°5 | 5570 |°433 | 82 |N.N.wW.| 10 | os.
I 10 5, |29°81 | 6r°0 | 57°8 | §5°0 |-433 | 81 ops QMEXO: {ket
I 20 ,, | 29°81 | 60°6 | 57°3 | 54°4 |-424.| 81 «| To | ... | Overcast; cirrostratus.
I 30 ,, |29°8r | 60°5 | 57°2 | 54°4 |*424.| 81 | N-W. | 10
I 40 5, |29°81 | 60°5 | 57°5 | 54°9 |°431 | 83 Py, LO omens
I 50 4, | 29°81 | 6o'x | 56'9 | 54°1 | "419 | 81 ay TOr | avs
2 © y |29°8r | 60°4 | 57°1 | 54°3 |°422 | 81 |N.N.wW.] ro | «..
210 ,, | 29°81 |60°5 | 57°2 | 54°4 | 424 | 81 ses TO Joass
2 20 5, |29°8r | 6074 | 57'2 | 54°3 |°422 | 81 «st TO! || kus
2 30 » | 29°81 | 60°3 | 57:2 | 54°5 | "425 | 82 | Nw. |] 10]...
2 40 5, |29°8r | 60°3 | 57°3 | 54°7 | 428 | 82 a IO || .08-
2 50 4, | 29°81 | 60°5 | 57°3 | 54°5 |°425 | 82 ». | 10]... [fhe clouds have just com
menced to break.
3. © 5, | 29°80 | 61°5 | 58°3 | 55°6 |°443 | 82 N. Io | 1
3 10 ,, | 29°81 | 60'2 | 57°5 | 55°x |°434 | 84 eee TO | see
3 20 4 |29°8r | Gorr | 57°4 | 55°0 | °433.| 84 sop 1110 fiev
3 3° » | 29°80 | 59°9 |57°3 | 55°1 1434 | 85 | N. | 10] ... | > Overcast.
3 40 5, | 29°79 | 60°3 | 57°8 | 55°6 | °443 | 85 er TO |\ tes
3 59 » |29°79 | 59°7 | 57°4 | 55°4 |'439 | 86 | «. | 10]
4 © » |29°79 | 59°7 |57°3 | 552 |°436 | 86 | N | 10/ ..,
Wrortestey Hatt.
I Op.m.| 29°47 | 61°7 | 57°1 | 53°r |°404 | 75 | NW. | oo | ... |Fine.
110 ,, | 2947 | 63:1 | 58°5 | 54°6 |°427 | 74 |W.N.w.
1 20 5, |29°47 | 63°0 | 57°9 | 53°6 |"412 | 71 | N.w.
I 30 » | 29°47 | 62*1 | 56°9 | 52°4 "394 | 71 | New. :
I 40 5, |29'47 | 62°9 | 57°r | 52°2 |°391 | 68 | N.w. | .., | oo» |Fine.
I 50 5, | 29°47 | 64:0 | 58°5 | 53°9 |°416 | 69 |w.N.w.
2 © x |29°47 | 63°6 | 57°6 | 52°6 |°397 | 67 |N-byw.
210 5, | 29°46 | 6475 | 58°38 | 52°0 |°388 | 69 jN.N.w.| ... |... |Fine.
220 5, |29°46 | 64:4 | 58°4 | 53°4 |*409 | 67 |w.N.w.
2 30 5, |29°46 | 64°6 | 58°5 | 53°4 |*409 | 67 |W.N.w.
240 ,, | 29°46 | 654 | 59°0 | 53°8 [415 | 67 | Nw. | ... | oo |Fine.
2 50 5, (29°45 | 65:9 | 59°8 | 54°8 |*430 | 68 | w. \
3 © 4» |29°45 | 66:0 | 59°7 | 54°6 |"427 | 67 |W.N.w. a
3 10 » | 29745 | 66:2 | 59°2 153°5 |"410 | 64 Weel] ag | coer RINE.
3.20 4, | 29°45 | 66°6 | 59°9 | 54°5 [425 | 65 | Ww.
3 30 » | 29°44 |66°8 | 59°9 | 54:1 |"419 | 64 | Ww.
3 40 1 | 29°44 | 66:0 | 59°0 | 53°3 |"407 | 64 | w.
3 50 5, |29°44 | 66:9 | Goro | 54°5 |-425 | 65 We, | ccs |) wos Ene,
4 © » |29°44 |67°0 | 59°9 | 54°2 |"421 | 63 |W.S.w.
410 4, | 29°44 | §7°0 59°4 |53°3 |°407 | 61 |S.s.w.] ... | « |Fine.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCEN‘S IN 1862.
499
Meteorological Observations made at different Stations in connexion with
the Balloon Ascent on
August 18 (continued).
Brtvorr CAstie.
Reading of sly
= Temp.| Ten- |Degree! p.... | 27 | 2
.. Barom.| _ Thermom. of ee sign of i. of | , ng E S = 3 Remarks,
i reduced at ar. | dity, | Wind. | 22| 268
} to 32°F.) Dry. | Wet. | Pom" | pour. uty. <5/<0
m in. a a ms ne r
"9 ©Oa.m.| 29°63 | 56°7 | 53°3 | 50°2 | 364] 79 N. 8 (Cloudy.
3° «Op.m.| 29°63 | 68°0 | s9°0 | 51°9 |°386 | 56 | s.w. o |Fair.
Norrivenam.
9 ©a.m.| 29°83 | 64°0 | 58°0 | 53°0 | "403 67 w.n-E.| 8 | o |Dull till 88 a.m.; the clouds
! then broke.
I 30 » | 29°84 | 65°4 | 58°9 | 53°6 |-412 | 66 |N.x.z.| 1 |... /From this time very fine and
j warm.
3 «Op.m.| 29°83 | 75°7 | 63°5 | 54°8 |"430 | 49 |N.N.w.| 2 | ... |Very fine.
19 50 », | 29°83 | 57°2 |55°6 | qtr |-419 | 89 |w.n.w.| 1 . |Very fine.
HAWARDEN.
TO ©4.m.) 29°70 | 63°0 | 58°0 | 53°38 |°415 | 72 | Nw. Zr ex
4 oOp.m.| 29°67 | 63°0 | 57°0 | 51°9 |°386 | 67 | N.w. I 2
’ LivERpPoot.
i : : :
7 454.1.) 30°00 | 59°0 | $5°5 | 52°4 | 394 | 79
f9 0 4, | 30°00 | 60°8 | 560 | sr |-386 | 72 pe henley wat ih om
‘I Op.m.!} 30°00 | 63°7 | 58°0 | §3°3 |*407 | 70 Lisbon h ena Ys
- - 5 Sate cirri till 1" p.m,; afters
. Dp Maece?s) 044 157-8, | 52°3 | 393°) 64 wards quite clear.
9 © » | 29°99 | 59°4 | 56°5 | 53°9 |*416 | 85
i
WAKEFIELD.
3 cam. 29°78 | 42°5 |42°0 | 40°8 |-255 | g2 | ENE.
© » | 29°85 | 68°0 | 61'0 | 55°5 |-4qr | 64 | Nw.
3 Op.m.| 29°80 | 71°5 | 63°0 | 58°3 |-487 | 63 |w.N.w.
9 O w» | 29°82 | 54°0 | 53°C | 52°0 |°388 | 93 Ww. |
4 August 20,
Royat Oxsservatory, GREENWICH.
6 op.m.) 29°82 | 64°3 | 62°3 | 60°6 |*529 | 88 |N.N.w.| 10 | 0 The sky is generally covered
10 ,, | 29°82 | 64°2 | 62°1 | 60°3 | +524 | 88 AH ee with light cirrus, cirro-
20 ,, | 29°82 | 64° | 61°6 | 59°5 | 509 | 85 10 stratus, and haze; a very
H calm evening.
i 30 » | 29°82 | 63°7 | 62*0 | 60°6 |*529 | 90 |N.N.wW.| 9 Very hazy all round the ho-
6 40 ,, | 29°81 | 62°5 | 618 | G12 | 541 | 96 9 rizon; cirrus clouds are
3 prevalent ; the Crystal Pa-
1s lace is scarcely discernible.
6 50 ,, | 29°81 | 63°r | 61°6 | 60°3 | *524 | ox 9 Cirrus clouds prevail generally;
} the haze thickens; the sky
ii is partially free from clouds
ii in the zenith.
7 © » | 29°81 | 62°8 | 61'0 | s9°5 | *509 | 89 | N.N.E.| 10 . |The sky appears uniformly
x covered with cirrus, cirro-
‘4 stratus, and haze.
IO ,, | 29°81 | 62°6 | 60°0 | 57°9 |*480 | 84 10
20 ,, |29°81 | 62°5 | Go'2 | 58°3 1-487 | 86 one TOs. Cirrostratus and haze.
17 30 5, |29°8r | 62°7 | 60-3 | 58°3 |-487 | 86 | N.E. | to | 7
im 22
500 REPORT—1862.
=
Meteorological Observations made at different Stations in connexion with
the Balloon Ascent on
August 21.
Roya OpservaTory, GREENWICH.
Reading of wes |
: ——_—_—__———_ Temp. | Ten- |D . Sess
Time of De |enc egTee) Direc- | 24] 2
Observation. eile Thermom. hy pan of Humi- tion of Es a $ Remarks,
to 32°F.| Dry. | Wet. point.| pour. | dity. Moore Es & B
hm in. S ms ny eS eS
August 20. é : ‘ ee
Midnight | 29°82 | 59°7 | §9°7 59°7 |"512 | 100 |s.8.E. | 10 | o |Overcast; amount of cloud va-
August 21. ' riable.
TX TOAMA| GST | SOW discs || ede, [a see Netooe | Sek
2 0 3, | 29782") 59° S00 ae at, aia S.E.
3 80>, 9° )29°Sr el 588.) 3 ee at: 5 Ohya Bet
BO. 55) N20 ai: ech ellivese || cc. | ~ te0 s. |... | se | | Generally cloudy during the
Sito gy [2GTBO USSG I we. fice |] cee | SSeEe | oc. | cee night and early morning.
6 oO 5, | 29°80 |i5e-Sar are. | + se sot TeSeWhe y |) oes
7 GO 43 | 29780 |/Gg:OUF sor) ee |S ca I dee | BABE. | Seve | Mone
3 0 ,; |29°80 | 62708" we ee Ee 0) ws-x. Ye || Rey
9 © 5 |29°79 | 64°3 | 62°5 | 6org |° 8 E.S.E.| 10 | ©
| “de ely 9
September 1.
Royat OnservaTory, GREENWICH.
4 oOp.m.) 29°79 | 61°8 | 564 | 51°7 | °384.| 70 ER. | x0 . \Sky is generally covered with
cirrostratus.
4 10 ,, |29°79 | 61°5 | 56°3 | 51°8 |°385 | 71 He Ae iss
420 4, [29°79 | 60°9 | 55°9 | 51°6 |°383 | 71 A Mla: Overcast.
4 3° 5, |29°79 | 60°6 | 56°2 | 52°4 |°394| 74 | E.N.E.| 10 | ...
4 40 5, |29°79 | 60°3 | 56°0 | 52°3 |°393 | 75 hs 9 |... [Sky generally covered with
cirrostratus; rain falling
very gently.
4 5° ,, |29°78 | Gorx | 55°38 | 53°6 |*412 | 80 9 Rain still falling very gently ;
cumulus clouds in the N.;
light cirrostratus in the S.
5 © 4 |29°78 | 6orx | 55°8 | 53°6 |-412 | 80 | B.N.E.| 0 |... |Rain ceased; generally over-
cast.
5 10 ,, |29°78 | 6orx | 56:2 | 52°8 | "400 | 76 ... | 10 | ... |Cirrostratus, cirrocumulus, cu-
mulostratus, and a little cir-
rus.
§ 20 4, |29°78 | 6orr | 56°3 | 53°0 |°403 | 77 ave to | ... |Ditto; clouds clearing away.
5 3° » |29°78 | 59°7 155°9 | 52°6 |°397 | 78 | E.N-E-| 9 | ---
5 42 4, |29°78 | 59°6 | 56°r | 53°0 | "403 | 80 pois g |... | | Cirrus, cirrostratus, cirro-
5 5° » |29°78 | 59°4 | 56°0 | 53°0 |°403 | 80 eT ED ll Gries cumulus, and cumulostra-
6 0 4, |29°78 | 59°0 | 55°7 | 52°7 |°399 | 80 | E.N.E.| 10 | ... tus.
6 10 ,, | 29°78 | 58°7 | 55°7 | 53°0 |°403 | 81 aeobaltero tlie:
6 20 ,, | 29°78 | 584 | 55°5 | 52°9 |‘4or | 82 soe g | .-. \Cirrocumulus, cirrostratus, and
cumulostratus ; clouds cover
the greater part of the sky.
6 30 ,, |29°98 |57°6 | 55x | 53°6 |*412 | 84 | NE. | 8 | ... |Light cirrus and clear sky in
the S.; cirrocumulus and
cirrostratus in the N.
6 40 ,, |29°78 | 57°2 | 5570 | 53°0 | "403 | 86 cee g | ... |Cirrus, cirrostratus, and cumu-
lostratus in E.
6 50 ,, |29°78 | 57°0 | 54°8 | 52°8 | "400 | 85 fi g | ... {Cirrus, cirrostratus, and cumu-
lostratus in W. and N.W.
7 © 5, |29°78 | 56°3 | 54°77 | 53:2 |*406 | 89 | NE. | 8 | ... |Clear sky and light clouds in
zenith; dense cirrostratus
round the horizon.
ON EIGHT BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1862. 501
Meteorological Observations made at different Stations in connexion with
the Balloon Ascent on
September 5,
Royat Oxsservarory, GREENWICH.
Reading of bees? hae
: ———_—__—_————|Temp. | Ten- |Degree} ;.... | °7 | 2
Time of = . Direc- | & 2 |
. Th 7 f th f f : [eo leas
Observation. arama sheen Dew. rae | Hum st 33 | a5 Remarks,
to 32°F.| Dry. | Wet. | Pot. | pour. | dity. | 25/26
{hm in. * c a i, 7 ae
| Noon. | 29°68 | 63°1 | 56’9 | siv7 |-384 | 66 | NE. | 7 | 0
| © top.m.| 29°68 | 64°3 | 57°6 | 52°0 |-388 | 64 se 7 |... | (Cirrus, cirrostratus, cirro-
© 20 ,, | 29°68 | 65°2 | 58°5 | 53°0 | 403 | 64 Bad 7 41 cumulus.
] © 30 4, | 29°68 | 65°8 | 58°6 | 52°7 | +399 | 63 N.E. 7 .
" 40 » ca ie te 53°9 ae oh oe 8 |---| | Cirrus, cirrostratus, cumulo-
Be > 29729 | 85°85 | 58°7 | 53°9 | “41 I ee > A ae stratus, and cirrocumulus.
HI © ,, | 29°69 | 64°5 | 57°83 | 52:2 |°391 | 64 | E.N-E.| 30 | ... | |
} I 10 ,, | 29°69 | 63°9 | §7°8 | 52°8 |*400 | 67 Bb 10 . |Ditto; blue sky in N.W.
120 ,, | 29°69 | 63°5 | 58:0 | 53-4 |*409 | 70 en 9 Cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocu-
} t 30 ,, | 29°69 | 64°7 | 58°0 | 52°5 |*396 | 65 | S.w. 9 mulus and cumulostratus.
I 40 ,, | 29°70 | 65"9 | §8°4 | 52°3 |°393 | 63 nea 10 Cirrus and dense cirrostratus ;
rain has just commenced
falling.
I 50-4, | 29°70 | 57°I | 55°2 | 53°5 |*410 | 87 «» | ro | ,,. |Dense cirrostratus; rain fall-
ing heavily ; strong negative
: electricity.
}2 © » | 29°70 | 56°4 | 55°8 | 55°3 1-437 | 96 | SE. | 10
} 2 10 » | 29°70 | 56°3 | 55°7 | 55°2 |"436 | 96 s+ | TO) «+ | | Overcast; cirrostratus; rain
m2 20 » | 29°70 56°6 | 55°9 | 55°4 |°439 | 96 0a LO Were. still falling.
} 2 30 4, | 29°70 | 57°2 | 56°5 | 55°8 |°446 | 95 | S.S.W.] I0 | ...
240 ,, | 29°70 | 57°9 | 57°9 | 57°9 |°480 | 100 =< DisEO }
Rain has ceased.
2 5° 5, {29°70 | 57°9 | 57°9 | 57°9 | °480 | 100 wes TOS pe css
} 3 © » |29°70 | 57°7 | 56°9 | 56:2 |'453 | 95 | S.S.wW.| 10 | 0
3 10 ,, | 29°70 | 58°0 oe 55°7 "444 | QI tee IO | see
Beacons (29°70 | 57°7 |'56°6 | 5 459 | 93 ee | LON |) nc ee
13 30 » [29°70 | $7°9 | 568 | 568 |-462 | 93 | s.s-w.| 10 Overcast; cirrostratus.
} 3 40 » |29°70 | 583 | 56°38 | 55°5 |*441 | go s+ | TO
3.50 » |29°70 | 584 | 56°38 | 55°4 |°439 | 89 ten 10
4 © 4, | 29°70 | 58°7 | 57°0 | 56°7 | "461 | 89 |"S.s.w.| 10 | ...
410 ,, | 29°70 | 58°4 | 56°38 | 55°3 |°437 | 90 .. | Io |... | | Overeast; cirrostratus and
| 4 20 4, |29°70 | 58°5 | 569 | 55'4 |°439 | 89 wae TOR | cee stratus.
| 4 30 55 | 29°70 | 58°2 | 57°0 | 55'9 |'447 | g1 | S.s.w.| 10 | ... |Overcast; cirrostratus in N.;
| stratus.
| 4 40 5, | 29°70 | 57°8 | 560 | 54°4 |°424 | 89 ... | 10 |... |Overcast; stratus and cirro-
} Stratus.
4 50 5 |29°71 | 57°4 | 566 |55°9 |"447 | 94 | «-. | 10]... 4
15 © 5, [29°71 | 57°2 1564 15577 1444 | 95 | s.w. | 10 | ... | > Overcast; rain.
}5 10 5, | 29°71 | 57°r | 56°2 | 55°4 |°439 | 94 | «- | IO]... ine
§ 20 ,, | 29°71 | 56°7 | 56°7 | 56°7 | 461 | 100 ae 1o | ... |Overcast; thin rain.
5 30 » |29°71 | 56°5 | 55°9 | 55°4 |°439 | 96 | N.-w. | 10 | ... |Overcast; rain ceased.
5 40 » |29°71 | 56°5 | 55°3 | 5572 |*436 | 96 | ... 9
5 50 = 29°71 | 56°4 | 56°4 | 56°4 |*456 | 1co eae Oiuiliees Clouds broken.
6 o ,, |29°71 | 564 | 564 | 564 |°456 | 100 | N.w. | 9g | ... |Cirrostratus; blue sky in ze-
nith; fine.
502 REPORT—1862.
Meteorological Observations made at different Stations in connexion with
the Balloon Ascent on
September 5 (continued).
Wrottestey Hatt.
Fee OF Temp.| Ten- |Degree] ,. wsl%
. ae ilize Direc- | 97 | ©
Panik Ia Thermom. hai ae Honi- fibot BS 56 Remarks.
reduced——————| point. | pour. | dity. Wind. 28 £8
to 32°F.) Dry. | Wet. 420 /|<0
h m in. a in.
I. Op.M.| 29°37 | 57°6 52°9 48:6 343 | 72 N « {Dull
1 10 4, | 29°37 | 56-9 | 52°6 | 48°6 |°343 | 76 | N.
120 5, | 29°37 | 57°0 | 52°7 | 48°7 |°344 1 73 N.
I 30 yy [29°38 | 56-1 | 52°1 | 483 |°339 | 75 | Ne |... | o [Dull.
140 yy |29°38-| 55-5 | 518 | 48°3 1°339 | 77 | ON.
T 50 sy | 29°38 | 55-7 | 52°4 |49°3 |°352 | 80 | N.
2 © 4 129738 | 55°83 | 52:7 | 4g" |°349 | 8x N. soa ees | DUM.
2 10 y |29°38 | 56-1 | 52°6 |49°3 |°352 | 77 | N.
220 5, | 29°38 | 56:8 | 532 |49°9 |"360 | 84 |N.N.E.
2 39 5, |2939 | §7°0 | 53:2 |49°7 |°357 | 76 | N.N.E.| ... | ... |Dull.
2 40 wy 129°39 | 57°E | 53°I | 49°3 |°352 | 75 | N.NUE.
2 50 sy 129°39 1571 |53°4 | 50°0 |°361 | 77 | N.NVE.
3 © x |29°39 | 57°0 | 53°r | 49°3 |°352 | 75 | N.N.E.| woe | eee {Dull
3 10 5, | 29°39 | 57°2 |53°4.149°9 |°360 | 76 |N.N.E.
3.20 5, | 29°39 | 57°9 | 53°38 | Sor |°362 | 75 | N.NLE.
3 3° 5, | 29°39 | 58:1 | §4°0 | 50°3 |°365 | 76 |N.N.E.] ... | ... |Fine.
3 49 5, |29°39 | 580 | 53°3 | 4971 |°349 | 72 | NE.
3 5° + | 29°39 | 58°0 | §3°9 | 50°2 | 364 | 75 | N. 7 ;
4 © » | 29°39 | 58°3 |53°8 | 49°83 |-358 | 74 N. wed t Nene
4 10 5, |29°39 | 58:2 | 53°9 |49°1 |°349 | 75 |N-N.E.
4 20 5, | 29°39 | 58°0 | 54°0 | 50:4 |*366 | 76 |N.N.W.
4 30 5» | 29°39 | 58°0 | 54:2 | 50°7 |°370 | 77 |N.N.w.| ... | ... (Dull.
4 40 5, | 29°39 |57°8 | 54:0 | 50°6 |°369 | 77 |N.N.W.
4 5° » |29°40 |57°6 | 53°38 | 50°3 |°365 | 77 |N.N.W.
HAwaRDEN.
10 0a.m.| 29°58 | 58°0 | 55-0 | 52°3 | 393 | 81 E. 4] 0
4 Op.m.) 29°62 | 59°0 | 55°5 407 | 84 | NE] 41] 0
LIveRpoot.
a.m.| 29° : ; antl oe ie hare tHe BaE )
its ‘ 409 as “~ ye an “| "| «* || The sky was nearly free from
1 © p.m.| 29-93 | 60:8 | 53-9 | 47°9 |°334. | 72 velo. he cd tak cloud in the early morning.
From 9g" to x4 overcast :
3 © 5 | 29°93 | 60°3 | 55°8 | 52°5 |*396 | 76 ao Ph wiiceaey |lzese ft 9 fi
9 © » | 29°98 | 567 cael | sry dmaka t Wd hekhecd et bees afternoon fine.
September 8,
Royat Onservatory, GREENWICH.
Gore |\:522| 79 |S... | 50 |-a.. |
60°3 |*524.| 80 «| 10]... | + Generally overcast.
60°3 |°524.| 79 oa 1b) a 1
60°4 |*526 | 79 | s.w. | 10 | ... |Overcast; cirrostratus. !
60°5 |*528 | 78 an To |: Generally overcast; cirrostratus.
60°6 |*527 | 83 mee 10 | ... |Balloon seen from top of Octa- |
gon Room; overcast. ;
ON THE THEORY NUMBRES. 508
Meteorological Observations made at different Stations in connexion with
the Balloon Ascent on
September 8 (continued).
Rowat Opservatory, GREENWICH.
Reading of Temp.| Ten- | Degree Sly
5 : | Direce- | 27 | 2
Sala Barom.| Thermom. ee ae Humi- tion of | BE | 8 ¢ oo
reduced point.| pour.| dity, | Wind. Bale 8
to 32°F.) Dry, | Wet. <250|<0
h m in. 3 * O in.
5 Op.m.) 29°92 | 66:4 | 63°2 | 60°6 |*529 | 83 | sw. | ro | ... Overcast. Balloon disappeared
behind clouds at 45 55™.
Saw the balloon due S., mo-
ving towards Eltham.
5 10 5, |29°92 | 66°7 | 63:0 | 6o'r |*520 | 80 9 Balloon seen for the last time.
Overcast; cirrostratus.
5 20 5, | 29°92 | 65°7 | 63°0 | 60°9 |°631 | 84 9 Clouds broken in S. and W.;
cirrocumulus.
5 3° », | 29°92 | 65°6 | 63°0 | 610 | "537 | 85 | s.w. 3
5 4° » |29°92 | 65:2 | 62°8 | G0°7 | °531 | 85 8 |
5 50 » |29°92 | 64°83 | 6274 | 60°4 | 526 | 86 oa 6 Cirrocumulus.
6 © 5, |29°92 | 64°7 | 62°2 | 60'2 |*522'| 86 | sw. | 6
6 10 5, | 29°92 | 64°2 | 62°0 |.60°2 | -522 | 87 5
6 20 5, |29°93 | 64°0 | 62°0 | 6073 | 524 | 88 8 | ... |Cirrocumulus ; sun shining on
dome of Great Equatorial.
6 30 5, | 29°93 | 63°7 | 62°0 | 60°6 |*529 | 90 | s.w. | 10 | «. |Overcast. :
6 40 5, | 29°93 | 63°4 | 61°9 | 60°7 |°531 | gt 10 eee. cirrocumulus, cu-
6 50 5, | 29°93 | 63°3 | 61°7 | 60°4 | °526 | go se EO} [ler mulus, and cirrostratus.
62°7 | 61-5 | 60°5 |*528 | 94 | s.s.w.| 10 | ... |Overcast.
|
Report on the Theory of Numbers—Part IV. By H. J. Stepney
Smita, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the Univer-
sity of Oxford.
105. General Theorems relating to Composition.—The theory of the compo-
sition of quadratic forms occupies an important place in the second part of
the 5th section of the ‘ Disquisitiones Arithmetice,’ and is the foundation of
nearly all the investigations which follow it in that section. In accordance
with the plan which we have followed in this portion of our Report, we shall
now briefly resume the theory as it appears in the ‘ Disquisitiones Arithmeticee,’
directing our special attention to the additions which it has received from
subsequent mathematicians. We premise a few general remarks on the
Problem of composition.
If F, («,, v,,...,) be a form of order m, containing n indeterminates,
which, by a bipartite linear transformation of the type
U,=2 My, B,y Vp %y,
21,232,853 0,
P=1,,2,3,...2, [7
-y=l1, 2, 3, bh te
~
504 REPORT—1862.
is changed into the product of two forms F.(y,, y,, .. yn) and F,(z,, z,,...z,)
of the same order, and containing the same number of indletermitiates: Fr is
said to be transformable into the product of F, and F,; and, in particular, if
the determinants of the matrix
| tasa.y |»
which is of the type x n’, be relatively prime, F, is said to be compounded of
F,andF,. Adopting this “definition, we may enunciate the theorem—*« If F,
be transformable into F,x F,, and Ai F,, G,, G, be contained in G,, F,, F,
respectively, G, is transformable into G, ibfce ss ‘and, in particular, if F be
compounded of ', and F,, and the forms FE: Gg Ge be equivalent to the forms
G,, F,, F, respectively, é, is compounded of G. and ee
It is only i in certain cases that the multiplication of two forms gives rise to
a third form, transformable into their product. Supposing that F, and F, are
irreducible forms, 2. e. that neither of them is resoluble into rational factors,
let I,, L,, I, be any corresponding invariants of F,, F,, F,, and let us represent
by B and C the determinants
dx, | = Troha fe
dyg| B=1,2,3,...n,}
and
dx, o=1,'2, 3,75’. a
dz, nam A, Wy ype Ms it
The transformation of F, into F, x F, then gives rise to the relations
I,xB* =I,xF,'
I,xC*=1,x Fi,
7 denoting the order of the invariants I,, I,, I,. If one of the two numbers
I, and I, be different from zero, we infer that. m isa divisor of n. For if
“ be the fraction = reduced to its lowest terms, the equations
v
I’x BY =I’ x F."
Tok Or oF oe BS
imply that F, and F, (cleared of the greatest numerical divisors of all their
terms) are perfect powers of the order pu; 7. ¢., w=1, or m divides n, since F,
and F, are by hypothesis irreducible. We thus obtain the theorem (which
however applies only to irreducible forms having at least one invariant
different from zero)—‘‘ No form can be transformed into the product of two
forms of the same sort, unless the number of its indeterminates is a multiple
of its order.” For example, there is no theory of composition for any binary
forms, except quadratic forms, nor for any quadratic forms of an uneven
number of indeterminates.
Again, when m is a divisor of n, let n=km, and let 4, ¢, d,, d, represent
the greatest numerical divisors of B, a a respectively; we find
r=( a) = r)= a), Ba (Fs), O_(F
T=( b wy Vey 8 Ne. 6 o=(B) .
The first two of these equations show that the invariants of the three forms
F,, F,, F, are so related to one another, that we may imagine them to have
.
been all derived by transformation from one and the same form (see Art. 80) ;
the last two (which, it is to be observed, present an ambiguity of sign
ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 505
when — is even) show that the forms B and F,*, C and F*, are respectively
n
identical, if we omit a numerical factor.
Lastly, let ©,, ©,, @, be any corresponding covariants of F,, F,, F,. The
relation of covariance gives rise to the equations
np—q
Sear, a, 3/0.) My, \, = O,(Y45. Yor 9,6 Ee > 2)
mp—q
(x, Vs, : .@,) Xx C : =6,(2,, 9 , -2,) xFPY,, aa )s
where p and gq are the orders of the covariants in the coefficients and in the
indeterminates respectively. Combining with these equations the values of
q q
B and C already given, we see that 6, x F,” and 6,xF,” are identical, ex-
cepting a numerical factor ; 2. ¢. that ®, and ®, are either identically zero, or
else numerical multiples of powers of F, and F,. If therefore two forms
can be combined by multiplication so as to produce a third form transtormable
into their product, their covariants are all either identically zero or else are
powers of the forms themselves. There is, consequently, no general theory
of composition for any forms other than quadratic forms, because all other
sorts of forms have covariants which cannot be supposed equal to zero, or to
a multiple of a power of the form itself, without particularizing the nature
of the form. And even as regards quadratic forms, we may infer that com-
position is possible only in cases of continually increasing particularity, as
the number of indeterminates increases.
106. Composition of Quadratic Forms.—Preliminary Lemmas.—The follow-
ing lemma is given by Gauss as a preliminary to the theory of the composition
of binary quadratic forms (Disq. Arith., art. 234) :—
(i.) “ If the two matrices ;
fea Hey rele
Bila By Bay ic-B,
and
a =| @, aves hy
0 Ra
be connected by the equation
[3 [415
es oe
in which the sign of equality refers to corresponding determinants in the two
matrices; and if the determinants of | 5 | admit of no common divisor beside
A
| [=|
in which the sign of equality refers to corresponding constituents in the two
matrices, is always satisfied by a matrix |k| of the type 2x2, of which
the determinant is /, and the constituents integral numbers.”*
The subsequent analysis of Gauss can be much abbreviated if to this
lemma we add three others.
* For a generalization of this theorem, see a paper by M. Bazin, in Tiiouville, vol. xix.
p- 209; or Phil. Trans. vol. cli. p. 295.
unity ; the equation
?
a
x5
506 REPORT—1862.
In their enunciations we represent by X, Y, «, y, four functions, homo-
geneous and linear in respect of each of the v binary sets, é, ,, &,n,,..-&, in
by | ‘ | and | 4 | the matrices composed of the coefficients of X, Y and a, y,
respectively; by (P, Q, R), (P’, Q’, R’) quadratic forms of which the coefii-
cients are any quantities whatever ; and by & an integral number.
(ii.) “If X, Y, x, y, satisfy the n equations included in the formula
dX dY dXdY_, (dx dy dxdy
dé, In, dy; dE, (aan dy; AS"
the matrices | a | and | satisfy the equation
2?
ee
(iii.) “ The greatest numerical common divisor of the 7 resultants
aX d¥_ aX ay
dé, dy, dn; 4;
is equal to the greatest common divisor of the determinants of ae
(iv.) “If the n resultants of X and Y be not all identically equal to zero,
the equation PX*+2QXY+4RY*=P’X*+2Q’XY+RY? implies the equa-
tions P=P’, Q=Q’, roe ee ¥
107. Gauss’s Six Conclusions.—Let F, f, f' represent the forms (A, B, C)
(X, Y)*, (4,5,¢) (a, y)*, (a, 5', ¢) (a, yf, of which the determinants are
D,d,d'; let also M, m, m' be the greatest common divisors of A, 2B, C, of
a, 2b, c, and of a’, 2b',c’; $4, m, m’, the greatest common divisors of A, B, C,
of a, 6, c, and of a’, b,c’, respectively. Supposing that F is transformed in f x f’
by the substitutionX=p, vw'+p,cy'+p,y+p,yy',Y=q,cx'+q,ry'+9q,vy
+q,yy', let us represent the two resultants
dX dY_dXdY = dX dY dX dY
dxdy dy dx dx' dy dy’ dx'
by Aand A’; the six determinants of the matrix ie aj = 3) (taken in
0 41 72 13
their natural order) by P,Q,R,S,T,U; the greatest common divisor of
these six numbers by /, and the greatest numerical common divisors of
A and A’ by 6 and @’, so that (Lemma 3) & is the greatest common divisor of
é and é’.
From the invariant property of the determinants of F, f and f’ we infer
amet Fi ara f°, Di?=d'm’*, DP? =dm*.
Hence the quotients ss and ¢ are squares. (Gauss’s Ist conclusion.) Also
D divides d'm? and dm. (Gauss’s 2nd conclusion.) But & is the greatest
common divisor of é and 6’; therefore Dk’ is the greatest common divisor of
d'm? and dm?. (Gauss’s 4th conclusion.) Let oon ee and let the
signs of x and n' be so taken that A’=n'f, A=nf"; these two equations are
equivalent to the six following :—
ae ars a a owes ee res em)
(Gauss’s 3rd conclusion.)
ON THE. THEORY OF NUMBERS. 507
Multiplying together the two resultants A and A’, we obtain an identity,
which we shall write at full:
(Po G1 —Pr Wo) @ + (Po Ya Pa Yo+P 2 1. Ps Va) PY + (Po Is —P 2) "|
x (Po q2—P» Yo)? +( py Is —P 3 Lo +P, V2— Po %) vy ip, Y—Ps q)y")
(U1 %— 0%) (Po te +p,xy'+p,v'y+p, yy'y
+ (9. Pst PoUs— U1 Pa— Yn Pr) (Po ee’ +p, vy +p, vyt+p,yy') --~ + ()
X (Gore +9, cy’ +9, cy +9, yy’)
+(P,P.—Po Ps) (% awa! +4, xy’ +h w'y + qs yy’).
Comparing this identity with the equation AA’=nn' ff’ =m F, we find by
Lemma 4
% ae Gs —VoPs +P fees YoPi1_P\ P» oot nn' Gh (Q'.)
The 5th and 6th conclusions relate to the order of the form compounded
of two given forms. The equation
AX?4 2BXY + CY? =(aa* + 2bay + cy’) x (av? + 2b'x'y' +c'y’?)
shows that M divides mm’. But also mm’ divides Mk’. For operating on
& ae P
SM Capa ap Caeely, we find
ody
the equation just written with —,
2 2
aX on! 7 1G oe LT ey
da? ‘dx dz
dX dX dX dY ,dXd dY d¥ ) é
2[a dx dy ls (as at dy 7) +e dx a= ORs: ax
dX? apex X16 dY*
dy? dy dy dy*
Whence AA’, 2BA’, CA’, and consequently Mo, are congruous to zero,
mod mm’. Similarly Md*=0, mod mm’; i.e. mm’ divides Mk*?, If then
k=1, i.e. of F be compounded of f and f', M=mm'. (Gauss’s 5th con-
clusion.)
Again, if in the congruences (j) we take m'm as modulus instead of mm’,
we may omit the factor 2 in the second congruence, and may infer that AA?,
BA’, CA* are all divisible by m'm, i.e. that mm’ divides #17", or fH, when F
is compounded of f andj’. It is also readily seen that {#1 divides mm’ and
mm’; whence observing that m=m or 3m, m'=m' or im’, f41=M or 1M,
according as f, 7’, and F are derived from properly or improperly primitive
forms, we conclude that if f and f' be both derived from properly primitive
forms, the form compounded of them is also derived from a properly primitive
form; but if either f or f be derived from an improperly primitive form, the
form compounded of them is derived from a similar form. (Gauss’s 6th con-
clusion.)
In the transformation of F into fx/’, the form f is said to be taken
directly or inversely, according as the fraction n is positive or negative. And
similarly for f’ and n’.
108. Solution of the Problem of Ne Spans —It appears from the identity
(I) that if A, B,C, p, p, P, Ps %o %, Ys Ys» _be integral numbers satisfying
the nine equations (Q), the form (A 7 C) (X, Y)’ will be transformed into
the product of the two forms (a, b, c) (w, y)° and (a', 5’, c’) (2’, yy by the sub-
stitution X=p,we' +p, ry +p, ye' +P. Yy's Y=qve' +g, vy +9, ye +4,yy/.
A = 0, mod mm’.
508 REPORT—1862.
In order, therefore, to find a form, F, compounded directly or inversely of two
given forms of which the determinants are to one another as two squares, we
have to find eleven integral and two fractional numbers, satisfying the equa-
tions (Q) and (Q’), in which a, 6, ¢, a’, 6', c', and the signs of n and x’, are
alone given; the numbers p, P, P.Ps> %o 4%, V2 Yq» being further subject to the
PoP. P2Ps| ave to admit of
a f 0% Ws Ws ~
no common divisor. To determine n and n', we observe that the six deter-
minants satisfy the identical relation PU—QT+RS=0; from which we
infer, first, that P, Q, R—S, R+8, T, U must be relatively prime,
if P, Q, R, 8, T, U are to be so; and secondly, substituting for the determi-
nants their values given by the first six of the equations (Q), that dn? =d'n?.
Denoting by a’ and 6 the greatest common divisors of P, R—S, U and of
Q, R+58, T, so that 6 and 6’ are relatively prime, we have evidently
condition that the determinants of the matrix
Uy
6 — aes , ;
n= +—, n=+-—; the positive or negative signs being taken according as
v1) Mm
f and f enter the composition directly or inversely ; and the absolute values
of 6 and a’ being determined by the equation 6? d'm?=6" dm". The fractions n
and w’ being thus ascertained, the values of P, Q, R, S, T, U are known from
the equations (Q): these values are all integral: for P,Q, R—S, R+5S, T, U,
this isevident from the equations (Q), and may be proved for R and § by
means of the identity PU-QT+RS=0. We have next to assign such
values to the constituents of the matrix | oP: P2 Ps , that its determinants
may acquire the known values of P, Q, R, ST, U. To do so, it is sufficient *
to obtain a fundamental set of solutions of the indeterminate system,
v,U —xv, T+a, S=0
—«,U +a, R—v,Q=0 s
, To Be” ae BAO 7 “Wer De ee) ee
—w#, S+a,Q-—x, P =0,
which is equivalent to only two independent equations. From the skew
symmetrical form of the matrix of this system, it appears that if 6, 6, 6, 6, be
any multipliers whatever, any four numbers (a, «, «, 7,) proportional to
6,P+6,Q+46,R
—4,P 46,849. T =
—§,Q—6,8 +6,U . . . . . . ( )
—),8 7 To
will satisfy the system (S), and in addition the equation
6, +6, 4,46, 7,+4,7,=0.
Assigning, then, to 6, 6, 4,4, any arbitrary values whatever, let ¢, 9, 9,9, be
four numbers relatively prime, and proportional to the four numbers (2); let
also 7, Qo +7, 9, +72 Go+7,9,=1; and employing x, 7, 7,7, in the place of
§,9,4,4,, let us represent by p,p,p,p, the solution of (8) thus obtained.
We have thus two solutions of (8), satisfying respectively the relations
2
* For a solution of the general problem, “ To find all the matrices of a given type, of
which the determinants have given values,” see a paper by M. Bazin, in Liouville, vol. xvi.
p. 145; or Phil. Trans. vol. cli. p. 302. For the definition of a fundamental set of solu-
tions of an indeterminate system, see 2bid. p.297. It may be observed that the analysis
‘of Gauss, which is exhibited in the text, is applicable to any matrix of the type
2X (n+2). ;
ee
ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 509
To Po +7,P, +7, p+ Ps = 0, and TQ +7, q +4, oF ™3%5 =1, which IREOVO
that the two solutions form a fundamental set, 7. e. that the determinants
PoP: PoPs| — (P,Q, R,8,T, Ul.
Go i V2
It only remains to show that the values of A, B, C, which are now sup-
plied by the equations (Q’), are integral. Operating on the identity (I) with
ik BE iio and also with a a # we find, by reasoning
dx’ da dy’ dy” da dx'dy"’ dy” es 2
similar to that which we have employed to establish the 5th conclusion, that
2Ann', 2Bnn', 2Cnn', which are certainly integral numbers, are divisible by
220’ if 34° ona 2S
is uneven. In the former case A, B, C are evidently integral; in the latter,
f 26 -- 2b'. ; : rae F
either spel iar OS UB ONEN y te £- either m or m’ is even, and the quotients
2B” 20 :
——,.-——;, whence, again,
mir mir
are both eyen, and by é0' if either of these numbers
of 2Ann', 2Bnn', 2Cnn' divided by 6d’ are ex
mim
A, B, C are integral*.
109. Composition of several Forms.—It will now be convenient to extend
the definition of composition to the case in which more than two forms are
compounded. If a quadratic form, F, be changed by a substitution, linear
in respect of n binary sets, into the product of x quadratic forms, 7, f, . - «fu
wn
so that F(X, Y)= Il (a, 47+2ba; y,+¢,y°), we shall say that F is
‘=
transformable into f,xf,x ..-f,; andif the determinants of the matrix of
the transformation are relatively prime, we shall say that F is compounded
of ff ---Jn . We shall retain, with an obvious extension, the notation of
Art. 107. The invariant property of the determinant of F supplies the 2
equations A? fat [af}; from which we infer (1) that D, d,, d,,... are
to one another as square numbers, (2) that Dx’ is the greatest common
divisor of the 2 numbers a IIm?. According as the equation A; f;
= A IIf is satisfied by a positive or negative value of the radical, we
shall say that f, is taken directly or inversely. Adopting this definition, we
can enunciate the theorem—
“If F be compounded of f,,f,,.-f,, and F’ be transformable into f, xf,
x .. Xf, the forms being similarly taken in each case, F" contains F.” For
we infer from (2) that D'k?=D, whence A’;=k'A,, or by the Lemmas 2
and 1 of Art. 107, X'=aX+Y, Y’=yX+6Y, a, B, y, 6, denoting integral
numbers which satisfy the equation ai—By=’. We thus obtain the equa-
tion F’ (aX+,Y, yX+éY)=F(X, Y), whence, by Lemma 4, F’ is trans-
formed into F by | fal |
* Gauss shows that A, B, C are integral by substituting the values of p, »- +, Q+++5
IM G192—%oo»_$ (YoPs+Po%s— Ti P2—P 42)» PiP2—PoPs» and observing that the results,
after division by nn’, are integral. The values of p,... are always obtained free from
any common divisor by the process in the text; but Gauss has to determine four new
multipliers 9, 4, 9, 4,, to obtain from the formule (2) the exact values of qo, .. - 5 and not
equimultiples of those values. M. Schlafli (Crelle, vol. lvii. p. 170) has shown that
Gauss’s demonstration is connected with a remarkable symbolical formula.
510 REPORT—1862.
If F be compounded of f, f,...f,, and a single transformation of F into
t,xf.x..f, be given, we may, by the same principles, find all the trans-
formations of F into the product of f, f,, f,, taken asin the given transforma-
tion. Forif F(X,, Y,)=lfrepresent the given transformation, and F(X, Y)
=IIf be any other transformation, we find X=aX,+6Y,, Y=yX,+éY,,
ao—Py=+1, and consequently F (4«X,+Y,, yX,+oy,)=F (X,, Y,); or
a, 2
78
is, by Lemma 4, a proper automorphic of F. The formula X=aX,
+fY,, Y=yX,+8Y,, in which oH
represent all the transformations Zrteioe
If F be transformable into f, xf, x..f,, and ® contain F, while f,, f,,..f,,
contain 9,,%,,-+,, ® will be transformable into ¢,x@,.-¢,- This follows
from a preceding general observation (Art. 105); but we must add here that
if T, +; denote positive or negative units, according as the transformations of
® into F, and f, into ¢, are proper or improper, while v; denotes a positive or
negative unit according as f,is taken directly or inversely, ¢,; will be taken
directly or inversely according as T x7; x v; is positive or negative. This is
is an automorphic of F, will therefore
apparent if we observe that the sign of the quantity “- vee ‘is altered by an im-
proper transformation of X, Y, or w;, y;, but is not pete by a transformation
of any of the other sets.
The theorem that “forms compounded of equivalent forms, similarly taken,
are themselves equivalent” is included in the preceding. We may, there=
fore, speak of the class compounded of any number of given classes.
It is an important and not a self-evident proposition, that if F be com-
pounded of ¢, f,, f,,--fn, and be compounded of f,, f,, F is compounded of
Fis Fare -Fne Let p=at°+26n+yn’, let » be the greatest common divisor
of a, 23, y, and vy the determinant of ¢; let also X, Y transform F into
oxf,xf,x..xf,. Writing in X and Y for and » the bipartite expressions
linear in w, y,, v, y,, by which ¢ is transformed into f, x f,, we obtain a trans-
formation of F into f,xf,x..xjfn. Ifk be the greatest common divisor of the
determinants of the matrix of this transformation, Dk* is the greatest common
d;
divisor of the n numbers — 3 me IIm?. But this common divisor is the same as
1=n
the greatest common divisor of yx II m?;, and the n—2 numbers
i=3 :
s=n
kad II m,? 4=3 CNG
me 33
because v is the greatest common divisor of d, m,? and d, m,’ (4th condlu-
sion), and because p =m, m, (5th conclusion) ; +. ¢., ‘Die= D, or k?= 1, and Fis
compounded of f,, f,,..f,. Also, if 1 >2, f, is similarly taken in both coms
Aifi Ai fi
rT rt i “Oxh X.+Xf,
_aXdY¥ en dX dY dé dn dé dn IS
i= da, Ty, Uys da, —\ dé dn ~ dy x) (zr dy, dy, a) Wes ziy
Q and w; be positive or negative units, according as g and f, are taken directly
positions, for are identical; and if i=1, or
ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 511
or inversely in the composition of F and ¢ respectively, f, will be taken directly
or inversely in the composition of F according as Ox w; is positive or nega-
tive.
By this theorem, the problem of finding a form compounded of any number of
given forms is reduced to the problem of finding a form compounded of two
given forms. For iff, f,..f, be the given forms, we may compound the first
with the second, the resulting form with the third, and so on until we have
gone through all the forms, when the form finally obtained will be compounded
of the given forms, as will immediately appear from successive applications of
the preceding theorem. We also see that we may compound the forms in
any order that we please, or we may divide them into sets in any way we
please, and compounding first the forms of each set, afterwards compound the
resulting forms. If any of the given forms are to be taken inversely, we may
substitute for them their opposites (Art. 92) taken directly. We may thus,
without any loss of generality, and with some gain in point of simplicity,
avoid the consideration of inverse composition altogether ; and, for the future,
when we speak of the form compounded of given forms, or the class com=
pounded of given classes, we shall understand the form or class compounded
directly of the given forms or classes.
110. The solution of the problem of composition given in Art. 108 may be
put into a form better suited to actual computation.
The system (8) is evidently satisfied by (0, P, Q, R], and also by
[P,0,—S,—T]; and these solutions are independent, because the determi-
nants of their matrix cannot all be zero unless P=O, a supposition which
may be rejected as it implies that a=0, 7. ethat dis a square. From this
set of independent solutions a set of fundamental solutions is deduced, as fol-
lows. Let « be the greatest common divisor of P,Q, R; and let & be deter-
mined by the congruences & Q —S=0,k ae T=0, mod a which are simul-
lt # rc
Q
taneously possible, because — and Me have no common divisorwith the modulus,
Bb
while the determinant 4 (RS—QT)=—UF is divisible by it. ‘The solutions
H rf
[us 1, Fa— ps ER p =|, [°. = QR are then a fundamental set, and may
P P Hep
be taken for [p, p, p, p,], [4 9, 995] respectively. We thus find Ann!=
aS or A= ne ; 2Bnn'=R+S8—2k =. Multiplying this equation by A
B I B B
QR
—, — in succession, and attending to the congruences satisfied by k, we obtain
# # t Ul Ul t
the congruences P p= wh, Q Bee ab,R B= bb +Dnn’ mod A; which deter-
# a HOB
mine B, for the modulus A, because £ a B are relatively prime, These
Boe pw
determinations [viz. of A, and of B, mod A] are sufficient for our purpose;
2 12
because if B’=B-+4NA, the forms (4 B, 2 <) anil (4 Bi, 3 x) ate
equivalent. To obtain, therefore, the form compounded of two given forms
(a, b,c), (a', b',c'), we first take the greatest common divisor of d’ m? and
d m’” for D (giving to D the sign of @ or d’); we then determine n and n’
512 REPORT—1862.
by the equations n= / 2 [eo 2 and, representing by p the greatest
common divisor of an’, a'n, bn'+b'n, we obtain A, B, C from the system
Ante
an __ ab’
bei vila
Ghiptegs mod A.
iP p
bn'+b'n pee 66'+Dnn'
B B j
2 —— I)
ot A
These formule, which are applicable to every case of composition, and are
therefore more general than the analogous formule given by Gauss (Disq.
Arith., art. 243), are due to M. Arndt*, who has also given an independent
investigation of them, though our limits have compelled us here to deduce
them from Gauss’s general solution of the problem of composition. That
(A, B, C) is transformed into (a, b,c) x (a b' c!) by the substitution
3 ej beg A ee vy! + b6—Bn se Wada ee +6 hy.
pe a a ad
LYS an' vy’ +a'n a'y+(b'n+bn')yy',
may be inferred from the vdfues of p,,...9,, .++3 or may be verified
directly by observing that
pl AX + (B+ VD)Y)=[ae+(b+4+n¥o D)y] x [a'a'+(0'+2' / D)y'].
111. Composition of Forms—Method of Dirichlet——Lejeune Dirichlet, in
an academic dissertation (“ De formarum binariarum secundi gradus com-
positione,” Crelle, vol. xlyii. p. 155), has deduced the theory of the composi-
tion of forms from that of the representation of numbers. The principles of
this method are applicable to any case of composition; but Dirichlet has
restricted his investigation to properly primitive forms of the same deter-
minant D. Let (a, 6, c), (a’, b,c’) be two such forms; let M and M’ be two
numbers prime to 2D, and capable of the primitive representations M=am?
+2bmn-+en*, M'=a'm? + 2b'm'n'+ cn", by the forms (a, b,c) and (a',b’, c’)
respectively ; also let these representations appertain to the values w and w’
of 7D, so that w°=D, mod M, w?=D, mod M’, and so that the forms
2
(a, b,c), (a', b',c') are respectively equivalent to the forms (at o,— V ”) ;
* Crelle’s Journal, vol. lvi. p. 64. In the new edition of the Disq. Arith. (Géttingen,
1863), a MS. note of Gauss is printed at p. 263, containing the congruences by which B
is determined in the case of the direct composition of two forms of the same determinant.
The account of the theory of composition in the preceding articles (106-109) differs
from that in the Disq, Arith. (arts. 284-248) chiefly in the use which is here made of the
invariant property of the determinant. <A different mode of treatment of Gauss’s analysis
is adopted by M, Bazin, in Liouville, vol. xvi. p. 161.
In Arts. 108 and 110 we have endeavoured to supply the analysis of a problem which
Gauss, as is not unusual with him, has treated in a purely synthetical manner (Disq.
Arith., arts. 236 and 242, 243) ; and it is for this reason that we have introduced the con-
sideration of fundamental sets of solutions of indeterminate systems, which are not ex-
plicitly mentioned in the Disq. Arith. It is perhaps singular that Gauss does not employ
the identity PU—QT+RS=0; it was first given by M. Poullet Delisle, in a note on Art.
235 in his translation of the Disq. Arith.
ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 513
D
If the values w and w’ are concordant, tz. e, if it is possible
'
to find a number Q satisfying the three congruences Q7=D, mod MM’,
Q=w, mod M, Q=v’, mod M’ (in which case the solution © of the con-
gruence 0?==D, mod MM’, may be said to comprehend the solutions w and w'
of the congruences w°==D, mod M, and w*=D, mod M’), the form
1 0? —D
MM’, Q, ww
will belong to one and the same class (which may be termed the class
compounded of the classes containing (a, >, c) and (a’, b', c’)) whatever two
numbers (subject to the conditions prescribed) are taken for M and M’.
To prove this, a few preliminary remarks are necessary. (1.) Ifthe solu-
tions w and w’ are concordant, there is but one solution Q (incongruous
mod MM") comprehending them. (2.) The necessary and sufficient condition
for the concordance of w and w’ is wa’, for every prime modulus dividing
both M and M’. (3.) If Q, w, w’ satisfy the congruence x*==D for the
modules MM’, M, and M' respectively ; and if, besides, Q=w, Q=w', for every
prime divisor of M and M' respectively, w and w’ are concordant, and Q is
the solution comprehending them. (4.) The value of /D to which any
given primitive representation (such as M=am?>+2hmn-+en*) appertains,
may be defined by congruences, without employing the numbers p and v
which satisfy the equation my—nu=1 (see Art. 86); in fact, we find
am+(b+w)n=0, mod M, (6—w)m+cen=0, mod M; whence also w==—8,
mod d, w=-+6, mod d’, if d and d@’ are common LVIaDES of M and m
and of M and n.
We may suppose that the given forms (a, b, c) and (a’, b’, c’) are so prepared*
that the representations of a and a’ by them appertain to concordant values
of /D; 7.¢. that we can find a number B satisfying the congruences
B?=D, mod aa’, B=), mod a, B=0', mod a’. Let state C; the forms
a
Mw’ ' wi?
»W,
will be a properly primitive form of determinant D, and
(a, b,c), (a’, b',c’) are then equivalent to (a, B, a’ C), (a, B, a C) respectively ;
and if X=wa' —Cyy', Y=aay'+a'a'y+2Byy', we find by actual multipli-
cation aa'X?+2BXY + OY? = (aa? +2Bay+a'Cy’) x (av? + 2Ba'y' +aCw?).
From this equation (which is included as a particular case in the formule
of M. Arndt) it appears that MM’ is capable of representation by (aa’, B, C) ;
it can also be shown (1) that this representation is primitive; (2) that
it appertains to a value of /D, mod MM’, comprehending the values w
and w’, to which the representations of M and M' by (a, 6, c) and (a’, 8’, c’)
respectively appertain. (1.) If x, y, 2’, y', and X, Y are the values of the
indeterminates in the representations of M, M’, and MM’ by (a, B, aC),
(a', B, aC) and (aa’, B, C), the hypothesis that X and Y admit of a common
prime divisor p is expressed by the simultaneous congruences wa’ — Cyy' =
axy' +a'x'y+2Byy'=0, mod p. These congruences are linear in respect
of the relatively prime numbers w’ and y's their coexistence implies,
therefore, that p divides their determinant M; similarly it may be shown
that p divides M’; so that w=w', mod p, because w and w’ are concordant.
The congruences satisfied by w and w’ now give the relations av-+(B+w)y=0,
* Tt is readily proved that a properly primitive form can represent numbers prime to
any given number; thus a form can always be found equivalent to a given properly pri-
mitive form, and having its first coefficient prime to a given number. ‘This transformation
will be frequently employed in the sequel. ... In the present instance, we have only to
substitute for the given forms any two forms respectively equivalent to them and haying
their first coefficients relatively prime,
1 2M
514 REPORT—1862.
a' v' +(B+w)y'=0, mod p; whence, eliminating # and w' from the congruence:
Y=0, and observing that 2w is prime to M and therefore to p, we find
yy'=0, mod p. If y is divisible by p, we infer, from the congruence X=0,
that 2’ is also divisible by p; but the congruences satisfied by w and a’
give in this case the contradictory results o=+B, o=—B; i.e. y is not
divisible by p, and similarly it may be shown that y' is not divisible by
The congruence yy'==0, mod p, is therefore impossible ; or the represen-
tation of MM' by (aa’, B, C) is primitive. (2.) Let Q' be the value of /D,
to which this representation appertains ; and let p be any divisor of M; then
Q/ satisfies the congruences aa’ X+(B+Q/)Y=0, (B—Q’')X+CY=0,
mod p; and it will be found, on substituting the values of X and Y, that
these congruences are also satisfied by w; whence it follows, since either
X or Y is prime to p, that Q'==w,mod p. Similarly, if p be a prime divisor
of M', Q'=.w', mod p; or ©’ is a solution of the congruence Q?=D, mod
MM’, comprehending the solutions w and w’. Hence Q'==Q, mod MM’, and
2
the form (ane, Q, a is equivalent to (aa’, B, C), because either of
them is equivalent to (nr, QO; — . The equivalence of all the forms
a? —D
is therefore demonstrated.
included in the expression ( MM’, Q, wr
It will be seen that Dirichlet’s method may be applied to the composition
of any number of forms, and that the theorems of Art. 109 present them-
selves as immediate consequences of his definition of composition.
112. Composition of Classes of the same Determinant.—We shall now con-
sider more particularly the composition of classes of the same determinant D.
We represent these classes by the letters f, ¢, . . - , and we use the signs of
equality and of multiplication to denote equivalence and composition respec-
tively *, The following theorems are then immediately deducible from the
six conclusions of Art. 107, and from the formule of Art. 110.
(i.) “If f be a properly primitive class, fx ® is of the same order as ®.”
(ii.) “A class is unchanged by composition with the principal class.”
In consequence of this property, it is sometimes convenient to represent the
principal class by 1.
(iii.) “The composition of two opposite+ properly primitive classes pro-
duces the principal class.”
If, then, f denote any properly primitive class, we may denote its opposite
by f-!, and we may write fx f-!=1.
(iv.) “If f be a given properly primitive class, and ® any given class, the
equation F x f=® is always satisfied by one class, F, and by one only ; viz,
by the class F=® x f-!.”
(v.) “If®,, ,,..be all different classes, and f be a properly primitive
class, fx ©,, fx ®,, . . are all different classes,”
(vi.) «A properly primitive ambiguous class produces by its duplication the
principal class ;” for an ambiguous class is its own opposite, Conversely, if
¢°=1, i.e. if be a class which, by its duplication, produces the principal
class, ¢ is a properly primitive ambiguous class; for we find ¢*x @-1=¢71,
whence ¢=9~!, or @ and its opposite are properly equivalent.
_ * Gauss uses the sign of addition instead of that of multiplication; thus /X¢ is /+¢
in the Disq. Arith., and f” is nf. The change appears to have been introduced by his
French translator, and to have been acquiesced in by subsequent writers.
‘+ Two classes which are improperly equivalent are called opposite, because they con-
tain opposite forms (see Art, 92). ; ;
ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 615
(vii.) “The class compounded of the opposites of two or more forms is the
opposite of the class compounded of those forms.” It follows from this, or
from vi., that a class compounded of ambiguous classes is itself ambiguous.
(viii.) Let ®,, ©, ...,-1 represent all the classes of det. D, and of a
given order ©; and let 1, f,, f,, . . . fr—1 represent the properly primitive
classes of the same determinant; it may then be shown that w is a divisor
_» *@
of n, and that, given two classes of the order Q, there always exist |, Pro
perly primitive classes, which, compounded with one of them, produce the
other, Assuming, for a moment, that a form ®, exists, such that the w equa-
tions included in the formula ®,xf=®, can all be satisfied, we see that
each of these equations is satisfied by the same number of properly primitive
classes f; for if the equation ®, x f=, be satisfied by & primitive classes,
1, $5 do» + » $e-1, the equation ©, x f=,, which is, by hypothesis, satisfied
by a single class, 7,,, 1s also satisfied by the /—1 classes f, x 9,,- +» fu X Gx—1>
but by no other class. Since, then, the classes ®, x f, of which the number
‘is n, represent every class of the order Q k times, we have evidently n=kw.
It is also readily seen that every equation of the type ®, x f=, admits of k
solutions; and thus it only remains to justify the assumption on which the
preceding proof depends. If the order Q be derived by the multiplier m from
a properly primitive class of determinant Ay we may take for ®, the
m
class represented by the form (m, 0, —Am); if Q be derived from an im-
properly primitive class, we take for ®, the class represented by the form
(2m, m,— ma . Representing ©, in the first case by the form (ma, mb,
me), and in the second by the form (2ma, mb, 2mc), and supposing (as we may
do) that a in each case is prime to 2D, we see that the forms (a, mb, m*c) and
(a, bm, 4cm”) are properly primitive ; and we find by the formule of compo-
sition (Art. 110),
(m, 0, —Am) x (a, bm, em*)=(ma, mb, me)
(2, m, —™m ax
) x (a, bm, 4em?)=(2ma, mb, 2me) ;
i.e. the equation ®, x f=, can be satisfied for every value of p.
113. Comparison of the numbers of Classes of different Orders—To deter-
mine the quotient ” of the last article, Gauss investigates the properly pri-
Ww
mitive classes of det. D, which, compounded with the classes (m, 0, —Am)
and (2m, m, —m , reproduce those classes themselves. He thus em-
2
ploys the theory of composition to compare the number of properly pri-
mitive classes of a given determinant with the number of classes contained
in any other order of the same determinant; or, which comes to the same
thing, to compare the numbers of classes, of any given orders, of two de-
terminants which are to one another as square numbers (Disq. Arith., art.
253-256). We have already seen (Art. 103) that the infinitesimal analysis
of Dirichlet supplies a complete solution of this problem ; whereas, in the case
of a positive determinant, the result in its simplest form was not obtained
by Gauss. It has, however, been recently shown by M. Lipschitz (Crelle,
yol. lili. p. 238) that the formule of Dirichlet may be deduced, in a very ele-
mentary manner, from the theory of transformation, We propose in this
2u 2
516 REPORT—1862.
place to give an account of this investigation, and to point out its relation to
the method pursued by Gauss. We begin with the theorem
« Every properly primitive class of determinant De? is contained in one, and
only one, properly primitive class of determinant D.”
Let (A,B,C) be a properly primitive form of det. De’, inwhich A is prime to ¢;
let B! be determined by the congruence eB’=B, mod A, and C! by the equation
12
C' Bg ; then the forms (A, B, C) and (A, Ble, C'e*) are equivalent ; but
(A, Ble, C'e?) is contained in (A, B’, C’), therefore also (A, B, C) is contained
in (A, B’, C’), that is, in a properly primitive form of determinant D. Again,
if (a, b, c), (a’, b,c) are two forms of det. D, each containing (A, B, C), these
two forms are equivalent. For applying to (A, B, C) the system of transfor-
m,
mations of modulus e, included in the formula | 0 7 | (art. 88), we readily
find that, of the resulting forms, one, and only one, will have its coefficients
divisible by e?*; therefore the class represented by (A, B, C) contains one,
and only one class of det. De‘, and of the type (ép, eg, @r). But, applying
to (A, B, C) the transformations inverse to those by which (a, 6, c) and
(a', b', c') are changed into (A, B, C), (A, B, C) is changed into (ea, €*b, e’c)
and (¢éa', eb’, e’c’); these two forms are therefore equivalent ; 2. ¢. (a, 6, ¢)
and (a’, 0’, c') are equivalent.
We have next to ascertain how many different properly primitive classes of
determinant De’ are contained in the class represented by (a, 6, c), a properly
primitive form of det. D, in which a may be supposed prime toe. Applying to
(a, 6, c) a complete system of transformations of modulus e, we inquire in the
first place how many of the resulting forms are properly primitive. or this
purpose we observe that if e=e, xe, xe, X ...(é,, @, ++. representing factors
of which no two have any common divisor), a complete system of transforma-
tions for the modulus ¢ is obtained by compounding, in any definite order, the
systems of transformations for the modules ¢,, ¢,,...; te. if | e, |, | & |5-+-
be symbols representing complete systems of transformations for the modules
€,, &»++., every transformation of modulus ¢ is equivalent by post-multiplica-
tion} to one and only one of the transformations | e, | x | e,| X | & | X--
It will, therefore, be sufficient to determine the number of properly primitive
forms obtained by applying to a properly primitive form a complete system of
transformations for a modulus which is the power of a prime. Let p be an
uneven prime, and let (a, b, c) be changed into (A, B, C) by load “i
>a
formula which will represent a complete system of transformations for the
modulus p”, if y receive every value from 0 to @ inclusive, and if & be the ge-
neral term of a complete system of residues, mod p*~’ ; we find
* em ‘i | transform (A, B, C) into (P, Q, R), we have
P=Am?, Q=m(A‘+By), R= AX?+2Bhp+Cp2.
Observing that A is prime to e, we infer from the congruence P=0, mod. e%, that m=e,
p=1; the competes =0, mod. e”, then becomes A+++ B=0, mod. e, giving one, and only
one, value of £ mod. e; and this value satisfies the remaining congruence R=0, mod. ¢,
since AR=(Ak+B)?—De?.
t If] A| and | B | are two transformations connected by the symbolic equation
|B}=|A|x|V],
in which | V | is a unit transformation, | A | and | B | are said to be equivalent by post-
multiplication, or to belong to the same set. A complete system of transformations for any
modulus contains one transformation belonging to each set.
ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 517
A=ap**-), B=(ak+ bp’) p*-%, C=ak? + 2bkpy + cp*”
whence, if y=a, (A, B, C) is properly primitive ; and is so, or not, for every
other value of y, according as C is not, or is, divisible by p. If y=0, we have
C=0, for p*~ [2+(F)] values of /, incongruous mod. p*; if y have any
ie
value intermediate between 0 and a, we have C=0, for p*-’—' values of &,
incongruous mod. p*~’, Hence the number of properly primitive forms is
ae? Aishhde “MG ]
se mipmcediee )
and similarly if p=2 it will be found that the number of properly primitive
forms is 2%. Hence the number N of properly primitive forms, arising from
the application of a complete system of transformations of modulus e¢ to the
form (a, 6, c), is eII [2 —(5)}; p denoting any uneven prime dividing e, It
remains to determine the number of non-equivalent classes in which these N
forms are contained. For brevity, we consider the case of a positive determi-
nant. Let [T,, U,] represent any solution of the equation T?—DU*=1, and
let o be the index of the least solution of that equation which is also a solution
of T?— eDU*=1, 2. e. let o be the index of the first number in the series
U,, U,,...which is divisible by ¢; also let (A, B, C) represent any one of the
N ‘properly primitive forms into which (a, b,c) is transformed. The trans-
formations of modulus e by which (a, b, c) i is changed into (A, B, C) belong to
o different sets, the transformations of ‘the same set being equivalent by post-
multiplication, but those of different sets not being so equivalent. For if
| a3 B| be a transformation of (a,b, c) into (A, B, C), any other transformation
is represented (Art. 89) by the formula
ie T,—bU,, —cU, a,
and these two peak eieu will or will not belong to the same set, ac~
U,
, satisfying the equation
- : - r
cording as a unit transformation | 7
lt i Rel ee eu: | ar, (3
y, 6 Vv, p au,, T,+06U, Y, 0 Y
does or does not exist. Premultiplying each side of this equation by
| 8, —B | , we find
—Yy a
ee ee eT..—BU,,, —CUs|
v,p AU, ; iy et BUe
whence, observing that A, B, C are relatively prime, we see that A, p, r, p
are or are not integral according as U,, is, or is not, divisible bye; a conclu- —
sion which implies that the transformations of (a, b,c) into (A, B, C) are con-
tained in o different sets. It thus appears that, of the N transformations,
which applied to (a, b,c) give properly primitive forms, there are « which give
forms equivalent to (A, B,C); 7. ¢. the number of properly primitive classes
~
518 REPORT—1862.
of det. Dé, contained in (a,6,c), a properly primitive class of det. D, is
Nive Pg jor 4 ; a result which is in accordance with the formula of
o o
Dirichlet ase 103). If D be negative, we have only to put o=1, as is suffi-
ciently apparent from the preceding proof; if, however, D=—1, o—2.
The properly primitive classes of det. De’, into which a given properly
primitive class (a, b,c) of det. D is transformable, are always such that, com-
pounded with the class (e, 0,—De), they produce the class (ea, eb, ec). For
let (a, b,c) be transformable into (A, B, C) of det. De’, and let us take a form
of the type (A, B’e, C’e*), equivalent to (A, B, C); then (a, 5, c) and (A, B’, C’)
are equivalent. But (e,0,—De) x (A, Bre, Ce’) =(eA, eB’, eC’), therefore also
(e, 0,—De) x (A, B, C)=(ea, eb, ec). And conversely the classes which, com-
pounded with (e, 0,—De), produce (ea, eb, ec) are precisely the classes into
which (a, b,c) is transformable. Thus the properly primitive classes of det.
De*?, which compounded with (e, 0,—De) reproduce that class itself, are no
other than the properly primitive classes of det. De* into which (1, 0,—D)
is transformable. And it is by this substitution of a problem of transforma-
tion for a problem of composition that M. Lipschitz has simplified and com-
pleted the analysis of Gauss.
A method similar in principle is applicable to the comparison of the num-
bers of properly and improperly primitive classes. We can first show that if
D=1, mod. 4, the double of every properly primitive class of det. D arises
by a transformation of modulus 2 from one, and only one, improperly primi-
tive class of the same determinant ; viz. if (a, b,c) is a given properly primitive
form, in which a and 4 are uneven, (2 b, 7 is improperly primitive, and is
changed into (2a, 2b, 2c) by : : ; and, again; if (2p, q, 2r), (2p’, q’, 2r') are
two improperly primitive forms, each of which is transformable into (2a, 24, 2c),
these two forms are equivalent, because («,),¢) is transformable into (4p, 2q, 4r)
and also into (4p’, 2q', 47’), while it can be shown that (a, 6, c) is transform-
able into the double of only one improperly primitive class. Also, applying
the system of transformations, =
ra - ie : | , to the improperly pri-
>
mitive form (2p, q,2r), we obtain, if D==1, mod. 8, the double of only one
properly primitive form: in this case therefore the numbers of properly and
improperly primitive classes are equal. If D=5, mod. 8, we obtain the
doubles of three properly primitive forms; and we have to decide to how
many different classes these three forms belong. It appears from Art. 89, that
ie [28
y,€ :
mitive form (a. 6,¢), all the transformations are included in the formula
2(T,—qU,), Sate | a, B
PU A(T, +90)! ly 6
|T,, U,] denoting any solution of the equation T7—DU?=4. Taking the case
of a positive determinant, and employing the same reasoning as before, we infer
that if U, be the first of the numbers U,, U,,... which is even, these trans-
formations are contained in ¢ different sets. But is either 1 or 3 according
as U, is even or uneven (see Art. 96, vi.) ; the three forms will therefore re-
present three classes or one, according as U, is even or uneven; and the
number of properly primitive classes, in these two cases respectively, will be
three times the number of improperly primitive classes, or equal to it. If D
be a transformation of (2p, 7, 277) into the double of a properly pri-
’
i
ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 519
be negative, the three forms will belong to different classes; and there will
be three times as many properly as improperly primitive classes. From this
statement, however, we must except the determinant —3, which has one
properly and one improperly primitive class.
It will be found that the properly primitive class or classes, into the double
of which a given improperly primitive class can be transformed, and which in
turn can be transformed into the double of the given class, are also the class
or classes which compounded with the class { 2, 0, a produce the given
class. Thus every improperly primitive class is connected either with one or
three properly primitive classes (see Art. 98, note, and Art. 118).
114. Composition of Genera.—Let f and f' be two properly primitive
classes of det. D, m and m’ two numbers prime to one another and to 2D,
and represented by f and f’ respectively; then mm’ is represented by fx’.
Hence the generic character of fx /' is obtained by multiplying together the
values of the particular characters of f and f’. For those generic characters
which are expressed by quadratic symbols this is evident, since
“) (=) (=)
— j=—[ — ) Xi — };5
P P
and it is equally true for the supplementary characters, since it will be found
that
mm!—1 m'—1 m2m!2—1 m*2—1 m/2—]
m—1
eee ta (rt)? (1) 8 ti) ® x(—1)
The genus I’, in which fx/’ is contained, is said to be compounded of the
genera y and y’, in which f and f’ are contained; and this composition is
expressed by the symbolic equation r=y xy’. It will be seen that the
composition of any genus with itself gives the principal genus.
The same considerations may be extended to improperly primitive classes.
Thus, if f and f' be respectively properly and improperly primitive, m and m’
uneven numbers prime to one another and to D, represented by f and $7",
the genus of the improperly primitive class, fx f', may be inferred from the
number mm’, i.c. it is obtained bythe composition of the generic characters
of fand f’. Or, again, if f and f’ be both improperly primitive, so that the
class compounded of them is the double of an improperly primitive class, the
generic character of this improperly primitive class is obtained by compound-
ing those of the two given classes.
It follows, from these principles, that the number of classes in any two
genera [of the same order] is the same. For if ,, ,,..., be all the
classes of any genus of properly or improperly primitive forms, F, a class
belonging to any other genus of the same order, and @ a properly primitive
class satisfying the equation ®,x@=F,, the classes’ ®,x¢,..-.- nx
are all different, and all belong to the genus (F); consequently (F) has at
least as many classes as (@), and vice versd (®) has at least as many as (F),
i. e. they both contain the same number of classes.
115. Determination of the Number of Ambiguous Classes, and Demon-
stration of the Law of Quadratic Reciprocity—The number of actually
existing genera of properly primitive forms cannot exceed the number of
properly primitive ambiguous classes. For let x be the number of classes
in each genus, & the number of actually existing genera, so that kn is the
number of properly primitive classes; let also 1, A,, A,, . . . A,-1 be the pro-
perly primitive ambiguous classes. Every class produces, by its duplication,
a class of the principal genus; and if K be a class of the principal genus
520 REPORT—1862.
produced by the duplication of X, K is also produced by the duplication of
XxA,, XxA,,.. Xx Aj, but by the duplication of no other class. If,
therefore, there be »’ classes in the principal genus which can be produced
by duplication, the whole number of properly primitive classes is hxm’,
i.e. hn'=kn. But n'Sn, therefore k<h.
It may be inferred from Art. 112, vii., that all genera which contain any
ambiguous classes contain an equal number of them. We shall immediately
see that the number of ambiguous classes is equal to the number of genera,
and is consequently a power of 2. The number of ambiguous classes in any
genus is, therefore, either zero or a power of 2; and if any genus contain
i
: ; 5 onal
2« ambiguous classes, such classes will exist only in pe Sonera.
Gauss determines the number hk of properly primitive ambiguous classes
by very elementary reasoning. He first finds the number of properly primitive
ambiguous forms of one or other of the two types (A, 0, C) and (2B, B, C),
and then assigns the number of non-equivalent classes in which these forms
are contained. Let D be divisible by » different primes; and let us except
the case D=—1. Resolving D in every possible manner into two positive or
negative factors, having no common divisor but unity, we find 2#+! properly
primitive forms of the type (A, 0, C); but we shall diminish this number by
one-half by rejecting one of the two equivalent forms (A, 0, C) and (C, 0, A),
viz. that in which [A|]>[C]. There are no properly primitive forms of the
type (2B, B, C) unless D=3, mod. 4, or D=0, mod. 8; for one or other of
these congruences is implied by the equation D=B (B—2C), because C is
uneyen. Resolving D into any two factors relatively prime, if D=3, mod. 4,
and haying 2 for their greatest common divisor, if D=0. mod. 8, we take one
of them for B, the other for B—2C; and we obtain, in either case, 24+! pro-
perly primitive forms of the type (2B, B, C). If BB'=—D,, it is easily seen
that the forms (2B, B, C) and (2B’, B’, C')* are equivalent. We may thus
diminish by one-half the number of forms of the type (2B, B, C), rejecting
those in which [B]>[D]. We conclude, therefore, that if we now denote
by p the number of wneven primes dividing D, we have in all 2++? ambiguous
forms when D=0, mod. 8, 2 when D=1, or =5, mod. 8, and 24+! in every
other case. These ambiguous forms we shall call Q, and we observe that
their number is equal to the whole number of assignable generic characters
Art. 98).
To fn the number of non-equivalent classes in which these forms are
contained, we consider separately the case of a positive and of a negative
determinant. or a negative determinant, we diminish by one-half the
number of the forms by rejecting the negative forms. The remaining forms,
if of the type (A, 0, C), are evidently reduced, because A<C; if of the type
(2B, B, C), they are also reduced, unless 2B>C, an inequality which implies
that (C, C—B, C), to which (2B, B, C) is equivalent, is reduced (Art. 92). The
number of [positive] ambiguous classes is, therefore, one-half the number of
the ambiguous forms Q.
For a positive determinant, we deduce from the forms © an equal number
of reduced ambiguous forms. Thus (A, 0, C) is equivalent to (A, A, C’);
and because [A]</D, this form is reduced, if /A be positive and be the
* When the first we coefficients of a form are given, the third is given also; thus C’
2B’
sequel. The symbols [A] &c. are used, as in Art. 92, to denote the absolute values of the
quantities enclosed within the brackets,
is here used for @ - Similar abbreviations will be employed occasionally in the
bd
ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 521
greatest multiple of [A] not surpassing ¥D. Similarly (2B, (24+1) B,C’)
is equivalent to (2B, B, C), and is reduced if (2/41) B be positive, and be
the greatest uneven multiple of [B] not surpassing D. There are, there-
fore, as many reduced ambiguous forms as there are forms in Q; and there
are no more, because it is readily seen that every reduced ambiguous form
is included in one or other of the two series of forms (A, “A, C’) and
(2B, (2k+1) B, C’) which we have obtained. But every ambiguous class
contains two reduced ambiguous forms (Art. 94); we infer, therefore, that for
positive as well as for negative determinants the number of ambiguous classes
is one-half the number of the forms Q, 7. ¢. one-half of the number of assign-
able generic characters.
Combining this result with the theorem at the commencement of this
article, we obtain a proof of the impossibility of at least one-half of the
assignable generic characters. As this proof is independent of the law of
quadratic reciprocity, we may employ the result to demonstrate that law.
[Gauss’s second demonstration, Disq. Arith., art. 262.] Let p and q be
two primes, and first let one of them, as p, be of the form 4n+1. If (2)
P
=—1, we infer that (2)=-1; for if (2)=+1, we should have w’=p,
2
mod. g, and consequently there would exist a form (a w,— 7 ) of det. p,
of which the character would be (£)= —l, 2. ¢. there would be 2 genera of
P
forms of determinant p. Similarly, if (4)= +1, we have w*=+q, mod. p;
ee
and (p, w, © +4) is a form of det. +g. If +¢q be of the form 4n+1,
there will be but one genus of forms, z.e, the principal genus; whence
(£)= +1. These two conclusions are sufficient to establish the theorem of
reciprocity when one of the two primes is of the form 4n+1. If both
pand q be of the form 4n+3, there are four assignable characters for the
determinant pg. Of these (£)=1, (Z)=1 : (2)= —l, (-)= —1; are pos-
is q qY
sible, as is shown by the existence of the forms (1, 0, —pq), (—1, 0, pq);
the other two are therefore impossible. Hence in the form (p, 0, —q) we
must have either (2)=1=(=*), or (2)=—1=(=), which ex-
q P P
presses the theorem of reciprocity for this case. The supplementary theo-
rems relating to 2 and —1 can be similarly proved.
116. Equality of the Number of Genera and of Ambiguous Classes —
In the preceding article it has only been shown that & cannot exceed h.
But, as we have already seen (Art. 102) that the number of actually
existing genera is one-half the whole number of assignable generic
characters, we know that kK=h. To prove this, by the principles of the
composition of forms, it is sufficient to show that n=n’', 7. e. that the
problem “ to find a class which by its duplication shall produce a given class
of the principal genus ” is always resoluble. This problem Gauss actually
solves (Disq. Arith., art. 286, 287); he shows, first, that any proposed
binary form, belonging to the principal genus of its own determinant, can be
522 REPORT—1862.
represented by the ternary quadratic form X°—2YZ; and, secondly, that
from this representation we can always deduce a binary form, which shall
produce by its duplication the proposed form. This solution implies a pre-
vious investigation of the theory of ternary quadratic forms, and cannot be
properly introduced here.
A more elementary method, however, has been given by M. Arndt (Crelle,
lvi. p. 72). Let D=AS’, S* representing any square dividing D; M. Arndt
observes that the ratio of the number of actually existing genera to the
whole number of assignable generic characters is the same for each of the
two determinants D and A. To prove this we make use of the following sub-
sidiary proposition :—
“If f=(a, 6, c) be a properly primitive form of any det. D, and if 8M and
0 be two numbers relatively prime, the necessary and sufficient condition for
the resolubility of the congruence
ax’ +2bay+cy*=0,mod8M..... . (A)
is that the supplementary characters of f (if any), and the particular cha-
racters of f (if any) which relate to uneven primes dividing both M and D,
should coincide with the corresponding characters of 6.” -
We may add (though this is not necessary for our present purpose), that if
§, and §, be two values of § for each of which the congruence (A) is resoluble,
it is resoluble for each an equal number of times.
On reference to the Table in Art. 98, it will be seen that the particular
characters proper to the determinant A are included among the particular
characters proper to D. Let then (I) and (I, I’) represent any two com-
plete generic characters for the determinants A and D, the particular cha-
racters common to the two complete characters having the same values attri-
buted to them in each. It may then be shown that the genus (I, I”) is or
is not an existent genus, according as (I) is or is not existent. For (1) if
(1, I’) be actually existent, let § be a number prime to 2D and capable of
primitive representation by some class of that genus; the congruence w*=D,
mod. § is therefore resoluble ; 7. e. the congruence w?=A, mod. §, is resoluble,
so that § can be represented by a class of properly primitive forms of det. A,
or the genus (I) is actually existent. And (2) if (1°) be an existing genus,
let f be a form included in (I), and 6 a number prime to 2D and satisfying
the generic character (I, I’). It appears from the subsidiary proposition
that some number © of the linear form 8mD-+4 is capable of representation
by f; if 6 be the greatest common divisor of the indeterminates in the repre-
sentation of @ by f, the congruence w*=A, and consequently the congruence
w =D, is resoluble for the modulus ee i.e. > the character of which coincides
with the character of 6, and therefore with that of the genus (I, I’), is capa-
ble of representation by a form of det. D, or (I, I’) is an actually existing
genus.
If, then, « be the number of particular characters contained in (I, I’) and
not in (I), the numbers of actually existing genera and assignable generic
characters for the det. D are each 2« times the corresponding numbers for the
det. A.
It appears from this result that it will be sufficient for our present purpose
to consider determinants not divisible by any square. If (a, b, c) be a form
of the principal genus of sich a determinant (we suppose that a is prime to
D), the equation ax*+ 2bay + cy?=w? is resoluble with values of w prime to
ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 523
D; for if a=a'o’, & representing the greatest square divisor of a, the equa-
tion
e te Dr? — al?
is certainly resoluble in relatively prime integers, by virtue of a celebrated
theorem of Legendre* ; and the values of £ which satisfy it are prime to D ;
peg) ;
whence, if «= pa »Y=pn, o=p *, p denoting a multiplier, which renders
the values of x, Ys and w integral and relatively prime, the equation
ax* + 2bay+cy’=w* will be atisied, and the values of w will be prime to D.
The form (¢, 6, c) is therefore equivalent to a form of the type (w’, A; v); and
this form 1s produced by the duplication of (w, A, vw) if w be uneven, and of
(2w, \+, v') if w be even.
117. Arrangement of the Classes of the principal Genus.—If C be a
class of the principal genus, the classes C, C*, C’,. . . will all belong to that
genus. And it will be found, by reasoning similar to that employed in
Kuler’s second proof of Fermat’s theorem (see Art. 10 of this Report), (1)
that the classes 1, C, C?,... are all different until we arrive at a class Cr,
equivalent to the principal class; (2) that p is either equal to, or a divisor of,
the number » of classes in the principal genus; (3) that if C’=1, 7 is a mul-
tiple of ». The p classes C, C*, C®,. . . C+—!, 1, are called the period ¢ of the
class C; C is said to appertain to the exponent »; and the determinant is
regular or irregular according as classes do or do not exist which appertain
to the exponent n. With the former case we may compare the theory of the
residues of powers for a prime modulus; with the latter the same theory for
a modulus composed of different primes (see Art. 77).
(i.) When the determinant is regular, we may take any class appertaining
to the exponent n as a basis, and may represent all the classes of the principal
genus (to which we at present confine ourselves) as its powers. It will then
appear (1) that if d be a divisor of », the number of classes appertaining to
the exponent d is ¥ (d); so that, for example, the number of classes that
may be taken for a base is y (n): (2) that if ef=n, the equation X*=1 will
be satisfied by ¢ classes of the principal genus; and if these classes be repre-
sented by A,, A,,...A,, each of the equations X/=A will be satisfied by
f different classes of ‘the same genus: (3) that the only classes of the prin-
cipal genus which satisfy the equation X*=1 are those which satisfy the
equation X7=1, where d is the greatest common divisor of & and n.
It will be seen in particular that the equation X’=1 admits of only one,
or only two solutions, according as n is uneven or even; 2. é. the principal
genus of a regular determinant cannot contain more than two ambiguous
classes.
To obtain a class appertaining to the exponent n, Gauss employs the same
method which serves to find a primitive root of a prime number (Art. 13;
Disq. Arith., art. 73, 74), and which reposes on the observation, that if A
and B be two classes appertaining to the exponents a and #, neither of which
divides the other, and if M, the least common multiple of a and #, be re-
solved into two factors p and q, relatively prime and such that p divides a
% B
and q divides 3, the class A? x B@ will appertain to the exponent M.
(ii.) When the determinant is irregular, the classes of the principal genus
* Théorie des Nombres, ed. 3, vol. i. p.41; Disq. Arith., art, 294.
+ These periods of non- equivalent classes are not to be confounded with the periods of
equivalent reduced forms of Art. 93.
524 REPORT—1862.
cannot be represented by the simple formula C’, and we must employ an
expression of the form C,xC,?xC,?.... To obtain an expression thus
representing all the classes of the principal genus, we take for C, a class ap-
pertaining to the greatest exponent 6, to which any class can appertain; and
in general for C, we take a class appertaining to the greatest exponent 6,
to which any class can appertain when its period contains no class, except
the principal class, capable of representation by the formula 0, x C, Sei
C,_1'#-1, The number a=? x6,xX ... 18s called by Gauss the exponent of
irregularity ; and similarly we might term &c., the second,
n n
0, 6,” 0, 0, 6,”
third, &c., exponents of irregularity. From the mode in which the formula
C," x C,” x . . is obtained, it can be inferred that 0, is divisible by 6,, 0, by
6,, and so on; whence it appears that a determinant cannot be irregular un-
less n be a divisible by a square; nor can it have r indices of irregularity
unless ” be divisible by a power of order +1. Moreover, whenever the
principal genus contains but one ambiguous class, the determinant is either
regular or has an uneyen exponent of irregularity; if, on the contrary, the
principal genus contain more than two ambiguous classes, the determinant is
certainly irregular, and the index of irregularity even; if it contain 2 ambi-
guous classes, the irregularity is at least of order x, and the « exponents of
irregularity are all even.
A few further observations are added by Gauss. Irregularity is of much
less frequent occurrence for positive than for negative determinants; nor
had Gauss found any instance of a positive determinant having an uneven
index of irregularity (though it can hardly be doubted that such determinants
exist). The negative determinants included in the formule, —D=216k+4 27,
=1000k+4 75, =1000% 4 675, except —27 and —75, are irregular, and have
an index of irregularity divisible by 3. In the first thousand there are five
negative determinants (576, 580, 820, 884, 900) which have 2 for their
exponent of irregularity, and eight (243, 307, 339, 459, 675, 755, 891, 974)
which have 3 for that exponent; the numbers of determinants having these
exponents of irregularity are 13 and 15 for the second thousand, 31 and
32 for the tenth. Up to 10,000 there are, possibly, no determinants having
any other exponents of irregularity; but it would seem that beyond that
limit the exponent of irregularity may have any value.
118. Arrangement of the other Genera.—In the preceding article we have
attended to the classes of the principal genus only; to obtain a natural
arrangement of all the properly primitive classes, we observe that, if the
number of genera be 2, the terms of the product (1+T,)(1+T,)(1+T,)...
_ (1+T,,),in which T; represents any genus not already included in the product
of the i—1 factors preceding 1+4T;, will represent all the genera. If, then,
A,, A,,... A, represent any classes of the genera I'|,T,,. . I’, respectively,
and |C| be the formula representing all the classes of the principal genus, the
expression |K|=|C| x (1+A,)(1+A,)...(1+A,) supplies a type for a simple
arrangement of all the classes of the given determinant. When every genus
contains an ambiguous class, it is natural to take for A,,A,,.. A,, the ambi-
guous classes contained in the genera T,, l’,,.. I’, respectively. When the
principal genus contains two ambiguous classes (and when, consequently,
one-half of the genera contain no such classes), let C, be the class taken as
base (or, if the determinant be irregular, as first of the bases) in the arrange-
Oe
a
|
ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 525
ment of the classes of the principal genus, and let Q,7=C,; it may then be
shown that Q, will belong to a genus containing no ambiguous class, and that
the formula |K|=|C| x (1+Q,) (1+A,)...(1+A,),im which A,,.. A,, are
ambiguous classes, represents all the classes*, In general, if the principal
genus contain 2 ambiguous classes (a supposition which implies that the
determinant is irregular, having « even exponents of irregularity, and that
there are only 24—-« genera containing ambiguous classes)—let Q,’=C, ;
0,7=C,;...0,2=C,—it will be found that all the classes are represented by
the formula |K!=|C| x (1+@,) (1+Q,) ..(1+Qc) (1+ Asi). . (1+A,), in
which A,4;,...A, are ambiguous classes, and Q,, Q, . . . Qe classes belonging
to genera containing no ambiguous class .
A similar arrangement of the improperly primitive classes (when such
classes exist) is easily obtained. Let 3% denote the principal class of im-
: att D—1
properly primitive forms, 7. ¢. the class containing the form (2, jie "5*);
we have seen (Art. 113) that the number of properly primitive classes which,
compounded with 3, produce 3, is either one or three. When there is only
one such class, the number of improperly primitive classes is equal to that
of properly primitive classes; and if |K| be the general formula representing
the properly primitive classes, the improperly primitive classes will be repre-
sented by 3x|K|. When there are three properly primitive classes, which,
compounded with ¥, produce 3, the principal class will be one of them, and
if @ be another of them, ¢” will be the third; also ¢ and q* will belong to
the principal genus, and will appertain to the exponent 38. When the deter-
minant is regular, instead of the complete period of classes of the principal
genus, 1, C, C?,.. C"-1, we take the same series as far as the class 0"
exclusively ; when the determinant is irregular, we can always choose the
bases C,, C,, . . in such a manner that the period of one of them shall con-
tain @ and ¢’, and this period we similarly reduce to its third part by stop-
ping just before we come to ¢ or 9’. Employing these truncated periods,
instead of the complete ones, in the general expression for the properly pri-
mitive classes, we obtain an expression, which we shall call |K’|, representing
a third part of the properly primitive classes, and such that = x |K’| represents
all the improperly primitive classes.
119. Tabulation of Quadratic Forms,—In Crelle’s Journal, vol. Lx. p. 357,
Mr. Cayley has tabulated the classes of properly and improperly primitive
forms for every positive and negative determinant (except positive squares)
up to 100. The classes are represented by the simplest forms contained in
them+; the generic character of each class, and, for positive determinants,
the period of reduced forms (Art. 93) contained in it, are also given. The
* Gauss employs a class Q, producing C, by its duplication, both when one and when
two ambiguous classes are contained in the principal genus. The number of classes re-
quisite for the construction of the complete system of classes is therefore in either case,
since C, may be replaced by Q?,.
+ The principles employed by Gauss for the arrangement of the classes of a regular
determinant are extended in the text to irregular determinants. If the determinant have
x! uneven exponents of irregularity, the number of classes requisite for the construction
of the complete system of classes is x+-x’.
+ The simplest form contained in a ciass is that form which has the least first coefli-
cient of all forms contained in the class, and the least second coefficient of all forms con-
tained in the class and having the least first coefficient. Ifa choice presents itself between
two numbers differing only in sign, the positive number is preferred. In the case of an
ambiguous class of a positive determinant, the simplest ambiguous form contained in the
class is taken as its representative.
526 : REPORT—1862.,
arrangement of the genera and classes is in accordance with the construction
of Gauss, explained in the preceding articles; and the position of each class
in the arrangement is indicated by placing opposite to it, in a separate column,
the term to which it corresponds in the symbolic formula (such as |K| or 3 x |K})
which forms the type of the arrangement, To the two Tables of positive and
negative determinants Mr. Cayley has added a third, containing the thirteen
irregular negative determinants of the first thousand.
In a letter addressed to Schumacher, and dated May 17, 1841, Gauss
expresses a decided opinion of the uselessness of an extended tabulation of
quadratic forms. “If, without having seen M. Clausen’s Table, I have
formed a right conjecture as to its object, I shall not be able to express an
opinion in fayour of its being printed. If it is a canon of the classification
of binary forms for some thousand determinants, that is to say, if it is a
Table of the reduced forms contained in every class, I should not attach any
importance to its publication. You will see, on reference to the Disq. Arith.
p- 521 (note), that in the year 1800 I had made this computation for more
than four thousand determinants ” [viz. for the first three and tenth thou-
sands, for many hundreds here and there, and for many single determinants
besides, chosen for special reasons]; ‘‘ I have since extended it to many others ;
but I have never thought it was of any use to preserve these developments,
and I have only kept the final result for each determinant. For example, for the
determinant —11,921, 1 have not preserved the whole system, which would
certainly fill several pages *, but only the statement that there are 8 genera,
each containing 21 classes. Thus, all that I have kept is the simple state-
ment viii. 21, which in my own papers is expressed even more briefly. I
think it quite superfluous to preserve the system itself, and much more so to
print it, because (1) any one, after a little practice, can easily, without much
expenditure of time, compute for himself a Table of any particular determi-
nant, if he should happen to want it, especially when he has a means of
yerification in such a statement as vill. 21; (2) because the work has a cer-
tain charm of its own, so that it is a real pleasure to spend a quarter of an
hour in doing it for one’s self; and the more so, because (3) it is very seldom
that there is any occasion to do it....... My own abbreviated Table of the
number of genera and classes I have never published, principally because it
does not proceed uninterruptedly.” + Probably the third of Gauss’s three
reasons will commend itself most to mathematicians who do not possess his
extraordinary powers of computation. An abbreviated Table of the kind he
describes, extending from —10,000 to +10,000, would occupy only a very
limited space, and might be computed from Dirichlet’s formule for the
number of classes (see Art. 104), without constructing systems of repre-
sentative forms. But it would, perhaps, be desirable (nor would it increase
the bulk of the Table to any enormous extent) to give for each determinant
not only the number of genera, and of classes in each genus, but also the
elements necessary for the construction, by composition only, of a complete
system of all the classes. For this purpose it would not be necessary to
specify (by means of representative forms) more than 5 or 6 classes,’ in the
case of any determinant within the limits mentioned.
* Mr. Cayley’s Table of the first hundred negative determinants occupies about four
pages of Crelle’s Journal; the determimant —11,921 would occupy about one page,
+ Briefwechsel zwischen C. F. Gauss und H. C. Schumacher, yol. iv. p. 30.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 527
Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors (ante, pp. 1-81).
Apprennix I.—E#rrata.
(1) p. 35, December 8, Dundee. Column Appearance, &c. For A spear-
head-like crescent moon, &c. read A spearhead; like crescent moon, &c.
(2) p. 41, December 24, London. Column Direction, &c. Insert the words
Radiant point Aldebaran.
(3) p. 43, December 27, 8° 57" p.m. Colwmn Appearance, &c. For Track
ending, &c. read Track enduring, &c.
(4) p. 57, April 29, 11" 55™ p.m. Column Appearance, &e. Read thus—
Left no track. Brilliance vanished suddenly at b Lacertee. Remaining 12° of
the course light red (Mars at maximum robbed of his rays), very intermittent
and vacillating, died out, 2:3 seconds.
(5) p. 64, August 12,11" 9" p.w. Column Position, &e. Omit the words
short of the second.
(6) From five accounts of the meteor 1862, September 19, the following is
a calculation of its path :—
At London, after explosion overhead, the meteor proceeded a considerable
distance towards 69° W. of N.
At Nottingham the meteor passed sixty-three miles over London, seeking an
earth-point 42° W. from S$.
At Hay (South Wales) the meteor passed fifty-seven miles over London,
seeking an earth-point 70° E. from 8.
At Torquay the meteor passed 573 miles over London, seeking an earth-
point 9° K. from N.
At Hawkhurst the meteor passed forty-seven miles over London, seeking
an earth-point 66° W. from N.
An earth-point seven miles S.W. from Hereford satisfies the observations
in the following manner :—
London, 70° W. from N. (observed 69° W. from N.).
Nottingham, 46° W. from S. (observed 42° W. from 8.).
Hay, 70° E. from §. (observed 70° E. from S.).
‘Torquay, 14° E. from N. (observed 9° FE. from N.).
Hawkhurst, 62° W. from N. (observed 66° W. from N.).
The errors of observation being in no case greater than 5°, from the calculated
bearings. A ground-point so close to Hay sufficiently explains anomalies in
the observation at that place ; but its distance is on the other hand 120 miles
from London, where the meteor appears to have been fifty-six miles above the
earth. The path of the meteor was therefore inclined downwards, from 25°
above the horizon towards 70° W. of N. A visible flight of 115 miles, from
eighty-three miles over Canterbury to thirty-three miles over Oxford, per-
formed in three to four seconds of time, is the result obtained from the
comparison of these observations.
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NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
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NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
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MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
MatTHEMATICS.
Address by G. G. Stoxns, M.A., F.RS. Sc., Lucasian Professor of
Mathematics in the University of Cambridge.
{r has been customary for some years, in opening the business of the Section, for
the President to say a few words respecting the object of our meetings. In this Sec-
tion, more perhaps than in any other, we have frequently to deal with subjects of
a very abstract character, which in many cases can be mastered only by patient
study, at leisure, of what has been written. The question may not unnaturally be
asked—If investigations of this kind can best be followed by quiet study in one’s
own room, what is the use of bringing them forward in a sectional meeting at all?
I believe that good may be done by public mention, in a meeting like the present,
of even somewhat abstract investigations; but whether good is thus done, or the
audience are merely wearied to no purpose, depends upon the judiciousness of the
person by whom the investigation is brought forward. It must be remembered that
minute details cannot be Slowed in an exposition vird voce; they must be studied
at leisure ; and the aim of an author should be to present the broad leading ideas
of his research, and the principal conclusions at which he has arrived, clearly and
briefly before the Section. It is then possible to discuss the subject-matter; to
offer suggestions of new lines of experiment, or new combinations of ideas; and
such discussions and suggestions, it seems to me, are among the most import-—
ant business of a meeting such as this, Any one who has worked in concert
with another zealously engaged in the same research must have felt the benefit
arising from the mutual interchange of ideas between two different minds. Sug-
gestions struck out by one call up new trains of thought and fructify in the mind
of another; whereas they might haye remained barren and unfruitful in the mind
of the original suggester. The benefit of cooperation is by no means confined to
the one bed out, according to a preconcerted plan, of a research involving labour
rather than invention; it is felt in a most delightful form in the procecution of
original investigations. In a meeting like the present, we have the benefit of the
mutual suggestions, not of two, but of many persons, whose minds are directed to
the same object. The number of papers already in the hands of your Secretaries
shows that there will be no lack of matter in this Section: the difficulty will rather,
I apprehend, be to get through the business before us in the time prescribed. On
this account the Section will, I hope, bear with me if I should sometimes feel my-
self compelled, in justice to the authors of papers which are placed later on our
lists, to cut short reusetons which otherwise might have been further prolonged
with some interest.
1862. 1:
2 REPORT—1862.
On Capillary Attraction. By the Rey. F. Basnrortu, B.D.
The theories of capillary action brought forward by Laplace, Young, and Poisson
lead to the same form of differential equation to the free surface of a drop of fluid.
During the last fifty years many attempts have been made to compare theory and
experiment, but the results arrived at seem to be quite unsatisfactory. The expe-
riments have generally been made by measuring the heights to which fluids rose
in capillary tubes. The smaller the diameter of the tube, the greater is the
elevation or depression of a fluid; but at the same time it becomes more difficult
to secure a bore of a perfectly circular section and a surface perfectly clean. Laplace
attempted to test his theory by comparing the measured thickness of large drops of
mercury with their theoretical thickness obtained by an approximate solution of his
differential equation.
After duly considering all the circumstances of the case, it appeared to the author
that the forms assumed by drops of fluid, of small or moderate size, afforded the
best means for testing the theory of capillary action. The drops of fluid may rest
on horizontal planes which they do not wet, or they may hang below horizontal
surfaces which they do wet. Extensive tables have been calculated, which give
the exact theoretical forms of all drops of fluid resting upon horizontal planes, as
mercury on glass, within the limits of size to which it seems desirable to restrict
experiments.
n order to determine the exact forms of drops of fluid, a microscope has been
mounted so that it can be moved horizontally or vertically by micrometer screws
provided with divided heads. In th2 focus of the eyepiece are two parallel hori-
zontal and two parallel vertical lines, .orming by their intersections a small square
in the centre. The lines are purposely made rather thick in order that they may
be seen without difficulty, and before reading off the screw-head divisions, care
is taken to cause the image of the outline of the drop to pass through the middle
point of the square caused by the intersection of the cross lines. Thus the co-
ordinates are obtained of as many "a as may be thought necessary, and after-
wards the form of a section of the drop, passing through the axis of its figure, may
be drawn by a scale of equal parts. By trial, a theoretical form must be fitted to
this experimental form, using the tables. When this is satisfactorily accomplished,
the value of Laplace’s a is known, as well as the value of 6, the radius of curvature
at the vertex: a determines the theoretical form of the drop, and 0 its size.
Only one or two satisfactory measurements have been made at present, but suffi-
cient has been done to show that such values may be assigned to the constants as
to secure a most exact agreement of the theoretical with the experimental form of
the free surface of a drop of fluid resting on a horizontal plane. It remains to he
seen whether a is constant for drops of all sizes of the same fluid at the same tem-
perature. If experiment be found to agree with theory, then the effect of a variation
of temperature upon a must be determined.
' This method of proceeding affords the means of determining with great accuracy
the angle of contact, because the tables calculated from theory give the coordi-
nates for points, where the inclination of the tangent to the horizon is known, at
intervals of one degree, and parts of a degree can be calculated for by proportional
arts.
If the experiments on mercury appear to confirm theory, it will be desirable to
complete the tables for the forms of pendent drops of fluid, because it will be very
difficult, if not impossible, to find supporting planes which such fluids as oils, water,
spirit of wine, &c. do not wet or adhere to. In such case it appears to be possible
to make use of pendent drops alone for the determination of a. When a has been
determined for each of two fluids, as spirit of wine and oil, it will be desirable to
examine the mutual action at their common surfaces, which may be done by
measuring the forms of drops of one fluid immersed in a bath of the other fluid con-
tained in a cell having parallel and transparent vertical sides and horizontal planes
at the top and bottom.
_ Since the differential equations of Laplace and Poisson are the same in form, it
‘is evident that the above measurements for a single fluid cannot decide the difference
between them. It seems, however, manifest that the constitution of the surface
is very different from the interior of a fluid, But the thiclmess of this surface of
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3
supposed variable density is so small as to be insensible. Since there is a certain
elastic force of vapour in contact with its fluid corresponding to every temperature,
may we not assume that the density of this indefinitely thin envelope may vary
from the density of the fluid inside to the density of the vapour outside ?
On the Differential Equations of Dynamics. By Professor Boots, F.R.S.
Referring to the reduction, by Hamilton and Jacobi, of the solution of the dyna-
mical equations to that of a single non-linear partial differential equation of the first
order, and to that, by Jacobi, of the latter to the solution of certain systems of
linear partial differential equations of the first order,—the author showed, Ist, how,
from an integral of one equation of any such system, a common integral of all the
equations of the system could, when a certain condition dependent upon the pro-
perties of symmetrical gauche determinants is satisfied, be deduced by the solution
of a single ordinary differential equation of the first order susceptible of being made
integrable by means of a factor; 2ndly, how the common integral could be found
when this condition was not satisfied.
On an Instrument for describing Geometrical Curves ; invented by H. Jounston,
described and exhibited by the Rev. Dr. Boorn, F.R.S.
This instrument supplies a want which has been felt by architects and sculptors.
By its help, geometrical spirals of various orders may be described with as much
manual facility as a circle may be drawn on paper by a common compass.
On a Certain Curve of the Fourth Order. By A. Caxuny, F.R.S.
The curve in question is the locus of the centres of the conics which pass
through three given points and touch a given line; if the equations of the sides of
the triangle formed by the three points are z=0, y=0, z=0, these coordinates being
such that 2+-y+2=0 is the equation of the line infinity, and if ar+fy+yz=0be
the equation of the given Jine, then (as is known) the equation of the curve is
Vax (y+2—2) + V By GF2—y) + Veet y—)=0.
The special object of the communication was to exhibit the form of the curve in
the case where the line cuts the triangle, and to point out the correspondence of the
positions of the centre upon the curve, and the point of contact on the given line.
On the Representation of a Curve in Space by means of a Cone and Monoid
Surface. By A. Carter, £.R.S,.
The author gave a short account of his researches recently published in the
‘Comptes Rendus.’ The difficulty as to the representation of a curve in space
is, that such a curve is not in general the complete intersection of two surfaces ;
any two surfaces passing through the curve intersect not only in the curve itself,
but in a certain companion curve, which cannot be got rid of; this companion curve
is in the proposed mode of representation reduced to the simplest form, viz. that
of a system of lines passing through one and the same point. The two surfaces
employed for the representation of a curve of the mth order are, a cone of the nth order
haying for its vertex an arbitrary point (say the point r=0, y=0, s=0), and a monoid
surface with the same vertex, viz. a surface the equation whereof is of the form
Qw—P=0, P and Q being homogeneous functions of (x, y, 2) of the degrees p and
p—lrespectively (where p is at most=x—1). The monoid surface contains upon
it p (p—1) lines given by the equations (P=0, Q=0); and the cone passing through
n( p—1) of these lines (if, as above supposed, p >> n—1, this implies that some of
these lines are multiple lines of the cone), the monoid surface will besides intersect
the cone in a curve of the th order,
On the Curvature of the Margins of Leaves with reference to thei Growth.
By W. Esson, M.A.
Leaves have a right and left margin on each side of their axis, These margins
+
A REPORT—1862.
are of different lengths, but of the same shape. The length differs owing to circum-
stances of growth, such as the left margin being next the stem or next a leaflet,
forming with it a composite leaf. The curvature of the margin has been ascertained
im many instances to be that of the reciprocal spiral r=5): In some leaves
the pole of curvature lies on the axis, in others in the body of the leaf, and in others
entirely outside the leaf. If the leaflets of a composite leaf have this curvature,
their extreme points lie on a reciprocal spiral (e. g. the horse-chestnut leaf). It is
probable that more irregular leaves have margins which are merely modifications
of the reciprocal spiral or other spirals, such as the Lituus ro ‘
The growth of a margin may be represented by increments of an are of the
spiral cut off by an increasing chord or radius vector. By this means may be
accurately determined the growth of a leaf under given circumstances of soil, tem-
perature, and moisture. It is only necessary to register the amount of angular
rotation of the radius vector of the spiral.
Quaternion Proof of a Theorem of Reciprocity of Curves in Space.
By Sir Wit11am Rowan Hamitron, LL.D. sc.
Let ¢ and y be any two vector functions of a scalar variable, and ¢',y', 6", p"
their derived functions, of the first and second orders. Then each of the two
systems of equations, in which c is a scalar constant, 4
(1).... Sép=e, Sp'p=0, Sp"y=0,
(2) se ee Syo=c, Sy'o=0, Sy"o=0,
or each of the two vector expressions,
BY. rea bistaex ees AY) sa gis Nt eo
| ORE tae (os SEE
includes the other.
If then, from any assumed origin, there be drawn lines to represent the recipro-
cals of the perpendiculars from that point on the osculating planes to a first curve
of double curvature, those lines will terminate on a second curve, from which we
can return to the first by a precisely similar process of construction.
And instead of thus taking the reciprocal of a curve with respect to a sphere, we
may take it with respect to any surface of the second order, as is probably well
lnown to geometers, although the author was lately led to perceive it for himself
by the very simple analysis given above.
On a certain Class of Linea\Differential Equations.
By the Rev. Rosert Harrey, F.R.A.S.
TuEorEM,—From any algebraic equation of the degree n, whereof the coefficients
are functions of a variable, there may be derived a linear differential equation of the
order n—1, which will be satisfied by any one of the roots of the given algebraic equa-
tion. The differential equation so satisfied is called, with respect to the algebraic
equation, its “ differential resolvent.”’ The connexion of this theorem, which is due
to Mr. Cockle, with a certain general process for the solution of algebraic equations,
led the author to consider its application to the two following trinomial forms, viz.
Yany+(NH=DeHO. cee ween es eee GC)
y"—ny"—14+(n—1)2=0, ...... leds OPA ee)
to either of which any equation of the mth degree, when x is not greater than 5,
can, by the aid of equations of inferior degrees, be reduced. The several differential
resolyents for the successive cases n=2, 3, 4, 5 were calculated; and by induction
the general differential resolvents were formed. © Following Professor Boole’s
symbolical process and using the ordinary factorial notation, that is to say, repre-
senting
(n) (n—1) (2-2)... (w—7r+1)
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5
by [n]", the differential resolvent of (I.) was found to take the form
a ad n—-1,,_¢,—1)n-1[ _%_, @ _ 2n—1)*-F n-th,
n Lez | 1 as ) a Ee aI xv y=[1] [m 1] Lees (A)
In like manner, the differential resolvent of (II.) was found to be
n—1 d2-1 d d AEA ig n-1
n [@ Dee | y—(n—1) (na —n—1) na —2 | gy=[n—1] aie,» (B)
Every differential resolvent may be regarded under two distinct aspects. It may
be considered either, first, as giving in its complete integration the solution of the
algebraic equation from which it has been derived; or, secondly, as itself solvable
by means of that equation. In the first aspect the author has considered the
differential equation (A) in a paper entitled “ On the Theory of the Transcendental
Solution of Algebraic Equations,” just published in the ‘Quarterly Journal of Pure
and.Applied Mathematics,’ No. 20. In the second aspect every differential resol--
vent of an order: higher than the second gives us, at least when the dexter of its
defining equation vanishes, a new primary form, that is to say, a form not recognized
as primary in Professor Boole’s theory. And in certain cases in which the dexter
does not vanish, a comparatively easy transformation will rid the equation of the
dexter term, and the resulting differential equation will be of a new primary form.
On the Volumes of Pedal Surfaces. By T, A. Hirst, F.2B.S,
The pedal surface being the locus of the feet of perpendiculars let fall from any
point in space, the pedal origin, upon all the tangent planes of a given fixed primi-
tive surface, will, of course, vary in form as well as in magnitude with the position
of its origin. If, however, the volume of the pedal be considered as identical with
that of the space swept by the perpendicular, as the tangent plane assumes all pos-
sible positions,—a definition which will apply to unclosed as well as to closed
pedals,—the following two general theorems may be enunciated:—1l. Whatever
may be the nature of the primitive surface, the origins of pedals of the same
volume are, in general, situated on a surface of the third order. 2. The primitive
surface being closed, but in other respects perfectly arbitrary, the origins of pedals
of constant volume lie on a surface of the second order; and the entire series of -
such surfaces constitutes a system of concentric, similar, and similarly-placed qua-
drics, the common centre of all being the origin of the pedal of least volume.
On the Exact Form and Motion of Waves at and near the Surface of Deep Water.
By Wri11am Joun Macevorn Ranuine, C.L., LL.D., F.RASS. L. & E. §e.
The following is a summary of the nature and results of a mathematical inyesti-
gation, the details of which have been communicated to the Royal Society.
The investigations of the Astronomer Royal and of Mr. Stokes on the question
of straight-crested parallel waves in a liquid proceed by approximation, and are
based on the supposition that the displacements of the particles are small compared
with the length of a wave. Hence it has been legitimately inferred that the results
of those investigations, when applied to waves in which the displacements are con-
siderable as compared with the length of wave, are only approximate.
In the present paper the author proves that one of those results—viz. that in very
deep water the particles move with a uniform angular velocity in vertical circles
whose radii diminish in geometrical progression with increased depth, and conse-
quently that surfaces of equal pressure, including the upper surface, are trochoidal—
is an exact solution for all possible displacements, how great soever.
The trochoidal form of waves was first explicitly described by Mr. Scott Russell ;
but no demonstration of its exactly fulfilling the cinematical and dynamical condi-
tions of the question has yet been published, so far as the author knows.
In ‘A Manual of Applied Mechanics’ (first published in 1858), the author
stated that the theory of rolling waves might be deduced from that of the positions
assumed by the surface of a mass of water revolving in a vertical plane about a
6 REPORT—1862.
horizontal axis; but as the theory of such wayes was foreign to the subject of the
book, he deferred until now the publication of the investigation on which that
statement was founded. ae
Having communicated some of the leading principles of that investigation to
My. William Froude in April 1862, the author was informed by that gentleman that
he had arrived independently at similar results by a similar pees although he had
not published them. The introduction of Proposition I. between Propositions I.
and III. is due to a suggestion by Mr. Froude.
The following is a summary of the leading results demonstrated in the paper :—
Proposition 1.—In a mass of gravitating liquid whose particles revolve uniformly
in vertical circles, a wavy surface of trochoidal profile fulfils the conditions of uni-
formity of pressure,—such trochoidal profile being generated by rolling, on the under
side of a horizontal straight line, a circle whose radius is equal to the height of a
conical pendulum that revolves in the same period with the eaters of liquid.
‘Proposition 11.—Let another surface of uniform pressure be conceived to exist
indefinitely near to the first surface: then if the first surface is a surface of con-
tinuity (that is, a surface always traversing identical particles), so also is the second
surface. (Those surfaces contain between them a continuous layer of liquid.)
Corollary—The surfaces of uniform pressure are identical with surfaces of con-
tinuity throughout the whole mass of liquid.
Proposition I1I.—The profile of the lower surface of the layer referred to in Pro-
position II. is a trochoid generated by a rolling circle of the same radius with that
which generates the upper surface ; and the tracing-arm of the second frochoid is
shorter than that of the first trochoid by a quantity bearing the same proportion to
the depth of the centre of the second rolling circle below the centre of the first
rolling circle, which the tracing-arm of the first rolling circle bears to the radius of
that circle.
Corollaries.—The profiles of the surfaces of uniform pressure and of continuity
form an indefinite series of trochoids, described by equal rolling circles, rolling with
equal speed below an indefinite series of horizontal straight lines.
The tracing-arms of those circles (each of which arms is the radius of the circular
orbits of the particles contained in the trochoidal surface which it traces) diminish
in geometrical progression with a uniform increase of the vertical depth at which
.the centre of the rolling circle is situated.
The preceding propositions agree with the existing theory, except that they are
more comprehensive, being applicable to large as well as to small displacements.
The following is new as an exact proposition, although partly anticipated by the
approximative researches of Mr. Stokes :—
PropositionTV.—The centres of the orbits of the particles in a given surface of equal
pressure stand at a higher level than the same particles do when the liquid is still,
by a height which is a third proportional to the diameter of the rolling circle and
the length of the tracing-arm (or radius of the orbits of the particles), and which is
equal to the height due to the velocity of revolution of the particles.
Corollaries.—The mechanical energy of a wave is half actual and half potential—
half being due to motion, and half to elevation.
The crests of the waves rise higher above the level of still water than their
hollows fall below it; and the difference between the elevation of the crest and the
depression of the hollow is double of the quantity mentioned in Proposition II.
The hydrostatic pressure at each’ individual particle during the waye-motion is
the same as if the liquid were still.’ *
In an Appendix to the paper is given’ the investigation of the problem, to find
approximately the amount of the pressure required to overcome the friction between
a trochoidal waye-surface and a wave-shaped solid in contact with it. The appli-
cation of the result of this investigation to the resistance of ships was explained
in a paper read to the British Association in 1861, and published in various
engineering journals in October of that year. The following is the most conve-
nient of the formule arrived at:—Let w be the heaviness of the liquid; f the
coefficient of friction; gy gravity; v the velocity of advance of the solid; L its
length, being that of a wave; 2 the breadth of the surface of contact of the solid and
liquid; 8 the greatest angle of obliquity of that surface to the direction of advance
a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 7
of the solid; P the force required to overcome the friction; then
4 ase
poly Lz (144sin? B-+sin4 8).
In ordinary cases, the value of f for water sliding over painted iron is 0036. The
quantity Is z (144 sin? 6+ sin‘ 8) is what has been called the “ augmented surface,”
In practice, sin‘ 6 may in general be neglected, being so small as to be unimportant.
Some Account of Recent Discoveries made in the Calculus of Symbols.
By W. H. L. Rosser, A.B.
Before the publication of Professor Boole’s memoir on a “General Method in
Analysis,” which appeared in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ for 1844, those
mathematicians who adopted the symbolical methods suggested by the researches
of Lagrange and Laplace, confined themselves to the use of commutative symbols,
and the science was consequently very limited in its applications. It received a
fresh impulse from the very remarkable memoir of Professor Boole mentioned above,
in which an algebra of non-commutative symbols was invented and applied to the
integration of a large class of linear differential equations. It occurred to the author
that the proper method of extending the calculus was to construct systems of
multiplication and division for functions of non-commutative symbols. This he
Pitingly effected in his memoir published in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’
for 1861. “As the symbols are non-commutative, two distinct systems of multi-
— and division, internal and external, arise for each class of symbols em-
oyed.
q Let p and r be two symbols combining according to the law
F (n). pm=pmf (x-+m),
where f (7) is any function of (m), then he gave, in the memoir alluded to, equa-
tions to determine the conditions that a symbolical function such as
pr dy (m) +p" bya (m) +P” bn—a (a) + &e. +h (m7)
may be divisible internally and externally without a remainder by the symbolical
function py, (7)+, (7), where
Pn (7) Pr—r (7); Pn—a (F) +++ Po (m7), Pr (w) and y, (7)
are all rational functions of (z), or, in other words, that py, (+) +, (7) may be an
internal or external factor of p* (m)+p"—' hy _1(7)+ &e., and also an equa-
tion to determine the condition that y, (p) «7+ (p) may be an internal factor of
h: (p) +m +h. (p) m+, (p) «m+ (p):
He then gave some theorems for the transformation of certain functions of these
symbols, which lead to some very curious theorems in successive differentiation : he
has treated this part of the subject more fully in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’
for April 1862. In a subsequent part of his paper in the ‘Philosophical Transac-
tions,’ he established binomial and multinomial theorems for these symbols, by
showing how to expand
(p?+ pO ())” and (p%+p*—? 8, (7)+p*? 6, (7) + ....)” in terms of (p) and (7).
At the end of the paper he gave some methods for solving differential equations
by a process analogous to the “Method of Divisors” in the theory of algebraical
equations. In his second memoir “On the Calculus of Symbols,” published in
the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1862, he has shown how we may find the
highest common internal divisor of functions of non-commutative symbols, and
also how we may resolve them in all possible cases into two equal factors, a process
analogous to that for extracting the square root in common algebra. He then in-
vestigated the theory of multiplication in this calculus more generally. He gave a
rule to find the symbolical coefficient of p™ in a continued product of the form
(p+, ()) (p45 (m)) (p+4, (7) vvsseees (P4On (H)):
After this he resumed the consideration of the binomial and multinomial theorems
explained in the former memoir, He gave the numerical calculation of the coefti-~
8 REPORT—1862.
cients of the general term of the binomial theorem, as explained in the first memoir.
In this the expansion was effected in terms of p and 7, but we may suppose the
expansion effected in terms of (p) alone. In that case the coefficient of the general
term would be symbolical, and a function of (7). He had calculated its value in the
memoir, and also the value of the corresponding general symbolical coefficient in
the multinomial theorem supposed expanded in powers of p alone. He concluded
the paper by giving a method to expand the reciprocal binomial (7?+ 6 (p) dz)” in
terms of (7). The general cases of division yet remained to be worked. This has
been effected by Mr. Spottiswoode in a very able and beautiful paper published in
the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ for 1862. He has there given in full the division of
gn (p) a" + pn—1 (p) 7"! +hn—2(p) 7” 7 +.&C, «+ +, (p)
internally and externally by W, (p) 7+, (p); secondly, the division of
Pn (P)™ +Pn—1(p) + Pn—a (p) "bese + tho (P)
internally and externally by
Ym (p) + m_1 (p) + Yn—o (p): 7-3-4. os Wo (p) 5
thirdly, the division of
p” Pn (7) +p"—" Pay (m)+p"~" bn» (m)+. 3" +, (7)
internally and externally by
OPV (+P n—1 (7) +p” Wma (4) ++ +++ Yo (m7)
He has fully investigated the conditions that the divisor in each case may be an
internal or external factor of the dividend, and his results, which are expressed by
means of determinants, will be found extremely interesting. The author in conclu-
sion states that he believes the form in which the calculus now stands will be per-
manent, and that subsequent improvements will be very much based on extending
sees of multiplication and division to other symbolical expressions, in which
the laws of symbolical combination are different from those here assumed,
On some Models of Sections of Cubes. By C. M. Wrtttcn.
These were carefully-executed models, designed to illustrate certain simple pro-
positions in solid geometry relative to the volumes, &c. of solids formed by the
section of a cube by planes. The author wishes, at the same time, to place on
record the simple fraction 444, which gives an extremely close approximation to the
side of a square equal in area to a circle of which the diameter is unity.
ASTRONOMY.
Some Cosmogonical Speculations. By Isaac Asun, VB.
The author considered that the present planiform condition of the system dis-
proved the common view that it had formerly been a gaseous sphere, and proved
that it had originally been a liquid plane, as Batarnts rings are at present; nor yet
in a heated condition, since he thought that, though capable of transformation,
heat could no more be absolutely Jost than its equivalent, motion. The planets had,
doubtless, been originally molten; but this heat the author ascribed to the collision
of particles, during their formation, from the liquid plane described. This formation
he ascribed to the development of a centre of attraction in the liquid plane, and
showed how, in a revolving plane, a diurnal rotation from west to east might hence
be originated, the particles so attracted acting as a mechanical “couple” of forces
on the planet during its formation. From the distance between the interior and
exterior planets, he inferred the former existence of two rings, as in the system of
Saturn, the asteroids being probably formed from small independent portions of
matter between these rings. He considered that the planets also first existed in-
dividually as planes, basing this view on the uniformity of plane observed in the
— —
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9
orbits of the satellites, The satellites themselves he considered to have been
formed from portions of matter left behind during the contraction into a globe of
such a plane, which had at first occupied the whole space included within the pre-
sent orbits of the satellites. This view of the formation of the satellites he based
on the fact that the period of diurnal rotation in each of them corresponded with
the period of its revolution round its primary, which he showed would be the case
with any body whatever, if so left behind or lifted off a planet.
The author then discussed the chemical changes that would ensue on the surface
of the earth after it had assumed the globular form. Oxidization of its metallic
constituents would absorb a vast proportion of its gaseous matter, and the forma-
tion of water would remove a great deal in addition. Hence the absence of atmo-
sphere or water on the moon’s surface might be accounted for, as she would carry
oif with her only j;th portion of the gaseous elements of the planet, and her sur-
face exposed to the chemical action of those elements would be much more than
sth that of the earth. Water also might be quite absorbed on her surface in the
formation of hydrates of the alkaline and earthy bases.
On the earth, sodium would unite with chlorine, and common salt would result;
and to the large amount of salt so formed the author ascribed the saltness of the
ocean; rivers could only carry to the sea salt obtained from soil originally deposited
by the ocean, and which must therefore have derived its salt from the sea. This
rocess must be still going on, and hence Dr. Ashe inferred that the sea could never
ave become salt, or be now increasing in saltness, from that cause; hence he dis-
sented from that view, which was the one universally put forward by geologists,
On a Group of Lunar Craters imperfectly represented in Lunar Maps.
By W. R. Bret, FLAS.
One of the objects of lunar maps should undoubtedly be such a representation of
the forms of the irregularities of the moon’s surface, that a student may readily, at
the switable epochs, ascertain the general outlines and configurations of the parts as hs
he is studying, so as to be certain that he has not misapprehended either the position
or form of any particular portion of the lunar surface.
A map constructed for a given epoch, at the full for instance, that shall give those
features by which every crater, mountain-chain, and plain may be instantly recog-
nized, is at the present moment a desideratum. Indeed, on such a map some craters
would not find place, A certain angle of illumination is necessary to bring out
saliently the distinguishing features of a crater or mountain-chain; and a series of
maps that would exhibit each to the best advantage, must include as many distinct
epochs of illumination in their construction as there are meridians encircling the
lunar globe.
One of the greatest monuments of the skill and industry characterizing astrono-
mical science is undoubtedly Beer and Méidler’s large map of the Moon. To the
student of selenography it is invaluable; his progress would be slow without it.
The writer of this paper cannot, however, agree with Crampton “that every
mountain and every valley, every promontory and every defile on the moon’s
surface, finds its representative on that map.” On the contrary, in his examination
of the lunar surface, he has met with several instances of features not recorded
thereon, a recent instance of which forms the subject of the present paper.
In the neighbourhood of a fine chain of craters that come into sunlight from ten
to thirteen days of the moon’s age, and are well seen under the evening illumination
from twenty-one to twenty-four days of the moon’s age, lying in the northern regions
of the moon from 57° to 74° N. Lat., and from 25° to 50° J E Long., and designated
Philolaus, Anaximenes, and Anaximander, with an unnamed crater between Anaxi-
menes and Anaximander, are three crater-form depressions, of which there are nume-
rous examples on the moon’s surface,—the usual characteristics being, Ist, an
extensive floor, exhibiting a variety of surface in different specimens, often pierced
with small craters and diversified with hills; 2nd, a more or less perfect rampart,
here and there pierced with craters, and rising into elevated peaks, so that the entire
depression is readily recognized as a distinct formation, completely separated from
its surrounding neighbours. Two such depressions, lying nearly in the same
meridian, and connected by a table-land or plateau, are very imperfectly, if at all,
10 REPORT—1862.
represented by the German selenographers. The sketch accompanying this com-
munication, taken at Hartwell, on Sept. 18, 1862, under the evening illumination,
exhibits the general characters of the northern depression, viz. a floor pierced by a
line of eruption (a common feature in several lunar forms), a nearly continuous
rampart on the east and west sides, rising into a considerable mountain mass at the
north angle marked B by Beer and Midler, pierced by the crater Horrebow, and
connected by the steep rocks that form the north boundary of the plateau. It is
proposed, in accordance with a suggestion by Dr. Lee, to designate this depression
“ Herschel II.”
Beer and Midler thus describe the table-land :—
“ South-easterly of Horrebow is a large plateau, fourteen German miles broad,
and from twenty to twenty-five German miles long, appearing less from foreshort-
ening. The western border stretches from the western corner of Horrebow to that
of Pythagoras, and is rather steep. An offshoot from the same stretches to Anaxi-
mander. The southern boundary is denoted by the crater Horrebow B (+58° 9’ Lat.,
and —42° 0’ Long.), the northern boundary by two craters e and f Pythagoras. It
rises on the east, in three great steep mountains of a very dark colour, straight up
to the plateau, and only faint traces extend from thence still further towards the east.
The most southerly of these three mountains is 919 toises high, while all three of the
mountains appear to be exactly similar to each other in height, form, and colour.
“The surface of the plateau itself has, besides several craters,—among which
Horrebow A (+58°40' Lat., and —45° 30’ Long.), 2°67 German miles in diameter, is
the largest, deepest, and brightest,—only a few scarcely perceptible ridges, and may
accordingly be considered as an actual level. But whether this landscape, containing
nearly 200 square German miles, is to be distinctly recognized as one connected
whole, depends very much upon illumination and libration.”
It is proposed to designate this table-land “ Robinson,” in honour of the
Astronomer of Armagh.
The following description of the same table-land is taken from the author's
observations, dated London, 1862, March 12, 6" to 10" 30" G. M. T., moon’s age
12413, morning illumination. Instrument employed, the Royal Astronomical
Society's Sheepshanks telescope No. 5, aperture 2°75 inch.
“ South of the crater or depression Herschel II. is another, well defined, but not
so large. Between the two is a table-land, in which at least five craters have been
opened up. Two are ina line with Horrebow ; both are given by Beer and Midler ;
the northern one is marked B [Horrebow B], the southern is undesignated. The
principal crater in this table-Iand is marked A by Beer and Midler [Horrebow Ali
the three form a triangle: the two remaining craters are near together, and nearly
east of A; the largest is marked d by Beer and Midler, the othere. All the craters
are shown on the map. _[ Note.—The crater d is referred to in the foregoing trans-
lation as f Pythagoras; Beer and Midler thus speak of it :—“ Through an oversight,
the lettering Pythagoras d occurs twice on our map; once for a slightly depressed
crater on the edge of the previously-described plateau.” ]
“The table-land lies nearly in the direction of the meridian: the mountains on
the north slope, or rather their rugged and precipitous slopes, dip towards the large
crater Herschel II.; while those on the south Fthe three dark mountains before
mentioned] dip towards the other and smaller crater, which it is proposed to
designate ‘South.’ On the west the table-land abuts on the border of the Mare
Frigoris, while on the east it extends to some mountain-ranges beyond Anaxi-
mander.”
[The reader will notice a discrepancy in the descriptions as regards the points
of the lunar horizon. It was thought better to leave each description as given
by the writers, rather than attempt a conversion of them; especially as future
observers can decide upon which they will adopt, consistent with the principles
of lunar topography.
The form of fis table-land before described is irregular. In the sketch it appears
to be confined to the area between Herschel II. and “ South,” and this is the most
conspicuous portion of it; but on the night of the 31st of January, 1863, under the
morning illumination, it was seen to extend to the north of a crater then coming into
sunlight eastward of “South,” which it is proposed to designate “ Babbage.” A
ue =
ea oe
a
Cas
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ll
chain of mountains, connecting “ Babbage ” with Anaximander, forms the eastern
boundary of the table-land. Beer and Midler have leftits boundaries undetermined,
and further observations are necessary to mark them out with precision.
Eye-sketch of a chain of Lunar craters, with three large unnamed and unrepresented craters,
taken at Hartwell on the morning of Sept. 18, 1862.
I. Philolaus (Riccioli). A ringed mountain.
If. Anaximenes (Riccioli). A ringed mountain.
Til. An unnamed crater on Beer and Midler’s map. It is marked “ Sommering”’
by Le Couturier. Beer and Midler have another “Sommering” near the centre of
the disk.
IV. Anaximander (Riccioli). The ring of this crater is imperfect, and requires
further observation to define its outline accurately. Between it and V there is a
well-marked mountain, besides other interesting features.
V. Herschel I. (Birt). An extensive depression of the character of a walled
plain, with a nearly perfect ring not shown by Beer and Madler, who describe the
region between Horrebow, Anaximander, and Fontenelle as an exceedingly rich
crater country ; the principal part consisting of the region of Herschel II.
The following features are common to the eye-sketch and Map :—
B. A high mountain mass marked Anaximander B by Beer and Madler. It
really forms the north angle of the wall of the large depression Herschel I.
e. A mountain mass forming the N.W. angle of the ring of Herschel I.
f. A crater exterior to Herschel IT.
c,d. Two craters in the line of eruption that crosses Herschel II. in a curvi-
linear direction.
The eye-sketch shows the general direction of this eruptive line from the portion
of the ring that is absent to a crater east of Horrebow(X). It is not shown on the
German map.
VI. The table-land “ Robinson ” (Birt).
A, B, and C. Craters on the table-land.
E. A steep mountain “steppe” on the south, not shown in the sketch,
dipping to the depression “South.” It contains the three dark mountains of
Beer and Midler.
F. A steep mountain “steppe” on the north, dipping to Herschel I.
E and F were observed and figured by Schroter in his ‘Selenotopographische
Fragmente,’ T. xxvi. fig. 1.
VII. A depression south of the table-land “ Robinson.” Proposed name “ South ”
irt). The central crater D is shown by Beer and Madler.
VII. Another depression eastward of “South,” and between it and Pythagoras.
The crater A on Beer and Médler’s map is really nearer the west border than shown
in the eye-sketch. Proposed name “ Babbage” (Birt).
Schroter observed this walled plain. Figures of it, with the interior crater A
close to the western edge, are given in T, xxvi. (figs. 1 and 2) of his ‘Selenotopo-
graphische Fragmente.’ It would appear that he designated it “ Pythagoras,” the
crater now bearing that name being termed Pythagoras borealis, By far the most
suitable name for the large crater with the central mountain is that on the large
12 REPORT—1862,
German map, “Pythagoras ;” while to prevent misapprehension as to the western
walled plain with the included crater, and to distinguish it from the eastern crater,
it is proposed to call it “ Babbage.”
Ix. Pythagoras (Riccioli), The largest and most magnificent crater in this part
of the moon, showing itself as a conspicuous object with its central mountain, when
nearly the whole of the previously-described craters and walled plains are lost
to view.
X. Horrebow (Schroter). This crater, which pierces the S.W. angle of the rim of
Herschel, has hitherto been treated as being independent of any other formation.
Schroter, who named it, figured it in its proper position at the west of the mountains
F, and he gives (see T. xxvi. fig. 1, above referred to) the chain of mountains,
omitted by Beer and Madler, forming the continuation of the rim from the steep
mountains F to the rim of Anaximander, where he gives a small crater shown in
the eye-sketch. On the other hand, Schroter has omitted the western rim extending
northwards from Horrebow, which is given by Beer and Midler. Horrebow is
clearly a part of Herschel II.
Schroter does not appear to have recognized or figured “ South.”
On the Augmentation of the Apparent Diameter of a Body by its Atmospheric
Refraction. By the Rev. Professor Cuatuis, M.A., F.RS., F.RAS.
For reasons given in another communication, it was assumed that atmospheres
generally have definite boundaries at which their densities have small but finite
values. Two cases of refraction were considered: in the one, the curvature of the
course of a ray through the atmosphere was assumed to be always less than that
of the globe it surrounds; and in the other, the curvature of the globe might be
the greater. The former is known to be the case with the earth’s atmosphere ; and
it was supposed that, a fortiori, this must be the case with respect to any atmo-
pape the moon may be supposed to have. On this supposition it was shown that
the apparent diameter of the moon, as ascertained by measurement, would be greater
than that inferred from the observation of an occultation of a star, because, by reason
of the refraction of its atmosphere, the star would disappear and reappear when
the line of vision was within the moon’s apparent boundary. The same result
would be obtained from a solar eclipse. It was stated that, by actual comparisons
of the two kinds of determinations, such an excess to the amount of from 6” to 8”
was found. This difference may reasonably be attributed to the existence of a lunar
atmosphere of very small magnitude and density. The author also stated that
from this result there would be reason to expect, in a solar eclipse, that a slender
band of the sun’s disk immediately contiguous to the moon’s border would be some-
what brighter than the other parts, and advised that especial attention should be
directed to this point on the next occurrence of a solar eclipse. The case in which
the curvature of the path of the ray is greater than that of the globe was assumed
to be that of the sun’s atmosphere; and it was shown, on this supposition, that all
objects seen by rays which come from the sun’s periphery are brought by the re-
fraction to the level of the boundary of the atmos fs
from objects on the surface of the interior globe, or from clouds supposed to be sus-
pended in the atmosphere. Accordingly, the contour of the sun should appear
quite continuous, and the augmentation of ba ik semidiameter will be equal to
the angle subtended at the earth by the whole height of the atmosphere. The
apparent diameters of the planets will, for like reasons, be augmented to a certain
amount by their atmospheric refractions; and on account of the great distances of
these bodies from the earth, the eclipse of a satellite will take place as soon as the
visual ray is bent by the interposition of the atmosphere.
On the Zodiacal Light, and on Shooting-Stars.
By the Rev. Professor Cuatuis, M.A., F.RS., F.RAS.
_ The phenomena of the zodiacal light, as gathered from observations made both
in northern and in southern latitudes, were stated to be as follows. As seen in north
latitudes, it appears in the West after the departure of twilight, as a very faint light,
ere, whether they proceeded ~
|
}
:
7a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 18
stretching along the ecliptic, about 10° broad at its base in the horizon, and coming
to an apex at an altitude of from 40° to 50°. It is most perceptible in the West in
the months of February and March, at which time its apex is near the Pleiades.
Similar appearances are presented in the morning before sunrise in the East in the
months of August and September. The light seen in the autumn lies in the same
direction from the sun as that seen in the spring. In the southern hemisphere the
appearances are strictly analogous, but the times and positions of maximum visi-
bility are, the evenings in autumn in the West, and the mornings in spring in the
East. The portion best seen in the southern hemisphere lies in the opposite direction
from the sun to that which is best seen in the northern hemisphere. The portion
seen, and the degree of visibility, depend on the inclination to the horizon of the
part of the ecliptic along which the light*stretches. The greater the inclination
the better it is seen. At the December solstice opposite portions haye been seen
in the northern hemisphere, one in the morning and the other in the evening; and
in the southern hemisphere opposite portions have been similarly seen at the June
solstice. At these seasons the ecliptic is inclined at large and equal angles to the
horizon at equal intervals before sunrise and after sunset. The southern observa-
tions, from which these inferences are drawn, are those made by Professor Piazzi
Smyth at the Cape of Good Hope in the years 1843, 1844, and 1845, and published
in vol. xx. of the ‘ Edinburgh Transactions,’ and evening observations in the autumn
of 1848, communicated by a friend of the author resident in the interior of Brazil.
More recently, in vol. iv. of the ‘American Astronomical Journal’ were published
observations by Mr. Jones, a chaplain of the United States Navy, who makes the
following statement :—“ When in latitude 23° 28’ N., the sun being in the opposite
solstice, I saw the zodiacal light at both east and west horizon simultaneously from
eleven to one o’clock for several nights in succession.” The ecliptic must at the
time have nearly passed through the zenith of the observer at midnight. It is
clear, therefore, that to be seen an hour before and after midnight, the zodiacal light
must have extended beyond the earth’s orbit. Taking this as a necessary inference
from the observations, it follows that the earth is either always enveloped by the
zodiacal light, or at least when passing through the line of its nodes. Protecads
Challis considers this to be the explanation in part of the luminosity of the sky
which is generally perceptible on clear nights, and at some seasons in greater
degree than at others. The American observer also states that he saw when at
Quito, “every night, and all through the night, a luminous arch from east to west
quite across the sky, 20° wide, and most apparent when the ecliptic is vertical.”
This light is distinguished from the zodiacal light by its being of uniform width.
From the ensemble of the observations, the zodiacal light is of the form of a double
convex lens, with the sun in the centre, and the principal plane coinciding nearly
with that of the sun’s equator. As it may be inferred from the foregoing statements
that it envelopes the earth, we 9 conclude that it is simply dwminosity, without
accompanying bodies. Professor Challis proposes, therefore, to account for it by
the effect which the rotation of the vast body of the sun produces on the lumini-
ferous medium, this effect being rendered visible by the disturbance of the gyratory
motion by the motion of translation of the sun in space. In a similar manner,
magnetic currents are rendered visible in the form of the aurora by the effect of
transverse currents. This explanation he stated to be in accordance with the prin-
ciples of the undulatory theory of light.
he appearance of shooting-stars in the August and November periods was
accounted for on like principles, by the disturbance given to the luminiferous medium
by the curvilinear motion of the earth resulting from its proper motion and the
motion of the solar system through space. At two epochs depending on the vari-
ations of the rate of motion, and of the rate of deviation from rectilinear motion,
the disturbances would be at a maximum, and these two epochs were assumed to
correspond to Aug. 10 and Noy. 12. The kind of disturbance which the earth
impresses by its curvilinear motion was supposed to be such as would produce
eddies or whirls. Besides this, there might be a disturbance of terrestrial origin,
analogous to that which produces the zodiacal light, which might account for the
luminous arch noticed by the American observer.
14. ; REPORT—1862.
On some of the Characteristic Differences between the Configuration of the
Surfaces of the Earth and Moon. By Professor Hunnissy, F.R.S,
The author pointed out that the peculiarities observed on the surface of our
gatellite should be ascribed to the sole action of volcanic forces, whereas those which
we find on the earth result from a combination of volcanic and atmospherical
agencies. In order more perfectly to study these contrasts, he called attention to
the most characteristic feature of all lunar volcanos, namely the ring- or hoop-shaped
crater, surrounded by circular, nearly concentric ridges. On the earth’s surface,
volcanos deviated more or less from this type; and if the deviations are due to the
differences between terrestrial and lunar superficial forces, it must follow that such
differences will be most distinctly manifested in those cases where such terrestrial
forces possess the highest degree of energy. He illustrated this proposition by re-
ferring to the peculiar structure of the volcanos in the island of Java, where the
action of tropical rains and hurricanes has been effective in producing the widest
differences between the terrestrial volcanic summits and those observed on the
moon’s surface. While the hooped structure of the latter cannot be traced among
the views of Javanese volcanos which are presented in the comprehensive work
published by Dr. J unghuhn, we frequently find diagrams of volcanic cones show-
ing radiating ribs like those of a folded lamp-shade or an umbrella half closed, an
appearance due to the very recular manner in which the tropical torrents scoop out
the friable and scoriaceous summits of the craters. The contrast which arises by
comparing some of these drawings with the best lunar diagrams and photographs
may prove highly interesting to geologists as well as to selenographers.
On aBrilliant Elliptic Ring in the Planetary Nebula, AR 20° 56',N.P.D.101° 56’.
By Wurm Lassett, .RS.; in a Letter to Dr. Len, RS,
9 Piazza Sliema, Malta, 26th Sept. 1862.
My prar Sir,—In directing my large equatorial upon the well-known plane-
tary nebula situated in AR 20" 56", N.P.D. 101° 56’ (1862), it has revealed so
marvellous a conformation that I cannot forbear to send you a drawing of it, with
some description of its appearance. With comparatively low powers, e. g. 231 and
285, it appears at first sight as a vividly light-blue elliptic nebula, with a slight
prolongation of the nebula, or a very faint star at or near the ends of the transverse
axis. In this aspect the nebula resembles in form the planet Saturn when the ring
is seen nearly edgewise. Attentively viewing it with higher powers, magnifying
respectively 760, 1060 and 1480 times, and under the most favourable circumstances
which have presented themselves, I have discovered within the nebula a brilliant
elliptic ring, extremely well defined, and apparently having no connexion with the
surrounding nebula; which indeed has the appearance of a gaseous or gauze-like
envelope, scarcely interfering with the sharpness of the ring, and only diminishing
somewhat its brightness. This nebulous envelope extends a little further from the
ends of the conjugate than from the ends of the transverse axis; indeed it is but
yery faintly prolonged, and only just traceable towards the preceding and fol-
lowing stars. There is a star near its border northwards, in the projection of the
conjugate axis.
The breadth or thickness of the ring is, unlike that of Saturn, nearly uniform or equal
in every part, so that its form most probably is either really elliptic, and seen by us
in aline nearly perpendicular to its plane ; or if really circular and seen foreshortened,
a section through any part of it limited by the internal and external diameters must
be acircle. In other words;it will be like a circular cylinder bent round. It could
scarcely fail to bring to my mind the annular nebula in Lyra, especially as there is
a conspicuous central star (proportionally, however, much brighter than that which
is in the centre of that nebula) ; and yet the resemblance is only rudely in form ; for
this ring is much more symmetrical and more sharply defined, suggesting the idea
of a solid galaxy of brilliant stars.
The ring is not perfectly uniform in brightness, the south-preceding part being
slightly the most vivid. ‘The transverse axis is inclined to the parallel of declina~
tion about 13°, A, series of micrometrical measures of the length and breadth of
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15
the ellipse, gives a mean of 26"-2 for the transverse, and 166 for the conjugate
axis.
The accompanying drawing has not
been at all corrected by these measures, ———~_
but is the result of several sketches made *
during different observations, and is a oa
faithful transcript of the appearance of
the nebula to my eye, when most favour-
ably seen.
The object is, as may be supposed, one of extreme difficulty, requiring in the
highest degree the combination of light and definition in the telescope, and a fa-
yourable state of atmosphere,—which will further appear when I state that it was
not until I was favoured with an unusually fine night, and had applied a power of
1480, that the whole of the details were brought out.
I confess I have been greatly impressed by the revelation of this most wonderful
object, situated on what perhaps we may consider as the very confines of the acces-
sible or recognizable part of the universe, affording ground for the inference that
more gorgeous systems exist beyond our view than any we have become acquainted
with. Tam, &c., W. LasseLt,
Observed R.A. and N.P.D. of Comet II. 1862.
By the Rey. R. Mary, M.A., FBS.
This paper gave the results of observations of the comet from August 5 to August
29, on ten nights. It was observed on the meridian with the Carrington transit-
circle on August 7 and 9, and off the meridian with the heliometer, used as an or-
dinary equatorial, on August 5, 7, 9, 14, 18, 19, 22, 23, 25, and 29. The observations
have bccn rigorously reduced, and all necessary corrections for refraction, parallax,
&e. have been applied. The assumed mean places of the companion stars for 1862,
January 1, taken mainly from the ‘ Radcliffe Catalogue of Circumpolar Stars,’ were
also given.
On the Dimensions and Ellipticity of Mars.
By the Rev. R. Mary, M.A., PRS,
This paper gave the results of seven sets of measures of the disk of Mars, made
for the determination of his ellipticity with the heliometer, by the method of contact
of limbs of the two images formed by the half-object-glasses. The power used was
300, which is found by experience to be very suitable for such measures. The
direction of the polar diameter was determined by a well-defined circular white cap
near the southern limb, the centre of which was assumed to be coincident with the
South Pole. The directions, separately estimated, of the polar and equatorial
diameters agreed well on separate evenings, their difference never deviating much
from 90°, thus proving the precision of the estimations. The measured diameters
haye been corrected for defect of illumination.
The following are the results of the measures :—
Polar diam. Equat. diam. Ellipticity.
uu “
1862, Sept. 18 21-844 22386 ar
pe MIS” yy eRadb 22-986 =
* 22 22-704. 22-974 a
ae 22-138 22-911 as
F aiktelh 22-551 23-106 s
eo aan 22-519 23-125 He
pb 80 22-896 23-012 eS
198°4
Mr. Main drew particular attention to the difference in the degrees of consistency
in the results for the polar and for the equatorial diameter, the latter agreeing sur-
16 REPORT—1862.,
prisingly well from night to night, while the former exhibit discordances of consider-
able amount. This it is difficult to account for, except on the supposition that the
snowy cap before referred to may have had some influence in distracting the eye
from the real borders of the images in making the contacts. Still, on the whole, the
measures all agree in establishing a measurable ellipticity, and Mr. Main intended to
continue them at every opportunity during the present opposition, with the utmost
care and caution.
On some Peculiar Features in the Structure of the Sun’s Surface.
By J. Nasmyru.
The author gave a short sketch of the character of the sun’s surface as at pre-
sent known. lie described the spots as gaps or holes, more or less extensive, in the
luminous surface or photosphere of the sun. These exposed the totally dark nucleus
of the sun; over this appears the mist surface—a thin, gauze-like veil spread over
it. Then came the penumbral stratum, and, over all, the luminous stratum, which
he had discovered was composed of a multitude of very elongated, lenticular-shaped,
or, to use a familiar illustration, willow-leaf-shaped masses, crowded over the pho-
tosphere, and crossing one another in every possible direction. The author had pre-
ared and exhibited a diagram, pasting such elongated slips of white paper over a
sheet of black card, crossing one another in eyery possible direction in such multi-
tudes as to hide the dark nucleus everywhere, except at the spots. These elongated
lens-shaped objects he found to be in constant motion relatively to one another; they
sometimes approached, sometimes receded ; and sometimes they assumed a new an-
gular position, by one end either maintaining a fixed distance or approaching its
neighbour, while at the other end they retired from each other. These objects,
some of which were as large in superficial area as all Europe, and some even as the
surface of the whole earth, were found to shoot in thin streams across the spots,
bridging them over in well-defined streams or comparative lines, as exhibited on
the diagram; sometimes by crowding in on the edges of the spot they closed it in,
and frequently, at length, thus obliterated it. These objects were of various di-
mensions, but in leng th they generally were from 90 to 100 times as long as their
breadth at the middle or widest part.
Observations on Three of the Minor Planets in 1860.
By Norman Poeson. Communicated by Dr. Ler, F.2.S.
Observations of Minor Planets made at Hartwell in 1860,
Eunomia (15)
R.A. | P.D.
s / af
1860, Sept. 1. 12 14 46 21 35 50:07] 90 51 31-6 | +9-089 | —0°832| 6 withg
» 9» 1. 1257 59 | 21 35 48:34] 90 51 41-0 | +9-262) —0-831] 12 ,, g
» oy» 4 1057 59 | 21 33 16-34] 90 54 41°5 | 48-454 | —0-832| 7 ,, p
» » 7 1135 5|21 30 4818| 90 58 17-4 | 4+9-027| —0:832] 5 ,, 0
Olympia (59).
4 | —8:195| —0-832| 12 with n
0 | +9:190 | —0-837| 10 ,, m
3 | —9-426| —0-805| 6 ,, m
3 | —8-990| —0-835] 6 ,, m
1860, Sept.25. 12 413] 0 31 0°68) 90 49 2
» Oct. 2. 13 24 59} .@ 25 52°73) 91 53 5
” Oo” 3. 938 14] O 25 16°45; 92 12
» y» 3 1055 11}, 0 25 14:09) 92 15
Thalia (28).
1860,Sept.25. 13 4 37] 0 11 55°55 104 34 25:3 | +9-039 | —0°891] 8 with 7
» Oct. 3. 12 28 38; O 4 38°05 /105 3 11-1 +9°056 | —0892| 10 , &
3:
6°
9:
7
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17
The first observation of Eunomia was made with the parallel wire micrometer,
and power 110; all others with the ring micrometer, and power 84 of the Hartwell
Equatorial. The comparison stars employed were as in the annexed list :—
Mean R. A. | Mean P. D.
Authority. Mag. 1860. 1860.
hm s ow
Oeltzen Arg. 33 & 34=9 Lalande (weight 3). | 89 | 0 3 16°86) 105 13 43:0
Weisse 0°227. 9 | 013 40°42 | 104 24 31°4
11 Ceti; Madler’s Bradley 36 ; 78 Robinson. 78 | 0 22 44:01} 91 53 209
Weisse 0°592. 9} 0 34 46°05} 90 47 32°5
4704 Robinson. 7 | 21 30 22:25] 91 0 563
24 Aquarii; Miadler’s Bradley 2°816. 7 | 21 32 1844/9041 13
Weisse xxi. 916=42598 Lalande (weight 4). 9 | 21 38 11°65] 90 51 2-9
The following magnitudes have been carefully estimated; generally, by com-
parison with apparently similar objects in the nearest variable star-map then in
course of construction :—
Victoria, 1860, April 3...... 10°5 mag. | Eunomia, Sept. 1, 8-2 ; Sept. 4,8°6 ; Sept. 7, 8°3.
Thetis By PS il Peace 10°5 ,, | Olympia, Sept. 25, 9°6; Oct. 3, 10°2.
Metis ps Sept. Bes sees 9:0 ,, | Amphitrite, Oct. 3, 9-0.
Thalia, Sept. 7, 11:0; Sept. 10, 11:2; Sept. 13, 11:0; Sept. 25,11°0; Oct. 3, 11:5.
The preceding observations of minor planets were the last made by Mr. Pogson
before leaving England for Madras in January 1861; it was his intention to reduce
them speedily, and to send them to me from Malta or Alexandria; but, as antici-
pated, the inconveniences of a sea-yoyage prevented him from fulfilling his design,
and the pressure of official duties in his new position has not permitted him to
attend to his former unfinished pursuits until recently.
On the Excentricity of the Earth, and the Method of finding the Coordinates
of its Centre of Gravity. By W. Oattsy, F.GS.
On the probable Origin of the Heliocentric Theory. By J. Scuvarcz.
The author traced the origin of the Copernican system to Pythagoras, through
Aristarchus the Samian and Archimedes of Syracuse.
On Autographs of the Sun, By the Rey. Professor Setwyn,
The author showed several “ autographs of the sun,” taken with his “heliauto«
graph” by Mr. Titterton, photographer, Ely, which consists of a camera and in-
stantaneous slide by Dallmeyer, attached to a refractor of 2$ inches aperture by
Dollond; the principle being the same as that of the instrument made, at the
suggestion of Sir J. Herschel, for the Kew Observatory. The autographs are of
July 25,°26, 28, 29, 31; August 1, 2, and August 4, 10.15 a.m. and 11.30 a.m. (a
series of bright days coincident with a large group of spots); August 19, 20, 23
and 25, where the same group reappears, much diminished; September 19, 23, 26,
30, Oct. 1, in which is seen a group of 118,000 miles in length. On the 23rd
three autographs were taken, two of them with the edge of the sun in the centre of
the Aap goes plate, showing that the diminution of light towards the edges of
the disk is a real phenomenon, and not wholly due to the camera. In the two of
the 4th of August, where the great spot (20,000 miles in diameter) appears on the
edge, a very distinct notch is seen, and the sun appears to give strong evidence that
the spots are cavities ; but eye observations and measurements by the Rey. F. How-
lett, and others, tend to show that this evidence is not conclusive, for there was
still a remaining portion of photosphere between the spot and the edge. The phe-
nomena shown in these autographs appear to confirm the views of Sir J. Herschel,
eT tes two parallel regions of the sun where the spots appear, are like the tro-
18 REPORT—1862.
ical regions of the earth where tornadoes and cyclones occur, and those of Wilson
in the last century. The facule are clearly shown, and seem to prove that the tro-
pical regions of the sun are highly agitated, and that immense waves of luminous
matter are thrown up, between which appear the dark cavities of the spots, whose
sloping sides form the penumbrz, as explained by Wilson and others. Other ana-
logies between solar spots and earthly storms were pointed out, and reference was
made to the glimpses of the structure of the sun exhibited by Mr. Nasmyth as
confirming the above views.
On the Hindu Method of Calculating Eclipses. By W. Svotrtswoonn, F.R.S.
The astronomy of the Hindus is contained in a series of works known by the
general name of “ Siddhanta.”’ These have been composed at different times over
a period of 2000 years. In them are some incidental allusions to the configurations
of the heavenly bodies, by means of which Baily, Davis, and others have attempted
to calculate the dates of some of the works. ‘There were two points to which the
author drew particular attention, viz. the process of correction whereby the true
longitudes were deduced from the mean, and the precession of the equinoxes. It
had been noticed that the apsides, or points of slowest movement, and the positions
of conjunction with the sun had proper motions. These were attributed to
influences residing in the apsides and conjunctio:s respectively, and corrections
due to each were accordingly devised. The undisturbed orbit was considered a
circle, with the earth (E) in the centre, and upon it the centre of a smaller circle or
epicycle moved with a uniform angular velocity equal, but opposice in direction,
to that of the urdisturbed planet; so that M being the centre, ard m any given
point on the epicycle, Mm always remained parallel to itself. If, then, at the apse
or conjunction (according as the correction of one or the other was being calcu-
lated) Mm was in a straight line with EM, the true position of the planet was
conceived to be at the point where Em cut the undisturbed orbit. The radius,
moreover, of the epicycle was variable, and its magnitudes at the odd and even
quadrants being determined so as to satisfy observation, its intermediate variation
was considered proportional to the sine of the mean anomaly. The precession of
the equinoxes is an important element in Hindt astronomy, not only as a question
of scientific accuracy, but also as marking an epoch in the history of discovery. It
is an ascertained fact that their earlier writers, among the foremost of whom
Brahmagupta may be mentioned, took no account of it whatever. The statement
in the Surya Siddhanta, when divested of its obscure terminology, seems to amount
to this, that the sidereal circle shifts on the zodiac with an oscillating motion,
whose period is 7200 years, and whose maximum range is 27°. This gives an
annual rate of 54”.
On some Improved Celestial Planispheres. By C. J. Vita.
Licut anp Heat. -
On the Means of following the Small Divisions of the Scale regulating the
Distances and Enlargement in the Solar Camera. By A. Cuavvet, F.R.S.
The author, in a former paper, had proposed a new method for measuring both
the distances of the negative and screen for any degree of enlargement of the image,
by means of a scale or unity divided into 100 parts, and smaller fractions if possible.
This scale being fixed on the table of the optical apparatus, an index connected with
the frame holding the negative was brought exactly on any division of the scale
which was indicating the proportion and distance of the image. This arrangement
would be very complete and satisfactory if the scale were always long enough to be
marked with divisions sufficiently conspicuous; but the shorter the focus of the
object-glass, the smaller the divisions of the scale must be. In order to meet this
difficulty, he has adopted the following plan :—He traces on the table an equilateral
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19
triangle, the base of which is the exact length of the scale. Taking 8 inches, for
example, as that length, the three sides of the triangle will be 8 inches. Now, it
is possible to enlarge the base three, four, five, or any number of times, by extending
the sides of the triangle in the same ratio; so that if it be desirable to enlarge the
scale four times, a triangle is formed haying its base four times longer, viz. equal to
52 inches; and dividing this new base into 100 parts, it is evident that each divi-
sion will be four times larger than it could have been on the original base. Now,
describing an arc, the chord of which is the base of the triangle, and attaching to
the summit a thin metallic wire, the other end of which can slide on the are, it is
evident that each division of the magnified scale which may be covered by the wire
will correspond exactly with an equal division of the original scale, so that, after
having brought the metallic wire on the division of the increased scale indicating
the size of the required image, and the wire being fixed on the index, it will be
brought exactly on any division of the unity of measure, however small it may be.
The author has described another plan to obtain the same result, and, perhaps, more
effectively : it consists in fixing the negative on a rack exactly the leneth of the
scale, which, acting on a pinion adapted to a sufficiently large wheel containing the
requisite divisions, will produce an entire revolution of the wheel; and an index
being fixed on the table, will indicate on the wheel the exact amount of the course
effected by the negative on the scale; and by turning the wheel to the division
required, this will bring the negative with the greatest accuracy to the distance
corresponding with the division. This system of focusing all camera-lenses might
be very advantageous in photographic operations, and would be less subject to errors
than the usual way of focusing on the ground glass.
Relation entre les Phénoménes de la Polarisation Rotatoire, et les Formes
Heémitdres ou Hémimorphes des Cristaux d un ou ad deux Axes Optiques,
Par A. Drs Crorzeavx.
Tout le monde sait que la découverte de la polarisation de la lumiére a rendu
possible l’institution de nombreuses recherches, inabordables 4 tout autre mode
d’observation, sur la constitution moléculaire des corps solides et liquides. Je
n’entreprendrai pas ici de passer en revue les faits intéressants et les lois remarqua-
bles dont on doit la connaissance aux travaux des Malus, des Fresnel, des Herschel,
des Arago, des Brewster, des Biot, &c. Je m’occuperai seulement de la polarisation
rotatoire et des relations que ce phénoméne peut avoir avec la structure physique
des corps cristallisés. Depuis que la science a été dotée des microscopes polarisants
d’Amici et de Noérrenberg, on a pu étendre les observations optiques & un grand
nombre de substances trop peu transparentes ou de trop petites dimensions pour se
préter 4 l'emploi des instruments généralement usités Jusque dans ces derniéres
années. Le quartz est resté pendant tré8 longtemps le seul corps solide dans lequel
on eut constaté l’existence du pouvoir rotatoire, et Sir John Herschel a le premier fait
remarquer qu’il paraissait y avoir une relation constante entre le sens de la rotation
des cristaux et le sens suivant lequel s’enroule la spirale formée par plusieurs des
faces connues sous les noms de faces plagiédres et par la face rhombe, lorsque l’axe
principal des cristaux est placé verticalement devant l’observateur. Ce rapproche-
ment a conduit a regarder le phénoméne de la polarisation rotatoire comme di a un
arrangement particulier des molécules physiques qui se manifesterait quelquefois
par des formes cristallines présentant l’hémiédrie dite plagiédre ou tournante. On
sait que le caractére de cette hémiédrie est la non-superposition des solides symé-
triques résultant de la réunion des faces plagiédres situées 4 droite et 4 gauche d’une
méme face prismatique du quartz. L’observation prouve d’ailleurs qu’elle peut
s’allier avec ’hémiédrie qui fournit pour la face rhombe deux solides inverses mais
superposables. I est en effet probable que c’est une structure de ce genre qui donne
aux cristaux dextrogyres et aux cristaux lévogyres la propriété d’imprimer a la lumiére
polarisée des modifications de sens contraire; car on n’a jamais observé de phé-
noménes rotatoires dans les cristaux d’apatite, de Schéelite, d’érythroglucine, &c.,
sur lesquels on ne connait jusqu’a présent que des formes hémiédres superposables.
Malheureusement la dissymétrie intérieure n’est pas toujours accusée par des signes
extérieurs, et l’observation seule indique si un corps cristallisé posséde ou ne posséde
Q%
20 REPORT—1862.
pas la polarisation rotatoire. Ainsi, un grand nombre de cristaux de quartz ne por-»
tent aucune face plagiédre; le chlorate de soude, dans les cristaux duquel M. Mar-
bach a découvert le pouvoir rotatoire, s’obtient tantdt en cubes parfaits, tantot en
tétraédres simples ou en tétraédres modifiés par les faces d’un dodécaédre pentagonal
qui occupent relativement 4 celles du tétraédre deux positions inverses l’une de
l’autre en rapport avec le sens de la rotation; le cinabre rhomboédrique et le sulfate
de strychnine quadratique, qui, d’aprés mes observations, impriment aussi au plan
de polarisation une déviation égale, pour le premier 4 16 fois et pour le second 4 la
moitié de celle que produit le quartz, n’ont offert jusqu’ici aucune trace d’hémiédrie ;
cependant j’ai trouvé dans le cinabre des cristaux dextrogyres, des cristaux lévogyres,
et des cristaux complexes ou l’emploi de la lumiére polarisée convergente manifeste
les spirales d’Airy absolument comme dans le quartz. La cause qui donne naissance
la polarisation rotatoire dans les cristaux parait donc indépendante de celle qui
produit les formes hémiédriques ; seulement, comme l’a fait voir M. Marbach, la
production de ces formes peut étre favorisée artificiellement en faisant varier les
conditions dans lesquelles s’opére la cristallisation. I] est done probable que les
cristaux de quartz 4 faces plagiédres n’ont pas pris naissance dans les mémes cir-
constances que ceux ou les faces plagiédres manquent; tous les cristaux de cinabre
connus jusqu’a ce jour ont di au contraire se former sous l’influence de phénoménes
géologiques semblables.
Depuis que M. Biot a découyert la déviation imprimée au plan de polarisation par
certains liquides et certaines dissolutions, on s’est souvent demandeé si les dissolu-
tions actives susceptibles de cristalliser produisaient nécessairement des cristaux
doués du pouvoir rotatoire. La plus grande partie des substances actives en disso-
lution cristallisant sous des formes qui possédent deux axes optiques, la question est
longtemps restée sans réponse expérimentale. Mais les travaux de M. Marbach et
les miens, en révélant l’existence des trois seuls cas réalisables dans les cristaux
dépourvus de la double réfraction ou dans les cristaux & un seul axe optique, sem-
blent prouver que les deux genres de phénoménes sont indépendants l’un de l'autre.
En effet, 1°, le chlorate de soude, inactif en dissolution dans ]’eau, jouit du pou-
voir rotatoire lorsqu’il est en cristaux ; le quartz fondu ou a l’état de silice soluble
et le quartz cristallisé présentent les mémes différences.
2°, Le sulfate de strychnine quadratique 4 13 équivalents d’eau, en dissolution.
comme en cristaux, dévie 4 gauche le plan de polarisation, seulement le pouyoir ro-
tatoire des cristaux est environ 30 fois plus grand que celui de la dissolution.
3°. Le camphre ordinaire des laurinées, actif en dissolution et a l'état fondu,
donne par sublimation des cristaux appartenant au systéme hexagonal, dans lesquels
on ne peut constater aucune déviation du plan de polarisation, méme sous une
épaisseur de plusieurs millimétres.
Les cristaux 4 deux axes optiques, dont la dissolution posséde le pouvoir rota-
toire, sont assez nombreux; on a donc pweles soumettre a des expériences variées.
D’aprés les recherches de M. Pasteur, l’existence du pouvoir rotatoire dans une dis-
solution serait le plus souvent (a l’exception des sulfamylates) accompagnée par
Vhémiédrie non superposable ou l’hémimorphie d’une ou de deux des formes sim-
ples que présentent les cristaux dissous. Cette hémiédrie se montre d’ailleurs
quelquefois sur les cristaux formés naturellement au sein d’une dissolution dans
Veau pure, d’autres fois elle doit étre provoquée, soit en faisant varier la nature du
dissolvant, soit en blessant les cristaux et les replagant dans leur eau-mére*. Svil
existe, comme pour l’acide tartrique, les tartrates et quelques autres substances
Worigine organique, deux dissolutions, l’une lévogyre et l'autre dextrogyre, les formes
hémiédres ou hémimorphes correspondantes produisent ordinairement (le sel de
seignette potassique parait seul faire exception) deux solides symétriques mais non
superposables. La réciproque n’est pas yraie dans tous les cas, puisque le sulfate
de magnésie et le formiate de strontiane, dont les cristaux offrent l’hémiédrie non
superposable, fournissent des dissolutions inactives. Les causes qui produisent les
formes cristallines hémiédres paraissent donc agir d’une maniére plus générale que
celle & laquelle est du le pouvoir rotatoire moléculaire.
* Ann, de Chimie et de Physique, tom, xxxviii. et xlix,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21
On the Cohesion of Gases, and its relations to Carnot’s Function and to recent
Experiments on the Thermal effects of Elastic Fluids in Motion, By James
Crott, Glasgow.
From the fact that those gases which are most easily liquefied by compression are
those which are found to deviate most from the law of Mariotte, we are led to the
conclusion that their deviations from this law are due to the mutual attraction of
their particles. Deviations from Mariotte’s law after the manner of carbonic acid
follow as necessary consequences from cohesion. Other phenomena are also ex-
plainable on the same principle; such, for instance, as why the coefficient of expan-
sion is greatest for the gases which deviate most from Mariotte’s law—why the
coefficient of expansion increases with the density in gases which deviate from
this law—why, when equal weights are employed to compress different gases under
the same conditions, the greatest amount of work is performed on the gas which
deviates most—why, in the expansion of gases by heat, least work is performed by
heating the gases which present the greatest deviation.
The influence of Cohesion in relation to the Experiments of Prof. W. Thomson and
Dr. Joule on the Thermal effects of Elastic Fluids in Motion.
In these experiments, air, carbonic acid, or hydrogen, under very high pressure,
was made to expand by forcing itself through a porous plug, and it was found that
the temperature of the gas after expansion was somewhat less than before it; in
other terms, the heat of friction was found to fall short of compensating the cold
of expansion. The expenditure of elastic force experienced by the gas, in forcing
itself through the porous plug, tends in the first instance to lower its temperature ;
but as this force is spent in friction, the heat produced from friction ought exactly
to compensate the cold of expansion. This is only the case, however, when all the
force of expansion has been spent in friction; ifa portion of this force be consumed
in producing some other effect than heat, then the heat of friction will not com-
pensate the cold produced by the waste of force in expansion, and a cooling effect
will be the result. Now it is perfectly evident that if the atoms of a gas when
compressed attract each other, the force of expansion cannot be all converted into
heat, a portion of it must be consumed in overcoming attraction, hence the heat of
friction will fall short of compensating the cold of expansion by an amount equal
to the equivalent of the work against attraction.
It is generally understood that in certain cases a heating instead of a cooling
effect may take place. How this may occur is not so apparent. Prof. W. Thomson
states, that when the temperature of air rises above a certain height, the heat of
friction will exceed the cold of expansion, because P'V', the work which a pound
of air must do in expanding through the plug, is rather less than P V, which is the
work done on it in pushing it through the spiral up to the plug. It is by no means
obyious how this can result in a heating effect. That which produces the cold of
expansion is the expenditure of the elastic force in expanding through the plug;
but as this force is not consumed on external work, but entirely spent in friction on
the particles of the air itself, the force which it loses on the one hand is entirely
restored to it on the other. But more force cannot be restored than was lost; for
the force restored is just what was lost. :
The only way whereby it is possible to account for a heating effect, is by supposing
that a gas which exhibits the heating effect possesses a certain amount of elastici
independent of heat, and that the expenditure of this force in the production of heat
by friction, is an expenditure of elastic force, but not an expenditure of heat—a
conclusion which is very improbable.
The Influence of Cohesion in relation to Carnot’s Function,
The following was suggested by Dr. Joule, in a letter to Prof. W. Thomson in
1848, as the true expression of Carnot’s function,
mG eT)
ie a) Renee
J denoting Joule’s equivalent, E the coefficient of expansion*, and ¢ the tempera-
* In this formula Carnot’s function is equal to the mechanical equivalent of the thermal
22 : REPORT—1862.
ture in Centigrade degrees, measured from the temperature of melting ice.
Prof. W. Thomson has been led, from calculations based upon Regnault’s observa-
tions on the pressure and latent heat of steam, to the conclusion that p cannot in
all cases be expressed by the above formula.
May not the deviations, however, be entirely due to the influence of cohesion ?
It is evident that cohesion must affect the value of this function in the following
manner: if a mutual attraction exist between the particles of a gas at a given
temperature, then that gas in cooling itself down one degree below that tempera-
ture, by performing mechanical work in expanding, will execute less work than it
would otherwise do did no cohesion between the particles exist; for a portion of the
heat must be consumed in work against the cohesion. The quantity consumed by
cohesion will continually increase as the temperature diminishes; for as the tem-
perature diminishes the cohesion increases. But in regard to steam and all other
saturated vapours, the reverse holds true, for the cohesion of the particles of vapours
increases as their temperature rises, because their density increases with rise of tem-
perature. In the case of a perfect gas, the function will agree with the formula at
all temperatures ; but in imperfect gases and vapours the function will deviate from
the formula, but in opposite directions. In both cases the actual function will fall
short of the ges
On the Supernumerary Bows in the Rainbow. By the Rev. J. Duxexz.
The author gave a method of approximating to the size of the drops of rain
corresponding to any given position of the supernumerary bows produced by the in-
terference of the two luminiferous surfaces proceeding from each drop. It appeared
from his tables appended to the paper that the size which Dr. Young (without
giving his method of calculation) had assigned to the drops under certain conditions
was within 5;/;;th of an inch of the truth, and was more accurate than that assigned
subsequently by Mr. Potter.
On the Duration of Fluorescence. By Dr, Essripacu.
The author described the apparatus by which he succeeded in 1856 in proving
the duration of fluorescence (z;1;5 second with uranium glass), thereby establishing
a year before M. Becquerel the experimental link between this interesting pheno-
menon and phosphorescence.
Description of an Optical Instrument which indicates the Relative Change of
Position of Two Objects (such as Ships at Sea during Night) which are
maintaining Independent Courses. By J. M. Menzies.
This instrument consisted of a lantern-shaped case, containing a lens in front
and a coacentric sheet of bent glass behind, at the focal distance of the lens, ruled
with parallel vertical lines. This was hung up on gimbals so as to have its axis
parallel to the course of the vessel, and the biight spot (the image of the light of the
approaching vessel) showed by its position ‘cal shifting the relative place and course
of the approaching vessel.
Experiments on Photography with Colour. By the Rev. J. B. Reapr, F.2.S.
A recent examination of the phenomena of polarized light in their immediate
connexion with the undulatory theory led the author to inquire into the causes of
natural colours, and thence to the possibility of coloured objects setting up, in sen-
sitive films on which their image is thrown, the very same causes which regulate and
determine their own respective colours. This being effected, the image of an object
would communicate to the eye the identical colour of the object itself.
The propositions, in general terms, are—that radiant-coloured light consists in un-
dulations of the luminiferous ether—that all material bodies have an attraction for
the ethereal medium, by means of which it is accumulated within their substance
unit, divided by the absolute temperature. The reciprocal of E must be the absolute tem-
perature of melting ice, or the formula is erroneous:
2
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23
and exerts its influence beyond them—and that the luminous phenomena are exhi-
bited under two modifications, the vibratory or permanent, and the undulatory or
transient state. This theory leads to the conclusion that the undulations within the
substance of material bodies communicate their vibrations to the ethereal medium
without them, and thence to the same medium within the eye. If the undulations
be such as to produce red, red is seen by the eye, and so for other colours. Now,
as we have films eminently sensitive to the action of reflected light, and capable
occasionally of being coloured by such light, it is clearly within the laws of physical
science to suppose that the several portions of the excited film may retain within
themselves, in the vibratory and permanent state, the varying undulations of the
coloured objects whose images they receive. A picture with the colours as in
nature would be the result, instead of the mere black and white mezzotint at
present obtained. The desiderata are—a sensitive silver compound capable ot
yeceiving and transmitting the undulations, and energetic reflexions from the
objects themselves.
hortly before the meeting he happened to obtain unusual traces of colour in
photographie portraits. The chief difference in manipulation was a slight excess of
the iodizer in the collodion, and the addition of acetic acid and acetate of soda to
the bath, And in order more fully to test the effect of the cadmium and bromo-
iodizers, he increased the quantity until natural colours ceased to be strengthened.
The final proportion of iodizing solutions gave the portrait which was exhibited.
The general warm colours of the forehead and face, and the tone of the coat were
fairly represented in the portrait.
Remarks on the Complementary Spectrum, By J, Surtu.
The author endeavoured to explain, on the principle adopted by him in his chro-
matrope experiments, the well-known fact that the spectrum of a hole in the win-
dow-shutter, when received on a screen, has the violet end above and the red below,
but when looked at through the prism, the red appears above and the violet below.
On the Motion of Camphor, &c. towards the Light.
By Cuantxs Tomtinson, King’s College, London.
Books on chemistry from the time of Chaptal (1788) to the present, recognize
the fact that salts in crystallizing move towards the light; that camphor, water,
alcohol, &c. form deposits on the most illuminated side of the bottles that contain
them. The history of the subject includes the names of Petit, Chaptal, Dorthes,
Draper, &c. Chaptal’s experiments were made with saline solutions, and he found
that crystalline deposits could be determined to any point by admitting the light to
that point, or prevented by shutting out the light. Dr. Draper, who named these
phenomena perihelion motions, found that in the case of camphor deposits were
sometimes made nearest the sun, and at other times furthest from him, the latter
being termed aphelion motions; that reflected light and coloured light produced
aphelion movements ; that the deposits are not produced in the dark, or by artificial
light, and that rings and disks of tinfoil prevent the formation of deposits. He
supposed electricity to be concerned in the production of these phenomena.
Mir Tomlinson shows that neither light nor electricity has anything to do with
these effects, but that they are the simple results of cooling. By treating the
vapour of camphor, &c. as dew, all the effects follow; and Chaptal’s results are
obtained in full sunshine without any shutting out of the light, but simply by
preventing radiation by means of transparent screens. When a bottle containing
camphor, &e. is exposed to light, the illuminated side is generally the colder, and
hence the deposit on this side; but when the sun is shining on the bottle, the
furthest side is the colder, and there the deposit takes place. Bottles of camphor
kept in the dark, 7. e. in a cupboard or drawer, are equally warm all round, and
hence no deposit is formed; but if such a bottle be cooled on one side by means of
a piece of filtering-paper dipped in ether, a deposit is instantly formed. If a bottle
of camphor be plunged into water at 100° no deposit is formed, because it is equally
hot all round. If a number of bottles be covered with opake substances and
exposed to the sun, or to a heated cannon-ball, deposits are formed or not according
-
DA REPORT—1862.
as the screens absorb or reflect heat: a screen of tinfoil will not allow a deposit to
be formed ; but if the screen be of brown age there will be an abundant furthest
deposit. So also if a bottle have attached to it disks and rings of tinfoil, paper of
various colours, &c., no deposit will be formed in and about such disks, because
they keep the bottle warm by preventing radiation, and even by absorbing heat. A
disk of black paper put on a deposit already formed will clear away a much larger
space than tinfoil will do.
The author found that crude camphor was more sensitive in its action than
refined; but that the experiments succeed with ordinary camphor, Borneo cam-
phor, artificial turpentine camphor, camphoric acid, iodine, naphthaline, chloral,
water, alcohol, ether, &c.
Exrcrricity, Magnetism.
On the Mechanical Power of Electro-Magnetism, with special reference to the
Theory of Dr. Joule and Dr. Scoresby. By James Croxt, Glasgow.
In an article by Dr. Joule and Dr. Scoresby on the mechanical power of Electro-
magnetism*, it is stated that when the electro-magnetic engine is set in motion and
the current in consequence reduced from a to 6, the heat manifested in the circuit
is reduced from a? to 67, but the heat which is produced by the oxidation of the zine
is only reduced from a to b; hence they conclude that the quantity of heat equal
a—b produced by the zine plates, but which does not appear in the circuit, is con-
sumed in the production of mechanical effects. That this conclusion is not satis-
factory will appear, the author thinks, from the following considerations, viz. if we
reduce the current from a to 6 by merely reducing the consumption of the zinc from
a to b, the heat evolved in the circuit will in this case also be reduced from a? to 6%,
The question now arises, what becomes of the amount of force a—6 which disap-
pears in the circuit here also? It is not consumed in work, for no mechanical effect
takes place. Hence, from the disappearance of heat when the electro-magnetic
machine is set in motion, we are not warranted to conclude that it went to produce
mechanical effects ; for it equally disappears in the other case when no meine]
effect is produced. The true explanation of the matter, he thinks, is this : when we
reduce the current from a to b, we reduce the heat evolved in the conducting wire
from a? to b’, but we only reduce the heat evolved in the entire circuit from a to b;
hence there is no disappearance of heat whatever. The simple fact is, the heat
which is missing in the conductor will be found in the battery; however, when
the engine is in motion there will be a deficiency in the total heat evolved equal to
the thermal equivalent of the mechanical work performed. When the engine being
at rest the current is equal 6, the total heat evolved is also equal 6; but when the
current is reduced to b by the motion of the machine, the total heat evolved will
then be equal 6—x; x being the equivalent of the mechanical work performed.
The value of zx, therefore, is not determined by the theory of Dr. J oa and Dr.
Scoresby.
Let us consider the theory in relation to the origin of the mechanical work.
When the current is equal 6, without mechanical work being performed, the heat
evolved in the conductor is 6?; when the current is 6, and mechanical work per-
formed, according to the theory the heat evolved in the conductor is also equal 6,
In this case there is no reduction of heat in the conductor corresponding to the me~
chanical effect produced; for the heat is as great when the mechanical effect takes
place as when it does not, being in both cases equal 67. This would lead to the
conclusion that the mechanical effect is not derived from the current 6, for it could
not possibly produce its full equivalent of work, in the shape of heat 6? and x
amount of work in addition. The work xz must, therefore, according to this theory,
be derived directly either from the chemical action in the battery or from the heat
evolved. That it is not directly dependent upon chemical action is evident from
* Philosophical Magazine, June 1846,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25
the fact that, if the current exist, 2 will arise the same as before, whether there be
chemical action or not, as, for example, when the current has a thermal origin;
and that it is not derived from the heat evolved is evident also from the fact that
it has no existence when the heat is present in the circuit without the current.
The mechanical work is therefore, contrary to the above theory, derived directly
from the electric current; and it follows from hence that when we have two cur-
rents equal in every respect, the one performing mechanical work and the other
roducing nothing bot heat, less heat must be evolved by the former current than
y the latter; consequently the law involved in the theory, viz. that the heat evolved
in similar conductors is proportional to the square of the currents, does not hold
true when one of the currents produces magnetical effects.
Facts seem to lead to the following theory asa true explanation of the mechanical
power of electro-magnetism. Whatever our views may be regarding the nature of
the electric current, we must allow that the molecules of bodies offer a certain
amount of resistance to the passage of the current, which amount differs according
to the nature of the body through which the electricity is propagated. It must also
be admitted that the molecules of the body, in consequence of the resistance which
they offer, become heated. Let us take now the case of the conducting wire con-
necting the pole of a battery. Suppose it to be composed of a succession of mole-
cules A, B, C, D, &c. The chemical action in the battery communicates a certain
amount of motion to the atom A, in consequence of which its equilibrium is de-
stroyed, and to regain this state it transmits motion to the next adjoining atom B;
but B offers resistance to A, and the consequence is that A is unable to communi-
cate to it the full amount of motion necessary to restore its own equilibrium, so
that A must still retain a portion of the disturbing force or motion received from
the battery; but on account of its position in space being limited by its relations
to surrounding molecules, it can only retain motion or force in itself by vibrating,
and in virtue of these vibrations we affirm it to be hot. Bin like manner, to regain its
equilibrium, transmits motion to C, but C likewise offers resistance to B, and, of
course, B must also retain a portion of the disturbing force in the form of heat, and
what holds true of A, B, and C, holds equally true in regard to all the other mole-
cules of the conductor.
Let us now observe what takes place when work is being performed by an elec-
tro-magnetic engine. We have, in the first place, a continual evolution of force
arising from chemical action in the battery. This chemical force becomes imme-
diately transformed into electric current, and the electric force must in turn be
constantly transformed into some other form of force, or else we should instantly
have an accumulation of current. When the current is allowed simply to circulate
in the conductor without producing any work, either chemical or magnetical, its
entire force is transformed into heat, and the heat in turn is transmitted to sur-
rounding objects and radiated into space. This, as we have shown, is the effect of
forces tending to a state of equilibrium. When the soft iron of the electro-mag-
netic engine is brought into the presence of the conductor, another channel or out-
let is then offered to the molecules of the conductor, whereby they may get rid of
the disturbing force, the electric current; a portion of this force will be transferred
to the molecules of the iron, causing them to assume the magnetic state, and, of
course, whatever is consumed in work upon the molecules of the iron cannot appear
in the molecules of the conductor in the shape of heat. The moment the mole-
cules of the iron assume the magnetic state, no further transference of force in this
direction can take place; but if they are allowed to perform mechanical work while
they are assuming this state, as is the case when the electro-magnetic engine is in
motion, then a constant outlet is afforded in this direction to the disturbed mole-
cules of the conductor to regain their equilibrium. But it must be observed that
the relative proportions of the force which pass through each of the two channels
or outlets, heat and magnetical work, do not remain the same, as Dr. Joule and
Dr. Scoresby’s theory implies; for as the force will always tend to the path of least
resistance, the relative proportion passing through each outlet will be determined
by the relative resistance offered—the quantity passing through each being in-
versely as the resistance to be overcome. Now the quantity « of mechanical work
that can be produced by an electro-magnetic engine from a given quantity of elec-
26 REPORT—1862.
tric current, well depend entirely upon the amount of resistance offered by the magnetic
element as an outlet to the electric force. If the iron is hard, and the resistance con-
sequently great, the amount of work will be but small; but if the iron is soft and
the resistance offered small, then the amount of force transformed into magnetism
and available for mechanical purposes will be greater.
In a paper read before the Chemical Society in March last, the author showed
that the same principle holds true also in regard to heat. When heat is applied
to a solid or a liquid body, a portion of the heat goes to raise its temperature, and
another portion is consumed in internal molecular work against cohesion. The
rising of the temperature and the separation of the molecules are the two paths
or outlets for the force, and the relative proportion which passes through each is
determined here in like manner by the resistance offered by each to the passage of
the force. Hence the reason why the specific heat of bodies increases as their
temperature rises; for the resistance offered by cohesion decreases with rise of tem-
erature, thus allowing a greater proportion of the heat applied to become latent in
mternal molecular work. It was stated as a general principle that, other thinys being
equal, the more easily fused a body is the greater is its specific heat. This was shown
also experimentally to be the case.
In conclusion, in the production of molecular work by heat or mechanical work
by means of electro-magnetism, there exists no fixed relation between the amount
of heat applied and the work performed, for in both cases the quantity of work
varies with the molecular resistance offered.
On Electric Cables, with reference to Observations on the Malta-Alewandria
Telegraph. By Dr. Ernest Esse.Bacu.
The three sections of this cable touching the shore at Tripoli and Benghazi
represent three condensers of 75,000 to 150,000 feet square, which, on account of their
size, disclosed several important facts in regard to the nature of the dielectric,
They allowed, in the first instance, a clear separation of the residual charge from the
resistance test. Dr. Esselbach arrived thereby not only at the true resistance of
gutta percha, but attained a new and entirely different test for insulation (electri-
fication test), by which the absence of electrolytic action in the covering could be
distinctly ascertained. These observations further afforded proof that the residual
charge on Leyden jars was not a penetration of electricity like that of heat in a
metal, but an increase of the specific inductive capacity of the material, and merely
a function of time, analogous to certain corresponding phenomena of torsion and
magnetism. The absolute quantity of charge, as ascertained in Dr. Esselbach’s pre-
vious paper, showed that an increase in inductive capacity of one per cent., under
the influence of electric tension, was sufficient to account for what appeared to the
galvanometer as a change in resistance amounting sometimes to as much as 50 per
cent.
Dr. Esselbach further showed his diagrams on earth-currents, extending over
one month’s observation, indicating the great advantage which two lines of 500
and 600 miles from east to west, and one from north to south, in one continuation,
sh and the facility and precision with which they are observed by Wheatstone’s
ridge.
The cable is taken roughly as being 2000 times better than the old Atlantic cable ;
and whereas in this latter at least 80 per cent. of the strength of current was lost in
the transit, more than 99 per cent. actually arrives in the present case at the other
end. The speed of a signal through this cable has been ascertained in different
ways, and in the most perfect way by Captain Spratt, C.B., incidentally, upon a
comparison between the longitude of Malta and Alexandria. The time for one
signal through the whole length of 1300 miles approaches one second nearly. The
author drew attention to the fact that the question of practical speed, after having
first been brought into prominence by Mr. Latimer Clark’s experiments, had re-
mained in abeyance since Professor Thomson’s researches at the time of the laying
of the Atlantic cable, after which all interest had been absorbed by the insulation
question, and very rightly, since it was first necessary to establish communication,
and with certainty, before trying to precipitate it. This appearing now assured by
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27
a great and deserved success of manufacturers, attention could freely be turned to
experiments on speed, as entered upon by Messrs. Jenkin and Varley; and he men-
tioned that applications had been made to Government from the first authorities to
take advantage of the Malta-Alexandria Telegraph for the purpose.
On an Experimental Determination of the Absolute Quantity of Electric Charge
on Condensers. By Dr. EssrnBacu,
This quantity having first been approximately ascertained by Faraday, had been
afterwards established by the researches of Weber, Thomson, and Joule; but the
application of these results to submarine cables requiring intermediate reductions,
the author undertook a direct determination, for which the means had since become
available.
A cable of certain description was charged (and discharged) by 100 Daniell’s
400,000 times in 14" 30’; this quantity of electricity deposited in four several
yoltameters 12-9 mer. of silver. ‘The determination was repeated under different
conditions, The absolute quantity can hence be calculated for any other cable by
means of the well-known formula for determining their relative capacities. The
quantity of charge on the whole Malta-Alexandria cable by 20 cells (the ordinary
speaking power) is accordingly equivalent to 0-013 mgr. of silver, a quantity which
is furnished in 0-964 second by the battery in a closed circuit of 2500 units (one
Daniell by 1000 mercury units depositing 4:01 mgr. of silver per hour), This
would therefore be the maximum speed with this battery, as far as merely the
quantity of electricity is concerned. During the investigation of the method which
receded the experiment, Dr. Esselbach found the charge and discharge influenced
fy the resistance to sufficient extent to admit of verifying experimentally the
second case of Professor Thomson’s theory of discharge, which is of practical import
ance for the question of velocity.
Account of an Electromotive Engine. By G. M. Guy.
The author explained the difficulty of obtaining, by any of the methods hereto-
fore suggested, a sufficiently rapid motion within the small spaces through which
magnets or electro-magnets acted with sufficient energy, and chiefly in consequence
of the rapid diminution of that energy as the distance of the poles increased, even
by very minute quantities, He exhibited and explained to the Section a working
model of the engine.
METEOROLOGY.
Suggestions on Balloon Navigation. By Isaac Asun, M.B.
The author ae a a simple contrivance by means of which the opening of the
escape-valve should depend, when desirable, on the relaxation of voluntary exertion
on the part of the aéronaut, so that in the event of insensibility supervening at great
altitudes, the valve should open spontaneously by means of a weight attached to
its rope, thus causing a descent of the balloon to safer altitudes, and obviating the
danger to life incurred by Messrs. Glaisher and Coxwell during their recent scien-
tific ascent from Wolverhampton in consequence of their becoming insensible.
Dr. Ashe also proposed the adaptation of screw propulsion to balloons, suggesting
a very light screw, capable of being elevated and depressed through an angle of
about 150°, so as to be capable of being hoisted while the balloon should be on the
ground, of being used horizontally as a propeller, or vertically underneath the car to
cause a temporary ascent, as for the purpose of crossing a mountain-range without
loss of ballast, which would involve remaining at the elevation so gained, or, on the
other hand, by reversing the action of the screw, to effect a descent without loss of
gas. Such a screw he considered could be worked at small elevations (2000 feet) by
the exertions of the aéronaut ; and its advantages would consist in the conferring, to
28 REPORT—1862.
a certain degree, of definite direction, and also of steering-power, and in obviating
the objection to hydrogen balloons, which consisted in the expense of this gas, as a
descent could be effected without loss of gas; hence smaller and much more ma-~
nageable balloons might be constructed than those now in use, and propulsion by
means of a screw would be so much easier.
Steering-power being obtained,Dr. Ashe hoped that a modification of shape might
be found practicable, so as to present a minimum of resistance to propulsion by the
screw. He proposed to steer by means of two small screws connected by a cranked
axle placed at right angles to the action of the propeller, and situated in front of
the car, so as not to interfere’with the hoisting of the propeller; these steering=
screws should have their spirals turned in the same direction, and by revolving them
in one direction, or the reverse, the balloon might be made to rotate on its vertical
axis as might be desirable. The disagreeable rotation incident to balloons might
also thus be obviated. Dr. Ashe suggested the employment of balloons in the in-
vestigation of aérial currents and circular storms, and for the exploration of unknown
continents: water, that great desideratum in such explorations, could be observed
from an elevation when it would otherwise be passed by unobserved, and a descent
being effected by the screw, its position might then be taken by observation, and
marked for the guidance of foot explorers. Similar remarks would apply to the
discovery of the easiest routes by means of balloon observations,
On some Improvements in the Barometer, By Isaac Asue, MB.
The author suggested a contrivance by which a water-barometer might be con-
structed, having a tube of not more than 3} feet in length, with a range in the
height of the column of liquid equal to about 39 inches. Though correct in theory,
this contrivance seemed to have some defects which would practically interfere with
its accuracy.
On the Determination of Heights by means of the Barometer, By Joun Bax.
The object of this paper was to direct attention to the serious errors which are in-
volved in the ordinary process of reducing barometric observations taken for hypso-
metrical purposes. This process involves two assumptions: Ist, that the volume
of a column of air unequally heated is nearly the same as that of an equal weight
of air of the same mean temperature ; 2ndly, that the mean temperature of the
column or stratum of air between the stations of observation corresponds to the
mean of the readings of thermometers standing in the shade at each station. The
error involved in the first assumption is not very considerable ; that arising from
the second is, on the contrary, highly important.
M. Brayais, who along with M. Charles Martins has contributed largely to our
knowledge of the meteorology of the Alps, was the first to propose a practical plan
for applying a correction to the assumed mean temperature of the air depending
upon the hour of the day and the season of the year at which observations are
made, but it is to M. Plantamour, the distinguished astronomer of Geneva, that we
owe the fullest investigation of this important subject.
Having ascertained by careful levelling the true height of the Great St. Bernard
above Geneva, M. Plantamour finds that the mean of all the barometric observa-
tions, made during eighteen years, deviates by fourteen English feet from the true
height, and he attributes this deviation, with great apparent probability, to an ab-
normal depression of the mean temperature of Geneva, owing to the neighbourhood
of the lake.
The readings of the barometer and thermometer at the observatories of Geneva
and the St. Bernard are taken daily at nine hours or epochs. M. Plantamour
assumes that, on an average of a long period of years, the mean of the observations
taken at any one epoch in the twenty-four hours should give the true difference of
height between the two stations, with an error due to the difference between the
mean of the readings of the thermometers at both stations at the same epoch,
and the true mean temperature of the air in the intervening stratum. Calcula-
ting then the height of the St. Bernard by the elements corresponding to each
epoch of the day during the four summer months, from June to September,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. : 29
he obtains a series of measures differing from the true height—those corre-
sponding to the hottest hours being in excess, and those appertaining to the
coldest hours in defect of the true height. He then ascertains the amount of cor-
rection which, being applied to the mean sum of the readings of the thermometer
at each epoch in each of those months, would bring out the true height. In this
manner he obtains a table, showing what he calls the normal correction for each
of the nine epochs of the day during the four summer months. There is good
reason to believe that, in reducing barometric observations which are to be com-
pared with Geneva and the St. Bernard, the application of the normal correction
ascertained in the manner above stated will in general give truer results than those
where this is not applied; but as it is obvious that the conditions of temperature
at the moment when a given observation is made are constantly yarying from the
mean of the corresponding day and hour, it follows that a further supplemental
correction should be made on this account.
To apply this further correction is a matter of no slight difficulty. The method
employed by M. Plantamour is as follows. He obtains from the observations at
Geneva and the St. Bernard (by interpolation when necessary) the elements corre-
sponding to the day and hour of the observation which is sought to be reduced,
and from these he calculates the height of the St. Bernard. The height so obtained,
when compared with the measure which is derived from the mean of the readings
for the same day and hour, as shown in his Table of normal corrections, furnishes
a criterion by which to judge of the conditions with respect to temperature of the
moment when the observations to be reduced were made. M. Plantamour thinks it
not difficult to infer from the observations themselves, and from the general state
of the weather at the time, whether the moment was one of atmospheric equilibrium
or the reverse. In the latter case the observation is treated as one of inferior utility,
to which a lower value should be assigned in the final calculation. Supposing,
on the contrary, the observations not to betray a disturbance of equilibrium between
the two stations, the deviation of the height, as calculated for that particular mo-
ment from the height derived from the corresponding means, is the measure of the
amount and sign of the supplemental correction corresponding to the moment of
observation.
Without entering at present into sundry points of secondary importance, the
writer believes that, while it is at present impossible to clear the mode of dealing
with this correction of some arbitrary elements, it is easy to adopt a system less
cumbrous and less inconvenient, and at least equally accurate with that proposed by
M. Plantamour. He finds that many of the observations which appear to ML Plan-
tamour to be clear of anomalies arising from the disturbance of atmospheric equi-
librium, show unequivocal traces of such disturbance. These anomalies can be
eliminated only by comparing the observations in hand with many ditierent stan-
dard stations, such as Milan, Turin, &c.; but, in the absence of direct evidence, the
introduction of an empirical correction in the manner proposed is likely to lead to
error.
The writer proposes to deal directly with the correction for temperature upon the
best information that is available in regard to each of the stations where observa-
tions are recorded. He considers that the deviation of the thermometer at the
time of observation from its mean height at the corresponding day and hour, is a
tolerably accurate measure of its greater or less deviation at that time from the true
temperature of the air freed from surface-radiation, and may therefore be taken
with its proper sign for the supplemental correction.
It is important that the comparison between Geneva and St. Bernard, made by
M. Plantamour, should be extended to other stations near the base of the Alps,
and for this, as well as other reasons, it is highly desirable that the observations at
Milan and Turin should be made at hours which correspond with the Swiss
observations.
On the Extent of the Earth’s Atmosphere.
By the Rey. Professor Cuarus, M.A., F.RS., F.R.A.S,
The object of this paper was to show that the earth’s atmosphere is of limited
80 F REPORT—1862.
extent, and reasons were adduced, in the absence of data for calculating the exact
height, for concluding that it does not extend to the moon. It was argued on the
hypothesis of the atomic constitution of bodies, that the upward resultant of the
molecular forces on any atom, since it decreases as the height increases, must
eventually become just equal to the force of gravity, and that beyond the height at
which this equality is satisfied, there can be no more atoms, the atmosphere termi-
nating with a small finite density. It has been generally supposed that the earth’s
atmosphere is about 70 miles high, but on no definite grounds, and the estimates of
the height have been very various. Against the opinion that it extends as far as
the moon, it was argued that, as the moon would in that case attach to itself a con-
siderable portion by its gravitation, which would necessarily have some connexion
with the rest, there would be a continual drag on the portion more immediately
surrounding the earth, and intermediately on the earth itself, which would in some
degree retard the rotation on its axis. Hence if, as there is reason to suppose, the
rotation be strictly uniform, the earth’s atmosphere cannot extend to the moon. The
author also stated that if by balloon ascents the barometer and thermometer were
observed at two heights ascertained by observation, one considerably above the
other, and both above the region in which the currents from the equator influence
the temperature, data would be furnished by which an approximate determination
of the height of the atmosphere might be attempted.
On the “ Boussole Burnier,”’ a new French Pocket Instrument for measuring
Vertical and Horizontal Angles. By F. Gatton, F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
This instrument is about 3 inches long and ¢ inch deep. Its outside is composed
of two faces of brass with pear-shaped outlines, separated by vertical sides. In
the body of the instrument are two delicate circles placed in parallel planes; at
its smaller end is a cylindrical lens, which views the nearer graduations on the
rims of the two circles; on the upper face of the instrument are sight-vanes like
those of an azimuth compass; on the lower face is a light universal joint, which is
used when the instrument is attached to a support, and not held, as it may be, in
the hand.
One of the circles is of aluminium, and is borne by a compass-needle; it gives
horizontal angles when the instrument is held horizontally. The other is of silvered
copper, unequally weighted, and is supported by a delicate axis playing in jewelled
holes: it gives vertical circles through the action of gravity when the instrument
is held vertically, just as the compass-circle gives azimuthal angles through the
action of the magnetic force when the instrument is held horizontally.
The remarkable simplicity and compactness of the Boussole Burnier would make
it useful to the traveller, the geologist, and the military engineer. It is the inven-
tion of Lieut.-Col. Burnier of the French Engineers, and has been perfected in its
details by M. Balbreck, No. 81 Boulevard Mt. Parnasse, Paris.
European Weather-Charts for December 1861. By F, Gatton, 7.B.S., F.R.GS.
The author submitted for examination a series of printed and stereotyped charts,
compiled by himself, that contained the usual meteorological observations made at
eighty stations in Europe, on the morning, afternoon, and evening of each day of
December 1861. They were printed partly in symbols and partly in figures, in such
a form that each separate group of observations occupies a small label, whose centre
coincides with the geographical position of the station where the observations were
made. The amount of cloud is expressed by shaded types, the direction of the wind
by an equivalent to an arrow, and its force by a symbolical mark. The tempera-
ture of the wet and dry thermometers, and the barometric readings (reduced to zero
and sea-level) are given in figures. As the charts had been too recently printed to
admit of a thorough examination, and as they were ultimately to appear as a sepa-
rate publication, the author abstained from other deductions than those that were
obvious on inspection. Among these, the enormous range and the simultaneity of
the wind-changes, testifying to the remarkable mobility of the air, were exceedingly
conspicuous.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 381
On the Distribution of Fog round the Coasts of the British Islands.
By Dr. Guavstonz, F.RS.
Certain conclusions on this subject formerly arrived at by the author had been
re-examined by means of additional returns from the meteorological journals kept
at all the stations belonging to the three general lighthouse authorities in England,
Scotland, and Ireland, and some returns lent him by Mr. James Glaisher. These
afforded confirmation of the greater uniformity of distribution of fogs over the
surface of the sea than on land, of their great prevalency where the south-west
wind from the ocean strikes upon high ground, of the comparative infrequency of
foe on the coasts of straits or portions of sea nearly surrounded by land, and other
oints previously noted. The returns also indicated that some years are much more
oggy than others in nearly all localities; that the same fog sometimes prevails
over a large extent of country; and that the frequency of fog differs very greatly
in different months of the year, January, February, or March being on some coasts
almost free. A generally accepted means of distinguishing between “fog” and
“mist” is a great desideratum.
On a New Barometer used in the last Balloon Ascents.
By J. Guatsumr, F.R.S,
Mr. Glaisher exhibited a mercurial barometer which had been designed and con-
structed by Messrs. Negretti and Zambra for the purpose of checking the readings
of the Gay-Lussac’s barometer which had been used in the several late balloon
ascents. ‘The correctness of the readings of a Gay-Lussac’s barometer at low
pressure depended upon the evenness of the tube, and it is difficult to calibrate so
large a tube. Messrs. Negretti and Zambra selected a good tube, 6 feet in length,
attaching a cistern to its lower end. Mercury was boiled throughout the length of
the tube; at the entrance of the cistern was placed a stopcock, by which means
any definite quantity of mercury could be allowed to pass from the upper half of
the tube into the cistern, and its height in the cistern noted and engraved; then a
second portion, and so on. This process could be repeated. When the cistern
was thus satisfactorily divided, the tube was cut in two, and to the upper half the
cistern was joined ; a scale was attached to this portion, and the reverse operation
was performed, viz., allowing portions of the mercury to pass from the cistern
into the tube, which could be regulated by means of the stopcock, and thus the
scale was divided. The process, in fact, is using the tube to graduate itself. In
carriage, the stopcock locks the mercury in the tube. This instrument was used,
and acted well on the extreme high ascent.
On the Additional Evidence of the Indirect Influence of the Moon over the
Temperature of the Air, resulting from the Tabulation of Observations taken
at Greenwich rn 1861-62. By J. Park Harrison, M.A.
The author stated that the additional evidence derived from the observations of
mean temperature at Greenwich for the years 1861-62 confirmed the conclusions
arrived at from a tabulation of the observations for the forty-seven years previous,
viz., that the temperature of the air at the moon’s first quarter is higher than it is
at full moon and last quarter, and that this is due to the amount of cloud at first
quarter being greater on the average than it is at the periods of full moon and last
quarter. The difference in the amount of rain also at first quarter in 1861-62 was
2-27 inches more than at full moon, on a mean of eighty-four observations on seven
days at each period.
On the Relative Amount of Sunshine falling on the Torrid Zone of the Earth.
By Professor Hunnussy, F.R.S.
By the aid of the author's transformations of formule given by Poisson, the area
of that portion of the equatorial regions of the earth which receives as much sun-
shine as the rest of the earth’s surface is ascertained. This area, at the outer limits
of the earth’s atmosphere, is thus found to be bounded by parallels situate at distances
of 23° 44’ 40” at each side of the equator; hence the amount of sunshine falling on
oe REPORT—1862.
the outer limits of the earth’s atmosphere between the tropics is very nearly equal to
that which falls on the remaining portions of the earth’s surface. If we reflect that,
according to Principal Forbes’s researches, the amount of heat extinguished by the
atmosphere before a given solar ray reaches the earth is more than one-half for in-
clinations less than 25°, and that for inclinations of 5° only the twentieth part of
the heat reaches the ground, we immediately see that the torrid zone of the earth
must be far more effective than all the rest of the earth’s surface as a recipient of
solar heat. It follows, therefore, that the distribution of the absorbing and radiating
surfaces within the torrid zone must, upon the whole, exercise a predominating in-
fluence in modifying general terrestrial climate.
On the Hurricane near Newark of May 7th, 1862, showing the force of the
Hailstones and the violence of the Gale. By KE. J. Lown, F.R.AS. §e.
The hurricane about to be described was accompanied by a thunder-storm, which
was more or less spread over the centre of England. On the previous evening there
were violent thunder-storms, accompanied in various places with large hailstones
and with rose-coloured lightning. The hurricane of the 7th of May was remarkable
for its violence near Newark, and for the violence of the thunder-storm which oc-
curred at the same time ; it will long be remembered in the neighbourhood on account
of the devastation that was caused, for the particularly striking night-like darkness,
for the great size and curious forms of the hailstones, and on account of the mag=
nificence of the colour of the lightning. At Highfield House the morning was
sultry, with thunder about noon, and again continuously in 8. and 8.E. at three
o'clock. At half-past two the temperature in shade had risen to 73°°6 with a west
wind, but the clouds whirling round in all directions, a low current carried broken
nimbi rapidly from west, whilst the storm-cloud was approaching in a 8.S.E. cur-
rent, At half-past four o’clock the temperature had fallen to 60° (a descent of 13°-6
in two hours), whilst the wind had risen to half a gale. The thunder, though distant,
was frequent. The sky gradually became blacker and blacker, until at five o’clock
it was darker than I had ever before seen it except during a total eclipse of the sun.
A book with bold type could scarcely be read at a window, nor away from it could
the hands of a watch be seen. This storm put on very much the appearance of a
total eclipse; near objects had a yellow glare cast upon them, and the landscape
was closed in on all sides at the distance of half a mile by a storm-cloud wall. Rain
fell in torrents, but not in an ordinary manner; it was swept along the ground in
clouds like smoke. Flashes of lightning also came in impulses, four or five following
each other in rapid succession, succeeded by a brief pause, and then four or five
more. The colour of the lightning was lovely beyond description, being an intense
bluish red—almost rose, The wind now veered to the 8.S.E., taking the storm’s di-
rection. The temperature had descended to 51° (a fall of more than 223°), and the
anemometer showed 9 lbs. pressure on the square foot. Severe as this storm was at
Highfield House, it dwindled into insignificance when compared with its violence
near Newark. It is scarcely possible to imagine any destruction more complete
than that effected by this fearful storm. Fortunately its ravages were confined
within narrow limits, being restricted to three miles in length and 150 yards in
width, commencing at the village of Barnby; after proceeding a mile its violence
considerably increased ; before reaching Coddington it tore up the hedges that sur-
rounded the fields and unroofed the farm buildings. At Balderton Lane it threw
down farm buildings and uprooted enormous oak-trees ; a quarter of a mile further
it unroofed the house of Mr. James Thorp’s head keeper, the hailstones breaking
nearly all the windows, having in many instances been driven through the glass,
cutting out smooth holes. The spout of this house, too heavy for one man to lift,
was carried 100 yards, and a perfectly sound elm-tree, about 60 feet in height and
5 feet 10 inches in circumference (where broken off), was snapped asunder four
feet from the ground, and the tree carried twenty-nine yards through the air. The
wood of this tree was twisted to the very heart. Here a man was lifted off the
ground and then carried twenty yards, being unable to save himself, finally lodging
inahedge. Thirty or forty yards from Mr. Thorp’s house at Beaconfield the hur-
ricane divided, leaving the house itself intact, and also the trees in its immediate
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33
neighbourhood, from 8. round by E. to N., while on the W. side outbuildings were
unroofed or destroyed, the large garden wall thrown down, and the fencing around
the plantations broken off and carried into the fallen timber. A few yards beyond
the Fonds the gale reunited, and passing through a wood destroyed all the trees; it
then proceeded across fields as far as Winthorpe, and here its fury became exhausted.
The gale rotated in the direction of W. to 8., which was apparent from the twist
of the wood of the snapped-off trees, and also from an avenue of chestnuts situated
on the extreme eastern edge of the hurricane having all the torn-off boughs lying
on the S. or storm-side, and being carried back beyond the level of the trees.
Proposed Measurement of the Temperatures of Active Volcanic Foci to the
greatest attainable Depth, and of the Temperature, state of Saturation, and
Velocity of Issue of the Steam and Vapours evolved. By Rozurt Mater,
C.E., M.A., FBS.
The author having circulated the following document amongst various Members
of the British Association a short time prior to the Meeting and during same, en-
larged upon the objects of his proposed experimental inquiry ; and explained to
Section A, in part, the methods he intended to employ.
Determination of Voleanie Temperatures.—It is a singular fact, and one scareely
creditable to the past investigation of volcanic phenomena, that up to this time no
careful attempt has been made to determine, even approximately, the temperature
of the heated or incandescent focus of any active volcano, even at the mouth of the
crater, still less to depths lower down.
Much labour and time have been lavished upon analysation of the gases and solid
products evolved, and upon other still more minute inquiries—more than was ne-
cessary, indeed, to obtain all the leading information as to the nature of yulcanicity
(using that general term to express the train of forces and of events whence the
supply of voleanic heat and energy is kept up) which such results are capable of
yielding ; but the most obvious of all physical data, viz. those referring to the
actual temperature of volcanic foci at the greatest attainable depths, have been
completely neglected by vulcanologists, either because they too hastily concluded
that experimental measurements of such were impossible, or, more probably, be-
cause, as often happens in the investigation of nature, the most obvious question is
that which is longest neglected being put to nature.
The experiments that have been made on the heat of lava-fisswes, and upon the
temperatures of geysers, hot-springs, mines, &c., do not of course bear upon those
here in point.
_ It seems almost unnecessary to dilate upon the importance to vulcanology, and
to all cosmical physics, of some precise information as to these focal temperatures,
the knowledge of which would assign limits at once to many speculations at pre-
sent vague and perhaps valueless, give measure to the estimation of the forces con=
ai and direct further investigation as to the sources whence these may be
erived.
For brevity, the writer may venturé to quote on this subject the following passiee
from his Report to the Royal Society on the great Neapolitan earthquake of 1857 :—
“T cannot find that any professed investigator of volcanos has ever thought of
making the very obvious on important experiment of lowering, with an iron wire,
a pyrometer as far as possible into a crater, in order to get some idea of its actual
temperature, even within a few score yards of its mouth.
“ When on Vesuvius, on the occasion of this Report, I feel satisfied that I could
have so measured the temperature of the minor mouth—then in powerful action—
to the depth of several hundred feet, had I possessed the instrumental means at”
hand. To this smaller mouth it was then possible, b Minne the face in a wet
cloth, to approach so near upon the hard and ahienly -defined (though thin and
dangerous) crust of lava through which it had broken, as to see its walls for quite
150 feet down, by estimation. They were glowing hot to the very lips, although
constantly evolving a torrent of rushing steam with varying velocity. Accustomed
as I have been by profession for years to judge of temperature in large furnaces by
the eye, I estimated the temperature of this mouth, by the appearance of its heated
Ss]
1862, |
$4 REPORT—1862.
walls, at the lowest visible depth ; they were there of a pretty bright red, visible in
bright winter sunlight overhead. Ihave no doubt then that the temperature of
the shaft at from 300 to 500 feet down was sufficient to melt copper, or ata 1900°
to 2000° Fahy.
“From the extremely bad conducting power of the walls of a volcanic shaft,
there is scarcely any loss of heat from any cause, except its enormous absorption
in the latent heat, of the prodigious volume of dry steam, which is constantly being
evolved. It is perfectly transparent for several yards above the orifice of the shaft,
and is not only perfectly dry steam but also superheated; and although this steam
may be at the mouth very much below the highest temperature of the hottest point,
the temperature of the shaft or duct that carries it off will be very nearly at all
depths the same, to probably within a very short distance of the point of greatest
incandescence.”—Rep. Roy. Soc., &c., Pt. 1. chap. xii. vol. i. pp. 313, 314.
The writer respectfully urges that the organization of experiments to determine
such data is a subject worthy the immediate attention of the British Association,
the Royal Society, and other similar scientific bodies.
From recent information he has reason to believe that the existing state of
Vesuvius is favourable to such experiments, which the writer is himself prepared
to attempt, provided the necessary apparatus and other means be placed at his dis-
posal. The experiments that he would in the first instance propose are—
(1) The temperature at the mouth or mouths, to the lowest reachable depths
within the Vesuvian craters.
(2) The temperature of the issuing steam vapours or gases at the mouths, and
the degree to which the former are superheated.
(8) Approximate determination of the velocity (extreme and mean) of the
issuing discharge of steam, &c., with a view to estimation of the volume, in given
time, and of the total heat carried off, in same.
For the 1st and 2nd, three or more mutually controlling methods may be
employed. a, The air pyrometer, or that of Daniell, maximum self-registering.
b. The differential bar pyrometer (of two metals), with constant galyanic con-
nexion to the surface. c. The resistance coil thermoscope, also in constant con-
nexion with the surface. The writer, as a practical engineer, has well-founded
hope of inserting either or all of these to a considerable and known depth within
the crater or craters.
For the 3rd, analogous methods should be employed. For the 4th, there is no
doubt that Dr. Robinson’s anemometer may be so modified as to be made avyail-
able to determine the issuing velocity in various parts of the column. Into the
mechanical arrangements for placing, lowering, and observing, &c. these instru-
ments, it is not necessary here to enter.
Vesuvius presents many advantages as a first experimental station; but the
inquiry would afterwards be advantageously extended to other volcanic vents.
Whatever presumable difficulties may exist, if successfully overcome in the first
case, will nearly vanish as regards subsequent repetitions elsewhere.
On Meteorology, with a Description of Meteorological Instruments.
By T. L, Pranrt.
Meteorological Observations registered at Huggate, Yorkshire,
By the Rey. T. Ranxrn,
This notice was in continuation of those annually made for many years by the
author on the Wolds of Yorkshire, at an elevation of 650 feet above the level of the
sea. They contained the annual tables of means, with notes of the days on which
eis most remarkable events connected with the weather and meteors occurred during
the year.
On Objections to the Cyclone Theory of Storms. By 8. A, Rowett.
Admitting that the winds in storms do at times take a more or less circular
eourse, and that whirlwinds may sometimes occur during storms, the author believed
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35
that these are only occasional and minor phenomena in storms, and not the storm
itself, as represented in the cyclone theory. He objected to the cyclone theory on
the grounds that it is opposed to all the known natural laws which affect the con-
dition of the atmosphere, as he believed it to be impossible that a disk of some
hundreds of miles in diameter, but of a mere mile or so in thickness, of air lighter
than the general atmosphere, could make its way for days and days in succession
through the densest part of the atmosphere,—that the evidence in support of the
theory is insufficient (this he attempted to show by the aid of diagrams from Reid’s
‘Law of Storms,’ and a general reference to works of the kind), and that the phe-
nomena of the (so-called) cyclone storms may be otherwise accounted for,
On the Performance, under trying circumstances, of a very small Aneroid
Barometer. By G. J. Symons,
This instrument, which the author exhibited, had been worn constantly by him
recently while at sea in rough weather, while riding and driving over roadless
districts in the Orkneys, and also on several occasions when rough climbing and
severe jumps had been necessary: he therefore presumed he might reasonably con-
clude that it had been fully tried. It had been tested before, during, and after the
voyage, and had in each case given the same result when compared with mercurial
standards. He therefore inferred that it might be considered even less liable to
derangement from travel than an ordinary watch. The instrument was very small,
being only two inches in diameter and three-quarters of an inch thick,
On the Disintegration of Stones exposed in Buildings and otherwise to Atmo-
spheric Influence. By Professor James Toomson, M.A., C.E.
The author haying first guarded against being understood as meaning to assign
any one single cause for the disintegration of stones in general, gave reasons to
show—lst. That there may frequently be observed cases of disintegration which
are not referable to a softening or weakening of the stone by the dissolving away
or the chemical alteration of portions of itself, but in which the crumbling is to be
attributed to a disruptive force possessed by crystalline matter in solidifying itself
in pores or cavities from liquid permeating the stone. 2nd. That in the cases in
question the crumbling away of the stones, when not such as is caused by the freez-
ing of water in pores, usually occurs in the greatest degree at places to which, by
the joint agency of moisture and evaporation, saline substances existing in the
stones are brought and left to crystallize. 3rd, That the solidification of crystal-
line matter in porous stones, whether that be ice formed by freezing from water,
or crystals of salts formed from their solutions, usually produces disintegration—
not, as is implied in the views commonly accepted on this subject, by expansion of
the total volume of the liquid and crystals jointly, producing a fluid pressure in the
pores—but, on the contrary, by a tendency of crystals to increase in size when in
contact with a liquid tending to deposit the same crystalline substance in the solid
state, even where, to do so, they must push out of their way the porous walls of the
cavities in which they are contained, and even though it be from liquid permeating
these walls that they receive the materials for their increase,
CHEMISTRY. |
Address by Professor W. H. Mitime, 1.4., F.B.S., President of the Section.
Once in about a quarter of a century a mineralogist is placed in the chair of the
Chemical Section of the British Association. This procedure is not without its
inconvenience: many important questions are likely to present themselves during
the meetings of the Section which a mineralogical president can rarely be competent
todecide, In another point of view, however, this arrangement is more satisfactory ;
*
36 REPORT—1862.
it is symbolical of the removal of a barrier which once threatened to separate
mineralogy from chemistry, to the serious detriment of both. While some minera-
logists sought to exclude chemistry from their systems, chemists intent upon dis-
covery in the newly opened field of organic chemistry neglected mineral analysis.
But of late these mutually estranged sciences have exhibited a growing tendency
to reunite, and to aid one another. The chemists now freely admit the mineralogists
as their associates, not unfrequently sharing their labours, and include geometrical
and optical characters in the descriptions of the new combinations they discover.
Of this we have instances in the memoirs of Kopp, Rammelsberg, Hofmann, Sella,
Marignac, Des Cloizeaux, and in those of Haidinger, Leydolt, Grailich, Dauber,
Schabus, v. Lang, Schrauf, v. Zepharovich, Rotter, A. and E. Weiss, Murmann, and
Handl. The experiments on the formation of minerals, commenced by Berthier
and Mitscherlich, have since been varied in almost every possible way. Ebelmen,
de Sénarmont (whose recent death is a grievous loss to the sciences we cultivate),
Daubrée, Wohler, Manross, and H. Deville have successfully imitated the processes
of nature in producing a large number of crystallized minerals in the laboratory,
and thus have helped to obliterate the boundary arbitrarily drawn between the
studies of the chemist and those of the mineralogist.
The memoirs I have cited in proof of the intimate connexion of chemistry and
mineralogy deserve our especial attention for another and more important reason.
The observations they record, being made on crystals of accurately known compo-
sition, far exceeding the crystallized minerals in number, and differing from minerals
in being quite free from any admixture of foreign matter, furnish the only data
from which we may hope that some future Newton of the science will be enabled
to discover a simple law of the dependence of the form, optical and physical pro-
perties of crystallized bodies on the substance of which they are composed.
On the Formation of Organo-Metallic Radicals by Substitution.
By Gzorce Bowprer Bucxton, F.R.S.
The object of this inquiry was to investigate the order in which the metals of
the organo-metallic radicals were capable of substitution, through the agency, in
the first place, of simple metals, in the second place, of salts of simple metals, and
in the third place, of salts of other organo-metallic bodies.
It was found that when metals acted upon these radicals, substitutions were
affected, in the greater number of cases, in the order indicated by the ordinary
electro-positive or electro-negative position of the contained metals. Exceptional
cases, however, occurred.
By the action of sodium on mercuric ethyl, the mercury is partly extruded, and
a double compound of mercuric and sodium-ethyl is obtained.
By the action of chloride of cadmium on zinc-ethyl, appreciable quantities of cad-
‘mium-ethyl were formed, which, however, could not 3 satisfactorily separated,
either by distillation or the action of anhydrous solvents, from the unctuous mass
of chloride of zinc which is one product observed.
Mercurie ethyl and bichloride of tin react powerfully with the evolution of much
heat, and result in the separation of chloride of mercuric ethyl and chloride of
stannic sesquiethyl, according to the equation
Et \S" 61 Et
5) HeR + 6.0 =3 | Hg Bl 4
Terchloride of antimony, on the other hand, is converted by mercuric ethyl into
triethylstibene, the whole of the chlorine passing over to the mercuric radical.
Ey Cl Et Et
(osB)o() (08) (8)
From the circumstance that titanium, in many respects, imitates the behaviour
of the metal tin in its combinations, experiments were made with the bichloride,
Zinc-ethyl strongly reacts upon this body, if assisted by gentle heat. Chloride of
Sn =
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37
zine is formed, but gases are immediately disengaged if distillation is attempted.
Bichloride of titanium and stannic diethyl result in the reduction of the bichloride
to the condition of sesquichloride, whilst the oily chloride of stannic sesquiethyl
separates according to the equation
Et Cl Et
Sn Ti 7 Cl Sn
Et Cr=2 40 Cle Ht 1.0, H, CL
ssp (Ta (MO sng
The paper concluded with considerations upon the possibility of substituting
ethyl for oxygen in the organo-metals, and also remarked upon the question, pos~
sessed of considerable interest, how far, and in what manner, the introduction of
different metals can be effected in the organo-metallic radicals, represented by the
type
X+
File
X+
R/xt
Can RR be represented by different metals, in the same manner as X may re~
present different alcohol radicals? The author hoped shortly to be in a position
to answer this inquiry.
On the Action of Nitric Acid upon Pyrophosphate of Magnesia.
By Dueatp Campsett, Analytical Chemist to the Brompton Hospital, London.
When pyrophosphate of magnesia was dissolved in ordinary nitric acid, and ex-
posed in an open capsule to temperatures ranging from 320° F. to 550° F, till the
weight became constant for each temperature, it was invariably found to have in-
ee very much in weight; although not always to the same extent, as shown
elow :—
Temperature. Percentage increase of weight. - Difference.
320° F.
22 to 30 8 per cent.
420 19 - to 21 a ea,
550 135 to 14:5 ilar
When the pyrophosphate of magnesia, still retaining nitric acid, but constant in
weight at 320° F., was heated sufficiently to drive off all the nitric acid, it was found
to have decreased in weight, not to a uniform amount, but varying from 9 to 16
he cent., according to the greater or less rapid application of heat; on heating in
he same manner the pyrophosphates of magnesia retaining nitric acid, and constant
in weight at 430° F. and 550° F., they were found likewise to have decreased much
in weight, although not to so great an extent, by pyrophosphate of magnesia being
volatilized along with the nitric acid.
It is inferred from these experiments that nitric acid has a stronger affinity for
magnesia than pyrophosphoric acid has, and that on adding nitric acid to pyrophos-
phate of magnesia, nitrate of magnesia is formed, pyrophosphoric acid being libe-~
rated; and this was proved to be the case by dissolving pyrophosphate of magnesia
in nitric acid, evaporating the solution till syrupy, and then placing it under a
bell-jar over sulphuric acid; after a time nitrate of magnesia crystallized, and
pyrophosphoric acid could be drained off.
But although nitrate of magnesia is formed and pyrophosphoric acid set free on
the addition of nitric acid to pyrophosphate, it is probable that, when this mixture
is evaporated and heated, the products are not always mere mixtures of nitrate of
magnesia and pyrophosphoric acid, but that they are sometimes compounds; and
the reasons for this opinion are, that these products are but slightly deliquescent,
that ‘nitric acid is less readily expelled from them than from nitrate of magnesia,
and that on heating these products suddenly, pyrophosphate of magnesia is yolati-
lized, though it is not under ordinary circumstances a volatilizable salt.
From the above results, the author recommends the discontinuance of moistening
the pyrophosphate with nitric acid when calcining it, when estimating phosphoric
acid or magnesia, as it may be apt to lead to a source of error.
358 REPORT—1862.
Mémoire sur les modifications temporaires et permanentes que la chaleur apporte
ad quelques propriétés optiques de certains corps cristallisés. Par A. Dus
CLOIZEAUX.
On sait, d’aprés d’anciennes recherches de MM. Brewster et Mitscherlich, que
dans certains cristaux l’écartement des axes optiques et l’orientation de leur plan
varient avec la température. Pendant longtemps on n’a guére connu que les phéno-
ménes si tranchés qui se manifestent dans la Glaubérite et le gypse. d’ai constaté
récemment qu’un assez grand nombre de substances anhydres ou hydratées, telles
que le feldspath orthose, la Heulandite, la Prehnite, le clinochlore, la eymophane,
la Brookite, &c., subissaient aussi l'influence de la chaleur d’une maniére plus ou
moins marquée ; mais de plus j’ai découvert que si l’on élevait suffisamment la
température, ce qu’il est facile de faire pour Vorthose, la cymophane et la Brookite,
par exemple, les modifications optiques, de temporaires qu elles sont lorsqu’on ne
dépasse pas 300 4 400 degrés Centigrades, deviennent enti¢rement permanentes. Le
minéral qui, par sa transparence et son homogénéité, se préte le mieux aux expéri-
ences les plus variées et les plus exactes, est un orthose vitreux de Wehr dans l’Lifel,
et c’est sur une plaque de cette nature que j’ai obtenu les résultats suivants,
Modifications temporaires.
Ecartement des tem pe Riek cleeenag a Température
axes optiques. Centigrades. plan paralléle au en degrés
plan de symétrie. Centigrades.
16° axes rouges; eae ; 4
paralléle & la diagonale Ciao eegeen eee ter pe pala
Horizontal 6 yes <.+;s60e cueyeiers { & 39 cy pee eee ee 145
12° a 13° axes bleus; 18-7 Ale Nein: sci eee 150
plan paralléle au plan de All sahes!is tot ldco: Maen . 155
symétrie, .......... bees BA ci ie eae cee « 1625
AD ot acral » GREENE esl)
eerie des fe MATL Sa dear te fas
‘plan paralitle au ‘ SO ere ad i ee
plan de symétrie. AG: 9.;, atiartiintatceee . 195
one ; AB SD, ssi Lise aaa 204
OM as cietaisas nant ts 42-5 LW is (ys adn tasgeterste etn 207
CO ets tina es Wa artis 45 Zl ‘el Octo n. coetias itt 545i ee
© G cieituaye's Sid Sh aauleve 45 ASI AD. 1, corre siete ee ae 212
DOS steht sick cee eis 46 AQ dbase herp et eM 215
DN oe oc eyed We, 2 48 50 HASH Se see uf 225
1x Mai eitstew swlelee ne eis 50 51 alse vistoaieraeOe ee 228
ieee d,s Sis sarees 5 . 53 ED tess ate oasncinteeieast eae 237
1D Fy eee Ble akawhe.s & ortteks 56 ES OD vids ticsneeine ree aoe 240
UC, eRe i ooh ie teg ad sooo, ot 58 De ine Wisechenetee Ec 250
18 Sass sTieiei ss ire S 60 A at orth arch eee 260
21 Ween thas sceel ie Cars pols 35, Bi, SOM i yaar erat » ofclb, EO
D2. Metaetns tae tais ace Saok oe 7 ACAD: eke cis Sais helenae 4% 275
DS! sehen ere eae CRS 725 DSi teats cunt tiieecites hale 275
ps Pe eee eee 75 ‘oh HW ree mae Bip pe a oe hr 279°5
QD.” ei oia «Miele errant bats 80 BE SO esis tésnp ita eter 290
DG oe. as ico eee 82 FI AN 2s sFayenciy ke Soe ae 28
yl PEI ES st IER a $0 21S Bt I ane nee ee Cece » 295
yo am IR Raba iy GE Yigal 93 EO rat ales oun tire ee 302
SU al. Seueen ee Ate 100 GO AO Less. co .crcteen area 306
BP oe rel veneered oe tee 105°5 2B a 8 RR ON 312
5s Se LSE i 12 GL AD 2 oe ae rset a 3155
SA.» hs chance eee 125 A Ce. Fee ae 319
als PMR NS TSR eee 128 G5).49 aware stare sete wine ee
5 1A ic Ses HR ma os MO 152-5 64 ofvanaiie i vin 1h legen ee
ee 8 Be ee
~ oe
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 39
On voit que l’écartement des axes Poe va toujours en augmentant avec la tem-
pérature, et que Vaugmentation est beaucoup plus rapide de 42° 4 142° que de 142°
a 342°.
Les observations, répétées un grand nombre de fois, ont été faites au moyen d’un
goniométre particulier installé sur un microscope polarisant, dont j’ai donné une de-
scription abrégée en 1859 dans le tom. xvi. des ‘ Annales des Mines,’ et que j’ail’hon-
neur de mettre sous les yeux de la Section. La plaque estsoumise 4 un courant d’air
chaud fourni par une lampe a alcool, et circulant dans une cheminée horizontale en
cuivre placée sur le microscope; l’écartement des axes optiques peut étre mesuré &
chaque instant a travers deux ouvertures pratiquées au centre des parois horizontales
de la cheminée et munies d’une glace mince; la température de l’air est indiquée
en méme temps par deux thermométres placés 4 droite et 4 gauche de ces ouvertures.
LO
Mais en employant ce procédé, je ne pouvais pas dépasser une température d’environ
350°. Pour m’assurer si les phénoménes suivaient la méme marche au-dela de cette
température, j’ai placé mon microscope dans une position horizontale, et sur le pror
longement de son axe derriére ]’éclaireu=
j/ai disposé un prisme de Nicol servant de
polariseur. Entre l’éclaireur et l’obj ectif,
distants d’enyiron deux centimétres, j’al
pee / || |\ 1 Some | aA suspendu, a l’aide d’une pince en rlnieiel
une trés petite lame parfaitement limpide
et homogéne d’orthose de Wehr sur laquelle pouvait étre dirigé le dard d’un
chalumeau @ gaz; un cercle horizontal gradué, au centre duquel passe la tige qui
soutient la pince de platine, permet de mesurer l’écartement des axes optiques;
pour plus de facilité j’ai opéré avec un verre rouge monochromatique.
Une plaque, qui a 14° Cent. avait ses axes rouges ¢cartés de 18° 30’ dans un plan
aralléle au plan de symétrie, a montré, dés la premiére application de la chaleur,
eux systémes d’anneaux dont le nombre augmentait rapidement tandis que leur
diamétre diminuait ; leur forme ainsi que celle des hyperboles qui les traversent a
conservé toute sa symétrie jusque vers la naissance du rouge ou ]’écartement des
axes a été trouvé de 70°. Aussitét que le rouge est deyenu apparent, les anneaux
et les hyperboles se sont déformés en se brisant, la mesure de l’écartement ne s’est
pe faite qu’avec difficulté, et vers 700° elle a donné successivement 2E = 118°, 122°,
24°, L’expérience ayant été arrétée pour ne pas faire éclater les lentilles du mi-
croscope, la plaque s’est refroidie rapidement, les phénoménes optiques ont repassé
Ee toutes les phases qu’ils avaient déja parcourues, et A 15° Cent. j’ai retrouvé
‘angle des axes égal 4 19°; il ne s’était donc produit aucune modification perma-
nente. Cette plaque soumise plusieurs fois aux mémes épreuves a toujours offert des -
apparences semblables; Vaccroissement de température semblait augmenter son
€paisseur, et sa structure au rouge se rapprochait de celle que présentent a la tem-
on ordinaire certains cristaux de Prehnite, de Heulandite, &c., composés de
ames irréguliérement encheyétrées.
Une seconde plaque carrée, ayant 4 15° Cent. ses axes rouges écartés de 13° dans
un plan paralléle a la diagonale horizontale de la base et ses axes bleus écartés de
16° 30’ dans un plan paralléle au plan de symétrie, s’est comportée d’une maniére
analogue. A partir du rouge naissant le plus foible, les anneaux se déformaient
fortement, les hyperboles disparaissaient, et l’angle apparent des axes, qui était con-
sidérable, ne pouvait plus se mesurer exactement,
40. REPORT—1862.
Des résultats précédents il semble permis de conclure que jusqu’é 350° environ
la conductibilité calorifique n’éprouve pas de changement notable dans l’intérieur du
feldspath orthose, mais qu’a partir de 400° ou 500° la propagation de la chaleur s’y
fait d’une maniére assez inégale pour provoquer temporairement une perturbation
plus ou moins profonde dans l’équilibre de ses arrangements moléculaires. Cet
équilibre peut reprendre son état primitif aprés le refroidissement, si la perturba-
tion n’a duré que 2 ou 3 minutes 4 une température qui ne dépasse pas 700°. Nous
allons yoir maintenant qu’en prolongeant l’action de la chaleur pendant un temps
suffisant, au rouge sombre ou au rouge blanc, il en résulte une nouyelle disposition
physique qui se manifeste par des modifications permanentes dans lorientation et
l’écartement des axes optiques.
Modifications permanentes.
lére plaque d’orthose de Wehr donnant a 13° Centig. avant calcination :
2H*=13° axes rouges, plan paralléle a la diagonale horizontale ;
17° axes bleus, plan paralléle au plan de symétrie._
Aprés calcination de 1 heure sur une lampe 4 alcool ordinaire :
2H =10° axes rouges, plan paralléle a la diagonale horizontale ;
21° axes bleus, plan paralléle au plan de symétrie, a 13° Centig.
Aprés calcination de 4 heures sur une lampe & gaz vers 600° 4 700° et refroidisse-
ment lent de 4 heures:
pone patel ia plan paralléle au plan de symétrie, 4 13° Centig.
: Aprés une nouvelle calcination de 7 heures sur la lampe & gaz et refroidissement
rusque :
: Baan a mies Wea, plan paralléle au plan de symétrie, 4 15°-5 Centig.
Qieme plaque de Wehr donnant avant calcination 4 13° Centig. :
chins & 30! ae pa vtene plan paralléle 4 la diagonale horizontale.
Aprés une calcination de 8 heures sur la lampe 4 gaz et refroidissement brusque :
re ted 30) ar tees” plan paralléle au plan de symétrie, 4 15°-5 Centig.
Aprés une exposition de 8 jours, dont 36 heures de calcination vers 800° et 6 jours
de refroidissement gradué, dans un four de Sévres cuisant au dégourdi ;
2H=37° axes rouges,
49° axes bleus,
8itme plaque de Wehr trés epaisse donnant avant calcination a 12° Centig. :
2H=25° axes rouges,
17° axes bleus,
Aprés 1 heure de calcination sur la lampe & gaz, pas de changement.
Aprés 5 minutes de calcination sur un chalumeau 4 gaz vers 900° et refroidisse-
ment brusque :
2E=33° 30’ axes rouges,
38° axes bleus,
plan paralléle au plan de symétrie, 4 19°-5 Centig.
plan paralléle a la diagonale horizontale.
plan paralléle au plan de symétrie, A 18° Centig.
Aprés 8 jours d’exposition dans un four de Sévres cuisant au dégourdi:
2K =45° axes rouges,
48° axes bleus,
4 4ieme échantillon de Wehr débité en 3 plaques donnant ayant calcination 4 13°
entig. :
2K=17° 30! axes rouges,
27° axes bleus,
plan paralléle au plan de symétrie, 4 19°-5 Centig.
plan paralléle au plan de symétrie.
* 2E désigne l’angle apparent des axes optiques dans l’air.
EE
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 4]
La lee plaque, chauffée pendant 7 heures au rouge foible sur une lampe’a gaz et
refroidie brusquement, a donné :
=21° o
2H - zee oateg plan paralléle au plan de symétrie, 4 13° Centig.
? >
Aprés une calcination de ¢ heure sur un chalumeau 4 gaz au rouge vif (fusion du
cuivre) et refroidissement brusque, l’écartement est devenu:
2H=45° 30' axes rouges : aon es :
sa 49° 30 axes bleus, g plan paralléle au plan de symétrie, 4 15° Centig.
La 2ieme plaque exposée 4 Sévres pendant 8 jours dans un four chauffant au dé~
gourd: et relroidie trés lentement, a donné :
_ ‘e] ,
raed ae ices, plan paralléle au plan de symétrie, 4 19°-5 Centig.
Aprés une nouvelle exposition de 8 jours dans un four cuisant au grand feu et un
refroidissement trés lent, on a obtenu:
‘ = Oo U
‘giuae ay eae ica” plan paralléle au plan de symétrie, 4 18° Centig.
La 3itme plaque, mise & Séyres au grand few en méme temps que la précédente, a
donné :
7 Oo
—. — vet plan paralléle au plan de symétrie, 4 20° Centig.
?
Plusieurs plaques d’adulaire du Saint-Gothard, calcinées au rouge foible sur une
lampe & gaz, n’ont éprouvé aucun changement dans l’écartement de leurs axes op-
tiques.
ne plaque d’adulaire donnant avant calcination, 4 16°-5 Centig., 2E=108° axes
rouges, a été calcinée pendant } d’heure au rouge vif (fusion de l’argent) sur un
chalumeau a gaz; elle est devenue laiteuse et translucide par places, et 4 18° Centig.
l’écartement de ses axes rouges n’est plus que de 102° 95’.
Une autre plaque d’adulaire dans laquelle 2K =111° 23’ pour les axes rouges, & 20°
Centig. avant calcination, a donné aprés une 3-heure de calcination au rouge vif sur
le chalumeau a gaz, 2E=90° 27’, 4 16° Centig. Dans les fours de Sévres, la teinte
laiteuse augmente, la translucidité diminue, et l’angle des axes ne peut plus étre
apprécié bien exactement.
ne plaque de pierre de lune (moonstone) de Ceylan, dans laquelle l’écartement
des axes était de 121° 15’ avant calcination, & 15°-5 Centig. a perdu son réflet cha-
toyant et pris une teinte laiteuse aprés une exposition de } d’heure sur le chalu-
meau 4 gaz (fusion de l’argent), et 4 18° Centig. cet écartement est devenu 117° 31’.
En répétant ces expériences sur les variétés d’orthose connues sous les noms de
eisspath de la Somma, sanidine des trachytes des bords du Rhin et de l’Auvergne,
loxoclase de New York, microcline de Fredrikswiirn (variété chatoyante) ou de
Bodenmais (variété verte non chatoyante), Murchisonite du Devonshire, hyalophane
de Binnen, j’ai trouvé que toutes éprouvent sous l’influence de la chaleur des modi-
fications permanentes et temporaires analogues a celles du feldspath vitreux de
Wehr. Gilets au rouge sombre ou au rouge vif, les échantillons les plus trans-
arents et les plus homogénes, comme ceux de Wehr et de la Somma, conservent
eur aspect primitif sans autre changement apparent que celui des fissures, paralléles
a leurs deux clivages rectangulaires, qui deviennent plus prononcées ; d’autres pren-
nent une teinte laiteuse plus ou moins marquée; d’autres enfin, comme ceux des
trachytes, deviennent presque complétement opaques. Dans tous les cas, la perte
en poids ne dépasse pas 1 milligramme par gramme, quant aux axes cristallogra-
phiques leur orientation ne parait pas changer d’une maniére appréciable, car j’ai
trouvé sur plusieurs plaques qu'une base produite par clivage faisait avant et aprés
calcination, avec la face artificielle normale a la bissectrice aigué, un angle identique
& une ou deux minutes prés.
Les feldspaths du sixiéme systéme cristallin n’éprouvent par la chaleur aucun
changement temporaire ou permanent dans leurs propriétés optiques biréfringentes.
Les axes optiques y sont toujours orientés 4 trés peu-prés comme dans I’albite, et
leur bissectrice aigué est positive; leur écartement dans lair dépasse 135°. IL
parait donc bien probable que, quelque ait été le mode de formation des feldspaths
42 REPORT—1862.
tels que l’albite, V’oligoclase, le labradorite et Vanorthite, ils n’ont pas été soumis dans
la nature aux mémes influences que ceux dont l’orthose est le type.
Les cristaux de cymophane (H1 O, Al? O°) du Brésil, et ceux de Brookite (Ti O7)
de la Téte noire en Valais et du Dauphiné, otfrent souvent des plages dans lesquelles
les axes optiques présentent 4 la température ordinaire des écartements trés differents
et une orientation qui peut avoir lieu dans deux plans rectangulaires entre eux, avec
une dispersion d’autant plus considérable que l’écartement est plus petit. I] existe
done une grande analogie entre la constitution physique de ces deux minéraux et
celle des feldspaths du cinquiéme systéme cristallin. Aussi la calcination détermine-
t-elle dans leurs propriétés optiques des modifications permanentes et temporaires
entiérement semblables 4 celles que j’ai découvertes dans l’orthose. Si l’on rapporte
les formes de la cymophane a un prisme rhomboidal droit de 119° 46’, on voit que
dans les cristaux du Brésil les plus transparents et les plus homogénes, le plan des
axes optiques est normal a la base et la bissectrice aigué positive, paralléle a la petite
diagonale de cette face. L’angle des axes correspondant au rouge peut s’élever
jusqu’é 120°, et celui des axes correspondant au bleu jusqu’a 118°. Certaines plages
a réflets opalins montrent des axes rouges réunis et des axes bleus séparés dans un
plan paralléle ala base; d’autres plages font voir les axes correspondant a toutes
les couleurs séparés dans ce méme plan. Une élévation de température a pour effet
de Rod art les axes orientés parallélement i la base et d’écarter ceux dont l’orien-
tation lui est perpendiculaire. Jusqu’au rouge naissant les changements ne sont
sae temporaires, mais une calcination de 15 minutes 4 la température de la fusion
e l’argent suffit pour les rendre permanents et déja considérables. La perte en
poids est, comme pour lorthose, de 1 milligramme par gramme, et l’aspect extérieur
de la substance n’est nullement modifié.
Pour la Brookite dont on peut faire dériver les formes d’un prisme rhombique de
99° 50’, le plan des axes optiques est tantot paralléle, tantot perpendiculaire a la
base; la bissectrice est positive et reste toujours paralléle 4 la petite diagonale de
cette face. La dispersion est trés considérable, et lorsque les axes sont situés dans
le plan de la base, les rouges sont plus écartés que les violets ; leur écartement aug-
mente d’une maniére temporaire par une calcination foible, et d’une maniére perma-
nente par une calcination plus énergique. Dans un échantillon du Dauphiné ou
Vangle des axes était de 52° a 20° Centig. j’ai observé temporairement un écarte-
ment de 65° 4 220° Centig. Une autre plaque, chauffée avec précaution dans une
moufle, a éprouvé une modification permanente qui a porté l’angle de ses axes rouges
de 42° a 47°.
Les perturbations permanentes que le changement de température apporte dans
Véqui sbte moléculaire du feldspath orthose ayant également lieu dans la cymophane
et la Brookite, sont évidemment indépendantes de la composition chimique des corps
cristallisés. Les expériences faites dans les fours de Sévres, ot le refroidissement
est trés lent, ne permettent pas d’ailleurs d’attribuer ces perturbations a des effets
de trempe, comme on pourrait étre tenté de le faire au premier abord; on peut done
les regarder réellement comme en rapport avec la constitution physique de certains
cristaux, et l’on doit admettre que la position dés axes optiques ainsi que leur dis-
persion est susceptible de varier dans une méme espéce minérale avec la température
a laquelle les cristaux sont ou ont éé soumis.
On the Mode of preparing Carbonic Acid Vacua in large Glass Vessels.
By J. P. Gasstor, F.BRS.
During the process of preparing carbonic acid vacuum-tubes for his experimental
researches on the Stratified Electrical Discharge (Philosophical Transactions, 1859 ;
Proceedings, 1860-1861), the author ascertained that when the stopper of a glass
vessel is very carefully ground, the vacuum will remain without the slightest alter-
ation for many months: among a variety of tubes thus prepared, he has one with
four glass stoppers, three of which are nearly one inch in diameter. It is upwards
of twelve months since this vacuum was prepared, and to the present time, when-
ever the discharge from an induction coil is passed through it, there is not the
slightest alteration in the appearance of the striz.
If a larger aperture is requisite instead of the stopper, all that is requisite is to
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43
have the two surfaces of the glass very carefully ground, in the same manner as
the bell-glasses for an air-pump are prepared; by these means glass vessels of
almost any required dimensions can be used, provided care is taken that the form
is such as will resist the pressure of the atmosphere.
The potash necessary to absorb the residue of the carbonic acid after the exhaus-
tion by the air-pump, may be placed at the bottom of the vessel, and gently heated
on a sand-bath or by a spirit-lamp, or it may be placed in a tube, and subsequently
sealed off by the blowpipe.
On the Essential Oil of Bay, and other Aromatic Oils.
By J. H. Guapsrone, Ph.D., FBS.
This paper consisted of—1st. A description of the essential oils of Bay, Bergamot,
Carraway, Cassia, Cedar-wood, Cedrat, Citronella, Cloves, Indian Geranium,
Layender, Lemon Grass, Mint, Neroli, Nutmeg, Patchouli, Petit-grain, Portugal,
Rose, Santal-wood, Turpentine, and Winter-green, with the specific gravities and
powers of refraction, dispersion, and circular polarization. 2nd. Some remarks on
the isomeric hydrocarbons, which may be derived from the majority of the essen-
tial oils, and which generally resemble each other very closely, though they are
rarely identical: 3rd. Notices of some of the oxidized bodies present in these oils,
which are generally more refractive and more aromatic than the hydrocarbons of
which they are oxygen substitution products.
Among the observations were the following :—Oil of Bay consists of a hydrocarbon
of the bet hary type, C,, H,,, and eugenic acid. Oil of Neroli contains two hydro-
carbons, one of which is a fluorescent body. The essential oil of Petit-grain, which
is derived from the leaves of the orange-tree, contains a hydrocarbon resembling the
more volatile one from oil of Neroli, which is prepared from the orange flower; and
so does the oil of Portugal, from the orange peel. Otto of roses is an oxidized oil;
the crystallizable portion of it has a great attraction for ether vapour. The oils of
Citronella and of Lemon-grass, from different species of Andropogon, cultivated
in Ceylon, consist mainly of oxidized oils which are nearly if not quite identical.
There is a very wide difference in the action on the polarized ray exerted by dif-
ferent essential oils, both in regard to amount and direction.
On the Means of observing the Lines of the Solar Spectrum due to the Terres-
trial Atmosphere. By J. H. Guapstone, Ph.D., PRS.
The object of this communication was to incite observers in various parts to
notice those lines and bands which appear in the spectrum when the sun is near
the horizon. They vary under different atmospheric conditions, and probably in
different parts of this and other countries. The author had found one of Crookes’s
pocket spectroscopes sufficiently powerful to exhibit all the most important of
them, and very convenient for taking up mountains, &c. All observations should
be referred to the map published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1860,
On a particular Case of induced Chemical Action.
By A. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.
It has been observed by Mohr, Scheurer-Kestner, and other chemists, that when
a protosalt of tin is determined by means of a standard permanganate solution, the
results obtained vary according to the degree in which the solution of tin-salt is
diluted. The greater the dilution, the less is the amount of permanganate required.
This variation is justly ascribed by the two chemists above named to the influence
of the oxygen which the water used in diluting holds dissolved. With recently
boiled water, the effect is less; with water which has been absolutely freed from
air, it disappears.
If these facts stood alone, their explanation would seem simple, viz. that chloride
of tin is speedily oxidized when mixed with water containing oxygen. But this
is not the case, especially when much free acid has been added. If iodine, or per-
chloride of iron, or sulphate of copper is used as the oxidizing agent, the result of
the determination is the same, whether the tin solution be little or much diluted.
44, REPORT—1862.
Hence it appears that in the former case the action of the dissolved oxygen is de-
termined by the action of the permanganate*.
In order to investigate quantitatively the relation of these two actions, several
series of determinations were made in the following manner :—A measured quantity
of a solution of protochloride of tin of convenient strength was determined, first
without dilution, and then, in successive experiments, after dilution with regularly
increasing quantities of water. Immediately before and during each determina-
tion, a stream of carbonic acid was poured into the flask containing the liquid to
be determined, in order to guard it from contact of air. The conclusions to which
these experiments have led are as follows :—(1) When the diluting water contains
only so much oxygen asis sufficient to oxidize about one-third of the protochloride of
tin present, the whole of this oxygen is appropriated in the reaction; (2) after this
point, the amount of induced oxidation is still increased by further dilution, but in a
continually diminishing degree, until it bears to the primary oxidation (that by
the permanganate) about the ratio of 2:3; (3) still greater dilution produces no
farther change. It has not yet been found possible to determine the exact ratios of
the primary and of the induced oxidation one to another at that point at which
the absorption of dissolved oxygen ceases to be complete, and at the final limit,
where the induced oxidation has reached a maximum.
With what other chemical actions are we acquainted which belong to the same
class as this action ?
Four examples may be adduced of actions more or less analogous. 1. The action
of platinum-black, and other similar substances, in causing oxidation. These sub-
stances, however, do not, so far as we know, themselves undergo any change;
whereas the permanganate can act inductively only during the moment of its own
direct action. 2. The action of nitric oxide upon sulphurous anhydride and oxygen.
8. The action of pentachloride of antimony in presence of free chlorine in causing
the formation of chlorine compounds. But in these two cases also an important
distinction is to be noted. The products of the initial action, nitrous oxide and
terchloride of antimony, are capable of combining directly with free oxygen and
free chlorine respectively ; whereas the final product at least of the reduction of an
acid solution of permanganate is not liable to reoxidation, and such a solution can
accordingly be reduced ‘by many substances in the presence of dissolved oxygen
without appropriating or conveying it. 4. The acetous fermentation. The fact
that the oxidation of alcohol by free oxygen may be induced by the presence of
other substances undergoing chemical change bears some resemblance to the fact
here brought forward. It is not improbable that the two may depend upon a
common cause.
But no case that has been yet examined is directly and unmistakeably parallel to
this action. At the same time, it is doubtless but one of a class. The action of
other similar oxidizing bodies, such as chromic acid, and of other substances readily
susceptible of oxidation, such as sulphurous acid, hydriodice acid, &e., in presence
of dissolved oxygen, may probably present similar phenomena. With the action,
in dilute solutions, of chromic acid on sulphurous acid, and permanganic acid on
sulphurous acid, this has been ascertained to be the case.
On Schénbein’s Antozone.
By G. Hartzy, M.D., Professor in University College, London.
In 1842 Schafhaiitl called attention to a fluor-spar, the peculiar smell of which
he imagined to be due to the presence of hypochlorite of lime. Schénbein shortly
afterwards found that it contained an oxidizing agent which Schrétter subsequently
described as ozone. Schénbein has now repeated his experiments on a better
quality of the mineral, and finds that the oxygen contained in it resembles that —
yielded by BaO,; and that distilled water in which the mineral has been pounded —
* Since reading the paper of which the above is an abstract, the author has become
aware that this fact had already engaged the attention of the German chemist Liwenthal,
who, in conjunction with E. Lennsen, has recently shown that dissolved oxygen is similar]
rendered active in some other cases (Journ. fiir Prakt. Chem, 1859, part i. p. 484, an
vol, Ixi. (1862) p. 193),
——
_
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45
acquires peculiar properties. At the request of Professor Liebig, who had given
Dr. Harley some fine specimens of the mineral, the latter gentleman showed some
of the more striking properties of the mineral to the members of the Association.
For example, the distilled water in which the mineral has been pulverized, when
filtered gives no precipitate with nitrate of silver, and only the very slightest tur-
bidity with oxalate of ammonia and with weak sulphuric acid. From this it is
seen that no chlorine is present, and only a trace of an earthy base. The liquid
blues iodized starch, decolorizes a solution of permanganate of potash acidified
with sulphuric acid, at the same time liberating oxygen gas. The liquid gives a
blue with the brownish mixture of dilute ferridcyanide and perchloride of iron, and
_gradually precipitates prussian blue. When mixed a short time with the peroxide
of lead and finely reduced platinum-powder, it loses some of the above-named pro
erties. Heating the mineral entirely destroys its properties. Schinbein concludes
om these and other facts that the mineral contains antozone.
On the Adulteration of Linseed Cake with Nut-cake.
By W. H. Harris, F.C.S.
The frequent adulteration of linseed cake, used for cattle-feeding purposes, has
drawn considerable attention on the part of the agricultural chemist to the ditfer-
ent adulterative substances employed by the trade. Many of these have been from
time to time exposed. But there is one substance largely used for adulterating lin-
seed cake, which has not, that I am aware of, received the notice which it deserves.
The substance I refer to is the market nut-cake, obtained from the fruit of the Arachis
hypogea, or Ground-nut of America, indigenous to Mexico, but cultivated in the
West Indies. As botanists are aware, it derives its name from the singular manner
in which its fruit is perfected; for as its yellow papilionaceous flowers fall from
their stalks, the pods which follow are forced by a natural motion of the plant into
the ground, where the seeds ripen and come to perfection—hence the name of
Ground-nut.
| As the cake composed of the marc of these seeds can be purchased at about half
the price of linseed cake, it is often used for the purpose of adulteration—a fact
patent to most agricultural chemists. But this substance seems to have been gene-
rally condemned as a worthless article ; for we have seen this verdict given against
it in several instances by eminent agricultural chemists; at any rate, if I am mis-
taken in the article of commerce which has been classed with bran, rice dust, and
treated as rubbish, the mistake is attributable to an unfortunate looseness of lan-
guage adopted by the authorities in question.
My attention being directed to the true feeding qualities of this substance was
accidental; for having to analyse a sample of linseed cake which contained a con-
siderable quantity of bran, I was surprised to find the analytical result, in reference
to the percentage of flesh-formers, was considerably superior to the result I had
aiiained from many genuine samples I had analysed. This led me to resubmit
the cake to a careful microscopic examination, which enabled me to detect what
afterwards proved to be the decorticated nut-cake of commerce.
My next step was to get a sample of this nut-cake in its simplicity; this,
through the kindness of a gentleman connected with the trade, I succeeded in doing,
On submitting this sample to analysis, the result exceeded my highest expectations,
as the following results of the examination will show :—
Per cent
Moisture... eee aeeenne eeeeebovueod eoee 6, OD 6.9 SIAR Ob 8:50
REE SCRERG Dis 2a hale aia's oie VRS FEELS TAS OP 3 4:94
Cellulose, insoluble in warm solution of potash, sp. gr. 1045 3°51
Albuminots compounds”. sve secs b gases ev nces 43°31
Amylaceous constituents......., i PONE D Me rabies oe B74
Onl Shae Mee eWN Ea ad Oat dees Khang ag ED pedsaas ag 12:40
100-00
To be able to introduce to the cattle-feeder a highly nutritious substance, capa-
* Containing nitrogen 6-93 per cent,
46 REPORT—1862.
ble of sustaining a successful competition with linseed cake itself, and not more
than two-thirds the market value of the latter, it now only remained to prove that
its practical answered to its theoretic value. Of this there did not appear to me to
be any serious doubt; nevertheless I thought it better to the matter to the test
of practical experiment. A friend to whom I named the subject readily entered into
the plan of trying the effect of this cake upon a portion of his stock; the result
roved his cattle would eat it with eagerness, and, as far as the experiment has gone,
it has answered our highest expectations.
On a Simple Method of taking Stereomicro-photographs.
By Cuarius Haerscu, F.C.8., Lecturer on Chemistry at the Middlesex Hospital.
After trying various plans, the author devised the following, which answered
perfectly. A microscope with its eyepiece removed is placed in a horizontal posi-
tion, and fitted to an ordinary sliding back, single lens, stereoscopic camera, Be-
hind the object-glass is screwed an adapter, in the inside of which is a tube, which
can be turned half round by means of a lever from the outside. Sliding in this
tube is a second, furnished with a stop which cuts off half the pencil of light coming
from the object-glass, in fact occupies the same place as the prism of a binocular
microscope. The distance of this stop from each object-glass is adjusted experi-
mentally by sliding the tube backwards and forwards till the best effect is obtained.
The prepared plate being put in its place after carefully focusing the object, the
first picture is taken. The plate is then shifted, the stop turned half round, and
the second picture taken on the other half of the plate. If the object be of any
thickness, its upper surface should be focused for one picture, and its under surface
for the other.
The adapter with its stop was exhibited to the meeting.
Lowe’s Ozone Bow. By KE. J. Lown, F.R.AS. Se.
This box has been constructed so as to ensure perfect darkness to the test-paper
without interfering with the passage of a current of air. There are two openings
into this cylindrical box, the one above and the other below. These openings are
not direct into the box itself, but into narrow winding passages in the first instance ;
they are also opposite each other. If the wind is blowing in an easterly current,
and the upper opening is on the east side, then the air will enter the box on the
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
upper half (fig. 1), will move round the circular passage until it enters the central
cavity (A) where the test-paper is hung, afterwards passing round the lower pas-
sage (fig. 2) in a contrary irection, and out again at the west aperture. Or if the
wind happens to be in the opposite direction, it will enter from below and leave the
box from above. The advantage is obvious—a current of air passes through a dark
chamber. The box is small, and its price almost nominal,
Observations on Ozone. By E. J. Lown, F.R.AS. $e.
The following are results of observations made at the Beeston Observatory during
the past four years :— 7
Ist. If the temperature is raised, the amount of ozone will increase.
2nd. If the current of air through the box increases in rapidity, the amount of
ozone will increase,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. A7
3rd. As the barometer becomes lower, the amount of ozone becomes greater.
Ist. If the temperature be ranged in 10° series, a temperature between 30° and
40° will give less ozone than one between 40° and 50°, and this less than one
between 50° and 60°. Artificially, if a night-light be made to bum in a
cell below the box so as to warm it, there will be an increase in the
amount of ozone over another box that is without a night-licht.
2nd. With respect to an increase in ozone resulting from an increase in the
speed of the air, it is shown from this series of observations that the most
ozone has been present when there has been a gale blowing. It does not
necessarily prove that under these circumstances there is actually more ozone
in the air; for it must be borne in mind that if the amount of ozone in a
cubic foot of air were always the same, still if today 300 cubic feet of air
only occupies the same space of time in passing through the box as 100 cubic
feet occupied yesterday, we shall have more ozone apparently shown today
than yesterday. Then again, as chemical action increases with an increase
of heat, it is also manifest that the same amount of ozone passing through
the box at a temperature of 60° would necessarily darken the paper more
than the same amount at a temperature of 40°.
It is quite clear that certain corrections are requisite in order to find the
actual amount of ozone.
3rd. With regard to the pressure of the air, there is a striking difference be-
tween the readings of the ozonometer with a high or low barometer. Taking
the four days in each month during the past year on which the mean
pressure was greatest, the average amount of ozone was 1-2, whilst on taking
the same number of days when the barometer was lowest, the mean was
4-1, or nearly four times as much ; four years’ observations give very similar
results. The mean maximum pressure for the whole twelve months of the
four years is 30°22 inches, the mean ozone being 1:0; the mean minimum
pressure for the like period is 29-18 inches, the mean ozone heing 3:2,
With the barometer at 283 inches the mean ozone is 5:7
” 283 ” ” 4]
” 29 ” ” 35
” 294 ” ” 2°8
” 293 ” 2:0
” 293 ” ” 16
” 30 ” ” 13
” 30} ” ” 0-5
” 303 ” ” 0-4
There is a difference between the amount of ozone during the night and day at
different seasons.
In December and January an excess at night over the day of 0:8
0:
In February and March “ x
In April and May i + 0:7
In June and July ip 0-1
In August and September a fe 0-4
In October and November “ “ 05
The average of the summer months being in excess only one-half of that which
occurs in the winter.
On the Luminosity of Phosphorus. By Dr. Morrar.
If a piece of phosphorus be put under a bell-glass and observed from time to time,
it will be found at times luminous, and at others non-luminous. When it is
luminous, a stream of vapour rises from it, which sometimes terminates in an in-
yerted cone of rings similar to those given off by phosphuretted hydrogen ; and at
others it forms a beautiful curve, with a descending limb equal in length to the
ascending one. Results deduced from daily observations of the phosphorus in con-
nexion with the readings of the barometer, the temperature and degree of humidity
of the air, with directions of the wind, for a period of eighteen months, show that
periods of luminosity or phosphorus and non-luminosity occur under opposite con-
48 REPORT—1862.
ditions of the atmo&phere. By the catalytic action of pale on atmospheric
air, a gaseous body (superoxide of hydrogen) is formed, which is analogous to, if
not the same as, atmospheric ozone, and it can be detected by the same tests. The
author has found, by his usual tests, that phosphoric ozone is developed only when
the phosphorus is luminous,
On Ferrous Acid. By W. Ovirne, M.B., F.R.S.
The author found that when ferric oxide was ignited with the carbonates of
potassium, sodium, and calcium, each atom of fe, Q, drove out one of COQ,, to form
two atoms of an alkaline ferrite, having the general formula M fe O,, which salts
were decomposed by water into caustic alkali and ferric monohydrate or brown
hematite ; thus, M fe 0,+H, 0=H fe 0,4 MHO,
On the Synthesis of some Hydrocarbons. By W. Ovutne, V.B., PRS.
The author found, in particular, that when a mixture of carbonic oxide and marsh-
gas was passed through a red-hot tube, acetylene was abundantly formed according
to the equation CO+CH,=C,H,+H,0.
On the Nomenclature of Organic Compounds. By W. Ovuine, M.B., FBS.
Admitting the impossibility of establishing a thoroughly systematic nomencla-
ture in organic chemistry, the author advocated a gradual improvement of that
now in more or less general use, by removing its chief incongruities, and remedying
its more striking inconveniences. He showed, by many examples, how great an
improvement might be effected by an introduction of very few and trivial changes.
On the Essential Oils and Resins from the Indigenous Vegetation of Victoria.
By J. W. Ospornu.
The indigenous trees and shrubs of the colony of Victoria belong for the most
part to the genera Eucalyptus and Melaleuca, which grow in great luxuriance over
the greater part of the Australian continent. In no other localities are oil-bearing
plants to be found in the same abundance, especially such as attain to arborescent
growth, nor is the yield of oil as great elsewhere. The thirty-five samples sub-
mitted to the Section are identical with these exhibited in the Victorian Depart-
ment of the International Exhibition. They were distilled by the Exhibitors, at
the request and under the auspices of Dr. Ferdinand Miiller, the Government
Botanist of Victoria, to whose great talents and untiring energy the colony is
largely indebted. In the present case the rigorous accuracy of the specific name of
each specimen may be accepted on his authority.
The author, as Juror, examined the essential oils and resins with respect to their
technological value, for the Victorian Commissioners.
Those from the genera Eucalyptus and Melaleuca (nineteen different oils) resem-
ble the Cajuput of India, Melaleuca leucadendron. In smell and taste they are
generally more camphoraceous, partaking sometimes of the odour of oil of lemon.
Their colour is for the most part a pale yellow, sometimes colourless, and occasion-
ally green. Their specific gravity, in the samples submitted to the Section, varies
from 0-881 to 0-940, the average being about 0-910. These oils have all two boil-
ing-points, the lower being, generally speaking, about 325°, and the other about 40°
higher.
They burn well in suitable lamps, and are not dangerous, as they are ignited with
difficulty. As solyents for resinous bodies, they surpass most liquids of the kind,
and form varnishes, attacking with readiness the intractable Kauric gum of New
Zealand. The yield from individuals of the series is sometimes exceedingly large,
E. amygdalina giving by distillation of 100 lbs. of its green leaves and branchlets,
three pints of oil; £. oleosa, 20 ounces; L. sideroxylon, 16 ounces; MM. linarifolia,
28 ounces, &c. It is estimated that 12,000,000 acres of the colony of Victoria are
covered with myrtaceous vegetation of this description, some of it of a shrubby
character, densely covering vast tracts (L. oleosa, F. M.; £. dumosa, Cunn.; 2,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49
soctalis, F. M., all known as Mallee Scrub). The other oils were chiefly endowed
with medicinal characteristics, including several true mints, Mentha Australis, M.
gracilis, and M. grandiflora ; also some related to plants of the Rue species, and one
fragrant perfume distilled from the blossoms of the Pittosporum undulatum. Also
a heavy oil from the bark of the Atherosperma moschatum, possessed of powerful
medicinal properties.
The resins and gum-resins include several obtained from the genus Eucalyptus,
which are powerfully astringent, and more or less soluble in water. Also one from
the Calhtris verrucosa and cupressiformis of Northern Victoria, the sandarac of
commerce; one from the Xanthorrhea australis, a balsamic resin containing ben-
zoic acid, and resembling dragon’s-blood; together with some true gums from the
genus Acacia, which is well represented in the Australian colonies.
The following is a list of the oils submitted to investigation, with their verna-
cular names as far as known,
Eucalyptus amygdalina (DaudenongPep- Melaleuca ericifolia (Common Tea-tree)*
permint), M. Wilsoni.
E. oleosa (Mallee Scrub). M. uncinata.
E. sideroxylon (Iron-bark). M. genistifolia.
E. zonicalyx (White Gum). IM. squarrosa.
E. globulus (Blue Gum). Atherosperma moschatum (Sassafras).
E. corymbosa (Blood-wood). Prostanthera lasianthos.
E. fabrorum (Stringy-bark). P. rotundifolia.
E. fissilis (Messmate). Mentha australis,
E.. odorata LEeppenuant)- . M. grandiflora.
E. Woollsit (W oolly-butt). M. gracilis.
E. rostrata (Red Gum). Zieria lanceolata.
E. viminalis (Manna Gum). Eristemon squameus.
Melaleuca linariifolia. Pittosporum undulatum.
M. curvifolia.
Details of a Photolithographic Process, as adopted by the Government of
Victoria, for the publication of Maps. By J. W. Osporne.
The author referred to his having read a paper ae this subject before the Royal
Society of Victoria, in November 1859, his process having been previously patented
in the Colony on the 1st of September, 1859. The process had then been adopted
by the Government, and had come info active use in the Department of Lands and
Survey at Melbourne. By its means many hundreds of maps had been published,
of a quality and for a price which left nothing to be desired. The Victorian
Government had recently erected an office, the design and arrangements of which
were admirably adapted for the prosecution of this description of work. To pro-
duce a photolithographic copy with or without reduction, the original map or en-
graving was extended upon an upright board, and by the help of a camera placed
opposite, a negative of it was taken. A sheet of paper was now prepared by coat-
ing one of its surfaces with a solution of gelatine in water, to which a certain pro-
portion of bichromate of potash and liquid albumen had been added. The surface
thus prepared, after it had dried in a dark and warm room, was sensitive to the
chemical action of light, and the next operation was to expose to the sun’s rays a
suitable piece of it, in an ordinary pressure frame, under the negative already obtained.
The positive ee print thus produced was inked all over with lithographic
re-transfer ink, and was then placed floating upon boiling water, with its inky side
upwards and unwetted. After a short time the gelatine would be found to have
softened and swelled under the ink, save where the light had acted, the ‘organic
matter upon such places haying suffered a peculiar change. Another effect of the
boiling water was to coagulate the albumen in the film. When sufficiently soaked,
the ees ink was removed by means of a sponge, and the result was a pho-
tographic print in greasy ink; inasmuch as the latter substance adhered firmly to
all the unsoftened, or, in other words, the altered parts of the gelatinous coating.
It would also be found that the delineation thus obtained was upon a smooth sur-
4
1862.
50 REPORT—1862.
face of coagulated albumen. Boiling water in abundance was now poured over the
paper, after which it was carefully dried. The photographic print thus produced, in
consequence of the greasy ink upon the positive portions of the work, was capable of
being transferred to stone by the printer, by the well-known mechanical process ; and
from stones thus prepared, impressions could be pulled in the lithographic press.
Numerous specimens were exhibited to the Section.
On the Manufacture of Hydrocarbon Oils, Paraffin, Sc., from Peat.
By B. H. Pav, Ph.D,
The author described the results that had been obtained at some works lately
erected under his direction in the island of Lewis, N.B. The peat of that locality
was described as a peculiarly rich bituminous variety of mountain peat, yielding
from five to ten gallons of refined oils and paraffin from the ton, The results ob-
tained at these works were contrasted with those obtained at the works of the Irish
Peat Company some years ago, where the produce of oil was not more than two
gallons from the ton of peat. This difference in the produce was ascribed, in a great
degree, to the improper mode of working adopted at the Irish works. One of the
most important points dwelt upon was the necessity of regarding the hydrocarbon
oils and paraffin as the only products that would afford a profit in working peat;
and the failure of the Irish works was attributed to the attempt to obtain other pro-
ducts which could only be regarded as waste, and not worth working, unless the
oils and paraffin were obtainable in a remunerative amount from the peat.
On the Decay and Preservation of Stone employed in Building.
By B. H, Pavz, Ph.D.
The causes and nature of the decay of building-stone were described as being
both chemical and mechanical, and varying according to the nature of the stone an
the conditions to which it was exposed. The various methods which have been
proposed for the preservation of stone from decay were described in detail; the
author considering, from a chemical point of view, that none of them presented any
probability of success in effecting the desired result, and that the discovery of an
efficient and practicable means of preventing the decay of stone, especially in towns,
still remains to be made,
On the Artificial Formation of Populine, and on a new Class of Organie
Compounds. By T. L. Pureson, M.B., Ph.D., F.CS. Fe.
The interesting substance populine was extracted in 1830 by Braconnot from
the mother-liquors which had deposited salicine when the latter was obtained from
the leaves and the bark of the pop'ar tree (Populus tremula). It was submitted
to an important series of experiments by Piria in 1852, who found, among other
interesting facts, that, in a variety of circumstances, populine split up into benzoic
acid and salicine :—
Co H22 ore + 9 HO = Cu He 0’, HO + O26 H}8 O4,
Populine. Benzoic acid, Salicine.
It occurred to me that salicine and benzoic acid might be combined so as to
reproduce pee And this I find to be the case: when equal equivalents of
salicine and benzoic acid are dissolved in alcohol and the liquid evaporated tc about
half its bulk, magnificent acicular crystals of populine are obtained, some of which
in my experiments measured nearly an inch in length. For every 100 parts of
salicine must be taken 43 parts of benzoic acid. Or fo: 100 parts of salicine, 53-5
parts of benzoate of soda and a sufficient quantity of diluted sulphuric acid to satu-
rate the soda of the benzoate ; alcohol is then added, and the sulphate of soda sepa-
ee i filtration. By evaporating the solution long needles of populine are
obtained :—
Cu Hé Ot + O76 Hs Ou = (Ox H owe + 2 HO).
Benzoic acid. Salicine. Crystallized populine.
The properties of the populine thus formed are precisely those of the natural
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51
product. Its peculiat taste, acrid and sweet at the same time, reminding us of the
taste of liquorice, is characteristic. With sulphuric acid it takes a red colour;
distilled with bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid it yields salicylous acid. It
is more soluble in water and alcohol than salicine. It is curious also to note that
in this combination the salicine has lost its bitter taste, which renders it probable
that populine is in reality a compound of benzoic acid, sugar, and saligenine; for,
when boiled with dilute sulphuric acid, it breaks up into benzoic acid, sugar, and
saliretine (saligenine minus 2 equivs. of water) :—
C“H® O+ Saligenine.
CY HY O Sugar.
C™“H® O* Benzoic acid.
C*° H* 01 Populine.
As soon as the sugar is set free, it takes up 4 equivs. of water and passes into grape-
ugar (C!? HO),
he molecule of populine is therefore a very complex one. And these kinds of
compounds may, perhaps, be compared to the combinations of two or more salts in
mineral chemistry, for instance to alwm, if we compare the sulphate of alumina to
the benzoic acid, the sulphate of potash to the saligenine, and the 24 equivalents of
water to the sugar.
But I have also found that citric acid and tartaric acid, when taken in equivalent
proportions, dissolved in water, and the solution evaporated, enter into cheinical
combination. It is well known that these acids crystallize in two different systems,
the forms of which are incompatible, and by evaporating a mixture of them we
should obtain two kinds of crystals if no combination took place. But I find that
they combine and produce one kind of crystal only, namely, long prismatic needles,
and when one of these crystals is taken and analysed, it is found to be composed of
eitric and tartaric acids. ;
This combination of citric and tartaric acids is probably only one example of
a new class of organic compounds, similar in some respects to populine, which
remains to be studied. Already Prof. Williamson has shown that the different
acetones may he made to combine so as to produce complex acetones. Thus when
valerate and acetate of lime are distilled together in equivalent proportions, we
obtain acetovalerone, a compound of acetone and valerone, and so on for the others.
It is highly probable from what precedes that other organic acids besides benzoic
acid may be made to combine with salicine; likewise that other bitter principles
analogous to salicine may be combined with organic acids to produce substances
similar to populine,
On the Existence of Aniline in certain Fungi which become Blue in contact with
the Air, Fc. By T. L. Pureson, WB., Ph.D., F.OS. Se.
Two years ago I published in Brussels a memoir upon the Boleti which become
blue when cut with a knife, and upon the formation of colouring matters in fungi*.
In this paper I called attention to a remarkable set of reactions occurring in nature
when one substance causes atmospheric oxygen to assume the state of ozone and to
act upon another substance in contact with the first, a fact originally pointed out
by Prof. Scheenbein. In this paper also I endeavoured to show that the production
of the blue colour observed when Boletus cyanescens, Boletus luridus, &c. are cut
with a knife and exposed to the air, is owing to the existence of aniline in the sap
of these fungi.
Nothing is easier than to extract the principle to which these Boleti owe their
remarkable property of taking a deep, though fugitive, blue colour when their in-
ternal tissue is put in contact with the air. But it is not easy to obtain it perfectly
* Sur les Bolets bleuissants : étude sur la formation de principes colorants chez plusieurs
Champignons (Journal de Médecine et de Pharmacologie, Bruxelles, Mars et Avril 1860).
See also ‘Comptes Rendus de l’ Acad. des Sciences,’ Paris, 1860, 2i#me semestre. Also my
prize memoir, ‘‘ La Force Catalytique : études sur les phénoménes de contact,” to which the
atch Society of Science awarded their Gold Medal, Haarlem, 1858.
4*
52 REPORT—1862.
ure, and very difficult to obtain it in any quantity, as its power of producing the
iiate colour is so great that a very minute proportion suffices to colour the entire
tissue of a large Boletus, When one of these fungi is treated with ordinary alcohol,
the aniline it contains is dissolved with several other matters, which, however, do
not prevent the ordinary characteristic reactions of aniline. This principle appears
to be present in the fungus as acetate of aniline. I have not extracted it in suffi-
cient quantity or of sufficient purity to submit it to more than a qualitative exami-
nation ; but the data which follow will, I think, sufficiently establish the point in
question.
case the result is identical for both :—
Characters of the colouring principle
of the Boletus.
1. Colourless.
2. Very slightly soluble in water.
3. Soluble in alcohol.
4. The alcoholic solution resinifies
sooner or later in the air, becoming
yellowish.
5. Does not become blue by ordinary
atmospheric oxygen unless this oxygen
is in the state of ozone,
6. Gives a deep blue colour with
ozone, or nascent oxygen; this colour is
ephemeral, and is sometimes greenish,
passing to wine-colour or rose tint.
7. Chloride of lime or bleaching
powder developes the characteristic
blue or greenish blue given by aniline
salts. This coloration is ephemeral,
assing to a port-wine tint, and finally
isappearing.
8. Turns deep yellow with hydro-
chloric acid.
I give here, in the form of a Table, the characters observed, of the prin-
ciple extracted from these Bolett, together with the characters of aniline.
In every
Characters of Aniline.
1. Colourless,
2. Very slightly soluble in water.
3. Soluble in alcohol.
4. Its solution resinifies in the air and
takes a yellow colour.
5. Does not become blue by ordinary
atmospheric oxygen unless the latter be in
the state of ozone.
6. Gives a deep blue with ozone; the
colour is ephemeral, and passes to wine-
coiour ; with some salts of aniline a green-
ish blue is produced; others give a rose
tint when exposed to the air.
7. Bleaching powder developes the cha-
racteristic blue tint (with some salts of
aniline, greenish blue). The colour is ephe-
meral, soon passing to wine-colour, disap-
pearing with an excess of chlorine.
8. Turns deep yellow with hydrochlo-
ric acid,
These characters suffice, I think, to establish the identity of the principle con-
tained in Boletus luridus and B. cyanescens with the artificial alkaloid aniline ex-
tracted from coal-tar.
nature.
It is the first time that aniline has been shown to exist in
The manner in which the blue colour is produced when the tissue of these Boleti
is broken and exposed to the air is easily accounted for: I have shown in several
of my former papers (/oc. cit. p. 1) that when oxygen reacts upon organic matters
in nature, it is generally in the state of ozone. The presence of some ferment in
the tissue of plants, and in contact with the substance which combines with the
oxygen, appears to be the cause of this remarkable modification of oxygen. Thus,
when an apple is cut in two halves, the brown colour which ensues is owing to
the action of ozone (as may be proved by directly applying the tests for ozone), and
the ozone is produced by the influence of the ferment: for ordinary oxygen will
not produce the coloration ; and when the ferment is destroyed by boiling, the colour
is not produced either. In the case of the Boleti, the aniline which exists in their
tissue as a colourless salt, turns blue under the influence of ozone produced in con-
tact with the ferment present in the fungus; for when this ferment is destroyed by
Wire no coloration ensues when the tissue of the fungus is broken and exposed
to the air.
It is well known that some salts of aniline, when exposed for some time to the
~
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.. 53
air, take a delicate rose-colour. This accounts for the beautiful rose tint not un-
frequently remarked upon the stalks of those Boleti which contain aniline.
Analysis of the Diluvial Soil of Brabant, Fe., known as the Limon de la
Hesbaye. By T. L. Pureson, M.B., Ph.D., P.CS. Se.
The curious geological formation known as the Limon de la Hesbaye, which ex-
tends from the Seine to the Rhine, traversing Belgium from east to west, where it
covers the whole of the district of Hesbaye, a great part of Brabant, Hainault, and
Flanders, is exceedingly remarkable for its fertility. “J¢ ts to this deposit,” says
D’Omalius d’Halloy, “that we may attribute the richness of the most fertile countries
of Belgium.” It extends also over Picardy, stretching from the Seine to the other
side of the Rhine, and is everywhere characterized ‘by its great fertility and the
excellence of the vegetable mould to which it gives birth by culture. No fossils
have as yet been discovered in this deposit; it ranks among the “modern,” “ post-
tertiary,” or “ diluyial ” formations of geologists; and there exist, on different por-
tions of the globe, similar modern deposits equally interesting in an agricultural
point of view.
I have submitted this remarkable deposit to analysis, and its composition shows
that though the Limon de la Hesbaye contains upwards of 90 per cent. of pure
sand, yet the chemical ingredients necessary to form a fertile soil are present in it
in notable quantity ; besides which, its porosity, which allows water to pass slowly
through it and admits the ingress of atmospheric oxygen, is an important condi-
tion of fertility.
When pulverized and exposed to the air, the Limon de la Hesbaye dries com-
pletely, but when in mass it retains its moisture for some time. When seen in
mass it is brownish yellow, becoming of a lighter colour when dry, and giving a
whitish-yellow powder when pulverized. Its density is about 2:00 (water=1-00) ;
it has a straight fracture, possessing a certain compactness, though it can be pul-
verized in the hands without much difficulty.
The sample analysed by me was taken in the neighbourhood of Brussels: I was
careful in selecting it from the centre of a stratification about 2 yards thick, and
where it had never been submitted to cultivation. The result obtained is as
follows :—
NGAUS a otios Sc pagdseegetancacseies traces
Organic matter and combined water........ 3°00
PACTIMIOTIA Ts ale ofs.siolae raze leveteiarelale igs eieCeadle chaisle 0:10
Potash, with a little soda ................ 0:23
Ibe, Boconrecncqpancocgqdoneoagnognde .. 0-40
DPN oy a wetness, cp). Some, Kabeia tears sata viele 0:07
Alumina, with a little oxide of manganese .. 1:20
Oxidecof irons sacri nee reeled iia derstelsrtets 2:56
PHOnphOMe HIG) ois hie GGEen sweaivages § OZO
Sulphuric acid
OHTOMNE spose ag htaeigtere Rs Reneuates arom +eeee traces
Carbonic acid
Qua rbZGsO: SACs eyfarte, oat eyeher dale esehinre atid alent oats 1 A.
100-00
This composition resembles that of another deposit of Limon, equally remarkable
for its fertility and the readiness with which it is converted into excellent arable
land,—I allude to the celebrated tchornoizen, or black diluvial soil of the Ukraine,
which has been analysed by several chemists; it extends from the Carpathian
Mountains to the Urals, giving to the whole district included between these two
ranges a characteristic fertility.
It is not my intention to discuss the geological origin of these deposits which
are so important to agriculture, but I may state here that they are all post-tertiary
formations, that they exist in seyeral parts of the globe, and that the regions where
they are present appear to be, in an agricultural sense, highly favoured by nature.
54 REPORT—1862.
On Hypobromous Acid. By Prof. H. E. Roscoz.
Professor Roscoe communicated to the Section the results of an investigation
upon the lowest oxide of bromine, hypobromous acid, which had been made in the
iabarsbeee of Owens College, Manchester, by Mr. William Dancer. Balard in
1826 mentions the formation of a colourless bleaching salt formed by the action of
bromine upon the alkalies, and since that date many chemists have indicated the
resence of such a body, but it has not been prepared in a pure state or analysed.
Mir. Dancer has succeeded in preparing the aqueous acid in a pure state, and has
examined its chief properties and determined its composition. If bromine-water
and nitrate-of-silyer solution be brought together, one-half the bromine is precipi-
tated as bromide of silver, whilst the other half remains in solution as hypobromous
acid (BrOHO). The aqueous acid may be obtained by distillation at 30° C. in
vacuo, but decomposes into bromine and oxygen at 100° C. The aqueous acid may
likewise be prepared by shaking bromine-water together with oxide of mercury,
and distilling 7m vacuo; in this case half the bromine hte the bleaching compound.
Hypobromous acid unites with the alkalies, and forms salts analogous in smell and
bleaching properties to the corresponding hypochlorites. Owing to the ease with
which this compound splits up into bromine and oxygen, it was found impossible
to prepare the hypobromous anhydride by any of the methods used for the isolation
of the corresponding chlorine compound.
Description of a rapid Dry-Collodion Process. By T. Surton,
A rapid dry-collodion process, by which dry plates can be prepared as sensitive as
with wet collodion, has more than any other problem interested photographers.
By the wet process, the negative has to be finished on the spot, The rapidity of
this dry process depends upon the effect of bromine in dry collodion. In the
Daguerreotype process a silver plate iodized is extremely insensitive, but when sub-
mitted to the fumes of bromine it is increased a hundredfold. In the wet, but not
in this process, nitrate of silyer is required, which is the element of instability.
In preparing, therefore, rapid dry-collodion plates, bromo-iodized collodion must be
used, But the image produced thus is extremely thin and superficial ; it is there-
fore necessary to apply to the film a coating of some organic substance, in order
to darken parts of the negative. Many substances have been tried for this purpose,
but none produce so good an effect as gum-arabic, The paper concluded with the
operations required for this process.
GEOLOGY.
Address to the Geological Section by J. Brrte Juxus, M.A., F.R.S.
It is now thirty-two years ago since I first, when a “freshman” of this Univer-
sity, attended the geological lectures of Professor Sedgwick. I had previously
had access to a cabinet of fossils, and had been accustomed to seek for specimens
in my schoolboy rambles on the hills near Dudley. It may be imagined, therefore,
with what interest I listened to the “winged words” of the Woodwardian Pro-
fessor, which used day after day to delight an audience composed of all ranks of the
University.
Geology and its kindred sciences did not then, indeed, form any part of our re-
gular course of university studies, and many of the college tutors were so far from
encouraging our attention to them, that they rather discountenanced it, considering
them as at best useless and probably even dangerous pursuits. With such a man
as Professor Sedgwick, however, in the Woodwardian chair, whose wit and humour
delighted, while his eloquence aroused and informed his hearers, the love of the
science and the knowledge of it could not fail to extend from one year to another.
The natural sciences are now considered as worthy of study, by those who haye
a taste for them, both in themselves and as a means of mental training and disci-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55
pline. In my time, however, no other branches of learning were recognized than
classics and mathematics, and I have with some shame to confess that I displayed
but a “truant disposition” with respect to them, and too often hurried from the tutor’s
lecture-room to the river or the field, to enable me to add much to the scanty stores
of knowledge I had brought up with me. Had it not been, then, for the teaching
of Professor Sedgwick in Geology, my time might have been altogether wasted,
But it was not only in the lecture-room that I learnt from him. With that kind-
ness of heart and geniality of disposition which make him as much loyed as his
powers cause him to be admired, he was good enough to step down from his high
place as a Professor of the University, and to take some notice of the young under-
graduate whom he saw lingering over the trays of specimens when the lecture
was over, to inquire his name, and to inyite him to his table. He subsequently
allowed me to accompany him on some excursions in different parts of England,
and gave me some of those practical lessons in the field, which, as you know, teach
more in three days than can be learnt in months or yearsin the museum or the lecture-
room. I look back upon these circumstances as those which gave direction to the
whole course of my life, and as the origin of a paternal friendship with which Pro-
fessor Sedgwick has honoured me for so many years, and which it has been my chief
pride to endeavour to deserve. I hope, Ladies and Gentlemen, I may be pardoned
for these few personal allusions; but amid all the gratification which I must ne-
cessarily feel at the honour which has now fallen upon me, that, namely, of being
called upon to preside, within the walls of my own Alma Mater, over the Geolo-
gical Section of the British Association, it was impossible for me to neglect the
opportunity of acknowledging the debt of gratitude I owe to one of the ruling
spirits of both bodies, and of ayowing that my chief claim to occupy this chair
is that Iam an old pak of Professor Sedgwick.
One of the most obvious difficulties in the way of any person who now under-
takes to preside over this Section is the thought of the contrast that will neces-
sarily arise in the minds of many of you between him and his predecessors, That
I am now occupying the seat that has been filled by Sedgwick, Buckland, Lyell,
Murchison, Hopkins, De la Beche, Forbes, and so many other illustrious men, may
well cause me to doubt my own capability of fulfilling its duties. One lesson I must
certainly learn, and that is, to endeavour to make up for other deficiencies by atten-
tion and assiduity, and, above all, not to take such an advantage of the postions
as to bring anything of my own before your notice, to the hindrance of others
who may have something to produce that may be more worthy of it. At the end,
then, of this Address, which I will endeavour to make as brief as possible, I shall
consider my own mouth as almost closed for the remainder of the meeting, and shall
endeavour so far to imitate the Speaker of the House of Commons as to say as
little as possible.
I propose to take for my subject the external features of the earth’s surface.
The principal business of Geology is to acquire as accurate a knowledge as we can
of the internal structure of the crust of the earth, and to learn as much as possible
of all the operations by which that structure was originally formed, or by which it
has been subsequently modified. The crust of the earth has always been receiving
accessions to its composition, both from within and from without. In like manner
it has always been subject to modifying influences proceeding both from within and
from without. It is obvious that the external influences act directly upon the
actual surface of the time being. It is equally obvious that the internal influences
can only reach that surface by penetrating through the thickness of the crust.
If, therefore, we ask by what means the present surface of the earth, or, to bring
the problem within more narrow limits, by what means the present surface of any
of our dry lands, has been produced, we should naturally conclude that it owes its
form to the external influences that have been brought to bear directly upon it,
rather than to the indirect action of those deep-seated agencies, which can only
reach it through an unknown thickness of solid rock.
I believe this conclusion to be a true one. It is, however, by no means the idea
which is commonly entertained, even by many geologists, while those who are not
geologists are always inclined to refer all the more striking features of the surface
56 REPORT—1862.
of the earth to the direct action of convulsive force proceeding from the interior,
rather than to their true source in the gentle, gradual, silent influence of the
“‘ weather,” continued through an indefinite period of past time.
I have heard even educated men speak of the correspondence in the chalk cliffs
of the opposite sides of the Straits of lever: as evidence in favour of the notion that
Fugiede fad been separated from France by the tearing open of those straits by what
they called some “ great convulsion of nature.” There is hardly a description to be
found in any book, of any deep and narrow valley or mountain gorge—especially
if the precipices on each side of it show entering and re-entering angles, and rocks
that were obviously once continuous across the gap,—but what its formation is un-
hesitatingly attributed to this vague imaginary force, a “convulsion of nature.” Nay,
I have even heard the existence of broad valleys over an anticlinal arch, such, for
instance, as the valley of the Weald, attributed to the effect of the gaping of the
rocks at the surface, consequent on the upward flexure of the beds. Mythical
powers of disturbance are called into existence with as bold a personification as the
Bia and Kpartos of the poet, and with even less warrant for their existence.
It seems to me, therefore, that the time is come when geologists should study a
little more closely this problem of the mode of production of the surface of the
land, and determine exactly the method of the formation of those variations in its
outline which we call mountains, hills, table-lands, cliffs, precipices, ravines, glens,
valleys, and plains.
Few men, perhaps, ever pause to inquire into the origin of a great plain; never-
theless the question may well be put, and it is one which deserves an answer.
Some plains are doubtless the result of original formation. They are level and flat,
because the beds beneath the surface are horizontal. Even these, however, have
very rarely a surface formed simply by the last-deposited beds. The actual surface
is one that has been formed by the erosion and removal of more or less of the
uppermost beds, and the production of undulations formed by the act of cutting
down into the beds below. This erosion or denudation has even in many such
cases gone to the length of entirely removing a much greater thickness than we
sucky at first suspect, the present surface being one that has been laid bare by
that remoyal.
In all cases where the beds below the surface are not strictly horizontal, or do
not accurately coincide as to their “lie ” with the form of the surface, it is obvious
that the plain must be one of denudation.
Suppose we take the great plain on which we now are, and which stretches
from Cambridge far into Lincolnshire. The hills which rise from it towards the
east are formed by the escarpment of the Chalk, the beds of which terminate abruptly
at that escarpment, and allow the clays which lie beneath the Chalk to come up to
the surface and spread beneath the plain. The hills rising to the west of the plain,
on the other hand, are formed of the Oolites, the beds of which lie below these clays
and rise gently from beneath the plain, and themselves terminate in an escarpment
still further west.
There can be no reasonable doubt that the whole thickness of the Chalk and the
beds below it once spread many miles to the westward of their present boundaries.
The little chalk-capped monticule of the Castle Hill, at the western end of the
town of Cambridge, and the hills near Madingley show that the Chalk was once
continuous that far, at all events, from the Gogmagogs; and, had still higher ground
been left by the denudation still further west, that would in like manner have
been capped by the bottom beds of the Chalk.
The hal on which Ely stands is, I believe, an outlier of the Lower Greensand,
the general mass of which crops out some miles to the eastward; and other hills
rising from the plain will in like manner be found to have their summits capped
by beds, apparently horizontal, but in reality dipping at a very gentle angle to the
eastward, so as to ultimately cut the surface of the plain in that direction and then
sink beneath it. All such outliers are clear proof that the beds formerly extended
over the intervening spaces, and show us that the rocks now left in the ground are
only a portion of those that were originally deposited.
The great plain of the Fens, then, is one of denudation, its surface being one that
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57
is now bare in consequence of the removal from above it* of a thickness of
many hundred feet of Chalk, and of other beds below the Chalk. But this reason-
ing may be carried out with respect to the whole of the flat lands of England and
the British Islands. The great central plain of Ireland, for instance, stretching from
Dublin Bay to Galway Bay, with an average elevation of less than 300 feet above
the sea, has immediately beneath it abruptly undulating beds of Carboniferous
limestone, rising up at all angles, and dipping in all directions. The most level
arts of the surface sometimes cut horizontally across the most contorted and highly
inclined beds. The small isolated hills scattered here and there about the plain
are formed sometimes of beds of Old Red Sandstone that rise up from honest the
bottom of the Limestone, and sometimes of beds of Coal-measures which rest upon
the top of it. It is here abundantly evident, then, that the internal forces of dis-
turbance which have bent the beds from their original horizontality into so many
euryes, and broken them by so many dislocations, had nothing at all to do with
the production of the present surface, which has been formed across all these bent
and ftoken beds after the disturbances had ceased.
But, in fact, the very first glance at a geological map of a flat country, if there
be two or more colours on it representing conformable groups of stratified rocks, is
= as good a proof of this vast denudation as the most elaborate reasoning. The
ast-deposited group of beds would of course conceal all those beneath it; itwould be
represented by one uniform colour. Let the internal forces bend, or tilt, or break it
in any fashion you like, they cannot of themselves remove a particle of it. It will
still lie over all those on which it was originally deposited, and the map would show
the one colour only, unless we go the length of supposing that a piece of the crust
of the earth could be tossed over like a pancake, and laid down again with its bot-
tom upwards.
Ihave taken the case of a plain in the first instance, because it is obvious that
if we arrive at the conclusion that many plains are low and level because moun-
tainous masses of rock have been removed from above their present surface, it will
be easy for us to recognize the proofs of denudation in the hills and mountains, on
whose flanks the obvious marks of it are still left.
A little reflection will show us that the outcrop of a bed is always a proof of
denudation, for the present surface cannot possibly tie the original termination, not
only of that particular bed, but of all the beds above it. When then a succession
of beds crop out rapidly one after another, as they always do in all hill-ranges and
mountain-chains, we cannot escape from the conclusion that the existing surface
has been formed by the removal of the former extension of the beds. This is the
inevitable conclusion, whether the surface be horizontal and the beds below it in-
clined, or the beds be horizontal and the surface inclined, or the surface slope one
way and the beds dip another, or there be any kind of discordance between the
“lie” of the beds and the form of the surface of the ground. The only possible
escape from this conclusion would be in the case where a succession of beds had
been deposited on a slope, and had never been covered by any other deposit. This,
however, is a case that could only occur in very recently formed rocks, and cannot
apply to the outcrop of beds on the flanks of hills or mountains, where the surface
of the ground itself has a high inclination.
In such situations the only escape from the conclusion that the surface was formed
by denudation would be, proof that the undulations of the surface were exactly fol-
lowed by the undulation of the beds below it, and, in fact, that the very same bed
was everywhere found to be the one immediately below the surface.
If we except Volcanos or “ Mountains of Ejection,” all other hills and mountains
are either caused by the removal of the rocks which once surrounded them, or haye
suffered from the removal of those that once spread over them. The first kind of
hills have simply been left high, while the surrounding ground has been worn down
to a low level about them. In the second kind, the rocks composing them haye,
indeed, been thrust up from beneath by internal force to a much greater elevation
than those same rocks have in the surrounding area, and their height is due entirely
* In this general statement the few feet of peat, or the little banks of drift gravel and
sand which have been subsequently deposited on or grown over the plain, are, of course,
disregarded.
58 REPORT—1862.
to that upward tilting, vast masses of once superincumbent beds having been removed
from aboye them. ‘Ihese hills are high, not in consequence of, but in spite of de-
nudation. I haye elsewhere proposed to call the first kind “ hells of curcumdenu-
dation,” and the second “hills of uptilting.” To the latter class belong all the
great mountain-chains of the world, and most of the smaller ones.
It may be taken as an inyariable rule, that, as we approach all mountain-chains
formed by uptilting, the beds rise towards them, and end successively at the sur-
face; lower and lower beds still rising up, until the lowest of all appear in the
heart of the mountains, where they are often reared up into the loftiest peaks.
True as is this general statement, it is only generally true. The great groups of
rocks thus rise successively one from beneath another; but this general rise is often
complicated by numerous folds and reduplications, by great longitudinal fractures,
or by complex flexures.
The geological axis of a mountain-chain runs along the line where the lowest
group of beds rises to the surface. The geogra, hical axis may be said to run along
that dominant crest which forms the watershed of the chain. But it by no means
follows that these two axes are coincident, that the lowest group of beds is always
confined to the line of watershed, or eyen that the loftiest peaks and summits rise
from that crest. The geological axes are dependent solely on the internal forces
of elevation; if, therefore, the geographical axes do not coincide with them, it shows
at once that they are independent of those forces; in other words, that the great
external features have not been caused by the direct action of internal movement.
The position of the geological axes of mountain-chains has, however, been often
erroneously placed, from the tendency to refer them to any great masses of granite
or other plutonic rocks that may show themselyes,—a reference which is more often
erroneous than correct.
All mountain-chains of uptilting tell the same story, that if the internal forces
of disturbance and elevation had acted alone, without any external action of denu-
dation, and if they had acted without it to the same extent which they haye with
it (supposing that possible), the mountain-chains would haye been many times more
lofty than they are. I say “supposing that possible,” because it appears to me that
the elevation of the lowest rocks might never have proceeded to the same extent,
if the internal force had not been gradually relieved of some of the external weight
which it had to lift. However that may be, we see now that the lowest beds
which appear at the surface, about the geological axis of a mountain-chain, dip
on either hand beneath an ever-increasing thickness of superincumbent rock, as
we recede from the axis. All the rocks which have been affected by the same
action of disturbing force must have stretched unbroken across the disturbed district,
before the disturbance commenced; for the lowest rocks appear at the surface
now, not in consequence of the flexure or fracture of those that were aboye them,
but in consequence of their removal, That remoyal could not haye taken place
prior to the internal disturbance, unless we assume the existence of a deep hole or
trough of erosion along the space where the mountain-chain was subsequently thrust
upwards. The remoyal of the hent or broken beds, then, must have taken place
either during the action of disturbance or subsequently to its termination. In
either case it was an external action, the result, in fact, of moving water, which
slowly wore away and carried off so many square miles or, as in some cases, so
many hundreds or thousands of square miles of rock, so many thousands of feet in
thickness. The internal forces operated simply by lifting up the rocks to within
the region of the denuding influence, and they have only produced that indirect
effect upon the features of the surface which results from their haying brought
up to different levels, and placed in yarious positions, masses of rock of yarions
hardness and constitution, on which the forces of erosion and transport have had a
corresponding yariety of effect, when they reached them.
I believe that all our uptilted mountain-chains haye thus grown by a very slow
and gradual growth, the internal force thrusting upwards what the external agen-
cies always tended to wear down.
The investigation of the nature and effects of the mechanical forces that have
acted on the crust of the earth from the interior has been undertaken by many
eminent philosophers, by none with more acuteness and profundity than by our pre-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59
sent General Secretary, Mr. W. Hopkins, who is so distinguished an ornament of
this University. To the correctness of the mathematical reasonings employed in
these researches no exception is of course to be taken, even by those who may
withhold their assent from some of the conclusions arrived at. I profess my in-
capacity to engage in the discussion of mathematical problems. Nevertheless,
it es sometimes occurred to me to suppose that, however sound and legitimate
may be the conclusions thus drawn from the premises assumed, they may still be
imperfect or inadequate as conceptions of the truth, in consequence of the incom-
leteness of the assumptions on which they are based. I shall not venture, even
by a guess, to attempt to supply this defect. I only wish to regard the question
as still an open one, thinking it possible that some condition or some agency may
have been hitherto omitted from the speculation, of which no one has as yet, per-
haps, formed even a conception. The researches already made may be admirable
euides in all future investigations, and most useful in clearing the way for them;
but it may nevertheless be dangerous to take the conclusion as so far established as
to render future inyestigation unnecessary.
There is one line of research, however, in pursuing which we may feel sure of
the ground on which we tread, and that is the observation of occurrences which
take place before our eyes, and of structures which each one may see and examine
for himself.
We have, in Earthquakes and Volcanos, the external symptoms of the action of
the earth’s internal forces. What they do now, we may feel sure they were able
to do formerly ; and we have no right to assume that they ever did either more or
less within a given period than they have done during historic times.
Volcanos drill holes through the crust of the earth, and eject lava and ashes
through these holes. ‘These holes are often arranged in lines, as if they were con-
nected with linear cracks in the earth’s crust.
Earthquakes jar and shake the earth’s crust, throw its surface into transient
wayes, and cause sometimes cracks and open fissures to appear at that surface,
The largest of these fissures, however, are rarely more than a few miles in length
and a few yards in width, and they appear rarely to leave any permanent traces on
the surface, or to give rise to any of its more striking features. No one has ever
yet pointed to any yalley or any glen, still less to any river-course, as haying been
entirely caused by the gaping of the surface during any known earthquake, and in-
dependently of subsequent erosion by running water.
Mx. Mallet’s researches have given us the means of calculating the depth at
which the impulse of an earthquake may originate. This Benth seems to be always
proportional to the extent of the surface affected, from which it is obvious that in
many cases a yery considerable thickness of the external envelope of the earth
must have been traversed by these moyements. Supposing them to have a local
origin, and to be caused by, or to he accompanied by, any considerable disturhance,
either of flexure or fracture, in the solid or quasi-solid rocks at or about the centre
of origin, it seems necessarily to follow that the amount of disturbance must lessen
as we recede from that centre, in proportion to the thickness and extent of the
matter oyer which it is diffused. ‘The tremblings and undulations, then, and the
surface-cracks and fissures produced hy earthquakes are probably only the slight
external indications of more intense but more local disturbance below. Great open
fissures and gapings of the surface could only, as it appears to me, be caused by
disturbances originating at a comparatively slight depth, where it is difficult to
imagine any cause for them, and where, as a matter of fact, great disturbances never
do seem to originate,
In addition to the more conyulsive movements of the shocks, permanent eleya-
tion and depression of the surface take place during earthquakes, and also to an
equal if not greater extent by a slow gradual movement, unaccompanied by earth-
quakes, and therefore not perceptible to our senses. These risings and sinkings of
the surface are evidently the result of the upward or downward moyement of the
whole thickness of the earth’s crust, whatever that thickness may be.
_ Resting on considerations such as these, thus hastily sketched out, I am inclined
to be bold enough to dispute the physical possibility, or at all events to deny the
actual occurrence, at any time, of such surface manifestations of internal force as;
60 REPORT—1862.
could give rise to what have been called “craters of elevation,” “valleys of eleva-
tion,” or any other large openings of the surface of the ground. I would go even
further than this, and hesitate to believe that any high inclination or great con-
tortion had ever been imparted to any beds at, or close to, the surface*. I believe
all such disturbed positions to have been acquired by a slow creeping movement,
the result of the combination of great force acting against almost, but not quite,
equally great superincumbent pressure, and therefore at a correspondingly great
depth, and that, by the very constitution of the interior of the earth, such great
force could not be brought to bear upon any mere point or line of the surface.
The rocks thus disturbed ultimately arrive at the surface, because they have
been laid bare by the stripping off of veil after veil of covering, by the external
erosive forces acting over the upraised area—upraised either during the disturbance,
or by a subsequent action of elevation of a broader and more equable character.
These same combined actions, still further carried out, ultimately bring to the sur-
face the Metamorphosed Schists, which had heen deeply buried by the converse
actions of depression and deposition, as well as the granitic masses, which, pro-
ceeding from the interior, slowly worked their way upwards to a certain height,
but cooled and consolidated before they were able to approach the surface as it
existed at the time of their intrusion.
No one can study a mountainous district, in which the rocks have been greatly
bent and broken, with the same care and attention that has been bestowed by the
Geological Survey on the mountains of the British Islands, without perceiving that
the external features, whether of hill or valley, do not depend on the frangibility of
the rocks, but on their relative power of resistance to erosive action. The hard
siliceous rocks, or those best adapted to resist the chemical and mechanical action
of water, form the prominences ; the softer or more soluble rocks form the valleys
and low grounds, ‘The upward or anticlinal curves in the beds, over which, if any-
where, external gaping fissures would be formed, are at least as often marked
by the occurrence of hills and ridges over them as of valleys, the external feature
depending altogether on the ‘ weatherable”’ nature of the rock.
The same reasoning is applicable to great faults and dislocations. We are all
familiar with the fact that, of faults that have a dislocation of hundreds or even
thousands of feet, there is often not the least indication at the surface of the ground,
which may be a perfect plain, or may undulate, without any regard to the subter-
ranean structure of the rocks. This seems to me to be strong evidence in favour
of the supposition that these dislocations never did make any great feature at the
surface. The amount of dislocation has been gained foot by foot and inch by inch
below, the movement being so slow as to allow of the surface-irregularity being
always diminished or obliterated as fast as it was formed. If a great disloca-
tion had taken place at once, and an equally great cliff had been formed by it,
surely the traces of such a feature would have been more often preserved than they
are.
Small cliffs do occur sometimes along the line of a fault, but only when it so hap-
pens that at the present surface of the ground a hard unyielding rock is brought
against a soft and more perishing one ; and the cliff or bank is always in proportion
to the “weatherable ” natures of the two rocks, and not to the amount of the dislo-
cation. In like manner, valleys sometimes run along the line of faults, and especially
of large faults, and there is sometimes a sort of proportion between the magnitude
of the dislocation and that of the external feature ; but even in these cases the mag-
nitudes are not of the same kind, the width of the fault being very slight indeed
as compared with the width of the valley. The coincidence is one of direction
only, the original fracture having determined the direction of the subsequent
* The contortions in the Chalk and the glacial Drift described by Sir C. Lyell, from Messrs.
Forchhammer and Pugaard, as occurring in the Island of Méen in Denmark, show that
this belief must be somewhat modified, and that local flexures and fractures do sometimes
take place even at the surface. If so, then some of those apparent in the Alps and other
recently formed mountain-chains may have also taken place at or near the surface. It is,
however, demonstrable in all these cases that subsequent denudation has acted upon these
areas, though the amount of matter removed may not be so great as the expressions in the
text would imply.
:
4
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61
eras. forces, so as to cause them to excavate the valley along that line rather than
any other.
‘When, moreover, we examine faults below ground, we find no trace of any wide-
gaping fissures; the walls of the fault, on the contrary, are jammed tightly against
each other, and show frequent evidence of immense grinding force, proving the
friction of the sides to have been enormous. In hard massive rocks there doubtless
occur open spaces here and there between the walls, “pockets”’ or “bellies” between
their projecting protuberances, or where they have been partly kept asunder by
fragments detached from the sides. These are often full of crystalline minerals,
and form “mineral veins” below, but seldom, if ever, form valleys or ravines at
the surface.
If these ideas as to the relative action of the internal and external forces at work
upon the crust of the globe be well founded, it follows that none of the present
features of the surface of the globe have been produced by the direct action of the
internal forces, except volcanic orifices and cones, and that all others have been
produced by the process of external erosion, except such as have been formed by
external deposition, like hills of blown sand or alluvial flats and deltas.
The surfaces of our present lands are as much carved and sculptured surfaces as
the medallion carved from the slab, or the statue sculptured from the block. They
have been gradually reached by the removal of the rock that once covered them,
and are themselves but of transient duration, always slowly wasting from decay.
Eyen, then, if the internal forces could produce such external features, it can always
be shown that the surface which existed when they operated has long since dis-
appeared, together with, in many cases, vast thicknesses of rock that intervened
between it and the present one.
It remains to say a few words on the nature of the erosive agencies which form
these surfaces.
The ocean is the grandest of these. The ceaseless breaking of its waves against
the margin of the land constantly gnaws into and undermines it, and the tides and
currents carry off the eroded materials and deposit them on some part or other of
the ocean-bed. This action is that of a great horizontal planing-machine, always
tending to the production of level surfaces, the cutting power being confined to
the sea-level, while the matter carried off tends to fill up the hollows of the in-
equalities that lie below it. The denuding action of the sea, therefore, produces
“plains of denudation” on the parts it has passed over, and long lines of cliffs or
steep banks along the margin where its influence ceased. It is essential for the
energetic action of the sea that it should be the open sea, where a heavy swell can
roll in upon the land, and where gales of wind can hurl furious waves against it.
In sheltered bays and narrow inlets and fiords its erosive agency becomes compara-
tively small, and in very protected places sinks to nothing.
While, then, we look to marine denudation as the cause of wide plains, of long
escarpments, of bold headlands and isolated hills, and of the general outline of
mountain-chains, and as the remover of the great groups of rock that were con-
tinuous over the area of the mountains before their elevation was commenced, I
believe we err when we attribute to that cause the lesser features by which these
greater ones are themselves modified. The river valleys that traverse the great plains,
the gullies that run down the sides of the hills, the valleys, glens, ravines, and gorges
that furrow the flanks of the mountain-chains, have, I believe, all been caused by
atmospheric agency on the land, while standing above the level of the sea.
The only case in which the sea tends to produce anything like a valley is that in
which it forms open sounds or straits between islands, where the set of the tides
and currents imparts to it a river-like action. Those depressions in the crest of a
mountain-chain which are called “passes” or “ gaps” have doubtless been often
eaused by this action, but it is obvious that this ceases as soon as the summit of
the pass once rises above the sea-level and prevents the currents from sweeping
through it.
While the ordinary erosive action of the sea is a horizontal one, tending to the
production of plains bordered by cliffs, that of the atmospheric agencies is a ver-
tical one, always tending to the production of furrows, or more or less steep-sided
channels, on all the land eet to their influence.
62 : REPORT—1862.
Rain falls vertically, and tends to sink vertically into rocks, producing decompo-
sition in them, both by mechanical and chemical action. A superficial coating of
greater or less thickness is always thus kept in a state of decay.
In almost all granite districts, the rock beneath the hollows and flatter parts of
the ground will often be found to be decomposed in situ to a mere sand, so that it
could be dug out with a spade to a depth of several feet. Roundish lumps are
found here and there in this sand, which were the centres of the original blocks;
these, as well as the solid rock below, showing every gradation of firmness, from
hard crystalline rock to a mere incoherent sand. I have observed this in granite
districts in all parts of the world, and was much struck with it during the past
summer in the southern part of Brittany, where the deep narrow lanes often showed
both granite and gneiss thus rotten and soft, to a depth sometimes of fifteen or
twenty feet. On the steeper slopes the exposed rock was much less decomposed,
obviously because the particles had been washed down and carried off as fast as they
became completely disintegrated.
Hard limestones, again, exhibit the effects of the action of the rain in the numerous
open fissures and caverns that are always found in them, the water here having
dissolved the rock and carried it off in solution, as if it were so much salt or sugar.
The fantastic forms and honeycombed surfaces of all limestone crags attest the
same action. In baring the surface of a limestone quarry where the beds are in=
clined at anty donsiderable angle, they are often found to be furrowed by rain-channels
one or two feet in depth and several inches in width, the hollows being filled with
the finest earth. A deep covering of mould and turf is no protection against this
action, and perhaps even aids it by contributing an additional dose of acid to the
rain-water.
Even where hard siliceous rocks exhibit a weathered coat of a very slight depth,
a mere skin perhaps of a quarter of an inch thick, as is the case in some Felstones,
still it merely proves that the atmospheric influences cannot affect a great thickness
at any one time, and does not render it impossible that many such weathered coats
may have been formed outside the present surface, and successively removed
altogether by the completion of the process.
The joints of rocks when first formed are doubtless mere planes of separation,
without any interstice that would allow the insertion of even the thinnest edge of
a knife ; they would be quite insensible to the sight, and would perhaps scarcely of
themselves be sufficient to cause the separation of the rock into distinct blocks.
In working deep mines it is sometimes said that the rocks cease to show any
joints at all. The joints, however, doubtless exist, although they are invisible,
while the open joints, such as we see in all rocks near the srirfabe, have been
opened by the “ weather” acting along these concealed planes of separation.
The action of the atmosphere, then (7. e. the chemical action of air and water
and the various gases mingled with them, and their mechanical action, owing both
to their movements of gravity and their expansion and contraction from changes of
temperature), is operative in the gradual destruction of rock, to a much greater
vertical depth beneath the surface than is commonly recognized. Its superficial
action is still greater, and has also, as I believe, generally failed, as yet, in receiving
due appreciation. The rain that falls upon the surface and does not sink beneath
it runs, of course, down the shortest and steepest slopes it can find, and is collected
first into rills, then into brooks and rivulets, and finally passes by rivers to the
sea. This superficial drainage of a country is often augmented and kept up by
springs, which are caused by that part of the water that had sunk beneath the
surface finding its way back to it.
The natural tendency of running water is to cut its channel deeper, and that at
a rate compounded of the rapidity of the current and the nature of the rock below.
Let any one take the basin of drainage of any great river, and trace it up to its
source, following all its tributaries to their sources, and he will not fail to perceive
that all the varied features of the different channels of this system of running
waters are the result of these two circumstances only. In the mountain glens he
will see those that traverse granite commonly with rounded open forms; those
that cut through hard slates, or thick horizontal sandstones, are commonly narrow
and precipitous, with jagged cliffs and overhanging ledges, perhaps, jutting from
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63
the sides of the ravines. He will see the marks of the old cataracts that once
fell over these ledges, but which now are removed to other places, or converted
into mere rapids, or perhaps altogether obliterated by the cutting down and cutting
back of the streams. Torrs and pinnacles will be left here and there, perhaps,
rising up from the bed of the stream, showing the former islets and rocks which
resisted the erosive action better than the parts on each side of them. Where a
softer and more yielding mass of rock occurred, there the glen widens into an open
valley ; the narrowest and most jagged and steep-sided glens are just where the
rocks are most hard and intractable, and best calculated for resisting the chemical
and mechanical action of running water.
The scale upon which these operations have been carried out does not affect the
nature of the argument. The action has been the same in the miniature glens of
our own mountains and in the grander and more awful abysses that gash the sides
of the Alps, the Andes, and the Himalayas.
In all cases when the river comes down now, or has formerly come down, in the
form of a glacier, before springing into running water, the ice-mass has of course
scooped out and deepened and widened the valley in its own peculiar fashion.
When we leave the mountains and come down into the lower lands, where the
rivers wind with a more gentle stream from side to side of broad open valleys,
through wide alluvial flats, still it is to the river that the present form and depth
of the valley are due. Whatever may have been the undulation of the original
surface of marine denudation which determined the course of the primary stream,
the river has long since cut down beneath that surface, and is still occupied in
cutting deeper, so long as it retains any sensible current at all. It effects this by
undermining the bank now on one side and now on the other side of the valley,
shaving off a little corner here and another there, so that a river not a hundred
ards broad, perhaps, may eventually form a valley of several miles in width.
The obstructions it accumulates from time to time in its own bed constantly
deflect its channel, so that ultimately it visits every part of the valley.
In many cases the mere deepening of the valley may necessarily widen it also,
since the rocks may be of such a composition, or may lie in such a way, as not to be
able to form a bank of any steepness; and the materials, therefore, always slip down
towards the bottom of the valley as fast as their bases are cut into.
It is true that all these processes are infinitesimally slow; but if carried on
through a period of time indefinitely great, it is obvious that it is impossible to
assign a limit to the amount of their results.
I have for several years been studying the origin of the river-valleys of the
South of Ireland, and have, since the last meeting of this Association, been com=
elled to arrive at the conclusion that the great limestone plain of the centre of
‘ieee has lost a thickness of 300 or 400 feet at least, by the mere action of the
rain that has fallen upon it. As a corollary of this conclusion, I have also been led
to perceive that the longitudinal and lateral valleys of the Irish mountains—and if
of them, then those of all other mountain-chains of the world—are the result of
the action of the water or the ice that has been thrown down on them from the
atmosphere.
Tf we take any mountain-chain and its adjacent lowlands, and suppose no rain
to fall upon them for a time, and that all the valleys of whatever description were
filled up, and the sides of the mountains smoothed over from their peaks to their
bases, 1 believe the surface thus produced would be one representing the limits of
marine denudation ; then let rain begin to fall on such a country, and all the ela-
borate structure of valleys, gorges, glens, and ravines would be produced by it.
I believe that the lateral valleys are those which were first formed by the drain-
age running directly from the crests of the chains, the longitudinal ones being sub-
sequently elaborated along the strike of the softer or more erodable beds exposed on
the flanks of those chains. Ido not, of course, intend to say that any country ever
existed without valleys, since valleys of some kind must commence as soon as the
first peaks of the mountains show themselves above the sea, and must be continued
and extended in proportion to the extent of the land which gradually rises into the
atmosphere. Atmospheric denudation and marine denudation have always been at
work simultaneously upon the different parts of every land in the globe, and their
64 REPORT—1862.
action may be very complex, so that it is often difficult or impossible to separate the
results of one from those of the other at any particular place. Still I believe we
may generally regard the external form of a mountain-chain as due to marine, and
the valleys within it as the result of atmospheric erosion.
Most of you will be aware that the views I have thus endeavoured to place be-
fore you are not altogether original ; other persons have before now proposed the same
method of explanation of the form ofground. M. Charpentier long ago referred the
origin of the valleys of the Pyrenees to the action of the rivers which traverse
them. Mr. Dana had pointed to the same action as the cause of the wonderful
system of ravines that furrows the sides of the Blue Mountain range in New South
Wales, and of the deep ravines separated by knife-edged ridges which radiate from
the centres of the high islands of the Pacific. I confess, however, that I had, up
to the present year, hesitated to accept this explanation without reserve ; and there-
fore, since I am now convinced of its truth, I am anxious to take the earliest oppor-
tunity of recording that conviction*.
Mr. Prestwich, in his recent papers read before the Royal Society, has adopted
the hypothesis of the subaérial deepening of the valleys of the Somme and the
Seine, and other river-valleys both in France and England, to account for the for-
mation of the freshwater gravels which he finds on the flanks of those valleys, so-
high above the present levels of the rivers or of any possible floods.
Professor Ramsay has in like manner attributed the formation of the hollows in
which the lakes of Switzerland lie, to the ploughing action exercised on the sub-
jacent rocks by the action of the glaciers, when far more extensive than now. The
formation of lakes lying in “ rock-basins,” and not formed by the mere stoppage or
damming up of a river, had always been a complete puzzle to me until I read ‘a
fessor Ramsay’s paper in the last Number of the Geological Journal (May 1862), I
believe his explanation of their origin to be the true one.
That he and Mr. Prestwich and myself should all, within the space of the same
twelvemonth, have been compelled to appeal to external atmospheric action as the
only method of explaining the origin of the different surface-phenomena we were
studying, is of itself, I think, good evidence that we are all three pursuing the right
track in our search after truth.
At the instant of penning this sentence, I see by a newspaper paragraph that
Dr. Tyndall follows us in his speculations as to the origin of the valleys of the Alpst.
* Had I not become previously convinced of the extent and power of atmospheric and
river action in consequence of my own observations, all scepticism must have yielded to
the proof of it detailed in the admirable Report by Dr. Newberry on the Geology of the
Colorado River of the West, published by the United States Government at Washington
in 1861. It was only in February 1863 that I saw this work through the kindness of
Dr. Newberry, who himself transmitted to me a copy of it. The beautiful maps and
plates and the numerous woodcuts illustrate the text in a way that puts to shame the
miserable niggardliness of our own Government in such matters; for here they are either
committed to the red-tape ignorance of mere clerks whose duty it is simply to curtail
expenditure, or to the equally uninstructed indifference of higher officials in dread of the
well-meant but blundering questioning of some man of figures in the House of Commons,
or still oftener left to the enterprise of some publisher, who has of course his profit to
make out of the work. An advertisement at the beginning of the American Report shows
that the Senate of the United States ordered ten thousand extra copies of it to be printed,
five hundred of which were given to the officer commanding the expedition.
Dr. Newberry shows in his Report that the wonderful cazons which traverse much of the
country of California, and some of which are from 5000 to 6000 feet deep, and only wide
enough for the waters of the rivers to flow through them, have been cut down by those
rivers through horizontal and quite undisturbed beds belonging to the Carboniferous,
Devonian, and Silurian periods into the Granite below, and moreover that wide valleys in
other parts have also been excavated by the gradual action of atmospheric erosion, leaving
numerous perpendicular torrs, crags, or pinnacles of rock here and there, all showing the
same horizontal beds.
+ A subsequent reading of Dr. Tyndall’s paper, and of a notice of it afterwards by Pro-
fessor Ramsay, showed me that Dr. Tyndall was inclined, at the time of writing it, to
attribute the Alpine valleys too exclusively to the action of glaciers. The valleys must have
been commenced and many of them almost completed before the glaciers, although the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65
As a concluding observation, allow me to remark how curiously the threefold
physical agencies that are in simultaneous operation on the crust of the globe were
typified in the old heathen mythology. The atmosphere which envelopes the land
and rests upon the sea, the ocean which fills up the deeper hollows of the earth’s
surface, and the nether-seated source of heat and force that lies beneath the crust
of the earth are each personified in it as a great divinity. If one of the old Greek
poets were to revisit the earth, and clothe these ideas in his own imagery, he would
tell us in sonorous verse of Zeus (or Jupiter), the God of the Air, ruling all things
upon the land with his own absolute and pre-eminent power; of Poseidon (or
eptune) governing the depths of the ocean, but shaking the shores which en-
circle it; and of Hades (or Pluto), confined to his own dark regions below, tyran-
nizing with all the sternness of a force irresistible by anything which can there
oppose it, but rarely manifesting itself by any open action within the realms of the
other divinities.
On an Early Stage in the Development of Comatula, and its Paleontological
Relations. By Professor Atuman, M.D., IRS.
The subject of this communication was a small Echinodermatous animal, a single
specimen of which was obtained by the author on the south coast of Devon,
where it was found attached to one of the larger Sertularidé, dredged from about
four fathoms’ depth. The author regarded it as one of the early stages in the de-
velopment of Comatula, and though quite distinct from the well-known Pentacrinus
stage of this crinoid, believed that it had been witnessed both by Thompson and
Dujardin, but not correctly described or figured by either of them. It consisted of
a body borne upon the summit of a long jointed stem. The body had the form of
two pyramids placed base to base. The upper pyramid is formed of five triangular
valve-like plates, moveably articulated upon the upper side of the lower pyramid,
and capable of being separated from one another at the will of the animal, so as to
present the appearance of an expanding flower-bud, and again approximated till
their edges are in contact and the original pyramidal form restored. From between
the edges of these plates, long flexile tentaculoid appendages, which must not be
confounded with the permanent arms of Comatula, are protruded in the expanded
state of the animal, and within these is a circle of shorter, more rigid, rod-like ap-
endages which seem to be moveably articulated to the upper side of the calyx,
immediately round the centre, where it is almost certain that the mouth is placed.
The lower pyramid or proper calyx is mainly formed of five large hexagonal plates,
separated from the summit of the stem by a zone, whose composition out of distinct
lates could not be demonstrated, and haying five small tetragonal plates interca-
ated between their upper angles. In assigning their proper value to the several
plates thus entering into the body, the author regarded the lower zone, which rests
immediately on the stem, as simply a metamorphosed joint of the stem itself, while
the verticil of plates, situated immediately above this, is the true basilar portion of
the calyx. The five sma'l intercalated plates are the equivalents of the radialia,
and destined to carry afterwards the true arms of the crinoid ; while the five tri-
angular plates which constitute the sides of the upper pyramid are cnterradialia.
Professor Allman considered the little animal described in this communication as
of special interest, in the light which it seemed capable of throwing on the real
nature of certain aberrant groups of Crinotdea, such as Haplocrinus, Coccocrinus, &c.,
in which the calyx supports a more or less elevated pyramidal roof, composed en-
tirely or in great part of five triangular plates, which find their homologues in the
five sides of the pyramidal roof of the little crinoid which formed the subject of his
paper. fig
On Bituminous Schists and their Relation to Coal. By Professor Anstep, /.R.S.
The occurrence of rocks of all geological periods, and in most parts of the world,
containing a sufficient quantity of the mineral hydrocarbon to be worth distilling
present depth, width, and regularity of many of them are doubtless ascribable to glacier
action. i
1862, i)
66 - REPORT—1862.
for various economic purposes is well known; and there are certain cases in which
there is an apparent passage from the shale or schist containing so large a quantity
of these mineral oils as to burn like fuel, into true coal, which also sometimes con-
tains a large quantity of hydrogen, and can he distilled for some purposes with ad-
vantage. The chief object of this paper was to direct attention to some of the
rocks known among geologists as bituminous schists,
Two deposits of this kind have long been known in France, and have recently
been visited by the author,—one between Nantes and Rochelle, in the Bourbon-
Vendée, the other near the town of Autun, The former are called the Feymoreau
schists, and they were distilled with success in 1830 for paraffine oil, other light
burning oils, and lubricating oils, by the method since patented by Mr. Young,
Owing to the absence of means of communication, the works were suspended ; and
afterwards M, Selligué, the inventor of the process, carried on similar operations
with greater success near Autun, where there is now a very large manufacture of
light oils and paraftine.
The Feymoreau schists resemble in appearance the rich Torbane Hill mineral of
Scotland, and resemble both that and Boghead coal very closely, but they cannot
be used as fuel; they only yield about 15 per cent. of light oils. They are very
thick, but do not extend far in a horizontal direction. They underlie the coal-
measures, or rather the productive part of the measures, and almost represent the
underclay of a poor coal-seam. In this respect also they resemble the Scotch bitu-
minous shale,
The Autun schists occur considerably above the highest seam of coal in the coal-
measures, They are quarried or obtained from drifts, They are thick shales, bearing
no resemblance whatever to coal, and not in any way capable of being used as fuel.
The best varieties yield 50 per cent. of oils of all kinds, but others are very poor.
They are caieratele rich in paraffine.
The shales of the paper-coal, near Bonn, on the Rhine, are also used for distilling,
and paraffine is made from them; they have no resemblance whatever to coal, and
could not be mistaken for it. The lias-shales (Posidonia-schists) in many parts of
Germany are also distilled for the light oils and paraffine, with some success.
Bituminous schists of all geological dates, some passing into coal and others hardl
distinguishable from common clay, thus exist in many parts of the world, and all
ee in the one important point, that they may be used for obtaining certain valu-
able products by special treatment. “It is important,” the author concluded, “ that
such substances should be recognized as a class, and not mixed up with or mistaken
for coals, and that there should be some understanding among scientific and practical
men what coal is, and in what it differs from certain minerals containing hydro-
carbons sometimes associated with it.”
On a Tertiary Bituminous Coal in Transylvania, with some remarks on the
Brown Coals of the Danube. By Professor Anstep, F.2,S,
The deposits of mineral fuel on and near the Danube are, for the most part, lignites
or brown coal. These are extensive, and have been much used. The fuel burns
freely, and can be employed for all purposes; but it has two faults. Tt contains a
large percentage (averaging 15 per cent.) of hygroscopic water, and it falls to powder
on exposure to air, especially in changeable weather. Itis uneconomical, and cannot
be stored. These deposits are newer Miocene ; they occur in and with sands not con-
verted into sandstone, and marly clays not shales. They are generally in lenticular
masses, unconnected one with another. :
These lignites do not occur in the smaller mountain-valleys of the Carpathians,
In their place, in the Zsil valley, is a disturbed deposit, also tertiary, and also con-
taining mineral fuel; but the fuel is here an accent bituminous coal, and not a
brown coal. There are twelve well-defined workable beds, one of them varying
from 30 feet to 50 feet thick, four others 5 feet to 10 feet, and the rest smaller.
They are associated with good hard coal-grits, shales, and ironstone bands. Two
e ee serra are well marked by an overlying bed of fossil shells (a species of
erithium).
All these coals are nearly free from hygroscopic water, and stand exposure for
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 67
years without injury. They have been examined by the authorities at the Geo-
logical Institute at Vienna, and found to consist of carbon 57°8, ash 6:5, water 2-1,
and the carbonic unit is stated at 5582. This is equal to the average of Austrian
bituminous coal, and yery much superior to the average of brown coal, There is no
doubt of the tertiary origin of the Zsil coal. The beds containing it have, however,
been much altered and broken, and since covered by unconformable tertiary rocks
of newer date. Above these again is a thick gold-alluvium.
In conclusion, the author drew attention to the fact that coal, like salt, is limited
to no geological period, and required no high temperature either to elaborate the
lants of which it was made, or to complete the conversion of the vegetable matter
into coal. There is no volcanic district at all near the locality in which the Zsil
coal occurs. There is no underclay beneath the Zsil coal, nor is there beneath the
Liassic and Cretaceous coals, somewhat extensively worked on and near the Danube
or in the Carpathians. These coals have therefore, in all probability, been formed
of transported vegetable matier. The presence of a true bituminous coal of economic
importance in a geological position h*therto limited to lignite, the author submits
as a fact too important to pass without being placed on record,
On the Glacier Phenomena of the Valley of the Upper Indus.
By Capt. Gopwiy-Avsten, 24th Regiment.
The glaciers noticed in this paper are supposed to be of greater extent than any
yet known; they occur in that part of the great Himalayan chain which separates
Thibet from Yarkund, in E. long. 76°, and N. lat. 35-36°, and extend over an area
about 100 miles from east to west, from Karakorum Peak, No, 2 (28,265 ft.), to the
Mountain of Haramosh.
The glaciers which supply the Hushé River, which joins the Indus opposite Ka-
peloo, were first described. Those of the upper portion of the yalley take their rise
on the southern side of the Peak of Masherbrum, and are about 10 miles in length.
The Great Baltoro Glacier takes its rise on the west of Gusherbrum Peak; on
the north it is joined by a great ice-feeder which comes down from Peak No. 2;
op osite to it, from the south, is another; both of these extend 9 or 10 miles on
either side of the main glacier. This, from its rise to its further end, measures 30
miles; its course is from E. to W.; the breadth of the valley along which it flows
is 12 miles. It receives numerous tributaries along its course, some of which are
10 miles and more in length ; two of them, on the N., lead up to the Mastakh Pass
into Yarkund (18,000 ft.), whence a glacier descends to the N.E., about 20 miles in
length.
tthe Nobundi Sobundi glacier takes its rise from a broad ice-field which lies to
the N. of lat. 36°, and has a S.E. course for 14 miles, with numerous laterals; it
then turns S., when it bears the name of the Punmah Glacier; about 5 miles from
the termination it is joined by a glacier from the N.W., 15 miles in length,
The Biafo Glacier is pernape the most remarkable of any of this part of the Hima-
layan range; it has a linear course of upwards of 40 miles; the opposite sides of
the valley are very parallel along its who'e length, and the breadth of ice seldom
exceeds a mile, except where the great feeders join it from the N.E.
From the summit-level of the Biafo Gause a glacier is continued westward to
Hisper in Nagayr, 28 to 30 miles in length.
The Chogo, which terminates at Arundoo, takes its rise between the Mountain
of Haramosh and the Nishik Pass; it is about 24 miles in length, with numerous
branches from Haramosh, 8 miles in length.
The waters from all the glaciers, from that of Baltoro in the E. to Chogo in the
W.., are collected into the Shigar River, which joins the Indus at Skardo.
All these glaciers carry great quantities of rock-detritus, The blocks on the
Punmah Glacier are of great size.
The author next described the groovings and old moraines of a former extension
of the glaciers in this region, showing that they reached many miles beyond their
present terminations, and rose upwards of 400 feet above their present levels. The
paper also described the thick alluvial accumulations of the yalley of the Indus,
particularly those of the neighbourhood of Skardo,
5*
68 REPORT—1862.
On a New Species of Plesiosaurus from the Lias near Whitby, Yorkshire.
By Dr, A. Carts, F.L.S., and W. H. Batty, F.G.S.
The very large and perfect Plestosawus, the description of which formed the
subject of this communication, was discovered in the Lias at the Kettleness Alum-
its, near Whitby, on the 27th of July, 1848, and presented by the Marquis of
Nstuinkby to the late eminent Surgeon, Sir Philip Crampton, as a mark of regard
for his scientific attainments, who, in accordance with the anxious desire he always
felt for the advancement of science, bequeathed it to the Royal Zoological Society
of Dublin, in whose Gardens it was first exhibited to the public in May 1853; that
Society, with the same object in view, has now deposited it in the Museum of the
Royal Dublin Society, where every facility is offered for the study of this magni-
ficent and largest example of-the genus known. The total leneth of this skeleton
(of which a drawing of the natural size was exhibited), measured in the line of
its vertebree, is 22 ft. 5 in. It lies in very nearly a natural position, resting upon
the ventral surface, with the head and neck slightly inclined towards the right side ;
the head, with the under jaw, is in a good state of preservation, and, being freed
from the surrounding matrix, the principal bones composing it may be easily re-
cognized ; the vertebral column has throughout its entire length fallen over towards
the right side, presenting a slight irregular curve ; it exposes in the cervical series
a side view of the centra or bodies of the vertebree, with their large neural spines
(neurapophyses), and in some instances remains of the cervical ribs or hatchet-
shaped bones (plewapophyses), the bodies of the dorsal vertebrae being almost
entirely concealed, the massive ends of the neural spines and transverse processes
projecting prominently above the general surface. ‘lhe caudal portion of the ver-
tebral column is somewhat dislocated and thrown out of position, especially near
its junction with the sacrum; the bodies are, however, in some cases well exposed,
with their spines and processes. The ribs, thirty in number, are spread out on
either side of the dorsal vertebrze, those of the left side being almost in their
natural position. The anterior paddles are extended from both sides, on a plane
nearly at right angles with the head and neck, the right posterior paddle stretching
out in a direction parallel to the anterior, that on the left side inclining more to-
wards the tail; in this paddle the tarsal bones, with their phalanges, are deficient,
that portion haying been unfortunately carried to the calcining-heap before it was
observed.
The following are some of the principal measurements of this species, which it
was proposed to call Plesiosawus Cramptont.
ft. in.
Total length of skeleton. ............04. COOLER: Thc i acgld
Length of the skull from the point of the premaxillaries to 211
thie pariotalierestiyy 34. FFL tals PF Lae NS Oe ae Leap
Length of the lower jaw, from the symphyses to the extremity 3 10
of the angular piece. ............... Sees Aa goo aye che
Breadth of lower jaw across the tympanic condyles. ......... 2, oes
Breadth of skull across the orbits ..............eceeceeees of ee ee
Breadth of skull across the snout ..............cccceeeueee ORG
Height of skull at posterior end, from angular piece of lower bat
jaw to‘parietaltcrest 2. 22.52 eens On elon eel ets
Height at extreme point of snout ............. ccs cec esse eee 0 6
Length of cervical portion of vertebree, twenty-seven in number 6 0
Length of dorsal and lumbar, thirty in number ........... ele
Length of caudal, about thirty-four (some of the terminal ver- 5 6
tebree being deficient) "40. SPATE RS, ypottaaieet
(Total number of vertebree which can be counted ninety-one,
Length of huieriy 200 SU ae ae eee Eien sabia! Snes’.
Breadth of humerus at radial extremity ..................+. 010
Leng th ‘oferatlins ay Hainer ule Ped Buy Pee Bry peice oe,
Breadth of radius at proximal extremity .........cceeceeeeee 0 6
Hiengthiofelnar eee, av Heyes 4 ey. Pad ea Ba ik Deed cones ieee
Breadth of ulna at proximal extremity. ..,..escsceseeerreeee O 42
_—
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69
ft. in.
Length of femur ..scc.csceseterecccsccasesesesservaccean, 110
Breadth of femur at distal extremity ...sceceeeeesseeeeeeee 0 105
Length of tibia... .. ccc ee eee RC: COC Omm nit sjererees ba OraRO
Breadth of tibia........ eR Galshelatatsls fame ZR arya <cafs ferchays; 4 spurl aD
Length of fibula ..........00005 Sarath sits esaegatona nels eror Seer 0 6
Breadth of fibula at femoral end ....5..sceeeeeeeeeeeeereee OF G6
The proportion of the head to the neck, measuring from the point of the superior
maxillary to the extremity of the angular piece of the lower jaw, is as 5 to 8, the
head being, therefore, rather more than half the length of the neck ; its proportion
to the whole skeleton is about 1 to 6. This large proportionate size of the head
corresponds very nearly with that of P. megacephalus, Stutchbury, and an unde-
scribed species from Redcar, in the Museum of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society,
named P. Zetlandicus by Professor Phillips, from both of which it differs in several
very important particulars.
Note.—Since reading the above paper, the authors have received information,
through the kindness of Mr. Martin Simpson, the Curator, respecting a Plesiosaurus
in the Whitby Museum, which in its proportional measurements appears to ap-
proximate very closely with the above species.
On an Extinct Volcano in Upper Burmah. By W.T. Brayrorn, F.GS.
The most conspicuous object visible from the River Irawaddi, between its mouth
and the capital of the kingdom of Ava, is the lofty hill of Puppa, which lies about
100 miles haytnd the British frontiers, on the east or left bank of the river, and
about 35 miles E.S.E. of the town of Pagau, famous for the enormous number and
the magnificent architecture of its ancient Buddhist temples. The whole undulating
plain between the River Irawaddi and Puppa Hill consists of the Upper Tertiary
sands. The hill itself is a fine extinct volcano, its height probably a little under
5000 feet. The upper part of the cone is free from the’ forest which covers the lower
portion, and acomplete change in the flora and the presence of some plants common
to temperate climates show the effect of the altitude reached. The upper part of
the cone is solely composed of ash-beds ; towards the base there is an abundance of
old lava-flows, and a thin cap of these has protected a portion of the soft under-
lying sands, so that the hill is surrounded by a broad terrace, the edges of which
rise abruptly 300 or 400 feet from the country around. Some small, flat-capped
hills, detached from the mass, present a peculiar appearance, from their cap of black
ash-beds and lava.contrasting with the white sand of which they are principally
composed.
The following section was obtained from an examination of the cliff surrounding
the terrace (all the beds horizontal) :—
1. Laya-flow, forming a cap of variable thickness.
2. Soft white sand, somewhat micaceous, about 80 feet.
3. (Very local) bed of pumice, 5 feet.
4, Volcanic ash. and scorie, with rounded quartz-pebbles, varying in thickness
from 5 to 20 feet.
5. Ferruginous conglomerate, containing the iron-ore of the country, thin.
6. Soft, coarse, yellowish sand, containing pebbles, about 100 feet seen.
The author believed that the sands above and below the ash-hed No. 4 were
identical with those containing fossil wood and bones in various bartg of the Iva-
waddi valley. He concluded that the commencement at least of the volcanic out-
burst of Puppa was synchronous with the existence of Mastodon latidens and the
several Pachydermata and Ruminantia, remains of which have been collected at Ge-
nanthamug and other places in Upper Burmah. These beds contain several fossils
identical with those of the Sewalik beds of India, which have commonly been
considered as Miocene. The large proportion of bones of Ruminants (Oxen and
Deer) in the Irawaddi beds may perhaps suggest a somewhat more recent epoch.
The shape of the volcanic cone is well preserved, with the exception of the crater
being broken down on one side, so that no lake exists within. ‘The climate, how-
ever, of this portion of Burmah is extremely dry, and the action of subaérial denuda-
70 REPORT—1862.
tion is probably very slow, so that the mountain may have preserved its form for a
very considerable geological period.. The existence of a peculiar flora on the upper
portion (Pteris aquilina), and of a land-shell (Helix Huttoni) common to the slopes
of the Himalayas and the Nilgherris, but not yet found in any portion of the plains of
India or Burmah; seems to show that the cone-has not only been in a quiescent state,
but also covered with vegetation, at a time when the condition of the surrounding
country was very different from what it is at present, since it is scarcely possible
that ferns or land-shells should cross the large area of dry and arid land intervening
between this isolated peak and the nearest hills (60 or 80 miles at least).
The position of this extinct cone is interesting, from the circumstance of the well-
known great volcanic line of the Eastern Islands terminating at Banca Island (per-
haps at Chedalia), in the Bay of Bengal. Whether in Tertiary times this volcanic
line extended to the N. towards China is a question for future explorers of the as
yet unknown regions of Upper Burmah, Yunan, and Thibet.
On some Flint Implements from Amiens. By the Rev. T. G. Bonnnuy, F.G.S.
Notes on Deep or Artesian Wells at Norwich.
By the Rev. J. Crompron, M.A.
The object of the paper is to put on record the facts connected with an attempt,
by Messrs. J. J. Colman, of London and Norwich, to bore through the Challx to
the Lower Greensand, for the purpose of obtaining water free from the impurities
of that within the range of the Chalk of the neighbourhood.
The operation is performed by Messrs. Mather and Platt’s machine. In the hard
chalk the rate of penetration has been 20 to 25 feet per day for 500 feet.
After a few feet of alluvium, the borer passed through hard chalk with flints, at
distances of about 6 or 7 feet apart, for 700 feet, with the exception of 10 feet at
the depth of 500 feet, where the rock was soft and of a rusty colour; thence the
flints were thicker, viz. about 4 feet apart, to the depth of 1050 feet; then 102 feet
were pierced of chalk, free from flints, to the upper greensand, a stratum of about
6 feet, and next Gault for 36 feet, the whole boring being full of water to within
16 feet of the surface. :
In this Gault the proceeding has been unfortunately arrested by breakages of the
rope, ae the boring-heads lying across the passage, baffling all attempts to re-
move them.
The strata passed through are— feet.
TV IU ee BOS 5a divt ints. dion « stidwaa nde aye
ard ‘chalicewith) Hinta..:s ssn ant wise ie 6 dune ent 483
Boftithalkuiaviien. nett daenhe ves aokins 10
eVardtchinllicncyeity -leb-vateateee exalletacntnasniend s 190
Hard chalk, flints closer .......... ious tne 350
Chalk without flints........ drisbinte hay b wham Drags 102
Upper greensand .........45 it Gant eany telat gS
Gault, not yet passed through. .........eceee8. 36
1189
The fossils brought up have been the ordinary species found in the Chalk, as
Spatangus cordiformis, and Sharks’ teeth (one, that of Zamna Mantellit). From the
Gault, Ammonites lautus, symmetricus, and fragments of Inoceramus.
The Foraminifera in the Gault are—
Orbulina, common. Rotalina, not uncommon.
Lagena, rare. Polymorphina, not uncommon.
Nodosaria, not uncommon. Textularia, common.
Frondicularia, rare. Globigerina, common.
Dentalina, not uncommon. Fragments of Bryozoa, occasionally.
Entosalenia, rare.
In the Chalk, at 500 feet depth, the Foraminifera are more sparsely distributed ;
they consist chiefly of the two genera Globigerina and Textularia. Rotalina more rare.
The same is the case at 110, 400, and 1000 feet in depth.
— ———_ —
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71
‘On Flint Implements from Abbeville and Amiens. By Dr. Davsuny, F.RS.
Dr. Daubeny exhibited some flint implements obtained from the post-pliocene
deposits near Abbeville and Amiens, with a view of eliciting the opinion of tke
Section with respect to their antiquity, and the possibility of their being formed by
other than human agency.
On the last Eruption of Vesuvius. By Dr. Dauseny, F.R.S.
The author confined himself to those phenomena which appeared to present some
novelty, and to have a bearing upon the general theory of volcanic action. Vesu-
vius appears during the last few years to be entering a new phase of action. Its
eruptions are more frequent, but less violent, than they were formerly ; they proceed
from a lower level than they did at an earlier period ; and they give vent to cer-
tain volatile and gaseous principles, such as the vapour of raphtha and light car-
buretted hydrogen, or marsh-gas, never before detected. The last eruption has
likewise caused an elevation of the coast to the height of 3 feet 7 inches above the
level of the sea, which has not been observed to take place on any former occasion.
In speculating on the causes which have produced these changes in the nature
of the operations of Vesuvius, the author first considered the theory which recog-
nizes a second class of volcanos distinct from those ordinarily known as such, and
designated by the name of mud-volcanos. As these latter are characterized by the
emission of carburetted hydrogen and naphtha, as well as of semifluid mud, it might
be suggested by those who regard them as partaking of the nature of volcanos, that
Vesuvius from emitting these same products was now passing into the condition of
a mud-yolcano. But the author finds reason for denying that the so-called mud-
volcanos, of which Macalube in Sicily and Taman in the Sea of Azof are types, have
anything in common with genuine ones, such as Vesuvius; and he therefore
contends that the above products are generated simply by the action of volcanic
heat upon contiguous beds of Apennine limestone containing bituminous matters
imbedded. Hence would arise the enormous evolution of carbonic acid observed,
and the carburetted hydrogen as well as vapour of naphtha which accompany it,
and which may be regarded as the secondary and incidental products of volcanic
action, whilst the muriatic and sulphurous acids are the primary and essential ones.
The author concluded by recommending to the explorers of volcanic phenomena,
an accurate examination of the gases evolved, as the best clue to an explanation of
the true nature and cause of volcanic action. The latest researches of Deville and
others on volcanic emanations present nothing irreconcileable with that chemical
theory which the author has so long espoused; but all he asks of geologists is dili-
ently to record the facts, chemical as well as physical, which volcanos present,
instead of contenting themselves with simply referring the eruptions to certain great
cosmical changes which they imagine to have taken place.
On the Wokey Hole Hycna-den. By W. Boxp Dawxuss, F.G.S.
The author described the peculiar features of the den—its accidental discovery,
it being filled up to the roof with débris, stones, and organic remains—and showed.
the evidence of human occupation. In tbree areas in the cave he found ashes of.
bone—either of Rhinoceros or Elephas—associated with flint and chert imple-
ments of the same type as those of Amiens and Abbeville, and as those of Suffolk.
They were, however, of ruder workmanship, and possibly are of an earlier date.
They were found underlying lines of peroxide of manganese and of comminuted
bone, and overlying, in one of the three areas, remains of the Hyena, which mark
the old floors of the cave. From this he inferred that “ Man, in one of the earlier,
if not the earliest, stages of his being, dwelt in this cave, as some of the most
degraded of our race do at er that he manufactured his implements and his
weapons out of flint, brought from the chalk downs of Wilts, and the least fragile
chert of the greensand of the Blackdown Hills, and arrow-heads out of the more
easily fashioned bone. Fire-using, indeed, and acquainted with the use of the
bow, he was far worse armed, with his puny weapoas of flint and bone, than his con
temporaries with their sharp claws and strong teeth. The very fact that he held
72 REPORT—1862.
his ground against. them shows that cunning and craft more than compensated for
the deficiency of his armament. Secondly, that as he was preceded in his occupa-
tion, so was he succeeded by the Hyzena.” He then gave a brief summary of the
organic remains found, comprising upwards of 1000 bones, 1016 teeth, and 15 jaws,
icccee to
Hyena speleea. Rhinoceros tichorhinus.
Felis spelea. Rhinoceros hemitzechus (Falc.).
Felis. Bos primigenius.
Ursus spelzeus, Bos.
Ursus arctos, Megaceros hibernicus.
Ursus. Cervus.
Lupus. Cervus tarandus (=C. Guettardi and C.
Vulpes. Bucklandi, Owen, Foss. Mamm.).
Elephas primigenius. Cervus Elaphus (=Strongyloceros spe-
Equus. leeus, Owen, Foss. Mamm.).
Rhinoceros hemitechus may perhaps refer the date of the cave back to the earlier
part of the rewer Pliocene. At all events this is the second instance known of
this associate of Elephas antiquus being found together with traces of man.
On Specimens of Flint Instruments from North Devon.
By the Rey. J. Dinein.
On Flint Instruments from Howne. By Mr. Doveuty.
On the Geology of Burren, Co. Clare. By ¥F. J. Foor, M.A., GSI.
This district is composed of the beds of the upper portion of the Carboniferous
Limestone, capped on the 8. W. by the basal shales of the Coal-measures. Contra
to what is usually the case, the limestone rises into hills upwards of 1000 feet above
the sea, and the sides of these are a step-like succession of steep clifls or blufis, with
broad, flat terraces of bare rock at their feet; these lines of cliff are accurately laid
down on the map, and are often traceable for many miles. Excepting in the val-
leys, where there are accumulacions of drift (a mixture of limestone-gravel and
the débris of granite), the district is almost entirely uncovered by soil, and the sin-
gular form of the hills, together with their barrenness, imparts a most peculiar aspect
to this part of Ireland. The strata are nearly horizontal, but have a general dip
to the 8. of about 1° 30’. This dip prevents the lines on the map being actual con-
tours. The limestone varies in colour from pale to dark grey, and in texture is
either compact or crystalline. It contains Nadally Corals, Productee, Crinoids, Nau-
tili, Spirifere, &e. In many places it is highly magnesian, and there are some good
Dolomites, as well as bands of Chert. It is traversed by several sets of joints, which
cut up the rock into numerous prisms of various sizes and forms; and the extensive
flat surfaces have somewhat the appearance of that of a glacier; an accurate plan
of a portion of one of these surfaces was also exhibited. This remarkable tract of
country has altogether an area of about 250 square miles.
On some Models of Foraminifera. By Dr. Frrtscu.
On the Skiddaw Slate Series. By Professor Hanxnuss, /.2.S., GS.
The Skiddaw slates of Professor Sedgwick form the lowest of the sedimentary
rocks of the North of England. They are overlaid by a thick series of greenish-grey
rocks, which, for the most part, consist of porphyries and ashes; these latter have
been succeeded by the Coniston limestone of Professor Sedgwick, the equivalent of
the Bala limestone.
The sequence of the Skiddaw slates is well shown in the hills which lie west of
Bassenthwaite and Derwentwater Lakes. In this portion of Cumberland, these
slaty strata, with their associated flagey beds, are seen at Newlands, passing under
a. ie
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. po an
the superior greenish-grey rocks. A section from this place northwards to Sunder-
land, where the Carboniferous deposits of West Cumberland make their appear-
ance, shows two well-marked anticlinals ; and in several localities in this section
fossils occur. These consist of Graptolites and a branching Bryozoon ; of the former,
the genera appertain to Graptolites, Diplograpsus, Didymograpsus, Dichograpsus,
and Tetragrapsus. A new form of phyllopod Crustacean is also found in several
localities in the course of this section, The fossils of the Skiddaw slates are met
with only in the flaggy beds; but whenever rocks of this nature occur, they afford
fossils.
A section from Matterdale, on the N. side of Ullswater, across the Skiddaw slates
to the Carboniferous strata lying N. of Caldbeck-fells, also affords fossils. That
section does not, however, exhibit the same arrangement of the strata. The incli-
nations in this part of the Skiddaw slate of Cumberland are for the most part
S.S.E., and no well-developed axis occurs in this section. This portion of the
Skiddaw-slate area is intersected in the valley of the Caldew by granite—the Skid-
daw Forest granite of Professor Sedgwick. - The results of the author’s observations
on this granite of the valley of the Caldew induce him to infer that it is an extension
W.S.W. of the syenite forming the northern half on Carrock-fell.
Three small areas of Skiddaw slate are found on the eastern margin of the Lake
district. One of these is on the 8.K. side of Ullswater, and is intersected by a
stream called Eggbeck. The other occurs near Rossgill; and the third at Thorn-
shipgill, a short distance west of Shap. In the two latter slate-pencil quarries
were formerly worked. In these three areas the author has also met with fossils
similar to some of those which have heen obtained in the area west of Derwent-
water and Bassenthwaite Lakes.
Another area occupied by Sliddaw slate is Blackcomb, in the 8.W. of Cumber-
land, In this hill the inclinations are N.N.W.; and along the Whicham valley, on
the south flank of Blackcomb, a great fault, previously alluded to by Professor
Sedewick, occurs. -The Skiddaw slates of Blackcomb also yield fossils.
“With reference to the position of the Skiddaw slates, the author is induced to
infer that they appertain to the Lower Llandeilo; and this conclusion is still fur-
ther corroborated by Mr. Salter, who, from an examination of the fossils, is led to
infer the Lower Llandeilo age of the Skiddaw slate series.
Notice of an Ancient Sea-bed and Beach near Fort William, Inverness-shire,
ey! By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, 7.BS., PGS.
After making some remarks on the subject of raised beaches and their number in
this country, as well as with respect to the Arctic nature of the shells which had
been found m the Clyde beds, as-well as in Yorkshire, Staffordshire, Norfolk, and
‘other counties; Mr. Jeflveys described some deposits to which his attention had been
drawn by Captain Bedford, R.N., and which consisted of an ancient sea-bed and
‘beach lying in juxtaposition to each other. - The bed is lowermost, and contains
‘species which usually inhabit-a moderate depth of water: the beach appears to
have been formed after the bed was upheaved, because it contains littoral species
and shells which must have been thrown up by the tide. The organic remains found
in the bed and beach represent fifty-nineé species, including forty-eight of Mollusca,
-The-analogy: between these deposits on the one hand, and the Coralline and Red
Crag on the other, was pointed out; but their paleontological contents bein
of a different kind, the Inverness-shire and Crag deposits were in all probability
not contemporaneous. The now-described deposits underlie several other strata,
which may belong to the Boulder-clay formation ; but this last is a doubtful point.
Nearly all the species of Mollusca met with on the present occasion live in the adja-
cent seas; but a few of them (e.g. Pecten Islandicus, Columbella Holbéllit, Littorina
squalida, Mangehia pyramidalis, Margarita costulata, Natica clausa, and Trophon
Gunneri) now exist only in more northern latitudes. Mr. Jeffreys, however, regards
this assemblage of shells as Scandinavian, and not as Arctic. A Table of species
was appended to the paper, showing the proportion which inhabits the Arctic,
Scandinavian, and Scotch seas, as well as of those which occur in a fossil state in
the Crag, Clyde beds, and Kelsey Hill (or Yorkshire) deposits.
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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. a's
On the Geology of the Gold-fields of Otago, New Zealand. By W. Lavvrr
Linpsay, M.D. & F.RS. Edinburgh, F.LS. §& F.R.GS. London, $e.
The author had made a personal geological survey of the Tuapeka and other gold-
fields of Otago between October 1861 and January 1862, some of the general results
whereof were published, under the section on the “ Geology of Otago,” in a Lecture
by him, printed in Dunedin in January 1862, entitled “ The Place and Power of
Natural History in Colonization, with special reference to Otago ; being portions of a
Lecture prepared for, and at the request of, the Young Men’s Christian Association of
Dunedin,” and issued as a pamphlet by and under the auspices of the said Asso-
ciation.
He had also formed and brought home a considerable collection of the rocks and
minerals of the Otago gold-fields, with relative field-memoranda, maps, and drawings.
F The general results of his observations and deductions may be tabulated as fol-
ows :—
1. The gold and gold-bearing rocks of Otago do not differ essentially, guoad
mineralogical or geological characters, from those of every other part of the world
hitherto known to be auriferous.
2. The original matrix of the gold is quartz; and the latter occurs interbedded
in, or associated with, metamorphic slates, especially of the gneiss, mica, tale,
chlorite- and clay-slate families.
3. These slates vary greatly in mineralogical character; but they bear a closer
resemblance to those of central and southern Scotland (Grampians, &c.) than to the
more altered Silurian auriferous slates of Victoria (Australia).
4, The slates in question are probably of Silurian age; but this has yet to be
proved, for they are themselves non-fossiliferous ; and as yet the subjacent rocks are
unknown.
5. At various points there are evidences of considerable disturbance in the
schistose strata by the intrusions and eruptions of trappean rocks, apparently refer-
able to the Tertiary era.
6. The valleys among the schistose hill-ranges are generally occupied by alluvial
drifts, apparently of Tertiary age, naturally divisible perhaps into a lower or older
group, characterized by its abundant lignites, and a superficial or newer series,
which is chiefly the seat of the operations of the gold-miner.
7. The lignitiferous or older drift consists chiefly of quartz gravels—in certain
deposits cemented by means of peroxide of iron and other materials into a hard red
conglomerate—associated with thinner strata of clays, sands, and gravels. This
series of beds sometimes occurs at a height of from 500 to 1000 feet above the sea-
level, on the flanks of trappean and other hills.
8. The upper or newer drift bottoms—the valleys and “ flats,” so common in
the hilly parts of the country (where the hills are schistose)—consist essentially of
(a) clays, blue, yellow, or red; () boulder-clays ; and (c) gravels, so called, which
are really the little-worn or abraded débris of the subjacent and circumjacent slates,
and which are more correctly denominated by the miner’s phrase, “ chopped slate.”
These beds are immediately superjacent (in the order in which they are above
enumerated) on the generally upturned and very irregular edges of the slates ; and
the latter, according to their mineralogical character, give a dominant colourt o
the former,—the clays aud gravels of the gneiss being bluish or greyish, of the
chlorite-slates greenish, of the mica-slates, in proportion as they are less or more
ferruginous, yellow or red.
9. Gold occurs chiefly in the gravel or “chopped slate” above described,—this
constituting the “ wash-dirt” of the miner. It is frequently found most abundantly
in “pockets” (hollows or crevices) of the irregular upturned edges of the subja-
cent slates, whereon the gravel immediately reposes. It is disseminated through
the clays in some localities; while in others it is sometimes collected in quantity
in cavicies, or “ pockets,” under the boulders of the boulder-clay beds.
10. The gold is partly granular or gunpowder-like, partly scaly, nuggety, or
erystallized ; and it exhibits every gradation, intermixture, and variety of each of
these forms or kinds in different localities.
11, It is associated, in different localities, with iserine (titaniferous iron-sand) ;
78 : REPORT—1862.
iron-pyrites, common and arsenical (mispickel) ; cassiterite (tin-sand or oxide of
tin) ; topaz (of the gowttes-d'eau character, blue or colourless) ; garnets, and other
minerals.
Much of Otago remains yet to be explored, especially the mountainous western
portion of the province; but, from the geological structure of those portions of
the province he personally examined, the author draws or makes the following in-
ferences, deductions, or predictions :—
1, That the geological basis of the greater part of Otago consists of auriferous
metamorphic slates. This refers especially to the great central and western moun-
tain-ranges; for instance, those which encircle the large interior lakes (Hawea,
Wanaka, and Wakatip).
2. That these great mountain-systems are probably the source of the tertiary
drift so abundantly distributed over the lower parts of the province, which drift
consists mainly of quartzose and schistose débris.
3. That this tertiary drift, in both its lignitiferous and more strictly auriferous
series of beds, will be found much more extensively and largely distributed over the
province than at present.
4, That gold is very extensively and largely distributed over the province; and
that many gold-fields remain to be discovered, especially in the interior; though
nothing short of actual mining, or “digging,” can determine the localities of
“ payable gold-fields.”
5. That the supply of gold is at present practically unlimited; and that the auri-
ferous resources of Otago are only beginning to be developed, and will only be fully
developed in the course of many years, by—a. The addition of quartz-mining, and
others of the skilled branches of gold-mining, to the shallow or “ alluvial digging,”
to which the miner’s operations are at present mainly confined. This implies a
greater concentration of attention than at present on the auriferous quartzites, from
which the drift or alluvial gold has originally been derived, the working whereof,
should they exist to any extent, is much more likely to yield a permanently remu~
nerative employment, and a nein and valuable source of, revenue, than the
said “ alluvial digging.” 6, The systematic application of improved chemical and
mechanical, or chemico-mechanical, processes to gold-mining, and the expenditure
thereon, or application thereto, of suitable capital. ec. The establishment of gold-
mining as one of the speapstal industrial resources of the province. d. The
systematic i peal y exploring and experimental parties suitably equipped,
partly geological and renin partly mining and “digging.” e. The liberal and
enlightened encouragement of mining and of the miners by the construction of
rail- and tramways, the opening-up of roads, the building of bridges, the establish-
ment of townships, the sale of waste lands at suitable prices, the adequate supply
of fuel by the working of lignite-heds or otherwise, the institution of proper mining
laws and mining boards, and other measures pertaining strictly to the legislative
function of the State.
The following Tables illustrate the comparative prolificness of the Otago gold-
fields, from their discovery in June 1861 to the end of March 1862 :—
I, Showing the amount of gold brought to Dunedin by each Government escort
from the chief gold-fields of Otago (compiled from the Receiving Officer’s
returns),
Date of arrival of escort. Tuapeka. | Waitahuna.| Waipori. Total by
each escort.
1861 ZS. ozs ozs ozs
“Vi gel be RAR RA sisiais'? ES hacen | a pet ah Rear aise 480
99, TOL nm stale duldan oe alates RGEC BN > cstetat’ af vcvekins ¢o 1,462
PAUP USUI gcse g aticlbahis AUS cme Al hg RR sal eae re 5,056
September 4 ..,..,..,... TAC) de na ae te gag IRE yes 7,759
“ wD oe ein eins tas ib 5.43 | ums Ii PrP a SEPT ee SP 11,280
October 47; or. neremjer atone dy oping bP ag Soe er, A 12,126
|
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Tas eE I. (continued),
Oetober 18
Seis oi wegen sities 14,438 soo. aE
I ao iargroreoste ore LO TE a ame JIE gia.ejate
November 15............ 30,584 AGED te vga cis
Ne 15,402 at On ae
Ke epee | tae 4 13,520 Ato) Nn eee
December 5 ............ 10,198 4BBB [hl cisiaieis
He WIT Sa ly opih.s 98 10,953 tt re
BO MD bhoilecige t 9,594. AOLbinN aap, is
ay EG Kart aah ee 10,080 BOBS! hr Jerriyle
1862.
January 2....,..,.0500- 8,447 hat: We blips Pabe
oo EE aia 7,435 PAT an ea
PO svesté veecaane 8,867 Nil aN oss
PEs. ta waen cave tt 9,488 DOGT Oe tresses
SMM a roc ede ease mee 8,722 1,588 969
MebrIAry 0 ca vsherea sas 9,749 OBB rags,
. he eeeae 8,027 Ae Bd epee
MO an, 7856 ie Jpeg eerie
OO ee 7,308 1,833 1617
PE ceca cnseavins 5,901 1,144 195
BLOM eicisicclogple sees: 7,201 1,695 604
NNR 6,054 ty] song ge
SMT Ts ies ae sacs «ace 5,447 1,399 1293
Metlc ss tas cincac 272,558 | 58821 | 4678
Average by each escort .. 9,734 2,916 936
79
835,552
11,984
II. Showing the quantity and value of, and duty on, gold exported from Otago
between 3rd August, 1861, and 31st March, 1862.
Quantity. Value.
1861, ozs. dwts.
Ang.3 to Dec. 31......+,.55°- 187,695 9
1862,
dem.1 to March 3]. ,..,s20+4: 170,770 13
PUM ts ei falsact senate: 358,466 2 | 1,889,056 2 9
Duty.
£ a @. Li eal ed
727,319 17 5) 23,461 19 10
661,736 5 4| 21,346 8 6
44,808 8 4
III. Showing the quantity and value of all the gold exported from the whole of
New Zealand up to 31st March, 1862.
Produce of
Port of export. gold-fields in Quantity.
province of
“we a ozs.
leton.,
Hehe San ree pistes cee Otago 359,639
Wellington
Nelson
Wellington ererepeeer eee eae Nelson 46,591
PANIC ANG st acee hie aicters als ‘cis rs Auckland 354
Totals. ieee ach RABE OPO sae 406,584
————
Value.
£ 8. d.
1,393,600 0 0
180,541 0 0
1,372 0 0
——_—
1,575,513 0 0
80 REPORT—1862,
Tables I. and II. are compiled from statistics given in the ‘Otago Daily Times’
of April 6, 1862, and Table ILI. from those given in the ‘Otago Colonist’ of July
15, 1862.
On the Geology of the Gold-fields of Auckland, New Zealand. By W. Lavprr
Linpsay, ID. & F.RS. Edinburgh, F.LS. §& F.R.GS. London, §e.
The author had. personally made a geological examination of the Coromandel
gold-field, in the province of Auckland, in February 1862, having previously
spent several months on a similar survey of the Otago gold-fields. He described
Coromandel as a different type of gold-tield from Tuapeka (Otago), and, as such,
of interest as illustrative of the general geology of the New Zealand gold-fields.
The main results of his observations and deductions may be concisely stated thus :—
1. The geology of the northern gold-fields of New Zealand, including those of
Nelson as well as of Auckland, does not differ essentially from that of the southern
or Otago gold-fields (as the geology of the latter is described in his paper “On the
Geology of the Otago Gold-tields,” save in so far as regards certain minor details.
The parent slates, for instance, are in the north more frequently of a clay-slate or
argillaceous character than in the south; the auriferous quartzites are frequently
developed to an extent as yet unknown in Otago; the evidences of trappean dis-
turbance are more numefous, and the metamorphism of the slates by the contiguity
of the erupted or intruded traps better marked. Nor does the character of the
gold differ materially, save in so far as, in certain localities, it is more generally
associated with its quartz matrix.
2. The Coromandel Peninsula consists mainly of a mountain ridge, running
nearly north and south; the mountains haying a bold serrated outline, and varying
in height from 1000 to 2000 feet. The valleys between the spurs given off laterally
by this main or dividing range are of the character generally of ravines or gorges,
occupied by mere mountain streams ; the “flats” or alluvial tracts at their mouths,
and on the coast, are inconsiderable.
3. This mountain-range consists apparently of slates of Silurian age, generally
of argillaceous character, but greatly altered by contact with, or proximity to,
numerous outbursts or intrusions of trappean and other rocks. ‘The mountains are
so densely wooded, and so difficult of access, that it is only here and there in the
gorges of the streams that sections of these slates may be examined. In these
sections the slates are frequently found to resemble Lydian stone or the slaty
varieties of basalt (such as clinkstone); while they are disposed more or less
vertically, their irregular upturned edges affording the most convenient and
abundant “pockets” for the detention and storage of the alluvial gold washed
from the higher grounds.
4, [Local geologists describe the fundamental rock of the Coromandel mountain-
system as granitic, and the granite as forming here and there the “aiguilles” of
the dividing ridge. The author met with no granite zz situ; nor did he discover
granitic boulders or pebbles in the boulder-clays of the auriferous drift, or in the
shinely beds of the mountain streams about Coromandel Harbour. |
5. The Coromandel slates are characterized by their prominent and numerous
quartz “reefs,” consisting of auriferous quartzites. Here and there, where the
dense vegetation admits, these reefs are met with in situ, frequently as “dykes,”
standing prominently above the general level of the slates ; sometimes forming the
top of the dividing ridge itself. The proximity and abundance of such quartzites
are sufficiently indicated by the immense numbers of huge quartz-boulders or
blocks which bestrew the low ground and occupy the ravines and gorges, which
blocks are characterized by comparative angularity. The quartz is frequently of
the porous, light, spongy character so prevalent in the gold-fields of Australia,
Nova Scotia, California, and other auriferous countries ; and its colour is frequently
buff, brown, ochrey, or vermilion, the result, anparently, of different degrees of
ferruginous impregnation.
6. The auriferous drift is mostly of the charac.er of the newer or upper Tertiary
drifts of the Otago gold-fields, consisting essentially of—u. variously coloured clays ;
b. houlder-clays, also variously coloured; and ¢. gravels, of the “chopped slate”
<a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81
character, the débris of the component rocks of the parent ranges, which gravels rest
immediately on the “bed-rock” or slate. In this gravel, as at Otago, the gold
chiefly occurs; hence to these gravels are, as yet, mainly directed the operations
of the miner.
7. The gold itself occurs in the form of dust, scales, or nuggets—frequently as
scaly nuggets or “ pepites,” but still more generally dendritically disseminated in
quartz-pebbles, which are usually ochrey or brownish in colour.
8. It is largely associated with iserine (titaniferous iron-sand), apparently of
the character of that so abundant at Taranaki. This mineral, indeed, appears to
be associated with gold in almost all the New Zealand gold-fields.
9. The prevalent volcanic rocks, which burst through, overlie, or are otherwise
associated with the slates, are mainly various trachytes, tuffs, basalts, and syenites.
A hard breccia, consisting to a great extent of fragments of jasper and flint, re-
sembling somewhat the “cement” or quartz conglomerate of the older or lower
Tertiary auriferous drifts of the Otago gold-fields, occurs on Beeson’s Island, in
Coromandel Harbour, which island is mainly or altogether tufaceous. Boulders of
basalt and syenite bestrew the tops of the hills which form the greater part
of the said island; and basaltic boulders are associated with quartzose ones in the
shingly beds of the mountain-streams of Coromandel and in the boulder-clays of
the auriferous drift.
Contrasting the Tuapeka (Otago) with the Coromandel gold-fields, the author
indicated the following respective peculiarities :—
At Tuapeka (Otago) :—a. The bare open country, resembling the Lammermoors
of Scotland, consisting of gently undulating “ranges,” of a height generally of
from 500 to 1500 feet. 6. ‘The abundance of the auriferous drift, and the compa-
rative insignificance or scarcity of the parent quartzites. c. The scarcity of timber
for fuel and slabbing; but, on the other hand, the presence of lignites. d. The
inclement climate. e. The difficulties of land-communication with the capital
(Dunedin), arising from insufficient roads. 7. Unlimited powers of “ prospecting”
and “working,” arising from the absence of a native population.
At Coromandel :—a. The precipitous mountain-ranges, densely covered with a
jungly vegetation to the top; the hill-bases impinging directly on the sea-margin,
without the intervention of “flats,” save to an insignificant extent. 5. The scarcity
of the auriferous drifts, and the abundance of the parent quartzites. c. The abun-
dance of timber for fuel, mining-works, and dwellings. d. The superior climate,
arising from its geographical position, 800 miles more northerly. e. The facilities
of water-communication with the capital (Auckland), 45 or 50 miles distant.
J. Difficulties and dangers of prospecting and working, arising from the presence of
a jealous, hostile proprietary native population.
From his observations at Coromandel and Tuapeka, as well as in the other parts
of New Zealand he visited during his tour of 1861-62, the author makes the fol-
lowing statements, inferences, or predictions :—
1. That while there is, at Coromandel, a very limited and insignificant field for
alluvial digging, there is ample scope for guartz-mining.
2. That the auriferous resources of Coromandel will only be fully developed in
the course of many years by the application of all modern improvements in che-
mistry and mechanics to systematic mining, which must become one of the per-
manent industrial occupations of the province of Auckland, and which will demand
the sinking of a large capital in the first instance.
3, That slates similar to those of Coromandel, with associated auriferous quartz-
ites, will be found to occur over a comparatively large area of the province of
Auckland.
4, That new gold-fields remain to be discovered in that province; though experi-
ment only, and on a suitable scale, can determine where, and whether “payable,”
gold-fields exist.
5. That whereas lignites ave widely distributed over the province of Auckland, it
is most desirable to ascertain whether they are of similar geological age to those of
Otago, and associated with the same auriferous drifts.
6. That whereas, in Australia and other auriferous countries, gold is not con-
fined necessarily to metamorphig slates or their derived drifts, but occurs occasion=
1862,
89 REPORT—1862.
ally in granitic and hornblendic (syenitic) rocks or their débris ; and whereas, though
this is rare in New Zealand, there is, according to the testimony of Mr. Haast,
the Government geologist of the Canterbury province, at least one good instance of
such an occurrence in the province of Nelson (in the beds of the rivers Roto-iti
and Roto-roa, where the gold could apparently only have been derived from the
decomposition or degradation of rocks of a syenitic or hornblendic character) ;—the
attention of prospectors and miners, not only in the province of Auckland, but in
that of Otago and, indeed, in all the New Zealand provinces (all of which will
- probably be found to be toa greater or less extent auriferous), should be directed
to drifts derived from granitic and hornblendic rocks, as well as to those resulting
from the detrition of Silurian and other slates.
7. That it is probable the auriferous system of rocks (the supposed Silurian
slates) extends tom the province of Otago into the adjacent provinces of South-
land and Canterbury—from Nelson (where they are already known to exist to an
extent second only to that in Otago, and where, indeed, “ gold-fields” have
been successfully worked for a considerably longer period) into Canterbury—and
from Auckland into Wellington and adjacent districts—though to what extent re-
mains to be determined by actual survey and experiment.
8. Contrasting the Northern with the Middle Island of New Zealand, it is pro-
bable that the latter is more extensively and largely auriferous than the former ;
that in the former the auriferous quartzites are developed out of proportion to
the derived drifts, while in the latter the reverse is the case; and that, should
this supposition prove to be correct, the character of the gold-mining in the two
islands will necessarily ditfer most materially.
9. Speaking in general terms, auriferous rocks may be said to extend throughout
the New Zealand islands, the exceptions being where they are interrupted by
recent volcanic formations, traps of various ages (mostly Tertiary), limestones of
various ages, extensive Tertiary beds, and other geological series or systems.
The author concluded by strongly advocating the necessity of an immediate
systematic Geological survey of the province of Auckland—one implying a duration
of about five years, with an expenditure on staff, travelling, and publications of
about £10,000. He recommended this equally for all the New Zealand provinces
of which geological surveys have not yet been made; pointing to the example
of Otago, which has recently appointed a Government geologist, who is now
engaged on a three years’ survey oP that, geologically, most interesting province.
On the Paleontology of Mineral Veins ; and on the Secondary Age of some
Mineral Veins in the Carboniferous Limestone. By Cartes Moors, F.G.S.
The author's attention was directed to this subject by the very fissured character —
of the Carboniferous Limestone of the Mendip Hills, and by observing that many .
of the fissures had subsequently been filled with deposits containing organic remains
of later geological ages, some of them being probably as young as the inferior oolite.
In a quarry near one in which the author had previously found the Wierolestes, Placodus,
&c., there were as many as fifteen vertical fissures within a length of 200 feet, passing
down through inclined beds of Carboniferous Limestone, one of them being 15 feet
in breadth at the base. These contained organic remains belonging to the Carbo-
niferous Limestone, the Rheetic bone-bed, and the Middle Lias. In the upper por-
tions of some of the fissures, galena, sulphate of barytes, and iron-ore were present,
showing that in these instances the above minerals must be of Secondary age.
In further investigating this point, the mineral deposits of the Mendips, near
Charter House, were examined. Tn descending a lead-mine at this place, the author
found the vein-stuff very varied in its character—sometimes a conglomerate, then
almost composed of Encrinital stems, with a few Corals, all much abraded by the
action of water; and at a depth of 175 feet a deposit of eight feet of blue marl
containing 7} per cent. of galena. In this he found about 130 species of organic
remains, consisting of part of an Ammonite, Belemnites, ten species of Brachiopoda,
together with numerous univalves and Foraminifera. Fish-remains were also abun-
dant, of different species; and there were also pieces’ of drift-wood which had
been converted into jet, It was thus evident that the Mendip lead-veins had been
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83
within the influence of the ocean during the Secondary period, and that the minerals
they contained could not be of more ancient date. Somewhat similar results at-
tended an examination of the districts around Bristol and Weston-super-Mare.
The author next examined samples furnished from six mines, in Carboniferous
Limestone from Shropshire, Yorkshire, and Cumberland. From Weardale, out of
twenty-seven small samples, organic remains were obtained from fourteen, the
lowest being 678 feet from the surface ; and the same result occurred from Alston
Moor and the White Mines, Cumberland. In one small sample from the Grassing=
ton Mines, Skipton, which when washed was reduced to half an ounce in weight,
‘not less than 156 specimens were found. These include the author’s genus Zellania,
hitherto never observed in any stratified bed lower than the middle lias; and nu-
merous Conodonts, which have never been found higher than the Ludlow bone-bed.
It was argued that we had no evidence of the contents of mineral veins having
been derived from volcanic agency, nor by any electrical action removing the mine-
rals from the adjoining rock and redepositing them in the veins. The author's
view was, that what are now mineral veins were once open fissures which were
traversed by the ancient seas of the period, and their derived contents deposited ;
and that whilst these infillings were proceeding, the minerals, which might pre-
viously have been held in solution in the water, were by the operation of electrical
and other causes precipitated, and that thus, instead of being due to volcanic action,
they were to be attributed to aqueous and sedimentary deposition.
Contributions to Australian Geology and Paleontology.
By Cuartes Moors, £.G.S.
After noticing the evidence recently obtained of the presence of Mesozoic rocks
in Australia by Mr. Gregory, the Rey. W. B. Clarke, and Mr. Hood, the author
remarked on the paucity of organic remains that had yet been obtained from these
rocks—in the whole probably not more than thirty species. He then referred to a
series of fossils he observed being exhibited at a meeting of the Somersetshire
Archeological and Natural History Society, by Captain Sanford, of Nynehead, to
whom they had been forwarded by Mr. Shenton from Western Australia. They
appeared to have been chiefly derived from beds of oolitic age, and probably from
ne same district as those sent to the Exhibition by Mr. Gregory; the Trigonia,
Cucullea, Belemnites, &c., being of the same species. Captain Sanford’s collection,
including a number of duplicates, comprised about sixty specimens, and also a block
of stone about 10 in. by 6in., which, on being closely examined, showed that the
bed from which it was derived must have been very rich in organisms; for on its
surfaces the author was able to make out about thirty species, or as many as had
previously been discovered from all the Australian Mesozoic deposits. It con-
tained an Ammonite, Trigonie (allied to 7. costata), Pecten, Lima, Cucullea, Avicula,
Ostrea, Turbo, and other univalves, Rhynchonella variabilis, Pentacrinites, &e.
Amongst the Ammonites in this collection were several allied to the A. radians,
and appeared to indicate for the first time the presence of the Upper Lias in
Australia. There were also several specimens of the Myacites liasianus, found only
in the ironstone zone of the Middle Lias in this country ; and, singularly, the matrix
containing the Australian specimens yielded 52 per cent. of metallic iron.
In the absence of sections, and from the different lithological characters of the
shells, the author supposed them to have been obtained bot beds of different
geological ages, and that, from their abraded character in some instances, they were
probably found in derived deposits, and not in the parent rock; and that it was
not improbable, for the same reasons, that this applied also to the other Mesozoic
remains that had hitherto been found in Australia.
On the Fossils of the Boulder-clay in Oaithness. By C. W. Peacn. »
The author first mentioned that, as so little was known of the fossils of this for«
mation, he thought that a short communication on the subject might be acceptable
to the Section. The Boulder-clay occurs more or less all over Caithness. In some
places it is very deep, especially on the banks and estuaries of rivers, sides of burns,
&c., where it is found in some places to the depth of 60 or 80 feet, and at various
6*
84 REPORT—1862.
levels up to 200 feet. In some parts it is filled with stones of various sizes. It is
of different degrees of hardness; and the shells, although generally distributed, vary
in number at different places, as well as the stones. The stones are all more or less
striated and ground. Above the lower clay in many places are beds of sand, and
from these beds wide cracks run down the clay, some vertically, others diagonally,
and from these smaller cracks diverge horizontally—all being filled with sand no
doubt from above, that on the sides of them being cemented together, and the centre
quite loose. This sand contains organisms similar to those of the clay, but in a
very friable-condition. Above the sand is often seen more clay, and crowning the
whole a deposit of stones derived from all the previous geological formations, some
being of great size, One such, of granite, at least 30 tons in weight, near the Cus-
tom-House at Wick, is 66 feet above the level of the sea. The clay rests upon
rocks grooved and polished. The grooves run about N. and S., with variations to
the E. and W. Some of the shells are almost perfect, the smaller and more deli-
cate ones being most so; others, especially the Astartes, are covered with their
epidermis; a few are perforated, evidently by the Whelk and the boring sponge,
liona. In no case had he found two valves of any shell united. A difficulty often
resents itself to many on finding that although the edges of the greater part of the
lake shells are rounded, others retain their sharpness, as if only just broken.
This difficulty will vanish if a collection of the recent broken shells be made from
the sea-shore, for there the very same appearances may be seen, agreeing in every
particular with those of the Boulder-clay.
The mode of transport he thought had been by water-borne ice, the work of
long periods. As he only wished to introduce the organ’sms, he left all this to
others.
He then read a detailed list of the organisms, first observing that, as Mr. Jeffreys
had kindly examined all the shells and Dr. Bowerbank the sponges, the list might
be depended upon :—
Univalves. Bivalves (continued).
Trophon scalariforme. Astarte elliptica.
Buccinum undatum. suleata.
Nassa incrassata. Artemis lincta.
Purpura lapillus. Tellina proxima.
Mangelia Trevelliana. solidula.
turricula. Mya truncata, var. Uddevallensis.
Natica nitida. Panopxa Norvegica.
sordida. Saxicava rugosa, var.
helicoides. :
Aporrhais pes-pelecani. Balanide.
Turritella communis. Balanus Scoticus (porcatus).
Trochus zizyphinus, Annelida.
ia teach Serpula vermicularis.
—— abyssorum, n. 8. (Sars). Polyzoa.
. Hippothoa catenularia.
B ioalues. Membranipora ?
Pecten maximus. Lepralia Peachii.
opercularis. simplex.
Leda caudata.
Cardium echinatum. Sponges.
edule. Geodia ——?
Norvegicum. Cliona celata.
Cyprina Islandica,
hoe arctica. Alga. 2
compressa. Nullipora polymorpha (Melobesia).
Abstract.—Shells 32 species, 15 of which are Univalves and 17 Bivalves ; Bala-
nus, 1; Annelida, 1; Polyzoa, 4; Sponges, 2; Coral, 1; Alga (Melobesia), 1;
making a total of 42 species, being the longest list of fossils ever before noticed from
the boulder-clay of Caithness. ,
Of the shells, 29 are British, 2 Scandinavian, and 1 Arctic.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85
On Fossil Fishes from the Old Red Sandstone of Caithness.
By C. W. Pracn.
The author introduced the subject by stating that at the Meeting of the Associ-
ation at Aberdeen in 1858 he laid before the members some fishes from tke Old
Red Sandstone which he thought not only new to Caithness, but one of which he
believed new to geology. These had since been examined by Sir P. Egerton, and
figured and described in Decade X. of the Government Geological Survey. The
one he had considered new, and which proved to be so, had a true bony vertebral
column, and thus differed from the fishes of the Old Red period previously dis-
covered. He expressed the great gratification that he felt at being relieved from
the painful position of standing alone, as he had done for some years, in the opinion
that true bony fishes occurred in the Old Red of Caithness. He then entered into
a description of several species (fine specimens of which he laid on the table) that
he had further collected, and which he considered also as new to Caithness—some
new altogether; these have long lobated fins, bony ribs and processes, &c. One
species was evidently Gyroptychius of M‘Coy; and although some of the others be-
long to that genus, they are new species. In this opinion he was to a great extent
supported by Professor Huxley, to whom the whole of the specimens will be sent
for examination and description.
On the Correlation of the Slates and Limestones of Devon and Cornwall with
the Old Red Sandstones of Scotland, §c. By W. Prneeuty, F.G.S.
The distinguished author of ‘ Siluria,’ as geologists well know, has made a tri-
partite division of the slates and limestones of Devon and Cornwall, as well as of
the Old Red Sandstones of Scotland, &c., and given chronological equivalency to
the Upper, Middle, and Lower groups of each respectively. Thus, he places the
Barnstaple and Petherwin beds (the latter characterized by the presence of Cly-
menia and Cypridina) on the horizon of the Upper Old Red, with its Holoptychius
and Phyllolepis ; the limestones of Torquay, Newton, and Plymouth, in which are
found Stringocephalus, Calceola, Bronteus, Acervularia, &c., are made to synchro-
nize with the deposits of Caithness, &c., containing the remains of Asterolepis, Coc-
costeus, &c. ; whilst the slates of Meadfoot, &c., in South Devon, and Looe, &e., in
Cornwall, distinguished by the remarkable coral Pleurodictyum problematicum, are
regarded as the equivalents in time of the Lower Old Red rocks of Forfar and the
North-east Highlands, which are charged with Cephalaspis, Pteraspis, and Onchus*.
Though this co-ordination may be said to have found a large acceptance, it is
not in keeping with the opinion of some who laboured long and sedulously amongst
the older rocks of Devon and Cornwall,—for example, the late Sir H. De la Beche +
and the Rey. David Williams}; nor is it unchallenged by some existing writers,
amongst whom may be mentioned Mr. Page§ and Mr. Jukes |j.
That some diversity of opinion should exist respecting the true relations of the
two systems of rocks now under notice is what might be expected when their
lithological and palzeontological dissimilarities are remembered. The northern beds
are eminently arenaceous, whilst those in the south are almost exclusively argilla-
ceous or calcareous; the former teem with fossil fish, and the latter with the
exuvie of molluscous and radiate animals: but, according to our fossil registers,
Scotland does not yield the shells, corals, or sponges so abundant in Devonshire ;
nor are the ichthyolites of the former found in the latter area: they have no
organic remains in common.
t will doubtless be remembered, however, that, in his ‘Paleozoic Fossils of
Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset’§, Professor Phillips has figured and de-
scribed, as a scale of Holoptychius, a fossil found in the slates of Meadfoot, near
* Siluria, 3rd edition, p. 483.
+ Memoirs of Geol. Survey, vol. i. p. 103.
{ Report of Royal Geol. Soc. of Cornwall, 1843, p. 123.
§ Advanced Text-Book of Geology, p. 123.
|| Manual of Geology, 2nd edition, 1862, p. 492.
§| Pal. Foss. pl. 57. fig. 256, and p. 133.
86 REPORT—1862..
Torquay, in South Devon. 1t would seem that this identification has-not been
considered perfectly reliable, since the fossil has not found a place in subsequent
works on the Devonshire beds, or in Professor Morris’s Catalogue of British
Fossils.
The mineral and mechanical characters of the Old Red rocks may, perhaps, suf-
ficiently explain the absence in them of mollusks and other dwellers at the sea-
bottom ; but there seems no satisfactory mode of accounting for the non-appearance
of fishes in the slates and limestones of Deyon and Cornwall. We are asked, by
one proposed solution of the problem, to suppose that some geographical difficulty
or barrier separated the two areas and prevented the migration and mingling of
their inhabitants ; whilst another suggests that the Old Red fish were probably at
home in fresh water only, and ought not to be looked for in beds so decidedly ma-
rine as those of Deyon and Cornwall.
The interesting and important discovery, by Sir R. I. Murchison *, of the inter-
mixture, in the same Devonian bed in Russia, of the fish of the Upper and Middle
Old Red of Scotland with the shells of Devonshire seems to dispose of the latter
of the two proposed solutions just mentioned, but leaves the difficulty untouched ;
nor does it appear that the synchronism of the representative beds in Britain neces-
sarily flows Boe it. It proves, of course, that the fish and shells lived at one and
the same time in Russian, not that they did so in British, waters. We may have
an example here of the distinction between geological contemporaneity and syn-
chrony, so ably pointed out, on a recent occasion, by Professor Huxley 7.
At the Meeting of the British Association held at Cork, in 1843, Mr. Peach
brought under the notice of the Geological Section certain fossils which had then
recently been found, by Mr. Couch, in the Devonian slates of Polperro, in Cornwall,
The pulsiontologiste to whom they were then submitted considered them to be the
remains of fishes; this was the opinion also of the late Mr. Hugh Miller at first,
but subsequently he considered them to be very doubtful and extremely puzzling ;
ultimately they were pronounced, by Professor M‘Coy and Mr. Carter, of Cambridge,
to be sponges merely. It may still be doubted, however, whether certain fossils
found with them were not true ichthyolites; indeed, one specimen which, a few
years since, I found in the same beds at Looe, in Cornwall, has been pronounced by
Sir,P. Egerton and others to be a decided ichthyodorulite{. It has not been iden-
tified, however, even generically.
A few weeks since, I had the good fortune to find a fossil in the Plewrodictyum
slates at Meadfoot, near Torquay ; that is, in certainly the lowest group of the rocks
of South Devon, and which Sir R. I, Murchison has placed on the horizon of the
Cephalaspidian and Pteraspidian beds—the lowest of his divisions of the Old Red of
Scotland. The fossil was at once identified by Mr. Davies, of the British Museum,
as a scale, or rather a portion of one, of Phyllolepis concentricus, Agass.—a fish
known only by its fossil scales, which have hitherto been found only in the Clash-
binnie beds, belonging to Sir R. I. Murchison’s “ Upper Old Red.”
This fossil, then, appears to necessitate the belief, either that the organism which
it represents had a greater vertical range than has been supposed (that is, that it
belonged to the Lower and Middle, as well as Upper, Old Red fauna), or that the
Pleurodictyum beds of Devon and Cornwall, instead of being on the horizon of the
Lower, are on that of the Upper Old Red Series of Scotland.
To accept the first of these (apparently the only two) alternatives would be to
accept the difficulty of supposing that Phy/lolepis dates from the times of Cephalaspis,
the extinction of which it witnessed, as well as the subsequent introduction and
withdrawal of Coccosteus, Asterolepis, and others; and yet that, unlike its early
contemporaries, it failed to leave any trace of its existence in the Old Red rocks,
save only in the uppermost of their three groups.
Rejecting this, however, we seem compelled to adopt its rival, which amounts
to this:—There are in Devon and Cornwall no representatives of the Lower and
Middle Old Red rocks of Scotland, but the Lowest (the Plewrodictyum) beds of
the former are on the horizon of the upper division of the latter,—an opinion in
* Siluria, 3rd edition, p. 382.
+ Anniversary Address, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xvii. p. 40, &e. s
t See ‘ Geologist,’ vol. iv. pl. 6, p. 346.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87
harmony with those of Sir H. De la Beche and the Rev. David Williams, already
spoken of, as well as that advocated by myself in an earlier paper*. It will be
seen also that the indications of the supposed scale found by Professor Phillips were
to the same effect. Like the Old Red Sandstone fish found in Russia by Sir R. I.
Murchison, the Phyllolepis-scale was surrounded with marine shellst, and also by
corals ; hence the ancient fish to which it belonged was not incapable of living in
the sea,
On the Gold-bearing Strata of Merionethshire.
By T. A, Reanowm, F.GS., FSS.
The author referred to a paper read before the Association at Manchester in
1861, the object of which, he said, was to point out the probability of gold-seeking
in the Dolgelley district being, at no very remote date, of commercial importance.
He stated that, since the last Meeting, he had acquired additional facts connected
with the subject, and his wish was to present them in support of the opinion ex-
pressed in the paper referred to.
The author said that he had employed an eminent analytical chemist for several
months upon the spot, to test the accuracy of his former experiments ; and the assays
referred to in the paper were made of 8000 grains, taken from quantities of 56 lbs.,
after the most careful sampling, instead of the customary 400 grains,
He said that the geological features of the district were now too well Inown to
require more than a repetition of the general statement that the rocks are of the
Cambrian and Lower Silurian series, forming a junction in a very sinuous course,
and frequently cut through by narrow bands of porphyritic greenstone.
The metalliferous veins have a general bearing N.E. and 8. W., with an underlie
to the north.
The auriferous district under notice is comprised in the Ordnance Survey Maps,
75, 8.E., and the upper part of 59, N.E.
For convenience, be divides the district into the following sections ;—Cwmhei-
sian, Maesewm, Berthwllyd, Cambrian, Clogau, and Vigra.
The parishes included in the notice are Llanfachreth, Trawsfynydd, Llanddwye,
Llaneltyd, and Llanaber.
THe CwMHEISIAN SECTION.
The Cwmheisian uchaf Mine has init more than twenty strong metalliferous lodes,
One very remarkable junction of about fourteen lodes is 40 feet wide, and the whole
of this mass of lode-stuff contains more or less gold.
A large number of assays gave from 3 to 19 dwts. of gold to the ton of quartz.
Picked specimens of galena have given as much as 16 ounces to the ton; and more
than 170 ounces of gold were taken by Mr. Clement from about 300 tons of mine-
ral from all parts of the mine. Mr. Arthur Dean produced 148 ounces from 1573
tons of ore. Gold, visible in blendic quartz, has been discovered within the last
month.
Cwmheisian Isaf is a silver-lead mine, adjoining the last-mentioned on the south.
The galena yields about 47 ounces of silver to the ton; and one lode in the mine
gives, on assay, 5 to 11 dwts. of gold to the ton of mineral.
Gwynfynydd Mine is opposite Cwmheisian Ucha, on the west bank of the river
Mawddach. Galena from this mine, though poor in silver, has occasionally given
as much as 8 ounces of gold to the ton.
Hafod-y-bach Mine.—Samples of quartz, indiscriminately taken from this mine,
gave a 3 to 5 dwts. of gold to the ton. The mineral here is probably richer
t is.
Tyddynglwadis Silver-Lead Mine is on the west bank of the river Mawddach,
about eight miles from Dolgelley, in the direction of Tanybwlch. This mine is
situate exactly at the junction of the Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks, which is
distinctly observable at the top of the charming waterfall, Pistil-y-Cain.
The average quantity of silver contained in the galena is from 50 to 60 ounces to
my * Report of the British Association, 1860, p. 100.
ait + Siluria, 3rd edition, pp. 383 and 433.
88 } REPORT—1862.
the ton. Selected specimens have given as much as 300 ounces. Visible gold is
occasionally found in the galena, and he had seen it also in copper-pyrites.
Assays for gold gave from 6 to 11 dwts. per ton. Some moss pulled from the
river-side had small specks of gold attached to the roots.
Penmaen Copper Mine has some very strong metalliferous veins upon it, said to
be auriferous. Visible gold is said to have been found here.
Dolfrwynog Gold Mine is situate about a mile over the mountain eastward from
Cwnheisian, and includes the farms denoted on the Ordnance Map—Dolfrwynog,
Tynsimna, Bwlchroswen, and Rhoswen. This is a very remarkable property.
There are several strong lodes, only one of which he notices in the paper: it is
known as the “ Gold Lode.” He had stones of beautiful quartz from this lode,
containing at least 400 ounces of gold to the ton!; and he believes that a goodly
amount of gold will be obtained from this lode, although it underlies north 6 feet
in a fathom, and at the depth of about 60 fathoms enters a spur of the North Dol-
frwynog Mine. He had specimens from this lode in the International Exhibition,
and had seen stones taken from a depth of nearly 40 fathoms, richer than any
at Clogau. The bulk of this lode-stuff will give on an average, he thought, from
10 to 15 dwts. of gold to the ton.
East Dolfrwynog Mine is on the east of the last-mentioned, and takes in the
farms marked on the Ordnance Map—Buarthrae, Doledd, and Penbryn. There are
a or more lodes on this property, which give on assay from 6 to 9 dwts. of gold to
the ton.
The Dolfrwynog Gold Lode runs into Penbryn—a few yards from the spot, at
Dolfrwynog, where the richest gold was discovered. It is about 5 feet wide, and
of precisely the same character, and will probably prove as rich.
North Dolfrwynog Gold and Copper Mine is situate on the east bank of the
Mawddach. There are ten metalliferous veins in this property, and all of them
auriferous. The Dolfrwynog rich Gold Lode underlies into this sett; and it is
certain that at the depth of 60 fathoms very rich gold will be found.
Assays of the lode-stuff from this mine give an average of 9 dwts. of gold to the
ton.
The author said that he had once extracted as much as 6 ounces to the ton from
stuff in which gold was not detectable under a powerful microscope. He had recently
superintended the removal of about 100 tons of alluvium from the eastern bank of
the Mawddach, with the object of discovering whether the particles of gold found
therein increased in size from the surface to the bed-rock. He found this to be
the case; and the sample of coarse-grain gold produced was perhaps the most in-
teresting item of the recent discoveries. This gold was obtained by a very rough
washing over a trough 30 feet long,—a process which washed away all the fine gold,
weighing probably ten times as much as the coarse gold obtained. It is probable
that the whole side of this mountain will be found to contain gold in paying quan-
tities on the erection of machinery to economize labour.
West Dolfrwynog Copper and Gold Mine adjoins the last-mentioned on the south,
and is marked on the Ordnance Map the “Turf Copper Mine,” from the singular
fact that, some time ago, about £10,000 of copper was sold from the ashes of peat,
there burnt for the purpose. The water at the present time is highly saturated
with copper; and a shaft, now in course of sinking, will probably discover a large
deposit of copper-ore, if not gold.
The lode-stuff of this mine gives on assay about the same quantity of gold as
North Dolfrwynog. On a portion of the mine the author found the alluvium to
contain gold under the same circumstances and in about the same proportions as
the North Dolfrwynog Mine. Gold has been obtained here at the rate of 6 ounces
to the ton. The minerals of this mine and Dolfrwynog are identical in character.
Tue Marsawm SEcTIon
Is on the western side of the Trawsfynydd Road, nearly opposite Tyddynglwadis.
. Maesgwm Mining Sett extends over 1600 acres, and has three large lodes on it,
which are all auriferous.
The Cwmheisian Great Gold Lode runs into it, and the Ganllwyd Gold Lode.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89
Ganllwyd Gold Mine has two very distinct lodes, from one of which he had taken
several stones of visible gold. The poorest stuff contains on assay 10 to 11 dwts.
of gold to the ton. This mine will probably prove a second Clogau, as the lode-
stuff is identical in character with the Saint David’s Lode.
Coed-cy-fair Mine is S.W. of Maesgwm, and has the same surface appearance.
Visible gold has recently been found here. Assays haye given 3 to 5 dwts, to the
ton from surface quartz.
Tue BERTHWLLYD SECTION.
Berthwllyd Mine is situate on the summit of the precipitous and lofty ridge of
hills to the west of the curious little roadside inn, the “ Oakley Arms,” at Tyn-y-
groes, on the Trawsfynydd road from Dolgelley.
There is what Mr. Warington Smyth appropriately calls “that grand champion
lode Berthwllyd,” which runs in a direction N.N.E. and 8.8. W. for about a mile.
Blende and galena are the chief products of this mine, all of which are auriferous.
Only a few days ago, the author saw both blende and galena pounded fine, and
gold washed therefrom, in the proportion of 3 to 4 ounces to the ton. He himself
washed gold from the alluvium of so fine a quality that it floated on water.
As much as 6 ounces to the ton has recently been extracted by Britten’s amal-
amating-machine. This mine is destined to produce, he thinks, from its inex-
haustible supply of metalliferous quartz, some extraordinary results.
Goitref Mine adjoins the last, the quartzose lodes of which are auriferous.
Caegwernog Mine adjoins Berthwllyd, and is favoured with a continuation of the
Great Champion Lode at Berthwllyd. Trials of ores from this mine have produced
sometimes as much as 8 ounces to the ton. A few days ago, the author visited the
spot for the first time, and discovered an old heap of calcined stuff upon which
were visible globules of gold. Assays of the surface lode-stuff produced from 2 to
4 dwts. to the ton.
Cae Mawr Mine adjoins the Berthwllyd and Caegwernog Mines. It was here
that the first gold was discovered. Visible gold has recently been found. Assays
give from 9 to 11 dwts. to the ton of surface mineral.
Gold is also found in the alluvium, by washing, in about the same proportions
as at North and West Dolfrwynog.
Benrhos Mine.—The alluvium here contains specks of goid, similar to the last-
mentioned.
Tyny-benrhos Mine adjoins the last, and contains gold in the alluvium, as above.
Glasdir Copper Mine, to the N.I. of Tyny-benrhos, is a very remarkable pro-
perty ; £15,000 worth of copper-ore has been sold from this place, simply the result
of quarrying. Very rich gold-stones have been found here, some of which the
author had seen.
THE CAMBRIAN SECTION.
This section extends along the north side of the turnpike-road from Dolgelley
to Barmouth.
The Cambrian Gold Mine has six remarkable blende lcdes, three of which the
author knows to be highly auriferous. No. 6 lede produces gold occasionally
very rich in blende. He had himself extracted gold from the blende-ore, at the
rate of 300 ounces to the ton. There can be no question about gold being found
here in paying quantities. Very rich ore has been recently raised. One large spe-
cimen contained gold in the slate. A very rich specimen was exhibited.
The Cuwmabseifian (East Clogan) Mine is situate to the north of the Cambrian
Mine. The noticeable lode in this sett is one that has the appearance of being a
continuation of the Saint David’s Lede at Clogau. The quartz is similar, and con-
tains gold on assay. Mr. Clement’s analysis gives 18 dwts. 14 gys. to the ton.
The Princess Alice Mine, situate between the Cambrian and the Prince of Wales
Mines, has given gold on assay at the rate of 8 dwts. to the ton. The lode-stuff
has the same character as the Cambrian. The author extracted gold from it in
1856.
Moel Ispri Mine, on the N.E. of the last, has yielded, it is said, at the rate of
8 ounces of gold to the ton of galena.
The Prince of Wales Mine is on the east of the Princess Alice. It has several
90 REPORT—1862.
remarkable galena and blende lodes. Some specimens from this mine in the
author's case at the International Exhibition contain from 300 to 400 ounces of
old to the ton. The lode-stuff will probably yield as much on the average as the
aint David’s Lode at Clogau. Seventeen ounces of gold were recently obtained
from 5 cwt. of blende ore. A very rich specimen was exhibited.
Tue CLocat SECTION.
The now celebrated Clogau Gold Mine is situate about a mile and a half north
of the “Halfway House,” on the turnpike-road from Dolgelley to Barmouth, the
most charming road in Europe.
This property contains a large number of lodes, mineralized throughout more or
less with galena, blende, and copper-pyrites, and with the occasional occurrence of
bismuth and tellurium.
The Saint David's Gold Lode is the most noted, in consequence of its having
outstripped all other gold-mines of the kingdom by doing the last thing that was
predicted of it, namely “pay a profit.” Of this, however, there can be but little
doubt, as, by official returns up to the 30th September last, 7892 ounces of gold
have been sold to the Bank of England, the produce of only 1091 tons of quartz !—
11732 ounces of which were produced from 10723 tons of mineral in which the gold
was not visible, and the astonishing quantity of 67183 ounces from only 18 tons
17 ewt. 3 qrs. 14 lbs. of quartz, realizing nearly £30,000, at a cost of some £3000,
or less! No quartz-mining on record has given such a result. This remarkable
lode produces gold in quartz, in the 15-fathom level, at the rate of an ounce to the
ton.
The author stated that, in his paper of last year, he had placed on record the pro-
duct of the first hundredweight of Welsh gold. He had now to record more than
four hundredweight ; and he believed the mine, under proper management, to be
capable of producing far greater results than those just mentioned.
A bar of gold weighing 37 ounces, part of the produce alluded to, was exhibited,
and a chain of pure gold, manufactured by Messrs. Watherston and Brogden.
The first three quarters of the year 1862 show the following result :—
tons. ewt. qrs. lbs. ozs. dwts. grs.
789 18 0 0 of poor ore have yielded 739 19 Oof gold.
13 16 1 12 ofrich ore haye yielded 4566 2 12 of gold.
803 14 1 12 crushed. Total. . 5296 1 12
—which is equal to 18 dwts. 18 grs. per ton from the former, and 330 ozs. 9 dwts.
from the latter, or an average of 6 ozs. 12 dwts. per ton from both. The gold
brought £3 17s. per ounce, after deducting expenses for realizing same; nett,
£20,390 15s. 5d.
The Garthgell Mine is situate between the Cambrian and Clogau Mines, and
receives the lodes of both mines. The Cambrian Gold Lode runs into the sett a
few yards from the spot where visible gold is now being raised, and the Saint
David’s Gold Lode has been traced on the Clogau side up to the boundary of the
Garthgell Sett. The same results as the Cambrian are expected daily. The ores
by assay give from 2 to 10 dwts. of gold to the ton at surface, and, to appearance,
increase in depth. A shallow adit will cut the Cambrian Gold Lode at about
the same level as that company’s present working.
Tynycornel Farm, on the west of Clogau, has the Saint David’s Lode running
through it. This is at present unexplored; but as the lode on each side of the
farm is auriferous, it is more than probable that gold will be found here also.
Hendreforran Mine lies in the middle of the Hir valley, between the Vigra
and Clogau Mountains. Gold has been produced Kare by assay. The indications
here are good.
_ West Clogau Mine, at Liachfraith, has yielded from a ton of quartz 17 dwts. of
fine gold—about half, probably, of what it contained, when the means used to ex-
tract it are considered. The author found gold visible in the quartz here in 1856,
at nearly 150 fathoms lower than the upper level at Saint David’s Gold Lode.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91
Tue VIGRA SECTION.
The Vigra Copper Mine is situate to the west of Clogau, and takes up nearly the
whole of the Vigra Mountain. Extensive explorations have been carried on here
for copper, some of which is auriferous. The lode-stuff, taken at random, yields
nearly half an ounce of gold to the ton, on assay. Specimens have produced more
than this. Visible gold is said to haye been found here. This mine ought to be
worked on a large scale for gold. The Clogau Gold Mill is erected on this property.
Tyddyndu Mine, or as it is called ‘“ Victoria,” lies between the Vigra and Clogau
Mines, to the south of Maesclawdd, and extends under the turnpike-road at Pont-
ddu to the river Mawddach. There are several lodes on this property, all of which
are auriferous. At present they are poor at surface.
North Vigra Mine has several lodes, said to be gold-bearing.
The Wellington Mines have some yery large quartzose lodes in them, which are
undoubtedly auriferous.
Fach-ynys Mine.—The lodes here have yielded 6 dwts. of gold to the ton at the
surface. This mine promises to be rich.
Nant-Coch Mine has given by assay, and, singularly enough, by Britten’s
Machine, 9 dwts. 15 grs. of gold to the ton of mineral,
Llanaber Mine, near Barmouth, is also auriferous at surface.
The known gold localities are now multiplied; and the author added, that he
should not be at all surprised if every quartzose vein of the district is found to be
auriferous, but that it must by no means be inferred from this that every quartz-
lode will pay for working: some will not; but where there are so many, some cer-
tainly will prove rich.
Having said thus much upon the increased number of places in which gold is
found in this district, the author made some reference to the modes of gold-extrac-
tion now in operation.
Notice of some Mammalian Remains from the Bed of the German Ocean.
By C. B. Ros, F.G.S., Se.
It has for a very long period been known that, during the degradation of the
cliffs of the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, teeth and bones of various
mammals have been exhumed, and, more largely, those of Pachyderms. In Queen
Elizabeth’s time, huge bones were found at Walton, near Harwich. They were
then considered to be those of giants. In the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ for
1745, a Mr. Baker records the finding of a fossil elephant at Mundesley Cliff; and,
in 1746, Mr. Wm. Arderson, of Norwich, makes mention of similar remains dis-
covered at Hasborough and Walket, on the Norfolk coast.
In the course of years, vast numbers of teeth and bones have been collected.
The late Mr. Woodward, of Norwich, says, in his ‘Geology of Norfolk,’ “ Mamma-
lian remains have been dredged up on the Knole Sand off Hasborough. This spot
presented us, in 1826, with the finest tusk of the Mammoth; it measured 93 feet
along its curvature, and weighed 97 lbs.” But off Dungeness a tusk was dredged
up which measured 11 feet in length, and yielded some pieces of ivory fit for manu-
facture. ‘The oyster-bed off Hasborough was discovered in 1820, and, from the
number of grinders of the Elephant found there, Mr. Woodward felt himself war-
ranted in concluding that upwards of 500 animals were deposited in that limited
space.
PiThe coloured map of the German Ocean exhibited at the Meeting showed the
localities whence the organic remains are chiefly taken. Certain spots marked
thereon are the fishing-grounds, and, therefore, the depositories of the fossils with
which we are made familiar; but we cannot doubt that these exuviz are more
enerally distributed over the sea-bottom. The following specimens were exhi-
ited :—Teeth of three species of Elephant, Elephas primigenius, E. antiquus, and
E. meridionalis ; cervical and dorsal vertebrae of the same genus; two teeth of a
Hippopotamus (a dorsal vertebra has since been brought up); a dorsal vertebra of
a Whale; a unique specimen of a lower jaw of the Trichechus rosmarus; heads of
the Megaceros Hibernicus, male and female; an anterior dorsal vertebra of ditto
(an antler, 4 feet 6 inches long, has since been brought me); atlas of ditto; a frag~
92 REPORT—1862.
ment of an antler of Cervus tarandus; the humerus of a gigantic Ox; a portion of
the head of the Equus fossils; and a fine specimen of Castor Europeus—the head.
The colour of these specimens might lead us to believe that they belonged to the
Mammaliferous Crag period ; but colour is not a decisive criterion. It is probable
that they may have lain in close proximity to a bed of crag*; they are unquestion-
ably from a Pleistocene deposit.
And now as to how these organic remains came to be at the bottom of the
ocean. At a not very remote geological period our island was united with the
Continent ; a catastrophe took place which separated them and led to the formation
of the German Ocean. This gap has been continually enlarging, from the crumb-
ling down of the cliffs on either side; the fossils have thus been exhumed, carried
out to sea during storms by retiring waves, and there deposited. No doubt, also,
many remains which lie buried in the land that originally united us to the Conti-
nent sank bodily with it; and consequently they are met with when the sea-bottom
is raked over by the trawling-nets of the fishermen.
The measurements of three tusks are given. One, belonging to Mr. Owles, mea-
sures: length of external curye 7 feet 5 inches; girth at proximal end 18 inches;
radius of inner curve 3 feet. -
The author possesses two perfect tusks: one, length 6 feet 3 inches; girth 17
inches; radius of curve 3 feet 3 inches: the other, length 6 feet; girth 123 inches ;
radius of curve 4 feet 2 inches. These proportions indicate that his specimens are
from two distinct species of Hlephant.
A femur of the Mammoth in his possession measures 3 feet 5 inches, minus the
head of the bone.
On the Identity of the Upper Old Red Sandstone with the Uppermost Devonian
(the Marwood Beds of Murchison and Sedgwick), and of the Middle and
Lower Old Red with the Middle and Lower Devonian. By J. W. Saxrer,
F.GS. ;
The sections of the Old Red Sandstone and Mountain Limestone on the Pem-
brokeshire coast are unrivalled for their extent and completeness. The vertical
beds, exposed to the coast-waves, are worn by them in such a manner as to clear
them of all detritus, and exhibit the succession of Old Red conglomerates, Carbo-
niferous shales, and Mountain Limestone in several small sandy inlets accessible at
all tides, especially at the most important points, viz. the junction of the Old Red
with the superjacent shales.
Three of these sections have been measured in detail by Sir H. De la Beche and
the corps of the Geological Survey, and are given in vol. i. of their Memoirs,
pp. 61, 100, 180.
At Caldy Island, the Upper Old Red marls and sandstones, ending in yellow
conglomerate-beds, are covered by 400 feet of shales and limestones in an alter-
nating series, among which beds of oolite were found to be of common occurrence,
filled, down to the very base, by common Carboniferous species,—a thin band (at
the base only) exhibiting, on the west side of the island, a bed of undescribed bi-
valve shells, all, however, allied to Carboniferous forms. And a new fact was
established during this survey, viz. the presence of a band of marine Serpulz
40 feet down in the Old Red.
The same section, bed for bed, with the characteristic thin oolite bands, and
beds of shale crowded with the Rhynchonella pleurodon, occurs on the opposite coast
of Skrinkle Bay, another of the sections measured by Sir Henry and a assistant
Mr. Ramsay.
About twenty miles to the westward, the small bay of West Angle opens at the
mouth of Milford Haven; and here a sharp, faulted synclinal in the middle of the
bay permits the whole section to be seen twice in the promontories and reefs on
either side of the bay. The series of beds have changed considerably from that
seen on the opposite coast, and nearly 150 feet more shales are added to the upper
part. In these shales a very perfect cleavage is established, fully justifying the
* The atlas of the Megaceros has a Turritella incrassata (Crag fossil) sticking in the
canal for the vertebral artery.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93
term “Carboniferous slate” applied to this formation in Ireland by Sir R. Grif-
fith. It is the lower limestone shale of Dr. Smith, as seen at Bristol and the
Mendips. In this section, too, new bivalves occur in the basement-beds as at
Caldy Island.
Sundry other changes are observable when this section is compared with that on
the east coast. The yellow conglomerate has disappeared ; and while red and grey
conglomerate-beds are still plentiful on the north side of the bay, on the south
side (a distance of barely a mile) scarcely a band of conglomerate can be traced in
the first 80 or 90 feet, only 25 feet of which is of a red colour at all; the remainder
consists of grey shale, yellow sandstone, and bands of limestone, which have only
the faintest representatives on the north side. Grey shales, with plants, are mixed
with these on both sides,
The limestones are nodular, and contain crowds of Avicula Damnoniensis, Sow. :
the characteristic shell of the Uppermost Devonian beds north of Barnstaple, North
Devon (Rhynchonella laticosta, Phill.), occurs with it, together with species of
Nucula, Axinus, Modiola, and Bellerophon, all of which are closely like, if not iden-
tical with, Barnstaple species. The Serpuda-band before mentioned, at Caldy Island,
occurs among these limestones, and at a somewhat greater distance below the base
of the Carboniferous shales.
By this remarkable change in the mineral character, accompanied by the intro-
duction of a marine fauna, we are prepared for the still greater change in the Old
Red sediments on crossing the Bristol Channel. The red tint is not, indeed, wholly
lost between Ilfracombe and Barnstaple, but is confined to a narrow belt of rocks;
and the Marwood beds, which are the equivalents of the uppermost red rocks of
Pembrokeshire, are grey sandstones and olive shales, with calcareous bands, and
with no red colour at all. They represent exactly the state of things (but on a
much larger scale) above described on the south side of West Angle Bay.
The Marwood Sandstones form a conspicuous group, ranging along a line five
miles north of Barnstaple, and traceable east and west. They are well exhibited
in the quarries at Sloly, on the Ilfracombe Road, at Marwood, Braunton, &c., and
they form the headland of Baggy Point, where the best section occurs.
In ascending order we have the—
1. Red slates and sandstones of Morte Bay.
2. A band of pale, nearly white slate, with a few bivalves.
5. A thick series of greenish-grey grits, with bands of Cucullea and Avicula
Damnoniensis in abundance, and with much olive shale, in which a new Lingulu
occurs plentifully. (Marwood beds.)
4, An alternating series of calcareous sandstones, grey shales with thin nodular
bands of limestone, and grey cleaved slate, full of fossils, and many hundred feet
thick ; Avicula Dammoniensis, Rhynchonella laticosta, &c., in all the lower part, and
Strophalosia caperata and Spirifer Barumensis throughout. (Pilton Group.)
This series (No. 4) is the upper part of the Pilton group of Professor Phillips,
and its aspect im the grand coast-section is exactly that assumed by the Carbonite-
rous shales which lie upon beds much resembling No. 3 (and with the same fossils}
in the West Angle section. The author had previously suggested this explanation
(see Address of Pres. Geol. Soe. 1855, p. xlviii). A more minute comparison of the
two series convinced him that this identification (strongly advocated by Sir H. De
la Beche) was erroneous, and that the Pilton group really represents a new series,
including in an altered form the uppermost beds of the Old Red Sandstone*, toge-
ther with certain beds at the very base of the Carboniferous shales. But in the
main it is a new series, deposited in deepening water, while the Upper Old Red
area was stationary (or nearly so) and close to shore, as evidenced by its plants.
This series of beds has been described from the South of Ireland, by Professor Jukes
and the author, under the term Coomhola Grits. It occupies there the same relative
osition, overlying the true Old Red beds, and underlying the mass of the Carboni-
erous slate.
Some of its fossils are Carboniferous species ; but most of them, though strikingly
similar, are not identical, and the presence of a common Devonian Trilobite through-
out confirms the propriety of their first reference by Murchison and Sedgwick to the
* Siluria, 2nd edit. p. 300,
94 REPORT—1862.
top of the Devonian system. The Boulogne beds chiefly belong to this series, as
does the “ Spirifer-Verneuili-schiefer ” of the Prussian geologists.
It is overlain, along the course of the Barnstaple River, by the representative of
the Carboniferous slate, and this again by the Mountain-limestone series in a
greatly altered form.
The Marwood and Pilton group, at least in part, can be thus proved by fossils to
be the actual equivalent of the Upper Old Red Sandstone, a formation which has
been found in some parts of the British Isles to be unconformable on the Lower-
Old Red Sandstone.
The identification of this Old Red Sandstone with the Devonian beds has been
a point hitherto singularly destitute of proof, though its suggestion by Lonsdale,
and subsequently by Austen, Sedgwick, and Murchison, in memoirs on Devonshire
and on the Rhine, has been generally approved.
So little proof existed of this identity, that one of our best observers, whose re-
search had largely tended tothe establishment of the Devonian series (Mr. Godwin-
Austen), has recorded his doubts in the Geological Society’s Journal (vol. ix.
. 231), identifying the Old Red Sandstone only with the wppermost or Marwood
bred, which Mr. D. Sharpe considered as Carboniferous ; while Mr. Sharpe himself
placed the Old Red Sandstone at the base of the Devonian system (vol. ix. p. 20,
&e.).
The fossil clue has once more unravelled a geological difficulty. Sir R. I. Mur-
chison, in reclassifying the beds of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland (Siluria,
2nd edit. p. 285), has shown good reason for considering the order of superposition
to be as follows :—from the base,—
1. Lower Old Red, with Cephalaspis, Pteraspis, Pterygotus.
2. Middle Old Red, with Coccosteus, Diplopterus, Osteolepis, Pterichthys, &c.
3. Upper Old Red, with Holoptychius, Glyptopomus, &c.
The Upper Old Red, then, being identical with the uppermost Devonian, it
remains to be seen if we can find fossil links between the middle and lower mem-
‘bers of each respectively.
It has been repeatedly shown that Coccosteus, a fish characteristic of the middle
Old Red beds, occurs in the Eifel and the Harz, in strata which belong to the
Middle Devonian ; and in Russia* it is common to have this and other genera
(Asterolepis, Dendrodus, &c.) in beds of sandstone intercalated with the marine
shells.
There is still the Zowest Devonian zone, viz. the Spirifer-sandstone of the Rhine.
The lower sandstones and slates of Linton, in N. Devon, and of Fowey and Tor-
‘quay, in 8. Devon, are its equivalents. In order to prove this zone identical with
the lowest Old Red—the Cornstone group, it was needful to find some at least of
the characteristic fish in it. In no Old Red locality have we any marine fossils
mixed with the Cephalaspis and Pteraspis; but in one of the German localities
Prof. Reemer has lately discovered, and Prof. Huxley described (Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc. 1861), a large species of Pteraspis—a fish so exclusively characteristic
of the lowest Old Red as to leave no doubt whatever of the true correlation of the
two deposits.
Upper, Middle, and Lower Old Red are, therefore, now linked in all their parts
by fossils with Upper, Middle, and Lower Devonian.
On a Skull of the Rhinoceros tichorhinus. By 8, P. Savrexe.
On a Whittled Bone from the Barnwell Gravel. By H. Srrtey, F.G.S.
This was the proximal end of a dorsal rib of a large mammal, seemingly the
Elephant, obtained by the Rev. F. J. Blake from the gravel-pit at Barnwell, near
Cambridge. The specimen shows on the severed end numerous cuts, as though
made to assist in breaking the bone. The author urged that, as the condition of the
cut surfaces was like the external surfaces—as they had passed unnoticed till he
detected them—as similar cuts could not be made on fossil bones without great
care and chemical preparation, and there was nothing to suggest a doubt as to their
* Siluria, 2nd edit. p. 382, 421, &,; see also yol, xy. p. 437.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95
authenticity, the cuts were as old as the date of fossilization. And as bones are
there only found in one band of loam, it was further urged that they might be taken
as evidence of the coexistence of man in that district with the Irish Elk, Bos pri-
pea Elephas primigenius, Hippopotamus major, and the other mammals of the
gravel,
On a Successful Search for Flint Implements in a Cave called “ The Oyle,”
near Tenby, South Wales. By the Rey. Girprrr N. Sure.
This is a cave in the mountain limestone, about 70 feet above the level of the
valley beneath, up which the tide has till very recently been used to flow.
Within, it is distinguished by chambers, alternating with narrow passages, pene-
trating 30 or 40 yards into the spur of a ridgeway of the Old Red.
Floor not more than 3 feet deep anywhere, and bearing traces at the sides of a
stalagmite covering long since destroyed.
Seventy-three artificial flakes or chips were unearthed, together with the identical
humps of flint which remained after the chips were struck off, when, from their reduced
size, they were no longer capable of yielding flakes sufficiently large to answer the
destined purpose.
Some of the chips are of ordinary flint; some of a dull green, opake chert. In
size they vary from about 4 inches in length to half an inch. In general form
they are almost identical with the flakes found at Red Hill. They were dissemi-
nated through the soil of the whole cave, but much the most thickly scattered on
the floor of a recess near the entrance. :
Interspersed also with them through the soil, which in some places is nearly
black, were a great many bones. Most of these belong to such ruminants as are
now domesticated. Some are of the usual caye-mammals, as Ursus speleus, &e.
One very fine front prong of an antler lay by itself in black earth, and has marks as
ofa tool. Length 11 inches; circumference at base 43 inches.
The lowest portion of the soil seemed quite undisturbed, down to the rock. It is
similar to the drift around the cave. Plenty of edible-mollusk shells occurred in-
termixed.
The investigator believes these flints to belong to the same human family that
raised seven or eight tumuli which exist above on the ridgeway, which contained
Junt arrow-heads and a central kist yaen, or covered cromlech.
. He is of opinion that these flakes are the neglected refuse of the workshop, there
being no perfected flint arrow-heads among them, like those in the barrows, though
there are eight broken pieces of perfected ones among the seventy-three specimens,
The Welsh antiquaries here do not find mention of any weapons of stone among
their ancient writings, except for sacrificial purposes,—in accordance, this, with
Joshua v. 2, where flint knives are prescribed to circumcise, which Lightfoot says
was a kind of sacrifice also. The most eminent Welsh scholars haye been con-
sulted by the writer.
There is no flint in the strata of this neighbourhood; and the chert, which has
small white spots through it, and looks more like some fine kinds of trap, does not
appear in the coast-strata, although sea-borne boulders of granite and an occasional
flint may be picked up, with here and there a worn fragment of serpentine and
iridescent plutonic rock,
On the Cause of the Difference in the State of Preservation of different kinds of
Fossil Shells. By H. C. Sorsy, F.B.S., de.
The fact of certain kinds of fossil shells having lost their organic structure, or
being entirely removed, whilst in the same bed other kinds remain almost in their
‘original state, cannot fail to have attracted the attention of most geologists. For
example, most univalve and such bivalve shells as Trigonie, and the inner layer of
Avicule and Spondyl, are often altered or removed, though their outer layer and
the entire shells of Ostree and Brachiopoda are well preserved. After having
made a considerable number of experiments with recent and fossil specimens, the
author had come to the conclusion that this difference was due to the original
96 REPORT—1862.
difference in the state of the carbonate of lime; and that, other conditions being
the same, shells which were composed of calcite are preserved, whereas those
composed of arragonite have been altered. This appears to depend on the fact of
the particles of arragonite being in a state of unstable equilibrium. When prepared
artificially, it has a great tendency to pass into calcite; and if this change took
place in shells, their organic structure would be very apt to be destroyed, though
the shell might remain as a crystalline mass of calcite. If, however, the cireum-
stances of the case were such that the calcite formed at the expense of the arrago—
nite of the shells had a greater tendency to crystallize elsewhere rather than in
situ, they would be removed, and leave more or less perfect casts. On the con-
trary, calcite having no such tendency to change, shells composed of it might,
under similar conditions, remain nearly in their original state.
On the Comparative Structure of Artificial and Natural Igneous Rocks.
By H. C. Sorsy, F.B.S., Fe.
As is well known, Sir James Hall and Gregory Watt, by fusing and slowly cool-
ing basalt, obtained a stony mass, to a certain extent similar to the original rock.
Various writers on the subject have since contended that the product is not, like
the original, composed of several distinct minerals, but made up of only one kind
of crystals. The author, however, showed that, when thin transparent sections are
examined with a high magnifying power, it may be seen that the artificial rock is
really an aggregate of the three principal minerals of the original basalt, which,
nevertheless, are developed and arranged in such a very different manner that it is
easy to understand why this fact has been overlooked. Indeed, the difference in
general structure is so considerable that, probably, other causes besides a slower
cooling were instrumental in producing the peculiar characters of the natural rocks.
On Scutes of the Labyrinthodon, from the Keuper Bone-Breccia of Pendock,
Worcestershire. By the Rev. W. 8. Srmoyvs, M.A., FU.GAS.
The remains of this Triassic reptile have been found in the Keuper sandstone of
Warwick and Leamington, but had not hitherto been detected in the Trias of
Worcestershire or Gloucestershire. The scutes and bones found by Mr. Symonds
were submitted "to Prof. Huxley. They occur chiefly in the “ bone-breccia,” de-
scribed by Mr. Symonds in the ‘Transactions of the Geological Society,’ and are
associated with numerous spines of fishes.
On the Geology of a Part of Sligo, By A. B. Wrxnu, F.GS.
In this paper the author stated that he had put together a few notes upon an
extensive district. They were made during a short tour to the co. Sligo and part
of Leitrim, in the summer of 1862; and he alluded to papers by Sir R. Griffith,
Archdeacon Verschoyle, and Mr. John Kelly, in the ‘ Proceedings of the Geological
Society,’ all of which referred to the country under consideration. He then pro-
ceeded to describe the district as composed of a widely spread, nearly horizontal series
of stratified rocks, consisting of sandstones below and above, with a thick band of
limestones interstratified with other sandstones between. This horizontal group
represents the Carboniferous formation, from the Millstone-grit downwards, and
probably a part of the underlying Old Red Sandstone ; and the thickness of the
group is little less than 2000 feet, roughly estimated from the heights of the
mountains formed by these rocks, Cutting across the country formed by these hori-
zontal beds is the rugged chain of the Ox Mountains, extending from Mayo into
the co. Leitrim. Some of the most picturesque valleys in the district, like that of
Lough Gill, are the lateral ones along the flanks of the Ox chain, which, being
formed of gneissose, micaceous, and quartzose rocks, have a totally different aspect
from the mountains formed of the limestone and other horizontal beds. The ser-
pentine garnet rock and trap-rocks of these older mountains were next alluded to,
and it was stated that, although they seemed to occupy fissures running in various
opposite directions, their master-joints or divisional planes were nearly parallel.
The denudation which exposed the Ox Mountains, and removed the thick series of
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97
Carboniferous rocks which curves round the eastern end of the chain, was alluded
to; and the circumstance of the occurrence of beds of sandstone interstratified in the
limestone portion of the horizontal group was given as an instance of the splittin
up of the Carboniferous formation into alternations of numerous arenaceous an
calcareous strata, as observed in the northern parts of the British Isles. The
limestone was stated to be traversed by greenstone trap-dykes, and metalliferous
mineral deposits were stated to occur at Lurganboy, King’s Mountain, &c.
In conclusion, the drift was alluded to, and sea-shells were stated to have been
found therein, in one place at a considerable depth, and at a distance of two miles
from the sea; and the horns and skulls, &c., of deer and other extinct animals were
mentioned as overlying this deposit, or being just within it. The paper was illus-
trated by drawings of different portions of the country, and a list of the fossils sent
for determination to W. H. Baily, F.G.S., was appended.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, tnctuptine PHYSIOLOGY.
Borany.
On the Ennobling of Roots, with particular reference to the Parsnip.
By James Buckman, F.L.S., F.GS., Se.
The author, in this paper, explained the processes which he had adopted to convert
the woody-branched root of the wild parsnip into the smooth, succulent, fusiform
root of the esculent parsnip.
The growth of wild seed was commenced in 1847, in prepared garden-ground,
and roots carefully selected and transplanted for the next generation, and so on,
selecting roots for seeding until the desired form was attained. This new variety
of parsnip is now well known to the gardener under the name of the Student
Parsnip*. The author concludes that his experiments with parsnips sufficiently
show that this esculent, as well as the carrot, beet, turnip, &c., have nowhere in
the wild state that large, fleshy, smooth appearance which belongs to their cul-
tivated forms; and hence, that all the varieties of these that we meet with in
cultivation must be considered as derivatives from original wild forms, attained by
cultivative processes.
He states that the facility with which new sorts can be induced, and the con-
stancy with which they are maintained, under great diversities of soil, climate, and
treatment, are evidences of the derivative or ennobled nature of our crop plants,
which are indeed maintained by the very changes to which their aboriginals have
been subjected.
Experiments with Seed of Malformed Roots.
By James Buckman, F.L.S., F.GS., Se.
In this paper it was shown, as the result of direct experiment, that seed derived
from malformed, z.e. misshapen, crop-roots of both turnips and parsnips resulted
in even greater deformities than those presented by the parent.
Thus, a much-forked root of parsnip and another of a swede were selected for
seeding, the produce of each being sown in plots side by side with that of good
roots, the result of which was that in both instances the bad seed produced only
about half the weight of the good, and all the examples of roots from the bad seed
were misshapen in a most extraordinary manner.
From these experiments the author draws the following conclusions :—
1. That a degenerate progeny will, as a rule, result from the employment of
degenerate or badly-grown seed.
. That, besides ugly, malformed roots, degenerate seed does not produce nearly
the weight of crop of good seed under the same circumstances of growth.
* It gained the first prize at the International Show at the Horticultural Society for 1862.
7
98 REPORT—1862.
3. That, by means of selection, we may produce roots that are well shaped and
have the capabilities of yielding the best crop.
4, That, by designedly selecting malformed or degenerate roots for seeding, we
may produce a seed that will result in a great or greater degeneracy.
The bearings of this subject are of interest, not only in a physiological poet of
view, but in the more practical one concerned in every-day cultivation ; for upon
a due observance of the principles involved will depend the stability or permanency
of any particular sort; and as sorts are only arrived at as the result of great care
(that is, by successful breeding), so care must be taken for their maintenance.
Reply to the Remarks of M. F. Marcet on the Power of Selection ascribed to
the Roots of Plants. By Dr. Dauseny, F.R.S.
Dr. Daubeny replied to some remarks by M. F. Marcet, published in the ‘ Biblio-
théque Universelle de Genéve,’ with respect to the power of selection exerted by
the roots of plants, as mentioned in a paper read by him before the British Asso-
ciation at the last Meeting held at Manchester.—See vol. xxx. p. 141.
On a Botanical Chart of the Barony of Burren, County Clare.
‘By F. J. Foor.
This district is composed of the Upper Carboniferous Limestone, and is remark-
able as being the habitat of many rare and interesting plants. Certain lines were
laid down on the map, representing the limit of the ranges of these plants
through the district. Among others, the author enumerated and commented briefly
on the following :—Arabis hirsuta, Arenaria verna, Cerastium arvense, Geranium
sanguneum, Rubus saxatilis, Rubia peregrina, Galium pusillum, Galium boreale,
Asperula cynanchica, Melampyrum sylvaticum, Orchis pyramidals, var. fiore pleno,
Thalictrum majus and minus, Helianthemum canum, Spirea filipentula, Dryas
octopetala, Sedum rhodiola, Arbutus uva-ursi, Pyrola media, Gentiana verna, Oro-
banche rubra, Epipactis ovalis (of Babington), Potentilla fruticosa, Adiantum capillus
Veneris.
The last-mentioned plant (the beautiful Maiden-hair Fern) occurs in great
abundance in several separate stations in Burren. A few years ago it was only
recorded as plentiful from the South Isles of Arran, and sparingly from Conne-
mara and Cahirconree Mountain, county Kerry.
On the Inflorescence of Plants. By Joun Gress.
On the Toot-poison of New Zealand. By W. Lavprr Linpsay, M.D. and
F.R.S. Edinb., F.LS., Se.
During a tour through the New Zealand provinces in 1861-1862, the author
was struck with the abundant evidences which everywhere presented themselves
of the ravages produced among the flocks and herds of the settlers by the Toot-
plant, one of the most common indigenous shrubs of these islands. In many cases
of losses by individual settlers brought under his notice, the amount from this
source alone had been from 25 to 75 per cent. In Otago particularly were such
losses felt during the height of the gold mania there, from July to December
1861 : the traffic between Dunedin and Tuapeka gold-fields required the service of
large numbers of bullocks, a great proportion of which were lost by Toot-poisoning.
In colonies which as yet, at least, haye depended for their prosperity almost solely
on pastoral enterprise, such losses form a material barrier to prosperity; and the
concurrent testimony of the colonists in every part of New Zealand proves the great
desirability of determining the nature of the Toot-poison, the laws of its action on
man and the lower animals, and its appropriate antidotes or modes of treatment.
With a view to assist in the attainment of these aims, the author had made notes,
on the spot, of a large number of instances of the poisonous or fatal action of the
plant on man—adults as well as children—and the lower animals, and had brought
specimens home for chemical examination, The chief results of his investigations
may be thus stated :—
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99
1. The Toot-poison belongs to the class of Narcotico-irritants.
a. Its action on man includes the following symptoms :—coma, with or without
delirium ; sometimes great muscular excitement or convulsions, the details differ-
ing in different individuals; during convalescence, loss of memory, with or with-
out vertigo.
6, In cattle and sheep, they include vertigo, stupor, delirium, and convulsions;
curious staggerings and gyrations; frantic kicking, and racing or coursing;
tremors.
2. The poisonous portion of the plant,
a. To man, is generally the Seed, which is contained in a beautiful, dark purple,
luscious berry, resembling the blackberry, which clusters closely in rich pendent
racemes, and which is most tempting to children ; occasionally the young Shoots of
the plant, as it grows up in spring:
b. To cattle and sheep, in almost all cases, is the young Shoot, which is tender
and succulent, resembling in appearance and taste the similar state of asparagus.
3. The following Peeuliarities exist in regard to the action of the Toot-poison :—
a. A predisposition must exist, such predisposition being produced in cattle and
sheep by some of the following conditions or cireumstances :—The animal is not
habituated to the use of the plant; it suddenly makes a large meal thereof after
long fasting, or long feeding on drier and less palatable materials, or after exhaus-
tion by hard labour or hot, dry weather. From some such cause, the digestive
system is deranged, and is susceptible of more serious disorder from the inges-
tion of food to which the animal is, at the time, unaccustomed. Hence Toot-
poisoning frequently occurs in animals which have just been landed from a long
and fatiguing sea-voyage during which they have been underfed or starved, to
whom the young Toot-shoots present the most juicy, fresh, pleasant diet.
6. On the other hand, the same kinds of animals, habituated to the use of the
Toot-plant, not only do not suffer at all, but for them it is regarded as quite equal
in value to, and as safe as, clover as a pastoral food. It is an equal favourite
with cattle and sheep, whether they have been habituated or not.
e. The predisposition in man is probably produced by analogous conditions
depressing the tone of his nervous and digestive systems, or directly deranging
them. Children are affected out of all proportion to adults,
d. Adults who have suffered from the poisonous action of Toot under certain
circumstances have been exempt from such action under certain others—the same
parts of the plant having been used, and apparently in the same way, in both sets
of instances: Moreover, the Toot-berries enjoy, both among the Maoris and
colonists, an enviable notoriety on account of the agreeable and harmless wine and
jellies they are capable of yielding, the former whereof especially has long been
greatly prized. The seeds, however, in these cases probably do not enter into
the composition of the said wine and jellies.
4. The current Remedies for Toot-poisoning among the settlers are, in regard to— °
a. Cattle and sheep—mainly bleeding, by slashing the ears and tails. Bella-
donna has been variously tried, and favourably reported on; by others, stimulants
are regarded as specifics (carbonate of ammonia, brandy, or a mixture of gin and
turpentine, locally known as “ Drench”), Whatever be the nature of the remedy,
there is no difference of opinion as to the necessity for the promptest treatment,
since, at a certain stage of the action of the poison, ai remedies appear equally
inefficacious.
b. In man the nature of the remedy is still more varied, though emetics and
stimulants seem the most rational of those usually had recourse to.
5. The Yoot- or Tutu-plant is the Coriaria ruscifolia, L. (the C. sarmentosa,
Forst.)._ The plant is variously designated by Maoris and settlers in different parts
of the New Zealand islands ; and this of itself indicates how familiar it is, and how
abundantly and widely distributed. The genus Coriaria is a small one, and, if
not belonging to a subdivision of the natural order Ochnacee, probably represents
a separate order closely allied thereto and to the Rutacee. The most distin-
guished botanists, however, are at issue as to its precise place and alliances in the
vegetable system. They are in similar dubiety as to the species of the genus, and
the varieties of the species C. ruscifolia, L. In New Zealand there appear to be
haa
100 REPORT— 1862.
at least three Coriarias, which some botanists regard as mere varieties of C. rusci-
folia, L., and others consider separate species. The author had made, in July
1862, an examination of all the species of the genus Corvarta contained in the
Hookerian and Benthamian Collections at Kew, the result whereof was a strong
conviction of the necessity for a critical revision of the whole genus, throughout all
its species, wherever distributed. The author considers the specific names of the
Toot-plant (both ruseifolia and sarmentosa) objectionable, as not truly applicable or
descriptive; and proposes the specific term C. tutw—the Maori name of the plant,
as more convenient to indicate the type of the species, leaving such terms as
ruscifolia, thymifolia, and sarmentosa to represent varieties or other species, as a
subsequent critical examination of the genus may render necessary or desirable.
In contrast to, and in connexion with the toxic action of C. ruscifolia, the
author remarked on the better-known poisonous properties of C. myrtéfolia, familiar
as an adulterant of senna, and on those of other species of the genus Coriarta. He
announced his belief that the whole genus Coriaria must be considered endowed
with poisonous properties, gaa of the narcotico-irritant class, and that, as such
(especially in reference to the extent and importance of the economic losses caused
by such species as Toot), it is eminently deserving of thorough scientific investi-
ation:
Under this head he pointed out the fact that—
a. While certain animals seem to be themselves exempt from, or insusceptible
to the action of the poison, they may, by feeding upon certain species, or certain
parts of certain species of Coriaria, and assimilating thereby or secreting the con-
tained poison in their tissues, communicate poisonous effects, or become poisons,
to man or the lower animals, to which they (the animals first mentioned) have
become articles of diet. He cited a recent instance in connexion with C. myrtifolia,
in which several persons, near Toulouse, were poisoned by a dish of snails which
had been fattened on its leaves and shoots *.
b. That Royle in reference to the fruit of C. Nepalensis, Peschier of Geneva in
regard to C. myrtifolia, and other authorities in regard to other species of Coriaria,
have published instances of their harmless or even beneficial effects, under certain
circumstances, on man or the lower animals. Such conflicting statements would
mond to indicate that there are peculiarities in the action of the poisonous prin-
ciples of all the Coriarias, or ES mepensies in the records of instances of the said
action, which discrepancies or peculiarities demand reconciliation or explanation
at the hands of competent scientific experts.
On the Occurrence of Asplenium viride on an Isolated Travertine Rock among
the Black Mountains of Monmouthshire. By the Rev. W. 8. Symonps.
Mr. Symonds drew attention, at the Meeting of the British Association held at
Oxford in June 1860, to the selection of a peculiar geological habitat by some of
the rarer British plants. Aspleniwm viride was found in 1862, by Mr. George Roberts,
of the Geological Society of London, growing in considerable abundance on an
isolated rock of travertine, Capel-le-fin, Llanthony, Monmouthshire. This Asplenium
is not known elsewhere in the district.
Zoouoey.
On the Generative Zooid of Clavatella. By Professor Atuman, M.D., F.B.S.
In this communication the author confirmed the observations of Hincks and
Krohn with regard to the generative zooid of Clavatella prolifera, Hincks, and stated
that he had succeeded in fully demonstrating the gastro-vascular system described
as existing in it by Krohn.
* Medical Times and Gazette, Sept. 13, 1862, p. 282.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 101
On an Early Stage in the Development of Comatula.
By Professor Attman, M.D., F.R.S.
This paper was also read in Section C, with fuller remarks on the paleonto-
logical relations of the subject of it. An abstract is given in the proceedings of that
Section (p. 65).
On the Structure of Corymorpha nutans. By Professor Attman, M.D., FBS,
The body of the polype was described as presenting a continuous cavity as far
back as the zone of posterior tentacula. From the floor of this cavity a large
conical mass of vacuolated endoderm projects forwards, and nearly fills the posterior
wider part of the cavity, whose extension backwards seems at first sight not to be
continued beyond the zone of posterior tentacula. There is here, however, in reality,
no interruption of the general body-cavity ; for the axis of the conical projecting
mass of endoderm is perforated by a channel, which thus continues the cavity back-
wards to the summit of the stem.
A system of inosculating longitudinal tubular vacuole was described as existing
in the stem; they are indicated externally by the longitudinal coloured lines visible
even by the naked eye. At the summit of the stem they coalesce and become con-
tinuous with the cavity of the body. In these tubes, distinct currents, similar to
those so long known in the stem of Tubularia indivisa, were occasionally very per-
ceptible under the microscope.
nder a high power of the microscope, delicate parallel longitudinal strie may
be detected, lying externally to the tubular vacuole ; they are situated between
the ectoderm and endoderm, and may be traced upwards on the body of the polype
as far at least as the zone of posterior tentacula; they seem to consist of fine tubu-
lar fibres, and are apparently the equivalent of the fibres (muscular ?) visible beneath
the ectoderm of Clava, Coryne, &c. Still finer circular strize may also be occasion-
ally witnessed under a high power running transversely round the stem; but the
author could not determine whether these represent fibres or mere ruge in the
ectoderm.
The gonophores are medusiform, and were described as belonging to the generic
type of Steenstrupia (Forbes). They were liberated in abundance from the specimens
examined. The generative elements were not visible in any of the medusoids at
the time of their liberation ; but the author obtained from the same part of the sea
where the Corymorpha occurred a free Steenstrupia, a little larger than the medusoids
of the present species at the time when they become detached, and which he
did not hesitate to consider as specifically identical with them, and in this the
generative elements were quite distinct between the ectoderm and endoderm of the
manubrium.
The species of Corymorpha which constituted the subject of this communication
was considered by the author as identical with C. nutans (Sars), though it does not
entirely agree with the diagnosis of that species as given by Sars. It was discovered
in the Frith of Forth last summer.
On some new British Tubularide. By Professor Attman, M.D., FES.
The author gave the following diagnoses of new species of Tubularide which he
had obtained during the autumn of 1862 on the coasts of Shetland and Devonshire.
Clava diffusa (mihi). Polypes about } of an inch in height, light rose-colour,
developed at intervals upon a creeping reticulated stolon; tentacula about twenty.
Gonophores scattered, commencing just behind the posterior tentacula, and thence
extending singly, or in small clusters, for some distance backwards upon the body
of the polype. In rock-pools at low-water spring-tides. Out Skerries, Shetland
Isles.
Tubiclava (mihi, nov. gen.). Polype claviform, supported on the summit of free
stems, which rise at intervals from a creeping stolon and are invested by a chiti-
nous periderm ; tentacula filiform, scattered. Gonophores, dense clusters of sporo-
sacs aggregated immediately behind the posterior tentacula.
Tubiclava lucerna (mihi). Zoophytes about 2 lines in height; stems quite sim-
102 REPORT—1862,
le, or rarely with a short lateral branch ; periderm clothing the stem corrugated,
dilated at the base of the polype: pale yellowish brown. Polype, when extended,
about equal to the stem in height; white, with pale ochreous centre; tentacula
about twenty, confined to the anterior third of the polype. Creeping over the sur-
face of loose stones in the bottom of arock-pool, Torquay. On stones between tide-
marks, Dublin Bay.
Eudendrium humile (mihi). Zoophyte delicate, rising to about 2ths of an inch
in height, much and vregularly branched; main stems and branches distinctly
annulated throughout, Polype yellowish vermilion, vase-shaped, with a circular
groove near its base and a trumpet-shaped proboscis; tentacula twenty or twenty-
three, with the alternate ones elevated and depressed in extension. Gonophores
(male) surrounding the body of the polype, and springing each by a short stalk
from the circular groove which passes round the polype near its base, each gono-
phone consisting of two superimposed chambers. Female gonophores borne both
y the base of the polype and by the ccenosare immediately behind it. Rooted to
the bottom of rock-pools near low-water spring-tides, Torquay.
Eudendrium vaginutum (mibi). Zoophyte much branched, rising to about an
inch and a quarter in height ; main stems and branches deeply and regularly annu-
lated throughout. Polypes vermilion, with about eighteen tentacula, and haying
. the body, as far as the origin of the tentacula, enveloped in a loose, corrugated
membranous sheath, which loses itself posteriorly upon the polypary. Gonophores
not known. In rock-pools at extreme low-water spring-tides, Shetland.
Perigonimus serpens (mihi). Zoophyte consisting of short, simple, erect stems,
about 2 lines in height, terminated by the polypes, and rising at short intervals
from a creeping stolon, which forms an irregular network upon the surface of other
bodies, the whole of the stems and stolon occupied by a reddish-orange ecenosare,
and clothed with a delicate transparent periderm, which does not form a cup-like
dilatation at the base of the polypes. Polypes reddish orange, with about twelve
or fourteen tentacula, so disposed that in complete extension they are held with
alternate tentacula elevated and depressed ; body of polype oval, with proboscis coni-
cal. Gonophores medusiferous, borne by the creeping stolon, and elevated each upon
a rather long peduncle. Medusoids dome-shaped, with the vertical slightly exceeding
the transyerse diameter. Manubrium reaching to about one-half the depth of the
bell, with a simple mouth destitute of tentacula; marginal tentacula two, opposite,
very extensile, and with large reddish-orange bulbous bases, without evident ocelli,
the intermediate radiating canals terminating each in a very small bulbous dilata-
tion. Growing over the stems of Plumularia setacea; dredged from about 12
fathoms, Torbay.
Perigonimus minutus (mihi). Zoophyte very minute, consisting of simple stems
rising to the height of about a line and a half from a creeping stolon, and bearing
the polypes upon their summit; periderm dilated round the base of the polype.
Polypes ash-brown, with seven or eight, rarely twelve tentacula, held irregularly
during extension, and with little or no curvature. Gonophores pyriform, medusi-
ferous, borne atvarious heights upon the stem, and supported onrather long peduncles.
Medusoid with the summit suddenly contracted, so as to give a somewhat conical
form to the umbrella; two opposite radiating canals terminating each in a pale-
brown bulb which is continued into a very extensile filiform tentaculum, the alter-
nate two canals terminating each in a much smaller bulb without tentacle ; no
evident ocellus ; manubrium short, with a four-lobed lip, but without oral tentacula.
Forming a fringe round the edge of the operculum of Turritella communis dredged
in Busta Voe, Shetland. Out of between twenty and thirty specimens of living
Turritelle examined, not one was free from this remarkable little zoophyte.
Perigonimus muscus (mihi). Zoophyte consisting of numerous erect stems about
3 an inch in height, not composed of coalesced tubes, springing at intervals from a
creeping stolon, and sending off short branches, which are themselves, for the most
part, without further ramification; periderm light brown, slightly corrugated, and
with a well-marked cup-like dilatation at the base of the polype. Polypes semi-
retractile, light reddish brown, with about sixteen tentacula directed in extension
alternately backwards and forwards. Gonophores medusiferous, borne upon a rather
long peduncle, and springing from the branches at a short distance behind the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103
polype. Medusoid dome-shaped, with the four radiating canals terminating below
each in a large reddish bulb which sends off two very extensile filiform tentacula,
having an ocellus at the base of each; manubrium extending to about a third of
the entire depth of the umbrella, and with four short oral tentacula, The medu-
soid is thus, in all points, undistinguishable from that of Perigonimus ramosus, Van
Beneden. In a rock-pool, Torquay, where it occurred abundantly, creeping over
the bottom in small moss-like tufts.
Tubularia bellis (mihi). Basal portion of ccenosare prostrate, creeping, and
sending up short, free, sparingly Jaeninhed stems, which rise to three-fourths of an inch
or one inch in height; periderm, where it covers the lower part of the stems and the
whole of the prostrate portion, marked by wide but distinct annulations; coenosare
orange, deepening in tint towards the base, expanding into a collar immediately
below the polypes. Polypes measuring, in full-sized specimens, about 5 lines
from tip to tip of the extended tentacula; body of polype scarlet. Gonophores
borne upon short erect branched peduncles, each gonophore with four well-marked
tentaculoid tubercles on its summit; peduncles and spadix scarlet. A beautiful
little zoophyte, conspicuous by the bright colour and large size of its polypes. It
eo apa to the bottom of rock-pools at extreme low-water spring-tides,
etland.
Observations of the Habits of the Aye-aye living in the Gardens of the Zoolo-
gical Society, Regent’s Park, London. By A. D. Bartiert,
The subject of the following remarks is a fine adult female of the Aye-aye (Chi-
romys madagascariensis), which arrived in this country on the 12th of August last.
On the voyage this animal produced a young one, which lived about ten days. On
arriving here she was in poor condition and very feeble ; she soon, however, began
to feed freely, and has now considerable strength, as is shown by the timber destroyed
in the cage in which she is kept.
This animal is much blacker, and appears larger, than the male of this species
now in the British Museum; the long hairs on the back of the neck, extending to
the lower part of the body, have white points; these white points are thickest
above, and become less numerous towards the limbs and tail, which appear quite
black; the hairs of the tail, however, are white or grey at the roots (this can only
be observed by separating them); the chin and throat are dirty white, which colour
extends over the chest; the short hairs on the face are a mixture of dirty grey and
white, the long hairs are black; the eye slight brown, surrounded by dark-coloured
hairs; the nose and muzzle are of a dirty flesh-colour, the lips pink; the ears
shining black and naked, but thickly studded with small protuberances; the feet
and toes are sooty black, with the under surface and claws lighter, inclining to
flesh-colour. The situation of the mammz is remarkable : they are two in number,
and placed at the lowest part of the abdomen (the animal differing in this respect
entirely from the Lemurs and Bats, the teats of which are on the breast).
The Aye-aye sleeps during the day, and the body is then generally curved round
and lying on its side; the tail is spread out and flattened over it, so that the head
and body of the animal are almost entirely covered by the tail.
It is only at night that the Aye-aye exhibits any activity. I hear her crawling
about and gnawing the timber when, to me, all is perfectly dark; and I have been
surprised to find that upon the introduction of a light, directed to the face of the
animal, she does not exhibit any signs of uneasiness, but stretches out her arm and
tries to touch the lamp with her long fingers. She frequently hangs by her hind
legs, and in this position cleans and combs out her large tail, using the slender
hook-like third finger with great rapidity, reminding one strongly of the movements
of the large Bats (Pteropus). This skeleton-like finger is used with great address
in cleaning her face and picking the corners of the eyes, nose, mouth, ears, and
other parts of her body; during these operations the other fingers are frequently
partially closed.
In feeding, the left hand only is used, although she has the full use of her right
one. The mode of taking her food requires careful attention, in consequence of
the very rapid movement of the hand during the process, The fourth finger (which
104. REPORT—1862.
is the longest and largest) is thrust forward into the food, the slender third
is raised upwards and backwards above the rest, while the first finger or thumb is
lowered, so as to be seen below and behind the chin; in this position the hand is
drawn backwards and forwards rapidly, the inner side of the fourth finger passing
between the lips, the head of the animal being held sideways, thus depositing the
food in the mouth at each moyement; the tongue, jaws, and lips are kept in full
motion all the time. Sometimes the animal will advance tata and lap from the
dish like a cat, but this is unusual. I have never heard her utter any cry, or pro-
duce any vocal sound, during the many hours at night in which I have watched
her habits, nor has she appeared shy or angry at my presence.
With reference to food, this creature exhibits no inclination to take any kind of
insects, but feeds freely on a mixture of milk, honey, eggs, and any thick, sweet,
glutinous fraud, rejecting meal-worms, grasshoppers, the larve of wasps, and all
similar objects. Consequently I am inclined to think that this animal is not
insectivorous. Its large and powerful teeth lead me to infer that it may possibly
wound trees, and cause them to discharge their juices into the cavity made by its
teeth, and that upon this fluid it probably feeds. This appears to me the more
likely, as I observe that our specimen returns frequently to the same spot on the
tree which she had previously injured. I am also strengthened in my opinion by
noticing the little attention paid by the animal to its food. It does not watch or
look after it; for I have on several occasions removed the vessel containing its food
during the time the animal was feeding, and the creature continued to thrust its
hand forward, as before, upon the same spot—though after a while, finding no
more food, she discontinued, and moved off to search for more elsewhere. This
apparently stupid act is so unlike the habits of an animal intended to capture or
feed on living creatures that I am inclined to believe that the Aye-aye feeds upon
inanimate substances. I have frequently seen it eat a portion of the bark and wood
after taking a quantity of the fluid food.
The excrement of this animal much resembles the dung of small rabbits, being
in separate nearly round balls.
On Marriages of Consanguinity. By Gitzert W. Cutty, M.D. Oxon.
Two opposite views of the effect of the above marriages have been held—
(1.) That they are unnatural, and entail degeneracy upon their offspring as 2
natural consequence, and independently of the ordinary laws of inheritance.
(2.) That they are not contrary to any law of nature; and that when ill conse-
quences are observed to follow them, they do so by ordinary inheritance only.
Two kinds of evidence have been employed in investigating this subject—
(1.) That derived from observation and statistics in the case of human beings, and
(2.) From carefully recorded experiments in the case of animals.
The former tends somewhat to support the first opinion, and the latter the second.
Upon criticism of the evidence of the former kind, it appears that the results of
various observers are inconsistent with one another, and that in one instance a
similar investigation has shown worse results to be produced from the intermarriage
of natives of different European countries than those alleged to have followed from
the marriages of blood-relations. Further, the impossibility of obtaiming correct
family histories is sufficient to invalidate all evidence of the kind in such cases as
the present. On the other hand, the evidence from the breeding of animals is clear
and conclusive up to the point that animals are known to have been bred with a
degree of closeness physically impossible in the human race, without any apparent
ps age This evidence is open to one serious objection, viz. that the animals
so bred are subject to careful selection, which is impossible in the case of mankind.
This is an objection, in fact, not against consanguineous marriages altogether, but
against such marriages between unhealthy persons, and proceeds on the hypothesis
that the ordinary laws of inheritance affect close-bred animals equally with others.
It is therefore consistent with the second opinion, and inconsistent with the first.
The remainder of the paper was occupied by the relation of several observations
ye mankind made in the Mediterranean, the Scottish islands, in Cornwall, and
elsewhere by Dr. Davy, and kindly communicated by him to the writer, all of which
tend to show that many instances are to be found in which inhabitants of isolated
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105
districts, known to intermarry closely, are seen to be in possession of more than
average health ; also by one case observed by the writer in a race of cats, in which
certain peculiarities were found to reappear in the third generation, after at least
two successive distinct crosses.
The writer’s conclusions are as follows :—
1. That statistical evidence from observation of man is peculiarly inapplicable
to questions of the kind under discussion.
2. That the evidence in favour of the opinion that close breeding is contrary to
a law of nature is highly unsatisfactory.
3. That there is positive evidence, from the results of recorded observations upon
animals, that no such law affects them—w. e., that where the causes of degeneracy
are absent, any degree of close breeding may exist without producing ill effects ; and
therefore,
4. Unless we are prepared to believe in two distinct physiologies, the same must
be true of the human race.
5. It will remain an interesting question, how far reasoning similar to the above
will be found to affect the views recently put forward by Mr. Darwin, in his work
on the fertilization of Orchids.
The following are the works referred to in the paper of which the above is an
abstract :—
Devay. Hygiéne de Famille, 2nd edit, deuxiéme partie, sec. ii. ch. iv. v.
Bemiss. In Journal of Psychological Medicine for April 1857,
Child. In Medico-Chirurgical Review for April 1862.
Bondin. In Comptes Rendus for June 16, 1862.
Anderson Smith. In Lancet for July 5, 1862.
Youatt. The Horse, p. 317 (edit. 1855).
Samson. In Comptes Rendus for July 21, 1862.
Beaudouir. In Comptes Rendus for August 5, 1862.
Jourdon. In Comptes Rendus for August 11, 1862.
Stonehenge. (J. H. Walsh.) The Horse, in the Stable and in the Field, p. 139.
Darwin. On the Fertilization of Orchids (passim).
On Ribs and Transverse Processes, with special relation to the Theory of the
Vertebrate Skeleton. By Dr. CLELann.
In the first part of this paper, the points were sought to be shown in which pre-
vailing theories were untenable when compared with the phenomena exhibited by
ribs and transverse processes in different classes of Vertebrata.
According to the writer of the paper, all morphological discussions resolve them-
selves into investigations of the relative amount of significance attachable to different
classes of phenomena. We compare structures, and inquire in what respects the
differ and in what they correspond. The question then arises, what points of dif
ference or correspondence are of primary importance, and what points are only
subordinate? The importance of such points can only be estimated by their pre-
valence in a series of animals, and the time of their appearance in the embryo.
Now, looked at in the earliest condition, the embryo is developed from a portion of
the germinal membrane split up into layers, which fold inwards to complete the
outline of the body in aries a manner that the innermost layer forms the epithelial
lining of the intestine and appendages, while the outermost layer forms the cuticle,
together with the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord is thus originally super-
ficial, and it only becomes deeply placed in consequence of processes, projected from
the middle and superficial layers, rismg on each side of it and uniting in the
middle line. On the other hand, the visceral cavity is not bounded by processes
projected from the opposite aspect of these layers, but by the layers themselves ;
therefore the visceral ring cannot be appropriately compared to the neural ring,
which is formed merely of two radiations given off from the visceral ring. Yet the
revailing theories, according to which the ribs and transverse processes of mammals,
fixts, reptiles, and fishes are compared, e. g. those of Miiller and Owen, require us to
believe that the skeleton is so planned round the bodies of the vertebre, that the
neural arch on the dorsal aspect corresponds to the visceral arch on the ventral
106 REPORT—1862.
aspect. That condition is only found in the tail; and the tail is not a typical por-
tion of the body, but a degenerated series of segments, in which the products of the
deepest parts of the embryo are entirely unrepresented.
With regard to the series of structures traced back into the tail, it was shown that
structures lying in series were not necessarily strictly homologous, that, in fact,
correspondence was a thing of degree, and that inferior arches of caudal vertebrae
were found in series sometimes with mesial spines, sometimes with vessel-embracing
arches, sometimes with costal arches of trunk-vertebrae, and sometimes with more
than one of these. The key to the comprehension of the skeleton was maintained.
to lie in the double relation of the skeleton of the trunk to the visceral cavity and
chorda dorsalis, both being to it centres, but in different senses—the visceral cavity
being that which it tended to encircle, the chorda dorsalis the line from which its
efforts to encircle the visceral cavity began.
The correspondence of inferior caudal arches of one class of Vertebrata to those
of other classes was shown to be of primary importance ; and their differences in
respect of attachment, and of the structures with which they were in series, of
secondary importance.
All transverse processes or ribs tending to embrace the visceral cavity were
shown to have a primary correspondence, even though attached to different parts of
the vertebrae, and to be more closely allied one with another than to any structure
Sea into the muscles, such as the superior transverse processes and ribs of
fishes. (This paper is published in full in the ‘Nat. Hist. Review’ for Jan. 1863.)
On Geoffroy St.-Hilaire’s Distinction between Catarrhine and Platyrrhine
Quadrumana. By Dr. Cortrnewoon, Liverpool.
The terms applied long since by this eminent French naturalist are of great
general importance, and point out very characteristic distinctions; but the defini-
tions universally given of those terms are such as to make the terms themselves
appear liable to numerous exceptions. Thus, the Old-World Monkeys —
nasal septa varying from } inch (Semnopithecus) to 3 inch in thickness (Colobus) ;
while in those of the New World, although the septum is sometimes (Cebus)
8 inch thick, in other instances it does not exceed 4 inch (Eriodes). Neither
do the definitions “nostrils opening beneath (or in front of) the nose,” and
“nostrils opening to the side of the nose,” apply by any means generally. It
appears as though the spirit of St.-Hilaire’s distinctions were quite forgotten by
his successors, who have endeavoured to connect all the Quadrumana under a
Procrustean rule. Typical animals fulfil, for the most part, the definitions given ;
but aberrant genera wander in this respect, as in others, from the ordinary defini-
tions. It is to the form of the septum itself, in its anterior aspect, that we must
look for the real basis of St.-Hilaire’s distinctions—that form being wedge-shaped
in the Monkeys of the Old World, and hourglass-shaped in those of the American
continent. This causes all the curious changes of direction which the nostrils
undergo, and is without exception. Hence it results that in Catarrhine Quadru-
mana the lower angles of the nostrils rapidly converge over the mouth, while those
of the Platyrrhine Monkeys diverge—a test which, while it is most readily applied
and is not liable to misinterpretation, is at the same time altogether independent
of the thickness of the nasal septum.
An the Change of Form of the Head of Crocodiles ; and on the Crocodiles of
India and Africa. By Dr. J. E. Gray, FBS.
The author stated that the Crocodile, when first hatched, has the front of the face
short and rounded, even in those that have an elongated beak in the adult state. The
nose of the different species lengthens, and gradually assumes the form which is the
character of the kind; and it is at this age that the peculiar forms of the different
kinds are best examined and compared. After the animal has assumed its adult
size, the bones of the head dilate on the side, and the forehead and nose become
more swollen. The change of form thus produced is so great, that some naturalists
have regarded them as distinct species. This dilatation of the sides and increase in
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107
thickness of the bones of the head are doubtless for the support of the large teeth
which are developed as these animals attain their adult age. The author observed,
that this was a good instance, as showing the necessity of studying all kinds of
animals in all their stages of growth, and under different circumstances. He stated
that no species could be said to have been properly observed until all these cireum-
stances had been examined and noted; and that though the notice of a single
individual or state of an animal was useful, it could only be regarded as a sign-
post, indicating the existence of an animal which required further study and
examination. He then proceeded to speak of the African Crocodile. He observed,
that Adanson mentioned three crocodiles as found in the Senegal. Cuvier, in his
monograph, thinks that Adanson had made some mistake, and makes some very
severe remarks on the inaccuracies of travellers; but more recent researches had
shown that in this case the traveller was correct, and the philosopher at fault.
Adanson mentions the Green and the Black Crocodiles and the Gavial of Senegal.
There can be no doubt, from the West-African specimens which are in the British
Museum, that Cuvier was right in regarding the Green Crocodile as the crocodile
also found in the rivers in the northern and southern parts of Africa. Cuvier, on
the other hand, considered the Black Crocodile of Adanson was identical with the
Alligator with bony eyebrows found in South America. This is not the case; for
there is a Black Crocodile found in West Africa, which is often imported into
Liverpool; and there are specimens in the British and Liverpool Museums, and
some young ones living in the Zoological Gardens in the Regent’s Park: it is a
true crocodile, but peculiar from having three long plates in the eyelids; and it was
probably this peculiarity that misled Cuvier. It is to be observed, that the French
naturalists have not yet discoyered this fact; for the author stated that he had
recently purchased from the French Museum the skeleton of this African Black
Crocodile under the name of Alligator palpebrosus from the Brazils; and there was
little doubt that it must have been the examination of the skull of this animal that
induced some zoologists to believe that some specimens of alligators had the teeth
sometimes fitted into notches in the margin, as in the crocodiles, while in fact they
were observing the skull of a true crocodile, and not an alligator. The Gavial of
Senegal, of Adanson, is most like the Crocodilus cataphractus of Cuvier, which has a
long nose like a gavial, but is a crocodile: this animal has been redescribed under
yarious names. Dr. Gray stated that the crocodiles of India had been much mis-
understood ; some authors said the common crocodile of Africa was found in India,
others confused more than one species under the name of C. palustris. There are four
species found in India: two are confined to the estuaries or the mouths of rivers,
where the water is brackish,—as Crocodilus porosus or biporcatus, which is found on
all parts of the coast and also in the islands of Jaya and Borneo, and eyen on the
north coast of Australia ; the other is a new species, confined, as far as we at present
know, to the coast of Pondicherry. The latter is only known, from a specimen
lately received (French), as Crocodilus biporcatus. The other two are confined to
the inland rivers; and they are sometimes found high up in the mountains, where
the water of the river is frozen. It is to be observed that these river-crocodiles,
which have been confounded with the African kinds, are known from them by the
short, broad shape of the intermaxillary bone, which is separated from the maxilla
by a straight suture, while in the crocodiles of the African rivers the intermaxillary
bone is produced behind and between the edge of the maxilla. One species is
generally distributed over distant parts of India; the other is confined to Siam,
and is probably the animal described by the French missionaries, though the speci-
men in the British Museum has no crest on the occiput; but the author believes.
that this may be either an effect of age or an individual peculiarity.
On the Production of similar Medusoids by certain Hydroid Polypes belonging
to different Genera. By the Rey. T. Hrycxs, B.A.
The author’s object in this paper was to put on record the remarkable fact, which
had lately come under his observation, that the Tubularian polypes, Stawridia pro-
ducta (Wright) and Coryne eximia (Allman), produced Medusoids which at the time
of detachment were undistinguishable from one another,
108 REPORT—1862.
The genus Stawridia was nearly allied to Coryne, but was distinguished from it
by having tentacles dissimilar in character. Its upper tentacles were furnished with
lobular tips, its lower were filiform and rigid ; in Coryne all the arms were capitate.
The S. producta was a small, creeping, unbranched form ; the C. eximza was branched,
and attained a considerable size. et of the life-series of these two Hydroids, thus
dissimilar in general character, one term was identical. A strictly analogous fact
would be the production of flower-buds absolutely identical by two plants of dif-
ferent genera.
Reference was also made to the close similarity, if not perfect agreement,
existing between the Medusoid of Coryne eximia and that of the C. Sarsit of Lovén.
The author then described the gonophores of the Stawridia producta, and the
development of its Medusoid, which was characterized as having a somewhat bell-
shaped umbrella, studded with thread-cells ; a rose-colowred manubrium, with a
simple mouth; four radiating vessels; four tentacles, which originated in as many
rose-coloured marginal tubercles, on one side of which was a dark reddish-brown
ocellus. The arms were very extensile, set with knot-like clusters of thread-cells, and
terminating in aspherical bulb. There were no marginal bodies except the tentacles.
The author objected to the use of the term Medusord to designate the free repro-
ductive body of the Hydroida, as tending to perpetuate a false conception of the
nature of the sexual zooid. It helped to keep up the idea of its distinct and absolute
individuality, and to conceal its real significance as the mere equivalent of the
flower-bud in the plant. In the life-series of the i eee the polype was the alimen-
tary zooid, and the sexual element or term might be conveniently and correctly
designated the gonozoord.
On a Species of Limopsis, now living in the British Seas ; with Remarks on the
Genus. By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.R.S.*
The author described the animal of Limopsis aurita (Brocchi), which he had
lately taken by arPdaty off the north coast of Shetland, and he gave an historical
account of the genus. This discovery, in a recent state, of a shell previously known
only as a tertiary fossil, was adduced by Mr. Jeffreys in support of an opinion which
he had elsewhere expressed, that many species of Mollusca, which were supposed
to have become extinct, existed somewhere in the vast extent of the present sub-
marine area. A knowledge of the animal of Zimopsis, and of the true position of
the genus, was among the desiderata of both conchologists and geologists. A list
of the recent species, with particulars of their synonymy and habitat, was appended
to the paper.
On a Specimen of Astarte compressa having its Hinge-teeth reversed.
By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, /.RS.
The author exhibited a specimen of Astarte compressa, taken by Mr. Robert
Dawson in the Moray Frith, having only one primary tooth in the left valve, and
two primary teeth in the right valve, being the contrary of what usually occurs.
The muscular impressions were in their ordinary position. Mr. Jeffreys considered
this to be a case of partial or incomplete reversal, and that it was different from
the cases of reversed bivalves which had been noticed by Dr. Gray in the ‘Geological
Journal’ for 1824 and ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1833. In those cases the
shell was ineguivalve ; in Astarte it is equivalve.
‘Notice of some Objects of Natural History lately obtained from the Bottom of
the Atlantic. By Prof. W. Kine.
Her Majesty’s ship ‘Porcupine’ has been engaged during a portion of the past
summer in taking deep-sea soundings on the west coast of Ireland, in connexion
with the proposed Atlantic-telegraph scheme ; and the author has been authorized
by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to draw up a report on the various
organic and inorganic objects obtained during the expedition.
* See Annals of Natural History, 3rd ser., vol. x. p. 343.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109
On the present occasion he gave a brief summary of his examinations.
The greatest depth at which specimens have been obtained is 1750 fathoms.
The soundings from this and less depths, up to 1000 fathoms, consist almost
entirely of microscopic organisms, such as those made known by Bailey, Wallich,
and others, and procured by similar expeditions.
The marvellous profusion of Foraminifera and other minute structures in the
soundings shows that there is forming at the bottom of the Atlantic, wherever it
descends below the level of a few hundred fathoms, a wide spread of calcareous
deposits, which will eventually become converted into beds of limestone. While
nearly all the particles of these deposits are the shells of dead Foraminifera and
their impalpable débris, it is evident that the surface of the Atlantic bed is one
vast sheet of the same organisms in a living state, whose office it is to clear the
waters of the ocean of the mineral and organic impurities which are ever flowing
into them.
Although perforating-shells are living at great depths, Prof. King does not
think there are any grounds for apprehending that they would bore into a telegraph
cable; and he is inclined to believe that there is little chance of its getting injured
if laid down on foraminiferous bottoms, as in such places chemical and vital
actions appear to be going on so rapidly and unceasingly, that a cable cannot but
become covered up in the course of a few years with a considerable deposit of
calcareous matter.
The expedition has been fortunate in bringing to light some interesting facts in
microscopic life,—in making known some species of shells and other animals new to
the British fauna,—and in extending our knowledge of the habitats of certain rare
species. A fishing-bank which has been discovered, yielded to the dredge, at
100 fathoms, Leda pygmea, Pisidium fulvum, Arca raridentata, Limatula sub-
auriculata, Scissurella crispata, Crania norvegica, &e., besides Sponges, Starfishes,
and Sea Urchins. Of fishes, a species of Rhombus, allied to the Whiff, and a
species of Sebastes, allied to the Norwegian Haddock, were dredged on the shal-
lower parts of the bank. Specimens of a Pipe-fish were captured on the surface,
nearly 200 miles west of Galway: the fishes appear to be unrecorded as British
species. The same prolific bank yielded an abundance of a large Hermit Crab,
specimens of which were taken tenanting the rare shell, Buccinwm ovum. At the
depth of 340 fathoms the lead brought up orbulo-globigerinous mud, containing
dead specimens of a Pecten, an Arca, and a Pectunculus, all of which appear not
to be known as British; also specimens of T’rochus millegranus. A. perfectly fresh
specimen of a new Cochlodesma was also brought up from the depth of 1000
fathoms, 100 miles west of Cape Clear.
Notes on Spherularia Bombi. By Joun Lussocx, F.R.S.
In the first number of the ‘ Natural History Review ’ (January 1861), the author
has given an account of this curious entozoon, which was first described by Léon Du-
four, and very appropriately named by him Spherularia Bombi, the genericname being
taken from the “spherules” by which the body is covered, and the specific name
indicating the victims which are attacked. It has also been observed by Siebold,
who met with the young. At one end, in every single specimen, was attached a
small nematoid-like worm, closely resembling a young Spherularia in form and
size, and which the author presumed to be the male. So small however was it, so
diminutive in comparison with its gigantic mate, that it had escaped the notice
both of Léon Dufour and of Von Siebold. It was always attached in the same
manner, namely, at a point near the tail, but distant from it by about one-fifth of
the whole length of the animal, and was affixed to the female body almost at one
extremity and at the end opposite to the opening of the female generative orifice.
The internal organs of Spherularia were stated to consist only of a long, single
ovary and a double row of large cells, which were attached at the two ends, but,
with that exception, lay freely in the general cavity. No mouth or anus, no intes-
tinal canal, muscles, nerves, or vessels, were found in this curious and abnormal
entozoon,
The author now confirms his previous statements. He has also examined a
‘
110 REPORT—1862.
number of Bees in winter, hoping to ascertain the mode of development. But
though he has met with specimens in which the female portion was so little de-
veloped as to be even smaller than the male, still in every case the organic whole
consisted already of these two parts.
The youngest females contained a quantity of brownish granules, which extended
from one end of the body to the other. As the animal increased in size, these
granules remained stationary, and became more and more compact, so as to form
a sort of rod. When the ovary became distinguishable, it was found that this rod,
which in the meantime appeared to have undergone little alteration, occupied the
lower part or uterus, with its lower end close to the vulva. In the younger females
the eggs did not descend in the uterus as far as the “rod;” but in more mature
specimens the eges as they made their way towards the vulva passed along the side
of it, without breaking it up or altering its position. If therefore, as seems pro-
bable, the “rod” is the seminal element, the impregnation of the eggs is thus sim-
ply and thoroughly secured.
The author also gives some account of the development of the spherules and of
the large fat-cells.
He expresses his regret that he has not yet been able to trace out the whole
development, but it has not been from any want of perseverance on his part. He
has examined in the winter months more than one hundred Humble Bees. The
young Spherularias, however, are very difficult to find, not only on account of their
minute size, but because in consistence, colour, and form they so closely resemble
the nerves, muscular fibres, and other organs among which they live. He hopes,
however, that future researches may be more successful.
On two Aquatic Hymenoptera. By Joun Luszock, F.R.S,
On one of the early days in August, I was looking for larvee in some water from
a pond near my house in Kent, when I was astonished to see a small hymenopterous
insect, swimming in the water by means of its wings. This was a phenomenon so
surprising that at first I could hardly believe my eyes. Of the very large number of
Hymenoptera already described, about 3500 occur in Great Britain; yet not one
aquatic species is as yet known; while out of the whole immense list of insects,
not one is yet recorded as using its wings under water. Hntomologists might
fairly, therefore, require good evidence before they receive as true a statement so
opposed to all previous experience. Not only, howeyer, did further examination
disclose a second species, belonging to a different genus (which, however, used its
hind legs, and not its wings, in swimming), but I was fortunate enough to succeed
in exhibiting to the Entomological Society and also to the British Association living
specimens of this interesting little insect.
Moreover it is a very remarkable fact that it was again observed within a few
days, and yet quite independently, by another entomologist, Mr. Duchess of Stepney,
who found a single specimen. It is certainly a curious co:ncidence that, after .
remaining so long unnoticed, it should be found by two separate observers within
a few days of the same time. Perhaps this may be, in part at least, accounted for
by supposing that during this season it has been more common than usual. I for-
warded some specimens to Mr. Walker, who at first considered them to belong to
Polynema fuscipes, but on a more careful examination satisfied himself that they
belonged to a different and hitherto undescribed species, which I propose to name
P. natans.
Although it did not carry any external air-bubbles down with it, still it was able
to remain alive under water for about twelve hows. The family to which it
belongs pass their early stages as parasites within other animals, and the perfect
insect probably enters the water in search of a suitable victim in or on which she
may lay her eggs. Nevertheless the essentially aquatic habits of the species are
proved by the fact that the male goes under water as readily as the female.
Without the assistance of figures, it would be useless to attempt any description
of the separate parts; but I may remark that if this insect had been extinct,
however perfect its remains might have been, no entomologist would have
doubted that, like its congeners, it was entirely an aérial insect.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 11]
_ The species may be characterized as follows:—Polynema natans, n. 8.: male, black ;
female, black ; legs, eight basal segments of antennz, posterior part of thorax, and
peduncle ferruginous.
The second new species is more peculiar, and must form a new genus. It occurred
with the first, but was much rarer, only six specimens having been met with, all of
which were females, Perhaps the males are not aquatic in their habits. In this
case, however, it was the hind legs which were used for swimming, although they
possessed no fringe or other apparent indication to adapt them to their new function.
On the Influence of Changes in the Conditions of Existence in Modifying
Species and Varieties. By the Rev. W. N. Mouesworra, M.A., Rochdale.
The author of this paper commenced by giving a brief sketch of the main features
of Darwin’s theory of the origin of species, in order that its salient points might be
kept in view by the audience during the reading of the paper. He then proceeded
to point out that the theory thus outlined was not a mere wanton attack on beliefs
and feelings which every one was bound to respect, but was intended to supply a
scientific desideratum ; and that, whether proved or disproved, it was calculated to
advance our knowledge of the sciences to which it related. He wished it, however,
clearly to be understood that his approval was limited to the theory of the origin
of species, and not to the conjectures respecting the origin of organic life which
are put forward at the close of the book—conjectures which, he submitted, it was
impossible either to prove or disprove, or even to adduce any facts bearing on them,
and which therefore cannot lead to any scientific results.
After considering some objections which had been made against the Darwinian
theory, the author of the paper proceeded as follows :—
And how is it that, with all their differences, they all possess so many characters
incommon? Howisit that the line of demarcation which separates them is often
so faintly traced that we lose sight of italtogether ? These are the questions which
Mr. Darwin raises, and to which he has given an answer, which, whether true or
false, is certainly highly ingenious and original, and supported by a large array of
facts. Whether his theory is true or not is a matter on which I express no opinion ;
but that a necessity exists for a theory on the subject to which it relates is, | would
submit, a matter that admits of no doubt.
There is another of Agassiz’s objections that seems to me better founded than
that with which I have just been dealing. He says, “The assertion of Darwin,
which has crept into the title of his work, is that favoured races are preserved,
while all his facts go to substantiate the assertion that favoured individuals have a
better chance in the struggle for life than others.” In this passage Agassiz seems
to me to have pointed out the respect in which Darwin’s theory is defective and
stands in need of further elaboration. I contend that he has not paid sufficient
attention to a very manifest and important principle, which has probably played as
large a part in the origination of species and varieties as either the struggle for
existence or natural selection. I mean the change which is continually going on
in the conditions of existence, and which, by affecting a great number of individuals
in the same manner, tend to produce similar modifications in all the beings who
are surrounded by them. In employing the term “ conditions of existence,” | mean
to imply the totality of the circumstances by which the organized being is sur-
rounded—the air, the climate, the soil, the vegetation, and the animals which inhabit
the same area, including those of its own species. All these are, if we look at the
matter rightly, conditions of its existence, inasmuch as all of them exercise a more
or less powerful influence on it, causing it to be other than it would be if they
were absent or different from what they are. The thing to which I desire to draw
particular attention is the change which is always going on in these conditions of
existence, owing to their mutual actions and reactions. For instance, the very
constitution of the atmosphere is to a certain extent altered by every organized
being, as well as by the inorganic matter with which it is continually entering into
new combinations. If any one should suppose that the changes thus produced
must be quite inappreciable even though carried on through millions of generations,
let him reflect for a moment on the enormous quantity of former constituents of the
112 REPORT—1862.
atmospheric ocean which are now buried in the form of coal and other fossil remains,
as well as that far greater mass of animal and vegetable excrement and of other
organic matter sine ts mingled with the inorganic substance of the earth’s crust,
and is composed in a great measure of ingredients abstracted from the atmosphere.
Look again at the changes produced in the conditions of the existence of each
animal by all organized beings inhabiting the same area. Some devour it, others are
devoured by it; some become more scarce, others more plentiful; some exercise a
beneficial, others an injurious influence on it; but all are in some =, changing its
conditions of existence, and all are being in their turn changed, as Mr. Darwin has
so ably pointed out, by the struggle for existence and the process of natural
selection. Again, all of them extract from the soil, directly or directly, some of
its nutritious constituents, and return them to it in different forms, in different
places, and under different chemical combinations. Add to all these other causes
of change the action of the being itself in altering its own conditions of existence,
and it will at once be evident that, in the course of such long periods of time as we
have referred to, striking and marked changes must be produced in the conditions
of existence of almost every species.
Hence it follows that if we suppose a group of beings to be at one period of their
history in harmony with the conditions of their existence, they must at all subse-
quent periods be more and more out of harmony with it; and that, on the suppo-
sition of the invariability of the species, this discrepancy between the species and
its environment must at length become so great that its extinction must become
inevitable. It necessarily follows from this, that there must be on the part of the
species a constant instinctive, though perhaps unconscious, effort to restore the lost
equilibrium, to get rid of the sufferings which will arise from the want of it, and
to place itself once more in harmony with its conditions of existence; and the
greater the change in the conditions, the more strenuous will this effort be. Some
one once remarked to Coleridge, “ All things find their level.” “No,” replied that
great man, “all things are finding their level like water in a storm.” This saying
appears to me to describe, with the happiness of genius, the nature of the incessant
movement that is always going on in all parts of the world, and amongst almost all
its animal and vegetable inhabitants. All are unconsciously striving to keep them-
selves in harmony with a medium which is continually changing.
In order, then, that they may not be utterly distanced by the ever-changing con-
ditions of their existence so as in time to become extinct, they must possess a
capacity for variation in the direction of those changes which is absolutely illimit-
abla: provided only that sufficient time be allowed for its development. That they
do possess such a capacity to a certain extent has been triumphantly demonstrated
by eres The real question is, Are there any, and, if so, what, limits to this
capacity of variation in the direction of actual or possible changes in the conditions
of existence ? Now, in reference to this question, it seems to me that Mr. Darwin
has not sufficiently distinguished between a capacity for variation and a tendency
to vary, which, I would submit, are two very different things. I would respectfully
contend that the capacity for variation is in the being; but the tendency to
vary arises out of the changes which take place in the conditions of existence, and
in the efforts unconsciously made by the being to overtake those changes. When,
therefore, a species of animals inhabit the same area, they will, generally speaking,
be exposed to nearly the same changes in the conditions of their existence. This
will almost necessarily lead-to similar variations manifesting themselves in the
same individuals at the same time, because they will all be exposed to the same
changes, and variations thus produced are much more likely to be strengthened and
perpetuated than varieties arising from temporary causes, or such as affect indivi-
duals only. Mr. Darwin says, ‘“ When a variation is of the slightest use to a being,
we cannot tell how much of it to attribute to the accumulative action of natural
selection, and how much to the conditions of life ;” and a little further on, “ Such
considerations as these incline me to lay very little weight on the direct action of
the conditions of life. Indirectly, as already remarked, they seem to play an im-
portant part in affecting the reproductive system ; and in thus inducing variability
and natural selection, will then accumulate all profitable variations, however slight,
until they become plainly developed and appreciable by us.”
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113
Now in these passages, and in every other part of his work in which he touches
on the subject, Mr. Darwin appears to me to overlook, or at least not to make
sufficient allowance for, the progressive changes which are always taking place in
the conditions of existence of almost every living creature, although his book teems
with proofs of it. But there is another oversight running through the work, and
strongly exhibited in the passages just cited. Mr. Darwin speaks of natural selec-
tion as accumulating profitable variations, whereas it is quite evident that, at utmost,
it can only repeat them. Natural selection acts, as Mr. Darwin shows, by preserving
the serviceable variations, and discarding the unserviceable or injurious ; but as it
does not produce them, so neither of itself can it strengthen them: that, I maintain,
is done by the conditions of existence acting on the variability of the animals which
are placed among them. Mr. Darwin elsewhere writes :—‘ Seedlings from the same
fruit, and young from the same litter, sometimes considerably differ from each other,
though both the young and the parents, as Miiller has remarked, have apparently
been exposed to exactly the same conditions of life ; and this shows how unimportant
the direct effects of the conditions of life are in comparison with the laws of repro-
duction and of growth and of inheritance ; for had the conditions been direct, if
any of the young had varied, probably all would have varied in the same manner.”
I deny this probability. If Mr. Darwin has certainly established anything, it is
this, that animals do possess a capacity for variation in almost every direction.
But it is equally certain that this capacity for variation differs very much in
different individuals, so that the same influences do not produce the same effects,
though they tend to do so, And therefore even if we assume (which I am not
prepared to admit) that the conditions of life are the same for seedlings of the same
fruit, and young of the same litter during the period of gestation, still it would not
follow that they were either absolutely or comparatively unimportant, or that the
variations which showed themselves were not due to them, In a word, I contend
that the capacity for variation is in the animal, but that it depends in a great
measure for its development on that assemblage of circumstances which we deno-
minate the conditions of its existence ; and the changes, which in the greater part
of animals are slowly taking place in those conditions, impress on the variations
a certain definite direction, while natural selection tends to the preservation of the
most favourable of the variations thus produced. ‘At the same time I am by no
means prepared to deny the influence which Mr. Darwin attributes to the laws of
reproduction and growth: all I maintain is that he underrates the influence of
the conditions of life, and overlooks that of the changes which are slowly but con-
tinually taking place in them, at least for most organized beings; and he further
employs language which seems to imply that natural selection has something to do
with the production of favourable varieties, when all his arguments go to prove that
it tends only to the preservation of those which have thes produced by other
causes. I maintain therefore that two classes of inquiries ought simultaneously to
be carried on—one into the variability of organized beings, and another into the
yariations of the conditions of their existence.
After illustrating these views at some length, the author of the paper concluded
as follows :—
This is not the place for entering on the theological aspects of the question.
Indeed, I am forbidden, I believe, by the rules of the Association to do so. So far
from regretting this prohibition, I cordially approve it, regarding it not merely as a
regulation of wise expediency, but as the embodiment of a sound principle. I
maintain that the intrusion of Scriptural arguments into scientific investigations is
as theologically erroneous as it is scientifically mischievous. Let us push our
investigations of the Creator’s works as far as we can in every direction, without
the slightest fear that scientific truth can ever clash with moral and religious truth ;
and let us apply to the theory before us what Galileo said of his when exposed to
objections similar in principle to those which had been urged against Mr. Darwin’s,
g Guin ipsa philosophia talibus e disputationibus non nisi beneficium recepit.
Nam si vera proponit homo ingeniosus veritatisque amans nova ad eam accessio
fiet ; sin falsa, refutatione eorum priores tanto magis stabilientur.”’
1862, . 8
114 REPORT—1862.
On the Characters of the Aye-aye, as a test of the Lamarckian and Darwinian
Hypothesis of the Transmutation and Origin of Species. By Professor R.
Owxn, I.D., F.BRS., F.GS.
The author, referring to the results of a recent dissection of the Chiromys mada-
yascariensis, Cuy., said, that most naturalists who had had the opportunity of
studying the living habits of the Aye-aye in its native climate, from Sonnerat to
Sandwith, had observed its faculty of detecting larvee boring in wood, of gnawing
down to their tunnels, and extracting them for food, for which this animal shows
a predilection; they also describe the animal as sleeping during the heat and glare
of the tropical day, and moving about chiefly by night. Many particulars of the
structure of Chiromys closely accord with these alleged habits and natural diet.
The wide openings of the eyelids, the large cornea and expansile iris, the subglo-
bular lens and tapetum, were, the author remarked, arrangements for admitting to the
retina and absorbing the utmost amount of the light which may pervade the forests
frequented by the Aye-aye at sunset, dawn, or moonlight. Thus the Aye-aye is
able to guide itself among the branches in quest of its hidden food. To discern
this, however, another sense had need to be developed to great perfection. The
large ears are directed to catch and concentrate, and the large acoustic nerve and its
ministering “ flocculus ” seem designed to appreciate any feeble vibration that might
reach the tympanum from the recess in the hard timber through which the wood-
boring larva may be tunnelling its way by repeated scoopings and scrapings of its
hard mandibles. The Aye-aye was a quadrumanous quadruped, in which the front
teeth, by their number, size, shape, implantation, and provision for perpetual renova-
tion of substance, are especially fitted to enable their possessor to gnaw down, with
gouge-like scoops, to the very spot where the ear indicates the grub to be at work.
The instincts of the insect, however, warn it to withdraw from the part of the
burrow that may be thus exposed. Had the Aye-aye possessed no other instru-
ment, were no other part of its frame specially modified to meet this exigency,
it must have proceeded to apply the incisive chisels in order to lay bare the whole
of the larval tunnel, to the extent at least which would leaye no further room for
the retracted grub’s retreat. Such labour would, however, be too much for the
reproductive power of even its strong-built, wide-based, deep-planted, pulp-retain-
ing incisors ; in most instances we may well conceive such labour of exposure to be
disproportionate to the morsel so obtained. Another part of the frame of the Aye-
aye is, accordingly, modified in a singular and, as it seems, anomalous way, to
meet this exigency. We may suppose that the larva retracts its head so far from
the opening gnawed into its burrow as to be out of reach of the lips, teeth, or
tongue of the Aye-aye. One finger, however, the medius, on each hand of that
animal has been ordained to grow in length, but not in thickness, with the other
digits ; it remains slender as a probe, and is provided at the end with a tactile pad
and a hook-like claw. By the doubtless rapid insertion and delicate application of
this digit, the grub is felt, seized, and drawn out. For this delicate manceuvre the
Aye-aye needs a free command of its upper or fore limbs; and to give it that power,
one of the digits of the hind foot is so modified and directed that it can be applied,
thumb-wise, to the other toes, and the foot is made a prehensile hand. Hereby the
body is steadied by the firm grasp of these hinder hands during all the operations of
the head, jaws, teeth, and fore paws, required for the discovery and capture of the
common and favourite food of the nocturnal animal.
Thus we have not only obvious, direct, and perfect adaptations of particular
mechanical instruments to particular functions—of feet to grasp, of teeth to erode,
of a digit to feel and to extract,—but we discern a correlation of these several
modifications with each other, and with modifications of the nervous system and
sense-organs—of eyes to catch the least glimmer of light, and of ears to detect the
feeblest grating of sound,—the whole determining a compound mechanism to the
perfect performance of a particular kind of work.
But all this must have a cause; and we are led to a conception of the nature of
such cause by the analogy of its effect with that of the exercise of faculties that
energize in our own intellectual nature—ours, too, the highest that we have direct
and material cognizance of in this sphere of life and labour—in which, with such
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115
faculties to foresee, invent, and adapt, we dimly conceive, in analogous but more
perfect results, the exercise of like faculties in a transcendentally higher degree.
To conceive the direct formation and adjustment of such an organization as that
of the Chiromys to its purpose accords best with the mode of our finite human
adaptive operations, but least with the sum of present observations bearing upon
the origin of species. Such observations have led to the conception that the species
of organisms may be due to natural laws or secondary causes, operating to produce
them in orderly succession and progression*; and also to the suggestion of the
mode of operation of such secondary causes.
As a test of the value of some of these suggestions in making Inown or render-
ing intelligible the origin of a species, the organization of the Aye-aye lends
itself with peculiar force.
Buffon, assuming that a certain number of species had been originally created
after a manner analogous to, and conceivable by, the way in which human machines
are made, conceived that there was a tendency in their offspring to degenerate from
the original type; and he refers the Linnean species, about 200 in number, which
are described in his great work, to about fifteen primitive stocks. As, however,
the Aye-aye, had he known as much as is now known of it, might have been
referred to a “ primitive type or stock,” or to one of the “isolated forms” such as
Buffon conceived the Elephant and the Mole to be, the author proceeded to apply
the Aye-aye, as a test, to Lamarck’s hypothesis of the origin of species. :
The ‘Philosophie Zoologique’ teaches that species, like varieties, have their
origin, maturity, and departure, changing with the course of the changing operation
of the causes that produced them; that such so-induced changes of form and
structure lead to changes in powers and actions, and that such actions become
another cause of altered structure ; that the more frequent employment of certain
parts or organs leads to a proportional increase in the development of such parts;
and that as the increased exercise of one part is usually accompanied by a corre-
sponding disuse of another part, this very disuse, by inducing a proportional degree
of atrophy, becomes another element in the progressive mutation of organic forms f.
According to the modifying influences suggested by Lamarck, a Lemurine qua-
draped, attracted by the noise of a boring caterpillar in the hough on which it
happened to be perched, instinctively applied its incisors to the bark, and, by fre-
quent repetition of such efforts, increased the mass of the gnawing muscles, which,
stimulating the growth of the bone, led to concomitant modifications in the size
and proportion of the jaws. The incisors, by repeated pressure, either became
welded into a single pair above and below—or, the stimulus to excessive growth
being concentrated on one incisor, the neighbouring teeth became atrophied by
disuse, and by derivation of their nutrient fluid to the contiguous pulp; hence the
preponderating size of the pair of front teeth, and the extent of edentulous space
behind them. Concomitantly with the efforts excited by the particular larvivorous
tendency of a certain Madagascar Lemur to expose the canal in which its favourite
morsel lay hidden, were repeated endeavours to poke the longest finger into the
burrow so laid open. The repeated squeezing of the soft skin, with the compression
of the nerves and vessels, permanently affected the growth of such digit, and kept
it reduced to the blighted state, whereby it happens to be suited to the work of
extracting the larva. Lamarck supposes all these changes to be gradual, and
effected only through long succession of generations; he assumes that changes of
structure, due to habitual efforts and actions, are transmissible to offspring ; and
he finally invokes, like his successors, the requisite lapse of time and long course
of generations. It is to be supposed that, until the modifications of dental and
digital structures were brought about, the grub-hunting Lemur subsisted on the
necessary proportion of fruits and other food more readily obtainable under the
* Owen, ‘On the Nature of Limbs,’ 8vo, 1849, p. 86.
t+ De Maillet, ‘Telliamed, ou Entretiens dun Philosophe Indien avec un Missionnaire
Frangois,’ 8vo, 1755. Buffon, Histoire Naturelle, 4to, tom. xiv., “ Dégénération des Ani-
maux,” p. 311, 1785. Lamarck, Philosophie Zoologique, 8yo, 1809. Vestiges of Crea-
tion, Svo, 1846. Wallace, “On the Tendency of Varieties to depart indefinitely from the
pagel Type,” Proc. Linn. Soc. 1858. Darwin, ‘On the Origin of Species,’ &c. 8yo,
1859.
{ Lamarck, op. cit. tom. i, chap. iii, vi. vii.
8*
116 REPORT—1862.
ordinary Lemurine condition. That the same finger should be the seat of the
wasting influences on both hands and in all Aye-ayes strikes one as a result hardly
to be looked for on the hypothesis of the cause of such specific structures propounded
by Lamarck: that there should be a peculiar modification of the muscles of the
forearm, whereby both flexor sublimis and flexor profundus combine their action
upon the same tendon, pulling the probe-like digit, 1s left unaccounted for. The
physiologist finds still more difficulty in accepting the explanation of the way in
which the peculiar size, shape, and law of growth of the incisors could be brought
about. The action of muscles pressing upon the bony sockets might affect the
growth of teeth filling such sockets, but could not change a tooth of limited growth,
like the incisors of an ordinary Lemur, into a tooth of uninterrupted growth. Be-
sides, the crowns of both the scalpriform incisors of the Chiromys and the ordinary
small incisors of other Lemurines are formed according to their specific shape and
size, before they protrude from the gum: they acquire so much development while
the animal still derives its sustenance from the mother’s milk. In the Aye-aye the
chisel or gouge is prepared prior to the action of the forces by which it is to be
worked. The great scalpriform front teeth thus appear to be structures fore-
ordained—to be predetermined characters of the grub-extracting Lemur; and one
can as little conceive the development of these teeth to be the result of external
stimulus or effort, as the development of the tail, or as the atrophy of the digitus
medius of both hands. The author had elsewhere tested the Lamarckian hypothesis
of transmutation by the phenomena of the dentition of the male Gorilla, and no
refutation of his argument had appeared.
There remained then to be seen whether the subsequently propounded hypothesis
of “natural selection ” would afford a better or more intelligible view of the origin
of the species called Chiromys madagascariensis. Applying to the Aye-aye the illus-
tration of his hypothesis, as submitted by Mr. Darwin to the Linnean Society*, it
may be admitted that the organization of a Lemur, feeding chiefly on fruits or
birds, but sometimes on grubs, is or might become slightly plastic, in the sense of
being subject to slight congenital variations of structure. We may also suppose
changes to be in progress in the woods of Madagascar causing the number of birds
to decrease, and the number of insects to increase, especially of those the larva of
which are xylophagous. The effect of this might be that the Lemur would be
driven to try to catch more grubs. His organization being slightly plastic, those
individuals with the best hearing, the largest front incisors, and the slenderest
middle digit, let the difference be ever so small, would be to that extent favoured,
would tend to live longer, and to survive during that time of the year when birds
or fruits were scarcest ; they would also rear more young, which would tend to
inherit these slight peculiarities. Were the Lemurs to be reduced to this insect-food,
those individuals less plastic than the incipient Aye-aye, or not varying in the same
way, would become extinct. Acceptors of the hypothesis of “natural selection ”
may entertain no more doubt that such causes in a thousand generations would
produce a marked effect upon the Lemurine dentition and limbs, adapting the form
and structure of the Quadrumane to the catching of wood-boring grubs instead of
birds, than that any domesticated quadruped can be improved by selection and
careful breeding. But, to the author of the present communication, the propound-
ing of such plastic possibilities left no sense of any knowledge worth holding as to
the origin of the species called Chiromys madagascariensis, no help to the conception
of such origin which was at all worth so wide a departure from actual experience of
facts. He knew of no changes in progress in the Island of Madagascar necessi-
tating a special quest of wood-boring larvee by small quadrupeds of the Lemurine
or Sciurine types of organization. Birds, fruits, and insects abounded there in the
ordinary proportions; and the different forms of Lemuride there coexisted, with
their several minor modifications, zoologically expressed by the generic terms
Lichanotus, Propithecus, Chirogaleus, Lemur, and Chiromys.
On the Zoological Significance of the Cerebral and Pedial Characters of Man.
By Professor R. Owrn, W.D., F.BS., EGS.
Professor Owen, in illustration of the above characters, exhibited the casts of
* Proceedings, 1858, p. 49.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117
the brain of a male European and Negro, and a cast of the interior of the cranial
cavity of a full-grown male Gorilla; also figures of the bones of the feet of the
Man and male Gorilla, in plates from his “ Memoir on the Osteology of the Gorilla”
(Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. vy. pl. 11).
The brain of the Gorilla, as exemplified by such cast, is of a narrow-ovate form,
with the small end forward; the cerebrum does not extend beyond the cerebellum ;
viewed with the lower surface of the medulla oblongata horizontal, it does not
extend so far back as the cerebellum does. The difference of size between it and a
small-sized Negro’s brain was exemplified in the subjoined admeasurements :—
Gorilla. Negro.
in, lines. in. lines,
Length of cerebrum ........... “Songrich 4 10 6 3
Breadth-of cerebrum’. ,%t.). 4. aca saat 3.9 4 10
Depth (greatest vertical diameter) ...... 2 62 4 6
Breadth of cerebellum ..... oth wotel s Merete 3.4 3.7
Length of cerebellum ..........0.0005 1 10 2 5
Depth of cerebellum <0... 0. ea onnwees 1 4 1 8
In these admeasurements some deduction from the Gorilla’s brain must be made
for the thickness of the dura mater and other membranes included in the cast:
that of the Negro’s brain showed it stript of its membranes; and the admeasure-
ments are from a subject corresponding with the smallest of those figured by Tiede-
mann in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1836, pl. 32, in which the posterior
cerebral lobes extend half an inch beyond the cerebellum.
Although in most cases the Negro’s brain is less than that of the European,
Tiedemann and the author of the present paper had observed individuals of the
Negro race in whom the brain was as large as the average one of the Caucasian ;
and the author concurred with the great physiologist of Heidelberg in connecting
with such cerebral development the fact that there had been no province of intel-
lectual activity in which individuals of the pure Negro race had not distinguished
themselves. The contrast between the brains of the Negro and Gorilla, in regard
to size, was still greater in respect of the proportional size of the brain to the body—
the weight of a full-grown male Gorilla being one-third more than that of an
average-sized Negro,
Passing from this contrast to a comparison of the Gorilla’s brain with that of
other Quadrumana, the author insisted upon the importance and significance of the
much greater difference between the highest ape and lowest man, than existed
between any two genera of Quadrumana in this respect ; the brain of the Gorilla,
in the contraction of the anterior lobes, in the non-development of posterior lobes
extending beyond the cerebellum, and in the paucity, symmetry, and relative size
of the cerebral convolutions, so far as they were indicated in the cast, closely
accorded with the brain of the Chimpanzee. From these to the Lemurs the dif-
ference of cerebral development shown in any step of the descensive series was in-
significant compared with the great and abrupt rise in cerebral development met
with in comparing the brain of the Gorilla with that of the lowest of the human
races. This difference paralleled the difference in the structure of the lower limbs,
especially the foot, in the Gorilla and Man; on which difference, as exemplified
in the Chimpanzee and lower apes and monkeys, Cuvier had founded the ordinal
grade to which he had assigned the genus Homo, under the term Bimana. The
disposition of the hallux as a hinder thumb, with the concomitant modifications
of the tarsal bones, was as strongly marked in the Gorilla as in any lower Quadru-
mane, and the contrast between the foot-structures of the Gorilla and Negro was as
eat.
The homologies of the parts in the structure of both brain and foot of the Human
and Simial Mammalia being demonstrated, as by Tiedemann* and Cuviert, no
; re aie parvus loco cornu posterioris.” (Icones Cerebri Simiarum, fol. p. 14,
g. lil. 2.
+ “Pouce libre et opposable au lieu du grand orteil.” L’homme est le seul animal
vraiment bimane et bipéede.’ (Régne Animal, i. p. 70.) ‘‘ Pedes hippocampi minores
vel ungues, vel calcaria avis, que a posteriore corporis callosi tanquam processus duo
DS. REPORT—1862.
hypothesis of the cause of these homologies, with their structural gradations and
differences, would abrogate the necessity of the zoological disposition of the differ-
ent members of the animal kingdom in groups of different degrees of value. The
modification of the human foot having been, in the author’s opinion, rightly esti-
mated by Cuvier as of ordinal value, he contended that the equal or correlative
degree of difference shown in the development of the human brain, regard being
had to the higher importance of that organ in the animal frame, necessitated its
higher appreciation as a zoological character, and that the now known characters
of the Gorilla’s brain confirmed the reference of the Bimanous order to the subclass
Archencephala.
On the Homologies of the Bones of the Head of the Polypterus niloticus.
By Professor R. Owen, M_D., F.RS., F.GS.
Preparations and sections of the skull of the Polypterus were exhibited, showing
the way and proportions in which the bones of the exo- and endo-skeleton were
blended together, more especially the extension of the epencephalic segment
backward freely beneath the overarching roof of dermal bones, roi which the
super-, ex-, and par-occipitals were distinct. Professor Owen referred to a para-
graph in his ‘ Lectures on Comparative Anatomy’ (vol. ii. p. 136), in reference to the
inconstancy of the dermo-cranial bones of the Sturgeon, and the confusion caused by
applying to them the names ‘super-oecipital,” “par-occipital,” or other synonyms
of the vertebral elements of the skull. The same remark applies to Polypterus,
Lepidosteus, and many extinct Ganoidet.
On Zoological Provinces. By Six J. Ricwarnvson, F.R.S.
This paper consisted mainly of a single question, “ What is a zoological pro-
vince?” A right and full answer would, in the author’s opinion, open one avenue
to the solution of the origin of species which has occupied the naturalists of this
country for several years.
He referred to the Palmipede group of birds, The highest latitudes of the Arctic
regions to which man has penetrated are the native places of the Snow Goose, and
of various other members of the family, who, having reared their young in two brief
months, speed to the southward and winter on the verge of the tropics. Is this
whole space, little less in extent than a hemisphere, to be accounted a zoological
district ?
The range of the Whale is not far short; but land-animals have a much less
wide distribution. Has every class of the Vertebrata a different zoological pro-
vince? and how far are any of them conterminous with the provinces marked out
by botanists ?
On certain Modifications in the Structures of Diving Animals,
By Prof. Rorrustoy, M.D., F.R.S.
In the class Mammalia, the Cetacea were contrasted with the Phocide, and in
the class Aves, the Colymbidz were contrasted with the Cinclide, as to the
degree of modification which their tegumentary, circulatory, and osseous systems
had undergone in adaptation to their aquatic habits.
The skin of the Seal was less specially modified than that of the Whale, and
the aberrations from the ordinary Mammalian character which its bones and teeth
presented were in like manner less marked than those of the animals with which
it was compared. The teeth in the order Seals were often irregular as regarded
their number, their implantation, and their permanence in the jaw; and the
epiphyses of the vertebrae were often slow to unite with the bodies. All these
particularities were instances of correlation of growth existing between the skin and
medullares proficiscuntur, inque fundo cornu posterioris plicas graciles et retroflexas for-
mant, in cerebro Simiarum desunt; nec in cerebro aliorum a me examinatorum mamma-
lium occurrunt ; Homini ergo proprii sunt.” (Ib. p. 51.) Both the above propositions
are susceptible of flat contradiction on homological grounds, and are, nevertheless, true as
zoological characters.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119
systems as far removed from its direct influence as the osseous and dental; and
all these particularities, together with those of the systems with which they were
correlated, were much more marked in the Whales than in the Seals.
The Seals were well provided with intrahepatic venous sinuses, but their reser-
voirs for arterial blood were far inferior in grade of development to those of the
Cetacea. Little could be said as to difference in the degree of patency in the fora-.
men ovale and ductus venosus in the two subjects of comparison, at least so far as
the Common Seal (Phoca vitulina) and Common Porpess (Phocena communis)
might serve as representatives of the two orders. To the rudiments of the foetal
vena umbilicalis and ductus Botalli, in both, the same remark applied.
The stunted salivary glands of the Seals seemed an approximation to the con-
dition of total absence which we find in carnivorous Cetacea; and, but that some
of the latter class possessed olfactory bulbs, a similar relation might be said to
prevail between these organs also in the two orders.
In both classes alike, the weight of the brain was high as compared with that
of the body: ina young Phoca vitulina Dr. Rolleston had found it to be as 1: 46;
in a young Phocena communis, as 1: 60.
The bark of the Seal spoke plainly enough to its want of any such arrangement
of the larynx as the Whales possess; but a recent inspection of a large Seal (Pela-
gius monachus) had shown it to possess an exceedingly strong sphincter muscle
guarding the entrance to the respiratory passages, and it might be conjectured that
the membrano-muscular pouch in connexion with the nasal passages in the Stem-
matopus cristatus was a foreshadowing of the sac so often described in connexion
with the Cetacean blow-hole.
Several foetal structures were permanently retained in the Cetacea, The thymus,
as shown by Mr, Turner (Edin. Phil. Trans. xxii. pt. 2), was one of these ; certain
other remnants of the general formative mass of blastema which surrounds
the aorta in the foetus, noticed by himself in the ‘Natural History Review’ for
Oct. 1861, furnished a second example; and to these the author would now add a
third, in the largest remnant of a Wolffian body, or organ of Giraldés, which he
had met with in the class Mammalia. The author proceeded to say that, in the
two classes of birds which he had to contrast, scarcely any such approximations
could be traced between the two sets of structures to be compared.
The modifications in the tibie' of the birds commonly known as “ divers”
(Colymbine), and the large intrahepatic venous sinuses which they, in common with
the mammals just spoken of, possessed, were beautiful adaptations to the special
habits of these animals ; but nothing at all reminding us of these structures would be
found in such a bird as the Water-Ouzel (Cinclus aquaticus). Indeed, the soft
parts of this bird presented yery few points of difference from those of a Redwing
(Turdus ilacus) dissected at the same time with it, except in the much greater
development of the second pectoral muscle. The large size of this muscle was per-
manently recorded on the keel of the Ouzel’s sternum; and this point might
perhaps have enabled us, @ priori, to predict that the bird possessed the peculiar
habits which have given it its trivial name. This ridge extends the whole length
of the keel in the Water-Ouzel ; and in this point, as well as in the lesser relative
depth of that process, and in the greater relative breadth of the lateral portions of
the sternum, and in its more nearly circumscribed posterior emarginations, the bird
in question differed from allied species of dissimilar habits.
Recent Experiments on Heterogenesis, or Spontaneous Generation,
By James SaAMvELson.
The author communicated the results derived from the simultaneous exposure of
various kinds of infusions prepared. by him in Hull, Paris, and Liverpool. Amongst
these results the following afford fresh evidence against the theory of spontaneous
generation, and tend to prove the existence of innumerable germs of life in the at-
mosphere.
Dr. Balbiani (the author’s coadjutor in Paris) found certain well-defined species
of Infusoria in his infusions, which he also discovered in the moistened dust from
his window ; and another well-marked species, found in large numbers by Dr. Bal-
120 rico leas
biani in his infusions in Paris, was traced by Mr. Samuelson, first in moistened
dust from the high road near Liverpool, then in dust taken from his own window
and washed in distilled water, and lastly even in pure, boiled, distilled water, after
it had been exposed a few days in the open air in Liverpool. The author watched
and carefully described the development of this species (Cercomonas acuminata)
from its first appearance to its full growth.
PHYSIOLOGY.
On the Function of the Auricular Appendix of the Heart.
By Isaac Asun, A.B., MB.
The author considered that the well-marked contrivance exhibited in the appen-
dix, such as the presence of carnez columne in this portion only of the auricle,
indicated that it subserved some function more important than that usually assigned
to it, namely the better mixing up of the blood received from the veins. Three
ascertained facts, none of them of much apparent value separately, would, when
connected together, give a hint as to what that function might be.
The first was that the auricle, though having walls much thinner and weaker
than those of the ventricle, was yet able powerfully to distend the latter.
The second fact was that the auricle, unlike the ventricle, did not completely
empty itself of blood.
he third fact was that the auricular appendix, though placed at a distance from
the auriculo-ventricular orifice, yet was the last portion of the auricle to contract.
From these three facts, taken together, Dr. Ashe inferred that the function of the
appendix was to effect the complete distension of the ventricle, notwithstanding the
powerful resistance of its thick muscular walls when distended nearly to their
utmost. The force of the appendix would he transmitted to the ventricle by means
of the small column of fluid still remaining in the auricle, and this force would be
multiplied within the ventricle as many times as the superficies of the fluid within
that chamber exceeded the surface which would be presented by the superficies of the
fluid within the appendix. Against the walls of the auricular sinus this force would
be @ minimum, in consequence of the small superficies of the fluid still remaining
within it.
To a certain extent the same thing would be effected by the contraction of the
sinus alone, for its force would become multiplied within the ventricle in measure
as the superficies of the fluid in the latter increased in proportion to that in the
former, which diminished pari passu; but the force exerted by the sinus becomes
diminished towards the close of its contraction, just when the maximum effort is
required, and would even vanish altogether were it not for the small column of fluid
remaining in the auricle. Dr. Ashe regarded the function of the carne column
as being neither to increase nor to diminish the strength of the appendix, for either
object could be attained with smooth walls—yet both views had been put forward
—but as being to effect the complete emptying of the appendix, since the force of
this organ could not be exerted on the ventricle except by the injection of a con-
siderable quantity of fluid within it. Tor this contrivance Dr. Ashe suggested the
name of “the hydrodynamic apparatus of the heart.’
Dr. Ashe also considered that this powerful distension of the walls of the ven-
tricles might be an operating cause of their contraction, analogous to the view
which had been suggested regarding the cause of the contraction of the walls of the
uterus at the completion of the period of pregnancy.
On the Function of the Oblique Muscles of the Eye.
By Isaac Asun, A.B., M.B.
The author doubted the view that assigned to these muscles the function of
rotating the eyeball on its antero-posterior axis, never having observed such rota-
tion either incidentally or in experiment. The vision might be directed to any
object by the action of the recti alone.
The view had been put forward that such rotation was necessary in order that
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 121
corresponding points of the two retine might continue on the same level
when the head was inclined to either side. Dr. Ashe considered that this effect
could only be produced with reference to a single pair of points in the retine at
any one moment, and that only at the expense of an increased alteration in the
level of every other pair of corresponding points. But he considered the attain-
ment of this object unnecessary, inasmuch as any corresponding pair of points
changed their level only with reference to the level of the earth’s surface, and not
with reference to the point looked at; this point, therefore, with the two on the
retinze, would remain in the same relative position notwithstanding the rotation of
the plane containing them. Hence Dr. ithe considered that the function of these
muscles was yet to be assigned; while, on the other hand, a known function existed,
capable of being voluntarily discharged, for the exercise of which no voluntary
muscle had been assigned, namely, the adjustment of the focal distance of the eye.
It had been considered that the ciliary muscle effected this by compressing the
globe. No doubt the action of the ciliary muscle might cause short-sightedness,
and this defect had vecently been remedied by its division ; but the ciliary muscle
consisted of unstriped fibres, and its action must therefore be involuntary, which
was also demonstrated by the fact that the power of voluntary adjustment of the focal
distance was not destroyed by its division. Dr. Ashe considered that the position
of the obliqui was such that, acting together, and not separately as generally sup-
posed, they would compress the globe of the eye, as the ciliary muscle might do
involuntarily, and thus increase its refractive power by augmenting the antero-
posterior axis. A diminution of focal distance would hence result. The retina
would be thrown backwards by the same action, and its power of receiving a dis-
tinct image from a near object enhanced considerably thereby. The elasticity of
the sclerotic coat would increase the focal distance again on the cessation of the
voluntary action of these muscles. This view was confirmed by the fact that a
person was conscious of a voluntary effort in adjusting the sight to an object placed
very near the eye, much more so than he would be to any effort in looking at a
distant object. It had been supposed that the four recti muscles, acting together,
might compress the globe and cause a shortening of the focal distance ; Dr. Ashe con-
sidered that the only effect of such a cooperation would be to draw the eyeball
back into the orbit, and, if anything, rather diminish the antero-posterior diameter
of the globe; certainly they could not increase it unless they had osseous attach-
ments anteriorly as well as posteriorly. But it had been demonstrated that the
muscular fibres of the obliqui were continuous quite round the eyeball; and hence
if they were to act together, as Dr. Ashe suggested, their effect would undoubtedly
be to increase the antero-posterior diameter of the globe. To correspond with such
a diminishing of the focal distance a slight approximation of the antero-posterior
axes of the eyeballs would be necessary, and were this to be accomplished by the
same mechanism the requisite correlation would be established between the two
actions. This would be effected by the muscles in question if the point where their
actions balanced each other were placed a very little anterior to that circumference
of the eyeball which should pass through their fixed.attachments, and this Dr. Ashe
considered was exactly the position of their insertion into the sclerotic.
On voluntarily shortening the focal distance the pupil might be observed to con-
tract, relaxing again when the focal distance was elongated; this seemed to cor-
roborate Dr. Ashe’s views, since the inferior obliquus and the circular fibres of the
iris were both supplied by the third nerve, and might be simultaneously affected by
its action.
In experimenting on the dead body, Dr. Ashe had found that, by the sense of
touch, a distinct elongation of the antero-posterior axis of the eyeball could be
recognized on drawing at once on the two obliqui; he had found the sense of touch
the most delicate indication of the alteration.
On the Scientific Cultivation of Salmon Fisheries,
By Tuomas Asnworru, of Cheadle.
The main objects of this paper were to show the great value of salmon-fisheries,
how they have been neglected in England, and how they might he improved, The
$84 REPORT—1862.
produce of the English fisheries has fallen so low, that it has been estimated not
to exceed 10,0007. per annum, and this including the fisheries of Wales, while
the money value of the Irish, according to the reports of the Commissioners of
Fisheries, is not less than 300,000/. yearly; one fishery in Scotland, that of the
Duke of Richmond in the Spey, is said to return to his Grace 12,000/, annually. The
author, in illustration of what may be accomplished for the improvement of salmon
rivers, describes what has been done at his fishery in Galway, and the results. In
the short space of ten years the river has been rendered ten times more productive.
During the present season as many as 3000 salmon have been taken with the rod.
This great improvement has been chiefly owing to the great care taken in pre-
serving the streams during the breeding-season, at an expenditure of 500/., and by
introducing young salmon, artificially bred, into streams fitted for them, but from
which the fish had before been excluded owing to impediments preventing access
from the sea. These impediments have either been removed or avoided by means
of ladders so constructed as to render the passage to and from the sea easy. A
striking example is given by him of a river in ireland converted into an excellent
salmon river ty means of ladders. This river is in county Sligo, the property of
Mr. Edward Cooper. The ladders are over a fall of about 40 feet. So productive
has this river, before barren, become, that in July last as many as 1000 salmon were
captured in one week.
An Attempt to show that every living Structure consists of Matter which is the
Seat of Vital Actions, and Matter in which Physical and Chemical Changes
alone take place. By Professor Bratz, /.R.S.
The object of the author was to show that every living structure was composed
of matter that was “living” and matter that had ceased to “ live ”—of “ germinal
matter”? and “formed material.” The first was alone the seat of purely vital
phenomena, while in the formed material physical and chemical changes alone
occurred. It was not possible to form any notion of the chemical relation of the
elements of living matter. Neither could we obtain evidence as to the chemical
character of the compounds of which living matter was composed. We could not
obtain living matter in solution, and separate it again, as we could crystalline sub-
stances. The instantwe commenced its chemical examination the particles ceased
to be living, and the moment they ceased to live the elements combined to form
certain compounds, The compounds did not exist as such in the living matter, but
were formed the moment death took place. To understand these views, it is neces-
sary to be acquainted with Dr. Beale’s definition of the structure of a “cell.”
At the last Meeting of the British Association, in Manchester, the author had
endeavoured to prove that every “cell,” or elementary” part of a tissue, con-
sisted of matter in two states—forming, growing, active, within ; and externally of
matter which had been in the first state, but was now formed, and had ceased to be
active. The latter could be changed by external conditions, &c., but it had lost all
inherent active powers of changing itself, or of communicating its powers to inani-
mate matter. All pabulum (nutrient matter) which was to nourish a living
organism must come into contact with the living or germinal matter. Then, and not
till then, it acquires the same properties ; so that the living matter has increased in
quantity in consequence of the inanimate pabulum, or certain of its elements, being
converted into this living matter. Such a change never occurred in inanimate matter
unless living matter were present. The greater the facility with which the inanimate
pabulum came into contact with the living matter, the faster this increased. No
matter how abundant the pabulum might be, if the living matter were surrounded
by a thick layer of formed material, the living matter would increase but slowly.
It may be next inquired, What takes place during life in the smallest living inde-
pendent particle, which consists of an envelope of formed lifeless matter, with living
germinal matter. within P
1. Pabulum passes through the formed material, enters the living particles, and
reaching their centre, some of its constituents become living. Thus the quantity
of the living matter is increased.
2, The new particles tend to move outwards from the centre where they became
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123
living, preceded by others which became living before them, and succeeded by new
ones, ‘hus, during the life of a spherical particle, new centres are continually
appearing in pre-existing centres.
3. The oldest particles on the circumference of the spherule, having passed
through various stages of existence in moving outwards from the centre, gradually
lose the power of animating lifeless particles, and become resolved into formed
material, which is destitute of the power of increasing itself, and is no longer
living.
4, “The new-formed material is being produced upon the inner surface of that
already formed—that is, in contact with the germinal matter; so that, passing from
within outwards, we have (a) germinal matter; (b) imperfectly developed formed
material; (¢) fully developed formed material. The germinal matter exhibits in
cases a central portion (nucleus), within which may be one or more portions with
many circular outline (nacleoli), and within these smaller particles are often to be
made out (nucleoluli). Passing from within outwards are several zones, the inner-
most being most intensely coloured by carmine.
The thickness of the formed material must gradually increase unless the oldest
part which is outside is removed as fast as new-formed material is produced; in
the latter case we should have (d) disintegrating formed material.
The conyersion of inanimate matter into living matter, and the conversion of
living matter into formed material, are continually taking place during life. The
formed material, having been produced, is passive. It may be changed or altered,
but it has no inherent powers of compelling the elements of matter to assume cer-
tain fixed relations to each other, like the germinal matter. It has ceased to live.
All the work performed by an organism during its life depends upon the action
of certain agents upon this formed material. AJl these changes are physical and
chemical, and can be caused to continue after the organism is dead ; but the formed
material itself can never be produced artificially, because its composition and pro-
perties depend upon the particles of germinal matter from which it was produced,
and these derived their powers from pre-existing living particles, and these from
their predecessors, and so on, back to the first living particle of that particular
kind which was created. We can cause the destructive changes to continue after
death; but the constructive changes cease with life, and cannot be imitated arti-
ficially.
The moyements of living particles from centres, and the continual formation of
new centres within pre-existing centres—the power of inducing similar changes
in particles otherwise incapable of undergoing change—the progressive modifica-
tions taking place in a definite order, which end at last in the formation of passive
substances having properties and chemical composition totally different from those
of the pabulum on the one hand, and those of the living particles themselves on
the other,—constitute a series of phenomena which occur in every different kind
of living matter, and in living matter alone. They cannot be explained in the
present state of knowledge by physical and chemical actions, and they may still
be fairly termed zztal phenomena, in contradistinction to those purely physical and.
chemical changes which occur in the formed material.
Living matter always possesses the power of inerease and formation, and these
processes of increase of the living matter, and its conversion into formed material,
take place respectively under different circumstances. The conditions favourable
to the increase of the living matter are not favourable to the production of formed
material. Living matter may inerease very rapidly, but the production of formed
material is comparatively a slow process. All those tissues which in their perfect
state are composed of much formed material in proportion to the germinal matter,
grow slowly. During the earlier periods of their existence their growth was
more rapid. :
When a mass of germinal matter becomes surrounded with a thick layer of
formed material, change, as would be supposed, goes onveryslowly. The pabulum
passes slowly through the formed material, and in small quantity, so that very
little germinal matter is produced. The conversion of germinal matter into formed
material, however, still proceeds until only a very small quantity remains living,
surrounded on all sides by a thick, passive, and perhaps nearly faparmeabte en-
124 REPORT—1862.
velope. But suppose this envelope be ruptured, or softened, so that nutrient
matter obtains more ready access to the living matter within, what happens?
The germinal or living matter rapidly increases, and may even grow at the expense
of the softened envelope itself. Masses of living matter are formed in great
number, divide and subdivide, and perhaps multiply enormously, forming a soft
mass, which may continue to increase for a time, but is incapable of lasting.
The conditions favourable for the regular conversion of the outer particles of each
mass into formed material are not present, and the whole mass may die and
undergo disintegration and removal. Very many changes occurring in tissues in
disease may be explained by these views. The power of living matter to grow
infinitely is restricted by the conditions under which it is placed. Normally,
growth may be slow; but if the restrictions be to some extent removed, then an
abnormal freedom of growth may directly occur, This is exactly what happens
in the process of inflammation. The germinal matter of the normal cells is more
freely supplied with nutrient matter, and this often depends upon actual rupture
of the envelope of formed material. These views, it will be observed, explain the
phenomena of nutrition, growth, secretion, &c., without supposing any peculiar
attractive power in the cell-wall, or any mysterious agency in its structure or in
the nucleus; indeed, the existence of the cell, as it is generally defined, is dis-
pensed with altogether, The author’s “ cell” is a mass of living matter surrounded
by matter which had ceased to live, and which, like other inanimate matter, may
be changed by physical and chemical agents. He reduces “ the action of the cell”
to the motion of living particles from centres where they become living, their
passing through definite stages of existence, and their being ultimately resolved
into substances exhibiting special properties, but lifeless. ‘So he would explain the
phenomena of inflammation, without resorting to the hypothesis of irritation, ex-
ageerated action from external stimulation, &c.
According to the author's view, the most wonderful changes occur at the moment
when the pabulum reaches the living centre, where its Pasa become com-
pletely changed, and where it commences its new course of existence. To account
for the new powers which the particles have acquired, the author is compelled to
assume the existence of a special force or power which can only be derived from
particles which already arene this power. He assumes that this power er ans
the elements of the pabulum to take up new and forced relations to each other,
while, as they gradually cease to be under its influence, the elements resume their
ordinary attractions, and special compounds are formed—the nature of the com-
pound depending, therefore, upon the relations which the elements were constrained
to take up during the liying state. Hence he maintains that vital power exists in
the particles of living or germinal matter, while the formed matter around this is
destitute of vital power, and is only influenced by physical and chemical forces ;
and he thinks that while matter is in the state of living or germinal matter, it isin
a temporary condition which is distinct and peculiar, and cannot be compared with
any other state in which matter is known to exist. It is very remarkable that
matter in this temporary condition exhibits the same appearance in all living beings,
and possesses constantly an acid reaction. When set free, a mass always assumes
a spherical form, and the smallest particles to be seen are still spherical. No one
could distinguish by microscopical examination the “germinal matter” of one
tissue from that of another, nor the germinal matter of one of the lowest, simplest
organisms from that of man, And yet, although the germinal matter of all struc-
tures appears to be the same, it diflers most wonderfully in power as seen in the
results of its life. The formed material, on the other hand, exhibits, as we all
know, differences of structure easily demonstrated, and differences of property
familiar to every one; these differences being due to vital powers existing in the
matter when in its previous state of germinal matter,
Some additional Observations on the Coloured Fluid or Blood of the Common
Earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris). By Joun Davy, M.D., /B.S., Sc.
In this paper, supplementary to a former one on the same subject, the author, by
yaried experiments, some made iz vacuo, some made in different gases, has en-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125
deayoured to prove that the red fluid of the Earthworm is a receptacle for oxygen,
and is thus subservient to the aération or respiration of the animal,
Some Observations on the Vitality of Fishes, as tested by Increase of Temperature.
By Joun Davy, ILD., F.BS., Se.
The experiments described by the author were made on eleven different species
of fish of our lakes and rivers, of which the several kinds of Salmonidz were of the
number. The results were that a temperature of water between 80 degrees and 100
degrees was fatal to each kind. The Salmonids were those which were most readily
affected by elevation of temperature, the other species bearing it according to their
kind somewhat better. The results generally were pointed out as of some interest
in relation to the habitats of different kinds of fish, and also as tending to prove that
the accounts given by travellers of fishes existing in hot springs are exaggerated,
and not founded on accurate observation.
On the Question whether the Oxide of Arsenic, taken in very minute quantities
for a long period, is Injurious to Man. By Joun Davy, M.D., FRS., Se.
In this paper the author gave an account of a small mountain stream in Cum-
berland, Whitbeck by name, which contains a minute quantity of arsenic, and which
has from time immemorial been used by the inhabitants of an adjoining village,
without any marked effect, either bad or good, on man and other animals, with the
exception of ducks, to which birds the feeding in it has proved fatal. The author
attributed the innocuity of the stream to two circumstances: first, the extremely
minute quantity of arsenic present; and, secondly, the little tendency that arsenic
has to accumulate in the organs of animals—the duck probably having less elimi-
nating power than others. He mentioned instances in which arsenic in equall
small quantity, derived from rivers in the Lake District, had proved fatal to the
charr. He presumed that arsenic exists in many other streams, the water of which
is used with impunity, the arsenic being derived from arsenical pyrites, a very
common mineral, by the action of air and water, and, as in the instance of Whit-
beck, comparatively harmless, and this owing to two circumstances—the very
slight solubility of the oxide in cold water, and the fact of the harmlessness of the
oxide in infinitesimal quantities.
Some Observations on the Coagulation of the Blood in relation to its Cause,
By Joun Davy, ID., F.BS., Fe.
These observations were chiefly made to test the hypothesis brought forward by
Dr. Richardson, that the coagulation of the blood mainly depends on the escape of
ammonia. The many results described by the author were opposed to this view.
First, he showed that blood in its healthiest state contains no appreciable quantity
of the volatile alkali; and, secondly, that ammonia added to the blood in a notable
quantity did not arrest the change. Other experiments were described of a con-
firmatory kind.
The conclusion finally arrived at was that we are still ignorant of the cause of the
phenomenon, and that the hypothesis of Dr. Richardson, if acted on in medical
practice, must be attended with risk.
Remarks on the Loss of Muscular Power arising from the ordinary Foot-
clothing now worn, and on the Means required to obviate this Loss. By
James DowI!e.
In wearing rigid-soled boots or shoes, the waste of muscular power is of a three-
fold kind: fist, that arising from atrophy, in which the locomotive function of the
muscles of the extremities is reduced below its normal standard; second, that
arising from the extra force exerted in bending comparatively rigid clothing; and
third, that arising from the normal functions of the muscles of the feet when walk-
ing being partially or wholly transferred to those of the pelvic region or upper
126 REPORT—1862.
arts of the body. In each case the sacrifice sustained is shown to be manifest.
The remedy proposed to obviate this threefold loss is the ingrafting of elasticated
leather into the sole of the boot or shoe, between the heel and tread, under the
instep, whereby the foot is allowed to perform with comparative freedom its natu-
ral movements in progression, and consequently the muscles to retain their normal
health, strength, and usefulness. The soundness of this conclusion is confirmed
by upwards of twenty-five years’ experience in the wear of foot-clothing thus
made. The elastic principle is shown to be a size gud non,—mere form, however
adapted to the foot when in repose, being inadequate to obviate the loss of mus-
cular power when walking. In illustration of the elastic principle, two strong
Blucher boots were exhibited, the one made on Mr. Dowie’s plan, having elasti-
cated leather ingrafted into the sole, in contrast with the other, a rigid-soled
“ sealed-pattern regulation boot” as now worn by the British army.
On Pearls ; their Parasitic Origin. By Rovert Garner, F.L.S.
The author said he had particularly examined those formed in the mantle of the
Conway and Lancashire mussel,—not the beautiful pearls of the Alasmodon, from
the Upper Conway at Llanrwst, but those of the salt-water mussel: however, he
attributes the same origin to all pearls, the oxidation of a minute species of Distoma
causing their formation, much in the same way that galls are formed in plants.
On an Albino Variety of Crab ; with some Observations on Crustaceans,
and on the Effect of Light. By Roserr Garner, F.L.S.
In four species of Crustacea which were observed, a splitting of the fore-claws at
the third joint from the extremity took place during moulting, exactly as described
by Reaumur, the line of splitting being afterwards with difficulty perceived in the
cast shell. This splitting always takes place in the same line—a line noticeable in
the shell of a crustacean not about to moult, at least in those species observed, as
the Hermit-lobster. The author has rarely failed to detect the Nereis bilineata at
the posterior part of the spire of the shell which is occupied by the latter animal,
and many years back forwarded it to Dr. Johnston, of Berwick, to whom it proved
an acquisition, and who believed it to be absent or rare on the Northumberland
coast. The little living Cancer pagurus exhibited was found in the root of a Fucus,
and when fresh moulted, which had happened several times during the last year,
was white except the ends of the claws. With respect to the action of light, the
author observed that some Actiniz did not dislike it, whilst to others it was ex-
tremely distasteful; for instance, Act. dianthus to avoid it frees itself from its at-
tachment and swims away like a Limneeus with its base to the surface, whilst the
common Actinia seems to like it. As an example of the effect of obscurity on a
vegetable, the author showed a curious specimen of the Clayaria form of Polyporus
squamosus, which sprung from a piece of oak in an obscure part of an iron-forge.
he Nereis above-mentioned seems sensible both to light and sound. The Crus-
tacea in which the valve-like split (if split it can be called) was observed, were
separ the Hermit-lobster) the common and the shore crab, and the hairy Por-
cellana.
The Skull-sutures in connewion with the Superficies of the Brain.
By Rozerr Garner, F.L.S,.
If the mammalian skull may be considered as formed by the enormous develop-
ment of the elements of several vertebre, and if the vertebral medulla in fishes
gives indications of its being composed of separate ganglia, then analogy would
lead us to look in the brain for separate ganglia corresponding to as many vertebrae
as form the skull, and also to expect corresponding dispositions in other respects—
as regards nerves and their exit, the ventricles, and the form and distribution of the
internal grey matter—all probably to be traced.
_ However, we now confine ourselves to those parts peculiar to the brains of the
higher animals—the convolutions. These are not merely chance forms due to the
errant meandering of arteries and veins; for though organs are built up by arteries,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127
they are formed upon a preceding plan. The gyri or convolutions have a known
disposition, corresponding more or less on each side in all brains, so that it is possible
to trace out on paper what course the convolutions of a healthy brain will take—at
any rate, the exceptions will be in small particulars; and this not in man only, but
more easily as we descend through the inferior forms—the savage, the idiot, the
chimpanzee, the monkey, the carnivora, and so on.
That portion of the skull occupied by the cerebrum proper may be divided into
five surfaces—an ethmoidal, lodging the olfactory lobes, small in man, but ample in
other mammalia, as the marsupial or elephant; a sphenoidal, to which the grey
matter about the optic commissure and the island of Reil correspond; a frontal
for the anterior lobes of the brain, temporal-surfaces for its inferior tuberosities; a
parietal for the vastly predominant superior middle portion; and an interparietal,
corresponding to the posterior lobes.
Wishing to see exactly what gyri or sulci correspond to the sutures which divide
the regions of the skull, and finding that this cannot by ordinary comparison be
well done (our present modes of examination giving us anything but clear ideas of
the topography of the encephalon), the author devised a plan of piercing the skull
along the sutures, and marking the corresponding points of the brain by vermilion
introduced by means of a grooved needle. He then extracts the brain, and lets it
fall into a strong solution of corrosive sublimate, which has the effect of rapidly
hardening it so that it will allow of a perfect cast being taken from it. The mem-
branes may also be easily removed, though with more difficulty over the posterior
lobes. Pins are introduced into the brain at the spots where the vermilion punc-
tures are seen previous to taking the mould, which should be formed of two appli-
cations of the liquid plaster, the first most fluid and of little bulk.
With respect to the coronal suture, which appears to trend backwards in the
greatest deeree in the lower races of man, it will be found to correspond to a certain
describable line. This begins before the first convolution above the commencement
of the fissure of Sylvius, and rises, not along the oblique fissure of Rolando (sepa-
rating the first from the second of those three remarkable oblique convolutions
arising from the upper lip of the Sylvian fissure, and going upwards and backwards
to the vertex), but more directly upwards, and more in front, before the anastomoses
which the anterior oblique convolution has with the frontal ones. These frontal
convolutions evidently run in a longitudinal direction in the adult, but more
evidently so in the foetal brain, well marking the frontal portion. Within the
longitudinal fissure the separation of the frontal and parietal portions is commonly
well marked in man, monkeys, and the lower mammalia.
The squamous suture corresponds to the fissure of Sylvius, which, as far as the
external surface of the brain is concerned, may be said to commence about the
summit of the great ala of the sphenoidal bone, which in some skulls (prognathous
ones) does not always reach to the parietal bone.
A suture occasionally exists in the occipital bone, marking the posterior edge of
the brain, apparently common in the American races, but not peculiar to them, as
was seen from photographs of a Negrito and other skulls, illustrating the paper in
this and other points relating to the skull, and kindly lent by Dr. J. Barnard Davis.
This interparietal bone (the cerebral portion of the occipital) appears to be worthy
of study; it is large in the inferior races of man, and also full in the female. The
lambdoidal suture corresponds to the line which divides the conyolutions forming
the third lobe from the middle or parietal—a line commonly well marked on the
brain surface, though not an uninterrupted sulcus; more strongly in the Quadru-
mana, but still more strongly internally in the longitudinal fissure. The inferior
tuberosity of the brain is most intimately connected with the posterior lobe.
The parietal portion of the upper surface of the brain constitutes, of course, by far
its largest region. Before, are some gyri already mentioned as being anastomoses
of the anterior oblique parietal convolution with the frontal. These anastomoses,
in combination with the inner frontal convolution, form in man a broadly halberd-
shaped figure, the coronal suture crossing at a little distance before the handle as it
were, but in many mammalia a broader trilobed figure like a club of cards or a fleur-
de-lis, Behind, we have already described three more or less well-marked conyolu-
tions going from the fissure of Sylvius upwards and backwards to the middle line,
128 REPORT—1862.
The middle one is always the most remarkable, and a fixed point for measurement ;
its termination in the longitudinal fissure is marked by a deep sulcus, forming the
anterior boundary of a quadrangular surface, of which the posterior boundary is the
sulcus already mentioned as marking the division of the posterior from the middle
lobes of the brain. The oblique convolutions (with or without the anterior one,
and with or without some anastomosing gyri going backwards from the middle to
the posterior lobe) form a remarkable broadly triangular or rather bat-shaped figure,
more remarkable still in the Quadrumana, and reminding us of the bat-like expansion
of the sphenoidal bone below, and its corresponding cerebral surface. This, of course,
is merely an accidental resemblance ; but where we are not sufficiently advanced to
make physiological divisions, such comparisons may be of use in studying “a mighty
maze, but not without a plan,” and fairly belong to topographical anatomy ;
serying, like language, to embody our observations, and eventually, conjoined with
the comparison of the internal structure, or more definitely the course of the di-
vergent prolongations of the medulla oblongata through the brain, leading to large
results,
On the Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium.
By Georce D. Gries, M.D., M.A., FG.
After dwelling generally upon bromine and its salts, the author referred to the
allexed properties of the bromide of potassium. This salt he had used, and it failed
to produce what had been asserted of its‘powers. He had, however, changed the
base to ammonium—the bromide of ammonium—carefully prepared in a pure form
by Messrs. Fincham, of Baker Street, London; and on submitting a number of
healthy persons to its use, a series of highly important results were obtained. These
were detailed at some length, and the experiments described. The latter were not
yet complete, but the author thought them still sufficiently important to bring before
the Association.
The great tegumentary systems, both internal and external,were chiefly influenced
by this agent, especially the former. The adipose structures came next under their
influence. Its effects on the skin justified its being considered a cleanser and beau-
tifier of the complexion. It restored secretion to the mucous membrane, and ac-
cording to the mode of its administration and the susceptibilities of the individual,
so did it produce anesthesia, especially noticeable in the fauces and throat. The
membrane of the nose, the pharynx, the larynx, and bronchi, as well as that of the
eyes and ears, were subject to its influence; and in the course of his experiments,
the author found that the entire tract of the genito-urinary and gastro-pulmonary
mucous membrane was occasionally, not always, brought under the control of this
agent. It also exerted a peculiar and specific effect upon atheroma and fat; and if
administered sufficiently long, and in proper quantities, it will slowly remove cor-
pulency and allied states through the blood. Fatty changes in certain organs, such
as the heart and its vessels, are arrested by it; and the author believes it would
equal, if not surpass, the Ficus vesiculosus in some of its alleged virtues.
The author intended to continue his investigations.
On the Normal Position of the Epiglottis as determined by the Laryngoscope.
By Grorce D. Giz, M.D., M.A., F.GS.
After some remarks upon the various hypotheses which have been brought for-
ward by physiologists on the mechanism of the voice, which the author considered
somewhat conjectural from the absence of ocular proof, he referred to the intro-
duction of the laryngoscope as likely to determine the true nature of phonation and
other phenomena connected with the larynx. Whilst not unmindful of this him-
self, he had devoted some attention to the inspection and study of the parts above
the glottis, especially to explain anomalous sensations there experienced. For this
purpose he had examined the throats of healthy persons with the laryngoscope, so
as to become familiar with the parts in them. Up to the date of his communi-
cation he had examined 300 individuals, and his results were confined mostly to
the condition and position of the epiglottis, which were so important that they
had led him to form certain conclusions,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129
The author referred to the commonly accepted views in relation to the normal
position of the epiglottis being considered wholly vertical or erect, and quoted
Harrison, Knox, Bishop, Dunglison, Meckel, Cloquet, and even Czermak, in support
thereof. Whilst admitting their correctness to a certain extent in the largest portion
of mankind, he has discovered, in the course of his physiological investigations with
the laryngoscope, that in eleven per cent. the epiglottis is not erect, but either
oblique or nearly transverse, and that this condition is not necessarily associated
with disease, occurs at all ages, and is occasionally congenital, being observed in
parent and offspring. The ages of those examined varied from 6 to 90 years,
The effect of this position of the epiglottis is an alteration in phonation, and
much inconvenience and danger in the event of disease, as well as inducing a pre-
disposition to take on diseased action. Speaking and singing are much ailected ;
some cannot sing in consequence. The shape and condition of the valve named in
the 300 persons examined were then described.
The author summed up with the following conclusions :—
1, Physiologically speaking, the epiglottis is vertical in the great majority of
mankind ; in a certain proportion it is oblique or nearly transverse.
2. The evils likely to arise from the latter at present appear to be so inconvenient,
that it would be desirable that an inspection of the epiglottis should be made in
every child, where practicable, between the ages of 6 and 10 years, for the purpose
of ascertaining its correct position.
3. If it is found to be not vertical, a knowledge of the fact will prove beneficial
through life in guarding against evils likely to arise, during the prevalence of epi-
demic sore-throat, or other diseases likely to involve the larynx.
4, No interference with the throat or larynx should ever be permitted without
the aid of laryngoscopic inspection.
5. Whilst any imperfection in the voice or speech may be explained by the posi-
tion of the epiglottis, independently of the vocal chords, a chance for the improyve-
ment of both is held out, by adopting some means that shall render this valve
more oblique in direction than transverse, or possibly (but at present very doubtful)
restore it to a vertical position,
On Secret Poisoning. By Groner Harter, M.D., Professor of Medical
Jurisprudence in University College, London.
The author stated that although he had no wish to engender groundless suspicions
or excite unnecessary alarms, yet he was sorry to say he could not but repeat the
statement he made last year in a paper on slow poisoning read before the Royal
Medico-Chirurgical Society of London—namely, that he believed the cases of
secret poisoning that are discovered form but a small percentage of those that
actually occur. Nay, more, he even went a step further, and declared that he not
only believed that we magnified the difficulty of perpetrating the crime, but that
we were also inclined to exaggerate the facility of its detection. No doubt, modern
discoveries in physiology and chemistry had enabled us not only to distinguish
between the effects of poison and natural disease during life, but likewise to detect
and extract the poison from the tissues after death. But modern discoveries had
also made known to us many poisons with which we were hitherto unacquainted,
It was in toxicology as in naval warfare, no sooner was a projectile discovered that
is considered irresistible than our engineers set about discovering armour-plates
more invulnerable than their predecessors. So, no sooner does the criminal tind a
new poison that he can use with impunity, than the experts set about discovering
a means for its detection, He remarked that the great desire of the poisoner was
to get hold of a poison the effect of which would so closely resemble that of natural
disease as to be mistaken for it, Fortunately, however, this was attended with
extreme difficulty, as the effects of poison were generally sudden in their onset
and rapid in their termination ; for the poisoner seldom had time or opportunity of
administering the poisonous agent in so small a quantity and for such a length of
time as are requisite to produce an artificial state of disease which may be mistaken,
at least by the unaccomplished physician, for real disease. It had been asserted that
in all cases of poisoning where death occurred, the poison ought to be found in the
1862, 9
130 : REPORT—1862.
tissues after death. He, however, pointed out that this was not strictly true; for
even in the case of arsenic, which was supposed to be the most persistent of all
poisons, if the patient only lived long enough, the mineral might be entirely elimi-
~nated by the excretions before death, and afterwards not a trace remain to be de-
tected in the body. Such occurred in Alexander’s case, when, although it was
Imown that arsenic was the poison which caused death, none was found in the
body. Alexander, however, did not die till the sixteenth day. For this and other
reasons the author then said, “that as the not finding poison in the system after
death is no absolute proof that the patient did not die from its effects, the symptoms
observed during life, in conjunction with the morbid appearances observed after
death, even when no poison is discovered by chemical analysis, ought to be suffi-
cient to convict the poisoner; and even the symptoms alone, if there be good cir-
cumstantial evidence, especially if combined with proof of a motive, ought to con-
vict, just as was done at Palmer’s trial.” The author concluded by saying that in
all cases of suspected murder, great care should be taken to avoid telling the persons
around the patient of the suspicion. The patient himself should be the first confidant ;
for if there was no motive for suicide, he was the most likely to be aware of a
motive in the persons surrounding him. The next confidant should be the doctor,
who, by obtaining some of the secretions and having them carefully analysed by a
competent person, would soon be enabled to decide if it was a case of secret murder,
and perhaps also give a clue to the detection of the criminal.
Suggestions towards a Physiological Classification of Animals.
By James Hinton.
It is scarcely necessary to remark that no system of animal classification has yet
been accepted as entirely satisfactory, or that it is universally allowed that no
linear series can possibly fulfil the requirements of the case. As bearing upon this
subject, the author’s attention has been drawn to the relation in which the Articu-
lata and Mollusca stand to each other. It is manifestly impossible to place either
group, as a whole, below the other; but there exists a marked phystological differ-
ence between them. In the Articulata,for instance, the organs of animal life pre-
ponderate, and give a decided character to the group, while in the Mollusca the
organs of vegetative life are not less strikingly predominant. The two classes
might well stand as representatives of the two great elements in which animal life
consists. With this thought in mind, it appeal to the author that the whole
animal series arranged itself (with certain difficulties and doubtful points of course,
but still on the whole very readily) in conformity with this idea. Thus, for in-
stance, between reptiles and birds a similar relation obtains.
The author further illustrated his views by reference to other classes.
On Simple Syncope as a Coincident in Chloroform Accidents.
By Cuarizs Kipp, M.D., M.R.CS.
At two former Meetings of this Association, several reasons, chiefly obtained
from the large field of clinical experience of London hospitals and their operating-
theatres, were stated, and given in detail, why we should regard deaths from
chloroform administration as pure accidents; and deaths in hospital, as not to be
considered exactly similar to deaths from overdoses in lower animals. The author
is desirous at present to state, that the leading facts and reasonings then expressed
have since been borne out by further experiments and explained, but that at that
time part of the subject was Benasely left incomplete.
There is reason to believe that a large percentage of so-called chloroform deaths
arise from simple fainting-fits, or “shock” (as known long before chloroform
was discovered at all), but that mow chloroform gets the discredit of them. The
deaths from sulphuric ether used as an anesthetic (at least twenty-five in number)
were nearly all the result (most probably) of secondary hemorrhage after operations,
which it very much favours, as also a state of deep narcotism like that from
morphia, previously misunderstood, and therefore not guarded against in sufficient
time to saye life, “The accidents from simple syncope are of the nature of accidents
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 131
after chloroform—post hoc, but not propter hoc ; they are very alarming, more so than
the asphyxia cases, as it is very difficult to rouse up the reflex and cardiac nerves
where syncope occurs, and, curiously enough, it seems to occur by emotion or fright
irrespective almost of the chloroform.
The author, being a believer in the value of the deductive philosophy of Mr. Mill
and Mr. Buckle in inquiries, like the present, of a physiological kind, wishes at
present simply to state that he finds the immense mass of facts as to chloroform
(chiefly experiments on the lower animals instituted by the Biological Society of
Paris, as detailed in the very masterly essay of MM. Lallemand, Perin, and Duroy—
a mass of facts of the highest importance, only very recently published) entirely
agree with and corroborate the clinical views he had the opportunity of laying
before this Association.
It is a pleasure to be able to state, that every year’s additional study of chloro-
form in London leads to a feeling of greater and greater satisfaction as to its value
and safety ; that this impression also agrees with clinical experience in other cities
of Europe, and even in America, where chloroform has now nearly superseded the
use of ether.
The author wished the present paper to be short, to be, in fact, complementary of
former communications. The aggregate number ofdeaths from chloroform is very
alarming; but there is reason to think that, in nearly all the cases, the points here
discussed previously, as to the necessity of good respiration, good pulse, &c., still hold
good for allcases. It seems very desirable that the results, however, of the hospital
experience of the members of the Physiological Section of this Association could be
obtained as to any new facts or observations that may have come under notice ; for
the entire subject of anzesthetics is, as yet, but in a tentative or rudimentary con-
dition.
The physiological data of former discussions were left unsettled and incomplete,
as said already, in order that a more full consideration might be given to the exact
value of simple syncope as a source of danger. ;
The discussion hitherto, in Dr. Snow’s time, as to the nature of death from chlo-
roform, with the consequent precautions to be observed to ensure its safety in
practice, had been almost entirely confined to an examination of one question—
whether these accidents arise from what the late Dr. Snow named “cardiac syn-
cope,” with engorged state of the right side of the-heart, or from simple syncope,
the right side not engorged.
The more philosophical mode of regarding the subject now is to look on both
causes as active: the “cardiac syncope”’ is a post-mortem result, however, as it is
described by Snow, and is in reality death from apnoea or asphyxia, and arises in
some manner, most probably from some error in the administration of the chloro-
form ; but the second cause of death, or simple syncope, is due to idiosyncrasy. This
advance in our knowledge is of importance as to saving life in these cases: we were
before looking, like the knights of old, at only one side of the shield, but now we
know the shield has two sides.
Having previously described at Oxford the mode in which accidents, by asphyxia
or “cardiac syncope,” occur through irritation of the laryngeal recurrent nerve, or
other more recently described nerves, distributed to the mucous membrane of the
larynx and air-passages (“ Rosenthal’s nerves”), it is only necessary to state that
further experience helps to corroborate this view. This form of death by asphyxia
or apnoea arises by stoppage of action of the respiratory muscles and diaphragm, and.
can also be brought about in experiments on the lower animals by any even me-
chanical irritation of these laryngeal nerves ; hence the grave necessity of care, in the
early stages of the chloroform administration, not to excite or irritate the larynx by
acid or impure chloroform, which, like some gases, at once induces spasm of the
glottis, with subsequent signs of asphyxia. This was fully entered into at the Oxford
Meeting.
Riteod, so sensitive is the larynx, and so peculiar its tolerance of chloroform, that
this fact of the irritation of its mucous membrane by a strange vapour is now taken
advantage of, and where we have to fear simple syncope or faintness, as in for-
midable operations like ovarictomy, and where syncope is impending in the middle
of such operation, the addition of a drachm or two of ether to. the inhaler, or a few
g*
132 REPORT—1862.
drops of ammonia, seldom fails to rouse the most flagging pulse (as easily con-
ceivable) through these very nerves. Explain it how we will, the clinical fact is
of the utmost importance.
This is shown in another direction in this manner :—if we render an animal deeply
narcotic by chloroform, in fact all but dead, and then allow it to come back slowly to
its usual condition, there is one point where, if the laryngeal nerves be pinched
with a forceps, it causes sudden spasm of the glottis, the diaphragm stops acting,
and, for want of breathing, the animal fails back again into a state of narcotism or
asphyxia, and may die.
With this recent discovery as to these nerves we may perhaps couple the group
of facts that there is greatly increased danger attached to surgical operations about
the larynx or neck (as observed in practice), arising from cutting or injury of its
nerves, or catching them up in forceps whilst tying arteries, &c., some intimately
associated with nerves of the cardiac plexus, others with the larynx itself, &c.
If the act of breathing freely continues during the administration of chloroform,
we may be almost certain all is right, and the pulse good; but if the breathing
becomes slow or intermittent, stopping and going on again, we are not so safe. Some
patients, it is true, seem to take the chloroform slower than others, but it is a fatal
error to push it on; the chloroform will accumulate in the system, and the after-
effects will be tedious, if the surgeon, for want of time or other causes, hastens the
administration.
Is death from chloroform, so called, sometimes a coincidence ?
It is well to remember that very marked syncope, and even death from syncope,
may occur without the use of chloroform at all: intense sudden pain may cause
death and syncope; injury of a tendon, or a large bleeding, or even such a trifling
thing as touching the urethra in sounding for stone (as remarked especially by
Heurtaloup), may induce most alarming syncope; great weakness from want of
food, as in soldiers sometimes after a battle, will also give a great tendency to syn-
cope: so that it is always of advantage to learn more or less of a patient’s history
when we are about to administer chloroform.
Accidents from syncope and chloroform may occur from apprehension of pain,
rather than actual shock, or actual pain, or deep chloroform narcotism; hence so
many accidents in the early part of the administration, before the patient is uncon-
scious at all. Thus of 125 deaths carefully analysed, fifty-four occurred immediately
before operation, forty-two during operation, but none as the result of long-con-
tinued narcotism or anesthesia; yet chloroform has now to bear all the obloquy of
all fatal accidents in the operating-theatre, a certain large percentage of which are
obviously the effect of purely mental causes or fear.
Persons with strangulated hernia, about to be operated on, are known to have
died before any incision at all (without chloroform), the patients taking the shaving
of the pubis for part of the operation. Bichat saw a patient die on the instant of
passing a simple seton. Dr. Watson tells of a patient dying suddenly at the sight
of a trochar about to be used in tapping the chest. Desault was one day about to
perform the operation for stone; the patient did not present anything unusual in
his manner, and was placed in the usual position: Desault traced simply a line with
his thumb-nail on the perineum; the patient uttered a shriek, and fell stone-dead.
Mr. Stanley used to tell of a similar case—Chopart was about to operate for circum-
cision on a lad, when the boy fell dead the instant the knife touched him, Garen-
got had a patient with a thecal abscess, who had a shudder and sudden death on
seeing the tendon move.
Syncope thus becomes a complication, in modern surgical operations, of much
greater seriousness than before. That death occurs not from over-narcotism is at
once evident, as it arises from apprehension of pain, the patient being quite conscious
when these syncope accidents have occurred.
These deaths (and they amount to about thirty in the hundred of all the deaths)
are observed to happen while the patient is having the chloroform administered,
before the surgical operation (at sight of knives, saws, surgeons’ aprons, a crowd of
students, dressers, strangers, &c., in the operating-theatre), showing how much wiser
it is to have the patient placed under chloroform in the sick-ward, than to be exposed
to this mental shock. In some London hospitals it is so, in others the point 1s not
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133
understood ; but careful observation leaves no doubt on the author’s mind that,
next to apncea or asphyxia, already minutely dwelt upon, this mere coincidence of
simple syncope is most to be dreaded.
Observations made at Sea on the Motion of the Vessel with reference to Sea-
Sickness. By J. W. Osporne.
The author stated that he had entered upon this investigation during a voyage
from Melbourne, not with the interest of a physician, whose object it would be to
cure this distressing malady, but rather for the purpose of establishing the nature
of the connexion between mechanical movement of the human body, both active
and passive, with the phenomena of nutrition and waste, functions which mani-
fested many interesting and remarkable anomalies during an attack of sea-sickness.
Many observations of a pathological and physiological character had been made
and recorded ; but it soon became apparent that to obtain results of real value, the
nature, force, and direction of the movements to which the vessel subjected the
body, and its several organs, required investigation. To express these mechanical
influences, three instruments were contrived and used with satisfactory results.
These instruments were exhibited by the author, and the following is a sketch of
the description given to the Section.
The first consists of a spring balance, capable of suspension from any part of the
ship. By placing a known weight in the pan of this instrument, the deflection in-
dicated by the index would be constant under ordinary circumstances on shore. At
sea this was not the case, the pan being there subjected to an unceasing oscillatory
movement, while the index indicated at one time more, and at another less than
the figure on the scale corresponding to the weight used.
The range thus obtained depended chiefly upon the severity of the pitching ; and
if the divisions of the scale represented fractions of the weight used, the alteration
in weight of any of the viscera of the human body, with every wave, might be
arrived at in fractions of their own weight; such alteration being, of course, ap-
parent only, but acting, nevertheless, upon all supporting ligaments, muscles, &e,
exactly as if it were real.
It was well known that the pitching motion of a vessel was very potent to pro-
duce illness, and in the instrument exhibited, the means were offered for measuring
and expressing exactly the intensity of this motion; but it was necessary while re-
cording these readings, to determine what the angular movement the vessel made
amounted to. To effect this a divided are was made use of, which, while its man-
ner of suspension permitted of its accommodating itself to one of the angular
motions of the ship, partook for the time being of the other. Opposite to this are,
and from the centre of the circle of which it was a part, a plummet or pendulum,
made of a strip of metal, was freely suspended. The part played by the latter was
to establish a point from which to read off the number of degrees through which
either axis of the vessel passed in pitching or rolling. But as the inertia of the
pendulum caused it to be seriously affected by the impulsive movements to which
the vessel was subjected in passing through the water, it became necessary to neu=
tralize these irregularities. This was accomplished by placing in rigid connexion
with the pendulum a small disk, which travelled through a curved tubular recep-
tacle containing oil, glycerine, or other viscid fluid, which, while it did not inter-
fere with the obedience of the plummet to the action of gravity, effectually pre-
vented the communicated impulses from manifesting themselves in the readings.
The third instrument was desionad to estimate the force of the impulsive move-
ment above referred to, and was an arrangement of a somewhat complicated cha-
racter, in which the oscillations of a pendulum, unaffected by the angular movements
of the vessel, were read and recorded. These oscillations originate in consequence
of the inertia or momentum of the ieee itself, freely suspended in a ship vary-
ing in its rate of motion through the water.
Several extended series of observations had been made with these instruments
which were not as yet reduced. nih.
r
134 a REPORT—1862. |
On Tobacco in relation to Physiology. By T. Reynonps.
~The author commenced his paper by adverting to the value of saliva, which he
averred was intended for the purposes of digestion, and ought not to be unneces-
sarily wasted, which was the case with a vast number of habitual smokers. The
purity of the saliva ought to be preserved, which could not be the case if it were
tainted with smoke. He pointed to the fact that the people of Israel, as we read
in Holy Writ, were not an enfeebled race, because they did not infringe natural
laws. The paper proceeded to quote the names of various medical men who were
opposed. to the practice of smoking; some avowing that tobacco-smoke, being con-
veyed into the stomach, injured the brain. One doctor had seen leeches fall dead
when sucking blood from the veins of a man who smoked, the blood of the smoker
being much more impure than that of the non-smoker. Dr. Copland avowed that
smoking arrested the growth of the young. Dr. Seymour, in writing to the Earl
of Shaftesbury, stated that smoking was a remote cause of insanity, and produced
premature constitutional decay; in fact, smoking was attended with many unfor-
tunate tendencies,
On the Study of the Circulation of the Blood. By Guorcr Rosryson, M.D.,
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of London, &¢., Newcastle-on-Tyne.
The writer commenced by observing that Harvey having established the general
law of the circulation of the blood, and expressed an opinion that all the secondary
functions depended on it, left to posterity the task of investigating its mode of
action in inducing the other phenomena of life. But while every succeeding gene-
ration has furnished fresh proof of the importance of this discovery, comparatively
little has been done towards elucidating the manner in which the motion of the
blood acts in the production of its numerous and diversified effects, although the
actions directly dependent on it are not only physiologically interesting, but also
play an important part in the production and removal of disease.
Among the causes which have interfered with the proper development of Harvey’s
views, the writer notices the undue prevalence of a metaphysical physiology, and
a consequent disregard of the legitimate application of the principles of physical
science to the explanation of the actions of the living body. Fre contends that this
preference of the ideal to the real still operates to some extent in the same manner
as when Harvey’s hydraulic reasoning shocked the prejudices of his contemporaries,
and that the doubts still occasionally expressed as to the sufficiency of the heart as
the prime mover of the mass of blood, the assumed existence of undemonstrable
adjuvant forces, and the affectation of incredulity as to the applicability of the laws
of hydraulics to the solution of the physiological questions directly connected with
the blood’s motion, all evidence the injurious effects of the continued neglect of
natural philosophy as a branch of medical education, and the retarding influence
on medical science of such inattention to the physical agencies operating in the
performance of the vital functions. In further confirmation of this opinion, he
alludes to the fact that certain views as to the mechanism of vascular absorption
and effusion, which he published many years since as the result of an attempt to
explain on hydrodynamic principles some of the uses of the circulation, Nee
neither been received nor refuted by the systematic writers on physiology, who are
still satisfied with old doctrines on these subjects, applicable only to stagnant liquids,
and quite incapable of accounting for some of the aes in question. He
then asks on what other principle of research than that adopted by Harvey him-
self can we ever hope to understand the action of the currents of blood in accom-
plishing their various uses; and refers to the evident subservience of the structural
arrangements and physico-vital pesabataes of the organs of sight, hearing, respi-
ration, speech, motion, &c., to the physical principles involved in each particular
function, as a proof of the operation of the general laws of matter in the living
body, and of the consequent applicability of hydrodynamic reasoning to the expla-
nation of many of the uses served in the animal economy by the innumerable streams
of blood incessantly permeating the tissues.
In the application of these principles, it is essential to observe closely the physical
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135-
and vital properties of the living structures, and to combine, if possible, the know-
ledge and labours of natural epegies and physiologists. He therefore concluded
by submitting to the Council of the British Association the propriety of appointing
a subcommittee to cooperate with the Royal College of Physicians of Towtce
(who are specially interested in everything relating to Harvey’s fame), for the pur-
pose of investigating the physics of the circulation, and so rendering more intel-
ligible the nature of the connexion existing in the living body between the motion
of the blood and the performance of the secondary functions of life.
On the Difference of Behaviour exhibited by Inuline and ordinary Starch when
treated with Salivary Diastase and other converting Agents. By Professor
Rotreston, W.D., M.A., PBS,
The following were the chief results to which Prof. Rolleston had arrived :—
I. Inuline from the Dahlia retains sugar with great tenacity, but, by repeated
washings, it can be freed from that impurity.
II. When thus freed from sugar, it obstinately resists the converting influence of
salivary diastase. .
II. This salivary diastase was obtained from human saliva, and from parotid- and
submaxillary-gland substance infused with water and buccal mucus.
FV. The same salivary diastase instantly converted ordinary starch into grape-sugar.
V. This salivary-gland infusion, however, if made with salivary-gland substance
from young animals yet sucking, Dr. Rolleston had found to be ineffectual .
upon ordinary starch. Bidder’s researches were in accordance with his.
These results led to the two following practical rules :—1. Artichokes are little
likely to act as a substitute for the potato, as they contain inuline vice starch.
2. Starch-foods are useless in the early months of infancy, as salivary diastase at
such a period is inactive.
Tobacco-Smoking : its effects upon Pulsation. By Kpwarp Suitu, M.D., F.BS.,
Assistant-Physician to the Hospital for Consumption, §c., Brompton.
Dr. Smith had recently made a series of observations, chiefly upon medical men,
which showed that in some persons tobacco-smoking greatly and rapidly increased
the rate of pulsation.
The experiments were made at 10 p.m., when the rate of pulsation naturally
declines (as he had proved by hourly experiments published in his work on the
Cyclical Changes of the Human System), and at least four hours after any fluid or
solid food had been taken. They were made in the sitting posture, after it had been
maintained fifteen minutes, and with the most absolute quietude of body and mind;
and thus all influences were eliminated but those due to the tobacco.
The rate of the pulsation was taken every minute for a period beginning two or
three minutes before the smoking began, and continuing during twenty minutes,
or until the pipe was exhausted.
The following are the chief results obtained :—
Experiment 1.—Pulsation before smoking was 743 per minute.
Smoking 6 minutes, 79, 77, 80, 78, 78, 77 per minute=78:1 average.
Smoking 7 minutes, 83, 87, 88, 94, 98, 102, 102 per minute=93°4 average.
Smoking 8 minutes, 105, 105, 104, 105, 105, 107, 107, 110 per min.= 106 average.
After smoking 11 minutes, 112, 108, 107, 101, 101, 100, 100, 100, 100, 98, and 91.
There was thus a maximum increase of 37} pulsations per minute.
Experiment 2.—Smoking through camphor julep in a hookah.
Pulsation before smoking 793 per minute.
Smoking 6 minutes, 81, 81, 81, 83, 82, 82 per minute=81°6 average.
é c 85, 89, 89, 93, 96, 90, 94, 94, 93
Smoking 17 minutes, } 99° 95, 95, 95, 96, 94, 97, 98=93.
The maximum increase was 173 pulsations per minute.
Experiment 3.—Smoking an empty pipe.
Pulsation before smoking 78 pulsations per minute.
136 REPORT—1862.
Smoking 11 minutes, 76, 78, 77, 76, 79, 79, 80, 80, 79, 78, and 79.
There was no increase in the rate of pulsations from the effort of smoking or from
its interference with the respiration.
Experiment 4.—To ascertain if after smoking 6 minutes, during which the effect is
very small, and then ceasing smoking, any increase in the effect would follow.
Pulsation before smoking 75 pulsations per minute.
Smoking 6 minutes, 76, 75, 79, 79, 76, 78.
Smoking 1 minute, 82.—Cease smoking.
Smoking 10 minutes, 81, 88, 83, 82, 84, 83, 83, 80, 82.
The rate of pulsations was maintained, but was not materially increased.
Experiment 5.—To prove of the rapidity of smoking causes a variation in increase
of pulsation.
a, Greater volume of smoke,
Pulsation before smoking 703 per minute.
Smoking 6 minutes, 68, 70, 71, 70, 72, 74=70°8 average.
Smoking 6 minutes, 76, 77, 86, 89, 91, 94=85°5 average.
Smoking 4 minutes, 98, 95, 96, 95=96-0 average.
The maximum effect was thus 273 pulsations per minute.
b, Smoking faster.
Pulsation of the last minute in the previous part of this experiment, viz. 95 per
minute.—Smoking 3 minutes, 94, 94, 96.
c. The pipe recharged.
Smoking 5 minutes, 87, 93,96, 96, 96.
There was therefore a large eflect upon the pulsation, but probably not more
than would have occurred with ordinary smoking.
Numerous other experiments were made with tobaccos of different reputed
strengths and upon different persons, and the author gaye minute directions as to
the proper method of making such inquiries.
GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
On the Civilization of Japan. By Sir R. Aucocx.
Tue author began by obseryine that “mankind,” it had been said, was going
through a ereat fusion. It was being made one, not by conquest, not by the spread
of a creed, but by the interchange of commodities, a proposition which it was to be
feared could only be accepted as true in a very qualified sense. Commerce and
the natural wants of mankind were no doubt efficient agents in bringing different
races into communication with each a og Sao up new countries, and predis-
posing populations to spread by intercourse, by the interchange both of products
and of ideas. But it was not the less true that commerce only opened the way, and
quite as often excited jealous fears and gave way to hostile feelings, ending in con-
quest or civil convulsion and bloodshed. The tendency of the present day was
rather to attribute too much to commerce as an efficient agency whether for civili-
zation or peace. It often brought two totally dissimilar races into sudden contact
in the aggressive march of western civilization and commerce eastward, and very
seldom without collision and conflict. Between the moral and the physical there
was in this, as in other directions, a great analogy. In the material world new
forms and combinations were seldom effected without much effervescence and dis-
integration. Many dangerous elements were set free, and others which gave soli-
dity and permanence disappeared. So it often proved when new elements of
thought and civilization were brought into contact with the elder Asiatic forms
of social life and government. So it had been in China as in Japan; the feudal
nobles of the latter empire, with a true instinct, saw that commerce never came
alone, but brought in its track germs of social and political change which, soouer
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137
or later, would destroy the feudal power and institutions. These had existed from
time immemorial, and under them the nation had increased in numbers and in
wealth, preserved its independence, and been self-sufficing. They saw in the new
treaties, therefore, and the commerce they were intended to promote, an element
of reyolution, and were prepared to resist to the death, and strike while it was yet
time. Commerce in this instance, as in a thousand others, so far from promoting
peace, was pregnant with danger, and to all appearance would sooner or later lead
to war, and this however little the merchant might desire such a result, or govern-
ments might seek to avert it. Commerce, in truth, originated a movement which
not all the merchants in the world could arrest until its destined course was run.
‘Western Powers, and we especially, entered into treaties with Hastern Potentates
in perfect good faith, desiring only commerce, and hoping peace and civilization
with the blessings of true religion might follow in the train. Such was not the
lesson that the history of the world gave. Theory and experience were wofully at
issue, and for once it would be well that experience should triumph over hope; for
the first gave useful warning, while the latter only deluded by vain expectations. It:
was under this aspect that it became a question of deep interest what affinities or
analogies might be found between the European and Japanese civilization now so
suddenly brought into contact, or what elements of repulsion might be existing and
active ; for on this, to all appearance, would depend the issue, whether peaceful or the
reverse. To speak of Japanese civilization was to speak of the whole life and deve-
lopment of a nation; and there was as much difference between nations as indivi-
duals. Sir Rutherford then showed that there were great vagueness and diversity
of opinion as to what constituted civilization. The necessity of a ciear definition
was obvious; and by reference to the chief agencies employed, we should be able
to discriminate between different kinds of civilization and degrees, and thus arrive
at a rough basis of classification. Man’s first triumph was that of physical force
and intelligence combined over inanimate nature; his next, and by the same
means, was oyer the higher animals of his own species! AII the earlier forms of
civilization were of this kind in various degrees. When it was proposed to govern
man by argument rather than by force, by considerations and by motives addressed
to his reason and conscience rather than to his fears, leaving him the full develop-
ment of his faculties and the free use of all his energies, then civilization took its
best and highest form. But of this civilization there was very little, even in the
western world, as yet. We should be prepared, therefore, to estimate modestly
any benefit in our power to confer on a race like the Japanese by introducing our
civilization and institutions into Japan, and we should be patient if we saw that
the Japanese adhered with tenacity to their feudalism and autocratic forms of
government, and not only wished none of our novelties or innovations, but, on
the contrary, were ready to do battle rather than permit the fine edge of the com-
mercial wedge to be inserted. They (the Japanese) might tell us with truth that
for centuries they had possessed, under their own laws, customs, and institutions,
a degree of peace, prosperity, and freedom from foreign wars which no country in
Europe had enjoyed any single century of its existence, with all our boasted civi-
lization. How the civilization of a people might most readily be estimated was a
question of some interest. Mr. Meadows, in his work upon China, suggested that
the style and character of a nation’s architecture (exclusive of edifices for warlike
purposes), the roads, means of communication, and adaptation for travelling were
the best criteria. This seemed doubtful. In Japan the soil was afflicted with a
sort of quotidian ague by reason of earthquakes, and in architecture, as also in roads,
the Japanese might vie with the Romans, so admirably were they engineered and
maintained. But when we come to their ordinary means of travelling and com-
munication, they sink far below the lowest of European States. A naked foot-
runner made their post; a buffalo car, or an equally clumsy machine, carried on
men’s shoulders, was their usual conveyance; and this despite their knowledge by
working models and books of our system of railroads and telegraphs. It was evi-
dent all these criteria could only furnish very fallacious data for judgment ; for in
other directions—in. their conquest over matter and their progress in all the indus-
trial arts—they might vie with the most advanced nation in Europe. In all the
mechanical arts the Japanese had unquestionably achieved great excellence. In
138 ; REPORT—1862.
their porcelain, their bronzes, their silk fabrics, their lacquer, and their metallurgy
generally, including works of art, in design and execution they not only rivalled
the best artistic works of Europe, but could produce in each of these departments
some of those of Europe. It was quite true that Europe might also make a similar
boast with justice, for there was much, especially in the province of art properly
so called, to which the Japanese could not make the slightest pretensions, They
could not produce such works of art as might be seen in the International Exhibi-
tion in repousse from the chisel of a Vechte and a Monti. Neither could they rival
a Landseer or a Rosa Bonheur. Indeed, they were wholly ignorant of oil paint-
ing, and no great adepts in water colour. In the outlines of animals, however,
they had a most facile pencil. In enamels, in the manufacture of steel, and in silk
fabrics, they could compete with the rest of the world, as also in their finer and
ego-shell porcelain. The tendency of their government unfortunately, under a
feudal rule and a feudal aristocracy, was utterly repressive of all free action or
development of the faculties. Any evidence of individuality and originality would
be fatal to a Japanese under the worse than Venetian rule of feudal chiefs. This
was the one great obstacle to the development of commerce and the maintenance
of peaceable relations; for the privileged classes, composed of some 600 daimios, and
their feudal retainers, comprising an army of some 200,000 men, sworn and ready
to obey all the behests of their chiefs, held the whole population in the most abso-
lute subjection. And the hostility of these armed classes was neither to be softened
nor conciliated. They foresaw, or thought they did, in the train of foreign trade,
elements threatening destruction to all the institutions of the country, and fore-
most of these the feudalism which constituted them lords of all the soil and abso-
lute rulers, This was the more to be regretted because the Japanese as a people
had no hostility to foreigners, and were possessed of so many excellent qualities
and such an aptitude for a higher civilization than they had yet attained, that
within a very few years not only might we see them make a great and exampled
advance, but a trade developed to which it was really difficult to fix any limit.
On the Climate of the Channel Islands*. By Professor Anstep, F.2.S.
GUERNSEY.
The climates of the Channel Islands are so essentially different both from those
of the adjacent lands of France and England and also from each other, and they offer
so many points of interest connected with the influence of the Atlantic currents
on climate, that they deserve special attention. Its relative position marks out
Guernsey as the typical island, and observations justify this conclusion. It is,
therefore, fortunate that the elements of the climate of Guernsey have been better
established than those of the other islands. Dr. Hoskins, F.R.S., is the observer
to whose labours these valuable materials are due. The annexed Table gives these
results to the end of 1858. Since then the weather has been exceptional.
Compared with Greenwich, the results are very interesting.
1. Temperatwre.—The mean annual temperature is 513°, and the annual means
in sixteen years have at no time exceeded this by 2°, or fallen short of it by 13°.
At Greenwich the adopted mean temperature being 49°, this shows an increment of
23°—nearly corresponding with the difference due to latitude. But the real differ-
ence is not this. It arises from the very much smaller range in the small island.
Thus the mean autumn temperature is four degrees, and the winter six degrees,
higher than at Greenwich, while the spring is only one degree warmer, and the
summer half a degree cooler. The months show this more clearly ; for December
and January are each seven degrees warmer, and May and June one degree cooler.
On the whole, the spring in Guernsey is a little warmer, and the summer rather
cooler, than at Greenwich, while the temperature of July and August continues,
with little change, into September and October. Winter is therefore absent as a
season, but spring is cold and late.
The daily range of the thermometer is also very small. At Greenwich, on an
* The account from which this memoir was prepared has since been published. It will
tae a The Channel Islands,’ by Prof. Ansted and Dr. R. G. Latham, 1 vol. 8yo.,
ndon , : é
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139
average of ten years, it was 16:2° ; and for the same years in Guernsey exactly half,
or 81°. The following tabular statement of the mean daily range of each month |
will, however, be the best illustration of this :—
Greenwich. Guernsey. Greenwich. Guernsey.
Peerilees . IOI ae ONS? October. . 146° 2%. 67°
Mayes se. “20'2. cer; Sd: November. 117 . . 61
ede, . . Se0'S: ty EG December . 95 . 5 62
ky st fee. eS 10% January. . 100 . . 64
Ausush 6, 20:00. 100 February . 123 . . 71
September. 198 . . 86 Marcel’ 22%) loan sae 8
The difference thus indicated is total, and is connected with another, also very
important, namely the total absence of night frosts in Guernsey. The effects on
vegetation are very remarkable.
The extremes of temperature in Guernsey also range within narrow limits.
There has been no reading of an accurate thermometer recorded higher than 88°, or
below 24°5°,
2. Barometric pressure.—The fluctuations of the barometer in Guernsey are fre-
quent, but moderate. The maximum height of the column is in September and
December, and the minimum in October and April; and, as in England, the pres-
sure is generally greater in summer than in winter.
3. Winds.—The absolute force of the wind does not seem to be excessive, though
squalls are frequent and violent. North-west winds blow, on an average, 1092 days,
north-east winds 107, south-west 100, and south-east 50. North-east winds
Bae in September, May, and March, the average being 123, 121, and 11} days.
orth-west winds preponderate in August ; and in April north-east and north-west
winds are equal. In no month is there an average of more than 63 days of south-
east wind. During June, July, August, October, and January, nearly two-thirds
of the weather is from westerly quarters ; and during March, May, and September,
from easterly quarters.
4, Rain-fall.—The mean annual rain-fall in Guernsey is nearly 35 inches, falling
on 164 days. October is the wettest month, and January the month in which the
number of rainy days is greatest. From May to August, inclusive, are the driest
months, the total rain-fall being 81 inches; and from October to January the
wettest, when 163 inches fall. More rain falls in the night than during theday. A
continuance of twelve hours’ rain israre, and the finest days often succeed the worst
mornings. Snow rarely falls, and when it does, is generally with a south-east wind
late in the season. Hail occurs at all seasons, but not often very heavily.
5. Cloud and Moistwre.—The air is very frequently clouded in Guernsey, but
only partially. The mean cloudiness, of the year is about 53, a completely clouded
sky being 10. The air is seldom saturated with moisture, though the mean humi-
dity is ‘854. The extreme of humidity is in February, when the temperature is
lowest. The driest month is August, when the temperature is highest. Dense
sea-fogs are common in May and June; but the total number of days of thick
weather in the year is not large. The dews are very heavy.
6. Ozone.—The ozone-observations range over too short a period to be of much
value, but the means during that period were not high, especially during the sum-
mer months. September to January, inclusive, were the months of maximum ozone.
JERSEY.
The climate of Jersey differs from that of Guernsey much more than would be -
expected from its close vicinity and similarity of form, elevation, and soil. The
mean temperature is nearly the same, Jersey being 0°3° higher ; but the spring, sum-
mer, and autumn are warmer than the mean, and the winter colder. Thus from April
to October, inclusive, the mean of Jersey is one degree higher than in Guernsey ; and
from November to January, inclusive, three-quarters of a degree lower. During .
the other months the means correspond. The daily range differs considerably. Thus
in December it is 17‘7° in Jersey, and in Guernsey only 7°; in January the figures
are 7:1° and 6°7°, and in July 6°8° and 6°. August alone shows a small difference
the other way, the range then being somewhat greater in Guernsey, and the mean
temperature more than one degree lower.
REPORT—1862.
140
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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141
The general result shows a greater variability in the climate of Jersey. The
daily range during six years of mutual good observation was 11:6° in Jersey and 8°
in Guernsey, and the mean monthly range 27:9° and 20-6° respectively. AIl these
edo of climate are further illustrated by a careful comparison of tabulated
results.
The barometric pressure in Jersey generally varies less than in Guernsey; and the
two islands by no means correspond in range or actual pressure. They occupy
different positions with regard to the great atmospheric wave.
Jersey is less cloudy than Guernsey; the number of days of rain-fall is smaller,
and the quantity of rain is also smaller. The two islands are exceedingly dif-
ferent in respect to humidity, both in amount and season. The monthly range of
humidity is greatest in Jersey.
On the whole, Jersey is drier and warmer than Guernsey, and hasa clearer atmo-
sphere; it is hotter in summer and cooler in winter. The pressure of the air varies
less frequently, but within larger limits; heavier rain falls there, but more rain
falls in the year, and it falls on more days, in Guernsey.
The climates of Alderney and Sark have not been carefully observed. It is
generally considered that both are more bracing than the larger islands,
All the Channel Islands agree in some general conditions of the climate. A
general summary of these will be useful.
The equability and duration of autumn are, in ordinary seasons, extremely re-
markable. Storms, and occasional heavy rains, usher in this season ; but they are
not succeeded by cold. In the intervals, up to the end of the year, the weather
is remarkably fine and genial, with no night frosts. From the 10th October to the
end of the month is what is called St. Martin’s summer, and the weather is then
singularly agreeable. The same kind of weather often recurs in the middle of -
December.
During the spring months, east, north-east, and north winds, and sometimes
north-west winds, are frequent and violent, and often extremely disagreeable, They
feel cold, but do not bring down the thermometer. They are often very dry. The
night temperature is still comparatively high, hoar frost being rarely seen, except
in exposed, bleak, and high positions, and in the months of January and February.
February is the coldest month of the year.
The days in summer are rarely hot; the nights are cool and pleasant, almost
without exception. The latter part of summer is generally fine and pleasant,
passing into early autumn without perceptible change,
A Journey to Harran in Padan-Aram and thence over Mount Gilead into the
Promised Land. By Cuarues T, Bren, Ph.D., F.S.A., P.R.GS., §c.*
Towards the close of the year 1861, Dr. Beke, accompanied by his wife, under-
took a journey to Harran, the residence of the Patriarch Terah and his descendants,
and thence over Mount Gilead into the Promised Land, by the road taken by the
Patriarch Jacob in his flight from his father-in-law Laban.
Harran is a village situate at the eastern extremity of the Ghuthah or Plain of
Damascus, which Dr. Beke identifies with the Land of Uz (Hutz) of the Book of
Job}. It is usually distinguished as Harran-el-Awamid, or Harran of the Columns,
from three Ionic columns, which, with numerous other remains, prove that in the
intervening ages there was here a Greek or Roman city. The name of this city is
lost, Harran having resumed its Scriptural appellation before the twelfth century,
when it was described by the Arabian geographer Yakut as “one of the towns of
the Ghuthah of Damascus.”
At the entrance from the west is a draw-well of great antiquity, which Dr. Beke
identifies with the well at which Abraham’s steward, Eliezer of Damascus, met
Rebekah. Some of the water has been analysed at the Royal School of Mines, by
direction of Sir Roderick I. Murchison, and found to contain 109-76 grains of solid
* See also Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xxii. pp. 76-100.
+ See ‘ Origines Biblice,’ pp. 137-153,
142 REPORT—1862.
matter in the gallon. The water of a second well near the former is so impure as
to be no longer fit for use, and at the present day the inhabitants obtain their chief
supply of water through an artificial canal.
On the first day of the present year (1862), the travellers left Harran on their
way to Mount Gilead. They first came to the river Awaj, the ancient Pharpar,
forming with the Barada—the Abana of Scripture—the two “ Rivers of Damascus,”
the capital of Aram or Syria; which rivers gaye to Aram Naharaim, or “ Aram of
the Two Rivers,” its distinguishing appellation. This district, though not incor-
rectly called “ Mesopotamia of Syria,” has been supposed to be the Mesopotamia of
Assyria, between the two rivers Euphrates and Tigris, whence have arisen con-
siderable errors in Scripture geography and history.
When, according to the Scripture narrative, Laban set “three days’ journey”
between his flocks and those of his son-in-law Jacob, it is reasonable to infer that
the latter led his flocks in the direction best adapted for his contemplated flight
from Padan-Aram; that is to say, up the left bank of the Awaj. The spot where
he crossed the river would consequently have been at or near Kiswe, a town on
the great pilgrim-road between Damascus and Mekka; and thence he would have
proceeded south over the plains of Harran. This is the road taken by Dr. Beke;
and certainly nothing could so graphically describe it as the few simple words of
Scripture :—“ He passed over the river, and set his face toward the Mount Gilead.”
A traveller, however much unacquainted with the country, has only to proceed
along the high road, running straight from north to south over an almost level
plain, without a mountain intervening to lead him astray, and he soon sees before
him the summit of Gilead, standing out separately and distinctly, and towards it
he “ sets his face.”
The distance travelled by Jacob before Laban “overtook him in the Mount
Gilead” is stated to have been “seven days’ journey.” Travelling much quicker
than the patriarch could have done, it was on their fifth day from Tana that Dr.
and Mrs. Beke ascended the side of Gilead, where they soon came to some deli-
cious springs of water in the midst of luxuriant pasturage. At such a spot the
Patriarch Jacob, with his wearied flocks and herds, would naturally have stopped
and pitched his “tent in the mount,” where he was overtaken by Laban. <A few
minutes more brought the travellers to the summit of Gilead, where they enjoyed
an extensive view over the Promised Land, embracing Mount Tabor, Nazareth,
Cana, Tiberias, and other places rendered ever memorable by Our Lord’s ministry
and miracles. After the reconciliation between Laban and Jacob, it is said that
“ Jacob went on his way, and the angels of God met him, .... and he called the
name of the place Mahanaim.”” Close to where Dr. Beke crossed the summit of
‘Gilead is a ruin called Mahneh, which may be looked on as representing the spot
where the patriarch, on his first coming within sight of his native country after an
absence of twenty years, was favoured with this manifestation of the Divine pre-
sence.
Shortly after leaving the pass of the mountain, Dr. and Mrs. Beke eame to a
cromlech, in form and appearance almost identical with Kits-Coty House, in Kent.
Thence proceeding down Wady Ajlun, and then crossing Wady Rajib, they reached
the Ghor, or plain of the Jordan, not far to the north of Wady Zerka, the river
Jabbok of Scripture, over which the Patriarch Jacob crossed before meeting his
brother Esau, and where “there wrestled a man with him until the breaking of
the day; .... and Jacob called the name of the place Peniel.”
After his meeting with his brother, Jacob, professing to accompany him, journeyed
to Succoth, ‘ leading on softly,” and there stopped to “ build him an house, and make
booths for his cattle ;” whilst “sau returned that day on his way unto Seir.”
Succoth has been supposed to be on the west side of Jordan, a few miles to the
north of the Jabbok ; wit the whole context shows that the patriarch, in order to get
free from his brother, pretended to be going on with him towards Seir, but stopped
all at once, as if weary, at Succoth, whilst Esau unsuspectingly cntingd is
journey. Suecoth is accordingly placed by Dr. Beke at a short distance to the
south of the Jabbok, on the east side of Jordan. Crossing here the river, the pa-
triarch would, on the opposite side, have entered the mouth of Wady Far’a, where
it joins the Jordan from the north-west, and continuing up the valley, he at length
ce
‘ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143
“came to Shalem, a city of Shechem, which is in the land of Canaan, when he
came from Padan-Aram, and pitched his tent before the city.”
Dr. and Mrs. Beke, being unable to obtain an escort to accompany them as far
south as the Jabbok, crossed the Jordan at the point where they first reached it.
While proceeding along the opposite bank, they were attacked by a party of
Beduins; after freeing themselves from whom, they at once crossed the mountains
between the Ghor and Wady Far’a, where they again fell into the road taken by
the Patriarch Jacob, along which they continued to Nablis, the ancient Shechem,
arriving there on the tenth day after their departure from Harran.
On the Geography of Mont Pelvoux, in Dauphiné.
By the Rev. T. G. Bonnuy, M.A., F.GS.
This district of the Alps is very imperfectly laid down on all the maps at present
puted. The following are the principal authorities known to me :—(1.) A map
y General Bourcet, published at Paris in the year 1758, It is a most laborious
erformance, and very accurate for all parts below the snow-line, but above that of
ittle use. (2.) A paper by M. Elie de Beaumont, in the ‘Annales des Mines,’
3™° Série, tome v. In this there is some very valuable information, but given in
so confused a manner, that it requires a thorough knowledge of the district to un-
derstand it. (3.) A most interesting article on Dauphiné, by Professor Forbes, at
the end of his work on Norway and its Glaciers (published 1853). He did not,
however, pierce the “massif” of the Pelvoux, and consequently, being misled by
Bourcet’s map, he speaks of it as a single mountain, overhanging the valley of La
Berarde. (4.) A paper by Mr. Whymper, in the second volume of the second series
of ‘Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers’ (published in 1862). This gentleman ascended,
for the first time on record, the highest peak of the Pelyoux, but misunderstanding
Elie de Beaumont, he has fallen into several topographical errors. The Pelvoux
was also ascended during the past summer by Mr. Tuckett, of Bristol, who was
the first person to clear up the difficulties about the heights and names of the
mountain. On his return through Paris, he saw at the Département de la Guerre
the manuscript map made from Capt. Durand’s survey in 1828. He obtained a
tracing of the district in the immediate neighbourhood of the Pelvoux, of which
he has kindly sent the author a copy. It is impossible to speak in too high terms
of commendation of this map, but unfortunately it will not (as he was informed
at the Department) be published for five years. The chief features of the district
are as follows. The watershed between the Romanche and the Durance, after
passing the Col du Lautaret and running south for some four miles, turns to the
south-west for about three miles, and then turns to the south again, passing through
the Pointe des Ecrins (the highest mountain in the group), 15,462 feet, and l’Alé-
froide, 12,878 feet. Where the line turns to the south, a large offshoot runs in a
north-westerly direction, in which are the Aiguille du Midi de la Grave, 15,081 feet,
and the great Glacier du Mont de Lans. From the Pointe des Ecrins a short spur
runs out to the east, dividing the Glaciers Blane and Noir. From the Aléfroide
another large spur runs out to the east, terminating in the Grand Pelvoux, 12,973
feet. This portion of the chain may be said to consist of four distinct peaks—(1)
lAléfroide, two rocky aiguilles without name, 11,772 feet? and 12,845 feet? re-
spectively, and the Grand Pelvoux, with its five heads. Besides these there are
several other mountains in the district, from 11,000 to a little over 12,000 feet. The
authority for the heights is a list obtained by Mr. Tuckett from the Etat-Major
Frangais. The scenery of this part of Dauphiné is of the grandest description ;
some of the snow-fields and glaciers are of great extent, and the magnificent pre-
cipices that surround them equal, if they do not surpass, anything that can be found
in Switzerland or Sayoy. ;
On Colour as a Test of the Races of Man. By J. Craw¥urn, F.R.S.
Colour in different races appeared to be a character imprinted upon them from
the beginning, because, as far as our experience ‘goes, neither time, climate, nor
locality has produced any change. Egyptian paintings 4000 years old represent
the people as they are now. The Parsees in India who went from Persia are now
144 REPORT—1862,
the same as when they migrated a thousand years ago. African negroes that have
for three centuries been transported to the New World remain unchanged. The
Spaniards settled in tropical America remain as fair as the people of Arragon and
Andalusia. He contended that climate had no influence in determining colour in
different races. Fins and Laps, though further north, are darker than the Swedes ;
and within the Arctic circle we find Msquimaux of the same colour and complexion
as the Malays under the Equator. Yellow Hottentots and Bushmen live in the
immediate neighbourhood of Black Caffres and negroes, There is as wide a dif-
ference between the colour of an African negro and a European, between a Hindoo
and a Chinese, and between an Australian and a Red American, as there is between
the species of wolves, jackals, and foxes. The arguments for the unity of the human
race drawn from anatomical reasoning would also prove that there was no difference
between hogs and bears, the bovine and equine and the canine families,
On Language as a Test of the Races of Man. By J. Crawrurp, F.R.S.
The author commenced by observing that on former occasions he had referred to
the subject of this paper, but now he did not hesitate at once to affirm that lan-
guage, though yielding valuable evidence of the history and migrations of man,
affords no sure test of the race he belongs to. In illustration he said that the
majority of the people of this country, who 2000 years ago spoke their own native
tongues, whatever those might have been, now spoke a language derived from
Germany, on which has been engrafted a considerable portion of one which had
its origin in Italy, while of their native tongues two examples only remained, and
these, without doubt, were doomed in a few generations to extinction as living lan-
guages. France, Egypt, Northern India, the New World, and other regions, also
exhibited cogent illustrations of a similar character, one of the most important
being the fact, well ascertained, that, so wonderful is the flexibility and compass of
the human organs, the children of races the most opposite, when duly taught from
infancy, will acquire a complete mastery over any foreign languages, be they ever
so difficult of pronunciation or complex in structure.
Some Observations on the Psychological Differences which exist among the Typical
Races of Man. By Rozrrr Duyn, P.L.CS. Engl,
The object of the author in this paper was to indicate and suggest to the
psychological and ethnological Members of the British Association a field of in-
vestigation and inquiry, which, in his estimation, if thoroughly explored, could not
fail, unless he was greatly mistaken, of yielding a rich harvest, and of throwing a
flood of light upon the causes of the psychological differences which exist among
the typical races of man. Ie maintains that the Genus Homo is one, and that all
the races of the great family of man are endowed with the same instinctive intui-
tions, sensational, perceptive, and intellectual, the same mental activities,—in other
words, that they all have as constituent elements the germs or original principles
in common, of a moral, religious, and intellectual nature, so that, however great and
striking their psychological differences may be, they are nevertheless differences in
degree, and not of kind.
Viewing the brain or encephalon as the material organ of the mind, where the
ultimate molecular changes precede the mental states, and from whence the man-
dates of the will issue, whether for the production of voluntary motior or for other
acts of volition, he dwells on the paramount importance of assiduously studying,
and carefully comparing and contrasting, the cerebral developments of the different
races, with a view, and as the most eflicient means, to the better understanding
and elucidation of the psychological differences which exist among and characterize
them. But the cerebral physiology of the typical races remains to be wrought out,
and ethno-psychology is still a desideratum. Significant among them as the vary-
ing forms of the skuil may be, and important as is the division of the whole human
family, by Retzius, into Dolichocephalic and Brachycephalic, with its sub-divi-
sion, according to the upright or projecting character of the jaws, into orthognathous
and prognathous, and as characterizing and indicating elevation and degradation of
type, the author considers that the time has come not to be satisfied with a mere
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145
external survey, but that the bony coverings should be removed, and, under the
guidance of the chart provided by the indefatigable Gratiolet, the cerebral convo-
Tutions themselves should be thoroughly examined, and carefully compared and
contrasted with each other, in all the typical races. When this has been done, but
not until then, shall we, in his opinion, have a clue likely to unravel and elucidate
many of the existing obscurities appertaining to their psychological differences.
Much as it is to be regretted that the brains of the lowest and most degraded of
the human races have been so little examined, it is now to be hoped that, in respect
to the aboriginal tribes at the Cape of Good Hope, in Australia, and, within reach,
the Hill Men of India, as well as elsewhere, medical men will be found to supply
this desideratum of ethno-psychology. This accomplished, he thinks we all
cease to wonder how it happens that the North American Indians, on the very
confines of civilization, should remain uncivilized—the same wandering lawless
savages which they were when Columbus first set his foot among them ; how their
wigwams and the miserable bark huts of the aborigines of New Holland should
have been swept away before the flood-tide of European civilization—those home-
less savages themselves seeking refuge in the desert and the mountain ; and, again,
among the Mongolian nations of Asia, that we shall be better enabled to compre-
hend how it is that their civilization, so early attained, has not progressed, but re-
mained stationary : China, boasting of a civilization nearly as old as that of Egypt,
has remained stationary for thirty centuries. Lastly, even among the European
nations, the distinctive characters of the Saxon and the Celt, he is inclined to he-
lieve, will be found to be engraven on their brains.
As instances from savage life, he views, in contrast, the African Negro and the
North American Indian, with the intent of showing, so far as the subject has
hitherto been investigated, what light the differences in their cerebral developments
can throw on their respective characters, mental manifestations, and destinies.
Among the Negro tribes there is a great variety, and much difference in their
mental endowments. Some have become excellent mechanics, others clerks and
accountants, while others have remained mere labourers, incapable of any intellec-
tual attainments, and characterized by low and receding foreheads. When free
from pain and hunger, the life of the Negro is one of enjoyment. As soon as his
toils are for a moment suspended, he sings, he seizes his fiddle, he dances. Easily
excitable, and in the highest degree susceptible of all the passions, he is more
especially so of those of the mild and gentle affections. The American Indians, on
the contrary, are averse to civilization, and slow in acquiring knowledge. They are
restless, stern, silent, and moody, and to them a ruminating life is a burden. They
are revengeful, wild, vindictive, cunning, but wholly destitute of maritime adven~
ture; too dangerous to be trusted by the white man in social intercourse, and too
obtuse and intractable to be worth coercing into servitude.
The Negro is Dolichocephalic, the Indian Brachycephalic, and both are progna-
thous. Their cranial and cerebral differences are striking. The skull of the Negro
is long, but narrow, and the forehead low, but it rises higher, and is more developed
in the intellectual and moral regions, than that of the Indian ; the occiput is large.
In the Red Indian the skull is small, and short from front to back; it is wide be-
tween the parietal protuberances, prominent at the vertex, and flat at the occiput;
its great deficiency lies in the superior and lateral parts of the forehead. The ante-
rior lobe of the brain in the Negro and Indian is small, while in the European it is
large, in proportion to the middle lobe. The posterior lobe of the Indian is small,
but the vertex of the middle lobe is prominent, and the brain is wide between the
parcial protuberances. In the Negro the posterior lobe is more fully developed,
ut it isin the European brain that it reaches its maximum development. Both
in the Negro and Indian the cerebral hemispheres are pointed and narrow in front,
and their transverse convolutions in the frontal lobes are markedly conspicuous
for the simplicity and regularity of their arrangement, and for the perfect symmetry
which they exhibit in both of the hemispheres, when compared and contrasted
with the complexity and irregularity which are presented in the brain of the
European. Such diiferences as these, the author considered, warrant the inference
that, alike in the Negro and the Indian, the nervous apparatus of the perceptive
and intellectual consciousness falls far short of that fulness, elaboration, and com-
1862,
146 REPORT—1862.
plexity of development which characterize the Caucasian brain; and hence the
reason why the yazecunenee Rp cm differs from and so far surpasses the small-
brained savage in the complexity of his manifestations, both intellectual and moral.
In conclusion, he observed that the leading characters of the various races of man-
kind have been maintained to be simply representatives of a particular type in the
development of the highest or Caucasian; the Negro exhibiting permanently the
imperfect brow, projecting lower jaw, and slender bent limbs of the Caucasian child
some considerable time before its birth, the aboriginal Americans representing the
same child nearer birth, and the Mongolian the same newly born.
Exploration dans V Afrique centrale, de Serre-Leone a Alger, par Timbuctu.
By Sores GERARD.
On leaving Sierra Leone, the author proposed to visit the source of the Niger,
and also to visit the Republic of Liberia, He should then make for the Kong
Mountains, between which district and Timbuctoo a different race of natives was
found. He did not propose to travel with a caravan, but with the tribes of the
district. At Timbuctoo, or Ain Saleh, he hoped to discover the papers and journals
of Major Laing, the African traveller, who was assassinated near Timbuctoo, The
author expressed a confident belief that these papers were still in existence, since
the natives of the interior had almost a superstitious veneration for written cha-
racters, and treasured the most worthless scraps until long after they were illegible,
His route would be through a country possessing a double interest, both geogra-
phical and ethnological, ‘The journey was long and perilous; but he had weighed
the difficulties of the route, and confidently expected to make his way from Sierra
Leone to Algeria in safety.
A Letter from Dr. Lrvrnestone, communicated by Sir Roderick Murchison.
Shupanga, River Zambesi, April 29, 1862.
“My dear Sir Roderick Murchison,—With a sore, sore heart I must tell you of
the loss of my much-loved wife, whose form was laid in the grave yesterday
morning. She died in Shupanga-house on the evening of the ath, after about
seven days’ illness. I must confess that this heayy stroke quite takes the heart
out of me. Everything else that has happened only made me more determined to
overcome; but with this sad stroke I feel crushed and void of strength. Only three
short months of her society after four years’ separation! I married her from love,
and the longer I lived with her I loved her the more. A good wife, and a good,
kind, brave-hearted mother was she, and deserved all the praises you bestowed on
her at our parting dinner, for teaching her own, and the native children too at
Kolobeng. q try to bow to the blow as from our Heavenly Father, who orders all
things for us. Some may afford to be stoical, but I should not be natural if I did
not shed many tears over one who so deserved them. I neyer contemplated expo-
sing her in the lowlands. I proposed that the Nyassa steamer should sail out, and
on reaching Kongone cut wood and steam up the river, This involved but a few
days in the lowlands; but another plan was preferred. She Abs e. the steamer) came
in pieces in a brig. Gladly accepting the kind offer of Captain Wilson, of her
Majesty’s ship ‘Gorgon,’ to help us up to the Murchison cataracts, we found by a
month’s trial that the state in which the engines were precluded ascending the
Shire with the pieces on board the ‘Pioneer.’ We were forced to put her together
at Shu ange, and we have been three months, instead of three or four days, down
here. Had my plan been adhered to—but why express useless regrets? All had
been done with the best intentions. But you must remember how I hastened the
first party away from the Delta, and tho h I saved them, got abused for breaking
the Sabbath. Then I prevented Bishop Mackenzie’s party landing at all, till these
same unhealthy months were past, and no one meriahee until the bishop came down
to the unhealthy lowlands pa died. The Portuguese have taken advantage of the
sanitary knowledge we have acquired, and send their teté at once. They lost but
two of a detachment, while formerly, by keeping them at Quillimane and Senna,
nearly all were cut off.
“T shall do my duty still, but it is with a darkened horizon I set about it, Mz.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147
Rae put the hull of the new steamer together in about a uh after we brought
up the keel. She looks beautiful and strong, and I have no doubt will answer all
our expectations when we get her on the lake.
“ River affectionately yours,
“ Davip LIVINGSTONE.”
On Serious Inaccuracies in the Great Survey of the Alps, south of Mont Blane,
as issued by the Government of Sardina, By W. Maruews, Jun., M.A.,
F.GS.
The maps referred to were the six-sheet map of Savoy and Piedmont which
Pine in 1841, the great ninety-one-sheet map now in course of publication, and
that attached to the work entitled ‘Le Alpi che cingono I'Italia,’ dated 1845,
all of which were issued by the War Department of the Sardinian Government.
Among the many cases of error, the most extraordinary was that of the Mont
Iséran, a mountain stated to be nearly 13,300 feet high, hitherto supposed to be
the culminating peak of the Graian Alps, and represented as situated in Savoy,
immediately on the east of the Col of the same name. From investigations made
in the country by Mr. Mathews and other travellers since the year 1859, it was now
conclusively established that no such peak exists in the situation in which it is placed
by the Sardinian engineers. The height of the so-called Mont Iséran was deter-
mined trigonometrically at the commencement of the present century by Colonel
Corabceuf, of the Etat-Major Frangais, and on referring to his original memoir, it
appears that the peak he measured is situated in Italy, and is, in fact, the Grand
Paradis, a mountain nearly fifteen miles distant from the supposed site of the Mont
Iséran, Mr, Mathews next described the position of the eight principal summits
of the Graian Alps, rising above 12,000 feet, most of which had een ascended for
the first time, and their altitudes determined, by members of the Alpine Club
within the last three years. He showed that these mountains were most incor-
rectly represented on the maps, and stated his conviction that the main Alpine
ranges had been roughly drawn in the office of the War Department and never
properly surveyed.
Decipherment of the Phoenician Inscription on the Newton Stone, Aberdeen-
shire. By the Rey. Dr. Mitt.
The subject of this paper was an inscribed stone, found at a village in Aberdeen-
shire, some miles from the coast, and in a country containing many of what are
commonly called Druidical monuments, Dr. Mill read the inscription backwards,
decided that the letters were Phcenician, and explained them by the corresponding
letters of the Hebrew alphabet. According to fis interpretation, it was a votive
monument dedicated to Eshmin, god of health (the Tyrian Eseulapius), in grati-
tude for favours received during “the wandering exile of me thy servant,”—the
dedicator being “ Han-Thanit—Zenaniah, magistrate, who is saturated with sorrow.”
Dr. Mill discussed the question whether Han-Thanit-Zenaniah had suffered from
disease or shipwreck, and whether his sorrow had been caused by the loss of com-
panions, or friends, or relations. He discussed also the peculiarity of the word
used in the signification of magistrate, and pointed out that he appeared to have
been a man of consular dignity who had commanded a ship or fleet which came to
Britain, and that this and other circumstances pointed to the earlier period of the
history of Tyre.
On Recent Notices of the Rechabites. By Signor Prerorrt.
Towards the end of April 1860, the author, travelling south of the Dead Sea, and
in a valley about two miles therefrom, met a tribe of Rechabites, whose object was
to procure a supply of linen and salt; the next day another tribe arrived, on a
similar errand; these all described themselves as descendants of Ishmael—a mis-
take of course if they were really Rechabites, which they also claimed to be.
They were exceedingly clean in their dresses and persons—cleaner than any other
Bedouins; but the most singular point connected with them was that they had a
10
148 REPORT—1862.
copy of the Scriptures in Hebrew. With regard to their being descendants of
Rechab, they quoted Jeremiah xxxy. 4-7, They stated themselves to be 600,000
in number, thus confirming the prophecy, and the chief location of the tribes to be
the south-east of the Mountains of Moab. Their general sojourn is on the west
shore of the Dead Sea, and some of their members had been heard to say prayers
at the tomb of a Jewish rabbi, in the Hebrew language. A rabbi named Gadd fell
into their hands, and was robbed of everything, but bewailing his loss in the words
commencing ‘“ Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one God,” and being overheard,
the tribe who had robbed him returned him all the spoil. He endeavoured to
induce them to part with a copy of their Scriptures, which he actually saw, but
they said that money was of no consequence to them, and that the books were very
expensive in transcription.
On Terrestrial Planispheres. By the Chevalier Ienazto Vitta.
On the Trade of the Eastern Archipelago with New Guinea and its Islands.
By Atrrep R. Wartace, F.2L.GS., ZS.
The part of New Guinea with which trade is regularly maintained extends from
the eastern extremity of the great Geelvink Bay, in about long. 137° E., to very
nearly the same longitude on the south coast, a little beyond the river Utanata.
This is a coast-line of more than 1200 miles, and it embraces also the islands of
Jobie, of Biak and Sook, Waigiou, Salwatty, Batanta, Mysol, and the Ké and Aru
Islands, all of which are inhabited by branches of the Papuan race.
From the interior parts of New Guinea the only articles of commercial import-
ance are aromatic barks and wild nutmegs. From the coasts and islands, tripang or
béche-de-mer, pearl-shell, and tortoiseshell are all obtained in abundance, and form
the most valuable portion of the trade. Less in quantity and importance are pearls,
sago (raw and in cakes), birds of paradise, mats, palm-leaf boxes, and rice in the
husk (paddy). These articles are mostly consumed in the Kast, some (as the aro-
matic Mussoi bark) in Java, others (the tripang and pearls) in China, the pearl-
shell being the only article the whole of which finds its way to Europe.
The trade is almost entirely carried on by native prahus from Celebes and the
Moluccas—rude vessels, sometimes built entirely without iron, carrying mat-sails
on a triangular mast, and altogether incapable of beating against the wind. They
therefore make but one voyage a year, going at the beginning of the west monsoon in
December and January, and returning with the east monsoon in July and August.
The trade is entirely carried on by barter,—calicoes, red cotton, bar-iron, choppers,
axes, cheap German knives, Chinese crockery, brass wire, coloured beads, silver
coins, tobacco, arrack, and opium being the articles chiefly in demand by the
natives, some being required in one district, while a different assortment is requisite
in another. In some parts, as at Dorey, Mysol, and Aru Islands, trade is carried on
with peace and regularity ; in others, as Jobie and the neighbourhood of Maclure’s
Tnlet, bargains are made by both parties fully armed and ready, should the nego-
tiations not prove satisfactory, to settle the matter by a deadly combat. In these
par scarcely a year passes but some traders are killed either in open combat or
y hidden treachery, and whole crews are often massacred.
To give some idea of the extent of this trade, I may mention that when I visited
the Aru Islands in 1857, there were 15 large prahus from Macassar, besides about
100 small ones from various other islands, and I estimated the value of the produce
which they took away at about £20,000.
Sago is the staff of life in these countries, and the chief support of all engaged in
the New Guinea trade. To see sago manufactured by the natives is an extraordi-
nary sight. A whole tree-trunk, about 20 feet long and 5 feet in circumference, is,
by a few days’ labour, converted into human food. A good-sized tree will produce
30 bundles of raw sago, weighing about 30 lbs. each bundle, and when baked yield-
ing about 60 cakes of 8 toa pound. Two of these cakes are a meal for a man, or
about 5 cakes per day; and asa tree produces 1800 cakes, it gives food for one man
for about a year. The labour to produce the taw sago, by breaking up and washing
the pithy substance of the trunk, is about 10 days for one man, which labour pro~
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149
vides him with food for a year. This great cheapness of food leads to excessive
laziness and misery. There is no stimulus to labour, and we find that the sago-
eaters have generally the most miserable of huts and the scantiest of clothing. In the
western islands of the Archipelago, where rice is the common food, and some regu-
lar labour and foresight are required to produce it, the populations are in general
more wealthy, more industrious, and more intelligent, and there is much more
likelihood of introducing among them the rudiments of knowledge and civilization.
The more detailed information given in the paper of which this is an abstract
was collected by myself during three voyages to various parts of the coasts and
islands of New Guinea, in the years 1857, 1858, and 1860, mostly undertaken in
native prahus, and with a view to the investigation of the natural history of the
country,
On the Human Remains found in the course of the Excavations at Wroweter.
By Tuomas Wrieut, /.S.A.
Mr. Wright stated that human remains had been found in the excavations at
Uriconium under three different classes of circumstances :—First were the ancient
Roman cemeteries outside the town, which had been partially explored last autumn,
and which were now under a course of further exploration. In an ethnological point
of view the discoveries here were of comparatively little use, because, as all the
interments hitherto discovered were by cremation, no skulls or other perfect bones
were found among the remains of the dead; but we derived from them the know-
ledge of the important fact that the inhabitants of Uriconium continued to burn
their dead, and, in fact, seem to have had no other mode of burial, until the latest
period of the existence of the city, that is, after the Roman government had been
withdrawn from the island. Secondly, there were the remains of the inhabitants
of the town, men, women, and children, who had been massacred by the savage
barbarians when the city was taken and destroyed. He told several interesting
anecdotes of the circumstances under which these remains had been found; and he
stated that the skulls of these people presented no peculiarities which might not
be found in any civilized town, such as Uriconium undoubtedly was. In the third
place came the deformed skulls which had been the subject of so much discussion,
a discussion which seemed not yet to have led to any satisfactory result. He
described the circumstances and conditions under which these skulls had been
found, and stated reasons for suspecting that the interments belonGed to a con-
siderably later date than had been supposed. His friend Dr. Henry Johnson, of
Shrewsbury, in a very able paper recently read before the Royal Society, had
undertaken to show that there are chemical elements in the earth in which these
remains lay which might have so far affected the substance of the bone as to render
it pliable and capable of becoming deformed after death. But, supposing this to
be the case, we seem to want entirely the mechanical cause of deformation. The
bodies were not buried sufficiently deep to have a weight of earth upon them; in
fact, when buried, their graves must have been very shallow. No weight of build-
ings or of ruins had been laid upon them; but, on the contrary, from the quantity
of small fibres of roots which are mixed with the earth, it appeared nebahle that
during the middle ages the spot had been covered with low brushwood, which was
usually the case with deserted ruins. He suggested that we can hardly understand
why such a cause, affecting bones in this field, should not equally affect the skulls
of the bodies interred in the adjacent churchyard; or why all the deformed skulls
in this field should have the same deformity, or why the other bones of the
body should not be similarly affected. The skulls of the Roman inhabitants,
found with a great weight of ruins upon them, have in no instance yet observed
undergone any similar deformity; and it must be added that the few skulls not
deformed, found among these deformed skulls, were comparatively good types. It
is intended to have a fresh and more careful exploration of the ground, in the
hope that thereby some further light may be thrown on the subject.
150 REPORT—1862.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
On the Progress of Instruction in Elementary Science among the Industrial
Classes under the Science Minutes of the Department of Science and Art. By
J.C. Buckmaster, B.A.
The author referred to the origin of mechanics’ institutions, and the influence of
the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. The want of a better elementary
education was the great obstacle to further improvement. The Royal Dublin
Society, the old schools of design, and the industrial museums of Ireland and
Scotland were intended to promote, in a variety of ways, a more general know-
ledge of those arts and sciences which relate to our national industries. In
1852 all these institutions were united under the Board of Trade into a Depart-
ment of Science and Art. The old schools of design were superseded by drawing-
schools or schools of art, and 90 of these schools are now in active operation,
teaching the elements of art to 92,000 persons, of whom the larger number belong
to the working classes. In 1857 the Science and Art Department was placed in
connexion with the Committee of Council on Education, and in 1859 a very com-
prehensive Minute was passed for aiding instruction in the elements of all the
natural and applied sciences. There is annually held at South Kensington an
examination for teachers of elementary science, which is free to all who give notice
of the subjects on which they propose to be examined. The State avoids all the
responsibility and expense of training teachers and providing them with employ-
ment. At the first examination, in November 1859, there were 57 candidates, of
whom 49 were successful ; in 1860 there were 89 candidates, of whom 75 were suc-
cessful ; in 1861 there were 103 candidates, of whom 97 were successful. By far the
larger number of certificates have been taken by elementary teachers ; but certifi-
cates have also been taken by a weaver, a eee, a wheelwright, clerks, and
assistants in shops. Wherever a class is established, there must be a local com-
mittee of at least five persons. This committee superintends the examination of
the pupils, which is conducted on the same py ne e as the Oxford middle-class
examinations. For every pupil of the industrial classes who has received 40 lessons
from the teacher, and who passes a satisfactory examination in the elements of the
subject taught, the teacher receives a payment of £1, and for every first, second, and
third grade sh prizeman he receives higher payments. The successful pupils
receive rewards of books and medals. The department is merely an examining body ;
it does not pretend to interfere in any way with local organization and} authority.
All that is looked for is a successful result, and on this the teacher receives his
payment. The examinations this year were held in May in 75 places; 60 of these
were in connexion with mechanics’ institutions. Last year only 563 pupils were
examined ; this year 1260, of whom 1038 were persons belonging to the industrial
classes, and their ages varied from 9 to 53 years.
On the Cotton Famine, and the Substitutes for Cotton. By Davip Cuapwicx,
F.SS., Honorary Secretary of the Manchester Statistical Society.
The civil war in America has stopped our supplies of cotton from the Southern
States, which during many years have supplied us with more than three-fourths
of our total consumption. In 1860 we received the following supplies of cotton :—
United States, 2,581,000 bales; Brazil, 103,000 bales; Egypt, 109,000 bales; West
Indies, 1000 bales; East Indies, 563,000 bales; total, 3,357,000 bales. The total
amounts of cotton imported into Liverpool in the two periods of 81 months were
respectively as follow:—To September 1861 (81 months), 2,508,672 bales; to
September 1862 (8 months), 725,917 bales; deficiency, 1,782,755 bales. The
average price of New Orleans cotton, in September 1861, was from 7$d. to 103d.
per lb. ; in September 1862, from 24d. to 30d. per Ib. ; increase 163d. to 20d. per lb.,
or more than 200 per cent. In ordinary times the price of yarns (40’s) has been
from 4d. to 5d. per Ib. more than the price of the raw cotton, and a proportionate
additional price for weaving. It is now (September 1862) no unusual thing for the
spinner and manufacturer to take orders for the yarn and the cloth at the market price
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151
on the day of sale of the raw cotton from which it was made. These facts may be
taken as sufficient to indicate the unparalleled extent of the present cotton crisis.
It has frequently been asked why the cotton manufacturers have allowed them-
selves to be to so large an extent dependent on one source of supply. It may be
answered that cotton-spinners, like all other tradesmen, have gone to the best and
cheapest market. The Southern States of America have hitherto supplied cotton
of a better and more uniform quality, in larger quantities, and at a cheaper rate than
any other country. Why should the cotton manufacturer be blamed for doing that
which every other good tradesman does? But Lancashire has not been unmind-
ful of the rapid increase in the consumption of cotton, and the danger of depending
so largely on one source of supply. Mr. Bright’s committee on India twenty years
ago, the Manchester Chamber of Commerce for the last twenty-five years, and the
Cotton Supply Association during the last few years have been continuously call-
ing the attention of all the countries capable of growing cotton to the necessity of
new sources of supply. India affords the means of supplying us with three-fourths
of all the cotton consumed in Great Britain, and the remainder of our wants could
be well supplied by Brazil, West Africa, Egypt, Turkey, and Australia. The mis-
government of India, as shown by the want of roads, ports, and irrigation works,
and of that security for capital which will induce private enterprise, is the cause
of the vast resources of that great country remaining for so long a period compa-
ratively undeveloped. If contracts could be legally and more promptly enforced,
and the restrictions on the purchase of land removed, as recommended by Lord
Canning, Lord Stanley, and Mr. Laing, there would be some hope that India would
be able to compete successfully with America in the cotton markets of the world.
Two years ago the Manchester Cotton Company was established, with a capital of
£1,000,000. The company entered into negotiations with the government, who
promised to make a new road leading from Darwhar to the new port of Sedashegur,
and to improve the harbour at the latter place. On the faith of these promises,
the company sent a special commission to India, a staff of engineers, mechanics,
wotkmen, and clerks, and have forwarded two shiploads of improved machinery
for cleaning and packing cotton. The cotton company find that the road and the
pier are not made as promised, and no reasonable progress is being made with the
work. The company’s efforts have thus been frustrated, and an immense loss
sustained by the vexatious delay which has been occasioned. With such a result,
is it surprising that private capitalists refuse to embark in commercial enterprises
in India? Other cotton companies have been started, viz., The Jamaica Cotton
Company, East India Cotton Agency Company, Venezuela Cotton Company, West-
ern Australian Cotton Company, East India Irrigation and Canal Company; and
ate have been made for a Natal Cotton Company, an Asia Minor Cotton
ompany, an Ottawa Cotton Company. How has the cotton famine affected
the working classes? There are upwards of 500,000 persons etree in the
cotton manufacture, of which nearly 400,000 are employed in Lancashire. It may
convey a better idea of this number to say that it is equal to 25 towns of 20,000
inhabitants each, all wholly engaged in the cotton trade. The engineers, mecha-
nics, and the workers in iron, steel, brass, copper, tin, and wood, and the shop-
keepers and other tradesmen supported by them, may be reckoned in addition at
half that number (250,000). The women and children and those not able to work,
and dependent entirely on the cotton operatives, may also be taken at 250,000.
The total number of persons dependent upon the cotton manufacture may therefore
be taken at 1,000,000 persons, of which 800,000 are in Lancashire and the imme-
diate neighbourhood. Lancashire, in 1861, contained 2,464,592 inhabitants, or
about one-eighth of the population of England and Wales. Of the 400,000 per-
sons usually employed in Lancashire, more than 150,000 are now entirely out of
employment, and more than 120,000 are working short time. Taking those working
short time at three days a week, and reckoning them at half the number (60,000),
it gives 210,000 persons now totally unemployed. By a careful investigation into the
rate of wages in 200 trades and occupations in Lancashire in 1859-60, the author
found that the average wages paid to the cotton factory operative was 10s. 33d. each
per week, reckoning men, women, and children. Taking the average earnings of the
210,000 persons now thrown out of employment at 10s. per week, the total loss
152 REPORT—1862.
amounts to £105,000 per week, or £1,365,000 per quarter, or £5,460,000 per year.
This estimate is likely to be doubled before Christmas next, and, including trades
dependent upon the cotton manufactures, the loss of wages may be taken at £200,000
Pe week. ‘This grievous calamity falling upon an industrious, high-spirited, and
itherto independent class of people, has found them comparatively unprepared to
meet the great emergency. Mice who had saved a little money in sayings-banks,
building-societies, and cooperative associations, have stinted themselves of the
actual necessaries of life rather than withdraw the whole of their hard-earned
savings. Others less provident, or haying large families of young children, have
been compelled immediately on the cessation of work to apply for relief. Seeing
the great distress occasioned by a short supply of cotton, the important question
arises, have we any available substitutes? The substitutes for cotton, or admix-
tures, which have been proposed during the last few years may be stated as fol-
lows :—Flax, the product of Linwm usitatissimam, from nearly every country in the
world ; hemp, the product of a kind of nettle, Cannabis sativa, chiefly from Europe
and Asia; jute and bast, the inner bark of a species of lime orlinden tree, Corchorus
capswaris, from India; New Zealand flax, a bulbous plant of the lily kind, Phor-
mium tenax, from New Zealand; China grass, a nettle of China, India, and the
Indian Islands, affording the valuable rhea-fibre; nettle-fibres, obtained from the
common stinging-nettle, and other species from the East; Sunn hemps, obtained
from leguminous plants, of species allied to the broom, clover, beans, and peas ;
silk cottons, or Baraguda cotton, the product of a large tree, Bombaz ceiba, in South
America; pineapple fibre, the produce of the pineapple leaves, from the tropics of the
Old and New Worlds; plantain-leaf, from which is obtained Manilla hemp, the
roduct of Musa textilis, from the tropics; aloe-fibre, or agave, a bulbous plant from
outh America, the large leaves of which produce abundance of fibre. In the
‘ Jurors’ Report upon the Great Exhibition of 1851,’ and the special papers in the
‘ Journal of the Society of Arts,’ Dr. Royle’s work on ‘ The Fibrous Plants of India,’
or the reports of Dr. Forbes Watson on the ‘Fibres of India,’ a large number of
fibres are mentioned as cheap, suitable, and sufficient for clothing the natives
of several countries entirely independent of the fibre of the cotton-plant. A fibre
said to be new, and stated to be available in very large quantities, at a reasonable
rice, has been forwarded to the author by a foreigner, who refuses to communicate
is supposed secret, except upon impracticable terms. Samples of this fibre have
been freeiy submitted to the merchants on ‘Change in Manchester and Liverpool,
and obtained general appreciation for their attractive appearance. They are long
in the staple, somewhat mixed, silky, and fairly white to the eye, but somewhat
harsh and rough to the touch. The samples show great delicacy in the shades of
dye in the wool. It is stated to be very suitable for mixing with wool, silk, or
cotton, or to be worked alone; but no sample of weaving has yet been sent by the
inventor. An establishment has recently been founded in Manchester with the
object of testing all fibrous materials and ascertaining the purposes for which they
may be used. Samples were recently shown, and an offer made to supply forty
bales per week during the next twelve months, of a fibre said to be suitable for
mixing, which was strong, of good colour, and of a length and uniformity of staple
suitable for cotton machinery, thus presenting the three main conditions required
in a substitute for cotton, The price of this fibre, which appears like a mixture of
jute and rhea, is said to be less than half the present price of Surat cotton. To
all inventors, discoverers, and pioneers in the large and fertile fields of fibre fabri-
cation or adaptation, we venture to recommend that they should avoid secresy,
and avail themselves of the power of patenting their improvements, so that no
unnecessary delay may occur in putting to the test of practical experiment every
intelligent suggestion that may appear in any degree likely to afford relief to the
fearful distress now prevailing in the cotton districts. The general feeling appears
to be that no new fibre is likely to be a substitute for cotton, but that several of
stings DrenOeest may be useful and valuable admixtures with cotton, silk, wool, flax,
and alpaca.
In further illustration of the extent of the distress in the cotton districts, Mr.
Chadwick furnished tables compiled from the Reports of the Committee for the
Relief of Distress in the Manufacturing Districts, dated March 30, 1863.
é
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153
‘The following is an abstract of the tables :—
Table No. 1.—The number receiving relief from the guardians and local com-.
mittees in each district. The total number was 420,243; for the corresponding
week in 1861, the number was 39,507.
Table No. 2.—The number working full time and short time, and the number
entirely out of work, the estimated loss of wages, and average income. The num-
ber entirely out of work was 240,466. Number working short time 166,225. The
estimated loss of wages was £184,572 weekly; and the average income per head,
including relief and earnings, was 2s. 24d. per week.
Table No. 3 showed the total subscriptions received to March 28, 1863.
£
From strictly local sourceS ........0005, . 267,987
From general sources ......ce.eee0, weee 84,831
From- Central Committee, Manchester, and
Cotton Districts’ Relief Committee ..,.. 324,027
Mansion House Committee, London ,..... 821,264
£947,609
Table No. 4 gave the population and assessment of each district.
Population in 1861. . 2,013,315. Assessment in 1856. .£5,660,390.
On the Numerical Mode of estimating Educational Qualifications, as pursued at
the Greenwich Hospital School. By the Rev. G. Fisurr, M.A., F.R.S,
In Greenwich School, where there were 800 boys, he had adopted a numerical
method by which he could arrive at the attamments of any boy. For instance, in
writing, he had a standard book: in this book were descriptions of writing of five
degrees of quality, and the work produced was judged of according to these results,
fractions being used to represent any specimens which might be deemed in quality
to be between any of the five whole numbers representing the standards. A similar
course was pursued regarding other subjects of instruction, and for examinations,
prizes, &c. He had also weighed his boys, and divided them into three groups ac-
cording to their weight, the three groups varying from 90 lbs. to upwards of 100 Ibs.
The result of this was that he found the heavy boys and the light ones, as a rule,
to possess much about the same amount of talent, whilst the boys who represented
the medium possessed the largest amount.
The author insists upon the importance of recognizing and preserving some
standard specimens of examination-questions in educational subjects, such as might
be generally agreed upon, as explanatory of their nature and difficulty, and which
might be adapted to a mumerical scale of estimation, upon a plan similar to that
which he has carried out in this school with great success for more than twenty years.
By such means, absolute as well as relative values of acquirements can be assigned
to a considerable amount of accuracy, and the amount of educational work done in
various public and private schools be compared with each other. He submitted a
diagram to the Section exhibiting, by means of differently coloured lines adapted to
a scale, the attainments of the boys at different periods, keeping in view the same
standards of estimation. The author stated, in conclusion, that he had no motive
in making this communication beyond the desire of exciting attention to the sub-
ject, in order that it might lead to the adoption of a sound practical system of
testing and recording educational qualifications of a general character ; not simply
of a comparative and numerical kind (which is common in many educational esta-
blishments), but of a permanent nature, so as to be available for the future as well
as the present time, and that we may not be under the reproach of being “unable
to ay down to posterity, statistical information of such value as will mark the
progress of education.”
On Endowed Education and Oxford and Cambridge Fellowships,
By James Herwoop, F.R.S.
Mr, Heywood defined an endowment to be a charity, and explained that many of
154 REPORT—1862.
the charities of the country were under the control of a Commission which sat in
St. James’s Square. He thought it advisable that the Universities should be also
controlled by some influential board, such as the Committee of the Privy Council.
He next referred to what he considered to be the prejudicial influence which he
thought was often exerted upon the education of the country by the course of study
ee at the University, and he quoted the instance of a school containing eighty
oys, in which scarcely anything was taught but classics and mathematics, simply
because a certain number of these boys were prepared for the Universities, id
thought that such an evil would be remedied if the course of study were more
extended, and if other more practically useful subjects—such as the modern lan-
guages, natural and moral sciences—were more encouraged in the University. He
also thought that the students of the University ought to be instructed in subjects
which would be more practically useful to them in atter-life, He desired that some
scholarships and fellowships should be given to those who passed a successful
examination either in modern languages or in the moral or natural sciences.
When the British Association for the Advancement of Science, some years ago,
met at Cheltenham, the Rey. Dr. Dobson, head master of the Cheltenham College,
was asked if more science could not be introduced into the Cheltenham College
system, Inreply, the head master mentioned, that it was the general wish of the
parents who sent boys to the College at Cheltenham that their sons should have
that instruction which would enable them to obtain scholarships and fellowships at
Oxford and Cambridge. Dr. Dobson was of opinion that an alteration should first
be made in the requirements for scholarships and fellowships at the ancient Knelish
universities, before changes could be effected in the public school system of this
country.
‘A Royal Commission, presided over by the Earl of Clarendon, has, since that
time, been appointed to inquire into the state of the largest and most richly endowed
English public schools.
At Oxford, in the majority of cases, college fellowships are exclusively bestowed
as the rewards of success in the classical examination for honours, at the time of
the Bachelor of Arts degree, and Latin composition is constantly required in all
the colleges of Oxford.
College-fellowship examinations govern, in a large measure, the whole system of
higher endowed education in England and Wales.
choolmasters are} frequently selected for the largest grammar schools from the
class of college fellows. en installed into the chair of office, it is their highest
ambition that their pupils should succeed in obtaining college scholarships and
fellowships at Oxford and Cambridge.
Dean Peacock, formerly fellow and tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge, strenu-
ously urged the abolition of exercises in Latin and Greek versification in academical
examinations on account of the time necessary to acquire the art of making verses
in dead languages, and the speedy loss of facility in composing such verses when
the practice of writing them had ceased for some years. j
In the examinations for college fellowships at Oxford and Cambridge, exercises
in the composition of Latin and Greek verses should no longer be set, and an
alternative should be allowed between prose pig eon in Latin and Greek and
more modern subjects, such as translations from English into French and German,
questions in English history, and exercises in English composition.
There are about 500 or 600 fellowships in the two ancient Universities of Oxford
and Cambridge, of which at least 50 or 60 become vacant every year; a larger pro-
portion of these academical rewards should be set apart for the encouragement of
science.
On the Prevention of Crime. By Enwin Huu, of the Inland Revenue Office.
“ Crime walks thy streets, fraud earns her unblest bread ;
O’er want and woe thy gorgeous robe is spread.”
The author called attention to the large number of habitual criminals whose sole
occupation is to plunder others—a predatory class, harbouring in the an bosom
of society, and keeping its ground in undiminished numbers in spite of all the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 155
forces brought to bear against it,—the residences of these enemies of society being,
for the most ey well known to the police, whole districts in London being notori-
ously peopled by them. In illustration of the magnitude of this evil, the following
particulars were given (in round numbers) from the ‘Judicial Statistics ’ for 1858
and 1861, for England and Wales.
The known thieves and receivers of stolen goods are stated to be 44,000; the
prostitutes, 29,000; suspected persons, 39,000; vagrants and tramps, 23,000 ;
making a total of 135,000 individuals believed to be living wholly, or for the
most part, by criminal practices. The houses of bad character inhabited or fre-
quented by criminals, 24,000. The cost of repressive measures paid by the rates
and taxes, for the year 1861, £2,548,000, in addition to the heavy expenses falling
upon individuals, and the loss of time incurred by witnesses, jurors, and others.
e loss of property from depredation was estimated by Mr. Redgrave, for the year
1858, at seven millions and three-quarters, making a total loss of upwards of ten
millions per annum, attributable mainly to the class of habitual criminals.
To give some idea of the number of crimes due to this class, it was stated that
London is believed to harbour some 5000 habitual depredators, who, if taken upon
the average to commit but one crime per day each, would commit upwards of a
million and a half of crimes in the year.
The moral evils were also noticed; the dread and anxiety suffered by thousands,
especially the aged, the feeble, and the timid, the crimes of a few desperate men
sometimes spreading panic through the whole country*; the contamination of
the young, especially of the children of the honest working man, who often has no
means of escaping the localities infected by crime; and lastly, the pitiable fate of
the children born amidst crime, who, if they have not the good fortune to die
early, have no possible escape from the contamination that surrounds them—many
being even eaten into crime, and destined to fall ultimately into the grasp of the
law to have these criminal teachings then scowrged out of them, if it be not too
late to be possible. Probably not fewer than five or six infants per day are born (in
this Christian country) so surrounded by a network of crime as to make escape
from this fearful destiny all but impossible.
The writer then observed as follows :—The obstinate vitality of this crying evil
i us to undertake a thorough reconsideration of the conditions of that vitality,
with a view to the discovery of some more vulnerable part than has hitherto been
assailed, or, better still, of some one vital condition that it may be possible to
withdraw altogether.
The command of premises for dwelling, for places of congregation, and for the
warehouses, workshops, &c., used by the receivers of stolen goods, the coiners, the
illicit distillers, and the thieyes’ instrument-makers, and, lastly, for the training of
young thieves, would undoubtedly appear to be one of the essential conditions of
the existence of the predatory class. For had such shelter and harbourage been
heretofore wholly unattainable, it is not too much to say that the class could never
have come into existence. Assuming, then, that the command of adequate pre-
mises is a vital condition, it remains only to consider whether, practically, the’
community has power to withdraw such condition, and (having regard to our
Anglo-Saxon dislike to meddlesome or intrusive Governmental interference)
whether the object of depriving the predatory class of the command of the pre-
mises indispensable to their plundering-operations can be accomplished without
having recourse to enactments of an arbitrary and inquisitorial character.
The use of premises is of course obtained by the payment of rent; and as no
%* “ Thieving, with all its terrors, costliness, and enormity, is a dark streak in the other-
wise brightening horizon of modern civilization. It flits in the portentous shadows of
prison walls ; and there is a voice from the echoes of every policeman’s footfall, telling of
something bad under the surface of society, and cautioning us to beware of the danger.
We never retire to rest without feeling that we may be maimed and terror-stricken in our
beds, or, waking, may find the hard earnings of honest toil purloined beyond possibility
of recovery, by a set of worthless vagabonds who are too lazy to earn their own living,
and who, with the cowardly rascality that belongs to them, subsist on the stolen property
of others. Will there ever be an end to thieves and robbers? Is there no means of getting
rid of this interminable expense, damage, and terror ?’’—Cornhéll Magazine, Sept. 1860.
156 REPORT—1862.
honest owner of house property would willingly receive rents which he knew or
even suspected to be derived from the plunder of his neighbours, it follows that
the members of the predatory class can obtain tenancy only from landlords who
are ignorant of the vocation of their tenants, or from landlords who are not unwill-
ing to accept the proceeds of crime in payment. But for ignorance or connivance,
therefore, the predatory class would cease to be able to obtain harbourage, and must
speedily fall into dispersion.
As to the conniving landlords, since there is no moral difference between re-
ceiving the proceeds of stolen property knowingly and receiving the stolen pro-
perty itself, they cannot expect much sympathy, whatever pressure may be put
upon them to compel them to act as honest men, Enjoying their property under
the shadow of the law, it is intolerable that they should knowingly allow their
property to harbour those who live by breaking the law.
As regards those landlords whose property is infested by criminals without their
knowledge, such could not have happened had the public mind been so far advanced
upon the subject as to have recognized it as the plain duty of the owners of house
property to refuse tenancy to all persons of doubtful character, z, e, to all who could
not show, beyond all reasonable doubt, that their rents would be paid out of honest
gains, and nowise from the proceeds of crime, directly or indirectly. It could not
have happened, even, had the interests of the landlords as a body, in the suppres-
sion of the predatory class, been well understood, since, in the towns at least, the
heavy expenses annually incurred in the repression of crime cannot but fall ulti-
mately upon the house property—seeing that, although the tenants actually dis-
burse the police and county rates, these outgoings are doubtless considered by the
tenant in estimating the rent he can afford, it being immaterial to him whether
he pays more to the rate-collector and less to the landlord, or more to the landlord
and less to the collector. Hence a landlord who allows his property to harbour
criminals is a traitor to the interests of the landlord body, and would no doubt
be so stigmatized had the subject undergone that long and earnest discussion
which must have ended in the formation of a strong and healthy public opinion
regarding it.
ad such public opinion been now existent, nothing further would have been
needed than to find the means of restraining the few unscrupulous landlords who,
for the sake of high rents, from whatever tainted source obtained, would set public
opinion at defiance. The matter, however, has to be dealt with under existing
conditions. The question therefore is, In what way can the law most readily deal
with house property so as to induce its owners wholly to shut out the thief, his
aiders and abettors—so that the landlord’s absolute rule may be, “ No honesty, no
house”? The answer is, that the pressure of the rates now levied for the repression
of crime, viz. the police and county rates, &c., do constitute an ample force adapted
to this purpose, lying ready to our hands, and requiring only to be rightly wielded.
It is but to “put the saddle on the right horse.” It is, in truth, simply a question
between the great majority of householders who do moé suffer their property to
harbour the plunderers of their neighbours and the small minority who do. 7
Now the law, judging between these parties, might justly say to the offending
minority, “ But = the shelter you afford the predatory class, that class must be
wholly dispersed, and the heavy burden of its repression thenceforth cease. There-
fore either do as your fellow-landlords do, and so sweep away the burden altoge-
ther, or prepare to take it wholly on your own shoulders; justice will not allow
that loss to fall upon the whole body, which, but for the laches of a few of its mem-
bers, would be got rid of altogether.” To this it may be added that herein justice
and sound policy go hand in hand ; for, of all means of getting rid of a preventible
evil, surely that of making its continuance asource of loss, instead of profit, to those
upon whose will such continuance depends must ever be the most simple and the
most certain.
There are two modes of proceeding whereby to fix the cost of repression exclu-
sively upon the property concerned in harbouring the predatory class, viz., Ist, that
of directly imposing the amount upon such property, so far as its complicity can
be proved; and 2nd, that of exempting from the necessary rates all properties that
should be shown to be wholly free from such complicity.
4
j
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 157
Of these two modes, the latter would be by far the most easy to carry out. For
a direct imposition being undistinguishable from the infliction of a penalty, the
burden of proof would lie upon the parties demanding such imposition, who would
of course have to contend with the falsehood, concealment, evasion, and trickery
of every kind in which the wrong-doer naturally seeks refuge, and but too often
with triumphant success; whilst the grant of an exemption from the rates would,
on the contrary, be the conferring of a privilege, and the burden of proof would of
course then lie upon the claimant for such privilege, who, unless he appeared with a
clear straightforward case, would have no chance of success. Any sign of con-
cealment, evasion, or trickery would at once throw the claimant out of court for
the time.
Those who are practically acquainted with the difficulty of obtaining legal proof
of guilt, in cases in which there is no moral doubt whatever, or none that the per-
son accused, if innocent, could not clear up at once, will appreciate the advantage
to the community of thus turning the tables upon the supporters of the criminals
by whom our towns are infested,—and this without any hardship; for surely those
who have kept their property free from complicity with criminality cannot have
any difficulty in meeting the inquiry whether they have done so or not.
As every grant of exemption would increase the pressure upon those owners who
were unentitled to it, the accumulated weight would soon force them to dispose of
their interests to men who had established such title. By this process our towns
would be soon purified from the predatory class. The whole host of habitual
burglars, garotters, pickpockets, forgers, coiners, thieves’ instrument-makers, re-
ceivers of stolen goods, trainers of young: thieves, flash-house keepers, &c. &e. &e.,
would be dislodged from their dens and hiding-places; and unless they took to
honest courses (in doing which every hand should be stretched out to help them),
they would find no shelter other than the workhouse or the gaol; nor, so long as
the principle herein recommended were maintained, could they ever regain their
footing amongst us.
The dislodgment of so large a number of offenders, and the total cessation of
their criminal gains, would in all probability necessitate the adoption of some
temporary measures to prevent their being driven to desperation. Nor should we
forget that, fallen as they are, they are not the less our fellow-creatures. We have
more than once heen compelled, by the occurrence of violent epidemic disease, to
make temporary provision for the shelter and maintenance of portions of our
town population; and some analogous provision would probably meet the circum-
stances in view. Whatever difficulties might beset the state of transition, the
must, from the nature of things, be but short-lived. The final relief would be both
great and permanent.
It may stimulate our zeal to call to mind that which our forefathers accom-
plished under analogous circumstances. The “sanctuaries” of the seventeenth
century were not more alien to the ruder times of mounted highwaymen than the
existing “ thieves’ districts ” are to our improved civilization. Macaulay has
given us an instructive account of the suppression of that frightful den of crime,
the sanctuary of Whitefriars—“ Alsatia,” as it was called—of which Sir Walter
Scott has left us so lively a picture in “The Fortunes of Nigel.” Some 800 known
cutthroats, robbers, receivers of stolen goods, brothel-keepers, &c. had herded
together in this “sanctuary” from time out of mind, ever and anon breaking out
for the purpose of murder and robbery, as opportunity offered, or as their needs
became pressing. At length the public patience became fairly exhausted; men
aroused themselves as from a lethargy; supineness gave way to alarm and resent-
ment; the requisite powers were obtained from the Legislature, and at one single
touch of a really firm hand, the ranks of scoundrelism were at once broken and
put to the route, and the whole mass vanished as if by magic.
On the Study of Periodic Commercial Fluctuations. By W.S8. Jzvons.
It is necessary that all commercial fluctuations should be investigated by the
same systematic methods with which we are familiar in complicated physical
Sciences, such as meteorology and terrestrial magnetism, Every kind of periodic
158 - -REPORT—1862.
fluctuation must be detected and exhibited, not only as a subject of study in itself,
but because we must ascertain and eliminate such periodic variations before we can
correctly exhibit those which are irregular or non-periodic, and of more interest
and importance.
Tables of the average weekly accounts of the Bank of England from 1845 to
1861, inclusive, having been prepared, it is shown that there are at least three
kinds of periodic fluctuation observable, during the month, the quarter, and the
year. The first two kinds are precisely similar in character, though differing much
in amount, and are due to the payments of dividends or other claims which occur
at the beginning of the quarter and month. Such payments cause a sudden increase
of the note-circulation and of private deposits, a considerable decrease of private
securities, a slight decrease of the bullion, accompanied by a larger but otherwise
similar variation of the loanable capital.
Eliminating such variations from those of the whole year, there remain certain
interesting variations due to natural causes, as distinguished from the artificial
distinctions of months and quarters. The notes in circulation rise from a minimum
in January and February to a maximum in the third quarter, and then very rapidly
decrease during November and December.
Private securities greatly increase, and private deposits decrease, about haryest-
time, while the bullion and loanable capital undergo a continuous decrease.
These variations are probably due to a great absorption of capital in buying up
the proceeds of the year’s industry, which have to be held in sieke for consumption
during the succeeding twelve months.
The bullion and capital, however, have a second maximum in February, and a
subsequent decrease until May.
It is also shown, from monthly average determinations, that the rate of discount
and the number of bankruptcies suffer a sudden rise after the harvest months. It
may be said that there is a periodic tendency to commercial distress and difficulty
during the months of October and November. The great commercial panics are
ageravations of this periodic difficulty, due to irregular fluctuations.
f 79,794 banlauptcies which were gazetted from the beginning of 1806 to the
end of 1860, 28,391 occurred in the second month of the quarter, 26,427 in the
third month, and only 24,976 in the first month, in which occurs the payment of
the public dividends.
The price of consols and the price of wheat exhibits a double minimum during
the year. 7
Notice of a General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy.
By W. 58. Jevons, M.A.
1. The main problem of economy may be reduced to a rigorous mathematical
form, and it is only the absence of exact data for the inductive determination of its
laws or functions which will always prevent it from becoming an exact science.
2. A true theory of economy can only be attained by going back to the springs
of human action—the feelings of pleasure and pain which accompany our common
wants, and the satisfaction of those wants by labour exerted to that purpose, These
feelings are the commonest motives of action ; but other motives of a moral or reli-
gious nature must be recognized by the economist as outstanding and disturbing
forces of his problem.
3. Feelings of pleasure and pain vary in intensity and in duration. They have
two dimensions. The quantity of feeling, therefore, resembles an area, and is got
by integration of the function which expresses the relation of the intensity to the
uration.
4. Pleasure and pain are opposed as positive and negative quantities.
5. Anticipation of future pleasure or pain gives a less degree of present feeling,
related to the anticipated feeling by some vague function of the intervening time,
peculiar to each person’s character.
6. A useful object is that which causes pleasure, either by present use or by
expectation of its future use.
7. Amount of utility corresponds to amount of pleasure produced. The use or
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159
‘consumption of successive equal increments of a useful substance does ‘not usually
produce equal increments of pleasure, but the ratio of utility on the last increment
usually decreases as some function of the whole quantity consumed, Let this be
called the final ratio of utility.
8. Labour is accompanied by pain, and will be exerted both in intensity and
duration until a further increment will be more painful than the increment of pro-
duce thereby obtained is pleasurable.
9. The abilities of two men in producing the same or of one man in producing
general kinds of useful objects are very various, contrary to the erroneous assump-
tion of Ricardo.
10. When two persons, each possessing a known quantity of a commodity or
useful substance capable of division into small quantities, exchange with each
other, the unknown quantities which pass between them are determined by two
equations, involving the known quantities of commodity previously possessed and
the functions expressing the final ratios of utility of those commodities. It is also
a necessary condition of the exchange that any portions of the commodities, and
therefore the last small portions, are exchanged in the same ratio as the whole
quantities.
11. When there are more than two persons or commodities, a simple law of
combinations gives the numbers of equations which will determine all the quantities
passing in exchange, The whole system of trade, howsoever extensive, is thus
theoretically represented by a system of equations.
12. When the quantities of commodities are considered as produced by labour
under the conditions stated in (8), a new set of equations will determine, in con-
junction with the equations of exchange, the new set of unknown quantities intro-
duced. Any system of production and trade is thus theoretically represented.
13. Capital is defined to be simply maintenance of labourers while they are
awaiting the results of labour employed in a manner which does not give immediate
returns, As maintenance may be applied indifferently to any branch of industry,
the interest of all (free) capital is the same. The interest is determined by the
ratio which a new increment of produce bears to the increment of ena by which
it was produced. It is shown to be a simple mathematical result of the above con-
ditions that the interest of capital always tends to fall rapidly as its quantity in
proportion to labour increases.
14. When the remaining parts of the theory are completed, it will probably be
shown that the rate of wages is the average produce of labour after deduction of
rent, interest, profit, insurance, and taxation. These are so many payments which
the labourer makes for peculiar advantages enjoyed.
On the Definition and Nature of the Science of Political Economy.
By Huyry Dunnixe Macrzop, B.A.
The author said, as the science of political economy was daily growing in im-
portance, and was now made a subject of examination in the public services, its
nature and objects should be settled, as these points had not yet been decided by
economists. Ever since it was founded, its cultivators had declared that it was a
physical science, and that it should be investigated in a manner analogous to that
in which the researches of physical science were conducted. If this were so, it
must obey the well-understood conditions of a physical science. These were that
it must be some large body of phenomena all founded on a single idea of the most
general nature. The purpose of the science was to discover the laws of these phe-
nomena. It must also be based upon certain conceptions and axioms which must
be perfectly general. If political economy were therefore a physical science, it
must be some large body of phenomena all based upon a single idea, and it must
be based upon conceptions and axioms of the same wideness and generality as those
of poe science.
ike many other sciences, political economy had undergone some changes of con-
ception since it was founded. At present there were two definitions which divided
- economists. First, that it was the science which treated of the production, distribution,
‘and consumption of wealth. This definition was first given to it by J. B. Say.
160 ~ -REPoRT—1862.
The second was, that it was the science of exchanges, or of value, or the philosophy
of commerce. This definition was first given to it by Condillac, who published a
treatise on economic science in 1776, the same year as that in which the ‘ Wealth
of Nations’ was published. This was neglected at first; but, as in so many
other cases in science, Condillac’s idea was now rapidly gaining ground, and it
was the one to which the majority of recent economists were now gravitating.
The object of the paper was to consider which was the better definition. The first
requisite of a good definition was that it should be clear and distinct. In the first
detinition, ——— distribution, consumption, and wealth were wholly unex-
plained. Scarcely two economists were agreed as to what wealth meant, or were
consistent with themselves in its use. All were.agreed, however, that corn, clothes,
&c.,-were wealth. The production of corn, clothes, &c., was the production of
wealth. If, therefore, political economy treated of the production of wealth, it
might be supposed that it treated of the business of farming, manufacturing, &c.
But every one knew that economic science had nothing to do with the arts and
processes of farming, manufacturing, &c.; it had nothing to do with the arts and
processes by which things were obtained, but only with their price or value when
obtained. Production must, therefore, bear some very technical meaning not
apparent at first, and therefore it should not be made part of the definition of the
science. Every lawyer and merchant knew that a debt was a species of property.
The business of banking consisted in buying debts by creating other debts. It was
by no means easy to see how buying debts with debts came under the idea of the
production, distribution, and consumption of wealth.
The interpretation of wealth was full of perplexity. No man could tell what
Adam Smith meant by wealth. But as economic science treated of wealth, we
must consider what that quality of things is in regard to which they are considered
as wealth, and how they came into the science of wealth; and that quality being
settled with regard to any one of them, it must be generalized so as to include all
quantities which possessed that quality. The Abbé Baudeau had a very instruc-
tive passage, in which he showed that things were wealth solely from being ex-
changeable ; so long as they were exchangeable, they were wealth; when they
ceased to be exchangeable, they ceased to be wealth. Here, therefore, was the
general conception of wealth—exchangeability. Hence, if political economy
was the science of wealth, it must be the science of the exchangeable relations
of quantities. This was now the conception adopted by the majority of modern
economists; and we at once saw that it answered the conditions of a physical
science, It was a distinct and circumscribed body of phenomena, all based
upon a single idea. It was a new order of variable quantities, and of course the
theory of the exchangeable relations of quantities must be brought into harmony
with the general theory of variable quantities. Adopting exchangeability as the
test of wealth, all exchangeable quantities must be included in it. These were of
three distinct species :—(1) material products, (2) what were usually called imma-
terial products, such as the sciences and knowledge, and (8) what was called in-
corporeal property, such as copyright, shares in companies, the funds, credit, &e,
Exchanges of these kinds of property were constantly taking place, and therefore
that formed the domain of economic science. The nature of the science was indi-
cated by its name, for oikos was the technical term in Attic law for private property
of all sorts; and economic science determined the laws which regulated the ex-
changes of property. The foundation of economic science was the right of private
property and exchange, which was opposed to Socialism, where the right of private
property and exchange was abolished. Such a state extinguished all notion of
value, which could not exist without an exchange. Production and distribution
together constitute exchange. When persons want to have something distributed
to them, they must produce something to give in exchange, and the reciprocal
roduction and distribution form an exchange. The whole body of exchanges,
fut within the country and with foreign countries, constitute what the majority
of modern economists hold to be the domain of pure economic science,
This body of phenomena might be brought under the strictest laws of physical
science, and all discordances among economists might be decided by the acknow-
edged laws of inductive logic. It could easily be shown that the modes of investi-
Weis
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161
gation current among economists were utterly repugnant to the fundamental prin-
ciples of natural philosophy.
It was already implicitly acknowledged that it was a mathematical science. In
any book of Algebra it was said that money was a positive quantity, and debts
negative quantities. Hach were exchangeable, and therefore economic quantities,
Here, therefore, were positive economic quantities and negative economic quantities.
Now mathematicians had fully explained the meaning of negative quantities and
the use of the negative sign in the various physical sciences, but no mathema-
tician had explained the meaning of negative economic quantities and the theory
of the negative sign in political economy. Nevertheless it was of the highest im-
portance to do so. Under the simple fact remarked by algebraists that debts were
negative quantities, there lay hid a new and magnificent branch of economical
analysis, which contained the solution of the theory of credit, and all other incor-
poreal property, which constituted at least 95 per cent. of valuable property, which
was wholly omitted from economic works.
Adopting the conception of exchanges, a great new physical science was pre-
sented to us, fitted to be raised to the rank of an exact science; for it was found
that the laws of exchange were absolutely the same in all ages and countries.
Economic science could therefore be raised to the rank of an exact science, because
it was based upon principles of human nature as permanent and universal as those of
physical substances upon which the physical sciences were based.
On the Utility of Colonization. By Herman Merivate.
The author drew a distinction between the benefits of colonization, which for
his purpose he assumed to be admitted, and those of retaining the government of
colonies after they had become settled communities. As to the latter, he observed
that the following was the simplest mode of stating the question. How far is the
profitable App eae of the accumulated knowledge, capital, and labour of an old
country to the production of wealth in a new country aided by the circumstance
that both are under the same government? But passing over at present the
general problem, he confined himself to a single portion of it, namely, how far the
advantage which we derive from emigration as an outlet to our people might be
affected by any political change involving the loss of our colonial empire.
He then entered on a variety of statistical details to show that the peculiar
advantage of emigration, as now carried on, consisted not only in its extent, but in
the regular manner in which it controlled the progress of population. He showed
that since the year 1845, when the potato-disease commenced, the increase of
population in the United Kingdom, taken together, had been scarcely greater than
in France during the same period. In England and Wales however, taken alone,
the natural increase had been about 10 per cent., in France about 4 per cent. only.
And yet, in the same period, England and Wales had probably sent out a million
of emigrants, France none (that is, the immigration into that country nearly
balanced the emigration). In the same period, in England and Wales, the following
circumstances had coincided :—large emigration, increase of the number of births,
increase of the number of marriages, with no diminution in the average length of
life, indicating no diminution in the comfort of the people. Emigration has pro-
vided for about one child in six, and thereby enabled the people of England to
an as early as before, and to have as many children, without any pressure of our
population indicated by decline in the national well-being. In France, the same
period exhibited these facts :—no emigration, a due relative increase in the number
of marriages, no diminution in the public well-being, as indicated by mortality,
but rather an increase. The inevitable consequence which these facts indicated
was, as the author observed, that there must have been a diminution in the num-
ber of births to a marriage. And this was completely borne out by the facts. The
annual number of births remained absolutely stationary throughout the period,
The ratio of births to a marriage was continually diminishing (from 1822 to 1831,
3°64—now about 3). Marriages were less productive, either from being contracted
later or from other causes; and the progress of population was, in our country, in
a more normal and healthy condition, owing to the resource which emigration
afforded.
1862, 11
162 REPORT—1862.
- It was, however, obvious that if a foreign country would receive our overflow as
readily and as regularly as a colony, England gained nothing, in this matter of
emigration, by song! her dominion over the latter. And this had been the case
for very many years. The United States had afforded greater facilities to emigrants
than any or all our colonies, and had attracted them in greater numbers. But the
present state of that republic seems to preclude all reasonable hope of the continu-
ance of those facilities to anything like the same extent. Clearly not, if it sepa-
rated into a number of distracted and indebted communities, with hostile feelings
to each other; probably not, even if the union could be restored. He therefore
argued the great importance of maintaining our political tie at the present moment
with those colonies which absorb our emigrants—Canada and Australia; the latter
beginning already to receive so large a number as to show a figure of some im-
portance in our returns. And, without laying too much stress on numerical state-
ments having reference to so short a period as the last two years, he thought there
were already signs of a serious stoppage of emigration in general, and of a com-
parative diversion of that which exists, from the States to the colonies,
On the Training and Instruction of the Unemployed in the Manufacturing
Districts during the present Crisis. By the Rey. W. N. Moreswortu, M.A,
The author of this paper stated that he read it rather with a view of obtaining
suggestions than of imparting information, He then proceeded to give a briet
account of the operations of the Rochdale committee for the instruction of the un-
employed. The object of that committee was to educate the unemployed adults
during a portion of the hours in which, under ordinary circumstances, they would
be at work, The teachers were persons who had volunteered their services from
among the unemployed themselyes*, the teaching being in fact very similar to that
of the Sunday schools; the branches of education taught in the schools were read-
ing, writing, arithmetic, and elementary geography. In addition to this, some
gentlemen in the town had given readings or lectures on various subjects; and on
these occasions the scholars were encouraged to ask questions, and to enter into a
conyersational discussion of the topics treated by the lecturer. Of course the in-
struction given in these schools was very imperfect; still it was appreciated by
the men, who were evidently very grateful for the efforts made for their improye-
ment, and anxious to profit by them. The committee had only just commenced
their operations, and were much cramped by the want of fundst. They were
gradually feeling their way towards something higher and better, and he was sure
that they would be very thankful for any suggestions that might be contributed
by the eminent educationists present in the Section, in the course of the dis-
cussion which would follow the reading of the paper,
Local Tawation and Real Property. By Frevericx Purvy, F.S8.8., Principal
of the Statistical Department, Poor Law Board, London.
In the schemes recently brought before the public for the partial or complete
revision of British taxation, none, so far as I am aware, has recognized the claims
to consideration which the large and constantly increasing revenue raised under
the designation of “local taxation ”’ possesses.
The question of our local imposts ought not, in any discussion of the equitable
re-adjustment of the taxation of the kingdom, to be ignored. Obviously the money
expended for the relief of the poor, for the formation and the repair of the public
highways, for the prevention or for the punishment of crime, for the sewerage and
sanitary regulations of towns, and for the other various objects of public utility,
for which local taxes are raised, is as necessary to the maintenance of the country in
its political, social, and economical integrity as the imperial expenditure for the
Army, the Navy, or the Civil Service.
The information collected under the powers of the Local Taxation Returns Act
* Paid masters have since been engaged, the teachers remaining as monitors under
them, with a payment of 1s. each.
+ This would haye been amply supplied by means of the Australian grants,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163
of 1860, and recently published by the Home Office, is supplementary to the
Returns of Local Taxation in England and Wales published by other departments.
Therefore, as regards England, we have at length a complete account of the amounts
raised and expended for local purposes. With respect to Scotland and Ireland the
amounts of two or three of the principal local taxes are officially published, and
the others are approximately known. Hence we obtain a close approximation to
the entire amount of the Jocal taxes of the United Kingdom.
The majority of these taxes are incident upon real property; the residue falls
upon personal property. This distinction will be observed in the subsequent
classification.
As regards England and Wales, the figures given hereafter chiefly relate to the
year 1860-61, though in a few instances the returns refer to an earlier date.
1. The poor’s rate is by far the heaviest of our local taxes; with this rate the
largest portion of the county, borough, and police rates is raised; but, for the sake
of a clearer classification, these latter rates have been deducted, leaving a total
almost exclusively devoted to the relief of the poor, In 1860-61 this sum was
£5,996,409. This was quite independent of all payments from Her Majesty’s
Treasury, and of other receipts in aid of poor’s rates.
2. The amount of county, borough, and police rates paid out of the poor’s rate
in the same year was £1,925,210.
3. In many places the borough rate is levied separately ; in 1854 it amounted
to £311,953.
4, Highway rates in 1859, inclusive of labour given by parishes in lieu of pay-
ment of rates, amounted to £2,065,841.
5, Church rates in 1860-61 were returned as £233,560.
6. Sewers’ rate in certain districts, not metropolitan, £35,323,
7. Drainage and Embankment rates, £65,672.
8. City of London Commission of Sewers, £21,058.
9. Rates raised by the Metropolis Local Management Board, £788,189.
10. Metropolis Main Drainage, £161,017.
11. Rates raised by Burial Boards, £103,707.
12. Rates raised by Local Boards, £850,578. These, together with two small sums
for lighting and watching, and for Improvement Commissions, constitute an
aggregate of £12,582,277 leviable on real property.
The other taxes are—
13. Turnpike tolls (inclusive of parish compositions), which in 1859 amounted to
£1,126,465 ; whence it appears that the cost of the highways and turnpike roads in
England and Wales is nearly £3,200,000 a year.
14, Harbours, 1860-61, amounted to £1,201,398; and
15. Trinity House dues, in 1861, to £288,313. These three rates form a total of
£2,616,176, and are incident upon personal property. ‘
The grand total raised in England and Wales, therefore, as the local taxation
for one year, was £15,198,053.
As regards Scotland,
Z 1. Poor’s rates in 1860-61, inclusive of £18,159 collected at church doors,
646,871.
2. Cost of police in counties and burghs, in 1852, £76,609; prison-rate assess-
ment in 1860, £36,107. It is believed that there are other items of local taxation,
but they are not easily discovered. The total of these three rates is £741,428, all
incident upon real property.
3. Turnpike tolls and Highland roads and bridges in 1858-59, inclusive of revenue
from other sources in aid, £233,337.
4, Northern lights in 1860, £59,747. Total £292,084, falling on personal property.
The aggregate (and it can only be regarded as an approximate one) is £1,035,512.
As regards Ireland,
if us pare rate in 1860-61, including the cost under the Medical Charities Act,
689,229.
2. Grand jury BS Sel aity. in 1860, amounting to £1,034,927. These present-
ments, it should he observed, defray charges similar to those provided for by the
county and borough rates of England. ! :
EL*
164 REPORT—1862,
8. Dublin police in 1852, £38,324. Total £1,732,480, falling upon real property.
This, like the similar charge for Scotland, must be considered as a close approxima-
tion only.
4. Dublin Ballast Board in 1860, £46,658. This charge falls upon personal
property. f
he grand total for Treland is £1,779,138.
Gathering the totals together for the three kingdoms, we are presented with the
following summary :—
Amount of local taxes
(a.) Incident upon real property. £
England and Wales ......... . 12,582,277
Scotland has p25 1e8e, Gis Anon k 741,428
Trelandh Jistaick Sais teks, totaal gtlake talys 1,782,480
Total .. £15,056,185
(4.) Incident upon pocona property. £
England and Wales .......... 2,616,176
Scotland oc. ces < cate owione vis ts 292,084
Wreland ese tscecce tate cettooay 46,658
Total .. 2,954,918
Grand total .. £18,011,103
Hence it appears that the real property of the United Kingdom pays the
large sum of £15,056,000 for local taxation, before it comes under the hand of the
coliector of imperial taxes. The amount of imperial taxation which this descrip-
tion of property has to bear can only be given roughly, because some of the items
clearly chargeable thereto cannot be eliminated from the general mass, These
imposts are, however, so far as known or capable of estimate, as follows :—
£
ian SE ax, os, crete, atatleye petal > ats.o cane 1,145,341
House Duty ....... Sy aghn deer 822,936
Succession Duty yc: ne seis cee 605,196
Stamps on Deeds (say one-half).. 664,000
Fire Insurance (say one-half).... 742,000
RRODCEUN EERE 5 dacs a ois sols ue 66 a 5,472,281
£9,451,754
Therefore the amount of taxation, local and imperial, paid out of real property
is £24,508,000, The annual value of real property, assessable under head Schedule
A, was in 1861, in
£
England and Wales ......... . 105,464,061
Scotland ......... SE ektieieoent. 13,212,882
Ireland, .j0h: hen aeons 13,003,554
£131,680,497
From the foregoing statistics it cd that the rate in the pound on real pro-
perty in this country is, in respect o ‘
§ i.
Toca axationul es eles. alleges 2 33
itnrperial: Meaxaitonecnn cet aspire iter Lapel
Total.. 3 8?
Real property pays 2s, 33d. in the pound for local rates, before it comes on to the
Chancellor of the Exchequer’s Budget for further taxation.
Advocates for the reform of the Income and Property Tax Acts propose to
relieve the holders of precarious incomes of some part of the present impost by
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 165
throwing a larger charge upon the possessors of permanent incomes; hut a consi-
derable portion of the latter derive their income, or portions of it, from real pro-
perty : it is therefore a proposal, so far as they are concerned, to increase the load
upon their property, already unduly burdened by the local taxation of the country. j
On the Pauperism and Mortality of Lancashire, By Frevrrtcx Purpy, F.S.S.,
Principal of the Statistical Department, Poor Law Board.
1. To bring under the notice of the Section some of the statistical data which
represent the pauperism and mortality during the six months ended at Midsummer
last, in the cotton districts of Lancashire and Cheshire, is the object of the present
communication. No attempt has been made in it to explicate those involved and
complex causes which find their most significant numerical exponents in the mor-
tality tables of the Registrar-General. The distress which has fallen upon the
operatives of the cotton districts has not ceased, but is apparently deepening as the
winter approaches. It would be futile to attempt anything like a satisfactory
analysis of the phenomena before they cease, and while we are, therefore, neces-
sarily ignorant of the extent and character of their ultimate development. Beyond
this, it is essential to a scientific elucidation of the connexion which exists between
distress and mortality in any place that the investigator possess both hygienic and
local knowledge of the district under review—qualifications usually looked for in
active and intelligent local officers of health. Though the writer can throw no
light, by the aid of those qualifications, upon the facts hereafter noticed, he hopes
that at the present time the important social questions which are involved in these
statistics will constitute a sufficient claim upon the attention of the Section.
2. It is too well known that when the labouring classes suffer from a collapse in
trade or manufactures, the immediate effects upon very considerable numbers are
a deprivation of the comforts and a diminution of the necessaries of life, with
increased sickness and mortality following in the wake. Then pauperism emerges
among families where, in prosperous times, it was never known, and becomes,
under ordinary circumstances, not only the index, but the measure of distress.
Pauperism, though it may indicate, ceases to measure distress when thousands are
thrown out of their usual employment by the paralysis of a vast industry like the
cotton trade of Lancashire. The lower and less thrifty class of operatives soon
come upon the rates; the more provident and respectable families, after exhausting
their means, keep off the rates till the last moment, or eke out their means by the
aid of private charity, and so contrive for a time to avoid the pauper-roll. The
distress, or rather the destitution, would be accurately measured if we knew the
numbers aided by private charity, in addition to those who are relieved from the
oor-rates. This, however, does not contemplate the deprivations which those
abourers, who have honourably striven to live independently of charity, undergo
in every form, before they reach that point where all their own resources are
exhausted.
3. Lancashire, during the last fifteen years, has been thrice visited with distress.
In the year 1846-7 the expenditure for the relief to the poor throughout the
country rose over the average of the three preceding years by £261,363, or by 83
per cent. At the same time the deaths in the year increased over the average of
the three previous years by 18,181, or 86 per cent. In the autumn of 1857 the
district was suffering from the effects of what was frequently termed the “‘ Ameri-~
can crisis ;” and the distress continued to the midsummer following. The distress,
as measured by the increase of pauperism, can, in respect of this period, be exhi-
bited for the twenty-one unions of Lancashire and Cheshire, which contain the
principal cotton manufacturing population of the kingdom. During the nine
months ended at Midsummer 1858, the deaths in those unions rose 11:9 per cent.
The numbers for each quarter are stated below, viz. :—
Quarters ended 1856-7. Quarters ended 1857-8,
WMecember =. «ease ss04/'se . 12,667 15,131
A Re opal inet paul 14,302 15,603
aLTING) ctstats © iy sonahe ASD al SK) SH 14,088
Total ....se4 40,036 44,822...
166 REPORT—1862.
Taking the amount of pauperism at the end of each quarter in the same unions as
sufficiently exhibiting the pressure, it will be found that the increase in 1858 was
35:4 per cent.
The number of paupers at the end of each quarter was as follows :—
Quarters ended 1856-7. Quarters ended 1857-8.
December ......... sees. 66,950 106,109
Maeth sin’, adeth awe 68,066 91,988
WAAR sie aN ae eee, 63,994. 71,407
Average .... 66,336 89,835
4, The third visitation is that under which the cotton manufacturing districts of
Lancashire and Cheshire are now suffering, with every symptom of further aggrava-
tion. In the twenty-one unions, inclusive of Liverpool, which comprise, as already
stated, the cotton manufacturing district of Lancashire and Cheshire, the number
of deaths in the four March quarters last past stood thus :—
TBD Ness then Pete '¥a00h a0 15,390
BOs acais att assent 14,710
(1277 Oe PY PPR ES ae 15,889
Average ...s6.0. 15,329
1862 17.000 j increase 1671, or
eee ot niiaiae eis ;
} 10:9 per cent.
The number of deaths in the four June quarters last past stood thus :—
1859 6 etcs sarawadedsa es 13,071
TE nak Misc sBtositie the 13,811
TSGE 0. nelaws ie evitewnie 13,789
Average........ 13,555
increase 545, or
PEaLda eon nacn) ekaans a 14,100 | 10a oa
It will be seen hereafter that the pauperism greatly increased in the June quarter
of the present year, though the augmentation in the ratio of deaths, as here shown,
considerably diminished. But the milder weather of the Midsummerquarter may be
credited with some, if not the whole, of the difference in the mortality. The aggre-
gate population of these unions in 1861 was 2,067,267. No attempt has here been
made to adjust the census returns in i of prior or posterior dates. Whenever
any ratio in this paper is given in relation to the population, it has been com-
puted upon the actual census of 1861. The number of paupers in receipt of relief,
excluding from the account lunatics in asylums and vagrants, stood in the four
March quarters as hereafter stated :—1859, 66,704; 1860, 57,933; 1861, 58,261;
average, 60,966 ; 1862, 100,813 ; being an increase of 39,847, or 65:3 per cent. The
number of paupers in the four June quarters was, in 1859, 61,002; 1860, 54,149;
1861, 54,731; average, 56,627 ; 1862, 107,420, being an increase of 50,793, or 89°7
percent. The rate at which the pauperism rose to its present amount has varied
considerably in the different unions of the district.
5. The unions have been divided into three sections, for the purpose of ascer-
‘taining what immediate relation the pauperism bears to the mortality. The first,
or section A, comprises seven unions, with a population of 773,662 persons. In no
union of this section had the number of paupers at Midsummer 1862 been more
than 100 per cent. in excess, when compared with the numbers relieved at Mid-
summer 1861. Measuring the ratio of pauperism on the pon we find that
at Christmas 1861, when the pressure frst ecame marked, it was 2°7 per cent., or
0:5 per cent. higher than at Christmas 1860. From Christmas to Midsummer last
it rose 0:8 per cent. ; at the latter date it was 3-5 per cent. In the followiag table
the unions are placed according to their pauperism at the end of 1861. The absolute
increase per cent. in the number of paupers at Midsummer 1862, as compared with
Midsummer 1861, is shown in the last column :—
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 167
Section A.—Ratio per cent. of Paupers to the Population.
Union, «December Tisoin June 166m, Absolut ie anaes Toe
Macclesfield.... 4:7 01 4:8 34 per cent.
alford........ 35 0-9 4-4 oe <%,
Bolton ........ 30 0-4 3 41 iF
Wigan .;...... 30 08 3°8 38 :
Byes a aves 25 13 3°83 BO: gg
Chorlton ...... 19 0:8 27 GSE ses
Oldham ...... 19 0-9 2:8 to ne
Section B. comprises five unions with a population of 442,644 persons, In this
section the absolute increase in the number of paupers at Midsummer last was over
100, and under 150 per cent. The proportionate pauperism at Christmas 1861 was
3°6 per cent., or 1:2 more than at the previous Christmas. During the half-year
ended with Midsummer last, it rose 20 per cent. ; therefore at the latter date it was
56 per cent.
Section B.—Rate per cent. of Paupers to the Population.
Absolute increase, Midsummer
Unions, &e. : a 3 fate June 1862. 1862, compared with 1861.
ee 5:0 2-4 74 127 per cent.
Rochdale ...:.... 2:8 2:0 4:8 ba
Burnley .......5 2:2 23 4:5 TAD as cess
Haslingden ...... 2:0 05 25 108 _
Section C. contains four unions, with an aggregate population of 459,547 persons.
In this group the absolute pauperism at Midsummer last was in excess of that of
Midsummer 1861 by 150 per cent. and upwards. The proportionate pauperism at
Christmas 1861 was 3:7 per cent. on the population, or 1-7 per cent. more than at
the corresponding season of 1860. During the Midsummer half-year of 1862 the
pauperism rose 4°9 per cent.; consequently at the end of June last it was 8°6 per
cent. This is by far the most pauperized section of the three.
Section C.—Rate per cent. of Paupers to the Population.
Brisk || Desemt Saisie ts hap ice” A ee a
_ Preston «:.... 6:4 4:6 11:0 283 per cent,
Blackburn . 4-4 5:2 9°6 322 yy
Stockport .... 2:4 4:0 6:4 306 sy
eae pre 58 71 cman
6. The pauperism of a union is correctly expressed by the ratio which the num-
ber receiving relief from the poor-rates bears to the population of the place. The
rate of absolute increase in the number of paupers measures more directly the
pressure upon the relief-lists, due to the suspension or diminution of the ordinary
industrial occupations of a district. For example, the increase in the Ashton-under-
Lyne union at Midsummer was 458 per cent., and in the Preston union 283 per
cent. But the pauperism of the Preston union was much greater than that of
Ashton, being in the former place 11:0 per cent. on the population, and in the
latter 7'1 per cent. only. Preston stare from a point considerably higher than
Ashton, but proceeded with less rapid strides. In Ashton-under-Lyne the converse
process took place: similar remarks are respectively applicable to other unions of
the cotton manufacturing districts.
7. Three tables have been framed to exhibit the rise of pauperism in the se-
lected unions during the two first quarters of the present year. The first column
of ratios in each table shows the percentage of paupers in the last week of Decem-
ber 1860, taken upon the population of 1861, that census being employed as nearer
to the truth than any mere estimate. The next column gives the ratios for De-
cember 1861. By a comparison of the two, the proportion of pressure in each
168 REPORT—1862.
union at the close of the last year is shown. The other columns exhibit the ratio
at the end of each of the six months ended with June 1860 and 1861. By these
means the amount and the velocity of the increase are both traceable. In the seven
unions of Table I.*, the ratio per cent. of paupers to population in the last week of
1860 was 2:2; in the last ae of 1861 it was 2°7. By the last week of March in
the current year it had risen to 3:3, or 0’6 in the three months. By June it was 3°5,
or 0:2 per cent, more. ne eee
ABSTRACT OF TABLET, (Section A.) .........
8, This section exhibits the least increase in the pauperism of the district, and that
increase took place gradually. Consulting the Registrar-General’s quarterly reports
of mortality, we find, on comparing the March quarter 1862 with the average of
the corresponding quarters of the three previous years, that there was an increase
of 604 deaths, or 11'8 per cent., and in the June quarter 354 deaths, or 7-9 per cent.
It will be noted from the account which follows that the rate of mortality has not
any apparent relation to the increase of pauperism in these unions. In Bury, one
of the deast pauperized of the group, the increase of mortality was very great. In
Macclesfield, the most pauperized of this section, there was a positive decrease.
Difference per cent. in number of Deaths in 1862.
Unions. March Quarter. June Quarter.
Boltone? yes hoes od — 18 + 58
LEU eid Fat OOM IORI: © ; +22:9 +144
Chorlion-s insect cs + 97 + 87
Macclesfield........:. — 02 — 85
Oldivani- + 2h ee see ie +19-7 + 67
PAMOR soxik ce eae +215 +165
WEES lie Sho? Po eregernae +12°7 + 67
The unions of Salford, Bury, and Oldham experienced the highest mortality.
Comparing the deaths in the Salford union in the March and June quarters of 1862
with the numbers returned for the corresponding quarters of 1861, it will be found
that the increase was 186 and 157 respectively, or 29-4 and 28-3 per cent. The rate
at which the pauperism of any locality has been recruited, rather than the height
to which it has attained, gives a more correct notion of the distress and consequent
suffering. To this end the unions in the next statement are classed according to
the rate of increase of pauperism as measured on every 100 of the population. The
union marked by the ighieat rate of increase between December 1861 and Mid-
summer 1862 is placed first. Against each union the percentage increase or de-
crease of mortality is placed, in respect of the half-year ended with June last, and
compared with the average of the three previous Midsummer half-years.
Unions. Increase per cent. Difference per cent. in
of Paupers. number of Deaths.
malfOrd) «veleieiee eR ORE!) +191
lai iegoe nc Cig halls +19-0
Macclesfield ....... Pipe; + 42
OCTETS cscs saseste eke 3A lee +136
SOMO ree te iss, o: 8.0 eyes 5 1-0 + 16
Clini ators 6 1:0 + 93
VIG cca > © sok by llsy, +101
ABSTRACT OF TaBLE II. (Section B.)
9. In the five unions of Table II. the ratio of paupers at the end of 1860 was 2-4
per cent.; at the end of 1861 it was36 By the last week of March 1862 it had
risen to 5:0, or 1:4 per cent. in the three months. In June it was 5°6, or 0°6 per cent.
increase in that quarter. Here similar diversities in the rate of mortality are ob-
servable. In the Burnley union, where the pauperism is moderate, and in Man-
chester, where it is high, the increase in the rate of mortality is very great, and
nearly equal,
* The Tables referred to by Roman figures were in the Appendix to Mr. Purdy’s paper
abstracts therefrom are printed above. :
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169
Unions. Difference per cent. in number of Deaths.
March Quarter, June Quarter,
SOIC Ve cashes cketete +223 +11:2
Manchester (including
Prestwich) ....... +26:8 +. 0-7
Haslingden........ +116 — 18
HUOGN CALS; «) «415.0 ofa _< — 48 — 67
If we compare the number of deaths in Manchester in the March quarter of 1862
with those of the corresponding quarter of 1861, we find the enormous increase of
539, or 80-4 per cent. ; but in the subsequent quarter, upon instituting a similar
comparison, though an increase still appears, it is far below that of the previous
three months. Inthe June quarter the increase was 112, or 7:2 per cent.
Again, ranging the unions according to the rate of increase in the Midsummer
six months, compared with the mean of the corresponding half-years of 1859-60
and 1861, we have the subsequent list :—
Increase per cent, Difference per cent. in
Unions, &ec. of Paupers. the number of Deaths.
Manchester and Prestwich...... 4-3 + 14-4
PEMTITSTT LE aos shat atavartns tate talsy ition siege 26 + 53
HSOGHORIEN <7... cctejtse chestitas: aaanohorie 2°5 — 57
EVASNMOCEN- <1ohes ceisin «oon, Sioyspeneaae 13 + 53
AxsstTracT oF TaBiE III. (Section C.)
10. In the four unions of Table III. the ratio of pauperism in the last week of
December 1860 was 2:0 per cent.; in the corresponding week of 1861 it was 3-7
per cent. At the end of the three subsequent months it had attained to 6:8 per
cent.; by Midsummer 1862 it was 8-6 per cent. The pauperism had risen 4-9 per
cent. in the half-year. This is by far the most pauperized section of the district.
As regards mortality, the Preston union, the most pauperized of this section, ap-
ears to have suffered little ; the same observation is applicable to the Ashton-under-
yne union. The Stockport union, the least pauperized, has, however, suffered the
greatest mortality.
a Difference per cent. in number of Deaths.
Unions. March Quarter. June Quarter.
ISAC GEN. «ct cok craers tent nst +21'8 + 58
MSEC LOR ye rvcs savers eicgak oe ma op +10:2 + 2:3
‘SUDEP OY ep Bemee ate ots +13:0 29-1.
Ashton-under-Lyne ........ + 4:4 + 36
Re-arranging these unions in the order of their rate of rise in pauperism between
the close of 1861] and the end of June last, and noting down the comparative death-
rate of the Midsummer half-year 1862, they stand in the following order :—
Increase per cent. Difference per cent. in,
Unions. of Paupers. the number of Deaths,
IERORLOnT =< 2% s¥ead ss acetarstdiang @PaOTS 8-0 + 6-4
HS Hge WET ie! «2s b's Wg 'e whereas 73 +14-4
Ashton-under-Lyne..... Shigd'o br 58 + 40
FLOCK ORG y cleiatelne' e's) «/elelotehchetetate 5-1 +172
11. Liverpool has not been classed with the other places in the foregoing tables
because, however much that port may have suffered in consequence of the so-called
“cotton famine,” it evidently stands in a very different category from the manufac-
turing unions of Lancashire. It has suffered some increase in pauperism, though,
in comparison with the other parts of the district, the augmentation may be called
very moderate. The contiguous union of West Derby and the large parish of
Toxteth Park are so intimately connected with Liverpool, that it is undesirable, in
discussing the mortality and pauperism, to regard the latter town separately,
though neither of its suburbs appears to have been much affected by the present
distress. It is remarkable that while Liverpool exhibits an increase of pauperism
fivefold that of the West Derby union (including Toxteth Park), the increase of
170 REPORT—1862.
mortality in the latter place is very considerable; on the other hand, in the former
town there is a positive, though small, decrease in the number of deaths :—
Increase per cent. of Difference per cent. in the
Paupers, 1861-2. number of Deaths, 1861-2.
Vis VGRHOO fee ee eine svcisiereres gate a +62 — 09
West Derby and Toxteth Park., +12 +13:7
12. An interval of three years lies between the commencement of the last and the
rise of the present distress in the north. The distress of 1857-8 barely extended
over nine months. Counting to Midsummer last, the present suspension of occu-
-pations has continued, with increasing severity, for eight months. It will be of
interest to contrast the results of the two periods, premising that the figures which
‘relate to 1857-8 are representative of the nine months terminated at Midsummer
1858, while those of 1862 are for six months only. The ratio of pauperism for the
earlier period is the average of the numbers relieved at Christmas, Lady-day, and
Midsummer; in the latter year it is the average taken in respect of Lady-day and
Midsummer. The unions are hereafter classed according to the parity or the dis-
parity of the results at the two periods. 1. Three unions which exhibit cor-
responding results. 2. Six unions which show in comparison with earlier ratios a
diminished rate of increase. 3, Six unions which show in comparison with the
earlier ratios an augmented rate of increase :—
: Difference per cent. Difference per cent.
Unions. in the number of Deaths. in the number of Paupers.
1857-8. 1861-2. 1857-8. 1861-2.
(1) Stockport ...s3.65.05. +186 +172 +33 +251
IEWNGOM eee ese hee aye oe — 18 +16 +26 + 35
Haha: Seka ooo e oe 5 +139 +136 +37 + 80
(6) Mare See at gra ec 4+32:1 +101 +30 + 22
Olierltor ois eeieeeiass +262 + 93 +63 + 46
Ashton-under-Lyne.... +266 + 40 +32 +313
Rochdale. ..4.....0.. — 03 — 57 +21 +108
Blaek urn. sts, 27 ke es +282 +144 +38 +301
IPROBUGD, «ss ssc eaket +190 + 64 +63 +264
(3) Macclesfield ......4.8% -103 — 42 +49 + 25
WESTTY cots ibe ichs She ere aia at +100 +19-0 +19 + 91
DAMON .daa estes eeas 4114 +191 +56 + 75
Manchester .......... + 81 +144 +80 +117
Efaal mpd enn. eis cioe ac 2 —213 + 53 +44 +100
Burnley 3.23 3.919 90. =79 + 53 +43 +119
Making the same contrasts between Liverpool and the West Derby Union, we
have the following figures :— é
Difference per cent. Difference per cent.
Unions. in the number of Deaths. in the number of Paupers.
1857-8. 1861-2. 1857-8. 1861-2.
HGIVETPOOL ts. «scl cms +203 -— 09 +11 + 62
West Derby .........- +260 +13:7 +16 + 12
13. It is satisfactory to know that, whatever may be the cause, the rate of
mortality in the distressed unions is, in proportion to the suffering, as indicated by
the pauper returns, less now than it was in 1857-8. The Table just given shows
that, with one or two exceptions, the pressure upon the poor-rates is much severer
now than then; and that, of the sixteen unions selected as the most important of
the district, three show the same rate of increase in mortality as in 1857-58, seven
show a less rate of increase in mortality than in 1857-58, six show a greater rate of
increase of mortality than in 1857-58. But the pauperism of the last six is, in its
excess, nearly double that attained in the earlier period.
14. It is evident, from an inspection of the notes appended to the registrar’s
quarterly returns, that during the nine months ended with June 1858, an epidemic
of scarlatina, whooping-cough, small-pox, and measles prevailed in the district
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 171
throughout the period, with more or less violence: to these causes must be added
many deaths from bronchitis and pneumonia. The registrar of the Hulme district,
with reference to the great mortality there in the March quarter of 1858, remarks
that “the operative classes have been compelled to economise their resources in
every poacible way. This has led to an excessive overcrowding of the dwelling-
houses amongst the poorer classes ; foravhere in some streets most part of the houses
are uninhabited, in others there are as many as two and often three families in one
house, badly ventilated and deficient in most sanitary requirements. To this I
mainly attribute the increased mortality.’ It will be remembered, in connexion
with the existing distress, that the deaths in the Macclesfield union are below the
average. The registrar for the east district states that “very extensive sanitary
improvements have been made in sewering and in paving streets and courts in the _
worst parts of the borough; and the cottages have been also much improved.
Where these measures have been carried out the deaths have decreased.” The
registrar of Wigan remarks, in regard to the June quarter, that “the deaths are
very much below the average for the last five years.” He observes that “distress
prevails greatly, and is on the increase;” but that, to some extent, it has been
mitigated by iver subscriptions. The registrar of Walton-le-dale district, in the
Preston union, states that there the “deaths are much below the average, which I
think is accounted for by the almost total stoppage of the cotton-mills, the inha-
bitants of the Walton district being chiefly etary sie ie Hai Pk It may.
seem in some degree to account for the improvement in health amidst such distress
if I add that the able-bodied poor in my district are employed in out-door labour.”
The registrar of Preston remarks that “There are now upwards of 22,000 people
out of employment, and entirely dependent on charity of the boards of guardians
for support..... But it is gratitying to know that, notwithstanding so much
| el the rate of mortality has not increased, but decreased.” The Registrar-
eneral has made the following remark as to the sanitary condition of the north-
western district, which comprises the union counties of Lancaster and Chester,
during the quarter ended at June last :—“ It was noticed above that the depression
of trade in the manufacturing district had sensibly affected the marriage returns;
but happily it does not appear that the same cause acting in the opposite direction
has feaied materially to raise the rate of mortality, and it cannot positively be
asserted that it has produced that effect in any degree. England, as has already
been mentioned, was generally rather healthier last quarter than in the same season
of 1861; but the rate of mortality in Cheshire and Lancashire was, though in an
inconsiderable degree, higher last quarter than it had been in the spring of the
previous year. The difference was only between 2:408 and 2°417;” that is to say,
an increase of nine in every 10,000 deaths. With respect to the increased mor-
tality in Lancashire and Cheshire which the returns for the March quarter of the
present year reveal, the Registrar-General had previously observed that “The
registrars in certain districts refer the increased mortality, which these figures too
plainly reveal, to scarlatina, measles, bronchitis, and pneumonia, which had been
prevalent; and by some of them an opinion, which there is reason to fear may be
too well founded, appears to be entertained that those complaints had found an
active ally in the poverty and want which many of the unemployed thousands now
suffer in the great seats of manufacture. Facts have been adduced to prove that
in instances of great depression of trade, like that which recently occurred in
Coventry, the mortality of children is reduced in consequence of the due amount of
maternal care being bestowed on them which in more prosperous times is with-
drawn by the important requisition of factory Jabour. is is within limits.
Nursing, in straitened circumstances, may be better for children than fulness of
good cheer without it; but when hard times are prolonged, and the small store
that had been gathered in the day of full work is exhausted, the greatest amount of
eas attention will not expel physical decline, sickness, or death itself from the
welling.
15. To whatever causes those marked diversities which the paper has shown to
exist in the Lancashire and Cheshire unions between the pauperism and the death-
rate during the present distress may be ultimately traced, it will be conceded that
the mortality tables of that district are matters of the deepest import to boards of
172 ; REPORT—1862.
guardians and relief committees. It appears obvious to the writer that if the death-
rate in the distressed unions does not permanently exceed, or positively falls below,
that of prosperous times, the relief granted to the unemployed operatives and their
families is sufficient to maintain them in health. A greatly increased death-rate,
on the other hand, must, though it be neither directly nor indirectly the result of
insufficient aid, be a source of uo little anxiety to those who are now officially or
voluntarily engaged in alleviating the wants of the poor. Rochdale, for example,
can give little concern to its guardians just now on the score of mortality. But
Bury and Salford would in the same matter justify a considerable amount,
Statistics showing the Increased Circulation of a Pure and Instructive Lite-
rature adapted to the Capacities and the Means of the Labouring Popula-
tion. By Henry Roserts, F.S.A.
The author of this paper, alluding to the progress of sanitary amelioration, and to
his “ Notes on various Efforts to Improve the Domiciliary Condition of the Labour-
ing Classes,” given in extenso in the Transactions for 1860, assumed that, in an en-
lightened seat of learning, the efforts made to promote a healthy state of the mind,
and of the immortal part of man, would be deemed equally worthy of attention.
With the progress of popular education in this country, and the unrestricted
liberty of circulating pat of every description, excepting such as openly outrage
morality, the desire of gain led to the production of a large amount of low litera-
ture, most objectionable in its character, tending to foster the worst passions of
human nature, and stimulating to the commission of crime, as well as to the con-
tempt of all laws, human and divine. In order to counteract an evil so insidious,
and one productive of so poisonous a state of the moral atmosphere, it was found
worse than useless to have recourse to the law, excepting in a very few instances
of its notorious violation. But much greater success has resulted from the various
efforts made to supplant and drive out of the field the most injurious of the pub-
lications in question, by the introduction of such as are calculated to create a
healthy moral atmosphere, to cultivate the mind, inform the judgment, to improve
and elevate the taste.
A notice of the efforts made for promoting this object must, on the present occa-
sion, be necessarily restricted to those of leading societies, some of which, as their
titles indicate, were formed originally for the exclusive circulation of strictly reli-
gious publications, but now combine with that object a more extensive range of
wre and instructive literature. These societies will be referred to in the order of
their establishment; and afterwards some statistics will be given to show the ex-
tent of the circulation of works of the same class by private publishers, which are
only illustrative of what is now done for this object, though perhaps on a less ex-
tended scale, by many other publishers in the United Kingdom,
The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was founded in 1698, by mem-
bers of the Established Church. It has three distinct objects, one of them being
the preparation and circulation of books and tracts, including the Sacred Scriptures
and Prayer-books, in various languages ; and from this source our army and navy
have been largely supplied. The supply of emigrants and the system of lending-
libraries has been long a valuable branch of the society’s operations, and, with a
special view to the latter object, its publications now embrace works on history,
biography, philosophy, political economy, natural history, topography, &c., pre-
pared in an attractive form, and written in a Christian spirit. The outlay on the
society’s publications has averaged, for the last twenty-five years, about £16,000
erannum. Its issues in the year 1860 to 1861 were, of Bibles and New Testa-
ments, 235,592 ; Common Prayer Books, 339,997 ; bound books, 1,952,873 ; tracts,
&c., 4,105,611 ; total of publications in the year, 6,634,073: and from the year
1733, when its issues were first reported, it has circulated 148,902,287 copies of
various publications.
The Book Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge among the Poor was esta-
blished in 1750. Its objects are the gratuitous distribution and the sale of Bibles,
Testaments, and books of established excellence, not exclusively religious, as well
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173
as the publication of original and standard works adapted to promote religious and
moral instruction. It is a rule of this society that no books of a controversial cha-
racter shall be distributed ; and any profits made from the sale of its publications
are appropriated to the making grants of books to destitute Sunday and Ragged
Schools, &c. The receipts and expenditure of the society for the last year were
nearly £5000.
The Religious Tract and Book Society of Scotland, instituted in 1793, sells none
but religious books. It was the first society in Great Britain to employ colporteurs
in the distribution of approved publications, and it has now from 110 to 120 agents
thus employed. Its sale of periodicals in the past year has been above 700,000
copies, and of Bibles and Testaments 20,000 copies. |
The Religious Tract Society was founded in 1799, at which period it has been
estimated that there were 20,000 hawkers engaged in selling indecent songs and
polluting penny papers throughout all parts of the country. The publication of
tracts and books for children, with attyactive illustrations, was commenced by this
society at an early period of its history; and they were followed by cheap editions
of old authors, or original works, written in a plain and popular style, to which
were subsequently added educational works; and lastly, it was deemed advisable
to engage in the production of periodical literature, mostly illustrated, and suited
to various ages and classes. Its circulation has increased since 1851 at the rate of
nearly two millions per annuum, it having amounted in 1851 to 20,887,064, in 1856
to 31,529,185, and in 1861 to 41,883,921. The agency for distributing this mass of
good literature is all voluntary, excepting that employed on board of emigrant ships
and the sales made through the ordinary channels of trade. The annual receipts
and expenditure of the society now exceed £100,000; and the total distribution of
its publications has been about 950,000,000 copies.
The British and Foreign Bible Society was established in 1804, for the supply and
circulation of the Sacred Scriptures without note or comment. In Great Britain
voluntary agency is thus largely employed through the medium of its auxiliaries
and branches; and in foreign countries it promotes the same object, often where
the Scriptures were before unlnown, and even amongst savages, where no
written language previously existed. The translating, printing, and distributing
of the Sacred Scriptures, in whole or in part, has been promoted by this society,
directly or indirectly, in 160 languages or dialects; and the number of versions,
wholly or partially completed, is 190, of which 140 are translations never before
printed. The issues by the society last year were upwards of 1,590,000 copies, and
its total issues of the Scriptures, or portions of them, now amount to 40,910,474
copies. The total co of this society were for the past year £168,443 15s. 5d.,
including £76,760 17s. 8d. for the sale of the Scriptures; and the total expendi-
ture of the society, from its establishment in 1804, has been £5,250,546 13s. 6d.
The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (now dormant) was established
in 1826. Amongst its earliest publications was the ‘ Penny Magazine,’ which had
at one time a circulation of 200,000 copies. In 1828 it commenced the ‘ British
Almanac,’ a publication which has greatly conduced to the very marked improve-
ment in the general character of our almanacs. The first number of the ‘ Penn
Soe’ was issued by this society in 1833, and of its first volume 55,000 copies
were sold.
The Working Men's Educational Union was founded in 1852, for the purpose of
“ assisting all persons desirous of imparting interesting and popular literary and
scientific information imbued with a sound Christian spirit,” whether by the de-
livery of lectures, the formation of libraries, or the promotion of mutual-instruction
or other classes for adults. The agency of this society is to a very considerable
extent gratuitous, and the lectures are mostly delivered in such suitable places as
are obtainable free of cost.
From the Dublin Tract Repository there have been issued within the past eight
ears 34,000,000 of publications, including pamphlets and small books.
The Pure Literature Society was established in 1855, for promoting the extensive
circulation of all such books, maps, prints, diagrams, and other publications as may
be deemed good and useful by the managing committee ; but the society itself ab-
stains from publishing, Grants of well-selected books are made at half-price in
174 REPORT—1862.
aid of parochial and other libraries, to mechanics’ institutions, working-men’s so-
cieties, and for distribution to sa‘lors, soldiers, emigrants, miners, and nayvies.
Hawking or Colportage of carefully selected books and prints was systematically
commenced in England in 1851, and within the last ten years much has been done
in this way to promote the circulation of pure literature in the rural districts.
Sixty-two local associations have been organized, and are united with the “Church
of England Book-hawking Union,” which employs about eighty book-hawkers,
whose aggregate sale is now about £16,000 per annum.
Another society, designated the British Colportage Association, was established
in 1860, with a view of carrying out the same object by agents not restricted to the
sale of books and educational appliances, but who are expected to act also in a cer-
tain sense as missionaries.
The numerous publications specially used for instruction in the Schools of the
Poor are mostly issued by one or other of the school societies, and no accurate
estimate as to their numbers can be given.
A class of publications intended to impart a general knowledge of Sanitary
Science, in its application to every-day life, has been lately introduced, and now
forms an important branch of the instruction conveyed to the labouring-classes
through the various agencies under review. The production and circulation of
such publications is a main object of the Ladies’ Sanitary Association, which has,
since its establishment in 1857, distributed 468,500 copies of small works, sold
mostly at from 1d. to 2d. each. The issue of sanitary publications was commenced
by Messrs. Jarrold & Sons about ten years since, under the designation of “ House-
hold Tracts,” which are sold at 2d. each, and of these the number issued up to
June last was 1,345,000. Of another class, entitled “Science for the Household,”
125,000 copies have been circulated.
Publications promotive of temperance are circulated very extensively from the
establishment of Mr. Tweedie, 337 Strand, and many other booksellers. One
journal devoted to this cause has a circulation of 25,000 copies weekly. The
‘ British Workman,’ issued at 1d., and the ‘Band of Hope Review,’ at 3d. have
now a circulation of about 250,000 copies each, with a well-merited increase.
From Mr. Peter Drummond’s Tract and Book Depét, at Stirling, N. B., have
been issued since 1848, gratuitously and by sale, 33,600,000 tracts of 1 to 12 pages
each.
Another pena firm, that of Mr. John Cassell, issues from 25,000,000
to 30,000,000 annually of well-written penny publications, besides the ‘ Popular
Educator,’ the ‘Illustrated History of England,’ and the ‘ Illustrated Family Hible,
in weekly penny numbers, of which, up to the present time, 21,000,000 numbers
have been printed.
To this greatly increased circulation of a pure and instructive cheap literature,
and particularly to the extensive distribution of the Sacred Scriptures, the author
feels justified in attributing, in no small degree, the striking change in the conduct
of our manufacturing operatives, at the present time of severe privation and suffer-
ing, as or ee with their riotous proceedings in days not very remote from the
present; and he would trust that their conduct may prove instructive to some
in other countries, who, exalted in authority, and knowing not the value of moral
influence in governing a people, fetter the human mind, and incarcerate those who,
having themselves Sages that the ways of true wisdom are pleasant, and
her paths peace, would lead others to walk therein.
A Statistical Inquiry into the Prevalence of numerous Conditions affecting the
Constitution in1000 Consumptive Persons. By Epwarp Suitu, M.D.,LL.B.,
F.R.S., Assistant Physician to the Hospital for Consumption at Brompton, &c.
The inquiry was made upon 600 male and 400 female patients at the Hospital
for Consumption, Brompton, and was intended to show the influence of all the
causes vwhiell are believed to modify the health.
The average age of the patients was 288 years. 30 per cent. had been born in
London, 36 per cent, had lived chiefly in London, aid 53 per cent. had lived in
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175
London during the preceding 3 years, 8:8 per cent. could not read or write; and
only 14:3 per cent. had been insufficiently nourished.
I. Parental conditions.—54. per cent. had lost the father, 46 per cent. the mother,
and 28 per cent. both parents ; in 25 per cent. only were both parents living. The
average age of the parents at death was 50'8 years, with an increased duration of
4°7 years on the part of the fathers. The most frequent age at death was 35 to 55
years, whilst only 11 per cent. died under the age of 35, and some lived upwards
of 95 years. 18 per cent. had experienced feeble health before the birth of the
patient, and 34 per cent. throughout life ; in 22°7 per cent. one or both parents had
led unsteady lives. 21-1 per cent, of the parents had died of consumption, whilst
in 2:8 per cent. the grand-parents, 23°3 per cent. the brothers or sisters, and 9'1 per
cent, the uncles or aunts had died of the same disease, They had suffered from
rheumatism in 22 per cent., from asthma in 9°4 per cent., from liver-disease and
gout in 9 and 7:2 per cent,, and from fevers, ague, insanity, and diabetes in 4to5
per cent. Presumed scrofulous affections were extremely rare, In only 6 cases was
there consanguinity of the parents.
The age of the parents at the birth of the patients was, in half of the cases, from
25 years to 35 years, and in only 2 per cent, was it less than 20 years. The number
of the children was very large, viz. an average of 7°5 to a family, and in some families
there were 23 children. The patient was the first child in 20 per cent., and the
first, second, and third child in half of all the cases, 40 per cent. of the parents’
children had died,
2. Personal Conditions.—In only 23 per cent. were the patients under eet. 20, and
a few were et. 60. 24 per cent. had been feeble at birth, whilst 22 per cent, had
suffered from feeble general health, and 17 per cent, from generally defective appe-
tite. In 12°6 per cent, the lungs had been always delicate; 2°5 per cent. had been
dry-nursed ; 25:4 per cent. had perspired with unusual freedom; 25 per cent. had
never worn flannel next the skin, and 55 per cent. had suffered from coldness of the
extremities; 72°5 per cent. had an excitable temperament; 62:1 per cent. had
medium brown or light-coloured hair, 74 per cent. had grey or blue eyes, 60 per
cent. had florid complexion, and 46-7 per cent. had a fleshy habit.
16, 65-4, 60, and 41 per cent. had not had measles, scarlet fever, small pox, and
hooping-cough in their order, and the frequency of any long-continued ill-effects
from these diseases was insignificant; 12:8 per cent. had sutfered from enlarged
glands, and 4:5 per cent. from long-continued affection of the eyes, but otherwise
the ordinary scrofulous disease scarcely existed. 16-7 per cent. had suffered from
inflammation of the lungs, and 14:8 per cent, from rheumatism, whilst typhus fever
and frequent diarrhoea had occurred in 8 per cent., ague in 5°6 per cent., and liver-
disease in 4°3 per cent. of the cases.
The menses appeared at eet. 14 and 15 years in 36:4 per cent., and in 11 per cent.
only was it before et. 13. 43:5 percent. were married, and of these 13 per cent. had
not borne children. Their average age at the birth of the first child was zt. 20 to
25, and in only 9 per cent. were they under et. 20, The number of children per
family was 1 and 2 in 44 per cent., and 1, 2, and 3 in 55 per cent.; 38 per cent.
of the children had died, and in 43 per cent. the general state of the health of the
children was bad; abortions had occurred in 46:2 per cent. of the child-bearing
married women,
29°6 per cent. of the males had led a bad life at some period, 24'5 per cent. had
smoked tobacco, 19-3 per cent. of both sexes had submitted to late hours, and 22:2
per cent. had suffered much anxiety. In 70 per cent. some complaint was made as
to the injurious influence of their occupations, as exposure, long hours, close and
hot rooms, bending posture, dust, or fumes, &e.
The author then entered into a consideration of the question of hereditary trans-
mission, and showed the relation of such an inquiry to the purposes of life assur-
ance ; but was of opinion, that as consumptives are a very mixed class of persons,
and the causes of the disease most various, the only safeguard to life-offices was the
careful examination of the chest of applicants by competent physicians.
On the Income Tax. By W.T. THornton.
’ The object of this paper was to show, first, that every income-tax whatsoever must
176 REPORT—1862.
necessarily violate the just principles of taxation; and, secondly, that “a uniform
income-tax does so to a greater extent than there is any necessity for. Taking as
the principles of taxation those laid down as such by Adam Smith, and adopted
by Ricardo and John Stuart Mill, the writer undertook to prove that the least ob-
jectionable income-tax must needs infringe three of Adam Smith’s four maxims,
nstead of being levied at the time and in the manner most convenient to the con-
tributor, an income-tax is levied at the most inconvenient time and in the most
offensive. manner. A man pays his customs or excise dues a little at a time, and
chooses his own time for paying,—never, of course, volunteering to pay, except
when he has wherewithal to pay. But the income-tax comes upon him both all
at once and just at the very time when he is beset with his half-yearly bills, levy-
ing a pitiless percentage on his means of meeting them. It lays him, too, on the
rack, endeavours to extort a confession from him, and leaves him no alternative but
to criminate or to perjure himself. Then, the income-tax is levied most unequally.
It is assessed, not, as Adam Smith says it should be, in proportion to a man’s
ability, but in proportion to his honesty. An income-tax must often be, to a certain
extent, a matter of conscience. Those who have no conscience may partially evade
it by lying; and thus it acts as a bounty upon lying, anda tax upon truth. The
honest man bears the full burden; the dishonest goes comparatively free. This is
a vice inherent in and inseparable from every income-tax whatsoever. ‘There must
always be this to counterbalance any virtues it may possess. True, it has the merit
of raising a revenue more effectually than any other expedient, but at what cost
does it do so? The mere pecuniary cost of its collection may perhaps be moderate
as compared with that of the customs or excise, but money is not the sole element
of cost. The mcome-tax is collected at the expense of the national honesty. It
offers a powerful temptation to every commercial and every professional man to tell
one deliberate falsehood, to commit one gross act of fraud, every year, and it is
certain that a large majority of commercial and professional men yield to the
temptation; for, from the last returns, it appears that there are, in Great Britain,
only 6066 persons in trades or professions honest enough to confess that they make
more than £500 and less than £600 a year; only 6020 who confess to more than
£1000 and less than £2000 a year; only 997 persons who confess to £5000 and less
than £10,000. Since it cannot be supposed that people who cheat regularly once
a year will cheat only once a year, or that, beginning with cheating government,
they will end without cheating their customers, it is plain that the income-tax is
undermining the national honesty, and consequently that commercial prosperity
also of which national honesty is one of the bases. Although then an income-tax
may possibly not take out of people’s pockets a great deal more than is paid into
the exchequer, it is calculated to keep out a great deal that would otherwise have
entered.
Considering it to be thus apparent that every income-tax must necessarily be at
variance with just principles, Mr. Thornton proceeded to argue that a uniform
income-tax violates them to a needless extent. It does so by superadding to the
inequality and injustice inseparable from every income-tax an inequality and
injustice peculiar to itself. This is implied by its very name—a uniform in-
come-tax, 7. e. a tax levied at the same rate on all incomes. But, says Adam
Smith, every one should pay taxes in proportion to his ability. His ability to do
what? Obviously in proportion to his ability to pay taxes. But such ability by
no means corresponds with income. To illustrate this point, Mr. Thornton sup-
posed two persons, each with £1000 a year, but the one a bachelor, and the other
aman with a family. Both have the same income, but their ability to bear taxa-
tion is very different; or, to use Ricardo’s application of Adam Smith’s principle,
equal taxation requires from them very unequal sacrifices. Consequently, a tax
assessed at the same rate on all incomes, without reference to the varying amount
of claims on those incomes, is not assessed “in proportion to the respective abilities
of the several contributors.” Moreover the income-tax is the only tax at present
in use amongst us which does affect incomes without regard to other claims upon
them. A prudent family man, by living in a cheaper situation, by keeping only
female servants, by walking on foot or riding only in cabs or hgiebuseks by
eschewing cigars, and drinking beer or spirits instead of wine, may always manage
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177
- to pay a smaller percentage on his income, in the shape of assessed taxes, customs,
and excise duties, than an unencumbered bachelor of equal income. It is the
income-tax alone which falls with indiscriminating weight upon both, and which,
regarding not the ability to pay taxes, but simply the amount of income, makes
the same deduction from the £1000 by which a dozen persons are to be supported,
as from the £1000 appropriated to the exclusive use of a single individual.
Here is one inequality incidental to a uniform income-tax. Another arises from
the equal assessment of permanent and precarious incomes. Two persons, each of
£1000 a year, but derived in the one case from landed, funded, or otherwise
realized property, and .in the other, from the profits of trade, the gains of a pro-
fession, or the salary of an office, have not the same means of paying taxes, The
one may spend his £1000 a year for fifty years together, and at the end of that
period his means of spending £1000 a year will be found undiminished. Butifa
merchant, or tradesman, or doctor, or lawyer, or railway secretary be silly enough
to spend the whole of his £1000 a year, then if health fail, or business fail, he may
suddenly find himself without a penny. Accordingly, he commonly puts by part
of his income, and spends only the remainder; andthe amount of that remainder
is the measure of his ability to pay taxes, the amount therefore on which he ought
to be taxed. In support of his view on this point, the writer quoted an expression
of Adam Smith, to the effect that “ every subject of a state should contribute to
the support of the government in proportion to the revenue which he enjoys under
the protection of the state ;”’ from which he inferred that Smith intended to distin-
guish between the income which a man possesses and enjoys and that which he
ossesses and does not enjoy, remarking that a man enjoys only that part of his
income which he spends, and that he no more enjoys what he saves for the benefit
of his heirs than be enjoys the wine which is ripening in his cellar, and which
may not be fit to drink till he is gathered to his fathers, or which may be kept till
it spoils and may never be drank at all, just as money that is invested may not be
accumulating for the benefit of the actual owner, and perhaps may not be accumu-
lating at all, but may be dwindling away to nothing in the shape of railway shares.
Mr. Thornton proceeded to remark that, among the many faults of an income-tax,
there is only one which can be remedied. The tax is in most respects incurably
bad. Nothing can prevent its being a discouragement to honesty and a bounty
upon fraud, or from being collected at the expense of national probity, or from
pressing with equal weight on single and married men of the same income, not-
withstanding their unequal ability to bear the weight. One of its iniquities, how-
ever, is partially remediable. It might be prevented from fipressing equally on
permanent and precarious incomes, in the manner proposed by Mr. Mill, viz. by
exempting from taxation that proportion of a precarious income which, taking the
average of cases, its recipient would be bound in prudence to save.
The remainder of the paper was occupied with an examination of objections to
Mr. Mill’s suggestion. It has been urged that there is often a great difference between
what a man ought to save and what he does save; and it has been asked, what could
be more monstrous than to extend exemption to a spendthrift, who, being bound in
prudence to lay by, say, a fourth of his income, thinks proper to spend all, and to
save nothing? What could be more monstrous than to confer the reward assigned for
the performance of a particular duty to one who had culpably neglected to perform
that duty? In Mr. Thornton’s opinion it is more monstrous still to withhold the
reward from those who have performed the duty. In a country in which economists
must be to spendthrifts as 100 to 1, it would, he thinks, be better that one spend-
thrift Bhould obtain an exemption which he does not deserve, rather than that a
hundred economists should be denied the exemption they do deserve.
Again, it has been urged that to assess precarious at a lower rate than permanent
incomes, on the avowed ground, too, that the former belong to a poorer class of
men, would be to tax the poor at a lower rate than the rich—a measure subversive
of security of property. If, however, a reduced rate has been proposed for preca-
rious incomes, it has been on the supposition that whatever rate were adopted
would be assessed on the whole income. But to assess the whole of a precarious
and the whole of a permanent income at the same rate would be to disregard their
ee ability to hear taxation. If only that part of an income be taxed on which
. 12
178 REPORT—1862.
depends ability to pay, no one will object to the same rate being applied to all in-
comes, It is only because injustice is committed by taxing the whole income, that
an attempt is made to repair the injustice by demanding that a lower rate be im-
posed than would be proper if only part were taxed.
A third objection to Mr. Mill’s suggestion is the opposite of the second. It has
been said that to exempt savings would be to favour the rich at the expense of the
poor, inasmuch as it is by the comparatively rich that the greater part of savings
are made, To this Mr. Thornton answers, that if the rich pay on all they spend,
and are exempted only on what they save, they obtain the exemption only on that
part of their income with respect to which they abdicate the advantage of riches,
not consuming it themselves, but making it over to be consumed by the poor.
Moreover, if they pay on all they spend, they pay on all they enjoy; and the prin-
ciple that every man should pay on what he enjoys, whether the sum be great or
small, is fully carried out.
On Expectation of Life.
By Cuarzes M. Wituicu, Actuary, Unwersity life Assurance Society.
The author showed that the following hypothesis agrees very nearly with Dr.
Farr’s English Life Table, which was obtained from Returns made by every parish
in England and Wales.
If a=age in years,
then 3 (80 — a) = expectation.
Also, that by an extension of the hypothesis we obtain the expectation of life closely
agreeing with the result of the laborious investigation made by the late Mr, Fin-
laison as to the duration of the lives of female Government annuitants.
If a=age in years,
then 3 (86 — a) = expectation.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Address of Wrtitam Fairpatrn, Esq., LL.D., F.RS., President of the Section.
Every succeeding year presents to our notice some new feature of construction,
or some new application of science to the useful arts. Last year we had to record
several new discoveries in chemical as well as mechanical science; and this year
is fruitful of machinery and the industrial developments, as exhibited in the
courts of the International Exhibition. It is not my intention to oceupy your time
with a history of these Exhibitions, but I may be permitted to notice some of the
most interesting objects, and some of the ingenious contrivances which we are
called upon to witness, and which do honour to the age in which we live. Before
I venture on a description of these objects, I must, however, crave your indulgence
whilst I endeavour to notice some of the more important improvements which have
taken place in mechanical science during some of the past years. i
It may be stated that there is no period of the past history of science so fruitful
in discoveries as the present century. Within the last fifty years we are enabled
to enumerate the application of steam as a motive power to every description of
manufacture, as also to navigation, locomotion, and agriculture, At the close of
the eighteenth century the power of steam and its now almost universal applica-
tion was, with the exception of a few engines by Boulton and Watt, comparatively
unknown. Now it is the handmaid of all work, from our domestic requirements
to the ocean-steamer of a thousand horses’ power. This we may consider as the
present state of steam and the steam-engine, and we have only to compare the
small but beautiful construction of engines for private and domestic use, as seen in
the Exhibition of this year, with those which propel our fleets, drain our mines,
and move with clockwork precision the innumerable machines of our manufacto-.
ries. To these we may add the use of steam to locomotion, and we realize the law.
of heat reciprocally convertible into mechanical force, or the dynamic theory of
nel
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179
work done, in the energy of nearly a thousand horses’ power, at fifty miles an hour.
How wonderful and yet how effective are the powers of this comparatively small
machine! It is perfectly docile, and obeys the hand of its director with almost
mathematical precision, and by the touch of a simple lever it regulates its move-
ments to the nicety of an inch, or it bounds forward with a momentum, regardless
of time or distance, and careers on its iron track like a dream of the Arabian Nights.
Tn fact, we may almost regard them as realized, when we consider the smallness
of the space and the organisms by which these wonderful results are attained.
Apart from the flight of fancy, we arrive at the conclusion that these are facts
already accomplished with a degree of certainty that ceases to be wonderful, ex-
cept only to the uninitiated, who stares at what he is unable to comprehend. The
general principles of the steam-engine and the locomotive are, however, easil
acquired ; and in this age of steam it should, in my opinion, form a separate branc
of education for the benefit of both sexes, to whom it would be highly advantageous.
It is a branch of knowledge of deep importance to the present and rising genera-
tion ; and as steam and its application to the varied purposes of civilized life becomes
every day more apparent, a knowledge of its powers and properties is much
wanted, and ought not to be neglected.
Iam the more desirous that instruction of this kind should be imparted to the
rising generation in our public schools, as it would lead to practical acquaintance
with instruments and machines in daily use, and would familiarize the more intel-
ligent classes with objects on which, at the present day, we almost exclusively de-
pend for the comforts and enjoyments of life. I do not mean that we should make
scholars engineers; but they ought to be taught the general principles of the arts,
in order to appreciate their value and to apply them to the useful purposes by which
we are surrounded. It is by the acquisition of this Inowledge that we shall over-
come ignorance, so often fatal in the use of steam, and not unfrequently attended
with danger to life and property. We might quote numerous examples of fatal
boiler explosions and other casualties arising from this cause; and this want of
Imowledge is not only productive of danger, but it leaves important matters to be
directed by the hands of incompetency, instead of being guided by the arm of intel- ~
ligence. The introduction of steam and its < pe ceon to such a variety of pur-
poses was shortly followed by that of gas, and this brilliant discovery we owe to
the untutored mind of ome of our first working mechanics, William Murdock of
Soho, the assistant and contemporary of Watt. Mr. Murdock lighted up his own
house and Soho about the year 1802 or 1803, and in 1804 gas was first applied to
light Messrs. Philip and Lee’s cotton-mills at Manchester. For some year's it made
little or no progress, but it was, in 1814, employed for lighting the streets of towns ;
and we are, therefore, indebted to William Murdock and carburetted hydrogen
for the enjoyment of a pure and brilliant light in our streets and public buildings,
and in almost every house and town in the empire.
Next to gas came steam-navigation, railways, and locomotion, and subsequently
the electric telegraph. I will not, however, tire you with any detailed notice of
these discoveries, however important they may be in a scientific point of view, but
simply advert to those departments of science with which the members of this
Section are more immediately interested. In taking even a cursory view of the
machinery of the two annexes of the International Exhibition, we cannot be other-
wise than struck with the multiplicity of the objects, the perfection of the execu-
tion, and the accuracy of the tools, together with the numerous devices by which
these are attained. A very casual glance at this Exhibition when compared with
that of 1851, and that of Paris in 1855, shows with what intensity and alacrity the
public mind has been at work since the people of all nations were first called upon
to compete with each other in the peaceful rivalry of mechanical art.
Taking the Exhibition as a whole, there is no very great nor very important
discovery in mechanical science ; but there is a great deal to be seen of a character
both interesting and instructive. In land steam-engines there is nothing particularly
attractive, if we except the growing importance of the horizontal, iat is rapidly
Sesame that of the beam or vertical engine. To the horizontal system may be
applied economy in the first cost, and nearly equal efficiency in its application to
mills and for manufacturing purposes, Another important feature in thea engines
ia
180 REPORT—1862.
is their smooth and noiseless motion, their compact form, and the facility with
which they can be applied as helps or assistants to those of larger dimensions.
They are, moreover, executed with a degree of finish and accuracy of workman-
ship which cannot easily be surpassed.
In the agricultural department the same observations apply to this description
of engine, where it is extensively used on a smaller scale. They are equally well
made, and the country at large are chiefly indebted to our agricultural engineers
for many ingenious contrivances, and for their successful application, not exclu-
prey to the farm, but to many other useful purposes in the economy of rural
e.
From the motive power employed in our manufactories and its adaptation to
agriculture let us glance at the beautiful execution, compact form, and colossal
dimensions of our marine engines, and we shall find, in combination, simplicity of
form, concentration of power, and precision of action never before equalled in this
or any other country. In this department of construction we are without rivals,
and it is a source of pride that this country, as the first maritime nation in the world,
should stand preeminently first as the leader of naval propulsion.
In locomotive as in marine constructions we are not behind, if we are not in
advance of other nations, although it must be admitted that several splendid spe-
cimens of engines from France and Germany are exhibited by some of the best
makers of those countries. There is, however, this distinction between the Conti-
nental locomotives and those of home manufacture, and that is, in this country
there is greater simplicity and design, greater compactness of form, and clearer
conceptions in working out the details of the parts. These operations, when
carefully executed to standard gauges, render each part of an engine a facsimile
of its fellow; and hence follows the perfection of a system where every part is
a repetition of a whole series of parts, and, in so far as accuracy is concerned, it is a
great improvement on the old system of construction.
The other parts of the Exhibition are well entitled to a careful inspection. In
minerals and raw material the collections are numerous and valuable to an extent
never before witnessed in any Exhibition; and the articles, fuel and ores, will be
found highly instructive. The machinery for pumping, winding, and crushing is
upon a scale sufficiently large and comprehensive to engage the attention of the
mechanic and miner, and it is only to be regretted that in every case competent
persons are not in attendance fully prepared to explain and initiate the inexperi-
enced student in the principles of the workings, and the cases of instruments so
neatly classified and spread before him for instruction.
In the machinery department, although there is nothing that strikes the observer
at first sight as new, yet there are many useful improvements calculated to econo-
mize labour and facilitate the operations of spinning and weaving; and in tool-
making there never was at any former period so many hands and heads at work as
on the occasion pending the opening of the Exhibition. Some of the tools, such as
the turning-, boring-, planing-, and slotting-machines, are of a very high order ; and
the tool-machinery for the manufacture of fire-arms, shells, rockets, &c., is of that
character as to render the whole operations, however minute, perfectly automaton
or self-acting, with an accuracy of repetition that leayes the article, when finished,
identical with every other article from the same machine. Such, in fact, is the
perfection of the tool-system as it now exists, that in almost every case we may.
calculate on a degree of exactitude that admits of no deviation beyond a thousandth
art of an inch.
Amongst the many interesting mechanical objects exhibited in the two annexes
may be noticed as original, the spool-machine, for the winding of sewing-thread
on bobbins, the machine for making paper bags (invented by a pupil of my own),
the saw-riband machine, and others of great merit as regards ingenuity of con-
trivance and adaptation of design. In manufactures, in design, and in constructive
art, there is everything that could be desired in the shape of competitive skill;
and, without viewing the success of the Great Exhibition of this year in a pecu-
niary point of view, we may safely attribute its great success to the interesting and
instructive character of the objects submitted to public inspection.
Trrespective of the Exhibition, with its sairalbiahle and highly finished specimens,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181
we have briefly to notice some of the improvements and changes that have taken
place in the construction of ordnance and the art of defence, and to chronicle some
of the most important results which have placed the whole of our naval and mili-
tary armaments in a state of transition. It is now well understood that His Majesty
the Emperor of the French was the first to apply iron plates as a defence to the
sides of ships, and that ships of war protected with a given thickness of plate 42
inches were invulnerable to shot or shell. For a considerable length of time this
opinion was prevalent, and was acted upon both in this country, France, and Ame-
rica. The experiments instituted by the Admiralty and War Office have, to a great
extent, dispelled these notions; and it has been proved that a smooth-bored Arm-
strong gun, with a150-Ib. spherical shot, can pierce a43-inch-thick plate and 18inches
of teak. In fact, it has been proved by experiment that no vessel yet constructed
“is able to carry armour-plates of sufficient thickness to resist such powerful ordnance
as has been brought against them.
Every effort has been made on the part of the Government to determine experi-
mentally the properties of iron best calculated to resist shot, and the greatest pos-
sible care has been observed, both in a chemical and mechanical point of view, to
secure the yery best description of iron for that purpose. All these facts have been
ascertained, as also the penetrating powers of different descriptions of ordnance as
compared with the thickness of the plates to be pierced. In this position the
balance of force to the resistance of the plate was in favour of the gun, but with
this qualification, that the gun had to sustain an explosive force of powder equivalent
to one-third the weight of the shot, a charge which the gun was unable to bear.
Under ordinary circumstances, with the usual charge of one-eighth the weight of
the shot, it might reasonably be inferred that the balance was on the side of the
plate, and that guns of such heavy calibre were insufficient in strength to sustain
these tremendous charges of powder. Again, it must be borne in mind that these
results were only produced at certain distances, and under certain conditions of
heavy charges of powder and a short range of 200 yards.
The inquiry was thus hanging on the balance, when it was determined to ascer-
tain the effect of the large Horsfall gun of 22 tons weight with a charge of 75 lbs.
of powder and a 300-Ib. shot, against a target representing the ‘ Warrior,’ with her
18 inches of teak and 43 inches of iron. The result of this experiment was the
penetration of the mass, with a huge opening in the side of the target upwards of
2 feet in diameter. This experiment is probably not calculated to apply to ships
of war carrying ordnance of such immense weight, but it is greatly in fayour of
forts, where an enemy’s vessel may be struck at a distance of 1000 yards.
Passing from the Horsfall gun, we now come to the last and most important
experiments with the Whitworth gun: the first was a 12-pounder field-gun, and »
the second a 70-pounder naval gun; both of the guns were rifled. These experi-
ments are very instructive, and I probably could not do better than quote from the
‘Times,’ of September 18th, a statement of the effect produced by these guns:—-
“Tt will, perhaps, be remembered that a decided difference was established very
early in the controversy between the penet eae powers of solid shot and those
of shell. Solid shot at one time failed, and at another time succeeded, against
armour-plates, according to the modified conditions of the experiments; but shells
failed absolutely and invariably. No shell could ever be driven through even a
moderately thick plate of iron, and it was concluded, therefore, that this, the most
dangerous and dreaded species of missile, could undoubtedly be kept out of a ship
by a thin casing of armour.
“ Accordingly, as a reduction of a ship’s armour to the least possible weight was
of great consequence, especially in small vessels, gunboats and other craft of the like
description have been built in some countries with 23-inch or 2-inch armour-plates,
and considered effectually shell-proof. On Tuesday, however, Mr. Whitworth
entered the field with two of his pieces, for the service of which he had specially
prepared some flat-fronted, hardened shells. The 12-pounder, at 200 yards, presently
sent these shells through a 2-inch plate backed by a foot of timber; from which
simple piece of evidence the conclusion is inevitable, that vessels protected to that
extent only are shell-proof no longer.
“But in the trial of the 70-pounder an additional result was obtained. It has
182 REPORT—1862.
been suggested that if, instead of employing a given thickness of iron in one solid
piece, the armour of a ship were divided into two plates, each of half that thick-
ness, and these plates were separated by a certain space from each other, the resist-
ing power of the structure might be much increased. The theory was that the first
plate, though it would doubtless be pierced, would so deaden the force of the shot,
that the second plate would repel it; and, indeed, as regards solid shot, the ques-
tion remains still undecided. With respect to shell, however, or rather Mr. Whit-
worth’s shells, we are not left in doubt even on this point. The 70-pounder was
trained against a target constructed on this principle of a double side. A stron
oak frame, armed with 4-inch plates, was attached to a second plated to the dept
of 2 inches, an interval of two or three feet being left between them. The shell
from this gun, fired with 12 lbs. of powder only, pierced the outer side of the target
completely, oak and iron together, after which it burst inside the frame and shat-
tered it to pieces.”
From this statement we learn, that 4 inches of solid iron and 9 inches of wood
are no protection against shells discharged from a moderately sized gun, and that no
unboat, such as those on the American waters, could preyent the entrance of these
eaded and destructive missiles. In point of fact, Mr. Whitworth, with a rifled
gun lighter than the 68-pounder, could destroy them by his steel-hardened shells
at a distance of 1500 to 2000 yards,
Since the above was written another experiment has been made with a still larger
gun, rifled on Mr. Whitworth’s hexagonal principle. This gun was of large calibre,
120-pounder, at a distance of 600 yards, and the results seem to prove that the
side of a vessel like the ‘ Warrior’ is no longer shell-proof. In these experiments
130-Ib. solid shot, with a charge of 25 lbs, of eile d went right through the 43-
inch armour-plate and lodged in the teak backing behind, A shell of the same
weight, and a charge of 25 lbs. of powder, also penetrated the armour-plate and
exploded, tearing the wood backing, and lodged on the opposite side.
From these more recent experiments we may infer that the victory is on the side
of the gun, and that it may be difficult, under such fearful odds, to construct ships
of sufficient power to prevent their destruction by the entrance of shells. Other
experiments are, however, in progress, and means may yet be adopted to solve the
question of armour-ships versus shot and shell.
On the Importance of Economizing Fuel in Iron-plated Ships. By B. E. Aten.
Tron-plated ships, to be efficient, ought to be able to carry coals for fourteen days ;
but in consequence of the weight of the armour, and the present mode of generating
and using the steam, only coals enough for seven days can be carried. In future
wars, despatch in going to the seat of war, and high speed in manceuvring, will be
necessary ; therefore much fuel must be used ; hence the desirability of studying
how to economize fuel. The deficiency of boiler-power in the Royal Navy is too
well known. Modern inventions have increased the displacement of ships: thus,
the armour, coals, and machinery are about equal in weight; and 1000 horses’
pone will consume 200 tons of coal a day, under full steam, say at ten knots per
our; but the necessary power for increasing the speed from ten to twelve knots
demands double the fuel; and if the speed be increased to sixteen knots, the amount
of fuel must be quadrupled. Some of our new war-ships only move at 93 knots an
hour, whereas it is generally allowed they should make 15 knots ; 5000 miles ought
to be steamed without re-coaling, but only one-third of that distance can be accom-
plished. As a proof that the ‘boilers are too small, it may be affirmed that none
of the ships in the Royal Navy can work full steam, and keep the throttle-valves
open, for more than a few hours at a time. Six-hundred horse-power boilers should
be used where only 400 horse-power boilers are now used. Coal is the only item
in which weight can be saved. The merchant vessels only consume half the coals
(for ships of the same size) of those in the Royal Navy. Cornish engines consume
2; pounds of coal per horse-power per hour; 23 pounds ought to be the limit in
marine engines; but 6 poner are generally used in the Royal Navy. He proposed
the following methods for economizing fuel :—To proportion the boilers to the steam
required ; to increase the capacity of the cylinders, but not the length of the stroke ;
.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183
to superheat the steam; to jacket the cylinders to warm the injection water; to
work the steam expansively by having two cylinders, a small one at the back of the
large one, or concentrically within the large one, and to let the steam into the small
eylinder first. Although he recommended this to our Admiralty in 1855, no notice
was taken of it. The Swedish Government have adopted it in their new gun-boats,
and it obtained a medal at the present Exhibition. By these arrangements for
economy, and with better-designed engines, 17,000 tons of coal per day might be
saved throughout our fleet; but now, after steaming 2000 miles, the ships have to
ereep into port, under canvas, to be re-coaled. 40 per cent. of power might be
added, and therefore a greater speed of one-and-a-half knot per hour obtained,
without greater displacement; and 14 tons per horse-power per annum, or a mil-
lion tons of coals per annum, for the whole fleet might be saved.
On Artificial Stones. By Professor D. T. Ansrep, M.A,
In this paper the author described the various materials and contrivances used
for the purpose of replacing stone where natural stone could not be advantageously
procured. He described, in succession, terra cottas, cements, and siliceous stones,
ointing out the character, properties, uses, advantages, and disadvantages of each,
e alluded to experiments made in the laboratory on the various methods sug-
gested for preserving stone by a Section of the Committee recently appointed by
the Board of Works in reference to the Palace of Westminster; Dr. Hofmann, Dr.
Frankland, Mr. Abel, and the author being members of it. During their investiga-
tions a remarkable material was submitted by Mr. Ransome for their considera-
tion, and its discovery arose out of Ransome’s method of preserving stone by
effecting a deposit of silicate of lime within the substances of the absorbent stone,
saturating the surface with a solution of silicate of soda, and then applying a solu-
tion of chloride of calcium ; thus producing a rapid double decomposition, leaving
an insoluble silicate of lime within the stone, and a soluble chloride of sodium,
which could afterwards be removed by washing. To prove this, Mr. Ransome
made small blocks of sand in moulds by means of silicate of soda, and then dipped
them in chloride of calcium. The result was the formation, almost instantane-
ously, of a perfectly compact, hard, and, to all appearance, a perfectly durable
solid. Mr. Ransome at once adopted the process for the formation of an artificial
stone which, the author of the paper considered, would combine the advantages,
and avoid some of the disadvantages, of other artificial stones. Experience, how-
ever, can alone be the test of its durability. A specimen weighing two tons was
shown in the International Exhibition, and the substance is used in the stations of
the Metropolitan Railway. Itis cheap, and can be made, on the spot, of almost any
rubbish or material, and of any form or size. Experiments made by Mr. Ransome
show that, as compared with Portland stone or Caen stone, a bar with section 4
inches square and 8 inches long, suspended midway between supports, sustained
2122 lbs., while similar bars of Portland and Caen stone broke respectively with
750 lbs. and 780 lbs. The adhesion of the stone was shown by weights suspended
from a piece prepared to expose a sectional area of 53 inches. Caen stone sepa=
rated at 768 lbs. ; Bath, at 796 lbs.; Portland, at 1104 Ibs.; Elland Edge, at 1874 Ibs.;
Ransome’s, at 1980Ibs. A cube of 4 inches of Ransome’s stone sustained 80 tons.
Unsinkable Ships.
By Cuares Aruerton, late Chief Engineer in HM, Dockyard, Woolwich.
The author observes that competitive rivalry in the construction of ships of war
with a view to their being “invulnerable,” and in the construction of ordnance
with a view to its being effective for penetrating the build even of armoured ships,
appears, from the experiments which have been carried on at Shoeburyness, to be a
question involving unlimited penne in possibly abortive ship-building, the
‘yesult of which rivalry between ordnance and iron plating, being dependent on future
invention, does not admit of present definite solution.
Nevertheless the principle of “invulnerability” in the construction of ships of
war by the agency of iron plating having been originated and adopted by France
; present the most effective system of naval construction, though admitted
184 REPORT—1862.
to be imperfect, there has arisen internationally a necessity for its adoption until
it shall be met or superseded by some other device; and the object of the author,
by this paper, is to bring before the notice of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science the question, which has been otherwise publicly agitated
by him, whether the ae of “invulnerability,” as based on “ armour-plating,”
may not be superseded by the ere of “unsinkability,” as based on the
principle of constructing ships with such a mass of uninflammable materials of a
specific gravity less than that of water as shall support the hull and its entire load,
and float, however perforated by shot laterally through the sides of the ship, or
vertically through the deck and bottom of the vessel by the still more formidable
effect of an improved mortar-practice pitching shells of great weight with an in-
fallible precision at short range, or even still float in parts when severed by the
concussion of a hostile ram.
Though the vessel may thus be “ unsinkable,”’ it is not professed or anticipated by
the author that war would be prosecuted without the sacrifice of blood; for though
the proposed construction of shipping would be well adapted for protecting the
crews of ships from small arms, still the cannon or the mortar would take effect.
The chief point on which the principle of “unsinkable ships” is put forward by
the author as claiming consideration is that, by the adoption of this principle, the
whole crew of a ship would not be simultaneously drowned through the effective
gamers of a single shot, shell, or ram-stroke, as might be the case with armoured
ships, seeing that the direct fire of artillery is still paramount, and the mortar prac-
tice above referred to has not yet been tried.
A further advantage consequent on adopting the principle of “ unsinkability ”’
would be that it does not necessitate the construction of ships of such large size as
is required for carrying out the principle of ‘invulnerability ” by armour-plating.
Also by avoiding top-weight, by which armour-plated ships are so much encum-
bered, many difficulties in the prosecution of naval architecture are obviated. It is
therefore conceived that this principle of “unsinkability” would be well adapted
for gun-boats and mortar-vessels destined to act in cooperation with each other in
assailing larger vessels at close quarters, or doing service in shoal waters, such
vessels receiving their stores from high-speed steamers of ordinary build acting as
store and hospital and barrack ships, to be kept out of harm’s way. Also the prin-
ciple of unsinkability would be well adapted for troop ships and the safe convey-
ance of valuable cargoes and treasure.
The details of construction of the “ unsinkable ship,” as respects the disposal of
its unsinkable materials, will be dependent on the purpose for which the ship may
be especially intended. For example, the whole mass of material on which the ship
depends for its unsinkability may be in a solid mass, with the whole of its hold
accommodation above the deep-draught water-level; or the vessel may haye a hold
below the level of the load water-line, provided that the required mass of buoyant
material be otherwise disposed of, constituting the sides or ends and bottom and
decks of the vessel. Of course such a vessel with a hold below the load-line level
may become water-logged, and, if a steamer, disabled ; but still such a vessel would
sail, and the crew would be alive to do good service from her deck; at all events,
her whole crew could not be simultaneously sent to the bottom, which is the great
catastrophe intended to be obviated by the principle of unsinkable ships—a cata-
strophe to which armour-plated ships, though bulkheaded, will be liable if artil-
lery or mortar practice become paramount.
The required brevity of this abstract does not admit of the details of calculation
and of construction for the production of “unsinkable ships” of given capabilities
being here entered upon; such an exposition, to be complete, would be elaborate,
and may engage the future attention of the author.
On Coryton’s Vertical- Wave-Line Ships, Self-Reefing Sails, and Guide-Pro~
peller. By Joun Coryton, of Lincoln’s Inn, Barrister-at-Law.
The object of the inventor has been to produce a form of vessel which shall com-
bine the weatherly qualities of a clipper ship, with the advantages of increased speed
when going free, and greater safety when scudding before a gale, riding at an
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185
anchor, or becoming suddenly unmanageable through loss of masts, damage to her
machinery, &e.
This object is attained by a revolution in the tactics of sailing, as well as ina
change of form. When close-hauled, or steaming head to wind, the vessel goes—
to use the parlance applicable to the present form of ships—head foremost; when
sailing or steaming off the wind, she goes, so to speak, stern foremost. In still
water the vessel proceeds always on the latter plan. The terms stem, bow, and
stern being obviously unsuited to vessels of the proposed form, the inventor sub-
stitutes for them the “weather end” and “lee end ” respectively.
Novel as the general idea pervading this invention may appear, the deviation in
point of form of a Vestical Wave-Tinc vessel from the type of ships at present
existing is very slight. Taking as a standard a fast clipper schooner of the latest
build with a “tumble home” bow, fine entry lines, beam carried right aft to the
taffrail, and a flat counter, something very like the proposed form will be obtained
by cutting away the entire after-keel almost from the fore-foot ; the “weather end”
thus becoming (approximately) a vertical wedge, and the “lee end” (approximately
alsc) a horizontal wedge. Provided these forms are preserved, the intermediate
work is of little consequence, and may be constructed simply with regard to the
ordinary rules of carpentering—a point of economy which those practically ac-
quainted with ship-building will not fail to appreciate. “It seems,” is the obser-
vation of M. Vial de Clairbois in his ‘ Architecture Navale’ (p. 22), “that naval
architects have hitherto affected to avoid straight lines, although geometrically they
have the advantage of simplicity over all others.’ By a coincidence which may
appear almost accidental, it will be found that at two points of the vessel con
structed on the new principle (and in these, in the larger class of vessels, it is pro-
posed to bulk-head them), sections made by planes slightly out of the perpendi-
cular approach very nearly the catenary—a self-supporting curve. The inventor
proposes to construct his vessels of laminated iron up to the water-line, and to make
the works above, for the convenience of rough repairs, of wood. By making the
iron planks taper towards the ends, and decrease in number as they are placed
higher on the ship’s side, the greatest strength of the vessel may be placed with
almost mathematical accuracy at the point exposed to the greatest strain.
The advantages of this system, besides economy and strength, may be shortly
stated thus :—Safety. If disabled, instead of rolling in the trough of the sea like
the ‘Great Eastern’ on a recent occasion, a Vertical-Wave-Line ship flies head to
wind at once, and remains so as long as she can hold together. In boats of this
construction ‘‘ broaching-to” (the fertile source of disaster in passing through
surfs or being beached) is entirely avoided, the boat being always kept by the
action of the water in the only position compatible with safety. The same pecu-
larity of form, offering a maximum deflection to an impinging body, renders Ver-
tical-Wave-Line ships admirably adapted for the purposes of naval warlare. A
model of a Shield Ship on this principle was exhibited at the International Exhi-
bition during the present year.
Stability.—V ertical-Wave-Line ships will never accumulate rolling motion.
From the form of the immersed body, if lateral disturbance take pine the axis of
rotation changes with such rapidity as to render it all but impossible that any sub-
sequent impact of wind or sea can have the effect of increasing, and almost certain
that each such impact will actually neutralize, the existing momentum. It is
this peculiarity, coupled with its safety in exposed situations, that has induced the
inventor to suggest this form as suitable for the establishment of a system of Fair-
way Lighting in the English and Irish Channels, plans and models of which were
recently exhibited at the International Exhibition of 1862.
In respect of Speed, a very remarkable phenomenon presents itself, in the case
of Vertical-Wave-Line ships sailing off the wind or steaming free, working con-
sequently “lee end” foremost. Jor every increase of speed there is a decrease of
draught. That there is a limit to the truth of this is of course evident; but as a
totally new problem, the inventor anticipates from iis investigation very extra-
ordinary results. From the absence of keel at the lee end, the vessel steers of
course with great handiness, and with the Guide-Propeller can be made to turn in
her own length.
186 REPORT—1862. —
The revolution in tactics alluded to above, rendered of course the ordinary
system of rigging useless, and the inventor has consequently devised the system of
Self-reefing traversing sails (also lately exhibited at the International eT
The masts, which are T-shaped, are supported by revolving shears, and the sai
are fixed on spars rigidly attached to the masts. The mast is thus inclined to the
wind, or “rakes,” to use the ordinary term, whether the vessel be by the wind or
going free—an arrangement which, for the same vertical height of masts, gives a
greater and far more efficient spread of canvas than can be produced by any of the
systems now in use. Ona smart breeze springing up, the sails reef themselves to
the compass requisite for the vessel’s progress; and, as the gale freshens, reef after
reef is taken in, until, when it is at its height, her sails will be found close-reefed,
without the employment of a single hand. If the ship be clear of the land, her
sails can be furled, her helm left, and the ship will ride the gale out head to wind.
Ships and boats on this principle can, of course, equally with any others, be pro-
pelled by steam or other power. In his ee eric Guide-Propeller (exhibited
also in 1851 (Class VIII. 82) and 1862 (Class XII. 2746)), the inventor has endea-
voured to introduce a great simplification into ship propulsion, by combining the
processes of steering and propelling. The plan consists in pumping a current of air
through tubes which are led outside the vessel into the water, this current being
capable of the nicest regulation and change of direction by means of valves.
Water may be used instead of air, and is recommended for boats, in which, it may
be observed, oars are entirely dispensed with, and propulsion is effected by hauling
on an endless rope.
The last point is Ventilation, and for the appreciation of the advantages of the
new system in this respect it is almost necessary to refer to models. In the Ex-
hibition of 1862 a model was shown, made to a scale, and intended to test the
relative merits of a ship on this system and the ‘Great Eastern.’ The dimensions
of the vessel on the Vertical- Wave-Line system of equal tonnage were, length 432
feet (as against 700 in the case of the ‘Great Eastern’), breadth 108 feet, depth
76 feet.
Models and drawings illustrative of the construction and propulsion of Vertical-
Wave-Line ships may be seen at the Naval Museum of the Royal United Service
Institution, Middle Scotland Yard, and at the Museum of the Commissioners of
Patents, South Kensington.
A New Marine Boiler for generating Steam of High Pressure.
By Dr. F. Growarnt.
The boiler was a cylindrical tubular boiler, with certain arrangements of radial
tubes for taking up and conveying the steam, and made to rotate slowly in the fur-
nace on its axis. The advantages claimed were freedom from priming, smallness
of space occupied, superheating the steam, and economy of fuel.
On the Prevention of Railway Accidents. By J. SpwE1t.
The author considered that the main cause of accidents was the want of punctu-
ality in the trains; and that this arose mainly from the overloading of them, which
rendered it impossible that they could keep time. Engines were made to perform
certain work, and draw certain loads, and if these were exceeded it was impossible
that time could be kept. This was a matter that the public could not ascertain
for themselves, and he therefore advocated the importance of having engines
licensed, like boats, omnibuses, &c., by Government, to draw certain oa; and a
statement giving that information should be placed conspicuously on the engine.
This would prevent the overloading, as it Bt be in the power of every passenger
to see whether the power of the engine was duly apportioned to the carriages it had
to draw.
On the Failure of the Sluice in Fens, and on the Means of securing such Sluices
agamst a similar Contingency. By W.Txorotp, M.I.C.E.
The author described the circumstances attending the failure of the sluice, and
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187
peinied out by a diagram that, in his opinion, the mode of preventing such an acci-
ent in future was the employment of double sluices, one behind the other, the
water between the two being always kept locked in, at a mean height between the
water in the drain and that on the sea-side, during the time the sea doors are closed
by the tide; by this mode, the pressure of the highest tide, on each set of doors,
will be only one-fourth of that on the single set of doors, on the fallen sluice, at the
time of the disaster. Hence its undoubted safety.
On the Merits of Wooden and Iron Ships, with regard to cost of repairs and
ee security for life. By L, WILLrIAMson.
The author called attention, in particular, to an iron ship, the ‘Santiago,’ which
met with a collision, the consequences of which would have been absolute destruc-
tion of the vessel had she been of wood; whereas, being of iron and haying water-
tight mente, the vessel was able to pursue her voyage, and was repaired at
the cost of a few hundred pounds, instead of several thousands which would have
been necessary had she been made of wood and could have been preserved from
foundering.
Oblate Projectiles with Cycloidal Rotation, contrasted with Cylindro-ogival
Projectiles having Helical or Rifle Rotation. By R. W. Woortcomse.
The object of this paper was further to discuss the views of the author given in
a paper read before the Royal Society in March last (1862), entitled, “ An Account
of some Experiments with Excentric Oblate Bodies and Discs as Projectiles,” and
to show the result of further experiments. Rifled cannon, it appears, cannot project
heavy elongated shot with high initial velocity; and, except with the Whitworth
flat-headed shot, the penetration of iron plates can only be effected by means of a
high velocity. The author considers that however well the helical or rifle method
with cylindrical elongated shot may answer for small arms, yet that, when we wish
to project great weights with great and sustained velocities, we shall succeed better
if our mechanical arrangements are less antagonistic than the rifle principle to the
great laws of nature, as exhibited in the form, method of rotation, and translation
of the great natural projectiles, the planets. None of these are prolate bodies pro-
jected with helical rotation about their longest diameters and in the direction of
such axis. The author states that he has found it practicable to project a body
that, instead of being prolate, is more or less oblate,—that, instead of having helical
rotation at the expense of translation, has cycloidal rotation in ad of translation.
A projectile, having a circular periphery in the line of motion in the gun, leaves the
bore as a common round shot, and has the additional security for high initial
yelocity of windage less than for round shot of similar weight. The terminal
velocity is also provided for by the oblateness, and by the axis of rotation being
always transverse to, and not in the plane of, the trajectory. The gun has asimilar
transverse section to that of the projectile, the bore being straight and smooth.
The projectile is a disk, and it should be slightly excentric to make it rotate—so
slight as to be /ittle more than the inevitable excentricity of every spherical projec-
tile. The author then gave the results of some actual experiments with a gun
and projectiles made on this principle. The gun was 20} inches long ; the calibre,
long diameter 12 inch, and short diameter 3 inch. The shot polghad nearly 8 ounces,
with a charge of 2} ounces, or three-fifths the weight of the shot; the penetration
at 25 yards from an oak target was a mean of 11 inches, reckoning to the near side
of the disk, and to the far side nearly 18 inches.
The initial velocity, measured by Havez’s electro-ballistic apparatus, was 1487 feet
per second. A comparison was made with a small brass gun, length of bore
34625 inches, or nearly double the length of the author’s gun in calibres, The
mean calibre of the brass gun was 1°6 inch, the mean diameter of the round shot
was 1:43 inch; and this gun, fired with a proportionate charge of powder, showed
that the disk gun gave more than double the penetration of the brass gun, and an
initial velocity of 1487 to 1091 of the latter. He thought that these remarkable
experiments showed that the subject was worthy of further consideration,
188 REPORT—1862.
APPENDIX.
On the Solution of the Linear Equation of Finite Differences in its most
General Form. By Prof. Sytvester, F.R.S.
The author exhibited (and illustrated with examples) a simple and readily ap-
plied method of obtaining the general term (and consequently the complete solution)
of an equation of finite differences with any number of independent variables, a
question which, although touched upon by Libri and laboriously investigated by
Binet, had hitherto, to the best of his knowledge, remained unsolved even in the case
of an equation with but one independent variable with non-constant coefficients ;
when the coefficients are supposed constant, the well-known solution flows as
an immediate corollary from the author’s general form. Essentially the method
depends upon the adoption of a natural principle of notation for the given coeffi-
cients, according to which each coefficient is to be denoted by a twofold group
of indices, the number of the double indices in a group being equal to the num-
ber of independent variables in the given equation. Thus, supposing tm,n,p... to
be expressible by means of the given general equation, as a sum of w’s with infe-
rior indices, the coefficient of wu, ,,,--- in that sum must be denoted by the double
index group tog i = ." i: The process for obtaining the general term in tz, y, z+++
pi Ale lare
is then shown to be reducible virtually to the problem of effecting the simulta-
neous decomposition of the integer variables 2, y, s... into parts in every possible
manner and order of relative arrangement, the magnitudes of such parts being
limited by the degree or degrees of the given equation in respect of these variables.
The collective value of the terms thus obtained constituting the complete solution
may be termed, in the author's nomenclature, a hyper-cumulant, whose properties
and their applications remain to be studied out as those of the elementary kinds of
common cumulants have been to a considerable extent in the ordinary theory of
continued fractions. The first stage in the process of constructing the terms of a
general cumulant or general hyper-cumulant is almost identical with that of finding
the coefficients in the expansion of a power of a polynomial function of one or
several variables, differing from it indeed only in the circumstance that permutations
which lead to repetitions in the latter case, represent distinct values in the former.
On Aérolites. By Professor N. 8. Masketyye.
Professor Maskelyne prefaced a series of notices of meteorites lately added to the
collection in the British Museum by some observations on the phenomena that
accompany the fall of such bodies to the earth. Loud reports and the develop-
ment of brilliant light in the sky are among the most generally observed of these
phenomena. The fallen mass or its fragments, besides the marked characters they
constantly present, as well in composition as in the mode of aggregation of their
component minerals, exhibit also invariably a superficial enamelling or incrustation.
The meteorite which fell at Butsura, in India, on May 12, 1861, accompanied by
successive reports and a luminosity in the sky visible in the daytime, presented
some new and very interesting facts bearing on the cause of this incrustation. The
whole of the fragments found, though they fell in four places, at distances of three
or four miles apart, formed the parts of a large piece of an aérolite, fitting to one
another with great exactness, with the exception of two of them, between which
an intermediate fragment had been lost. Some of the fragments were found to be
entirely coated with crust, yet capable of being adjusted to each other with
unmistakeable accuracy; others again exhibited no such incrustation at the parts
where they fitted to each other, and were yet, like the former, found several miles
asunder. It was obvious from this that some of these fragments had become
coated with crust after they had been severed, while others had been so severed
without becoming subsequently incrusted.
That the incrustation was the result of superficial fusion seems the best explana-
tion of its presence on the meteorite, as well as of the partiality with which 1t was
distributed. Such asuperficial fusion, however, could only result from the develop-
ment of heat of enormous temperature very instantaneously ; and the best if not
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 189
the only satisfactory solution seems to be that recognized by most physicists, namely,
that it is the result of the heat generated by the aérolite entering the earth’s
atmosphere with the velocity of a cosmical body, and of that velocity being
reduced with a suddenness that brings down the motion of the aérolite to that of
a falling body in a few seconds of time. The light associated with the fall of such
a body is probably due in part, as Haidinger has suggested, to the actual incandes-
cence of the air, partly to the combustion of the iron and the ignition of the stony
material as the surface of the aérolite fuses and streams away in a state of ignition
and is thus left behind it in its path. The reports heard may be due to the actual
bursting of the mass into fragments, from the gradual penetration towards the
interior of the high temperature constantly being developed on its surface. That
interior, bringing with it the intense cold of space, and the contracted volume due
to that coldness (probably also brittle in consequence of it), remains in its more
shrunk state, while the outer parts are expanding. Wherever there are lines of
weaker ageregation therefore in the mass, or where the heat is able, from differences
of conducting power in the material, to penetrate the mass unequally, a tendency
in parts of the mass to break away from an inner core will ensue, and the explosion
is the result. The causes that have combined to sever the mass into fragments
may recur to cause explosions in the fragments, especially if their coherence has
been shaken and cracks have been formed in them. If the aérolite has not lost too
much of its velocity at the time of the explosions, the incrustation will reeommence
on the fresh surfaces. Where the velocity has been too far reduced, this process
will not be repeated, and the stones will fall without a crust on the faces of fracture.
~ Intermediate stages of slight incrustation and even of a mere thin glazing are by
no means rare, and several of these are illustrated by specimens in the British
Museum.
Mr. Maskelyne next pointed out the conditions which must have been present
in the earlier stages of the history of an aérolite. The presence of an excess of iron
and a deficiency of oxygen is attested by the existence of metallic iron in almost
every known aérolite. One has to imagine a mixture of molten metals gradually
oxidizing in a rare atmosphere, and to suppose that the more oxidizable of them
take precedence in their claim to the oxygen. These have, probably, during the
process displaced some of the iron and nickel where these metals had become
already combined, as in the cases where we find the iron isolated in the form of a
microscopic, often crystallized dust in the interior of aérolitic minerals (like the
suboxide of copper in avanturine glass). We have also evidence of stages in the
history of the formation of an aérolite. The orbicular structure of so many of
these bodies is an indication of one stage of this kind. The spherules which cha-
racterize this structure are often composed of a single crystalline and homogeneous
mineral, with a radiating structure; often they are breccias made up of several
erystals of the same or of different minerals united by a granular network of mineral,
These spherules are often surrounded by a shell of meteoric pyrites or iron, and
are set in a mixed mass, often highly porphyritic, composed of similar ingredients
with the spherules. The solidification of this ground-mass marks, probably, a second
stage in the history, the former indicating the very gradual separation by cooling
of some of the ingredients of the aérolite, and the latter the result of the further
gradual cooling of the residuary mass. There is no glass or uncrystallized matter
apparent in any aérolite yet examined. Hence the meteorite, while presenting
analogies with a slag in so far as that it is produced in the presence of an excess of
metal, is in other respects analogous to a lava from the gradual manner in which
its cooling has taken place and the different minerals have become separated out.
A third stage in the history of the aérolite is exhibited in the veins of metallic
iron and of other substances which are so often found not only cementing the sides
of narrow fissures in meteorites, but frequently in the more compact varieties
traversing with those fissures the substance of the spherules, and producing in them
and the surrounding mass the phenomenon of “a heave,” such as one sees in a
lode when the two sides of the fissures have shifted their relative positions.
The next subject introduced was that of the minerals contained in a®rolites; and
Mr. Maskelyne pointed out that, from the optical characters exhibited by these
minerals when under microscopic examination, he was led to believe that augite
190 REPORT—1862.
and felspar can rarely be detected in the high proportions in which they are asserted
by the chemist to be present in the chondritic variety of meteorite, though con-
stituting the mass of other kinds. In the former kind, on the other hand, the
crystals seem, in the majority of cases, to exhibit the planes of polarization in
directions which belong to minerals crystallizing in the prismatic system.
The following meteorites, many of which had been recently acquired by the
British Museum, were next described in detail.
Chondritie Aérolites.
J. From Akbarpir, Shahjehanpur, India, lat. 27° 48’, long. 79°43’. An entire
stone, for a long while in the British Museum, which fell at this place, April 18,
1838. It weighs 33 lbs. Its sp. gr.=3-73. It presents a beautifully marbled
surface when polished, richly veined with a dark mineral (chromite, probably).
2. The stones, some incrusted and some only partially so, the fall of which has
been above alluded to, and which fell on the banks of the Gunduk, near Butsura,
on May 12, 1861, lat. 27° 7’, long. 84° 9', at four places. Sp. gr.=3-60.
3. Nellore, in Madras. A stone weighing 30 lbs., which fell at Yatoor, near this
place, on January 23, 1852. Its sp. gr.=3-63.
4, Mhow, Ghazeepur, lat. 25° 54’, long. 83° 57'.. A stone that fell on the 16th
February, 1827; sp. gr. =3°521.
5. Dhurmsala, in the Punjaub ; fell July 14, 1860; sp. gr.=3°42.
6. Kheragur (perhaps Dhenagur), near Agra; fell March 28, 1860 ; sp. gr. =3°39L.
7. Parnallee. The largest of the two stones which fell at that village, in the
Presidency of Madras, on February 28, 1857. Its weight is 180 lbs., and its sp.
= SA,
a Durala. Fell February 18, 1815, at Durala, in the territory of the Putteala
Rajah, lat. 30° 2’, long. 76°52’. For a long time at the East India House, It
weighs 20 lbs. per ?
9. Agra. A stone the property of William Nevill, Esq., part of the stone recorded
to have fallen on August 7, 1822, at a village in the neighbourhood of Agra, 300
miles N.W. of Allahabad. Its sp. gr. =3-666. :
10, 11. Two stones that fell, the one at Umballah, at an uncertain date, in one of
the years 1822 or 1828, and the other at Bitoura, 75 miles N.W. of Allahabad, on
November 30, 1822; sp. gr. of Umballah stone=3-448 ; of Bitoura stone=3'57.
12. A part of one of the several stones that fell at Allahabad and Futtehpur on
the last date. These last four stones may all belong to one and the same fall ; but if
the date of Mr. Nevill’s Agra stone be correct, it is certainly a distinct one from
the other three, Its high specific gravity, its large amount of iron, and general
aspect would render it probable that it is so, which would confirm the correctness
of its date. The Umballah stone is very unlike either of the others, and is probably
a separate fall.
That from Bitoura certainly belongs to the fall of Allahabad and Futtehpur.
The sp. gr. of the Allahabad stones range from 3:54 to 3°57.
13. A small stone fell in the field called the North Inch, close to Perth, in Seot-
land, on May 17, 1830. A small portion of it was reserved by Dr. Thomson of
Glasgow, and has since passed into the possession of Mr. Nevill. The British
Museum is indebted to that gentleman for the half of it. It is a remarkable little -
meteorite, very rich in a peculiar mineral with a radiated structure; sp. gr. =3-494,
To the class of aérolites devoid of marked spherular structure belong—
14. The Shalka stone that fell, on November 30, 1850, at Shalka in Bancoorah,
engal.
15. That of Bustee, in Goruckpur; lat. 26° 49', long. 82°44’. Perhaps the most
singular of all known aérolites. It fell near that place on December 2, 1852.
In it Mr. Maskelyne has detected a mineral to which he gives the name of Old-
hamite—a yellow transparent body of cubic crystallization, consisting of a sulphide
of calcium containing more than one equivalent of sulphur. Four other minerals
in this aérolite were also crystallographically described, one of a golden-yellow
colour, and cubic in its crystalline system.
16, Moradabad ; sp. gr.=3'143 ; fell at that place in 1808,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 191
17. Managaon (piobably Mallaigaum), lat. 20° 32', long. 74° 30’, in Khandeish.
This very remarkable stone fell on July 26, 1843. It consists of a congeries of
fheantifal “apes pence crystals entangled, as it were, in a network of an opake
mineral of the same colour.
Note.—The detailed accounts of these meteorites are being published in the
numbers of the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for 1863.
On the Effects of different Manures on the Mixed Herbage of Grass Land.
By J. B. Lawns, F.BS., F.CS., and J. H. Gurzert, Ph.D., F.BS., FCS.
At the Aberdeen Meeting the authors had shown the great difference in both the
chemical and the botanical characters of the herbage induced by different kinds of
manure, each applied for three consecutive years on the same plot, in a portion of
Mr. Lawes’s park, which had been laid down as meadow probably for some
centuries. Now, after the continuance of the experiment for four years niore, they
aye the results of a more complete botanical analysis of the produce. The full
details were exhibited in Tables, and discussed at length; but the most important
of them are embodied in the Table given herewith, and the general results may be
shortly stated as follows :—
Le 80 far as the general distribution of Graminaceous, Leouminous, and miscella-
neous or weedy herbage, and the tendency to the production of leafy or stemmy
produce and to early or retarded ripening, were concerned, the characters of the
produce of the seventh season, 1862, were, in the main, similar to those before
recorded of the third season, 1858. But there was considerable change in the
relative predominance of certain species on particular plots. Dactylis glomerata,
Festuca duriuscula or F. pratensis, Avena pubescens or A. flavescens, Poa trivialis ot
P. pratensis, and Alopecurus pratensis had, respectively, become much more preva-
lent on one or more of the plots, according to the description of manure employed.
2. Unmanured, the mown produce consisted of 74 per cent. by weight of
raminaceous, 7 per cent. Leguminous, and 19 per cent. miscellaneous or weedy
herbage. It showed great variety, comprising about 40 species of plants, of which
6 were Graminaceous, 4 Leguminous, and the remainder miscellaneous, and
exhibited comparatively little predominance of individual species. Festuca durius-
cula, F. pratensis, Avena pubescens, and A. flavescens were the most prominent;
whilst the freer-growing grasses were in smaller amount, and a number of others
in less proportion still. The crop was even, but very short, with little development
of stem; and it was green, and comparatively late, at the time of cutting.
3. Mixed mineral manures (superphosphate of lime, and sulphates of potass, soda,
and magnesia) also gave about 40 species of plants; they increased the Graminaceous
herbage comparatively little, and reduced the proportion in the produce both of it
and the wusly herbage, but very greatly increased both the amount per acre and
the proportion of the Leguminous plants Trifolium, Lathyrus, and Lotus, which
tapithar contributed nearly one-fourth of the total produce. The description of the
Graminaceous herbage was not very much altered from that of the unmanured land ;
there was no striking predominance of individual species; but, compared with the
produce by more productive manures, there was a pretty even mixture of most of
the grasses occurring without manure, and those which did show any prominence
were chiefly of the smaller and less free-growing kinds. The tendency to form
stem and seed, and to early ripeness, was much greater than without manure.
4. Ammonia salis alone gave a produce in which 33 species only were detected ;
they considerably increased both the amount per acre and the proportion in the
produce of the Graminaceous herbage, almost excluded Leguminous plants, and
reduced the number and amount of miscellaneous or weedy species generally, but
much increased the luxuriance of some few, particularly the Rumex acetosa, Bunium
flexuosum, and Achillea millefolium. The proportions were nearly 88: per cent.
Graminaceous, but a fraction of 1 per cent. Leguminous, and 113 per cent. mis-
cellaneous herbage. The relation to one another of the Graminaceous species, as
to amount, was much the same as without manure, excepting that Festuca durius-
eula and Agrostis vulgaris were brought into much greater prominence, The in-
192 REPORT—1862.
creased growth was characteristically that of root or base-leaves, and there was
very little tendency to form stem or to ripen.
5. Nitrate of soda alone, like ammonia-salts alone, considerably increased the
produce of Graminaceous herbage, and tended chiefly to the production of root-
foliage. The nitrate, however, strikingly brought into prominence the Alopecurus
pratensis, at the expense, eggs with the produce by ammonia-salts, chiefly of
Agrostis vulgaris, and partly of Festuca duriuscula. Otherwise the distribution of
species was not very materially altered, the more luxuriantly-growing grasses not
being much developed. The crop was much more leafy than stemmy, very dark
green, and late; it contained very little Leguminous herbage, though rather more
than the produce by ammonia-salts alone; and the weedy plants were luxuriant
rather than numerous—Plantago lanceolata, Centaurea nigra, Rumex acetosa, Achillea
millefolium, Ranunculus, and Taraxacum all being more or less encouraged.
6. The combinations of nitrogenous-manured (ammonia-salts or nitrates) and the
mixed mineral manure gaye by far the largest crops, the largest proportion of
Graminaceous herbage, the largest proportion referable to a few species, scarcely a
trace of Leguminous plants, and a small proportion, both in number and amount, of
miscellaneous or weedy plants. In fact, the total number of species (particularly
when ammonia-salts were used) was smaller than by any other description of
manure, in one case only 21, and in another only 24, being detected ; and the Gra-
minaceous herbage in several cases amounted to 90 per cent. or more of the total
crop. The produce was very luxuriant, with a good development of stem and stem-
leaves, and a much greater tendency to ripen than when the ammonia-salts or
nitrates were used without the mineral manure. The predominating grasses were
the most bulky and free-growing ones, Dactylis glomerata and Poa trivialis being
very prominent, and Avena pubescens or A. flavescens, Agrostis vulgaris, Lolium
perenne, and Holcus lanatus somewhat so, Festuca duriuscula, F. pratensis, Arrhe-
natherum avenaceum, Alopecurus pratensis, Bromus mollis, and others, were almost
excluded.
7. Farmyard manure considerably increased the growth of the grasses and of
some few weeds, particularly Rumex, Ranunculus, Bunium, and Achillea, and reduced
that of clover and other Leguminous plants, more especially when used in com-
bination with ammonia-salts. It greatly encouraged the growth of the good grass
Poa trivialis, and of the bad one Bromus mollis, and, when in conjunction with
ammonia-salts, the Dactylis glomerata. Under both conditions, Festuca duriuscula
and F. pratensis were nearly excluded, and Avena flavescens, A. pubescens, Agrostis
vulgaris, Lolium perenne, and Arrhenatherum avenaceum were very much, reduced.
The crops were upon the whole bulky, comparatively simple as to description of
herbage (not more than 28 species in all being detected), fairly luxuriant both in
stem and leaf, somewhat rough and coarse, and showed a tendency to unequal
ripeness.
1 Graminaceous herbage was only encouraged when nitrogenous manures were
employed; and when these were used alone, the produce was very leafy, and gene-
rally (according to the amounts applied) the crop was very dark green and showed
comparatively little tendency to ripen; but when the nitrogenous manures were
used in conjunction with mineral manures, the Graminaceous produce was very
much more luxuriant, very much more stemmy, showed much more tendency to
ripen, and almost excluded other descriptions of herbage.
9. Leguminous herbage was almost entirely excluded whenever nitrogenous
manures were used in any quantity, whether in the form of ammonia-salts or
nitrates, alone or in combination with mineral manures, but somewhat less so with
nitrates than with ammonia-salts. Mineral manures alone, containing both potass
and phosphoric acid, greatly increased the growth of Leguminous plants, particularly
the perennial red clover and meadow vetchling. Farmyard manure, like artificial
nitrogenous manures, also, but in a less degree, much diminished the proportion of
the Leguminous herbage.
10. Miscellaneous or weedy herbage was diminished in the number of species,
and in the frequency of occurrence, by every description of manure, but by exclu-
sively mineral manures less so than by any others. Nitrogenous manures, especially
in combination with mineral constituents, diminished the number and frequency
OLASS LAND.
ee. SEvEeNTH Season, 1862.
[To face page 192.
FARMYARD
MANURE,
's aperphosphate of Lime.
5 With 5 . A
With -. ||With Nitrate of Soda, With -
Aionia Salts | Ammonia Soyo oa Ammonia COMMON NAMEs,
1 Nitrogen) Salts (161 lbs Alone.| Salts
t/heat-straw. INicoe lbs. Micsogeny (=41 lbs. | (=82 Ibs. (=41 Ibs.
Nitrogen). &Sawdust. || Nitrogen. )| Nitrogen. ) Nitrogen).
| 13a | 13b 14 15 |16| 17
|
15 4 | 15 13 13 16
0°79 O21 | 9°62 0°58 0°22 0°19 Hard Fescue.
sa, Py enn AL
oe
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT MANURES ON THE MIXED HERBAGE OF GRASS LAND.
TAnLe sHowtnG tHe Description, aNpD Prorortions rer Cenr., or Tor Dirrerent Kinps oF Herior. Sevenra Srason, 1862. [To face page 192.
i} ARTIFICIAL MANURES.
| Superphosphate || A
|
of Lin
NATURAL ; : 3
a | BOTANICAL NAMES. | COMMON NAMES.| UNMANURED,
FARMYARD
MANURE,
monia Salts
Ibs. Nitrogen)
Nitrate of Soda alone. Mixed Alkalies 41 Superphosphate of Lime
With |
i With " 7
Paonia |e With Nitrate of Suda, | with | .
| With | (=41 tbs. | (=82 Ibs With MGalta | With Aamonin Salts alte | Ammonia | COMMON NAMES,
| Alone, Alone. | gawavet, ||Nit Nines. || Alone, (<ag Ibs, |. (=B2ut Nitrogen’ ja Shel Ge a Alone,| Salts |
| : jarrdust, Nitrogen. | Nitrogen. Nitrogen) [984 CutWWheat-straw.||(=164Tbs,=10Ulbs.)) -_ ya, 2 bs | (=a1 tbs. |
| [Nitrogen | ||Nitrogen).!a Sawdust |\Nitrozen).|q ca walurt.{|Nitrogen.)| Nitrogen. rogen).
Plot Nos... alist 2 [rte 3a| 3b 4 5 Ga 8 | 9 io | p22 |e | Men | 13a | 13b | 14 | 15
i S (Ls ee heal gta | |
GRaAMINACE
a
Number of Species 16 | 13 16 16 15 16 || 17 le || 14 | 15 |14\)%) 15 13 13 16
} 1 | Festuca duriuscula Hard Fescue 959] 1064) G19 |) gina 712 13°5. 706 298 342 | 2°03] 95)! 149 9°62 058 019 | Hard Fescue,
2 ty pratensis -| Meadow Fescue baa} 160) 0-72 || 186 | 2 0:89 2 239 135 go | 1°67| 536)) 947 147 199 0:05 | Meadow Fescue
“ = || | i
{ 3 | Avena pubescens Downy Oat-grass 8'99| 6°63 784 | 1644 || 9°57 317 || 1047 1945 9°95 1043. | 8°93] 179|| 5°36 158 119 au | 1g 066 | Downy Oat-grass,
t ny favescens Yellow Oat-grass 448} 1-74 || 0°66 119 066 2°89 620) 5:28 || #75 879 | 3°68) ¢40|! a:94 497 a4 15:66 | 3:59 3°15 | Yellow Oat-grass.
| | | nas,
§ | Agrostis vulgaris Common Bent-grass 707] 442) 18:59 || 21:29 | 20'50 68a 620 | ) 1055 7:96 | 11°97) S95 | 1928 || | 178 0:78 | Common Bent-grass.
| 6 | Lolium perenne Rye-grass 660] ou a4 3°30 579 «| a32 | 461 11°89 608 746) at | 5:41 278 Rye-grass.
7 | Holcus lanatus Woolly Soft-grass 47 | i187) 16:94 p68 | sii || 669 | 456 1106 | 863 | 4°00) 3s 6-08 6:01 | Woolly Soft-zrass.
| 8 | Dactylis glomerata ... Rough Cock's-foot 347] 249) 08 |) 2°97 rg | ran) ve 329 so4 | angi | 23°55 | 3097 2104 16:89 | Rough Cock’s-foot
Graminacem. . 4 = | i
} $9 | Pow trivia Rough Meadow-grass | 1°50 264) 567) 7:99 || 161 122 674 | 3°62 s77| «ss || 12°00 8:97 169] 1016 |} 1547 | 19°96 7:30 27'43| 29:34 | Rough Meadow-grass.
110, pratensis Smooth Mendow-grass| 0°03 | | 02] oo4 | 0°08 oso | 0°07 0°90 o14 || 0-72 013 | os|| 037 || vos | 032 =| 018 | Smooth Meadow-gras
| . i |
| 41 | Arrhenatherum avenaceum ..| False Oat 008 | 4°00 |) 204] o-o4 197 || 877 gu2 || 0-90 526) 5:11 od 0:30 oop || oss | 5:70 0:36 2°73| 0°66 | False Oat.
12 Anthoxanthum odoratum. Sweet Vernal-grass 8-29] 1:0]/ 229] 265] ta3 |) a4 3°57 rig | 136 || ono} 3:53 |] 0-49 142 089 || | oar O01 0°19} 0°06 | Sweet Vernal-grass
13 | Alopecurus pratenais. Fox-tail 367) 0°65 || 216] o20/ og || oa | 1°64 19:69 | 604 O04) 040 || 0-08 155 360 Visi 050 1-77| 0715 | Fox-tail.
| 44 Brisa media. Quaking-grass 108 | o°54|| O81} 0:26) | oor oor | 0-01 002 0°03 0°07 e i] eee - Quaking-grass.
15 | Cynosurus eristatus Crested Dog's-tail....| 0°15] o-41|| 0-28] 0:27 | 003 | 040 || o13| 0-29 | “on | 15 | ‘60
16 | Bromus mollis Soft Brome-gras 0:08} 03 || 0-06) 0:29 O16 || 0-07 | 102 || o-63| ora | a7 | os 0:31 0-93 0:28 151 9°64] 12°83 | Soft Brome-grass.
17 | Phieum pratense Cat! s-tail | ra ae | 0-02 0°01 | 5 - | oor | 5 -- | 0108 | Cat’s-tail
18 | Aira crespitosa Tufted Hair-grass Jen ee a k | linees is | ‘Tufted Hair-grass,
Graminacewe determined 68°82 | 58°13 || 58'47]62°96| 69°45 || 78°68 pase || s6-47/ 65:21 || 7757 | 80°61 | 74:29|| 77:50 80°91 si95 || 6578 | 67-39
es undetermined; stem and leaf s.| 743| 11°61) 9°52] 8:90) Gao || 5-07 ] 1765 || sa] 440 || “631 | 652) 9:60 569 | ea || 27 | 1265
Shedded flowers and seeds (chiefly Graminacese; 7:95| 4°25|| G10} 746) 7°63 |) 4:59 1934 | 10:39 410} 397 |] 578 | | a-95] 906|) a6 3'81 419 5°64 971 |
Total 74°20 | 73°99 || 74°09 |78-72| sa4a || saad | 82°27 | 8031 || 6640) 73-58 89°65 | 8684 | 90:38 91-26 || gos | 9502 |) 79°69 | 89°75
Lecuminous Hersace.
Nacho clapeie toe WAeS: a| 3 3 | 4 ey || adhe au || ame alan || | fon 0 3 Al 2
1 | ‘Trifolium pratense perenne..| Perennial Red Clover oa) §2°66 | eal yo07 |i lf 0-28 o16 || 751/} ‘ |... | os 002 | =n L yey |§ 02 [Yo.go\{ 0°05 | Perennial Red Clover.
in » Fepens White Clover }avs pe | OT att a Ie } aoa) F202 Hy “oor | ‘oor | oo1|| oor | D iig 887 |Q [5819 oor | White Clover.
Leguminosse..4 | i | | | |
3 Lathyrus pratensis Meadow Vetchling....| 1°19| 1°88|| 1°54] 0°28] 0°07 || oor 0-29 O01 1324) 8110 om | ong | ora) 0) || 0-21 Sen 0:05 | 0°84 | 0:90) 0-14 | Meadow Veteblin,
4 | Lotus corniculatus.. Bird's-foot Trefoil. 169 | 1°62|} 166] 0-39). 007 | 001 os | o-o1 126) 0-17 cn Sal teecel| || a 0°01 | Bird’s-foot Trefoil
Total | 701] €16][ Gap]/ ato] orn | ors | oe oa2 | 017 |/2009) 1828 o12 | ors | 046) 002) os |! 000 000 || 92 | O86 ai
I | | | | | Ts" = = ———|
Miscenuanrous Hxrnacr. |
— 7a = a Ma PAT lal = eilteees Tae iP i || aed ee
Mannix ot paclaa os? 23 | 20 is | 14 | 15 | 13 | 10 |\19| a6 || 1a | 13 | 13/120 | a |
] Plantago lanceolata ........| Ribwort Plantain ....| 687) 7-7|| 7°29 007 || 009 | 009 306 699 || 023) 072 || os ovoa | 0-05) o/s 034 | Ribwort Plantain.
| | | | ) v6 | 7 D vsg | Milfoil
{ 2| Achillea millefolium........) Milfoil wee| 145] rn] V8 170 || 133 397 185 ass || 169]! os 1-06 208] o75|| 141 | C
3 | Centaurea nigra Black Knapweed ....| 0°10) 0°83 || 0-46 oor |! .. re} Joos} ons || oor : | === | | Black Enapweed.
4} Leontodon hiepidus Rough Hawkbit } | 058) 0-99 sees’ || Or01 ae | o7, * || 003 i _ slp poneh eee 3
5 | ‘Tragopogon pratense .. «| Yellow Goat's-beard. ve | O26)| O19 «ee . | | ‘ Rel) awe {| Dandelion -beard.
‘Com positae 6| ‘Taraxacum dens-leonis -...} Dandelion «| 0°00) 042 || 0-09 os |] cc32 | oa =| “os "a0 || 018) “O'0a ea 0°30 o10 |) “0'07 Dandelion,
7 | Carduus arvensis. Creeping ‘Thistle 4 ae (fl icace: || feenee |ll) “eone |] om)... Bs m Gal) ss | | creas :
8| Hypochorris radicata.,......| Cat's-ear Jon cs. | es Seece lee cee ; |) seen | “ola ; ace B lle ||jeeoe | ar.
9| Hieracium pilosella Mouse-car Hawkweed eel Tl |] ova 002 || ie Alt ae || > 3 S| me wee ‘ear Hawkweed.|
10 | Bellis perennia ; | Daly . vases] OOL| see |] OOF ara seav | set) ll) cance | | | eee aaa local vee | Daisy.
| | | 7 | za] vss) | 12a | Earth-nut.
11) Bunium flexuosum Earth-nut ......----| 0°94 2°62] 1-73 | ow6 | ono 109 ost || 179) 139 oat 47 | 174] 133 eed a
Umbellifers. J 12) Pimpinella saxifrage Burnet Saxifrage ....| 197) 0°21 || 079 | 010 006 A | » |] os 0-78 ool O15 | 004) O01) o07 Fumes Sonteeg ze.
13) Heracleum spbondylium....| Hogweed...+e+0:+2.0) O01) s+» || O01 rez; ? | ase || | ate ri vr [one | |
| | reall ; - . r 5 0°52 1:39 | Crowfoot.
Ranunculacese 14 & 15) Ranunculus acris et bulbosus| Crowfoot -| 961) 179 || 270 025 | oO 68 \ 2 147 || Hi orga | ras oe Bia gor oil lease | [ee
Polygonacem 16| Humex acto seoeasee| Sorrel Dock. - 119 | 2°68 | 1-93 yea | 106i |} ea | 186 | 70 0; 2 | Basi Cel | Field Weodrush.
Juneacese 17 Larula campestris. ‘ield Woodrush, 154) 101 || 1°97 075 | 086 || vos | rig) 0°64 ovo 004 Old) FO! a ses GermandarSpentinll
Scrophulariacess.. 18 | Veronica chammdrys .. Germander Speedwell | 043 | 0-41 | O41 0-01 ous || 087 ora || oi) 0-88 0-02 see Ware e |
| | re Weg : . 05 | 0:01 | y Mouse-ear Chickweed
§ 19 | Cerastim vulgatum ... Mouse-ear Chickweed | 0-40| 0°39|| 0:39 0-01 006 || 025 || 03] 0-08 | oor | 0:05) 0:01 |) oor vsz+ | Mouse-ear Chick
aryopbyllace } 4° | Stellaria graminea, Lemer Starwort.-.-».| 0°01) 004|) 0-03 ow . oo | | oo a8 '
| | | ‘o8 | | ores | | sess | Field Seabious.
accor 21 | Seablosa arvensis Field Seabious 0-01 oon Jos G08) arse ena bine
ryacese <1... 8) Hypnum squarrosum | Squarrose Mi | 04 | 0°06 I) cece | Sauaree
laceme 23 | Primula verin PEPYS Cowalip creer ool 00a an Bre
, 0:29 a | | .... | Great Burnet.
Yanguisorbacem .. 24 | Sanguisorba officinalis ......| Great Burnet oor oo on aia ar
25) Potentilla reptans «0.0: +++] Cinquefoll . ” teas Kis Ah Sahn } Common Avens,
Kowcem .....,4 96 Geum urbanum . SI2] Common Ave our BGs ae Fete sess pee || ENS
197) Spirmea ulmaria | Meadow-sweet oe | aH re ah RS cer |
| | | ‘ on 0°05 = oe =| ae wae cess) Yellow Bedstraw,
Calincem ........ 28) Gallum verum..--....00+++«| Yellow Bedstraw «+0: | +++ 001 tee nce To) “|| ae : ee | ones
vhioglowacess .. 49 Opbloglossum vulgatum Adier's-tongue « O01 | oro sees |] eee | nee ve |
| | eres cane | neae’ | me Sacn sess) Bugle.
Larniaceme 30| Ajuge reptans peeeasaseve| (0°01!) oo} ae set |e Doce Ha) | eS ee }
= sere” ETT) 1y'02 ar || mst | iz4g |) 1546 19'5a || gsi) sa 1022 13°03 | 916 | 7-84 | o39 Jigs) 1021 |
TorAus. |
— — ) | ]
35 31 28 40 36 28 30 29 | 26 24 al | 31 25 27 | 28
‘Total Number of Specios,.....| 43 | 38 39 | 32 33 40 Le | | stil -
FT > 2 TTT Y | y Y y y y 100" 100°00)100°0 i fl i || 100-00 100°00 [10°00 100"
00.00|100°00|!100-00f 00-0] 100:00 |) 00°00 | 100'00 || 10000 | Yoo {10000} ro000 || 10000 | 100-00 10|| 10000 || 100-00 | 00°00 | 00 |
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193
very strikingly, but at the same time greatly increased the luxuriance of a few
species, especially Rwmex acetosa, and frequently Bunium flecuosum and Achillea
millefolium. Plantago and Ranunculus were generally discouraged by active ma-
nures, excepting farmyard manure and nitrate of soda. The nitrate also favoured
Centaurea nigra and Taraxacum dens-leonis.
11. Considerable increase of produce was only obtained by means of farmyard
manure, or artificial manures containing both mineral constituents and ammonia-
salts or nitrates. The crops so obtained were much more Graminaceous, and con-
sisted in much greater proportion of but a few species of plants. The grasses
developed were chiefly of the more bulky and freer-growing kinds, and the produce
was generally very stemmy—the more so, and the coarser, the more excessive the
manuring.
12. Meadow-land mown for hay should not be manured exclusively with
artificial manures, but should receive a dressing of well-rotted farmyard manure
every four or five years.
13. Sewage-irrigation, like active manures applied to meadow-land in the ordi-
nary way, has also a tendeticy to develope chiefly the Graminaceous herbage, ex-
cluding the Leguminous, and to a great extent the miscellaneous or weedy plants.
It also, at the expense of the rest, encourages a few free-growing grasses, among
which, according to the locality and other circumstances, Poa trivialis, Triticum
repens, Dactylis glomerata, Holcus lanatus, and Lolium perenne have been observed
to be very prominent. The result is an almost exclusively Graminaceous and very
simple herbage. But as the produce of sewage-irrigated meadows is generally cut
or fed off in a young and succulent condition, the tendency which the great
luxuriance of a few very free-growing grasses has to give a coarse and stemmy
later growth is less objectionable than in the case of meadows left for hay.
On the Past and Present Expenses and Social Condition of University Educa-=
tion. By the Rev. W. Emery, B.D., Senior Fellow and Tutor of Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge, late Senior Proctor of the University.
He traced the history from the earliest times, when Joffrid the Abbot of Croy-
land sent Gilbert and other three monks to Cottenham, who gave instruction in a
barn in Cambridge. It was not till a.p. 1257 that St. Peter’s, the first college in
the University, was founded, when the expense of a student ranged up to £2 a
‘hey The students then lived hard lives, eos contented with a penny-piece of
eef amongst four, accompanied by salt and oatmeal only, and were obliged to run
up and down, “being without fire, in order to get a heat on their feet before going
to bed.” The author then gave a very interesting and humorous account of the
rovision for students in 1645, as stated by Strype in letters to his mother, written
om Jesus College. In 1763 expenses increased, tutorial charges increased, and
the system of private tutors was introduced. Fifty years since it might be gathered,
from the large number of noblemen an-i fellow-commoners in the University, that
expenses tad reached a much higher point, while, about thirty years back, extra-
-vagance, immorality, and idleness had attained their utmost height. Since that
time a great improvement had taken place, and now there was a much better system
of habits, and a larger and more regular attendance on professional and college lec-
tures. The estimates for the expenses of students at present for three terms a year
were on three scales—the lowest being about £120, the second £180, and the highest
£250. Ifprivate tutors were engaged, a sum of £8 or £10 a term must be added, and
to those who resided in college in the long vacations an additional expense of £15
or £20 was incurred. Some men of great economy lived in the University for £100
ayear. These rates included all University charges and private expenses as derived
from the tradesmen’s bills sent in to the tutors. Some of the sizars had lived on
such low sums as £45 and £39 per annum. In most of the colleges the students
might obtain assistance from scholarships, the lowest stipend attached to which
would provide an undergraduate with a private tutor. It had been shown by evi-
dence that one of the sources of extravagance in undergraduates was the habits
acquired by them at public schools, and it was reasonable to suppose baer! a young
1862. 1
194 REPORT—1862.
man who had expended from £200 to £300 a year at Eton or Harrow would not
spend less at Cambridge. A student might, however, pass creditably through his
course for £150 a year. The paper then dwelt on the social advantages derived
from membership and the welding together of classes in the University, and
stated that there was no town of equal extent and population that was more quiet
after half-past nine at night than Cambridge, while rioting and dissipation were
of limited extent, the larger number of students being economical and well-con-
ducted.
LIST..OF PLATES.
PLATE I.
Illustrative of Mr. Fleeming Jenkin’s paper on Thermo-electric Currents im
Cireuits of one Metal.
PLATE II.
Illustrative of Mr. G. J. Symons’s paper on the Fall of Rain in the British
Isles during the Years 1860 and 1861.
PLATE III.
Illustrative of the Fourth Report of the Committee on Steamship Perform-
ance,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 195
Apprnpix III.
List of Papers of which Abstracts have not been received.
—>—_
On Electrical Tensions. By Latimer Crarx.
On the Storms of the St. Lawrence and Great Lakes of Canada.
By Dr. Hertsvrr,
On some Faets relating to two brilliant Auroras m Canada.
By Dr. Horwevrr.
On some Principles to be considered in Mineralogical Classification,
By T. Srerry Hunt, M.A., FBS.
On the nature of Nitrogen, and the Theory of Nitrification.
By T. Srerry Hunt, M.A., PBS.
On some of the Difficulties arising in the practice of Phatography, and the means
of removing them. By Maxweut Lyre, M.A., F.CS.
On Ossiferous Caves in Malta. By Dr. Fatconzr, F.R.S.
On the Alluvial Deposits of the Rhine. By. R. A. C. Gopwin-Avsten, F.R.S.
On the Origin and Mode of occurrence of t the Petroleum of North America.
By T. Stezry Hunt, 1A., F.R.S.
On the Strueture and Origin of certain Limestones and Dolomites.
By T. Srerry Hunt, V.A., F.RS.
On the Diluvial and Allwial Deposits of Central Germany.
By Dr. K. voy Srrpacn.
On the asserted Plurality of Species of existing Asiatic Elephants.
By Dr. Fatconrr, F.R.S.
Remarks on all the known forms of Human Entozoa.
By T. Seencer Copsoip, M.D., F.LS.
A Tabular View of the relation which subsists between the Three Kingdoms of
Nature with regard to Organization. By H. Frexe, M.B.
On the Termination of Motor Nerves, and their connexion with muscular con-
tractions. By Prof. W. Koune.
Ascent of the Cameroon Mountains. By Captain R. Burton.
An Account of the Veddahs of Ceylon, By Joun Battery.
On Vancower’s Island. By Commander Mayne.
196 REPORT—1862.
On the Geography of Bread Plants. By M. Micuetsen,
Cambodia and the Laos States. By M. Henrnt Movuor.
Late Explorations in Australia by Burke, Wills, &c. By Sir C. Nicuorson.
Ascent of Um Shaumur, in the Peninsula ef Sinai. By Rev. G. Provr.
The Middle Island of New Zealand. By Joun Rocurorr.
On the Yang-tze-Kiang River, China. By Colonel Sane.
On the Proceedings of the United University Mission to Africa.
By Rev. H. C. Scupamore.
On a Voyage on the Lake Nyassa, Eastern Africa. By Rev. Mr. Srewarr.
On the Eastern Archipelago and New Guinea. By Aurrep R, Watzace.
On the Economic Effects of recent Gold Discoveries. By H. Fawcett, M.A.
Some Statistics of Zostera marina as a substitute for Cotton. By H. Harpen.
The Tariffs and Trade of various Countries during the last Ten Years.
By R. Vaupry.
On the Practicability of a Division of the Employer’s Profits amongst the Work-
people. By Dr. Warts.
On Machinery for Composing and Distributing Type.
By Cuartzs Hart. (Communicated by P. Le Neve Foster, M.A.)
On an improved form of “ Link” Motion. By J. Nasmyrx.
On an improved Printing Telegraph Apparatus. By M. Sorrats.
On a proposed new arrangement of Ships’ Rudders.
By Captain J. Srevart, RN.
On the Practice and Principles of Diverting Rivers and Stoppage of the Breaches
in Embankments. By C. VIGNoLEs.
INDEX I.
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
OBJECTS and rules of the Association,
XVii.
Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers from commencement, xx.
Treasurer’s account, xxiv.
Members of Council from commence-
ment, xxv.
Officers and Council for 1862-63, xxviii.
Officers of Sectional Committees, xxix.
Corresponding Members, xxx.
Report of Council to General Committee
at Cambridge, xxxi.
Report of the Kew Committee, 1861-62,
XXxii.
Report of the Parliamentary Committee,
XXXIX.
Recommendations adopted by the Ge-
neral Committee at Cambridge :—in-
volving grants of money, xxxix; ap-
plications for reports and researches,
xli; applications to Government or
public institutions, xliii; communi-
cations to be printed entire among the
Reports, xliii.
Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes, xliii.
General statement of sums paid on ac-
count of grants for scientific purposes,
xly.
Arrangement of General Meetings, xlix.
Extracts from resolutions of the General
Committee, 1.
Address by the Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A.,
li.
Airy (G. B) on the strains in the inte-
rior of beams, 82; report on the ade-
quacy of existing data for carrying
into effect the suggestion of Gauss, to
apply his general theory of terrestrial
x to the magnetic variations,
Alloys, Dr. Matthiessen on the variation
of the electrical resistance of, due to
change of temperature, 136.
Alps, Jala, Ball on the thermometric
cbservations in the, 363.
Armour-plate defences, T. Aston on
rifled guns and projectiles adapted for
attacking, 103.
Aston (T.) on rifled guns and projectiles
adapted for attacking armour-plate
defences, 103.
Atmosphere, on the vertical moyements
of the, 165,
Ball (John) on thermometric observa-
tions in the Alps, 363.
Balloon ascents, James Glaisher’s ac-
count of meteorological and physical
observations in eight, 376.
Bateman (J. F.), report on tidal obser-
vations on the Humber, 101; report
on technical and scientific evidence in
courts of law, 373.
Beams, on the strains in the interior of,
Brayley (EK. W.), report on observations
of luminous meteors, 1
British Is'es, G. J. Symons on the rain-
fall in the, 293.
Caithness (the Earl of), fourth report of
the committee on steamship perform-
ance, 282,
Carpenter (P. P.), report upon the best
means of advancing science through
the agency of the mercantile marine,
122
Cayley (Arthur), report on the adequacy
of existing data for carrying into effect
the suggestion of Gauss, to apply his
general theory of terrestrial magnetism
to the magnetic variations, 170; re-
13*
196
port on the progress of the solution of
certain special problems of dynamics,
184,
Christison (Prof.), report on technical
and scientific evidence in courts of
law, 373.
Collingwood (Cuthbert), report of the
committee appointed at Manchester
to consider and report upon the best
means of advancing science through
ie agency of the mercantile marine,
122.
Compass Committee, Liverpool, report
on the three reports of the, by A.
Smith and F. J, Evans, 87.
De Souza (Dr. Jacintho Antonio), re-
port presented to the Portuguese Go-
yernment relating to the observatory
at Kew, 109.
Donegal, granites of, report of the com-
mittee for investigating the chemical
and mineralogical composition of the,
163.
Donkin (Prof.), report on the adequacy
of existing data for carrying into effect
the suggestion of Gauss, to apply his
general theory of terrestrial magnetism
to the magnetic variations, 170.
Dredging on the north and east coasts of
Scotland, report of the committee for,
by J. Gwyn Jeffreys, 371.
of the Northumberland coast and
Dogger Bank, Henry T. Mennell’s re-
port on the, 116.
Dufferin (the Lord), fourth report of the
committee on steamship perform-
ance, 282.
Dynamics, Arthur Cayley on the pro-
gress of the solution of certain special
problems of, 184 :—rectilinear motion,
186; central forces, 187 ; elliptic mo-
tion, 191; the problem of two centres,
194; the spherical pendulum, 201;
motion as affected by the rotation of
the earth, and relative motion in
general, 203; motion of a single par-
ticle, 205; motion of three mutually
attracting bodies in a right line, 206;
articular cases of the motion of three
odies, 207; motion in a resisting
medium, 208; memoirs by Jacobi,
Bertrand, and Donkin, relating to va-
rious special problems, 213; the pro-
blem of three bodies, 214; transfor-
mation of coordinates, 218 ; principal
axes, and moments of inertia, 223;
the rotation of a solid body, 229;
kinematics of a solid body, 242; mis-
cellaneous problems, 244; rotation
REPORT——1862.
round a fixed point, 244; other cases
of the motion of a solid body, 244;
list of memoirs and works referred to,
245,
Egerton (the Hon. Capt.), fourth report
of the committee on steamship per-
formance, 282.
Electrical permanency of metals and
alloys, Dr. Matthiessen on the, 136.
—— resistance, provisional report of the
committee on standards of, 125; cir-
cular addressed to foreign men of
science, 156.
resistance of alloys due to change
of temperature, Dr. Matthiessen on
the variation of the, 136.
—— apparatus, description of the, ar-
ranged by Mr. Fleeming Jenkin for
the production of exact copies of the
standard of resistance, 159.
—w— standards, Prof. Williamson and
Dr. Matthiessen on the reproduction
of, by chemical means, 141.
Ellis (the Hon. Leopold Agar), fourth
report of the committee on steamship
performance, 282.
| Esselbach (Dr.) on standards of electri-
eal resistance, 155.
Evans (Frederick John), report on the
three reports of the Liyerpool compass
committee and other recent publica-
tions on the same subject, 87.
Evidence in courts of law, report of com-
mittee on technical and scientific, 373.
Fairbairn (W.) on the mechanical pro-
perties of iron projectiles at high
velocities, 178; fourth report of the
committee on steamship performance,
282.
Gassiot (J. P.) on Dr. Jacintho Anto-
nio de Souza’s visit to Kew Observa-
tory, 109.
Gifford (the Earl of), fourth report of
the committee on steamship perform-
ance, 282.
Glaisher (James), report on observations
of luminous meteors, 1} an account
of meteorological and physical obser-
vations in eight balloon ascents, 376.
Granites of Donegal, preliminary report
of the committee for investigating the
chemical and mineralogical composi-
tion of the, 163.
Greg (R. P.), report on observations of
luminous meteors, 1.
Guns, rifled, T. Aston on, adapted for
attacking armour-plate defences, 103.
INDEX I.
Hennessy (Prof. H.) on the vertical
movements of the atmosphere con-
sidered in connexion with storms and
changes of weather, 165.
Herschel (A.), report on observations of
luminous meteors, 1
Heywood (J.), report on technical and
scientific evidence in courts of law,
373.
Higgins (Rey. H. H.), report upon the
best means of adyancing science
through the agency of the mercantile
marine, 122.
Humber, report on tidal observations on
the, by James Oldham, John Scott
Russell, J. F. Bateman, and Thomas
Thompson, 101.
Tron projectiles, W. Fairbairn on the
mechanical properties of, at high ye-
locities, 178.
Jeffreys (J. Gwyn), report of the com-
mittee for dredging in the north and
east coasts of Scotland, 371.
Jenkin (Fleeming), report on the stan-
dards of electrical resistance, 125; de-
scription of the electrical apparatus
arranged by, for the production of
exact copies of the standard of resist-
ance, 159; on thermo-electric cur-
rents in circuits of one metal, 173.
Kew Observatory, Dr. Jacintho Antonio
de Souza on the, 109.
Kirchhoff (Prof.) on the standards of
electrical resistance, 150.
Law, courts of, report of committee on
technical and scientific evidence in,
373.
Liverpool compass committee, report on
the three reports of the, by A. Smith
and F. J. Evans, 87.
Lloyd (Rev. Dr.), report on the adequacy
of existing data for carrying into effect
the suggestion of Gauss, to apply his
general theory of terrestrial magnetism
to the magnetic variations, 170.
Lubbock (John), report upon the best
means of advancing science through
the agency of the mercantile marine,
122.
McConnell (J. E.), fourth report of the
cominittee on steamship performance,
282.
Matthiessen (Prof. W. H.), report on the
standards of electrical resistance, 125;
on the variation of the electrical re-
197
sistance of alloys due to change of
temperature, 136; on the electrical
permanency of metals and alloys, 139 ;
on the reproduction of electrical stan-
dards by chemical means, 141.
Mennell (Henry T.), report of the com-
mittee on the dredging of the North-
umberland coastand Dogger Bank, 116.
Metal, on thermo-electric currents in
circuits of one, 173.
Metals and alloys, Dr. Matthiessen on
the electrical permanency of, 139.
Meteors, luminous, report ,on observa-
tions of, by J. Glaisher, R. P. Greg,
E. W. Brayley, and A. Herschel, 1.
, catalogue of, 2; appendix—errata,
527.
Miller (Prof. W. H.), report on the
standards of electrical resistance, 125,
Napier (the Right Hon. Joseph), report
on technical and scientific evidence
in courts of law, 373.
Napier (J. R.), fourth report of the com-
mittee on steamship performance, 282.
Northumberland coast and Dogger Bank,
report of the committee on the dredg-
ing of the, by H. T. Mennell, 116.
Numbers, Prof. H. J.S. Smith’s report on
the theory of, 503; general theorems
relating to composition, 503; compo-.
sition of quadratic forms—preliminary
lemmas, 505; Gauss’s six conclusions,
506; solution of the problem of com-
position, 507; composition of several
forms, 509; composition of forms—
method of Dirichlet, 512; composi-
tion of classes of the same determi-
nant, 514; comparison of the num-
bers of classes of different orders,
515; composition of genera, 519; de-
termination of the number of ambigu-
ous classes, and demonstration of the
lawof quadratic reciprocity, 519; equa-
lity of the number of genera and of
ambiguous classes, 521; arrangement
of the classes of the principal genus,
523; arrangement of the other genera,
524; tabulation of quadratic forms,525.
Oldham (James), report on tidal obser-
vations on the Humber, 101.
Paris (Admiral E.), fourth report of the
committee on steamship performance,
282.
Patterson (R.), report upon the best
means of advancing science through
the agency of the mercantile marine,
122.
198
Price (Rey. Prof.), report on the ade-
quacy of existing data for carrying
into effect the suggestion of Gauss, to
apply his general theory of terrestrial
magnetism to the magnetic variations,
170.
Rainfall in the British Isles, G. J.
Symons on the, 293.
Rankine (Prof. J. M.), fourth report of
the committee on steamship perform-
ance, 282.
Refraction, report on double, by Prof.
Stokes, 253.
Roberts (R.), fourth report of the com-
ties on steamship performance,
82.
Russell (John Scott), report on the tidal
observations on the Humber, 101;
fourth report of the committee on
steamship performance, 282.
Sabine (General), report on the adequacy
of existing data for carrying into effect
the suggestion of Gauss, to apply his
general theory of terrestrial magnetism
to the magnetic variations, 170.
Scotland, report of the committee for
dredging on the north and east coasts
of Scotland, 371.
Siemens (Dr.) on the adoption of a com-
mon unit in measurement of electrical
resistance, 152.
Smith (Archibald), report on the three
reports of the Liverpool compass
committee and other recent publica-
tions on the same subject, 87; report
on the adequacy of existing data for
carrying into effect the suggestion of
Gauss, to apply his general theory of
terrestrial magnetism to the magnetic
variations, 170.
Smith (Prof. H. J. Stephen), report on
the theory of numbers, 503.
Smith (Wm. ), fourth report of the com-
mittee on steamship performance, 282.
Steamship performance, fourth report
of the committee on, 282.
Stokes Cee) report on double refrac-
tion, 258.
REPORT—1862.
Stoney (G. Johnstone), report on the
adequacy of existing data for carrying
into effect the suggestion of Gauss, to
apply his general theory of terrestrial
magnetism to the magnetic variations,
170.
Sutherland (the Duke of), fourth report
of the committee on steamship per-
formance, 282.
Symons (G. J.) on the fa'l of rain in
the British Isles during the years
1860 and 1861, 293.
Thermo-electriec currents in circuits of
one metal, on, 173.
Thermometric observations in the Alps,
John Ball on, 363.
Thompson (Thomas), report on tidal ob-
servations on the Humber, 101.
Thomson (Prof. W.), report on standards
of electrical resistance, 125; report
on the adequacy of existing data for
carrying into effect the suggestion of
Gauss, to apply his general theory of
terrestrial magnetism to the magnetic
variations, 170.
Tidal observations on the Humber, re-
ort on, by James O'dham, John
Scott Russell, J. F. Bateman, and
Thomas Thompson, 101.
Tite (Mr.), report on technical and
scientific evidence in courts of law,
373.
Turner (J. Aspinall), report upon the best
means of advancing science through
the agency of the mercantile marine,
122.
Webster (T.), report on technical and
scientific evidence in courts of law,
373.
Wheatstone (Prof. C.), report on stan-
dards of electrical resistance, 125,
Williamson (Prof. A.), report on stan-
dards of electrical resistance, 125;
on the reproduction of electrical stan-
dards by chemical means, 141.
Wright (Henry), fourth report of the
ee aan on steamship performance,
INDEX II.
199
INDEX Il.
TO
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE
SECTIONS.
[An asterisk (x) signifies that no abstract of the communication ts given.}
AEROLITES, Prof. N. S. Maskelyne
on, 188.
Africa, Dr. J. E. Gray on the crocodiles
of, 106.
Alcock (Sir R.) on the civilization of
Japan, 136.
Allen (E. E.) on the importance of eco-
nomizing fuel in iron-plated ships, 182.
Allman (Dr.) on an early stage in the
development of Comatula, and its pa-
leontological relations, 65; on the
generative zooid of Clavatella, 100; on
the structure of Corymorpha nutans,
101; on some new British Tubula-
ride, 101.
Alps, W. Mathews, jun. on serious
imaccuracies in the great survey of the
south of Mont Blanc, as issued by the
Government of Sardinia, 147.
Ammonium, Dr. George D. Gibb on the
See cecsl effects of the bromide of,
Angles, F. Galton on a new French
pocket instrument for measuring ver-
tical and horizontal, 30.
Aniline, Dr. Phipson on the existence
of, in certain fungi which become blue
in contact with the air, 51.
Animals, diving, Prof. Rolleston on cer-
tain modifications in the structure of,
118.
, James Hinton on a physiological
classification of, 130.
Ansted (Prof.) on bituminous schists
and their relation to coal, 65; on a
tertiary bituminous coal in Transyl-
vania, with some remarks on the brown
coals of the Danube, 66; on the climate
of the Channel Islands, 138; on artifi-
cial stones, 183.
Antozene, Dr.G. Harley on Schénbein’s,
de
Aromatic oils, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on
the essential vil of bay, and other, 43.
Arsenic, oxide of, Dr. John Dayy on the
question whether, if taken in very
minute quantities fer a long period,
is injurious te man, 128,
Ashe (Isaac) on some cesmogonical
speculations, 8; on balloon naviga-
tion, 27; on some improvements in
the barometer, 28; on the function of
the auricular appendix of the heart,
120; on the function of the oblique
muscles of the eye, 120,
Ashworth (Thomas) on the scientific
cultivation of salmon fisheries, 121.
Asplenium viride, Rev. W. 8. Symonds
on the occurrence of, on an isolated
travertine reck among the Black
Mountains of Monmouthshire, 100.
Astarte compressa, J. Gwyn J effreys on
a specimen of, haying its hinge-teeth
reversed, 108.
Atherton(Chas.)on unsinkable ships,183.
Atlantic, Prof. W. King on some objects
of natural history lately obtained from
the bottom of the, 108.
Atmosphere, terrestrial, Dr. J. H. Glad-
stone on the means of observing the
lines of the solar spectrum due te the,
48
Atmospheric refraction, Rev. Prof.Challis
on the augmentation of the apparent
diameter of a body by its, 12.
Auckland, New Zealand, W. Lauder
Lindsay on the geology of the gold-
fields of, 80.
Australian geology and palzontology,
contributions to, by Charles Moore, 83.
200
Aye-Aye, A. D. Bartlett on the habits
of the, living in the Gardens of the
Zoological Society of London, 103.
, Professor Owen on the characters
of the, as a test of the Lamarckian and
Darwinian hypothesis of the transmu-
tation and origin of species, 114.
Baily (W. H.) on a new species of Ple-
siosaurus from the lias near Whitby,
Yorkshire, 68.
Ball (John) on the determination of
heights by means of the barometer,
28.
Balloon ascents, J. Glaisher on a new
barometer used in the last, 31.
navigation, Isaac Ashe on, 27.
Barometer, John Ball on the determina-
tion of heights by means of the, 28.
, Isaac Ashe on some improvements
in the, 28.
—, J. Glaisher on a new, used in the
last balloon ascents, 31.
, aneroid, G. J. Symons on the per-
formance of a very small, 35.
Bartlett (A. D.) on the habits of the
Aye-Aye living in the Gardens of the
Zoological Society of London, 103.
Bashforth (Rey. F.) on capillary attrac-
tion, 2.
Beale (Prof.), an attempt to show that |
every living structure consists of mat-
ter which is the seat of vital actions,
and matter in which physical and che-
mical changes alone take place, 122.
Beke (Dr. C. T.), a journey to Harran
in Padan-Aram, and thence over Mount
Gilead into the Promised Land, 141.
Birt (W. R.) on a group of lunar cra-
ters imperfectly represented in lunar
maps, 9.
Blanford (W. 8.) on an extinct volcano
in Upper Burmah, 69.
Blood, Dr. John Davy on the coagulation
of the, in relation to its cause, 125.
of the common earthworm, Dr.
John Davy on the, 124.
—, Dr. George Robinson on the study
of the circulation of the, 134.
Bone, whittled, H. Seeley on a, from the
Barnwell gravel, 94.
*Bonney (Rey. T. G.) on some flint im-
plements from Amiens, 70.
on the geography of Mont Pel-
voux, in Dauphiné, 143.
Boole (Prof.) on the differential equation
of dynamics, 3.
Booth (Rey. Dr.) on an instrument for
describing geometrical curves, in-
vented by H. Johnston, 3.
REPORT—1862.
Boulder-clay in Caithness, C. W. Peach
on the fossils of the, 83.
| “ Boussole Burnier,”’ F. Galton on the,
30.
Brabant, Dr. Phipson on the diluvial
soil of, 53.
Brain, Robert Garner on the skull-
sutures in connexion with the super-
ficies of the, 126.
British Islands, Dr. Gladstone on the
distribution of fog round the coast of
the, 31.
| British seas, J. Gwyn Jeffreys on a spe-
cies of Limopsis, now living in the,
108.
Buckman (James) on the ennobling of
roots, with particular reference to the
parsuip, 97; experiments with seed
of malformed roots, 97.
Buckmaster (J. C.) on the progress of
instruction in elementary science
among the industrial classes under
the Science minutes of the department
of Science and Art, 150.
Buckton (George Bowdler) on the for-
mation of organo-metallic radicals by
substitution, 36.
Burren (co. Clare), F. J. Foot on the
geology of, 72.
, on a botanical chart of the barony
of, 98.
Caithness, C. W. Peach on the fossils of
the boulder-clay in, 83.
Camera, A. Claudet on the means of
following the small divisions of the
scale regulating the distances and en-
largement in the solar, 18.
Campbell (Dugald) on the action of
nitric acid upon pyrophosphate of
magnesia, 37
Camphor, Charles Tomlinson on the mo-
tion of, towards the light, 23.
Capillary attraction, the Rey. F. Bash-
forth on, 2.
Carbonic acid vacua in large glass ves-
sels, J. P. Gassiot on the mode of pre-
paring, 42.
Carnot’s function, James Croll on the
cohesion of gases, and its relation to,
Carte (Dr. A.) on a new species of Ple-
siosaurus from the lias near Whitby,
Yorkshire, 68.
Cayley (A.) on a certain curve of the
fourth order, 3; on the representation
of a curve in space by means of a
cone and monoid surface, 3.
Chadwick (David) on the cotton famine,
and the substitutes for cotton, 150.
INDEX II.
Chaleur, A. Des Cloizeaux sur les modi-
fications temporaires et permanentes
que la, apporte 4 quelques propriétés
ees de certains corps cristallisés,
Challis (Rey. Prof.) cn the augmenta-
tion of the apparent diameter of a
body by its atmospheric refraction,
12; on the zodiacal light, and on
shooting-stars, 12; on the extent of
the earth’s atmosphere, 29.
Channel Islands, Prof. Ansted on the
climate of the, 138.
Chemical action, A. Vernon Harcourt
on a particular case of, 43.
Child (Dr. Gilbert W.) on marriages of
consanguinity, 104.
Chloroform accidents, Dr. Charles Kidd
on simple syncope as a coincident in,
HO!
Claudet (A.) on the means of following
the small divisions of the scale regu-
lating the distances and enlargement
in the solar camera, 18.
Clavatella, Dr. Allman on the generative
zooid of, 100.
Cleland (Dr.) on ribs and transverse pro-
cesses, with special relation to the
theory of the vertebrate skeleton,
105.
Climate of the Channel Islands, Prof.
Ansted on the, 139.
Coal, Prof. Ansted on bituminous schists,
and their relation to, 65.
, on a tertiary bituminous, in Tran-
sylvania, by Prof. Ansted, 66.
Cohesion, on the influence of, in relation
to the experiments of Prof. W.
Thomson and Dr. Joule on the ther-
mal effects of elastic fluids in motion,
21.
, on the influence of, in relation to
Carnot’s function, 21.
Collingwood (Dr.) on Geoffroy St.-Hi-
laire’s distinction between catarrhine
and platyrrhine Quadrumana, 106.
Collodion process, T. Sutton on a rapid
dry, 54
Colonization, Herman Merivale on the
utility of, 161.
Comatula, Dr. Allman on an early stage
in the development of, and its palee-
ontological relations, 65.
Comet II. 1862, Rev. R. Main on R.A.
and N.P.D. of, 15.
Commercial fluctuations, W. 8. Jevons
on the study of periodic, 157.
Consanguinity, Dr. Gilbert W. Child on
marriages of, 104.
Consumptive persons, Dr. Edward Smith
201
on the prevalence of numerous condi-
tions affecting the constitution in 1000,
174.
Corymorpha nutans, Dr. Allman on the
structure of, 101.
Coryton (John) on vertical-wave-line
ships, self-reefing sails, and euide-pro-
peller, 184.
Cosmogonical speculations, Isaac Ashe
on, 8.
Cotton famine, David Chadwick on the,
and the substitutes for cotton, 150.
Crab, Robert Garner on an albino ya-
riety of, 126.
Crawturd (J.) on colour as a test of the
races of man, 143; on language as a
test of the races of man, 144,
Crime, Edward Hill on the prosecution
of, 154.
Cristaux & un ou a deux axes optiques,
relation entre les phénoménes de la
olarisation rotatoire, et les formes
hémiédres ou hémimorphes des, par
M. A. Des Cloizeaux, 19.
Crocodiles, Dr. J. E. Gray on the change
of form of the head of, and on those
of India and Africa, 106.
Croll (James) on the cohesion of gases,
and its relation to Carnot’s function,
and to recent experiments on the
thermal effects of elastic fluids in
motion, 21; on the mechanical power
of electro-magnetism, with special re-
ference to the theory of Dr. Joule and
Dr. Scoresby, 24.
Crompton (Rey. J.) on deep or artesian
wells at Norwich, 70.
Crustaceans, Robert Garner on, 126.
Cubes, C. M. Willich on some models
of sections of, 8.
Curve of the fourth order, A. Cayley on
a, 3.
in space, A. Cayley on the repre-
sentation of a, by means of acone and
monoid surface, 3.
Curves in space, quaternion proof of a
theorem of reciprocity of, Sir W. R.
Hamilton on, 4.
Danube, Prof. Ansted on the brown
coals of the, 66.
Daubeny (Dr.) on the last eruption of
Vesuvius, 71.
, reply to the remarks of M. F.
Marcet on the power of selection
ascribed to the roots of plants, 98.
Davy (Dr. John) on the coloured fluid
or blood of the common earthworm
(Lumbricus terrestris), 124; on the
coagulation of the blood in relation to
202
its cause, 125; on the vitality of fishes,
as tested by increase of temperature,
125; onthe question whether the oxide
of arsenic taken in very minute quan-
tities for a long period is injurious to
man, 125,
Dawkins (W. Boyd) on the Wokey
Hole hyzna-den, 71.
Des Cloizeaux (A.), relation entre les
phénomeénes de la polarisation rota-
toire, et les formes hémiédres ou
hémimorphes des cristaux 4 un ou a
deux axes optiques, 19; mémoire sur
les modifications temporaires et per-
manentes que la chaleur apporte a
quelques propriétés optiques de cer-
tains corps cristallisés, 38.
Devon and Cornwall, W. Pengelly on the
correlation of the slates and limestones
of, with the old red sandstones of Scot-
land, &c., 85.
Diluvial soil of Brabant, &c., Dr. Phipson
on the, 53.
Dingle (Rev. J.) on the supernumerary
bows in the rainbow, 22.
= on specimens of flint instruments
from North Devon, 72.
*Doughty (Mr.) on flint instruments
from Hoxne, 72.
Dowie (James) on the loss of muscular
power arising from the ordinary foot-
clothing now worn, and on the means
required to obviate this loss, 125.
Dunn (Robert) on the psychological dif-
ferences which exist among the typical
races of man, 144.
Dynamics, Prof. Boole on the differential
equations of, 3.
*Earth, W. Ogilby on the excentricity
of the, and the method of finding the
coordinates of its centre of gravity, 17.
, Prof. Hennessy on the relative
amount of sunshine falling on the tor-
rid zone of the, 31.
and moon, Prof. Hennessy on some
of the characteristic differences be-
tween the configuration of the surfaces
of the, 14.
——’s atmosphere, Rev. Prof. Challis on
the extent of the, 29.
Earthworm, Dr. John Davy on the blood
of the common, 124,
Eastern Archipelago, Alfred R. Wallace
on the trade of the, with New Guinea
and its islands, 148.
Eclipses, W. Spottiswoode on the Hindi
method of calculating, 18.
Education, endowed, James Heywood
on, 153.
REPORT—1862.
Education, University, the Rev. W.Emery
on the expenses and social condition
of, 193.
Electric cables, with reference to obser-
vations on the Malta-Alexandria tele-
graph, Dr. Ernest Esselbach on, 26.
charge on condensers, Dr. Esselbach
on the determination of the absolute
quantity of, 27.
Electro-magnetism, James Croll on the
mechanical power of, 24.
Electromotive engine, G. M. Guy on, 27.
Emery (Rey. W.) on the expenses and
social condition of University educa-
tion, 193.
Ep‘glottis, Dr. George D. Gibb on the
normal position of the, as determined
by the laryngoscope, 128,
Equations, Rev. R. Harley on a certain
class of linear differential, 4.
Esselbach (Dr. Ernest) on the duration
of fluorescence, 22; on electric cables,
with reference to observations on the
Malta-Alexandria telegraph, 26; on
an experimental determination of the
absolute quantity of electric charge
on condensers, 27.
Esson (W.) on the curvature of the
margins of leaves with reference to
their growth, 3.
Eye, Isaac Ashe on the function of the
oblique muscles of the, 120.
Fairbairn (William), his address as Pre-
sident of Section G, 178.
Fellowships, James Heywood on Oxford
and Cambridge, 153.
Fens, W. Thorold on the failure of the
sluice in, and on the means of securing
such sluices against a similar contin-
gency, 186.
Ferrous acid, W. Odling on, 48.
Fisher (Rey. G.) on the numerical mode
of estimating educational qualifica-
tions, as pursued at the Greenwich
Hospital School, 153.
Fisheries, salmon, Thomas Ashworth on
_the scientific cultivation of, 121.
Fishes, fossil, C. W. Peach on, from the
old red sandstone of Caithness, 85.
—,, Dr. John Davy on the vitality of,
as tested by increase of temperature,
125.
*Flint implements from Amiens, Rey.
T. G. Bonney on some, 70.
implements found in a cave called
“The Oyle,” near Tenby, South Wales,
Rey. Gilbert N. Smith on, 95.
instruments from North Devon,
Rey. J. Dingle on specimens of, 72.
*
INDEX II.
*Flint instruments from Hoxne, Mr.
Doughty on, 72.
Fog, Dr. Gladstone on the distribution
of, round the coasts of the British
Islands, 31.
Foot (F. J.) on the geology of Burren,
co. Clare, 72; on a botanical chart of
the barony of Burren, co. Clare, 98.
Foot-clothing, James Dowie on the loss
of muscular power arising from the
ordinary, now worn, and on the means
required to obviate this loss, 125.
*Foraminifera, Dr. Fritsch on some mo-
dels of, 72.
Fort William, Inverness-shire, J. Gwyn
Jeffreys on an ancient sea-bed beach
near, 73.
Fossils of the boulder-clay in Caithness,
C. W. Peach on the, 838.
*Fritsch (Dr.) on some models of Fora-
minifera, 72.
Fungi, Dr. Phipson on the existence of
aniline in certain, which become blue
in contact with the air, 51.
Galton (F.) on the “ Boussole Burnier,”
a new French pocket instrument for
measuring vertical and horizontal an-
gles, 30; European weather-charts
or December 1861, 30.
Garner’(Robert) on the skull-sutures in
connexion with the superficies of the
brain, 126; on pearls—their parasitic
origin, 126; on an albino variety of
crab, with some observations on
crustaceans, and on the effect of
light, 126.
Gases, James Croll on the cohesion of, 21.
Gassiot (J. P.) on the mode of preparing
carbonic acid vacua in large glass
vessels, 42.
Generation, spontaneous, James Samuel-
son on, 119
Geology, Australian, contributions to,
by Charles Moore, 83.
Geometrical curves, H. Johnston’s in-
strument for describing, 3.
Gérard (Jules), exploration dans l’Afri-
que centrale, de Serre-Leone a Alger,
par Timbuctu, 146.
German Ocean, C. B. Rose on some
mammalian remains from the bed of
the, 91.
Gibb (Dr. George D.) on the normal
position of the epiglottis as deter-
mined by the laryngoscope, 128; on
the physiological effects of the bro-
mide of ammonium, 128.
*Gibbs (John) on the inflorescence of
plants, 98,
203
Gilbert (Dr.) on the effects of different
manures on the mixed herbage of
grass land, 191.
Glacier phenomena of the valley of the
Upper Indus, Capt. Godwin-Austen
on the, 67.
Gladstone (Dr.) on the distribution of
fog round the coast of the British Is-
lands, 31; on the essential oil of bay
and other aromatic oils, 43; on the
means of observing the lines of the
solar spectrum due to the terrestrial
atmosphere, 43.
Glaisher (J.) on a new barometer used in
the last balloon ascents, 31.
Glass vessels, J. P. Gassiot on the mode
of preparing carbonic acid yacua in
large, 42.
Godwin-Austen (Capt.) on the glacier
henomena of the valley of the Upper
ndus, 67.
Gold-bearing strata of Merionethshire,
T. A. Readwin on the, 87.
Gold-fields of Otago, W. Lauder Lindsay
on the geology of the, 77.
of Auckland, New Zealand, W. Lau-
der Lindsay on the geology of the, 80.
Grass land,*J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert
on the effects of different manures on
the mixed herbage of, 191.
Gravel, H. Seeley on a whittled bone
from the Barnwell, 94.
Gray (Dr. J. E.) on changes of form
of the head of crocodiles, and on the
crocodiles of India and Africa, 106.
Greenwich Hospital School, Rey. G.
Fisher on the numerical mode of esti-
mating educational qualifications, as
pursued at the, 153.
Grimaldi (Dr. F.) on a new marine boiler
for generating steam of high pressure,
Guernsey, Dr. S. Elliott’s table of the
elements of the climate of, 140.
Guide-propeller, John Coryton on the,
184.
Guy (G. M.) onan electromotive engine,
27.
Hamilton (Sir W. R.), quaternion proof
of a theorem of reciprocity of curves
in space, 4.
Harcourt (A. Vernon) on a particular
case of induced chemical action, 43.
Harkness (Professor) on the Skiddaw
slate series, 72.
Harley (Dr. George) on Schonbein’s ant-
ozone, 44; on secret poisoning, 129.
Harley (Rev. Robert) on a certain class
of linear differential equations, 4.
204.
Harran in Padan-Aram, Dr. Beke’s
journey to, and thence over Mount
Gilead into the Promised Land, 141.
Harris (W. H.) on the adulteration of
linseed cake with nut-cake, 45.
Harrison (J. Park) on the additional
evidence of the indirect influence of
the moon over the temperature of the
air, 31.
Heart, Isaac Ashe on the function of the
auricular appendix of the, 120.
Heisch (Charles) on a simple method of
taking stereomicro-photographs, 46.
*Heliocentric theory, on the probable
origin of the, 17.
Hennessy (Professor) on some of the
characteristic differences between the
configuration of the surfaces of the
earth and moon, 14; on the relative
amount of sunshine falling on the tor-
rid zone of the earth, 31.
Heterogenesis, James Samuelson on, 119.
Heywood (James) on endowed education
and Oxford and Cambridge fellow-
ships, 153.
Hill (Edwin) on the prevention of crime,
Hincks (Rey. T.) on the production of
similar medusoids by certain hydroid
polypes belonging to different genera,
107.
Hinton (James) on a physiological classi-
fication of animals, 130.
Hirst (Prof. T. A.) on the volumes of
pedal surfaces, 5.
Hoskins (Dr. 8. Elliott), table of the ele-
ments of the climate of Guernsey, 140.
Human remains, Thomas Wright on the,
found at Wroxeter, 149.
Hurricane, E. J. Lowe on the, near
Newark, of May 7, 1862, 52.
Hyzena-den, W. Boyd Hawkins on the
Wokey Hole, 71.
Hydrocarbons, W. Odling on the syn-
thesis of some, 48.
Hymenoptera, John Lubbock on two
aquatic, 110
Hypobromous acid, Prof. Roscoe on, 54.
Income-tax, W. 8. Thornton on the, 175.
India, Dr. J. E. Gray on the crocodiles
of, 106.
Industrial classes, J. Buckmaster on the
progress of instruction in elementary
science among the, 150.
Tnuline, Dr. Rolleston on the difference of
behaviour exhibited by, and ordinary
starch, when treated with salivary
cues and other converting agents,
REPORT—1862.
Tron-plated ships, E. E. Allen on the
importance of economizing fuel in,
182.
Japan, Sir R. Alcock on the civilization
of, 136.
Jefireys (J. Gwyn) on an ancient sea-
bed and beach near Fort William,
Inyerness-shire, 73; on a species of
Limopsis, now living in the British
seas, With remarks on the genus, 108;
on a specimen of Astarte compressa
having its hinge-teeth reversed, 108.
Jevons (W. 8.) on the study of periodic
commercial fluctuations, 157; notice
of a general mathematical theory of
political economy, 158.
Johnston’s (H.) invention of an in-
strument for describing geometrical
curves, 5.
Joule (Dr.), the influence of cohesion
in relation to the experiments of, on
the thermal effects of elastic fluids in
motion, 21].
Jukes (J. Beete), his address as President
of Section C, 54.
Keuper bone-breccia of Pendock, Wor-
cestershire, Rey. W. S. Symonds on
scutes of the Labyrinthodon from the,
96.
Kidd (Dr. Charles) on simple syncope
as a coincident in chloroform acci-
dents, 130.
King (Prof. W.).on some objects of
natural history lately obtained from
the bottom of the Atlantic, 108.
Labouring population, Henry Roberts on
the increased circulation of a pure and
instructive literature adapted to the
capacities and the means of the, 172.
Labyrinthodon, Rev. W. 8. Symonds on
scutes of the, from the Keuper bone-
breccia of Pendock, Worcestershire,
96.
L’Afrique centrale, exploration dans, de
Serre-Leone & Alger, par Timbuctu,
par Jules Gérard, 146.
Lancashire, F. Purdy on the pauperism
and mortality of, 165.
Laryngoscope, Dr. George D. Gibb on
the normal position of the epiglottis as
determined by the, 128.
Lassell (William) on a brilliant elliptic
ring in the planetary nebula, A 20°56’,
N.P.D. 101° 56’, 14.
Lawes (J. B.) on the effects of different
manures on the mixed herbage of
grass land, 191.
INDEX II.
Leaves, W. Esson on the curvature of
the margins of, with reference to their
growth, 3.
Lias near Whitby, Yorkshire, Dr. A.
Carte and W. H. Baily on a new
species of Plesiosaurus from the, 68.
Life, Charles M. Willich on expectation
of, 178.
Light, C. Tomlinson on the motion of
camphor, &c. towards the, 28.
Limopsis, J. Gwyn Jeffreys on a species
of, now living in the British seas, 108.
Lindsay (Dr. W. Lauder) on the geo-
logy of the gold-tields of Otago, New
Zealand, 77; on the geology of the
gold-fields of Auckland, New Zealand,
80; on the toot-poison of New Zea-
land, 98.
Linear equation of finite differences in
its most general form, on the solution
of the, by Prof. Sylvester, 188.
Linseed cake, W. H. Harris on the adul-
teration of, with nut-cake, 45.
Livingstone (Dr.),letter to Sir R. I. Mur-
chison from the River Zambesi, 146.
Lowe (E. J.) on the hurricane near
Newark of May 7, 1862, showing the
force of the hailstones and the vio-
lence of the gale, 32; on Lowe’s ozone
box, 46; observations on ozone, 46.
Lubbock (John), notes on Spherularia
Bombi, 109; on two aquatic Hymen-
optera, 110.
Lunar craters, W. R. Birt on a group
of, imperfectly represented in lunar
maps, 9.
Macleod (Henry Dunning) on the defi-
nition and nature of the science of
political economy, 159.
Magnesia, Dugald Campbell on the ac-
tion of nitric acid upon pyrophosphate
of, 37.
Main (Rev. R.), observations of R.A.
and N.P.D. of Comet II. 1862, 15;
on the dimensions and ellipticity of
Mars, 15.
Mallet (Robert) on the measurement of
the temperatures of active volcanic
foci to the greatest attainable depth,
and of the temperature, state of satu-
ration, and velocity of issue of the
steam and vapours evolved, 83.
Mammalian remains, C. B. Rose on some,
from the bed of the German Ocean, 91.
Man, Prof. Owen on the zoological
significance of the cerebral and pedial
characters of, 116.
, J. Crawfurd on colour as a test of
the races of, 143.
205
Man, J. Crawfurd on language as a test
of the races of, 144.
——, Robert Dunn on the psychological
differences which exist among the
typical races of, 144.
Manures, on the effects of different, on
the mixed herbage of grass land, by
J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, 191.
*Marcet (M. F.), Dr. Daubeny’s reply to
the remarks of, on the power of selec-
tion ascribed to the roots of plants,
98.
Marine boiler for generating steam of
high pressure, Dr. I’. Grimaldi on a
new, 186.
Mars, Rev. R. Main on the dimensions
and ellipticity of, 16.
Mees (Prof. N. 8S.) on aérolites,
188.
Mathews (W., jun.) on serious inaccu-
racies in the great survey of the Alps,
south of Mont Blane, as issued by the
Government of Sardinia, 147.
Medusoids, Rey. T. Hincks on the pro-
duction of similar, by certain hydroid
folpes belonging to different genera,
Menzies (J. M.) on an optical instru-
ment which indicates the relative
change of position of two objects
(such as ships at sea during night)
which are maintaining independent
courses, 22.
Merionethshire, T. A. Readwin on the
gold-bearing strata of, 87.
Merivale (Herman) on the utility of
colonization, 161.
*Meteorology, T. L. Plant on, 34.
Mill (Rev. Dr.), decipherment of the
Pheenician inscription on the Newton
Stone, Aberdeenshire, 147.
Miller (Prof. W. H.), his address as
President of Section B, 35.
Mineral veins, Charles Moore on the
paleontology of, and on the secondary
age of some, in the carboniferous pe-
riod, 82.
Moffat (Dr.) on the luminosity of phos-
phorus, 47.
Molesworth (Rev. W. N.) on the influ-
ence of changes in the conditions of
existence in modifying species and
varieties, 111; on the training and in-
struction of the unemployed in the
manufacturing districts during the
present crisis, 162.
Mont Pelvoux, in Dauphiné, Rev. T. G.
Bonney on the geography of, 143.
Moon, Prof. Hennessy on some of the
characteristic differences between the
206
configuration of tae surfaces of the
earth and, 14.
Moon, J. Park Harrison on the additional
evidence of the indirect influence of
the, over the temperature of the air,
31.
Moore (Charles) on the paleontology of
mineral yeins, and on the secondary
age of some mineral veins in the car-
boniferous limestone, 82; contribu-
tions to Australian geology and pale-
ontology, 83.
Mortality of Lancashire, F. Purdy on
the, 165.
Murchison (Sir R. I.), letter from Dr.
Livingstone to, from the River Zam-
besi, 146.
Muscles of the eye, Isaac Ashe on the
function of the oblique, 120.
Nasmyth (J.) on some peculiar features
- the structure of the sun’s surface,
6.
Newark, E. J. Lowe on the hwricane
near, of May 7, 1862, 32.
New Guinea and its islands, Alfred R.
Wallace on the trade of the Eastern
Archipelago with, 148.
Newton Stone, Aberdeenshire, decipher-
ment of the Phcenician inscription on
the, by the Rev. Dr. Mill, 147.
New Zealand, Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay
on the toot-poison of, 98.
Nitric acid, Dugald Campbell on the
action of, upon pyrophosphate of mag-
nesia,
Norwich, Rey. J. Crompton on deep or
artesian wells at, 70.
Odling (W.) on the synthesis of some
hydrocarbons, 48; on the nomencla-
ture of organic compounds, 48; on
ferrous acid, 48.
*Ocilby (W.) on the excentricity of the
earth, and the method of finding the
coordinates of its centre of gravity,
alra
Oil of bay, and other aromatic oils, Dr.
J. H. Gladstone on the essential, 43.
Oils, Dr. Paul on the manufacture of
hydrocarbon, from peat, 50.
— , essential, J. W. Osborne on the,
from the indigenous vegetation of
Victoria, 48.
Old red sandstone of Caithness, C. W.
Peach on fossil fishes from the, 85.
Old red sandstone of Scotland, &c., W.
Pengelly on the correlation of the
slates and limestones of Devon and
Cornwall with the, 85.
REPORT—1862.
Old red sandstone, upper, J. W. Salter
on the identity of the, with the upper-
most Devonian, and of the middle and
lower old red with the middle and
lower Devonian, 92.
Optical instrument which indicates the
relative changes of position of two
objects which are maintaining inde-
came courses, J. M. Menzies on an,
Organic compounds, Dr. Odling on the
nomenclature of, 48.
——, Dr. Phipson on a new class of, 50.
Organo-metallic radicals, G. B. Buckton
on the formation of, by substitution,
36.
Osborne (J. W.) on the essential oils
and resins from the indigenous vege-
tation of Victoria, 48; on a photo-
lithographic process, as adopted by
the pears a of Victoria for the
publication of maps, 49; observations
made at sea on the motion of the
vessel with reference to sea-sickness,
133.
Otago, New Zealand, W. Lauder Lind-
say on the geology of the gold-fields
of, 77.
Owen (Prof.) on the characters of the
Aye-Aye, as a test of the Lamarckian
and Darwinian hypothesis of thetrans-
mutation and origin of species, 114;
on the zoological significance of the
cerebral and pedial characters of man,
116; on ths eagles of the bones
of the head of the Polypterus niloti-
cus, 118.
Ozone, E. J. Lowe’s observations on, 46.
box, on Lowe’s, 46.
Paleontology, Australian, contributions
to, by Charles Moore, 83
Paraffin, Dr. Paul on the manufacture
of, from peat, 50.
Parsnip, James Buckman on the enno-
bling of roots, with particular reference
to the, 97.
Paul (Dr.) on the manufacture of hydro-
carbon oils, paraffin, &c., from peat,
50; on the decay and preservation of
stone employed in building, 50.
Pauperism of Lancashire, F. Purdy on
the, 165.
Peach (C. W.) on the fossils of the
boulder-clay in Caithness, 83; on
fossil fishes from the old red sand-
stone of Caithness, 85.
Pearls, their parasitic origin, Robert
Garner on, 126.
Peat, Dr. Paul on the manufacture of
INDEX II,
hydrocarbon oils, paraffin, &c. from,
50
Pengelly (W.) on the correlation of the
slates and limestones of Devon and
Cornwall with the old red sandstones
of Seotland, &c., 85.
Phipson (Dr. T. L.) on the artificial for-
mation of populine, and on a new
class of organic compounds, 50; on
the existence of alii in certain
fungi which become blue in contact
with the air, &c., 51; on the diluvial
soil of Brabant, &c., known as the
Limon de la Hesbaye, 53.
Pheenician inscription on the Newton
Stone, Aberdeenshire, decipherment
of the, by the Rev. Dr. Mill, 147.
Phosphorus, Dr. Moffat on the lumi-
nosity of, 47.
Photography with colour, Rev. J. B.
Reade on, 22.
Photolithographic process, J. W. Os-
borne on a, adopted by the Govern-
ment of Victoria for the publication
of maps, 49.
Pierotti (Signor) on recent notices of
the Rechabites, 147.
Planetary nebula, AX 20° 56’, N.P.D.
101° 56’, William Lassell on a bril-
liant elliptic ring in the, 14.
Planets in 1860, Norman Pogson on
three of the minor, 16.
*Planispheres, Chevalier Tenazio Villa
on some improved celestial, 18; ter-
restrial, 148.
*Plant (T. L.) on meteorology, with a
description of meteorological instru-
ments, 34.
*Plants, Dr. Daubeny’s reply to the re-
marks of M. F. Marcet on the power
of selection ascribed to the roots of, 98.
* , John Gibbs on the inflorescence
of, 98.
Plesiosaurus, Dr. A. Carte and W. H.
aily on a new species of, from the
lias near Whitby, 68.
Pogson (Norman) on three of the minor
planets in 1860, 16.
Poisoning, Dr. George Harley on, 129.
Political economy, W. 8. Jevons on a
general mathematical theory of, 158.
——, H. D. Macleod on the defini-
tion and nature of the science of, 159.
Polypes, hydroid, Rev. T. Hincks on the
production of similar medusoids by
certain, belonging to different genera,
107.
Polypterus niloticus, Prof. Owen on the
homologies of the bones of the head
of the, 118.
207
Populine, Dr. Phipson on the artificial
formation of, 50.
Projectiles with cycloidal rotation, R.
W . Woollcombe on oblate, 187.
Property, real, Frederick Purdy on, 162.
Purdy (Frederick) on local taxation and
real property, 162; on the pauperism
and mortality of Lancashire, 165.
Quadrumana, Dr. Collingwood on Geof-
froy St.-Hilaire’s distinction between
catarrhine and platyrrhine, 106,
Railway accidents, J. Sewell on the pre-
vention of, 186.
Rainbow, on the supernumerary bows in
the, 22.
Rankin (Rey. T.), meteorological obser-
vations registered at Huggate, York-
shire, 34.
Rankine (W. J. M.) on the exact form
and motion of waves at and near the
surface of deep water, 5.
Reade (Rev. J. b) on photography with
colour, 22.
Readwin (T. A.) on the gold-bearing
strata of Merionethshire, 87.
Rechabites, Signor Pierotti on recent
notices of the, 147.
Resins, J. W. Osborne on the, from the
indigenous vegetation of Victoria, 48.
*Rhinoceros tichorhinus, §. P. Saville
on a skull of the, 94.
Richardson (Sir J.) on zoological pro-
vinces, 118.
Roberts (Henry) on the increased circu-
lation of a pure and instructive litera-
ture adapted to the capacities and the
means of the labouring population,
172.
Robinson (Dr. George) on the study of
the circulation of the blood, 134.
Rocks, H. C. Sorby on the comparative
structure of artificial and natural ig-
neous, 96.
Rolleston (Dr.) on certain modifications
in the structures of diving animals,
118; on the difference of behaviour
exhibited by inuline and ordinary
starch when treated with salivary
diastase and other converting agents,
5.
Roots, James Buckman on the ennobling
of, with particular reference to the
parsnip, 97,
——, James Buckman’s experiments
with seed of malformed, 97.
Roscoe (Prof. H. E.) on hypobromous
acid, 54,
Rose (C. B.) on some mammalian re-
208
mains from the bed of the German
Ocean, 91.
Rotation, on oblate projectiles with cy-
cloidal, contrasted with cylindro-ogi-
val projectiles having helical or rifle
rotation, by R. W. Woollcombe, 187.
Rowell (S. A.) on objections to the cy-
clone theory of storms, 34.
Russell (W. H. L.), some account of
recent discoveries made in the calcu-
lus of symbols, 7.
Sails, self-reefing, John Coryton on,
184
Salmon fisheries, Thomas Ashworth on
the scientific cultivation of, 121.
Salter (J. W.) on the identity of the
upper old red sandstone with the up-
permost Devonian, and of the middle
and lower old red with the middle
and lower Devonian, 92.
Samuelson (James) on heterogenesis or
spontaneous generation, 119.
*Saville (S. P.) on a skull of the Rhino-
ceros tichorhinus, 94.
Schists, Prof. Ansted on bituminous,
and their relation to coal, 65.
Schénbein’s antozone, Dr. G. Harley on,
At
*Schvarcez (J.) on the probable origin of
the heliocentric theory, 17.
Sea-bed and beach near Fort William,
Inverness-shire, J. Gwyn Jeffreys on
an ancient, 73; mollusca found in, 74.
Sea-sickness, J. W. Osborne on the mo-
tion of the vessel with reference to,
133.
Seed of malformed roots, James Buck-
man’s experiments with, 97.
Seeley (H.) on a whittled bone from the
Barnwell gravel, 94.
Selwyn (Rev. Prof.) on autographs of
the sun, 17.
Sewell (J.) on the prevention of railway
accidents, 186.
Shells, fossil, H. C. Sorby on the cause
of the difference in the state of pre-
servation of different kinds of, 95.
Ships, iron-plated, on the importance of
ST aa fuel in, by E. E. Allen,
2.
——,, unsinkable, Charles Atherton on,
183.
——,, vertical-wave-line, John Coryton
on, 184.
—, L. Williams on the merits of
wooden and iron, with regard to cost
of repairs and security for life, 187.
pepe Rey. Prof. Challis on,
REPORT—1862.
Skeleton, Dr. Cleland on ribs and trans-
verse processes, with special relation
to the theory of the vertebrate, 105.
Skiddaw slate series, Prof. Harkness on
the, 72.
Skull-sutures, Robert Garner on the, in
connexion with the superficies of the
brain, 126.
Slates and limestones of Devon and
Cornwall, W. Pengelly on the corre-
lation of the, with the old red sand-
stones of Scotland, &c., 85.
Sligo, A. B. Wynne on the geology of a
part of, 96.
Sluice, W. Thorold on the failure of the,
in fens, 186.
Smith (Dr. Edward) on tobacco-smoking:
its effects upon pulsation, 135; on the
prevalence of numerous conditions
affecting the constitution in 1000 con-
sumptive persons, 174,
Smith (Rey. Gilbert N.) on flint imple-
ments in a cave called “The Osle,”
near Tenby, South Wales, 95.
Smith (J.) on the complementary spec-
trum, 23.
Solar spectrum, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on
the means of observing the lines of
the, due to the terrestrial atmosphere,
45
Sorby (H. C.) on the cause of the differ-
ence in the state of preservation of
different kinds of fossil shells, 95; on
the comparative structure of artificial
and natural igneous rocks, 96.
Species, Prof. Owen on the characters
of the Aye-Aye, as atest of the La-
marckian and Darwinian hypothesis
of the transmutation and origin of,
114.
and varieties, Rey. W. N. Moles-
worth on the influence of changes in
the conditions of existence in modify-
ing, 111.
Spectrum, J. Smith on the comple-
mentary, 23.
Spherularia Bombi, John Lubbock on,
109.
Spottiswoode (W.) on the Hindaé me-
thod of calculating eclipses, 18.
St.-Hilaire (Geoffroy), Dr. Collingwood
on his distinction between catarrhine
and platyrrhine Quadrumana, 106.
Steam of high pressure, Dr. F. Grimaldi
on a new boiler for generating, 186.
Stereomicro-photographs, Chas. Heisch
on a simple method of taking, 46.
Stokes (Prof. G. G.), his address as Pre-
sident of Section A, 1.
Stone, Dr. Paul on the decay and pre-
INDEX II,
—— of, employed in building,
Stone, Prof. James Thomson on the dis-
integration of, exposed in buildings
and otherwise to atmospheric influ-
ence, 35.
ae artificial, Prof. D. T, Ansted on,
De
Storms, 8. A. Rowell on objections to
the cyclone theory of, 34
Sun, Rey. Prof. Selwyn on autographs
of the, 17.
Sun’s surface, J. Nasmyth on some pe-
culiar features in the structure of the,
16.
Sunshine, Prof. Hennessy on the rela-
tive amount of, falling on the torrid
zone of the earth, 31.
Surfaces, Prof.T, A, Hirst on the volumes
of pedal, 5.
Sutton (T.), description of a rapid dry-
collodion process, 54.
Sylvester (Prof.) on the solution of the
linear equation of finite differences in
its most general form, 188.
Symbols, W. H. L. Russell on recent
discoveries made in the calculus of, 7.
Symonds (Rev. W. 8.) on scutes of the
Labyrinthodon, from the Keuper
bone-breccia of Pendock, Worcester-
shire, 96; on the occurrence of Asple-
nium viride on an isolated travertine
rock among the Black Mountains of
Monmouthshire, 100.
Symons (G. J.) on the performance,
under trying circumstances, of a very
small aneroid barometer, 35.
Syncope, Dr. Charles Kidd on, as a co-
incident in chloroform accidents, 130.
Taxation, local, Frederick Purdy on,
162.
Telegraph, Dr. Ernest Esselbach on
electric cables, with reference to ob-
servations on the Malta-Alexandra,
26.
“The Oyle,” near Tenby, South Wales,
Rey. Gilbert N. Smith on flint imple-
ments found in a cave called, 95.
Thomson (Prof. James) on the disinte-
gration of stones exposed in buildings
and otherwise te atmospheric influ-
ence, 35.
Thomson (Prof. W.), the influence of
cohesion in relation to the experi-
ments of, on the thermal effects of
elastic fluids in motion, 21.
oo (W. T.) on the income-tax,
75.
Thorold (W.) on the failure of the
1862.
209
sluice in fens, and on the means of
securing such sluices against a similar
contingency, 186.
Tobacco-smoking—its effects upon pul-
sation, Dr. Edward Smith on, 185.
Tomlinson (Charles) on the motion of
camphor, &c. towards the light, 23.
Toot-poison of New Zealand, Dr. W,
Lauder Lindsay on the, 98,
Tubularide, Dr. Allman on some new
British, 101.
Unemployed, on the training and in-
struction of the, in the manufacturing
districts during the present crisis, by
the Rey. W. N. Molesworth, 162.
University education, the Rev. W.
Emery on the expenses and social
condition of, 193.
Upper Indus, Capt. Godwin-Austen on
the glacier phenomena of the valley
of the, 67.
Vesuvius, Dr, Daubeny on the last erup-
tion of, 71.
Victoria, J. W. Osborne on the essential
oils and resins from the indigenous
vegetation of, 48.
, J. W. Osborne on a photolitho-
graphic ‘process as adopted by the
Government of, for the publication
of maps, 49.
*Villa (Chevalier Ignazio) on some im-
proved celestial planispheres, 18; on
terrestrial planispheres, 148.
Vital actions, an attempt to show that
every living structure consists of mat-
ter which is the seat of, by Prof. Beale,
122.
Volcanic temperature, Robert Mallet on
the determination of, 33.
Volcano, W. T. Blanford on an extinct,
in Upper Burmah, 69,
Wallace (Alfred R.) on the trade of the
Eastern Archipelago with New Guinea
and its islands, 148.
Waves, W. J. M. Rankine on the exact
form and motion of, at and near the
surface of deep water, 5.
Weather-charts, European, F, Galton
on, for December 1861, 30.
Wells, artesian, at Norwich, Rev. J.
Crompton on, 70.
Williamson (L.) on the merits of wooden
and iron ships, with regard to cost of
repairs and security for life, 187.
Willich (C. M.) on some models of sec-
tions of cubes, 8; on expectation of
life, 178.
14
210° REPORT—1862.
Woolleombe (R. W.) on oblate pro- | Wynne (A. B.) on the geology of a part
jectiles with cycloidal rotation, con- of Sligo, 96.
trasted with cylindro-ogival projectiles -
having helical or rifle rotation, 187. Zambesi River, letter from Dr. Living-
Wright (Thomas) on the human re- stone to Sir R. I. Murchison, from the,
mains found in the course of the ex- 146.
cavations at Wroxeter, 149. Zodiacal light, Rev. Prof. Challis on, 12.
Wroxeter, Thomas Wright on the human | Zoological provinces, Sir J. Richardson
remains found at, 149, on, 118.
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213
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214 sa
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215
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of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par-
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland, Report on
the recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen,
Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative
of the former existence in that continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order
Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers
at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves;
—L. Agassiz, Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J.
S$. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progressin Special Re-
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.
-_ PROCEEDINGS or tue FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge,
1845, Published at 12s.
ConTENTS:—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Cooperation of the
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report
on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843;
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof, Erman, on
the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self-
Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;—
W. R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre-
sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr, Playfair,
Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting
of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;—
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals and Vege-
tables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tut SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton,
1846, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS:—G. G, Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth
Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck on the Colouring Matters of
Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac-
tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L.
Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof. Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical
216
Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for
1829;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the
Iron Manufacture in Great Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—
Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—
J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D., Report on the Crystalline Flags ;—Addenda
to Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,
1847, Published at 18s.
ConTENTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de-
grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt,
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan-
dinavia ;—W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes;
—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and
Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of
completing our knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re-
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and recent
progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to
other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ;
—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the
Modern Celtic Dialects still extant;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the
Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric
Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col.
E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con-
stants for 1829.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tute EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea,
1848, Published at 9s.
Contents :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
J. Glynn on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth
Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At-
mospherie Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use
made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt,
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of
Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem-
perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof.
Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them; with an in-
troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. Phillips, Notice of further
progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre-
tary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee
relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and
Meteorological Observatory until December 1850.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tut NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
1849, Published at 10s.
ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of f.tminous Meteors ;—Earl
of Rosse, Notice of Nebulz lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the
Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied tu the Fossil
Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;
—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and
217
Animals ;—Ninth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from
Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or toe TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh,
1850, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS :—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Rev. Prof,
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Dr. T. Williams, on the Structure and
History of the British Annelida;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken
at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840, to the 3lst of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on
the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen.
Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob-
servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por-
tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of
our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of
Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse
of the Sun on July 28, 1851.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6d.
ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Eleventh Re-
port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on
the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of
Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider
the probable Effects in an Giconomical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro-
pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction’and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs
in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com-
pounds ;—Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;—
Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on the Facts of
Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on the System of Meteoro-
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States ;—Col. Sabine, Report
on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto-
graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concern-
ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850, to July 31,
1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland.
Together with the Transactions‘ of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tute TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast,
1852, Published at 15s.
ConTENTs :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Twelfth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof,
Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the In-
fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants;—A Manual of Ethnological
Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Sta-
tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the
Conduction of Heat;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges,
on the Composition and CEconomy of the Flax Plant;—-W. Thompson, on the Freshwater
Fishes of Ulster;—W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland;—W. Wills,
onthe Meteorology of Birmingham;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex- Water- Wheel ;—J. B. Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of
Animals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
218
PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull,
1853, Published at 10s. 6d.
ConTENTS :—Revy, Prof, Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53;
—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Oldham, on the Rise,
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—William Fairbairn, Experi-
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which
lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition
and CEconomy of the Flax Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the
Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations;
—John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur-
face, as compared with that of the Earth ;—R, Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake
Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of
strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earth-
quake Phenomena (continued).
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver-
pool, 1854, Published at 18s.
ContENTS:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ;
—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats ;—Rev.
Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel
Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—
Colonel Portlock, Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting
Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54 ;
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G.
Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert,
on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the
Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on
the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
1855, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS :—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-Mines and
Revolving Storms;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions, Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the
British Edriophthalma ;—J. F. Bateman, on the present state of our knowledge on the Supply
of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ;
—Report of Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those pro-
perties of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to the
durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical Objects in
Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain-
Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Proyisional Reports.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, and Recom-=
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHE TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel-
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s.
ConTENnTs;—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report upon the
effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the last
fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on progress in Re-
searches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde,
1856 ;—Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;—Prof.
Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, onthe Trigo-
219
nometry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of Logarithms ;—R, MacAndrew, Report
on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and Neighbouring Seas, and
the physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the present
state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;—
T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British Shores;
—Prof, Phillips, Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical Expla-
nations of these Phenomena: Part I, ;-—-Dr. T. Wright on the Stratigraphical Distribution of
the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W., Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various
Temperatures ;—C. Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—4J. S. Bowerbank, on
the Vital Powers of the Spongiadz;——Report of a Committee upon the Experiments conducted
at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Provisional Report on
the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals
for Museums ;—J, Thomson, Interim Report on Progress in Researches on the Measure-
ment of Water by Weir Boards;—R. Mallet, on Observations with the Seismometer ;—A.
Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to con-
sider the formation of a Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dublin, 1857, Published at 15s.
Contents :—A, Cayley, Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Six-
teenth and final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull;—Report of a
Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measuring and Registering the Tonnage
of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and to frame more perfect rules, in order that
a correct and uniform principle may be adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities
and Working-Power of Steam Ships;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of
some Deep Mines in Cornwall ;—Dr. G. Plarr, De quelques Transformations de la Somme
— & qtl+1 gél+1 5¢|+1
0 yer yil+} etl+l
est exprimable par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation aflt+1 désignant le produit des
t facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c.,..(a-+¢—1);—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine Zoology
of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish Channel ;—Charles
Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the extent to which Mercantile Steam Trans-
port Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of Shipping, as respects the Proportions of
Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. S. Bowerbank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spon-
giadz ;—John P. Hodges, M.D., on Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee
on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Rey. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors, 1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, C.E., on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to
sustain the passage of Railway Trains ;—Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., on Electro-Chemistry ;
—John Simpson, R.N., Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the ‘ Plover’s’
Wintering-place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852-54 ;—Charles
James Hargrave, LL.D., on the Algebraic Couple ; and on the Equivalents of Indeterminate
Expressions;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and Equatorial
Mountings ;—Professor James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William Fairbairn on the Resistance
of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging
Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspen-
sion Chains, and a Comparison of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders,
to produce equal deflections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, M.A., Evidences of Lunar
Influence on Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into
Liverpool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta-
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev, H, Lloyd’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.
a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme
PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds,
September 1858, Published at 20s.
ConTENTS:—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake Phe-
nomena ;— Rey. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857-58 ;--R. H.
Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea or true Spiders, especially on the
220 :
internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report of the Committee on the
Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the Juead Mining Districts of Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the
Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene,
Report on the Marine Fauna of the South and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on
Experiments on the Measurement of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major-
General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael
Connal and William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock, and Port
Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ;—Report of the Committee on Ship-
ping Statistics;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments employed in the Mag-
netic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin
Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dub-
lin District ;—-Andrew Henderson, on River Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings,
with reference to the necessity for improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation
on the Rivers of British India;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Com-
mittee ;—Appendix to Mr. Vignoles’ paper “On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sus-
tain the passage of Railway Trains ;’’—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and
the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and Meteorological Ob-
servatories ;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Anemometer.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen,
September 1859, Published at 15s.
ConTENTs :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and Present
State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of Plants in the
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field
Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated
Crops ;—A. Thomson, Esq. of Banchory, Report on the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools ;
—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahago, Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Re-
sults obtained by the Mechanico-Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William
Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for
Railway Trains ;—Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for
1858-59 ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59 ;
—Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq., late Re-
sident in Nepal, &c. &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn, Report on
the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—G. C. Hyndman,
Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James Oldham, Continuation of Report
of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull;—Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Trans-
port Economy as affected by the Consumption of Coals ;—Warren de la Rue, Report on the
present state of Celestial Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil
and Recent Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request of the
British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The Patent Laws:
Report of Committee on the Patent Laws ;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar Influence on the Tem-
perature of the Air ;—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Construction of the Self-recording
Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew Observatory of the British Association ;—
Prof. H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part I.;—Report of the
Committee on Steam-ship performance ;—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee
of the British Association appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan,
Preliminary Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or true THIRTIETH MEETING, at Oxford, June
and July 1860, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1859-60 ;—
J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J. Anderson, Report on
the Excavations in Dura Den ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the
Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Rev. R. Walker, Report of
221
the Committee on Balloon Ascents ;—Prof. W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to
prepare a Self-recording Atmospheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for ob-
serving Atmospheric Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of
Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders ;—R. P.
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from a.p. 2 to A.D. 1860 ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
Report on the Theory of{Numbers, Part II. ;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the Performance of
Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the
Form of the Vessel ;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the Effects of long-continued Heat,
illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second Report of the Committee on Steam-ship Per-
formance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the
British Marine Invertebrate Fauna.
Together with the ‘l'ransactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-FIRST MEETING, at Manches-
ter, September 1861, Published at £1.
ConTENTS:—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. E.
Smith, Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily Functions of Pri-
soners, Part I.;—-Charles Atherton, on Freight as affected by Differences in the Dynamic
Properties of Steamships ;—Warren De la Rue, Report on the Progress of Celestial Photo-
graphy since the Aberdeen Meeting ;—B. Stewart, on the Theory of Exchanges, and its re-
cent extension ;—Drs. E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, and H. E. Roscoe, on the Recent Pro-
gress and Present Condition of Manufacturing Chemistry in the South Lancashire District ;—
Dr. J. Hunt, on Ethno-Climatology ; or, the Acclimatization of Man ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on
Experiments on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on
Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to
cultivated Crops ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, Provisional Report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea;—Dr. P. L. Sclater
and F. von Hochstetter, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds of the
Genus Apteryx living in New Zealand ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Results of Deep-sea
Dredging in Zetland, with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new to Science or to the
British Isles;—Prof. J. Phillips, Contributions to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the
Moon ;—W. R. Birt, Contribution to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the Moon;—Dr.
Collingwood and Mr. Byerley, Preliminary Report of the Dredging Committe of the Mersey
and Dee;—Third Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—J. G. Jeffreys,
Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of preventing the Ravages of Teredo and other Animals
in our Ships and Harbours ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experiments made at Holyhead to
ascertain the Transit-Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local
Rock Formations ;—T. Dobson, on the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859;
—J. Oldham, Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull ;—Professor G. Dickie,
Brief Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland ;—Professor Owen, on the
Psychical and Physical Characters of the Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman Islands, and
on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind ;—Colonel Sykes, Report of the
Balloon Committee ;—Major-General Sabine, Report on the Repetition of the Magnetic Sur-
vey of England ;—Interim Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East
Coasts of Scotland ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Resistance of Iron Plates to Statical Pressure and
the Force of Impact by Projectiles at High Velocities ;—W. Fairbairn, Continuation of Report
to determine the effect of Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon
Wrought-Iron Girders ;—Report of the Committee on the Law of Patents ;—Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part III.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Fairbairn’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.
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“4
List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, to whom Copies of this Volume [for 1862] are supplied
gratuitously, in conformity with the Regulations adopted by the General
Committee.
[See pp. xvii & xviii. ]
[It is requested that any inaccuracy in the Names and Residences of the Members may be communicated to
Messrs. Taylor and Francis, Printers, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London.]
LIFE MEMBERS.
Adair, Colonel Robert A. Shafto, F.R.S.,
7 Audley Square, London, W.
Adams, John Couch, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Lowndean Professor
of Astronomy and Geometry in the
University of Cambridge; Pembroke
College, Cambridge.
Adie, Patrick, 16 Sussex Place, South
Kensington, London, W.
Ainsworth, Thomas,The Flosh, Egremont,
Cumberland.
Alcock, Ralph, 47 Nelson Street, Oxford
Street, Manchester.
Aldam, William, Frickley Hall near Don-
caster.
Allen, William J. C., Secretary to the
Royal Belfast Academical Institution ;
Ulster Bank, Belfast.
Allis, Thomas, F.L.S., Osbaldwick Hall
near York.
Ambler, Henry, Watkinson Hall, Oven-
den near Halifax.
Amery, John, F.S.A.,
Stourbridge.
Anderson, William (Yr.),
Strathmiglo, Fife.
Andrews, Thos., M.D., F.R.S., M.R.1.A.,
Vice-President of, and Professor of
Chemistry in, Queen’s College, Bel-
fast.
Ansted, David Thomas, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., Impington Hall, Cambridge.
Appold, John George, F.R.S., 23 Wilson
Street, Finsbury Square, London, E.C.
Archer, T. C., Professor of Botany in
Queen’s College, Liverpool; New
Museum, Edinburgh.
Armstrong, Sir William George, C.B.,
LL.D., F.R.S., Elswick Engine Works,
Newcustle-upon-Tyne.
Arthur, Rev. William, M.A., 26 Campden
Grove, Kensington, London, W.
Ashburton, William Bingham Baring,
Park House,
Glentarkie,
Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Bath
House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and
The Grange, Alresford, Hants.
Ashton, Thomas, M.D.
Ashworth, Edmund, Egerton Hall,Turton
near Bolton.
Atkinson, John Hastings, 14 East Parade,
Leeds.
Atkinson, Joseph B., Cotham, Bristol.
Atkinson, J. R. W., 38 Acacia Road,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
Austin, Rev. William E. Craufurd, M.A.,
New College, Oxford.
Ayrton, W. S., F.S.A., Allerton Hill,
Leeds.
Babbage, Charles, M.A., F.R.S., 1 Dorset
Street, Manchester Square, London,
Ww
Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A.,F.R.S.,
Professor of Botany in the University
of Cambridge; St. John’s College,
Cambridge, (Local Treasurer).
Baddeley, Captain Frederick H., R.E.,
Ceylon. ;
Bain, Richard, Gwennap near Truro.
Bainbridge, Robert Walton, Middleton
House near Barnard Castle, Durham.
Baines, Edward, Headingley Lodge,
Leeds.
Baines, Samuel, Victoria Mills, Brig-
house, Yorkshire.
Baker, Henry Granville, Bellevue, Hors-
forth near Leeds.
Baker, Johu, Dodge Hill, Stockport.
Baker, John (care of R. Brooks and Co.,
St. Peter’s Chambers, Cornhill, Lon-
don, E.C.).
Baker, William, 63 Gloucester Place,
Hyde Park, London, W.
Baldwin, The Hon. Robert, H.M. Attor-
ney-General, Spadina, Co. York, Upper
Canada.
224
Balfour, John Hutton, M.D., Professor of
Botany in the University of Edinburgh,
F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S.; Edinburgh.
Ball, John, M.R.I.A., F.L.S., 18 Park
Street, Westminster, S.W.
Ball, William, Rydall, Ambleside, West-
moreland.
Barbour, George, Bolesworth Castle,
Tattenhall, Chester.
Barbour, Robert, Portland Street, Man-
chester.
Barclay, J. Gurney, Walthamstow, Essex.
Barclay, Robert, Leyton, Essex.
Barker, Rev. Arthur Alcock, B.D., Rec-
tor of East Bridgeford, Nottingham-
shire.
Barnard, Major R. Cary, Cambridge
House, Bays Hill, Cheltenham.
Barnes, Thomas, M.D.,F.R.S.E., Carlisle.
Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S., Cumberland
House, Worcester.
Barr, W. R., Norris Bank, Heaton Nor-
ris, Stockport.
Barry, Charles, Lapswood, Sydenham
Hill, Kent.
Bartholomew, Charles, Rotherham.
Bartholomew, William Hamond, 5 Grove
Terrace, Leeds.
Barton, John, Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
Barwick, John Marshall, Albion Street,
Leeds.
Bashforth, Rev. Francis, B.D., Minting
near Horncastle, Lincolnshire.
Bateman, Joseph, LL.D., F.R.A.S., J.P.,
Walthamstow, N.E.
Bateman, J. F., C.E., F.R.S., 16 Great
George Street, Westminster, S.W.
Bathurst, Rev. W. H., Lydney Park,
Gloucestershire.
Bayldon, John, Horbury near Wakefield.
Bayley, George, 2 Cowper’s Court, Corn-
hill, London, E.C.
Beale, Lionel S., M.B., F.R.S., Professor
of Physiology and of General and Mor-
bid Anatomy in King’s College, Lon-
don; 61 Grosvenor Street, London, W.
Beamish, Richard, F.R.S., 2 Suffolk
Square, Cheltenham.
Beatson, William, Rotherham.
Beaufort, William Morris, India.
Beaumont, Rev. Thomas George, But-
terleigh Rectory near Collumpton.
Beck, Joseph, 6 Coleman Street, London,
E.C.
Beckett, William, Kirkstall Grange, Leeds.
Belcher, Rear-Admiral Sir Edward, R.N.,
F.R.A.S., Union Club, Trafalgar Sq.,
London.
Bell, Isaac Lowthian, The Hall, Wash-
ington, Co. Durham.
MEMBERS TO WHOM
Bell, Matthew P., 245 St. Vincent Street,
Glasgow.
Bennoch, Francis, The Knoll, Blackheath,
Kent, S.E.
Bergin, Thomas Francis, M.R.1.A., Upper
Pembroke Street, Dublin.
Berryman, William Richard, 6 Tamar
Terrace, Stoke, Devonport.
Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A., Leeds.
Binyon, Thomas, Henwick Grove, Wor-
cester.
Bird, William, 9 South Castle Street, Li-
verpool.
Birks, Rev. Thomas Rawson, Kelshall
Rectory, Royston.
Birley, Richard, Seedley,
Manchester.
Birt, W. Radcliff, F.R.A.S., 42 Seward-
stone Road West, Victoria Park, Lon-
don, N.E.
Pendleton.
Blackie, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S., 10 Kew
Terrace, Glasgow.
Blackwall, John, F.L.S., Hendre House
near Llanrwst, Denbighshire.
Blackwell, Thomas Evans, F.G.S., Mon-
treal.
Blake, Henry Wollaston, F.R.S., 8 De-
vonshire Place, Portland Place, Lon-
don, W.
Blake, Wm., South Petherton, Ilminster.
Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S., St.
Leonard’s-on-Sea.
Bland, Rev. Miles, D.D., F.R.S., 5 Royal
Crescent, Ramsgate.
Blythe, William, Holland Bank, Church
near Accrington.
Bohn, Henry G., F.R.G.S., York Street,
Covent Garden, London, W.C.
Boileau, Sir John Peter, Bart., F.R.S.,
20 Upper Brook Street, London, W.;
and Ketteringham Hall, Norfolk.
Bond, Walter M., The Argory, Moy,
Ireland.
Booth, John, Monton near Manchester.
Booth, Councillor William, Dawson St.,
Manchester.
Borchardt, Dr. Louis, Bloomsbury, Ox-
ford Road, Manchester.
Bossey, Francis, M.D., 4 Broadwater
Road, Worthing.
Bowerbank, James Scott, LL.D., F.R.S.,
3 Highbury Grove, London, N.
Bowlby, Miss F. E., 27 Lansdown Cres-
cent, Cheltenham.
Bradshaw, William, Mosley Street, Man-
chester.
Brady, Antonio, Maryland Point, Essex.,
Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A., 54 Upper
Leeson Street, Dublin.
Brakenridge, John, Wakefield.
BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS.
Brandreth, Henry, Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.
Brebner, James, 20 Albyn Place, Aber-
deen.
Brett, John Watkins, 2 Hanover Square,
London, W.
Briggs, General John, F.R.S., 2 Tenter-
den Street, London, W.
Bright, Sir Charles Tilston, C.E., F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S., 12 Upper Hyde Park Gar-
dens, and 1 Victoria Street, Westmin-
ster, London, S.W.
Brooke, Charles, B.A., F.R.S., 16 Fitzroy
Square, London, W.
Brooks, Samuel, King Street, Manchester.
Brooks, Thomas, (Messrs. Butterworth
and Brooks,) Manchester.
Broun, John Allan, F.R.S., Astronomer
to His Highness the Rajah of Travan-
core; Observatory, Trevandrum, India.
Brown, Samuel, F.S.S., The Elms, Lark-
hall Rise, Clapham, London, S.
Brown, Thomas, Hardwick House, Chep-
stow.
Brown, William, 3 Maitland Park Villas,
Haverstock Hill, London, N.W.
Browne, Robert Clayton, B.A., Trinity
College, Cambridge.
Bruce, Alexander John, Kilmarnock.
Buck, George Watson, Ramsay, Isle of
Man.
Buckman, James, F.L.S., F.G.S., Profes-
sor of Natural History in the Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester.
Buckton, G. Bowdler, F.R.S., 55 Queen’s
Gardens, Hyde Park, London, W.
Budd, James Palmer, Ystalyfera Iron
Works, Swansea.
Buller, Sir Antony, Pound near Tavistock,
Devon.
Burd, John, jun., Mount Sion, Radcliffe,
Manchester.
Busk, George, F.R.S., Sec. L.S., Exami-
ner in Comparative Anatomy in the
University of London, 15 Harley St.,
Cavendish Square, London, W.
Butlery, Alexander W., Monkland Iron
and Steel Company, Cardarroch near
Airdrie.
Butterworth, John,58 Mosley Street, Man-
chester.
Caine, Rev. William, M.A., Greenheys,
Manchester,
Caird, James Key, Finnart on Loch Long,
by Gare Loch Head, Dumbartonshire.
Caird, James T., Greenock.
Campbell, Dugald, F.C.S.,7 Quality Court,
Chancery Lane, London, W.C,
Campbell, Sir James, Glasgow.
1862,
|
225
Campbell, William, 34 Candlerigg Street,
Glasgow.
Campion, Rev. William, Queen’s Col-
lege, Cambridge.
Carew, William Henry Pole, Antony
House near Devonport.
Carpenter, Philip Pearsall, B.A., Ph.D.,
Cairo Street, Warrington.
Carr, William, Blackheath.
Carrick, Thomas, 37 Princess Street,
Manchester.
Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., Fellow of
Trinity College, Dublin, M.R.I.A., 18
Fitzwilliam Place, Dublin.
Cartmell, Rev. James, B.D., F.G.S.,
Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge.
| Cassels, Rev. Andrew, M.A., Batley Vi-
carage near Leeds.
Chadwick, Charles, M.D., 35 Park Square,
Leeds.
Challis, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.S., Plu-
mian Professor of Astronomy in the
University of Cambridge; 13 Trumping-
ton Street, Cambridge.
Chambers, Robert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,
3 Hall Place, St. John’s Wood, Lon-
don, N.W.
Champney, Henry Nelson, St. Paul’s
Square, York.
Chanter, John, 2 Arnold Terrace, Bow
Road, Bromley.
Chapman, Edward, Hill End, Mottram,
Manchester.
Chapman, John, Hili End, Mottram,
Manchester.
Cheetham, David, Staleybridge, Man-
chester.
Chesney, Major-General Francis Rawdon,
R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Ballyardle, Kil-
keel, Co. Down, Ireland.
Chevallier, Rev. Temple, B.D., F.R.A.S.,
Professor of Mathematics and Astro-
nomy in the University of Durham, .
Chichester, Ashhurst Turner Gilbert,D.D.,
Lord Bishop of, 31 Queen Anne Street,
Cavendish Square, London, W.; and
The Palace, Chichester,
Chiswell, Thomas.
Christie, Samuel Hunter, M.A., F.R.S.,
Ailsa Villas, St. Margaret’s, Twick-
enham, S.W.
Clark, Rev. Charles, M.A., Queen’s Col-
lege, Cambridge.
Clark, Henry, M.D., 74 Marland Place,
Southampton.
Clarke, J. H., Earnscliffe, Alderley Edge.
Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S., Rastrick,
Yorkshire.
Clay, William, 4 Park Hill Road, Liver-
pool.
15
226
Clayton, David Shaw, Norbury, Stock-
port, Cheshire.
Clifton, Professor R. B., B.A., Owens
College, Manchester.
Clouston, Peter, Glasgow.
Coats, George, 6 Park Terrace,
gow.
Coats, Peter, Woodside, Paisley.
Coats, Thomas, Fergeslie House, Paisley.
Cobbold, John Chevallier, M.P., Tower
Street, Ipswich.
Cocker, Jonathan, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.
Coe, Rev. Charles C., Leicester.
Cole, Henry Warwick, 3 New Square,
Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
Colfox, William, B.A., Bridport, Dorset-
shire.
Collie, Alexander, 23 Sussex Square,
Hyde Park, London, W.
Collingwood, J. Frederick, 54 Gloucester
Street, Belgrave Road, London, S.W.
Compton, Lord Alwyne, Castle Ashby,
Northamptonshire.
Compton, Lord William, 145 Piccadilly,
London, W.
Conway, Charles, Pontnwydd Works
Newport, Monmouthshire.
Cook, Henry, Overstone Terrace, Cheet-
ham Hill, Manchester.
Cooke, Arthur B., 6 Berkeley Place, Con-
naught Square, London, W.
Cooke, William Fothergill, Telegraph
Office, Lothbury, London, E.C,
Cooke, William Henry, Elm Court, Tem-
ple, London, E.C.
Corbet, Richard, Adderley, Market Dray-
ton, Shropshire.
Cotton, Rev. William Charles, M.A., New
Zealand.
Courtney, Henry, M.R.1.A., 34 Fitz-
william Place, Dublin.
Cox, Joseph, F.G.S., Wisbeach, Cam-
bridgeshire,
Crampton, The HonourableJustice, LL.D.,
M.R.1.A.,St. Valarie, Bray, Co. Dublin.
Crewdson, Thomas D., Dacca Mills, Man-
chester.
Crichton, William, 1 West India Street,
Glasgow.
Crompton, Rev. Joseph, Norwich.
Cropper, Rey. John, Stand near Man-
chester.
Cunliffe, Edward Thomas, Handforth.
Cunliffe, Peter Gibson, Handforth.
Curtis, John Wright, Alton, Hants.
Cuthbert, J. R., 40 Chapel St., Liverpool.
Glas-
?
Dalby, Rev. William, M.A., Rector of
Compton Basset near Calne, Wilts.
MEMBERS TO WHOM
Dalton, Rev. James Edward, B,D., Sea:
grave, Loughborough.
Dalzell, Allen, The University, Edinburgh.
Danson, Joseph, F.C.S., 6 Shaw Street,
Liverpool.
Darbishire, Robert Dukinfield, B.A.,
F.G.S., 21 Brown Street, Manchester.
Darbishire, Samuel D., Pendyffryn near
Conway.
Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in
the University of Oxford; Oxford.
Davis, Sir John Francis, Bart., K.C.B.,
F.R.S., Hollywood, Compton Green-
field near Bristol.
Davis, Richard, F.L.S., 9 St. Helen’s
Place, London, E.C.
Dawbarn, William, Wisbeach,
Dawes, John S., jun., Smethwick House
near Birmingham.
Dawes, Rev. William Rutter, F.R.A.S.,
Haddenham near Thame, Oxon.
Dawson, Christopher H., Low Moor,
Bradford, Yorkshire.
Dawson, Henry, 14 St. James’s Road,
Liverpool.
Dawson, William G., Plumstead Common,
Kent, S.E.
Deane, Sir ‘Thos,, Kingstown, Co. Dublin.
De Grey and Ripon, George Frederick,
Earl, 1 Carlton Gardens, London, S.W.
De la Rue, Warren, Ph.D., F.R.S., Cran-
ford, Middlesex ; and 110 Bunhill Row,
London, E.C,
Dent, Joseph, Ribston Hall, Wetherby,
York.
Devonshire, William, Duke of, K.G.,
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Chancellor of
the University of Cambridge; Devon-
shire House, Piccadilly, London, W
and Chatsworth, Derbyshire,
Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F.R.S., Great
George Street, Liverpool.
Dickinson, W. L., 1 St. James’s Street,
Manchester,
Dikes, William Hey, F.G.S., Wakefield.
Dilke, Sir C. Wentworth, Bart., F.G.S., 76
Sloane Street, London, S.W.
Dilke, Charles W.,76 Sloane Street, Lon-
don, S.W.
Dingle, Rev. J., Lanchester, Durham.
Dobbin, Leonard, jun., M.R.I.A., 27 Gar-
diner’s Place, Dublin.
Dodsworth, Benjamin, St. Leonard’s Place,
York,
Dodsworth, George, Clifton Grove near
York.
Donaldson, John, Professor of the Theory
of Music in the University of Edin-
burgh; Edinburgh.
.
"9
BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 227
Donisthorpe, George Edmund, Holly
Bank, Moortown, Leeds.
Donnelly, William, C.B., Auburn, Mala-
hide, Ireland.
Downie, Alexander.
Ducie, Henry John Reynolds Moreton,
Earl of, F.R.S., 30 Princes Gate, Lon-
don, S.W.; and Tortworth Court, Wot-
ton-under-Edge.
Duncan, Alexander, Rhode Island, United
States.
Duncan, James, M.D., Farnham House,
Finglass, Co. Dublin.
Dunlop, William Henry, Annan Hill,
Kilmarnock.
Dunraven, Edwin, Earl of, F.R.S., Adare
Manor, Co, Limerick; and Dunraven
Castle, Glamorganshire.
Earnshaw, Rev. Samuel, M.A., Sheffield.
Eddison, Edwin, Headingley Hill, Leeds.
Eddison, Francis, Headingley Hill, Leeds.
Eddy, James R.,Carleton Grange, Skipton.
Edmondston, Rev. John, Ashkirk by
Hawick.
Edwards, J. Baker, Ph.D., Royal Insti-
tution Laboratory, Liverpool.
Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart.,
M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., Oulton Park,
Tarporley, Cheshire.
Eisdale, David A., M.A., 88 Dublin St.,
Edinburgh.
Elliot, Walter, Wolflee, Hawick.
Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M., Grimstone
House near Malton, Yorkshire.
Enys, John S., F.G.S., Enys, Cornwall.
Erle, Rev. Christopher, M.A., F.G.S.,
Hardwick Rectory near Aylesbury.
Evans, George Fabian, M.D., Waterloo
Street, Birmingham. :
Evans, John, F.S.A., F.G.S., Nash Mills,
Hemel Hempstead.
Ewing, Archibald Orr, Clermont House,
Glasgow.
Ewing, William, 209 Brandon Place,
West George Street, Glasgow.
Eyre, George Edward, F.G.S., Warren’s
Stoney Cross, near Lyndhurst, Hants.
Fairbairn, William, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Manchester.
Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., F.R.S., Ful-
lerian Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Institution of Great Britain ; 21
Albemarle Street, London, W.
Farren, Edwin James, Hanover Cham-
bers, Buckingham Street, Strand, Lon-
don, W.C.
Faulkner, Charles, F.S.A., F.G.S., Ded-
dington, Oxon.
Fawcett, Henry, Trinity Hall, Cambridge.
Fischer, William L. F., M.A., F.R.S.,
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
University of St. Andrews, Scotland.
Fleming, William, M.D., Rowton Grange
near Preston.
Forbes, David, F.R.S., F.G.S., A.I.C.E.,
7 Calthorpe Street, Birmingham.
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